EVERYBODY'S
CYCLOPEDIA
A concise and accurate compilation of the world's knowledge,
prepared from the latest and best authorities in every department
of learning; including a
Chronological History of the World
graphically represented by colored charts, showing the most
important epochs and events of history, from the earliest times
to the present day.
containing much valuable information often in demand, but not
usually found in a single collection. Also
A Statistical Record of the World
which includes latest figures from the recent United States Census.
PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
CHARLES LEON ARD-STUART,B. A. GEORGE J.HAGAR,M. A.
of the New International, Americana. Special Expert on the International,
iiritannica. Current Cyclopedia, etc. People's. Imperial, etc.
EDITORS-IN-CHIEF
Assisted by a corps of eminent editors, educators, scientists,
inventors, explorers, etc.
New To r k
SYNDICATE PUBLISHING COMPANY
12 and 14 West 32d Street
Copyright. 1911, by F. E. Wright
Copyright, 1912, by F. E. Wright
Parton
Parton, James, an American
writer; born in Canterbury, England
Feb. 9, 1822. He wrote many valu-
able biographies. He died in 1891
Parton, Sara Payson Willis,
" Fanny Fern," an American essay-
writer, sister of N. P. Willis, and
wife of James Parton; born in Port-
land, Me., July 9, 1811. She is said
to have contributed an article each
week tor 16 years to the New York
" Ledgp-." She died in 1872.
Partridge, a well-known game
bird widely distributed. The par-
tridge prefers open grounds, and often
nests in exposed situations. It feeds
on slugs, caterpillars, and grubs to a
large extent, and so compensates the
farmer for any injury it does.
Partridge Berry, a plant of the
heath family, inhabiting North Amer-
ica, also known as wintergreen. The
name is also applied to another North
American shrub, a pretty little trail-
ing plant, with white fragrant flow-
ers and scarlet berries.
Pasadena, a city in Los Angeles
county, Cal.; on the Southern Pacific
and other railroads; 10 miles N. E.
of Los Angeles; is in the noted San
(Gabriel valley, at the foot of the
Sierra Madre Mountains, popularly
known as the "Italy of America";
is chiefly engaged in fruit raising;
and, besides its equable climate, has
the attractions of superb scenery, in-
cluding Wilson's Peak. Mount Lowe,
Echo Mountain, and the famous San
Gabriel Mission. Pop. (1910) 30,291.
Pascal, Blaise. a French author;
born in Clermont, Auvergne, France,
in 1623. At 12 years of age, he was
surprised by his father in the act of
demonstrating, on the pavement of
An old hall where he used to play, by
means of a rude diagram traced with
a piece of coal, a proposition which
corresponded to the 32d of the first
book of Euclid. At the age of 19
he invented his celebrated arith-
metical machine, and at the age of
26 he had composed the greater part
of his mathematical works, and made
brilliant experiments in hydrostatics
and pneumatics, which ranked him
among the first natural philosophers
of his age. But a strong religious
impulse having been imparted he re-
E. 114.
Passiflora
nounced the career to which his genius
invited him for theology. Died 1662.
Paschall II., Pope; a native of
Tuscany, succeeded Urban II. in
1099. Ht had a contest with the
Emperor Henry IV., respecting the
right of investitures. Henry visited
Rome, to be crowned by the Pope,
who refused to perform the ceremony
unless he yielded the matter in dis-
pute. On this Henry caused Paschal
to be retired from Rome. Paschal,
after a captivity of two months,
conceded his claim to the investi-
tures. He died in 1118.
Passaic, a city in Passaic county,
N. J.; on the Passaic river and sev-
eral steam and trolley lines; 5 miles
S. E. of Paterson; is in a good farm-
ing and grape-growing section; man-
ufactures cotton, woolen, and rubber
goods, wine, paper, and blankets; and
has an Emergency Hospital, Collegi-
ate School, Manual Training School,
and handsome churches, public schools
and residences. Pop. (1910) 54,773.
Passenger Pigeon, also called
wild pigeon and migratory pigeon. It
is found from the Atlantic to the great
central plains, and from the Southern
States, where it only
occasionally occurs,
to 62 N.
Passes, a tribe of
Indians living in
Brazil on the N.
side of the Amazon,
about the mouth of
the Japura. They
have always been
friendly to the
whites and are a
peaceful, industrious
race, many of whom
lived in the mission
villages in the 18th
century. They are a
branch of the great
Arawak or Maypure
stock.
Passiflora, the
Generally climbing herbs or shrubs.
Fruit succulent, seeds many. Found
chiefly in tropical America. The three
stigmas seemed to the devout Roman
Catholics of South America to rep-
resent nails; one transfixing each
band, and one the feet of the crucified
PASSENGEB
PIGEON.
passion-flower.
Passionists
Passovtr
Saviour ; the five anthers, His five
wounds ; the rays of the corona, His
crown of thorns, or the halo of glory
around His head ; the digitate leaves,
the hands of those who scourged Him ;
the tendrils, the scourge
itself; while, finally, the
10 parts of the perianth
were the 10 apostles
that is, the 12 wanting
Judas who betrayed, and
Peter who denied, his
Lord.
Passionists, a con-
gregation of Roman
Catholic priests founded
by Paul Francis (1694-
1775), surnamed Paul of
the Cross, in 1737. The
first convent was estab-
lished on the Celian Hill
at Rome. It has been
revived since 1880, and
they have been introduced
lately in the United
States, where they now
possess four monasteries.
Passion Play, a mys-
tery or miracle play
founded on the passion of
our Lord ; a dramatic rep-
resentation of the scenes
of the passion. The
only Passion play still
kept up is that periodi-
cally represented at Ober-
ammergau ir* Bavaria.
Passover, a festival
instituted to commemo-
rate Jehovah's " passing
over " the Israelite houses
wnile " passing through "
those of the Egyptians,
to destroy in the latter
all the first-born. The
first passover (that in
Egypt) , those subsequent-
ly occurring in Old
Testament times, and those of the
New Testament and later Judaism,
were all somewhat different. In the
first of these a Iamb without blem-
ish was taken on the 10th, and killed
on the 14th, of the month Abib, thence-
forward in consequence to be reckoned
the first month of the ecclesiastical
year. The blood of the lamb was to
be sprinkled on the two side posts
and the single upper door post, and the i
flesh eaten " with unleavened bread
and bitter herbs " before the morning.
That night Jehovah, passing over the
blood-stained doors, slew the first born
in the Egyptian houses not similarly
protected; and, as the emancipated
PASSION FLOWER.
Jews that night departed from Egypt,
that first passover could have con-
tinued only one day. But the festival
was to be an annual one. Connected
with it was to be a feast of unleavened
bread, continuing seven additional
days, viz., from the 15th to the 21st
of Abib, during which no leaven was
to be eaten, or even allowed to be in
the house.
Sometimes the term passover is lim-
ited to the festival of the 14th of
Passport
Abib ; sometimes it includes that and
the feast of unleavened bread also, the
two being viewed as parts of one
whole. When the Jews reached Ca-
naan, every male was required to pre-
sent himself before God thrice a year,
viz., at the passover, or feast of un-
leavened bread, at that of " harvest "
and that of " ingathering." In the Old
Testament six passovers are mentioned
as having been actually kept: That
in Egypt, tkat in the wilderness, that
under Joshua at Gilgal, that under
Hezekiah, that under Josiah, and that
under Ezra. After the exile wine
was introduced. In modern Judaism
no lamb is sacrificed, but a bone of
that animal is placed among the
viands ; leaven is put away, and other
ceremonies observed. Passover in the
sense of the paschal lamb, St. Paul
applies to Christ, whose death was
typical of that of the paschal lamb
(1 Cor. v. 7; John xix, 14).
Passport, a warrant of protection
and authority to travel, granted to
persons moving from place to place, by
a competent authority. In some states
no foreigner is allowed to travel with-
out a passport from his government.
In the United States passports, with
description of the applicant, are issued
by the State Department at Washing-
ton. They -are good for two years
from date, renewable by stating the
date and number of the old one. They
are issued only to citizens, native born
and naturalized.
Pasteur, Louis, a French chemist
and physicist ; born in Dole, Jura, in
1822 ; educated at Jena University and
the Ecole Normale, Paris, where in
1847 he took his degree as doctor. He
was especially successful in prov-
ing the part played by microbes _in
fermentation and decomposition, in in-
troducing a successful treatment of
diseases in silkworms and cattle, and
achieved great success in his efforts
to check hydrophobia by means of
inoculation. To enable him to deal
with this disease under the best condi-
tions a Pasteur Institute was opened
in Paris, where patients are received
from all parts of Europe. A similar
institution, in New York city, has
proved very successful. He died in
Paris, Sept. 28, 1895.
Pastor, a shepherd; now used al-
most exclusively in its figurative sense,
Fastonreanx
for one who feeds the Christian flock;
a minister of the Gospel, having charge
of a church and congregation. In orni-
thology the rose^colored ousel. It hag
a wide geographical range, and in hab-
its resembles the starling. It is often
called the locust bird.
Pastoral Poetry, poetry which
deals, in a more or tess direct form,
with rustic life.
Pastoral Staff, in the Roman
Catholic Church the official staff of a
bishop or abbot. The
pastoral staff of an
archbishop is distin-
guished by being sur-
mounted by a crozier.
Pastoureaux, or
Pastorels, disorderly
peasant mobs which
overran parts of
France in the 13 tk
and 14th centuries.
These outbreaks took
place :
(1) In Berry in
1214. The peasantry
pillaged chateaux and
religious houses, and
proclaimed universal
equality and the com-
ing of the Holy Ghost.
(2) In 1250; the
ostensible objects were
the rescue of Louis
VII. and the recovery
of the Holy Sepul-
cher. The rising orig-
inated in Flanders,
under the leadership of
a person of unknown
name called the Mas-
ter of Hungary, who,
when he reached Paris, was at
the head of 100,000 men. Here they
not only usurped priestly functions,
performed marriages, distributed
crosses, offered absolution to those who
joined the crusade, but they inveighed
against the vices of the priesthood.
They separated into three divisions,
and marched S., where they were at-
tacked and cut to pieces.
(3) In 1320, in the reign of Philip
V. This outbreak took place under the
pretense of a crusade. The insurgents
were excommunicated by Pope John
XXII. ; and being hemmed in in Car-
cassonne, numbers perished of disease
Patagonia
and famine, and the survivors were
put to death.
Patagonia, the name applied to
that extreme portion of South America
which is bounded E. by the Atlantic,
W. by the Pacific, S. by the Strait of
Magellan, and N. by the Rio Negro.
Since 1881 this large territory has
been, by treaty, divided between Chile
and the Argentine Republic, so that
the portion W. of the Andes (63,000
square miles) belongs now to the for-
mer, and the portion E. of the Andes
(360,000) belongs to the latter. The
Straits of Magellan form a S. bound-
ary of 360 miles, and separate the
mainland from the numerous islands
of Tierra del Fuego. Here the Chilean
government has established the settle-
ment of Punta Arenas, with stations
along the coast. Patagonia E. of the
Andes consists mainly of vast undulat-
ing plains, frequently covered with
ehingle and broken up by ridges of
volcanic rock. The vegetation is
scanty, except in the region adjoining
the Andes, and in many places there
are shallow salt lakes and lagoons.
The chief rivers are the Rio Negro,
the Chupat, the Rio Desire, and the
Rio Chico, all of which have their
sources in the Andes, and run E. There
are few t if any good seaports. The
Patagonians are a tall, muscular race
averaging fully six feet in height, with
black hair, thick lips, and skin of a
dark brown color. They are a nomad
race, divided into numerous tribes,
whose chief occupation is in hunting
and cattle breeding. This native pop-
ulation is_ rapidly disappearing. Col-
onization is encouraged by the Argen-
tine government, and there are many
tracts suitable for European settle-
ment. The country was first discov-
ered by Magellan in 1520.
Fate de foie gras, a dish made
from the enlarged livers of overfed
geese, and much relished by epicures.
It is made in the form of a pie, and
from its oily nature is very indigesti-
ble, and nauseous to most people.
Patent, an exclusive right granted
by a government (in letters patent or
open, whence the name) to any person
or persons to manufacture and sell a
chattel or article of commerce of his
OWP invention. In the United Slates
Patent
the person applying for a patent may
present a petition, specification, oath,
and filing fee, with a drawing if the
nature of the case admits of it. On
favorable action by the patent office,
letters granting to the patentee, his
heirs, or assigns, for the term of 17
years, the exclusive right to make,
use, and vend the invention or dis-
covery throughout the United States
and the Territories thereof, are is-
sued. Design patents are granted for
periods of three years and six months,
seven years, or 14 years, at discretion
of the applicant. Patents are extend-
ed only by special congressional legis-
lation. The filing of a caveat prior
to applying for a patent entitles the
inventor to notice of an interfering
application filed during the life of the
caveat (one year), during which he
may perfect his invention. The alleged
inventions set forth in caveats are
transferable. In the period of 1837-
1909 there were filed in the United
States Patent Office 1,659,249 appli-
cations and 129,305 caveats; 996,005
original patents and designs were
issued; and the receipts exceeded the
expenditures by $7,060,547.
By the statute of 1870 it was enacted
that an invention to be patentable,
must possess, among other qualifica-
tions, that of newness. 'He who pro-
duces an old result by a new mode or
process is entitled to a patent for that
mode or process ; but he cannot have
a patent for a result merely without
using some new mode or process to
produce it. A man is entitled to all
the benefit of the article which he has
invented and patented. Another who
happens to discover an additional use
to which the invention may be applied
does not, by that discovery and appli-
cation create a patentable novelty. A
simple alteration in the form, size, ma-
terial or proportions of an existing de-
vice is not such a change as to pro-
duce a patentable novelty. As a cumu-
lative definition it may be said that
novelty consists in producing a new
substance, or an old one in a new way,
by new machinery, or by a new com-
bination of the parts of an old ma-
chine, operating in a peculiar, better,
cheaper or quicker method, or by a
new mechanical employment of prin-
ciples already known.
Paterson
Paterson, a city and county-seat of
Passaic co., N. J., on the Passaic
river, 16 miles N. W. of New York.
The city is chiefly noted for its silk
industries, on account of which it is
called the " Lyons of America." It is
built partly on the slopes of ranges
of hills which surround it, and partly
on a broad plain. On Feb. 2-3, 1902,
the business portion of the city was
destroyed by fire, entailing a loss of
over $10,000,000. The principal mu-
nicipal buildings, churches, banks, pub-
lic library, and the largest stores were
swept away by the flames. Wk
Paterson is an important manufac-
turing center. Its silk mills are the
largest in the United States having
an output of over $22,000,000 per an-
num, and employing about 12,000 per-
sons. Its other manufactures include
locomotives, paper, jute, machinery,
iron, and steel, engines, boilers, etc.
The assessed property valuation ex-
ceeds $92,000,000, and the total bond-
ed debt is about $4,000,000.
The city has an area of 8 square
miles; 200 miles of streets, of which
55 miles are paved; and a sewer sys-
tem covering 55 miles. The streets are
lighted by gas and electricity. The
annual cost of maintaining the city
government is about $1,135,000. The
streets are well paved and broad.
Among the local attractions are the
Passaic Falls, 72 feet high.
Paterson was founded in 1791 by a
cotton manufacturing society which
owed its origin to Alexander Hamilton.
This society had a capital of $1,000,-
000, with which it intended to lay the
foundation of a great National manu-
facturing city. The city was named
in honor of Gov. William Paterson of
New Je/sey. In 1851 it was incor-
porated as a city. Paterson has re-
cently been visited by floods as well
as fire, the flood of October, 1903,
being especially calamitous, but the
people have faced and overcome these
disasters with unfailing courage. Pop.
(1900) 105,171; (IJJlO) 125,600.
Paterson, William, an English
financier ; born in Dumfriesshire, Scot-
land, in 1665. He resided in the Ba-
hama Islands. Returning to London
he engaged in trade with success, and
in 1694 founded the Bank of England,
being one of its first directors. In 1695
Paton
he obtained the sanction of a Scotch
act of Parliament constituting the
Darien Company. After the failure of
this scheme he returned to England.
When the Treaty of Union between
England and Scotland was concluded
in 1707, Paterson, who was one of its
warmest advocates, after much dif-
ficulty received an indemnity of $90,-
000 for the losses he had sustained.
He died in London in 1719.
Pathology, the branch of medical
science which treats of disease. It in-
vestigates its predisposing and exist-
ing cause, its characteristic symptoms,
and its progress from first to last.
Patmos, a rocky and barren island,
of most irregular outline, in the 2Egean
Sea, one of the Sporades, lying to the
S. of Samos, now called Patino ; area,
16 square miles. It is celebrated as
the place to which the apostle John
was exiled ; in a cave here, it is said,
he saw the visions recorded in the
Book of Revelation. The island is un-
der Turkish rule, but is inhabited by
about 4,000 Greeks.
Patna, called also Azimabad, a city
of Bengal, 140 miles E. of Benares,
extends 9 miles along the Ganges and
2 miles back from the river ; tfee streets
are narrow and crooked, and the
houses mostly mean in appearance.
Patna, under its early name of Pa-
taliputra, is supposed to have been
founded about 600 B. c. It was visited
by Magesthenes, the Greek historian,
about 300 B. c., and called Palibothra
by him. In modern times Patna is
notable as the scene of a massacre of
British prisoners by Mir Kasim in
1763, which led to war and annexation
by the English, and for the mutiny at
Dinapur, the military station of Patna
in 1857. Patna ranks as the seventh
city of India in point of population.
Pop. 165,192.
Paton, John Gibson, a Scotch
missionary ; born in Kirkmahoe, Dum-
friesshire, Scotland, May 24, 1824. He
offered his services for the foreign mis-
sion field in connection with the Re-
formed Presbyterian Church,- and on
his ordination he settled toward the
end of 1858 among the cannibal natives
of Tanna. Here he labored amid trials
and difficulties till 1862, when he was
forced to leave, owing to the hostility
Faton
of the natives. For the next 20 years
bis work was on the neighboring island
of Aniwa, the whole population of
which became Christian. He died
Jan. 2, 1907.
Paton, Sir Joseph Noel, a Scotch
historical painter ; born in Dunferm-
line, Scotland, in 1821. He gained one
of three premiums at the Westminster
competition by his fresco of the
" Spirit of Religion," and a prize of
$1,500 by his paintings " Christ Bear-
ing the Cross," and " The Reconcilia-
tion of Oberon and Titania." He died
in Edinburgh, Dec. 26, 1901.
Patriarch, the father and ruler of
a family ; one who governs his family
or descendants by paternal right. The
term is usually applied to Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob, and his sons, or the
heads of families before the flood. In
Roman Catholic Church history, the
highest grade in the hierarchy of or-
dinary jurisdiction, the see of Rome
excepted.
Patrician, a Roman senator; a
person of noble birth ; a nobleman ; a
wealthy noble. The Roman patricians
consisted of about 300 houses, or clans,
who, descending from the first Roman
senators, constituted the aristocracy
of the city and territory. At first the
patricians monopolized all high offices
in the state, but after political con-
tests with the plebeians, lasting for
centuries, Licinius (365 B. c.) carried
his rogation, by which plebeians were
admitted to the consulate, and to the
custody of the Sibylline books.
Patrick, St., or Patricias, the
apostle or patron saint of Ireland ; said
to have been born near the site of Kil-
patrick, Scotland. His zeal prompted
him to cross the channel for the con-
version of the pagan Irish. His ar-
rival in Ireland took place probably be-
tween 440^460. His endeavors were
crowned with great success, and he es-
tablished there a number of schools
and monasteries. He died at an ad-
vanced age.
Patrol, or Patrole, a walking or
marching round of a guard in the
night to watch and observe what
passes, and to secure the peace and
eafety of a camp or other place.
Patron, in Roman history, one
who had manumitted a slave between
Patterson
whom and his manumissor a new re-
lation was created, the f reedman owing
his former master the obedience of a
son, and the patron assuming many of
the rights which the power of patron
conveyed.
Patron Saint. According to Ro-
man Catholic and Greek belief, the
saint under whose invocation coun-
tries, churches, religious houses or so-
cieties, or individuals are placed.
BADGE OP THE OEDEE OF ST. PATRICK,
Patrons of Husbandry. See
HUSBANDRY, PATRONS OF.
Patten, George 'Washington,
soldier and poet ; born in Newport, R.
I., Dec. 25, 1808: died in 1882. Edu-
cated at United States Military Acad-
emy, he served in the Mexican war.
Patterson, Joseph, an American
banker ; born near Norristown, Pa.,
Sept. 25, 1808. During the Civil War
through his influence the bankers of
the country made a loan of $50,000,-
000 in gold to Secretary Chase, and
Patterson
$100,000,000 more in the year follow-
ing. He died in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Sept. 25, 1887.
Patterson, Robert M., an Ameri-
can clergyman and author ; born in
Philadelphia, Pa., July 17, 1832; was
official reporter of the United States
Senate in 1850-1855; was graduated
at Princeton Theological Seminary in
1859 ; and pastor South Presbyterian
Church, Philadelphia, in 1867-1880.
He was a member of the Pan-Presby-
terian Councils in London in 1875,
Philadelphia, in 1880, and Belfast, Ire-
land, in 1884.
Patti, Adelina Maria Clorinda,
a popular operatic singer of Italian
extraction ; born in Madrid, Spain, in
1843. After a course of professional
study she sang at an early age in
New York. Her debut in London took
place in 1861, and she was ever after-
ward looked upon as one of the first
singers of the day. In 1868 she was
married to the Marquis de Caux, from
whom she was divorced in 1876. She
subsequently married M. Nicolini, and
appeared in the United States, South
America, and Mexico at various times.
M. Nicolini died in 1898. She mar-
ried Baron Rolf Cederstrom, Jan. 25,
1899, and made a tour of the United
States in the latter part of 1903. Her
residence is Craig y Nos Castle, Wales.
Patti, Carlotta, a popular Italian
concert singer and sister of Adelina
Patti ; born in Florence, Italy, in
1840 ; made her debut in New York in
1861, and in England in 1863. She
gave concerts throughout Europe and
America with great success. She was
married Sept. 3, 1879, to Ernest de
Munck, a violoncellist of Weimar, and
died in Paris, June 27, 1889.
Pattison, Thomas Harwood, an
American educator; born in Cornwall,
England, Dec. 14, 1838. For many
years he was Professor of Homiletics
and Pastoral Theology at Rochester
(N. Y.) Theological Seminary.
Patton, Francis Landey, an
American educator ; born in Warwick
Parish, Bermuda, Jan. 22, 1843. He
was educated at Knox College and the
University of Toronto, and was grad-
uated at Princeton Theological Sem-
inary in 1865. In 1865-1871 he was
pastor of several churches; in 1881
was appointed Professor of Relations
Paul
of Philosophy and Science to the
Christian Religion in Princeton Uni-
versity, a chair created for him. He
was president of the university in
1888-1902; then president of the
Theological Seminary.
Patton, Frank Jarvis, an Ameri-
can inventor; born in Bath, Me., in
1852 ; was graduated at the United
States Military Academy in 1877; in-
vented the multiplex telegraph system
and the gyroscope now used on ocean
vessels to determine their position at
sea. He died in New York city, Nov.
12, 1900.
Patton, Jacob Harris, an Ameri-
can historian ; born in Fayette co^,
fa., May 20, 1812; died in 1903.
Paul IV., Pope; Giovanni Pietro
Caraffa ; born in Naples, in 1476 ; sue-
I ceeded Marcellus II., in 1555. He es-
tablished a censorship, and completed
the organization of the Roman In-
quisition. His foreign relations in-
volved him in much labor and perplex-
ity. Under the weight of so many
cares, his great age gave way, and he
died in 1559.
Paul V., Pope; Camillo Borghese;
born in Rome, in 1552 ; was elected in
1605, after the death of Leo XI. He
embellished Rome with many excellent
works of sculpture and painting, and
an aqueduct. He was the founder of
the Borghese family, one of the weal-
thiest in Italy. He died in 1621.
Paul I., Emperor of Russia ; born
in 1754. He was the only son of Pe-
ter III. and his wife, Catherine II. He
married the Princess Mary of Wur-
temberg ia 1776. On the death of
Catherine in 1796 he was proclaimed
emperor. He joined the second coali-
tion against France; and Russian ar-
mies appeared in Italy, Switzerland,
and Holland. But he afterward with-
drew from it, and entered into friendly
relations with Napoleon. A conspir-
acy was formed against him, with
Count Pahlen at its head, and he was
murdered in his bedroom, March 24,
1801.
Paul, St., one of the apostles of
Jesus Christ ; originally called Saul ;
a Hebrew of the tribe of Benjamin,
and a native of Tarsus, the capital of
Cilicia, and was born at the beginning
of the Christian era. His father was
a Pharisee of the most rigid cast, and
Paul
Paul himself, up to the time of his
conversion, was a most bitter and
intolerant persecutor of the Christian
sect; even assisting at the martyrdom
of St. Stephen. The mode of his con-
version is fully detailed in the New
Testament. After his conversion, he
was baptized at Damascus by Anani-
as ; from whence, after a brief sojourn,
he proceeded to Arabia, where he re-
ceived the Ho'y Ghost. He was
martyred about A. D. 66.
Paul, Epistles of, St. There are
14 epistles in the New Testament usu-
ally ascribed to Paul, beginning with
that to the Romans, and ending with
that to the Hebrews.
Paulding, James Kirke, an
American author; born in Dutchess
co., N. Y., Aug. 22, 1779. He early
showed a tendency to literature. In
1837 Van Buren appointed him Secre-
tary of the Navy. Four years later
he retired to a country residence at
Hyde Park, N. Y., where he died, April
6, 1860.
Paulist Fathers, a modern Ameri-
can society of the Roman Catholic
Church, founded in New York by the
late Rev. Isaac T. Hecker, in 1858.
It is composed of 37 priests who are
engaged in missionary and literary
work ; many of them are converts from
Protestantism. They publish "The
Catholic World," a monthly magazine.
Panlownia, a genus of trees with
but one species; a native of Japan,
and now grown in the United States.
Paulns Hook, Fort, a Revolu-
tionary fortress erected by the British
on the site of Jersey City, N. J.
Pauncefote, Julian, Lord, an
English diplomatist ; born in Preston
Court, Gloucestershire, England, in
1828. He was the first delegate to the
Suez Canal International Commission
at Paris in 1885. In 1889 he was ap-
pointed British minister to the United
States and four years later the legation
was raised to an embassy. He nego-
tiated the settlement of \he Bering Sea
dispute; the Anglo- Venezuelan bound-
ary arbitration, and was chief of the
British delegates to the Peace Confer-
ence at The Hague in 1899. He also
negotiated with the United States two
conventions for the abrogation of the
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. He died May
24. 1902.
Payne
Pavement, the hard covering of the
surface of a road or footway; a floor
or covering of stones, brick, wood, etc.,
laid evenly on the earth, so as to form
a level, hard, and convenient passage.
Pawnbroker, one who is licensed
to lend, or make a business of lending
money on goods pawned or pledged.
Pawnees, a tribe of American In-
dians who formerly resided in Ne-
braska, with branches extending into
Kansas and Texas. They removed
in 1876 to a reservation of 283,020
acres in Indian Territory, and are
now few in number.
Pawtucket, a city in Providence
county, R. I.; on the Pawtucket
river and the New York, New Haven
& Hartford railroad; 4 miles N. E.
of Providence; has abundant water-
power from a 50-foot fall of the
river; was the site of the first cotton
mill built in America (by Samuel
Slater in 1790); and manufactures
cotton and woolen goods, plush,
braids, calicoes, leather, and machin-
ery. Pop. (1910) 51,622.
Pnxton, Sir Joseph, an English
architect and horticulturist; born in
Milton-Bryant, near Woburn, Bed-
fordshire, Aug. 3, 1803. He began
life as a gardener. He designed the
Crystal Palace at Sydenham and
superintended its construction. He
died in Sydenham, June 8, 1865.
Paymaster, an officer of the army
and navy, from whom the officers and
men receive their wages, and who is in-
trusted with money for that purpose.
Paymaster-General, in the
United States, a title given to (1) the
chief paying officer of the War De-
partment, who ranks as a .Brigadier-
General; (2) a similar officer in the
Navy Department, who ranks as a
rear-admiral, and (3) a corresponding
staff officer in the militia of a State.
Payn, James, an English novelist;
born in Cheltenham, England, in 1830;
was graduated at Cambridge in 1854.
His works reach upwards of 100
books. He died in London, March 25,
1898.
Payne, Henry Clay, an American
jurist; born in Ashfield, Mass., Nov.
23, 1843 ; was graduated at Shelburne
Falls Academy (Mass.) in 1859; set-
tled- in Milwaukee in 1863 : practised
law in Chicago, 111., in 1883-1893;
JAPANESE ENVOYS, STAFF, ETC.
RUSSIAN ENVOYS
SIGNING OF TREATY
Stereographs copyright by H. C. White Co., N. Y.
RUSSIAN- JAPANESE PEACE TREATY
Payne
was president of the Chicago Law In- !
etitute in 1889 ; judge of the Superior
Court of Cook co., 111., in 1893-1898.
On Dec. 16, 1901, he was appointed
Postmaster-General of the United
States. He died Oct. 4, 1904.
Payne, John. Howard, an Ameri-
can dramatist ; born in New York,
June 9, 1792. At the age of 16 he
made his first appearance at the Park
Theater. He also played in England
and Ireland, a part of the time with
Miss O'Neill. In 1851 was appointed
United States consul to Tunis. He
wrote, translated and adapted over
60 plays, but is most famous as the
author of " Home, Sweet Home."
He died in Tunis, April 10, 1852.
Peabody (formerly SOUTH DAN-
VEBsK' a town in Essex county,
Mass.; 2 miles E. of Salem; contains
the Peabody Institute and the Sut-
ton Reference Library; and was the
birthplace of George Peabody. Pop.
(1910) 15,721.
Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer, an
American writer and educator ; born
in Billerica, Mass., May 16, 1804.
She became a teacher in Boston in
1822; and was one of the first to in-
troduce the kindergarten system in the
United States. She died in Jamaica
Plain, Mass., Jan. 4, 1894.
Peabody, George, an American
philanthropist ; born in Danvers,
Mass., in 1795. He became chief
clerk, and, afterward, partner with his
uncle, John Peabody, in Georgetown,
D. C., in 1812. Not satisfied with
their business relations, George left
his uncle and joined partnership with
Mr. Elisha Riggs in the drygoods busi-
ness in Baltimore, in 1815. His busi-
ness increasing, he found occasion to
make frequent visits to England,
where he finally settled in 1829. In
1837 he withdrew from the firm, and
established himself as banker in Lon-
don, where he amassed a fortune. He
was particularly devoted to promoting
education (see following). He died
in London, in Nov. 1869.
Peabody Education Fund. In
1867 and 1869 George Peabody estab-
lished a fund of $3,500,000, to be de-
voted to education in the Southern
States of the Union. The fund was
placed in the charge and control of
15 trustees, who hold meetings annual-
Peace Society*
ly, usually in New York. In its ear-
lier history the chief aim of the fund
was to encourage and secure the estab-
lishment of public school systems for
the free education of all children. That
having been accomplished, the income
of the fund is now used for the train-
ing of teachers through normal schools
and teachers' institutes. In 1909 the
trustees appropriated $1,000,000, out
of $2,500,000 on hand, to the Pea-
body Normal School at Nashville,
Tenn.
Peace Conference. After the se-
cession of several of the States of the
American Union in 1860, Virginia, on
Jan. 1, 1861, invited the remaining
States to send delegates to a confer-
ence in Washington, with the object of
devising a plan whereby all difficulties
then existing might be peaceably set-
tled. The conference met on Feb. 4.
Fourteen free States and seven slave
States were represented, and ex-Presi-
dent John Tyler was made the presid-
ing officer. A committee of one from
each State was appointed to draw up
a report of " what . they may deem
right, necessary and proper, to restore
harmony and preserve the Union."
The report was rejected by both
Congress and Senate.
Peace Congress, National, or-
ganized by the National Arbitration
and Peace Committee, and held in
New York city, Apr., 1907, preceding
The Hague International Peace Con-
gress of that year.
Peace Congress, Universal, an
international gathering at The Hague,
held in response to an invitation of
Nicholas II., Czar of Russia, beginning
May 18, 1899, in which the United
States took part, and which framed a
plan, since approved by the powers,
for a permanent Tribunal of Arbi-
tration and periodical conferences.
Peace Society, The, an organiza-
tion founded in 1816; has for its ob-
ject the promotion' of permanent and
universal peace. It welcomes the sup-
port of Christians of all denomina-
tions, and also of those persons who
oppose war on humanitarian or other
grounds. The society has always ad-
vocated a gradual, proportionate, and
simultaneous disarmament by all the
nations of Europe, and the principle
of arbitration, and claims as partly
due to its efforts that this mode of set-
Peach
tling international difficulties has been
frequently adopted.
Peach, a tree and its fruit, of the
almond genus ; the Amygdalus Persica
of many varieties. They are exten-
sively cultivated in the United States.
Peacock, a male gallinaceous bird
of the Pavo genus, distinguished by its
beautiful disc-like tail. The female is
called a peahen.
Peacock Butterfly, a beautiful
butterfly, two and one-half, or two
and three-quarter inches across the
wings. It is seen in numbers on the
tops of nettles, hi June and July. The
perfect insect appears in August, lives
through the winter, and is seen in
March and April.
Peale, Charles Wilson, an
American miscellaneous writer ; born
in Maryland, April 16, 1741. He at-
tained distinction as a portrait paint-
er, and naturalist. He died in Phila-
delphia, Feb. 22, 1827.
Peale, Rembrandt, an American
artist ; born in Bucks co., Pa., Feb.
22, 1778. When 17 years old executed
a portrait of Washington, from whom
he had three sittings ; it was purchased
by Congress. He died in Philadelphia,
Pa., Oct. 3, 18GO.
Pear, a shrub or small tree, 20 to
40 feet high, with the branches more
or less spinescent and pendulous, and
the fruit pyriform, one or two inches
long, becoming larger and sweeter in
cultivation. Many hundred cultivated
varieties exist.
Pea Ridge, a post village in Ben-
ton co., Ark. ; about 8 miles E. of Ben-
tonville. Here, on March 6, 7, and 8,
1862, occurred one of the most desper"-
ate battles of the Civil War. Gen.
Samuel B. Curtis, in command of
about 11,000 Union troops, with 49
pieces of artillery, was attacked by a
superior force of Confederates (said
to number 20,000) under Gen. Earl
Van Dorn, and a .series of obstinate
and sanguinary conflicts ensued ; often
favoring each army with temporary
success, finally ended with the with-
drawal of Van Dorn.
Pearl, a peculiar product of certain
marine and freshwater mollusks or
shellfish. The most famous pearls are
those from the East ; the coast of Cey-
1m They are, however, obtained now
of nearly the same quality in other
Peary
parts of the world. These, and indeed
all the foreign pearls used in jewelry,
are produced by the pearl oyster.
Pearly Nautilus, common in the
Pacific and Indian Oceans, especially
toward the Moluccas. It is believed
to inhabit both deep and shallow
water. The shell is imported into the
United States for its fine mother-of-
pearl, much in request with cabinet
makers and jewelers.
Pearsons, Daniel Kimball, an
American philanthropist ; born in Bed-
ford, Vt, April 14, 1820 ; was gradu-
ated at the Medical College of Wood-
stock, Vt. ; practised medicine till
1857; engaged in real estate operations
in Chicago till 1888; then devoted him-
self to assisting small colleges, giving
away over $5,000,000. He died April
27, 1912.
Peary, Robert Edwin, an Arctic
explorer and civil engineer in the
United States navy; born in Cresson,
Pa., May 6, 1856 ; was graduated at
Bowdoin College, and in 1885 became
a civil engineer in the United States
navy, with the rank of lieutenant. In
1886 he made a journey of reconnois-
sance to Greenland, advancing for over
100 miles on the interior ice. In 1891
and 1893 he made other trips to the
Polar regions, in which he was accom-
panied, as far as the winter quarters,
by his wife, Josephine Diebitsch Peary.
In ^hese expeditions he made excur-
sions on a sledge along the coast of
Greenland, and traversed the inland
ice from McCormick Bay to the N. E.
angle of Greenland (Independence
Bay). He proved the convergence of
the E. and W. coasts of Northern
Greenland, and almost with positive-
ness the insularity of the mainland.
He discovered new lands (Melville
Land and Heilprin Land), and named
many glaciers. In May, 1896, Lieu-
tenant Peary made a successful expe-
dition to Greenland for the purpose of
collecting specimens in natural his-
tory. He returned to Cape Breton,
Sept. 27. In 1897 he was given leave
of absence by the government for the
purpose of continuing his explorations
in the northern seas, and to establish
a station in the far N. of Greenland,
which should be provisioned and sup-
plied and made the basis of a series of
annual expeditions into the Polar re-
gions. In pursuance of this project ht
feat
went N. in the summer of 1897 to take
the necessary preliminary measures,
such as securing the aid of the Eski-
mos, fixing the site of a station, etc.
He returned in October of that year,
bringing with him an immense mass
of meteoric iron, or what is supposed
to be such, from Cape York, Green-
land, which was placed in the Mu-
seum of Natural History in New York
city. On July 3, 1898, Lieutenant
Peary again sailed on a search for
the North Pole, going in the steamer
" Hope " from St. John's Newfound-
land, to Sidney, Cape Breton, and
horn there to Cape York, Baffin's Bay.
At that place the party and stores
were transferred to the " Windward,"
which has made several Arctic voy-
ages. They carried provisions for
four years. In September, 1901, word
was received from Peary that he had
founded the Greenland archipelago
(the extreme N. land known), and
reached lat. 83 50' N. He establish-
ed his headquarters for the winter of
1901-1902 at Cape Sabine, with the
plan of again attempting to reach the
North Pole in the spring of 1902. He
made a most courageous and danger-
ous effort to carry out that purpose,
going on sledges over the ice until
open water and icefloes made it im-
possible to proceed. In 1908-1909 he
made his last attempt, and on April
6, 1909, reached the latitude of 90,
and the long sought-for goal was at-
tained. Promoted captain 1910. See
ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS.
Feat, a deposit formed in bogs by
the decay of vegetable matter, fre-
quently consisting almost entirely of
sphagnum, or bog moss. In composi-
tion it differs from coal only in the
relative proportion of its constituents.
During the American coal famine of
1902-1903 peat was used to some ex-
tent as fuel.
Peattie, Mrs. Elia Wilkinson,
an American journalist ; born in Mich-
igan, in 1862 ; connected with the Chi-
cago press.
Pelba, called also the black tatou,
an armadillo ranging from Texas S. to
Paraguay.
Pecaa, or Pecan Nut, a sped _-s of
hickory and its fruit, growing in Jxorth
America.
Peccary, the popular name for two
species of small suilline mammals from
Pedagogy
the New World, nearly allied. The
collared peccary ranges from Arkansas
S. to the Rio Negro, and seldom at-
tacks other animals. The white-lipped
peccary is rarely met with N. of Brit-
ish Honduras, or S. of Paraguay. It
associates in large droves, is very pug-
nacious, and does not hesitate to at-
tack man, hunters often having to
take to a tree for safety.
Peck, Harry Tlmrston, born in
Stamford, Conn., in 1856 ; professor
of Latin at Columbia University,
1886-1910; editor of "The Book-
man," of "Harper's Classical Dic-
tionary," "The New International
Cyclopedia" (20 vols.), "Students'
Series of Latin Classics" (32 vols.),
"The New Websterian (1912) Dic-
tionary" ; author of "The Semitic
Theory of Creation," "The Personal
Equation," "What is Good English?"
"The Life of Prescott," "Twenty
Years of the Republic," "Studies in
Several Literatures," "The New Bae-
deker," "History of Classical Phil-
ology," and so forth.
Pechili. See CHI-LI.
Peck, George Wilbur, an Amer-
ican humorist ; born in Henderson, N.
Y., Sept. 28, 1840. Governor of Wis-
consin, in 1891-1895. In 1883 he
published "Peck's Bad Boy and his
Pa"; in 1890-1891* was mayor of
Milwaukee; in 1891-1895, governor
of Michigan.
Peck, Harry Thnrston, scholar
and critic; born in Stamford, Conn.,
Nov. 24, 1856; was graduated at
Columbia College, and in 1888-1910
was professor of Latin there.
Peck, Samuel Mintnrn, an
American poet ; born in Tuscaloosa,
Ala., in 1854. He was educated at the
University of Alabama, and later stud-
ied medicine in New York.
Pecos River, a river of New Mex-
ico and Texas, which has a S. E.
course of about 800 miles, and falls
into the Rio Grande del Norte, but in
summer is generally dry.
Pedagogue, in classical antiquity,
a slave who led his master's children
to school, places of amusement, etc.,
till they became old enough to take
care of themselves. A teacher of
young children; a schoolmaster.
Pedagogy, or Pedagogic!, a
term Anglicized from the German, sig-
Pedagogy
Pedro I.
nifies the SCIENCE OF EDUCATION OB
TEACHING, for the systematic develop-
ment of the human faculties. It has
Mind, Matter, and Method as essen-
tial factors, and its ideal is to study
the individual natures of youth, in
order to ascertain the special functions
or talents with which each is endowed,
so as to develop them towards perfec-
tion by systematized methods of train-
ing.
This study is effected under three
recognized divisions : physiology, the
constitution of the body ; psychology,
the constitution of the mind ; ethics
and religion, the moral and spiritual
nature.
The psychology of pedagogy em-
braces the scientific observation and
study of children, mental pathology
or morbid conditions, comparative psy-
chology, or the growth and grades of
intelligence, and empirical and educa-
tional psychology, the latter including
apperception, or the essential mental
operation in the act of learning.
The physiological aspect of peda-
gogy embraces physical education and
hygiene, including anthropometry or
body measurements, supervision of
eyestrain, spinal curvature, overpres-
sure, stammering, vocal efforts, the
ventilation, sanitation, furniture, ap-
paratus and equipment of school
grounds and buildings, the gymnastic,
calisthenic, Delsartian, Swedish and
other athletic exercises.
The moral and spiritual side of peda-
gogy embraces ethics or manners, aes-
thetics which gives inspiration by a
taste for and contemplation of the
beautiful, and civil and religious in-
struction, which include Sunday-
schools, and initiate the duties and
rights of citizenship, the formation of
religious sentiment and the recognition
of a supreme moral force.
The principles and practice of Peda-
gogy comprise elementary, secondary
and higher instruction, and school ad-
ministration.
School administration and manage-
ment embrace organization and dis-
cipline, the question of punishments,
amusements and general exercises, the
selection of text-books, libraries, and
museum collections, supervision of
studies, elective systems of study, ex-
aminations and degrees, legislation, and
endowments, including federal and
state aid, land grants, and private
benefactions.
Elementary instruction is typified
by the kindergarten children's garden
or child-study institution, giving in-
struction in the rudiments of lan-
guage, number and arithmetic, nature
(study, object lessons, geography,
drawing and music. To the elementary
also belongs the education of orphans
and neglected children, of colored chil-
dren negroes, Indians, Eskimos, etc.,
and of defective children, blind, deaf
mutes, mentally deficient, truants, in-
corrigibles and offenders, and compul-
sory education to combat illiteracy.
Secondary and higher instruction*
comprise the advanced forms of ele-
mentary education, together with an-
cient and modern languages, history,
economics, politics and sociology,
mathematics and science.
Higher instruction also embraces
night and continuation schools, public
lectures, college settlements, univer-
sity extension courses, self-culture,
and home education. Other forms of
high pedagogy are found in the
methods for manual and industrial
training, typified in the sloyd, slojd, or
Swedish series of manual exercises.
The highest pedagogic forms em-
brace the college and university
courses for professional education, in-
cluding training for teaching, theology,
law, medicine and its sub-divisions
surgery, dentistry, pharmacy and
nursing ; fine arts comprising sculp-
ture, drawing, painting, engraving,
music and architecture ; science em-
bracing technology, agriculture, com-
merce, military and naval training ;
modern colleges for the education of
women, and post-graduate courses.
The literature on every branch of
Pedagogics is enormous and continu-
ally increasing. Reference to any spe-
cial department is best made by con-
sulting : the " Catalogue of Educa-
tional Literature of the U. S. Bureau
of Education," Washington; the "Bul-
letin of the Books on Education in
the Libraries of Columbia University,"
New York city ; or the excellent bibli-
ographies of Education by Prof. W.
S. Monroe, by G. S. Hall and J. M.
Mansfield and others.
CHARLES LEONARD STUART.
Pedro I., Doiii Antonio Jose
D'Alcantara, Emperor of Brazil,
Pedro'
eldest son of John VI., King of Portu-
gal, elder brother of Dom Miguel, and
nephew to Ferdinand VII., King of
Spain ; born in 1798, and was taken,
in 1808, with the rest of the royal
family, to Brazil. In 1822, the Bra-
eilians having proclaimed their inde-
pendence, choset Pedro for their em-
peror. The death of John VI., in
1826, left Dom Pedro the crown of
Portugal. After abdicating the crown
of Portugal in favor of his daughter.
Dona Maria, he nominated his
brother, Dom Miguel, regent ; but
scarcely had he quitted Portugal, when
Dom Miguel took possession of the
throne. In 1831 he was compelled to
abdicate the throne of Brazil in favor
of his son, Dom Pedro II. Returning
to Europe, he raised troops in France
and England, with which he, in 1833,
drove Dom Miguel from the throne of
Portugal, and placed the crown upon
the head of his daughter. He was
twice married; his first wife being
Maria Leopoldina, Archduchess of
Austria, and the second, Amelia,
daughter of Prince Eugene de Beau-
harnais. He died in 1834.
Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil ; born
in Rio Janeiro, in 1825; succeeded to
the throne on the abdication of his
father, Dom Pedro I., in 1831. He
assisted President Grant in opening
the Centennial Exposition in Phila-
delphia in 1876; and was deposed by
the revolution of 1889. Died in 1891.
Peebles, James Martin, an
American physician; born in Whit-
tingham, Vt., March 23, 1822; was
a member of the Northwest Congres-
sional Indian Peace Commission in
1868; United States consul to Trebi-
zonde, Turkey, in 1869; and repre-
sented the Arbitration League at the
Peace Conference in Berlin.
Peekskill, a village in West-
chester county, N. Y.; on the Hud-
son river and the New York Central
& Hudson River railroad; 42 miles
N. of New York city; is surrounded
by grand mountain scenery; manu-
factures fire brick, hats, underwear,
and stoves; and contains the State
Military Camp, Helping Hand Hos-
pital, Mohegan Lake School, Field
Library, and House of the Good
Shepherd. Pop. (1910) 15,245.
Peel, Sir Robert, an English
statesman; son of Sir Robert Peel,
Peking
a wealthy manufacturer; born in
1788, and studied at Harrow and Ox-
ford. When just 21 years of age he
entered Parliament, and thenceforth
the sphere of his exertions and tri-
umphs was in the House of Commons.
In 1811 he was made under-secretary
for the colonies, and in 1812, when
only 24, he received the appointment
of chief secretary for Ireland. After
carrying his celebrated currency meas-
ure of 1819, he became, in 1822, home
secretary. He became prime minister
in 1841. He died in 1850, of internal
injuries caused by a fall from a horse.
Peele, John Thomas, an Ameri-
can artist ; born in Peterborough,
England, in 1822; settled in New
York city in 1835; early manifested
a genius for portrait painting and
went to Europe to study ; returned to
New York in 1846. Later, he de-
voted himself to genre painting, becom-
ing a specialist in studies of child
life. He died in 1897.
Peepul, or Pipal, also known as
the Sacred Fig of India, a species of
fig, somewhat resembling the banyan,
but the branches not rooting like those
of that tree. The tree is held sacred
by the Hindus, because Vishnu is said
to have been born under it.
Feet, Stephen Denison, an
; American clergyman and archaeologist ;
born in Euclid, O., Dec. 2, 1831. He
became a Congregational minister, and
an authority on the works of the
mound builders and American archae-
ology in general.
Peirce, Benjamin, an American
mathematician ; born in Salem, Mass.,
April 4, 1809; studied at Harvard,
where in 1833 he became professor.
His paper on the discovery of Neptune
attracted universal attention, and his
papers on the constitution of Saturn's
rings were equally remarkable. He
died in Cambridge, Mass., Oct. 6, 1880.
Pekan, Pennant's marten, a North
American species, about four feet long;
it often steals the fish used to bait
traps, whence it is sometimes called the
fisher.
Peking, or Pekin, the capital of
the Chinese empire, province of Chih-
le, or Pechili, in a vast sandy plain,
between the Pei-ho and its important
affluent, the Hoang-ho. 562 miles N.
W. of Nankin, and 100 miles W. N.
Pelagians
W. of the Gulf of Pechili, in the Yel-
low Sea. It consists of two contigu-
ous cities, each separately surrounded
by walls, and together entered by 16
gates. The entire circumference is 25
miles. The northern city, which is
nearly a perfect square, consists of
three enclosures. The outer one is
used by Chinese traders. The second
enclosure contains the residences of the
dignitaries of the empire and foreign
legations, the national literary insti-
tutions, and the temples of An-
cestors and Peace, and is inhabited
mostly by the Manchus. The inner en-
closure, or " forbidden city," sur-
rounded by walls of yellow tiles, 2
miles in circumference, hence called
the "Yellow Wall," contains the pal-
aces of the emperor and empress. The
southern city, called the Wai-ching, or
" outer city," is also square, and occu-
pied by the Chinese, and is both the
seat of business and the residence of
most of the population. The wall is
30 feet high, 25 feet thick at the base,
and 12 feet at the top. That of the
imperial city is 40 feet high. The
principal streets are very wide and
regular, running between opposite
gates. The houses are generally one
story high, and built of brick. Of the
ornamental buildings, the most con-
spicuous are those commonly called
triumphal arches. They consist of a
large central gateway, with small ones
on each side, all covered with nar-
row roofs, and like the houses are
splendidly gilded, varnished, and paint-
ed. Peking is indebted for its im-
portance to its being the residence of
the emperor and the seat of govern-
ment. The country round the city be-
ing sandy and poor, a large portion
of its supplies are brought from a dis-
tance partly from sea by the Pei-ho,
but principally by the Grand canal and
the Eu-ho, which connect it with Nan-
kin, and most of the E. provinces. The
early history of Peking is involved in
obscurity. Kublai Khan rebuilt it,
and made it his capital in 12GO. The
Mongol dynasty, founded by Kublai
Ithan, continued to occupy this city
till it was expelled from China, in
1367. In 1421, the third emperor of
the Chinese dynasty of Ming trans-
ferred his residence thither from
Nankin, since which it has been the
capital of the empire. During the
" Boxer " uprising of 1900 the various
Feliaa
foreigners in Peking were besieged in
the English legation. For weeks they
were given up as lost, but they man-
aged to hold out till the arrival of the
foreign troops. Present pop. (about)
700,000.
Pelagians, a sect that arose about
the beginning of the 5th century. Their
founder was Pelagius, a monk, a na-
tive of Britain, whose original name
was Morgan. He taught that man is
capable of a religious life, without
the grace of God, and that grace is '
given, not freely, but according to the
merits of the recipient.
Pelagic Sealing, the taking of
seal in the open sea.
Pelaniis, a genus of sea snakes,
with a single species, ranging from
Madagascar to New Guinea, New Zea-
land, and Panama.
Pelasgian, one of an ancient and
widely diffused prehistoric tribe which
was the common parent of the Greeks
and of the earliest civilized inhabitants
of Italy. The origin of this people is
lost in myth. Traces of them are fqund
in Asia Minor and Italy. The term
Pelasgi was used by the classic poets
for the Greeks in general. Some Al-
banian tribes are supposed to be of
Pelasgic descent.
Pclew Islands, or Falan, a group
in the Pacific formerly belonging to
Spain, lying S. E. of the Philippines,
at the W. extremity of the Caroline
Archipelago, with which they are some-
times classed. There are about 200
islands, and surrounded with corai
reefs. Total area, 170 square miles.
The principal is Babelthouap or Babel-
top. The soil is rich and fertile, and
the climate healthy. Bread fruit,
cocoanuts, sugar cane, palms, areca
nuts, yams, etc., are grown. Turtles,
trepang, and fish abound on the coasts.
The inhabitants, about 10,000 in num-
ber, are of the Malay race. The men
go entirely naked and the women,
nearly so. They are described as be-
ing good-natured, and have peculiar
social institutions. The islands were
discovered by the Spaniards in 1543,
and visited again in 1696. In 1899
Spain sold this group, with the Caro-
lines and all of the Ladrones except-
ing Guam, to Germany.
Pelias, the adder, or common viper.
No teeth in upper maxillaries, except
Pelican
PemTia
the poison fangs ; a row of small teeth
on the palatine bone, on each side of
the palate.
Pelican, a large piscivorous water
fowl, with an enormous pouch de-
pendent from the flexible branches of
the lower mandible, but capable of be-
ing contracted when not in use as a
depository for food. The species are
widely distributed, and frequent the
shores of the sea, rivers, and lakes,
feeding chiefly on fish, which they
hunt in shallow water, the pelican of
the United States being the only spe-
cies which dives for its prey. The
common pelican is about the size of a
swan, though its enormous bill and
loose plumage make it look consid-
erably larger ; it is white, slightly
tinged with flesh color, and the breast
feathers become yellow in old birds.
Pelican, The, the ship in which
Sir Francis Drake made his voyage
around the world. He left Plymouth
with four ships besides the " Pelican,"
Nov. 15, 1577, and completed his jour-
ney Sept. 15, 1580. The "Pelican"
was the only ship he brought back
with him, and it was for a long time
carefully preserved by order of "Queen
Elizabeth. When finally broken up a
chair was made from its timbers by
John Davis, the Arctic navigator,
. which is now in the Bodleian Library.
Pelissier, Aimable Jean
Jacques, Duke of Malakoff, a
marshal of France ; born near Rouen
in 1794. He entered the army at the
age of 19, and distinguished himself in
Africa and was created Lieutenant-
General in 1848 and was called in
1855 to take a command in the Crimea
under General Canrobert, whom he
soon superseded as Commander-in-
Chief. He distinguished himself in
the successful attack on Kertch, in
the battle of the Tchernaya, and above
ail in the storming of the Malakoff
Tower at Sebastopol, Sept. 8, 1855.
He was soon after created Marshal
and Duke of Malakoff. In 1858 he
was ambassador to London; was sub-
sequently appointed governor-general
of Algeria, and died there in 1864.
Pellagra, a disease common among
the peasantry of Northern Italy, the
lAsturias, Gascony, Rumania, and
Corfu, caused by living on maize af-
fected by a parasitic fungus.
Pelletier, Sir Charles Al-
phonse Pantaloon, a Canadian of-
ficial: born in Riviere Ouelle, Que-
bec, Jan. 22, 1837; was called to the
bar in 1860; member of the Com-
mons in 1869-1877, of the Provincial
Assembly in 1873-1874, and Senator
in 1877-1905; Speaker of Dominion
Senate in 1896-1901; Quebec City
Solicitor for 40 years; Judge Su-
perior Court, Quebec Province, in
1905-1908; then became Lieutenant-
Governor of the Province.
Pellico, Silvio, an Italian patriot;
born in Saluzza, Piedmont, in 1789;
best known for his tragedy, " Fran-
cesca da Rimini." The volume on
which his fame rests tells the story
of his 10* years' imprisonment. He
died in 1854.
Pelopidas, a Theban general, the
friend of Epaminondas and the asso-
ciate of his victories. When the Spar-
tans conquered Thebes, Pelopidas went
to Athens, where he assembled his ex-
iled countrymen, with whom he re-
turned, seized on Thebes, and expelled
the invaders. Afterward he defeated
the Lacedaemonians at Tegyra, and
shared with Epaminondas the victory
of Leuctra. Pelopidas being sent am-
bassador to Alexander, the tyrant of
Phera?, was thrown into prison ; but
on the appearance of Epaminondas he
obtained his release. He next went to
the court of Persia, and after his re-
turn commanded the forces sent to the
relief of Thessaly, where he fell ha
364 B. c.
Peloponnesus, the ancient name
of the Morea. Among its most im-
portant cities were the Sparta in La-
conia, and Argos the capital of Argolis.
Sparta acquired, after the Messenian
war, a decided supremacy over the
other states, and disputed the suprem-
acy with Athens in a war of almost
30 years' duration (431-^404 B. C.)
the famous Peloponnesian War, of
which the history has been written by
Thucydides. After the Roman con-
quest, the Peloponnesus formed part
of the province of Achaia, and subse-
quently part of the Byzantine empire.
Pelvis, the bony, archlike basin of
the human body, supporting the lower
or hinder limbs.
Pemba, a coral island off the E.
coast of Africa; 50 miles N. E. of
Pemberton
Zanzibar Island, length 46 miles,
breadth 4 1 /; area, 372 square miles.
Pemberton, Max, an English
novelist; born in Birmingham, Eng-
land, June 19, 1863. He was a con-
tributor to " Vanity Fair," and editor
of " Chums," a boys' paper, and in
charge of " Cassell's Magazine." He
has published a number of stories.
Pembroke, town, out-post, and
capital of Renfrew county, Ontario,
Canada; on the Muskrat river, Allu-
mette lake, and the Grand Trunk
and Canadian Pacific railways; 104
miles N. W. of Ottawa; has good
water-power from the river; and is
engaged in lumbering and the manu-
facture of woolen goods and flour.
Pen, an instrument for writing with
a fluid. Pens of some sort have been
in use from very early times, adapted
to the material on which the charac-
ters were to be inscribed. The metallic
stilus for the production of incised
letters was probably the earliest writ-
ing implement. It was used by the
Romans for writing on tablets coated
with wax ; but both they and the
Greeks also used what is the true an-
cient representative of the modern pen,
namely, a hollow reed, as fs yet com-
mon in Eastern countries. It has been
asserted that quills were used for writ-
ing as early as the 5th century A. D.
In 1803 Wise produced steel pens of
a barrel form, mounted in a bone case
for carrying hi the pocket. They were
of indifferent make, and being expen-
sive, were very little used. Joseph
Gillott commenced the manufacture
about 1820, and succeeded in making
the pen of thinner and more elastic
steel, giving it a higher temper and
finish. Mr. Gillott was followed into
the same field by Mr. Perry and others,
and their improvements so reduced
the cost and raised the quality, that a
gross of better pens are now sold by
the same makers at less than one-sixth
of the price of & single pen in 1821.
Gold pens tipped with minute particles
of iridium are now in extensive use,
and a good one will last for years.
Fountain pens and penholders, to car-
ry a considerable supply of ink and
to discharge it in an equal manner,
were invented by Joseph Bramah.
Penal Laws, laws which prohibit
an act, and impose a penalty for the
commission of it.
Pendleton
Penal Servitude, a form of pun-
ishment in English criminal law, sub-
stituted, in 1853, for the punishment
of transportation. It consists in im-
prisonment with hard labor for a term
of years, from two up to the duration
of life. The term is not used in the
United States.
Penance, in Roman Catholic theolo-
gy and ritual : 1. The virtue which
inclines the soul to detest ski for its
own sake that is, because it is an
offense against God. 2. The outward
acts by which sorrow for sin is evinced.
3. The satisfaction which a priest im-
poses on the penitent before giving ab-
solution, often called sacramental pen-
ance.
Penang, Pnlo-Penang, or
Prince of Wales Island, an island
belonging to Great Britain, lying at
the N. entrance of the Straits of
Malacca, off the W. coast of the Malay
Peninsula, from which it is separated
by a channel 2 to 5 miles across ; area,
107 square miles. Penang was made
over by treaty to the East India Com-
pany in 1786 by the Rajah of Quedah,
and with Province Wellesley, a long
strip of the Malay Peninsula opposite
(area, 270 square miles), it now forms
one of the Straits Settlements, having
a resident councillor to control ad-
ministration. Pop. 235,618.
Penates, the Roman gods of the
storeroom and kitchen. The family
hearth, which formerly stood in the
atrium, was their altar, and on it their
images, two in number, were placed,
with the image of the Lar between
them. These penates were represented
dancing and elevating a drinking horn
in token of joy and plenty. The
calends, nones, and ides of each month
were set apart for their worship, as
were the caristra (Feb. 22) and the
saturnalia. Each family had its own
penates, and the State had its public
penates. The origin of these gods is
extremely doubtful. As was the case
with the Lares, their name was a syn-
onym for home.
Pencil, a name applied to instru-
ments for writing, drawing, or paint-
ing, differing as much in their con-
struction as in the use to which they
are applied.
Pendleton, George Hunt, an
American statesman ; born in Cincin-
Fendleton
nati, O., July 25, 1825. He acted as
congressman from 1856 to 1865, having
been elected on the Democratic ticket.
He was a candidate for the vice-presi-
dency on the Democratic ticket in
1864, with George B. McClellan. Be-
fore his appointment as United States
minister to Germany by President
Cleveland, in 1885, he represented
Ohio in the United States Senate, and
was an exponent of civil service re-
form. He died in 1889.
Pendleton, Louis (Beauregard),
an American novelist and writer of
juvenile literature ; born in Georgia in
1861. His works deal principally
with Southern scenes and characters.
Penelope, a celebrated Grecian
princess, daughter of Icarius, wife of
Ulysses (Odysseus), and mother of
Telemachus. According to the Ho-
meric legend, Ulysses, during his long
wanderings after the fall of Troy, was
generally regarded as dead, and Penel-
ope was vexed by the urgent suits of
many lovers, whom she put off on the
pretext that she must first weave a
shroud for Laertes, her aged father-in-
law. To protract the time, she un-
did by night the portion of the web
she had woven by day. When the
suitors had discovered this device, her
position became more difficult than be-
fore ; but fortunately Ulysses returned
in time to rescue his chaste spouse
from their distasteful importunities.
Penguin, aquatic birds confined to
the high S. latitudes of both hemi-
spheres, where they congregate in large
Hocks. The body is generally elliptic-
al ; neck of moderate length ; head
small, bill moderately long, straight,
compressed ; tail short. They have no
quills in their wings, which are as
rigid as the flippers of a cetacean, and
utterly useless for flight, though they
move freely at the shoulder joint,
forming most efficient paddles, and are
usually worked alternately with a ro-
tatory motion. In standing, the pen-
guin preserves an upright position,
generally resting on the tarsus, which
is widened like the foot of a quadru-
ped ; but in progressing this is kept
nearly vertical, and the weight sup-
ported on the toes alone.
Peninsular Campaign, the name
of the campaign conducted by General
George B. McClellan in 1862, on the
E. 115.
Penitentiary
peninsula between the York river and
its tributaries and the James river.
Penfeisnlar War, the war carried
on in the beginning of the 19th cen-
tury in Spain and Portugal by the
British forces, aided by the native
troops, against the French. Sir Ar-
thur Wellesley, afterward the Duke
of Wellington, landed, with 10,000
British troops, at Figueras, in Portu-
gal, Aug. 1-3, 1808, and on the 21st
defeated the French at Vimiera. On
August 30, the Convention of Cintra
was signed, by which Junot agreed to
evacuate the country. Wellesley re-
turning home, the command of the
army, now increased to 20,000 men,
was given over to Sir John Moore,
who was forced by Soult to fall back
on Corunna, where a battle was fought
on Jan. 16, 1809, in which the former
lost his life. Wellesley again received
command of the army, and, after a
series of sanguinary and generally suc-
cessful combats, drove the French
across the Pyrenees, entering France
on Oct. 7, 1813.
PENGUIN.
Penitentiary, a prison in which
convicted offenders are confined and
.Penitentiary
subjected to a course of discipline and
instruction with a view to their refor-
mation. Misdemeanants and persons
guilty of lesser felonies are confined
therein.
Penitentiary, one of the offices of
the Roman Catholic Curia, taking
special cognizance of matters relating
to the confessional, and dispensations
from such impediments to marriage as
are not diriment. The dignitary who
presides over the office described above.
He is a cardinal priest, and must be
a doctor of theology or canon law.
Penn, Sir William, an English
admiral who greatly distinguished him-
self against the Dutch in the 17th cen-
tury : born in Bristol in 1621, -entered
the navy at an early period, and was
captain at the age of 23. After the
restoration he was knighted, and died
in Essex in. 1670.
Penn, "William, founder of .the
State of Pennsylvania ; son of the pre-
ceding ; born in London, Oct. 13, 1644.
He turned Quaker, was taken up for
preaching, and sent to prison ; but
was released through the interest of
his father; was sent to the Tower, on
account of a book which he had writ-
ten ; and, while there, he composed his
K:-incipal work, entitled " No Cross,
o Crown," intended to show the ben-
efit of suffering. On his release, he
resumed his former labors, and was
apprehended, with some others, and
tried for preaching at a conventicle in
Gracechurch Street. The jury per-
sisted in finding them not guilty, and
were fined for acting contrary to the
dictates of the judge. In 1681 he ob-
tained from the crown, in lieu of the
arrears due his father, the grant of
the province in North America, and it
was Charles II. who, in honor of Penn
proposed the name Pennsylvania. Ac-
companied by emigrants, Penn sailed
from Deal Sept. 5, 1682, for America,
and landed at New Castle, Del., Oct.
24, and at Upland, Pa. (now Ches-
ter), Oct. 29, 1682. The work of or-
ganization was rapid. A few Swedes
and Dutch had previously settled iu
Pennsylvania, but colonists from vari-
ous regions of the Old World now
poured in. Universal toleration was
proclaimed, a charter of liberties was
solemnly consecrated, and a democratic
government was established. In his
dealings with the Indians and their
Pennant
chiefs, Penn manifested his accustomed
magnanimity, and justice. The capital
city, Philadelphia, was planned on a
scale commensurate with Pennsyl-
vania's expected greatness. Penn's
family was in England. Hearing that
his wife was ill he, intrusting his un-
finished undertakings to such men as
he deemed competent, hurried anxious-
ly back. The overthrow of James was
in more than one respect a misfor-
tune for Penn. In the spring of 1690
he was arrested on the charge of hold-
ing treasonable correspondence with
the dethroned monarch. The absurd-
ity of the charge being swiftly and
glaringly evident, Penn was set at
liberty. Yet, though his conduct con-
tinued to be blameless, he was, by
an order in council, stripped, March
14, 1692, of his title to the Pennsyl-
yanian government a tyrannical act
involving his utter ruin ; for, besides
that he had risked his whole substance
jn the Pennsylvanian experiment, his
estates, both in England and in Ire-
land, had been grievously misman-
aged by incompetent or dishonest over-
seers. An order in council capricious-
ly restored to Penn, in 1694, that
Pennsylvanian government of which
an order in council had so capriciously
robbed him. But the ownership of
territories so extensive was almost
barren to him. A visit to his Irish
estates preluded Penn's second ex-
pedition to the New World. His fam-
ily went with him to America, though
rather from necessity than choice.
Penn's residence in the colony was
more beneficial to the colonists than
to himself. In 1701 he returned to
England, and, being encumbered with
debts, endeavored to negotiate the sale
of Pennsylvania to the crown for $60,-
000. This negotiation was interrupt-
ed in 1712, through his being attacked
by an apoplectic tit, which, happening
twice afterward, greatly impaired his
mental faculties. He survived for
six years longer, but with a consti-
tution much shattered, and quite un-
fitted for any serious employment.
Penn died July 29, 1718 ; and was
buried at the village of Jordan, Buck-
inghamshire.
Pennant, a small flag or banner.
In naval affairs, a long, narrow piece
of bunting carried at the mast-heads
of vessels of war.
Penn College
Penn College s a coeducational in-
stitution in Oskaloosa, la. ; founded
in 1873 under the auspices of the So-
ciety of Friends.
Pennington, Alexander Cum-
xuings McWhorter, an American
military officer ; born in Newark, N.
J., Jan. 8, 1838; was graduated
at the United States Military Acad-
emy in 1800 ; served through the Civil
War, during the latter part in com-
mand of a brigade in the Army of the
Potomac, and was brevetted Brigadier-
General of volunteers. After the war
he served at various army posts, was
promoted Brigadier-General, U. S. A.,
in 1899 and was retired Oct. 17, of
that year.
Pennon, or Penon, a small flag or
streamer half the size of the guidon,
but shaped like it, of a swallow tail
form, attached to the handle of a
lance or spear.
Pennsylvania, a State in the
North Atlantic Division of the North
American Union, bounded by New
York, New Jersey,. Delaware, Mary-
land, West Virginia, Ohio, and Lake
Erie ; one of the original 13 States ;
capital, Harrisburg; number of coun-
ties, 67 ; area, 44,985 square miles ;
pop. (1890) 5,258,014; (1900) 6,302,-
115; (1910) 7,665,111.
The State presents three wen de-
fined physical divisions, the E. plain,
middle hills, and W. highlands. A
number of parallel ridges cross it
from N. to S. with a maximum alti-
tude of 2,500 feet. Lake Erie forms
45 miles of the N. boundary of the
State and has an excellent harbor at
Erie.
Pennsylvania ranks first in the
United States in the amount and value
of her commercial mineral products.
In 1900 she ranked first in the pro-
duction of coal, coke, natural gas,
building stones, flint, feldspar, mineral
paints, portland cement, and iron and
steel products ; second in petroleum
and clay products ; third in rock ce-
ment; and fifth in iron ores. Over 50
per cent, of the iron and steel pro-
duced in the United States is worked
in Pennsylvania, in the vicinity of
Pittsburg. This city is*the center of
the iron industry of the world.
As an agricultural State, Penn-
sylvania stands high. It ranks first
in the United States in the produc-
Pennsylvania
tion of rye, and has large crops of
other cereals. The S. E. counties are
remarkably fertile, Chester being not-
ed for its nurseries, and Lancaster for
its tobacco crop. The natural forest
trees include pine, poplar, beech, sugar
maple, chestnut, birch, wild cherry,
walnut, oak, hickory,, ash, cherry, elm,
sycamore, and hemlock. Considerable
attention is paid to stock raising, and
dairying is becoming one of the lead-
ing industries.
Pennsylvania ranks second in the
United States in the value of her
manufactures. Besides the leading in-
dustries of coal mining, coke, iron and
steel manufacture, and the production
of petroleum, the State has extensive
manufactures of plate and bottle glass,
paper bags, rag carpets, woolen goods,
glue, railroad cars, drugs, and chem-
icals, gunpowder, leather and lumber.
In 1900, according to the United
States census, there were 52,185 manu-
facturing establishments ; employing
$1,551,542,712 capital, and 733,834
persons; paying $332,072,670 for
wages, and $1,042,561,628 for mate-
rials ; and having finished products
valued at $1,835,104,431.
The imports of merchandise at the
ports of Philadelphia and Erie for
1900 amounted in value to $49,711,-
066; and the exports, $31,364,722.
At the end of the school year, 1899-
1900, the children of school age num-
bered 1,759,300 ; enrollment in public
schools, 1,151,880. There were 14,932
buildings used for public school pur-
poses, public school property valued
at $54,797,506, and 29,390 teachers.
The principal colleges include, the
University of Pennsylvania, at Phila-
delphia ; Lehigh University, at South
Bethlehem ; Lafayette College, Easton,
and many others.
The governor is elected for a term
of four years and receives a salary
of $10,000 per annum. Legislative ses-
sions are held biennially in odd years,
beginning on the first Tuesday in Jan-
uary, and are unlimited in length. The
Legislature has 60 members in the
Senate and 207 members in the House.
There are 36 Representatives in Con-
gress. The country about Delaware
Bay was first settled by the Swedes,
ana then passed first under Dutch, and
then under the English jurisdiction
generally established in 1664. In 1681
Pennsylvania
the territory W. of the Delaware was
granted by royal charter to William
Perm who colonized it ; and, by the
industry and high character of the
Society of Friends, by cultivating
peace with the Indians, and encourag-
ing immigration, founded a flourishing
State, which, long before the Revolu-
tion became the seat of learning,
wealth, and refinement.
Pennsylvania, University of, a
coeducational, non-sectarian institution
in Philadelphia, Pa. ; founded 1740.
Pennsylvania College, a coedu-
cational institution in Gettysburg,
Pa. ; founded in 1832 under the au-
spices of the Lutheran Church.
Pennsylvania State College, a
coeducational, non-sectarian institu-
tion in State College, Pa. ; founded in
1855.
Pennsylvania Dutch, a German
dialect mixed with English, spoken in
Pennsylvania by German settlers and
their descendants.
Fenny. In the United States the
term penny is commonly used for
" cent," the 100th part of a dollar. It
consists of 95 per cent, of copper and
5 per cent, tin and zinc. There are
1,000,000,000 pennies in circulation
throughout the country and the Phila-
delphia mint is turning them out at
the rate of 4,000,000 a month to keep
up the supply. The British penny is
the 12th part of a British shilling,
and worth about two cents.
Pennyroyal, a species of mint,
sometimes grown in gardens for its
reputed medicinal qualities. The name
pennyroyal is given also to a small
plant, allied to the mints, and having,
like them, a pleasant aromatic smell
and a warm pungent taste.
Pennyweight, a Troy weight, con-
taining 24 grains, each grain being
equal to a grain of wheat from the
middle of the ear, well dried. Twenty
pennyweights make one ounce Troy
weight.
Pensacola, city, port of entry,
and capital of Escambia county,
Fla.; on Pensacola bay and several
railroads; 10 miles N. of the Gulf of
Mexico; has one of the finest harbors
on the Gulf, large export trade in
naval stores ; cotton, grain, phos-
phates, coal, iron, and tobacco, manu-
factures of lumber; cotton compres-
Pentecosfi
sors, and fertilizers, and extensive
fisheries; and contains a Federal
navy-yard, Federal Marine Hospital,
Fort Pickens, and the remains of
Fort McRea. Pop. (1910) 22,982.
Penshnrst, Charles Hardinge,
1st Lord, a British administrator;
born in Kent, England, in 1858;
brother of 3d Viscount Hardinge;
entered the diplomatic service in
1881; was stationed successively at
Constantinople, Berlin, Washington,
Bucharest, Teheran, and St. Peters-
burg; became Ambassador to Russia
in 1904; Permanent Under Secretary
of State for Foreign Affairs in 1906,
and Viceroy of India in 1910.
Pension, an allowance of money,
in stipulated amounts and in periodi-
cal payments, made by government to
persons in recognition of past ser-
vice, military, naval, civil, or judi-
cial. The payment of pensions in the
United States is regulated by special
congressional enactment. The sys-
tem has been in operation nearly ever
since the adoption of the Federal
Constitution Pensions are generally
predicated and allowed on account of
some disablement which occurred in
the military or naval service of the
United States while in line of duty.
The year of the largest number of
pensioners of all classes was 1902,
when there was a total of 999,446.
The year 1909 had the smallest num-
ber on the rolls since 1892 (946,194),
but the total payments that year
were the largest on record ($161,-
973,703). From the foundation of
the Government'to June 30, 1910, the
totaT amount pnid out for pensions
aggregated $4,073,056,570.
Pentateuch, a term applied ex-
clusively to the first five books of the
Old Testament collectively, termed in
Hebrew torah the law. The first)
mention of the five-fold division is by
Josephus.
Pentecost, one of the three greatest
Jewish festivals. Its Greek name was
given because it was held on the 50th
day, counting from the second of the
Passover, whence it was called in
Hebrew the Eeast of Weeks. By this
account the enumeration of the weeks
was to be from " such time as thou
beginnest to put the sickle to the
corn." It was called also the Feast
of Harvest.
Pentecost
Pentecost, George Frederick, an
American clergyman; born in Albion,
111., Sept. 23, 1842; entered George-
town University but left to volunteer
for the Union army ; was chaplain in.
1862-1864, and filled various pastor-
ates in different parts of the country
in 1864r-1880. In 1887 he engaged in
evangelical work in Scotland and thea
went to India on a special mission to
the English-speaking Brahmins. He
was called to the First Presbyterian
Church at Yonkers, N. Y., in 1897.
He wrote: "Boyhood of Christ";
"Bible Studies"; etc,
Penumbra, a faint shadow thrown
by a luminous body. It is brighter
than the true shadow, though less so
than the luminous body itself. It ia a
modification of the true shadow pro-
duced by the commingling with it of
rays emitted by a portion of the lu-
minous body. In an eclipse of the
moon, the rays which have just grazed
the edge of the earth are bent inward
by the refraction of the atmosphere,
besides having become tinged with a
ruddy or copper hue. Falling on the
moon, then in shadow, they often ren-
der it faintly visible, and though of a
copper hue, yet bright enough to per-
mit markings on its surface to be seen.
Yet at this time the moon is so much
behind the earth that it cannot be
reached by direct rays from the sun.
Peonage, a system of agricultural
servitude common in Mexico, and some
other parts of Spanish America. The
peon in debt to his employer was by
the Spanish system bound to labor for
his employer till the debt was paid.
Peoria, city and capital of Peoria
county, 111.; o/i the Illinois river aiid
over a dozen railroads; 160 miles W.
of Chicago; is in an important coal-
mining region; has the most exten-
sive manufactories of proof spirits,
glucose, and farming implements in
the country; also manufactures cel-
lulose, cereal foods, flour, straw-
boards, and machinery; manufac-
tures exceed $65,000,000 in value of
annual output; contains the Bradley
Polytechnic Institute, Spalding In-
stitute, Federal Building, large Coli-
seum, Soldiers' Monument, and sev-
erai notable public buildings; and
has an assessed property valuation
of over $25,000,000. Pop. (1910)
G6.950.
Pepsin
Pepiii, The Short, a King ot
France, the first of the Carlovingian
kings. He was at first mayor of the
palace under Childeric III. ; but in
752 he dethroned that monarch and
confined him in a monastery. Having
requested and obtained the sanction of
the Pope, Pepin was constituted king.
He assisted Pope Stephen III. against
the Longobards, defeated the Saxons,
Bavarians, and other German nations,
and united Aquitaine to his crown.
After a reign of 16 years, he died in
St. Denis, in 768. His son Charle-
magne succeeded him as King of the
Franks.
Pepper, Charles M., journalist,
traveler and author; born in Ohio,
Nov. 11, 1859 ; graduated at the Woos-
ter University, in 1882. He was the
Washington correspondent of the
"Chicago Tribune" for many years.
Subsequently political correspondent
of "New York Herald." Correspond-
ent in Cuba, Porto Rico, Mexico, Cen-
tral America, South America, and
Hawaii, for "Washington Star" and a
syndicate of papers. Commissioner in
Cuba for St. Louis Exposition. Was
appointed by President McKinley as
delegate to the Second International
American Conference, which was held
in Mexico, 1901-1902. Appointed by
President Roosevelt as Pan-American
Railway commissioner. He is the au-
thor of " Tomorrow in Cuba," " Every-
day Life in Washington," and other
books.
Peppermint, a mint with oblong,
lanceolate, serrate, glabrous leaves;
pedicels and flowers nearly smooth ;
flowers in cylindrical spikes, interrupt-
ed below. Oil of peppermint, the oil
distilled from the fresh flowers of pep-
permint. It enters into the composition
of peppermint water, essence of pep-
permint, and spirit of peppermint. It
is stimulant and carminative, and is
used to correct flatulence and griping
in the intestinal canal, and to mask
the nauseous taste of some medicines.
Pepper Root, a perennial herba*
ceous plant, a native of North America,
with pairs of ternate leaves, and ra-
cemes of white flowers; the root of
which has a pungent mustard-like
taste, and is used as a condiment.
Pepsin, an azotized ferment, related
to the proteids, and contained in gas-
tric juice. It possesses the power, in
Pericles
conjunction with hydrochloric acid, of
dissolving the insoluble proteids and
converting them into peptones. Pep-
sin is prepared from the stomach of
the pig or calf on a commercial scale,
and is usually employed in the form of
pills or dissolved in wine.
Pepys, Samuel, an English author,
secretary to the admiralty in the reigns
of Charles II. and James II. ; born
in Brampton, Huntingdonshire, in
1032, and educated at Cambridge. He
early acquired the patronage of Sir
Edward Montagu, afterward Earl of
Sandwich, who employed him as sec-
retary in the expedition for bringing
Charles II. from Holland. On his re-
turn he was appointed one of the prin-
cipal officers of the navy. In 1673,
when the king took the admiralty into
his own hands, Pepys was appointed
secretary to that office, and performed
his duties with great credit. During
the excitement of the Popish Plot he
was committed to the Tower, but was
after some time discharged without a
trial, and reinstated in his office at the
admiralty, which he held till the abdi-
cation of James II. He was president
of the Royal Society for two years ;
but his title to fame rests upon his
"Diary" (1659-1669), which is a
most entertaining work, revealing the
writer's own character very plainly,
giving an excellent picture of contem-
porary life, and of great, value for the
history of the court of Charles II.
He died in 1703.
Pequot, Fort, an old Indian fort
on Pequot Hill, about 8 miles N. E.
of New London, Conn.
Pequots, or Pequods, a tribe of
American Indians, a branch of the
Mohegans, were warlike and powerful
in the country round the Thames riv-
er when Connecticut was first settled,
and made treaties with the Dutch and
English. Hostilities, however, broke
out in 1637, and the tribe was cut to
pieces and scattered ; yet a few de-
scendants may be found at Green Bay,
Wis.
Perch, a genus of acanthopterous
fishes, forming the type of the perch
family (Percidse). The common perch
(Perca fluviatilis) is a common ten-
ant of fresh-water lakes and rivers.
It is colored a greenish-brown on the
upper parts, the belly being of a yel-
lovvish or golden-white. The sides are
marked with from five to seven black-
ish bands. The average weight ia
from 2 to 3 pounds. The perch is a
voracious feeder, devouring smaller
fishes, worms, etc. The female de-
posits her eggs, united by a viscous
matter, in long bands, on aquatic
plants.
Pereira da Silva, Joao Manuel,
a Brazilian historian : born in Rio de
Janeiro, in 1817. He wrote : "His-
tory of the Founding of the Empire of
Brazil " ; " Brazilian Plutarch " ; " Je-
ronimo Corte-Real " ; " Second Period
of the Reign of Dom Pedro I. in Bra-
zil"; etc.
Perennial, lasting or continuing
without cessation throughout the year ;
hence, perpetual ; unceasing ; never
failing; as perennial fountains. Con-
tinuing without intermission, as a fe-
ver. In botany, one of those plants
whose roots remain alive more years
than two, but whose stems flower and
perish annually.
Perez de Zambrana laiisa, a Cu-
ban story-writer and poet ; born in
El Cobre, near Santiago, in 1837. Sev-
eral of her poems have been translat-
ed into Italian and French.
Perfumes, substances emitting an
agreeable odor, and used about the
person, the dress, or the dwelling, hav-
ing also some value as disinfectants.
Perfumes are partly of animal origin
as civet, musk, etc., but are chiefly
simple, or mixed essences of flowers.
Pericardium, a conical membran-
ous sac containing the heart and the
commencement of the great vessels, to
the extent of about two inches from
their origin.
Pericles, a great Athenian states-
man ; born in Athens about 495 B. C.,
of a noble, influential and wealthy
family. He received a careful educa-
tion from the most eminent teachers.
He applied himself to the study of
philosophy under the guidance of An-
axagoras, who had a most powerful
influence on him, and remained one
of his most intimate friends. To his
other acquirements he added that of
extraordinary eloquence, and thus pre-
pared, he began to take part in public
affairs about 469 B. c., and the pop-
nlar party soon recognized him as their
chief. Pericles was great as a general,
and he displayed extraordinary valor
Verier
at the battle of Tanagra; he com-
manded the expedition against Sicyon
and Acarnania ; recovered Delphi from
the Spartans, and quelled the revolt
of Eubcea. In 444 B. 0. he became sole
ruler of Athens, and the aim of his
policy was to extend and strengthen
her empire, and to make the people
worthy of their position. Under his
administration the navy was increased,
commerce extended, general prosperity
advanced, and Athens adorned with
noble buildings. In 444 B. C. Pericles
established a democratic constitution
in Samos, and a counter revolution
taking place, he besieged the town, and
after nine months reduced it, a suc-
cess which procured him extraordinary
honors on his return. Pericles directed
Athens during the first two years of
the Peloponnesian War, in the sec-
ond year of which the plague broke out
at Athens, and the popular discontent |
vented itself in the prosecution of the
great ruler. He was fined, but soon
regained his influence. The plague
carried off many of his friends and
relatives, and, last of all, his favorite
son, Paralus. This loss broke his
heart, and after a lingering sickness
he died 429 B. c. He left a son by
Aspasia, who took his father's name,
and was legitimated by the people.
Perier, Casimir, a French states-
man ; born in Grenoble, Oct. 21, 1777.
A Parisian banker, he condemned in
1817 the financial policy of the minis-
try and thereby won a seat in the
Chamber of Deputies. In 1828 he held
the portfolio of finance under Martig-
nac, but resigned it in August of the
next year. Having taken an active
part in the July revolution (1830),
he was rewarded with a seat in the
cabinet. When Laffitte became presi-
dent of the council (Nov. 2), Perier
undertook the presidency of the Cham-
ber of Deputies, and on March 13,
1831, succeeded Laffitte as minister.
Died 1832. His son Auguste, adopted
the name of Casimir-Perier (q. v.).
Perigee, the point in the moon's
orbit at which she is nearest the earth.
Perihelion, or Perilieliuin, the
part of a planet's or comet's orbit
where it is nearest the sun, as op-
posed to aphelion.
Perim, a barren island, and coaling
and telegraph station, belonging to
Great Britain, in the Strait of Bab-
Perjury
el-Mandeb, at the S. entrance to the
Ited Sea. It is about 3^ miles long
by 2% wide, crescent-shaped, the
horns embracing a spacious harbor.
Periodicity, the disposition of cer-
tain things or phenomena to recur at
stated periods. It denotes the regu-
lar or nearly regular recurrence of
certain phenomena of animal life, such
as sleep and hunger. The first indica-
tion of a diseased state is generally a
disturbance of the natural or ac-
quired periodicity of the various func-
tions of life.
Periosteum, a dense lining mem-
brane covering the whole surface of
bone, except the articulations, which
have a thin cartilaginous layer. As
long as a single portion of periosteum
remains alive bone is capable of be-
ing reproduced.
Peritonitis, inflammation of the
peritoneum ; it is exceedingly painful
and dangerous, from its extent and
connection with important organs.
Peritonitis may exist either as an
acute or chronic disease. In the for-
mer there is usually great pain and
tenderness of the abdomen, accompa-
nied with fever, and a frequent, small,
and hard pulse. Its causes are va-
rious, as by cold, mechanical injuries
of the peritoneum, the development of
tumors, etc.
Periwinkle, a genus of marine
Gastropods. The commonest is abun-
dant between tide marks on the rocks,
and is often collected and used for
food. It is boiled in its shell, extract-
ed as eaten, and is very palatable.
Periwinkles crawl about under water,
but usually remain passive when left
uncovered by the tide. Without wa-
ter they can survive for many hours,
and they are also able to endure a
considerable freshening of the salt
water. They feed on sea weeds, and
are often useful in keeping beds of
young oysters from being smothered.
Perjury, the taking of a wilful
false oath or affirmation, by a witness
lawfully required to depose the truth
in a matter of some consequence to
the point in question. A false oath,
therefore, taken before no court, or
before a court incompetent to try the
issue in question, does not constitute
the offense of perjury at common law.
Perjury is a felony.
Persia
and W. margin of the Caspian are an
exception to the rest of the country,
and present some of the most beautiful
and fruitful pictures of richness and
abundance to be found in Persia. It
has been computed that barely a third
of the entire kingdom is fit for culti-
vation.
The vegetable productions of Persia
embrace all kinds of legumes and ce-
reals, except rye, oats, and rice ; barley
and wheat are the most abundant
crops. Drugs of various kinds are ob-
tained, such as senna, rhubarb, gums,
opium, etc. ; as also oils, cotton, indi-
fo, sugar, madder, dates, pistachio
uts, and tobacco ; while in flowers,
and the perfumes extracted from
them, especially the attar of roses, no
country in the world can compare with
Persia for beauty, fragrance, and
abundance. Silk is an important item ;
and plantations of mulberry trees of
great extent are very numerous. Vast
flocks of sheep and goats are pastured
over the country, the property and
wealth of the wandering tribes of the
interior, the Eelauts, a kind of Bed-
ouins, devoting themselves to pastoral
habits. The animals for which Persia
is famous, are camels, horses, mules,
oxen, asses, and buffaloes. The mineral
wealth consists of silver, copper, lead,
iron, antimony, salt, precious stones
especially turquoise bitumen, and
springs of naphtha. There are also
large, undeveloped fields of coal and
petroleum. One of the features of
Persia is the abundance of salt in
the soil, and the large number of its
salt lakes ; about 30 pure salinas have
no outlet; and one, the largest, Ure-
miyah, is 280 miles in circumference,
and, though supplied by 14 rivers, its
water is so dense, bitter, and loaded
with salt, that no fish can live in it.
The climate of Persia embraces the
rigors experienced on the mountains
of the snowy N., and the heats felt
on the sandy plains of Africa. Cyrus
the Younger told Xenophon that his
father's empire was so vast that in the
N. the people perished of cold, and
in the S. were suffocated with heat.
The manufactures of Persia are nu-
merous and important, and embrace all
kinds of silk fabrics, satins, taffetas,
textures of silk and cotton, silk and
goat's hair, or silk and camel's hair ;
brocades, camel's hair shawls, gold tis-
sues, gold velvet, camlets, carpets, cot-
Persia
tons, leather, firearms, sword blades,
saddlery, and jewelfy. Its principal
trade is carried on with Russia ; and,
though the foreign export trade is in-
significant, the internal traffic is very
great and is entirely carried on by
caravans.
The government is highly despotic;
an edict of the sovereign once passed,
can never be repealed, the word of the
Shah is irrevocable, and the lives and
property of the people are in his
hands. The government is carried on
by the Shah and his two principal min-
isters, the Grand Vizier and the Lord
Treasurer. The religion of the Per-
sians is Mohammedanism. In physical
appearance the Persians are inclined to
corpulence, have black hair, a high
forehead, an aquiline nose, and a large-
ly developed chin; and in color pre-
sent every variety, from the dark
brown of the Indian to the light olive
of the colder regions. The men are
strong, robust, fond of exercise and
martial glory, shave their heads, but
dye their beards black, preserving them
with an almost religious veneration.
The Persians are regarded as a gay
and hospitable race, but prone to sud-
den anger and treachery.
The Persian language is the most
celebrated of all the Oriental tongues,
for strength, copiousness, beauty, and
melody, and is written from the right
to the left. The earliest account we
possess of Persia is from the Bible,
from which we learn that, in the time
of Abraham, 1921 B. C., that portion
of modern Persia known as Elam, or
Suisiana, Southern Persia, was a pow-
erful monarchy. But the Persians, as
a nation, first rose into notice on the
ruins of the great empires founded on
the Euphrates. Babylon was taken by
Cyrus, and his empire extended wider
than any before established in the
world. After a feeble struggle, it
succumbed to the brave and disciplined
armies of Alexander. It was then
split into fragments by the decease of
its founder ; but Greeks and Greek
sovereigns continued, during several
centuries, to reign over Asia. About
two centuries before Christ, Arsaces
founded the monarchy of the Parthi-
ans ; and in the 3d century arose the
dynasty of the Sassanida^, who restored
the name, with the religion and laws,
of ancient Persia. They were over-
thrown by the Mohammedan invaders,
Persian Gulf
who suffered in their turn from the
successive invasions by the descendants
of Genghis, Timur, and by the Turks,
who entirely changed the aspect of
Western Asia. At length, in 1501, a
native dynasty again arose, under Is-
mail, who placed himself on the throne.
His posterity having sunk into volup-
tuousness, Persia, in the beginning of
the 18th century, was overrun by the
Afghans, who carried fire and sword
through its remotest extremities, and
reduced its proudest capitals to ashes.
The atrocities of the Afghans were
avenged, 'and the independence of Per-
sia vindicated by Nadir Shah, but
though the victories of this daring
chief threw a luster on his country,
after his death it was almost torn to
pieces by civil war, till the fortune of
arms gave a decided superiority to
Kereim, or Kurreem Khan. His death
gave rise to another disputed succes-
sion, with civil wars as furious as
before. At length, Aga Mahommed, a
eunuch, raised himself, by crimes and
daring, to the sovereignty, and not
only swayed it during his lifetime, but
founded a dynasty since represented
by Nasr-ed-Din from 1848, Muzzafar-
ed-Din from 1896, Mohammed-Ali-
Mirza from 1907, and by his son Hus-
sein-Ali-Mirza from July 16, 1909.
Persian Gulf, an arm of the In-
dian Ocean which penetrates between
Arabia and Persia to the extent of
650 miles in a general N. W. direc-
tion. Its breadth varies from 55 miles
at the mouth to 250 miles, and the
area is estimated at 77,450 square
miles, not including the islands, which
are scattered over the W. half, or
lie close inshore along the E. side. Its
greatest depth is about 50 fathoms.
Persimmon. See DATE PLUM.
Persius, full name Aulus Persius
Flaccus, a Roman satirical poet ; born
A. D. 34, at Volterra in Etruria ; died
in 62. He vas well-connected ; was on
friendly terras with some of the most
eminent men ot ~he time, and much be-
loved for the purity and amenity of his
manners. Six satires by him have been
preserved, of which there are several
translations.
Personalty, or Personal Prop-
erty, movables; chattels; things be-
longing to the person, as money, jew-
els, furniture, etc., as distinguished
from real estate in, lands and houses.
fen
Perspective, the science of repre-
senting appearances, and as such
opposed to geometry, which is the sci-
ence of representing facts. It is found-
ed upon such rules as can be deduced
from the facts which are discovered
by looking at objects through a sheet
of glass or other transparent medium
placed upright between the object anJ
the observer. It is found when ob-
jects are so looked at that their ap-
parent form is very different from
their real one, both as regards shape
and distinctness. The portion of the
subject which deals with the changes
in form is absolutely scientific ; it is
called linear perspective. The changes
in distinctness are effected by distance
and atmosphere, and differ constantly
with different conditions of light and
atmosphere. It is the purely artistic
side of the science which is called aeri-
al perspective, and success in its ap
plication depends on the individual
ability of the artist.
Perspiration, watery matter,
" breathed out," or made to expire
from the system by means of the pores
in the skin. It is more copious than
the matter sent forth from the lungs
by respiration, averaging 11 grains per
minute against 7 from the lungs.
Perth Amboy, a city and port of
entry in Middlesex county, N. J. ; on
the Raritan river and bay and sev-
eral railroads; 21 miles S. W. of
New York city; settled in 1680; in
colonial days, the seat of government
of New Jersey; has a good harbor,
valuable deposits of fire-clay and
kaolin, large shipping trade in farm
products and manufactures, and cop-
per, lead, brick, terra cotta, emery, and
chemical plants. Pop. (1910) 132,121.
Peru, a maritime republic of South
America, bounded on the N. by Ecua-
dor, on the W. by the Pacific, on the
S. and S. E. by Bolivia and Chile, and
on the E. by Brazil; area, 695,720
square miles ; pop. 4,609,999 ; capital,
Lima.
The country is 1,100 miles in length,
780 miles in extreme width along the
N. boundary, but it is little more than
50 miles wide in the extreme S. The
islands along the coast while few in
number, are exceedingly valuable in
that they are rich in guano, vast quan-
tities having been exported.
The surface of Peru is divided into
Peru
Fern
three distinct and well defined tracts or
belts, the climates of which are of
every variety, from torrid heat to Arc-
tic cold, and the productions of which
range from the stunted herbage of the
high mountain slopes to the oranges
and citrons, the sugar canes and cot-
tons of the luxuriant tropical valleys.
These three regions are the Coast, the
Sierra, and the Montana. The Sierra
embraces all the mountainous region
between the W. base of the maritime
Cordillera and the E. base of the An-
des, or the East Cordillera. Here the
INDIAN OF PEKtr.
valleys enjoy an Indian climate, and
are rich in tropical productions ; to the
N. and E. extend luxuriant forests,
while the numberless mountain slopes
are covered with waving crops of
wheat, barley, and other cereals, and
with potatoes ; and higher up extend
rich pasture lands, where huge herds
of vicunas and pacas feed. The valley
of the river Maranon, which is up-
ward of 300 miles in length, is narrow,
deep, and nearer the equator than any
other valley of the Sierra, and conse-
quently it is the hottest portion of
this region, and its vegetation is thor-
oughly tropical in character. The con-
formation of the surface of the Sierra
is of the most wonderful description.
After the table-lands of Tibet, those
of the Peruvian Andes are the highest
in the world; but, unlike those of Ti-
bet, the tablelands of Peru are the seat
of a comparatively high civilization,
and are studded over with towns and
villages, perched on heights exceeding
in elevation the summits of the Jung-
frau and the Matterhorn. Nor are
such towns the mere eyries of miners
who are tempted to ascend thus high
in search of the precious metals ; for,
even at this elevation, the climate is
pleasant, and wheat, maize, barley,
rye, and potatoes thrive well. The
climate of the Sierra, however, is not
always so delightful. In general terms
it may be described as mild and varia-
ble, with moderate rains. In the dis-
trict of paucartambo rain falls 300
days in the year. A country, however,
of such an uneven surface, of snow-
covered peaks and tropical valleys, em-
braces every variety of climate.
The gold standard is now perma-
nently established in Peru. The na-
tion has entered upon a new period of
industrial activity. Numerous com-
panies have been formed to explore the
Amazonian region ; new roads are be-
ing opened in every direction. There is
marked confidence in the stability of
order, and under the protection ^f
peace old financial institutions and in-
dustrial and mining enterprises are
thriving and public wealth is rapidly
increasing.
The wealth and resources of Peru
consist not in its manufactures, but
entirely in mineral, vegetable, and ani-
mal products. Of the precious met-
als, the production has greatly fallen
off since Peru became an independent
State. Nevertheless, Peru possesses
vast metallic riches. The Andes
abound in mines of gold, silver, cop-
per, lead, bismuth, etc. ; and in the
Montana gold is said to exist in abun-
dance in veins and in pools on the
margins of rivers. The vegetable pro-
ductions of Peru are of every variety,
embracing the products both of tem-
perate and tropical climes. North
American cereals and vegetables are
Perngino
Peruvian
grown with perfect success, together
with maize, rice, pumpkins, tobacco,
coffee, sugar cane, cotton, etc. Fruits
of the most delicious flavor are grown
in endless variety. Cotton, for which
the soil and climate of Peru are ad-
mirably adapted, is now produced here
in gradually increasing quantity. The
land suited to the cultivation of this
plant is excellent. The animals com-
prise those of North America, together
with the llama and its allied species.
The republic of Peru, formerly the
most important of the Spanish vice-
royalties in South America, issued its
declaration of independence July 28,
1821 ; but it was not till after a war,
protracted till 1824, that the country
gained its actual freedom from Span-
ish rule. The republic is politically
divided into departments, and the de-
partments into provinces. The pres-
ent constitution, proclaimed Oct. 1G,
1856, was revised Nov. 25, 1860. It is
modeled on that of the United States,
the legislative power being vested in
a Senate and a House of Representa-
tives, the former composed of deputies
of the provinces, in proportion of one
for every 30,000 inhabitants or frac-
tion exceeding 15,000, and the latter of
representatives nominated by the elec-
toral colleges of the provinces of each
department, at the rate of two when
the department has two provinces and
one more for every other two prov-
inces. The executive power is entrust-
ed to a president. There are two vice-
presidents, who take the place of the
president only in case of his death or
incapacity, and they are elected for
four years. The president has to exer-
cise his executive functions through a
cabinet of five ministers, holding office
at his pleasure. None of the presi-
dent's .acts have any value without
the signature of a minister.
By the terms of the constitution
there exists absolute political, but not
religious, freedom, the charter prohib-
iting the public exercise of any other
religion than the Roman Catholic,
which is declared the religion of the
State. But practically there is a
certain amount of tolerance, there be-
ing in Callao and Lima Anglican
churches as well as Jewish synagogues.
Elementary education is compulsory
for both sexes, and is free in the
public schools that are maintained by
the municipalities. High schools are
maintained by the government in the
capitals of the departments, and in
some provinces pupils pay a moderate
fee. There is in Lima a central uni-
versity, called " Universidad de Sau
Marcos," the most ancient in Ameri-
ca ; its charter was granted by the
Emperor Carlos V. ; it has faculties
of jurisprudence, medicine, political
science, theology, and applied science.
Peru, the origin of whose name is
unknown, is now passing through its
third historical era, and is manifesting
its third phase of civilization. The
present era may be said to date from
the conquest of the country by the
Spaniards in the early part of the
16th century ; the middle era embraces
the rule of the Incas ; and the earliest
era, about which exceedingly little is
known, is that of pre-Incarial period
of unknown duration, during which
a nation, or nations, living in large
cities flourished in the country, and
had a civilization, a language, and a
religion different, and perhaps in some
cases even more advanced, than those
of the Incas, who succeeded them and
overran their territories.
Perngino, Pietro, an Italian paint-
er; born in Leitta Delia Pieve, about
1446. His real name was Pietro Van-
ucci, but becoming a citizen of Peru-
gia, he acquired the name by which he
is best known. He studied under Ver-
rocchio, and soon attained great dis-
tinction as a painter in. oil by hig
rich coloring. He was employed for
10 years in the Sistine Chapel and the
Stanze of the Vatican, and on his re-
turn to Perugia opened a school, and
had Raphael among his pupils. Peru-
gino was a sordid and eccentric man;
adhered obstinately to the stiff con-
ventional forms of the 15th century,
and in his latter years produced many
works, unworthy of him, for gain. His
best work is the " Pieta," in the Pitti
Palace. He died in 1524.
Peruvian Balsam, in botany and
commerce, the balsaM flowing from
incisions in the trunk of Myroxylon
pereirae. It is a thick, viscid, almost
opaque, balsam, like molasses, with a
reddish hue, and translucent, when
in thin layers; its odor fragrant, its
taste acrid, but aromatic. It is
brought from San Salvador, in South
America.
Peruvian Bark
Peter
Peruvian Bark. See BABK PEBU-
VIAN.
Peruzzi, Baldassari, architect
and painter of the Roman school ; born
at Sienna, 1481 ; died at Rome 1537.
He went early to Rome and was em-
ployed in the decoration of various
churches. He designed the Farnesina
Villa on the banks of the Tiber, and he
succeeded Raphael as architect of St.
Peter's. After the sack of Rome he
returned to Sienna, where he was
made city architect. In 1535 he was
again in Rome, and henceforward de-
voted himself entirely to architecture.
His best existing works in fresco are
at Sienna.
Pesaro (ancient, Pisaurum), a
fortified town and seaport of Italy,
province of Pesaro e Urbino, near the
mouth of the Foglia, in the Adriatic.
It is the see of a bishop. The harbor,
formed by the mouth of the Foglia,
has become shallow ; but the trade in
the wine, fruit (particularly figs), oil,
silk, and other products of the district
is considerable. The illustrious com-
poser Rossini was born here in 1792.
Pop. of town, 13,609. The province
of Pesaro e Urbino has an area of
1,144 square miles. Pop. 233,155.
Pescherais, a tribe of Indians, in-
habiting Tierra del Fuego, and both
borders of the Straits of Magellan,
from the island of Elizabeth and Port
Famine, toward the E. as far as the
group of islands which spread out to
the N. and S. of the Straits of Magel-
lan. Their complexion is olive, and
they have huge forms and large chests,
though otherwise well formed. They
are a nomadic people, and only sub-
sist by the chase and fishing.
Pescliito, or Peshito, the old Syr-
iac version' of the Scriptures, made
probably about 200 A. D. The Old
Testament, as well as the New, seems
to have been translated by one or
more Christians, not by Jews. The
former was made apparently from the
Hebrew, the latter from the Greek.
The Second and Third Epistles of
John, Second Epistle of Peter, Jude,
and the Revelation are wanting. The
apocryphal books were not in the orig-
inal edition, but they were added at
an early date. The Peschito is of
great value for critical purposes.
Peseta, the Spanish money unit,
equivalent to a franc.
Peso, a silver coin and money of
account used in Mexico and other
parts of Spanish America, and often
considered equivalent to a dollar.
Pessimism, that mental attitude
which induces one to give prepondera-
ting importance to the evils and sor-
rows of existence ; the habit of taking
a gloomy view of things.
Pestalozzi, Jonann Heinrich, a
Swiss philanthropist and educational
reformer ; born in 1746 ; first studied
theology, then law ; and subsequently
became concerned in a calico manu-
factory. Afterward he devoted his
time and substance to training chil-
dren whom he collected in large num-
bers in his own house, and this good
work he carried on for over 20 years
without outside aid or e%'en sympathy.
The want of means at last compelled
him to abandon his gratuitous insti-
tution, and to seek pupils who could
pay for their maintenance and in-
struction. After a few years' suc-
cessful teaching in various places he
opened a school in the Castle of Yver-
dun (canton Vaud), which the govern-
ment had placed at his disposal. His
novel "Lienhardt and Gertrud" exert-
ed a powerful moral influence, while
his educational treatises have laid the
foundation for the more rational sys-
tem of elementary instruction which
now obtains in America and Europe.
He died in 1827.
Peter, the Greek surname of an
apostle of Jesus. It is the rendering
of the East Aramsean kepha, a cor-
ruption or derivation from Heb. keph
~ a rock, and was given by Jesus.
Transliterated into Greek, with a ter-
mination, it became Kephas. ' Peter's
real name was Simon, his father's Jo-
nas, his brother's Andrew. Peter was
of an impulsive temperament, gener-
ous, but too forward in speech, and
rash in action. After the Ascension,
he was for a time the most prominent
of the apostles, and though specially
sent to the Jews, yet had the privilege
of being the first to admit Gentiles in-
to the Church. Afterward he was
somewhat cast into the shade by the
eminence of St. Paul and on one oc-
casion dissembling his liberal views
when in narrow Judaic company, was
Peter
withstood by St. Paul to the face
" because he was to be blamed " (Gal.
ii : 11). Tradition makes him die as
a martyr at Rome, about A. D. 64,
crucified with his head downward.
Roman Catholics claim him as the first
Bishop of Rome, and consider that
the authority delegated him by Jesus
appertains also to his successors, the
Popes of Rome.
The First Epistle General of Peter,
an epistle which claims to have been
written by the Apostle Peter, appar-
ently from Babylon, " to the strangers
scattered throughout Pontus, Gala-
tia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia,"
all places in Asia Minor. These
strangers were obviously Christian
converts, the majority apparently Gen-
tiles. There is strong evidence for its
authenticity, which has rarely been
doubted.
The Second Epistle of Peter, anoth-
er epistle claiming to have been penned
by the Apostle, the author also refer-
ring to the transfiguration scene as
one which he personally witnessed,
and to a previous epistle. In this sec-
ond letter he seeks to establish Chris-
tians in the faith, warns them against
false teachers, and predicts the gen-
eral conflagration of the world. Its
style is different from that of the first.
The evidence for its authenticity is
much less strong than that for the
first epistle. Clement of Alexandria
seems to have known it. It is not in
the Peschito ; Cyprian ignored it ; Ori-
gen and Eusebius placed it among the
controverted writings, but it gradual-
ly obtained acceptance before the close
of the 4th century.
Peter .Alexeievitch, usually
styled Peter the Great, Czar of Rus-
sia ; born in 1672; and in 1689 he
obtained the sole authority, on the
retirement of his brother Ivan, with
whom he had been before associated
in the government of the empire. Aft-
er having suppressed a conspiracy of
the Strelitz against his life, in which
he displayed much personal courage, he
traveled hi foreign countries, not
in the character of czar, but as a
member of an embassy. At Amster-
dam he worked, incognito, in a ship-
yard, and in the village of Saardam,
where he caused himself to be enrolled
among the workmen, under the name
of Peter Michaeloff. Here he lived in
Peter
a little hut for seven weeks, made hia
own bed, and prepared his own food,
corresponded with his ministers at
home, and labored at the same time
in shipbuilding. Induced by his love
for the sea, to accept the invitation of
William III. to visit London, he spent
some weeks there, keenly observing
and learning all that he could of trade,
manufactures and the arts. Having
proceeded to Vienna, he there received
intelligence of a new rebellion of the
Strelitz, on which he returned home,
crushed the insurrection, and visited
the rebels with fearful severity. In
1700 he entered upon a war with Swe-
den, which lasted till 1721. He was
defeated by his great rival, Charles
XII., at the battle of Nar?a, and the
war west on with various results till
1709, when he completely defeated
Charles at Pultowa. In the following
year the Sultan declared war on him,
and he narrowly escaped capture by
the Turks in the campaign of 1711.
This war ended in 1713. Not satis-
fied with his immense power as czar,
Peter had "suppressed the patriarchate,
and made himself head of the Church
as well as of the State. In 1703 he
founded St. Petersburg, and began the
fortifications of Cronstadt. Three
years later he privately married Cath-
erine, a girl of low origin and immoral
character ; married her publicly in
1710, and had her crowned in 1722.
Peter extended the limits of the em-
pire both in Europe and Asia ; changed
the face of Russia by his zealous pro-
motion of trade, navigation, manufac-
tures, and education ; effected an im-
mense change in the manners and cus-
toms of the Russians ; and after the
conclusion of peace with Sweden, re-
ceived the title of Emjlfcror of all the
Russias, and Father of his Country.
Reforming others, he failed to reform
himself, but remained to the last an
ignorant, coarse, brutal savage, in-
dulging in the lowest vices, and gloat-
ing over scenes of cruel suffering. He
would sometimes put his victims to
the torture, play judge and execution-
er, too, and, drunk with wine, strike
off 20 heads in succession, proud of
his horrid dexterity. His state policy
has been adhered to by his succes-
sors. Peter I. died in St. Peters-
burg, after very severe suffering, Jan.
28, 1725.
Peter
Peter the Hermit
Peter III., Emperor of Russia ; the
son of Anne, eldest daughter of Peter
the Great ; born in 1728, and succeeded
Elizabeth in 1761. He married the
Princess Sophia Augusta of Anhalt,
whose name he changed to Catherine,
and, being inspired with grand and
martial thoughts, attempted to gov-
ern his empire on the model of Fred-
erick the Great ; but, wanting capac-
ity, energy, and courage, he signally
failed in all his schemes. His em-
press, being apprised of his intention
of divorcing "her, anticipated his de-
sign, took him prisoner, and com-
pelled him to sign an abdication.
After this, being sent to a fortress,
he there perished, being muriered,
it is understood, by Orloff in 1762.
Peterboro, city and capital of
Peterboro county, Ontario, Canada;
on the Otonabee river and Grand
Trunk and Canadian Pacific rail-
roads; 76 miles N. E. of Toronto; is
the trade center of an important
farming section; has what is said to
be the largest hydraulic -lift canal
lock in the world; and is chiefly en-
gaged in manufacturing.
Peter Karageorgevitch I., King
of Servia; born in Belgrade, June 29
(O. S.), 1844; son of Alexander
Karageorgevitch and grandson of the
famous George Czerny, surnamed
Karageorge, or Black George; mar-
ried Princess Zorka, of Montenegro,
July 30 (O. S.), 1883; succeeded to
the throne on the assassination of
King Alexander I and Queen Draga,
June 2 (O. S.), 1903; heir to the
throne, Prince Alexander.
Peter Martyr Anglerins, born in
'Arena, Spain^Jj.459 ; died in Granada,
1525. Was bishop of Jamaica, and
wrote "The New World" in 1516,
giving the first account of the dis-
covery of America.
Peters, Samuel Andrew, an
American author; born in Hebron,
Conn., in 1735 ; was ordained a min-
ister in the Church of England at
Part^ord in 1760. In 1774 he sailed
to England to escape persecution on
account of his toryism, and in 1781
published the satirical " General His-
tory of Connecticut," which gave rise
to the misconception as to " Blue
Laws," which were in the brain of
Peters instead of having ever been
on the statute books qf Connecticut.
He died in New York in 1826.
Petersburg, a city and port of
entry of Dinwiddie co., Va. ; on the
S. bank of the Appomattox river. The
so-called siege of Petersburg lasted
from June 16, 1864, to April 2, 1865 ;
and during its continuance 13 pitched
battles were fought in the neighbor-
hood. The intrenchments of Lee and
Grant still form conspicuous features
in the landscape. One. of the best-
known engagements was that of the
old .crater, to the E. of the city, on
Griffith's farm, where there is a war
museum. Pop. (1910) 24,127.
Peterson, Charles Jacobs, an
American publisher ; born in Philadel-
phia, in 1818 ; was the founder of
" Peterson's Magazine," and the au-
thor of several popular novels. He
died in Philadelphia, in 1887.
Peter's Pence, a voluntary contri-
bution raised among Catholics, and
sent to the Pope for his private use.
Before the Reformation it was in Eng-
land a legally collected tax. The name
arose from its being collected on St.
Peter's day.
Peter the Hermit, a French
gentleman of Amiens, in Picardy, who
renounced a military life to embrace
that of a pilgrim. At the end of the
llth century, a general alarm was
spread that the last day was approach-
ing ; on which numbers of persons
flocked to the Holy Land from all
countries with a view of ending their
days near the holy sepulcher. Peter
was of the number, and on his return
to Europe made so pathetic a repre-
sentation of the state of the Christians
in Palestine to Pope Urban II., that
he gave Peter leave to preach up the
necessity of a crusade throughout
Christendom. The appearance, zeal,
and eloquence of the hermit, produced
a prodigious effect, and all ranks and
ages, of both sexes, pressed eagerly
into the service. With a motley army,
estimated at 100,000 men, Peter passed
through Hungary. In his absence, his
followers attacked Solyman's army at
Nicea, and all, except a few thou-
sands, perished, " and," says Gibbon,
" a pyramid of bones informed their
companions of the place of their de-
feat." Peter remained in Palestine,
and was at the siege of Antioch in
Peter Parley
1097 ; but on his attempting to make
his escape, shortly afterward, was
brought back, and compelled to take
a new oath of fidelity and obedience
to the holy cause. Two years later
he was present at the siege of Jerusa-
lem, where he displayed great bravery,
and when the place _was taken,, was
made vicar-general. Peter died in
1115, at the abbey of Neufmoustier in
Liege, which he had founded.
Peter Parley. See GOODBICH.
Petit de Julleville, Louis, a
French historian; born in Paris, July
18, 1841. His principal work is " His-
tory of the Theater in France." It is
very full with regard to the old French
theater. He gives in " The Theater in
France" (1889) an account of the
evolution of the French drama down
to the present time. He also pub-
lished a " History of the French Lan-
guage and Literature."
Petition of Right, a declaration
of the rights of the people put forward
by the Parliament of England in the
third year of the reign of Charles I.,
and assented to by him. They are :
(1) That no man be compelled to pay
any moneys to the state without com-
mon consent by act of Parliament.
(2) That no person be imprisoned for
refusing the same, nor any freeman be
imprisoned without any cause shown,
to which he might make answer. (3)
That soldiers and mariners be not bil-
leted in the houses of the people. (4)
That commissions be no more issued
for punishing by the summary process
of martial law.
Petrarch, Francesco Petrarca,
an Italian poet ; born in Arezzo, Italy,
in 1304. In 1341 Petrarch received
the highest testimony of the renown
which he had acquired as poet and
scholar, by being crowned as laureate
in the Capitol in Rome, Petrarch was
at Rome during the Jubilee of 1350 ;
lived afterward at Vaucluse, Milan,
Padua, Venice, and, in 1370, removed
to Arqua, in the lovely Euganean
Hills. Petrarch's works are partly in
Italian and partly in Latin. The lat-
ter were those on which his reputa-
tion in his own day rested ; but the
former are those by which he is now
most known. His Italian " Sonnets,"
" Canzoni," and " Triumphs," all
sweet, exquisite, glowing variations on
one theme, " Laura," have placed him
E. 110.
Petri
as one of the most celebrated of poets.
He modelled the Italian sonnet, and
gave to it, and to other forms of lyr-
ical poetry, not only an admirable
polish of diction and melody, but a
delicacy of poetic feeling which: has
hardly ever been equaled. After long
continued ill health, he died sitting
among his books, July 18, 1374.
