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EVERYBODY'S 
CYCLOPEDIA 



A concise and accurate compilation of the world's knowledge, 
prepared from the latest and best authorities in every department 
of learning; including a 

Chronological History of the World 

graphically represented by colored charts, showing the most 
important epochs and events of history, from the earliest times 
to the present day. 



containing much valuable information often in demand, but not 
usually found in a single collection. Also 

A Statistical Record of the World 

which includes latest figures from the recent United States Census. 

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 

CHARLES LEON ARD-STUART,B. A. GEORGE J.HAGAR,M. A. 

of the New International, Americana. Special Expert on the International, 
iiritannica. Current Cyclopedia, etc. People's. Imperial, etc. 

EDITORS-IN-CHIEF 

Assisted by a corps of eminent editors, educators, scientists, 
inventors, explorers, etc. 



New To r k 

SYNDICATE PUBLISHING COMPANY 

12 and 14 West 32d Street 



Copyright. 1911, by F. E. Wright 
Copyright, 1912, by F. E. Wright 



Parton 

Parton, James, an American 
writer; born in Canterbury, England 
Feb. 9, 1822. He wrote many valu- 
able biographies. He died in 1891 

Parton, Sara Payson Willis, 
" Fanny Fern," an American essay- 
writer, sister of N. P. Willis, and 
wife of James Parton; born in Port- 
land, Me., July 9, 1811. She is said 
to have contributed an article each 
week tor 16 years to the New York 
" Ledgp-." She died in 1872. 

Partridge, a well-known game 
bird widely distributed. The par- 
tridge prefers open grounds, and often 
nests in exposed situations. It feeds 
on slugs, caterpillars, and grubs to a 
large extent, and so compensates the 
farmer for any injury it does. 

Partridge Berry, a plant of the 
heath family, inhabiting North Amer- 
ica, also known as wintergreen. The 
name is also applied to another North 
American shrub, a pretty little trail- 
ing plant, with white fragrant flow- 
ers and scarlet berries. 

Pasadena, a city in Los Angeles 
county, Cal.; on the Southern Pacific 
and other railroads; 10 miles N. E. 
of Los Angeles; is in the noted San 
(Gabriel valley, at the foot of the 
Sierra Madre Mountains, popularly 
known as the "Italy of America"; 
is chiefly engaged in fruit raising; 
and, besides its equable climate, has 
the attractions of superb scenery, in- 
cluding Wilson's Peak. Mount Lowe, 
Echo Mountain, and the famous San 
Gabriel Mission. Pop. (1910) 30,291. 
Pascal, Blaise. a French author; 
born in Clermont, Auvergne, France, 
in 1623. At 12 years of age, he was 
surprised by his father in the act of 
demonstrating, on the pavement of 
An old hall where he used to play, by 
means of a rude diagram traced with 
a piece of coal, a proposition which 
corresponded to the 32d of the first 
book of Euclid. At the age of 19 
he invented his celebrated arith- 
metical machine, and at the age of 
26 he had composed the greater part 
of his mathematical works, and made 
brilliant experiments in hydrostatics 
and pneumatics, which ranked him 
among the first natural philosophers 
of his age. But a strong religious 
impulse having been imparted he re- 
E. 114. 



Passiflora 

nounced the career to which his genius 
invited him for theology. Died 1662. 

Paschall II., Pope; a native of 
Tuscany, succeeded Urban II. in 
1099. Ht had a contest with the 
Emperor Henry IV., respecting the 
right of investitures. Henry visited 
Rome, to be crowned by the Pope, 
who refused to perform the ceremony 
unless he yielded the matter in dis- 
pute. On this Henry caused Paschal 
to be retired from Rome. Paschal, 
after a captivity of two months, 
conceded his claim to the investi- 
tures. He died in 1118. 

Passaic, a city in Passaic county, 
N. J.; on the Passaic river and sev- 
eral steam and trolley lines; 5 miles 
S. E. of Paterson; is in a good farm- 
ing and grape-growing section; man- 
ufactures cotton, woolen, and rubber 
goods, wine, paper, and blankets; and 
has an Emergency Hospital, Collegi- 
ate School, Manual Training School, 
and handsome churches, public schools 
and residences. Pop. (1910) 54,773. 

Passenger Pigeon, also called 
wild pigeon and migratory pigeon. It 
is found from the Atlantic to the great 
central plains, and from the Southern 
States, where it only 
occasionally occurs, 
to 62 N. 

Passes, a tribe of 
Indians living in 
Brazil on the N. 
side of the Amazon, 
about the mouth of 
the Japura. They 
have always been 
friendly to the 
whites and are a 
peaceful, industrious 
race, many of whom 
lived in the mission 
villages in the 18th 
century. They are a 
branch of the great 
Arawak or Maypure 
stock. 

Passiflora, the 

Generally climbing herbs or shrubs. 
Fruit succulent, seeds many. Found 
chiefly in tropical America. The three 
stigmas seemed to the devout Roman 
Catholics of South America to rep- 
resent nails; one transfixing each 
band, and one the feet of the crucified 




PASSENGEB 
PIGEON. 

passion-flower. 



Passionists 



Passovtr 



Saviour ; the five anthers, His five 

wounds ; the rays of the corona, His 

crown of thorns, or the halo of glory 

around His head ; the digitate leaves, 

the hands of those who scourged Him ; 

the tendrils, the scourge 

itself; while, finally, the 

10 parts of the perianth 

were the 10 apostles 

that is, the 12 wanting 

Judas who betrayed, and 

Peter who denied, his 

Lord. 

Passionists, a con- 
gregation of Roman 
Catholic priests founded 
by Paul Francis (1694- 
1775), surnamed Paul of 
the Cross, in 1737. The 
first convent was estab- 
lished on the Celian Hill 
at Rome. It has been 
revived since 1880, and 
they have been introduced 
lately in the United 
States, where they now 
possess four monasteries. 

Passion Play, a mys- 
tery or miracle play 
founded on the passion of 
our Lord ; a dramatic rep- 
resentation of the scenes 
of the passion. The 
only Passion play still 
kept up is that periodi- 
cally represented at Ober- 
ammergau ir* Bavaria. 

Passover, a festival 
instituted to commemo- 
rate Jehovah's " passing 
over " the Israelite houses 
wnile " passing through " 
those of the Egyptians, 
to destroy in the latter 
all the first-born. The 
first passover (that in 
Egypt) , those subsequent- 
ly occurring in Old 
Testament times, and those of the 
New Testament and later Judaism, 
were all somewhat different. In the 
first of these a Iamb without blem- 
ish was taken on the 10th, and killed 
on the 14th, of the month Abib, thence- 
forward in consequence to be reckoned 
the first month of the ecclesiastical 
year. The blood of the lamb was to 
be sprinkled on the two side posts 
and the single upper door post, and the i 
flesh eaten " with unleavened bread 



and bitter herbs " before the morning. 
That night Jehovah, passing over the 
blood-stained doors, slew the first born 
in the Egyptian houses not similarly 
protected; and, as the emancipated 




PASSION FLOWER. 

Jews that night departed from Egypt, 
that first passover could have con- 
tinued only one day. But the festival 
was to be an annual one. Connected 
with it was to be a feast of unleavened 
bread, continuing seven additional 
days, viz., from the 15th to the 21st 
of Abib, during which no leaven was 
to be eaten, or even allowed to be in 
the house. 

Sometimes the term passover is lim- 
ited to the festival of the 14th of 



Passport 

Abib ; sometimes it includes that and 
the feast of unleavened bread also, the 
two being viewed as parts of one 
whole. When the Jews reached Ca- 
naan, every male was required to pre- 
sent himself before God thrice a year, 
viz., at the passover, or feast of un- 
leavened bread, at that of " harvest " 
and that of " ingathering." In the Old 
Testament six passovers are mentioned 
as having been actually kept: That 
in Egypt, tkat in the wilderness, that 
under Joshua at Gilgal, that under 
Hezekiah, that under Josiah, and that 
under Ezra. After the exile wine 
was introduced. In modern Judaism 
no lamb is sacrificed, but a bone of 
that animal is placed among the 
viands ; leaven is put away, and other 
ceremonies observed. Passover in the 
sense of the paschal lamb, St. Paul 
applies to Christ, whose death was 
typical of that of the paschal lamb 
(1 Cor. v. 7; John xix, 14). 

Passport, a warrant of protection 
and authority to travel, granted to 
persons moving from place to place, by 
a competent authority. In some states 
no foreigner is allowed to travel with- 
out a passport from his government. 
In the United States passports, with 
description of the applicant, are issued 
by the State Department at Washing- 
ton. They -are good for two years 
from date, renewable by stating the 
date and number of the old one. They 
are issued only to citizens, native born 
and naturalized. 

Pasteur, Louis, a French chemist 
and physicist ; born in Dole, Jura, in 
1822 ; educated at Jena University and 
the Ecole Normale, Paris, where in 
1847 he took his degree as doctor. He 
was especially successful in prov- 
ing the part played by microbes _in 
fermentation and decomposition, in in- 
troducing a successful treatment of 
diseases in silkworms and cattle, and 
achieved great success in his efforts 
to check hydrophobia by means of 
inoculation. To enable him to deal 
with this disease under the best condi- 
tions a Pasteur Institute was opened 
in Paris, where patients are received 
from all parts of Europe. A similar 
institution, in New York city, has 
proved very successful. He died in 
Paris, Sept. 28, 1895. 

Pastor, a shepherd; now used al- 
most exclusively in its figurative sense, 



Fastonreanx 

for one who feeds the Christian flock; 
a minister of the Gospel, having charge 
of a church and congregation. In orni- 
thology the rose^colored ousel. It hag 
a wide geographical range, and in hab- 
its resembles the starling. It is often 
called the locust bird. 

Pastoral Poetry, poetry which 
deals, in a more or tess direct form, 
with rustic life. 

Pastoral Staff, in the Roman 
Catholic Church the official staff of a 
bishop or abbot. The 
pastoral staff of an 
archbishop is distin- 
guished by being sur- 
mounted by a crozier. 

Pastoureaux, or 
Pastorels, disorderly 
peasant mobs which 
overran parts of 
France in the 13 tk 
and 14th centuries. 
These outbreaks took 
place : 

(1) In Berry in 
1214. The peasantry 
pillaged chateaux and 
religious houses, and 
proclaimed universal 
equality and the com- 
ing of the Holy Ghost. 

(2) In 1250; the 
ostensible objects were 
the rescue of Louis 
VII. and the recovery 
of the Holy Sepul- 
cher. The rising orig- 
inated in Flanders, 
under the leadership of 
a person of unknown 
name called the Mas- 
ter of Hungary, who, 

when he reached Paris, was at 
the head of 100,000 men. Here they 
not only usurped priestly functions, 
performed marriages, distributed 
crosses, offered absolution to those who 
joined the crusade, but they inveighed 
against the vices of the priesthood. 
They separated into three divisions, 
and marched S., where they were at- 
tacked and cut to pieces. 

(3) In 1320, in the reign of Philip 
V. This outbreak took place under the 
pretense of a crusade. The insurgents 
were excommunicated by Pope John 
XXII. ; and being hemmed in in Car- 
cassonne, numbers perished of disease 




Patagonia 

and famine, and the survivors were 
put to death. 

Patagonia, the name applied to 
that extreme portion of South America 
which is bounded E. by the Atlantic, 
W. by the Pacific, S. by the Strait of 
Magellan, and N. by the Rio Negro. 
Since 1881 this large territory has 
been, by treaty, divided between Chile 
and the Argentine Republic, so that 
the portion W. of the Andes (63,000 
square miles) belongs now to the for- 
mer, and the portion E. of the Andes 
(360,000) belongs to the latter. The 
Straits of Magellan form a S. bound- 
ary of 360 miles, and separate the 
mainland from the numerous islands 
of Tierra del Fuego. Here the Chilean 
government has established the settle- 
ment of Punta Arenas, with stations 
along the coast. Patagonia E. of the 
Andes consists mainly of vast undulat- 
ing plains, frequently covered with 
ehingle and broken up by ridges of 
volcanic rock. The vegetation is 
scanty, except in the region adjoining 
the Andes, and in many places there 
are shallow salt lakes and lagoons. 
The chief rivers are the Rio Negro, 
the Chupat, the Rio Desire, and the 
Rio Chico, all of which have their 
sources in the Andes, and run E. There 
are few t if any good seaports. The 
Patagonians are a tall, muscular race 
averaging fully six feet in height, with 
black hair, thick lips, and skin of a 
dark brown color. They are a nomad 
race, divided into numerous tribes, 
whose chief occupation is in hunting 
and cattle breeding. This native pop- 
ulation is_ rapidly disappearing. Col- 
onization is encouraged by the Argen- 
tine government, and there are many 
tracts suitable for European settle- 
ment. The country was first discov- 
ered by Magellan in 1520. 

Fate de foie gras, a dish made 
from the enlarged livers of overfed 
geese, and much relished by epicures. 
It is made in the form of a pie, and 
from its oily nature is very indigesti- 
ble, and nauseous to most people. 

Patent, an exclusive right granted 
by a government (in letters patent or 
open, whence the name) to any person 
or persons to manufacture and sell a 
chattel or article of commerce of his 
OWP invention. In the United Slates 



Patent 

the person applying for a patent may 
present a petition, specification, oath, 
and filing fee, with a drawing if the 
nature of the case admits of it. On 
favorable action by the patent office, 
letters granting to the patentee, his 
heirs, or assigns, for the term of 17 
years, the exclusive right to make, 
use, and vend the invention or dis- 
covery throughout the United States 
and the Territories thereof, are is- 
sued. Design patents are granted for 
periods of three years and six months, 
seven years, or 14 years, at discretion 
of the applicant. Patents are extend- 
ed only by special congressional legis- 
lation. The filing of a caveat prior 
to applying for a patent entitles the 
inventor to notice of an interfering 
application filed during the life of the 
caveat (one year), during which he 
may perfect his invention. The alleged 
inventions set forth in caveats are 
transferable. In the period of 1837- 
1909 there were filed in the United 
States Patent Office 1,659,249 appli- 
cations and 129,305 caveats; 996,005 
original patents and designs were 
issued; and the receipts exceeded the 
expenditures by $7,060,547. 

By the statute of 1870 it was enacted 
that an invention to be patentable, 
must possess, among other qualifica- 
tions, that of newness. 'He who pro- 
duces an old result by a new mode or 
process is entitled to a patent for that 
mode or process ; but he cannot have 
a patent for a result merely without 
using some new mode or process to 
produce it. A man is entitled to all 
the benefit of the article which he has 
invented and patented. Another who 
happens to discover an additional use 
to which the invention may be applied 
does not, by that discovery and appli- 
cation create a patentable novelty. A 
simple alteration in the form, size, ma- 
terial or proportions of an existing de- 
vice is not such a change as to pro- 
duce a patentable novelty. As a cumu- 
lative definition it may be said that 
novelty consists in producing a new 
substance, or an old one in a new way, 
by new machinery, or by a new com- 
bination of the parts of an old ma- 
chine, operating in a peculiar, better, 
cheaper or quicker method, or by a 
new mechanical employment of prin- 
ciples already known. 



Paterson 

Paterson, a city and county-seat of 
Passaic co., N. J., on the Passaic 
river, 16 miles N. W. of New York. 
The city is chiefly noted for its silk 
industries, on account of which it is 
called the " Lyons of America." It is 
built partly on the slopes of ranges 
of hills which surround it, and partly 
on a broad plain. On Feb. 2-3, 1902, 
the business portion of the city was 
destroyed by fire, entailing a loss of 
over $10,000,000. The principal mu- 
nicipal buildings, churches, banks, pub- 
lic library, and the largest stores were 
swept away by the flames. Wk 

Paterson is an important manufac- 
turing center. Its silk mills are the 
largest in the United States having 
an output of over $22,000,000 per an- 
num, and employing about 12,000 per- 
sons. Its other manufactures include 
locomotives, paper, jute, machinery, 
iron, and steel, engines, boilers, etc. 
The assessed property valuation ex- 
ceeds $92,000,000, and the total bond- 
ed debt is about $4,000,000. 

The city has an area of 8 square 
miles; 200 miles of streets, of which 
55 miles are paved; and a sewer sys- 
tem covering 55 miles. The streets are 
lighted by gas and electricity. The 
annual cost of maintaining the city 
government is about $1,135,000. The 
streets are well paved and broad. 
Among the local attractions are the 
Passaic Falls, 72 feet high. 

Paterson was founded in 1791 by a 
cotton manufacturing society which 
owed its origin to Alexander Hamilton. 
This society had a capital of $1,000,- 
000, with which it intended to lay the 
foundation of a great National manu- 
facturing city. The city was named 
in honor of Gov. William Paterson of 
New Je/sey. In 1851 it was incor- 
porated as a city. Paterson has re- 
cently been visited by floods as well 
as fire, the flood of October, 1903, 
being especially calamitous, but the 
people have faced and overcome these 
disasters with unfailing courage. Pop. 
(1900) 105,171; (IJJlO) 125,600. 

Paterson, William, an English 
financier ; born in Dumfriesshire, Scot- 
land, in 1665. He resided in the Ba- 
hama Islands. Returning to London 
he engaged in trade with success, and 
in 1694 founded the Bank of England, 
being one of its first directors. In 1695 



Paton 

he obtained the sanction of a Scotch 
act of Parliament constituting the 
Darien Company. After the failure of 
this scheme he returned to England. 
When the Treaty of Union between 
England and Scotland was concluded 
in 1707, Paterson, who was one of its 
warmest advocates, after much dif- 
ficulty received an indemnity of $90,- 
000 for the losses he had sustained. 
He died in London in 1719. 

Pathology, the branch of medical 
science which treats of disease. It in- 
vestigates its predisposing and exist- 
ing cause, its characteristic symptoms, 
and its progress from first to last. 

Patmos, a rocky and barren island, 
of most irregular outline, in the 2Egean 
Sea, one of the Sporades, lying to the 
S. of Samos, now called Patino ; area, 
16 square miles. It is celebrated as 
the place to which the apostle John 
was exiled ; in a cave here, it is said, 
he saw the visions recorded in the 
Book of Revelation. The island is un- 
der Turkish rule, but is inhabited by 
about 4,000 Greeks. 

Patna, called also Azimabad, a city 
of Bengal, 140 miles E. of Benares, 
extends 9 miles along the Ganges and 
2 miles back from the river ; tfee streets 
are narrow and crooked, and the 
houses mostly mean in appearance. 
Patna, under its early name of Pa- 
taliputra, is supposed to have been 
founded about 600 B. c. It was visited 
by Magesthenes, the Greek historian, 
about 300 B. c., and called Palibothra 
by him. In modern times Patna is 
notable as the scene of a massacre of 
British prisoners by Mir Kasim in 
1763, which led to war and annexation 
by the English, and for the mutiny at 
Dinapur, the military station of Patna 
in 1857. Patna ranks as the seventh 
city of India in point of population. 
Pop. 165,192. 

Paton, John Gibson, a Scotch 
missionary ; born in Kirkmahoe, Dum- 
friesshire, Scotland, May 24, 1824. He 
offered his services for the foreign mis- 
sion field in connection with the Re- 
formed Presbyterian Church,- and on 
his ordination he settled toward the 
end of 1858 among the cannibal natives 
of Tanna. Here he labored amid trials 
and difficulties till 1862, when he was 
forced to leave, owing to the hostility 



Faton 

of the natives. For the next 20 years 
bis work was on the neighboring island 
of Aniwa, the whole population of 
which became Christian. He died 
Jan. 2, 1907. 

Paton, Sir Joseph Noel, a Scotch 
historical painter ; born in Dunferm- 
line, Scotland, in 1821. He gained one 
of three premiums at the Westminster 
competition by his fresco of the 
" Spirit of Religion," and a prize of 
$1,500 by his paintings " Christ Bear- 
ing the Cross," and " The Reconcilia- 
tion of Oberon and Titania." He died 
in Edinburgh, Dec. 26, 1901. 

Patriarch, the father and ruler of 
a family ; one who governs his family 
or descendants by paternal right. The 
term is usually applied to Abraham, 
Isaac, Jacob, and his sons, or the 
heads of families before the flood. In 
Roman Catholic Church history, the 
highest grade in the hierarchy of or- 
dinary jurisdiction, the see of Rome 
excepted. 

Patrician, a Roman senator; a 
person of noble birth ; a nobleman ; a 
wealthy noble. The Roman patricians 
consisted of about 300 houses, or clans, 
who, descending from the first Roman 
senators, constituted the aristocracy 
of the city and territory. At first the 
patricians monopolized all high offices 
in the state, but after political con- 
tests with the plebeians, lasting for 
centuries, Licinius (365 B. c.) carried 
his rogation, by which plebeians were 
admitted to the consulate, and to the 
custody of the Sibylline books. 

Patrick, St., or Patricias, the 
apostle or patron saint of Ireland ; said 
to have been born near the site of Kil- 
patrick, Scotland. His zeal prompted 
him to cross the channel for the con- 
version of the pagan Irish. His ar- 
rival in Ireland took place probably be- 
tween 440^460. His endeavors were 
crowned with great success, and he es- 
tablished there a number of schools 
and monasteries. He died at an ad- 
vanced age. 

Patrol, or Patrole, a walking or 
marching round of a guard in the 
night to watch and observe what 
passes, and to secure the peace and 
eafety of a camp or other place. 

Patron, in Roman history, one 
who had manumitted a slave between 



Patterson 

whom and his manumissor a new re- 
lation was created, the f reedman owing 
his former master the obedience of a 
son, and the patron assuming many of 
the rights which the power of patron 
conveyed. 

Patron Saint. According to Ro- 
man Catholic and Greek belief, the 
saint under whose invocation coun- 
tries, churches, religious houses or so- 
cieties, or individuals are placed. 




BADGE OP THE OEDEE OF ST. PATRICK, 

Patrons of Husbandry. See 

HUSBANDRY, PATRONS OF. 

Patten, George 'Washington, 

soldier and poet ; born in Newport, R. 
I., Dec. 25, 1808: died in 1882. Edu- 
cated at United States Military Acad- 
emy, he served in the Mexican war. 

Patterson, Joseph, an American 
banker ; born near Norristown, Pa., 
Sept. 25, 1808. During the Civil War 
through his influence the bankers of 
the country made a loan of $50,000,- 
000 in gold to Secretary Chase, and 



Patterson 

$100,000,000 more in the year follow- 
ing. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., 
Sept. 25, 1887. 

Patterson, Robert M., an Ameri- 
can clergyman and author ; born in 
Philadelphia, Pa., July 17, 1832; was 
official reporter of the United States 
Senate in 1850-1855; was graduated 
at Princeton Theological Seminary in 
1859 ; and pastor South Presbyterian 
Church, Philadelphia, in 1867-1880. 
He was a member of the Pan-Presby- 
terian Councils in London in 1875, 
Philadelphia, in 1880, and Belfast, Ire- 
land, in 1884. 

Patti, Adelina Maria Clorinda, 
a popular operatic singer of Italian 
extraction ; born in Madrid, Spain, in 
1843. After a course of professional 
study she sang at an early age in 
New York. Her debut in London took 
place in 1861, and she was ever after- 
ward looked upon as one of the first 
singers of the day. In 1868 she was 
married to the Marquis de Caux, from 
whom she was divorced in 1876. She 
subsequently married M. Nicolini, and 
appeared in the United States, South 
America, and Mexico at various times. 
M. Nicolini died in 1898. She mar- 
ried Baron Rolf Cederstrom, Jan. 25, 
1899, and made a tour of the United 
States in the latter part of 1903. Her 
residence is Craig y Nos Castle, Wales. 

Patti, Carlotta, a popular Italian 
concert singer and sister of Adelina 
Patti ; born in Florence, Italy, in 
1840 ; made her debut in New York in 
1861, and in England in 1863. She 
gave concerts throughout Europe and 
America with great success. She was 
married Sept. 3, 1879, to Ernest de 
Munck, a violoncellist of Weimar, and 
died in Paris, June 27, 1889. 

Pattison, Thomas Harwood, an 
American educator; born in Cornwall, 
England, Dec. 14, 1838. For many 
years he was Professor of Homiletics 
and Pastoral Theology at Rochester 
(N. Y.) Theological Seminary. 

Patton, Francis Landey, an 
American educator ; born in Warwick 
Parish, Bermuda, Jan. 22, 1843. He 
was educated at Knox College and the 
University of Toronto, and was grad- 
uated at Princeton Theological Sem- 
inary in 1865. In 1865-1871 he was 
pastor of several churches; in 1881 
was appointed Professor of Relations 



Paul 

of Philosophy and Science to the 
Christian Religion in Princeton Uni- 
versity, a chair created for him. He 
was president of the university in 
1888-1902; then president of the 
Theological Seminary. 

Patton, Frank Jarvis, an Ameri- 
can inventor; born in Bath, Me., in 
1852 ; was graduated at the United 
States Military Academy in 1877; in- 
vented the multiplex telegraph system 
and the gyroscope now used on ocean 
vessels to determine their position at 
sea. He died in New York city, Nov. 
12, 1900. 

Patton, Jacob Harris, an Ameri- 
can historian ; born in Fayette co^, 
fa., May 20, 1812; died in 1903. 

Paul IV., Pope; Giovanni Pietro 
Caraffa ; born in Naples, in 1476 ; sue- 
I ceeded Marcellus II., in 1555. He es- 
tablished a censorship, and completed 
the organization of the Roman In- 
quisition. His foreign relations in- 
volved him in much labor and perplex- 
ity. Under the weight of so many 
cares, his great age gave way, and he 
died in 1559. 

Paul V., Pope; Camillo Borghese; 
born in Rome, in 1552 ; was elected in 
1605, after the death of Leo XI. He 
embellished Rome with many excellent 
works of sculpture and painting, and 
an aqueduct. He was the founder of 
the Borghese family, one of the weal- 
thiest in Italy. He died in 1621. 

Paul I., Emperor of Russia ; born 
in 1754. He was the only son of Pe- 
ter III. and his wife, Catherine II. He 
married the Princess Mary of Wur- 
temberg ia 1776. On the death of 
Catherine in 1796 he was proclaimed 
emperor. He joined the second coali- 
tion against France; and Russian ar- 
mies appeared in Italy, Switzerland, 
and Holland. But he afterward with- 
drew from it, and entered into friendly 
relations with Napoleon. A conspir- 
acy was formed against him, with 
Count Pahlen at its head, and he was 
murdered in his bedroom, March 24, 
1801. 

Paul, St., one of the apostles of 
Jesus Christ ; originally called Saul ; 
a Hebrew of the tribe of Benjamin, 
and a native of Tarsus, the capital of 
Cilicia, and was born at the beginning 
of the Christian era. His father was 
a Pharisee of the most rigid cast, and 



Paul 

Paul himself, up to the time of his 
conversion, was a most bitter and 
intolerant persecutor of the Christian 
sect; even assisting at the martyrdom 
of St. Stephen. The mode of his con- 
version is fully detailed in the New 
Testament. After his conversion, he 
was baptized at Damascus by Anani- 
as ; from whence, after a brief sojourn, 
he proceeded to Arabia, where he re- 
ceived the Ho'y Ghost. He was 
martyred about A. D. 66. 

Paul, Epistles of, St. There are 
14 epistles in the New Testament usu- 
ally ascribed to Paul, beginning with 
that to the Romans, and ending with 
that to the Hebrews. 

Paulding, James Kirke, an 
American author; born in Dutchess 
co., N. Y., Aug. 22, 1779. He early 
showed a tendency to literature. In 
1837 Van Buren appointed him Secre- 
tary of the Navy. Four years later 
he retired to a country residence at 
Hyde Park, N. Y., where he died, April 
6, 1860. 

Paulist Fathers, a modern Ameri- 
can society of the Roman Catholic 
Church, founded in New York by the 
late Rev. Isaac T. Hecker, in 1858. 
It is composed of 37 priests who are 
engaged in missionary and literary 
work ; many of them are converts from 
Protestantism. They publish "The 
Catholic World," a monthly magazine. 

Panlownia, a genus of trees with 
but one species; a native of Japan, 
and now grown in the United States. 

Paulns Hook, Fort, a Revolu- 
tionary fortress erected by the British 
on the site of Jersey City, N. J. 

Pauncefote, Julian, Lord, an 
English diplomatist ; born in Preston 
Court, Gloucestershire, England, in 
1828. He was the first delegate to the 
Suez Canal International Commission 
at Paris in 1885. In 1889 he was ap- 
pointed British minister to the United 
States and four years later the legation 
was raised to an embassy. He nego- 
tiated the settlement of \he Bering Sea 
dispute; the Anglo- Venezuelan bound- 
ary arbitration, and was chief of the 
British delegates to the Peace Confer- 
ence at The Hague in 1899. He also 
negotiated with the United States two 
conventions for the abrogation of the 
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. He died May 
24. 1902. 



Payne 

Pavement, the hard covering of the 
surface of a road or footway; a floor 
or covering of stones, brick, wood, etc., 
laid evenly on the earth, so as to form 
a level, hard, and convenient passage. 

Pawnbroker, one who is licensed 
to lend, or make a business of lending 
money on goods pawned or pledged. 

Pawnees, a tribe of American In- 
dians who formerly resided in Ne- 
braska, with branches extending into 
Kansas and Texas. They removed 
in 1876 to a reservation of 283,020 
acres in Indian Territory, and are 
now few in number. 

Pawtucket, a city in Providence 
county, R. I.; on the Pawtucket 
river and the New York, New Haven 
& Hartford railroad; 4 miles N. E. 
of Providence; has abundant water- 
power from a 50-foot fall of the 
river; was the site of the first cotton 
mill built in America (by Samuel 
Slater in 1790); and manufactures 
cotton and woolen goods, plush, 
braids, calicoes, leather, and machin- 
ery. Pop. (1910) 51,622. 

Pnxton, Sir Joseph, an English 
architect and horticulturist; born in 
Milton-Bryant, near Woburn, Bed- 
fordshire, Aug. 3, 1803. He began 
life as a gardener. He designed the 
Crystal Palace at Sydenham and 
superintended its construction. He 
died in Sydenham, June 8, 1865. 

Paymaster, an officer of the army 
and navy, from whom the officers and 
men receive their wages, and who is in- 
trusted with money for that purpose. 

Paymaster-General, in the 
United States, a title given to (1) the 
chief paying officer of the War De- 
partment, who ranks as a .Brigadier- 
General; (2) a similar officer in the 
Navy Department, who ranks as a 
rear-admiral, and (3) a corresponding 
staff officer in the militia of a State. 

Payn, James, an English novelist; 
born in Cheltenham, England, in 1830; 
was graduated at Cambridge in 1854. 
His works reach upwards of 100 
books. He died in London, March 25, 
1898. 

Payne, Henry Clay, an American 
jurist; born in Ashfield, Mass., Nov. 
23, 1843 ; was graduated at Shelburne 
Falls Academy (Mass.) in 1859; set- 
tled- in Milwaukee in 1863 : practised 
law in Chicago, 111., in 1883-1893; 




JAPANESE ENVOYS, STAFF, ETC. 



RUSSIAN ENVOYS 




SIGNING OF TREATY 
Stereographs copyright by H. C. White Co., N. Y. 



RUSSIAN- JAPANESE PEACE TREATY 



Payne 

was president of the Chicago Law In- ! 
etitute in 1889 ; judge of the Superior 
Court of Cook co., 111., in 1893-1898. 
On Dec. 16, 1901, he was appointed 
Postmaster-General of the United 
States. He died Oct. 4, 1904. 

Payne, John. Howard, an Ameri- 
can dramatist ; born in New York, 
June 9, 1792. At the age of 16 he 
made his first appearance at the Park 
Theater. He also played in England 
and Ireland, a part of the time with 
Miss O'Neill. In 1851 was appointed 
United States consul to Tunis. He 
wrote, translated and adapted over 
60 plays, but is most famous as the 
author of " Home, Sweet Home." 
He died in Tunis, April 10, 1852. 

Peabody (formerly SOUTH DAN- 
VEBsK' a town in Essex county, 
Mass.; 2 miles E. of Salem; contains 
the Peabody Institute and the Sut- 
ton Reference Library; and was the 
birthplace of George Peabody. Pop. 
(1910) 15,721. 

Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer, an 
American writer and educator ; born 
in Billerica, Mass., May 16, 1804. 
She became a teacher in Boston in 
1822; and was one of the first to in- 
troduce the kindergarten system in the 
United States. She died in Jamaica 
Plain, Mass., Jan. 4, 1894. 

Peabody, George, an American 
philanthropist ; born in Danvers, 
Mass., in 1795. He became chief 
clerk, and, afterward, partner with his 
uncle, John Peabody, in Georgetown, 
D. C., in 1812. Not satisfied with 
their business relations, George left 
his uncle and joined partnership with 
Mr. Elisha Riggs in the drygoods busi- 
ness in Baltimore, in 1815. His busi- 
ness increasing, he found occasion to 
make frequent visits to England, 
where he finally settled in 1829. In 
1837 he withdrew from the firm, and 
established himself as banker in Lon- 
don, where he amassed a fortune. He 
was particularly devoted to promoting 
education (see following). He died 
in London, in Nov. 1869. 

Peabody Education Fund. In 
1867 and 1869 George Peabody estab- 
lished a fund of $3,500,000, to be de- 
voted to education in the Southern 
States of the Union. The fund was 
placed in the charge and control of 
15 trustees, who hold meetings annual- 



Peace Society* 

ly, usually in New York. In its ear- 
lier history the chief aim of the fund 
was to encourage and secure the estab- 
lishment of public school systems for 
the free education of all children. That 
having been accomplished, the income 
of the fund is now used for the train- 
ing of teachers through normal schools 
and teachers' institutes. In 1909 the 
trustees appropriated $1,000,000, out 
of $2,500,000 on hand, to the Pea- 
body Normal School at Nashville, 
Tenn. 

Peace Conference. After the se- 
cession of several of the States of the 
American Union in 1860, Virginia, on 
Jan. 1, 1861, invited the remaining 
States to send delegates to a confer- 
ence in Washington, with the object of 
devising a plan whereby all difficulties 
then existing might be peaceably set- 
tled. The conference met on Feb. 4. 
Fourteen free States and seven slave 
States were represented, and ex-Presi- 
dent John Tyler was made the presid- 
ing officer. A committee of one from 
each State was appointed to draw up 
a report of " what . they may deem 
right, necessary and proper, to restore 
harmony and preserve the Union." 

The report was rejected by both 
Congress and Senate. 

Peace Congress, National, or- 
ganized by the National Arbitration 
and Peace Committee, and held in 
New York city, Apr., 1907, preceding 
The Hague International Peace Con- 
gress of that year. 

Peace Congress, Universal, an 
international gathering at The Hague, 
held in response to an invitation of 
Nicholas II., Czar of Russia, beginning 
May 18, 1899, in which the United 
States took part, and which framed a 
plan, since approved by the powers, 
for a permanent Tribunal of Arbi- 
tration and periodical conferences. 

Peace Society, The, an organiza- 
tion founded in 1816; has for its ob- 
ject the promotion' of permanent and 
universal peace. It welcomes the sup- 
port of Christians of all denomina- 
tions, and also of those persons who 
oppose war on humanitarian or other 
grounds. The society has always ad- 
vocated a gradual, proportionate, and 
simultaneous disarmament by all the 
nations of Europe, and the principle 
of arbitration, and claims as partly 
due to its efforts that this mode of set- 



Peach 

tling international difficulties has been 
frequently adopted. 

Peach, a tree and its fruit, of the 
almond genus ; the Amygdalus Persica 
of many varieties. They are exten- 
sively cultivated in the United States. 

Peacock, a male gallinaceous bird 
of the Pavo genus, distinguished by its 
beautiful disc-like tail. The female is 
called a peahen. 

Peacock Butterfly, a beautiful 
butterfly, two and one-half, or two 
and three-quarter inches across the 
wings. It is seen in numbers on the 
tops of nettles, hi June and July. The 
perfect insect appears in August, lives 
through the winter, and is seen in 
March and April. 

Peale, Charles Wilson, an 
American miscellaneous writer ; born 
in Maryland, April 16, 1741. He at- 
tained distinction as a portrait paint- 
er, and naturalist. He died in Phila- 
delphia, Feb. 22, 1827. 

Peale, Rembrandt, an American 
artist ; born in Bucks co., Pa., Feb. 
22, 1778. When 17 years old executed 
a portrait of Washington, from whom 
he had three sittings ; it was purchased 
by Congress. He died in Philadelphia, 
Pa., Oct. 3, 18GO. 

Pear, a shrub or small tree, 20 to 
40 feet high, with the branches more 
or less spinescent and pendulous, and 
the fruit pyriform, one or two inches 
long, becoming larger and sweeter in 
cultivation. Many hundred cultivated 
varieties exist. 

Pea Ridge, a post village in Ben- 
ton co., Ark. ; about 8 miles E. of Ben- 
tonville. Here, on March 6, 7, and 8, 
1862, occurred one of the most desper"- 
ate battles of the Civil War. Gen. 
Samuel B. Curtis, in command of 
about 11,000 Union troops, with 49 
pieces of artillery, was attacked by a 
superior force of Confederates (said 
to number 20,000) under Gen. Earl 
Van Dorn, and a .series of obstinate 
and sanguinary conflicts ensued ; often 
favoring each army with temporary 
success, finally ended with the with- 
drawal of Van Dorn. 

Pearl, a peculiar product of certain 
marine and freshwater mollusks or 
shellfish. The most famous pearls are 
those from the East ; the coast of Cey- 
1m They are, however, obtained now 
of nearly the same quality in other 



Peary 

parts of the world. These, and indeed 
all the foreign pearls used in jewelry, 
are produced by the pearl oyster. 

Pearly Nautilus, common in the 
Pacific and Indian Oceans, especially 
toward the Moluccas. It is believed 
to inhabit both deep and shallow 
water. The shell is imported into the 
United States for its fine mother-of- 
pearl, much in request with cabinet 
makers and jewelers. 

Pearsons, Daniel Kimball, an 
American philanthropist ; born in Bed- 
ford, Vt, April 14, 1820 ; was gradu- 
ated at the Medical College of Wood- 
stock, Vt. ; practised medicine till 
1857; engaged in real estate operations 
in Chicago till 1888; then devoted him- 
self to assisting small colleges, giving 
away over $5,000,000. He died April 
27, 1912. 

Peary, Robert Edwin, an Arctic 
explorer and civil engineer in the 
United States navy; born in Cresson, 
Pa., May 6, 1856 ; was graduated at 
Bowdoin College, and in 1885 became 
a civil engineer in the United States 
navy, with the rank of lieutenant. In 
1886 he made a journey of reconnois- 
sance to Greenland, advancing for over 
100 miles on the interior ice. In 1891 
and 1893 he made other trips to the 
Polar regions, in which he was accom- 
panied, as far as the winter quarters, 
by his wife, Josephine Diebitsch Peary. 
In ^hese expeditions he made excur- 
sions on a sledge along the coast of 
Greenland, and traversed the inland 
ice from McCormick Bay to the N. E. 
angle of Greenland (Independence 
Bay). He proved the convergence of 
the E. and W. coasts of Northern 
Greenland, and almost with positive- 
ness the insularity of the mainland. 
He discovered new lands (Melville 
Land and Heilprin Land), and named 
many glaciers. In May, 1896, Lieu- 
tenant Peary made a successful expe- 
dition to Greenland for the purpose of 
collecting specimens in natural his- 
tory. He returned to Cape Breton, 
Sept. 27. In 1897 he was given leave 
of absence by the government for the 
purpose of continuing his explorations 
in the northern seas, and to establish 
a station in the far N. of Greenland, 
which should be provisioned and sup- 
plied and made the basis of a series of 
annual expeditions into the Polar re- 
gions. In pursuance of this project ht 



feat 

went N. in the summer of 1897 to take 
the necessary preliminary measures, 
such as securing the aid of the Eski- 
mos, fixing the site of a station, etc. 
He returned in October of that year, 
bringing with him an immense mass 
of meteoric iron, or what is supposed 
to be such, from Cape York, Green- 
land, which was placed in the Mu- 
seum of Natural History in New York 
city. On July 3, 1898, Lieutenant 
Peary again sailed on a search for 
the North Pole, going in the steamer 
" Hope " from St. John's Newfound- 
land, to Sidney, Cape Breton, and 
horn there to Cape York, Baffin's Bay. 
At that place the party and stores 
were transferred to the " Windward," 
which has made several Arctic voy- 
ages. They carried provisions for 
four years. In September, 1901, word 
was received from Peary that he had 
founded the Greenland archipelago 
(the extreme N. land known), and 
reached lat. 83 50' N. He establish- 
ed his headquarters for the winter of 
1901-1902 at Cape Sabine, with the 
plan of again attempting to reach the 
North Pole in the spring of 1902. He 
made a most courageous and danger- 
ous effort to carry out that purpose, 
going on sledges over the ice until 
open water and icefloes made it im- 
possible to proceed. In 1908-1909 he 
made his last attempt, and on April 
6, 1909, reached the latitude of 90, 
and the long sought-for goal was at- 
tained. Promoted captain 1910. See 
ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. 

Feat, a deposit formed in bogs by 
the decay of vegetable matter, fre- 
quently consisting almost entirely of 
sphagnum, or bog moss. In composi- 
tion it differs from coal only in the 
relative proportion of its constituents. 
During the American coal famine of 
1902-1903 peat was used to some ex- 
tent as fuel. 

Peattie, Mrs. Elia Wilkinson, 
an American journalist ; born in Mich- 
igan, in 1862 ; connected with the Chi- 
cago press. 

Pelba, called also the black tatou, 
an armadillo ranging from Texas S. to 
Paraguay. 

Pecaa, or Pecan Nut, a sped _-s of 
hickory and its fruit, growing in Jxorth 
America. 

Peccary, the popular name for two 
species of small suilline mammals from 



Pedagogy 

the New World, nearly allied. The 
collared peccary ranges from Arkansas 
S. to the Rio Negro, and seldom at- 
tacks other animals. The white-lipped 
peccary is rarely met with N. of Brit- 
ish Honduras, or S. of Paraguay. It 
associates in large droves, is very pug- 
nacious, and does not hesitate to at- 
tack man, hunters often having to 
take to a tree for safety. 

Peck, Harry Tlmrston, born in 
Stamford, Conn., in 1856 ; professor 
of Latin at Columbia University, 
1886-1910; editor of "The Book- 
man," of "Harper's Classical Dic- 
tionary," "The New International 
Cyclopedia" (20 vols.), "Students' 
Series of Latin Classics" (32 vols.), 
"The New Websterian (1912) Dic- 
tionary" ; author of "The Semitic 
Theory of Creation," "The Personal 
Equation," "What is Good English?" 
"The Life of Prescott," "Twenty 
Years of the Republic," "Studies in 
Several Literatures," "The New Bae- 
deker," "History of Classical Phil- 
ology," and so forth. 

Pechili. See CHI-LI. 

Peck, George Wilbur, an Amer- 
ican humorist ; born in Henderson, N. 
Y., Sept. 28, 1840. Governor of Wis- 
consin, in 1891-1895. In 1883 he 
published "Peck's Bad Boy and his 
Pa"; in 1890-1891* was mayor of 
Milwaukee; in 1891-1895, governor 
of Michigan. 

Peck, Harry Thnrston, scholar 
and critic; born in Stamford, Conn., 
Nov. 24, 1856; was graduated at 
Columbia College, and in 1888-1910 
was professor of Latin there. 

Peck, Samuel Mintnrn, an 
American poet ; born in Tuscaloosa, 
Ala., in 1854. He was educated at the 
University of Alabama, and later stud- 
ied medicine in New York. 

Pecos River, a river of New Mex- 
ico and Texas, which has a S. E. 
course of about 800 miles, and falls 
into the Rio Grande del Norte, but in 
summer is generally dry. 

Pedagogue, in classical antiquity, 
a slave who led his master's children 
to school, places of amusement, etc., 
till they became old enough to take 
care of themselves. A teacher of 
young children; a schoolmaster. 

Pedagogy, or Pedagogic!, a 
term Anglicized from the German, sig- 



Pedagogy 



Pedro I. 



nifies the SCIENCE OF EDUCATION OB 
TEACHING, for the systematic develop- 
ment of the human faculties. It has 
Mind, Matter, and Method as essen- 
tial factors, and its ideal is to study 
the individual natures of youth, in 
order to ascertain the special functions 
or talents with which each is endowed, 
so as to develop them towards perfec- 
tion by systematized methods of train- 
ing. 

This study is effected under three 
recognized divisions : physiology, the 
constitution of the body ; psychology, 
the constitution of the mind ; ethics 
and religion, the moral and spiritual 
nature. 

The psychology of pedagogy em- 
braces the scientific observation and 
study of children, mental pathology 
or morbid conditions, comparative psy- 
chology, or the growth and grades of 
intelligence, and empirical and educa- 
tional psychology, the latter including 
apperception, or the essential mental 
operation in the act of learning. 

The physiological aspect of peda- 
gogy embraces physical education and 
hygiene, including anthropometry or 
body measurements, supervision of 
eyestrain, spinal curvature, overpres- 
sure, stammering, vocal efforts, the 
ventilation, sanitation, furniture, ap- 
paratus and equipment of school 
grounds and buildings, the gymnastic, 
calisthenic, Delsartian, Swedish and 
other athletic exercises. 

The moral and spiritual side of peda- 
gogy embraces ethics or manners, aes- 
thetics which gives inspiration by a 
taste for and contemplation of the 
beautiful, and civil and religious in- 
struction, which include Sunday- 
schools, and initiate the duties and 
rights of citizenship, the formation of 
religious sentiment and the recognition 
of a supreme moral force. 

The principles and practice of Peda- 
gogy comprise elementary, secondary 
and higher instruction, and school ad- 
ministration. 

School administration and manage- 
ment embrace organization and dis- 
cipline, the question of punishments, 
amusements and general exercises, the 
selection of text-books, libraries, and 
museum collections, supervision of 
studies, elective systems of study, ex- 
aminations and degrees, legislation, and 
endowments, including federal and 



state aid, land grants, and private 
benefactions. 

Elementary instruction is typified 
by the kindergarten children's garden 
or child-study institution, giving in- 
struction in the rudiments of lan- 
guage, number and arithmetic, nature 
(study, object lessons, geography, 
drawing and music. To the elementary 
also belongs the education of orphans 
and neglected children, of colored chil- 
dren negroes, Indians, Eskimos, etc., 
and of defective children, blind, deaf 
mutes, mentally deficient, truants, in- 
corrigibles and offenders, and compul- 
sory education to combat illiteracy. 

Secondary and higher instruction* 
comprise the advanced forms of ele- 
mentary education, together with an- 
cient and modern languages, history, 
economics, politics and sociology, 
mathematics and science. 

Higher instruction also embraces 
night and continuation schools, public 
lectures, college settlements, univer- 
sity extension courses, self-culture, 
and home education. Other forms of 
high pedagogy are found in the 
methods for manual and industrial 
training, typified in the sloyd, slojd, or 
Swedish series of manual exercises. 

The highest pedagogic forms em- 
brace the college and university 
courses for professional education, in- 
cluding training for teaching, theology, 
law, medicine and its sub-divisions 
surgery, dentistry, pharmacy and 
nursing ; fine arts comprising sculp- 
ture, drawing, painting, engraving, 
music and architecture ; science em- 
bracing technology, agriculture, com- 
merce, military and naval training ; 
modern colleges for the education of 
women, and post-graduate courses. 

The literature on every branch of 
Pedagogics is enormous and continu- 
ally increasing. Reference to any spe- 
cial department is best made by con- 
sulting : the " Catalogue of Educa- 
tional Literature of the U. S. Bureau 
of Education," Washington; the "Bul- 
letin of the Books on Education in 
the Libraries of Columbia University," 
New York city ; or the excellent bibli- 
ographies of Education by Prof. W. 
S. Monroe, by G. S. Hall and J. M. 
Mansfield and others. 

CHARLES LEONARD STUART. 

Pedro I., Doiii Antonio Jose 
D'Alcantara, Emperor of Brazil, 



Pedro' 

eldest son of John VI., King of Portu- 
gal, elder brother of Dom Miguel, and 
nephew to Ferdinand VII., King of 
Spain ; born in 1798, and was taken, 
in 1808, with the rest of the royal 
family, to Brazil. In 1822, the Bra- 
eilians having proclaimed their inde- 
pendence, choset Pedro for their em- 
peror. The death of John VI., in 
1826, left Dom Pedro the crown of 
Portugal. After abdicating the crown 
of Portugal in favor of his daughter. 
Dona Maria, he nominated his 
brother, Dom Miguel, regent ; but 
scarcely had he quitted Portugal, when 
Dom Miguel took possession of the 
throne. In 1831 he was compelled to 
abdicate the throne of Brazil in favor 
of his son, Dom Pedro II. Returning 
to Europe, he raised troops in France 
and England, with which he, in 1833, 
drove Dom Miguel from the throne of 
Portugal, and placed the crown upon 
the head of his daughter. He was 
twice married; his first wife being 
Maria Leopoldina, Archduchess of 
Austria, and the second, Amelia, 
daughter of Prince Eugene de Beau- 
harnais. He died in 1834. 

Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil ; born 
in Rio Janeiro, in 1825; succeeded to 
the throne on the abdication of his 
father, Dom Pedro I., in 1831. He 
assisted President Grant in opening 
the Centennial Exposition in Phila- 
delphia in 1876; and was deposed by 
the revolution of 1889. Died in 1891. 

Peebles, James Martin, an 
American physician; born in Whit- 
tingham, Vt., March 23, 1822; was 
a member of the Northwest Congres- 
sional Indian Peace Commission in 
1868; United States consul to Trebi- 
zonde, Turkey, in 1869; and repre- 
sented the Arbitration League at the 
Peace Conference in Berlin. 

Peekskill, a village in West- 
chester county, N. Y.; on the Hud- 
son river and the New York Central 
& Hudson River railroad; 42 miles 
N. of New York city; is surrounded 
by grand mountain scenery; manu- 
factures fire brick, hats, underwear, 
and stoves; and contains the State 
Military Camp, Helping Hand Hos- 
pital, Mohegan Lake School, Field 
Library, and House of the Good 
Shepherd. Pop. (1910) 15,245. 

Peel, Sir Robert, an English 
statesman; son of Sir Robert Peel, 



Peking 

a wealthy manufacturer; born in 
1788, and studied at Harrow and Ox- 
ford. When just 21 years of age he 
entered Parliament, and thenceforth 
the sphere of his exertions and tri- 
umphs was in the House of Commons. 
In 1811 he was made under-secretary 
for the colonies, and in 1812, when 
only 24, he received the appointment 
of chief secretary for Ireland. After 
carrying his celebrated currency meas- 
ure of 1819, he became, in 1822, home 
secretary. He became prime minister 
in 1841. He died in 1850, of internal 
injuries caused by a fall from a horse. 

Peele, John Thomas, an Ameri- 
can artist ; born in Peterborough, 
England, in 1822; settled in New 
York city in 1835; early manifested 
a genius for portrait painting and 
went to Europe to study ; returned to 
New York in 1846. Later, he de- 
voted himself to genre painting, becom- 
ing a specialist in studies of child 
life. He died in 1897. 

Peepul, or Pipal, also known as 
the Sacred Fig of India, a species of 
fig, somewhat resembling the banyan, 
but the branches not rooting like those 
of that tree. The tree is held sacred 
by the Hindus, because Vishnu is said 
to have been born under it. 

Feet, Stephen Denison, an 
; American clergyman and archaeologist ; 
born in Euclid, O., Dec. 2, 1831. He 
became a Congregational minister, and 
an authority on the works of the 
mound builders and American archae- 
ology in general. 

Peirce, Benjamin, an American 
mathematician ; born in Salem, Mass., 
April 4, 1809; studied at Harvard, 
where in 1833 he became professor. 
His paper on the discovery of Neptune 
attracted universal attention, and his 
papers on the constitution of Saturn's 
rings were equally remarkable. He 
died in Cambridge, Mass., Oct. 6, 1880. 

Pekan, Pennant's marten, a North 
American species, about four feet long; 
it often steals the fish used to bait 
traps, whence it is sometimes called the 
fisher. 

Peking, or Pekin, the capital of 
the Chinese empire, province of Chih- 
le, or Pechili, in a vast sandy plain, 
between the Pei-ho and its important 
affluent, the Hoang-ho. 562 miles N. 
W. of Nankin, and 100 miles W. N. 



Pelagians 

W. of the Gulf of Pechili, in the Yel- 
low Sea. It consists of two contigu- 
ous cities, each separately surrounded 
by walls, and together entered by 16 
gates. The entire circumference is 25 
miles. The northern city, which is 
nearly a perfect square, consists of 
three enclosures. The outer one is 
used by Chinese traders. The second 
enclosure contains the residences of the 
dignitaries of the empire and foreign 
legations, the national literary insti- 
tutions, and the temples of An- 
cestors and Peace, and is inhabited 
mostly by the Manchus. The inner en- 
closure, or " forbidden city," sur- 
rounded by walls of yellow tiles, 2 
miles in circumference, hence called 
the "Yellow Wall," contains the pal- 
aces of the emperor and empress. The 
southern city, called the Wai-ching, or 
" outer city," is also square, and occu- 
pied by the Chinese, and is both the 
seat of business and the residence of 
most of the population. The wall is 
30 feet high, 25 feet thick at the base, 
and 12 feet at the top. That of the 
imperial city is 40 feet high. The 
principal streets are very wide and 
regular, running between opposite 
gates. The houses are generally one 
story high, and built of brick. Of the 
ornamental buildings, the most con- 
spicuous are those commonly called 
triumphal arches. They consist of a 
large central gateway, with small ones 
on each side, all covered with nar- 
row roofs, and like the houses are 
splendidly gilded, varnished, and paint- 
ed. Peking is indebted for its im- 
portance to its being the residence of 
the emperor and the seat of govern- 
ment. The country round the city be- 
ing sandy and poor, a large portion 
of its supplies are brought from a dis- 
tance partly from sea by the Pei-ho, 
but principally by the Grand canal and 
the Eu-ho, which connect it with Nan- 
kin, and most of the E. provinces. The 
early history of Peking is involved in 
obscurity. Kublai Khan rebuilt it, 
and made it his capital in 12GO. The 
Mongol dynasty, founded by Kublai 
Ithan, continued to occupy this city 
till it was expelled from China, in 
1367. In 1421, the third emperor of 
the Chinese dynasty of Ming trans- 
ferred his residence thither from 
Nankin, since which it has been the 
capital of the empire. During the 
" Boxer " uprising of 1900 the various 



Feliaa 

foreigners in Peking were besieged in 
the English legation. For weeks they 
were given up as lost, but they man- 
aged to hold out till the arrival of the 
foreign troops. Present pop. (about) 
700,000. 

Pelagians, a sect that arose about 
the beginning of the 5th century. Their 
founder was Pelagius, a monk, a na- 
tive of Britain, whose original name 
was Morgan. He taught that man is 
capable of a religious life, without 
the grace of God, and that grace is ' 
given, not freely, but according to the 
merits of the recipient. 

Pelagic Sealing, the taking of 
seal in the open sea. 

Pelaniis, a genus of sea snakes, 
with a single species, ranging from 
Madagascar to New Guinea, New Zea- 
land, and Panama. 

Pelasgian, one of an ancient and 
widely diffused prehistoric tribe which 
was the common parent of the Greeks 
and of the earliest civilized inhabitants 
of Italy. The origin of this people is 
lost in myth. Traces of them are fqund 
in Asia Minor and Italy. The term 
Pelasgi was used by the classic poets 
for the Greeks in general. Some Al- 
banian tribes are supposed to be of 
Pelasgic descent. 

Pclew Islands, or Falan, a group 
in the Pacific formerly belonging to 
Spain, lying S. E. of the Philippines, 
at the W. extremity of the Caroline 
Archipelago, with which they are some- 
times classed. There are about 200 
islands, and surrounded with corai 
reefs. Total area, 170 square miles. 
The principal is Babelthouap or Babel- 
top. The soil is rich and fertile, and 
the climate healthy. Bread fruit, 
cocoanuts, sugar cane, palms, areca 
nuts, yams, etc., are grown. Turtles, 
trepang, and fish abound on the coasts. 
The inhabitants, about 10,000 in num- 
ber, are of the Malay race. The men 
go entirely naked and the women, 
nearly so. They are described as be- 
ing good-natured, and have peculiar 
social institutions. The islands were 
discovered by the Spaniards in 1543, 
and visited again in 1696. In 1899 
Spain sold this group, with the Caro- 
lines and all of the Ladrones except- 
ing Guam, to Germany. 

Pelias, the adder, or common viper. 
No teeth in upper maxillaries, except 



Pelican 



PemTia 



the poison fangs ; a row of small teeth 
on the palatine bone, on each side of 
the palate. 

Pelican, a large piscivorous water 
fowl, with an enormous pouch de- 
pendent from the flexible branches of 
the lower mandible, but capable of be- 
ing contracted when not in use as a 
depository for food. The species are 
widely distributed, and frequent the 
shores of the sea, rivers, and lakes, 
feeding chiefly on fish, which they 
hunt in shallow water, the pelican of 
the United States being the only spe- 
cies which dives for its prey. The 
common pelican is about the size of a 
swan, though its enormous bill and 
loose plumage make it look consid- 
erably larger ; it is white, slightly 
tinged with flesh color, and the breast 
feathers become yellow in old birds. 
Pelican, The, the ship in which 
Sir Francis Drake made his voyage 
around the world. He left Plymouth 
with four ships besides the " Pelican," 
Nov. 15, 1577, and completed his jour- 
ney Sept. 15, 1580. The "Pelican" 
was the only ship he brought back 
with him, and it was for a long time 
carefully preserved by order of "Queen 
Elizabeth. When finally broken up a 
chair was made from its timbers by 
John Davis, the Arctic navigator, 
. which is now in the Bodleian Library. 
Pelissier, Aimable Jean 
Jacques, Duke of Malakoff, a 
marshal of France ; born near Rouen 
in 1794. He entered the army at the 
age of 19, and distinguished himself in 
Africa and was created Lieutenant- 
General in 1848 and was called in 
1855 to take a command in the Crimea 
under General Canrobert, whom he 
soon superseded as Commander-in- 
Chief. He distinguished himself in 
the successful attack on Kertch, in 
the battle of the Tchernaya, and above 
ail in the storming of the Malakoff 
Tower at Sebastopol, Sept. 8, 1855. 
He was soon after created Marshal 
and Duke of Malakoff. In 1858 he 
was ambassador to London; was sub- 
sequently appointed governor-general 
of Algeria, and died there in 1864. 

Pellagra, a disease common among 
the peasantry of Northern Italy, the 
lAsturias, Gascony, Rumania, and 
Corfu, caused by living on maize af- 
fected by a parasitic fungus. 



Pelletier, Sir Charles Al- 
phonse Pantaloon, a Canadian of- 
ficial: born in Riviere Ouelle, Que- 
bec, Jan. 22, 1837; was called to the 
bar in 1860; member of the Com- 
mons in 1869-1877, of the Provincial 
Assembly in 1873-1874, and Senator 
in 1877-1905; Speaker of Dominion 
Senate in 1896-1901; Quebec City 
Solicitor for 40 years; Judge Su- 
perior Court, Quebec Province, in 
1905-1908; then became Lieutenant- 
Governor of the Province. 

Pellico, Silvio, an Italian patriot; 
born in Saluzza, Piedmont, in 1789; 
best known for his tragedy, " Fran- 
cesca da Rimini." The volume on 
which his fame rests tells the story 
of his 10* years' imprisonment. He 
died in 1854. 

Pelopidas, a Theban general, the 
friend of Epaminondas and the asso- 
ciate of his victories. When the Spar- 
tans conquered Thebes, Pelopidas went 
to Athens, where he assembled his ex- 
iled countrymen, with whom he re- 
turned, seized on Thebes, and expelled 
the invaders. Afterward he defeated 
the Lacedaemonians at Tegyra, and 
shared with Epaminondas the victory 
of Leuctra. Pelopidas being sent am- 
bassador to Alexander, the tyrant of 
Phera?, was thrown into prison ; but 
on the appearance of Epaminondas he 
obtained his release. He next went to 
the court of Persia, and after his re- 
turn commanded the forces sent to the 
relief of Thessaly, where he fell ha 
364 B. c. 

Peloponnesus, the ancient name 
of the Morea. Among its most im- 
portant cities were the Sparta in La- 
conia, and Argos the capital of Argolis. 
Sparta acquired, after the Messenian 
war, a decided supremacy over the 
other states, and disputed the suprem- 
acy with Athens in a war of almost 
30 years' duration (431-^404 B. C.) 
the famous Peloponnesian War, of 
which the history has been written by 
Thucydides. After the Roman con- 
quest, the Peloponnesus formed part 
of the province of Achaia, and subse- 
quently part of the Byzantine empire. 

Pelvis, the bony, archlike basin of 
the human body, supporting the lower 
or hinder limbs. 

Pemba, a coral island off the E. 
coast of Africa; 50 miles N. E. of 



Pemberton 

Zanzibar Island, length 46 miles, 
breadth 4 1 /; area, 372 square miles. 

Pemberton, Max, an English 
novelist; born in Birmingham, Eng- 
land, June 19, 1863. He was a con- 
tributor to " Vanity Fair," and editor 
of " Chums," a boys' paper, and in 
charge of " Cassell's Magazine." He 
has published a number of stories. 

Pembroke, town, out-post, and 
capital of Renfrew county, Ontario, 
Canada; on the Muskrat river, Allu- 
mette lake, and the Grand Trunk 
and Canadian Pacific railways; 104 
miles N. W. of Ottawa; has good 
water-power from the river; and is 
engaged in lumbering and the manu- 
facture of woolen goods and flour. 

Pen, an instrument for writing with 
a fluid. Pens of some sort have been 
in use from very early times, adapted 
to the material on which the charac- 
ters were to be inscribed. The metallic 
stilus for the production of incised 
letters was probably the earliest writ- 
ing implement. It was used by the 
Romans for writing on tablets coated 
with wax ; but both they and the 
Greeks also used what is the true an- 
cient representative of the modern pen, 
namely, a hollow reed, as fs yet com- 
mon in Eastern countries. It has been 
asserted that quills were used for writ- 
ing as early as the 5th century A. D. 
In 1803 Wise produced steel pens of 
a barrel form, mounted in a bone case 
for carrying hi the pocket. They were 
of indifferent make, and being expen- 
sive, were very little used. Joseph 
Gillott commenced the manufacture 
about 1820, and succeeded in making 
the pen of thinner and more elastic 
steel, giving it a higher temper and 
finish. Mr. Gillott was followed into 
the same field by Mr. Perry and others, 
and their improvements so reduced 
the cost and raised the quality, that a 
gross of better pens are now sold by 
the same makers at less than one-sixth 
of the price of & single pen in 1821. 
Gold pens tipped with minute particles 
of iridium are now in extensive use, 
and a good one will last for years. 
Fountain pens and penholders, to car- 
ry a considerable supply of ink and 
to discharge it in an equal manner, 
were invented by Joseph Bramah. 

Penal Laws, laws which prohibit 
an act, and impose a penalty for the 
commission of it. 



Pendleton 

Penal Servitude, a form of pun- 
ishment in English criminal law, sub- 
stituted, in 1853, for the punishment 
of transportation. It consists in im- 
prisonment with hard labor for a term 
of years, from two up to the duration 
of life. The term is not used in the 
United States. 

Penance, in Roman Catholic theolo- 
gy and ritual : 1. The virtue which 
inclines the soul to detest ski for its 
own sake that is, because it is an 
offense against God. 2. The outward 
acts by which sorrow for sin is evinced. 
3. The satisfaction which a priest im- 
poses on the penitent before giving ab- 
solution, often called sacramental pen- 
ance. 

Penang, Pnlo-Penang, or 
Prince of Wales Island, an island 
belonging to Great Britain, lying at 
the N. entrance of the Straits of 
Malacca, off the W. coast of the Malay 
Peninsula, from which it is separated 
by a channel 2 to 5 miles across ; area, 
107 square miles. Penang was made 
over by treaty to the East India Com- 
pany in 1786 by the Rajah of Quedah, 
and with Province Wellesley, a long 
strip of the Malay Peninsula opposite 
(area, 270 square miles), it now forms 
one of the Straits Settlements, having 
a resident councillor to control ad- 
ministration. Pop. 235,618. 

Penates, the Roman gods of the 
storeroom and kitchen. The family 
hearth, which formerly stood in the 
atrium, was their altar, and on it their 
images, two in number, were placed, 
with the image of the Lar between 
them. These penates were represented 
dancing and elevating a drinking horn 
in token of joy and plenty. The 
calends, nones, and ides of each month 
were set apart for their worship, as 
were the caristra (Feb. 22) and the 
saturnalia. Each family had its own 
penates, and the State had its public 
penates. The origin of these gods is 
extremely doubtful. As was the case 
with the Lares, their name was a syn- 
onym for home. 

Pencil, a name applied to instru- 
ments for writing, drawing, or paint- 
ing, differing as much in their con- 
struction as in the use to which they 
are applied. 

Pendleton, George Hunt, an 
American statesman ; born in Cincin- 



Fendleton 

nati, O., July 25, 1825. He acted as 
congressman from 1856 to 1865, having 
been elected on the Democratic ticket. 
He was a candidate for the vice-presi- 
dency on the Democratic ticket in 
1864, with George B. McClellan. Be- 
fore his appointment as United States 
minister to Germany by President 
Cleveland, in 1885, he represented 
Ohio in the United States Senate, and 
was an exponent of civil service re- 
form. He died in 1889. 

Pendleton, Louis (Beauregard), 
an American novelist and writer of 
juvenile literature ; born in Georgia in 
1861. His works deal principally 
with Southern scenes and characters. 

Penelope, a celebrated Grecian 
princess, daughter of Icarius, wife of 
Ulysses (Odysseus), and mother of 
Telemachus. According to the Ho- 
meric legend, Ulysses, during his long 
wanderings after the fall of Troy, was 
generally regarded as dead, and Penel- 
ope was vexed by the urgent suits of 
many lovers, whom she put off on the 
pretext that she must first weave a 
shroud for Laertes, her aged father-in- 
law. To protract the time, she un- 
did by night the portion of the web 
she had woven by day. When the 
suitors had discovered this device, her 
position became more difficult than be- 
fore ; but fortunately Ulysses returned 
in time to rescue his chaste spouse 
from their distasteful importunities. 

Penguin, aquatic birds confined to 
the high S. latitudes of both hemi- 
spheres, where they congregate in large 
Hocks. The body is generally elliptic- 
al ; neck of moderate length ; head 
small, bill moderately long, straight, 
compressed ; tail short. They have no 
quills in their wings, which are as 
rigid as the flippers of a cetacean, and 
utterly useless for flight, though they 
move freely at the shoulder joint, 
forming most efficient paddles, and are 
usually worked alternately with a ro- 
tatory motion. In standing, the pen- 
guin preserves an upright position, 
generally resting on the tarsus, which 
is widened like the foot of a quadru- 
ped ; but in progressing this is kept 
nearly vertical, and the weight sup- 
ported on the toes alone. 

Peninsular Campaign, the name 
of the campaign conducted by General 
George B. McClellan in 1862, on the 

E. 115. 



Penitentiary 

peninsula between the York river and 
its tributaries and the James river. 

Penfeisnlar War, the war carried 
on in the beginning of the 19th cen- 
tury in Spain and Portugal by the 
British forces, aided by the native 
troops, against the French. Sir Ar- 
thur Wellesley, afterward the Duke 
of Wellington, landed, with 10,000 
British troops, at Figueras, in Portu- 
gal, Aug. 1-3, 1808, and on the 21st 
defeated the French at Vimiera. On 
August 30, the Convention of Cintra 
was signed, by which Junot agreed to 
evacuate the country. Wellesley re- 
turning home, the command of the 
army, now increased to 20,000 men, 
was given over to Sir John Moore, 
who was forced by Soult to fall back 
on Corunna, where a battle was fought 
on Jan. 16, 1809, in which the former 
lost his life. Wellesley again received 
command of the army, and, after a 
series of sanguinary and generally suc- 
cessful combats, drove the French 
across the Pyrenees, entering France 
on Oct. 7, 1813. 




PENGUIN. 

Penitentiary, a prison in which 
convicted offenders are confined and 



.Penitentiary 

subjected to a course of discipline and 
instruction with a view to their refor- 
mation. Misdemeanants and persons 
guilty of lesser felonies are confined 
therein. 

Penitentiary, one of the offices of 
the Roman Catholic Curia, taking 
special cognizance of matters relating 
to the confessional, and dispensations 
from such impediments to marriage as 
are not diriment. The dignitary who 
presides over the office described above. 
He is a cardinal priest, and must be 
a doctor of theology or canon law. 

Penn, Sir William, an English 
admiral who greatly distinguished him- 
self against the Dutch in the 17th cen- 
tury : born in Bristol in 1621, -entered 
the navy at an early period, and was 
captain at the age of 23. After the 
restoration he was knighted, and died 
in Essex in. 1670. 

Penn, "William, founder of .the 
State of Pennsylvania ; son of the pre- 
ceding ; born in London, Oct. 13, 1644. 
He turned Quaker, was taken up for 
preaching, and sent to prison ; but 
was released through the interest of 
his father; was sent to the Tower, on 
account of a book which he had writ- 
ten ; and, while there, he composed his 
K:-incipal work, entitled " No Cross, 
o Crown," intended to show the ben- 
efit of suffering. On his release, he 
resumed his former labors, and was 
apprehended, with some others, and 
tried for preaching at a conventicle in 
Gracechurch Street. The jury per- 
sisted in finding them not guilty, and 
were fined for acting contrary to the 
dictates of the judge. In 1681 he ob- 
tained from the crown, in lieu of the 
arrears due his father, the grant of 
the province in North America, and it 
was Charles II. who, in honor of Penn 
proposed the name Pennsylvania. Ac- 
companied by emigrants, Penn sailed 
from Deal Sept. 5, 1682, for America, 
and landed at New Castle, Del., Oct. 
24, and at Upland, Pa. (now Ches- 
ter), Oct. 29, 1682. The work of or- 
ganization was rapid. A few Swedes 
and Dutch had previously settled iu 
Pennsylvania, but colonists from vari- 
ous regions of the Old World now 
poured in. Universal toleration was 
proclaimed, a charter of liberties was 
solemnly consecrated, and a democratic 
government was established. In his 
dealings with the Indians and their 



Pennant 

chiefs, Penn manifested his accustomed 
magnanimity, and justice. The capital 
city, Philadelphia, was planned on a 
scale commensurate with Pennsyl- 
vania's expected greatness. Penn's 
family was in England. Hearing that 
his wife was ill he, intrusting his un- 
finished undertakings to such men as 
he deemed competent, hurried anxious- 
ly back. The overthrow of James was 
in more than one respect a misfor- 
tune for Penn. In the spring of 1690 
he was arrested on the charge of hold- 
ing treasonable correspondence with 
the dethroned monarch. The absurd- 
ity of the charge being swiftly and 
glaringly evident, Penn was set at 
liberty. Yet, though his conduct con- 
tinued to be blameless, he was, by 
an order in council, stripped, March 
14, 1692, of his title to the Pennsyl- 
yanian government a tyrannical act 
involving his utter ruin ; for, besides 
that he had risked his whole substance 
jn the Pennsylvanian experiment, his 
estates, both in England and in Ire- 
land, had been grievously misman- 
aged by incompetent or dishonest over- 
seers. An order in council capricious- 
ly restored to Penn, in 1694, that 
Pennsylvanian government of which 
an order in council had so capriciously 
robbed him. But the ownership of 
territories so extensive was almost 
barren to him. A visit to his Irish 
estates preluded Penn's second ex- 
pedition to the New World. His fam- 
ily went with him to America, though 
rather from necessity than choice. 
Penn's residence in the colony was 
more beneficial to the colonists than 
to himself. In 1701 he returned to 
England, and, being encumbered with 
debts, endeavored to negotiate the sale 
of Pennsylvania to the crown for $60,- 
000. This negotiation was interrupt- 
ed in 1712, through his being attacked 
by an apoplectic tit, which, happening 
twice afterward, greatly impaired his 
mental faculties. He survived for 
six years longer, but with a consti- 
tution much shattered, and quite un- 
fitted for any serious employment. 
Penn died July 29, 1718 ; and was 
buried at the village of Jordan, Buck- 
inghamshire. 

Pennant, a small flag or banner. 
In naval affairs, a long, narrow piece 
of bunting carried at the mast-heads 
of vessels of war. 



Penn College 

Penn College s a coeducational in- 
stitution in Oskaloosa, la. ; founded 
in 1873 under the auspices of the So- 
ciety of Friends. 

Pennington, Alexander Cum- 
xuings McWhorter, an American 
military officer ; born in Newark, N. 
J., Jan. 8, 1838; was graduated 
at the United States Military Acad- 
emy in 1800 ; served through the Civil 
War, during the latter part in com- 
mand of a brigade in the Army of the 
Potomac, and was brevetted Brigadier- 
General of volunteers. After the war 
he served at various army posts, was 
promoted Brigadier-General, U. S. A., 
in 1899 and was retired Oct. 17, of 
that year. 

Pennon, or Penon, a small flag or 
streamer half the size of the guidon, 
but shaped like it, of a swallow tail 
form, attached to the handle of a 
lance or spear. 

Pennsylvania, a State in the 
North Atlantic Division of the North 
American Union, bounded by New 
York, New Jersey,. Delaware, Mary- 
land, West Virginia, Ohio, and Lake 
Erie ; one of the original 13 States ; 
capital, Harrisburg; number of coun- 
ties, 67 ; area, 44,985 square miles ; 
pop. (1890) 5,258,014; (1900) 6,302,- 
115; (1910) 7,665,111. 

The State presents three wen de- 
fined physical divisions, the E. plain, 
middle hills, and W. highlands. A 
number of parallel ridges cross it 
from N. to S. with a maximum alti- 
tude of 2,500 feet. Lake Erie forms 
45 miles of the N. boundary of the 
State and has an excellent harbor at 
Erie. 

Pennsylvania ranks first in the 
United States in the amount and value 
of her commercial mineral products. 
In 1900 she ranked first in the pro- 
duction of coal, coke, natural gas, 
building stones, flint, feldspar, mineral 
paints, portland cement, and iron and 
steel products ; second in petroleum 
and clay products ; third in rock ce- 
ment; and fifth in iron ores. Over 50 
per cent, of the iron and steel pro- 
duced in the United States is worked 
in Pennsylvania, in the vicinity of 
Pittsburg. This city is*the center of 
the iron industry of the world. 

As an agricultural State, Penn- 
sylvania stands high. It ranks first 
in the United States in the produc- 



Pennsylvania 

tion of rye, and has large crops of 
other cereals. The S. E. counties are 
remarkably fertile, Chester being not- 
ed for its nurseries, and Lancaster for 
its tobacco crop. The natural forest 
trees include pine, poplar, beech, sugar 
maple, chestnut, birch, wild cherry, 
walnut, oak, hickory,, ash, cherry, elm, 
sycamore, and hemlock. Considerable 
attention is paid to stock raising, and 
dairying is becoming one of the lead- 
ing industries. 

Pennsylvania ranks second in the 
United States in the value of her 
manufactures. Besides the leading in- 
dustries of coal mining, coke, iron and 
steel manufacture, and the production 
of petroleum, the State has extensive 
manufactures of plate and bottle glass, 
paper bags, rag carpets, woolen goods, 
glue, railroad cars, drugs, and chem- 
icals, gunpowder, leather and lumber. 
In 1900, according to the United 
States census, there were 52,185 manu- 
facturing establishments ; employing 
$1,551,542,712 capital, and 733,834 
persons; paying $332,072,670 for 
wages, and $1,042,561,628 for mate- 
rials ; and having finished products 
valued at $1,835,104,431. 

The imports of merchandise at the 
ports of Philadelphia and Erie for 
1900 amounted in value to $49,711,- 
066; and the exports, $31,364,722. 

At the end of the school year, 1899- 
1900, the children of school age num- 
bered 1,759,300 ; enrollment in public 
schools, 1,151,880. There were 14,932 
buildings used for public school pur- 
poses, public school property valued 
at $54,797,506, and 29,390 teachers. 
The principal colleges include, the 
University of Pennsylvania, at Phila- 
delphia ; Lehigh University, at South 
Bethlehem ; Lafayette College, Easton, 
and many others. 

The governor is elected for a term 
of four years and receives a salary 
of $10,000 per annum. Legislative ses- 
sions are held biennially in odd years, 
beginning on the first Tuesday in Jan- 
uary, and are unlimited in length. The 
Legislature has 60 members in the 
Senate and 207 members in the House. 
There are 36 Representatives in Con- 
gress. The country about Delaware 
Bay was first settled by the Swedes, 
ana then passed first under Dutch, and 
then under the English jurisdiction 
generally established in 1664. In 1681 



Pennsylvania 

the territory W. of the Delaware was 
granted by royal charter to William 
Perm who colonized it ; and, by the 
industry and high character of the 
Society of Friends, by cultivating 
peace with the Indians, and encourag- 
ing immigration, founded a flourishing 
State, which, long before the Revolu- 
tion became the seat of learning, 
wealth, and refinement. 

Pennsylvania, University of, a 
coeducational, non-sectarian institution 
in Philadelphia, Pa. ; founded 1740. 

Pennsylvania College, a coedu- 
cational institution in Gettysburg, 
Pa. ; founded in 1832 under the au- 
spices of the Lutheran Church. 

Pennsylvania State College, a 
coeducational, non-sectarian institu- 
tion in State College, Pa. ; founded in 
1855. 

Pennsylvania Dutch, a German 
dialect mixed with English, spoken in 
Pennsylvania by German settlers and 
their descendants. 

Fenny. In the United States the 
term penny is commonly used for 
" cent," the 100th part of a dollar. It 
consists of 95 per cent, of copper and 
5 per cent, tin and zinc. There are 
1,000,000,000 pennies in circulation 
throughout the country and the Phila- 
delphia mint is turning them out at 
the rate of 4,000,000 a month to keep 
up the supply. The British penny is 
the 12th part of a British shilling, 
and worth about two cents. 

Pennyroyal, a species of mint, 
sometimes grown in gardens for its 
reputed medicinal qualities. The name 
pennyroyal is given also to a small 
plant, allied to the mints, and having, 
like them, a pleasant aromatic smell 
and a warm pungent taste. 

Pennyweight, a Troy weight, con- 
taining 24 grains, each grain being 
equal to a grain of wheat from the 
middle of the ear, well dried. Twenty 
pennyweights make one ounce Troy 
weight. 

Pensacola, city, port of entry, 
and capital of Escambia county, 
Fla.; on Pensacola bay and several 
railroads; 10 miles N. of the Gulf of 
Mexico; has one of the finest harbors 
on the Gulf, large export trade in 
naval stores ; cotton, grain, phos- 
phates, coal, iron, and tobacco, manu- 
factures of lumber; cotton compres- 



Pentecosfi 

sors, and fertilizers, and extensive 
fisheries; and contains a Federal 
navy-yard, Federal Marine Hospital, 
Fort Pickens, and the remains of 
Fort McRea. Pop. (1910) 22,982. 

Penshnrst, Charles Hardinge, 
1st Lord, a British administrator; 
born in Kent, England, in 1858; 
brother of 3d Viscount Hardinge; 
entered the diplomatic service in 
1881; was stationed successively at 
Constantinople, Berlin, Washington, 
Bucharest, Teheran, and St. Peters- 
burg; became Ambassador to Russia 
in 1904; Permanent Under Secretary 
of State for Foreign Affairs in 1906, 
and Viceroy of India in 1910. 

Pension, an allowance of money, 
in stipulated amounts and in periodi- 
cal payments, made by government to 
persons in recognition of past ser- 
vice, military, naval, civil, or judi- 
cial. The payment of pensions in the 
United States is regulated by special 
congressional enactment. The sys- 
tem has been in operation nearly ever 
since the adoption of the Federal 
Constitution Pensions are generally 
predicated and allowed on account of 
some disablement which occurred in 
the military or naval service of the 
United States while in line of duty. 
The year of the largest number of 
pensioners of all classes was 1902, 
when there was a total of 999,446. 
The year 1909 had the smallest num- 
ber on the rolls since 1892 (946,194), 
but the total payments that year 
were the largest on record ($161,- 
973,703). From the foundation of 
the Government'to June 30, 1910, the 
totaT amount pnid out for pensions 
aggregated $4,073,056,570. 

Pentateuch, a term applied ex- 
clusively to the first five books of the 
Old Testament collectively, termed in 
Hebrew torah the law. The first) 
mention of the five-fold division is by 
Josephus. 

Pentecost, one of the three greatest 
Jewish festivals. Its Greek name was 
given because it was held on the 50th 
day, counting from the second of the 
Passover, whence it was called in 
Hebrew the Eeast of Weeks. By this 
account the enumeration of the weeks 
was to be from " such time as thou 
beginnest to put the sickle to the 
corn." It was called also the Feast 
of Harvest. 



Pentecost 

Pentecost, George Frederick, an 

American clergyman; born in Albion, 
111., Sept. 23, 1842; entered George- 
town University but left to volunteer 
for the Union army ; was chaplain in. 
1862-1864, and filled various pastor- 
ates in different parts of the country 
in 1864r-1880. In 1887 he engaged in 
evangelical work in Scotland and thea 
went to India on a special mission to 
the English-speaking Brahmins. He 
was called to the First Presbyterian 
Church at Yonkers, N. Y., in 1897. 
He wrote: "Boyhood of Christ"; 
"Bible Studies"; etc, 

Penumbra, a faint shadow thrown 
by a luminous body. It is brighter 
than the true shadow, though less so 
than the luminous body itself. It ia a 
modification of the true shadow pro- 
duced by the commingling with it of 
rays emitted by a portion of the lu- 
minous body. In an eclipse of the 
moon, the rays which have just grazed 
the edge of the earth are bent inward 
by the refraction of the atmosphere, 
besides having become tinged with a 
ruddy or copper hue. Falling on the 
moon, then in shadow, they often ren- 
der it faintly visible, and though of a 
copper hue, yet bright enough to per- 
mit markings on its surface to be seen. 
Yet at this time the moon is so much 
behind the earth that it cannot be 
reached by direct rays from the sun. 
Peonage, a system of agricultural 
servitude common in Mexico, and some 
other parts of Spanish America. The 
peon in debt to his employer was by 
the Spanish system bound to labor for 
his employer till the debt was paid. 
Peoria, city and capital of Peoria 
county, 111.; o/i the Illinois river aiid 
over a dozen railroads; 160 miles W. 
of Chicago; is in an important coal- 
mining region; has the most exten- 
sive manufactories of proof spirits, 
glucose, and farming implements in 
the country; also manufactures cel- 
lulose, cereal foods, flour, straw- 
boards, and machinery; manufac- 
tures exceed $65,000,000 in value of 
annual output; contains the Bradley 
Polytechnic Institute, Spalding In- 
stitute, Federal Building, large Coli- 
seum, Soldiers' Monument, and sev- 
erai notable public buildings; and 
has an assessed property valuation 
of over $25,000,000. Pop. (1910) 
G6.950. 



Pepsin 

Pepiii, The Short, a King ot 
France, the first of the Carlovingian 
kings. He was at first mayor of the 
palace under Childeric III. ; but in 
752 he dethroned that monarch and 
confined him in a monastery. Having 
requested and obtained the sanction of 
the Pope, Pepin was constituted king. 
He assisted Pope Stephen III. against 
the Longobards, defeated the Saxons, 
Bavarians, and other German nations, 
and united Aquitaine to his crown. 
After a reign of 16 years, he died in 
St. Denis, in 768. His son Charle- 
magne succeeded him as King of the 
Franks. 

Pepper, Charles M., journalist, 
traveler and author; born in Ohio, 
Nov. 11, 1859 ; graduated at the Woos- 
ter University, in 1882. He was the 
Washington correspondent of the 
"Chicago Tribune" for many years. 
Subsequently political correspondent 
of "New York Herald." Correspond- 
ent in Cuba, Porto Rico, Mexico, Cen- 
tral America, South America, and 
Hawaii, for "Washington Star" and a 
syndicate of papers. Commissioner in 
Cuba for St. Louis Exposition. Was 
appointed by President McKinley as 
delegate to the Second International 
American Conference, which was held 
in Mexico, 1901-1902. Appointed by 
President Roosevelt as Pan-American 
Railway commissioner. He is the au- 
thor of " Tomorrow in Cuba," " Every- 
day Life in Washington," and other 
books. 

Peppermint, a mint with oblong, 
lanceolate, serrate, glabrous leaves; 
pedicels and flowers nearly smooth ; 
flowers in cylindrical spikes, interrupt- 
ed below. Oil of peppermint, the oil 
distilled from the fresh flowers of pep- 
permint. It enters into the composition 
of peppermint water, essence of pep- 
permint, and spirit of peppermint. It 
is stimulant and carminative, and is 
used to correct flatulence and griping 
in the intestinal canal, and to mask 
the nauseous taste of some medicines. 

Pepper Root, a perennial herba* 
ceous plant, a native of North America, 
with pairs of ternate leaves, and ra- 
cemes of white flowers; the root of 
which has a pungent mustard-like 
taste, and is used as a condiment. 

Pepsin, an azotized ferment, related 
to the proteids, and contained in gas- 
tric juice. It possesses the power, in 



Pericles 



conjunction with hydrochloric acid, of 
dissolving the insoluble proteids and 
converting them into peptones. Pep- 
sin is prepared from the stomach of 
the pig or calf on a commercial scale, 
and is usually employed in the form of 
pills or dissolved in wine. 

Pepys, Samuel, an English author, 
secretary to the admiralty in the reigns 
of Charles II. and James II. ; born 
in Brampton, Huntingdonshire, in 
1032, and educated at Cambridge. He 
early acquired the patronage of Sir 
Edward Montagu, afterward Earl of 
Sandwich, who employed him as sec- 
retary in the expedition for bringing 
Charles II. from Holland. On his re- 
turn he was appointed one of the prin- 
cipal officers of the navy. In 1673, 
when the king took the admiralty into 
his own hands, Pepys was appointed 
secretary to that office, and performed 
his duties with great credit. During 
the excitement of the Popish Plot he 
was committed to the Tower, but was 
after some time discharged without a 
trial, and reinstated in his office at the 
admiralty, which he held till the abdi- 
cation of James II. He was president 
of the Royal Society for two years ; 
but his title to fame rests upon his 
"Diary" (1659-1669), which is a 
most entertaining work, revealing the 
writer's own character very plainly, 
giving an excellent picture of contem- 
porary life, and of great, value for the 
history of the court of Charles II. 
He died in 1703. 

Pequot, Fort, an old Indian fort 
on Pequot Hill, about 8 miles N. E. 
of New London, Conn. 

Pequots, or Pequods, a tribe of 
American Indians, a branch of the 
Mohegans, were warlike and powerful 
in the country round the Thames riv- 
er when Connecticut was first settled, 
and made treaties with the Dutch and 
English. Hostilities, however, broke 
out in 1637, and the tribe was cut to 
pieces and scattered ; yet a few de- 
scendants may be found at Green Bay, 
Wis. 

Perch, a genus of acanthopterous 
fishes, forming the type of the perch 
family (Percidse). The common perch 
(Perca fluviatilis) is a common ten- 
ant of fresh-water lakes and rivers. 
It is colored a greenish-brown on the 
upper parts, the belly being of a yel- 
lovvish or golden-white. The sides are 



marked with from five to seven black- 
ish bands. The average weight ia 
from 2 to 3 pounds. The perch is a 
voracious feeder, devouring smaller 
fishes, worms, etc. The female de- 
posits her eggs, united by a viscous 
matter, in long bands, on aquatic 
plants. 

Pereira da Silva, Joao Manuel, 
a Brazilian historian : born in Rio de 
Janeiro, in 1817. He wrote : "His- 
tory of the Founding of the Empire of 
Brazil " ; " Brazilian Plutarch " ; " Je- 
ronimo Corte-Real " ; " Second Period 
of the Reign of Dom Pedro I. in Bra- 
zil"; etc. 

Perennial, lasting or continuing 
without cessation throughout the year ; 
hence, perpetual ; unceasing ; never 
failing; as perennial fountains. Con- 
tinuing without intermission, as a fe- 
ver. In botany, one of those plants 
whose roots remain alive more years 
than two, but whose stems flower and 
perish annually. 

Perez de Zambrana laiisa, a Cu- 
ban story-writer and poet ; born in 
El Cobre, near Santiago, in 1837. Sev- 
eral of her poems have been translat- 
ed into Italian and French. 

Perfumes, substances emitting an 
agreeable odor, and used about the 
person, the dress, or the dwelling, hav- 
ing also some value as disinfectants. 
Perfumes are partly of animal origin 
as civet, musk, etc., but are chiefly 
simple, or mixed essences of flowers. 

Pericardium, a conical membran- 
ous sac containing the heart and the 
commencement of the great vessels, to 
the extent of about two inches from 
their origin. 

Pericles, a great Athenian states- 
man ; born in Athens about 495 B. C., 
of a noble, influential and wealthy 
family. He received a careful educa- 
tion from the most eminent teachers. 
He applied himself to the study of 
philosophy under the guidance of An- 
axagoras, who had a most powerful 
influence on him, and remained one 
of his most intimate friends. To his 
other acquirements he added that of 
extraordinary eloquence, and thus pre- 
pared, he began to take part in public 
affairs about 469 B. c., and the pop- 
nlar party soon recognized him as their 
chief. Pericles was great as a general, 
and he displayed extraordinary valor 



Verier 

at the battle of Tanagra; he com- 
manded the expedition against Sicyon 
and Acarnania ; recovered Delphi from 
the Spartans, and quelled the revolt 
of Eubcea. In 444 B. 0. he became sole 
ruler of Athens, and the aim of his 
policy was to extend and strengthen 
her empire, and to make the people 
worthy of their position. Under his 
administration the navy was increased, 
commerce extended, general prosperity 
advanced, and Athens adorned with 
noble buildings. In 444 B. C. Pericles 
established a democratic constitution 
in Samos, and a counter revolution 
taking place, he besieged the town, and 
after nine months reduced it, a suc- 
cess which procured him extraordinary 
honors on his return. Pericles directed 
Athens during the first two years of 
the Peloponnesian War, in the sec- 
ond year of which the plague broke out 
at Athens, and the popular discontent | 
vented itself in the prosecution of the 
great ruler. He was fined, but soon 
regained his influence. The plague 
carried off many of his friends and 
relatives, and, last of all, his favorite 
son, Paralus. This loss broke his 
heart, and after a lingering sickness 
he died 429 B. c. He left a son by 
Aspasia, who took his father's name, 
and was legitimated by the people. 

Perier, Casimir, a French states- 
man ; born in Grenoble, Oct. 21, 1777. 
A Parisian banker, he condemned in 
1817 the financial policy of the minis- 
try and thereby won a seat in the 
Chamber of Deputies. In 1828 he held 
the portfolio of finance under Martig- 
nac, but resigned it in August of the 
next year. Having taken an active 
part in the July revolution (1830), 
he was rewarded with a seat in the 
cabinet. When Laffitte became presi- 
dent of the council (Nov. 2), Perier 
undertook the presidency of the Cham- 
ber of Deputies, and on March 13, 
1831, succeeded Laffitte as minister. 
Died 1832. His son Auguste, adopted 
the name of Casimir-Perier (q. v.). 

Perigee, the point in the moon's 
orbit at which she is nearest the earth. 

Perihelion, or Perilieliuin, the 
part of a planet's or comet's orbit 
where it is nearest the sun, as op- 
posed to aphelion. 

Perim, a barren island, and coaling 
and telegraph station, belonging to 
Great Britain, in the Strait of Bab- 



Perjury 

el-Mandeb, at the S. entrance to the 
Ited Sea. It is about 3^ miles long 
by 2% wide, crescent-shaped, the 
horns embracing a spacious harbor. 

Periodicity, the disposition of cer- 
tain things or phenomena to recur at 
stated periods. It denotes the regu- 
lar or nearly regular recurrence of 
certain phenomena of animal life, such 
as sleep and hunger. The first indica- 
tion of a diseased state is generally a 
disturbance of the natural or ac- 
quired periodicity of the various func- 
tions of life. 

Periosteum, a dense lining mem- 
brane covering the whole surface of 
bone, except the articulations, which 
have a thin cartilaginous layer. As 
long as a single portion of periosteum 
remains alive bone is capable of be- 
ing reproduced. 

Peritonitis, inflammation of the 
peritoneum ; it is exceedingly painful 
and dangerous, from its extent and 
connection with important organs. 
Peritonitis may exist either as an 
acute or chronic disease. In the for- 
mer there is usually great pain and 
tenderness of the abdomen, accompa- 
nied with fever, and a frequent, small, 
and hard pulse. Its causes are va- 
rious, as by cold, mechanical injuries 
of the peritoneum, the development of 
tumors, etc. 

Periwinkle, a genus of marine 
Gastropods. The commonest is abun- 
dant between tide marks on the rocks, 
and is often collected and used for 
food. It is boiled in its shell, extract- 
ed as eaten, and is very palatable. 
Periwinkles crawl about under water, 
but usually remain passive when left 
uncovered by the tide. Without wa- 
ter they can survive for many hours, 
and they are also able to endure a 
considerable freshening of the salt 
water. They feed on sea weeds, and 
are often useful in keeping beds of 
young oysters from being smothered. 

Perjury, the taking of a wilful 
false oath or affirmation, by a witness 
lawfully required to depose the truth 
in a matter of some consequence to 
the point in question. A false oath, 
therefore, taken before no court, or 
before a court incompetent to try the 
issue in question, does not constitute 
the offense of perjury at common law. 
Perjury is a felony. 



Persia 

and W. margin of the Caspian are an 
exception to the rest of the country, 
and present some of the most beautiful 
and fruitful pictures of richness and 
abundance to be found in Persia. It 
has been computed that barely a third 
of the entire kingdom is fit for culti- 
vation. 

The vegetable productions of Persia 
embrace all kinds of legumes and ce- 
reals, except rye, oats, and rice ; barley 
and wheat are the most abundant 
crops. Drugs of various kinds are ob- 
tained, such as senna, rhubarb, gums, 
opium, etc. ; as also oils, cotton, indi- 

fo, sugar, madder, dates, pistachio 
uts, and tobacco ; while in flowers, 
and the perfumes extracted from 
them, especially the attar of roses, no 
country in the world can compare with 
Persia for beauty, fragrance, and 
abundance. Silk is an important item ; 
and plantations of mulberry trees of 
great extent are very numerous. Vast 
flocks of sheep and goats are pastured 
over the country, the property and 
wealth of the wandering tribes of the 
interior, the Eelauts, a kind of Bed- 
ouins, devoting themselves to pastoral 
habits. The animals for which Persia 
is famous, are camels, horses, mules, 
oxen, asses, and buffaloes. The mineral 
wealth consists of silver, copper, lead, 
iron, antimony, salt, precious stones 
especially turquoise bitumen, and 
springs of naphtha. There are also 
large, undeveloped fields of coal and 
petroleum. One of the features of 
Persia is the abundance of salt in 
the soil, and the large number of its 
salt lakes ; about 30 pure salinas have 
no outlet; and one, the largest, Ure- 
miyah, is 280 miles in circumference, 
and, though supplied by 14 rivers, its 
water is so dense, bitter, and loaded 
with salt, that no fish can live in it. 
The climate of Persia embraces the 
rigors experienced on the mountains 
of the snowy N., and the heats felt 
on the sandy plains of Africa. Cyrus 
the Younger told Xenophon that his 
father's empire was so vast that in the 
N. the people perished of cold, and 
in the S. were suffocated with heat. 

The manufactures of Persia are nu- 
merous and important, and embrace all 
kinds of silk fabrics, satins, taffetas, 
textures of silk and cotton, silk and 
goat's hair, or silk and camel's hair ; 
brocades, camel's hair shawls, gold tis- 
sues, gold velvet, camlets, carpets, cot- 



Persia 

tons, leather, firearms, sword blades, 
saddlery, and jewelfy. Its principal 
trade is carried on with Russia ; and, 
though the foreign export trade is in- 
significant, the internal traffic is very 
great and is entirely carried on by 
caravans. 

The government is highly despotic; 
an edict of the sovereign once passed, 
can never be repealed, the word of the 
Shah is irrevocable, and the lives and 
property of the people are in his 
hands. The government is carried on 
by the Shah and his two principal min- 
isters, the Grand Vizier and the Lord 
Treasurer. The religion of the Per- 
sians is Mohammedanism. In physical 
appearance the Persians are inclined to 
corpulence, have black hair, a high 
forehead, an aquiline nose, and a large- 
ly developed chin; and in color pre- 
sent every variety, from the dark 
brown of the Indian to the light olive 
of the colder regions. The men are 
strong, robust, fond of exercise and 
martial glory, shave their heads, but 
dye their beards black, preserving them 
with an almost religious veneration. 
The Persians are regarded as a gay 
and hospitable race, but prone to sud- 
den anger and treachery. 

The Persian language is the most 
celebrated of all the Oriental tongues, 
for strength, copiousness, beauty, and 
melody, and is written from the right 
to the left. The earliest account we 
possess of Persia is from the Bible, 
from which we learn that, in the time 
of Abraham, 1921 B. C., that portion 
of modern Persia known as Elam, or 
Suisiana, Southern Persia, was a pow- 
erful monarchy. But the Persians, as 
a nation, first rose into notice on the 
ruins of the great empires founded on 
the Euphrates. Babylon was taken by 
Cyrus, and his empire extended wider 
than any before established in the 
world. After a feeble struggle, it 
succumbed to the brave and disciplined 
armies of Alexander. It was then 
split into fragments by the decease of 
its founder ; but Greeks and Greek 
sovereigns continued, during several 
centuries, to reign over Asia. About 
two centuries before Christ, Arsaces 
founded the monarchy of the Parthi- 
ans ; and in the 3d century arose the 
dynasty of the Sassanida^, who restored 
the name, with the religion and laws, 
of ancient Persia. They were over- 
thrown by the Mohammedan invaders, 



Persian Gulf 

who suffered in their turn from the 
successive invasions by the descendants 
of Genghis, Timur, and by the Turks, 
who entirely changed the aspect of 
Western Asia. At length, in 1501, a 
native dynasty again arose, under Is- 
mail, who placed himself on the throne. 
His posterity having sunk into volup- 
tuousness, Persia, in the beginning of 
the 18th century, was overrun by the 
Afghans, who carried fire and sword 
through its remotest extremities, and 
reduced its proudest capitals to ashes. 
The atrocities of the Afghans were 
avenged, 'and the independence of Per- 
sia vindicated by Nadir Shah, but 
though the victories of this daring 
chief threw a luster on his country, 
after his death it was almost torn to 
pieces by civil war, till the fortune of 
arms gave a decided superiority to 
Kereim, or Kurreem Khan. His death 
gave rise to another disputed succes- 
sion, with civil wars as furious as 
before. At length, Aga Mahommed, a 
eunuch, raised himself, by crimes and 
daring, to the sovereignty, and not 
only swayed it during his lifetime, but 
founded a dynasty since represented 
by Nasr-ed-Din from 1848, Muzzafar- 
ed-Din from 1896, Mohammed-Ali- 
Mirza from 1907, and by his son Hus- 
sein-Ali-Mirza from July 16, 1909. 

Persian Gulf, an arm of the In- 
dian Ocean which penetrates between 
Arabia and Persia to the extent of 
650 miles in a general N. W. direc- 
tion. Its breadth varies from 55 miles 
at the mouth to 250 miles, and the 
area is estimated at 77,450 square 
miles, not including the islands, which 
are scattered over the W. half, or 
lie close inshore along the E. side. Its 
greatest depth is about 50 fathoms. 

Persimmon. See DATE PLUM. 

Persius, full name Aulus Persius 
Flaccus, a Roman satirical poet ; born 
A. D. 34, at Volterra in Etruria ; died 
in 62. He vas well-connected ; was on 
friendly terras with some of the most 
eminent men ot ~he time, and much be- 
loved for the purity and amenity of his 
manners. Six satires by him have been 
preserved, of which there are several 
translations. 

Personalty, or Personal Prop- 
erty, movables; chattels; things be- 
longing to the person, as money, jew- 
els, furniture, etc., as distinguished 
from real estate in, lands and houses. 



fen 

Perspective, the science of repre- 
senting appearances, and as such 
opposed to geometry, which is the sci- 
ence of representing facts. It is found- 
ed upon such rules as can be deduced 
from the facts which are discovered 
by looking at objects through a sheet 
of glass or other transparent medium 
placed upright between the object anJ 
the observer. It is found when ob- 
jects are so looked at that their ap- 
parent form is very different from 
their real one, both as regards shape 
and distinctness. The portion of the 
subject which deals with the changes 
in form is absolutely scientific ; it is 
called linear perspective. The changes 
in distinctness are effected by distance 
and atmosphere, and differ constantly 
with different conditions of light and 
atmosphere. It is the purely artistic 
side of the science which is called aeri- 
al perspective, and success in its ap 
plication depends on the individual 
ability of the artist. 

Perspiration, watery matter, 
" breathed out," or made to expire 
from the system by means of the pores 
in the skin. It is more copious than 
the matter sent forth from the lungs 
by respiration, averaging 11 grains per 
minute against 7 from the lungs. 

Perth Amboy, a city and port of 
entry in Middlesex county, N. J. ; on 
the Raritan river and bay and sev- 
eral railroads; 21 miles S. W. of 
New York city; settled in 1680; in 
colonial days, the seat of government 
of New Jersey; has a good harbor, 
valuable deposits of fire-clay and 
kaolin, large shipping trade in farm 
products and manufactures, and cop- 
per, lead, brick, terra cotta, emery, and 
chemical plants. Pop. (1910) 132,121. 

Peru, a maritime republic of South 
America, bounded on the N. by Ecua- 
dor, on the W. by the Pacific, on the 
S. and S. E. by Bolivia and Chile, and 
on the E. by Brazil; area, 695,720 
square miles ; pop. 4,609,999 ; capital, 
Lima. 

The country is 1,100 miles in length, 
780 miles in extreme width along the 
N. boundary, but it is little more than 
50 miles wide in the extreme S. The 
islands along the coast while few in 
number, are exceedingly valuable in 
that they are rich in guano, vast quan- 
tities having been exported. 

The surface of Peru is divided into 



Peru 



Fern 



three distinct and well defined tracts or 
belts, the climates of which are of 
every variety, from torrid heat to Arc- 
tic cold, and the productions of which 
range from the stunted herbage of the 
high mountain slopes to the oranges 
and citrons, the sugar canes and cot- 
tons of the luxuriant tropical valleys. 
These three regions are the Coast, the 
Sierra, and the Montana. The Sierra 
embraces all the mountainous region 
between the W. base of the maritime 
Cordillera and the E. base of the An- 
des, or the East Cordillera. Here the 




INDIAN OF PEKtr. 

valleys enjoy an Indian climate, and 
are rich in tropical productions ; to the 
N. and E. extend luxuriant forests, 
while the numberless mountain slopes 
are covered with waving crops of 
wheat, barley, and other cereals, and 
with potatoes ; and higher up extend 
rich pasture lands, where huge herds 
of vicunas and pacas feed. The valley 
of the river Maranon, which is up- 
ward of 300 miles in length, is narrow, 



deep, and nearer the equator than any 
other valley of the Sierra, and conse- 
quently it is the hottest portion of 
this region, and its vegetation is thor- 
oughly tropical in character. The con- 
formation of the surface of the Sierra 
is of the most wonderful description. 

After the table-lands of Tibet, those 
of the Peruvian Andes are the highest 
in the world; but, unlike those of Ti- 
bet, the tablelands of Peru are the seat 
of a comparatively high civilization, 
and are studded over with towns and 
villages, perched on heights exceeding 
in elevation the summits of the Jung- 
frau and the Matterhorn. Nor are 
such towns the mere eyries of miners 
who are tempted to ascend thus high 
in search of the precious metals ; for, 
even at this elevation, the climate is 
pleasant, and wheat, maize, barley, 
rye, and potatoes thrive well. The 
climate of the Sierra, however, is not 
always so delightful. In general terms 
it may be described as mild and varia- 
ble, with moderate rains. In the dis- 
trict of paucartambo rain falls 300 
days in the year. A country, however, 
of such an uneven surface, of snow- 
covered peaks and tropical valleys, em- 
braces every variety of climate. 

The gold standard is now perma- 
nently established in Peru. The na- 
tion has entered upon a new period of 
industrial activity. Numerous com- 
panies have been formed to explore the 
Amazonian region ; new roads are be- 
ing opened in every direction. There is 
marked confidence in the stability of 
order, and under the protection ^f 
peace old financial institutions and in- 
dustrial and mining enterprises are 
thriving and public wealth is rapidly 
increasing. 

The wealth and resources of Peru 
consist not in its manufactures, but 
entirely in mineral, vegetable, and ani- 
mal products. Of the precious met- 
als, the production has greatly fallen 
off since Peru became an independent 
State. Nevertheless, Peru possesses 
vast metallic riches. The Andes 
abound in mines of gold, silver, cop- 
per, lead, bismuth, etc. ; and in the 
Montana gold is said to exist in abun- 
dance in veins and in pools on the 
margins of rivers. The vegetable pro- 
ductions of Peru are of every variety, 
embracing the products both of tem- 
perate and tropical climes. North 
American cereals and vegetables are 



Perngino 



Peruvian 



grown with perfect success, together 
with maize, rice, pumpkins, tobacco, 
coffee, sugar cane, cotton, etc. Fruits 
of the most delicious flavor are grown 
in endless variety. Cotton, for which 
the soil and climate of Peru are ad- 
mirably adapted, is now produced here 
in gradually increasing quantity. The 
land suited to the cultivation of this 
plant is excellent. The animals com- 
prise those of North America, together 
with the llama and its allied species. 

The republic of Peru, formerly the 
most important of the Spanish vice- 
royalties in South America, issued its 
declaration of independence July 28, 
1821 ; but it was not till after a war, 
protracted till 1824, that the country 
gained its actual freedom from Span- 
ish rule. The republic is politically 
divided into departments, and the de- 
partments into provinces. The pres- 
ent constitution, proclaimed Oct. 1G, 
1856, was revised Nov. 25, 1860. It is 
modeled on that of the United States, 
the legislative power being vested in 
a Senate and a House of Representa- 
tives, the former composed of deputies 
of the provinces, in proportion of one 
for every 30,000 inhabitants or frac- 
tion exceeding 15,000, and the latter of 
representatives nominated by the elec- 
toral colleges of the provinces of each 
department, at the rate of two when 
the department has two provinces and 
one more for every other two prov- 
inces. The executive power is entrust- 
ed to a president. There are two vice- 
presidents, who take the place of the 
president only in case of his death or 
incapacity, and they are elected for 
four years. The president has to exer- 
cise his executive functions through a 
cabinet of five ministers, holding office 
at his pleasure. None of the presi- 
dent's .acts have any value without 
the signature of a minister. 

By the terms of the constitution 
there exists absolute political, but not 
religious, freedom, the charter prohib- 
iting the public exercise of any other 
religion than the Roman Catholic, 
which is declared the religion of the 
State. But practically there is a 
certain amount of tolerance, there be- 
ing in Callao and Lima Anglican 
churches as well as Jewish synagogues. 
Elementary education is compulsory 
for both sexes, and is free in the 
public schools that are maintained by 



the municipalities. High schools are 
maintained by the government in the 
capitals of the departments, and in 
some provinces pupils pay a moderate 
fee. There is in Lima a central uni- 
versity, called " Universidad de Sau 
Marcos," the most ancient in Ameri- 
ca ; its charter was granted by the 
Emperor Carlos V. ; it has faculties 
of jurisprudence, medicine, political 
science, theology, and applied science. 
Peru, the origin of whose name is 
unknown, is now passing through its 
third historical era, and is manifesting 
its third phase of civilization. The 
present era may be said to date from 
the conquest of the country by the 
Spaniards in the early part of the 
16th century ; the middle era embraces 
the rule of the Incas ; and the earliest 
era, about which exceedingly little is 
known, is that of pre-Incarial period 
of unknown duration, during which 
a nation, or nations, living in large 
cities flourished in the country, and 
had a civilization, a language, and a 
religion different, and perhaps in some 
cases even more advanced, than those 
of the Incas, who succeeded them and 
overran their territories. 

Perngino, Pietro, an Italian paint- 
er; born in Leitta Delia Pieve, about 
1446. His real name was Pietro Van- 
ucci, but becoming a citizen of Peru- 
gia, he acquired the name by which he 
is best known. He studied under Ver- 
rocchio, and soon attained great dis- 
tinction as a painter in. oil by hig 
rich coloring. He was employed for 
10 years in the Sistine Chapel and the 
Stanze of the Vatican, and on his re- 
turn to Perugia opened a school, and 
had Raphael among his pupils. Peru- 
gino was a sordid and eccentric man; 
adhered obstinately to the stiff con- 
ventional forms of the 15th century, 
and in his latter years produced many 
works, unworthy of him, for gain. His 
best work is the " Pieta," in the Pitti 
Palace. He died in 1524. 

Peruvian Balsam, in botany and 
commerce, the balsaM flowing from 
incisions in the trunk of Myroxylon 
pereirae. It is a thick, viscid, almost 
opaque, balsam, like molasses, with a 
reddish hue, and translucent, when 
in thin layers; its odor fragrant, its 
taste acrid, but aromatic. It is 
brought from San Salvador, in South 
America. 



Peruvian Bark 



Peter 



Peruvian Bark. See BABK PEBU- 
VIAN. 

Peruzzi, Baldassari, architect 
and painter of the Roman school ; born 
at Sienna, 1481 ; died at Rome 1537. 
He went early to Rome and was em- 
ployed in the decoration of various 
churches. He designed the Farnesina 
Villa on the banks of the Tiber, and he 
succeeded Raphael as architect of St. 
Peter's. After the sack of Rome he 
returned to Sienna, where he was 
made city architect. In 1535 he was 
again in Rome, and henceforward de- 
voted himself entirely to architecture. 
His best existing works in fresco are 
at Sienna. 

Pesaro (ancient, Pisaurum), a 
fortified town and seaport of Italy, 
province of Pesaro e Urbino, near the 
mouth of the Foglia, in the Adriatic. 
It is the see of a bishop. The harbor, 
formed by the mouth of the Foglia, 
has become shallow ; but the trade in 
the wine, fruit (particularly figs), oil, 
silk, and other products of the district 
is considerable. The illustrious com- 
poser Rossini was born here in 1792. 
Pop. of town, 13,609. The province 
of Pesaro e Urbino has an area of 
1,144 square miles. Pop. 233,155. 

Pescherais, a tribe of Indians, in- 
habiting Tierra del Fuego, and both 
borders of the Straits of Magellan, 
from the island of Elizabeth and Port 
Famine, toward the E. as far as the 
group of islands which spread out to 
the N. and S. of the Straits of Magel- 
lan. Their complexion is olive, and 
they have huge forms and large chests, 
though otherwise well formed. They 
are a nomadic people, and only sub- 
sist by the chase and fishing. 

Pescliito, or Peshito, the old Syr- 
iac version' of the Scriptures, made 
probably about 200 A. D. The Old 
Testament, as well as the New, seems 
to have been translated by one or 
more Christians, not by Jews. The 
former was made apparently from the 
Hebrew, the latter from the Greek. 
The Second and Third Epistles of 
John, Second Epistle of Peter, Jude, 
and the Revelation are wanting. The 
apocryphal books were not in the orig- 
inal edition, but they were added at 
an early date. The Peschito is of 
great value for critical purposes. 



Peseta, the Spanish money unit, 
equivalent to a franc. 

Peso, a silver coin and money of 
account used in Mexico and other 
parts of Spanish America, and often 
considered equivalent to a dollar. 

Pessimism, that mental attitude 
which induces one to give prepondera- 
ting importance to the evils and sor- 
rows of existence ; the habit of taking 
a gloomy view of things. 

Pestalozzi, Jonann Heinrich, a 
Swiss philanthropist and educational 
reformer ; born in 1746 ; first studied 
theology, then law ; and subsequently 
became concerned in a calico manu- 
factory. Afterward he devoted his 
time and substance to training chil- 
dren whom he collected in large num- 
bers in his own house, and this good 
work he carried on for over 20 years 
without outside aid or e%'en sympathy. 
The want of means at last compelled 
him to abandon his gratuitous insti- 
tution, and to seek pupils who could 
pay for their maintenance and in- 
struction. After a few years' suc- 
cessful teaching in various places he 
opened a school in the Castle of Yver- 
dun (canton Vaud), which the govern- 
ment had placed at his disposal. His 
novel "Lienhardt and Gertrud" exert- 
ed a powerful moral influence, while 
his educational treatises have laid the 
foundation for the more rational sys- 
tem of elementary instruction which 
now obtains in America and Europe. 
He died in 1827. 

Peter, the Greek surname of an 
apostle of Jesus. It is the rendering 
of the East Aramsean kepha, a cor- 
ruption or derivation from Heb. keph 
~ a rock, and was given by Jesus. 
Transliterated into Greek, with a ter- 
mination, it became Kephas. ' Peter's 
real name was Simon, his father's Jo- 
nas, his brother's Andrew. Peter was 
of an impulsive temperament, gener- 
ous, but too forward in speech, and 
rash in action. After the Ascension, 
he was for a time the most prominent 
of the apostles, and though specially 
sent to the Jews, yet had the privilege 
of being the first to admit Gentiles in- 
to the Church. Afterward he was 
somewhat cast into the shade by the 
eminence of St. Paul and on one oc- 
casion dissembling his liberal views 
when in narrow Judaic company, was 



Peter 

withstood by St. Paul to the face 
" because he was to be blamed " (Gal. 
ii : 11). Tradition makes him die as 
a martyr at Rome, about A. D. 64, 
crucified with his head downward. 
Roman Catholics claim him as the first 
Bishop of Rome, and consider that 
the authority delegated him by Jesus 
appertains also to his successors, the 
Popes of Rome. 

The First Epistle General of Peter, 
an epistle which claims to have been 
written by the Apostle Peter, appar- 
ently from Babylon, " to the strangers 
scattered throughout Pontus, Gala- 
tia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia," 
all places in Asia Minor. These 
strangers were obviously Christian 
converts, the majority apparently Gen- 
tiles. There is strong evidence for its 
authenticity, which has rarely been 
doubted. 

The Second Epistle of Peter, anoth- 
er epistle claiming to have been penned 
by the Apostle, the author also refer- 
ring to the transfiguration scene as 
one which he personally witnessed, 
and to a previous epistle. In this sec- 
ond letter he seeks to establish Chris- 
tians in the faith, warns them against 
false teachers, and predicts the gen- 
eral conflagration of the world. Its 
style is different from that of the first. 
The evidence for its authenticity is 
much less strong than that for the 
first epistle. Clement of Alexandria 
seems to have known it. It is not in 
the Peschito ; Cyprian ignored it ; Ori- 
gen and Eusebius placed it among the 
controverted writings, but it gradual- 
ly obtained acceptance before the close 
of the 4th century. 

Peter .Alexeievitch, usually 
styled Peter the Great, Czar of Rus- 
sia ; born in 1672; and in 1689 he 
obtained the sole authority, on the 
retirement of his brother Ivan, with 
whom he had been before associated 
in the government of the empire. Aft- 
er having suppressed a conspiracy of 
the Strelitz against his life, in which 
he displayed much personal courage, he 
traveled hi foreign countries, not 
in the character of czar, but as a 
member of an embassy. At Amster- 
dam he worked, incognito, in a ship- 
yard, and in the village of Saardam, 
where he caused himself to be enrolled 
among the workmen, under the name 
of Peter Michaeloff. Here he lived in 



Peter 

a little hut for seven weeks, made hia 
own bed, and prepared his own food, 
corresponded with his ministers at 
home, and labored at the same time 
in shipbuilding. Induced by his love 
for the sea, to accept the invitation of 
William III. to visit London, he spent 
some weeks there, keenly observing 
and learning all that he could of trade, 
manufactures and the arts. Having 
proceeded to Vienna, he there received 
intelligence of a new rebellion of the 
Strelitz, on which he returned home, 
crushed the insurrection, and visited 
the rebels with fearful severity. In 
1700 he entered upon a war with Swe- 
den, which lasted till 1721. He was 
defeated by his great rival, Charles 
XII., at the battle of Nar?a, and the 
war west on with various results till 

1709, when he completely defeated 
Charles at Pultowa. In the following 
year the Sultan declared war on him, 
and he narrowly escaped capture by 
the Turks in the campaign of 1711. 
This war ended in 1713. Not satis- 
fied with his immense power as czar, 
Peter had "suppressed the patriarchate, 
and made himself head of the Church 
as well as of the State. In 1703 he 
founded St. Petersburg, and began the 
fortifications of Cronstadt. Three 
years later he privately married Cath- 
erine, a girl of low origin and immoral 
character ; married her publicly in 

1710, and had her crowned in 1722. 
Peter extended the limits of the em- 
pire both in Europe and Asia ; changed 
the face of Russia by his zealous pro- 
motion of trade, navigation, manufac- 
tures, and education ; effected an im- 
mense change in the manners and cus- 
toms of the Russians ; and after the 
conclusion of peace with Sweden, re- 
ceived the title of Emjlfcror of all the 
Russias, and Father of his Country. 
Reforming others, he failed to reform 
himself, but remained to the last an 
ignorant, coarse, brutal savage, in- 
dulging in the lowest vices, and gloat- 
ing over scenes of cruel suffering. He 
would sometimes put his victims to 
the torture, play judge and execution- 
er, too, and, drunk with wine, strike 
off 20 heads in succession, proud of 
his horrid dexterity. His state policy 
has been adhered to by his succes- 
sors. Peter I. died in St. Peters- 
burg, after very severe suffering, Jan. 
28, 1725. 



Peter 



Peter the Hermit 



Peter III., Emperor of Russia ; the 
son of Anne, eldest daughter of Peter 
the Great ; born in 1728, and succeeded 
Elizabeth in 1761. He married the 
Princess Sophia Augusta of Anhalt, 
whose name he changed to Catherine, 
and, being inspired with grand and 
martial thoughts, attempted to gov- 
ern his empire on the model of Fred- 
erick the Great ; but, wanting capac- 
ity, energy, and courage, he signally 
failed in all his schemes. His em- 
press, being apprised of his intention 
of divorcing "her, anticipated his de- 
sign, took him prisoner, and com- 
pelled him to sign an abdication. 
After this, being sent to a fortress, 
he there perished, being muriered, 
it is understood, by Orloff in 1762. 
Peterboro, city and capital of 
Peterboro county, Ontario, Canada; 
on the Otonabee river and Grand 
Trunk and Canadian Pacific rail- 
roads; 76 miles N. E. of Toronto; is 
the trade center of an important 
farming section; has what is said to 
be the largest hydraulic -lift canal 
lock in the world; and is chiefly en- 
gaged in manufacturing. 

Peter Karageorgevitch I., King 
of Servia; born in Belgrade, June 29 
(O. S.), 1844; son of Alexander 
Karageorgevitch and grandson of the 
famous George Czerny, surnamed 
Karageorge, or Black George; mar- 
ried Princess Zorka, of Montenegro, 
July 30 (O. S.), 1883; succeeded to 
the throne on the assassination of 
King Alexander I and Queen Draga, 
June 2 (O. S.), 1903; heir to the 
throne, Prince Alexander. 

Peter Martyr Anglerins, born in 
'Arena, Spain^Jj.459 ; died in Granada, 
1525. Was bishop of Jamaica, and 
wrote "The New World" in 1516, 
giving the first account of the dis- 
covery of America. 

Peters, Samuel Andrew, an 
American author; born in Hebron, 
Conn., in 1735 ; was ordained a min- 
ister in the Church of England at 
Part^ord in 1760. In 1774 he sailed 
to England to escape persecution on 
account of his toryism, and in 1781 
published the satirical " General His- 
tory of Connecticut," which gave rise 
to the misconception as to " Blue 
Laws," which were in the brain of 
Peters instead of having ever been 



on the statute books qf Connecticut. 
He died in New York in 1826. 

Petersburg, a city and port of 
entry of Dinwiddie co., Va. ; on the 
S. bank of the Appomattox river. The 
so-called siege of Petersburg lasted 
from June 16, 1864, to April 2, 1865 ; 
and during its continuance 13 pitched 
battles were fought in the neighbor- 
hood. The intrenchments of Lee and 
Grant still form conspicuous features 
in the landscape. One. of the best- 
known engagements was that of the 
old .crater, to the E. of the city, on 
Griffith's farm, where there is a war 
museum. Pop. (1910) 24,127. 

Peterson, Charles Jacobs, an 
American publisher ; born in Philadel- 
phia, in 1818 ; was the founder of 
" Peterson's Magazine," and the au- 
thor of several popular novels. He 
died in Philadelphia, in 1887. 

Peter's Pence, a voluntary contri- 
bution raised among Catholics, and 
sent to the Pope for his private use. 
Before the Reformation it was in Eng- 
land a legally collected tax. The name 
arose from its being collected on St. 
Peter's day. 

Peter the Hermit, a French 
gentleman of Amiens, in Picardy, who 
renounced a military life to embrace 
that of a pilgrim. At the end of the 
llth century, a general alarm was 
spread that the last day was approach- 
ing ; on which numbers of persons 
flocked to the Holy Land from all 
countries with a view of ending their 
days near the holy sepulcher. Peter 
was of the number, and on his return 
to Europe made so pathetic a repre- 
sentation of the state of the Christians 
in Palestine to Pope Urban II., that 
he gave Peter leave to preach up the 
necessity of a crusade throughout 
Christendom. The appearance, zeal, 
and eloquence of the hermit, produced 
a prodigious effect, and all ranks and 
ages, of both sexes, pressed eagerly 
into the service. With a motley army, 
estimated at 100,000 men, Peter passed 
through Hungary. In his absence, his 
followers attacked Solyman's army at 
Nicea, and all, except a few thou- 
sands, perished, " and," says Gibbon, 
" a pyramid of bones informed their 
companions of the place of their de- 
feat." Peter remained in Palestine, 
and was at the siege of Antioch in 



Peter Parley 

1097 ; but on his attempting to make 
his escape, shortly afterward, was 
brought back, and compelled to take 
a new oath of fidelity and obedience 
to the holy cause. Two years later 
he was present at the siege of Jerusa- 
lem, where he displayed great bravery, 
and when the place _was taken,, was 
made vicar-general. Peter died in 
1115, at the abbey of Neufmoustier in 
Liege, which he had founded. 

Peter Parley. See GOODBICH. 

Petit de Julleville, Louis, a 
French historian; born in Paris, July 
18, 1841. His principal work is " His- 
tory of the Theater in France." It is 
very full with regard to the old French 
theater. He gives in " The Theater in 
France" (1889) an account of the 
evolution of the French drama down 
to the present time. He also pub- 
lished a " History of the French Lan- 
guage and Literature." 

Petition of Right, a declaration 
of the rights of the people put forward 
by the Parliament of England in the 
third year of the reign of Charles I., 
and assented to by him. They are : 

(1) That no man be compelled to pay 
any moneys to the state without com- 
mon consent by act of Parliament. 

(2) That no person be imprisoned for 
refusing the same, nor any freeman be 
imprisoned without any cause shown, 
to which he might make answer. (3) 
That soldiers and mariners be not bil- 
leted in the houses of the people. (4) 
That commissions be no more issued 
for punishing by the summary process 
of martial law. 

Petrarch, Francesco Petrarca, 
an Italian poet ; born in Arezzo, Italy, 
in 1304. In 1341 Petrarch received 
the highest testimony of the renown 
which he had acquired as poet and 
scholar, by being crowned as laureate 
in the Capitol in Rome, Petrarch was 
at Rome during the Jubilee of 1350 ; 
lived afterward at Vaucluse, Milan, 
Padua, Venice, and, in 1370, removed 
to Arqua, in the lovely Euganean 
Hills. Petrarch's works are partly in 
Italian and partly in Latin. The lat- 
ter were those on which his reputa- 
tion in his own day rested ; but the 
former are those by which he is now 
most known. His Italian " Sonnets," 
" Canzoni," and " Triumphs," all 
sweet, exquisite, glowing variations on 
one theme, " Laura," have placed him 

E. 110. 



Petri 

as one of the most celebrated of poets. 
He modelled the Italian sonnet, and 
gave to it, and to other forms of lyr- 
ical poetry, not only an admirable 
polish of diction and melody, but a 
delicacy of poetic feeling which: has 
hardly ever been equaled. After long 
continued ill health, he died sitting 
among his books, July 18, 1374. 

