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EVERYBODY'S 
CYCLOPEDIA 


A  concise  and  accurate  compilation  of  the  world's  knowledge, 
prepared  from  the  latest  and  best  authorities  in  every  department 
of  learning;  including  a 

Chronological  History  of  the  World 

graphically  represented  by  colored  charts,  showing  the  most 
important  epochs  and  events  of  history,  from  the  earliest  times 
to  the  present  day. 

And     a    Treasury     of     Facts 

containing  much  valuable  information  often  in  demand,  but  not 
usually  found  in  a  single  collection.     Also 

A  Statistical  Record  of  the  World 

which  includes  latest  fij^res  from  the  recent  United  States  Census. 


FREFAKED    UNDER    THE    DIRECTION     OF 

CHARLES  LEONARD-STUART,  B.  A.   GEORGE  J.  H  AGAR,  M.  A. 

of  the  New  International,  Americana,  SpecialExperton  thelnternational, 

Bntannica.  Current  Cyclopedia,  etc.  People's,  Imperial,  etc. 

EDITORS-IN-CHIEF 

Assisted  by  a  corps  of  eminent  editors,  educators,  scientists, 
inventors,  explorers,  etc. 


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SYNDICATE  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

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Copyright.    1911,    by   P.    E.    Wright 
Copyright,    1912,   by   F.    E.    Wright 


Parton 


Passiflora 


Parton,  James,  an  American 
writer;  born  in  Canterbury,  England, 
Feb.  9,  1822.  He  wrote  many  valu- 
able  biographies.      He   died   in   ISUl. 

Parton,  Sara  Payson  Willis, 
"  Fanny  Fern,"  an  American  essay- 
writer,  sister  of  N.  F.  Willis,  and 
wife  of  James  Parton;  born  in  Port- 
land, Me.,  July  9,  1811.  She  is  said 
to  have  contributed  an  article  each 
week  tor  16  years  to  the  New  York 
"  Ledgp"."     She  died  in  1872. 

Partridge,  a  well-known  game 
bird  widely  distribi.ted.  The  par- 
tridge prefers  open  grounds,  and  often 
nests  in  exposed  situations.  It  feeds 
on  slugs,  caterpillars,  and  grubs  to  a 
large  extent,  and  so  compensates  the 
farmer  for  any  injury  it  does. 

Partridge  Berry,  a  plant  of  the 
heath  family,  inhabiting  North  Amer- 
ica, also  known  as  wintergreen.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  another  North 
American  shrnb,  a  pretty  little  trail- 
ing plant,  with  white  fragrant  flow- 
ers and  scarlet  berries, 

Pasadena,  a  city  in  Los  Angeles 
county,  Cal.;  on  the  Southern  Pacific 
and  other  railroads;  10  miles  N.  E. 
of  Los  Angeles;  is  in  the  noted  San 
iGabriel  valley,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Sierra  Madre  Mountains,  popularly 
known  as  the  "Italy  of  America"; 
is  chiefly  engaged  in  fruit  raising; 
and,  besides  its  equable  climate,  has 
the  attractions  of  superb  scenery,  in- 
cluding Wilson's  Peak.  Mount  Lowe, 
Echo  Mountain,  and  the  famous  San 
Gabriel  Mission.  Pop.  (1910)  30,291. 
Pascal,  Blaise,  a  Fr'^n-jh  author; 
born  in  Clermont,  Auvergne,  France, 
in  1623.  At  12  years  of  age,  he  was 
surprised  by  his  father  in  the  act  of 
demonstrating,  on  the  pavement  of 
An  old  hall  where  he  used  to  play,  by 
means  of  a  rude  diagram  traced  with 
a  piece  of  coal,  a  proposition  which 
corresponded  to  the  32d  of  the  first 
book  of  Euclid.  At  the  age  of  19 
he  invented  his  celebrated  arith- 
metical machine,  and  at  the  age  of 
26  he  had  composed  the  greater  part 
of  his  mathematical  works,  and  made 
brilliant  experiments  in  hydrostatics 
and  pneumatics,  which  ranked  him 
among  the  first  natural  philosophers 
of  his  age.  But  a  strong  religious 
Impulse  having  been  imparted  he  re- 
E.  114. 


nounced  the  career  to  which  his  genius 
invited  him  for  theology.  Died  1662. 
Paschall  II.,  Pope;  a  native  of 
Tuscany,  succeeded  Urban  II.  in 
1099.  Ht  had  a  contest  with  the 
Emperor  Henry  IV.,  respecting  the 
right  of  investitures.  Henry  visited 
Rome,  to  be  crowned  by  the  Pope, 
who  refused  to  perform  the  ceremony 
unless  he  yielded  the  matter  in  dis- 
pute. On  this  Henry  caused  Paschal 
to  be  retired  from  Rome.  Paschal, 
after  a  captivity  of  two  months, 
conceded  his  claim  to  the  investi- 
tures.   He  died  in  1118. 

Passaic,  a  city  in  Passaic  county, 
N.  J.;  on  the  Passaic  river  and  sev- 
eral steam  and  trolley  lines;  5  miles 
S.  E.  of  Paterson;  is  in  a  good  farm- 
ing and  grape-growing  section;  man- 
ufactures cotton,  woolen,  and  rubber 
goods,  wine,  paper,  and  blankets;  and 
has  an  Emergency  Hospital,  Collegi- 
ate School,  Manual  Training  School, 
and  handsome  churches,  public  schools 
and  residences.  Pop.  (1910)  54,773. 
Passenger  Pigeon,  also  called 
wild  pigeon  and  migratory  pigeon.  It 
is  found  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  great 
central  plains,  and  from  the  Southern 
States,  where  it  only 
occasionally  occurs, 
to  62°  N. 

Passes,  a  tribe  of 
Indians  living  in 
Brazil  on  the  N. 
side  of  the  Amazon, 
about  the  mouth  of 
the  Japura.  They 
have  always  been 
friendly  to  the 
whites  and  are  a 
peaceful,  industrious  ft 
race,  many  of  whom  '' 
lived  in  the  mission 
villages  in  the  18th 
century.  They  are  a 
branch  of  the  great 
Arawak  or  Maypure 
stock. 

Passiflora,  the 
Generally  climbing  herbs  or  shrubs. 
Fruit  succulent,  seeds  many.  Found 
chiefly  in  tropical  America.  The  three 
stigmas  seemed  to  the  devout  Roman 
Catholics  of  South  America  to  rep- 
resent nails;  one  transfixing  each 
hand,  and  one  the  feet  of  the  crucified 


PASSENGEB 
PIGEON. 

passion-flower. 


Passionists 


Fassovtr 


Saviour ;  the  five  anthers,  His  five 
wounds ;  the  rays  of  the  corona,  His 
crown  of  thorns,  or  the  halo  of  glory 
around  His  head ;  the  digitate  leaves, 
the  hands  of  those  who  scourged  Him ; 
the  tendrils,  the  scourge  t 

itself;  while,  finally,  the 
10  parts  of  the  perianth 
were  the  10  apostles  — 
that  is,  the  12  wanting 
Judas  who  betrayed,  and 
Peter  who  denied,  his 
Lord. 

Passionists,  a  con- 
gregation of  Roman 
Catholic  priests  founded 
by  Paul  Francis  (1694- 
1775),  surnamed  Paul  of 
the  Cross,  in  1737.  The 
first  convent  was  estab- 
lished on  the  Celian  Hill 
at  Rome.  It  has  been 
revived  since  1880,  and 
they  have  been  introduced 
lately  in  the  United 
States,  where  they  now 
possess  four  monasteries. 

Passion  Play,  a  mys- 
tery or  miracle  play 
founded  on  the  passion  of 
our  Lord  ;  a  dramatic  rep- 
resentation of  the  scenes 
of  the  passion.  The 
only  Passion  play  still 
kept  up  is  that  periodi- 
cally represented  at  Ober- 
ammergau  in  Bavaria. 

Passover,    a    festival 
instituted     to    commemo- 
rate   Jehovah's    "  passing 
over  "  the  Israelite  houses 
wnile  "  passing  through  " 
those    of    the    Egyptians, 
to   destroy   in   the   latter 
all    the    first-born.      The 
first    passover     (that    in 
Kgypt) ,  those  subsequent- 
ly     occurring      in      Old 
Testament    times,    and    those    of    the 
New    Testament    and    later    Judaism, 
were  all  somewhat  different.     In   the 
first   of  these   a   lamTj   without   blem- 
ish was  taken  on  the  10th,  and  killed 
on  the  14th,  of  the  month  Abib,  thence- 
forward in  consequence  to  be  reckoned 
the   first   month    of   the   ecclesiastical 
year.     The  blood  of  the  lamb  was  to 
be   sprinkled    on    the    two   side    posts 
and  the  single  upper  door  post,  and  the 
flesh    eaten    "  with    unleavened    bread 


and  bitter  herbs  "  before  the  morning. 
That  night  Jehovah,  passing  over  the 
blood-stained  doors,  slew  the  first  born 
in  the  Egyptian  houses  not  similarly 
protected;    and,    as    the    emancipated 


PASSION    FLOWER. 

Jews  that  night  departed  from  Egypt, 
that  first  passover  could  have  con- 
tinued only  one  day.  But  the  festival 
was  to  be  an  annual  one.  Connected 
with  it  was  to  be  a  feast  of  unleavened 
bread,  continuing  seven  additional 
days,  viz.,  from  the  15th  to  the  21st 
of  Abib,  during  which  no  leaven  was 
to  be  eaten,  or  even  allowed  to  be  in 
the   house. 

Sometimes  the  term  passover  is  lim- 
ited   to  the    festival   of   the    14th   of 


Passport 

Abib;  sometimes  it  includes  that  and 
the  feast  of  unleavened  bread  also,  the 
two  being  viewed  as  parts  of  one 
whole.  When  the  Jews  reached  Ca- 
naan, every  male  was  required  to  pre- 
sent nimself  before  God  thrice  a  year, 
viz.,  at  the  passover,  or  feast  of  un- 
leavened bread,  at  that  of  "  harvest " 
and  that  of  "  ingathering."  In  the  Old 
Testament  six  passovers  are  mentioned 
as  having  been  actually  kept:  That 
in  Egypt,  tkat  in  the  wilderness,  that 
under  Joshua  at  Gilgal,  that  under 
Hezekiah,  that  under  Josiah,  and  that 
under  Ezra.  After  the  exile  wine 
was  introduced.  In  modern  Judaism 
no  lamb  is  sacrificed,  but  a  bone  of 
that  animal  is  placed  among  the 
viands ;  leaven  is  put  away,  and  other 
ceremonies  observed.  Passover  in  the 
sense  of  the  paschal  lamb,  St.  Paul 
applies  to  Christ,  whose  death  was 
typical  of  that  of  the  paschal  lamb 
(1  Cor.  V.  7;  John  xix,  14). 

Passport,  a  warrant  of  protection 
and  authority  to  travel,  granted  to 
persons  moving  from  place  to  place,  by 
a  competent  authority.  In  some  states 
no  foreigner  is  allowed  to  travel  with- 
out a  passport  from  his  government. 
In  the  United  States  passports,  with 
description  of  the  applicant,  are  issued 
by  the  State  Department  at  Washing- 
ton. They  are  good  for  two  years 
from  date,  renewable  by  stating  the 
date  and  number  of  the  old  one.  They 
are  issued  only  to  citizens,  native  bom 
and  naturalized. 

Pasteur,  I<onis,  a  French  chemist 
and  physicist;  born  in  Dole,  Jura,  in 
1822 ;  educated  at  Jena  University  and 
the  Ecole  Normale,  Paris,  where  in 
1847  he  took  his  degree  as  doctor.  He 
was  especially  successful  in  prov- 
ing the  part  played  by  microbes  in 
fermentation  and  decomposition,  in  in- 
troducing a  successful  treatment  of 
diseases  in  silkworms  and  cattle,  and 
achieved  great  success  in  his  efforts 
to  check  hydrophobia  by  means  of 
inoculation.  To  enable  him  to  deal 
with  this  disease  under  the  best  condi- 
tions a  Pasteur  Institute  was  opened 
in  Paris,  where  patients  are  received 
from  all  parts  of  Europe.  A  similar 
institution,  in  New  York  city,  has 
proved  very  successful.  He  died  in 
Paris,  Sept.  28,  1895. 

Pastor,  a  shepherd;  now  used  al- 
most exclusively  in  its  figurative  sense, 


PastonreaiuK 

for  one  who  feeds  the  Christian  flock; 
a  minister  of  the  Gospel,  having  charge 
of  a  church  and  congregation.  In  orni- 
thology the  rose-colored  ouseL  It  has 
a  wide  geographical  range,  and  in  hab- 
its resembles  the  starling.  It  is  often 
called  the  locust  bird. 

Pastoral  Poetry,  poetry  which 
deals,  in  a  more  or  Ifess  direct  form, 
with  rustic  life. 

Pastoral  StafP,  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  the  official  stafiE  of  a 
bishop  or  abbot.  The 
pastoral  staff  of  an 
archbishop  is  distin- 
guished by  being  sur- 
mounted by  a  crozier. 

Pastonreanx,  or 
Pastorels,  disorderly 
peasant  mobs  which 
overran  parts  of 
France  in  the  13  th 
and  14th  centuries. 
These  outbreaks  took 
place : 

(1)  In  Berry  in 
1214.  The  peasantry 
pillaged  chateaux  and 
religious  houses,  and 
proclaimed  universal 
equality  and  the  com- 
ing of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

(2)  In  1250;  the 
ostensible  objects  were 
the  rescue  of  Louis 
VII.  and  the  recovery 
of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
cher.  The  rising  orig- 
inated in  Flanders, 
under  the  leadership  of 
a  person  of  unknown 
name  called  the  Mas- 
ter of  Hungary,  who, 

when  he  reached  Paris,  was  at 
the  head  of  100,000  men.  Here  they 
not  only  usurped  priestly  functions, 
performed  marriages,  distributed 
crosses,  offered  absolution  to  those  who 
joined  the  crusade,  but  they  inveighed 
against  the  vices  of  the  priesthood. 
They  separated  into  three  divisions, 
and  marched  S.,  where  they  were  at- 
tacked and  cut  to  pieces. 