Petrel, a popular name for certain
small oceanic birds of dusky plumage,
nocturnal in habit, widely distributed
but most abundant in the Southern
STOKMY PETBEL.
Hemisphere. The term stormy petrel
is more exclusively applied to the
Thalassidroma pelagica, a bird which
seems to run in a remarkable manner
along the surface of the sea, where it
picks up its food. This species is well
known to sailors as Mother Carey's
chickens (q. v.), and their appearance
is supposed to foretell a storm.
Petri, Laurentius, a Swedish re-
former; born in Orebro, Sweden, in
1499; studied under Luther at Wit-
tenberg ; was made Professor of Theol-
ogy at Upsala, and in 1531 first Prot-
estant Archbishop of Upsala. Along
with his brother Olaus he was chiefly
instrumental in converting Sweden _to
the Reformed doctrines, and with him
superintended the translation of the
Bible into Swedish (1541), a work
that also helped to fix the language.
He died in 1573. His brother Olaus,
Petrifaction
born in Orebro in 1497, gained, a
few years after his return (1519)
from Wittenberg, the ear of Gustavus
Vasa, who called him to the capital to
preach the new doctrines, and even-
tually made him (1531) chancellor of
the kingdom. This post he resigned
in 1539, and spent the rest of his life
as first pastor of Stockholm. He was
a man of bold temperament, great ac-
tivity, and powerful eloquence, and
left several works, including memoirs,
a mystery play, hymns, and contro-
versial tracts. He died in Stockholm
in 1552.
Petrifaction, the act or process of
petrifying or changing into a stone ;
the state of being petrified ; conversion
of any organic matter, animal or vege-
table, into stone, or a substance of
stony hardness. A " petrifaction " is
not, strictly speaking, a transforma-
tion of the original animal or plant
into stone. It is merely a replacement
of the organic tissue by mineral sub-
stance. As each particle of the plant
or animal decays and disappears its
place is taken, usually in water or
mud, by a particle of mineral matter
deposited from the water which has
held it in suspension. Thus the perish-
able original is changed into imperish-
able stone, preserving its form and
even its structural appearance when
cut into.
Petrified City, Ishmonie, a ruined
city of Upper Egypt. Its popular
name arose from the fact that it con-
tains a vast number of statues of
human beings and animals in every
possible posture, and which, according
to a superstitious notion, were once
living beings miraculously changed
into stone.
Petroleum, earth oil, naphtha,
mineral oil, paraffin oil. A term ap-
plied to a variety of inflammable
liquids found naturally in many parts
of the earth and formed by the grad-
ual decomposition of vegetable matter
beneath the surface. These liquids
vary in color from a faint yellow to a
brownish-black, and in consistence
from a thin transparent oil to a fluid
as thick as treacle, and their sp. gr.
ranges from .7-1.1. They occur in
abundance in parts of the United
States and Canada. A light petroleum
oil is used all over the world for illu-
minating purposes, and a heavy oil for
Peyton
lubricating machinery. The total pro-
duction of crude petroleum in the
United States in 1908 was the largest
in its history, 179,572,479 barrels
(42 gallons), valued at $129,706,258;
and the production in 1859-1908
Avas 1,986,180,942 barrels, valued at
$1,784,583,943.
Petrology, the study of the miner-
alogical and chemical composition of
rocks; including the various changes
they have undergone through physi-
cal and chemical agencies.
Pettenkof er, Max von, a German
chemist ; born near Neuburg, Dec. 3,
1818; studied in Munich, Wurzburg,
and Giessen, and in 1847 became Pro-
fessor of Chemistry at Munich. He
made many valuable contributions to
science on subjects as various as gold-
refining, gas-making, ventilation, cloth-
ing, the influence of soils on health,
epidemics, and hygiene generally. His
"Hand-book of Hygiene" is his best
known work. Died 1901.
Petty, Sir William, an English
political economist ; born in Romsey,
Hampshire, May 26, 1623; was edu-
cated partly at Caen, partly at the
Universities of the Netherlands, and
at Paris. In political economy he
claims a place as one of the most im-
portant precursors of Adam Smith,
on the strength of his " Treatise on
Taxes and Contributions," and his
" Political Arithmetic," the latter a
discussion of the value of comparative
statistics. He died hi London, Dec.
16, 1687.
Petunia, a genus of American
herbaceous plants, nearly allied to to-
bacco. They are much prized by hor-
ticulturists for the beauty of their
flowers.
Pewter. The finer pewter is an
alloy of 12 parts tin, one part anti-
mony, and a small quantity of copper ;
the coarser, of 80 parts tin and 20 of
lead. The same ingredients as the finer
pewter, but in different proportions
(nine of tin to one of antimony) con-
stitute Britannia metal. Pewter is a
name also for a polishing material
used by marble workers and derived
from the calcination of tin.
Peyton, Jesse Eiilaws, an Ameri-
can patriot; born in Mayesville, Ky.,
Nov. 10, 1815. He assisted in the
liquidation of Henry Clay's debts;
Peyton
was a founder of the Constitutional
Union Party in 1800; was sent by
President Lincoln on a mission to
Kentucky to dissuade that State from
seceding ; and during the Civil War
organized at his own expense three
regimentc for the Union army. He
was instrumental in promoting the
centennial celebration of Independ-
ence Day, Bunker Hill Day, Yorktown
(Va.) Day, and of the inauguration
of American constitutional govern-
ment, and at the time of his death was
organizing an international celebra-
tion of ihe birth of Christ to be held
in Jerusalem in 1900. He died in
Haddonfield, N. J., April 28, 1897. H
was popularly known as " the father
of celebrations."
Peyton, John Lewis, an American
lawyer and author ; born in Staunton,
Va., Sept. 15, 1824; studied law at
the University of Virginia, and sub-
sequently practised in Chicago; in
1861 went to Europe as agent of the
Confederacy, and remained abroad till
1880. He published " The American
Crisis," etc. He died in 1896.
Pfennig, a small copper coin ot
various values, current in Germany
and in the neighboring States. The
value of the pfennig of the German
empire is the hundredth part of the
mark.
Pfleiderer, Otto, a German theo-
logian; born in Stettin, Wurtemberg,
Sept. 1, 1839. In 1875 he was called
to be Professor of Systematic Theology
at Berlin. He made his name as well
known in America as in Germany by
a series of works which no student
of philosophy or theology should
overlook. The chief are " Religion,
its Essence and History"; "Out-
lint of Christian Faith and Ethics";
" The Philosophy and Development
of Religion"; etc. He died in 1908.
His brother, EDMUND PFLEIDERER,
born in Stettin Oct. 12, 1842, studied
at Tubingen, and after a short ex-
perience as a pastor was made Pro-
fessor of Philosophy at Kiel in 1873.
whence he was called to Tubingen in
1878. His writings include studies on
Leibnitz, on Empiricism and Scepti-
cism in Hume's Philosophy, modern
Pessimism, etc.
Phaeton, in Greek mythology, ac-
cording to Ovid, a son of the sun, or
Phoebus. He asked and obtained from
Pharaoh
his father permission one day to drive
the chariot of the sun, but being un-
able to control the horses, Jupiter
struck him with a thunderbolt, and
hurled him headlong from heaven into
the river Po. Also an open carriage
like a chaise, on four wheels, and
drawn by two horses.
Phalanger, small woolly-coated
marsupials, with opposable great toes,
which are destitute of a nail. They are,
for the most part, vegetable feeders,
PHALANGER.
though some are insectivorous, and in
confinement any of them will readily
devour small birds or other animals.
Phalanx, in Greek antiquities, the
close order of battle in which the
heavy-armed troops of a Grecian army
were usually drawn up.
Phantasmagoria, an optical effect
produced by a magic lantern. The
glass is painted black on all parts
except that occupied by the figures,
which are painted in transparent
colors. The image is thrown on a
transparent screen placed between the
spectators and the lantern. By mov-
ing the instrument toward or from
the screen, the figures are made to
diminish or increase in size, which is
capable of producing startling effects.
Also, the apparatus by which such
effect is produced.
Pharaoh, the name borne in the
Bible by 10 kings of Egypt; the best
known of which are, the monarch to
whom Joseph explained his dream, and
who loaded him with honors ; he who
commenced the persecution of the
Hebrews, and who put to death all
Pharisees
the male children and who is identified
with Rameses II ; and he who was
denounced by Moses, and who was
subjected to the plagues and is identi-
fied with Meneptah I.
Pharisees, the most numerous of the
three divisions or orders of Judaism in
the time of Christ, the other two being
the Essenes and the Sadducees. They
were so called because they kept aloof
from Levitically impure food, separat
etl themselves nom people who disre-
garded the literal interpretation of the
Mosaic law, and were scrupulous in
their minute observance of the tithe.
The sect arose after the captivity and
became the straitest of the sects.
Pharmacy, or Pharmaceutics,
the art of preparing, compounding,
and combining substances for medical
purposes ; the art of the apothecary.
As these substances may be mineral,
vegetable, or animal, theoretical phar-
macy requires a knowledge of botany,
zoology, and mineralogy ; and as it is
necessary to determine their proper-
ties, and the laws of their composition
and decomposition, of chemistry also.
In a narrow sense pharmacy is merely
the art of compounding and mixing
drugs according to the prescription of
the physician.
Pharsalia, Battle of, the victory
B. c. 48, of Caesar with a much smaller
force, over Pompey (q. v.) at Pharsa-
lus, now Phersala, Tbessaly, Greece.
PHEASANT.
Pheasant, one of the most highly
prized game birds. The adult male
pheasant is a beautiful bird, about
three feet long. Head and neck deep
Phi Beta Kappa
steel-blue, shot with greenish-purple
and brown ; eye surrounded by a patch
of scarlet skin, speckled with blue-
black ; ear-coverts brown ; back a light
golden-red, the feathers of the upper
part tipped with velvet-black, of the
lower part marked with brown. Quill
feathers brown, of various shades, tail
feathers oaken-brown, barred with a
darker shade- and with black. Breast
and front of the abdomen golden-red
with purple reflections, feathers edged
with black ; rest of abdomen and un-
der tail-coverts blackish-brown. The
female has yellowish-brown plumage,
and is about two- feet in length. Such
'is the common pheasant. There are
several other species.
Phelps, Austin, an American
clergyman and author; born in West
Brookfield, Mass., Jan. 7, 1820. Ho
was pastor of the Pine Street Congre-
gational Church, Boston, in 1842-
1848; and Professor of Sacred Rhet-
oric in Andover Theological Seminary,
in 1848-1879. He was noted as an
original writer and an eloquent
preacher. He died in Bar Harbor, Me.,
Oct. 13, 1890.
Phelps, Edward John, an Ameri-
can diplomatist ; born in Middlebury,
Vt., July 11, 1822; was graduated at
Middlebury College in 1840; studied
at the Yale Law School ; was admit-
ted to the bar in 1843; and settled
in Burlington in 1845. In 1551 he was
appointed Comptroller of the Treas-
ary and remained in the office through
Fillmore's administration. In 1881
1885 he was Professor of Law in the
Yale Law School and also lecturer en
constitutional law in Boston Univer-
sity. He was minister to England in
1885-1889. During the Bering Sea
dispute he. was senior counsel for the
United States. He died in New Haven,
Conn., March 9, 1900.
Phi Beta Kappa, the oldest of the
American college Greek-letter societies.
It takes its name from the initial jet-
ters of its motto, said to be Philo-
sophia Biou Kubernetes, " Philosophy
is the guide of life." It was founded
in 1776 in the old " Raleigh Tavern "
at Williamsburgh, Va., by 44 under-
graduates of William and Mary Col-
lege, of whom John Marshall was one.
Branches were established at Yale in
1780 and at Harvard in 1781; and
today there are nearly a score in the
Phidias
Philadelphia
principal colleges and universities of
the Union. The Phi Beta Kappa is
now simply " an agreeable bond of
meeting among graduates " ; since
1831 its innocent mysteries have been
open secrets.
Phidias, the great Greek sculptor;
I born in Athens, probably between
490-480 B. c. He was one of the most
intimate friends of Pericles, under
whose rule he was appointed director
of all the great temples and monu-
ments which were to be erected in the
city. Of these the most important
were the Parthenon, or temple of
Athena, on. the Acropolis, and the
Propylaea. He executed a colossal
statue of the goddess for the interior
of the temple with his own hand. The
well-known Elgin Marbles of the Brit-
ish Museum were the sculptured dec-
orations of that unrivaled temple.
Phidias spent some years at Olympia,
and there he executed the most mag-
nificent of all his works the statue
of the Olympian Zeus. The prevailing
characteristic of the works of Phidias
appears to have been an ideal sublim-
ity of form which has never since
been equaled. According to the gen-
erally received account, he was thrown
into prison, and died there 432 B. C.
Philadelphia, a city coextensive
with Philadelphia co., Pa. ; on the
Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, 85
miles S. W. of New York. It is the
largest city of Pennsylvania and the
third largest in the United States;
area, 132 square miles: pop. (1900)
1.293,697; (1910) 1,549,008.
The city is built chiefly on a low
peninsula between the two rivers. It
extends N. and S. about 22 miles, and
is from 5 to 10 miles in width. There
is a water frontage on the Delaware
river of over 16 miles, of which more
than 5 miles have docks. The harbor
has been greatly improved by the re-
moval of the islands in the middle of
the river, and in front of the wharves
there is an average depth of 50 feet.
Among the attractions of the city
is Fairmount park, one of the larg-
est public parks in the world. It
extends more than 7 miles on both
banks of the Schuylkill river, and more
than 6 miles on both banks of Wis-
sahickon creek, giving it an area of
over 3,000 acres, traversed by 32%
miles of driveways. In 1876 the Cen-
tennial Exposition was held here.
Memorial Hall, erected at a cost of
$1,500,000, which was used for the
art gallery of the Exposition, now
contains a permanent industrial and
art collection. Here also is the Hor-
ticultural Building filled with tropical
and other plants and surrounded by 35
acres of ground devoted to horticul-
ture.
In the heart of the city, at the inter-
section of Market and Broad streets,
stands the City Hall, on a piece of
ground which was formerly Penn
Square. This great structure, usually
called the Public Building, is said to
be the largest building in the United
States. It is built of white marble
and granite ; is 480^ feet long by 470
wide ; contains 520 rooms, and includ-
ing a court yard 200 feet square in
the center, covers an area of nearly
4% acres. The central tower rises to
a height of 547 feet, 3 inches, and is
surrounded by a colossal statue of
William Penn, 37 feet in height. The
total cost of the building was over
$20,000,000.
In its manufacturing products Phil-
adelphia ranks next to New York.
There are upward of 20,000 manufac-
turing establishments, with a combined
capital of about $400,000,000, and
nearly 300,000 employes. The com-
bined output amounts to more than
$000,000,000. The chief products are
locomotives, sugar and molasses, men's
clothing, foundry and machine shop
products, carpets and rugs, hosiery
and knit goods, woolen and cotton
goods, malt liquors, morocco, chem-
icals, packed meat, refined petroleum,
silk, and silk goods. The great
Cramp shipbuilding yards are on the
Delaware, just W. of the heart of the
city.
According to recent educational sta-
tistics, the children of school age aggre-
gated 250,630; the enrollment in the
public day schools was 179,156, and
in the private and parochial schools
(estimated) 78,210. There were 3,317
teachers ; 325 buildings used for school
purposes ; and public school property
valued at $12,087,516. The institutions
for higher education include the Will-
iam Penn Charter School, founded in
1689 ; the University of Pennsylvania,
and many others.
In September, 1681, a small party
of settlers, sent out by William Penn,
Philadelphia
Philip
arrived at the site of the present city,
and in the following summer the place
was laid out and named Philadelphia,
the " city of brotherly love." The city
was active in resisting British aggres-
sion in 1763-17G4. On Sept. 5, 1774,
the 1st Continental Congress met here,
and on May 10, 1775, the 2d. Col.
George Washington was appointed
General and Commander-in-Chief of
the American army in the State House
on June 15, 1775, Here also the Dec-
laration of Independence was adopted,
July 4, and proclaimed July 8, 1776.
The city was occupied by the British
from September, 1777, to June, 1778.
In the summer of 1787 delegates from
the various States met in the State
House, and framed the Constitution.
The great Centennial Exposition was
held here in 1876.
Philadelphia, The, a steel, twin-
screw protected cruiser of the United
States navy.
Philse, an island in the Nile, near
Assouan and S. of Syene, in Nubia,
largely submerged by the great Assouan
dam. It is a small granite rock,
fringed with rich verdure, about 1,200
feet long and 450 broad, almost cov-
ered with ancient buildings of great
architectural beauty and interest,
dating 1 from about B. O. 350.
Philemon, a member of the Colos-
sian church. The Epistle of Paul to
Philemon : An epistle of Paul, in con-
junction with Timothy, to Philemon,
whose runaway slave, Onesimus, had
come to Rome, and been converted by
the apostles, while the latter . was a
prisoner, and advanced in years. Its
genuineness is generally admitted.
Philip, one of the 12 apostles,
according to John's Gospel, " of Beth-
eaida, the city of Andrew and Peter,"
and who was called to follow Jesus
at Bethany. After the resurrection
he was present at the election of Mat-
thias to the apostleship, but is not
again mentioned. Philip the Evan-
gelist, often confounded with the
above, is first mentioned in Acts vi : 5.
He preached at Samaria, where Simon
Magus was one of his converts ; bap-
tized the Ethiopian eunuch ; and en-
tertained Paul and his companion on
their way to Jerusalem.
Philip II. of Macedonia, father
of Alexander the Great, and son of
Amynthas II. ; born 359 B. c. He be-
gan to reign after the death of his
brother, Perdiccas III., in 359. With
great ability, energy, and success, he
first secured the internal peace and
order of his kingdom, improved the
discipline of his army, and created the
famous phalanx, which contributed to
so many Macedonian victories. He
cherished vast schemes of conquest ;
aspired first to make himself master
of all the states of Greece, and then
to invade and conquer Persia. The
former was accomplished after a severe
and protracted struggle culminating in
the victory of Chseronea, over the
allied Athenians and Thebans, 338.
He soon after assembled a congress
at Corinth, and was named general of
the Confederate Greeks in the war to
be undertaken against Persia. But in
336 he was assassinated at JEgea, and
that war was reserved for his son.
Philip II. of France, surnamed
Augustus, son of Louis VII. and oi!
Alix, daughter of Thibault, Count of
Champagne ; born in 1165, succeeded
his father, 1180, accompanied Richard
Coeur de Lion to the Holy Land, 1190,
invaded Normandy during Richard's
captivity, 1193, confiscated the pos-
sessions of King John in France, after
the supposed murder of Arthur, 1203,
prepared to invade England at the in-
stance of the Pope, 1213, turned his
arms against Flanders, and gained
the celebrated battle of Bouvines,
1214, and died in 1223. Philip Augus-
tus was one of the ablest princes that
ever reigned in France, both as a
commander and an administrator.
Philip III., called the Hardy, the
son of Louis IX. and Margaret of
Provence. He was born in 1245, and
succeeded his father in 1270. The in-
vasion of Sicily by Peter of Aragon,
and the massacre of the French,
known as the " Sicilian Vespers,
caused him to make war against that
prince, in the course of which he died
in 1285.
Philip II. of Spain, son of the
emperor Charles V. and Elizabeth of
Portugal ; born in Valladolid, in 1527.
He married, in 1543, his cousin Mary
of Portugal, who became the mother
of Don Carlos, and died in 1545. In
1554 he received from his father the
kingdom of Naples, and the same year,
after troublesome negotiations, mar'
PMlip
riecf Mary, Queen of England. He
was disliked in England, and soon
departed. His father gave up to him
the Netherlands in October, 1555, and
the kingdom of Spain early in the fol-
lowing year. He declared war on
France, and induced Queen Mary to
join him ; won, by his troops under the
Duke of Savoy, the memorable victory
of St. Quentin over the French, in
1557, and was present in person at the
capture of the town, which followed.
He vowed never to witness another
battle, and he never did. He vowed
also to show his gratitude for his suc-
cess by building a monastery, which
he more than fulfilled in the magnifi-
cent Escurial. A second victory over
the French at Gravelines, in 1558, was
followed by rfce peace of Cateau-Cam-
bresis. Immediately on his return to
Spain, he began a terrible persecution
of " heretics," and was the pitiless
spectator at an auto-da-fe at which 40
persons perished at the stake.
The most momentous event of his
reign was the revolt of the Nether-
lands, first excited by his edict against
heretics, and his attempt to establish
the Inquisition there in 1565, and re-
sulting, after long years of war and
desolation, in the establishment of the
Dutch Republic. In 1565, he persecut-
ed the Christian Moors of Granada,
and provoked a revolt, which began
in 1569; and after the greatest atroc-
ities on both sides, ended by the flight
or submission of the Moors in 1571.
On the death of Henry, King of Por-
tugal, in 1580, Philip conquered that
country and annexed it to Spain. He
made immense preparations for an in-
vasion of England ; and in 1588. the
year after Drake's attack on Cadiz,
his great fleet, which he named " the
Invincible Armada," sailed from Lis-
bon ; but a great storm and contrary
winds damaged and threw it into dis-
order, and it was defeated by the Eng-
lish. Philip carried on intrigues in
France against Henry II. and Henry
IV. ; but his aim was defeated by the
conversion of the latter to the Roman
faith. He lived to see the failure of
his designs on the Netherlands, on
France, and on England. It was Philip
II. who removed the seat of govern-
ment from Toledo, and made Madrid
the capital of Spain. He died at the
Eecurial, after severe suffering, the
Pliilippian
fruit of his debaucheries, Sept. 13,
1598.
Philip, sachem of the Wampanoag
tribe of Indians, was the second son
of Massasoit, who for nearly 40 years
had been the first and staunchest ally
of the Pilgrim settlers of Plymouth,
and had obtained English names for
his two sons. In 1661 Philip succeed-
ed his brother, and formally renewed
the treaties of his father, which he
kept for some years. By 1671, however,
goaded by the encroachments of the
whites he had formed a confederation
of tribes aggregating nearly 10,000
warriors ; and in 1675 what is known
as King Philip's War broke out. Aug.
12, 1676, at midnight, Philip and his
followers were surprised by Capt.
Benjamin Church. Philip was slain
and his head cut off. Afterward his
body was drawn and quartered, and
the head was exposed on a gibbet at
Plymouth.
Philip, John Woodward, an
American naval ofBcer; born in New
York city, Aug. 26, 1840. He entered
the naval academy in 1856, was made
midshipman in 1861, and served dur-
ing the Civil War on the " Chippewa,"
the monitor "Montauk" and other ves-
sels. He was commissioned captain in
1899, and was the inspector of the
" New York " during construction.
During the war with Spain he com-
manded the battleship " Texas," which
took an active part in the capture of
the Spanish fleet under Cervera, at
Santiago de Cuba, Jul? 3, 1898. He
was promoted to rear-admiral and
made commandant of the Brooklyn
Navy Yard, N. Y. Died 1900.
Philipena or Filopena. See
FlLLIPEEN.
Philippi, a city of Macedonia;
named after Philip II. of Macedon,
who enlarged it because of the gold
mines in its neighborhood. It is fa-
mous on account of the two battles
fought in 42 B. c. between Antony and
Octavianus on the one side and the re-
publicans under Brutus and Cassius
on the other, in the second of which
the republic finally perished. The
apostle Paul founded a Christian
church here, to which one of his epis-
tles is addressed.
PMlippian, of or pertaining to
Philippi or its inhabitants ; also a na-
Philippine Islands
Philippine Islands
tive or inhabitant of Philippi. The
Epistle of Paul the apostle to the
Philippians, an epistle addressed by
St. Paul, in conjunction with Tim-
othy, " to all the saints in Christ
Jesus which are at Philippi, with the
bishop and deacons."
Philippine Islands, an archipel-
ago in the Pacific Ocean ; extending
almost due N. and S. from Formosa
to Borneo and the Moluccas, compris-
ing more than 1,700 islands, of which
the two largest are Luzon and Min-
danao ; area, about 122,000 square
miles; pop. (1903) 7,635,426. The
archipelago was ceded by Spain to the
United States as a result of the war of
1898, the United States government
making a payment of $20,000,000 to
Spain, and subsequently $100,000 for
the cession of the islands of Cagayan
and Sibutu which were omitted in
the treaty of peace.
The following, taken from the of-
ficial report by Maj. Gen. Francis V.
Greene, U. S. V., sets forth the con-
ditions and interests of the islands at
the time of the American occupation :
44 These islands, including the La-
drones, Carolines, and Palaos, which
are all under the government of Ma-
nila, are variously estimated at from
1,200 to 1,800 in number. The greater
portion are small and are of no value.
The important islands are less than a
dozen in number.
The total population is somewhere
between 7,000,000 and 9,000,000. This
includes the wild tribes of the moun-
tains of Luzon and of the islands in
the extreme South.
In 1899 a census was taken by the
United States authorities, chiefly for
educational purposes, which showed a
total of 6,709,810. The "Official
Guide " gives a list of more than 30
different races, each speaking a dif-
ferent dialect, but five-sixths of the
Christian population are either Taga-
los or Visayas. The races are mostly of
the Malay type. Around Manila there
has been some mixture of Chinese
and Spanish blood with that of the
natives, resulting in the Mestizos, or
half-breeds, but the number of these
is not very great. As seen in the prov-
inces of Cavite and Manila, the na-
tives (Tagalos) are of small stature,
averaging probably 5 feet 4 inches in
height and 120 pounds in weight for,
the women. Their skin is coppery
brown, somewhat darker than that of
a mulatto. They seem to be indus-
trious and hard-working, though less
so than the Chinese. The bulk of the
population is engaged in agriculture.
The climate is one of the best
known in the tropics. The thermom-
eter during July and August rarely
went below 79 or above 85. The
extreme ranges in a year are said to
be 61 and 97. There are three well-
marked seasons temperate and dry
from November to February, hot and
dry from March to May, and tem-
perate and wet from June to October.
The total rainfall has been as high as
114 inches in one year. Yellow fever
appears to be unknown. The diseases
most fatal among the natives are
cholera and smallpox, both of which
are brought from China.
It is now generally known that the
Philippines have such minerals as
iron, gold, silver, copper, lead, granite,
petroleum, limestone, and quartz, and
that it is only a matter of time when
these minerals will be mined and put
into the commercial markets of the
world.
Gold is reported on Luzon, coal and
petroleum on Cebu and Iloilo and sul-
phur on Leyte. The imports of coal
in 1894 (the latest year for which
statistics have been printed) were
91,511 tons, and it came principally
from Australia and Japan. In the
same year the imports of iron of all
kinds were 9,632 tons. If the Cebu
coal proves to be of good quality,
there is a large market for it in com-
petition with coal from Japan and
Australia.
Though agriculture is the chier oc
cupation of the Philippines, yet only
one-ninth of the surface is under cul-
tivation. The soil is very fertile, and
even after deducting the mountainous
areas it is probable that the area of
cultivation can be very largely ex-
tended and that the islands can sup*
Sort a population equal to that of
apan (42,000,000). Lack of irriga-
tion prevents the development of ex-
tensive tracts that could by a little
enterprise be made very productive.
The chief products are rice, corn,
hemp, sugar, tobacco, cocoanuts, and
cacao. Coffee and cotton were for*
merly produced in large quantities
Philippine Islands
Philippine Islands
the former for export and the latter
for home consumption ; but the coffee
plant has been almost exterminated by
insects, and the home-made cotton
cloths have been driven out by the
competition of those imported from
England. The rice and corn are prin-
cipally produced in Luzon and Min-
doro and are consumed in the islands.
The rice crop is about 765,000 tons.
It is insufficient for the demand and
45,000 tons of rice were imported in
1894; also 8,669 tons (say 60,000
barrels) of flour, of which more than
two-thirds came from China and less
than one-third from the United States.
The cacao raised in the S. islands
amounts only to 150 tons, and is all
made into chocolate and consumed in
the islands.
The sugar cane is raised in the
Visayas. The crop yielded in 1894
about 235,000 tons of raw sugar, of
which one-tenth was consumed in the
islands, and the balance, or 210,000
tons, valued at $11,000,000, was ex-
ported, the greater part to China,
Great Britain, and Australia. The
hemp is produced in S. Luzon, Min-
doro, the Visayas, and Mindanao. It
is nearly all exported in bales. In
1894 the amount was 96,000 tons,
valued at $12,000,000. Tobacco is
raised in all the islands, but the best
quality and greatest amount in Luzon.
A large amount is consumed in the
islands, smoking being universal
among women as well as the men, but
the best quality is exported. The
amount in 1894 was 7,000 tons of leaf
tobacco, valued at $1,750,000. Spain
took 80 per cent, and Egypt 10 per
cent, of the leaf tobacco. Of the manu-
factured tobacco 70 per cent, goes to
China and Singapore, 10 per cent to
England, and 5 per cent, to Spain.
Cattle, goats, and sheep have been
introduced from Spain, but they are
not numerous. Domestic pigs and
chickens are seen everywhere in the
farming districts. The principal beast
of burden is the carabao, or water
buffalo, which is used for plowing rice
fields as well as drawing heavy loads
on sledges or on carts. Large horses
are almost unknown, but there are
great numbers of native ponies from 9
to 12 hands high, possessing strength
and endurance far beyond their size.
With the construction of railways
in the interior of Luzon an enormous
extension could be given to commerce,
nearly all of which would come to the
United States. Manila cigars of the
best quality are unknown in America.
They are but little inferior to the best
of Cuba and cost only one-third a
much. The coffee industry can be re-
vived and the sugar industry extended,,
mainly for consumption in the far
East. The mineral resources can be
explored with American energy, and
there is every reason to believe that
when this is done the deposits of coal,
iron, gold, and lead will be found very
valuable. On the other hand, we ought
to be able to secure the greater part
of the trade which now goes to Spain
in textile fabrics, and a considerable
portion of that with England in the
same goods and in iron, .
On Jan. 17, 1899, President Me-
Kinley appointed a commission con-
sisting of Jacob G. Schurman, Ad-
miral George Dewey, Maj.-Gen. Elwell
S. Otis, Col. Charles Denby, and Dean
S. Worcester, to report on the affairs
of the Philippine islands. The report
of this commission was sent to Con-
gress in February, 1900. It stated the
impossibility of withdrawing the pro-
tection and government of the United
States from the islands ; and recom-
mended the establishment of public
schools ; and, as far as possible, a civil
government to replace the military. It
also assured Congress of the willing-
ness of the representative body of the
population to accept the protection,
guidance, and authority of the United
States. On April 17, 1900, President
McKinley appointed a second commis-
sion, comprising William H. Taft,
Dean S. Worcester, Luke E. Wright,
Henry C. Ide, and Bernard Moses;
and in a message to the Secretary of
War denned the duties of the new
commission.
On Jan. 31, 1901, the second (known
as the Taft) commission enacted into
law a code of civil government for the
islands. It established a fair system
of taxes, laid the basis for a primary
school system, introduced a more exact
method for collecting revenues, and
created certain civil and judicial of-
ficers. On July 4, 1901, civil govern-
ment was inaugurated in the Philip-
pines. Judge Taft had been appointed
civil governor; Gen. Adna R. Chaffee
military governor ; sad the other four
JhlHpsog
members of the commission made heads
of the various civil departments.
On Dec. 18, 1901, the Taft Com-
mission submitted its annual report It
stated that the insurrection was con-
fined to five provinces, and that the
bulk of the population was law abiding.
The commission outlined a project
which in brief contemplated the con-
tinuance for two years of the existing
powers of the commission. Then it
advocated a representative govern-
ment to be formed composed of a civ-
il governor, a legislative council, and
a popular assembly, the powers of the
latter being closely limited so as to
prevent it from choking the govern-
ment in making the budget during fits
of passion or through inexperience.
The President of the United States
would, of course, reserve absolute veto
Eower. The Filipinos should also
ave the right to be represented be-
fore Congress and the executive gov-
ernment at Washington by two dele-
gates. A full account was given by
the commission of the organization of
the system of education which had
been going on vigorously under Dr.
F. W. Atkinson, the general super-
intendent. The English language was
the basis of all public instruction, and
nearly one thousand trained teachers
from the United States already had
been put to work in the towns and
cities of the pacified provinces. On
July 3, 1902, the President proclaimed
amnesty to all political prisoners in
the Philippines, and on July 6, Agui-
naldo was given his liberty.
By 1902 the United States had es-
tablished supreme and lower courts;
raised the police force to 6,000 men;
enrolled 150,000 children in public
schools with 1,000 American and 4,000
native teachers; spent millions on im-
proving roads and harbors; and had
$7.000,000 in the treasury.
Governor Taft left Manila in Dec.
1903, to accept a position in President
Roosevelt's cabinet, and was succeeded
by Gen. Wright. To Gov. Taft be-
longs the credit of gaining the confi-
dence of the Philippine people, and
of establishing civil government.
Philipson, David, an American
rabbi ; born in Wabash, Ind., Aug. 9,
1862; v/as graduated at the Univer-
sity of Cincinnati and at the Hebrew
Union College there in 1883, and be-
Phillips
came Professor of Homiletics in the
Hebrew Union College, and president
i of the Hebrew Sabbath School Union
of America. He is author of " The
Jew in English Fiction," " Old Euro-
: pean Jewries," " The Oldest Jewish
Congregation in the West," etc.
Philistines, an ancient people,
i of Shemitic origin. They lived on the
coast of the Mediterranean, to the
south-west of Judea. Nothing is known
of their first appearance in Palestine.
They were there in the time of Abra-
ham as is evident from Gen. 21 : 34.
That they had a king is mentioned
Gen. 26 : 8. In the time of Joshua,
they were subject to five princes.
Joshua was never able to expel them
and in the times of the Judges they
| became strong enough to bring Israel
! into subjection. Saul perished in a
i pitched battle with them, David con-
; quered them, but they revolted and
continued enemies of Israel.
Phillips, Adelaide, an American
singer ; born in Stratford-on-Avon,
England, in 1833. When seven years
old she was taken to Boston, Mass.,
which was her residence the remainder
of her life. Her voice was a fine con-
tralto. She made her debut Sept. 25,
1843, at the Boston Museum, as Lit-
| tie Pickle. In 1850, on the advice of
; Jenny Lind, she went to Paris and
i studied with Garcia. She sang in
opera in Milan in 1854, and in 1856
in New York, in "II Trovatore." She
appeared later in Paris in the same
role. She died in Carlsbad, Oct. 2,
1882. Her sister Mathilde was also a
contralto singer.
Phillips, John, English geologist ;
born 1800; died 1874. He was in-
structed in geology by his uncle, Wil-
liam Smith, "the father of English
geology ;" became professor of geology
in Dublin (1844), and in Oxford
(1856). Among his chief works are
a "Guide to Geology" (1834), and
"Life on the Earth" (1861).
Phillips, Stephen, English poet;
b. Somerton, near Oxford, July 28,
1868. Educated at grammar schools,
he became an actor, an army tutor,
then turned to literature, producing
" Paolo and Francesca," " Herod,"
" The Sin of David," etc.
Phillips, "Wendell, an American
orator and abolitionist; born in Bos-
Philology
ton, Mass., Nov. 29, 1811. He was
graduated at Harvard in 1831, studied
law there, and was called to the bar
in 1834. But before clients came he
had been drawn away from his pro-
fession to the real work of his life.
A timely speech in Faneuil Hall in
1837 made him at once the principal
orator of the anti-slavery party ; and
henceforth, till the President's procla-
mation of Jan. 1, 1863, he was Gar-
rison's loyal and valued ally, his lec-
tures and addresses doing more for
their cause than can well be estimat-
ed. He also championed the cause
of temperance, and that of women,
and advocated the rights of the In-
dians. In 1870 he was nominated gov-
ernor by the Prohibitionists and the
Labor Party. His speeches and let-
ters were collected in 1863 (new ed.
1884). He died in Boston, Mass., Feb.
2, 1884.
Philology, in a popular sense :
(1) Etymology, or the science of the
origin of words. (2) Grammar, or the
science of the construction of lan-
guage in general and of individual
languages. (3) Literary criticism, or
the investigation of merits and de-
merits in style and diction.
Pliilopoemen, called the last of
the Greeks, really their last great com-
mander. He was born in Arcadia,
253 B. c., becamle in 210, generalissimo
of the Achaian League, and conquered
the Spartans at which time he abol-
ished the laws of Lycurgus. The
greatest of his victories in this long
struggle was the battle of Mantinea.
He was put to death by poison when
a prisoner of the Messenians, 183 B. C.,
the same year that proved fatal to
Hannibal and Scipio.
Philosopher's Stone, an imagi-
nary stone sought for by the alche-
mists, which should transmute every-
thing it touched into gold.
Philosophy, a term said by Diog-
enes Laertius to have been suggest-
ed by Pythagoras, who, on being com-
plimented on his wisdom, said that he
was not wise but a lover of wisdom
(philos sophia) , the Deity, alone being
wise. Philosophy, while earnest in
amassing knowledge, aimed chiefly at
penetrating to the principles of things.
Popularly, it is divided into natural
and mental philosophy, the former in-
vestigating the physical laws of na-
Plioenici.i
ture, the latter those regulating the
human mind. The term philosophy
is now generally restricted to tbl
second of these.
Phips, or Phipps, Sir William,
governor of Massachusetts; born in
Pemrnaquid (Bristol), Me., Feb. 2,
1651. He was successively a shep-
herd, a carpenter, and a trader, and
in 1687 recovered from a wrecked
Spanish ship off the Bahamas bullion
plate, and treasure valued at $1,500,-
000; this gained him a knighthood
and the appointment of sheriff of New
England. In 1690 he captured Port
Royal (now Annapolis) in Nova Sco-
tia, but failed in the following year in
a naval attack on Quebec. In 1692,
through the influence of Increase Math-
er, he was appointed governor of
Massachusetts. He tolerated the witch
delusion and its accompanying trage-
dies until his own wife was menaced
by the witch hunters. He died Feb.
18, 1694, in London, England, whither
he had been summoned to answer cer-
tain charges of arbitrary conduct.
Phlebotomy, or Venesection, the
act of letting blood by opening a vein ;
a method of treatment formerly ap-
plied to almost all diseases, but now
chiefly confined to cases of general or
local plethora. Another mode of let-
ting blood is by cupping or by the ap-
plication of leeches. It has been one
of the processes of the medical pro-
fession from the earliest times.
Phoebus ("the Bright"), an epi-
thet, and -subsequently a name, of
Apollo. It had reference both to the
youthful beauty of the god and to the
radiance of the sun, when, latterly,
Apollo became identified with Helios,
the sun god.
Phoenicia, in ancient geography, in
the largest sense, a narrow strip of
country extending nearly the whole
length of the E. coast of the Mediter-
ranean Sea, from Antioch to the bor-
ders of Egypt. But Phoenicia proper
was included between the cities of Lao-
dicea, in Syria, and Tyre, comprehend-
ing mainly the territories of Tyre and
Sidon, and forming then only a part
of the country of Canaan. Some au-
thorities state that Agenor was the
first king of Phoenicia, 1497 B. c. ; but
all agree that the country itself was
the seat of a great nation, and re-
nowned for its naval enterprise at a
Phoenix
much earlier period. A colony of
Phoenicians, led by Elissa or Dido, set-
tled in Africa 878 B. c., and founded
Carthage.
Phoenix, or Phenix, in astronomy,
one of the constellations of the South-
ern Hemisphere, N. of the bright star
Achernar in Eridanus.
Phonetic, or Phonetical, repre-
senting sound ; pertaining to the repre-
sentation of sounds ; a term applied
to alphabetic or literal characters
which represent sounds, as a, b, c; as
opposed to ideographic, which repre-
sent objects or symbolize abstract
ideas, as in Egyptian hieroglyphics.
Phonetic spelling, a system of spelling
in which the words are spelled exact-
ly as they are pronounced, the sounds
being represented by characters each
of which represents a single sound.
Phonetic printing was first suggest-
ed by Isaac Pitman, of Bath, England,
and reduced to a system by him in
conjunction with A. J. Ellis, in the
years 1843-1846. Since that time
many schemes of phonetic spelling
have been proposed and several are
now in daily use by stenographers in
the United States.
Phonograph, a character used in
phonography ; a type or character
used for expressing a sound. Also
an instrument for recording and re-
producing sounds, invented by Thomas
A. Edison.
PHONOGRAPHIC EECOBD.
Phonography, a description of the
sounds uttered by the organs of speech.
Also the representation of sounds by
certain characters, each of which rep-
resents one sound, and always the
same sound. Its special application
is to alphabetical writing, in which
sounds or articulations are repre-
sented by signs or letters, as opposed
Phosphorus
to the system in which the representa-
tion is by ideas, symbols, or cioher.
Phosgene, the luminous impres-
sion produced by pressure on the eye-
ball. It usually appears as a lumi-
nous centre, surrounded by colored or
dark rings. Sometimes it seems to
consist of bright scintillations of vari-
ous forms. Similar appearances may
be observed at the moments of open-
ing or closing a strong electric cur-
rent transmitted through the eyeball.
Phosgene Gas, or Carbonyl
Chloride, colorless, pungent, suffo-
cating gas, formed by exposing equal
volumes of carbonic monoxide and
chlorine to the action of the sun,
when they combine and become con-
densed to one-half their joint volume.
Water decomposes it into carbonic
and hydrochloric acids.
Phosphate, in chemistry, the ge-
neric term for the salts formed by the
union of phosphoric anhydride with
bases or water or both. They hold a
leading part in the chemistry of ani-
mal and plant life, the most important
in this connection being the phosphate
of soda, phosphate of lime, and the
basic phosphate of magnesia. In ag-
riculture the adequate supply of phos-
phates to plants in the form of ma-
nures becomes a matter of necessity
in all deplenished soils.
Phosphorescence, the property
which many substances and organic
beings possess of emitting light under
certain conditions; also a phosphoric
light. The phosphorescence of trop-
ical, and to a large extent also of tem-
perate seas is attributed to a small in-
fusorial animalcule, aided by Medu-
sae, Tunicata, Annelids, etc. On land,
of insects, some milipedes, the female
glow-worm, and the fireflies, emit
light. In the glow-worm the light is
from the under side of the final seg-
ments of the abdomen. The phos-
phorescence of fish in a cupboard is
well known ; also of decaying animals
in marshes.
Phosphoric Acid, a tribasic acid
formed by the action of nitric acid
upon phosphorus, or by the hydration
of phosphoric anhydride. It is very
deliquescent, has an intensely sour
taste, and reddens litmus paper. It
is not poisonous.
Phosphorus, a non-metallic pentad
element ; found in a state of combina-
Photo-engraving;
Phylloxera
tion in the unstratified rocks, the soil,
the organism of plants, and the bodies
of animals. Discovered by Brandt in
1G69. Used on a very large scale in
the preparation of safety matches.
Photo-engraving, the prepara-
tion of printing blocks or plates by
photography.
Photography, the process of ob-
taining the representation of objects,
through the aperture, with or without
lenses, of a camera obscura (q. v. ), on
salts of silver contained in a gelatine
film spread on glass or celluloid, the
subsequent development and fixing of
the image, and the printing of copies,
completing the process. Its practical
invention dates from the successes of
Daguerre (q. v.), Niepce, and Talbot,
between 1814 and 1839; its great
modern development after the nitrate
of silver and wet collodion process per-
fected in 1850, had given way about
1880, to the bromide of silver and dry
gelatine emulsion on glass or cellu-
loid, discovered by Dr. L. Maddox in
1871. When the light strikes the
sensitized film in a camera, a chemical
change takes place in the salts, pro-
ducing a negative in which the lights
and shades are reversed to what they
are naturally. The image is latent or
invisible until developed, i. e., placed
in a liquid such as hydrokinine com-
bined with an alkali, which forms an
opaque compound with the part of the
Siilt affected by the light; the develop-
ed image is then fixed or made perma-
nent in a solution of hyposulphite of
soda, which dissolves the salt from
parts unaffected by light, and leaves
virtually a light or sun-engraved silver
plate from which positive copies are
printed by contact with sensitized
paper, and exposure to light.
The many forms of cameras, lenses,
shutters, films, plates, printing papers,
etc., and the applied uses of photogra-
phy are too numerous to be detailed.
One of its notable commercial develop-
ments is AMATEUB PHOTOGRAPHY,
which has had phenomenal and in-
creasing popularity since the advent
of the "dry-plate." COLOR PHOTOG-
KAPHY, or the reproduction by photog-
raphy of objects in their natural
colors, is a branch that has received
much scientific investigation and ex-
periment. The most successful at-
tempts hitherto, are those of Cros and
Charpentier of Paris, Prof. Joly of
Dublin, and McDonough of Chicago.
The general method is to make three
negatives through red, blue, and green
glass, on specially sensitized and de-
veloped plates, and print by superim-
position.
Photogravnre, a term applied to
methods of producing, by photography,
plates for printing in a copperplate
press.
Photoheliograph, an instrument
for photographing the sun.
Phrenology, the science or doc-
trine which teaches that a relation ex-
ists between the several faculties of
the human mind and particular por-
tions of the brain, the latter being the
organs through which the former act.
The localization of the several fac-
ulties was first attempted by Dr. Franz
Joseph Gall, who gained, in 1804, a
valuable coadjutor in Dr. Spurzheim.
When Spurzheim visited Edinburgh,
he met Mr. George Combe, who adopt-
ed his views, and in 1819 published
" Essays on Phrenology," ultimately
developed into his " System of Phre-
nology," which became very popular.
Gall enumerated nearly ,30, Spurzheim
35, mental faculties which he consid-
ered as primitive. These, Spurzheim
divides into moral, or affective, and
intellectual. The affective faculties
are subdivided into propensities pro-
ducing desires or inclination, and sen-
timents, which along with this excite
some hijher emotion. The intellectual
faculties are similarly divided into per-
ceptive and reflective. They are then
localized on the brain, or rather on
the skull. See BRAIN; SKULL.
Phrygia, in ancient geography, an
inland province of Asia Minor. It
was called Phrygia Pacatiana, and
also Phrygia Major, in distinction
from Phrygia Minor, which was a
small district of Mysia near the Hel-
lespont, occupied by some Phrygians
after the Trojan War. This region was
a high table-land, fruitful in corn and
wine and celebrated for its fine breed
of cattle and sheep.
Phylloxera, in entomology, a genus
of insects allied to the Aphis and Coc-
cus families. The Phylloxeridse at-
tach themselves to various plants, on
the juice of . which they feed, and
Which they often injure or destroy.
/P. vastatrix is the name given to an
insect of this family, which, since
1865, has committed great devastation
in the vineyards of France. Great
numbers of this insect appear on the
roots of the vine, where they produce
galls, and their punctures are so nu-
PHYLLOXERA INSECT.
merous and incessant that the roots
can no longer supply nutriment to the
plant, which fades and dies. There is
a form which lives on the leaves, also
producing galls.
Physician, one who is skilled in or
practises the art of healing ; one who,
being duly qualified, prescribes reme-
dies for diseases ; specifically one who
holds a certificate showing that he has
passed an examination before a com-
petent authority, such as the medical
colleges of the United States or the
State boards of medicine, authorizing
him to practise. Strictly speaking a
physician differs from a surgeon, in
that the former prescribes remedies for
diseases, while the latter performs op-
erations.
Physics, a study of the phenomena
presented by bodies. It treats of mat-
ter, force and motion ; gravitation and
molecular attraction, liquids, gases,
acoustics, heat, light, magnetism, and
electricity. It is called also natural
or mechanical philosophy. In its
broadest acceptance the term physics
includes chemistry; specifically it is
limited to those phenomena based on
the molecule as a unit, whereas the
unit of chemistry is the atom.
Plait
Physiognomy, the art or science
of judging of a person's nature or
character by his outward look, espe-
cially by his facial features and char-
acteristics. In the ordinary business
of life, all men are more or less influ-
enced by the belief that the character
and disposition of a person may, in
some measure, be judged of by his
physical appearance, and none have
more confidence in this way of judging
than those who have most occasion to
act on it.
Physiology, the science which
treats of the processes which go on in
the bodies of living beings under nor-
mal conditions, and of the use of their
various parts or organs. It is divided
into plant physiology, animal physiol-
ogy (according to whether plants or
animals are the subject of study) , and
human physiology (a branch of animal
physiology in its relation to man).
Phytology. See BOTANY.
Pianoforte, a musical instru-
ment, the sounds of which are pro-
duced by blows from hammers, acted
on by levers called keys. This is prob-
ably the most widely-known and gen-
erally-used musical instrument in the
world. The earliest form of piano-
forte, early in the 18th century, was
perhaps, in some respects, inferior to
a fine harpsichord, but it possessed the
elements of expansion, as now exhibit-
ed in a modern grand trichord pianb-
forte of more than seven octaves com-
pass, with every gradation of sound,
from pianissimo to a splendid fortissi-
mo, and the most sensitive and deli-
cate mechanism between the finger and
the hammer.
Piassaba, or Piassava, a strong
vegetable fiber imported from Brazil,
and largely used for making brooms.
It is chiefly obtained from palms.
Piaster, or Piastre, a coin of
various values. The gold piaster of
Turkey = 4.4c. ; the silver piaster =
4.35c. ; the Egyptian piaster = 4.9c. ;
the Spanish piaster is synonymous
with the United States dollar. The
old Italian piaster was equivalent to
about 89 cents.
Piatt, Bonn, an American jour-
nalist; born in Cincinnati, Ohio*
June 29. 1829, was secretary of le-
gation at Paris, and was for nearly a
year charge d'affaires ; during the Civil
Piatt
Ficlsens
War was assistant adjutant-general on
the staff of Gen. Robert C. Schenck ;
was one of the founders of the New
York " Sun " and afterward of the
Washington " Capital," which he ed-
ited for two years. He died in Cleve-
land, O., Nov. 12, 1891.
Fiatt, John James, an American
poet ; born in Milton, Ind., March 1,
1885. He entered journalism ; be-
came clerk of the United States Treas-
ury Department and of the House of
Representatives; and from 1882 to
1894, was consul at Cork, Ireland.
His works include : " Poems by Two
Friends," with W. D. Howells;
" Poems in Sunshine and Firelight " ;
" Idylls and Lyrics of the Ohio Val-
ley " ; etc.
Piatt, Sarah Morgan (Bryan),
an American poet, wife of John J. ;
born in Lexington, Ky., Aug. 11, 1836.
Her best-known works are : " A
Woman's Poems " ; "A Voyage to the
Fortunate Isles " ; " Dramatic Persons
and Moods " ; and " An Enchanted
Castle."
Piazza, a square open space sur-
rounded by buildings or colonnades ;
popularly, but improperly, applied to
an arcaded or colonnaded walk under
cover, and even to a veranda.
Pica, an alphabetical catalogue of
things and names in rolls and records ;
in medicine, a vitiated appetite, which
causes the person affected to crave
things unfit for food, as coal, chalk,
etc. ; in printing, a name given to a
size of type, 72 ems to the foot, or
6x6 to the square inch, It is the
standard of measurement in printing.
Piccini, Niccolo, an Italian musi-
cal composer ; born in Bari, Italy ? in
1728. He composed comic and serious
operas, chiefly for the stages of Rome
and Naples, with such success that for
many years he was without a rival in
Italy. He wrote over 150 operas, be-
sides numerous oratorios and can-
tatas. He died in Passy, France,
May 7, 1800.
Piccolo, a small flute, having the
same compass as the ordinary orches-
tral flute, but its sounds are one oc-
tave higher than the notes as they are
written ; called also an octave flute.
Piccolo-mini, a distinguished Sien-
nese family, still flourishing in Italy
in two branch***. The two most cele-
brated members are: (1) ^Eneas Syl-
vius Bartholomseus, afterward Pope
Pius II. (2) Octavio, a grand-neph-
ew of the first ; born in 1599, died in
Vienna in 1656. He served in the
armies of the German emperor, and
became one of the distinguished gener-
als in the Thirty Years' War. He
was a favorite of Wallenstein, who
entrusted him with a knowledge of
his projects, when he purposed to at-
tack the emperor. In spite of this he
made himself the chief instrumeat of
Wallenstein's overthrow, and after the
latter 's assassination (1634) was re-
warded with a portion of his estates.
Pice, a small East Indian coin,
value about three-quarters of a cent.
Pichegru, Charles, a French mili-
tary officer ; born in Arbois, France,
Feb. 16, 1761, of humble parents, but
receiving a good education under the
monks of his native town. Entering
the army he rose to be sergeant. The
revolution elevated him to the rank of
general, and, in 1794, he succeeded
General Hoche in the command of the
Army of the North. In 1797 he was
elected a member of the Legislative
body; but his opposition to the Direct-
ory, and his speeches in favor c c the
royalist emigrants, occasioned an accu-
sation against him as designing to re-
store royalty. He was ordered with-
out trial to be transported to Cayenne,
whence he escaped to England, where
he remained till the spring of 1804;
he returned to Paris, was again appre-
hended and sent to the Temple, where
he was found strangled in his bed,
April 5, 1804.
Pickens, Andrew, an American
military officer ; born in Paxton, Pa.,
Sept. 13, 1739, of Huguenot ancestry.
In 1752 he removed to South Caro-
lina; was engaged in the expedition
against the Cherokees in 1761. Dur-
ing the Revolution he was promoted
Brigadier-General; took part in the
defense of South Carolina against the
British. He served in Congress from
1793 to 1795; and made treaties with
the Indians. He died in Tomassee,
S. C., Aug. 17, 1817.
Pickens, Israel, an American poli-
tician ; born in North Carolina, in
1780. He was a Democratic member
of Congress from North Carolina in
1811-1817; governor of Alabama in
1821-1825 ; and became United States
Pickens
Pickett
Senator in 1826. He died near Ma-
tanzas, Cuba, in 1827.
Pickens, Fort, a fort on Santa
Rosa Island, Pensacola harbor, held
by a small Union force under Lieut.
A. J. Slemmer at the beginning of the
Civil War. It refused to surrender
when besieged by the Confederates in
1861, and was held till reinforced.
Pickerel, a small pike, a young
pike. The term is applied to several
species of fishes belonging to the pike
family.
Pickering, Charles, an American
physician, grandson of Timothy ; born
in Susquehanna co., Pa., Nov. 10,
1805. He traveled extensively, and
published the volumes : " The Races
of Man and their Geographical Dis-
tribution " ; " Geographical Distribu-
tion of Animals and Man " ; "Chrono-
logical History of Plants." He died
In Boston, March 18, 1878.
Pickering, Edward Charles, an
American astronomer, great-grandson
of Timothy Pickering ; born in Boston,
Mass., July 19, 1846; was graduated
at Harvard in 1865; Professor of As-
tronomy and Geodesy, and Director
of the Observatory at Harvard after
187<. On July 21, 1901, he photo-
graphed the spectrum of lightning,
from the study of which he developed
a revolutionary scientific theory of the
compound nature of the so-called
chemical elements.
Pickering, John, an American
ghilologist, son of Timothy ; born in
alem, Mass., Feb. 7, 1777. He held
many important public positions; was
president of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, and a member of
various learned associations at home
and abroad. He published a paper on
the " Adoption of a Uniform Orthog-
raphy for the Indian Languages " ; a
" Vocabulary of Words and Phrases
Peculiar to the United States " ; etc. ;
and wrote many pamphlets on scien-
tific and political questions. He died
in Boston, May 5, 1846.
Pickering, Timothy, an Ameri-
can statesman ; born in Salem, Mass.,
July 17, 1745 ; was graduated at Har-
vard in 1763, and admitted to the bar
in 1768. He participated in the bat-
tle of Lexington ; in 1776 joined the
Continental army in command of 700
men; was soon appointed adjutant-
general by Washington ; in 1780 was
selected for the post of quartermaster
of the army, and from that time till
the close of the war conducted his de-
partment with great skill. Shortly
after his resignation, he united with
Patrick Henry and Alexander Hamil-
ton in opposing the measure that drove
the Tories from the country. He ne-
gotiated a treaty between the United
States and the Six Nations in 1791,
and a month later was appointed Post-
master-General. He was Secretary of
State under Presidents Washington
and Adams, but was dismissed during
the " X. Y. Z." papers dispute in
1800. He retired from politics for a
time, but was elected to the United
States Senate in 1804, and from that
time continued actively in politics. He
died in Salom, Jan. 29, 1829.
Pickering, William Henry, an*
American astronomer ; born in Bos-
ton, Mass., Feb. 15, 1858; brother of
Edward Charles Pickering ; was grad'
uated at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology in 1879; became assist-
ant professor at the Harvard Observ-
atory; and conducted several expedi-
tions to observe the total solar
eclipses in different parts of the West-
ern Hemisphere in 1878-1893. He es-
tablished astronomical stations in.
Southern California in 1889 ; at Are-
quipa, Peru, in 1891 ; and at Mande-
ville, Jamaica, W. I., in 1900. He has
climbed over 100 mountain peaks.
Picket, a stake with a sharpened
end, used in laying off ground for
fortifications. Also a stake sharpened
at both ends; one driven into the
ground and the other acting as an ob-
stacle to tLe advance of the enemy.
Also a guard posted in front of an
army to give notice of the approach of
the enemy.
Pickett, George Edward, an
American military officer; born in
Richmond, Va., Jan. 25, 1825 ; was
graduated at the United States Mili-
tary t Academy in 1846; served in the
Mexican W r ar as lieutenant and was
made captain in 1855. In T861 he left
the United States service and entered
the Confederate army. He was com-
missioned Brigadier-General and was
distinguished throughout the war for
bravery and activity. In 1862 he was
made Major-General. He took a prom-
inent part in the battles of Fredericks-
Pickles
Pierce
burg, Gettysburg (where his division
made the famous " Pickett's charge ")
Petersburg, and Five Forks. He died
in Norfolk, Va., July 30, 1875.
Pickles, a term generally applied
to vegetables preserved in vinegar,
with or without spices ; though the
term " pickled " applies to animal food
preserved in salt. The vegetables
most often pickled are cabbage, cauli-
flower, gherkins (young cucumbers),
French beans, onions, walnuts, mush-
rooms, and nasturtiums. Chile pep-
pers and sweet peppers, olives, and
capers are the most common kinds of
imported pickles and mangoes are oc-
casionally used.
Picquart, George, a French mill-
tary officer ; born in Strassburg in
1854; was educated at St. Cyr, 1872-
1874, and at the General Staff School
in 1874-1876, gaining high places at
the examinations in both schools. In
1896 he was given the rank of lieuten-
ant-colonel, but then he began his in-
quiries into the Dreyfus case, moved
thereto by certain discoveries which he
made as to Major Esterhazy. In this
he was at first encouraged by his of-
ficial superiors, but afterward discour-
aged, and in January, 1897, he was
sent in disgrace to Tunis. He return-
ed to take a prominent part in the in-
quiries and legal proceedings which
took place in the winter of 1897 and
during 1898, and his evidence formed
the strongest proof of the illegality of
the trial at which Dreyfus was con-
demned, and of the astounding meth-
ods employed by the War Office to hush
up the affair. In February, 1898, he
was placed on the retired list, and
afterward prosecuted on a charge of
revealing War Office secrets, and im-
prisoned. He vindicated Dreyfus (q.
v.), was promoted Brigadier-General,
and, 190G, French Minister of War.
Ficton, Sir Thomas, a British
military officer ; born in Poyston, Pem-
brokeshire, England, in August, 1758.
He entered the army in 1772. In
1794 he went out to the West Indies;
took part in the conquest of several of
the islands, including Trinidad, and
was appointed (1797) governor of the
last named, being shortly afterward
promoted general. There he plotted
for the overthrow of Spanish rule in
South America. Later he was with
Wellington, fought at Quatre Bras,
B. 117.
and at Waterloo fell leading his men
to the charge, June 18, 1815.
Pidgin, Charles Feltcn, an
American statistician; born in Rox-
bury, Mass., Nov. 1, 1844. He in-
vented many machines for the mechan-
ical tabulation of statistics, among:
them the electric adding and multiply-
ing machine, addition register, and
typewriter tabulator. He has writ-
ten novels and musical compositions.
Pierce, Franklin, an American
statesman, 14th President of the
United States ; born in Hillsboro, N.
H., Nov. 23, 1804. He was educated
in the schools of his native State and
at Bowdoin College, where he studied
in company with Longfellow, Haw-
thorne, and Prentiss, graduating in.
1824. In 1833 he entered Congress,
serving four years, and in 1837 was
elected to the United States Senate*
being the youngest member of that
body, that contained such men as
Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, Bu-
chanan, and Silas Wright. In 1842
he resigned from the Senate and re-
tired to private life, declining several
public offices tendered him. In 1846
he enlisted for the Mexican War, was
appointed brigadier in the volunteer
army, and led his brigade in the bat-
tles of Contreras and Churubusco. la
1852 he was nominated for the presi-
dency on the 49th ballot, by the Demo-
cratic National Convention, and was
elected by an electoral majority over
General Scott of 254 to 42. During:
his administration the Missouri Com-
promise was repealed, a reciprocity
treaty for trade with the British
American colonies was made ; a treaty
with Japan was established; and th
Mexican boundary disputes settled.
After his term expired, failing of a re-
nomination, he traveled abroad for
three years, and, returning, lived there-
after in retirement at Concord, where
he died, Oct. 8, 1869.
Pierce, Henry Niles, an American
clergyman ; born in Pawtucket, R. L,
Oct 19, 1820. He spent many years
in the West as a missionary, and was
consecrated Protestant Episcopal
Bishop of Arkansas in 1870, being the
first incumbent and holding the office
for 25 years. He published many es-
says, sermons, and reviews ; and a
volumo of poems, etc. He died Sept.
5,1899.
Pierpont, Francis Harrison, an
American statesman \ born in Monon-
galia co., Va. (now W. Va.), in 1815.
At the beginning of the Civil War he
became governor of the counties of
Virginia that remained loyal to the
Union, and were organized as the State
of West Virginia in 18G1 ; was then
governor of all the loyal counties in
Eastern Virginia ; and from June,
1863, till May, 1865, was chief execu-
tive of the present Virginia. He died
in Pittsburg, Pa., March 24, 1899.
Pierrepont, Edwards, an Ameri-
can diplomatist ; born in North
Haven, Conn., March 4, 1817; was
graduated at Yale in 1837, and at its
Law School in 1840; became a mem-
ber of the Ohio bar, and after five
years removed to New York city. He
was elected a judge of the Super'or
Court of New York in 1857. In 1875
he became attorney-general of the
United States in Grant's administra-
tion ; and in the following year was
appointed United States minister to
Great Britain. He tried many fa-
mous cases during his professional ca-
reer, and was noted as an orator. He
died in New York city, March 6, 1892.
Pigeon English, the dialect used
by English and American residents in
China in their dealings with the native
traders. It is a conglomeration of
English and Portuguese words in Chi-
nese idiom.
Pig Iron, iron in oblong masses, or
" pigs," as turned out by the smelting
furnace. The production in the
United States in the calendar year
1907 was the largest on record, 25,-
781,361 long tons, valued at $529,-
958,000, and the world's production
was 60,680,014 metric tons. The
available iron-ore supply of the
United States was estimated at 4,-
478,150,000 long tons; the unavail-
able 75,116,070,000.
Pigments, materials used for im-
parting color, especially in painting,
but also in dyeing or otherwise.
Pika, the calling hare, an animal
nearly allied to the hares. It is found
in North America, Russia, and Si-
beria, and is remarkable for the man-
ner in which it stores up its winter
provision, and also for its voice, the
tone of which so much resembles that
of a quail as to be often mistaken
for it
Pike, a military weapon, consisting
of a narrow, elongated lance-head
fixed to a pole or a simple spike of
metal. The end of the staff had also
a spike for insertion in the ground,
thus allowing a musketeer to keep off
the approach of cavalry while attend-
ing to his other arms. It is now su-
perseded by the bayonet. Also, a fish,
the common pike. It is one of the
larger fresh-water fishes, sometimes at-
taining a length of five or six feet, and
much esteemed for food.
Pike, Albert, an American writer ;
born in Boston, Mass., Dec. 29, 1809.
He became a lawyer in Arkansas,
where he revised the statutes. He
was attorney for the Cherokees, re-
ceiving at one time a fee of $100,000.
In 1839 his "Hymns of the Gods"
was published. He also wrote works
on Masonry. He served in an Arkan-
sas regiment during the Mexican War,
and in the Civil War organized some
Indian regiments which he led in the
battles of Pea Ridge and Elkhorn.
After the war he was editor of the
Memphis "Appeal" till 1868. Died
in Washington, D. C., April 3, 1891.
Pike, Mrs. Mary Hayden
(Green), an American novelist ; born
in Eastport, Me., Nov. 30, 1825. She
will be best remembered as the author
of " Ida May," a novel dealing with
slavery and Southern life, which had
a large sale.
Pike, Zebnlon Montgomery, an
American military officer ; born in
Lamberton, N. J., Jan. 5, 1779; was
appointed an ensign in his father's
regiment in 1799 ; conducted an expe-
dition sent by the government to trace
the Mississippi to its source in 1805;
also made explorations in Louisiana
Territory, discovering Pike's Peak and
reaching the Rio Grande in the course
of his travels. In 1813 he was pro-
moted Brigadier-General, and on April
13 of that year while in command of
the attack on York (now Toronto),
in Upper Canada, was killed.
Pike Perch, a genus of fishes close-
ly allied to the perch, but showing a
resemblance to the pike in its elon-
gated body and head. It occurs in the
fresh waters of North America, such
as the Great Lakes, the Upper Missis-
sippi, and the Ohio.
Pike's Peak, a peak of the Rocky
Mountains, in Colorado, 65 miles S.
Pilate
of Denver, discovered by Captain
Pike, U. S. A., in 1806. It rises to a
height of 14,147 feet. On its sum-
mit is one of the highest meteorolog-
ical stations in the world; while at
the base, at Colorado Springs, there
is a low level station. There is a rail-
way to the top, 9 miles long < (4 1 /^
miles of curves), with a maximum
gradient of 1 in 4.
Pilate, Pontius, a Roman ruler,
who became governor of Judaea, A. D.
26. He commanded in that country
10 years. The Jews brought Jesus
Christ before Pilate, who, perceiving
that envy and malice occasioned their
charges, would have scourged the pris-
oner and dismissed him, but being
threatened with the wrath of Caesar,
Pilate delivered Jesus, whom he pro-
nounced innocent, to be crucified. He
is said to have subsequently treated
the Samaritans with great cruelty, for
which he was recalled by Tiberius,
and banished to Gaul, where he slew
himself, A. D. 37 or 38.
Pilgrimage, a journey undertaken
by a pilgrim ; specifically, a journey
to some distant place, sacred and ven-
erable for some reason, undertaken for
devotional purposes. In Scripture,
the journey of human life. (Gen.
xlvii : 9.) Pilgrimages are an essen-
tial part of the Hindu and Mohamme-
dan systems, and the visits to Jerusa-
lem three times a year of the Jewish
race were of the nature of pilgrimages.
Pilgrim Fathers, the name given
to 102 Puritans, who sailed in the
" Mayflower," from Plymouth, on
Sept. 6. 1620, to seek in America the
religious liberty denied them in Eng-
land. Landing on Plymouth Rock,
they, on Dec. 25, 1620, founded a col-
ony, which became the germ of the
New England States.
Pillory, formerly a common instru-
ment of punishment for persons con-
victed of forestalling, use of unjust
weights, perjury, forgery, libel, etc.
It consisted of a frame of wood, erect-
ed on a pillar or stand, and furnished
with movable boards, resembling those
of the stocks, and holes through which
the offender's head and hands were
put. In this position he was exposed
for a certain time to public view and
insult. The use of the pillory was
abolished in France in 1832, in Eng-
land in 1837, and in the United States
Pilot Fish
about 1839, except in the State of
Delaware.
Pillow, Fort, a defensive work,
erected by the Confederates during the
Civil War, about 40 miles N. of Mem-
phis, Tenn., and abandoned by them,
June, 1862, and occupied by the Union
forces till April, 1864, when it was
taken by the Confederates under Gen-
eral Forrest, and the garrison killed.
Pillow, Gideon Johnson, an
American military officer ; born in
Williamson co., Tenn., June 8, 1806;
served with distinction during the
Mexican War, first as a Brigadier-
General and later as a Major-General
of volunteers. In the Civil War he
was appointed a Brigadier-General in
the Confederate army ; was second in
command at Fort Donelson in Febru-
ary, 1862, and with his chief, Gen.
John B. Floyd, escaped, leaving Gen-
eral Buckner to surrender the fort to
General Grant. He died in Lee co.,
Ark., Oct. 6, 1878.
Pills, medicines made in globules,
of a convenient size for swallowing
whole, the medicine being usually
mixed up with some neutral substance
such as breadcrumbs, hard soap, ex-
tract of liquorice, mucilage, syrup,
treacle, and conserve of roses. The
coverings are liquorice powder, wheat
flour, fine sugar, and lycopodium. In
many cases pills are now enameled or
silvered, which deprives them of most
of their unpleasantness. Pills are a
highly suitable form for administering
medicines which operate in small
doses, or which are intended to act
slowly or not to act at all till they
reach the lower intestines.
Pilot, one who, being properly
qualified by experience, and having
passed certain examinations, is ap-
pointed by the competent authority to
conduct ships into or out of harbor or
along particular coasts, channels, etc.,
at a certain fixed rate, depending on
the draught of the vessel and distance.
The pilot has the entire charge of the
vessel in the pilot's water.
Pilot Fish, a small pelagic fish,
about a foot long, of bluish color,
marked with from five to seven broad,
dark, vertical bars. It owes its sci-
entific and popular English name ^to
its habit of keeping company with
ships and large fish, generally sharks.
Pilot Knoli
Fine
Pilot Knob, a remarkable hill in
Missouri, about 86 miles S. W. of St.
Louis. It is nearly 500 feet high, and
is composed almost entirely of mag-
netic iron ore.
Piloty, Karl von, a German paint-
er ; born in Munich, Bavaria, Oct. 1,
1826. Died in Munich, July 21, 1886.
Pin, a piece of wood, metal, etc.,
generally pointed and used for fasten-
ing separate articles together, or as a
support; a peg, a bolt. Also a small
piece of wire, generally brass, headed
and pointed, used as a fastening, etc.,
since antiquity.
Pins were made by hand of metal in
the 16th century, and were very cost-
ly. Before that time small skewers of
ivory or wood were used. The first
pin-making machine was made in 1824
by an American living in England.
Many improvements have since been
introduced.
Pinchot, GiflPord, an American
forester; born in Simsbury, Conn.,
Aug. 11, 1865; studied forestry in
several European countries; inaugu-
rated the first systematic forestry
work in the United States at Bilt-
more, N. C., in 1892; became chief of
the National Forest Service in 1898
and Professor of Forestry at Yale in
1903; had a notable controversy with
Secretary Ballinger, of the Interior
Department, concerning the conser-
vation of natural resources in Alaska,
in 1908-1910; and was dismissed from
the Forest Service by President Taft
in the latter year.
Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth,
an American statesman ; born in
Charleston, S. C., Feb. 25, 1746. He
was Washington's aide-de-camp at the
battles of Brandywine and German-
town, and afterward, as colonel, saw
much active service, till 1780, when he
was taken prisoner at the surrender
of Charleston, and retained till the
close of the war. A member of the
convention that framed the Constitu-
tion of the United States (1787), he
introduced the clause forbidding relig-
ious tests as a qualification for office.
He declined the secretaryship of war
in 1794, and of state in 1795 ; in 1796
he was sent as minister to France, but
the Directory refused to receive him,
and he had to quit the country. It
was while on this mission that, when
it was intimated that peace might be
granted in return for a money pay-
ment, he made the reply, " Millions for
defense, but not a cent for tribute."
In 1800-1808 he was thrice an un-
successful Federalist candidate for the
presidency. He died Aug. 16, 1825.
Pinckney, Thomas, an American
diplomatist, brother of Charles C. ;
born in Charleston, S. C., Oct. 23,
1750. In the Revolutionary War as
aide to General Lincoln he distin-
guished himself at the assault on
Savannah and was severely wounded
at Camden in August, 1780. He was
governor of South Carolina in 1787-
1789 ; United States minister to Great
Britain in 1792-1794, and to Spain in
1794-1796 ; a Federalist candidate for
the presidency in 1796; and member
of Congress in 1797-1801. He died in
Charleston, Nov. 2, 1828.
Pindar, th<* great Greek lyric poet ;
born in or near Thebes, in Bceotia,
about 522 B. c. Pindar excelled in all
varieties of choral poetry, hymns to
the gods, paeans, odes for processions,
drinking songs, etc. But the only
poems of his now extant are the
" Epinikia, or Triumphal Odes," com-
posed in celebration of victories at the
great public games, the Olympian,
Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. Pin-
dar attained the highest renown in his
own age, and as a lyrical poet has no
rival. When Thebes was destroyed by
Alexander, the conqueror spared the
house of Pindar. He died in 443 B. c.
Pine, a genus of trees of the natural
order Conifers?,. The Linnsean genus
includes all kinds of fir, larch, and
cedar ; but as now limited the genus
Pinus is distinguished by monrecious
flowers and woody cones with numer-
ous two-seeded scales, the scales hav-
ing an angular truncated apex. The
leaves are linear and very narrow, of
a very dark green color, growing in
clusters or in pairs, and surrounded
by scarious scales at the base. To
this genus belong many noble and use-
ful trees. Many species of pines,
some of them very beautiful and very
valuable, are found in North America.
Besides those long known, and which
are found in the States and colonies
near the Atlantic, a number of the
noblest species of this genus have, dur-
ing the 19th century, been discovered
in California and the N. W. parts of
the Continent. The red Canadian
Pineapple
pine is found from Canada to the Pa-
cific, but does not reach far S. in the
United States. It is the yellow pine
of Canada and Nova Scotia.
Pineapple, a plant of the natural
order Bromeliacea?. The flowers rise
from the center of the plant, and
are in a large conical spike, sur-
mounted by spiny leaves called the
crown. The conical spike of flowers
ultimately becomes enlarged and juicy,
constituting the pineapple, considered
PINEAPPLE.
one of the finest of fruits. More than
50 varieties have been produced. The
plant grows in the S. portion of the
United States and in Hawaii. In the
islands they sometimes reach the
weight of 17 pounds, though the aver-
age weight is six. Since 1883 there
have been large exports of 'this fruit
from the various islands.
Pine Bluff, city and capital of
Jefferson county, Ark.; on the Arkan-
sas river and several railroads; 48
miles S. E. of Little Rock; is the
trade center of a large farming sec-
tion; makes extensive shipments of
hides and cotton; manufactures cot-
ton-seed oil and meal, flour and grist,
cotton-gins, bank furniture, and ma-
chinery; and contains the Merrill In-
stitute, a Normal College for colored
students, and large railroad shops.
Pop. (1910) 15,102.
Ping-Pong, table lawn tennis, a
game that was introduced from Eug-
Pinkney
land and became very popular in the
United States. The game is played
very much as is the regular game of
tennis.
Pingree, Hazen S., an American
manufacturer ; born in Denmark, Me.,
Aug. 30, 1842. He enlisted in the
United States army in 1862; served
throughout the war and was in the
principal battles. At the close of the
war he settled in Detroit, Mich., and
engaged in the shoe business, subse-
quently becoming the head of the
largest factory of its kind in the West.
He was elected mayor of Detroit in
1889, on the Reform ticket. His
radical ideas on the reform of monop-
olies, etc., caused much agitation, es-
pecially in connection with street car
companies. He also instituted the
" potato patch," a scheme for employ-
ing applicants for charity in product-
ive labor, a plan which has been
adopted by other cities. In 1896 he
was elected governor of Michigan,
holding the office of mayor also, till
March 19, 1897, when according to a
decision of the Supreme Court he re-
linquished the latter office. He was
reflected governor in 1898. He died
June 18, 1901.
Pinkerton, Allan, an American
detective ; born in Glasgow, Scotland,
Aug. 25, 1819. In 1840 he went to
Canada and thence to Chicago, where
in 1850 he joined the detective depart-
ment. Subsequently he organized the
detective agency which still bears his
name. He wrote many interesting
stories of his experiences, which were
afterward collected in one volume. He
died July 1, 1884.
Pinkney, William, an American
diplomatist ; born in Annapolis, Md.,
March 17, 1764; was admitted to the
bar in. 1786; was a member of the
Legislature of his State that ratified
the Constitution of the United States.
In 1796 Washington appointed him a
commissioner to determine the claims
of American merchants to compensa-
tion for losses and damages caused by
the English government. In 1806 he
was sent with James Monroe to treat
with the English government regarding
the latter's repeated violations of the
rights of neutrals and was resident
minister in London in 1807-1811,
when President Madison appointed
him attorney-general of the United
Pinnated Grouse
Piplstrell*
States. In 1816 he was -appointed
minister to Russia and special envoy
to Naples. After his return in 1818
he resumed law practice. In 1820 he
was elected to the United States Sen-
ate. He died in Washington, D. G..
Dec. 25, 1822.
Pinnated Grouse, known also as
the prairie hen, or prairie chicken.
The male is remarkable as possessing
two erectile tufts in the nape, and an
air bladder (connected with the wind-
pipe, and capable of inflation) on each
side of the neck, in color and shape re-
sembling small oranges ; general plu-
mage brown, mottled with a darker
shade ; habitat, prairies of the Mis-
sissippi valley, from Louisiana, N.
Pint, a measure of capacity used
both for dry and liquid measures. It
contains 34.65925 cubic inches, or the
eighth part of a gallon. In medicine
it is equivalent to 12 ounces.
Pintail Duck, has the upper parts
and flanks ash, with narrow stripes of
PINTAIL DUCK.
black ; under parts white ; head umber-
brown ; tail pointed. It inhabits the
N. of America and Europe.
Pinzon, Vincent Yancz, and
Martin Alonzo (brothers), Spanish
navigators, who had commands in Co-
lumbus' first voyage, and by whose ex-
ertions mainly it was that a sufficient
number of men were induced to risk
their lives on this perilous enterprise.
Vincent Yanez was the more distin-
guished of the brothers ; he made sev-
eral voyages, on the most important
of which he sailed in December, 1499,
and discovered Brazil and the river
Amazon, three months before Cabral
took possession of South America for
the crown of Portugal.
Pioneer, one of a body of soldiers
equipped with pickax, spade, etc.,
whose duty it is to clear and repair
roads, bridges, etc., as far as possible,
for troops on the march. They are
placed at the head of the battalion of
which they form a part, and are com-
manded by a pioneer sergeant. Also,
one who goes before to prepare or
clear the way, or remove obstructions
for another, especially in the settle-
ment of a new region.
Pipa, a genus of Batrachian reptiles,
closely allied to the common toad, but
distinguished by the body being hori-
zontally flattened, the head large and
triangular, tongue wanting, tympanum
concealed beneath the skin, the eyes
small, placed near the margin of the
upper jaw. The best-known species is
the Surinam toad, which is consider-
ably larger than the common toad of
this country.
Pipe, a wine-measure, usually con-
taining two hogsheads or 105 imperial
or 126 wine gallons ; two pipes or 210
imperial gallons make a tun. The
size of the pipe varies according to
the kind of wine contained ; a pipe of
Madeira contains 110 wine gallons ; of
sherry, 130 ; of port, nearly 138, and
Lisbon, 140.
Pipe Clay, a rariety of clay adapt-
ed by its plasticity and freedom from
impurities for the manufacture of
pipes.
Pipefish, a fish distinguished by a
long, slender, tapering body, and by
jaws united to form a tube or pipe,
bearing the mouth at the tip. There
are several species.
Piping Crow, a bird from New
South Wales. It has great powers of
mimicry; called also the flute player.
Pipistrelle, the most widely dis-
tributed of the bats; color reddish-
brown, paler beneath. The wings ex-
tend down to the base of the toes, and
their membrane, like that of the ears,
is of a dusky tint. This bat is spe-
cially a dweller in temperate regions,
its period of hibernation is short, and
the tail is used as an organ of prehen-
sion.
Pipit
Pipit, or Titlark, a genus of
perching birds possessing striking
affinities with the larks, which they
resemble in the large size of the hinder
claw, but commonly classed with the
"wagtails, which they closely resemble
in their habits of running swiftly on.
the ground. One species is common
in the United States. All the pipits
build their nests on the ground. The
Bong in all consists of a clear, simple
note.
Pippi Giulio. See GiUlJO Ro-
HANO.
Piracy, the act, practice, or crime
of robbing on the high seas. This
offense at common law consists in
committing those acts of robbery and
depredation on the high seas which if
committed upon land would have
amounted to felony there. But other
offenses have, by various statutes, been
made piracy, and liable to the same
penalty. Thus trading with, or in any
PIPEFISH.
way aiding, known pirates, is piracy.
So, too, any commander or seaman of
a ship who runs away with any ship,
boat, goods, etc., or who voluntarily
delivers such up to any pirate, is
guilty of piracy. Any one who con-
veys or removes any person as a slave
is also by statute law of most civilized
nations guilty of piracy. The penalty
is death, or some lesser punishment.
The most famous execution of pirates
was on the beach at Newport, Rhode
Island, in the colonial period, when
30 pirates from one vessel were hanged
at one time.
Pirai, or Piraya, a voracious
fresh-water fish of tropical America.
It is three or four feet in length, and
its jaws are armed with sharp lancet-
shaped teeth, from which cattle when
fording rivers sometimes suffer ter-
ribly.
Pisa
Pisa, a city of Central Italy, capi-
tal of the province of Pisa, on the
Arno, 8 miles from its mouth, 13 miles
N. E. of Leghorn, and 50 miles W. of
Lucca. The walls are 5 miles in
circuit. The Arno flows through the
city, and is crossed by several bridges,
'the principal one being of fine marble.
The cathedral, with its attendant
buildings, the baptistery, the cemetery
and the belfry, is perhaps, the finest
specimen that exists of the style of
building called by the Italians the
Gotico-Moresco. The most remarkable
buildings in Pisa are the Campo Santo
and the belfry, or campanile, a cylin-
drical tower, 178 feet in height, con-
structed of successive rows of pillars,
chiefly of marble; it is extremely
graceful in its proportions, but its
chief peculiarity consists in its in-
clination about 13 feet out of the per-
pendicular, whence it is commonly
called the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The
University of Pisa is one of the oldest
in Italy; it has 56 professors and
about 1,000 students. Galileo, who was
a native of Pisa, was formerly one of
the professors. Pop. 61,321.
Pisa, Council of, a church council
generally included in those called
ecumenical, met and opened in Pisa
March 25, 1409, and the 23d and last
session of which was held Aug. 7 fol-
lowing. Its aim was to end the schism
which had divided the Western Church
for 30 years ; and with this view the
leading cardinals, finding that neither
of the rival Popes, Gregory XII. and
Benedict XIII., would keep their
promises to abdicate, had set aside the
claims of both, and themselves con-
voked a general council. It was at-
tended from first to last by 24 car-
dinals, 4 patriarchs, 80 bishops, 102
proctors of bishops, 87 abbots, 200
delegates of abbots, besides many gen-
erals of orders, doctors, deputies of
universities, and ambassadors. After
the rival Popes failed to appear in
obedience to its summons, the council
formally tried the claims of both in
turn, and deposed them as schismatics
and heretics. The cardinals then
formed themselves into conclave and
elected Cardinal Philargi, who as-
sumed the name of Alexander V. But
the council, instead of getting rid of
the contending Popes, had only add^i
a third, and the Church of Roma-
Pisces
Pitcairn Isla id
continued to be distracted for eight
years longer, down to the time of the
Council of Constance.
Pisces, in astronomy, the 12th and
last of the zodiacal constellations.
Pisgali, a name that seems to have
applied generally to the mountain
range or district to the E. of the Low-
er Jordan, identical with, or itself a
part of, the mountains of Abarrim,
one of the summits of which is Mount
Nebo (the modern Neba), 2,644 feet
above the level of the Mediterranean.
From this point Moses enjoyed his
glimpse of the Promised Land, in early
spring.
PISA : LEANING TOWER AND CATHEDRAL
Pisistratns, a citizen of Athens
who raised himself to the sovereign
authority in the time of Solon (to
whom he was related) 560 B. c. He
was a beneficent ruler, and did much
to promote the rise of Greek literature.
We owe to him the poems of Homer
in their present form, Pisistratus hav-
ing collected them, as they were scat-
tered in detached parts throughout
Greece, and given them orderly ar-
rangement.
Pisquow, or Fisuqnitpah., a tribe
of North American Indians living for-
merly on the Wenatchee or Pisquow
river, Washington. The name has also
been used collectively and applied to-
the Methow and other tribes in Okano-
gan county of that State. They are
now on the Yakima reservation,
Washington.
Pistacio Nut, the fruit of the pis-
tacia vera. The kernel is very oily, of
a peculiar flavor and bright green in
color, and is much used in confec-
tions, etc.
Pistole, a gold coin once current in
Spain, France, and the neighboring
countries ; and its average value was
about $3.85.
Pita Flax, flax made from the fiber
of the maguey and used for twine,
rope, hammock meshes, etc. In Mexi-
co it is also used for oakum. La-
billardiere found that its strength is
to that of common flax as 7 to 11%.
Fitaval, Francois Gayot de, a
French lawyer ; compiler of the fa-
mous collection of " Celebrated
Cases " ; born in 1673, served in the
army, but became an advocate, and
was known as an industrious and
painsfaking compiler. Of his great
work there have been numerous abridg-
ments, continuations, and transla-
tions ; and his name has become so
identified with the collecting of crim-
inal cases that a similar work, pub-
lished by various editors in Leipsic in
1843 and succeeding years, was called
"A New Pitaval." He died in 1743.
Pitcairn Island, a solitary island
in the Pacific Ocean, between Aus-
tralia and South America, in lat. 25
3' S. and Ion. 130 8' W., measures
2% miles by 1 mile. In 1790 it was
taken possession of by nine of the
mutineers of H. M. S. " Bounty," with
six Tahitian men and 12 women, the
ringleader being called Christian. Ac-
cording to one account, the white men
and the Tahitians murdered each oth-
er at intervals, till at the end of 10
years John Adams was left alone,
with eight or nine women and several
children ; and from them the present
inhabitants of the island are descend-
ed. Adams, changed by these tragic
adventures, and sobered by his re-
sponsibilities, set about the education
of his companions in Christian prin-
ciples. The little colony was un-
known to the world till 1808, when it
Pitch
was " discovered " by Captain Folger
of the American sealing ship " To-
paz " ; the first British vessel to visit
it did not arrive till 1814. The island
was annexed to Great Britain in 1839.
Nearly 200 of the islanders were trans-
ferred to Norfolk Island in 1856, but
a number of them afterward returned.
Pitcairn Island enjoys a lovely cli-
mate ; its mountainous surface reaches
1,008 feet in Outlook Ridge; the soil
is fertile, and produces yams, cocoa-
nuts, bread fruit, sweet potatoes,
bananas, etc. The people bear a high
character for virtue, contentedness and
uprightness, and choose their own pas-
tor and magistrate.
Pitch, a term applied to a variety
of resinous substances of a dark color
and brilliant luster, obtained from the
various kinds of tar produced in the
destructive distillation of wood, coal,
etc. Pitch is extensively used in ship-
building for closing seams, also for
coating and preserving wood and iron.
Pitchblende, or Uraninite. See
RADIUM.
Pitcher Plant. The name is ap-
plied to any plant with a pitcher-like
appendage. The California pitcher
plant is well known in that region.
Pitch Stone, a vitreous rock of
pitch-like luster and imperfect con-
ehoidal fracture; brittle. Analyses
indicate that it is probably a vitreous
form of quartz, felsite, or of trachyte.
Color mostly blackish-green or dark
olive-green.
Pitchnrim Beans, the name given
to a South American species of laurel,
the drupes of which are used by choco-
late makers as a substitute for vanilla.
Pithecanthropus Erectus, the
name given to the fossil remains of a
prehistoric animal found in Java, and
which represents a form intermediate
between man and the higher apes. Re-
cent explorations indicate that this
animal may yet be living in remote
Java forests.
Pithom, one of the store cities
which the children of Israel built for
Pharaoh (Exod. i: 11), conclusively
identified in 1883 by the excavations of
M. Naville with the deserted Arab
village Tell El-Maskhuta, on the fresh-
water canal and railway line from
Cairo to Ismailia. about half-way be-
tween Ismailia and Tell El-Kebir.
Pittsburg
Pitman, Benn, an American pho-
nographer ; born in Trowbridge, Eng-
land, July 24, 1822; brother of Sir
Isaac Pitman, the inventor of phonog-
raphy ; was educated in his brother's
academy ; lectured and taught phonog-
raphy throughout Great Britain for
10 years. He came to the United
States in 1853, and founded the Pho-
nographic Institute in Cincinnati ; in-
vented the electro-process of relief en-
graving; was military recorder of
State trials in the Civil War. D. 1910.
Pitman, Sir Isaac, an English
stenographer ; born in Trowbridge,
England, Jan. 4, 1813. He was the
inventor of the phonetic system of
shorthand writing and published his
first treatise on the subject entitled
" Stenographic Soundhand " in 1837.
He was the head of the Phonetic Insti-
tute at Bath, and was identified with
the spelling reform. He died Jan.
22, 1897.
Pitt, 'William, an English states-
man ; born in Hayes, England, May
28, 1759 ; was educated at Cambridge
University ; studied law and was elect-
ed to Parliament in 1780. In 1783
he became prime minister ; was active
in the negotiations of peace with the
United States, and was instrumental
in the passage of many important
measures. He died in Putney, Eng-
land, Jan. 23, 1806. For the elder
Pitt see Chatham.
Pittsburg (according to its city
charter, Pittsburgh), a city, port of
entry, and county-seat of Allegheny
co., Pa. ; at the confluence of the
Monougahela and Allegheny rivers,
353 miles W. of Philadelphia; area,
41 square miles; pop. (1910), includ-
ing Allegheny city, 533,905.
The city owns a waterworks system,
costing over $7,000,000. The reser-
voirs have a storage capacity of 68,-
000,000 gallons, and the water is dis-
tributed through 300 miles of mains.
There are in all 230 miles of streets,
of which 200 miles are paved. The
sewer system covers 220 miles. The
city is lighted by electricity. The an-
nual death rate averages 19 per 1,000.
The principal public buildings are
the Allegheny court house, the Car-
negie Library and Institute, with
museum, music hall, and art gallery,
find having an endowment of $2,000,-
000 ; the United States Government
iPittsfield
Building, the West Pennsylvania Ex-
position Society's Buildings; Munici-
pal Hall; United States Arsenal, and
the Western State Penitentiary.
The two chief industries are the pro-
duction of iron and steel ; but there
are many other flourishing manufac-
tures. The city is well known as the
Iron City, for there is nothing in the
iron industry which is not here man-
ufactured. The capacity of the iron
mills is over 800,000 tons annually,
and that of the Bessemer steel mills
upward of 400,000 tons. There are in
Pittsburg besides blast furnaces and
iron and steel works over 1,500 man-
ufacturing establishments, employing
more than 60,000 persons. The schools
are flourishing and their accommoda-
tions keep pace with increasing popu-
lation. There are over 200 churches
in Pittsburg. The most important of
these are Trinity (P. E.), St. Peter's
(P. E.), First Presbyterian, United
Evangelical (German), First Baptist,
English Evangelical, etc.
In 1754, at the suggestion of George
Washington, the English began to
erect a blockhouse on the present site
of the city. They were driven away
by the French, who built a fort at the
junction of the two rivers and named
it Du Quesne. In 1758, after two
unsuccessful attempts to retake the
place, the English under General
Forbes made a third attempt, and the
French burned and evacuated the fort.
In the following year another fort was
erected here, named in honor of Will-
iam Pitt. The British withdrew from
the post in 1772, and it was held by
Virginia in 1775-1779. The place was
incorporated as a city March 18, 1816.
In 1877 a railroad strike and riot oc-
curred in which much damage was
done to railroad property, and for
which Allegheny county had to settle
at a cost of $4,000,000.
I Pittsfield, city and capital of
Berkshire county, Mass.; on the
Housatonic river and the Boston &
Maine and other railroads; 40 miles
N. W. of Springfield; is chiefly en-
gaged in the manufacture of cotton,
woolen, and knit goods, electrical
apparatus, flour, silk, and shoes; con-
tains a beautiful white marble Court
House, Berkshire Athenaeum, with
Historical Society, Public Library,
and Museum and Art Gallery, St. Jo-
Fins
soph's Cathedral (R. C.), Bishop
Training School for Nurses, head-
quarters of the Agassiz Association,
House of Mercy, and a public park
with statue of " The Color Bearer."
Pop. (1910) 32,121.
Pins, the name of a number of
Popes, as follows:
Pius I., succeeded Hyginus in 142,
and died in 157
Pius II. (^Eneas Sylvani
colomini); born in Tuscany in 1405,
was chosen to succeed Calixtus III.
in 1458, and died in 1464.
Pius V. (Michele Ghislieri) ; born
in Piedmont in 1504, and early
entered the Dominican order. He so
distinguished himself by his austere
life, and his zeal against " heretics,"
that he was appointed inquisitor in
Lombardy, and afterward inquisitor-
general. He was created cardinal in
1557, and was chosen to succeed Pius
IV., in 1566. He died in May, 1572.
Pius VI. (Giovanni Angelo Bras-
chi) ; born in Cesena in 1717, and
succeeded Clement XIV. in 1775.
His first act was to make a reform in
the public treasury; he then com-
pleted the museum in the Vatican ;
but the greatest work of his pontificate
was the draining of the Pontine
marshes. Basseyille was sent as envoy
from the republic of France to Rome,
where he behaved with so much in-
solence, that the people assassinated
him in 1793. General Duphot entered
the city with his troops to restore or-
der, but the papal soldiers routed them,
and Duphot was slain. On this Bona-
parte entered Italy, and made the
Pope prisoner in the capitol, which
was plundered. The venerable pontiff
was carried away by the victors, and
hurried over the Alps to Valence,
where he died Aug. 29, 1799.
Pius VII. (Gregorio Barnaba
Chiaramonti) ; born in Cesena, in
1742 ; became a Benedictine monk ;
was created cardinal in 1785, and after
the death of Pius VI., was chosen,
after long deliberations of the con-
clave, to succeed him March, 1800. In
1804 the Pope went to Paris and
crowned Napoleon emperor, returning
to Rome in May, 1805. Soon after
Ancona was seized by the French, and
the great quarrel between Napoleon
and the Pope began. Pius was ar-
rested by the French officer Miollis
Pius
and sent to Savona, and afterward to
Fontainebleau, whence he was not per-
mitted to return to Italy till January,
1814. The Congress of Vienna re-
stored the States of the Church to
the Pope, who applied himself thence-
forth to internal reforms. He re-
established the Jesuits and the In-
quisition. He died, Aug. 20, 1823.
Pius VIII. (Cardinal Castiglione) ,
became Pope in succession to Leo
XII., in 1829. After a short pontifi-
cate of one year, he died in 1830.
Pius IX. (Giovanni Mario Mastai
Ferretti) ; born in Singaglia, May 13,
1790 ; was intended for the army, but
resolved to devote himself to the
Church. He was nominated by Pius
VII. on a mission to the government
of Chile, and immediately on his re-
turn to Rome he was appointed by Leo
XII. to one of the most important of
the ecclesiastico-civil departments of
administration. Iii 1840 he was created
Cardinal-Archbishop of Imola, in the
Romagna. Pope Gregory XVI. died
June 1, 1846, and Cardinal Ferretti
was elected to the papacy under the
name of Pius IX., June 16. But the
French Revolution of 1848 gave a
much more powerful impulse to the en-
thusiasm of the Italian patriots. These
sweeping changes the Pope was not
prepared to support, and from that
moment his popularity began to de-
cline. The popular disaffection was
greatly increased on his taking for his
minister Count Rossi, one of the most
aristocratic and unpopular men in
Rome. Count Rossi was assassinated
Nov. 15, and Pius himself, a few days
later, escaped from Rome in disguise,
and arrived safely in Gaeta, the first
town in the Neapolitan territory,
whither he was followed by the mem-
bers of the papal court and the diplo-
matic corps. The Pope remained near-
ly a year and a half at Gaeta and
Portici. During his absence, Rome,
which was in the possession of the
nat'ive troops under Garibaldi, was
besieged, and at last taken by storm
by the French army under General
Oudinot, after sustaining some re-
verses. The Pope left Portici, April
4, 1850, escorted by Neapolitan and
French dragoons, and accompanied by
the King of Naples and several mem-
bers of his family. He crossed the
frontier at Terracina, April 6, and re-
entered Rome April 12, amid the
Plus
thunder of French cannon. His chief
ecclesiastical acts are the formal def-
inition of the dogma of the Immaculate
Conception, in December, 1854; and
the bull summoning the Ecumenical
Council of 1809-1870, which promul-
gated the doctrine of papal infallibil-
ity. In September, 1870, the French
troops were withdrawn from Rome,
and in October the States of the
Church were annexed to the kingdom
of Italy, thus ending the temporal
power of the Popes. He died Feb. 7,
1878.
Pius X., the present Pope of Rome,
family name Giuseppe Sarto (in En-
glish, Joseph Taylor), is an Italian,
a native of Treviso, where he was
born in 1835. It is a curious coinci-
dence that in 1303, exactly six hun-
dred years ago, another native of Tre-
viso was elected Pope. The Sarto
family consisted of two boys and six
girls. Giuseppe was the younger
brother. The family was poor, and
to this day all the members are in
humble life. The new Pope's elder
brother holds a small office under the
Government, for which he receives a
salary of eighty dollars a year. Two
of his sisters, being unmarried, have
resided with their now famous brother.
He performed the duties of a humble
parish priest until 1884, when Pope
Leo made him Bishop of Mantua, and,
nine years later, he was made a Car-
dinal and Patriarch of Venice. He
took no part in the political affairs of
the Church, and seldom went to Rome,
but devoted himself to his own diocese,
where he won the respect of Protest-
ants, as well as Catholics, by his
charities, his interest in social re-
forms, and his kindness and courtesy.
It is stated that he was so generous
in his gifts to the poor of his diocese,
that he impoverished himself to such
a degree that he has been known to
pawn his official ring, to provide him-
self with funds for a temporary emer-
gency. It was noticed after his elec-
tion to the Pontificate, by a Cardinal
who was making an appointment with
him, that he was wearing a nickel
watch, with a common silk guard.
He has chosen to be called Pius X.,
but the inferences usually drawn from
the choice of a name are ar fault in
this instance, as it is not known which
of his nine predecessors of that name
Flute
he regards as a model. He is said to
be a man of profound learning and
sterling honesty of character. Ameri-
cans who haw met him say that in
personal appearance and manner he
bears a striking resemblance to the
late Phillips Brooks. He has dis-
pensed with some of the stately sur-
roundings which the late Pope main-
tained. He was elected Aug. 4, 1903.
Piutc. See PAIUTE.
Pizarro, Francisco, a Spanish ex-
plorer, the conqueror of Peru. He
embarked in 1510, with some other ad-
venturers, for America ; and, in 1524,
he associated at Panama with Diego
de Almagro and Hernandez Lucque, a
priest, in an enterprise to make fresh
discoveries. In this voyage they
reached the coast of Peru, but being
too few to make any attempt at a set-
tlement, Pizarro returned to Spain.
Having raised some money, he was en-
abled again, in 1531, to visit Peru,
where a civil war was raging between
Huascar, the legitimate monarch, and
his half-brother, Atahualpa, the reign-
ing inca. Pizarro, by pretending to
take the part of the latter, was per-
mitted to march into the interior where
he made the unsuspecting king prison-
er; then extorting from him, as it is
Baid, a house full of the precious
metals by way of ransom, he had him
tried for a pretended conspiracy, and
condemned him to be burned, allow-
ing him first to be strangled, as a re-
ward for becoming a Christian. In
1533 the conqueror laid the founda-
tion of Lima ; but, in 1537, a contest
erose between him and Almagro, who
was defeated and executed. Pizarro
was murdered by Almagro's followers,
June 26, 1541.
Pizarro, Gonzalo, half brother of
the preceding ; born in 1502. His
brother appointed him governor of
Quito in 1540, and after the assas-
sination of Francisco, he raised an
army against the new viceroy, Blasco
Nunez, and the latter was defeated
and slain near Quito in 1546. But
Pizarro^ did not long enjoy his suc-
cess, being beaten, taken prisoner, and
beheaded in 1548.
Plague, a peculiarly malignant
fever of the continued and contagious
type, now believed to be almost identic-
al with the worst kinds of typhus
fever. The plague seems to have
Plain
been the black death of the 14th cen-
tury. It was known by the name of
plague when, in 1665, it slew in Lon-
don 68,596 people, about one-third of
the population.
In th summer of 1896 a very malig-
nant form of disease, known as the
" bubonic " plague, made its appear-
ance in Bombay, India, and spread
with great rapidity. The bubonic
plague receives its name from the
fact that it attacks the lymphatic
glands in the neck, armpits, groin,
and other parts of the body. In gen-
eral, the disease is spread in the same
manner as cholera, except that the
cholera germ must enter the intestinal
tract, while the germ of the plague
may attack any part of the mucous
membran^ or be admitted by even the
minutest abrasion of the skin. But
while this germ is so virile and so
easily taken into the system, it is one
of the most easily killed by disin-
fection.
The Ten Plagues of Egypt were 10
inflictions divinely sent upon the
Egyptians to compel them te emanci-
pate the Israelites from bondage and
allow them to quit the land. The
first plague consisted in the turning
of the waters of Egypt into blood ;
the second, of frogs that covered the
land; the third, of lice annoying both
man and beast ; the fourth of grievous
swarms of flies; the fifth, of murrain
that attacked the live stock ; the sixth,
of boils " breaking forth with blains
upon man and upon beast " ; the sev-
enth, a severe thunder storm accom-
panied by destructive hail ; the eighth,
a plague of locusts that ate what the
hail had spared ; the ninth, a darkness
that could be felt ; the tenth, the death
of the firstborn of man and beast
among the Egyptians.
Plain, an expanse of low-lying ter-
ritory as distinguished from a table-
land or plateau. Speaking broadly,
the Western Hemisphere is the region
of plains, and the Eastern of table-
lands. Nevertheless, the former has
in it what is called the Great North-
ern plain, extending, with the one
break hi the Ural Mountains, from the
shores of the Atlantic nearly to Ber-
ing's Strait, and from the Arctic Ocean
to the Caucasus and Altai Moun-
tains. In this hemisphere are the
Great Central and the Atlantic plains
Flainfield
Plaster of Paris
of North America, and the great
South American plain. " The Plains "
was a vast stretch of country of
the United States which emigrants
crossed in going to the Pacific, now
divided into prosperous States.
Flainfield, a city in Union ceunty,
N. J.; on the Central Railroad of New
Jersey and a continuation of the Or-
ange Mountains; 24 miles W. by S. of
New York city; is largely a beautiful
residential place, but has manufac-
tories of printing-presses, safes, cloth-
ing, hats, and machinery; and contains
Muhlenberg Hospital, and public
library. Pop. (1910) 20,550.
Plane Tree. Tall trees with pon-
derous trunks, the bark of which peels
off annually, leaving the surface
smooth and bare. American plane
tree has less deeply divided and in-
dented leaves than the plane tree of
Western Asia and Cashmere, and no
membranous bracts along the female
flowers. On the banks of the Ohio
and the Mississippi there are trees 10
to 16 feet in diameter. Called in the
United States also, buttonwood and
water beech, and sycamore, and in
Canada, cotton tree.
Planet, a heavenly body which, to
old-time observers, seemed to wander
about aimlessly in the sky. Sub-
sequently it was discovered that the
seemingly erratic bodies were as reg-
ular in their movements as the others,
revolving, like the earth, around the
eun. Shining only with reflected light,
they gleam with a steady radiance in
place of twinkling like the fixed stars.
Planetoids, the name given to a
great group of minute planets placed
together between Mars and Jupiter.
On Jan. 1, 1801, a planetary body,
afterward called Ceres, was found in
the part of the solar system theoretic-
ally indicated ; it was far more di-
minutive in size than had been ex-
pected. Within the next six years three
more asteroids (Pallas, Juno, and
Vesta) were found in proximity to
Ceres, and up to November, 1898,
426 of these small planets had been
discovered, 70 by Americans. All are
of minute size, and some angular in
place of spherical.
Plank, Fort, or Fort Blank, a
Revolutionary fort in Montgomery co.,
N. Y., 2 miles N. W. of Fort Plain.
Plantagenets, the surname of a
line of English kings of French origin
on the paternal side Henry II. of
England, the first of the line, ascended
the English throne in 1154, and his
descendants reigned during 331 years,
the last monarch of the line being
Richard III., who fell at the battle of
Bosworth, in 1485. In the 14th cen-
tury the line became divided into two-
great rival factions, those of York
and of Lancaster, known as the parties
of the Red and White Rose.
Plantain, a small tree closely akin
to the banana, from which it differs in
not having purple spots on its stem.
The fruit also is larger and more
angular. It is very delicious and is
thoroughly wholesome. The name plan-
tain is also applied to a common weed,
the seeds of which are used as food
for birds.
Plantain Eaters, a family of Pie-
like birds, of African distribution,
arboreal habits, and vegetarian diet.
Plantation, a term formerly used
to designate a colony. The term was
latterly applied to an estate in the
Southern States, the West Indies, etc.,
cultivated chiefly by negroes. The
term planter is applied to the owner
of a plantation.
Plantin, Christophe, a French
printer ; born in St. Avertin, near
Tours, in 1514, and settled as a book-
binder at Antwerp in 1549 ; some six
years later he began to print. The
most noted of all his publications is
the " Biblia Polyglotta." Plantin's
editions of the Bible in Latin, Hebrew,
and Dutch, and editions of the Greek
and Latin classics, are scarcely less
celebrated. He set up printing es-
tablishments in Leyden and Paris, and
these, with that in Antwerp, were car-
ried on by the husbands of his daugh-
ters. His office in Antwerp remained
in the possession of the descendants of
John Moretus, his son-in-law, till it
was bought by the city in 1876 for
$240,000; out of it was created the
" Musee Plantin." Plantin died in
Antwerp, July 1, 1589.
Plaster, calcined gypsum or sul-
phate of lime, used, when mixed with
water, for finishing walls, molds, etc.
Plaster of Paris, the name given
to gypsum when ground and used fo^
taking casts, etc.
Plata
Plata, Rio de la, River of Silver
a body of water which extends fo:
more than 200 miles between the Ar
gentine Republic and Uruguay, an<
. is not, strictly speaking, a river, bu
rather an estuary, formed by the June
tion of the great rivers Parana anc
Uruguay. It flows into the Atlantk
between. Cape St. Antonio and Cape
St. Mary> and has here a width of 170
miles. It was discovered in 1515 by
Juan Diaz de Solis, and called Dio de
Solis ; it owes its present name to the
famous navigator Cabot.
Plating, the act, art, or process ol
covering articles with a thin coating
of metal ; especially the art of cover-
ing baser metals with a thin coating
of gold or silver.
Platinum, a tetrad metallic ele-
ment discovered first in the United
States ; and still largely produced
there, also found in the Ural chain,
and in copper ore from the Alps. Pure
forged platinum takes a high luster, is
nearly as white as silver, and very
ductile and malleable. It resists the
strongest heat of the forge fire, but
can be fused by the electric current ;
is the heaviest known substance ex-
cepting osmium and iridium, is un-
alterable in the air, dissolves slowly in
nitromuriatic acid, but is not at-
tacked by any single acid.
Plato, a Greek philosopher ; born in
Athens or in JEgina, in May, 429 B. c.,
the year in which Pericles died. He
was a disciple of Socrates, and after
the death of that philosopher Plato
himself became a teacher in the plane
tree grove of the Academia. He had
a great number of disciples, many of
whom became eminent teachers. Among
them was Aristotle, distinguished as
the " Mind of the School," and per-
haps Demosthenes. Women are said
to have attended. In his 40th year,
Plato visited Sicily, but he offended
the tyrant Dionysius by the political
opinions he uttered, and only escaped
death through the influence of his
friend, Dion. Two later visits to the
court of the younger Dionysius were
the only interruptions to his calm life
as a teacher and writer at Athens.
He died in the act of writing, it is
said, in May, 347 B. c.
Platoff, Matvei Ivanovich,
Count, a Russian general ; born in
Azov, Russia, Aug. 17, 1757. He
Platte
served in the Turkish campaign of
1770-1771 ; he took part in the cam-
paigns against the French, 1805-1807.
He was enthusiastically welcomed, and
presented with a sword of honor on
the occasion of his visit to London in
company with Blucher. After the war
he retired to his own country, and
died near Tcherkask, Jan. 15, 1818.
Platonic Love, an affection sub-
sisting between two persons of differ-
ent sex, which is presumed to be un-
accompanied by any sensuous emotions,
and to be based on moral or intellect-
ual affinities. The expression has orig-
inated in the view of Plato, who held
that the common sexual love of the
race, harassed and afflicted with flesh-
ly longings, is only a subordinate form
of that perfect and ideal love of truth
which the soul should cultivate.
Platt, Thomas Collier, an Ameri-
can legislator ; born in Ovvego, N. Y.,
July 15, 1833 ; was a member of the
class of 1853 of Yale College, but
was compelled to give up on account
of ill health ; received the honorary
degree of M. A. from that college in
1876 ; entered mercantile life soon
after leaving school ; was county clerk
of the county of Tioga in 1859, 1860
and 1861 ; was elected to the 43d and
44th Congresses ; was elected United
States Senator Jan. 18, 1881, and
resigned that office May 16 of the same
year, with Roscoe Conkling, both Sen-
ators being offended because President
Garfield made New York appoint-
ments without consulting them; was
chosen secretary and director of the
United States Express Co. in 1879,
and in 1880 was elected president of
the company; was member and presi-
dent of the board of quarantine com-
missioners of New York from 1880 till
L888 ; was delegate to the National
Republican convention of 1876, 1880,
1884, 1888, 1892 and 1896 ; was presi-
dent of the Southern Central railroad ;
was a member of the National Repub-
ican committee ; and was elected
Jnited States Senator in 1896, and re-
elected in 1903. Senator Platt hag
>een married twice. His first wife
died Feb. 13, 1901, and he was mar-
ried to Mrs. Lillian T. Janeway, of
Vashington, widow of Dr. Theodore
Janeway. Died March 6, 1910.
Platte, a river in the United States,
vhich rises in the Rocky Mountains
Playfair
by two branches, called respectively
the North and South Forks of the
Platte. The united stream falls into
the Missouri after a course of about
1,600 miles.
Playfair, Sir Lyon, a British
scientist; son of Dr. G. Playfair, in-
spector-general of hospitals in Bengal ;
born in Meerut, Bengal, May 21, 1819.
His able reports on the sanitary con-
dition of the large towns of Great
Britain brought him prominently be-
fore the public. He held several prom-
inent appointments under Liberal gov-
ernments. He died May 29, 1898.
Pleasonton, Alfred, an American
military officer ; born in Washington,
D. C.. June 7, 1824; died there Feb.
17, 1897. He served with distinction
in the Mexican, the Sioux, and the
Civil Wars.
Plebeians, or Plebs, in ancient
Rome, one of the great orders of the
Roman people. The whole government
of the state, with the enjoyment of all
its offices, belonged to the patricians,
with whom the plebeians could not even
intermarry. The civil history of Rome
is composed of the struggles of the
plebeians to claim a place in the com-
monwealth, to which they were en-
titled. It met with success when (286
B. c. ) the Lex Hortensia gave the
enactments passed at the plebeian as-
semblies, the force of law.
Plehve, Wenceslas Konstantin-
ovitch, von, a Russian Minister of
the Interior; born in Poland in 1838;
the son of a poor noble. He studied
law in Moscow, became assistant-pro-
curator, and later was appointed Im-
perial Counsel of the Courts of War-
saw. Fearless, and sincere in his
belief that the sternest methods were
the best means of governing the mixed
Russian masses, his suppression of all
attempts at liberal reform, while win-
ning the applause of the Russians,
gained him the hatred of the Poles.
Finns, and Jews. He was assassinated
by a bomb thrown at his carriage,
July 28, 1904.
Pleiades, or Pleiads, a group of
stars in the constellation Taurus, the
Bull. The stars are so close together
that it is difficult to say how many
are seen by the naked eye.
Plesiosaurus, the typical group of
the order Plesiosauria, extinct am-
Pliiiy
phibian animals. Its organization
would fit it for swimming on or near
the surface, and the length and flexi-
bility of its neck would be eminently
serviceable in capturing its prey.
Pleura, in anatomy, plural, serous
membranes forming two shut sacs,
each possessed of a visceral and a
parietal portion. The former covers
the lungs, and the latter the ribs, the
intercostal spaces, etc.
Plenrisy, inflammation of the pleu-
ra, going on to exudation, fluid effu-
sion, absorption, and adhesion.
Pleuro -pneumonia, pneumonia
with bronchitis, the former constitut-
ing the chief disease.
Plevna, a town of Bulgaria on the
Vid, an affluent of the Danube, 85
miles N. E. of Sofia. It is noted for
the desperate resistance of its Turkish
garrison under Osman Pasha, from
July to Dec. 1877, during the Russo-
Turkish War. Pop. 18,700.
Pleyel, Ignaz, composer ; born
near Vienna, Austria, in 1757 ; died at
Paris, 1831. He studied under Haydn,
and rapidly acquired a European rep-
utation. His works, chiefly instru-
mental, are pleasing and expressive.
Plimsoll, Samuel, " the sailor's
friend," an English legislator ; born in
Bristol, England, Feb. 10, 1824. In
1854 he started business in the coal
trade in London, and shortly aftenyard
begr.n to interest himself in the sailors
of the mercantile marine, and the
dangers to which they were exposed,
especially through overloading, and the
employment of unseaworthy ships. He
entered Parliament in 1868, and suc-
ceeded in getting passed the Merchant
Shipping Act in 1876. In 1890 the
fixing of the load line was taken out
of the owner's discretion and made a
duty of the Board of Trade. Mr.
Plimsoll retired from parliamentary
life in 1880. Died June 3, 1898.
Pliny, the Elder (Caius Plinius
Secundus), one of the most celebrated
writers of ancient Rome ; born in
Verona or Como A. D. 23, served in the
army of Germany, afterward became
an advocate, and was ultimately pro-
curator in Spain. Being at Misenum
with a fleet, which he commanded, on
the 24th of August, A. D., 79, his sister
desired him to observe a remarkable
cloud that had just appeared. Pliny
Pliny
discovered that it proceeded from
Mount Vesuvius, ordered his galleys to
sea, to assist the inhabitants on the
coast, while he himself steered as near
as possible to the foot of the mountain.
Pliny and his companions landed at
Stabise, but were obliged to leave the
town for the fields, where the danger
was equally great, from the shower of
fire which fell on them. In this state
they made their way to the shore, but
Pliny fell down dead, suffocated prob-
ably by the noxious vapors. The erup-
tion which caused his death was that
in which the cities of Herculaneum
and Pompeii were destroyed. His
name and fame are preserved by his
great work entitled " Natural His-
tory," in 37 books, one of the most
precious monuments of antiquity ex-
tant. Its contents are immensely
varied in character. It is a laborious
compilation, from almost innumerable
sources, of facts, observations, and
statements on almost all branches of
natural science, on the fine arts, on in-
ventions, and other subjects. It has
been translated into most European
languages.
Pliny, the Younger (Caius Plin-
ius Caecilius Secundus), nephew of the
preceding ; born in Como A. D. 62. In
nis 18th year he began to plead in the
forum ; he went as military tribune to
Syria. He was promoted to the con-
sular dignity by Trajan. He was aft-
erward made proconsul of Bithynia,
from whence he wrote to Trajan his
well-known account of the Christians,
and their manner of worship. The
44 Epistles of Pliny " are agreeably
"written, and very instructive, and have
been translated into English. He died
after 112.
Pliocene, or Pleiocene, the epi-
thet applied to the most modern of the
three periods into which Lvell divided
the Tertiary. Its distinguished charac-
ter is that the larger part of the fossil
shells are of recent species, divided into
the Older and the Newer Pliocene. In
the Older, the extinct species of shells
form a large minority of the whole;
in the Newer, the shells are almost all
of living species.