Petrel, a popular name for certain 
small oceanic birds of dusky plumage, 
nocturnal in habit, widely distributed 
but most abundant in the Southern 




STOKMY PETBEL. 

Hemisphere. The term stormy petrel 
is more exclusively applied to the 
Thalassidroma pelagica, a bird which 
seems to run in a remarkable manner 
along the surface of the sea, where it 
picks up its food. This species is well 
known to sailors as Mother Carey's 
chickens (q. v.), and their appearance 
is supposed to foretell a storm. 

Petri, Laurentius, a Swedish re- 
former; born in Orebro, Sweden, in 
1499; studied under Luther at Wit- 
tenberg ; was made Professor of Theol- 
ogy at Upsala, and in 1531 first Prot- 
estant Archbishop of Upsala. Along 
with his brother Olaus he was chiefly 
instrumental in converting Sweden _to 
the Reformed doctrines, and with him 
superintended the translation of the 
Bible into Swedish (1541), a work 
that also helped to fix the language. 
He died in 1573. His brother Olaus, 



Petrifaction 

born in Orebro in 1497, gained, a 
few years after his return (1519) 
from Wittenberg, the ear of Gustavus 
Vasa, who called him to the capital to 
preach the new doctrines, and even- 
tually made him (1531) chancellor of 
the kingdom. This post he resigned 
in 1539, and spent the rest of his life 
as first pastor of Stockholm. He was 
a man of bold temperament, great ac- 
tivity, and powerful eloquence, and 
left several works, including memoirs, 
a mystery play, hymns, and contro- 
versial tracts. He died in Stockholm 
in 1552. 

Petrifaction, the act or process of 
petrifying or changing into a stone ; 
the state of being petrified ; conversion 
of any organic matter, animal or vege- 
table, into stone, or a substance of 
stony hardness. A " petrifaction " is 
not, strictly speaking, a transforma- 
tion of the original animal or plant 
into stone. It is merely a replacement 
of the organic tissue by mineral sub- 
stance. As each particle of the plant 
or animal decays and disappears its 
place is taken, usually in water or 
mud, by a particle of mineral matter 
deposited from the water which has 
held it in suspension. Thus the perish- 
able original is changed into imperish- 
able stone, preserving its form and 
even its structural appearance when 
cut into. 

Petrified City, Ishmonie, a ruined 
city of Upper Egypt. Its popular 
name arose from the fact that it con- 
tains a vast number of statues of 
human beings and animals in every 
possible posture, and which, according 
to a superstitious notion, were once 
living beings miraculously changed 
into stone. 

Petroleum, earth oil, naphtha, 
mineral oil, paraffin oil. A term ap- 
plied to a variety of inflammable 
liquids found naturally in many parts 
of the earth and formed by the grad- 
ual decomposition of vegetable matter 
beneath the surface. These liquids 
vary in color from a faint yellow to a 
brownish-black, and in consistence 
from a thin transparent oil to a fluid 
as thick as treacle, and their sp. gr. 
ranges from .7-1.1. They occur in 
abundance in parts of the United 
States and Canada. A light petroleum 
oil is used all over the world for illu- 
minating purposes, and a heavy oil for 



Peyton 

lubricating machinery. The total pro- 
duction of crude petroleum in the 
United States in 1908 was the largest 
in its history, 179,572,479 barrels 
(42 gallons), valued at $129,706,258; 
and the production in 1859-1908 
Avas 1,986,180,942 barrels, valued at 
$1,784,583,943. 

Petrology, the study of the miner- 
alogical and chemical composition of 
rocks; including the various changes 
they have undergone through physi- 
cal and chemical agencies. 

Pettenkof er, Max von, a German 
chemist ; born near Neuburg, Dec. 3, 
1818; studied in Munich, Wurzburg, 
and Giessen, and in 1847 became Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry at Munich. He 
made many valuable contributions to 
science on subjects as various as gold- 
refining, gas-making, ventilation, cloth- 
ing, the influence of soils on health, 
epidemics, and hygiene generally. His 
"Hand-book of Hygiene" is his best 
known work. Died 1901. 

Petty, Sir William, an English 
political economist ; born in Romsey, 
Hampshire, May 26, 1623; was edu- 
cated partly at Caen, partly at the 
Universities of the Netherlands, and 
at Paris. In political economy he 
claims a place as one of the most im- 
portant precursors of Adam Smith, 
on the strength of his " Treatise on 
Taxes and Contributions," and his 
" Political Arithmetic," the latter a 
discussion of the value of comparative 
statistics. He died hi London, Dec. 
16, 1687. 

Petunia, a genus of American 
herbaceous plants, nearly allied to to- 
bacco. They are much prized by hor- 
ticulturists for the beauty of their 
flowers. 

Pewter. The finer pewter is an 
alloy of 12 parts tin, one part anti- 
mony, and a small quantity of copper ; 
the coarser, of 80 parts tin and 20 of 
lead. The same ingredients as the finer 
pewter, but in different proportions 
(nine of tin to one of antimony) con- 
stitute Britannia metal. Pewter is a 
name also for a polishing material 
used by marble workers and derived 
from the calcination of tin. 

Peyton, Jesse Eiilaws, an Ameri- 
can patriot; born in Mayesville, Ky., 
Nov. 10, 1815. He assisted in the 
liquidation of Henry Clay's debts; 



Peyton 

was a founder of the Constitutional 
Union Party in 1800; was sent by 
President Lincoln on a mission to 
Kentucky to dissuade that State from 
seceding ; and during the Civil War 
organized at his own expense three 
regimentc for the Union army. He 
was instrumental in promoting the 
centennial celebration of Independ- 
ence Day, Bunker Hill Day, Yorktown 
(Va.) Day, and of the inauguration 
of American constitutional govern- 
ment, and at the time of his death was 
organizing an international celebra- 
tion of ihe birth of Christ to be held 
in Jerusalem in 1900. He died in 
Haddonfield, N. J., April 28, 1897. H 
was popularly known as " the father 
of celebrations." 

Peyton, John Lewis, an American 
lawyer and author ; born in Staunton, 
Va., Sept. 15, 1824; studied law at 
the University of Virginia, and sub- 
sequently practised in Chicago; in 
1861 went to Europe as agent of the 
Confederacy, and remained abroad till 
1880. He published " The American 
Crisis," etc. He died in 1896. 

Pfennig, a small copper coin ot 
various values, current in Germany 
and in the neighboring States. The 
value of the pfennig of the German 
empire is the hundredth part of the 
mark. 

Pfleiderer, Otto, a German theo- 
logian; born in Stettin, Wurtemberg, 
Sept. 1, 1839. In 1875 he was called 
to be Professor of Systematic Theology 
at Berlin. He made his name as well 
known in America as in Germany by 
a series of works which no student 
of philosophy or theology should 
overlook. The chief are " Religion, 
its Essence and History"; "Out- 
lint of Christian Faith and Ethics"; 
" The Philosophy and Development 
of Religion"; etc. He died in 1908. 

His brother, EDMUND PFLEIDERER, 
born in Stettin Oct. 12, 1842, studied 
at Tubingen, and after a short ex- 
perience as a pastor was made Pro- 
fessor of Philosophy at Kiel in 1873. 
whence he was called to Tubingen in 
1878. His writings include studies on 
Leibnitz, on Empiricism and Scepti- 
cism in Hume's Philosophy, modern 
Pessimism, etc. 

Phaeton, in Greek mythology, ac- 
cording to Ovid, a son of the sun, or 
Phoebus. He asked and obtained from 



Pharaoh 

his father permission one day to drive 
the chariot of the sun, but being un- 
able to control the horses, Jupiter 
struck him with a thunderbolt, and 
hurled him headlong from heaven into 
the river Po. Also an open carriage 
like a chaise, on four wheels, and 
drawn by two horses. 

Phalanger, small woolly-coated 
marsupials, with opposable great toes, 
which are destitute of a nail. They are, 
for the most part, vegetable feeders, 




PHALANGER. 

though some are insectivorous, and in 
confinement any of them will readily 
devour small birds or other animals. 

Phalanx, in Greek antiquities, the 
close order of battle in which the 
heavy-armed troops of a Grecian army 
were usually drawn up. 

Phantasmagoria, an optical effect 
produced by a magic lantern. The 
glass is painted black on all parts 
except that occupied by the figures, 
which are painted in transparent 
colors. The image is thrown on a 
transparent screen placed between the 
spectators and the lantern. By mov- 
ing the instrument toward or from 
the screen, the figures are made to 
diminish or increase in size, which is 
capable of producing startling effects. 
Also, the apparatus by which such 
effect is produced. 

Pharaoh, the name borne in the 
Bible by 10 kings of Egypt; the best 
known of which are, the monarch to 
whom Joseph explained his dream, and 
who loaded him with honors ; he who 
commenced the persecution of the 
Hebrews, and who put to death all 



Pharisees 

the male children and who is identified 
with Rameses II ; and he who was 
denounced by Moses, and who was 
subjected to the plagues and is identi- 
fied with Meneptah I. 

Pharisees, the most numerous of the 
three divisions or orders of Judaism in 
the time of Christ, the other two being 
the Essenes and the Sadducees. They 
were so called because they kept aloof 
from Levitically impure food, separat 
etl themselves nom people who disre- 
garded the literal interpretation of the 
Mosaic law, and were scrupulous in 
their minute observance of the tithe. 
The sect arose after the captivity and 
became the straitest of the sects. 

Pharmacy, or Pharmaceutics, 
the art of preparing, compounding, 
and combining substances for medical 
purposes ; the art of the apothecary. 
As these substances may be mineral, 
vegetable, or animal, theoretical phar- 
macy requires a knowledge of botany, 
zoology, and mineralogy ; and as it is 
necessary to determine their proper- 
ties, and the laws of their composition 
and decomposition, of chemistry also. 
In a narrow sense pharmacy is merely 
the art of compounding and mixing 
drugs according to the prescription of 
the physician. 

Pharsalia, Battle of, the victory 
B. c. 48, of Caesar with a much smaller 
force, over Pompey (q. v.) at Pharsa- 
lus, now Phersala, Tbessaly, Greece. 




PHEASANT. 



Pheasant, one of the most highly 
prized game birds. The adult male 
pheasant is a beautiful bird, about 
three feet long. Head and neck deep 



Phi Beta Kappa 

steel-blue, shot with greenish-purple 
and brown ; eye surrounded by a patch 
of scarlet skin, speckled with blue- 
black ; ear-coverts brown ; back a light 
golden-red, the feathers of the upper 
part tipped with velvet-black, of the 
lower part marked with brown. Quill 
feathers brown, of various shades, tail 
feathers oaken-brown, barred with a 
darker shade- and with black. Breast 
and front of the abdomen golden-red 
with purple reflections, feathers edged 
with black ; rest of abdomen and un- 
der tail-coverts blackish-brown. The 
female has yellowish-brown plumage, 
and is about two- feet in length. Such 
'is the common pheasant. There are 
several other species. 

Phelps, Austin, an American 
clergyman and author; born in West 
Brookfield, Mass., Jan. 7, 1820. Ho 
was pastor of the Pine Street Congre- 
gational Church, Boston, in 1842- 
1848; and Professor of Sacred Rhet- 
oric in Andover Theological Seminary, 
in 1848-1879. He was noted as an 
original writer and an eloquent 
preacher. He died in Bar Harbor, Me., 
Oct. 13, 1890. 

Phelps, Edward John, an Ameri- 
can diplomatist ; born in Middlebury, 
Vt., July 11, 1822; was graduated at 
Middlebury College in 1840; studied 
at the Yale Law School ; was admit- 
ted to the bar in 1843; and settled 
in Burlington in 1845. In 1551 he was 
appointed Comptroller of the Treas- 
ary and remained in the office through 
Fillmore's administration. In 1881 
1885 he was Professor of Law in the 
Yale Law School and also lecturer en 
constitutional law in Boston Univer- 
sity. He was minister to England in 
1885-1889. During the Bering Sea 
dispute he. was senior counsel for the 
United States. He died in New Haven, 
Conn., March 9, 1900. 

Phi Beta Kappa, the oldest of the 
American college Greek-letter societies. 
It takes its name from the initial jet- 
ters of its motto, said to be Philo- 
sophia Biou Kubernetes, " Philosophy 
is the guide of life." It was founded 
in 1776 in the old " Raleigh Tavern " 
at Williamsburgh, Va., by 44 under- 
graduates of William and Mary Col- 
lege, of whom John Marshall was one. 
Branches were established at Yale in 
1780 and at Harvard in 1781; and 
today there are nearly a score in the 



Phidias 



Philadelphia 



principal colleges and universities of 
the Union. The Phi Beta Kappa is 
now simply " an agreeable bond of 
meeting among graduates " ; since 
1831 its innocent mysteries have been 
open secrets. 

Phidias, the great Greek sculptor; 
I born in Athens, probably between 
490-480 B. c. He was one of the most 
intimate friends of Pericles, under 
whose rule he was appointed director 
of all the great temples and monu- 
ments which were to be erected in the 
city. Of these the most important 
were the Parthenon, or temple of 
Athena, on. the Acropolis, and the 
Propylaea. He executed a colossal 
statue of the goddess for the interior 
of the temple with his own hand. The 
well-known Elgin Marbles of the Brit- 
ish Museum were the sculptured dec- 
orations of that unrivaled temple. 
Phidias spent some years at Olympia, 
and there he executed the most mag- 
nificent of all his works the statue 
of the Olympian Zeus. The prevailing 
characteristic of the works of Phidias 
appears to have been an ideal sublim- 
ity of form which has never since 
been equaled. According to the gen- 
erally received account, he was thrown 
into prison, and died there 432 B. C. 

Philadelphia, a city coextensive 
with Philadelphia co., Pa. ; on the 
Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, 85 
miles S. W. of New York. It is the 
largest city of Pennsylvania and the 
third largest in the United States; 
area, 132 square miles: pop. (1900) 
1.293,697; (1910) 1,549,008. 

The city is built chiefly on a low 
peninsula between the two rivers. It 
extends N. and S. about 22 miles, and 
is from 5 to 10 miles in width. There 
is a water frontage on the Delaware 
river of over 16 miles, of which more 
than 5 miles have docks. The harbor 
has been greatly improved by the re- 
moval of the islands in the middle of 
the river, and in front of the wharves 
there is an average depth of 50 feet. 

Among the attractions of the city 
is Fairmount park, one of the larg- 
est public parks in the world. It 
extends more than 7 miles on both 
banks of the Schuylkill river, and more 
than 6 miles on both banks of Wis- 
sahickon creek, giving it an area of 
over 3,000 acres, traversed by 32% 
miles of driveways. In 1876 the Cen- 



tennial Exposition was held here. 
Memorial Hall, erected at a cost of 
$1,500,000, which was used for the 
art gallery of the Exposition, now 
contains a permanent industrial and 
art collection. Here also is the Hor- 
ticultural Building filled with tropical 
and other plants and surrounded by 35 
acres of ground devoted to horticul- 
ture. 

In the heart of the city, at the inter- 
section of Market and Broad streets, 
stands the City Hall, on a piece of 
ground which was formerly Penn 
Square. This great structure, usually 
called the Public Building, is said to 
be the largest building in the United 
States. It is built of white marble 
and granite ; is 480^ feet long by 470 
wide ; contains 520 rooms, and includ- 
ing a court yard 200 feet square in 
the center, covers an area of nearly 
4% acres. The central tower rises to 
a height of 547 feet, 3 inches, and is 
surrounded by a colossal statue of 
William Penn, 37 feet in height. The 
total cost of the building was over 
$20,000,000. 

In its manufacturing products Phil- 
adelphia ranks next to New York. 
There are upward of 20,000 manufac- 
turing establishments, with a combined 
capital of about $400,000,000, and 
nearly 300,000 employes. The com- 
bined output amounts to more than 
$000,000,000. The chief products are 
locomotives, sugar and molasses, men's 
clothing, foundry and machine shop 
products, carpets and rugs, hosiery 
and knit goods, woolen and cotton 
goods, malt liquors, morocco, chem- 
icals, packed meat, refined petroleum, 
silk, and silk goods. The great 
Cramp shipbuilding yards are on the 
Delaware, just W. of the heart of the 
city. 

According to recent educational sta- 
tistics, the children of school age aggre- 
gated 250,630; the enrollment in the 
public day schools was 179,156, and 
in the private and parochial schools 
(estimated) 78,210. There were 3,317 
teachers ; 325 buildings used for school 
purposes ; and public school property 
valued at $12,087,516. The institutions 
for higher education include the Will- 
iam Penn Charter School, founded in 
1689 ; the University of Pennsylvania, 
and many others. 

In September, 1681, a small party 
of settlers, sent out by William Penn, 



Philadelphia 



Philip 



arrived at the site of the present city, 
and in the following summer the place 
was laid out and named Philadelphia, 
the " city of brotherly love." The city 
was active in resisting British aggres- 
sion in 1763-17G4. On Sept. 5, 1774, 
the 1st Continental Congress met here, 
and on May 10, 1775, the 2d. Col. 
George Washington was appointed 
General and Commander-in-Chief of 
the American army in the State House 
on June 15, 1775, Here also the Dec- 
laration of Independence was adopted, 
July 4, and proclaimed July 8, 1776. 
The city was occupied by the British 
from September, 1777, to June, 1778. 
In the summer of 1787 delegates from 
the various States met in the State 
House, and framed the Constitution. 
The great Centennial Exposition was 
held here in 1876. 

Philadelphia, The, a steel, twin- 
screw protected cruiser of the United 
States navy. 

Philse, an island in the Nile, near 
Assouan and S. of Syene, in Nubia, 
largely submerged by the great Assouan 
dam. It is a small granite rock, 
fringed with rich verdure, about 1,200 
feet long and 450 broad, almost cov- 
ered with ancient buildings of great 
architectural beauty and interest, 
dating 1 from about B. O. 350. 

Philemon, a member of the Colos- 
sian church. The Epistle of Paul to 
Philemon : An epistle of Paul, in con- 
junction with Timothy, to Philemon, 
whose runaway slave, Onesimus, had 
come to Rome, and been converted by 
the apostles, while the latter . was a 
prisoner, and advanced in years. Its 
genuineness is generally admitted. 

Philip, one of the 12 apostles, 
according to John's Gospel, " of Beth- 
eaida, the city of Andrew and Peter," 
and who was called to follow Jesus 
at Bethany. After the resurrection 
he was present at the election of Mat- 
thias to the apostleship, but is not 
again mentioned. Philip the Evan- 
gelist, often confounded with the 
above, is first mentioned in Acts vi : 5. 
He preached at Samaria, where Simon 
Magus was one of his converts ; bap- 
tized the Ethiopian eunuch ; and en- 
tertained Paul and his companion on 
their way to Jerusalem. 

Philip II. of Macedonia, father 
of Alexander the Great, and son of 



Amynthas II. ; born 359 B. c. He be- 
gan to reign after the death of his 
brother, Perdiccas III., in 359. With 
great ability, energy, and success, he 
first secured the internal peace and 
order of his kingdom, improved the 
discipline of his army, and created the 
famous phalanx, which contributed to 
so many Macedonian victories. He 
cherished vast schemes of conquest ; 
aspired first to make himself master 
of all the states of Greece, and then 
to invade and conquer Persia. The 
former was accomplished after a severe 
and protracted struggle culminating in 
the victory of Chseronea, over the 
allied Athenians and Thebans, 338. 
He soon after assembled a congress 
at Corinth, and was named general of 
the Confederate Greeks in the war to 
be undertaken against Persia. But in 
336 he was assassinated at JEgea, and 
that war was reserved for his son. 

Philip II. of France, surnamed 
Augustus, son of Louis VII. and oi! 
Alix, daughter of Thibault, Count of 
Champagne ; born in 1165, succeeded 
his father, 1180, accompanied Richard 
Coeur de Lion to the Holy Land, 1190, 
invaded Normandy during Richard's 
captivity, 1193, confiscated the pos- 
sessions of King John in France, after 
the supposed murder of Arthur, 1203, 
prepared to invade England at the in- 
stance of the Pope, 1213, turned his 
arms against Flanders, and gained 
the celebrated battle of Bouvines, 
1214, and died in 1223. Philip Augus- 
tus was one of the ablest princes that 
ever reigned in France, both as a 
commander and an administrator. 

Philip III., called the Hardy, the 
son of Louis IX. and Margaret of 
Provence. He was born in 1245, and 
succeeded his father in 1270. The in- 
vasion of Sicily by Peter of Aragon, 
and the massacre of the French, 
known as the " Sicilian Vespers, 
caused him to make war against that 
prince, in the course of which he died 
in 1285. 

Philip II. of Spain, son of the 
emperor Charles V. and Elizabeth of 
Portugal ; born in Valladolid, in 1527. 
He married, in 1543, his cousin Mary 
of Portugal, who became the mother 
of Don Carlos, and died in 1545. In 
1554 he received from his father the 
kingdom of Naples, and the same year, 
after troublesome negotiations, mar' 



PMlip 

riecf Mary, Queen of England. He 
was disliked in England, and soon 
departed. His father gave up to him 
the Netherlands in October, 1555, and 
the kingdom of Spain early in the fol- 
lowing year. He declared war on 
France, and induced Queen Mary to 
join him ; won, by his troops under the 
Duke of Savoy, the memorable victory 
of St. Quentin over the French, in 
1557, and was present in person at the 
capture of the town, which followed. 
He vowed never to witness another 
battle, and he never did. He vowed 
also to show his gratitude for his suc- 
cess by building a monastery, which 
he more than fulfilled in the magnifi- 
cent Escurial. A second victory over 
the French at Gravelines, in 1558, was 
followed by rfce peace of Cateau-Cam- 
bresis. Immediately on his return to 
Spain, he began a terrible persecution 
of " heretics," and was the pitiless 
spectator at an auto-da-fe at which 40 
persons perished at the stake. 

The most momentous event of his 
reign was the revolt of the Nether- 
lands, first excited by his edict against 
heretics, and his attempt to establish 
the Inquisition there in 1565, and re- 
sulting, after long years of war and 
desolation, in the establishment of the 
Dutch Republic. In 1565, he persecut- 
ed the Christian Moors of Granada, 
and provoked a revolt, which began 
in 1569; and after the greatest atroc- 
ities on both sides, ended by the flight 
or submission of the Moors in 1571. 
On the death of Henry, King of Por- 
tugal, in 1580, Philip conquered that 
country and annexed it to Spain. He 
made immense preparations for an in- 
vasion of England ; and in 1588. the 
year after Drake's attack on Cadiz, 
his great fleet, which he named " the 
Invincible Armada," sailed from Lis- 
bon ; but a great storm and contrary 
winds damaged and threw it into dis- 
order, and it was defeated by the Eng- 
lish. Philip carried on intrigues in 
France against Henry II. and Henry 
IV. ; but his aim was defeated by the 
conversion of the latter to the Roman 
faith. He lived to see the failure of 
his designs on the Netherlands, on 
France, and on England. It was Philip 
II. who removed the seat of govern- 
ment from Toledo, and made Madrid 
the capital of Spain. He died at the 
Eecurial, after severe suffering, the 



Pliilippian 

fruit of his debaucheries, Sept. 13, 
1598. 

Philip, sachem of the Wampanoag 
tribe of Indians, was the second son 
of Massasoit, who for nearly 40 years 
had been the first and staunchest ally 
of the Pilgrim settlers of Plymouth, 
and had obtained English names for 
his two sons. In 1661 Philip succeed- 
ed his brother, and formally renewed 
the treaties of his father, which he 
kept for some years. By 1671, however, 
goaded by the encroachments of the 
whites he had formed a confederation 
of tribes aggregating nearly 10,000 
warriors ; and in 1675 what is known 
as King Philip's War broke out. Aug. 
12, 1676, at midnight, Philip and his 
followers were surprised by Capt. 
Benjamin Church. Philip was slain 
and his head cut off. Afterward his 
body was drawn and quartered, and 
the head was exposed on a gibbet at 
Plymouth. 

Philip, John Woodward, an 
American naval ofBcer; born in New 
York city, Aug. 26, 1840. He entered 
the naval academy in 1856, was made 
midshipman in 1861, and served dur- 
ing the Civil War on the " Chippewa," 
the monitor "Montauk" and other ves- 
sels. He was commissioned captain in 
1899, and was the inspector of the 
" New York " during construction. 
During the war with Spain he com- 
manded the battleship " Texas," which 
took an active part in the capture of 
the Spanish fleet under Cervera, at 
Santiago de Cuba, Jul? 3, 1898. He 
was promoted to rear-admiral and 
made commandant of the Brooklyn 
Navy Yard, N. Y. Died 1900. 

Philipena or Filopena. See 
FlLLIPEEN. 

Philippi, a city of Macedonia; 
named after Philip II. of Macedon, 
who enlarged it because of the gold 
mines in its neighborhood. It is fa- 
mous on account of the two battles 
fought in 42 B. c. between Antony and 
Octavianus on the one side and the re- 
publicans under Brutus and Cassius 
on the other, in the second of which 
the republic finally perished. The 
apostle Paul founded a Christian 
church here, to which one of his epis- 
tles is addressed. 

PMlippian, of or pertaining to 
Philippi or its inhabitants ; also a na- 



Philippine Islands 



Philippine Islands 



tive or inhabitant of Philippi. The 
Epistle of Paul the apostle to the 
Philippians, an epistle addressed by 
St. Paul, in conjunction with Tim- 
othy, " to all the saints in Christ 
Jesus which are at Philippi, with the 
bishop and deacons." 

Philippine Islands, an archipel- 
ago in the Pacific Ocean ; extending 
almost due N. and S. from Formosa 
to Borneo and the Moluccas, compris- 
ing more than 1,700 islands, of which 
the two largest are Luzon and Min- 
danao ; area, about 122,000 square 
miles; pop. (1903) 7,635,426. The 
archipelago was ceded by Spain to the 
United States as a result of the war of 
1898, the United States government 
making a payment of $20,000,000 to 
Spain, and subsequently $100,000 for 
the cession of the islands of Cagayan 
and Sibutu which were omitted in 
the treaty of peace. 

The following, taken from the of- 
ficial report by Maj. Gen. Francis V. 
Greene, U. S. V., sets forth the con- 
ditions and interests of the islands at 
the time of the American occupation : 
44 These islands, including the La- 
drones, Carolines, and Palaos, which 
are all under the government of Ma- 
nila, are variously estimated at from 
1,200 to 1,800 in number. The greater 
portion are small and are of no value. 
The important islands are less than a 
dozen in number. 

The total population is somewhere 
between 7,000,000 and 9,000,000. This 
includes the wild tribes of the moun- 
tains of Luzon and of the islands in 
the extreme South. 

In 1899 a census was taken by the 
United States authorities, chiefly for 
educational purposes, which showed a 
total of 6,709,810. The "Official 
Guide " gives a list of more than 30 
different races, each speaking a dif- 
ferent dialect, but five-sixths of the 
Christian population are either Taga- 
los or Visayas. The races are mostly of 
the Malay type. Around Manila there 
has been some mixture of Chinese 
and Spanish blood with that of the 
natives, resulting in the Mestizos, or 
half-breeds, but the number of these 
is not very great. As seen in the prov- 
inces of Cavite and Manila, the na- 
tives (Tagalos) are of small stature, 
averaging probably 5 feet 4 inches in 
height and 120 pounds in weight for, 



the women. Their skin is coppery 
brown, somewhat darker than that of 
a mulatto. They seem to be indus- 
trious and hard-working, though less 
so than the Chinese. The bulk of the 
population is engaged in agriculture. 

The climate is one of the best 
known in the tropics. The thermom- 
eter during July and August rarely 
went below 79 or above 85. The 
extreme ranges in a year are said to 
be 61 and 97. There are three well- 
marked seasons temperate and dry 
from November to February, hot and 
dry from March to May, and tem- 
perate and wet from June to October. 
The total rainfall has been as high as 
114 inches in one year. Yellow fever 
appears to be unknown. The diseases 
most fatal among the natives are 
cholera and smallpox, both of which 
are brought from China. 

It is now generally known that the 
Philippines have such minerals as 
iron, gold, silver, copper, lead, granite, 
petroleum, limestone, and quartz, and 
that it is only a matter of time when 
these minerals will be mined and put 
into the commercial markets of the 
world. 

Gold is reported on Luzon, coal and 
petroleum on Cebu and Iloilo and sul- 
phur on Leyte. The imports of coal 
in 1894 (the latest year for which 
statistics have been printed) were 
91,511 tons, and it came principally 
from Australia and Japan. In the 
same year the imports of iron of all 
kinds were 9,632 tons. If the Cebu 
coal proves to be of good quality, 
there is a large market for it in com- 
petition with coal from Japan and 
Australia. 

Though agriculture is the chier oc 
cupation of the Philippines, yet only 
one-ninth of the surface is under cul- 
tivation. The soil is very fertile, and 
even after deducting the mountainous 
areas it is probable that the area of 
cultivation can be very largely ex- 
tended and that the islands can sup* 
Sort a population equal to that of 
apan (42,000,000). Lack of irriga- 
tion prevents the development of ex- 
tensive tracts that could by a little 
enterprise be made very productive. 
The chief products are rice, corn, 
hemp, sugar, tobacco, cocoanuts, and 
cacao. Coffee and cotton were for* 
merly produced in large quantities 



Philippine Islands 



Philippine Islands 



the former for export and the latter 
for home consumption ; but the coffee 
plant has been almost exterminated by 
insects, and the home-made cotton 
cloths have been driven out by the 
competition of those imported from 
England. The rice and corn are prin- 
cipally produced in Luzon and Min- 
doro and are consumed in the islands. 
The rice crop is about 765,000 tons. 
It is insufficient for the demand and 
45,000 tons of rice were imported in 
1894; also 8,669 tons (say 60,000 
barrels) of flour, of which more than 
two-thirds came from China and less 
than one-third from the United States. 
The cacao raised in the S. islands 
amounts only to 150 tons, and is all 
made into chocolate and consumed in 
the islands. 

The sugar cane is raised in the 
Visayas. The crop yielded in 1894 
about 235,000 tons of raw sugar, of 
which one-tenth was consumed in the 
islands, and the balance, or 210,000 
tons, valued at $11,000,000, was ex- 
ported, the greater part to China, 
Great Britain, and Australia. The 
hemp is produced in S. Luzon, Min- 
doro, the Visayas, and Mindanao. It 
is nearly all exported in bales. In 
1894 the amount was 96,000 tons, 
valued at $12,000,000. Tobacco is 
raised in all the islands, but the best 
quality and greatest amount in Luzon. 
A large amount is consumed in the 
islands, smoking being universal 
among women as well as the men, but 
the best quality is exported. The 
amount in 1894 was 7,000 tons of leaf 
tobacco, valued at $1,750,000. Spain 
took 80 per cent, and Egypt 10 per 
cent, of the leaf tobacco. Of the manu- 
factured tobacco 70 per cent, goes to 
China and Singapore, 10 per cent to 
England, and 5 per cent, to Spain. 

Cattle, goats, and sheep have been 
introduced from Spain, but they are 
not numerous. Domestic pigs and 
chickens are seen everywhere in the 
farming districts. The principal beast 
of burden is the carabao, or water 
buffalo, which is used for plowing rice 
fields as well as drawing heavy loads 
on sledges or on carts. Large horses 
are almost unknown, but there are 
great numbers of native ponies from 9 
to 12 hands high, possessing strength 
and endurance far beyond their size. 

With the construction of railways 
in the interior of Luzon an enormous 



extension could be given to commerce, 
nearly all of which would come to the 
United States. Manila cigars of the 
best quality are unknown in America. 
They are but little inferior to the best 
of Cuba and cost only one-third a 
much. The coffee industry can be re- 
vived and the sugar industry extended,, 
mainly for consumption in the far 
East. The mineral resources can be 
explored with American energy, and 
there is every reason to believe that 
when this is done the deposits of coal, 
iron, gold, and lead will be found very 
valuable. On the other hand, we ought 
to be able to secure the greater part 
of the trade which now goes to Spain 
in textile fabrics, and a considerable 
portion of that with England in the 
same goods and in iron, . 

On Jan. 17, 1899, President Me- 
Kinley appointed a commission con- 
sisting of Jacob G. Schurman, Ad- 
miral George Dewey, Maj.-Gen. Elwell 
S. Otis, Col. Charles Denby, and Dean 
S. Worcester, to report on the affairs 
of the Philippine islands. The report 
of this commission was sent to Con- 
gress in February, 1900. It stated the 
impossibility of withdrawing the pro- 
tection and government of the United 
States from the islands ; and recom- 
mended the establishment of public 
schools ; and, as far as possible, a civil 
government to replace the military. It 
also assured Congress of the willing- 
ness of the representative body of the 
population to accept the protection, 
guidance, and authority of the United 
States. On April 17, 1900, President 
McKinley appointed a second commis- 
sion, comprising William H. Taft, 
Dean S. Worcester, Luke E. Wright, 
Henry C. Ide, and Bernard Moses; 
and in a message to the Secretary of 
War denned the duties of the new 
commission. 

On Jan. 31, 1901, the second (known 
as the Taft) commission enacted into 
law a code of civil government for the 
islands. It established a fair system 
of taxes, laid the basis for a primary 
school system, introduced a more exact 
method for collecting revenues, and 
created certain civil and judicial of- 
ficers. On July 4, 1901, civil govern- 
ment was inaugurated in the Philip- 
pines. Judge Taft had been appointed 
civil governor; Gen. Adna R. Chaffee 
military governor ; sad the other four 



JhlHpsog 

members of the commission made heads 
of the various civil departments. 

On Dec. 18, 1901, the Taft Com- 
mission submitted its annual report It 
stated that the insurrection was con- 
fined to five provinces, and that the 
bulk of the population was law abiding. 

The commission outlined a project 
which in brief contemplated the con- 
tinuance for two years of the existing 
powers of the commission. Then it 
advocated a representative govern- 
ment to be formed composed of a civ- 
il governor, a legislative council, and 
a popular assembly, the powers of the 
latter being closely limited so as to 
prevent it from choking the govern- 
ment in making the budget during fits 
of passion or through inexperience. 
The President of the United States 
would, of course, reserve absolute veto 

Eower. The Filipinos should also 
ave the right to be represented be- 
fore Congress and the executive gov- 
ernment at Washington by two dele- 
gates. A full account was given by 
the commission of the organization of 
the system of education which had 
been going on vigorously under Dr. 
F. W. Atkinson, the general super- 
intendent. The English language was 
the basis of all public instruction, and 
nearly one thousand trained teachers 
from the United States already had 
been put to work in the towns and 
cities of the pacified provinces. On 
July 3, 1902, the President proclaimed 
amnesty to all political prisoners in 
the Philippines, and on July 6, Agui- 
naldo was given his liberty. 

By 1902 the United States had es- 
tablished supreme and lower courts; 
raised the police force to 6,000 men; 
enrolled 150,000 children in public 
schools with 1,000 American and 4,000 
native teachers; spent millions on im- 
proving roads and harbors; and had 
$7.000,000 in the treasury. 

Governor Taft left Manila in Dec. 
1903, to accept a position in President 
Roosevelt's cabinet, and was succeeded 
by Gen. Wright. To Gov. Taft be- 
longs the credit of gaining the confi- 
dence of the Philippine people, and 
of establishing civil government. 

Philipson, David, an American 
rabbi ; born in Wabash, Ind., Aug. 9, 
1862; v/as graduated at the Univer- 
sity of Cincinnati and at the Hebrew 
Union College there in 1883, and be- 



Phillips 

came Professor of Homiletics in the 

Hebrew Union College, and president 

i of the Hebrew Sabbath School Union 

of America. He is author of " The 

Jew in English Fiction," " Old Euro- 

: pean Jewries," " The Oldest Jewish 

Congregation in the West," etc. 

Philistines, an ancient people, 
i of Shemitic origin. They lived on the 
coast of the Mediterranean, to the 
south-west of Judea. Nothing is known 
of their first appearance in Palestine. 
They were there in the time of Abra- 
ham as is evident from Gen. 21 : 34. 
That they had a king is mentioned 
Gen. 26 : 8. In the time of Joshua, 
they were subject to five princes. 
Joshua was never able to expel them 
and in the times of the Judges they 
| became strong enough to bring Israel 
! into subjection. Saul perished in a 
i pitched battle with them, David con- 
; quered them, but they revolted and 
continued enemies of Israel. 

Phillips, Adelaide, an American 
singer ; born in Stratford-on-Avon, 
England, in 1833. When seven years 
old she was taken to Boston, Mass., 
which was her residence the remainder 
of her life. Her voice was a fine con- 
tralto. She made her debut Sept. 25, 
1843, at the Boston Museum, as Lit- 
| tie Pickle. In 1850, on the advice of 
; Jenny Lind, she went to Paris and 
i studied with Garcia. She sang in 
opera in Milan in 1854, and in 1856 
in New York, in "II Trovatore." She 
appeared later in Paris in the same 
role. She died in Carlsbad, Oct. 2, 
1882. Her sister Mathilde was also a 
contralto singer. 

Phillips, John, English geologist ; 
born 1800; died 1874. He was in- 
structed in geology by his uncle, Wil- 
liam Smith, "the father of English 
geology ;" became professor of geology 
in Dublin (1844), and in Oxford 
(1856). Among his chief works are 
a "Guide to Geology" (1834), and 
"Life on the Earth" (1861). 

Phillips, Stephen, English poet; 
b. Somerton, near Oxford, July 28, 
1868. Educated at grammar schools, 
he became an actor, an army tutor, 
then turned to literature, producing 
" Paolo and Francesca," " Herod," 
" The Sin of David," etc. 

Phillips, "Wendell, an American 
orator and abolitionist; born in Bos- 



Philology 

ton, Mass., Nov. 29, 1811. He was 
graduated at Harvard in 1831, studied 
law there, and was called to the bar 
in 1834. But before clients came he 
had been drawn away from his pro- 
fession to the real work of his life. 
A timely speech in Faneuil Hall in 
1837 made him at once the principal 
orator of the anti-slavery party ; and 
henceforth, till the President's procla- 
mation of Jan. 1, 1863, he was Gar- 
rison's loyal and valued ally, his lec- 
tures and addresses doing more for 
their cause than can well be estimat- 
ed. He also championed the cause 
of temperance, and that of women, 
and advocated the rights of the In- 
dians. In 1870 he was nominated gov- 
ernor by the Prohibitionists and the 
Labor Party. His speeches and let- 
ters were collected in 1863 (new ed. 
1884). He died in Boston, Mass., Feb. 
2, 1884. 

Philology, in a popular sense : 
(1) Etymology, or the science of the 
origin of words. (2) Grammar, or the 
science of the construction of lan- 
guage in general and of individual 
languages. (3) Literary criticism, or 
the investigation of merits and de- 
merits in style and diction. 

Pliilopoemen, called the last of 
the Greeks, really their last great com- 
mander. He was born in Arcadia, 
253 B. c., becamle in 210, generalissimo 
of the Achaian League, and conquered 
the Spartans at which time he abol- 
ished the laws of Lycurgus. The 
greatest of his victories in this long 
struggle was the battle of Mantinea. 
He was put to death by poison when 
a prisoner of the Messenians, 183 B. C., 
the same year that proved fatal to 
Hannibal and Scipio. 

Philosopher's Stone, an imagi- 
nary stone sought for by the alche- 
mists, which should transmute every- 
thing it touched into gold. 

Philosophy, a term said by Diog- 
enes Laertius to have been suggest- 
ed by Pythagoras, who, on being com- 
plimented on his wisdom, said that he 
was not wise but a lover of wisdom 
(philos sophia) , the Deity, alone being 
wise. Philosophy, while earnest in 
amassing knowledge, aimed chiefly at 
penetrating to the principles of things. 
Popularly, it is divided into natural 
and mental philosophy, the former in- 
vestigating the physical laws of na- 



Plioenici.i 

ture, the latter those regulating the 
human mind. The term philosophy 
is now generally restricted to tbl 
second of these. 

Phips, or Phipps, Sir William, 
governor of Massachusetts; born in 
Pemrnaquid (Bristol), Me., Feb. 2, 
1651. He was successively a shep- 
herd, a carpenter, and a trader, and 
in 1687 recovered from a wrecked 
Spanish ship off the Bahamas bullion 
plate, and treasure valued at $1,500,- 
000; this gained him a knighthood 
and the appointment of sheriff of New 
England. In 1690 he captured Port 
Royal (now Annapolis) in Nova Sco- 
tia, but failed in the following year in 
a naval attack on Quebec. In 1692, 
through the influence of Increase Math- 
er, he was appointed governor of 
Massachusetts. He tolerated the witch 
delusion and its accompanying trage- 
dies until his own wife was menaced 
by the witch hunters. He died Feb. 
18, 1694, in London, England, whither 
he had been summoned to answer cer- 
tain charges of arbitrary conduct. 

Phlebotomy, or Venesection, the 
act of letting blood by opening a vein ; 
a method of treatment formerly ap- 
plied to almost all diseases, but now 
chiefly confined to cases of general or 
local plethora. Another mode of let- 
ting blood is by cupping or by the ap- 
plication of leeches. It has been one 
of the processes of the medical pro- 
fession from the earliest times. 

Phoebus ("the Bright"), an epi- 
thet, and -subsequently a name, of 
Apollo. It had reference both to the 
youthful beauty of the god and to the 
radiance of the sun, when, latterly, 
Apollo became identified with Helios, 
the sun god. 

Phoenicia, in ancient geography, in 
the largest sense, a narrow strip of 
country extending nearly the whole 
length of the E. coast of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, from Antioch to the bor- 
ders of Egypt. But Phoenicia proper 
was included between the cities of Lao- 
dicea, in Syria, and Tyre, comprehend- 
ing mainly the territories of Tyre and 
Sidon, and forming then only a part 
of the country of Canaan. Some au- 
thorities state that Agenor was the 
first king of Phoenicia, 1497 B. c. ; but 
all agree that the country itself was 
the seat of a great nation, and re- 
nowned for its naval enterprise at a 



Phoenix 

much earlier period. A colony of 
Phoenicians, led by Elissa or Dido, set- 
tled in Africa 878 B. c., and founded 
Carthage. 

Phoenix, or Phenix, in astronomy, 
one of the constellations of the South- 
ern Hemisphere, N. of the bright star 
Achernar in Eridanus. 

Phonetic, or Phonetical, repre- 
senting sound ; pertaining to the repre- 
sentation of sounds ; a term applied 
to alphabetic or literal characters 
which represent sounds, as a, b, c; as 
opposed to ideographic, which repre- 
sent objects or symbolize abstract 
ideas, as in Egyptian hieroglyphics. 
Phonetic spelling, a system of spelling 
in which the words are spelled exact- 
ly as they are pronounced, the sounds 
being represented by characters each 
of which represents a single sound. 
Phonetic printing was first suggest- 
ed by Isaac Pitman, of Bath, England, 
and reduced to a system by him in 
conjunction with A. J. Ellis, in the 
years 1843-1846. Since that time 
many schemes of phonetic spelling 
have been proposed and several are 
now in daily use by stenographers in 
the United States. 

Phonograph, a character used in 
phonography ; a type or character 
used for expressing a sound. Also 
an instrument for recording and re- 
producing sounds, invented by Thomas 
A. Edison. 




PHONOGRAPHIC EECOBD. 

Phonography, a description of the 
sounds uttered by the organs of speech. 
Also the representation of sounds by 
certain characters, each of which rep- 
resents one sound, and always the 
same sound. Its special application 
is to alphabetical writing, in which 
sounds or articulations are repre- 
sented by signs or letters, as opposed 



Phosphorus 

to the system in which the representa- 
tion is by ideas, symbols, or cioher. 
Phosgene, the luminous impres- 
sion produced by pressure on the eye- 
ball. It usually appears as a lumi- 
nous centre, surrounded by colored or 
dark rings. Sometimes it seems to 
consist of bright scintillations of vari- 
ous forms. Similar appearances may 
be observed at the moments of open- 
ing or closing a strong electric cur- 
rent transmitted through the eyeball. 
Phosgene Gas, or Carbonyl 
Chloride, colorless, pungent, suffo- 
cating gas, formed by exposing equal 
volumes of carbonic monoxide and 
chlorine to the action of the sun, 
when they combine and become con- 
densed to one-half their joint volume. 
Water decomposes it into carbonic 
and hydrochloric acids. 

Phosphate, in chemistry, the ge- 
neric term for the salts formed by the 
union of phosphoric anhydride with 
bases or water or both. They hold a 
leading part in the chemistry of ani- 
mal and plant life, the most important 
in this connection being the phosphate 
of soda, phosphate of lime, and the 
basic phosphate of magnesia. In ag- 
riculture the adequate supply of phos- 
phates to plants in the form of ma- 
nures becomes a matter of necessity 
in all deplenished soils. 

Phosphorescence, the property 
which many substances and organic 
beings possess of emitting light under 
certain conditions; also a phosphoric 
light. The phosphorescence of trop- 
ical, and to a large extent also of tem- 
perate seas is attributed to a small in- 
fusorial animalcule, aided by Medu- 
sae, Tunicata, Annelids, etc. On land, 
of insects, some milipedes, the female 
glow-worm, and the fireflies, emit 
light. In the glow-worm the light is 
from the under side of the final seg- 
ments of the abdomen. The phos- 
phorescence of fish in a cupboard is 
well known ; also of decaying animals 
in marshes. 

Phosphoric Acid, a tribasic acid 
formed by the action of nitric acid 
upon phosphorus, or by the hydration 
of phosphoric anhydride. It is very 
deliquescent, has an intensely sour 
taste, and reddens litmus paper. It 
is not poisonous. 

Phosphorus, a non-metallic pentad 
element ; found in a state of combina- 



Photo-engraving; 



Phylloxera 



tion in the unstratified rocks, the soil, 
the organism of plants, and the bodies 
of animals. Discovered by Brandt in 
1G69. Used on a very large scale in 
the preparation of safety matches. 

Photo-engraving, the prepara- 
tion of printing blocks or plates by 
photography. 

Photography, the process of ob- 
taining the representation of objects, 
through the aperture, with or without 
lenses, of a camera obscura (q. v. ), on 
salts of silver contained in a gelatine 
film spread on glass or celluloid, the 
subsequent development and fixing of 
the image, and the printing of copies, 
completing the process. Its practical 
invention dates from the successes of 
Daguerre (q. v.), Niepce, and Talbot, 
between 1814 and 1839; its great 
modern development after the nitrate 
of silver and wet collodion process per- 
fected in 1850, had given way about 
1880, to the bromide of silver and dry 
gelatine emulsion on glass or cellu- 
loid, discovered by Dr. L. Maddox in 
1871. When the light strikes the 
sensitized film in a camera, a chemical 
change takes place in the salts, pro- 
ducing a negative in which the lights 
and shades are reversed to what they 
are naturally. The image is latent or 
invisible until developed, i. e., placed 
in a liquid such as hydrokinine com- 
bined with an alkali, which forms an 
opaque compound with the part of the 
Siilt affected by the light; the develop- 
ed image is then fixed or made perma- 
nent in a solution of hyposulphite of 
soda, which dissolves the salt from 
parts unaffected by light, and leaves 
virtually a light or sun-engraved silver 
plate from which positive copies are 
printed by contact with sensitized 
paper, and exposure to light. 

The many forms of cameras, lenses, 
shutters, films, plates, printing papers, 
etc., and the applied uses of photogra- 
phy are too numerous to be detailed. 
One of its notable commercial develop- 
ments is AMATEUB PHOTOGRAPHY, 
which has had phenomenal and in- 
creasing popularity since the advent 
of the "dry-plate." COLOR PHOTOG- 
KAPHY, or the reproduction by photog- 
raphy of objects in their natural 
colors, is a branch that has received 
much scientific investigation and ex- 
periment. The most successful at- 



tempts hitherto, are those of Cros and 
Charpentier of Paris, Prof. Joly of 
Dublin, and McDonough of Chicago. 
The general method is to make three 
negatives through red, blue, and green 
glass, on specially sensitized and de- 
veloped plates, and print by superim- 
position. 

Photogravnre, a term applied to 
methods of producing, by photography, 
plates for printing in a copperplate 
press. 

Photoheliograph, an instrument 
for photographing the sun. 

Phrenology, the science or doc- 
trine which teaches that a relation ex- 
ists between the several faculties of 
the human mind and particular por- 
tions of the brain, the latter being the 
organs through which the former act. 
The localization of the several fac- 
ulties was first attempted by Dr. Franz 
Joseph Gall, who gained, in 1804, a 
valuable coadjutor in Dr. Spurzheim. 
When Spurzheim visited Edinburgh, 
he met Mr. George Combe, who adopt- 
ed his views, and in 1819 published 
" Essays on Phrenology," ultimately 
developed into his " System of Phre- 
nology," which became very popular. 
Gall enumerated nearly ,30, Spurzheim 
35, mental faculties which he consid- 
ered as primitive. These, Spurzheim 
divides into moral, or affective, and 
intellectual. The affective faculties 
are subdivided into propensities pro- 
ducing desires or inclination, and sen- 
timents, which along with this excite 
some hijher emotion. The intellectual 
faculties are similarly divided into per- 
ceptive and reflective. They are then 
localized on the brain, or rather on 
the skull. See BRAIN; SKULL. 

Phrygia, in ancient geography, an 
inland province of Asia Minor. It 
was called Phrygia Pacatiana, and 
also Phrygia Major, in distinction 
from Phrygia Minor, which was a 
small district of Mysia near the Hel- 
lespont, occupied by some Phrygians 
after the Trojan War. This region was 
a high table-land, fruitful in corn and 
wine and celebrated for its fine breed 
of cattle and sheep. 

Phylloxera, in entomology, a genus 
of insects allied to the Aphis and Coc- 
cus families. The Phylloxeridse at- 
tach themselves to various plants, on 
the juice of . which they feed, and 



Which they often injure or destroy. 
/P. vastatrix is the name given to an 
insect of this family, which, since 
1865, has committed great devastation 
in the vineyards of France. Great 
numbers of this insect appear on the 
roots of the vine, where they produce 
galls, and their punctures are so nu- 




PHYLLOXERA INSECT. 

merous and incessant that the roots 
can no longer supply nutriment to the 
plant, which fades and dies. There is 
a form which lives on the leaves, also 
producing galls. 

Physician, one who is skilled in or 
practises the art of healing ; one who, 
being duly qualified, prescribes reme- 
dies for diseases ; specifically one who 
holds a certificate showing that he has 
passed an examination before a com- 
petent authority, such as the medical 
colleges of the United States or the 
State boards of medicine, authorizing 
him to practise. Strictly speaking a 
physician differs from a surgeon, in 
that the former prescribes remedies for 
diseases, while the latter performs op- 
erations. 

Physics, a study of the phenomena 
presented by bodies. It treats of mat- 
ter, force and motion ; gravitation and 
molecular attraction, liquids, gases, 
acoustics, heat, light, magnetism, and 
electricity. It is called also natural 
or mechanical philosophy. In its 
broadest acceptance the term physics 
includes chemistry; specifically it is 
limited to those phenomena based on 
the molecule as a unit, whereas the 
unit of chemistry is the atom. 



Plait 

Physiognomy, the art or science 
of judging of a person's nature or 
character by his outward look, espe- 
cially by his facial features and char- 
acteristics. In the ordinary business 
of life, all men are more or less influ- 
enced by the belief that the character 
and disposition of a person may, in 
some measure, be judged of by his 
physical appearance, and none have 
more confidence in this way of judging 
than those who have most occasion to 
act on it. 

Physiology, the science which 
treats of the processes which go on in 
the bodies of living beings under nor- 
mal conditions, and of the use of their 
various parts or organs. It is divided 
into plant physiology, animal physiol- 
ogy (according to whether plants or 
animals are the subject of study) , and 
human physiology (a branch of animal 
physiology in its relation to man). 

Phytology. See BOTANY. 

Pianoforte, a musical instru- 
ment, the sounds of which are pro- 
duced by blows from hammers, acted 
on by levers called keys. This is prob- 
ably the most widely-known and gen- 
erally-used musical instrument in the 
world. The earliest form of piano- 
forte, early in the 18th century, was 
perhaps, in some respects, inferior to 
a fine harpsichord, but it possessed the 
elements of expansion, as now exhibit- 
ed in a modern grand trichord pianb- 
forte of more than seven octaves com- 
pass, with every gradation of sound, 
from pianissimo to a splendid fortissi- 
mo, and the most sensitive and deli- 
cate mechanism between the finger and 
the hammer. 

Piassaba, or Piassava, a strong 
vegetable fiber imported from Brazil, 
and largely used for making brooms. 
It is chiefly obtained from palms. 

Piaster, or Piastre, a coin of 
various values. The gold piaster of 
Turkey = 4.4c. ; the silver piaster = 
4.35c. ; the Egyptian piaster = 4.9c. ; 
the Spanish piaster is synonymous 
with the United States dollar. The 
old Italian piaster was equivalent to 
about 89 cents. 

Piatt, Bonn, an American jour- 
nalist; born in Cincinnati, Ohio* 
June 29. 1829, was secretary of le- 
gation at Paris, and was for nearly a 
year charge d'affaires ; during the Civil 



Piatt 



Ficlsens 



War was assistant adjutant-general on 
the staff of Gen. Robert C. Schenck ; 
was one of the founders of the New 
York " Sun " and afterward of the 
Washington " Capital," which he ed- 
ited for two years. He died in Cleve- 
land, O., Nov. 12, 1891. 

Fiatt, John James, an American 
poet ; born in Milton, Ind., March 1, 
1885. He entered journalism ; be- 
came clerk of the United States Treas- 
ury Department and of the House of 
Representatives; and from 1882 to 
1894, was consul at Cork, Ireland. 
His works include : " Poems by Two 
Friends," with W. D. Howells; 
" Poems in Sunshine and Firelight " ; 
" Idylls and Lyrics of the Ohio Val- 
ley " ; etc. 

Piatt, Sarah Morgan (Bryan), 
an American poet, wife of John J. ; 
born in Lexington, Ky., Aug. 11, 1836. 
Her best-known works are : " A 
Woman's Poems " ; "A Voyage to the 
Fortunate Isles " ; " Dramatic Persons 
and Moods " ; and " An Enchanted 
Castle." 

Piazza, a square open space sur- 
rounded by buildings or colonnades ; 
popularly, but improperly, applied to 
an arcaded or colonnaded walk under 
cover, and even to a veranda. 

Pica, an alphabetical catalogue of 
things and names in rolls and records ; 
in medicine, a vitiated appetite, which 
causes the person affected to crave 
things unfit for food, as coal, chalk, 
etc. ; in printing, a name given to a 
size of type, 72 ems to the foot, or 
6x6 to the square inch, It is the 
standard of measurement in printing. 

Piccini, Niccolo, an Italian musi- 
cal composer ; born in Bari, Italy ? in 
1728. He composed comic and serious 
operas, chiefly for the stages of Rome 
and Naples, with such success that for 
many years he was without a rival in 
Italy. He wrote over 150 operas, be- 
sides numerous oratorios and can- 
tatas. He died in Passy, France, 
May 7, 1800. 

Piccolo, a small flute, having the 
same compass as the ordinary orches- 
tral flute, but its sounds are one oc- 
tave higher than the notes as they are 
written ; called also an octave flute. 

Piccolo-mini, a distinguished Sien- 
nese family, still flourishing in Italy 
in two branch***. The two most cele- 



brated members are: (1) ^Eneas Syl- 
vius Bartholomseus, afterward Pope 
Pius II. (2) Octavio, a grand-neph- 
ew of the first ; born in 1599, died in 
Vienna in 1656. He served in the 
armies of the German emperor, and 
became one of the distinguished gener- 
als in the Thirty Years' War. He 
was a favorite of Wallenstein, who 
entrusted him with a knowledge of 
his projects, when he purposed to at- 
tack the emperor. In spite of this he 
made himself the chief instrumeat of 
Wallenstein's overthrow, and after the 
latter 's assassination (1634) was re- 
warded with a portion of his estates. 

Pice, a small East Indian coin, 
value about three-quarters of a cent. 

Pichegru, Charles, a French mili- 
tary officer ; born in Arbois, France, 
Feb. 16, 1761, of humble parents, but 
receiving a good education under the 
monks of his native town. Entering 
the army he rose to be sergeant. The 
revolution elevated him to the rank of 
general, and, in 1794, he succeeded 
General Hoche in the command of the 
Army of the North. In 1797 he was 
elected a member of the Legislative 
body; but his opposition to the Direct- 
ory, and his speeches in favor c c the 
royalist emigrants, occasioned an accu- 
sation against him as designing to re- 
store royalty. He was ordered with- 
out trial to be transported to Cayenne, 
whence he escaped to England, where 
he remained till the spring of 1804; 
he returned to Paris, was again appre- 
hended and sent to the Temple, where 
he was found strangled in his bed, 
April 5, 1804. 

Pickens, Andrew, an American 
military officer ; born in Paxton, Pa., 
Sept. 13, 1739, of Huguenot ancestry. 
In 1752 he removed to South Caro- 
lina; was engaged in the expedition 
against the Cherokees in 1761. Dur- 
ing the Revolution he was promoted 
Brigadier-General; took part in the 
defense of South Carolina against the 
British. He served in Congress from 
1793 to 1795; and made treaties with 
the Indians. He died in Tomassee, 
S. C., Aug. 17, 1817. 

Pickens, Israel, an American poli- 
tician ; born in North Carolina, in 
1780. He was a Democratic member 
of Congress from North Carolina in 
1811-1817; governor of Alabama in 
1821-1825 ; and became United States 



Pickens 



Pickett 



Senator in 1826. He died near Ma- 
tanzas, Cuba, in 1827. 

Pickens, Fort, a fort on Santa 
Rosa Island, Pensacola harbor, held 
by a small Union force under Lieut. 
A. J. Slemmer at the beginning of the 
Civil War. It refused to surrender 
when besieged by the Confederates in 
1861, and was held till reinforced. 

Pickerel, a small pike, a young 
pike. The term is applied to several 
species of fishes belonging to the pike 
family. 

Pickering, Charles, an American 
physician, grandson of Timothy ; born 
in Susquehanna co., Pa., Nov. 10, 
1805. He traveled extensively, and 
published the volumes : " The Races 
of Man and their Geographical Dis- 
tribution " ; " Geographical Distribu- 
tion of Animals and Man " ; "Chrono- 
logical History of Plants." He died 
In Boston, March 18, 1878. 

Pickering, Edward Charles, an 
American astronomer, great-grandson 
of Timothy Pickering ; born in Boston, 
Mass., July 19, 1846; was graduated 
at Harvard in 1865; Professor of As- 
tronomy and Geodesy, and Director 
of the Observatory at Harvard after 
187<. On July 21, 1901, he photo- 
graphed the spectrum of lightning, 
from the study of which he developed 
a revolutionary scientific theory of the 
compound nature of the so-called 
chemical elements. 

Pickering, John, an American 

ghilologist, son of Timothy ; born in 
alem, Mass., Feb. 7, 1777. He held 
many important public positions; was 
president of the American Academy of 
Arts and Sciences, and a member of 
various learned associations at home 
and abroad. He published a paper on 
the " Adoption of a Uniform Orthog- 
raphy for the Indian Languages " ; a 
" Vocabulary of Words and Phrases 
Peculiar to the United States " ; etc. ; 
and wrote many pamphlets on scien- 
tific and political questions. He died 
in Boston, May 5, 1846. 

Pickering, Timothy, an Ameri- 
can statesman ; born in Salem, Mass., 
July 17, 1745 ; was graduated at Har- 
vard in 1763, and admitted to the bar 
in 1768. He participated in the bat- 
tle of Lexington ; in 1776 joined the 
Continental army in command of 700 
men; was soon appointed adjutant- 



general by Washington ; in 1780 was 
selected for the post of quartermaster 
of the army, and from that time till 
the close of the war conducted his de- 
partment with great skill. Shortly 
after his resignation, he united with 
Patrick Henry and Alexander Hamil- 
ton in opposing the measure that drove 
the Tories from the country. He ne- 
gotiated a treaty between the United 
States and the Six Nations in 1791, 
and a month later was appointed Post- 
master-General. He was Secretary of 
State under Presidents Washington 
and Adams, but was dismissed during 
the " X. Y. Z." papers dispute in 
1800. He retired from politics for a 
time, but was elected to the United 
States Senate in 1804, and from that 
time continued actively in politics. He 
died in Salom, Jan. 29, 1829. 

Pickering, William Henry, an* 
American astronomer ; born in Bos- 
ton, Mass., Feb. 15, 1858; brother of 
Edward Charles Pickering ; was grad' 
uated at the Massachusetts Institute 
of Technology in 1879; became assist- 
ant professor at the Harvard Observ- 
atory; and conducted several expedi- 
tions to observe the total solar 
eclipses in different parts of the West- 
ern Hemisphere in 1878-1893. He es- 
tablished astronomical stations in. 
Southern California in 1889 ; at Are- 
quipa, Peru, in 1891 ; and at Mande- 
ville, Jamaica, W. I., in 1900. He has 
climbed over 100 mountain peaks. 

Picket, a stake with a sharpened 
end, used in laying off ground for 
fortifications. Also a stake sharpened 
at both ends; one driven into the 
ground and the other acting as an ob- 
stacle to tLe advance of the enemy. 
Also a guard posted in front of an 
army to give notice of the approach of 
the enemy. 

Pickett, George Edward, an 
American military officer; born in 
Richmond, Va., Jan. 25, 1825 ; was 
graduated at the United States Mili- 
tary t Academy in 1846; served in the 
Mexican W r ar as lieutenant and was 
made captain in 1855. In T861 he left 
the United States service and entered 
the Confederate army. He was com- 
missioned Brigadier-General and was 
distinguished throughout the war for 
bravery and activity. In 1862 he was 
made Major-General. He took a prom- 
inent part in the battles of Fredericks- 



Pickles 



Pierce 



burg, Gettysburg (where his division 
made the famous " Pickett's charge ") 
Petersburg, and Five Forks. He died 
in Norfolk, Va., July 30, 1875. 

Pickles, a term generally applied 
to vegetables preserved in vinegar, 
with or without spices ; though the 
term " pickled " applies to animal food 
preserved in salt. The vegetables 
most often pickled are cabbage, cauli- 
flower, gherkins (young cucumbers), 
French beans, onions, walnuts, mush- 
rooms, and nasturtiums. Chile pep- 
pers and sweet peppers, olives, and 
capers are the most common kinds of 
imported pickles and mangoes are oc- 
casionally used. 

Picquart, George, a French mill- 
tary officer ; born in Strassburg in 
1854; was educated at St. Cyr, 1872- 
1874, and at the General Staff School 
in 1874-1876, gaining high places at 
the examinations in both schools. In 
1896 he was given the rank of lieuten- 
ant-colonel, but then he began his in- 
quiries into the Dreyfus case, moved 
thereto by certain discoveries which he 
made as to Major Esterhazy. In this 
he was at first encouraged by his of- 
ficial superiors, but afterward discour- 
aged, and in January, 1897, he was 
sent in disgrace to Tunis. He return- 
ed to take a prominent part in the in- 
quiries and legal proceedings which 
took place in the winter of 1897 and 
during 1898, and his evidence formed 
the strongest proof of the illegality of 
the trial at which Dreyfus was con- 
demned, and of the astounding meth- 
ods employed by the War Office to hush 
up the affair. In February, 1898, he 
was placed on the retired list, and 
afterward prosecuted on a charge of 
revealing War Office secrets, and im- 
prisoned. He vindicated Dreyfus (q. 
v.), was promoted Brigadier-General, 
and, 190G, French Minister of War. 

Ficton, Sir Thomas, a British 
military officer ; born in Poyston, Pem- 
brokeshire, England, in August, 1758. 
He entered the army in 1772. In 
1794 he went out to the West Indies; 
took part in the conquest of several of 
the islands, including Trinidad, and 
was appointed (1797) governor of the 
last named, being shortly afterward 
promoted general. There he plotted 
for the overthrow of Spanish rule in 
South America. Later he was with 
Wellington, fought at Quatre Bras, 

B. 117. 



and at Waterloo fell leading his men 
to the charge, June 18, 1815. 

Pidgin, Charles Feltcn, an 
American statistician; born in Rox- 
bury, Mass., Nov. 1, 1844. He in- 
vented many machines for the mechan- 
ical tabulation of statistics, among: 
them the electric adding and multiply- 
ing machine, addition register, and 
typewriter tabulator. He has writ- 
ten novels and musical compositions. 

Pierce, Franklin, an American 
statesman, 14th President of the 
United States ; born in Hillsboro, N. 
H., Nov. 23, 1804. He was educated 
in the schools of his native State and 
at Bowdoin College, where he studied 
in company with Longfellow, Haw- 
thorne, and Prentiss, graduating in. 
1824. In 1833 he entered Congress, 
serving four years, and in 1837 was 
elected to the United States Senate* 
being the youngest member of that 
body, that contained such men as 
Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, Bu- 
chanan, and Silas Wright. In 1842 
he resigned from the Senate and re- 
tired to private life, declining several 
public offices tendered him. In 1846 
he enlisted for the Mexican War, was 
appointed brigadier in the volunteer 
army, and led his brigade in the bat- 
tles of Contreras and Churubusco. la 
1852 he was nominated for the presi- 
dency on the 49th ballot, by the Demo- 
cratic National Convention, and was 
elected by an electoral majority over 
General Scott of 254 to 42. During: 
his administration the Missouri Com- 
promise was repealed, a reciprocity 
treaty for trade with the British 
American colonies was made ; a treaty 
with Japan was established; and th 
Mexican boundary disputes settled. 
After his term expired, failing of a re- 
nomination, he traveled abroad for 
three years, and, returning, lived there- 
after in retirement at Concord, where 
he died, Oct. 8, 1869. 

Pierce, Henry Niles, an American 
clergyman ; born in Pawtucket, R. L, 
Oct 19, 1820. He spent many years 
in the West as a missionary, and was 
consecrated Protestant Episcopal 
Bishop of Arkansas in 1870, being the 
first incumbent and holding the office 
for 25 years. He published many es- 
says, sermons, and reviews ; and a 
volumo of poems, etc. He died Sept. 
5,1899. 



Pierpont, Francis Harrison, an 

American statesman \ born in Monon- 
galia co., Va. (now W. Va.), in 1815. 
At the beginning of the Civil War he 
became governor of the counties of 
Virginia that remained loyal to the 
Union, and were organized as the State 
of West Virginia in 18G1 ; was then 
governor of all the loyal counties in 
Eastern Virginia ; and from June, 
1863, till May, 1865, was chief execu- 
tive of the present Virginia. He died 
in Pittsburg, Pa., March 24, 1899. 

Pierrepont, Edwards, an Ameri- 
can diplomatist ; born in North 
Haven, Conn., March 4, 1817; was 
graduated at Yale in 1837, and at its 
Law School in 1840; became a mem- 
ber of the Ohio bar, and after five 
years removed to New York city. He 
was elected a judge of the Super'or 
Court of New York in 1857. In 1875 
he became attorney-general of the 
United States in Grant's administra- 
tion ; and in the following year was 
appointed United States minister to 
Great Britain. He tried many fa- 
mous cases during his professional ca- 
reer, and was noted as an orator. He 
died in New York city, March 6, 1892. 

Pigeon English, the dialect used 
by English and American residents in 
China in their dealings with the native 
traders. It is a conglomeration of 
English and Portuguese words in Chi- 
nese idiom. 

Pig Iron, iron in oblong masses, or 
" pigs," as turned out by the smelting 
furnace. The production in the 
United States in the calendar year 
1907 was the largest on record, 25,- 
781,361 long tons, valued at $529,- 
958,000, and the world's production 
was 60,680,014 metric tons. The 
available iron-ore supply of the 
United States was estimated at 4,- 
478,150,000 long tons; the unavail- 
able 75,116,070,000. 

Pigments, materials used for im- 
parting color, especially in painting, 
but also in dyeing or otherwise. 

Pika, the calling hare, an animal 
nearly allied to the hares. It is found 
in North America, Russia, and Si- 
beria, and is remarkable for the man- 
ner in which it stores up its winter 
provision, and also for its voice, the 
tone of which so much resembles that 
of a quail as to be often mistaken 
for it 



Pike, a military weapon, consisting 
of a narrow, elongated lance-head 
fixed to a pole or a simple spike of 
metal. The end of the staff had also 
a spike for insertion in the ground, 
thus allowing a musketeer to keep off 
the approach of cavalry while attend- 
ing to his other arms. It is now su- 
perseded by the bayonet. Also, a fish, 
the common pike. It is one of the 
larger fresh-water fishes, sometimes at- 
taining a length of five or six feet, and 
much esteemed for food. 

Pike, Albert, an American writer ; 
born in Boston, Mass., Dec. 29, 1809. 
He became a lawyer in Arkansas, 
where he revised the statutes. He 
was attorney for the Cherokees, re- 
ceiving at one time a fee of $100,000. 
In 1839 his "Hymns of the Gods" 
was published. He also wrote works 
on Masonry. He served in an Arkan- 
sas regiment during the Mexican War, 
and in the Civil War organized some 
Indian regiments which he led in the 
battles of Pea Ridge and Elkhorn. 
After the war he was editor of the 
Memphis "Appeal" till 1868. Died 
in Washington, D. C., April 3, 1891. 

Pike, Mrs. Mary Hayden 
(Green), an American novelist ; born 
in Eastport, Me., Nov. 30, 1825. She 
will be best remembered as the author 
of " Ida May," a novel dealing with 
slavery and Southern life, which had 
a large sale. 

Pike, Zebnlon Montgomery, an 
American military officer ; born in 
Lamberton, N. J., Jan. 5, 1779; was 
appointed an ensign in his father's 
regiment in 1799 ; conducted an expe- 
dition sent by the government to trace 
the Mississippi to its source in 1805; 
also made explorations in Louisiana 
Territory, discovering Pike's Peak and 
reaching the Rio Grande in the course 
of his travels. In 1813 he was pro- 
moted Brigadier-General, and on April 
13 of that year while in command of 
the attack on York (now Toronto), 
in Upper Canada, was killed. 

Pike Perch, a genus of fishes close- 
ly allied to the perch, but showing a 
resemblance to the pike in its elon- 
gated body and head. It occurs in the 
fresh waters of North America, such 
as the Great Lakes, the Upper Missis- 
sippi, and the Ohio. 

Pike's Peak, a peak of the Rocky 
Mountains, in Colorado, 65 miles S. 



Pilate 

of Denver, discovered by Captain 
Pike, U. S. A., in 1806. It rises to a 
height of 14,147 feet. On its sum- 
mit is one of the highest meteorolog- 
ical stations in the world; while at 
the base, at Colorado Springs, there 
is a low level station. There is a rail- 
way to the top, 9 miles long < (4 1 /^ 
miles of curves), with a maximum 
gradient of 1 in 4. 

Pilate, Pontius, a Roman ruler, 
who became governor of Judaea, A. D. 
26. He commanded in that country 
10 years. The Jews brought Jesus 
Christ before Pilate, who, perceiving 
that envy and malice occasioned their 
charges, would have scourged the pris- 
oner and dismissed him, but being 
threatened with the wrath of Caesar, 
Pilate delivered Jesus, whom he pro- 
nounced innocent, to be crucified. He 
is said to have subsequently treated 
the Samaritans with great cruelty, for 
which he was recalled by Tiberius, 
and banished to Gaul, where he slew 
himself, A. D. 37 or 38. 

Pilgrimage, a journey undertaken 
by a pilgrim ; specifically, a journey 
to some distant place, sacred and ven- 
erable for some reason, undertaken for 
devotional purposes. In Scripture, 
the journey of human life. (Gen. 
xlvii : 9.) Pilgrimages are an essen- 
tial part of the Hindu and Mohamme- 
dan systems, and the visits to Jerusa- 
lem three times a year of the Jewish 
race were of the nature of pilgrimages. 
Pilgrim Fathers, the name given 
to 102 Puritans, who sailed in the 
" Mayflower," from Plymouth, on 
Sept. 6. 1620, to seek in America the 
religious liberty denied them in Eng- 
land. Landing on Plymouth Rock, 
they, on Dec. 25, 1620, founded a col- 
ony, which became the germ of the 
New England States. 

Pillory, formerly a common instru- 
ment of punishment for persons con- 
victed of forestalling, use of unjust 
weights, perjury, forgery, libel, etc. 
It consisted of a frame of wood, erect- 
ed on a pillar or stand, and furnished 
with movable boards, resembling those 
of the stocks, and holes through which 
the offender's head and hands were 
put. In this position he was exposed 
for a certain time to public view and 
insult. The use of the pillory was 
abolished in France in 1832, in Eng- 
land in 1837, and in the United States 



Pilot Fish 

about 1839, except in the State of 
Delaware. 

Pillow, Fort, a defensive work, 
erected by the Confederates during the 
Civil War, about 40 miles N. of Mem- 
phis, Tenn., and abandoned by them, 
June, 1862, and occupied by the Union 
forces till April, 1864, when it was 
taken by the Confederates under Gen- 
eral Forrest, and the garrison killed. 

Pillow, Gideon Johnson, an 
American military officer ; born in 
Williamson co., Tenn., June 8, 1806; 
served with distinction during the 
Mexican War, first as a Brigadier- 
General and later as a Major-General 
of volunteers. In the Civil War he 
was appointed a Brigadier-General in 
the Confederate army ; was second in 
command at Fort Donelson in Febru- 
ary, 1862, and with his chief, Gen. 
John B. Floyd, escaped, leaving Gen- 
eral Buckner to surrender the fort to 
General Grant. He died in Lee co., 
Ark., Oct. 6, 1878. 

Pills, medicines made in globules, 
of a convenient size for swallowing 
whole, the medicine being usually 
mixed up with some neutral substance 
such as breadcrumbs, hard soap, ex- 
tract of liquorice, mucilage, syrup, 
treacle, and conserve of roses. The 
coverings are liquorice powder, wheat 
flour, fine sugar, and lycopodium. In 
many cases pills are now enameled or 
silvered, which deprives them of most 
of their unpleasantness. Pills are a 
highly suitable form for administering 
medicines which operate in small 
doses, or which are intended to act 
slowly or not to act at all till they 
reach the lower intestines. 

Pilot, one who, being properly 
qualified by experience, and having 
passed certain examinations, is ap- 
pointed by the competent authority to 
conduct ships into or out of harbor or 
along particular coasts, channels, etc., 
at a certain fixed rate, depending on 
the draught of the vessel and distance. 
The pilot has the entire charge of the 
vessel in the pilot's water. 

Pilot Fish, a small pelagic fish, 
about a foot long, of bluish color, 
marked with from five to seven broad, 
dark, vertical bars. It owes its sci- 
entific and popular English name ^to 
its habit of keeping company with 
ships and large fish, generally sharks. 



Pilot Knoli 



Fine 



Pilot Knob, a remarkable hill in 
Missouri, about 86 miles S. W. of St. 
Louis. It is nearly 500 feet high, and 
is composed almost entirely of mag- 
netic iron ore. 

Piloty, Karl von, a German paint- 
er ; born in Munich, Bavaria, Oct. 1, 
1826. Died in Munich, July 21, 1886. 

Pin, a piece of wood, metal, etc., 
generally pointed and used for fasten- 
ing separate articles together, or as a 
support; a peg, a bolt. Also a small 
piece of wire, generally brass, headed 
and pointed, used as a fastening, etc., 
since antiquity. 

Pins were made by hand of metal in 
the 16th century, and were very cost- 
ly. Before that time small skewers of 
ivory or wood were used. The first 
pin-making machine was made in 1824 
by an American living in England. 
Many improvements have since been 
introduced. 

Pinchot, GiflPord, an American 
forester; born in Simsbury, Conn., 
Aug. 11, 1865; studied forestry in 
several European countries; inaugu- 
rated the first systematic forestry 
work in the United States at Bilt- 
more, N. C., in 1892; became chief of 
the National Forest Service in 1898 
and Professor of Forestry at Yale in 
1903; had a notable controversy with 
Secretary Ballinger, of the Interior 
Department, concerning the conser- 
vation of natural resources in Alaska, 
in 1908-1910; and was dismissed from 
the Forest Service by President Taft 
in the latter year. 

Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, 
an American statesman ; born in 
Charleston, S. C., Feb. 25, 1746. He 
was Washington's aide-de-camp at the 
battles of Brandywine and German- 
town, and afterward, as colonel, saw 
much active service, till 1780, when he 
was taken prisoner at the surrender 
of Charleston, and retained till the 
close of the war. A member of the 
convention that framed the Constitu- 
tion of the United States (1787), he 
introduced the clause forbidding relig- 
ious tests as a qualification for office. 
He declined the secretaryship of war 
in 1794, and of state in 1795 ; in 1796 
he was sent as minister to France, but 
the Directory refused to receive him, 
and he had to quit the country. It 
was while on this mission that, when 
it was intimated that peace might be 



granted in return for a money pay- 
ment, he made the reply, " Millions for 
defense, but not a cent for tribute." 
In 1800-1808 he was thrice an un- 
successful Federalist candidate for the 
presidency. He died Aug. 16, 1825. 

Pinckney, Thomas, an American 
diplomatist, brother of Charles C. ; 
born in Charleston, S. C., Oct. 23, 
1750. In the Revolutionary War as 
aide to General Lincoln he distin- 
guished himself at the assault on 
Savannah and was severely wounded 
at Camden in August, 1780. He was 
governor of South Carolina in 1787- 
1789 ; United States minister to Great 
Britain in 1792-1794, and to Spain in 
1794-1796 ; a Federalist candidate for 
the presidency in 1796; and member 
of Congress in 1797-1801. He died in 
Charleston, Nov. 2, 1828. 

Pindar, th<* great Greek lyric poet ; 
born in or near Thebes, in Bceotia, 
about 522 B. c. Pindar excelled in all 
varieties of choral poetry, hymns to 
the gods, paeans, odes for processions, 
drinking songs, etc. But the only 
poems of his now extant are the 
" Epinikia, or Triumphal Odes," com- 
posed in celebration of victories at the 
great public games, the Olympian, 
Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. Pin- 
dar attained the highest renown in his 
own age, and as a lyrical poet has no 
rival. When Thebes was destroyed by 
Alexander, the conqueror spared the 
house of Pindar. He died in 443 B. c. 

Pine, a genus of trees of the natural 
order Conifers?,. The Linnsean genus 
includes all kinds of fir, larch, and 
cedar ; but as now limited the genus 
Pinus is distinguished by monrecious 
flowers and woody cones with numer- 
ous two-seeded scales, the scales hav- 
ing an angular truncated apex. The 
leaves are linear and very narrow, of 
a very dark green color, growing in 
clusters or in pairs, and surrounded 
by scarious scales at the base. To 
this genus belong many noble and use- 
ful trees. Many species of pines, 
some of them very beautiful and very 
valuable, are found in North America. 
Besides those long known, and which 
are found in the States and colonies 
near the Atlantic, a number of the 
noblest species of this genus have, dur- 
ing the 19th century, been discovered 
in California and the N. W. parts of 
the Continent. The red Canadian 



Pineapple 

pine is found from Canada to the Pa- 
cific, but does not reach far S. in the 
United States. It is the yellow pine 
of Canada and Nova Scotia. 

Pineapple, a plant of the natural 
order Bromeliacea?. The flowers rise 
from the center of the plant, and 
are in a large conical spike, sur- 
mounted by spiny leaves called the 
crown. The conical spike of flowers 
ultimately becomes enlarged and juicy, 
constituting the pineapple, considered 




PINEAPPLE. 

one of the finest of fruits. More than 
50 varieties have been produced. The 
plant grows in the S. portion of the 
United States and in Hawaii. In the 
islands they sometimes reach the 
weight of 17 pounds, though the aver- 
age weight is six. Since 1883 there 
have been large exports of 'this fruit 
from the various islands. 

Pine Bluff, city and capital of 
Jefferson county, Ark.; on the Arkan- 
sas river and several railroads; 48 
miles S. E. of Little Rock; is the 
trade center of a large farming sec- 
tion; makes extensive shipments of 
hides and cotton; manufactures cot- 
ton-seed oil and meal, flour and grist, 
cotton-gins, bank furniture, and ma- 
chinery; and contains the Merrill In- 
stitute, a Normal College for colored 
students, and large railroad shops. 
Pop. (1910) 15,102. 

Ping-Pong, table lawn tennis, a 
game that was introduced from Eug- 



Pinkney 

land and became very popular in the 
United States. The game is played 
very much as is the regular game of 
tennis. 

Pingree, Hazen S., an American 
manufacturer ; born in Denmark, Me., 
Aug. 30, 1842. He enlisted in the 
United States army in 1862; served 
throughout the war and was in the 
principal battles. At the close of the 
war he settled in Detroit, Mich., and 
engaged in the shoe business, subse- 
quently becoming the head of the 
largest factory of its kind in the West. 
He was elected mayor of Detroit in 
1889, on the Reform ticket. His 
radical ideas on the reform of monop- 
olies, etc., caused much agitation, es- 
pecially in connection with street car 
companies. He also instituted the 
" potato patch," a scheme for employ- 
ing applicants for charity in product- 
ive labor, a plan which has been 
adopted by other cities. In 1896 he 
was elected governor of Michigan, 
holding the office of mayor also, till 
March 19, 1897, when according to a 
decision of the Supreme Court he re- 
linquished the latter office. He was 
reflected governor in 1898. He died 
June 18, 1901. 

Pinkerton, Allan, an American 
detective ; born in Glasgow, Scotland, 
Aug. 25, 1819. In 1840 he went to 
Canada and thence to Chicago, where 
in 1850 he joined the detective depart- 
ment. Subsequently he organized the 
detective agency which still bears his 
name. He wrote many interesting 
stories of his experiences, which were 
afterward collected in one volume. He 
died July 1, 1884. 

Pinkney, William, an American 
diplomatist ; born in Annapolis, Md., 
March 17, 1764; was admitted to the 
bar in. 1786; was a member of the 
Legislature of his State that ratified 
the Constitution of the United States. 
In 1796 Washington appointed him a 
commissioner to determine the claims 
of American merchants to compensa- 
tion for losses and damages caused by 
the English government. In 1806 he 
was sent with James Monroe to treat 
with the English government regarding 
the latter's repeated violations of the 
rights of neutrals and was resident 
minister in London in 1807-1811, 
when President Madison appointed 
him attorney-general of the United 



Pinnated Grouse 



Piplstrell* 



States. In 1816 he was -appointed 
minister to Russia and special envoy 
to Naples. After his return in 1818 
he resumed law practice. In 1820 he 
was elected to the United States Sen- 
ate. He died in Washington, D. G.. 
Dec. 25, 1822. 

Pinnated Grouse, known also as 
the prairie hen, or prairie chicken. 
The male is remarkable as possessing 
two erectile tufts in the nape, and an 
air bladder (connected with the wind- 
pipe, and capable of inflation) on each 
side of the neck, in color and shape re- 
sembling small oranges ; general plu- 
mage brown, mottled with a darker 
shade ; habitat, prairies of the Mis- 
sissippi valley, from Louisiana, N. 

Pint, a measure of capacity used 
both for dry and liquid measures. It 
contains 34.65925 cubic inches, or the 
eighth part of a gallon. In medicine 
it is equivalent to 12 ounces. 

Pintail Duck, has the upper parts 
and flanks ash, with narrow stripes of 




PINTAIL DUCK. 

black ; under parts white ; head umber- 
brown ; tail pointed. It inhabits the 
N. of America and Europe. 

Pinzon, Vincent Yancz, and 
Martin Alonzo (brothers), Spanish 
navigators, who had commands in Co- 
lumbus' first voyage, and by whose ex- 
ertions mainly it was that a sufficient 
number of men were induced to risk 
their lives on this perilous enterprise. 
Vincent Yanez was the more distin- 
guished of the brothers ; he made sev- 
eral voyages, on the most important 



of which he sailed in December, 1499, 
and discovered Brazil and the river 
Amazon, three months before Cabral 
took possession of South America for 
the crown of Portugal. 

Pioneer, one of a body of soldiers 
equipped with pickax, spade, etc., 
whose duty it is to clear and repair 
roads, bridges, etc., as far as possible, 
for troops on the march. They are 
placed at the head of the battalion of 
which they form a part, and are com- 
manded by a pioneer sergeant. Also, 
one who goes before to prepare or 
clear the way, or remove obstructions 
for another, especially in the settle- 
ment of a new region. 

Pipa, a genus of Batrachian reptiles, 
closely allied to the common toad, but 
distinguished by the body being hori- 
zontally flattened, the head large and 
triangular, tongue wanting, tympanum 
concealed beneath the skin, the eyes 
small, placed near the margin of the 
upper jaw. The best-known species is 
the Surinam toad, which is consider- 
ably larger than the common toad of 
this country. 

Pipe, a wine-measure, usually con- 
taining two hogsheads or 105 imperial 
or 126 wine gallons ; two pipes or 210 
imperial gallons make a tun. The 
size of the pipe varies according to 
the kind of wine contained ; a pipe of 
Madeira contains 110 wine gallons ; of 
sherry, 130 ; of port, nearly 138, and 
Lisbon, 140. 

Pipe Clay, a rariety of clay adapt- 
ed by its plasticity and freedom from 
impurities for the manufacture of 
pipes. 

Pipefish, a fish distinguished by a 
long, slender, tapering body, and by 
jaws united to form a tube or pipe, 
bearing the mouth at the tip. There 
are several species. 

Piping Crow, a bird from New 
South Wales. It has great powers of 
mimicry; called also the flute player. 

Pipistrelle, the most widely dis- 
tributed of the bats; color reddish- 
brown, paler beneath. The wings ex- 
tend down to the base of the toes, and 
their membrane, like that of the ears, 
is of a dusky tint. This bat is spe- 
cially a dweller in temperate regions, 
its period of hibernation is short, and 
the tail is used as an organ of prehen- 
sion. 



Pipit 

Pipit, or Titlark, a genus of 
perching birds possessing striking 
affinities with the larks, which they 
resemble in the large size of the hinder 
claw, but commonly classed with the 
"wagtails, which they closely resemble 
in their habits of running swiftly on. 
the ground. One species is common 
in the United States. All the pipits 
build their nests on the ground. The 
Bong in all consists of a clear, simple 
note. 

Pippi Giulio. See GiUlJO Ro- 

HANO. 

Piracy, the act, practice, or crime 
of robbing on the high seas. This 
offense at common law consists in 
committing those acts of robbery and 
depredation on the high seas which if 
committed upon land would have 
amounted to felony there. But other 
offenses have, by various statutes, been 
made piracy, and liable to the same 
penalty. Thus trading with, or in any 




PIPEFISH. 

way aiding, known pirates, is piracy. 
So, too, any commander or seaman of 
a ship who runs away with any ship, 
boat, goods, etc., or who voluntarily 
delivers such up to any pirate, is 
guilty of piracy. Any one who con- 
veys or removes any person as a slave 
is also by statute law of most civilized 
nations guilty of piracy. The penalty 
is death, or some lesser punishment. 
The most famous execution of pirates 
was on the beach at Newport, Rhode 
Island, in the colonial period, when 
30 pirates from one vessel were hanged 
at one time. 

Pirai, or Piraya, a voracious 
fresh-water fish of tropical America. 
It is three or four feet in length, and 
its jaws are armed with sharp lancet- 
shaped teeth, from which cattle when 
fording rivers sometimes suffer ter- 
ribly. 



Pisa 

Pisa, a city of Central Italy, capi- 
tal of the province of Pisa, on the 
Arno, 8 miles from its mouth, 13 miles 
N. E. of Leghorn, and 50 miles W. of 
Lucca. The walls are 5 miles in 
circuit. The Arno flows through the 
city, and is crossed by several bridges, 
'the principal one being of fine marble. 
The cathedral, with its attendant 
buildings, the baptistery, the cemetery 
and the belfry, is perhaps, the finest 
specimen that exists of the style of 
building called by the Italians the 
Gotico-Moresco. The most remarkable 
buildings in Pisa are the Campo Santo 
and the belfry, or campanile, a cylin- 
drical tower, 178 feet in height, con- 
structed of successive rows of pillars, 
chiefly of marble; it is extremely 
graceful in its proportions, but its 
chief peculiarity consists in its in- 
clination about 13 feet out of the per- 
pendicular, whence it is commonly 
called the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The 
University of Pisa is one of the oldest 
in Italy; it has 56 professors and 
about 1,000 students. Galileo, who was 
a native of Pisa, was formerly one of 
the professors. Pop. 61,321. 

Pisa, Council of, a church council 
generally included in those called 
ecumenical, met and opened in Pisa 
March 25, 1409, and the 23d and last 
session of which was held Aug. 7 fol- 
lowing. Its aim was to end the schism 
which had divided the Western Church 
for 30 years ; and with this view the 
leading cardinals, finding that neither 
of the rival Popes, Gregory XII. and 
Benedict XIII., would keep their 
promises to abdicate, had set aside the 
claims of both, and themselves con- 
voked a general council. It was at- 
tended from first to last by 24 car- 
dinals, 4 patriarchs, 80 bishops, 102 
proctors of bishops, 87 abbots, 200 
delegates of abbots, besides many gen- 
erals of orders, doctors, deputies of 
universities, and ambassadors. After 
the rival Popes failed to appear in 
obedience to its summons, the council 
formally tried the claims of both in 
turn, and deposed them as schismatics 
and heretics. The cardinals then 
formed themselves into conclave and 
elected Cardinal Philargi, who as- 
sumed the name of Alexander V. But 
the council, instead of getting rid of 
the contending Popes, had only add^i 
a third, and the Church of Roma- 



Pisces 



Pitcairn Isla id 



continued to be distracted for eight 
years longer, down to the time of the 
Council of Constance. 

Pisces, in astronomy, the 12th and 
last of the zodiacal constellations. 

Pisgali, a name that seems to have 
applied generally to the mountain 
range or district to the E. of the Low- 
er Jordan, identical with, or itself a 
part of, the mountains of Abarrim, 
one of the summits of which is Mount 
Nebo (the modern Neba), 2,644 feet 
above the level of the Mediterranean. 
From this point Moses enjoyed his 
glimpse of the Promised Land, in early 
spring. 




PISA : LEANING TOWER AND CATHEDRAL 

Pisistratns, a citizen of Athens 
who raised himself to the sovereign 
authority in the time of Solon (to 
whom he was related) 560 B. c. He 
was a beneficent ruler, and did much 
to promote the rise of Greek literature. 
We owe to him the poems of Homer 
in their present form, Pisistratus hav- 
ing collected them, as they were scat- 
tered in detached parts throughout 
Greece, and given them orderly ar- 
rangement. 

Pisquow, or Fisuqnitpah., a tribe 
of North American Indians living for- 



merly on the Wenatchee or Pisquow 
river, Washington. The name has also 
been used collectively and applied to- 
the Methow and other tribes in Okano- 
gan county of that State. They are 
now on the Yakima reservation, 
Washington. 

Pistacio Nut, the fruit of the pis- 
tacia vera. The kernel is very oily, of 
a peculiar flavor and bright green in 
color, and is much used in confec- 
tions, etc. 

Pistole, a gold coin once current in 
Spain, France, and the neighboring 
countries ; and its average value was 
about $3.85. 

Pita Flax, flax made from the fiber 
of the maguey and used for twine, 
rope, hammock meshes, etc. In Mexi- 
co it is also used for oakum. La- 
billardiere found that its strength is 
to that of common flax as 7 to 11%. 

Fitaval, Francois Gayot de, a 
French lawyer ; compiler of the fa- 
mous collection of " Celebrated 
Cases " ; born in 1673, served in the 
army, but became an advocate, and 
was known as an industrious and 
painsfaking compiler. Of his great 
work there have been numerous abridg- 
ments, continuations, and transla- 
tions ; and his name has become so 
identified with the collecting of crim- 
inal cases that a similar work, pub- 
lished by various editors in Leipsic in 
1843 and succeeding years, was called 
"A New Pitaval." He died in 1743. 

Pitcairn Island, a solitary island 
in the Pacific Ocean, between Aus- 
tralia and South America, in lat. 25 
3' S. and Ion. 130 8' W., measures 
2% miles by 1 mile. In 1790 it was 
taken possession of by nine of the 
mutineers of H. M. S. " Bounty," with 
six Tahitian men and 12 women, the 
ringleader being called Christian. Ac- 
cording to one account, the white men 
and the Tahitians murdered each oth- 
er at intervals, till at the end of 10 
years John Adams was left alone, 
with eight or nine women and several 
children ; and from them the present 
inhabitants of the island are descend- 
ed. Adams, changed by these tragic 
adventures, and sobered by his re- 
sponsibilities, set about the education 
of his companions in Christian prin- 
ciples. The little colony was un- 
known to the world till 1808, when it 



Pitch 

was " discovered " by Captain Folger 
of the American sealing ship " To- 
paz " ; the first British vessel to visit 
it did not arrive till 1814. The island 
was annexed to Great Britain in 1839. 
Nearly 200 of the islanders were trans- 
ferred to Norfolk Island in 1856, but 
a number of them afterward returned. 
Pitcairn Island enjoys a lovely cli- 
mate ; its mountainous surface reaches 
1,008 feet in Outlook Ridge; the soil 
is fertile, and produces yams, cocoa- 
nuts, bread fruit, sweet potatoes, 
bananas, etc. The people bear a high 
character for virtue, contentedness and 
uprightness, and choose their own pas- 
tor and magistrate. 

Pitch, a term applied to a variety 
of resinous substances of a dark color 
and brilliant luster, obtained from the 
various kinds of tar produced in the 
destructive distillation of wood, coal, 
etc. Pitch is extensively used in ship- 
building for closing seams, also for 
coating and preserving wood and iron. 

Pitchblende, or Uraninite. See 
RADIUM. 

Pitcher Plant. The name is ap- 
plied to any plant with a pitcher-like 
appendage. The California pitcher 
plant is well known in that region. 

Pitch Stone, a vitreous rock of 
pitch-like luster and imperfect con- 
ehoidal fracture; brittle. Analyses 
indicate that it is probably a vitreous 
form of quartz, felsite, or of trachyte. 
Color mostly blackish-green or dark 
olive-green. 

Pitchnrim Beans, the name given 
to a South American species of laurel, 
the drupes of which are used by choco- 
late makers as a substitute for vanilla. 

Pithecanthropus Erectus, the 
name given to the fossil remains of a 
prehistoric animal found in Java, and 
which represents a form intermediate 
between man and the higher apes. Re- 
cent explorations indicate that this 
animal may yet be living in remote 
Java forests. 

Pithom, one of the store cities 
which the children of Israel built for 
Pharaoh (Exod. i: 11), conclusively 
identified in 1883 by the excavations of 
M. Naville with the deserted Arab 
village Tell El-Maskhuta, on the fresh- 
water canal and railway line from 
Cairo to Ismailia. about half-way be- 
tween Ismailia and Tell El-Kebir. 



Pittsburg 

Pitman, Benn, an American pho- 
nographer ; born in Trowbridge, Eng- 
land, July 24, 1822; brother of Sir 
Isaac Pitman, the inventor of phonog- 
raphy ; was educated in his brother's 
academy ; lectured and taught phonog- 
raphy throughout Great Britain for 
10 years. He came to the United 
States in 1853, and founded the Pho- 
nographic Institute in Cincinnati ; in- 
vented the electro-process of relief en- 
graving; was military recorder of 
State trials in the Civil War. D. 1910. 

Pitman, Sir Isaac, an English 
stenographer ; born in Trowbridge, 
England, Jan. 4, 1813. He was the 
inventor of the phonetic system of 
shorthand writing and published his 
first treatise on the subject entitled 
" Stenographic Soundhand " in 1837. 
He was the head of the Phonetic Insti- 
tute at Bath, and was identified with 
the spelling reform. He died Jan. 
22, 1897. 

Pitt, 'William, an English states- 
man ; born in Hayes, England, May 
28, 1759 ; was educated at Cambridge 
University ; studied law and was elect- 
ed to Parliament in 1780. In 1783 
he became prime minister ; was active 
in the negotiations of peace with the 
United States, and was instrumental 
in the passage of many important 
measures. He died in Putney, Eng- 
land, Jan. 23, 1806. For the elder 
Pitt see Chatham. 

Pittsburg (according to its city 
charter, Pittsburgh), a city, port of 
entry, and county-seat of Allegheny 
co., Pa. ; at the confluence of the 
Monougahela and Allegheny rivers, 
353 miles W. of Philadelphia; area, 
41 square miles; pop. (1910), includ- 
ing Allegheny city, 533,905. 

The city owns a waterworks system, 
costing over $7,000,000. The reser- 
voirs have a storage capacity of 68,- 
000,000 gallons, and the water is dis- 
tributed through 300 miles of mains. 
There are in all 230 miles of streets, 
of which 200 miles are paved. The 
sewer system covers 220 miles. The 
city is lighted by electricity. The an- 
nual death rate averages 19 per 1,000. 

The principal public buildings are 
the Allegheny court house, the Car- 
negie Library and Institute, with 
museum, music hall, and art gallery, 
find having an endowment of $2,000,- 
000 ; the United States Government 



iPittsfield 

Building, the West Pennsylvania Ex- 
position Society's Buildings; Munici- 
pal Hall; United States Arsenal, and 
the Western State Penitentiary. 

The two chief industries are the pro- 
duction of iron and steel ; but there 
are many other flourishing manufac- 
tures. The city is well known as the 
Iron City, for there is nothing in the 
iron industry which is not here man- 
ufactured. The capacity of the iron 
mills is over 800,000 tons annually, 
and that of the Bessemer steel mills 
upward of 400,000 tons. There are in 
Pittsburg besides blast furnaces and 
iron and steel works over 1,500 man- 
ufacturing establishments, employing 
more than 60,000 persons. The schools 
are flourishing and their accommoda- 
tions keep pace with increasing popu- 
lation. There are over 200 churches 
in Pittsburg. The most important of 
these are Trinity (P. E.), St. Peter's 
(P. E.), First Presbyterian, United 
Evangelical (German), First Baptist, 
English Evangelical, etc. 

In 1754, at the suggestion of George 
Washington, the English began to 
erect a blockhouse on the present site 
of the city. They were driven away 
by the French, who built a fort at the 
junction of the two rivers and named 
it Du Quesne. In 1758, after two 
unsuccessful attempts to retake the 
place, the English under General 
Forbes made a third attempt, and the 
French burned and evacuated the fort. 
In the following year another fort was 
erected here, named in honor of Will- 
iam Pitt. The British withdrew from 
the post in 1772, and it was held by 
Virginia in 1775-1779. The place was 
incorporated as a city March 18, 1816. 
In 1877 a railroad strike and riot oc- 
curred in which much damage was 
done to railroad property, and for 
which Allegheny county had to settle 
at a cost of $4,000,000. 
I Pittsfield, city and capital of 
Berkshire county, Mass.; on the 
Housatonic river and the Boston & 
Maine and other railroads; 40 miles 
N. W. of Springfield; is chiefly en- 
gaged in the manufacture of cotton, 
woolen, and knit goods, electrical 
apparatus, flour, silk, and shoes; con- 
tains a beautiful white marble Court 
House, Berkshire Athenaeum, with 
Historical Society, Public Library, 
and Museum and Art Gallery, St. Jo- 



Fins 

soph's Cathedral (R. C.), Bishop 
Training School for Nurses, head- 
quarters of the Agassiz Association, 
House of Mercy, and a public park 
with statue of " The Color Bearer." 
Pop. (1910) 32,121. 

Pins, the name of a number of 
Popes, as follows: 

Pius I., succeeded Hyginus in 142, 
and died in 157 

Pius II. (^Eneas Sylvani 
colomini); born in Tuscany in 1405, 
was chosen to succeed Calixtus III. 
in 1458, and died in 1464. 

Pius V. (Michele Ghislieri) ; born 
in Piedmont in 1504, and early 
entered the Dominican order. He so 
distinguished himself by his austere 
life, and his zeal against " heretics," 
that he was appointed inquisitor in 
Lombardy, and afterward inquisitor- 
general. He was created cardinal in 
1557, and was chosen to succeed Pius 
IV., in 1566. He died in May, 1572. 

Pius VI. (Giovanni Angelo Bras- 
chi) ; born in Cesena in 1717, and 
succeeded Clement XIV. in 1775. 
His first act was to make a reform in 
the public treasury; he then com- 
pleted the museum in the Vatican ; 
but the greatest work of his pontificate 
was the draining of the Pontine 
marshes. Basseyille was sent as envoy 
from the republic of France to Rome, 
where he behaved with so much in- 
solence, that the people assassinated 
him in 1793. General Duphot entered 
the city with his troops to restore or- 
der, but the papal soldiers routed them, 
and Duphot was slain. On this Bona- 
parte entered Italy, and made the 
Pope prisoner in the capitol, which 
was plundered. The venerable pontiff 
was carried away by the victors, and 
hurried over the Alps to Valence, 
where he died Aug. 29, 1799. 

Pius VII. (Gregorio Barnaba 
Chiaramonti) ; born in Cesena, in 
1742 ; became a Benedictine monk ; 
was created cardinal in 1785, and after 
the death of Pius VI., was chosen, 
after long deliberations of the con- 
clave, to succeed him March, 1800. In 
1804 the Pope went to Paris and 
crowned Napoleon emperor, returning 
to Rome in May, 1805. Soon after 
Ancona was seized by the French, and 
the great quarrel between Napoleon 
and the Pope began. Pius was ar- 
rested by the French officer Miollis 



Pius 

and sent to Savona, and afterward to 
Fontainebleau, whence he was not per- 
mitted to return to Italy till January, 
1814. The Congress of Vienna re- 
stored the States of the Church to 
the Pope, who applied himself thence- 
forth to internal reforms. He re- 
established the Jesuits and the In- 
quisition. He died, Aug. 20, 1823. 

Pius VIII. (Cardinal Castiglione) , 
became Pope in succession to Leo 
XII., in 1829. After a short pontifi- 
cate of one year, he died in 1830. 

Pius IX. (Giovanni Mario Mastai 
Ferretti) ; born in Singaglia, May 13, 
1790 ; was intended for the army, but 
resolved to devote himself to the 
Church. He was nominated by Pius 
VII. on a mission to the government 
of Chile, and immediately on his re- 
turn to Rome he was appointed by Leo 
XII. to one of the most important of 
the ecclesiastico-civil departments of 
administration. Iii 1840 he was created 
Cardinal-Archbishop of Imola, in the 
Romagna. Pope Gregory XVI. died 
June 1, 1846, and Cardinal Ferretti 
was elected to the papacy under the 
name of Pius IX., June 16. But the 
French Revolution of 1848 gave a 
much more powerful impulse to the en- 
thusiasm of the Italian patriots. These 
sweeping changes the Pope was not 
prepared to support, and from that 
moment his popularity began to de- 
cline. The popular disaffection was 
greatly increased on his taking for his 
minister Count Rossi, one of the most 
aristocratic and unpopular men in 
Rome. Count Rossi was assassinated 
Nov. 15, and Pius himself, a few days 
later, escaped from Rome in disguise, 
and arrived safely in Gaeta, the first 
town in the Neapolitan territory, 
whither he was followed by the mem- 
bers of the papal court and the diplo- 
matic corps. The Pope remained near- 
ly a year and a half at Gaeta and 
Portici. During his absence, Rome, 
which was in the possession of the 
nat'ive troops under Garibaldi, was 
besieged, and at last taken by storm 
by the French army under General 
Oudinot, after sustaining some re- 
verses. The Pope left Portici, April 
4, 1850, escorted by Neapolitan and 
French dragoons, and accompanied by 
the King of Naples and several mem- 
bers of his family. He crossed the 
frontier at Terracina, April 6, and re- 
entered Rome April 12, amid the 



Plus 

thunder of French cannon. His chief 
ecclesiastical acts are the formal def- 
inition of the dogma of the Immaculate 
Conception, in December, 1854; and 
the bull summoning the Ecumenical 
Council of 1809-1870, which promul- 
gated the doctrine of papal infallibil- 
ity. In September, 1870, the French 
troops were withdrawn from Rome, 
and in October the States of the 
Church were annexed to the kingdom 
of Italy, thus ending the temporal 
power of the Popes. He died Feb. 7, 
1878. 

Pius X., the present Pope of Rome, 
family name Giuseppe Sarto (in En- 
glish, Joseph Taylor), is an Italian, 
a native of Treviso, where he was 
born in 1835. It is a curious coinci- 
dence that in 1303, exactly six hun- 
dred years ago, another native of Tre- 
viso was elected Pope. The Sarto 
family consisted of two boys and six 
girls. Giuseppe was the younger 
brother. The family was poor, and 
to this day all the members are in 
humble life. The new Pope's elder 
brother holds a small office under the 
Government, for which he receives a 
salary of eighty dollars a year. Two 
of his sisters, being unmarried, have 
resided with their now famous brother. 
He performed the duties of a humble 
parish priest until 1884, when Pope 
Leo made him Bishop of Mantua, and, 
nine years later, he was made a Car- 
dinal and Patriarch of Venice. He 
took no part in the political affairs of 
the Church, and seldom went to Rome, 
but devoted himself to his own diocese, 
where he won the respect of Protest- 
ants, as well as Catholics, by his 
charities, his interest in social re- 
forms, and his kindness and courtesy. 
It is stated that he was so generous 
in his gifts to the poor of his diocese, 
that he impoverished himself to such 
a degree that he has been known to 
pawn his official ring, to provide him- 
self with funds for a temporary emer- 
gency. It was noticed after his elec- 
tion to the Pontificate, by a Cardinal 
who was making an appointment with 
him, that he was wearing a nickel 
watch, with a common silk guard. 
He has chosen to be called Pius X., 
but the inferences usually drawn from 
the choice of a name are ar fault in 
this instance, as it is not known which 
of his nine predecessors of that name 



Flute 

he regards as a model. He is said to 
be a man of profound learning and 
sterling honesty of character. Ameri- 
cans who haw met him say that in 
personal appearance and manner he 
bears a striking resemblance to the 
late Phillips Brooks. He has dis- 
pensed with some of the stately sur- 
roundings which the late Pope main- 
tained. He was elected Aug. 4, 1903. 

Piutc. See PAIUTE. 

Pizarro, Francisco, a Spanish ex- 
plorer, the conqueror of Peru. He 
embarked in 1510, with some other ad- 
venturers, for America ; and, in 1524, 
he associated at Panama with Diego 
de Almagro and Hernandez Lucque, a 
priest, in an enterprise to make fresh 
discoveries. In this voyage they 
reached the coast of Peru, but being 
too few to make any attempt at a set- 
tlement, Pizarro returned to Spain. 
Having raised some money, he was en- 
abled again, in 1531, to visit Peru, 
where a civil war was raging between 
Huascar, the legitimate monarch, and 
his half-brother, Atahualpa, the reign- 
ing inca. Pizarro, by pretending to 
take the part of the latter, was per- 
mitted to march into the interior where 
he made the unsuspecting king prison- 
er; then extorting from him, as it is 
Baid, a house full of the precious 
metals by way of ransom, he had him 
tried for a pretended conspiracy, and 
condemned him to be burned, allow- 
ing him first to be strangled, as a re- 
ward for becoming a Christian. In 
1533 the conqueror laid the founda- 
tion of Lima ; but, in 1537, a contest 
erose between him and Almagro, who 
was defeated and executed. Pizarro 
was murdered by Almagro's followers, 
June 26, 1541. 

Pizarro, Gonzalo, half brother of 
the preceding ; born in 1502. His 
brother appointed him governor of 
Quito in 1540, and after the assas- 
sination of Francisco, he raised an 
army against the new viceroy, Blasco 
Nunez, and the latter was defeated 
and slain near Quito in 1546. But 
Pizarro^ did not long enjoy his suc- 
cess, being beaten, taken prisoner, and 
beheaded in 1548. 

Plague, a peculiarly malignant 
fever of the continued and contagious 
type, now believed to be almost identic- 
al with the worst kinds of typhus 
fever. The plague seems to have 



Plain 

been the black death of the 14th cen- 
tury. It was known by the name of 
plague when, in 1665, it slew in Lon- 
don 68,596 people, about one-third of 
the population. 

In th summer of 1896 a very malig- 
nant form of disease, known as the 
" bubonic " plague, made its appear- 
ance in Bombay, India, and spread 
with great rapidity. The bubonic 
plague receives its name from the 
fact that it attacks the lymphatic 
glands in the neck, armpits, groin, 
and other parts of the body. In gen- 
eral, the disease is spread in the same 
manner as cholera, except that the 
cholera germ must enter the intestinal 
tract, while the germ of the plague 
may attack any part of the mucous 
membran^ or be admitted by even the 
minutest abrasion of the skin. But 
while this germ is so virile and so 
easily taken into the system, it is one 
of the most easily killed by disin- 
fection. 

The Ten Plagues of Egypt were 10 
inflictions divinely sent upon the 
Egyptians to compel them te emanci- 
pate the Israelites from bondage and 
allow them to quit the land. The 
first plague consisted in the turning 
of the waters of Egypt into blood ; 
the second, of frogs that covered the 
land; the third, of lice annoying both 
man and beast ; the fourth of grievous 
swarms of flies; the fifth, of murrain 
that attacked the live stock ; the sixth, 
of boils " breaking forth with blains 
upon man and upon beast " ; the sev- 
enth, a severe thunder storm accom- 
panied by destructive hail ; the eighth, 
a plague of locusts that ate what the 
hail had spared ; the ninth, a darkness 
that could be felt ; the tenth, the death 
of the firstborn of man and beast 
among the Egyptians. 

Plain, an expanse of low-lying ter- 
ritory as distinguished from a table- 
land or plateau. Speaking broadly, 
the Western Hemisphere is the region 
of plains, and the Eastern of table- 
lands. Nevertheless, the former has 
in it what is called the Great North- 
ern plain, extending, with the one 
break hi the Ural Mountains, from the 
shores of the Atlantic nearly to Ber- 
ing's Strait, and from the Arctic Ocean 
to the Caucasus and Altai Moun- 
tains. In this hemisphere are the 
Great Central and the Atlantic plains 



Flainfield 



Plaster of Paris 



of North America, and the great 
South American plain. " The Plains " 
was a vast stretch of country of 
the United States which emigrants 
crossed in going to the Pacific, now 
divided into prosperous States. 

Flainfield, a city in Union ceunty, 
N. J.; on the Central Railroad of New 
Jersey and a continuation of the Or- 
ange Mountains; 24 miles W. by S. of 
New York city; is largely a beautiful 
residential place, but has manufac- 
tories of printing-presses, safes, cloth- 
ing, hats, and machinery; and contains 
Muhlenberg Hospital, and public 
library. Pop. (1910) 20,550. 

Plane Tree. Tall trees with pon- 
derous trunks, the bark of which peels 
off annually, leaving the surface 
smooth and bare. American plane 
tree has less deeply divided and in- 
dented leaves than the plane tree of 
Western Asia and Cashmere, and no 
membranous bracts along the female 
flowers. On the banks of the Ohio 
and the Mississippi there are trees 10 
to 16 feet in diameter. Called in the 
United States also, buttonwood and 
water beech, and sycamore, and in 
Canada, cotton tree. 

Planet, a heavenly body which, to 
old-time observers, seemed to wander 
about aimlessly in the sky. Sub- 
sequently it was discovered that the 
seemingly erratic bodies were as reg- 
ular in their movements as the others, 
revolving, like the earth, around the 
eun. Shining only with reflected light, 
they gleam with a steady radiance in 
place of twinkling like the fixed stars. 

Planetoids, the name given to a 
great group of minute planets placed 
together between Mars and Jupiter. 
On Jan. 1, 1801, a planetary body, 
afterward called Ceres, was found in 
the part of the solar system theoretic- 
ally indicated ; it was far more di- 
minutive in size than had been ex- 
pected. Within the next six years three 
more asteroids (Pallas, Juno, and 
Vesta) were found in proximity to 
Ceres, and up to November, 1898, 
426 of these small planets had been 
discovered, 70 by Americans. All are 
of minute size, and some angular in 
place of spherical. 

Plank, Fort, or Fort Blank, a 
Revolutionary fort in Montgomery co., 
N. Y., 2 miles N. W. of Fort Plain. 



Plantagenets, the surname of a 
line of English kings of French origin 
on the paternal side Henry II. of 
England, the first of the line, ascended 
the English throne in 1154, and his 
descendants reigned during 331 years, 
the last monarch of the line being 
Richard III., who fell at the battle of 
Bosworth, in 1485. In the 14th cen- 
tury the line became divided into two- 
great rival factions, those of York 
and of Lancaster, known as the parties 
of the Red and White Rose. 

Plantain, a small tree closely akin 
to the banana, from which it differs in 
not having purple spots on its stem. 
The fruit also is larger and more 
angular. It is very delicious and is 
thoroughly wholesome. The name plan- 
tain is also applied to a common weed, 
the seeds of which are used as food 
for birds. 

Plantain Eaters, a family of Pie- 
like birds, of African distribution, 
arboreal habits, and vegetarian diet. 

Plantation, a term formerly used 
to designate a colony. The term was 
latterly applied to an estate in the 
Southern States, the West Indies, etc., 
cultivated chiefly by negroes. The 
term planter is applied to the owner 
of a plantation. 

Plantin, Christophe, a French 
printer ; born in St. Avertin, near 
Tours, in 1514, and settled as a book- 
binder at Antwerp in 1549 ; some six 
years later he began to print. The 
most noted of all his publications is 
the " Biblia Polyglotta." Plantin's 
editions of the Bible in Latin, Hebrew, 
and Dutch, and editions of the Greek 
and Latin classics, are scarcely less 
celebrated. He set up printing es- 
tablishments in Leyden and Paris, and 
these, with that in Antwerp, were car- 
ried on by the husbands of his daugh- 
ters. His office in Antwerp remained 
in the possession of the descendants of 
John Moretus, his son-in-law, till it 
was bought by the city in 1876 for 
$240,000; out of it was created the 
" Musee Plantin." Plantin died in 
Antwerp, July 1, 1589. 

Plaster, calcined gypsum or sul- 
phate of lime, used, when mixed with 
water, for finishing walls, molds, etc. 

Plaster of Paris, the name given 
to gypsum when ground and used fo^ 
taking casts, etc. 



Plata 

Plata, Rio de la, River of Silver 
a body of water which extends fo: 
more than 200 miles between the Ar 
gentine Republic and Uruguay, an< 
. is not, strictly speaking, a river, bu 
rather an estuary, formed by the June 
tion of the great rivers Parana anc 
Uruguay. It flows into the Atlantk 
between. Cape St. Antonio and Cape 
St. Mary> and has here a width of 170 
miles. It was discovered in 1515 by 
Juan Diaz de Solis, and called Dio de 
Solis ; it owes its present name to the 
famous navigator Cabot. 

Plating, the act, art, or process ol 
covering articles with a thin coating 
of metal ; especially the art of cover- 
ing baser metals with a thin coating 
of gold or silver. 

Platinum, a tetrad metallic ele- 
ment discovered first in the United 
States ; and still largely produced 
there, also found in the Ural chain, 
and in copper ore from the Alps. Pure 
forged platinum takes a high luster, is 
nearly as white as silver, and very 
ductile and malleable. It resists the 
strongest heat of the forge fire, but 
can be fused by the electric current ; 
is the heaviest known substance ex- 
cepting osmium and iridium, is un- 
alterable in the air, dissolves slowly in 
nitromuriatic acid, but is not at- 
tacked by any single acid. 

Plato, a Greek philosopher ; born in 
Athens or in JEgina, in May, 429 B. c., 
the year in which Pericles died. He 
was a disciple of Socrates, and after 
the death of that philosopher Plato 
himself became a teacher in the plane 
tree grove of the Academia. He had 
a great number of disciples, many of 
whom became eminent teachers. Among 
them was Aristotle, distinguished as 
the " Mind of the School," and per- 
haps Demosthenes. Women are said 
to have attended. In his 40th year, 
Plato visited Sicily, but he offended 
the tyrant Dionysius by the political 
opinions he uttered, and only escaped 
death through the influence of his 
friend, Dion. Two later visits to the 
court of the younger Dionysius were 
the only interruptions to his calm life 
as a teacher and writer at Athens. 
He died in the act of writing, it is 
said, in May, 347 B. c. 

Platoff, Matvei Ivanovich, 
Count, a Russian general ; born in 
Azov, Russia, Aug. 17, 1757. He 



Platte 

served in the Turkish campaign of 
1770-1771 ; he took part in the cam- 
paigns against the French, 1805-1807. 
He was enthusiastically welcomed, and 
presented with a sword of honor on 
the occasion of his visit to London in 
company with Blucher. After the war 
he retired to his own country, and 
died near Tcherkask, Jan. 15, 1818. 

Platonic Love, an affection sub- 
sisting between two persons of differ- 
ent sex, which is presumed to be un- 
accompanied by any sensuous emotions, 
and to be based on moral or intellect- 
ual affinities. The expression has orig- 
inated in the view of Plato, who held 
that the common sexual love of the 
race, harassed and afflicted with flesh- 
ly longings, is only a subordinate form 
of that perfect and ideal love of truth 
which the soul should cultivate. 

Platt, Thomas Collier, an Ameri- 
can legislator ; born in Ovvego, N. Y., 
July 15, 1833 ; was a member of the 
class of 1853 of Yale College, but 
was compelled to give up on account 
of ill health ; received the honorary 
degree of M. A. from that college in 
1876 ; entered mercantile life soon 
after leaving school ; was county clerk 
of the county of Tioga in 1859, 1860 
and 1861 ; was elected to the 43d and 
44th Congresses ; was elected United 
States Senator Jan. 18, 1881, and 
resigned that office May 16 of the same 
year, with Roscoe Conkling, both Sen- 
ators being offended because President 
Garfield made New York appoint- 
ments without consulting them; was 
chosen secretary and director of the 
United States Express Co. in 1879, 
and in 1880 was elected president of 
the company; was member and presi- 
dent of the board of quarantine com- 
missioners of New York from 1880 till 
L888 ; was delegate to the National 
Republican convention of 1876, 1880, 
1884, 1888, 1892 and 1896 ; was presi- 
dent of the Southern Central railroad ; 
was a member of the National Repub- 
ican committee ; and was elected 
Jnited States Senator in 1896, and re- 
elected in 1903. Senator Platt hag 
>een married twice. His first wife 
died Feb. 13, 1901, and he was mar- 
ried to Mrs. Lillian T. Janeway, of 
Vashington, widow of Dr. Theodore 
Janeway. Died March 6, 1910. 

Platte, a river in the United States, 
vhich rises in the Rocky Mountains 



Playfair 

by two branches, called respectively 
the North and South Forks of the 
Platte. The united stream falls into 
the Missouri after a course of about 
1,600 miles. 

Playfair, Sir Lyon, a British 
scientist; son of Dr. G. Playfair, in- 
spector-general of hospitals in Bengal ; 
born in Meerut, Bengal, May 21, 1819. 
His able reports on the sanitary con- 
dition of the large towns of Great 
Britain brought him prominently be- 
fore the public. He held several prom- 
inent appointments under Liberal gov- 
ernments. He died May 29, 1898. 

Pleasonton, Alfred, an American 
military officer ; born in Washington, 
D. C.. June 7, 1824; died there Feb. 
17, 1897. He served with distinction 
in the Mexican, the Sioux, and the 
Civil Wars. 

Plebeians, or Plebs, in ancient 
Rome, one of the great orders of the 
Roman people. The whole government 
of the state, with the enjoyment of all 
its offices, belonged to the patricians, 
with whom the plebeians could not even 
intermarry. The civil history of Rome 
is composed of the struggles of the 
plebeians to claim a place in the com- 
monwealth, to which they were en- 
titled. It met with success when (286 
B. c. ) the Lex Hortensia gave the 
enactments passed at the plebeian as- 
semblies, the force of law. 

Plehve, Wenceslas Konstantin- 
ovitch, von, a Russian Minister of 
the Interior; born in Poland in 1838; 
the son of a poor noble. He studied 
law in Moscow, became assistant-pro- 
curator, and later was appointed Im- 
perial Counsel of the Courts of War- 
saw. Fearless, and sincere in his 
belief that the sternest methods were 
the best means of governing the mixed 
Russian masses, his suppression of all 
attempts at liberal reform, while win- 
ning the applause of the Russians, 
gained him the hatred of the Poles. 
Finns, and Jews. He was assassinated 
by a bomb thrown at his carriage, 
July 28, 1904. 

Pleiades, or Pleiads, a group of 
stars in the constellation Taurus, the 
Bull. The stars are so close together 
that it is difficult to say how many 
are seen by the naked eye. 

Plesiosaurus, the typical group of 
the order Plesiosauria, extinct am- 



Pliiiy 

phibian animals. Its organization 
would fit it for swimming on or near 
the surface, and the length and flexi- 
bility of its neck would be eminently 
serviceable in capturing its prey. 

Pleura, in anatomy, plural, serous 
membranes forming two shut sacs, 
each possessed of a visceral and a 
parietal portion. The former covers 
the lungs, and the latter the ribs, the 
intercostal spaces, etc. 

Plenrisy, inflammation of the pleu- 
ra, going on to exudation, fluid effu- 
sion, absorption, and adhesion. 

Pleuro -pneumonia, pneumonia 
with bronchitis, the former constitut- 
ing the chief disease. 

Plevna, a town of Bulgaria on the 
Vid, an affluent of the Danube, 85 
miles N. E. of Sofia. It is noted for 
the desperate resistance of its Turkish 
garrison under Osman Pasha, from 
July to Dec. 1877, during the Russo- 
Turkish War. Pop. 18,700. 

Pleyel, Ignaz, composer ; born 
near Vienna, Austria, in 1757 ; died at 
Paris, 1831. He studied under Haydn, 
and rapidly acquired a European rep- 
utation. His works, chiefly instru- 
mental, are pleasing and expressive. 

Plimsoll, Samuel, " the sailor's 
friend," an English legislator ; born in 
Bristol, England, Feb. 10, 1824. In 
1854 he started business in the coal 
trade in London, and shortly aftenyard 
begr.n to interest himself in the sailors 
of the mercantile marine, and the 
dangers to which they were exposed, 
especially through overloading, and the 
employment of unseaworthy ships. He 
entered Parliament in 1868, and suc- 
ceeded in getting passed the Merchant 
Shipping Act in 1876. In 1890 the 
fixing of the load line was taken out 
of the owner's discretion and made a 
duty of the Board of Trade. Mr. 
Plimsoll retired from parliamentary 
life in 1880. Died June 3, 1898. 

Pliny, the Elder (Caius Plinius 
Secundus), one of the most celebrated 
writers of ancient Rome ; born in 
Verona or Como A. D. 23, served in the 
army of Germany, afterward became 
an advocate, and was ultimately pro- 
curator in Spain. Being at Misenum 
with a fleet, which he commanded, on 
the 24th of August, A. D., 79, his sister 
desired him to observe a remarkable 
cloud that had just appeared. Pliny 



Pliny 

discovered that it proceeded from 
Mount Vesuvius, ordered his galleys to 
sea, to assist the inhabitants on the 
coast, while he himself steered as near 
as possible to the foot of the mountain. 
Pliny and his companions landed at 
Stabise, but were obliged to leave the 
town for the fields, where the danger 
was equally great, from the shower of 
fire which fell on them. In this state 
they made their way to the shore, but 
Pliny fell down dead, suffocated prob- 
ably by the noxious vapors. The erup- 
tion which caused his death was that 
in which the cities of Herculaneum 
and Pompeii were destroyed. His 
name and fame are preserved by his 
great work entitled " Natural His- 
tory," in 37 books, one of the most 
precious monuments of antiquity ex- 
tant. Its contents are immensely 
varied in character. It is a laborious 
compilation, from almost innumerable 
sources, of facts, observations, and 
statements on almost all branches of 
natural science, on the fine arts, on in- 
ventions, and other subjects. It has 
been translated into most European 
languages. 

Pliny, the Younger (Caius Plin- 
ius Caecilius Secundus), nephew of the 
preceding ; born in Como A. D. 62. In 
nis 18th year he began to plead in the 
forum ; he went as military tribune to 
Syria. He was promoted to the con- 
sular dignity by Trajan. He was aft- 
erward made proconsul of Bithynia, 
from whence he wrote to Trajan his 
well-known account of the Christians, 
and their manner of worship. The 
44 Epistles of Pliny " are agreeably 
"written, and very instructive, and have 
been translated into English. He died 
after 112. 

Pliocene, or Pleiocene, the epi- 
thet applied to the most modern of the 
three periods into which Lvell divided 
the Tertiary. Its distinguished charac- 
ter is that the larger part of the fossil 
shells are of recent species, divided into 
the Older and the Newer Pliocene. In 
the Older, the extinct species of shells 
form a large minority of the whole; 
in the Newer, the shells are almost all 
of living species. 