(3)  In  1320,  in  the  reign  of  Philip 
V.  This  outbreak  took  place  under  the 
pretense  of  a  crusade.  The  insurgents 
were  excommunicated  by  Pope  John 
XXII. ;  and  being  hemmed  in  in  Car- 
cassonne, numbers  perished  of  disease 


Patagonia; 

and  famine,  and  the  surviTors  were 
put  to  death. 

Patagonia,  the  name  applied  to 
that  extreme  portion  of  South  America 
which  is  bounded  E.  by  the  Atlantic, 
W.  by  the  Pacific,  S.  by  the  Strait  of 
Magellan,  and  N.  by  the  Rio  Negro. 
Since  1881  this  large  territory  has 
been,  by  treaty,  divided  between  Chile 
and  the  Argentine  Republic,  so  that 
the  portion  W.  of  the  Andes  (63,000 
square  miles)  belongs  now  to  the  for- 
mer, and  the  portion  E.  of  the  Andes 
(360,000)  belongs  to  the  latter.  The 
Straits  of  Magellan  form  a  S.  bound- 
ary of  360  miles,  and  separate  the 
mainland  from  the  numerous  islands 
of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Here  the  Chilean 
government  has  established  the  settle- 
ment of  Punta  Arenas,  with  stations 
along  the  coast.  Patagonia  E.  of  the 
Andes  consists  mainly  of  vast  undulat- 
ing plains,  frequently  covered  with 
ehingle  and  broken  up  by  ridges  of 
volcanic  rock.  The  vegetation  is 
scanty,  except  in  the  region  adjoining 
the  Andes,  and  in  many  places  there 
are  shallow  salt  lakes  and  lagoons. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Rio  Negro, 
the  Chupat,  the  Rio  Desire,  and  the 
Rio  Chico,  all  of  which  have  their 
sources  in  the  Andes,  and  run  E.  There 
are  few^  if  any  good  seaports.  TTie 
Patagonians  are  a  tall,  muscular  race 
averaging  fully  six  feet  in  height,  with 
black  hair,  thick  lips,  and  skin  of  a 
dark  brown  color.  They  are  a  nomad 
race,  divided  into  numerous  tribes, 
whose  chief  occupation  is  in  hunting 
and  cattle  breeding.  This  native  pop- 
ulation is_  rapidly  disappearing.  Col- 
onization is  encouraged  by  the  Argen- 
tine government,  and  there  are  many 
tracts  suitable  for  European  settle- 
ment. The  country  was  first  discov- 
ered by  Magellan  in  1520. 

Fate  de  foie  gras,  a  dish  made 
from  the  enlarged  livers  of  overfed 
geese,  and  much  relished  by  epicures. 
It  is  made  in  the  form  of  a  pie,  and 
from  its  oily  nature  is  very  indigesti- 
ble, and  nauseous  to  most  people. 

Patent,  an  exclusive  right  granted 
by  a  government  (in  letters  patent  or 
open,  whence  the  name)  to  any  person 
or  persons  to  manufacture  and  sell  a 
chattel  or  article  of  commerce  of  his 
owr  invention.  In  the  United  Sjtates 


Patent 

the  person  applying  for  a  patent  may 
present  a  petition,  specification,  oath, 
and  filing  fee,  with  a  drawing  if  the 
nature  of  the  case  admits  of  it.  On 
favorable  action  by  the  patent  office, 
letters  granting  to  the  patentee,  his 
heirs,  or  assigns,  for  the  term  of  17 
years,  the  exclusive  right  to  make, 
use,  and  vend  the  invention  or  dis- 
covery throughout  the  United  States 
and  the  Territories  thereof,  are  is- 
sued. Design  patents  are  granted  for 
periods  of  three  years  and  six  months, 
seven  years,  or  14  years,  at  discretion 
of  the  applicant.  Patents  are  extend- 
ed only  by  special  congressional  legis- 
lation. The  filing  of  a  caveat  prior 
to  applying  for  a  patent  entitles  the 
inventor  to  notice  of  an  interfering 
application  filed  during  the  life  of  the 
caveat  (one  year),  during  which  he 
may  perfect  his  invention.  The  alleged 
inventions  set  forth  in  caveats  are 
transferable.  In  the  period  of  1837- 
1909  there  were  filed  in  the  United 
States  Patent  Office  1,659,249  appli- 
cations and  129,305  caveats;  996,005 
original  patents  and  designs  were 
issued;  and  the  receipts  exceeded  the 
expenditures  by  .$7,060,547. 

By  the  statute  of  1870  it  was  enacted 
that  an  invention  to  be  patentable, 
must  possess,  among  other  qualifica- 
tions, that  of  newness.  'He  who  pro- 
duces an  old  result  by  a  new  mode  or 
process  is  entitled  to  a  patent  for  that 
mode  or  process;  but  he  cannot  have 
a  patent  for  a  result  merely  without 
using  some  new  mode  or  process  to 
produce  it.  A  man  is  entitled  to  all 
the  benefit  of  the  article  which  he  has 
invented  and  patented.  Another  who 
happens  to  discover  an  additional  use 
to  which  the  invention  may  be  applied 
does  not,  by  that  discovery  and  appli- 
cation create  a  patentable  novelty.  A 
simple  alteration  in  the  form,  size,  ma- 
terial or  proportions  of  an  existing  de- 
vice is  not  such  a  change  as  to  pro- 
duce a  patentable  novelty.  As  a  cumu- 
lative definition  it  may  be  said  that 
novelty  consists  in  producing  a  new 
substance,  or  an  old  one  in  a  new  way, 
by  new  machinery,  or  by  a  new  com- 
bination of  the  parts  of  an  old  ma- 
chine, operating  in  a  peculiar,  better, 
cheaper  or  quicker  method,  or  by  a 
new  mechanical  employment  of  prin- 
ciples already  known. 


Faterson 

Paterson,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Passaic  cc,  N.  J.,  on  the  Passaic 
river,  16  miles  N.  W.  of  New  York. 
The  city  is  chiefly  noted  for  its  silk 
industries,  on  account  of  which  it  is 
called  the  "  Lyons  of  America."  It  is 
built  partly  on  the  slopes  of  ranges 
of  hills  which  surround  it.  and  partly 
on  a  broad  plain.  On  Feb.  2-3,  1902, 
the  business  portion  of  the  city  was 
destroyed  by  fire,  entailing  a  loss  of 
oyer  $10,000,000.  The  principal  mu- 
nicipal buildings,  churches,  banks,  pub- 
lic library,  and  the  largest  stores  were 
swept  away  by  the  flames,  Wl 

Paterson  is  an  important  manufac- 
turing center.  Its  silk  mills  are  the 
largest  in  the  United  States  having 
an  output  of  over  $22,000,000  per  an- 
num, and  employing  about  12,000  per- 
sons. Its  other  manufactures  include 
locomotives,  paper,  jute,  machinery, 
iron,  and  steel,  engines,  boilers,  etc. 
The  assessed  property  valuation  ex- 
ceeds $92,000,000,  and  the  total  bond- 
ed debt  is  about  $4,000,000. 

The  city  has  an  area  of  8  square 
miles;  200  miles  of  streets,  of  which 
55  miles  are  paved;  and  a  sewer  sys- 
tem covering  55  miles.  The  streets  are 
lighted  by  gas  and  electricity.  The 
annual  cost  of  maintaining  the  city 
government  is  about  $1,135,000.  The 
streets  are  well  paved  and  broad. 
Among  the  local  attractions  are  the 
Passaic   Falls,  72   feet   high. 

Paterson  was  founded  in  1791  by  a 
cotton  manufacturing  society  which 
owed  its  origin  to  Alexander  Hamilton. 
This  society  had  a  capital  of  $1,000,- 
000,  with  which  it  intended  to  lay  the 
foundation  of  a  great  National  manu- 
facturing city.  The  city  was  named 
in  honor  of  Gov.  William  Paterson  of 
New  J^sey.  In  1851  it  was  incor- 
porated as  a  city.  Paterson  has  re- 
cently been  visited  by  floods  as  well 
as  fire,  the  flood  of  October,  1903, 
being  especially  calamitous,  but  the 
people  have  faced  and  overcome  these 
disasters  with  unfailing  courage.  Pop. 
(1900)  105.171;  (lyiO)  125,600. 

Paterson,  William,  an  English 
financier  ;  bom  in  Dumfriesshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1665.  He  resided  in  the  Ba- 
hama Islands.  Returning  to  London 
he  engaged  in  trade  with  success,  and 
in  1694  founded  the  Bank  of  England, 
being  one  of  its  first  directors.  In  1695 


Paton 

he  obtained  the  sanction  of  a  Scotch 
act  of  Parliament  constituting  the 
Darien  Company.  After  the  failure  of 
this  scheme  he  returned  to  England. 
When  the  Treaty  of  Union  between 
England  and  Scotland  was  concluded 
in  1707,  Paterson,  who  was  one  of  its 
warmest  advocates,  after  much  dif- 
ficulty received  an  indemnity  of  ^90,- 
000  for  the  losses  he  had  sustained. 
He  died  in  London  in  1719. 

Pathology,  the  branch  of  medical 
science  which  treats  of  disease.  It  in- 
vestigates its  predisposing  and  exist- 
ing cause,  its  characteristic  symptoms, 
and  its  progress  from  first  to  last. 

Patmos,  a  rocky  and  barren  island, 
of  most  irregular  outline,  in  the  ^gean 
Sea,  one  of  the  Sporades,  lying  to  the 
S.  of  Samos,  now  called  Patino ;  area, 
16  square  miles.  It  is  celebrated  as 
the  place  to  which  the  apostle  John 
was  exiled;  in  a  cave  here,  it  is  said, 
he  saw  the  visions  recorded  in  the 
Book  of  Revelation.  The  island  is  un- 
der Turkish  rule,  but  is  inhabited  by 
about  4,000  Greeks. 

Patna,  called  also  Azimabad,  a  city 
of  Bengal,  140  miles  E.  of  Benares, 
extends  9  miles  along  the  Ganges  and 
2  miles  back  from  the  river ;  tke  streets 
are  narrow  and  crooked,  and  the 
houses  mostly  mean  in  appearance. 
Patna,  under  its  early  name  of  Pa- 
taliputra,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  about  600  B.  c.  It  was  visited 
by  Magesthenes,  the  Greek  historian, 
about  300  B.  c,  and  called  Palibothra 
by  him.  In  modern  times  Patna  is 
notable  as  the  scene  of  a  massacre  of 
British  prisoners  by  Mir  Kasim  in 
1763,  which  led  to  war  and  annexation 
by  the  English,  and  for  the  mutiny  at 
Dinapur,  the  military  station  of  Patna 
in  1857.  Patna  ranks  as  the  seventh 
city  of  India  in  point  of  population. 
Pop.  165,192. 

Paton,  John  Gibson,  a  Scotch 
missionary;  born  in  Kirkmahoe,  Dum- 
friesshire, Scotland,  May  24,  1824.  He 
offered  his  services  for  the  foreign  mis- 
sion field  in  connection  with  the  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church,-  and  on 
his  ordination  he  settled  toward  the 
end  of  1858  among  the  cannibal  natives 
of  Tanna.  Here  he  labored  amid  trials 
and  difficulties  till  1862,  when  he  was 
forced  to  leave,  owing  to  the  hostility 


Paton 

of  the  natives.  For  the  next  20  years 
his  work  was  on  the  neighboring  island 
of  Aniwa,  the  whole  population  of 
which  became  Christian.  He  died 
Jan.  2.  1907. 

Paton,  Sir  Joseph  Noel,  a  Scotch 
historical  painter ;  born  in  Dunferm- 
line, Scotland,  in  1821.  He  gained  one 
of  three  premiums  at  the  Westminster 
competition  by  his  fresco  of  the 
"  Spirit  of  Religion,"  and  a  prize  of 
$1,500  by  his  paintings  "  Christ  Bear- 
ing the  Cross,"  and  "  The  Reconcilia- 
tion of  Oberon  and  Titania."  He  died 
in  Edmburgh,  Dec.  26,  1901. 

PatTiarch,  the  father  and  ruler  of 
a  family ;  one  who  governs  his  family 
or  descendants  by  paternal  right.  The 
term  is  usually  applied  to  Abraham, 
Isaac,  Jacob,  and  his  sons,  or  the 
heads  of  families  before  the  flood.  In 
Roman  Catholic  Church  history,  the 
highest  grade  in  the  hierarchy  of  or- 
dinary jurisdiction,  the  scb  of  Rome 
excepted. 

Patrician,  a  Roman  senator;  a 
person  of  noble  birth ;  a  nobleman ;  a 
wealthy  noble.  The  Roman  patricians 
consisted  of  about  300  houses,  or  clans, 
who,  descending  from  the  first  Roman 
senators,  constituted  the  aristocracy 
of  the  city  and  territory.  At  first  the 
patricians  monopolized  all  high  oflBces 
in  the  state,  but  after  political  con- 
tests with  the  plebeians,  lasting  for 
centuries,  Licinius  (.365  B.  c.)  carried 
his  rogation,  by  which  plebeians  were 
admitted  to  the  consulate,  and  to  the 
custody  of  the  Sibylline  books. 

Patrick,  St.,  or  Patricins,  the 
apostle  or  patron  saint  of  Ireland ;  said 
to  have  been  born  near  the  site  of  Kil- 

Eatrick,  Scotland.  His  zeal  prompted 
im  to  cross  the  channel  for  the  con- 
version of  the  pagan  Irish.  His  ar- 
rival in  Ireland  took  place  probably  be- 
tween 440-460.  His  endeavors  were 
crowned  with  great  success,  and  he  es- 
tablished there  a  number  of  schools 
and  monasteries.  He  died  at  an  ad- 
vanced age. 

Patrol,  or  Patrole,  a  walking  or 
inarching  round  of  a  guard  in  the 
night  to  watch  and  observe  what 
passes,  and  to  secure  the  peace  and 
eafety  of  a  camp  or  other  place. 

Patron,  in  Roman  history,  one 
who  had  manumitted  a  slave  between 


Patterson 

whom  and  his  manumissor  a  new  re- 
lation was  created,  the  f  reedman  owing 
his  former  master  the  obedience  of  a 
son,  and  the  patron  assuming  many  of 
the  rights  which  the  power  of  patron 
conveyed. 