Plover, the common name of
several wading birds; specifically, the
golden, yellow, or green plover. Plovers
are gregarious in habit, and have a
wide geographical range.
__ Plains
Plum, the fruit of various trees of
the genus Prunus. It is a native of
Asia Minor, whence it was introduced
into Europe at an early period, and
later into America. There are about
a dozen species, differing in size, form,
color, and taste.
Plumed Knight, a name given to
James G. Blaiue, and originating in a
speech made by Col. Robert G. Inger-
soll, in nominating Mr. Blaine for the
presidency.
Plush, a shaggy pile cloth of vari-
ous materials. An unshorn velvet of
cotton, silk, or mixed fiber, sometimes
of a silk nap and cotton back. It
kas two warps, one of which is
brought to the surface to make the
nap.
Plutarch, a Greek biographer and
moralist, a native of Chseronea, in
Brootia. In A. D. 66 he was a pupil of
the philosopher Ammonius at Delphi.
He visited Italy, and spent some time
at Rome, lecturing there on philoso-
phy as early as the reign of Domitian ;
but his name is not mentioned by any
of the eminent Roman writers, his
contemporaries. He returned to his
native town, where he held various
magistracies, and was appointed priest
of Apollo. He was still living in 120,
but the time of his death is not
known. His great work is entitled
" Parallel Lives," and consists of bi-
ographies of 46 eminent Greeks and
Romans, arranged in pairs, each pair
accompanied by a comparison of char-
acters.
Pluto, in mythology, the son of
Saturn and Ops, inherited his father's
kingdom with his brothers, Jupiter
and Neptune. He received as his
share the infernal regions. All the
goddesses refused to marry him ; but,
on seeing Proserpine, the daughter of
Ceres, he became enamored of her, and
carried her away. Black victims, and
particularly a bull, were the only sac-
rifices offered to him. The dog Cer-
berus watched at his feet, the harpies
hovered around him, Proserpine sat on
his left, and the Parcse occupied his
right hand.
Plutns, in Greek mythology, the
god of riches. He was represented as
blind, because he distributed riches in-
discriminately ; he was lame, because
he came slowly and gradually; and he
Pneumonia
had wings, to ultimate that he flew
away with more velocity than he ap-
proached mankind.
Plymouth, a town and county-seat
4 of Plymouth co., Mass. ; on Plymouth
Bay, 37 miles S. E. of Boston.
Plymouth is of importance as the spot
where the Pilgrim Fathers landed on
Dec. 21, 1620. A portion of the rock
on which they first stepped has been
. placed in front of Pilgrim Hall, in
which are preserved old books, paint-
ings, pictures, and other valuable rel-
ics. The rock itself is in Water
Street, and is covered by a handsome
, granite canopy. Plymouth also has
the National monument, 81 feet high,
erected to the Pilgrims at a cost of
$200,000, and dedicated in 1889. Pop.
(1900) 9,592; (1910) 12,141.
PLYMOUTH BOCK.
Plymouth, a town and county-seat
of Washington co., N. G. ; on a small
creek, a few miles S. of the Roanoke
river, where it enters Albemarle
Sound; 105 miles E. of Raleigh. It
fell into the hands of the Federal
troops early in 1862, and was taken
in April, 1864, by the ^Confederates
with the aid of the iron-clad ram " Al-
bemarle." The " Albemarle " was
blown up with a torpedo by Lieut. W.
B. CushSng on Oct. 27, and on Oct.
31 Plymouth was reoccupied.
Plymouth, a borough in Luzerne
county, Pa.; on the Susquehanna
river and the Delaware, Lackawanna
& Western railroad; 4 miles W. of
Wilkesbarre; is in the Wyoming Val-
ley; has large coal mines' nearby; and
contains collieries, hosiery mills, and
manufactories -of mining machinery.
Pop. (1910) 16,996.
Plymouth, a seaport, municipal
E. 118.
and parliamentary borough of Eng-
land in Devonshire, at the head o-f
Plymouth Sound, between the estu-
aries of the Plym and Tamar. Its
chief importance lies in its position
as a naval station. To secure safe an-
chorage in the sound a stupendous
breakwater has been constructed at a
cost of about $10,000,000. The West-
ern Harbor is devoted to the navy.
Pop. (1901) 107,509.
Plymouth. Brethren, a body
which arose almost simultaneously in
Dublin and Plymouth, about 1830,
and, as they called themselves " The
Brethren," outsiders came to know
them as " Plymouth Brethren " from
the town where they had fixed their
headquarters. Their communities are
of what is known as the Evangelical
Calvinistic type. They baptize all
adults, whether previously baptized
or not, and observe the Sacrament
of the Lord's Supper weekly. There
are four bodies in the United States,
with 10,566 members.
Pneumatic Dispatch, propulsion
by means of compressed air or by
forming a vacuum. Propulsion by
compressed air has of recent years
been successfully applied to a variety
of practical uses. Parcels are thus
conveyed, and internal communication
in warehouses, hotels, etc., is carried
on by its means. New York, Phila-
delphia, and other American cities use
a pneumatic mail dispatching system.
The pneumatic dispatch plant con-
nected with the Philadelphia postofEce
is in many respects the most complete
plant of the sort in the world. It has
been in use since Feb. 17, 1893. In
the annual report of the Postmaster-
General to Congress for 1901, he ad-
vocated the increased use of the pneu-
matic dispatch service throughout the
United States. See ATMOSPHEEIO
RAILWAY.
Pneumatic Gun, a gun operated
iy compressed air. The firing is done
by pulling a lanyard.
Pneumatics, the science whicb
treats ot the mechanical properties of
air and other gases, investigating their
weight, pressure, elasticity, condensa-
tion, etc. Air being a vehicle of
sound, pneumatics includes also the
science of acoustics.
Pneumonia, inflammation of the
lung, usually caused by exposure to
Po
Poet Laureate
cold or wet, a cold draught or chill
after being overheated, injury to the
chest, irritation, or m a secondary af-
fection in smallpox, typhoid or puer-
peral fever, and other low wasting dis-
eases.
Po, the largest river of Italy, rises
on Monte Viso, one of the Cottian
Alps, at an altitude of 6,405 feet,
close to the French frontier. It has
an entire length of 300 miles, and
drains an area of nearly 28,900 square
miles. Below Piacenza its stream has
from ante-Roman days been artificially
embanked along great stretches with
double lines of embankments on each
side.
Poaching, the trespassing on an-
other's property for the purpose of
killing or stealing game or fish. While
nearly every State, if not every one,
has game laws, they are enacted in
the public interest, and bear no sim-
ilarity to the game laws of Great
Britain, which are feudal in their
character, and intended to reserve for
the wealthy alone the recreations of
hunting and fashing. -Poaching in the
English sense is unknown in America.
In England when a person's land ad-
joins a stream where there is no ebb
and flow that person is assumed to
have an exclusive right to fish in the
stream as far as his land extends,
and up to the middle of the stream;
and so also when a person's land in-
closes a pond, the fish in that pond be-
long to him. Where several proper-
ties are contiguous to the same lake
the right of fishing in that lake belongs
to the proprietors, in proportion to
the value of their respective titles. Ex-
clusive right of fishing in a public
river, that is, one in which there is
ebb and flow up to the tidal limit, or
a portion of the sea, is held by some
proprietors by virtue of royal fran-
chises granted prior to the Magna
Charta.
Poealiontas, daughter of Powha-
tan, a powerful Indian chief of Vir-
ginia ; born about 1595. She display-
ed a friendliness toward the British
colonists, first at 12 years of age, in
saving the life of Capt. John Smith,
who had been captured and condemned
to death by her father, and on several
occasions making known to the En-
glish their danger when about to be
attacked. In 1612, while on a visit
to a neighboring tribe, she was seized,,
and Held as a hostage by the English,
as a safeguard ; against the hostility of
her tribe. While on shipboard she be-
came acquainted with, and married
John Rolfe, an Englishman, who took
her to England, where, in 1616, she-
was presented at court. She had one
son, from whom numerous wealthy
families of Virginia claim descent.
She died in England, in 1617, while
preparing to return to America.
Pochard or Poachard, a duck,
inhabiting the Arctic regions. Its cry,i
has been compared to a serpent's hissJ
Its flight is more rapid than that ot\
the wild duck.
Fococke, Richard, an English
tiaveler ; born in Southampton, Eng-.
land, in 1704, and educated there and
at Corpus Christi College, Oxford.
He was the pioneer of Alpine travel.
He died very suddenly in Charleville,
near Tullamore, Sept. 15, 1765.
Podargns, a genus of Australasian
nocturnal birds of the goatsucker fam-
ily. By day they are drowsy.
Podophyllum, the May apple,
called also the wild lemon. The fruit
is eatable.
Poe, Edgar Allan, an American
poet and story-writer ; born in Bos-
ton, Jan. 19, 1809. Left, an orphan
early, he was adopted by John Allan,
of Richmond, Va., and at the age of
19 left this home and published his
first volume of verse at Boston. He
was a cadet at the United States Mili-
tary Academy, 1830-1831; and sub-
sequently embarked on a literary ca-
reer. He was one of the most remark-
able characters in literature, gifted:
with genius, but apparently without
any genuinesense of moral obligation
to friends and benefactors. His place
among American poets, however, will
always be high. Poe died in Balti-
more, Md., Oct. 7, 1849.
Poet Laureate, an office in the
household of the sovereigns of Great
Britain. The first appointment of a
poet laureate dates from the reign of
Edward IV., the first patent being
granted in 1630. It was formerly the
duty of the poet laureate to write an
ode on the birthday of the monarch,
but this custom has been discontinued
since the reign of George III. Among:
those who have held this office are
Poetry
Dryden, Southey, Wordsworth, and
Tennyson. Alfred Austin is the pres-
ent incumbent.
Poetry, that one of the fine arts
which has for its object the creation of
intellectual pleasure by the use of im-
aginative and passionate language,
which is generally, though not neces-
sarily, formed in. regular measure ; the
art of producing illusions of the imag-
ination by means of language. Also
poetical, imaginative, or passionate
language or compositions, whether ex-
pressed rhythmically or in prose. Thus,
many parts of the prose translations
of the Bible are genume poetry.
Poincare, Raymond, a French
statesman; born at Bar-le-Duc. France,
Aug. 20, 1860: entered political life as a
Deputy in 1886 : was successively Min-
ister of Agriculture, Public Instruction,
and Finance; vice-president of the
Chamber of Deputies for four years;
became Premier and Minister of Foreign
Affairs, Jan. 14, 1912; and was elected
President of the French Republic, for
the term of seven years, Jan. 17,
1913.
Poison. Any agent which, when
introduced into the animal organism,
is capable of producing a morbid or
deadly effect upon it. Antidotes vary
with the kinds of poisons. In cases of
poisoning by acrid and corrosive sub-
stances, the fatty, mucilaginous sub-
stances, as oil, milk, etc., sheathe and
protect the coats of the stomach and
bowels against the operation of poison.
Against metallic poisons, substances
are employed which form with the poi-
son insoluble compounds, such as fresh-
ly prepared hydrated oxide of iron, or
dialysed iron for arsenic, albumin
(white of egg) for mercury. Lime,
chalk, and magnesia are the best reme-
dies for powerful acids. Prussic acid
is neutralized by alkalies and freshly
precipitated oxide of iron. To arouse
those poisoned by opium, use coffee and
ammonia, and belladonna as an antag-
onistic drug. Chloral-hydrate poison-
ing is similarly treated ; and for strych-
nia or nux vomica, animal charcoal in
water and chloral-hydrate are used.
Poisoning was common in ancient
Rome, and in France and Italy during
the 17th century, and recent American
criminal records furnish noted cases
Of poisoning by use of the mail.
Poland
Poison Ivy, a climbing shrub, a
species of sumac, resembling the wood-
bine, and very irritating to sensitive
skins. Bathing the irritated parts
with camphorated oil, vinegar, butter-
milk, or with a decoction of sweet
fern leaves, steeped in boiling water,
are alleviating remedies.
Poisson, Simeon-Denis, a French
geometer ; born in Pithiviers, depart-
ment of Loiret, June 21, 1781. He
was one of the founders of the science
of mathematical physics. He died
April 25, 1840.
Poke-weed, a North American
branching herbaceous plant, which is
naturalized in some parts of Europe
and Asia ; the young shoots are some-
times eaten in the United States as
asparagus.
Poland, once a large and important
kingdom situated in the N. E. of Eu-
rope ; now expunged from all maps as
an independent country. It was the
most level country in Europe, the Car-
pathian Mountains on the S. and W.
being the only mountain range of any
height in the kingdom. The rivers of
chief note are the Vistula, Bug, Nie-
men, Dwina, Dnieper, and Dniester,
either flowing into the Baltic or the
Euxine. The principal mineral prod-
ucts are iron, lead, gold, and silver,
with salt, which last, from the abun-
dance of the yield, and the size and
richness of the mines, was considered
as the natural wealth of the country.
The climate is extremely cold, humid,
and unhealthy; the soil generally fer-
tile. Cattle and wheat are still the
chief agricultural products. Poland
was anciently divided into 12 prov-
inces, each of which was governed by
a chief, called a "Palatine." The
Pols were originally a tribe of Van-
dals, whose history is quite unknown
before the 6th century. From the 13th
century, the Poles became the most
warlike nation in Europe, and from
the time when the Turks first crossed
the Hellespont and settled in Greece.
Poland was denominated the shield or
Eastern Europe. In 1674, John So-
bieski was advanced to the kingly dig-
nity, and under him the Polish arms
acquired a glory that eclipsed all other
nations of that age. Sobieski formed
a league with the Emperoi? Leopold,
and when that monarch had been de-
feated, and his capital on the point of
Poland
Pole
falling into the hands of the Turks,
Sobieski advanced to Vienna, raised
the siege, and, defeating the invaders,
drove them back in rout to Constanti-
nople. The war of succession that
succeeded, between Charles XII. of
Sweden and Frederic Augustus of Sax-
ony, almost ruined the kingdom and
hastened its fatal end. Count Poni-
atowski who, in 1764, was elected to
the throne by the name of Stanislaus
Augustus, was the last King of Po-
land. Under this unfortunate sover-
eign, the country became the theater
of a long and devastating war ; and
Poland was divided between Catherine
of Russia, Joseph II., Emperor of
Germany, and Frederic of Prussia,
This partition of an ancient nation
was perpetrated in 1772. In 1795, a
further dismemberment was effected
between the three great powers, and
the whole of Poland absorbed, except
the ancient city of Cracow, with a few
miles of adjacent country, which was
left to point to future ages where the
once warlike nation of Poland stood
on the physical map of Europe. Of
the three spoilers of Poland, Russia
possesses the largest share of territory
and population. Frequent insurrec-
tions have occurred. In 1864, Poland
was deprived of its administrative in-
dependence, and in 1868 was incorpo-
rated with Russia. There are two
parties, Nationalists and Socialists,
both opposed to the Russian govern-
ment. Pop. (1909) 11,671,800.
Poland, John. Scroggs, an Ameri-
can military officer ; born in Princeton,
Ind., Oct. 14, 1836 ; was graduated at
the United States Military Academy
and appointed a 2d lieutenant in 1861 ;
served through the Civil War ; was as-
sistant Professor of Geography, His-
tory, Ethics and Drawing at the
United States Military Academy in,
1865-1869; and was chief of the De-
Jartment of Law at the United States
nfantry and Cavalry School, Fort
Leavenworth, Kan., in 1881-1886. At
the beginning of the war with Spain
(1898) he was commissioned a Briga-
dier-General of volunteers and com-
manded the 2d division, 1st Army
Corps, stationed at Cbickamauga
Park, Ga. He died in Asheville, N.
C., Aug. 8, 1898.
Polar Bear, the largest individual
of the family Ursidse, and oue o the
best known. It is found over the
whole of Greenland, but its numbers
are decreasing, as it is regularly
hunted for the sake of its skin. It is
quite white when young, changing to
a creamy tint in maturity.
Polar Circles, two imaginary cir-
cles of the earth parallel to the equa-
tor.
Polarization, the act of polarizing
i. e., bestowing the quality of polarity
or opposing poles. In galvanism, the
production or a secondary current in,
a galvanic battery contrary to the
principal one, owing to the gradual
chemical change in the elements of the
battery. This change weakens, or may
even destroy, the original current.
In optics, a state into which the
ethereal undulations which cause the
sensation of light are brought under
certain conditions. These undulations
are perpendicular to the line of trans-
mission of the wave, as in a stretched
cord, but in a ray of common light,
appear to take place successively in
all directions, the vibrations succes-
sively passing through rectilinear, el-
liptical, and circular phases with in-
conceivable rapidity. If the vibrations
become, or are rendered, stable in any
one form of orbit, the light is in the
condition known as polarized.
Pole, in astronomy, one of the twe
points in which the axis of the earth
is supposed to meet the sphere of the
heavens.
Pole, Reginald, Cardinal, a
British statesman and Archbishop of
Canterbury in the reign of Queen
Mary, descended from the blood royal
of England; born in Stourton Castle,
in Staffordshire, in 1500. He was
educated at Sheen Monastery and
Magdalen College, Oxford ; and after
obtaining preferment in the Church,
went to Italy, where he long resided.
On his return to England he opposed
the divorce of Henry VIII. from Cath-
erine of Aragon in such earnest terms,
that the king drove him from his pres-
ence, and never saw him more. He
again left England, was made a cardi-
nal in December, 1536, and had the
offer of the popedom on the death of
Paul III. When Mary ascended the
throne, Pole returned to England as
legate, in which capacity he absolved
the Parliament from their sin of her-
esy, and reconciled the nation to the
Polecat
Holy See. The very day after the
burning of Cranmer, the cardinal was
consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury.
He survived the queen but one day,
and died Nov. 18, 1558.
Polecat, one of the Mustelinae, akin
'to the marten, but with a broader
(head, a blunter snout, and a much
shorter tail. It has a shorter neck and
a stouter body than the weasel. Two
glands near the root of the tail emit
a highly offensive smell. It makes im-
mense havoc in poultry yards, rabbit
I warrens, and among hares and par-
tridges, killing everything which it
can overpower.
POLECAT.
Pole Star, Polaris, a bright star at
the tip of the tail of Ursa Minor, and
in a line with the pointers Merak and
Dubhe, the two stars constituting the
front of the plowlike figure in Ursa
Major. The pole star is really a
double star of yellow hue, but while
the larger or visible one is between the
second and third magnitude, its com-
panion is only of the ninth, and there-
fore a telescopic star. 'There is no cor-
responding star in the Southern Hem-
isphere.
Police, a system of judicial and
executive administration of a country,
especially concerned with the mainte-
nance of the quiet and good order of
society. In a more limited sense, the
1 administration of the laws, by-laws,
and regulations of a city. The des-
ignation, also, of a body of men, not
military, appointed to enforce state
and municipal laws, and preserve*
I the peace.
Political Economy, the science
which investigates the nature of wealth
and the laws of its production and dis-
tribution, including the operation of
Polk
causes by which the condition of man-
kind in respect to this object of hu-
man desire, is made prosperous or the-
reverse. Inquiries on these point*
must have existed from the earliest
times in every nation, but political
economy as a science is dated from re-
cent times.
Political Offenses, those offenses
considered injurious to the safety of
the state. In modern times the crimes
considered political offenses have
varied at different periods and in dif-
ferent states. In the United States,
and in most of the countries of Eu-
rope, extradition treaties do not in-
clude giving up political offenders.
Political Parties, divisions of peo-
ple in a State marked off by the par-
ticular views they hold as to the pub-
lic policy to be pursued in the best
interests of the people at large. In the
United States the chief political
parties are the Democrats and the Re-
publicans.
Politics, the science which treats
of the distribution of power in a
country. Popularly, the political sen-
timents of an individual, his procedure
in promoting the interests of his party.
Polk, James Knoz, an American
statesman, llth President of the
United States, born in Mecklenburg
co., N. C., Nov. 2, 1795. His ancestors,
who bore the name Pollock, emigrated
from the W. of Ireland early in the
18th century. He was educated at the
University of Nashville, Tenn., to
which State his father had removed in
1806, and was admitted to the bar in
1820. In 1823 he was sent to the Ten-
nessee Legislature, and in 1824 to Con-
gress, to which body he was reflected
for seven successive terms, serving till
1839. He was made chairman of the
Committee of Ways and Means in
1833, and twice elected Speaker of the
House 1835-1837. In Congress he
was consistently a Democrat, support-
ing unwaveringly the administration
of Jackson and Van Buren, and op-
posing that of Adams. In 1839 he was
elected governor of Tennessee, and in
1844 unexpectedly nominated as a
compromise candidate of the National
Democratic Convention for the presi-
dency, and elected over Henry Clay,
the 'Whig candidate. His administra-
tion was eventful, and in some respects:
Polk
brilliant. Texas was annexed, and the
Mexican War fought, which, with ter-
ritorial purchases, added the great ter-
ritory now comprising Texas, Califor-
nia, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, and
the W. part of Colorado to the domain
of the United States. The Oregon
boundary forming one of the issues on
which he was elected, was settled by
a compromise offered by England. He
was a man of eminent administrative
abilities, of consistent principles, and
pure and upright private character.
At the close of his single term Polk
declined to stand for renomination,
and retired to private life in Nash-
ville, Tenn., where he died June 15,
1849.
Folk, Leonidas, an American mili-
tary officer ; born in Raleigh, N. C.,
April 10, 1806 ; was a cousin of Presi-
dent Polk, and grandson of Col.
Thomas Polk, an officer of the Revolu-
tion. Graduating at the United States
Military Academy in 1827, he received
a commission in the artillery, but was
induced to study for the ministry,
and in 1830 received deacon's, and in
1831 priest's orders in the Episcopal
Church. In 1838 he was consecrated
Bishop of Arkansas and Indian Terri-
tory, with charge of the dioceses of
Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana;
in 1841 he resigned all these except the
bishopric of Louisiana, which he re-
tained till his death. Soon after the
outbreak of tne Civil War he was of-
fered a major-generalship by Jefferson
Davis, and accepted it ; was promoted
to Lieutenant-General. He was killed
while reconnoitering on Pine Moun-
tain, June 14, 1864, by a cannon shot
fired by some Northern officers who
wished to give the bishop's party a
fright.
Polka, a well known dance, the
music to which is in 2-4 time, with the
third %th note accented.
Pollard, Edward Albert, an
American journalist and author; born
in Virginia, Feb. 27, 1828. As editor
of the Richmond " Examiner " during
the Civil War, he was an earnest advo-
cate of the Confederate cause, but an
active opponent of Jefferson Davis. He
died in Lynchburg, Va., Dec. 12, 1872.
Pollard, Josephine, an American
writer of juvenile literature; born in
New York city in 1843. She died
there Aug. 15, 1892.
Polo
Pollen, in botany, the pulverulent
or other substance which fills the cells
of the anther. It consists of minute
granules varying in size and inclosing
a fluid containing molecular matter. In
entomology, pollen collected from
plants and carried on the outer surface
of the tibise of bees. Mixed with
honey, it becomes the food of the
Pollock, Sir Frederick, third
baronet of the name; born Dec. 10,
1845. He was called to the bar and
became Corpus Professor of Jurispru-
dence at Oxford, and Professor of
Common Law. His younger brother,
Walter Herries Pollock, born Feb. 21,
1850, was called to the bar and 10
years later became editor of the " Sat-
urday Review."
Pollock, Sir George, field-mar-
shal ; born Westminster June 4, 1786 ;
entered the army of the East India
Company as lieutenant of artillery in
1803. In 1838 he reached the rank
of major-general. After the massacre
of General Elphinstone and his forces
in the passes of Afghanistan the In-
dian government decided to send a
force to the relief of Sir Robert Sale.
The command of the relieving force
was given to General Pollock. In
April, 1842, he forced the formidable
Khyber Pass, and reached Sir Robert
Sale; he defeated the Afghan chief at
Tezeen, and destroyed the bazaar in
Kabul, and he recovered 135 British
prisoners. He returned to England in
1846, and was created a field-marshal
in 1870. He died Oct. 6, 1872.
Poll Tax, a tax levied per head. In
the United States a poll tax (varying
from 25 cents to $3 annually) is levied
in most of the States, in addition to
the taxes on property.
Pollux, a celebrated hero of the
Grecian mythology, and twin brother
of Castor, after whose death he im-
plored Jupiter to render him immortal.
His prayer could not be entirely grant-
ed, but Jupiter divided immortality
between the brothers, each living and
dying alternately. In astronomy, one
of the twins forming the constellation
Gemini. Also the name of a star of
the second magnitude in the same con-
stellation.
Polo, an equestrian game, which
may be shortly described as hockey on
Polo
horseback. It is of Oriental origin
and of high antiquity ; it has been
claimed that it can be traced back to
600 B. c. Since 1876 many polo clubs
have been started in the United States.
Polo, Marco, a Venetian traveler
of the 13th century, the son of a mer-
chant, who, with his brother, had
penetrated to the court of Kublai, the
great khan of the Tartars. This prince,
being highly entertained with their ac-
count of Europe, made them his am-
bassadors to the Pope ; on which they
traveled back to Rome, and, with two
missionaries, once more visited Tar-
tary, accompanied by the young Marco
who became a great favorite with the
khan. Having acquired the different
dialects of Tartary, he was employed
on various embassies ; and after a resi-
dence of 17 years, all the three Vene-
tians returned to their own country in
1295, with immense wealth. Marco
afterward served his country at sea
against the Genoese, and, being taken
prisoner, remained many years in con-
finement, the tedium of which he be-
guiled by composing the history of his
" Travels." Marco Polo relates many
things which appear incredible, but the
general truthfulness of his narrative
has been established by succeeding
travelers.
Polonaise, a Polish national dance,
which has been imitated, but with
much variation, by other nations.
Polyandry, the marriage of one
woman to several men at once. There
are several forms of it, each an ad-
vance on its predecessor: (1) One
wife has several unrelated husbands,
and each of the husbands other unre-
lated wives; (2) the unrelated hus-
bands have but one wife; (3) the hus-
bands are related; (4) the husbands
are brothers. The custom is still wide-
ly spread in the East.
Polyanthus, a beautiful and favor-
ite variety of the common primrose,
growing in wods and copses in a
moist clayey soil. The plants are
very hardy, and require to be trans-
planted every two years.
Polybius, a Greek historian; born
in Megalopolis, Greece, probably about
204 B. C. His great work is a general
history of the affairs of Greece and
Rome from 220 B. C. to 146 B. c. Five
only of its 40 books are now extant,
Polynesia
with some fragments of the rest, but
these are among the most important
literary remains of antiquity. He
wrote several other works, but they
have perished. Died at the age of 82.
Polycarp, St., one of the apostol-
ical fathers of the Church, and a Chris-
tian martyr, who, according to tradi-
tion, was a disciple of the Apostle
John, and by him appointed Bishop of
Smyrna ; suffered martyrdom A. D. 155.
Polycrates, a ruler of the island
of Samos from about 536 to 522 B. c.
He conquered several islands on the
Asiatic mainland, waged war success-
fully against the inhabitants of Miletus
and defeated their allies the Lesbians
in a great sea fight. His ultimate al-
liance with Amasis, King of Egypt,
proves the importance in which this
daring island-prince was held even by
great monarchs. Orcetes, the Persian
satrap of Sardis, had conceived a dead-
ly hatred against Polycrates, and, hav-
ing enticed the- latter to visit him at
Magnesia by appealing to his cupidity,
he seized and crucified him.
Polygamy, the practice or condi-
tion of having a plurality of wives at
the same time. It is prohibited by
law in all Christian countries, but is
practiced by Mohammedans and by the
uncivilized peoples of Africa and the
South Seas. The Mormons adopted it,
but have now ostensibly renounced it.
Polyglot, a collection of versions in
different languages of the same work,
but is almost exclusively applied to
manifold versions of the Bible.
Polygon, in geometry, a. portion of
a plane bounded on all sides by more
than four limited straight lines.
Polygyny, the marriage by one
man of several wives at the same time.
Polyhymnia, one of the Muses,
daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne,
who presided over singing and rhetoric,
and was deemed the inventress of har-
mony.
Polynesia, a general name for a
number of distinct archipelagoes of
small islands scattered over the Pa-
cific Ocean, extending from about lat.
35 N. to 35 S., and from Ion. 135
E. to 100 W., the Philippines, New
Guinea, Australia, and New Zealand
being excluded. The islands are dis-
tributed into numerous groups, having
a general direction from N. W. to S.
Tolyp
E. The islands may be divided into
two chief classes, volcanic and coral
islands. Some of the former rise to
a great height, the highest peak in the
Pacific, Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, reach-
ing 13,600 feet. The elevations of the
coral formation groups do not exceed
;500 feet.
Polynesia has a comparatively mod-
erate temperature, and the climate is
dejjghtful and salubrious. The pre-
dominating race, occupying the cen-
tral and E. portion of Polynesia, is of
Malay origin, with oval faces, wide
nostrils, and large ears. The hair and
complexion vary, but the latter is
often a light brown. Their language
is split up into numerous dialects. The
-other leading race is of negroid or
Papuan origin, with negro-like fea-
tures and crisp mop-like hair. They
^are confined to Western Polynesia, and
speak a different language, with nu-
merous distinct dialects. Christianity
has been introduced into a great many
of the islands, and a large number of
them are under the control of one or
other of the European powers. The
Ladrones were discovered by Magellan
in 1521, the Marquesas by Mandana
in 1595, but it was not till 1767 that
Wallis, and subsequently Cook, ex-
plored and described the chief islands.
Since the natives came in contact with
the whites their numbers have greatly
decreased.
Polyp, a name usually applied to
*n animal like the fresh-water hydra
-or like the sea anemone, having a tubu-
lar body and a wreath of many tenta-
cles around the mouth.
Polyphemus, in mythology, the
king of all the Cyclops in Sicily, and
gon of Neptune and Thoosa. He is
represented as a monster of immense
strength, and with one eye in the mid-
dle of the forehead. He fed on human
flesh, and kept his flocks on the coasts
of Sicily.
Polyphone, a character or vocal
ign representing more than one sound.
Polytechnic College, a coeduca-
tional institution in Fort Worth,
Tex.; founded in 1891 under the
auspices of the Methodist Episcopal
Church.
Polytechnic Institute, an educa-
tional non-sectarian institute in Brook-
lyn, N. Y. ; founded in 1854.
Pomona
Polytechnic School, an educa-
tional establishment in which instruc-
tion is given in many arts and sci-
ences, more especially with reference
to their practical application.
Polytheism, the worship of many
gods. It is not necessarily the same as
idolatry, for gods may be adored with-
out of any image of them being made.
Pombal, Sebastian Joseph de
Carvalho e Mello, Marquis of, a
Portuguese statesman ; born May 13, !
1699, at the castle of Soure, near
Ooimbra. In 1739 he was appointed
ambassador in London, and six years
later was sent to Vienna in a similar
capacity. Just before Joseph I. as-
cended the throne of Portugal (1750),
Pombal was appointed secretary for
foreign affairs. When the great earth-
quake happened at Lisbon in 1755
Pombal displayed great calmness and
fertile resource, so that next year the
king made him prime minister. He
crushed a revolt instigated by the
great nobles and the Jesuits, and in
1759 banished the latter from the
kingdom. The tyranny of the Inquisi-
tion was broken. Agriculture, com-
merce, and the finances were all im-
proved. In 1758 he had been made
Count of Oeyras, and in 1770 he was
created Marquis of Pombal. On the
accession of Joseph's daughter, Maria
I. (in 1777), Pombal was deprived of
his offices and banished from court. He
died in his castle of Pombal, May 8,
1782. The cruelty shown in the pun-
ishment of the conspirators against
King Joseph is a lasting blot on his
memory.
Pomegranate, a dense, spiny
shrub, 15 to 25 feet high, a native of
W. Asia and N. Africa, and cultivated
in Florida and California for its sweet
sub-acid fruit.
Pomerania, or Pommern, a prov-
ince of Prussia, bounded by the Baltic,
Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, and West
Prussia: area, 11.628 square miles;
pop. 1,634,659. The center of trade is
Stettin, which ranks as one of the
chief commercial cities of Prussia.
Pomerania was originally inhabited by
Goths, Vandals, and Slavs. It is first
mentioned in history in 1140, and was
an independent duchy until 1637.
Pomona, the Roman divinity of the
frr.it of trees. In works of art she
"Pomona College
Pompeii
was generally represented with fruits
in her lap, or in a basket, with a gar-
land of fruits in her hair and a prun*
ing knife in her right hand.
Pomona College, a coeducational
institution in Claremont, Cal. ; founded
in 1887, under the auspices of the Con-
gregational Church.
Pompeii, a seaport at the mouth of
the Sarnus, on the Neapolitan Riviera,
founded about 600 B. c. by the Oscans,
and after them, oooipied by the Tyrr-
heno-Pelasgians, and by the Samnites,
till these, about 80 B. c., were dispos-
sessed by the Romans. From that time
down to its destruction, A. D. 79, it be-
came a sort of Rome-super-Mare, fre-
quented by the aristocracy. On Feb.
5, A. D. 63, by an earthquake in the
torrents that intermittently fell. For
three days the flight of the inhabitants
continued till Pompeii was abandoned:
,by all who could effect their escape.
By the fourth day the sun had par-
tially reappeared, and the more coura-
geous of the citizens began to return
for such of their property as they could
disinter. The reigning emperor, Titus,
organized relief on an imperial scale,
and even undertook the clearing and
rebuilding of the city. This attempt
was soon abandoned, and Pompeii re-
mained a heap of hardened mud and
ashes, gradually overgrown with grass
the wall of the great theater and
the outline of the amphitheater alone
marking its site till 1592, when the
architect Fontana, in cutting an aque-
A POMPETTAN HOUSE.
vicinity, these buildings were all but
levelled with the ground, and some
years elapsed ere the fugitive citizens
recovered confidence enough to reoc-
cupy and rebuild what was once
Pompeii. Revolutionized as it was for
the worse, the city, however, retained
much of Greek character and color-
ing, and had relapsed into more than
its former gaiety and licentiousness,
when on Aug. 23 (or, more probably
on Nov. 23), 79, with a return of the
shocks of earthquake, Vesuvius was
seen to throw up a. column of black
smoke expanding like some umbrella
pine of the neighborhood, till it as-
sumed the proportions of a great
swarthy cloud, dense with ashesj pum-
ice, and red-hot stones, settling down
with a force increased by the rain-
I duct, came on some ancient buildings.
I Unsystematic, unscientific excavations
proceeded fitfully till 1860, when the
Italian kingdom took in hand the un-
earthing of the city. This was carried
out with admirable ingenuity, care,
and success, and it now attracts the
pilgrim from every clime for the object
lessons it is unique in affording as to
the public and private life of antiquity.
House construction consists mainly
of concrete or brick, and sometimes of
stone blocks, especially at the corners.
Two-storied, sometimes three-storied
houses are numerous, though the upper
floors, built of wood, have been con-
sumed by the eruption. Stores usually
occupied the ground floors of dwelling-
houses, on their street aspect, let out
to merchants or dealers as at the pres-
Poinpey
ent day, but not connected with the
back part of the house. They could
be separated from the street by large
wooden doors, while inside they had
tables covered with marble, in which
earthen vessels for wine or oil were in-
serted. The storekeeper had some-
times a second room at the back, when
he did not live on an upper floor or in
another part of the town. Retail
traffic must have been considerable at
Pompeii, to judge from the number of
those stores along the streets. Only a
personal visit can convey an idea of
the indoor life of the Pompeiians, with
whom the absence of glass, the fewness
of the openings in the street aspect
of the house wall, and the protection
of these with iron gratings are among
the points noted by the most casual
visitor. As rebuilt after 63, Pompeii
shows little marble, the columns being
of tufa or brick cemented by mortar.
A coating of stucco was laid over wall
or column and presented an ample
field for ornamental painting. This
must have given to Pompeii its bright,
gay coloring, which, with its reds,
blues, and yellows, on column and cap-
ital, on wall and partition, harmonize
so well with the glowing sunlight of
the South.
Pompey, Cneius Pompeius
Magnus, son of Pompeius Strabo, a
Roman general ; born in 106 B. c. He
ranged himself with the aristocratic
party of the republic.. On the death
of Sylla, in 78 B. c., Pompey went as
proconsul to Spain. With Crassus he
crushed the Marian party, and in
70 B. c. Pompey and Crassus were
elected consuls. He was made abso-
lute dictator in the East, and super-
seded Lucullus in the command against
Mithridates. The latter he completely
routed in 66 B. c. In 60 B. c. he joined
Caesar and Crassus in the triumvirate,
the former of whom gave him his
daughter Julia in marriage. In 54
B. c. Julia died ; in the year following,
Crassus was slain in Asia ; and the
hostility between Caesar and Pompey
rapidly developed itself. Caesar crossed
the Rubicon with his troops, 49 B. C.,
and Pompey, accompanied by Cato,
Cicero, and other nobles of Rome, fell
back on Greece, where the great bat-
tle of Pharsalia decided his fate. Pom-
pey was advised to seek an asylum in
t, then ruled by a sovereign he
Poniatowski
had protected, Ptolemy XII. He was
received with pretended friendship, but
murdered as soon as he stepped
ashore, 48 B. c.
Ponce, second city in commercial
importance in Porto Rico; in Depart-
ment of same name; 2% miles N. of
the S. coast, 45 miles S. W. of San.
Juan; has a spacious harbor; is
well-built, largely of brick; is the
seat of a Roman Catholic Cathedral;
has two handsome plazas, public li-
brary, and several hospitals and asy-
lums; and is chiefly engaged in rais-
ing sugar cane, cacao, tobacco, and
cattle. Pop. (1910 35,027.
Ponce de Leon, Juan, a Spanish
explorer, the discoverer of Florida ;
born in San Servas, Spain, in 1460;
was a court page, served against the
Moors, and in 1502 sailed with Ovando
to Ilispaniola, and became governor of
the E. part of the island. In 1510 he
obtained the government of Porto Rico,
and had conquered the whole island
by 1512. He then set out on a quest
for the fountain of perpetual youth,
and on March 27, 1512, found Florida.
He secured the appointment of adel-
antado of the country, and returned
in 1521 to conquer his new subjects ;
in this, however, he failed. He retired
to Cuba, and died there in July from
the wound of a poisoned arrow.
Pond, Frederick Eugene, an
American journalist and author ; born
in Marquette co., Wis., April 8, 1856.
Poniatowski, Joseph, Prince, a
Polish general ; born in Warsaw, Po-
land, in 1763, and when young entered
the Austrian service, but when the
Poles rose against Russia he quitted
it, and joining his countrymen, fought
with them under Kosciusko. On the
defeat of this general, Poniatowski
sought refuge in Vienna, till the
French entered Warsaw in 1806, when
he was appointed to the command of
the Polish army which was to co-
operate with the French against Rus-
sia. Napoleon estimated his services
so highly, that shortly before the bat-
tle of Leipsic he created him a Mar-
shal of France. After this disastrous
battle, the French were flying in utter
confusion over the Elster, and Ponia-
towski was drowned in the attempt,
Oct. 13, 1813.
Poniatowski, Stanislas Augus-
tus, the last king of Poland, and one
Pontchartrain
of the early lovers of Catherine the
Great of Russia. He died at St.
Petersburg, in 1798, of a broken heart.
Pontchartrain, Lake, in Louisi-
ana, about 5 miles N. of New Orleans,
is 40 miles long and 25 wide. It is
navigated by small steamers, and com-
municates with the Gulf of Mexico.
The drainage of New Orleans is car-
ried into the lake through canals.
Fontiac, a celebrated Indian chief
of the Ottawa tribe ; born about 1712.
He was the leader in Pontiac's War,
and was killed in Illinois in 1769.
Pontiac's War, an Indian war of
1703 between the English settlers and
garrisons on the frontiers, and a com-
bination of Indian tribes, under the
leadership of Pontiac. The war lasted
two years.
Pontifex, a bridge builder; a title
given to the more illustrious members
of the Roman colleges of priests. Their
number was originally five, the presi-
dent being styled Pontifex Maximus.
The number was afterward increased
to nine, and later still to 15. The title
of Pontifex Maximus is now the title
of the Pope.
Pontifical, one of the service books
of the Church of Rome, in which are
contained the several services.
Pontoon, a floating vessel support-
ing the roadway timbers of a floating
military bridge.
Pony, a term applied to several sub-
varieties or races of horses, generally
of smaller size than the ordinary horses
and which are bred in large flocks
and herds in various parts of the
world, chiefly for purposes of riding
and of lighter draught work.
Poodle, a breed of dog whose origin
dates from the beginning of the 17th
century or earlier. The poodle is one
of the few breeds of dogs which has
not been properly appreciated and cul-
tivated in the United States. From
his great intelligence and cleverness in
learning tricks, he was generally adopt-
ed as a circus or " trick dog " ; but
this fact, instead of making for his
credit, has caused the poodle to be
treated with contempt.
Pook, Samuel Hartt, an Ameri-
can naval constructor, born in Brook-
lyn, N. Y., Jan. 17, 1827 ; was graduat-
ed at the Portsmouth Academy, N.
Pope
H., in 1843. He settled in Boston as
a naval architect and designed many
merchant and war vessels ; entered
government service, when the Civil
War broke out, and at the close of
the war entered the navy as assistant
naval constructor and served at differ-
ent navy yards till bis- retirement in
1899. He died in 1901.
Pool, a game played on a pool table.
The term " poolroom " is applied
to places, apart from race tracks, in
which bets on horse-races are received,
and as this is an illegal business, the
word frequently occurs in the daily
news.
Also, an arrangement between sev-
eral competing lines of railway, by
which the total receipts of each com-
pany are pooled, and distributed pro
rata according to agreement.
Pool, Maria Louise, an American
novelist; born in Rockland, Mass., in
August, 1841. She died in Rockland,
May 19, 1898.
Poole, "William Frederick, an
American bibliographer ; born in Sa-
lem, Mass., Dec. 24, 1821; was a
librarian of Boston, Cincinnati, and
Chicago. His chief work is the cele-
brated " Index to Periodical Litera-
ture." He died in Evanston, 111.,
March 1, 1894.
Poor Clares, a Roman Catholic re-
ligious order, having very severe rules,
and called after the founder.
Poore, Benjamin Perley, an
American author ; born in Newbury,
Mass., Nov. 2, 1820 ; spent several
years abroad. On his return he be-
came active in journalism. He died
in Washington, D. C., May 30, 1887.
Poor Priests, a name given to, or
assumed by, the Lollard clergy of the
14th and 15th centuries, who wandered
about the country holding what would
now be called " missions," without the
sanction of the bishop of the diocese.
Pope, specifically, the Bishop of
Rome. The term Papa, or Papas
(father), has always been given by
the Greek Church to presbyters, like
the term Father now applied to a
Roman priest. In the early centuries
the bishops received the same title till,
in a council held at Rome in 1076, at
the instance of Gregory VII. (Hilde-
branclt, it was limited to the Bishop
of Rome. Holding that office, being
Pope
also Metropolitan of Rome and pri-
mate, and claiming to be the earthly
head of the Church universal, it is in
the last named capacity that the term
Pope is held to be specially applicable.
It has been a matter of controversy
among Roman Catholics whether the
authority of the Pope was above or
below that of the General Council.
That of Pisa (1409), claiming to be a
General Council, deposed two rival
Popes, and appointed a third ; but the
two former repudiated the authority
of the council, and exercised their
functions as before. The Council of
Constance (1414-1418) also deposed
two rival Popes and elected one. " The
States of the Church " figured on the
map of Europe as an independent sov-
ereignty till Sept. 20, 1870, when the
troops of Victor Emmanuel, King of
Italy, entered Rome, and took pos-
session of the palace for the Italian
kingdom. No interference took place
with the Pope's spiritual authority.
Pope Pius X. See Pius.
Pope, Alexander, an English
poet; born in London, England, May
<J1, 1688. His education was a desul-
tory one. He picked up the rudiments
of Greek and Latin from the family
priest, and was successively sent to
two schools, one at Twyford, the other
in London. Before he was 15 he at-
tempted an epic poem, and at the age
of 16 his " Pastorals " procured him
the notice of several eminent persons.
In 1711 he published his poem the
*'Essay on Criticism," which was fol-
lowed by " The Rape of the Lock," a
polished and witty narrative poem
founded on an incident of fashionable
life. From 1718 to 1726 he was en-
gaged on a poetical translation of
Homer's works, the " Iliad " (com-
pleted in 1720) being wholly from his
pen, the " Odyssey " only half. The
pecuniary results of these translations
showed a total profit of nearly $45,000.
He died in Twickenham, May 30, 1744.
Pope, John, an American military
officer; born in Louisville, Ky., March
16, 1822 ; was graduated at the United
States Military Academy in 1842, and
entered the engineers. He served in
Florida (1842-1844), and in the Mex-
ican War, and was brevetted captain
for gallantry. He was afterward em-
ployed in exploring and surveying in
the Wat, till the outbreak of the Civil
Popish Plot
War, when he was appointed Briga-
dier-General of volunteers. For 15
days in August, 1862, he faced Lee,
but was defeated at the second battle
of Bull Run, on the 29th and 30th.
He then requested to be relieved, and
was transferred to Minnesota, where
he kept the Indians in check. He
held various commands till 1886, when
he retired. In 1882 he became Major-
General, U. S. A. Pope died in San-
dusky, O., Sept. 23, 1892.
Popinjay, a parrot; a figure of a
bird put up as a mark for archers to
shoot at. The green woodpecker is
also sometimes called popinjay. Also
applied to a man who dresses too
show'ly.
OPIUM POPPY.
a, whole plant; b, flower and leaf; c, ripe
capsule; d, seed and section of seed ett
larged.
Popish Plot, in English history, an
alleged plot made known by Titus
Gates in 1678. He asserted that two
men had been told off to assassinate
Charles II., that certain Roman Cath-
olics whom he named had been ap-
Poplar
pointed to all the high offices of the
State, and that the extirpation of
Protestantism was intended. On the
strength of his allegation, various per-
sons were executed. Gradually evi-
dence arose that the whole story was
a fabrication, and that the people who
had been capitally punished were all
innocent. On May 8, 1685, Oates,
who had received a pension of $10,000
for his revelations, was convicted of
perjury, heavily fined, pilloried and
publicly flogged. He died in 1705.
Poplar, a tree. Known species 18,
from the N. temperate zone. The
great white poplar, or abele, is a large
tree, growing 'in moist places and
mountain woods.
Poplin, a silk and worsted stuff,
watered, figured, brocaded, or tissued.
Originally an all-silk French goods.
Popocatepetl ("smoking moun-
tain "), a volcano about 40 miles S. E.
of the city of Mexico. It rises in the
form of a cone to a height of 17,784
feet above the sea-level. No eruption
bas been recorded since 1540 ; it still
smokes.
Poppy, a genus of plants, of which
there are numerous species, mostly na-
tives of Europe and Asia, some of
them found in the very N. regions, but
most of them in the warmer temper-
ate parts. By far the most important
species is that known' as the opium
poppy, also called the white poppy
and the oil poppy. But the same
species is important on account of
the bland fixed oil of the seeds, and
is much cultivated as an oil plant.
Poppy oil is as sweefc as olive oil, and
is used for similar purposes. It is
imported into the United States in
considerable quantities from India. A
variety with double flowers is culti-
vated in* flower gardens, under the
name of carnation poppy.
Populist, or People's Party, a
political organization founded at Cin-
cinnati, in May 1891 ; an outgrowth
of the movements inaugurated by the
Patrons of Husbandry (q. v.), and
the Farmer's Alliance. Appealing to
the agricultural and industrial classes,
its avowed objects include free silver ;
national ownership of transportation
and freight utilities ; a graduated in-
come tax ; prohibition of alien owner-
ship of land, etc.
Porcupine
Porcelain, a fictile material inter-
mediate between glass and pottery, be-
ing formed of two substances, fusible
and infusible, the latter enabling it to
withstand the heat necessary to vitrify
the former, thus producing its peculiar
semi-translucency. The infusible ma*
terial is alumina, called kaolin; the
fusible substance is felspar, and is
called pe-tun-tse, both Chinese terms.
SLepublic. ^ 1810-14. Lndwig Pt
Sevres (sinct tf
PORCELAIN MABKS.
Large quantities of porcelain are pro-
duced in New Jersey, Ohio, and other
states, while European porcelain, and
Chinese and Japanese ware, are fa-
mous. See POTTERY.
Porcupine, a rodent quadruped.
The North American porcupine is
about two feet long, and of sluggish
habits. The quills are short, and con-
cealed among the fur, and the tail is
short. The " tree porcupine " of SoutH
America has a prehensile tail, about
10 inches long. The porcupine of
Southern Europe and Africa is about
28 inches long, exclusive of the tail.
The head, fore quarters, and under
surface are clothed with short spines,
intermixed with hairs, crest on head
and neck, hind quarters covered with
long sharp spines, ringed with black
and white, and erectile at will. They
are but loosely attached to the skin
and readily fall out, a circumstance
which probably gave rise to the belief
that the animal was able to project
them at an enemy.
Porcupine Crab
Port
Porcupine Crab, a native of Ja-
pan. The carapace is triangular, and,
like the limbs, thickly covered with
spines. It is dull and sluggish in its
movements.
Porcupine Fish, a fish found in
the tropical seas. It is about 14
inches long, and is covered with spines
or prickles.
PREHENSILE-TAILED PORCUPINE.
Porgy, Poggy, or Paugie, an im-
portant food fish found on the coast of
the United States. It attains a length
of 18 inches and a weight of about
four pounds.
Pork, the flesh of swine ; one of the
most important and widely used spe-
cies of animal food. The swine was
forbidden to be eaten by the Mosaic
law, and is regarded by the Jews as
especially typical of the' unclean ani-
mals. Other Eastern nations had sim-
ilar opinions as to the use of pork.
In the United States the pork-packing
industry is one of the greatest factors
of wealth. The immense establish-
ments at Chicago, Kansas City,
Omaha, St. Louis, Indianapolis, Cin-
cinnati, and other cities, represent
many millions of dollars invested in
this branch of trade and commerce.
Porosity, the quality or state of
being porous or of having pores.
Pprphyrio, a genus of bird* oc-
curring in South America, in Africa,
and in the S. of Europe, but chiefly
Oriental. In habits they resemble the
water hen, but are larger and more,
stately birds.
Porphyry, a term originally ap-
plied to a rock having a purple cov-
ered base, with inclosed individual
crystals of a felspar.
Porpoise, a small cetacean. The
common porpoise, when full grown, at-
tains a length of about five feet. The
head is rounded in front, and the snout
is not produced into a beak. The ex-
ternal surface is shining and hairless,
dark grey or black on the upper parts,
under pure white. It is gregarious in
habit, and is often seen in small herds,
frequenting the coasts rather than the
open seas. It -often ascends rivers,
and ranges as far N. as Baffin Bay
and as far W. as the coast of the
United States.
Porsenna, or Porsena, a cele-
brated leader and king of Etruria, who
declared war against the Romans be-
cause they refused to restore Tarquin
to his throne. At first successful, he
would have entered the gates of Rome
had not Horatius Coccles stood at the
head of a bridge and resisted the fury
of the whole Etrurian army, while hi
companions behind were cutting off the
communication with the opposite
shore. This act of bravery astonished
Porsenna ; but when he had seen Mu-
tius Scsevola, who had entered his
camp with the intention of murdering
him, burn his hand without emotion,
to convince him of his fortitude, he no
longer dared to make head against so
brave a people. He made a peace with
the Romans, and never after sapported
the claims of Tarquin.
PORCUPINE: HYSTRIX CRISTATA.
Port, a harbor, natural or artificial ;
into which vessels can enter, and in
which they can lie in safety from
storms. In law, a place appointed for
the passage of travelers and merchan-
dise into or out of the United States;
a place frequented by vessels for the
purpose of loading or discharging car-
, and provided with the apparatus
necessary to enable them to do so.
'Port
Porter
Port, a species of red wine, pro-
duced chiefly in the mountainous dis-
tricts of Portugal, and shipped from
Oporto.
Port Arthur, Lushwankau, or
Lushunku, a former naval station of
China, with a fine narrow-mouthed
harbor at the end and on the E. side
of the peninsula jutting S. W. from
Manchuria, opposite Chifu, strongly
fortified ; formerly the headquarters of
the N. fleet of China. It was taken
by the Japanese in 1894, and was re-
stored to China by coercion of Euro-
pean powers. On Dec. 19, 1897, a
Russian fleet occupied Port Arthur
with China's consent, the pretext be-
ing that the ships would simply winter
there. On Jan. 28, 1898, Port Arthur
was ceded to Russia. At the break-
ing out of the Russo-Japanese War in
1904, Port Arthur was immediately
assMed by the Japanese, and the Rus-
sian fleet in the harbor so effectually
blocked that is was of no use to the
Rusians during the conflict. It was
isolated on May 14, 1904. after a siege
la&ting 232 d^ys ; surrendered January
2, 1905, by the Russians to the Japa-
nese General Stoessel to General Nogi.
Port Arthur Ship Canal, an
artificial waterway in Texas. The
small town of Port Arthur is situated
on Sabine Lake, a body of water 3
miles long and 10 miles wide, which
marks the boundary of Texas and Lou-
isiana. Seven and one-half miles from
Port Arthur Sabine Lake narrows
into a long channel called Sabine
Pass. This channel is from 26 to 40
feet deep and extends for 7 miles to
the S., terminating at the Gulf of
Mexico. At the outer end of the pass
is a bar which has been pierced by a
channel formed by extending for a mile
or more from shore two jetties of
piled stone, built by the United States
government.
Port-au-Prince, the capital of
Haiti, situated on the W. coast at
.the head of a bay of the same name.
Pop. about 50,000.
Portcullis, a strong defensive
framework of timber, hung in grooves
within the chief gateway of a fortress,
or a castle, or an edifice of safety.
Porte, Ottoman, or Sublime
Porte, the common term for the Turk-
ish government.
Porter, David, an American naval
officer; born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 1,
1780, the son of a naval officer who
fought through the Revolutionary
War. He was appointed midshipman
in 1798, and lieutenant the year after;
saw service against privateers in the
West Indies, and against Tripoli itt
1801-1803; became captain in 1812,
and captured the first British war-
ship taken in the war. In 1813, with
the " Essex " he nearly destroyed the
English whale fishery in the Pacific,
and took possession of the Marquesas
Islands ; but in March, 1814, his frig-
ate was destroyed by the British in
Valparaiso Harbor, and Porter re-
turned home on parole. He afterward
commanded an expedition against pi-
rates in the West Indian waters, and
was court-rnartialed for compelling
the authorities of Porto Rico to
apologize for imprisoning one of his
officers. Porter resigned in 1826, and
was for a time at the head of the
Mexican navy. In 1829 the United
States appointed him consul-general
to the Barbary States, and then min-
ister at Constantinople, where he
died March 3, 1843.
Porter, David Dixon, an Ameri-
can naval officer; born in Chester, Pa.,
June 8, 1813; son of Commodore Da-
vid Porter. He entered the navy as
midshipman in 1829; was employed in
1836 to 1841 in the survey of the
coast of the United States; in 1841 ap-
pointed as lieutenant to the frigate
" Congress," and employed four years
on the Mediterranean and Brazil sta-
tions; in 1845 was transferred to the
National Observatory at Washington,
and during the Mexican War to the
naval rendezvous at New Orleans;
again to the coast survey, and from
1849 to 1853 engaged in command of
the California mail steamers. At the
commencement of the Civil War ha
was appointed with the rank of com-
mander, to the steam sloop-of-war
" Powhatan " ; distinguishing himself
in the capture of New Orleans, and
commanded the gunboat and ^ mortar
flotilla which cooperated with tha
squadron of Admiral Farragut in the
first attack on Vicksburg. In the
fail of 1862 he was placed in command
of all the naval forces on the W. riv-
ers above New Orleans, with the rank
of rear-admiral. At the termination ot
Porter
the war appointed superintendent of
the United States Naval Academy,
Annapolis. He was made vice-admiral
in 1866, and in 1870 became admiral.
He died in Washington, D. C., Feb.
13, 1891.
Porter, Fitz-Jonn, an American
military officer ; born in Portsmouth,
N. H., June 13, 1822; was graduated
at the United States Military Acade-
my in 1845 ; served in the Mexican
War. In 1861 was appointed colonel
of the loth U. S. Infantry. For an
alleged disobedience at the second bat-
tle of Bull Run, Aug. 29, 1862, Por-
'ter was court-martialed, and on Jan.
El, 1863, was cashiered. In 1878 a
trial was granted, and the court rec-
ommended that the former sentence be
reversed, and that he be restored to
his former rank in the army, but no
decisive action was taken. New evi-
dence came to light, General Grant
affirming that Porter had been un-
justly treated, and a bill was intro-
duced in Congress providing for his
reinstatement. In 1886 the bill passed
both Houses, and became a law by the
signature of the President. He died
in New York city May 21, 1901.
Porter, Horace, an American mili-
tary officer and diplomatist ; born in
Huntingdon, Pa., April 15, 1837 ; son
of David R. Porter, who became gov-
ernor of the State. After a year in
the scientific department of Harvard
University he entered th United
States Military Academy. His grad-
uation took place in 1860. After a
brief space as instructor in artillery at
West Point, he was assigned to duty
in the Department of the East. He
served through the Civil War, becom-
ing brevet Brigadier-General. When
General Grant became Secretary of
War General Porter became the assist-
ant secretary, and during his chief's
service as President acted as private
secretary. General Porter then went
into business and was exceedingly suc-
cessful. The completion of the Grant
monument was chiefly due to him.
From 1897-1905 he was U. S. Am-
bassador to France, and instituted the
search and recovery of the body of
Paul Jones (q. v.)- He published
"Campaigning with Grant" (1897).
Porter, James Davis, born in
Paris, Tenn., Dec. 7, 1828; was grad-
uated at tiie University of Nashville
"Port Hudson
in 1840 ; admitted to the bar in 1850 ;
member of the Tennessee Legislaturo
in 1859-1861; judge of the 12th Judi-
cial Circuit in 1870-1874 ; governor of
Tennessee in 1874-1878; United
States assistant-secretary of State in>
1885-1889; and United States minis-
ter to Chile in 1893-1897.
Porter, Jane, an English author;
born in Durham, England, in 1776;
daughter of an army-surgeon who died
soon after her birth. She was brought
up at Edinburgh and in London, and
made a great reputation in 1803 by
her high flown romance, " Thaddeus of
Warsaw," which was distanced in its
kind in 1810 by "The Scottish Chiefs."
She died in Bristol, England, May 24,
1850.
Porter, John Addison, an Amer-
ican journalist ; born in New Haven,
Conn., April 17, 1856. He was editor
of the Hartford " Post." President
McKinley appointed him " secretary
to the President " an office that was
created to replace the misnamed post
of the " private secretary " at the
White House. He died in Putnam,
Conn., Dec. 15, 1900.
Porter, Moan, an American educa-
tor ; born in Farmington, Conn., Dec.
14, 1811. In 1846 he was appointed
Professor of Metaphysics at Yale Uni-
versity ; and was president of that in-
stitution from 1871 to 1885. He died
in New Haven, Conn., March 4, 1892.
Porter, Robert P., an American
statistician; born in Norfolk, Eng-
land, Jan. 30, 1852; settled in the
United States in 1867, and soon after-
ward engaged in journalism ; was for
a while superintendent of the llth
census; and was a special United
States commissioner to Cuba and Por-
to Rico in 1898-1899.
Porter, Rufns, an American in-
ventor ; born in West Roxford, Mass.,
May 1, 1792; died 1884. Devised
a thermo-engine, rotary-engine, etc.
Founded " The Scientific American."
Port Hudson, a village of Louisi-
ana, on the Mississippi, 135 miles
above New Orleans. A Confederate
strategical stronghold, it was besieged
by Admiral Farragut and General
Banks, but resisted all assaults from
Mar. 14, to July 7, 1863, when the
surrender at Vicksburg led to its
capitulation.
Fort Huron
Porto Rico
Port Huron, city ; capital of Clair
Co., Mich., on Lake Huron, it the
head of St. Clair River, 60 miles N.
E. of Detroit. It has important ship-
building, lumber, machinery and other
works, and a large trade. Pop. (1900)
10,200; (1910) 18,863.
Portland, city, port of entry, and
capital of Cumberland county, Me.;
on Casoo bay and the Maine Cen-
tral railroad; 100 miles N. E. of
Boston; is the largest and most im-
portant city in the State; has an ex-
cellent harbor, protected by a mas-
sive breakwater; contains National
fortifications, Government Building,
and Marine Hospital, Maine General
Hospital, Longfellow homestead,
Portland School for the Deaf, Maine
Historical Society, and many other
buildings of note; and has large
manufacturing and coastwise and
foreign trade interests. Pop. (1910)
58,571.
Portland, city and port of entry,
and capital of Multnomah county,
Or.; on the Willamette river and the
Northern and Southern Pacific rail-
roads; 530 miles N. of San Fran-
cisco; has large trade with Great
Britain, the Philippines, China,
Japan, Hawaii, and South American
countries, in flour, grain, lumber,
fish, and wool; contains Portland
University, Medical and Law Schools
of the State University, Good Sa-
maritan, Portland, and St. Vincent's
hospitals, Bishop Scott and St.
Helen's schools, and St. Michael's
College; was the site of the Lewis
and Clark Exposition in 1905. Pop.
(1910) 207,214.
Porto Rico, a West Indian island;
SO miles E. of Haiti; 3,600 square
miles; pop. (1910) 1,118,012; capital,
San Juan, metropolis, Ponce. Under
the Spanish-American peace treaty
the island was formally transferred to
the United States' on Oct. 18, 1898.
The Spanish form of the name of the
island is Puerto Rico; but an Act of
the United States Congress approved
April 12, 1900, established the oflacial
form as Porto Rico. While there is
a great amount of wealth in the
island, and in many places evidences
Of great prosperity, rich plantations,
and promise of a great future for
Porto Rico, throughout the inte-
rior of the island the people are poor
and their homes are of the poorest
character, consisting almost altogether
of " shacks " constructed of the palm
and covered with a straw thatch or
palm leaves. Into the cities and these
homes is crowded a large popu-
lation, variously estimated from
800,000 to 1,000,000. They are gen-
erally a peaceful and law-abiding
people, and while there is unques-
tionably some lawlessness, and some
small offenses are being committed,
they do not exceed, if they equal,
the number being committed in
the States of a like population. It
has been estimated that from 10 to
20 per cent, only of the people can
read and write. The people are anx-
ious to have their children educated,
and are exceedingly solicitous for the
establishment of public schools. There
is no starvation upon the island, and
while there is great poverty in many
places, there can not be any real
starvation in Porto Rico, for the rea-
son that the people live frugally and
are content with little, while the soil
and the climate are so productive of
many of the simple necessaries of life
that it would be almost impossible to
starve a people who live upon tropical
fruits and tropical vegetable produc-
tions.
Vegetables of all kinds known to our
climate grow in abundance. Irish po-
tatoes are not a success. There are
no plums, cherries, or grapes. It
would seem that there would be no
difficulty in growing grapes, but so
far they have not been tried. Indian
corn is raised with some success, and
while the ears are small, that is made
up by the fact that two and even
three crops can be grown yearly on the
same ground. This can be grown either
in the valleys or on the hillsides. No
wheat is grown on the island. At
present all flour is imported.
The native grasses grow luxuriantly
wherever an opportunity offers, from
the lowest valley to the highest moun-
tain top, and afford excellent pasture
for stock everywhere all the months of
the year. They make no hay, but out
it with sickles or the machete and
tie it in small bundles, pack it on
ponies to the cities, and sell it while
it is still green. The cattle grazing
in large numbers on the pastures are
Port Said
found all over the island, and are most-
ly in very good condition, making ex-
cellent beef. Hogs are raised to a
limited extent, but are of poor breeds,
being of the old " razor-back " vari-
ety. They are fed mainly from the
jiuts grown on the royal palm trees.
Horses are plentiful. They are small,
and used only to ride and as pack
ponies and in carriages. The hard
work of hauling loads and ploughing
the land is done with oxen, yoked in
the Spanish fashion by tying the
yoke to the horns, and they are guided
with a whip or " gad." The wagons
are mostly two-wheeled carts with
large wooden axles.
There seems to be a considerable de-
posit of iron and copper on the is-
land. In some places these are being
developed with good prospects of prov-
ing paying investments. Traces of
gold and silver are also found in the
mountains, but up to date prospecting
has not developed any considerable
quantities of these more precious
metals.
Soon after the surrender of San-
tiago de Cuba to the American forces
under General Shafter, July 17, 1898,
an army numbering 16,973 men was
sent from Guantanamo to Porto Rico
to take possession of that island. They
landed July 25, at Quanica, 15 miles
W. of Ponce. Lieutenant Haines,
commanding the marines, went ashore
and raised the American flag over the
custom house, amid the cheers of the
people. General Wilson was the first
army officer to land, and was wel-
comed with cheers and a serenade. A
portion of the army marched toward
the capital, San Juan, but were
stoppped when about half way by
the suspension of hostilities between
the belligerent powers. On Oct. 18
the island was formally surrendered
to the United States in the city of San
Juan.
In 1899 a census of the island was
taken under the direction of the Unit-
ed States War Department, which by
departments gave the following. Agu-
adillo, 99,645 ; Arecibo, 162,308 ; Bay-
amon, 160,046; Guayamo, 111,986;
Humacao, 88.501; Mayaguez, 127,566
and Ponce, 203,191 total for the is-
land, 953,243. The island has pros-
pered greatly under American rule,
and is fast becoming Americanized.
Portugal
Port Said, a town of Egypt, on
the W. side of the Suez Canal, on a
desolate strip of land between Lake
Menzaleh and the Mediterranean.
The place owes its origin to the Suez
Canal, and depends wholly on the
canal trade.
Portsmouth, city and capital of
Norfolk county, Va.; on the Eliza-
beth river and the Seaboard Air Line
and other railroads; opposite Norfolk;
has a harbor accessible to the largest
vessels; contains a National Marine
Hospital, Marine Barracks, and, in
the Gosport suburb, the Norfolk
navy-yard. Pop. (1910) 33,190.
Portsmouth, the principal station
of the British navy, a seaport, mu-
nicipal and parliamentary borough
of England, in Hampshire, on the S.
W. extremity of the island of Port-
sea. The royal dockyard covers an
araa of about 500 acres and contains
a Royal Navy College. Pop. 189,160.
Portsmouth, Treaty of, signed
at Portsmouth, N. H., Sept. 5, 1905,
ended the Russo-Japanese War and
embodied 15 articles and annexes.
Its main points were the cession of
half of Saghalin to Japan and Ja-
pan's sovereignty over Korea.
Portugal, a former kingdom of
Europe; since Oct. 5, 1910, a repub-
lic; bounded by Spain and the At-
lantic; area, 35,490 sq. miles; pop.
5.687.627.
The country generally inclines from
N. E. to S. W. Several of the great
mountain chains of Spain intersect it
from E. to W. and terminate in large
promontories in the Atlantic. The
principal rivers are the Tagus, the
Douro, the Minho, and the Guadiana.
These all enter the country from
Spain, and flow W. to the Atlantic
Ocean. The climate is healthy, ex-
cept in the vicinity of salt marshes.
The principal agricultural produc-
tions are : wheat, barley, oats, flax,
hemp, vines, and maize in the elevated
tracts; rice in the low grounds, with
olives, oranges, lemons, citrons, figs,
and almonds. Silk is made of a very
good quality. There are extensive
forests of oak in the N., chestnut in
the center, and the sea pine and cork
in the S. Cattle, sheep, goats, and
swine are numerous, and fish abound
in the rivers and on the coasts. Iron
mines are worked, and the mountains
Portugal
Positive Philosophy
abound in fine marble, and contain
traces of gold and silver. Oi salt, large
quantities are formed in bays along
the coast, by natural evaporation.
There are numerous salt marshes, and
upward of 200 mineral PM rings. The
manufactures are limited. Cotton
spinning is followed, and paper, glass,
and gunpowder are made in a few
places.
The exports consist almost entirely
of wine, salt and wool ; imports, chief-
ly corn, flour, fish, woolens, linen, cot-
ton, lace, hardware, hats, shoes, and
stockings. The state religion is the
Roman Catholic ; but all others are
tolerated. The government is a limit-
ed monarchy. The national assembly
is called the Cortes, and consists of a
House of Deputies and a House of
Peers.
Portugal forms the greater part of
ancient Lusitania. It was subjugated
by the Romans, in the time of Augus-
tus, and had been made into a prov-
ince. In the 5th century, on the over-
throw of the Roman supremacy, Por-
tugal was invaded by the Alans and
Visigoths, and suffered with Spain, of
which it was then a part, all the trou-
bles and vicissitudes endured by the
jnhabitants of the peninsula till the
8th century, at which time the Arabs,
called indifferently Saracens or Moors,
possessed themselves of the whole of
Portugal, and kept absolute dominion
for nearly 400 years. In the 12th
century, Don Alonzo Henriquez, a
Spanish prince of Leon and Castile,
gained a great victory over the Moors
of Portugal, and carried out his mili-
tary operations with such success that
his troops hailed him with one voice
as king. He renounced all dependence
on Spain, politically separated his new
kingdom from all connection or author-
ity with the Spanish crown, and es-
tablished a free and sovereign state.
Under the descendants of Don Alon-
EO I., especially Dennis I. and Alonzo
IV., Portugal, during the next two
centuries, rose in political importance
and commercial prosperity. In 1385,
the King of Castile having laid claim
to the crown of Portugal on the death
of Ferdinand, was opposed and de-
feated by Don John, Ferdinand's
brother. Under John I. the Portu-
Suese first projected those Atlantic
iscoveries on the African coast,
fraught with such territorial and com-
mercial advantages to the nation ; and,
under John II. and Emanuel, between-
1481 and 1521, Vasco da Gama ex-
plored the Indian Ocean; and Brazil
was added to the possessions of the-
crown of Portugal. Sebastian III.,
fired with a holy zeal to exterminate-
the infidels from his country, com-
menced a sanguinary crusade against
the Moors, which he carried on through;
such defeats that he eventually lost
both his crown and life in the strug-
gle. Henry the Cardinal, his uncle,
an old man of 70, ascended the throne,
but died without heirs, after a reign of
only two years, in 1580.
With Henry terminated the male-
line, after enduring for 460 years.
Spain once more laid claim to the va-
cant throne, and Portugal again be-
came a dependency of the Spanish,
crown. After enduring 60 years of
intolerable hardships and exactions, a
Portuguese nobleman named John,
Duke of Braganza, excited a revolu-
tion, which again broke the Spanish*
fetters, while the people hailed their
deliverer as their king. He was-
crowned as John IV., and commenced
the existing dynasty of the House
of Braganza. In October, 1889, Carlo*
I. succeeded to the throne. He was-
assassinated Feb. 1, 1908, and was suc-
ceeded by his son, Manuel II., who
was dethroned Oct. 5, 1910.
Portuguese East Africa. S.ee-
EAST AFRICA, PORTUGUESE.
Fortulaca, purslane ; low. succu-
lent herbs with flat or cylindrical
leaves, and yellow, purplish, or rose-
colored ephemeral flowers.
Positive Philosophy, the system'
of philosophy outlined by Auguste-
Comte in his " Philosophic Positive,"
the sixth and last volume of which
was published in 1842. It is the out-
come of the Law of the Three Stage*
and is based on the positive sciences,
taken in the following series : mathe-
matics (number, geometry, mechanics),
astronomy, physics, chemistry, biolo-
gy, and sociology. It relinquishes at-
tempts to transcend the sphere of ex-
perience, and seeks to establish by
observation and induction laws or con-
stant relations, and resigns itself _to
ignorance of the agents. In the opin-
ion of its founder it is capable of be-
Positive Society
Post Mortem
ing developed into a religion and a
polity.
Positive Society, a society found-
ed in Paris in 1848, by Comte, in the
hope that it might exert as powerful
an influence over the revolution as the
Jacobin Club had exerted in 1789.
In this he was disappointed, but the
disciples who gathered around him
were the germ of the Positivist
Church.
Positivism, the religion of Hu-
manity, developed from the positive
philosophy, and claiming to be a syn-
thesis of all human conceptions of
the external order of the universe.
Its professed aim, both in public
and private life, is to secure the vic-
tory of social feeling over self love,
of altruism over egotism.
Post, George Browne, an Ameri-
can architect; born in New York city;
studied with Richard M. Hunt; de-
signed numerous private residences
and public buildings; and became
president of the American Institute
of Architects, National Art Club, and
American Society of Civil Engineers.
Postal Savings Banks, a sys-
tem for saving money by the deposit
of small amounts, established by sev-
eral European Governments, and au-
thorized by the United States Con-
gress in 1910, as a branch of the
Post-office Department. The system
had long been urged in the United
States, and the annual report of the
British postal savings banks for 1908
had much effect on Congress. That
report showed for the United King-
dom a total of 18.379,991 deposits,
aggregating $217,877,011, and a total
of $781,794,533 to the credit of 11,-
018,251 depositors. Deposits at post-
offices and other designated stations
of from 10 cents to $1 are repre-
sented by stamps; of from $1 to $50,
by certificates in duplicate, punched
to indicate the amount, one being
retained by the postmaster or agent,
the other by the depositor. The sys-
tem went into operation Jan. 1. 1911.
Postal Service, the regulation
of communication between different
parts of a country, or different coun-
tries, including especially the for-
warding and delivering of letters,
newspapers and small packages, and
the establishment of a registry sys-
tem for the transfer of money and
the transaction of other financial
business. In some countries the use
of the telephone and the telegraph
forms a part of the postal service.
Though the conveyance of letters is
the primary work of the postoffice,
many other branches of business have
been assumed by it. The word "post"
has its particular application from
the posts, or stages, at which on the
roads of the Roman empire couriers
were maintained for the purpose of
conveying news and dispatches.
Under the terms of a treaty con-
cluded at Berne, Oct. 9, 1874, the
object of which was to secure uniform^
ity in the treatment of correspondence,
and the simplification of accounts,
as well as the reduction of rates with-
in certain limits, and whose provisions
were carried into operation generally
July 1, 1875, the whole of Europe,
the United States, Egypt, British In-
dia, and all the colonies of France
were at the outset, or shortly there-
after, included in the union and many
other countries and colonies have since
joined it. The international accounts
in respect of postages are based on a
month's return of correspondence tak-
en every third year.
At the present time the postal estab-
lishment of the United States is the
freatest business concern in the world,
t handles more pieces, employs more
men, spends more money, brings more
revenue, uses more agencies, reaches
more homes, involves more details and
touches more interests than any other
human organization, public or pri-
vate, governmental or corporate.
Though the postal service of England,
France, and Germany includes the tel-
egraph, the postal business of the
United States surpasses the service of
any of those countries.
Since Cuba, Porto Rico, and the
Philippines have come under the au-
thority of the United States, it has
become necessary to reconstruct the
mail system in those islands, and al-
ready a vast improvement has been
made in the service.
Post Mortem, after death, as a
post mortem examination, i. e., one
made after the death of a person, in
order to ascertain the cause of death
either in the interests of science, or
for the ends of justice.
r/GURS /N STATES PEPfiESEMT PP.ODL/CT/ON /N THOUSANDS OF BUSHELS
POTATOES
PRODUCT/ON 1911
THOUSANDS OF BUSHELS
IN JTATEf fiEPfiEJENT PRODUCTION IN THOUJANDJ Of BUT/fELT
JMr POTATOES AHDYA
PRODUCTION /909
THOUSANDS OT 6UfHLf
UNITED STATES
iS.232 THOUJAMD
BUffifLT
Post Ofcit
Post Obit, a bond given as security
for the repayment of a sum of money
to a lender on the death of some
specified person, from whom the bor-
rower has expectations. Such loans
in almost every case carry high, if not
usurious, rates of interest, and gen-
erally the borrower binds himself to
pay a much larger sum than he re-
ceiyes, in consideration of the risk
which the lender runs in case of the
borrower dying before the person from
whom he has expectations.
Postoffice Department, one of
the executive departments of the Unit-
ed States government ; established in
1794. It is under the management of
the Postmaster-General, who since the
time of Andrew Jackson, has been a
member of the President's Cabinet.
He is appointed by the President and
confirmed by the Senate. The depart-
ment is divided into four great bu-
reaus each under the immediate charge
of an assistant postmaster-general. The
first assistant's bureau has charge of
the large clerical and carrier forces
and all the matters of actual manage-
ment. It supervises an annual expen-
diture of more than $40,000.000. The
bureau of the second assistant has the
immense task of providing for the
transportation of the mails at a year-
ly-cost of $35,000,000. That of the
third assistant looks after the finan-
cial side, furnishes the stamps,
and keeps the accounts. The fourth
assistant has charge of the appoint-
ment of 75,000 postmasters and di-
rects the force of inspectors. The
United States postoffice department,
unlike that of Great Britain, is car-
ried on at a loss; this is due to the
large amount of postal matter of cer-
tain classes carried at less than the
cost of conveyance and distribution.
The greatest revenue in a single year
has reached $203,562.383; and the
greatest expenditure, $221,004,102.
Postulate, a position, supposition,
or proposition assumed without proof,
as being self-evident or too plain to
require proof or illustration ; a thing
assumed for the purpose of future rea-
soning; an assumption. In geometry,
the enunciation of a self-evident prob-
lem. It differs from an axiom, which
is the enunciation of a self-evident
proposition. The axiom is more gen-
eral than the postulate.
Potomac
Potash, a term applied to the hy-
drate of potassium, either in the liquid
or solid state, but sometimes used to
denote potassium oxide and also crude
carbonate of potassium. Potash salts
are essential constituents in the hu-
man body, but if, when wasted, they'
are supplied directly to the blood they
are very poisonous.
Potassium, a monad metallic ele-.
ment, very widely diffused through,
the vegetable, mineral and animal
kingdoms. It usually exists in com--
bination with inorganic and organ-
ic acids, and, when its organic salts
are burned, they are resolved into car- %
bonate, from which all the other salts "
of potassium can be prepared. It may
be obtained by electrolysis, but is now
produced in large quantity by distill-
ing in an iron retort an intimate mix-
ture of charcoal and carbonate of po-'
tassium, a condition readily obtained
by igniting crude tartar in a covered
crucible.
Potato, a well-known cultivated
plant, the tubers of which are eaten.
It is a native of Chile and Peru. Many
varieties are grown, differing in earli-
ness, form, size, color, etc.
The production in the United States
has reached over 376,500,000 bushels,
from over 3,500,000 acres, valued at
upward of $206,500,000. the most
productive States being New York,
Michigan, Maine, and Wisconsin, in
the order given.
Potato Fly, a dipterous insect of
the same genus with the radish fly,
cabbage fly, turnip fly. In its perfect
state it is very like the house fly. The
maggots are often abundant in bad
potatoes in autumn, and are different
from the maggots of the house fly,
being horny, spiny, bristly, and tawny ;
the long tail ending in six long bris-
tles. The pupa is very like the larva.
The potato-frog fly and the caterpillar
of the death's head moth feed on the
leaves and stems of potatoes, but rare-
ly do serious damage.
Potomac, a river of the United
States, formed by two branches which
rise in the Allegheny Mountains in
West Virginia, and unite 15 miles S.
E. of Cumberland, Md., from which
point the river flows in a generally
S. E. course 400 miles, and falls into
Chesapeake Bay, after forming an
estuary nearly 100 miles long, and
Potomac
from 2% to 7 miles wide. The largest
ships can ascend to Washington. The
Potomac forms the greater part of the
boundary between Virginia and Mary-
land.
Potomac, Army of the. The
Union forces which operated in Vir-
ginia in the Civil War were known as
the "Army of the Potomac." It was
organized by Gen. George B. McClellan
in 1861, and served under him in the
Peninsular campaign and later in that
of Antietam. General Burnside took
command in 1862, and General Hooker
in 1863. General Meade was in com-
mand when the victory at Gettysburg
was won, in July, 1863, and con-
tinued in charge during General
Grant's operations in 1864-1865.
Potomac, Society of the Army
of the, a military organization found-
ed in New York, July 5, 1869, and has
held annual reunions since that date.
All officers and soldiers who served in
AEMY OF THE POTOMAC BADGE.
the Army of the Potomac and in the
10th and 18th Army Corps, Army of
the James, are eligible to membership.
Pottawattamies, a tribe of Ameri-
can Indians, belonging to the Algon-
quin stock. The early French settlers
established a mission among them
Pottery
at Green Bay, and to this day many
of them are Roman Catholics. They
sided with the English during the Rev-
olutionary War and in the War of
1812, and afterward settled in Kan-
sas. They now number about 1,200.
Potter, Henry Co dm an, an
American clergyman ; born in Schenec-
tady, N. Y., May 25, 1835. Educated
in theology in Virginia, he became rec-
tor of Grace Church, New York city,
in 1868 ; and was consecrated Protest-
ant Episcopal bishop of New York
in 1887. His works include : " Gates
of the East : A Winter in Egypt and
Syria " ; " Sermons of the City " ;
" Waymarks " ; etc. He was widely
known and esteemed for his efforts to
improve the condition of the people.
He died July 21, 1908.
Potter, Paul, a celebrated Dutch
painter of animals ; born at Enkhui-
sen in 1625 ; died at Amsterdam in
1654. He received his first instruction
in art from his father, Pieter Potter
(1587-1655), a painter of some note.
He devoted himself specially to the
study of animals, producing his first-
signed picture, " The Herdsman," in
1643. His works are highly esteemed.
His coloring is brilliant, and the sep-
arate parts are delicately executed,
yet without stiffness or mannerism.
Pottery, the art of forming vessels
or utensils of any sort in clay. This
art is of high antiquity, being prac-
tised among various races in prehis-
toric times.
The most celebrated wares of differ-
ent times and countries are distin-
guished by distinctive names ; as, Ma-
jolica-ware, Sevres, Chelsea, Palissy,
etc.; and of these, the latter the
work of Bernard de Palissy, who lived
in the 16th century deserves some
special attention. Palissy, having re-
solved to discover a method of enam-
elling stoneware, succeeded, after lt>
years' efforts, and proceeded to manu-
facture pottery characterized by a pe-
culiar style and many singular quali-
ties. It is not decorated with flat
painting, but with figures and orna-
ments, which are generally pure in
form, and are all executed in relief and
colored. The most remarkable of the
works of Palissy are his " Pieces rus-
tiques," a designation given by him to
dishes ornamented with fishes, snakes,
frogs, crayfish, lizards, shells, and
Potts
plants, admirably true to nature in
form and color. Palissy ware may be
distinguished from imitations by the
fact that Palissy molded only the fos-
sil shells, reptiles, and plants of Par-
is, while his imitators introduced re-
cent shells and other objects of natu-
ral History.
In the United States the highest
annual production value was reached
in 1906, when the total of all prod-
ucts was ,$31,440,884, white and
porcelain ware leading.
Potts, William, an American
author; born in Philadelphia, Pa.,
May 5, 1838. For many years he was
secretary and vice-president of the Na-
tional Civil Service League. He was
chief examiner of the Civil Service
Commission of New York State in
18^7. He published a volume of na-
ture studies, " From a New England
Hillside," and a Sunday-school ser-
vice book, " Noblesse Oblige," etc.
He is also the author of numerous
pamphlets.
Pottstown, a borough in Mont-
gomery county, Pa.; on the Schuyl-
kill river and canal, Manatawny
creek, and the Pennsylvania and
other railroads; 18 miles S. B. of
Reading; is chiefly engaged in the
manufacture of pig andi structural
iron, with extensive accessories; also
has planing, flour, silk, hosiery, and un-
derwear mills, cigar factories, and pork-
packing plant. Pop. (1910) 15,599.
Pottsville, borough and capital
of Schuylkill county, Pa.; on the
Schuylkill river and canal, Nor-
wegian creek, and the Philadelphia
& Reading and other railroads; 93
miles N. W. of Philadelphia; is one
of the greatest coal-shipping centers
in the State: and has large iron,
steel, and brass works, railroad
shops, and silk, flour, and lumber
mills. Pop. (1910) 20.236.
Poughkeepsie, city and capital
of Dutchess county, N. Y.; on. the
Hudson river and several railroads;
75 miles N. of New York city; has
a noted $5.000.000 cantilever railroad
bridge across the river, daily steam-
boat connection with Albany and
New York city, and important manu-
fnctures; is the seat of Vassar Col-
lege, Hudson River Hospital for the
Insane, and numerous Homes; was
settled by. the Dutch in 1690; State
Poultry
capital during the Revolution. Pop.
(19rO) 27,936.
Ppulpe, a genus of Cephalopoda,
having eight feet or arms, nearly
equal, united at the base by a mem-
brane, and very long in proportion
to the body. Poulpes swim by con-
tractions of the muscular web of the
body, which extends upon the arms.
They creep on shore in a spider-like
manner, with sprawling arms.
Poultry. American poultry include
several classes of breeds, among them
the general utility, or American -barn-
yard fowl; the egg-producing, or
Mediterranean; and the flesh-making,
or Asiatic types.
The chief of the general utility fowls
are the handsome, compact Plymouth
Rocks, those barred in black and white
being the most common, although
white and buff are known. They are
famous for their hardiness; quick-
ness of growth; steady production of
light brown eggs; quick maturity in-
to well-fleshed chickens; and their gen-
eral tractability and business-like
methods of foraging, sitting and the
like. Wyandottes, including the white,
silver-laced and Columbian varieties,
compete with the Plymouth Rocks.
The White Wyandottes are favorites
in farmyards, being hardy fowls, ma-
turing quickly into small, plump
broilers and roasters, with the popu-
lar yellow skins, and are early and
steady egg-layers. The large Rhode
Island Reds, a somewhat new breed,
gorgeous in black and scarlet, lay
brown eggs very regularly, and also
produce flesh; and, with the Orping-
tons, particularly the buff variety,
haying similarly good habits, are
claimed to be in the highest rank of
utility fowls. Javas and the high-
crested Houdans are also said to be
useful to the farmer. The latter is
a favorite French breed, mottled
black and white, laying many very
large white eggs, even in winter, and
of fine quality as a table fowl.
The "fancy" Hamburgs, silver and
gold, black and red and white, span-
gled and laced and penciled, and most
perfectly formed, are non-sitters; and
the tall, iridescent, black Minorcas
are recommended for prolific egg-lay-
ing, thriving when in confinement in
small runs.
The Mediterranean type is repre
Poultry
sented by the small, active Leghorns,
white and brown and buff in hue, fa-
mous egg-layers even in winter, when
sheltered in warm houses, and picking
up much forage if given a free run.
The Asiatic type is represented by
the large, heavy and profusely feath-
ered light and dark Brahmas, covered
with rounded masses of feathers and
with characteristic " pea-combs " ; by
the buff, black and 'white Cochins, still
more profusely feathered, even the
shanks and feet being covered with
plumage ; especially in the "Partridge"
variety ; and by the tall, black Lang-
shans. They are all excellent table-
fowls, and .lay quite a number of eggs
even in winter; and they are addicted
to sitting, making good mothers. The
chicks mature early, and have a large
sale as broilers and roasters. Plump-
breasted Dorkings are more valued in
England than with us, the Americans
preferring yellow legs and feet.
The red and black game-chickens,
formerly grown for fighting in the
cock-pits, are still raised, the Modern
Game, and various kinds of the Old
English Black-breasted Reds and the
Cornish Indian and Azeel, being ex-
hibited. Game hens are excellent
mothers and are magnificent table
fowls. Speckled Guinea hens, having
a game-like flavor, are frequently
raised for the table.
Bantams are miniatures of the
standard breeds, the Buff Cochin Ban-
tam being recommended for hatching
gam- -bird's eggs ; the Japanese Ban-
tam are quaint, little creatures with
long, sickle-shaped tail-feathers, which
are, however, not so exaggerated as
those of the Yokohama cocks, which,
like the silkies, birds with downy
plumage, are grown occasionally for
ornament. The gorgeous-hued pea-
cocks and various kinds of pheasants,
especially the Ring-necked, Golden, Sil-
ver and Reeves pheasants, are raised
for their beauty, and the latter for
the game market.
Pigeons, too, are an important
branch of the poultry farm ; the
Homer breed being the bird most
' commonly used for squab raising, as
its young reach the desired size very
quickly. There are numerous fancy
breeds, too, raised by the fanciers, as
the Fantails, Pouters, Turbits and
Tumblers.
Bronze and Narragansett turkeys
are the largest and the hardiest varie-
Powderly
ties, requiring a large range for their
best development. The black and the
white, or Holland breeds, being smaller
and more domesticated.
The large German white Embden
goose, and the dark gray Toulouse
breed of French origin, are favorite
breeds of geese, although the Caftada
and Chinese geese are also good.
A Chinese duck, the white Pekin, is
the favorite breed of this water-fowl,
although the Rouen and Aylesbury
types, and even Muscovy, Swedish and
the Indian Runners, are grown. The
charming little parti-colored Wood-
ducks and Mandarin ducks are culti-
vated for ornament. See also FOWL.
Poussin, Gaspar, a French land-
scape painter ; born in Rome, in 1613 ;
died in 1675. His name was Dughet,
but he adopted that of his teacher and
brother-in-law, Nicolas Poussin. His
paintings, distinguished by grandeur
and somewhat sombre characteristics,
are found in many European galleries.
Poussin, Nicolas, distinguished
French historical and landscape paint-
er : born at Andelys, Normandy, in
1594; died in Rome in 1665. His
style is grand and heroic, and he had
a fertile invention. He has been called
the French Raphael. Among his cele-
brated works are the " Seven Sacra-
ments," the " Death of Germanicus,"
the " Capture of Jerusalem," " Moses
bringing Water from the Rock," the
"Worship of the Golden- Calf," "John
Baptizing in the Wilderness," etc., and
many fine landscapes.
Pont, a young turkey ; often ap-
plied to the young of other domestic
fowls and of the grouse kind ; a sea-
fish of the cod kind, so named from
its power of inflating a membrane
which covers the eyes and neighboring
parts of the head.
Powan, or Fresh-water Her-
ring, fish distinctive to Loch Lomond,
Scotland, although resembling the Pol-
Ian of the Irish lakes.
Powderly, Terence Vincent, an
American lawyer ; born in Carbondale,
Pa., Jan. 22, 1849. He was General
Master- Workman of the Knights of
Labor in 1879-1893; then he studied
law ; and was admitted to the bar in
1894. He was appointed United States
commissioner 'general of immigration
in 1897, and chief of Division of In-
formation in Bureau of Immigration
BARRED & BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCKS
COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY F. E. WRIGHT.
LEADING BREEDS
F CHICKENS
Powell
Powers
(to distribute immigrants throughout
the country) in 1907.
Powell, Baden, an English physi-
cist ; born in London, Aug. 22, 1796 ;
educated at Oriel College, Oxford; in
1821 became vicar of Plumstead, and
in 1824 was made F. R. S. From
1827 till his death, he was Savilian
Professor of Geometry at Oxford. He
published a history of natural philoso-
phy, treatises on the calculus, optics,
and the undulatory theory of light,
but he is best known by his contriba*
tion on the evidences of Christianity
to the " Essays and Reviews '' and by
other theological works, regarded at
the time as dangerously " liberal " in
tendency. He died in London, June
11, 1860.
Powell, John Wesley, an Ameri-
can geologist ; born in Mount Morris,
N. Y., March 24, 1834. He was edu-
cated at Oberlin College; was a lieu-
tenant-colonel of artillery at the close
of the Civil War; Professor of Geolo-
gy in the Illinois Wesleyan University,
1865 ; explored the canyon of the Col-
orado river in 1867 and in 1870-1874.
He was director of the United States
Geological Survey in 1879-1896, and
of the United States Bureau of Eth-
nology after 1879. The special vol-
umes of reports written by Major Pow-
ell are : " Exploration of the Colora-
do River in 1869-1872"; "Geology
of the Uinta Mountains " ; " The Arid
Regions of the United States " ; " In-
troduction to Study of Indian Lan-
guages " ; " Canyons of the Colorado,"
etc. He died Sept. 23, 1902.
Powell, Thomas, an American au-
thor ; born in London, England, Sept.
3, 1809. For many years he was
connected with the Frank Leslie pub-
lications. He died in Newark, N. J.,
Jan. 13, 1887.
Powelson, Wilfred van Nest, an
American naval officer ; born in Mid-
dletown, N. Y., Sept. 15, 1872; was
graduated at the United States Naval
Academy in 1893 ; was selected by the
government to pursue a special course
in naval architecture at the Univer-
sity of Glasgow, served two years on
the flagship " New York," and later
on the " Fern." After the destruction
of the " Maine " in Havana harbor
he was appointed to investigate the
disaster. His report showing that the
" Maine " was sunk by an exploded
mine was published and favorably
commented on by many scientific pe-
riodicals. He commanded the gun on
the " St. Paul " which sank the " Ter-
ror," a Spanish torpedo boat, near
San Juan, Porto Rico; promoted lieu-
tenant, 1901; retired, 1902.
Power. In mechanics: (1) That
which produces motion or force; that
which communicates motion to bodies,
changes the motion of bodies,
or prevents the motion of bodies; a
mechanical agent or power. (2) The
moving force applied to overcome some
force or resistance, to raise a weight,
or produce other required effect; air,
water, steam and animal strength are
employed as powers. (3) The me-
chanical effect or advantage produced
by a machine. Force or effect consid-
ered as resulting from the action of a
machine.
Powers, Hiram, an American
sculptor ; bom in Woodstock, Vt., Julj
29, 1805. In 1835 he went to Wash-
ington, where he executed the busts
of several distinguished persons. Two
years later he was enabled to go to
Italy to study his art, and he resided
in Florence till his death. There he
produced his statue of " Eve," which
excited the admiration of Thorwald-
sen, and in 1843 the still more popu-
lar " Greek Slave," of which six cop-
ies in marble, with cast copies in-
numerable, were produced. , Among
the other works the chief were
" Proserpine," " II Penseroso," " Cal-
ifornia," " America," and busts of
Washington for the State of Louisi-
ana, of Calhoun for South Carolina,
and Daniel Webster for Boston, as
well as those of John Q. Adams, An-
drew Jackson, Marshall, Van Buren,
and other distinguished Americans. He
died in Florence, Italy, June 27, 1873.
Powers, Horatio Nelson, an
American poet ; born in Amenia, N.
Y., April 30, 1826. He died in Pier-
mont, N. Y., Sept 6, 1890.
Powers, Le Grand, an American
statistician ; born in Preston, N. Y.,
in 1874; was graduated at Iowa State
University in 1872 ; commissioner of
labor in Minnesota in 1891-1899 ; then
became chief statistician of the llth
Census, in charge of agriculture.
Among his books are " Minnesota Bu<
Praxiteles
length is about four inches ; color
bright gray, spotted and lined with
darker purplish gray. It is a fa-
vorite article of food, and is found in
vast numbers in the North Atlantic.
Praxiteles, a celebrated Greek
sculptor; born about 360 B. c., who
executed several fine statues in bronze
and marble of Bacchus, a satyr, Ve-
nus, and Apollo. An ancient copy of
one of his works, the " Apollo Saur-
octonos," is the only example extant.
He excelled by the grace, tenderness,
and finish of his works. He was es-
teemed a;? second to Phidias only. He
died about 280 B. c.
Prayer, a universally acknowledged
part of the worship due to God ; not
merely petition, but, according to the
New Testament models and Christian
usage, praise, adoration, and thankful
acknowledgment of mercies received.
Nor is any truth more indisputably
taught in the Bible, or more frequent-
ly brought into view, both in the Old
and New Testament, than that God
is the hearer of prayer.
Praying Machine, Praying
Mill, or Praying Wheel, an ap-
paratus used in Tibet, and other parts
of the East, as a mechanical aid to
prayer. They are of various forms,
the commonest being a cylinder or
barrel of pasteboard fixed on an axle,
and inscribed with prayers. The de-
vout give the barrel a turn, and each
revolution counts as an utterance of
the prayer or prayers inscribed. It is
common enough to see them fixed in
the bed of a running stream, as they
are then set in motion by the water,
and go on praying night and day, to
the special benefit of the person who
has placed them there. The Tartars
also suspend them over their domestic
hearths, that they may be set in mo-
tion by the current of cool air from the
opening in the tent, and so twirl for
the peace and prosperity of the family.
Preaching, the act of preaching;
a public religious discourse. The mod-
ern system of preaching was unknown
in the early Church. The general
mode then was for the priest to read
portions of the Old or New Testa-
ment, and explain or enforce the pre-
cepts which they contained. About
the 13th century, the scholastic divines
directed their chief attention to the
study of the sacred Scriptures, and
Precession
were hence called Bible divines, and
honored with the pompous titles of
profound, sublime, wonderful, sera-
phic, angelic doctors. They introduced
a new and artificial mode of preach-
ing, called declaring. Before this time,
the clergy generally adopted postulat-
ing, or expounding a large portion of
Scripture, sentence by sentence. By
the new method the preacher read a
text out of some book and chapter of
the Old or New Testament, dividing it
into several parts and expounding
them ; and, generally, the more nu-
merous the divisions and sub-divisions,
the better and more highly was he
esteemed. The opposition to this text-
ual mode of preaching continued for
upward of a century, but at length it
came generally to prevail.
Preble, Edward, an American na-
val officer ; born in Portland, Me., Aug.
15, 1761. Early in 1803 he was made
commander of the " Constitution " ;
and in June of that year was placed
in command of a fleet sent against
Tripoli. He greatly distinguished
himself in causing that country to
sue for peace, a feat accomplished by
a number of skillful bombardments-
He returned to the United States and
received through Congress the thanks
of the nation and a gold medal. He
died in Portland, Me., Aug. 25, 1807.
Precedence, the order in which
men and women follow each other
according to rank or dignity in a
State procession or dn other public
occasions. There is no American law
dealing with precedence, tact and cour-
tesy guiding the procedure on public
occasions, but in Europe it is a sub-
ject of very grave importance, and
moss-grown with law and custom.
Precedent, a judicial decision, in-
terlocutory or final, which serves as a
rule for future determinations in sim-
ilar cases ; also a form of proceeding
to be followed in similar cases.
Precentor, an officer in a cathe-
dral, formerly sometimes called
chaunter, and ranking in dignity next
to the dean.
Precession of the Equinoxes, in
astronomy, the going forward of the
equinoxes. The arrival of the sun at
the point Aries a little earlier than he
might be expected to reach it was first
observed by Hipparchus about 150
Predestination
B. c. The earth's rotation simply
causes the points at which the earth's
equator intersects the plane of the
ecliptic to move slowly in a direction
opposite to that in which the earth
rotates. This is what is denominated
the precession of the equinoxes. It is
generally associated with the sun, but
the moon is twice as potent in produc-
ing it ; owing to her comparative near-
ness to the earth she is able to pro-
duce a greater differential effect on the
nearer and more remote portions of
our planet. The annual motion of the
first point of Aries is about 50", and
about 25,867 years will be required for
the entire revolution. It has been sup-
posed that the precession of the equi-
noxes may have had some influence
in producing the Glacial Period.
Predestination, in theology, the
term used to denote the decree of God,
whereby the elect are foreordained to
salvation. The theory of predestina-
tion represents God's absolute will as
determining the eternal destiny of
man, not according to the foreknown
character of those whose fate is so
determined, but according to God's
choice. It is a characteristic of Cal-
vinistic theology ; left an open ques-
tion since the Reformation by Episco-
pal and Roman Catholic Churches.
Preemption, the act or right of
buying before others. Also, the right
of a settler on lands to purchase in
preference to others, when the land
is sold.
Preexistence, existence previous to
or before something else. Also, exist-
ence in a previous state; existence of
the soul previous to its union with
the body. Preexistence was a doctrine
of the Pythagoreans, and several oth-
ers of the old philosophers, and is still
found in many Eastern religions.
Prelate, an ecclesiastical dignitary
of the highest order, having author-
ity over the lower clergy, as an arch-
bishop, bishop, or patriarch ; a digni-
tary of the church.
Prentice, George Denison, an
American journalist ; born in Preston,
Conn., Dec., 18, 1802 ; became editor
of the Louisville " Journal," 1830, and
held that post till his death, making
the paper famous for satiric wit and
exuberant fun. He died in Louisville,
Ky n Jan. 22, 1870.
Presbyter
Preutiss, Benjamin Mayberry,
an American military officer ; born in
Belleville, Va. (now W. Va.), Nov. 23,
1819. He removed to Illinois in 1842,
and served in the Mexican War as a
captain of volunteers. At the begin-
ning of the Civil War he entered
the Union Army and was made Briga-
dier-General or volunteers. He was
taken prisoner at Shiloh, May 6, 1862 ;
was promoted Major-General in the
same year ; defeated Generals Holmes
and Price, who attacked him at Hele-
na, Ark., July 4, 1863; resigned his
commission Oct. 28, 1863, and died
in 1901.
Prentiss, Mrs. Elizabeth (Pay-
son), an American writer of fiction ;
born in Portland, Me., Oct. 26, 1818.
She died in Dorset, Vt., Aug. 13, 1878.
Prentiss, Seargent Smith, an
American orator; born in Portland,
Me., Sept. 30, 1808; studied law, and
became, about 1827, a resident of
Vicksburg, Miss., where he practised
with success. He was elected to Con-
gress by the Whigs in 1837. His man-
ner of speaking was at once natural
and dramatic, and he had a high repu-
tation as an orator, and as an advo-
cate in jury trials was equal or supe-
rior to any lawyer in the Southwestern
States. He died near Natchez, Miss.,
July 1, 1850.
Preposition, a part of speech, so
named because originally prefixed to
the verb, in order to modify its mean-
ing. Prepositions are either simple or
compound. Simple prepositions are
at, by, for, from, in, on, out, to, up,
with ; compound prepositions are
across, after (a comparative form of),
against, above, about, along, amid,
amidst, among, athwart, but, into,
over, through, toward, until, unto,
within, without. The prepositions con-
cerning, during, except, notwithstand-
ing, etc., arise out of a participial
construction.
Pre-Kaphaelism, an English
school of painting, which has in re-
cent years sprung into existence, and
has been thus named, in accordance
with an erroneous idea that its ear-
liest members were mainly anxious to
imitate the mannerisms of the artists
who painted prior to the time of Ra-
phael.
Presbyter, an elder, or a person
advanced in years who had authority
Press Clipping Bureau
Price
According to its provisions the presi-
dential succession is arranged as fol-
lows : Following the Vice-President,
the Secretary of State, the Secretary
of the Treasury, the Secretary of War,
the Attorney-General, the Postmaster-
General, the Secretary of the Navy,
the Secretary of the Interior, Secre-
tary of Agriculture, and the Secretary
of Commerce and Labor.
Press Clipping Bureau, an office
for supplying newspaper and maga-
zine clippings on any required subjects
to any person desiring them. There
are several such bureaus in New
York, Chicago, and other large cities.
Press Gang, the name given in
England to a detachment of seamen
who (under a naval officer) were em-
powered, in time of war, to lay hold
of seafaring men and compel them to
serve in the king's ships.
Preston, Harriet Waters, an
American author ; born in Danvers,
Mass., about 1843. At an early age
she became noted as a linguist, and
afterward achieved a brilliant reputa-
tion as a translator from the Latin
and Provencal languages, and as an
essayist. Besides her translations she
has published several bright original
books.
Preston, Mrs. Margaret (Jun-
kin), an American author; born in
Philadelphia about 1825 ; was a resi-
dent of Lexington, Va., and laer of
Baltimore, Md. Her writings deal
chiefly with the period of the Civil
War. She died in 1897.
Preston, William, an American
diplomatist ; born near Louisville, Ky.,
Oct. 16, 1816 ; practised law in Louis-
ville ; was sent as minister to Spain in
1858 ; was a member of Congress
1852-1855 ; joined the Confederates in
1861 ; and was made a Brigadier-Gen-
eral. He died in Lexington, Ky.,
Sept. 21, 1887. '
Presumption, in law, in the ab-
sence of direct evidence that which
comes nearest to the proof of a fact.
Pretender, one who made claim to
a throne under a pretense of right (as
Perkin Warbeck, Lambert Simnel, in
English history) ; specially applied to
the son and grandson of James II., the
heirs of the House of Stuart, who laid
claim to the throne of England, from
which they had been excluded by Par-
liament in 1688. The former, often
termed the Old Pretender, died in
1776 ; his son, Charles Edward Stuart,
the Young Pretender, in 1788.
Pretoria, the capital of the former
South African Republic (Transvaal),
980 miles from Cape Town, and 285
miles W. of Lorenzo Marques, on Del-
agoa Bay, to which a railway was
opened in 1895. Pretoria was founded
in 1855 by the Boer leader Pretorius,
has broad streets, and pure water. It
owes its prosperity chiefly to the gold
mines at Johannesburg, about 30
miles distant.
Prcvost-Paraclol, Imcien Ana-
tole, a French writer and diplomatist ;
born in Paris, France, Aug. 8, 1829.
In 1851 he obtained from the Academie
Francaise the prize for eloquence, for
his " Eulogy on Bernardin de Saint
Pierre." His literary and political es-
says are among the soundest, the most
acute, the most scholarly, and the most
elegant that have proceeded from the
French journalists of the empire. In
1870 he came to the United States as
minister plenipotentiary, and he was
at Washington only a few days when
he committed suicide, Aug. 11, 1870.
Priam, a King of Phrygia, and the
last sovereign of Troy. Soon after his
accession, the discovery of a gold mine
in his kingdom enabled him to enlarge
and beautify his capital, strengthen
its defenses, and raise a powerful
army. Under his reign Troy was re-
garded as the largest, richest, and most
magnificent city, and himself as the
most powerful monarch in Lesser
Asia. The perfidy of his son Paris in
eloping with Helen led to the long and
fatal war, which, after enduring for
10 years, terminated in the entire over-
throw of the state, the destruction of
Illium, the death of most of his sons,
and his own murder by the ruthless
Pyrrhus. Priam's death occurred about
1184 B. C.
Pribilof Islands, a group of is-
lands on the coast of Alaska, in Ber-
ing Sea. The largest are St. Paul, St.
George, Walrus, and Beaver Islands.
They are frequented by numbers of fur
seals. The natives are Aleutians.
Price, Richard, an English phi-
losopher : born in Tynton, Glamorgan-
shire, Feb. 22, 1723. He was a Dis-
senting minister, and was pastor of
Price
a congregation at Hackney. He was
the friend of Benjamin Franklin, and
sympathized warmly with the Ameri-
can colonists. His tables of vital sta-
tistics and calculations of expectancy
of life were the basis of modern an-
nuities and life insurance ; his econom-
ic and financial writings were of a
high order, and the younger Pitt con-
sulted him on finance. He wrote " The
American Revolution and the Means of
Rendering It a Benefit to the World,"
etc. He died April 19, 1791.
Price, Sterling, an American mili-
tary officer ; born in Prince Edward
co., Va., Sept. 11, 1809 ; received a
collegiate education, and settled in
Missouri in 1831 ; was elected to Con-
gress in 1844 ; served in the Mexican
War as colonel and Brigadier-General
of volunteers ; was military governor
of Chihuahua in 1847 ; governor of
Missouri in 1853-1857, and president
of the State Convention in February,
1861. When the Civil War broke out
he joined the Confederate army, and
became Major-General of Missouri
militia in May, 1861. He fought
through many campaigns and greatly
distinguished himself ; r, as commander
of the Department of the West in
18G2, and afterward of the districts of
Tennessee and Trans-Mississippi. At
the close of the war he went to Mexico,
but in 1866 returned to Missouri. He
died in St. Louis, Mo., Sept. 29, 1867.
Prickly Ash, a name given to
several prickly shrubs of the United
otates. They have an aromatic and
pungent bark, which from being used
as a remedy for toothache gains them
the name of toothache tree.
JPrickly Heat, a skin disease,
characterized by minute papulae
formed by the hypersemia of the sweat
follicles. Few Caucasian residents of
the tropics escape it when they are ex-
posed to the sun. It is not in the
least dangerous.
Prickly Pear, otherwise called the
Indian fig. It is a fleshy and succu-
lent plant, destitute of leaves, covered
with clusters of spines, and consisting
of flattened joints inserted upon each
other. The fruit is purplish in color,
covered with fine prickles, and edible.
The flower is large and yellow. It is
a native of the tropical parts of Amer-
ica. It is easily propagated, and in
some countries is used as a hedge
F. 120.
Priestley
plant. It attains a height of seven or
eight feet.
Pride of China (also called pride
of India and bead tree), a handsome
tree a native of India, naturalized in
the Southern States of the American
Union. It grows rapidly, has large
bunches of flowers, and enormous
quantities of small fruit. A decoc-
tion of the bark of its root is used as
a vermifuge.
Priest, one who in any religion per-
forms the sacred rites and, more or
less, intervenes between the worship-
per and his God, especially by offering
sacrifice.
In Judaism, a descendant of Aaron,
and therefore one of the sacred caste.
The Jewish priests filled all the im-
portant offices in connection, first with
the tabernacle and then with the tem-
ple worship. In the Protestant Epis-
copal Church, a clergyman in priest's
orders, as distinguished from a deacon.
In the Roman Church, a cleric who
has received the third grade in holy or-
ders, and who is thereby empowered
to " offer, t>less, rule, preach, and bap-
tize."
Priest, Josiah, an American au-
thor ; born in New York, about 1790.
He was an unschooled man, a harness-
maker by trade ; but published several
books, some of which became very pop-
ular. Among them were, " Stories of
the Revolution," and " Slavery in the
Light of History and Scripture." He
died about 1850.
Pristley, Joseph, an English
natural philosopher; born in Field-
head, England, March 13, 1733. His
first publication was the "History and
Present State of Electricity," which
procured his election into the Royai
Society, and the degree of doctor of
laws from Edinburgh. It was here
also that his political opinions were
first manifested, in an " Essay on Gov-
ernment." Soon after this he went to
Leeds, where he made those important
discoveries with regard to the proper-
ties of fixed air, foi which he received
the Copley medal of the Royal Society
in 1772. In 1776 he communicated to
the same learned body his observations
on respiration, in which he first experi-
mentally ascertained that the air parts
with its oxygen to the blood as it
passes through the lungs. He next re-
Prima Donna
moved to Birmingham, where he be-
came once more minister of an Inde-
pendent congregation, and occupied
himself in his " History of the Corrup-
tions of Christianity," writing, also,
in support of the claims of the Dis-
senters for a repeal of the test acts.
But it was the French Revolution that
afforded him the widest field, and he
did not fail to display his warm sym-
pathy with it. This excited the in-
dignation of the High Church party;
and in the riots which took place in
July, 1791, his house, library, manu-
scripts, and apparatus were committed
to the flames by the mob, and he was
exposed to great personal danger. Aft-
er this he removed to Hackney, where
he succeeded Dr. Price ; but, in 1794,
compelled by incessant persecutions to
fly his intolerant country, came to the
United States and took up his abode
at Northumberland, Pa. His works
extend to between 70 and 80 volumes.
As a natural philosopher, his fame
principally rests on his pneumatic in-
quiries. He died in Northumberland,
Pa., Feb. 6, 1804.
Prima Donna, the first female
singer in an opera.
Primate, the chief ecclesiastic in
certain churches. The Archbishop of
York is called the Primate of England,
the Archbishop of Canterbury the Pri-
mate of All England, and the Roman
Catholic Archbishop of Baltimore the
Primate of the United States.
Primates, the first and chief of
Linnaeus' orders of the class Mam-
malia. He included under it four gen-
era : Homo ( one species, five varie-
ties), Simia (21 species), Lemur,
(three species), and Vespertilio (seven
species). Huxley divides it into three
suborders: (1) Anthropidffi, (2) Simi-
adffi (apes and monkeys), and (3)
Lemurid*.
Prime, Samuel Ircnseus, an
American editor ; born in Ballston, N.
Y., Nov. 4, 1812 ; was first a minister
in the Presbyterian Church. About
1840 he became editor of the New
York " Observer," and remained in
charge till his death. He was the
author of over 40 volumes, the best
known being, " Travels in Europe and
the East," " Letters from Switzer-
land," " The Alhambra and the Krem-
lin," "Life of Samuel F. B. Morse."
Primrose
He died in Manchester, Vt., July 18,
1885.
Prime, William Cowper, an
American author ; born in Cambridge,
N. Y., Oct. 31, 1825. He has written
" Owl Creek Letters," " Coins, Medals,
and Seals," " The Holy Cross," " Pot-
tery and Porcelain of all Times and
Nations," etc. He edited " McClel-
lan's Own Story," and other works.
He died Feb. 13, 1905.
Prime Meridian, that meridian
from which longitude is measured ; in
the United States the meridian of
Washington.
Prime Minister, a British officer
of State, who at the summons of the
sovereign has succeeded in forming an
administration, of which he is the
head, and which may be named after
him. Though each member of the min-
istry administers his own department
independently of his colleagues, all im-
portant departmental matters are sub-
mitted to him, the most important be-
ing brought before the wMole ministry,
and no appointment of moment is
made or recommended to the crown
without his knowledge and concur-
rence. His own patronage is very ex-
tensive. No cabinet officer in the Unit-
ed States possesses similar powers.
Primitive Methodists, a section
of the Wesleyan community which
arose in Staffordshire, England, under
the leadership of Hugh Bourne
(1792-1852). Having held camp meet-
ings like those in the United States,
he was censured for it by the English
Wesleyan Conference in 1807, and, se-
ceding, formed a new connection. In
doctrine the Primitive Methodists
agree with the Wesleyans. In the
United States they report 101
churches, 80 ministers, and 7,558
communicants.
Primogeniture, the right, system,
or rule under which in cases of in-
testacy, the eldest son of a family suc-
ceeds to the real estate of his father
to the absolute exclusion of the young-
er sons and daughters. Primogeniture
no longer carries with it any legal ad-
vantage over younger children hi the
United States.
Primrose, a well known flower,
common in copses, pastures, hedge-
banks, and woods, or by the side of
streams. Its rootstock is emetic.
Prince
Princeton University
Prince. (1) One who holds the
first, or chief place, or rank ; a sover-
eign. (2) The ruler or sovereign of
a state or territory which he holds of
a superior, to whom he owes certain
services. (3) The son of a sovereign,
or the issue of the royal family; as,
the princes of the blood. In British
heraldic language, the title of prince
belongs to dukes, marquises, and earls
of Great Britain, but in ordinary use j
it is confined to members of the royal
family. The only case in which it is
a territorial title is that of the Prince
of Wales, the official title of the heir-
apparent to the throne. On the Con-
tinent of Europe the title of prince is
borne by members of families not im-
mediately connected with any royal
house. It is frequently borne by per-
sons who although legally entitled to
it are in fact without means of sup-
port, and it can be purchased in some
European countries for a comparative-
ly small sum of money. (4) The head
or chief of any body of men ; one who
is at the head of any class or profes-
sion, or who is preeminent in any-
thing; as, a merchant prince.
Prince, Le Baron Bradford, an
American lawyer ; born in Flushing,
L. I., N. Y., July 3, 1840 ; was chief-
justice of New Mexico in 1878-1882;
territorial governor of New Mexico in
1889-1893; president of the Interna-
tional Mining Congress in 1897-1898
and in 1900-1901; and vice-president
of the National Irrigation Conference
in 1901. He is the owner of the
largest collection of American stone
idols in the world. . His publications
include various books and pamphlets
on archaeology, political economy, and
history.
Prince Edward Island, an island
forming a province of the Dominion of
Canada, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
and separated by Northumberland
Strait from New Brunswick on the E.
and Nova Scotia on the S. ; greatest
length, from E. to W., about 130
miles ; breadth, varying from 4 to 34
miles ; area, about 2,134 square miles,
or 1,365,760 acres, of which over 1,-
000,000 are under cultivation. Pop.