Plover, the common name of 
several wading birds; specifically, the 
golden, yellow, or green plover. Plovers 
are gregarious in habit, and have a 
wide geographical range. 



__ Plains 

Plum, the fruit of various trees of 
the genus Prunus. It is a native of 
Asia Minor, whence it was introduced 
into Europe at an early period, and 
later into America. There are about 
a dozen species, differing in size, form, 
color, and taste. 

Plumed Knight, a name given to 
James G. Blaiue, and originating in a 
speech made by Col. Robert G. Inger- 
soll, in nominating Mr. Blaine for the 
presidency. 

Plush, a shaggy pile cloth of vari- 
ous materials. An unshorn velvet of 
cotton, silk, or mixed fiber, sometimes 
of a silk nap and cotton back. It 
kas two warps, one of which is 
brought to the surface to make the 
nap. 

Plutarch, a Greek biographer and 
moralist, a native of Chseronea, in 
Brootia. In A. D. 66 he was a pupil of 
the philosopher Ammonius at Delphi. 
He visited Italy, and spent some time 
at Rome, lecturing there on philoso- 
phy as early as the reign of Domitian ; 
but his name is not mentioned by any 
of the eminent Roman writers, his 
contemporaries. He returned to his 
native town, where he held various 
magistracies, and was appointed priest 
of Apollo. He was still living in 120, 
but the time of his death is not 
known. His great work is entitled 
" Parallel Lives," and consists of bi- 
ographies of 46 eminent Greeks and 
Romans, arranged in pairs, each pair 
accompanied by a comparison of char- 
acters. 

Pluto, in mythology, the son of 
Saturn and Ops, inherited his father's 
kingdom with his brothers, Jupiter 
and Neptune. He received as his 
share the infernal regions. All the 
goddesses refused to marry him ; but, 
on seeing Proserpine, the daughter of 
Ceres, he became enamored of her, and 
carried her away. Black victims, and 
particularly a bull, were the only sac- 
rifices offered to him. The dog Cer- 
berus watched at his feet, the harpies 
hovered around him, Proserpine sat on 
his left, and the Parcse occupied his 
right hand. 

Plutns, in Greek mythology, the 
god of riches. He was represented as 
blind, because he distributed riches in- 
discriminately ; he was lame, because 
he came slowly and gradually; and he 



Pneumonia 



had wings, to ultimate that he flew 
away with more velocity than he ap- 
proached mankind. 
Plymouth, a town and county-seat 

4 of Plymouth co., Mass. ; on Plymouth 
Bay, 37 miles S. E. of Boston. 
Plymouth is of importance as the spot 
where the Pilgrim Fathers landed on 
Dec. 21, 1620. A portion of the rock 
on which they first stepped has been 

. placed in front of Pilgrim Hall, in 
which are preserved old books, paint- 
ings, pictures, and other valuable rel- 
ics. The rock itself is in Water 
Street, and is covered by a handsome 
, granite canopy. Plymouth also has 
the National monument, 81 feet high, 
erected to the Pilgrims at a cost of 
$200,000, and dedicated in 1889. Pop. 
(1900) 9,592; (1910) 12,141. 




PLYMOUTH BOCK. 

Plymouth, a town and county-seat 
of Washington co., N. G. ; on a small 
creek, a few miles S. of the Roanoke 
river, where it enters Albemarle 
Sound; 105 miles E. of Raleigh. It 
fell into the hands of the Federal 
troops early in 1862, and was taken 
in April, 1864, by the ^Confederates 
with the aid of the iron-clad ram " Al- 
bemarle." The " Albemarle " was 
blown up with a torpedo by Lieut. W. 
B. CushSng on Oct. 27, and on Oct. 
31 Plymouth was reoccupied. 

Plymouth, a borough in Luzerne 
county, Pa.; on the Susquehanna 
river and the Delaware, Lackawanna 
& Western railroad; 4 miles W. of 
Wilkesbarre; is in the Wyoming Val- 
ley; has large coal mines' nearby; and 
contains collieries, hosiery mills, and 
manufactories -of mining machinery. 
Pop. (1910) 16,996. 

Plymouth, a seaport, municipal 
E. 118. 



and parliamentary borough of Eng- 
land in Devonshire, at the head o-f 
Plymouth Sound, between the estu- 
aries of the Plym and Tamar. Its 
chief importance lies in its position 
as a naval station. To secure safe an- 
chorage in the sound a stupendous 
breakwater has been constructed at a 
cost of about $10,000,000. The West- 
ern Harbor is devoted to the navy. 
Pop. (1901) 107,509. 

Plymouth. Brethren, a body 
which arose almost simultaneously in 
Dublin and Plymouth, about 1830, 
and, as they called themselves " The 
Brethren," outsiders came to know 
them as " Plymouth Brethren " from 
the town where they had fixed their 
headquarters. Their communities are 
of what is known as the Evangelical 
Calvinistic type. They baptize all 
adults, whether previously baptized 
or not, and observe the Sacrament 
of the Lord's Supper weekly. There 
are four bodies in the United States, 
with 10,566 members. 

Pneumatic Dispatch, propulsion 
by means of compressed air or by 
forming a vacuum. Propulsion by 
compressed air has of recent years 
been successfully applied to a variety 
of practical uses. Parcels are thus 
conveyed, and internal communication 
in warehouses, hotels, etc., is carried 
on by its means. New York, Phila- 
delphia, and other American cities use 
a pneumatic mail dispatching system. 
The pneumatic dispatch plant con- 
nected with the Philadelphia postofEce 
is in many respects the most complete 
plant of the sort in the world. It has 
been in use since Feb. 17, 1893. In 
the annual report of the Postmaster- 
General to Congress for 1901, he ad- 
vocated the increased use of the pneu- 
matic dispatch service throughout the 
United States. See ATMOSPHEEIO 
RAILWAY. 

Pneumatic Gun, a gun operated 
iy compressed air. The firing is done 
by pulling a lanyard. 

Pneumatics, the science whicb 
treats ot the mechanical properties of 
air and other gases, investigating their 
weight, pressure, elasticity, condensa- 
tion, etc. Air being a vehicle of 
sound, pneumatics includes also the 
science of acoustics. 

Pneumonia, inflammation of the 
lung, usually caused by exposure to 



Po 



Poet Laureate 



cold or wet, a cold draught or chill 
after being overheated, injury to the 
chest, irritation, or m a secondary af- 
fection in smallpox, typhoid or puer- 
peral fever, and other low wasting dis- 
eases. 

Po, the largest river of Italy, rises 
on Monte Viso, one of the Cottian 
Alps, at an altitude of 6,405 feet, 
close to the French frontier. It has 
an entire length of 300 miles, and 
drains an area of nearly 28,900 square 
miles. Below Piacenza its stream has 
from ante-Roman days been artificially 
embanked along great stretches with 
double lines of embankments on each 
side. 

Poaching, the trespassing on an- 
other's property for the purpose of 
killing or stealing game or fish. While 
nearly every State, if not every one, 
has game laws, they are enacted in 
the public interest, and bear no sim- 
ilarity to the game laws of Great 
Britain, which are feudal in their 
character, and intended to reserve for 
the wealthy alone the recreations of 
hunting and fashing. -Poaching in the 
English sense is unknown in America. 
In England when a person's land ad- 
joins a stream where there is no ebb 
and flow that person is assumed to 
have an exclusive right to fish in the 
stream as far as his land extends, 
and up to the middle of the stream; 
and so also when a person's land in- 
closes a pond, the fish in that pond be- 
long to him. Where several proper- 
ties are contiguous to the same lake 
the right of fishing in that lake belongs 
to the proprietors, in proportion to 
the value of their respective titles. Ex- 
clusive right of fishing in a public 
river, that is, one in which there is 
ebb and flow up to the tidal limit, or 
a portion of the sea, is held by some 
proprietors by virtue of royal fran- 
chises granted prior to the Magna 
Charta. 

Poealiontas, daughter of Powha- 
tan, a powerful Indian chief of Vir- 
ginia ; born about 1595. She display- 
ed a friendliness toward the British 
colonists, first at 12 years of age, in 
saving the life of Capt. John Smith, 
who had been captured and condemned 
to death by her father, and on several 
occasions making known to the En- 
glish their danger when about to be 
attacked. In 1612, while on a visit 



to a neighboring tribe, she was seized,, 
and Held as a hostage by the English, 
as a safeguard ; against the hostility of 
her tribe. While on shipboard she be- 
came acquainted with, and married 
John Rolfe, an Englishman, who took 
her to England, where, in 1616, she- 
was presented at court. She had one 
son, from whom numerous wealthy 
families of Virginia claim descent. 
She died in England, in 1617, while 
preparing to return to America. 

Pochard or Poachard, a duck, 
inhabiting the Arctic regions. Its cry,i 
has been compared to a serpent's hissJ 
Its flight is more rapid than that ot\ 
the wild duck. 

Fococke, Richard, an English 
tiaveler ; born in Southampton, Eng-. 
land, in 1704, and educated there and 
at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. 
He was the pioneer of Alpine travel. 
He died very suddenly in Charleville, 
near Tullamore, Sept. 15, 1765. 

Podargns, a genus of Australasian 
nocturnal birds of the goatsucker fam- 
ily. By day they are drowsy. 

Podophyllum, the May apple, 
called also the wild lemon. The fruit 
is eatable. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, an American 
poet and story-writer ; born in Bos- 
ton, Jan. 19, 1809. Left, an orphan 
early, he was adopted by John Allan, 
of Richmond, Va., and at the age of 
19 left this home and published his 
first volume of verse at Boston. He 
was a cadet at the United States Mili- 
tary Academy, 1830-1831; and sub- 
sequently embarked on a literary ca- 
reer. He was one of the most remark- 
able characters in literature, gifted: 
with genius, but apparently without 
any genuinesense of moral obligation 
to friends and benefactors. His place 
among American poets, however, will 
always be high. Poe died in Balti- 
more, Md., Oct. 7, 1849. 

Poet Laureate, an office in the 
household of the sovereigns of Great 
Britain. The first appointment of a 
poet laureate dates from the reign of 
Edward IV., the first patent being 
granted in 1630. It was formerly the 
duty of the poet laureate to write an 
ode on the birthday of the monarch, 
but this custom has been discontinued 
since the reign of George III. Among: 
those who have held this office are 



Poetry 

Dryden, Southey, Wordsworth, and 
Tennyson. Alfred Austin is the pres- 
ent incumbent. 

Poetry, that one of the fine arts 
which has for its object the creation of 
intellectual pleasure by the use of im- 
aginative and passionate language, 
which is generally, though not neces- 
sarily, formed in. regular measure ; the 
art of producing illusions of the imag- 
ination by means of language. Also 
poetical, imaginative, or passionate 
language or compositions, whether ex- 
pressed rhythmically or in prose. Thus, 
many parts of the prose translations 
of the Bible are genume poetry. 

Poincare, Raymond, a French 
statesman; born at Bar-le-Duc. France, 
Aug. 20, 1860: entered political life as a 
Deputy in 1886 : was successively Min- 
ister of Agriculture, Public Instruction, 
and Finance; vice-president of the 
Chamber of Deputies for four years; 
became Premier and Minister of Foreign 
Affairs, Jan. 14, 1912; and was elected 
President of the French Republic, for 
the term of seven years, Jan. 17, 
1913. 

Poison. Any agent which, when 
introduced into the animal organism, 
is capable of producing a morbid or 
deadly effect upon it. Antidotes vary 
with the kinds of poisons. In cases of 
poisoning by acrid and corrosive sub- 
stances, the fatty, mucilaginous sub- 
stances, as oil, milk, etc., sheathe and 
protect the coats of the stomach and 
bowels against the operation of poison. 
Against metallic poisons, substances 
are employed which form with the poi- 
son insoluble compounds, such as fresh- 
ly prepared hydrated oxide of iron, or 
dialysed iron for arsenic, albumin 
(white of egg) for mercury. Lime, 
chalk, and magnesia are the best reme- 
dies for powerful acids. Prussic acid 
is neutralized by alkalies and freshly 
precipitated oxide of iron. To arouse 
those poisoned by opium, use coffee and 
ammonia, and belladonna as an antag- 
onistic drug. Chloral-hydrate poison- 
ing is similarly treated ; and for strych- 
nia or nux vomica, animal charcoal in 
water and chloral-hydrate are used. 
Poisoning was common in ancient 
Rome, and in France and Italy during 
the 17th century, and recent American 
criminal records furnish noted cases 
Of poisoning by use of the mail. 



Poland 

Poison Ivy, a climbing shrub, a 
species of sumac, resembling the wood- 
bine, and very irritating to sensitive 
skins. Bathing the irritated parts 
with camphorated oil, vinegar, butter- 
milk, or with a decoction of sweet 
fern leaves, steeped in boiling water, 
are alleviating remedies. 

Poisson, Simeon-Denis, a French 
geometer ; born in Pithiviers, depart- 
ment of Loiret, June 21, 1781. He 
was one of the founders of the science 
of mathematical physics. He died 
April 25, 1840. 

Poke-weed, a North American 
branching herbaceous plant, which is 
naturalized in some parts of Europe 
and Asia ; the young shoots are some- 
times eaten in the United States as 
asparagus. 

Poland, once a large and important 
kingdom situated in the N. E. of Eu- 
rope ; now expunged from all maps as 
an independent country. It was the 
most level country in Europe, the Car- 
pathian Mountains on the S. and W. 
being the only mountain range of any 
height in the kingdom. The rivers of 
chief note are the Vistula, Bug, Nie- 
men, Dwina, Dnieper, and Dniester, 
either flowing into the Baltic or the 
Euxine. The principal mineral prod- 
ucts are iron, lead, gold, and silver, 
with salt, which last, from the abun- 
dance of the yield, and the size and 
richness of the mines, was considered 
as the natural wealth of the country. 
The climate is extremely cold, humid, 
and unhealthy; the soil generally fer- 
tile. Cattle and wheat are still the 
chief agricultural products. Poland 
was anciently divided into 12 prov- 
inces, each of which was governed by 
a chief, called a "Palatine." The 
Pols were originally a tribe of Van- 
dals, whose history is quite unknown 
before the 6th century. From the 13th 
century, the Poles became the most 
warlike nation in Europe, and from 
the time when the Turks first crossed 
the Hellespont and settled in Greece. 
Poland was denominated the shield or 
Eastern Europe. In 1674, John So- 
bieski was advanced to the kingly dig- 
nity, and under him the Polish arms 
acquired a glory that eclipsed all other 
nations of that age. Sobieski formed 
a league with the Emperoi? Leopold, 
and when that monarch had been de- 
feated, and his capital on the point of 



Poland 



Pole 



falling into the hands of the Turks, 
Sobieski advanced to Vienna, raised 
the siege, and, defeating the invaders, 
drove them back in rout to Constanti- 
nople. The war of succession that 
succeeded, between Charles XII. of 
Sweden and Frederic Augustus of Sax- 
ony, almost ruined the kingdom and 
hastened its fatal end. Count Poni- 
atowski who, in 1764, was elected to 
the throne by the name of Stanislaus 
Augustus, was the last King of Po- 
land. Under this unfortunate sover- 
eign, the country became the theater 
of a long and devastating war ; and 
Poland was divided between Catherine 
of Russia, Joseph II., Emperor of 
Germany, and Frederic of Prussia, 
This partition of an ancient nation 
was perpetrated in 1772. In 1795, a 
further dismemberment was effected 
between the three great powers, and 
the whole of Poland absorbed, except 
the ancient city of Cracow, with a few 
miles of adjacent country, which was 
left to point to future ages where the 
once warlike nation of Poland stood 
on the physical map of Europe. Of 
the three spoilers of Poland, Russia 
possesses the largest share of territory 
and population. Frequent insurrec- 
tions have occurred. In 1864, Poland 
was deprived of its administrative in- 
dependence, and in 1868 was incorpo- 
rated with Russia. There are two 
parties, Nationalists and Socialists, 
both opposed to the Russian govern- 
ment. Pop. (1909) 11,671,800. 

Poland, John. Scroggs, an Ameri- 
can military officer ; born in Princeton, 
Ind., Oct. 14, 1836 ; was graduated at 
the United States Military Academy 
and appointed a 2d lieutenant in 1861 ; 
served through the Civil War ; was as- 
sistant Professor of Geography, His- 
tory, Ethics and Drawing at the 
United States Military Academy in, 
1865-1869; and was chief of the De- 

Jartment of Law at the United States 
nfantry and Cavalry School, Fort 
Leavenworth, Kan., in 1881-1886. At 
the beginning of the war with Spain 
(1898) he was commissioned a Briga- 
dier-General of volunteers and com- 
manded the 2d division, 1st Army 
Corps, stationed at Cbickamauga 
Park, Ga. He died in Asheville, N. 
C., Aug. 8, 1898. 

Polar Bear, the largest individual 
of the family Ursidse, and oue o the 



best known. It is found over the 
whole of Greenland, but its numbers 
are decreasing, as it is regularly 
hunted for the sake of its skin. It is 
quite white when young, changing to 
a creamy tint in maturity. 

Polar Circles, two imaginary cir- 
cles of the earth parallel to the equa- 
tor. 

Polarization, the act of polarizing 
i. e., bestowing the quality of polarity 
or opposing poles. In galvanism, the 
production or a secondary current in, 
a galvanic battery contrary to the 
principal one, owing to the gradual 
chemical change in the elements of the 
battery. This change weakens, or may 
even destroy, the original current. 

In optics, a state into which the 
ethereal undulations which cause the 
sensation of light are brought under 
certain conditions. These undulations 
are perpendicular to the line of trans- 
mission of the wave, as in a stretched 
cord, but in a ray of common light, 
appear to take place successively in 
all directions, the vibrations succes- 
sively passing through rectilinear, el- 
liptical, and circular phases with in- 
conceivable rapidity. If the vibrations 
become, or are rendered, stable in any 
one form of orbit, the light is in the 
condition known as polarized. 

Pole, in astronomy, one of the twe 
points in which the axis of the earth 
is supposed to meet the sphere of the 
heavens. 

Pole, Reginald, Cardinal, a 
British statesman and Archbishop of 
Canterbury in the reign of Queen 
Mary, descended from the blood royal 
of England; born in Stourton Castle, 
in Staffordshire, in 1500. He was 
educated at Sheen Monastery and 
Magdalen College, Oxford ; and after 
obtaining preferment in the Church, 
went to Italy, where he long resided. 
On his return to England he opposed 
the divorce of Henry VIII. from Cath- 
erine of Aragon in such earnest terms, 
that the king drove him from his pres- 
ence, and never saw him more. He 
again left England, was made a cardi- 
nal in December, 1536, and had the 
offer of the popedom on the death of 
Paul III. When Mary ascended the 
throne, Pole returned to England as 
legate, in which capacity he absolved 
the Parliament from their sin of her- 
esy, and reconciled the nation to the 



Polecat 

Holy See. The very day after the 
burning of Cranmer, the cardinal was 
consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury. 
He survived the queen but one day, 
and died Nov. 18, 1558. 
Polecat, one of the Mustelinae, akin 

'to the marten, but with a broader 

(head, a blunter snout, and a much 
shorter tail. It has a shorter neck and 
a stouter body than the weasel. Two 
glands near the root of the tail emit 
a highly offensive smell. It makes im- 
mense havoc in poultry yards, rabbit 

I warrens, and among hares and par- 
tridges, killing everything which it 

can overpower. 




POLECAT. 

Pole Star, Polaris, a bright star at 
the tip of the tail of Ursa Minor, and 
in a line with the pointers Merak and 
Dubhe, the two stars constituting the 
front of the plowlike figure in Ursa 
Major. The pole star is really a 
double star of yellow hue, but while 
the larger or visible one is between the 
second and third magnitude, its com- 
panion is only of the ninth, and there- 
fore a telescopic star. 'There is no cor- 
responding star in the Southern Hem- 
isphere. 

Police, a system of judicial and 
executive administration of a country, 
especially concerned with the mainte- 
nance of the quiet and good order of 
society. In a more limited sense, the 
1 administration of the laws, by-laws, 
and regulations of a city. The des- 
ignation, also, of a body of men, not 
military, appointed to enforce state 
and municipal laws, and preserve* 
I the peace. 

Political Economy, the science 
which investigates the nature of wealth 
and the laws of its production and dis- 
tribution, including the operation of 



Polk 

causes by which the condition of man- 
kind in respect to this object of hu- 
man desire, is made prosperous or the- 
reverse. Inquiries on these point* 
must have existed from the earliest 
times in every nation, but political 
economy as a science is dated from re- 
cent times. 

Political Offenses, those offenses 
considered injurious to the safety of 
the state. In modern times the crimes 
considered political offenses have 
varied at different periods and in dif- 
ferent states. In the United States, 
and in most of the countries of Eu- 
rope, extradition treaties do not in- 
clude giving up political offenders. 

Political Parties, divisions of peo- 
ple in a State marked off by the par- 
ticular views they hold as to the pub- 
lic policy to be pursued in the best 
interests of the people at large. In the 
United States the chief political 
parties are the Democrats and the Re- 
publicans. 

Politics, the science which treats 
of the distribution of power in a 
country. Popularly, the political sen- 
timents of an individual, his procedure 
in promoting the interests of his party. 

Polk, James Knoz, an American 
statesman, llth President of the 
United States, born in Mecklenburg 
co., N. C., Nov. 2, 1795. His ancestors, 
who bore the name Pollock, emigrated 
from the W. of Ireland early in the 
18th century. He was educated at the 
University of Nashville, Tenn., to 
which State his father had removed in 
1806, and was admitted to the bar in 
1820. In 1823 he was sent to the Ten- 
nessee Legislature, and in 1824 to Con- 
gress, to which body he was reflected 
for seven successive terms, serving till 
1839. He was made chairman of the 
Committee of Ways and Means in 
1833, and twice elected Speaker of the 
House 1835-1837. In Congress he 
was consistently a Democrat, support- 
ing unwaveringly the administration 
of Jackson and Van Buren, and op- 
posing that of Adams. In 1839 he was 
elected governor of Tennessee, and in 
1844 unexpectedly nominated as a 
compromise candidate of the National 
Democratic Convention for the presi- 
dency, and elected over Henry Clay, 
the 'Whig candidate. His administra- 
tion was eventful, and in some respects: 



Polk 

brilliant. Texas was annexed, and the 
Mexican War fought, which, with ter- 
ritorial purchases, added the great ter- 
ritory now comprising Texas, Califor- 
nia, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, and 
the W. part of Colorado to the domain 
of the United States. The Oregon 
boundary forming one of the issues on 
which he was elected, was settled by 
a compromise offered by England. He 
was a man of eminent administrative 
abilities, of consistent principles, and 
pure and upright private character. 
At the close of his single term Polk 
declined to stand for renomination, 
and retired to private life in Nash- 
ville, Tenn., where he died June 15, 
1849. 

Folk, Leonidas, an American mili- 
tary officer ; born in Raleigh, N. C., 
April 10, 1806 ; was a cousin of Presi- 
dent Polk, and grandson of Col. 
Thomas Polk, an officer of the Revolu- 
tion. Graduating at the United States 
Military Academy in 1827, he received 
a commission in the artillery, but was 
induced to study for the ministry, 
and in 1830 received deacon's, and in 
1831 priest's orders in the Episcopal 
Church. In 1838 he was consecrated 
Bishop of Arkansas and Indian Terri- 
tory, with charge of the dioceses of 
Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana; 
in 1841 he resigned all these except the 
bishopric of Louisiana, which he re- 
tained till his death. Soon after the 
outbreak of tne Civil War he was of- 
fered a major-generalship by Jefferson 
Davis, and accepted it ; was promoted 
to Lieutenant-General. He was killed 
while reconnoitering on Pine Moun- 
tain, June 14, 1864, by a cannon shot 
fired by some Northern officers who 
wished to give the bishop's party a 
fright. 

Polka, a well known dance, the 
music to which is in 2-4 time, with the 
third %th note accented. 

Pollard, Edward Albert, an 
American journalist and author; born 
in Virginia, Feb. 27, 1828. As editor 
of the Richmond " Examiner " during 
the Civil War, he was an earnest advo- 
cate of the Confederate cause, but an 
active opponent of Jefferson Davis. He 
died in Lynchburg, Va., Dec. 12, 1872. 

Pollard, Josephine, an American 
writer of juvenile literature; born in 
New York city in 1843. She died 
there Aug. 15, 1892. 



Polo 

Pollen, in botany, the pulverulent 
or other substance which fills the cells 
of the anther. It consists of minute 
granules varying in size and inclosing 
a fluid containing molecular matter. In 
entomology, pollen collected from 
plants and carried on the outer surface 
of the tibise of bees. Mixed with 
honey, it becomes the food of the 



Pollock, Sir Frederick, third 
baronet of the name; born Dec. 10, 

1845. He was called to the bar and 
became Corpus Professor of Jurispru- 
dence at Oxford, and Professor of 
Common Law. His younger brother, 
Walter Herries Pollock, born Feb. 21, 
1850, was called to the bar and 10 
years later became editor of the " Sat- 
urday Review." 

Pollock, Sir George, field-mar- 
shal ; born Westminster June 4, 1786 ; 
entered the army of the East India 
Company as lieutenant of artillery in 
1803. In 1838 he reached the rank 
of major-general. After the massacre 
of General Elphinstone and his forces 
in the passes of Afghanistan the In- 
dian government decided to send a 
force to the relief of Sir Robert Sale. 
The command of the relieving force 
was given to General Pollock. In 
April, 1842, he forced the formidable 
Khyber Pass, and reached Sir Robert 
Sale; he defeated the Afghan chief at 
Tezeen, and destroyed the bazaar in 
Kabul, and he recovered 135 British 
prisoners. He returned to England in 

1846, and was created a field-marshal 
in 1870. He died Oct. 6, 1872. 

Poll Tax, a tax levied per head. In 
the United States a poll tax (varying 
from 25 cents to $3 annually) is levied 
in most of the States, in addition to 
the taxes on property. 

Pollux, a celebrated hero of the 
Grecian mythology, and twin brother 
of Castor, after whose death he im- 
plored Jupiter to render him immortal. 
His prayer could not be entirely grant- 
ed, but Jupiter divided immortality 
between the brothers, each living and 
dying alternately. In astronomy, one 
of the twins forming the constellation 
Gemini. Also the name of a star of 
the second magnitude in the same con- 
stellation. 

Polo, an equestrian game, which 
may be shortly described as hockey on 



Polo 

horseback. It is of Oriental origin 
and of high antiquity ; it has been 
claimed that it can be traced back to 
600 B. c. Since 1876 many polo clubs 
have been started in the United States. 

Polo, Marco, a Venetian traveler 
of the 13th century, the son of a mer- 
chant, who, with his brother, had 
penetrated to the court of Kublai, the 
great khan of the Tartars. This prince, 
being highly entertained with their ac- 
count of Europe, made them his am- 
bassadors to the Pope ; on which they 
traveled back to Rome, and, with two 
missionaries, once more visited Tar- 
tary, accompanied by the young Marco 
who became a great favorite with the 
khan. Having acquired the different 
dialects of Tartary, he was employed 
on various embassies ; and after a resi- 
dence of 17 years, all the three Vene- 
tians returned to their own country in 
1295, with immense wealth. Marco 
afterward served his country at sea 
against the Genoese, and, being taken 
prisoner, remained many years in con- 
finement, the tedium of which he be- 
guiled by composing the history of his 
" Travels." Marco Polo relates many 
things which appear incredible, but the 
general truthfulness of his narrative 
has been established by succeeding 
travelers. 

Polonaise, a Polish national dance, 
which has been imitated, but with 
much variation, by other nations. 

Polyandry, the marriage of one 
woman to several men at once. There 
are several forms of it, each an ad- 
vance on its predecessor: (1) One 
wife has several unrelated husbands, 
and each of the husbands other unre- 
lated wives; (2) the unrelated hus- 
bands have but one wife; (3) the hus- 
bands are related; (4) the husbands 
are brothers. The custom is still wide- 
ly spread in the East. 

Polyanthus, a beautiful and favor- 
ite variety of the common primrose, 
growing in wods and copses in a 
moist clayey soil. The plants are 
very hardy, and require to be trans- 
planted every two years. 

Polybius, a Greek historian; born 
in Megalopolis, Greece, probably about 
204 B. C. His great work is a general 
history of the affairs of Greece and 
Rome from 220 B. C. to 146 B. c. Five 
only of its 40 books are now extant, 



Polynesia 

with some fragments of the rest, but 
these are among the most important 
literary remains of antiquity. He 
wrote several other works, but they 
have perished. Died at the age of 82. 

Polycarp, St., one of the apostol- 
ical fathers of the Church, and a Chris- 
tian martyr, who, according to tradi- 
tion, was a disciple of the Apostle 
John, and by him appointed Bishop of 
Smyrna ; suffered martyrdom A. D. 155. 

Polycrates, a ruler of the island 
of Samos from about 536 to 522 B. c. 
He conquered several islands on the 
Asiatic mainland, waged war success- 
fully against the inhabitants of Miletus 
and defeated their allies the Lesbians 
in a great sea fight. His ultimate al- 
liance with Amasis, King of Egypt, 
proves the importance in which this 
daring island-prince was held even by 
great monarchs. Orcetes, the Persian 
satrap of Sardis, had conceived a dead- 
ly hatred against Polycrates, and, hav- 
ing enticed the- latter to visit him at 
Magnesia by appealing to his cupidity, 
he seized and crucified him. 

Polygamy, the practice or condi- 
tion of having a plurality of wives at 
the same time. It is prohibited by 
law in all Christian countries, but is 
practiced by Mohammedans and by the 
uncivilized peoples of Africa and the 
South Seas. The Mormons adopted it, 
but have now ostensibly renounced it. 

Polyglot, a collection of versions in 
different languages of the same work, 
but is almost exclusively applied to 
manifold versions of the Bible. 

Polygon, in geometry, a. portion of 
a plane bounded on all sides by more 
than four limited straight lines. 

Polygyny, the marriage by one 
man of several wives at the same time. 

Polyhymnia, one of the Muses, 
daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne, 
who presided over singing and rhetoric, 
and was deemed the inventress of har- 
mony. 

Polynesia, a general name for a 
number of distinct archipelagoes of 
small islands scattered over the Pa- 
cific Ocean, extending from about lat. 
35 N. to 35 S., and from Ion. 135 
E. to 100 W., the Philippines, New 
Guinea, Australia, and New Zealand 
being excluded. The islands are dis- 
tributed into numerous groups, having 
a general direction from N. W. to S. 



Tolyp 

E. The islands may be divided into 
two chief classes, volcanic and coral 
islands. Some of the former rise to 
a great height, the highest peak in the 
Pacific, Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, reach- 
ing 13,600 feet. The elevations of the 
coral formation groups do not exceed 
;500 feet. 

Polynesia has a comparatively mod- 
erate temperature, and the climate is 
dejjghtful and salubrious. The pre- 
dominating race, occupying the cen- 
tral and E. portion of Polynesia, is of 
Malay origin, with oval faces, wide 
nostrils, and large ears. The hair and 
complexion vary, but the latter is 
often a light brown. Their language 
is split up into numerous dialects. The 
-other leading race is of negroid or 
Papuan origin, with negro-like fea- 
tures and crisp mop-like hair. They 
^are confined to Western Polynesia, and 
speak a different language, with nu- 
merous distinct dialects. Christianity 
has been introduced into a great many 
of the islands, and a large number of 
them are under the control of one or 
other of the European powers. The 
Ladrones were discovered by Magellan 
in 1521, the Marquesas by Mandana 
in 1595, but it was not till 1767 that 
Wallis, and subsequently Cook, ex- 
plored and described the chief islands. 
Since the natives came in contact with 
the whites their numbers have greatly 
decreased. 

Polyp, a name usually applied to 
*n animal like the fresh-water hydra 
-or like the sea anemone, having a tubu- 
lar body and a wreath of many tenta- 
cles around the mouth. 

Polyphemus, in mythology, the 
king of all the Cyclops in Sicily, and 
gon of Neptune and Thoosa. He is 
represented as a monster of immense 
strength, and with one eye in the mid- 
dle of the forehead. He fed on human 
flesh, and kept his flocks on the coasts 
of Sicily. 

Polyphone, a character or vocal 
ign representing more than one sound. 

Polytechnic College, a coeduca- 
tional institution in Fort Worth, 
Tex.; founded in 1891 under the 
auspices of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church. 

Polytechnic Institute, an educa- 
tional non-sectarian institute in Brook- 
lyn, N. Y. ; founded in 1854. 



Pomona 

Polytechnic School, an educa- 
tional establishment in which instruc- 
tion is given in many arts and sci- 
ences, more especially with reference 
to their practical application. 

Polytheism, the worship of many 
gods. It is not necessarily the same as 
idolatry, for gods may be adored with- 
out of any image of them being made. 

Pombal, Sebastian Joseph de 
Carvalho e Mello, Marquis of, a 
Portuguese statesman ; born May 13, ! 
1699, at the castle of Soure, near 
Ooimbra. In 1739 he was appointed 
ambassador in London, and six years 
later was sent to Vienna in a similar 
capacity. Just before Joseph I. as- 
cended the throne of Portugal (1750), 
Pombal was appointed secretary for 
foreign affairs. When the great earth- 
quake happened at Lisbon in 1755 
Pombal displayed great calmness and 
fertile resource, so that next year the 
king made him prime minister. He 
crushed a revolt instigated by the 
great nobles and the Jesuits, and in 
1759 banished the latter from the 
kingdom. The tyranny of the Inquisi- 
tion was broken. Agriculture, com- 
merce, and the finances were all im- 
proved. In 1758 he had been made 
Count of Oeyras, and in 1770 he was 
created Marquis of Pombal. On the 
accession of Joseph's daughter, Maria 
I. (in 1777), Pombal was deprived of 
his offices and banished from court. He 
died in his castle of Pombal, May 8, 
1782. The cruelty shown in the pun- 
ishment of the conspirators against 
King Joseph is a lasting blot on his 
memory. 

Pomegranate, a dense, spiny 
shrub, 15 to 25 feet high, a native of 
W. Asia and N. Africa, and cultivated 
in Florida and California for its sweet 
sub-acid fruit. 

Pomerania, or Pommern, a prov- 
ince of Prussia, bounded by the Baltic, 
Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, and West 
Prussia: area, 11.628 square miles; 
pop. 1,634,659. The center of trade is 
Stettin, which ranks as one of the 
chief commercial cities of Prussia. 
Pomerania was originally inhabited by 
Goths, Vandals, and Slavs. It is first 
mentioned in history in 1140, and was 
an independent duchy until 1637. 

Pomona, the Roman divinity of the 
frr.it of trees. In works of art she 



"Pomona College 



Pompeii 



was generally represented with fruits 
in her lap, or in a basket, with a gar- 
land of fruits in her hair and a prun* 
ing knife in her right hand. 

Pomona College, a coeducational 
institution in Claremont, Cal. ; founded 
in 1887, under the auspices of the Con- 
gregational Church. 

Pompeii, a seaport at the mouth of 
the Sarnus, on the Neapolitan Riviera, 
founded about 600 B. c. by the Oscans, 
and after them, oooipied by the Tyrr- 
heno-Pelasgians, and by the Samnites, 
till these, about 80 B. c., were dispos- 
sessed by the Romans. From that time 
down to its destruction, A. D. 79, it be- 
came a sort of Rome-super-Mare, fre- 
quented by the aristocracy. On Feb. 
5, A. D. 63, by an earthquake in the 



torrents that intermittently fell. For 
three days the flight of the inhabitants 
continued till Pompeii was abandoned: 
,by all who could effect their escape. 
By the fourth day the sun had par- 
tially reappeared, and the more coura- 
geous of the citizens began to return 
for such of their property as they could 
disinter. The reigning emperor, Titus, 
organized relief on an imperial scale, 
and even undertook the clearing and 
rebuilding of the city. This attempt 
was soon abandoned, and Pompeii re- 
mained a heap of hardened mud and 
ashes, gradually overgrown with grass 
the wall of the great theater and 
the outline of the amphitheater alone 
marking its site till 1592, when the 
architect Fontana, in cutting an aque- 




A POMPETTAN HOUSE. 



vicinity, these buildings were all but 
levelled with the ground, and some 
years elapsed ere the fugitive citizens 
recovered confidence enough to reoc- 
cupy and rebuild what was once 
Pompeii. Revolutionized as it was for 
the worse, the city, however, retained 
much of Greek character and color- 
ing, and had relapsed into more than 
its former gaiety and licentiousness, 
when on Aug. 23 (or, more probably 
on Nov. 23), 79, with a return of the 
shocks of earthquake, Vesuvius was 
seen to throw up a. column of black 
smoke expanding like some umbrella 
pine of the neighborhood, till it as- 
sumed the proportions of a great 
swarthy cloud, dense with ashesj pum- 
ice, and red-hot stones, settling down 
with a force increased by the rain- 



I duct, came on some ancient buildings. 

I Unsystematic, unscientific excavations 
proceeded fitfully till 1860, when the 
Italian kingdom took in hand the un- 
earthing of the city. This was carried 
out with admirable ingenuity, care, 
and success, and it now attracts the 
pilgrim from every clime for the object 
lessons it is unique in affording as to 
the public and private life of antiquity. 
House construction consists mainly 
of concrete or brick, and sometimes of 
stone blocks, especially at the corners. 
Two-storied, sometimes three-storied 
houses are numerous, though the upper 
floors, built of wood, have been con- 
sumed by the eruption. Stores usually 
occupied the ground floors of dwelling- 
houses, on their street aspect, let out 
to merchants or dealers as at the pres- 



Poinpey 

ent day, but not connected with the 
back part of the house. They could 
be separated from the street by large 
wooden doors, while inside they had 
tables covered with marble, in which 
earthen vessels for wine or oil were in- 
serted. The storekeeper had some- 
times a second room at the back, when 
he did not live on an upper floor or in 
another part of the town. Retail 
traffic must have been considerable at 
Pompeii, to judge from the number of 
those stores along the streets. Only a 
personal visit can convey an idea of 
the indoor life of the Pompeiians, with 
whom the absence of glass, the fewness 
of the openings in the street aspect 
of the house wall, and the protection 
of these with iron gratings are among 
the points noted by the most casual 
visitor. As rebuilt after 63, Pompeii 
shows little marble, the columns being 
of tufa or brick cemented by mortar. 
A coating of stucco was laid over wall 
or column and presented an ample 
field for ornamental painting. This 
must have given to Pompeii its bright, 
gay coloring, which, with its reds, 
blues, and yellows, on column and cap- 
ital, on wall and partition, harmonize 
so well with the glowing sunlight of 
the South. 

Pompey, Cneius Pompeius 
Magnus, son of Pompeius Strabo, a 
Roman general ; born in 106 B. c. He 
ranged himself with the aristocratic 
party of the republic.. On the death 
of Sylla, in 78 B. c., Pompey went as 
proconsul to Spain. With Crassus he 
crushed the Marian party, and in 
70 B. c. Pompey and Crassus were 
elected consuls. He was made abso- 
lute dictator in the East, and super- 
seded Lucullus in the command against 
Mithridates. The latter he completely 
routed in 66 B. c. In 60 B. c. he joined 
Caesar and Crassus in the triumvirate, 
the former of whom gave him his 
daughter Julia in marriage. In 54 
B. c. Julia died ; in the year following, 
Crassus was slain in Asia ; and the 
hostility between Caesar and Pompey 
rapidly developed itself. Caesar crossed 
the Rubicon with his troops, 49 B. C., 
and Pompey, accompanied by Cato, 
Cicero, and other nobles of Rome, fell 
back on Greece, where the great bat- 
tle of Pharsalia decided his fate. Pom- 
pey was advised to seek an asylum in 
t, then ruled by a sovereign he 



Poniatowski 

had protected, Ptolemy XII. He was 
received with pretended friendship, but 
murdered as soon as he stepped 
ashore, 48 B. c. 

Ponce, second city in commercial 
importance in Porto Rico; in Depart- 
ment of same name; 2% miles N. of 
the S. coast, 45 miles S. W. of San. 
Juan; has a spacious harbor; is 
well-built, largely of brick; is the 
seat of a Roman Catholic Cathedral; 
has two handsome plazas, public li- 
brary, and several hospitals and asy- 
lums; and is chiefly engaged in rais- 
ing sugar cane, cacao, tobacco, and 
cattle. Pop. (1910 35,027. 

Ponce de Leon, Juan, a Spanish 
explorer, the discoverer of Florida ; 
born in San Servas, Spain, in 1460; 
was a court page, served against the 
Moors, and in 1502 sailed with Ovando 
to Ilispaniola, and became governor of 
the E. part of the island. In 1510 he 
obtained the government of Porto Rico, 
and had conquered the whole island 
by 1512. He then set out on a quest 
for the fountain of perpetual youth, 
and on March 27, 1512, found Florida. 
He secured the appointment of adel- 
antado of the country, and returned 
in 1521 to conquer his new subjects ; 
in this, however, he failed. He retired 
to Cuba, and died there in July from 
the wound of a poisoned arrow. 

Pond, Frederick Eugene, an 
American journalist and author ; born 
in Marquette co., Wis., April 8, 1856. 

Poniatowski, Joseph, Prince, a 
Polish general ; born in Warsaw, Po- 
land, in 1763, and when young entered 
the Austrian service, but when the 
Poles rose against Russia he quitted 
it, and joining his countrymen, fought 
with them under Kosciusko. On the 
defeat of this general, Poniatowski 
sought refuge in Vienna, till the 
French entered Warsaw in 1806, when 
he was appointed to the command of 
the Polish army which was to co- 
operate with the French against Rus- 
sia. Napoleon estimated his services 
so highly, that shortly before the bat- 
tle of Leipsic he created him a Mar- 
shal of France. After this disastrous 
battle, the French were flying in utter 
confusion over the Elster, and Ponia- 
towski was drowned in the attempt, 
Oct. 13, 1813. 

Poniatowski, Stanislas Augus- 
tus, the last king of Poland, and one 



Pontchartrain 

of the early lovers of Catherine the 
Great of Russia. He died at St. 
Petersburg, in 1798, of a broken heart. 

Pontchartrain, Lake, in Louisi- 
ana, about 5 miles N. of New Orleans, 
is 40 miles long and 25 wide. It is 
navigated by small steamers, and com- 
municates with the Gulf of Mexico. 
The drainage of New Orleans is car- 
ried into the lake through canals. 

Fontiac, a celebrated Indian chief 
of the Ottawa tribe ; born about 1712. 
He was the leader in Pontiac's War, 
and was killed in Illinois in 1769. 

Pontiac's War, an Indian war of 
1703 between the English settlers and 
garrisons on the frontiers, and a com- 
bination of Indian tribes, under the 
leadership of Pontiac. The war lasted 
two years. 

Pontifex, a bridge builder; a title 
given to the more illustrious members 
of the Roman colleges of priests. Their 
number was originally five, the presi- 
dent being styled Pontifex Maximus. 
The number was afterward increased 
to nine, and later still to 15. The title 
of Pontifex Maximus is now the title 
of the Pope. 

Pontifical, one of the service books 
of the Church of Rome, in which are 
contained the several services. 

Pontoon, a floating vessel support- 
ing the roadway timbers of a floating 
military bridge. 

Pony, a term applied to several sub- 
varieties or races of horses, generally 
of smaller size than the ordinary horses 
and which are bred in large flocks 
and herds in various parts of the 
world, chiefly for purposes of riding 
and of lighter draught work. 

Poodle, a breed of dog whose origin 
dates from the beginning of the 17th 
century or earlier. The poodle is one 
of the few breeds of dogs which has 
not been properly appreciated and cul- 
tivated in the United States. From 
his great intelligence and cleverness in 
learning tricks, he was generally adopt- 
ed as a circus or " trick dog " ; but 
this fact, instead of making for his 
credit, has caused the poodle to be 
treated with contempt. 

Pook, Samuel Hartt, an Ameri- 
can naval constructor, born in Brook- 
lyn, N. Y., Jan. 17, 1827 ; was graduat- 
ed at the Portsmouth Academy, N. 



Pope 

H., in 1843. He settled in Boston as 
a naval architect and designed many 
merchant and war vessels ; entered 
government service, when the Civil 
War broke out, and at the close of 
the war entered the navy as assistant 
naval constructor and served at differ- 
ent navy yards till bis- retirement in 
1899. He died in 1901. 

Pool, a game played on a pool table. 
The term " poolroom " is applied 
to places, apart from race tracks, in 
which bets on horse-races are received, 
and as this is an illegal business, the 
word frequently occurs in the daily 
news. 

Also, an arrangement between sev- 
eral competing lines of railway, by 
which the total receipts of each com- 
pany are pooled, and distributed pro 
rata according to agreement. 

Pool, Maria Louise, an American 
novelist; born in Rockland, Mass., in 
August, 1841. She died in Rockland, 
May 19, 1898. 

Poole, "William Frederick, an 
American bibliographer ; born in Sa- 
lem, Mass., Dec. 24, 1821; was a 
librarian of Boston, Cincinnati, and 
Chicago. His chief work is the cele- 
brated " Index to Periodical Litera- 
ture." He died in Evanston, 111., 
March 1, 1894. 

Poor Clares, a Roman Catholic re- 
ligious order, having very severe rules, 
and called after the founder. 

Poore, Benjamin Perley, an 
American author ; born in Newbury, 
Mass., Nov. 2, 1820 ; spent several 
years abroad. On his return he be- 
came active in journalism. He died 
in Washington, D. C., May 30, 1887. 

Poor Priests, a name given to, or 
assumed by, the Lollard clergy of the 
14th and 15th centuries, who wandered 
about the country holding what would 
now be called " missions," without the 
sanction of the bishop of the diocese. 

Pope, specifically, the Bishop of 
Rome. The term Papa, or Papas 
(father), has always been given by 
the Greek Church to presbyters, like 
the term Father now applied to a 
Roman priest. In the early centuries 
the bishops received the same title till, 
in a council held at Rome in 1076, at 
the instance of Gregory VII. (Hilde- 
branclt, it was limited to the Bishop 
of Rome. Holding that office, being 



Pope 

also Metropolitan of Rome and pri- 
mate, and claiming to be the earthly 
head of the Church universal, it is in 
the last named capacity that the term 
Pope is held to be specially applicable. 
It has been a matter of controversy 
among Roman Catholics whether the 
authority of the Pope was above or 
below that of the General Council. 
That of Pisa (1409), claiming to be a 
General Council, deposed two rival 
Popes, and appointed a third ; but the 
two former repudiated the authority 
of the council, and exercised their 
functions as before. The Council of 
Constance (1414-1418) also deposed 
two rival Popes and elected one. " The 
States of the Church " figured on the 
map of Europe as an independent sov- 
ereignty till Sept. 20, 1870, when the 
troops of Victor Emmanuel, King of 
Italy, entered Rome, and took pos- 
session of the palace for the Italian 
kingdom. No interference took place 
with the Pope's spiritual authority. 

Pope Pius X. See Pius. 

Pope, Alexander, an English 
poet; born in London, England, May 
<J1, 1688. His education was a desul- 
tory one. He picked up the rudiments 
of Greek and Latin from the family 
priest, and was successively sent to 
two schools, one at Twyford, the other 
in London. Before he was 15 he at- 
tempted an epic poem, and at the age 
of 16 his " Pastorals " procured him 
the notice of several eminent persons. 
In 1711 he published his poem the 
*'Essay on Criticism," which was fol- 
lowed by " The Rape of the Lock," a 
polished and witty narrative poem 
founded on an incident of fashionable 
life. From 1718 to 1726 he was en- 
gaged on a poetical translation of 
Homer's works, the " Iliad " (com- 
pleted in 1720) being wholly from his 
pen, the " Odyssey " only half. The 
pecuniary results of these translations 
showed a total profit of nearly $45,000. 
He died in Twickenham, May 30, 1744. 

Pope, John, an American military 
officer; born in Louisville, Ky., March 
16, 1822 ; was graduated at the United 
States Military Academy in 1842, and 
entered the engineers. He served in 
Florida (1842-1844), and in the Mex- 
ican War, and was brevetted captain 
for gallantry. He was afterward em- 
ployed in exploring and surveying in 
the Wat, till the outbreak of the Civil 



Popish Plot 

War, when he was appointed Briga- 
dier-General of volunteers. For 15 
days in August, 1862, he faced Lee, 
but was defeated at the second battle 
of Bull Run, on the 29th and 30th. 
He then requested to be relieved, and 
was transferred to Minnesota, where 
he kept the Indians in check. He 
held various commands till 1886, when 
he retired. In 1882 he became Major- 
General, U. S. A. Pope died in San- 
dusky, O., Sept. 23, 1892. 

Popinjay, a parrot; a figure of a 
bird put up as a mark for archers to 
shoot at. The green woodpecker is 
also sometimes called popinjay. Also 
applied to a man who dresses too 
show'ly. 




OPIUM POPPY. 

a, whole plant; b, flower and leaf; c, ripe 
capsule; d, seed and section of seed ett 
larged. 

Popish Plot, in English history, an 
alleged plot made known by Titus 
Gates in 1678. He asserted that two 
men had been told off to assassinate 
Charles II., that certain Roman Cath- 
olics whom he named had been ap- 



Poplar 

pointed to all the high offices of the 
State, and that the extirpation of 
Protestantism was intended. On the 
strength of his allegation, various per- 
sons were executed. Gradually evi- 
dence arose that the whole story was 
a fabrication, and that the people who 
had been capitally punished were all 
innocent. On May 8, 1685, Oates, 
who had received a pension of $10,000 
for his revelations, was convicted of 
perjury, heavily fined, pilloried and 
publicly flogged. He died in 1705. 

Poplar, a tree. Known species 18, 
from the N. temperate zone. The 
great white poplar, or abele, is a large 
tree, growing 'in moist places and 
mountain woods. 

Poplin, a silk and worsted stuff, 
watered, figured, brocaded, or tissued. 
Originally an all-silk French goods. 

Popocatepetl ("smoking moun- 
tain "), a volcano about 40 miles S. E. 
of the city of Mexico. It rises in the 
form of a cone to a height of 17,784 
feet above the sea-level. No eruption 
bas been recorded since 1540 ; it still 
smokes. 

Poppy, a genus of plants, of which 
there are numerous species, mostly na- 
tives of Europe and Asia, some of 
them found in the very N. regions, but 
most of them in the warmer temper- 
ate parts. By far the most important 
species is that known' as the opium 
poppy, also called the white poppy 
and the oil poppy. But the same 
species is important on account of 
the bland fixed oil of the seeds, and 
is much cultivated as an oil plant. 
Poppy oil is as sweefc as olive oil, and 
is used for similar purposes. It is 
imported into the United States in 
considerable quantities from India. A 
variety with double flowers is culti- 
vated in* flower gardens, under the 
name of carnation poppy. 

Populist, or People's Party, a 
political organization founded at Cin- 
cinnati, in May 1891 ; an outgrowth 
of the movements inaugurated by the 
Patrons of Husbandry (q. v.), and 
the Farmer's Alliance. Appealing to 
the agricultural and industrial classes, 
its avowed objects include free silver ; 
national ownership of transportation 
and freight utilities ; a graduated in- 
come tax ; prohibition of alien owner- 
ship of land, etc. 



Porcupine 

Porcelain, a fictile material inter- 
mediate between glass and pottery, be- 
ing formed of two substances, fusible 
and infusible, the latter enabling it to 
withstand the heat necessary to vitrify 
the former, thus producing its peculiar 
semi-translucency. The infusible ma* 
terial is alumina, called kaolin; the 
fusible substance is felspar, and is 
called pe-tun-tse, both Chinese terms. 



SLepublic. ^ 1810-14. Lndwig Pt 
Sevres (sinct tf 




PORCELAIN MABKS. 

Large quantities of porcelain are pro- 
duced in New Jersey, Ohio, and other 
states, while European porcelain, and 
Chinese and Japanese ware, are fa- 
mous. See POTTERY. 

Porcupine, a rodent quadruped. 
The North American porcupine is 
about two feet long, and of sluggish 
habits. The quills are short, and con- 
cealed among the fur, and the tail is 
short. The " tree porcupine " of SoutH 
America has a prehensile tail, about 
10 inches long. The porcupine of 
Southern Europe and Africa is about 
28 inches long, exclusive of the tail. 
The head, fore quarters, and under 
surface are clothed with short spines, 
intermixed with hairs, crest on head 
and neck, hind quarters covered with 
long sharp spines, ringed with black 
and white, and erectile at will. They 
are but loosely attached to the skin 
and readily fall out, a circumstance 
which probably gave rise to the belief 
that the animal was able to project 
them at an enemy. 



Porcupine Crab 



Port 



Porcupine Crab, a native of Ja- 
pan. The carapace is triangular, and, 
like the limbs, thickly covered with 
spines. It is dull and sluggish in its 
movements. 

Porcupine Fish, a fish found in 
the tropical seas. It is about 14 
inches long, and is covered with spines 
or prickles. 




PREHENSILE-TAILED PORCUPINE. 

Porgy, Poggy, or Paugie, an im- 
portant food fish found on the coast of 
the United States. It attains a length 
of 18 inches and a weight of about 
four pounds. 

Pork, the flesh of swine ; one of the 
most important and widely used spe- 
cies of animal food. The swine was 
forbidden to be eaten by the Mosaic 
law, and is regarded by the Jews as 
especially typical of the' unclean ani- 
mals. Other Eastern nations had sim- 
ilar opinions as to the use of pork. 
In the United States the pork-packing 
industry is one of the greatest factors 
of wealth. The immense establish- 
ments at Chicago, Kansas City, 
Omaha, St. Louis, Indianapolis, Cin- 
cinnati, and other cities, represent 
many millions of dollars invested in 
this branch of trade and commerce. 

Porosity, the quality or state of 
being porous or of having pores. 

Pprphyrio, a genus of bird* oc- 
curring in South America, in Africa, 
and in the S. of Europe, but chiefly 
Oriental. In habits they resemble the 
water hen, but are larger and more, 
stately birds. 

Porphyry, a term originally ap- 
plied to a rock having a purple cov- 
ered base, with inclosed individual 
crystals of a felspar. 



Porpoise, a small cetacean. The 
common porpoise, when full grown, at- 
tains a length of about five feet. The 
head is rounded in front, and the snout 
is not produced into a beak. The ex- 
ternal surface is shining and hairless, 
dark grey or black on the upper parts, 
under pure white. It is gregarious in 
habit, and is often seen in small herds, 
frequenting the coasts rather than the 
open seas. It -often ascends rivers, 
and ranges as far N. as Baffin Bay 
and as far W. as the coast of the 
United States. 

Porsenna, or Porsena, a cele- 
brated leader and king of Etruria, who 
declared war against the Romans be- 
cause they refused to restore Tarquin 
to his throne. At first successful, he 
would have entered the gates of Rome 
had not Horatius Coccles stood at the 
head of a bridge and resisted the fury 
of the whole Etrurian army, while hi 
companions behind were cutting off the 
communication with the opposite 
shore. This act of bravery astonished 
Porsenna ; but when he had seen Mu- 
tius Scsevola, who had entered his 
camp with the intention of murdering 
him, burn his hand without emotion, 
to convince him of his fortitude, he no 
longer dared to make head against so 
brave a people. He made a peace with 
the Romans, and never after sapported 
the claims of Tarquin. 




PORCUPINE: HYSTRIX CRISTATA. 

Port, a harbor, natural or artificial ; 
into which vessels can enter, and in 
which they can lie in safety from 
storms. In law, a place appointed for 
the passage of travelers and merchan- 
dise into or out of the United States; 
a place frequented by vessels for the 
purpose of loading or discharging car- 

, and provided with the apparatus 
necessary to enable them to do so. 



'Port 



Porter 



Port, a species of red wine, pro- 
duced chiefly in the mountainous dis- 
tricts of Portugal, and shipped from 
Oporto. 

Port Arthur, Lushwankau, or 
Lushunku, a former naval station of 
China, with a fine narrow-mouthed 
harbor at the end and on the E. side 
of the peninsula jutting S. W. from 
Manchuria, opposite Chifu, strongly 
fortified ; formerly the headquarters of 
the N. fleet of China. It was taken 
by the Japanese in 1894, and was re- 
stored to China by coercion of Euro- 
pean powers. On Dec. 19, 1897, a 
Russian fleet occupied Port Arthur 
with China's consent, the pretext be- 
ing that the ships would simply winter 
there. On Jan. 28, 1898, Port Arthur 
was ceded to Russia. At the break- 
ing out of the Russo-Japanese War in 
1904, Port Arthur was immediately 
assMed by the Japanese, and the Rus- 
sian fleet in the harbor so effectually 
blocked that is was of no use to the 
Rusians during the conflict. It was 
isolated on May 14, 1904. after a siege 
la&ting 232 d^ys ; surrendered January 
2, 1905, by the Russians to the Japa- 
nese General Stoessel to General Nogi. 

Port Arthur Ship Canal, an 
artificial waterway in Texas. The 
small town of Port Arthur is situated 
on Sabine Lake, a body of water 3 
miles long and 10 miles wide, which 
marks the boundary of Texas and Lou- 
isiana. Seven and one-half miles from 
Port Arthur Sabine Lake narrows 
into a long channel called Sabine 
Pass. This channel is from 26 to 40 
feet deep and extends for 7 miles to 
the S., terminating at the Gulf of 
Mexico. At the outer end of the pass 
is a bar which has been pierced by a 
channel formed by extending for a mile 
or more from shore two jetties of 
piled stone, built by the United States 
government. 

Port-au-Prince, the capital of 
Haiti, situated on the W. coast at 
.the head of a bay of the same name. 
Pop. about 50,000. 

Portcullis, a strong defensive 
framework of timber, hung in grooves 
within the chief gateway of a fortress, 
or a castle, or an edifice of safety. 

Porte, Ottoman, or Sublime 
Porte, the common term for the Turk- 
ish government. 



Porter, David, an American naval 
officer; born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 1, 
1780, the son of a naval officer who 
fought through the Revolutionary 
War. He was appointed midshipman 
in 1798, and lieutenant the year after; 
saw service against privateers in the 
West Indies, and against Tripoli itt 
1801-1803; became captain in 1812, 
and captured the first British war- 
ship taken in the war. In 1813, with 
the " Essex " he nearly destroyed the 
English whale fishery in the Pacific, 
and took possession of the Marquesas 
Islands ; but in March, 1814, his frig- 
ate was destroyed by the British in 
Valparaiso Harbor, and Porter re- 
turned home on parole. He afterward 
commanded an expedition against pi- 
rates in the West Indian waters, and 
was court-rnartialed for compelling 
the authorities of Porto Rico to 
apologize for imprisoning one of his 
officers. Porter resigned in 1826, and 
was for a time at the head of the 
Mexican navy. In 1829 the United 
States appointed him consul-general 
to the Barbary States, and then min- 
ister at Constantinople, where he 
died March 3, 1843. 

Porter, David Dixon, an Ameri- 
can naval officer; born in Chester, Pa., 
June 8, 1813; son of Commodore Da- 
vid Porter. He entered the navy as 
midshipman in 1829; was employed in 
1836 to 1841 in the survey of the 
coast of the United States; in 1841 ap- 
pointed as lieutenant to the frigate 
" Congress," and employed four years 
on the Mediterranean and Brazil sta- 
tions; in 1845 was transferred to the 
National Observatory at Washington, 
and during the Mexican War to the 
naval rendezvous at New Orleans; 
again to the coast survey, and from 
1849 to 1853 engaged in command of 
the California mail steamers. At the 
commencement of the Civil War ha 
was appointed with the rank of com- 
mander, to the steam sloop-of-war 
" Powhatan " ; distinguishing himself 
in the capture of New Orleans, and 
commanded the gunboat and ^ mortar 
flotilla which cooperated with tha 
squadron of Admiral Farragut in the 
first attack on Vicksburg. In the 
fail of 1862 he was placed in command 
of all the naval forces on the W. riv- 
ers above New Orleans, with the rank 
of rear-admiral. At the termination ot 



Porter 

the war appointed superintendent of 
the United States Naval Academy, 
Annapolis. He was made vice-admiral 
in 1866, and in 1870 became admiral. 
He died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 
13, 1891. 

Porter, Fitz-Jonn, an American 
military officer ; born in Portsmouth, 
N. H., June 13, 1822; was graduated 
at the United States Military Acade- 
my in 1845 ; served in the Mexican 
War. In 1861 was appointed colonel 
of the loth U. S. Infantry. For an 
alleged disobedience at the second bat- 
tle of Bull Run, Aug. 29, 1862, Por- 
'ter was court-martialed, and on Jan. 
El, 1863, was cashiered. In 1878 a 
trial was granted, and the court rec- 
ommended that the former sentence be 
reversed, and that he be restored to 
his former rank in the army, but no 
decisive action was taken. New evi- 
dence came to light, General Grant 
affirming that Porter had been un- 
justly treated, and a bill was intro- 
duced in Congress providing for his 
reinstatement. In 1886 the bill passed 
both Houses, and became a law by the 
signature of the President. He died 
in New York city May 21, 1901. 

Porter, Horace, an American mili- 
tary officer and diplomatist ; born in 
Huntingdon, Pa., April 15, 1837 ; son 
of David R. Porter, who became gov- 
ernor of the State. After a year in 
the scientific department of Harvard 
University he entered th United 
States Military Academy. His grad- 
uation took place in 1860. After a 
brief space as instructor in artillery at 
West Point, he was assigned to duty 
in the Department of the East. He 
served through the Civil War, becom- 
ing brevet Brigadier-General. When 
General Grant became Secretary of 
War General Porter became the assist- 
ant secretary, and during his chief's 
service as President acted as private 
secretary. General Porter then went 
into business and was exceedingly suc- 
cessful. The completion of the Grant 
monument was chiefly due to him. 
From 1897-1905 he was U. S. Am- 
bassador to France, and instituted the 
search and recovery of the body of 
Paul Jones (q. v.)- He published 
"Campaigning with Grant" (1897). 

Porter, James Davis, born in 
Paris, Tenn., Dec. 7, 1828; was grad- 
uated at tiie University of Nashville 



"Port Hudson 

in 1840 ; admitted to the bar in 1850 ; 
member of the Tennessee Legislaturo 
in 1859-1861; judge of the 12th Judi- 
cial Circuit in 1870-1874 ; governor of 
Tennessee in 1874-1878; United 
States assistant-secretary of State in> 
1885-1889; and United States minis- 
ter to Chile in 1893-1897. 

Porter, Jane, an English author; 
born in Durham, England, in 1776; 
daughter of an army-surgeon who died 
soon after her birth. She was brought 
up at Edinburgh and in London, and 
made a great reputation in 1803 by 
her high flown romance, " Thaddeus of 
Warsaw," which was distanced in its 
kind in 1810 by "The Scottish Chiefs." 
She died in Bristol, England, May 24, 
1850. 

Porter, John Addison, an Amer- 
ican journalist ; born in New Haven, 
Conn., April 17, 1856. He was editor 
of the Hartford " Post." President 
McKinley appointed him " secretary 
to the President " an office that was 
created to replace the misnamed post 
of the " private secretary " at the 
White House. He died in Putnam, 
Conn., Dec. 15, 1900. 

Porter, Moan, an American educa- 
tor ; born in Farmington, Conn., Dec. 
14, 1811. In 1846 he was appointed 
Professor of Metaphysics at Yale Uni- 
versity ; and was president of that in- 
stitution from 1871 to 1885. He died 
in New Haven, Conn., March 4, 1892. 

Porter, Robert P., an American 
statistician; born in Norfolk, Eng- 
land, Jan. 30, 1852; settled in the 
United States in 1867, and soon after- 
ward engaged in journalism ; was for 
a while superintendent of the llth 
census; and was a special United 
States commissioner to Cuba and Por- 
to Rico in 1898-1899. 

Porter, Rufns, an American in- 
ventor ; born in West Roxford, Mass., 
May 1, 1792; died 1884. Devised 
a thermo-engine, rotary-engine, etc. 
Founded " The Scientific American." 

Port Hudson, a village of Louisi- 
ana, on the Mississippi, 135 miles 
above New Orleans. A Confederate 
strategical stronghold, it was besieged 
by Admiral Farragut and General 
Banks, but resisted all assaults from 
Mar. 14, to July 7, 1863, when the 
surrender at Vicksburg led to its 
capitulation. 






Fort Huron 



Porto Rico 



Port Huron, city ; capital of Clair 
Co., Mich., on Lake Huron, it the 
head of St. Clair River, 60 miles N. 
E. of Detroit. It has important ship- 
building, lumber, machinery and other 
works, and a large trade. Pop. (1900) 
10,200; (1910) 18,863. 

Portland, city, port of entry, and 
capital of Cumberland county, Me.; 
on Casoo bay and the Maine Cen- 
tral railroad; 100 miles N. E. of 
Boston; is the largest and most im- 
portant city in the State; has an ex- 
cellent harbor, protected by a mas- 
sive breakwater; contains National 
fortifications, Government Building, 
and Marine Hospital, Maine General 
Hospital, Longfellow homestead, 
Portland School for the Deaf, Maine 
Historical Society, and many other 
buildings of note; and has large 
manufacturing and coastwise and 
foreign trade interests. Pop. (1910) 
58,571. 

Portland, city and port of entry, 
and capital of Multnomah county, 
Or.; on the Willamette river and the 
Northern and Southern Pacific rail- 
roads; 530 miles N. of San Fran- 
cisco; has large trade with Great 
Britain, the Philippines, China, 
Japan, Hawaii, and South American 
countries, in flour, grain, lumber, 
fish, and wool; contains Portland 
University, Medical and Law Schools 
of the State University, Good Sa- 
maritan, Portland, and St. Vincent's 
hospitals, Bishop Scott and St. 
Helen's schools, and St. Michael's 
College; was the site of the Lewis 
and Clark Exposition in 1905. Pop. 
(1910) 207,214. 

Porto Rico, a West Indian island; 
SO miles E. of Haiti; 3,600 square 
miles; pop. (1910) 1,118,012; capital, 
San Juan, metropolis, Ponce. Under 
the Spanish-American peace treaty 
the island was formally transferred to 
the United States' on Oct. 18, 1898. 
The Spanish form of the name of the 
island is Puerto Rico; but an Act of 
the United States Congress approved 
April 12, 1900, established the oflacial 
form as Porto Rico. While there is 
a great amount of wealth in the 
island, and in many places evidences 
Of great prosperity, rich plantations, 
and promise of a great future for 
Porto Rico, throughout the inte- 



rior of the island the people are poor 
and their homes are of the poorest 
character, consisting almost altogether 
of " shacks " constructed of the palm 
and covered with a straw thatch or 
palm leaves. Into the cities and these 
homes is crowded a large popu- 
lation, variously estimated from 
800,000 to 1,000,000. They are gen- 
erally a peaceful and law-abiding 
people, and while there is unques- 
tionably some lawlessness, and some 
small offenses are being committed, 
they do not exceed, if they equal, 
the number being committed in 
the States of a like population. It 
has been estimated that from 10 to 
20 per cent, only of the people can 
read and write. The people are anx- 
ious to have their children educated, 
and are exceedingly solicitous for the 
establishment of public schools. There 
is no starvation upon the island, and 
while there is great poverty in many 
places, there can not be any real 
starvation in Porto Rico, for the rea- 
son that the people live frugally and 
are content with little, while the soil 
and the climate are so productive of 
many of the simple necessaries of life 
that it would be almost impossible to 
starve a people who live upon tropical 
fruits and tropical vegetable produc- 
tions. 

Vegetables of all kinds known to our 
climate grow in abundance. Irish po- 
tatoes are not a success. There are 
no plums, cherries, or grapes. It 
would seem that there would be no 
difficulty in growing grapes, but so 
far they have not been tried. Indian 
corn is raised with some success, and 
while the ears are small, that is made 
up by the fact that two and even 
three crops can be grown yearly on the 
same ground. This can be grown either 
in the valleys or on the hillsides. No 
wheat is grown on the island. At 
present all flour is imported. 

The native grasses grow luxuriantly 
wherever an opportunity offers, from 
the lowest valley to the highest moun- 
tain top, and afford excellent pasture 
for stock everywhere all the months of 
the year. They make no hay, but out 
it with sickles or the machete and 
tie it in small bundles, pack it on 
ponies to the cities, and sell it while 
it is still green. The cattle grazing 
in large numbers on the pastures are 



Port Said 

found all over the island, and are most- 
ly in very good condition, making ex- 
cellent beef. Hogs are raised to a 
limited extent, but are of poor breeds, 
being of the old " razor-back " vari- 
ety. They are fed mainly from the 
jiuts grown on the royal palm trees. 
Horses are plentiful. They are small, 
and used only to ride and as pack 
ponies and in carriages. The hard 
work of hauling loads and ploughing 
the land is done with oxen, yoked in 
the Spanish fashion by tying the 
yoke to the horns, and they are guided 
with a whip or " gad." The wagons 
are mostly two-wheeled carts with 
large wooden axles. 

There seems to be a considerable de- 
posit of iron and copper on the is- 
land. In some places these are being 
developed with good prospects of prov- 
ing paying investments. Traces of 
gold and silver are also found in the 
mountains, but up to date prospecting 
has not developed any considerable 
quantities of these more precious 
metals. 

Soon after the surrender of San- 
tiago de Cuba to the American forces 
under General Shafter, July 17, 1898, 
an army numbering 16,973 men was 
sent from Guantanamo to Porto Rico 
to take possession of that island. They 
landed July 25, at Quanica, 15 miles 
W. of Ponce. Lieutenant Haines, 
commanding the marines, went ashore 
and raised the American flag over the 
custom house, amid the cheers of the 
people. General Wilson was the first 
army officer to land, and was wel- 
comed with cheers and a serenade. A 
portion of the army marched toward 
the capital, San Juan, but were 
stoppped when about half way by 
the suspension of hostilities between 
the belligerent powers. On Oct. 18 
the island was formally surrendered 
to the United States in the city of San 
Juan. 

In 1899 a census of the island was 
taken under the direction of the Unit- 
ed States War Department, which by 
departments gave the following. Agu- 
adillo, 99,645 ; Arecibo, 162,308 ; Bay- 
amon, 160,046; Guayamo, 111,986; 
Humacao, 88.501; Mayaguez, 127,566 
and Ponce, 203,191 total for the is- 
land, 953,243. The island has pros- 
pered greatly under American rule, 
and is fast becoming Americanized. 



Portugal 

Port Said, a town of Egypt, on 
the W. side of the Suez Canal, on a 
desolate strip of land between Lake 
Menzaleh and the Mediterranean. 
The place owes its origin to the Suez 
Canal, and depends wholly on the 
canal trade. 

Portsmouth, city and capital of 
Norfolk county, Va.; on the Eliza- 
beth river and the Seaboard Air Line 
and other railroads; opposite Norfolk; 
has a harbor accessible to the largest 
vessels; contains a National Marine 
Hospital, Marine Barracks, and, in 
the Gosport suburb, the Norfolk 
navy-yard. Pop. (1910) 33,190. 

Portsmouth, the principal station 
of the British navy, a seaport, mu- 
nicipal and parliamentary borough 
of England, in Hampshire, on the S. 
W. extremity of the island of Port- 
sea. The royal dockyard covers an 
araa of about 500 acres and contains 
a Royal Navy College. Pop. 189,160. 

Portsmouth, Treaty of, signed 
at Portsmouth, N. H., Sept. 5, 1905, 
ended the Russo-Japanese War and 
embodied 15 articles and annexes. 
Its main points were the cession of 
half of Saghalin to Japan and Ja- 
pan's sovereignty over Korea. 

Portugal, a former kingdom of 
Europe; since Oct. 5, 1910, a repub- 
lic; bounded by Spain and the At- 
lantic; area, 35,490 sq. miles; pop. 
5.687.627. 

The country generally inclines from 
N. E. to S. W. Several of the great 
mountain chains of Spain intersect it 
from E. to W. and terminate in large 
promontories in the Atlantic. The 
principal rivers are the Tagus, the 
Douro, the Minho, and the Guadiana. 
These all enter the country from 
Spain, and flow W. to the Atlantic 
Ocean. The climate is healthy, ex- 
cept in the vicinity of salt marshes. 

The principal agricultural produc- 
tions are : wheat, barley, oats, flax, 
hemp, vines, and maize in the elevated 
tracts; rice in the low grounds, with 
olives, oranges, lemons, citrons, figs, 
and almonds. Silk is made of a very 
good quality. There are extensive 
forests of oak in the N., chestnut in 
the center, and the sea pine and cork 
in the S. Cattle, sheep, goats, and 
swine are numerous, and fish abound 
in the rivers and on the coasts. Iron 
mines are worked, and the mountains 



Portugal 



Positive Philosophy 



abound in fine marble, and contain 
traces of gold and silver. Oi salt, large 
quantities are formed in bays along 
the coast, by natural evaporation. 
There are numerous salt marshes, and 
upward of 200 mineral PM rings. The 
manufactures are limited. Cotton 
spinning is followed, and paper, glass, 
and gunpowder are made in a few 
places. 

The exports consist almost entirely 
of wine, salt and wool ; imports, chief- 
ly corn, flour, fish, woolens, linen, cot- 
ton, lace, hardware, hats, shoes, and 
stockings. The state religion is the 
Roman Catholic ; but all others are 
tolerated. The government is a limit- 
ed monarchy. The national assembly 
is called the Cortes, and consists of a 
House of Deputies and a House of 
Peers. 

Portugal forms the greater part of 
ancient Lusitania. It was subjugated 
by the Romans, in the time of Augus- 
tus, and had been made into a prov- 
ince. In the 5th century, on the over- 
throw of the Roman supremacy, Por- 
tugal was invaded by the Alans and 
Visigoths, and suffered with Spain, of 
which it was then a part, all the trou- 
bles and vicissitudes endured by the 
jnhabitants of the peninsula till the 
8th century, at which time the Arabs, 
called indifferently Saracens or Moors, 
possessed themselves of the whole of 
Portugal, and kept absolute dominion 
for nearly 400 years. In the 12th 
century, Don Alonzo Henriquez, a 
Spanish prince of Leon and Castile, 
gained a great victory over the Moors 
of Portugal, and carried out his mili- 
tary operations with such success that 
his troops hailed him with one voice 
as king. He renounced all dependence 
on Spain, politically separated his new 
kingdom from all connection or author- 
ity with the Spanish crown, and es- 
tablished a free and sovereign state. 

Under the descendants of Don Alon- 
EO I., especially Dennis I. and Alonzo 
IV., Portugal, during the next two 
centuries, rose in political importance 
and commercial prosperity. In 1385, 
the King of Castile having laid claim 
to the crown of Portugal on the death 
of Ferdinand, was opposed and de- 
feated by Don John, Ferdinand's 
brother. Under John I. the Portu- 

Suese first projected those Atlantic 
iscoveries on the African coast, 



fraught with such territorial and com- 
mercial advantages to the nation ; and, 
under John II. and Emanuel, between- 
1481 and 1521, Vasco da Gama ex- 
plored the Indian Ocean; and Brazil 
was added to the possessions of the- 
crown of Portugal. Sebastian III., 
fired with a holy zeal to exterminate- 
the infidels from his country, com- 
menced a sanguinary crusade against 
the Moors, which he carried on through; 
such defeats that he eventually lost 
both his crown and life in the strug- 
gle. Henry the Cardinal, his uncle, 
an old man of 70, ascended the throne, 
but died without heirs, after a reign of 
only two years, in 1580. 

With Henry terminated the male- 
line, after enduring for 460 years. 
Spain once more laid claim to the va- 
cant throne, and Portugal again be- 
came a dependency of the Spanish, 
crown. After enduring 60 years of 
intolerable hardships and exactions, a 
Portuguese nobleman named John, 
Duke of Braganza, excited a revolu- 
tion, which again broke the Spanish* 
fetters, while the people hailed their 
deliverer as their king. He was- 
crowned as John IV., and commenced 
the existing dynasty of the House 
of Braganza. In October, 1889, Carlo* 
I. succeeded to the throne. He was- 
assassinated Feb. 1, 1908, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Manuel II., who 
was dethroned Oct. 5, 1910. 

Portuguese East Africa. S.ee- 
EAST AFRICA, PORTUGUESE. 

Fortulaca, purslane ; low. succu- 
lent herbs with flat or cylindrical 
leaves, and yellow, purplish, or rose- 
colored ephemeral flowers. 

Positive Philosophy, the system' 
of philosophy outlined by Auguste- 
Comte in his " Philosophic Positive," 
the sixth and last volume of which 
was published in 1842. It is the out- 
come of the Law of the Three Stage* 
and is based on the positive sciences, 
taken in the following series : mathe- 
matics (number, geometry, mechanics), 
astronomy, physics, chemistry, biolo- 
gy, and sociology. It relinquishes at- 
tempts to transcend the sphere of ex- 
perience, and seeks to establish by 
observation and induction laws or con- 
stant relations, and resigns itself _to 
ignorance of the agents. In the opin- 
ion of its founder it is capable of be- 



Positive Society 



Post Mortem 



ing developed into a religion and a 
polity. 

Positive Society, a society found- 
ed in Paris in 1848, by Comte, in the 
hope that it might exert as powerful 
an influence over the revolution as the 
Jacobin Club had exerted in 1789. 
In this he was disappointed, but the 
disciples who gathered around him 
were the germ of the Positivist 
Church. 

Positivism, the religion of Hu- 
manity, developed from the positive 
philosophy, and claiming to be a syn- 
thesis of all human conceptions of 
the external order of the universe. 
Its professed aim, both in public 
and private life, is to secure the vic- 
tory of social feeling over self love, 
of altruism over egotism. 

Post, George Browne, an Ameri- 
can architect; born in New York city; 
studied with Richard M. Hunt; de- 
signed numerous private residences 
and public buildings; and became 
president of the American Institute 
of Architects, National Art Club, and 
American Society of Civil Engineers. 

Postal Savings Banks, a sys- 
tem for saving money by the deposit 
of small amounts, established by sev- 
eral European Governments, and au- 
thorized by the United States Con- 
gress in 1910, as a branch of the 
Post-office Department. The system 
had long been urged in the United 
States, and the annual report of the 
British postal savings banks for 1908 
had much effect on Congress. That 
report showed for the United King- 
dom a total of 18.379,991 deposits, 
aggregating $217,877,011, and a total 
of $781,794,533 to the credit of 11,- 
018,251 depositors. Deposits at post- 
offices and other designated stations 
of from 10 cents to $1 are repre- 
sented by stamps; of from $1 to $50, 
by certificates in duplicate, punched 
to indicate the amount, one being 
retained by the postmaster or agent, 
the other by the depositor. The sys- 
tem went into operation Jan. 1. 1911. 
Postal Service, the regulation 
of communication between different 
parts of a country, or different coun- 
tries, including especially the for- 
warding and delivering of letters, 
newspapers and small packages, and 
the establishment of a registry sys- 



tem for the transfer of money and 
the transaction of other financial 
business. In some countries the use 
of the telephone and the telegraph 
forms a part of the postal service. 

Though the conveyance of letters is 
the primary work of the postoffice, 
many other branches of business have 
been assumed by it. The word "post" 
has its particular application from 
the posts, or stages, at which on the 
roads of the Roman empire couriers 
were maintained for the purpose of 
conveying news and dispatches. 

Under the terms of a treaty con- 
cluded at Berne, Oct. 9, 1874, the 
object of which was to secure uniform^ 
ity in the treatment of correspondence, 
and the simplification of accounts, 
as well as the reduction of rates with- 
in certain limits, and whose provisions 
were carried into operation generally 
July 1, 1875, the whole of Europe, 
the United States, Egypt, British In- 
dia, and all the colonies of France 
were at the outset, or shortly there- 
after, included in the union and many 
other countries and colonies have since 
joined it. The international accounts 
in respect of postages are based on a 
month's return of correspondence tak- 
en every third year. 

At the present time the postal estab- 
lishment of the United States is the 
freatest business concern in the world, 
t handles more pieces, employs more 
men, spends more money, brings more 
revenue, uses more agencies, reaches 
more homes, involves more details and 
touches more interests than any other 
human organization, public or pri- 
vate, governmental or corporate. 
Though the postal service of England, 
France, and Germany includes the tel- 
egraph, the postal business of the 
United States surpasses the service of 
any of those countries. 

Since Cuba, Porto Rico, and the 
Philippines have come under the au- 
thority of the United States, it has 
become necessary to reconstruct the 
mail system in those islands, and al- 
ready a vast improvement has been 
made in the service. 

Post Mortem, after death, as a 
post mortem examination, i. e., one 
made after the death of a person, in 
order to ascertain the cause of death 
either in the interests of science, or 
for the ends of justice. 



r/GURS /N STATES PEPfiESEMT PP.ODL/CT/ON /N THOUSANDS OF BUSHELS 




POTATOES 

PRODUCT/ON 1911 
THOUSANDS OF BUSHELS 



IN JTATEf fiEPfiEJENT PRODUCTION IN THOUJANDJ Of BUT/fELT 




JMr POTATOES AHDYA 

PRODUCTION /909 

THOUSANDS OT 6UfHLf 



UNITED STATES 

iS.232 THOUJAMD 
BUffifLT 



Post Ofcit 

Post Obit, a bond given as security 
for the repayment of a sum of money 
to a lender on the death of some 
specified person, from whom the bor- 
rower has expectations. Such loans 
in almost every case carry high, if not 
usurious, rates of interest, and gen- 
erally the borrower binds himself to 
pay a much larger sum than he re- 
ceiyes, in consideration of the risk 
which the lender runs in case of the 
borrower dying before the person from 
whom he has expectations. 

Postoffice Department, one of 
the executive departments of the Unit- 
ed States government ; established in 
1794. It is under the management of 
the Postmaster-General, who since the 
time of Andrew Jackson, has been a 
member of the President's Cabinet. 
He is appointed by the President and 
confirmed by the Senate. The depart- 
ment is divided into four great bu- 
reaus each under the immediate charge 
of an assistant postmaster-general. The 
first assistant's bureau has charge of 
the large clerical and carrier forces 
and all the matters of actual manage- 
ment. It supervises an annual expen- 
diture of more than $40,000.000. The 
bureau of the second assistant has the 
immense task of providing for the 
transportation of the mails at a year- 
ly-cost of $35,000,000. That of the 
third assistant looks after the finan- 
cial side, furnishes the stamps, 
and keeps the accounts. The fourth 
assistant has charge of the appoint- 
ment of 75,000 postmasters and di- 
rects the force of inspectors. The 
United States postoffice department, 
unlike that of Great Britain, is car- 
ried on at a loss; this is due to the 
large amount of postal matter of cer- 
tain classes carried at less than the 
cost of conveyance and distribution. 
The greatest revenue in a single year 
has reached $203,562.383; and the 
greatest expenditure, $221,004,102. 

Postulate, a position, supposition, 
or proposition assumed without proof, 
as being self-evident or too plain to 
require proof or illustration ; a thing 
assumed for the purpose of future rea- 
soning; an assumption. In geometry, 
the enunciation of a self-evident prob- 
lem. It differs from an axiom, which 
is the enunciation of a self-evident 
proposition. The axiom is more gen- 
eral than the postulate. 



Potomac 

Potash, a term applied to the hy- 
drate of potassium, either in the liquid 
or solid state, but sometimes used to 
denote potassium oxide and also crude 
carbonate of potassium. Potash salts 
are essential constituents in the hu- 
man body, but if, when wasted, they' 
are supplied directly to the blood they 
are very poisonous. 

Potassium, a monad metallic ele-. 
ment, very widely diffused through, 
the vegetable, mineral and animal 
kingdoms. It usually exists in com-- 
bination with inorganic and organ- 
ic acids, and, when its organic salts 
are burned, they are resolved into car- % 
bonate, from which all the other salts " 
of potassium can be prepared. It may 
be obtained by electrolysis, but is now 
produced in large quantity by distill- 
ing in an iron retort an intimate mix- 
ture of charcoal and carbonate of po-' 
tassium, a condition readily obtained 
by igniting crude tartar in a covered 
crucible. 

Potato, a well-known cultivated 
plant, the tubers of which are eaten. 
It is a native of Chile and Peru. Many 
varieties are grown, differing in earli- 
ness, form, size, color, etc. 

The production in the United States 
has reached over 376,500,000 bushels, 
from over 3,500,000 acres, valued at 
upward of $206,500,000. the most 
productive States being New York, 
Michigan, Maine, and Wisconsin, in 
the order given. 

Potato Fly, a dipterous insect of 
the same genus with the radish fly, 
cabbage fly, turnip fly. In its perfect 
state it is very like the house fly. The 
maggots are often abundant in bad 
potatoes in autumn, and are different 
from the maggots of the house fly, 
being horny, spiny, bristly, and tawny ; 
the long tail ending in six long bris- 
tles. The pupa is very like the larva. 
The potato-frog fly and the caterpillar 
of the death's head moth feed on the 
leaves and stems of potatoes, but rare- 
ly do serious damage. 

Potomac, a river of the United 
States, formed by two branches which 
rise in the Allegheny Mountains in 
West Virginia, and unite 15 miles S. 
E. of Cumberland, Md., from which 
point the river flows in a generally 
S. E. course 400 miles, and falls into 
Chesapeake Bay, after forming an 
estuary nearly 100 miles long, and 



Potomac 

from 2% to 7 miles wide. The largest 
ships can ascend to Washington. The 
Potomac forms the greater part of the 
boundary between Virginia and Mary- 
land. 

Potomac, Army of the. The 
Union forces which operated in Vir- 
ginia in the Civil War were known as 
the "Army of the Potomac." It was 
organized by Gen. George B. McClellan 
in 1861, and served under him in the 
Peninsular campaign and later in that 
of Antietam. General Burnside took 
command in 1862, and General Hooker 
in 1863. General Meade was in com- 
mand when the victory at Gettysburg 
was won, in July, 1863, and con- 
tinued in charge during General 
Grant's operations in 1864-1865. 

Potomac, Society of the Army 
of the, a military organization found- 
ed in New York, July 5, 1869, and has 
held annual reunions since that date. 
All officers and soldiers who served in 




AEMY OF THE POTOMAC BADGE. 

the Army of the Potomac and in the 
10th and 18th Army Corps, Army of 
the James, are eligible to membership. 
Pottawattamies, a tribe of Ameri- 
can Indians, belonging to the Algon- 
quin stock. The early French settlers 
established a mission among them 



Pottery 

at Green Bay, and to this day many 
of them are Roman Catholics. They 
sided with the English during the Rev- 
olutionary War and in the War of 
1812, and afterward settled in Kan- 
sas. They now number about 1,200. 

Potter, Henry Co dm an, an 
American clergyman ; born in Schenec- 
tady, N. Y., May 25, 1835. Educated 
in theology in Virginia, he became rec- 
tor of Grace Church, New York city, 
in 1868 ; and was consecrated Protest- 
ant Episcopal bishop of New York 
in 1887. His works include : " Gates 
of the East : A Winter in Egypt and 
Syria " ; " Sermons of the City " ; 
" Waymarks " ; etc. He was widely 
known and esteemed for his efforts to 
improve the condition of the people. 
He died July 21, 1908. 

Potter, Paul, a celebrated Dutch 
painter of animals ; born at Enkhui- 
sen in 1625 ; died at Amsterdam in 
1654. He received his first instruction 
in art from his father, Pieter Potter 
(1587-1655), a painter of some note. 
He devoted himself specially to the 
study of animals, producing his first- 
signed picture, " The Herdsman," in 
1643. His works are highly esteemed. 
His coloring is brilliant, and the sep- 
arate parts are delicately executed, 
yet without stiffness or mannerism. 

Pottery, the art of forming vessels 
or utensils of any sort in clay. This 
art is of high antiquity, being prac- 
tised among various races in prehis- 
toric times. 

The most celebrated wares of differ- 
ent times and countries are distin- 
guished by distinctive names ; as, Ma- 
jolica-ware, Sevres, Chelsea, Palissy, 
etc.; and of these, the latter the 
work of Bernard de Palissy, who lived 
in the 16th century deserves some 
special attention. Palissy, having re- 
solved to discover a method of enam- 
elling stoneware, succeeded, after lt> 
years' efforts, and proceeded to manu- 
facture pottery characterized by a pe- 
culiar style and many singular quali- 
ties. It is not decorated with flat 
painting, but with figures and orna- 
ments, which are generally pure in 
form, and are all executed in relief and 
colored. The most remarkable of the 
works of Palissy are his " Pieces rus- 
tiques," a designation given by him to 
dishes ornamented with fishes, snakes, 
frogs, crayfish, lizards, shells, and 



Potts 

plants, admirably true to nature in 
form and color. Palissy ware may be 
distinguished from imitations by the 
fact that Palissy molded only the fos- 
sil shells, reptiles, and plants of Par- 
is, while his imitators introduced re- 
cent shells and other objects of natu- 
ral History. 

In the United States the highest 
annual production value was reached 
in 1906, when the total of all prod- 
ucts was ,$31,440,884, white and 
porcelain ware leading. 

Potts, William, an American 
author; born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
May 5, 1838. For many years he was 
secretary and vice-president of the Na- 
tional Civil Service League. He was 
chief examiner of the Civil Service 
Commission of New York State in 
18^7. He published a volume of na- 
ture studies, " From a New England 
Hillside," and a Sunday-school ser- 
vice book, " Noblesse Oblige," etc. 
He is also the author of numerous 
pamphlets. 

Pottstown, a borough in Mont- 
gomery county, Pa.; on the Schuyl- 
kill river and canal, Manatawny 
creek, and the Pennsylvania and 
other railroads; 18 miles S. B. of 
Reading; is chiefly engaged in the 
manufacture of pig andi structural 
iron, with extensive accessories; also 
has planing, flour, silk, hosiery, and un- 
derwear mills, cigar factories, and pork- 
packing plant. Pop. (1910) 15,599. 

Pottsville, borough and capital 
of Schuylkill county, Pa.; on the 
Schuylkill river and canal, Nor- 
wegian creek, and the Philadelphia 
& Reading and other railroads; 93 
miles N. W. of Philadelphia; is one 
of the greatest coal-shipping centers 
in the State: and has large iron, 
steel, and brass works, railroad 
shops, and silk, flour, and lumber 
mills. Pop. (1910) 20.236. 

Poughkeepsie, city and capital 
of Dutchess county, N. Y.; on. the 
Hudson river and several railroads; 
75 miles N. of New York city; has 
a noted $5.000.000 cantilever railroad 
bridge across the river, daily steam- 
boat connection with Albany and 
New York city, and important manu- 
fnctures; is the seat of Vassar Col- 
lege, Hudson River Hospital for the 
Insane, and numerous Homes; was 
settled by. the Dutch in 1690; State 



Poultry 

capital during the Revolution. Pop. 
(19rO) 27,936. 

Ppulpe, a genus of Cephalopoda, 
having eight feet or arms, nearly 
equal, united at the base by a mem- 
brane, and very long in proportion 
to the body. Poulpes swim by con- 
tractions of the muscular web of the 
body, which extends upon the arms. 
They creep on shore in a spider-like 
manner, with sprawling arms. 

Poultry. American poultry include 
several classes of breeds, among them 
the general utility, or American -barn- 
yard fowl; the egg-producing, or 
Mediterranean; and the flesh-making, 
or Asiatic types. 

The chief of the general utility fowls 
are the handsome, compact Plymouth 
Rocks, those barred in black and white 
being the most common, although 
white and buff are known. They are 
famous for their hardiness; quick- 
ness of growth; steady production of 
light brown eggs; quick maturity in- 
to well-fleshed chickens; and their gen- 
eral tractability and business-like 
methods of foraging, sitting and the 
like. Wyandottes, including the white, 
silver-laced and Columbian varieties, 
compete with the Plymouth Rocks. 
The White Wyandottes are favorites 
in farmyards, being hardy fowls, ma- 
turing quickly into small, plump 
broilers and roasters, with the popu- 
lar yellow skins, and are early and 
steady egg-layers. The large Rhode 
Island Reds, a somewhat new breed, 
gorgeous in black and scarlet, lay 
brown eggs very regularly, and also 
produce flesh; and, with the Orping- 
tons, particularly the buff variety, 
haying similarly good habits, are 
claimed to be in the highest rank of 
utility fowls. Javas and the high- 
crested Houdans are also said to be 
useful to the farmer. The latter is 
a favorite French breed, mottled 
black and white, laying many very 
large white eggs, even in winter, and 
of fine quality as a table fowl. 

The "fancy" Hamburgs, silver and 
gold, black and red and white, span- 
gled and laced and penciled, and most 
perfectly formed, are non-sitters; and 
the tall, iridescent, black Minorcas 
are recommended for prolific egg-lay- 
ing, thriving when in confinement in 
small runs. 

The Mediterranean type is repre 



Poultry 

sented by the small, active Leghorns, 
white and brown and buff in hue, fa- 
mous egg-layers even in winter, when 
sheltered in warm houses, and picking 
up much forage if given a free run. 

The Asiatic type is represented by 
the large, heavy and profusely feath- 
ered light and dark Brahmas, covered 
with rounded masses of feathers and 
with characteristic " pea-combs " ; by 
the buff, black and 'white Cochins, still 
more profusely feathered, even the 
shanks and feet being covered with 
plumage ; especially in the "Partridge" 
variety ; and by the tall, black Lang- 
shans. They are all excellent table- 
fowls, and .lay quite a number of eggs 
even in winter; and they are addicted 
to sitting, making good mothers. The 
chicks mature early, and have a large 
sale as broilers and roasters. Plump- 
breasted Dorkings are more valued in 
England than with us, the Americans 
preferring yellow legs and feet. 

The red and black game-chickens, 
formerly grown for fighting in the 
cock-pits, are still raised, the Modern 
Game, and various kinds of the Old 
English Black-breasted Reds and the 
Cornish Indian and Azeel, being ex- 
hibited. Game hens are excellent 
mothers and are magnificent table 
fowls. Speckled Guinea hens, having 
a game-like flavor, are frequently 
raised for the table. 

Bantams are miniatures of the 
standard breeds, the Buff Cochin Ban- 
tam being recommended for hatching 
gam- -bird's eggs ; the Japanese Ban- 
tam are quaint, little creatures with 
long, sickle-shaped tail-feathers, which 
are, however, not so exaggerated as 
those of the Yokohama cocks, which, 
like the silkies, birds with downy 
plumage, are grown occasionally for 
ornament. The gorgeous-hued pea- 
cocks and various kinds of pheasants, 
especially the Ring-necked, Golden, Sil- 
ver and Reeves pheasants, are raised 
for their beauty, and the latter for 
the game market. 

Pigeons, too, are an important 
branch of the poultry farm ; the 
Homer breed being the bird most 
' commonly used for squab raising, as 
its young reach the desired size very 
quickly. There are numerous fancy 
breeds, too, raised by the fanciers, as 
the Fantails, Pouters, Turbits and 
Tumblers. 

Bronze and Narragansett turkeys 
are the largest and the hardiest varie- 



Powderly 

ties, requiring a large range for their 
best development. The black and the 
white, or Holland breeds, being smaller 
and more domesticated. 

The large German white Embden 
goose, and the dark gray Toulouse 
breed of French origin, are favorite 
breeds of geese, although the Caftada 
and Chinese geese are also good. 

A Chinese duck, the white Pekin, is 
the favorite breed of this water-fowl, 
although the Rouen and Aylesbury 
types, and even Muscovy, Swedish and 
the Indian Runners, are grown. The 
charming little parti-colored Wood- 
ducks and Mandarin ducks are culti- 
vated for ornament. See also FOWL. 

Poussin, Gaspar, a French land- 
scape painter ; born in Rome, in 1613 ; 
died in 1675. His name was Dughet, 
but he adopted that of his teacher and 
brother-in-law, Nicolas Poussin. His 
paintings, distinguished by grandeur 
and somewhat sombre characteristics, 
are found in many European galleries. 

Poussin, Nicolas, distinguished 
French historical and landscape paint- 
er : born at Andelys, Normandy, in 
1594; died in Rome in 1665. His 
style is grand and heroic, and he had 
a fertile invention. He has been called 
the French Raphael. Among his cele- 
brated works are the " Seven Sacra- 
ments," the " Death of Germanicus," 
the " Capture of Jerusalem," " Moses 
bringing Water from the Rock," the 
"Worship of the Golden- Calf," "John 
Baptizing in the Wilderness," etc., and 
many fine landscapes. 

Pont, a young turkey ; often ap- 
plied to the young of other domestic 
fowls and of the grouse kind ; a sea- 
fish of the cod kind, so named from 
its power of inflating a membrane 
which covers the eyes and neighboring 
parts of the head. 

Powan, or Fresh-water Her- 
ring, fish distinctive to Loch Lomond, 
Scotland, although resembling the Pol- 
Ian of the Irish lakes. 

Powderly, Terence Vincent, an 
American lawyer ; born in Carbondale, 
Pa., Jan. 22, 1849. He was General 
Master- Workman of the Knights of 
Labor in 1879-1893; then he studied 
law ; and was admitted to the bar in 
1894. He was appointed United States 
commissioner 'general of immigration 
in 1897, and chief of Division of In- 
formation in Bureau of Immigration 



BARRED & BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCKS 




COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY F. E. WRIGHT. 



LEADING BREEDS 




F CHICKENS 



Powell 



Powers 



(to distribute immigrants throughout 
the country) in 1907. 

Powell, Baden, an English physi- 
cist ; born in London, Aug. 22, 1796 ; 
educated at Oriel College, Oxford; in 
1821 became vicar of Plumstead, and 
in 1824 was made F. R. S. From 
1827 till his death, he was Savilian 
Professor of Geometry at Oxford. He 
published a history of natural philoso- 
phy, treatises on the calculus, optics, 
and the undulatory theory of light, 
but he is best known by his contriba* 
tion on the evidences of Christianity 
to the " Essays and Reviews '' and by 
other theological works, regarded at 
the time as dangerously " liberal " in 
tendency. He died in London, June 
11, 1860. 

Powell, John Wesley, an Ameri- 
can geologist ; born in Mount Morris, 
N. Y., March 24, 1834. He was edu- 
cated at Oberlin College; was a lieu- 
tenant-colonel of artillery at the close 
of the Civil War; Professor of Geolo- 
gy in the Illinois Wesleyan University, 
1865 ; explored the canyon of the Col- 
orado river in 1867 and in 1870-1874. 
He was director of the United States 
Geological Survey in 1879-1896, and 
of the United States Bureau of Eth- 
nology after 1879. The special vol- 
umes of reports written by Major Pow- 
ell are : " Exploration of the Colora- 
do River in 1869-1872"; "Geology 
of the Uinta Mountains " ; " The Arid 
Regions of the United States " ; " In- 
troduction to Study of Indian Lan- 
guages " ; " Canyons of the Colorado," 
etc. He died Sept. 23, 1902. 

Powell, Thomas, an American au- 
thor ; born in London, England, Sept. 
3, 1809. For many years he was 
connected with the Frank Leslie pub- 
lications. He died in Newark, N. J., 
Jan. 13, 1887. 

Powelson, Wilfred van Nest, an 
American naval officer ; born in Mid- 
dletown, N. Y., Sept. 15, 1872; was 
graduated at the United States Naval 
Academy in 1893 ; was selected by the 
government to pursue a special course 
in naval architecture at the Univer- 
sity of Glasgow, served two years on 
the flagship " New York," and later 
on the " Fern." After the destruction 
of the " Maine " in Havana harbor 
he was appointed to investigate the 
disaster. His report showing that the 



" Maine " was sunk by an exploded 
mine was published and favorably 
commented on by many scientific pe- 
riodicals. He commanded the gun on 
the " St. Paul " which sank the " Ter- 
ror," a Spanish torpedo boat, near 
San Juan, Porto Rico; promoted lieu- 
tenant, 1901; retired, 1902. 

Power. In mechanics: (1) That 
which produces motion or force; that 
which communicates motion to bodies, 
changes the motion of bodies, 
or prevents the motion of bodies; a 
mechanical agent or power. (2) The 
moving force applied to overcome some 
force or resistance, to raise a weight, 
or produce other required effect; air, 
water, steam and animal strength are 
employed as powers. (3) The me- 
chanical effect or advantage produced 
by a machine. Force or effect consid- 
ered as resulting from the action of a 
machine. 

Powers, Hiram, an American 
sculptor ; bom in Woodstock, Vt., Julj 
29, 1805. In 1835 he went to Wash- 
ington, where he executed the busts 
of several distinguished persons. Two 
years later he was enabled to go to 
Italy to study his art, and he resided 
in Florence till his death. There he 
produced his statue of " Eve," which 
excited the admiration of Thorwald- 
sen, and in 1843 the still more popu- 
lar " Greek Slave," of which six cop- 
ies in marble, with cast copies in- 
numerable, were produced. , Among 
the other works the chief were 
" Proserpine," " II Penseroso," " Cal- 
ifornia," " America," and busts of 
Washington for the State of Louisi- 
ana, of Calhoun for South Carolina, 
and Daniel Webster for Boston, as 
well as those of John Q. Adams, An- 
drew Jackson, Marshall, Van Buren, 
and other distinguished Americans. He 
died in Florence, Italy, June 27, 1873. 

Powers, Horatio Nelson, an 
American poet ; born in Amenia, N. 
Y., April 30, 1826. He died in Pier- 
mont, N. Y., Sept 6, 1890. 

Powers, Le Grand, an American 
statistician ; born in Preston, N. Y., 
in 1874; was graduated at Iowa State 
University in 1872 ; commissioner of 
labor in Minnesota in 1891-1899 ; then 
became chief statistician of the llth 
Census, in charge of agriculture. 
Among his books are " Minnesota Bu< 



Praxiteles 

length is about four inches ; color 
bright gray, spotted and lined with 
darker purplish gray. It is a fa- 
vorite article of food, and is found in 
vast numbers in the North Atlantic. 

Praxiteles, a celebrated Greek 
sculptor; born about 360 B. c., who 
executed several fine statues in bronze 
and marble of Bacchus, a satyr, Ve- 
nus, and Apollo. An ancient copy of 
one of his works, the " Apollo Saur- 
octonos," is the only example extant. 
He excelled by the grace, tenderness, 
and finish of his works. He was es- 
teemed a;? second to Phidias only. He 
died about 280 B. c. 

Prayer, a universally acknowledged 
part of the worship due to God ; not 
merely petition, but, according to the 
New Testament models and Christian 
usage, praise, adoration, and thankful 
acknowledgment of mercies received. 
Nor is any truth more indisputably 
taught in the Bible, or more frequent- 
ly brought into view, both in the Old 
and New Testament, than that God 
is the hearer of prayer. 

Praying Machine, Praying 
Mill, or Praying Wheel, an ap- 
paratus used in Tibet, and other parts 
of the East, as a mechanical aid to 
prayer. They are of various forms, 
the commonest being a cylinder or 
barrel of pasteboard fixed on an axle, 
and inscribed with prayers. The de- 
vout give the barrel a turn, and each 
revolution counts as an utterance of 
the prayer or prayers inscribed. It is 
common enough to see them fixed in 
the bed of a running stream, as they 
are then set in motion by the water, 
and go on praying night and day, to 
the special benefit of the person who 
has placed them there. The Tartars 
also suspend them over their domestic 
hearths, that they may be set in mo- 
tion by the current of cool air from the 
opening in the tent, and so twirl for 
the peace and prosperity of the family. 

Preaching, the act of preaching; 
a public religious discourse. The mod- 
ern system of preaching was unknown 
in the early Church. The general 
mode then was for the priest to read 
portions of the Old or New Testa- 
ment, and explain or enforce the pre- 
cepts which they contained. About 
the 13th century, the scholastic divines 
directed their chief attention to the 
study of the sacred Scriptures, and 



Precession 

were hence called Bible divines, and 
honored with the pompous titles of 
profound, sublime, wonderful, sera- 
phic, angelic doctors. They introduced 
a new and artificial mode of preach- 
ing, called declaring. Before this time, 
the clergy generally adopted postulat- 
ing, or expounding a large portion of 
Scripture, sentence by sentence. By 
the new method the preacher read a 
text out of some book and chapter of 
the Old or New Testament, dividing it 
into several parts and expounding 
them ; and, generally, the more nu- 
merous the divisions and sub-divisions, 
the better and more highly was he 
esteemed. The opposition to this text- 
ual mode of preaching continued for 
upward of a century, but at length it 
came generally to prevail. 

Preble, Edward, an American na- 
val officer ; born in Portland, Me., Aug. 
15, 1761. Early in 1803 he was made 
commander of the " Constitution " ; 
and in June of that year was placed 
in command of a fleet sent against 
Tripoli. He greatly distinguished 
himself in causing that country to 
sue for peace, a feat accomplished by 
a number of skillful bombardments- 
He returned to the United States and 
received through Congress the thanks 
of the nation and a gold medal. He 
died in Portland, Me., Aug. 25, 1807. 

Precedence, the order in which 
men and women follow each other 
according to rank or dignity in a 
State procession or dn other public 
occasions. There is no American law 
dealing with precedence, tact and cour- 
tesy guiding the procedure on public 
occasions, but in Europe it is a sub- 
ject of very grave importance, and 
moss-grown with law and custom. 

Precedent, a judicial decision, in- 
terlocutory or final, which serves as a 
rule for future determinations in sim- 
ilar cases ; also a form of proceeding 
to be followed in similar cases. 

Precentor, an officer in a cathe- 
dral, formerly sometimes called 
chaunter, and ranking in dignity next 
to the dean. 

Precession of the Equinoxes, in 
astronomy, the going forward of the 
equinoxes. The arrival of the sun at 
the point Aries a little earlier than he 
might be expected to reach it was first 
observed by Hipparchus about 150 



Predestination 

B. c. The earth's rotation simply 
causes the points at which the earth's 
equator intersects the plane of the 
ecliptic to move slowly in a direction 
opposite to that in which the earth 
rotates. This is what is denominated 
the precession of the equinoxes. It is 
generally associated with the sun, but 
the moon is twice as potent in produc- 
ing it ; owing to her comparative near- 
ness to the earth she is able to pro- 
duce a greater differential effect on the 
nearer and more remote portions of 
our planet. The annual motion of the 
first point of Aries is about 50", and 
about 25,867 years will be required for 
the entire revolution. It has been sup- 
posed that the precession of the equi- 
noxes may have had some influence 
in producing the Glacial Period. 

Predestination, in theology, the 
term used to denote the decree of God, 
whereby the elect are foreordained to 
salvation. The theory of predestina- 
tion represents God's absolute will as 
determining the eternal destiny of 
man, not according to the foreknown 
character of those whose fate is so 
determined, but according to God's 
choice. It is a characteristic of Cal- 
vinistic theology ; left an open ques- 
tion since the Reformation by Episco- 
pal and Roman Catholic Churches. 

Preemption, the act or right of 
buying before others. Also, the right 
of a settler on lands to purchase in 
preference to others, when the land 
is sold. 

Preexistence, existence previous to 
or before something else. Also, exist- 
ence in a previous state; existence of 
the soul previous to its union with 
the body. Preexistence was a doctrine 
of the Pythagoreans, and several oth- 
ers of the old philosophers, and is still 
found in many Eastern religions. 

Prelate, an ecclesiastical dignitary 
of the highest order, having author- 
ity over the lower clergy, as an arch- 
bishop, bishop, or patriarch ; a digni- 
tary of the church. 

Prentice, George Denison, an 
American journalist ; born in Preston, 
Conn., Dec., 18, 1802 ; became editor 
of the Louisville " Journal," 1830, and 
held that post till his death, making 
the paper famous for satiric wit and 
exuberant fun. He died in Louisville, 
Ky n Jan. 22, 1870. 



Presbyter 

Preutiss, Benjamin Mayberry, 

an American military officer ; born in 
Belleville, Va. (now W. Va.), Nov. 23, 
1819. He removed to Illinois in 1842, 
and served in the Mexican War as a 
captain of volunteers. At the begin- 
ning of the Civil War he entered 
the Union Army and was made Briga- 
dier-General or volunteers. He was 
taken prisoner at Shiloh, May 6, 1862 ; 
was promoted Major-General in the 
same year ; defeated Generals Holmes 
and Price, who attacked him at Hele- 
na, Ark., July 4, 1863; resigned his 
commission Oct. 28, 1863, and died 
in 1901. 

Prentiss, Mrs. Elizabeth (Pay- 
son), an American writer of fiction ; 
born in Portland, Me., Oct. 26, 1818. 
She died in Dorset, Vt., Aug. 13, 1878. 

Prentiss, Seargent Smith, an 
American orator; born in Portland, 
Me., Sept. 30, 1808; studied law, and 
became, about 1827, a resident of 
Vicksburg, Miss., where he practised 
with success. He was elected to Con- 
gress by the Whigs in 1837. His man- 
ner of speaking was at once natural 
and dramatic, and he had a high repu- 
tation as an orator, and as an advo- 
cate in jury trials was equal or supe- 
rior to any lawyer in the Southwestern 
States. He died near Natchez, Miss., 
July 1, 1850. 

Preposition, a part of speech, so 
named because originally prefixed to 
the verb, in order to modify its mean- 
ing. Prepositions are either simple or 
compound. Simple prepositions are 
at, by, for, from, in, on, out, to, up, 
with ; compound prepositions are 
across, after (a comparative form of), 
against, above, about, along, amid, 
amidst, among, athwart, but, into, 
over, through, toward, until, unto, 
within, without. The prepositions con- 
cerning, during, except, notwithstand- 
ing, etc., arise out of a participial 
construction. 

Pre-Kaphaelism, an English 
school of painting, which has in re- 
cent years sprung into existence, and 
has been thus named, in accordance 
with an erroneous idea that its ear- 
liest members were mainly anxious to 
imitate the mannerisms of the artists 
who painted prior to the time of Ra- 
phael. 

Presbyter, an elder, or a person 
advanced in years who had authority 



Press Clipping Bureau 



Price 



According to its provisions the presi- 
dential succession is arranged as fol- 
lows : Following the Vice-President, 
the Secretary of State, the Secretary 
of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, 
the Attorney-General, the Postmaster- 
General, the Secretary of the Navy, 
the Secretary of the Interior, Secre- 
tary of Agriculture, and the Secretary 
of Commerce and Labor. 

Press Clipping Bureau, an office 
for supplying newspaper and maga- 
zine clippings on any required subjects 
to any person desiring them. There 
are several such bureaus in New 
York, Chicago, and other large cities. 

Press Gang, the name given in 
England to a detachment of seamen 
who (under a naval officer) were em- 
powered, in time of war, to lay hold 
of seafaring men and compel them to 
serve in the king's ships. 

Preston, Harriet Waters, an 
American author ; born in Danvers, 
Mass., about 1843. At an early age 
she became noted as a linguist, and 
afterward achieved a brilliant reputa- 
tion as a translator from the Latin 
and Provencal languages, and as an 
essayist. Besides her translations she 
has published several bright original 
books. 

Preston, Mrs. Margaret (Jun- 
kin), an American author; born in 
Philadelphia about 1825 ; was a resi- 
dent of Lexington, Va., and laer of 
Baltimore, Md. Her writings deal 
chiefly with the period of the Civil 
War. She died in 1897. 

Preston, William, an American 
diplomatist ; born near Louisville, Ky., 
Oct. 16, 1816 ; practised law in Louis- 
ville ; was sent as minister to Spain in 
1858 ; was a member of Congress 
1852-1855 ; joined the Confederates in 
1861 ; and was made a Brigadier-Gen- 
eral. He died in Lexington, Ky., 
Sept. 21, 1887. ' 

Presumption, in law, in the ab- 
sence of direct evidence that which 
comes nearest to the proof of a fact. 

Pretender, one who made claim to 
a throne under a pretense of right (as 
Perkin Warbeck, Lambert Simnel, in 
English history) ; specially applied to 
the son and grandson of James II., the 
heirs of the House of Stuart, who laid 
claim to the throne of England, from 
which they had been excluded by Par- 



liament in 1688. The former, often 
termed the Old Pretender, died in 
1776 ; his son, Charles Edward Stuart, 
the Young Pretender, in 1788. 

Pretoria, the capital of the former 
South African Republic (Transvaal), 
980 miles from Cape Town, and 285 
miles W. of Lorenzo Marques, on Del- 
agoa Bay, to which a railway was 
opened in 1895. Pretoria was founded 
in 1855 by the Boer leader Pretorius, 
has broad streets, and pure water. It 
owes its prosperity chiefly to the gold 
mines at Johannesburg, about 30 
miles distant. 

Prcvost-Paraclol, Imcien Ana- 
tole, a French writer and diplomatist ; 
born in Paris, France, Aug. 8, 1829. 
In 1851 he obtained from the Academie 
Francaise the prize for eloquence, for 
his " Eulogy on Bernardin de Saint 
Pierre." His literary and political es- 
says are among the soundest, the most 
acute, the most scholarly, and the most 
elegant that have proceeded from the 
French journalists of the empire. In 
1870 he came to the United States as 
minister plenipotentiary, and he was 
at Washington only a few days when 
he committed suicide, Aug. 11, 1870. 

Priam, a King of Phrygia, and the 
last sovereign of Troy. Soon after his 
accession, the discovery of a gold mine 
in his kingdom enabled him to enlarge 
and beautify his capital, strengthen 
its defenses, and raise a powerful 
army. Under his reign Troy was re- 
garded as the largest, richest, and most 
magnificent city, and himself as the 
most powerful monarch in Lesser 
Asia. The perfidy of his son Paris in 
eloping with Helen led to the long and 
fatal war, which, after enduring for 
10 years, terminated in the entire over- 
throw of the state, the destruction of 
Illium, the death of most of his sons, 
and his own murder by the ruthless 
Pyrrhus. Priam's death occurred about 
1184 B. C. 

Pribilof Islands, a group of is- 
lands on the coast of Alaska, in Ber- 
ing Sea. The largest are St. Paul, St. 
George, Walrus, and Beaver Islands. 
They are frequented by numbers of fur 
seals. The natives are Aleutians. 

Price, Richard, an English phi- 
losopher : born in Tynton, Glamorgan- 
shire, Feb. 22, 1723. He was a Dis- 
senting minister, and was pastor of 



Price 

a congregation at Hackney. He was 
the friend of Benjamin Franklin, and 
sympathized warmly with the Ameri- 
can colonists. His tables of vital sta- 
tistics and calculations of expectancy 
of life were the basis of modern an- 
nuities and life insurance ; his econom- 
ic and financial writings were of a 
high order, and the younger Pitt con- 
sulted him on finance. He wrote " The 
American Revolution and the Means of 
Rendering It a Benefit to the World," 
etc. He died April 19, 1791. 

Price, Sterling, an American mili- 
tary officer ; born in Prince Edward 
co., Va., Sept. 11, 1809 ; received a 
collegiate education, and settled in 
Missouri in 1831 ; was elected to Con- 
gress in 1844 ; served in the Mexican 
War as colonel and Brigadier-General 
of volunteers ; was military governor 
of Chihuahua in 1847 ; governor of 
Missouri in 1853-1857, and president 
of the State Convention in February, 
1861. When the Civil War broke out 
he joined the Confederate army, and 
became Major-General of Missouri 
militia in May, 1861. He fought 
through many campaigns and greatly 
distinguished himself ; r, as commander 
of the Department of the West in 
18G2, and afterward of the districts of 
Tennessee and Trans-Mississippi. At 
the close of the war he went to Mexico, 
but in 1866 returned to Missouri. He 
died in St. Louis, Mo., Sept. 29, 1867. 

Prickly Ash, a name given to 
several prickly shrubs of the United 
otates. They have an aromatic and 
pungent bark, which from being used 
as a remedy for toothache gains them 
the name of toothache tree. 

JPrickly Heat, a skin disease, 
characterized by minute papulae 
formed by the hypersemia of the sweat 
follicles. Few Caucasian residents of 
the tropics escape it when they are ex- 
posed to the sun. It is not in the 
least dangerous. 

Prickly Pear, otherwise called the 
Indian fig. It is a fleshy and succu- 
lent plant, destitute of leaves, covered 
with clusters of spines, and consisting 
of flattened joints inserted upon each 
other. The fruit is purplish in color, 
covered with fine prickles, and edible. 
The flower is large and yellow. It is 
a native of the tropical parts of Amer- 
ica. It is easily propagated, and in 
some countries is used as a hedge 

F. 120. 



Priestley 

plant. It attains a height of seven or 
eight feet. 

Pride of China (also called pride 
of India and bead tree), a handsome 
tree a native of India, naturalized in 
the Southern States of the American 
Union. It grows rapidly, has large 
bunches of flowers, and enormous 
quantities of small fruit. A decoc- 
tion of the bark of its root is used as 
a vermifuge. 

Priest, one who in any religion per- 
forms the sacred rites and, more or 
less, intervenes between the worship- 
per and his God, especially by offering 
sacrifice. 

In Judaism, a descendant of Aaron, 
and therefore one of the sacred caste. 
The Jewish priests filled all the im- 
portant offices in connection, first with 
the tabernacle and then with the tem- 
ple worship. In the Protestant Epis- 
copal Church, a clergyman in priest's 
orders, as distinguished from a deacon. 
In the Roman Church, a cleric who 
has received the third grade in holy or- 
ders, and who is thereby empowered 
to " offer, t>less, rule, preach, and bap- 
tize." 

Priest, Josiah, an American au- 
thor ; born in New York, about 1790. 
He was an unschooled man, a harness- 
maker by trade ; but published several 
books, some of which became very pop- 
ular. Among them were, " Stories of 
the Revolution," and " Slavery in the 
Light of History and Scripture." He 
died about 1850. 

Pristley, Joseph, an English 
natural philosopher; born in Field- 
head, England, March 13, 1733. His 
first publication was the "History and 
Present State of Electricity," which 
procured his election into the Royai 
Society, and the degree of doctor of 
laws from Edinburgh. It was here 
also that his political opinions were 
first manifested, in an " Essay on Gov- 
ernment." Soon after this he went to 
Leeds, where he made those important 
discoveries with regard to the proper- 
ties of fixed air, foi which he received 
the Copley medal of the Royal Society 
in 1772. In 1776 he communicated to 
the same learned body his observations 
on respiration, in which he first experi- 
mentally ascertained that the air parts 
with its oxygen to the blood as it 
passes through the lungs. He next re- 



Prima Donna 

moved to Birmingham, where he be- 
came once more minister of an Inde- 
pendent congregation, and occupied 
himself in his " History of the Corrup- 
tions of Christianity," writing, also, 
in support of the claims of the Dis- 
senters for a repeal of the test acts. 
But it was the French Revolution that 
afforded him the widest field, and he 
did not fail to display his warm sym- 
pathy with it. This excited the in- 
dignation of the High Church party; 
and in the riots which took place in 
July, 1791, his house, library, manu- 
scripts, and apparatus were committed 
to the flames by the mob, and he was 
exposed to great personal danger. Aft- 
er this he removed to Hackney, where 
he succeeded Dr. Price ; but, in 1794, 
compelled by incessant persecutions to 
fly his intolerant country, came to the 
United States and took up his abode 
at Northumberland, Pa. His works 
extend to between 70 and 80 volumes. 
As a natural philosopher, his fame 
principally rests on his pneumatic in- 
quiries. He died in Northumberland, 
Pa., Feb. 6, 1804. 

Prima Donna, the first female 
singer in an opera. 

Primate, the chief ecclesiastic in 
certain churches. The Archbishop of 
York is called the Primate of England, 
the Archbishop of Canterbury the Pri- 
mate of All England, and the Roman 
Catholic Archbishop of Baltimore the 
Primate of the United States. 

Primates, the first and chief of 
Linnaeus' orders of the class Mam- 
malia. He included under it four gen- 
era : Homo ( one species, five varie- 
ties), Simia (21 species), Lemur, 
(three species), and Vespertilio (seven 
species). Huxley divides it into three 
suborders: (1) Anthropidffi, (2) Simi- 
adffi (apes and monkeys), and (3) 
Lemurid*. 

Prime, Samuel Ircnseus, an 
American editor ; born in Ballston, N. 
Y., Nov. 4, 1812 ; was first a minister 
in the Presbyterian Church. About 
1840 he became editor of the New 
York " Observer," and remained in 
charge till his death. He was the 
author of over 40 volumes, the best 
known being, " Travels in Europe and 
the East," " Letters from Switzer- 
land," " The Alhambra and the Krem- 
lin," "Life of Samuel F. B. Morse." 



Primrose 

He died in Manchester, Vt., July 18, 
1885. 
Prime, William Cowper, an 

American author ; born in Cambridge, 
N. Y., Oct. 31, 1825. He has written 
" Owl Creek Letters," " Coins, Medals, 
and Seals," " The Holy Cross," " Pot- 
tery and Porcelain of all Times and 
Nations," etc. He edited " McClel- 
lan's Own Story," and other works. 
He died Feb. 13, 1905. 

Prime Meridian, that meridian 
from which longitude is measured ; in 
the United States the meridian of 
Washington. 

Prime Minister, a British officer 
of State, who at the summons of the 
sovereign has succeeded in forming an 
administration, of which he is the 
head, and which may be named after 
him. Though each member of the min- 
istry administers his own department 
independently of his colleagues, all im- 
portant departmental matters are sub- 
mitted to him, the most important be- 
ing brought before the wMole ministry, 
and no appointment of moment is 
made or recommended to the crown 
without his knowledge and concur- 
rence. His own patronage is very ex- 
tensive. No cabinet officer in the Unit- 
ed States possesses similar powers. 

Primitive Methodists, a section 
of the Wesleyan community which 
arose in Staffordshire, England, under 
the leadership of Hugh Bourne 
(1792-1852). Having held camp meet- 
ings like those in the United States, 
he was censured for it by the English 
Wesleyan Conference in 1807, and, se- 
ceding, formed a new connection. In 
doctrine the Primitive Methodists 
agree with the Wesleyans. In the 
United States they report 101 
churches, 80 ministers, and 7,558 
communicants. 

Primogeniture, the right, system, 
or rule under which in cases of in- 
testacy, the eldest son of a family suc- 
ceeds to the real estate of his father 
to the absolute exclusion of the young- 
er sons and daughters. Primogeniture 
no longer carries with it any legal ad- 
vantage over younger children hi the 
United States. 

Primrose, a well known flower, 
common in copses, pastures, hedge- 
banks, and woods, or by the side of 
streams. Its rootstock is emetic. 



Prince 



Princeton University 



Prince. (1) One who holds the 
first, or chief place, or rank ; a sover- 
eign. (2) The ruler or sovereign of 
a state or territory which he holds of 
a superior, to whom he owes certain 
services. (3) The son of a sovereign, 
or the issue of the royal family; as, 
the princes of the blood. In British 
heraldic language, the title of prince 
belongs to dukes, marquises, and earls 
of Great Britain, but in ordinary use j 
it is confined to members of the royal 
family. The only case in which it is 
a territorial title is that of the Prince 
of Wales, the official title of the heir- 
apparent to the throne. On the Con- 
tinent of Europe the title of prince is 
borne by members of families not im- 
mediately connected with any royal 
house. It is frequently borne by per- 
sons who although legally entitled to 
it are in fact without means of sup- 
port, and it can be purchased in some 
European countries for a comparative- 
ly small sum of money. (4) The head 
or chief of any body of men ; one who 
is at the head of any class or profes- 
sion, or who is preeminent in any- 
thing; as, a merchant prince. 

Prince, Le Baron Bradford, an 
American lawyer ; born in Flushing, 
L. I., N. Y., July 3, 1840 ; was chief- 
justice of New Mexico in 1878-1882; 
territorial governor of New Mexico in 
1889-1893; president of the Interna- 
tional Mining Congress in 1897-1898 
and in 1900-1901; and vice-president 
of the National Irrigation Conference 
in 1901. He is the owner of the 
largest collection of American stone 
idols in the world. . His publications 
include various books and pamphlets 
on archaeology, political economy, and 
history. 