Patron  Saint.  According  to  Bo> 
man  Catholic  and  Greek  belief,  the 
saint  under  whose  invocation  coun- 
tries, churches,  religious  houses  or  so- 
cieties, or  individuals  are  placed. 


BADGE  or  THE  OEDEB  OF  ST.  PATBICKo 

Patrons     of     Husbandry.      See 

Husbandry,  Patrons  of. 

Patten,     George     'Washington, 

soldier  and  poet ;  born  in  Newport.  R. 
I.,  Dec.  25,  1808;  died  in  1882.  Edu- 
cated  at  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy, he  served  in  the  Mexican  war. 

Patterson,  Joseph,  an  American 
banker ;  born  near  Norristown,  Pa., 
Sept.  25,  1808.  During  the  Civil  War 
through  his  influence  the  bankers  of 
the  country  made  a  loan  of  $50,000,- 
000  in  gold  to  Secretary  Chase,  and 


Patterson 

1100,000,000  more  in  the  year  follow- 
ing. He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Sept.  25,  1887. 

Patterson,  Robert  M.,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman  and  author;  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  17,  1832 ;  was 
official  reporter  of  the  United  States 
Senate  in  1850-1855;  was  graduated 
at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in 
1859;  and  pastor  South  Presbyterian 
Church,  Philadelphia,  in  1867-1880. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Pan-Presby- 
terian Councils  in  London  in  1875, 
Philadelphia,  in  1880,  and  Belfast,  Ire- 
land, in  1884. 

Patti,  Adelina  Maria  Clorinda, 
a  popular  operatic  singer  of  Italian 
extraction ;  born  in  Madrid,  Spain,  in 
1843.  After  a  course  of  professional 
study  she  sang  at  an  early  age  in 
New  York.  Her  debut  in  London  took 
place  in  1861,  and  she  was  ever  after- 
ward looked  upon  as  one  of  the  first 
singers  of  the  day.  In  1868  she  was 
married  to  the  Marquis  de  Caux,  from 
whom  she  was  divorced  in  1876.  She 
subsequently  married  M.  Nicolini,  and 
appeared  in  the  United  States,  South 
America,  and  Mexico  at  various  times. 
M.  Nicolini  died  in  1898.  She  mar- 
ried Baron  Rolf  Cederstrom,  Jan.  25, 
1899,  and  made  a  tour  of  the  United 
States  in  the  latter  part  of  1903.  Her 
residence  is  Craig  y  Nos  Castle,  Wales. 

Patti,  Carlotta,  a  popular  Italian 
concert  singer  and  sister  of  Adelina 
Patti ;  born  in  Florence,  Italy,  in 
1840 ;  made  her  debut  in  New  York  in 
1861,  and  in  England  in  1863.  She 
gave  concerts  throughout  Europe  and 
America  with  great  success.  She  was 
married  Sept.  3,  1879,  to  Ernest  de 
Munck,  a  violoncellist  of  Weimar,  and 
died  in  Paris,  June  27,  1889. 

Pattison,  Thomas  Harixrood,  an 

American  educator ;  born  in  Cornwall, 
England,  Dec.  14,  1838.  For  many 
years  he  was  Professor  of  Homiletics 
and  Pastoral  Theology  at  Rochester 
(N.  Y.)  Theological  Seminary. 

Patton,  Francis  Landey,  an 
American  educator:  born  in  Warwick 
Parish,  Bermuda,  Jan.  22,  1843.  He 
was  educated  at  Knox  College  and  the 
University  of  Toronto,  and  was  grad- 
uated at  Princeton  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1865.  In  1865-1871  he  was 
pastor  of  several  churches ;  in  1881 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Relations 


Favl 

of  Philosophy  and  Science  to  the 
Christian  Religion  in  Princeton  Uni- 
versity, a  chair  created  for  him.  lie 
was  president  of  the  university  in 
1888-1902;  then  president  of  the 
Theological  Seminary. 

Fatton,  Frank  Jarvis,  an  Ameri- 
can inventor;  born  in  Bath,  Me.,  in 
1852;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
Sta-tes  Military  Academy  in  1877 ;  in- 
vented the  multiplex  telegraph  system 
and  the  gyroscope  now  used  on  ocean 
vessels  to  determine  their  position  at 
sea.  He  died  in  New  York  city,  Nov. 
12,  1900. 

Patton,  Jacoli  Harris,  an  Ameri< 
can  historian ;  bom  in  Fayette  co.v 
Fa.,  May  20,  1812;  died  in  1903. 

Paul  IV.,  Pope;  Giovanni  Pietro 
Caraffa;  bom  in  Naples,  in  1476;  suc- 
ceeded Marcellus  II.,  in  15.55.  He  es- 
tablished a  censorship,  and  completed 
the  organization  of  the  Roman  In- 
quisition. His  foreign  relations  in- 
volved him  in  much  labor  and  perplex- 
ity. Under  the  weight  of  so  many 
cares,  his  great  age  gave  way,  and  he 
died  in  1559. 

Panl  v..  Pope;  Camillo  Borghese; 
born  in  Rome,  in  1552 ;  was  elected  in 
1605,  after  the  death  of  Leo  XL  He 
embellished  Rome  with  many  excellent 
works  of  sculpture  and  painting,  and 
an  aqueduct.  He  was  the  founder  o£ 
the  Borghese  family,  one  of  the  weal" 
thiest  in  Italy.    He  died  in  1621. 

Panl  I.,  Emperor  of  Russia ;  bom 
in  1754.  He  was  the  only  son  of  Pe- 
ter III.  and  his  wife,  Catherine  II.  He 
married  the  Princess  Mary  of  Wur- 
temberg  in  1776.  On  the  death  of 
Catherine  in  1796  he  was  proclaimed 
emperor.  He  joined  the  second  coali- 
tion against  France;  and  Russian  ar- 
mies appeared  in  Italy,  Switzerland, 
and  Holland.  But  he  afterward  with- 
drew from  it,  and  entered  into  friendly 
relations  with  Napoleon.  A  conspir- 
acy was  formed  against  him,  with 
Count  Pahlen  at  its  head,  and  he  waa 
murdered  in  his  bedroom,  March  24, 
1801. 

Panl,  St.,  one  of  the  apostles  of 
Jesus  Christ;  originally  called  Saul; 
a  Hebrew  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 
and  a  native  of  Tarsus,  the  capital  of 
Cilicia,  and  was  born  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era.  His  father  was 
a  Pharisee  of  the  most  rigid  cast,  and 


Paul 

Paul  himself,  up  to  the  time  of  his 
conversion,  was  a  most  bitter  and 
intolerant  persecutor  of  the  Christian 
sect;  even  assisting  at  the  martyrdom 
of  St.  Stephen.  The  mode  of  his  con- 
version is  fully  detailed  in  the  New 
Testament.  After  his  conversion,  he 
was  baptized  at  Damascus  by  Anani- 
as ;  from  whence,  after  a  brief  sojourn, 
he  proceeded  to  Arabia,  where  he  re- 
ceived the  Ho'y  Ghost.  He  was 
martyred  about  A.  D.  66. 

Paul,  Epistles  of,  St.  There  are 
14  epistles  in  the  New  Testament  usu- 
ally ascribed  to  Paul,  beginning  with 
that  to  the  Romans,  and  ending  with 
that  to  the  Hebrews. 

Paulding,  James  Kirke,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Dutchess 
CO.,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  22,  1779.  He  early 
showed  a  tendency  to  literature.  In 
1837  Van  Buren  appointed  him  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy.  Four  years  later 
he  retired  to  a  country  residence  at 
Hyde  Park,  N.  Y.,  where  he  died,  April 
6,  1860. 

Pavlist  Fathers,  a  modem  Ameri- 
can society  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  founded  in  New  York  by  the 
late  Rev.  Isaac  T.  Hecker,  in  1858. 
It  is  composed  of  37  priests  who  are 
engaged  in  missionary  and  literary 
work  ;  many  of  them  are  converts  from 
Protestantism.  They  publish  "The 
Catholic  World,"  a  monthly  magazine. 

Panloivnia,  a  genus  of  trees  with 
but  one  species;  a  native  of  Japan, 
and  now  grown  in  the  United  States. 

Panlvs  Hook,  Fort,  a  Revolu- 
tionary fortress  erected  by  the  British 
on  the  site  of  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Panncefote,  Julian,  Xiord,  an 
English  diplomatist ;  born  in  Preston 
Court,  Gloucestershire,  England,  in 
1828.  He  was  the  first  delegate  to  the 
Suez  Canal  International  Commission 
at  Paris  in  1885.  In  1889  he  was  ap- 
pointed British  minister  to  the  United 
States  and  four  years  later  the  legation 
was  raised  to  an  embassy.  He  nego- 
tiated the  settlement  of  1:he  Bering  Sea 
dispute;  the  Anglo- Venezuelan  bound- 
ary arbitration,  and  was  chief  of  the 
British  delegates  to  the  Peace  Confer- 
ence at  The  Hague  in  1899.  He  also 
negotiated  with  the  United  States  two 
conventions  for  the  abrogation  of  the 
Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty.  He  died  May 
24.  1902. 


Payne 

Pavement,  the  hard  covering  of  the 
surface  of  a  road  or  footway;  ^  floor 
or  covering  of  stones,  brick,  wood,  etc., 
laid  evenly  on  the  earth,  so  as  to  form 
a  level,  hard,  and  convenient  passage. 

Pawnbroker,  one  who  is  licensed 
to  lend,  or  make  a  business  of  lending 
money  on  goods  pawned  or  pledged. 

Pawnees,  a  tribe  of  American  In- 
dians who  formerly  resided  in  Ne- 
braska, with  branches  extending  into 
Kansas  and  Texas.  They  removed 
in  1876  to  a  reservation  of  283,020 
acres  in  Indian  Territory,  and  are 
now  few  in  number. 

Paw^tucket,  a  city  in  Providence 
county,  R.  I.;  on  the  Pawt'ucket 
river  and  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
&  Hartford  railroad;  4  miles  N.  E. 
of  Providence;  has  abundant  water- 
power  from  a  50-foot  fall  of  the 
river;  was  the  site  of  the  first  cotton 
mill  built  in  America  (by  Samuel 
Slater  in  1790);  and  manufactures 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  plush, 
braids,  calicoes,  leather,  and  machin- 
ery.    Pop.  (1910)  51,622. 

Paxton,  Sir  Joseph,  an  English 
architect  and  horticulturist;  born  in 
Milton-Bryant,  near  Woburn,  Bed- 
fordshire, Aug.  3,  1803.  He  began 
life  as  a  gardener.  He  designed  the 
Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham  and 
superintended  its  construction.  He 
died  in  Sydenham,  June  8,  1865. 

Paymaster,  an  officer  of  the  army 
and  navy,  from  whom  the  officers  and 
men  receive  their  wages,  and  who  is  in- 
trusted with  money  for  that  purpose. 

Paymaster^General,  in  the 
United  States,  a  title  given  to  (1)  the 
chief  paying  officer  of  the  War  De- 
partment, who  ranks  as  a  Brigadier- 
General;  (2)  a  similar  officer  in  the 
Navy  Department,  who  ranks  as  a 
rear-admiral,  and  (3)  a  corresponding 
staff  officer  in  the  militia  of  a  State. 

Payn,  James,  an  English  novelist; 
born  in  Cheltenham,  England,  in  1830; 
was  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1854. 
His  works  reach  upwards  of  100 
books.  He  died  in  London,  March  25, 
1898. 

Payne,  Henry  Clay,  an  American 
jurist;  born  in  Ashfield,  Mass.,  Nov. 
23,  1843 ;  was  graduated  at  Shelburne 
Falls  Academy  (Mass.)  in  1859;  set- 
tled- in  Milwaukee  in  l8(>3 :  practised 
law  in    Chicago,   111.,   in   1883-1893; 


JAPANESE  ENVOYS,   STAFF,  ETC. 


RUSSIAN  ENVOYS 


SIGNING  OF  TREATY 
Stereographs  copyright  by  H.  C.  "White  Co.,  N.  T. 


RUSSIAN- JAPANESE  PEACE  TREATY 


Fayne 

was  president  of  the  Chicago  Law  In- 
stitute in  1889 ;  judge  of  the  Superior 
Court  of  Cook  co.,  111.,  in  1893-1898. 
On  Dec.  16,  1901,  he  was  appointed 
Postmaster-General  of  the  United 
States.     He  died  Oct.  4,  1904. 

Payne,  Jolui  Hoirard,  an  Ameri- 
can dramatist;  born  in  New  York, 
June  9,  1792.  At  the  age  of  16  he 
made  his  first  appearance  at  the  Park 
Theater.  He  also  played  in  England 
and  Ireland,  a  part  of  the  time  with 
Miss  O'Neill.  In  1851  was  appointed 
United  States  consul  to  Tunis.  He 
wrote,  translated  and  adapted  over 
60  plays,  but  is  most  famous  as  the 
author  of  "  Home,  Sweet  Home." 
He  died  in  Tunis,  April  10,  1852. 

Peabody  (formerly  Soxjth  Dan- 
VERs)/  a  town  in  Essex  county, 
Mass.;  2  miles  E.  of  Salem;  contains 
the  Peabody  Institute  and  the  Sut- 
ton Reference  Library;  and  was  the 
birthplace  of  George  Peabody.  Pop. 
(1910)   15,721. 

Peabody,  Elizabetb  Palmer,  an 
American  writer  and  educator ;  born 
in  Billerica,  Mass.,  May  16,  1804. 
She  became  a  teacher  in  Boston  in 
1822;  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  in- 
troduce the  kindergarten  system  in  the 
United  States.  She  died  in  Jamaica 
Plain,  Mass.,  Jan.  4,  1894. 

Peabody,  George,  an  American 
philanthropist ;  born  in  Danvers, 
Mass.,  in  1795.  He  became  chief 
clerk,  and,  afterward,  partner  with  his 
uncle,  John  Peabody,  in  Georgetown, 
D.  C  in  1812.  Not  satisfied  with 
their  business  relations,  George  left 
his  uncle  and  joined  partnership  with 
Mr.  Elisha  Riggs  in  the  drygoods  busi- 
ness in  Baltimore,  in  1815.  His  busi- 
ness increasing,  he  found  occasion  to 
make  frequent  visits  to  England, 
where  he  finally  settled  in  1829.  In 
1837  he  withdrew  from  the  firm,  and 
established  himself  as  banker  in  Lon- 
don, where  he  amassed  a  fortune.  He 
was  particularly  devoted  to  promoting 
education  (see  following).  He  died 
in  London,  in  Nov.  1869. 