(1901) 103,259. The coast line pre-
sents a remarkable succession of large
bays and projecting headlands. The
island is naturally divided into three
peninsulas, and the whole is eminently
! agricultural and pastoral, the foresta
now being of comparatively limited ex-
I tent. The climate is mild ; winter,
! though long and cold, is free from
damp, unwholesome chills ; and sum-
mer, without being oppressively hot,
is fitted to promote the growth of all
the ordinary cereals. Sheep, cattle,
and horses are reared in numbers ; cod,
mackerel, herring, oysters, and lob-
sters form the most productive part of
the fisheries. The manufactures are
chiefly confined to linen and flannels
for domestic use ; there are also several
tanneries, and shipbuilding is carried
on to a considerable extent. The ex-
ports consist of timber, agricultural
produce, and live stock; the imports
of drygoods, hardware, cordage, iron,
etc. A railway runs from one end of
the island to the other. The capital is
Charlottetown. Pop. (1901) 12,080.
There is an excellent educational sys-
tem, the elementary schools being
free. The island is supposed to have
been discovered by Cabot. It was
first colonized by France, captured by
Great Britain in 1745, restored and
recaptured, and finally in 1873 was
admitted to the Dominion of Canada.
Princeton, a town in Mercer
county, N. J.; on the Delaware &
Raritan canal and a spur of the Penn-
sylvania railroad; 10 miles N. E. of
Trenton; is widely noted as the seat
of Princeton University, the Prince-
ton Theological Seminary, and the
home of Grover Cleveland; for a bat-
tle that took place at Stony Brook,
about 3 miles W. of the town, dur-
ing the Revolutionary War, in which
the Continental army was victorious;
and as the place where Washington
received the thanks of the young na-
tion for his conduct of the war to
a successful termination. Pop. (1910)
5,136.
Princeton Theological Semi-
nary, an educational institution in
Princeton, N. J. ; founded in 1812,
under the auspices of the Presbyterian
Church.
Princeton University, an educa-
tional institution in Princeton, N. J. It
was founded Oct. 22, 1746, by a char-
ter given under the seal of the Prov-
ince of New Jersey, " for the instruc-
tion of youth in the learned languages
and in the liberal arts and sciences.'
After the Civil War the college began
Printing
to make rapid progress. The number
of students increased, the faculty was
enlarged, and in 1872 the Chancellor
Green Library (named in honor of its
donor) was erected. Up to this time
the course of instruction had led ex-
clusively to the degree of Bachelor of
Arts; but in 1873 the John C. Green
School of Science was added, and in
1875 the Department of Civil Engi-
neering was also created. In 1889 the
Department of Electrical Engineering
was founded, and in 1901 the
Graduate School was formally estab-
lished, Prof. Andrew West being ap-
pointed its dean.
On Oct. 22, 1896, the 150th anniver-
sary of the signing of the first charter,
the title of Princeton University was
assumed. In 1897 the Chancellor
Green Library was connected wij;h a
new library building, having a capacity
to shelve 1,200,000 volumes. The total
number of buildings now belonging to
the university is over 40. The fac-
ulty numbers about 160; average
student attendance, 1.300; graduates,
10,500; endowment, $4,250,000.
Printing, the art of producing im-
pressions from characters or figures on
paper or any other substance. Print-
ing is of comparatively modern origin,
only 400 years having elapsed since the
first book was issued from the press;
yet we have proof that the principles
on which it was ultimately developed
existed among the ancient Assyrian
nations. Printing from movable types
was, according to Professor Douglas,
probably practised in China as early
as the 12th or 13th century, as there
are Korean books printed from mov-
able clay or wooden types in 1317. The
great discovery was that of forming
every letter or character of the alpha-
bet separately, so as to be capable of
rearrangement and forming in succes-
sion the pages of a work, thereby
avoiding the labor of cutting new
blocks of types for every page. The
credit of inventing this simple yet mar-
velous art is contested by the Dutch
and Germans. Printing was brought
to England in 1476 or 1477 by Will-
iam Caxton. The first printing press
set up in America was introduced by
the Viceroy of Mexico, Antonio de
Mendoza, and the first book printed
by it in the New World was " The
Ladder de S. Juan Climaco" (1536).
Printing
The earliest press in the British-
American colonies was brought over
for Harvard College in 1638, and was
set up by Stephen Daye. The " Bay
Psalm Book" (1640) was its first
important work ; but in 1639 it print-
ed the " Freeman's Oath " and an al-
manac. In Philadelphia a press was
set up in 1685, in New York in 1693.
In July, 1902, the Census Bureau
issued a report on printing and pub-
lishing which shows a capital of $292,-
517,072 invested in the 22,312 estab-
lishments reporting for the industry.
The value of the products is returned
at $347,055,050, to produce which in-
volved an outlay of $35,090,719 for
salaries of officials, clerks, etc. ; $84,-
249,889 for wages; $55,897,529 for
miscellaneous expenses and $86,856,290
for material used.
In 1890 the increase in the number
of all publications was greater than
the increase in population, but in 1900
the increase in number of publications
and in population was about the same.
During the decade there was an in-
crease in the proportion of daily, tri-
weekly, semi-weekly and monthly pub-
lications ; a marked decline in the pro-
portion of publications devoted to spe-
cial topics and an advance only in
the classes devoted to news topics and
to general reading. The total circula-
tion per issue of dailies was enough to
supply one for every five inhabitants.
The total circulation per issue of week-
lies and monthlies was one to two in-
habitants. Publications printed in En-
glish formed 94.3 per cent, of all pub-
lications reporting for 1900, showing
a considerable increase over the corre-
sponding figures for the preceding dec-
ade. One and one-quarter billion
pounds of paper were used during the
census year. Of this amount 77.6 per
cent, was consumed for newspapers,
16.4 per cent, for books and periodicals
and 6 per cent, for job printing, but
the proportionate cost was 58.7 per
cent., 24.7 per cent., and 16.6 per cent,
respectively. Daily evening news-
papers increased more rapidly than
daily morning papers. In 1890 there
were two evening papers to every
morning paper; in 1900 the propor-
tion was about three to one.
The 19th was a century of wonder-
ful achievement in every branch of
printing. The Fourdrinier paper-mak-
ing machine, the Bruce type-caster, the
Prison
/inotype type-casting and type-setting
machine, and other mechanical type-
setters of merit ; composition ink roll-
ers, the cylinder press, the web press,
and mechanisms of many kinds for the
rapid printing of the smallest label
or the largest sheet in black or many
colors ; machines for folding, sewing,
and binding books ; the arts of stereo-
type, electrotype, and photo-engraving
all these are its outgrowth, and the
more important have been invented or
made practicable within the memory
of men now living. It is a summary
of which the printing trade may be
proud. Printing was never done bet-
ter and never done worse. It has
never been . furnished in so large a
quantity at so small a price. For one
or more cents can be had a newspaper
with more reading matter than would
fill a stout octavo volume. Yet books
are made and sold in limited editions
to eager subscribers at prices rang-
ing from $5 to $50 a volume. William
Morris maintained that printing had
gone steadily from bad to worse till he
revived its best features. Many pub-
lishers maintain, with more reason,
that books of real value for instruc-
tion or amusement were never better
fitted than they now are for useful-
ness to all classes of readers.
Prison, a place of detention for
persons convicted of crime. The most
advanced examples of prison disci-
Sline and construction are to be found
i the United States.
In some of the Southern States pris-
oners are leased out to the highest
bidders for the term of their sentences ;
but this system, which condemns the
convicts to a slavery that is not modi-
fied even by considerations arising
from personal ownership, is gradually
being abandoned. The first place of
detention for juvenile delinquents was
opened at New York in 1825 ; the first
reformatories on the cottage or fam-
ily system were established in Ohio
for boys at Lancaster in 1858, for
girls at Delaware in 1878.
Prisoners of War, those who are
captured from the enemy during naval
or military operations. In ancient
times the treatment of prisoners of
war was very severe. In the Greek
wars it was no uncommon th ; ng to
put the whole adult male population
of a conquered state to the sword,
Privateer
while the women and children were
enslaved. Though the putting to death
of prisoners became less frequent, they
and their families were commonly re-
duced to slavery to as recent a period
as the 13th century. The act of Na-
poleon in putting to death the Turkish
prisoners of war at Jaffa in 1799 was
universally condemned, and is probably
the last instance of such barbarity.
Pritchett, Henry Smith, an
American educator; born in Fayette,
Mo., April 16, 1857; became an as-
tronomer in the United States Naval
Observatory; astronomer of the
Transit of Venus Expedition (1882);
Professor of Astronomy and Director
of Observatory, Washington Univer-
sity, St. Louis, Mo. (1883-1897); Su-
perintendent United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey (1897-1900);
president, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (1900-1906); and presi-
dent of the Carnegie Foundation for
the Advancement of Teaching (1906).
Privateer, a ship owned by a pri-
vate individual, which under govern-
ment permission, expressed by a letter
of marque, makes war on the shipping
of a hostile power. To make war on
an enemy without this commission, or
on the shipping of a nation not speci-
fied in it, is piracy. At the American
Revolution the new republic fully re-
alized the advantage of its position
in preying on the mercantile marine
of Great Britain ; and in the War of
1812 British commerce suffered severe-
ly at the hands of American privateers,
of which it was computed that some
250 were afloat. During the American
Civil War the Confederate States of-
fered letters of marque to persons of
all countries, but no admittedly for-
eign vessels were so commissioned.
During the same period the Congress
of the United States empowered the
President to grant commissions to
privateers, but none such were grant-
ed. The Confederate cruisers were at
first regarded in the North as mere
pirates ; and the " Alabama Claims "
originated in the charge against Great
Britain of allowing the departure of
privateers from British ports, where
they were fitted out illegally. The
charge was fully sustained, it being
shown before the Geneva Tribunal that
the Alabama and other so-called Con-
federate ships were really British.
Privet
Privet, a genus of plants contain-
ing a number of species of shrubs and
small trees with opposite leaves, which
are simple and entire at the margin ;
the flowers small, white, and in ter-
minal panicles. Common privet is a
shrub growing in bushy places and
about the borders of woods in the
middle and S. of Europe, and now also
naturalized in some parts of North
America.
Privileged Witnesses, witnesses
who are not obliged to testify as to cer-
tain things, as lawyers in relation to
their dealings with their clients, and
officers of State as to State secrets ;
also, by statute, in "some instances,
clergymen and physicians are placed in
the same category, so far as concerns
information received by them profes-
sionally.
Privy Council, in English law, the
principal council of the sovereign, con-
sisting of members chosen at his or
her pleasure. It is presided over by
the Lord President of the Council, who
has precedence next after the Lord
Chancellor. Members of the privy
council are addressed as Right Hon-
orable.
The office of a privy councilor is
now confined to advising the sovereign
in the discharge of executive, legisla-
tive, and judicial duties.
Privy Seal, the seal used in En-
gland to be appended to grants which
are afterward to pass the great seal,
and to documents of minor importance,
which do not require to pass the great
seal.
Prize, that which is taken from an
enemy in war ; that which is seized by
fighting, especially a ship, with the
goods contained in her ; any descrip-
tion of goods or property seized by
force as spoil or plunder.
Prize Court, a court established
to adjudicate on prizes captured at sea.
In the United States, the United
States District Courts have jurisdic-
tion both as instance and prize courts.
Prize Money, money paid to the
captors of a ship or place where booty
has been obtained, in certain propor-
tions according to rank, the money be-
ing realized by the sale of the booty.
Probate, in law, the official proof
of a will. This is done either in com-
mon form, which is upon the oath of
Process
the executor before the judge of the
probate court ; or per testes (by wit-
nesses), in some solemn form of law,
in case the validity of the will is dis-
puted.
Probate Court, a court of record
established to exercise jurisdiction
and authority in relation to probate
of wills and letters of administration,
and to hear and determine all ques-
tions relating to matters and causes
testamentary. In New York it is
called the " Surrogate's Court " ; in
Pennsylvania the " Orphans' Court."
Probationer, one who is in a state
of probation or trial, so that he may
give proof of his qualifications for a
certain position, place, or state.
Proboscis Monkey, or Kah.au, a
native of Borneo, distinguished par-
ticularly by its elongated nose, its
shortened thumbs, and its elongated
tail. The general color is a lightish
red. These monkeys are arboreal in
habits, and appear to frequent the
neighborhood of streams and rivers,
congregating in troops.
Probus, Marcus Anrelius, a Ro-
man emperor ; born in Sirmium,
Pannonia. By the Emperor Tacitus
he was appointed governor of the
Asiatic possessions of Rome ; and such
was the zealous attachment evinced
for him by his soldiers that on the
death of Tacitus they forced him to
assume the purple; and, his rival
Florianus having been removed, Pro-
bus was enthusiastically hailed em-
peror by all classes (A. D. 276). His
brief reign was signalized by brill-
iant and important successes; the
Germans were driven out of Gaul,
and the barbarians from the Rhaetian,
Pannonian, and Thracian frontiers ;
and Persia was forced to agree to a
humiliating peace. The external se-
curity of the empire being established,
Probus devoted himself to the develop-
ment of its internal resources. After
a short reign he was murdered hi a
military insurrection in 282 A. D.
Procedure, Civil, the method of
proceeding in a civil suit throughout
its various stages.
Process, in anatomy, an enlarge-
ment, such as the zygomatic process of
the temporal bone, the vermiform proc-
ess of the cerebellum, etc. In law, a
term applied to the whole course of
Procession
proceedings in a cause, real or per-
sonal, c.ivil or criminal, from the orig-
inal writ to the end of the suit ; spe-
cifically, the summons citing the party
affected to appear in court at the
return of the original writ.
Procession, the act or state of pro-
ceeding or issuing forth or from. Also
a train of persons marching on foot,
or riding on horseback or in vehicles
with ceremonious solemnity.
Proclamation, a public notice
made by a ruler or chief magistrate to
the people, concerning any matter
which he thinks fit to give notice
about. In the United States the
President issues proclamations as to
treaties, days of thanksgiving^ admis-
sion of new States, etc. ; likewise gov-
ernors of States and mayors of cities
for special purposes.
Proconsnl, in Roman antiquities,
an officer who, though not actually
holding the office of consul, exercised
in some particular locality all the
powers of a consul.
Procopius, an eminent Greek his-
torian of the 6th century, the leading
authority for Justinian's reign ; born
in Caesarea, Palestine. Of his writings
we have the " Histories," or as the
author styles them, " Books about the
Wars" of his time Persian, Van-
dal, and Gothic ; a treatise " On Build-
ings " ; " Anecdotes " ( posthumous) ,
a supplement to the " Histories," con-
sisting of political and personal mat-
ter he dared not publish in his life-
time. .
Procter, Bryan "Waller, pseudo-
nym Barry Cornwall, an English
poet; born in London, England, Nov.
21, 1787. He early published four
Volumes of poems, and produced a
tragedy at Covent Garden, whose suc-
cess was largely due to the acting of
Macready and Kemble. He was called
to the bar in 1831, from 1832 to 1861
was a metropolitan commissioner of
lunacy. His works were issued under 1
the pseudonym " Barry Cornwall " (a
faulty anagram of his real name). He
died Oct. 5, 1874.
Proctor, in an American univer-
sity, an executive officer whose duty
it is to preserve order and enforce the
laws of the institution. In England
the king's proctor is a crown official
charged with upholding the interests
Profit
of the crown in certain classes of pri-
vate law-suits.
Proctor, Edna Dean, an Ameri-
can poet; born in Henniker, N. H.,
Oct. 10, 1838. Her works are:
" Poems " ; " The Song of the Ancient
People " ; " Mountain Maid and Other
Poems of New Hampshire " ; etc.
Proctor, Richard Anthony, an
English astronomer, author of a large
number of popular works, principally
on astronomy ; born in London, Eng-
land, March 23, 1837. He was a grad-
uate of St. John's College, Cambridge,
in 1860. About 1885 he settled in St.
Louis, and later moved to Florida. He
was at the time of his death the edi-
tor of " Knowledge," a monthly jour-
nal of popular science. He was a
very popular lecturer. He died in
New York city, Sept. 12, 1888.
His daughter, MARY, born in Dub-
lin, Ireland; was graduated at the
College of Preceptors, London, in
1898; took the course in Descriptive
Astronomy at Columbia University
in 1900; observed and reported sev-
eral notable astronomical occur-
rences; delivered over 800 lectures
on astronomy since 1893 and annual
courses under the New York Board
of Education since 1894.
Professor. (1) One who professes
or makes open and public declara-
tion or acknowledgment of his senti-
ments, opinions, belief, etc. (2) One
who makes a public profession of re-
ligion in 'those churches where such a
rule prevails instead of confirmation.
(3) One who teaches any art, science,
! or branch of learning ; specifically a
person appointed in a university, col-
lege, etc., to deliver lectures and in-
struct the students in any particular
branch of learning; as, a professor of
Greek, a professor of theology, etc.
By common use, the title professor has
become greatly abused, and is assumed,
not only by teachers of music, dan-
I cing, drawing, etc., but even by
j quacks, conjurers, teachers of boxing,
animal trainers, etc.
Profit, any advantage, benefit, or
I accession of good resulting from labor
or exertion ; valuable results, useful
consequence, benefit, gain; compre-
hending the acquisition of anything
valuable or advantageous, corporeal,
or intellectual, temporal or spiritual.
Progressive Party
Prong-horn Antelope
Progressive Party, The, a Na-
tional political party organized in
Chicago, 111., in June, 1912. by regular
and unseated delegates to the Republi-
can National Convention who favored
the candidacy of former President
Roosevelt. In the balloting for the
nomination, President Taft received
561 votes and Roosevelt 107, while 344
delegates disregarded their local in-
structions and acceded to Roosevelt's
request that his supporters refrain
from taking any part in the proceed-
ings of the Convention, on the ground
that the National Committee had de-
frauded him out of many votes in their
decisions on C9ntested seats. The new
party held its first convention in
Chicago on August 5-7, adopted a
platform in consonance with the
former President's public speeches and
writings, and unanimously nominated
him for President, with Governor
Hiram W. Johnson, of California, for
V ice-President. Under the distinguish-
ing emblem of the Bull Moose, the
new party rapidly gained strength
throughout the country, drawing its
largest forces from among the mem-
bers of the Republican party who had
become dissatisfied with the methods
and policies of the administration of
President Taft. Prior to the nomina-
tions, Messrs. Taft and Roosevelt both
made extended speaking tours, but
afterward Mr. Roosevelt only con-
tinued actively in the campaign (see
Roosevelt, Theodore). The Demo-
cratic candidate, Governor Woodrow
Wilson, was elected in the ensuing
election November 5, 1912.
Prohibition Party, The. In re-
cent years the cause of absolute pro-
hibition has made great strides in the
United States. In the State of Maine,
th? mother State of prohibitory legis-
lation, what is known throughout the
worl 1 as the "Maine law" has been
in successful operation for a quarter
of a century. In various States gu-
bernatorial and State tickets were
nominated in successive years from
1876 to 1886, but no election resulted
in any case. In New Jersey and in
New York in 1886 great interest cen-
tered around the efforts of the Pro-
hibition party, owing to the closeness
of the vote between the two older
parties, though the vote polled by the
Prohibitionists amounted to only a
few thousands. In 1872, 1876, 1880.
1884, 1888, 1892, 1896, 1900, 1904,
and 1908 a national ticket was nom-
inated; votes as follows: 1872, 5,608:
1876, 9,522; 1880, Dow, 10,305; 1884,
St. John, 150,369; 1888, Fisk, 249,-
360; 1892, Bidwell, 264,132; 1896,
Levering, 131,757: 1900, Woolley,
208,833; 1904, Swallow, 258,536; 1908.
Chafin, 253,840.
Proletariat, a term used to de-
note the poorest classes of the com-
munity.
Prometheus, in mythology, the son
of the Titan Japetus, was a brother to
Atlas and Epimetheus, and surpassed
all mankind in cunning. He ridiculed
the gods, and deceived Jupiter him-
self. To punish Prometheus, Jupiter
caused this wily mortal to be tied to
a rock on Mount Caucasus, where, for
30,000 years, a vulture was to feed on
his liver, which was never to be dimin-
ished. He was delivered from thig
punishment 30 years afterward by
Hercules.
Promise, in law, a declaration
made by one person to another for a
good or valuable consideration, where-
by the person promising binds himself
to do or forbear some act, and gives
to the promisee a legal right to de-
mand and enforce a fulfillment
Promised Land, Canaan; that
portion of Syria lying between the
Jordan and the Mediterranean. It was
frequently promised by Jehovah to the
patriarchs, and finally bestowed on
their descendants, the Israelites.
Promissory Note, a written prom-
ise to pay a given sum of money
to a certain person, at a specified date.
The phrase " for value received " is
usually inserted.
Prompter, one who or that which
prompts, urges, or incites to action or
exertion. Also, one who assists a
speaker, when at a loss, by suggest-
ing or repeating words. Specifically,
a person placed behind the scenes in
a theater, whose duty is to prompt or
assist the actors when at a loss, by
uttering the first words of a sentence,
or words forgotten.
Prong-horn Antelope, inhabiting
the W. parts of North America, from
53 N. to the plains of Mexico and
California. It is rather more than
four feet in length, and stands three
Pronoun
feet at the shoulder. Pale fawn
above and on the limbs ; breast, abdo-
men, and rump white. The horns are
branched, and are shed annually.
PRONG-HORN ANTELOPE.
Pronoun, a word used in place of a
noun or name in order to avoid the
too frequent repetition of such noun
or name, but differing from a noun in
not being permanently attached to
any certain object or class of objects,
and in not being limited in its appli-
cation. Pronouns in English are divid-
ed into: (1) Personal, (2) Demon-
strative, (3) Interrogative, (4) Rela-
tive, and (5) Indefinite. Interrogative
pronouns are those which serve to ask
a question, as who? which? what?
Indefinite pronouns, or such as do not
specify any particular object, are
used, some as substantives, some as
adjectives ; as, any, aught, each, every,
other, etc.
Propaganda Fide, Congrega-
tion de, a commission of cardinals
charged with the direction of all mat-
ters connected with foreign missions
in the Roman Church. Pope Urban
VIII. (1623-1644) founded the Prop-
aganda College, and here young men
of all nations are trained for the
nriesthood, and take an oath to devote
Prorogation
themselves for life to the foreign mis-
sions in whatever province or vicari-
ate they may be appointed to by the
congregation.
Propeller, one who or that which
propels ; specifically, the screw by
which a steamship is driven through
the water; a vessel thus propelled.
Property Tax, a rate or duty
levied by the State, county, or munici-
pality on the property of individuals,
the value of the property being fixed
by assessment.
Prophet, one who prophesies; one
who is the bearer of a divine message
to mankind ; more familiarly, one who
predicts future events. The prophet was
a revealer in distinction from the priest,
whose functions pertained to ritual.
Prophets, School of the, an as-
sociation of the prophets in which the
elder lovingly trained the younger,
who were called their sons (I Kings
xx : 35). First Elijah, and then
Elisha, presided over such a society.
Prophets, The, men divinely in-
spired, and who often uttered predic-
tions of future events. The order was
early recognized among the Hebrews.
The title was given to Moses, and after
his time to men who, as reformers or
teachers, declared God's will to the
nation. Samuel and Elijah were no-
table examples. Later, the prophets
committed their messages to writing.
Sixteen of their books are included in
the canon. They are divided into four
groups : 1. The prophets of the
Northern kingdom : Hosea, Amos,
Joel, and Jonah ; 2. The prophets of
the Southern kingdom : Isaiah, Jere-
miah, Obadiah, Micah, Nahum, Habak-
kuk, and Zephaniah ; 3. The prophets
of the Captivity : Ezekiel and Daniel ;
4. The prophets of the Return : Hag-
gai, Zechariah, and Malachi. The
title was also applied to John the Bap-
tist and to Christ.
Prophet's City, a name by which
Medina, in Arabia, is often referred
to. To this place Mohammed fled for
refuge during the Hegira, July 16,
622, and here is his tomb.
Prorogation, in English law, the
interruption of a session, as distin-
guished from an adjournment, which
is from day to day, and may be of
either or both houses, while a pro-
rogation is of Parliament, also the
Proscenium
Proteids
time during which the English Par-
liament is prorogued.
Proscenium, the stage of a theater,
or the space included in the front of
the scene ; in contradistinction to the
postscenium, or space behind the
scene. In the modern theater it is im-
properly used to designate the orna-
mental framework from which the
curtain hangs when performances are
not going on, dividing the spectator
from all engaged on the stage.
Proscription, in Roman history, a
mode of getting rid of enemies, first
resorted to by Sulla in 82 B. c., and
imitated more than once afterward in
the stormy years that closed the re-
public. Under Sulla, lists of names
were drawn out and posted up in
public places, with the promise of a
reward to any person who should kill
any of those named in the lists, and
the threat of death to those who
should aid or shelter any of them.
Their property also was confiscated,
and their children were declared in-
capable of honors.
Prosecution, in law, (1) the in-
stituting and carrying on of a suit in
court of law or equity to obtain some
right, or to redress and punish an in-
jury or wrong. (2) The act or process
of exhibiting formal charges against
an offender before a legal tribunal,
and pursuing them to final judgment;
the instituting and continuing of a
criminal suit against any person or
persons. (3) The party by whom
criminal proceedings are instituted ;
the prosecutor or prosecutors collect-
ively.
Proselyte, a new convert to some
religion, sect, opinion, party, or sys-
tem. In Judaism, a gentile convert.
Two kinds were discriminated: (1)
Proselytes of the gate, who followed
a few Old Testament rules, and (2)
proselytes of righteousness, who ac-
cepted the whole Mosaic ritual.
Proserpine, in mythology, a
daughter of Ceres and Jupiter, of ex-
treme innocence and beauty, and who,
while gathering flowers in the lovely
vale of Tempe, or the Mysian Plain,
was seen and carried off by the god
of the infernal regions, Pluto. The
prayers and intercessions of her moth-
er ultimately prevailed on Pluto to
permit her to spend half of each year
on earth, to gratify and gladden the
heart and eyes of her devoted parents,
the other half being passed with her
infernal lord in the realms below.
Prosody, that part of grammar
which treats of the quantities of sylla-
bles, of accent, and of the laws of
versification. In Greek and Latin
every syllable had its determinate
value or quantity, and verse was con-
structed by a system of recurring feet,
each consisting of a certain number
of syllables, possessing a certain quan-
tity and arrangement. In English,
verse is constructed simply by accent
and number of syllables.
Protection, one of the theories con-
cerning the best development of a
country's industries by means of taxes
levied for other than fiscal purposes.
Incidental protection does not hold
that any tariff should be levied with
the intention of protecting and fos-
tering a given industry, but that in
every case the tax should be laid for
public purposes only i. e., with the
intention of sustaining the state, and
be only incidentally directed to the
protection of the weaker industry.
These last assumptions furnish the
f round of political divergence between
reetrade proper (q. v.) and incidental
protection. The protectionists take
into consideration both the funda-
mental conditions of the argument and
the peculiar character of the indus-
tries of a people. They claim that
given pursuits may thus be strength-
ened and encouraged by legislative
provisions, and that natural and po-
litical laws may be made to cooperate
in varying and increasing the produc-
tive resources of the state.
Protector, in English history, on
who had the care of the kingdom dur-
ing the minority of the king; a re-
gmt; specifically applied to Oliver
romwell, who took the title of Lord
Protector in 1653. In the Roman
Catholic Church a cardinal belonging
to one of the more important Catholic
nations, who, in Rome, watches over
questions affecting his country. There
are also cardinal protectors of relig-
ious orders, colleges, etc.
Proteids, a name given to sub-
stances analogous in composition to
protein, that is, consisting of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, some-
times united with sulphur and phos-
phorus. The gluten of flour, albumin,
Protest
the fibrin of the blood, syntonin,
which is the chief constituent or
muscle and flesh, and casein are ex-
amples of proteids. Proteids are the
essential food stuffs.
Protest, ordinarily, a solemn af-
firmation or declaration of opinion
(frequently in writing), generally in
opposition to some act or proposition ;
a solemn affirmation by which a per-
son declares either that he entirely
dissents from and disapproves of any
act or proposition, or else only con-
ditionally gives his assent or consent
to an act or proposition, to which
he might otherwise be considered to
have assented unconditionally.
In commerce, a formal declaration
by the holder of a bill of exchange or
promissory note, or by a notary public
at his direction, that acceptance or
payment of such bill or note has been
refused, and that the holder intends
to recover all expenses to which he
may be put in consequence of such
non-acceptance or non-payment.
Protestant, one who protests. In
Church history, the name given to
those princes and others who, on April
19, 1529, at the second diet of Speyer,
protested against the decision of the
majority, that the permission given
three years before to every prince to
regulate religious matters in his do-
minions till the meeting of a General
Council should be revoked, and that
no change should be made till the
council met. The name is now extend-
ed to all persons and churches hold-
ing the doctrines of the Reformation
and rejecting papal authority.
Protestant Episcopal Church,
a denomination in the United States
directly descended from the Church of
England, which doctrinally claims to
be based on the Holy Scriptures, as
interpreted in the Apostles and other
ancient creeds of the Church that
have been universally received, and
to have kept herself aloof from all the
modern systems of faith, whether of
Calvin, or Luther, or Arminius, leav-
ing her members free to enjoy their
own opinions on all points not repre-
sented in the Scriptures as necessary
to soul's health, and refusing to be
narrowed down to any other creed or
creeds than those of the Apostles and
the Primitive Church. She claims also
to have retained all that is essential
to church organization in her episco-
pate, and in her liturgy to have not
only a wise and judicious compend of
doctrine and devotion, but also one
of the most effectual of all possible
conservative safeguards for the faith
once delivered to the saints. Three
clerical orders are recognized bish-
ops, priests, and deacons the first
deriving their oflice in direct succes-
sion from the apostles by episcopal
consecration, and the others receiving
ordination at the hands of a bishop.
Those of the second order are entitled
archdeacons, deans, rectors, vicars, or
curates, according to their functions.
A reader is a layman licensed by the
bishop to read in a church or chapel
where there is no clergyman. Parson
signifies a clergyman in possession of
a parochial church.
From the time of the first congrega-
tions of the Church of England, in
America, in 1607, to the close of the
Revolution, all the clergy in the colo-
nies were regarded as under the super-
vision of the Bishop of London. The
first American bishop was Rev. Samuel
Seabury, who, in 1783, was consecrated
in Scotland as Bishop of Connecticut.
All Protestant Episcopal churches in
the United States are associated in
one national body, called the General
Convention, which meets triennially.
According to a special Census re-
port on " Religious Bodies " (2 vols.,
1910), there were 6.845 organiza-
tions; 6,922 church edifices; church
property valued at over $125.040,-
000; 5.368 ministers; 105 bishops of
different grades; 886,942 communi-
cants; and 5,211 Sunday schools.
Protocol, the original draft or copy
of a deed, contract, or other docu-
ment. In diplomacy, the minutes or
rough draft of an instrument or trans-
action; the original copy of a treaty,
dispatch, or other document; a docu-
ment serving as the preliminary to
diplomatic negotiations ; a diplomatic
document or minute of proceedings,
signed by the representatives of
friendly powers in order to secure cer-
tain political ends peacefully; a con-
vention not subject to the formalities
of ratification.
Protophytes. The lowest and
simplest organisms in the vegetable
kingdom. They are regarded as among
the Algse. The life-history of simplest
Protoplasm
Proverbs of Solomon
Protophytes is exemplified in the Pal-
moglcea macrococca, a sort of green
scum or slime, growing on damp
stones, etc. The cells are generally
independent, but in some species re-
main adherent one to another so as
to form a filament. Some species have
spiny projections of the outer coat,
which is of a horny consistence, as
in Staurastrum. Others are notched
on the sides ; some, as the Closterium,
are smooth. Many of the Desmids
multiply by subdivision, but the plan
is modified so as to maintain the sym-
metry characteristic of the tribe. At
other times multiplication takes place
by the subdivision of the endochrome
into granular particles, or " gonidia,"
set free by rupture of the cell wall.
Protoplasm, in biology, etc., the
living matter from which all kinds of
living things are formed and devel-
oped, and to the properties of which
all their functions are ultimately re-
ferred. Protoplasm is a transparent
homogeneous, or granular-looking sub-
stance. Under high microscopic power,
in many instances, it shows a more or
less definite structure, composed of
fibrils more or less regular, and in
some instances grouped into a honey-
combed or fibrillar reticulum, in the
meshes of which is a homogeneous in-
terstitial substance. Its composition
is a problem with which science is
still to deal.
Protozoa, a group of animals, oc-
cupying the lowest place in the animal
kingdom. They consist of a single cell,
or of a group of cells not differentiated
into two or more tissues ; incapable,
as a rule, of assimilating nitrogen in
its diffusible compounds (ammonia or
nitrates, or carbon in the form of
carbonates). The food is taken into
the protoplasm, either by a specialized
mouth or by any part of the cell sub-
stance, in the form of particles.
Proncllioii, Pierre Joseph, a
French publicist; born in Besancon,
France, July 15, 1809; died Jan. 19,
1865. In 1840, appeared his fa-
mous memoir, entitled, " What is
Property?" his answer to this ques-
tion, "Property is Theft," being al-
most all that is popularly known of
him. A second memoir on the same
subject exposed him to a prosecution,
but he was acquitted. After the revo-
lution of February, 1848, he was
chosen member of the Constituent
Assembly for the department of the
Seine. But he found no hearing at
the tribune, and therefore started a
newspaper under the title of " The
People," which was suppressed, and
reappeared three times. In 1849, he
founded his People's Bank, but being
soon after sentenced, under the press
laws, to three years' imprisonment
and a fine, he left France, and the
bank was closed by the government.
Prout, Father. See MAHONY.
Frovan.cli.er, Leon, a Canadian
priest and naturalist ; born in Becan-
cour, P. Q., March 10, 1820. He estab-
lished " Le Naturalist Canadien "
("The Canadian Naturalist") in
1868. His publications include : " Ele-
mentary Treatise on Botany " ; " Cana-
dian Plant Life " ; " Short History
of Canada " ; etc.
Provencal, a Romance dialect that
sprang up in France on the decline
of literary Latin. Originally Proven-
cal and Northern French came from
the same stock, but by the 12th cen-
tury they differed almost as widely as
French and Italian. Owing to its
rhyming facilities it was essentially
the language of the troubadours and
extended over the area from the Alps
to the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean
to the Loire, as well as in parts of
Spain and Switzerland.
Proverb, an old and common say-
ing ; a short or pithy sentence often
repeated, and containing or expressing
some well-known truth or common
fact ascertained by experience or ob-
servation; a sentence which briefly
and forcibly expresses some practical
truth. Unless a saying is capable of
being applied to a variety of cases it
can never become a proverb.
Proverbs of Solomon, one of the
sacred books of the Old Testament
ascribed to Solomon. The Hebrew
term translated proverbs means liter-
ally, a similitude or comparison of
two objects, and this is the form that
most of them take. Solomon, we are
told, uttered 3,000 proverbs ; but it
has been doubted whether he ever
made any collection of them in writ-
ing; and it is expressly stated that
the latter part of the book, beginning
with chapter xxv.. was written and
added by order of King Hezekiah. The
title shows the author rather than tbx
Providence
compiler. It has hardly ever been con-
tended that a large share in the com-
position of the book is to be ascribed
to the Wise King ; and the divine au-
thority of the book is sufficiently
proved by the quotations made from
it in the New Testament. In all ages
this book has been regarded as a great
store house of practical wisdom.
Providence, a city, capital of the
State of Rhode Island, and the county-
Beat of Providence CO. ; on the Provi-
dence river, an arm of Narrangansett
Bay, and 44 miles S. W. of Boston.
It is the second city of New England
in population and wealth, and is built
on a rolling plateau.
Providence has upward of 2,000
manufacturing establishments, with
a combined capital of about $60,000,-
000, and employing- about 40,000 per-
sons. It is noted for its manufactures
of cotton and^ woolen goods, jewelry,
and stoves, and is the- largest seat of
fine jewelry manufacture in the Unit-
ed States. The other industries in-
clude silverware, tools, engines, loco-
motives, boilers t sewing machines,
screws, files, general hardware, yarn,
calico, laces, braids, worsteds, broad-
cloth, chemicals, etc. There is an ex-
tensive coastwise commerce and ship-
ping industry, especially in the coal,
cotton and wool trade. There is also
an important shell-fish industry.
In 1636 Roger Williams, a Baptist
clergyman, was exiled from Massa-
chusetts because he opposed its theo-
cratic laws. He first settled at What
Cheer rock, on the Seekonk river, and
later at the head of the Providence
river, where the Indian chief, Canoni-
cus, granted him a piece of land. In
1643-1644 local government was
formed under a royal charter. Provi-
dence received its city charter in 1832,
and has been enlarged by annexation
of territory from adjoining towns.
Pop. (1900) 175,597; (1910) 224,326.
Piudclen, Thebphil Mitchell,
an American bacteriologist ; born in
Middlebury, Conn., July 7, 1849. He
was Professor of Pathology in the
College of Physicians and Surgeons,
New York. His works include:
" Handbook of Pathological Anatomy
and Histology," with F. Delafield?
" Story of the Bacteria " ; " Dust and
its Dangers " : " An Elder Brother to
the Cliff Dweller"; etc.
Prussia
Prune, the dried fruit of various
plums, especially of the varieties
called St. Catherine and Green Gage.
They contain a large proportion of
sugar, etc., so that brandy can be dis-
tilled from them.
Prussia, the largest and most pow-
erful State of the German empire;
occupying a N. central portion of the
European continent ; bounded on the
N. by the Baltic and Denmark; on
the E. by Russia and Poland ; on thr
S. by Bohemia, Bavaria, Wurtemberg,
and Baden ; and on the W. by Bel-
gium and the Netherlands. From the
extreme E. frontier to Aix-la-Chapelle
on the W. the distance is about 775
miles, and from the promontory on
the Baltic above Stralsund, to the ex-
treme S. frontier of Silesia, the dis-
tance is 404 miles. The length of the
coast line is about 250 miles on the
North Sea, and 750 miles on the Bal-
tic. Total area of the kingdom, 136,-
076 square miles.
Prussia is administratively divided
into 14 provinces, which are again
subdivided into 35 government dis-
tricts, with the principality of Hohen-
zollern, the cradle of the royal fami'T
The surface of the kingdom is gen-
erally level, sloping in the N. to the
sea, and forming part of the great N.
plain of Europe. The S. and S. W.
parts of the kingdom are hilly, or
even mountainous. The climate of
Prussia is varied. Along the Baltic it
is moist, and in Eastern Prussia, espe-
cially, the winter is long and severe.
In Silesia, Brandenburg, and the Sax-
on and Rhenish provinces, it is com-
paratively mild.
About 28,479,800 hectares are under
cultivation. Large estates are general-
ly managed by stewards and the oc-
cupants of smaller properties are, in
most cases, the owners. Rye, wheat,
barley, oats, potatoes, beet root, flax,
hops, tobacco and hemp form the chief
products. Chicory is also largely cul-
tivated. The extensive beet root plan-
tations give rise to one of the most
important industries ; in 1898 there
were 312 establishments manufactur-
ing beet root sugar. Madder and other
plants used in dyeing are also raised.
Fruits and vegetables are most ex-
tensively grown in the W. provinces,
which are also famous for their wines.
Horses, cattle and sheep are extensive
Prussia
Prussia
ly raised, wool being an important
product. Large numbers of fine horses
are exported from East Prussia.
The mineral products are abundant,
coal being the most important. The
production of lignite is large. Copper,
iron and lead are extensively worked.
Prussia yields about one-half of the
world's annual production of zinc.
Though more of an agricultural
than a manufacturing country, Prus-
sia has greatly distinguished herself,
particularly of late years, in the va-
rious manufactures. Linens and coarse
woolens for domestic consumption are
made in every village, and, indeed, in
most cottages throughout the kingdom.
Large quantities of silk and cotton
goods, and linen, are produced in
Elberfeld, and other towns of the
Rhine provinces. Very superior broad-
cloth is largely manufactured at
Eupen, Malmedy, Berlin, and Aix-la-
Chapelle. Prussia occupies an ad-
vanced rank as a producer of the use-
ful metals. The articles of hardware
made at Berlin, Iserlohn, Hagen, So-
lingen, Olpe, and Essen enjoy a high
reputation, the last-named place being
the seat of the famous Krupp steel
and gun works. ^ Porcelain, jewelry,
watches, and carriages are also manu-
factured in the latter city on a most
extensive scale. Paper, leather, soap,
oil and cigars are important manufac-
tures; and beer and spirits are very
extensively produced.
Commerce is facilitated by the long
coast line, and by an elaborate sys-
tem of railways and canals. Through-
out the kingdom, education is general
and compulsory. Absolute religious
liberty is guaranteed by the constitu-
tion. Nearly two-thirds of the popula-
tion are Protestants and most of the
remainder, Roman Catholic. The State
Church is Evangelical or Protestant,
and_ since 1817 has consisted of a
fusion of the Lutheran and Calvinist-
ic bodies. The relations of the Ro-
man Catholic Church to the govern-
ment differ in the various provinces,
but in every part of the monarchy the
crown reserves to itself control over
the election of bishops and priests.
The higher Catholic clergy are paid
by the State.
> The constitution vests the execu-
tive^and part of the legislative author-
ity in a king who attains his majority
on accomplishing his 18th year. The
crown is hereditary in the male line,
according to primogeniture. The king
is advised by a council of ministers
appointed by royal decree. The repre-
sentative assembly, the Landtag, is
composed of two chambers, the House
of Lords (Herrenhaus) and the
Chamber of Deputies (Abgeordneten-
haus). The assent of the king and
both chambers is requisite for all laws.
The executive government is carried
on by a Ministry of State appointed
by the king and holding office at hia
pleasure.
The rise of the Prussian power has
been rapid and extraordinary. The
kings of Prussia trace their origin to
Count Thassilo of Zollern, one of the
generals of Charlemagne. His succes-
sor, Count Friedrich I., built the
family castle of Hohenzollern, near
the Danube, in the year 980. A sub-
sequent Zollern, or Hohenzollern,
Friedrich III., was elevated lo the
rank of a prince of the Holy Roman
Empire, in 1273, and received the bur-
graviate of Nuremberg in fief ; and
his great-grandson, Friedrich VI. was
invested by the Emperor Sigismund,
in 1411, with the province of Branden-
burg, and obtained the rank of Elect-
or in 1417. In 1608-1.619 the duchy
of Prussia was united to the electorate
of Brandenburg, the territories of
which had been greatly extended by
the valor and wisdom of Friedrich
Wilhelm, "the Great Elector," under
whose fostering care arose the first
standing army in central Europe. Dy-
ing hi 1688, he left the province to his
son, Frederick I., who assumed the
crown at Konigsberg, June 18, 1701.
Pomerania was soon after added to
Prussia. When Frederick the Great
ascended the throne in 1740, his dis-
jointed dominions did not contain 2,-
500,000 inhabitants, and these had
made but little progress in the arts,
or in the accumulation of wealth. But
before his death, in 1786, Prussia had
been increased in size nearly half;
while the population had increased to
about 6,000,000. Prussia acquired,
by the subsequent partition of Poland
in 1792, and its final dismemberment
in 1795, a great extension of terri-
tory, and upward of 2,000,000 inhabit-
ants. Her disastrous contest with
France in 1806 lowered Prussia for a
while; but after Napoleon's Russian
campaign, the people rose en masse,
Prussian Blue
Pseudonym
and drove the French out of Germany.
At the general peace of 1815, Prussia
recovered all her former possessions
(except a portion of her Polish do-
minions), and gained valuable ac-
quisitions. After the accession, in
1862, of King William I., the execu-
tive government presided over by
Count von Bismarck, made laws, and
even decreed budget estimates, without
the concurrence of the chambers. In
1864, Prussia, conjointly with Aus-
tria, sent an army to occupy the
duchy of Schleswig-Holstein. A war
with Penmark followed, which re-
sulted iii the annexation of that duchy
to Prussia. In 1866, Hanover and
Saxony were occupied by the Prussian
troops, and a war followed ..with those
kingdoms and with Austria, in which,
after a brilliant campaign of two
weeks, the latter power was obliged to
sue for peace, and relinquish her
claims as a German power. In addi-
tion, Saxony was left a mere nominal
sovereignty under the control of Prus-
sia, while Hanover, Hesse-Cassel,
Nassau, and the former free city of
Frankfort-on-the-Main became ab-
sorbed in the Prussian monarchy. In
August, 1870, Napoleon III. declared
war against Prussia, and the French
armies marched toward the Rhine. An
alliance having been entered into be-
tween Prussia and the Southern Ger-
man powers of Bavaria, Wurtemberg,
and Baden, their combined forces
crossed the Rhine into France. The
part of Prussia in the Franco-German
war is inextricably involved with that
of the whole German nation. The con-
flict seemed to precipitate the solution
of the question which had always been
the aim of tre king and Bismarck,
German unity under Prussian leader-
ship. On Jan. 18, 1871, King Will-
iam was crowned at Versailles as
Emperor of Germany, and on March
21, the first German Reichstag as-
sembled at Berlin. The history of
Prussia since is that of Germany.
Prussian Blue, a cyanide of iron
possessed of a deep-blue color, and
much used as a pigment. It is also
used in medicine.
Prussian Brown, a color obtained
by adding a solution of the yellow
prussiate of potash to a solution of
sulphate of copper, which throws down
a precipitate of deep brown. This,
when washed and dried, is equal to
madder, and possesses greater per-
manency.
Prussic Acid, a name given to hy-
drocyanic acid because it was first ob-
tained from Prussian blue.
Prutz, Robert Eduard, a Ger-
man poet and historian ; born in
Stettin, May 30, 1816. He died in
Stettin, June 21, 1872.
Psalmist, a writer or composer of
psalms ; a title applied especially to
the authors of the Scriptural psalms,
and specifically, with the definite arti-
cle prefixed, to David. Psalmists, in
Church history, were singers in the
early church whose duty it was to
lead the people.
Psalmody, the art and practice of
singing psalms. Psalm singing was
introduced by the Reformers ; but Cal-
vin discouraged any but simple mel-
ody, while Luther practised and fa-
vored part harmony, as did also John
Knox in his psalter.
Psalms, Book of, a book of the
Old Testament. It was the praise book
or psalter of the Hebrew temple or
synagogues. In the present Hebrew
Bibles it is placed just after the
Prophets at the head of the Ha-
giographia, and in Luke xxiv : 44, is
generally supposed to stand for that
division of the Old Testament books.
The 350 psalms are arranged in He-
brew in five books, each terminating
with a doxology, in some cases closing
with "Amen and amen." The revised
version prints them separately. The
book of Psalms is quoted or alluded
to as an inspired composition by Our
Saviour and His apostles at least 70
times ; no Old Testament book is more
frequently quoted. Its canonical au-
thority has never been seriously
doubted. Its rhythmical form and
careful parallelism (now rendered ob-
vious by the revised version) adapt it
for the musical part of public wor-
ship.
Psalter, the Book of Psalms; also
a book containing the Psalms sepa-
rately printed, and with musical ac-
companiment adapted to each ; also
specifically, the version of the Psalms
in the English Book of Common
Prayer.
Pseudonym, a false, feigned, or
fictitious name; a pen-name.
Psychology
Psychology, the science of mental
phenomena. Opinion is far from
unanimous on many of the most im-
portant points of psychological doc-
trine, especially on such points as in-
volve a philosophical view of the na-
ture of mind.
Ptarmigan, a game bird found in
*he United States, and also in North-
ern Europe. In winter the plumage of
the male is almost wholly white, with
a small patch behind the eye; the
shafts of the primaries and the bases
of the exterior tail-feathers are black,
and. there is a patch of bare red skin
around the eye. In the summer the
black retains its position, but the
white is mottled and barred with
black and gray. The length of the
adult male is rather more than 15
inches.
Pterodactyl, a remarkable genus
of fossil lizards, peculiar to the Meso-
zoic strata. The careful investigations
of Cuvier, however, showed that the
pterodactyl was a true lizard, but
possessed of the power of flight, which
it performed, not by a membrane
stretched over its ribs, like the living
dragons, but more as in the bats, ex-
cept that the wing was attached, not
to several, but only to a single finger
the fifth the others being free
and short. The bones of the fifth finger
were very elongated, and the last joint
terminated in a long, slender, unguard-
ed apex ; the terminal joints in the
other fingers were furnished with
strong claws.
Pterosauria, an extinct order of
flying Reptilla of Mesozoic age.
Pthab, or Phtha, an ancient
Egyptian divinity, the creator of all
things and source of life, and as such
father and sovereign of the gods. He
was worshiped chiefly at Memphis un-
der the figure of a mummy-shaped
male, and as a pygmy god. Equivalent
to the Greek Hephaestus.
Ptoleniieus, the dynastic name of
13 kings of Egypt, who reigned from
323 to 43 B. c. The most famous was
Ptolemaeus Soter, who reigned from
323 to 285 B. c.
Ptolemaic System, the hypothesis
maintained by Ptolemy in his " Al-
magest " that the earth was a fixed
body, remaining constantly at rest in
the center of the universe, with the
Ptolemy
sun and moon revolving round it as
attendant satellites.
Ptolemy I., surnamed Soter, king
of Egypt, founder of the Grseco-
Egyptian dynasty of the Lagides, was
a Macedonian, supposed to be a natural
son of Philip II., and became a favor-
ite general of Alexander the Great,
whom he accompanied on his expedi-
tion to Asia. On the death of hir
master, in 323 B. p., Potelmy I., ob-
tained Egypt for his province. For 20
years he was almost constantly en-
gaged in war. He took the title of
king. He saved Rhodes when besieged
by Demetrius, and received the title
of Soter (saviour) ; and after the fall
of Antigonus he applied himself to
the promotion of commerce, literature,
science, and the arts in his own do-
minions. Philosophers, poets, and
painters gathered to his court, and
the foundations were laid of the fa-
mous Alexandrian Library and Mu-
seum. In 285 Ptolemy resigned his
crown to his son, surnamed Philadel-
phus, and died in 283.
Ptolemy II., surnamed Philadel-
phus (lover of his brother), king of
Egypt, born in Cos, 311 B. c., was
the youngest son of the preceding by
his favorite wife, Berenice. He be-
came king on the abdication of his
father in 285, and had a long, and
for the most part peaceful reign. He
had been carefully educated, and ue
entered heartily into his father's plans
for promoting the prosperity of his
kingdom, completing the Alexandrian
Library Museum, patronizing learning
and learned men, founding colonies,
and increasing his army and his rev-
enue. He made a treaty of alliance
with the Romans, and encouraged the
resort of Jews to Egypt. According
to tradition it was by his order that
the Septuagint version of the Old
Testament was made. Ptolemy was
twice married ; his second wife being
his sister Arsinoe, widow of Ly-
simachus. He died in 247.
Ptolemy XII., Dionysius, son of
Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, suc-
ceeded to the throne conjointly with
his sister Cleopatra, under the protec-
tion of Pompey, in 52. He became a
partisan of Caesar in the civil war,
and after the battle of Pharsalia
caused Pompey who sought refuge in
his states, to be assassinated in 48.
Ptolemy
Aspiring to be sole king, be then took
arms against Caesar, who had decided
that Cleopatra should continue to
reign with him, and was drowned in
the Nile while flying from the field of
battle, 47 B. c.
Ptolemy, Claudius, a celebrated
astronomer and geographer, who flour-
ished at Alexandria, about A. D. 140-
1GO. He is considered the first as- \
tronomer of antiquity. He corrected
Hipparchus' catalogue of the fixed :
stars, and formed tables by which i
the motions of the sun, moon and
planets might be calculated and regu-
lated. He was the first who collected
the scattered and detached observa-
tions made by the ancients, and di-
gested them into a system ; this he
called the " Great Construction." i
This great work of Ptolemy will al- 1
ways be valuable on account of the
observations he gives of the places of
the stars and planets in former times,
and according to ancient astronomers
that were then extant; but principally;
on account of the large and curious
catalogue of the stars, which, being
compared with modern catalogues,
enables astronomers to deduce the true
quantity of their apparent slow pro-
gressive motion according to the order j
of the signs, or of the precession of the
equinoxes.
Ptomaine, a putrescent product of
animal origin and of a basic or al-
kaloidal nature, closely allied to the
vegetable alkaloids ; a cadaveric
poison. About 150 varieties of pto-
maines are known, sqme being harm-
less, others very poisonous. Ordinary
foods frequently undergo changes that
render them harmful, and especially
is this so with mussels, clams, oysters,
fish, meat, sausage, milk, ice-cream,
cheese and canned goods. These
changes are due to the presence of
ptomaines. Heat will destroy the
ptomaine bacteria, but their poison
is not eliminated by cooking.
Publican, in Roman antiquities, a
collector of revenues, or farmer of the
taxes consisting of tolls, tithes, harbor
duties, duties for the use of pasture
lands, mines, salt works, etc., in Ro-
man provinces. From the nature of
their office, and the oppressive exac-
tions of many of their number, these
officials were generally regarded by the
inhabitants with detestation.
E. 121.
Pueblo
Public Health Acts. In the
United States scientific investigation
into the means for preserving health is
of recent growth, though laws were
enacted by the colonies for the preven-
tion of the introduction of contagious
or infectious diseases from foreign
ports. State boards of health have
been created in nearly all the States.
In 1878 Congress passed " An Act to
prevent the introduction of contagious
or infectious diseases in the United
States," providing that no vessel com-
ing from a foreign port where con-
tagious or infectious disease may ex-
ist shall enter any port of the United
States, except in manner prescribed
by regulations. In 1879 a National
Board of Health was created by Con-
gress ; its duties were to obtain in-
formation on all matters affecting pub-
lic health, and to advise the several
departments of the government and the
executives of the several States on all
questions submitted by them. Town or
city boards of health have existed for
many years in all large municipalities.
Publicist, a term originally ap-
plied to a writer on international law,
now used to denote a writer on current
politics.
Public Prosecutor, an officer ap-
pointed to originate and conduct prose-
cutions in the public interest.
Puccinotti, Francesco, an
Italian physician ; born in Urbino,
Italy, in 1794. In 1838 the Tuscan
Archduke appointed him Professor of
Medical Jurisprudence in Pisa Uni-
versity, and there he published his
masterpiece, the " History of Medi-
cine." He died Oct. 8, 1872.
Puck, in mediaeval mythology, the
" merry wanderer of the night,"
whose character and attributes are
depicted in Shakespeare's " Midsum-
mer Night's Dream." He was the
chief of the domestic tribe of fairies.
Pueblo, city and capital of Pue-
blo county, Col.; on the Arkansas
river and several railroads; 118 miles
S. E. of Denver; is an important
railroad, mining, manufacturing, and
live-stock center; has valuable coal,
silver, and gold mines nearby, and
large steel works and smelters; and
is the seat of the State Hospital for
the Insane, State Agricultural So-
ciety, and a noted Mineral Palace.
Pop. ((1910) 44,395.
Pueblos
Pueblos (Spanish, pueblo, "vil-
lage ") , a semi-civilized family of
American Indians in New Mexico and
Arizona, dwelling in large single habi-
tations, which are sometimes capa-
cious enough to contain a whole tribe.
These edifices which are often five
or six stories high, and from 130 to 433
yards long, with many rooms (53 to
124) on each floor are commonly
constructed of adobe or sun-dried
brick ; the ground floor is invariably
without doors or windows, entrance
being effected by a ladder leading to
the second story ; and indoors ladders
take the place of staircases every-
where. A somewhat pyramidal aspect
is given to the whole building by each
successive story receding a few feet
from the line of that below it. Each
family of the tribe has a separate
apartment, and there are also large
rooms for general council chambers and
for tribal dances. In New Mexico
there are 19 such villages, with over
8,000 occupants, who are skillful agri-
culturists, employing irrigation ditches
extensively, and rearing horses, cattle,
and sheep. Spinning and weaving and
the manufacture of pottery also are
carried on. The Moquis of Arizona
are a related tribe, numbering about
1,800, in seven villages built on the
summit of isolated hills. The Pueblos
are under Roman Catholic mission-
aries, and are making steady progress
in civilization and education, though
on their Christianity they have grafted
many of their old pagan beliefs and
customs, to which they obstinately
cling. They were first visited by the
Spaniards about 1530, at which period
their habits and their habitations were
very much the same as today. It is
evident, however, from the wide area
over which the ruins of old pueblos
and remains of ancient pottery have
been found, that they were at one time
very much more numerous than they
are now.
Puerto Cabello, a seaport of
Venezuela, in the State of Carabobo,
78 miles W. of Caracas. It stands on
a long, low narrow peninsula on the
Caribbean Sea, and has a safe, deep,
and roomy harbor, defended by a fort
and batteries. It is the port of Val-
encia, which is 34 miles distant by
rail. There is an active foreign trade,
which averages $6,250,000 annually;
Puffin
the chief exports are coffee, cacao, in-
digo, cinchona, cotton, sugar, divi-divi,
and copper ore. Pop. about 11,000. It
was bombarded by the Germans during
the recent blockade of Venezuelan
ports by Germans, British and Ital-
ians.
Puf endorf, or Puffendorf , Sam-
uel, Baron von, a German writer on
the law of nature and nations; born
in 1632. He studied theology and law
at Leipsic and Jena, and in 1660 ap-
peared his " Elements of General Ju-
risprudence." In 1661 he became Pro-
fessor of the Law of Nature and of
Nations at Heidelberg. In 1667 he
published his work " The Common-
wealth of Germany," which, from the
boldness of its attacks on the consti-
tution of the German empire, caused
a profound sensation. In 1670 he
went to Sweden, became Professor of
Natural Law in the University of
Lund, and brought out his chief work,
" Natural Law and the Law of Na-
tions," and in 1675 an abstract of
it. In 1686 he received a summons to
Berlin from Frederick William, Elect-
or of Brandenburg, a history of whom
Pufendorf wrote for the Elector's son,
the first king of Prussia. In 1694 he
was created a baron by the king of
Sweden, and in the same year be died
in Berlin. There are English transla-
tions of his principal works.
Puff Adder, one of the most ven-
omous serpents of South Africa. In
length, when full grown, it is from
four to five feet, and is as thick as
a man's arm. The head is very broad,
the tail suddenly tapered ; prevailing
color, brown, checkered with a darker
shade and with white. It usually glides
along partially buried in the sand, and,
when disturbed, puffs out the upper
part of its body, whence its popular
name. The Bosjesmans smear their
arrows with its venom.
Puff Birds, a family resembling
kingfishers in form, but living on in-
sects like fly catchers ; they also re-
semble the bee eaters, and are found
only in South and Central America.
Puffin, a common sea bird, with
many popular names bottlenose, coul-
terneb, pope, seaparrot and tammy
norie, with others that are only locally
known. By extension, the name is
applied to other species of the genua.
Pugilism
The common puffin is rather larger
than a pigeon; plumage glossy black
above, under surface pure white ; feet
orange-red; bill very deep, and flat-
tened laterally, parti-colored red,
yellow, and blue, and grooved during
the breeding season, and undergoing a
kind of moult at its close a peculiar-
ity shared by other species.
Pugilism, the practice of boxing or
fighting with the fists. In the schools
and by amateurs, it is practised with
the gloves ; in the prize ring some-
times with the naked fists. Man being
instinctively a pugnacious animal, and
the fist being the simplest and most
natural weapon, it may be taken for
granted that pugilism, as a mode of
settling differences, is coeval with man
himself. It formed one of the earliest
of the athletic games of the Greeks ;
and we find the Greek poets describ-
ing their heroes and gods as excelling
in the pugne. Boxing for men was in-
troduced in the Olympic games in the
23d Olympiad, and for boys in the
37th Olympiad. With the exception
of a girdle about the loins, the ancient
pugilist fought nude. In the United
States pugilism as an athletic exercise
is permitted, but the brutal exhibitions
of the prize ring are generally prohib-
ited by law.
Pnlaski, Count Casimir, a Po-
lish patriot and military officer, who
participated in the war of the Ameri-
can Revolution ; born in 1747. His
father, a Polish nobleman, was the or-
ganizer of the celebrated Confedera-
tion of Bar, in hostility to Russia,
and for the liberation of his country,
in which Casimir eagerly joined, carry-
ing on a desultory warfare with varied
success till the coalition of Russia,
Austria, and Prussia completed the
conquest of Poland. His father and
brothers being killed, Casimir escaped
with difficulty into Turkey, whence he
proceeded by way of France to join
the Americans, then fighting for inde-
pendence, bearing recommendations
from Franklin to Washington, whom
he joined in 1777. Entering as a vol-
unteer, he so distinguished himself at
the battle of Brandywine as to be
promoted by Congress to a cavalry
command, with the rank of Brigadier-
General, which command, however, he
resigned five months after, in 1778. He
afterward organized an independent
Pulque
corps of cavalry and light infantry,
with which he rendered effectual serv-
ice under General Lincoln, in South
Carolina, in 1779, and in the siege of
Savannah, Ga., where, in an assault
on the latter place, he was mortally
wounded. He died in 1779.
Pulaski, Fort, a fortification at
the mouth of the Savannah river.
Seized by the Confederates, Jan. 3,
1861, it was besieged and taken by the
Union forces, April 12, 1862.
Pulgar, Fernando de, a Spanish
writer in the latter part of the fif-
teenth century. He wrote a " Chron-
icle " of the reign of Ferdinand and
Isabella ; " Notable Men of Castile " ;
a commentary on the ancient " Coup-
lets of Mingo Revulgo."
Pulitzer, Joseph, an American
journalist ; born in Budapest, Hun-
gary, April 10, 1847. W nen Quite
young he came to the United States
and served in the Civil War. In 1883
he purchased the New York "World,"
then on the verge of failure, but he
built it up till it became one of the
most substantial papers in the city.
In 1903 he donated two millions of
dollars to Columbia University, New
York city, to establish a " School of
Journalism."
Pullman, George Mortimer, an
American inventor ; born in Chau-
tauqua co., N. Y., March 3, 1831;
learned the cabinetmaker's trade; set-
tled in Chicago; studied for many
years the problem of making journeys
by rail more comfortable ; and as a
result invented the Pullman palace car.
In 1863 he started building these cars,
and in 1SG7 'organized the Pullman
Palace Car Company. He also, in-
vented the vestibule train and founded
the town of Pullman, 111., in 1880. He
died in Chicago, Oct. 19, 1897.
Pulpit, a raised place or desk in
a church, from which the preacher de-
livers his sermon. They are now gen-
erally made of wood, but were former-
ly also made of stone, richly carved
and ornamented. Hence, used figura-
tively, for preachers generally or
preaching; the teaching of preachers.
Pulque, a vinous beverage, made in
Mexico, by fermenting the juice of
the various species of the agave. It
resembles cider, but has a disagreeable
odor, like that of putrid meat.
Pulse
Pulse, in physiology, the beat or
shock felt in any artery when slight
pressure is made on it, caused by the
systole of the heart. At birth the num-
ber of beats is about 140, at the end
of the first year 120, at the end of the
second 110 ; during middle life between
70 and 80, and in old age usually a
little more. It is slower in man than
in woman, and is also affected by the
position of the body.
Pulse, a general name for legumi-
nous plants or their seeds ; such as
beans, peas, etc.
Pulsometer, a form of pump for
raising water, by the condensation of
steam, in a vessel situated at such
elevation above the water supply that
the atmospheric pressure will raise the
water to the chamber and operate the
valves. Its most common use is to
(fill steam boilers.
Puma, the cougar of the French, the
leon of the South Americans, and
the panther or " painter " of the trap-
pers. It is the largest feline of the
New World, measuring 40 inches from
the nose to root of tail, which is about
20 inches more ; the head is small,
mane absent ; general color of upper
surface tawny yellowish-brown, vary-
ing in intensity in different individ-
uals ; lower parts of the body and in-
ner surface of limbs dirty white. The
young, when born, are spotted with
brown, and the tail is ringed. The
puma is destructive, and slays far
more than it can eat. but rarely, if
ever, attacks man, and may be tamed
with little difficulty. Edmund Kean
had one which followed him about like
a dog. It ranges from Canada to Pata-
gonia, being most numerous in the for-
est districts of Central America.
Pumice, a very porous, or cellular,
froth-like rock, of extreme lightness,
floating on water. Structure, web-like,
consisting of vitreous threads either in-
timately interwoven or parallel. Like
the more compact forms of vitreous
lavas, it varies much in chemical com-
position, which, however, is mostly
that of trachytic rocks. It owes its
cellular structure to the enormous ex-
pansion of aqueous vapor consequent
on the relief from pressure during the
extrusion of vitreous lavas at the
earth's surface. In commerce, pumice
stone. It is imported from the Lipari
Isles, and is used for polishing metals
Pumpelly
and marble, and smoothing the surface
of wood and pasteboard. It is said to
be a good glaze for pottery.
Pump, a machine, engine, or device,
consisting of an arrangement of a
piston, cylinder, and valves, for raising
water or other liquid to a higher level,
or for compressing or exhausting air
and other gases. There are numerous
varieties of pumps differing more or
less in construction, according to the
purposes for which each is intended,
but the most important are the suc-
tion pump, the lifting or lift pump,
the force pump, and the centrifugal or
rotary pump.
CHAIN PUMP.
Pumpelly, Raphael, an Ameri-
can geologist : born in Oswego, N. Y.,
Sept. 8, 1837. In his early life he
conducted explorations for the govern-
ments of Japan and China ; was pro-
fessor at Harvard for several years ;
and from 1879 to 1892 geologist in
charge of the Archaean division of the
United States Geological Survey. His
chief works are : " Geological Re-
searches in China, Mongolia, and Jap-
an " " Across America and Asia,"
" Mining Industries of the United
States," etc.
Pumpkin
Pumpkin, a climbing plant and its
fruit, originally from Astrachan, but
widely cultivated in America. It has
rough leaves, the flowers large, soli-
tary. It is caised.in the open air. The
pumpkin, cooked in various forms, is
a favorite dish in America, and es-
pecially in the Northeastern States
of the Union, where the pumpkin pie
is almost indispensable at the Yankee
housewife's table. Boiled and mashed
it is an excellent side dish.
Pun, a play on words, the wit of
which depends on a resemblance in
sound between two words of different
and perhaps contrary meanings, or on
the use of the same word in different
senses, etc.
Punch, with his wife Judy and dog
Toby, the chief characters in a popular
comic puppet show, of Italian origin,
the name being a contraction of Pun-
chinello, for Pulcinello, the droll clown
in Neapolitan comedy. The exhibition
soon found its way to other countries.
Punch, or the London Chari-
vari, the chief of English comic
journals, a weekly magazine of wit,
humor, and satire in prose and verse,
illustrated by sketches, caricatures,
and emblematic devices. It was found-
ed in 1841, the first number appear-
ing July 17 of that year, and, under
the jojnt editorship of Henry Mayhew
and Mark Lemon, soon became a
household word, while ere long its sa-
tirical cuts and witty rhymes were ad-
mitted a power in the land. " Punch "
is recognized as an English institution.
Punctuation, the act, art, or
method of punctuating or pointing a
writing or discourse; the act, art, or
method of dividing a discourse into
sentences, clauses, etc., by means of
points or stops. Punctuation is per-
formed with four points or marks, viz.,
the period (.) , the colon ( :) , the semi-
colon (;), and the comma (,). The
other points used in composition are
the note of interrogation or inquiry
( ?) , and of exclamation, astonishment,
or admiration (!). The first printed
books had only arbitrary marks here
and there, and it was not till the 16th
century that an approach was made
to the present system by the Manutii
of Venice.
Punic, the language of the Cartha-
ginians. It was an offshoot of Phce-
Fnpa
nician, belonging to the Canaanitish
branch of the Semitic tongues.
Punic Wars, three great wars be-
tween the Romans and the Carthagin-
ians. The first (264-241 B. c.) was
for the possession of Sicily, and ended
by the Carthaginians having to with-
draw from the island. The second
(218-202 B. c.), the war in which
Hannibal gained his great victories in
Italy, was a death struggle between the
two rival powers ; it ended with de-
cisive victory to the Romans. The
third (140-146 B. c.) was a wanton
one for the destruction of Carthage,
which was effected in the last-named
year.
Punishment, a penalty inflicted on
a person for a crime or offense, by the
authority to which the offender is sub-
ject ; a penalty imposed in the enforce-
ment or application of law. The pun-
ishments usual for criminal offenses
in the United States are death _ by
hanging or electricity, or by shooting,
imprisonment with and without hard
labor, solitary confinement, detention
in a reformatory school, subjection to
police supervision, imposition of fines,
and putting under recognizance. In
New York, Ohio and Massachusetts
the death penalty is inflicted by elec-
trocution, and in Delaware whipping
is resorted to as a punishment for cer-
tain offenses.
Punjab, an extensive territory in
the N. \V. of India, most of it under
direct Anglo-Indian authority, and
ruled by a lieutenant-governor, a large
portion of the remainder constituting
the protected state of Kashmir.
Punt, a large, square-built, flat-
bottorned vessel, without masts, used
as a lighter for conveying goods, etc.,
and propelled by poles. Also, a small,
flat-bottomed boat, with square ends,
used in fishing, and propelled by poles.
Pnnta Arenas. The chief port on
the Pacific of the Central American
republic of Costa Rica.
Pupa, or Pupe, in entomology, the
third stage in the development of an
insect. On reaching its full growth
the larva ceases to eat, and some time
later becomes encased in a closed shell
or case, whence after a certain length-
ened period, which typically is one
of repose, it emerges as a perfect in--
sect.
Fupin
Fupin, Micliael Idvorsky, an
American scientist; born in Idvar,
Hungary, Oct. 4, 1858 ; was graduated
at Columbia University in 1883 ; stud-
ied at the University of Berlin; and
was appointed Adjunct Professor of
Mechanics at Columbia University in
1889. In 1901 he announced the dis-
covery of a new method of ocean
telephony. He was a member of the
American Mathematical Society, Amer-
ican Philosophical Society, etc. He
wrote " Propagation of Long Electrical
Waves " ; " Wave Propagation Over
Non-Uniform Conductors " ; etc.
Purana, the last great division of
Hindu sacred literature.
Purcell, Henry, an English com-
poser; born in 1658. In 1680, prob-
ably, he composed for a private semi-
nary " Dido and Eneas," which has
been called the first genuine English
opera, but has never been produced on
the public stage. For some years after
he became organist of Westminster
Abbey he composed mainly anthems
and sacred music, all of great excel-
lence. In 1690 he wrote the music for
Dryden's version of " The Tempest."
In 1691 he produced the music to Dry-
den's "King Arthur," _ which, though
considered his dramatic masterpiece,
was not published till 1843. In 1694
he wrote, for St. Cecilia's Day. his
" The Jubilate " and " Te Deum,'' and
in 1695 the music to " Bpnduca," in
which was " Britons, Strike "Home."
Purcell was equally great in church
music, chamber music, and music for
the theater. He died in 1695, and was
buried in Westminster Abbey.
Purchase, in law, the suing out
and obtaining a writ; the obtaining
or acquiring the title of lands and tene-
ments by money, deed, gift, or any
means except descent. In mechanics,
a means of increasing applied power ;
any mechanical hold, advantage,
power, or force applied to the raising
or removing of heavy bodies; mechan-
ical advantage gained by the applica-
tion of any, power.
Purdue TTniyersity, a coeduca-
tional non-sectarian institution in La-
fayette, Ind. ; founded in 1874.
Purgatory, in Roman theology, a
place in which souls who depart this
life in the grace of God suffer for a
time, because they still need to be
Purse Crafc
cleansed from venial, or have still to
pay the temporal punishment due to
.mortal sins, the guilt and eternal pun-
ishment of which have been remitted.
Purification, a'Jewfsh rite. It
was mainly the one through the per-
formance of which an Israelite was
readmitted to the privilege of religious
communion, lost through uncleanness.
The chief varieties of such uncleanness,
and the methods of purification from
it required* are detailed in Lev. xii.,
xiv., xv., and Numb. xix.
Purint, the Festival of Lots, whicb
was instituted by Mordecai and is cele-
brated to this day by the Jews on the
14th and 15th of the month Adar
(March), in commemoration of their
wonderful deliverance from the de-
struction with which they were threat-
ened by Haman. On these festive
days the book of Esther is read, pres-
ents are interchanged, and gifts are
sent to the poor.
Puritan, the name given, at first
perhaps in contempt, to those clergy-
men and others in the reign of the
English Queen Elizabeth, who desired
a simpler, and what they considered
to be a purer, form of worship than
the civil and ecclesiastical authorities
sanctioned. New England was settled
very largely by the Puritans. Also,
one who has severely strict notions as
to what is proper or who is strict in
his religious duties.
Purple, a secondary color, com-
pounded by the union of the primaries
blue and red.
Purples, Ear Cockle, or Pep-
percorn, a disease affecting the ears
of wheat. Infected grains assume
a dark-green color, which soon deepens
to a black, and become rounded like
small peppercorns. The husks open,
and the diseased grains are found to
contain no flour, but a moist sub-
stance.
Purse Crab, a name for decapod
crustaceans allied to the hermit crabs.
A species, the robber crab, found in
the Mauritius and the more E. islands
of the Indian Ocean, is one of the
largest crustaceans, being sometimes
two to three feet in length. It resides
on land, while paying a nightly visit
to the sea, often burrowing under the
roots of trees, lining its hole with the
fibers of the cocoanut husk and living"
Purser
on the nuts, which (according to some
writers) it climbs the trees to pro-
cure, and the shells of which it cer-
tainly breaks with great ingenuity.
Purser, on shipboard, the officer
whose duty is to keep the accounts of
the ship to which he is attached. In
mining, the paymaster or cashier of a
mine, and the official to whom notices
of transfer are sent for registration in
the cost-book.
Purslane, a plant, with fleshy suc-
culent leaves, naturalized throughout
the warmer parts of the world. Purs-
lane was formerly more used than at
present in salads as a pot herb, in
pickles, and for garnishing. It has
anti-scorbutic properties.
Purves, George T., an American
clergyman; born in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Sept. 27, 1852 ; was graduated at the
University of Pennsylvania in 1872
and at the Princeton Theological
Seminary in 1876; was Professor of
New Testament literature and Exege-
sis at the Princeton Theological Sem-
inaiy in 1892-1900, when he accepted
a call to the Fifth Avenue Presbyter-
ian Church, New York city. He wrote
" The Apostolic Age " ; etc. He died
(n New York city, Sept. 24, 1901.
Pus, in physiology and pathology,
the product of suppuration, a thick,
dscid, yellow fluid, consisting of
liquor puris, pus corpuscles, and other
histological particles.
Pusey, Caleb, an American Quaker
colonist ; born in Berkshire, England,
about 1650. He came with Penn's
company to America in 1682, erected
the first mills in the province, held
many high places in civil affairs, and
was a noted controversialist writer of
his day. He published a great num-
ber of pamphlets and articles in de-
fense of his creed. He died in Ches-
ter co., Pa., Feb. 25, 1727.
Pusey, Edward Bouverie, an
English theological writer, a leader of
the Anglo-Catholic (Tractarian)
party in the Established Church; born
near Oxford in 1800. He published :
" The Holy Eucharist a Comfort to
the Penitent," a sermon which re-
sulted in his suspension for three
years ; two sermons on " The Entire
Absolution of the Penitent," equally
revolutionary. Of his larger works
the most important are : " The Doc-
Putnam
trine of the Real Presence " ; and
" The Real Presence of the Body and
Blood of Christ the Doctrine of the
English Church." Died Sept. 16. 1882.
Pushkin, Alexander Sergeye-
vitich, Count, the master poet of
Russia ; born at St. Petersburg in
1799; died 1837. He was govern-
ment official, and in 1825 was appoint-
ed Imperial historiographer. His
works embrace poems, dramas, novels,
and histories.
Putnam, Frederick Ward, an
American scientist ; born in Salem,
Mass., April 16, 1839; was graduated
at Harvard University in 1862; be-
came chief of the Department of Eth-
nology at the World's Columbian Ex-
position in Chicago in 1893. He is
a member of numerous American and
foreign scientific societies. The French
government gave him the Cross of the
Legion of Honor.
Putnam, George Haven, an
American publisher and author, son
of George P. ; born in London, Eng-
land, April 2, 1844. He entered the
publishing business in 1866, and be-
came the head of the firm of G. P.
Putnam's Sons, New York. His
works include : " International Copy-
right " (1879); "Books and their
Makers during the Middle Ages "
(1896), etc.
Putnam, George Palmer, an
American publisher and author ; born
in Brunswick, Me., Feb. 7, 1814. In
1848 he established the publishing
house now conducted under the name
of G. P. Putnam's Sons; and also
founded " Putnam's Magazine," which
was subsequently merged with " Scrib-
ner's Monthly." His works include :
" The Tourist in Europe " ; " The
World's Progress" (1850); "Ten
Years of the World's Progress " ; etc.
He died in New York, Dec. 20, 1872.
Putnam, Herbert, an American
librarian ; born in New York city,
Sept. 20, 1861; was graduated at
Harvard in 1883 ; studied at the Co-
lumbian Law School; was admitted
to the Minnesota bar in 1886; li-
brarian of the Boston Public Library
in 1887-1891 ; and was appointed li-
brarian of Congress in 1899.
Putnam, Israel, an American
general in the Revolutionary War ;
born in Danvers (then part of
Putnam
Salem), Mass., in 1718. He was des-
tined to the occupation of a farmer,
and continued in that vocation till
the French and Indian war broke out,
when, at the age of 36, he took serv-
ice in the English army, and from his
known courage and energy, received
the command of a company of light
troops, or " rangers." When the dis-
pute between this country and Eng-
land commenced, he was following
the quiet life of a farmer and tavern
keeper ; but the first blood that was
shed aroused all his energy. He was
created Major-General by Congress,
and at Bunker Hill, New York, and
during Washington's retreat through
New Jersey, he showed himself one
of the bravest and most devoted of
the patriot leaders. But in 1779 he
was stricken with paralysis, and was
prevented from participating in the
final triumphs of the national cause.
His character is well depicted by the
inscription on his tomb : " He dared
to lead where any dared to follow."
He died in 1790.
Putnam, Mrs. Mary (Lowell),
an American historical writer, sister
of James Russell Lowell; born in
Boston, Mass., Dec. 3, 1810. In 1832
she married Samuel R. Putnam, a
merchant of Boston. Besides a trans-
lation from the Swedish, and numer-
ous magazine articles, she published :
" History of the Constitution of Hun-
gary " ; and two dramatic poems on
the subject of slavery. She died in
Boston in June, 1898.
Putnam, M-s. Sarah A. Brock,
an American novelist and writer ; born
in Madison Courthouse, Va., about
1845. In 1883 she married the Rev.
Richard Putnam, of New York. Her
works include : " Richmond during
the War"; "The Southern Ama-
ranth " ; etc.
Putnam, William Lc Baron, an
American jurist ; born in Bath, Me.,
May 12, 1835 ; was graduated at Bow-
doin College in 1855 and admitted to
the bar in 1858 ; practised in Port-
land, Me., till 1892 ; was a member
of a commission to arrange with the
British government the rights of
American fishermen in Canadian
waters in 1887; served also as a com-
missioner under the treaty of Feb. 6,
2896, between the United States and
Great Britain; and was appointed a
Pycnogonnm
judge of the United States Circuit
Court in 1892.
Putnam, Fort, the principal de-
fense of West Point during the Revo-
lution. Now in ruins.
Putrefaction, the apparently spon-
taneous decomposition of organic sub-
stances, especially those rich in nitro-
gen. It differs from fermentation in
being accompanied by the evolution of
fetid and noxious gases. In the proc-
ess of putrefaction, organic bodies of
a higher order are changed, sometimes
into lower organic compounds, some-
times into inorganic compounds, as
ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, etc.,
and sometimes into simple substances,
as hydrogen and nitrogen.
Puts and Calls, terms used in
American stock dealings. The trade
in privileges is something which is
scarcely understood outside of Board
of Trade and Stock Exchange circles.
For $1 per 1,000 bushels a trader can
purchase the privilege to " put "
(sell) or "call" (buy) from the sell-
er of the privilege at a stipulated price
and within a stipulated time. The
ordinary privileges are sold one day to
be good to the close of the next ses-
sion. In inactive markets the "put"
and " call " prices may be close to-
gether and close to the market price
of the property. They are counte-
nanced by the State of New York and
are a regular feature in the New
York Stock Exchange. In Illinois
they are specifically classed as gam-
bling operations. The theory of
" privileges " is that they are a spe-
cies of insurance by which an opera-
tor can protect himself against mar-
ket fluctuations. A trader who is
" short" in the market can protect his
position to a certain degree by buying
calls " ; a " long " can prevent
losses in the same degree by buying
" puts." The insurance proposition
is a theory, however, as " privileges "
more often serve to originate new
trades than to serve as an insurance
on existing business conditions.
Pyaemia, or Pyemia, a diseased
condition in which the blood is poi-
soned by pus or by some of its con-
stituents; blood poisoning; septicae-
mia.
Pycnogonnm, a genus of Arachni-
da, the sea spiders. Some species are
Pygmalion
parasitic upon fishes and other marine
animals, but the common species is
free when adult, and does not appear
to be parasitic during any period of
its existence. One species attaches
itself parasitically to the whale.
Pygmalion, in Greek mythology,
grandson of Agenqr, King of Cyprus.
He fell in love with an ivory statue
of a young maiden he himself had
made, and prayed to Aphrodite to give
it life. His prayer was granted, on
which he married the maiden.
Pygmy, or Pigmy, in classical
mythology, one of a fabulous nation
of dwarfs dwelling somewhere near
the shores of the ocean, and maintain-
ing perpetual wars with the cranes.
Ctesias represented a nation of them
as inhabiting India. Other ancient
writers believed them to inhabit the
Indian islands : Aristotle places them
in Ethiopia, Pliny in Transgangetic
India. A race of pygmies has been
discovered in Central Africa.
Pyle, Howard, an American illus-
trator and author ; born in Wilming-
ton, Del., March 5, 1853. He was
an illustrator for periodicals, and has
become popular also as a writer,
chiefly of juvenile literature. His
works include : " Buccaneers and
Marooners of America" (1891) ; etc.
Pylorus, the small and contracted
end of the stomach leading into the
small intestines.
Pym, John, an English statesman
and leader of the popular party dur-
ing the reigns of James I. and Charles
I. ; born in Somersetshire, England,
in 1584. He studied at Oxford and
became famous as a lawyer. He en-
tered Parliament in 1G14, and during
the reign of James he attained great
influence by his opposition to the ar-
bitrary measures of the king. In
1626 he took part in the impeachment
of Buckingham and was imprisoned.
In the Short Parliament of 1640 Pym
and Hainpden were exceedingly active
as leaders of the popular party, and
in 1641 Pym was offered the chancel-
lorship of the exchequer. He im-
peached Strafford, and at his trial ap-
peared as accuser. He was the main
author of the Grand Remonstrance,
the final appeal presented in 1641,
and one of the five members to arrest
whom the king went to the House of
Pyramid
Commons in January, 1642. When
civil war became inevitable Pym was
appointed one of the committee of
safety, and while he lived was active
in resisting the negotiations of any
peace with the king which did not se-
ure the liberties of the subject and
the supremacy of Parliament. It was
mainly his financial skill that enabled
the parliamentary army to keep the
field. In November, 1643, he was
made lieutenant-general of ordnance,
and in the following month he died,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Pyramid in Egyptian antiquities, a
solid structure substantially invariable
in form, viz., a simple mass resting on
a square or sometimes approximately
square base, with the sides facing
with slight deviations toward the four
principal winds, and tapering off grad-
ually toward the top to a point or to
a flat surface, as a substitute for an
apex. The proportion of the base to
the height is not always the same,
nor is the angle of inclination uni-
form. The pyramids were construct-
ed in platforms, and then reveted or
coated with blocks or slabs of granite,
as may still be observed in incomplete
pyramids. Recently the theory has
been maintained that in the case of
the largest pyramids, a smaller one
was erected as a nucleus, arid subse-
quently enveloped by another layer.
The interior of these massive struc-
tures contains narrow passages, and
some totally dark halls or chambers,
and probably served as the burial
places of the kings who had caused
them to be constructed. The entrance
to these buildings is raised consider-
ably above the level of the base, and
was blocked up by a portcullis of
granite, so as to be on ordinary oc-
casions inaccessible. In the pyramid
of Cheops, the entrance is raised about
47 feet, 6 inches above the base. The
pyramids of Egypt begin immediately
S. of Cairo, and continue S. at vary-
ing intervals for nearly 70 miles. The
largest is that of Cheops, at Ghizeh,
standing on a base each side of which
was originally 764 feet long, but ow-
ing to the removal of the coating is
now only 746 feet. Its perpendicular
height, according to Wilkinson, was
originally 480 feet, 9 inches, present
height, 460 feet. The principal cham-
ber, the so-called Crowning Hall or
Pyrenees
King's Chamber, is 34 feet, 3 inches
long, and 17 feet, 1 inch wide. Its
roof is formed of massive blocks of
granite, over which, with a view to
support the weight, other blocks are
laid, with clear intervals between.
According to Herodotus, the erection
of this pyramid employed 100,000 men
for 20 years.
In Mexican antiquities, the Teocal-
lis, or Houses of the Gods, which have
come down from Aztec times, are four-
sided pyramids rising by terraces to a
considerable height. A notable group of
such erections still exist at Teotihua-
can, about 20 miles N. E. of the City
of Mexico. There are two large pyr-
amids, -with some hundred smaller
ones. The base of the largest is 900
feet long, its height 160 feet; the
height of the second is 130 feet. One
is dedicated to the sun, the other to
the moon. A yet larger one is at
Cholula ; its base is 1,488 feet long,
its height 178 feet. All the Mexican
pyramids face the cardinal points.
Hence, applied to any mass or heap
more or less resembling a pyramid in
form.
Pyrenees, an extensive mountain
range in the S. of Europe, dividing
France from Spain, and extending
almost in a straight line from St. Se-
bastian, on the Bay of Biscay, to
Cape Creux, on the Mediterranean.
Length 270 miles, with a breadth from
50 to 100 miles.
Pyrites, an isometric mineral oc-
curring frequently crystallized, also
massive, iu mammillary forms with
fibrous structure, and stalactitic with
crystalline surface. Luster, metallic,
splendent ; color, pale, brass-yellow ;
streak, greenish-black ; opaque ; frac-
ture conchoidal uneven ; brittle ;
strikes fire when struck with a ham-
mer. Composed of sulphur and iron.
It is distributed in rocks of all ages,
either as crystals, crystal-grains, or
nodules, also in metalliferous veins.
Pyrrhic, a species of warlike dance,
which is said to have been invented
by Pyrrhus to grace the funeral of
his father Achilles. It consisted
chiefly in such an adroit 'and nimble
turning of the body as represented an
attempt to avoid the strokes of an en-
emy in battle, and the motions neces-
sary to perform it were looked on as
a kind of training for actual warfare.
Pythagoras
This dance is supposed to be described
by Homer as engraved on the shield
of Achilles. It was danced by boys
in armor, accompanied by the lute or
lyre. Also a metrical foot consisting
of two short syllables.
Pyrrh-us, King of Epirus, being
obliged, on the murder of his father, to
seek safety by flight, found a home,
parent, and tutor in Glaucus, King of
Illyria, where he remained for several
years, till old enough to maintain his
own right, and ascended his father's
throne, 295 B. C. In 281 B. C., he
made war on the Romans, having been
called to the assistance of the Sam-
nites, and, in a desperate battle fought
on the banks of the Syris, in Calabria,
totally defeated the Roman army ;
yet, so dearly was this glory bought,
that Pyrrhus exclaimed " Another
such victory will ruin me." After
several signal advantages, the Ro-
mans at length triumphed, and Pyr-
rhus, sustaining many disasters, re-
turned to Greece, and, in a subsequent
war with the Argives, was killed, by a
tile thrown on his head from the roof
of a house, as he entered Argos, 273
B. C.
Pythagoras, the celebrated Greek
philosopher, was born in Samos, prob-
ably about 580-570 B. C. He was the
son of Mnesarchus, and, perhaps, a
disciple of Pherecydes. He is said
to have traveled extensively, especial-
ly in Egypt, and to have been initiat-
ed in the most ancient Greek myste-
ries. He attached great importance
to mathematical studies, and is be-
lieved to have made several impor-
tant discoveries in geometry, music,
and astronomy. He ultimately set-
tled, between 540-530 B. C. at Cro-
tona, one of the Greek cities of South-
ern Italy. There he set himself to
carry out the purpose of instituting
a society through which he might ex-
ert an influence on political affairs,
and especially in opposition to demo-
cratic and revolutionary movements.
His teachings relating to these sub-
jects became at length the occasion of
a popular rising against the Pytha-
goreans at Crotooa, 504 B. C. the
house in which they were assembled
was burned, many perished and the
rest were exiled. Similar tumults
with similar results, took place in
other cities and Pythagoras himself is
Pytheas
believed to have died soon after, at
Metapontum. Among the doctrines
of Pythagoras are the following :
that numbers are the principles of all
things ; that the universe is a har-
monious whole (kosmos), the heaven-
ly bodies by their motion causing
sounds (music of the spheres) ; that
the soul is immortal, and passes suc-
cessively into many bodies (metem-
psychosis) ; and that the highest aim
and blessedness of man is likeness to
the Deity. He left no written ac-
count of his doctrines ; they were first
committed to writing by Philolaus.
Pythagoras is said to have been the
first who took the title of philosopher,
and the first who applied the term
kosmos to the universe. He shares
with Thales and Xenophanes the high
distinction of starting the problem of
physical science. He died in Meta-
pontum, Magna Grsecia, about 500
B. C.
Pytheas, a famous navigator of the
Greek colony of Massilia, now Mar-
seilles ; supposed to have lived about
the time of Alexander the Great (say
330 B. c.). He is reputed to have
sailed along the west coast of Europe,
entered the English Channel, and trav-
eled some distance in Britain, then,
continuing his journey northward, to
have arrived at Thule (supposed to be
Iceland). In a second voyage he en-
tered the Baltic, where he proceeded
as far as a river which he called
Tanais, and on the banks of which
amber was found. He is mentioned
by. Strabo, Pliny, and others.
Pythian Games, one of the four
great national festivals of the Greeks,
held in the Crissaean plain, near Del-
phi (anciently called Pytho), said to
have been instituted by Apollo after
vanquishing the snaky monster,
Python, and celebrated in his honor
every four years.
Pythias, Knights of, a benevolent
and friendly order, founded during
the Civil War, and now flourishing in
various parts of the world. The or-
der is very strong in the United
States. Justus H. Rathbone founded
Washington lodge No. 1 in Washing-
ton, in December, 1864. On Jan. 1,
Python
1900, the total membership of the or-
der was 492,506. Membership of the
Uniform Rank (military branch),
45,590. Membership of the Endow-
ment Rank (life insurance branch),
57,401, representing an endowment of
113,840,000. Total paid benefici-
aries to July 1, 1900, $14,865,883.
Python, in Greek mythology, a
celebrated serpent which destroyed
the people and cattle about Delphi,
and was slain by Apollo. In zoology,
a genus and family of serpents allied
to the family Boidae or Boas. They
are not venomous, but kill their prey
by compression. The pythons are of
enormous size, sometimes attaining a
length of 30 feet. They are found in
India and in the islands of the East-
ern Archipelago, in Africa and in Aus-
tralia. A rudimentary pelvis and
traces of hinder limbs exist in the
pythons, these structures terminating
externally in a kind of a hooked claw.
The head exceeds the neck in thick-
PYTHON: MOLUEUS.
ness, and the mouth is extremely large.
Aided by their prehensile tails and
rudimentary hinder limbs, the pythons
suspend themselves from the branches
of trees and lie in wait near water
for animals which come to drink. The
genus Python contains various species,
the best known of which is the West
African python (P. sebae). common in
menageries. The female python hatch-
es her eggs by the heat of her body.
q, the 17th letter and the
13th consonant of the
English alphabet, a con-
sonant having only one
sound, that of k or c. It
is always followed by u, and as this
combination can be represented by kw
(or k when u is silent), q is a super-
fluous letter.
Qnackenbos, George Payn, an
American educator ; born in New
York city, Sept. 4, 1826; was grad-
uated at Columbia College in 1843 and
for many years conducted a large col-
legiate school in his native city. He
was author of " First Lessons in Com-
position " ; " Advanced Course of
Rhetoric and Composition " ; etc. He
died in New London, N. H., July 24,
1881.
Qnackenbos, John Duncan, an
American physician ; born in New
York, N. Y., April 22, 1848; was
graduated at Columbia College in
18G6 and at the College of Physicians
and Surgeons in 1871 ; began practice
in New York ; became Adjunct Pro-
fessor of the English Language and
Literature at Columbia College in
1884 ; Professor of Rhetoric in Bar-
nard College in 1891-1893. He then
became a specialist in mental diseases
and lectured extensively on scientific
and literary topics.
Quackenbnsh, Stephen Platt,
an American naval officer ; born in
Albany, N. Y., Jan. 23, 1823; joined
the navy in 1840 ; promoted lieuten-
ant-commander in 1862; had charge
of various vessels in blockading fleets
during the Civil War ; participated in
the action at Elizabeth City and New-
bern, N. C., captured the " Princess
Royal " containing a cargo of ma-
chinery for making projectiles, quinine
and engines for an iron-clad in course
of construction in Richmond ; and won
distinction in other operations. He
was retired with the rank of rear-ad-
miral hi 1885. He died in Washing-
ton, D. C., Feb. 4, 1890.
Quadrangle, a square or four-
sided court or space surrounded by .
buildings, as often seen in the build-
ings of a college, school, etc. In geom-
etry, a figure having four angles, and
consequently four sides.
Quadrant, in architecture, the
same as quadrangle. In geometry,
the fourth part of a circle ; the arc of
a circle containing 90 ; the space in-
cluded between such arc and two radii
drawn from the center to the extrem-
ities of the arc. Nautically, an in-
strument for making angular meas-
urements. So called from its em-
bracing an arc of 90 or somewhat
more. Formerly much employed in
making astronomical observations. It
is now superseded by the sextant.
Quadrature, the state of being
quadrate or square ; a square space.
In astronomy, the position of one
heavenly body with respect to another
90 distant, as the moon when midway
between the points of opposition and
conjunction. In geometry, the act of
squaring ; the reducing of a figure to
a square.
Quadrilateral, the name given in
history to the four fortresses of North
Italy Mantua, Verona, Peschiera,
and Legnago which form a sort of
outwork to the bastion of the moun-
tains of the Tyrol, and divide the N.
plain of the Po into two sections by a
most powerful barrier.
Quadrille, a dance consisting of
ive figures or movements, executed by
! pur sets of couples, each forming the
side of a square. Also, the music
Quadroon
composed for such a dance ; and, a
game of cards played by four persons
with 40 cards.
Quadroon, or Quarteron, a per-
son who is one-quarter negro end
three-quarters white ; that is, one of
whose grandparents was white and the
other negro ; and one of whose imme-
dite parents was white and the other
mulatto.
Quadrumana, in zoology, an order
of Mammalia, founded by Cuvier, and
containing the monkeys, apes, bab-
oons, and lemurs. The earliest known
remains are those of Lemuravus, from
the Eocene of New Mexico.
Quadruped, the name popularly
applied to those higher vertebrate ani-
mals which possess four developed
limbs. The name is usually re-
stricted to four-footed mammals.
Quadruple Alliance, an alliance,
BO called from the number of the con-
tracting parties, concluded in 1718
between Great Britain, France, and
Austria, and acceded to by Holland
in 1719, for the maintenance of the
peace of Utrecht. The occasion of the
alliance was the seizure by Spain of
Sardinia in 1717, and Sicily in 1718,
both of which she was forced to give
up. Another quadruple alliance was
that of Austria, Russia, Great Brit-
ain, and ^Prussia, in 1814, originating
in the coalition which had effected the
dissolution of the French empire.
Quaestor, in Roman history, two
quaestores parricidii, who acted as
public prosecutors in cases of murder,
or any capital offense, existed in
Rome during the period of the kings.
Two quaestores classici, who had
charge of the public money, were first
appointed about 485 B. G. They also
had charge of the funds of the army,
to which they were paymasters. The
number of quaestors was increased to
eight, 265 B. c. Sylla raised the num-
ber to 20, and .Julius Caesar to 40.
During the time of the emperors their
number varied ; and from the reign of
Claudius I. (41-54) it became cus-
tomary for quaestors, on entering of-
fice, to give gladiatorial spectacles to
the people; so that none but the
wealthiest Romans could aspire to the
office.
Quagga, a striped wild horse of
South Africa, now nearly, if not en-
tirely extinct.
Quaker City
Quail, a small game bird ; the Vir-
ginia species is common in North Amer-
ica, and so far south as Honduras.
It is larger than the European quail,
and is better eating. The California
crested quail is another American spe-
cies. The quail, genus Coturnix, is
widely distributed over the Eastern
Hemisphere, visiting Europe in early
summer and returning 3. in the au-
QTTAIL : LOPHORTTX CALIFOBNICTTS.
tumn, when immense numbers are
caught and fattened for the market.
Length about seven inches, general
color reddish-brown, with buff streaks
on the upper surface ; throat rufous ;
head, dark brown above, striped with
ocherous white, sides reddish-brown,
lower parts pale buff, fading into white
on belly. Color less bright in the hen
bird, and the rufous tinge absent from
the throat. They nest on the ground,
laying from 9 to 15 pyriform, yellow-
ish-white eggs, blotdhed with dark-
i brown. The males are polygamous
and extremely pugnacious.
Quaker City, Philadelphia, which
was planned and colonized by William
Penn and other members of the So-
ciety of Friends.
Quakers
Quakers. See Friends, Society of.
Qua mash, the North American
name of a plant of the lily family with
an edible bulb. These bulbs are
much eaten by the Indians, and are
prepared by baking in a hole dug in
the ground, then pounding and drying
them into cakes for future use.
Quantity, in grammar and pros-
ody, the measure of a syllable or the
time in which it is pronounced ; the
metrical value of syllables as regards
length or weight in their pronuncia-
tion. In logic, the extent to which
the predicate in a proposition is as-
serted of the subject.
In mathematics, anything that can
be increased, diminished, and measur-
ed. Thus, number is a quantity ;
time, space, weight, etc., are also
quantities. In mathematics, quanti-
ties are represented by symbols, and
for convenience these symbols them-
selves are called quantities. In al-
gebra, quantities are distinguished as
known and unknown, real and imag-
inary, constant and variable, rational
and irrational. Real quantities are
those which do not involve any opera-
tion impossible to perform ; variable
qualities are those which admit of an
infinite number of values in the same
expression ; rational quantities are
those which do not involve any radi-
cals.
Quarantine, the period (originally
40 days) during which a ship coming
from a port suspected of contagion,
or having a contagious sickness on
board, is forbidden intercourse with
the place at which she arrives. Quar-
antine was first introduced at Venice
in the 14th century. It is now re-
quired to be performed in almost every
important country except Great Brit-
ain. By act of the United States
Congress passed in 1879 national
quarantine stations were established;
and it is made a misdemeanor pun-
ishable by fine or imprisonment, or
both, for the master, pilot, or owner
of any vessel entering a port of the
United States in violation of the act,
or regulations framed under it. Dur-
ing the period of quarantine, all the
goods, clothing, etc., that might be
supposed capable of retaining infec-
tion, are subjected to a process of dis-
infection, which is a most important
part of the quarantine system.
Qnartley
Quarry, a place, pit, or mine where
stones are dug out of the earth, or are
separated from the mass of rock by
blasting. The term mine is generally
confined to pits or places whence coal
or metals are taken ; quarry to those
from which stones for building, etc.,
as marble, slate, etc., are taken. A
mine is subterranean, and reached by
a shaft ; in a quarry the overlying
soil is simply removed.
Quart, the fourth part of a gallon ;
two pints ; the United States dry
quart contains 67.20 cubic inches, the
fluid quart 57.75 cubic inches; the
English quart contains 69.3185 cubic
inches.
Quarter, a measure of weight,
equal to the fourth part of a hundred-
weight i. e., to 28 pounds avoirdu-
pois. As a measure of capacity, for
measuring grain, etc., a quarter con-
tains eight bushels. The common
American term for twenty-five cents,
being a quarter of a dollar.
Quarter Deck, in nautical lan-
guage, a deck raised above the waist
and extending from the stern to the
mainmast. It is especially a priv-
ileged portion of the deck, being the
promenade of the superior officers or
of the cabin passengers. The wind-
ward side is the place of honor.
Quartermaster, in military af-
fairs, an officer who superintends the
issue of stores, food, and clothing, and
arranges transportation for a regi-
ment when necessary. In nautical
affairs, a petty officer, who, besides
having charge of the stowage of bal-
last and provisions, coiling of ropes,
etc., attends to the steering of the
ship. He is appointed by the captain.
Quartermaster-general, in the
United States a staff-officer with rank
of Brigadier-General. He is chief
officer in the quartermaster's depart-
ment.
Quartermaster-sergeant, in the
United States, one whose duty it is
to assist the quartermaster.
Quartet, a piece of music arranged
for four voices or instruments, in
which all the parts are obligati ; i. e.,
no one can be omitted without injur-
ing the proper effect of the composi-
tion.
Qnartley, Arthur, an American
artist; born in Paris, May 24, 1839.
Qnartb
He came to the United States when a
boy, and gained a reputation as a
decorator, but it was not till after 1875
that he became known as an artist
of merit. His first picture which
brought him into notice was very
large, showing a waste of water beat-
ing against a rock. It was exhibited
at the Academy of Design, and belongs
to Wellesley College. He had a fond-
ness for wild marine and coast scenes.
He was elected a National Acade-
mician in 1886, and died in New York,
May 24 of that year.
QUASSIA : BITTEBWOOD.
a, Fruit.
Quarto, name of the size of a book
in which a sheet makes four leaves.
Frequently abbreviated to 4to. Also
a book formed by folding a sheet
twice, making fou T eight
pages. The term, ^.> usage,
refers to a book of nearly square
form. The proportions vary accord-
ing to the size of the sheets.
Quartz, in mineralogy, a rhombo-
hedral or hexagonal mineral, crystal-
lizing mostly in hexagonal prisms
with pyramidal terminations. Found
also massive, and of varying texture.
Quartz is abundantly distributed, is
Quay
an essential constituent of many
rocks, notably granite, gneiss, various
schists, and constitutes the larger part
of mineral veins. Many of its varie-
ties are largely employed in jewelry.
Quass, or Qnas, a thin, sour, fer-
mented liquor, made by pouring warm
water on rye or barley meal, and
drunk by the peasants of Russia.
Quassia, a tree cultivated in the
West Indies and the parts adjacent.
It has terminal clusters of large, red
flowers, and unequally pinnate leaves.
It comes to this country in logs or
billets, and is retained as chips or
raspings. It is given as an extract,
an infusion, or a tincture. An infu-
sion of it is used to poison flies.
Quaternary, or Post-Tertiary,
the fourth great division of the fossil-
iferous strata, which embraces the
Pleistocene or Glacial and Post-glacial
and Recent systems.
Qnatref oil, in architecture, a
piercing or panel divided by cusps or
foliations into four leaves, or more
correctly the leaf-shaped figure form-
ed by the cusps. The name is also
given to flowers and leaves of a simi-
lar form carved as ornaments on mold-
ings, etc. It differs from the cinque-
foil only in the number of cusps.
In heraldry, four-leaved grass ; a fre-
quent bearing in coat-armor;
Quay, a landing place; a wharf
projecting into a stream, harbor, or
basin, to which vessels are moored
for the purpose of receiving and deliv-
ering freight.
QUATREFOIL
IN ARCHITECTURE
QUATREFOIL
IN HERALDRY.
Quay, Matthew Stanley, an
American legislator ; born in Dills-
burg, Pa., Sept. 30, 1833; was grad-
uated at Jefferson College in 1850,
and admitted to the bar in 1854; en-
tered the Union army in 1861 and
won distinction ; was promoted lieu-
Quebec
tenant-colonel and assistant commis-
sary general ; received a congressional
medal of honor for exceptional serv-
ice; became State treasurer of Penn-
pylvania in 1885 ; and was a United
States Senator in 1887-1899. Early
in the latter year he was placed on
trial on charges of misappropriation
of public funds, and on April 21 was
acquitted. Governor Stone appointed
him United States Senator ad interim
on the same day, and in January,
1901, he was reelected to the United
States Senate to fill out the vacant
term caused by the failure of the Leg-
islature to elect a Senator in January,
1899. He died May 28, 1904.
Quebec, a province of the Dominion
of Canada, formerly called Canada
East; bounded on the N. by Labra-
dor and Hudson Bay; on the E. by
Labrador and the Gulf of St. Law-
rence ; on the S. by New Brunswick,
Chaleurs Bay, Maine, New Hamp-
shire, Vermont, and New York ; on
the S. W. and W. by the province of
Ontario; gross area, 347,350 square
miles; pop. (1910) 2,124,834; capital,
.(Quebec. The surface of the prov-
ince is varied, being diversified by
mountains, rivers, lakes, and exten-
sive forests. The chief river is the
St. Lawrence, which flows through
the entire length of the province. The
climate is variable, though salubrious,
the temperature ranging from 20 be-
low zero in winter to 90 in summer.
The mineral wealth is undeveloped,
but is said to be invaluable. Copper
is mined in Brome and Megantic coun-
ties; gold in Beauce; iron ore in St.
Maurice; and nickel in Pontiac. The
other mineral productions include as-
bestos, apatite, plumbago, mica, slate-
stone, etc.
The soil is generally fertile and is
chiefly cultivated near the rivers.
About half of the population of Que-
bec is engaged in agriculture. The
chief products include maize, buck-
wheat, tobacco, peas, turnips, barley,
wheat, oats, potatoes, and hay. But
little of the forest wealth, whioh is
considerable, has been developed.
Spruce and pine are exported and the
other forest products include ash,
cedar, cherry, oak, elm, maple, birch,
and beech. Cattle, horses, swine, and
Sheep are the principal domestic ani-
mals. The fisheries are extensive.
Queen
The affairs of the province are ad-
ministered by a Lieutenant-Governor,
appointed by the Governor-General of
Canada, assisted by a responsible ex-
ecutive council. There are two
Chambers, the Legislative Council,
composed of 24 members who hold
their appointments for life, and a
Legislative Assembly, which has 74
members, elected by the people foi
five years. The city of Quebec was
founded by Champlain in 1608, who
later established trading stations and
torts at various places. The French
governed Quebec till 1759, when
General Wolfe won the battles of the
Plains of Abraham, and the English
gained control. Prior to 1841 Quebec
was called Lower Canada, but in
that year it was united to Upper
Canada. It was made a province of
the Dominion of Canada in 1867 by
the Act of Confederation.
Quebec, city and capital of Que-
bec county and of the Province of
Quebec, Canada; on the St. Law-
rence river and several trunk line
railroads; 180 miles N. E. of Mon-
treal; is the third city in size and
importance in the Dominion; is a
port of entry, with an extensive com-
merce, especially in lumber; has
large shipyards and many manufac-
tories; and is particularly rich in his-
torical associations and features. The
city has a picturesqe site, 'on a high
tableland; is in a highly productive
farming section; and is a strongly-
fortified military post. There are
Anglican and Roman Catholic cathe-
drals, Laval University, the Church
of Notre Dame des Victoires (1688),
Champlain Marktt, large drill hall,
Auditorium, Seminary of Quebec,
.Morrin College, Grey Nunnery, Can-
adian Institute, General and Joffery
Hale hospitals, and many charitable
and benevolent institutions. The
New Park, on the Plains of Abra-
ham, contains a monument to Gen-
eral Wolfe; Victoria Park has a
monument to the late Queen; and the
Esplanade has a monument to the
soldiors who fell in the South Afri-
can War.
Queen, a female who is chief or
preeminent among others; one who
presides; as, the queen of beauty, the
queen of love, etc. In cards, a card
on which a queen is depicted. In
Queen Anne's Bounty
Qnesada
chess, the most powerful and, after
the king, the most important of all
the pieces in a set of chessmen.
Queen Anne's Bounty, the name
given to a fund appropriated to in-
crease the income of the poorer
clergy of England, created out of the
first fruits and tenths.
Queen Bee, in entomology, a fully
developed female bee in a hive or nest.
She lays 2,000 or 3,000 eggs daily
during the height of summer, or more
than 1,000,000 during her lifetime,
which is about five years. When a
young queen comes forth, the old one
becomes agitated with jealousy, and
ultimately quits the hive, surrounded
by a great multitude of workers, who
found a new colony, leaving the old
hive to the possession of the youthful
rival. Two days to a week after
coming to maturity, the young queen
temporarily flies forth, and is fertil-
ized in the air. See BEE.
Queen Charlotte's Islands, a
group to the N. of Vancouver Island,
off the coast of British Columbia ;
area, 5,100 square miles. The two
principal islands, Graham and Mores-
by, have a length of 160 and a great-
est breadth of nearly 70 miles. The
climate is healthy, but very rainy.
Anthracite coal, copper and iron ore,
and gold bearing quartz have been
found, and forests abound. The in-
habitants are about 2,000 Indians,
who engage in fishing. Queen Char-
lotte's Sound is a strait separating
Vancouver Island on the N. from the
mainland.
Queen's College, for women, was
established in London, in 1848, and
incorporated by royal charter in 1833.
Its aim is to provide for the higher
education of women, in the first place
by a liberal school training, and sub-
sequently by a six years' course of
college education.
Queensland, an Australian state,
comprising the whole N. E. portion of
Australia N. of New South Wales
and E. of South Australia and its
Northern Territory, being elsewhere
bounded by the Gulf of Carpentaria,
Torres Strait, and the Pacific. A
considerable portion is thus within
the tropics, the extreme N. part form-
ing a sort of peninsula, known as
York Peninsula. It has an area of
about 668,497 square miles; pop.
(1910) 592,000; and is divided into
12 large districts.
There are many kinds of valuable
timber trees, and a rare thing in Aus-
tralia, a few good indigenous fruits.
Sheep farming is the chief industry,
but agriculture (including sugar-
growing), cattle rearing, and mining
are also important. The soil and cli-
mate are well suited for the produc-
tion of all the ordinary cereals, as
well as maize, tobacco, coffee, sugar,
cotton, etc. The chief products are
sugar, maize, Irish and sweet pota-
toes, arrow root, and semi-tropical
fruits. Sugar growing is becoming a
very important industry. Gold, tin,
lead, and copper are the principal min-
erals. The gold fields extend over an
area of 15,000 square miles, and em-
ploy about 9,500 miners.
The first settlement of Queensland
took place in 1825, when the territory
was used as a place of transportation
for convicts, who continued to be sent
there till 1839. In 1842 the country
was opened to free settlers. It was
originally a part of New South Wales,
and was organized as a separate col-
ony in 1859, The government of the
state is vested in a governor, who is
the crown's representative, and a Par-
liament of two houses, the legislative
council and the 'legislative assembly.
The council consists of 39 members
appointed by the crown for life, and
the assembly of 72 members elected by
the people for five years, and repre-
senting GO electoral districts. The
capital of the state is Brisbane. In
January, 1896, a disastrous flood
caused great loss of life and property
in Brisbane and Northern Queens-
land.
Quelpart, an island 60 miles off
the S. coast of Korea ; about 40 miles
long by 17 broad. It is rock-bound
and mountainous, the volcanic Mount
Auckland being 6,500 feet high. It
has fertile soil and good timber, and
is populous.
Qnesada, Gonzalo de, a Cuban
patriot and diplomatist ; born in Ha-
vana, Cuba, Dec. 15, 1868; was grad-
uated at the College of the City of
New York in 1888; was secretary of
the Cuban revolutionary party and
associated with Jose Marti in the
struggle for Cuban independence. In
Quesiiay
1900 he was the special commissioner
of Cuba to the United States, and also
to the Paris Exposition ; in 1901 was
a member of the Cuban Constitutional
Convention and in the same year was
appointed a chevalier of the Legion of
Honor of France. He " published
" Patriotism " ; " History of Free
Cuba " ; etc. He is now Cuban Min-
ister to the United States.
Quesnay, Francois, a French phy-
sician and economist ; born near
Paris, France, June 4, 1694. He was
the founder of the school of econo-
mists called Physiocrats, and very in-
fluential on Adam Smith and all mod-
ern political economy. He published
several medical works, in addition to
his more famous ones on political
economy. He died Dec. 16, 1774.
Quezal, a most beautiful Central
American bird of the Trogon family.
It is about the size of a magpie, and
the male is adorned with tail feathers
from 3 to 3% feet in length, and of a
gorgeous emerald color. The food of
the quezal consists chiefly of fruits.
It lives in forests of tall trees. There
are several allied species of birds, but
none with the distinctive feature of
the quezal.
Quichua, the name of a native race
of South America, inhabiting Peru,
parts of Ecuador, Bolivia, etc. With
the Aymaras the Quichuas composed
-the larger portion of the population
of the empire of the Incas. The
Quichua language, which was former-
ly the state language of the Incas, is
still the chief speech of Peru, of a
large portion of Bolivia, of the part
of Ecuador bordering upon Peru, and
of the N. section of the Argentine Re-
public. It is one of the most beauti-
ful and at the same time comprehen-
sive tongues of America.
Quicklime, lime in a caustic state ;
calcium oxide deprived by heat of its
carbon dioxide and water. This is
extensively done in lime kilns, the
fuel used being fagots, brushwood, or
coal. The firewood and lime to be
calcined are mixed. Quicklime treated
with water evolves much heat, and
falls into a thick paste. Lime thus
slaked and mixed with sand consti-
tutes mortar.
Quicksand, in its usual signifi-
cance, a tract of sand which, without
Quinca
differing much in appearance from the
shore of which it forms part, remains
permanently saturated with water to
such an extent that it cannot support
any weight. Quicksands are most
often found near the mouths of large
rivers. Quicksands are not commonly
of great extent, and their danger has
probably been exaggerated in the pop-
ular mind by sensational descriptions
in works of fiction. Persons sink in
a quicksand exactly as in water, only
more slowly ; and it is probable that
if the victim did not struggle he would
not sink over the head, as experiments
show that water containing a quantity
of solid matter in suspension has its
floating powers increased. The nam;
quicksand is sometimes applied to the
drifting sands which are carried by
wind over cultivated land bordering
the seashore or a desert.
Quids, a name given to the few
supporters of John Randolph when he
seceded from the Repilblican party in
1805. The Latin phrase tertium quid,
a "third something" (as distinguish-
ed from the two powerful parties',,
gave rise to the name.
Quietism, the doctrine that the es-
sence of true religion consists in the
withdrawal of the soul from external
and finite objects, and its quiet con-
centration upon God.
Quilcute, a tribe of North Ameri-
can Indians, who formerly lived on a
river of the same name, in the State
of Washington. Their numbers were
gradually reduced by wars with other
tribes and the few remaining are found
in the Neah Bay reservation in Wash-
ington.
Qnillaia, or Soap-bark, the bark
of a South American tree belonging to
the wing-seeded section of the Ros-
acefe. It is used to make a lather in-
stead of soap in washing silks, woolens,
etc. It is called also Quillaya-bark.
Quince, the fruit of Cydonia vul-
garis, or the tree itself. It is 15 or
20 feet high, with white or pale-red
flowers, and ultimately golden fruit.
It is indigenous in the S. of Europe,
the N. of Africa, the Himalayas, etc.
The fruit is too austere to be eaten
uncooked, but is used in the prepara-
tion of marmalade, jelly, and pre-
serves. Its mucilaginous seeds are
demulcent, and given by the natives
Qninoy
of India in diarrhoea, dysentery, sore
throat, and fever. The Japan quince
is a small tree about six feet high,
with oval crenately serrated leaves,
and fine red flowers.
Qnincy, city and capital of Adams
county, 111.; on the Mississippi river
and several railroads; 110 miles W.
of Springfield; is the trade center of
a large farming area, producing
grains, fruits, and vegetables; has
varied manufactures, with annual
value exceeding $15,000,000; is the
se of a Protestant Episcopal bishop;
and contains St. Francis' Solanus
College (R. C.), Chadwick College
(M. E.), St. Mary's Institute (R. C.),
Illinois State Soldiers' and Sailors'
liome, and Blessing and St. Mary's
hospitals. Pop. (1910) 36,587.