Prince Edward Island, an island 
forming a province of the Dominion of 
Canada, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
and separated by Northumberland 
Strait from New Brunswick on the E. 
and Nova Scotia on the S. ; greatest 
length, from E. to W., about 130 
miles ; breadth, varying from 4 to 34 
miles ; area, about 2,134 square miles, 
or 1,365,760 acres, of which over 1,- 
000,000 are under cultivation. Pop. 
(1901) 103,259. The coast line pre- 
sents a remarkable succession of large 
bays and projecting headlands. The 
island is naturally divided into three 
peninsulas, and the whole is eminently 



! agricultural and pastoral, the foresta 
now being of comparatively limited ex- 
I tent. The climate is mild ; winter, 
! though long and cold, is free from 
damp, unwholesome chills ; and sum- 
mer, without being oppressively hot, 
is fitted to promote the growth of all 
the ordinary cereals. Sheep, cattle, 
and horses are reared in numbers ; cod, 
mackerel, herring, oysters, and lob- 
sters form the most productive part of 
the fisheries. The manufactures are 
chiefly confined to linen and flannels 
for domestic use ; there are also several 
tanneries, and shipbuilding is carried 
on to a considerable extent. The ex- 
ports consist of timber, agricultural 
produce, and live stock; the imports 
of drygoods, hardware, cordage, iron, 
etc. A railway runs from one end of 
the island to the other. The capital is 
Charlottetown. Pop. (1901) 12,080. 
There is an excellent educational sys- 
tem, the elementary schools being 
free. The island is supposed to have 
been discovered by Cabot. It was 
first colonized by France, captured by 
Great Britain in 1745, restored and 
recaptured, and finally in 1873 was 
admitted to the Dominion of Canada. 
Princeton, a town in Mercer 
county, N. J.; on the Delaware & 
Raritan canal and a spur of the Penn- 
sylvania railroad; 10 miles N. E. of 
Trenton; is widely noted as the seat 
of Princeton University, the Prince- 
ton Theological Seminary, and the 
home of Grover Cleveland; for a bat- 
tle that took place at Stony Brook, 
about 3 miles W. of the town, dur- 
ing the Revolutionary War, in which 
the Continental army was victorious; 
and as the place where Washington 
received the thanks of the young na- 
tion for his conduct of the war to 
a successful termination. Pop. (1910) 
5,136. 

Princeton Theological Semi- 
nary, an educational institution in 
Princeton, N. J. ; founded in 1812, 
under the auspices of the Presbyterian 
Church. 

Princeton University, an educa- 
tional institution in Princeton, N. J. It 
was founded Oct. 22, 1746, by a char- 
ter given under the seal of the Prov- 
ince of New Jersey, " for the instruc- 
tion of youth in the learned languages 
and in the liberal arts and sciences.' 
After the Civil War the college began 



Printing 

to make rapid progress. The number 
of students increased, the faculty was 
enlarged, and in 1872 the Chancellor 
Green Library (named in honor of its 
donor) was erected. Up to this time 
the course of instruction had led ex- 
clusively to the degree of Bachelor of 
Arts; but in 1873 the John C. Green 
School of Science was added, and in 
1875 the Department of Civil Engi- 
neering was also created. In 1889 the 
Department of Electrical Engineering 
was founded, and in 1901 the 
Graduate School was formally estab- 
lished, Prof. Andrew West being ap- 
pointed its dean. 

On Oct. 22, 1896, the 150th anniver- 
sary of the signing of the first charter, 
the title of Princeton University was 
assumed. In 1897 the Chancellor 
Green Library was connected wij;h a 
new library building, having a capacity 
to shelve 1,200,000 volumes. The total 
number of buildings now belonging to 
the university is over 40. The fac- 
ulty numbers about 160; average 
student attendance, 1.300; graduates, 
10,500; endowment, $4,250,000. 

Printing, the art of producing im- 
pressions from characters or figures on 
paper or any other substance. Print- 
ing is of comparatively modern origin, 
only 400 years having elapsed since the 
first book was issued from the press; 
yet we have proof that the principles 
on which it was ultimately developed 
existed among the ancient Assyrian 
nations. Printing from movable types 
was, according to Professor Douglas, 
probably practised in China as early 
as the 12th or 13th century, as there 
are Korean books printed from mov- 
able clay or wooden types in 1317. The 
great discovery was that of forming 
every letter or character of the alpha- 
bet separately, so as to be capable of 
rearrangement and forming in succes- 
sion the pages of a work, thereby 
avoiding the labor of cutting new 
blocks of types for every page. The 
credit of inventing this simple yet mar- 
velous art is contested by the Dutch 
and Germans. Printing was brought 
to England in 1476 or 1477 by Will- 
iam Caxton. The first printing press 
set up in America was introduced by 
the Viceroy of Mexico, Antonio de 
Mendoza, and the first book printed 
by it in the New World was " The 
Ladder de S. Juan Climaco" (1536). 



Printing 

The earliest press in the British- 
American colonies was brought over 
for Harvard College in 1638, and was 
set up by Stephen Daye. The " Bay 
Psalm Book" (1640) was its first 
important work ; but in 1639 it print- 
ed the " Freeman's Oath " and an al- 
manac. In Philadelphia a press was 
set up in 1685, in New York in 1693. 

In July, 1902, the Census Bureau 
issued a report on printing and pub- 
lishing which shows a capital of $292,- 
517,072 invested in the 22,312 estab- 
lishments reporting for the industry. 
The value of the products is returned 
at $347,055,050, to produce which in- 
volved an outlay of $35,090,719 for 
salaries of officials, clerks, etc. ; $84,- 
249,889 for wages; $55,897,529 for 
miscellaneous expenses and $86,856,290 
for material used. 

In 1890 the increase in the number 
of all publications was greater than 
the increase in population, but in 1900 
the increase in number of publications 
and in population was about the same. 
During the decade there was an in- 
crease in the proportion of daily, tri- 
weekly, semi-weekly and monthly pub- 
lications ; a marked decline in the pro- 
portion of publications devoted to spe- 
cial topics and an advance only in 
the classes devoted to news topics and 
to general reading. The total circula- 
tion per issue of dailies was enough to 
supply one for every five inhabitants. 
The total circulation per issue of week- 
lies and monthlies was one to two in- 
habitants. Publications printed in En- 
glish formed 94.3 per cent, of all pub- 
lications reporting for 1900, showing 
a considerable increase over the corre- 
sponding figures for the preceding dec- 
ade. One and one-quarter billion 
pounds of paper were used during the 
census year. Of this amount 77.6 per 
cent, was consumed for newspapers, 
16.4 per cent, for books and periodicals 
and 6 per cent, for job printing, but 
the proportionate cost was 58.7 per 
cent., 24.7 per cent., and 16.6 per cent, 
respectively. Daily evening news- 
papers increased more rapidly than 
daily morning papers. In 1890 there 
were two evening papers to every 
morning paper; in 1900 the propor- 
tion was about three to one. 

The 19th was a century of wonder- 
ful achievement in every branch of 
printing. The Fourdrinier paper-mak- 
ing machine, the Bruce type-caster, the 



Prison 

/inotype type-casting and type-setting 
machine, and other mechanical type- 
setters of merit ; composition ink roll- 
ers, the cylinder press, the web press, 
and mechanisms of many kinds for the 
rapid printing of the smallest label 
or the largest sheet in black or many 
colors ; machines for folding, sewing, 
and binding books ; the arts of stereo- 
type, electrotype, and photo-engraving 

all these are its outgrowth, and the 
more important have been invented or 
made practicable within the memory 
of men now living. It is a summary 
of which the printing trade may be 
proud. Printing was never done bet- 
ter and never done worse. It has 
never been . furnished in so large a 
quantity at so small a price. For one 
or more cents can be had a newspaper 
with more reading matter than would 
fill a stout octavo volume. Yet books 
are made and sold in limited editions 
to eager subscribers at prices rang- 
ing from $5 to $50 a volume. William 
Morris maintained that printing had 
gone steadily from bad to worse till he 
revived its best features. Many pub- 
lishers maintain, with more reason, 
that books of real value for instruc- 
tion or amusement were never better 
fitted than they now are for useful- 
ness to all classes of readers. 

Prison, a place of detention for 
persons convicted of crime. The most 
advanced examples of prison disci- 

Sline and construction are to be found 
i the United States. 

In some of the Southern States pris- 
oners are leased out to the highest 
bidders for the term of their sentences ; 
but this system, which condemns the 
convicts to a slavery that is not modi- 
fied even by considerations arising 
from personal ownership, is gradually 
being abandoned. The first place of 
detention for juvenile delinquents was 
opened at New York in 1825 ; the first 
reformatories on the cottage or fam- 
ily system were established in Ohio 

for boys at Lancaster in 1858, for 
girls at Delaware in 1878. 

Prisoners of War, those who are 
captured from the enemy during naval 
or military operations. In ancient 
times the treatment of prisoners of 
war was very severe. In the Greek 
wars it was no uncommon th ; ng to 
put the whole adult male population 
of a conquered state to the sword, 



Privateer 

while the women and children were 
enslaved. Though the putting to death 
of prisoners became less frequent, they 
and their families were commonly re- 
duced to slavery to as recent a period 
as the 13th century. The act of Na- 
poleon in putting to death the Turkish 
prisoners of war at Jaffa in 1799 was 
universally condemned, and is probably 
the last instance of such barbarity. 
Pritchett, Henry Smith, an 
American educator; born in Fayette, 
Mo., April 16, 1857; became an as- 
tronomer in the United States Naval 
Observatory; astronomer of the 
Transit of Venus Expedition (1882); 
Professor of Astronomy and Director 
of Observatory, Washington Univer- 
sity, St. Louis, Mo. (1883-1897); Su- 
perintendent United States Coast 
and Geodetic Survey (1897-1900); 
president, Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology (1900-1906); and presi- 
dent of the Carnegie Foundation for 
the Advancement of Teaching (1906). 
Privateer, a ship owned by a pri- 
vate individual, which under govern- 
ment permission, expressed by a letter 
of marque, makes war on the shipping 
of a hostile power. To make war on 
an enemy without this commission, or 
on the shipping of a nation not speci- 
fied in it, is piracy. At the American 
Revolution the new republic fully re- 
alized the advantage of its position 
in preying on the mercantile marine 
of Great Britain ; and in the War of 
1812 British commerce suffered severe- 
ly at the hands of American privateers, 
of which it was computed that some 
250 were afloat. During the American 
Civil War the Confederate States of- 
fered letters of marque to persons of 
all countries, but no admittedly for- 
eign vessels were so commissioned. 
During the same period the Congress 
of the United States empowered the 
President to grant commissions to 
privateers, but none such were grant- 
ed. The Confederate cruisers were at 
first regarded in the North as mere 
pirates ; and the " Alabama Claims " 
originated in the charge against Great 
Britain of allowing the departure of 
privateers from British ports, where 
they were fitted out illegally. The 
charge was fully sustained, it being 
shown before the Geneva Tribunal that 
the Alabama and other so-called Con- 
federate ships were really British. 



Privet 

Privet, a genus of plants contain- 
ing a number of species of shrubs and 
small trees with opposite leaves, which 
are simple and entire at the margin ; 
the flowers small, white, and in ter- 
minal panicles. Common privet is a 
shrub growing in bushy places and 
about the borders of woods in the 
middle and S. of Europe, and now also 
naturalized in some parts of North 
America. 

Privileged Witnesses, witnesses 
who are not obliged to testify as to cer- 
tain things, as lawyers in relation to 
their dealings with their clients, and 
officers of State as to State secrets ; 
also, by statute, in "some instances, 
clergymen and physicians are placed in 
the same category, so far as concerns 
information received by them profes- 
sionally. 

Privy Council, in English law, the 
principal council of the sovereign, con- 
sisting of members chosen at his or 
her pleasure. It is presided over by 
the Lord President of the Council, who 
has precedence next after the Lord 
Chancellor. Members of the privy 
council are addressed as Right Hon- 
orable. 

The office of a privy councilor is 
now confined to advising the sovereign 
in the discharge of executive, legisla- 
tive, and judicial duties. 

Privy Seal, the seal used in En- 
gland to be appended to grants which 
are afterward to pass the great seal, 
and to documents of minor importance, 
which do not require to pass the great 
seal. 

Prize, that which is taken from an 
enemy in war ; that which is seized by 
fighting, especially a ship, with the 
goods contained in her ; any descrip- 
tion of goods or property seized by 
force as spoil or plunder. 

Prize Court, a court established 
to adjudicate on prizes captured at sea. 
In the United States, the United 
States District Courts have jurisdic- 
tion both as instance and prize courts. 

Prize Money, money paid to the 
captors of a ship or place where booty 
has been obtained, in certain propor- 
tions according to rank, the money be- 
ing realized by the sale of the booty. 

Probate, in law, the official proof 
of a will. This is done either in com- 
mon form, which is upon the oath of 



Process 

the executor before the judge of the 
probate court ; or per testes (by wit- 
nesses), in some solemn form of law, 
in case the validity of the will is dis- 
puted. 

Probate Court, a court of record 
established to exercise jurisdiction 
and authority in relation to probate 
of wills and letters of administration, 
and to hear and determine all ques- 
tions relating to matters and causes 
testamentary. In New York it is 
called the " Surrogate's Court " ; in 
Pennsylvania the " Orphans' Court." 

Probationer, one who is in a state 
of probation or trial, so that he may 
give proof of his qualifications for a 
certain position, place, or state. 

Proboscis Monkey, or Kah.au, a 
native of Borneo, distinguished par- 
ticularly by its elongated nose, its 
shortened thumbs, and its elongated 
tail. The general color is a lightish 
red. These monkeys are arboreal in 
habits, and appear to frequent the 
neighborhood of streams and rivers, 
congregating in troops. 

Probus, Marcus Anrelius, a Ro- 
man emperor ; born in Sirmium, 
Pannonia. By the Emperor Tacitus 
he was appointed governor of the 
Asiatic possessions of Rome ; and such 
was the zealous attachment evinced 
for him by his soldiers that on the 
death of Tacitus they forced him to 
assume the purple; and, his rival 
Florianus having been removed, Pro- 
bus was enthusiastically hailed em- 
peror by all classes (A. D. 276). His 
brief reign was signalized by brill- 
iant and important successes; the 
Germans were driven out of Gaul, 
and the barbarians from the Rhaetian, 
Pannonian, and Thracian frontiers ; 
and Persia was forced to agree to a 
humiliating peace. The external se- 
curity of the empire being established, 
Probus devoted himself to the develop- 
ment of its internal resources. After 
a short reign he was murdered hi a 
military insurrection in 282 A. D. 

Procedure, Civil, the method of 
proceeding in a civil suit throughout 
its various stages. 

Process, in anatomy, an enlarge- 
ment, such as the zygomatic process of 
the temporal bone, the vermiform proc- 
ess of the cerebellum, etc. In law, a 
term applied to the whole course of 



Procession 

proceedings in a cause, real or per- 
sonal, c.ivil or criminal, from the orig- 
inal writ to the end of the suit ; spe- 
cifically, the summons citing the party 
affected to appear in court at the 
return of the original writ. 

Procession, the act or state of pro- 
ceeding or issuing forth or from. Also 
a train of persons marching on foot, 
or riding on horseback or in vehicles 
with ceremonious solemnity. 

Proclamation, a public notice 
made by a ruler or chief magistrate to 
the people, concerning any matter 
which he thinks fit to give notice 
about. In the United States the 
President issues proclamations as to 
treaties, days of thanksgiving^ admis- 
sion of new States, etc. ; likewise gov- 
ernors of States and mayors of cities 
for special purposes. 

Proconsnl, in Roman antiquities, 
an officer who, though not actually 
holding the office of consul, exercised 
in some particular locality all the 
powers of a consul. 

Procopius, an eminent Greek his- 
torian of the 6th century, the leading 
authority for Justinian's reign ; born 
in Caesarea, Palestine. Of his writings 
we have the " Histories," or as the 
author styles them, " Books about the 
Wars" of his time Persian, Van- 
dal, and Gothic ; a treatise " On Build- 
ings " ; " Anecdotes " ( posthumous) , 
a supplement to the " Histories," con- 
sisting of political and personal mat- 
ter he dared not publish in his life- 
time. . 

Procter, Bryan "Waller, pseudo- 
nym Barry Cornwall, an English 
poet; born in London, England, Nov. 
21, 1787. He early published four 
Volumes of poems, and produced a 
tragedy at Covent Garden, whose suc- 
cess was largely due to the acting of 
Macready and Kemble. He was called 
to the bar in 1831, from 1832 to 1861 
was a metropolitan commissioner of 
lunacy. His works were issued under 1 
the pseudonym " Barry Cornwall " (a 
faulty anagram of his real name). He 
died Oct. 5, 1874. 

Proctor, in an American univer- 
sity, an executive officer whose duty 
it is to preserve order and enforce the 
laws of the institution. In England 
the king's proctor is a crown official 
charged with upholding the interests 



Profit 

of the crown in certain classes of pri- 
vate law-suits. 

Proctor, Edna Dean, an Ameri- 
can poet; born in Henniker, N. H., 
Oct. 10, 1838. Her works are: 
" Poems " ; " The Song of the Ancient 
People " ; " Mountain Maid and Other 
Poems of New Hampshire " ; etc. 

Proctor, Richard Anthony, an 
English astronomer, author of a large 
number of popular works, principally 
on astronomy ; born in London, Eng- 
land, March 23, 1837. He was a grad- 
uate of St. John's College, Cambridge, 
in 1860. About 1885 he settled in St. 
Louis, and later moved to Florida. He 
was at the time of his death the edi- 
tor of " Knowledge," a monthly jour- 
nal of popular science. He was a 
very popular lecturer. He died in 
New York city, Sept. 12, 1888. 

His daughter, MARY, born in Dub- 
lin, Ireland; was graduated at the 
College of Preceptors, London, in 
1898; took the course in Descriptive 
Astronomy at Columbia University 
in 1900; observed and reported sev- 
eral notable astronomical occur- 
rences; delivered over 800 lectures 
on astronomy since 1893 and annual 
courses under the New York Board 
of Education since 1894. 

Professor. (1) One who professes 
or makes open and public declara- 
tion or acknowledgment of his senti- 
ments, opinions, belief, etc. (2) One 
who makes a public profession of re- 
ligion in 'those churches where such a 
rule prevails instead of confirmation. 
(3) One who teaches any art, science, 

! or branch of learning ; specifically a 
person appointed in a university, col- 
lege, etc., to deliver lectures and in- 
struct the students in any particular 
branch of learning; as, a professor of 
Greek, a professor of theology, etc. 
By common use, the title professor has 
become greatly abused, and is assumed, 
not only by teachers of music, dan- 

I cing, drawing, etc., but even by 

j quacks, conjurers, teachers of boxing, 
animal trainers, etc. 
Profit, any advantage, benefit, or 

I accession of good resulting from labor 
or exertion ; valuable results, useful 
consequence, benefit, gain; compre- 
hending the acquisition of anything 
valuable or advantageous, corporeal, 
or intellectual, temporal or spiritual. 



Progressive Party 



Prong-horn Antelope 



Progressive Party, The, a Na- 
tional political party organized in 
Chicago, 111., in June, 1912. by regular 
and unseated delegates to the Republi- 
can National Convention who favored 
the candidacy of former President 
Roosevelt. In the balloting for the 
nomination, President Taft received 
561 votes and Roosevelt 107, while 344 
delegates disregarded their local in- 
structions and acceded to Roosevelt's 
request that his supporters refrain 
from taking any part in the proceed- 
ings of the Convention, on the ground 
that the National Committee had de- 
frauded him out of many votes in their 
decisions on C9ntested seats. The new 
party held its first convention in 
Chicago on August 5-7, adopted a 
platform in consonance with the 
former President's public speeches and 
writings, and unanimously nominated 
him for President, with Governor 
Hiram W. Johnson, of California, for 
V ice-President. Under the distinguish- 
ing emblem of the Bull Moose, the 
new party rapidly gained strength 
throughout the country, drawing its 
largest forces from among the mem- 
bers of the Republican party who had 
become dissatisfied with the methods 
and policies of the administration of 
President Taft. Prior to the nomina- 
tions, Messrs. Taft and Roosevelt both 
made extended speaking tours, but 
afterward Mr. Roosevelt only con- 
tinued actively in the campaign (see 
Roosevelt, Theodore). The Demo- 
cratic candidate, Governor Woodrow 
Wilson, was elected in the ensuing 
election November 5, 1912. 

Prohibition Party, The. In re- 
cent years the cause of absolute pro- 
hibition has made great strides in the 
United States. In the State of Maine, 
th? mother State of prohibitory legis- 
lation, what is known throughout the 
worl 1 as the "Maine law" has been 
in successful operation for a quarter 
of a century. In various States gu- 
bernatorial and State tickets were 
nominated in successive years from 
1876 to 1886, but no election resulted 
in any case. In New Jersey and in 
New York in 1886 great interest cen- 
tered around the efforts of the Pro- 
hibition party, owing to the closeness 
of the vote between the two older 
parties, though the vote polled by the 



Prohibitionists amounted to only a 
few thousands. In 1872, 1876, 1880. 
1884, 1888, 1892, 1896, 1900, 1904, 
and 1908 a national ticket was nom- 
inated; votes as follows: 1872, 5,608: 
1876, 9,522; 1880, Dow, 10,305; 1884, 
St. John, 150,369; 1888, Fisk, 249,- 
360; 1892, Bidwell, 264,132; 1896, 
Levering, 131,757: 1900, Woolley, 
208,833; 1904, Swallow, 258,536; 1908. 
Chafin, 253,840. 

Proletariat, a term used to de- 
note the poorest classes of the com- 
munity. 

Prometheus, in mythology, the son 
of the Titan Japetus, was a brother to 
Atlas and Epimetheus, and surpassed 
all mankind in cunning. He ridiculed 
the gods, and deceived Jupiter him- 
self. To punish Prometheus, Jupiter 
caused this wily mortal to be tied to 
a rock on Mount Caucasus, where, for 
30,000 years, a vulture was to feed on 
his liver, which was never to be dimin- 
ished. He was delivered from thig 
punishment 30 years afterward by 
Hercules. 

Promise, in law, a declaration 
made by one person to another for a 
good or valuable consideration, where- 
by the person promising binds himself 
to do or forbear some act, and gives 
to the promisee a legal right to de- 
mand and enforce a fulfillment 

Promised Land, Canaan; that 
portion of Syria lying between the 
Jordan and the Mediterranean. It was 
frequently promised by Jehovah to the 
patriarchs, and finally bestowed on 
their descendants, the Israelites. 

Promissory Note, a written prom- 
ise to pay a given sum of money 
to a certain person, at a specified date. 
The phrase " for value received " is 
usually inserted. 

Prompter, one who or that which 
prompts, urges, or incites to action or 
exertion. Also, one who assists a 
speaker, when at a loss, by suggest- 
ing or repeating words. Specifically, 
a person placed behind the scenes in 
a theater, whose duty is to prompt or 
assist the actors when at a loss, by 
uttering the first words of a sentence, 
or words forgotten. 

Prong-horn Antelope, inhabiting 
the W. parts of North America, from 
53 N. to the plains of Mexico and 
California. It is rather more than 
four feet in length, and stands three 



Pronoun 

feet at the shoulder. Pale fawn 
above and on the limbs ; breast, abdo- 
men, and rump white. The horns are 
branched, and are shed annually. 




PRONG-HORN ANTELOPE. 

Pronoun, a word used in place of a 
noun or name in order to avoid the 
too frequent repetition of such noun 
or name, but differing from a noun in 
not being permanently attached to 
any certain object or class of objects, 
and in not being limited in its appli- 
cation. Pronouns in English are divid- 
ed into: (1) Personal, (2) Demon- 
strative, (3) Interrogative, (4) Rela- 
tive, and (5) Indefinite. Interrogative 
pronouns are those which serve to ask 
a question, as who? which? what? 
Indefinite pronouns, or such as do not 
specify any particular object, are 
used, some as substantives, some as 
adjectives ; as, any, aught, each, every, 
other, etc. 

Propaganda Fide, Congrega- 
tion de, a commission of cardinals 
charged with the direction of all mat- 
ters connected with foreign missions 
in the Roman Church. Pope Urban 
VIII. (1623-1644) founded the Prop- 
aganda College, and here young men 
of all nations are trained for the 
nriesthood, and take an oath to devote 



Prorogation 

themselves for life to the foreign mis- 
sions in whatever province or vicari- 
ate they may be appointed to by the 
congregation. 

Propeller, one who or that which 
propels ; specifically, the screw by 
which a steamship is driven through 
the water; a vessel thus propelled. 

Property Tax, a rate or duty 
levied by the State, county, or munici- 
pality on the property of individuals, 
the value of the property being fixed 
by assessment. 

Prophet, one who prophesies; one 
who is the bearer of a divine message 
to mankind ; more familiarly, one who 
predicts future events. The prophet was 
a revealer in distinction from the priest, 
whose functions pertained to ritual. 

Prophets, School of the, an as- 
sociation of the prophets in which the 
elder lovingly trained the younger, 
who were called their sons (I Kings 
xx : 35). First Elijah, and then 
Elisha, presided over such a society. 

Prophets, The, men divinely in- 
spired, and who often uttered predic- 
tions of future events. The order was 
early recognized among the Hebrews. 
The title was given to Moses, and after 
his time to men who, as reformers or 
teachers, declared God's will to the 
nation. Samuel and Elijah were no- 
table examples. Later, the prophets 
committed their messages to writing. 
Sixteen of their books are included in 
the canon. They are divided into four 
groups : 1. The prophets of the 
Northern kingdom : Hosea, Amos, 
Joel, and Jonah ; 2. The prophets of 
the Southern kingdom : Isaiah, Jere- 
miah, Obadiah, Micah, Nahum, Habak- 
kuk, and Zephaniah ; 3. The prophets 
of the Captivity : Ezekiel and Daniel ; 
4. The prophets of the Return : Hag- 
gai, Zechariah, and Malachi. The 
title was also applied to John the Bap- 
tist and to Christ. 

Prophet's City, a name by which 
Medina, in Arabia, is often referred 
to. To this place Mohammed fled for 
refuge during the Hegira, July 16, 
622, and here is his tomb. 

Prorogation, in English law, the 
interruption of a session, as distin- 
guished from an adjournment, which 
is from day to day, and may be of 
either or both houses, while a pro- 
rogation is of Parliament, also the 



Proscenium 



Proteids 



time during which the English Par- 
liament is prorogued. 

Proscenium, the stage of a theater, 
or the space included in the front of 
the scene ; in contradistinction to the 
postscenium, or space behind the 
scene. In the modern theater it is im- 
properly used to designate the orna- 
mental framework from which the 
curtain hangs when performances are 
not going on, dividing the spectator 
from all engaged on the stage. 

Proscription, in Roman history, a 
mode of getting rid of enemies, first 
resorted to by Sulla in 82 B. c., and 
imitated more than once afterward in 
the stormy years that closed the re- 
public. Under Sulla, lists of names 
were drawn out and posted up in 
public places, with the promise of a 
reward to any person who should kill 
any of those named in the lists, and 
the threat of death to those who 
should aid or shelter any of them. 
Their property also was confiscated, 
and their children were declared in- 
capable of honors. 

Prosecution, in law, (1) the in- 
stituting and carrying on of a suit in 
court of law or equity to obtain some 
right, or to redress and punish an in- 
jury or wrong. (2) The act or process 
of exhibiting formal charges against 
an offender before a legal tribunal, 
and pursuing them to final judgment; 
the instituting and continuing of a 
criminal suit against any person or 
persons. (3) The party by whom 
criminal proceedings are instituted ; 
the prosecutor or prosecutors collect- 
ively. 

Proselyte, a new convert to some 
religion, sect, opinion, party, or sys- 
tem. In Judaism, a gentile convert. 
Two kinds were discriminated: (1) 
Proselytes of the gate, who followed 
a few Old Testament rules, and (2) 
proselytes of righteousness, who ac- 
cepted the whole Mosaic ritual. 

Proserpine, in mythology, a 
daughter of Ceres and Jupiter, of ex- 
treme innocence and beauty, and who, 
while gathering flowers in the lovely 
vale of Tempe, or the Mysian Plain, 
was seen and carried off by the god 
of the infernal regions, Pluto. The 
prayers and intercessions of her moth- 
er ultimately prevailed on Pluto to 
permit her to spend half of each year 
on earth, to gratify and gladden the 



heart and eyes of her devoted parents, 
the other half being passed with her 
infernal lord in the realms below. 

Prosody, that part of grammar 
which treats of the quantities of sylla- 
bles, of accent, and of the laws of 
versification. In Greek and Latin 
every syllable had its determinate 
value or quantity, and verse was con- 
structed by a system of recurring feet, 
each consisting of a certain number 
of syllables, possessing a certain quan- 
tity and arrangement. In English, 
verse is constructed simply by accent 
and number of syllables. 

Protection, one of the theories con- 
cerning the best development of a 
country's industries by means of taxes 
levied for other than fiscal purposes. 
Incidental protection does not hold 
that any tariff should be levied with 
the intention of protecting and fos- 
tering a given industry, but that in 
every case the tax should be laid for 
public purposes only i. e., with the 
intention of sustaining the state, and 
be only incidentally directed to the 
protection of the weaker industry. 
These last assumptions furnish the 

f round of political divergence between 
reetrade proper (q. v.) and incidental 
protection. The protectionists take 
into consideration both the funda- 
mental conditions of the argument and 
the peculiar character of the indus- 
tries of a people. They claim that 
given pursuits may thus be strength- 
ened and encouraged by legislative 
provisions, and that natural and po- 
litical laws may be made to cooperate 
in varying and increasing the produc- 
tive resources of the state. 

Protector, in English history, on 
who had the care of the kingdom dur- 
ing the minority of the king; a re- 
gmt; specifically applied to Oliver 
romwell, who took the title of Lord 
Protector in 1653. In the Roman 
Catholic Church a cardinal belonging 
to one of the more important Catholic 
nations, who, in Rome, watches over 
questions affecting his country. There 
are also cardinal protectors of relig- 
ious orders, colleges, etc. 

Proteids, a name given to sub- 
stances analogous in composition to 
protein, that is, consisting of carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, some- 
times united with sulphur and phos- 
phorus. The gluten of flour, albumin, 



Protest 



the fibrin of the blood, syntonin, 
which is the chief constituent or 
muscle and flesh, and casein are ex- 
amples of proteids. Proteids are the 
essential food stuffs. 

Protest, ordinarily, a solemn af- 
firmation or declaration of opinion 
(frequently in writing), generally in 
opposition to some act or proposition ; 
a solemn affirmation by which a per- 
son declares either that he entirely 
dissents from and disapproves of any 
act or proposition, or else only con- 
ditionally gives his assent or consent 
to an act or proposition, to which 
he might otherwise be considered to 
have assented unconditionally. 

In commerce, a formal declaration 
by the holder of a bill of exchange or 
promissory note, or by a notary public 
at his direction, that acceptance or 
payment of such bill or note has been 
refused, and that the holder intends 
to recover all expenses to which he 
may be put in consequence of such 
non-acceptance or non-payment. 

Protestant, one who protests. In 
Church history, the name given to 
those princes and others who, on April 
19, 1529, at the second diet of Speyer, 
protested against the decision of the 
majority, that the permission given 
three years before to every prince to 
regulate religious matters in his do- 
minions till the meeting of a General 
Council should be revoked, and that 
no change should be made till the 
council met. The name is now extend- 
ed to all persons and churches hold- 
ing the doctrines of the Reformation 
and rejecting papal authority. 

Protestant Episcopal Church, 
a denomination in the United States 
directly descended from the Church of 
England, which doctrinally claims to 
be based on the Holy Scriptures, as 
interpreted in the Apostles and other 
ancient creeds of the Church that 
have been universally received, and 
to have kept herself aloof from all the 
modern systems of faith, whether of 
Calvin, or Luther, or Arminius, leav- 
ing her members free to enjoy their 
own opinions on all points not repre- 
sented in the Scriptures as necessary 
to soul's health, and refusing to be 
narrowed down to any other creed or 
creeds than those of the Apostles and 
the Primitive Church. She claims also 
to have retained all that is essential 



to church organization in her episco- 
pate, and in her liturgy to have not 
only a wise and judicious compend of 
doctrine and devotion, but also one 
of the most effectual of all possible 
conservative safeguards for the faith 
once delivered to the saints. Three 
clerical orders are recognized bish- 
ops, priests, and deacons the first 
deriving their oflice in direct succes- 
sion from the apostles by episcopal 
consecration, and the others receiving 
ordination at the hands of a bishop. 
Those of the second order are entitled 
archdeacons, deans, rectors, vicars, or 
curates, according to their functions. 
A reader is a layman licensed by the 
bishop to read in a church or chapel 
where there is no clergyman. Parson 
signifies a clergyman in possession of 
a parochial church. 

From the time of the first congrega- 
tions of the Church of England, in 
America, in 1607, to the close of the 
Revolution, all the clergy in the colo- 
nies were regarded as under the super- 
vision of the Bishop of London. The 
first American bishop was Rev. Samuel 
Seabury, who, in 1783, was consecrated 
in Scotland as Bishop of Connecticut. 
All Protestant Episcopal churches in 
the United States are associated in 
one national body, called the General 
Convention, which meets triennially. 

According to a special Census re- 
port on " Religious Bodies " (2 vols., 
1910), there were 6.845 organiza- 
tions; 6,922 church edifices; church 
property valued at over $125.040,- 
000; 5.368 ministers; 105 bishops of 
different grades; 886,942 communi- 
cants; and 5,211 Sunday schools. 

Protocol, the original draft or copy 
of a deed, contract, or other docu- 
ment. In diplomacy, the minutes or 
rough draft of an instrument or trans- 
action; the original copy of a treaty, 
dispatch, or other document; a docu- 
ment serving as the preliminary to 
diplomatic negotiations ; a diplomatic 
document or minute of proceedings, 
signed by the representatives of 
friendly powers in order to secure cer- 
tain political ends peacefully; a con- 
vention not subject to the formalities 
of ratification. 

Protophytes. The lowest and 
simplest organisms in the vegetable 
kingdom. They are regarded as among 
the Algse. The life-history of simplest 



Protoplasm 



Proverbs of Solomon 



Protophytes is exemplified in the Pal- 
moglcea macrococca, a sort of green 
scum or slime, growing on damp 
stones, etc. The cells are generally 
independent, but in some species re- 
main adherent one to another so as 
to form a filament. Some species have 
spiny projections of the outer coat, 
which is of a horny consistence, as 
in Staurastrum. Others are notched 
on the sides ; some, as the Closterium, 
are smooth. Many of the Desmids 
multiply by subdivision, but the plan 
is modified so as to maintain the sym- 
metry characteristic of the tribe. At 
other times multiplication takes place 
by the subdivision of the endochrome 
into granular particles, or " gonidia," 
set free by rupture of the cell wall. 

Protoplasm, in biology, etc., the 
living matter from which all kinds of 
living things are formed and devel- 
oped, and to the properties of which 
all their functions are ultimately re- 
ferred. Protoplasm is a transparent 
homogeneous, or granular-looking sub- 
stance. Under high microscopic power, 
in many instances, it shows a more or 
less definite structure, composed of 
fibrils more or less regular, and in 
some instances grouped into a honey- 
combed or fibrillar reticulum, in the 
meshes of which is a homogeneous in- 
terstitial substance. Its composition 
is a problem with which science is 
still to deal. 

Protozoa, a group of animals, oc- 
cupying the lowest place in the animal 
kingdom. They consist of a single cell, 
or of a group of cells not differentiated 
into two or more tissues ; incapable, 
as a rule, of assimilating nitrogen in 
its diffusible compounds (ammonia or 
nitrates, or carbon in the form of 
carbonates). The food is taken into 
the protoplasm, either by a specialized 
mouth or by any part of the cell sub- 
stance, in the form of particles. 

Proncllioii, Pierre Joseph, a 
French publicist; born in Besancon, 
France, July 15, 1809; died Jan. 19, 
1865. In 1840, appeared his fa- 
mous memoir, entitled, " What is 
Property?" his answer to this ques- 
tion, "Property is Theft," being al- 
most all that is popularly known of 
him. A second memoir on the same 
subject exposed him to a prosecution, 
but he was acquitted. After the revo- 
lution of February, 1848, he was 



chosen member of the Constituent 
Assembly for the department of the 
Seine. But he found no hearing at 
the tribune, and therefore started a 
newspaper under the title of " The 
People," which was suppressed, and 
reappeared three times. In 1849, he 
founded his People's Bank, but being 
soon after sentenced, under the press 
laws, to three years' imprisonment 
and a fine, he left France, and the 
bank was closed by the government. 

Prout, Father. See MAHONY. 

Frovan.cli.er, Leon, a Canadian 
priest and naturalist ; born in Becan- 
cour, P. Q., March 10, 1820. He estab- 
lished " Le Naturalist Canadien " 
("The Canadian Naturalist") in 
1868. His publications include : " Ele- 
mentary Treatise on Botany " ; " Cana- 
dian Plant Life " ; " Short History 
of Canada " ; etc. 

Provencal, a Romance dialect that 
sprang up in France on the decline 
of literary Latin. Originally Proven- 
cal and Northern French came from 
the same stock, but by the 12th cen- 
tury they differed almost as widely as 
French and Italian. Owing to its 
rhyming facilities it was essentially 
the language of the troubadours and 
extended over the area from the Alps 
to the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean 
to the Loire, as well as in parts of 
Spain and Switzerland. 

Proverb, an old and common say- 
ing ; a short or pithy sentence often 
repeated, and containing or expressing 
some well-known truth or common 
fact ascertained by experience or ob- 
servation; a sentence which briefly 
and forcibly expresses some practical 
truth. Unless a saying is capable of 
being applied to a variety of cases it 
can never become a proverb. 

Proverbs of Solomon, one of the 
sacred books of the Old Testament 
ascribed to Solomon. The Hebrew 
term translated proverbs means liter- 
ally, a similitude or comparison of 
two objects, and this is the form that 
most of them take. Solomon, we are 
told, uttered 3,000 proverbs ; but it 
has been doubted whether he ever 
made any collection of them in writ- 
ing; and it is expressly stated that 
the latter part of the book, beginning 
with chapter xxv.. was written and 
added by order of King Hezekiah. The 
title shows the author rather than tbx 



Providence 

compiler. It has hardly ever been con- 
tended that a large share in the com- 
position of the book is to be ascribed 
to the Wise King ; and the divine au- 
thority of the book is sufficiently 
proved by the quotations made from 
it in the New Testament. In all ages 
this book has been regarded as a great 
store house of practical wisdom. 

Providence, a city, capital of the 
State of Rhode Island, and the county- 
Beat of Providence CO. ; on the Provi- 
dence river, an arm of Narrangansett 
Bay, and 44 miles S. W. of Boston. 
It is the second city of New England 
in population and wealth, and is built 
on a rolling plateau. 

Providence has upward of 2,000 
manufacturing establishments, with 
a combined capital of about $60,000,- 
000, and employing- about 40,000 per- 
sons. It is noted for its manufactures 
of cotton and^ woolen goods, jewelry, 
and stoves, and is the- largest seat of 
fine jewelry manufacture in the Unit- 
ed States. The other industries in- 
clude silverware, tools, engines, loco- 
motives, boilers t sewing machines, 
screws, files, general hardware, yarn, 
calico, laces, braids, worsteds, broad- 
cloth, chemicals, etc. There is an ex- 
tensive coastwise commerce and ship- 
ping industry, especially in the coal, 
cotton and wool trade. There is also 
an important shell-fish industry. 

In 1636 Roger Williams, a Baptist 
clergyman, was exiled from Massa- 
chusetts because he opposed its theo- 
cratic laws. He first settled at What 
Cheer rock, on the Seekonk river, and 
later at the head of the Providence 
river, where the Indian chief, Canoni- 
cus, granted him a piece of land. In 
1643-1644 local government was 
formed under a royal charter. Provi- 
dence received its city charter in 1832, 
and has been enlarged by annexation 
of territory from adjoining towns. 
Pop. (1900) 175,597; (1910) 224,326. 

Piudclen, Thebphil Mitchell, 
an American bacteriologist ; born in 
Middlebury, Conn., July 7, 1849. He 
was Professor of Pathology in the 
College of Physicians and Surgeons, 
New York. His works include: 
" Handbook of Pathological Anatomy 
and Histology," with F. Delafield? 
" Story of the Bacteria " ; " Dust and 
its Dangers " : " An Elder Brother to 
the Cliff Dweller"; etc. 



Prussia 

Prune, the dried fruit of various 
plums, especially of the varieties 
called St. Catherine and Green Gage. 
They contain a large proportion of 
sugar, etc., so that brandy can be dis- 
tilled from them. 

Prussia, the largest and most pow- 
erful State of the German empire; 
occupying a N. central portion of the 
European continent ; bounded on the 
N. by the Baltic and Denmark; on 
the E. by Russia and Poland ; on thr 
S. by Bohemia, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, 
and Baden ; and on the W. by Bel- 
gium and the Netherlands. From the 
extreme E. frontier to Aix-la-Chapelle 
on the W. the distance is about 775 
miles, and from the promontory on 
the Baltic above Stralsund, to the ex- 
treme S. frontier of Silesia, the dis- 
tance is 404 miles. The length of the 
coast line is about 250 miles on the 
North Sea, and 750 miles on the Bal- 
tic. Total area of the kingdom, 136,- 
076 square miles. 

Prussia is administratively divided 
into 14 provinces, which are again 
subdivided into 35 government dis- 
tricts, with the principality of Hohen- 
zollern, the cradle of the royal fami'T 

The surface of the kingdom is gen- 
erally level, sloping in the N. to the 
sea, and forming part of the great N. 
plain of Europe. The S. and S. W. 
parts of the kingdom are hilly, or 
even mountainous. The climate of 
Prussia is varied. Along the Baltic it 
is moist, and in Eastern Prussia, espe- 
cially, the winter is long and severe. 
In Silesia, Brandenburg, and the Sax- 
on and Rhenish provinces, it is com- 
paratively mild. 

About 28,479,800 hectares are under 
cultivation. Large estates are general- 
ly managed by stewards and the oc- 
cupants of smaller properties are, in 
most cases, the owners. Rye, wheat, 
barley, oats, potatoes, beet root, flax, 
hops, tobacco and hemp form the chief 
products. Chicory is also largely cul- 
tivated. The extensive beet root plan- 
tations give rise to one of the most 
important industries ; in 1898 there 
were 312 establishments manufactur- 
ing beet root sugar. Madder and other 
plants used in dyeing are also raised. 
Fruits and vegetables are most ex- 
tensively grown in the W. provinces, 
which are also famous for their wines. 
Horses, cattle and sheep are extensive 



Prussia 



Prussia 



ly raised, wool being an important 
product. Large numbers of fine horses 
are exported from East Prussia. 

The mineral products are abundant, 
coal being the most important. The 
production of lignite is large. Copper, 
iron and lead are extensively worked. 
Prussia yields about one-half of the 
world's annual production of zinc. 

Though more of an agricultural 
than a manufacturing country, Prus- 
sia has greatly distinguished herself, 
particularly of late years, in the va- 
rious manufactures. Linens and coarse 
woolens for domestic consumption are 
made in every village, and, indeed, in 
most cottages throughout the kingdom. 
Large quantities of silk and cotton 
goods, and linen, are produced in 
Elberfeld, and other towns of the 
Rhine provinces. Very superior broad- 
cloth is largely manufactured at 
Eupen, Malmedy, Berlin, and Aix-la- 
Chapelle. Prussia occupies an ad- 
vanced rank as a producer of the use- 
ful metals. The articles of hardware 
made at Berlin, Iserlohn, Hagen, So- 
lingen, Olpe, and Essen enjoy a high 
reputation, the last-named place being 
the seat of the famous Krupp steel 
and gun works. ^ Porcelain, jewelry, 
watches, and carriages are also manu- 
factured in the latter city on a most 
extensive scale. Paper, leather, soap, 
oil and cigars are important manufac- 
tures; and beer and spirits are very 
extensively produced. 

Commerce is facilitated by the long 
coast line, and by an elaborate sys- 
tem of railways and canals. Through- 
out the kingdom, education is general 
and compulsory. Absolute religious 
liberty is guaranteed by the constitu- 
tion. Nearly two-thirds of the popula- 
tion are Protestants and most of the 
remainder, Roman Catholic. The State 
Church is Evangelical or Protestant, 
and_ since 1817 has consisted of a 
fusion of the Lutheran and Calvinist- 
ic bodies. The relations of the Ro- 
man Catholic Church to the govern- 
ment differ in the various provinces, 
but in every part of the monarchy the 
crown reserves to itself control over 
the election of bishops and priests. 
The higher Catholic clergy are paid 
by the State. 

> The constitution vests the execu- 
tive^and part of the legislative author- 
ity in a king who attains his majority 
on accomplishing his 18th year. The 



crown is hereditary in the male line, 
according to primogeniture. The king 
is advised by a council of ministers 
appointed by royal decree. The repre- 
sentative assembly, the Landtag, is 
composed of two chambers, the House 
of Lords (Herrenhaus) and the 
Chamber of Deputies (Abgeordneten- 
haus). The assent of the king and 
both chambers is requisite for all laws. 
The executive government is carried 
on by a Ministry of State appointed 
by the king and holding office at hia 
pleasure. 

The rise of the Prussian power has 
been rapid and extraordinary. The 
kings of Prussia trace their origin to 
Count Thassilo of Zollern, one of the 
generals of Charlemagne. His succes- 
sor, Count Friedrich I., built the 
family castle of Hohenzollern, near 
the Danube, in the year 980. A sub- 
sequent Zollern, or Hohenzollern, 
Friedrich III., was elevated lo the 
rank of a prince of the Holy Roman 
Empire, in 1273, and received the bur- 
graviate of Nuremberg in fief ; and 
his great-grandson, Friedrich VI. was 
invested by the Emperor Sigismund, 
in 1411, with the province of Branden- 
burg, and obtained the rank of Elect- 
or in 1417. In 1608-1.619 the duchy 
of Prussia was united to the electorate 
of Brandenburg, the territories of 
which had been greatly extended by 
the valor and wisdom of Friedrich 
Wilhelm, "the Great Elector," under 
whose fostering care arose the first 
standing army in central Europe. Dy- 
ing hi 1688, he left the province to his 
son, Frederick I., who assumed the 
crown at Konigsberg, June 18, 1701. 
Pomerania was soon after added to 
Prussia. When Frederick the Great 
ascended the throne in 1740, his dis- 
jointed dominions did not contain 2,- 
500,000 inhabitants, and these had 
made but little progress in the arts, 
or in the accumulation of wealth. But 
before his death, in 1786, Prussia had 
been increased in size nearly half; 
while the population had increased to 
about 6,000,000. Prussia acquired, 
by the subsequent partition of Poland 
in 1792, and its final dismemberment 
in 1795, a great extension of terri- 
tory, and upward of 2,000,000 inhabit- 
ants. Her disastrous contest with 
France in 1806 lowered Prussia for a 
while; but after Napoleon's Russian 
campaign, the people rose en masse, 



Prussian Blue 



Pseudonym 



and drove the French out of Germany. 
At the general peace of 1815, Prussia 
recovered all her former possessions 
(except a portion of her Polish do- 
minions), and gained valuable ac- 
quisitions. After the accession, in 
1862, of King William I., the execu- 
tive government presided over by 
Count von Bismarck, made laws, and 
even decreed budget estimates, without 
the concurrence of the chambers. In 
1864, Prussia, conjointly with Aus- 
tria, sent an army to occupy the 
duchy of Schleswig-Holstein. A war 
with Penmark followed, which re- 
sulted iii the annexation of that duchy 
to Prussia. In 1866, Hanover and 
Saxony were occupied by the Prussian 
troops, and a war followed ..with those 
kingdoms and with Austria, in which, 
after a brilliant campaign of two 
weeks, the latter power was obliged to 
sue for peace, and relinquish her 
claims as a German power. In addi- 
tion, Saxony was left a mere nominal 
sovereignty under the control of Prus- 
sia, while Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, 
Nassau, and the former free city of 
Frankfort-on-the-Main became ab- 
sorbed in the Prussian monarchy. In 
August, 1870, Napoleon III. declared 
war against Prussia, and the French 
armies marched toward the Rhine. An 
alliance having been entered into be- 
tween Prussia and the Southern Ger- 
man powers of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, 
and Baden, their combined forces 
crossed the Rhine into France. The 
part of Prussia in the Franco-German 
war is inextricably involved with that 
of the whole German nation. The con- 
flict seemed to precipitate the solution 
of the question which had always been 
the aim of tre king and Bismarck, 
German unity under Prussian leader- 
ship. On Jan. 18, 1871, King Will- 
iam was crowned at Versailles as 
Emperor of Germany, and on March 
21, the first German Reichstag as- 
sembled at Berlin. The history of 
Prussia since is that of Germany. 

Prussian Blue, a cyanide of iron 
possessed of a deep-blue color, and 
much used as a pigment. It is also 
used in medicine. 

Prussian Brown, a color obtained 
by adding a solution of the yellow 
prussiate of potash to a solution of 
sulphate of copper, which throws down 
a precipitate of deep brown. This, 



when washed and dried, is equal to 
madder, and possesses greater per- 
manency. 

Prussic Acid, a name given to hy- 
drocyanic acid because it was first ob- 
tained from Prussian blue. 

Prutz, Robert Eduard, a Ger- 
man poet and historian ; born in 
Stettin, May 30, 1816. He died in 
Stettin, June 21, 1872. 

Psalmist, a writer or composer of 
psalms ; a title applied especially to 
the authors of the Scriptural psalms, 
and specifically, with the definite arti- 
cle prefixed, to David. Psalmists, in 
Church history, were singers in the 
early church whose duty it was to 
lead the people. 

Psalmody, the art and practice of 
singing psalms. Psalm singing was 
introduced by the Reformers ; but Cal- 
vin discouraged any but simple mel- 
ody, while Luther practised and fa- 
vored part harmony, as did also John 
Knox in his psalter. 

Psalms, Book of, a book of the 
Old Testament. It was the praise book 
or psalter of the Hebrew temple or 
synagogues. In the present Hebrew 
Bibles it is placed just after the 
Prophets at the head of the Ha- 
giographia, and in Luke xxiv : 44, is 
generally supposed to stand for that 
division of the Old Testament books. 
The 350 psalms are arranged in He- 
brew in five books, each terminating 
with a doxology, in some cases closing 
with "Amen and amen." The revised 
version prints them separately. The 
book of Psalms is quoted or alluded 
to as an inspired composition by Our 
Saviour and His apostles at least 70 
times ; no Old Testament book is more 
frequently quoted. Its canonical au- 
thority has never been seriously 
doubted. Its rhythmical form and 
careful parallelism (now rendered ob- 
vious by the revised version) adapt it 
for the musical part of public wor- 
ship. 

Psalter, the Book of Psalms; also 
a book containing the Psalms sepa- 
rately printed, and with musical ac- 
companiment adapted to each ; also 
specifically, the version of the Psalms 
in the English Book of Common 
Prayer. 

Pseudonym, a false, feigned, or 
fictitious name; a pen-name. 



Psychology 

Psychology, the science of mental 
phenomena. Opinion is far from 
unanimous on many of the most im- 
portant points of psychological doc- 
trine, especially on such points as in- 
volve a philosophical view of the na- 
ture of mind. 

Ptarmigan, a game bird found in 
*he United States, and also in North- 
ern Europe. In winter the plumage of 
the male is almost wholly white, with 
a small patch behind the eye; the 
shafts of the primaries and the bases 
of the exterior tail-feathers are black, 
and. there is a patch of bare red skin 
around the eye. In the summer the 
black retains its position, but the 
white is mottled and barred with 
black and gray. The length of the 
adult male is rather more than 15 
inches. 

Pterodactyl, a remarkable genus 
of fossil lizards, peculiar to the Meso- 
zoic strata. The careful investigations 
of Cuvier, however, showed that the 
pterodactyl was a true lizard, but 
possessed of the power of flight, which 
it performed, not by a membrane 
stretched over its ribs, like the living 
dragons, but more as in the bats, ex- 
cept that the wing was attached, not 
to several, but only to a single finger 
the fifth the others being free 
and short. The bones of the fifth finger 
were very elongated, and the last joint 
terminated in a long, slender, unguard- 
ed apex ; the terminal joints in the 
other fingers were furnished with 
strong claws. 

Pterosauria, an extinct order of 
flying Reptilla of Mesozoic age. 

Pthab, or Phtha, an ancient 
Egyptian divinity, the creator of all 
things and source of life, and as such 
father and sovereign of the gods. He 
was worshiped chiefly at Memphis un- 
der the figure of a mummy-shaped 
male, and as a pygmy god. Equivalent 
to the Greek Hephaestus. 

Ptoleniieus, the dynastic name of 
13 kings of Egypt, who reigned from 
323 to 43 B. c. The most famous was 
Ptolemaeus Soter, who reigned from 
323 to 285 B. c. 

Ptolemaic System, the hypothesis 
maintained by Ptolemy in his " Al- 
magest " that the earth was a fixed 
body, remaining constantly at rest in 
the center of the universe, with the 



Ptolemy 

sun and moon revolving round it as 
attendant satellites. 

Ptolemy I., surnamed Soter, king 
of Egypt, founder of the Grseco- 
Egyptian dynasty of the Lagides, was 
a Macedonian, supposed to be a natural 
son of Philip II., and became a favor- 
ite general of Alexander the Great, 
whom he accompanied on his expedi- 
tion to Asia. On the death of hir 
master, in 323 B. p., Potelmy I., ob- 
tained Egypt for his province. For 20 
years he was almost constantly en- 
gaged in war. He took the title of 
king. He saved Rhodes when besieged 
by Demetrius, and received the title 
of Soter (saviour) ; and after the fall 
of Antigonus he applied himself to 
the promotion of commerce, literature, 
science, and the arts in his own do- 
minions. Philosophers, poets, and 
painters gathered to his court, and 
the foundations were laid of the fa- 
mous Alexandrian Library and Mu- 
seum. In 285 Ptolemy resigned his 
crown to his son, surnamed Philadel- 
phus, and died in 283. 

Ptolemy II., surnamed Philadel- 
phus (lover of his brother), king of 
Egypt, born in Cos, 311 B. c., was 
the youngest son of the preceding by 
his favorite wife, Berenice. He be- 
came king on the abdication of his 
father in 285, and had a long, and 
for the most part peaceful reign. He 
had been carefully educated, and ue 
entered heartily into his father's plans 
for promoting the prosperity of his 
kingdom, completing the Alexandrian 
Library Museum, patronizing learning 
and learned men, founding colonies, 
and increasing his army and his rev- 
enue. He made a treaty of alliance 
with the Romans, and encouraged the 
resort of Jews to Egypt. According 
to tradition it was by his order that 
the Septuagint version of the Old 
Testament was made. Ptolemy was 
twice married ; his second wife being 
his sister Arsinoe, widow of Ly- 
simachus. He died in 247. 

Ptolemy XII., Dionysius, son of 
Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, suc- 
ceeded to the throne conjointly with 
his sister Cleopatra, under the protec- 
tion of Pompey, in 52. He became a 
partisan of Caesar in the civil war, 
and after the battle of Pharsalia 
caused Pompey who sought refuge in 
his states, to be assassinated in 48. 



Ptolemy 

Aspiring to be sole king, be then took 
arms against Caesar, who had decided 
that Cleopatra should continue to 
reign with him, and was drowned in 
the Nile while flying from the field of 
battle, 47 B. c. 

Ptolemy, Claudius, a celebrated 
astronomer and geographer, who flour- 
ished at Alexandria, about A. D. 140- 
1GO. He is considered the first as- \ 
tronomer of antiquity. He corrected 
Hipparchus' catalogue of the fixed : 
stars, and formed tables by which i 
the motions of the sun, moon and 
planets might be calculated and regu- 
lated. He was the first who collected 
the scattered and detached observa- 
tions made by the ancients, and di- 
gested them into a system ; this he 
called the " Great Construction." i 
This great work of Ptolemy will al- 1 
ways be valuable on account of the 
observations he gives of the places of 
the stars and planets in former times, 
and according to ancient astronomers 
that were then extant; but principally; 
on account of the large and curious 
catalogue of the stars, which, being 
compared with modern catalogues, 
enables astronomers to deduce the true 
quantity of their apparent slow pro- 
gressive motion according to the order j 
of the signs, or of the precession of the 
equinoxes. 

Ptomaine, a putrescent product of 
animal origin and of a basic or al- 
kaloidal nature, closely allied to the 
vegetable alkaloids ; a cadaveric 
poison. About 150 varieties of pto- 
maines are known, sqme being harm- 
less, others very poisonous. Ordinary 
foods frequently undergo changes that 
render them harmful, and especially 
is this so with mussels, clams, oysters, 
fish, meat, sausage, milk, ice-cream, 
cheese and canned goods. These 
changes are due to the presence of 
ptomaines. Heat will destroy the 
ptomaine bacteria, but their poison 
is not eliminated by cooking. 

Publican, in Roman antiquities, a 
collector of revenues, or farmer of the 
taxes consisting of tolls, tithes, harbor 
duties, duties for the use of pasture 
lands, mines, salt works, etc., in Ro- 
man provinces. From the nature of 
their office, and the oppressive exac- 
tions of many of their number, these 
officials were generally regarded by the 
inhabitants with detestation. 

E. 121. 



Pueblo 

Public Health Acts. In the 

United States scientific investigation 
into the means for preserving health is 
of recent growth, though laws were 
enacted by the colonies for the preven- 
tion of the introduction of contagious 
or infectious diseases from foreign 
ports. State boards of health have 
been created in nearly all the States. 
In 1878 Congress passed " An Act to 
prevent the introduction of contagious 
or infectious diseases in the United 
States," providing that no vessel com- 
ing from a foreign port where con- 
tagious or infectious disease may ex- 
ist shall enter any port of the United 
States, except in manner prescribed 
by regulations. In 1879 a National 
Board of Health was created by Con- 
gress ; its duties were to obtain in- 
formation on all matters affecting pub- 
lic health, and to advise the several 
departments of the government and the 
executives of the several States on all 
questions submitted by them. Town or 
city boards of health have existed for 
many years in all large municipalities. 

Publicist, a term originally ap- 
plied to a writer on international law, 
now used to denote a writer on current 
politics. 

Public Prosecutor, an officer ap- 
pointed to originate and conduct prose- 
cutions in the public interest. 

Puccinotti, Francesco, an 
Italian physician ; born in Urbino, 
Italy, in 1794. In 1838 the Tuscan 
Archduke appointed him Professor of 
Medical Jurisprudence in Pisa Uni- 
versity, and there he published his 
masterpiece, the " History of Medi- 
cine." He died Oct. 8, 1872. 

Puck, in mediaeval mythology, the 
" merry wanderer of the night," 
whose character and attributes are 
depicted in Shakespeare's " Midsum- 
mer Night's Dream." He was the 
chief of the domestic tribe of fairies. 
Pueblo, city and capital of Pue- 
blo county, Col.; on the Arkansas 
river and several railroads; 118 miles 
S. E. of Denver; is an important 
railroad, mining, manufacturing, and 
live-stock center; has valuable coal, 
silver, and gold mines nearby, and 
large steel works and smelters; and 
is the seat of the State Hospital for 
the Insane, State Agricultural So- 
ciety, and a noted Mineral Palace. 
Pop. ((1910) 44,395. 



Pueblos 

Pueblos (Spanish, pueblo, "vil- 
lage ") , a semi-civilized family of 
American Indians in New Mexico and 
Arizona, dwelling in large single habi- 
tations, which are sometimes capa- 
cious enough to contain a whole tribe. 
These edifices which are often five 
or six stories high, and from 130 to 433 
yards long, with many rooms (53 to 
124) on each floor are commonly 
constructed of adobe or sun-dried 
brick ; the ground floor is invariably 
without doors or windows, entrance 
being effected by a ladder leading to 
the second story ; and indoors ladders 
take the place of staircases every- 
where. A somewhat pyramidal aspect 
is given to the whole building by each 
successive story receding a few feet 
from the line of that below it. Each 
family of the tribe has a separate 
apartment, and there are also large 
rooms for general council chambers and 
for tribal dances. In New Mexico 
there are 19 such villages, with over 
8,000 occupants, who are skillful agri- 
culturists, employing irrigation ditches 
extensively, and rearing horses, cattle, 
and sheep. Spinning and weaving and 
the manufacture of pottery also are 
carried on. The Moquis of Arizona 
are a related tribe, numbering about 
1,800, in seven villages built on the 
summit of isolated hills. The Pueblos 
are under Roman Catholic mission- 
aries, and are making steady progress 
in civilization and education, though 
on their Christianity they have grafted 
many of their old pagan beliefs and 
customs, to which they obstinately 
cling. They were first visited by the 
Spaniards about 1530, at which period 
their habits and their habitations were 
very much the same as today. It is 
evident, however, from the wide area 
over which the ruins of old pueblos 
and remains of ancient pottery have 
been found, that they were at one time 
very much more numerous than they 
are now. 

Puerto Cabello, a seaport of 
Venezuela, in the State of Carabobo, 
78 miles W. of Caracas. It stands on 
a long, low narrow peninsula on the 
Caribbean Sea, and has a safe, deep, 
and roomy harbor, defended by a fort 
and batteries. It is the port of Val- 
encia, which is 34 miles distant by 
rail. There is an active foreign trade, 
which averages $6,250,000 annually; 



Puffin 

the chief exports are coffee, cacao, in- 
digo, cinchona, cotton, sugar, divi-divi, 
and copper ore. Pop. about 11,000. It 
was bombarded by the Germans during 
the recent blockade of Venezuelan 
ports by Germans, British and Ital- 
ians. 

Puf endorf, or Puffendorf , Sam- 
uel, Baron von, a German writer on 
the law of nature and nations; born 
in 1632. He studied theology and law 
at Leipsic and Jena, and in 1660 ap- 
peared his " Elements of General Ju- 
risprudence." In 1661 he became Pro- 
fessor of the Law of Nature and of 
Nations at Heidelberg. In 1667 he 
published his work " The Common- 
wealth of Germany," which, from the 
boldness of its attacks on the consti- 
tution of the German empire, caused 
a profound sensation. In 1670 he 
went to Sweden, became Professor of 
Natural Law in the University of 
Lund, and brought out his chief work, 
" Natural Law and the Law of Na- 
tions," and in 1675 an abstract of 
it. In 1686 he received a summons to 
Berlin from Frederick William, Elect- 
or of Brandenburg, a history of whom 
Pufendorf wrote for the Elector's son, 
the first king of Prussia. In 1694 he 
was created a baron by the king of 
Sweden, and in the same year be died 
in Berlin. There are English transla- 
tions of his principal works. 

Puff Adder, one of the most ven- 
omous serpents of South Africa. In 
length, when full grown, it is from 
four to five feet, and is as thick as 
a man's arm. The head is very broad, 
the tail suddenly tapered ; prevailing 
color, brown, checkered with a darker 
shade and with white. It usually glides 
along partially buried in the sand, and, 
when disturbed, puffs out the upper 
part of its body, whence its popular 
name. The Bosjesmans smear their 
arrows with its venom. 

Puff Birds, a family resembling 
kingfishers in form, but living on in- 
sects like fly catchers ; they also re- 
semble the bee eaters, and are found 
only in South and Central America. 

Puffin, a common sea bird, with 
many popular names bottlenose, coul- 
terneb, pope, seaparrot and tammy 
norie, with others that are only locally 
known. By extension, the name is 
applied to other species of the genua. 



Pugilism 

The common puffin is rather larger 
than a pigeon; plumage glossy black 
above, under surface pure white ; feet 
orange-red; bill very deep, and flat- 
tened laterally, parti-colored red, 
yellow, and blue, and grooved during 
the breeding season, and undergoing a 
kind of moult at its close a peculiar- 
ity shared by other species. 

Pugilism, the practice of boxing or 
fighting with the fists. In the schools 
and by amateurs, it is practised with 
the gloves ; in the prize ring some- 
times with the naked fists. Man being 
instinctively a pugnacious animal, and 
the fist being the simplest and most 
natural weapon, it may be taken for 
granted that pugilism, as a mode of 
settling differences, is coeval with man 
himself. It formed one of the earliest 
of the athletic games of the Greeks ; 
and we find the Greek poets describ- 
ing their heroes and gods as excelling 
in the pugne. Boxing for men was in- 
troduced in the Olympic games in the 
23d Olympiad, and for boys in the 
37th Olympiad. With the exception 
of a girdle about the loins, the ancient 
pugilist fought nude. In the United 
States pugilism as an athletic exercise 
is permitted, but the brutal exhibitions 
of the prize ring are generally prohib- 
ited by law. 

Pnlaski, Count Casimir, a Po- 
lish patriot and military officer, who 
participated in the war of the Ameri- 
can Revolution ; born in 1747. His 
father, a Polish nobleman, was the or- 
ganizer of the celebrated Confedera- 
tion of Bar, in hostility to Russia, 
and for the liberation of his country, 
in which Casimir eagerly joined, carry- 
ing on a desultory warfare with varied 
success till the coalition of Russia, 
Austria, and Prussia completed the 
conquest of Poland. His father and 
brothers being killed, Casimir escaped 
with difficulty into Turkey, whence he 
proceeded by way of France to join 
the Americans, then fighting for inde- 
pendence, bearing recommendations 
from Franklin to Washington, whom 
he joined in 1777. Entering as a vol- 
unteer, he so distinguished himself at 
the battle of Brandywine as to be 
promoted by Congress to a cavalry 
command, with the rank of Brigadier- 
General, which command, however, he 
resigned five months after, in 1778. He 
afterward organized an independent 



Pulque 

corps of cavalry and light infantry, 
with which he rendered effectual serv- 
ice under General Lincoln, in South 
Carolina, in 1779, and in the siege of 
Savannah, Ga., where, in an assault 
on the latter place, he was mortally 
wounded. He died in 1779. 

Pulaski, Fort, a fortification at 
the mouth of the Savannah river. 
Seized by the Confederates, Jan. 3, 
1861, it was besieged and taken by the 
Union forces, April 12, 1862. 

Pulgar, Fernando de, a Spanish 
writer in the latter part of the fif- 
teenth century. He wrote a " Chron- 
icle " of the reign of Ferdinand and 
Isabella ; " Notable Men of Castile " ; 
a commentary on the ancient " Coup- 
lets of Mingo Revulgo." 

Pulitzer, Joseph, an American 
journalist ; born in Budapest, Hun- 
gary, April 10, 1847. W nen Quite 
young he came to the United States 
and served in the Civil War. In 1883 
he purchased the New York "World," 
then on the verge of failure, but he 
built it up till it became one of the 
most substantial papers in the city. 
In 1903 he donated two millions of 
dollars to Columbia University, New 
York city, to establish a " School of 
Journalism." 

Pullman, George Mortimer, an 
American inventor ; born in Chau- 
tauqua co., N. Y., March 3, 1831; 
learned the cabinetmaker's trade; set- 
tled in Chicago; studied for many 
years the problem of making journeys 
by rail more comfortable ; and as a 
result invented the Pullman palace car. 
In 1863 he started building these cars, 
and in 1SG7 'organized the Pullman 
Palace Car Company. He also, in- 
vented the vestibule train and founded 
the town of Pullman, 111., in 1880. He 
died in Chicago, Oct. 19, 1897. 

Pulpit, a raised place or desk in 
a church, from which the preacher de- 
livers his sermon. They are now gen- 
erally made of wood, but were former- 
ly also made of stone, richly carved 
and ornamented. Hence, used figura- 
tively, for preachers generally or 
preaching; the teaching of preachers. 

Pulque, a vinous beverage, made in 
Mexico, by fermenting the juice of 
the various species of the agave. It 
resembles cider, but has a disagreeable 
odor, like that of putrid meat. 



Pulse 

Pulse, in physiology, the beat or 
shock felt in any artery when slight 
pressure is made on it, caused by the 
systole of the heart. At birth the num- 
ber of beats is about 140, at the end 
of the first year 120, at the end of the 
second 110 ; during middle life between 
70 and 80, and in old age usually a 
little more. It is slower in man than 
in woman, and is also affected by the 
position of the body. 

Pulse, a general name for legumi- 
nous plants or their seeds ; such as 
beans, peas, etc. 

Pulsometer, a form of pump for 
raising water, by the condensation of 
steam, in a vessel situated at such 
elevation above the water supply that 
the atmospheric pressure will raise the 
water to the chamber and operate the 
valves. Its most common use is to 
(fill steam boilers. 

Puma, the cougar of the French, the 
leon of the South Americans, and 
the panther or " painter " of the trap- 
pers. It is the largest feline of the 
New World, measuring 40 inches from 
the nose to root of tail, which is about 
20 inches more ; the head is small, 
mane absent ; general color of upper 
surface tawny yellowish-brown, vary- 
ing in intensity in different individ- 
uals ; lower parts of the body and in- 
ner surface of limbs dirty white. The 
young, when born, are spotted with 
brown, and the tail is ringed. The 
puma is destructive, and slays far 
more than it can eat. but rarely, if 
ever, attacks man, and may be tamed 
with little difficulty. Edmund Kean 
had one which followed him about like 
a dog. It ranges from Canada to Pata- 
gonia, being most numerous in the for- 
est districts of Central America. 

Pumice, a very porous, or cellular, 
froth-like rock, of extreme lightness, 
floating on water. Structure, web-like, 
consisting of vitreous threads either in- 
timately interwoven or parallel. Like 
the more compact forms of vitreous 
lavas, it varies much in chemical com- 
position, which, however, is mostly 
that of trachytic rocks. It owes its 
cellular structure to the enormous ex- 
pansion of aqueous vapor consequent 
on the relief from pressure during the 
extrusion of vitreous lavas at the 
earth's surface. In commerce, pumice 
stone. It is imported from the Lipari 
Isles, and is used for polishing metals 



Pumpelly 

and marble, and smoothing the surface 
of wood and pasteboard. It is said to 
be a good glaze for pottery. 

Pump, a machine, engine, or device, 
consisting of an arrangement of a 
piston, cylinder, and valves, for raising 
water or other liquid to a higher level, 
or for compressing or exhausting air 
and other gases. There are numerous 
varieties of pumps differing more or 
less in construction, according to the 
purposes for which each is intended, 
but the most important are the suc- 
tion pump, the lifting or lift pump, 
the force pump, and the centrifugal or 
rotary pump. 




CHAIN PUMP. 

Pumpelly, Raphael, an Ameri- 
can geologist : born in Oswego, N. Y., 
Sept. 8, 1837. In his early life he 
conducted explorations for the govern- 
ments of Japan and China ; was pro- 
fessor at Harvard for several years ; 
and from 1879 to 1892 geologist in 
charge of the Archaean division of the 
United States Geological Survey. His 
chief works are : " Geological Re- 
searches in China, Mongolia, and Jap- 
an " " Across America and Asia," 
" Mining Industries of the United 
States," etc. 



Pumpkin 

Pumpkin, a climbing plant and its 
fruit, originally from Astrachan, but 
widely cultivated in America. It has 
rough leaves, the flowers large, soli- 
tary. It is caised.in the open air. The 
pumpkin, cooked in various forms, is 
a favorite dish in America, and es- 
pecially in the Northeastern States 
of the Union, where the pumpkin pie 
is almost indispensable at the Yankee 
housewife's table. Boiled and mashed 
it is an excellent side dish. 

Pun, a play on words, the wit of 
which depends on a resemblance in 
sound between two words of different 
and perhaps contrary meanings, or on 
the use of the same word in different 
senses, etc. 

Punch, with his wife Judy and dog 
Toby, the chief characters in a popular 
comic puppet show, of Italian origin, 
the name being a contraction of Pun- 
chinello, for Pulcinello, the droll clown 
in Neapolitan comedy. The exhibition 
soon found its way to other countries. 

Punch, or the London Chari- 
vari, the chief of English comic 
journals, a weekly magazine of wit, 
humor, and satire in prose and verse, 
illustrated by sketches, caricatures, 
and emblematic devices. It was found- 
ed in 1841, the first number appear- 
ing July 17 of that year, and, under 
the jojnt editorship of Henry Mayhew 
and Mark Lemon, soon became a 
household word, while ere long its sa- 
tirical cuts and witty rhymes were ad- 
mitted a power in the land. " Punch " 
is recognized as an English institution. 

Punctuation, the act, art, or 
method of punctuating or pointing a 
writing or discourse; the act, art, or 
method of dividing a discourse into 
sentences, clauses, etc., by means of 
points or stops. Punctuation is per- 
formed with four points or marks, viz., 
the period (.) , the colon ( :) , the semi- 
colon (;), and the comma (,). The 
other points used in composition are 
the note of interrogation or inquiry 
( ?) , and of exclamation, astonishment, 
or admiration (!). The first printed 
books had only arbitrary marks here 
and there, and it was not till the 16th 
century that an approach was made 
to the present system by the Manutii 
of Venice. 

Punic, the language of the Cartha- 
ginians. It was an offshoot of Phce- 



Fnpa 

nician, belonging to the Canaanitish 
branch of the Semitic tongues. 

Punic Wars, three great wars be- 
tween the Romans and the Carthagin- 
ians. The first (264-241 B. c.) was 
for the possession of Sicily, and ended 
by the Carthaginians having to with- 
draw from the island. The second 
(218-202 B. c.), the war in which 
Hannibal gained his great victories in 
Italy, was a death struggle between the 
two rival powers ; it ended with de- 
cisive victory to the Romans. The 
third (140-146 B. c.) was a wanton 
one for the destruction of Carthage, 
which was effected in the last-named 
year. 

Punishment, a penalty inflicted on 
a person for a crime or offense, by the 
authority to which the offender is sub- 
ject ; a penalty imposed in the enforce- 
ment or application of law. The pun- 
ishments usual for criminal offenses 
in the United States are death _ by 
hanging or electricity, or by shooting, 
imprisonment with and without hard 
labor, solitary confinement, detention 
in a reformatory school, subjection to 
police supervision, imposition of fines, 
and putting under recognizance. In 
New York, Ohio and Massachusetts 
the death penalty is inflicted by elec- 
trocution, and in Delaware whipping 
is resorted to as a punishment for cer- 
tain offenses. 

Punjab, an extensive territory in 
the N. \V. of India, most of it under 
direct Anglo-Indian authority, and 
ruled by a lieutenant-governor, a large 
portion of the remainder constituting 
the protected state of Kashmir. 

Punt, a large, square-built, flat- 
bottorned vessel, without masts, used 
as a lighter for conveying goods, etc., 
and propelled by poles. Also, a small, 
flat-bottomed boat, with square ends, 
used in fishing, and propelled by poles. 

Pnnta Arenas. The chief port on 
the Pacific of the Central American 
republic of Costa Rica. 

Pupa, or Pupe, in entomology, the 
third stage in the development of an 
insect. On reaching its full growth 
the larva ceases to eat, and some time 
later becomes encased in a closed shell 
or case, whence after a certain length- 
ened period, which typically is one 
of repose, it emerges as a perfect in-- 
sect. 



Fupin 

Fupin, Micliael Idvorsky, an 
American scientist; born in Idvar, 
Hungary, Oct. 4, 1858 ; was graduated 
at Columbia University in 1883 ; stud- 
ied at the University of Berlin; and 
was appointed Adjunct Professor of 
Mechanics at Columbia University in 
1889. In 1901 he announced the dis- 
covery of a new method of ocean 
telephony. He was a member of the 
American Mathematical Society, Amer- 
ican Philosophical Society, etc. He 
wrote " Propagation of Long Electrical 
Waves " ; " Wave Propagation Over 
Non-Uniform Conductors " ; etc. 

Purana, the last great division of 
Hindu sacred literature. 

Purcell, Henry, an English com- 
poser; born in 1658. In 1680, prob- 
ably, he composed for a private semi- 
nary " Dido and Eneas," which has 
been called the first genuine English 
opera, but has never been produced on 
the public stage. For some years after 
he became organist of Westminster 
Abbey he composed mainly anthems 
and sacred music, all of great excel- 
lence. In 1690 he wrote the music for 
Dryden's version of " The Tempest." 
In 1691 he produced the music to Dry- 
den's "King Arthur," _ which, though 
considered his dramatic masterpiece, 
was not published till 1843. In 1694 
he wrote, for St. Cecilia's Day. his 
" The Jubilate " and " Te Deum,'' and 
in 1695 the music to " Bpnduca," in 
which was " Britons, Strike "Home." 
Purcell was equally great in church 
music, chamber music, and music for 
the theater. He died in 1695, and was 
buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Purchase, in law, the suing out 
and obtaining a writ; the obtaining 
or acquiring the title of lands and tene- 
ments by money, deed, gift, or any 
means except descent. In mechanics, 
a means of increasing applied power ; 
any mechanical hold, advantage, 
power, or force applied to the raising 
or removing of heavy bodies; mechan- 
ical advantage gained by the applica- 
tion of any, power. 

Purdue TTniyersity, a coeduca- 
tional non-sectarian institution in La- 
fayette, Ind. ; founded in 1874. 

Purgatory, in Roman theology, a 
place in which souls who depart this 
life in the grace of God suffer for a 
time, because they still need to be 



Purse Crafc 

cleansed from venial, or have still to 
pay the temporal punishment due to 
.mortal sins, the guilt and eternal pun- 
ishment of which have been remitted. 

Purification, a'Jewfsh rite. It 
was mainly the one through the per- 
formance of which an Israelite was 
readmitted to the privilege of religious 
communion, lost through uncleanness. 
The chief varieties of such uncleanness, 
and the methods of purification from 
it required* are detailed in Lev. xii., 
xiv., xv., and Numb. xix. 

Purint, the Festival of Lots, whicb 
was instituted by Mordecai and is cele- 
brated to this day by the Jews on the 
14th and 15th of the month Adar 
(March), in commemoration of their 
wonderful deliverance from the de- 
struction with which they were threat- 
ened by Haman. On these festive 
days the book of Esther is read, pres- 
ents are interchanged, and gifts are 
sent to the poor. 

Puritan, the name given, at first 
perhaps in contempt, to those clergy- 
men and others in the reign of the 
English Queen Elizabeth, who desired 
a simpler, and what they considered 
to be a purer, form of worship than 
the civil and ecclesiastical authorities 
sanctioned. New England was settled 
very largely by the Puritans. Also, 
one who has severely strict notions as 
to what is proper or who is strict in 
his religious duties. 

Purple, a secondary color, com- 
pounded by the union of the primaries 
blue and red. 

Purples, Ear Cockle, or Pep- 
percorn, a disease affecting the ears 
of wheat. Infected grains assume 
a dark-green color, which soon deepens 
to a black, and become rounded like 
small peppercorns. The husks open, 
and the diseased grains are found to 
contain no flour, but a moist sub- 
stance. 

Purse Crab, a name for decapod 
crustaceans allied to the hermit crabs. 
A species, the robber crab, found in 
the Mauritius and the more E. islands 
of the Indian Ocean, is one of the 
largest crustaceans, being sometimes 
two to three feet in length. It resides 
on land, while paying a nightly visit 
to the sea, often burrowing under the 
roots of trees, lining its hole with the 
fibers of the cocoanut husk and living" 



Purser 

on the nuts, which (according to some 
writers) it climbs the trees to pro- 
cure, and the shells of which it cer- 
tainly breaks with great ingenuity. 

Purser, on shipboard, the officer 
whose duty is to keep the accounts of 
the ship to which he is attached. In 
mining, the paymaster or cashier of a 
mine, and the official to whom notices 
of transfer are sent for registration in 
the cost-book. 

Purslane, a plant, with fleshy suc- 
culent leaves, naturalized throughout 
the warmer parts of the world. Purs- 
lane was formerly more used than at 
present in salads as a pot herb, in 
pickles, and for garnishing. It has 
anti-scorbutic properties. 

Purves, George T., an American 
clergyman; born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
Sept. 27, 1852 ; was graduated at the 
University of Pennsylvania in 1872 
and at the Princeton Theological 
Seminary in 1876; was Professor of 
New Testament literature and Exege- 
sis at the Princeton Theological Sem- 
inaiy in 1892-1900, when he accepted 
a call to the Fifth Avenue Presbyter- 
ian Church, New York city. He wrote 
" The Apostolic Age " ; etc. He died 
(n New York city, Sept. 24, 1901. 

Pus, in physiology and pathology, 
the product of suppuration, a thick, 
dscid, yellow fluid, consisting of 
liquor puris, pus corpuscles, and other 
histological particles. 

Pusey, Caleb, an American Quaker 
colonist ; born in Berkshire, England, 
about 1650. He came with Penn's 
company to America in 1682, erected 
the first mills in the province, held 
many high places in civil affairs, and 
was a noted controversialist writer of 
his day. He published a great num- 
ber of pamphlets and articles in de- 
fense of his creed. He died in Ches- 
ter co., Pa., Feb. 25, 1727. 

Pusey, Edward Bouverie, an 
English theological writer, a leader of 
the Anglo-Catholic (Tractarian) 
party in the Established Church; born 
near Oxford in 1800. He published : 
" The Holy Eucharist a Comfort to 
the Penitent," a sermon which re- 
sulted in his suspension for three 
years ; two sermons on " The Entire 
Absolution of the Penitent," equally 
revolutionary. Of his larger works 
the most important are : " The Doc- 



Putnam 

trine of the Real Presence " ; and 
" The Real Presence of the Body and 
Blood of Christ the Doctrine of the 
English Church." Died Sept. 16. 1882. 

Pushkin, Alexander Sergeye- 
vitich, Count, the master poet of 
Russia ; born at St. Petersburg in 
1799; died 1837. He was govern- 
ment official, and in 1825 was appoint- 
ed Imperial historiographer. His 
works embrace poems, dramas, novels, 
and histories. 

Putnam, Frederick Ward, an 
American scientist ; born in Salem, 
Mass., April 16, 1839; was graduated 
at Harvard University in 1862; be- 
came chief of the Department of Eth- 
nology at the World's Columbian Ex- 
position in Chicago in 1893. He is 
a member of numerous American and 
foreign scientific societies. The French 
government gave him the Cross of the 
Legion of Honor. 

Putnam, George Haven, an 
American publisher and author, son 
of George P. ; born in London, Eng- 
land, April 2, 1844. He entered the 
publishing business in 1866, and be- 
came the head of the firm of G. P. 
Putnam's Sons, New York. His 
works include : " International Copy- 
right " (1879); "Books and their 
Makers during the Middle Ages " 
(1896), etc. 

Putnam, George Palmer, an 
American publisher and author ; born 
in Brunswick, Me., Feb. 7, 1814. In 
1848 he established the publishing 
house now conducted under the name 
of G. P. Putnam's Sons; and also 
founded " Putnam's Magazine," which 
was subsequently merged with " Scrib- 
ner's Monthly." His works include : 
" The Tourist in Europe " ; " The 
World's Progress" (1850); "Ten 
Years of the World's Progress " ; etc. 
He died in New York, Dec. 20, 1872. 

Putnam, Herbert, an American 
librarian ; born in New York city, 
Sept. 20, 1861; was graduated at 
Harvard in 1883 ; studied at the Co- 
lumbian Law School; was admitted 
to the Minnesota bar in 1886; li- 
brarian of the Boston Public Library 
in 1887-1891 ; and was appointed li- 
brarian of Congress in 1899. 

Putnam, Israel, an American 
general in the Revolutionary War ; 
born in Danvers (then part of 



Putnam 

Salem), Mass., in 1718. He was des- 
tined to the occupation of a farmer, 
and continued in that vocation till 
the French and Indian war broke out, 
when, at the age of 36, he took serv- 
ice in the English army, and from his 
known courage and energy, received 
the command of a company of light 
troops, or " rangers." When the dis- 
pute between this country and Eng- 
land commenced, he was following 
the quiet life of a farmer and tavern 
keeper ; but the first blood that was 
shed aroused all his energy. He was 
created Major-General by Congress, 
and at Bunker Hill, New York, and 
during Washington's retreat through 
New Jersey, he showed himself one 
of the bravest and most devoted of 
the patriot leaders. But in 1779 he 
was stricken with paralysis, and was 
prevented from participating in the 
final triumphs of the national cause. 
His character is well depicted by the 
inscription on his tomb : " He dared 
to lead where any dared to follow." 
He died in 1790. 

Putnam, Mrs. Mary (Lowell), 
an American historical writer, sister 
of James Russell Lowell; born in 
Boston, Mass., Dec. 3, 1810. In 1832 
she married Samuel R. Putnam, a 
merchant of Boston. Besides a trans- 
lation from the Swedish, and numer- 
ous magazine articles, she published : 
" History of the Constitution of Hun- 
gary " ; and two dramatic poems on 
the subject of slavery. She died in 
Boston in June, 1898. 

Putnam, M-s. Sarah A. Brock, 
an American novelist and writer ; born 
in Madison Courthouse, Va., about 
1845. In 1883 she married the Rev. 
Richard Putnam, of New York. Her 
works include : " Richmond during 
the War"; "The Southern Ama- 
ranth " ; etc. 

Putnam, William Lc Baron, an 
American jurist ; born in Bath, Me., 
May 12, 1835 ; was graduated at Bow- 
doin College in 1855 and admitted to 
the bar in 1858 ; practised in Port- 
land, Me., till 1892 ; was a member 
of a commission to arrange with the 
British government the rights of 
American fishermen in Canadian 
waters in 1887; served also as a com- 
missioner under the treaty of Feb. 6, 
2896, between the United States and 
Great Britain; and was appointed a 



Pycnogonnm 

judge of the United States Circuit 
Court in 1892. 

Putnam, Fort, the principal de- 
fense of West Point during the Revo- 
lution. Now in ruins. 

Putrefaction, the apparently spon- 
taneous decomposition of organic sub- 
stances, especially those rich in nitro- 
gen. It differs from fermentation in 
being accompanied by the evolution of 
fetid and noxious gases. In the proc- 
ess of putrefaction, organic bodies of 
a higher order are changed, sometimes 
into lower organic compounds, some- 
times into inorganic compounds, as 
ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, etc., 
and sometimes into simple substances, 
as hydrogen and nitrogen. 

Puts and Calls, terms used in 
American stock dealings. The trade 
in privileges is something which is 
scarcely understood outside of Board 
of Trade and Stock Exchange circles. 
For $1 per 1,000 bushels a trader can 
purchase the privilege to " put " 
(sell) or "call" (buy) from the sell- 
er of the privilege at a stipulated price 
and within a stipulated time. The 
ordinary privileges are sold one day to 
be good to the close of the next ses- 
sion. In inactive markets the "put" 
and " call " prices may be close to- 
gether and close to the market price 
of the property. They are counte- 
nanced by the State of New York and 
are a regular feature in the New 
York Stock Exchange. In Illinois 
they are specifically classed as gam- 
bling operations. The theory of 
" privileges " is that they are a spe- 
cies of insurance by which an opera- 
tor can protect himself against mar- 
ket fluctuations. A trader who is 
" short" in the market can protect his 
position to a certain degree by buying 

calls " ; a " long " can prevent 
losses in the same degree by buying 
" puts." The insurance proposition 
is a theory, however, as " privileges " 
more often serve to originate new 
trades than to serve as an insurance 
on existing business conditions. 

Pyaemia, or Pyemia, a diseased 
condition in which the blood is poi- 
soned by pus or by some of its con- 
stituents; blood poisoning; septicae- 
mia. 

Pycnogonnm, a genus of Arachni- 
da, the sea spiders. Some species are 



Pygmalion 

parasitic upon fishes and other marine 
animals, but the common species is 
free when adult, and does not appear 
to be parasitic during any period of 
its existence. One species attaches 
itself parasitically to the whale. 

Pygmalion, in Greek mythology, 
grandson of Agenqr, King of Cyprus. 
He fell in love with an ivory statue 
of a young maiden he himself had 
made, and prayed to Aphrodite to give 
it life. His prayer was granted, on 
which he married the maiden. 

Pygmy, or Pigmy, in classical 
mythology, one of a fabulous nation 
of dwarfs dwelling somewhere near 
the shores of the ocean, and maintain- 
ing perpetual wars with the cranes. 
Ctesias represented a nation of them 
as inhabiting India. Other ancient 
writers believed them to inhabit the 
Indian islands : Aristotle places them 
in Ethiopia, Pliny in Transgangetic 
India. A race of pygmies has been 
discovered in Central Africa. 

Pyle, Howard, an American illus- 
trator and author ; born in Wilming- 
ton, Del., March 5, 1853. He was 
an illustrator for periodicals, and has 
become popular also as a writer, 
chiefly of juvenile literature. His 
works include : " Buccaneers and 
Marooners of America" (1891) ; etc. 

Pylorus, the small and contracted 
end of the stomach leading into the 
small intestines. 

Pym, John, an English statesman 
and leader of the popular party dur- 
ing the reigns of James I. and Charles 
I. ; born in Somersetshire, England, 
in 1584. He studied at Oxford and 
became famous as a lawyer. He en- 
tered Parliament in 1G14, and during 
the reign of James he attained great 
influence by his opposition to the ar- 
bitrary measures of the king. In 
1626 he took part in the impeachment 
of Buckingham and was imprisoned. 
In the Short Parliament of 1640 Pym 
and Hainpden were exceedingly active 
as leaders of the popular party, and 
in 1641 Pym was offered the chancel- 
lorship of the exchequer. He im- 
peached Strafford, and at his trial ap- 
peared as accuser. He was the main 
author of the Grand Remonstrance, 
the final appeal presented in 1641, 
and one of the five members to arrest 
whom the king went to the House of 



Pyramid 

Commons in January, 1642. When 
civil war became inevitable Pym was 
appointed one of the committee of 
safety, and while he lived was active 
in resisting the negotiations of any 
peace with the king which did not se- 
ure the liberties of the subject and 
the supremacy of Parliament. It was 
mainly his financial skill that enabled 
the parliamentary army to keep the 
field. In November, 1643, he was 
made lieutenant-general of ordnance, 
and in the following month he died, 
and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
Pyramid in Egyptian antiquities, a 
solid structure substantially invariable 
in form, viz., a simple mass resting on 
a square or sometimes approximately 
square base, with the sides facing 
with slight deviations toward the four 
principal winds, and tapering off grad- 
ually toward the top to a point or to 
a flat surface, as a substitute for an 
apex. The proportion of the base to 
the height is not always the same, 
nor is the angle of inclination uni- 
form. The pyramids were construct- 
ed in platforms, and then reveted or 
coated with blocks or slabs of granite, 
as may still be observed in incomplete 
pyramids. Recently the theory has 
been maintained that in the case of 
the largest pyramids, a smaller one 
was erected as a nucleus, arid subse- 
quently enveloped by another layer. 
The interior of these massive struc- 
tures contains narrow passages, and 
some totally dark halls or chambers, 
and probably served as the burial 
places of the kings who had caused 
them to be constructed. The entrance 
to these buildings is raised consider- 
ably above the level of the base, and 
was blocked up by a portcullis of 
granite, so as to be on ordinary oc- 
casions inaccessible. In the pyramid 
of Cheops, the entrance is raised about 
47 feet, 6 inches above the base. The 
pyramids of Egypt begin immediately 
S. of Cairo, and continue S. at vary- 
ing intervals for nearly 70 miles. The 
largest is that of Cheops, at Ghizeh, 
standing on a base each side of which 
was originally 764 feet long, but ow- 
ing to the removal of the coating is 
now only 746 feet. Its perpendicular 
height, according to Wilkinson, was 
originally 480 feet, 9 inches, present 
height, 460 feet. The principal cham- 
ber, the so-called Crowning Hall or 



Pyrenees 

King's Chamber, is 34 feet, 3 inches 
long, and 17 feet, 1 inch wide. Its 
roof is formed of massive blocks of 
granite, over which, with a view to 
support the weight, other blocks are 
laid, with clear intervals between. 
According to Herodotus, the erection 
of this pyramid employed 100,000 men 
for 20 years. 

In Mexican antiquities, the Teocal- 
lis, or Houses of the Gods, which have 
come down from Aztec times, are four- 
sided pyramids rising by terraces to a 
considerable height. A notable group of 
such erections still exist at Teotihua- 
can, about 20 miles N. E. of the City 
of Mexico. There are two large pyr- 
amids, -with some hundred smaller 
ones. The base of the largest is 900 
feet long, its height 160 feet; the 
height of the second is 130 feet. One 
is dedicated to the sun, the other to 
the moon. A yet larger one is at 
Cholula ; its base is 1,488 feet long, 
its height 178 feet. All the Mexican 
pyramids face the cardinal points. 
Hence, applied to any mass or heap 
more or less resembling a pyramid in 
form. 

Pyrenees, an extensive mountain 
range in the S. of Europe, dividing 
France from Spain, and extending 
almost in a straight line from St. Se- 
bastian, on the Bay of Biscay, to 
Cape Creux, on the Mediterranean. 
Length 270 miles, with a breadth from 
50 to 100 miles. 

Pyrites, an isometric mineral oc- 
curring frequently crystallized, also 
massive, iu mammillary forms with 
fibrous structure, and stalactitic with 
crystalline surface. Luster, metallic, 
splendent ; color, pale, brass-yellow ; 
streak, greenish-black ; opaque ; frac- 
ture conchoidal uneven ; brittle ; 
strikes fire when struck with a ham- 
mer. Composed of sulphur and iron. 
It is distributed in rocks of all ages, 
either as crystals, crystal-grains, or 
nodules, also in metalliferous veins. 

Pyrrhic, a species of warlike dance, 
which is said to have been invented 
by Pyrrhus to grace the funeral of 
his father Achilles. It consisted 
chiefly in such an adroit 'and nimble 
turning of the body as represented an 
attempt to avoid the strokes of an en- 
emy in battle, and the motions neces- 
sary to perform it were looked on as 
a kind of training for actual warfare. 



Pythagoras 

This dance is supposed to be described 
by Homer as engraved on the shield 
of Achilles. It was danced by boys 
in armor, accompanied by the lute or 
lyre. Also a metrical foot consisting 
of two short syllables. 

Pyrrh-us, King of Epirus, being 
obliged, on the murder of his father, to 
seek safety by flight, found a home, 
parent, and tutor in Glaucus, King of 
Illyria, where he remained for several 
years, till old enough to maintain his 
own right, and ascended his father's 
throne, 295 B. C. In 281 B. C., he 
made war on the Romans, having been 
called to the assistance of the Sam- 
nites, and, in a desperate battle fought 
on the banks of the Syris, in Calabria, 
totally defeated the Roman army ; 
yet, so dearly was this glory bought, 
that Pyrrhus exclaimed " Another 
such victory will ruin me." After 
several signal advantages, the Ro- 
mans at length triumphed, and Pyr- 
rhus, sustaining many disasters, re- 
turned to Greece, and, in a subsequent 
war with the Argives, was killed, by a 
tile thrown on his head from the roof 
of a house, as he entered Argos, 273 

B. C. 

Pythagoras, the celebrated Greek 
philosopher, was born in Samos, prob- 
ably about 580-570 B. C. He was the 
son of Mnesarchus, and, perhaps, a 
disciple of Pherecydes. He is said 
to have traveled extensively, especial- 
ly in Egypt, and to have been initiat- 
ed in the most ancient Greek myste- 
ries. He attached great importance 
to mathematical studies, and is be- 
lieved to have made several impor- 
tant discoveries in geometry, music, 
and astronomy. He ultimately set- 
tled, between 540-530 B. C. at Cro- 
tona, one of the Greek cities of South- 
ern Italy. There he set himself to 
carry out the purpose of instituting 
a society through which he might ex- 
ert an influence on political affairs, 
and especially in opposition to demo- 
cratic and revolutionary movements. 
His teachings relating to these sub- 
jects became at length the occasion of 
a popular rising against the Pytha- 
goreans at Crotooa, 504 B. C. the 
house in which they were assembled 
was burned, many perished and the 
rest were exiled. Similar tumults 
with similar results, took place in 
other cities and Pythagoras himself is 



Pytheas 

believed to have died soon after, at 
Metapontum. Among the doctrines 
of Pythagoras are the following : 
that numbers are the principles of all 
things ; that the universe is a har- 
monious whole (kosmos), the heaven- 
ly bodies by their motion causing 
sounds (music of the spheres) ; that 
the soul is immortal, and passes suc- 
cessively into many bodies (metem- 
psychosis) ; and that the highest aim 
and blessedness of man is likeness to 
the Deity. He left no written ac- 
count of his doctrines ; they were first 
committed to writing by Philolaus. 
Pythagoras is said to have been the 
first who took the title of philosopher, 
and the first who applied the term 
kosmos to the universe. He shares 
with Thales and Xenophanes the high 
distinction of starting the problem of 
physical science. He died in Meta- 
pontum, Magna Grsecia, about 500 

B. C. 

Pytheas, a famous navigator of the 
Greek colony of Massilia, now Mar- 
seilles ; supposed to have lived about 
the time of Alexander the Great (say 
330 B. c.). He is reputed to have 
sailed along the west coast of Europe, 
entered the English Channel, and trav- 
eled some distance in Britain, then, 
continuing his journey northward, to 
have arrived at Thule (supposed to be 
Iceland). In a second voyage he en- 
tered the Baltic, where he proceeded 
as far as a river which he called 
Tanais, and on the banks of which 
amber was found. He is mentioned 
by. Strabo, Pliny, and others. 

Pythian Games, one of the four 
great national festivals of the Greeks, 
held in the Crissaean plain, near Del- 
phi (anciently called Pytho), said to 
have been instituted by Apollo after 
vanquishing the snaky monster, 
Python, and celebrated in his honor 
every four years. 

Pythias, Knights of, a benevolent 
and friendly order, founded during 
the Civil War, and now flourishing in 
various parts of the world. The or- 
der is very strong in the United 
States. Justus H. Rathbone founded 
Washington lodge No. 1 in Washing- 
ton, in December, 1864. On Jan. 1, 



Python 

1900, the total membership of the or- 
der was 492,506. Membership of the 
Uniform Rank (military branch), 
45,590. Membership of the Endow- 
ment Rank (life insurance branch), 
57,401, representing an endowment of 
113,840,000. Total paid benefici- 
aries to July 1, 1900, $14,865,883. 

Python, in Greek mythology, a 
celebrated serpent which destroyed 
the people and cattle about Delphi, 
and was slain by Apollo. In zoology, 
a genus and family of serpents allied 
to the family Boidae or Boas. They 
are not venomous, but kill their prey 
by compression. The pythons are of 
enormous size, sometimes attaining a 
length of 30 feet. They are found in 
India and in the islands of the East- 
ern Archipelago, in Africa and in Aus- 
tralia. A rudimentary pelvis and 
traces of hinder limbs exist in the 
pythons, these structures terminating 
externally in a kind of a hooked claw. 
The head exceeds the neck in thick- 




PYTHON: MOLUEUS. 



ness, and the mouth is extremely large. 
Aided by their prehensile tails and 
rudimentary hinder limbs, the pythons 
suspend themselves from the branches 
of trees and lie in wait near water 
for animals which come to drink. The 
genus Python contains various species, 
the best known of which is the West 
African python (P. sebae). common in 
menageries. The female python hatch- 
es her eggs by the heat of her body. 





q, the 17th letter and the 
13th consonant of the 
English alphabet, a con- 
sonant having only one 
sound, that of k or c. It 
is always followed by u, and as this 
combination can be represented by kw 
(or k when u is silent), q is a super- 
fluous letter. 

Qnackenbos, George Payn, an 
American educator ; born in New 
York city, Sept. 4, 1826; was grad- 
uated at Columbia College in 1843 and 
for many years conducted a large col- 
legiate school in his native city. He 
was author of " First Lessons in Com- 
position " ; " Advanced Course of 
Rhetoric and Composition " ; etc. He 
died in New London, N. H., July 24, 
1881. 

Qnackenbos, John Duncan, an 
American physician ; born in New 
York, N. Y., April 22, 1848; was 
graduated at Columbia College in 
18G6 and at the College of Physicians 
and Surgeons in 1871 ; began practice 
in New York ; became Adjunct Pro- 
fessor of the English Language and 
Literature at Columbia College in 
1884 ; Professor of Rhetoric in Bar- 
nard College in 1891-1893. He then 
became a specialist in mental diseases 
and lectured extensively on scientific 
and literary topics. 

Quackenbnsh, Stephen Platt, 
an American naval officer ; born in 
Albany, N. Y., Jan. 23, 1823; joined 
the navy in 1840 ; promoted lieuten- 
ant-commander in 1862; had charge 
of various vessels in blockading fleets 
during the Civil War ; participated in 
the action at Elizabeth City and New- 
bern, N. C., captured the " Princess 
Royal " containing a cargo of ma- 
chinery for making projectiles, quinine 
and engines for an iron-clad in course 



of construction in Richmond ; and won 
distinction in other operations. He 
was retired with the rank of rear-ad- 
miral hi 1885. He died in Washing- 
ton, D. C., Feb. 4, 1890. 

Quadrangle, a square or four- 
sided court or space surrounded by . 
buildings, as often seen in the build- 
ings of a college, school, etc. In geom- 
etry, a figure having four angles, and 
consequently four sides. 

Quadrant, in architecture, the 
same as quadrangle. In geometry, 
the fourth part of a circle ; the arc of 
a circle containing 90 ; the space in- 
cluded between such arc and two radii 
drawn from the center to the extrem- 
ities of the arc. Nautically, an in- 
strument for making angular meas- 
urements. So called from its em- 
bracing an arc of 90 or somewhat 
more. Formerly much employed in 
making astronomical observations. It 
is now superseded by the sextant. 

Quadrature, the state of being 
quadrate or square ; a square space. 
In astronomy, the position of one 
heavenly body with respect to another 
90 distant, as the moon when midway 
between the points of opposition and 
conjunction. In geometry, the act of 
squaring ; the reducing of a figure to 
a square. 

Quadrilateral, the name given in 
history to the four fortresses of North 
Italy Mantua, Verona, Peschiera, 
and Legnago which form a sort of 
outwork to the bastion of the moun- 
tains of the Tyrol, and divide the N. 
plain of the Po into two sections by a 
most powerful barrier. 

Quadrille, a dance consisting of 
ive figures or movements, executed by 
! pur sets of couples, each forming the 
side of a square. Also, the music 



Quadroon 

composed for such a dance ; and, a 
game of cards played by four persons 
with 40 cards. 

Quadroon, or Quarteron, a per- 
son who is one-quarter negro end 
three-quarters white ; that is, one of 
whose grandparents was white and the 
other negro ; and one of whose imme- 
dite parents was white and the other 
mulatto. 

Quadrumana, in zoology, an order 
of Mammalia, founded by Cuvier, and 
containing the monkeys, apes, bab- 
oons, and lemurs. The earliest known 
remains are those of Lemuravus, from 
the Eocene of New Mexico. 

Quadruped, the name popularly 
applied to those higher vertebrate ani- 
mals which possess four developed 
limbs. The name is usually re- 
stricted to four-footed mammals. 

Quadruple Alliance, an alliance, 
BO called from the number of the con- 
tracting parties, concluded in 1718 
between Great Britain, France, and 
Austria, and acceded to by Holland 
in 1719, for the maintenance of the 
peace of Utrecht. The occasion of the 
alliance was the seizure by Spain of 
Sardinia in 1717, and Sicily in 1718, 
both of which she was forced to give 
up. Another quadruple alliance was 
that of Austria, Russia, Great Brit- 
ain, and ^Prussia, in 1814, originating 
in the coalition which had effected the 
dissolution of the French empire. 

Quaestor, in Roman history, two 
quaestores parricidii, who acted as 
public prosecutors in cases of murder, 
or any capital offense, existed in 
Rome during the period of the kings. 
Two quaestores classici, who had 
charge of the public money, were first 
appointed about 485 B. G. They also 
had charge of the funds of the army, 
to which they were paymasters. The 
number of quaestors was increased to 
eight, 265 B. c. Sylla raised the num- 
ber to 20, and .Julius Caesar to 40. 
During the time of the emperors their 
number varied ; and from the reign of 
Claudius I. (41-54) it became cus- 
tomary for quaestors, on entering of- 
fice, to give gladiatorial spectacles to 
the people; so that none but the 
wealthiest Romans could aspire to the 
office. 

Quagga, a striped wild horse of 
South Africa, now nearly, if not en- 
tirely extinct. 



Quaker City 

Quail, a small game bird ; the Vir- 
ginia species is common in North Amer- 
ica, and so far south as Honduras. 
It is larger than the European quail, 
and is better eating. The California 
crested quail is another American spe- 
cies. The quail, genus Coturnix, is 
widely distributed over the Eastern 
Hemisphere, visiting Europe in early 
summer and returning 3. in the au- 




QTTAIL : LOPHORTTX CALIFOBNICTTS. 

tumn, when immense numbers are 
caught and fattened for the market. 
Length about seven inches, general 
color reddish-brown, with buff streaks 
on the upper surface ; throat rufous ; 
head, dark brown above, striped with 
ocherous white, sides reddish-brown, 
lower parts pale buff, fading into white 
on belly. Color less bright in the hen 
bird, and the rufous tinge absent from 
the throat. They nest on the ground, 
laying from 9 to 15 pyriform, yellow- 
ish-white eggs, blotdhed with dark- 
i brown. The males are polygamous 
and extremely pugnacious. 

Quaker City, Philadelphia, which 
was planned and colonized by William 
Penn and other members of the So- 
ciety of Friends. 



Quakers 

Quakers. See Friends, Society of. 

Qua mash, the North American 
name of a plant of the lily family with 
an edible bulb. These bulbs are 
much eaten by the Indians, and are 
prepared by baking in a hole dug in 
the ground, then pounding and drying 
them into cakes for future use. 

Quantity, in grammar and pros- 
ody, the measure of a syllable or the 
time in which it is pronounced ; the 
metrical value of syllables as regards 
length or weight in their pronuncia- 
tion. In logic, the extent to which 
the predicate in a proposition is as- 
serted of the subject. 

In mathematics, anything that can 
be increased, diminished, and measur- 
ed. Thus, number is a quantity ; 
time, space, weight, etc., are also 
quantities. In mathematics, quanti- 
ties are represented by symbols, and 
for convenience these symbols them- 
selves are called quantities. In al- 
gebra, quantities are distinguished as 
known and unknown, real and imag- 
inary, constant and variable, rational 
and irrational. Real quantities are 
those which do not involve any opera- 
tion impossible to perform ; variable 
qualities are those which admit of an 
infinite number of values in the same 
expression ; rational quantities are 
those which do not involve any radi- 
cals. 

Quarantine, the period (originally 
40 days) during which a ship coming 
from a port suspected of contagion, 
or having a contagious sickness on 
board, is forbidden intercourse with 
the place at which she arrives. Quar- 
antine was first introduced at Venice 
in the 14th century. It is now re- 
quired to be performed in almost every 
important country except Great Brit- 
ain. By act of the United States 
Congress passed in 1879 national 
quarantine stations were established; 
and it is made a misdemeanor pun- 
ishable by fine or imprisonment, or 
both, for the master, pilot, or owner 
of any vessel entering a port of the 
United States in violation of the act, 
or regulations framed under it. Dur- 
ing the period of quarantine, all the 
goods, clothing, etc., that might be 
supposed capable of retaining infec- 
tion, are subjected to a process of dis- 
infection, which is a most important 
part of the quarantine system. 



Qnartley 

Quarry, a place, pit, or mine where 
stones are dug out of the earth, or are 
separated from the mass of rock by 
blasting. The term mine is generally 
confined to pits or places whence coal 
or metals are taken ; quarry to those 
from which stones for building, etc., 
as marble, slate, etc., are taken. A 
mine is subterranean, and reached by 
a shaft ; in a quarry the overlying 
soil is simply removed. 

Quart, the fourth part of a gallon ; 
two pints ; the United States dry 
quart contains 67.20 cubic inches, the 
fluid quart 57.75 cubic inches; the 
English quart contains 69.3185 cubic 
inches. 

Quarter, a measure of weight, 
equal to the fourth part of a hundred- 
weight i. e., to 28 pounds avoirdu- 
pois. As a measure of capacity, for 
measuring grain, etc., a quarter con- 
tains eight bushels. The common 
American term for twenty-five cents, 
being a quarter of a dollar. 

Quarter Deck, in nautical lan- 
guage, a deck raised above the waist 
and extending from the stern to the 
mainmast. It is especially a priv- 
ileged portion of the deck, being the 
promenade of the superior officers or 
of the cabin passengers. The wind- 
ward side is the place of honor. 

Quartermaster, in military af- 
fairs, an officer who superintends the 
issue of stores, food, and clothing, and 
arranges transportation for a regi- 
ment when necessary. In nautical 
affairs, a petty officer, who, besides 
having charge of the stowage of bal- 
last and provisions, coiling of ropes, 
etc., attends to the steering of the 
ship. He is appointed by the captain. 

Quartermaster-general, in the 
United States a staff-officer with rank 
of Brigadier-General. He is chief 
officer in the quartermaster's depart- 
ment. 

Quartermaster-sergeant, in the 
United States, one whose duty it is 
to assist the quartermaster. 

Quartet, a piece of music arranged 
for four voices or instruments, in 
which all the parts are obligati ; i. e., 
no one can be omitted without injur- 
ing the proper effect of the composi- 
tion. 

Qnartley, Arthur, an American 
artist; born in Paris, May 24, 1839. 



Qnartb 

He came to the United States when a 
boy, and gained a reputation as a 
decorator, but it was not till after 1875 
that he became known as an artist 
of merit. His first picture which 
brought him into notice was very 
large, showing a waste of water beat- 
ing against a rock. It was exhibited 
at the Academy of Design, and belongs 
to Wellesley College. He had a fond- 
ness for wild marine and coast scenes. 
He was elected a National Acade- 
mician in 1886, and died in New York, 
May 24 of that year. 




QUASSIA : BITTEBWOOD. 
a, Fruit. 

Quarto, name of the size of a book 
in which a sheet makes four leaves. 
Frequently abbreviated to 4to. Also 
a book formed by folding a sheet 
twice, making fou T eight 

pages. The term, ^.> usage, 

refers to a book of nearly square 
form. The proportions vary accord- 
ing to the size of the sheets. 

Quartz, in mineralogy, a rhombo- 
hedral or hexagonal mineral, crystal- 
lizing mostly in hexagonal prisms 
with pyramidal terminations. Found 
also massive, and of varying texture. 
Quartz is abundantly distributed, is 



Quay 

an essential constituent of many 
rocks, notably granite, gneiss, various 
schists, and constitutes the larger part 
of mineral veins. Many of its varie- 
ties are largely employed in jewelry. 

Quass, or Qnas, a thin, sour, fer- 
mented liquor, made by pouring warm 
water on rye or barley meal, and 
drunk by the peasants of Russia. 

Quassia, a tree cultivated in the 
West Indies and the parts adjacent. 
It has terminal clusters of large, red 
flowers, and unequally pinnate leaves. 
It comes to this country in logs or 
billets, and is retained as chips or 
raspings. It is given as an extract, 
an infusion, or a tincture. An infu- 
sion of it is used to poison flies. 

Quaternary, or Post-Tertiary, 
the fourth great division of the fossil- 
iferous strata, which embraces the 
Pleistocene or Glacial and Post-glacial 
and Recent systems. 

Qnatref oil, in architecture, a 
piercing or panel divided by cusps or 
foliations into four leaves, or more 
correctly the leaf-shaped figure form- 
ed by the cusps. The name is also 
given to flowers and leaves of a simi- 
lar form carved as ornaments on mold- 
ings, etc. It differs from the cinque- 
foil only in the number of cusps. 
In heraldry, four-leaved grass ; a fre- 
quent bearing in coat-armor; 

Quay, a landing place; a wharf 
projecting into a stream, harbor, or 
basin, to which vessels are moored 
for the purpose of receiving and deliv- 
ering freight. 





QUATREFOIL 
IN ARCHITECTURE 



QUATREFOIL 
IN HERALDRY. 



Quay, Matthew Stanley, an 

American legislator ; born in Dills- 
burg, Pa., Sept. 30, 1833; was grad- 
uated at Jefferson College in 1850, 
and admitted to the bar in 1854; en- 
tered the Union army in 1861 and 
won distinction ; was promoted lieu- 



Quebec 

tenant-colonel and assistant commis- 
sary general ; received a congressional 
medal of honor for exceptional serv- 
ice; became State treasurer of Penn- 
pylvania in 1885 ; and was a United 
States Senator in 1887-1899. Early 
in the latter year he was placed on 
trial on charges of misappropriation 
of public funds, and on April 21 was 
acquitted. Governor Stone appointed 
him United States Senator ad interim 
on the same day, and in January, 
1901, he was reelected to the United 
States Senate to fill out the vacant 
term caused by the failure of the Leg- 
islature to elect a Senator in January, 
1899. He died May 28, 1904. 

Quebec, a province of the Dominion 
of Canada, formerly called Canada 
East; bounded on the N. by Labra- 
dor and Hudson Bay; on the E. by 
Labrador and the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence ; on the S. by New Brunswick, 
Chaleurs Bay, Maine, New Hamp- 
shire, Vermont, and New York ; on 
the S. W. and W. by the province of 
Ontario; gross area, 347,350 square 
miles; pop. (1910) 2,124,834; capital, 
.(Quebec. The surface of the prov- 
ince is varied, being diversified by 
mountains, rivers, lakes, and exten- 
sive forests. The chief river is the 
St. Lawrence, which flows through 
the entire length of the province. The 
climate is variable, though salubrious, 
the temperature ranging from 20 be- 
low zero in winter to 90 in summer. 

The mineral wealth is undeveloped, 
but is said to be invaluable. Copper 
is mined in Brome and Megantic coun- 
ties; gold in Beauce; iron ore in St. 
Maurice; and nickel in Pontiac. The 
other mineral productions include as- 
bestos, apatite, plumbago, mica, slate- 
stone, etc. 

The soil is generally fertile and is 
chiefly cultivated near the rivers. 
About half of the population of Que- 
bec is engaged in agriculture. The 
chief products include maize, buck- 
wheat, tobacco, peas, turnips, barley, 
wheat, oats, potatoes, and hay. But 
little of the forest wealth, whioh is 
considerable, has been developed. 
Spruce and pine are exported and the 
other forest products include ash, 
cedar, cherry, oak, elm, maple, birch, 
and beech. Cattle, horses, swine, and 
Sheep are the principal domestic ani- 
mals. The fisheries are extensive. 



Queen 

The affairs of the province are ad- 
ministered by a Lieutenant-Governor, 
appointed by the Governor-General of 
Canada, assisted by a responsible ex- 
ecutive council. There are two 
Chambers, the Legislative Council, 
composed of 24 members who hold 
their appointments for life, and a 
Legislative Assembly, which has 74 
members, elected by the people foi 
five years. The city of Quebec was 
founded by Champlain in 1608, who 
later established trading stations and 
torts at various places. The French 
governed Quebec till 1759, when 
General Wolfe won the battles of the 
Plains of Abraham, and the English 
gained control. Prior to 1841 Quebec 
was called Lower Canada, but in 
that year it was united to Upper 
Canada. It was made a province of 
the Dominion of Canada in 1867 by 
the Act of Confederation. 

Quebec, city and capital of Que- 
bec county and of the Province of 
Quebec, Canada; on the St. Law- 
rence river and several trunk line 
railroads; 180 miles N. E. of Mon- 
treal; is the third city in size and 
importance in the Dominion; is a 
port of entry, with an extensive com- 
merce, especially in lumber; has 
large shipyards and many manufac- 
tories; and is particularly rich in his- 
torical associations and features. The 
city has a picturesqe site, 'on a high 
tableland; is in a highly productive 
farming section; and is a strongly- 
fortified military post. There are 
Anglican and Roman Catholic cathe- 
drals, Laval University, the Church 
of Notre Dame des Victoires (1688), 
Champlain Marktt, large drill hall, 
Auditorium, Seminary of Quebec, 
.Morrin College, Grey Nunnery, Can- 
adian Institute, General and Joffery 
Hale hospitals, and many charitable 
and benevolent institutions. The 
New Park, on the Plains of Abra- 
ham, contains a monument to Gen- 
eral Wolfe; Victoria Park has a 
monument to the late Queen; and the 
Esplanade has a monument to the 
soldiors who fell in the South Afri- 
can War. 

Queen, a female who is chief or 
preeminent among others; one who 
presides; as, the queen of beauty, the 
queen of love, etc. In cards, a card 
on which a queen is depicted. In 



Queen Anne's Bounty 



Qnesada 



chess, the most powerful and, after 
the king, the most important of all 
the pieces in a set of chessmen. 

Queen Anne's Bounty, the name 
given to a fund appropriated to in- 
crease the income of the poorer 
clergy of England, created out of the 
first fruits and tenths. 

Queen Bee, in entomology, a fully 
developed female bee in a hive or nest. 
She lays 2,000 or 3,000 eggs daily 
during the height of summer, or more 
than 1,000,000 during her lifetime, 
which is about five years. When a 
young queen comes forth, the old one 
becomes agitated with jealousy, and 
ultimately quits the hive, surrounded 
by a great multitude of workers, who 
found a new colony, leaving the old 
hive to the possession of the youthful 
rival. Two days to a week after 
coming to maturity, the young queen 
temporarily flies forth, and is fertil- 
ized in the air. See BEE. 

Queen Charlotte's Islands, a 
group to the N. of Vancouver Island, 
off the coast of British Columbia ; 
area, 5,100 square miles. The two 
principal islands, Graham and Mores- 
by, have a length of 160 and a great- 
est breadth of nearly 70 miles. The 
climate is healthy, but very rainy. 
Anthracite coal, copper and iron ore, 
and gold bearing quartz have been 
found, and forests abound. The in- 
habitants are about 2,000 Indians, 
who engage in fishing. Queen Char- 
lotte's Sound is a strait separating 
Vancouver Island on the N. from the 
mainland. 

Queen's College, for women, was 
established in London, in 1848, and 
incorporated by royal charter in 1833. 
Its aim is to provide for the higher 
education of women, in the first place 
by a liberal school training, and sub- 
sequently by a six years' course of 
college education. 

Queensland, an Australian state, 
comprising the whole N. E. portion of 
Australia N. of New South Wales 
and E. of South Australia and its 
Northern Territory, being elsewhere 
bounded by the Gulf of Carpentaria, 
Torres Strait, and the Pacific. A 
considerable portion is thus within 
the tropics, the extreme N. part form- 
ing a sort of peninsula, known as 
York Peninsula. It has an area of 



about 668,497 square miles; pop. 
(1910) 592,000; and is divided into 
12 large districts. 

There are many kinds of valuable 
timber trees, and a rare thing in Aus- 
tralia, a few good indigenous fruits. 
Sheep farming is the chief industry, 
but agriculture (including sugar- 
growing), cattle rearing, and mining 
are also important. The soil and cli- 
mate are well suited for the produc- 
tion of all the ordinary cereals, as 
well as maize, tobacco, coffee, sugar, 
cotton, etc. The chief products are 
sugar, maize, Irish and sweet pota- 
toes, arrow root, and semi-tropical 
fruits. Sugar growing is becoming a 
very important industry. Gold, tin, 
lead, and copper are the principal min- 
erals. The gold fields extend over an 
area of 15,000 square miles, and em- 
ploy about 9,500 miners. 

The first settlement of Queensland 
took place in 1825, when the territory 
was used as a place of transportation 
for convicts, who continued to be sent 
there till 1839. In 1842 the country 
was opened to free settlers. It was 
originally a part of New South Wales, 
and was organized as a separate col- 
ony in 1859, The government of the 
state is vested in a governor, who is 
the crown's representative, and a Par- 
liament of two houses, the legislative 
council and the 'legislative assembly. 
The council consists of 39 members 
appointed by the crown for life, and 
the assembly of 72 members elected by 
the people for five years, and repre- 
senting GO electoral districts. The 
capital of the state is Brisbane. In 
January, 1896, a disastrous flood 
caused great loss of life and property 
in Brisbane and Northern Queens- 
land. 

Quelpart, an island 60 miles off 
the S. coast of Korea ; about 40 miles 
long by 17 broad. It is rock-bound 
and mountainous, the volcanic Mount 
Auckland being 6,500 feet high. It 
has fertile soil and good timber, and 
is populous. 

Qnesada, Gonzalo de, a Cuban 
patriot and diplomatist ; born in Ha- 
vana, Cuba, Dec. 15, 1868; was grad- 
uated at the College of the City of 
New York in 1888; was secretary of 
the Cuban revolutionary party and 
associated with Jose Marti in the 
struggle for Cuban independence. In 



Quesiiay 

1900 he was the special commissioner 
of Cuba to the United States, and also 
to the Paris Exposition ; in 1901 was 
a member of the Cuban Constitutional 
Convention and in the same year was 
appointed a chevalier of the Legion of 
Honor of France. He " published 
" Patriotism " ; " History of Free 
Cuba " ; etc. He is now Cuban Min- 
ister to the United States. 

Quesnay, Francois, a French phy- 
sician and economist ; born near 
Paris, France, June 4, 1694. He was 
the founder of the school of econo- 
mists called Physiocrats, and very in- 
fluential on Adam Smith and all mod- 
ern political economy. He published 
several medical works, in addition to 
his more famous ones on political 
economy. He died Dec. 16, 1774. 

Quezal, a most beautiful Central 
American bird of the Trogon family. 
It is about the size of a magpie, and 
the male is adorned with tail feathers 
from 3 to 3% feet in length, and of a 
gorgeous emerald color. The food of 
the quezal consists chiefly of fruits. 
It lives in forests of tall trees. There 
are several allied species of birds, but 
none with the distinctive feature of 
the quezal. 

Quichua, the name of a native race 
of South America, inhabiting Peru, 
parts of Ecuador, Bolivia, etc. With 
the Aymaras the Quichuas composed 
-the larger portion of the population 
of the empire of the Incas. The 
Quichua language, which was former- 
ly the state language of the Incas, is 
still the chief speech of Peru, of a 
large portion of Bolivia, of the part 
of Ecuador bordering upon Peru, and 
of the N. section of the Argentine Re- 
public. It is one of the most beauti- 
ful and at the same time comprehen- 
sive tongues of America. 

Quicklime, lime in a caustic state ; 
calcium oxide deprived by heat of its 
carbon dioxide and water. This is 
extensively done in lime kilns, the 
fuel used being fagots, brushwood, or 
coal. The firewood and lime to be 
calcined are mixed. Quicklime treated 
with water evolves much heat, and 
falls into a thick paste. Lime thus 
slaked and mixed with sand consti- 
tutes mortar. 

Quicksand, in its usual signifi- 
cance, a tract of sand which, without 



Quinca 

differing much in appearance from the 
shore of which it forms part, remains 
permanently saturated with water to 
such an extent that it cannot support 
any weight. Quicksands are most 
often found near the mouths of large 
rivers. Quicksands are not commonly 
of great extent, and their danger has 
probably been exaggerated in the pop- 
ular mind by sensational descriptions 
in works of fiction. Persons sink in 
a quicksand exactly as in water, only 
more slowly ; and it is probable that 
if the victim did not struggle he would 
not sink over the head, as experiments 
show that water containing a quantity 
of solid matter in suspension has its 
floating powers increased. The nam; 
quicksand is sometimes applied to the 
drifting sands which are carried by 
wind over cultivated land bordering 
the seashore or a desert. 

Quids, a name given to the few 
supporters of John Randolph when he 
seceded from the Repilblican party in 
1805. The Latin phrase tertium quid, 
a "third something" (as distinguish- 
ed from the two powerful parties',, 
gave rise to the name. 

Quietism, the doctrine that the es- 
sence of true religion consists in the 
withdrawal of the soul from external 
and finite objects, and its quiet con- 
centration upon God. 

Quilcute, a tribe of North Ameri- 
can Indians, who formerly lived on a 
river of the same name, in the State 
of Washington. Their numbers were 
gradually reduced by wars with other 
tribes and the few remaining are found 
in the Neah Bay reservation in Wash- 
ington. 

Qnillaia, or Soap-bark, the bark 
of a South American tree belonging to 
the wing-seeded section of the Ros- 
acefe. It is used to make a lather in- 
stead of soap in washing silks, woolens, 
etc. It is called also Quillaya-bark. 

Quince, the fruit of Cydonia vul- 
garis, or the tree itself. It is 15 or 
20 feet high, with white or pale-red 
flowers, and ultimately golden fruit. 
It is indigenous in the S. of Europe, 
the N. of Africa, the Himalayas, etc. 
The fruit is too austere to be eaten 
uncooked, but is used in the prepara- 
tion of marmalade, jelly, and pre- 
serves. Its mucilaginous seeds are 
demulcent, and given by the natives 



Qninoy 

of India in diarrhoea, dysentery, sore 
throat, and fever. The Japan quince 
is a small tree about six feet high, 
with oval crenately serrated leaves, 
and fine red flowers. 

Qnincy, city and capital of Adams 
county, 111.; on the Mississippi river 
and several railroads; 110 miles W. 
of Springfield; is the trade center of 
a large farming area, producing 
grains, fruits, and vegetables; has 
varied manufactures, with annual 
value exceeding $15,000,000; is the 
se of a Protestant Episcopal bishop; 
and contains St. Francis' Solanus 
College (R. C.), Chadwick College 
(M. E.), St. Mary's Institute (R. C.), 
Illinois State Soldiers' and Sailors' 
liome, and Blessing and St. Mary's 
hospitals. Pop. (1910) 36,587. 