Peabody  Edncation  Fund.  In 
1867  and  1869  George  Peabody  estab- 
lished a  fund  of  ?3,500,000,  to  be  de- 
voted to  education  in  the  Southern 
States  of  the  Union.  The  fund  was 
placed  in  the  charge  and  control  of 
15  trustees,  who  hold  meetings  annual- 


Peace  Society* 

ly,  usually  in  New  York.  In  its  ear- 
lier history  the  chief  aim  of  the  fund 
was  to  encourage  and  secure  the  estab- 
lishment of  public  school  systems  for 
the  free  education  of  all  children.  That 
having  been  accomplished,  the  income 
of  the  fund  is  now  used  for  the  train- 
ing of  teachers  through  normal  schools 
and  teachers'  institutes.  In  1909  the 
trustees  appropriated  $1,000,000,  out 
of  $2,500,000  on  hand,  to  the  Pea- 
body Normal  School  at  Nashville, 
Tenn. 

Peace  Conference.  After  the  se- 
cession of  several  of  the  States  of  the 
American  Union  in  1860,  Virginia,  on 
Jan.  1,  1801,  invited  the  remaining 
States  to  send  delegates  to  a  confer- 
ence in  Washington,  with  the  object  of 
devising  a  plan  whereby  all  diflicultiea 
then  existing  might  be  peaceably  set- 
tled. The  conference  met  on  Feb.  4. 
Fourteen  free  States  and  seven  slave 
States  were  represented,  and  ex-Presi- 
dent John  Tyler  was  made  the  presid- 
ing oflicer.  A  committee  of  one  from 
each  State  was  appointed  to  draw  up 
a  report  of  *'  what .  they  may  deem 
right,  necessary  and  proper,  to  restore 
harmony    and    preserve    the    Union." 

The  report  was  rejected  by  both 
Congress  and  Senate. 

Peace  Congress,  National,  or- 
ganized by  the  National  Arbitration 
and  Peace  Committee,  and  held  in 
New  York  city,  Apr.,  1907,  preceding 
The  Hague  International  Peace  Con- 
gress of  that  year. 

Peace  Congress,  Universal,  an 
international  gathering  at  The  Hague, 
held  in  response  to  an  invitation  of 
Nicholas  II.,  Czar  of  Russia,  beginning 
May  18,  1899,  in  which  the  United 
States  took  part,  and  which  framed  a 
plan,  since  approved  by  the  powers, 
for  a  permanent  Tribunal  of  Arbi- 
tration and  periodical  conferences. 

Peace  Society,  The,  an  organiza- 
tion founded  in  1816;  has  for  its  ob- 
ject the  promotion'  of  permanent  and 
universal  peace.  It  welcomes  the  sup- 
port of  Christians  of  all  denomina- 
tions, and  also  of  those  persons  who 
oppose  war  on  humanitarian  or  other 
grounds.  The  society  has  always  ad- 
vocated a  gradual,  proportionate,  and 
simultaneous  disarmament  by  all  the 
nations  of  Europe,  and  the  principle 
of  arbitration,  and  claims  as  partly 
due  to  its  efforts  that  this  mode  of  set- 


Peacli 

tling  international  difficulties  has  been 
frequently  adopted. 

Peach,  a  tree  and  its  fruit,  of  the 
almond  genus ;  the  Amygdalus  Persica 
of  many  varieties.  They  are  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  the  United  States. 

Peacock,  a  male  gallinaceous  bird 
of  the  Pavo  genus,  distinguished  by  its 
beautiful  disc-like  tail.  The  female  is 
called  a  peahen. 

Peacock  Butterfly,  a  beautiful 
butterfly,  two  and  one-half,  or  two 
and  three-quarter  inches  across  the 
wings.  It  is  seen  in  numbers  on  the 
tops  of  nettles,  in  June  and  July.  The 
perfect  insect  appears  in  August,  lives 
through  the  winter,  and  is  seen  in 
March  and  April. 

Feale,  Charles  Wilson,  an 
American  miscellaneous  writer ;  born 
in  Maryland,  April  16,  1741.  He  at- 
tained distinction  as  a  portrait  paint- 
er, and  naturalist.  He  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, Feb.  22,  1827. 

Peale,  Rembrandt,  an  American 
artist;  born  in  Bucks  co..  Pa.,  Feb. 
22, 1778.  When  17  years  old  executed 
a  portrait  of  Washington,  from  whom 
he  had  three  sittings ;  it  was  purchased 
by  Congress.  He  died  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Oct.  3,  18G0. 

Pear,  a  shrub  or  small  tree,  20  to 
40  feet  high,  with  the  branches  more 
or  less  spinescent  and  pendulous,  and 
the  fruit  pyriform,  one  or  two  inches 
long,  becoming  larger  and  sweeter  in 
cultivation.  Many  hundred  cultivated 
varieties  exist. 

Pea  Ridge,  a  post  village  in  Ben- 
ton CO.,  Ark. ;  about  8  miles  E.  of  Ben- 
tonville.  Here,  on  March  6,  7,  and  8, 
1862,  occurred  one  of  the  most  despei?- 
ate  battles  of  the  Civil  War.  Gen. 
Samuel  B.  Curtis,  in  command  of 
about  11,000  Union  troops,  with  49 
pieces  of  artillery,  was  attacked  by  a 
superior  force  of  Confederates  (said 
to  number  20,000)  under  Gen.  Earl 
Van  Dom,  and  a  .series  of  obstinate 
and  sanguinary  conflicts  ensued ;  often 
favoring  each  army  with  temporary 
success,  finally  ended  with  the  with- 
drawal of  Van  Dorn. 

Pearl,  a  i)eculiar  product  of  certain 
marine  and  freshwater  mollusks  or 
shellfish.  The  most  famous  pearls  are 
those  from  the  East ;  the  coast  of  Cey- 
lon. They  are,  however,  obtained  now 
of  nearly  the  same  quality  in  other 


Peary 

parts  of  the  world.  These,  and  indeed 
all  the  foreign  pearls  used  in  jewelry, 
are  produced  by  the  pearl  oyster. 

Pearly  Nantilns,  common  in  the 
Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans,  especially 
toward  the  Moluccas.  It  is  believed 
to  inhabit  both  deep  and  shallow 
water.  The  shell  is  imported  into  the 
United  States  for  its  fine  mother-of- 
pearl,  much  in  request  with  cabinet 
makers  and  jewelers. 

Pearsons,  Daniel  Kimball,  an 
American  philanthropist ;  bom  in  Bed- 
ford, Vt.,  April  14,  1820 ;  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  Medical  College  of  Wood- 
stock, Vt. ;  practised  medicine  till 
1857;  engaged  in  real  estate  operations 
in  Chicago  till  1888;  then  devoted  him- 
self to  assisting  small  colleges,  giving 
away  over  $5,000,000.  He  died  April 
27  1912. 

Peary,  Robert  Edwin,  an  Arctic 
explorer  and  civil  engineer  in  the 
United  States  navy;  bom  in  Cresson, 
Pa.,  May  6,  1856 ;  was  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College,  and  in  1885  became 
a  civil  engineer  in  the  United  States 
navy,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  In 
1886  he  made  a  journey  of  reconnois- 
sance  to  Greenland,  advancing  for  over 
100  miles  on  the  interior  ice.  In  1801 
and  1893  he  made  other  trips  to  the 
Polar  regions,  in  which  he  was  accom- 
panied, as  far  as  the  winter  quarters, 
by  his  wife,  Josephine  Diebitsch  Peary. 
In  ^hese  expeditions  he  made  excur- 
sions on  a  sledge  along  the  coast  of 
Greenland,  and  traversed  the  inland 
ice  from  McCormick  Bay  to  the  N.  E. 
angle  of  Greenland  (Independence 
Bay).  He  proved  the  convergence  of 
the  E.  and  W.  coasts  of  Northern 
Greenland,  and  almost  with  positive- 
ness  the  insularity  of  the  mainland. 
He  discovered  new  lands  (Melville 
Land  and  Heilprin  Land),  and  named 
many  glaciers.  In  May,  1896,  Lievr- 
tenant  Peary  made  a  successful  expe- 
dition to  Greenland  for  the  purpose  of 
collecting  specimens  in  natural  his- 
tory. He  returned  to  Cape  Breton, 
Sept.  27.  In  1897  he  was  given  leave 
of  absence  by  the  government  for  the 
purpose  of  continuing  his  explorations 
in  the  northern  seas,  and  to  establish 
a  station  in  the  far  N.  of  Greenland, 
which  should  be  provisioned  and  sup- 
plied and  made  the  basis  of  a  series  of 
annual  expeditions  into  the  Polar  re* 
gions.    In  pursuance  of  this  project  h£ 


Feat 

went  N.  in  the  summer  of  1897  to  take 
the  necessary  preliminary  measures, 
Buch  as  securing  the  aid  of  the  Eski- 
mos, fixing  the  site  of  a  station,  etc 
He  returned  in  October  of  that  year, 
bringing  with  him  an  immense  mass 
of  meteoric  iron,  or  what  is  supposed 
to  be  such,  from  Cape  York,  Green- 
land, which  was  placed  in  the  Mu- 
seum of  Natural  History  in  New  York 
city.  On  July  3,  1898,  Lieutenant 
Peary  again  sailed  on  a  search  for 
the  North  Pole,  going  in  the  steamer 
"  Hope "  from  St.  John's  Newfound- 
land, to  Sidney,  Cape  Breton,  and 
/rom  there  to  Cape  York,  Baffin's  Bay. 
*A.t  that  place  the  party  and  stores 
were  transferred  to  the  "  Windward," 
which  has  made  several  Arctic  voy- 
ages. They  carried  provisions  for 
four  years.  In  September,  1901,  word 
was  received  from  Peary  that  he  had 
rounded  the  Greenland  archipelago 
(the  extreme  N.  land  £nown),  and 
reached  lat.  83°  50'  N.  He  establish- 
ed his  headquarters  for  the  winter  of 
1901-1902  at  Cape  Sabine,  with  the 
plan  of  again  attempting  to  reach  the 
North  Pole  in  the  spring  of  1902.  He 
made  a  most  courageous  and  danger- 
ous effort  to  carry  out  that  purpose, 
going  on  sledges  over  the  ice  until 
open  water  and  icefloes  made  it  im- 
possible to  proceed.  In  1908-1909  he 
made  his  last  attempt,  and  on  April 
6,  1909,  reached  the  latitude  of  90°, 
and  the  long  sought-for  goal  was  at- 
tained. Promoted  captain  1910.  See 
Arctic   Expeditio's. 

Pest,  a  deposit  formed  in  bogs  by 
the  decay  of  vegetable  matter,  fre- 
quently consisting  almost  entirely  of 
sphagnum,  or  bog  moss.  In  composi- 
tion it  differs  from  coal  only  in  the 
relative  proportion  of  its  constituents. 
During  the  American  coal  famine  of 
1902-1903  peat  was  used  to  some  ex- 
tent as  fuel. 

Peattie,  Mrs.  Elia  Wilkinson, 
an  American  journalist ;  born  in  Mich- 
igan, in  1862 ;  connected  with  the  Chi- 
cago press. 

Pet>a,  called  also  the  black  tatou, 
an  armadillo  ranging  from  Texas  S.-  to 
Paraguay. 

Pecan,  or  Pecan  Nnt,  a  speci-js  of 
hickory  and  its  fruit,  growing  in  l\orth 
America. 

Peccary,  the  popular  name  for  two 
scecies  of  small  suilline  mammals  from 


Pedagogy 

the  New  "World,  nearly  allied.  The 
collared  peccary  ranges  from  Arkansas 
S.  to  the  Rio  Negro,  and  seldom  at- 
tacks other  animals.  The  white-lipped 
peccary  is  rarely  met  with  N.  of  Brit- 
ish Honduras,  or  S.  of  Paraguay.  It 
associates  in  large  droves,  is  very  pug- 
nacious, and  does  not  hesitate  to  at- 
tack man,  hunters  often  having  to 
take  to  a  tree  for  safety. 

Feck,  Harry  Thnrston,  born  in 
Stamford,  Conn.,  in  1856 ;  professor 
of  Latin  at  Columbia  University, 
1886-1910;  editor  of  "The  Book- 
man," of  "Harper's  Classical  Dic- 
tionary," "The  New  International 
Cyclopedia"  (20  vols.),  "Students' 
Series  of  Latin  Classics"  (32  vols.), 
"The  New  Webster ian  (1912)  Dic- 
tionary" ;  author  of  "The  Semitic 
Theory  of  Creation,"  "The  Personal 
Equation,"  "What  is  Good  English?" 
"The  Life  of  Prescott,"  "Twenty 
Years  of  the  Republic,"  "Studies  in 
Several  Literatures,"  "The  New  Bae- 
deker," "History  of  Classical  Phil- 
ology," and  so  forth, 

Peckili.     See  Cni-Ll. 

Peck,  George  Wilbur,  an  Amer- 
ican humorist;  born  in  Henderson,  N. 
Y.,  Sept.  28,  1840.  Governor  of  Wis- 
consin, in  1891-1895.  In  1883  he 
published  "Peck's  Bad  Boy  and  his 
Pa":  in  1890-1891*  was  mayor  of 
Milwaukee:  in  1891-1895,  governor 
of  Michigan. 

Peck,  Harry  Tkurston,  scholar 
and  critic;  born  in  Stamford,  Conn., 
Nov.  24,  1856;  was  graduated  at 
Columbia  College,  and  in  1888-1910 
was  professor   of  Latin  there. 

Peck,  Samuel  Minium,  an 
American  poet;  bom  in  Tuscaloosa, 
Ala.,  in  1854.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Alabama,  and  later  stud- 
ied medicine  in  New  York. 

Pecos  River,  a  river  of  New  Mex- 
ico and  Texas,  which  has  a  S.  E. 
course  of  about  800  miles,  and  falls 
into  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  but  in 
summer  is  generally  dry. 