Qnincy, a city in Norfolk county,
Mass.; on Boston harbor and the
New York, New Haven & Hartford
railroad; 9 miles S. of Boston; is the
seat of the famous Quincy granite
quarries; is chiefly engaged in quar-
rying and monumental work; con-
tains the Crane Public Library,
Adams Academy, and Woodward In- |
stitute; and is noted as the birth-
place of John Hancock and Presi-
dents John Adams and John Quincy
Adams. Pop. (1910) 32,642.
Qnincy, Josiah, sometimes called
Josiah Quincy, Jr., an American law-
yer; born in Boston, Mass., Jan. 23,
1744. Though noted as a patriot, he
joined with John Adams in defend
ing the British soldiers in the Boston
Massacre case; took part in the town
meeting ordering the " Boston tea-
party;" and in September, 1774, went
to England in behalf of the colonists.
He died April 26, 1775.
Qnincy, Josiah, an American au-
thor and orator; born in Boston,
Mass., Feb. 4, 1772, son of Josiah
Quincy. He studied law, and entered
Congress in 1805, where he distin-
guished himself as an orator. In
1813 he declined a reelection, and de-
voted his attention to scientific agri-
culture. In 1829-1845 he was presi-
dent of Harvard College. He died
July 1, 1864.
Qninine, the most important alka-
loid of the true cinchona bark, first
obtained by Gomez, of Lisbon, in
1811.
Qnitnum
Qninsy, or Qninancy, inflamma-
tory sore throat. There is swelling
of one tonsil, or of both, attended with
difficulty of breathing and swallowing,
and febrile symptoms. Quinsy has,
though rarely, proved fatal by pro-
ducing suffocation.
Quintilian, Quintilianns Mar-
ens Fabius, a Roman rhetorician ;
native of Spain. His great work is
entitled, " On Oratory as an Art,"
and was written after his retirement,
out during the reign of Domitian. It
js the most complete course of rhetoric
handed down from ancient times, and
is distinguished for its elegance of
style, as well as for sound judgment,
cultivated taste, and various knowl-
edge. The first complete copy of
this work was discovered by Poggio,
in the abbey of St. Gall, about 1419,
and the first printed edition appeared
at Rome, in 1470. Quintilian is sup-
posed to have died about A. D. 120.
Quirinal, The, one of the seven
Lills of ancient Rome, and next to the
Palatine and Capitoline, the oldest
and most famous quarter of the city.
The Quirinal is a name applied to the
Italian government from the fact that
the king of Italy resides in the palace
of the Quirinal.
Quirites, a designation of the citi-
zens of ancient Rome as in their civil
capacity. The name of Quirites be-
longed to them in addition to that of
Romani, the latter designation ap-
plying to them in their political and
military capacity.
Quit-claim, a deed of release; an
instrument by which some claim, right
or title, real or supposed, to an estate,
is relinquished to another without
any covenant or warranty, express or
implied.
Quit man, John Anthony, an
American military officer ; born in
Rhinebeck, New York, Sept. 1, 1799.
Removing to Mississippi in 1821, he
ultimately became governor, which he
obtained through a vacancy in 1836.
He soon after withdrew from political
life, and joined the Texans in their
struggle for independence. In 1846,
he was appointed Brigadier-General of
the United States army in the war
with Mexico, distinguishing himself at
Monterey, Vera Cruz, and Cerro
Gordo, after which latter engagement
Quito
he was brevetted Major-General, and
was voted a sword by Congress for
gallantry. He participated in the at-
tack on Chapultepec, and was fore-
most in the assault on the City of
Mexico, which city he governed till
order was established. In 1855 and
1857 he was elected to Congress by
large majorities. He died in Natchez,
Miss., July 17, 1858.
Quito, the capital of Ecuador, in a
ravine on the east side of the volcano
of Pichincha, 9,348 feet above the sea,
a little to the south of the equator,
and 150 miles by rail N. E. of Guaya-
quil. Its streets, with the exception of
four which meet in the large central
square, are narrow, uneven, badly
paved, and extremely dirty. The more
important public buildings are the
cathedral, several other churches and
convents ; the town-house, court-house,
president's palace, the university, the
arch-Episcopal palace, orphan asylum,
and hospital. The manufactures con-
sist chiefly of woolen and cotton goods ;
the chief exports are hides and rubber.
Quito was originally the capital of a
native kingdom of the same name, but
the modern town was founded by the
Spaniards in 1534. It has repeatedly
suffered from earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions, notably in 17!)7, when
40,000 lives were lost. Pop. about
80,000, largely consisting of half-
breeds and Indians.
Quit-rent, in law, a small rent
payable by the tenants of most manors,
whereby the tenant goes quit and free
from all other services.
Qnittah, a town on the coast of
W. Africa, in the British colony of
the Gold Coast. Pop. 5,000.
Quo Warranto
Quoits, a game played with a flat-
tish ring of iron, generally from 8*4
to 9^& inches in external diameter,
and between 1 and 2 inches in breadth.
It is convex on the upper side and
slightly concave on the under side, so
that the outer edge curves downwards,
and is sharp enough to cut into soft
ground. The game is played in the
following manner : Two pins, called
hobs, are driven into the ground from
18 to 24 yards apart ; and the players,
who are divided into two sides, stand
beside one hob, and in regular succes-
sion throw their quoits (of which
each player has two) as near the other
hob as they can, giving the quoit an
upward and forward pitch with the
hand and arm, and at same time com-
municating to it a whirling motion so
as to make it cut into the ground.
The side which has the quoit nearest
the hob counts a point towards game,
or if the quoit is thrown over the hob,
it counts two.
Qnorra, a name given to the lower
portion of the Niger (q. v.).
Quorum, a term used in commis-
sions, of which the origin is the Latin
expression, " quorum unum A. B. esse
volumus," " of whom we will that A.
B. be one," signifying originally, cer-
tain individuals, without whom the
others could not proceed in the busi-
ness. In legislative and similar as-
semblies a quorum is such a number
of members as is competent to trans-
act business.
Quo Warranto, in law, a writ is-
suing against any person or corpora-
tion that usurps any office or fran-
chise, to inquire by what authority he
or it supports his or its claim, in
order to determine the right.
p, the 18th letter and the
14th consonant of the Eng-
lish language, is classed as
a semi-vowel and a liquid.
It is also called a trill. By
the Romans r was jailed the " dog's
letter," from its sound resembling the
snarling of dogs. The three R's, a hu-
morous and familiar designation for
the three elementary subjects of edu-
cation: reading, writing, and arith-
metic.
Ra (more properly Re), the name
of the god of the sun among the an-
cient Egyptians. He is represented,
like Horus, with the head of a hawk,
and bearing the disk of the sun on
his head.
Rabbi, in Jewish history and liter-
ature, rabbi is the noun Rab with
the pronominal suffix, and in Biblical
Hebrew = great man, distinguished for
age, rank, office, or skill, where, how-
ever, it only occurs without the suf-
fix. In ordinary language it is the
designation of a minister of religion
of the Jewish faith.
Rabbinic Hebrew, that form of
Hebrew in which the Jewish scholars
and theologians of the Middle Ages
composed their works. Grammatically
it differs but little from the ancient
Hebrew, but in many cases new mean-
nigs are attached to Hebrew words
already in use, in other cases new
derivatives are formed from old He-
brew roots, and many words are bor-
rowed from the Arabic. The rabbin-
ical literature is rich and well repays
study.
Rabbit, a well-known burrowing
rodent, of the family Leoporidae, to
which also belong the hares. The rab-
bit is smaller than the hare, with
(shorter ears and hind legs.
Rabelais, Francois, a distinguish-
ed French scholar, satirist and humor-
ist ; born about 1490 ; died 1553. First
a monk, he afterwards studied and
practiced medicine and law, but became
better known by his prolific literary
activity of which the satirico-social-
political creations, "Gargantua," "Pan-
tagruel," " Panurge," and " Friar
John," are monuments to his fame.
Raccoon, or Racoon, a handsome
animal, about the size of a large cat,
brown furry hair, tail bushy and
ringed; body large and unwieldy, legs
short, feet with strong fossorial claws.
It is omnivorous and ranges over a
large part of North America, where
EACCOON : PBOCYON LOTOB.
it is hunted for its fur. The crab-
eating raccoon of South America,
ranging as far N. as Panama, dif-
fers chiefly from the former in the
shortness of its fur, and consequent
slender shape.
Race, a class of individuals sprung
from a common stock ; the descendants
collectively of a common ancestor; a
family, tribe, nation, or people be-
longing, or supposed to belong, to the
same stock.
The human family, according to
Blumenbach, comprises five distinct
races of men, viz. : The Caucasian, or
white race, inhabiting Southwestern
Race Knowledge
Radforcl
Asia, the greater part of Europe, and
spread into other quarters of the
world; the Ethiopian, black or negro
race, originating in Africa ; the Mon-
golian, or yellow race of Northern
and Eastern Asia ; the Malayan or
brown race of the East Indies and
Australasia ; and the Indian or red
race of the American continent.
Race Knowledge, a term used by
Prof. Patton of Princeton University
to designate the general knowledge of
a subject, useful to the whole human
race, as distinguished from the de-
tailed and specialized knowledge re-
quired by experts and scientists.
Race Snicide, the avoidance of
the duties of motherhood.
Rachel, the second daughter of
Laban, the dearly beloved of Jacob,
who, to obtain her, devoted seven
years to the flocks and herds of her
father. But, at the end of that period,
he found in his veiled bride not Rachel
but Leah, the elder sister, whom he
did not love, and was obliged to labor
during seven more years in order to
gain her. She was the mother of
Joseph and Benjamin.
Rachel, Eliza Rachel Felix, a
French actress ; born in Muraph,
Switzerland, Feb. 28, 1820; was the
daughter of a Hebrew pedlar; re-
vived the classic school of tragedy;
gained her crowning triumph in 1843,
in her representation of " Phedre."
In 1855 she made a visit to the
United States. She died Jan. 3, 1858.
Racine, city, port of entry, and
capital of Racine county, Wis.; on
Lake Michigan and the Chicago &
Northwestern and other railroads;
25 miles S. of Milwaukee; has a
large commerce in coal and lumber;
manufactures farm implements, iron
castings, lumber, woolen goods, ma-
chinery, wagons, shoes, and soap;
and contains Racine College, Racine
Academy, St. Catherine's Academy,
Taylor Orphan Asylum, and St.
Luke's Hospital. Pop. (1910) 38,002.
Racine, Jean, an eminent French
dramatic poet; born in La Ferte
Milon, France, Dec. 22, 1639; com-
menced his poetical career in 16(iO.
In 1688 appeared his "Andromaque,"
which placed him far above all his
contemporaries except Corneille. After
a lapse of 12 years he wrote, by desire
of Louis XIV. and Madame de Main
tenon, the sacred dramas of " Esther "
and " Athalie," which were performed
by the young ladies of the institution
of St. Cyr. He died April 21, 1698.
Rack, an apparatus for the judicial
torture of criminals or suspected per-
sons. It consisted of a large, open,
wooden frame, within which the offend-
er was laid on his back on the floor,
with his wrists and ankles fastened by
cords to two rollers at the ends of the
frame. These rollers were then drawn
or moved in opposite directions till the
body rose to a level with the frame,
and the bones of the sufferer were
forced from their sockets. The rack
was formerly used in Europe in the
cases of traitors or conspirators, and
by the officers of Inquisition to force
a recantation of heretical or so-called
heretical opinions.
Rackets, a game played in a pre-
pared court, open or close, with a
small, hard ball and a racket or bat
like that used for playing tennis.
Radcliffe College, an educational
non-sectarian institution in Cam-
bridge, Mass., for women ; founded
1879.
Radetzky, Joseph Wenceslnus,
Count, a famous Austrian soldier;
born at Trebnitz, in Bohemia, in 1766.
Commencing his career in a Hungar-
ian regiment of horse in 1784, he
fought in most of the campaigns in
which Austria was engaged from that
date up to the nme of his death. His
most signal services were in Italy,
whither he was called by the commo-
tions following the French revolution
of 1830. The victory at Npvara, Mar.
23, 1849, resulted in Austrian suprem-
acy, and Radetzky. field-marshal since
1836, was appointed Governor-General
of Lombardy and Venetia.
Radf ord, William, an American
naval officer ; born in Fincastle, Va.,
March 1, 1808; entered the navy in
March, 1825 ; served in the war with
Mexico, and conducted the party which
in 1847 cut out the " Malokadel," a
Mexican war vessel, at Mazatlan.
When the Civil War broke out he was
assigned to the " Cumberland " ; waa
promoted captain in July, 1862, and
commodore in April, 1863. During the
assault on Fort Fisher, in December,
1864, he commanded the "New Iron-
Radiant
Bides " and the ironclad portion of
Porter's fleet. Radford was promoted
to rear-admiral in July, 1866, and was
retired on March 1, 1870. He died
in Washington, D. C., Jan. 8, 1890.
Radiant, in botany, diverging from
a common center, like rays. In heraldry
an epithet applied to any ordinary or
charge, when it is represented edged
with rays or beams ; rayonnant ;
rayonnee. In astronomy, the point in
the heavens from which a staa* shower
seems to proceed. In geometry, a
straight line proceeding from a given
point or fixed pole, about which it is
conceived to revolve. In optics, the
luminous- body or point from which
rays of light falling on a lens or mir-
ror diverge.
Radiation, in physics, the trans-
mission, of heat, light, or actinic power
(hence known as forms of " radiant
energy ") from one body to another
without raising the temperature of
the intervening medium. It takes place
in all directions around a body. In^a
homogeneous medium it takes place in
straight lines.
Radical, in chemistry, a group of
elements common to a more or less
numerous series of allied compounds,
find unaffected by the processes where-
by these compounds are transformed
one into another.
Radical, a political term, applied
in the past to Republican extremists.
Extreme English Liberals.
Radiobes. See BTJBKE, J. B. B.
Radiograph, a picture of an ob-
ject or objects obtained by means of
the Roentgen rays instead of light
rays; called also skiagraph.
Radiometer, an instrument that is
used for taking the altitudes of the
celestial bodies. Also an instrument
invented by Crookes for measuring the
mechanical effect of radiant energy.
Radium, a metallic element ob-
tained like uranium, from pitch-blende
or uraninite, a pitchy, greenish-black,
lead oxide of uranium, usually found
with silver and lead ores. Radium is
produced chiefly as a chloride or brom-
ide, and was discovered by M. and
Mme. Curie, and M. Bemont, in 1888.
Its radioactivity or phosphorescent
property of emitting rays capable of
traversing bodies opaque to ordinary
Raffle
light, and of affecting photographic
plates, similar to the Roentgen rays
(q. v.), is forty times that of uranium,
and its discovery and peculiar charac-
teristics have given rise to many
interesting physical speculations. The
speed of the minute corpuscles thrown
off is estimated at 120,000 miles a
second, while its temperature and radi-
ations were thought to undergo no
chemical change or decrease of power,
suggesting the possibility that nature
here provided an element which gives
light without heat and combustion.
According to Prof. Rutherford, of
Montreal University, however, radium
is formed probably by the decomposi-
tion of uranium, and changes spontan-
eously into the gas helium, helium
itself being the decomposition of ra-
dium, and subject to further decompo-
sition, each change corresponding to
the production of a new element. The
preparation of radium is very costly,
entailing the use of enormous quanti-
ties of pitchblende : one pound of ra-
dium is valued at $3.000,000.
Radius, in anatomy, the outer of
the two bones of the forearm. In
botany, and plural form, the peduncles
supporting the partial umbels in an
umbellifer. In fortification, a line
drawn from the center of the polygon
to the end of the outer side. In geome-
try, the distance from the center of a
circle to any point of the circum-
ference.
Raff, Joachim, a German com-
poser ; born in Lachen, on Lake
Zurich, May 27, 1822. From 1850 to
1856 he lived near Liszt in Weimar,
then taught music at Wiesbaden till
1877; and from that year till his
death, June 24, 1882, he was director
of the musical conservatory at Frank-
fort-on-Main. He published more
than 200 musical productions, includ-
ing symphonies, overtures, concertos
for violin, 'cello, and piano, operas,
quartettes, a great variety of pieces
for piano and violin, and for piano
alone.
Raffle, formerly a game of dice;
one with three dice in which he who
threw all alike won the stakes. Now
a chance or lottery in which some ar-
ticle is put up by the owner to be
drawn or thrown for by several per-
sons who subscribe a small sum each,
he who draws or throws the winning
Rafinesqne
Railroad
number to become possessor of the
article. The money subscribed goes
to the original owner of the article.
Rafinesque, Constantino Sam-
uel, an American botanist ; born in
Galatz, Turkey, in 1784. He set-
tled permanently in the United States
in 1815, and was made Professor of
Botany in Transylvania University,
Lexington, Ky., in 1818. Later, after
lecturing in various places, he removed
to Philadelphia. His publications in-
clude " Ancient History, or Annals
of Kentucky," "Medical Flora, etc.,
of the United States," etc. He died
in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 18, 1842.
Ragatz, a town of Switzerland,
canton of St. Gall, situated at the
junction of the Tamina with the
Rhine, 1,700 feet above the sea. and
connected by railway with Zurich and
Coire. It is much resorted to both for
its beautiful scenery and its mineral
waters. Pipes are laid from Pfiiffers,
a mountain village at an altitude of
2,696 feet, 2% miles higher up, by
which the water is brought down from
the hot springs there to a spacious
bathing establishment. The tempera-
ture of the water is 97-100, and it
is impregnated with carbonate of lime,
magnesia, and salt. The permanent
population is only about 2,000, but
there is a large number of visitors, for
the accommodation of whom large
hotels, restaurants, etc., have been
provided. There is also a bathing es-
tablishment near the springs, erected
in 1704.
Rags, though valueless for most
purposes, are yet of great importance
in the arts, particularly in paper mak-
ing. Besides the rags collected in
the United States, the article is im-
ported in large quantities from various
foreign countries. Woolen rags, not
being available for paper, are much
used for manure ; but those of a loose
texture, and not too much worn, are
unraveled by means of machinery, and
mixed up with good wool, to form
what is known as " shoddy," with
which cheap woolen goods are made ;
while the refuse is pulverized and
dyed various colors, to form the flock
used by paper stainers for their flock-
papers.
Raiatea, one of the Society Islands
In Southeastern Polynesia; area, 75
square miles ; pop. 1,400, who have
been converted to Christianity by Eng-
lish missionaries, and are governed by
their own chiefs.
Rail, the common name of a family
of grallatorial birds comprehending
the rails proper, the coots, water-hens,
and crakes. They are characterized by
possessing a long bill, which is more
or less curved at the tip and com-
pressed at the sides, by having the
nostrils in a membranous groove, the
wings of moderate length, the tail
WATER BAIL.
short, the legs and toes long and slend'
er, the hind toe placed on a level with
the others. Most of the members of
the family are aquatic, or frequent
marshes ; but some, as the crakes,
frequent dry situations. The Vir-
ginian rail of the United States is
somewhat smaller than the water rail
of Europe; and the great-breasted rail
or freshwater marsh hen is about 20
inches long, and inhabits the marshes
of the Southern States of the United
States. The land rail, so named, is
the corn crake.
Railroad (the usual form in the
United States), or Railway (the Eu-
ropean form ) , a road or way provided
with rails of iron or steel, on which
the wheels of the cars run in order to
lessen the friction. The " rails " were
originally of timber, laid straight and
parallel on transverse sleepers, and
secured with pegs of wood, the sleep-
ers being imbedded in the material of
the roadway ; the wheels had flanges
on ne side of the periphery to con-
fine them to the track. The roadway
was scantling, five by seven, pegged
down to oak sleepers, four by eight,
six feet long, and laid two and a
half feet apart. The track for the
Railroad
Railroad Systems
horses was filled in with ashes above
the sleepers. Such roads were first
laid near Newcastle, England, in
1602. About 1716 the wooden ways
were capped with thin plates of malle-
able iron, having flanges along one
side. Cast-iron bars were substituted
in 1767. The modern railway con-
sists of one or more series of iron or
steel rails, laid parallel and continu-
ously at a certain distance or width
from each other, called the gauge. One
pair of parallel rails constitutes a
single track of railway, two pairs a
double track, and so on. Railway
development in the United States has
had to adapt itself to the needs of a
new and rapidly growing country, a
large part of which was first made
available for settlement by railways.
Three locomotives were imported from
England in 1829, and the first trial
1852, 2,170 in 1853, 3,442 miles in
1854. The Civil War checked railway
construction, only 3,257 miles being
opened during the five years ending
with 1865, when the aggregate amount-
ed to 32,996 miles. Between 1865
and 1873, the mileage increased more
than 100 per cent, including one road
in operation and a second line in
progress of construction to the Pacific
coast. The greatest increase of this
period was in the Western and South-
western States, hi which fully 25,000
miles of trackage were made ready for
traffic. At the close of 1873 the total
capital invested in railroads of the
United States aggregated $3,784,543,-
034, of which $1,836,904,450 repre-
sented the bonded indebtedness. The
depression which followed the panic
of that year continued till 1879. In
the latter year the construction again
MODERN AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE.
in America took place Aug. 8, 1829,
at Honesdale, Pa. The first railway
constructed to be worked by loco-
motives was the South Carolina rail-
road (1826-1830), though trials of
an experimental locomotive had been
made before on the Baltimore and
Ohio railroad, which continued to be
worked by horsepower till 1832. The
mileage of railway construction about
kept pace with that of Great Britain
till 1850; at the beginning of 1885
it amounted to 125,379 miles. The
mileage completed amounted to 40
miles at the end of 1830, to 3,361
miles in 1841, and to 5,206 miles in
1847, of which 1,350 miles had been
opened within six years. Then there
was a sudden and great increase, the
yearly additions for seven years being
1 T 056 miles in 1848, 1,048 in 1849,
1,261 in 1850, 1,274 in 1851, 2,288 in
increased 100 per cent., and between
1874 and 1888 there were built 85,-
814 miles of new railroad. Since the
revival of railroad construction in
1879 there have been completed suf-
ficient trackage to give a total length
of over 333,775 mi!o3. This does not
include the elevate. I steam and elec-
tric railroads in the Various large cities
of the U. S. See ELECTRIC TRACTION.
Railroad Systems. The process
of absorption of smaller concerns by
large corporations is fully as marked
among the railroads as it is among the
great manufacturing industries. The
growth in mileage of the largest roads
is truly phenomenal, and the United
States alone in North America with
186,245 miles of railroads in 1898,
surpassed in total mileage, that of
all the systems of Europe, which at
Xtaimondi
that time amounted to 167,510 miles.
The largest aggregation controlled by
any one company is that of the New
York Central railroad, which totals
10,410 miles ; making a very close sec-
ond is the Pennsylvania system with
10,392 miles, while the great Canadian
Pacific Overland route and connections
total 10,018 miles. Another trans-
continental line of almost equal size
is the Southern Pacific, which owns
and controls 9,441 miles. There are
four companies controlling from 7,OOC
to 9,000 miles ; seven companies con-
EARLY LOCOMOTIVE.
trolling from 5,000 to 7,000 miles;
three companies from 3,000 to 5,000
miles ; and nine companies controlling
from 2,000 to 3,000 miles of track, the
total mileage controlled by 28 com-
panies being nearly 150,000 miles. Of
the five great transcontinental com-
panies the Canadian Pacific and the
Southern Pacific, with over 10,000 and
9,000 miles respectively, are by far the
largest. The Atchison, Topeka, and
Santa Fe comes next with 7,880 miles,
followed by the Union Pacific with
5,584, the Northern Pacific with 5,449
and the Great Northern with 5,201
miles of track.
Raixnondi, Marcantonio, an Ital-
ian engraver ; born in Bologna, Italy,
late in the 15th century. He copied
on copper two sets of plates from
Albrecht Durer's designs for the
" Life of the Virgin " and the " Pas-
sion of Christ." At Rome, where he
worked from 1510, he was chiefly en-
gaged in engraving Raphael's works.
On account of the power of his draw-
ing and the purity of his expression,
he is accounted the best among the
engravers of the great painter. The
capture of Rome by the Constable
Bourbon in 1527 drove Marcantonio
Rain Making
back to Bologna, where he probably
remained till he died, some time before
1534.
Rain., in meteorology, the fall of
water in drops from the clouds, or the
drops which fall. A cloud consists of
aqueous vapor, the individual vesicles
of which are very small. When by the
constant condensation of fresh aque-
ous vanor these vesicles become large
and heavy, and several of them unite,
they are unable to resist the action of
gravity and fall as rain.
Rainbow. The rainbow is the best
known of all optical meteorological
phenomena, consisting of a colored
arch formed opposite the sun on fall-
ing raindrops, and visible whenever
the necessary conditions of a passing
shower on one side and a clear and
not too high sun on the other occur.
Two bows are frequently seen, each
exhibiting the full spectrum of colors
from red to violet ; but in the inner or
primary bow the red is the outer edge
and violet the inner, while in the outer
or secondary bow the order is re-
versed ; the red being inside and the
violet on the exterior. The colors are
always arranged in a definite order,
that of the solar spectrum viz., red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
violet, but shade imperceptibly into
each other.
Rain Gauge, an instrument or con-
trivance for measuring the amount
of rain which falls on a given surface.
Rainier, Mount, a mountain of '
volcanic origin, the highest in the
State of Washington, 14,363 feet high.
It is a part of the coast range near
Puget Sound, E. of Tacoma, and is
sometimes called by the name of the
city. The first ascent was made in 1870.
Rain Making. Various attempts
have been made in sections of many
countries subject to long periods of
drought to produce artificial rain, or
more properly to force the fall of rain
out of its due season. The great majority
of experiments have been conducted on
:he theory of concussion from ex-
slosions. In 1891, the Congress of the
Dmted States made an appropriation
'or a series of experiments in Texas,
with the view of ascertaining whether
means could be provided for relieving
:he arid territory of the Western and
Southwestern States. The experi-
Rainsford
ments were conducted by General
Dryenforth for the Department of
Agriculture, and were watched with
much interest by both scientists and
agriculturists. Scientists generally
pronounced the experiment a failure.
BAIN" GAUGES.
Bains ford, "William Stephen,
an American clergyman ; born in Dub-
lin, Ireland, Oct. 30, 1850; was grad-
uated at St. John's College, England ;
made missionary tours in the United
States and Canada ; was assistant rec-
tor of St. James Cathedral, in To-
ronto, and rector of St. George's
Church, New York city, in 1883-
1905. Dr. Rainsford became widely
known by his earnest advocacy of what
has become popularly known as the
"institutional church." He has done
much to supply wholesome recreation
for the young of both sexes in the
Raleigh
parish of his church. After twenty-
three years' service, ill-health com-
pelled him to resign Jan. 7, 1906.
Rain Tree, a leguminous tree of
tropical America, now largely planted
in India for the shade it furnishes,
and because it flourishes in barret?
salt-impregnated soils.
Rainy Lake, a sheet of water form-
ing a portion of the boundary line
between Ontario and the United
States, W. of, and 100 miles distant
from the nearest point, of Lake Su-
perior, and about 50 miles long.
Raisins, grapes dried in the sun.
Inferior qualities are dried in an oven.
Raisins are extensively produced in
California. They are slightly refrig-
erant. In the United States they are
used to sweeten preparations, in India
they are given as a medicine.
Rajah, originally, a title which be-
longed to princes of Hindu race who,
either as independent sovereigns or as
feudatories, governed a territory.
Rakoczy March, a simple but
grand military air by an unknown
composer, dating from the end of the
17th century, said to have been the
favorite march of Francis Rakoczy II.
of Transylvania. The Hungarians
adopted it as their national march,
and in 1848 it is alleged to have
had the same inspiriting effect on the
revolutionary troops of Hungary as
the " Marseillaise " had on the French.
Rale, or Rasle, Sebastien, a Jes-
uit missionary in North America ; born
in 1657; shot in 1724. He is remem-
bered by his dictionary of the Abenaki
language, and by his connection with
Dummer's War (q. v.).
Raleigh, a city, capital of the
State of North Carolina, and county-
seat of Wake Co. ; on the Southern and
Seaboard Air Line ; 28 miles S. E. of
Durham. Here are the State Capitol,
United States Government Building,
State Penitentiary, State Institution
for the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind,
etc. Pop. (1910) 19,218.
Raleigh, Sir Walter, an English
soldier, colonist, and philosopher ; born
in Budleigh, Devonshire, England, in
1552. He entered into the troop of
gentlemen volunteers who went to the
assistance of the Protestants in
France, where he continued about five
or six years. He subsequently joined
Ralph
the expedition of General Norris to the
Netherlands, in aid of the cause of the
Prince of Orange. Soon after his re-
turn he engaged with his half-brother,
Sir Humphrey Gilbert, in a voy-
age to America, whence they returned
in 1579. On his return to England he
introduced himself to the notice of
Queen Elizabeth by a romantic piece
of gallantry. Her majesty, while tak-
ing a walk, stopped at a muddy place,
hesitating whether to proceed or not;
on which Raleigh took off his new
plush cloak and spread it on the
ground. The queen trod gently over
the foot-cloth, and soon rewarded the
sacrifice of a cloak with a handsome
suit to the owner. Having obtained
from Elizabeth an ample patent over
an extensive region, he sent forth two
ships, under Captains Amadas and
Barlow, which reached the shores of
North Carolina in July, 1584, and pro-
ceeded N. to Virginia. The name last
mentioned was given to the new coun-
try in honor of the " Virgin Queen."
Raleigh's patent was confirmed by Act
of Parliament. He was elected along
with Sir William Courtenay, for his
native shire.
A joint-stock company was formed
by Sanderson, a merchant of London,
Raleigh and Sir Adrian Gilbert, an-
other of his half-brothers, to find the
Northwest Passage. The voyages of
Davis to the Arctic Seas were made
under their auspices. But Raleigh and
his partners sent a fleet to Virginia,
under his relative, Sir Richard Gren-
ville. A party of intending colonists,
with Ralph Lane at their head, were
landed at Roanoke. Raleigh himself
never vis'ted his settlement in Vir-
ginia, but he sent thither, in 1587, a
fresh party of settlers, who founded
the city of Raleigh, now capital of
North Carolina.
In the defeat of the Spanish Ar-
mada, in 1588, Sir Walter bore a
glorious part. In 1591 he sailed on an
expedition against the Spanish fleet.
About the same time he incurred the
queen's displeasure by an intrigue
with one of her maids of honor, whom
ne afterward married. In 1595 he
sailed to Guiana, and destroyed the
capital of Trinidad. The year follow-
ing he took a distinguished part in
the taking of Cadiz. In the succeeding
reign, his fortunes changed. He was
Rameses
stripped of bis preferments, tried, and
condemned for high treason, without
the least evidence. He remained in
the Tower of London 13 years, during
which time he wrote several works.
His release in 1G15, was occasioned
because of the flattering account he
had given of some rich mines in
Guiana. On gaining his liberty, he
sailed to that country where he burned
the Spanish town of St. Thomas, and
returned to England. In consequence
of a complaint of the Spanish am-
bassador, he was apprehended, and, in
a most unprecedented manner, be-
headed, on his former sentence. He
died in London, England, Oct. 29,
1617.
Ralph, Julian, journalist; born
in New York, May 27, 1853; died--
1903. He was connected with the
New York " Sun," the New York
" Journal," and London " Daily Mail."
Rani, in machinery, the weight of a
pile or post driver. In nautical lan-
guage : (1) A beak of iron or steel
at the bow of a war- vessel. (2) AM
steam ironclad, armed at the bow be-
low the water-line with such a beak.
Ramadan, the ninth month in the .
Mohammedan year. In it Mohammed
received his first revelation, and every
believer is therefore enjoined to keep
a strict fast throughout its entire
course, from the dawn to sunset. Dur-
ing the night, however, the most neces-
sary wants may be satisfied a per-
mission which, practically, is inter-
preted by a profuse indulgence in all
sorts of enjoyments.
Ramayana, the name of one of the
two great epic poems of ancient India.
Rameses, or Ramses, the name of '
several Egyptian monarchs, some of
whom were known to the Greek and
Roman writers and the chronologists ;
the name signifies " born of the sun,"
or the " nascent sun." The exploits of
Rameses are confounded by the Greek
and Roman authors with those of
Sesostris, and mingled in the legend of
Aramais, the Danaus of the Greeks.
He is the supposed Sesostris of most
authors, and his sarcophagus and
mummy were found in Egypt in 1890.
Rameses III. was the chief of the 20th
dynasty. He founded the magnificent
pile of edifices of Medinat Habu, em-
bellished Luxor, Guruali, and other
Ramil
parts of Egypt. In 1889 the sarcoph-
agus and mummies of himself and
his queen were discovered in Egypt in
a marvelous state of preservation.
Rameses IV. reigned a short time and
performed no distinguished actions.
Rameses V., of whom inscriptions are
found in Silsilis. Rameses VI., whose
tomb at the Biban-El-Meluk contains
some astronomical records, from which
the date of his reign has been calculat-
ed at 1240 B. c. Rameses VII., VIII.,
IX., X., and XI., undistinguished
monarchs. Rameses XII., who reigned
above 33 years. Rameses XIII. was an
important monarch. Rameses is also
the name of one of the fortresses or
treasure cities built by the Hebrews
during their residence in Egypt.
Ramil, a plant producing what is
popularly known as China grass.
China has been making ramil fabrics
since the time of Confucius, and the
ancient Romans wore robes woven of
its silky floss. The plant does well in
the S. part of the United States and a
finer fiber can be grown there than in
the tropics. In such a climate the
fiber is long, silky and brilliant, and
textiles made from it are stronger
than linen and have the luster of silk.
Ramirez, Ignacio, a Mexican
philosopher; born in San Miguel el
Grande, June 23, 1818. He was of
pure Aztec blood. He died in Mexi-
co, June 15, 1879.
Rampart, in fortification, an eleva-
tion or mound of earth round a place,
capable of resisting cannon shot, and
on which the parapet is raised.
Rampolla, Mariano del Tiii-
daro, an Italian clergyman ; born in
Polizzi, Sicily, Aug. 17, 1843. On
the decease of Cardinal Jacobini, the
Papal Secretary of State, in 1887,
Pope Leo XIII. created Rampolla a
cardinal and also appointed him Pa-
pal Secretary of State. His principal
object was a political alliance with
France. The Dreyfus affair, having
given to the French policy a different
turn, destroyed entirely th^ plan he
had so laboriously set to work. Ram-
polla was several times considered a
prominent candidate for the papal
office, but sacrificed his prospects by
resigning in 1903.
Ramsay, Allan, a Scotch poet;
born in Leadhills, Lanarkshire, Scot-
Ramsey
land, Oct. 15, 1686. His fame reach-
ed its acme on the production of " The
Gentle Shepherd." He died in Edin-
burgh, Jan. 7, 1758.
Ramsay, David, an American phy-
sician and historian ; born in Lancas-
ter Co., Pa., April 2, 1749; died in
Charleston, S. C., May 8, 1815.
Ramsay, Francis Mnnroe, an
American naval officer ; born in Wash-
ington, D. C., April 5, 1835 ; appointed
a midshipman, Oct. 5, 1850; served
through the Civil War with much
credit ; became a rear-admiral in 1894 ;
and was retired on reaching the age
limit, April 5, 1897, after having held
several important appointments.
Ramsay, Sir William, a distin-
guished scientist; born in Glasgow.
Scotland, Oct. 2, 1852. He graduated
from the universities in Glasgow and
Tubingen, and after college appoint-
ments in Glasgow and Bristol, became
professor of chemistry at University
College, London. With Lord Rayleigh,
he discovered Argon, and his discover-
ies of helium, its disintegration from
radium (q. v.), also of the atmospheric
gases neon, krypton, and xenon, and
his numerous scientific publications,
have placed him in the foremost rank
of chemists. Knighted in 1902, and is
an honorary member of the principal
scientific institutions in the world.
Ramsden, Jesse, an English math-
ematical instrument-maker ; born in
Salterhebble, near Halifax, Yorkshire,
England in 1735. About 1755 he
moved to London, where his skill as
an engraver, recommended him to the
mathematical instrument-makers. He
so improved the sextant that its range
of error was diminished from 5 min-
utes to 30 seconds. He died in Brighton,
England, Nov. 5, 1800.
Ramsey, Alexander, an American
statesman ; born near Harrisburg,
Pa., Sept. 8, 1815. He studied law
and began practice at Harrisburg in
1839. After filling several public of-
fices he was a member of Congress in
1843-1847 ; appointed governor of the
Territory of Minnesota in 1849 and
1859; Secretary of War in 1879. A
member of the Utah Commission in
1881. Died 1903.
Ramsey, Marathon Montrose,
an American educator ; born in New-
ton, Mass., in 1867; was graduated at
itanavalona
Randall
Columbia University in 1894. He
was the principal translator for the
International American Conference
in 1889-1890, and served as a special
clerk for the collection and classifica-
tion of information on foreign mili-
tary subjects in 1890-1894. In the
latter year he accepted the chair of
Romance Languages at Columbia Uni-
versity. He was director of the Co-
lumbian Summer School in 1898-
1900.
Ranavalona III., a former Queen
of Madagascar ; born in 1861. She
succeeded Queen Ranavalona, II. in
1883, having been nominated by her as
the future queen. She married the
prime minister, Rainilaiarivony (de-
posed in 1895 and deceased in 1896)
soon after ascending the throne. She
was crowned in November. 1883. Her
kingdom and capital were taken by
the French in 1895, and the country
was made a French colony. She is
not permitted to live in Madagascar,
being kept in exile under surveillance.
Ranee, Armand Jean le Bouili-
illier de, the founder of the re-
formed order of La Trappe; born in
Paris, France. Jan. 9, 1626. Resid-
ing at Paris, he gave himself up to a
life of dissipation. In 1657, however,
a marked change took place in his
character. He demitted all his bene-
fices except the priory of Boulogne
and the abbey of La Trappe. Retir-
ing to the latter place in 16G4, he be-
gan those reforms which have render-
ed his name famous. He died in So-
ligny-Ia-Trappe, Orne, France, Oct.
12, 1700.
Ranching, the business of cattle-
breeding as pursued on a large scale
in the unsettled districts of the United
States from the Mississippi to the Pa-
cific coasts, and from the Bad Lands
of the Upper Missouri to the Gulf of
Mexico. The name is derived from
the Spanish rancho, properly " mess "
or " mess room," but used in Mexico
also for a herdsman's hut, and finally
for a grazing farm.
Rand, Edward Augustus, an
Episcopal clergyman and writer of ju-
venile books; born in Portsmouth, N.
H., April 5, 1837; was graduated at
Bangor Theological Seminary, and en-
tered the Episcopal ministry. He
wrote " Pushing Ahead " ; " Two Col-
lege Boys " ; etc.
Rand, The, or White Wateri
Range, a small tract of land, extend-
ing 25 miles either side of Johannes-
burg, South Africa, and famous fot
its mineral wealth. The reefs are ac-
cessible and rather easily worked. Th
deposits are unique in their unparal-
leled persistence of ore, which is in-
terspersed in the quartz and sand-
stone. It is not of very high quality,
yielding about $10 per ton. Since itd
discovery in 1885, the Rand has yield-
ed $400,000,000 in gold, and prior to
the Boer War was yielding at the rate
of $100,000,000 a year, or one-third of
the world's production. Since the war,
the output is gradually rising to its
former average.
Randall, Alexander Williams,
an American statesman ; born in
Ames, N. Y., Oct. 31, 1819; was ad-
mitted to the bar and began practice
in Waukesha, Wis., in 1840; became
postmaster there, and in 1847 was
elected to the convention that framed
the State constitution. He was elect-
ed to the State Assembly in 1855;
governor of Wisconsin in 1857 and in
1859, and was appointed United
States Minister to Italy in 1861. On
his return he was made assistant post-
master-general. He died in Elmira,
N. Y., July 25, 1872.
Randall, Emilins Ovi&tt, an
American author ; born in Richfield,
O., Oct. 28, 1850; was graduated at
Cornell University in 1874 ; was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1890 and accepted
the chair of law at the Ohio State
University in 1893 ; became secretary
of the Ohio State Archaeological and
Historical Society in 1894, and of-
ficial reporter of the Ohio Supreme
Court in 1895.
Randall, George M., an Ameri-
can military officer ; born in Ohio,
Oct. 8, 1841. He was graduated at
the United States Military Academy,
and commissioned 2d lieutenant in the
4th Infantry in 1861 ; served through
the Civil War. In the war with
Spain he was commissioned a Briga-
dier-General of volunteers, May 4,
1898; was honorably discharged under
this commission on April 12, 1898;
was reappointed Brigadier-General,
Jan. 20, 1900; and on the reorganiza-
tion of the regular army in February,
1 1901, was promoted Brigadier-Gen-
1 erai. U. S. A.
Randall
Randall, James Ryder, an
American journalist and composer ;
born in Baltimore, Md., Jan. 1, 1839 ;
was educated at Georgetown College,
D. C. He gave powerful aid to the
Southern cause by his lyrics. These
include, besides " Maryland, My
Maryland," " Stonewall Jackson " ;
" There's Life in the Old Land Yet " ;
etc. After 1866 he lived in Augusta,
Oa. Died Jan. 15, 1908.
Randall, Samuel Jackson, an
American statesman ; born in Phila-
delphia, Pa., Oct. 10, 1828. In 1862
he was elected to Congress, serving
continuously till his death. He was
Speaker of the House, 1876-1881. Died
in Washington, D. C., April 12, 1890.
Randolph, Alfred Magill, an
American clergyman ; born in Win-
chester, Va., Aug. 31, 1836; was grad-
uated at William and Mary College in
1855 and at the Virginia Theological
Seminary in 1858; was ordained in
the Protestant Episcopal Church. He
was a chaplain in the Confederate
army in 1863-1865, and was pastor
of Emmanuel Church, Baltimore, Md.,
in 1867-1883. In the latter year he
was jelected assistant bishop of Vir-
ginia?
Randolph, Edmund Jennings,
an American statesman ; born in
Williamsburg, Va., Aug. 10, 1753;
studied at William and Mary College,
and was admitted to the bar. In 1776
he helped to frame the constitution of
Virginia, and became the State's first
attorney-general. In 1786-1788 he
was governor of Virginia, and in 1787
a member of the convention which
framed the Constitution of the United
States. In 1789 he was appointed by
Washington Attorney-General of the
United States. In 1794 he was made
Secretary of State. Died in Clarke co.,
Va., Sept. 13, 1813.
Randolph, John, "of Roanqke,"
an American statesman ; born in Caw-
sons, Chesterfield co., Va., June 2,
1773. He claimed descent from Po-
cahontas, the Indian princess. He
was educated for the legal profession,
which, however, he never followed, de-
voting his attention to politics. In
1799, he was elected to Congress. His
opposition to the War of 1812 caused
his defeat in the following election ;
but he was reflected to Congress in
1814, where he remained for several
Ranke
years. From 1825 to 1827 he was a
United States Senator. In 1829 he was
a member of the convention for revis-
ing the constitution of Virginia, and
the year following was appointed Unit-
ed States minister to Russia. On his
return, he was again elected to Con-
gress, but was unable to occupy his
seat. He was preeminent for his
poetic eloquence, his absolute honesty,
and the scathing wit, with which he
exposed every corrupt scheme. He
died in Philadelphia, Pa., on June
24, 1833.
Randolph-Ma con College, an
educational institution in Ashland,
Va. ; founded in 1830, under the
auspices of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South.
Range, in gunnery, the horizontal
distance to which a shot or other pro-
jectile is carried. When a cannon lies
horizontally it is called the point-blank
range ; when the muzzle is elevated to
45 degrees it is called the utmost
range. To this may be added the
ricochet, the skipping or bounding
shot, with the piece elevated from
three to six degrees.
Rangoon, the capital of Lower
Burma, and the chief seaport of Bur-
ma, at the junction of the Pegu,
Hlaing or Rangoon, and Pu-zun-
doung rivers ; about 21 miles from the
sea. Since its occupancy by the Brit-
ish in 1852 Rangoon has undergone
such changes that it is practically a
new town, and its population has in-
creased five-fold. The" principal streets
are broad, and contain many large and
not a few handsome buildings ; there is
a government dockyard, and steam cars
have been introduced. Pop. 180,324.
Ranjit Singh. See RUNJEET
SINGH.
Rank, in the army and navy, a
grade of various officers established by
law, each one carrying distinct rights,
privileges, and emoluments.
Ranke, Leopold, von, a German
historian ; born in Wiehe, between
Gotha and Halle, Dec. 21, 1795. The
works, " A History of the Roman and
German People from 1494 to 1535,"
and " A Criticism on Modern His-
torians," procured him a 'call to Berlin
as Professor of History in 1825. In
1827 he was sent by the Prussian gov-
ernmen* to consult the archives o
Vienna, Venice, Rome, and Florence;
Rankin
four years he spent in this work, and
returned with a mass of the most val-
uable historical materials. The re-
sults of his labors were seen in " The
Princes and Peoples of Southern Eu-
rope in the 10th and 17th Centuries,"
and other books dealing with Servin,
Turkey, and Venice; and "The Ro-
man Popes in the IGth and 17th Cen-
turies," one of his great masterpieces
of historical writing. Then he tv.rned
his attention to Central and Northern
Europe. He began his " Universal
History " when he was an old man of
82 ; he kept two schooled historical as-
sistants busy, studied critically the
Greek and other sources, dictated and
worked 8 to 10 hours a day, and pub-
lished one volume a year regularly,
till he died, May 23, 1886. Ranke
married an Irish lady in 1843, and
was ennobled in 1865.
Rankin, Jeremiah Eames, an
American clergyman and writer ; born
in Thornton, N. H., Jan. 2, 1828 ; was
graduated at Middlebury College, Vt.,
in 1848 ; became president of Howard
University in 1889. He wrote several
hymns. including "For God and Home
and Native land." He died in 1904.
Ranney, William, an American
artist ; born in Middletown, Conn.,
May 9, 1813 ; learned drawing in
Brooklyn, N. Y. At the outbreak of
the war between Texas and Mexico he
enlisted with the Texans. He died in
West Hoboken, N. J., Nov. 18, 1857.
Ransom, Thomas Edward
Greenfield, an American military
officer; born in Norwich, Vt., Nov. 29,
1834. Before the Civil War he was
an engineer in Illinois ; became a lieu-
tenant-colonel of volunteers in July,
1861 ; was promoted Brigadier-Gener-
al in January, 1863 ; joined Sher-
man's army and took command of a
division just before the capture of
Atlanta, Sept. 2, 1864. He died in
Rome, Ga., Oct. 29, 1864.
Ranunculus, buttercup, crowfoot ;
the typical genus of the order Ranun-
culaceae. Known species about 160,
from temperate regions. Many have
much divided leaves.
Rape, in law, carnal knowledge of
a woman by force against her will.
Rape, a plant of the cabbage tribe,
cultivated for its seeds, from which oil
is extracted. The oil cake made from
Raphael
rape seed is also used as food for
sheep and cattle, and as a fertilizer.
Raphael, Raffaello Sanzio, or
Santi d'Urbino, the greatest of
rao'/orn painters; born in Urbino, Ita-
ly, March 28, 1483. He received big
c:\rliest instructions from his father,
Giovanni Santi, after whose death, in '
1494, he became the pupil of 1'eru-
gino. In 1504 he visited Florence, and
lived there till 1508, when he was
called to Rome by Pope Julius II., and
employed to paint the chambers of
the Vatican. Raphael spent the rest
RANUNCULUS.
of his short life at Rome. In the nu-
merous works, frescoes, and oil paint-
ings of this unrivaled master, three
styles are distinctly recognizable. The
first is the " Peruginesque," the second
" Florentine," and the third style
" Roman," and is peculiarly Raph-
ael's own that which constitutes
him the greatest of painters. Its su-
preme excellence is the equable devel-
opment of all the essential qualities
of art, composition, expression, design,
coloring. Among Raphael's oil paint-
ings are the " St. Cecilia," at Bo-
logna ; the famous " Madonna di San
Sisto," now in the Dresden gallery ;
the " Spasimo di Sicilia," now it Mad-
rid ; and the " Transfiguration," his
last work. It is now in the Vatican.
Rapier
Raslii
His drawings are very numerous, and
are to be found in most of the public
and private museums of America and
Europe. Raphael, who had occupied
himself with architecture as well as
painting, was charged, on the death of
his friend Bramante, in 1514, with the
direction of the building of St. Peter's.
Raphael died in Rome from the effects
of a cold, and after an illness of a
fortnight, on his 37th birthday, April
6, 1520.
Rapier, a light, highly-tempered,
edgeless, and finely-pointed weapon of
the sword kind used for thrusting. It
is about three feet in length.
Rapp, George, a German-Ameri-
can socialist, founder of the sect of
Economites ; born in Wurtemberg, in
1770. After an attempt to restore the
Church of New Testament days in
Germany, he emigrated with his fol-
lowers to Western Pennsylvania in
1803. There he established a settle-
ment which he named Harmony. In
1815 the community removed to Indi-
ana, and founded New Harmony ; but
this was sold in 1824 to Robert Owen,
and Rapp and his followers returned
to Pennsylvania, where they built
Economy. As the years passed the
community became wealthy. Its num-
bers have not increased, and in 1890
did not exceed 70. He died in Econ-
omy, Pa., Aug. 17, 1847.
Rapp, Jean, Count, a French
military officer; born in Colmar,
Haut-Rhin, France, April 27, 1772.
He was intended for the Church, but
his taste for a military life led him
to enroll himself (1788) in the French
army. He became aide-de-camp to
Napoleon. Captured by the Russians
at Danzig, he was sent as prisoner to
Russia, and he did not return to
France till July, 1814, where he was
well received by Louis XVIII. ; but in
1815 he went over to his old master,
and was appointed Commander-in-
Chief of the army of the Rhine. After
Waterloo, Rapp again submitted to
Louis. He died in Paris, Nov. 8, 1821.
Rappaliamiock, a river of Vir-
ginia, rising in the Blue Ridge of the
Alleghany Mountains, receiving the
Rapidan, and flowing about 125 miles
S. E. to Chesapeake Bay. _It is tidal
and navigable to Fredericksbnrg. The
Rappahannock and the Rapidan were
the scenes of some of the most san-
E. 123.
guinary battles of the Civil War, at
Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, and
the Wilderness.
Rarefaction, in physics, the act
of rendering more rare, i. e., less
dense. Used specially of the diminu-
tion in the density of the air in the
receiver of an air pump, or &.': ;reat
altitudes.
Rarey, John S., an American horse
tamer ; born in Franklin co., O., in
1828. At an early age he evinced
natural ability in the management of
horses. In 1856 he went to Texas,
and on his return to Ohio he began
to give public exhibitions of his skill,
subduing the most vicious and wildest
KASPBEKBY.
horses and making them obedient to his
will. About 1861 he visited Europe.
He died in Cleveland, O., Oct. 4, 1866.
Raritan, a river of New Jersey,
formed by two branches which united-
ly flow S. E., and fall into Raritan
Bay near Perth Amboy. It is naviga-
ble as far as New Brunswick.
Raslii, from the initials of Rabbi
Shelomo Izaaki, the greatest Jewish
commentator and exegete ; born in
Troyes, France, about 1040. His chief
work is his " Commentary " on the
whole of the Old Testament. This
" Commentary " was the first book
ever printed in Hebrew. He was the
author of numerous other works. He
died July 13, 1105.
Raskolniki
Rationalism
Raskolniki, the collective name
given to the adherents of the dissenting
sects in Russia, which have originat-
ed by secession from the State Church.
The great majority of these sects date
originally from the middle of the 17th
century, when the liturgical books,
etc., were revised under the patriarch
Nikon. The Raskolniki clung to the
old texts. Their numbers are vari-
ously estimated at from 3.000,000 to
11,000,000.
Rasp, a coarse file having, instead
of chisel-cut teeth, its surface dotted
with separate protruding teeth, formed
by the indentations of a pointed punch.
Raspail, Francois Vincent, a
French chemist ; born in Carpentras,
France, Jan. 29, 1794. He is by some
considered the creator of organic chem-
istry. He died Jan. 8, 1878.
Raspberry, a shrubby plant with
many suckers. Found in America and
in the N. of Europe and Asia. The
species in gardens is the wild plant,
freatly improved by cultivation. The
ruit resembles the strawberry in not
becoming acid in the stomach. There
are red and yellow varieties.
Rasse, ^a carnivorous quadruped,
closely allied to the civet, spread over
a great extent of Asia. Its perfume,
which is secreted in a double pouch,
is much valued by the Javanese. For
its sake the animal is often kept in
captivity.
BLACK RATS.
Rassieur, !Leo, an American law-
yer; born in Wadern, Prussia, April
19, 1844; came to the United States
in early childhood. At the outbreak
of the Civil War he volunteered as a
private in the Union army, rising to
the rank of major in 1865. He was
admitted to the St. Louis bar in 1867 ;
was elected judge of the Probate Court
on Jan. 1, 1899. He was elected
commander-in-chief of the Grand Ar-
my of the Republic, Aug. 20, 1900.
Rat, in zoology, a name popularly
applied to the larger murines, but
more strictly applicable to two species,
the black rat and the brown, or Nor-
way rat. Figuratively: (1) One who
deserts his party (especially in poli-
tics), as rats are said to forsake a
falling house or a doomed ship. (2)
A workman who takes work for less
than current wages, or who takes
work in place of a striker.
Rata, a New Zealand tree related
to various species of iron wood. The
tree begins life as a climber, attached
to other forest trees, and attains a
height of 150 feet ; but when it has
killed the supporting stem the rata
is able to sustain its own weight and
to grow on as an independent tree, at-
taining ultimately a height of nearly
200 feet.
Ratafia, a fine spirituous liquor
flavored with the kernels of several
kinds of fruits, particularly of cher-
ries, apricots, peaches, and almonds.
Ratel, a carnivorous quadruped of
the badger family, found chiefly in
South and East Africa, and in India.
It is said to live principally on honey.
The Indian ratel, however, eats also
rats, birds, frogs, white ants, and
various insects ; and in the N. of In-
dia, where it is accused of digging out
dead bodies, it is popularly known aa
the grave-digger.
Ratification, in law, the confirma-
tion, sanction or approval given by a
person who has arrived at his major-
ity to acts done by him during his
minority. It also means any act, pub-
lic or private, which confirms or es-
tablishes a proposed transaction, in-
:omplete until ratified.
Ratio, in mathematics: The meas-
ure of the relation which one quantity
bears to another of the same kind.
Rationalism, as a "system of be-
lief regulated by reason," might be ex-
pected to mean the opposite of irra-
tionality, ignorance, and perverse prej-
udice. But in ordinary usage, general
as well as theological, the use of the
word is substantially different. It is
generally employed as a term of re-
Rat Snake
Raven
p roach for those who, without utterly
denying or attempting to overthrow
the foundations of religion, make such
concessions as tend to subvert the
faith. They rely, more or less exclu-
sively and blameworthily, on mere
human reason instead of simply,
frankly, and fully accepting the dicta
of the divine word. An atheist would
not be spoken of as a rationalist, nor
would an irreligious, blaspheming
freethinker.
Rat Snake, a powerful snake, at-
taining a length of seven feet and
upward. Common in India and Cey-
lon. It frequently enters houses in
search of mice, rats, and young fowls.
It is fierce, and always ready to bite
when annoyed.
Rattan, the commercial name for
the s,em of various species of the ge-
nus Calamus. They abound in South-
ern Asia in moist situations, and are
used for making splints for chair seats
and backs, hanks for sails, etc. The
larger species grow to a size of three
inches diameter, and to a height of
100 feet.
RATTLESNAKE.
Rattlesnake, the English name for ,
any species of the American genus
Crotalus, the tail of which is fur-
nished with a rattle. Garman enu-j
merates 12 species and 13 varieties, j
The poison of the rattlesnake is usu-
ally fatal to man, though fortunately
they are sluggish, and never attempt
to strike unless they are molested.
They are widely distributed on the
American continent ; but advancing
civilization is rapidly thinning their
numbers.
Rattlesnake Root, an American
plant used to cure the bite of the
rattlesnake.
Rauhes Hans ("the Rough
House"), the name of an institution
founded at Horn, near Hamburg, in
connection with the German Home
Mission. It is partly a refuge for
neglected children ; partly a boarding
school for the moral and intellectual
education of children of the higher
classes ; and, a training school for
those who wish to become teachers or
officials in houses of correction. It
was opened Nov. 1, 1831. By the ad-
dition of new houses the whole has
been very much enlarged. The children
live in families of 12. In connec-
tion with the Rauhes Haus there was
founded in 1845 a kind of conventual
institute for the education of young
men as superintendents of similar in-
stitutions.
Raum, Green Berry, an American
lawyer ; born in Golconda, 111., Dec.
3, 1829 ; studied law, and was admit-
ted to the bar (1853). Three years
later he took his family to Kansas.
When the war broke out he enlisted,
and was appointed major in the 56th
Illinois regiment, and when he finally
resigned his commission he had risen
from major to Brigadier-General. In
1866 he was elected to Congress ; was
Commissioner of Internal Revenue in
1876-1883; and Uommissioner of
Pensions in 1889-1893. Died in 1909.
Rauiuer, Friedrich Imdwig
Georg yon, a German historian ; born
in Worlitz, near Dessau, Anhalt, May
14, 1781. He studied law at Halle
and Gottingen, and entered the Prus-
sian state service in 1801. In the
years 1830-1843 he made extensive
journeys, coming as far as the United
States : the observations made during
these trips were written in several
books dealing with the United States,
etc. He died in Berlin, Prussia, June
14. 1873.
Ranmer, Karl Georg von, a
German geologist and geographer, &.
brother of the preceding ; born in
Worlitz, Germany, April 9, 1783 ;
studied at Gottingen and Halle, and
at the Mining Academy at Freiberg;
was appointed Professor of Mineralo-
gy at Breslau, in 1811; in 1827, ap-
pointed Professor of Mineralogy and
Natural History at Erlangen, where
he died June 2, 1865.
Raven, a large bird of the crow
family. The raven has played an im
Ravenala
portant part in mythology and folk-
lore. It is the first bird mentioned
by name in the Old Testament; by
the ministry of ravens Elijah was fed,
and they were to be the ministers of
vengeance on unruly children. The
raven was the bird of Odin, and in
classic mythology was of ill-omen, a
character often attributed to it by the
early English dramatists. Marlowe
calls it the " sad presageful raven,"
and Shakespeare repeatedly refers to
the belief that its appearance fore-
boded misfortune. This belief, which
is widespread, probably arose from
the preternaturally grave manner of
the bird, its sable plumage, and the
readiness with which it learns to imi-
tate human speech.
,-^
\
BAVEN: COHVTJS CORAX.
Ravenna, a city of Italy, capital
of a province, on the Montone, four
miles W. of the Adriatic, and 43 miles
S. E. of Bologna. It is an ancient
city with numerous historical build-
ings. Pop. 89,957.
Ravenscroft, Thomas, an Eng-
lish composer ; born in 1592. He was
trained in St. Paul's choir, London,
and received the degree of bachelor of
music from Cambridge. In 1621 he
published his " Whole Book of
Psalms," containing a tune for each
of the 150 psalms, harmonized in four
parts by all the great musicians of
the period. He died in 1640.
Ravogli, Augustus, an American
surgeon ; born in Rome, Italy, Feb.
7, 1851 ; was graduated at the Medical
Hawlins
Department of the University of
Rome, Italy, in 1873. and served as
surgeon in the military hospital of the
Italian army for several years. In
1880 he caroe to the United States and
settled in Cincinnati, O. ; was after-
ward made Professor of Dermatology
and Syphilography at the Medical De-
partment of the University of Cincin-
nati.
Haw, Charles, an American
archaeologist; born in Vervien, Belgi-
um, in 1826; was educated in Ger-
many, and settled in the United States
in 1848. He was made curator of
the Department of Antiquities in the
United States Museum in Washing-
ton, D. C., in 1875. About this time
he began to devote himself to the study
of American archaeology, in which he
became an eminent authority. He died
in Philadelphia, Pa., July 25, 1887.
Bawle, William (Brooke), an
American lawyer ; born in Philadel-
phia, Pa., Aug. 29, 1843 ; adopted for
his surname Brooke-Rawle ; was grad-
uated at the University of Pennsylva-
nia in 1863, and then joined the army
as lieutenant-colonel. After the war
he studied law and was admitted to the
bar in 1867.
Rawle, 'William Henry, an
American lawyer ; born in Philadel-
phia, Pa., Aug. 31, 1823; was grad-
uated at the University of Pennsylva-
nia in 1841 ; was admitted to the bar
in 1844 and attained eminence in prac-
tice. On the first call for volunteers
in 1861 he joined the artillery in the
Union army, and when a similar call
was issued in 1863 he served as quar-
termaster. He was vice-provost of the
Law Academy in 1865-1873, and vice-
chancellor of the Law Association
from 1880 till his death in Philadel-
phia, April 19, 1899.
Rawlins, John Aaron, an
American military officer ; born in Ga-
lena, 111., Feb. 13, 1831. Before the
Civil War he was a lawyer; adjutant-
general of General Grant in Septem-
ber, 1861, and served as such in the
campaigns of 1862 and 1863; in
March, 1865, was appointed chief of
General Grant's staff, with the rank
of Brigadier-General in the U. S. A.
He became Secretary of War in
March, 1869. He died in Washing-
ton, D. C., Sept. 9, 1869.
Rawlins
Hawlins. Joseph Lafayette, an
American legislator ; born in Salt
Lake co., Utah, March 28, 1850; was
educated at the University of Indi-
ana ; was a Professor at the Univer-
sity of Deseret in Salt Lake City in
1873-1875 ; in the latter year was
admitted to the bar, and practised till
1892, when he was elected a delegate
to Congress. He was elected to the
United States Senate in 1897.
Rawlinson, George, an English
Orientalist ; born in Chadlington, En-
gland, Nov. 23, 1812; educated at
Cambridge ; was elected Camden Pro-
fessor of Ancient History in 1861, and
made a canon of Canterbury in 1872.
He died at Canterbury, England, Octo-
ber G, 1902.
Rawlinson, Sir Henry Cres-
wicke, an English Orientalist and
diplomatist ; born in Chadlington, En-
gland, April 11, 1810. In 1833 he
went to Persia. During the six years
he spent there he began to study the
cuneiform inscriptions, and made a
translation of Darius' famous Behis-
tun inscription. After he left Persia
he held command of Kandahar, 1840-
1842 ; was appointed political agent
at Bagdad in 1844, and consul-general
there in 1851. . Five years later he re-
turned home to England. In 1858 he
went back to Persia as British minis-
ter, but remained at Teheran only one
year. Died in London, March 5, 1895.
Rawson, Edward Kirk, an Amer-
ican educator ; born in Albany, N. Y.,
Feb. 21, 184G; was graduated at Yale
University in 18(58 and at the Andover
Theological Seminary in 1872 ; was
ordained in the Congregational
Church and served as a chaplain in
the United States navy in 1871-1890 ;
was placed in charge of the Depart-
ment of Ethics and English Studies at
the United States Naval Academy in
1888 and was made superintendent of
" Naval War Records," March 31,
1897. His publications include
" Twenty Famous Naval Battles," etc.
Ray, of a composite flower, the
outer or circumferential whorl of flor-
ets, as distinguished from those of
the disk. In ichthyology, one of the
radiating, bony rods serving to sup-
port the fins. In optics, a line of
light proceeding from a radiant point,
or a point of reflection.
Raymond
Ray, a family of fishes, including
the skate and allied forms. They may
be divided into two groups : Rays
proper, with a short snout, and skates
(attaining a much larger size), with
a long, pointed snout.
Ray, or Wray, John, an English
naturalist ; born in Black Notley^ Es-
sex, England, Nov. 29, 1628. Ray's
zoological works are considered by
Cuvier as the foundation of modern
zoology. He died in Black Notley,
Jan. 17, 1705.
Ray, W. George, an American
lawyer ; born in Otselic, N. Y., Feb.
3, 1844 ; was reared on a farm and
received his education at Norwich
Academy. At the beginning of the
Civil War he entered the Union army
as a private in the 19th New York
Volunteers. After the war he studied
law and was admitted to the bar in
November, 1867 ; was elected to Con-
gress in 1883. He declined the ap-
pointment of justice of the Supreme
Court of New York State in 1899.
Rayleigh, John Strutt, 3d
Baron, an English scientist ; born in
Essex, England, Nov. 12, 1842 ; was
graduated at Cambridge, in 1865. Co-
lumbia College, New York, bestowed
on him the Barnard medal for " mer-
itorious service to science " since he
shares with Ramsey the merit of dis-
covering the element argon. He wrote
many valuable scientific papers.
Raymond, Bradford Paul, an
American clergyman ; born in Stam-
ford, Conn., April 22, 1846; was edu-
cated at Hamline University, Minn.,
and Lawrence University, Wis., and
was graduated at the Theological
School of Boston University and or-
dained in the Methodist Episcopal
Church in 1874. He was president of
Lawrence University from 1883 to
1889, resigning to become president of
Wesleyan University, Middletown
Conn.
Raymond, Jerome Hall, an
American educator ; born in Clinton,
la., March 10, 1869 ; was graduated
at the Northwestern University in
1892; president and Professor of
Economics and Sociology at the
West Virginia University in 1897-
1901; Associate Professor of Sociol-
ogy at University of Chicago till 1909;
then president Toledo University.
Raymond
Raymond, Henry Jarvis, an
American journalist ; born in Lima,
N. Y., Jan. 24, 1820; was graduated
at the University of Vermont in 1840 ;
in 1841 he became managing editor of
the New York "Tribune." In 1849
he was elected to the State Assembly ;
was reflected and made speaker, but
relinquished his position on the "Cou-
rier," and traveled in Europe on ac-
count of ill health. On his return to
[New York, in 1851, he established the
New York " Times " ; was chosen lieu-
tenant-governor of New York ; was
again elected to the State Legislature,
and, in 1864, was chosen as repre-
sentative from New York to the 39th
Congress. He died in New York,
June 18, 1869.
Raymond, John T., right name
John O'Brien, an American actor ;,
born in Buffalo, N. Y., April 5, 1836.
He was educated for a mercantile life,
but the ways of business did not suit
tim. In 1867 he went to England.
He died in Evansville, Ind., April 10,
1887.
Raymond, Rossiter Worthing-
ton, an American metallurgist ; born
in Cincinnati, O., April 27, 1840 ; was
graduated at the Brooklyn. Polytech-
nic Institute in 1858. He practised
in New York city as a consulting en-
gineer in 1864-1868; lectured on eco-
nomic geology at Lafayette College in
1870-1872. He was United States
commissioner to the Vienna Exposition
in 1873; New York State commis-
sioner of electric subways for Brook-
lyn in 1885.
Raymond, William Gait, an
/American civil engineer ; born in
'Princeton, la., March 2, 1859 ; stud-
ied at the Kansas State University and
was graduated at Washington Uni-
versity in 1884; was instructor of
civil engineering at the California
(State University ia 1884-1890; and
accepted the chair of geodesy, road
engineering, and topographical draw-
ing at the Rensselaer Polytechnic In-
stitute in 1892.
Raynonard, Francois J n * t e
Marie, French poet and philologist ;
born 1761 ; died 1836. He revised the
study of the Provencal language.
Razorback, one of the largest spe-
cies of the whale tribe, the great ror-
flual. Also a name given to a kind
Read
of hog, especially in the S. part of
the United States.
Razorbill, an aquatic bird, the
common auk, the sole species of the
genus, the great auk being extinct.
A RAZORBILL.
Razor Fish, a species of fish with
a compressed body, much prized for the
table.
Razor Shell, a genus of lamelli-
branchiate mollusca ; common on both
sides of the Atlantic. These curious,
mollusks always live buried in the
sand in an upright position, leaving
only an^ opening shaped like a key-
hole, which corresponds with the two
siphon tubes. They are generally
found at a depth of one or two feet;
Rea, George Bronson, an Amer?
ican electrical engineer; born in
Brooklyn, N. Y., Aug. 28, 1869 ; went
to Cuba, where he practised his pro-
fession till the beginning of the revo
lution; accompanied the insurgent
forces of Gomez and Maceo as special
correspondent of the New York " Her-
ald." He was present at the bom-
bardment of San Juan, Porto Rico,
and in the operations before Santiago
as correspondent for the New Xork
"World." In the early part of the
Porto Rico campaign he traveled,
through the island as an agent in the
secret service of the United State:*
government, and acquired information
of large value to the American mili-
tary authorities.
Read, Hollis, an American clergy-
man and author ; born in Newfano,
Vt., Aug. 26, 1802; was graduated at
Williams College in 1826, and received
his theological training at Princetoa
Head
Reader
Theological Seminary ; was ordained
in the Presbyterian Church in 1829,
and went to Bombay, India, in 1830,
where he remained five years. Re-
turning to the United States he held
various pastorates and engaged in oth-
er religious work. His publications in-
clude " Commerce and Christianity " ;
" India and Its People, Ancient and
Modern " ; etc. He died in Somerville,
N. J., April 7, 1887.
Read, John Elliot, an American
author ; born in South Amherst, Mass.,
Jan. 4, 1845. He has written a val-
uable work on the principal earlier
Arctic explorations.
Read, John Meredith., an Amer-
ican jurist ; born in Philadelphia, Pa.,
July 21, 1797; was graduated at the
University of Pennsylvania in 1812 ;
admitted to the bar in 1818. He held
a seat in the Pennsylvania Legisla-
ture in 1822-1823 ; was United States
attorney for the Eastern District of
Pennsylvania in 1837-1844; and
served as chief-justice and attorney-
general of Pennsylvania, and solicitor-
?eneral of the United States in 18(5(>-
874. He affiliated with the Republi-
can party when it was formed and in
the presidential campaign of 1856
made an address on the " Power of
Congress over Slavery in the Territo-
ries," which had much influence
throughout the country. In 1858, on
the first victory of the Republican par-
ty in Pennsylvania, he was elected
judge of the Supreme Court by a ma-
jority of 30,000. In 1860 he was
mentioned as a candidate for the pres-
idential nomination with Abraham
Lincoln for Vice-President. He died
in Philadelpha, Pa., Nov. 29, 1874.
Read, John Meredith, an Amer-
ican diplomatist ; born in Philadelphia,
Pa., Feb. 27, 1837; was graduated
at Brown University and went through
a legal course at the Albany Law
School ; was also a student in a mil-
itary school. When the Civil War
broke out he enlisted and while in
service early attained the rank of
Brigadier-General of volunteers. In
1868 he was appointed United States
consul-general at Paris. He was Unit-
ed States minister in Greece in 1873-
1880. He died in Paris, France, Dec.
27, 1896.
Read, Nathan, an American in-
ventor; claimed to have been the first
to use steam engines for propelling
boats and carriages ; born in Worces-
ter co., Mass., in 1759. He entered
Harvard College in 1777; was gradu-
ated in 1781 ; studied medicine ; and
started the Salem iron factory in 1796.
In 1807, he removed to Belfast, Me.,
and took out a patent for an improved
steam engine boiler in 1791. He con-
verted the condensing engine of Watt
into a complete working, portable,
high-pressure engine, 12 years before
the high-pressure engine was known.
In 1790 he petitioned Congress for a
patent for land carriages to be driven
by steam. It created so much amuse-
ment that he withdrew it.. He built,
in 1789, a small steamboat, substan-
tially identical with Fulton's of 1807.
It is alleged that his combinations
amounted to the inland steamers now
in use. Died in Belfast, Me., in 1849.
Read, Opie, an American journal-
ist ; born in Nashville, Tenn., Dec. 22,
1852. He established and edited for
many years the " Arkansaw Travel-
er." His studies of Arkansas life have
been widely read.
Read, Thomas Buchanan, an
American portrait painter and poet;
born in Chester co., Pa., March 12,
1822 ; died in New York, May 11,1872.
Reade, Charles, an English novel-
ist ; born in Ipsden House, Oxford-
shire, England, June 8, 1814. He
was educated at Oxford. In 1843 he
was called to the bar, and it soon
became obvious that his chosen career
was that of literature. The books by
which he first became known were his
" Peg Woffington " and " Christie
Johnstone." He died in London, En-
gland, April 11, 1884.
Reade, John, an Irish-Canadian
clergyman and journalist ; born in
Ballyshannon, Ireland, Nov. 13, 1837.
He went to Canada in 1856, where
he engaged in teaching, law, preach-
ing, and journalism.
Reader, Francis Smith, an
American journalist ; born in Coal
Center, Pa., Nov. 17, 1842; served
with the Union army throughout the
Civil War; was taken prisoner, June
20, 1864, while on scout duty, but
escaped with three others while on the
way to Andersonville. Later he be-
came editor of the " Beaver Valley
News."
Reading
Beading, city and capital of
Berks county, Pa.; on the Schuylkill
river and canal and the Philadelphia
& Reading and other railroads; 58
miles N. W. of Philadelphia; has a
charming scenic environment, with
fine mountain attractions for the
tourist; is in a rich grain growing and
iron-ore, limestone, and coal mining
region; has varied manufactures,
with annual output exceeding $35,-
000,000 in value, and an assessed
property valuation of over $55,000,-
000; and contains Mineral Springs and
Penn's parks, and the Reading, St.
Joseph's, and Homoeopathic hospi-
tals. Pop. (1910) 96,071.
Reagan, John Henninger, an
American jurist; born in Sevier co.,
Tenn., Oct. 8, 1818. At the age of
21 he settled in Texas; in 1856 was
elected judge of the district court,
but resigned to go to Congress; dur-
ing the Civil War was Postmaster-
General of the Confederate States,
and Acting Secretary of the Treas-
ury, member of the Constitutional
Convention of his State in 1875, and
of Congress in 1875-1887; United
States Senator in 1887-1891; and
afterward chairman of the Texas
State Railroad Commission. He
died March 6, 1905.
Reagent, in chemistry, any sub-
stance employed to bring about a
chemical reaction or change in another
element, or compound.
Realf, Richard, an English-Amer-
ican poet ; born in Framfield, Sussex,
England, June 14, 1834. In 1854 he
came to the United States, enlisted in
the army in 18G2, and wrote some of
his best lyrics in the field. His most
admired poems are " My Slain," " An
Old Man's Idyl," and "Indirection."
Died in Oakland, CaL, Oct. 28, 1878.
Realism, in philosophy, a doctrine
diametrically opposed to Nominalism,
as involving the belief that genus and
species are real things, existing inde-
pendently of our conceptions and their
expressions, and that these are alike
actually the object of our thoughts
when we make use of the terms.
Again, as opposed to Idealism, the
word implies an intuitive cognition of
the external object, instead of merely
a mediate and representative knowl-
edge of it.
Reaumur
In art and literature the word real-
ism or naturalism is employed to de-
scribe a method of representation with-
out idealization, which in our day in
France has been raised to a system and
j claims a monopoly of truth in its ar-
I tistic treatment of the facts of nature
: and life.
Ream, a quantity of paper of any
size containing 20 quires or 480 sheets.
A common, practice is now to count
COO sheets to the ream. Hence used
for a large quantity of paper.
Reaping Machine, a machine for
reaping or cutting down grain in the
Held. There are numerous varieties.
In 1822 a self-sharpening mowing
machine was patented in the United
States. Between 1852 and 1874 near-
ly 3,000 patents for reaping machines
were taken out for the United States.
There are two kinds of self-delivery
machines, the former laying the cut
grain in swaths and the latter form-
ing it into sheaves ; this form being
more frequently used.
Rearick, Peter Anton, an Amer-
ican naval officer; born in Maryland,
Nov. 12, 1838 ; entered the navy in
18GO; served through the Civil War
on various vessels ; was promoted chief
engineer in 1874, and in that capacity
served at various posts till February,
1900, when he was retired with the
rank of rear-admiral under the provi-
sions of the Naval Personnel Law. He
died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 9,
1901.
Reason, in logic, the premise or
premises of an argument, and especial-
ly the minor premise. In metaphys-
ics, the power of thinking consecutive-
ly ; the power of passing in mental
review all the facts and principles
bearing on a subject, and, _after a
careful consideration of their bear-
ings, drawing conclusions in many
cases conformable with truth.
Reaumur, Rene Antoine Fer-
chaiilt de, a French physicist and
naturalist ; born in La Rochelle,
France, Feb. 28, 1083. He went to
Paris in 1703 ; in 1708 was chosen
a member of the Academy of Sciences ;
and for nearly 50 years continued to
be one of its most active members. As
a natural philosopher he is celebrated
for the invention of an improved ther-
mometer, which he made known in,
Reaumur's Scale
Rechabite
1731, but his greatest work is " Nat-
ural History of Insects" (t> vols. ).
Died in Maine, France, Oct 18, 1757.
Reaumur's Scale, a scale for a
thermometer, in which the two fixed
points being as in the Centigrade, the
division is into 80 instead of 100 parts.
It is still occasionally used.
Reavis, Logan Uriah, an Amer-
ican journalist ; born in Sangamon
Bottom, 111., March 2G, 1831. In 1806
he removed to St. Louis, to which city
he strenuously advocated the removal
of the National capital. To promote
this object he lectured extensively in
all parts of the country. He went to
England in 1879 to inaugurate a
movement for the promotion of immi-
gration to Missouri. His publications
include : " St. Louis the Future Great
City of the World " ; "A Representa-
tive Life of Horace Greeley " ; " Life
of General William S. Harney " ; etc.
Died in St. Louis, Mo., April 25, 1889.
Rebekah, Daughters of, a degree
in the ritual of Odd Fellowship, to
which women are admitted.
Rebellion, the taking up of arms,
whether by natural subjects or others,
residing in the country, against a set-
tled government. By international
law rebellion is considered a crime,
and all persons voluntarily abetting
it are criminals whether subjects or
foreigners.
Rebisso, Louis T., an American
sculptor ; born in Italy, in 1837. Hav-
ing taken an active part in Mazzini's
attempt to establish an Italian repub-
lic, at the age of 20, he fled from Italy
and made his way to Boston, Mass.
Subsequently he went to Cincinnati,
O., where his fame as an artist devel-
oped. His leading works are the
equestrian statues of Gen. J. B. Mc-
Pherson in Washington, D. C. ; of
Gen. U. S. Grant in Lincoln Park,
Chicago, and of Gen. W. H. Harrison
in Cincinnati. He died in Norwood,
a suburb of Cincinnati, O., May 3,
1899.
Rebus ("by things"), a word,
name or phrase represented by the
figure of an object which resembles in
sound the w r ords, or syllables of the
words, indicated ; an enigmatical rep-
resentation of words by the use of
figures or pictures ; thus, a " bolt " and
a " tun " represent " Bolton."
Recaption, in law, recaption or
reprisal is another species of remedy
by the mere act of the party injured.
This happens when any one has de-
prived another of his property in
goods or chattels personal, or wrong-
fully detains one's wife, child, or ser-i
vant ; in which case the owner of the),
goods, and the husband, parent, or
masteT, may lawfully claim and retake
them, wherever he happens to find
them ; so it be not in a riotous man-
ner, or attended with a breach of the
peace.
Receipt, a written document, de-
claring that certain goods or a sum
of money have been received. When
made out in full, a receipt should con-
tain (1) the date when the merchan-
dise or money was received, (2) the
name of the person or firm from whom
received, (3) the name of the person
who received it, and (4) for what the
money is paid or deposited. A receipt
may be in full or in part payment of
an account, and operates accordingly.
A receipt, though evidence of payment,
is not absolute proof, and this evidence
may be rebutted by proving that it was
given under misapprehension.
Receiver, a person specially ap-
pointed by a court of justice to receive
the rents and profits of land, or the
produce of other property, which is in
dispute in a cause in that court. The
name is also given to a person ap-
pointed in suits concerning the estates
of infants, or against executors, or
between partners in business, or in-
solvents, for the purpose of winding up
the concern.
Receiver of Stolen Goods, one
who takes stolen goods from a thief,
knowing them, to be stolen, and incurs
tike guilt of partaking in the crime.
In the United States the penalty is
fixed by statutes in the several States.
Recnabite, a member of a section
of the Kenites, called in Hebrew rech-
abim, from Rechab, the father of
Jonadab, who enjoined his descendants
to abstain from wine, from building
houses, sowing seed, and planting
vineyards, and commanded them to
dwell in tents. Hence, one who ab-
stains from alcoholic beverages ; a
teetotaler. Also a member of the In-
dependent Order of Rechabites, a
society founded on temperance princi-
ples in England in 1835, in tha
Reciprocal
Reconcentrado
United States in 1842, and in other
countries later. The lodges are
called " tents " in allusion to Jer.
xxxv. 7. The total membership ia
over 500,000, and the benefits dis-
bursed since organization exceed
$10,000,000.
Reciprocal, in grammar, reflexive.
Applied to verbs which have as an
object a pronoun standing for the
subject ; as, " Bethink yourself." It is
also applied to pronouns of this class.
As a noun, that which is reciprocal
to another thing. Specifically, in
mathematics, the quotient resulting
from the division of unity by the quan-
tity.
Reciprocity, the quality or state
of being reciprocal ; specifically, recip-
rocal obligation or right ; equal rights
to be mutually granted and enjoyed,
as, in political economy, the securing
in commercial treaties between two
or more nations mutual advantages to
the same extent, e. g., the admission,
mutually, of certain goods, supposed
to be practically equivalent to each
other, duty free, or at equal duties on
importation.
Reciprocity Treaty, a treaty
made between two countries for the
purpose of regulating trade between
them, The United States has entered
into a number of such compacts, and
the tariff bill of 1897 provided for
the appointment of a special commis-
sioner to negotiate such treaties. John
A. Kasson was the first commissioner.
Reclus, Jean Jacques Eliscc, a
French geographer ; born in Sainte-
Foix la Grande, France, March 15,
1830. In consequence of his extreme
democratic views he left. France after
the coup d'etat of 1851, and spent
the next seven years in England, Ire-
land, North p.ncl Central America, and
Colombia. lie returned to Paris in
1858, and published an introduction to
the " Dictionary of the Communes of
France" (1804). While living in
exile in Switzerland he began his mas-
terpiece, " New General Geography."
Reclus has also written another great
work, a physical geography entitled
" The Earth." He died July 4. 1905.
Recognizance, or Recognisance,
in law, an obligation of record, which
a man enters into befo"e some court of
record or magistrate duly authorized,
with condition to do some particular
act; as, to keep the peace, to pay a
debt, or the like.
Recollet, or Recollect, Friars or
Nuns, the name given to a reformed
body of Franciscans. The society was
founded in Spain, and thence spread
throughout Europe, so that in France,
before the Revolution, they had 1G8
houses. The order still exists at a
few places.
Reconcentrado (Spanish), one of
a class of Cubans during the final
Cuban rebellion against Spain. Gov-
ernor-General Weyler issued a decree
that all of the peasant class not ac-
tively engaged in the insurrection but
at their homes or ranches, should be
" reconcentrated " in or near certain
towns, disobedience to this decree in-
curring the penalty of death. Ac-
cordingly, these people, non-combatants
and mostly old men beyond the ability
of army service, feeble old women,
children, and babies, were forced to
leave their homes and to gather in
herds in and near these towns, where
they were without food and shelter,
" reconcentrated," to starve and to
suffer from exposure to the weather
and lack of all comfort. These help-
less victims were popularly called
" reconcentrados," General Weyler's
purpose in this " measure of war "
was to desolate the island in certain
parts so that the " insurgents " could
not get aid and food. With this end
in view, the abandoned homes were
destroyed, and whatever remained of
value to the Spaniards was confiscat-
ed. Whole districts in the most pro-
ductive part of the island were thus
laid waste. Sugar mills were burned
and other industrial property was de-
stroyed. Nearly 400,000 " reconcen-
trados " were forced to go within the
Spanish lines, where no means of sub-
sistence were provided for them. More
than 200,000 died of starvation and
disease, an appalling record in mod-
ern civilization.
The United States was shocked by
this atrocity, and at this time could
give but little aid to the sufferers,
their undertakings, including Chris-
tian Herald work, being barred out or
limited by Spanish authority. Later
American work of " rescue in Cuba "
was largely effective for this most un-
fortunate class. When the decree,
Reconstruction
Recreative 'Religionists
under General Blanco, was issued to
permit the reconcentrados to return
to their homes, there was but desola-
tion where their homes had been. It
was at this time that the American
relief work, by readers of the " Chris-
tian Herald," Red Cross ministration,
and other help availed this helpless
class., but not to the full extent of
their capacities till the American army
and navy had extinguished Spanish
rule in the " Pearl of the Antilles."
Reconstruction, in United States
history, a making-over of the political
fabric of the States that composed the
Southern Confederacy. At the close
of the Civil War, these States were
practically without governments, those
which they had established after their
withdrawal from the Union having
been overthrown. They had been de-
clared insurgents and therefore their
relation to the United States govern-
ment was that of a conquered terri-
tory.
When Congress assembled, in De-
cember, 1865, Republican opposition
was manifest in an enactment that no
State should be represented in either
House till Congress had declared its
right to representation. A bill was
passed proposing the Fourteenth
Amendment to the National Constitu-
tion, and declaring the right of rep-
resentation to any States ratifying.
The Civil-Rights Bill follo\yed, and
the bill enlarging the provisions of
the freedman's bureau, was passed
over the President's veto.
Congress then passed a series of
laws, some of them over the Presi-
dent's veto. Among these were the
Tenure of Office Act, establishment of
universal suffrage in the territories,
admission of Nebraska into the Union,
and making General Grant irremov-
able as head of the army. Meantime,
but one State, Tennessee, had been
admitted, July 24,,18G6, none of the
others adopting the Fourteenth Amend-
ment. In view of the situation, Con-
gress divided the South into five mili-
tary districts. A military governor
was appointed for each district, and
he was empowered to protect life and
property through local courts or mili-
tary commissions. Each governor was
to supervise the election of delegates
to a constitutional convention to which
all but certain disqualified classes were
to be admitted, such delegates to be
elected by those eligible to vote. It
was provided that such constitutions
should be ratified by a .popular vote,
and then placed before Congress ; the
next measure to be a ratification-of the
Fourteenth Amendment by the new
Legislature so including the amend-
ment in the State constitution, which
act should entitle the State to repre-
sentation in Congress. The bill with
such provisions was passed over the
President's veto, March 2, 1867. The
provisions of the bill were carried out,
and the constitutions which were
adopted abolished slavery, renounced
the right of secession, and agreed to
pass no laws limiting the liberty of
any class of citizens and repudiated
the debts incurred during the Civil
War. Governors and legislators were
elected under these constitutions. Ar-
kansas was admitted June 22, 1868 ;
North Carolina, South Carolina, Geor-
gia, Florida, Alabama, and Louisiana,
June 28, 1868; Virginia, Jan. 26,
1870; Mississippi, Feb. 23, 1870;
Texas, March 30, 1870. Congress did
not complete the readmission of Geor-
gia till July 15, 1870, that State hav-
ing failed, in its compliance with the
general policy. The four States last
named were compelled to ratify the
Fifteenth Amendment also, before their
admission, as a penalty for delay in
complying with the plan of Congress.
The Supreme Court of the United
States in the case of Texas vs. White
declared the action of Congress con-
stitutional.
Recorder, the chief judicial officer
of a city, exercising within it, in crim-
inal matters, the jurisdiction of a
court of record, whence his title is
derived. The recorder of the city of
New York is an important judicial
officer, with power to try the highest
crimes. Several distinguished men
have held the office.
Recording and Registering
Machines, devices that make a per-
manent record of events, dates and
numbers. A large number of contriv-
ances have been invented for register-
ing and recording in the shortest time
and with the least possible work.
Recreative Religionists, an as-
sociation formed in England in De-
cember, 1866, for giving popular sci-
entific lectures on Sunday evenings,
Rectangle
Red Cross Society
sacred music being performed at -in-
tervals. The Recreative Religionists
have for some years figured in the reg-
istrar-general's returns of sects, hav-
ing registered places of worship.
Rectangle, in geometry, a parallel-
ogram or quadrilateral figure whose
angles are all right angles. An equi-
lateral rectangle is a square.
Rectify, to separate the lighter por-
tions of any liquid, and render pure
and homogeneous any alcohol, ether,
or volatile oil, by repeated distillation.
Rector, in the Episcopal Church
and also the Roman Catholic Church,
a clergyman who has the cure of a
parish. In the Roman Catholic
Church, the head of a religious house ;
among the Jesuits, the head of a
house that is a seminary or college,
academy, or important public school.
Rectum, in anatomy, the lowest
portion of the large intestine extend-
ing from the sigmoid flexure of the
colon to the anus.
Red, a color resembling that of
arterial blood ; the color of that part
of the solar spectrum which is far-
thest from violet ; one of the three pri-
mary colors. Reds are derived from
the three kingdoms of Mature, carmine
being derived from the cochineal in-
sect, the lakes and madders from the
vegetable world, and the others from
the mineral world.
Redan, in fortifications, a work
having two faces forming a salient
angle in the direction from which an
attack may be expected. It is open at
the gorge. A double redan has a re-
entering angie for mutual defense. The
redan is the simplest field work, and
is used for defending the avenues of
approach to a village, bridge, or defile.
Red Bat, from the temperate parts
of North America. Length about two
inches ; fur long and silky, generally
light russet, tinged with yellow,
darker and richer on the back.
Redbird, the popular name of sev-
eral birds of the United States, as the
Bummer redbird, and the Baltimore
oriole or hang nest.
Red Brocket, a deer about 30 inch-
es high, reddish-brown, with sim-
ple, unbranched antlers ; females horn-
less. Habitat, the low, moist woods of
South America.
Red Cedar, a species of juniper
found in North America and the West
Indies ; the heartwood is of a bright
red, smooth, and moderately soft, and
is in much request for the outsides of
lead pencils.
Red Coral, an important genus
of sclerobasic corals. Red coral is
highly valued for the manufacture of
jewelry, and is obtained from the
coasts of Sicily, Italy, and other parts
of the Mediterranean.
Red Cross Society, an interna-
tional organization for the protec-
tion and care of the sick and wounded
in war and for the care of sufferers
from other large calamities. The or-
ganization is the result of an interna-
tional treaty entered into by most of
the leading nations at a convention
held at Geneva, Switzerland, in Au-
gust, 1864. This treaty sustains the
neutrality of Red Cross Societies in
all countries and on all waters cov-
ered by the compact, and insures to
it the protection of all conflicting
forces in the time of war. The orig-
inal treaty covered all suffering caused
by war; but today the Red Crosa
cares for the victims of pestilence,
flood and fire as well as for the vic-
tims of war. The treaty provides that
the hospital flag of every nation must
be a red Greek cross on a white
ground, and that every person, ambu-
lance, and other parts of the service
must be so designated. By the arti-
cles of the treaty, a sick or wounded
soldier is a " neutral case." The land
ambulances and the ambulance boats
carrying the Red Cross flag move
about wherever needed, all civilized
nations deferring to their humane serv-
ice. In the hospitals every soldier and
sailor receives the best care and if
cured is sent home as a non-combat-
ant. The Red Cross treaty provides
for the mitigation of the horrors of
war. The nations that are parties to
this treaty are : The United States,
Venezuela, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Ar-
gentina, Great Britain, Germany,
France, Belgium, Russia, Austria,
Sweden, Norway, Turkey, Greece,
Spain, Italy, Servia, Persia, the Ro-
man States, Switzerland, Japan, and
other governments to the number of 40
or more.
National Red Cross. This nation-
al body was incorporated under the
Red Cross
laws of the District of Columbia,
October 1, 1881, and was reincorpor-
ated April 17, 1893, for the relief of
suffering by war, pestilence, famine,
flood, fires, and other calamities of
sufficient magnitude to be deemed
national in extent. In 1905 it was
reorganized on a stricter business
basis, and incorporated by Congrfess,
with William H. Taft, then Secre-
tar of War, as its president.
The American National Red Cross
has been active in the directions in-
dicated, and the New York Red Cross
and other organizations with similar
aims have done and are doing most
creditable work in the relief of suf-
fering. When the awful condition of
the Cuban reconcentrados touched
every heart that had a spark of human
feeling, the readers of the " Christian
Herald" were prompt and generous in
contributing to relieve the unhappy
victims of Spanish oppression. Presi-
dent McKinley appointed a " Central
Cuban Relief Committee," consisting
of ex-Mayor Charles A. Schieren, of
Brooklyn, N. Y., Louis Klopsch, of
the "Christian Herald," and Stephen
Barton, vice-president of the National
Red Cross, to administer funds do-
nated for Cuban relief. The "Chris-
tian Herald" turned in $100,000 in
cash donations, and considerable sums
of money and large quantities of goods
were received from all parts of the
country. The Joint Traffic Associa-
tion offered to transport supplies free
of charge, and consignments of food,
clothing and medicine were sent to
Cuba by the regular steamers and
vessels specially chartered.
The steamer " State of Texas,"
chartered by the Central Cuban Relief
Committee, and loaded with supplies
for Cuban sufferers, started from New
York the day after war began, having
been intrusted by the Committee to the
care of the National Red Cross. After
considerable delay at Key West and
Tampa, pending war operations, the
"State of Texas" proceeded to Santi-
ago, where Dr. A. M. Lesser, chief
surgeon of the New York Red Cross,
and his assistants, distinguished
themselves in the field hospitals.
Redfleld
Red Cross, The Royal, a decora-
tion instituted by Queen Victoria in
1883. It is conferred on any ladies,
English or foreign, recommended by
the Secretary of State for War, for
special exertions in providing for the
nursing, or for attending to sick and
wounded soldiers and sailors. The
decoration is a cross of crimson en
amel gold-edged, attached to a dark-
blue ribbon red-edged, one inch ia
width, tied in a bow and worn on the
left shoulder.
Red Currant, a deciduous shrub
much cultivated for its fruit, indig-
enous in the N. portions of Amer-
ica and Europe. The juice of the
fruit is used for making jelly, and a
fermented liquor called currant wine.
Redemption, in commerce t repur-
chase by the issuer of notes, bills,
bonds, or other evidence of debt, by
paying their value in money to the
holders. In law, the liberation or free-
ing of an estate from a mortgage ; the
repurchase of the right to reenter
upon an estate on performance of the
terms or conditions on which it was
conveyed ; the right of redeeming and
reentering into possession. In theol-
ogy, ransoming. The ransom of sin-
ners from the curse of the law, i. e.,
from the penalties of the violated law
of God, effected through " the blood
of Christ," i. e., through His atoning
sacrifice.
Red-eye, or Rudd, a fish belonging
to the same genus as roach, chub,
and minnow. It is common in lakes,
slow rivers, and fens, in many parta
of Europe and in England. It much
resembles the roach, but is shorter
and deeper. It is richly colored, the
name rudd referring to the color of
the fins, the name red-eye to that oi
its iris.
Redfield, Isaac Fletcher, an
American jurist ; born in Wethers-
field, Vt., April 10, 1804; was gradu-
ated at Dartmouth College in 1825.
In 1835 he was made judge of the
Supreme Court of Vermont, and in
1852 became chief-justice, retiring
from the bench in 1860. He waa
Professor of Jurisprudence at Dart-
Red Fish
Red Sea
mouth College in 1857-1861; removed
to Boston in the latter year ; and in
1867-1869 was special counsel for the
United States in Europe, conducting
numerous important legal matters in
England and France. He was the au-
thor of " A Practical Treatise on the
Law of Railways " ; " The Law of
Carriers and Bailments " ; etc. Died
in Charlestown, Mass., March 23, 1876.
Red Fish, a species of fish found
on the Atlantic coast of North Amer-
ica, a large red fish caught in con-
siderable numbers for food. A small-
er species receives the same name, and
is called also red perch, rose fish, etc.
Red Lead, an oxide of lead, pro-
duced by heating the protoxide in
contact with air. It is much used as
a pigment, and is commonly known
as minium.
Red Men, Improved Order of,
a social, fraternal, and benevolent
secret organization founded on the
customs and traditions of the aborig-
ines of the American continent, and
the oldest benevolent society in the
United States of distinctively Ameri-
can origin and growth. The first au-
thenticated Red Men's Society was or-
ganized in Philadelphia, Pa., early in
1763. The order is composed of sub-
ordinate bodies called tribes, officered
by a sachem, senior sagamore, junior
sagamore, prophet, chief of records,
keeper of wampum, and minor sub-
chiefs. In each State possessing nec-
essary membership a Great Council
is constituted, composed of represen-
tatives from the various tribes under
its jurisdiction, and officered by sim-
ilar chiefs to the subordinate tribes,
with the prefixed title of Great. The
Great Council of the United States
is the supreme legislative body, and is
composed of representatives from each
Great Council. The number of great
councils has reached 63; the member-
ship, over 475.000; the benefits dis-
bursed since organization, more than
$24,000.000, and in a single year,
nearly $1,500,000.
Red Ochre, a name common to a
variety of pigments, rather than des-
ignating an individual color, and com-
prehending Indian red, light red, Ve-
netian red, scarlet ochre, Indian ochre,
reddle, bole, and other oxides of iron.
As a mineral it designates a soft
earthy variety of haematite.
Redpath, James, an American
journalist ; born in Berwick, Scot-
land, Aug. 24, 1833. He became assist-
ant editor of the "North American
Review " in 1886. He published " The
John Brown Invasion, " Life of John
Brown," and " Talks About Ireland,"
etc. He died Feb. 10, 1891.
Red Pine, a species of pine also
called Norway pine. Its wood is very
resinous and durable, and is much
used in house and shipbuilding. It
produces turpentine, tar, pitch, resin,
and lampblack.
Red River, the lowest W. branch
of the Mississippi, rises near the E.
border of New Mexico, flows E.
through Texas, forming the entire S.
boundary of Indian Territory, thence
S. E. through Arkansas and Louisiana
and enters the Mississippi below lat.
31 N. It is 1,600 miles long. It is
navigable for seven months to Shreve-
port (350 miles).
Red River of the North, a nav-
igable river of the United States and
Canada, rises in Elbow Lake, Minn.,
near the sources of the Mississippi,
and flows S. and W. to Breckinridge,
then N., forming the boundary be-
tween Minnesota and North Dakota,
and so into Manitoba and through a
flat country to Lake Winnipeg. Its
course is 665 miles (525 in the United
States). The Red River Settlement
was the origin of Manitoba.
Red Root, a genus of deciduous
shrubs. The common red root of
North America which abounds from
Canada to Florida, is a shrub of two
to four feet high, with beautiful thyrsi
of numerous small win' to flowers. It
is sometimes called New Jersey tea, an
infusion of its leaves being sometimes
used as tea. A Mexican species haa
blue flowers, and a California kind is
used for evergreen hedges.
Red Sea, an arm of the Indian
Ocean, running N. N. W. from the
Gulf of Aden, with which it communi-
cates by the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb,
13% miles across. Its length is about
1,200 miles, and its width in the cen-
tral portion is between 100 and 200
miles ; the greatest breadth being about
205 miles ; it narrows toward the S.
entrance, while in the N. it is divided
by the peninsula of Sinai into two
gulfs, the Gulf of Suez, 170 miles long
Red Snow
by 30 miles wide, and the Gulf of
Akaba, 100 miles in length.
In ancient times the Red Sea was
used as the means of communication
by the Phoenicians and other maritime
peoples, till the discovery of the route
around the Cape of Good Hope divert-
ed the traffic into another channel,
only to be revived, however, on a much
more extensive scale with the construc-
tion of the Suez Canal.
Red Snow, snow colored red. Aris-
totle hinted at its existence ; Saussure
in 1760 discovered it on the St. Ber-
nard, and Captain Ross in 1819
brought specimens from the Arctic
regions. He had found eight miles of
cliffs, 600 feet high, colored by it, in
many places to the depth of 12 feet,
where the rock was reached. Captain
Parry and other Arctic explorers have
eince met with it abundantly. All au-
thorities agree that it arises from
minute organisms, vegetable or animal.
Much of it is colored by the red snow
plant
Redstart, a fly-catching warbler.
Male black with patches of orange-red.
Female, olive with yellow patches.
Red Sunsets. The autumn of 1883
and the succeeding few months were
noteworthy for the occurrence of brill-
iant phenomena in the W. sky in every
part of the globe, but especially in the
Indian Ocean and the South Pacific.
Shortly after sunset a vivid red glow
suffused the entire W. sky, remaining
for upward of an hour, when it would
slowly fade away. In the latitudes of
North America these red sunsets were
of almost nightly occurrence for sev-
eral months. In striving to account
for these strange manifestations a
number of solutions were offered, but
the theory that met with greatest ac-
ceptance was that they emanated from
volcanic dust and gaseous matter vom-
ited by Krakatoa, in Sunda Straits.
Calculations demonstrated the fact
that the manifestations of the red glow
coincided "with the course which such
vapors would take on being wafted
away by the prevailing winds. But
this theory fonnd many opponents.
Red Top, a well-known species of
bent-grass, highly valued in the United
States for pasturage and hay for
cattle.
Redway, Jaqnes Wardlaw, an
American geographer; born in Nash-
Redwood.
ville, Term., in May, 1849. He en-
gaged in mining in California and
Arizona ; traveled in South America,
Europe, and Asia, for the purpose of
pursuing geographical investigations,
and was author of several treatises on.
physical geography, etc., among them
" Modern Facts* and Ancient Fancies
in Geography " ; " Climate and the
Gulf Stream"; "A Treatise on the
Projection of Maps," etc.
Redwing, a North American pas-
serine bird, of the family Icteridae.
Male, black with red spots, bordered
with orange on the wings. The name
is given in Europe to a species of
thrush, closly allied to the common
thrush.
Redwood, the name of various
sorts of wood of a red color, as the
wood of the redwood of Jamaica; of
Andaman wood ; of the redwood of the
Bahamas ; and of a coniferous tree of
California, the redwood of the timber
trade.
Redwood of California. This tree
is found only in California and in but
a comparatively contracted area even
there. The available redwood is now
confined to about 318 miles of coast.
The annual product in this region is
about 320,000,000 feet, and it is esti-
mated, at the present rate of consump-
tion, that enough standing timber ex-
ists to last for 150 years.
The lumber is becoming more in de-
mand for decorative purposes. Its
| color, a light salmon when first cut,
j afterward turns to a deep red. When
thoroughly dried there is no shrinkage
; and it readily yields to the chisel of
! the carver. Piano cases made from
, the wood are said to give increased
i resonance to the instrument _ Larg*
: quantities are consumed for mt-sriot
finishing with gratifying effects. In
addition to other fine qualities the
wood takes on a "beautiful polish and
even the stumpage, till recently con-
sidered worthless, is found to possess
i valuable qualities. The roots and
woody excrescences at the base of the
tree give fine effects in wavy outlines,
and when polished the material is
much "valued for decorative purposes.
In the Eel river redwood district,
Humboldt county, there f are 80,000
acres of timber lands, which will pro-
duce, at a low estimate, 75,000 feet to
the acre. In size the trees range from
Reebok
Reed
four to six feet in diameter; if below
18 inches they are left standing. Of
the larger sizes from 8,000 to 12,000
feet are produced from each tree. A
single tree grown in this valley has
produced 80,000 feet of merchantable
lumber.
Reebok, or Rheebok, an antelope
of South Africa. Length about 5 feet,
height at shoulder 30 inches ; uniform
ash color on neck, shoulders, sides,
croup, and thighs, white or light gray
on under surface and inside of limbs.
They live in small groups of five or
six individuals.
Reed, in music, the sounding part
of several instruments, such as the
clarionet, bassoon, oboe, and bagpipe,
OKGAN REED.
BAGPIPE EEEDS.
so called from its being made from the
outer layer of a reed. The name is
also applied to the speaking part of the
organ, though made of metal.
Reed, Andrew, an English philan-
thropist : born in London, England,
Nov. 27, 1788; was educated in his
native city and in 1811 was there
ordained pastor of an independent
congregation. He visited the United
States in 1834, where he studied edu-
cational and religious conditions. In
1813 he established the London Orphan
Asylum ; in 1827 the Infant Orphan
Asylum ; in 1847 the Asylum for Fath-
erless Children in Croydon ; and later
the Royal Hospital for Incurables and
the Royal Asylum for Idiots. He was
the author of " Visits to the American
Churches" (with the Rev. James
Matheson, 2 vols. 1836) ; "The Day
of Pentecost " ; " The Revival of Re-
ligion " and " Advancement of Relig-
ion the Claim of the Times " (1847) ;
etc. He died in London, England,
Feb. 25, 1862.
Reed, Charles Alfred Lee, an
American surgeon ; born in Wolf
Lake, Ind., July 9, 1856. He was
Professor of Gynaecology and Abdom-
inal Surgery at the Cincinnati College
of Medicine and Surgery in 1882-
1895 ; became gynaecologist at the Cin-
cinnati Hospital in 1896 ; and was
president of the American Medical As-
sociation in 1900-1901. His publica-
tions include many monographs in
1880-1900, and a "Text Book of
Gynajcology" (1900).
Reed, Elizabeth. Armstrong, an
American author ; born in Winthrop,
Me., May 16, 1842. She was the only
woman whose work was ever accepted
by the Philosophical Society of Great
Britain. She was chairman of the
Woman's Congress of Philology in
Chicago in 1893, and was a member of
several learned societies. Her works
include " The Bible Triumphant,"
" Hindu Literature : or the Ancient
Books of India," " Persian Literature,
Ancient and Modern," etc.
Reed, George Edward, an Amer-
ican educator ; born in Brownville,
Me., March 26, 1846. In 1889 was
elected president of Dickinson College,
Carlisle, Pa., and in 1899 became
State Librarian of Pennsylvania.
Reed, Hugh, an American military
officer; born in Richmond, Ind., Aug.
17, 1850 ; was graduated at the United
States Military Academy in 1873. In
1884 he wasgranted leave of absence
owing to ill health brought on by ex-
posure on the Western plains, and was
retired April 23, 1889. His publica-
tions include " A Calendar of the Da-
kota Nation," "Signal Tactics,"
" Cadet Regulations," " Artillery Tac-
tics," " Military Science and Tactics,"
" Standard Infantry Tactics," etc.
Reed, James, an American clergy-
man; born in Boston, Mass., Dec. 8,
1834; was graduated at Harvard Col-
lege in 1855. Later he was elected
President of the New Church Theolog-
ical School (Swedenborgian), Cam-
bridge, Mass. He was also for several
Heed
years president of the Massachusetts
Home for Intemperate Women, and
editor of the " New Church Review."
His publications include " Swedenborg
and the New Church," " Religion and
Life," and " Man and Woman, Equal
but Unlike."
Reed, John Joseph, an American
naval officer ; born in New Jersey ;
was graduated at the United States
Naval Academy in 1861 ; served
through the Civil War, being in all the
battles with Admiral Farragut from
the Southwest Pass of the Mississippi
to Vicksburg in 1862-1863; was pro-
moted rear-admiral in November,
1900 ; and was appointed commandant
if the Portsmouth navy yard in April,
1901.
Reed, Thomas Brackett, an
American statesman ; born in Port-
Jand, Me., Oct. 18, 1839 ; was gradua-
ted at Bowdoin College in 1860; stud-
ied law; appointed assistant paymas-
ter United States navy in 1864 ; ad-
mitted to the Portland bar ; member of
the Maine Legislature 1868-1869, and
of the Senate 1870; State attorney-
general, 1870-1872 ; member of Con-
gress, 1877-1899 ; and speaker of 51st,
54th, and 55th Congresses. In 1896
Mr. Reed was a prominent candidate
for the Republican presidential nomi-
nation. He resigned from Congress in
1899, and resumed the practice of law
in New York city. He died of uraemia
at. Washington, D. C., Dec. 7, 1902.
Reed Mace, also known by the
name of cat-tail, grows in ditches and
marshy places, and in the borders of
ponds, lakes, and rivers. They are
tall, stout, erect plants, sometimes six
or eight feet high, with creeping root
stocks, long flag-like leaves, and long,
dense, cylindrical, brown spikes of mi-
nute flowers. They are sometimes er-
roneously called bulrush.
Reef, the portion of a square sail
between the head and any of the reef
bands. The first reef in a square sail
is included between the head and the
upper reef band; the second reef be-
tween this and the next lower reef
band, and so on. The object of the
reef is to diminish the surface of the
Bail when the wind is blowing hard.
A balance reef is the uppermost or
closest reef extending diagonally up-
ward from the outer leech when close-
reefed.
E. 124,
Referendum
Heef, a chain, mass, or range of
rocks in various parts of the ocean, ly-
ing at or near the surface of the
water.
Reel, a lively rustic dance. In the
United States the Virginia reel is
widely popular.
Rees, John Krom, an American
educator ; born in New York city, Oct.
27, 1851 ; was graduated at Columbia
University in 1872, and at the Columbia
School of Mines in 1875. Subsequently
he was director of the observatory and
instructor in geodesy and practical as-
tronomy in Columbia University, and
in 1892 became Professor of Astron-
omy there. He was president of the
New York Academy of Sciences in
1894-1896 ; secretary of the American
Metropolitan Society in 1882-1896;
was elected Fellow of the Royal As-
tronomical Society of London ; in 1901
was made Chevalier of the Legion of
Honor; died March 9, 1907.
Reese, David Meredith, an
American physician ; born in Philadel-
phia, Pa., in 1800; was graduated at
the Medical Department of the Uni-
versity of Maryland in 1820; removed
to New York city, where he became
eminent in his profession ; was phy-
sician-in-chief at Bellevue Hospital for
several years, and afterward was
county and city superintendent of pub-
lic schools. He was the author of
" Observations on the Epidemic of
Yellow Fever," " Review of the First
Annual Report of the Anti-Slavery
Society," " Medical Lexicon of Modern
Terminology" (1855); etc. He died
in New York city, Aug. 12, 1861.
Re ere s, Helen Buckingham,
(nee Mathers), an English novelist;
born in Crewkerne, Somersetshire,
Aug. 26, 1853. Her novels treat of
domestic English life, and are ex-
ceedingly popular.
ReeTes, Marian Calhoun lie-
pare, an American novelist; born in
Charleston, S. C., about 1854. She
began to write in 1866 under the pseu-
donym of " Fadette." Died recently.
Referendum, a system of legisla-
tion which consults all the electors of
a State as to whether new laws shall
be confirmed. In some cantons of
Switzerland a method resembling the
referendum hns been practised since
the 16th century. In all the Swiss
Refining of Metals
Reformation
cantons, except Freiburg, the referen-
dum is now established. According to
the Swiss federal constitution, all con-
stitutional amendments must be rati-
fied by the Swiss electorate before they
become law. Other measures must be
submitted to the popular vote, if de-
manded within 90 days after their pub-
lication by 30,000 voters, or by the
governments of eight cantons. During
the 17 years, 1874 to 1891, out of 149
laws, 27 were referred to the people ;
of these 15 were rejected. The refer-
endum has worked so well that it has
conquered all opposition to it, and it is
now generally regarded as a check on
hasty and class legislation. There is
a growing demand in the United States
for the general introduction of direct
legislation by means of the referen-
dum, and in several places the system
is practised. Amendments to State
Constitutions are adopted, as a rule,
by a referendum vote. In November,
1903, the electors of New York State
voted by referendum on the question
of a vast improvement of the Erie
canal.
Refining of Metals, the processes
by which the various metals are ex-
tracted from their ores, and obtained
in a state of purity.
Reflecting Microscope, a form of
microscope first proposed by Newton,
in which the image formed by a small
concave speculum may be viewed either
by the naked eye or through an eye
piece. The object is placed outside of
the tube of the microscope, and reflects
its image to the speculum by means of
a plain mirror, inclined at an angle of
45 to the axis of the former.
Reflecting Telescope, a telescope
in which the rays are received on an
object-mirror and conveyed to a focus,
at which the image is viewed by an
eye piece.
Reflection, that which is reflected
or produced by being reflected; su
image given back from a reflecting sur-
face. Also the act or habit of turning
the mind to something which has al-
ready occupied it ; thoughtful, atten-
tive, or continued consideration or de-
liberation ; meditation, thought.
Reflector, that which reflects, or
throws back rays of light, heat, etc. ;
a reflecting surface. In optics, a de-
vice by which the rays proceeding from
a luminous or heated object are thrown
back or diverted in a given direction.
The term mirror is less comprehensive
than that of reflector, being usually
only applied to such surfaces as afford
definite images and colors, while a re-
flector may not merely be used for
throwing back the rays of light and
heat, or of heat only, but also the
waves of sound.
Reform Acts, a term applied to
certain acts of the British Parliament
by which the regulations as to the par-
liamentary representation of the peo-
ple were altered.
Reformation, the term generally
applied to the religious revolution in
the 10th century which divided the
Western Church into two sections,
known as the Roman Catholic and
the Protestant. Before this era the
pope exercised absolute authority over
the whole Christian Church with the
exception of those countries in which
the Greek or Eastern Church had been
established. He also claimed suprem-
acy in temporal affairs wherever his
spiritual authority was recognized.
Various abuses had, in process of time,
sprung up in the Church, and atten-
t on had often been called to these both
' y laymen and clerics. The great
movement known as the Reformation
was started by Martin Luther, an
Augustine monk of Erfurt, professor
of theology in the University of Wit-
tenberg; and what immediately occa-
sioned it was the sale of indulgences
in Germany by a duly accredited agent,
Johann Tetzel, a Dominican monk, of
Leipsic. Luther condemned this abuse,
first in a sermon and afterwards in
ninety-five theses or questions which he
affixed to the door of the great Church,
October 31st, 1517. Luther urged his
spiritual superiors and the pope to put
a stop to the traffic of Tetzel and to
reform the corruption of the Church
in general. A heated controversy now
arose, Luther was fiercely assailed,
and in 1520 excommunication was pro-
nounced against him by Pope Leo X.
Upon this the reformer appealed to a
general council ; and when his works
were burned at Mainz, Cologne, and
Louvain, he publicly committed the
bull of excommunication with the pa-
pal canons and decrees to the flames
( December, 1520). From this time
Luther formally separated from the
Reformation
Reformation
Roman Church, and many of the prin-
cipal German nobles, the most emi-
nent scholars, and the University of
Wittenberg, publicly declared in favor
of the reformed doctrines and disci-
pline. Luther's bold refusal to recant
at the Diet of Worms (April 17th,
1521) gave him increased power, while
the edict of Worms and the ban of
the emperor made his cause a political
matter. Leo's successor, Adrian VI.,
now considered it necessary to inter-
fere, but in answer to his demands for
the extirpation of the doctrines of
Luther he received a list of a hundred
complaints against the papal chair
from the German states assembled at
the Diet of Nurnberg (1522). While
Luther was publishing his transla-
tion of the New Testament, which was
soon followed by the translation of
the Old, and while Melanchthon was
engaged on his Loci Communes (the
first exposition of the Lutheran doc-
trines) serious preparations for the
reform of ecclesiastical abuses were
made in Pomerania, Silesia, in the
Saxon cities, in Suabia, etc., and the
Reformation made rapid progress in
Germany. Luther's Liturgy had no
sooner appeared (1522), than it was
adopted in Magdeburg and elsewhere.
Translations of the Bible into Dutch
and French now appeared, and at
Meux in France a Lutheran church
was organized. In 1525 John, the suc-
cessor of Luther's first patron Fred-
erick in the Saxon electorate, Philip,
landgrave of Hesse, and Albert of j
Brandenburg, duke of Prussia, pub- 1
licly declared themselves Lutherans, i
Aided in great measure by the state j
of political affairs, the movement con-
tinued to spread rapidly. In these cir-
cumstances the Emperor convened the j
Diet of Augsburg (June 1530), at j
which Melanchthon read a statement j
of the reformed doctrines, now known j
as the confession of Augsburg. The |
Catholics replied to this by requiring
the reformers to return to the ancient
church within a certain period. The
princes who favored the new move-
ment refused to comply with the de- j
mand, and in March of the following ;
year they assembled at Schmalkald
and formed the famous league, in :
terms of which they pledged them-
selves to uphold the Protestant cause.
This decisive step soon attracted pow-
erful support, largely because of its
political importance, and among oth-
ers who joined the Schmalkald League
were Francis I. of France and Henry
VIII. of England. After the death
of Luther (1540) war broke out, but
at the Peace of Augsburg (1555) the
Reformation may be said to have tri-
umphed when each prince was permit-
ted to adopt either the Reformed or
the Roman Catholic faith, and Prot-
estantism thus received legal, recogni-
tion.