Qnincy, a city in Norfolk county, 
Mass.; on Boston harbor and the 
New York, New Haven & Hartford 
railroad; 9 miles S. of Boston; is the 
seat of the famous Quincy granite 
quarries; is chiefly engaged in quar- 
rying and monumental work; con- 
tains the Crane Public Library, 
Adams Academy, and Woodward In- | 
stitute; and is noted as the birth- 
place of John Hancock and Presi- 
dents John Adams and John Quincy 
Adams. Pop. (1910) 32,642. 

Qnincy, Josiah, sometimes called 
Josiah Quincy, Jr., an American law- 
yer; born in Boston, Mass., Jan. 23, 
1744. Though noted as a patriot, he 
joined with John Adams in defend 
ing the British soldiers in the Boston 
Massacre case; took part in the town 
meeting ordering the " Boston tea- 
party;" and in September, 1774, went 
to England in behalf of the colonists. 
He died April 26, 1775. 

Qnincy, Josiah, an American au- 
thor and orator; born in Boston, 
Mass., Feb. 4, 1772, son of Josiah 
Quincy. He studied law, and entered 
Congress in 1805, where he distin- 
guished himself as an orator. In 
1813 he declined a reelection, and de- 
voted his attention to scientific agri- 
culture. In 1829-1845 he was presi- 
dent of Harvard College. He died 
July 1, 1864. 

Qninine, the most important alka- 
loid of the true cinchona bark, first 
obtained by Gomez, of Lisbon, in 
1811. 



Qnitnum 

Qninsy, or Qninancy, inflamma- 
tory sore throat. There is swelling 
of one tonsil, or of both, attended with 
difficulty of breathing and swallowing, 
and febrile symptoms. Quinsy has, 
though rarely, proved fatal by pro- 
ducing suffocation. 

Quintilian, Quintilianns Mar- 
ens Fabius, a Roman rhetorician ; 
native of Spain. His great work is 
entitled, " On Oratory as an Art," 
and was written after his retirement, 
out during the reign of Domitian. It 
js the most complete course of rhetoric 
handed down from ancient times, and 
is distinguished for its elegance of 
style, as well as for sound judgment, 
cultivated taste, and various knowl- 
edge. The first complete copy of 
this work was discovered by Poggio, 
in the abbey of St. Gall, about 1419, 
and the first printed edition appeared 
at Rome, in 1470. Quintilian is sup- 
posed to have died about A. D. 120. 

Quirinal, The, one of the seven 
Lills of ancient Rome, and next to the 
Palatine and Capitoline, the oldest 
and most famous quarter of the city. 
The Quirinal is a name applied to the 
Italian government from the fact that 
the king of Italy resides in the palace 
of the Quirinal. 

Quirites, a designation of the citi- 
zens of ancient Rome as in their civil 
capacity. The name of Quirites be- 
longed to them in addition to that of 
Romani, the latter designation ap- 
plying to them in their political and 
military capacity. 

Quit-claim, a deed of release; an 
instrument by which some claim, right 
or title, real or supposed, to an estate, 
is relinquished to another without 
any covenant or warranty, express or 
implied. 

Quit man, John Anthony, an 
American military officer ; born in 
Rhinebeck, New York, Sept. 1, 1799. 
Removing to Mississippi in 1821, he 
ultimately became governor, which he 
obtained through a vacancy in 1836. 
He soon after withdrew from political 
life, and joined the Texans in their 
struggle for independence. In 1846, 
he was appointed Brigadier-General of 
the United States army in the war 
with Mexico, distinguishing himself at 
Monterey, Vera Cruz, and Cerro 
Gordo, after which latter engagement 



Quito 

he was brevetted Major-General, and 
was voted a sword by Congress for 
gallantry. He participated in the at- 
tack on Chapultepec, and was fore- 
most in the assault on the City of 
Mexico, which city he governed till 
order was established. In 1855 and 
1857 he was elected to Congress by 
large majorities. He died in Natchez, 
Miss., July 17, 1858. 

Quito, the capital of Ecuador, in a 
ravine on the east side of the volcano 
of Pichincha, 9,348 feet above the sea, 
a little to the south of the equator, 
and 150 miles by rail N. E. of Guaya- 
quil. Its streets, with the exception of 
four which meet in the large central 
square, are narrow, uneven, badly 
paved, and extremely dirty. The more 
important public buildings are the 
cathedral, several other churches and 
convents ; the town-house, court-house, 
president's palace, the university, the 
arch-Episcopal palace, orphan asylum, 
and hospital. The manufactures con- 
sist chiefly of woolen and cotton goods ; 
the chief exports are hides and rubber. 
Quito was originally the capital of a 
native kingdom of the same name, but 
the modern town was founded by the 
Spaniards in 1534. It has repeatedly 
suffered from earthquakes and volcanic 
eruptions, notably in 17!)7, when 
40,000 lives were lost. Pop. about 
80,000, largely consisting of half- 
breeds and Indians. 

Quit-rent, in law, a small rent 
payable by the tenants of most manors, 
whereby the tenant goes quit and free 
from all other services. 

Qnittah, a town on the coast of 
W. Africa, in the British colony of 
the Gold Coast. Pop. 5,000. 



Quo Warranto 

Quoits, a game played with a flat- 
tish ring of iron, generally from 8*4 
to 9^& inches in external diameter, 
and between 1 and 2 inches in breadth. 
It is convex on the upper side and 
slightly concave on the under side, so 
that the outer edge curves downwards, 
and is sharp enough to cut into soft 
ground. The game is played in the 
following manner : Two pins, called 
hobs, are driven into the ground from 
18 to 24 yards apart ; and the players, 
who are divided into two sides, stand 
beside one hob, and in regular succes- 
sion throw their quoits (of which 
each player has two) as near the other 
hob as they can, giving the quoit an 
upward and forward pitch with the 
hand and arm, and at same time com- 
municating to it a whirling motion so 
as to make it cut into the ground. 
The side which has the quoit nearest 
the hob counts a point towards game, 
or if the quoit is thrown over the hob, 
it counts two. 

Qnorra, a name given to the lower 
portion of the Niger (q. v.). 

Quorum, a term used in commis- 
sions, of which the origin is the Latin 
expression, " quorum unum A. B. esse 
volumus," " of whom we will that A. 
B. be one," signifying originally, cer- 
tain individuals, without whom the 
others could not proceed in the busi- 
ness. In legislative and similar as- 
semblies a quorum is such a number 
of members as is competent to trans- 
act business. 

Quo Warranto, in law, a writ is- 
suing against any person or corpora- 
tion that usurps any office or fran- 
chise, to inquire by what authority he 
or it supports his or its claim, in 
order to determine the right. 





p, the 18th letter and the 
14th consonant of the Eng- 
lish language, is classed as 
a semi-vowel and a liquid. 
It is also called a trill. By 
the Romans r was jailed the " dog's 
letter," from its sound resembling the 
snarling of dogs. The three R's, a hu- 
morous and familiar designation for 
the three elementary subjects of edu- 
cation: reading, writing, and arith- 
metic. 

Ra (more properly Re), the name 
of the god of the sun among the an- 
cient Egyptians. He is represented, 
like Horus, with the head of a hawk, 
and bearing the disk of the sun on 
his head. 

Rabbi, in Jewish history and liter- 
ature, rabbi is the noun Rab with 
the pronominal suffix, and in Biblical 
Hebrew = great man, distinguished for 
age, rank, office, or skill, where, how- 
ever, it only occurs without the suf- 
fix. In ordinary language it is the 
designation of a minister of religion 
of the Jewish faith. 

Rabbinic Hebrew, that form of 
Hebrew in which the Jewish scholars 
and theologians of the Middle Ages 
composed their works. Grammatically 
it differs but little from the ancient 
Hebrew, but in many cases new mean- 
nigs are attached to Hebrew words 
already in use, in other cases new 
derivatives are formed from old He- 
brew roots, and many words are bor- 
rowed from the Arabic. The rabbin- 
ical literature is rich and well repays 
study. 

Rabbit, a well-known burrowing 
rodent, of the family Leoporidae, to 
which also belong the hares. The rab- 
bit is smaller than the hare, with 
(shorter ears and hind legs. 



Rabelais, Francois, a distinguish- 
ed French scholar, satirist and humor- 
ist ; born about 1490 ; died 1553. First 
a monk, he afterwards studied and 
practiced medicine and law, but became 
better known by his prolific literary 
activity of which the satirico-social- 
political creations, "Gargantua," "Pan- 
tagruel," " Panurge," and " Friar 
John," are monuments to his fame. 

Raccoon, or Racoon, a handsome 
animal, about the size of a large cat, 
brown furry hair, tail bushy and 
ringed; body large and unwieldy, legs 
short, feet with strong fossorial claws. 
It is omnivorous and ranges over a 
large part of North America, where 




EACCOON : PBOCYON LOTOB. 

it is hunted for its fur. The crab- 
eating raccoon of South America, 
ranging as far N. as Panama, dif- 
fers chiefly from the former in the 
shortness of its fur, and consequent 
slender shape. 

Race, a class of individuals sprung 
from a common stock ; the descendants 
collectively of a common ancestor; a 
family, tribe, nation, or people be- 
longing, or supposed to belong, to the 
same stock. 

The human family, according to 
Blumenbach, comprises five distinct 
races of men, viz. : The Caucasian, or 
white race, inhabiting Southwestern 



Race Knowledge 



Radforcl 



Asia, the greater part of Europe, and 
spread into other quarters of the 
world; the Ethiopian, black or negro 
race, originating in Africa ; the Mon- 
golian, or yellow race of Northern 
and Eastern Asia ; the Malayan or 
brown race of the East Indies and 
Australasia ; and the Indian or red 
race of the American continent. 

Race Knowledge, a term used by 
Prof. Patton of Princeton University 
to designate the general knowledge of 
a subject, useful to the whole human 
race, as distinguished from the de- 
tailed and specialized knowledge re- 
quired by experts and scientists. 

Race Snicide, the avoidance of 
the duties of motherhood. 

Rachel, the second daughter of 
Laban, the dearly beloved of Jacob, 
who, to obtain her, devoted seven 
years to the flocks and herds of her 
father. But, at the end of that period, 
he found in his veiled bride not Rachel 
but Leah, the elder sister, whom he 
did not love, and was obliged to labor 
during seven more years in order to 
gain her. She was the mother of 
Joseph and Benjamin. 

Rachel, Eliza Rachel Felix, a 
French actress ; born in Muraph, 
Switzerland, Feb. 28, 1820; was the 
daughter of a Hebrew pedlar; re- 
vived the classic school of tragedy; 
gained her crowning triumph in 1843, 
in her representation of " Phedre." 
In 1855 she made a visit to the 
United States. She died Jan. 3, 1858. 

Racine, city, port of entry, and 
capital of Racine county, Wis.; on 
Lake Michigan and the Chicago & 
Northwestern and other railroads; 
25 miles S. of Milwaukee; has a 
large commerce in coal and lumber; 
manufactures farm implements, iron 
castings, lumber, woolen goods, ma- 
chinery, wagons, shoes, and soap; 
and contains Racine College, Racine 
Academy, St. Catherine's Academy, 
Taylor Orphan Asylum, and St. 
Luke's Hospital. Pop. (1910) 38,002. 

Racine, Jean, an eminent French 
dramatic poet; born in La Ferte 
Milon, France, Dec. 22, 1639; com- 
menced his poetical career in 16(iO. 
In 1688 appeared his "Andromaque," 
which placed him far above all his 
contemporaries except Corneille. After 
a lapse of 12 years he wrote, by desire 



of Louis XIV. and Madame de Main 
tenon, the sacred dramas of " Esther " 
and " Athalie," which were performed 
by the young ladies of the institution 
of St. Cyr. He died April 21, 1698. 

Rack, an apparatus for the judicial 
torture of criminals or suspected per- 
sons. It consisted of a large, open, 
wooden frame, within which the offend- 
er was laid on his back on the floor, 
with his wrists and ankles fastened by 
cords to two rollers at the ends of the 
frame. These rollers were then drawn 
or moved in opposite directions till the 
body rose to a level with the frame, 
and the bones of the sufferer were 
forced from their sockets. The rack 
was formerly used in Europe in the 
cases of traitors or conspirators, and 
by the officers of Inquisition to force 
a recantation of heretical or so-called 
heretical opinions. 

Rackets, a game played in a pre- 
pared court, open or close, with a 
small, hard ball and a racket or bat 
like that used for playing tennis. 

Radcliffe College, an educational 
non-sectarian institution in Cam- 
bridge, Mass., for women ; founded 
1879. 

Radetzky, Joseph Wenceslnus, 
Count, a famous Austrian soldier; 
born at Trebnitz, in Bohemia, in 1766. 
Commencing his career in a Hungar- 
ian regiment of horse in 1784, he 
fought in most of the campaigns in 
which Austria was engaged from that 
date up to the nme of his death. His 
most signal services were in Italy, 
whither he was called by the commo- 
tions following the French revolution 
of 1830. The victory at Npvara, Mar. 
23, 1849, resulted in Austrian suprem- 
acy, and Radetzky. field-marshal since 
1836, was appointed Governor-General 
of Lombardy and Venetia. 

Radf ord, William, an American 
naval officer ; born in Fincastle, Va., 
March 1, 1808; entered the navy in 
March, 1825 ; served in the war with 
Mexico, and conducted the party which 
in 1847 cut out the " Malokadel," a 
Mexican war vessel, at Mazatlan. 
When the Civil War broke out he was 
assigned to the " Cumberland " ; waa 
promoted captain in July, 1862, and 
commodore in April, 1863. During the 
assault on Fort Fisher, in December, 
1864, he commanded the "New Iron- 



Radiant 

Bides " and the ironclad portion of 
Porter's fleet. Radford was promoted 
to rear-admiral in July, 1866, and was 
retired on March 1, 1870. He died 
in Washington, D. C., Jan. 8, 1890. 

Radiant, in botany, diverging from 
a common center, like rays. In heraldry 
an epithet applied to any ordinary or 
charge, when it is represented edged 
with rays or beams ; rayonnant ; 
rayonnee. In astronomy, the point in 
the heavens from which a staa* shower 
seems to proceed. In geometry, a 
straight line proceeding from a given 
point or fixed pole, about which it is 
conceived to revolve. In optics, the 
luminous- body or point from which 
rays of light falling on a lens or mir- 
ror diverge. 

Radiation, in physics, the trans- 
mission, of heat, light, or actinic power 
(hence known as forms of " radiant 
energy ") from one body to another 
without raising the temperature of 
the intervening medium. It takes place 
in all directions around a body. In^a 
homogeneous medium it takes place in 
straight lines. 

Radical, in chemistry, a group of 
elements common to a more or less 
numerous series of allied compounds, 
find unaffected by the processes where- 
by these compounds are transformed 
one into another. 

Radical, a political term, applied 
in the past to Republican extremists. 
Extreme English Liberals. 

Radiobes. See BTJBKE, J. B. B. 

Radiograph, a picture of an ob- 
ject or objects obtained by means of 
the Roentgen rays instead of light 
rays; called also skiagraph. 

Radiometer, an instrument that is 
used for taking the altitudes of the 
celestial bodies. Also an instrument 
invented by Crookes for measuring the 
mechanical effect of radiant energy. 

Radium, a metallic element ob- 
tained like uranium, from pitch-blende 
or uraninite, a pitchy, greenish-black, 
lead oxide of uranium, usually found 
with silver and lead ores. Radium is 
produced chiefly as a chloride or brom- 
ide, and was discovered by M. and 
Mme. Curie, and M. Bemont, in 1888. 
Its radioactivity or phosphorescent 
property of emitting rays capable of 
traversing bodies opaque to ordinary 



Raffle 

light, and of affecting photographic 
plates, similar to the Roentgen rays 
(q. v.), is forty times that of uranium, 
and its discovery and peculiar charac- 
teristics have given rise to many 
interesting physical speculations. The 
speed of the minute corpuscles thrown 
off is estimated at 120,000 miles a 
second, while its temperature and radi- 
ations were thought to undergo no 
chemical change or decrease of power, 
suggesting the possibility that nature 
here provided an element which gives 
light without heat and combustion. 
According to Prof. Rutherford, of 
Montreal University, however, radium 
is formed probably by the decomposi- 
tion of uranium, and changes spontan- 
eously into the gas helium, helium 
itself being the decomposition of ra- 
dium, and subject to further decompo- 
sition, each change corresponding to 
the production of a new element. The 
preparation of radium is very costly, 
entailing the use of enormous quanti- 
ties of pitchblende : one pound of ra- 
dium is valued at $3.000,000. 

Radius, in anatomy, the outer of 
the two bones of the forearm. In 
botany, and plural form, the peduncles 
supporting the partial umbels in an 
umbellifer. In fortification, a line 
drawn from the center of the polygon 
to the end of the outer side. In geome- 
try, the distance from the center of a 
circle to any point of the circum- 
ference. 

Raff, Joachim, a German com- 
poser ; born in Lachen, on Lake 
Zurich, May 27, 1822. From 1850 to 
1856 he lived near Liszt in Weimar, 
then taught music at Wiesbaden till 
1877; and from that year till his 
death, June 24, 1882, he was director 
of the musical conservatory at Frank- 
fort-on-Main. He published more 
than 200 musical productions, includ- 
ing symphonies, overtures, concertos 
for violin, 'cello, and piano, operas, 
quartettes, a great variety of pieces 
for piano and violin, and for piano 
alone. 

Raffle, formerly a game of dice; 
one with three dice in which he who 
threw all alike won the stakes. Now 
a chance or lottery in which some ar- 
ticle is put up by the owner to be 
drawn or thrown for by several per- 
sons who subscribe a small sum each, 
he who draws or throws the winning 



Rafinesqne 



Railroad 



number to become possessor of the 
article. The money subscribed goes 
to the original owner of the article. 

Rafinesque, Constantino Sam- 
uel, an American botanist ; born in 
Galatz, Turkey, in 1784. He set- 
tled permanently in the United States 
in 1815, and was made Professor of 
Botany in Transylvania University, 
Lexington, Ky., in 1818. Later, after 
lecturing in various places, he removed 
to Philadelphia. His publications in- 
clude " Ancient History, or Annals 
of Kentucky," "Medical Flora, etc., 
of the United States," etc. He died 
in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 18, 1842. 

Ragatz, a town of Switzerland, 
canton of St. Gall, situated at the 
junction of the Tamina with the 
Rhine, 1,700 feet above the sea. and 
connected by railway with Zurich and 
Coire. It is much resorted to both for 
its beautiful scenery and its mineral 
waters. Pipes are laid from Pfiiffers, 
a mountain village at an altitude of 
2,696 feet, 2% miles higher up, by 
which the water is brought down from 
the hot springs there to a spacious 
bathing establishment. The tempera- 
ture of the water is 97-100, and it 
is impregnated with carbonate of lime, 
magnesia, and salt. The permanent 
population is only about 2,000, but 
there is a large number of visitors, for 
the accommodation of whom large 
hotels, restaurants, etc., have been 
provided. There is also a bathing es- 
tablishment near the springs, erected 
in 1704. 

Rags, though valueless for most 
purposes, are yet of great importance 
in the arts, particularly in paper mak- 
ing. Besides the rags collected in 
the United States, the article is im- 
ported in large quantities from various 
foreign countries. Woolen rags, not 
being available for paper, are much 
used for manure ; but those of a loose 
texture, and not too much worn, are 
unraveled by means of machinery, and 
mixed up with good wool, to form 
what is known as " shoddy," with 
which cheap woolen goods are made ; 
while the refuse is pulverized and 
dyed various colors, to form the flock 
used by paper stainers for their flock- 
papers. 

Raiatea, one of the Society Islands 
In Southeastern Polynesia; area, 75 



square miles ; pop. 1,400, who have 
been converted to Christianity by Eng- 
lish missionaries, and are governed by 
their own chiefs. 

Rail, the common name of a family 
of grallatorial birds comprehending 
the rails proper, the coots, water-hens, 
and crakes. They are characterized by 
possessing a long bill, which is more 
or less curved at the tip and com- 
pressed at the sides, by having the 
nostrils in a membranous groove, the 
wings of moderate length, the tail 




WATER BAIL. 

short, the legs and toes long and slend' 
er, the hind toe placed on a level with 
the others. Most of the members of 
the family are aquatic, or frequent 
marshes ; but some, as the crakes, 
frequent dry situations. The Vir- 
ginian rail of the United States is 
somewhat smaller than the water rail 
of Europe; and the great-breasted rail 
or freshwater marsh hen is about 20 
inches long, and inhabits the marshes 
of the Southern States of the United 
States. The land rail, so named, is 
the corn crake. 

Railroad (the usual form in the 
United States), or Railway (the Eu- 
ropean form ) , a road or way provided 
with rails of iron or steel, on which 
the wheels of the cars run in order to 
lessen the friction. The " rails " were 
originally of timber, laid straight and 
parallel on transverse sleepers, and 
secured with pegs of wood, the sleep- 
ers being imbedded in the material of 
the roadway ; the wheels had flanges 
on ne side of the periphery to con- 
fine them to the track. The roadway 
was scantling, five by seven, pegged 
down to oak sleepers, four by eight, 
six feet long, and laid two and a 
half feet apart. The track for the 



Railroad 



Railroad Systems 



horses was filled in with ashes above 
the sleepers. Such roads were first 
laid near Newcastle, England, in 
1602. About 1716 the wooden ways 
were capped with thin plates of malle- 
able iron, having flanges along one 
side. Cast-iron bars were substituted 
in 1767. The modern railway con- 
sists of one or more series of iron or 
steel rails, laid parallel and continu- 
ously at a certain distance or width 
from each other, called the gauge. One 
pair of parallel rails constitutes a 
single track of railway, two pairs a 
double track, and so on. Railway 
development in the United States has 
had to adapt itself to the needs of a 
new and rapidly growing country, a 
large part of which was first made 
available for settlement by railways. 
Three locomotives were imported from 
England in 1829, and the first trial 



1852, 2,170 in 1853, 3,442 miles in 
1854. The Civil War checked railway 
construction, only 3,257 miles being 
opened during the five years ending 
with 1865, when the aggregate amount- 
ed to 32,996 miles. Between 1865 
and 1873, the mileage increased more 
than 100 per cent, including one road 
in operation and a second line in 
progress of construction to the Pacific 
coast. The greatest increase of this 
period was in the Western and South- 
western States, hi which fully 25,000 
miles of trackage were made ready for 
traffic. At the close of 1873 the total 
capital invested in railroads of the 
United States aggregated $3,784,543,- 
034, of which $1,836,904,450 repre- 
sented the bonded indebtedness. The 
depression which followed the panic 
of that year continued till 1879. In 
the latter year the construction again 




MODERN AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE. 



in America took place Aug. 8, 1829, 
at Honesdale, Pa. The first railway 
constructed to be worked by loco- 
motives was the South Carolina rail- 
road (1826-1830), though trials of 
an experimental locomotive had been 
made before on the Baltimore and 
Ohio railroad, which continued to be 
worked by horsepower till 1832. The 
mileage of railway construction about 
kept pace with that of Great Britain 
till 1850; at the beginning of 1885 
it amounted to 125,379 miles. The 
mileage completed amounted to 40 
miles at the end of 1830, to 3,361 
miles in 1841, and to 5,206 miles in 
1847, of which 1,350 miles had been 
opened within six years. Then there 
was a sudden and great increase, the 
yearly additions for seven years being 
1 T 056 miles in 1848, 1,048 in 1849, 
1,261 in 1850, 1,274 in 1851, 2,288 in 



increased 100 per cent., and between 
1874 and 1888 there were built 85,- 
814 miles of new railroad. Since the 
revival of railroad construction in 
1879 there have been completed suf- 
ficient trackage to give a total length 
of over 333,775 mi!o3. This does not 
include the elevate. I steam and elec- 
tric railroads in the Various large cities 
of the U. S. See ELECTRIC TRACTION. 

Railroad Systems. The process 
of absorption of smaller concerns by 
large corporations is fully as marked 
among the railroads as it is among the 
great manufacturing industries. The 
growth in mileage of the largest roads 
is truly phenomenal, and the United 
States alone in North America with 
186,245 miles of railroads in 1898, 
surpassed in total mileage, that of 
all the systems of Europe, which at 



Xtaimondi 

that time amounted to 167,510 miles. 
The largest aggregation controlled by 
any one company is that of the New 
York Central railroad, which totals 
10,410 miles ; making a very close sec- 
ond is the Pennsylvania system with 
10,392 miles, while the great Canadian 
Pacific Overland route and connections 
total 10,018 miles. Another trans- 
continental line of almost equal size 
is the Southern Pacific, which owns 
and controls 9,441 miles. There are 
four companies controlling from 7,OOC 
to 9,000 miles ; seven companies con- 




EARLY LOCOMOTIVE. 

trolling from 5,000 to 7,000 miles; 
three companies from 3,000 to 5,000 
miles ; and nine companies controlling 
from 2,000 to 3,000 miles of track, the 
total mileage controlled by 28 com- 
panies being nearly 150,000 miles. Of 
the five great transcontinental com- 
panies the Canadian Pacific and the 
Southern Pacific, with over 10,000 and 
9,000 miles respectively, are by far the 
largest. The Atchison, Topeka, and 
Santa Fe comes next with 7,880 miles, 
followed by the Union Pacific with 
5,584, the Northern Pacific with 5,449 
and the Great Northern with 5,201 
miles of track. 

Raixnondi, Marcantonio, an Ital- 
ian engraver ; born in Bologna, Italy, 
late in the 15th century. He copied 
on copper two sets of plates from 
Albrecht Durer's designs for the 
" Life of the Virgin " and the " Pas- 
sion of Christ." At Rome, where he 
worked from 1510, he was chiefly en- 
gaged in engraving Raphael's works. 
On account of the power of his draw- 
ing and the purity of his expression, 
he is accounted the best among the 
engravers of the great painter. The 
capture of Rome by the Constable 
Bourbon in 1527 drove Marcantonio 



Rain Making 

back to Bologna, where he probably 
remained till he died, some time before 
1534. 

Rain., in meteorology, the fall of 
water in drops from the clouds, or the 
drops which fall. A cloud consists of 
aqueous vapor, the individual vesicles 
of which are very small. When by the 
constant condensation of fresh aque- 
ous vanor these vesicles become large 
and heavy, and several of them unite, 
they are unable to resist the action of 
gravity and fall as rain. 

Rainbow. The rainbow is the best 
known of all optical meteorological 
phenomena, consisting of a colored 
arch formed opposite the sun on fall- 
ing raindrops, and visible whenever 
the necessary conditions of a passing 
shower on one side and a clear and 
not too high sun on the other occur. 
Two bows are frequently seen, each 
exhibiting the full spectrum of colors 
from red to violet ; but in the inner or 
primary bow the red is the outer edge 
and violet the inner, while in the outer 
or secondary bow the order is re- 
versed ; the red being inside and the 
violet on the exterior. The colors are 
always arranged in a definite order, 
that of the solar spectrum viz., red, 
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and 
violet, but shade imperceptibly into 
each other. 

Rain Gauge, an instrument or con- 
trivance for measuring the amount 
of rain which falls on a given surface. 

Rainier, Mount, a mountain of ' 
volcanic origin, the highest in the 
State of Washington, 14,363 feet high. 
It is a part of the coast range near 
Puget Sound, E. of Tacoma, and is 
sometimes called by the name of the 
city. The first ascent was made in 1870. 

Rain Making. Various attempts 
have been made in sections of many 
countries subject to long periods of 
drought to produce artificial rain, or 
more properly to force the fall of rain 
out of its due season. The great majority 
of experiments have been conducted on 
:he theory of concussion from ex- 
slosions. In 1891, the Congress of the 
Dmted States made an appropriation 
'or a series of experiments in Texas, 
with the view of ascertaining whether 
means could be provided for relieving 
:he arid territory of the Western and 
Southwestern States. The experi- 



Rainsford 

ments were conducted by General 
Dryenforth for the Department of 
Agriculture, and were watched with 
much interest by both scientists and 
agriculturists. Scientists generally 
pronounced the experiment a failure. 




BAIN" GAUGES. 

Bains ford, "William Stephen, 

an American clergyman ; born in Dub- 
lin, Ireland, Oct. 30, 1850; was grad- 
uated at St. John's College, England ; 
made missionary tours in the United 
States and Canada ; was assistant rec- 
tor of St. James Cathedral, in To- 
ronto, and rector of St. George's 
Church, New York city, in 1883- 
1905. Dr. Rainsford became widely 
known by his earnest advocacy of what 
has become popularly known as the 
"institutional church." He has done 
much to supply wholesome recreation 
for the young of both sexes in the 



Raleigh 

parish of his church. After twenty- 
three years' service, ill-health com- 
pelled him to resign Jan. 7, 1906. 

Rain Tree, a leguminous tree of 
tropical America, now largely planted 
in India for the shade it furnishes, 
and because it flourishes in barret? 
salt-impregnated soils. 

Rainy Lake, a sheet of water form- 
ing a portion of the boundary line 
between Ontario and the United 
States, W. of, and 100 miles distant 
from the nearest point, of Lake Su- 
perior, and about 50 miles long. 

Raisins, grapes dried in the sun. 
Inferior qualities are dried in an oven. 
Raisins are extensively produced in 
California. They are slightly refrig- 
erant. In the United States they are 
used to sweeten preparations, in India 
they are given as a medicine. 

Rajah, originally, a title which be- 
longed to princes of Hindu race who, 
either as independent sovereigns or as 
feudatories, governed a territory. 

Rakoczy March, a simple but 
grand military air by an unknown 
composer, dating from the end of the 
17th century, said to have been the 
favorite march of Francis Rakoczy II. 
of Transylvania. The Hungarians 
adopted it as their national march, 
and in 1848 it is alleged to have 
had the same inspiriting effect on the 
revolutionary troops of Hungary as 
the " Marseillaise " had on the French. 
Rale, or Rasle, Sebastien, a Jes- 
uit missionary in North America ; born 
in 1657; shot in 1724. He is remem- 
bered by his dictionary of the Abenaki 
language, and by his connection with 
Dummer's War (q. v.). 

Raleigh, a city, capital of the 
State of North Carolina, and county- 
seat of Wake Co. ; on the Southern and 
Seaboard Air Line ; 28 miles S. E. of 
Durham. Here are the State Capitol, 
United States Government Building, 
State Penitentiary, State Institution 
for the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind, 
etc. Pop. (1910) 19,218. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, an English 
soldier, colonist, and philosopher ; born 
in Budleigh, Devonshire, England, in 
1552. He entered into the troop of 
gentlemen volunteers who went to the 
assistance of the Protestants in 
France, where he continued about five 
or six years. He subsequently joined 



Ralph 

the expedition of General Norris to the 
Netherlands, in aid of the cause of the 
Prince of Orange. Soon after his re- 
turn he engaged with his half-brother, 
Sir Humphrey Gilbert, in a voy- 
age to America, whence they returned 
in 1579. On his return to England he 
introduced himself to the notice of 
Queen Elizabeth by a romantic piece 
of gallantry. Her majesty, while tak- 
ing a walk, stopped at a muddy place, 
hesitating whether to proceed or not; 
on which Raleigh took off his new 
plush cloak and spread it on the 
ground. The queen trod gently over 
the foot-cloth, and soon rewarded the 
sacrifice of a cloak with a handsome 
suit to the owner. Having obtained 
from Elizabeth an ample patent over 
an extensive region, he sent forth two 
ships, under Captains Amadas and 
Barlow, which reached the shores of 
North Carolina in July, 1584, and pro- 
ceeded N. to Virginia. The name last 
mentioned was given to the new coun- 
try in honor of the " Virgin Queen." 
Raleigh's patent was confirmed by Act 
of Parliament. He was elected along 
with Sir William Courtenay, for his 
native shire. 

A joint-stock company was formed 
by Sanderson, a merchant of London, 
Raleigh and Sir Adrian Gilbert, an- 
other of his half-brothers, to find the 
Northwest Passage. The voyages of 
Davis to the Arctic Seas were made 
under their auspices. But Raleigh and 
his partners sent a fleet to Virginia, 
under his relative, Sir Richard Gren- 
ville. A party of intending colonists, 
with Ralph Lane at their head, were 
landed at Roanoke. Raleigh himself 
never vis'ted his settlement in Vir- 
ginia, but he sent thither, in 1587, a 
fresh party of settlers, who founded 
the city of Raleigh, now capital of 
North Carolina. 

In the defeat of the Spanish Ar- 
mada, in 1588, Sir Walter bore a 
glorious part. In 1591 he sailed on an 
expedition against the Spanish fleet. 
About the same time he incurred the 
queen's displeasure by an intrigue 
with one of her maids of honor, whom 
ne afterward married. In 1595 he 
sailed to Guiana, and destroyed the 
capital of Trinidad. The year follow- 
ing he took a distinguished part in 
the taking of Cadiz. In the succeeding 
reign, his fortunes changed. He was 



Rameses 

stripped of bis preferments, tried, and 
condemned for high treason, without 
the least evidence. He remained in 
the Tower of London 13 years, during 
which time he wrote several works. 
His release in 1G15, was occasioned 
because of the flattering account he 
had given of some rich mines in 
Guiana. On gaining his liberty, he 
sailed to that country where he burned 
the Spanish town of St. Thomas, and 
returned to England. In consequence 
of a complaint of the Spanish am- 
bassador, he was apprehended, and, in 
a most unprecedented manner, be- 
headed, on his former sentence. He 
died in London, England, Oct. 29, 
1617. 

Ralph, Julian, journalist; born 
in New York, May 27, 1853; died-- 
1903. He was connected with the 
New York " Sun," the New York 
" Journal," and London " Daily Mail." 

Rani, in machinery, the weight of a 
pile or post driver. In nautical lan- 
guage : (1) A beak of iron or steel 
at the bow of a war- vessel. (2) AM 
steam ironclad, armed at the bow be- 
low the water-line with such a beak. 

Ramadan, the ninth month in the . 
Mohammedan year. In it Mohammed 
received his first revelation, and every 
believer is therefore enjoined to keep 
a strict fast throughout its entire 
course, from the dawn to sunset. Dur- 
ing the night, however, the most neces- 
sary wants may be satisfied a per- 
mission which, practically, is inter- 
preted by a profuse indulgence in all 
sorts of enjoyments. 

Ramayana, the name of one of the 
two great epic poems of ancient India. 

Rameses, or Ramses, the name of ' 
several Egyptian monarchs, some of 
whom were known to the Greek and 
Roman writers and the chronologists ; 
the name signifies " born of the sun," 
or the " nascent sun." The exploits of 
Rameses are confounded by the Greek 
and Roman authors with those of 
Sesostris, and mingled in the legend of 
Aramais, the Danaus of the Greeks. 
He is the supposed Sesostris of most 
authors, and his sarcophagus and 
mummy were found in Egypt in 1890. 
Rameses III. was the chief of the 20th 
dynasty. He founded the magnificent 
pile of edifices of Medinat Habu, em- 
bellished Luxor, Guruali, and other 



Ramil 

parts of Egypt. In 1889 the sarcoph- 
agus and mummies of himself and 
his queen were discovered in Egypt in 
a marvelous state of preservation. 
Rameses IV. reigned a short time and 
performed no distinguished actions. 
Rameses V., of whom inscriptions are 
found in Silsilis. Rameses VI., whose 
tomb at the Biban-El-Meluk contains 
some astronomical records, from which 
the date of his reign has been calculat- 
ed at 1240 B. c. Rameses VII., VIII., 
IX., X., and XI., undistinguished 
monarchs. Rameses XII., who reigned 
above 33 years. Rameses XIII. was an 
important monarch. Rameses is also 
the name of one of the fortresses or 
treasure cities built by the Hebrews 
during their residence in Egypt. 

Ramil, a plant producing what is 
popularly known as China grass. 
China has been making ramil fabrics 
since the time of Confucius, and the 
ancient Romans wore robes woven of 
its silky floss. The plant does well in 
the S. part of the United States and a 
finer fiber can be grown there than in 
the tropics. In such a climate the 
fiber is long, silky and brilliant, and 
textiles made from it are stronger 
than linen and have the luster of silk. 

Ramirez, Ignacio, a Mexican 
philosopher; born in San Miguel el 
Grande, June 23, 1818. He was of 
pure Aztec blood. He died in Mexi- 
co, June 15, 1879. 

Rampart, in fortification, an eleva- 
tion or mound of earth round a place, 
capable of resisting cannon shot, and 
on which the parapet is raised. 

Rampolla, Mariano del Tiii- 
daro, an Italian clergyman ; born in 
Polizzi, Sicily, Aug. 17, 1843. On 
the decease of Cardinal Jacobini, the 
Papal Secretary of State, in 1887, 
Pope Leo XIII. created Rampolla a 
cardinal and also appointed him Pa- 
pal Secretary of State. His principal 
object was a political alliance with 
France. The Dreyfus affair, having 
given to the French policy a different 
turn, destroyed entirely th^ plan he 
had so laboriously set to work. Ram- 
polla was several times considered a 
prominent candidate for the papal 
office, but sacrificed his prospects by 
resigning in 1903. 

Ramsay, Allan, a Scotch poet; 
born in Leadhills, Lanarkshire, Scot- 



Ramsey 

land, Oct. 15, 1686. His fame reach- 
ed its acme on the production of " The 
Gentle Shepherd." He died in Edin- 
burgh, Jan. 7, 1758. 

Ramsay, David, an American phy- 
sician and historian ; born in Lancas- 
ter Co., Pa., April 2, 1749; died in 
Charleston, S. C., May 8, 1815. 

Ramsay, Francis Mnnroe, an 
American naval officer ; born in Wash- 
ington, D. C., April 5, 1835 ; appointed 
a midshipman, Oct. 5, 1850; served 
through the Civil War with much 
credit ; became a rear-admiral in 1894 ; 
and was retired on reaching the age 
limit, April 5, 1897, after having held 
several important appointments. 

Ramsay, Sir William, a distin- 
guished scientist; born in Glasgow. 
Scotland, Oct. 2, 1852. He graduated 
from the universities in Glasgow and 
Tubingen, and after college appoint- 
ments in Glasgow and Bristol, became 
professor of chemistry at University 
College, London. With Lord Rayleigh, 
he discovered Argon, and his discover- 
ies of helium, its disintegration from 
radium (q. v.), also of the atmospheric 
gases neon, krypton, and xenon, and 
his numerous scientific publications, 
have placed him in the foremost rank 
of chemists. Knighted in 1902, and is 
an honorary member of the principal 
scientific institutions in the world. 

Ramsden, Jesse, an English math- 
ematical instrument-maker ; born in 
Salterhebble, near Halifax, Yorkshire, 
England in 1735. About 1755 he 
moved to London, where his skill as 
an engraver, recommended him to the 
mathematical instrument-makers. He 
so improved the sextant that its range 
of error was diminished from 5 min- 
utes to 30 seconds. He died in Brighton, 
England, Nov. 5, 1800. 

Ramsey, Alexander, an American 
statesman ; born near Harrisburg, 
Pa., Sept. 8, 1815. He studied law 
and began practice at Harrisburg in 
1839. After filling several public of- 
fices he was a member of Congress in 
1843-1847 ; appointed governor of the 
Territory of Minnesota in 1849 and 
1859; Secretary of War in 1879. A 
member of the Utah Commission in 
1881. Died 1903. 

Ramsey, Marathon Montrose, 
an American educator ; born in New- 
ton, Mass., in 1867; was graduated at 



itanavalona 



Randall 



Columbia University in 1894. He 
was the principal translator for the 
International American Conference 
in 1889-1890, and served as a special 
clerk for the collection and classifica- 
tion of information on foreign mili- 
tary subjects in 1890-1894. In the 
latter year he accepted the chair of 
Romance Languages at Columbia Uni- 
versity. He was director of the Co- 
lumbian Summer School in 1898- 
1900. 

Ranavalona III., a former Queen 
of Madagascar ; born in 1861. She 
succeeded Queen Ranavalona, II. in 
1883, having been nominated by her as 
the future queen. She married the 
prime minister, Rainilaiarivony (de- 
posed in 1895 and deceased in 1896) 
soon after ascending the throne. She 
was crowned in November. 1883. Her 
kingdom and capital were taken by 
the French in 1895, and the country 
was made a French colony. She is 
not permitted to live in Madagascar, 
being kept in exile under surveillance. 

Ranee, Armand Jean le Bouili- 
illier de, the founder of the re- 
formed order of La Trappe; born in 
Paris, France. Jan. 9, 1626. Resid- 
ing at Paris, he gave himself up to a 
life of dissipation. In 1657, however, 
a marked change took place in his 
character. He demitted all his bene- 
fices except the priory of Boulogne 
and the abbey of La Trappe. Retir- 
ing to the latter place in 16G4, he be- 
gan those reforms which have render- 
ed his name famous. He died in So- 
ligny-Ia-Trappe, Orne, France, Oct. 
12, 1700. 

Ranching, the business of cattle- 
breeding as pursued on a large scale 
in the unsettled districts of the United 
States from the Mississippi to the Pa- 
cific coasts, and from the Bad Lands 
of the Upper Missouri to the Gulf of 
Mexico. The name is derived from 
the Spanish rancho, properly " mess " 
or " mess room," but used in Mexico 
also for a herdsman's hut, and finally 
for a grazing farm. 

Rand, Edward Augustus, an 
Episcopal clergyman and writer of ju- 
venile books; born in Portsmouth, N. 
H., April 5, 1837; was graduated at 
Bangor Theological Seminary, and en- 
tered the Episcopal ministry. He 
wrote " Pushing Ahead " ; " Two Col- 
lege Boys " ; etc. 



Rand, The, or White Wateri 
Range, a small tract of land, extend- 
ing 25 miles either side of Johannes- 
burg, South Africa, and famous fot 
its mineral wealth. The reefs are ac- 
cessible and rather easily worked. Th 
deposits are unique in their unparal- 
leled persistence of ore, which is in- 
terspersed in the quartz and sand- 
stone. It is not of very high quality, 
yielding about $10 per ton. Since itd 
discovery in 1885, the Rand has yield- 
ed $400,000,000 in gold, and prior to 
the Boer War was yielding at the rate 
of $100,000,000 a year, or one-third of 
the world's production. Since the war, 
the output is gradually rising to its 
former average. 

Randall, Alexander Williams, 
an American statesman ; born in 
Ames, N. Y., Oct. 31, 1819; was ad- 
mitted to the bar and began practice 
in Waukesha, Wis., in 1840; became 
postmaster there, and in 1847 was 
elected to the convention that framed 
the State constitution. He was elect- 
ed to the State Assembly in 1855; 
governor of Wisconsin in 1857 and in 
1859, and was appointed United 
States Minister to Italy in 1861. On 
his return he was made assistant post- 
master-general. He died in Elmira, 
N. Y., July 25, 1872. 

Randall, Emilins Ovi&tt, an 
American author ; born in Richfield, 
O., Oct. 28, 1850; was graduated at 
Cornell University in 1874 ; was ad- 
mitted to the bar in 1890 and accepted 
the chair of law at the Ohio State 
University in 1893 ; became secretary 
of the Ohio State Archaeological and 
Historical Society in 1894, and of- 
ficial reporter of the Ohio Supreme 
Court in 1895. 

Randall, George M., an Ameri- 
can military officer ; born in Ohio, 
Oct. 8, 1841. He was graduated at 
the United States Military Academy, 
and commissioned 2d lieutenant in the 
4th Infantry in 1861 ; served through 
the Civil War. In the war with 
Spain he was commissioned a Briga- 
dier-General of volunteers, May 4, 
1898; was honorably discharged under 
this commission on April 12, 1898; 
was reappointed Brigadier-General, 
Jan. 20, 1900; and on the reorganiza- 
tion of the regular army in February, 
1 1901, was promoted Brigadier-Gen- 
1 erai. U. S. A. 



Randall 

Randall, James Ryder, an 

American journalist and composer ; 
born in Baltimore, Md., Jan. 1, 1839 ; 
was educated at Georgetown College, 
D. C. He gave powerful aid to the 
Southern cause by his lyrics. These 
include, besides " Maryland, My 
Maryland," " Stonewall Jackson " ; 
" There's Life in the Old Land Yet " ; 
etc. After 1866 he lived in Augusta, 
Oa. Died Jan. 15, 1908. 

Randall, Samuel Jackson, an 
American statesman ; born in Phila- 
delphia, Pa., Oct. 10, 1828. In 1862 
he was elected to Congress, serving 
continuously till his death. He was 
Speaker of the House, 1876-1881. Died 
in Washington, D. C., April 12, 1890. 

Randolph, Alfred Magill, an 
American clergyman ; born in Win- 
chester, Va., Aug. 31, 1836; was grad- 
uated at William and Mary College in 
1855 and at the Virginia Theological 
Seminary in 1858; was ordained in 
the Protestant Episcopal Church. He 
was a chaplain in the Confederate 
army in 1863-1865, and was pastor 
of Emmanuel Church, Baltimore, Md., 
in 1867-1883. In the latter year he 
was jelected assistant bishop of Vir- 
ginia? 

Randolph, Edmund Jennings, 
an American statesman ; born in 
Williamsburg, Va., Aug. 10, 1753; 
studied at William and Mary College, 
and was admitted to the bar. In 1776 
he helped to frame the constitution of 
Virginia, and became the State's first 
attorney-general. In 1786-1788 he 
was governor of Virginia, and in 1787 
a member of the convention which 
framed the Constitution of the United 
States. In 1789 he was appointed by 
Washington Attorney-General of the 
United States. In 1794 he was made 
Secretary of State. Died in Clarke co., 
Va., Sept. 13, 1813. 

Randolph, John, "of Roanqke," 
an American statesman ; born in Caw- 
sons, Chesterfield co., Va., June 2, 
1773. He claimed descent from Po- 
cahontas, the Indian princess. He 
was educated for the legal profession, 
which, however, he never followed, de- 
voting his attention to politics. In 
1799, he was elected to Congress. His 
opposition to the War of 1812 caused 
his defeat in the following election ; 
but he was reflected to Congress in 
1814, where he remained for several 



Ranke 

years. From 1825 to 1827 he was a 
United States Senator. In 1829 he was 
a member of the convention for revis- 
ing the constitution of Virginia, and 
the year following was appointed Unit- 
ed States minister to Russia. On his 
return, he was again elected to Con- 
gress, but was unable to occupy his 
seat. He was preeminent for his 
poetic eloquence, his absolute honesty, 
and the scathing wit, with which he 
exposed every corrupt scheme. He 
died in Philadelphia, Pa., on June 
24, 1833. 

Randolph-Ma con College, an 
educational institution in Ashland, 
Va. ; founded in 1830, under the 
auspices of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church, South. 

Range, in gunnery, the horizontal 
distance to which a shot or other pro- 
jectile is carried. When a cannon lies 
horizontally it is called the point-blank 
range ; when the muzzle is elevated to 
45 degrees it is called the utmost 
range. To this may be added the 
ricochet, the skipping or bounding 
shot, with the piece elevated from 
three to six degrees. 

Rangoon, the capital of Lower 
Burma, and the chief seaport of Bur- 
ma, at the junction of the Pegu, 
Hlaing or Rangoon, and Pu-zun- 
doung rivers ; about 21 miles from the 
sea. Since its occupancy by the Brit- 
ish in 1852 Rangoon has undergone 
such changes that it is practically a 
new town, and its population has in- 
creased five-fold. The" principal streets 
are broad, and contain many large and 
not a few handsome buildings ; there is 
a government dockyard, and steam cars 
have been introduced. Pop. 180,324. 

Ranjit Singh. See RUNJEET 
SINGH. 

Rank, in the army and navy, a 
grade of various officers established by 
law, each one carrying distinct rights, 
privileges, and emoluments. 

Ranke, Leopold, von, a German 
historian ; born in Wiehe, between 
Gotha and Halle, Dec. 21, 1795. The 
works, " A History of the Roman and 
German People from 1494 to 1535," 
and " A Criticism on Modern His- 
torians," procured him a 'call to Berlin 
as Professor of History in 1825. In 
1827 he was sent by the Prussian gov- 
ernmen* to consult the archives o 
Vienna, Venice, Rome, and Florence; 



Rankin 

four years he spent in this work, and 
returned with a mass of the most val- 
uable historical materials. The re- 
sults of his labors were seen in " The 
Princes and Peoples of Southern Eu- 
rope in the 10th and 17th Centuries," 
and other books dealing with Servin, 
Turkey, and Venice; and "The Ro- 
man Popes in the IGth and 17th Cen- 
turies," one of his great masterpieces 
of historical writing. Then he tv.rned 
his attention to Central and Northern 
Europe. He began his " Universal 
History " when he was an old man of 
82 ; he kept two schooled historical as- 
sistants busy, studied critically the 
Greek and other sources, dictated and 
worked 8 to 10 hours a day, and pub- 
lished one volume a year regularly, 
till he died, May 23, 1886. Ranke 
married an Irish lady in 1843, and 
was ennobled in 1865. 

Rankin, Jeremiah Eames, an 
American clergyman and writer ; born 
in Thornton, N. H., Jan. 2, 1828 ; was 
graduated at Middlebury College, Vt., 
in 1848 ; became president of Howard 
University in 1889. He wrote several 
hymns. including "For God and Home 
and Native land." He died in 1904. 

Ranney, William, an American 
artist ; born in Middletown, Conn., 
May 9, 1813 ; learned drawing in 
Brooklyn, N. Y. At the outbreak of 
the war between Texas and Mexico he 
enlisted with the Texans. He died in 
West Hoboken, N. J., Nov. 18, 1857. 

Ransom, Thomas Edward 
Greenfield, an American military 
officer; born in Norwich, Vt., Nov. 29, 
1834. Before the Civil War he was 
an engineer in Illinois ; became a lieu- 
tenant-colonel of volunteers in July, 
1861 ; was promoted Brigadier-Gener- 
al in January, 1863 ; joined Sher- 
man's army and took command of a 
division just before the capture of 
Atlanta, Sept. 2, 1864. He died in 
Rome, Ga., Oct. 29, 1864. 

Ranunculus, buttercup, crowfoot ; 
the typical genus of the order Ranun- 
culaceae. Known species about 160, 
from temperate regions. Many have 
much divided leaves. 

Rape, in law, carnal knowledge of 
a woman by force against her will. 

Rape, a plant of the cabbage tribe, 
cultivated for its seeds, from which oil 
is extracted. The oil cake made from 



Raphael 

rape seed is also used as food for 
sheep and cattle, and as a fertilizer. 
Raphael, Raffaello Sanzio, or 
Santi d'Urbino, the greatest of 
rao'/orn painters; born in Urbino, Ita- 
ly, March 28, 1483. He received big 
c:\rliest instructions from his father, 
Giovanni Santi, after whose death, in ' 
1494, he became the pupil of 1'eru- 
gino. In 1504 he visited Florence, and 
lived there till 1508, when he was 
called to Rome by Pope Julius II., and 
employed to paint the chambers of 
the Vatican. Raphael spent the rest 




RANUNCULUS. 

of his short life at Rome. In the nu- 
merous works, frescoes, and oil paint- 
ings of this unrivaled master, three 
styles are distinctly recognizable. The 
first is the " Peruginesque," the second 
" Florentine," and the third style 
" Roman," and is peculiarly Raph- 
ael's own that which constitutes 
him the greatest of painters. Its su- 
preme excellence is the equable devel- 
opment of all the essential qualities 
of art, composition, expression, design, 
coloring. Among Raphael's oil paint- 
ings are the " St. Cecilia," at Bo- 
logna ; the famous " Madonna di San 
Sisto," now in the Dresden gallery ; 
the " Spasimo di Sicilia," now it Mad- 
rid ; and the " Transfiguration," his 
last work. It is now in the Vatican. 



Rapier 



Raslii 



His drawings are very numerous, and 
are to be found in most of the public 
and private museums of America and 
Europe. Raphael, who had occupied 
himself with architecture as well as 
painting, was charged, on the death of 
his friend Bramante, in 1514, with the 
direction of the building of St. Peter's. 
Raphael died in Rome from the effects 
of a cold, and after an illness of a 
fortnight, on his 37th birthday, April 
6, 1520. 

Rapier, a light, highly-tempered, 
edgeless, and finely-pointed weapon of 
the sword kind used for thrusting. It 
is about three feet in length. 

Rapp, George, a German-Ameri- 
can socialist, founder of the sect of 
Economites ; born in Wurtemberg, in 
1770. After an attempt to restore the 
Church of New Testament days in 
Germany, he emigrated with his fol- 
lowers to Western Pennsylvania in 
1803. There he established a settle- 
ment which he named Harmony. In 
1815 the community removed to Indi- 
ana, and founded New Harmony ; but 
this was sold in 1824 to Robert Owen, 
and Rapp and his followers returned 
to Pennsylvania, where they built 
Economy. As the years passed the 
community became wealthy. Its num- 
bers have not increased, and in 1890 
did not exceed 70. He died in Econ- 
omy, Pa., Aug. 17, 1847. 

Rapp, Jean, Count, a French 
military officer; born in Colmar, 
Haut-Rhin, France, April 27, 1772. 
He was intended for the Church, but 
his taste for a military life led him 
to enroll himself (1788) in the French 
army. He became aide-de-camp to 
Napoleon. Captured by the Russians 
at Danzig, he was sent as prisoner to 
Russia, and he did not return to 
France till July, 1814, where he was 
well received by Louis XVIII. ; but in 
1815 he went over to his old master, 
and was appointed Commander-in- 
Chief of the army of the Rhine. After 
Waterloo, Rapp again submitted to 
Louis. He died in Paris, Nov. 8, 1821. 

Rappaliamiock, a river of Vir- 
ginia, rising in the Blue Ridge of the 
Alleghany Mountains, receiving the 
Rapidan, and flowing about 125 miles 
S. E. to Chesapeake Bay. _It is tidal 
and navigable to Fredericksbnrg. The 
Rappahannock and the Rapidan were 
the scenes of some of the most san- 

E. 123. 



guinary battles of the Civil War, at 
Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, and 
the Wilderness. 

Rarefaction, in physics, the act 
of rendering more rare, i. e., less 
dense. Used specially of the diminu- 
tion in the density of the air in the 
receiver of an air pump, or &.': ;reat 
altitudes. 

Rarey, John S., an American horse 
tamer ; born in Franklin co., O., in 
1828. At an early age he evinced 
natural ability in the management of 
horses. In 1856 he went to Texas, 
and on his return to Ohio he began 
to give public exhibitions of his skill, 
subduing the most vicious and wildest 




KASPBEKBY. 

horses and making them obedient to his 
will. About 1861 he visited Europe. 
He died in Cleveland, O., Oct. 4, 1866. 

Raritan, a river of New Jersey, 
formed by two branches which united- 
ly flow S. E., and fall into Raritan 
Bay near Perth Amboy. It is naviga- 
ble as far as New Brunswick. 

Raslii, from the initials of Rabbi 
Shelomo Izaaki, the greatest Jewish 
commentator and exegete ; born in 
Troyes, France, about 1040. His chief 
work is his " Commentary " on the 
whole of the Old Testament. This 
" Commentary " was the first book 
ever printed in Hebrew. He was the 
author of numerous other works. He 
died July 13, 1105. 



Raskolniki 



Rationalism 



Raskolniki, the collective name 
given to the adherents of the dissenting 
sects in Russia, which have originat- 
ed by secession from the State Church. 
The great majority of these sects date 
originally from the middle of the 17th 
century, when the liturgical books, 
etc., were revised under the patriarch 
Nikon. The Raskolniki clung to the 
old texts. Their numbers are vari- 
ously estimated at from 3.000,000 to 
11,000,000. 

Rasp, a coarse file having, instead 
of chisel-cut teeth, its surface dotted 
with separate protruding teeth, formed 
by the indentations of a pointed punch. 

Raspail, Francois Vincent, a 
French chemist ; born in Carpentras, 
France, Jan. 29, 1794. He is by some 
considered the creator of organic chem- 
istry. He died Jan. 8, 1878. 

Raspberry, a shrubby plant with 
many suckers. Found in America and 
in the N. of Europe and Asia. The 
species in gardens is the wild plant, 

freatly improved by cultivation. The 
ruit resembles the strawberry in not 
becoming acid in the stomach. There 
are red and yellow varieties. 

Rasse, ^a carnivorous quadruped, 
closely allied to the civet, spread over 
a great extent of Asia. Its perfume, 
which is secreted in a double pouch, 
is much valued by the Javanese. For 
its sake the animal is often kept in 
captivity. 




BLACK RATS. 

Rassieur, !Leo, an American law- 
yer; born in Wadern, Prussia, April 
19, 1844; came to the United States 
in early childhood. At the outbreak 
of the Civil War he volunteered as a 
private in the Union army, rising to 
the rank of major in 1865. He was 



admitted to the St. Louis bar in 1867 ; 
was elected judge of the Probate Court 
on Jan. 1, 1899. He was elected 
commander-in-chief of the Grand Ar- 
my of the Republic, Aug. 20, 1900. 

Rat, in zoology, a name popularly 
applied to the larger murines, but 
more strictly applicable to two species, 
the black rat and the brown, or Nor- 
way rat. Figuratively: (1) One who 
deserts his party (especially in poli- 
tics), as rats are said to forsake a 
falling house or a doomed ship. (2) 
A workman who takes work for less 
than current wages, or who takes 
work in place of a striker. 

Rata, a New Zealand tree related 
to various species of iron wood. The 
tree begins life as a climber, attached 
to other forest trees, and attains a 
height of 150 feet ; but when it has 
killed the supporting stem the rata 
is able to sustain its own weight and 
to grow on as an independent tree, at- 
taining ultimately a height of nearly 
200 feet. 

Ratafia, a fine spirituous liquor 
flavored with the kernels of several 
kinds of fruits, particularly of cher- 
ries, apricots, peaches, and almonds. 

Ratel, a carnivorous quadruped of 
the badger family, found chiefly in 
South and East Africa, and in India. 
It is said to live principally on honey. 
The Indian ratel, however, eats also 
rats, birds, frogs, white ants, and 
various insects ; and in the N. of In- 
dia, where it is accused of digging out 
dead bodies, it is popularly known aa 
the grave-digger. 

Ratification, in law, the confirma- 
tion, sanction or approval given by a 
person who has arrived at his major- 
ity to acts done by him during his 
minority. It also means any act, pub- 
lic or private, which confirms or es- 
tablishes a proposed transaction, in- 
:omplete until ratified. 

Ratio, in mathematics: The meas- 
ure of the relation which one quantity 
bears to another of the same kind. 

Rationalism, as a "system of be- 
lief regulated by reason," might be ex- 
pected to mean the opposite of irra- 
tionality, ignorance, and perverse prej- 
udice. But in ordinary usage, general 
as well as theological, the use of the 
word is substantially different. It is 
generally employed as a term of re- 



Rat Snake 



Raven 



p roach for those who, without utterly 
denying or attempting to overthrow 
the foundations of religion, make such 
concessions as tend to subvert the 
faith. They rely, more or less exclu- 
sively and blameworthily, on mere 
human reason instead of simply, 
frankly, and fully accepting the dicta 
of the divine word. An atheist would 
not be spoken of as a rationalist, nor 
would an irreligious, blaspheming 
freethinker. 

Rat Snake, a powerful snake, at- 
taining a length of seven feet and 
upward. Common in India and Cey- 
lon. It frequently enters houses in 
search of mice, rats, and young fowls. 
It is fierce, and always ready to bite 
when annoyed. 

Rattan, the commercial name for 
the s,em of various species of the ge- 
nus Calamus. They abound in South- 
ern Asia in moist situations, and are 
used for making splints for chair seats 
and backs, hanks for sails, etc. The 
larger species grow to a size of three 
inches diameter, and to a height of 
100 feet. 




RATTLESNAKE. 

Rattlesnake, the English name for , 
any species of the American genus 
Crotalus, the tail of which is fur- 
nished with a rattle. Garman enu-j 
merates 12 species and 13 varieties, j 
The poison of the rattlesnake is usu- 
ally fatal to man, though fortunately 
they are sluggish, and never attempt 
to strike unless they are molested. 
They are widely distributed on the 
American continent ; but advancing 
civilization is rapidly thinning their 
numbers. 

Rattlesnake Root, an American 
plant used to cure the bite of the 
rattlesnake. 



Rauhes Hans ("the Rough 
House"), the name of an institution 
founded at Horn, near Hamburg, in 
connection with the German Home 
Mission. It is partly a refuge for 
neglected children ; partly a boarding 
school for the moral and intellectual 
education of children of the higher 
classes ; and, a training school for 
those who wish to become teachers or 
officials in houses of correction. It 
was opened Nov. 1, 1831. By the ad- 
dition of new houses the whole has 
been very much enlarged. The children 
live in families of 12. In connec- 
tion with the Rauhes Haus there was 
founded in 1845 a kind of conventual 
institute for the education of young 
men as superintendents of similar in- 
stitutions. 

Raum, Green Berry, an American 
lawyer ; born in Golconda, 111., Dec. 
3, 1829 ; studied law, and was admit- 
ted to the bar (1853). Three years 
later he took his family to Kansas. 
When the war broke out he enlisted, 
and was appointed major in the 56th 
Illinois regiment, and when he finally 
resigned his commission he had risen 
from major to Brigadier-General. In 
1866 he was elected to Congress ; was 
Commissioner of Internal Revenue in 
1876-1883; and Uommissioner of 
Pensions in 1889-1893. Died in 1909. 

Rauiuer, Friedrich Imdwig 
Georg yon, a German historian ; born 
in Worlitz, near Dessau, Anhalt, May 
14, 1781. He studied law at Halle 
and Gottingen, and entered the Prus- 
sian state service in 1801. In the 
years 1830-1843 he made extensive 
journeys, coming as far as the United 
States : the observations made during 
these trips were written in several 
books dealing with the United States, 
etc. He died in Berlin, Prussia, June 
14. 1873. 

Ranmer, Karl Georg von, a 
German geologist and geographer, &. 
brother of the preceding ; born in 
Worlitz, Germany, April 9, 1783 ; 
studied at Gottingen and Halle, and 
at the Mining Academy at Freiberg; 
was appointed Professor of Mineralo- 
gy at Breslau, in 1811; in 1827, ap- 
pointed Professor of Mineralogy and 
Natural History at Erlangen, where 
he died June 2, 1865. 

Raven, a large bird of the crow 
family. The raven has played an im 



Ravenala 

portant part in mythology and folk- 
lore. It is the first bird mentioned 
by name in the Old Testament; by 
the ministry of ravens Elijah was fed, 
and they were to be the ministers of 
vengeance on unruly children. The 
raven was the bird of Odin, and in 
classic mythology was of ill-omen, a 
character often attributed to it by the 
early English dramatists. Marlowe 
calls it the " sad presageful raven," 
and Shakespeare repeatedly refers to 
the belief that its appearance fore- 
boded misfortune. This belief, which 
is widespread, probably arose from 
the preternaturally grave manner of 
the bird, its sable plumage, and the 
readiness with which it learns to imi- 
tate human speech. 



,-^ 
\ 




BAVEN: COHVTJS CORAX. 

Ravenna, a city of Italy, capital 
of a province, on the Montone, four 
miles W. of the Adriatic, and 43 miles 
S. E. of Bologna. It is an ancient 
city with numerous historical build- 
ings. Pop. 89,957. 

Ravenscroft, Thomas, an Eng- 
lish composer ; born in 1592. He was 
trained in St. Paul's choir, London, 
and received the degree of bachelor of 
music from Cambridge. In 1621 he 
published his " Whole Book of 
Psalms," containing a tune for each 
of the 150 psalms, harmonized in four 
parts by all the great musicians of 
the period. He died in 1640. 

Ravogli, Augustus, an American 
surgeon ; born in Rome, Italy, Feb. 
7, 1851 ; was graduated at the Medical 



Hawlins 

Department of the University of 
Rome, Italy, in 1873. and served as 
surgeon in the military hospital of the 
Italian army for several years. In 
1880 he caroe to the United States and 
settled in Cincinnati, O. ; was after- 
ward made Professor of Dermatology 
and Syphilography at the Medical De- 
partment of the University of Cincin- 
nati. 

Haw, Charles, an American 
archaeologist; born in Vervien, Belgi- 
um, in 1826; was educated in Ger- 
many, and settled in the United States 
in 1848. He was made curator of 
the Department of Antiquities in the 
United States Museum in Washing- 
ton, D. C., in 1875. About this time 
he began to devote himself to the study 
of American archaeology, in which he 
became an eminent authority. He died 
in Philadelphia, Pa., July 25, 1887. 

Bawle, William (Brooke), an 
American lawyer ; born in Philadel- 
phia, Pa., Aug. 29, 1843 ; adopted for 
his surname Brooke-Rawle ; was grad- 
uated at the University of Pennsylva- 
nia in 1863, and then joined the army 
as lieutenant-colonel. After the war 
he studied law and was admitted to the 
bar in 1867. 

Rawle, 'William Henry, an 
American lawyer ; born in Philadel- 
phia, Pa., Aug. 31, 1823; was grad- 
uated at the University of Pennsylva- 
nia in 1841 ; was admitted to the bar 
in 1844 and attained eminence in prac- 
tice. On the first call for volunteers 
in 1861 he joined the artillery in the 
Union army, and when a similar call 
was issued in 1863 he served as quar- 
termaster. He was vice-provost of the 
Law Academy in 1865-1873, and vice- 
chancellor of the Law Association 
from 1880 till his death in Philadel- 
phia, April 19, 1899. 

Rawlins, John Aaron, an 
American military officer ; born in Ga- 
lena, 111., Feb. 13, 1831. Before the 
Civil War he was a lawyer; adjutant- 
general of General Grant in Septem- 
ber, 1861, and served as such in the 
campaigns of 1862 and 1863; in 
March, 1865, was appointed chief of 
General Grant's staff, with the rank 
of Brigadier-General in the U. S. A. 
He became Secretary of War in 
March, 1869. He died in Washing- 
ton, D. C., Sept. 9, 1869. 



Rawlins 

Hawlins. Joseph Lafayette, an 

American legislator ; born in Salt 
Lake co., Utah, March 28, 1850; was 
educated at the University of Indi- 
ana ; was a Professor at the Univer- 
sity of Deseret in Salt Lake City in 
1873-1875 ; in the latter year was 
admitted to the bar, and practised till 
1892, when he was elected a delegate 
to Congress. He was elected to the 
United States Senate in 1897. 

Rawlinson, George, an English 
Orientalist ; born in Chadlington, En- 
gland, Nov. 23, 1812; educated at 
Cambridge ; was elected Camden Pro- 
fessor of Ancient History in 1861, and 
made a canon of Canterbury in 1872. 
He died at Canterbury, England, Octo- 
ber G, 1902. 

Rawlinson, Sir Henry Cres- 
wicke, an English Orientalist and 
diplomatist ; born in Chadlington, En- 
gland, April 11, 1810. In 1833 he 
went to Persia. During the six years 
he spent there he began to study the 
cuneiform inscriptions, and made a 
translation of Darius' famous Behis- 
tun inscription. After he left Persia 
he held command of Kandahar, 1840- 
1842 ; was appointed political agent 
at Bagdad in 1844, and consul-general 
there in 1851. . Five years later he re- 
turned home to England. In 1858 he 
went back to Persia as British minis- 
ter, but remained at Teheran only one 
year. Died in London, March 5, 1895. 

Rawson, Edward Kirk, an Amer- 
ican educator ; born in Albany, N. Y., 
Feb. 21, 184G; was graduated at Yale 
University in 18(58 and at the Andover 
Theological Seminary in 1872 ; was 
ordained in the Congregational 
Church and served as a chaplain in 
the United States navy in 1871-1890 ; 
was placed in charge of the Depart- 
ment of Ethics and English Studies at 
the United States Naval Academy in 
1888 and was made superintendent of 
" Naval War Records," March 31, 
1897. His publications include 
" Twenty Famous Naval Battles," etc. 

Ray, of a composite flower, the 
outer or circumferential whorl of flor- 
ets, as distinguished from those of 
the disk. In ichthyology, one of the 
radiating, bony rods serving to sup- 
port the fins. In optics, a line of 
light proceeding from a radiant point, 
or a point of reflection. 



Raymond 

Ray, a family of fishes, including 
the skate and allied forms. They may 
be divided into two groups : Rays 
proper, with a short snout, and skates 
(attaining a much larger size), with 
a long, pointed snout. 

Ray, or Wray, John, an English 
naturalist ; born in Black Notley^ Es- 
sex, England, Nov. 29, 1628. Ray's 
zoological works are considered by 
Cuvier as the foundation of modern 
zoology. He died in Black Notley, 
Jan. 17, 1705. 

Ray, W. George, an American 
lawyer ; born in Otselic, N. Y., Feb. 
3, 1844 ; was reared on a farm and 
received his education at Norwich 
Academy. At the beginning of the 
Civil War he entered the Union army 
as a private in the 19th New York 
Volunteers. After the war he studied 
law and was admitted to the bar in 
November, 1867 ; was elected to Con- 
gress in 1883. He declined the ap- 
pointment of justice of the Supreme 
Court of New York State in 1899. 

Rayleigh, John Strutt, 3d 
Baron, an English scientist ; born in 
Essex, England, Nov. 12, 1842 ; was 
graduated at Cambridge, in 1865. Co- 
lumbia College, New York, bestowed 
on him the Barnard medal for " mer- 
itorious service to science " since he 
shares with Ramsey the merit of dis- 
covering the element argon. He wrote 
many valuable scientific papers. 

Raymond, Bradford Paul, an 
American clergyman ; born in Stam- 
ford, Conn., April 22, 1846; was edu- 
cated at Hamline University, Minn., 
and Lawrence University, Wis., and 
was graduated at the Theological 
School of Boston University and or- 
dained in the Methodist Episcopal 
Church in 1874. He was president of 
Lawrence University from 1883 to 
1889, resigning to become president of 
Wesleyan University, Middletown 
Conn. 

Raymond, Jerome Hall, an 
American educator ; born in Clinton, 
la., March 10, 1869 ; was graduated 
at the Northwestern University in 
1892; president and Professor of 
Economics and Sociology at the 
West Virginia University in 1897- 
1901; Associate Professor of Sociol- 
ogy at University of Chicago till 1909; 
then president Toledo University. 



Raymond 

Raymond, Henry Jarvis, an 

American journalist ; born in Lima, 
N. Y., Jan. 24, 1820; was graduated 
at the University of Vermont in 1840 ; 
in 1841 he became managing editor of 
the New York "Tribune." In 1849 
he was elected to the State Assembly ; 
was reflected and made speaker, but 
relinquished his position on the "Cou- 
rier," and traveled in Europe on ac- 
count of ill health. On his return to 
[New York, in 1851, he established the 
New York " Times " ; was chosen lieu- 
tenant-governor of New York ; was 
again elected to the State Legislature, 
and, in 1864, was chosen as repre- 
sentative from New York to the 39th 
Congress. He died in New York, 
June 18, 1869. 

Raymond, John T., right name 
John O'Brien, an American actor ;, 
born in Buffalo, N. Y., April 5, 1836. 
He was educated for a mercantile life, 
but the ways of business did not suit 
tim. In 1867 he went to England. 
He died in Evansville, Ind., April 10, 
1887. 

Raymond, Rossiter Worthing- 
ton, an American metallurgist ; born 
in Cincinnati, O., April 27, 1840 ; was 
graduated at the Brooklyn. Polytech- 
nic Institute in 1858. He practised 
in New York city as a consulting en- 
gineer in 1864-1868; lectured on eco- 
nomic geology at Lafayette College in 
1870-1872. He was United States 
commissioner to the Vienna Exposition 
in 1873; New York State commis- 
sioner of electric subways for Brook- 
lyn in 1885. 

Raymond, William Gait, an 
/American civil engineer ; born in 
'Princeton, la., March 2, 1859 ; stud- 
ied at the Kansas State University and 
was graduated at Washington Uni- 
versity in 1884; was instructor of 
civil engineering at the California 
(State University ia 1884-1890; and 
accepted the chair of geodesy, road 
engineering, and topographical draw- 
ing at the Rensselaer Polytechnic In- 
stitute in 1892. 

Raynonard, Francois J n * t e 
Marie, French poet and philologist ; 
born 1761 ; died 1836. He revised the 
study of the Provencal language. 

Razorback, one of the largest spe- 
cies of the whale tribe, the great ror- 
flual. Also a name given to a kind 



Read 

of hog, especially in the S. part of 
the United States. 

Razorbill, an aquatic bird, the 
common auk, the sole species of the 
genus, the great auk being extinct. 




A RAZORBILL. 

Razor Fish, a species of fish with 
a compressed body, much prized for the 
table. 

Razor Shell, a genus of lamelli- 
branchiate mollusca ; common on both 
sides of the Atlantic. These curious, 
mollusks always live buried in the 
sand in an upright position, leaving 
only an^ opening shaped like a key- 
hole, which corresponds with the two 
siphon tubes. They are generally 
found at a depth of one or two feet; 

Rea, George Bronson, an Amer? 
ican electrical engineer; born in 
Brooklyn, N. Y., Aug. 28, 1869 ; went 
to Cuba, where he practised his pro- 
fession till the beginning of the revo 
lution; accompanied the insurgent 
forces of Gomez and Maceo as special 
correspondent of the New York " Her- 
ald." He was present at the bom- 
bardment of San Juan, Porto Rico, 
and in the operations before Santiago 
as correspondent for the New Xork 
"World." In the early part of the 
Porto Rico campaign he traveled, 
through the island as an agent in the 
secret service of the United State:* 
government, and acquired information 
of large value to the American mili- 
tary authorities. 

Read, Hollis, an American clergy- 
man and author ; born in Newfano, 
Vt., Aug. 26, 1802; was graduated at 
Williams College in 1826, and received 
his theological training at Princetoa 



Head 



Reader 



Theological Seminary ; was ordained 
in the Presbyterian Church in 1829, 
and went to Bombay, India, in 1830, 
where he remained five years. Re- 
turning to the United States he held 
various pastorates and engaged in oth- 
er religious work. His publications in- 
clude " Commerce and Christianity " ; 
" India and Its People, Ancient and 
Modern " ; etc. He died in Somerville, 
N. J., April 7, 1887. 

Read, John Elliot, an American 
author ; born in South Amherst, Mass., 
Jan. 4, 1845. He has written a val- 
uable work on the principal earlier 
Arctic explorations. 

Read, John Meredith., an Amer- 
ican jurist ; born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
July 21, 1797; was graduated at the 
University of Pennsylvania in 1812 ; 
admitted to the bar in 1818. He held 
a seat in the Pennsylvania Legisla- 
ture in 1822-1823 ; was United States 
attorney for the Eastern District of 
Pennsylvania in 1837-1844; and 
served as chief-justice and attorney- 
general of Pennsylvania, and solicitor- 
?eneral of the United States in 18(5(>- 
874. He affiliated with the Republi- 
can party when it was formed and in 
the presidential campaign of 1856 
made an address on the " Power of 
Congress over Slavery in the Territo- 
ries," which had much influence 
throughout the country. In 1858, on 
the first victory of the Republican par- 
ty in Pennsylvania, he was elected 
judge of the Supreme Court by a ma- 
jority of 30,000. In 1860 he was 
mentioned as a candidate for the pres- 
idential nomination with Abraham 
Lincoln for Vice-President. He died 
in Philadelpha, Pa., Nov. 29, 1874. 

Read, John Meredith, an Amer- 
ican diplomatist ; born in Philadelphia, 
Pa., Feb. 27, 1837; was graduated 
at Brown University and went through 
a legal course at the Albany Law 
School ; was also a student in a mil- 
itary school. When the Civil War 
broke out he enlisted and while in 
service early attained the rank of 
Brigadier-General of volunteers. In 
1868 he was appointed United States 
consul-general at Paris. He was Unit- 
ed States minister in Greece in 1873- 
1880. He died in Paris, France, Dec. 
27, 1896. 

Read, Nathan, an American in- 
ventor; claimed to have been the first 



to use steam engines for propelling 
boats and carriages ; born in Worces- 
ter co., Mass., in 1759. He entered 
Harvard College in 1777; was gradu- 
ated in 1781 ; studied medicine ; and 
started the Salem iron factory in 1796. 
In 1807, he removed to Belfast, Me., 
and took out a patent for an improved 
steam engine boiler in 1791. He con- 
verted the condensing engine of Watt 
into a complete working, portable, 
high-pressure engine, 12 years before 
the high-pressure engine was known. 
In 1790 he petitioned Congress for a 
patent for land carriages to be driven 
by steam. It created so much amuse- 
ment that he withdrew it.. He built, 
in 1789, a small steamboat, substan- 
tially identical with Fulton's of 1807. 
It is alleged that his combinations 
amounted to the inland steamers now 
in use. Died in Belfast, Me., in 1849. 

Read, Opie, an American journal- 
ist ; born in Nashville, Tenn., Dec. 22, 
1852. He established and edited for 
many years the " Arkansaw Travel- 
er." His studies of Arkansas life have 
been widely read. 

Read, Thomas Buchanan, an 
American portrait painter and poet; 
born in Chester co., Pa., March 12, 
1822 ; died in New York, May 11,1872. 

Reade, Charles, an English novel- 
ist ; born in Ipsden House, Oxford- 
shire, England, June 8, 1814. He 
was educated at Oxford. In 1843 he 
was called to the bar, and it soon 
became obvious that his chosen career 
was that of literature. The books by 
which he first became known were his 
" Peg Woffington " and " Christie 
Johnstone." He died in London, En- 
gland, April 11, 1884. 

Reade, John, an Irish-Canadian 
clergyman and journalist ; born in 
Ballyshannon, Ireland, Nov. 13, 1837. 
He went to Canada in 1856, where 
he engaged in teaching, law, preach- 
ing, and journalism. 

Reader, Francis Smith, an 
American journalist ; born in Coal 
Center, Pa., Nov. 17, 1842; served 
with the Union army throughout the 
Civil War; was taken prisoner, June 
20, 1864, while on scout duty, but 
escaped with three others while on the 
way to Andersonville. Later he be- 
came editor of the " Beaver Valley 
News." 



Reading 

Beading, city and capital of 
Berks county, Pa.; on the Schuylkill 
river and canal and the Philadelphia 
& Reading and other railroads; 58 
miles N. W. of Philadelphia; has a 
charming scenic environment, with 
fine mountain attractions for the 
tourist; is in a rich grain growing and 
iron-ore, limestone, and coal mining 
region; has varied manufactures, 
with annual output exceeding $35,- 
000,000 in value, and an assessed 
property valuation of over $55,000,- 
000; and contains Mineral Springs and 
Penn's parks, and the Reading, St. 
Joseph's, and Homoeopathic hospi- 
tals. Pop. (1910) 96,071. 

Reagan, John Henninger, an 

American jurist; born in Sevier co., 
Tenn., Oct. 8, 1818. At the age of 
21 he settled in Texas; in 1856 was 
elected judge of the district court, 
but resigned to go to Congress; dur- 
ing the Civil War was Postmaster- 
General of the Confederate States, 
and Acting Secretary of the Treas- 
ury, member of the Constitutional 
Convention of his State in 1875, and 
of Congress in 1875-1887; United 
States Senator in 1887-1891; and 
afterward chairman of the Texas 
State Railroad Commission. He 
died March 6, 1905. 

Reagent, in chemistry, any sub- 
stance employed to bring about a 
chemical reaction or change in another 
element, or compound. 

Realf, Richard, an English-Amer- 
ican poet ; born in Framfield, Sussex, 
England, June 14, 1834. In 1854 he 
came to the United States, enlisted in 
the army in 18G2, and wrote some of 
his best lyrics in the field. His most 
admired poems are " My Slain," " An 
Old Man's Idyl," and "Indirection." 
Died in Oakland, CaL, Oct. 28, 1878. 

Realism, in philosophy, a doctrine 
diametrically opposed to Nominalism, 
as involving the belief that genus and 
species are real things, existing inde- 
pendently of our conceptions and their 
expressions, and that these are alike 
actually the object of our thoughts 
when we make use of the terms. 
Again, as opposed to Idealism, the 
word implies an intuitive cognition of 
the external object, instead of merely 
a mediate and representative knowl- 
edge of it. 



Reaumur 

In art and literature the word real- 
ism or naturalism is employed to de- 
scribe a method of representation with- 
out idealization, which in our day in 
France has been raised to a system and 
j claims a monopoly of truth in its ar- 
I tistic treatment of the facts of nature 
: and life. 

Ream, a quantity of paper of any 
size containing 20 quires or 480 sheets. 
A common, practice is now to count 
COO sheets to the ream. Hence used 
for a large quantity of paper. 

Reaping Machine, a machine for 
reaping or cutting down grain in the 
Held. There are numerous varieties. 
In 1822 a self-sharpening mowing 
machine was patented in the United 
States. Between 1852 and 1874 near- 
ly 3,000 patents for reaping machines 
were taken out for the United States. 
There are two kinds of self-delivery 
machines, the former laying the cut 
grain in swaths and the latter form- 
ing it into sheaves ; this form being 
more frequently used. 

Rearick, Peter Anton, an Amer- 
ican naval officer; born in Maryland, 
Nov. 12, 1838 ; entered the navy in 
18GO; served through the Civil War 
on various vessels ; was promoted chief 
engineer in 1874, and in that capacity 
served at various posts till February, 
1900, when he was retired with the 
rank of rear-admiral under the provi- 
sions of the Naval Personnel Law. He 
died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 9, 
1901. 

Reason, in logic, the premise or 
premises of an argument, and especial- 
ly the minor premise. In metaphys- 
ics, the power of thinking consecutive- 
ly ; the power of passing in mental 
review all the facts and principles 
bearing on a subject, and, _after a 
careful consideration of their bear- 
ings, drawing conclusions in many 
cases conformable with truth. 

Reaumur, Rene Antoine Fer- 
chaiilt de, a French physicist and 
naturalist ; born in La Rochelle, 
France, Feb. 28, 1083. He went to 
Paris in 1703 ; in 1708 was chosen 
a member of the Academy of Sciences ; 
and for nearly 50 years continued to 
be one of its most active members. As 
a natural philosopher he is celebrated 
for the invention of an improved ther- 
mometer, which he made known in, 



Reaumur's Scale 



Rechabite 



1731, but his greatest work is " Nat- 
ural History of Insects" (t> vols. ). 
Died in Maine, France, Oct 18, 1757. 

Reaumur's Scale, a scale for a 
thermometer, in which the two fixed 
points being as in the Centigrade, the 
division is into 80 instead of 100 parts. 
It is still occasionally used. 

Reavis, Logan Uriah, an Amer- 
ican journalist ; born in Sangamon 
Bottom, 111., March 2G, 1831. In 1806 
he removed to St. Louis, to which city 
he strenuously advocated the removal 
of the National capital. To promote 
this object he lectured extensively in 
all parts of the country. He went to 
England in 1879 to inaugurate a 
movement for the promotion of immi- 
gration to Missouri. His publications 
include : " St. Louis the Future Great 
City of the World " ; "A Representa- 
tive Life of Horace Greeley " ; " Life 
of General William S. Harney " ; etc. 
Died in St. Louis, Mo., April 25, 1889. 

Rebekah, Daughters of, a degree 
in the ritual of Odd Fellowship, to 
which women are admitted. 

Rebellion, the taking up of arms, 
whether by natural subjects or others, 
residing in the country, against a set- 
tled government. By international 
law rebellion is considered a crime, 
and all persons voluntarily abetting 
it are criminals whether subjects or 
foreigners. 

Rebisso, Louis T., an American 
sculptor ; born in Italy, in 1837. Hav- 
ing taken an active part in Mazzini's 
attempt to establish an Italian repub- 
lic, at the age of 20, he fled from Italy 
and made his way to Boston, Mass. 
Subsequently he went to Cincinnati, 
O., where his fame as an artist devel- 
oped. His leading works are the 
equestrian statues of Gen. J. B. Mc- 
Pherson in Washington, D. C. ; of 
Gen. U. S. Grant in Lincoln Park, 
Chicago, and of Gen. W. H. Harrison 
in Cincinnati. He died in Norwood, 
a suburb of Cincinnati, O., May 3, 
1899. 

Rebus ("by things"), a word, 
name or phrase represented by the 
figure of an object which resembles in 
sound the w r ords, or syllables of the 
words, indicated ; an enigmatical rep- 
resentation of words by the use of 
figures or pictures ; thus, a " bolt " and 
a " tun " represent " Bolton." 



Recaption, in law, recaption or 
reprisal is another species of remedy 
by the mere act of the party injured. 
This happens when any one has de- 
prived another of his property in 
goods or chattels personal, or wrong- 
fully detains one's wife, child, or ser-i 
vant ; in which case the owner of the), 
goods, and the husband, parent, or 
masteT, may lawfully claim and retake 
them, wherever he happens to find 
them ; so it be not in a riotous man- 
ner, or attended with a breach of the 
peace. 

Receipt, a written document, de- 
claring that certain goods or a sum 
of money have been received. When 
made out in full, a receipt should con- 
tain (1) the date when the merchan- 
dise or money was received, (2) the 
name of the person or firm from whom 
received, (3) the name of the person 
who received it, and (4) for what the 
money is paid or deposited. A receipt 
may be in full or in part payment of 
an account, and operates accordingly. 
A receipt, though evidence of payment, 
is not absolute proof, and this evidence 
may be rebutted by proving that it was 
given under misapprehension. 

Receiver, a person specially ap- 
pointed by a court of justice to receive 
the rents and profits of land, or the 
produce of other property, which is in 
dispute in a cause in that court. The 
name is also given to a person ap- 
pointed in suits concerning the estates 
of infants, or against executors, or 
between partners in business, or in- 
solvents, for the purpose of winding up 
the concern. 

Receiver of Stolen Goods, one 
who takes stolen goods from a thief, 
knowing them, to be stolen, and incurs 
tike guilt of partaking in the crime. 
In the United States the penalty is 
fixed by statutes in the several States. 

Recnabite, a member of a section 
of the Kenites, called in Hebrew rech- 
abim, from Rechab, the father of 
Jonadab, who enjoined his descendants 
to abstain from wine, from building 
houses, sowing seed, and planting 
vineyards, and commanded them to 
dwell in tents. Hence, one who ab- 
stains from alcoholic beverages ; a 
teetotaler. Also a member of the In- 
dependent Order of Rechabites, a 
society founded on temperance princi- 
ples in England in 1835, in tha 



Reciprocal 



Reconcentrado 



United States in 1842, and in other 
countries later. The lodges are 
called " tents " in allusion to Jer. 
xxxv. 7. The total membership ia 
over 500,000, and the benefits dis- 
bursed since organization exceed 
$10,000,000. 

Reciprocal, in grammar, reflexive. 
Applied to verbs which have as an 
object a pronoun standing for the 
subject ; as, " Bethink yourself." It is 
also applied to pronouns of this class. 
As a noun, that which is reciprocal 
to another thing. Specifically, in 
mathematics, the quotient resulting 
from the division of unity by the quan- 
tity. 

Reciprocity, the quality or state 
of being reciprocal ; specifically, recip- 
rocal obligation or right ; equal rights 
to be mutually granted and enjoyed, 
as, in political economy, the securing 
in commercial treaties between two 
or more nations mutual advantages to 
the same extent, e. g., the admission, 
mutually, of certain goods, supposed 
to be practically equivalent to each 
other, duty free, or at equal duties on 
importation. 

Reciprocity Treaty, a treaty 
made between two countries for the 
purpose of regulating trade between 
them, The United States has entered 
into a number of such compacts, and 
the tariff bill of 1897 provided for 
the appointment of a special commis- 
sioner to negotiate such treaties. John 
A. Kasson was the first commissioner. 

Reclus, Jean Jacques Eliscc, a 
French geographer ; born in Sainte- 
Foix la Grande, France, March 15, 
1830. In consequence of his extreme 
democratic views he left. France after 
the coup d'etat of 1851, and spent 
the next seven years in England, Ire- 
land, North p.ncl Central America, and 
Colombia. lie returned to Paris in 
1858, and published an introduction to 
the " Dictionary of the Communes of 
France" (1804). While living in 
exile in Switzerland he began his mas- 
terpiece, " New General Geography." 
Reclus has also written another great 
work, a physical geography entitled 
" The Earth." He died July 4. 1905. 

Recognizance, or Recognisance, 
in law, an obligation of record, which 
a man enters into befo"e some court of 
record or magistrate duly authorized, 



with condition to do some particular 
act; as, to keep the peace, to pay a 
debt, or the like. 

Recollet, or Recollect, Friars or 
Nuns, the name given to a reformed 
body of Franciscans. The society was 
founded in Spain, and thence spread 
throughout Europe, so that in France, 
before the Revolution, they had 1G8 
houses. The order still exists at a 
few places. 

Reconcentrado (Spanish), one of 
a class of Cubans during the final 
Cuban rebellion against Spain. Gov- 
ernor-General Weyler issued a decree 
that all of the peasant class not ac- 
tively engaged in the insurrection but 
at their homes or ranches, should be 
" reconcentrated " in or near certain 
towns, disobedience to this decree in- 
curring the penalty of death. Ac- 
cordingly, these people, non-combatants 
and mostly old men beyond the ability 
of army service, feeble old women, 
children, and babies, were forced to 
leave their homes and to gather in 
herds in and near these towns, where 
they were without food and shelter, 
" reconcentrated," to starve and to 
suffer from exposure to the weather 
and lack of all comfort. These help- 
less victims were popularly called 
" reconcentrados," General Weyler's 
purpose in this " measure of war " 
was to desolate the island in certain 
parts so that the " insurgents " could 
not get aid and food. With this end 
in view, the abandoned homes were 
destroyed, and whatever remained of 
value to the Spaniards was confiscat- 
ed. Whole districts in the most pro- 
ductive part of the island were thus 
laid waste. Sugar mills were burned 
and other industrial property was de- 
stroyed. Nearly 400,000 " reconcen- 
trados " were forced to go within the 
Spanish lines, where no means of sub- 
sistence were provided for them. More 
than 200,000 died of starvation and 
disease, an appalling record in mod- 
ern civilization. 

The United States was shocked by 
this atrocity, and at this time could 
give but little aid to the sufferers, 
their undertakings, including Chris- 
tian Herald work, being barred out or 
limited by Spanish authority. Later 
American work of " rescue in Cuba " 
was largely effective for this most un- 
fortunate class. When the decree, 



Reconstruction 



Recreative 'Religionists 



under General Blanco, was issued to 
permit the reconcentrados to return 
to their homes, there was but desola- 
tion where their homes had been. It 
was at this time that the American 
relief work, by readers of the " Chris- 
tian Herald," Red Cross ministration, 
and other help availed this helpless 
class., but not to the full extent of 
their capacities till the American army 
and navy had extinguished Spanish 
rule in the " Pearl of the Antilles." 

Reconstruction, in United States 
history, a making-over of the political 
fabric of the States that composed the 
Southern Confederacy. At the close 
of the Civil War, these States were 
practically without governments, those 
which they had established after their 
withdrawal from the Union having 
been overthrown. They had been de- 
clared insurgents and therefore their 
relation to the United States govern- 
ment was that of a conquered terri- 
tory. 

When Congress assembled, in De- 
cember, 1865, Republican opposition 
was manifest in an enactment that no 
State should be represented in either 
House till Congress had declared its 
right to representation. A bill was 
passed proposing the Fourteenth 
Amendment to the National Constitu- 
tion, and declaring the right of rep- 
resentation to any States ratifying. 
The Civil-Rights Bill follo\yed, and 
the bill enlarging the provisions of 
the freedman's bureau, was passed 
over the President's veto. 

Congress then passed a series of 
laws, some of them over the Presi- 
dent's veto. Among these were the 
Tenure of Office Act, establishment of 
universal suffrage in the territories, 
admission of Nebraska into the Union, 
and making General Grant irremov- 
able as head of the army. Meantime, 
but one State, Tennessee, had been 
admitted, July 24,,18G6, none of the 
others adopting the Fourteenth Amend- 
ment. In view of the situation, Con- 
gress divided the South into five mili- 
tary districts. A military governor 
was appointed for each district, and 
he was empowered to protect life and 
property through local courts or mili- 
tary commissions. Each governor was 
to supervise the election of delegates 
to a constitutional convention to which 
all but certain disqualified classes were 



to be admitted, such delegates to be 
elected by those eligible to vote. It 
was provided that such constitutions 
should be ratified by a .popular vote, 
and then placed before Congress ; the 
next measure to be a ratification-of the 
Fourteenth Amendment by the new 
Legislature so including the amend- 
ment in the State constitution, which 
act should entitle the State to repre- 
sentation in Congress. The bill with 
such provisions was passed over the 
President's veto, March 2, 1867. The 
provisions of the bill were carried out, 
and the constitutions which were 
adopted abolished slavery, renounced 
the right of secession, and agreed to 
pass no laws limiting the liberty of 
any class of citizens and repudiated 
the debts incurred during the Civil 
War. Governors and legislators were 
elected under these constitutions. Ar- 
kansas was admitted June 22, 1868 ; 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Geor- 
gia, Florida, Alabama, and Louisiana, 
June 28, 1868; Virginia, Jan. 26, 
1870; Mississippi, Feb. 23, 1870; 
Texas, March 30, 1870. Congress did 
not complete the readmission of Geor- 
gia till July 15, 1870, that State hav- 
ing failed, in its compliance with the 
general policy. The four States last 
named were compelled to ratify the 
Fifteenth Amendment also, before their 
admission, as a penalty for delay in 
complying with the plan of Congress. 
The Supreme Court of the United 
States in the case of Texas vs. White 
declared the action of Congress con- 
stitutional. 

Recorder, the chief judicial officer 
of a city, exercising within it, in crim- 
inal matters, the jurisdiction of a 
court of record, whence his title is 
derived. The recorder of the city of 
New York is an important judicial 
officer, with power to try the highest 
crimes. Several distinguished men 
have held the office. 

Recording and Registering 
Machines, devices that make a per- 
manent record of events, dates and 
numbers. A large number of contriv- 
ances have been invented for register- 
ing and recording in the shortest time 
and with the least possible work. 

Recreative Religionists, an as- 
sociation formed in England in De- 
cember, 1866, for giving popular sci- 
entific lectures on Sunday evenings, 



Rectangle 



Red Cross Society 



sacred music being performed at -in- 
tervals. The Recreative Religionists 
have for some years figured in the reg- 
istrar-general's returns of sects, hav- 
ing registered places of worship. 

Rectangle, in geometry, a parallel- 
ogram or quadrilateral figure whose 
angles are all right angles. An equi- 
lateral rectangle is a square. 

Rectify, to separate the lighter por- 
tions of any liquid, and render pure 
and homogeneous any alcohol, ether, 
or volatile oil, by repeated distillation. 

Rector, in the Episcopal Church 
and also the Roman Catholic Church, 
a clergyman who has the cure of a 
parish. In the Roman Catholic 
Church, the head of a religious house ; 
among the Jesuits, the head of a 
house that is a seminary or college, 
academy, or important public school. 

Rectum, in anatomy, the lowest 
portion of the large intestine extend- 
ing from the sigmoid flexure of the 
colon to the anus. 

Red, a color resembling that of 
arterial blood ; the color of that part 
of the solar spectrum which is far- 
thest from violet ; one of the three pri- 
mary colors. Reds are derived from 
the three kingdoms of Mature, carmine 
being derived from the cochineal in- 
sect, the lakes and madders from the 
vegetable world, and the others from 
the mineral world. 

Redan, in fortifications, a work 
having two faces forming a salient 
angle in the direction from which an 
attack may be expected. It is open at 
the gorge. A double redan has a re- 
entering angie for mutual defense. The 
redan is the simplest field work, and 
is used for defending the avenues of 
approach to a village, bridge, or defile. 

Red Bat, from the temperate parts 
of North America. Length about two 
inches ; fur long and silky, generally 
light russet, tinged with yellow, 
darker and richer on the back. 

Redbird, the popular name of sev- 
eral birds of the United States, as the 
Bummer redbird, and the Baltimore 
oriole or hang nest. 

Red Brocket, a deer about 30 inch- 
es high, reddish-brown, with sim- 
ple, unbranched antlers ; females horn- 
less. Habitat, the low, moist woods of 
South America. 



Red Cedar, a species of juniper 
found in North America and the West 
Indies ; the heartwood is of a bright 
red, smooth, and moderately soft, and 
is in much request for the outsides of 
lead pencils. 

Red Coral, an important genus 
of sclerobasic corals. Red coral is 
highly valued for the manufacture of 
jewelry, and is obtained from the 
coasts of Sicily, Italy, and other parts 
of the Mediterranean. 

Red Cross Society, an interna- 
tional organization for the protec- 
tion and care of the sick and wounded 
in war and for the care of sufferers 
from other large calamities. The or- 
ganization is the result of an interna- 
tional treaty entered into by most of 
the leading nations at a convention 
held at Geneva, Switzerland, in Au- 
gust, 1864. This treaty sustains the 
neutrality of Red Cross Societies in 
all countries and on all waters cov- 
ered by the compact, and insures to 
it the protection of all conflicting 
forces in the time of war. The orig- 
inal treaty covered all suffering caused 
by war; but today the Red Crosa 
cares for the victims of pestilence, 
flood and fire as well as for the vic- 
tims of war. The treaty provides that 
the hospital flag of every nation must 
be a red Greek cross on a white 
ground, and that every person, ambu- 
lance, and other parts of the service 
must be so designated. By the arti- 
cles of the treaty, a sick or wounded 
soldier is a " neutral case." The land 
ambulances and the ambulance boats 
carrying the Red Cross flag move 
about wherever needed, all civilized 
nations deferring to their humane serv- 
ice. In the hospitals every soldier and 
sailor receives the best care and if 
cured is sent home as a non-combat- 
ant. The Red Cross treaty provides 
for the mitigation of the horrors of 
war. The nations that are parties to 
this treaty are : The United States, 
Venezuela, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Ar- 
gentina, Great Britain, Germany, 
France, Belgium, Russia, Austria, 
Sweden, Norway, Turkey, Greece, 
Spain, Italy, Servia, Persia, the Ro- 
man States, Switzerland, Japan, and 
other governments to the number of 40 
or more. 

National Red Cross. This nation- 
al body was incorporated under the 



Red Cross 

laws of the District of Columbia, 
October 1, 1881, and was reincorpor- 
ated April 17, 1893, for the relief of 
suffering by war, pestilence, famine, 
flood, fires, and other calamities of 
sufficient magnitude to be deemed 
national in extent. In 1905 it was 
reorganized on a stricter business 
basis, and incorporated by Congrfess, 
with William H. Taft, then Secre- 
tar of War, as its president. 

The American National Red Cross 
has been active in the directions in- 
dicated, and the New York Red Cross 
and other organizations with similar 
aims have done and are doing most 
creditable work in the relief of suf- 
fering. When the awful condition of 
the Cuban reconcentrados touched 
every heart that had a spark of human 
feeling, the readers of the " Christian 
Herald" were prompt and generous in 
contributing to relieve the unhappy 
victims of Spanish oppression. Presi- 
dent McKinley appointed a " Central 
Cuban Relief Committee," consisting 
of ex-Mayor Charles A. Schieren, of 
Brooklyn, N. Y., Louis Klopsch, of 
the "Christian Herald," and Stephen 
Barton, vice-president of the National 
Red Cross, to administer funds do- 
nated for Cuban relief. The "Chris- 
tian Herald" turned in $100,000 in 
cash donations, and considerable sums 
of money and large quantities of goods 
were received from all parts of the 
country. The Joint Traffic Associa- 
tion offered to transport supplies free 
of charge, and consignments of food, 
clothing and medicine were sent to 
Cuba by the regular steamers and 
vessels specially chartered. 

The steamer " State of Texas," 
chartered by the Central Cuban Relief 
Committee, and loaded with supplies 
for Cuban sufferers, started from New 
York the day after war began, having 
been intrusted by the Committee to the 
care of the National Red Cross. After 
considerable delay at Key West and 
Tampa, pending war operations, the 
"State of Texas" proceeded to Santi- 
ago, where Dr. A. M. Lesser, chief 
surgeon of the New York Red Cross, 
and his assistants, distinguished 
themselves in the field hospitals. 



Redfleld 

Red Cross, The Royal, a decora- 
tion instituted by Queen Victoria in 
1883. It is conferred on any ladies, 
English or foreign, recommended by 
the Secretary of State for War, for 
special exertions in providing for the 
nursing, or for attending to sick and 
wounded soldiers and sailors. The 
decoration is a cross of crimson en 
amel gold-edged, attached to a dark- 
blue ribbon red-edged, one inch ia 
width, tied in a bow and worn on the 
left shoulder. 

Red Currant, a deciduous shrub 
much cultivated for its fruit, indig- 
enous in the N. portions of Amer- 
ica and Europe. The juice of the 
fruit is used for making jelly, and a 
fermented liquor called currant wine. 

Redemption, in commerce t repur- 
chase by the issuer of notes, bills, 
bonds, or other evidence of debt, by 
paying their value in money to the 
holders. In law, the liberation or free- 
ing of an estate from a mortgage ; the 
repurchase of the right to reenter 
upon an estate on performance of the 
terms or conditions on which it was 
conveyed ; the right of redeeming and 
reentering into possession. In theol- 
ogy, ransoming. The ransom of sin- 
ners from the curse of the law, i. e., 
from the penalties of the violated law 
of God, effected through " the blood 
of Christ," i. e., through His atoning 
sacrifice. 

Red-eye, or Rudd, a fish belonging 
to the same genus as roach, chub, 
and minnow. It is common in lakes, 
slow rivers, and fens, in many parta 
of Europe and in England. It much 
resembles the roach, but is shorter 
and deeper. It is richly colored, the 
name rudd referring to the color of 
the fins, the name red-eye to that oi 
its iris. 

Redfield, Isaac Fletcher, an 

American jurist ; born in Wethers- 
field, Vt., April 10, 1804; was gradu- 
ated at Dartmouth College in 1825. 
In 1835 he was made judge of the 
Supreme Court of Vermont, and in 
1852 became chief-justice, retiring 
from the bench in 1860. He waa 
Professor of Jurisprudence at Dart- 



Red Fish 



Red Sea 



mouth College in 1857-1861; removed 
to Boston in the latter year ; and in 
1867-1869 was special counsel for the 
United States in Europe, conducting 
numerous important legal matters in 
England and France. He was the au- 
thor of " A Practical Treatise on the 
Law of Railways " ; " The Law of 
Carriers and Bailments " ; etc. Died 
in Charlestown, Mass., March 23, 1876. 

Red Fish, a species of fish found 
on the Atlantic coast of North Amer- 
ica, a large red fish caught in con- 
siderable numbers for food. A small- 
er species receives the same name, and 
is called also red perch, rose fish, etc. 

Red Lead, an oxide of lead, pro- 
duced by heating the protoxide in 
contact with air. It is much used as 
a pigment, and is commonly known 
as minium. 

Red Men, Improved Order of, 
a social, fraternal, and benevolent 
secret organization founded on the 
customs and traditions of the aborig- 
ines of the American continent, and 
the oldest benevolent society in the 
United States of distinctively Ameri- 
can origin and growth. The first au- 
thenticated Red Men's Society was or- 
ganized in Philadelphia, Pa., early in 
1763. The order is composed of sub- 
ordinate bodies called tribes, officered 
by a sachem, senior sagamore, junior 
sagamore, prophet, chief of records, 
keeper of wampum, and minor sub- 
chiefs. In each State possessing nec- 
essary membership a Great Council 
is constituted, composed of represen- 
tatives from the various tribes under 
its jurisdiction, and officered by sim- 
ilar chiefs to the subordinate tribes, 
with the prefixed title of Great. The 
Great Council of the United States 
is the supreme legislative body, and is 
composed of representatives from each 
Great Council. The number of great 
councils has reached 63; the member- 
ship, over 475.000; the benefits dis- 
bursed since organization, more than 
$24,000.000, and in a single year, 
nearly $1,500,000. 

Red Ochre, a name common to a 
variety of pigments, rather than des- 
ignating an individual color, and com- 
prehending Indian red, light red, Ve- 
netian red, scarlet ochre, Indian ochre, 
reddle, bole, and other oxides of iron. 
As a mineral it designates a soft 
earthy variety of haematite. 



Redpath, James, an American 
journalist ; born in Berwick, Scot- 
land, Aug. 24, 1833. He became assist- 
ant editor of the "North American 
Review " in 1886. He published " The 
John Brown Invasion, " Life of John 
Brown," and " Talks About Ireland," 
etc. He died Feb. 10, 1891. 

Red Pine, a species of pine also 
called Norway pine. Its wood is very 
resinous and durable, and is much 
used in house and shipbuilding. It 
produces turpentine, tar, pitch, resin, 
and lampblack. 

Red River, the lowest W. branch 
of the Mississippi, rises near the E. 
border of New Mexico, flows E. 
through Texas, forming the entire S. 
boundary of Indian Territory, thence 
S. E. through Arkansas and Louisiana 
and enters the Mississippi below lat. 
31 N. It is 1,600 miles long. It is 
navigable for seven months to Shreve- 
port (350 miles). 

Red River of the North, a nav- 
igable river of the United States and 
Canada, rises in Elbow Lake, Minn., 
near the sources of the Mississippi, 
and flows S. and W. to Breckinridge, 
then N., forming the boundary be- 
tween Minnesota and North Dakota, 
and so into Manitoba and through a 
flat country to Lake Winnipeg. Its 
course is 665 miles (525 in the United 
States). The Red River Settlement 
was the origin of Manitoba. 

Red Root, a genus of deciduous 
shrubs. The common red root of 
North America which abounds from 
Canada to Florida, is a shrub of two 
to four feet high, with beautiful thyrsi 
of numerous small win' to flowers. It 
is sometimes called New Jersey tea, an 
infusion of its leaves being sometimes 
used as tea. A Mexican species haa 
blue flowers, and a California kind is 
used for evergreen hedges. 

Red Sea, an arm of the Indian 
Ocean, running N. N. W. from the 
Gulf of Aden, with which it communi- 
cates by the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, 
13% miles across. Its length is about 
1,200 miles, and its width in the cen- 
tral portion is between 100 and 200 
miles ; the greatest breadth being about 
205 miles ; it narrows toward the S. 
entrance, while in the N. it is divided 
by the peninsula of Sinai into two 
gulfs, the Gulf of Suez, 170 miles long 



Red Snow 

by 30 miles wide, and the Gulf of 
Akaba, 100 miles in length. 

In ancient times the Red Sea was 
used as the means of communication 
by the Phoenicians and other maritime 
peoples, till the discovery of the route 
around the Cape of Good Hope divert- 
ed the traffic into another channel, 
only to be revived, however, on a much 
more extensive scale with the construc- 
tion of the Suez Canal. 

Red Snow, snow colored red. Aris- 
totle hinted at its existence ; Saussure 
in 1760 discovered it on the St. Ber- 
nard, and Captain Ross in 1819 
brought specimens from the Arctic 
regions. He had found eight miles of 
cliffs, 600 feet high, colored by it, in 
many places to the depth of 12 feet, 
where the rock was reached. Captain 
Parry and other Arctic explorers have 
eince met with it abundantly. All au- 
thorities agree that it arises from 
minute organisms, vegetable or animal. 
Much of it is colored by the red snow 
plant 

Redstart, a fly-catching warbler. 
Male black with patches of orange-red. 
Female, olive with yellow patches. 

Red Sunsets. The autumn of 1883 
and the succeeding few months were 
noteworthy for the occurrence of brill- 
iant phenomena in the W. sky in every 
part of the globe, but especially in the 
Indian Ocean and the South Pacific. 
Shortly after sunset a vivid red glow 
suffused the entire W. sky, remaining 
for upward of an hour, when it would 
slowly fade away. In the latitudes of 
North America these red sunsets were 
of almost nightly occurrence for sev- 
eral months. In striving to account 
for these strange manifestations a 
number of solutions were offered, but 
the theory that met with greatest ac- 
ceptance was that they emanated from 
volcanic dust and gaseous matter vom- 
ited by Krakatoa, in Sunda Straits. 
Calculations demonstrated the fact 
that the manifestations of the red glow 
coincided "with the course which such 
vapors would take on being wafted 
away by the prevailing winds. But 
this theory fonnd many opponents. 

Red Top, a well-known species of 
bent-grass, highly valued in the United 
States for pasturage and hay for 
cattle. 

Redway, Jaqnes Wardlaw, an 
American geographer; born in Nash- 



Redwood. 

ville, Term., in May, 1849. He en- 
gaged in mining in California and 
Arizona ; traveled in South America, 
Europe, and Asia, for the purpose of 
pursuing geographical investigations, 
and was author of several treatises on. 
physical geography, etc., among them 
" Modern Facts* and Ancient Fancies 
in Geography " ; " Climate and the 
Gulf Stream"; "A Treatise on the 
Projection of Maps," etc. 

Redwing, a North American pas- 
serine bird, of the family Icteridae. 
Male, black with red spots, bordered 
with orange on the wings. The name 
is given in Europe to a species of 
thrush, closly allied to the common 
thrush. 

Redwood, the name of various 
sorts of wood of a red color, as the 
wood of the redwood of Jamaica; of 
Andaman wood ; of the redwood of the 
Bahamas ; and of a coniferous tree of 
California, the redwood of the timber 
trade. 

Redwood of California. This tree 
is found only in California and in but 
a comparatively contracted area even 
there. The available redwood is now 
confined to about 318 miles of coast. 
The annual product in this region is 
about 320,000,000 feet, and it is esti- 
mated, at the present rate of consump- 
tion, that enough standing timber ex- 
ists to last for 150 years. 

The lumber is becoming more in de- 
mand for decorative purposes. Its 
| color, a light salmon when first cut, 
j afterward turns to a deep red. When 
thoroughly dried there is no shrinkage 
; and it readily yields to the chisel of 
! the carver. Piano cases made from 
, the wood are said to give increased 
i resonance to the instrument _ Larg* 
: quantities are consumed for mt-sriot 
finishing with gratifying effects. In 
addition to other fine qualities the 
wood takes on a "beautiful polish and 
even the stumpage, till recently con- 
sidered worthless, is found to possess 
i valuable qualities. The roots and 
woody excrescences at the base of the 
tree give fine effects in wavy outlines, 
and when polished the material is 
much "valued for decorative purposes. 

In the Eel river redwood district, 
Humboldt county, there f are 80,000 
acres of timber lands, which will pro- 
duce, at a low estimate, 75,000 feet to 
the acre. In size the trees range from 



Reebok 



Reed 



four to six feet in diameter; if below 
18 inches they are left standing. Of 
the larger sizes from 8,000 to 12,000 
feet are produced from each tree. A 
single tree grown in this valley has 
produced 80,000 feet of merchantable 
lumber. 

Reebok, or Rheebok, an antelope 
of South Africa. Length about 5 feet, 
height at shoulder 30 inches ; uniform 
ash color on neck, shoulders, sides, 
croup, and thighs, white or light gray 
on under surface and inside of limbs. 
They live in small groups of five or 
six individuals. 

Reed, in music, the sounding part 
of several instruments, such as the 
clarionet, bassoon, oboe, and bagpipe, 




OKGAN REED. 



BAGPIPE EEEDS. 



so called from its being made from the 
outer layer of a reed. The name is 
also applied to the speaking part of the 
organ, though made of metal. 

Reed, Andrew, an English philan- 
thropist : born in London, England, 
Nov. 27, 1788; was educated in his 
native city and in 1811 was there 
ordained pastor of an independent 
congregation. He visited the United 
States in 1834, where he studied edu- 
cational and religious conditions. In 
1813 he established the London Orphan 
Asylum ; in 1827 the Infant Orphan 
Asylum ; in 1847 the Asylum for Fath- 
erless Children in Croydon ; and later 
the Royal Hospital for Incurables and 
the Royal Asylum for Idiots. He was 
the author of " Visits to the American 



Churches" (with the Rev. James 
Matheson, 2 vols. 1836) ; "The Day 
of Pentecost " ; " The Revival of Re- 
ligion " and " Advancement of Relig- 
ion the Claim of the Times " (1847) ; 
etc. He died in London, England, 
Feb. 25, 1862. 

Reed, Charles Alfred Lee, an 
American surgeon ; born in Wolf 
Lake, Ind., July 9, 1856. He was 
Professor of Gynaecology and Abdom- 
inal Surgery at the Cincinnati College 
of Medicine and Surgery in 1882- 
1895 ; became gynaecologist at the Cin- 
cinnati Hospital in 1896 ; and was 
president of the American Medical As- 
sociation in 1900-1901. His publica- 
tions include many monographs in 
1880-1900, and a "Text Book of 
Gynajcology" (1900). 

Reed, Elizabeth. Armstrong, an 
American author ; born in Winthrop, 
Me., May 16, 1842. She was the only 
woman whose work was ever accepted 
by the Philosophical Society of Great 
Britain. She was chairman of the 
Woman's Congress of Philology in 
Chicago in 1893, and was a member of 
several learned societies. Her works 
include " The Bible Triumphant," 
" Hindu Literature : or the Ancient 
Books of India," " Persian Literature, 
Ancient and Modern," etc. 

Reed, George Edward, an Amer- 
ican educator ; born in Brownville, 
Me., March 26, 1846. In 1889 was 
elected president of Dickinson College, 
Carlisle, Pa., and in 1899 became 
State Librarian of Pennsylvania. 

Reed, Hugh, an American military 
officer; born in Richmond, Ind., Aug. 
17, 1850 ; was graduated at the United 
States Military Academy in 1873. In 
1884 he wasgranted leave of absence 
owing to ill health brought on by ex- 
posure on the Western plains, and was 
retired April 23, 1889. His publica- 
tions include " A Calendar of the Da- 
kota Nation," "Signal Tactics," 
" Cadet Regulations," " Artillery Tac- 
tics," " Military Science and Tactics," 
" Standard Infantry Tactics," etc. 

Reed, James, an American clergy- 
man; born in Boston, Mass., Dec. 8, 
1834; was graduated at Harvard Col- 
lege in 1855. Later he was elected 
President of the New Church Theolog- 
ical School (Swedenborgian), Cam- 
bridge, Mass. He was also for several 



Heed 

years president of the Massachusetts 
Home for Intemperate Women, and 
editor of the " New Church Review." 
His publications include " Swedenborg 
and the New Church," " Religion and 
Life," and " Man and Woman, Equal 
but Unlike." 

Reed, John Joseph, an American 
naval officer ; born in New Jersey ; 
was graduated at the United States 
Naval Academy in 1861 ; served 
through the Civil War, being in all the 
battles with Admiral Farragut from 
the Southwest Pass of the Mississippi 
to Vicksburg in 1862-1863; was pro- 
moted rear-admiral in November, 
1900 ; and was appointed commandant 
if the Portsmouth navy yard in April, 
1901. 

Reed, Thomas Brackett, an 
American statesman ; born in Port- 
Jand, Me., Oct. 18, 1839 ; was gradua- 
ted at Bowdoin College in 1860; stud- 
ied law; appointed assistant paymas- 
ter United States navy in 1864 ; ad- 
mitted to the Portland bar ; member of 
the Maine Legislature 1868-1869, and 
of the Senate 1870; State attorney- 
general, 1870-1872 ; member of Con- 
gress, 1877-1899 ; and speaker of 51st, 
54th, and 55th Congresses. In 1896 
Mr. Reed was a prominent candidate 
for the Republican presidential nomi- 
nation. He resigned from Congress in 
1899, and resumed the practice of law 
in New York city. He died of uraemia 
at. Washington, D. C., Dec. 7, 1902. 

Reed Mace, also known by the 
name of cat-tail, grows in ditches and 
marshy places, and in the borders of 
ponds, lakes, and rivers. They are 
tall, stout, erect plants, sometimes six 
or eight feet high, with creeping root 
stocks, long flag-like leaves, and long, 
dense, cylindrical, brown spikes of mi- 
nute flowers. They are sometimes er- 
roneously called bulrush. 

Reef, the portion of a square sail 
between the head and any of the reef 
bands. The first reef in a square sail 
is included between the head and the 
upper reef band; the second reef be- 
tween this and the next lower reef 
band, and so on. The object of the 
reef is to diminish the surface of the 
Bail when the wind is blowing hard. 
A balance reef is the uppermost or 
closest reef extending diagonally up- 
ward from the outer leech when close- 
reefed. 

E. 124, 



Referendum 

Heef, a chain, mass, or range of 
rocks in various parts of the ocean, ly- 
ing at or near the surface of the 
water. 

Reel, a lively rustic dance. In the 
United States the Virginia reel is 
widely popular. 

Rees, John Krom, an American 
educator ; born in New York city, Oct. 
27, 1851 ; was graduated at Columbia 
University in 1872, and at the Columbia 
School of Mines in 1875. Subsequently 
he was director of the observatory and 
instructor in geodesy and practical as- 
tronomy in Columbia University, and 
in 1892 became Professor of Astron- 
omy there. He was president of the 
New York Academy of Sciences in 
1894-1896 ; secretary of the American 
Metropolitan Society in 1882-1896; 
was elected Fellow of the Royal As- 
tronomical Society of London ; in 1901 
was made Chevalier of the Legion of 
Honor; died March 9, 1907. 

Reese, David Meredith, an 
American physician ; born in Philadel- 
phia, Pa., in 1800; was graduated at 
the Medical Department of the Uni- 
versity of Maryland in 1820; removed 
to New York city, where he became 
eminent in his profession ; was phy- 
sician-in-chief at Bellevue Hospital for 
several years, and afterward was 
county and city superintendent of pub- 
lic schools. He was the author of 
" Observations on the Epidemic of 
Yellow Fever," " Review of the First 
Annual Report of the Anti-Slavery 
Society," " Medical Lexicon of Modern 
Terminology" (1855); etc. He died 
in New York city, Aug. 12, 1861. 

Re ere s, Helen Buckingham, 
(nee Mathers), an English novelist; 
born in Crewkerne, Somersetshire, 
Aug. 26, 1853. Her novels treat of 
domestic English life, and are ex- 
ceedingly popular. 

ReeTes, Marian Calhoun lie- 
pare, an American novelist; born in 
Charleston, S. C., about 1854. She 
began to write in 1866 under the pseu- 
donym of " Fadette." Died recently. 

Referendum, a system of legisla- 
tion which consults all the electors of 
a State as to whether new laws shall 
be confirmed. In some cantons of 
Switzerland a method resembling the 
referendum hns been practised since 
the 16th century. In all the Swiss 



Refining of Metals 



Reformation 



cantons, except Freiburg, the referen- 
dum is now established. According to 
the Swiss federal constitution, all con- 
stitutional amendments must be rati- 
fied by the Swiss electorate before they 
become law. Other measures must be 
submitted to the popular vote, if de- 
manded within 90 days after their pub- 
lication by 30,000 voters, or by the 
governments of eight cantons. During 
the 17 years, 1874 to 1891, out of 149 
laws, 27 were referred to the people ; 
of these 15 were rejected. The refer- 
endum has worked so well that it has 
conquered all opposition to it, and it is 
now generally regarded as a check on 
hasty and class legislation. There is 
a growing demand in the United States 
for the general introduction of direct 
legislation by means of the referen- 
dum, and in several places the system 
is practised. Amendments to State 
Constitutions are adopted, as a rule, 
by a referendum vote. In November, 
1903, the electors of New York State 
voted by referendum on the question 
of a vast improvement of the Erie 
canal. 

Refining of Metals, the processes 
by which the various metals are ex- 
tracted from their ores, and obtained 
in a state of purity. 

Reflecting Microscope, a form of 
microscope first proposed by Newton, 
in which the image formed by a small 
concave speculum may be viewed either 
by the naked eye or through an eye 
piece. The object is placed outside of 
the tube of the microscope, and reflects 
its image to the speculum by means of 
a plain mirror, inclined at an angle of 
45 to the axis of the former. 

Reflecting Telescope, a telescope 
in which the rays are received on an 
object-mirror and conveyed to a focus, 
at which the image is viewed by an 
eye piece. 

Reflection, that which is reflected 
or produced by being reflected; su 
image given back from a reflecting sur- 
face. Also the act or habit of turning 
the mind to something which has al- 
ready occupied it ; thoughtful, atten- 
tive, or continued consideration or de- 
liberation ; meditation, thought. 

Reflector, that which reflects, or 
throws back rays of light, heat, etc. ; 
a reflecting surface. In optics, a de- 
vice by which the rays proceeding from 



a luminous or heated object are thrown 
back or diverted in a given direction. 
The term mirror is less comprehensive 
than that of reflector, being usually 
only applied to such surfaces as afford 
definite images and colors, while a re- 
flector may not merely be used for 
throwing back the rays of light and 
heat, or of heat only, but also the 
waves of sound. 

Reform Acts, a term applied to 
certain acts of the British Parliament 
by which the regulations as to the par- 
liamentary representation of the peo- 
ple were altered. 

Reformation, the term generally 
applied to the religious revolution in 
the 10th century which divided the 
Western Church into two sections, 
known as the Roman Catholic and 
the Protestant. Before this era the 
pope exercised absolute authority over 
the whole Christian Church with the 
exception of those countries in which 
the Greek or Eastern Church had been 
established. He also claimed suprem- 
acy in temporal affairs wherever his 
spiritual authority was recognized. 
Various abuses had, in process of time, 
sprung up in the Church, and atten- 
t on had often been called to these both 
' y laymen and clerics. The great 
movement known as the Reformation 
was started by Martin Luther, an 
Augustine monk of Erfurt, professor 
of theology in the University of Wit- 
tenberg; and what immediately occa- 
sioned it was the sale of indulgences 
in Germany by a duly accredited agent, 
Johann Tetzel, a Dominican monk, of 
Leipsic. Luther condemned this abuse, 
first in a sermon and afterwards in 
ninety-five theses or questions which he 
affixed to the door of the great Church, 
October 31st, 1517. Luther urged his 
spiritual superiors and the pope to put 
a stop to the traffic of Tetzel and to 
reform the corruption of the Church 
in general. A heated controversy now 
arose, Luther was fiercely assailed, 
and in 1520 excommunication was pro- 
nounced against him by Pope Leo X. 
Upon this the reformer appealed to a 
general council ; and when his works 
were burned at Mainz, Cologne, and 
Louvain, he publicly committed the 
bull of excommunication with the pa- 
pal canons and decrees to the flames 
( December, 1520). From this time 
Luther formally separated from the 



Reformation 



Reformation 



Roman Church, and many of the prin- 
cipal German nobles, the most emi- 
nent scholars, and the University of 
Wittenberg, publicly declared in favor 
of the reformed doctrines and disci- 
pline. Luther's bold refusal to recant 
at the Diet of Worms (April 17th, 
1521) gave him increased power, while 
the edict of Worms and the ban of 
the emperor made his cause a political 
matter. Leo's successor, Adrian VI., 
now considered it necessary to inter- 
fere, but in answer to his demands for 
the extirpation of the doctrines of 
Luther he received a list of a hundred 
complaints against the papal chair 
from the German states assembled at 
the Diet of Nurnberg (1522). While 
Luther was publishing his transla- 
tion of the New Testament, which was 
soon followed by the translation of 
the Old, and while Melanchthon was 
engaged on his Loci Communes (the 
first exposition of the Lutheran doc- 
trines) serious preparations for the 
reform of ecclesiastical abuses were 
made in Pomerania, Silesia, in the 
Saxon cities, in Suabia, etc., and the 
Reformation made rapid progress in 
Germany. Luther's Liturgy had no 
sooner appeared (1522), than it was 
adopted in Magdeburg and elsewhere. 
Translations of the Bible into Dutch 
and French now appeared, and at 
Meux in France a Lutheran church 
was organized. In 1525 John, the suc- 
cessor of Luther's first patron Fred- 
erick in the Saxon electorate, Philip, 
landgrave of Hesse, and Albert of j 
Brandenburg, duke of Prussia, pub- 1 
licly declared themselves Lutherans, i 
Aided in great measure by the state j 
of political affairs, the movement con- 
tinued to spread rapidly. In these cir- 
cumstances the Emperor convened the j 
Diet of Augsburg (June 1530), at j 
which Melanchthon read a statement j 
of the reformed doctrines, now known j 
as the confession of Augsburg. The | 
Catholics replied to this by requiring 
the reformers to return to the ancient 
church within a certain period. The 
princes who favored the new move- 
ment refused to comply with the de- j 
mand, and in March of the following ; 
year they assembled at Schmalkald 
and formed the famous league, in : 
terms of which they pledged them- 
selves to uphold the Protestant cause. 
This decisive step soon attracted pow- 
erful support, largely because of its 



political importance, and among oth- 
ers who joined the Schmalkald League 
were Francis I. of France and Henry 
VIII. of England. After the death 
of Luther (1540) war broke out, but 
at the Peace of Augsburg (1555) the 
Reformation may be said to have tri- 
umphed when each prince was permit- 
ted to adopt either the Reformed or 
the Roman Catholic faith, and Prot- 
estantism thus received legal, recogni- 
tion. 