Pedagogpae,  in  classical  antiquity, 
a  slave  who  led  his  master's  children 
to  school,  places  of  amusement,  etc., 
till  they  became  old  enough  to  take 
care  of  themselves.  A  teacher  of 
young  children;  a  schoolmaster. 

Pedagogy,  or  Pedagogics,  a 
term  Anglicized  from  the  German,  sig- 


Pedagogy 


Pedro  I. 


nifies  the  Science  of  Education  ob 
Teaching,  for  the  systematic  develop- 
ment of  the  human  faculties.  It  has 
Mind,  Matter,  and  Method  as  essen- 
tial factors,  and  its  ideal  is  to  study 
the  individual  natures  of  youth,  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  special  functions 
or  talents  with  which  each  is  endowed, 
so  as  to  develop  them  towards  perfec- 
tion by  systematized  methods  of  train- 
ing. 

This  study  is  effected  under  three 
recognized  divisions :  physiology,  the 
constitution  of  the  body  ;  psychology, 
the  constitution  of  the  mind ;  ethics 
and  religion,  the  moral  and  spiritual 
nature. 

The  psychology  of  pedagogy  em- 
braces the  scientific  observation  and 
study  of  children,  mental  pathology 
or  morbid  conditions,  comparative  psy- 
chology, or  the  growth  and  grades  of 
intelligence,  and  empirical  and  educa- 
tional psychology,  the  latter  including 
apperception,  or  the  essential  mental 
operation  in  the  act  of  learning. 

The  physiological  aspect  of  peda- 
gogy embraces  physical  education  and 
hygiene,  including  anthropometry  or 
body  measurements,  supervision  of 
eyestrain,  spinal  curvature,  overpres- 
sure, stammering,  vocal  efforts,  the 
ventilation,  sanitation,  furniture,  ap- 
paratus and  equipment  of  school 
grounds  and  builcffngs,  the  gymnastic, 
calisthenic,  Delsartian,  Swedish  and 
other  athletic  exercises. 

The  moral  and  spiritual  side  of  peda- 
gogy embraces  ethics  or  manners,  ses- 
thetics  which  gives  inspiration  by  a 
taste  for  and  contemplation  of  the 
beautiful,  and  civil  and  religious  in- 
struction, which  include  Sunday- 
schools,  and  initiate  the  duties  and 
rights  of  citizenship,  the  formation  of 
religious  sentiment  and  the  recognition 
of  a  supreme  moral  force. 

The  principles  and  practice  of  Peda- 
gogy comprise  elementary,  secondary 
and  higher  instruction,  and  school  ad- 
ministration. 

School  administration  and  manage- 
ment embrace  organization  and  dis- 
cipline, the  question  of  punishments, 
amusements  and  general  exercises,  the 
selection  of  text-books,  libraries,  and 
museum  collections,  supervision  of 
studies,  elective  systems  of  study,  ex- 
aminations and  degrees,  legislation,  and 
endowments,     including     federal     and 


state    aid,    land    grants,    and    private 
benefactions. 

Elementary  instruction  is  typified 
by  the  kindergarten — children's  garden 
or  child-study  institution,  giving  in- 
struction in  the  rudiments  of  lan- 
guage, number  and  arithmetic,  nature 
(Study,  object  lessons,  geography, 
drawing  and  music.  To  the  elementary 
also  belongs  the  education  of  orphans 
and  neglected  children,  of  colored  chil- 
dren— negroes,  Indians,  Eskimos,  etc., 
and  of  defective  children,  blind,  deaf 
mutes,  mentally  deficient,  truants,  in- 
corrigibles  and  offenders,  and  compul- 
sory education  to  combat  illiteracy. 

Secondary  and  higher  instruction* 
comprise  the  advanced  forms  of  ele- 
mentary education,  together  with  an- 
cient and  modern  languages,  history, 
economics,  politics  and  sociology, 
mathematics  and  science. 

Higher  instruction  also  embraces 
night  and  continuation  schools,  public 
lectures,  college  settlements,  univer- 
sity extension  courses,  self-culture, 
and  home  education.  Other  forms  of 
high  pedagogy  are  found  in  the 
methods  for  manual  and  industrial 
training,  typified  in  the  sloyd,  slojd,  or 
Swedish  series  of  manual  exercises. 

The  highest  pedagogic  forms  em- 
brace the  college  and  university 
courses  for  professional  education,  in- 
cluding training  for  teaching,  theology, 
law,  medicine  and  its  sub-divisions — 
surgery,  dentistry,  pharmacy  and 
nursing ;  fine  arts  comprising  sculp- 
ture, drawing,  painting,  engraving, 
music  and  architecture ;  science  em- 
bracing technology,  agriculture,  com- 
merce, military  and  naval  training ; 
modern  colleges  for  the  education  of 
women,  and  post-graduate  courses. 

The  literature  on  every  branch  of 
Pedagogics  is  enormous  and  continu- 
ally increasing.  Reference  to  any  spe- 
cial department  is  best  made  by  con- 
sulting :  the  "  Catalogue  of  Educa- 
tional Literature  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education,"  Washington  ;  the  "Bul- 
letin of  the  Books  on  Education  in 
the  Libraries  of  Columbia  University," 
New  York  city  ;  or  the  excellent  bibli- 
ographies of  Education  by  Prof.  W. 
S.  Monroe,  by  G.  S.  Hall  and  J.  M. 
Mansfield  and  others. 

Charles   Leonard   Stuart. 

Pedro  I.,  Dom  Antonio  Jose 
D'Aleantara,     Emperor    of    Brazil, 


Pedro' 

eldest  son  of  John  VI.,  King'  of  Portu- 
gal, elder  brother  of  Dom  Miguel,  and 
nephew  to  Ferdinand  VII.,  King  of 
Spain ;  bom  in  1798,  and  was  taken, 
in  1808,  with  the  rest  of  the  royal 
family,  to  BraziL  In  1822,  the  Bra- 
Eilians  having  proclaimed  their  inde- 
pendence, chosQ  Pedro  for  their  em- 
peror. The  death  of  John  VI.,  in 
182G,  left  Dom  Pedro  the  crown  of 
Portugal.  After  abdicating  the  crown 
of  Portugal  in  favor  of  his  daughter. 
Dona  Maria,  he  nominated  his 
brother,  Dom  Miguel,  regent ;  but 
scarcely  had  he  quitted  Portugal,  when 
Dom  Miguel  took  possession  of  the 
throne.  In  1831  he  was  compelled  to 
abdicate  the  throne  of  Brazil  in  favor 
of  his  son,  Dom  Pedro  11.  Returning 
to  Europe,  he  raised  troops  in  France 
and  England,  with  which  he,  in  1833, 
drove  Dom  Miguel  from  the  throne  of 
Portugal,  and  placed  the  crown  upon 
the  head  of  his  daughter.  He  was 
twice  married;  his  first  wife  being 
Maria  Leopoldina,  Archduchess  of 
Austria,  and  the  second,  Amelia, 
daughter  of  Prince  Eugene  de  Beau- 
hamais.     He  died  in  1834. 

Pedro  II.,  Emperor  of  Brazil ;  bom 
in  Kio  Janeiro,  in  1825;  succeeded  to 
the  throne  on  the  abdication  of  his 
father,  Dom  Pedro  I.,  in  1831.  He 
assisted  President  Grant  in  opening 
the  Centennial  Exposition  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1876;  and  was  deposed  by 
the  revolution  of  1889,     Died  in  1891. 

Peebles,  James  Martin,  an 
American  physician;  born  in  Whit- 
tingham,  Vt.,  March  23,  1822;  was 
a  member  of  the  Northwest  Congres- 
sional Indian  Peace  Commission  in 
1868;  United  States  consul  to  Trebi- 
zonde,  Turkey,  in  1869;  and  repre- 
sented the  Arbitration  League  at  the 
Peace  Conference  in  Berlin. 

Peekskill,  a  village  in  "West- 
chester county,  N.  Y.;  on  the  Hud- 
son river  and  the  New  York  Central 
&  Hudson  River  railroad;  42  miles 
N.  of  New  York  city;  is  surrounded 
by  grand  mountain  scenery;  manu- 
factures fire  brick,  hats,  underwear, 
and  stoves;  and  contains  the  State 
Military  Camp,  Helping  Hand  Hos- 
pital, Mohegan  Lake  School,  Field 
Library,  and  House  of  the  Good 
Shepherd.      Pop.   (1910)   15,245. 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  an  English 
statesman;  son  of   Sir  Robert  Peel, 


Peking 

a  wealthy  manufacturer;  born  in 
1788,  and  studied  at  Harrow  and  Ox- 
ford. When  just  21  years  of  age  he 
entered  Parliament,  and  thenceforth 
the  sphere  of  bis  exertions  and  tri- 
umphs was  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
In  1811  he  was  made  under-secretary 
for  the  colonies,  and  in  1812,  when 
only  24,  he  received  the  appointment 
of  chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  After 
carrying  his  celebrated  currency  meas- 
ure of  1819,  he  became,  in  1822,  home 
secretary.  He  became  prime  minister 
in  1841.  He  died  in  1850,  of  internal 
injuries  caused  by  a  fall  from  a  horse. 

Peele,  Jokn  Thomas,  an  Ameri- 
can artist;  bom  in  Petersborough, 
England,  in  1822;  settled  in  New 
York  city  in  1835;  early  manifested 
a  genius  for  portrait  painting  and 
went  to  Europe  to  study ;  returned  to 
New  York  in  1846.  Later,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  genre  painting,  becom- 
ing a  specialist  in  studies  of  child 
life.    He  died  in  1897. 

Peepnl,  or  Pipal,  also  known  as 
the  Sacred  Fig  of  India,  a  species  of 
fig,  somewhat  resembling  the  banyan, 
but  the  branches  not  rooting  like  those 
of  that  tree.  The  tree  is  held  sacred 
by  the  Hindus,  because  Vishnu  is  said 
to  have  been  born  under  it. 

Peet,  Stepken  Denison,  an 
American  clergyman  and  archaeologist ; 
bom  in  Euclid,  O.,  Dec.  2,  1831.  He 
became  a  Congregational  minister,  and 
an  authority  on  the  works  of  the 
mound  builders  and  American  archae- 
ology in  general. 

Peirce,  Benjamin,  an  American 
mathematician ;  born  in  Salem,  Mass., 
April  4,  1809;  studied  at  Harvard, 
where  in  1833  he  became  professor. 
His  paper  on  the  discovery  of  Neptune 
attracted  universal  attention,  and  his 
papers  on  the  constitution  of  Saturn's 
rings  were  equally  remarkable.  He 
died  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Oct.  6,  1880. 

Pekaao,  Pennant's  marten,  a  North 
American  species,  about  four  feet  long ; 
it  often  steals  the  fish  used  to  bait 
traps,  whence  it  is  sometimes  called  the 
fisher. 

Peking,  or  Pekin,  the  capital  of 
the  Chinese  empire,  province  of  Chih- 
le,  or  Pechili,  in  a  vast  sandy  plain, 
between  the  Pei-ho  and  its  important 
affluent,  the  Hoang-ho.  562  miles  N. 
W.  of  Nankin,  and  100  miles  W.  N. 


Pelagians 

W.  of  the  Gulf  of  Pechili,  in  the  Yel- 
lovr  Sea.  It  consists  of  two  contigu- 
ous cities,  each  separately  surrounded 
by  walls,  and  together  entered  by  16 
gates.  The  entire  circumference  is  25 
miles.  The  northern  city,  "which  is 
nearly  a  perfect  square,  consists  of 
three  enclosures.  The  outer  one  is 
used  by  Chinese  traders.  The  second 
enclosure  contains  the  residences  of  the 
dignitaries  of  the  empire  and  foreign 
legations,  the  national  literary  insti- 
tutions, and  the  temples  of  An- 
cestors and  Peace,  and  is  inhabited 
mostly  by  the  Manchus.  The  inner  en- 
closure, or  "  forbidden  city,"  sur- 
rounded by  walls  of  yellow  tiles,  2 
miles  in  circumference,  hence  called 
the  "Yellow  Wall,"  contains  the  pal- 
aces of  the  emperor  and  empress.  The 
BoutheTn  city,  called  the  Wai-ching,  or 
"  outer  city,"  is  also  square,  and  occu- 
pied by  the  Chinese,  and  is  both  the 
seat  of  business  and  the  residence  of 
most  of  the  population.  The  wall  is 
30  feet  high,  25  feet  thick  at  the  base, 
and  12  feet  at  the  top.  That  of  the 
imperial  city  is  40  feet  high.  The 
principal  streets  are  very  wide  and 
regular,  running  between  opposite 
gates.  The  houses  are  generally  one 
story  high,  and  built  of  brick.  Of  the 
ornamental  buildings,  the  most  con- 
spicuous are  those  commonly  called 
triumphal  arches.  They  consist  of  a 
large  central  gateway,  with  small  ones 
on  each  side,  all  covered  with  nar- 
row roofs,  and  like  the  houses  are 
splendidly  gilded,  varnished,  and  paint- 
ed. Peking  is  indebted  for  its  im- 
portance to  its  being  the  residence  of 
the  emperor  and  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment. The  country  round  the  city  be- 
ing sandy  and  poor,  a  large  portion 
of  its  supplies  are  brought  from  a  dis- 
tance —  partly  from  sea  by  the  Pei-ho, 
but  principally  by  the  Grand  canal  and 
the  Eu-ho,  which  connect  it  with  Nan- 
kin, and  most  of  the  E.  provinces.  The 
early  history  of  Peking  is  involved  in 
obscurity.  Kublai  Khan  rebuilt  it, 
and  made  it  his  capital  in  12G0.  The 
Mongol  dynasty,  founded  by  Kublai 
K^han,  continued  to  occupy  this  city 
till  it  was  expelled  from  China,  in 
1367.  In  1421,  the  third  emperor  of 
the  Chinese  dynasty  of  Ming  trans- 
ferred his  residence  thither  from 
Nankin,  since  which  it  has  been  the 
capital  of  the  empire.  During  the 
♦*  Boxer  "  uprising  of  1900  the  various 


Fellas 

foreigners  in  Peking  were  besieged  in 
the  English  legation.  For  weeks  they 
were  given  up  as  lost,  but  they  man- 
aged to  hold  out  till  the  arrival  of  the 
foreign  troops.  Present  pop.  (about) 
700,000. 