Both in Italy and Spain Protestant-
ism was mostly confined to the higher
and cultivated classes, the Reformed
faith taking scarcely -any hold on the
people at large. In Naples, Venice,
Florence, and other cities Protestant
churches were opened ; but Protestant-
ism was extirpated in Italy by the vig-
orous action of the Inquisition. In
Spain a few Protestant churches were
established, and many persons of mark
adopted the views of the Reformers.
But here also the Inquisition succeed-
ed in arresting the spread of the re-
ligious revolution. In the Swiss states
the progress of Protestantism was of
much more importance. It found a
leader in Ulrich Zwingli, a preacher
in Zurich, who, by sermons, pam-
phlets, and public discussions, induced
that city to abolish the old and inaugu-
rate a new Reformed Church. Ulti-
mately this movement was merged in
political dissessions between the Re-
formed and the Roman Catholic can-
tons, and Zwingli himself fell in bat-
tle (1531). Between Luther and Zwin-
gli there were differences of opinion,
chiefly concerning the Lord's Supper,
in which the former showed consider-
able acrimony towards his fellow-re-
former. After many tedious contests
Calvin's creed was virtually accepted
in the Netherlands and elsewhere, and
it was introduced into Scotland by
Knox. In France the Reformation
seemed at first to find powerful sup-
port. Margaret, Queen of Navarre,
sister of King Francis I., and many of
the higher ecclesiastics favored the re-
formed doctrine. The New Testament
was translated into French, churches
to the number of 2,000 were estab-
lished in 1550, and the Huguenots as
the Protestants were called, formed a
large religious par f y in the state. Un-
happily, however, the religious ele-
ment was mixed up with the political
hatreds, and in the civil strifes before
Reformatory Schools
Reformed Church
and after the Massacre of St. Bar-
tholomew (1572) the religious move-
ment declined. The abjuration of
Protestantism by Henry IV. (1593)
was a blow to the Huguenots, and
though they obtained toleration and
certain privileges by the Edict of
Nantes this was finally revoked in
1685.
The Reformation in England was
only indirectly connected with the re-
form movement in Germany. Wyclif
and the Lollards, the revival of learn-
ing, the writings of More, Colet, and
Erasmus, the martyrdom of Thomas
Bilney, had all combined to make the
doctrine and discipline of the church
unpopular. This feeling was greatly
increased when the writings of Luther
and Tyndal's translation of the Bible
found eager readers. Then the polit-
ical element came in to favor the pop-
ular reform movement. Henry VIII.,
in \is efforts to obtain a divorce from
Catherine, found it necessary to re-
pudiate the papal supremacy and de-
clare himself by act of Parliament
(1534) the supreme head of the
Church of England. To this the pope
replied by threats of excommunica-
tion, which were not, however, imme-
diately executed. Yet the breach with
Rome was complete, so far, at least,
as the king was concerned. This move-
ment was continued and the Reforma-
tion effected in all essential points
during the reign of Henry's succes-
sor, Edward VI. The Protestant rit-
ual and teaching was adopted by the
Church ; all images were removed from
churches ; a new communion service
took the place of the mass; a First
Book of Common Prayer was com-
piled by Cranmer and purged of dis-
tinctive Roman doctrine ; and in 1549
the First Act of Uniformity enjoined
the use of this book in all the
churches. Still further in 1551 the
newly established faith of the Re-
formers was summed up in the Forty-
two Articles of Religion, which, in
the reign of Elizabeth, became the
Thirty-nine Articles of the Church
of England. By these and other means
the Reformation was established
gradually throughout England.
In Scotland the movement was more
directly connected with the Conti-
nent, and in particular with Geneva.
In 1546-47 the Scottish Reformer
John Knox joined the Protestant
party; preached in Dundee, Perth,
and St. Andrews, amid public tu-
mult and the destruction of images, al-
tars, and churches ; and finally, under
the protection of the Lords of Con-
gregation, he established himself as a
preacher of Protestantism in St.
Giles', Edinburgh. From this center
Knox travelled all over Scotland
teaching the reformed faith ; and
such was the roused spirit of the peo-
ple, that when the Scottish parlia-
ment assembled (1560) a popular pe-
tition was presented demanding the
abolition of popery. This was prompt-
ly_ accomplished, and at the assem-
bling of the new Church of Scotland
shortly afterward, Knox presented his
reformed system of government un-
der the name of the First Book of
Discipline, which was adopted by
the assembly. The position thus se-
cured by the reformer was maintained
and the Reformation successfully es-
tablished in Scotland. In Ireland for
various causes the Reformation never
made much progress.
Reformatory Schools, schools in-
stituted for the training of juvenile
offenders who have been convicted of
an offense punishable by imprison-
ment.
Reformed Church, a religious
body in the United States, whose des-
ignation has been changed from that
of its progenitor, the Reformed Prot-
estant Dutch Church. The Church
was introduced into America in 1643.
The Dutch language was used exclu-
sively in worship down to 1763. The
government of the Church is accord-
ing to the Genevan model. The offi-
cers are ministers, elders, and deacons,
who compose the consistory, to which
the government of the individual
church belongs. The particular syn-
ods, of which there are four, New
York, Albany, New Brunswick, and
Chicago, are delegated bodies com-
posed of four ministers and four eld-
ers from each classis within the
bounds of each synod. In 1867 the
word " Dutch " was dropped from the
corporate name of the body. " The
Christian Intelligencer," a weekly
journal devoted to the interests of
the church was established in New
York, 1828. There are two theolog-
ical seminaries, one at New Bruns-
wick, N. J., the other in connection
.Reformed Church
Regeneration
with Hope College, at Holland, Mich.
Statistics: Number of churches, 640;
ministers, 710; members, 124,938.
Reformed Church in the
United States, formerly German
Reformed Church in the United
States of America, an offshoot of the
Reformed Church of Germany; The
worship of the Church is liturgical;
its government is presbyterian. Re-
ception into the full communion of
the Church takes place by the rite of
confirmation. Christmas, Good Fri-
day, Easter, and Whitsunday are ob-
served with much solemnity. Eleven
English and five German papers are
published in the interest of the
Church; and there are 16 theological
and literary institutions under its
control. Statistics: Number of
churches, 1,670; ministers, 1,180;
members, 292,654.
Reformed Episcopal Chnrch, a
denomination organized by members
of the Protestant Episcopal Church
who differed with it in certain mat-
ters of church practice and discipline.
Statistics: Churches, 87; ministers,
84; members, 9,682.
Reformed Presbyterian
Church, or Cameronians, a body of
Christians who profess to hold the
principles of the Church of Scotland
at the period of the second Reforma-
tion, between 1638 and 1650. Long
an independent body, most of them
were merged in the Free Church in
1876.
Refraction. When a beam of
light traveling in a transparent medi-
um, impinges obliquely upon the sur-
face of another transparent medium,
what occurs in the vast majority of
cases is that a part of it is reflected,
and a part of it enters the second medi-
um, but in so doing is " refracted "
or bent out of its former course. If,
for example, the light travel in air
and impinge obliquely on glass, the
course of the refracted portion is bent
so thnt the refracted light travels more
directly or less obliquely through the
glass; and, conversely, if the light
travel in glass and impinge on an air
surface, the portion which is refract-
ed into the air will travel through the
air more obliquely with respect to the
refracting surface than the original
light had approached it. The law of
refraction was discovered by Snell
in 1621, and is the following : The
refracted ray is in the same plane with
the incident and the reflected ray, and
is therefore in the " plane of inci-
dence," and the sine of the angle of
incidence bears to the sine of the angle
of refraction a ratio which remains
constant, for any two media, what-
ever be the angle of incidence.
Refuge, Cities of, in Jewish law
and history, six Levitical cities di-
vinely appointed as places of refuge
to one who had committed manslaugh-
ter, and was pursued by the " Re*
venger " or " Avenger " of Blood. If
the case was proved to be one of mur-
der, the perpetrator might be taken
from the City of Refuge and put to
death ; if it was only manslaughter,
the refugee had to remain in the city
to which he had fled till released by
the death of the high priest.
Refugee, a word that probably
came into existence when the Protest-
ants under Louis XIV. escaped from
their oppressors to other lands, and
a word was needed to describe the
circumstances of their case. It is
applied also to one who takes refuge ;
one who flees to a place of refuge or
shelter, and to one who flies for ref-
uge in time of persecution or political
commotion to a foreign country.
Regalecus, the deal-fish. Each ven-
tral fin is reduced to a long fila-
ment, dilated at the extremity, some-
what like the blade of an oar, whence-
they have been called oar fishes ; cau-
dal rudimentary or absent. Range
wide ; they have been taken in the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans, the Medi-
terranean and on the coast of New
Zealand. They are sometimes called
king of the herrings, from the erro-
neous notion that they accompany
shoals of the latter fish.
Regalia, the ensigns of royalty, in-
cluding more particularly the appara-
tus of a coronation.
Regatta, originally a gondoja race
held annually with great pomp in Ven-
ice, and now applied to any important
sailing or rowing race, in which a
number of yachts or boats contend
for prizes.
Regeneration, in biology, the gen-
esis or production of new tissue to
supply the place of an old texture lost
Regina
or removed. In some of the infe-
rior animals an organ or a limb can
thus be supplied; in man regeneration
is much more limited in its operation.
Thus, when a breach of continuity
takes place in a muscle, it is repaired
by a new growth of connective tissue.
In Scripture, regeneration is the state
of being born again, i. e., in a spirit-
ual manner.
Regina, city and capital of the
Province of Saskatchewan, Canada;
on branches of the Canadian Pacific,
Canadian Northern, and Grand Trunk
railways; 356 miles N. W. of Winni-
peg; is the trade center of one of the
most prolific wheat-growing regions of
the Dominion; is surrounded by noted
hunting grounds: is the headquarters
of the famous Northwest Mounted
Pol'oe: and, besides its large farm
trade, has manufactories of lumber,
foundry products, bricks, and flour.
Regioinontanus, a German as-
tronomer, whose real name was Jo-
hann Muller; born in Konigsberg, in
Franconia, June 6, 1436. In 1471
he built an observatory at Nu-
remberg, but he returned to Rome on
the invitation of Sixtus IV., who em-
ployed him in the reformation of the
calendar. His "Kalendarium No-
vum " (New Calendar) is believed to
be the first almanac issued in Eu-
rope. He died July 6, 1746.
Register, a device for automat-
ically indicating the number "of revo-
lutions made or amount of work done
by machinery ; or recording steam, air,
or water pressure, or other data, by
means of apparatus deriving motion
from the object or objects whose force,
distance, velocity, direction, eleva-
tion, or numerical amount it is de-
sired to ascertain. In music, the com-
pass of a voice or instrument, or a
portion of the compass of a voice; as
the upper, middle, or lower register.
Also, an organ stop, or the knob or
handle by means of which the per-
former commands any given stop.
Regnard, Jean Francois, a
French comic dramatist ; born in
Paris, in February, 1655. By com-
mon consent his rank in France is
second to Moliere only. He died near
Dourdan, France, Sept. 4, 1709.
Regular Clergy, the term applied
in the Roman Catholic Church to
Reicnexi baclb
priests who have taken the vows, and
who are bound to follow the rules of
some monastic order, as opposed to the
secular clergy, that is, parish priests,
etc., not connected with any of the
orders.
Regains, the star Alpha Leonis, the
brightest in the constellation of the
Lion.
Regulns, Marcus Attilius, a Ro-
man general, celebrated for his pa-
triotism and devotion in the service of
his country. Made consul a second
time about 256 B. c., with his col-
league, Manlius Vulso, he commanded
in the first war against Carthage.
Taken prisoner by the Carthaginians,
he was sent to Rome with an em-
bassy, that peace might be procured
on favorable terms, and bound Him-
self by an oath to return if the terms
were rejected. He, however, consid-
ered it his duty to advise the continu-
ance of the war ; which, being deter-
mined on, no entreaties or supplica-
tions could prevent him from fulfilling
his solemn engagement ; and the Car-
thaginians, on his return, put him to
a cruel death.
Rehan (originally Crehan), Ada,
an American actress ; born in Limer-
ick, Ireland, April 22, 1860. In 1865
she came with her parents to the
United States. She first appeared on
the stage in Newark, N. J., when 14
years old, but afterward returned to
her studies for a year. She then ap-
peared in Philadelphia, and later in
New York. In 1879 she joined Au-
gustin Daly's company. She frequent-
ly played before London audiences,
and also in France and in Germany.
Reich, Jacques, an American etch-
er ; born in Waniskoltz, Hungary,
Aug. 10, 1852; settled in the United
States in 1873 ; became skilled in pen-
and-ink drawings and in the etching
of portraits on copper; removed to
New York in 1885. His important
work includes a series of portraits
of American and English authors and
other prominent persons ; a half life-
size plate of President Roosevelt ; and
a large etching of J. Pierpont Morgan.
Reichenbach, Charles, Baron
von, a German scientist ; born Feb.
12, 1788; died in 1869. He gave his
attention to animal magnetism in con-
nection with which he believed he had
Reichsrath
discovered a new force called Od, re-
garding which he published various
works. Among his chemical discov-
eries were paraffin and creosote.
Reichsrath, the representative
council of the empire of Austria (q. v.)
Reichstadt, Duke of. See NA-
POLEON II.
Reichstag, the representative legis-
lative body of the German nation
as a whole, as the Bundesrath is of
the separate German States. A^ll laws
of the empire must receive the votes
of an absolute majority of the Reich-
stag and the Bundesrath. The presi-
dent of the Reichstag is elected by
the deputies. See GERMAN EMPIRE.
Reid, Mayne, a British novelist;
born in North Ireland, in 1818. His
love of adventure took him to Mexico
and then to the United States, where
he traveled extensively as hunter or
trader ; he joined the United States
army in 1845 and fought in the Mex-
ican War. He afterward returned
to London, where he became well
known as a writer of thrilling juve-
nile stories, many of them based on
his American experiences. He died
near London, Oct. 22, 1883.
Reid, Samuel Chester, an Amer-
ican naval officer ; born in Norwich,
Conn., Aug. 25, 1783. He commanded
the American privateer " General
Armstrong," and repulsed the British
attack in the harbor of Payal, Azore
Islands, Sept. 26, 1814, the enemy
having three vessels with 2,000 men
to his single vessel with 90 men. Dur-
ing 10 hours' fighting, the British
lost 300 killed and wounded and the
Americans two killed and seven
wounded. He was made harbormaster
and warden of the port of New York,
invented a signal telegraph, reorgan-
ized the pilot-boat system, and estab-
lished a lightship off Sandy Hook. He
designed the present form of the Unit-
ed States flag, suggesting the reten-
tion of the original 13 stripes and
the addition of a star for each new
State. He died in New York city,
Jan. 28, 1861.
Reid, Thomas, a Scotch philos-
opher ; born in Strachan, Scotland,
April 26, 1710. In 1764 he published
his weil-known work, " An Inquiry
Into the Human Mind on the Prin-
ciples of Common Sense." The same
Reindeer
year he succeeded Adam Smith aa
Professor of Moral Philosophy in
Glasgow University, a position which
he occupied till 1781. He was the
earliest expounder of what is known
as the Scotch school of philosophy,
in which he was followed by Dugald
Stewart and Sir William Hamilton.
His doctrines were adopted also by
several eminent French philosophers.
He died Oct. 7, 1796.
Reid, ^Vhitelaw, an American ed-
itor ; born in Xenia, O., Oct. 27, 1837.
He graduated at Miami University
in 1856 ; was on the editorial staff
of several leading Ohio papers and
was war correspondent ; in 1869 be-
came managing editor of the New
York "Tribune," and, after 1872,
editor-in-chief and in financial con-
trol. He twice declined appointment
as minister to Germany ; and was min-
ister to France in 1889-1892, where
he negotiated valuable reciprocity
treaties. In 1892 he was the unsuc-
cessful Republican candidate for Vice-
president. He represented the Unit-
ed States at Queen Victoria's jubilee in
1897; was a member of the American-
Spanish Peace Commission in 1898:
the special ambassador of the United
States at the coronation of King Ed-
ward VII. in 1902; and ambassador to
Great Britain from 1905 till his death
in London, Dec. 15, 1912. His re-
mains were borne to New York on the
British cruiser "Natal."
Reighard, Jacob Ellsworth, an
American educator ; born in Laporte,
Ind., July 2, 1861 ; was graduated at
the University of Michigan in 1882;
was placed in charge of the biological
survey of the Great Lakes for the
United States Fish Commission in
1898; and accepted the chaii of zo-
ology at the University of Michigan
in 1892. He is the author of many
scientific papers.
Reign of Terror, a period of the
French Revolution, conspicuous for
its horrors and cruelties. It is gen-
erlUly considered to extend from Jan.
21, 1793, the date of the execution of
Louis XIV., to July 28, 1794; when
Robespierre and other sanguinary
leaders were guillotined on the spot
where their victims had been killed.
Reindeer, the only domesticated
species of the deer family. It extends
Reindeer Moss
Religions Liberty
over the boreal regions of both hemi-
spheres, and runs into several well
marked varieties. Many authors con-
sider the American reindeer or cari-
bou, which has never been domesticat-
ed, as a distinct species. Both the male
and female have antlers, and these
are not alike on both sides, the great
palmated brow antler being, as a rule,
developed on one side only. In the
winter the fur is long, grayish brown
on the body ; neck, hind-quarters, and
belly white. In summer the gray hair
darkens into a sooty brown, and the
white parts become gray. To the
Laplander the reindeer is the only
representative of wealth, and it serves
him as a substitute for the horse, the
cow, the sheep and the goat. It is ex-
tensively employed as a beast of
draught and carriage, being broken to
draw sledges, or to carry men or pack-
ages on its back. In 1891 domestic
reindeer were introduced into Alaska
by Dr. Sheldon Jackson for the bene-
fit of the natives who frequently suf-
fered for food, and for purposes of
transportation. In 1898 Dr. Jackson,
$s agent of the United States govern-
ment, procured a colony of Lapland-
ers to train the natives in the care of
the reindeer.
Reindeer Moss, a lichen which
forms the winter food of the reindeer.
It is abundant in the pire forests
of Lapland, and flourishes even when
they have been burnt. Reindeer feed
upon it and dig for it when it is cov-
ered by snow. It tastes like wheat
bran, but leaves a slightly burning
sensation on the palate.
Reinhart, Benjamin Franklin,
an American artist ; born near
Waynesburg, Pa., Aug. 29, 1829. His
most important works include the en-
gravings : " Cleopatra " ; " Washington
Receiving the News of Arnold's Trea-
son " ; " After the Crucifixion," etc.,
and numerous portraits. He died in
Philadelphia, Pa., May 3, 1885.
Reinnart, Charles Stanley, an
American artist ; born in Pittsburg,
Pa., May 16, 1844. He exhibited
Paris, Munich, and New York city,
and was a member of numerous art
associations. He died in Philadelohia,
Pa., Aug. 30, 189G.
Reinsch, Paul Samuel, an Amer-
ican educator ; born in Milwaukee,
Wis., in 18G9 ; was graduated at the
University of Wisconsin in 1892 and
at its Law Department in 1894. After
studying abroad, he was made Pro-
fessor of Political Science at the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin in 1899. His
publications include " The Common
Law in the Early American Colonies "
(1899) ; "World Politics at the End
of the Ninteenth Century as Influ-
enced by the Oriental Situation "
(1900); "Colonial Government"
J[1901) ; and many magazine articles.
Relapsing Fever (also known as
Famine Fever and Seven-day Fever),
one of the three great species of con-
tinued fever, the two others being ty-
phus and typhoid.
Release, a discharge of a right;
an instrument in writing, by which
estates, rights, titles, entries, actions,
and other things are extinguished, and
discharged, and sometimes transferred,
abridged, or enlarged ; and, in general,
a person's giving up or discharging
the right or action he has, or claims to
have, against another or his lands.
Relics. Articles regarded as sacred
in the Roman Catholic and Greek
Churches, such as the " Holy Coat of
Treyes," said to have been worn by
Christ, alleged pieces of the cross
on which Christ was crucified, alleged
bones of martyrs and other persons
held in reverence as saints, etc. It
is claimed that a bone alleged to be of
St. Anne, the mother of the Virgin
Mary, has effected many miraculous
cures in New York city in 1903.
The Greek and other Oriental
Churches, and most of the Oriental
sects, agree with Roman Catholics in
the practice of relic worship. On the
contrary, the Reformed Churches,
without exception, have rejected the
usage ; though non-religious relic wor-
ship is rife enough, in the form of
swords of Wallace and Bruce, locks of
Prince Charlie's hair, etc. The prac-
tice of relic worship forms a notable
feature of the Mohammedan usage of
pilgrimages, and is an even more im-
portant feature of Buddhism.
Religions Liberty, or Liberty
of Conscience, is the recognition and
assertion by the state of the right of
every man, in the profession of opin-
ion and in the outward forms and re-
quirements of religion, to do or ab-
stain from doing whatever his individ-
ual conscience or sense of right sug-
Rembrandt
gests. Religious liberty is opposed to
the imposition by the state of any ar-
bitrary restrictions on forms of wor-
ship or the propagation of religious
opinions, or to the enacting of any
binding forms of worship or belief.
The limit of religious liberty is neces-
sarily the right of the state to main-
tain order, prevent excesses, and guard
against encroachments on private
right. In the organization of civil and
ecclesiastical government which pre-
vailed from Constantine to the Ref-
ormation, persecution was in general
only limited by dissent; and universal
submission to the dominant Church
became the condition of religious peace
throughout Christendom, while relig-
ious liberty was unknown. The con-
test of opinion begun at the Reforma-
tion had the effect of establishing re-
ligious liberty, as far as it at present
exists, but the principle itself was so
far from being understood and accept-
<?d in its purity by either party that
ifc hardly suggested itself even to the
Oiost enlightened reasoners of that age.
While the American colonies were de-
pendent on Great Britain, religious
liberty in the full sense existed only in
Rhcde Island, toleration in Maryland
having been limited by laws which
punished conscientious utterances re-
garding religious dogmas as blas-
phemy. For many years after inde-
pendence the laws of Massachusetts,
New Hampshire, and Connecticut lim-
ited religious liberty.
Rembrandt, Van Ryu, one of the
most celebrated painters and engrav-
ers of the Dutch school ; born in Ley-
den, Holland, July 15, 1606. He ac-
quired his art from several masters
at Amsterdam, and early in life grew
famous, his studio being crowded with
pupils, and his works selling rapidly.
Rembrandt was master of all that re-
lates to coloring, distribution of light
and shade, and composition, and
though deficient hi other requisites of
a true artist, it cannot be denied that
his pencil is masterly and unique, pos-
sessing an energy and effect belonging
to no other painter. His etchings have
wonderful freedom, facility, and bold-
ness. Rembrandt was twice married,
resided during the greater part of his
life at Amsterdam, and acquired a
large fortune. He died in Amsterdam,
And was buried Oct. 8. 1669.
Remington
Rcnienyi, Edouard, an Hungar-
ian violinist ; born in Heves, Hungary,
in 1830. In 1851, after the Hungar-
ian revolution, he was forced to flee
to the United States, but returned to
Europe in 1853. In 1854 he visited
London, where he was appointed solo
violinist to Queen Victoria. In 1800
he obtained his amnesty and returned
to Hungary, wbere he attained great
distinction. In 1878 he returned to
the United States, where he spent
much of his time and gave many con-
certs, though during these years he
also made visits to other countries.
Died in San Francisco, Cal., May 15,
1898.
Remey, George Collier, an Amer-
ican naval officer ; born in Burling-
ton, la., Aug. 10, 1841 ; was graduated
at the United States Naval Academy
in 1859 ; served with distinction dur-
ing the Civil War, and was captured
during the assault on Fort Sumter,
iu 1803. When the war with Spain
broke out he was placed in command
of the naval base at Key West, Fla.
He was promoted rear-admiral in 1898
and in 1900 was given command of the
Asiatic Station at Yokohama, and in
this capacity directed the operations
of the United States naval forces in
China.
Remington, Philp, an American
inventor ; born in Litchfield, N. Y.,
Oct. 31, 1816. He entered the small
arms factory of his father, and for
25 years superintended the mechanical
department. The perfecting of the
Remington breech loading rifles and
of the Remington typewriter was
largely due to his inventive skill. He
died in 1889.
Remington, Frederick, an Amer-
ican artist and author ; born in Can-
ton, N. Y., Oct. 4, 1861 ; was educated
at the Yale Art School, and at the
Art Students' League, New York. He
was one of the most conspicuous of
American artists in " black and
white." He died Dec. 26, 1909.
Remington, Joseph Price, an
American pharmacist ; born in Phila-
delphia, Pa., March 26, 1847; was
graduated at the Philadelphia College
of Pharmacy in 1866; and became
Professor in the Pharmaceutical Lab-
oratory and dean of the Philadelphia
College of Pharmacy in 1893. He is
a member of many American and for-
Remittent Fever
sign pharmaceutical and medical
bodies, and author of " Remington's
Practice of Pharmacy."
Remittent Feyer, one of the vari-
eties of fever arising from malaria or
Harsh poison one being intermit-
tent fever, or ague. In its milder
forms it scarcely differs from severe
intermittent fever; while in its more
serious form it may approximate close-
ly to yellow fever.
Remonstrance, The Grand, in
English history, a remonstrance con-
sisting of 206 articles, condemning
the arbitrary procedure of Charles I.
It was carried in the House of Com-
mons, Nov. 22, 1641, by a majority of
11, and presented to the king Dec. 1.
Remonstrants, a name given to
the Dutch Protestants, who, after the
death of Arminius (A. D. 1609) con-
tinued to maintain his views, and in
1610 presented to the States of Hol-
land, at Friesland, a remonstrance in
five articles formulating their points
of departure from Calvinism. The
Remonstrants still form a small but
liberal and scholarly sect in Holland.
Remora, the sucking-fish, or suck-
er. By means of the suctorial disk,
a transformation of the spinous dorsaJ
fin, the species can attach themselves
to any flat surface. The adhesion is
so strong that the fish can be dis-
EEMOBA, OB SUCKER.
lodged only with difficulty^ unless
pushed forward with a sliding mo-
tion. Being bad swimmers, they at-
tach themselves to vessels, or to ani-
mals having greater power of locomo-
tion than themselves ; but they can-
not be regarded as parasites, as they
do not obtain their food at the expense
of their host.
Remsen, Ira, an American chem-
ist; born, in New York city, Feb. 10.
1846; was graduated at the College
of the City of New York in 1865, and
later at the College of Physicians and
Surgeons, and at the University of
Gottingen; was Professor of Chem-
istry at Williams College in 1872-
1876 ; founded the " American Chem-
ical Journal " in 1879. He is a mem-
ber of many scientific organizations
and societies ; and the author of nu-
merous textbooks including " The Prin-
ciples of - Theoretical Chemistry " ;
" Inorganic Chemistry " ; " Chemical
Experiments " ; etc. ; became Profes-
sor of Chemistry at Johns Hopkins
University in 1876, and succeeded Dr.
Daniel Coit Gilman as president there
in 1901.
Remus, the twin brother of Rom-
ulus, who was the fabled founder o
Rome. According to the old myth,
Romulus killed his brother.
Renaissance, a name given to the
great intellectual movement which
marks the transition from the Middle
Ages to the modern world. It was a
change in attitude of mind and ideal
of life, in philosophy, art, literary
criticism, political and religious
thought. Substantially a revolt
against the dogmatism of the Middle
Ages, the new spirit claimed the en-
tire liberation of reason, and pas-
sionately recognizing and studying the
rich humanity of Greece and Rome,
aimed at a complete rehabilitation of
the human spirit with all the free ac-
tivities and arts and graces. To the
same impulse belonged also the in-
vention of printing and multiplica
tion of books, new methods of paper
xiaking, the use of the mariner's com-
pass, the discovery of America, and
the exploration of the Indian Sea. No
definite date can be given for the be-
ginning of the Renaissance. Long be-
fore the close of the Dark Ages there
were isolated scholars and thinkers
who anticipated the new light. In
its main elements the movement orig-
inated in Italy toward the end of the
14th century, and, attaining its full
development there in the earlier half
of the 16th, the Renaissance communi-
cated itself throughout the whole of
the rest of Europe; France, Germany,
England, and other countries partici-
pating later in the movement, which
in each of them took a somewhat dif-
ferent shape-
Rcnan
Renwiclt
Renan, Joseph. Ernest, a French
writer ; born in Treguier, France,
Feb. 2T, 1823. In 1862 be was ap-
pointed Professor of Hebrew, Chal-
dee, and Syriac in the College de
France, but the skeptical views man-
ifested in his " Life of Jesus " (1803),
raised an outcry against him, and he
was removed from his chair, to be re-
stored again, however, in 1871. This
work, the publication of which caused
intense excitement throughout Europe,
was the first part of a comprehensive
work on the " History of the Origins
of Christianity," written from the
standpoint of one who disbelieves in
the supernatural claims of Christian-
ity. Kenan's latest important work
is the " History of the People of Is-
rael till the Time of King David." He
became a member of the French Acad-
emy in 1878. He died Oct. 2, 1892.
Renegade, one who renounces his
religious faith and adopts another
creed, more particularly one who re-
nounces Christianity and becomes a
Moslem ; in a wider sense the word is
practically synonymous with traitor,
one who deserts to the enemies of his
country ; in American history it was
applied to white men who joined the
Indians.
Rennet, an aqueous infusion of
the dried stomach of the calf. It is
a valuable agent in the coagulation of
the casein of milk preparatory to the
manufacture of cheese. It appears to
contain a soluble ferment which acts
directly on the milk. Also a variety,
or rather several sub-varieties, of ap-
ple, with more or less spotted fruit;
ground color gray, or golden. There
is a French and a Canadian rennet ;
called also a queen.
Reno, Jesse Lee, an American mil-
itary officer ; born in Wheeling, W.
Va., June 20, 1823 ; was graduated at
the United States Military Academy
in 1846; served with distinction in
the Mexican War. In November,
1861, he was appointed Brigadier-
General of volunteers; distinguished
himself at the capture of Roanoke
Island and in the engagements at New-
bern and Camden ; was promoted Ma-
jor-General of volunteers in July 1862 ;
and was present in the actions at
Manassas and Chantilly. He was
killed at South Mountain, Md., on
Sept. 14, 1862, while leading a charge.
Reno, Jesse Wilford, an Amer-
ican inventor ; born in Fort Leaven-
worth, Kan., Aug. 4, 1861 ; son of
Maj.-Gen. Jesse L. Reno; was grad-
uated at Lehigh University in 1883
and afterward took a special course
in mining and engineering ; was en-
gaged in mining in Colorado in 1885-
1890. He invented an inclined eleva-
tor or moving stairway in 1892, which
has since been largely introduced iri
department stores, etc.
Reno, Marcus A., an American
military officer ; born in Illinois about
1835 ; was graduated at the United
States Military Academy, and was ap-
pointed a brevet 2d lieutenant in the
1st Dragoons in 1857. He was pro-
moted colonel U. S. A., and Brigadier-
General, U. S. V., for meritorious serv-
ices during the war, in 1865 ; and was
dismissed from the service April 1,
1880. In 1876 he took part in the
campaign against the Sioux Indians,
under Sitting Bull, as second in com-
mand of his regiment, in which Gen.
George A Custer and nearly all of
the regiment were killed. For failing
to support his comrades in the fight
and for other serious charges he was
dismissed from the service. He died
in Washington. D. C., March 31, 1889.
Reno's bravery was undoubted, and
by many his dismissal is regarded as
unjust.
Renwick, James, an American
author and physicist ; born in Liver-
pool, England, May 30, 1792; was
graduated at Columbia College, New
York, in 1807. In 1820 he was made
Professor of Chemistry and Physics
in that college, a position he held till
1853. In 1838 he was appointed by
the United States government one of
the commissioners to explore the line
of the boundary between Maine and
New Brunswick. He wrote, besides
smaller text-books and translations,
" Treatise on the Steam Engine " ; sev-
eral books on mechanics, and biogra-
phies of De Witt Clinton, Jay and
Hamilton, and others. He died Jan.
12, 1863.
Renwick, James, an American
architect; born in New York city,
Nov. 3, 1818 ; son of the preceding ;
was graduated at Columbia College in
1836; first engaged in civil engineer-
ing ; but later devoted himself to ar-
chitecture. Among the many build-
Repentance
ings which he planneo! are Grace
Church, New York city, completed in
1845 ; the Smithsonian Institution and
the Corcoran Art Gallery, in Wash-
ington, D. C. ; the Vassar College
buildings in Poughkeepsie, N. Y. ; the
Young Men's Christian Association
and St. Patrick's Cathedral (R. C.),
in New York city. He died in New
York city, June 23, 1895.
Repentance, the act of repenting;
the state of being penitent ; sorrow or
regret for what has been done or left
undone by one's self ; especially sor- !
TOW and contrition for sin.
Replevin, a personal action which j
lies to recover possession of good_s or
chattels wrongfully taken or detained,
upon giving security to try the right |
to them in a court of law, and to re- j
turn them if the suit is determined
against the plaintiff. Originally a
remedy peculiar to cases of wrongful
distress, it is now applicable to all
cases of wrongful taking or deten-
tion. Also the writ by which goods
and chattels are replevined.
Replica, in the fine arts, the copy
of a picture, etc., made by the artist
who executed the original.
Reporting, an important branch
of journalism ; the act, system, or
practice of making, reports of meetings,
debates, or the like.
The methods of newspaper reporting
in the United States have been devel-
oped to a degree of the greatest effi-
ciency. A first-class reporter com-
mands higher pay than most editors,
and some of the articles which ap-
pear in the daily > press are equal, or
superior in descriptive power to the
best efforts of well known authors.
American reporters have also done
honorable and abla detective work in
saving the innocent and bringing the
guilty to punishment. The rapidity
with which reports of speeches, meet-
ings, notable incidents, etc., are fur-
nished to the press is something al-
most incredible to the uninitiated. The
various press associations ot the coun-
try are the principal factors in the
work of disseminating the results of
reportorial work. See JOURNALISM.
Repousse, a term applied to a
kind of ornamental metal work, formed
in relief by striking on the metal from
behind with a punch or hammer till
Representatives
the required forms are roughly pro-
duced in relief on the surface ; the
work is then finished by the process
of chasing. The work of BenvenUto
Cellini (1500-1570), in this branch of
art, is the most celebrated. Common
work of this kind, as for tea or coffee
pots, is executed in pewter and Bri-
tannia metal, and then electrotyped.
Repplier, Agnes, an American e
sayist ; born in Philadelphia in 18591
Her published works, include : " Books
and Men " ; " Points of View " ; " Es
says in Miniature"; ''Philadelphia:
the Place and the People " ; etc. She
has also compiled a " Book of Famoug
Verse."
Representative, an individual
standing as a type. The representa-
tive theory contended for by Swain-
son and other quinarians was that ini
each circle particular types were rep-
resented. In every circle of birds, fon
instance, there were raptorial, inses-
sorial, rasorial, grallatorial, and nata-
torial types. Any representative ofl
these was analogous to the corre-
sponding type in all other circles.
Representatives, House of, one
of the branches of the Congress, also
known as the Lower House. The mem-
bers of this branch are elected" direct-
ly by popular vote. In it is vested by
the National Constitution the sola
right to originate laws concerning the
finances of the country. The Commit-
tee on Ways and Means of the House
is the original source of all tariff
legislation, and all bills providing for
the raising or expenditure of publics
moneys have their origin in the House,
In each of these two forms of legisla-
tion the House has the limited co-
operation of the Senate, viz.. the Sen-
ate may amend a tariff bill or resolu-
tion appropriating public moneys in)
the line either of increasing or de-
creasing specific amounts. The House
has the privilege of passing on these
Senate amendments, and if it declines
to accept any part of such changes, it
is customary to appoint a Conference
Committee consisting of an equal
number of members from the House
and Senate, to whom the disputed
subject is referred, and the report of
this committee is generally accepted
in the light of a compromise by both
houses. The membership of the Hou~3
Representative Gov't
Reproduction
is based on the population of the
country as ascertained decennially by
the census, and therefore changes
every ten years.
Representative Government,
that form of government in which
either the whole of a nation, or that
portion of it whose superior intelli-
gence affords a sufficient guarantee
for the proper exercise of the privilege,
is called on to elect representatives or
deputies charged with the power of
controlling the public expenditure, im-
posing taxes, and assisting the execu-
tive in enforcing the laws.
Reprieve, the suspension or delay
of the carrying out of a sentence
generally of death) on a prisoner. It
is popularly but erroneously supposed
to signify a permanent remission, or
commutation of a capital sentence.
Reprise, in maritime law, a ship
recaptured from an enemy or pirate.
If recaptured within 24 hours of her
capture she must be restored to her
owners in whole ; if after that period,
she is lawful prize of her recaptors.
Reproduction, the term applied
to the whole process whereby life is
continued from generation to genera-
tion. The simplest forms of reproduc-
tion are found among the single-celled
plants and animals. There we may
find an organism like Schizogenes,
multiplying by breakage, reproducing
by rupture, presumably when the cell
has overgrown its normal size ; in
others numerous buds are liberated at
once, as in Arcella and Pelomyxa ; in
many, familiarly in the yeast plant,
one bud is formed at a time ; in most
the cell divides into two or many
daughter cells. The formation of many
daughter cells or spores is little more
than ordinary division taking place
repeatedly in rapid succession, and
within the substance of the parent
cell in other words, in limited time
and space.
It has been shown that reproduction
begins among single-celled organisms
in a kind of rupture ; but even among
the more complex forms of life an
equally crude mode of reproduction
sometimes occurs. The cast-off arm
of a starfish may regrow the entire
animal with a readiness that suggests
a habit ; some kinds of worms (e. g.,
Nemerteans) break into pieces, each
of which is able regrow the whole ;
large pieces of a sea anemone or of a
sponge are sometimes separated off
and form new organisms. It .is easy
to show experimentally that parts cut
from a hydra, a sponge, or a sea
anemone, from a seaweed, a moss, or
a tree, may in certain conditions grow
into an entire organism.
But the usual mode of asexual re-
production is by the formation of
definite buds. When these buds re-
main continuous, colonial organisms
result, like many sponges, most hy-
droids, Siphonophora like the Portu-
guese man-of-war, many corals, almost
all the Polyzoa, ana many Tunicates.
The runners of a strawberry and the
suckers which grow around a rose
bush illustrate the same state.
Sexual reproduction in its fully dif-
ferentiated form involves (a) the dis-
tinctness of two parent organisms,
(b) .the formation of two different
kinds of reproductive elements e. g.
spermatozoa produced by the male
and ova by the female, and (c) the
fertilization of the egg cell by a male
element. Moreover, the process of
sexual reproduction also includes the
sexual union of the two parents, or
some provision of nature by which the
perfect fertilization of the ovum is
secured. In some cases the fer-
tilized ovum develops in organic rela-
tion with the mother organism, from
which it is eventually separated as an
embryo. But, while many organisms
exhibit fully differentiated sexual re-
production, and while the essentials
of the process are always the same,
there are not a few important varia-
tions in detail?
Reproductive maturity the blos-
soming of the individual life occurs
about the time when growth ceases.
In the lower animals sexual maturity
is attained relatively sooner than in
the higher forms; but there are many
strange cases of precocious and re-
tarded reproduction. The physiology
of reproduction must take account of
that profound reaction which affects
the whole system as sexual maturity
is attained, of the various ways in
which the reproductive elements are
separated from the parents, of the
relation which, alike in plant and ani-
mal, may be established between the
fertilized egg cell and the mother or-
Aeptilia
Republican Party
garxism, and of the way in which an
embryo thus nurtured eventually be-
comes independent. Moreover, there
are often highly evolved psychical ac-
tivities associated with reproduction
notably the love between mates and
between parents and offspring.
Reptilia, reptiles ; cold-blooded,
oviparous, or ovovivparous, vertebrate
animals having the skin covered with
scales or scutes ; heart with two
auricules, ventricular chamber incom-
pletely divided. Respiration takes
place by lungs, respiratory movements
being slow and irregular. Intestinal
tract and urogenital organs open into
a common cloaca. When the appen-
dicular parts of the skeleton are pres-
ent, the sternum is never replaced by
membrane bone, and the posterior
sternal ribs are attached to a median
prolongation of the sternum. The
metatarsal bones are not anchylosed
among themselves or with the distal
tarsal bone. The foetus is inclosed in
an amnion and allantois, and nour-
ished from the vitellus.
The first appearance of reptiles is
believed to be indicated by remains of
a marine Saurian of Carboniferous
age. Proterosaurus is found in the
Permian. In Mesozoic times the rep-
tilian type appears in such variety
and in such a high state of develop-
ment that this era has been distin-
guished as the Reptilian age. In the
Trias large marine Saurians and
Dinosaurs are met with ; more gigan-
tic forms were developed in the Juras-
sic period ; and the class attained its
highest culmination in the Chalk.
Republic, a commonwealth ; a form
of political constitution in which the
supreme power is vested, not in an
hereditary ruler, but in the hands
either of certain privileged members
of the community or of the whole com-
munity. Theoretically, the purest and
most perfect form of a republic is a
state in which all the members of the
community meet in public assembly
to enact laws, and transact all other
national business. Such a system is,
however, practicable only in very
small < states. Therefore it has given
way in all modern republics to the
representative system that is, one
in which the supreme power is vested
in rulers chosen periodically by and
from the whole body of the people, or
by their representatives assembled in
a congress or national assembly, as in
the present French republic. The re-
publics of Venice and Genoa were ex-
clusive oligarchies, the supreme power
being vested in the nobles or a few
priviledged persons. The republics of
the United States and Switzerland are
federal republics that is, composed
of a number of separate states bound
together by compact, subject to a
central government for all national
purposes, but having powers of self-
government in matters affecting indi-
didual states.
Republican Party, one of the two
great political parties in the United
States. The term Republican has had
at different times, different significa-
tions. In 1792 a faction of the Anti-
Federalists, advocating more direct
control of the government by the peo-
ple, further restriction of supreme
authority, and a stronger emphasis of
States Rights, began to be known as
the Republican Party. This party
was increased by numbers of voters
who called themselves Democrats on
account of their sympathy with the
French Jacobins. The combination
was known officially as the Democrat-
ic-Republican party. Those members
having centralizing tendencies having
seceded, the term Democratic was
alone retained. This name, as the
title of a National party was first used
in 1825, the election of 1828 being the
first in which it appeared, at that
time opposing the original holders of
the name. The name Republican, as
the title of a party went out of use
after the election of 1824, but was re-
sumed in 1856, during the administra-
tion of Mr. Pierce (1853-1857). Its
platform rested mainly on the prohibi-
tion of slavery in the Territories, de-
claring that freedom was the public
law of the national domain : the pro-
hibition of polygamy, which it classed
with slavery as "the twin relic of bar-
barism" ; and the admission of Kan-
sas as a free State. In 1856 the party
fairly divided the country with its
Democratic competitor. In June of
that year its convention met at Phila-
delphia and nominated John C. Fre-
mont for President. Mr. Buchanan,
the Democratic candidate was elected,
11 of the States voting for General
Fremont. The decision in the Dred
Republican Party
Republican Party
Scott Case and tbe progress of events
in Kansas greatly strengthened the
party, and after the divisions among
the Democrats over the same question
the success of the Republicans was as-
sured. In 1860 the party elected Abra-
ham Lincoln President, who received
the electoral votes of the free States
except New Jersey. On the announce-
ment of his election the Southern
States prepared to secede, South Car-
olina leading, followed by 10 others.
Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated March
4, 1861. He asserted that there was
no right to interfere with slavery in
the United States where it existed, and
acknowledged that of the reclamation
of fugitive slaves ; but he expressed
his determination to execute the laws
and protect public property. The con-
duct of the Civil War was in the
hands of the Republican party, though
northern Democrats formed a large
proportion of the Union army.
In 1864 Mr. Lincoln was unani-
mously nominated by the Republicans,
and was reelected by an overwhelming
majority. On the 14th of April, 1863,
Mr. Lincoln was assassinated, and
died the next day. Andrew Johnson,
the Vice-President, immediately suc-
ceeded him, and continued his cabinet.
Mr. Johnson had been a loyal Union
man of Tennessee and was chosen in
view of the reconstruction of the
South. He soon disagreed with the
party and came into actual conflict
with Congress. He was impeached
March 23, 1868, but acquitted May 16,
and 26 for lack of a vote of two-thirds
for conviction. Chief-Justice Chase
presided at this trial. In 1868 Ulys-
ses S. Grant was elected President.
1 1 is election was urged on the ground
that the Republican party, having suc-
cessfully finished the war, maintained
public credit, abolished slavery, and
secured liberty, was the proper one to
carry on the government. General
Grant was chosen for a second term
by a largely increased electoral vote,
and was succeeded by R. B. Hayes in
1876, the election of the latter being de-
clared by the electoral commission
(q. v.). James A. Garfield was elect-
ed President, and died Sept. 19, 1881,
from wounds inflicted July 2. and
Chester A. Arthur, the Vice-Presi-
dent, took his place. In 1884 there
arose a considerable defection from
the party ranks many declining to vote
for James G. Blaine, the regular nom-
inee. As a result Grover Cleveland,
the Democratic candidate was chosen.
In 1888 the party again triumphed
in the National election, Benjamin
Harrison defeating Grover Cleveland
on the tariff issue. In 1892 the party
was defeated by the second election of
Grover Cleveland and a Democratic
Congress. In 1894 it again came into
power in Congress by signal majori-
ties carrying even Kentucky and other
Democratic strongholds ; and in 189G
regained all branches of the govern-
ment by the election of William
McKinley, who was re-elected in 1900.
On his assassination, Sept. 14, 1901,
he was succeeded by Theodore Roose-
velt, Vice-President, who was elected
President in 1904 by an overwhelm-
ing majority, defeating Alton B. Par-
ker, the Democratic candidate.
In 1908 the Republican Party was
again successful in electing its candi-
date, William H. Taft, who defeated
the Democratic nominee, William
Jennings Bryan, who had been named
for the third time by that party. Presi-
dent Taft's first official act was to sum-
mon Congress in extra session to deal
with, several important subjects. Dur-
ing the session, which closed June 25,
1910, Congress passed a new tariff
bill ; placed railroad rate making, and
telegraph and telephone companies un-
der government control ; imposed a
special tax on corporations ; created a
Commerce Court ; adopted a postal
telegrnph bill ; authorized the admis-
sion of Arizona and New Mexico into
the Union ; created a bureau of mines ;
and established rigid rules for the pre-
vention of collisions at sea. The
party suffered heavy defeat through-
out the country in 1910, when the
Democratic party secured control of
the National House of Representatives.
Later notable events of this adminis-
tration were the attempts to negotiate
a reciprocal trade agreement with
Canada and a general arbitration
treaty with Great Britain and France;
the passage of a Panama Canal bill, in
whi"h American shipping was espe-
cially favored, and under which Great
Britain file! two protests; intervention
in Nicaragua to suppress the revolu-
tion of 1912; the visit of Secretary of
Reservation
State Knox to the Central American
republics and to Japan as special am-
bassdor at the funeral of the Mikado;
the employment of the army along
the Rio Grande to safeguard American
lives and property against the Mexican
revolutionists; and the revolt in the
Republican party, leading to the or-
ganization of the Progressive Party
(q. v.) and its nomination of former
President Roosevelt (see Roosevelt,
Theodore; Taft, William Howard).
Both of these candidates were de-
feated by the Democratic candidate,
Gov. Woodrow Wilson.
Reservation, Papal, the privilege,
introduced by John XXII. and con-
tinued by Clement VI. and Gregory
XI., of reserving to the Holy See the
power of electing bishops, formerly
possessed by the clergy and people of
the several cities. Reservations were
abolished by the Council of Constance,
March 5, 1436.
Reserve, in military usage, a body
of troops kept for any emergency ;
that portion of an army drawn up
for battle which is reserved to sup-
port the other lines as occasion re-
quires.
Reserve Forces, those troops
which, by the terms of their engage-
ment with the State, compulsory or
otherwise, are liable to be at once
recalled to the field army in case of
war. In the United States the Na-
tional Guard is subject to call for
immediate duty.
Reservoir, Jerome Park, An
artificial reservoir which when com-
pleted will form part of the water-
works system of New York City.
The Jerome Park reservoir, as the
new storage basin is called, is located
on a lofty ridge, which runs N. and
S. between the valleys in which are
located the New York and Putnam
and the Harlem railroads. The site is
admirably adapted by nature for the
excavation of a large artificial basin ;
for at this point there is a general de-
pression in the summit of the ridge,
and the labor of excavating and em-
banking the reservoir has been pro-
portionately lessened. The greatest
length of the reservoir in a N. and S.
direction is a little over one mile, and
its greatest width half a mile, its area
Resin
being 229 acres. The whole of the
bottom is being excavated to a uni-
form depth of 26% feet.
Though the total amount of excava-
tion is greatly lessened by the natural
depression of the ground, there is no
point where it is carried less than 16
feet below the natural surface, the
bottom of the finished reservoir being
everywhere 31% feet below the top
of the embankment.
The present estimate for the total
excavation is 6,900,000 cubic yards
of material, of which 3,900,000 is
earth and 3,000,000 is solid rock. Of
this total 2,286,000 cubic yards of
earth have been taken out and 1,647,-
000 yards of rock, so that something
less than two-thirds of the work has
been completed. The capacity of the
E. basin is 1,085,000,000 gallons, and
the capacity of the W. basin 765,000,-
000, making a total of 1,850,000,000
gallons. The excavation of the W. side
of the reservoir was completed in
1901, and in the spring of 1904 the
process of concreting and finishing
was completed. The total cost of the
finished work will be $5,840,000.
Residence. The length of time
which a person shall remain within
the limits of a State in order to give
him a legal residence there, varies in
the different commonwealths, each gov-
ernment being the judge of the qualifi-
cations necessary to entitle a denizen
to claim permanent residence within
its boundaries. An alien who desires
to become a naturalized citizen of the
United States must prove a residence
of five years in the country previous
to admittance to the right of adoption.
Resin, or Rosin, a widely distribu-
ted class of vegetable substances, char-
acterized by being insoluble in water,
soluble to different degrees in alcohol,
ether, and liquid hydrocarbons, soften-
ing or melting at a moderate heat,
and at a higher temperature burning
with a smoky, luminous flame. In the
crude condition they form amorphous
masses, having a conchoidal fracture,
and are, either neutral or acid. Some
are employed in medicine, others in
the preparation of varnishes, sealing
wax, and similar substances. Resins
are also constituents of the substances
known as gum-resins, and of the me-
dicinal preparations called balsams, as
balsams of Peru and Tulu.
Resonance
Respiration
Resonance, or Resonancy, in
acoustics, (1) Sound reflected by a
surface less than 112.5 feet from the
spot whence it originally traveled.
The direct and the reflected sounds
are confounded, but the one strength-
ens the other. Bare walls tend to be
resonant ; walls hung with tapestry
are not so. (2) The increase of sound
produced by a sounding board, or by
the body ,of a musical instrument. In
medicine, a more or less shrill sound
heard by auscultation in the larynx
or lungs of a person speaking, or of
one affected with chest disease.
Respiration, a part of the life of
all organisms, animal and vegetable.
It is a series of chemical changes, the
first, of which is the absorption of
oxygen into the body, and the last of
THE TRACHEA (WINDPIPE) , BRONCHI,
AND ONE OF THE LUNGS IN SECTION.
which is the excretion of carbonic
acid. The respiration of plants comes
under the head of vegetable physi-
ology, and the general relation of the
function of respiration to the other
bodily functions, under physiology.
In all animals which possess a blood
stream the respiration is carried on
B. 125.
by the simple diffusion of oxygen into
and of carbonic acid out of the blood
through a thin membrane from and
into the air or water in which the
creature lives. The essential structure,
therefore, of all breathing organs,
lungs, gills, or tracheae, must be the
same : a thin membrane exposed on
the one side to the oxygen-containing
medium, air or water, in which the
animal lives, on the other side to the
blood flowing in a network of thin-
walled vessels, so that the gases that
have to pass in and out of the blood
are only separated from the air or
water from which and into which they
have to pass by thin partitions by
the membranous wall of the breath-
ing organ, and by the thin wall of the
blood vessels.
The respiratory mechanism consists
of the lungs, a series of minute air
chambers with a network of capil-
laries in the wall, the air passages
from the air chambers of the lungs to
the outer air, and the chest walls with
their muscles, which act like bellows
and change the air in the lungs. Let
us begin with the air passages. There
are first the nose and mouth ; these
join the upper part of the gullet,
known as the pharynx. Prom the
pharynx arises the windpipe (tra-
chea) ; this passes through the voice
box (larynx) into the chest cavity;
there it divides into two passages (the
bronchi) ; the bronchi go on dividing
again and again, generally into two;
the ultimate divisions (the bron-
chioles) open into clusters of air
chambers. The air chambers are about
yjtf inch in diameter. It has been
estimated that there are some 725,-
000,000 of them, and that their total
surface is about 2,000 square feet.
The walls of the air chambers are
formed of a thin membrane in which
the blood and lymph capillaries
ramify. Minute openings lead from
the air chambers into the lymph
spaces of the membrane. The mem-
branous walls are partly formed of
elastic tissue. It is this that gives to
the lungs their elasticity. The larger
air passages (trachea and bronchi)
are kept open by horseshoe-shaped
plates or cartilage; muscles stretch
between the poles of the horseshoe,
complete the ring, and permit the size
of the passages to vary, at the same
Respiration
time resisting over-distention when
the internal pressure rises. These
larger air passages are lined by a
mucous membrane, containing mucous
glands ; the innermost layer is a"
ciliated epithelium ; the cilia lash up-
ward, and thus keep the passages free
from mucus and remove foreign par-
ticles. As the passages become smaller
they lose their cartilages, and the
muscles form a continuous circular
layer.
The chest is an air-tight chamber
enclosing the lungs and the heart. The
walls of the chest are formed of bones
(the ribs, sternum, and backbone)
and muscles ; the bones and muscles
are so arranged that the size of the
chest cavity can be altered. In this
way the chest acts as a bellows and
moves air in and out of the lungs. The
ribs are sloped slightly downward,
especially after an expiration ; when
an inspiration is taken certain muscles
fix the upper ribs, and those muscles
connecting the ribs to each cither con-
tract and the ribs are raised, and
thus the size of the chest cavity is
increased. At the same time a flat
muscle called the diaphragm, which
separates the chest cavity from the
rest of the body cavity, and which
after an expiration is arched upward
(by the pressure of the_ abdominal
viscera on it, the viscera in turn be-
ing pressed on by the abdominal
walls), forcibly contracts, becomes
flatter, and therefore enlarges the size
of the chest cavity, forcing the abdom-
inal viscera downward and causing
the abdomen to protrude. In these
two ways, then, the size of the chest
cavity may be increased. The result
of this enlargement is that the pres-
sure of the air within the cavities of
the lungs is lowered ; air therefore
from without rushes through the nos-
trils (one ought not to breathe
through one's mouth) down the wind-
pipe into the lungs, and thus a fresh
supply of oxygen is introduced. The
movements which produce this result
are known as the inspiratory move-
ments. In making an expiration the
reverse effects are produced ; the chest
cavity is made smaller, the pressure
of the air in the lungs increases, and
some rushes out through the nostrils
into the air till the pressures inside
and outside are equalized. An ordi-
Respixation
nary expiration is effected by the
elasticity of the lungs, by the fall of
the ribs, unsupported by the contrac-
tion of the muscles that caused an in-
spiratory movement, by the elasticity
of the cartilages of the ribs which
were twisted during inspiration, and
by the elasticity of the abdominal wall
which was forced outward by those
viscera pushed downward by tha
diaphragm. An ordinary inspiration
is therefore the result of a number of
active muscular contractions, while
an ordinary expiration is the result of
mere passive elasticity of the parts
concerned. The average amount of
air, in the case of an individual five
feet eight inches in height, that goes
in and out of the lungs at each in-
spiration and expiration is about 20
cubic inches ; this is called the tidal
air. By means of forced inspiratory
movements the ingoing tide may be
increased by 120 cubic inches ; by
means of a forced expiration vhe out-
going tidal air may be increased by
90 cubic inches. After the most forced
expiration possible there always re-
main within the lungs about 90 cubic
inches of air. So that if we take as
deep a breath as possible, and then
make as forced an expiration as we
can, we shall drive out 120 + 20 + 90
230 cubic inches of air. This is
termed the respiratory capacity.
The ordinary respiratory movements
differ in the two sexes and at different
periods of life. In young children the
chest is altered in size chiefly by the
movements of the diaphragm, and the
protrusion of the abdominal wall dur-
ing inspiration is therefore very
marked. In men also it is the dia-
phragm which is chiefly operative, but
the ribs are also moved. In women
it is the movement of the ribs, espe-
cially the upper ones, which is the
most extensive. The respiratory
rhythm is the relation of the acts of
inspiration and expiration to each
other as regards time. It may be ex-
pressed as follows: In.= 3, Ex. 4,
pause = 3. The number of respira-
tions in a healthy person is about 14
or 18 per minute; it is greater (near-
ly double) in childhood. It varies
according to circumstances, exercise,
rest, health, disease, etc. ; in disease
it may fall as low as 7 of rise to 100
per minute.
Respondent
Resurrection
Respondent, in law the designa-
tion of the party required to answer
in a suit, particularly in a chancery
BUlt.
Rest, a term, applied to various
kinds of supports; as, a support for
a lance or spear, for the muzzle of a
gun in aiming or firing, for the top of
the cue in billiards, and for a piece of
work in a lathe or vise. In music, an
interval of silence occurring in the
course of a movement between one
sound and another, hence the sign in-
dicating the period of silence. In
physics, absolute rest is the perma-
nence of a body's position with respect
to ideal fixed points in space ; relative
rest, that with respect to surrounding
bodies.
Restitution Edict, an edict pub-
lished A. D. 1629 by Ferdinand III.,
Emperor of Germany, ordering the
Protestants to deliver up to the Ro-
man Catholic authorities all ecclesias-
tical property which had fallen into
their hands since the religious peace
of Passau established in the previous
century. In 1648, at the end of the
Thirty Years' War, the edict was re-
voked.
Restitutionists, a religious sect
in New England. They believe that
vhat man lost in the fall is now be-
ginning to be restored, and that every-
thing is to come back to its original
form and purity. Their Sabbath,
therefore, occurs on Saturday, as the
original day of worship ; and their
meetings are held Friday evening, be-
cause it is Sabbath eve.
Restoration, a term used in art
to indicate the renewal or repairing
of paintings, sculptures, buildings,
etc., which have been defaced or par-
tially ruined. It includes the re-
touching of faded and injured pictures,
and the replacing of lost limbs or
features of antique statues. But in
reference to architecture its meaning
is broader; it indicates, first, a rep-
resentation, by picture or model of a
ruined structure restored to its orig-
inal state ; secondly, the rebuilding of
dilapidated or fallen portions of an
edifice; and thirdly, taking down so-
called " debased " work in a com-
posite building, and replacing it by
architectural features in harmony
with the general style of the edifice.
Restoration, The, in English his-
tory a term applied to the accessioa
of King Charles II., in 1660, after
the civil war, to the throne of Eng-
land, after an interregnum of 11
years and four months, from January
30, 1649, (when Charles I. was be-
headed) to May 29, 1660. In French
history, the first restoration begins
May 3, 1814, when Louis XVIII.
made his entry into Paris under the
protection of foreign bayonets, and
ended with the return of Napoleon
from Elba, March 20, 1815. The be-
ginning of the second restoration is
generally reckoned from the battle of
Waterloo, June 18, 1815, and termi-
nated on July 29, 1830, with the
abdication of Charles X.
Restorationists, in Church his-
tory, the followers of Origen in the
opinion that after a certain purgation
proportionate to their delinquencies
all will be restored to God's favor and
to paradise. In the Middle Ages, the
Brethren of the Free Spirit held this
doctrine ; at the time of the Reforma-
tion, it was taught by the Anabap-
tists and in the ISth century by the
Rationalists.
Resumption, the return to specie
payment by a government. The Re-
sumption Act of Jan. 14, 1875, fixed
Jan. 1, 1879, as the day on which
specie payments should be resumed
by the United States government. Re-
sumption actually took place on Dec.
17, 1878, when the premium on gold
disappeared. In English law, resump-
tion is the taking again by the crown
of such lands, tenements, etc., "as on
false suggestion, or other error, had
been granted by letters patent.
Resurrection, an expression de-
noting the revival of the human body
in a future state after it has been
consigned to the grave. Traces of this
doctrine are found in other religions,
in Zoroastrianism, and especially in
later Judaism, but the doctrine is pe-
culiarly Christian. In the earlier
Hebrew Scriptures there is no men-
tion of it. The most detailed exposi-
tion 'of the doctrine is that of the
Apostle Paul in I Cor. 15. The infer-
ence from his argument is that the soul
will be clothed with a new body, which
he calls a spiritual body, rather than
that the dead body will be revivified.
Reszfee
Returning Boards
Reszkc, Edouard de, a Polish
opera singer ; born in Warsaw, Po-
land, Dec. 23, 1855; a brother of
Jean de Reszke. He made his first ap-
pearance in Paris, in 1876, taking
rank as a leading star with a voice of
remarkable range and power. He
made several visits to the United
States filling the chief roles in grand
opera. In professional life, he was
almost constantly associated with his
brother.
Reszke, Jean de, a Polish opera
Binger ; born in Warsaw, Poland, Jan.
14, 1852. His debut was made in
Venice in 1874, under the name of
De Reschi, as a baritone. In 1876 and
in 1883 he sang at the Theatre Fran-
cais, Paris ; and in the latter year,
his voice changed to a tenor of re-
markable scope. He has made sev-
eral tours in America.
Retainer, a preliminary fee paid
to a counsel to secure his services, or
rather to prevent the other side from
securing them. A special retainer is a
fee paid to secure the services of coun-
sel for a particular case. A general
retainer is a fee paid to secure a
priority of claim on a counsel's serv-
ices 'for any cause which the party
paying the fee may have for trial.
Retaining Wall, a wall erected
to maintain a bank of earth in posi-
tion, as in sunk fences, faces of earth-
works, railway cuttings, sea-walls,
etc. ; strictly speaking, a wall erected
to hold an artificial bank in upright
or nearly upright position.
Retention, in law, a lien ; the. right
of withholding a debt or of retaining
property till a debt due to the person
claiming this right be duly paid.
Retina, the net-like expansion of
the optic nerve, lying between the
black pigment and the vitreous
tumor of the eye. It is the only part
immediately concerned in the act of
Sensation.
Retort, a vessel in whose chamber
Bn object is subjected to distillation
or decomposition by heat, a neck con-
ducting off the volatile products. The
retort of the chemical laboratory is a
Vessel of glass, platinum, porcelain, or
other material. It is bottle-shaped,
having a long neck attached, in which
the products of the distillation are
condensed, and from which they pass
into the receiver. The retort of the
gas works is a cylinder or segment of
a cylinder, formed of clay or iron.
EETORT WITH CONDENSER.
Retreat, a military operation, in
which an army retires before an en-
emy ; properly, an orderly march, in
which circumstance it differs from a
flight. Also a military signal given in
the army by beat of drum or sound
of trumpet at sunset, or for retiring
from exercise or from action. In
Church usage, a period of retirement
to a religious house, for self-examina-
tion, meditation, and prayer.
Retrierer, a breed of dog, trained,
as the name implies, to find out and
bring back any killed or wounded
game. The two varieties of retriever
differ only in coat ; the curly coat
should curl closely and firmly all
over the body, the wavy coat should
fall straight and thick. The retriever
makes a very good watch dog, and
numberless bad specimens of the
breed are to be found fulfilling this
vocation only. The pure retriever is
gentle in temper and easy to com-
mand.
Returning Boards, boards form-
ed to canvass votes cast in an elec-
tion. They were created in some of
the reconstructed States a few years
after the close of the Civil War, for
the purpose of rectifying fraud or vio-
lence that might be practised on the
negroes at the polls. In 1868 Arkansas
established the first returning board.
South Carolina, Louisiana and Flor-
ida had similar boards. The various
returning boards were successively
abolished by the respective State Leg-
islatures.
Reuling
Revelation of St. John
Renling, George, an American
ophthalmologist ; born in Romrod,
Germany, Nov. 14, 1839 ; was surgeon
in the Prussian army during the war
with Austria ; assistant surgeon in the
Eye Hospital in Wiesbaden, in 1866-
1867 ; studied in Paris and later in
Baltimore and became physician-in-
chief of the Eye and Ear Infirmary in
Baltimore in 1869. He was Professor
of Ophthalmology in the University
of Baltimore; Professor of Eye and
Ear Surgery in Washington Univer-
sity, Baltimore, Md. ; and Professor
of Eye and Ear Disease in the Balti-
more Medical College after 1886. He
was a Fellow of the Heidelberg Oph-
thalmological and the American
Laryngological and Otological So-
cieties ; eye and ear surgeon at the
Maryland General Hospital; the
Maryland Home for the Aged, and for
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. He
was the author of many technical pa-
pers on, and invented apparatus for,
eye and surgery.
Reunion, formerly Bourbon, an
island in the Indian Ocean, between
Mauritius and Madagascar, 115 miles
from each ; area, 965 square miles ;
population, 173,192 15,219 being
British Indians, 4,496 natives of
Madagascar, 9,848 Africans and 836
Chinese. It was annexed by France
in 1643, and is an important French
colony, now sending a representative
to the chamber of deputies, and form-
ing practically almost a department
of France. It is very mountainous,
the Piton des Neiges reaching a height
of 10,069 feet, and the Piton de la
Fournaise, an active volcano, of 8,294
feet. The soil produces tropical prod-
ucts, sugar being the principal crop.
Coffee, cloves, and vanilla are also
grown.
Renter, Paul Julius, Baron, a
German-English news agent, at one
time well known from the familiar
newspaper heading " Renter's Tele-
fram " ; born in Cassel, July 21, 1821.
n Aix-la-Chapelle he formed in 1849
an organization for collecting (partly
by pigeon post) and transmitting by
telegraph commercial and financial
news ; and in 1851 he transferred his
headquarters to London. As telegraphs
extended throughout the world he
multiplied the ramifications of his
system till it embraced the remotest
regions. He even maintained couriers
where the telegraphs did not reach
e. g., between Peking and Kiachta. In
1865 Reuter converted his business
into a limited liability company, and
in 1871 he was made a baron of Ger-
many. In 1872 the Shah of Persia
gave him the sole right of making rail-
ways, working mines, forests, etc. a
monopoly never made effective, and
annulled in 1889, when the concession,
of the Imperial Bank of Persia was
conferred on him. Died Feb. 22, 1899.
Reuterdahl, Henry, an American
naval artist; born in Malmo, Sweden,
Aug. 12, 1871 ; received an academic
education at Stockholm, Sweden ;
served as correspondent during the
Spanish- American War ; contributed
to " Harper's," the " Century," " St.
Nicholas," " McClure's," the London
" Graphic " and other magazines ;
and in 1902 was engaged in painting
a series of pictures of the ravies of
the world.
Reveille, the signal given in gar-
risons at break of day, by beat of
drum or sound of bugle, for the sol-
diers to rise and the sentinels to for-
bear challenging until the retreat is
sounded in the evening.
Revelation, the act of revealing,
disclosing, or making known that
which is secret, private, or unknown ;
disclosure. Specifically, the act of re-
vealing or communicating divine
truth. Also that which is revealed,
disclosed, or made known ; specifically,
the Bible.
Revelation of St. John, the last
book of the New Testament, and the
only distinctively prophetic one given
to fling back the veil which hides
futurity from the view. Its writer
was John, the servant of God, the
" brother " and " companion in tribu-
lation " of the then persecuted Chris-
tians, himself an exile in Patmos. It
was there he saw the prophetic visions,
narrating them after he left the island.
The majority of the Fathers and the
Church of the Middle Ages consid-
ered, as do most modern Christians,
that the author was John the Apostle.
Respecting the canonicity of this book,
Luther, Carlstadt. and Zwingli spoke
of it disparagingly, but it is accepted
by Churches of the Reformation, as
well as by the Roman Church. Three
Revenue
schemes of interpretation exist : The
Preterist, which makes the events pre-
dicted now wholly passed ; the Fu-
turist, which regards them as future,
and that of a third and numerous
school, who regard the Visions as a
historical or continuous prediction of
the whole history of the Church from
apostolic times to the consummation
of all things.
Revenue, the income of a nation
derived from taxes, duties, and other
sources, for public uses.
Revenue Cutter, a small armed
steam vessel, designed for the pre-
vention of smuggling ; so called from
the fact that originally the vessel was
of the cutter-yacht type. The United
States Revenue Cutter Service is a
branch of the Treasury Department
and its purpose is, principally, to en-
force the customs revenue laws. Its
immediate supervision resides in a
bureau of the department known as
the Division of Revenue Cutter Serv-
ice, which is In charge of a chief and
a number of assistants.
Reverberatory Furnace, a fur-
nace in which ore, metal, or other
material is exposed to the action of
flame, but not to the contact of burn-
ing fuel. The flame passes over a
bridge and then downward on the ma-
terial, which is spread on the hearth.
The reverberatory furnace for copper
has a furnace chamber, hearth, two
tuyeres, and two cisterns, into which
the molten results of the process are
discharged.
Revere, Joseph Warren, an
American military officer ; born in
Boston, Mass., May 17, 1812; was
appointed a midshipman in the navy
in 1828; lieutenant in 1841; took
part in the Mexican War ; and re-
signed from the navy in 1850. He
served in the Civil War as colonel of
the 7th New Jersey Volunteers and
afterward as Brigadier-General. He
had command of a brigade at Preder-
icksburg; was transferred to the
command of the famous " Excelsior
Brigade," with which he fought at
Chancellorsville. He was censured by
his superior officer after the engage-
ment at Chancellorsville ; was tried by
court-martial, and was dismissed from
the service in 1863; but his dismissal
was revoked by President Lincoln,
Reversion
and his resignation accepted. He
wrote " Keel and Saddle," in which
he relates many of his personal ad-
ventures. He died in Hoboken, N. J.,
April 20, 1880.
Revere, Paul, an American pa-
triot, famous for his midnight ride
from Boston to Lexington ; born in
Boston, Mass., Jan. 1, 1735. He was
the son of a goldsmith from Guernsey,
whose trade he followed after serving
as a lieutenant of artillery in the ex-
pedition against Crown Point (1756).
He also engaged in copperplate print-
ing, and before the Revolution con-
structed a gunpowder mill. A keen
patriot, he wa's one of the party that
destroyed the tea in Boston harbor,
and he was at the head of a volunteer
committee, consisting of 30 young me-
chanics, who formed a secret society
to watch the British. When it was
known that the latter intended to
move, Revere crossed over to Charles-
town, and April 18, 1775, the night
before Lexington and Concord, at a
signal rode on to Lexington and to
Lincoln, rousing the minute-men as
he went ; at Lincoln he was stopped,
but a companion succeeded in reach-
ing Concord. His ride is the subject
of a well-known poem by Longfellow.
During the war he rose to lieutenant-
colonel of artillery ; afterward he re-
turned to his goldsmith's work, and
in 1801 founded the Revere Copper
Company at Canton, Mass. He died
in Boston, May 10, 1818.
Reverend, worthy or deserving of
reverence ; entitled to reverence or re-
spect ; enforcing reverence by the ap-
pearance (applied to persons and
things). Also a title of respect given
to clergymen and ecclesiastics. All
ministers of religion in the United
States, Great Britain, and the British
colonies are given this title.
Reversion, in law, the return-
ing of an estate to the grantor or
his heirs after a particular estate is
ended. An estate in reversion is the
residue of an estate left in the
grantor, to commence in possession
after the determination of some par-
ticular estate granted out by him.
The term is sometimes improperly ex-
tended to any future estate in rever-
sion or remainder. Reversion of series,
in mathematics, when one quantity is
Review
expressed in terms of another, by
means of a series, the operation of
finding the value of the second in
terms of the first, by means of a
series, is called the reversion of the
series.
Review, a critical notice or exam-
ination of a new publication; a criti-
cism ; a critique. Hence a name given
to certain periodical publications con-
taining a collection of critical essays
on subjects of public interest, literary,
scientific, political, moral, or theo-
logical, together with critical examina-
tions of new publications. '
In law, the revision of any inter-
locutor, decree, or sentence, against
which a person has reclaimed or ap-
pealed ; the power which a superior
court has of reviewing the judgment
of an inferior court.
Revised Version, a revised edition
of the Authorized Version of the Bible.
A better text was constructed, manu-
scripts being used which had been
discovered since the Authorized Ver-
sion had been made. Revision, not re-
translation, was aimed at, as few
alterations as possible being intro-
duced, and these only if adopted by
the votes of two-thirds of the trans-
lators. The New Testament was pub-
lished in May, 1881, the Old in May,
1885. Each had an immediate and
large sale, but the Authorized Version
still holds its place in most evangeli-
cal churches.
Revival, the act of reviving; the
state of being revived ; most commonly
used in a religious sense. Revivals
occur in all religions. When one
takes place a large number of per-
sons who have been comparatively
dead or indifferent to spiritual con-
siderations, simultaneously or in quick
succession become alive to their im-
portance, alter spiritually and moral-
ly, and act with exceeding zeal in con-
verting others to their views. A Mo-
hammedan revival takes the form of
a return to the strict doctrines of the
Koran, and a desire to propagate them
by _ the_ sword. A Christian minority
living in the place is in danger of be-
ing massacred by the revivalists.
Revival of Letters, the revival
of literature after the apparent death-
blow which it received when the bar-
barous nations of the North destroyed
Revolution
the civilized Rooan empire. It com-
menced in England feebly at the be-
ginning of the llth century, and be-
came more potent in the 14th, 15th
and subsequent centuries.
Revocation, in law, the destroying
or annulling of a deed or will which
had existence till the act of revocation
made it void. The revocation of a deed
can only be effected when an express
stipulation has been made in the deed
itself reserving this power. The re-
vocation of a will can be made in
four different ways: (1) by another
will; (2) by intentional burning, or
the like; (3) by the disposition of
the property by the testator in his
lifetime; (4) by marriage.
Revoil, Benedict Henri, a
French novelist and dramatist \ born
in Aix, Bouches-du-Rhone, France,
Dec. 16, 1816. He lived in the United
States for nine years, during which
time he collected the material for
many of his works. They include :
" Hunting and Fishing of the Other
World" (1856); "The Daughter of
the Comanches " and " Dramas from
the New World" (1864-1865), and
a number of plays which he staged in
the United States, and afterward pub-
lished in France. Died June 13, 1882.
Revolution, a fundamental change
in government, or in the political con-
stitution of a country, effected sud-
denly and violently, and mainly
brought about by internal causes ; a
revolt against the constituted author-
ity successfully and completely accom-
plished. In the United States the
term Revolution is applied specifically
to the American War for Independ-
ence, which began in 1775 with the
irregular running fight popularly
known as the battle of Lexington, and (
practically ended with the surrender
of Lord Cornwallis, at Yorktown, Va.,
to the combined forces of the French
and Americans, in the year 1781. By
this war the colonies succeeded in
casting off the English authority and
in erecting the government of the
United States. By the English Revo-
lution is generally meant that revo-
lution in England by which James II.
was driven from the throne in 1688,
but it is sometimes applied to the
overthrow of the monarchy by Crom-
well.
Revolutionary Tribunal
Reynolds
Revolutionary Tribunal,
in French history, the name given on
Oct. 30, 1793, to what had before
been called the Extraordinary Tri-
bunal. It sent many victims to the
guillotine.
Revolver, a description of firearm
in which a number of charges con-
tained in a revolving cylinder are, by
pulling the trigger, brought succes-
sively into position and fired through
a single barrel. For the introduction
of the revolver in its present form we
are indebted to Col. Samuel Colt, of
Hartford, Conn., though repeating pis-
tols had long been known in other
countries. These were made from one
mass of metal bored into the requi-
site number of barrels, but were so
clumsy as to be of very little use.
In the Colt revolver there is a revolv-
ing cylinder containing six chambers
placed at the base of the barrel, each
chamber having at its rear end a
nipple for a cap. These contain the
cartridges, which are put in from the
front of the breechpiece and driven
home by a lever ramrod placed in a
socket beneath the barrel. The re-
volver is fired through the single bar-
rel, the cylinder being turned by
mechanism connected with the lock,
till each chamber in succession is
brought round so as to form virtually
a continuation of the barrel. Various
modifications of Colt's revolver have
been introduced, with the view in some
cases of increasing the rapidity and fa-
cility of firing, in others of diminish-
ing by safeguards the risks to which
inexperienced hands must ever be ex-
posed in the use of these weapons. As
a military weapon the revolver will it
is thought, be superseded by a repeat-
ing pistol with mechanism similar to
that of magazine rifles. The revolver
principle has also been applied to ri-
fles, and to guns for throwing small
projectiles, as in the Gatling and other
machine guns.
Rexf ord, Eben Engene, an Amer-
ican poet; born in Johnsburg, N. Y.,
July 16, 1848. He began to write
when a mere child, contributing to peri-
odicals and magazines. He published
in book form the poems " Brother and
Lover " and " Grandmother's Gar-
den." He wrote the popular songs
*' Silver Threads Among the Gold "
und. "Only a Pansy-Blossom."
Reyburn, Robert, a Scotch- Amer-
ican physician; born in Glasgow,
Scotland, Aug. 1, 1833 ; was graduated
at the Philadelphia College of Medi-
cine in 1856 and practised his profes-
sion in that city till 1862, when he
entered the United States army as an
acting assistant surgeon; later be-
came surgeon and brevet lieutenant-
colonel U. S. V., and assistant surgeon
U. S. A. in 1807; and afterward prac-
tised in Washington. He was one of
the surgeons in attendance on Presi-
dent Garfield ; and was Professor of
Physiology and Hygiene in the Med-
ical Department of Howard Univer-
sity. He was a member of many sci-
entific societies, author of " Clinical
History of the Case of President Gar-
field " ; and a contributor to medical
journals. He died in 1909.
Reynolds, Dudley Sliarpe, an
American physician ; born in Bowling
Green, Ky., Aug. 31, 1842; was grad-
uated at the Medical Department of
the University of Louisville, in 1868;
and became Professor of Ophthalmol-
ogy, Otology, and Medical Jurispru-
dence in the Hospital College of Medi-
cine, Louisville, in 1874.
Reynolds, Edwin, an American
inventor ; born in Mansfield, Conn.,
March 23, 1831 ; entered a machine
shop as apprentice in 1847, and be-
came superintendent of the Corliss
Steam Engine Company, at Provi-
dence, R. I., in 1861 ; later removed
to Milwaukee, Wis. He was the in-
ventor of the Reynolds-Corliss engine ;
introduced the first triple-expansion
engine. He died in 1909.
Reynolds, Elmer Robert, an
American ethnologist ; born in Dan-
ville, N. Y., July 30, 1846; was edu-
cated at the Columbian University ;
served through the Civil War ; in 1877
became an examiner of pensions in
the United States Civil Service. He
was engaged in exploring for aborig-
inal antiquities in Maryland and Vir-
ginia. He died Sept. 18, 1907.
Reynolds, John Fulton, an
American military officer ; born in
Lancaster, Pa., Sept. 20, 1820; was
graduated at the United States Mili-
tary Academy in 1841 ; served in the
Mexican War; was appointed com-
mandant at West Point in 1859 ;
served through the Civil War in act-
ive service ; in 1863 was promoted
Reynolds
Major-General of volunteers. His corps
was the vanguard at Gettysburg, where
he was killed, July 1,. 1863.
Reynolds, Joseph Jones, an
American military officer ; born in
Flemingsburg, Ky., Jan. 4, 1822 ; was
appointed to the United States Mili-
tary Academy from Indiana in 1839 ;
on graduation was appointed 2d lieu-
tenant, 4th Artillery, and after serv-
ics at Fort Monroe and in Texas, was
on frontier duty at Fort Washita,
I. T., in 1S55--1856 ; was stationed at
various colleges. After the beginning
of the Civil War he rapidly rose in
rank from colonel to Major-General ;
was brevetted Brigadier-General in
1867 for gallant and meritorious serv-
ice, and was in the same year brevet-
ted Major-General ; was transferred" to
the 23d Cavalry in 3870, and after
that time served at Fort McPherson
and other military stations till re-
tired from active service June 25,
1877, for disability contracted in the
line of duty. He died in Washington,
D. C., Feb. 25, 1899.
Reynolds, Joseph Smith, an
American lawyer : born in New Len-
ox, 111., Dec. 3, 1839; was graduated
at the University of Chicago in 1866 ;
served through the Civil War, partici-
pating in many battles. After the war
was admitted to the bar ; was a mem-
ber of the Illinois Legislature in 1866^-
1870 ; one of the founders of the Chi-
cago park system ; State Senator in
1872-1874 ; commissioner to establish
a State School for Feeble-Minded
Children in 1875 ; senior vice-com-
mander-in-chief of the G. A. R. 1875-
1876; commander of the Illinois De-
partment of the G. -A. R. in 1877 ; and
first vice-president of the Society of
the Army of the Tennessee in 1877.
Reynolds, Sir Joshua, an Eng-
glish portrait and subject painter ;
born in Plympton Earls, near Plym-
outh, July 16, 1723. His father in-
tended him for the medical profession ;
*mt he developed a strong aptitude for
painting, and at the age of eight had
mastered the " Jesuit's Perspective,"
and applied its principles to drawings
executed by himself. In October,
1740, he was sent to London to study
art. In 1743 he returned to Devon-
shire, and some of the portraits of
local worthies which he then produced
still exist. In the following year he
Reze
was again in London pursuing his art ;
but in the beginning of 1747, he set-
tled in Plymouth Dock. In 1749 he
made the acquaintance of Commodore
Keppel, who invited him to accompany
him on a cruise in the Mediterra-
nean; and, after painting many of the
British officers in Minorca, he made
his way to Rome, where he studied
Raphael and Michael Angelo. He also
visited Bologna, Genoa, Florence,
Parma, and Venice. Returning to
England in October, 1752, he estab-
lished himself in a studio in London,
and attracted notice by his portraits
of the second Duke of Devonshire and
Commodore Keppel. Before long he
was in excellent practice, and in the
year 1755 he had no fewer than 120
sitters. In 1764 he founded the fa-
mous literary club of which Dr. John-
son, Garrick, Burke, Goldsmith, Bos-
well, and Sheridan were members ; all
of whom were portrayed by his brush.
He was one of the earliest members
of the Incorp9rated Society of Art-
ists, and contributed to its exhibitions
till 1768, when, on the establishment
of the Royal Academy, he was elected
its first president. He contributed his,
picture of Miss Morris as " Hope
Nursing Love " to the first exhibition
of the Royal Academy. In 1771 he
completed his subject " Count Ugolino
and his Children in the Dungeon." In
1784 he succeeded Allan Ramsay as
painter to the king ; in July, 1789, his
sight became affected and he ceased to
paint ; gradually his strength sank,
and he peacefully expired on Feb. 23,
1792.
Reynolds, William, an American
naval officer ; born in Lancaster, Pa.,
Dec. 18, 1815 ; entered the navy in
1831 ; was commissioned lieutenant in
1841 and owing to broken health was
retired in 1851. He was later sent to
Hawaii, where he negotiated a reci-
procity treaty. When the Civil War be-
gan he returned to active duty; was
placed in command of the naval forces
on the Asiatic Station in 1862; was
promoted captain in 1866 and rear-
admiral in December, - 1873, and was
retired on account of ill health in De-
cember, 1877. He died in Washing-
ton, D. C., Nov. 5, 1879.
Reze, Frederick, an American
clergyman : born in Hildesheim, Ger-
many, in 1797; fought in the battle
Rliainnaceae
Hlieiins
of Waterloo ; and soon afterward was
ordained in the Roman Catholic
Church and sent to Africa ; and later
came to the United States; returned
to Germany, in 1827 and sent many
missionaries to the United States ;
again returned to the United States in
1828 and labored among the Indians of
Ohio and Michigan. In 1833 he was
sent to Detroit, Mich., and was conse-
crated the first bishop of Michigan and
Wisconsin. He resigned his see in
1837, and returned to Rome, where he
lived for several years. He died in
Hildesheim, Germany, Dec. 27, 1871.
Rhamnaceae, an order of plants.
There are species in nearly all coun-
tries, with the exception of the Arctic
zone. Berries belonging to various
plants of the order have been used for
dyeing yellow, green, or intermediate
tints, others are eatable. One plant
is used by the poorer classes in China
for tea.
Rhapsodist, strictly, one who
strings songs together, but usually ap-
plied to a class of persons in ancient
Greece, who earned their living by re-
citing the poems of Homer. It is be-
lieved that to these persons we are
chiefly indebted for the preservation
of the Homeric poems.
Rliataiiy, or Rliattaiiy, half-
shrubby plant, a native of the cold
sterile table-lands of the Andes in
Peru and Bolivia. It is valued for
the medicinal properties of the root,
which are shared more or less by other
species of the same genus, also natives
of South America.
Rliea, in Greek mythology, the
daughter of Ccelus and Terra, or
Heaven and Earth ; the wife of Sat-
urn, and mother of Jupiter, Juno,
Ceres, Vesta, and severa 1 other deities.
Rliea, in ornithology, a genus of
Struthionidse. They are sometimes
called South American ostriches, but
are smaller than the true ostrich, and
the whole plumage is somber, ranging
from Bolivia, Paraguay, and the S. of
Brazil down to Magellan's Straits.
Rliea, a variety of the nettle fam-
ily, which grows luxuriantly in India.
From the delicate fibers in its bark
the finest and strongest textile fabrics
can be produced. They can be worked
into every variety of fabric, from vel-
vets to laces It is specially suitable,
from its lightness and toughness, for
tents and ship canvas, and it is found
to be far more durable than linen.
Rliea, Mademoiselle (Mile. Hor-
tense Barbe-Loret), a Belgian actress;
born in Brussels, Belgium, Sept. 4,
1844. Educated at the Ursuline Con-
vent, Paris, France ; she began ^ to
study for the stage soon after leaving
school ; was leading actress at the Im-
perial Theater, St. Petersburg, 1876-
1881 ; acted in the United States in
1881 and 1882. She died in Mont-
morency, France, May 5, 1899.
Rhead, Louis John, an American
artist ; born in Etruria, England, in
1860 ; was educated at the Art Train-
ing School, South Kensington, Lon-
don ; and came to the Unite_d States in
1883. He was a painter in both il
and water-colors, and illustrated many
books.
Rliees, Rush, an American educa-
tor ; born in Chicago, 111.. Feb. 8,
1860 ; was graduated at Amherst Col-
lege in 1883, and at the Hartford The-
ological Seminary. In 1889 he ac-
cepted a pastorate at Portsmouth, N.
H., where he remained till 1892, when
he went to the Newton Theological
Institution, Newton Center, Mass.,
and in 1894 became Professor of Bib-
lical Interpretation of the New Testa-
ment. He was elected president of
the University o f Rochester, Roches-
ter, N. Y., July 1, 1900.
Rhees, William Jones, an Amer-
ican bibliographer ; born in Philadel-
phia, Pa., March 13, 1830; has been
chief clerk of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion and had charge of its publications
since 1852. He was one of the found-
ers of the Sons of the American Revo-
lution.
Rheims, or Reims, a city in the
French department of Marne ; on the
Vesle; 100 miles E. N. E. of Paris.
It is well built, and from the preva-
lence of the older style of domestic
architecture, has a picturesque ap-
pearance. Under the Frank rule it
was a place of much importance, and
it acquired a deeply religious interest
from its having been the scene in 496
of the baptism of Clovis and his chief
officers by the bishop, St. Repay (438-
533). In the 8th century it became
an archbishopric, and from 1179, when
Philip Augustus was solemnly crown-
Rliesus
ed here, it became the place for the
coronation of the kings of France.
Joan of Arc brought the dauphin
hither, and the only sovereigns in the
long series, down to 1825, not crowned
at Kheims were Henry IV., Napoleon
I., and Louis XVIII. In 1830 the
ceremony of coronation at Rheima was
abolished. The cathedral, though the
towers of the original design are still
unfinished, is one of the finest extant
specimens of Gothic architecture. It
was built between 1212 and 1430. The
Romanesque church of St. Remy
.(mainly 1160-1180), with the saint's
shrine, is nearly of equal size, but of
less architectural pretension. Rheims
is one of the principal entrepots for
the wines of Champagne, and the hills
which surround the town are planted
with vineyards. Pop. 107,963.
Rhesus, a genus of monkeys from
India, in some parts of which it is
considered sacred.
Rhetoric, the theory of eloquence,
whether spoken or written, treating
of the general rules of prose style, in
view of the end to be served by the
composition. In a narrower sense rhet-
oric is the art of persuasive speaking,
or the art of the orator, which teaches
the composition and delivery of dis-
courses intended to move the feelings
or sway the will of others. In the
wider sense rhetoric treats of prose
composition in general, purity of style,
etc. ; in short, of whatever relates
to clearness, preciseness, elegance,
and strength of expression. In the
narrower sense it treats of the in-
vention and disposition of the matter,
the character of the style, the delivery
or pronunciation, etc. Aristotle, Cicero,
and Quintilian are the principal writ-
ers on rhetoric among the ancients.
Rliett, Thomas Grimke, an
American military officer ; born in
South Carolina about 1825 ; was grad-
uated at the United States Military
Academy and assigned to the Ordnance
Corps in 1845, and served at the
Washington arsenal till 1846, when he
was transferred to the Mounted Rifles,
and sent to Mexico. He served in the
Mexican War ; became captain in
1853. He resigned his commission in
1861, and sought high office in the
Provisional Confederate army, but
not receiving it he returned to South
Carolina, where he was commissioned
Rheumatism
a Major-General by the governor. He
was chief of staff to Gen. Joseph E.
Johnston, till 1862, when he was or-
dered to the Trans-Mississippi Depart-
ment. After the war he was colonel
of ordnance in the Egyptian army in
1870-1873, when he resigned owing to
ill health. He died in Baltimore, Md.,
July 28, 1878.
Rheum, rhubarb; used in the
United States in the making of pies,
and is often called pie plant.
In pharmacy, three leading kinds of
rhubarb are recognized : The Turkey
or Russian rhubarb, the East Indian,
and the Batavian rhubarb. An ex-
tract, an infusion, a syrup, a tinc-
ture, and a wine of rhubarb, with a
compound rhubarb pill, are used in
pharmacy.
Rheumatism, a term which has
been and still is, rather vaguely and
extensively used in the nomenclature
of disease. The usual exciting cause
of acute rheumatism is exposure to
cold, and especially to cold combined
with moisture. Men are more subject
to the disease than women. The pre-
disposition is affected by age ; chil-
dren under 10 years being compara-
tively seldom attacked, while the d's-
ease is most prevalent between the ages
of 15 and 40. Above this age a first
attack is rare, and even recurrences
are less frequent than earlier in life.
Persons once affected become more
liable to the complaint than they previ-
ously were. Chronic painful affec-
tions of the joints, called chronic rheu-
matism, sometimes follow rheumatic
fever and are a consequence of it. It
is more common in women than in
men; most often begins at or after
middle life, though occasionally even
in childhood ; and is apt to affect those
who are weakly and who have had a
life of hard work with defective nour-
ishment. There is no special liability
to affection of the heart as in true
rheumatism. Muscular rheumatism is
the name usually given to painful af-
fections of the muscles for which no
clear cause is discoverable. Rheu-
matic diseases of animals are less com-
mon than the corresponding affections
of men. Horses are not very liable to
acute rheumatism, but suffer from a
chronic variety. In cattle and sheep
rheumatic disorders are more common
and acute than in horses. Among
Rhine
dogs rheumatism is known under the
name of kennel lameness, and is very
troublesome and intractable in low,
damp, cold situations.
Rhine (German Rhein), the fin-
est river of Germany, and one of the
most important rivers of Europe, its
direct course being 460 miles and its
indirect course 800 miles (about 250
miles of its course being in Switzer-
land, 450 in Germany, and 100 in
Holland) ; while the area of its basin
is 75,000 square miles. It is formed
in the Swiss canton Grisous by two
main streams called the Vorder and
Hinter Rhein. The Vorder Rhein
rises in the Lake of Toma, on the S.
E. slope of the St. G^thard, at a
height of 7,690 feet above the sea, near
the source of the Rhone, and at Reich-
enau unites with the Hinter Rhein,
which issues from the Rheinwald Gla-
cier, 7,270 feet above sea-level. Be-
yond Reichenau the united streams
take the common name of Rhine. Gen-
erally speaking, it pursues a N. course
till it enters Holland, below Emmer-
ich, when it divides into a number of
separate branches, forming a great
delta, and falling into the sea by many
mouths. That which retains the name
of Rhine, a small stream, passes Ley-
den and enters the North Sea. In
the German part of its course the chief
tributaries are the 111, Nahe, Moselle,
Ahr, and Erft, Neckar, Main, Lahn,
Sieg, Ruhr, and Lippe. In Switzer-
land its tributaries are short and un-
important, and this part of its course
is marked by the Falls of the Rhine
at Schaffhausen, where the river is
precipitated in three leaps over a ledge
of rocks 48 to 60 feet in height, and
by the cataracts of Lauterberg and
the rapids of Rheinfelden. It is navi-
gable without interruption from Basel
to its mouth, a distance of 550 miles.
Large sums are spent every year in
keeping the channel in order, and in
the erection or repair of river har-
bors, both in Germany and Holland.
The Rhine is distinguished by the
beauty of its scenery, which attracts
many tourists.
Rhine Wines, a general term for
wines made from the grapes grown on
the borders of the Rhine.
Rhinoceros, the sole recent genus
of the family Rhinocerotidse. It falls
naturally into three sections :
Rhinoceros
(a) Rhinoceros. There are two
well-marked species : Rhinoceros
unicornis, with a single horn, and well
marked folds in the skin ; R. soudai-
cus, the Javan rhinoceros, is smaller
and distinguished by the different ar-
rangement of the folds of the skin;
and by the small size or absence of the
EHINOCEROS BICOBNIS.
horn in the female. Found near Cal-
cutta, in Burma, Malay Peninsula,
Java, Sumatra, and probably Borneo.
(b) Ceratorhinus. The folds are
not so strongly marked as in the first
section. There is a well-developed
nasal, and a small frontal horn, sep-
arated by an interval. Geographical
range nearly the same as that of the
Javan rhinoceros, but it does extend
into Bengal.
(c) Atelodns, with two well-marked
species, peculiar to Africa. Incisors
rudimentary or wanting, well-develop-
ed anterior and posterior horns in close
contact ; skin without definite per-
manent folds. R. bicornis, the com-
mon two-horned rhinoceros, is the
smaller, and has a pointed prehensile
lip. It ranges from Abyssinia to
Cape Colony, but the progress of civ-
ilization and the attacks of sportsmen
are rapidly reducing its numbers. Two
varieties are said to exist, the square-
mouthed, or white rhinoceros, has a
square* truncated lip, browses on
grasses and frequents open country.
It is the largest of the family, an adult
male standing over six feet at the
shoulder.
Any individual of the genus rhinoc-
eros. The rhinoceros is the largest
and most powerful terrestrial mam-
mal, except the elephant, to which, as
well as to the hippopotamus and tapir,
it is allied. They are of low intelli-
gence, and usually harmless, but when
RJiinodon
Rhode Island
provoked they display considerable fe-
rocity, and, though apparently so
clumsily formed, can run with great
speed.
Rliinodon, in ichthyology, the sole
genus of the family Rhinodontidae, a
gigantic shark, known to exceed 50
feet in length, and said to attain 70.
Common in the W. parts of the In-
dian Ocean. It is harmless, the teeth
being small and numerous.
Rhoades, Mosheim, an American
clergyman ; born in Williamsburg, Pa.,
April 14, 1837 ; was graduated at the
Theological Department of Susque-
hanna University, Selinsgrove, Pa., in
1861, and entered the ministry of the
English Lutheran Church the same
year. He held charges in Pennsyl-
vania till 18G9, and in St. Louis, Mo.,
after 1871. He was president of the
General Synod of the Evangelical Lu-
theran Church in 1885-1886.
RHINOCEROS INDICUS.
Rhoades, Samuel Nicholson, an
American naturalist ; born in Philadel-
phia, Pa., April 30, 1862 ; took a spe-
cial course in journalism in Harvard
University ; and later studied at the
Academy of Natural Sciences and
Museum of Science and Art, in Phila-
delphia, and at Carnegie Museum,
Pittsburg; and after 1893 traveled as
a collector of museum specimens of
natural history.
Rhodanthe, in botany, a genus of
Helychrysese ; only known species R.
manglesii, a beautiful composite; its
flowers, of the dry and unfading kind,
roseate or purple on the upper part,
and silvery below. It is found in
Western Australia, has been intro-
duced into European and American
greenhouses, and will grow also in the
open air in a temperature between 60
and 80. There are several varieties.
Rhode Island, a State in the
North Atlantic Division of the North
American Union ; one of the original
13 States ; capital, Providence ; num-
ber of counties, 5 ; area, 1,053 square
miles; pop. (1910) 542,674.
The State is divided into two un-
equal parts by Narragansett Bay,
which extends inland about 30 miles.
The surface of the W. portion or main-
land is hilly, but the hills are all low ;
the greatest height, Woonsocket Hill,
having an altitude of 570 feet. There
are numerous salt marshes along the
ocean. The E. part consists mainly
of islands. Of these the largest and
most important is Rhode Island from
which the State derives its name. The
principal rivers are the Pawtucket,
navigable as far as Pawtucket, where
it changes its name to Blackstone, the
Pawcatuck, forming part of the bound-
ary between Rhode Island and Con-
necticut, and the Pawtuxet, flowing
across the central part of the State,
and emptying into the Providence
river, an arm of the Narragansett
Bay. There are numerous coves and
bays branching off from Narragansett ;
among them being Greenwich ^Bay,
Saxonnet river, Mount Hope Bay, and
Providence river. Block Island, 10
miles from the coast, belongs to the
State.
The mineral resources of the State
are not very extensive, though consid-
erable anthracite coal, excellent for
smelting purposes, and much magnetic
iron have been mined at times. There
are about 20 large granite quarries in
the State ; those at Westerly being
noted for their value in monumental
work.
In common with New England
States, Rhode Island is noted for its
manufacturing interests. There were
reported by the United States census
in 1900, 4,189 manufacturing estab-
lishments, employing $183,784,587 cap-
ital, and 96,528 persons ; paying $41,-
114,084 in wages and $96,392,720 for
raw materials ; and having an annual
output valued at $184,074,378.
On Oct. 31, 1901, there were re-
ported 38 National banks in operation,
having $13,105,250 in capital, $6,317,-
750 in outstanding circulation, and
$4,503,000 in United States bonds.
Rhodes
There were also 4 State banks, with
$495,000 capital and $1,394,546 .re-
sources ; 9 loan and trust companies,
with $3,670,498 capital, and $3,013,-
891 surplus ; and 25 mutual savings
banks, with $72,330,141 in deposits.
At the end of the school year 1899-
1900 the children of school age num-
bered 102,250 ; the enrollment in pub-
lic schools, 64,537; and average daily
attendance, 46,087. There were 534
buildings used for public school pur-
poses, public school property valued at
$5,175,045, and 1,913 teachers. For
higher education there were 17 public
high schools ; 11 private secondary
schools, the Rhode Island Normal
School, and Brown University, at
Providence, which is the principal ed-
ucational institution, in the State.
The strongest denominations in the
State are the Roman Catholic ; Regu-
lar Baptist, Protestant Episcopal ;
Congregational ; Methodist Episcopal ;
Free Will Baptist ; Unitarian, and Af-
rican Methodist.
The total funded debt of the State,
Jan. 1, 1902, was $2,978,000 ; sinking
funds, $389,436.61; net debt, $2,588,-
563.39. The sinking fund is largely
invested in city, town, and district
bonds and notes, and is to receive $32,-
000 yearly. The assessed valuation
of real estate in 1900 was $320,318,-
384; personal property, $87,086,388 ;
total, $407,404,772; tax rate, $1.80
per $1,000.
The governor is elected for a term
of two years and receives a salary of
$3,000 per annum. Legislative ses-
sions are held annually, beginning on
the first Tuesday in January and are
limited to 60 session days. The Legis-
lature has 38 members in the Senate
and 100 members in the House, each
of whom receives $5.00 per day and
mileage. There are 3 Representatives
in Congress.
It Js claimed that the Northmen vis-
ited this region about A. D. 1000, and
certain antiquities have been ascribed
to them. The first English settlement
was made at Providence in 1636, by
Roger Williams, whose religious opin-
ions had caused his expulsion from
Massachusetts. The charter granted
by Charles II. to the colony was so
liberal in its provision that it remain-
ed the fundamental law of the State
till 1842. Rhode Island was firm in
opposition to the King Philip War.
Rhodes
King Philip himself was killed in
what is now the town of Bristol. The
great " swamp fight" occurred in 1675,
in the Narragansett country, where
more than 1,000 Indians were killed.
The charter was temporarily suspend-
ed from 1686 to 1687. A new consti-
tution was adopted in 1842, this going
into effect in 1843. Rhode Island was
the last of the States to ratify the
Federal Constitution in 1790, and
until a recent period foreign bora
citizens could not vote unless they
owned real estate. <
Rhodes, an island in the Mediter-'
ranean, appertaining to Asiatic Tur-
key, near the coast of Asia Minor; is
40 miles long, with a breadth of 18
miles at its widest point; area, 570
square miles ; pop. about 30,000.
Rhodes, the capital of the island
of Rhodes, situated at its N. E. ex-
tremity. It is defended by towers
about 800 feet distant from each other,
while in the center of the mole there
is a square bastion 120 feet high. It
was at the entrance to the harbor of
this city that stood the celebrated Co-
lossus of Rhodes. Pop. about 10,000.
The ancient Rhodes was taken posses-
sion of by a branch of the Doric race,
who held it at the time of the Trojan
war, 1184 B. C. It was of small po-
litical importance among the states of
Greece till the city of Rhodes was built
and made the capital of the island,
408 B. C. It was taken by Chosroes
II., King of Persia, in 616; by the
Saracens in 651 ; and by the Knights
of St. John, Aug. 15, 1309. Moham-
med II. besieged it ineffectually in
1480, and the Sultan Solyman I. com-
pelled it to capitulate after a vigorous
siege that lasted from June to Decem-
ber, 1522.
Rhodes, Cecil John, a South Afri-
can statesman ; born July 5, 1853. He
was the fourth son of the vicar of
Bishop Stortford, Hertfordshire, Eng-
land ; was sent for his health to Natal,
where his brother was a planter. He
subsequently went to the Kimberley
diamond diggings ; there he soon be-
came conspicuous and amassed a for-
tune. He went back to England, and
entered at Oriel College, Oxford,
and though his residence was cut short
by ill-health, he ultimately took his
degree. He entered the Cape House
of Assembly as member for Barkly.
Rhodesia
In 1884 General Gordon asked him to
'go with him to Khartum as secretary ;
but Rhodes had just taken office in the
Cape ministry, and decided to remain
in South Africa. He sent $50,000 to
Mr. Parnell to forward the cause of
Irish Home Rule. In 1890 he be-
came prime minister of Cape Colony.
His policy may be described as the ul-
timate establishment of a federal
South African dominion under the
British flag. He was an earnest ad-
vocate of the construction of a railroad
" from Cairo to the Cape." He died
in Cape Town, South Africa, March
26, 1902. In his will Mr. Rhodes left
about $10,000,000 to found a number
of three-year scholarships tenable at
Oxford, England. The income for
each scholarship was $1,500 a year,
and two were offered to every State
and Territory in the American Union,
to every English speaking colony ;
while five were set apart for students
of German descent.
Rhodesia, the name given to that
part of South Africa which has been
occupied of recent years by the Brit-
ish South African Company, acting
mainly under Cecil John Rhodes. Area,
257,575 square miles; pop. 1,023,250.
The whole territory is administered
by the British South African Com-
pany, which was given a royal charter
in October, 1889. The river Zambesi
flows through it, cutting the region
into two portions Southern and
Northern Rhodesia.
Southern Rhodesia consists of the
two provinces of Matabeleland and
Mashonaland. The capital and the
seat of government of Rhodesia, is
Salisbury, with a population of 1,800.
The other principal townships are New
Umtali, Melsetter, and Enkeldoorn. A
railway is being built, running inland
.from Beira, and it will place Sal-
isbury in direct communication with
the sea over a line 382 miles in length.
Matabeleland lies between the Lim-
popo and middle Zambesi rivers. The
principal town, and the chief commer-
cial center in Rhodesia, is Bulawayo,
with a population of 5,000. The ex-
tension of the Cape government W.
railway system through Kimberley and
Vryburg to Bulawayo was completed
in October, 1897. The distance from
Cape Town to Bulawayo is 1,360
miles.
Rhomb
Northern Rhodesia consists of the
whole of the British sphere N. of the
Zambesi, lying between Portuguese
East Africa, German East Africa, the
Kongo Free State, and Angola, with
the exception of the strip of territory
forming the British Central Africa
Protectorate, which is under direct
imperial administration. N. of the
Zambesi the country has as yet been
little prospected. Coal has been found
on the shore of Lake Nyassa. There
are 5,250 square miles of gold fields in
Rhodesia.
Rhodium, one of the rare metals
found in platinum ores. It is very
hard, white, and brittle, and, with
the exception of iridium, one of the
most infusible of metals.
Rhododendron, a genus of trees
and shrubs of the natural order Eri-
caceae. The buds in this and nearly al-
lied genera, as Azalea, are scaly and
conical. The species are numerous ;
EHODODENDKONo
they have evergreen leaves, and many
of them are of great beauty both in
foliage and in flowers. A few small
species are natives of continental Eu-
rope and of Siberia ; but the greater
number belong to the temperate parts
of North America, and to the moun-
tains of India.
Rhomb, or Rhombus, in 'geome-
try, an oblique parallelogram whose
sides are all equal. The diagonals of
a rhombus bisect each other at right
angles. The area of a rhombus is
equal to half the product of its diag-
onals.
Rhone
Rhone (Latin, Rhodanus), a river
in Europe which rises in Switzerland,
near the E. frontiers of the canton of
Valais, about 18 miles W. S. W. of
the source of the Vorder-Rhein. Its
precise origin is the Rhone Glacier,
5,581 feet above the level of the sea.
It passes through the Lake of Geneva,
and enters France, flowing first S. and
then W. to the city of Lyons, where it
turns almost due S., and so continues
till it falls into the Gulf of Lyons
by a greater and smallerTmouth, form-
ing here an extensive delta. Its prin-
cipal affluent is the Saone, which en-
ters it at the city of Lyons ; other
large tributaries are the Isere and
Durance. Its whole course is about
500 miles ; its drainage area is 38,000
miles; and it is navigable for 360
miles. The great obstacles to naviga-
tion and the rapid current, the shifting
character of the channel, and periodi-
cal floods ; these obstacles have to a
great extent been overcome by a
scheme of regularization and canaliza-
tion, to secure everywhere a depth of
over 5 feet. By canals the navigation
of the Rhone is connected with the
Rhine (through the Saone), Seine,
and Loire, and with the Meuse and
the Belgian system.
Rhubarb, a hardy perennial herb.
See RHEUM.
Rhus. See SUMAC; also POISON
IVY.
Rhyme, more correctly Rime, in
poetry, a correspondence in sound of
the terminating word or syllable of
one line of poetry with the terminating
word or syllable of another. To con-
stitute this correspondence in single
words or in syllables it is necessary
that the vowel and the final consonant-
al sound (if any) should be the same,
or have nearly the same sound, the in-
itial consonants being different.
Rhythm, in general a measured
succession of divisions or intervals in
written composition, music, or danc-
ing. The rhythm of poetry is the reg-
ular succession of accent, emphasis, or
voice stress ; or a certain succession of
long and short syllables in a verse.
Prose also has its rhythm, and the
only difference between verse and prose
is, that the former consists of a regu-
lar succession of similar cadences, di-
vided by grammatical pauses and em-
phases into proportional clauses, so as
Ribot
to present sensible responses to the
ear at regular proportioned distances.
In music, rhythm is the disposition of
the notes of a composition in respect
of time and measure ; the measured
beat which marks the character and
expression of the music.
Riall, Sir Pliineas, a British mili-
tary officer ; born in England about
1769 ; entered the army as ensign in
1794 and rose to the rank of major.
He was in command of a brigade in
the West Indies in 1808-4810 ; became
colonel m 1810 and Major-General in
1813 ; and later was ordered to Canada
to take part in the war between Great
Britain and the United States. He
was chief in command at the battles
of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane. He
was appointed governor of the Island
of Grenada in 1816; was promoted
Lieutenant-General in 1825 and full
General in 1841 ; and was knighted in
1833. He died in Paris, France, Nov.
10, 1851.
Rib, in anatomy, one of the long
curved bones which form the walls of
the chest. They extend in an oblique
direction from the vertebrae of the back
to the sternum in front. There are
usually 12 on each side ; but in some
rare cases 13 have been found, in
others only 11. The use of the ribs is
to cover and defend the lungs and
heart ; and their articulations with the
vertebras and sternum admitting of a
slight motion, they assist in respira-
tion.
Ribbon, Riband, or Ribband,
a narrow woven fabric commonly of
silk, used for trimming some part of
woman's attire ; also for badges and
other decorative purposes.
Ribbon Fish, known also as the
oar-fish.
Ribbon Grass, a species of canary
grass with variegated leaves.
Ribes, in botany, a genus of the
order Grossulariacese. Some > of the
species are remarkable for their agree-
able and wholesome acid fruits, and
are, on this account, much cultivated
in our gardens. R. grossularia is the
source of numerous varieties of goose-
berries. R. rubrum yields both red
and white currants, and R. negrum
black currants.
Ribot, Alexandre Felix Joseph,
a French statesman; born in St.
Ft 'CURES /N STATES PEPfiEfENT PRODUCT/OAT M Tf/Ot/JA/VM Of BUffflLJ
PICE
PRODUCTION 1911
THOUSANDS OFBUfHEL
UNITEDJrATES
22,93V THOUSAND
BUfHOJ
-w^F/GURES IN STATES REPRESENTS PRODUCT/ON /A/ THOUSANDS Of BALES
COTTON
PRODUCT/ON 1910
THOUSANDS OF BALCS
UNITED STATES
//.Vie THOUSAND
Ricardo
Omer, France, Feb. 7, 1842. He
studied law in Paris, and in that city
became prominent in legal and munici-
pal affairs ; in 1870, was secretary of
the Bar Society ; was appointed direc-
tor of pardons and of criminal mat-
ters in 1875 ; becoming Minister of
the Interior and president of the cabi-
net, January to March, 1893. When
Faure became president, m January,
1895, M. Ribot again filled the post of
premier, and held the office till Oc-
tober of the same year.
Ricardo, David, an English politi-
cal economist ; born in London, Eng-
land, April 19, 1772. He stands next
to Adam Smith in the British free-
trade school of political science, and
his writings have exerted a vast influ-
ence on all theories of political econ-
omy. After making his fortune in the
Stock Exchange in London, he retired
to devote himself to the study of math-
ematics, chemistry, etc. He died in
Gatcomb Park, Gloucestershire, Sept.
11, 1823.
Ricciardelli, Daniele, better
known by the name ot Daniele da
Volterra, an Italian painter; born in
Volterra, Italy, in 1509. His fame
rests chiefly on a series of frescoes in
the church of La Trinita de' Monti,
Rome ; and of these the "Descent from
the Cross " is well known. He died in
Rome, April 4, 156G.
Rice, a well known genus of grasses,
having panicles of one-flowered spike-
lets, with two very small pointed
glumes, the florets compressed, the
paleae strongly nerved, awned or awn-
less, six stamens, one germen, and two
feathery stigmas. The only important
species is the common rice, one of the
most useful and extensively cultivated
of all grains, supplying the principal
food of nearly one-third of the human
race. It seems to be originally a na-
tive of the East Indies, but is now
cultivated in all quarters of the globe.
Rice requires a moist soil, sometimes
flooded. In some parts of the East
canals are carried along the sides of
hills for the irrigation of land for the
cultivation of rice. In South Carolina
rice is sown in rows in the bottom of
trenches, which are about 18 inches
apart ; the trenches are filled with
water to the depth of several inches,
till the seeds germinate ; then the
water is drawn off, and afterward the
E. 126.
Rico
fields are again flooded for rather
more than a fortnight to kill weeds,
They are flooded again when the grain
is near ripening. In Europe the cul-
tivation of rice is most extensively
carried on in the plains of Lombardy
and in Valencia hi Spain. The best
of all rice known in the market for
size and quality is that of South Caro-
lina. After South Carolina the prin-
cipal rice-growing States are Georgia
and Louisiana. The rice production
in the United States has increased
WATER RICE.
within a few years from 100,000,000
pounds per annum to over 600,000,000
pounds, chiefly in Louisiana, Texas,
and South Carolina; and the world's
output is estimated at 175,000,000,-
000 pounds, chiefly in .British India,
China, Japan, and Siam. Besides its
home production, the United States
has found it necessary to import
217,000,000 pounds in a single year.
Rice, Edmund, an American mill'
tary officer; born in Cambridge, Mass.,
Rice
in 1842; entered the Union army at
the beginning of the Civil War ; ap-
pointed captain in 1861 ; and was mus-
tered out of service as colonel in 1865.
He received a medal of honor for con-
spicuous bravery in the battle of Get-
tysburg. In 18G6 he entered the regu-
lar army, rose to colonel, and was
assigned to the 5th Infantry in 1870.
He organized and commanded the Co-
lumbian Guards at the World's Colum-
bian Exposition ; was military attache
at Tokyo, Japan ; appointed Inspector-
General, U. S. A., in 1898; served on
General Miles' staff; and later w^s
colonel of the 26th Infantry. He in-
vented a trowel bayonet, and knife-
intrenching bayonet. Died 1906.
Rice, James, an American educa-
tor; born in Richmond, Ky., Nov. 25,
1842; was graduated at Georgetown
College, Ky., in 1866, president of
>ncord College in 1868-1872 and
1876-1880; of Lebanon Female Col-
lege in 1872-1876 ; of Masonic College
in 1880-1888; and of the Southwest
Baptist College after 1897.
Rice, Wallace (de Groot Cecil),
an American literary critic ; born in
Hamilton, Canada, Nov. 10, 1859 ; was
educated at Harvard University, and
admitted to the Chicago bar in No-
vember, 1884. He served as reporter
and critic on various Chicago papers.
Rice, Willard Martin, an Ameri-
can clergyman ; born in Lowville, N.
Y., April 30, 1817; was graduated at
Wesleyan University in 1837. He
was ordained in the Presbyterian
Church in 1858, and held charges in
Philadelphia till 1884. He became a
member of the Presbyterian Board of
Publication in 1862; and after 1876
was engaged on the various publica-
tions of the Board. Died in 1904.
Rice, William Morton Jackson,
an American painter ; born in Brook-
lyn, N. Y., Feb. 18, 1854; was grad-
uated at Cornell University in 1874 ;
studied painting in Paris.
Rice, William North, an Ameri-
can educator ; born in Marblehead,
Mass., Nov. 21, 1845 ; was graduated
at the Wesleyan University in 1865;
was Professor of Geology and Natural
History at the Wesleyan University
in 1867-1884; and of Geology after
1884 ; and was assistant geologist of
the United States Geological Survey
In 1891-1892,
Richard
Rice Bunting, a name given to
two distinct birds. The first, also
known by the name " bob-o-link," is
a bird of the bunting family, which
migrates over North America from
Labrador to Mexico. The song of the
male is singular and pleasant. When
fat their flesh becomes little inferior
in flavor to that of the European or-
tolan. The other species, kno^vn as
the rice bunting, is also known as the
Java sparrow, and paddy bird. It
belongs to the true finches, a group
nearly allied to the buntings. It is
dreaded in Southern Asia on account
of the ravages it commits in the rice
fields. It is frequently brought to
Europe, and is found in aviaries.