Both in Italy and Spain Protestant- 
ism was mostly confined to the higher 
and cultivated classes, the Reformed 
faith taking scarcely -any hold on the 
people at large. In Naples, Venice, 
Florence, and other cities Protestant 
churches were opened ; but Protestant- 
ism was extirpated in Italy by the vig- 
orous action of the Inquisition. In 
Spain a few Protestant churches were 
established, and many persons of mark 
adopted the views of the Reformers. 
But here also the Inquisition succeed- 
ed in arresting the spread of the re- 
ligious revolution. In the Swiss states 
the progress of Protestantism was of 
much more importance. It found a 
leader in Ulrich Zwingli, a preacher 
in Zurich, who, by sermons, pam- 
phlets, and public discussions, induced 
that city to abolish the old and inaugu- 
rate a new Reformed Church. Ulti- 
mately this movement was merged in 
political dissessions between the Re- 
formed and the Roman Catholic can- 
tons, and Zwingli himself fell in bat- 
tle (1531). Between Luther and Zwin- 
gli there were differences of opinion, 
chiefly concerning the Lord's Supper, 
in which the former showed consider- 
able acrimony towards his fellow-re- 
former. After many tedious contests 
Calvin's creed was virtually accepted 
in the Netherlands and elsewhere, and 
it was introduced into Scotland by 
Knox. In France the Reformation 
seemed at first to find powerful sup- 
port. Margaret, Queen of Navarre, 
sister of King Francis I., and many of 
the higher ecclesiastics favored the re- 
formed doctrine. The New Testament 
was translated into French, churches 
to the number of 2,000 were estab- 
lished in 1550, and the Huguenots as 
the Protestants were called, formed a 
large religious par f y in the state. Un- 
happily, however, the religious ele- 
ment was mixed up with the political 
hatreds, and in the civil strifes before 



Reformatory Schools 



Reformed Church 



and after the Massacre of St. Bar- 
tholomew (1572) the religious move- 
ment declined. The abjuration of 
Protestantism by Henry IV. (1593) 
was a blow to the Huguenots, and 
though they obtained toleration and 
certain privileges by the Edict of 
Nantes this was finally revoked in 
1685. 

The Reformation in England was 
only indirectly connected with the re- 
form movement in Germany. Wyclif 
and the Lollards, the revival of learn- 
ing, the writings of More, Colet, and 
Erasmus, the martyrdom of Thomas 
Bilney, had all combined to make the 
doctrine and discipline of the church 
unpopular. This feeling was greatly 
increased when the writings of Luther 
and Tyndal's translation of the Bible 
found eager readers. Then the polit- 
ical element came in to favor the pop- 
ular reform movement. Henry VIII., 
in \is efforts to obtain a divorce from 
Catherine, found it necessary to re- 
pudiate the papal supremacy and de- 
clare himself by act of Parliament 
(1534) the supreme head of the 
Church of England. To this the pope 
replied by threats of excommunica- 
tion, which were not, however, imme- 
diately executed. Yet the breach with 
Rome was complete, so far, at least, 
as the king was concerned. This move- 
ment was continued and the Reforma- 
tion effected in all essential points 
during the reign of Henry's succes- 
sor, Edward VI. The Protestant rit- 
ual and teaching was adopted by the 
Church ; all images were removed from 
churches ; a new communion service 
took the place of the mass; a First 
Book of Common Prayer was com- 
piled by Cranmer and purged of dis- 
tinctive Roman doctrine ; and in 1549 
the First Act of Uniformity enjoined 
the use of this book in all the 
churches. Still further in 1551 the 
newly established faith of the Re- 
formers was summed up in the Forty- 
two Articles of Religion, which, in 
the reign of Elizabeth, became the 
Thirty-nine Articles of the Church 
of England. By these and other means 
the Reformation was established 
gradually throughout England. 

In Scotland the movement was more 
directly connected with the Conti- 
nent, and in particular with Geneva. 
In 1546-47 the Scottish Reformer 
John Knox joined the Protestant 



party; preached in Dundee, Perth, 
and St. Andrews, amid public tu- 
mult and the destruction of images, al- 
tars, and churches ; and finally, under 
the protection of the Lords of Con- 
gregation, he established himself as a 
preacher of Protestantism in St. 
Giles', Edinburgh. From this center 
Knox travelled all over Scotland 
teaching the reformed faith ; and 
such was the roused spirit of the peo- 
ple, that when the Scottish parlia- 
ment assembled (1560) a popular pe- 
tition was presented demanding the 
abolition of popery. This was prompt- 
ly_ accomplished, and at the assem- 
bling of the new Church of Scotland 
shortly afterward, Knox presented his 
reformed system of government un- 
der the name of the First Book of 
Discipline, which was adopted by 
the assembly. The position thus se- 
cured by the reformer was maintained 
and the Reformation successfully es- 
tablished in Scotland. In Ireland for 
various causes the Reformation never 
made much progress. 

Reformatory Schools, schools in- 
stituted for the training of juvenile 
offenders who have been convicted of 
an offense punishable by imprison- 
ment. 

Reformed Church, a religious 
body in the United States, whose des- 
ignation has been changed from that 
of its progenitor, the Reformed Prot- 
estant Dutch Church. The Church 
was introduced into America in 1643. 
The Dutch language was used exclu- 
sively in worship down to 1763. The 
government of the Church is accord- 
ing to the Genevan model. The offi- 
cers are ministers, elders, and deacons, 
who compose the consistory, to which 
the government of the individual 
church belongs. The particular syn- 
ods, of which there are four, New 
York, Albany, New Brunswick, and 
Chicago, are delegated bodies com- 
posed of four ministers and four eld- 
ers from each classis within the 
bounds of each synod. In 1867 the 
word " Dutch " was dropped from the 
corporate name of the body. " The 
Christian Intelligencer," a weekly 
journal devoted to the interests of 
the church was established in New 
York, 1828. There are two theolog- 
ical seminaries, one at New Bruns- 
wick, N. J., the other in connection 



.Reformed Church 



Regeneration 



with Hope College, at Holland, Mich. 
Statistics: Number of churches, 640; 
ministers, 710; members, 124,938. 

Reformed Church in the 
United States, formerly German 
Reformed Church in the United 
States of America, an offshoot of the 
Reformed Church of Germany; The 
worship of the Church is liturgical; 
its government is presbyterian. Re- 
ception into the full communion of 
the Church takes place by the rite of 
confirmation. Christmas, Good Fri- 
day, Easter, and Whitsunday are ob- 
served with much solemnity. Eleven 
English and five German papers are 
published in the interest of the 
Church; and there are 16 theological 
and literary institutions under its 
control. Statistics: Number of 
churches, 1,670; ministers, 1,180; 
members, 292,654. 

Reformed Episcopal Chnrch, a 

denomination organized by members 
of the Protestant Episcopal Church 
who differed with it in certain mat- 
ters of church practice and discipline. 
Statistics: Churches, 87; ministers, 
84; members, 9,682. 

Reformed Presbyterian 
Church, or Cameronians, a body of 
Christians who profess to hold the 
principles of the Church of Scotland 
at the period of the second Reforma- 
tion, between 1638 and 1650. Long 
an independent body, most of them 
were merged in the Free Church in 
1876. 

Refraction. When a beam of 
light traveling in a transparent medi- 
um, impinges obliquely upon the sur- 
face of another transparent medium, 
what occurs in the vast majority of 
cases is that a part of it is reflected, 
and a part of it enters the second medi- 
um, but in so doing is " refracted " 
or bent out of its former course. If, 
for example, the light travel in air 
and impinge obliquely on glass, the 
course of the refracted portion is bent 
so thnt the refracted light travels more 
directly or less obliquely through the 
glass; and, conversely, if the light 
travel in glass and impinge on an air 
surface, the portion which is refract- 
ed into the air will travel through the 
air more obliquely with respect to the 
refracting surface than the original 
light had approached it. The law of 



refraction was discovered by Snell 
in 1621, and is the following : The 
refracted ray is in the same plane with 
the incident and the reflected ray, and 
is therefore in the " plane of inci- 
dence," and the sine of the angle of 
incidence bears to the sine of the angle 
of refraction a ratio which remains 
constant, for any two media, what- 
ever be the angle of incidence. 

Refuge, Cities of, in Jewish law 
and history, six Levitical cities di- 
vinely appointed as places of refuge 
to one who had committed manslaugh- 
ter, and was pursued by the " Re* 
venger " or " Avenger " of Blood. If 
the case was proved to be one of mur- 
der, the perpetrator might be taken 
from the City of Refuge and put to 
death ; if it was only manslaughter, 
the refugee had to remain in the city 
to which he had fled till released by 
the death of the high priest. 

Refugee, a word that probably 
came into existence when the Protest- 
ants under Louis XIV. escaped from 
their oppressors to other lands, and 
a word was needed to describe the 
circumstances of their case. It is 
applied also to one who takes refuge ; 
one who flees to a place of refuge or 
shelter, and to one who flies for ref- 
uge in time of persecution or political 
commotion to a foreign country. 

Regalecus, the deal-fish. Each ven- 
tral fin is reduced to a long fila- 
ment, dilated at the extremity, some- 
what like the blade of an oar, whence- 
they have been called oar fishes ; cau- 
dal rudimentary or absent. Range 
wide ; they have been taken in the 
Atlantic and Indian Oceans, the Medi- 
terranean and on the coast of New 
Zealand. They are sometimes called 
king of the herrings, from the erro- 
neous notion that they accompany 
shoals of the latter fish. 

Regalia, the ensigns of royalty, in- 
cluding more particularly the appara- 
tus of a coronation. 

Regatta, originally a gondoja race 
held annually with great pomp in Ven- 
ice, and now applied to any important 
sailing or rowing race, in which a 
number of yachts or boats contend 
for prizes. 

Regeneration, in biology, the gen- 
esis or production of new tissue to 
supply the place of an old texture lost 



Regina 

or removed. In some of the infe- 
rior animals an organ or a limb can 
thus be supplied; in man regeneration 
is much more limited in its operation. 
Thus, when a breach of continuity 
takes place in a muscle, it is repaired 
by a new growth of connective tissue. 
In Scripture, regeneration is the state 
of being born again, i. e., in a spirit- 
ual manner. 

Regina, city and capital of the 
Province of Saskatchewan, Canada; 
on branches of the Canadian Pacific, 
Canadian Northern, and Grand Trunk 
railways; 356 miles N. W. of Winni- 
peg; is the trade center of one of the 
most prolific wheat-growing regions of 
the Dominion; is surrounded by noted 
hunting grounds: is the headquarters 
of the famous Northwest Mounted 
Pol'oe: and, besides its large farm 
trade, has manufactories of lumber, 
foundry products, bricks, and flour. 

Regioinontanus, a German as- 
tronomer, whose real name was Jo- 
hann Muller; born in Konigsberg, in 
Franconia, June 6, 1436. In 1471 
he built an observatory at Nu- 
remberg, but he returned to Rome on 
the invitation of Sixtus IV., who em- 
ployed him in the reformation of the 
calendar. His "Kalendarium No- 
vum " (New Calendar) is believed to 
be the first almanac issued in Eu- 
rope. He died July 6, 1746. 

Register, a device for automat- 
ically indicating the number "of revo- 
lutions made or amount of work done 
by machinery ; or recording steam, air, 
or water pressure, or other data, by 
means of apparatus deriving motion 
from the object or objects whose force, 
distance, velocity, direction, eleva- 
tion, or numerical amount it is de- 
sired to ascertain. In music, the com- 
pass of a voice or instrument, or a 
portion of the compass of a voice; as 
the upper, middle, or lower register. 
Also, an organ stop, or the knob or 
handle by means of which the per- 
former commands any given stop. 

Regnard, Jean Francois, a 
French comic dramatist ; born in 
Paris, in February, 1655. By com- 
mon consent his rank in France is 
second to Moliere only. He died near 
Dourdan, France, Sept. 4, 1709. 

Regular Clergy, the term applied 
in the Roman Catholic Church to 



Reicnexi baclb 

priests who have taken the vows, and 
who are bound to follow the rules of 
some monastic order, as opposed to the 
secular clergy, that is, parish priests, 
etc., not connected with any of the 
orders. 

Regains, the star Alpha Leonis, the 
brightest in the constellation of the 
Lion. 

Regulns, Marcus Attilius, a Ro- 
man general, celebrated for his pa- 
triotism and devotion in the service of 
his country. Made consul a second 
time about 256 B. c., with his col- 
league, Manlius Vulso, he commanded 
in the first war against Carthage. 
Taken prisoner by the Carthaginians, 
he was sent to Rome with an em- 
bassy, that peace might be procured 
on favorable terms, and bound Him- 
self by an oath to return if the terms 
were rejected. He, however, consid- 
ered it his duty to advise the continu- 
ance of the war ; which, being deter- 
mined on, no entreaties or supplica- 
tions could prevent him from fulfilling 
his solemn engagement ; and the Car- 
thaginians, on his return, put him to 
a cruel death. 

Rehan (originally Crehan), Ada, 
an American actress ; born in Limer- 
ick, Ireland, April 22, 1860. In 1865 
she came with her parents to the 
United States. She first appeared on 
the stage in Newark, N. J., when 14 
years old, but afterward returned to 
her studies for a year. She then ap- 
peared in Philadelphia, and later in 
New York. In 1879 she joined Au- 
gustin Daly's company. She frequent- 
ly played before London audiences, 
and also in France and in Germany. 

Reich, Jacques, an American etch- 
er ; born in Waniskoltz, Hungary, 
Aug. 10, 1852; settled in the United 
States in 1873 ; became skilled in pen- 
and-ink drawings and in the etching 
of portraits on copper; removed to 
New York in 1885. His important 
work includes a series of portraits 
of American and English authors and 
other prominent persons ; a half life- 
size plate of President Roosevelt ; and 
a large etching of J. Pierpont Morgan. 

Reichenbach, Charles, Baron 
von, a German scientist ; born Feb. 
12, 1788; died in 1869. He gave his 
attention to animal magnetism in con- 
nection with which he believed he had 



Reichsrath 

discovered a new force called Od, re- 
garding which he published various 
works. Among his chemical discov- 
eries were paraffin and creosote. 

Reichsrath, the representative 
council of the empire of Austria (q. v.) 

Reichstadt, Duke of. See NA- 
POLEON II. 

Reichstag, the representative legis- 
lative body of the German nation 
as a whole, as the Bundesrath is of 
the separate German States. A^ll laws 
of the empire must receive the votes 
of an absolute majority of the Reich- 
stag and the Bundesrath. The presi- 
dent of the Reichstag is elected by 
the deputies. See GERMAN EMPIRE. 

Reid, Mayne, a British novelist; 
born in North Ireland, in 1818. His 
love of adventure took him to Mexico 
and then to the United States, where 
he traveled extensively as hunter or 
trader ; he joined the United States 
army in 1845 and fought in the Mex- 
ican War. He afterward returned 
to London, where he became well 
known as a writer of thrilling juve- 
nile stories, many of them based on 
his American experiences. He died 
near London, Oct. 22, 1883. 

Reid, Samuel Chester, an Amer- 
ican naval officer ; born in Norwich, 
Conn., Aug. 25, 1783. He commanded 
the American privateer " General 
Armstrong," and repulsed the British 
attack in the harbor of Payal, Azore 
Islands, Sept. 26, 1814, the enemy 
having three vessels with 2,000 men 
to his single vessel with 90 men. Dur- 
ing 10 hours' fighting, the British 
lost 300 killed and wounded and the 
Americans two killed and seven 
wounded. He was made harbormaster 
and warden of the port of New York, 
invented a signal telegraph, reorgan- 
ized the pilot-boat system, and estab- 
lished a lightship off Sandy Hook. He 
designed the present form of the Unit- 
ed States flag, suggesting the reten- 
tion of the original 13 stripes and 
the addition of a star for each new 
State. He died in New York city, 
Jan. 28, 1861. 

Reid, Thomas, a Scotch philos- 
opher ; born in Strachan, Scotland, 
April 26, 1710. In 1764 he published 
his weil-known work, " An Inquiry 
Into the Human Mind on the Prin- 
ciples of Common Sense." The same 



Reindeer 

year he succeeded Adam Smith aa 
Professor of Moral Philosophy in 
Glasgow University, a position which 
he occupied till 1781. He was the 
earliest expounder of what is known 
as the Scotch school of philosophy, 
in which he was followed by Dugald 
Stewart and Sir William Hamilton. 
His doctrines were adopted also by 
several eminent French philosophers. 
He died Oct. 7, 1796. 

Reid, ^Vhitelaw, an American ed- 
itor ; born in Xenia, O., Oct. 27, 1837. 
He graduated at Miami University 
in 1856 ; was on the editorial staff 
of several leading Ohio papers and 
was war correspondent ; in 1869 be- 
came managing editor of the New 
York "Tribune," and, after 1872, 
editor-in-chief and in financial con- 
trol. He twice declined appointment 
as minister to Germany ; and was min- 
ister to France in 1889-1892, where 
he negotiated valuable reciprocity 
treaties. In 1892 he was the unsuc- 
cessful Republican candidate for Vice- 
president. He represented the Unit- 
ed States at Queen Victoria's jubilee in 
1897; was a member of the American- 
Spanish Peace Commission in 1898: 
the special ambassador of the United 
States at the coronation of King Ed- 
ward VII. in 1902; and ambassador to 
Great Britain from 1905 till his death 
in London, Dec. 15, 1912. His re- 
mains were borne to New York on the 
British cruiser "Natal." 

Reighard, Jacob Ellsworth, an 

American educator ; born in Laporte, 
Ind., July 2, 1861 ; was graduated at 
the University of Michigan in 1882; 
was placed in charge of the biological 
survey of the Great Lakes for the 
United States Fish Commission in 
1898; and accepted the chaii of zo- 
ology at the University of Michigan 
in 1892. He is the author of many 
scientific papers. 

Reign of Terror, a period of the 
French Revolution, conspicuous for 
its horrors and cruelties. It is gen- 
erlUly considered to extend from Jan. 
21, 1793, the date of the execution of 
Louis XIV., to July 28, 1794; when 
Robespierre and other sanguinary 
leaders were guillotined on the spot 
where their victims had been killed. 

Reindeer, the only domesticated 
species of the deer family. It extends 



Reindeer Moss 



Religions Liberty 



over the boreal regions of both hemi- 
spheres, and runs into several well 
marked varieties. Many authors con- 
sider the American reindeer or cari- 
bou, which has never been domesticat- 
ed, as a distinct species. Both the male 
and female have antlers, and these 
are not alike on both sides, the great 
palmated brow antler being, as a rule, 
developed on one side only. In the 
winter the fur is long, grayish brown 
on the body ; neck, hind-quarters, and 
belly white. In summer the gray hair 
darkens into a sooty brown, and the 
white parts become gray. To the 
Laplander the reindeer is the only 
representative of wealth, and it serves 
him as a substitute for the horse, the 
cow, the sheep and the goat. It is ex- 
tensively employed as a beast of 
draught and carriage, being broken to 
draw sledges, or to carry men or pack- 
ages on its back. In 1891 domestic 
reindeer were introduced into Alaska 
by Dr. Sheldon Jackson for the bene- 
fit of the natives who frequently suf- 
fered for food, and for purposes of 
transportation. In 1898 Dr. Jackson, 
$s agent of the United States govern- 
ment, procured a colony of Lapland- 
ers to train the natives in the care of 
the reindeer. 

Reindeer Moss, a lichen which 
forms the winter food of the reindeer. 
It is abundant in the pire forests 
of Lapland, and flourishes even when 
they have been burnt. Reindeer feed 
upon it and dig for it when it is cov- 
ered by snow. It tastes like wheat 
bran, but leaves a slightly burning 
sensation on the palate. 

Reinhart, Benjamin Franklin, 
an American artist ; born near 
Waynesburg, Pa., Aug. 29, 1829. His 
most important works include the en- 
gravings : " Cleopatra " ; " Washington 
Receiving the News of Arnold's Trea- 
son " ; " After the Crucifixion," etc., 
and numerous portraits. He died in 
Philadelphia, Pa., May 3, 1885. 

Reinnart, Charles Stanley, an 
American artist ; born in Pittsburg, 
Pa., May 16, 1844. He exhibited 
Paris, Munich, and New York city, 
and was a member of numerous art 
associations. He died in Philadelohia, 
Pa., Aug. 30, 189G. 

Reinsch, Paul Samuel, an Amer- 
ican educator ; born in Milwaukee, 
Wis., in 18G9 ; was graduated at the 



University of Wisconsin in 1892 and 
at its Law Department in 1894. After 
studying abroad, he was made Pro- 
fessor of Political Science at the Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin in 1899. His 
publications include " The Common 
Law in the Early American Colonies " 
(1899) ; "World Politics at the End 
of the Ninteenth Century as Influ- 
enced by the Oriental Situation " 
(1900); "Colonial Government" 
J[1901) ; and many magazine articles. 

Relapsing Fever (also known as 
Famine Fever and Seven-day Fever), 
one of the three great species of con- 
tinued fever, the two others being ty- 
phus and typhoid. 

Release, a discharge of a right; 
an instrument in writing, by which 
estates, rights, titles, entries, actions, 
and other things are extinguished, and 
discharged, and sometimes transferred, 
abridged, or enlarged ; and, in general, 
a person's giving up or discharging 
the right or action he has, or claims to 
have, against another or his lands. 

Relics. Articles regarded as sacred 
in the Roman Catholic and Greek 
Churches, such as the " Holy Coat of 
Treyes," said to have been worn by 
Christ, alleged pieces of the cross 
on which Christ was crucified, alleged 
bones of martyrs and other persons 
held in reverence as saints, etc. It 
is claimed that a bone alleged to be of 
St. Anne, the mother of the Virgin 
Mary, has effected many miraculous 
cures in New York city in 1903. 

The Greek and other Oriental 
Churches, and most of the Oriental 
sects, agree with Roman Catholics in 
the practice of relic worship. On the 
contrary, the Reformed Churches, 
without exception, have rejected the 
usage ; though non-religious relic wor- 
ship is rife enough, in the form of 
swords of Wallace and Bruce, locks of 
Prince Charlie's hair, etc. The prac- 
tice of relic worship forms a notable 
feature of the Mohammedan usage of 
pilgrimages, and is an even more im- 
portant feature of Buddhism. 

Religions Liberty, or Liberty 
of Conscience, is the recognition and 
assertion by the state of the right of 
every man, in the profession of opin- 
ion and in the outward forms and re- 
quirements of religion, to do or ab- 
stain from doing whatever his individ- 
ual conscience or sense of right sug- 



Rembrandt 

gests. Religious liberty is opposed to 
the imposition by the state of any ar- 
bitrary restrictions on forms of wor- 
ship or the propagation of religious 
opinions, or to the enacting of any 
binding forms of worship or belief. 
The limit of religious liberty is neces- 
sarily the right of the state to main- 
tain order, prevent excesses, and guard 
against encroachments on private 
right. In the organization of civil and 
ecclesiastical government which pre- 
vailed from Constantine to the Ref- 
ormation, persecution was in general 
only limited by dissent; and universal 
submission to the dominant Church 
became the condition of religious peace 
throughout Christendom, while relig- 
ious liberty was unknown. The con- 
test of opinion begun at the Reforma- 
tion had the effect of establishing re- 
ligious liberty, as far as it at present 
exists, but the principle itself was so 
far from being understood and accept- 
<?d in its purity by either party that 
ifc hardly suggested itself even to the 
Oiost enlightened reasoners of that age. 
While the American colonies were de- 
pendent on Great Britain, religious 
liberty in the full sense existed only in 
Rhcde Island, toleration in Maryland 
having been limited by laws which 
punished conscientious utterances re- 
garding religious dogmas as blas- 
phemy. For many years after inde- 
pendence the laws of Massachusetts, 
New Hampshire, and Connecticut lim- 
ited religious liberty. 

Rembrandt, Van Ryu, one of the 
most celebrated painters and engrav- 
ers of the Dutch school ; born in Ley- 
den, Holland, July 15, 1606. He ac- 
quired his art from several masters 
at Amsterdam, and early in life grew 
famous, his studio being crowded with 
pupils, and his works selling rapidly. 
Rembrandt was master of all that re- 
lates to coloring, distribution of light 
and shade, and composition, and 
though deficient hi other requisites of 
a true artist, it cannot be denied that 
his pencil is masterly and unique, pos- 
sessing an energy and effect belonging 
to no other painter. His etchings have 
wonderful freedom, facility, and bold- 
ness. Rembrandt was twice married, 
resided during the greater part of his 
life at Amsterdam, and acquired a 
large fortune. He died in Amsterdam, 
And was buried Oct. 8. 1669. 



Remington 

Rcnienyi, Edouard, an Hungar- 
ian violinist ; born in Heves, Hungary, 
in 1830. In 1851, after the Hungar- 
ian revolution, he was forced to flee 
to the United States, but returned to 
Europe in 1853. In 1854 he visited 
London, where he was appointed solo 
violinist to Queen Victoria. In 1800 
he obtained his amnesty and returned 
to Hungary, wbere he attained great 
distinction. In 1878 he returned to 
the United States, where he spent 
much of his time and gave many con- 
certs, though during these years he 
also made visits to other countries. 
Died in San Francisco, Cal., May 15, 
1898. 

Remey, George Collier, an Amer- 
ican naval officer ; born in Burling- 
ton, la., Aug. 10, 1841 ; was graduated 
at the United States Naval Academy 
in 1859 ; served with distinction dur- 
ing the Civil War, and was captured 
during the assault on Fort Sumter, 
iu 1803. When the war with Spain 
broke out he was placed in command 
of the naval base at Key West, Fla. 
He was promoted rear-admiral in 1898 
and in 1900 was given command of the 
Asiatic Station at Yokohama, and in 
this capacity directed the operations 
of the United States naval forces in 
China. 

Remington, Philp, an American 
inventor ; born in Litchfield, N. Y., 
Oct. 31, 1816. He entered the small 
arms factory of his father, and for 
25 years superintended the mechanical 
department. The perfecting of the 
Remington breech loading rifles and 
of the Remington typewriter was 
largely due to his inventive skill. He 
died in 1889. 

Remington, Frederick, an Amer- 
ican artist and author ; born in Can- 
ton, N. Y., Oct. 4, 1861 ; was educated 
at the Yale Art School, and at the 
Art Students' League, New York. He 
was one of the most conspicuous of 
American artists in " black and 
white." He died Dec. 26, 1909. 

Remington, Joseph Price, an 
American pharmacist ; born in Phila- 
delphia, Pa., March 26, 1847; was 
graduated at the Philadelphia College 
of Pharmacy in 1866; and became 
Professor in the Pharmaceutical Lab- 
oratory and dean of the Philadelphia 
College of Pharmacy in 1893. He is 
a member of many American and for- 



Remittent Fever 



sign pharmaceutical and medical 
bodies, and author of " Remington's 
Practice of Pharmacy." 

Remittent Feyer, one of the vari- 
eties of fever arising from malaria or 
Harsh poison one being intermit- 
tent fever, or ague. In its milder 
forms it scarcely differs from severe 
intermittent fever; while in its more 
serious form it may approximate close- 
ly to yellow fever. 

Remonstrance, The Grand, in 
English history, a remonstrance con- 
sisting of 206 articles, condemning 
the arbitrary procedure of Charles I. 
It was carried in the House of Com- 
mons, Nov. 22, 1641, by a majority of 
11, and presented to the king Dec. 1. 

Remonstrants, a name given to 
the Dutch Protestants, who, after the 
death of Arminius (A. D. 1609) con- 
tinued to maintain his views, and in 
1610 presented to the States of Hol- 
land, at Friesland, a remonstrance in 
five articles formulating their points 
of departure from Calvinism. The 
Remonstrants still form a small but 
liberal and scholarly sect in Holland. 

Remora, the sucking-fish, or suck- 
er. By means of the suctorial disk, 
a transformation of the spinous dorsaJ 
fin, the species can attach themselves 
to any flat surface. The adhesion is 
so strong that the fish can be dis- 




EEMOBA, OB SUCKER. 

lodged only with difficulty^ unless 
pushed forward with a sliding mo- 
tion. Being bad swimmers, they at- 
tach themselves to vessels, or to ani- 
mals having greater power of locomo- 
tion than themselves ; but they can- 
not be regarded as parasites, as they 
do not obtain their food at the expense 
of their host. 

Remsen, Ira, an American chem- 
ist; born, in New York city, Feb. 10. 



1846; was graduated at the College 
of the City of New York in 1865, and 
later at the College of Physicians and 
Surgeons, and at the University of 
Gottingen; was Professor of Chem- 
istry at Williams College in 1872- 
1876 ; founded the " American Chem- 
ical Journal " in 1879. He is a mem- 
ber of many scientific organizations 
and societies ; and the author of nu- 
merous textbooks including " The Prin- 
ciples of - Theoretical Chemistry " ; 
" Inorganic Chemistry " ; " Chemical 
Experiments " ; etc. ; became Profes- 
sor of Chemistry at Johns Hopkins 
University in 1876, and succeeded Dr. 
Daniel Coit Gilman as president there 
in 1901. 

Remus, the twin brother of Rom- 
ulus, who was the fabled founder o 
Rome. According to the old myth, 
Romulus killed his brother. 

Renaissance, a name given to the 
great intellectual movement which 
marks the transition from the Middle 
Ages to the modern world. It was a 
change in attitude of mind and ideal 
of life, in philosophy, art, literary 
criticism, political and religious 
thought. Substantially a revolt 
against the dogmatism of the Middle 
Ages, the new spirit claimed the en- 
tire liberation of reason, and pas- 
sionately recognizing and studying the 
rich humanity of Greece and Rome, 
aimed at a complete rehabilitation of 
the human spirit with all the free ac- 
tivities and arts and graces. To the 
same impulse belonged also the in- 
vention of printing and multiplica 
tion of books, new methods of paper 
xiaking, the use of the mariner's com- 
pass, the discovery of America, and 
the exploration of the Indian Sea. No 
definite date can be given for the be- 
ginning of the Renaissance. Long be- 
fore the close of the Dark Ages there 
were isolated scholars and thinkers 
who anticipated the new light. In 
its main elements the movement orig- 
inated in Italy toward the end of the 
14th century, and, attaining its full 
development there in the earlier half 
of the 16th, the Renaissance communi- 
cated itself throughout the whole of 
the rest of Europe; France, Germany, 
England, and other countries partici- 
pating later in the movement, which 
in each of them took a somewhat dif- 
ferent shape- 



Rcnan 



Renwiclt 



Renan, Joseph. Ernest, a French 
writer ; born in Treguier, France, 
Feb. 2T, 1823. In 1862 be was ap- 
pointed Professor of Hebrew, Chal- 
dee, and Syriac in the College de 
France, but the skeptical views man- 
ifested in his " Life of Jesus " (1803), 
raised an outcry against him, and he 
was removed from his chair, to be re- 
stored again, however, in 1871. This 
work, the publication of which caused 
intense excitement throughout Europe, 
was the first part of a comprehensive 
work on the " History of the Origins 
of Christianity," written from the 
standpoint of one who disbelieves in 
the supernatural claims of Christian- 
ity. Kenan's latest important work 
is the " History of the People of Is- 
rael till the Time of King David." He 
became a member of the French Acad- 
emy in 1878. He died Oct. 2, 1892. 

Renegade, one who renounces his 
religious faith and adopts another 
creed, more particularly one who re- 
nounces Christianity and becomes a 
Moslem ; in a wider sense the word is 
practically synonymous with traitor, 
one who deserts to the enemies of his 
country ; in American history it was 
applied to white men who joined the 
Indians. 

Rennet, an aqueous infusion of 
the dried stomach of the calf. It is 
a valuable agent in the coagulation of 
the casein of milk preparatory to the 
manufacture of cheese. It appears to 
contain a soluble ferment which acts 
directly on the milk. Also a variety, 
or rather several sub-varieties, of ap- 
ple, with more or less spotted fruit; 
ground color gray, or golden. There 
is a French and a Canadian rennet ; 
called also a queen. 

Reno, Jesse Lee, an American mil- 
itary officer ; born in Wheeling, W. 
Va., June 20, 1823 ; was graduated at 
the United States Military Academy 
in 1846; served with distinction in 
the Mexican War. In November, 
1861, he was appointed Brigadier- 
General of volunteers; distinguished 
himself at the capture of Roanoke 
Island and in the engagements at New- 
bern and Camden ; was promoted Ma- 
jor-General of volunteers in July 1862 ; 
and was present in the actions at 
Manassas and Chantilly. He was 
killed at South Mountain, Md., on 
Sept. 14, 1862, while leading a charge. 



Reno, Jesse Wilford, an Amer- 
ican inventor ; born in Fort Leaven- 
worth, Kan., Aug. 4, 1861 ; son of 
Maj.-Gen. Jesse L. Reno; was grad- 
uated at Lehigh University in 1883 
and afterward took a special course 
in mining and engineering ; was en- 
gaged in mining in Colorado in 1885- 
1890. He invented an inclined eleva- 
tor or moving stairway in 1892, which 
has since been largely introduced iri 
department stores, etc. 

Reno, Marcus A., an American 
military officer ; born in Illinois about 
1835 ; was graduated at the United 
States Military Academy, and was ap- 
pointed a brevet 2d lieutenant in the 
1st Dragoons in 1857. He was pro- 
moted colonel U. S. A., and Brigadier- 
General, U. S. V., for meritorious serv- 
ices during the war, in 1865 ; and was 
dismissed from the service April 1, 
1880. In 1876 he took part in the 
campaign against the Sioux Indians, 
under Sitting Bull, as second in com- 
mand of his regiment, in which Gen. 
George A Custer and nearly all of 
the regiment were killed. For failing 
to support his comrades in the fight 
and for other serious charges he was 
dismissed from the service. He died 
in Washington. D. C., March 31, 1889. 
Reno's bravery was undoubted, and 
by many his dismissal is regarded as 
unjust. 

Renwick, James, an American 
author and physicist ; born in Liver- 
pool, England, May 30, 1792; was 
graduated at Columbia College, New 
York, in 1807. In 1820 he was made 
Professor of Chemistry and Physics 
in that college, a position he held till 
1853. In 1838 he was appointed by 
the United States government one of 
the commissioners to explore the line 
of the boundary between Maine and 
New Brunswick. He wrote, besides 
smaller text-books and translations, 
" Treatise on the Steam Engine " ; sev- 
eral books on mechanics, and biogra- 
phies of De Witt Clinton, Jay and 
Hamilton, and others. He died Jan. 
12, 1863. 

Renwick, James, an American 
architect; born in New York city, 
Nov. 3, 1818 ; son of the preceding ; 
was graduated at Columbia College in 
1836; first engaged in civil engineer- 
ing ; but later devoted himself to ar- 
chitecture. Among the many build- 



Repentance 



ings which he planneo! are Grace 
Church, New York city, completed in 
1845 ; the Smithsonian Institution and 
the Corcoran Art Gallery, in Wash- 
ington, D. C. ; the Vassar College 
buildings in Poughkeepsie, N. Y. ; the 
Young Men's Christian Association 
and St. Patrick's Cathedral (R. C.), 
in New York city. He died in New 
York city, June 23, 1895. 

Repentance, the act of repenting; 
the state of being penitent ; sorrow or 
regret for what has been done or left 
undone by one's self ; especially sor- ! 
TOW and contrition for sin. 

Replevin, a personal action which j 
lies to recover possession of good_s or 
chattels wrongfully taken or detained, 
upon giving security to try the right | 
to them in a court of law, and to re- j 
turn them if the suit is determined 
against the plaintiff. Originally a 
remedy peculiar to cases of wrongful 
distress, it is now applicable to all 
cases of wrongful taking or deten- 
tion. Also the writ by which goods 
and chattels are replevined. 

Replica, in the fine arts, the copy 
of a picture, etc., made by the artist 
who executed the original. 

Reporting, an important branch 
of journalism ; the act, system, or 
practice of making, reports of meetings, 
debates, or the like. 

The methods of newspaper reporting 
in the United States have been devel- 
oped to a degree of the greatest effi- 
ciency. A first-class reporter com- 
mands higher pay than most editors, 
and some of the articles which ap- 
pear in the daily > press are equal, or 
superior in descriptive power to the 
best efforts of well known authors. 
American reporters have also done 
honorable and abla detective work in 
saving the innocent and bringing the 
guilty to punishment. The rapidity 
with which reports of speeches, meet- 
ings, notable incidents, etc., are fur- 
nished to the press is something al- 
most incredible to the uninitiated. The 
various press associations ot the coun- 
try are the principal factors in the 
work of disseminating the results of 
reportorial work. See JOURNALISM. 

Repousse, a term applied to a 
kind of ornamental metal work, formed 
in relief by striking on the metal from 
behind with a punch or hammer till 



Representatives 



the required forms are roughly pro- 
duced in relief on the surface ; the 
work is then finished by the process 
of chasing. The work of BenvenUto 
Cellini (1500-1570), in this branch of 
art, is the most celebrated. Common 
work of this kind, as for tea or coffee 
pots, is executed in pewter and Bri- 
tannia metal, and then electrotyped. 

Repplier, Agnes, an American e 
sayist ; born in Philadelphia in 18591 
Her published works, include : " Books 
and Men " ; " Points of View " ; " Es 
says in Miniature"; ''Philadelphia: 
the Place and the People " ; etc. She 
has also compiled a " Book of Famoug 
Verse." 

Representative, an individual 
standing as a type. The representa- 
tive theory contended for by Swain- 
son and other quinarians was that ini 
each circle particular types were rep- 
resented. In every circle of birds, fon 
instance, there were raptorial, inses- 
sorial, rasorial, grallatorial, and nata- 
torial types. Any representative ofl 
these was analogous to the corre- 
sponding type in all other circles. 

Representatives, House of, one 
of the branches of the Congress, also 
known as the Lower House. The mem- 
bers of this branch are elected" direct- 
ly by popular vote. In it is vested by 
the National Constitution the sola 
right to originate laws concerning the 
finances of the country. The Commit- 
tee on Ways and Means of the House 
is the original source of all tariff 
legislation, and all bills providing for 
the raising or expenditure of publics 
moneys have their origin in the House, 
In each of these two forms of legisla- 
tion the House has the limited co- 
operation of the Senate, viz.. the Sen- 
ate may amend a tariff bill or resolu- 
tion appropriating public moneys in) 
the line either of increasing or de- 
creasing specific amounts. The House 
has the privilege of passing on these 
Senate amendments, and if it declines 
to accept any part of such changes, it 
is customary to appoint a Conference 
Committee consisting of an equal 
number of members from the House 
and Senate, to whom the disputed 
subject is referred, and the report of 
this committee is generally accepted 
in the light of a compromise by both 
houses. The membership of the Hou~3 



Representative Gov't 



Reproduction 



is based on the population of the 
country as ascertained decennially by 
the census, and therefore changes 
every ten years. 

Representative Government, 
that form of government in which 
either the whole of a nation, or that 
portion of it whose superior intelli- 
gence affords a sufficient guarantee 
for the proper exercise of the privilege, 
is called on to elect representatives or 
deputies charged with the power of 
controlling the public expenditure, im- 
posing taxes, and assisting the execu- 
tive in enforcing the laws. 

Reprieve, the suspension or delay 
of the carrying out of a sentence 
generally of death) on a prisoner. It 
is popularly but erroneously supposed 
to signify a permanent remission, or 
commutation of a capital sentence. 

Reprise, in maritime law, a ship 
recaptured from an enemy or pirate. 
If recaptured within 24 hours of her 
capture she must be restored to her 
owners in whole ; if after that period, 
she is lawful prize of her recaptors. 

Reproduction, the term applied 
to the whole process whereby life is 
continued from generation to genera- 
tion. The simplest forms of reproduc- 
tion are found among the single-celled 
plants and animals. There we may 
find an organism like Schizogenes, 
multiplying by breakage, reproducing 
by rupture, presumably when the cell 
has overgrown its normal size ; in 
others numerous buds are liberated at 
once, as in Arcella and Pelomyxa ; in 
many, familiarly in the yeast plant, 
one bud is formed at a time ; in most 
the cell divides into two or many 
daughter cells. The formation of many 
daughter cells or spores is little more 
than ordinary division taking place 
repeatedly in rapid succession, and 
within the substance of the parent 
cell in other words, in limited time 
and space. 

It has been shown that reproduction 
begins among single-celled organisms 
in a kind of rupture ; but even among 
the more complex forms of life an 
equally crude mode of reproduction 
sometimes occurs. The cast-off arm 
of a starfish may regrow the entire 
animal with a readiness that suggests 
a habit ; some kinds of worms (e. g., 
Nemerteans) break into pieces, each 



of which is able regrow the whole ; 
large pieces of a sea anemone or of a 
sponge are sometimes separated off 
and form new organisms. It .is easy 
to show experimentally that parts cut 
from a hydra, a sponge, or a sea 
anemone, from a seaweed, a moss, or 
a tree, may in certain conditions grow 
into an entire organism. 

But the usual mode of asexual re- 
production is by the formation of 
definite buds. When these buds re- 
main continuous, colonial organisms 
result, like many sponges, most hy- 
droids, Siphonophora like the Portu- 
guese man-of-war, many corals, almost 
all the Polyzoa, ana many Tunicates. 
The runners of a strawberry and the 
suckers which grow around a rose 
bush illustrate the same state. 

Sexual reproduction in its fully dif- 
ferentiated form involves (a) the dis- 
tinctness of two parent organisms, 
(b) .the formation of two different 
kinds of reproductive elements e. g. 
spermatozoa produced by the male 
and ova by the female, and (c) the 
fertilization of the egg cell by a male 
element. Moreover, the process of 
sexual reproduction also includes the 
sexual union of the two parents, or 
some provision of nature by which the 
perfect fertilization of the ovum is 
secured. In some cases the fer- 
tilized ovum develops in organic rela- 
tion with the mother organism, from 
which it is eventually separated as an 
embryo. But, while many organisms 
exhibit fully differentiated sexual re- 
production, and while the essentials 
of the process are always the same, 
there are not a few important varia- 
tions in detail? 

Reproductive maturity the blos- 
soming of the individual life occurs 
about the time when growth ceases. 
In the lower animals sexual maturity 
is attained relatively sooner than in 
the higher forms; but there are many 
strange cases of precocious and re- 
tarded reproduction. The physiology 
of reproduction must take account of 
that profound reaction which affects 
the whole system as sexual maturity 
is attained, of the various ways in 
which the reproductive elements are 
separated from the parents, of the 
relation which, alike in plant and ani- 
mal, may be established between the 
fertilized egg cell and the mother or- 



Aeptilia 



Republican Party 



garxism, and of the way in which an 
embryo thus nurtured eventually be- 
comes independent. Moreover, there 
are often highly evolved psychical ac- 
tivities associated with reproduction 
notably the love between mates and 
between parents and offspring. 

Reptilia, reptiles ; cold-blooded, 
oviparous, or ovovivparous, vertebrate 
animals having the skin covered with 
scales or scutes ; heart with two 
auricules, ventricular chamber incom- 
pletely divided. Respiration takes 
place by lungs, respiratory movements 
being slow and irregular. Intestinal 
tract and urogenital organs open into 
a common cloaca. When the appen- 
dicular parts of the skeleton are pres- 
ent, the sternum is never replaced by 
membrane bone, and the posterior 
sternal ribs are attached to a median 
prolongation of the sternum. The 
metatarsal bones are not anchylosed 
among themselves or with the distal 
tarsal bone. The foetus is inclosed in 
an amnion and allantois, and nour- 
ished from the vitellus. 

The first appearance of reptiles is 
believed to be indicated by remains of 
a marine Saurian of Carboniferous 
age. Proterosaurus is found in the 
Permian. In Mesozoic times the rep- 
tilian type appears in such variety 
and in such a high state of develop- 
ment that this era has been distin- 
guished as the Reptilian age. In the 
Trias large marine Saurians and 
Dinosaurs are met with ; more gigan- 
tic forms were developed in the Juras- 
sic period ; and the class attained its 
highest culmination in the Chalk. 

Republic, a commonwealth ; a form 
of political constitution in which the 
supreme power is vested, not in an 
hereditary ruler, but in the hands 
either of certain privileged members 
of the community or of the whole com- 
munity. Theoretically, the purest and 
most perfect form of a republic is a 
state in which all the members of the 
community meet in public assembly 
to enact laws, and transact all other 
national business. Such a system is, 
however, practicable only in very 
small < states. Therefore it has given 
way in all modern republics to the 
representative system that is, one 
in which the supreme power is vested 
in rulers chosen periodically by and 
from the whole body of the people, or 



by their representatives assembled in 
a congress or national assembly, as in 
the present French republic. The re- 
publics of Venice and Genoa were ex- 
clusive oligarchies, the supreme power 
being vested in the nobles or a few 
priviledged persons. The republics of 
the United States and Switzerland are 
federal republics that is, composed 
of a number of separate states bound 
together by compact, subject to a 
central government for all national 
purposes, but having powers of self- 
government in matters affecting indi- 
didual states. 

Republican Party, one of the two 

great political parties in the United 
States. The term Republican has had 
at different times, different significa- 
tions. In 1792 a faction of the Anti- 
Federalists, advocating more direct 
control of the government by the peo- 
ple, further restriction of supreme 
authority, and a stronger emphasis of 
States Rights, began to be known as 
the Republican Party. This party 
was increased by numbers of voters 
who called themselves Democrats on 
account of their sympathy with the 
French Jacobins. The combination 
was known officially as the Democrat- 
ic-Republican party. Those members 
having centralizing tendencies having 
seceded, the term Democratic was 
alone retained. This name, as the 
title of a National party was first used 
in 1825, the election of 1828 being the 
first in which it appeared, at that 
time opposing the original holders of 
the name. The name Republican, as 
the title of a party went out of use 
after the election of 1824, but was re- 
sumed in 1856, during the administra- 
tion of Mr. Pierce (1853-1857). Its 
platform rested mainly on the prohibi- 
tion of slavery in the Territories, de- 
claring that freedom was the public 
law of the national domain : the pro- 
hibition of polygamy, which it classed 
with slavery as "the twin relic of bar- 
barism" ; and the admission of Kan- 
sas as a free State. In 1856 the party 
fairly divided the country with its 
Democratic competitor. In June of 
that year its convention met at Phila- 
delphia and nominated John C. Fre- 
mont for President. Mr. Buchanan, 
the Democratic candidate was elected, 
11 of the States voting for General 
Fremont. The decision in the Dred 



Republican Party 



Republican Party 



Scott Case and tbe progress of events 
in Kansas greatly strengthened the 
party, and after the divisions among 
the Democrats over the same question 
the success of the Republicans was as- 
sured. In 1860 the party elected Abra- 
ham Lincoln President, who received 
the electoral votes of the free States 
except New Jersey. On the announce- 
ment of his election the Southern 
States prepared to secede, South Car- 
olina leading, followed by 10 others. 
Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated March 
4, 1861. He asserted that there was 
no right to interfere with slavery in 
the United States where it existed, and 
acknowledged that of the reclamation 
of fugitive slaves ; but he expressed 
his determination to execute the laws 
and protect public property. The con- 
duct of the Civil War was in the 
hands of the Republican party, though 
northern Democrats formed a large 
proportion of the Union army. 

In 1864 Mr. Lincoln was unani- 
mously nominated by the Republicans, 
and was reelected by an overwhelming 
majority. On the 14th of April, 1863, 
Mr. Lincoln was assassinated, and 
died the next day. Andrew Johnson, 
the Vice-President, immediately suc- 
ceeded him, and continued his cabinet. 
Mr. Johnson had been a loyal Union 
man of Tennessee and was chosen in 
view of the reconstruction of the 
South. He soon disagreed with the 
party and came into actual conflict 
with Congress. He was impeached 
March 23, 1868, but acquitted May 16, 
and 26 for lack of a vote of two-thirds 
for conviction. Chief-Justice Chase 
presided at this trial. In 1868 Ulys- 
ses S. Grant was elected President. 
1 1 is election was urged on the ground 
that the Republican party, having suc- 
cessfully finished the war, maintained 
public credit, abolished slavery, and 
secured liberty, was the proper one to 
carry on the government. General 
Grant was chosen for a second term 
by a largely increased electoral vote, 
and was succeeded by R. B. Hayes in 
1876, the election of the latter being de- 
clared by the electoral commission 
(q. v.). James A. Garfield was elect- 
ed President, and died Sept. 19, 1881, 
from wounds inflicted July 2. and 
Chester A. Arthur, the Vice-Presi- 
dent, took his place. In 1884 there 
arose a considerable defection from 



the party ranks many declining to vote 
for James G. Blaine, the regular nom- 
inee. As a result Grover Cleveland, 
the Democratic candidate was chosen. 
In 1888 the party again triumphed 
in the National election, Benjamin 
Harrison defeating Grover Cleveland 
on the tariff issue. In 1892 the party 
was defeated by the second election of 
Grover Cleveland and a Democratic 
Congress. In 1894 it again came into 
power in Congress by signal majori- 
ties carrying even Kentucky and other 
Democratic strongholds ; and in 189G 
regained all branches of the govern- 
ment by the election of William 
McKinley, who was re-elected in 1900. 
On his assassination, Sept. 14, 1901, 
he was succeeded by Theodore Roose- 
velt, Vice-President, who was elected 
President in 1904 by an overwhelm- 
ing majority, defeating Alton B. Par- 
ker, the Democratic candidate. 

In 1908 the Republican Party was 
again successful in electing its candi- 
date, William H. Taft, who defeated 
the Democratic nominee, William 
Jennings Bryan, who had been named 
for the third time by that party. Presi- 
dent Taft's first official act was to sum- 
mon Congress in extra session to deal 
with, several important subjects. Dur- 
ing the session, which closed June 25, 
1910, Congress passed a new tariff 
bill ; placed railroad rate making, and 
telegraph and telephone companies un- 
der government control ; imposed a 
special tax on corporations ; created a 
Commerce Court ; adopted a postal 
telegrnph bill ; authorized the admis- 
sion of Arizona and New Mexico into 
the Union ; created a bureau of mines ; 
and established rigid rules for the pre- 
vention of collisions at sea. The 
party suffered heavy defeat through- 
out the country in 1910, when the 
Democratic party secured control of 
the National House of Representatives. 
Later notable events of this adminis- 
tration were the attempts to negotiate 
a reciprocal trade agreement with 
Canada and a general arbitration 
treaty with Great Britain and France; 
the passage of a Panama Canal bill, in 
whi"h American shipping was espe- 
cially favored, and under which Great 
Britain file! two protests; intervention 
in Nicaragua to suppress the revolu- 
tion of 1912; the visit of Secretary of 



Reservation 

State Knox to the Central American 
republics and to Japan as special am- 
bassdor at the funeral of the Mikado; 
the employment of the army along 
the Rio Grande to safeguard American 
lives and property against the Mexican 
revolutionists; and the revolt in the 
Republican party, leading to the or- 
ganization of the Progressive Party 
(q. v.) and its nomination of former 
President Roosevelt (see Roosevelt, 
Theodore; Taft, William Howard). 
Both of these candidates were de- 
feated by the Democratic candidate, 
Gov. Woodrow Wilson. 

Reservation, Papal, the privilege, 
introduced by John XXII. and con- 
tinued by Clement VI. and Gregory 
XI., of reserving to the Holy See the 
power of electing bishops, formerly 
possessed by the clergy and people of 
the several cities. Reservations were 
abolished by the Council of Constance, 
March 5, 1436. 

Reserve, in military usage, a body 
of troops kept for any emergency ; 
that portion of an army drawn up 
for battle which is reserved to sup- 
port the other lines as occasion re- 
quires. 

Reserve Forces, those troops 
which, by the terms of their engage- 
ment with the State, compulsory or 
otherwise, are liable to be at once 
recalled to the field army in case of 
war. In the United States the Na- 
tional Guard is subject to call for 
immediate duty. 

Reservoir, Jerome Park, An 
artificial reservoir which when com- 
pleted will form part of the water- 
works system of New York City. 

The Jerome Park reservoir, as the 
new storage basin is called, is located 
on a lofty ridge, which runs N. and 
S. between the valleys in which are 
located the New York and Putnam 
and the Harlem railroads. The site is 
admirably adapted by nature for the 
excavation of a large artificial basin ; 
for at this point there is a general de- 
pression in the summit of the ridge, 
and the labor of excavating and em- 
banking the reservoir has been pro- 
portionately lessened. The greatest 
length of the reservoir in a N. and S. 
direction is a little over one mile, and 
its greatest width half a mile, its area 



Resin 

being 229 acres. The whole of the 
bottom is being excavated to a uni- 
form depth of 26% feet. 

Though the total amount of excava- 
tion is greatly lessened by the natural 
depression of the ground, there is no 
point where it is carried less than 16 
feet below the natural surface, the 
bottom of the finished reservoir being 
everywhere 31% feet below the top 
of the embankment. 

The present estimate for the total 
excavation is 6,900,000 cubic yards 
of material, of which 3,900,000 is 
earth and 3,000,000 is solid rock. Of 
this total 2,286,000 cubic yards of 
earth have been taken out and 1,647,- 
000 yards of rock, so that something 
less than two-thirds of the work has 
been completed. The capacity of the 
E. basin is 1,085,000,000 gallons, and 
the capacity of the W. basin 765,000,- 
000, making a total of 1,850,000,000 
gallons. The excavation of the W. side 
of the reservoir was completed in 
1901, and in the spring of 1904 the 
process of concreting and finishing 
was completed. The total cost of the 
finished work will be $5,840,000. 

Residence. The length of time 
which a person shall remain within 
the limits of a State in order to give 
him a legal residence there, varies in 
the different commonwealths, each gov- 
ernment being the judge of the qualifi- 
cations necessary to entitle a denizen 
to claim permanent residence within 
its boundaries. An alien who desires 
to become a naturalized citizen of the 
United States must prove a residence 
of five years in the country previous 
to admittance to the right of adoption. 

Resin, or Rosin, a widely distribu- 
ted class of vegetable substances, char- 
acterized by being insoluble in water, 
soluble to different degrees in alcohol, 
ether, and liquid hydrocarbons, soften- 
ing or melting at a moderate heat, 
and at a higher temperature burning 
with a smoky, luminous flame. In the 
crude condition they form amorphous 
masses, having a conchoidal fracture, 
and are, either neutral or acid. Some 
are employed in medicine, others in 
the preparation of varnishes, sealing 
wax, and similar substances. Resins 
are also constituents of the substances 
known as gum-resins, and of the me- 
dicinal preparations called balsams, as 
balsams of Peru and Tulu. 



Resonance 



Respiration 



Resonance, or Resonancy, in 

acoustics, (1) Sound reflected by a 
surface less than 112.5 feet from the 
spot whence it originally traveled. 
The direct and the reflected sounds 
are confounded, but the one strength- 
ens the other. Bare walls tend to be 
resonant ; walls hung with tapestry 
are not so. (2) The increase of sound 
produced by a sounding board, or by 
the body ,of a musical instrument. In 
medicine, a more or less shrill sound 
heard by auscultation in the larynx 
or lungs of a person speaking, or of 
one affected with chest disease. 

Respiration, a part of the life of 
all organisms, animal and vegetable. 
It is a series of chemical changes, the 
first, of which is the absorption of 
oxygen into the body, and the last of 




THE TRACHEA (WINDPIPE) , BRONCHI, 
AND ONE OF THE LUNGS IN SECTION. 

which is the excretion of carbonic 
acid. The respiration of plants comes 
under the head of vegetable physi- 
ology, and the general relation of the 
function of respiration to the other 
bodily functions, under physiology. 

In all animals which possess a blood 
stream the respiration is carried on 

B. 125. 



by the simple diffusion of oxygen into 
and of carbonic acid out of the blood 
through a thin membrane from and 
into the air or water in which the 
creature lives. The essential structure, 
therefore, of all breathing organs, 
lungs, gills, or tracheae, must be the 
same : a thin membrane exposed on 
the one side to the oxygen-containing 
medium, air or water, in which the 
animal lives, on the other side to the 
blood flowing in a network of thin- 
walled vessels, so that the gases that 
have to pass in and out of the blood 
are only separated from the air or 
water from which and into which they 
have to pass by thin partitions by 
the membranous wall of the breath- 
ing organ, and by the thin wall of the 
blood vessels. 

The respiratory mechanism consists 
of the lungs, a series of minute air 
chambers with a network of capil- 
laries in the wall, the air passages 
from the air chambers of the lungs to 
the outer air, and the chest walls with 
their muscles, which act like bellows 
and change the air in the lungs. Let 
us begin with the air passages. There 
are first the nose and mouth ; these 
join the upper part of the gullet, 
known as the pharynx. Prom the 
pharynx arises the windpipe (tra- 
chea) ; this passes through the voice 
box (larynx) into the chest cavity; 
there it divides into two passages (the 
bronchi) ; the bronchi go on dividing 
again and again, generally into two; 
the ultimate divisions (the bron- 
chioles) open into clusters of air 
chambers. The air chambers are about 
yjtf inch in diameter. It has been 
estimated that there are some 725,- 
000,000 of them, and that their total 
surface is about 2,000 square feet. 
The walls of the air chambers are 
formed of a thin membrane in which 
the blood and lymph capillaries 
ramify. Minute openings lead from 
the air chambers into the lymph 
spaces of the membrane. The mem- 
branous walls are partly formed of 
elastic tissue. It is this that gives to 
the lungs their elasticity. The larger 
air passages (trachea and bronchi) 
are kept open by horseshoe-shaped 
plates or cartilage; muscles stretch 
between the poles of the horseshoe, 
complete the ring, and permit the size 
of the passages to vary, at the same 



Respiration 

time resisting over-distention when 
the internal pressure rises. These 
larger air passages are lined by a 
mucous membrane, containing mucous 
glands ; the innermost layer is a" 
ciliated epithelium ; the cilia lash up- 
ward, and thus keep the passages free 
from mucus and remove foreign par- 
ticles. As the passages become smaller 
they lose their cartilages, and the 
muscles form a continuous circular 
layer. 

The chest is an air-tight chamber 
enclosing the lungs and the heart. The 
walls of the chest are formed of bones 
(the ribs, sternum, and backbone) 
and muscles ; the bones and muscles 
are so arranged that the size of the 
chest cavity can be altered. In this 
way the chest acts as a bellows and 
moves air in and out of the lungs. The 
ribs are sloped slightly downward, 
especially after an expiration ; when 
an inspiration is taken certain muscles 
fix the upper ribs, and those muscles 
connecting the ribs to each cither con- 
tract and the ribs are raised, and 
thus the size of the chest cavity is 
increased. At the same time a flat 
muscle called the diaphragm, which 
separates the chest cavity from the 
rest of the body cavity, and which 
after an expiration is arched upward 
(by the pressure of the_ abdominal 
viscera on it, the viscera in turn be- 
ing pressed on by the abdominal 
walls), forcibly contracts, becomes 
flatter, and therefore enlarges the size 
of the chest cavity, forcing the abdom- 
inal viscera downward and causing 
the abdomen to protrude. In these 
two ways, then, the size of the chest 
cavity may be increased. The result 
of this enlargement is that the pres- 
sure of the air within the cavities of 
the lungs is lowered ; air therefore 
from without rushes through the nos- 
trils (one ought not to breathe 
through one's mouth) down the wind- 
pipe into the lungs, and thus a fresh 
supply of oxygen is introduced. The 
movements which produce this result 
are known as the inspiratory move- 
ments. In making an expiration the 
reverse effects are produced ; the chest 
cavity is made smaller, the pressure 
of the air in the lungs increases, and 
some rushes out through the nostrils 
into the air till the pressures inside 
and outside are equalized. An ordi- 



Respixation 

nary expiration is effected by the 
elasticity of the lungs, by the fall of 
the ribs, unsupported by the contrac- 
tion of the muscles that caused an in- 
spiratory movement, by the elasticity 
of the cartilages of the ribs which 
were twisted during inspiration, and 
by the elasticity of the abdominal wall 
which was forced outward by those 
viscera pushed downward by tha 
diaphragm. An ordinary inspiration 
is therefore the result of a number of 
active muscular contractions, while 
an ordinary expiration is the result of 
mere passive elasticity of the parts 
concerned. The average amount of 
air, in the case of an individual five 
feet eight inches in height, that goes 
in and out of the lungs at each in- 
spiration and expiration is about 20 
cubic inches ; this is called the tidal 
air. By means of forced inspiratory 
movements the ingoing tide may be 
increased by 120 cubic inches ; by 
means of a forced expiration vhe out- 
going tidal air may be increased by 
90 cubic inches. After the most forced 
expiration possible there always re- 
main within the lungs about 90 cubic 
inches of air. So that if we take as 
deep a breath as possible, and then 
make as forced an expiration as we 
can, we shall drive out 120 + 20 + 90 
230 cubic inches of air. This is 
termed the respiratory capacity. 

The ordinary respiratory movements 
differ in the two sexes and at different 
periods of life. In young children the 
chest is altered in size chiefly by the 
movements of the diaphragm, and the 
protrusion of the abdominal wall dur- 
ing inspiration is therefore very 
marked. In men also it is the dia- 
phragm which is chiefly operative, but 
the ribs are also moved. In women 
it is the movement of the ribs, espe- 
cially the upper ones, which is the 
most extensive. The respiratory 
rhythm is the relation of the acts of 
inspiration and expiration to each 
other as regards time. It may be ex- 
pressed as follows: In.= 3, Ex. 4, 
pause = 3. The number of respira- 
tions in a healthy person is about 14 
or 18 per minute; it is greater (near- 
ly double) in childhood. It varies 
according to circumstances, exercise, 
rest, health, disease, etc. ; in disease 
it may fall as low as 7 of rise to 100 
per minute. 



Respondent 



Resurrection 



Respondent, in law the designa- 
tion of the party required to answer 
in a suit, particularly in a chancery 

BUlt. 

Rest, a term, applied to various 
kinds of supports; as, a support for 
a lance or spear, for the muzzle of a 
gun in aiming or firing, for the top of 
the cue in billiards, and for a piece of 
work in a lathe or vise. In music, an 
interval of silence occurring in the 
course of a movement between one 
sound and another, hence the sign in- 
dicating the period of silence. In 
physics, absolute rest is the perma- 
nence of a body's position with respect 
to ideal fixed points in space ; relative 
rest, that with respect to surrounding 
bodies. 

Restitution Edict, an edict pub- 
lished A. D. 1629 by Ferdinand III., 
Emperor of Germany, ordering the 
Protestants to deliver up to the Ro- 
man Catholic authorities all ecclesias- 
tical property which had fallen into 
their hands since the religious peace 
of Passau established in the previous 
century. In 1648, at the end of the 
Thirty Years' War, the edict was re- 
voked. 

Restitutionists, a religious sect 
in New England. They believe that 
vhat man lost in the fall is now be- 
ginning to be restored, and that every- 
thing is to come back to its original 
form and purity. Their Sabbath, 
therefore, occurs on Saturday, as the 
original day of worship ; and their 
meetings are held Friday evening, be- 
cause it is Sabbath eve. 

Restoration, a term used in art 
to indicate the renewal or repairing 
of paintings, sculptures, buildings, 
etc., which have been defaced or par- 
tially ruined. It includes the re- 
touching of faded and injured pictures, 
and the replacing of lost limbs or 
features of antique statues. But in 
reference to architecture its meaning 
is broader; it indicates, first, a rep- 
resentation, by picture or model of a 
ruined structure restored to its orig- 
inal state ; secondly, the rebuilding of 
dilapidated or fallen portions of an 
edifice; and thirdly, taking down so- 
called " debased " work in a com- 
posite building, and replacing it by 
architectural features in harmony 
with the general style of the edifice. 



Restoration, The, in English his- 
tory a term applied to the accessioa 
of King Charles II., in 1660, after 
the civil war, to the throne of Eng- 
land, after an interregnum of 11 
years and four months, from January 
30, 1649, (when Charles I. was be- 
headed) to May 29, 1660. In French 
history, the first restoration begins 
May 3, 1814, when Louis XVIII. 
made his entry into Paris under the 
protection of foreign bayonets, and 
ended with the return of Napoleon 
from Elba, March 20, 1815. The be- 
ginning of the second restoration is 
generally reckoned from the battle of 
Waterloo, June 18, 1815, and termi- 
nated on July 29, 1830, with the 
abdication of Charles X. 

Restorationists, in Church his- 
tory, the followers of Origen in the 
opinion that after a certain purgation 
proportionate to their delinquencies 
all will be restored to God's favor and 
to paradise. In the Middle Ages, the 
Brethren of the Free Spirit held this 
doctrine ; at the time of the Reforma- 
tion, it was taught by the Anabap- 
tists and in the ISth century by the 
Rationalists. 

Resumption, the return to specie 
payment by a government. The Re- 
sumption Act of Jan. 14, 1875, fixed 
Jan. 1, 1879, as the day on which 
specie payments should be resumed 
by the United States government. Re- 
sumption actually took place on Dec. 
17, 1878, when the premium on gold 
disappeared. In English law, resump- 
tion is the taking again by the crown 
of such lands, tenements, etc., "as on 
false suggestion, or other error, had 
been granted by letters patent. 

Resurrection, an expression de- 
noting the revival of the human body 
in a future state after it has been 
consigned to the grave. Traces of this 
doctrine are found in other religions, 
in Zoroastrianism, and especially in 
later Judaism, but the doctrine is pe- 
culiarly Christian. In the earlier 
Hebrew Scriptures there is no men- 
tion of it. The most detailed exposi- 
tion 'of the doctrine is that of the 
Apostle Paul in I Cor. 15. The infer- 
ence from his argument is that the soul 
will be clothed with a new body, which 
he calls a spiritual body, rather than 
that the dead body will be revivified. 



Reszfee 



Returning Boards 



Reszkc, Edouard de, a Polish 
opera singer ; born in Warsaw, Po- 
land, Dec. 23, 1855; a brother of 
Jean de Reszke. He made his first ap- 
pearance in Paris, in 1876, taking 
rank as a leading star with a voice of 
remarkable range and power. He 
made several visits to the United 
States filling the chief roles in grand 
opera. In professional life, he was 
almost constantly associated with his 
brother. 

Reszke, Jean de, a Polish opera 
Binger ; born in Warsaw, Poland, Jan. 
14, 1852. His debut was made in 
Venice in 1874, under the name of 
De Reschi, as a baritone. In 1876 and 
in 1883 he sang at the Theatre Fran- 
cais, Paris ; and in the latter year, 
his voice changed to a tenor of re- 
markable scope. He has made sev- 
eral tours in America. 

Retainer, a preliminary fee paid 
to a counsel to secure his services, or 
rather to prevent the other side from 
securing them. A special retainer is a 
fee paid to secure the services of coun- 
sel for a particular case. A general 
retainer is a fee paid to secure a 
priority of claim on a counsel's serv- 
ices 'for any cause which the party 
paying the fee may have for trial. 

Retaining Wall, a wall erected 
to maintain a bank of earth in posi- 
tion, as in sunk fences, faces of earth- 
works, railway cuttings, sea-walls, 
etc. ; strictly speaking, a wall erected 
to hold an artificial bank in upright 
or nearly upright position. 

Retention, in law, a lien ; the. right 
of withholding a debt or of retaining 
property till a debt due to the person 
claiming this right be duly paid. 

Retina, the net-like expansion of 
the optic nerve, lying between the 
black pigment and the vitreous 
tumor of the eye. It is the only part 
immediately concerned in the act of 
Sensation. 

Retort, a vessel in whose chamber 
Bn object is subjected to distillation 
or decomposition by heat, a neck con- 
ducting off the volatile products. The 
retort of the chemical laboratory is a 
Vessel of glass, platinum, porcelain, or 
other material. It is bottle-shaped, 
having a long neck attached, in which 
the products of the distillation are 
condensed, and from which they pass 



into the receiver. The retort of the 
gas works is a cylinder or segment of 
a cylinder, formed of clay or iron. 




EETORT WITH CONDENSER. 

Retreat, a military operation, in 
which an army retires before an en- 
emy ; properly, an orderly march, in 
which circumstance it differs from a 
flight. Also a military signal given in 
the army by beat of drum or sound 
of trumpet at sunset, or for retiring 
from exercise or from action. In 
Church usage, a period of retirement 
to a religious house, for self-examina- 
tion, meditation, and prayer. 

Retrierer, a breed of dog, trained, 
as the name implies, to find out and 
bring back any killed or wounded 
game. The two varieties of retriever 
differ only in coat ; the curly coat 
should curl closely and firmly all 
over the body, the wavy coat should 
fall straight and thick. The retriever 
makes a very good watch dog, and 
numberless bad specimens of the 
breed are to be found fulfilling this 
vocation only. The pure retriever is 
gentle in temper and easy to com- 
mand. 

Returning Boards, boards form- 
ed to canvass votes cast in an elec- 
tion. They were created in some of 
the reconstructed States a few years 
after the close of the Civil War, for 
the purpose of rectifying fraud or vio- 
lence that might be practised on the 
negroes at the polls. In 1868 Arkansas 
established the first returning board. 
South Carolina, Louisiana and Flor- 
ida had similar boards. The various 
returning boards were successively 
abolished by the respective State Leg- 
islatures. 



Reuling 



Revelation of St. John 



Renling, George, an American 
ophthalmologist ; born in Romrod, 
Germany, Nov. 14, 1839 ; was surgeon 
in the Prussian army during the war 
with Austria ; assistant surgeon in the 
Eye Hospital in Wiesbaden, in 1866- 
1867 ; studied in Paris and later in 
Baltimore and became physician-in- 
chief of the Eye and Ear Infirmary in 
Baltimore in 1869. He was Professor 
of Ophthalmology in the University 
of Baltimore; Professor of Eye and 
Ear Surgery in Washington Univer- 
sity, Baltimore, Md. ; and Professor 
of Eye and Ear Disease in the Balti- 
more Medical College after 1886. He 
was a Fellow of the Heidelberg Oph- 
thalmological and the American 
Laryngological and Otological So- 
cieties ; eye and ear surgeon at the 
Maryland General Hospital; the 
Maryland Home for the Aged, and for 
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. He 
was the author of many technical pa- 
pers on, and invented apparatus for, 
eye and surgery. 

Reunion, formerly Bourbon, an 
island in the Indian Ocean, between 
Mauritius and Madagascar, 115 miles 
from each ; area, 965 square miles ; 
population, 173,192 15,219 being 
British Indians, 4,496 natives of 
Madagascar, 9,848 Africans and 836 
Chinese. It was annexed by France 
in 1643, and is an important French 
colony, now sending a representative 
to the chamber of deputies, and form- 
ing practically almost a department 
of France. It is very mountainous, 
the Piton des Neiges reaching a height 
of 10,069 feet, and the Piton de la 
Fournaise, an active volcano, of 8,294 
feet. The soil produces tropical prod- 
ucts, sugar being the principal crop. 
Coffee, cloves, and vanilla are also 
grown. 

Renter, Paul Julius, Baron, a 
German-English news agent, at one 
time well known from the familiar 
newspaper heading " Renter's Tele- 

fram " ; born in Cassel, July 21, 1821. 
n Aix-la-Chapelle he formed in 1849 
an organization for collecting (partly 
by pigeon post) and transmitting by 
telegraph commercial and financial 
news ; and in 1851 he transferred his 
headquarters to London. As telegraphs 
extended throughout the world he 
multiplied the ramifications of his 
system till it embraced the remotest 



regions. He even maintained couriers 
where the telegraphs did not reach 
e. g., between Peking and Kiachta. In 
1865 Reuter converted his business 
into a limited liability company, and 
in 1871 he was made a baron of Ger- 
many. In 1872 the Shah of Persia 
gave him the sole right of making rail- 
ways, working mines, forests, etc. a 
monopoly never made effective, and 
annulled in 1889, when the concession, 
of the Imperial Bank of Persia was 
conferred on him. Died Feb. 22, 1899. 

Reuterdahl, Henry, an American 
naval artist; born in Malmo, Sweden, 
Aug. 12, 1871 ; received an academic 
education at Stockholm, Sweden ; 
served as correspondent during the 
Spanish- American War ; contributed 
to " Harper's," the " Century," " St. 
Nicholas," " McClure's," the London 
" Graphic " and other magazines ; 
and in 1902 was engaged in painting 
a series of pictures of the ravies of 
the world. 

Reveille, the signal given in gar- 
risons at break of day, by beat of 
drum or sound of bugle, for the sol- 
diers to rise and the sentinels to for- 
bear challenging until the retreat is 
sounded in the evening. 

Revelation, the act of revealing, 
disclosing, or making known that 
which is secret, private, or unknown ; 
disclosure. Specifically, the act of re- 
vealing or communicating divine 
truth. Also that which is revealed, 
disclosed, or made known ; specifically, 
the Bible. 

Revelation of St. John, the last 
book of the New Testament, and the 
only distinctively prophetic one given 
to fling back the veil which hides 
futurity from the view. Its writer 
was John, the servant of God, the 
" brother " and " companion in tribu- 
lation " of the then persecuted Chris- 
tians, himself an exile in Patmos. It 
was there he saw the prophetic visions, 
narrating them after he left the island. 
The majority of the Fathers and the 
Church of the Middle Ages consid- 
ered, as do most modern Christians, 
that the author was John the Apostle. 
Respecting the canonicity of this book, 
Luther, Carlstadt. and Zwingli spoke 
of it disparagingly, but it is accepted 
by Churches of the Reformation, as 
well as by the Roman Church. Three 



Revenue 

schemes of interpretation exist : The 
Preterist, which makes the events pre- 
dicted now wholly passed ; the Fu- 
turist, which regards them as future, 
and that of a third and numerous 
school, who regard the Visions as a 
historical or continuous prediction of 
the whole history of the Church from 
apostolic times to the consummation 
of all things. 

Revenue, the income of a nation 
derived from taxes, duties, and other 
sources, for public uses. 

Revenue Cutter, a small armed 
steam vessel, designed for the pre- 
vention of smuggling ; so called from 
the fact that originally the vessel was 
of the cutter-yacht type. The United 
States Revenue Cutter Service is a 
branch of the Treasury Department 
and its purpose is, principally, to en- 
force the customs revenue laws. Its 
immediate supervision resides in a 
bureau of the department known as 
the Division of Revenue Cutter Serv- 
ice, which is In charge of a chief and 
a number of assistants. 

Reverberatory Furnace, a fur- 
nace in which ore, metal, or other 
material is exposed to the action of 
flame, but not to the contact of burn- 
ing fuel. The flame passes over a 
bridge and then downward on the ma- 
terial, which is spread on the hearth. 
The reverberatory furnace for copper 
has a furnace chamber, hearth, two 
tuyeres, and two cisterns, into which 
the molten results of the process are 
discharged. 

Revere, Joseph Warren, an 
American military officer ; born in 
Boston, Mass., May 17, 1812; was 
appointed a midshipman in the navy 
in 1828; lieutenant in 1841; took 
part in the Mexican War ; and re- 
signed from the navy in 1850. He 
served in the Civil War as colonel of 
the 7th New Jersey Volunteers and 
afterward as Brigadier-General. He 
had command of a brigade at Preder- 
icksburg; was transferred to the 
command of the famous " Excelsior 
Brigade," with which he fought at 
Chancellorsville. He was censured by 
his superior officer after the engage- 
ment at Chancellorsville ; was tried by 
court-martial, and was dismissed from 
the service in 1863; but his dismissal 
was revoked by President Lincoln, 



Reversion 

and his resignation accepted. He 
wrote " Keel and Saddle," in which 
he relates many of his personal ad- 
ventures. He died in Hoboken, N. J., 
April 20, 1880. 

Revere, Paul, an American pa- 
triot, famous for his midnight ride 
from Boston to Lexington ; born in 
Boston, Mass., Jan. 1, 1735. He was 
the son of a goldsmith from Guernsey, 
whose trade he followed after serving 
as a lieutenant of artillery in the ex- 
pedition against Crown Point (1756). 
He also engaged in copperplate print- 
ing, and before the Revolution con- 
structed a gunpowder mill. A keen 
patriot, he wa's one of the party that 
destroyed the tea in Boston harbor, 
and he was at the head of a volunteer 
committee, consisting of 30 young me- 
chanics, who formed a secret society 
to watch the British. When it was 
known that the latter intended to 
move, Revere crossed over to Charles- 
town, and April 18, 1775, the night 
before Lexington and Concord, at a 
signal rode on to Lexington and to 
Lincoln, rousing the minute-men as 
he went ; at Lincoln he was stopped, 
but a companion succeeded in reach- 
ing Concord. His ride is the subject 
of a well-known poem by Longfellow. 
During the war he rose to lieutenant- 
colonel of artillery ; afterward he re- 
turned to his goldsmith's work, and 
in 1801 founded the Revere Copper 
Company at Canton, Mass. He died 
in Boston, May 10, 1818. 

Reverend, worthy or deserving of 
reverence ; entitled to reverence or re- 
spect ; enforcing reverence by the ap- 
pearance (applied to persons and 
things). Also a title of respect given 
to clergymen and ecclesiastics. All 
ministers of religion in the United 
States, Great Britain, and the British 
colonies are given this title. 

Reversion, in law, the return- 
ing of an estate to the grantor or 
his heirs after a particular estate is 
ended. An estate in reversion is the 
residue of an estate left in the 
grantor, to commence in possession 
after the determination of some par- 
ticular estate granted out by him. 
The term is sometimes improperly ex- 
tended to any future estate in rever- 
sion or remainder. Reversion of series, 
in mathematics, when one quantity is 



Review 

expressed in terms of another, by 
means of a series, the operation of 
finding the value of the second in 
terms of the first, by means of a 
series, is called the reversion of the 
series. 

Review, a critical notice or exam- 
ination of a new publication; a criti- 
cism ; a critique. Hence a name given 
to certain periodical publications con- 
taining a collection of critical essays 
on subjects of public interest, literary, 
scientific, political, moral, or theo- 
logical, together with critical examina- 
tions of new publications. ' 

In law, the revision of any inter- 
locutor, decree, or sentence, against 
which a person has reclaimed or ap- 
pealed ; the power which a superior 
court has of reviewing the judgment 
of an inferior court. 

Revised Version, a revised edition 
of the Authorized Version of the Bible. 
A better text was constructed, manu- 
scripts being used which had been 
discovered since the Authorized Ver- 
sion had been made. Revision, not re- 
translation, was aimed at, as few 
alterations as possible being intro- 
duced, and these only if adopted by 
the votes of two-thirds of the trans- 
lators. The New Testament was pub- 
lished in May, 1881, the Old in May, 
1885. Each had an immediate and 
large sale, but the Authorized Version 
still holds its place in most evangeli- 
cal churches. 

Revival, the act of reviving; the 
state of being revived ; most commonly 
used in a religious sense. Revivals 
occur in all religions. When one 
takes place a large number of per- 
sons who have been comparatively 
dead or indifferent to spiritual con- 
siderations, simultaneously or in quick 
succession become alive to their im- 
portance, alter spiritually and moral- 
ly, and act with exceeding zeal in con- 
verting others to their views. A Mo- 
hammedan revival takes the form of 
a return to the strict doctrines of the 
Koran, and a desire to propagate them 
by _ the_ sword. A Christian minority 
living in the place is in danger of be- 
ing massacred by the revivalists. 

Revival of Letters, the revival 
of literature after the apparent death- 
blow which it received when the bar- 
barous nations of the North destroyed 



Revolution 

the civilized Rooan empire. It com- 
menced in England feebly at the be- 
ginning of the llth century, and be- 
came more potent in the 14th, 15th 
and subsequent centuries. 

Revocation, in law, the destroying 
or annulling of a deed or will which 
had existence till the act of revocation 
made it void. The revocation of a deed 
can only be effected when an express 
stipulation has been made in the deed 
itself reserving this power. The re- 
vocation of a will can be made in 
four different ways: (1) by another 
will; (2) by intentional burning, or 
the like; (3) by the disposition of 
the property by the testator in his 
lifetime; (4) by marriage. 

Revoil, Benedict Henri, a 
French novelist and dramatist \ born 
in Aix, Bouches-du-Rhone, France, 
Dec. 16, 1816. He lived in the United 
States for nine years, during which 
time he collected the material for 
many of his works. They include : 
" Hunting and Fishing of the Other 
World" (1856); "The Daughter of 
the Comanches " and " Dramas from 
the New World" (1864-1865), and 
a number of plays which he staged in 
the United States, and afterward pub- 
lished in France. Died June 13, 1882. 

Revolution, a fundamental change 
in government, or in the political con- 
stitution of a country, effected sud- 
denly and violently, and mainly 
brought about by internal causes ; a 
revolt against the constituted author- 
ity successfully and completely accom- 
plished. In the United States the 
term Revolution is applied specifically 
to the American War for Independ- 
ence, which began in 1775 with the 
irregular running fight popularly 
known as the battle of Lexington, and ( 
practically ended with the surrender 
of Lord Cornwallis, at Yorktown, Va., 
to the combined forces of the French 
and Americans, in the year 1781. By 
this war the colonies succeeded in 
casting off the English authority and 
in erecting the government of the 
United States. By the English Revo- 
lution is generally meant that revo- 
lution in England by which James II. 
was driven from the throne in 1688, 
but it is sometimes applied to the 
overthrow of the monarchy by Crom- 
well. 



Revolutionary Tribunal 



Reynolds 



Revolutionary Tribunal, 

in French history, the name given on 
Oct. 30, 1793, to what had before 
been called the Extraordinary Tri- 
bunal. It sent many victims to the 
guillotine. 

Revolver, a description of firearm 
in which a number of charges con- 
tained in a revolving cylinder are, by 
pulling the trigger, brought succes- 
sively into position and fired through 
a single barrel. For the introduction 
of the revolver in its present form we 
are indebted to Col. Samuel Colt, of 
Hartford, Conn., though repeating pis- 
tols had long been known in other 
countries. These were made from one 
mass of metal bored into the requi- 
site number of barrels, but were so 
clumsy as to be of very little use. 
In the Colt revolver there is a revolv- 
ing cylinder containing six chambers 
placed at the base of the barrel, each 
chamber having at its rear end a 
nipple for a cap. These contain the 
cartridges, which are put in from the 
front of the breechpiece and driven 
home by a lever ramrod placed in a 
socket beneath the barrel. The re- 
volver is fired through the single bar- 
rel, the cylinder being turned by 
mechanism connected with the lock, 
till each chamber in succession is 
brought round so as to form virtually 
a continuation of the barrel. Various 
modifications of Colt's revolver have 
been introduced, with the view in some 
cases of increasing the rapidity and fa- 
cility of firing, in others of diminish- 
ing by safeguards the risks to which 
inexperienced hands must ever be ex- 
posed in the use of these weapons. As 
a military weapon the revolver will it 
is thought, be superseded by a repeat- 
ing pistol with mechanism similar to 
that of magazine rifles. The revolver 
principle has also been applied to ri- 
fles, and to guns for throwing small 
projectiles, as in the Gatling and other 
machine guns. 

Rexf ord, Eben Engene, an Amer- 
ican poet; born in Johnsburg, N. Y., 
July 16, 1848. He began to write 
when a mere child, contributing to peri- 
odicals and magazines. He published 
in book form the poems " Brother and 
Lover " and " Grandmother's Gar- 
den." He wrote the popular songs 
*' Silver Threads Among the Gold " 
und. "Only a Pansy-Blossom." 



Reyburn, Robert, a Scotch- Amer- 
ican physician; born in Glasgow, 
Scotland, Aug. 1, 1833 ; was graduated 
at the Philadelphia College of Medi- 
cine in 1856 and practised his profes- 
sion in that city till 1862, when he 
entered the United States army as an 
acting assistant surgeon; later be- 
came surgeon and brevet lieutenant- 
colonel U. S. V., and assistant surgeon 
U. S. A. in 1807; and afterward prac- 
tised in Washington. He was one of 
the surgeons in attendance on Presi- 
dent Garfield ; and was Professor of 
Physiology and Hygiene in the Med- 
ical Department of Howard Univer- 
sity. He was a member of many sci- 
entific societies, author of " Clinical 
History of the Case of President Gar- 
field " ; and a contributor to medical 
journals. He died in 1909. 

Reynolds, Dudley Sliarpe, an 
American physician ; born in Bowling 
Green, Ky., Aug. 31, 1842; was grad- 
uated at the Medical Department of 
the University of Louisville, in 1868; 
and became Professor of Ophthalmol- 
ogy, Otology, and Medical Jurispru- 
dence in the Hospital College of Medi- 
cine, Louisville, in 1874. 

Reynolds, Edwin, an American 
inventor ; born in Mansfield, Conn., 
March 23, 1831 ; entered a machine 
shop as apprentice in 1847, and be- 
came superintendent of the Corliss 
Steam Engine Company, at Provi- 
dence, R. I., in 1861 ; later removed 
to Milwaukee, Wis. He was the in- 
ventor of the Reynolds-Corliss engine ; 
introduced the first triple-expansion 
engine. He died in 1909. 

Reynolds, Elmer Robert, an 
American ethnologist ; born in Dan- 
ville, N. Y., July 30, 1846; was edu- 
cated at the Columbian University ; 
served through the Civil War ; in 1877 
became an examiner of pensions in 
the United States Civil Service. He 
was engaged in exploring for aborig- 
inal antiquities in Maryland and Vir- 
ginia. He died Sept. 18, 1907. 

Reynolds, John Fulton, an 
American military officer ; born in 
Lancaster, Pa., Sept. 20, 1820; was 
graduated at the United States Mili- 
tary Academy in 1841 ; served in the 
Mexican War; was appointed com- 
mandant at West Point in 1859 ; 
served through the Civil War in act- 
ive service ; in 1863 was promoted 



Reynolds 

Major-General of volunteers. His corps 
was the vanguard at Gettysburg, where 
he was killed, July 1,. 1863. 

Reynolds, Joseph Jones, an 
American military officer ; born in 
Flemingsburg, Ky., Jan. 4, 1822 ; was 
appointed to the United States Mili- 
tary Academy from Indiana in 1839 ; 
on graduation was appointed 2d lieu- 
tenant, 4th Artillery, and after serv- 
ics at Fort Monroe and in Texas, was 
on frontier duty at Fort Washita, 
I. T., in 1S55--1856 ; was stationed at 
various colleges. After the beginning 
of the Civil War he rapidly rose in 
rank from colonel to Major-General ; 
was brevetted Brigadier-General in 
1867 for gallant and meritorious serv- 
ice, and was in the same year brevet- 
ted Major-General ; was transferred" to 
the 23d Cavalry in 3870, and after 
that time served at Fort McPherson 
and other military stations till re- 
tired from active service June 25, 
1877, for disability contracted in the 
line of duty. He died in Washington, 
D. C., Feb. 25, 1899. 

Reynolds, Joseph Smith, an 
American lawyer : born in New Len- 
ox, 111., Dec. 3, 1839; was graduated 
at the University of Chicago in 1866 ; 
served through the Civil War, partici- 
pating in many battles. After the war 
was admitted to the bar ; was a mem- 
ber of the Illinois Legislature in 1866^- 
1870 ; one of the founders of the Chi- 
cago park system ; State Senator in 
1872-1874 ; commissioner to establish 
a State School for Feeble-Minded 
Children in 1875 ; senior vice-com- 
mander-in-chief of the G. A. R. 1875- 
1876; commander of the Illinois De- 
partment of the G. -A. R. in 1877 ; and 
first vice-president of the Society of 
the Army of the Tennessee in 1877. 

Reynolds, Sir Joshua, an Eng- 
glish portrait and subject painter ; 
born in Plympton Earls, near Plym- 
outh, July 16, 1723. His father in- 
tended him for the medical profession ; 
*mt he developed a strong aptitude for 
painting, and at the age of eight had 
mastered the " Jesuit's Perspective," 
and applied its principles to drawings 
executed by himself. In October, 
1740, he was sent to London to study 
art. In 1743 he returned to Devon- 
shire, and some of the portraits of 
local worthies which he then produced 
still exist. In the following year he 



Reze 

was again in London pursuing his art ; 
but in the beginning of 1747, he set- 
tled in Plymouth Dock. In 1749 he 
made the acquaintance of Commodore 
Keppel, who invited him to accompany 
him on a cruise in the Mediterra- 
nean; and, after painting many of the 
British officers in Minorca, he made 
his way to Rome, where he studied 
Raphael and Michael Angelo. He also 
visited Bologna, Genoa, Florence, 
Parma, and Venice. Returning to 
England in October, 1752, he estab- 
lished himself in a studio in London, 
and attracted notice by his portraits 
of the second Duke of Devonshire and 
Commodore Keppel. Before long he 
was in excellent practice, and in the 
year 1755 he had no fewer than 120 
sitters. In 1764 he founded the fa- 
mous literary club of which Dr. John- 
son, Garrick, Burke, Goldsmith, Bos- 
well, and Sheridan were members ; all 
of whom were portrayed by his brush. 
He was one of the earliest members 
of the Incorp9rated Society of Art- 
ists, and contributed to its exhibitions 
till 1768, when, on the establishment 
of the Royal Academy, he was elected 
its first president. He contributed his, 
picture of Miss Morris as " Hope 
Nursing Love " to the first exhibition 
of the Royal Academy. In 1771 he 
completed his subject " Count Ugolino 
and his Children in the Dungeon." In 
1784 he succeeded Allan Ramsay as 
painter to the king ; in July, 1789, his 
sight became affected and he ceased to 
paint ; gradually his strength sank, 
and he peacefully expired on Feb. 23, 
1792. 

Reynolds, William, an American 
naval officer ; born in Lancaster, Pa., 
Dec. 18, 1815 ; entered the navy in 
1831 ; was commissioned lieutenant in 
1841 and owing to broken health was 
retired in 1851. He was later sent to 
Hawaii, where he negotiated a reci- 
procity treaty. When the Civil War be- 
gan he returned to active duty; was 
placed in command of the naval forces 
on the Asiatic Station in 1862; was 
promoted captain in 1866 and rear- 
admiral in December, - 1873, and was 
retired on account of ill health in De- 
cember, 1877. He died in Washing- 
ton, D. C., Nov. 5, 1879. 

Reze, Frederick, an American 
clergyman : born in Hildesheim, Ger- 
many, in 1797; fought in the battle 



Rliainnaceae 



Hlieiins 



of Waterloo ; and soon afterward was 
ordained in the Roman Catholic 
Church and sent to Africa ; and later 
came to the United States; returned 
to Germany, in 1827 and sent many 
missionaries to the United States ; 
again returned to the United States in 
1828 and labored among the Indians of 
Ohio and Michigan. In 1833 he was 
sent to Detroit, Mich., and was conse- 
crated the first bishop of Michigan and 
Wisconsin. He resigned his see in 
1837, and returned to Rome, where he 
lived for several years. He died in 
Hildesheim, Germany, Dec. 27, 1871. 

Rhamnaceae, an order of plants. 
There are species in nearly all coun- 
tries, with the exception of the Arctic 
zone. Berries belonging to various 
plants of the order have been used for 
dyeing yellow, green, or intermediate 
tints, others are eatable. One plant 
is used by the poorer classes in China 
for tea. 

Rhapsodist, strictly, one who 
strings songs together, but usually ap- 
plied to a class of persons in ancient 
Greece, who earned their living by re- 
citing the poems of Homer. It is be- 
lieved that to these persons we are 
chiefly indebted for the preservation 
of the Homeric poems. 

Rliataiiy, or Rliattaiiy, half- 
shrubby plant, a native of the cold 
sterile table-lands of the Andes in 
Peru and Bolivia. It is valued for 
the medicinal properties of the root, 
which are shared more or less by other 
species of the same genus, also natives 
of South America. 

Rliea, in Greek mythology, the 
daughter of Ccelus and Terra, or 
Heaven and Earth ; the wife of Sat- 
urn, and mother of Jupiter, Juno, 
Ceres, Vesta, and severa 1 other deities. 

Rliea, in ornithology, a genus of 
Struthionidse. They are sometimes 
called South American ostriches, but 
are smaller than the true ostrich, and 
the whole plumage is somber, ranging 
from Bolivia, Paraguay, and the S. of 
Brazil down to Magellan's Straits. 

Rliea, a variety of the nettle fam- 
ily, which grows luxuriantly in India. 
From the delicate fibers in its bark 
the finest and strongest textile fabrics 
can be produced. They can be worked 
into every variety of fabric, from vel- 
vets to laces It is specially suitable, 



from its lightness and toughness, for 
tents and ship canvas, and it is found 
to be far more durable than linen. 

Rliea, Mademoiselle (Mile. Hor- 
tense Barbe-Loret), a Belgian actress; 
born in Brussels, Belgium, Sept. 4, 
1844. Educated at the Ursuline Con- 
vent, Paris, France ; she began ^ to 
study for the stage soon after leaving 
school ; was leading actress at the Im- 
perial Theater, St. Petersburg, 1876- 
1881 ; acted in the United States in 
1881 and 1882. She died in Mont- 
morency, France, May 5, 1899. 

Rhead, Louis John, an American 
artist ; born in Etruria, England, in 
1860 ; was educated at the Art Train- 
ing School, South Kensington, Lon- 
don ; and came to the Unite_d States in 
1883. He was a painter in both il 
and water-colors, and illustrated many 
books. 

Rliees, Rush, an American educa- 
tor ; born in Chicago, 111.. Feb. 8, 
1860 ; was graduated at Amherst Col- 
lege in 1883, and at the Hartford The- 
ological Seminary. In 1889 he ac- 
cepted a pastorate at Portsmouth, N. 
H., where he remained till 1892, when 
he went to the Newton Theological 
Institution, Newton Center, Mass., 
and in 1894 became Professor of Bib- 
lical Interpretation of the New Testa- 
ment. He was elected president of 
the University o f Rochester, Roches- 
ter, N. Y., July 1, 1900. 

Rhees, William Jones, an Amer- 
ican bibliographer ; born in Philadel- 
phia, Pa., March 13, 1830; has been 
chief clerk of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion and had charge of its publications 
since 1852. He was one of the found- 
ers of the Sons of the American Revo- 
lution. 

Rheims, or Reims, a city in the 
French department of Marne ; on the 
Vesle; 100 miles E. N. E. of Paris. 
It is well built, and from the preva- 
lence of the older style of domestic 
architecture, has a picturesque ap- 
pearance. Under the Frank rule it 
was a place of much importance, and 
it acquired a deeply religious interest 
from its having been the scene in 496 
of the baptism of Clovis and his chief 
officers by the bishop, St. Repay (438- 
533). In the 8th century it became 
an archbishopric, and from 1179, when 
Philip Augustus was solemnly crown- 



Rliesus 

ed here, it became the place for the 
coronation of the kings of France. 
Joan of Arc brought the dauphin 
hither, and the only sovereigns in the 
long series, down to 1825, not crowned 
at Kheims were Henry IV., Napoleon 
I., and Louis XVIII. In 1830 the 
ceremony of coronation at Rheima was 
abolished. The cathedral, though the 
towers of the original design are still 
unfinished, is one of the finest extant 
specimens of Gothic architecture. It 
was built between 1212 and 1430. The 
Romanesque church of St. Remy 
.(mainly 1160-1180), with the saint's 
shrine, is nearly of equal size, but of 
less architectural pretension. Rheims 
is one of the principal entrepots for 
the wines of Champagne, and the hills 
which surround the town are planted 
with vineyards. Pop. 107,963. 

Rhesus, a genus of monkeys from 
India, in some parts of which it is 
considered sacred. 

Rhetoric, the theory of eloquence, 
whether spoken or written, treating 
of the general rules of prose style, in 
view of the end to be served by the 
composition. In a narrower sense rhet- 
oric is the art of persuasive speaking, 
or the art of the orator, which teaches 
the composition and delivery of dis- 
courses intended to move the feelings 
or sway the will of others. In the 
wider sense rhetoric treats of prose 
composition in general, purity of style, 
etc. ; in short, of whatever relates 
to clearness, preciseness, elegance, 
and strength of expression. In the 
narrower sense it treats of the in- 
vention and disposition of the matter, 
the character of the style, the delivery 
or pronunciation, etc. Aristotle, Cicero, 
and Quintilian are the principal writ- 
ers on rhetoric among the ancients. 

Rliett, Thomas Grimke, an 
American military officer ; born in 
South Carolina about 1825 ; was grad- 
uated at the United States Military 
Academy and assigned to the Ordnance 
Corps in 1845, and served at the 
Washington arsenal till 1846, when he 
was transferred to the Mounted Rifles, 
and sent to Mexico. He served in the 
Mexican War ; became captain in 
1853. He resigned his commission in 
1861, and sought high office in the 
Provisional Confederate army, but 
not receiving it he returned to South 
Carolina, where he was commissioned 



Rheumatism 

a Major-General by the governor. He 
was chief of staff to Gen. Joseph E. 
Johnston, till 1862, when he was or- 
dered to the Trans-Mississippi Depart- 
ment. After the war he was colonel 
of ordnance in the Egyptian army in 
1870-1873, when he resigned owing to 
ill health. He died in Baltimore, Md., 
July 28, 1878. 

Rheum, rhubarb; used in the 
United States in the making of pies, 
and is often called pie plant. 

In pharmacy, three leading kinds of 
rhubarb are recognized : The Turkey 
or Russian rhubarb, the East Indian, 
and the Batavian rhubarb. An ex- 
tract, an infusion, a syrup, a tinc- 
ture, and a wine of rhubarb, with a 
compound rhubarb pill, are used in 
pharmacy. 

Rheumatism, a term which has 
been and still is, rather vaguely and 
extensively used in the nomenclature 
of disease. The usual exciting cause 
of acute rheumatism is exposure to 
cold, and especially to cold combined 
with moisture. Men are more subject 
to the disease than women. The pre- 
disposition is affected by age ; chil- 
dren under 10 years being compara- 
tively seldom attacked, while the d's- 
ease is most prevalent between the ages 
of 15 and 40. Above this age a first 
attack is rare, and even recurrences 
are less frequent than earlier in life. 
Persons once affected become more 
liable to the complaint than they previ- 
ously were. Chronic painful affec- 
tions of the joints, called chronic rheu- 
matism, sometimes follow rheumatic 
fever and are a consequence of it. It 
is more common in women than in 
men; most often begins at or after 
middle life, though occasionally even 
in childhood ; and is apt to affect those 
who are weakly and who have had a 
life of hard work with defective nour- 
ishment. There is no special liability 
to affection of the heart as in true 
rheumatism. Muscular rheumatism is 
the name usually given to painful af- 
fections of the muscles for which no 
clear cause is discoverable. Rheu- 
matic diseases of animals are less com- 
mon than the corresponding affections 
of men. Horses are not very liable to 
acute rheumatism, but suffer from a 
chronic variety. In cattle and sheep 
rheumatic disorders are more common 
and acute than in horses. Among 



Rhine 

dogs rheumatism is known under the 
name of kennel lameness, and is very 
troublesome and intractable in low, 
damp, cold situations. 

Rhine (German Rhein), the fin- 
est river of Germany, and one of the 
most important rivers of Europe, its 
direct course being 460 miles and its 
indirect course 800 miles (about 250 
miles of its course being in Switzer- 
land, 450 in Germany, and 100 in 
Holland) ; while the area of its basin 
is 75,000 square miles. It is formed 
in the Swiss canton Grisous by two 
main streams called the Vorder and 
Hinter Rhein. The Vorder Rhein 
rises in the Lake of Toma, on the S. 
E. slope of the St. G^thard, at a 
height of 7,690 feet above the sea, near 
the source of the Rhone, and at Reich- 
enau unites with the Hinter Rhein, 
which issues from the Rheinwald Gla- 
cier, 7,270 feet above sea-level. Be- 
yond Reichenau the united streams 
take the common name of Rhine. Gen- 
erally speaking, it pursues a N. course 
till it enters Holland, below Emmer- 
ich, when it divides into a number of 
separate branches, forming a great 
delta, and falling into the sea by many 
mouths. That which retains the name 
of Rhine, a small stream, passes Ley- 
den and enters the North Sea. In 
the German part of its course the chief 
tributaries are the 111, Nahe, Moselle, 
Ahr, and Erft, Neckar, Main, Lahn, 
Sieg, Ruhr, and Lippe. In Switzer- 
land its tributaries are short and un- 
important, and this part of its course 
is marked by the Falls of the Rhine 
at Schaffhausen, where the river is 
precipitated in three leaps over a ledge 
of rocks 48 to 60 feet in height, and 
by the cataracts of Lauterberg and 
the rapids of Rheinfelden. It is navi- 
gable without interruption from Basel 
to its mouth, a distance of 550 miles. 
Large sums are spent every year in 
keeping the channel in order, and in 
the erection or repair of river har- 
bors, both in Germany and Holland. 
The Rhine is distinguished by the 
beauty of its scenery, which attracts 
many tourists. 

Rhine Wines, a general term for 
wines made from the grapes grown on 
the borders of the Rhine. 

Rhinoceros, the sole recent genus 
of the family Rhinocerotidse. It falls 
naturally into three sections : 



Rhinoceros 

(a) Rhinoceros. There are two 
well-marked species : Rhinoceros 
unicornis, with a single horn, and well 
marked folds in the skin ; R. soudai- 
cus, the Javan rhinoceros, is smaller 
and distinguished by the different ar- 
rangement of the folds of the skin; 
and by the small size or absence of the 




EHINOCEROS BICOBNIS. 

horn in the female. Found near Cal- 
cutta, in Burma, Malay Peninsula, 
Java, Sumatra, and probably Borneo. 

(b) Ceratorhinus. The folds are 
not so strongly marked as in the first 
section. There is a well-developed 
nasal, and a small frontal horn, sep- 
arated by an interval. Geographical 
range nearly the same as that of the 
Javan rhinoceros, but it does extend 
into Bengal. 

(c) Atelodns, with two well-marked 
species, peculiar to Africa. Incisors 
rudimentary or wanting, well-develop- 
ed anterior and posterior horns in close 
contact ; skin without definite per- 
manent folds. R. bicornis, the com- 
mon two-horned rhinoceros, is the 
smaller, and has a pointed prehensile 
lip. It ranges from Abyssinia to 
Cape Colony, but the progress of civ- 
ilization and the attacks of sportsmen 
are rapidly reducing its numbers. Two 
varieties are said to exist, the square- 
mouthed, or white rhinoceros, has a 
square* truncated lip, browses on 
grasses and frequents open country. 
It is the largest of the family, an adult 
male standing over six feet at the 
shoulder. 

Any individual of the genus rhinoc- 
eros. The rhinoceros is the largest 
and most powerful terrestrial mam- 
mal, except the elephant, to which, as 
well as to the hippopotamus and tapir, 
it is allied. They are of low intelli- 
gence, and usually harmless, but when 



RJiinodon 



Rhode Island 



provoked they display considerable fe- 
rocity, and, though apparently so 
clumsily formed, can run with great 
speed. 

Rliinodon, in ichthyology, the sole 
genus of the family Rhinodontidae, a 
gigantic shark, known to exceed 50 
feet in length, and said to attain 70. 
Common in the W. parts of the In- 
dian Ocean. It is harmless, the teeth 
being small and numerous. 

Rhoades, Mosheim, an American 
clergyman ; born in Williamsburg, Pa., 
April 14, 1837 ; was graduated at the 
Theological Department of Susque- 
hanna University, Selinsgrove, Pa., in 
1861, and entered the ministry of the 
English Lutheran Church the same 
year. He held charges in Pennsyl- 
vania till 18G9, and in St. Louis, Mo., 
after 1871. He was president of the 
General Synod of the Evangelical Lu- 
theran Church in 1885-1886. 




RHINOCEROS INDICUS. 

Rhoades, Samuel Nicholson, an 

American naturalist ; born in Philadel- 
phia, Pa., April 30, 1862 ; took a spe- 
cial course in journalism in Harvard 
University ; and later studied at the 
Academy of Natural Sciences and 
Museum of Science and Art, in Phila- 
delphia, and at Carnegie Museum, 
Pittsburg; and after 1893 traveled as 
a collector of museum specimens of 
natural history. 

Rhodanthe, in botany, a genus of 
Helychrysese ; only known species R. 
manglesii, a beautiful composite; its 
flowers, of the dry and unfading kind, 
roseate or purple on the upper part, 
and silvery below. It is found in 
Western Australia, has been intro- 
duced into European and American 
greenhouses, and will grow also in the 



open air in a temperature between 60 
and 80. There are several varieties. 

Rhode Island, a State in the 
North Atlantic Division of the North 
American Union ; one of the original 
13 States ; capital, Providence ; num- 
ber of counties, 5 ; area, 1,053 square 
miles; pop. (1910) 542,674. 

The State is divided into two un- 
equal parts by Narragansett Bay, 
which extends inland about 30 miles. 
The surface of the W. portion or main- 
land is hilly, but the hills are all low ; 
the greatest height, Woonsocket Hill, 
having an altitude of 570 feet. There 
are numerous salt marshes along the 
ocean. The E. part consists mainly 
of islands. Of these the largest and 
most important is Rhode Island from 
which the State derives its name. The 
principal rivers are the Pawtucket, 
navigable as far as Pawtucket, where 
it changes its name to Blackstone, the 
Pawcatuck, forming part of the bound- 
ary between Rhode Island and Con- 
necticut, and the Pawtuxet, flowing 
across the central part of the State, 
and emptying into the Providence 
river, an arm of the Narragansett 
Bay. There are numerous coves and 
bays branching off from Narragansett ; 
among them being Greenwich ^Bay, 
Saxonnet river, Mount Hope Bay, and 
Providence river. Block Island, 10 
miles from the coast, belongs to the 
State. 

The mineral resources of the State 
are not very extensive, though consid- 
erable anthracite coal, excellent for 
smelting purposes, and much magnetic 
iron have been mined at times. There 
are about 20 large granite quarries in 
the State ; those at Westerly being 
noted for their value in monumental 
work. 

In common with New England 
States, Rhode Island is noted for its 
manufacturing interests. There were 
reported by the United States census 
in 1900, 4,189 manufacturing estab- 
lishments, employing $183,784,587 cap- 
ital, and 96,528 persons ; paying $41,- 
114,084 in wages and $96,392,720 for 
raw materials ; and having an annual 
output valued at $184,074,378. 

On Oct. 31, 1901, there were re- 
ported 38 National banks in operation, 
having $13,105,250 in capital, $6,317,- 
750 in outstanding circulation, and 
$4,503,000 in United States bonds. 



Rhodes 

There were also 4 State banks, with 
$495,000 capital and $1,394,546 .re- 
sources ; 9 loan and trust companies, 
with $3,670,498 capital, and $3,013,- 
891 surplus ; and 25 mutual savings 
banks, with $72,330,141 in deposits. 

At the end of the school year 1899- 
1900 the children of school age num- 
bered 102,250 ; the enrollment in pub- 
lic schools, 64,537; and average daily 
attendance, 46,087. There were 534 
buildings used for public school pur- 
poses, public school property valued at 
$5,175,045, and 1,913 teachers. For 
higher education there were 17 public 
high schools ; 11 private secondary 
schools, the Rhode Island Normal 
School, and Brown University, at 
Providence, which is the principal ed- 
ucational institution, in the State. 

The strongest denominations in the 
State are the Roman Catholic ; Regu- 
lar Baptist, Protestant Episcopal ; 
Congregational ; Methodist Episcopal ; 
Free Will Baptist ; Unitarian, and Af- 
rican Methodist. 

The total funded debt of the State, 
Jan. 1, 1902, was $2,978,000 ; sinking 
funds, $389,436.61; net debt, $2,588,- 
563.39. The sinking fund is largely 
invested in city, town, and district 
bonds and notes, and is to receive $32,- 
000 yearly. The assessed valuation 
of real estate in 1900 was $320,318,- 
384; personal property, $87,086,388 ; 
total, $407,404,772; tax rate, $1.80 
per $1,000. 

The governor is elected for a term 
of two years and receives a salary of 
$3,000 per annum. Legislative ses- 
sions are held annually, beginning on 
the first Tuesday in January and are 
limited to 60 session days. The Legis- 
lature has 38 members in the Senate 
and 100 members in the House, each 
of whom receives $5.00 per day and 
mileage. There are 3 Representatives 
in Congress. 

It Js claimed that the Northmen vis- 
ited this region about A. D. 1000, and 
certain antiquities have been ascribed 
to them. The first English settlement 
was made at Providence in 1636, by 
Roger Williams, whose religious opin- 
ions had caused his expulsion from 
Massachusetts. The charter granted 
by Charles II. to the colony was so 
liberal in its provision that it remain- 
ed the fundamental law of the State 
till 1842. Rhode Island was firm in 
opposition to the King Philip War. 



Rhodes 

King Philip himself was killed in 
what is now the town of Bristol. The 
great " swamp fight" occurred in 1675, 
in the Narragansett country, where 
more than 1,000 Indians were killed. 
The charter was temporarily suspend- 
ed from 1686 to 1687. A new consti- 
tution was adopted in 1842, this going 
into effect in 1843. Rhode Island was 
the last of the States to ratify the 
Federal Constitution in 1790, and 
until a recent period foreign bora 
citizens could not vote unless they 
owned real estate. < 

Rhodes, an island in the Mediter-' 
ranean, appertaining to Asiatic Tur- 
key, near the coast of Asia Minor; is 
40 miles long, with a breadth of 18 
miles at its widest point; area, 570 
square miles ; pop. about 30,000. 

Rhodes, the capital of the island 
of Rhodes, situated at its N. E. ex- 
tremity. It is defended by towers 
about 800 feet distant from each other, 
while in the center of the mole there 
is a square bastion 120 feet high. It 
was at the entrance to the harbor of 
this city that stood the celebrated Co- 
lossus of Rhodes. Pop. about 10,000. 
The ancient Rhodes was taken posses- 
sion of by a branch of the Doric race, 
who held it at the time of the Trojan 
war, 1184 B. C. It was of small po- 
litical importance among the states of 
Greece till the city of Rhodes was built 
and made the capital of the island, 
408 B. C. It was taken by Chosroes 
II., King of Persia, in 616; by the 
Saracens in 651 ; and by the Knights 
of St. John, Aug. 15, 1309. Moham- 
med II. besieged it ineffectually in 
1480, and the Sultan Solyman I. com- 
pelled it to capitulate after a vigorous 
siege that lasted from June to Decem- 
ber, 1522. 

Rhodes, Cecil John, a South Afri- 
can statesman ; born July 5, 1853. He 
was the fourth son of the vicar of 
Bishop Stortford, Hertfordshire, Eng- 
land ; was sent for his health to Natal, 
where his brother was a planter. He 
subsequently went to the Kimberley 
diamond diggings ; there he soon be- 
came conspicuous and amassed a for- 
tune. He went back to England, and 
entered at Oriel College, Oxford, 
and though his residence was cut short 
by ill-health, he ultimately took his 
degree. He entered the Cape House 
of Assembly as member for Barkly. 



Rhodesia 

In 1884 General Gordon asked him to 
'go with him to Khartum as secretary ; 
but Rhodes had just taken office in the 
Cape ministry, and decided to remain 
in South Africa. He sent $50,000 to 
Mr. Parnell to forward the cause of 
Irish Home Rule. In 1890 he be- 
came prime minister of Cape Colony. 
His policy may be described as the ul- 
timate establishment of a federal 
South African dominion under the 
British flag. He was an earnest ad- 
vocate of the construction of a railroad 
" from Cairo to the Cape." He died 
in Cape Town, South Africa, March 
26, 1902. In his will Mr. Rhodes left 
about $10,000,000 to found a number 
of three-year scholarships tenable at 
Oxford, England. The income for 
each scholarship was $1,500 a year, 
and two were offered to every State 
and Territory in the American Union, 
to every English speaking colony ; 
while five were set apart for students 
of German descent. 

Rhodesia, the name given to that 
part of South Africa which has been 
occupied of recent years by the Brit- 
ish South African Company, acting 
mainly under Cecil John Rhodes. Area, 
257,575 square miles; pop. 1,023,250. 
The whole territory is administered 
by the British South African Com- 
pany, which was given a royal charter 
in October, 1889. The river Zambesi 
flows through it, cutting the region 
into two portions Southern and 
Northern Rhodesia. 

Southern Rhodesia consists of the 
two provinces of Matabeleland and 
Mashonaland. The capital and the 
seat of government of Rhodesia, is 
Salisbury, with a population of 1,800. 
The other principal townships are New 
Umtali, Melsetter, and Enkeldoorn. A 
railway is being built, running inland 
.from Beira, and it will place Sal- 
isbury in direct communication with 
the sea over a line 382 miles in length. 
Matabeleland lies between the Lim- 
popo and middle Zambesi rivers. The 
principal town, and the chief commer- 
cial center in Rhodesia, is Bulawayo, 
with a population of 5,000. The ex- 
tension of the Cape government W. 
railway system through Kimberley and 
Vryburg to Bulawayo was completed 
in October, 1897. The distance from 
Cape Town to Bulawayo is 1,360 
miles. 



Rhomb 

Northern Rhodesia consists of the 
whole of the British sphere N. of the 
Zambesi, lying between Portuguese 
East Africa, German East Africa, the 
Kongo Free State, and Angola, with 
the exception of the strip of territory 
forming the British Central Africa 
Protectorate, which is under direct 
imperial administration. N. of the 
Zambesi the country has as yet been 
little prospected. Coal has been found 
on the shore of Lake Nyassa. There 
are 5,250 square miles of gold fields in 
Rhodesia. 

Rhodium, one of the rare metals 
found in platinum ores. It is very 
hard, white, and brittle, and, with 
the exception of iridium, one of the 
most infusible of metals. 

Rhododendron, a genus of trees 
and shrubs of the natural order Eri- 
caceae. The buds in this and nearly al- 
lied genera, as Azalea, are scaly and 
conical. The species are numerous ; 




EHODODENDKONo 

they have evergreen leaves, and many 
of them are of great beauty both in 
foliage and in flowers. A few small 
species are natives of continental Eu- 
rope and of Siberia ; but the greater 
number belong to the temperate parts 
of North America, and to the moun- 
tains of India. 

Rhomb, or Rhombus, in 'geome- 
try, an oblique parallelogram whose 
sides are all equal. The diagonals of 
a rhombus bisect each other at right 
angles. The area of a rhombus is 
equal to half the product of its diag- 
onals. 



Rhone 

Rhone (Latin, Rhodanus), a river 
in Europe which rises in Switzerland, 
near the E. frontiers of the canton of 
Valais, about 18 miles W. S. W. of 
the source of the Vorder-Rhein. Its 
precise origin is the Rhone Glacier, 
5,581 feet above the level of the sea. 
It passes through the Lake of Geneva, 
and enters France, flowing first S. and 
then W. to the city of Lyons, where it 
turns almost due S., and so continues 
till it falls into the Gulf of Lyons 
by a greater and smallerTmouth, form- 
ing here an extensive delta. Its prin- 
cipal affluent is the Saone, which en- 
ters it at the city of Lyons ; other 
large tributaries are the Isere and 
Durance. Its whole course is about 
500 miles ; its drainage area is 38,000 
miles; and it is navigable for 360 
miles. The great obstacles to naviga- 
tion and the rapid current, the shifting 
character of the channel, and periodi- 
cal floods ; these obstacles have to a 
great extent been overcome by a 
scheme of regularization and canaliza- 
tion, to secure everywhere a depth of 
over 5 feet. By canals the navigation 
of the Rhone is connected with the 
Rhine (through the Saone), Seine, 
and Loire, and with the Meuse and 
the Belgian system. 

Rhubarb, a hardy perennial herb. 
See RHEUM. 

Rhus. See SUMAC; also POISON 
IVY. 

Rhyme, more correctly Rime, in 
poetry, a correspondence in sound of 
the terminating word or syllable of 
one line of poetry with the terminating 
word or syllable of another. To con- 
stitute this correspondence in single 
words or in syllables it is necessary 
that the vowel and the final consonant- 
al sound (if any) should be the same, 
or have nearly the same sound, the in- 
itial consonants being different. 

Rhythm, in general a measured 
succession of divisions or intervals in 
written composition, music, or danc- 
ing. The rhythm of poetry is the reg- 
ular succession of accent, emphasis, or 
voice stress ; or a certain succession of 
long and short syllables in a verse. 
Prose also has its rhythm, and the 
only difference between verse and prose 
is, that the former consists of a regu- 
lar succession of similar cadences, di- 
vided by grammatical pauses and em- 
phases into proportional clauses, so as 



Ribot 

to present sensible responses to the 
ear at regular proportioned distances. 
In music, rhythm is the disposition of 
the notes of a composition in respect 
of time and measure ; the measured 
beat which marks the character and 
expression of the music. 

Riall, Sir Pliineas, a British mili- 
tary officer ; born in England about 
1769 ; entered the army as ensign in 
1794 and rose to the rank of major. 
He was in command of a brigade in 
the West Indies in 1808-4810 ; became 
colonel m 1810 and Major-General in 
1813 ; and later was ordered to Canada 
to take part in the war between Great 
Britain and the United States. He 
was chief in command at the battles 
of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane. He 
was appointed governor of the Island 
of Grenada in 1816; was promoted 
Lieutenant-General in 1825 and full 
General in 1841 ; and was knighted in 
1833. He died in Paris, France, Nov. 
10, 1851. 

Rib, in anatomy, one of the long 
curved bones which form the walls of 
the chest. They extend in an oblique 
direction from the vertebrae of the back 
to the sternum in front. There are 
usually 12 on each side ; but in some 
rare cases 13 have been found, in 
others only 11. The use of the ribs is 
to cover and defend the lungs and 
heart ; and their articulations with the 
vertebras and sternum admitting of a 
slight motion, they assist in respira- 
tion. 

Ribbon, Riband, or Ribband, 
a narrow woven fabric commonly of 
silk, used for trimming some part of 
woman's attire ; also for badges and 
other decorative purposes. 

Ribbon Fish, known also as the 
oar-fish. 

Ribbon Grass, a species of canary 
grass with variegated leaves. 

Ribes, in botany, a genus of the 
order Grossulariacese. Some > of the 
species are remarkable for their agree- 
able and wholesome acid fruits, and 
are, on this account, much cultivated 
in our gardens. R. grossularia is the 
source of numerous varieties of goose- 
berries. R. rubrum yields both red 
and white currants, and R. negrum 
black currants. 

Ribot, Alexandre Felix Joseph, 
a French statesman; born in St. 



Ft 'CURES /N STATES PEPfiEfENT PRODUCT/OAT M Tf/Ot/JA/VM Of BUffflLJ 




PICE 

PRODUCTION 1911 
THOUSANDS OFBUfHEL 



UNITEDJrATES 



22,93V THOUSAND 
BUfHOJ 



-w^F/GURES IN STATES REPRESENTS PRODUCT/ON /A/ THOUSANDS Of BALES 




COTTON 

PRODUCT/ON 1910 
THOUSANDS OF BALCS 



UNITED STATES 

//.Vie THOUSAND 



Ricardo 

Omer, France, Feb. 7, 1842. He 
studied law in Paris, and in that city 
became prominent in legal and munici- 
pal affairs ; in 1870, was secretary of 
the Bar Society ; was appointed direc- 
tor of pardons and of criminal mat- 
ters in 1875 ; becoming Minister of 
the Interior and president of the cabi- 
net, January to March, 1893. When 
Faure became president, m January, 
1895, M. Ribot again filled the post of 
premier, and held the office till Oc- 
tober of the same year. 

Ricardo, David, an English politi- 
cal economist ; born in London, Eng- 
land, April 19, 1772. He stands next 
to Adam Smith in the British free- 
trade school of political science, and 
his writings have exerted a vast influ- 
ence on all theories of political econ- 
omy. After making his fortune in the 
Stock Exchange in London, he retired 
to devote himself to the study of math- 
ematics, chemistry, etc. He died in 
Gatcomb Park, Gloucestershire, Sept. 
11, 1823. 

Ricciardelli, Daniele, better 
known by the name ot Daniele da 
Volterra, an Italian painter; born in 
Volterra, Italy, in 1509. His fame 
rests chiefly on a series of frescoes in 
the church of La Trinita de' Monti, 
Rome ; and of these the "Descent from 
the Cross " is well known. He died in 
Rome, April 4, 156G. 

Rice, a well known genus of grasses, 
having panicles of one-flowered spike- 
lets, with two very small pointed 
glumes, the florets compressed, the 
paleae strongly nerved, awned or awn- 
less, six stamens, one germen, and two 
feathery stigmas. The only important 
species is the common rice, one of the 
most useful and extensively cultivated 
of all grains, supplying the principal 
food of nearly one-third of the human 
race. It seems to be originally a na- 
tive of the East Indies, but is now 
cultivated in all quarters of the globe. 
Rice requires a moist soil, sometimes 
flooded. In some parts of the East 
canals are carried along the sides of 
hills for the irrigation of land for the 
cultivation of rice. In South Carolina 
rice is sown in rows in the bottom of 
trenches, which are about 18 inches 
apart ; the trenches are filled with 
water to the depth of several inches, 
till the seeds germinate ; then the 
water is drawn off, and afterward the 

E. 126. 



Rico 

fields are again flooded for rather 
more than a fortnight to kill weeds, 
They are flooded again when the grain 
is near ripening. In Europe the cul- 
tivation of rice is most extensively 
carried on in the plains of Lombardy 
and in Valencia hi Spain. The best 
of all rice known in the market for 
size and quality is that of South Caro- 
lina. After South Carolina the prin- 
cipal rice-growing States are Georgia 
and Louisiana. The rice production 
in the United States has increased 




WATER RICE. 

within a few years from 100,000,000 
pounds per annum to over 600,000,000 
pounds, chiefly in Louisiana, Texas, 
and South Carolina; and the world's 
output is estimated at 175,000,000,- 
000 pounds, chiefly in .British India, 
China, Japan, and Siam. Besides its 
home production, the United States 
has found it necessary to import 
217,000,000 pounds in a single year. 
Rice, Edmund, an American mill' 
tary officer; born in Cambridge, Mass., 



Rice 

in 1842; entered the Union army at 
the beginning of the Civil War ; ap- 
pointed captain in 1861 ; and was mus- 
tered out of service as colonel in 1865. 
He received a medal of honor for con- 
spicuous bravery in the battle of Get- 
tysburg. In 18G6 he entered the regu- 
lar army, rose to colonel, and was 
assigned to the 5th Infantry in 1870. 
He organized and commanded the Co- 
lumbian Guards at the World's Colum- 
bian Exposition ; was military attache 
at Tokyo, Japan ; appointed Inspector- 
General, U. S. A., in 1898; served on 
General Miles' staff; and later w^s 
colonel of the 26th Infantry. He in- 
vented a trowel bayonet, and knife- 
intrenching bayonet. Died 1906. 

Rice, James, an American educa- 
tor; born in Richmond, Ky., Nov. 25, 
1842; was graduated at Georgetown 
College, Ky., in 1866, president of 
>ncord College in 1868-1872 and 
1876-1880; of Lebanon Female Col- 
lege in 1872-1876 ; of Masonic College 
in 1880-1888; and of the Southwest 
Baptist College after 1897. 

Rice, Wallace (de Groot Cecil), 
an American literary critic ; born in 
Hamilton, Canada, Nov. 10, 1859 ; was 
educated at Harvard University, and 
admitted to the Chicago bar in No- 
vember, 1884. He served as reporter 
and critic on various Chicago papers. 

Rice, Willard Martin, an Ameri- 
can clergyman ; born in Lowville, N. 
Y., April 30, 1817; was graduated at 
Wesleyan University in 1837. He 
was ordained in the Presbyterian 
Church in 1858, and held charges in 
Philadelphia till 1884. He became a 
member of the Presbyterian Board of 
Publication in 1862; and after 1876 
was engaged on the various publica- 
tions of the Board. Died in 1904. 

Rice, William Morton Jackson, 
an American painter ; born in Brook- 
lyn, N. Y., Feb. 18, 1854; was grad- 
uated at Cornell University in 1874 ; 
studied painting in Paris. 

Rice, William North, an Ameri- 
can educator ; born in Marblehead, 
Mass., Nov. 21, 1845 ; was graduated 
at the Wesleyan University in 1865; 
was Professor of Geology and Natural 
History at the Wesleyan University 
in 1867-1884; and of Geology after 
1884 ; and was assistant geologist of 
the United States Geological Survey 
In 1891-1892, 



Richard 

Rice Bunting, a name given to 
two distinct birds. The first, also 
known by the name " bob-o-link," is 
a bird of the bunting family, which 
migrates over North America from 
Labrador to Mexico. The song of the 
male is singular and pleasant. When 
fat their flesh becomes little inferior 
in flavor to that of the European or- 
tolan. The other species, kno^vn as 
the rice bunting, is also known as the 
Java sparrow, and paddy bird. It 
belongs to the true finches, a group 
nearly allied to the buntings. It is 
dreaded in Southern Asia on account 
of the ravages it commits in the rice 
fields. It is frequently brought to 
Europe, and is found in aviaries. 