Pelagians,  a  sect  that  arose  about 
the  beginning  of  the  5th  century.  Their 
founder  was  Pelagius,  a  monk,  a  na- 
tive of  Britain,  whose  original  name 
was  Morgan.  He  taught  that  man  is 
capable  of  a  religious  life,  without 
the  grace  of  God,  and  that  grace  is 
given,  not  freely,  but  according  to  the 
merits  of  the  recipient. 

Pelagic  Sealing,  the  taking  of 
seal  in  the  open  sea. 

Pelamis,  a  genus  of  sea  snakes, 
with  a  single  species,  ranging  from 
Madagascar  to  New  Guinea,  New  Zea- 
land, and  Panama. 

Pelasgian,  one  of  an  ancient  and 
widely  diffused  prehistoric  tribe  which 
was  the  common  parent  of  the  Greeks 
and  of  the  earliest  civilized  inhabitants 
of  Italy.  The  origin  of  this  people  is 
lost  in  myth.  Traces  of  them  are  fqund 
in  Asia  Minor  and  Italy.  The  term 
Pelasgi  was  used  by  the  classic  poets 
for  the  Greeks  in  general.  Some  Al- 
banian tribes  are  supposed  to  be  of 
Pelasgic  descent. 

Pelew  Islands,  or  Falan,  a  group 
in  the  Pacific  formerly  belonging  to 
Spain,  lying  S.  B.  of  the  Philippines, 
at  the  W.  extremity  of  the  Caroline 
Archipelago,  with  which  they  are  some- 
times classed.  There  are  about  200 
islands,  and  surrounded  with  coral 
reefs.  Total  area,  170  square  miles. 
The  principal  is  Babelthouap  or  Babel- 
top.  The  soil  is  rich  and  fertile,  and 
the  climate  healthy.  Bread  fruit, 
cocoanuts,  sugar  cane,  palms,  areca 
nuts,  yams,  etc.,  are  grown.  Turtles, 
trepang,  and  fish  abound  on  the  coasts. 
The  inhabitants,  about  10,000  in  num- 
ber, are  of  the  Malay  race.  The  m^n 
go  entirely  naked  and  the  women 
nearly  so.  They  are  described  as  be- 
ing good-natured,  and  have  peculiar 
social  institutions.  The  islands  were 
discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1543, 
and  visited  again  in  1696.  In  1899 
Spain  sold  this  group,  with  the  Caro- 
lines and  all  of  the  Ladrones  except- 
ing Guam,  to  Germany. 

Felias,  the  adder,  or  common  viper. 
No  teeth  in  upper  maxillaries,  except 


7eIIcan 


Pemlia 


the  poison  fangs ;  a  row  of  small  teetli 
on  the  palatine  bone,  on  each  side  of 
the  palate. 

Pelican,  a  large  piscivorous  water 
fowl,  with  an  enormous  pouch  de- 
pendent from  the  flexible  branches  of 
the  lower  mandible,  but  capable  of  be- 
ing contracted  when  not  in  use  as  a 
depository  for  food.  The  species  are 
widely  distributed,  and  frequent  the 
shores  of  the  sea,  rivers,  and  lakes, 
feeding  chiefly  on  fish,  which  they 
hunt  in  shallow  water,  the  pelican  of 
the  United  States  being  the  only  spe- 
cies which  dives  for  its  prey.  The 
common  pelican  is  about  the  size  of  a 
swan,  though  its  enormous  bill  and 
loose  plumage  make  it  look  consid- 
erably larger;  it  is  white,  slightly 
tinged  with  flesh  color,  and  the  breast 
feathers  become  yellow  in  old   birds. 

Pelican,  The,  the  ship  in  which 
Sir  Francis  Drake  made  his  voyage 
around  the  world.  He  left  Plymouth 
with  four  ships  besides  the  "  Pelican," 
Nov.  15,  1577,  and  completed  his  jour- 
ney Sept.  15,  1580.  The  "Pelican" 
was  the  only  ship  he  brought  back 
with  him,  and  it  was  for  a  long  time 
carefully  preserved  by  order  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  When  finally  broken  up  a 
chair  was  made  from  its  timbers  by 
John  Davis,  the  Arctic  navigator, 
.  which  is  now  in  the  Bodleian  Library. 
Pelissier,  Aimable  Jean 
Jacques,  Dnke  of  Malakoff,  a 
marshal  of  France ;  born  near  Rouen 
in  1794.  He  entered  the  army  at  the 
age  of  19,  and  distinguished  himself  in 
Africa  and  was  created  Lieutenant- 
General  in  1848  and  was  called  in 
1855  to  take  a  command  in  the  Crimea 
under  General  Canrobert,  whom  he 
soon  superseded  as  Commander-in- 
Chief.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
the  successful  attack  on  Kertch,  in 
the  battle  of  the  Tchemaya,  and  above 
ail  in  the  storming  of  the  Malakoff 
Tower  at  Sebastopol,  Sept.  8,  1855. 
He  was  soon  after  created  Marshal 
and  Duke  of  Malakoff.  In  1858  he 
was  ambassador  to  London;  was  sub- 
sequently appointed  governor-general 
of  Algeria,  and  died  there  in  1864. 

Pellagrra,  a  disease  common  among 
the  peasantry  of  Northern  Italy,  the 
Asturias,  Gascony,  Rumania,  and 
Corfu,  caused  by  living  on  maize  af- 
fected by  a  parasitic  fungus. 


Pelletier,  Sir  Charles  Al- 
phonse  Pantaloon,  a  Canadian  of- 
ficial; born  in  Riviere  Quelle,  Que- 
bec, Jan.  22,  1837;  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1860;  member  of  the  Com- 
mons in  1869-1877,  of  the  Provincial 
Assembly  in  1873-1874,  and  Senator 
in  1877-1905;  Speaker  of  Dominion 
Senate  in  1896-1901;  Quebec  City 
Solicitor  for  40  years;  Judge  Su- 
perior Court,  Quebec  Province,  in 
1905-1908;  then  became  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  the  Province. 

I     Pellico,  Silvio,  an  Italian  patriot; 

i  born  in  Saluzza,  Piedmont,  in  1789; 
best  known  for  his  tragedy,  "  Fran- 
cesca  da  Rimini."  The  volume  on 
which  his  fame  rests  tells  the  story 
of  his  10'  years'  imprisonment.  He 
died  in  1854. 

Pelopidas,  a  Theban  general,  the 
friend  of  Epaminondas  and  the  asso- 
ciate of  his  victories.  When  the  Spar- 
tans conquered  Thebes,  Pelopidas  went 
to  Athens,  where  he  assembled  his  ex- 
iled countrymen,  with  whom  he  re- 
turned, seized  on  Thebes,  and  expelled 
the  invaders.  Afterward  he  defeated 
the  Lacedaemonians  at  Tegyra,  and 
shared  with  Epaminondas  the  victory 
of  Leuctra.  Pelopidas  being  sent  am- 
bassador to  Alexander,  the  tyrant  of 
PherjB,  was  thrown  into  prison ;  but 
on  the  appearance  of  Epaminondas  he 
obtained  his  release.  He  next  went  to 
the  court  of  Persia,  and  after  his  re- 
turn commanded  the  forces  sent  to  the 
relief  of  Thessaly,  where  be  fell  in 
364  B.  c. 

Peloponnesus,  the  ancient  name 
of  the  Morea.  Among  its  most  im- 
portant cities  were  the  Sparta  in  La- 
conia,  and  Argos  the  capital  of  Argolis. 
Sparta  acquired,  after  the  Messenian 
war,  a  decided  supremacy  over  the 
other  states,  and  disputed  the  suprem- 
acy with  Athens  in  a  war  of  almost 
30  years'  duration  (431^04  B.  c.)  — 
the  famous  Peloponnesian  War,  of 
which  the  history  has  been  written  by 
Thucydides.  After  the  Roman  con- 
quest, the  Peloponnesus  formed  part 
of  the  province  of  Achaia,  and  subse- 
quently part  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 
Pelvis,  the  bony,  archlike  basin  of 
the  human  body,  supporting  the  lower 
or  hinder  limbs. 

Pemba,  a  coral  island  off  the  E. 
coast  of  Africa;  50  miles  N.  E.  of 


Pemberton 

Zanzibar    Island,    length    46    miles, 
breadth  4i/^;  area,  372  square  miles. 

Pemberton,  Max,  an  English 
Bovelist;  born  in  Birmingham,  Eng- 
land, June  19,  1863.  He  was  a  con- 
tributor to  "  Vanity  Fair,"  and  editor 
of  "  Chums,"  a  boys'  paper,  and  in 
charge  of  "  Cassell's  Magazine."  He 
has  published  a  number  of  stories. 

Pembroke,  town,  out-post,  and 
capital  of  Renfrew  county,  Ontario, 
Canada;  on  the  Muskrat  river,  Allu- 
mette  lake,  and  the  Grand  Trunk 
and  Canadian  Pacific  railways;  104 
miles  N.  W.  of  Ottawa;  has  good 
water-power  from  the  river;  and  is 
engaged  in  lumbering  and  the  manu- 
facture of  woolen  goods  and  flour. 

Pen,  an  instrument  for  writing  with 
a  fluid.  Pens  of  some  sort  have  been 
in  use  from  very  early  times,  adapted 
to  the  material'  on  which  the  charac- 
ters were  to  be  inscribed.  The  metallic 
stilus  for  the  production  of  incised 
letters  was  probably  the  earliest  writ- 
ing implement.  It  was  used  by  the 
Romans  for  writing  on  tablets  coated 
with  wax;  but  both  they  and  the 
Greeks  also  used  what  is  the  true  an- 
cient representative  of  the  modern  pen, 
namely,  a  hollow  reed,  as  is  yet  com- 
mon in  Eastern  countries.  It  has  been 
asserted  that  quills  were  used  for  writ- 
ing as  early  as  the  5th  century  a.  d. 
In  1803  Wise  produced  steel  pens  of 
a  barrel  form,  mounted  in  a  bone  case 
for  carrying  in  the  pocket.  They  were 
of  indifferent  make,  and  being  expen- 
sive, were  very  little  used.  Joseph 
Gillott  commenced  the  manufacture 
about  1820,  and  succeeded  in  making 
the  pen  of  thinner  and  more  elastic 
steel,  giving  it  a  higher  temper  and 
finish.  Mr.  Gillott  was  followed  into 
the  same  field  by  Mr.  Perry  and  others, 
and  their  improvements  so  reduced 
the  cost  and  raised  the  quality,  that  a 
gross  of  better  pens  are  now  sold  by 
the  same  makers  at  less  than  one-sixth 
of  the  price  of  a  single  pen  in  1821. 
Gold  pens  tipped  with  minute  particles 
of  iridium  are  now  in  extensive  use, 
and  a  good  one  will  last  for  years. 
Fountain  pens  and  penholders,  to  car- 
ry a  considerable  supply  of  ink  and 
to  discharge  it  in  an  equal  manner, 
were  invented  by  Joseph  Bramah. 

Penal  Laws,  laws  which  prohibit 
an  act,  and  impose  a  penalty  for  the 
commission  of  it. 


Pendleton 

Penal  Servitude,  a  form  of  pun- 
ishment in  English  criminal  law,  sub- 
stituted, in  1853,  for  the  punishment 
of  transportation.  It  consists  in  im- 
prisonment with  hard  labor  for  a  term 
of  years,  from  two  up  to  the  duration 
of  life.  The  term  is  not  used  in  the 
United  States. 

Penance,  in  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gy and  ritual :  1.  The  virtue  which 
inclines  the  soul  to  detest  sin  for  its 
own  sake  —  that  is,  because  it  is  an 
offense  against  God.  2.  The  outward 
acts  by  which  sorrow  for  sin  is  evinced. 
3.  The  satisfaction  which  a  priest  im- 
poses on  the  penitent  before  giving  ab- 
solution, often  called  sacramental  pen- 
ance. 

Penang,  Pnlo-Penang,  or 
Prince  of  Wales  Island,  an  island 
belonging  to  Great  Britain,  lying  at 
the  N.  entrance  of  the  Straits  of 
Malacca,  off  the  W.  coast  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  a  channel  2  to  5  miles  across ;  area, 
107  square  miles.  Penang  was  made 
over  by  treaty  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany in  1786  by  the  Rajah  of  Quedah, 
and  with  Province  Wellesley,  a  long 
strip  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  opposite 
(area,  270  square  miles),  it  now  forms 
one  of  the  Straits  Settlements,  having 
a  resident  councillor  to  control  ad- 
ministration.    Pop.  235,618. 

Penates,  the  Roman  gods  of  the 
storeroom  and  kitchen.  The  family 
hearth,  which  formerly  stood  in  the 
atrium,  was  their  altar,  and  on  it  their 
images,  two  in  number,  were  placed, 
^yith  the  image  of  the  Lar  between 
them.  These  penates  were  represented 
dancing  and  elevating  a  drinking  horn 
in  token  of  joy  and  plenty.  The 
calends,  nones,  and  ides  of  each  month 
were  set  apart  for  their  worship,  as 
were  the  caristra  (Feb.  22)  and  the 
saturnalia.  Each  family  had  its  own 
penates,  and  the  State  had  its  public 
penates.  The  origin  of  these  gods  is 
extremely  doubtful.  As  was  the  case 
with  the  Lares,  their  name  was  a  syn- 
onym for  home. 

Pencil,  a  name  applied  to  instru- 
ments for  writing,  drawing,  or  paint- 
ing, differing  as  much  in  their  con- 
struction as  in  the  use  to  which  they 
are  applied. 

Pendleton,  George  Hunt,  an 
American  statesman ;   born  in  Cincin- 


Pendleton 

nati,  O.,  July  25,  1825.  He  acted  as 
congressman  from  1856  to  1865,  having 
been  elected  on  the  Democratic  ticket. 
He  was  a  candidate  for  the  vice-presi- 
dency on  the  Democratic  ticltet  in 
1864,  with  George  B.  McCIellan.  Be- 
fore his  appointment  as  United  States 
minister  to  Germany  by  President 
Cleveland,  in  1885,  he  represented 
Ohio  in  the  United  States  Senate,  and 
was  an  exponent  of  civil  service  re- 
form.   He  died  in  1889. 