Rice Paper, the produce of the
Aralia papyrifera, a low shrub, with
large leaves, from Formosa, where it
is wild and abundant. The trunk
and branches resemble those of the
elder. The pith, dried and rolled, or
hammered, and pared by sharp knives,
forms the paper.
Rich, Edmund, an English eccle-
siastic; born in Abingdon, England,
about 1195. fie became archbishop
of Canterbury in 1233, and exhibited
great energy as a reformer. He died
in 1242.
Richard I., King of England, sur
named Coeur de Lion; third son of
King Henry II. and his wife, Eleanor
of Aquitaine ; born either at Oxford
or at Woodstock, Sept. 8, 1157. In
England Richard did not spend in all
his life a full year; after he became
king he spent only 26 weeks in his
kingdom, 17 weeks when be landed to
take the crown and to go through the
coronation ceremony at Westminster,
and nine weeks when he came back
from his imprisonment.
Richard became King of England,
Duke of Normandy, and Count of An-
jou on July 5, 1189, and was crowned
King of England on Sept. 3, follow-
ing. But he had already taken the
vows of the crusader ; and besides his
coronation, he had another object in
coming to England ; he wanted to raise
funds for his crusade. He effected this
latter purpose in a brief space of time
by selling whatever he could get a
purchaser for. About midsummer
1190 he met Philip of France at the
rendezvous, Vezelai in France. Both
kings spent the winter >n Sicily, and
Richard
their mutual jealousy came within a
hair's-breadth of a rupture.
On his way to Palestine in the
spring of 1191, part of the fleet of the
English king was driven on to the is-
land of Cyprus, and the crews were
most inhospitably treated by the
reigning sovereign, Isaac Comnenus,
a nephew of the Emperor of Byzanti-
um, who had revolted from his liege
lord. Richard sailed back from
Rhodes, routed Isaac in battle, de-
posed him, and gave his crown to Guy
of Lusignan. In Cyprus, too, he mar-
ried Berengaria of Navarre, whom his
mother had brought to him at Mes-
sina. At last, on June 8, the English
king landed near Acre, and shortly
afterward that stronghold surrendered,
the siege having lasted two years. The
glorious exploits of Richard the Lion-
hearted his march to Joppa along
the seashore, his approach on Jerusa-
lem at Christmas, his capture of the
fortresses hi the S. of Palestine, his
second advance in the summer of 1192
on Jerusalem, and his relief of Joppa
made his name ring throughout the
East and excited the wonder and ad-
miration of Christendom, but brought
no real advantage to the crusading
cause.
Richard in September concluded a
peace with Saladin for three years,
three months, and three days, and in
his impulsive, impatient way started
off home alone, without waiting for his
army and fleet. A storm shipwrecked
him near the N. end of the Adriatic.
In disguise he began to make his way
through the dominions of his bitter en-
emy, the Archduke of Austria. He
was recognized, seized, and handed
over to the Emperor Henry VI.
(March, 1193). The emperor de-
manded a heavy ransom for his release,
but promised to give him the kingdom
of Aries in addition to his liberty.
Richard's loyal subjects raised the
money ; and greatly to the chagrin of
Philip of France and Richard's
brother John, the captive king return-
ed home (March 13, 1194).
In England in the meantime Long-
champ had made himself so unpopular
that Richard had been obliged to su-
persede him, appointing in his place
Walter of Coutances, Archbishop of
Rouen. After distributing judicious
rewards and punishments, raising
Richard
what money he could, making arrange*
ments for the governance of the king-
dom, and being crowned again, Rich-
ard proceeded to France, and spent the
rest of his life there, warring against
Philip. England was governed in his
absence by Hubert Walter, Archbish-
op of Canterbury, who by the meas-
ures he took to raise -the vast sums de-
manded by his master trained the Eng-
lish people in habits of self-govern-
ment. Richard was shot, on April 7,
1199, by an archer of the Viscount of
Limoges, while besieging that noble-
man's castle of Chalus-Chabrol, and
was buried in the abbey church of
Fontevraud.
Richard II., King of England ; son
of the Black Prince and Joanna of
Kent ; born in Bordeaux, Jan. 6, 1367 ;
was acknowledged by Parliament heir
to the crown on the death of his father
in 1376, and succeeded his grand
father, Edward III., on June 21, 1377.
The government was entrusted to a
council of 12, from which the king's
uncles, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lan-
caster, Edmund, Earl of Cambridge,
and Thomas, Earl of Buckingham,
were excluded. Nevertheless the cen-
tral figure during the early years of
this reign, as he had been during the
last years of the preceding reign, was
John of Gaunt, whose overreaching
ambition and inability were a fruitful
source of disquietude.
The imposition of a graduated poll-
tax in 1380 provoked popular risings,
directed principally against the gentry
and landholders, in nearly all parts of
the kingdom, at Whitsuntide in the
following year. The men of Essex and
Kent, to the number of 100,000,
marched on London. The former body,
whom the king met at Mile End on
June 14, consented to return home
when the the young monarch assured
them he would grant their requests.
The men of Kent, after destroying the
Savoy, burning Temple Bar, opening
the prisons, and breaking into the
Tower and slaying the Archbishop of
Canterbury, met the king at Smith-
field ( loth ) . During the negotiations,
William Walworth, the mayor of Lon-
don, struck down Wat Tyler, the lead-
er of the insurgents. The king imme-
diately rode among them, exclaiming
he would be their leader, and granted
them the concessions they asked. From
Richard
the fact that the insurgents directed
their enmity against himself and the
advisers of the king, John of Gaunt
saw that he could never hope to suc-
ceed in his ambitious schemes in Eng-
land ; and from this time he kept very
much in the background, till in 1386
he carried himself and his restless
plottings to Spain and Gascony. Rich-
ard in 1390 made him Duke of Aqui-,
taine for life. In 1385 Richard invad-
ed Scotland, and took Edinburgh and
burned it ; but, not encountering the
Scotch, returned home.
On May 3, 1389, Richard suddenly
declared himself of age, and proceeded
to govern on his own responsibility.
For eight years he ruled as a moder-
ate constitutional monarch, and the
country enjoyed peace hostilities
with France were not renewed after
1388 and was fairly prosperous.
But in 1394 Richard's first wife, Anne
of Bohemia, whom he had wedded in
1382, died, and two years later he
married Isabella, daughter of Charles
VI., of France, a girl of eight. In
the Parliament of 1397 he began to as-
sert the pretensions of an absolute
monarch. On July 8 he had Glouces-
ter, Arundel, and Warwick arrested
on the charge of conspiring against the
crown. Arundel was beheaded ;
Gloucester was sent a prisoner to Ca-
lais, and died there in prison, a fort-
night after his arrest ; and Warwick
was banished to the Isle of Man.
Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Can-
terbury, was also banished.
Richard soon aroused the slumbering
discontent of his subjects by his un-
just methods of raising money, prin-
cipally by means of forced loans, and
by his arbitrary and despotic rule. In
the beginning of 1398 the Duke of
Norfolk and the Duke of Hereford
were accused to the king of having
spoken treason against him. Richard
banished them Norfolk for life and
Hereford for 10 years. In January,
1399, John of Gaunt died, and Here-
ford succeeded him as Duke of Lancas-
ter ; but the king refused to give up to
the exile the lands of his dead father.
Richard in May went over to Ireland,
which he had previously visited at the
Jiead of a military expedition in 1394-
1395. Henry of Lancaster seized on
the opportunity afforded by the king's
absence, and landed on July 4. Rich-
ard at once hurried back, but had
Richard
neither heart nor power to withstand
his cousin. He submitted to Lancas-
ter at Flint Aug. 19, was carried to
London, and placed in the Tower. On
Sept. 29 he resigned the crown, and on
the following day was likewise de-
posed by the Parliament, which chose
Henry of Lancaster as his successor.
A month after his resignation Rich-
ard was condemned to perpetual im-
prisonment by Parliament. His fate
is wrapped in obscurity, beyond the al-
most certain fact that he met a violent
death.
Richard III., King of England;
son of Richard, Duke of York, a de-
scendant of Edward III. ; born in Foth-
eringay Castle, Oct. 2, 1452. After the
defeat and death of his father in 1460
he was sent, along with his brother
George, to Utrecht for safety, but re-
turned to England after his eldest
brother Edward won the crown
(1461). Two years later he was cre-
ated Duke of Gloucester, his brother
George being made Duke of Clarence.
In the final struggle between the York
and Lancaster factions he took an ac-
tive share. All through the reign of
Edward IV. he gave valuable and
faithful support to his brother, and
was rewarded by him with every con-
fidence, and with numerous high of-
fices.
In 1472 he married Anne, the young-
er daughter of Warwick the King-
maker, who had been betrothed to the
murdered Prince Edward. In 1482 he
was put in command of the army that
invaded Scotland. Along with the
Duke of Albany he entered Edinburgh ;
but his one warlike achievement was
the capture of Berwick town and cas-
tle. In the following year, while still
in Yorkshire, he heard of King Ed-
ward's death (April 9), and learned
that he himself had been named guard-
ian and protector of his son and heir,
Edward V., then aged 13. On his way
S. the Protector arrested Earl Rivera
and Lord Richard Grey, the uncle and
step-brother of the young king, and
confined them in his castles.
The arrest of Rivers and Grey had
put the king entirely into his hands,
for the queen-mother had hastened to
take sanctuary at Westminster. On
June 13 Gloucester suddenly accused
Lord Hastings, an influential member
of the council, of treason, arrested him
Richard Plantagenet
there and then, and had him instantly
beheaded. On June 16 the queen-dow-
ager was induced to give up, at the de-
mand of Richard and the council, her
other son, the little Duke of York. He
was put into the Tower to keep his
brother, the king, company. On the
Sunday following (22d) a certain Dr.
Shaw preached at St. Paul's cross that
the children of Edward IV. were ille-
gitimate. Three days later the Parlia-
ment desired Richard to assume the
crown; on the next day (June 26,
1483) he declared himself king, and
on July 6 was crowned in state by
Cardinal Bourchier.
Shortly after his coronation Richard
set out on a tour through the king-
dom, and during the course of it he
was surprised by the intelligence that
Buckingham was plotting with the
friends of Henry Tudor (afterward
Henry VII.), to effect his overthrow
and proclaim Henry king. But the at-
tempted rising soon collapsed, and
Buckingham was taken and on Nov.
2 executed. It seems to have been
shortly before this that Richard con-
trived the foul crime that has branded
him name with infamy, the murder of
his nephews in the Tower. The deed
was done so secretly by Sir James
Tyrrell, one of Richard's devoted fol-
lowers, and a couple of hirelings, that
the nation did not know of it till some
time after.
During the remainder of his short
reign Richard directed all his energies
to baffling the plans of Richmond, and
to making preparations to meet the in-
vasion which he saw to be imminent.
Henry of Richmond at length landed
at Milford Haven on Aug. 7, 1485.
Richard met him at Bosworth in Lei-
cestershire on the 22d, and there lost
his kingdom and his life.
Richard Plant agenet, King of
the Romans ; second son of John, King
of England; born Jan. 5, 1209. For
some years he acted with the English
barons, to many of whom he was close-
ly related by his marriage with Isabel,
Countess of Gloucester, daughter of
the Earl of Pembroke. In 1240-1241
Richard was away on a crusade, and
the next year he was with his brother
in Gascony; and in 1244 he married
Sanchia of Provence, sister of Queen
Eleanor, and this second marriage
drew him away from the baronage. Tu
Richards
1257 he was elected by a majority ti-
tular king of the Romans, and was
soon afterward crowned at Aix-la-
Chapelle. In the great struggle which
took place between Henry III. and
his nobles Richard at first acted as
a peacemaker. Subsequently, however,
he sided with his brother against Si-
mon de Montfort ; and he was taken
prisoner at Lewes, and imprisoned for
a year, till the battle of Evesham
(1265) set him free. In 1267 he was
a third time married, to Beatrice,
niece of the Elector of Cologne. Rich-
ard died at Kirkham, Dec. 12, 1271.
Richards, Charles Brincker-
hoff, an American engineer ; born in
Brooklyn, N. Y., Dec. 23, 1833; was
superintendent of Colt's Arms Com-
pany, of Hartford, for many years.
In 1861 he invented the Richards in-
dicator for steam engines; was one of
the United States expert commission"
ers to the Paris Exposition in 1889;
editor of the engineering and technical
terms in " Webster's International
Dictionary."
Richards, Charles Herbert, an
American clergyman ; born in Meri-
den, N. H., March 18, 1839 ; was grad-
uated at Yale University in 1860, and
at the Andover Theological Seminary
in 1865 ; and afterward served in the
ministry of the Congregational Church.
He conducted the Monona Lake As-
sembly in Madison, Wis., in 1881-
1884; was president of the Wisconsin
Home Missionary Society in 1885
1890; lectured on Hymnology and
Church Music at Yale University in
1895.
Richards, Edgar, an American
chemist; born in New York, Feb. 23,
1858 ; took a course in chemistry at
the School of Mines in Columbia Uni-
versity in 1876-1881 ; was assistant
chemist in the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture in 1882-1887 ; as-
sistant chemist in the Internal Rev-
enue Bureau of the United States
Treasury Department in 1887-1892;
president of the Washington Chemical
Society in 1889.
Richards, Laura Elizabeth, an
American writer of juvenile books,
daughter of Julia Ward Howe; born
in Boston, Mass., in 1850. She pub-
lished a great number of children's
books.
Richards
Richards, William Trost, an
American landscape and marine paint-
er ; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Nov.
14, 1833. From 1878 till 1880, he had
a studio in London, England. He
then returned to Philadelphia. At
the Metropolitan Museum, in New
York city, is a series of 47 water-
color marines and landscapes, painted
by him in 1871-1870. His " Wissa-
hickon " was on exhibition at the
Centennial Exposition in 1876. In the
Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington,
D. C., is hung his " On the Coast of
New Jersey." He died Nov. 8, 1905.
Richardson, Abby Sage, an
American lecturer and writer on lit-
erary topics ; wife of Albert Deane
Richardson; born in Massachusetts,
in 1837. She died in Rome, Italy,
Dec. 5, 1900. She was a woman of
remarkable ability, and gave an ad-
mirable example in the devoted care
of her children.
Richardson, Benjamin 'Ward,
an English physician ; born at Somer-
by, Leicestershire, 1828 ; graduated in
medicine at St. Andrews University in
1854. In 1855 he edited the "Journal
.of Health;" and he gained the Astley
Cooper prize by his treatise on " The
Cause of the Coagulation of the
Blood," and the Fothergillian gold
medal by a disquisition on the " Di-
seases of the Foetus," in 1856. He
originated the use of ether spray for
the local abolition of pain in surgical
operations, and introduced methylenc
bichloride as a general anaesthetic.
He was a fellow of the Royal College
of Physicians and of the Royal So-
ciety. He was knighted in 1893, and
died in 1896.
Richardson, Charles, an English
lexicographer; born in 1775, died 1865.
He was trained as a barrister, but de-
voted himself to literature. In 1815
he published " Illustrations of Eng-
lish Philology." In 1818 he under-
took the lexicographical articles in
the " Encyclopaedia Metropolitana,"
and afterwards published his great
work, a " New Dictionary of the Eng-
lish Language " (2 vols. 1835-37). He
contributed frequently to magazines.
Richardson, Henry Hobson, an
American architect; born in New Or-
leans, La., in 1838; was graduated at
Harvard in 1859. He designed some
of the most beautiful buildings in this
Richardson
country. He died in Boston, "Mass.,
April 28, 1886.
Richardson, Sir John, a British
naturalist and Arctic traveler ; bora
in Dumfries, Scotland, Nov. 5, 1787.
After studying medicine at the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh he entered the
royal navy, in 1807, as assistant-sur-
geon. He served on various stations
till 1819, and was surgeon and natu-
ralist to the Arctic expeditions of 1819-
1822 and 1825-1827, under Sir John
Franklin, exploring on the latter oc-
casion the shores of the Arctic Ocean
between the Mackenzie and Copper-
mine rivers. In March, 1848, he took
charge of an expedition to search for
Franklin. He died near Grasmere,
England, June 5, 1865.
Richardson, Samuel, an English
novelist ; born in Derbyshire, in 1689.
In 1706, at the age of 16, he was
bound by his own wish to John Wilde
of Stationers' Hall. From 1713 to
1719 he worked as a journeyman print-
er. In the latter year he opened an
establishment of his own, and shortly
after married Miss Martha Wilde,
long popularly believed to be his mas-
ter's daughter, but the child of a Mr.
Allington Wilde. He became master
of the Stationers' Company (1754).
He printed more than one news-
paper, and by the favor of Speaker
Onslow obtained the printing of the
journals of the House of Commons, 26
volumes of which passed through his
establishment. He was over 50 when
two bookselling friends invited him to
prepare a volume of familiar letters in
a common style, on such subjects as
might be of use to those country
readers who were unable to indite for
themselves. Hence sprung " Pamela,"
published in November, 1740. Its
title was " Pamela : or Virtue Re-
warded."
In February followed a second edi-
tion ; a third succeeded in March, and
a fourth in May. Grub street fastening
promptly on this unexampled popular-
ity, hastily put together for a sequel a
"Pamela in High Life."
Eight years elapsed before Richard-
son published another novel. " Clar-
issa; or the Adventures of a Young
Lady," known generally as "Clarissa
Harlowe." The heroine is drawn with
a tenacity of insight to which " Pame-
la," could scarcely pretend; and thfl
.Richardson
Richmond
chief male character, that of Love-
lace, is scarcely inferior.
Having drawn the ideal woman in
" Clarissa," Richardson proceeded,
some five years later, to portray, in
" Sir Charles Grandison," the perfect
man " the man of true honor. This
is a work of much greater ability than
" Pamela," but still far below " Clar-
issa." In later life a nervous disease
grew upon him, which terminated in
1761 by a fit of apoplexy, of which he
died.
Richardson, 'William Adams,
an American jurist ; born in Tyngs-
boro, Mass., Nov. 2, 1821 ; was grad-
uated at Harvard University in 1843,
and at its law school in 1846, and was
admitted to the Boston bar in 1848.
In 1856 he was appointed judge of
the probate court of Middlesex coun-
ty, and in 1869, assistant secretary of
the United States Treasury, becoming
secretary in 1873. He resigned that
office in 1874 to accept a seat on the
bench of the United States Court of
Claims, being made chief-justice of
the court in 1885. He died in Wash-
ington, D. C., Oct. 19, 1896.
Richelieu, Armand Jean Du-
plessis, Cardinal, Due de, a French
statesman ; born in Richelieu, Sept. 5,
1585. He abandoned a military career
for the Church. Representative of the
Poitou clergy at the States-general in
1614, he attracted the notice of the
queen-mother, and rose in 1616 to be
secretary of war and foreign affairs ;
but the downfall of Marshal d'Ancre,
the queen-regent's favorite, in April,
1617, sent him back to his diocese.
In 1622 he was named cardinal and
in 1624 Minister of State. His first
important measure was the blow to
Spain of an alliance with England,
cemented by the betrothal -(1625) of
the king's sister, Henrietta, with
Charles, then Prince of Wales. His
next task was to destroy the political
power of the Huguenot party. After
a 15 months' siege, concentrating all
his energy on the task, the great
stronghold of La Rochelle was starved
into submission, Oct. 30, 1628. Early
in 1630 he entered Italy and soon re-
duced Savoy to submission. The first
treaty of Cherasco (April, 1631),
ended the Italian war, the second
gave France the important strategic
position of Pinerolo.
In July, 1632, Richelieu had seized
the duchy of Lorraine. He continued
his intrigues with the Protestants
against Ferdinand, but till 1635 he
took no open part in the war. In
May of that year, after comple'ung his
preparations he declared war on Spain
and at once placed in the field an
army of 132,000 men. But hifi first
efforts were unsuccessful.
With 30,000 foot and 12,000 horse he
swept the enemy out of Picardy, while
his ally Bernhard drove them across
the Rhine, and in 1638 destroyed the
imperial army in the decisive battle
of Rheinfelden. The unexpected death
of Bernhard threw the fruit of his
victories into the hands of Richelieu
revolts in Catalonia, and the loss of
Portugal ; the victories of Wolfen-
buttel (1642) and Kempten (1642)
over the Imperialists in Germany ;
and at length in 1641 in Savoy also
in the ascendency of the French party.
Another triumph that same year was
the speedy collapse of the Imperialist
invasion in the N. by the Count of
Soissons, who perished in the first
battle. The failure to capture Tarra-
gona was the one exception to the
complete triumph of the cardinal's
latest years.
The last conspiracy against him was
that of the grand-equerry, the young
Cinq-Mars, whose intrigues with Gas-
ton, the Duke of Bouillon, and the
Spanish court were soon revealed to
the cardinal. When the hour was
ripe he placed in the king's hands at
Tarascon proofs- of the traitorous plot
with Spain, and was given full powers
as lieutenant-general of the ' realm.
Cinq-Mars and De Thou were at once
arrested, and Gaston of Orleans has-
tened to buy his own security by be~
traying his accomplices. Cinq-Mars
and De Thou were executed at Lyons
in the autumn of 1642. But the great
minister was himself dying in the
hour of his greatest triumphs. He died
Dec. 4, 1642, bequeathing Mazarin to
the king as his successor.
Richmond, a town in Madison CO.,
Ky. ; 25 miles S. E. of Lexington. It
is memorable as the scene of one of the
most desperate battles of the Civil
War. The Confederate general, E.
Kirby Smith, in command of 18,000
troops, attacked a much larger Union
army under command of Gens. M. D.
Richmond
Manson and William Nelson, and after
a three hours' battle utterly defeated
the Union forces, whose loss including
killed, wounded and prisoners, was
5,000.
Richmond, a city, port of entry,
capital of the State of Virginia, and
county-seat of Henrico co. ; on the
James river ; 116 miles S. E. of Wash-
ington, D. C. The city is about 127
miles from the ocean. The James
river is navigable for large vessels.
The city is built on seven hills, and
is surrounded by beautiful scenery.
There are upward of GOO manufac-
turing establishments, of which nearly
90 are engaged in the tobacco indus-
try, the remainder being of flour,
paper, fertilizer, iron, steel, etc. A
number of its flour mills and one of
its rolling mills are among the largest
in the United States.
The city covers an area of 5 square
miles ; and has 116 miles of streets,
of which 23 miles are paved ; a system
of waterworks that cost $2,500,000,
and 100 miles of mains ; and a sewer
system covering 53 miles. The streets
are lighted by gas and electricity.
There is a public school enrollment
of nearly 12,000 pupils and annual
expenditures for public education of
over $166,859.21. The annual cost of
maintaining the city government ex-
ceeds $1.500.000. The death rate
averages 18.57 per 1,000 annually. The
capitol, which stands on Shockoe Hill,
and is surrounded by most of the other
public buildings, is an imposing struc-
ture, dating from 1785. In the Cen-
tral Hall, surmounted by a dome, are
a statue of Washington and bust of
Lafayette, Gen. Fitz Hugh Lee, and
others. The Senate Chamber, to the
right, was used as the Confederate
House of Representatives during the
Civil War. The House of Delegates,
to the left, contains portraits of
Chatham and Jefferson, and was the
scene of Aaron Burr's trial for high
treason in 1807 and of the State Seces-
sion Convention in 1861. The execu-
tive mansion of the Confederate
States, formerly the residence of Jef-
ferson Davis, has been converted into
a museum which contains many relics
of the Civil War. The other notable
public buildings include the City Hall,
State Library, State Penitentiary,
almshouse, custom house, etc. The
Richmond
prominent educational institutions are
Richmond College (Bapt.), St. Jo-
seph Female Academy (R. C.), the
Medical College of Virginia, University
College of Medicine, Women's College,
and Mechanics' Institute.
Richmond is said to have first been
settled in 1609. Fort Charles waa
built as a defense against the Indiana
in 1644-1645. The city was incor-
porated in 1742, and became the cap-
ital of the State in 1779. In June,
1861, it was selected as the Con-
federate capital, and from that period
was the objective point of a series of
formidable military expeditions for its
capture. Pop. (1910) 127,628.
During the last three years of the
Civil War (1862-1865) battles raged
all round Richmond, and remains of
the fortified lines constructed to pro-
tect the city are visible in various
parts of the environs. Both the inner
and outer fortifications may be seen
from the Brook Road, which leads to
the Lakeside Club House, with its
golf links, bowling alleys and boating
lake. The chief direct attack on Rich-
mond was made on May 15, 1862,
when the Union fleet attempted, with-
out success, to force its way past the
batteries at Drewry Bluff, on the
James river, 7 miles below the city.
Simultaneously General McClellan ad-
vanced with the land forces up the
peninsula between the York and James
rivers and invested Richmond on the
B. and N. This led to the hardly
contested but indecisive battle of Seven
Pines or Fair Oaks (May 31, 1862),
in which the Confederates under Gen.
Joseph E. Johnston attacked McClel-
lan's left wing, to the S. of the
Chickahominy. Large cemeteries and
a park now mark the spot, 7 miles to
the E., reached by the West Point
railroad. The district is swampy, and
McClellan lost more men by pestilence
than in fighting. Gen. Robert E. Lee
assumed command of the Confederate
forces and made an attempt, in combi-
nation with Gen. " Stonewall " Jack-
son, to overwhelm McClellan's right
wing, which was posted at Mechanics-
ville, on the Chickahominy, 5% miles
to the N. of Richmond, and thus be-
gan the famous Seven Days' Battle
(June 28-July 2, 1862). Mechanics-
ville was followed by the battles of
Gaines's Mill, Cold Harbor, Savage's
Richmond
Station, Frazier's Farm, and Malvern
Hill. The upshot of this series of
contests, in which 40,000 men fell, was
the relief of Richmond, as the Union
troops were compelled to retreat to
Malvern Hill, 15 miles to the S. B.,
where they repelled the Confederates
in their last attack but soon after
withdrew to Harrison's Landing, on
the James River. During 1863 there
were no direct attacks on Richmond.
In May, 1804, General Grant marched
down through the " Wilderness " and
attacked Lee in his entrenched posi-
tion at Cold Harbor (June 3, 1864),
and lost 15,000 men without making
much impression on the enemy. He
then transferred his army to the S.
side of the James ; and the later stages
of the war were rather a siege of
Petersburg than of Richmond.
Richmond, city and capital of
Wayne county, Ind.; on the White
river and the Grand Rapids & Indi-
ana and other railroads; 68 miles E.
of Indianapolis; manufactures church
furniture, undertakers' supplies, farm
implements, brass and iron goods,
carpets, and lawn-mowers; and is the
seat of Earlham College (Friends)
and the Eastern Asylum for the In-
sane. Pop. (1910) 22,324.
Richter, Johann Paul Fried-
rich, known by his pen-name of Jean
Paul, a German humorist; born in
Wunsiedel, North Bavaria, March 21,
1763. His first literary "children."
were satires; but he could get no pub-
lisher for them till in 1783 Voss of
Berlin gave him 40 louis d'or for
" The Greenland Lawsuits."
| For three years Jean Paul struggled
on at home, his mother spinning hard
for bread, he helping with a few
florins he earned by his pen. He
read enormously, omnivorously. In
the beginning of 1787 he began to
teach the children of different families
in the district, and of course taught
by original methods. All this time he
still went on writing. " The Invisible
Lodge " was his first literary success ;
" Hesperus " made him famous. In
1796 Charlotte von Kalb wrote to
express her admiration of the book ;
and a few months later, at her invita-
tion, Jean Paul visited Weimar. There
Goethe received him politely; that,
too, was Schiller's attitude, when Jean
Paul went on to Jena to see him.
Rickettfl
Herder and his wife, on the other
hand, greeted the young romance-
writer with overflowing admiration. He
settled finally at Baireuth in 1804. He
shortly afterwards received a pension
from the prince-primate, Dalberg,
which was continued by the King of
Bavaria. While staying in Berlin in
1801 he married Karoline Mayer, a
union which proved very happy. . His
last years were saddened by the death
of his only son in 1821. Jean Paul's
works (he wrote under this name) are
characterized by a deeply reflective and
philosophic humor, but are often
whimsical and fantastic. They are
full of good things, but show no sense
of proportion, arrangement, or artistic
finish. His writings, other than those
noted above, include works connected
with the history and politics of the
time. He died Nov. 14, 1825.
Richthof en, Ferdinand, Baron
von, a German geographer; born in
Karlsruhe, Silesia, May 5, 1833; in
1860 accompanied a Prussian expedi-
tion to Eastern Asia. The next 12
years he spent in traveling through
Java, Siam, Burma, California, Sierra
Nevada, and China and Japan. After
his return to Europe (1872) he was
appointed president of the Berlin
Geographical Society, Professor of
Geology at Bonn, of Geography at
Leipzig, and at Berlin, and in 1
director of the newly founded Institut
fur Meereskunde. His reputation as a
geographer is built principally upon
his "China." He died Oct. 7, 1905.
Ricinns, a genus of plants, order
Euphorbiacese. R. communis is the
palma christi or castor-oil plant, a
native of the East and West Indies
and Florida. Castor oil is obtained
from the seeds, either by expression
with or without the aid of heat, or by
decoction, or sometimes by the aid of
alcohol.
Rickets, a disease peculiar to in-
fancy, chiefly characterized by changes
in the texture, chemical composition,
and outward form of the bony skeleton
and by altered functions of the other
organs, transient for the most part,
but occasionally permanent.
Ricketts, James Brewerton, an
American military officer ; born in
New York city, June 21, 1817; was
graduated at the United States mill-
Rickman
tary academy, in 1839 ; was a captain
in the regular army in 1852 ; and
gained a record for excellent service
during the Mexican War. In 1861 he
Vras appointed a Brigadier-General
t>f volunteers, and commanded a di-
vision at the battle > of Antietam, in
September, 1862. He was in the thick
of the battle of the Wilderness, May 5
and 6, 1864; was severely wounded at
the "battle of Cedar Creek Oct. 19,
1864; and was brevetted Major-Gen-
eral, U. S. A., in 1865. He served in
the Army of the Potomac from the
first battle of Bull Run till Peters-
burg was besieged in 1864. He died
in Washington, D. C., Sept. 22, 1887.
Rickman, Thomas, an English
architect ; born in Maidenhead, Berk-
shire, in 1776; seems to have always
had a love for architecture, and to
have studied it carefully. Having sent
in a design for a church that proved
successful in a government competi-
tion, he settled at Birmingham as an
architect. He died in March, 1841.
Riddle, John Wallace, diplomat,
b. July 12, 1864, Philadelphia, Pa.
He entered the diplomatic service in
] 893 ; became secretary of the embassy
to Russia ; minister to Servia and
Rumania in 1905-1906; Minister to
Russia in 1906-1909.
Ri dean Canal, a Canadian canal
constructed between Kingston on Lake
Ontario and Ottawa as a through
waterway by means of the river Ot-
tawa to Montreal, the St. Lawrence
route being interrupted by rapids.
Canals have since been built along
the St. Lawrence to avoid these, and
the Rideau is now little used.
Rideing, 'William. Henry, an
American author; born in Liverpool,
England, Feb. 17, 1853. In 1881 he
became associate editor of the
"Youths' Companion."
Riders, additional provisions of a
bill under the consideration of a leg-
islative assembly, having little con-
nection with the subject-matter of the
bill. The consequence of this custom
is, practically, a limitation of the
veto power of the executive. It has
been proposed frequently that the
Constitution of the United States be
so amended that the President could
veto single objectionable items, with-
out affecting the main purpose of bills.
^ Riel
Ridgway, Robert, an American
naturalist; bom in Mt. Carmel, 111.,
July 2, 1850. He early turned his at-
tention to natural history and was
zoologist to the United States geologi-
cal expedition under Clarence King
in the Western States in 1867-1869.
He was one of the founders of the
American Ornithologists' Union, of
which he became president.
Riding, the art of sitting on horse-
back with firmness, ease, and grace-
fulness, and of guiding the horse and
keeping him under perfect command.
Ridley, Nicholas, an English
clergyman, Bishop of London in the
reigns of Edward VI., and his succes-
sor Mary ; born about the commence-
ment of the 16th century; filled the
office of proctor to Cambridge Univer-
sity. In 1547 he was chosen to the
see of Rochester, and in 1550 super-
seded Bonner as Bishop of London.
On the death of Edward he was in-
volved in an attempt to secure the
Protestant ascendency by placing the
Lady 'Jane Grey on the throne. This,
together with his connection with
Cranmer, led to his being tried for
heresy ; he was found guilty, and con-
demned to the stake. This sentence
he underwent with the greatest forti-
tude, in company with his friend and
fellow-sufferer Latimer, Oct. 16, 1555,
in Oxford.
Ridpath, John Clark, an Ameri-
can educator ; born in Putnam co.,
Ind., April 26, 1840; and later held
a professorship in Baker University,
Kansas. In 1869 he became Profes-
sor of English Literature at Asbury
University, Indiana, and was elected
its vice-president in 1879. In 1874-
1875 he published a " History of the
United States " which he supple-
mented with another in 1877. In
1876 he issued a " School History,"
and in 1879 an " English Grammar."
Desiring to devote his whole time^to
literature he resigned his university
offices. He died in New York city,
Aug. 1, 1900.
Riel, Louis, a Canadian insurgent,
born in Boniface, Oct. 23, 1844. He
led the Metis' Red River rebellion in
1869, which was subdued by a Canad-
ian force. He fled from the terri-
tory to escape arrest, and returned
after peace terms had been arranged,
Rienzi
He was elected to the Dominion Par-
liament in 1873, but was not allowed
to take his seat. His attempt to
create resistance in 1885 was more
successful, but the rebellion was short-
lived. Riel was captured, tried for
treason, and was sentenced to death.
He was executed Nov. 16, 1885, at
Regina in the Northwestern Terri-
tory.
Rienzi, Nicola Gabrini, a Ro-
man patriot; born about 1310. He
was sent by his fellow citizens to
Clement VI., at Avignon, in order to
prevail on that pontiff to return to
Rome. His eloquence pleased the
Pope, though it did not persuade him ;
and Rienzi on his return formed the
design of making himself master of
Rome. Haying gained a considerable
number of partisans, . he entered the
Capitol, harangued the people, and
elevated the standard of liberty. He
designed to unite the whole of Italy
into one great republic, with Rome for
its capital. At length a conspiracy
was formed against him ; and having
lost the popular favor by his arro-
gance and tyranny, he was compelled
to seek safety in flight, but was taken
and cruelly put to death in 1352.
Bietbok, in zoology the reed-buck,
a South African antelope. It is about
four feet in length, and nearly three
feet high at the shoulder.
Rifle, a portable* firearm, the inte-
rior surface of the barrel of which is
grooved, the channels being cut in the
form of a screw. The number of these
spiral channels or threads, as well as
their depth, varies in different rifles,
the most approved form being with
the channels and ridges of equal
breadth, and the spiral turning more
quickly as it nears the muzzle. The
bullet fired is now always of an
elongated form. The great advantage
gained by a weapon of this construc-
tion is that the bullet discharged from
the piece, by having a rotatory action
imparted to its axis coincident with
its line of flight, is preserved in its
direct path ^ without being subject to
the aberrations that injure precision
of aim in firing with unrifled arms.
As a necessary consequence of the pro-
jectile being carried more directly in its
line of aim, its length of range, as
well as its certainty in hitting the
Object is materially increased. Sport-
Rigga
ing rifles have a shorter range and
inferior velocity to the best military
weapons, their object being not ex-
treme range or penetration, but great
force at impact to produce such a
shock as will paralyze the animal
shot.
Rifle Bird, often spoken of as one
of the "Birds of Paradise ;" is perhaps
the best-known of the genus Pitlor-
his, which comprises four species con-
fined to Australia and to New Guinea.
P. paradiseus inhabits the S. E. dis-
tricts of Australia, and is found only
in very thick " bush." The male is
regarded as more splendid in plumage
than any other Australian bird.
Riga, a city and capital of Li-
vonia, and after St. Petersburg and
Odessa the third seaport of Russia, on
the Dwina river, 7 miles from the
mouth of the river, and 350 S. W.
of St. Petersburg, via Pskoff. The old
town has narrow streets and mediaeval
houses and stores ; but the suburbs are
laid out in broad streets with hand-
some buildings. The chief edifices are
the cathedral built in 1204, burned
down in 1547, but rebuilt ; St. Peter's
Church (1406), with a steeple 460
feet high ; the castle of the old Knights
of the Sword, built 1494-1515, the
former residence of the grand-master
of the order; and several old guild
houses and Hanseatic halls. Riga
was founded hi 1201 by Albert, Bishop
of Livonia, and soon became a first-
rate commercial town, and member
of the Hanseatic League. In 1710 was
annexed to Russia. Pop. 256,197.
Riggs, John Davis Seaton, an
American educator; born in Wash-
ington, Pa., Jan. 29, 1851 ; was grad-
uated at the University of Chicago in
1878 ; principal of the commercial
department of Salt Lake Academy,
Utah ; and of the preparatory depart-
ment of the old University of Chicago ;
joint principal of the University
Academy in Chicago; organizer and
principal of Granville (now Doane)
Academy of Denison University, and
president of Ottawa University after
1896.
Riggs, Kate Douglas Wiggin,
an American author; born in Philadel-
phia, Pa.; was graduated at Abbott
Academy in 1878; organized the first
free kindergarten for poor children
ftiggs
on the Pacific coast, and continued
interested in the work.
Biggs, Robert Baird, an Ameri-
can chemist ; born in Hazelwood,
Minn., May 22, 1855 ; was graduated
at Beloit College, Wis., in 1870; Pro-
fessor of Chemistry at the National Col-
lege of Pharmacy in 1885-1887; and
lateV became Professor of Chemistry
at Trinity College, Hartford.
Rights, Declaration and Bill
of. Two documents adopted in Eng-
land ; the Declaration (February,
166y> ? stated tnat James II. had
committed certain acts contrary to
the law, and declared the throne va-
cant. The Bill (October, 1689), set
forth that the monarch had no power
of suspending laws, the levying of
money without consent of parliament
is illegal ; also the keeping of a stand-
ing army in time of peace without
accession thereto by parliament is also
illegal ; election of members to par-
liament should be free ; that free
speech should be granted in parlia-
ment ; condemns excessive bail and ex-
cessive fines or unusual punishments ;
claims the right of petition to the
crown, and trial by jury ; that parlia-
ment should meet frequently ; and that
all ecclesiastical courts are illegal. It
also treats of succession to the crown.
Rights of Man, Declaration of
the, a famous statement of the con-
stitution and principles of civil society
and government adopted by the French
National Assembly in August, 1789.
In historical importance it may fairly
be ranked with the English Bill of
Rights and the American Declaration
of Independence.
Riis, Jacob August, born in
Ribe, Denmark, May 3, 1849, son of
Niels Edward Riis. Came to New
York, and after some interesting ad-
ventures joined the staff of the New
York " Sun " as a police reporter.
Kept his eyes open to his surroundings
and was first to call public attention
in vivid and impressive style to the
needs and struggles of the poor of
America's metropolis. His book, " How
the Other Half Lives," was received
with interest and awakened philan-
thropy to a sense of its duty to less
fortunate humanity in the great cities.
Riker, Albert Burdsall, an
American clergyman; born, in New
Ri&er
Albany, O., Oct. 19, 1852; was grad-
uated at Wesleyan University in 1879 ;
held pastorates in Ohio, Tennessee,
and West Virginia, and in 1898 be-
came president of Mount Union Col-
lege, Alliance, O.
Riley, Benjamin Franklin, an
American clergyman ; born in Pine-
ville, Ala., July 1G, 1849 ; was grad-
uated at Erskine College, South Caro-
lina, in 1871 ; entered the ministry of
the Baptist Church in 1872 ; was pres-
ident of Howard College in 1888-1893,
and Professor of English Literature
at the University of Georgia in 1893.
Riley, Franklin Lafayette, an
American educator ; born near He-
bron, Lawrence co., Miss., Aug. 24,
1868; was graduated at the Missis-
sippi College in 1889; and later stud-
ied at Johns Hopkins University ; was
president of Hillman College for
Young Women in 1896-1897; and be-
came Professor of History at the Uni-
versity of Mississippi in 1897.
Riley, James Whitcomb, an
American poet; born in Greenfield,
Ind., in 1853. His contributions to
newspapers and magazines first at-
tracted public attention about 1875.
His writings soon became so popular
that he devoted himself to literature
and public readings of his work with
great success. His poems are char-
acterized by both, humor and pathos
and by their sympathy with the sim-
plest phases of life. Those of the
Hoosier type are especially popular.
. Rinehart, "William Henry, an
American sculptor ; born hi Carroll
co., Md., Sept. 13, 1825; went to
Baltimore in 1846; and found em-
ployment at his trade of stone cutter.
He attended night school at the Mary-
land Institute and studied art ; went to
Italy in 1855 and studied under the
best masters in sculpture. He opened
a studio on his return to Baltimore,
but in 1858 established himself in
Rome. He completed Crawford's
bronze doors for the National Capitol
at Washington. He died in Rome,
Oct. 28, 1874.
Riner, John A., an American
jurist ; born in Preble co., O., in 1850 ;
was graduated at the University of
Michigan in 1879 ; later removed to
Wyoming; became city attorney of
Cheyenne in 1881, United States dia-
Ring
Rio de Janeiro
trict attorney of Wyoming in 1884, a.
member of the upper house of the
Territorial legislature in 1886, and
of the Constitutional Convention in
1889 ; later was a member of the State
Senate and on Sept. 23, 1890, he was
appointed United States district judge
for the district of Wyoming.
Ring, any circle or section of a
cylinder. Rings of gold, silver, and of
FIG. 1.
other metals and materials have been
worn in all times and countries, and
while they have been used to decorate
the ears, neck, nose, lips, arms, legs,
and toes, finger rings have always
occupied the most important and sig-
nificant place among such ornaments.
From the earliest period of civilized
relationships the finger ring was a
convenient means for carrying the
signet of its wearer. Fig. 1 shows a
Jewish marriage ring beautifully
wrought in gold filigree, and richly
enamelled. Fig. 2 shows a form of
betrothal ring called a gimmel, or
linked ring, which was used in later
times ; the upper figure shows the
three parts brought together, the low-
er figures the parts separately.
Ringbone, an exostosis or bony
tumor mostly met with on the coronet
of overworked horses, but sometimes
seen on colts.
Ring-dove, or Cushat, the largest
of the pigeons inhabiting Great Brit-
ain, a bird which occurs very gener-
ally throughout the wooded parts of
Europe. It is migratory in countries
in which the severe winters preclude
the possibility of its obtaining a due
supply of food, and even in Great
Britain, in which it permanently re-
sides, it appears on the approach of
winter to assemble in flocks, and to
perform a limited migration, probably
in search of food.
Ringed Snake, a harmless colu-
brine snake with teeth so small as to
be incapable of piercing the skin. It
is common in England.
Ring Money, a form of currency
consisting of rin^s which seems to
have originated with the Egyptians. It
is still used in parts of Africa, and is
manufactured in Birmingham for the
use of African traders.
Ring Ouzel, a species of thrush,
rather larger than a blackbird. It is
a native chiefly of the W. parts of
Europe.
FIG. 2.
Ringworm, an eruptive disease of
the skin, more particularly on the
head, and of which there are several
kinds.
Rio de Janeiro, or simply Rio, a
city and seaport, capital of Brazil and
of the province of the same name, the
largest and most important city of
South America ; on the W. side of
one of the finest bays in the world, 80
miles W. of Cape Frio. The city
stands on a tongue of land close to the
shore, on the W. side of the bay, at
the foot of several high mountains
which rise behind it. The houses are
generally .built of stone or brick. The
Rio Grande
Rittenliouse
streets are straight, well paved, and
have excellent footpaths. The con-
vents and churches are numerous, but
none of them can be called fine build-
ings. Parallel with the beach runs
the main street, called Rua de Direita,
from which the minor streets branch
off at right angles and are intersected
by others at regular distances. The
imperial palace skirts the beach, and
is seen to great advantage from the
landing place, which is within 60 yards
of its entrance. The other public
buildings are the naval and military
arsenal, a public hospital, a national
library containing about 100,000
volumes. The entrance into it from
the sea does not exceed a mile from
point to point ; it afterward widens to
about three or four miles. This city
is the chief mart of Brazil. Pop. 510,-
500.
Rio Grande, Rio Grande del
Norte, or Rio Bravo del Nortc.
See NOBTE, Rio GEANDR DEL.
Rio-Grande-do-Sul, the most
southern province in Brazil, bounded
partly by the Atlantic, and bordering
on Uruguay and the Argentine Repub-
lic. It has an area of 91,250 square
miles, and a population of 968,281.
Rio Negro ("black river"), the
name of numerous streams, of which
two are important: (1) A river of
South America, and principal tribu-
tary of the Amazon. It rises in Co-
lombia, and joins the Amazon after a
course of about 1,000 miles, at Ma-
naos, Brazil. (2) A river of South
America forming the boundary be-
tween the Argentine Republic and
Patagonia. It rises in the Andes in
Chile, and is about 700 miles long.
Riprdan, Patrick William, an
American clergyman ; born in New
Brunswick, Aug. 27, 1841 ; removed
to Chicago; held charges in Illinois
till 1883, when he was consecrated
titular archbishop of Cabesa and co-
adjutor of the Archbishop of San
Francisco, Cal., on whose resignation
he succeeded, Dec. 28, 1884.
Riprdan, Roger, an Irish-Ameri-
can journalist; born in 1848. He re-
sided in New York city. His publica-
tions include " Sunrise Stories," etc.
Riot, a disturbance of the public
peace, attended with circumstances of
tumult and commotion.
Ripley, George, an American
author ; born in Greenfield, Mass.,
Oct. 3, 1802; educated at Harvard
University and Cambridge Divinity
School ; became a Unitarian minister
in Boston ; lived some years in Eu-
rope ; was one of the founders of the
Transcendental magazine, the " Dial,"
and the originator and conductor of
the communistic experiment at Brook
Farm. He died in New York city,
July 4, 1880.
Ripley, William Zebina, an
American educator; born in Medford,
Mass., in 1867 ; was graduated at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
in 1890 ; became lecturer on Sociology
at Columbia University in 1893, and
Professor of Sociology and Economics
at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology in 1895; was appointed
expert agent on transportation for the
United States Industrial Commission.
Risley, Samuel Doty, an Ameri-
can physician ; born in Cincinnati, O.,
Jan. 16, 1845; served in the Union
army during the Civil War ; was
graduated at the University of Iowa in
1868, and at the Medical Department
of the University of Pennsylvania in
1870; made improvements on the
optometer and ophthalmoscope.
Ristori, Adelaide, an Italian
actress ; born in Cividale, Italy, Jan.
29, 1822. At a very early age she
played in comedy, but afterward ap-
peared in tragedy. She married the
Marquis Capranica del Grillo in
1847, and afterward played in all the
chief European capitals and in the
United States, the last time in 1884.
She died at Rome, Oct. 9, 1906.
Ritchie, Mrs. Anna Cora (Mo-
watt), an American author ; born in
Bordeaux, France, in 1819. She went
in early life to New York. A once
popular actress, she retired from the
stage in 1854, and devoted herself to
the production of romances and
dramas with no little success. She
died at Henley-on-Thames, England,
July 28, 1870.
Rittenhonse, David, an Ameri-
can astronomer; born near Philadel-
phia, Pa., April 8, 1732. Originally
a clock and mathematical instrument
maker, he became master of the
United States mint, and succeeded
Franklin as president of the Ameri-
Hitter
can Philosophical Society. He wa
the first to use spider lines in the
focus of a transit instrument. He
died in Philadelphia, Pa., June 26,
1790.
Bitter, Frederic Louis, an
Americ.au musician ; born in Strass-
burg, Alsace, in 1834 ; came to the
United States in 1856, and soon made
a reputation both here and abroad as
a writer on musical topics. He died
in Antwerp, Holland, July 6, 1891.
Bitter, Karl, a German geogra-
pher ; born in Quedlinburg, Prussia,
Aug. 7, 1779 ; studied at Halle, became
a private tutor in 1798, and in 1819
succeeded Schlosser as Professor of
History at the Frankfort Gymnasium ;
became Professor extraordinary of
Geography at the University of Ber-
lin, where he remained till his death.
His great work is " Geography in Its
Relations to Nature and History," the
first two volumes of which appeared
in 1817-1818, but it ultimately com-
prised upward of 20 volumes. He died
in Berlin, Sept. 28, 1859.
Ritual, the name of one of the serv-
ice books of the Roman Church, in
which are contained the prayers and
order of ceremonial employed in the
administration of certain of the sac-
raments (communion out of Mass,
baptism, penance, marriage, extreme
unction) and other priestly offices of
the Church, forms for churchings,
burials and blessing. In the Anglican
Church the " Book of Common Pray-
er " may be said to contain the ritual.
. Ritualism, a strict adherence to
rites and ceremonies in public wor-
ship. The term is more especially ap-
plied to a tendency recently manifested
in the Church of England, resulting in
a series of changes introduced by vari-
ous clergymen of the High Church
party into the services of the Church.
These changes may be described ex-
ternally as generally in the direction
of a more ornate worship, and as to
their spirit or animating principle, as
the infusion into outward forms of a
larger measure of the symbolic ele-
ment.
Biver. Water falling on the land
in the form of rain, or resulting from
melting snow, or rising to the surface
in springs, flows over the surface to a
lower level. Where two slopes of land
Bixey
dip together the surface drainage col-
lects to form a stream, and when
evaporation is not very rapid several
such streams ultimately unite and the
volume of water they cairy flows to
the sea or to a salt lake. Small
streams are termed rivulets, rills,
brooks, becks, or burns ; large streams
are termed rivers, but the word has
no precise reference to the magnitude
of the stream to which it is applied.
Biver Crab, a name given to a
genus of crabs inhabiting fresh water,
and having the carapace quadrilateral
and the antenna? very short.
Biver Tortoise, a name of a fami-
ly of tortoises that are aquatic in their
habits, coming to shore only to deposit
their eggs. They are exclusively car-
nivorous, subsisting on fishes, reptiles,
birds, etc. Well-known species are the
soft shelled turtle and^ the large and
fierce snapping turtle of the United
States. They- inhabit almost every
river and lake in the warmer regions
in the Old and New Worlds.
Bives, Alfred Landon, an Ameri-
can engineer ; born in Paris, France,
March 25, 1830; studied at the Uni-
versity of Virginia ; was graduated at
the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees,
Paris, in 1854 ; was assistant engineer
on the completion of the National
Capitol, Washington ; engineer in the
construction of the aqueduct in Wash-
ington ; and was in charge of the
United States survey for improving
the Potomac river. During the Civil
War he was colonel of engineers in the
Confederate army; was chief engineer
of the Cape Cod Canal. Died 1903.
Bives, Amelie, an American nov-
elist ; born in Richmond, Va., Aug. 23,
1863. "The Quick and the Dead,"
was her first success. She became the
wife of John A. Chanler in 1888.
They were divorced on account of in-
compatibility. In 1896 she married
Prince Pierre Troubetskoy, an artist.
Biviere, Briton, an English sub-
ject and animal painter ; born in Lon-
don in 1840. He has exhibited at the
Royal Academy since 1864, and is the
greatest English animal painter since
Landseer.
Bixey, Presley Marion, an
American physician ; born in Culpeper
co., Va., July 14, 1852 ; was graduated
at the University of Virginia in 1873 ;
Rizal
appointed an assistant surgeon in the
navy, Jan. 28, 1874. He became the
physician of President McKinley and
his family ; attended Mrs. McKinley
in her severe illness in San Francisco
in the summer of 1901 ; and was with
the President in Buffalo, N. Y., from
the time he was shot, Sept. 6, till his
death, Sept. 14, 1901. In accordance
with the intention of President Mc-
Kinley, Dr. Rixey was appointed by
President Roosevelt surgeon-general of
the navy, with the rank of rear-ad-
miral, Jan. 21, 1902.
Rizal, Jose, a Filipino patriot;
born in Catamba, Luzon, in 1861. He
was the son of Tagal parents, who des-
tined him for the Church ; he was sent
to Manila, where he entered the
Ateneo Municipal, a school in charge
of the Jesuits. In Manila Jose soon
learned of the reproach attached to
his Tagal origin. He was denied the
honors due him as head of his class;
and his patriotic poems and speeches
met only the derision and hatred of
the Spanish students. Though he had
been destined for the Church, he
studied for and took his medical degree
at Manila. Then he went to Paris,
Heidelberg, Leipsic, and in all these
cities he continued his medical studies.
He learned that Europe was almost
ignorant of the Philippines, so he
wrote a novel, portraying his birth-
land, which was published in Berlin
in 1887. He wrote a sequel to it
which was published at Ghent in 1891.
In 1887 Rizal went to Hong Kong
where he organized the famous Philip-
pine League, which was the source of
the " Revolutionary Society of the
Sons of the Nation." During several
years of travel he constantly agitated
Filipino revolt, and then in May,
1892, returned to Manila. He was ar-
rested and exiled to Dopitan, in one of
the S. islands. In 1895 he was per-
mitted to return to Luzon. He was,
however, arrested at Barcelona and
transshipped to Manila, tried and con-
demned to death. His last wishes, that
he might be united by civil marriage
with Miss Josephine Bracken, whom
he first met in Hong Kong, and who
had gone to Manila when his trial be-
gan; and the other that he should be
shot through the breast, were granted.
He was shot by a detail of native sol-
diers, Dec. 80, 189G.
Roasting
Roach, John, an American ship-
builder ; born in Mitchelstown, Ire-
land, in 1815 ; came to the United
States in 1829 ; he established a foun-
dry in New York city, and erected the
^Etna Iron Works, where he built the
first compound engines ever made in
the United States. In 1871 he pur-
chased the shipyards in Chester, Pa.,
and under the name of the Delaware
River Iron Shipbuilding and Engine
Works enlarged them till their value
was estimated at $2,000,000. He built
the first ships of the new .United
States navy. He died in New York
city, Jan. 10, 1887.
Roads, artificial pathways formed
through a country for the accommoda-
tion of travelers and the carriage of
commodities. Though the Romans set
an example as roadbuilders, some of
their public highways being yet serv-
iceable, the roads throughout most of
Europe were in a wretched condition
till toward the end of the 18th cen-
tury. France was in advance of other
countries in road making ; in England
a decided improvement of the high-
ways only began in the 19th century.
Before the time of Macadam it was
customary to use broken stones of dif-
ferent sizes to form the roadway, the
consequence being that in course of
time the smaller stones sank, making
the road rough and dangerous. Mac-
adam early in the 19th century intro-
duced the principle of using stones of
uniform size from top to bottom. What
is known as the rule of the road is
that in passing other horsemen or
carriages, whether going in the same
or the opposite direction, the rider or
driver must pass on the left hand of
the other rider or driver.
Roanoke, an independent city of
Va.; on the Roanoke river and the
Norfolk & Western railroad; 55
miles W. of Lynchburg; is in a rich
stock-raising, tobacco-growing, and
iron-mining section; has manufac-
tories of machinery and bridge and
iron work, canneries, cotton mills,
tobacco factories, and locomotive and
car shops; and is the seat of Vir-
ginia College, Gilmer School for
Young Ladies, and Allegheny Insti-
tute. Pop. (1910) 34,874.
Roasting, the cooking of meat by
direct action of fire, either before
Bobbery
the fire or in an oven. Roasting before
an open fire is considered preferable
to roasting in an oven (which is anal-
ogous to baking), on account of the
free ventilation to which it exposes
the meat during the process.
Bobbery, the unlawful taking away
of money or goods of any value from
the person of another, or in his pres-
ence, either by violence or by putting
him in fear.
Robbia, Luca Delia, an Italian
sculptor ; born in Florence in 1399 or
1400. He designed and executed be-
tween 1431 and 1440 10 panels of
" Angels and Dancing Bojs " for the
cathedral. Another great work by him
was a bronze door, with 10 panels of
figures in relief, for the sacristy of the
cathedral, made between 1448 and
1467. He sculptured, in marble, in
1457-1458, the tomb of Federighi,
Bishop of Fiesele. His name is closely
associated with the production of fig-
ures hi glazed or enamelled terra-cotta,
made by a process which, though he
did not invent it, he yet perfected
freatly. He died in Florence, Feb.
0, 1842. His principal pupil was his
nephew Andrea (1435-1525), who
worked chiefly at the production of
enamelled reliefs, retables, and medal-
lions, these last for the most part
productions of the " Madonna and
Child." His son Giovanni (1469-
1529?) continued the activity of the
family in this style of work ; his best
productions are the frieze, representing
the " Seven Works of Mercy," outside
a hospital at Pistoja.
Bobbins, Francis Le Baron, an
American clergyman ; born in Ca-
millus, N. Y., May 2, 1830 ; was gradu-
ated at Williams College in 1854 ; held
pastorates in Philadelphia for 25
years ; founded the Oxford Presby-
terian and Beacon Churches, the lat-
ter an institutional church among the
working class of the Kensington dis-
trict of Philadelphia.
Bobert, Duke of Normandy,
gurnamed the Devil ; the younger son
of Duke Richard II. by his marriage
with Judith, a daughter of Count God-
frey of Brittany. In 1027 he succeed-
ed his elder brother. Richard III. The
first years of his government were em-
ployed in bringing his rebellious vas-
bals into subjection. In 1034 his fleet
E. 127.
Bobert
was wrecked off Jersey while on its
way to England to support his
nephews Alfred and Edward against
Canute. He concluded a truce with
Canute, by which the two princes were
promised half of England. In 1033
he set out to visit the holy places, and
subsequently made the pilgrimage to
Jerusalem on foot. While returning
he died suddenly in Nicsea in Asia
Minor (1035). William the Conquer-
or was his son. -
Bobert II., King of Scotland;
born in Scotland, March 2, 1316; the
son of Marjory, daughter of Robert
Bruce, and of Walter, steward of
Scotland, and was thus the first of the
Stewart or Stuart kings. He was rec-
ognized by Parliament in 1318 as
heir to the crown. On the death of
David II. he was crowned at Scone,
Marc|| 26, 1371. An act of Parlia-
ment in 1375 settled the crown on his
sons by his first wife Elizabeth Mure
of Rowallan, illegitimate by ecclesias-
tical law. His reign was comparative-
ly a peaceful one, one of the chief
events being the battle of Otterburn.
Died in Dundonald Castle, May 13,
1390.
Bobert III., King of Scotland, eld-
est son of the preceding ; born in 1340
and was originally called John, but
changed his name on his coronation in
1390. He trusted the management of
affairs almost entirely to his brother,
whom he created Duke of Albany. In
1398 Albany was compelled to resign
his office by a party who wished to
confer it on the king's eldest son,
David, Duke of Rothesay. War was
renewed with England, and the battle
of Homildon Hill, Sept. 14, 1402, re-
sulted in a disastrous defeat of the
Scotch. In this year the Duke of
Rothesay died in Falkland Castle,
where he had been imprisoned. Dread
of Albany, who had recovered the re-
gency, induced the king to send his
second son, James, to France in 1406;
but the vessel which carried him was
captured by the English, and Henry
IV. long detained him as a prisoner.
Soon after this event Robert died in
Rothesay, Bute, in 1406.
Bobert, Henry Martyn, an
American military engineer ; born in
Robertsville, S. C., May 2, 1837 ; was
graduated at the United States Mili-
Robert of Gloucester
Roberts
tary Academy in 1857 ; served on fron-
tier duty in 1858-1861 ; was on the
staff of General McClellan and on duty
as engineer during the Civil War ;
was promoted captain in 1863. He is
the author of the well-known treatise
called " Robert's Rules of Order "
(1876).
Robert of Gloucester, an Eng-
lish chronicler, living at the time of the
battle of Evesham (1265). He is re-
markable for a metrical chronicle of
England, from the time of the fabu-
lous Brutus to his own, based chiefly
upon Geoffrey of Mpnmouth's book. It
extends to 10,000 lines, and is one of
the earliest epics of the English lan-
guage.
Roberts, Brigham Henry, an
American journalist ; born in War-
rington, Lancashire, England, March
13, 1857. In the summer of JR66 he
emigrated with his parents to Davis
Co., Utah ; attended the University of
Utah. Soon after his graduation he
was called by the Mormon Church to
its missionary service. After laboring
for some years as a missionary he was
elected to a high office in the Church.
He also engaged in journalism and
was for a -time editor-in-chief of the
Salt Lake " Herald." In 1898 he was
elected to Congress by a large major-
ity. His election created widespread
agitation throughout the country, and
on Jan. 25, 1900, the House of Repre-
sentatives by an overwhelming major-
ity voted to exclude him as constitu-
tionally ineligible, as a polygamist, to
a seat in that body.
Roberts, Charles George Dong-
las, a Canadian poet; born in Doug-
las, N. B., Jan. 10, 1860. He was an
earnest advocate of Canadian national-
ism, and such of his poetical com-
positions as relate to this and other
Canadian subjects are excellent.
Roberts, Ellis Henry, an Ameri-
can financier ; born in Utica, N. Y.,
Sept. 30, 1827 ; was graduated at Yale
University in 1850. He was assistant
treasurer of the United States in
1889-1893, and became treasurer of
the United States in 1897.
Roberts, Frederick, Lord, an
English military officer ; - born in
Cawnpur, India, Sept. 30, 1832. He
was brought to England when two
years old, educated at Clifton, Eton,
Sandhurst, and Addiscombe, and ent-
ered the Bengal Artillery in 1851.
His first taste of actual warfare was
in the protracted siege of Delhi, during
the Indian Mutiny and he took an ac-
tive part in the subsequent operations
down to the relief of Lucknow. He
discharged the duties of assistant quar-
termaster-general in the Abyssinian
expedition of 1868, and in the Lushai
expedition of 1871-1872. On the out-
break of the Afghan war in 1878,
Roberts, now Major-General, was ap-
pointed to command the Kurram di-
vision of the army. He forced in bril-
liant fashion the Afghan position on
the peak of Peiwar Kotul (8,500 feet
above sea-level). After the murder of
Sir Louis Cavagnari and the escort
of the British mission at Kabul, he
was given command of the force sent
to avenge them. He defeated the
Afghans at Charasia on Oct. 6, took
possession of Kabul on the 12th, and
assumed the government of the coun-
try. On Aug. 9, Sir F. Roberts set out
on his memorable march through the
heart of Afghanistan to the relief of
Kandahar, which he reached three
weeks later. He immediately gave
battle to Ayub Khan and routed him
completely, capturing all his artillery
and his camp ; was appointed Com-
mander-in-Chief of the Madras army
(1881), and held the rank of Com-
mander-in-Chief in India 1885-1893.
He was appointed Commander-in-
Chief of the forces in Ireland in 1895 ;
and in 1899 took command of the
English forces in South Africa ; cap"
turing Cronje, relieving Kimberly, and
annexing the two republics. He re-
turned to England and was made
Commander-in-Chief to succeed Lord
Wolseley.
Roberts, (Henry) Chalmers, an
American journalist ; born in Austin,
Tex., July 31, 1870 ; was educated at
private schools, and studied law at the
University of Texas. After leaving
college he engaged in journalism ; went
to the seat of the Turko-Grecian war
as a correspondent of the London
" Daily News," and in the Spanish-
American War was correspondent for
the Brooklyn " Eagle," and the Lon-
don " Daily Mail." He traveled in
Egypt for Harpers, and became edi-
tor of the English edition of
"World's Work" in 1906.
Robertson
Robertson, William, a Scotch
historian ; born in Borthwick, Scot-
land, Sept. 19, 1721. Having com-
pleted his theological studies at Edin-
burgh, he obtained a license to preach
and in 1743 was presented to the liv-
ing of Gladsmuir, in East Lothian.
He soon became distinguished by his
eloquence as a preacher ; but it was
not till 1759 that, by his " History of
Scotland," he acquired a place among
British classical writers. The distinc-
tion he acquired by this work, which
reached a 14th edition before his
death, appeared in his successive pre-
ferments. He became King's chap-
lain in 1761, principal of the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh in 17G2, and His-
toriographer-Royal of Scotland in
1764. He died near Edinburgh, June
11, 1793.
Robertson, William H., an
American lawyer ; born in Bedford,
N. Y., Oct. 10, 1823. During the Civil
War he rendered efficient service in
raising and organizing State troops for
the Union armies. He was a member
of Congress in 1867-1869 ; was elected
to the New York State Senate in 1872 ;
and was appointed collector of the
port of New York in 1881. His nom-
ination to this office by President Gar-
field without consultation with the
senators from New York, Roscoe
Conkling and Thomas C. Platt, led to
their resignation and to the defection
of the " Stalwart " wing of the Re-
publican party. He died in Katonah,
N. Y., Dec. 6, 1898.
Robeson, George Maxwell, an
American lawyer ; born in Belvidere,
N. J., in 1829 ; was- graduated at
Princeton University in 1847; stud-
ied law ; was admitted to the bar in
1850, and in 1867 became attorney-
general of New Jersey. He was ap-
pointed Secretary of the Navy in 1869 ;
served for a short time as Secretary
of War on the resignation of General
Belknap in 1867 ; and was elected to
Congress in 1878 and 1880. After re-
tiring from Congress, he practised law
in Trenton, N. J., where he died,
Sept. 27, 1897.
Robeson, Henry Bellows, an
American naval officer ; born in New
Haven, Conn.. Aug. 5, 1842; was
graduated at the United States Naval
Academy in 1860; served through the
Robespierre
Civil War; participated in the action
against the defenses of Charleston, S.
C., April 7, 1863, and on July 10
of the same ,vear led the landing party
from the " New Ironsides " in an at-
tack on and capture of the Confederate
works on Morris Island ; took part in
both attacks on Fort Fisher ; was pro-
moted captain in 1887 ; commodore in
1898 ; and rear-admiral in 1899 ; and
was retired in the latter year.
Robespierre, Maximilien Marie
Isidore, a French revolutionist; born
of a family of Irish origin, in Arras,
May 6, 1758. Maximilien early
showed unusual promise, and was edu-
cated at Arras and at the College
Louis-le-Grand at Paris, where Ca-
mille Desmoulins was a fellow stu-
dent. He was admitted avocat in
1781, and next year was named crim-
inal judge by the Bishop of Arras,
but resigned his place soon after to
avoid passing a sentence of death. He
drew up the cahier or list of griev-
ances for the guild of cobblers, and
was elected to the States-General in
1789 as one of the deputies for the
tiers etat of Artois.
Three days after the death of Mira-
beau he called on the Assembly to
prevent any deputy from taking office
as minister for four years, and in the
following month (May, 1791) carried
the motion that no member of the pres-
ent Assembly should be eligible for
the next. Next followed Robespierre's
appointment as public accuser, the
king's flight to Varennes (June 21),
Lafayette's last effort to control the
sacred right of Insurrection on the
Champ-de-Mars (July 17), the abject
terror of Robespierre, his sheltering
himself in the house of Duplay, a
carpenter, his hysterical appeal to the
club, the theatrical oath taken by ey-
sry member to defend his life, and his
being crowned with chaplets, along
with Petion, and carried home in tri-
umph by the mob at the close of the
Constituent Assembly, Sept. 30. After
seven weeks of quiet he sold his small
patrimony and returned to Paris, to
the house of Duplay, where he re-
mained till the last day of his life.
Meantime the Girondist party had
seen formed in the new Legislative
Assembly, its leaders the loudest,
Brissot eager for war. Robespierre,
who ever feared and disliked war, of-
Robin
fered a strenuous opposition in the de-
bates of the Jacobin Club, and some-
times, if seldom, in his endless and
windy harangues rose into the region
of real eloquence. In April, 1792, he
resigned his post of public prosecutor.
He was invisible during the crisis of
Aug. 10, but joined the Hotel-de-Ville
faction, and on Aug. 16 he presented
to the Legislative Assembly its peti-
tion for a Revolutionary Tribunal and
a new Convention. It does not ap-
pear, however, that he was in any
sense directly responsible for the atro-
cious September massacres in the
prisons, or more than a mere acces-
sory after the fact. For his reward
he was elected first deputy for Paris
to the National Convention, which
opened on Sept. 21.
The bitter attacks on him by the Gi-
rondists were renewed only to throw
Robespierre into a closer union with
Danton and his party, but the final
struggle was interrupted for a little
by the momentous question of the
king's trial. Robespierre opposed vig-
orously the Girondist idea of a spe-
cial appeal to the people on the king's
death, and his execution (Jan. 21,
1793) opened up the final stage of
the struggle, which ended in a com-
plete triumph of the Jacobins on June
2 of the same year. The first Com-
mittee of Public Safety a permanent
Cabinet of Revolution was decreed
in April, 1793, but Robespierre was
not elected till July 27.
He was now for the first time one
of the actual rulers of France, but it
is open to question whether for the
whole 12 months from this time to the
end he was not merely the stalking
horse for the more resolute party
within the Twelve. He was astute
enough, moreover, to play off one force
against another the Convention,
the Commune, and the Committee,
while he derived his strength from the
constant worship of the club.
The next scenes in the dark drama
of the Revolution jvere the dark in-
trigues and desperate struggles that
sent Hebert and his friends to the
scaffold on March 24, 1794, and Dan-
ton and Robespierre's school fellow,
Canaille Desmoulins, on April 5, after.
The next three months he reigned su-
preme, but his supremacy prepared the
way for his inevitable fall. He nom-
RoLin Hood
inated all the members of the govern-
ment committee, placed his creatures
in all places of influence in the com-
mune of Paris, sent his henchman
Saint-Just on a mission to the armies
on the frontier, assumed supreme con-
trol of the Revolutionary Tribunal,
and completely revolutionized its meth-
od of operation by the atrocious meas-
ure introduced by his creature Couthon
on the 22d Prairial (June 10), to the
effect that neither counsel nor wit-
nesses need be heard if the jury had
come otherwise to a conclusion. The
fatal significance of this change a
complete abrogation of all laws is
seen in the fact that from this time
till the day of Robespierre's death the
daily tale of victims of the guillotine
averaged almost 30.
Meantime a party in the Convention
was formed against Robespierre, and
on July 27th he was openly accused
of despotism. A decree of arrest was
carried against him and he was thrown
into Luxembourg prison. He was re-
leased by his keeper on the night of
the same day and conducted to the
Hall of Commune where his supporters
were collected. On the following day
Barras was sent with an armed force
to effect his arrest. Robespierre's fol-
lowers deserted him and he was guil-
lotined July 27, 1794, together with
some 23 of his supporters.
Robin, a name given several birds,
especially to the Robin redbreast of
Europe and to an American species of
blackbird, also to the bluebird of Amer-
ica. The typical American robin or
migrating thrush is found in summer
throughout North America from Alas-
ka to Mexico. They retire from high-
er latitudes only as their food begins
to fail, or till driven S. by inundating
snows. During the winter months they
are numerous in the Southern States.
Robin Hood, the hero of a group
of old English ballads, represented as
an outlaw and a robber, but of a gal-
lant and generous nature, whose fa-
miliar haunts are the forests of Sher-
wood and Barnsdale, where he fleets
the time carelessly in the merry green-
wood. He is ever genial and good-
natured, religious, respectful to the
Virgin and to all women for her sake,
with a kind of gracious and noble dig-
nity in his bearing. He lives by the
king's deer, though personally roost
Robins
loyal, and wages ceaseless warfare on
all proud bishops, abbots, and knights,
taking of their superfluity, and giving
liberally to the poor and to all hon-
est men in distress, of whatever degree.
He is unrivalled with the bow and
quarterstaff ; but in as many as eight
of the extant ballads comes off the
worse in the combat with some stout
fellow, whom he thereupon induces to
join his company. His chief comrades
are Little John, Scathlok (Scarlet),
and Much ; to these the " Gest " adds
Gilbert of the White Hand and Rey-
nold. A stalwart curtal friar, called
Friar Tuck in the title, though not
in the ballad, fights with Robin Hood,
and apparently accepts the invitation
to join his company, as he appears
later in two broadsides which also
mention Maid Marian. Such is the
romantic figure of the greatest of En-
glish popular heroes a kind of yeo-
man counterpart to the knightly
Arthur, who is the hero of Tennyson.
There is no evidence worth anything
that Robin Hood was ever more than
a mere creation of the popular imag-
ination.
Robins, Benjamin, an English
mathematician, the father of the mili-
tary art of gunnery ; born in Bath,
England, in 1707, of a poor Quaker
family. Having obtained a little in-
struction in mathematics, he prose-
cuted this branch of science with great
zest, and, having removed to London,
set up for a teacher of mathematics,
and published several mathematical
treatises which gained for him consid-
erable reputation. Robins next com-
menced his great series of experiments
on the resisting force of the air to
projectiles, varying his labors by the
study of fortification, and invented the
ballistic pendulum. His great and
valuable work, the " New Principles
of Gunnery," on the preparation of
which he had spent an enormous
amount of labor, appeared in 1742, and
produced a complete revolution in the
art of gunnery. He died July 29, 1751.
Robinson, Charles Seymour, an
American clergyman ; born in Ben-
nington, Vt., March 31, 1829. He is
famed as a collector of hymns and
tunes used in the Presbyterian
Church. His publications include
" Songs of the Church " ; " Laudes
Domini " ; and others. Died 1899.
Rob Roy
Robinson, Edward, an American
philologist ; born in Southington,
Conn., April 10, 1794 ; was graduated
at Hamilton College in 1816. In 1830
he became Professor of Sacred Litera-
ture at Andover, in 1837 Professor of
Biblical Literature in the Union Theo-
logical Seminary, New York. He
then made an extensive survey of Pal-
estine, collecting materials for " Bib-
lical Researches in Palestine and Ad-
jacent Countries" (1841). A second
visit in 1852 yielded fruit for its sec-
ond edition (1856). He died in New
York city, Jan. 27, 1863.
Robinson, Stillman 'Williams,
an American inventor ; born in Read-
ing, Vt., March 6, 1838; was grad-
uated at the University of Michigan
in 1863 ; Professor of Mechanical En-
gineering at the University of Illinois
in 1870-1880, and at the Ohio State
University in 1878-1894. He resigned
in the latter year to care for his
inventions. He was the inventor of
a thermometer-graduating machine ;
machines for shoe manufacturing, etc.,
and published " Teeth of Great Wheels
and the Robinson Templet Odonto-
graph " : " Railroad Economics " ;
" Principles of Mechanism " ; etc.
Robinson Crusoe, Alexander Sel-
kirk, who was found in the desert
island of Juan Fernandez, where he
had been left by Captain Stradling.
He remained on the island four years
and four months, when he was res-
cued by Captain Rogers and taken to
England.
Rob Roy (Gaelic, " Red Robert"),
the Scotch Robin Hood ; born in 1671 ;
second son of Lieut.-Col. Donald Mac-
gregor of Glengyle. In consequence of
losses incurred about 1712 in unsuc-
cessful speculations in cattle, for
which he had borrowed money from
the Duke of Montrose, his lands were
seized, his houses plundered, and his
wife shamefully used, turned adrift
with his children in midwinter. Mad-
dened by these misfortunes, Rob Roy
gathered his clansmen and made open
war on the duke, sweeping away the
whole cattle of a district, and kidnap-
ing his factor with rents to the value
of more than $15,000. Marvellous
stories are current round Loch Katrine
and Ltfch Lomond (where a cave near
Inversnaid still bears his name) of
Roc
bis hairbreadth escapes from capture
of his evasions when captured, an<
of his generosity to the poor, whose
wants he supplied at the expense oi
the rich. They in turn gave him time-
ly warning of the designs of his two
arch-foes, -the Dukes of Montrose anc
Athole, and of the red-coats they callec
to their aid from Dumbarton and Stir-
ling; besides, 'Rob Roy enjoyed the
protection of the Duke of Argyll,
having assumed the name Campbell,
his mother's. Late in life he is said
to have turned Catholic, but in the
list of subscribers to the Episcopalian
Church history of Bishop Keith occurs
the name " Robert Macgregor alias
Rob Roy." The history came out in
1734, and on Dec. 28 of that year Rob
Roy died in his own house at Bal-
quhidder. He left five sons, two of
whom died in 1734 James, an out-
law, in Paris ; and Robin, the young-
est, on the gallows at Edinburgh for
abduction.
Roc, or Rukh, a fabulous bird of
immense size, mentioned in the " Ara-
bian Nights Entertainments."
Rochambean, Jean Baptiste
Donation de Vinivur, Comte de, a
Marshal of France; born in Vendome,
France, July 1, 1725 ; entered the
French army in 1742, distinguished
himself in the Seven Years' War, and
became Field-Marshal in 1761. In
1780-1782 he commanded the French
forces sent to aid the revolted British
colonists in America. He became gov-
ernor of Artois and Picardy, and sub-
sequently of Alsace, was made a Mar-
shal in 1790, and commanded the
Army of the North in 1792. During
the Reign of Terror he narrowly es-
caped the guillotine. He died in Tho-
ri, May 10, 1807-
Roche, James Jeffrey, an Ameri-
can author; born in Queen's County,
Ireland, May 31, 1847. He went to
Boston in 1866 and became in 1890
an editor of the " Pilot," and pub-
lished : " Songs and Satires " ; " Bal-
lads of Blue Water " ; etc. D. 1908.
Rochelle Salt, the popular name
of the tartrate of soda and potash,
this salt having been discovered in
1672 by a Rochelle apothecary named
Seignette. It occurs, when pure, in
colorless transparent prisms, gener-
ally eight sided; and in taste it re-
Rock-crystal
sembles common salt. This salt is a
mild and efficient laxative.
Rochester, a city and county-seat
of Monroe co., N. Y. ; on the Gene-
see river, 229 miles W. of Albany.
In the center of the city are the Up-
per Falls of the Genesee, a perpendic-
ular cataract of 96 feet. Rochester
is built on a plateau on both sides of
the river, 263 feet above Lake On-
tario.
The city is the trade center of a
large and rich agricultural region. In
the Genesee river there are three falls,
96, 26 and 83 feet respectively, giv-
ing abundant waterpower for manu-
facturing. There are about 1,120
factory-system plants, employing over
$71,500,000 capital and 32.500 wage-
earnors, paying $15.000.000 for wages,
and having an output of $82.700,000.
The most important of these are flour
mills, with a combined output val-
ued at nearly $5,000,000; the largest
carriage and wagon factory in the
United States, and manufactories of
steam engines, agricultural machinery,
lamps, stoves, glassware, perfumery,
india-rubber goods, photographic ma-
terials, cigarettes, shoes, etc. In the
suburbs is an extensive nursery, in-
luding two great plants for the pack-
ing and shipment of garden and farm
seeds.
Rochester is the seat of the Univer-
sity of Rochester, and the Rochester
Theological Seminary. The most re-
markable structure in the city and
county is the aqueduct which carries
;he Erie canal across the Genesee
river. It is of cut stone, 848 feet
ong, with a channel 45 feet wide, and
s supported by nine arches. Pop.
1900) 162,608; '(1910) 218,149.
Rochester, University of, a co-
educational institution in Rochester,
N. Y. ; founded in 1850 under the
auspices of the Baptist Church.
Rock, in geology, any considerable
aggregation of mineral matter, wheth-
er hard and massive like granite, mar-
)le, etc., or friable and unconsolidated
ike clay, sand, and gravel. In popular
anguage, however, it is any large
mass of stony matter, as distinguished
"rom soil, mud, sand, gravel, etc.
Rock-cod, the American food fish
>f the genus Scorpaena.
Rock-crystal. See QUARTZ.
Rockefeller, John. Davidson, an
American capitalist; born in Rich-
ford, Tioga Co., N. Y., July 8, 1839.
He engaged in business when he was
19, and soon showed ability in detail
and discretion in management. When
discoveries of petroleum roused spec-
ulative interest in 1860, he owned a
refinery in Cleveland, O. He was
quick to perceive that his opportuni-
ties were at hand. His business de-
veloped and enlarged with amazing ra-
pidity. In 1870 he became president
of the Standard Oil Company, and ac-
cumulated vast wealth, of which, in
his retirement from active business,
he made great gifts to promote edu-
cation, science, religion, and sys-
tematic charity. In 1911 his known
benefactions aggregated $114,000,000.
His largest gifts were to the General
Education Board, $50,000,000; Uni-
versity of Chicago, $24,800,000; Rush
Medical College, $6,000,000; and the
Rockefeller Institute of Medical Re-
search, $2,600,000.
Rockf ord, city and capital of Win-
nebago county, 111.; on the Rock
river and the Illinois Central and
other railroads; 87 miles N. W. of
Chicago; is essentially a manufactur-
ing city, having large farm imple-
ment, paper, flour, cotton, woolen,
furniture, machinery, barbed-wire,
clothing, hosiery, and sewing-machine
plants; and is the seat of a Federal
Building, Rockford College, Illinois
Art School, and a sanitarium. Pop.
(1910) 45,401.
Rockhill, William Woodville,
an American diplomatist; born in
Philadelphia, Pa., in 1854; entered
the diplomatic service in 1884 as sec-
ond secretary of legation at Peking,
China; was appointed first assistant
secretary of State in 1896. He was
appointed director of the Bureau of
American Republics in May, 1890.
After the rescue of the foreign dip-
lomats in Peking in 1900, he was ap-
pointed special ambassador to con-
clude peace negotiations. In 1905-
1909 he was Minister to China; then
became Ambassador to Russia.
Rocking Stones, or Logans,
large masses of rock so finely poised
as to move backward and forward
with the slightest impulse. They oc-
cur in nearly every country. Some
of them appear to be natural, others
artificial; the latter seem to have
been formed by cutting away a mass
of rock round the center-point of its
base. The former are chiefly granitic
rocks, in which felspar is abundantly
present. Various explanations have
been given of the uses of these singu-
lar objects. They are supposed to
have been used in very early times
for purposes of divination, the num-
ber of vibrations determining the
oracle; hence it came to be believed
that sanctity was acquired by walk-
ing round them.
The famous rocking stone of Tandil
in the Argentine Republic, 250 miles
S. of Buenos Ayres, weighs over 700
tons, yet is so nicely poised that it
rocks in the wind and may be made
to crack a walnut.
Rock Island, a city in Rock Island
co., 111.; on the Mississippi river.
The city derives its name from a beau-
tiful island in the river, which belongs
to the United States, and is used by
the Federal government for a great
central arsenal, a large armory and
Rock of Chickamanga
Rocky Mountains
foundry, military headquarters, etc.
Before and during the Black Hawk
War there were block-house forts on
this island, and during the Civil War
many Confederate prisoners were
kept here. Pop. (1910) 24,335.
Rock of Chickamauga, a name
applied to Gen. George H. Thomas,
U. S. A., on account of his heroic
stubbornness in holding his position at
Chickamauga during the Civil War,
in September, 1863.
Rock Pigeon, a pigeon that builds
its nest in hollows or crevices of rocks
and cliffs.
Rock Salt, common salt, or chlo-
ride of sodium, occurring as a mineral
and in a solid form. It is a very ex-
tensively-diffused mineral, and in some
places forms great rock and even
mountain masses.
Rock Scorpion (Buthus or Scor-
pio afer), a species of scorpion found
in Africa, averaging about six inches
in length. The bite of this animal,
though not absolutely fatal, is yet
considered to be dangerous.
Rock Snake, a name sometimes
given to any individual of the genus
Python. Rock snakes are among the
largest of living reptiles ; specimens
of 18 and 20 feet long have been
brought to the United States. They
kill their prey by constriction, and
swallow it whole, commencing with
the head. During the digestion the
animal is lazy and unwilling even to
defend itself when attacked.
Rocky Mountains, The, a chain
of mountains in the central and W.
portions of the North American con-
tinent, are a prolongation of the great
Mexican Cordillera, extending from
the N. frontier of Mexico N. in sev-
eral ranges, one of which, the E.,
passing through British North Amer-
ica, reaches the Arctic Ocean in about
lat. 70 N. ; while the W., passing
near the Pacific coast, terminates near
Prince William's Sound, in about lat.
60 N. The territory occupied ex-
tends from the Californian shores of
the Pacific to about Ion. 105 W. The
whole area properly included by the
mountains and their intervening val-
leys in the country belonging to the
United States is estimated at about
980,000 square miles. The mountain-
ous belt of Eastern New Mexico and
Colorado has a general N. and S. di-
rection. On its E. margin stands
Pike's Peak, while in Colorado and
Nebraska are those portions of the
chain known as the Three Parks, and
the Medicine Bow Mountains. From
Long's Peak, in about lat. 40, the
range trends N. W., connecting with
the Wind River Mountains, which lat-
ter includes Fremont's Peak, 13,870
feet above sea-level. Beyond that peak
to the N. boundary of the United
States the range separates the Dako-
tas and Washington, and the pass
known as Lewis and Clarke's, -in lat.
47, is the most N. pass of its system
in the Union. In British North Amer-
ica the " Rockies " divide the waters
of the Pacific from those which flow
into Hudson Bay. The next great
range of this mountain system toward
the W. is that called the Wahsatch
Mountains, lying S. from Great Salt
Lake, and toward the N. W. this re-
gion is traced along the W. bank of
the Colorado toward the Sierra Neva-
da, which forms the E. boundary of
California, and the watershed of the
Colorado, and Lewis' Fork of the Co-
lumbia river, in lat. 37 and 46 re-
spectively. Nearly the whole area be-
tween these points, and for a breadth
of about 10 degrees of longitude,
stretching E. from the Sierra Nevada,
is a vast and partially explored terri-
tory, from 4,000 to 5,000 feet above
sea-level. In British America this
section of the chain interlocks with the
main trunk of the Rocky Mountains.
The W. portion of the chain com-
mences at the S. extremity of the
Lower California peninsula, then
passing through California it bifur-
cates into two ranges, known, re-
spectively, as the Sierra Nevada, at a
distance of about 160 miles from the
coast, and the Coast Range, skirting
the shores of the Pacific from 10 to
50 miles inland, till it reconnects with
the Sierra Nevada in Northern Cal-
ifornia, in which section Mount Shas-
ta attains an altitude of about 14,000
feet above tide water. Throughout all
of Oregon and Washington, the dis-
tinction is still maintained between
the main range, here called the Cas-
cade Mountains, and the Coast Range.
The latter traverses the central por-
tion of Vancouver Island for its whole
length, and on the mainland in British
Rocky Mountain Goat
Rodgers
Columbia the Sierra Nevada proceeds
N. and is crossed by Fraser river.
Several depressions are met with,
which serve as passes for the routes
from Sonora, Sacramento, and Marys-
ville, to the E. by the canyon of Car-
Bon river, the range is crossed at an
elevation of about 7,250 feet; and by
the Truckee Pass the elevation is
about 6,000 feet. From these passes
the route is N. E. to the main road
which crosses the Sierra Nevada in
the N. portion of California, and which
passes by the Humboldt Mountains
to Salt Lake City. To the E. of Salt
Lake this route continues across the
Wahsatch range to the great South
Pass of the Wind River Mountains,
immediately S. of Fremont's Pea 1 :, and
thence down the Sweetwater to the
N. fork of the Platte. A more S.
route connects Pike's Peak with the
Utah basin, and thence turning S. W.
crosses the Sierra Nevada near its
junction with the Coast Range in
Northern California, meeting at this
point the route from Santa Fe through
New Mexico, and the still more S. one
from Texas, which follows the valley
of the Gila, and crosses that river
and the Colorado at their junction.
Mount St. Elias, in Alaska, is one of
the highest peaks of this extensively
ramified mountain system, though sur-
passed in height by the neighboring
Mount McKinley.
Rocky Mountain Goat, a beau-
tiful animal of the antelope family,
which inhabits the heights of the
Rocky Mountains between the forests
and the snow line, from the 44th to
the 65th degree of latitude. It is
about the size of a goat, but is hand-
somer and more thickset, and has
stronger legs. It is completely cov-
ered with long, thick, white hair.
Rod, called also a pole, or perch,
a measure of length, equivalent to
5% yards, or 16% feet. The square
rod, called generally a rood, is em-
ployed in estimating masonry work,
and contains 16% X 16%, or 272%
square feet.
Rodentia, or Rodents, an order
of mammiferous quadrupeds occupy-
ing in many respects an intermediate
place between the purely carnivorous
and purely herbivorous mammalia, and
BO forming the connecting link be-
tween them. The order embraces rats
and mice, hares, rabbits, guinea pigs,
and other well-known animals. In
the greater part of the details of their
organization the inferiority of the ani-
mals is displayed ; but some of them
enjoy a certain dexterity, using their
forefeet for carrying their food to
their mouth; while others again (the
squirrels) climb trees with facility.
Rodents are most abundant in tem-
perate regions. They are found in all
parts of the world.
Roderic, "the last of the Goths,"
whose tragic death, coincident with
the downfall of the Visigothic monar-
chy in Spain, has inspired poets and
romancers, to throw round him a halo
of glory. According to the common
legend he was the son of a noble who
was blinded by King Witiza. A con-
spiracy having been formed against
Witiza, Roderic was elevated to the
throne (710). The sons of Witiza
bided their time. At length certain
nobles were engaged in a plot to de-
throne Roderic by Count Julian, the
governor of Ceuta (in North Africa).
Julian brought with him a Moorish
chief named Tarik at the head of 12,-
000 men. Roderic met the invading
army on the banks of the Guadalete,
on July 26, 711. The battle raged
six days ; but the sons of Witiza de-
serted during the contest, and the rout
of the Visigoths was complete. Rod-
eric either died on the field or was
drowned in the Guadalete.
Rodgers, Christopher Raymond
Perry, an American naval officer i
born in Brooklyn, N. Y., Nov. 14,
1819. In 1833 he entered the United
States navy as a midshipman ; was
in active service during the Seminole
and Mexican Wars ; and in 1861 be-
came commander. He commanded, in
1862, an expedition to St. Augustine
and up the St. Mary's river. In the
attack on the defenses of Charleston,
April 7, 1863, he was fleet-captain
on the " New Ironsides." He was ap-
pointed superintendent of the United
States Naval Academy in 1874, 1877,
and 1881, and in the same year was
promoted rear-admiral. He was re-
tired in 1881; and died in Washing-
ton, D. C., Jan. 8, 1892.
Rodgers, John, an American naval
officer ; born in Harford co., Md., July
Rodgers
11, 1771. He was a captain in the
merchant service by 1789, and in 1798
entered the navy as lieutenant, be-
coming captain the year after. In
1805 he extorted from Tripoli and
Tunis treaties abolishing the former
tribute and forbidding the slavery of
Christian captives. On June 23, 1812,
he fired the first shot in the war with
Great Britain. He died Aug. 1, 1838.
Rodgers, John, an American nav-
al officer ; born in Maryland, Aug. 8,
1812 ; died in Washington, D. C., May
5, 1882. He was the son of Commo-
dore John Rodgers, and entered the
navy in 1825. He was in the war
against the Seminole Indians, and ren-
dered excellent service during the Civil
War. He was rear-admiral in 1871,
and in 1877-82 was superintendent of
the United States Naval Observatory.
Rodin, Angnste, a French sculp-
tor ; born in 1840 ; considered the
most virile of modern masters.
Rodman, Isaac Peace, an Ameri-
can military officer; born in South
Kingston, R. I., Aug. 18, 1822. He
entered the Union army ; was captain
in 1861, and the same year led his
company in the battle at Bull Run,
July 21. He was soon promoted to
colonel and was at the capture of
Roanoke Island and at Newbern, N.
C. In 1862 he was promoted Briga-
dier-General of volunteers. He com-
manded a division at Fredericksburg.
In 1862 he was engaged in the battle
of Antietam, where he received a
wound from which he died in Sharps-
burg, Md., -Sept. 30, 1862.
Rodman, Thomas Jefferson, an
American military officer ; born in
Salem, Ind., July 30, 1815. He be-
came famous as the inventor of the
cannon bearing his name. He died in
Rock Island, 111., June 7, 1871.
Rodney, Caesar, an American pa-
triot; born in Dover, Del., Oct. 7,
1728. In 1765 he was a delegate to
the Stamp Act Congress in New York.
In 1767, when the tea act was .pro-
posed in the British Parliament, the
Delaware Assembly appointed him to
aid in the formulation of an address
of remonstrance to the king. In 1775
he was elected for a second time
to the Continental Congress, and in
May of that year became Brigadier-
General of the Delaware militia. He
Roe
served with distinction during the
Revolutionary War, becoming a Ma-
jor-General. He was elected president
of Delaware, in which office he served
till 1782, when he was reelected to
Congress, but did not take his seat
because of illness. He died in Dover,
Del., June 29, 1784.
Roe (Capreolus caprea), a small
species of deer inhabiting Europe and
some parts of Western Asia. It was
fcOEBUCK.
once plentiful in Wales and in the
hilly parts of England, as well as in
the S. of Scotland, but is now very
rare.
Roe, Azel Stevens, an American
novelist ; born in New York city, Aug.
16, 1798. He left the wine business
for the production of literature, at-
taining considerable success. He died
in East Windsor Hill, Conn., Jan. 1,
1886.
Roe, Charles Francis, an Ameri-
can military officer ; born in New York
city, May 1, 1848 ; was graduated at
the United States Military Academy
in 1868, and was assigned to the 1st
Cavalry, then on the Pacific slope. He
was post-adjutant at Camp Harney,
Or., under the late Major Elmer. He
was mustered out with the 2d Cavalry
in 1870, but was reappointed. In Jan-
uary, 1888, he returned to New York,
and the following year was made cap-
tain of the newly organized Troop A.
In 1898 he was appointed a Briga-
dier-General of United States volun-
teers.
Roe, Edward Payson, an Ameri-
can novelist ; born in Orange co., N.
Y., March 7, 1838. He wrote a great
ROENTGEN RAYS. - 1 - CROOKES T UBE (QUEEN & co.'s PERFEC
SHADOWGRAPH CAN BE SEEN ONLY AFTI
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SCREEN OF THAT INSTRUMENT.] 2, 3, 5. SHADOWGRAPHS OF A HUMAN HAND, A FISH, |
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RESEMBLES THAT SEEN IN THE SKIASCOPE WHEN PROJECTED UPON THE FLUORESCENT
A PURSE WITH CONTENTS. 4. SKIASCOPE DESIGNED AND MADE BY QUEEN & CO.,
Roe
number of very popular novels, which
were republished in England and oth-
er countries. He died in Cornwall,
N. Y., July 19, 1888.
Roe, Edward Thomas, an Ameri-
can lawyer ; born in Shawneetown,
111., Nov. 28, 1847; was educated at
the Illinois Wesleyan University and
the University of Albany ; began the
practice of law at Bloomington, 111
in 1870 ; appointed assistant to the
United States attorney for the South-
ern District- -of Illinois in 1871, and
served in that capacity and as United
States district attorney for 16 years.
Roe, Francis Asbury, an Ameri-
can naval officer ; born in Elmira, N.
Y., Oct. 4, 1823 ; appointed an acting
midshipman, Oct. 19, 1841 ; ordered
to the sloop-of-war " John Adams,"
and served a full cruise ; on the break-
ing out of the Civil War he was or-
dered to the " Pensacola," was execu-
tive officer of that ship at its memo-
rable passage down the Potomac river,
through 9 miles of batteries, under
constant fire. He took the " Pensa-
cola " to New Orleans, led the star-
board (van) column of Farragut's
fleet at the battle and passage of Forts
Jackson and St. Philip, and 80 miles
above the Chalmette Forts. He was
detached from the " Pensacola," at
New Orleans, Aug. 5, 18G2, and or-
dered to command the gunboat " Ka-
tahdin," and the same day fought the
battle of Baton Rouge. He was pro-
moted lieutenant-commander, Aug. 6,
1862. Subsequently he was ordered to
the Sounds of North Carolina. Roe
was promoted captain April 1, 1872,
and rear-admiral, Nov. 3, 1884, and
was retired Oct. 4, 1885. He died in
Washington, D. C., Dec. 28, 1901.
Roebling, John Augustus, an
American engineer; born in Muhlhau-
sen, Prussia, June 12, 1806 ; came
to the United States in 1831, and set-
tled in Pittsburg, Pa. He was invited
to make plans and estimates for build-
ing a suspension bridge across the
chasm of the Niagara river to unite
the New York Central and Great
Western (Canada) railroads. He se-
cured the contract and in four years
the first locomotive and train crossed
the bridge, in March. 1855. His great-
est work was the bridge over the East
river, connecting New York and
Roentgen
Brooklyn. He died while the construc-
tion was in progress, in Brooklyn,
July 22, 1869, and the bridge was
completed by his son.
Roebling, Washington Augus-
tus, an American civil engineer; born
in Saxenburg, Pa., May 26, 1837;
son of the preceding. He was gradu-
ated at the Rensselaer Polytechnic In-
stitute, Troy, N. Y., in 1857; was an
engineer officer during the Civil War
and attained the rank of colonel of
volunteers. In 1865 he resigned from
military service to become assistant to
his father. In 1869 he was assistant
engineer under his father in the con-
struction of the suspension bridge
over the East river ; and on his fath-
er's death became chief engineer, which
post he held till the completion of the
bridge in 1883. He then became su-
perintendent of the large wire manu-
factory at Trenton, N. J.
Roentgen, "William Conrad,
Baron, a German scientist; born in
Holland in 1845 ; was graduated in
medicine at the University of Zurich
in 1870. On Nov. 8, 1895, he made
the discovery of what has since been
known as the Roentgen, or X-rays.
Roentgen, or Rontgen, Rays.
certain invisible non-refractible rays
emanating from the surface of an
electrically excited vacuum tube op-
posite the cathode electrode, having
power (1) of permeating objects im-
pervious to light or heat rays, (2) of
discharging electrified bodies or sur-
faces exposed to them, (3) of excit-
ing fluorescence in fluorescent salts,
and (4) of affecting sensitized photo-
graphic plates in a manner similar to
light rays. They were discovered by
William Conrad Roentgen, Professor
of Physics at the Royal University of
Wurzburg, in Germany, toward the
close of the year 1895. Not being cer-
tain as to the nature of the rays, Pro-
fessor Roentgen provisionally termed
them the X-rays. Besides obtaining
radiographs of the bones in the living
human hand, Professor Roentgen ra-
diographed a compass card completely
inclosed in a metallic box. Subsequent
experiments have established the fact
that the transparency of a body to
the X-rays is proportional to its den-
sity. As to the real nature of the X-
rays eminent physicists differ, but all
Rogation Days
Rogers
agree that they must be 'regarded as of
a nature essentially different from or-
dinary light.
The Roentgen rays pass very freely
through the various tissues and fluids
of the body, but are obstructed by the
bones ; hence it is possible to take a
perfect shadow-picture, or radiograph,
as it is now generally called, of the
bones of a living person or animal.
By far the most important result of
the discovery has been the application
of the new rays to surgery. Radio-
graphs of bones fractured, splintered,
or diseased, have been of much prac-
tical use in aiding diagnosis and treat-
ment. Needles, bullets and other for-
eign objects in various parts of the
body have been successfully located,
and the invention of the fluoroscope
has made it possible to use the Roent-
gen rays, not only in surgical cases,
in searching for fractures, etc., but to
undertake anatomical studies and make
the diagnosis of internal diseases. The
full physiological effect of the X-rays
are not yet clearly understood.
A very interesting and practical ap-
plication of the rays was made at
Pittsburg, Pa., early in March, 1897.
By means of a very powerful X-ray
apparatus, designed by Prof. Reginald
A. Fessenden of the Western Univer-
sity of Pittsburg, tests were made that
prove that blow holes in heavy ar-
mor can be detected by the aid of ra-
diography.
Rogation Days, the Monday,
Tuesday, and Wednesday before Holy
Thursday or Ascension Day, so called
from the supplications or litanies
which are appointed in the Roman
Catholic church to be sung or recited
in public procession by the clergy and
people.
Roger I., Count of Sicily, the
youngest of the 12 sons of Tancred de
Ilauteville of Normandy ; born in that
duchy in 1031. When 27 years of age
he joined his famous brother Robert
Guiscard in South Italy. In 1000
Roger was invited to Sicily to fight
against the Saracens ; he took Mes-
sina and settled a garrison there. Ev-
erywhere the Normans were welcomed
by the Christians of Sicily as their de-
liverers from the Moslem yoke, and
they won town after town, till in 1071
the Saracen capital, Palermo, was
captured Count Roger spent the rest
of his life in completing the conquest
of Sicily. As early as 1060 Duke
Robert had given his brother the half
of Calabria, with the title of count.
After Robert's death (1085) Roger
succeeded to his Italian possessions,
and became the head of the Norman
power in Southern Europe. Roger
died in Mileto, Calabria, in June, 1101.
Roger II., King of Sicily, second
son of the preceding ; born in 1096.
By the Anti-Pope Anacletus in 1130
he was honored with the title of king.
In spite of revolts of the barons, and
though the German emperor and the
Greek emperor were leagued against
him, and Innocent II. excommunicat-
ed him, he defended himself with suc-
cess and defeated the Pope's forces at
Galluzzo, taking Innocent prisoner.
Peace was made, the Pope annulled all
excommunication against Roger, and
recognized his title of king. He died
in 1154.
Rogers, Henry J., an American
inventor ; born in Baltimore, Md., in
1811. He devised the Rogers code of
flag signals adopted by the United
(States navy in 1840, and invented the
first pyrotechnic system of signals ever
used in the United States. He was as-
sociated with Samuel F. B. Morse in
the construction of the first telegraph
line in the United States, between
Washington and Baltimore, in 1844.
Subsequently he invented several im-
portant telegraphic instruments, and
was one of the incorporators of the
Magnetic Telegraph Company, the first
in the United States, in 1845. In the
Civil War he was an acting master in
the navy. He died in Baltimore, Md.,
Aug. 20, 1&79.
Rogers, Jacob S., nn American
manufacturer ; born in Paterson, N.
J. ; was president of the Rogers Loco-
motive and Machine Works in that
city. He bequeathed his estate to the
Metropolitan .Museum of Art in New
York city. He died July 2, 1901.
Rogers, John, an American sculp-
tor ; born in Salem, Mass., Oct. 30,
1829; was a machinist in early life;
developed a talent in clay modelling;
and in 1858 went to Europe to study.
He returned to the United States in
1859, and soon became known by the
" Rogers Groups," illustrative of Amer-
ican and army life. His first large
Rogers
work was the "equestrian statue of
General Reynolds," now at the city
hall in Philadelphia. He died in New,
Canaan, Conn., July 26, 1904.
Rogers, Randolph, an American
sculptor; born in Waterloo, N. Y.,
July 6, 1825; studied art in Europe.
He then returned to the United
States ; for five years had a studio
in New York, and established himself
in Rome in 1855. He executed the
bronze doors of the National Capitol
at Washington, D. C. He died Jan.
15, 1892.
Rogers, Robert, an American
author; born in Dunbarton, N. H., in
1727 ; commanded during the French
and Indian Wa<- (1755-1763) the cel-
ebrated corps known as " Rogers's
Rangers." He left in MS. " A Diary
of the Siege of Detroit in the War
with Pontiac," first published in 1860.
He died in 1784.
Roger Williams University, a
coeducational institution for colored
students in Nashville, Tenn. ; founded
in 1863 under the auspices of the
Baptist Church.
Rohlfs, Friedricli Gerhard, a
German-African traveler; born in
Vegesack, Germany, April 14, 1831.
In 1863, and again in 1865, he trav-
eled in North Africa, making his way
on the latter occasion from Tripoli to
Lake Tchad, Bornu, etc., and finally
to Lagos on the W. coast. He joined
the English Abyssinian expedition in
1867. He traveled across North Amer-
ica in 1875-1876, and in 1878 he un-
dertook a new journey to Africa and
penetrated to the Kufra Oasis. In
1880 he visited Abyssinia. He was
appointed German general-consul at
Zanzibar in 1884, and returned to
Germany in 1885. His works in-
clude, among others : " Journey
through Morocco"; "Land and Peo-
ple of Africa " ; " What News from
Africa " ; etc. He died in Goderburg,
Prussia, June 3, 1896.
Rokitansky, Karl, Baron von,
founder of the school of pathological
anatomy in Vienna ; born in Konig-
gratz, Bohemia, Feb. 19, 1804; stud-
ied medicine at Prague and Vienna ;
in 1828 was appointed assistant to
the Professor of Pathological Anatomy
in the university of the latter city and
in 1834 succeeded him. He likewise
Roland
held the offices of prosector at the city
infirmary, legal anatomist to the city,
and medical adviser to the ministry
of education and public worship. In
1869 he was made president of the
Austrian Academy of Sciences. He
retired from work in 1875, and died
July 23, 1878. He stands preeminent
among German medical teachers as the
one who established pathological anat-
omy as the basis of all original scien-
tific inquiry in the domain of medi-
cine.
Roland, the name of the most
prominent hero in the Charlemagne
legend. Unlike most legendary he-
roes, Roland is a figure in history
as well as in poetry and fable, though
it cannot be said that the place he
occupies as a historical personage is
an imposing one. His character was
that of a brave and loyal warrior, but
simple and unsuspecting in his dispo-
sition. According to the Song of Ro-
land, an old French epic, he was killed
at the battle of Roncesvalles after a
desperate struggle with the Saracens
who had attacked Charlemagne's rear
guard. Several epics are based upon
his exploits.
Roland, Manon Jeanne Philip-
pon, Madame, wife of Jean Marie,
and herself, the spirit of the Girondin
party; the daughter of a Paris en-
? raver ; born in that city, March 17,
754. She became the wife of Ro-
land in 1779, and as her love for him
was founded on his antique virtues and
his philosophic spirit, she has been
called "The Heloise of the 18th cen-
tury." She became the sharer in all
his studies, aided him in editing his
works, and during his two ministries
acted as his secretary and entered into
all the intrigues of his party without
debasing herself by their meanness.
After the flight of her husband, Mad-
ame Roland was arrested by order of
the Paris Commune under the dicta-
tion of Marat and Robespierre, and
consigned to the Abbaye prison, from
which, on Oct. 31, she was removed
to a more wretched abode in the Con-
ciergerie. She was executed Nov. 8,
1793.
Roland de la Platiere, Jean
Marie, a French statesman ; born in
Villefranche, France, Feb. 18, 1734;
was inspector-general of manufactures
and commerce in that city when the
Rolfc
Roman Architecture
French Revolution commenced, and
having embraced popular principles
became, in 1790, member of the Lyons
municipality. The practical philoso-
phy, commercial knowledge, and strict
simplicity of Roland, recommended
him to men of all parties, and when
the patriot ministry was formed in
March, 1792, he was made minister of
the interior. He kept his position till
June 13, when the royal veto on the
proposal to form a patriot camp
around Paris, and on the decree
against the priests, provoked his cele-
brated letter to the king, written,
however, by Madame Roland, and, as
a consequence, his almost instant dis-
missal. The struggle between the Gi-
rondists and the municipality under
the guidance of Robespierre filled up
the period till May 81 ; the former
party were then vanquished, and Ro-
land was among the number who saved
their lives by flight. He found an
asylum with his friends at Rouen, but
deliberately killed himself with his
cane sword on hearing of the execution
of his wife, Nov. 15, 1793.
Rolfe, William James, an
American editor; born in Newbury-
port, Mass., Dec. 10, 1827. He was
a distinguished Shakespearean scholar,
and published many editions of
Shakespeare, annotated. Died 1910.
Roller (Coraciidse), a family of
Picarian birds characteristic of the
Ethiopian and Oriental regions, though
the common roller is extensively dis-
tributed in the Palsearctic region and
a few species enter the Australian re-
gion.
Boiler Boat, a boat propelled by
wheels which roll over and on the
water instead of cutting through it.
Designed by Ernest Bazin, a French-
man, in 1896; its slowness made it a
failure.
Boiler Skate. The earliest roller
skate was patented by a Frenchman in
1819. About 1864 the mania for
rolling skating first appeared in En-
gland ; but in 1866 the " rinking "
fever broke out in Australia, and
spread thence to England and the
United States. Since that time the
craze has appeared at intervals only
to again die out. The most recent of
these arose in 1884-1885 in the Unit-
ed States, but soon shared the fate of
its predecessors. The most recent
form has only two wheels, set one be-
hind the other, and resembling the ice
skate in its form and action.
Bollin, Ambrose Lncien, a West-
Indian historian ; born in Trois Riv-
ieres, Guadeloupe, in 1692. He devot-
ed his leisure to researches upon the
Caribs and other Indian tribes, and
published several works which are still
considered authorities upon the sub-
jects he covered. He died at Pointe
a Pitre in 1749.
Bollin, Charles, a French histo-
rian ; born in Paris, Jan. 30, 1661.
His best-known work is the " Ancient
History" (1730-1738), often reprint-
ed in France, England, and the United
States. He died in Paris, Sept. 14,
1741.
Boiling Mill, a combination of
machinery used in the manufacture of
malleable iron and other metals of the
same nature. By it the iron which is
heated and balled in the puddling fur-
nace is made into bars or sheets.
Rollims, Alice Marland (Wel-
lington), an American verse writer;
born in Boston, June 12, 1847. She
died in Boston, Dec. 5, 1897.
Boman Architecture. It can
hardly be said that the early Romans
had any style of architecture of their
own, since they borrowed their ideas
of building first from the Etruscans
and afterward from the Greeks. In
the time of Romulus their dwellings
were of the rudest description, being
chiefly composed of straw ; and at a
later period their temples were only
small square buildings, scarcely large
enough to contain the statues of their
deities. The first king who construct-
ed works of a large class requiring
architectural skill was Ancus Martius.
His first attempt was the building of
the city and port of Ostia, at the
mouth of the Tiber. During the first
two Punic wars many temples were
erected ; but they do not appear to
have been of great magnificence. Al-
together, very little taste had bee^
shown in the Roman buildings till their
conquests extended and they became
intimate with the more costly buildings
of their enemies. Metellus Macedoni-
cus, the contemporary of Mummius,
the victor of Corinth, was the first
who built a temple of marble at Rome ;
but from that time most of the larger
Roman Candle
Romance Languages
edifices were built of that material.
Grecian art and architecture were also
introduced about the same period. Un-
der Julius Caesar, many new and mag-
nificent buildings were erected ; and
during the Golden Age, under Au-
gustus, most of the finest edifices were
built ; architects flocked from all quar-
ters, and especially from Greece, to
beautify the city. It was said of Au-
gustus " that he found Rome built
of brick and left it of marble." After
this period, however, architecture de-
clined till Constantine transferred the
seat of government to Byzantium,
when a new style was introduced.
A characteristic feature in Roman
architecture, and one that entered
largely in the system, is the employ-
ment of order above order in the
same building. While this arrange-
ment is faulty, for it is incompatible
with the requirements of the highest
standard of taste, yet still, at the same
time, it proves the Roman aptness
of invention and versatility of design.
The style of architecture called the
Roman order was invented by the
Romans from the Ionic and Corinthian
orders ; and hence it is sometimes
called the Composite order.
Roman Candle, a species of fire-
works consisting of a tube partially
filled with alternating perforated stars
and small charges of gunpowder. Fire
communicated to the upper end ignites
the charges successively, which throw
out the stars till all are discharged.
Roman Catholic Clmrch, the
name of that community of Chris-
tians who profess the same faith, par-
take of the same sacraments and sac-
rifice, and are united under one head,
the Pope or Bishop of Rome, called
successor of St. Peter, and under the
oishops subject to him. Its essential
parts are the Pope, bishops, pastors
so far as they are priests and laity.
The distinctive characteristic of the
Roman Church is the supremacy of the
papacy. After the Council of Trent
Pope Pius IV. added to the formal
profession of faith the articles on
transubstantiation, invocation of
saints, and others which chiefly dis-
tinguish the Roman from other Chris-
tian communities.
The total number of Roman Catho-
lics throughout the world is estimated
at 300,000,000. According to a special
census report on " Religious Bodies "
(2 vols., 1910), there were in the
United States 12,482 church organi-
zations; 11,881 church edifices; 15,177
clergy of all ranks; 12,079,142 popu-
lation belonging to the Church; and
11.172 Sunday schools, with 62.470
officers and teachers, and 1,481,535
scholars. The hierarchy included an
apostolic delegate, one cardinal, 13
archbishops and 90 bishops. Church
edifices were valued at $292,638,787.
Romance. Romance has long
since lost its original signification in
every country except Spain, where it
is still occasionally used in speaking
of the vernacular, as it was in the
Middle Ages when Latin was the lan-
guage of the lettered classes and of
documents and writings of all kinds.
But even there its commoner applica
tion is, as elsewhere, not to a lan-
guage, but to a form of composition.
In English it has been almost invari-
ably applied to a certain sort of prose
fiction, and, in a secondary sense, to
the style and tone prevailing therein.
By " the romances," using the term
specifically, we generally mean the
prose fictions which, as reading be-
came a more common accomplishment,
took the place of the lays and " chan-
sons de geste " of the minstrels and
trouveres, and were in their turn re-
placed by the novel. Of these the
most important in every way are the
so-called romances of chivalry, which
may be considered the legitimate de-
scendants of the " chansons de geste."
The chivalry romances divide natural-
ly into three families or groups ; the
British (which, perhaps, would be
more scientifically described as the Ar-
morican or the Anglo-Norman), the
French, and the Spanish ; the first
having for its center the legend of
Arthur and the Round Table ; the sec-
ond formed round the legend of Char-
lemagne and the Twelve Peers; and
the third consisting mainly of Amadis
of Gaul followed by a long series of
sequels and imitations of one kind ot
another.
Romance ILanjniages, a general
name for those modern languages that
are the immediate descendants of the
language of ancient Rome. They in-
clude the Italian, French, Provencal,
Spanish, Portuguese, Rumanian, and
Romansch.
Romanesque Architecture
Romanesque Architecture, a
general term applied to the styles of
architecture which prevailed from the
6th to the 12th centuries. Of these
there are two divisions: (1) The de-
based Roman, prevalent from the 5th
to the llth centuries, and including
the Byzantine modifications of the
Romans, and (2) the late or Gothic
Romanesque of the llth and 12th
centuries, comprising the later Byzan-
tine, the Lombard, and the Rhenish,
Saxon, and Norman styles. The for-
mer is a pretty close imitation of the
Roman, with modifications in the ap-
plication and distribution of the pe-
culiar features ; the latter is Gothic in
spirit, having a predominance of ver-
tical lines, and various other new fea-
tures.
Roman Roads, certain ancient
roads in Great Britain which the Ro-
mans left behind them. They were
uniformly raised above the surface of
the neighboring land and ran ^ in a
straight line from station to station.
Romans, Epistle to the, one of
the books of the New Testament, writ-
ten by the Apostle Paul, and ad-
dressed to the Christian Church at
Rome. It is the 5th in order of time,
though placed first among the epis-
tles, either from the predominance
of Rome, or because it is the longest
and most comprehensive of the apos-
tle's epistles. It is generally agreed
to have been written about A. D. 58,
after he had passed through a length-
ened period of experience. That it is
the genuine and authentic production
of the apostle has rarely been called
in question, and is supported by the
etrongest evidence.
Roman Walls, certain walls or
ramparts in Great Britain construct-
ed by the Romans. The most celebrat-
ed of these is the wall built by Ha-
drian (A. D. 120) between the Tyne and
the Solway. It was further strength-
ened by Severus, and hence is often
called the wall of Severus. In 139
Lollius Urbicus built a second wall
or N. rampart between the Forth and
the Clyde, which occupied the same
line as the chain of forts built by
Agricola (A. D. 80-85). It is known
as the wall of Antoninus. These walls
formed the N. boundaries of the Ro-
man dominions in Great Britain, and
Rome
were built to prevent the incursions of
the Picts and Scots.
Rome, the most powerful State of
antiquity; founded about 753 B. o.
by a settlement from Alba Longa led
by Romulus. At first the new city
was ruled by kings, but in 509 B. o.
the people established a republic which
lasted for 500 years. Its most im-
portant feature was the struggle be-
tween the plebeians and the patricians^
settled finally in 286 B. c., by admis-
sion of plebeians to a share in the
government Meanwhile Rome had
been gradually spreading out, and by
275 B. c. was mistress of all Italy.
The next 30 years were crucial ia
the history of Rome. Her aggressive
policy in the Mediterranean brought
her face to face with Carthage, and
under their military genius Hanni
bal, the Carthaginians threatened the
very existence of Rome itself. Car-
thage was finally burned to the ground
in 146 B. c. By 133 B. c. Rome had
conquered Macedonia and Asia Mi-
nor.