Rice Paper, the produce of the 
Aralia papyrifera, a low shrub, with 
large leaves, from Formosa, where it 
is wild and abundant. The trunk 
and branches resemble those of the 
elder. The pith, dried and rolled, or 
hammered, and pared by sharp knives, 
forms the paper. 

Rich, Edmund, an English eccle- 
siastic; born in Abingdon, England, 
about 1195. fie became archbishop 
of Canterbury in 1233, and exhibited 
great energy as a reformer. He died 
in 1242. 

Richard I., King of England, sur 
named Coeur de Lion; third son of 
King Henry II. and his wife, Eleanor 
of Aquitaine ; born either at Oxford 
or at Woodstock, Sept. 8, 1157. In 
England Richard did not spend in all 
his life a full year; after he became 
king he spent only 26 weeks in his 
kingdom, 17 weeks when be landed to 
take the crown and to go through the 
coronation ceremony at Westminster, 
and nine weeks when he came back 
from his imprisonment. 

Richard became King of England, 
Duke of Normandy, and Count of An- 
jou on July 5, 1189, and was crowned 
King of England on Sept. 3, follow- 
ing. But he had already taken the 
vows of the crusader ; and besides his 
coronation, he had another object in 
coming to England ; he wanted to raise 
funds for his crusade. He effected this 
latter purpose in a brief space of time 
by selling whatever he could get a 
purchaser for. About midsummer 
1190 he met Philip of France at the 
rendezvous, Vezelai in France. Both 
kings spent the winter >n Sicily, and 



Richard 

their mutual jealousy came within a 
hair's-breadth of a rupture. 

On his way to Palestine in the 
spring of 1191, part of the fleet of the 
English king was driven on to the is- 
land of Cyprus, and the crews were 
most inhospitably treated by the 
reigning sovereign, Isaac Comnenus, 
a nephew of the Emperor of Byzanti- 
um, who had revolted from his liege 
lord. Richard sailed back from 
Rhodes, routed Isaac in battle, de- 
posed him, and gave his crown to Guy 
of Lusignan. In Cyprus, too, he mar- 
ried Berengaria of Navarre, whom his 
mother had brought to him at Mes- 
sina. At last, on June 8, the English 
king landed near Acre, and shortly 
afterward that stronghold surrendered, 
the siege having lasted two years. The 
glorious exploits of Richard the Lion- 
hearted his march to Joppa along 
the seashore, his approach on Jerusa- 
lem at Christmas, his capture of the 
fortresses hi the S. of Palestine, his 
second advance in the summer of 1192 
on Jerusalem, and his relief of Joppa 
made his name ring throughout the 
East and excited the wonder and ad- 
miration of Christendom, but brought 
no real advantage to the crusading 
cause. 

Richard in September concluded a 
peace with Saladin for three years, 
three months, and three days, and in 
his impulsive, impatient way started 
off home alone, without waiting for his 
army and fleet. A storm shipwrecked 
him near the N. end of the Adriatic. 
In disguise he began to make his way 
through the dominions of his bitter en- 
emy, the Archduke of Austria. He 
was recognized, seized, and handed 
over to the Emperor Henry VI. 
(March, 1193). The emperor de- 
manded a heavy ransom for his release, 
but promised to give him the kingdom 
of Aries in addition to his liberty. 
Richard's loyal subjects raised the 
money ; and greatly to the chagrin of 
Philip of France and Richard's 
brother John, the captive king return- 
ed home (March 13, 1194). 

In England in the meantime Long- 
champ had made himself so unpopular 
that Richard had been obliged to su- 
persede him, appointing in his place 
Walter of Coutances, Archbishop of 
Rouen. After distributing judicious 
rewards and punishments, raising 



Richard 

what money he could, making arrange* 
ments for the governance of the king- 
dom, and being crowned again, Rich- 
ard proceeded to France, and spent the 
rest of his life there, warring against 
Philip. England was governed in his 
absence by Hubert Walter, Archbish- 
op of Canterbury, who by the meas- 
ures he took to raise -the vast sums de- 
manded by his master trained the Eng- 
lish people in habits of self-govern- 
ment. Richard was shot, on April 7, 
1199, by an archer of the Viscount of 
Limoges, while besieging that noble- 
man's castle of Chalus-Chabrol, and 
was buried in the abbey church of 
Fontevraud. 

Richard II., King of England ; son 
of the Black Prince and Joanna of 
Kent ; born in Bordeaux, Jan. 6, 1367 ; 
was acknowledged by Parliament heir 
to the crown on the death of his father 
in 1376, and succeeded his grand 
father, Edward III., on June 21, 1377. 
The government was entrusted to a 
council of 12, from which the king's 
uncles, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lan- 
caster, Edmund, Earl of Cambridge, 
and Thomas, Earl of Buckingham, 
were excluded. Nevertheless the cen- 
tral figure during the early years of 
this reign, as he had been during the 
last years of the preceding reign, was 
John of Gaunt, whose overreaching 
ambition and inability were a fruitful 
source of disquietude. 

The imposition of a graduated poll- 
tax in 1380 provoked popular risings, 
directed principally against the gentry 
and landholders, in nearly all parts of 
the kingdom, at Whitsuntide in the 
following year. The men of Essex and 
Kent, to the number of 100,000, 
marched on London. The former body, 
whom the king met at Mile End on 
June 14, consented to return home 
when the the young monarch assured 
them he would grant their requests. 
The men of Kent, after destroying the 
Savoy, burning Temple Bar, opening 
the prisons, and breaking into the 
Tower and slaying the Archbishop of 
Canterbury, met the king at Smith- 
field ( loth ) . During the negotiations, 
William Walworth, the mayor of Lon- 
don, struck down Wat Tyler, the lead- 
er of the insurgents. The king imme- 
diately rode among them, exclaiming 
he would be their leader, and granted 
them the concessions they asked. From 



Richard 

the fact that the insurgents directed 
their enmity against himself and the 
advisers of the king, John of Gaunt 
saw that he could never hope to suc- 
ceed in his ambitious schemes in Eng- 
land ; and from this time he kept very 
much in the background, till in 1386 
he carried himself and his restless 
plottings to Spain and Gascony. Rich- 
ard in 1390 made him Duke of Aqui-, 
taine for life. In 1385 Richard invad- 
ed Scotland, and took Edinburgh and 
burned it ; but, not encountering the 
Scotch, returned home. 

On May 3, 1389, Richard suddenly 
declared himself of age, and proceeded 
to govern on his own responsibility. 
For eight years he ruled as a moder- 
ate constitutional monarch, and the 
country enjoyed peace hostilities 
with France were not renewed after 
1388 and was fairly prosperous. 
But in 1394 Richard's first wife, Anne 
of Bohemia, whom he had wedded in 
1382, died, and two years later he 
married Isabella, daughter of Charles 
VI., of France, a girl of eight. In 
the Parliament of 1397 he began to as- 
sert the pretensions of an absolute 
monarch. On July 8 he had Glouces- 
ter, Arundel, and Warwick arrested 
on the charge of conspiring against the 
crown. Arundel was beheaded ; 
Gloucester was sent a prisoner to Ca- 
lais, and died there in prison, a fort- 
night after his arrest ; and Warwick 
was banished to the Isle of Man. 
Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Can- 
terbury, was also banished. 

Richard soon aroused the slumbering 
discontent of his subjects by his un- 
just methods of raising money, prin- 
cipally by means of forced loans, and 
by his arbitrary and despotic rule. In 
the beginning of 1398 the Duke of 
Norfolk and the Duke of Hereford 
were accused to the king of having 
spoken treason against him. Richard 
banished them Norfolk for life and 
Hereford for 10 years. In January, 
1399, John of Gaunt died, and Here- 
ford succeeded him as Duke of Lancas- 
ter ; but the king refused to give up to 
the exile the lands of his dead father. 
Richard in May went over to Ireland, 
which he had previously visited at the 
Jiead of a military expedition in 1394- 
1395. Henry of Lancaster seized on 
the opportunity afforded by the king's 
absence, and landed on July 4. Rich- 
ard at once hurried back, but had 



Richard 

neither heart nor power to withstand 
his cousin. He submitted to Lancas- 
ter at Flint Aug. 19, was carried to 
London, and placed in the Tower. On 
Sept. 29 he resigned the crown, and on 
the following day was likewise de- 
posed by the Parliament, which chose 
Henry of Lancaster as his successor. 

A month after his resignation Rich- 
ard was condemned to perpetual im- 
prisonment by Parliament. His fate 
is wrapped in obscurity, beyond the al- 
most certain fact that he met a violent 
death. 

Richard III., King of England; 
son of Richard, Duke of York, a de- 
scendant of Edward III. ; born in Foth- 
eringay Castle, Oct. 2, 1452. After the 
defeat and death of his father in 1460 
he was sent, along with his brother 
George, to Utrecht for safety, but re- 
turned to England after his eldest 
brother Edward won the crown 
(1461). Two years later he was cre- 
ated Duke of Gloucester, his brother 
George being made Duke of Clarence. 
In the final struggle between the York 
and Lancaster factions he took an ac- 
tive share. All through the reign of 
Edward IV. he gave valuable and 
faithful support to his brother, and 
was rewarded by him with every con- 
fidence, and with numerous high of- 
fices. 

In 1472 he married Anne, the young- 
er daughter of Warwick the King- 
maker, who had been betrothed to the 
murdered Prince Edward. In 1482 he 
was put in command of the army that 
invaded Scotland. Along with the 
Duke of Albany he entered Edinburgh ; 
but his one warlike achievement was 
the capture of Berwick town and cas- 
tle. In the following year, while still 
in Yorkshire, he heard of King Ed- 
ward's death (April 9), and learned 
that he himself had been named guard- 
ian and protector of his son and heir, 
Edward V., then aged 13. On his way 
S. the Protector arrested Earl Rivera 
and Lord Richard Grey, the uncle and 
step-brother of the young king, and 
confined them in his castles. 

The arrest of Rivers and Grey had 
put the king entirely into his hands, 
for the queen-mother had hastened to 
take sanctuary at Westminster. On 
June 13 Gloucester suddenly accused 
Lord Hastings, an influential member 
of the council, of treason, arrested him 



Richard Plantagenet 

there and then, and had him instantly 
beheaded. On June 16 the queen-dow- 
ager was induced to give up, at the de- 
mand of Richard and the council, her 
other son, the little Duke of York. He 
was put into the Tower to keep his 
brother, the king, company. On the 
Sunday following (22d) a certain Dr. 
Shaw preached at St. Paul's cross that 
the children of Edward IV. were ille- 
gitimate. Three days later the Parlia- 
ment desired Richard to assume the 
crown; on the next day (June 26, 
1483) he declared himself king, and 
on July 6 was crowned in state by 
Cardinal Bourchier. 

Shortly after his coronation Richard 
set out on a tour through the king- 
dom, and during the course of it he 
was surprised by the intelligence that 
Buckingham was plotting with the 
friends of Henry Tudor (afterward 
Henry VII.), to effect his overthrow 
and proclaim Henry king. But the at- 
tempted rising soon collapsed, and 
Buckingham was taken and on Nov. 
2 executed. It seems to have been 
shortly before this that Richard con- 
trived the foul crime that has branded 
him name with infamy, the murder of 
his nephews in the Tower. The deed 
was done so secretly by Sir James 
Tyrrell, one of Richard's devoted fol- 
lowers, and a couple of hirelings, that 
the nation did not know of it till some 
time after. 

During the remainder of his short 
reign Richard directed all his energies 
to baffling the plans of Richmond, and 
to making preparations to meet the in- 
vasion which he saw to be imminent. 
Henry of Richmond at length landed 
at Milford Haven on Aug. 7, 1485. 
Richard met him at Bosworth in Lei- 
cestershire on the 22d, and there lost 
his kingdom and his life. 

Richard Plant agenet, King of 
the Romans ; second son of John, King 
of England; born Jan. 5, 1209. For 
some years he acted with the English 
barons, to many of whom he was close- 
ly related by his marriage with Isabel, 
Countess of Gloucester, daughter of 
the Earl of Pembroke. In 1240-1241 
Richard was away on a crusade, and 
the next year he was with his brother 
in Gascony; and in 1244 he married 
Sanchia of Provence, sister of Queen 
Eleanor, and this second marriage 
drew him away from the baronage. Tu 



Richards 

1257 he was elected by a majority ti- 
tular king of the Romans, and was 
soon afterward crowned at Aix-la- 
Chapelle. In the great struggle which 
took place between Henry III. and 
his nobles Richard at first acted as 
a peacemaker. Subsequently, however, 
he sided with his brother against Si- 
mon de Montfort ; and he was taken 
prisoner at Lewes, and imprisoned for 
a year, till the battle of Evesham 
(1265) set him free. In 1267 he was 
a third time married, to Beatrice, 
niece of the Elector of Cologne. Rich- 
ard died at Kirkham, Dec. 12, 1271. 

Richards, Charles Brincker- 
hoff, an American engineer ; born in 
Brooklyn, N. Y., Dec. 23, 1833; was 
superintendent of Colt's Arms Com- 
pany, of Hartford, for many years. 
In 1861 he invented the Richards in- 
dicator for steam engines; was one of 
the United States expert commission" 
ers to the Paris Exposition in 1889; 
editor of the engineering and technical 
terms in " Webster's International 
Dictionary." 

Richards, Charles Herbert, an 
American clergyman ; born in Meri- 
den, N. H., March 18, 1839 ; was grad- 
uated at Yale University in 1860, and 
at the Andover Theological Seminary 
in 1865 ; and afterward served in the 
ministry of the Congregational Church. 
He conducted the Monona Lake As- 
sembly in Madison, Wis., in 1881- 
1884; was president of the Wisconsin 
Home Missionary Society in 1885 
1890; lectured on Hymnology and 
Church Music at Yale University in 
1895. 

Richards, Edgar, an American 
chemist; born in New York, Feb. 23, 
1858 ; took a course in chemistry at 
the School of Mines in Columbia Uni- 
versity in 1876-1881 ; was assistant 
chemist in the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture in 1882-1887 ; as- 
sistant chemist in the Internal Rev- 
enue Bureau of the United States 
Treasury Department in 1887-1892; 
president of the Washington Chemical 
Society in 1889. 

Richards, Laura Elizabeth, an 
American writer of juvenile books, 
daughter of Julia Ward Howe; born 
in Boston, Mass., in 1850. She pub- 
lished a great number of children's 
books. 



Richards 

Richards, William Trost, an 

American landscape and marine paint- 
er ; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 
14, 1833. From 1878 till 1880, he had 
a studio in London, England. He 
then returned to Philadelphia. At 
the Metropolitan Museum, in New 
York city, is a series of 47 water- 
color marines and landscapes, painted 
by him in 1871-1870. His " Wissa- 
hickon " was on exhibition at the 
Centennial Exposition in 1876. In the 
Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, 
D. C., is hung his " On the Coast of 
New Jersey." He died Nov. 8, 1905. 

Richardson, Abby Sage, an 
American lecturer and writer on lit- 
erary topics ; wife of Albert Deane 
Richardson; born in Massachusetts, 
in 1837. She died in Rome, Italy, 
Dec. 5, 1900. She was a woman of 
remarkable ability, and gave an ad- 
mirable example in the devoted care 
of her children. 

Richardson, Benjamin 'Ward, 
an English physician ; born at Somer- 
by, Leicestershire, 1828 ; graduated in 
medicine at St. Andrews University in 
1854. In 1855 he edited the "Journal 
.of Health;" and he gained the Astley 
Cooper prize by his treatise on " The 
Cause of the Coagulation of the 
Blood," and the Fothergillian gold 
medal by a disquisition on the " Di- 
seases of the Foetus," in 1856. He 
originated the use of ether spray for 
the local abolition of pain in surgical 
operations, and introduced methylenc 
bichloride as a general anaesthetic. 
He was a fellow of the Royal College 
of Physicians and of the Royal So- 
ciety. He was knighted in 1893, and 
died in 1896. 

Richardson, Charles, an English 
lexicographer; born in 1775, died 1865. 
He was trained as a barrister, but de- 
voted himself to literature. In 1815 
he published " Illustrations of Eng- 
lish Philology." In 1818 he under- 
took the lexicographical articles in 
the " Encyclopaedia Metropolitana," 
and afterwards published his great 
work, a " New Dictionary of the Eng- 
lish Language " (2 vols. 1835-37). He 
contributed frequently to magazines. 

Richardson, Henry Hobson, an 
American architect; born in New Or- 
leans, La., in 1838; was graduated at 
Harvard in 1859. He designed some 
of the most beautiful buildings in this 



Richardson 

country. He died in Boston, "Mass., 
April 28, 1886. 

Richardson, Sir John, a British 
naturalist and Arctic traveler ; bora 
in Dumfries, Scotland, Nov. 5, 1787. 
After studying medicine at the Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh he entered the 
royal navy, in 1807, as assistant-sur- 
geon. He served on various stations 
till 1819, and was surgeon and natu- 
ralist to the Arctic expeditions of 1819- 
1822 and 1825-1827, under Sir John 
Franklin, exploring on the latter oc- 
casion the shores of the Arctic Ocean 
between the Mackenzie and Copper- 
mine rivers. In March, 1848, he took 
charge of an expedition to search for 
Franklin. He died near Grasmere, 
England, June 5, 1865. 

Richardson, Samuel, an English 
novelist ; born in Derbyshire, in 1689. 
In 1706, at the age of 16, he was 
bound by his own wish to John Wilde 
of Stationers' Hall. From 1713 to 
1719 he worked as a journeyman print- 
er. In the latter year he opened an 
establishment of his own, and shortly 
after married Miss Martha Wilde, 
long popularly believed to be his mas- 
ter's daughter, but the child of a Mr. 
Allington Wilde. He became master 
of the Stationers' Company (1754). 

He printed more than one news- 
paper, and by the favor of Speaker 
Onslow obtained the printing of the 
journals of the House of Commons, 26 
volumes of which passed through his 
establishment. He was over 50 when 
two bookselling friends invited him to 
prepare a volume of familiar letters in 
a common style, on such subjects as 
might be of use to those country 
readers who were unable to indite for 
themselves. Hence sprung " Pamela," 
published in November, 1740. Its 
title was " Pamela : or Virtue Re- 
warded." 

In February followed a second edi- 
tion ; a third succeeded in March, and 
a fourth in May. Grub street fastening 
promptly on this unexampled popular- 
ity, hastily put together for a sequel a 
"Pamela in High Life." 

Eight years elapsed before Richard- 
son published another novel. " Clar- 
issa; or the Adventures of a Young 
Lady," known generally as "Clarissa 
Harlowe." The heroine is drawn with 
a tenacity of insight to which " Pame- 
la," could scarcely pretend; and thfl 



.Richardson 



Richmond 



chief male character, that of Love- 
lace, is scarcely inferior. 

Having drawn the ideal woman in 
" Clarissa," Richardson proceeded, 
some five years later, to portray, in 
" Sir Charles Grandison," the perfect 
man " the man of true honor. This 
is a work of much greater ability than 
" Pamela," but still far below " Clar- 
issa." In later life a nervous disease 
grew upon him, which terminated in 
1761 by a fit of apoplexy, of which he 
died. 

Richardson, 'William Adams, 
an American jurist ; born in Tyngs- 
boro, Mass., Nov. 2, 1821 ; was grad- 
uated at Harvard University in 1843, 
and at its law school in 1846, and was 
admitted to the Boston bar in 1848. 
In 1856 he was appointed judge of 
the probate court of Middlesex coun- 
ty, and in 1869, assistant secretary of 
the United States Treasury, becoming 
secretary in 1873. He resigned that 
office in 1874 to accept a seat on the 
bench of the United States Court of 
Claims, being made chief-justice of 
the court in 1885. He died in Wash- 
ington, D. C., Oct. 19, 1896. 

Richelieu, Armand Jean Du- 
plessis, Cardinal, Due de, a French 
statesman ; born in Richelieu, Sept. 5, 
1585. He abandoned a military career 
for the Church. Representative of the 
Poitou clergy at the States-general in 
1614, he attracted the notice of the 
queen-mother, and rose in 1616 to be 
secretary of war and foreign affairs ; 
but the downfall of Marshal d'Ancre, 
the queen-regent's favorite, in April, 
1617, sent him back to his diocese. 
In 1622 he was named cardinal and 
in 1624 Minister of State. His first 
important measure was the blow to 
Spain of an alliance with England, 
cemented by the betrothal -(1625) of 
the king's sister, Henrietta, with 
Charles, then Prince of Wales. His 
next task was to destroy the political 
power of the Huguenot party. After 
a 15 months' siege, concentrating all 
his energy on the task, the great 
stronghold of La Rochelle was starved 
into submission, Oct. 30, 1628. Early 
in 1630 he entered Italy and soon re- 
duced Savoy to submission. The first 
treaty of Cherasco (April, 1631), 
ended the Italian war, the second 
gave France the important strategic 
position of Pinerolo. 



In July, 1632, Richelieu had seized 
the duchy of Lorraine. He continued 
his intrigues with the Protestants 
against Ferdinand, but till 1635 he 
took no open part in the war. In 
May of that year, after comple'ung his 
preparations he declared war on Spain 
and at once placed in the field an 
army of 132,000 men. But hifi first 
efforts were unsuccessful. 

With 30,000 foot and 12,000 horse he 
swept the enemy out of Picardy, while 
his ally Bernhard drove them across 
the Rhine, and in 1638 destroyed the 
imperial army in the decisive battle 
of Rheinfelden. The unexpected death 
of Bernhard threw the fruit of his 
victories into the hands of Richelieu 
revolts in Catalonia, and the loss of 
Portugal ; the victories of Wolfen- 
buttel (1642) and Kempten (1642) 
over the Imperialists in Germany ; 
and at length in 1641 in Savoy also 
in the ascendency of the French party. 
Another triumph that same year was 
the speedy collapse of the Imperialist 
invasion in the N. by the Count of 
Soissons, who perished in the first 
battle. The failure to capture Tarra- 
gona was the one exception to the 
complete triumph of the cardinal's 
latest years. 

The last conspiracy against him was 
that of the grand-equerry, the young 
Cinq-Mars, whose intrigues with Gas- 
ton, the Duke of Bouillon, and the 
Spanish court were soon revealed to 
the cardinal. When the hour was 
ripe he placed in the king's hands at 
Tarascon proofs- of the traitorous plot 
with Spain, and was given full powers 
as lieutenant-general of the ' realm. 
Cinq-Mars and De Thou were at once 
arrested, and Gaston of Orleans has- 
tened to buy his own security by be~ 
traying his accomplices. Cinq-Mars 
and De Thou were executed at Lyons 
in the autumn of 1642. But the great 
minister was himself dying in the 
hour of his greatest triumphs. He died 
Dec. 4, 1642, bequeathing Mazarin to 
the king as his successor. 

Richmond, a town in Madison CO., 
Ky. ; 25 miles S. E. of Lexington. It 
is memorable as the scene of one of the 
most desperate battles of the Civil 
War. The Confederate general, E. 
Kirby Smith, in command of 18,000 
troops, attacked a much larger Union 
army under command of Gens. M. D. 



Richmond 

Manson and William Nelson, and after 
a three hours' battle utterly defeated 
the Union forces, whose loss including 
killed, wounded and prisoners, was 
5,000. 

Richmond, a city, port of entry, 
capital of the State of Virginia, and 
county-seat of Henrico co. ; on the 
James river ; 116 miles S. E. of Wash- 
ington, D. C. The city is about 127 
miles from the ocean. The James 
river is navigable for large vessels. 
The city is built on seven hills, and 
is surrounded by beautiful scenery. 

There are upward of GOO manufac- 
turing establishments, of which nearly 
90 are engaged in the tobacco indus- 
try, the remainder being of flour, 
paper, fertilizer, iron, steel, etc. A 
number of its flour mills and one of 
its rolling mills are among the largest 
in the United States. 

The city covers an area of 5 square 
miles ; and has 116 miles of streets, 
of which 23 miles are paved ; a system 
of waterworks that cost $2,500,000, 
and 100 miles of mains ; and a sewer 
system covering 53 miles. The streets 
are lighted by gas and electricity. 
There is a public school enrollment 
of nearly 12,000 pupils and annual 
expenditures for public education of 
over $166,859.21. The annual cost of 
maintaining the city government ex- 
ceeds $1.500.000. The death rate 
averages 18.57 per 1,000 annually. The 
capitol, which stands on Shockoe Hill, 
and is surrounded by most of the other 
public buildings, is an imposing struc- 
ture, dating from 1785. In the Cen- 
tral Hall, surmounted by a dome, are 
a statue of Washington and bust of 
Lafayette, Gen. Fitz Hugh Lee, and 
others. The Senate Chamber, to the 
right, was used as the Confederate 
House of Representatives during the 
Civil War. The House of Delegates, 
to the left, contains portraits of 
Chatham and Jefferson, and was the 
scene of Aaron Burr's trial for high 
treason in 1807 and of the State Seces- 
sion Convention in 1861. The execu- 
tive mansion of the Confederate 
States, formerly the residence of Jef- 
ferson Davis, has been converted into 
a museum which contains many relics 
of the Civil War. The other notable 
public buildings include the City Hall, 
State Library, State Penitentiary, 
almshouse, custom house, etc. The 



Richmond 

prominent educational institutions are 
Richmond College (Bapt.), St. Jo- 
seph Female Academy (R. C.), the 
Medical College of Virginia, University 
College of Medicine, Women's College, 
and Mechanics' Institute. 

Richmond is said to have first been 
settled in 1609. Fort Charles waa 
built as a defense against the Indiana 
in 1644-1645. The city was incor- 
porated in 1742, and became the cap- 
ital of the State in 1779. In June, 
1861, it was selected as the Con- 
federate capital, and from that period 
was the objective point of a series of 
formidable military expeditions for its 
capture. Pop. (1910) 127,628. 

During the last three years of the 
Civil War (1862-1865) battles raged 
all round Richmond, and remains of 
the fortified lines constructed to pro- 
tect the city are visible in various 
parts of the environs. Both the inner 
and outer fortifications may be seen 
from the Brook Road, which leads to 
the Lakeside Club House, with its 
golf links, bowling alleys and boating 
lake. The chief direct attack on Rich- 
mond was made on May 15, 1862, 
when the Union fleet attempted, with- 
out success, to force its way past the 
batteries at Drewry Bluff, on the 
James river, 7 miles below the city. 
Simultaneously General McClellan ad- 
vanced with the land forces up the 
peninsula between the York and James 
rivers and invested Richmond on the 
B. and N. This led to the hardly 
contested but indecisive battle of Seven 
Pines or Fair Oaks (May 31, 1862), 
in which the Confederates under Gen. 
Joseph E. Johnston attacked McClel- 
lan's left wing, to the S. of the 
Chickahominy. Large cemeteries and 
a park now mark the spot, 7 miles to 
the E., reached by the West Point 
railroad. The district is swampy, and 
McClellan lost more men by pestilence 
than in fighting. Gen. Robert E. Lee 
assumed command of the Confederate 
forces and made an attempt, in combi- 
nation with Gen. " Stonewall " Jack- 
son, to overwhelm McClellan's right 
wing, which was posted at Mechanics- 
ville, on the Chickahominy, 5% miles 
to the N. of Richmond, and thus be- 
gan the famous Seven Days' Battle 
(June 28-July 2, 1862). Mechanics- 
ville was followed by the battles of 
Gaines's Mill, Cold Harbor, Savage's 



Richmond 

Station, Frazier's Farm, and Malvern 
Hill. The upshot of this series of 
contests, in which 40,000 men fell, was 
the relief of Richmond, as the Union 
troops were compelled to retreat to 
Malvern Hill, 15 miles to the S. B., 
where they repelled the Confederates 
in their last attack but soon after 
withdrew to Harrison's Landing, on 
the James River. During 1863 there 
were no direct attacks on Richmond. 
In May, 1804, General Grant marched 
down through the " Wilderness " and 
attacked Lee in his entrenched posi- 
tion at Cold Harbor (June 3, 1864), 
and lost 15,000 men without making 
much impression on the enemy. He 
then transferred his army to the S. 
side of the James ; and the later stages 
of the war were rather a siege of 
Petersburg than of Richmond. 

Richmond, city and capital of 
Wayne county, Ind.; on the White 
river and the Grand Rapids & Indi- 
ana and other railroads; 68 miles E. 
of Indianapolis; manufactures church 
furniture, undertakers' supplies, farm 
implements, brass and iron goods, 
carpets, and lawn-mowers; and is the 
seat of Earlham College (Friends) 
and the Eastern Asylum for the In- 
sane. Pop. (1910) 22,324. 

Richter, Johann Paul Fried- 
rich, known by his pen-name of Jean 
Paul, a German humorist; born in 
Wunsiedel, North Bavaria, March 21, 
1763. His first literary "children." 
were satires; but he could get no pub- 
lisher for them till in 1783 Voss of 
Berlin gave him 40 louis d'or for 
" The Greenland Lawsuits." 
| For three years Jean Paul struggled 
on at home, his mother spinning hard 
for bread, he helping with a few 
florins he earned by his pen. He 
read enormously, omnivorously. In 
the beginning of 1787 he began to 
teach the children of different families 
in the district, and of course taught 
by original methods. All this time he 
still went on writing. " The Invisible 
Lodge " was his first literary success ; 
" Hesperus " made him famous. In 
1796 Charlotte von Kalb wrote to 
express her admiration of the book ; 
and a few months later, at her invita- 
tion, Jean Paul visited Weimar. There 
Goethe received him politely; that, 
too, was Schiller's attitude, when Jean 
Paul went on to Jena to see him. 



Rickettfl 

Herder and his wife, on the other 
hand, greeted the young romance- 
writer with overflowing admiration. He 
settled finally at Baireuth in 1804. He 
shortly afterwards received a pension 
from the prince-primate, Dalberg, 
which was continued by the King of 
Bavaria. While staying in Berlin in 
1801 he married Karoline Mayer, a 
union which proved very happy. . His 
last years were saddened by the death 
of his only son in 1821. Jean Paul's 
works (he wrote under this name) are 
characterized by a deeply reflective and 
philosophic humor, but are often 
whimsical and fantastic. They are 
full of good things, but show no sense 
of proportion, arrangement, or artistic 
finish. His writings, other than those 
noted above, include works connected 
with the history and politics of the 
time. He died Nov. 14, 1825. 

Richthof en, Ferdinand, Baron 
von, a German geographer; born in 
Karlsruhe, Silesia, May 5, 1833; in 
1860 accompanied a Prussian expedi- 
tion to Eastern Asia. The next 12 
years he spent in traveling through 
Java, Siam, Burma, California, Sierra 
Nevada, and China and Japan. After 
his return to Europe (1872) he was 
appointed president of the Berlin 
Geographical Society, Professor of 
Geology at Bonn, of Geography at 
Leipzig, and at Berlin, and in 1 
director of the newly founded Institut 
fur Meereskunde. His reputation as a 
geographer is built principally upon 
his "China." He died Oct. 7, 1905. 

Ricinns, a genus of plants, order 
Euphorbiacese. R. communis is the 
palma christi or castor-oil plant, a 
native of the East and West Indies 
and Florida. Castor oil is obtained 
from the seeds, either by expression 
with or without the aid of heat, or by 
decoction, or sometimes by the aid of 
alcohol. 

Rickets, a disease peculiar to in- 
fancy, chiefly characterized by changes 
in the texture, chemical composition, 
and outward form of the bony skeleton 
and by altered functions of the other 
organs, transient for the most part, 
but occasionally permanent. 

Ricketts, James Brewerton, an 
American military officer ; born in 
New York city, June 21, 1817; was 
graduated at the United States mill- 



Rickman 

tary academy, in 1839 ; was a captain 
in the regular army in 1852 ; and 
gained a record for excellent service 
during the Mexican War. In 1861 he 
Vras appointed a Brigadier-General 
t>f volunteers, and commanded a di- 
vision at the battle > of Antietam, in 
September, 1862. He was in the thick 
of the battle of the Wilderness, May 5 
and 6, 1864; was severely wounded at 
the "battle of Cedar Creek Oct. 19, 
1864; and was brevetted Major-Gen- 
eral, U. S. A., in 1865. He served in 
the Army of the Potomac from the 
first battle of Bull Run till Peters- 
burg was besieged in 1864. He died 
in Washington, D. C., Sept. 22, 1887. 

Rickman, Thomas, an English 
architect ; born in Maidenhead, Berk- 
shire, in 1776; seems to have always 
had a love for architecture, and to 
have studied it carefully. Having sent 
in a design for a church that proved 
successful in a government competi- 
tion, he settled at Birmingham as an 
architect. He died in March, 1841. 

Riddle, John Wallace, diplomat, 
b. July 12, 1864, Philadelphia, Pa. 
He entered the diplomatic service in 
] 893 ; became secretary of the embassy 
to Russia ; minister to Servia and 
Rumania in 1905-1906; Minister to 
Russia in 1906-1909. 

Ri dean Canal, a Canadian canal 
constructed between Kingston on Lake 
Ontario and Ottawa as a through 
waterway by means of the river Ot- 
tawa to Montreal, the St. Lawrence 
route being interrupted by rapids. 
Canals have since been built along 
the St. Lawrence to avoid these, and 
the Rideau is now little used. 

Rideing, 'William. Henry, an 
American author; born in Liverpool, 
England, Feb. 17, 1853. In 1881 he 
became associate editor of the 
"Youths' Companion." 

Riders, additional provisions of a 
bill under the consideration of a leg- 
islative assembly, having little con- 
nection with the subject-matter of the 
bill. The consequence of this custom 
is, practically, a limitation of the 
veto power of the executive. It has 
been proposed frequently that the 
Constitution of the United States be 
so amended that the President could 
veto single objectionable items, with- 
out affecting the main purpose of bills. 



^ Riel 

Ridgway, Robert, an American 
naturalist; bom in Mt. Carmel, 111., 
July 2, 1850. He early turned his at- 
tention to natural history and was 
zoologist to the United States geologi- 
cal expedition under Clarence King 
in the Western States in 1867-1869. 
He was one of the founders of the 
American Ornithologists' Union, of 
which he became president. 

Riding, the art of sitting on horse- 
back with firmness, ease, and grace- 
fulness, and of guiding the horse and 
keeping him under perfect command. 

Ridley, Nicholas, an English 
clergyman, Bishop of London in the 
reigns of Edward VI., and his succes- 
sor Mary ; born about the commence- 
ment of the 16th century; filled the 
office of proctor to Cambridge Univer- 
sity. In 1547 he was chosen to the 
see of Rochester, and in 1550 super- 
seded Bonner as Bishop of London. 
On the death of Edward he was in- 
volved in an attempt to secure the 
Protestant ascendency by placing the 
Lady 'Jane Grey on the throne. This, 
together with his connection with 
Cranmer, led to his being tried for 
heresy ; he was found guilty, and con- 
demned to the stake. This sentence 
he underwent with the greatest forti- 
tude, in company with his friend and 
fellow-sufferer Latimer, Oct. 16, 1555, 
in Oxford. 

Ridpath, John Clark, an Ameri- 
can educator ; born in Putnam co., 
Ind., April 26, 1840; and later held 
a professorship in Baker University, 
Kansas. In 1869 he became Profes- 
sor of English Literature at Asbury 
University, Indiana, and was elected 
its vice-president in 1879. In 1874- 

1875 he published a " History of the 
United States " which he supple- 
mented with another in 1877. In 

1876 he issued a " School History," 
and in 1879 an " English Grammar." 
Desiring to devote his whole time^to 
literature he resigned his university 
offices. He died in New York city, 
Aug. 1, 1900. 

Riel, Louis, a Canadian insurgent, 
born in Boniface, Oct. 23, 1844. He 
led the Metis' Red River rebellion in 
1869, which was subdued by a Canad- 
ian force. He fled from the terri- 
tory to escape arrest, and returned 
after peace terms had been arranged, 



Rienzi 

He was elected to the Dominion Par- 
liament in 1873, but was not allowed 
to take his seat. His attempt to 
create resistance in 1885 was more 
successful, but the rebellion was short- 
lived. Riel was captured, tried for 
treason, and was sentenced to death. 
He was executed Nov. 16, 1885, at 
Regina in the Northwestern Terri- 
tory. 

Rienzi, Nicola Gabrini, a Ro- 
man patriot; born about 1310. He 
was sent by his fellow citizens to 
Clement VI., at Avignon, in order to 
prevail on that pontiff to return to 
Rome. His eloquence pleased the 
Pope, though it did not persuade him ; 
and Rienzi on his return formed the 
design of making himself master of 
Rome. Haying gained a considerable 
number of partisans, . he entered the 
Capitol, harangued the people, and 
elevated the standard of liberty. He 
designed to unite the whole of Italy 
into one great republic, with Rome for 
its capital. At length a conspiracy 
was formed against him ; and having 
lost the popular favor by his arro- 
gance and tyranny, he was compelled 
to seek safety in flight, but was taken 
and cruelly put to death in 1352. 

Bietbok, in zoology the reed-buck, 
a South African antelope. It is about 
four feet in length, and nearly three 
feet high at the shoulder. 

Rifle, a portable* firearm, the inte- 
rior surface of the barrel of which is 
grooved, the channels being cut in the 
form of a screw. The number of these 
spiral channels or threads, as well as 
their depth, varies in different rifles, 
the most approved form being with 
the channels and ridges of equal 
breadth, and the spiral turning more 
quickly as it nears the muzzle. The 
bullet fired is now always of an 
elongated form. The great advantage 
gained by a weapon of this construc- 
tion is that the bullet discharged from 
the piece, by having a rotatory action 
imparted to its axis coincident with 
its line of flight, is preserved in its 
direct path ^ without being subject to 
the aberrations that injure precision 
of aim in firing with unrifled arms. 
As a necessary consequence of the pro- 
jectile being carried more directly in its 
line of aim, its length of range, as 
well as its certainty in hitting the 
Object is materially increased. Sport- 



Rigga 

ing rifles have a shorter range and 
inferior velocity to the best military 
weapons, their object being not ex- 
treme range or penetration, but great 
force at impact to produce such a 
shock as will paralyze the animal 
shot. 

Rifle Bird, often spoken of as one 
of the "Birds of Paradise ;" is perhaps 
the best-known of the genus Pitlor- 
his, which comprises four species con- 
fined to Australia and to New Guinea. 
P. paradiseus inhabits the S. E. dis- 
tricts of Australia, and is found only 
in very thick " bush." The male is 
regarded as more splendid in plumage 
than any other Australian bird. 

Riga, a city and capital of Li- 
vonia, and after St. Petersburg and 
Odessa the third seaport of Russia, on 
the Dwina river, 7 miles from the 
mouth of the river, and 350 S. W. 
of St. Petersburg, via Pskoff. The old 
town has narrow streets and mediaeval 
houses and stores ; but the suburbs are 
laid out in broad streets with hand- 
some buildings. The chief edifices are 
the cathedral built in 1204, burned 
down in 1547, but rebuilt ; St. Peter's 
Church (1406), with a steeple 460 
feet high ; the castle of the old Knights 
of the Sword, built 1494-1515, the 
former residence of the grand-master 
of the order; and several old guild 
houses and Hanseatic halls. Riga 
was founded hi 1201 by Albert, Bishop 
of Livonia, and soon became a first- 
rate commercial town, and member 
of the Hanseatic League. In 1710 was 
annexed to Russia. Pop. 256,197. 

Riggs, John Davis Seaton, an 
American educator; born in Wash- 
ington, Pa., Jan. 29, 1851 ; was grad- 
uated at the University of Chicago in 
1878 ; principal of the commercial 
department of Salt Lake Academy, 
Utah ; and of the preparatory depart- 
ment of the old University of Chicago ; 
joint principal of the University 
Academy in Chicago; organizer and 
principal of Granville (now Doane) 
Academy of Denison University, and 
president of Ottawa University after 
1896. 

Riggs, Kate Douglas Wiggin, 
an American author; born in Philadel- 
phia, Pa.; was graduated at Abbott 
Academy in 1878; organized the first 
free kindergarten for poor children 



ftiggs 

on the Pacific coast, and continued 
interested in the work. 

Biggs, Robert Baird, an Ameri- 
can chemist ; born in Hazelwood, 
Minn., May 22, 1855 ; was graduated 
at Beloit College, Wis., in 1870; Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry at the National Col- 
lege of Pharmacy in 1885-1887; and 
lateV became Professor of Chemistry 
at Trinity College, Hartford. 

Rights, Declaration and Bill 
of. Two documents adopted in Eng- 
land ; the Declaration (February, 
166y> ? stated tnat James II. had 
committed certain acts contrary to 
the law, and declared the throne va- 
cant. The Bill (October, 1689), set 
forth that the monarch had no power 
of suspending laws, the levying of 
money without consent of parliament 
is illegal ; also the keeping of a stand- 
ing army in time of peace without 
accession thereto by parliament is also 
illegal ; election of members to par- 
liament should be free ; that free 
speech should be granted in parlia- 
ment ; condemns excessive bail and ex- 
cessive fines or unusual punishments ; 
claims the right of petition to the 
crown, and trial by jury ; that parlia- 
ment should meet frequently ; and that 
all ecclesiastical courts are illegal. It 
also treats of succession to the crown. 

Rights of Man, Declaration of 
the, a famous statement of the con- 
stitution and principles of civil society 
and government adopted by the French 
National Assembly in August, 1789. 
In historical importance it may fairly 
be ranked with the English Bill of 
Rights and the American Declaration 
of Independence. 

Riis, Jacob August, born in 
Ribe, Denmark, May 3, 1849, son of 
Niels Edward Riis. Came to New 
York, and after some interesting ad- 
ventures joined the staff of the New 
York " Sun " as a police reporter. 
Kept his eyes open to his surroundings 
and was first to call public attention 
in vivid and impressive style to the 
needs and struggles of the poor of 
America's metropolis. His book, " How 
the Other Half Lives," was received 
with interest and awakened philan- 
thropy to a sense of its duty to less 
fortunate humanity in the great cities. 

Riker, Albert Burdsall, an 
American clergyman; born, in New 



Ri&er 

Albany, O., Oct. 19, 1852; was grad- 
uated at Wesleyan University in 1879 ; 
held pastorates in Ohio, Tennessee, 
and West Virginia, and in 1898 be- 
came president of Mount Union Col- 
lege, Alliance, O. 

Riley, Benjamin Franklin, an 
American clergyman ; born in Pine- 
ville, Ala., July 1G, 1849 ; was grad- 
uated at Erskine College, South Caro- 
lina, in 1871 ; entered the ministry of 
the Baptist Church in 1872 ; was pres- 
ident of Howard College in 1888-1893, 
and Professor of English Literature 
at the University of Georgia in 1893. 

Riley, Franklin Lafayette, an 
American educator ; born near He- 
bron, Lawrence co., Miss., Aug. 24, 
1868; was graduated at the Missis- 
sippi College in 1889; and later stud- 
ied at Johns Hopkins University ; was 
president of Hillman College for 
Young Women in 1896-1897; and be- 
came Professor of History at the Uni- 
versity of Mississippi in 1897. 

Riley, James Whitcomb, an 
American poet; born in Greenfield, 
Ind., in 1853. His contributions to 
newspapers and magazines first at- 
tracted public attention about 1875. 
His writings soon became so popular 
that he devoted himself to literature 
and public readings of his work with 
great success. His poems are char- 
acterized by both, humor and pathos 
and by their sympathy with the sim- 
plest phases of life. Those of the 
Hoosier type are especially popular. 
. Rinehart, "William Henry, an 
American sculptor ; born hi Carroll 
co., Md., Sept. 13, 1825; went to 
Baltimore in 1846; and found em- 
ployment at his trade of stone cutter. 
He attended night school at the Mary- 
land Institute and studied art ; went to 
Italy in 1855 and studied under the 
best masters in sculpture. He opened 
a studio on his return to Baltimore, 
but in 1858 established himself in 
Rome. He completed Crawford's 
bronze doors for the National Capitol 
at Washington. He died in Rome, 
Oct. 28, 1874. 

Riner, John A., an American 
jurist ; born in Preble co., O., in 1850 ; 
was graduated at the University of 
Michigan in 1879 ; later removed to 
Wyoming; became city attorney of 
Cheyenne in 1881, United States dia- 



Ring 



Rio de Janeiro 



trict attorney of Wyoming in 1884, a. 
member of the upper house of the 
Territorial legislature in 1886, and 
of the Constitutional Convention in 
1889 ; later was a member of the State 
Senate and on Sept. 23, 1890, he was 
appointed United States district judge 
for the district of Wyoming. 

Ring, any circle or section of a 
cylinder. Rings of gold, silver, and of 




FIG. 1. 

other metals and materials have been 
worn in all times and countries, and 
while they have been used to decorate 
the ears, neck, nose, lips, arms, legs, 
and toes, finger rings have always 
occupied the most important and sig- 
nificant place among such ornaments. 
From the earliest period of civilized 
relationships the finger ring was a 
convenient means for carrying the 
signet of its wearer. Fig. 1 shows a 
Jewish marriage ring beautifully 
wrought in gold filigree, and richly 
enamelled. Fig. 2 shows a form of 
betrothal ring called a gimmel, or 
linked ring, which was used in later 
times ; the upper figure shows the 
three parts brought together, the low- 
er figures the parts separately. 

Ringbone, an exostosis or bony 
tumor mostly met with on the coronet 
of overworked horses, but sometimes 
seen on colts. 

Ring-dove, or Cushat, the largest 
of the pigeons inhabiting Great Brit- 
ain, a bird which occurs very gener- 
ally throughout the wooded parts of 



Europe. It is migratory in countries 
in which the severe winters preclude 
the possibility of its obtaining a due 
supply of food, and even in Great 
Britain, in which it permanently re- 
sides, it appears on the approach of 
winter to assemble in flocks, and to 
perform a limited migration, probably 
in search of food. 

Ringed Snake, a harmless colu- 
brine snake with teeth so small as to 
be incapable of piercing the skin. It 
is common in England. 

Ring Money, a form of currency 
consisting of rin^s which seems to 
have originated with the Egyptians. It 
is still used in parts of Africa, and is 
manufactured in Birmingham for the 
use of African traders. 

Ring Ouzel, a species of thrush, 
rather larger than a blackbird. It is 
a native chiefly of the W. parts of 
Europe. 




FIG. 2. 

Ringworm, an eruptive disease of 
the skin, more particularly on the 
head, and of which there are several 
kinds. 

Rio de Janeiro, or simply Rio, a 
city and seaport, capital of Brazil and 
of the province of the same name, the 
largest and most important city of 
South America ; on the W. side of 
one of the finest bays in the world, 80 
miles W. of Cape Frio. The city 
stands on a tongue of land close to the 
shore, on the W. side of the bay, at 
the foot of several high mountains 
which rise behind it. The houses are 
generally .built of stone or brick. The 



Rio Grande 



Rittenliouse 



streets are straight, well paved, and 
have excellent footpaths. The con- 
vents and churches are numerous, but 
none of them can be called fine build- 
ings. Parallel with the beach runs 
the main street, called Rua de Direita, 
from which the minor streets branch 
off at right angles and are intersected 
by others at regular distances. The 
imperial palace skirts the beach, and 
is seen to great advantage from the 
landing place, which is within 60 yards 
of its entrance. The other public 
buildings are the naval and military 
arsenal, a public hospital, a national 
library containing about 100,000 
volumes. The entrance into it from 
the sea does not exceed a mile from 
point to point ; it afterward widens to 
about three or four miles. This city 
is the chief mart of Brazil. Pop. 510,- 
500. 

Rio Grande, Rio Grande del 
Norte, or Rio Bravo del Nortc. 
See NOBTE, Rio GEANDR DEL. 

Rio-Grande-do-Sul, the most 
southern province in Brazil, bounded 
partly by the Atlantic, and bordering 
on Uruguay and the Argentine Repub- 
lic. It has an area of 91,250 square 
miles, and a population of 968,281. 

Rio Negro ("black river"), the 
name of numerous streams, of which 
two are important: (1) A river of 
South America, and principal tribu- 
tary of the Amazon. It rises in Co- 
lombia, and joins the Amazon after a 
course of about 1,000 miles, at Ma- 
naos, Brazil. (2) A river of South 
America forming the boundary be- 
tween the Argentine Republic and 
Patagonia. It rises in the Andes in 
Chile, and is about 700 miles long. 

Riprdan, Patrick William, an 
American clergyman ; born in New 
Brunswick, Aug. 27, 1841 ; removed 
to Chicago; held charges in Illinois 
till 1883, when he was consecrated 
titular archbishop of Cabesa and co- 
adjutor of the Archbishop of San 
Francisco, Cal., on whose resignation 
he succeeded, Dec. 28, 1884. 

Riprdan, Roger, an Irish-Ameri- 
can journalist; born in 1848. He re- 
sided in New York city. His publica- 
tions include " Sunrise Stories," etc. 

Riot, a disturbance of the public 
peace, attended with circumstances of 
tumult and commotion. 



Ripley, George, an American 
author ; born in Greenfield, Mass., 
Oct. 3, 1802; educated at Harvard 
University and Cambridge Divinity 
School ; became a Unitarian minister 
in Boston ; lived some years in Eu- 
rope ; was one of the founders of the 
Transcendental magazine, the " Dial," 
and the originator and conductor of 
the communistic experiment at Brook 
Farm. He died in New York city, 
July 4, 1880. 

Ripley, William Zebina, an 
American educator; born in Medford, 
Mass., in 1867 ; was graduated at the 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
in 1890 ; became lecturer on Sociology 
at Columbia University in 1893, and 
Professor of Sociology and Economics 
at the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology in 1895; was appointed 
expert agent on transportation for the 
United States Industrial Commission. 

Risley, Samuel Doty, an Ameri- 
can physician ; born in Cincinnati, O., 
Jan. 16, 1845; served in the Union 
army during the Civil War ; was 
graduated at the University of Iowa in 
1868, and at the Medical Department 
of the University of Pennsylvania in 
1870; made improvements on the 
optometer and ophthalmoscope. 

Ristori, Adelaide, an Italian 
actress ; born in Cividale, Italy, Jan. 
29, 1822. At a very early age she 
played in comedy, but afterward ap- 
peared in tragedy. She married the 
Marquis Capranica del Grillo in 
1847, and afterward played in all the 
chief European capitals and in the 
United States, the last time in 1884. 
She died at Rome, Oct. 9, 1906. 

Ritchie, Mrs. Anna Cora (Mo- 
watt), an American author ; born in 
Bordeaux, France, in 1819. She went 
in early life to New York. A once 
popular actress, she retired from the 
stage in 1854, and devoted herself to 
the production of romances and 
dramas with no little success. She 
died at Henley-on-Thames, England, 
July 28, 1870. 

Rittenhonse, David, an Ameri- 
can astronomer; born near Philadel- 
phia, Pa., April 8, 1732. Originally 
a clock and mathematical instrument 
maker, he became master of the 
United States mint, and succeeded 
Franklin as president of the Ameri- 



Hitter 

can Philosophical Society. He wa 
the first to use spider lines in the 
focus of a transit instrument. He 
died in Philadelphia, Pa., June 26, 
1790. 

Bitter, Frederic Louis, an 
Americ.au musician ; born in Strass- 
burg, Alsace, in 1834 ; came to the 
United States in 1856, and soon made 
a reputation both here and abroad as 
a writer on musical topics. He died 
in Antwerp, Holland, July 6, 1891. 

Bitter, Karl, a German geogra- 
pher ; born in Quedlinburg, Prussia, 
Aug. 7, 1779 ; studied at Halle, became 
a private tutor in 1798, and in 1819 
succeeded Schlosser as Professor of 
History at the Frankfort Gymnasium ; 
became Professor extraordinary of 
Geography at the University of Ber- 
lin, where he remained till his death. 
His great work is " Geography in Its 
Relations to Nature and History," the 
first two volumes of which appeared 
in 1817-1818, but it ultimately com- 
prised upward of 20 volumes. He died 
in Berlin, Sept. 28, 1859. 

Ritual, the name of one of the serv- 
ice books of the Roman Church, in 
which are contained the prayers and 
order of ceremonial employed in the 
administration of certain of the sac- 
raments (communion out of Mass, 
baptism, penance, marriage, extreme 
unction) and other priestly offices of 
the Church, forms for churchings, 
burials and blessing. In the Anglican 
Church the " Book of Common Pray- 
er " may be said to contain the ritual. 
. Ritualism, a strict adherence to 
rites and ceremonies in public wor- 
ship. The term is more especially ap- 
plied to a tendency recently manifested 
in the Church of England, resulting in 
a series of changes introduced by vari- 
ous clergymen of the High Church 
party into the services of the Church. 
These changes may be described ex- 
ternally as generally in the direction 
of a more ornate worship, and as to 
their spirit or animating principle, as 
the infusion into outward forms of a 
larger measure of the symbolic ele- 
ment. 

Biver. Water falling on the land 
in the form of rain, or resulting from 
melting snow, or rising to the surface 
in springs, flows over the surface to a 
lower level. Where two slopes of land 



Bixey 

dip together the surface drainage col- 
lects to form a stream, and when 
evaporation is not very rapid several 
such streams ultimately unite and the 
volume of water they cairy flows to 
the sea or to a salt lake. Small 
streams are termed rivulets, rills, 
brooks, becks, or burns ; large streams 
are termed rivers, but the word has 
no precise reference to the magnitude 
of the stream to which it is applied. 

Biver Crab, a name given to a 
genus of crabs inhabiting fresh water, 
and having the carapace quadrilateral 
and the antenna? very short. 

Biver Tortoise, a name of a fami- 
ly of tortoises that are aquatic in their 
habits, coming to shore only to deposit 
their eggs. They are exclusively car- 
nivorous, subsisting on fishes, reptiles, 
birds, etc. Well-known species are the 
soft shelled turtle and^ the large and 
fierce snapping turtle of the United 
States. They- inhabit almost every 
river and lake in the warmer regions 
in the Old and New Worlds. 

Bives, Alfred Landon, an Ameri- 
can engineer ; born in Paris, France, 
March 25, 1830; studied at the Uni- 
versity of Virginia ; was graduated at 
the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees, 
Paris, in 1854 ; was assistant engineer 
on the completion of the National 
Capitol, Washington ; engineer in the 
construction of the aqueduct in Wash- 
ington ; and was in charge of the 
United States survey for improving 
the Potomac river. During the Civil 
War he was colonel of engineers in the 
Confederate army; was chief engineer 
of the Cape Cod Canal. Died 1903. 

Bives, Amelie, an American nov- 
elist ; born in Richmond, Va., Aug. 23, 
1863. "The Quick and the Dead," 
was her first success. She became the 
wife of John A. Chanler in 1888. 
They were divorced on account of in- 
compatibility. In 1896 she married 
Prince Pierre Troubetskoy, an artist. 

Biviere, Briton, an English sub- 
ject and animal painter ; born in Lon- 
don in 1840. He has exhibited at the 
Royal Academy since 1864, and is the 
greatest English animal painter since 
Landseer. 

Bixey, Presley Marion, an 
American physician ; born in Culpeper 
co., Va., July 14, 1852 ; was graduated 
at the University of Virginia in 1873 ; 



Rizal 

appointed an assistant surgeon in the 
navy, Jan. 28, 1874. He became the 
physician of President McKinley and 
his family ; attended Mrs. McKinley 
in her severe illness in San Francisco 
in the summer of 1901 ; and was with 
the President in Buffalo, N. Y., from 
the time he was shot, Sept. 6, till his 
death, Sept. 14, 1901. In accordance 
with the intention of President Mc- 
Kinley, Dr. Rixey was appointed by 
President Roosevelt surgeon-general of 
the navy, with the rank of rear-ad- 
miral, Jan. 21, 1902. 

Rizal, Jose, a Filipino patriot; 
born in Catamba, Luzon, in 1861. He 
was the son of Tagal parents, who des- 
tined him for the Church ; he was sent 
to Manila, where he entered the 
Ateneo Municipal, a school in charge 
of the Jesuits. In Manila Jose soon 
learned of the reproach attached to 
his Tagal origin. He was denied the 
honors due him as head of his class; 
and his patriotic poems and speeches 
met only the derision and hatred of 
the Spanish students. Though he had 
been destined for the Church, he 
studied for and took his medical degree 
at Manila. Then he went to Paris, 
Heidelberg, Leipsic, and in all these 
cities he continued his medical studies. 
He learned that Europe was almost 
ignorant of the Philippines, so he 
wrote a novel, portraying his birth- 
land, which was published in Berlin 
in 1887. He wrote a sequel to it 
which was published at Ghent in 1891. 
In 1887 Rizal went to Hong Kong 
where he organized the famous Philip- 
pine League, which was the source of 
the " Revolutionary Society of the 
Sons of the Nation." During several 
years of travel he constantly agitated 
Filipino revolt, and then in May, 
1892, returned to Manila. He was ar- 
rested and exiled to Dopitan, in one of 
the S. islands. In 1895 he was per- 
mitted to return to Luzon. He was, 
however, arrested at Barcelona and 
transshipped to Manila, tried and con- 
demned to death. His last wishes, that 
he might be united by civil marriage 
with Miss Josephine Bracken, whom 
he first met in Hong Kong, and who 
had gone to Manila when his trial be- 
gan; and the other that he should be 
shot through the breast, were granted. 
He was shot by a detail of native sol- 
diers, Dec. 80, 189G. 



Roasting 

Roach, John, an American ship- 
builder ; born in Mitchelstown, Ire- 
land, in 1815 ; came to the United 
States in 1829 ; he established a foun- 
dry in New York city, and erected the 
^Etna Iron Works, where he built the 
first compound engines ever made in 
the United States. In 1871 he pur- 
chased the shipyards in Chester, Pa., 
and under the name of the Delaware 
River Iron Shipbuilding and Engine 
Works enlarged them till their value 
was estimated at $2,000,000. He built 
the first ships of the new .United 
States navy. He died in New York 
city, Jan. 10, 1887. 

Roads, artificial pathways formed 
through a country for the accommoda- 
tion of travelers and the carriage of 
commodities. Though the Romans set 
an example as roadbuilders, some of 
their public highways being yet serv- 
iceable, the roads throughout most of 
Europe were in a wretched condition 
till toward the end of the 18th cen- 
tury. France was in advance of other 
countries in road making ; in England 
a decided improvement of the high- 
ways only began in the 19th century. 
Before the time of Macadam it was 
customary to use broken stones of dif- 
ferent sizes to form the roadway, the 
consequence being that in course of 
time the smaller stones sank, making 
the road rough and dangerous. Mac- 
adam early in the 19th century intro- 
duced the principle of using stones of 
uniform size from top to bottom. What 
is known as the rule of the road is 
that in passing other horsemen or 
carriages, whether going in the same 
or the opposite direction, the rider or 
driver must pass on the left hand of 
the other rider or driver. 

Roanoke, an independent city of 
Va.; on the Roanoke river and the 
Norfolk & Western railroad; 55 
miles W. of Lynchburg; is in a rich 
stock-raising, tobacco-growing, and 
iron-mining section; has manufac- 
tories of machinery and bridge and 
iron work, canneries, cotton mills, 
tobacco factories, and locomotive and 
car shops; and is the seat of Vir- 
ginia College, Gilmer School for 
Young Ladies, and Allegheny Insti- 
tute. Pop. (1910) 34,874. 

Roasting, the cooking of meat by 
direct action of fire, either before 



Bobbery 

the fire or in an oven. Roasting before 
an open fire is considered preferable 
to roasting in an oven (which is anal- 
ogous to baking), on account of the 
free ventilation to which it exposes 
the meat during the process. 

Bobbery, the unlawful taking away 
of money or goods of any value from 
the person of another, or in his pres- 
ence, either by violence or by putting 
him in fear. 

Robbia, Luca Delia, an Italian 
sculptor ; born in Florence in 1399 or 
1400. He designed and executed be- 
tween 1431 and 1440 10 panels of 
" Angels and Dancing Bojs " for the 
cathedral. Another great work by him 
was a bronze door, with 10 panels of 
figures in relief, for the sacristy of the 
cathedral, made between 1448 and 
1467. He sculptured, in marble, in 
1457-1458, the tomb of Federighi, 
Bishop of Fiesele. His name is closely 
associated with the production of fig- 
ures hi glazed or enamelled terra-cotta, 
made by a process which, though he 
did not invent it, he yet perfected 

freatly. He died in Florence, Feb. 
0, 1842. His principal pupil was his 
nephew Andrea (1435-1525), who 
worked chiefly at the production of 
enamelled reliefs, retables, and medal- 
lions, these last for the most part 
productions of the " Madonna and 
Child." His son Giovanni (1469- 
1529?) continued the activity of the 
family in this style of work ; his best 
productions are the frieze, representing 
the " Seven Works of Mercy," outside 
a hospital at Pistoja. 

Bobbins, Francis Le Baron, an 
American clergyman ; born in Ca- 
millus, N. Y., May 2, 1830 ; was gradu- 
ated at Williams College in 1854 ; held 
pastorates in Philadelphia for 25 
years ; founded the Oxford Presby- 
terian and Beacon Churches, the lat- 
ter an institutional church among the 
working class of the Kensington dis- 
trict of Philadelphia. 

Bobert, Duke of Normandy, 
gurnamed the Devil ; the younger son 
of Duke Richard II. by his marriage 
with Judith, a daughter of Count God- 
frey of Brittany. In 1027 he succeed- 
ed his elder brother. Richard III. The 
first years of his government were em- 
ployed in bringing his rebellious vas- 
bals into subjection. In 1034 his fleet 

E. 127. 



Bobert 

was wrecked off Jersey while on its 
way to England to support his 
nephews Alfred and Edward against 
Canute. He concluded a truce with 
Canute, by which the two princes were 
promised half of England. In 1033 
he set out to visit the holy places, and 
subsequently made the pilgrimage to 
Jerusalem on foot. While returning 
he died suddenly in Nicsea in Asia 
Minor (1035). William the Conquer- 
or was his son. - 

Bobert II., King of Scotland; 
born in Scotland, March 2, 1316; the 
son of Marjory, daughter of Robert 
Bruce, and of Walter, steward of 
Scotland, and was thus the first of the 
Stewart or Stuart kings. He was rec- 
ognized by Parliament in 1318 as 
heir to the crown. On the death of 
David II. he was crowned at Scone, 
Marc|| 26, 1371. An act of Parlia- 
ment in 1375 settled the crown on his 
sons by his first wife Elizabeth Mure 
of Rowallan, illegitimate by ecclesias- 
tical law. His reign was comparative- 
ly a peaceful one, one of the chief 
events being the battle of Otterburn. 
Died in Dundonald Castle, May 13, 
1390. 

Bobert III., King of Scotland, eld- 
est son of the preceding ; born in 1340 
and was originally called John, but 
changed his name on his coronation in 
1390. He trusted the management of 
affairs almost entirely to his brother, 
whom he created Duke of Albany. In 
1398 Albany was compelled to resign 
his office by a party who wished to 
confer it on the king's eldest son, 
David, Duke of Rothesay. War was 
renewed with England, and the battle 
of Homildon Hill, Sept. 14, 1402, re- 
sulted in a disastrous defeat of the 
Scotch. In this year the Duke of 
Rothesay died in Falkland Castle, 
where he had been imprisoned. Dread 
of Albany, who had recovered the re- 
gency, induced the king to send his 
second son, James, to France in 1406; 
but the vessel which carried him was 
captured by the English, and Henry 
IV. long detained him as a prisoner. 
Soon after this event Robert died in 
Rothesay, Bute, in 1406. 

Bobert, Henry Martyn, an 
American military engineer ; born in 
Robertsville, S. C., May 2, 1837 ; was 
graduated at the United States Mili- 



Robert of Gloucester 



Roberts 



tary Academy in 1857 ; served on fron- 
tier duty in 1858-1861 ; was on the 
staff of General McClellan and on duty 
as engineer during the Civil War ; 
was promoted captain in 1863. He is 
the author of the well-known treatise 
called " Robert's Rules of Order " 
(1876). 

Robert of Gloucester, an Eng- 
lish chronicler, living at the time of the 
battle of Evesham (1265). He is re- 
markable for a metrical chronicle of 
England, from the time of the fabu- 
lous Brutus to his own, based chiefly 
upon Geoffrey of Mpnmouth's book. It 
extends to 10,000 lines, and is one of 
the earliest epics of the English lan- 
guage. 

Roberts, Brigham Henry, an 
American journalist ; born in War- 
rington, Lancashire, England, March 
13, 1857. In the summer of JR66 he 
emigrated with his parents to Davis 
Co., Utah ; attended the University of 
Utah. Soon after his graduation he 
was called by the Mormon Church to 
its missionary service. After laboring 
for some years as a missionary he was 
elected to a high office in the Church. 
He also engaged in journalism and 
was for a -time editor-in-chief of the 
Salt Lake " Herald." In 1898 he was 
elected to Congress by a large major- 
ity. His election created widespread 
agitation throughout the country, and 
on Jan. 25, 1900, the House of Repre- 
sentatives by an overwhelming major- 
ity voted to exclude him as constitu- 
tionally ineligible, as a polygamist, to 
a seat in that body. 

Roberts, Charles George Dong- 
las, a Canadian poet; born in Doug- 
las, N. B., Jan. 10, 1860. He was an 
earnest advocate of Canadian national- 
ism, and such of his poetical com- 
positions as relate to this and other 
Canadian subjects are excellent. 

Roberts, Ellis Henry, an Ameri- 
can financier ; born in Utica, N. Y., 
Sept. 30, 1827 ; was graduated at Yale 
University in 1850. He was assistant 
treasurer of the United States in 
1889-1893, and became treasurer of 
the United States in 1897. 

Roberts, Frederick, Lord, an 
English military officer ; - born in 
Cawnpur, India, Sept. 30, 1832. He 
was brought to England when two 
years old, educated at Clifton, Eton, 



Sandhurst, and Addiscombe, and ent- 
ered the Bengal Artillery in 1851. 
His first taste of actual warfare was 
in the protracted siege of Delhi, during 
the Indian Mutiny and he took an ac- 
tive part in the subsequent operations 
down to the relief of Lucknow. He 
discharged the duties of assistant quar- 
termaster-general in the Abyssinian 
expedition of 1868, and in the Lushai 
expedition of 1871-1872. On the out- 
break of the Afghan war in 1878, 
Roberts, now Major-General, was ap- 
pointed to command the Kurram di- 
vision of the army. He forced in bril- 
liant fashion the Afghan position on 
the peak of Peiwar Kotul (8,500 feet 
above sea-level). After the murder of 
Sir Louis Cavagnari and the escort 
of the British mission at Kabul, he 
was given command of the force sent 
to avenge them. He defeated the 
Afghans at Charasia on Oct. 6, took 
possession of Kabul on the 12th, and 
assumed the government of the coun- 
try. On Aug. 9, Sir F. Roberts set out 
on his memorable march through the 
heart of Afghanistan to the relief of 
Kandahar, which he reached three 
weeks later. He immediately gave 
battle to Ayub Khan and routed him 
completely, capturing all his artillery 
and his camp ; was appointed Com- 
mander-in-Chief of the Madras army 
(1881), and held the rank of Com- 
mander-in-Chief in India 1885-1893. 
He was appointed Commander-in- 
Chief of the forces in Ireland in 1895 ; 
and in 1899 took command of the 
English forces in South Africa ; cap" 
turing Cronje, relieving Kimberly, and 
annexing the two republics. He re- 
turned to England and was made 
Commander-in-Chief to succeed Lord 
Wolseley. 

Roberts, (Henry) Chalmers, an 
American journalist ; born in Austin, 
Tex., July 31, 1870 ; was educated at 
private schools, and studied law at the 
University of Texas. After leaving 
college he engaged in journalism ; went 
to the seat of the Turko-Grecian war 
as a correspondent of the London 
" Daily News," and in the Spanish- 
American War was correspondent for 
the Brooklyn " Eagle," and the Lon- 
don " Daily Mail." He traveled in 
Egypt for Harpers, and became edi- 
tor of the English edition of 
"World's Work" in 1906. 



Robertson 

Robertson, William, a Scotch 
historian ; born in Borthwick, Scot- 
land, Sept. 19, 1721. Having com- 
pleted his theological studies at Edin- 
burgh, he obtained a license to preach 
and in 1743 was presented to the liv- 
ing of Gladsmuir, in East Lothian. 
He soon became distinguished by his 
eloquence as a preacher ; but it was 
not till 1759 that, by his " History of 
Scotland," he acquired a place among 
British classical writers. The distinc- 
tion he acquired by this work, which 
reached a 14th edition before his 
death, appeared in his successive pre- 
ferments. He became King's chap- 
lain in 1761, principal of the Univer- 
sity of Edinburgh in 17G2, and His- 
toriographer-Royal of Scotland in 
1764. He died near Edinburgh, June 
11, 1793. 

Robertson, William H., an 
American lawyer ; born in Bedford, 
N. Y., Oct. 10, 1823. During the Civil 
War he rendered efficient service in 
raising and organizing State troops for 
the Union armies. He was a member 
of Congress in 1867-1869 ; was elected 
to the New York State Senate in 1872 ; 
and was appointed collector of the 
port of New York in 1881. His nom- 
ination to this office by President Gar- 
field without consultation with the 
senators from New York, Roscoe 
Conkling and Thomas C. Platt, led to 
their resignation and to the defection 
of the " Stalwart " wing of the Re- 
publican party. He died in Katonah, 
N. Y., Dec. 6, 1898. 

Robeson, George Maxwell, an 
American lawyer ; born in Belvidere, 
N. J., in 1829 ; was- graduated at 
Princeton University in 1847; stud- 
ied law ; was admitted to the bar in 
1850, and in 1867 became attorney- 
general of New Jersey. He was ap- 
pointed Secretary of the Navy in 1869 ; 
served for a short time as Secretary 
of War on the resignation of General 
Belknap in 1867 ; and was elected to 
Congress in 1878 and 1880. After re- 
tiring from Congress, he practised law 
in Trenton, N. J., where he died, 
Sept. 27, 1897. 

Robeson, Henry Bellows, an 
American naval officer ; born in New 
Haven, Conn.. Aug. 5, 1842; was 
graduated at the United States Naval 
Academy in 1860; served through the 



Robespierre 

Civil War; participated in the action 
against the defenses of Charleston, S. 
C., April 7, 1863, and on July 10 
of the same ,vear led the landing party 
from the " New Ironsides " in an at- 
tack on and capture of the Confederate 
works on Morris Island ; took part in 
both attacks on Fort Fisher ; was pro- 
moted captain in 1887 ; commodore in 
1898 ; and rear-admiral in 1899 ; and 
was retired in the latter year. 

Robespierre, Maximilien Marie 
Isidore, a French revolutionist; born 
of a family of Irish origin, in Arras, 
May 6, 1758. Maximilien early 
showed unusual promise, and was edu- 
cated at Arras and at the College 
Louis-le-Grand at Paris, where Ca- 
mille Desmoulins was a fellow stu- 
dent. He was admitted avocat in 
1781, and next year was named crim- 
inal judge by the Bishop of Arras, 
but resigned his place soon after to 
avoid passing a sentence of death. He 
drew up the cahier or list of griev- 
ances for the guild of cobblers, and 
was elected to the States-General in 
1789 as one of the deputies for the 
tiers etat of Artois. 

Three days after the death of Mira- 
beau he called on the Assembly to 
prevent any deputy from taking office 
as minister for four years, and in the 
following month (May, 1791) carried 
the motion that no member of the pres- 
ent Assembly should be eligible for 
the next. Next followed Robespierre's 
appointment as public accuser, the 
king's flight to Varennes (June 21), 
Lafayette's last effort to control the 
sacred right of Insurrection on the 
Champ-de-Mars (July 17), the abject 
terror of Robespierre, his sheltering 
himself in the house of Duplay, a 
carpenter, his hysterical appeal to the 
club, the theatrical oath taken by ey- 
sry member to defend his life, and his 
being crowned with chaplets, along 
with Petion, and carried home in tri- 
umph by the mob at the close of the 
Constituent Assembly, Sept. 30. After 
seven weeks of quiet he sold his small 
patrimony and returned to Paris, to 
the house of Duplay, where he re- 
mained till the last day of his life. 

Meantime the Girondist party had 
seen formed in the new Legislative 
Assembly, its leaders the loudest, 
Brissot eager for war. Robespierre, 
who ever feared and disliked war, of- 



Robin 

fered a strenuous opposition in the de- 
bates of the Jacobin Club, and some- 
times, if seldom, in his endless and 
windy harangues rose into the region 
of real eloquence. In April, 1792, he 
resigned his post of public prosecutor. 
He was invisible during the crisis of 
Aug. 10, but joined the Hotel-de-Ville 
faction, and on Aug. 16 he presented 
to the Legislative Assembly its peti- 
tion for a Revolutionary Tribunal and 
a new Convention. It does not ap- 
pear, however, that he was in any 
sense directly responsible for the atro- 
cious September massacres in the 
prisons, or more than a mere acces- 
sory after the fact. For his reward 
he was elected first deputy for Paris 
to the National Convention, which 
opened on Sept. 21. 

The bitter attacks on him by the Gi- 
rondists were renewed only to throw 
Robespierre into a closer union with 
Danton and his party, but the final 
struggle was interrupted for a little 
by the momentous question of the 
king's trial. Robespierre opposed vig- 
orously the Girondist idea of a spe- 
cial appeal to the people on the king's 
death, and his execution (Jan. 21, 
1793) opened up the final stage of 
the struggle, which ended in a com- 
plete triumph of the Jacobins on June 
2 of the same year. The first Com- 
mittee of Public Safety a permanent 
Cabinet of Revolution was decreed 
in April, 1793, but Robespierre was 
not elected till July 27. 

He was now for the first time one 
of the actual rulers of France, but it 
is open to question whether for the 
whole 12 months from this time to the 
end he was not merely the stalking 
horse for the more resolute party 
within the Twelve. He was astute 
enough, moreover, to play off one force 
against another the Convention, 
the Commune, and the Committee, 
while he derived his strength from the 
constant worship of the club. 

The next scenes in the dark drama 
of the Revolution jvere the dark in- 
trigues and desperate struggles that 
sent Hebert and his friends to the 
scaffold on March 24, 1794, and Dan- 
ton and Robespierre's school fellow, 
Canaille Desmoulins, on April 5, after. 
The next three months he reigned su- 
preme, but his supremacy prepared the 
way for his inevitable fall. He nom- 



RoLin Hood 

inated all the members of the govern- 
ment committee, placed his creatures 
in all places of influence in the com- 
mune of Paris, sent his henchman 
Saint-Just on a mission to the armies 
on the frontier, assumed supreme con- 
trol of the Revolutionary Tribunal, 
and completely revolutionized its meth- 
od of operation by the atrocious meas- 
ure introduced by his creature Couthon 
on the 22d Prairial (June 10), to the 
effect that neither counsel nor wit- 
nesses need be heard if the jury had 
come otherwise to a conclusion. The 
fatal significance of this change a 
complete abrogation of all laws is 
seen in the fact that from this time 
till the day of Robespierre's death the 
daily tale of victims of the guillotine 
averaged almost 30. 

Meantime a party in the Convention 
was formed against Robespierre, and 
on July 27th he was openly accused 
of despotism. A decree of arrest was 
carried against him and he was thrown 
into Luxembourg prison. He was re- 
leased by his keeper on the night of 
the same day and conducted to the 
Hall of Commune where his supporters 
were collected. On the following day 
Barras was sent with an armed force 
to effect his arrest. Robespierre's fol- 
lowers deserted him and he was guil- 
lotined July 27, 1794, together with 
some 23 of his supporters. 

Robin, a name given several birds, 
especially to the Robin redbreast of 
Europe and to an American species of 
blackbird, also to the bluebird of Amer- 
ica. The typical American robin or 
migrating thrush is found in summer 
throughout North America from Alas- 
ka to Mexico. They retire from high- 
er latitudes only as their food begins 
to fail, or till driven S. by inundating 
snows. During the winter months they 
are numerous in the Southern States. 
Robin Hood, the hero of a group 
of old English ballads, represented as 
an outlaw and a robber, but of a gal- 
lant and generous nature, whose fa- 
miliar haunts are the forests of Sher- 
wood and Barnsdale, where he fleets 
the time carelessly in the merry green- 
wood. He is ever genial and good- 
natured, religious, respectful to the 
Virgin and to all women for her sake, 
with a kind of gracious and noble dig- 
nity in his bearing. He lives by the 
king's deer, though personally roost 



Robins 

loyal, and wages ceaseless warfare on 
all proud bishops, abbots, and knights, 
taking of their superfluity, and giving 
liberally to the poor and to all hon- 
est men in distress, of whatever degree. 
He is unrivalled with the bow and 
quarterstaff ; but in as many as eight 
of the extant ballads comes off the 
worse in the combat with some stout 
fellow, whom he thereupon induces to 
join his company. His chief comrades 
are Little John, Scathlok (Scarlet), 
and Much ; to these the " Gest " adds 
Gilbert of the White Hand and Rey- 
nold. A stalwart curtal friar, called 
Friar Tuck in the title, though not 
in the ballad, fights with Robin Hood, 
and apparently accepts the invitation 
to join his company, as he appears 
later in two broadsides which also 
mention Maid Marian. Such is the 
romantic figure of the greatest of En- 
glish popular heroes a kind of yeo- 
man counterpart to the knightly 
Arthur, who is the hero of Tennyson. 

There is no evidence worth anything 
that Robin Hood was ever more than 
a mere creation of the popular imag- 
ination. 

Robins, Benjamin, an English 
mathematician, the father of the mili- 
tary art of gunnery ; born in Bath, 
England, in 1707, of a poor Quaker 
family. Having obtained a little in- 
struction in mathematics, he prose- 
cuted this branch of science with great 
zest, and, having removed to London, 
set up for a teacher of mathematics, 
and published several mathematical 
treatises which gained for him consid- 
erable reputation. Robins next com- 
menced his great series of experiments 
on the resisting force of the air to 
projectiles, varying his labors by the 
study of fortification, and invented the 
ballistic pendulum. His great and 
valuable work, the " New Principles 
of Gunnery," on the preparation of 
which he had spent an enormous 
amount of labor, appeared in 1742, and 
produced a complete revolution in the 
art of gunnery. He died July 29, 1751. 

Robinson, Charles Seymour, an 
American clergyman ; born in Ben- 
nington, Vt., March 31, 1829. He is 
famed as a collector of hymns and 
tunes used in the Presbyterian 
Church. His publications include 
" Songs of the Church " ; " Laudes 
Domini " ; and others. Died 1899. 



Rob Roy 

Robinson, Edward, an American 
philologist ; born in Southington, 
Conn., April 10, 1794 ; was graduated 
at Hamilton College in 1816. In 1830 
he became Professor of Sacred Litera- 
ture at Andover, in 1837 Professor of 
Biblical Literature in the Union Theo- 
logical Seminary, New York. He 
then made an extensive survey of Pal- 
estine, collecting materials for " Bib- 
lical Researches in Palestine and Ad- 
jacent Countries" (1841). A second 
visit in 1852 yielded fruit for its sec- 
ond edition (1856). He died in New 
York city, Jan. 27, 1863. 

Robinson, Stillman 'Williams, 
an American inventor ; born in Read- 
ing, Vt., March 6, 1838; was grad- 
uated at the University of Michigan 
in 1863 ; Professor of Mechanical En- 
gineering at the University of Illinois 
in 1870-1880, and at the Ohio State 
University in 1878-1894. He resigned 
in the latter year to care for his 
inventions. He was the inventor of 
a thermometer-graduating machine ; 
machines for shoe manufacturing, etc., 
and published " Teeth of Great Wheels 
and the Robinson Templet Odonto- 
graph " : " Railroad Economics " ; 
" Principles of Mechanism " ; etc. 

Robinson Crusoe, Alexander Sel- 
kirk, who was found in the desert 
island of Juan Fernandez, where he 
had been left by Captain Stradling. 
He remained on the island four years 
and four months, when he was res- 
cued by Captain Rogers and taken to 
England. 

Rob Roy (Gaelic, " Red Robert"), 
the Scotch Robin Hood ; born in 1671 ; 
second son of Lieut.-Col. Donald Mac- 
gregor of Glengyle. In consequence of 
losses incurred about 1712 in unsuc- 
cessful speculations in cattle, for 
which he had borrowed money from 
the Duke of Montrose, his lands were 
seized, his houses plundered, and his 
wife shamefully used, turned adrift 
with his children in midwinter. Mad- 
dened by these misfortunes, Rob Roy 
gathered his clansmen and made open 
war on the duke, sweeping away the 
whole cattle of a district, and kidnap- 
ing his factor with rents to the value 
of more than $15,000. Marvellous 
stories are current round Loch Katrine 
and Ltfch Lomond (where a cave near 
Inversnaid still bears his name) of 



Roc 

bis hairbreadth escapes from capture 
of his evasions when captured, an< 
of his generosity to the poor, whose 
wants he supplied at the expense oi 
the rich. They in turn gave him time- 
ly warning of the designs of his two 
arch-foes, -the Dukes of Montrose anc 
Athole, and of the red-coats they callec 
to their aid from Dumbarton and Stir- 
ling; besides, 'Rob Roy enjoyed the 
protection of the Duke of Argyll, 
having assumed the name Campbell, 
his mother's. Late in life he is said 
to have turned Catholic, but in the 
list of subscribers to the Episcopalian 
Church history of Bishop Keith occurs 
the name " Robert Macgregor alias 
Rob Roy." The history came out in 
1734, and on Dec. 28 of that year Rob 
Roy died in his own house at Bal- 
quhidder. He left five sons, two of 
whom died in 1734 James, an out- 
law, in Paris ; and Robin, the young- 
est, on the gallows at Edinburgh for 
abduction. 

Roc, or Rukh, a fabulous bird of 
immense size, mentioned in the " Ara- 
bian Nights Entertainments." 

Rochambean, Jean Baptiste 
Donation de Vinivur, Comte de, a 
Marshal of France; born in Vendome, 
France, July 1, 1725 ; entered the 
French army in 1742, distinguished 
himself in the Seven Years' War, and 
became Field-Marshal in 1761. In 
1780-1782 he commanded the French 
forces sent to aid the revolted British 
colonists in America. He became gov- 
ernor of Artois and Picardy, and sub- 
sequently of Alsace, was made a Mar- 
shal in 1790, and commanded the 
Army of the North in 1792. During 
the Reign of Terror he narrowly es- 
caped the guillotine. He died in Tho- 
ri, May 10, 1807- 

Roche, James Jeffrey, an Ameri- 
can author; born in Queen's County, 
Ireland, May 31, 1847. He went to 
Boston in 1866 and became in 1890 
an editor of the " Pilot," and pub- 
lished : " Songs and Satires " ; " Bal- 
lads of Blue Water " ; etc. D. 1908. 
Rochelle Salt, the popular name 
of the tartrate of soda and potash, 
this salt having been discovered in 
1672 by a Rochelle apothecary named 
Seignette. It occurs, when pure, in 
colorless transparent prisms, gener- 
ally eight sided; and in taste it re- 



Rock-crystal 

sembles common salt. This salt is a 
mild and efficient laxative. 

Rochester, a city and county-seat 
of Monroe co., N. Y. ; on the Gene- 
see river, 229 miles W. of Albany. 
In the center of the city are the Up- 
per Falls of the Genesee, a perpendic- 
ular cataract of 96 feet. Rochester 
is built on a plateau on both sides of 
the river, 263 feet above Lake On- 
tario. 

The city is the trade center of a 
large and rich agricultural region. In 
the Genesee river there are three falls, 
96, 26 and 83 feet respectively, giv- 
ing abundant waterpower for manu- 
facturing. There are about 1,120 
factory-system plants, employing over 
$71,500,000 capital and 32.500 wage- 
earnors, paying $15.000.000 for wages, 
and having an output of $82.700,000. 
The most important of these are flour 
mills, with a combined output val- 
ued at nearly $5,000,000; the largest 
carriage and wagon factory in the 
United States, and manufactories of 
steam engines, agricultural machinery, 
lamps, stoves, glassware, perfumery, 
india-rubber goods, photographic ma- 
terials, cigarettes, shoes, etc. In the 
suburbs is an extensive nursery, in- 

luding two great plants for the pack- 
ing and shipment of garden and farm 
seeds. 

Rochester is the seat of the Univer- 
sity of Rochester, and the Rochester 
Theological Seminary. The most re- 
markable structure in the city and 
county is the aqueduct which carries 
;he Erie canal across the Genesee 
river. It is of cut stone, 848 feet 
ong, with a channel 45 feet wide, and 
s supported by nine arches. Pop. 
1900) 162,608; '(1910) 218,149. 

Rochester, University of, a co- 
educational institution in Rochester, 
N. Y. ; founded in 1850 under the 
auspices of the Baptist Church. 

Rock, in geology, any considerable 
aggregation of mineral matter, wheth- 
er hard and massive like granite, mar- 
)le, etc., or friable and unconsolidated 
ike clay, sand, and gravel. In popular 
anguage, however, it is any large 
mass of stony matter, as distinguished 
"rom soil, mud, sand, gravel, etc. 

Rock-cod, the American food fish 
>f the genus Scorpaena. 

Rock-crystal. See QUARTZ. 




Rockefeller, John. Davidson, an 

American capitalist; born in Rich- 
ford, Tioga Co., N. Y., July 8, 1839. 
He engaged in business when he was 
19, and soon showed ability in detail 
and discretion in management. When 
discoveries of petroleum roused spec- 
ulative interest in 1860, he owned a 
refinery in Cleveland, O. He was 
quick to perceive that his opportuni- 
ties were at hand. His business de- 
veloped and enlarged with amazing ra- 
pidity. In 1870 he became president 
of the Standard Oil Company, and ac- 
cumulated vast wealth, of which, in 
his retirement from active business, 
he made great gifts to promote edu- 
cation, science, religion, and sys- 
tematic charity. In 1911 his known 
benefactions aggregated $114,000,000. 
His largest gifts were to the General 
Education Board, $50,000,000; Uni- 
versity of Chicago, $24,800,000; Rush 
Medical College, $6,000,000; and the 
Rockefeller Institute of Medical Re- 
search, $2,600,000. 

Rockf ord, city and capital of Win- 
nebago county, 111.; on the Rock 
river and the Illinois Central and 
other railroads; 87 miles N. W. of 
Chicago; is essentially a manufactur- 
ing city, having large farm imple- 
ment, paper, flour, cotton, woolen, 
furniture, machinery, barbed-wire, 
clothing, hosiery, and sewing-machine 
plants; and is the seat of a Federal 
Building, Rockford College, Illinois 
Art School, and a sanitarium. Pop. 
(1910) 45,401. 

Rockhill, William Woodville, 
an American diplomatist; born in 
Philadelphia, Pa., in 1854; entered 
the diplomatic service in 1884 as sec- 
ond secretary of legation at Peking, 



China; was appointed first assistant 
secretary of State in 1896. He was 
appointed director of the Bureau of 
American Republics in May, 1890. 
After the rescue of the foreign dip- 
lomats in Peking in 1900, he was ap- 
pointed special ambassador to con- 
clude peace negotiations. In 1905- 
1909 he was Minister to China; then 
became Ambassador to Russia. 

Rocking Stones, or Logans, 
large masses of rock so finely poised 
as to move backward and forward 
with the slightest impulse. They oc- 
cur in nearly every country. Some 
of them appear to be natural, others 
artificial; the latter seem to have 
been formed by cutting away a mass 
of rock round the center-point of its 
base. The former are chiefly granitic 
rocks, in which felspar is abundantly 
present. Various explanations have 
been given of the uses of these singu- 
lar objects. They are supposed to 
have been used in very early times 
for purposes of divination, the num- 
ber of vibrations determining the 
oracle; hence it came to be believed 
that sanctity was acquired by walk- 
ing round them. 

The famous rocking stone of Tandil 
in the Argentine Republic, 250 miles 
S. of Buenos Ayres, weighs over 700 
tons, yet is so nicely poised that it 
rocks in the wind and may be made 
to crack a walnut. 

Rock Island, a city in Rock Island 
co., 111.; on the Mississippi river. 
The city derives its name from a beau- 
tiful island in the river, which belongs 
to the United States, and is used by 
the Federal government for a great 
central arsenal, a large armory and 



Rock of Chickamanga 



Rocky Mountains 



foundry, military headquarters, etc. 
Before and during the Black Hawk 
War there were block-house forts on 
this island, and during the Civil War 
many Confederate prisoners were 
kept here. Pop. (1910) 24,335. 

Rock of Chickamauga, a name 
applied to Gen. George H. Thomas, 
U. S. A., on account of his heroic 
stubbornness in holding his position at 
Chickamauga during the Civil War, 
in September, 1863. 

Rock Pigeon, a pigeon that builds 
its nest in hollows or crevices of rocks 
and cliffs. 

Rock Salt, common salt, or chlo- 
ride of sodium, occurring as a mineral 
and in a solid form. It is a very ex- 
tensively-diffused mineral, and in some 
places forms great rock and even 
mountain masses. 

Rock Scorpion (Buthus or Scor- 
pio afer), a species of scorpion found 
in Africa, averaging about six inches 
in length. The bite of this animal, 
though not absolutely fatal, is yet 
considered to be dangerous. 

Rock Snake, a name sometimes 
given to any individual of the genus 
Python. Rock snakes are among the 
largest of living reptiles ; specimens 
of 18 and 20 feet long have been 
brought to the United States. They 
kill their prey by constriction, and 
swallow it whole, commencing with 
the head. During the digestion the 
animal is lazy and unwilling even to 
defend itself when attacked. 

Rocky Mountains, The, a chain 
of mountains in the central and W. 
portions of the North American con- 
tinent, are a prolongation of the great 
Mexican Cordillera, extending from 
the N. frontier of Mexico N. in sev- 
eral ranges, one of which, the E., 
passing through British North Amer- 
ica, reaches the Arctic Ocean in about 
lat. 70 N. ; while the W., passing 
near the Pacific coast, terminates near 
Prince William's Sound, in about lat. 
60 N. The territory occupied ex- 
tends from the Californian shores of 
the Pacific to about Ion. 105 W. The 
whole area properly included by the 
mountains and their intervening val- 
leys in the country belonging to the 
United States is estimated at about 
980,000 square miles. The mountain- 
ous belt of Eastern New Mexico and 



Colorado has a general N. and S. di- 
rection. On its E. margin stands 
Pike's Peak, while in Colorado and 
Nebraska are those portions of the 
chain known as the Three Parks, and 
the Medicine Bow Mountains. From 
Long's Peak, in about lat. 40, the 
range trends N. W., connecting with 
the Wind River Mountains, which lat- 
ter includes Fremont's Peak, 13,870 
feet above sea-level. Beyond that peak 
to the N. boundary of the United 
States the range separates the Dako- 
tas and Washington, and the pass 
known as Lewis and Clarke's, -in lat. 
47, is the most N. pass of its system 
in the Union. In British North Amer- 
ica the " Rockies " divide the waters 
of the Pacific from those which flow 
into Hudson Bay. The next great 
range of this mountain system toward 
the W. is that called the Wahsatch 
Mountains, lying S. from Great Salt 
Lake, and toward the N. W. this re- 
gion is traced along the W. bank of 
the Colorado toward the Sierra Neva- 
da, which forms the E. boundary of 
California, and the watershed of the 
Colorado, and Lewis' Fork of the Co- 
lumbia river, in lat. 37 and 46 re- 
spectively. Nearly the whole area be- 
tween these points, and for a breadth 
of about 10 degrees of longitude, 
stretching E. from the Sierra Nevada, 
is a vast and partially explored terri- 
tory, from 4,000 to 5,000 feet above 
sea-level. In British America this 
section of the chain interlocks with the 
main trunk of the Rocky Mountains. 
The W. portion of the chain com- 
mences at the S. extremity of the 
Lower California peninsula, then 
passing through California it bifur- 
cates into two ranges, known, re- 
spectively, as the Sierra Nevada, at a 
distance of about 160 miles from the 
coast, and the Coast Range, skirting 
the shores of the Pacific from 10 to 
50 miles inland, till it reconnects with 
the Sierra Nevada in Northern Cal- 
ifornia, in which section Mount Shas- 
ta attains an altitude of about 14,000 
feet above tide water. Throughout all 
of Oregon and Washington, the dis- 
tinction is still maintained between 
the main range, here called the Cas- 
cade Mountains, and the Coast Range. 
The latter traverses the central por- 
tion of Vancouver Island for its whole 
length, and on the mainland in British 



Rocky Mountain Goat 



Rodgers 



Columbia the Sierra Nevada proceeds 
N. and is crossed by Fraser river. 
Several depressions are met with, 
which serve as passes for the routes 
from Sonora, Sacramento, and Marys- 
ville, to the E. by the canyon of Car- 
Bon river, the range is crossed at an 
elevation of about 7,250 feet; and by 
the Truckee Pass the elevation is 
about 6,000 feet. From these passes 
the route is N. E. to the main road 
which crosses the Sierra Nevada in 
the N. portion of California, and which 
passes by the Humboldt Mountains 
to Salt Lake City. To the E. of Salt 
Lake this route continues across the 
Wahsatch range to the great South 
Pass of the Wind River Mountains, 
immediately S. of Fremont's Pea 1 :, and 
thence down the Sweetwater to the 
N. fork of the Platte. A more S. 
route connects Pike's Peak with the 
Utah basin, and thence turning S. W. 
crosses the Sierra Nevada near its 
junction with the Coast Range in 
Northern California, meeting at this 
point the route from Santa Fe through 
New Mexico, and the still more S. one 
from Texas, which follows the valley 
of the Gila, and crosses that river 
and the Colorado at their junction. 
Mount St. Elias, in Alaska, is one of 
the highest peaks of this extensively 
ramified mountain system, though sur- 
passed in height by the neighboring 
Mount McKinley. 

Rocky Mountain Goat, a beau- 
tiful animal of the antelope family, 
which inhabits the heights of the 
Rocky Mountains between the forests 
and the snow line, from the 44th to 
the 65th degree of latitude. It is 
about the size of a goat, but is hand- 
somer and more thickset, and has 
stronger legs. It is completely cov- 
ered with long, thick, white hair. 

Rod, called also a pole, or perch, 
a measure of length, equivalent to 
5% yards, or 16% feet. The square 
rod, called generally a rood, is em- 
ployed in estimating masonry work, 
and contains 16% X 16%, or 272% 
square feet. 

Rodentia, or Rodents, an order 
of mammiferous quadrupeds occupy- 
ing in many respects an intermediate 
place between the purely carnivorous 
and purely herbivorous mammalia, and 
BO forming the connecting link be- 



tween them. The order embraces rats 
and mice, hares, rabbits, guinea pigs, 
and other well-known animals. In 
the greater part of the details of their 
organization the inferiority of the ani- 
mals is displayed ; but some of them 
enjoy a certain dexterity, using their 
forefeet for carrying their food to 
their mouth; while others again (the 
squirrels) climb trees with facility. 
Rodents are most abundant in tem- 
perate regions. They are found in all 
parts of the world. 

Roderic, "the last of the Goths," 
whose tragic death, coincident with 
the downfall of the Visigothic monar- 
chy in Spain, has inspired poets and 
romancers, to throw round him a halo 
of glory. According to the common 
legend he was the son of a noble who 
was blinded by King Witiza. A con- 
spiracy having been formed against 
Witiza, Roderic was elevated to the 
throne (710). The sons of Witiza 
bided their time. At length certain 
nobles were engaged in a plot to de- 
throne Roderic by Count Julian, the 
governor of Ceuta (in North Africa). 
Julian brought with him a Moorish 
chief named Tarik at the head of 12,- 
000 men. Roderic met the invading 
army on the banks of the Guadalete, 
on July 26, 711. The battle raged 
six days ; but the sons of Witiza de- 
serted during the contest, and the rout 
of the Visigoths was complete. Rod- 
eric either died on the field or was 
drowned in the Guadalete. 

Rodgers, Christopher Raymond 
Perry, an American naval officer i 
born in Brooklyn, N. Y., Nov. 14, 
1819. In 1833 he entered the United 
States navy as a midshipman ; was 
in active service during the Seminole 
and Mexican Wars ; and in 1861 be- 
came commander. He commanded, in 
1862, an expedition to St. Augustine 
and up the St. Mary's river. In the 
attack on the defenses of Charleston, 
April 7, 1863, he was fleet-captain 
on the " New Ironsides." He was ap- 
pointed superintendent of the United 
States Naval Academy in 1874, 1877, 
and 1881, and in the same year was 
promoted rear-admiral. He was re- 
tired in 1881; and died in Washing- 
ton, D. C., Jan. 8, 1892. 

Rodgers, John, an American naval 
officer ; born in Harford co., Md., July 



Rodgers 

11, 1771. He was a captain in the 
merchant service by 1789, and in 1798 
entered the navy as lieutenant, be- 
coming captain the year after. In 
1805 he extorted from Tripoli and 
Tunis treaties abolishing the former 
tribute and forbidding the slavery of 
Christian captives. On June 23, 1812, 
he fired the first shot in the war with 
Great Britain. He died Aug. 1, 1838. 

Rodgers, John, an American nav- 
al officer ; born in Maryland, Aug. 8, 
1812 ; died in Washington, D. C., May 
5, 1882. He was the son of Commo- 
dore John Rodgers, and entered the 
navy in 1825. He was in the war 
against the Seminole Indians, and ren- 
dered excellent service during the Civil 
War. He was rear-admiral in 1871, 
and in 1877-82 was superintendent of 
the United States Naval Observatory. 

Rodin, Angnste, a French sculp- 
tor ; born in 1840 ; considered the 
most virile of modern masters. 

Rodman, Isaac Peace, an Ameri- 
can military officer; born in South 
Kingston, R. I., Aug. 18, 1822. He 
entered the Union army ; was captain 
in 1861, and the same year led his 
company in the battle at Bull Run, 
July 21. He was soon promoted to 
colonel and was at the capture of 
Roanoke Island and at Newbern, N. 
C. In 1862 he was promoted Briga- 
dier-General of volunteers. He com- 
manded a division at Fredericksburg. 
In 1862 he was engaged in the battle 
of Antietam, where he received a 
wound from which he died in Sharps- 
burg, Md., -Sept. 30, 1862. 

Rodman, Thomas Jefferson, an 
American military officer ; born in 
Salem, Ind., July 30, 1815. He be- 
came famous as the inventor of the 
cannon bearing his name. He died in 
Rock Island, 111., June 7, 1871. 

Rodney, Caesar, an American pa- 
triot; born in Dover, Del., Oct. 7, 
1728. In 1765 he was a delegate to 
the Stamp Act Congress in New York. 
In 1767, when the tea act was .pro- 
posed in the British Parliament, the 
Delaware Assembly appointed him to 
aid in the formulation of an address 
of remonstrance to the king. In 1775 
he was elected for a second time 
to the Continental Congress, and in 
May of that year became Brigadier- 
General of the Delaware militia. He 



Roe 

served with distinction during the 
Revolutionary War, becoming a Ma- 
jor-General. He was elected president 
of Delaware, in which office he served 
till 1782, when he was reelected to 
Congress, but did not take his seat 
because of illness. He died in Dover, 
Del., June 29, 1784. 

Roe (Capreolus caprea), a small 
species of deer inhabiting Europe and 
some parts of Western Asia. It was 




fcOEBUCK. 

once plentiful in Wales and in the 
hilly parts of England, as well as in 
the S. of Scotland, but is now very 
rare. 

Roe, Azel Stevens, an American 
novelist ; born in New York city, Aug. 
16, 1798. He left the wine business 
for the production of literature, at- 
taining considerable success. He died 
in East Windsor Hill, Conn., Jan. 1, 
1886. 

Roe, Charles Francis, an Ameri- 
can military officer ; born in New York 
city, May 1, 1848 ; was graduated at 
the United States Military Academy 
in 1868, and was assigned to the 1st 
Cavalry, then on the Pacific slope. He 
was post-adjutant at Camp Harney, 
Or., under the late Major Elmer. He 
was mustered out with the 2d Cavalry 
in 1870, but was reappointed. In Jan- 
uary, 1888, he returned to New York, 
and the following year was made cap- 
tain of the newly organized Troop A. 
In 1898 he was appointed a Briga- 
dier-General of United States volun- 
teers. 

Roe, Edward Payson, an Ameri- 
can novelist ; born in Orange co., N. 
Y., March 7, 1838. He wrote a great 







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Roe 

number of very popular novels, which 
were republished in England and oth- 
er countries. He died in Cornwall, 
N. Y., July 19, 1888. 

Roe, Edward Thomas, an Ameri- 
can lawyer ; born in Shawneetown, 
111., Nov. 28, 1847; was educated at 
the Illinois Wesleyan University and 
the University of Albany ; began the 
practice of law at Bloomington, 111 
in 1870 ; appointed assistant to the 
United States attorney for the South- 
ern District- -of Illinois in 1871, and 
served in that capacity and as United 
States district attorney for 16 years. 

Roe, Francis Asbury, an Ameri- 
can naval officer ; born in Elmira, N. 
Y., Oct. 4, 1823 ; appointed an acting 
midshipman, Oct. 19, 1841 ; ordered 
to the sloop-of-war " John Adams," 
and served a full cruise ; on the break- 
ing out of the Civil War he was or- 
dered to the " Pensacola," was execu- 
tive officer of that ship at its memo- 
rable passage down the Potomac river, 
through 9 miles of batteries, under 
constant fire. He took the " Pensa- 
cola " to New Orleans, led the star- 
board (van) column of Farragut's 
fleet at the battle and passage of Forts 
Jackson and St. Philip, and 80 miles 
above the Chalmette Forts. He was 
detached from the " Pensacola," at 
New Orleans, Aug. 5, 18G2, and or- 
dered to command the gunboat " Ka- 
tahdin," and the same day fought the 
battle of Baton Rouge. He was pro- 
moted lieutenant-commander, Aug. 6, 
1862. Subsequently he was ordered to 
the Sounds of North Carolina. Roe 
was promoted captain April 1, 1872, 
and rear-admiral, Nov. 3, 1884, and 
was retired Oct. 4, 1885. He died in 
Washington, D. C., Dec. 28, 1901. 

Roebling, John Augustus, an 
American engineer; born in Muhlhau- 
sen, Prussia, June 12, 1806 ; came 
to the United States in 1831, and set- 
tled in Pittsburg, Pa. He was invited 
to make plans and estimates for build- 
ing a suspension bridge across the 
chasm of the Niagara river to unite 
the New York Central and Great 
Western (Canada) railroads. He se- 
cured the contract and in four years 
the first locomotive and train crossed 
the bridge, in March. 1855. His great- 
est work was the bridge over the East 
river, connecting New York and 



Roentgen 

Brooklyn. He died while the construc- 
tion was in progress, in Brooklyn, 
July 22, 1869, and the bridge was 
completed by his son. 

Roebling, Washington Augus- 
tus, an American civil engineer; born 
in Saxenburg, Pa., May 26, 1837; 
son of the preceding. He was gradu- 
ated at the Rensselaer Polytechnic In- 
stitute, Troy, N. Y., in 1857; was an 
engineer officer during the Civil War 
and attained the rank of colonel of 
volunteers. In 1865 he resigned from 
military service to become assistant to 
his father. In 1869 he was assistant 
engineer under his father in the con- 
struction of the suspension bridge 
over the East river ; and on his fath- 
er's death became chief engineer, which 
post he held till the completion of the 
bridge in 1883. He then became su- 
perintendent of the large wire manu- 
factory at Trenton, N. J. 

Roentgen, "William Conrad, 
Baron, a German scientist; born in 
Holland in 1845 ; was graduated in 
medicine at the University of Zurich 
in 1870. On Nov. 8, 1895, he made 
the discovery of what has since been 
known as the Roentgen, or X-rays. 

Roentgen, or Rontgen, Rays. 
certain invisible non-refractible rays 
emanating from the surface of an 
electrically excited vacuum tube op- 
posite the cathode electrode, having 
power (1) of permeating objects im- 
pervious to light or heat rays, (2) of 
discharging electrified bodies or sur- 
faces exposed to them, (3) of excit- 
ing fluorescence in fluorescent salts, 
and (4) of affecting sensitized photo- 
graphic plates in a manner similar to 
light rays. They were discovered by 
William Conrad Roentgen, Professor 
of Physics at the Royal University of 
Wurzburg, in Germany, toward the 
close of the year 1895. Not being cer- 
tain as to the nature of the rays, Pro- 
fessor Roentgen provisionally termed 
them the X-rays. Besides obtaining 
radiographs of the bones in the living 
human hand, Professor Roentgen ra- 
diographed a compass card completely 
inclosed in a metallic box. Subsequent 
experiments have established the fact 
that the transparency of a body to 
the X-rays is proportional to its den- 
sity. As to the real nature of the X- 
rays eminent physicists differ, but all 



Rogation Days 



Rogers 



agree that they must be 'regarded as of 
a nature essentially different from or- 
dinary light. 

The Roentgen rays pass very freely 
through the various tissues and fluids 
of the body, but are obstructed by the 
bones ; hence it is possible to take a 
perfect shadow-picture, or radiograph, 
as it is now generally called, of the 
bones of a living person or animal. 
By far the most important result of 
the discovery has been the application 
of the new rays to surgery. Radio- 
graphs of bones fractured, splintered, 
or diseased, have been of much prac- 
tical use in aiding diagnosis and treat- 
ment. Needles, bullets and other for- 
eign objects in various parts of the 
body have been successfully located, 
and the invention of the fluoroscope 
has made it possible to use the Roent- 
gen rays, not only in surgical cases, 
in searching for fractures, etc., but to 
undertake anatomical studies and make 
the diagnosis of internal diseases. The 
full physiological effect of the X-rays 
are not yet clearly understood. 

A very interesting and practical ap- 
plication of the rays was made at 
Pittsburg, Pa., early in March, 1897. 
By means of a very powerful X-ray 
apparatus, designed by Prof. Reginald 
A. Fessenden of the Western Univer- 
sity of Pittsburg, tests were made that 
prove that blow holes in heavy ar- 
mor can be detected by the aid of ra- 
diography. 

Rogation Days, the Monday, 
Tuesday, and Wednesday before Holy 
Thursday or Ascension Day, so called 
from the supplications or litanies 
which are appointed in the Roman 
Catholic church to be sung or recited 
in public procession by the clergy and 
people. 

Roger I., Count of Sicily, the 
youngest of the 12 sons of Tancred de 
Ilauteville of Normandy ; born in that 
duchy in 1031. When 27 years of age 
he joined his famous brother Robert 
Guiscard in South Italy. In 1000 
Roger was invited to Sicily to fight 
against the Saracens ; he took Mes- 
sina and settled a garrison there. Ev- 
erywhere the Normans were welcomed 
by the Christians of Sicily as their de- 
liverers from the Moslem yoke, and 
they won town after town, till in 1071 
the Saracen capital, Palermo, was 
captured Count Roger spent the rest 



of his life in completing the conquest 
of Sicily. As early as 1060 Duke 
Robert had given his brother the half 
of Calabria, with the title of count. 
After Robert's death (1085) Roger 
succeeded to his Italian possessions, 
and became the head of the Norman 
power in Southern Europe. Roger 
died in Mileto, Calabria, in June, 1101. 
Roger II., King of Sicily, second 
son of the preceding ; born in 1096. 
By the Anti-Pope Anacletus in 1130 
he was honored with the title of king. 
In spite of revolts of the barons, and 
though the German emperor and the 
Greek emperor were leagued against 
him, and Innocent II. excommunicat- 
ed him, he defended himself with suc- 
cess and defeated the Pope's forces at 
Galluzzo, taking Innocent prisoner. 
Peace was made, the Pope annulled all 
excommunication against Roger, and 
recognized his title of king. He died 
in 1154. 

Rogers, Henry J., an American 
inventor ; born in Baltimore, Md., in 
1811. He devised the Rogers code of 
flag signals adopted by the United 
(States navy in 1840, and invented the 
first pyrotechnic system of signals ever 
used in the United States. He was as- 
sociated with Samuel F. B. Morse in 
the construction of the first telegraph 
line in the United States, between 
Washington and Baltimore, in 1844. 
Subsequently he invented several im- 
portant telegraphic instruments, and 
was one of the incorporators of the 
Magnetic Telegraph Company, the first 
in the United States, in 1845. In the 
Civil War he was an acting master in 
the navy. He died in Baltimore, Md., 
Aug. 20, 1&79. 

Rogers, Jacob S., nn American 
manufacturer ; born in Paterson, N. 
J. ; was president of the Rogers Loco- 
motive and Machine Works in that 
city. He bequeathed his estate to the 
Metropolitan .Museum of Art in New 
York city. He died July 2, 1901. 

Rogers, John, an American sculp- 
tor ; born in Salem, Mass., Oct. 30, 
1829; was a machinist in early life; 
developed a talent in clay modelling; 
and in 1858 went to Europe to study. 
He returned to the United States in 
1859, and soon became known by the 
" Rogers Groups," illustrative of Amer- 
ican and army life. His first large 



Rogers 

work was the "equestrian statue of 
General Reynolds," now at the city 
hall in Philadelphia. He died in New, 
Canaan, Conn., July 26, 1904. 

Rogers, Randolph, an American 
sculptor; born in Waterloo, N. Y., 
July 6, 1825; studied art in Europe. 
He then returned to the United 
States ; for five years had a studio 
in New York, and established himself 
in Rome in 1855. He executed the 
bronze doors of the National Capitol 
at Washington, D. C. He died Jan. 
15, 1892. 

Rogers, Robert, an American 
author; born in Dunbarton, N. H., in 
1727 ; commanded during the French 
and Indian Wa<- (1755-1763) the cel- 
ebrated corps known as " Rogers's 
Rangers." He left in MS. " A Diary 
of the Siege of Detroit in the War 
with Pontiac," first published in 1860. 
He died in 1784. 

Roger Williams University, a 
coeducational institution for colored 
students in Nashville, Tenn. ; founded 
in 1863 under the auspices of the 
Baptist Church. 

Rohlfs, Friedricli Gerhard, a 
German-African traveler; born in 
Vegesack, Germany, April 14, 1831. 
In 1863, and again in 1865, he trav- 
eled in North Africa, making his way 
on the latter occasion from Tripoli to 
Lake Tchad, Bornu, etc., and finally 
to Lagos on the W. coast. He joined 
the English Abyssinian expedition in 
1867. He traveled across North Amer- 
ica in 1875-1876, and in 1878 he un- 
dertook a new journey to Africa and 
penetrated to the Kufra Oasis. In 
1880 he visited Abyssinia. He was 
appointed German general-consul at 
Zanzibar in 1884, and returned to 
Germany in 1885. His works in- 
clude, among others : " Journey 
through Morocco"; "Land and Peo- 
ple of Africa " ; " What News from 
Africa " ; etc. He died in Goderburg, 
Prussia, June 3, 1896. 

Rokitansky, Karl, Baron von, 
founder of the school of pathological 
anatomy in Vienna ; born in Konig- 
gratz, Bohemia, Feb. 19, 1804; stud- 
ied medicine at Prague and Vienna ; 
in 1828 was appointed assistant to 
the Professor of Pathological Anatomy 
in the university of the latter city and 
in 1834 succeeded him. He likewise 



Roland 

held the offices of prosector at the city 
infirmary, legal anatomist to the city, 
and medical adviser to the ministry 
of education and public worship. In 
1869 he was made president of the 
Austrian Academy of Sciences. He 
retired from work in 1875, and died 
July 23, 1878. He stands preeminent 
among German medical teachers as the 
one who established pathological anat- 
omy as the basis of all original scien- 
tific inquiry in the domain of medi- 
cine. 

Roland, the name of the most 
prominent hero in the Charlemagne 
legend. Unlike most legendary he- 
roes, Roland is a figure in history 
as well as in poetry and fable, though 
it cannot be said that the place he 
occupies as a historical personage is 
an imposing one. His character was 
that of a brave and loyal warrior, but 
simple and unsuspecting in his dispo- 
sition. According to the Song of Ro- 
land, an old French epic, he was killed 
at the battle of Roncesvalles after a 
desperate struggle with the Saracens 
who had attacked Charlemagne's rear 
guard. Several epics are based upon 
his exploits. 

Roland, Manon Jeanne Philip- 
pon, Madame, wife of Jean Marie, 
and herself, the spirit of the Girondin 
party; the daughter of a Paris en- 

? raver ; born in that city, March 17, 
754. She became the wife of Ro- 
land in 1779, and as her love for him 
was founded on his antique virtues and 
his philosophic spirit, she has been 
called "The Heloise of the 18th cen- 
tury." She became the sharer in all 
his studies, aided him in editing his 
works, and during his two ministries 
acted as his secretary and entered into 
all the intrigues of his party without 
debasing herself by their meanness. 
After the flight of her husband, Mad- 
ame Roland was arrested by order of 
the Paris Commune under the dicta- 
tion of Marat and Robespierre, and 
consigned to the Abbaye prison, from 
which, on Oct. 31, she was removed 
to a more wretched abode in the Con- 
ciergerie. She was executed Nov. 8, 
1793. 

Roland de la Platiere, Jean 
Marie, a French statesman ; born in 
Villefranche, France, Feb. 18, 1734; 
was inspector-general of manufactures 
and commerce in that city when the 



Rolfc 



Roman Architecture 



French Revolution commenced, and 
having embraced popular principles 
became, in 1790, member of the Lyons 
municipality. The practical philoso- 
phy, commercial knowledge, and strict 
simplicity of Roland, recommended 
him to men of all parties, and when 
the patriot ministry was formed in 
March, 1792, he was made minister of 
the interior. He kept his position till 
June 13, when the royal veto on the 
proposal to form a patriot camp 
around Paris, and on the decree 
against the priests, provoked his cele- 
brated letter to the king, written, 
however, by Madame Roland, and, as 
a consequence, his almost instant dis- 
missal. The struggle between the Gi- 
rondists and the municipality under 
the guidance of Robespierre filled up 
the period till May 81 ; the former 
party were then vanquished, and Ro- 
land was among the number who saved 
their lives by flight. He found an 
asylum with his friends at Rouen, but 
deliberately killed himself with his 
cane sword on hearing of the execution 
of his wife, Nov. 15, 1793. 

Rolfe, William James, an 
American editor; born in Newbury- 
port, Mass., Dec. 10, 1827. He was 
a distinguished Shakespearean scholar, 
and published many editions of 
Shakespeare, annotated. Died 1910. 

Roller (Coraciidse), a family of 
Picarian birds characteristic of the 
Ethiopian and Oriental regions, though 
the common roller is extensively dis- 
tributed in the Palsearctic region and 
a few species enter the Australian re- 
gion. 

Boiler Boat, a boat propelled by 
wheels which roll over and on the 
water instead of cutting through it. 
Designed by Ernest Bazin, a French- 
man, in 1896; its slowness made it a 
failure. 

Boiler Skate. The earliest roller 
skate was patented by a Frenchman in 
1819. About 1864 the mania for 
rolling skating first appeared in En- 
gland ; but in 1866 the " rinking " 
fever broke out in Australia, and 
spread thence to England and the 
United States. Since that time the 
craze has appeared at intervals only 
to again die out. The most recent of 
these arose in 1884-1885 in the Unit- 
ed States, but soon shared the fate of 
its predecessors. The most recent 



form has only two wheels, set one be- 
hind the other, and resembling the ice 
skate in its form and action. 

Bollin, Ambrose Lncien, a West- 
Indian historian ; born in Trois Riv- 
ieres, Guadeloupe, in 1692. He devot- 
ed his leisure to researches upon the 
Caribs and other Indian tribes, and 
published several works which are still 
considered authorities upon the sub- 
jects he covered. He died at Pointe 
a Pitre in 1749. 

Bollin, Charles, a French histo- 
rian ; born in Paris, Jan. 30, 1661. 
His best-known work is the " Ancient 
History" (1730-1738), often reprint- 
ed in France, England, and the United 
States. He died in Paris, Sept. 14, 
1741. 

Boiling Mill, a combination of 
machinery used in the manufacture of 
malleable iron and other metals of the 
same nature. By it the iron which is 
heated and balled in the puddling fur- 
nace is made into bars or sheets. 

Rollims, Alice Marland (Wel- 
lington), an American verse writer; 
born in Boston, June 12, 1847. She 
died in Boston, Dec. 5, 1897. 

Boman Architecture. It can 
hardly be said that the early Romans 
had any style of architecture of their 
own, since they borrowed their ideas 
of building first from the Etruscans 
and afterward from the Greeks. In 
the time of Romulus their dwellings 
were of the rudest description, being 
chiefly composed of straw ; and at a 
later period their temples were only 
small square buildings, scarcely large 
enough to contain the statues of their 
deities. The first king who construct- 
ed works of a large class requiring 
architectural skill was Ancus Martius. 
His first attempt was the building of 
the city and port of Ostia, at the 
mouth of the Tiber. During the first 
two Punic wars many temples were 
erected ; but they do not appear to 
have been of great magnificence. Al- 
together, very little taste had bee^ 
shown in the Roman buildings till their 
conquests extended and they became 
intimate with the more costly buildings 
of their enemies. Metellus Macedoni- 
cus, the contemporary of Mummius, 
the victor of Corinth, was the first 
who built a temple of marble at Rome ; 
but from that time most of the larger 



Roman Candle 



Romance Languages 



edifices were built of that material. 
Grecian art and architecture were also 
introduced about the same period. Un- 
der Julius Caesar, many new and mag- 
nificent buildings were erected ; and 
during the Golden Age, under Au- 
gustus, most of the finest edifices were 
built ; architects flocked from all quar- 
ters, and especially from Greece, to 
beautify the city. It was said of Au- 
gustus " that he found Rome built 
of brick and left it of marble." After 
this period, however, architecture de- 
clined till Constantine transferred the 
seat of government to Byzantium, 
when a new style was introduced. 

A characteristic feature in Roman 
architecture, and one that entered 
largely in the system, is the employ- 
ment of order above order in the 
same building. While this arrange- 
ment is faulty, for it is incompatible 
with the requirements of the highest 
standard of taste, yet still, at the same 
time, it proves the Roman aptness 
of invention and versatility of design. 
The style of architecture called the 
Roman order was invented by the 
Romans from the Ionic and Corinthian 
orders ; and hence it is sometimes 
called the Composite order. 

Roman Candle, a species of fire- 
works consisting of a tube partially 
filled with alternating perforated stars 
and small charges of gunpowder. Fire 
communicated to the upper end ignites 
the charges successively, which throw 
out the stars till all are discharged. 

Roman Catholic Clmrch, the 
name of that community of Chris- 
tians who profess the same faith, par- 
take of the same sacraments and sac- 
rifice, and are united under one head, 
the Pope or Bishop of Rome, called 
successor of St. Peter, and under the 
oishops subject to him. Its essential 
parts are the Pope, bishops, pastors 
so far as they are priests and laity. 
The distinctive characteristic of the 
Roman Church is the supremacy of the 
papacy. After the Council of Trent 
Pope Pius IV. added to the formal 
profession of faith the articles on 
transubstantiation, invocation of 
saints, and others which chiefly dis- 
tinguish the Roman from other Chris- 
tian communities. 

The total number of Roman Catho- 
lics throughout the world is estimated 
at 300,000,000. According to a special 



census report on " Religious Bodies " 
(2 vols., 1910), there were in the 
United States 12,482 church organi- 
zations; 11,881 church edifices; 15,177 
clergy of all ranks; 12,079,142 popu- 
lation belonging to the Church; and 
11.172 Sunday schools, with 62.470 
officers and teachers, and 1,481,535 
scholars. The hierarchy included an 
apostolic delegate, one cardinal, 13 
archbishops and 90 bishops. Church 
edifices were valued at $292,638,787. 

Romance. Romance has long 
since lost its original signification in 
every country except Spain, where it 
is still occasionally used in speaking 
of the vernacular, as it was in the 
Middle Ages when Latin was the lan- 
guage of the lettered classes and of 
documents and writings of all kinds. 
But even there its commoner applica 
tion is, as elsewhere, not to a lan- 
guage, but to a form of composition. 
In English it has been almost invari- 
ably applied to a certain sort of prose 
fiction, and, in a secondary sense, to 
the style and tone prevailing therein. 
By " the romances," using the term 
specifically, we generally mean the 
prose fictions which, as reading be- 
came a more common accomplishment, 
took the place of the lays and " chan- 
sons de geste " of the minstrels and 
trouveres, and were in their turn re- 
placed by the novel. Of these the 
most important in every way are the 
so-called romances of chivalry, which 
may be considered the legitimate de- 
scendants of the " chansons de geste." 
The chivalry romances divide natural- 
ly into three families or groups ; the 
British (which, perhaps, would be 
more scientifically described as the Ar- 
morican or the Anglo-Norman), the 
French, and the Spanish ; the first 
having for its center the legend of 
Arthur and the Round Table ; the sec- 
ond formed round the legend of Char- 
lemagne and the Twelve Peers; and 
the third consisting mainly of Amadis 
of Gaul followed by a long series of 
sequels and imitations of one kind ot 
another. 

Romance ILanjniages, a general 
name for those modern languages that 
are the immediate descendants of the 
language of ancient Rome. They in- 
clude the Italian, French, Provencal, 
Spanish, Portuguese, Rumanian, and 
Romansch. 



Romanesque Architecture 



Romanesque Architecture, a 

general term applied to the styles of 
architecture which prevailed from the 
6th to the 12th centuries. Of these 
there are two divisions: (1) The de- 
based Roman, prevalent from the 5th 
to the llth centuries, and including 
the Byzantine modifications of the 
Romans, and (2) the late or Gothic 
Romanesque of the llth and 12th 
centuries, comprising the later Byzan- 
tine, the Lombard, and the Rhenish, 
Saxon, and Norman styles. The for- 
mer is a pretty close imitation of the 
Roman, with modifications in the ap- 
plication and distribution of the pe- 
culiar features ; the latter is Gothic in 
spirit, having a predominance of ver- 
tical lines, and various other new fea- 
tures. 

Roman Roads, certain ancient 
roads in Great Britain which the Ro- 
mans left behind them. They were 
uniformly raised above the surface of 
the neighboring land and ran ^ in a 
straight line from station to station. 

Romans, Epistle to the, one of 
the books of the New Testament, writ- 
ten by the Apostle Paul, and ad- 
dressed to the Christian Church at 
Rome. It is the 5th in order of time, 
though placed first among the epis- 
tles, either from the predominance 
of Rome, or because it is the longest 
and most comprehensive of the apos- 
tle's epistles. It is generally agreed 
to have been written about A. D. 58, 
after he had passed through a length- 
ened period of experience. That it is 
the genuine and authentic production 
of the apostle has rarely been called 
in question, and is supported by the 
etrongest evidence. 

Roman Walls, certain walls or 
ramparts in Great Britain construct- 
ed by the Romans. The most celebrat- 
ed of these is the wall built by Ha- 
drian (A. D. 120) between the Tyne and 
the Solway. It was further strength- 
ened by Severus, and hence is often 
called the wall of Severus. In 139 
Lollius Urbicus built a second wall 
or N. rampart between the Forth and 
the Clyde, which occupied the same 
line as the chain of forts built by 
Agricola (A. D. 80-85). It is known 
as the wall of Antoninus. These walls 
formed the N. boundaries of the Ro- 
man dominions in Great Britain, and 



Rome 



were built to prevent the incursions of 
the Picts and Scots. 

Rome, the most powerful State of 
antiquity; founded about 753 B. o. 
by a settlement from Alba Longa led 
by Romulus. At first the new city 
was ruled by kings, but in 509 B. o. 
the people established a republic which 
lasted for 500 years. Its most im- 
portant feature was the struggle be- 
tween the plebeians and the patricians^ 
settled finally in 286 B. c., by admis- 
sion of plebeians to a share in the 
government Meanwhile Rome had 
been gradually spreading out, and by 
275 B. c. was mistress of all Italy. 

The next 30 years were crucial ia 
the history of Rome. Her aggressive 
policy in the Mediterranean brought 
her face to face with Carthage, and 
under their military genius Hanni 
bal, the Carthaginians threatened the 
very existence of Rome itself. Car- 
thage was finally burned to the ground 
in 146 B. c. By 133 B. c. Rome had 
conquered Macedonia and Asia Mi- 
nor. 