Pendleton,  Lonis  (Beauregard), 
an  American  novelist  and  writer  of 
juvenile  literature ;  bom  in  Georgia  in 
1861.  His  works  deal  principally 
with   Southern  scenes  and  characters. 

Penelope,  a  celebrated  Grecian 
princess,  daughter  of  Icarius,  wife  of 
Ulysses  ( Odysseus ) ,  and  mother  of 
Telemachus.  According  to  the  Ho- 
meric legend,  Ulysses,  during  his  long 
wanderings  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  was 
generally  regarded  as  dead,  and  Penel- 
ope was  vexed  by  the  urgent  suits  of 
many  lovers,  whom  she  put  off  on  the 
pretext  that  she  must  first  weave  a 
shroud  for  Laertes,  her  aged  father-in- 
law.  To  protract  the  time,  she  un- 
did by  night  the  portion  of  the  web 
•she  had  woven  by  day.  When  the 
suitors  had  discovered  this  device,  her 
position  became  more  difficult  than  be- 
fore ;  but  fortunately  Ulysses  returned 
in  time  to  rescue  his  chaste  spouse 
from  their  distasteful  importunities. 

Penguin,  aquatic  birds  confined  to 
the  high  S.  latitudes  of  both  hemi- 
spheres, where  they  congregate  in  large 
Hocks.  The  body  is  generally  elliptic- 
al ;  neck  of  moderate  length ;  head 
small,  bill  moderately  long,  straight, 
compressed ;  tail  short.  They  have  no 
quills  in  their  wings,  which  are  as 
rigid  as  the  flippers  of  a  cetacean,  and 
utterly  useless  for  flight,  though  they 
move  freely  at  the  shoulder  joint, 
forming  most  efficient  paddles,  and  are 
usually  worked  alternately  with  a  ro- 
tatory motion.  In  standing,  the  pen- 
guin preserves  an  upright  position, 
generally  resting  on  the  tarsus,  which 
is  widened  like  the  foot  of  a  quadru- 
ped ;  but  in  progressing  this  is  kept 
nearly  vertical,  and  the  weight  sup- 
ported on  the  toes  alone. 

Peninsular  Campaign,  the  name 
of  the  campaign  conducted  bv  General 
George  B.  McCIellan  in  1862,  on  the 

E.  115. 


Penitentiary 

peninsula  between  the  York  river  and 
its  tributaries  and  the  James  river. 

Peninsular  War,  the  war  carried 
on  in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury in  Spain  and  Portugal  by  the 
British  forces,  aided  by  the  native 
troops,  against  the  French.  Sir  Ar- 
thur Wellesley,  afterward  the  Duke 
of  ^  Wellington,  landed,  with  10,000 
British  troops,  at  Figueras,  in  Portu- 
gal, Aug.  1-3,  1808,  and  on  the  21st 
defeated  the  French  at  Vimiera.  On 
August  30,  the  Convention  of  Cintra 
was  signed,  by  which  Junot  agreed  to 
evacuate  the  country.  Wellesley  re- 
turning home,  the  command  of  the 
army,  now  increased  to  20,000  men, 
was  given  over  to  Sir  John  Moore, 
who  was  forced  by  Soult  to  fall  back 
on  Corunna,  where  a  battle  was  fought 
on  Jan.  16,  1809,  in  which  the  former 
lost  his  life.  Wellesley  again  received 
command  of  the  army,  and,  after  a 
serijes  of  sanguinary  and  generally  suc- 
cessful combats,  drove  the  French 
across  the  Pvrenees,  entering  France 
on  Oct.  7,  1813. 


Penitentiary,   a   prison   in   which 
convicted   offenders   are  confined  and 


.Penitentiary 

Bubjected  to  a  course  of  discipline  and 
instruction  with  a  view  to  their  refor- 
mation. Misdemeanants  and  persons 
guilty  of  lesser  felonies  are  confined 
therein. 

Penitentiary,  one  of  the  offices  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Curia,  taking 
Bpecial  cognizance  of  matters  relating 
to  the  confessional,  and  dispensations 
from  such  impediments  to  marriage  as 
are  not  diriment.  The  dignitary  who 
presides  over  the  office  described  above. 
He  is  a  cardinal  priest,  and  must  be 
a  doctor  of  theology  or  canon  law. 

Penn,  Sir  William,  an  English 
admiral  who  greatly  distinguished  him- 
self against  the  Dutch  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury :  born  in  Bristol  in  1621,  -entered 
the  navy  at  an  early  period,  and  was 
captain  at  the  age  of  23.  After  the 
restoration  he  was  knighted,  and  died 
in  Essex  in  1670. 

Penn,  William,  founder  of  the 
State  of  Ppnxisylvania ;  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding; bom  in  London,  Oct.  13,  1644, 
He  turned  Quaker,  was  taken  up  for 
preaching,  and  sent  to  prison ;  but 
was  released  through  the  interest  of 
his  father;  was  sent  to  the  Tower,  on 
account  of  a  book  which  he  had  writ- 
ten ;  and,  while  there,  he  composed  his 
principal  work,  entitled  "  No  Cross, 
No  Crown,"  intended  to  show  the  ben- 
efit of  suffering.  On  his  release,  he 
resumed  his  former  labors,  and  was 
apprehended,  with  some  others,  and 
tried  for  preaching  at  a  conventicle  in 
Gracechurch  Street.  The  jury  per- 
sisted in  finding  them  not  guilty,  and 
were  fined  for  acting  contrary  to  the 
dictates  of  the  judge.  In  1681  he  ob- 
tained from  the  crown,  in  lieu  of  the 
arrears  due  his  father,  the  grant  of 
the  province  in  North  America,  and  it 
was  Charles  II.  who,  in  honor  of  Penn 
proposed  the  name  Pennsylvania.  Ac- 
companied by  emigrants,  Penn  sailed 
from  Deal  Sept.  5,  1682,  for  America, 
and  landed  at  New  Castle.  Del.,  Oct. 
24,  and  at  Upland,  Pa.  (now  Ches- 
ter), Oct.  29,  1682.  The  work  of  or- 
ganization was  rapid.  A  few  Swedes 
and  Dutch  had  previously  settled  iu 
Pennsylvania,  but  colonists  from  vari- 
ous regions  of  the  Old  World  now 
poured  in.  Universal  toleration  was 
proclaimed,  a  charter  of  liberties  was 
solemnly  consecrated,  and  a  democratic 

Sovernment  was  established.  In  his 
ealings  with  the  Indians  and  their 


Pennant 

chiefs,  Penn  manifested  his  accustomed 
magnanimity,  and  justice.  The  capital 
city,  Philadelphia,  was  planned  on  a 
scale  commensurate  with  Pennsyl- 
vania's expected  greatness.  Penn's 
family  was  in  England.  Hearing  that 
his  wife  was  ill  he,  intrusting  his  un- 
finished undertakings  to  such  men  as 
he  deemed  competent,  hurried  anxious- 
ly back.  The  overthrow  of  James  was 
in  more  than  one  respect  a  misfor- 
tune for  Penn.  In  the  spring  of  1690 
he  was  arrested  on  the  charge  of  hold- 
ing treasonable  correspondence  with 
the  dethroned  monarch.  The  absurd- 
ity of  the  charge  being  swiftly  and 
glaringly  evident,  Penn  was  set  at 
liberty.  Yet,  though  his  conduct  con- 
tinued to  be  blameless,  he  was,  by 
an  order  in  council,  stripped,  March 
14.  1092,  of  his  title  to  the  Pennsyl- 
vanian  government  —  a  tyrannical  act 
involving  his  utter  ruin ;  for,  besides 
that  he  had  risked  his  whole  substance 
jn  the  Pennsylvanian  experiment,  his 
estates,  both  in  England  and  in  Ire- 
land, had  been  grievously  misman- 
aged by  incompetent  or  dishonest  over- 
seers. An  order  in  council  capricious- 
ly restored  to  Penn,  in  1694,  that 
Pennsylvanian  government  of  which 
an  order  in  council  had  so  capriciously 
robbed  him.  But  the  ownership  of 
territories  so  extensive  was  almost 
barren  to  him.  A  visit  to  his  Irish 
estates  preluded  Penn's  second  ex- 
pedition to  the  New  World.  His  fam- 
ily went  with  him  to  America,  though 
rather  from  necessity  than  choice. 
Penn's  residence  in  the  colony  was 
more  beneficial  to  the  colonists  than 
to  himself.  In  1701  he  returned  to 
England,  and,  being  encumbered  with 
debts,  endeavored  to  negotiate  the  sale 
of  Pennsylvania  to  the  crown  for  $60,- 
000.  This  negotiation  was  interrupt- 
ed in  1712,  through  his  being  attacked 
by  an  apoplectic  tit,  which,  happening 
twice  afterward,  greatly  impaired  his 
mental  faculties.  He  survived  for 
six  years  longer,  but  with  a  consti- 
tution much  shattered,  and  quite  un- 
fitted for  any  serious  employment. 
Penn  died  July  29,  1718;  and  was 
buried  at  the  village  of  Jordan,  Buck- 
inghamshire. 

Pennant,  a  small  flag  or  banner. 
In  naval  affairs,  a  long,  narrow  piece 
of  bunting  carried  at  the  mast-heads 
of  vessels  of  war. 


Fenn  College 

Fenn  College,  a  coeducational  in- 
stitution in  Oskaloosa,  la. ;  founded 
in  1873  under  the  auspices  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Friends. 

Penningrton,  Alexander  Cnm- 
mings  McWhorter,  an  American 
military  officer ;  boi-n  in  Newark,  N. 
J.,  Jan.  8,  1838;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy in  18G0 ;  served  through  the  Civil 
War,  during  the  latter  part  in  com- 
mand of  a  brigade  in  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  and  was  brevetted  Brigadier- 
General  of  volunteers.  After  the  war 
he  served  at  various  army  posts,  was 
promoted  Brigadier-General,  U.  S.  A., 
in  1899  and  was  retired  Oct.  17,  of 
that  year. 

Pennon,  or  Penon,  a  small  flag  or 
streamer  half  the  size  of  the  guidon, 
but  shaped  like  it,  of  a  swallow  tail 
form,  attached  to  the  handle  of  a 
lance  or  spear. 

Pennsylvania,  a  State  in  the 
North  Atlantic  Division  of  the  North 
American  Union,  bounded  by  New 
York,  New  Jersey,,  Delaware,  Mary- 
land, West  Virginia,  Ohio,  and  Lake 
Erie ;  one  of  the  original  13  States ; 
capital,  Harrisburg ;  number  of  coun- 
ties, 67 ;  area,  44,985  square  miles ; 
pop.  (1890)  5,258,014;  (1900)  6,302,- 
115;  (1910)  7,665,111. 

The  State  presents  three  wen  de- 
fined physical  divisions,  the  E.  plain, 
middle  hills,  and  W.  highlands.  A 
number  of  parallel  ridges  cross  it 
from  N.  to  S.  with  a  maximum  alti- 
tude of  2,500  feet.  Lake  Erie  forms 
45  miles  of  the  N.  boundary  of  the 
State  and  has  an  excellent  harbor  at 
Erie. 

Pennsylvania  ranks  first  in  the 
United  States  in  the  amount  and  value 
of  her  commercial  mineral  products. 
In  1900  she  ranked  first  in  the  pro- 
duction of  coal,  coke,  natural  gas, 
building  stones,  flint,  feldspar,  mineral 
paints,  Portland  cement,  and  iron  and 
steel  products ;  second  in  petroleum 
and  clay  products ;  third  in  rock  ce- 
ment; and  fifth  in  iron  ores.  Over  50 
per  cent,  of  the  iron  and  steel  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  is  worked 
in  Pennsylvania,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Pittsburg.  This  city  is* the  center  of 
the  iron  industry  of  the  world. 

As  an  agricultural  State,  Penn- 
sylvania stands  high.  It  ranks  first 
in  the   United   States  in  the  produc- 


Pennsylvania 

tion  of  rye,  and  has  large  crops  of 
other  cereals.  The  S.  E.  counties  are 
remarkably  fertile,  Chester  being  not- 
ed for  its  nurseries,  and  Lancaster  for 
its  tobacco  crop.  The  natural  forest 
trees  include  pine,  poplar,  beech,  sugar 
maple,  chestnut,  birch,  wild  cherry, 
walnut,  oak,  hickory,,  ash,  clierry,  elm, 
sycamore,  and  hemlock.  Considerable 
attention  is  paid  to  stock  raising,  and 
dairying  is  becoming  one  of  the  lead- 
ing industries. 

Pennsylvania  ranks  second  in  the 
United  States  in  the  value  of  her 
manufactures.  Besides  the  leading  in- 
dustries of  coal  mining,  coke,  iron  and 
steel  manufacture,  and  the  production 
of  petroleum,  the  State  has  extensive 
manufactures  of  plate  and  bottle  glass, 
paper  bags,  rag  carpets,  woolen  goods, 
glue,  railroad  cars,  drugs,  and  chem- 
icals, gunpowder,  leather  and  lumber. 
In  1900,  according  to  the  United 
States  census,  there  were  52,185  manu- 
facturing establishments ;  employing 
$1,551,542,712  capital,  and  733,834 
persons;  paying  $332,072,670  for 
wages,  and  $1,042,561,628  for  mate- 
rials; and  having  finished  products 
valued  at  $1,835,104,431. 

The  imports  of  merchandise  at  the 
ports  of  Philadelphia  and  Erie  for 
1900  amounted  in  value  to  $49,711,- 
066;  and  the  exports,  $31,364,722. 

At  the  end  of  the  school  year,  1899- 
1900,  the  children  of  school  age  num- 
bered 1,759.300 ;  enrollment  in  public 
schools,  1,151,880.  There  were  14,932 
buildings  used  for  public  school  pur- 
poses, public  school  property  valued 
at  $54,797,506,  and  29,390  teachers. 
The  principal  colleges  include,  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  at  Phila- 
delphia; Lehigh  University,  at  South 
Bethlehem ;  Lafayette  College,  Easton, 
and  many  others. 