At this point begins the decline of
Rome as a republic. A series of bit-
ter civil wars centralized the govern-
ing power in the hands of a few lead-
ers and in 48 B. c. Julius Caesar was
created Imperator. With Caesar the
republic and Rome's greatest period
came to an end. Under the republic
the power of Rome had been extend-
ed from Arabia to Great Britain, and
from Spain to Armenia.
In 27 B. c. Octavian became first
emperor of Rome under the title of
Augustus. His immediate successors
added slightly to Roman territory, but
under Marcus Aurelius the decline be-
gan. From A. D. 180 to 284 Rome
grew gradually weaker. In 284 Dio-
cletian reorganized the empire, and
for nearly 200 years these reforms
delayed the inevitable disruption; but
in 395 the empire separated into two
divisions ; the Eastern, or Byzantine,
and the Western ; and in 476 the
I Western, or Roman empire, was final-
ly overthrown, and Odoacer, a German,
became King of Italy.
Rome, the capital of Italy, as
formerly of the Roman empire, re-
public, and kingdom, and long the
I religious center of Western Christen-
| dom, is one of. the most ancient and
1 interesting cities of the world. It
Rome
stands on both sides of the Tiber,
about 15 miles from the sea. The city
is tolerably healthy during most of the
year, but in late summer and early
autumn malaria prevails to some ex-
tent. It has been greatly improved
in cleanliness and healthfulness since
it became the capital of modern Italy.
The streets of ancient Rome were
crooked and narrow, till after the fire
that took place in Nero's reign, when
the new streets were made both wide
and straight. In the reign of Augus-
tus the population is believed to have
amounted to about 1,300,000, and in
that of Trajan was not far short of
2,000,000.
Ancient Rome was adorned with a
vast number of splendid buildings, in-
cluding temples, palaces, public halls,
theaters, amphitheaters, baths, porti-
coes, monuments, etc., of many of
which we can now form only a very
imperfect idea. The oldest and most
sacred temple was that of Jupiter Cap-
itolinus, on the Capitoline Hill. The
Pantheon, ,a temple of various gods
(now Church of S. Maria Rotonda),
is still in excellent preservation. It is
a great circular building with a dome
roof of stone 140 feet wide and 140
feet high, a marvel of construction,
being 2 feet wider than the great dome
of St. Peter's. The interior is light-
ed by a single aperture in the center
of the dome. Other temples were the
Temple of Apollo, which Augustus
built of white marble, on the Pala-
tine, containing a splendid library,
which served as a place of resort to
the poets ; the Temple of Minerva,
which Pompey built in the Campus
Martius, and which Augustus covered
with bronze ; the Temple of Peace,
once the richest and most beautiful
temple in Rome, built by Vespasian, in
the Via Sacra, which contained the
treasures of the temple of Jerusalem,
a splendid library, and other curiosi-
ties, but was burned during the reign
of Commodus ; the temple of the Sun,
which Aurelian erected to the E. of
the Quirinal ; and the magnificent
temple of Venus, which Caesar caused
to be built to her as the origin of his
family. The principal palace of an-
cient Rome was the Palatium or im-
perial palace, on the Palatine Hill, a
private dwelling house enlarged and
adopted as the imperial residence by
E. 128.
Rome
Augustus. Succeeding emperors ex-
tended and beautified it.
Among the theaters, those of Pom-
pey, Cornelius Balbus, and Marcellus
were the most celebrated. That of
Pompey, in the Campus Martius, was
capable of containing 40,000 persons.
The most magnificent of the amphi-
theaters was that of Titus, completed
A. D. 80, now known as the Coliseum
or Colosseum. Though only one-third
of the gigantic structure remains, the
ruins are still stupendous. The prin-
cipal of the circuses was the Circus
Maximus, between the Palatine and
Aventine, which was capable of con-
taining 260,000 spectators. With
slight exception its walls have entirely
disappeared, but its form is still dis-
tinctly traceable.
The public baths or thermae in
Rome were also very numerous. The
largest were the Thermae of Titus,
part of the substructure of which may
still be seen on the Esquiline Hill ;
the Thermae of Caracalla, even larger,
extensive remains of which still exist
in the S. E. of the city ; and the
Thermae of Diocletian, the largest and
most magnificent of all, part of which
is converted into a church. Of the
triumphal arches the most celebrated
are those of Titus (A. D. 81), Severus
(A. D. 203), and that of Constantine
(A. D. 311), all in or near the Forum
and all well preserved structures.
It was not till the 17th century that
the modern city was extended to its
present limits on the right bank, by a
wall built under the pontificates of
Urban VIII. (1623-1644) and Inno-
cent X. (1644-1655), and inclosing
both the Janiculum and the Vatican
hills. The boundary wall on the left
or E. bank of the river follows the
same line as that traced by Aurelian
in the 3d century, and must in many
parts be identical with the original
structure. The walls on both banks
are built of brick, with occasional por-
tions of stone work, and on the out-
side are about 55 feet high. The
greater part dates from A. D. 271 to
276. The city is entered by 12 gates
(several of those of earlier date being
now walled up) and several railway
accesses. Since Rome became the cap-
ital of united Italy great changes have
taken place in the appearance of the
city, many miles of new treets being
Rome
built, and much done in the way of
paving, drainage, and other improve-
ments. It has thus lost much of its
ancient picturesque appearance, and
is rapidly acquiring the look of a great
modern city with wide, straight streets
of uniform-looking tenements having
little distinctive character. It is still,
however, replete with ever varying
and pleasing prospects.
The most remarkable of the churches
is the Cathedral of St. Peter, the
largest and most imposing to be found
anywhere. Another remarkable church
is that of San Giovanni in Laterano,
on an isolated spot near the S. wall of
the city. From the central balcony
the Pope pronounces his benediction
on Ascension day ; and the church is
the scene of the councils which bear
its name.
Among other churches are Sta.
Maria della Pace, celebrated for its
paintings, particularly the four Sibyls,
considered among the most perfect
works of Raphael ; Sta. Maria del
Popolo, interesting from the number
of its fine sculptures and paintings
(Jonah by Raphael, ceiling frescoes
by Pinturicchio, and mosaics from
Raphael's cartoons by Aloisio della
Pace).
The Vatican, adjoining St. Peter's,
comprises the old and new palaces of
the Popes (the latter now the ordi-
nary papal residence) , the Sistine
chapel, the Loggie and Stanze, con-
taining some of the most important
works of Raphael, the picture gallery,
the museums (Pio-Clementino, Chiar-
amonti, Etruscan and Egyptian), and
the library (220,000 volumes and over
25,000 MSS.). The palace of the
Quirinal was formerly a favorite sum-
mer residence of the Popes, but is now
occupied by the King of Italy. The
Palazzo della Cancelleria is the only
palace on the left bank of the river
still occupied by the ecclesiastical
authorities. The building was de-
signed by Bramante, and is one of the
finest in Rome.
Among educational institutions the
first place is claimed by the university,
founded in 1303. The most flourish-
ing period of the university was the
time of Leo X. (1513-1522), under
whom the building still occupied by
it was besrun. It is now attended by
over 3,000 students and auditors.
Pop. (1909) 575,000.
Ronmey
Rome, city and capital of Floyd
county, Ga.; on the Coosa river and
the Southern and other railroads; 75
miles N. W. of Atlanta; is one of
the most important manufacturing
cities in the State; the seat of
Shorter College for Women (Bapt.)
and Battey and Emergency hospitals.
Pop. (1910) 12,099.
Rome, a city in Oneida county,
N. Y.; on the Mohawk river, the Erie
and Black River canals, and several
railroads; 14 miles N. W. of Utica;
is in a noted dairying section; has
large locomotive works, iron, brass,
and copper mills, and manufactories
of plows, cheese presses, knit goods,
canned goods, and compressed air
motors; and contains the Central New
York Institution for Deaf Mutes,
State Custodial Asylum, and Jervis
Library. Pop. (1910) 20,497.
Romero, Don Matias, a Mexican
diplomatist ; born in Oascaca, Mexico,
Feb. 24, 1837; was graduated at the
Academy of Theoretical and Practical
Law, Mexico City, in 1855. He was
admitted to the bar in 1857 and at an
early age entered public life, being
sent to Washington, D. C., as secretary
of the Mexican legation in 1859. In
1860 he was made charge d'affaires,
but in 1863 returned to Mexico to
take part in the war against the
French. Subsequently he was made
minister to the United States ; Secre-
tary of the Treasury of Mexico, and
postmaster-general. In 1882 he was
reappointed minister to the United
States and remained so till his death.
He was a member of the International
American Conference and was a pro-
lific writer, publishing upward of 50
volumes of technical reports. He died
in Washington, D. C., Feb. 30, 1898.
Romney, George, an English
painter ; born in Rickside, Lancashire,
Dec. 15, 1734. He steadily rose in
popularity, and was finally recognized
as inferior only to Reynolds and
Gainsborough as a portrait-painter;
some critics even placed him higher
than either. His residence in London
was interrupted by occasional visits
to the Continent for purposes of study,
and his most prosperous period dates
from 1775, after his return from a
visit of 18 months to Rome. Many
distinguished Englishmen and manyj
ladies of rank sat to him for their por-J
Roninlns
Itoolswoocl Pottery
traits. He did not neglect historical
or imaginative compositions, and he
contributed several pictures to Boy-
dell's famous Shakespeare gallery,
founded in 1786. Fine examples of
bis work command high prices. He
died in Kendal, Nov. 15, 1802.
Romulus, mythical founder and
first King of Rome. According to the
legends, he was the son of the vestal
Rhea Sylvia by the god Mars, Sylvia
being a daughter of Numitor, rightful
heir of the King of Alba, but deprived
by his brother. Exposed with his
twin brother Remus,, the babes were
suckled by a she wolf, and afterward
brought up by a shepherd. Their
parentage was discovered, and they
determined to found a city on the
banks of the Tiber, the scene of their
exposure. The right to choose the site
was acquired by Romulus ; and Remus
not acquiescing, in his disappointment,
was slain. Inhabitants for the new
city were found by establishing a ref-
uge for murderers and fugitive slaves
on the Capitoline hills, and by carry-
ing off the Sabine maidens at a feast
to which they were invited. This led
to war with the Sabines, which ended,
through the intervention of the Sabine
women, in a union of Romans and
Sabines, under their two kings, Romu-
lus and Titus Tatius. The latter was
Boon slain, and Romulus reigned alone.
He was regarded as the author of the
fundamental division of the people
into tribes, curiae, and gentes, and of
the institution of the senate and the
comitia curiata. The date commonly
assigned for the foundation of Rome
is 753 B. c.
Rondeau, or Rondo, a kind of
poetry which returns, as it were, to
the same point, or in which part is
repeated, thus containing a refrain.
In music, a light form of composition,
in which the subject or theme returns
frequently; it usually forms the last
movement of a symphony or sonata.
Ronsard, Pierre de, a French
poet ; born in Vendomois, France,
Sept. 11, 1524. After a short diplo-
matic career, he devoted himself to
literary studies and became the chief
of the band of seven poets afterward
known as the " P16iade." Ronsard's
popularity and prosperity during his
life were very great. Henry II.,
Francis II., and Charles IX. esteemed
him, and the last signally honored the
poet. He died Dec. 27, 1585.
Rontgen. See ROENTGEN.
Rood, a cross or crucifix ; specifical-
Iy7 a representation of the crucified
Saviour, or, more generally, of the
Trinity, placed in Catholic churches
over the altar screen, hence termed
the rood screen.
Roof, the external covering on the
top of a building ; sometimes of stone,
but usually of wood overlaid with
slates, tiles, lead, etc. Since the intro-
duction of iron in the construction of
roofs, spaces of almost any width can
be roofed over. Also that which re-
sembles, or corresponds to, the
cover of a building ; as, the roof of the
mouth, the roof of the firmament, etc.
Rook, a European species of crow
resembling in size and color the car-
rion crow, but differing in having the
base of the bill whitish and scurfy,
and bare of feathers. The rook is
gregarious at all seasons, resorting
constantly to the same trees every
spring to breed, when the nests may
be seen crowded one over another
upon the upper branches.
Rooke, Sir George, an English
admiral ; born near Canterbury, Eng-
land, in 1650. He entered the navy
at an early age and rose to be vice-
admiral in 1692. For his gallantry in
a night attack on the French fleet off
Cape La Hogue he was knighted in
1692. His further services include
the destruction of the French and
Spanish fleets in Vigo Bay (1702),
and a share ha the capture of Gibral-
tar in July, 1704. In the following
August he fought a French fleet of
much superior force, under the Comte
de Toulouse, off Malaga. The result
was undecisive, and this fact was
used against Rooke by his political op-
ponents. Sir George quitted the serv-
ice in disgust in 1705. He served in
several Parliaments as member for
Portsmouth. He died near Canter-
bury, Jan. 24, 1709.
Rookwopd Pottery, The, a ce-
ramic establishment founded in Cincin-
nati in 1880 by Mrs. Maria Long-
worth Storer, whose father, Joseph
Longworth, was the founder of the
art school and a chief patron of the
art museum of the same city. The
distinguishing mark of Rookwood
Roon
Roosevelt
faience in all its wares is the deco-
rative quality of the color grounds,
carefully studied with reference to
harmony.
Ropii, Albrecht Theodor von, a
Prussian war minister ; born in Pleus-
hagen, Prussia, April 30, 1803. He
entered the army at the age of 18, and
speedily developed a high talent for
the theoretical and educational branch-
es of his profession. In 1866 he was
made general of infantry, and was
present with the army in Bohemia
during the Seven Weeks' war against
Austria. On the conclusion of the
war Von Roon was made a count, and
on Jan. 1, 1873, he became a field-
marshal and minister-president of
Prussia. In November of the same
year, however, he laid down his public
offices and retired to his estate in
Silesia, where he chiefly resided till
his death. He died in Berlin, Feb.
13, 1879.
Roosevelt, Robert Barnwell, an
American lawyer; born in New York
city, Aug. 7, 1829. He was an enthu-
siastic sportsman, and published :
" The Game Birds of the North," and
" Progressive Petticoats," a humorous
satire on female physicians.
Roosevelt, Theodore, an Ameri-
can statesman and 26th President of
the United States; born in New York
city, Oct. 27, 1858; was graduated at
Harvard University in 1880 and be-
gan the study of law. The next year he
was elected to the Assembly from the
21st District of New York, serving in
the Legislatures of 1883, 1884, and
1885. While chairman of the Commit-
tee on Cities, he introduced reform
legislation which has proved immense-
ly beneficial to the people of New York.
One of his measures was the act taking
from the Board of Aldermen power to
confirm or reject the appointments of
the mayor. He was chairman of the
noted Legislative Investigating Com-
mittee which bore his name and which
revealed many of the abuses existing
in the city government in the early
eighties.
In 1886 Mr. Roosevelt was the Re-
publican candidate for mayor against
Abram S. Hewitt, United Democracy,
and Henry George, United Labor.
Mr. Hewitt was elected by about
22,000 plurality. Mr. Roosevelt was
appointed a Republican member of the
United States Civil Service Commis-
sion by President Cleveland in his
first administration. His ability and
rugged honesty in the administration
of the affairs of that office greatly
helped to strengthen his hold on popu-
lar regard. He continued in that office
till May 1, 1895, when he resigned to
accept the office of police commissioner
from Mayor Strong. His record as
president of the board was of the
highest character. He found the ad-
ministration of affairs in a demoralized
condition, but the same energetic
methods that had characterized all his
work, the same uncompromising hon-
esty that is the most prominent note in
his character, " when applied to police
affairs, soon brought the administra-
tion of the department to a high de-
gree of efficiency.
From his New York office he was
called by President McKinley, April 0,
1897, to be Assistant Secretary of the
Navy. There again his energy and
quick mastery of detail contributed
much to the successful administration
of the department and the preparation
of the navy for the most brilliant feats
in naval warfare in the history of the
world. .
When war was declared against
Spain Mr. Roosevelt refused to re-
main in the quiet government office.
For years he had spent his summers
on a Dakota ranch, and learned to
know cowboys as strong, sincere men,
on whom the nation could rely. From
these the famous cavalry troop known
as the " Rough Riders " was largely
recruited. Four years' membership in
the 8th Regiment of the New York
State National Guard, to which he
belonged and in which he was for a
time a captain, furnished at least a
basis for his brilliant military career.
But more than all else that induced
him to go to the front were his de-
votion to the cause for which the war
was fought and his love for an actiye
life. These same reasons drew to him
scores of young men of prominent fam-
ilies from all parts of the country,
who joined the Western cavalrymen.
The regiment thus formed was known
as Roosevelt's Rough Riders, though
it was commanded by Colonel Wood
of the regular army, Roosevelt being
second in command, with the rank, till
promoted, of lieutenant-colonel.
Root
For bravery in the battle of Las
Guasimas Roosevelt was promoted
colonel and in the three days of fight-
ing before Santiago, and especially in j
the magnificent charge up San Juan'
Hill, he acted with conspicuous gal- j
lantry. On the return of the Rough j
Riders from Cuba, Roosevelt was the
popular idol of the country ; and de-
spite considerable opposition from pro-
fessional politicians was nominated
for governor of New York on the Re-
publican ticket, Sept. 27, 1898. He
was elected by a plurality of 18,000,
Nov. 4. In the Republican National
Convention held in Philadelphia in
the summer of 1900 Roosevelt was en-
thusiastically nominated for Vice-
President on the Republican ticket
headed by William McKinley. He was
elected Nov. 4, and was formally in-
stalled March 4, 1901. On the death
of President McKinley in Buffalo,
N. Y., Sept. 14, 1901, Roosevelt took
the oath of office as his successor, and
became the 26th President of the
United States. In 1904 he was elected
President by a popular plurality of
2,545,515 votes and an electoral ma-
jority of 196 over Judge Alton B.
Parker, the Democratic candidate.
In this term he gave the country a
vigorous administration and developed
a characteristic line of policies having
in view the betterment of the national
life. Immediately after the close of
his term he withdrew from public life,
joined the editorial staff of " The Out-
look," and spent fifteen months in
traveling and hunting in Africa and in
visiting the principal capitals of
Europe. While abroad he acted as the
special ambassador of the United
States at the funeral of King Ed-
ward VII.
Early in 1912 he announced that he
would not be a candidate for the Presi-
dential nomination in that year, but
later developed much opposition to the
Taft administration and sought the
nomination. When the Republican
National Convention met in Chicago
in June he declared that he had been
defrauded out of many votes by the
decisions of the National Committee
on contests by various sets of dele-
gates, and instructed his supporters to
take no part in the proceedings. Of the
total ballots for the nomination on
Rope
June 22, President Taft received 561
and Roosevelt 107, by delegates who
disregarded his request. The Roosevelt
f9llowing then organized the Progres-
sive party, and. in convention in Chicago
on Aug. 7 following, nominated their
leader Tor President with Gov. Hiram
W. Johnson, of California, for Vice-
President. After his nomination he
made a vigorous campaign throughout
the country until Oct. 14, when he was
shot in the breast by an insane man
in Milwaukee. He was able, however,
to make a speech in New York on Oct.
30 following. In the election, he was
defeated by Gov. Woodrow Wilson.
Root, Elihu, an American states-
man; born in Clinton, N. Y., Feb. 15,
1845; was graduated at Hamilton
College in 1864, and after teaching
for a while entered the New York
University Law School and was grad-
uated in 1867. On Aug. 1, 1899, he
was appointed Secretary of War by
President McKinley, and on March
5, 1901, was reappointed. After the
Spanish-American War, Secretary
Root represented the United States
government in all official communica-
tions with Cuba, Porto Rico, and the
Philippine Islands. He was Secre-
tary of War in 1899-1904; Secretary
of State in 1905-1909; elected United
States Senator for the term of 1909-
1915; chief counsel for the United
States before the Permanent Arbi-
tration Court in 1910.
Root, George Frederick, an
American musician and song-writer;
born in Sheffield, Mass., Aug. 30,
1820. He was the author of a large
number of popular and patriotic
songs. He died Aug. 6, 1895.
Rope, a large, stout, twisted cord
of hemp, of not less, generally, than an
inch in circumference. A certain pro-
portion of hemp twisted together
forms a yarn, and a number of yarns
form a strand. Three strands twisted
together form a rope. Other materials
besides hemp are used in the manufac-
ture of rope, but to a smaller extent.
Coir rope, which comes from Ceylon
and the Maldive Islands, is made from
the fibrous husk of the cocoanut. Ma-
nila rope from the fibers of a species
of wild banana. Wire rope, both iron
and steel, is also employed ; on ship-
board, particularly, to a considerable
extent.
Ropes
Ropes, John Codman, an Ameri-
can historian ; born in St. Petersburg,
Russia, April 28, 1836; was graduat-
ed at Harvard in 1857; studied at the
Harvard law school, and was admitted
to the bar in 1861. Largely through
his influence the United States gov-
ernment began the collection and pres-
ervation of information relating to
the Civil War, and he organized the
Military Historical Society of Massa-
chusetts. Besides contributions to
this society and to periodicals he
wrote : " The Army under Pope "
(1881); "The First Napoleon"
(1885); "The Campaign of Water-
loo"; "Atlas of Waterloo"; and
" The story of the Civil War." Died
in Boston, Mass., Oct. 28, 1899.
Roquette, Adrien Emmanuel,
an American poet ; born in New Or-
leans, La., Feb. 13, 1813. He wrote
with equal ease and grace in English
and French. He died in New Orleans,
July 15, 1887.
Roraima, a celebrated mountain in
South America, where the boundaries
of British Guiana, Venezuela and
Brazil meet, 7,800 feet high, flat-
topped, with steep, rocky sides, ren-
dering the summit almost inaccessible.
More than one explorer has succeed-
ed, however, in reaching the top.
Rorqual, the name given to certain
whales, closely allied to the common
or whalebone whales, but distinguished
by having a dorsal fin, with the throat
and under parts wrinkled with deep
longitudinal folds, which are supposed
to be susceptible of great dilatations,
the use of which is as yet unknown.
Two or three species are known, but
they are rather avoided on account of
their ferocity, the shortness and
coarseness of their baleen or whale-
bone, and the small quantity of oil
they produce. The N. rorqual attains
a great size, being found from 80 to
over 100 feet in length, and is thus the
largest living animal known. The ror-
qual feeds on cod, herring, pilchards,
and other fish, in pursuing which it is
not seldom stranded on the shore.
Rosa, Carl August Nicholas,
originally Rose, a German opera man-
ager and violinist ; born in Hamburg,
Germany, March 22, 1842. He came
to the United States, where during a
concert tour be met and married (in
Rosary Sunday
New York, in February, 1867) Mme.
Parepa ; formed an opera company, in-
cluding Mme. Parepa-Rosa, Wachtel,
Santley, Ronconi, and Formes, travel-
ing as far as California. After hia
wife's death (1874), he organized in
London an English opera company
with which he produced nearly a score
of popular operas not previously given
in English. He died in Paris, France,
April 30, 1889.
Rosa, Salvator, an Italian painter,
etcher and poet ; born near Naples,
Italy, June 20, 1615. In 1638 Rosa
settled in Rome, where he soon estab-
lished his reputation and rose to fame
and wealth. The bitterness of his sat-
ire, expressed both in his satirical
poems and in an allegorical painting
of the " Wheel of Fortune " rendered
his stay in Rome inadvisable. He
therefore accepted an invitation to
Florence (1642), where he remained
nearly nine years under the .protection
of the Medici. He finally returned to
Rome. Salvator Rosa delighted in ro-
mantic landscape, delineating scenes
of gloomy grandeur and bold magnifi-
cence. Rosa etched from his own works
with great skill. He died in Rome,
Italy, March 15, 1673.
Rosacese, roseworts ; an order of
plants, placed by Lindley under his
Rosal Alliance. The rosacese occur
chiefly in the temperate and cold parts
of the Northern Hemisphere ; when
they occur in the tropics it is general-
ly on high land. t
Rosary, in ordinary language, a
chaplet, a garland. Also, a bed of
roses ; a place where roses grow. In
comparative religion, a string of beads
by means of which account is kept of
the number of prayers uttered.
In the Roman Catholic Church :
(1) A form of prayer in which the
" Hail Mary " is recited 150 times in
honor of the virgin Mary. (2) The
beads on which any of the forms of
prayers are said.
Rosary Sunday, the first Sunday
in October ; a feast instituted by Greg-
ory XIII. for the Confraternity of the
Rosary, and made of universal observ-
ance after the victory of Emperor
Charles VI. over the Turks, in grati-
tude to the Blessed Virgin. An im-
petus has been given to the devotion
of the rosary by Leo XIII., who en-
Rose
joined its daily use in public during
October. Roses are blessed and dis-
tributed as souvenirs, and the rosary
is recited continually during the day.
Rose, the beautiful and fragrant
flower which has given name to the
large natural order Rosaceae, which
seems to be confined to the cooler parts
of the Northern Hemisphere. The
species are numerous and are extreme-
ly difficult to distinguish. They are
prickly shrubs, with pinnate leaves,
provided with stipules at their base ;
the flowers are very large and showy.
The rose is easily cultivated, and its
varieties are almost endless.
_ The American Beauty rose had its
birth in an almost neglected corner
of the Washington garden of the late
George Bancroft. Amid a tangle of
roses of common varieties suddenly
blossomed this new and wonderful
rose. Slips were at once experimented
with. At first they were grown out
of doors, but before long it was found
that hothouse culture such as is given
to tea roses was best suited to the
splendid new rose. During the com-
paratively few years of its existence
the American Beauty has been stead-
ily improved in size and fragrance.
Rose Acacia, a highly ornamental
flowering shrub inhabiting the S. parts
of the Alleghany Mountains, and now
frequently seen in gardens in Europe.
It is a species of locust ; the flowers
are large, rose-colored, and inodorous ;
the pods are glandular-hispid.
Rosebery, Archibald Philip
Primrose, 5th. Earl of, an En-
glish statesman ; born May 7, 1847 ;
was educated at Eton and Oxford, and
succeeded his grandfather in 1868. He
is an advanced Liberal in politics,
and a ready and effective speaker. He
was under-secretary at the home office,
1881-1883; lord privy seal and first
commissioner of works, 1885 ; next
year held the secretaryship of foreign
affairs till the fall of the Gladstone
government ; was secretary of foreign
affairs again in 1892-1894 ; prime
minister, 1894-1895. In 1878 he was
elected lord-rector of Aberdeen Univer-
sity ; in 1881 of Edinburgh University.
In 1899 of Glasgow University. In
1889 he became a member of the Lon-
don County Council, and was appoint-
ed chairman of that body. The Uni-
versity of Cambridge conferred the de-
Rosecrans
gree of LL. D. on him in 1888. He
advocated the reform of the House of
Lords, and was much interested in
the questions of imperial federation
and the social conditions of the masses.
In 1878 he married Hannah, daughter
of Baron Mayer de Rothschild; she
died in 1890. When Mr. Gladstone
succeeded to power Lord Rosebery be-
came Secretary of Foreign Affairs,
and in October of the same year
(1892) he was made a Knight of the
Garter. On the resignation of Mr.
Gladstone in March, 1894, the queen
offered the post of prime minister to
Lord Rosebery and he carried on the
government with no little success till
July, 1895. He then urged on his
supporters that the general election
should be fought on the question of the
predominance of the House of Lords.
During 1896 his attitude on the Ar-
menian question differed from that of
Mr. Gladstone, and finally he decided
on resigning the leadership of the par-
ty in order to have for himself an abso-
lutely free hand on this question. His
view was that Great Britain should
not be hurried into an intervention
in the Armenian question, which
would lead to the risk of a European
war. In 1898 Lord Rosebery, from
his place in the House of Peers, paid
a noble and eloquent tribute to the
life and public services of Mr. Glad-
stone, and later on spoke in the coun-
try in support of the attitude taken
up by Lord Salisbury on the Fashoda
situation. Lord Rosebery keeps an ex-
cellent racing stud, and both in 1894
and 1895 he won the Derby.
Rose Chafer (Cetonia aurata), an
injurious beetle, whose grubs destroy
the roots of strawberries and other
plants, while the adults spoil the
flowers of roses, strawberries, and
seed turnips. The adults, which are
well able to fly from place to place,
measure about an inch in length, are
golden green above, coppery with a
tint of rose beneath. The " rose-
bug " of the Eastern United States is
another beetle, a voracious pest which
often appears in immense numbers
and destroys the flowers of rosaceous
plants.
Rosecrans, "William Starke, an
Amerjcan military officer ; born in
Kingston, O., Sept. 6, 1819. He grad-
uated at the United States Military
Rosemary
Academy in 1842, and entered the
army as brevet 2d lieutenant of en-
gineers, but after serving for a year
at Hampton Roads returned to West
Point as assistant Professor of En-
gineering. In 1847 he again entered
active service, but resigned in 1854
to become a consulting engineer and
architect in Cincinnati, O. He began
his career in the Civil War by organ-
izing and drilling the Home Guard
in Ohio ; and in June, 1861, was
placed in charge of Camp Chase. He
was made colonel of the 23d Ohio Vol-
unteers soon afterward, and in a
short time was appointed a Brigadier-
General. In May, 1862, he command-
ed the right wing of the Army of the
Mississippi during the siege of Cor-
inth ; and on June 11, 1862, succeed-
ed General Halleck in the command
of that a-rmy. On Oct. 26, 1862, he
relieved General Buell of the com-
mand of the Army of the Cumberland,
and on Oct. 30, began his memorable
march to Nashville, Tenn. Owing to
his defeat at Chickamauga in Sep-
tember of the following year he was
superseded in command by General
Thomas and assigned to the Depart-
ment of Missouri. He was deprived
ROSE CHAFER.
a, larva; b, cocoon.
of his command Dec. 9, 1864, where-
upon he retired to Cincinnati, where
he remained inactive till the close of
the war. In 1868^ he was appointed
United States minfster to Mexico ; in
1880 and 1882 was elected to- Con-
gress; and in June, 1885, was ap-
pointed register of the United States
Roses
Treasury. An act passed in 1898 re-
stored him to the rank of Brigadier-
General in the army and placed him
on the retired list. He died near Re-
dondo, Cal., March 11, 1898.
Rosemary, the Rosmarinus offici-
nalis, a native of the S. of Europe
and Asia Minor, and cultivated in In-
dia, etc. ; a very fragrant labu.te
ROSEMARY.
plant with a white or pale-blue co-
rolla. The leaves are sessile and gray
with edges rolled round below. It
is sometimes made into garlands.
Rosenkranz, Joliann Karl
Friedrich, a German philosopher ;
born 'in Magdeburg, Prussia, April 23,
1805. He was the best representa-
tive of the " center " of Hegel's
school, and spent much time in rear-
ranging and reclassifying the system.
His principal works, nearly all of
which have received English versions,
are : " Psychology, or the Science of
Subjective Mind " ; " Critical Expla-
nations of Hegel's System " ; " Auto-
biography " ; " The History of Litera-
ture." He died in Konigsberg, Prus-
sia, June 14, 1879.
Roses, Wars of the, a disastrous
dynastic struggle which desolated En-
gland during the 15th century, from
the first battle of St. Albans (1455)
Rosetta Stone
Rosicruciaiis
to that of Bosworth (1485). It was
so called because the two factions into
which the country was divided upheld
the two several claims to the throne
of the Houses of York and Lancaster,
whose badges were the white and the
red rose respectively. It did for En-
gland what the French Revolution did
three centuries later for France in
virtually wiping out the old nobility.
EOSETTA STONE.
Rosetta Stone, the name given to
a stone found near the Rosetta mouth
of the Nile by a French engineer in
1798. It is a tablet of basalt, with
an inscription of the year 136 B. c..
during the reign of Ptolemy Epiph-
anes. The inscription is in hiero-
glyphic, in demotic, and in Greek. It
was deciphered by Dr. Young, and
formed the key to the reading of the
hieroglyphic characters. It was cap-
tured by the English on the defeat of
the French forces in Egypt, and is
now kept in the British Museum.
Rose Window, a circular window,
divided into compartments by mul-
lions and tracery radiating from a
center, also called Catharine wheel
and marigold window according to
modifications of the design. It forms
a fine feature of the church architect-
ure of the 13th and 14th centuries.
Rose-wood, a valuable wooa, the
best of which comes from Brazil. Two
kinds, or two qualities, are known in
commerce. These much resemble each
other, the one, which is usually rather
the better figured of the two, coming
from Rio de Janeiro, and the other
from Bahia. The South American and
Indian kinds are all hard and durable
and take a fine polish. They are in
every way excellent furniture woods,
the Brazilian kinds being only more
valuable because they are more beau-
tifully figured. The Indian rosewood
is often elaborately carved by native
workmen, and for this purpose it is
well suited. An inferior kind of rose-
wood is brought from Honduras. The
name is said to have been given be-
cause of a striking rose-like odor that
the wood gives out when freshly cut.
Rosicrucians, a mystic secret
society which became known to the
public early in the 17th century, and
was alleged to have been founded by
a German noble called Christian Ros-
enkreuz, A. n. 1388. He was said to
have died at the age of 106. The so-
ciety consisted of adepts, who perpet-
uated it by initiating other adepts.
The Rosicrucians pretended to be able
to transmute metals, to prolong life,
BOSE WINDOW.
and to know what was passing in dis-
tant places. Many contradictory hy-
potheses have been brought forward
regarding the Rosicrucians, and as it is
admitted that their secret was never
revealed, it is open to doubt if there
was one to reveal. They are said to
have died out in the 18th century.
Bosini
Rosso
Bosini, Giovanni, an Italian lit-
terateur ; born in Lucignano, Tuscany,
Italy, June 24, 1776. His poem en-
titled " The Marriage of Jupiter and
Latona " (1810) written on the oc-
casion of the marriage of Napoleon
with Maria Louisa, was awarded an
imperial prize of $2,000. He was the
author of many works of prose and
poetry. He died May 1G, 1855.
Bosmini, Antonio Bosmini-
Serbati, an Italian philosopher;
born of noble family at Roveredo in
the Italian Tyrol, March 25, 1797. He
entered the priesthood and founded the
charitable order of Rosminians which
has branches in America, Italy,
France, and Britain. He is regarded
as the founder of modern Idealism in
Italy. The chief points of his system
are fully treated in his " New Essay
on the Origin of Ideas," translated
into English (1883). He was a most
voluminous writer on religious and
military subjects, as well as on philos-
ophy. Died in Milan, Italy, 1827.
Boss, " Charlie," the victim of a
case of kidnapping, niaiiy years ago,
which has not yet lost interest. On
July 3, 1874, Charles Ross, son of
Christian K. Ross, and aged about
four years, while playing near his
home in the suburbs of Philadelphia,
was carried away by two men. The
abductors, in newspaper advertise-
ments, demanded $20,000 for his re-
turn. Owing to the efforts of the po-
lice to capture them the boy was never
returned, although the father raised
the $20,000, and sought to exchange
it for the boy. His captors are sup-
posed to have been two men, William
Mosber and William Douglas, who
were afterward killed while robbing a
house on Long Island, and it is be-
lieved the boy died of neglect on a
sloop in Newark Bay, on which they
held him prisoner.
Boss, Clinton, an American novel-
ist ; born in Binghamton, N. Y., July
31, 1861; graduated at Yale in 1884.
He has written: "The Silent Work-
man " ; " Heroes of Our War With
Spain " ; " Bobbie McDuff," etc.
Boss, Sir James Clark, an En-
glish Arctic and Antarctic explorer ;
born in London, England, April 15,
1800. He entered the British navy
at the age of 12, accompanied his un-
cle, Sir John Ross, on his two voy-
ages in search of a N. W. passage,
and in the interval between them ac-
companied Capt. William Parry in
his three Arctic voyages. He waa
promoted to the rank of post-captain
in 1834, particularly for the discovery
of the North magnetic pole in 1831.
He commanded the expedition in the
" Erebus " and " Terror " to the Ant-
arctic Ocean in 1839-1843; and on
his return published a narrative of
that voyage, which had contributed
largely to geographical and scientific
knowledge generally. Captain Rosa
was knighted for his services, and re-
ceived numerous other honors. In
1848 he made a voyage in the " Enter-
prise " to Baffin Bay in search of Sir
John Franklin. He died in Aylesbury,
England, April 3, 1862.
Boss, Sir John, an English Arctic
navigator ; born in Inch, Wigtown-
shire, Scotland, June 24, 1777. In
1817 he accepted the command of an
admiralty expedition to search for a
N. W. passage but was unsuccessful.
His next expedition, in the steamer
" Victory," set out in May, 1829. Ross
entered Prince Regent Inlet and dis-
covered and named Boothia Felix and
King William Land. In 1832 he was
forced to abandon his ships, and he
and his crew suffered great hardships
before they were picked up in Au-
gust, 1833, by his old ship, the " Isa-
bella." In 1834 Captain Ross was
knighted, and in the following year
published a narrative of his second
voyage. From 1839 till 1845 he was
consul at Stockholm. In 1850 he made
a last Arctic voyage in the " Felix,"
in a vain endeavor to ascertain the
fate of Sir John Franklin. He died
in London, England, Aug. 30, 1856.
Boss, Man of. See KYKLE.
Bosse, William Parsons, 3d
Earl of, an English astronomer;
born in York, England, June 17,
1800. In 1827 he constructed a tele-
scope, the speculum of which had a
diameter of three feet, and the success
and scientific value of this instrument
induced him to attempt to cast a
speculum twice as large. After in-
numerable difficulties, and many fail-
ures, Lord Rosse succeeded in 1845
in perfecting machinery which turned
out the huge speculum, weighing three
tons, without warp or flaw. It was
Rossetti
then mounted in his park at Parsons-
town, at a cost of $150,000 on a tele-
scope 54 feet in length with a tube
7 f eet ir diameter. A series of cranks,
swivels, and pulleys enables this huge
instrument to be handled almost with
as much ease as telescopes of ordinary
size. The sphere of observation was
immensely widened by Lord Rosse's
instrument, which has been chiefly
used in observations of nebulae. He
died Oct. 31, 1867.
Rossetti, Gabriele, an Italian
poet and critic ; born in Vasto, Ab-
ruzzo Citeriore, then forming part
of the kingdom of Naples, Feb. 28,
1783. When King Ferdinand abro-
gated the constitution in 1821, the
Constitutionalists were proscribed
and persecuted, Rossetti among them.
Rossetti made his escape from Naples
with the kindly connivance of the Brit-
ish admiral, Sir Graham Moore, who
shipped him off to Malta in the dis-
guise of a British naval officer. In
Malta he was treated with great lib-
erality and distinction by the gover-
nor, and toward 1824 he went to Lon-
don, with good recommendations, to
follow the career of teacher of Ital-
ian, and follow his favorite studies.
In 1826 he married Frances Mary
Lavinia Polidori, daughter of a Tus-
can father and English mother ; soon
afterward he was elected Professor of
Italian in King's College, London. In
London Rossetti lived a studious, la-
borious, and honorable life, greatly re-
spected by his pupils and by Italian
residents and visitors. His health be-
gan to fail in 1842, and his sight be-
came dim, one eye being wholly lost.
After some attacks of a paralytic
character he died in London, April 26,
1854. His son, Gabriel Charles Dante
Rossetti, born May 12, 1828, died
April 9, 1882, gained high reputation
as pcet and painter, and his daughter,
Christina Georgina, born in 1830,
also wrote poetry of a high order.
Rossini, Gioaccliino Antonio,
one of the most popular, and perhaps
the greatest Italian composer of
operas ; born in Pesaro, Italy, Feb.
29, 1792. He produced some light
operatic pieces ; the only one of his
juvenile efforts that has lived is the
" Lucky Trick," which came out in
1812. "Tancred," brought out at
Venice in 1813, when he was scarce-
Roster
ly more than 20 years of age, all at
once made his name famous. Thus
encouraged, Rossini produced a num-
ber of other works in quick succession,
generally inferior to the work which
brought him into popularity. In 1816
he produced his world-famous " Barber
of Seville " at Rome. Among Rossini's
other works which still keep the stage
are : " Othello," " Moses in Egypt,"
" The Lady of the Lake," " Count
Ory," and " William Tell." This last,
the greatest and most original of his
works, was written at the age of 37,
and with it closed the career of Ros-
sini as a composer. He died in his
villa in Passy, near Paris, Nov. 13.
1868.
Rossiter, Thomas Pritcnard, an
American artist ; born in New Haven,
Conn., Sept. 29, 1817. He studied in
Rome in 1840-1846, and on his re-
turn opened a studio in New York
city. He became an Academician in
1849. In 1860 he removed to Cold
Spring, N. Y., where he resided till
his death. He devoted himself to his-
torical and scriptural subjects. He
had admirable taste in coloring. He
died in Cold Spring, N. Y., May 17,
1871.
Rostand, Edmond, a French poet ;
born in Marseilles, France, in 1868 ;
was educated in Paris; and in 1894
his first play " The Romanticists "
was produced at the Comedie Fran-
caise. It was an instantaneous suc-
cess and was followed by " Princess
Lontaine " ; " The Samaritan " ; " Cy-
rano de Bergerac " ; and " L'Aiglon."
The last two were translated into En-
glish and played in the United States
by Richard Mansfield and Maude
Adams ; and in 1901 Coquelin and
Sarah Bernhardt, the leading French
actor and actress, presented the orig-
inal versions in the United States.
Rostand's versification is of remark-
able beauty. On May 30, 1901, he
was elected one o s ' che 40 "immortals."
In 1910 " Chpiiteoler," another f his
plays, was produced with great success.
Roster, in military language, a
term implying the seniority list from
which officers are detailed for duty in
regular succession ; hence, occasional-
ly, a list showing the turn or rotation
of service or duty, as in the case of
military officers and others who re
lieve or succeed each other.
Rostrum
Rotifera
Rostrum, plural Rostra, a scaf-
fold or elevated platform in the Fo-
rum at Rome, from which public ora-
tions, pleadings, funeral harangues,
etc., were delivered ; so called from the
rostra or beaks of ships with which it
was ornamented. Also a pulpit, plat-
form, or elevated place from which
a speaker, as a preacher, an auction-
eer, etc., addresses his audience.
Rota Romana, the highest ecclesi-
astical court of appeal for all Chris-
tendom during the supremacy of the
Popes. With the dwindling temporal
power of the Popes it gradually lost
all authority in foreign countries.
Rotation, in astronomy, the turn-
ing round of a planet on its imaginary
axis, like that of a wheel on its axle.
The rotation of the earth is per-
formed with a uniform motion from
W. to E. and occupies the interval
in time which would elapse between
the departure of a star from a cer-
tain point in the sky and its return
to the same point again. The only
motions which interfere with its regu-
larity are the precession of the equi-
noxes and nutation. The time taken
for the rotation of the earth measures
the length of its day. So with the
other planets. The sun also rotates
as is shown by the movement of spots
across its disk.
Rotation of Crops, the cultiva-
tion of a different kind of crop each
year, for a certain period, to prevent
the exhaustion of the soil. If a plant
requiring specially alkaline nutriment
be planted year after year in the same
field or bed, it will ultimately ex-
haust all the alkalies in the soil and
then languish. But if a plant be
substituted in large measure requir-
ing siliceous elements for its growth,
it can flourish where its alkaline
predecessor is starved. Meanwhile the
action of the atmosphere is continu-
ally reducing to a soluble condition
small quantities of soil, thus restoring
the lost alkalies.
Rothschild (red shield), the name
of a Jewish family of European bank-
ers and capitalists, the enormousness
of whose aggregate wealth has passed
into a proverb. The founder of this
race of financiers, Meyer Anselm
Rothschild, born at Frankfort-on-the-
Main in 1743, died there in 1812, aft-
er having accumulated the most gigan-
tic fortune ever possessed by a single
individual up to his day. Commenc-
ing the world as a small trader, he,
by his probity, frugality, and superior
business qualifications, eventually be-
came the banker of monarchs and the
creditor of states. Of the five sons
who succeeded to the vast inheritance
he bequeathed them, the eldest, An-
selm (born 1773, died 1855), was his
father's partner and successor at'
Frankfort. The second, Solomon
(born 1774, died 1855), became estab-
lished as the representative of the
house of Rothschild at Vienna. The
third, Nathan Meyer, (born 1774,
died 1836), settled as the Lon-
don partner, and became the lead-
ing member and ablest financier of
the family. The fourth, Charles
(born 1788, died 1855), filled the rep-
resentation of the firm at Vienna.
Lastly, James (born 1792, died 1869),
eventually took up his residence in
Paris, where he died, leaving a for-
tune estimated at $200,000,000. With-
in a period of less than 12 years the
Rothschilds advanced in loans as fol-
lows : to England, $200,000,000; Aus-
tria, $50,000,000; Prussia, $40,000,-
000; France, $80,000,000; Naples,
$50,000,000 ; Russia, $25,000,000 ;
Brazil, $12,000,000; besides some $5,-
000,000 to smaller States; or, alto-
gether, the almost incredible amount of
$462,000,000. The colossal financier-
ing operations of the house are now
conducted by descendants of the above-
mentioned brothers, and the firm has
banking houses and representatives in
the leading cities of the civilized world.
Rotifera, in zoology, wheel-ani-
malcules ; a group of Aletazoa. They
are microscopic animals, contractile,
crowned with vibratile cilia at the an-
terior part of the body, which, by
their motion, often resemble a w_heel
revolving rapidly. Intestine distinct,
terminated at one extremity by a
mouth, at the other by an anus ; gen-
eration oviparous, sometimes vivipar-
ous. The nervous system is represent-
ed by a relatively large single gan-
glion, with one or two eye-spots, on
one side of the body, near the mouth,
and there are organs which appear to
be sensory. They are free or adher-
ent, but never absolutely fixed
animals.
Rotterdam
Round
Rotterdam, the chief port and
second city of Holland ; on the Nieuwe
Maas or Meuse, at its junction with
the Rotte ; about 14 miles from the
North Sea, with which it is also di-
rectly connected by a ship canal
(Nieuwe Waterweg) admitting the
largest vessels and not interrupted
by a single lock. The town is inter-
sected by numerous canals, which per-
mit large vessels to moor alongside the
warehouses in the very center of the
city. These canals, which are crossed
by innumerable drawbridges and
swing bridges, are in many cases lined
with rows of trees ; and the hand-
some quay on the river front, 1*4
miles long, is known as the Boompjes
("little trees"), from a row of elms
planted in 1615 and now of great
size. Many of the houses are quaint
edifices, having their gables to the
street, with overhanging upper stories.
Rotterdam contains shipbuilding
yards, sugar refineries, distilleries, to-
bacco factories, and large machine
works ; but its mainstay is commerce.
It not only carries on a very exten-
sive and active trade with Great Brit-
ain, the Dutch East and West Indies,
and other transoceanic countries, but,
as the natural outlet for the entire
basin of the Rhine and Meuse, it has
developed an important commerce with
Germany, Switzerland, and Central
Europe. Rotterdam received town
rights in 1340, and in 1573 it ob-
tained a vote in the Estates of the
Netherlands ; but its modern prosper-
ity has been chiefly developed since
1830. Pop. 309,309.
Rouble, the unit of the Russian
money system. The present' silver rou-
ble is equivalent to about 80% cents
in United States gold.
Rouen, a city of France, capital of
the department of Seine-Inferieure,
and formerly of the province of Nor-
mandy, on the Seine, 44 miles from
its mouth, and 67 N. W. of Paris. It
is situate on the right bank of the
Seine, in a fertile, pleasant, and varied
country. The streets, though in gen-
eral straight, are narrow and dirty,
and some of the houses are of wood.
The most agreeable part of the town
is that which adjoins the Seine. The
public buildings of interest are, the
cathedral, containing many old monu-
ments, and one of the finest specimens
of Gothic architecture in France ; the
Church of St. Ouen, likewise a fine
Gothic building, situate nearly in the
center of the town ; and that of St.
Maclpu, considered a masterpiece of
its kind. Manufactures, cotton goods,
woolens, linens, iron ware, paper,
hats, pottery, wax, cloth, and sugar re-
fining. Dyeing, both of woolens and
cotton, is also conducted with care
and success. Pop. 113,219.
Rouge, in ordinary language, a cos-
metic prepared from dried flowers and
used to impart artificial bloom to the
cheeks or lips.
Rouge et Noir (French, " red and
black"), Trente-un ("31"), or
Trente et Quarante ("30 and 40"),
a modern game of chance, played by
the aid of packs of cards on a table
covered with green cloth. This game
superseded faro and biribi in France
about 1789, but along with roulette
was forbidden by law in 1838.
Rough Riders, a name coined by
William F. Cody ("Buffalo Bill"),
for use in his " Wild West " show,
which included a " Congress of the
rough riders of the world." The first
rough riders were the men who car-
ried messages over the West in the
early frontier times before the pony
express was organized in 1859. In
the army the original rough riders
were the 1st Regiment of United
States Volunteer Cavalry, organized
for the war with Spain by Surgeon
Leonard Wood, who was commissioned
colonel, with Theodore Roosevelt as
lieutenant-colonel. The name was ap-
plied also to the 2d United' States
Volunteer Cavalry. The name was
given to these regiments on account of
their being composed largely of West-
ern ranchmen.
Roulette (French, "a little
wheel"), a game of chance which
from the end of the 18th century till
the beginning of 1838 reigned supreme
over all others in Paris. It continued
to be played at German watering
places till 1872, when it ceased in
terms of an act passed four years be-
fore. Roulette then found a home at
Monaco.
Round, in music, a short compj-
sition in which three or more voices
starting at the beginning of stated suc-
cessive phrases, sing the same music
Roundelay
in unison or octave (thus differing
from the canon).
Roundelay, a sort of ancient poem,
consisting of 13 verses, of which eight
are in one kind of rhyme and five in
another. It is divided into couplets, at
the commencement of the second or
third of which the beginning of the
poem is repeated, and that, if possible,
in an equivocal or punning sense. Also,
a song or tune in which the first strain
is repeated. Also, the tune to which
a roundelay was sung.
Rounders, a game played by two
parties or sides, somewhat similar to
baseball.
Roundhead, a term applied by the
Cavaliers or adherents of Charles L,
during the Civil War of 1642, to the
Puritans or adherents of the Parlia-
mentary party, from their wearing
their hair cut short, while the Cava-
liers allowed their hair to fall onto
their shoulders.
Round Robin, a name given to a
protest or remonstrance signed by a
number of persons In a circular form,
so that no one shall be obliged to head
the list.
Round Table, Knights of the.
According to tradition, there reigned
in Britain, toward the end of the 5th
century, a Christian king, the British
Uther-Pendragon, who had for a coun-
sellor a powerful, wise, and benevo-
lent enchanter, named Merlin, who ad-
vised him to assemble all his knights
distinguished for piety, courage, and
fidelity toward him, at feasts, about a
round table, which should be sufficient-
ly large to receive 50 knights, but at
which at first only 49 should be seat-
ed, room being left for one yet un-
born. This was Arthur, or Artus, son
of the king by Igerna, whom the king,
by the magic power of Merlin, was
permitted to enjoy under the form of
her husband. Merlin had exacted a
promise that the education of the
prince should be intrusted to him,
and he accordingly instructed him in
everything becoming a brave, virtuous,
and accomplished knight. Arthur in
due time occupied the empty seat at
the Round Table ; and under him it
became the resort of all valiant, pious,
and noble knights, admission to it be-
coming the reward of the greatest
virtues and feats of arms.
Rousseau
Rouqnette, Adrien, an American
Roman Catholic priest, poet, and mis-
sionary ; born in New Orleans, La., in
1813. He was educated in France ;
graduated in Philadelphia, and or-
dained a priest by Bishop Blanc. He
gave many years to missionary work
among the Choctaws of St. Tammany.
He was familiar with many tongues,
and contributed much to French,
American, and Italian literature. Sev-
eral volumes of his verses and two or
three prose collections were published
in French, and he was a frequent con-
tributor to the local press. He died in
1887.
Rousseau, Jean Jacques, a
Swiss-French philosopher, one of the
most celebrated and influential writ-
ers of the 18th century ; born in Ge-
neva, Switzerland, June 28, 1712. In
1741 he went to Paris, and in 1743
obtained the post of secretary to the
French ambassador at Venice. This
office he resigned, and returned to
Paris in 1745, to lead a precarious
life, copying music and studying sci-
ence. In 1750 his essay, in which he
adopted the negative side of the ques-
tion whether civilization has contrib-
uted to purify manners, won a prize
offered by the Academy of Dijon, and
brought him for the first time into
general notice. In 1752 he brought
out a successful operetta (the music
by himself ) , and soon after a celebrat-
ed " Letter on French Music."
In 1754 he revisited Geneva, but
later returned to Paris where he wrote
a sort of novel, " Julia, or the New
Heloise," which was published in
1760, being followed by "The Social
Contract," a political work, and
" Emile, or on Education," another
story, in 1762. The principles ex-
pressed in these works stirred up
much animosity against their author.
The confession of faith of the Savoyard
vicar in Emile was declared a danger-
ous attack on religion, and the book
was burned both in Paris and Geneva.
Persecution, exaggerated by his own
morbid sensibility, forced Rousseau to
flee to England, where he was wel-
comed by Hume, Boswell, and others
in 1766. A malicious letter by Hor-
ace Walpole unluckily aroused his sus-
picions of his English friends, and in,
May, 1767, he returned to France,
where his presence was now tolerated.
Rove Beetles
Rowland
He lived in great poverty, supporting
himself by copying music and pub-
lishing occasional works. In May,
1778, he retired to Ermenonville near
Paris. His celebrated " Confessions "
appeared at Geneva in 1782. His
works contain the germ of the doc-
trines which were carried into effect
during the French Revolution. Rous-
seau was also a musical author and
critic. He died in Ermenonville July
2, 1778, it is supposed a suicide.
Ronvier, Pierre Maurice,
French Prime Minister : born at Aix,
1842. He became a lawyer, opposed
Napoleon III. ; supported Gambetta ;
was elected deputy 1876 ; was min-
ister of commerce and the colonies
1881-82: under Ferry 1884-85: min-
ister of finances 1887-1892, 1894-1902;
senator 1903 : Prime Minister, 1905.
Rowan, Andrew Summers, an
American army officer ; born in Gap
Mills, Va. ; was graduated at the
United States Military Academy in
1881, and first came into prominence
in 1898, when he was sent to com-
municate with General Garcia, after
the declaration of the Spanish-Ameri-
can War. He landed from an open
boat near Turquino Peak, Cuba, on
April 24, 1898; marched through
swamps and underbrush to the moun-
tains, reached General Garcia, and
successfully executed his mission,
bringing back full information as to
the insurgent army. For this act he
was promoted to the rank of 1st lieu-
tenant, U. S. A. After the war he
was assigned to duty in the Philip-
pine Islands.
Rowan, Stephen Clegg, an
American naval officer ; born near
Dublin, Ireland, Dec. 25, 1808; came
to the United States when a boy, and
on Feb. 1, 1826, was appointed a mid-
shipman in the navy. He was promoted
lieutenant, March 8, 1837; took part
in the capture of Monterey and San
Diego in the Mexican War, and, as
executive officer of the " Cyane," in
the bombardment of Guaymas. In the
battle of the Niesa, Upper California,
he commanded the naval battalion un-
der Commodore Stockton, and was es-
pecially commended for his skill in
leading the landing party that made
a successful attack on a Mexican out-
post near Mazatlan. He was promot-1
ed commander Sept. 14, 1855. At the I
outbreak of the Civil War he was on
the " Pawnee," with which he en-
gaged the Confederate battery at
Acquia Creek on May 25, 1861 ; this
being the first naval action of the war.
He was promoted both captain and
commodore, July 16, 1862, for gal-
lantry in the Goldsborough expedition
to North Carolina, and the engage-
ments on Roanoke Island and Albe-
marle Sound. He forced the surren-
der of the forts at Newbern, N. C.,
and by the capture of Fort Mason re-
stored National authority in the wa-
ters of North Carolina. He command-
ed the " New Ironsides " in the en-
gagements with Forts Wagner, Gregg,
and Moultrie ; received a vote of
thanks from Congress ; and was pro-
moted rear-admiral, July 25, 1866.
After the close of the war Rear-Ad-
miral Rowan was appointed to vari-
ous executive offices ; was promoted
vice-admiral Aug. 15, 1870 ; and was
chairman of the Lighthouse Board at
the time of his retirement, Feb. 26,
1889. He died in Washington, D. C.,
March 31, 1890.
Rowe, Nicholas, an English dra-
matic poet; born in 1673. He was a
king's scholar at Westminster ; stud-
ied law at the Middle Temple, but de-
voted himself to literature. He filled
several lucrative posts, and in 1715
became poet-laureate in succession to
Nahum Tate. Rowe's tragedies are
passionate and forcible in language,
and his plots well conceived. Died in
1718, was buried in Westminster Ab-
bey. His translation of " Lucan's
Pharsalia," appeared after his death.
Rowing, the propulsion of a boat
by oars. The oarsman sits with his
face to the stern of the boat, his feet
planted flush against his " stretcher "
or footboard, and the handle of the
oar in his hands, the loom of the oar
resting in the rowlock, the " button "
being inside the thowl-pin.
Rowland, Henry Augustus, an
American scientist ; born in Hones-
dale, Pa., Nov. 27, 1848 ; was graduat-
ed at the Rensselaer Polytechnic In-
stitute in 1870 ; was made Professor
of Physics at Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity in 1876. He was a member of
the Electrical Congress in Paris in
1881; served on the jury of the Elec-
trical Exhibition held there that year,
and was the inventor of a process of
Rowson
Royal Institution
ruling large diffraction gratings di-
rectly on concave mirrors. He was
made president of the American Phys-
ical Society in 1889, and received
honorary degrees from Yale Univer-
sity, in 1895, and from Princeton Uni-
versity in 1896. He died in, Balti-
more, Md., April 16, 190L
POSITIONS IN BOWING.
1, entering the water; 2, end of the stroke;
3. positions of the wrists in feathering
the oar.
Rowson, Susanna, an English-
American novelist; born in Ports-
mouth, England in 1762. She ap-
peared on the American stage for
about a year; after which she settled
in Boston, opening a school and turn-
ing her attention to literary pursuits.
She wrote " Charlotte Temple : A Tale
of Truth," and its sequel " Lucy Tem-
ple ; or the Three Orphans." She died
in Boston, Mass., Mar. 2, 1824.
Royal Academy. See ACADEMY
OF ARTS.
Royal Arcanum. See FRATERNAL
SOCIETIES.
Royal Family of England, the
wife or husband, children or other de-
scendants, and collateral relatives of
the sovereign. The husband of a
reigning queen does not acquire any
share in her prerogative rights, but it
is usual to grant him special prece-
dence ; King Philip and William III.
were associated in title and power
with their wives by act of Parliament.
Of the sovereign's children, the eldest
son is, of course, heir-apparent; he
is born Duke of Cornwall, and he is
always created Prince of Wales. The
Prince and Princess of Wales and the
Princess Royal (the eldest daughter
of the sovereign) are within the pro-
tection of the statute of Edward III.
relating to treason. An heir-presump-
tive to the throne has no special rank
or precedence as such. The younger
children of the sovereign take rank
after the heir-apparent; by a statute
of 1540 a place is assigned to them at
the side of the cloth of estate in the
Parliamentary chamber ; it is custom-
ary to confer peerages on all the
younger sons. On a reference by
George II. to the House of Lords it
was held that Edward, Duke of York,
second son of the Prince of Wales,
was entitled to a place among the
king's children. Members of the royal
family enjoy considerable privileges ;
they pay no tolls or duties, and they
are exempted from succession duty
and some other taxes.
Royal Household, those persons
who hold posts in connection with the
household of the British sovereign, in-
cluding the keeper of the privy-purse
and private secretary, lord-steward,
treasurer, comptroller, master of the
household, lord chamberlain, vice-
chamberlain, master of the horse, cap-
tains of the gentlemen-at-arms and
yeomen of the guard, master of the
buck-hounds, earl-marshal, grand fal-
coner, lord high almoner, hereditary
grand almoner, mistress of the robes,
ladies of the bedchamber, bedchamber-
women, maids of honor, lords-in-wait-
ing, master of ceremonies, physicians
in ordinary, poet laureate, etc.
Royal Institution, an institution
founded in London, England, by Count
Royal Marriage Act
Royal University
Ruinford, Sir Joseph Banks, etc.,
March 9, 1799, and incorporated Jan.
13, 1800. It was reconstituted hi 1810.
The well-known objects are to diffuse
knowledge, to facilitate the general in-
troduction of mechanical inventions,
and teach by lectures and experiments
the application of science to the com-
mon purposes of life. It has, as a rule,
had for its lecturers some of the first
scientific men of the age ; e. g., Thomas
Young, Davy, Brande, Faraday, Tyn-
dall, Frankland, and Rayleigh. It
maintains professors of natural philos-
ophy, chemistry and physiology, and
has laboratories (including since 1896
the Davy-Faraday research laboratory
presented by Dr. Ludway Mond).
Royal Marriage Act, an act of
George III. passed by the British Par-
liament in 1772, which forbids all de-
scendants of George II., other than
the issue of princesses married into
foreign families, to contract marriage
without the consent of the sovereign,
signified under the great seal. But
such descendants, if above the age of
25, may dispense with the consent of
the crown, unless both Houses of Par-
liament expressly declare their dis-
approval within 12 months after no-
tice of the intended marriage has been
given to the privy council. Marriages
otherwise entered into are void.
Royal Observatory, Greenwich,
the famous English observatory found-
ed by Charles II. in 1675. The first
observation was made Sept. 19, 1675.
The Director of the Observatory is
styled the Astronomer Royal, and is
under the official control of the Ad-
miralty, but receives his appointment
directly from the Prime Minister, and
holds office by warrant under the royal
sign manual. Longitude is commonly
reckoned from here.
Royal Society (London), a so-
ciety for prosecuting research in gen-
eral and physico-mathematical science
in particular, founded in 1660.
Many of the most important scien-
tific achievements and discoveries have
been due to its enlightened methods.
It deservedly enjoys an influential aad
semi-official position as the scientific
adviser of the British government, and
not only administers the $20.000 an-
nually voted by Parliament for scien-
tific purposes, but has given sugges-
tions and advice which have borne
E. 129.
valuable fruit, from the voyage of
Captain Cook in the ." Endeavor " in
1768 down to the " Challenger " expe-
dition, more than a century later. The
roll of the Royal Society contains
practically all the great scientific
names of its country since its founda-
tion.
Royal Society (Edinburgh), a
Scotch society of a similar type to the
English institution, which was incor-
porated in 1783, having been devel-
oped from the Philosophical Society
of Edinburgh, commenced in 1739.
Among its early members were Hume,
Reid, Edmund Burke, Hutton, Du-
gald Stewart, and James Watt; and
among its presidents have been Sir
Walter Scott, Sir David Brewster, the
Duke of Argyll, Lord Moncrieff, and
Sir William Thomson.
Royal Society of Literature, a
society founded in England under the
patronage of George IV., in 1823, and
chartered in 1826. It awards gold
medals.
Royal University of Ireland,
an institution founded hi 1880 in pur-
suance of the provisions of the Uni-
versity Education (Ireland) Act,
1879, to take the place of the Queen's
University, a similar institution estab-
lished in connection with the Queen's
Colleges. The Royal University cor-
poration consists of a chancellor, a
senate, and graduates, the government
being vested in the chancellor and sen-
ators, the latter not to exceed 36 in
number. It has power to confer all
such degrees and distinctions as are
conferred by any university in the
United Kingdom except in theology,
and these may be bestowed on all
male and female students who have
matriculated in the university and
passed the prescribed examinations, no
residence in any college or attendance
at any course of instruction in the
university being obligatory on any
candidate for a degree other than a
degree in medicine or surgery, the
university in this respect resembling
that of London. An act of 1881 pro-
vided for the payment of $100,000 a
year out of the surplus funds of the
Ir'sh Church for the purposes of the
university, which has its seat at Earls-
fort Terrace, Dublin. The university
has a considerable staff of examiners,
but of course no professors.
Royce
Rubidium
Royce, Joslaii, an American edu-
cator and author ; born in Grass Val-
ley, Cal., Nov. 20, 1855. He became
Professor of the History of Philosophy
in Harvard in 1892, and published :
" A Primer of Logical Analysis " ;
" The Religious Aspect of Philos-
ophy " ; " The Conception of Immor-
tality " ; and many articles and lec-
tures.
Royer-Collard, Pierre Paul, a
French statesman ; born in Sompuis,
France, June 21, 1763. In 1811 he
was appointed Professor of Philosophy
in Paris, and exercised an immense
influence on the philosophy of France.
He was appointed president of the
Commission of Public Instruction in
1815. but resigned that post in 1820;
in 1815, also, he returned to political
life as deputy for the department of
Marne. The French Academy opened
its doors to him in 1827; and in 1828
he was named president of the Cham-
ber of Representatives, and in that
capacity presented the address of the
221 deputies (March, 1830) withdraw-
ing their support from the govern-
ment, which the king refused to hear
read. Next day the Chamber was pro-
rogued. From 1842 Royer-Collard
completely withdrew from public life.
He never was a writer, and he became
a philosopher only by accident ; his
true interest in life was politics, his
real eminence as a political orator
after the ancient pattern rather than
that of the modern parliamentary de-
bater. He died in his county seat,
Chateauvieux, near St. Aignan, Loir-
et-Cher, Sept. 4, 1845.
Ruatan, or Roatan, an island of
Central America, in the Bay of Hon-
duras ; area, about 240 square miles.
Surface, somewhat elevated and well
wooded ; soil, fertile. The shores
abound in fish and turtles, and near
the, S. extremity is a good harbor.
Rubber Groves, a name applied
to the tracts of territory where the
rubber of commerce is obtained. While
the india-rubber of commerce has been
obtained from many different parts of
the globe, the world has been compel-
led to look to Central and South Amer-
ica for the bulk of its supply. South
America, especially Brazil, is the terri-
tory on which the commercial world
relies, the province of Para yielding
the best rubber. See CAOUTHOUC.
Rubble, a common kind of mason-
ry, in which the stones are irregular
in size and nhape.
Rubens, Peter Paul, a distin-
guished Flemish painter ; born in
Siegen, Westphalia, June 29, 1577.
He went to Antwerp in 1G08, and was
soon after made court painter to the
Archduke Albert, Spanish governor of
the Low Countries. In 1620 he was
employed by the Princess Mary de
Medici to adorn the gallery of the
Luxembourg with a series of paintings
illustrative of the principal scenes of
her life. While thus engaged he be-
came known to the Duke of Bucking-
ham, who purchased his museum. He
was afterward employed by the In-
fanta Isabella and the King of Spain
in some important negotiations which
he executed with such credit as to be
appointed secretary of the privy coun-
cil. He acquired immense wealth, and
was twice married, the second time,
in 1631, to a lovely girl of 16. Rubens,
beyond all comparison, was the most
rapid in execution of all the great
masters, and was incontestably the
greatest perfector of the mechanical
part of his art that ever existed. His
works are very numerous, and very
diversified in subject. There are nearly
100 in the Picture Gallery at Munich.
" The Descent from the Cross," at
Antwerp, is perhaps his masterpiece.
He died in Antwerp, May 30, 1640.
Rubicon, a river in North Italy
(now the Fiumicino, a tributary of
the Adriatic) , famous in Roman his-
tory, Caesar having by crossing this
stream (49 B. c.), at that time regard-
ed as the N. boundary of Italy, finally
committed himself to the civil war.
Hence the phrase " to pass the Rubi-
con " is to take the decisive step by
which one commits one's self to a
hazardous enterprise.
Rubidium, a metal much re-
sembling caesium, with which it was
discovered in 1860, by Bunsen and
Kirchoff, during the analysis of a
spring of water which contained these
metals in minute quantities. Rubidium
has since been found in small quan-
tities in other mineral waters, in
lepidolite, and in the ashes of many
plants. This metal is closely related,
in properties, to potassium, but is
more easily fusible and convertible
into vapor, and actually surpasses
Rubinstein
Rudder Fisb
that metal in its attraction for oxygen,
rubidium taking fire spontaneously in
<air. It burns on water with exactly
the same flame as potassium.
Rubinstein, Anton Gregor, a
Polish musician ; born near Jassy,
Rumania, Nov. 28, 1829. He was!
trained to music in Moscow by his 1
mother and a master. Lis/t heard him,
" an infant prodigy," play in Paris in
1841, recognized his genius, and en-
couraged him to play in other cities.
After some further " touring " he gave
himself to serious study in Berlin and
Vienna, and in 1848 settled in St.
Petersburg as teacher of music. At St.
Petersburg he succeeded in getting a
musical conservatory founded (1862)
and became its director. But his con-
cert tours engrossed a good deal of his
jme, and in 1867 he resigned the
directorship of the conservatory. In
1872 he went to the United States
and had an enthusiastic reception. He
ended his concert tours in 1886. He
was induced in the following year to
resume the directorship of the con-
servatory at St. Petersburg. From the
Russian government he received a
patent of nobility and other honors.
He was a strongly pronounced op-
ponent of the principles of Wagner.
As a pianist he held the highest rank,
being usually reckoned the greatest
since Liszt. He ceased playing in pub-
lic some time before his death, which
occurred in Peterhof, Russia, Nov. 20,
1894.
Rubric, in the language of the old
copies of MSS. and of modern print-
ers, any writing or printing in red
ink ; the date and place in a title-page
being frequently in red ink, the word
rubric has come to signify the false
name of a place on a title-page. Thus,
many books printed at Paris bear the
rubric of London, Geneva, etc.
Ruby, a term applied popularly to
two distinct minerals the pyrope
and the spinelle ruby, both of which
are much valued as gems. The pyrope
is a silicate of magnesia and alumina,
and occurs chiefly in Saxony, Bohemia
and Scotland. The spinelle ruby and
its varieties, the orange-red rubicelle,
and the violet or brown almandine,
are aluminates of magnesia, with dif-
ferent proportions of iron and chro-
mium. They are found mainly in Cey-
lon at Ava and in other parts of the
East Indies. Rubies are wonderfully
imitated.
The ruby is one of the most ex
quisite products of nature, but it is
becoming rare and more rare to find it
perfect. A ruby may bring 10 or 20
times the price of a diamond of the
same weight if it is really of a su-
perior quality. In general the cutting
as a brilliant is alone suitable for a
fine ruby. The ruby is very hard, al-
most as hard as the sapphire.
The most beautiful rubies coma
from Ceylon, India, and China. There
are mines in Burma which supply at
least one-half of the world's produc-
tion. The Burmese mines were re-
opened in 1900 under a London com-
pany. The 'mines of Pegu are nearly
exhausted, or but little worked today.
The regions where they are situated
are dangerous of approach ; besides,
in the States of the Grand Mogul, the
exportation of rubies is forbidden till
they have been exhibited to the sov-
ereign, who retains the most beautiful.
The stone known under the name of
the ruby of Siam is distinguished by
its deep red color, somewhat resem-
bling the garnet
Ruby Throat, the Trpchilus colu-
bris, a species of humming bird, BO
named from the brilliant ruby red
color of its chin and throat. In sum-
mer it is found in all parts of North
America, up to lat. 57 N., being thug
remarkable for its extensive distribu-
tion.
Ruckert, Friedrich, a German
poet; born in Schweinfurt, Bavaria,
May 16, 1788 ; was educated there and
at Wurzburg. For some years he led
a wandering life studying philology
and poetry. His most popular books
are the collection of lyrics entitled
" Springtime of Love," and the re-
flective poems gathered together as
" The Wisdom of the Brahman." He
died Jan. 31, 1866.
Rnckstuhl, Frederick Welling*
ton, an American sculptor; born at
Breitenbach, Alsace ; brought to St.
Louis, Mo., in infancy, educated there
and in Paris. Chief among much nota-
ble work is his sculpture scheme of
" New York City Appellate Court."
Rudder Fish, a fish allied to
the mackerel, very common in the At-
lantic and Pacific Oceans, BO named
Rudiui
from its habit of swimming around the
sterns of ships, attracted, doubtless,
by the refuse thrown overboard. The
flesh is said to be coarse in flavor.
Rudini, Antonio Starrabba di,
Marquis, an Italian statesman ; born
in Palermo, Sicily, in 1839. In 18G9
he was minister of the interior and
member of the Chamber of Deputies,
serving in the Parliament till called
to succeed Crispi as premier, Feb. 7,
1891. During the Mafia difficulty in
New Orleans he recalled the Italian
minister from Washington to enforce
his demands on the United States gov-
ernment. He succeeded Crispi in 1891,
was succeeded by Crispi in 1892, and
was again made premier in 1896,
when disasters to the Italian army in
Abyssinia caused Crispi's fall. His
third term of office closed June 29,
1898.
Rudolf I., or Rudolph, founder
of the present imperial dynasty of
Austria ; born in Limburg castle in
the Breisgau, Germany, May 1, 1218.
His possessions were greatly increased
by inheritance and by his mar-
riage, till he was the most powerful
prince of Swabia. In 1273 the electors
chose him to be German king ; as,
never having been crowned by the
Pope, he was not entitled to be called
kaiser or emperor. His accession was
opposed by none ; the Pope's consent
was secured at the price of certain
rights already parted with by Rudolf's
predecessors. Rudolf spent the greater
part of his life that remained in sup-
pressing the castles of the robber
knights and putting an end to their
lawless practices. He died in Spires,
July 15, 1291, and was buried in the
cathedral there.
Rue. The common rue is a half-
shrubby plant, two or three feet high,
of a fetid odor and an acrid taste.
The bluish-green leaves are pinnate,
the flowers yellow ; a native of South-
ern Europe, but grown in gardens in
the United States, the East and West
Indies, etc.
Ruff, a well known migratory bird
that is a spring and summer visitor in
North Europe, having its winter home
in Africa. It is rather larger than a
snipe; general plumage ash-brown,
spotted or mottled with black, but no
two specimens are alike. In the breed-
Rugby
ing season the neck is surrounded by
a frill or ruff of numerous long black
feathers, glossed with purple, and
barred with chestnut.
Ruffe, a fish from the rivers of
Europe. It is olive-green, marbled and
spotted with brown, and resembles the
perch in habits. The name is said to
be derived from the harsh sensation
caused by its ctenoid scales.
RUE.
Ruffed Grouse, a North Amer-
ican species of grouse of the same
genus as the hazel grouse of Europe.
It is named from the tufts of feathers
on the sides of its neck, and frequents
forests and thickets.
Rugby, a town in Warwickshire,
England; 83 miles N. W. of London
and 30 E. S. E. of Birmingham. At
the foot of the hill on which it stands
the river Swift gave Wyclif's ashes to
the Avon ; close by at Ashby and at
Dunchurch the Gunpowder Plot was
hatched ; the battlefield of Naseby was
viewed by Carlyle from its school
house in 1842, a few days before Ar-
nold's death ; it is within a drive of
Stratford-on-Avon, Coventry, Kenil-
worth. It is at once the center of a
great hunting district and the seat of
Ruger
Rumania
a world-famous public school. This
probably accounts for the large num-
ber of residential houses there. The
school was founded in 1567 by Law-
rence Sheriff, a grocer and a staunch
supporter of Queen Elizabeth, by a
gift of property in Manchester Square,
London. After maintaining its posi-
tion for some time as a good school
for the Warwickshire gentry and a
few others, specially under Dr. James
and Dr. Wool, it became of national
reputation under Dr. Arnold, who in
raising his school raised at the same
time the dignity of his whole profes-
sion. Since his time the school has
never lacked able teachers, remarkable
for independence of mind.
Ruger, Thomas Howard, an
American military officer; born in
Lima, N. Y., April 2, 1833; was grad-
uated at the United States Military
Academy in 1854 ; became lieutenant-
colonel of the 3d Wisconsin regiment
in June, 1861 ; won distinction in
numerous engagements during the
Civil War ; suppressed the draft riots
in New York city in 1863 ; was brev-
etted Major-General of volunteers,
Nov. 30, 1864; promoted colonel, U.
S. A., in 1867; Brigadier-General in
1886 ; and Ma jor-General in 1895 ; and
was retired in 1897. Died in 1907.
Rule Nisi, or Rule to Show
Cause, in United States and English
law, an order granted by the court on
an interlocutory application, directing
the party opposed to the applicant to
do or abstain from some act, unless
he can show cause why the order
should not be obeyed. If cause is
shown, the order is " discharged,"
otherwise it is made " absolute," and
the party ruled must obey on pain of
attachment for contempt.
Rules of the Road, the official
designation of regulations adopted by
national or international authorities
for the management of vessels in
storms, fogs, or other danger. Under
act of the United States Congress, in
1896, the rules already established
were considerably changed to comport
with the schedule to be observed by
vessels of all civilized nations on and
after July 1, 1897. These rules apply
also to inland waters, excepting the
Great Lakes, for which a special set
has been devised.
Ruling Machines, instruments
used for ruling paper, metal, etc. The
first machine of this kind was invent-
ed by a Dutchman, resident in London,
in 1782, and was subsequently greatly
improved by Woodmason, Payne,
Brown, and others. F. A. Nobert de-
vised a ruling machine in 1845 for
the production of microscopical test
plates, diffraction gratings, and mi-
crometers, etc., and more recently Ben-
jamin Day, a New York artist, pat-
ented one for use by artists.
Rum, a spirit distilled chiefly in the
West Indies from the fermented skim-
mings of the sugar-boilers and mo-
lasses, together with sufficient cane
juice to impart the necessary flavor.
Its peculiar flavor in due to butyric
ether. Caramel is added for coloring.
Much of the rum sold is merely plain
spirit colored with burned sugar and
flavored with rum flavoring. The Med-
ford rum manufactured in Massachu-
setts is largely exported to Africa.
Rumania, a European kingdom,
bounded by Austria-Hungary, Servia,
Bulgaria, the Black Sea, and Russia ;
area, 48,307 square miles ; pop., in-
cluding the Dobruja, 5,800,000. It in-
cludes the former Danubian princi-
palities of Wallachia and Moldavia
and the province of Dobruja on the
Black Sea (pop. est. 200,000). The
capital is Bucharest ; other chief
towns are Jassy, Galatz, Braila, and
Giurgevo.
The surface is mainly occupied by
undulating and well-watered plains of
great fertility, gradually sloping up-
ward to the Carpathians on the N.
and W. borders, where the summits
range from 2,650 to 8,800 feet above
sea-level. The entire kingdom is in the
basin of the Danube, which has a
course of 595 miles in Rumania, form-
ing the boundary with Bulgaria near-
ly the whole way. The climate is
much more extreme than at the same
latitude in other parts of Europe ; the
summer is hot and rainless, the winter
sudden and very intense ; there is al-
most no spring, but the autumn is
long and pleasant. Rumania is an es-
sentially agricultural and pastoral
state, fully 70 per cent, of the inhab-
itants being directly engaged in hus-
bandry. The chief cereal crops are
maize, wheat, barley, rye, and oats;
tobacco, hemp, and flax are also
Rnmford
Ruminants
grown; and wine is produced on the
bills at the foot of the Carpathians.
Cattle, sheep, and horses are reared in
large numbers. -Excellent timber
abounds on the Carpathians. Bears,
wolves, wild boars, large and small
game, and fish are plentiful. The
country is rich in minerals of nearly
every description, but salt, petroleum,
and lignite are the only minerals
worked. Manufactures are still in a
rudimentary state.
Trade is fairly active, but it is
almost entirely in the hands of
foreigners ; the internal trade is
chiefly carried on by Jews, whose
numbers and prosperity are constant
sources of anxiety to Rumanian states-
men, and who are in consequence sub-
ject to certain disabilities. The chief
exports are grain (especially maize),
cattle, timber, and fruit ; the chief im-
ports, manufactured goods, coal, etc.
Germany, Great Britain, and Austria-
Hungary appropriate by far the great-
est share of the foreign trade, the bulk
of which passes through the Black Sea
ports.
The Rumanians, who call them-
selves Romani, claim to be descend-
ants of Roman colonists introduced by
Trajan ;- but the trace* of Latin de-
scent are in great part due to a later
immigration, about the 12th century,
from the Alpine districts. Their lan-
guage and history both indicate that
they are a mixed race with many con-
stituents. Their language, however,
must be classed as one of the Romance
tongues, though it contains a large
admixture of foreign elements. In Ru-
mania there are about 4,500,000 Ru-
manians, 300,000 Jews, 200,000 gip-
sies, 50,000 Bulgars, 1,500 Magyars,
20,000 Germans, 20,000 Greeks, and
15,000 Armenians. Three-fourths of
the population are peasants, who till
18G4 were kept in virtual serfdom by
the boiars or nobles. In that year up-
ward of 400,000 peasant families were
made proprietors of small holdings
averaging 10 acres, at a price to be
paid back to the State in 15 years.
About 4.500,000 of the people belong
to the Greek Church. Energetic ef-
forts are being made to raise educa-
tion from its present low level. Ru-
mania has two universities (at Bucha-
rest and Jassy), several gymnasia,
and a system of free prior ary schools.
Rumania is a hereditary constitu-
tional monarchy with a Legislature of
two bodies. The Senate consists of
various dignitaries and officials and
120 elected members ; the Chamber of
Deputies has 183 members, elected by
all citizens paying taxes or possessed
of a certain standard of education.
The constitution, last revised in 1884,
closely resembles that of Belgium. The
king is assisted by a ministry of eight
members. The army is modeled on the
German system, service being compul-
sory from the age of 21 to 46.
The persecution of Jews in Rumania
in view of their large immigration to
this country, has evoked protests from
the American government. An anti-
semitic agitation which began in Dec.,
1906, developed into a serious agrarian
revolt in Feb. and Mar., 1907, and
was only suppressed by firm military
measures,
Rnmford, Benjamin Thomp-
son, Connt, an American scientist;
born in Woburn, Mass., March 26,
1753. Being a Tory in sympathy, he
lived in London during the American
Revolution. After serving England for
a time, he entered the service of the
Elector of Bavaria, rose to the posi-
tion of Minister of War, and was
finally created a count of the Holy
Roman Empire. He took the title
Rumford from the village of that name
(now Concord, N. H.), where he had
married. He spent the last years of
his life at Auteuil, busily engaged in
scientific researches particularly on
the nature and effects of heat, studies
with which his name is generally as-
sociated. As an administrator, mili-
tary or civil, he showed immense prac-
tical capacity in improving the condi-
tions of life for the lower ranks. Hi3
best known works include : " Essays :
Political, Economical, and Philosoph-
ical " (1797-1806) ; and studies in do-
mestic economy, particularly of cook-
ery. Died in Auteuil near Paris, Aug.
21, 1814.
Ruminants, or Ruminantia, a
group of herbivorous mammals, be-
longing to the great order of hoofed or
ungulate mammals, included in the
Artiodactyle or " even-toed " section of
these and comprising the camel, llama,
true deer, giraffe, ox, sheep, goat, ante-
lope, and" others. The faculty of rumi-
nation is not quite peculiar to it
Rumination
Runes
Ruminants are distinguished from
other orders by certain peculiarities of
dentition. Most of the ruminants are
suitable for human food. They are
generally gregarious, and are . repre-
sented by indigenous species in all
parts of the wofld except Australia.
Rumination, the act of chewing
the cud. The food of the ruminants
is grass, which requires a longer series
of chemical changes to convert a por-
tion of it into blood than does the
flesh of other animals eaten by the
Carnivora. To produce these changes
there is a complex stomach divided
into four parts, the rumex or paunch,
the reticulum or honeycomb bag, the
psalterium or manyplies, and the
abomasum or reed. A ruminant does
not chew the fodder which it eats, but
simply swallows it. When it has had
enough it retires to a quiet spot, forces
up again to the mouth a portion of
the food in its paunch, thoroughly
chews it and then swallows it again.
Another and another bolus is thus dis-
posed of. Each of these, started from
the paunch, is forced next into the
honeycomb bag, where it receives its
form, and then goes up the gullet. On
returning it passes direct from the
paunch into the manyplies or third
stomach, and thence to the abomasum.
Fluids may pass directly into any
part of the stomach.
Rump Parliament, in English
history, the remnant, or fag-end of the
Long Parliament, which was assem-
bled on May 6, 1659, and dissolved
October 15 in the same year ; so called
from the general contumely and de-
rision with which it was treated by
the English nation at large.
Rumsey, James, an American in-
ventor ; born in Bohemia Manor, Cecil
co., Md., about 1743. He invented and
patented a boat " calculated to work
with greater ease and rapidity against
rapid rivers " and one to be propelled
by the force of a stream of water
pumped out at the stern, etc. The
Rumsey Society, of which Benjamin
Franklin was a member, was founded
in 1788 for the purpose of furthering
his schemes, a similar society being
founded in England a year later.
Rumsey published " A Short Treatise
on the Application of Steam " (1788).
Be died in London, England, Dec. 23,
1792.
Rnnes. In the Scandinavian lands,
Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, thou-
sands of inscriptions have been found
written in the ancient alphabet of the
heathen Northmen. Similar records
are scattered sparsely and sporadically
over the regions which were overrun
or settled by the Baltic tribes between
the 2d century and the 10th. A few
are found in Kent, England, which
Y h t F fc <Kh* X f>
f o O> r k g(palat) w
Hi K+U<M(Mtfc M
hnlJchpeoBtb
n tvs*H x ri 1 for
m 1 ng <B d gfentt.) a
y o
ENGLISH RUNES.
was conquered by the Jutes, others in
Cumberland, Dumfriesshire, Orkney,
and the Isle of Man, which were occu-
pied by the Norwegians, and in York-
shire, which was settled by the Angles.
One or two have been found in the
valley of the Danube, which was the
earliest halting place of the Goths in
their migration S. ; and there is reason
to believe that a similar alphabet was
used by the Visigoths and Burgun-
dians in Spain and France, while it is
noteworthy that there is no trace of
this writing having been used in Ger-
many or by the Saxons and Franks.
The writing is called Runic, the in-
dividual letters are called runestaves,
or less correctly runes, and the runic
alphabet is called the futhorc, from
the first six letters f, u, th, o, r, c.
The old Norse word " run " originally
meant something " secret " or magical.
The oldest extant tunic records may
date from the 1st century A. D., the
latest from the 15th or 16th, the
greater number being older than the
llth century, when after the conver-
sion of the Scandinavians the futhorc
was superseded by the Latin alphabet.
The origin of the runic writing has
been a matter of prolonged contro-
versy. The runes were formerly sup-
posed to have originated out of the
Phrenician or the Latin letters, but it
is now generally ^agreed that they
,must have been derived about the 6th
Riinjcct Singh.
century B. c., from an early form of
the Greek alphabet which was em-
ployed by the Milesian traders and
colonists of Olbia and other towns on
the N. shores of the Black Sea.
Runjeet Singh, called the " Lion
of the Punjab," founder of the Sikh
kingdom ; born in Gugaranwalla, In-
dia, Nov. 2, 1780. His father, a Sikh
chieftain, died in 1792, and the gov-
ernment fell into the hands of his
mother. At the age of 17, however,
Runjeet rebelled against his mother's
authority, assumed the reins himself,
and began a career of ambition. The
Shah of Afghanistan granted him pos-
session of Lahore, which had been
taken from the Sikhs, and Runjeet
soon subdued the small Sikh states to
the N. of the Sutlej. He organized
his army after the European model
with the help of French and English
officers, and steadily extended his pow-
er, assuming the title of rajah in 1812.
He gradually increased his territory
until he was ruler of the entire Pun-
jab, and in 1819 had already assumed
the title of Maharajah, or king of
kings. In 1836 he suffered a heavy de-
feat from the Afghans, but until his
death he retained his power over his
20,000,000 subjects. He died in La-
hore, June 27, 1839.
Runyon, Theodore, an American
diplomatist ; born in Somerville, N. J.,
Oct. 25, 1822 ; was graduated at Yale
University in 1842. At the outbreak
of the Civil War he took command of
the 1st Brigade of New Jersey Volun-
teers, and on April 27, 1861, started
for Washington, D. C. On May 6 he
reached the national capital, then in
a state of great excitement because of
an expected invasion by the Confed-
erates with 3,000 men. He promptly
took possession of exposed parts of
the city and fortified its approaches,
especially those at the Long Bridge.
When the National army met its first
defeat at Bull Run, and was fleeing
toward Washington with the Confed-
erates in close pursuit, he closed all
approaches, planted cannon, and pre-
vented both the panic-stricken Na-
tional troops and the Confederates
from entering the city. For thus sav-
ing the national capital he received
the personal thanks of President Lin-
coln and his cabinet. Soon afterward
he resigned from the army and re-
sumed the practice of law. In 1893
he became United States minister to
Germany, and in September following
was raised to the rank of ambassador.
He died in Berlin, Germany, Jan. 27,
1896.
Rupee, a silver coin in use in the
British dominions in India, with cor-
responding ones of much inferior
workmanship and variable value in
the native states. Prior to 1893 its
variable value was a source of great
inconvenience, but in that year stand-
ard rupee (32 cents) was established.
Rupert of Bavaria, Prince, an
English military officer ; born in
Prague, Bohemia, Dec. 17, 1619. After
some military experience on the Con-
tinent he went to England to assist
his uncle, Charles I., and in 1648
he was made admiral of the Eng-
lish royal fleet. After the Restoration
he was appointed lord-high-admiral
and served with Monk against the
Dutch. He became governor of Wind-
sor Castle, privy-councilor, etc. Many
of his later years were devoted to
scientific study, and he was formerly
credited with the invention of mez-
zotint engraving, which he improved
and introduced into England. He in-
vented Prince Rupert's Drops. As
one of the founders and the first gov-
ernor of the Hudson Bay Company
his name was given to Rupertsland.
He died in London, Nov. 29, 1682,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Rupert's Land, an extensive but
indeterminate region in the interior of
Canada, named in honor of Prince
Rupert, and transferred to the Hud-
son Bay Company, of which that
prince was one of the founders, by
Charles II. in 1670. This region is
now included in Manitoba and the
Western Territories, but its name still
gives the title to the Bishop of Ru-
pertsland, who resides at Winnipeg.
Rupture, the breaking or lacera-
tion of the walls or continuity of an
organ, especially of a viscus. Also,
the popular name for hernia.
Rurik, the founder of the Russian
monarchy ; flourished in the 9th cen-
tury ; he is generally considered to
have been a Varangian of Scandina-
vian origin, and to have led a suc-
cessful invasion against the Slavs of
Novgorod about 862. He died in 879,
Rusby
and bis family reigned in Russia till
the death, in 1598, of Feodor, son of
Ivan the Terrible, when it was suc-
ceeded by the house of Romanoff.
Many Russian families still claim a
direct descent from Rurik.
Rusby, Henry Hurd, an Ameri-
can botanist ; born in Franklin, N. J.,
April 26, 1855 ; was connected with
the Smithsonian Institution in 1880-
1896; appointed Professor of Botany,
Physiology, and Materia Medica in
the New York College of Pharmacy
in 1888; Professor of Materia Medica
at Bellevue Hospital Medical College ;
Curator of New York Botanical Gar-
dens ; revised botanical department of
the " United States Pharmacopoeia "
in 1900-1901. He was a member of
a large number of scientific societies
and wrote " Essentials of Pharma-
cognosy " ; " Morphology and Histol-
ogy of Plants " ; etc.
Rush, a genus of plants having a
glume-like (not colored) perianth,
smooth filaments, and a many-seeded,
generally three-celled capsule. The
species are numerous, mostly natives
"of wet or marshy places in the colder
parts of the world ; some are found in
tropical regions. The name rush per-
haps properly belongs to those species
which have no proper leaves; the
round stems of which, bearing or not
bearing small lateral heads of flowers,
are popularly known as rushes. The
soft rush is a native of Japan as well
as of Great Britain, and is cultivated
in Japan for making mats. The com-
mon rush and the soft rush are large-
ly used for the bottoms of chairs and
for mats, and in ruder times, when
carpets were little known, they were
much used for covering the floors of
rooms. The stems of the true rushes
contain a large pith or soft central
substance, which is sometimes used for
wicks to small candles called rush-
lights.
Rush, Benjamin, an American
physician ; born in Philadelphia, Dec.
24, 1745 ; he was graduated at Prince-
ton in 1760 ; studied medicine in Phil-
adelphia, Edinburgh, London, and
Paris; and in 1769 was made Profes-
sor of Chemistry in the Philadelphia
Medical College. Elected a member of
the Continental Congress, he signed
the Declaration of Independence
(1776). In April, 1777, he was ap-
Rnsh
pointed surgeon-general, and in July
physician-general, of the Continental
army. In 1778 he resigned his post in
the army because he could not pre-
vent frauds on soldiers in the hospital
stores, and returned to his professor-
ship. He was a founder of the Phila-
delphia dispensary, the first in the
United States. He next became Pro-
fessor of the Theory and Practice of
Medicine at Philadelphia, to which
chair he added those of the Institutes
and Practice of Medicine and Clinical
Practice (1791) ; and of the Practice
of Physic (1797) ; and during the epi-
demic of 1793 he was as successful as
devoted in the treatment of yellow
fever. In 1799 Rush was appointed
treasurer of the United States Mint,
which post he held till his death. He
was called " the Sydenham of Amer-
ica " and his medical works brought
him honors from several European
sovereigns. He wrote " Medical In-
quiries and Observations " (5 vols.
1789-1793); "Essays" (1798), and
"Diseases of the Mind" (1821). He
died in Philadelphia, April 19, 1813.
Rush, Richard, an American
statesman; born in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Aug. 29, 1780; son of the preceding.
He was graduated at Princeton Col-
lege in 1797 ; and was attorney-gen-
eral of the United States from 1814
to 1817. In 1817 he was temporary
Secretary of State under President
Monroe, and was by him appointed
minister to England, from whence he
was recalled in 1825 by President
Adams, who made him Secretary of
the Treasury. In 1828 he was candi-
date for the vice-presidency on the
same ticket with President Adams,
who was nominated for reelection, and
received the same number of electoral
votes. In 1836 President Jackson ap-
pointed him commissioner to obtain
the Smithsonian legacy, then in the
English Court of Chancery, in. which
he was successful, and returned in
1838 with the entire amount, $515,-
169. In 1847 he was appointed min-
ister to France. 4.t the close of Presi-
dent Polk's term he asked to be re-
called and spent the rest of his life
in retirement. He died in Philadel-
phia, Pa., July 30, 1859. He left
" Memoranda of a Residence at the
Court of St. James," two volumes ;
" Washington in Domestic Life " ;
Rushf orth
" Occasional Productions, Political
Diplomatic, etc., while the Author re-
sided as Envoy Extraordinary from
the United States, at Paris," publishec
by his sons (1860).
Rushf orth, William Henry, an
American inventor ; born in Leeds, En-
gland, July 11, 1844; came to the
United States in 1878 and was ap-
pointed engineer in a silk factory in
Camden, N. J. He made many inven-
tions, the most important being a fire-
escape ladder, a series of automatic
safety-car signals, and a feed-water
heater, which received a silver medal
and diploma at the Paris Exposition
in 1887. He died in Rutherford, N.
J., Aug. 21, 1892.
Rusk, Jeremiah McLain, an
American agriculturist; born in Mor-
gan cp., O., June 17, 1830; removed
to Wisconsin in 1858 and became a
farmer. He entered the Union service
during the Civil War, as major of a
regiment he had raised, the 25th Wis-
consin Volunteers; was promoted
lieutenant-colonel in 18G3; was bre-
vetted colonel and Brigadier-General,
18G5. From 1866 to 1870 he was bank-
comptroller of Wisconsin, and rep-
resented his State- from 1871 to 1877
in Congress. In 1882 he was elected
governor of Wisconsin and served in
that capacity till 1889. He was made
secretary of the newly-created Depart-
ment of Agriculture in 1889, and held
this office till 1893. He died in Viro-
qua, Wis., Nov. 21, 1893.
Ruskin, John, an English author;
born in London ? Feb. 8, 1819. He
studied at Christ Church, Oxford ;
gained the Newdigate prize in 1839,
and graduated in 1842. In 1867 he
was appointed Rede lecturer at Cam-
bridge, and in 1870-1872, 1876-1878,
1883-1885 he was Slade Professor of
Fine Arts at Oxford, where in 1871 he
gave $25,000 for the endowment of a
university teacher of drawing. In
" Modern Painters " he advocated a
complete revolution in the received
conventions of art and art criticism.
Ruskin was the first art critic to place
criticism upon a scientific basis. In
1851 he appeared as a defender of
pre-Raphaelitism. About 1860 he be-
gan to write as a political economist
and social reformer; his chief works
in this sphere being " Unto this Last "
" Munera Pulveris," and " Fors Clavi-
Russell
gera," a periodical series of letters
to the working men and laborers of
Great Britain. In this connection he
founded in 1871, "The Guild of St,
George " ; founded a linen industry at
Keswick, and revived in Langdale,
hand loom weaving. His works are
entirely too numerous to admit of
mention. After 1885 he lived at Brant-
wood, on Coniston Lake, where he
died Jan. 20, 1900.
Russell, Addison Peale, an
American journalist and esayist ; bora
in Wilmington, Ohio, Sept. 8, 1826.
He wrote: "Half-Tints"; "Library
Notes"; "Sub Ccelum," etc.
Russell, Sir Charles Arthur, a
British jurist ; born in Killowen, Ire-
land, Nov. 10, 1832; was educated at
Trinity College, Dublin. He defended
the prisoner in the Maybrick murder
case in 1889, and was counsel for the
defendant (Parnell) before the Par-
nell Commission. He was counsel for
Great Britain during the Bering Sea
Arbitration Tribunal in 1893; became
Lord Chief Justice of England; and
was created 1st Baron Russell of Kil-
lowen in 1894. In 1896 he visited
the United States as guest of the
American bar association ; and in 1899
was British arbitrator in the Vene-
zuelan Boundary Tribunal. He died
Aug. 10, 1900.
Russell, Irwin, an American
verse-writer; born at Port Gibson,
Miss., June 3, 1853. He was among
the first to put the negro character
to literary account. His dialect and
other verse was collected after his
death and published as " Poems "
(1888). He died in New Orleans, La.,
Dec. 23. 1879.
Russell, John, Earl Russell, K,
G., an English statesman, third son of
:he 6th Duke of Bedford; born in
London, Aug. 18, 1792. Educated at
Edinburgh University, he entered Par-
iament in 1813 before attaining his
majority. In 1819 he made his first
motion in favor of parliamentary re-
orm, of which through life he was
he champion. In 1831 he was pay-
master-general in Lord Grey's admin
stration, and introduced the first Re-
! orm Bill to the House of Commons
From 1841 till 1845 he led the opposi-
tion against Pee!, with whom, how-
ever, he was in sympathy on the Corn
Law question; and when Peel re-
Russell
Russia
signed in 1846 Russell formed a min-
istry and retained power till Feb-
ruary, 1852. In 1859 he became
foreign secretary, the Trent affair with
the United States occurring while he
was in office. In 1861 he was raised
to the peerage, and in 1865 succeeded
Lord Palmerston in the leadership of
the Liberal party ; but when his new
reform bill was rejected in 1866 he
went out of office. He was the author
of numerous books and pamphlets, in-
cluding lives of Thomas Moore, Lord
William Russell, and Charles Fox,
and " Recollections and Suggestions "
(1813-1873), published in 1875. He
died May 28, 1878.
Russell, John Scott, a British
naval architect, born near Glasgow,
Scotland, in 1808. He became a
science-lecturer in Edinburgh, and in
1832-1833 temporarily filled the chair
of Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh
University. Next year he began his
important researches into the nature
of waves, which led to his discovery
of the wave of translation, on which
he founded the wave-line system of
naval construction introduced into
practice in 1835. He was manager of
a large shipbuilding yard on the Clyde
for several years, and in 1844 estab-
lished a yard of his own on the
Thames. He was one of the earliest
advocates of iron-clad men-of-war, and
was joint designer of the " Warrior,"
the first English seagoing armored
frigate ; but the most important ves-
sel he designed and constructed was
the " Great Eastern." One of his
chief engineering works was the vast
dome of the Vienna Exhibition of
1873, which has a clear span of 360
feet. He was the author of " The
Modern System of Naval Architect-
ure," and other writings. He died in
Ventnor, June 10, 1882.
Russell, William, Lord Rus-
sell, an English statesman, third son
of the 5th Earl of Bedford ; born Sept.
29, 1639. He entered Parliament in-
mediately after the Restoration, and in
1669 married Rachel, Lady Vaughan.
In 1679 he was a member of the new
privy council appointed by Charles
II. to ingratiate himself with the
Whigs. Resigning in 1680, he became
conspicuous in the efforts to exclude
the king's brother, the Roman Catho-
lic Duke of York, from the succes-
sion to the throne, but retired from-
public life when the Exclusion Bill
was rejected. When the Ryehouse Plot
was discovered in 1683, Russell was
arrested on a charge of high treason,
and though nothing was proved
against him the law was stretched to
secure his conviction. He was sen-
tenced to death, and was beheaded in
London, July 21, 1683. An act was-
passed in 1689 reversing his attainder.
Russell, William Clark, an En-
glish novelist; born (of English parent-
age), in New York city, Feb. 24, 1844.
He spent much of his early life at sea,
and afterward settled at Ramsgate,
England. He published a great num-
ber of sea stories and novels.
Russell, William Eustis, na
American lawyer ; born hi Cambridge,
Mass., Jan. 6, 1857; was graduated
at Harvard University in 1877; was
governor of Massachusetts in 1890-
1892. He then resumed the practice
of law, and became a member of the
Board of Indian Commissioners in,
November, 1894. He was found dead
in his fishing tent at Little Pabos.
Quebec, Canada, on the morning or
July 16, 1896.
Russell, Sir William Howard,
an English journalist ; born hi Lily-
water near Dublin, March 28, 1820.
He was special war correspondent of
the London " Times " in Crimea, India,
the United States, Austria, France,
South Africa, and Egypt, during var-
ious campaigns. He published " Ex-
traordinary Men," " The Prince of
Wales's Tour," etc. He received var-
ious honors from foreign governments
and was knighted in 1895. He died
Feb. 10, 1907.
Russia, one of the most powerful
empires of the world, second only in
extent to the British empire. It com-
prehends most of Eastern Europe and
all Northern Asia, and is bounded N.
by the Arctic Ocean ; W. by Sweden,
the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic,
Prussia, Austria, and Rumania; S.
by the Black Sea, Turkey in Asia,
Persia, Afghanistan, the Chinese em-
pire ; E. by the Pacific and Bering
Strait. The total area has been offi-
cially estimated at 8,660,395 square
miles: while the population (1909)
was 160,095,200.
In the European parts of Russia
alone the population increases an-
Russia
nually at the rate of nearly 1,500,000.
The largest towns are St. Petersburg
(1,678,000), Moscow (1,359,254), War-
saw (756,426), Odessa (449,673),
Lodz (351,570), Ripa (2S2.230). Kieff
(319,000), Kharkoff (173,989), and
Vilna (162,633). St. Petersburg and
Moscow are the capitals of the empire.
European Russia consists almost
wholly of immense plains, the Valdai
Hills, between St. Petersburg and
Moscow, averaging 500 feet and never
exceeding 1,200 feet above sea-level,
forming the only elevated region of
the interior and an important water-
shed. The mountains include ; the
Caucasus, running from the Black
Sea to the Caspian, reach the height
of 18,500 feet; the Urals, stretching
from the Caspian to the Arctic Ocean
and separating European from Asiatic
Russia, have their greatest height be-
low 7,000 feet. Beyond the Urals
are the vast Siberian plains.
The whole of the vast empire
is watered by numerous rivers, some
running a course of thousands of
miles. Altogether Russia and Poland
have 49,000 miles of navigable
rivers. Asiatic Russia has also a
number of very large rivers, as the
Obi, Yenisei, and Lena in Siberia,
and the Amur toward the Chinese
frontier. This complete river system
is of incalculable value to Russia, as
by its means internal communication
is carried on. Canals connect the
navigable rivers, so as to form con-
tinuous waterways ; there being 500
miles of canals and 717 of canalized
rivers.
As may be expected from its vast-
ness this empire offers soils and cli-
mates of almost every variety. Ex-
treme cold in winter and extreme heat
in summer, are, however, a general
characteristic of Russian climates. As
regards soil large sections of Russia
are sandy, barren wastes and vast
morasses. The most productive por-
tion is that between the Baltic and
the Gulf of Finland, and the Volga,
on the N. and E. ; Prussia, Austria,
etc., on the W. ; and the Black Sea
on the S. It has, generally speaking,
a soft black mold of great depth, most-
ly on a sandy bottom, easily wrought,
and very fertile. The more S. por-
tion of Siberia, as far E. as the river
Lena, has, for the most part, a fertile
soil, and produces, notwithstanding
Russia;
the severity of the climate, nearly all
kinds f grain.
Boundless forests exist, the area
of the forest land in Europe being
42 per cent, of the total area. The fir,
larch, alder, and birch predominate.
Most of the forest land is now under
government control, and waste is pre-
vented. Agriculture remains the chief
pursuit of the bulk of the population.
For some years it has, however, re-
mained stationary, while manufact-
uring industries are steadily going
ahead. The chief crops are rye, wheat,
barley, oats, hemp, flax, and tobacco.
Vine and beet culture is rapidly in-
creasing, and the breeding of horses
and cattle is also extensively carried
on.
Russia is rich in minerals. The
precious metals are chiefly obtained
in the Ural and Altai regions. The
output for 1901 was, gold, 79,084
pounds ; platinum, 12,446 pounds ; sil-
ver, 704 pounds. In the Ural, iron
beds are also rich and numerous, ex-
ceeding all others in productiveness.
Copper is most abundant in the gov-
ernment of Perm : lead in the Ural and
some parts of Poland ; saltpeter in
Astrakhan. Of the coal mines those
of the Don basin are the principal at
present, those of Kielce ranking sec-
ond ; the mines around Moscow come
next. About 60,000 tons of manga-
nese ore are annually extracted in the
Ural and the Caucasus. The petroleum
wells of Baku on the Caspian now
send their products all over Europe.
Prior to the accession of Peter the
Great, Russia had no manufactures ;
he started them, and under the more
or less fostering care of his succes-
sors and Russia's protective policy
they have steadily grown. The latest
statistics give a total of about 1,400,-
000 persons as being employed in the
various manufacturing industries.
Two-fifths of the entire production
comes from the two capitals, St.
Petersburg and Moscow. The various
manufactures rank approximately as
follows : spirits, sugar, cottons and
yarns, flour, tobacco, foundry prod-
ucts, flax, yarn, and linen, leather,
woolen cloth and yarn, iron, machin-
ery, beer, soap, timber, paper, oil,
glass, chemicals, agricultural imple-
ments.
The bulk of Russia's external trade
is carried on through the European
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Russian Expansion
frontier and the Baltic and Black
Sea ports. The chief exports are :
grain (about one-half of entire ex-
ports), flax, linseed and other oleagi-
nous seeds, timber, hemp, wool, butter
and eggs, spirits, bristles, and furs,
in the order indicated. The chief im-
ports are cotton, wool, tea, machinery,
coal and coke, cotton yarn, metal
goods, wine, olive oil, raw silk, her-
rings, textile goods, fruit, coffee, to-
bacco. The import trade is heaviest
with Germany, Great Britain, France,
Austria-Hungary, and Belgium, in the
order named. In the export trade
Great Britain takes the lead, Holland,
France, and Germany following.
Russia is .an absolute hereditary
monarchy, the emperor (czar or tsar)
being the supreme ruler and legisla-
tor, and the final tribunal in all mat-
ters political or ecclesiastical. His
title is Emperor and Autocrat of all
the Russias, Czar of Poland, and
Grand-prince of Finland. The ad-
ministration is divided into 12 depart-
ments, with a minister at the head of
each nominated by the emperor. Hold-
ing a distinct position from these are
four great boards or councils. These
ave the State council, the couasil "^
ministers, the senate of the empire, and
the Holy Synod. During and after the
war with Japan the agitation for an
elective Duma or Parliament resulted
in its creation Aug. 19, 1905, but it was
soon dissolved, and internal troubles
continued. Russia has a heavy for-
eign debt.
The established religion of Russia
is the Eastern or Greek Church, and
one of the fundamental laws of the
State is that the emperor must belong
to that Church, and none of the im-
perial family may marry a wife be-
longing to another religion without
the express sanction of the emperor.
Dissenters from the Orthodox Church
are known as " raskolniki," and are
nominally tolerated, but really subject-
ed to serious, and often most cruel
maltreatment. Roman Catholics are
subject to certairwrestrictions, and per-
secution and niassacre have driven mul-
titudes of Jews into exile. Education
in spite of many obstacles, is progress-
ing, but Russia is still nearly a century
behind most European nations. Only
23 per cent, of the aggregate popula-
tion receive education in schools. A
law was passed in 1888 to spread tech-
nical education ; there are 9 leading
universities, a teaching staff of 1,039,
and 14,542 students.
Russia's real greatness may be said
to date from the accession of Peter
the Great in 1696, who first secured
for the country the attention of the
more civilized nations of Europe. From
then on the growth of the empire
was continuous.
Russian Expansion, in the
19th Century. At the opening of the
19th century, the Russian empire, with
a territory of some seven and a half
millions of square miles, was by far
the largest state m the world. Its
population, however, of, say 40,000,-
000, though greater than that of
France or Germany, was smaller than
that of the part of India already under
British control, and insignificant com-
pared with the teeming swarms in
China. The huge, thinly settled domin-
ions of which Alexander I. became
ruler in March, 1801, extended over
three continents ; and except where
they reached the seas which for the
most part closed them in rather than
served as outlets, and except where
they were cut off from China by the
range of '"He Tian-Shan mountains,
they lacked almost everywhere natural
geograhical boundaries. Since then the
growth of Russia has been of a two-
fold kind, namely, the iilling up of
vacant spaces within her own borders
and an expansion along obvious lines ;
for, over and above the ambition of in-
dividuals and the accidents of histor-
ical development, we can perceive the
great natural forces which have deter-
mined her march toward the open
sea and toward immediate contact with
the firm limits of the other chief pow-
ers of the civilized world. On the
other hand, it is noteworthy that cer-
tain impulses which have often built up
empires have in her case been con-
spicuously absent. Even in Russia the
days of crusades are nearly over, while
those of commercial expansion are only
just beginning. Nationalism, too,
which has made modern Germany and
Italy, though it led the government of
the czar in the 19th century to attempt
with more or less success the Russifica-
tion of his subject peoples, did not in-
fluence changes of boundaries. The
partition of Poland had already
brought under one rule all the
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Russian Expansion
branches of the nationality (Great,
Little, and White Russians) except
the three millions of Little Russians
once Polish subjects, now Austrian,
and in religious communication under
their own rites, with Rome, not Mos-
cow. United Russia has with this ex-
ception, long been a fact, and the shal-
low, unpractical doctrines of Panslav-
ism have brought no lost sheep into
the national fold.
For the sake of clearness, we shall
trace the changes first on one and then
on another of the frontiers of the em-
pire, rather than follow strictly chron-
ological order, noticing at the outset
that almost all the gain since 1815
has been made in Asia, while the Euro-
pean acquisitions belong to the earli-
est years of the century, and Russian
America has ceased to exist. We thus
get the keynote to the policy that has
been followed and the ground of its
success. Progress has been made along
the lines of least resistance and most
profit. There has- been comparatively
little desire to annex thickly settled
regions inhabited by highly civilized
peoples ; and at the other extreme the
region we now call Alaska was aban-
doned as too remote to be worth the
effort of retaining. Russian territory
is hence not only larger but more com-
pact than it was a century ago.
Beginning with the European and
N. W. frontier, the first great acqui-
sition of the czars in the 19th century
was the province of Finland. Finland
had been for 600 years a part of
Sweden ; the upper classes and the
populations of the towns spoke Swed-
ish, and the whole people had accept-
ed Lutheran Protestantism. In spite
also of some discontent, chiefly among
the aristocracy, the land as a whole
was perfectly loyal to the government
at Stockholm. What made a Russian
conquest of Finland almost inevitable
sooner or later was the position of St.
Petersburg. Peter the Great founded
his capital on his enemy's soil, and
even the victorious treaties concluded
by him and by his daughter Elizabeth,
still left the town within a few miles
of the frontier. How great the danger
might be was shown in 1789 by the
sudden attack of Gustavus III. of
Sweden, at a moment when the Rus-
sian armies were in the far South
operating against the Turks. Prob-
ably nothing but the mistakes of tha
Swedish king and the disloyalty of his
officers saved Russia on this occasion
from the humiliation of seeing her
capital fall into the hands of the
enemy. The peril still existed, for,
however weak Sweden was herself,
her territory might be used as a base
of operations by some stronger power.
It is not remarkable, then, that Alex-
ander profited by the first opportunity
of despoiling his neighbor, showing,
indeed, little scrupulousness as to his
methods. In" 1807 his coalition against
France had failed, for Austria had sub-
mitted to Napoleon after the battle
of Austerlitz, Jena had made the con a
queror master of Prussia, and Fried*
land exposed the czar's own lands to
invasion and to the dangers of a Pol-
ish revolt. He accordingly reversed
his policy, and after the interview on
the raft in the Niemen and the peace
of Tilsit (June 7, 1807), the two sov-
ereigns, now sworn friends, agreed to
combine against England and to divide
the continent of Europe, as suited
them. In return for a free hand in the
West, the French emperor abandoned
Sweden and Turkey to the czar. If in
this transaction we can hardly blame
Napoleon for showing little tenderness
for his fanatical opponent, Gustavus
IV., who had declared him to be the
beast of the Apocalypse, Alexander
might have been expected to have some
hesitation in attacking a recent ally
who had given him no real provoca-
tion. Even though the blindly foolish
conduct of Gustavus did furnish the
pretext wanted, the act was one of
cold-blooded and successful rapacity.
Finland, in spite of the bravery of her
troops, was badly defended, owing
to the incompetence of the king and
some of his officers. By the treaty
of Frederikshamm (Sept. 17, 1809)
Sweden surrendered the province, and
three years later, Charles XIV. (the
former French Marshal Bernadotte)
actually entered into an alliance with
Russia, accepting definitely what had
happened, in return for the prospect
of getting Norway.
Thus Finland was added with little
difficulty to the territories of the czar,
but the circumstances connected with
the acquisition are a burning ques-
tion today. Alexander I. had been
brought up in the cosmopolitan ideas
of the 18th century, so different from
the rabid nationalism of the present
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Russian Expansion
time. He was as anxious as anyone
to enlarge his possessions, but the idea
that they must have an exclusive Rus-
sian character was not one that would
appeal to a prince and court whose
language in everyday life was French.
Then, too, in this the earlier period
of his reign, he was full of liberal
dreams. His sentimental nature saw
no incongruity in his being at the
same time autocrat of all the Russias
and constitutional sovereign of peo-
ples used to a freer form of govern-
ment. As a result, he treated Finland
with startling liberality ; he made it
a grand-duchy, almost independent of
Russia, except in foreign affairs ; he
gave it a constitution based on the
former one of Sweden, and he even
added to the province that part of its
lands that had been conquered and
taken away by Peter the Great and
Elizabeth. Under this regime Fin-
land has greatly prospered ; unfor-
tunately, however, the prosperity has
not unnaturally excited the anger and
envy of Russians. They point out
that the grand-duchy has had all the
advantages of its connection with a
mighty empire without bearing its pro-
portionate share of the burdens, and
they declare that what a czar had
given a czar can take away, and that
the promises of Alexander I. cannot
be regarded as binding on his succes-
sors when they entail an obvious in-
justice to the rest of his peoples. More
than once has the autonomy of Fin-
land been menaced, and at the present
time when the reaction against Liber-
alism is still dominant, and when Rus-
sia, like many other countries, is un-
der the fierce influence of a national
spirit that would like to impose one
language, one law, and even one re-
ligion on all the peoples of the em-
pire, the privileges of the grand-duchy
are more than menaced. Already the
separate tariffs, stamps, and coinage
are gone : the army is to be raised to
the same proportionate strength as
that of Russia, and practically incor-
porated with it ; affairs common to all
parts of the emperor's domains are to
be settled in St. Petersburg alone;
Russian will be the official language,
and more is yet to come. The Finns
have protested and entreated, but as
they are far too weak to be able to
offer forcible resistance, their u