At this point begins the decline of 
Rome as a republic. A series of bit- 
ter civil wars centralized the govern- 
ing power in the hands of a few lead- 
ers and in 48 B. c. Julius Caesar was 
created Imperator. With Caesar the 
republic and Rome's greatest period 
came to an end. Under the republic 
the power of Rome had been extend- 
ed from Arabia to Great Britain, and 
from Spain to Armenia. 

In 27 B. c. Octavian became first 
emperor of Rome under the title of 
Augustus. His immediate successors 
added slightly to Roman territory, but 
under Marcus Aurelius the decline be- 
gan. From A. D. 180 to 284 Rome 
grew gradually weaker. In 284 Dio- 
cletian reorganized the empire, and 
for nearly 200 years these reforms 
delayed the inevitable disruption; but 
in 395 the empire separated into two 
divisions ; the Eastern, or Byzantine, 
and the Western ; and in 476 the 
I Western, or Roman empire, was final- 
ly overthrown, and Odoacer, a German, 
became King of Italy. 

Rome, the capital of Italy, as 
formerly of the Roman empire, re- 
public, and kingdom, and long the 
I religious center of Western Christen- 
| dom, is one of. the most ancient and 
1 interesting cities of the world. It 



Rome 

stands on both sides of the Tiber, 
about 15 miles from the sea. The city 
is tolerably healthy during most of the 
year, but in late summer and early 
autumn malaria prevails to some ex- 
tent. It has been greatly improved 
in cleanliness and healthfulness since 
it became the capital of modern Italy. 

The streets of ancient Rome were 
crooked and narrow, till after the fire 
that took place in Nero's reign, when 
the new streets were made both wide 
and straight. In the reign of Augus- 
tus the population is believed to have 
amounted to about 1,300,000, and in 
that of Trajan was not far short of 
2,000,000. 

Ancient Rome was adorned with a 
vast number of splendid buildings, in- 
cluding temples, palaces, public halls, 
theaters, amphitheaters, baths, porti- 
coes, monuments, etc., of many of 
which we can now form only a very 
imperfect idea. The oldest and most 
sacred temple was that of Jupiter Cap- 
itolinus, on the Capitoline Hill. The 
Pantheon, ,a temple of various gods 
(now Church of S. Maria Rotonda), 
is still in excellent preservation. It is 
a great circular building with a dome 
roof of stone 140 feet wide and 140 
feet high, a marvel of construction, 
being 2 feet wider than the great dome 
of St. Peter's. The interior is light- 
ed by a single aperture in the center 
of the dome. Other temples were the 
Temple of Apollo, which Augustus 
built of white marble, on the Pala- 
tine, containing a splendid library, 
which served as a place of resort to 
the poets ; the Temple of Minerva, 
which Pompey built in the Campus 
Martius, and which Augustus covered 
with bronze ; the Temple of Peace, 
once the richest and most beautiful 
temple in Rome, built by Vespasian, in 
the Via Sacra, which contained the 
treasures of the temple of Jerusalem, 
a splendid library, and other curiosi- 
ties, but was burned during the reign 
of Commodus ; the temple of the Sun, 
which Aurelian erected to the E. of 
the Quirinal ; and the magnificent 
temple of Venus, which Caesar caused 
to be built to her as the origin of his 
family. The principal palace of an- 
cient Rome was the Palatium or im- 
perial palace, on the Palatine Hill, a 
private dwelling house enlarged and 
adopted as the imperial residence by 

E. 128. 



Rome 

Augustus. Succeeding emperors ex- 
tended and beautified it. 

Among the theaters, those of Pom- 
pey, Cornelius Balbus, and Marcellus 
were the most celebrated. That of 
Pompey, in the Campus Martius, was 
capable of containing 40,000 persons. 
The most magnificent of the amphi- 
theaters was that of Titus, completed 
A. D. 80, now known as the Coliseum 
or Colosseum. Though only one-third 
of the gigantic structure remains, the 
ruins are still stupendous. The prin- 
cipal of the circuses was the Circus 
Maximus, between the Palatine and 
Aventine, which was capable of con- 
taining 260,000 spectators. With 
slight exception its walls have entirely 
disappeared, but its form is still dis- 
tinctly traceable. 

The public baths or thermae in 
Rome were also very numerous. The 
largest were the Thermae of Titus, 
part of the substructure of which may 
still be seen on the Esquiline Hill ; 
the Thermae of Caracalla, even larger, 
extensive remains of which still exist 
in the S. E. of the city ; and the 
Thermae of Diocletian, the largest and 
most magnificent of all, part of which 
is converted into a church. Of the 
triumphal arches the most celebrated 
are those of Titus (A. D. 81), Severus 
(A. D. 203), and that of Constantine 
(A. D. 311), all in or near the Forum 
and all well preserved structures. 

It was not till the 17th century that 
the modern city was extended to its 
present limits on the right bank, by a 
wall built under the pontificates of 
Urban VIII. (1623-1644) and Inno- 
cent X. (1644-1655), and inclosing 
both the Janiculum and the Vatican 
hills. The boundary wall on the left 
or E. bank of the river follows the 
same line as that traced by Aurelian 
in the 3d century, and must in many 
parts be identical with the original 
structure. The walls on both banks 
are built of brick, with occasional por- 
tions of stone work, and on the out- 
side are about 55 feet high. The 
greater part dates from A. D. 271 to 
276. The city is entered by 12 gates 
(several of those of earlier date being 
now walled up) and several railway 
accesses. Since Rome became the cap- 
ital of united Italy great changes have 
taken place in the appearance of the 
city, many miles of new treets being 



Rome 

built, and much done in the way of 
paving, drainage, and other improve- 
ments. It has thus lost much of its 
ancient picturesque appearance, and 
is rapidly acquiring the look of a great 
modern city with wide, straight streets 
of uniform-looking tenements having 
little distinctive character. It is still, 
however, replete with ever varying 
and pleasing prospects. 

The most remarkable of the churches 
is the Cathedral of St. Peter, the 
largest and most imposing to be found 
anywhere. Another remarkable church 
is that of San Giovanni in Laterano, 
on an isolated spot near the S. wall of 
the city. From the central balcony 
the Pope pronounces his benediction 
on Ascension day ; and the church is 
the scene of the councils which bear 
its name. 

Among other churches are Sta. 
Maria della Pace, celebrated for its 
paintings, particularly the four Sibyls, 
considered among the most perfect 
works of Raphael ; Sta. Maria del 
Popolo, interesting from the number 
of its fine sculptures and paintings 
(Jonah by Raphael, ceiling frescoes 
by Pinturicchio, and mosaics from 
Raphael's cartoons by Aloisio della 
Pace). 

The Vatican, adjoining St. Peter's, 
comprises the old and new palaces of 
the Popes (the latter now the ordi- 
nary papal residence) , the Sistine 
chapel, the Loggie and Stanze, con- 
taining some of the most important 
works of Raphael, the picture gallery, 
the museums (Pio-Clementino, Chiar- 
amonti, Etruscan and Egyptian), and 
the library (220,000 volumes and over 
25,000 MSS.). The palace of the 
Quirinal was formerly a favorite sum- 
mer residence of the Popes, but is now 
occupied by the King of Italy. The 
Palazzo della Cancelleria is the only 
palace on the left bank of the river 
still occupied by the ecclesiastical 
authorities. The building was de- 
signed by Bramante, and is one of the 
finest in Rome. 

Among educational institutions the 
first place is claimed by the university, 
founded in 1303. The most flourish- 
ing period of the university was the 
time of Leo X. (1513-1522), under 
whom the building still occupied by 
it was besrun. It is now attended by 
over 3,000 students and auditors. 
Pop. (1909) 575,000. 



Ronmey 

Rome, city and capital of Floyd 
county, Ga.; on the Coosa river and 
the Southern and other railroads; 75 
miles N. W. of Atlanta; is one of 
the most important manufacturing 
cities in the State; the seat of 
Shorter College for Women (Bapt.) 
and Battey and Emergency hospitals. 
Pop. (1910) 12,099. 

Rome, a city in Oneida county, 
N. Y.; on the Mohawk river, the Erie 
and Black River canals, and several 
railroads; 14 miles N. W. of Utica; 
is in a noted dairying section; has 
large locomotive works, iron, brass, 
and copper mills, and manufactories 
of plows, cheese presses, knit goods, 
canned goods, and compressed air 
motors; and contains the Central New 
York Institution for Deaf Mutes, 
State Custodial Asylum, and Jervis 
Library. Pop. (1910) 20,497. 

Romero, Don Matias, a Mexican 
diplomatist ; born in Oascaca, Mexico, 
Feb. 24, 1837; was graduated at the 
Academy of Theoretical and Practical 
Law, Mexico City, in 1855. He was 
admitted to the bar in 1857 and at an 
early age entered public life, being 
sent to Washington, D. C., as secretary 
of the Mexican legation in 1859. In 
1860 he was made charge d'affaires, 
but in 1863 returned to Mexico to 
take part in the war against the 
French. Subsequently he was made 
minister to the United States ; Secre- 
tary of the Treasury of Mexico, and 
postmaster-general. In 1882 he was 
reappointed minister to the United 
States and remained so till his death. 
He was a member of the International 
American Conference and was a pro- 
lific writer, publishing upward of 50 
volumes of technical reports. He died 
in Washington, D. C., Feb. 30, 1898. 

Romney, George, an English 
painter ; born in Rickside, Lancashire, 
Dec. 15, 1734. He steadily rose in 
popularity, and was finally recognized 
as inferior only to Reynolds and 
Gainsborough as a portrait-painter; 
some critics even placed him higher 
than either. His residence in London 
was interrupted by occasional visits 
to the Continent for purposes of study, 
and his most prosperous period dates 
from 1775, after his return from a 
visit of 18 months to Rome. Many 
distinguished Englishmen and manyj 
ladies of rank sat to him for their por-J 



Roninlns 



Itoolswoocl Pottery 



traits. He did not neglect historical 
or imaginative compositions, and he 
contributed several pictures to Boy- 
dell's famous Shakespeare gallery, 
founded in 1786. Fine examples of 
bis work command high prices. He 
died in Kendal, Nov. 15, 1802. 

Romulus, mythical founder and 
first King of Rome. According to the 
legends, he was the son of the vestal 
Rhea Sylvia by the god Mars, Sylvia 
being a daughter of Numitor, rightful 
heir of the King of Alba, but deprived 
by his brother. Exposed with his 
twin brother Remus,, the babes were 
suckled by a she wolf, and afterward 
brought up by a shepherd. Their 
parentage was discovered, and they 
determined to found a city on the 
banks of the Tiber, the scene of their 
exposure. The right to choose the site 
was acquired by Romulus ; and Remus 
not acquiescing, in his disappointment, 
was slain. Inhabitants for the new 
city were found by establishing a ref- 
uge for murderers and fugitive slaves 
on the Capitoline hills, and by carry- 
ing off the Sabine maidens at a feast 
to which they were invited. This led 
to war with the Sabines, which ended, 
through the intervention of the Sabine 
women, in a union of Romans and 
Sabines, under their two kings, Romu- 
lus and Titus Tatius. The latter was 
Boon slain, and Romulus reigned alone. 
He was regarded as the author of the 
fundamental division of the people 
into tribes, curiae, and gentes, and of 
the institution of the senate and the 
comitia curiata. The date commonly 
assigned for the foundation of Rome 
is 753 B. c. 

Rondeau, or Rondo, a kind of 
poetry which returns, as it were, to 
the same point, or in which part is 
repeated, thus containing a refrain. 
In music, a light form of composition, 
in which the subject or theme returns 
frequently; it usually forms the last 
movement of a symphony or sonata. 

Ronsard, Pierre de, a French 
poet ; born in Vendomois, France, 
Sept. 11, 1524. After a short diplo- 
matic career, he devoted himself to 
literary studies and became the chief 
of the band of seven poets afterward 
known as the " P16iade." Ronsard's 
popularity and prosperity during his 
life were very great. Henry II., 
Francis II., and Charles IX. esteemed 



him, and the last signally honored the 
poet. He died Dec. 27, 1585. 

Rontgen. See ROENTGEN. 

Rood, a cross or crucifix ; specifical- 
Iy7 a representation of the crucified 
Saviour, or, more generally, of the 
Trinity, placed in Catholic churches 
over the altar screen, hence termed 
the rood screen. 

Roof, the external covering on the 
top of a building ; sometimes of stone, 
but usually of wood overlaid with 
slates, tiles, lead, etc. Since the intro- 
duction of iron in the construction of 
roofs, spaces of almost any width can 
be roofed over. Also that which re- 
sembles, or corresponds to, the 
cover of a building ; as, the roof of the 
mouth, the roof of the firmament, etc. 

Rook, a European species of crow 
resembling in size and color the car- 
rion crow, but differing in having the 
base of the bill whitish and scurfy, 
and bare of feathers. The rook is 
gregarious at all seasons, resorting 
constantly to the same trees every 
spring to breed, when the nests may 
be seen crowded one over another 
upon the upper branches. 

Rooke, Sir George, an English 
admiral ; born near Canterbury, Eng- 
land, in 1650. He entered the navy 
at an early age and rose to be vice- 
admiral in 1692. For his gallantry in 
a night attack on the French fleet off 
Cape La Hogue he was knighted in 
1692. His further services include 
the destruction of the French and 
Spanish fleets in Vigo Bay (1702), 
and a share ha the capture of Gibral- 
tar in July, 1704. In the following 
August he fought a French fleet of 
much superior force, under the Comte 
de Toulouse, off Malaga. The result 
was undecisive, and this fact was 
used against Rooke by his political op- 
ponents. Sir George quitted the serv- 
ice in disgust in 1705. He served in 
several Parliaments as member for 
Portsmouth. He died near Canter- 
bury, Jan. 24, 1709. 

Rookwopd Pottery, The, a ce- 
ramic establishment founded in Cincin- 
nati in 1880 by Mrs. Maria Long- 
worth Storer, whose father, Joseph 
Longworth, was the founder of the 
art school and a chief patron of the 
art museum of the same city. The 
distinguishing mark of Rookwood 



Roon 



Roosevelt 



faience in all its wares is the deco- 
rative quality of the color grounds, 
carefully studied with reference to 
harmony. 

Ropii, Albrecht Theodor von, a 
Prussian war minister ; born in Pleus- 
hagen, Prussia, April 30, 1803. He 
entered the army at the age of 18, and 
speedily developed a high talent for 
the theoretical and educational branch- 
es of his profession. In 1866 he was 
made general of infantry, and was 
present with the army in Bohemia 
during the Seven Weeks' war against 
Austria. On the conclusion of the 
war Von Roon was made a count, and 
on Jan. 1, 1873, he became a field- 
marshal and minister-president of 
Prussia. In November of the same 
year, however, he laid down his public 
offices and retired to his estate in 
Silesia, where he chiefly resided till 
his death. He died in Berlin, Feb. 
13, 1879. 

Roosevelt, Robert Barnwell, an 
American lawyer; born in New York 
city, Aug. 7, 1829. He was an enthu- 
siastic sportsman, and published : 
" The Game Birds of the North," and 
" Progressive Petticoats," a humorous 
satire on female physicians. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, an Ameri- 
can statesman and 26th President of 
the United States; born in New York 
city, Oct. 27, 1858; was graduated at 
Harvard University in 1880 and be- 
gan the study of law. The next year he 
was elected to the Assembly from the 
21st District of New York, serving in 
the Legislatures of 1883, 1884, and 
1885. While chairman of the Commit- 
tee on Cities, he introduced reform 
legislation which has proved immense- 
ly beneficial to the people of New York. 
One of his measures was the act taking 
from the Board of Aldermen power to 
confirm or reject the appointments of 
the mayor. He was chairman of the 
noted Legislative Investigating Com- 
mittee which bore his name and which 
revealed many of the abuses existing 
in the city government in the early 
eighties. 

In 1886 Mr. Roosevelt was the Re- 
publican candidate for mayor against 
Abram S. Hewitt, United Democracy, 
and Henry George, United Labor. 
Mr. Hewitt was elected by about 
22,000 plurality. Mr. Roosevelt was 
appointed a Republican member of the 



United States Civil Service Commis- 
sion by President Cleveland in his 
first administration. His ability and 
rugged honesty in the administration 
of the affairs of that office greatly 
helped to strengthen his hold on popu- 
lar regard. He continued in that office 
till May 1, 1895, when he resigned to 
accept the office of police commissioner 
from Mayor Strong. His record as 
president of the board was of the 
highest character. He found the ad- 
ministration of affairs in a demoralized 
condition, but the same energetic 
methods that had characterized all his 
work, the same uncompromising hon- 
esty that is the most prominent note in 
his character, " when applied to police 
affairs, soon brought the administra- 
tion of the department to a high de- 
gree of efficiency. 

From his New York office he was 
called by President McKinley, April 0, 
1897, to be Assistant Secretary of the 
Navy. There again his energy and 
quick mastery of detail contributed 
much to the successful administration 
of the department and the preparation 
of the navy for the most brilliant feats 
in naval warfare in the history of the 
world. . 

When war was declared against 
Spain Mr. Roosevelt refused to re- 
main in the quiet government office. 
For years he had spent his summers 
on a Dakota ranch, and learned to 
know cowboys as strong, sincere men, 
on whom the nation could rely. From 
these the famous cavalry troop known 
as the " Rough Riders " was largely 
recruited. Four years' membership in 
the 8th Regiment of the New York 
State National Guard, to which he 
belonged and in which he was for a 
time a captain, furnished at least a 
basis for his brilliant military career. 
But more than all else that induced 
him to go to the front were his de- 
votion to the cause for which the war 
was fought and his love for an actiye 
life. These same reasons drew to him 
scores of young men of prominent fam- 
ilies from all parts of the country, 
who joined the Western cavalrymen. 
The regiment thus formed was known 
as Roosevelt's Rough Riders, though 
it was commanded by Colonel Wood 
of the regular army, Roosevelt being 
second in command, with the rank, till 
promoted, of lieutenant-colonel. 



Root 

For bravery in the battle of Las 
Guasimas Roosevelt was promoted 
colonel and in the three days of fight- 
ing before Santiago, and especially in j 
the magnificent charge up San Juan' 
Hill, he acted with conspicuous gal- j 
lantry. On the return of the Rough j 
Riders from Cuba, Roosevelt was the 
popular idol of the country ; and de- 
spite considerable opposition from pro- 
fessional politicians was nominated 
for governor of New York on the Re- 
publican ticket, Sept. 27, 1898. He 
was elected by a plurality of 18,000, 
Nov. 4. In the Republican National 
Convention held in Philadelphia in 
the summer of 1900 Roosevelt was en- 
thusiastically nominated for Vice- 
President on the Republican ticket 
headed by William McKinley. He was 
elected Nov. 4, and was formally in- 
stalled March 4, 1901. On the death 
of President McKinley in Buffalo, 
N. Y., Sept. 14, 1901, Roosevelt took 
the oath of office as his successor, and 
became the 26th President of the 
United States. In 1904 he was elected 
President by a popular plurality of 
2,545,515 votes and an electoral ma- 
jority of 196 over Judge Alton B. 
Parker, the Democratic candidate. 
In this term he gave the country a 
vigorous administration and developed 
a characteristic line of policies having 
in view the betterment of the national 
life. Immediately after the close of 
his term he withdrew from public life, 
joined the editorial staff of " The Out- 
look," and spent fifteen months in 
traveling and hunting in Africa and in 
visiting the principal capitals of 
Europe. While abroad he acted as the 
special ambassador of the United 
States at the funeral of King Ed- 
ward VII. 

Early in 1912 he announced that he 
would not be a candidate for the Presi- 
dential nomination in that year, but 
later developed much opposition to the 
Taft administration and sought the 
nomination. When the Republican 
National Convention met in Chicago 
in June he declared that he had been 
defrauded out of many votes by the 
decisions of the National Committee 
on contests by various sets of dele- 
gates, and instructed his supporters to 
take no part in the proceedings. Of the 
total ballots for the nomination on 



Rope 

June 22, President Taft received 561 
and Roosevelt 107, by delegates who 
disregarded his request. The Roosevelt 
f9llowing then organized the Progres- 
sive party, and. in convention in Chicago 
on Aug. 7 following, nominated their 
leader Tor President with Gov. Hiram 
W. Johnson, of California, for Vice- 
President. After his nomination he 
made a vigorous campaign throughout 
the country until Oct. 14, when he was 
shot in the breast by an insane man 
in Milwaukee. He was able, however, 
to make a speech in New York on Oct. 
30 following. In the election, he was 
defeated by Gov. Woodrow Wilson. 

Root, Elihu, an American states- 
man; born in Clinton, N. Y., Feb. 15, 
1845; was graduated at Hamilton 
College in 1864, and after teaching 
for a while entered the New York 
University Law School and was grad- 
uated in 1867. On Aug. 1, 1899, he 
was appointed Secretary of War by 
President McKinley, and on March 
5, 1901, was reappointed. After the 
Spanish-American War, Secretary 
Root represented the United States 
government in all official communica- 
tions with Cuba, Porto Rico, and the 
Philippine Islands. He was Secre- 
tary of War in 1899-1904; Secretary 
of State in 1905-1909; elected United 
States Senator for the term of 1909- 
1915; chief counsel for the United 
States before the Permanent Arbi- 
tration Court in 1910. 

Root, George Frederick, an 
American musician and song-writer; 
born in Sheffield, Mass., Aug. 30, 
1820. He was the author of a large 
number of popular and patriotic 
songs. He died Aug. 6, 1895. 

Rope, a large, stout, twisted cord 
of hemp, of not less, generally, than an 
inch in circumference. A certain pro- 
portion of hemp twisted together 
forms a yarn, and a number of yarns 
form a strand. Three strands twisted 
together form a rope. Other materials 
besides hemp are used in the manufac- 
ture of rope, but to a smaller extent. 
Coir rope, which comes from Ceylon 
and the Maldive Islands, is made from 
the fibrous husk of the cocoanut. Ma- 
nila rope from the fibers of a species 
of wild banana. Wire rope, both iron 
and steel, is also employed ; on ship- 
board, particularly, to a considerable 
extent. 



Ropes 

Ropes, John Codman, an Ameri- 
can historian ; born in St. Petersburg, 
Russia, April 28, 1836; was graduat- 
ed at Harvard in 1857; studied at the 
Harvard law school, and was admitted 
to the bar in 1861. Largely through 
his influence the United States gov- 
ernment began the collection and pres- 
ervation of information relating to 
the Civil War, and he organized the 
Military Historical Society of Massa- 
chusetts. Besides contributions to 
this society and to periodicals he 
wrote : " The Army under Pope " 
(1881); "The First Napoleon" 
(1885); "The Campaign of Water- 
loo"; "Atlas of Waterloo"; and 
" The story of the Civil War." Died 
in Boston, Mass., Oct. 28, 1899. 

Roquette, Adrien Emmanuel, 
an American poet ; born in New Or- 
leans, La., Feb. 13, 1813. He wrote 
with equal ease and grace in English 
and French. He died in New Orleans, 
July 15, 1887. 

Roraima, a celebrated mountain in 
South America, where the boundaries 
of British Guiana, Venezuela and 
Brazil meet, 7,800 feet high, flat- 
topped, with steep, rocky sides, ren- 
dering the summit almost inaccessible. 
More than one explorer has succeed- 
ed, however, in reaching the top. 

Rorqual, the name given to certain 
whales, closely allied to the common 
or whalebone whales, but distinguished 
by having a dorsal fin, with the throat 
and under parts wrinkled with deep 
longitudinal folds, which are supposed 
to be susceptible of great dilatations, 
the use of which is as yet unknown. 
Two or three species are known, but 
they are rather avoided on account of 
their ferocity, the shortness and 
coarseness of their baleen or whale- 
bone, and the small quantity of oil 
they produce. The N. rorqual attains 
a great size, being found from 80 to 
over 100 feet in length, and is thus the 
largest living animal known. The ror- 
qual feeds on cod, herring, pilchards, 
and other fish, in pursuing which it is 
not seldom stranded on the shore. 

Rosa, Carl August Nicholas, 
originally Rose, a German opera man- 
ager and violinist ; born in Hamburg, 
Germany, March 22, 1842. He came 
to the United States, where during a 
concert tour be met and married (in 



Rosary Sunday 

New York, in February, 1867) Mme. 
Parepa ; formed an opera company, in- 
cluding Mme. Parepa-Rosa, Wachtel, 
Santley, Ronconi, and Formes, travel- 
ing as far as California. After hia 
wife's death (1874), he organized in 
London an English opera company 
with which he produced nearly a score 
of popular operas not previously given 
in English. He died in Paris, France, 
April 30, 1889. 

Rosa, Salvator, an Italian painter, 
etcher and poet ; born near Naples, 
Italy, June 20, 1615. In 1638 Rosa 
settled in Rome, where he soon estab- 
lished his reputation and rose to fame 
and wealth. The bitterness of his sat- 
ire, expressed both in his satirical 
poems and in an allegorical painting 
of the " Wheel of Fortune " rendered 
his stay in Rome inadvisable. He 
therefore accepted an invitation to 
Florence (1642), where he remained 
nearly nine years under the .protection 
of the Medici. He finally returned to 
Rome. Salvator Rosa delighted in ro- 
mantic landscape, delineating scenes 
of gloomy grandeur and bold magnifi- 
cence. Rosa etched from his own works 
with great skill. He died in Rome, 
Italy, March 15, 1673. 

Rosacese, roseworts ; an order of 
plants, placed by Lindley under his 
Rosal Alliance. The rosacese occur 
chiefly in the temperate and cold parts 
of the Northern Hemisphere ; when 
they occur in the tropics it is general- 
ly on high land. t 

Rosary, in ordinary language, a 
chaplet, a garland. Also, a bed of 
roses ; a place where roses grow. In 
comparative religion, a string of beads 
by means of which account is kept of 
the number of prayers uttered. 

In the Roman Catholic Church : 
(1) A form of prayer in which the 
" Hail Mary " is recited 150 times in 
honor of the virgin Mary. (2) The 
beads on which any of the forms of 
prayers are said. 

Rosary Sunday, the first Sunday 
in October ; a feast instituted by Greg- 
ory XIII. for the Confraternity of the 
Rosary, and made of universal observ- 
ance after the victory of Emperor 
Charles VI. over the Turks, in grati- 
tude to the Blessed Virgin. An im- 
petus has been given to the devotion 
of the rosary by Leo XIII., who en- 



Rose 

joined its daily use in public during 
October. Roses are blessed and dis- 
tributed as souvenirs, and the rosary 
is recited continually during the day. 
Rose, the beautiful and fragrant 
flower which has given name to the 
large natural order Rosaceae, which 
seems to be confined to the cooler parts 
of the Northern Hemisphere. The 
species are numerous and are extreme- 
ly difficult to distinguish. They are 
prickly shrubs, with pinnate leaves, 
provided with stipules at their base ; 
the flowers are very large and showy. 
The rose is easily cultivated, and its 
varieties are almost endless. 

_ The American Beauty rose had its 
birth in an almost neglected corner 
of the Washington garden of the late 
George Bancroft. Amid a tangle of 
roses of common varieties suddenly 
blossomed this new and wonderful 
rose. Slips were at once experimented 
with. At first they were grown out 
of doors, but before long it was found 
that hothouse culture such as is given 
to tea roses was best suited to the 
splendid new rose. During the com- 
paratively few years of its existence 
the American Beauty has been stead- 
ily improved in size and fragrance. 

Rose Acacia, a highly ornamental 
flowering shrub inhabiting the S. parts 
of the Alleghany Mountains, and now 
frequently seen in gardens in Europe. 
It is a species of locust ; the flowers 
are large, rose-colored, and inodorous ; 
the pods are glandular-hispid. 

Rosebery, Archibald Philip 
Primrose, 5th. Earl of, an En- 
glish statesman ; born May 7, 1847 ; 
was educated at Eton and Oxford, and 
succeeded his grandfather in 1868. He 
is an advanced Liberal in politics, 
and a ready and effective speaker. He 
was under-secretary at the home office, 
1881-1883; lord privy seal and first 
commissioner of works, 1885 ; next 
year held the secretaryship of foreign 
affairs till the fall of the Gladstone 
government ; was secretary of foreign 
affairs again in 1892-1894 ; prime 
minister, 1894-1895. In 1878 he was 
elected lord-rector of Aberdeen Univer- 
sity ; in 1881 of Edinburgh University. 
In 1899 of Glasgow University. In 
1889 he became a member of the Lon- 
don County Council, and was appoint- 
ed chairman of that body. The Uni- 
versity of Cambridge conferred the de- 



Rosecrans 

gree of LL. D. on him in 1888. He 
advocated the reform of the House of 
Lords, and was much interested in 
the questions of imperial federation 
and the social conditions of the masses. 
In 1878 he married Hannah, daughter 
of Baron Mayer de Rothschild; she 
died in 1890. When Mr. Gladstone 
succeeded to power Lord Rosebery be- 
came Secretary of Foreign Affairs, 
and in October of the same year 
(1892) he was made a Knight of the 
Garter. On the resignation of Mr. 
Gladstone in March, 1894, the queen 
offered the post of prime minister to 
Lord Rosebery and he carried on the 
government with no little success till 
July, 1895. He then urged on his 
supporters that the general election 
should be fought on the question of the 
predominance of the House of Lords. 
During 1896 his attitude on the Ar- 
menian question differed from that of 
Mr. Gladstone, and finally he decided 
on resigning the leadership of the par- 
ty in order to have for himself an abso- 
lutely free hand on this question. His 
view was that Great Britain should 
not be hurried into an intervention 
in the Armenian question, which 
would lead to the risk of a European 
war. In 1898 Lord Rosebery, from 
his place in the House of Peers, paid 
a noble and eloquent tribute to the 
life and public services of Mr. Glad- 
stone, and later on spoke in the coun- 
try in support of the attitude taken 
up by Lord Salisbury on the Fashoda 
situation. Lord Rosebery keeps an ex- 
cellent racing stud, and both in 1894 
and 1895 he won the Derby. 

Rose Chafer (Cetonia aurata), an 
injurious beetle, whose grubs destroy 
the roots of strawberries and other 
plants, while the adults spoil the 
flowers of roses, strawberries, and 
seed turnips. The adults, which are 
well able to fly from place to place, 
measure about an inch in length, are 
golden green above, coppery with a 
tint of rose beneath. The " rose- 
bug " of the Eastern United States is 
another beetle, a voracious pest which 
often appears in immense numbers 
and destroys the flowers of rosaceous 
plants. 

Rosecrans, "William Starke, an 
Amerjcan military officer ; born in 
Kingston, O., Sept. 6, 1819. He grad- 
uated at the United States Military 



Rosemary 

Academy in 1842, and entered the 
army as brevet 2d lieutenant of en- 
gineers, but after serving for a year 
at Hampton Roads returned to West 
Point as assistant Professor of En- 
gineering. In 1847 he again entered 
active service, but resigned in 1854 
to become a consulting engineer and 
architect in Cincinnati, O. He began 
his career in the Civil War by organ- 
izing and drilling the Home Guard 
in Ohio ; and in June, 1861, was 
placed in charge of Camp Chase. He 
was made colonel of the 23d Ohio Vol- 
unteers soon afterward, and in a 
short time was appointed a Brigadier- 
General. In May, 1862, he command- 
ed the right wing of the Army of the 
Mississippi during the siege of Cor- 
inth ; and on June 11, 1862, succeed- 
ed General Halleck in the command 
of that a-rmy. On Oct. 26, 1862, he 
relieved General Buell of the com- 
mand of the Army of the Cumberland, 
and on Oct. 30, began his memorable 
march to Nashville, Tenn. Owing to 
his defeat at Chickamauga in Sep- 
tember of the following year he was 
superseded in command by General 
Thomas and assigned to the Depart- 
ment of Missouri. He was deprived 




ROSE CHAFER. 
a, larva; b, cocoon. 

of his command Dec. 9, 1864, where- 
upon he retired to Cincinnati, where 
he remained inactive till the close of 
the war. In 1868^ he was appointed 
United States minfster to Mexico ; in 
1880 and 1882 was elected to- Con- 
gress; and in June, 1885, was ap- 
pointed register of the United States 



Roses 

Treasury. An act passed in 1898 re- 
stored him to the rank of Brigadier- 
General in the army and placed him 
on the retired list. He died near Re- 
dondo, Cal., March 11, 1898. 

Rosemary, the Rosmarinus offici- 
nalis, a native of the S. of Europe 
and Asia Minor, and cultivated in In- 
dia, etc. ; a very fragrant labu.te 




ROSEMARY. 

plant with a white or pale-blue co- 
rolla. The leaves are sessile and gray 
with edges rolled round below. It 
is sometimes made into garlands. 

Rosenkranz, Joliann Karl 
Friedrich, a German philosopher ; 
born 'in Magdeburg, Prussia, April 23, 
1805. He was the best representa- 
tive of the " center " of Hegel's 
school, and spent much time in rear- 
ranging and reclassifying the system. 
His principal works, nearly all of 
which have received English versions, 
are : " Psychology, or the Science of 
Subjective Mind " ; " Critical Expla- 
nations of Hegel's System " ; " Auto- 
biography " ; " The History of Litera- 
ture." He died in Konigsberg, Prus- 
sia, June 14, 1879. 

Roses, Wars of the, a disastrous 
dynastic struggle which desolated En- 
gland during the 15th century, from 
the first battle of St. Albans (1455) 



Rosetta Stone 



Rosicruciaiis 



to that of Bosworth (1485). It was 
so called because the two factions into 
which the country was divided upheld 
the two several claims to the throne 
of the Houses of York and Lancaster, 
whose badges were the white and the 
red rose respectively. It did for En- 
gland what the French Revolution did 
three centuries later for France in 
virtually wiping out the old nobility. 




EOSETTA STONE. 

Rosetta Stone, the name given to 
a stone found near the Rosetta mouth 
of the Nile by a French engineer in 
1798. It is a tablet of basalt, with 
an inscription of the year 136 B. c.. 
during the reign of Ptolemy Epiph- 
anes. The inscription is in hiero- 
glyphic, in demotic, and in Greek. It 
was deciphered by Dr. Young, and 
formed the key to the reading of the 
hieroglyphic characters. It was cap- 
tured by the English on the defeat of 
the French forces in Egypt, and is 
now kept in the British Museum. 

Rose Window, a circular window, 
divided into compartments by mul- 
lions and tracery radiating from a 
center, also called Catharine wheel 
and marigold window according to 
modifications of the design. It forms 



a fine feature of the church architect- 
ure of the 13th and 14th centuries. 

Rose-wood, a valuable wooa, the 
best of which comes from Brazil. Two 
kinds, or two qualities, are known in 
commerce. These much resemble each 
other, the one, which is usually rather 
the better figured of the two, coming 
from Rio de Janeiro, and the other 
from Bahia. The South American and 
Indian kinds are all hard and durable 
and take a fine polish. They are in 
every way excellent furniture woods, 
the Brazilian kinds being only more 
valuable because they are more beau- 
tifully figured. The Indian rosewood 
is often elaborately carved by native 
workmen, and for this purpose it is 
well suited. An inferior kind of rose- 
wood is brought from Honduras. The 
name is said to have been given be- 
cause of a striking rose-like odor that 
the wood gives out when freshly cut. 

Rosicrucians, a mystic secret 
society which became known to the 
public early in the 17th century, and 
was alleged to have been founded by 
a German noble called Christian Ros- 
enkreuz, A. n. 1388. He was said to 
have died at the age of 106. The so- 
ciety consisted of adepts, who perpet- 
uated it by initiating other adepts. 
The Rosicrucians pretended to be able 
to transmute metals, to prolong life, 




BOSE WINDOW. 

and to know what was passing in dis- 
tant places. Many contradictory hy- 
potheses have been brought forward 
regarding the Rosicrucians, and as it is 
admitted that their secret was never 
revealed, it is open to doubt if there 
was one to reveal. They are said to 
have died out in the 18th century. 



Bosini 



Rosso 



Bosini, Giovanni, an Italian lit- 
terateur ; born in Lucignano, Tuscany, 
Italy, June 24, 1776. His poem en- 
titled " The Marriage of Jupiter and 
Latona " (1810) written on the oc- 
casion of the marriage of Napoleon 
with Maria Louisa, was awarded an 
imperial prize of $2,000. He was the 
author of many works of prose and 
poetry. He died May 1G, 1855. 

Bosmini, Antonio Bosmini- 
Serbati, an Italian philosopher; 
born of noble family at Roveredo in 
the Italian Tyrol, March 25, 1797. He 
entered the priesthood and founded the 
charitable order of Rosminians which 
has branches in America, Italy, 
France, and Britain. He is regarded 
as the founder of modern Idealism in 
Italy. The chief points of his system 
are fully treated in his " New Essay 
on the Origin of Ideas," translated 
into English (1883). He was a most 
voluminous writer on religious and 
military subjects, as well as on philos- 
ophy. Died in Milan, Italy, 1827. 

Boss, " Charlie," the victim of a 
case of kidnapping, niaiiy years ago, 
which has not yet lost interest. On 
July 3, 1874, Charles Ross, son of 
Christian K. Ross, and aged about 
four years, while playing near his 
home in the suburbs of Philadelphia, 
was carried away by two men. The 
abductors, in newspaper advertise- 
ments, demanded $20,000 for his re- 
turn. Owing to the efforts of the po- 
lice to capture them the boy was never 
returned, although the father raised 
the $20,000, and sought to exchange 
it for the boy. His captors are sup- 
posed to have been two men, William 
Mosber and William Douglas, who 
were afterward killed while robbing a 
house on Long Island, and it is be- 
lieved the boy died of neglect on a 
sloop in Newark Bay, on which they 
held him prisoner. 

Boss, Clinton, an American novel- 
ist ; born in Binghamton, N. Y., July 
31, 1861; graduated at Yale in 1884. 
He has written: "The Silent Work- 
man " ; " Heroes of Our War With 
Spain " ; " Bobbie McDuff," etc. 

Boss, Sir James Clark, an En- 
glish Arctic and Antarctic explorer ; 
born in London, England, April 15, 
1800. He entered the British navy 
at the age of 12, accompanied his un- 



cle, Sir John Ross, on his two voy- 
ages in search of a N. W. passage, 
and in the interval between them ac- 
companied Capt. William Parry in 
his three Arctic voyages. He waa 
promoted to the rank of post-captain 
in 1834, particularly for the discovery 
of the North magnetic pole in 1831. 
He commanded the expedition in the 
" Erebus " and " Terror " to the Ant- 
arctic Ocean in 1839-1843; and on 
his return published a narrative of 
that voyage, which had contributed 
largely to geographical and scientific 
knowledge generally. Captain Rosa 
was knighted for his services, and re- 
ceived numerous other honors. In 
1848 he made a voyage in the " Enter- 
prise " to Baffin Bay in search of Sir 
John Franklin. He died in Aylesbury, 
England, April 3, 1862. 

Boss, Sir John, an English Arctic 
navigator ; born in Inch, Wigtown- 
shire, Scotland, June 24, 1777. In 
1817 he accepted the command of an 
admiralty expedition to search for a 
N. W. passage but was unsuccessful. 
His next expedition, in the steamer 
" Victory," set out in May, 1829. Ross 
entered Prince Regent Inlet and dis- 
covered and named Boothia Felix and 
King William Land. In 1832 he was 
forced to abandon his ships, and he 
and his crew suffered great hardships 
before they were picked up in Au- 
gust, 1833, by his old ship, the " Isa- 
bella." In 1834 Captain Ross was 
knighted, and in the following year 
published a narrative of his second 
voyage. From 1839 till 1845 he was 
consul at Stockholm. In 1850 he made 
a last Arctic voyage in the " Felix," 
in a vain endeavor to ascertain the 
fate of Sir John Franklin. He died 
in London, England, Aug. 30, 1856. 

Boss, Man of. See KYKLE. 

Bosse, William Parsons, 3d 
Earl of, an English astronomer; 
born in York, England, June 17, 
1800. In 1827 he constructed a tele- 
scope, the speculum of which had a 
diameter of three feet, and the success 
and scientific value of this instrument 
induced him to attempt to cast a 
speculum twice as large. After in- 
numerable difficulties, and many fail- 
ures, Lord Rosse succeeded in 1845 
in perfecting machinery which turned 
out the huge speculum, weighing three 
tons, without warp or flaw. It was 



Rossetti 

then mounted in his park at Parsons- 
town, at a cost of $150,000 on a tele- 
scope 54 feet in length with a tube 
7 f eet ir diameter. A series of cranks, 
swivels, and pulleys enables this huge 
instrument to be handled almost with 
as much ease as telescopes of ordinary 
size. The sphere of observation was 
immensely widened by Lord Rosse's 
instrument, which has been chiefly 
used in observations of nebulae. He 
died Oct. 31, 1867. 

Rossetti, Gabriele, an Italian 
poet and critic ; born in Vasto, Ab- 
ruzzo Citeriore, then forming part 
of the kingdom of Naples, Feb. 28, 
1783. When King Ferdinand abro- 
gated the constitution in 1821, the 
Constitutionalists were proscribed 
and persecuted, Rossetti among them. 
Rossetti made his escape from Naples 
with the kindly connivance of the Brit- 
ish admiral, Sir Graham Moore, who 
shipped him off to Malta in the dis- 
guise of a British naval officer. In 
Malta he was treated with great lib- 
erality and distinction by the gover- 
nor, and toward 1824 he went to Lon- 
don, with good recommendations, to 
follow the career of teacher of Ital- 
ian, and follow his favorite studies. 

In 1826 he married Frances Mary 
Lavinia Polidori, daughter of a Tus- 
can father and English mother ; soon 
afterward he was elected Professor of 
Italian in King's College, London. In 
London Rossetti lived a studious, la- 
borious, and honorable life, greatly re- 
spected by his pupils and by Italian 
residents and visitors. His health be- 
gan to fail in 1842, and his sight be- 
came dim, one eye being wholly lost. 
After some attacks of a paralytic 
character he died in London, April 26, 
1854. His son, Gabriel Charles Dante 
Rossetti, born May 12, 1828, died 
April 9, 1882, gained high reputation 
as pcet and painter, and his daughter, 
Christina Georgina, born in 1830, 
also wrote poetry of a high order. 

Rossini, Gioaccliino Antonio, 
one of the most popular, and perhaps 
the greatest Italian composer of 
operas ; born in Pesaro, Italy, Feb. 
29, 1792. He produced some light 
operatic pieces ; the only one of his 
juvenile efforts that has lived is the 
" Lucky Trick," which came out in 
1812. "Tancred," brought out at 
Venice in 1813, when he was scarce- 



Roster 

ly more than 20 years of age, all at 
once made his name famous. Thus 
encouraged, Rossini produced a num- 
ber of other works in quick succession, 
generally inferior to the work which 
brought him into popularity. In 1816 
he produced his world-famous " Barber 
of Seville " at Rome. Among Rossini's 
other works which still keep the stage 
are : " Othello," " Moses in Egypt," 
" The Lady of the Lake," " Count 
Ory," and " William Tell." This last, 
the greatest and most original of his 
works, was written at the age of 37, 
and with it closed the career of Ros- 
sini as a composer. He died in his 
villa in Passy, near Paris, Nov. 13. 
1868. 

Rossiter, Thomas Pritcnard, an 
American artist ; born in New Haven, 
Conn., Sept. 29, 1817. He studied in 
Rome in 1840-1846, and on his re- 
turn opened a studio in New York 
city. He became an Academician in 
1849. In 1860 he removed to Cold 
Spring, N. Y., where he resided till 
his death. He devoted himself to his- 
torical and scriptural subjects. He 
had admirable taste in coloring. He 
died in Cold Spring, N. Y., May 17, 
1871. 

Rostand, Edmond, a French poet ; 
born in Marseilles, France, in 1868 ; 
was educated in Paris; and in 1894 
his first play " The Romanticists " 
was produced at the Comedie Fran- 
caise. It was an instantaneous suc- 
cess and was followed by " Princess 
Lontaine " ; " The Samaritan " ; " Cy- 
rano de Bergerac " ; and " L'Aiglon." 
The last two were translated into En- 
glish and played in the United States 
by Richard Mansfield and Maude 
Adams ; and in 1901 Coquelin and 
Sarah Bernhardt, the leading French 
actor and actress, presented the orig- 
inal versions in the United States. 
Rostand's versification is of remark- 
able beauty. On May 30, 1901, he 
was elected one o s ' che 40 "immortals." 
In 1910 " Chpiiteoler," another f his 
plays, was produced with great success. 

Roster, in military language, a 
term implying the seniority list from 
which officers are detailed for duty in 
regular succession ; hence, occasional- 
ly, a list showing the turn or rotation 
of service or duty, as in the case of 
military officers and others who re 
lieve or succeed each other. 



Rostrum 



Rotifera 



Rostrum, plural Rostra, a scaf- 
fold or elevated platform in the Fo- 
rum at Rome, from which public ora- 
tions, pleadings, funeral harangues, 
etc., were delivered ; so called from the 
rostra or beaks of ships with which it 
was ornamented. Also a pulpit, plat- 
form, or elevated place from which 
a speaker, as a preacher, an auction- 
eer, etc., addresses his audience. 

Rota Romana, the highest ecclesi- 
astical court of appeal for all Chris- 
tendom during the supremacy of the 
Popes. With the dwindling temporal 
power of the Popes it gradually lost 
all authority in foreign countries. 

Rotation, in astronomy, the turn- 
ing round of a planet on its imaginary 
axis, like that of a wheel on its axle. 
The rotation of the earth is per- 
formed with a uniform motion from 
W. to E. and occupies the interval 
in time which would elapse between 
the departure of a star from a cer- 
tain point in the sky and its return 
to the same point again. The only 
motions which interfere with its regu- 
larity are the precession of the equi- 
noxes and nutation. The time taken 
for the rotation of the earth measures 
the length of its day. So with the 
other planets. The sun also rotates 
as is shown by the movement of spots 
across its disk. 

Rotation of Crops, the cultiva- 
tion of a different kind of crop each 
year, for a certain period, to prevent 
the exhaustion of the soil. If a plant 
requiring specially alkaline nutriment 
be planted year after year in the same 
field or bed, it will ultimately ex- 
haust all the alkalies in the soil and 
then languish. But if a plant be 
substituted in large measure requir- 
ing siliceous elements for its growth, 
it can flourish where its alkaline 
predecessor is starved. Meanwhile the 
action of the atmosphere is continu- 
ally reducing to a soluble condition 
small quantities of soil, thus restoring 
the lost alkalies. 

Rothschild (red shield), the name 
of a Jewish family of European bank- 
ers and capitalists, the enormousness 
of whose aggregate wealth has passed 
into a proverb. The founder of this 
race of financiers, Meyer Anselm 
Rothschild, born at Frankfort-on-the- 
Main in 1743, died there in 1812, aft- 



er having accumulated the most gigan- 
tic fortune ever possessed by a single 
individual up to his day. Commenc- 
ing the world as a small trader, he, 
by his probity, frugality, and superior 
business qualifications, eventually be- 
came the banker of monarchs and the 
creditor of states. Of the five sons 
who succeeded to the vast inheritance 
he bequeathed them, the eldest, An- 
selm (born 1773, died 1855), was his 
father's partner and successor at' 
Frankfort. The second, Solomon 
(born 1774, died 1855), became estab- 
lished as the representative of the 
house of Rothschild at Vienna. The 
third, Nathan Meyer, (born 1774, 
died 1836), settled as the Lon- 
don partner, and became the lead- 
ing member and ablest financier of 
the family. The fourth, Charles 
(born 1788, died 1855), filled the rep- 
resentation of the firm at Vienna. 
Lastly, James (born 1792, died 1869), 
eventually took up his residence in 
Paris, where he died, leaving a for- 
tune estimated at $200,000,000. With- 
in a period of less than 12 years the 
Rothschilds advanced in loans as fol- 
lows : to England, $200,000,000; Aus- 
tria, $50,000,000; Prussia, $40,000,- 
000; France, $80,000,000; Naples, 
$50,000,000 ; Russia, $25,000,000 ; 
Brazil, $12,000,000; besides some $5,- 
000,000 to smaller States; or, alto- 
gether, the almost incredible amount of 
$462,000,000. The colossal financier- 
ing operations of the house are now 
conducted by descendants of the above- 
mentioned brothers, and the firm has 
banking houses and representatives in 
the leading cities of the civilized world. 
Rotifera, in zoology, wheel-ani- 
malcules ; a group of Aletazoa. They 
are microscopic animals, contractile, 
crowned with vibratile cilia at the an- 
terior part of the body, which, by 
their motion, often resemble a w_heel 
revolving rapidly. Intestine distinct, 
terminated at one extremity by a 
mouth, at the other by an anus ; gen- 
eration oviparous, sometimes vivipar- 
ous. The nervous system is represent- 
ed by a relatively large single gan- 
glion, with one or two eye-spots, on 
one side of the body, near the mouth, 
and there are organs which appear to 
be sensory. They are free or adher- 
ent, but never absolutely fixed 
animals. 



Rotterdam 



Round 



Rotterdam, the chief port and 
second city of Holland ; on the Nieuwe 
Maas or Meuse, at its junction with 
the Rotte ; about 14 miles from the 
North Sea, with which it is also di- 
rectly connected by a ship canal 
(Nieuwe Waterweg) admitting the 
largest vessels and not interrupted 
by a single lock. The town is inter- 
sected by numerous canals, which per- 
mit large vessels to moor alongside the 
warehouses in the very center of the 
city. These canals, which are crossed 
by innumerable drawbridges and 
swing bridges, are in many cases lined 
with rows of trees ; and the hand- 
some quay on the river front, 1*4 
miles long, is known as the Boompjes 
("little trees"), from a row of elms 
planted in 1615 and now of great 
size. Many of the houses are quaint 
edifices, having their gables to the 
street, with overhanging upper stories. 
Rotterdam contains shipbuilding 
yards, sugar refineries, distilleries, to- 
bacco factories, and large machine 
works ; but its mainstay is commerce. 
It not only carries on a very exten- 
sive and active trade with Great Brit- 
ain, the Dutch East and West Indies, 
and other transoceanic countries, but, 
as the natural outlet for the entire 
basin of the Rhine and Meuse, it has 
developed an important commerce with 
Germany, Switzerland, and Central 
Europe. Rotterdam received town 
rights in 1340, and in 1573 it ob- 
tained a vote in the Estates of the 
Netherlands ; but its modern prosper- 
ity has been chiefly developed since 
1830. Pop. 309,309. 

Rouble, the unit of the Russian 
money system. The present' silver rou- 
ble is equivalent to about 80% cents 
in United States gold. 

Rouen, a city of France, capital of 
the department of Seine-Inferieure, 
and formerly of the province of Nor- 
mandy, on the Seine, 44 miles from 
its mouth, and 67 N. W. of Paris. It 
is situate on the right bank of the 
Seine, in a fertile, pleasant, and varied 
country. The streets, though in gen- 
eral straight, are narrow and dirty, 
and some of the houses are of wood. 
The most agreeable part of the town 
is that which adjoins the Seine. The 
public buildings of interest are, the 
cathedral, containing many old monu- 
ments, and one of the finest specimens 



of Gothic architecture in France ; the 
Church of St. Ouen, likewise a fine 
Gothic building, situate nearly in the 
center of the town ; and that of St. 
Maclpu, considered a masterpiece of 
its kind. Manufactures, cotton goods, 
woolens, linens, iron ware, paper, 
hats, pottery, wax, cloth, and sugar re- 
fining. Dyeing, both of woolens and 
cotton, is also conducted with care 
and success. Pop. 113,219. 

Rouge, in ordinary language, a cos- 
metic prepared from dried flowers and 
used to impart artificial bloom to the 
cheeks or lips. 

Rouge et Noir (French, " red and 
black"), Trente-un ("31"), or 
Trente et Quarante ("30 and 40"), 
a modern game of chance, played by 
the aid of packs of cards on a table 
covered with green cloth. This game 
superseded faro and biribi in France 
about 1789, but along with roulette 
was forbidden by law in 1838. 

Rough Riders, a name coined by 
William F. Cody ("Buffalo Bill"), 
for use in his " Wild West " show, 
which included a " Congress of the 
rough riders of the world." The first 
rough riders were the men who car- 
ried messages over the West in the 
early frontier times before the pony 
express was organized in 1859. In 
the army the original rough riders 
were the 1st Regiment of United 
States Volunteer Cavalry, organized 
for the war with Spain by Surgeon 
Leonard Wood, who was commissioned 
colonel, with Theodore Roosevelt as 
lieutenant-colonel. The name was ap- 
plied also to the 2d United' States 
Volunteer Cavalry. The name was 
given to these regiments on account of 
their being composed largely of West- 
ern ranchmen. 

Roulette (French, "a little 
wheel"), a game of chance which 
from the end of the 18th century till 
the beginning of 1838 reigned supreme 
over all others in Paris. It continued 
to be played at German watering 
places till 1872, when it ceased in 
terms of an act passed four years be- 
fore. Roulette then found a home at 
Monaco. 

Round, in music, a short compj- 
sition in which three or more voices 
starting at the beginning of stated suc- 
cessive phrases, sing the same music 



Roundelay 

in unison or octave (thus differing 
from the canon). 

Roundelay, a sort of ancient poem, 
consisting of 13 verses, of which eight 
are in one kind of rhyme and five in 
another. It is divided into couplets, at 
the commencement of the second or 
third of which the beginning of the 
poem is repeated, and that, if possible, 
in an equivocal or punning sense. Also, 
a song or tune in which the first strain 
is repeated. Also, the tune to which 
a roundelay was sung. 

Rounders, a game played by two 
parties or sides, somewhat similar to 
baseball. 

Roundhead, a term applied by the 
Cavaliers or adherents of Charles L, 
during the Civil War of 1642, to the 
Puritans or adherents of the Parlia- 
mentary party, from their wearing 
their hair cut short, while the Cava- 
liers allowed their hair to fall onto 
their shoulders. 

Round Robin, a name given to a 
protest or remonstrance signed by a 
number of persons In a circular form, 
so that no one shall be obliged to head 
the list. 

Round Table, Knights of the. 
According to tradition, there reigned 
in Britain, toward the end of the 5th 
century, a Christian king, the British 
Uther-Pendragon, who had for a coun- 
sellor a powerful, wise, and benevo- 
lent enchanter, named Merlin, who ad- 
vised him to assemble all his knights 
distinguished for piety, courage, and 
fidelity toward him, at feasts, about a 
round table, which should be sufficient- 
ly large to receive 50 knights, but at 
which at first only 49 should be seat- 
ed, room being left for one yet un- 
born. This was Arthur, or Artus, son 
of the king by Igerna, whom the king, 
by the magic power of Merlin, was 
permitted to enjoy under the form of 
her husband. Merlin had exacted a 
promise that the education of the 
prince should be intrusted to him, 
and he accordingly instructed him in 
everything becoming a brave, virtuous, 
and accomplished knight. Arthur in 
due time occupied the empty seat at 
the Round Table ; and under him it 
became the resort of all valiant, pious, 
and noble knights, admission to it be- 
coming the reward of the greatest 
virtues and feats of arms. 



Rousseau 

Rouqnette, Adrien, an American 
Roman Catholic priest, poet, and mis- 
sionary ; born in New Orleans, La., in 
1813. He was educated in France ; 
graduated in Philadelphia, and or- 
dained a priest by Bishop Blanc. He 
gave many years to missionary work 
among the Choctaws of St. Tammany. 
He was familiar with many tongues, 
and contributed much to French, 
American, and Italian literature. Sev- 
eral volumes of his verses and two or 
three prose collections were published 
in French, and he was a frequent con- 
tributor to the local press. He died in 
1887. 

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, a 
Swiss-French philosopher, one of the 
most celebrated and influential writ- 
ers of the 18th century ; born in Ge- 
neva, Switzerland, June 28, 1712. In 
1741 he went to Paris, and in 1743 
obtained the post of secretary to the 
French ambassador at Venice. This 
office he resigned, and returned to 
Paris in 1745, to lead a precarious 
life, copying music and studying sci- 
ence. In 1750 his essay, in which he 
adopted the negative side of the ques- 
tion whether civilization has contrib- 
uted to purify manners, won a prize 
offered by the Academy of Dijon, and 
brought him for the first time into 
general notice. In 1752 he brought 
out a successful operetta (the music 
by himself ) , and soon after a celebrat- 
ed " Letter on French Music." 

In 1754 he revisited Geneva, but 
later returned to Paris where he wrote 
a sort of novel, " Julia, or the New 
Heloise," which was published in 
1760, being followed by "The Social 
Contract," a political work, and 
" Emile, or on Education," another 
story, in 1762. The principles ex- 
pressed in these works stirred up 
much animosity against their author. 
The confession of faith of the Savoyard 
vicar in Emile was declared a danger- 
ous attack on religion, and the book 
was burned both in Paris and Geneva. 
Persecution, exaggerated by his own 
morbid sensibility, forced Rousseau to 
flee to England, where he was wel- 
comed by Hume, Boswell, and others 
in 1766. A malicious letter by Hor- 
ace Walpole unluckily aroused his sus- 
picions of his English friends, and in, 
May, 1767, he returned to France, 
where his presence was now tolerated. 



Rove Beetles 



Rowland 



He lived in great poverty, supporting 
himself by copying music and pub- 
lishing occasional works. In May, 
1778, he retired to Ermenonville near 
Paris. His celebrated " Confessions " 
appeared at Geneva in 1782. His 
works contain the germ of the doc- 
trines which were carried into effect 
during the French Revolution. Rous- 
seau was also a musical author and 
critic. He died in Ermenonville July 
2, 1778, it is supposed a suicide. 

Ronvier, Pierre Maurice, 
French Prime Minister : born at Aix, 
1842. He became a lawyer, opposed 
Napoleon III. ; supported Gambetta ; 
was elected deputy 1876 ; was min- 
ister of commerce and the colonies 
1881-82: under Ferry 1884-85: min- 
ister of finances 1887-1892, 1894-1902; 
senator 1903 : Prime Minister, 1905. 

Rowan, Andrew Summers, an 
American army officer ; born in Gap 
Mills, Va. ; was graduated at the 
United States Military Academy in 
1881, and first came into prominence 
in 1898, when he was sent to com- 
municate with General Garcia, after 
the declaration of the Spanish-Ameri- 
can War. He landed from an open 
boat near Turquino Peak, Cuba, on 
April 24, 1898; marched through 
swamps and underbrush to the moun- 
tains, reached General Garcia, and 
successfully executed his mission, 
bringing back full information as to 
the insurgent army. For this act he 
was promoted to the rank of 1st lieu- 
tenant, U. S. A. After the war he 
was assigned to duty in the Philip- 
pine Islands. 

Rowan, Stephen Clegg, an 
American naval officer ; born near 
Dublin, Ireland, Dec. 25, 1808; came 
to the United States when a boy, and 
on Feb. 1, 1826, was appointed a mid- 
shipman in the navy. He was promoted 
lieutenant, March 8, 1837; took part 
in the capture of Monterey and San 
Diego in the Mexican War, and, as 
executive officer of the " Cyane," in 
the bombardment of Guaymas. In the 
battle of the Niesa, Upper California, 
he commanded the naval battalion un- 
der Commodore Stockton, and was es- 
pecially commended for his skill in 
leading the landing party that made 
a successful attack on a Mexican out- 
post near Mazatlan. He was promot-1 
ed commander Sept. 14, 1855. At the I 



outbreak of the Civil War he was on 
the " Pawnee," with which he en- 
gaged the Confederate battery at 
Acquia Creek on May 25, 1861 ; this 
being the first naval action of the war. 
He was promoted both captain and 
commodore, July 16, 1862, for gal- 
lantry in the Goldsborough expedition 
to North Carolina, and the engage- 
ments on Roanoke Island and Albe- 
marle Sound. He forced the surren- 
der of the forts at Newbern, N. C., 
and by the capture of Fort Mason re- 
stored National authority in the wa- 
ters of North Carolina. He command- 
ed the " New Ironsides " in the en- 
gagements with Forts Wagner, Gregg, 
and Moultrie ; received a vote of 
thanks from Congress ; and was pro- 
moted rear-admiral, July 25, 1866. 
After the close of the war Rear-Ad- 
miral Rowan was appointed to vari- 
ous executive offices ; was promoted 
vice-admiral Aug. 15, 1870 ; and was 
chairman of the Lighthouse Board at 
the time of his retirement, Feb. 26, 
1889. He died in Washington, D. C., 
March 31, 1890. 

Rowe, Nicholas, an English dra- 
matic poet; born in 1673. He was a 
king's scholar at Westminster ; stud- 
ied law at the Middle Temple, but de- 
voted himself to literature. He filled 
several lucrative posts, and in 1715 
became poet-laureate in succession to 
Nahum Tate. Rowe's tragedies are 
passionate and forcible in language, 
and his plots well conceived. Died in 
1718, was buried in Westminster Ab- 
bey. His translation of " Lucan's 
Pharsalia," appeared after his death. 

Rowing, the propulsion of a boat 
by oars. The oarsman sits with his 
face to the stern of the boat, his feet 
planted flush against his " stretcher " 
or footboard, and the handle of the 
oar in his hands, the loom of the oar 
resting in the rowlock, the " button " 
being inside the thowl-pin. 

Rowland, Henry Augustus, an 
American scientist ; born in Hones- 
dale, Pa., Nov. 27, 1848 ; was graduat- 
ed at the Rensselaer Polytechnic In- 
stitute in 1870 ; was made Professor 
of Physics at Johns Hopkins Univer- 
sity in 1876. He was a member of 
the Electrical Congress in Paris in 
1881; served on the jury of the Elec- 
trical Exhibition held there that year, 
and was the inventor of a process of 



Rowson 



Royal Institution 



ruling large diffraction gratings di- 
rectly on concave mirrors. He was 
made president of the American Phys- 
ical Society in 1889, and received 
honorary degrees from Yale Univer- 
sity, in 1895, and from Princeton Uni- 
versity in 1896. He died in, Balti- 
more, Md., April 16, 190L 




POSITIONS IN BOWING. 
1, entering the water; 2, end of the stroke; 
3. positions of the wrists in feathering 
the oar. 

Rowson, Susanna, an English- 
American novelist; born in Ports- 
mouth, England in 1762. She ap- 
peared on the American stage for 
about a year; after which she settled 
in Boston, opening a school and turn- 
ing her attention to literary pursuits. 
She wrote " Charlotte Temple : A Tale 
of Truth," and its sequel " Lucy Tem- 
ple ; or the Three Orphans." She died 
in Boston, Mass., Mar. 2, 1824. 



Royal Academy. See ACADEMY 
OF ARTS. 

Royal Arcanum. See FRATERNAL 
SOCIETIES. 

Royal Family of England, the 
wife or husband, children or other de- 
scendants, and collateral relatives of 
the sovereign. The husband of a 
reigning queen does not acquire any 
share in her prerogative rights, but it 
is usual to grant him special prece- 
dence ; King Philip and William III. 
were associated in title and power 
with their wives by act of Parliament. 
Of the sovereign's children, the eldest 
son is, of course, heir-apparent; he 
is born Duke of Cornwall, and he is 
always created Prince of Wales. The 
Prince and Princess of Wales and the 
Princess Royal (the eldest daughter 
of the sovereign) are within the pro- 
tection of the statute of Edward III. 
relating to treason. An heir-presump- 
tive to the throne has no special rank 
or precedence as such. The younger 
children of the sovereign take rank 
after the heir-apparent; by a statute 
of 1540 a place is assigned to them at 
the side of the cloth of estate in the 
Parliamentary chamber ; it is custom- 
ary to confer peerages on all the 
younger sons. On a reference by 
George II. to the House of Lords it 
was held that Edward, Duke of York, 
second son of the Prince of Wales, 
was entitled to a place among the 
king's children. Members of the royal 
family enjoy considerable privileges ; 
they pay no tolls or duties, and they 
are exempted from succession duty 
and some other taxes. 

Royal Household, those persons 
who hold posts in connection with the 
household of the British sovereign, in- 
cluding the keeper of the privy-purse 
and private secretary, lord-steward, 
treasurer, comptroller, master of the 
household, lord chamberlain, vice- 
chamberlain, master of the horse, cap- 
tains of the gentlemen-at-arms and 
yeomen of the guard, master of the 
buck-hounds, earl-marshal, grand fal- 
coner, lord high almoner, hereditary 
grand almoner, mistress of the robes, 
ladies of the bedchamber, bedchamber- 
women, maids of honor, lords-in-wait- 
ing, master of ceremonies, physicians 
in ordinary, poet laureate, etc. 

Royal Institution, an institution 
founded in London, England, by Count 



Royal Marriage Act 



Royal University 



Ruinford, Sir Joseph Banks, etc., 
March 9, 1799, and incorporated Jan. 
13, 1800. It was reconstituted hi 1810. 
The well-known objects are to diffuse 
knowledge, to facilitate the general in- 
troduction of mechanical inventions, 
and teach by lectures and experiments 
the application of science to the com- 
mon purposes of life. It has, as a rule, 
had for its lecturers some of the first 
scientific men of the age ; e. g., Thomas 
Young, Davy, Brande, Faraday, Tyn- 
dall, Frankland, and Rayleigh. It 
maintains professors of natural philos- 
ophy, chemistry and physiology, and 
has laboratories (including since 1896 
the Davy-Faraday research laboratory 
presented by Dr. Ludway Mond). 

Royal Marriage Act, an act of 
George III. passed by the British Par- 
liament in 1772, which forbids all de- 
scendants of George II., other than 
the issue of princesses married into 
foreign families, to contract marriage 
without the consent of the sovereign, 
signified under the great seal. But 
such descendants, if above the age of 
25, may dispense with the consent of 
the crown, unless both Houses of Par- 
liament expressly declare their dis- 
approval within 12 months after no- 
tice of the intended marriage has been 
given to the privy council. Marriages 
otherwise entered into are void. 

Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 
the famous English observatory found- 
ed by Charles II. in 1675. The first 
observation was made Sept. 19, 1675. 
The Director of the Observatory is 
styled the Astronomer Royal, and is 
under the official control of the Ad- 
miralty, but receives his appointment 
directly from the Prime Minister, and 
holds office by warrant under the royal 
sign manual. Longitude is commonly 
reckoned from here. 

Royal Society (London), a so- 
ciety for prosecuting research in gen- 
eral and physico-mathematical science 
in particular, founded in 1660. 

Many of the most important scien- 
tific achievements and discoveries have 
been due to its enlightened methods. 
It deservedly enjoys an influential aad 
semi-official position as the scientific 
adviser of the British government, and 
not only administers the $20.000 an- 
nually voted by Parliament for scien- 
tific purposes, but has given sugges- 
tions and advice which have borne 

E. 129. 



valuable fruit, from the voyage of 
Captain Cook in the ." Endeavor " in 
1768 down to the " Challenger " expe- 
dition, more than a century later. The 
roll of the Royal Society contains 
practically all the great scientific 
names of its country since its founda- 
tion. 

Royal Society (Edinburgh), a 
Scotch society of a similar type to the 
English institution, which was incor- 
porated in 1783, having been devel- 
oped from the Philosophical Society 
of Edinburgh, commenced in 1739. 
Among its early members were Hume, 
Reid, Edmund Burke, Hutton, Du- 
gald Stewart, and James Watt; and 
among its presidents have been Sir 
Walter Scott, Sir David Brewster, the 
Duke of Argyll, Lord Moncrieff, and 
Sir William Thomson. 

Royal Society of Literature, a 
society founded in England under the 
patronage of George IV., in 1823, and 
chartered in 1826. It awards gold 
medals. 

Royal University of Ireland, 
an institution founded hi 1880 in pur- 
suance of the provisions of the Uni- 
versity Education (Ireland) Act, 
1879, to take the place of the Queen's 
University, a similar institution estab- 
lished in connection with the Queen's 
Colleges. The Royal University cor- 
poration consists of a chancellor, a 
senate, and graduates, the government 
being vested in the chancellor and sen- 
ators, the latter not to exceed 36 in 
number. It has power to confer all 
such degrees and distinctions as are 
conferred by any university in the 
United Kingdom except in theology, 
and these may be bestowed on all 
male and female students who have 
matriculated in the university and 
passed the prescribed examinations, no 
residence in any college or attendance 
at any course of instruction in the 
university being obligatory on any 
candidate for a degree other than a 
degree in medicine or surgery, the 
university in this respect resembling 
that of London. An act of 1881 pro- 
vided for the payment of $100,000 a 
year out of the surplus funds of the 
Ir'sh Church for the purposes of the 
university, which has its seat at Earls- 
fort Terrace, Dublin. The university 
has a considerable staff of examiners, 
but of course no professors. 



Royce 



Rubidium 



Royce, Joslaii, an American edu- 
cator and author ; born in Grass Val- 
ley, Cal., Nov. 20, 1855. He became 
Professor of the History of Philosophy 
in Harvard in 1892, and published : 
" A Primer of Logical Analysis " ; 
" The Religious Aspect of Philos- 
ophy " ; " The Conception of Immor- 
tality " ; and many articles and lec- 
tures. 

Royer-Collard, Pierre Paul, a 
French statesman ; born in Sompuis, 
France, June 21, 1763. In 1811 he 
was appointed Professor of Philosophy 
in Paris, and exercised an immense 
influence on the philosophy of France. 
He was appointed president of the 
Commission of Public Instruction in 
1815. but resigned that post in 1820; 
in 1815, also, he returned to political 
life as deputy for the department of 
Marne. The French Academy opened 
its doors to him in 1827; and in 1828 
he was named president of the Cham- 
ber of Representatives, and in that 
capacity presented the address of the 
221 deputies (March, 1830) withdraw- 
ing their support from the govern- 
ment, which the king refused to hear 
read. Next day the Chamber was pro- 
rogued. From 1842 Royer-Collard 
completely withdrew from public life. 
He never was a writer, and he became 
a philosopher only by accident ; his 
true interest in life was politics, his 
real eminence as a political orator 
after the ancient pattern rather than 
that of the modern parliamentary de- 
bater. He died in his county seat, 
Chateauvieux, near St. Aignan, Loir- 
et-Cher, Sept. 4, 1845. 

Ruatan, or Roatan, an island of 
Central America, in the Bay of Hon- 
duras ; area, about 240 square miles. 
Surface, somewhat elevated and well 
wooded ; soil, fertile. The shores 
abound in fish and turtles, and near 
the, S. extremity is a good harbor. 

Rubber Groves, a name applied 
to the tracts of territory where the 
rubber of commerce is obtained. While 
the india-rubber of commerce has been 
obtained from many different parts of 
the globe, the world has been compel- 
led to look to Central and South Amer- 
ica for the bulk of its supply. South 
America, especially Brazil, is the terri- 
tory on which the commercial world 
relies, the province of Para yielding 
the best rubber. See CAOUTHOUC. 



Rubble, a common kind of mason- 
ry, in which the stones are irregular 
in size and nhape. 

Rubens, Peter Paul, a distin- 
guished Flemish painter ; born in 
Siegen, Westphalia, June 29, 1577. 
He went to Antwerp in 1G08, and was 
soon after made court painter to the 
Archduke Albert, Spanish governor of 
the Low Countries. In 1620 he was 
employed by the Princess Mary de 
Medici to adorn the gallery of the 
Luxembourg with a series of paintings 
illustrative of the principal scenes of 
her life. While thus engaged he be- 
came known to the Duke of Bucking- 
ham, who purchased his museum. He 
was afterward employed by the In- 
fanta Isabella and the King of Spain 
in some important negotiations which 
he executed with such credit as to be 
appointed secretary of the privy coun- 
cil. He acquired immense wealth, and 
was twice married, the second time, 
in 1631, to a lovely girl of 16. Rubens, 
beyond all comparison, was the most 
rapid in execution of all the great 
masters, and was incontestably the 
greatest perfector of the mechanical 
part of his art that ever existed. His 
works are very numerous, and very 
diversified in subject. There are nearly 
100 in the Picture Gallery at Munich. 
" The Descent from the Cross," at 
Antwerp, is perhaps his masterpiece. 
He died in Antwerp, May 30, 1640. 

Rubicon, a river in North Italy 
(now the Fiumicino, a tributary of 
the Adriatic) , famous in Roman his- 
tory, Caesar having by crossing this 
stream (49 B. c.), at that time regard- 
ed as the N. boundary of Italy, finally 
committed himself to the civil war. 
Hence the phrase " to pass the Rubi- 
con " is to take the decisive step by 
which one commits one's self to a 
hazardous enterprise. 

Rubidium, a metal much re- 
sembling caesium, with which it was 
discovered in 1860, by Bunsen and 
Kirchoff, during the analysis of a 
spring of water which contained these 
metals in minute quantities. Rubidium 
has since been found in small quan- 
tities in other mineral waters, in 
lepidolite, and in the ashes of many 
plants. This metal is closely related, 
in properties, to potassium, but is 
more easily fusible and convertible 
into vapor, and actually surpasses 



Rubinstein 



Rudder Fisb 



that metal in its attraction for oxygen, 
rubidium taking fire spontaneously in 
<air. It burns on water with exactly 
the same flame as potassium. 

Rubinstein, Anton Gregor, a 
Polish musician ; born near Jassy, 
Rumania, Nov. 28, 1829. He was! 
trained to music in Moscow by his 1 
mother and a master. Lis/t heard him, 
" an infant prodigy," play in Paris in 
1841, recognized his genius, and en- 
couraged him to play in other cities. 
After some further " touring " he gave 
himself to serious study in Berlin and 
Vienna, and in 1848 settled in St. 
Petersburg as teacher of music. At St. 
Petersburg he succeeded in getting a 
musical conservatory founded (1862) 
and became its director. But his con- 
cert tours engrossed a good deal of his 
jme, and in 1867 he resigned the 
directorship of the conservatory. In 
1872 he went to the United States 
and had an enthusiastic reception. He 
ended his concert tours in 1886. He 
was induced in the following year to 
resume the directorship of the con- 
servatory at St. Petersburg. From the 
Russian government he received a 
patent of nobility and other honors. 

He was a strongly pronounced op- 
ponent of the principles of Wagner. 
As a pianist he held the highest rank, 
being usually reckoned the greatest 
since Liszt. He ceased playing in pub- 
lic some time before his death, which 
occurred in Peterhof, Russia, Nov. 20, 
1894. 

Rubric, in the language of the old 
copies of MSS. and of modern print- 
ers, any writing or printing in red 
ink ; the date and place in a title-page 
being frequently in red ink, the word 
rubric has come to signify the false 
name of a place on a title-page. Thus, 
many books printed at Paris bear the 
rubric of London, Geneva, etc. 

Ruby, a term applied popularly to 
two distinct minerals the pyrope 
and the spinelle ruby, both of which 
are much valued as gems. The pyrope 
is a silicate of magnesia and alumina, 
and occurs chiefly in Saxony, Bohemia 
and Scotland. The spinelle ruby and 
its varieties, the orange-red rubicelle, 
and the violet or brown almandine, 
are aluminates of magnesia, with dif- 
ferent proportions of iron and chro- 
mium. They are found mainly in Cey- 
lon at Ava and in other parts of the 



East Indies. Rubies are wonderfully 
imitated. 

The ruby is one of the most ex 
quisite products of nature, but it is 
becoming rare and more rare to find it 
perfect. A ruby may bring 10 or 20 
times the price of a diamond of the 
same weight if it is really of a su- 
perior quality. In general the cutting 
as a brilliant is alone suitable for a 
fine ruby. The ruby is very hard, al- 
most as hard as the sapphire. 

The most beautiful rubies coma 
from Ceylon, India, and China. There 
are mines in Burma which supply at 
least one-half of the world's produc- 
tion. The Burmese mines were re- 
opened in 1900 under a London com- 
pany. The 'mines of Pegu are nearly 
exhausted, or but little worked today. 
The regions where they are situated 
are dangerous of approach ; besides, 
in the States of the Grand Mogul, the 
exportation of rubies is forbidden till 
they have been exhibited to the sov- 
ereign, who retains the most beautiful. 
The stone known under the name of 
the ruby of Siam is distinguished by 
its deep red color, somewhat resem- 
bling the garnet 

Ruby Throat, the Trpchilus colu- 
bris, a species of humming bird, BO 
named from the brilliant ruby red 
color of its chin and throat. In sum- 
mer it is found in all parts of North 
America, up to lat. 57 N., being thug 
remarkable for its extensive distribu- 
tion. 

Ruckert, Friedrich, a German 
poet; born in Schweinfurt, Bavaria, 
May 16, 1788 ; was educated there and 
at Wurzburg. For some years he led 
a wandering life studying philology 
and poetry. His most popular books 
are the collection of lyrics entitled 
" Springtime of Love," and the re- 
flective poems gathered together as 
" The Wisdom of the Brahman." He 
died Jan. 31, 1866. 

Rnckstuhl, Frederick Welling* 
ton, an American sculptor; born at 
Breitenbach, Alsace ; brought to St. 
Louis, Mo., in infancy, educated there 
and in Paris. Chief among much nota- 
ble work is his sculpture scheme of 
" New York City Appellate Court." 

Rudder Fish, a fish allied to 
the mackerel, very common in the At- 
lantic and Pacific Oceans, BO named 



Rudiui 

from its habit of swimming around the 
sterns of ships, attracted, doubtless, 
by the refuse thrown overboard. The 
flesh is said to be coarse in flavor. 

Rudini, Antonio Starrabba di, 
Marquis, an Italian statesman ; born 
in Palermo, Sicily, in 1839. In 18G9 
he was minister of the interior and 
member of the Chamber of Deputies, 
serving in the Parliament till called 
to succeed Crispi as premier, Feb. 7, 
1891. During the Mafia difficulty in 
New Orleans he recalled the Italian 
minister from Washington to enforce 
his demands on the United States gov- 
ernment. He succeeded Crispi in 1891, 
was succeeded by Crispi in 1892, and 
was again made premier in 1896, 
when disasters to the Italian army in 
Abyssinia caused Crispi's fall. His 
third term of office closed June 29, 
1898. 

Rudolf I., or Rudolph, founder 
of the present imperial dynasty of 
Austria ; born in Limburg castle in 
the Breisgau, Germany, May 1, 1218. 
His possessions were greatly increased 
by inheritance and by his mar- 
riage, till he was the most powerful 
prince of Swabia. In 1273 the electors 
chose him to be German king ; as, 
never having been crowned by the 
Pope, he was not entitled to be called 
kaiser or emperor. His accession was 
opposed by none ; the Pope's consent 
was secured at the price of certain 
rights already parted with by Rudolf's 
predecessors. Rudolf spent the greater 
part of his life that remained in sup- 
pressing the castles of the robber 
knights and putting an end to their 
lawless practices. He died in Spires, 
July 15, 1291, and was buried in the 
cathedral there. 

Rue. The common rue is a half- 
shrubby plant, two or three feet high, 
of a fetid odor and an acrid taste. 
The bluish-green leaves are pinnate, 
the flowers yellow ; a native of South- 
ern Europe, but grown in gardens in 
the United States, the East and West 
Indies, etc. 

Ruff, a well known migratory bird 
that is a spring and summer visitor in 
North Europe, having its winter home 
in Africa. It is rather larger than a 
snipe; general plumage ash-brown, 
spotted or mottled with black, but no 
two specimens are alike. In the breed- 



Rugby 

ing season the neck is surrounded by 
a frill or ruff of numerous long black 
feathers, glossed with purple, and 
barred with chestnut. 

Ruffe, a fish from the rivers of 
Europe. It is olive-green, marbled and 
spotted with brown, and resembles the 
perch in habits. The name is said to 
be derived from the harsh sensation 
caused by its ctenoid scales. 




RUE. 

Ruffed Grouse, a North Amer- 
ican species of grouse of the same 
genus as the hazel grouse of Europe. 
It is named from the tufts of feathers 
on the sides of its neck, and frequents 
forests and thickets. 

Rugby, a town in Warwickshire, 
England; 83 miles N. W. of London 
and 30 E. S. E. of Birmingham. At 
the foot of the hill on which it stands 
the river Swift gave Wyclif's ashes to 
the Avon ; close by at Ashby and at 
Dunchurch the Gunpowder Plot was 
hatched ; the battlefield of Naseby was 
viewed by Carlyle from its school 
house in 1842, a few days before Ar- 
nold's death ; it is within a drive of 
Stratford-on-Avon, Coventry, Kenil- 
worth. It is at once the center of a 
great hunting district and the seat of 



Ruger 



Rumania 



a world-famous public school. This 
probably accounts for the large num- 
ber of residential houses there. The 
school was founded in 1567 by Law- 
rence Sheriff, a grocer and a staunch 
supporter of Queen Elizabeth, by a 
gift of property in Manchester Square, 
London. After maintaining its posi- 
tion for some time as a good school 
for the Warwickshire gentry and a 
few others, specially under Dr. James 
and Dr. Wool, it became of national 
reputation under Dr. Arnold, who in 
raising his school raised at the same 
time the dignity of his whole profes- 
sion. Since his time the school has 
never lacked able teachers, remarkable 
for independence of mind. 

Ruger, Thomas Howard, an 
American military officer; born in 
Lima, N. Y., April 2, 1833; was grad- 
uated at the United States Military 
Academy in 1854 ; became lieutenant- 
colonel of the 3d Wisconsin regiment 
in June, 1861 ; won distinction in 
numerous engagements during the 
Civil War ; suppressed the draft riots 
in New York city in 1863 ; was brev- 
etted Major-General of volunteers, 
Nov. 30, 1864; promoted colonel, U. 
S. A., in 1867; Brigadier-General in 
1886 ; and Ma jor-General in 1895 ; and 
was retired in 1897. Died in 1907. 

Rule Nisi, or Rule to Show 
Cause, in United States and English 
law, an order granted by the court on 
an interlocutory application, directing 
the party opposed to the applicant to 
do or abstain from some act, unless 
he can show cause why the order 
should not be obeyed. If cause is 
shown, the order is " discharged," 
otherwise it is made " absolute," and 
the party ruled must obey on pain of 
attachment for contempt. 

Rules of the Road, the official 
designation of regulations adopted by 
national or international authorities 
for the management of vessels in 
storms, fogs, or other danger. Under 
act of the United States Congress, in 
1896, the rules already established 
were considerably changed to comport 
with the schedule to be observed by 
vessels of all civilized nations on and 
after July 1, 1897. These rules apply 
also to inland waters, excepting the 
Great Lakes, for which a special set 
has been devised. 



Ruling Machines, instruments 
used for ruling paper, metal, etc. The 
first machine of this kind was invent- 
ed by a Dutchman, resident in London, 
in 1782, and was subsequently greatly 
improved by Woodmason, Payne, 
Brown, and others. F. A. Nobert de- 
vised a ruling machine in 1845 for 
the production of microscopical test 
plates, diffraction gratings, and mi- 
crometers, etc., and more recently Ben- 
jamin Day, a New York artist, pat- 
ented one for use by artists. 

Rum, a spirit distilled chiefly in the 
West Indies from the fermented skim- 
mings of the sugar-boilers and mo- 
lasses, together with sufficient cane 
juice to impart the necessary flavor. 
Its peculiar flavor in due to butyric 
ether. Caramel is added for coloring. 
Much of the rum sold is merely plain 
spirit colored with burned sugar and 
flavored with rum flavoring. The Med- 
ford rum manufactured in Massachu- 
setts is largely exported to Africa. 

Rumania, a European kingdom, 
bounded by Austria-Hungary, Servia, 
Bulgaria, the Black Sea, and Russia ; 
area, 48,307 square miles ; pop., in- 
cluding the Dobruja, 5,800,000. It in- 
cludes the former Danubian princi- 
palities of Wallachia and Moldavia 
and the province of Dobruja on the 
Black Sea (pop. est. 200,000). The 
capital is Bucharest ; other chief 
towns are Jassy, Galatz, Braila, and 
Giurgevo. 

The surface is mainly occupied by 
undulating and well-watered plains of 
great fertility, gradually sloping up- 
ward to the Carpathians on the N. 
and W. borders, where the summits 
range from 2,650 to 8,800 feet above 
sea-level. The entire kingdom is in the 
basin of the Danube, which has a 
course of 595 miles in Rumania, form- 
ing the boundary with Bulgaria near- 
ly the whole way. The climate is 
much more extreme than at the same 
latitude in other parts of Europe ; the 
summer is hot and rainless, the winter 
sudden and very intense ; there is al- 
most no spring, but the autumn is 
long and pleasant. Rumania is an es- 
sentially agricultural and pastoral 
state, fully 70 per cent, of the inhab- 
itants being directly engaged in hus- 
bandry. The chief cereal crops are 
maize, wheat, barley, rye, and oats; 
tobacco, hemp, and flax are also 



Rnmford 



Ruminants 



grown; and wine is produced on the 
bills at the foot of the Carpathians. 
Cattle, sheep, and horses are reared in 
large numbers. -Excellent timber 
abounds on the Carpathians. Bears, 
wolves, wild boars, large and small 
game, and fish are plentiful. The 
country is rich in minerals of nearly 
every description, but salt, petroleum, 
and lignite are the only minerals 
worked. Manufactures are still in a 
rudimentary state. 

Trade is fairly active, but it is 
almost entirely in the hands of 
foreigners ; the internal trade is 
chiefly carried on by Jews, whose 
numbers and prosperity are constant 
sources of anxiety to Rumanian states- 
men, and who are in consequence sub- 
ject to certain disabilities. The chief 
exports are grain (especially maize), 
cattle, timber, and fruit ; the chief im- 
ports, manufactured goods, coal, etc. 
Germany, Great Britain, and Austria- 
Hungary appropriate by far the great- 
est share of the foreign trade, the bulk 
of which passes through the Black Sea 
ports. 

The Rumanians, who call them- 
selves Romani, claim to be descend- 
ants of Roman colonists introduced by 
Trajan ;- but the trace* of Latin de- 
scent are in great part due to a later 
immigration, about the 12th century, 
from the Alpine districts. Their lan- 
guage and history both indicate that 
they are a mixed race with many con- 
stituents. Their language, however, 
must be classed as one of the Romance 
tongues, though it contains a large 
admixture of foreign elements. In Ru- 
mania there are about 4,500,000 Ru- 
manians, 300,000 Jews, 200,000 gip- 
sies, 50,000 Bulgars, 1,500 Magyars, 
20,000 Germans, 20,000 Greeks, and 
15,000 Armenians. Three-fourths of 
the population are peasants, who till 
18G4 were kept in virtual serfdom by 
the boiars or nobles. In that year up- 
ward of 400,000 peasant families were 
made proprietors of small holdings 
averaging 10 acres, at a price to be 
paid back to the State in 15 years. 
About 4.500,000 of the people belong 
to the Greek Church. Energetic ef- 
forts are being made to raise educa- 
tion from its present low level. Ru- 
mania has two universities (at Bucha- 
rest and Jassy), several gymnasia, 
and a system of free prior ary schools. 



Rumania is a hereditary constitu- 
tional monarchy with a Legislature of 
two bodies. The Senate consists of 
various dignitaries and officials and 
120 elected members ; the Chamber of 
Deputies has 183 members, elected by 
all citizens paying taxes or possessed 
of a certain standard of education. 
The constitution, last revised in 1884, 
closely resembles that of Belgium. The 
king is assisted by a ministry of eight 
members. The army is modeled on the 
German system, service being compul- 
sory from the age of 21 to 46. 

The persecution of Jews in Rumania 
in view of their large immigration to 
this country, has evoked protests from 
the American government. An anti- 
semitic agitation which began in Dec., 
1906, developed into a serious agrarian 
revolt in Feb. and Mar., 1907, and 
was only suppressed by firm military 
measures, 

Rnmford, Benjamin Thomp- 
son, Connt, an American scientist; 
born in Woburn, Mass., March 26, 
1753. Being a Tory in sympathy, he 
lived in London during the American 
Revolution. After serving England for 
a time, he entered the service of the 
Elector of Bavaria, rose to the posi- 
tion of Minister of War, and was 
finally created a count of the Holy 
Roman Empire. He took the title 
Rumford from the village of that name 
(now Concord, N. H.), where he had 
married. He spent the last years of 
his life at Auteuil, busily engaged in 
scientific researches particularly on 
the nature and effects of heat, studies 
with which his name is generally as- 
sociated. As an administrator, mili- 
tary or civil, he showed immense prac- 
tical capacity in improving the condi- 
tions of life for the lower ranks. Hi3 
best known works include : " Essays : 
Political, Economical, and Philosoph- 
ical " (1797-1806) ; and studies in do- 
mestic economy, particularly of cook- 
ery. Died in Auteuil near Paris, Aug. 
21, 1814. 

Ruminants, or Ruminantia, a 
group of herbivorous mammals, be- 
longing to the great order of hoofed or 
ungulate mammals, included in the 
Artiodactyle or " even-toed " section of 
these and comprising the camel, llama, 
true deer, giraffe, ox, sheep, goat, ante- 
lope, and" others. The faculty of rumi- 
nation is not quite peculiar to it 



Rumination 



Runes 



Ruminants are distinguished from 
other orders by certain peculiarities of 
dentition. Most of the ruminants are 
suitable for human food. They are 
generally gregarious, and are . repre- 
sented by indigenous species in all 
parts of the wofld except Australia. 

Rumination, the act of chewing 
the cud. The food of the ruminants 
is grass, which requires a longer series 
of chemical changes to convert a por- 
tion of it into blood than does the 
flesh of other animals eaten by the 
Carnivora. To produce these changes 
there is a complex stomach divided 
into four parts, the rumex or paunch, 
the reticulum or honeycomb bag, the 
psalterium or manyplies, and the 
abomasum or reed. A ruminant does 
not chew the fodder which it eats, but 
simply swallows it. When it has had 
enough it retires to a quiet spot, forces 
up again to the mouth a portion of 
the food in its paunch, thoroughly 
chews it and then swallows it again. 
Another and another bolus is thus dis- 
posed of. Each of these, started from 
the paunch, is forced next into the 
honeycomb bag, where it receives its 
form, and then goes up the gullet. On 
returning it passes direct from the 
paunch into the manyplies or third 
stomach, and thence to the abomasum. 
Fluids may pass directly into any 
part of the stomach. 

Rump Parliament, in English 
history, the remnant, or fag-end of the 
Long Parliament, which was assem- 
bled on May 6, 1659, and dissolved 
October 15 in the same year ; so called 
from the general contumely and de- 
rision with which it was treated by 
the English nation at large. 

Rumsey, James, an American in- 
ventor ; born in Bohemia Manor, Cecil 
co., Md., about 1743. He invented and 
patented a boat " calculated to work 
with greater ease and rapidity against 
rapid rivers " and one to be propelled 
by the force of a stream of water 
pumped out at the stern, etc. The 
Rumsey Society, of which Benjamin 
Franklin was a member, was founded 
in 1788 for the purpose of furthering 
his schemes, a similar society being 
founded in England a year later. 
Rumsey published " A Short Treatise 
on the Application of Steam " (1788). 
Be died in London, England, Dec. 23, 
1792. 



Rnnes. In the Scandinavian lands, 
Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, thou- 
sands of inscriptions have been found 
written in the ancient alphabet of the 
heathen Northmen. Similar records 
are scattered sparsely and sporadically 
over the regions which were overrun 
or settled by the Baltic tribes between 
the 2d century and the 10th. A few 
are found in Kent, England, which 

Y h t F fc <Kh* X f> 

f o O> r k g(palat) w 

Hi K+U<M(Mtfc M 

hnlJchpeoBtb 

n tvs*H x ri 1 for 

m 1 ng <B d gfentt.) a 



y o 



ENGLISH RUNES. 



was conquered by the Jutes, others in 
Cumberland, Dumfriesshire, Orkney, 
and the Isle of Man, which were occu- 
pied by the Norwegians, and in York- 
shire, which was settled by the Angles. 
One or two have been found in the 
valley of the Danube, which was the 
earliest halting place of the Goths in 
their migration S. ; and there is reason 
to believe that a similar alphabet was 
used by the Visigoths and Burgun- 
dians in Spain and France, while it is 
noteworthy that there is no trace of 
this writing having been used in Ger- 
many or by the Saxons and Franks. 

The writing is called Runic, the in- 
dividual letters are called runestaves, 
or less correctly runes, and the runic 
alphabet is called the futhorc, from 
the first six letters f, u, th, o, r, c. 
The old Norse word " run " originally 
meant something " secret " or magical. 
The oldest extant tunic records may 
date from the 1st century A. D., the 
latest from the 15th or 16th, the 
greater number being older than the 
llth century, when after the conver- 
sion of the Scandinavians the futhorc 
was superseded by the Latin alphabet. 

The origin of the runic writing has 
been a matter of prolonged contro- 
versy. The runes were formerly sup- 
posed to have originated out of the 
Phrenician or the Latin letters, but it 
is now generally ^agreed that they 
,must have been derived about the 6th 



Riinjcct Singh. 



century B. c., from an early form of 
the Greek alphabet which was em- 
ployed by the Milesian traders and 
colonists of Olbia and other towns on 
the N. shores of the Black Sea. 

Runjeet Singh, called the " Lion 
of the Punjab," founder of the Sikh 
kingdom ; born in Gugaranwalla, In- 
dia, Nov. 2, 1780. His father, a Sikh 
chieftain, died in 1792, and the gov- 
ernment fell into the hands of his 
mother. At the age of 17, however, 
Runjeet rebelled against his mother's 
authority, assumed the reins himself, 
and began a career of ambition. The 
Shah of Afghanistan granted him pos- 
session of Lahore, which had been 
taken from the Sikhs, and Runjeet 
soon subdued the small Sikh states to 
the N. of the Sutlej. He organized 
his army after the European model 
with the help of French and English 
officers, and steadily extended his pow- 
er, assuming the title of rajah in 1812. 
He gradually increased his territory 
until he was ruler of the entire Pun- 
jab, and in 1819 had already assumed 
the title of Maharajah, or king of 
kings. In 1836 he suffered a heavy de- 
feat from the Afghans, but until his 
death he retained his power over his 
20,000,000 subjects. He died in La- 
hore, June 27, 1839. 

Runyon, Theodore, an American 
diplomatist ; born in Somerville, N. J., 
Oct. 25, 1822 ; was graduated at Yale 
University in 1842. At the outbreak 
of the Civil War he took command of 
the 1st Brigade of New Jersey Volun- 
teers, and on April 27, 1861, started 
for Washington, D. C. On May 6 he 
reached the national capital, then in 
a state of great excitement because of 
an expected invasion by the Confed- 
erates with 3,000 men. He promptly 
took possession of exposed parts of 
the city and fortified its approaches, 
especially those at the Long Bridge. 
When the National army met its first 
defeat at Bull Run, and was fleeing 
toward Washington with the Confed- 
erates in close pursuit, he closed all 
approaches, planted cannon, and pre- 
vented both the panic-stricken Na- 
tional troops and the Confederates 
from entering the city. For thus sav- 
ing the national capital he received 
the personal thanks of President Lin- 
coln and his cabinet. Soon afterward 
he resigned from the army and re- 



sumed the practice of law. In 1893 
he became United States minister to 
Germany, and in September following 
was raised to the rank of ambassador. 
He died in Berlin, Germany, Jan. 27, 
1896. 

Rupee, a silver coin in use in the 
British dominions in India, with cor- 
responding ones of much inferior 
workmanship and variable value in 
the native states. Prior to 1893 its 
variable value was a source of great 
inconvenience, but in that year stand- 
ard rupee (32 cents) was established. 

Rupert of Bavaria, Prince, an 
English military officer ; born in 
Prague, Bohemia, Dec. 17, 1619. After 
some military experience on the Con- 
tinent he went to England to assist 
his uncle, Charles I., and in 1648 
he was made admiral of the Eng- 
lish royal fleet. After the Restoration 
he was appointed lord-high-admiral 
and served with Monk against the 
Dutch. He became governor of Wind- 
sor Castle, privy-councilor, etc. Many 
of his later years were devoted to 
scientific study, and he was formerly 
credited with the invention of mez- 
zotint engraving, which he improved 
and introduced into England. He in- 
vented Prince Rupert's Drops. As 
one of the founders and the first gov- 
ernor of the Hudson Bay Company 
his name was given to Rupertsland. 
He died in London, Nov. 29, 1682, 
and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Rupert's Land, an extensive but 
indeterminate region in the interior of 
Canada, named in honor of Prince 
Rupert, and transferred to the Hud- 
son Bay Company, of which that 
prince was one of the founders, by 
Charles II. in 1670. This region is 
now included in Manitoba and the 
Western Territories, but its name still 
gives the title to the Bishop of Ru- 
pertsland, who resides at Winnipeg. 

Rupture, the breaking or lacera- 
tion of the walls or continuity of an 
organ, especially of a viscus. Also, 
the popular name for hernia. 

Rurik, the founder of the Russian 
monarchy ; flourished in the 9th cen- 
tury ; he is generally considered to 
have been a Varangian of Scandina- 
vian origin, and to have led a suc- 
cessful invasion against the Slavs of 
Novgorod about 862. He died in 879, 



Rusby 

and bis family reigned in Russia till 
the death, in 1598, of Feodor, son of 
Ivan the Terrible, when it was suc- 
ceeded by the house of Romanoff. 
Many Russian families still claim a 
direct descent from Rurik. 

Rusby, Henry Hurd, an Ameri- 
can botanist ; born in Franklin, N. J., 
April 26, 1855 ; was connected with 
the Smithsonian Institution in 1880- 
1896; appointed Professor of Botany, 
Physiology, and Materia Medica in 
the New York College of Pharmacy 
in 1888; Professor of Materia Medica 
at Bellevue Hospital Medical College ; 
Curator of New York Botanical Gar- 
dens ; revised botanical department of 
the " United States Pharmacopoeia " 
in 1900-1901. He was a member of 
a large number of scientific societies 
and wrote " Essentials of Pharma- 
cognosy " ; " Morphology and Histol- 
ogy of Plants " ; etc. 

Rush, a genus of plants having a 
glume-like (not colored) perianth, 
smooth filaments, and a many-seeded, 
generally three-celled capsule. The 
species are numerous, mostly natives 
"of wet or marshy places in the colder 
parts of the world ; some are found in 
tropical regions. The name rush per- 
haps properly belongs to those species 
which have no proper leaves; the 
round stems of which, bearing or not 
bearing small lateral heads of flowers, 
are popularly known as rushes. The 
soft rush is a native of Japan as well 
as of Great Britain, and is cultivated 
in Japan for making mats. The com- 
mon rush and the soft rush are large- 
ly used for the bottoms of chairs and 
for mats, and in ruder times, when 
carpets were little known, they were 
much used for covering the floors of 
rooms. The stems of the true rushes 
contain a large pith or soft central 
substance, which is sometimes used for 
wicks to small candles called rush- 
lights. 

Rush, Benjamin, an American 
physician ; born in Philadelphia, Dec. 
24, 1745 ; he was graduated at Prince- 
ton in 1760 ; studied medicine in Phil- 
adelphia, Edinburgh, London, and 
Paris; and in 1769 was made Profes- 
sor of Chemistry in the Philadelphia 
Medical College. Elected a member of 
the Continental Congress, he signed 
the Declaration of Independence 
(1776). In April, 1777, he was ap- 



Rnsh 

pointed surgeon-general, and in July 
physician-general, of the Continental 
army. In 1778 he resigned his post in 
the army because he could not pre- 
vent frauds on soldiers in the hospital 
stores, and returned to his professor- 
ship. He was a founder of the Phila- 
delphia dispensary, the first in the 
United States. He next became Pro- 
fessor of the Theory and Practice of 
Medicine at Philadelphia, to which 
chair he added those of the Institutes 
and Practice of Medicine and Clinical 
Practice (1791) ; and of the Practice 
of Physic (1797) ; and during the epi- 
demic of 1793 he was as successful as 
devoted in the treatment of yellow 
fever. In 1799 Rush was appointed 
treasurer of the United States Mint, 
which post he held till his death. He 
was called " the Sydenham of Amer- 
ica " and his medical works brought 
him honors from several European 
sovereigns. He wrote " Medical In- 
quiries and Observations " (5 vols. 
1789-1793); "Essays" (1798), and 
"Diseases of the Mind" (1821). He 
died in Philadelphia, April 19, 1813. 
Rush, Richard, an American 
statesman; born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
Aug. 29, 1780; son of the preceding. 
He was graduated at Princeton Col- 
lege in 1797 ; and was attorney-gen- 
eral of the United States from 1814 
to 1817. In 1817 he was temporary 
Secretary of State under President 
Monroe, and was by him appointed 
minister to England, from whence he 
was recalled in 1825 by President 
Adams, who made him Secretary of 
the Treasury. In 1828 he was candi- 
date for the vice-presidency on the 
same ticket with President Adams, 
who was nominated for reelection, and 
received the same number of electoral 
votes. In 1836 President Jackson ap- 
pointed him commissioner to obtain 
the Smithsonian legacy, then in the 
English Court of Chancery, in. which 
he was successful, and returned in 
1838 with the entire amount, $515,- 
169. In 1847 he was appointed min- 
ister to France. 4.t the close of Presi- 
dent Polk's term he asked to be re- 
called and spent the rest of his life 
in retirement. He died in Philadel- 
phia, Pa., July 30, 1859. He left 
" Memoranda of a Residence at the 
Court of St. James," two volumes ; 
" Washington in Domestic Life " ; 



Rushf orth 

" Occasional Productions, Political 
Diplomatic, etc., while the Author re- 
sided as Envoy Extraordinary from 
the United States, at Paris," publishec 
by his sons (1860). 

Rushf orth, William Henry, an 
American inventor ; born in Leeds, En- 
gland, July 11, 1844; came to the 
United States in 1878 and was ap- 
pointed engineer in a silk factory in 
Camden, N. J. He made many inven- 
tions, the most important being a fire- 
escape ladder, a series of automatic 
safety-car signals, and a feed-water 
heater, which received a silver medal 
and diploma at the Paris Exposition 
in 1887. He died in Rutherford, N. 
J., Aug. 21, 1892. 

Rusk, Jeremiah McLain, an 
American agriculturist; born in Mor- 
gan cp., O., June 17, 1830; removed 
to Wisconsin in 1858 and became a 
farmer. He entered the Union service 
during the Civil War, as major of a 
regiment he had raised, the 25th Wis- 
consin Volunteers; was promoted 
lieutenant-colonel in 18G3; was bre- 
vetted colonel and Brigadier-General, 
18G5. From 1866 to 1870 he was bank- 
comptroller of Wisconsin, and rep- 
resented his State- from 1871 to 1877 
in Congress. In 1882 he was elected 
governor of Wisconsin and served in 
that capacity till 1889. He was made 
secretary of the newly-created Depart- 
ment of Agriculture in 1889, and held 
this office till 1893. He died in Viro- 
qua, Wis., Nov. 21, 1893. 

Ruskin, John, an English author; 
born in London ? Feb. 8, 1819. He 
studied at Christ Church, Oxford ; 
gained the Newdigate prize in 1839, 
and graduated in 1842. In 1867 he 
was appointed Rede lecturer at Cam- 
bridge, and in 1870-1872, 1876-1878, 
1883-1885 he was Slade Professor of 
Fine Arts at Oxford, where in 1871 he 
gave $25,000 for the endowment of a 
university teacher of drawing. In 
" Modern Painters " he advocated a 
complete revolution in the received 
conventions of art and art criticism. 
Ruskin was the first art critic to place 
criticism upon a scientific basis. In 
1851 he appeared as a defender of 
pre-Raphaelitism. About 1860 he be- 
gan to write as a political economist 
and social reformer; his chief works 
in this sphere being " Unto this Last " 
" Munera Pulveris," and " Fors Clavi- 



Russell 

gera," a periodical series of letters 
to the working men and laborers of 
Great Britain. In this connection he 
founded in 1871, "The Guild of St, 
George " ; founded a linen industry at 
Keswick, and revived in Langdale, 
hand loom weaving. His works are 
entirely too numerous to admit of 
mention. After 1885 he lived at Brant- 
wood, on Coniston Lake, where he 
died Jan. 20, 1900. 

Russell, Addison Peale, an 
American journalist and esayist ; bora 
in Wilmington, Ohio, Sept. 8, 1826. 
He wrote: "Half-Tints"; "Library 
Notes"; "Sub Ccelum," etc. 

Russell, Sir Charles Arthur, a 
British jurist ; born in Killowen, Ire- 
land, Nov. 10, 1832; was educated at 
Trinity College, Dublin. He defended 
the prisoner in the Maybrick murder 
case in 1889, and was counsel for the 
defendant (Parnell) before the Par- 
nell Commission. He was counsel for 
Great Britain during the Bering Sea 
Arbitration Tribunal in 1893; became 
Lord Chief Justice of England; and 
was created 1st Baron Russell of Kil- 
lowen in 1894. In 1896 he visited 
the United States as guest of the 
American bar association ; and in 1899 
was British arbitrator in the Vene- 
zuelan Boundary Tribunal. He died 
Aug. 10, 1900. 

Russell, Irwin, an American 
verse-writer; born at Port Gibson, 
Miss., June 3, 1853. He was among 
the first to put the negro character 
to literary account. His dialect and 
other verse was collected after his 
death and published as " Poems " 
(1888). He died in New Orleans, La., 
Dec. 23. 1879. 

Russell, John, Earl Russell, K, 
G., an English statesman, third son of 
:he 6th Duke of Bedford; born in 
London, Aug. 18, 1792. Educated at 
Edinburgh University, he entered Par- 
iament in 1813 before attaining his 
majority. In 1819 he made his first 
motion in favor of parliamentary re- 
orm, of which through life he was 
he champion. In 1831 he was pay- 
master-general in Lord Grey's admin 
stration, and introduced the first Re- 
! orm Bill to the House of Commons 
From 1841 till 1845 he led the opposi- 
tion against Pee!, with whom, how- 
ever, he was in sympathy on the Corn 
Law question; and when Peel re- 



Russell 



Russia 



signed in 1846 Russell formed a min- 
istry and retained power till Feb- 
ruary, 1852. In 1859 he became 
foreign secretary, the Trent affair with 
the United States occurring while he 
was in office. In 1861 he was raised 
to the peerage, and in 1865 succeeded 
Lord Palmerston in the leadership of 
the Liberal party ; but when his new 
reform bill was rejected in 1866 he 
went out of office. He was the author 
of numerous books and pamphlets, in- 
cluding lives of Thomas Moore, Lord 
William Russell, and Charles Fox, 
and " Recollections and Suggestions " 
(1813-1873), published in 1875. He 
died May 28, 1878. 

Russell, John Scott, a British 
naval architect, born near Glasgow, 
Scotland, in 1808. He became a 
science-lecturer in Edinburgh, and in 
1832-1833 temporarily filled the chair 
of Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh 
University. Next year he began his 
important researches into the nature 
of waves, which led to his discovery 
of the wave of translation, on which 
he founded the wave-line system of 
naval construction introduced into 
practice in 1835. He was manager of 
a large shipbuilding yard on the Clyde 
for several years, and in 1844 estab- 
lished a yard of his own on the 
Thames. He was one of the earliest 
advocates of iron-clad men-of-war, and 
was joint designer of the " Warrior," 
the first English seagoing armored 
frigate ; but the most important ves- 
sel he designed and constructed was 
the " Great Eastern." One of his 
chief engineering works was the vast 
dome of the Vienna Exhibition of 
1873, which has a clear span of 360 
feet. He was the author of " The 
Modern System of Naval Architect- 
ure," and other writings. He died in 
Ventnor, June 10, 1882. 

Russell, William, Lord Rus- 
sell, an English statesman, third son 
of the 5th Earl of Bedford ; born Sept. 
29, 1639. He entered Parliament in- 
mediately after the Restoration, and in 
1669 married Rachel, Lady Vaughan. 
In 1679 he was a member of the new 
privy council appointed by Charles 
II. to ingratiate himself with the 
Whigs. Resigning in 1680, he became 
conspicuous in the efforts to exclude 
the king's brother, the Roman Catho- 
lic Duke of York, from the succes- 



sion to the throne, but retired from- 
public life when the Exclusion Bill 
was rejected. When the Ryehouse Plot 
was discovered in 1683, Russell was 
arrested on a charge of high treason, 
and though nothing was proved 
against him the law was stretched to 
secure his conviction. He was sen- 
tenced to death, and was beheaded in 
London, July 21, 1683. An act was- 
passed in 1689 reversing his attainder. 

Russell, William Clark, an En- 
glish novelist; born (of English parent- 
age), in New York city, Feb. 24, 1844. 
He spent much of his early life at sea, 
and afterward settled at Ramsgate, 
England. He published a great num- 
ber of sea stories and novels. 

Russell, William Eustis, na 
American lawyer ; born hi Cambridge, 
Mass., Jan. 6, 1857; was graduated 
at Harvard University in 1877; was 
governor of Massachusetts in 1890- 
1892. He then resumed the practice 
of law, and became a member of the 
Board of Indian Commissioners in, 
November, 1894. He was found dead 
in his fishing tent at Little Pabos. 
Quebec, Canada, on the morning or 
July 16, 1896. 

Russell, Sir William Howard, 
an English journalist ; born hi Lily- 
water near Dublin, March 28, 1820. 
He was special war correspondent of 
the London " Times " in Crimea, India, 
the United States, Austria, France, 
South Africa, and Egypt, during var- 
ious campaigns. He published " Ex- 
traordinary Men," " The Prince of 
Wales's Tour," etc. He received var- 
ious honors from foreign governments 
and was knighted in 1895. He died 
Feb. 10, 1907. 

Russia, one of the most powerful 
empires of the world, second only in 
extent to the British empire. It com- 
prehends most of Eastern Europe and 
all Northern Asia, and is bounded N. 
by the Arctic Ocean ; W. by Sweden, 
the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic, 
Prussia, Austria, and Rumania; S. 
by the Black Sea, Turkey in Asia, 
Persia, Afghanistan, the Chinese em- 
pire ; E. by the Pacific and Bering 
Strait. The total area has been offi- 
cially estimated at 8,660,395 square 
miles: while the population (1909) 
was 160,095,200. 

In the European parts of Russia 
alone the population increases an- 



Russia 

nually at the rate of nearly 1,500,000. 
The largest towns are St. Petersburg 
(1,678,000), Moscow (1,359,254), War- 
saw (756,426), Odessa (449,673), 
Lodz (351,570), Ripa (2S2.230). Kieff 
(319,000), Kharkoff (173,989), and 
Vilna (162,633). St. Petersburg and 
Moscow are the capitals of the empire. 

European Russia consists almost 
wholly of immense plains, the Valdai 
Hills, between St. Petersburg and 
Moscow, averaging 500 feet and never 
exceeding 1,200 feet above sea-level, 
forming the only elevated region of 
the interior and an important water- 
shed. The mountains include ; the 
Caucasus, running from the Black 
Sea to the Caspian, reach the height 
of 18,500 feet; the Urals, stretching 
from the Caspian to the Arctic Ocean 
and separating European from Asiatic 
Russia, have their greatest height be- 
low 7,000 feet. Beyond the Urals 
are the vast Siberian plains. 

The whole of the vast empire 
is watered by numerous rivers, some 
running a course of thousands of 
miles. Altogether Russia and Poland 
have 49,000 miles of navigable 
rivers. Asiatic Russia has also a 
number of very large rivers, as the 
Obi, Yenisei, and Lena in Siberia, 
and the Amur toward the Chinese 
frontier. This complete river system 
is of incalculable value to Russia, as 
by its means internal communication 
is carried on. Canals connect the 
navigable rivers, so as to form con- 
tinuous waterways ; there being 500 
miles of canals and 717 of canalized 
rivers. 

As may be expected from its vast- 
ness this empire offers soils and cli- 
mates of almost every variety. Ex- 
treme cold in winter and extreme heat 
in summer, are, however, a general 
characteristic of Russian climates. As 
regards soil large sections of Russia 
are sandy, barren wastes and vast 
morasses. The most productive por- 
tion is that between the Baltic and 
the Gulf of Finland, and the Volga, 
on the N. and E. ; Prussia, Austria, 
etc., on the W. ; and the Black Sea 
on the S. It has, generally speaking, 
a soft black mold of great depth, most- 
ly on a sandy bottom, easily wrought, 
and very fertile. The more S. por- 
tion of Siberia, as far E. as the river 
Lena, has, for the most part, a fertile 
soil, and produces, notwithstanding 



Russia; 

the severity of the climate, nearly all 
kinds f grain. 

Boundless forests exist, the area 
of the forest land in Europe being 
42 per cent, of the total area. The fir, 
larch, alder, and birch predominate. 
Most of the forest land is now under 
government control, and waste is pre- 
vented. Agriculture remains the chief 
pursuit of the bulk of the population. 
For some years it has, however, re- 
mained stationary, while manufact- 
uring industries are steadily going 
ahead. The chief crops are rye, wheat, 
barley, oats, hemp, flax, and tobacco. 
Vine and beet culture is rapidly in- 
creasing, and the breeding of horses 
and cattle is also extensively carried 
on. 

Russia is rich in minerals. The 
precious metals are chiefly obtained 
in the Ural and Altai regions. The 
output for 1901 was, gold, 79,084 
pounds ; platinum, 12,446 pounds ; sil- 
ver, 704 pounds. In the Ural, iron 
beds are also rich and numerous, ex- 
ceeding all others in productiveness. 
Copper is most abundant in the gov- 
ernment of Perm : lead in the Ural and 
some parts of Poland ; saltpeter in 
Astrakhan. Of the coal mines those 
of the Don basin are the principal at 
present, those of Kielce ranking sec- 
ond ; the mines around Moscow come 
next. About 60,000 tons of manga- 
nese ore are annually extracted in the 
Ural and the Caucasus. The petroleum 
wells of Baku on the Caspian now 
send their products all over Europe. 

Prior to the accession of Peter the 
Great, Russia had no manufactures ; 
he started them, and under the more 
or less fostering care of his succes- 
sors and Russia's protective policy 
they have steadily grown. The latest 
statistics give a total of about 1,400,- 
000 persons as being employed in the 
various manufacturing industries. 
Two-fifths of the entire production 
comes from the two capitals, St. 
Petersburg and Moscow. The various 
manufactures rank approximately as 
follows : spirits, sugar, cottons and 
yarns, flour, tobacco, foundry prod- 
ucts, flax, yarn, and linen, leather, 
woolen cloth and yarn, iron, machin- 
ery, beer, soap, timber, paper, oil, 
glass, chemicals, agricultural imple- 
ments. 

The bulk of Russia's external trade 
is carried on through the European 



Russian Expansion 



Russian Expansion 



frontier and the Baltic and Black 
Sea ports. The chief exports are : 
grain (about one-half of entire ex- 
ports), flax, linseed and other oleagi- 
nous seeds, timber, hemp, wool, butter 
and eggs, spirits, bristles, and furs, 
in the order indicated. The chief im- 
ports are cotton, wool, tea, machinery, 
coal and coke, cotton yarn, metal 
goods, wine, olive oil, raw silk, her- 
rings, textile goods, fruit, coffee, to- 
bacco. The import trade is heaviest 
with Germany, Great Britain, France, 
Austria-Hungary, and Belgium, in the 
order named. In the export trade 
Great Britain takes the lead, Holland, 
France, and Germany following. 

Russia is .an absolute hereditary 
monarchy, the emperor (czar or tsar) 
being the supreme ruler and legisla- 
tor, and the final tribunal in all mat- 
ters political or ecclesiastical. His 
title is Emperor and Autocrat of all 
the Russias, Czar of Poland, and 
Grand-prince of Finland. The ad- 
ministration is divided into 12 depart- 
ments, with a minister at the head of 
each nominated by the emperor. Hold- 
ing a distinct position from these are 
four great boards or councils. These 
ave the State council, the couasil "^ 
ministers, the senate of the empire, and 
the Holy Synod. During and after the 
war with Japan the agitation for an 
elective Duma or Parliament resulted 
in its creation Aug. 19, 1905, but it was 
soon dissolved, and internal troubles 
continued. Russia has a heavy for- 
eign debt. 

The established religion of Russia 
is the Eastern or Greek Church, and 
one of the fundamental laws of the 
State is that the emperor must belong 
to that Church, and none of the im- 
perial family may marry a wife be- 
longing to another religion without 
the express sanction of the emperor. 
Dissenters from the Orthodox Church 
are known as " raskolniki," and are 
nominally tolerated, but really subject- 
ed to serious, and often most cruel 
maltreatment. Roman Catholics are 
subject to certairwrestrictions, and per- 
secution and niassacre have driven mul- 
titudes of Jews into exile. Education 
in spite of many obstacles, is progress- 
ing, but Russia is still nearly a century 
behind most European nations. Only 
23 per cent, of the aggregate popula- 
tion receive education in schools. A 
law was passed in 1888 to spread tech- 



nical education ; there are 9 leading 
universities, a teaching staff of 1,039, 
and 14,542 students. 

Russia's real greatness may be said 
to date from the accession of Peter 
the Great in 1696, who first secured 
for the country the attention of the 
more civilized nations of Europe. From 
then on the growth of the empire 
was continuous. 

Russian Expansion, in the 
19th Century. At the opening of the 
19th century, the Russian empire, with 
a territory of some seven and a half 
millions of square miles, was by far 
the largest state m the world. Its 
population, however, of, say 40,000,- 
000, though greater than that of 
France or Germany, was smaller than 
that of the part of India already under 
British control, and insignificant com- 
pared with the teeming swarms in 
China. The huge, thinly settled domin- 
ions of which Alexander I. became 
ruler in March, 1801, extended over 
three continents ; and except where 
they reached the seas which for the 
most part closed them in rather than 
served as outlets, and except where 
they were cut off from China by the 
range of '"He Tian-Shan mountains, 
they lacked almost everywhere natural 
geograhical boundaries. Since then the 
growth of Russia has been of a two- 
fold kind, namely, the iilling up of 
vacant spaces within her own borders 
and an expansion along obvious lines ; 
for, over and above the ambition of in- 
dividuals and the accidents of histor- 
ical development, we can perceive the 
great natural forces which have deter- 
mined her march toward the open 
sea and toward immediate contact with 
the firm limits of the other chief pow- 
ers of the civilized world. On the 
other hand, it is noteworthy that cer- 
tain impulses which have often built up 
empires have in her case been con- 
spicuously absent. Even in Russia the 
days of crusades are nearly over, while 
those of commercial expansion are only 
just beginning. Nationalism, too, 
which has made modern Germany and 
Italy, though it led the government of 
the czar in the 19th century to attempt 
with more or less success the Russifica- 
tion of his subject peoples, did not in- 
fluence changes of boundaries. The 
partition of Poland had already 
brought under one rule all the 



Russian Expansion 



Russian Expansion 



branches of the nationality (Great, 
Little, and White Russians) except 
the three millions of Little Russians 
once Polish subjects, now Austrian, 
and in religious communication under 
their own rites, with Rome, not Mos- 
cow. United Russia has with this ex- 
ception, long been a fact, and the shal- 
low, unpractical doctrines of Panslav- 
ism have brought no lost sheep into 
the national fold. 

For the sake of clearness, we shall 
trace the changes first on one and then 
on another of the frontiers of the em- 
pire, rather than follow strictly chron- 
ological order, noticing at the outset 
that almost all the gain since 1815 
has been made in Asia, while the Euro- 
pean acquisitions belong to the earli- 
est years of the century, and Russian 
America has ceased to exist. We thus 
get the keynote to the policy that has 
been followed and the ground of its 
success. Progress has been made along 
the lines of least resistance and most 
profit. There has- been comparatively 
little desire to annex thickly settled 
regions inhabited by highly civilized 
peoples ; and at the other extreme the 
region we now call Alaska was aban- 
doned as too remote to be worth the 
effort of retaining. Russian territory 
is hence not only larger but more com- 
pact than it was a century ago. 

Beginning with the European and 
N. W. frontier, the first great acqui- 
sition of the czars in the 19th century 
was the province of Finland. Finland 
had been for 600 years a part of 
Sweden ; the upper classes and the 
populations of the towns spoke Swed- 
ish, and the whole people had accept- 
ed Lutheran Protestantism. In spite 
also of some discontent, chiefly among 
the aristocracy, the land as a whole 
was perfectly loyal to the government 
at Stockholm. What made a Russian 
conquest of Finland almost inevitable 
sooner or later was the position of St. 
Petersburg. Peter the Great founded 
his capital on his enemy's soil, and 
even the victorious treaties concluded 
by him and by his daughter Elizabeth, 
still left the town within a few miles 
of the frontier. How great the danger 
might be was shown in 1789 by the 
sudden attack of Gustavus III. of 
Sweden, at a moment when the Rus- 
sian armies were in the far South 
operating against the Turks. Prob- 
ably nothing but the mistakes of tha 



Swedish king and the disloyalty of his 
officers saved Russia on this occasion 
from the humiliation of seeing her 
capital fall into the hands of the 
enemy. The peril still existed, for, 
however weak Sweden was herself, 
her territory might be used as a base 
of operations by some stronger power. 
It is not remarkable, then, that Alex- 
ander profited by the first opportunity 
of despoiling his neighbor, showing, 
indeed, little scrupulousness as to his 
methods. In" 1807 his coalition against 
France had failed, for Austria had sub- 
mitted to Napoleon after the battle 
of Austerlitz, Jena had made the con a 
queror master of Prussia, and Fried* 
land exposed the czar's own lands to 
invasion and to the dangers of a Pol- 
ish revolt. He accordingly reversed 
his policy, and after the interview on 
the raft in the Niemen and the peace 
of Tilsit (June 7, 1807), the two sov- 
ereigns, now sworn friends, agreed to 
combine against England and to divide 
the continent of Europe, as suited 
them. In return for a free hand in the 
West, the French emperor abandoned 
Sweden and Turkey to the czar. If in 
this transaction we can hardly blame 
Napoleon for showing little tenderness 
for his fanatical opponent, Gustavus 
IV., who had declared him to be the 
beast of the Apocalypse, Alexander 
might have been expected to have some 
hesitation in attacking a recent ally 
who had given him no real provoca- 
tion. Even though the blindly foolish 
conduct of Gustavus did furnish the 
pretext wanted, the act was one of 
cold-blooded and successful rapacity. 
Finland, in spite of the bravery of her 
troops, was badly defended, owing 
to the incompetence of the king and 
some of his officers. By the treaty 
of Frederikshamm (Sept. 17, 1809) 
Sweden surrendered the province, and 
three years later, Charles XIV. (the 
former French Marshal Bernadotte) 
actually entered into an alliance with 
Russia, accepting definitely what had 
happened, in return for the prospect 
of getting Norway. 

Thus Finland was added with little 
difficulty to the territories of the czar, 
but the circumstances connected with 
the acquisition are a burning ques- 
tion today. Alexander I. had been 
brought up in the cosmopolitan ideas 
of the 18th century, so different from 
the rabid nationalism of the present 



Russian Expansion 



Russian Expansion 



time. He was as anxious as anyone 
to enlarge his possessions, but the idea 
that they must have an exclusive Rus- 
sian character was not one that would 
appeal to a prince and court whose 
language in everyday life was French. 
Then, too, in this the earlier period 
of his reign, he was full of liberal 
dreams. His sentimental nature saw 
no incongruity in his being at the 
same time autocrat of all the Russias 
and constitutional sovereign of peo- 
ples used to a freer form of govern- 
ment. As a result, he treated Finland 
with startling liberality ; he made it 
a grand-duchy, almost independent of 
Russia, except in foreign affairs ; he 
gave it a constitution based on the 
former one of Sweden, and he even 
added to the province that part of its 
lands that had been conquered and 
taken away by Peter the Great and 
Elizabeth. Under this regime Fin- 
land has greatly prospered ; unfor- 
tunately, however, the prosperity has 
not unnaturally excited the anger and 
envy of Russians. They point out 
that the grand-duchy has had all the 
advantages of its connection with a 
mighty empire without bearing its pro- 
portionate share of the burdens, and 
they declare that what a czar had 
given a czar can take away, and that 
the promises of Alexander I. cannot 
be regarded as binding on his succes- 
sors when they entail an obvious in- 
justice to the rest of his peoples. More 
than once has the autonomy of Fin- 
land been menaced, and at the present 
time when the reaction against Liber- 
alism is still dominant, and when Rus- 
sia, like many other countries, is un- 
der the fierce influence of a national 
spirit that would like to impose one 
language, one law, and even one re- 
ligion on all the peoples of the em- 
pire, the privileges of the grand-duchy 
are more than menaced. Already the 
separate tariffs, stamps, and coinage 
are gone : the army is to be raised to 
the same proportionate strength as 
that of Russia, and practically incor- 
porated with it ; affairs common to all 
parts of the emperor's domains are to 
be settled in St. Petersburg alone; 
Russian will be the official language, 
and more is yet to come. The Finns 
have protested and entreated, but as 
they are far too weak to be able to 
offer forcible resistance, their u