The  governor  is  elected  for  a  term 
of  four  years  and  receives  a  salary 
of  $10,000  per  annum.  Legislative  ses- 
sions are  lield  biennially  in  odd  years, 
beginning  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  Jan- 
uary, and  are  unlimited  in  length.  The 
Legislature  has  60  members  in  the 
Senate  and  207  members  in  the  House. 
There  are  36  Representatives  in  Con- 
gress. The  country  about  Delaware 
Bay  was  first  settled  by  the  Swedes, 
and  then  passed  first  under  Dutch,  and 
then  under  the  English  jurisdiction 
generally  established  in  1664.    In  1681 


PennsylTania 

the  territory  W.  of  the  Delaware  was 
granted  by  royal  charter  to  William 
Penn  who  colonized  it;  and,  by  the 
industry  and  high  character  of  the 
Society  ^  of  Friends,  by  cultivating 
peace  with  the  Indians,  and  encourag- 
ing immigration,  founded  a  flourishing 
State,  which,  long  before  the  Revolu- 
tion became  the  seat  of  learning, 
wealth,  and  refinement. 

Pennsylvania,  University  of,  a 
coeducational,  non-sectarian  institution 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  founded  1740. 

Pennsylvania  College,  a  coedu- 
cational institution  in  Gettysburg, 
Pa. ;  founded  in  1832  under  the  au- 
spices of  the  Lutheran  Church. 

Pennsylvania  State  College,  a 
coeducational,  non-sectarian  institu- 
tion in  State  College,  Pa. ;  founded  in 
1855. 

Pennsylvania  Dntcli,  a  German 
dialect  mixed  with  English,  spoken  in 
Pennsylvania  by  German  settlers  and 
their  descendants. 

Penny.  In  the  United  States  the 
term  penny  is  commonly  used  for 
"  cent,"  the  100th  part  of  a  dollar.  It 
consists  of  95  per  cent,  of  copper  and 
5  per  cent,  tin  and  zinc.  There  are 
1,000,000,000  pennies  in  circulation 
throughout  the  country  and  the  Phila- 
delphia mint  is  turning  them  out  at 
the  rate  of  4,000,000  a  month  to  keep 
up  the  supply.  The  British  penny  is 
the  12th  part  of  a  British  shilling, 
and  worth  about  two  cents. 

Pennyroyal,  a  species  of  mint, 
sometimes  grown  in  gardens  for  its 
reputed  medicinal  qualities.  The  name 
pennyroyal  is  given  also  to  a  small 
plant,  allied  to  the  mints,  and  having, 
like  them,  a  pleasant  aromatic  smell 
and  a  warm  pungent  taste. 

Pennyweight,  a  Troy  weight,  con- 
taining 24  grains,  each  grain  being 
equal  to  a  grain  of  wheat  from  the 
middle  of  the  ear,  well  dried.  Twenty 
pennyweights  make  one  ounce  Troy 
weight. 

Pensacola,  city,  port  of  entry, 
and  capital  of  Escambia  county, 
Fla.;  on  Pensacola  bay  and  several 
railroads;  10  miles  N.  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico;  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors 
on  the  Gulf,  large  export  trade  iu 
naval  stores^  cotton,  grain,  phos- 
phates, coal,  iron,  and  tobacco,  manu- 
factures of  lumber,  cottc-n  compres- 


Pentecosfi 

isors,  and  fertilizers,  and  extensive 
fisheries;  and  contains  a  Federal 
navy-yard,  Federal  Marine  Hospital, 
Fort  Pickens,  and  the  remains  of 
Fort  McKea.     Pop.   (1910)   22,982. 

Fenshnrst,  Charles  Hardinge, 
1st  Lord,  a  British  administrator; 
born  in  Kent,  England,  in  1858; 
brother  of  3d  Viscount  Hardinge; 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  in 
1881;  was  stationed  successively  at 
Constantinople,  Berlin,  Washmgton, 
Bucharest,  Teheran,  and  St.  Peters- 
burg; became  Ambassador  to  Russia 
in  1904;  Permanent  Under  Secretary 
of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs  in  1906, 
and  Viceroy  of  India  in  1910. 

Pension,  an  allowance  of  money, 
in  stipulated  amounts  and  in  periodi- 
cal payments,  made  by  government  to 
persons  in  recognition  of  past  ser- 
vice, military,  naval,  civil,  or  judi- 
cial. The  payment  of  pensions  in  the 
United  States  is  regulated  by  special 
congressional  enactment.  The  sys- 
tem has  been  in  operation  nearly  ever 
since  the  adoption  of  the  Federal 
Constitution  Pensions  are  generally 
predicated  and  allowed  on  account  of 
some  disablement  which  occurred  in 
the  military  or  naval  service  of  the 
United  States  while  in  line  of  duty. 
The  year  of  the  largest  number  of 
pensioners  of  all  classes  was  1902, 
when  there  was  a  total  of  999,446. 
The  year  1909  had  the  smallest  num- 
ber on  the  rolls  since  1892  (940,194), 
but  the  total  payments  that  year 
were  the  largest  on  record  (.$101,- 
973,703).  From  the  foundation  of 
the  Government'to  June  30,  1910,  the 
total  amount  paid  out  for  pensions 
aggregated  $4,073,056,570. 

PentatencH,  a  term  applied  ex- 
clusively to  the  first  five  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  collectively,  termed  in 
Hebrew  torah  =:  the  law.  The  first! 
mention  of  the  five-fold  division  is  by 
Josephus. 

Pentecost,  one  of  the  three  greatest 
Jewish  festivals.  Its  Greek  name  wag 
given  because  it  was  held  on  the  50th 
day,  counting  from  the  second  of  the 
Passover,  whence  it  was  called  in 
Hebrew  the  Eeast  of  Weeks.  By  this 
account  the  enumeration  of  the  weeks 
was  to  be  from  "such  time  as  thou 
beginnest  to  put  the  sickle  to  the 
corn."  It  was  called  also  the  Feast 
of  Harvest. 


Pentecost 

Pentecost,  George  Frederick,  an 

American  clergyman;  born  in  Albion, 
III.,  Sept.  23,  1812;  entered  George- 
town University  but  left  to  volunteer 
for  the  Union  army ;  was  chaplain  in 
1862-1804,  and  filled  various  pastor- 
ates in  different  parts  of  the  country 
in  18&i-1880.  In  1887  he  engaged  in 
evangelical  work  in  Scotland  and  then 
went  to  India  on  a  special  mission  to 
the  English-speaking  Brahmins.  He 
was  called  to  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church  at  Yonkers,  N.  T.,  in  1897. 
He  wrote :  "  Boyhood  of  Christ " ; 
"Bible  Studies";  etc. 

Penumbra,  a  faint  shadow  thrown 
by  a  luminous  body.  It  is  brighter 
than  the  true  shadow,  though  less  so 
than  the  luminous  body  itself.  It  ia  a 
modification  of  the  true  shadow  pro- 
duced by  the  commingling  with  it  of 
rays  emitted  by  a  portion  of  the  lu- 
minous body.  In  an  eclipse  of  the 
moon,  the  rays  which  have  just  grazed 
the  edge  of  the  earth  are  bent  inward 
by  the  refraction  of  the  atmosphere, 
besides  having  become  tinged  with  a 
ruddy  or  copper  hue.  Falling  on  the 
moon,  then  in  shadow,  they  often  ren- 
der it  faintly  visible,  and  though  of  a 
copper  hue,  yet  bright  enough  to  per- 
mit markings  on  its  surface  to  be  seen. 
Yet  at  this  time  the  moon  is  so  much 
behind  the  earth  that  it  cannot  be 
reached  by  direct  rays  from  the  sun. 
Peonage,  a  system  of  agricultural 
servitude  common  in  Mexico,  and  some 
other  parts  of  Spanish  America.  The 
peon  in  debt  to  his  employer  was  by 
the  Spanish  system  bound  to  labor  for 
his  employer  till  the  debt  was  paid. 
Peoria,  city  and  capital  of  Peoria 
county.  111.;  o;i  the  Illinois  river  and 
over  a  dozen  railroads;  160  miles  W. 
of  Chicago;  is  in  an  important  coal- 
mining region;  has  the  most  exten- 
sive manufactories  of  proof  spirits, 
glucose,  and  farming  implements  in 
the  country;  also  manufactures  cel- 
lulose, cereal  foods,  flour,  straw- 
boards,  and  machinery;  manufac- 
tures exceed  $05,000,000  in  value  of 
annual  output;  contains  the  Bradley 
Polytechnic  Institute,  Spalding  In- 
stitute, Federal  Building,  large  Coli- 
seum, Soldiers'  Monument,  and  sev- 
eral notable  public  buildings;  and 
has  an  assessed  property  valuation 
of  over  $25,000,000.  Pop.  (1910; 
GG,950. 


Pepsin 

Pepin,  The  Short,  a  King  ot 
France,  the  first  of  the  Carlovingian 
kings.  He  was  at  first  mayor  of  the 
palace  under  Childeric  III. ;  but  in 
752  he  dethroned  that  monarch  and 
confined  him  in  a  monastery.  Having 
requested  and  obtained  the  sanction  of 
the  Pope,  Pepin  was  constituted  king. 
He  assisted  Pope  Stephen  III.  against 
the  Longobards,  defeated  the  Saxons, 
Bavarians,  and  other  German  nations, 
and  united  Aquitaine  to  his  crown. 
After  a  reign  of  16  years,  he  died  in 
St.  Denis,  in  768.  His  son  Charle- 
magne succeeded  him  as  King  of  the 
Franks. 

Pepper,  Charles  M.,  journalist, 
traveler  and  author;  born  in  Ohio, 
Nov.  11,  1859 ;  graduated  at  the  Woos- 
ter  University,  in  1882.  He  was  the 
Washington  correspondent  of  the 
"Chicago  Tribune"  for  many  years. 
Subsequently  political  correspondent 
of  "New  York  Herald."  Correspond- 
ent in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  Mexico,  Cen- 
tral America,  South  •  America,  and 
Hawaii,  for  "Washington  Star"  and  a 
syndicate  of  papers.  Commissioner  in 
Cuba  for  St.  Louis  Exposition.  Was 
appointed  by  President  McKinley  as 
delegate  to  the  Second  International 
American  Conference,  which  was  held 
in  Mexico,  1901-1902.  Appointed  by 
President  Roosevelt  as  Pan-American 
Railway  commissioner.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of  "  Tomorrow  in  Cuba,"  "  Every- 
day Life  in  Washington,"  and  other 
books. 

Peppermint,  a  mint  with  oblong, 
lanceolate,  serrate,  glabrous  leaves; 
pedicels  and  flowers  nearly  smooth; 
flowers  in  cylindrical  spikes,  interrupt- 
ed below.  Oil  of  peppermint,  the  oil 
distilled  from  the  fresh  flowers  of  pep- 
permint. It  enters  into  the  composition 
of  peppermint  water,  essence  of  pep- 
permint, and  spirit  of  peppermint  It 
is  stimulant  and  carminative,  and  is 
used  to  correct  flatulence  and  griping 
in  the  intestinal  canal,  and  to  mask 
the  nauseous  taste  of  some  medicines. 

Pepper  Koot,  a  perennial  herba» 
ceous  plant,  a  native  of  North  America, 
with  pairs  of  ternate  leaves,  and  ra- 
cemes of  white  flowers ;  the  root  _  of 
which  has  a  pungent  mustard-like 
taste,  and  is  used  as  a  condiment. 

Pepsin,  an  azotized  ferment,  related 
to  the  proteids,  and  contained  in  gas- 
tric juice.     It  possesses  the  power,  in 


J:*cpys 

conjunction  with  hydrochloric  acid,  of 
dissolving  the  insoluble  proteids  and 
converting  them  into  peptones.  Pep- 
sin is  prepared  from  the  stomach  of 
the  pig  or  calf  on  a  commercial  scale, 
and  is  Usually  employed  in  the  form  of 
pills  or  dissolved  in  wine. 

Pepys,  Samnel,  an  English  author, 
secretary  to  the  admiralty  in  the  reigns 
of  Charles  II.  and  James  II. ;  born 
in  Brampton,  Huntingdonshire,  in 
1G32,  and  educated  at  Cambridge.  He 
early  acquired  the  patronage  of  Sir 
Edward  Montagu,  afterward  Earl  of 
Sandwich,  who  employed  him  as  sec- 
retary in  the  expedition  for  bringing 
Charles  II.  from  Holland.  On  his  re- 
turn he  was  appointed  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal officers  of  the  navy.  In  1G73, 
when  the  king  took  the  admiralty  into 
his  own  hands,  Pepys  was  appointed 
secretary  to  that  office,  and  performed 
his  duties  with  great  credit.  During 
the  excitement  of  the  Popish  Plot  he 
was  committed  to  the  Tower,  but  was 
after  some  time  discharged  without  a 
trial,  and  reinstated  in  his  office  at  the 
admiralty,  which  he  held  till  the  abdi- 
cation of  James  II.  He  was  president 
of  the  Royal  Society  for  two  years; 
but  his  title  to  fame  rests  upon  his 
"Diary"  (1659-1G69),  which  is  a 
most  entertaining  work,  revealing  the 
writer's  own  character  very  plainly, 
giving  an  excellent  picture  of  contem- 
porary life,  and  of  great, value  for  the 
history  of  the  court  ot  Charles  II. 
He  died  in  1703. 

Peqnot,  Fort,  an  old  Indian  fort 
on  Pequot  Hill,  about  8  miles  N.  E. 
of  New  London,  Conn. 

Peqnots,  or  Pequods,  a  tribe  of 
American  Indians,  a  branch  of  the 
Mohegans,  were  warlike  and  powerful 
in  the  country  round  the  Thames  riv- 
er when  Connecticut  was  first  settled, 
and  made  treaties  with  the  Dutch  and 
English.  Hostilities,  however,  broke 
out  in  1637,  and  the  tribe  was  cut  to 
pieces  and  scattered;  yet  a  few  de- 
scendants may  be  found  at  Green  Bay, 
Wis. 

Perch,  a  genus  of  acanthopterous 
fishes,  forming  the  type  of  the  perch 
family  (Percidse).  The  common  perch 
(Perca  fluviatilis)  is  a  common  ten- 
ant of  fresh-water  lakes  and  rivers. 
It  is  colored  a  greenish-brown  on  the 
upper  parts,  the  belly  being  of  a  yel- 
(ovrish  or  golden-white.    The  sides  are 


Pericle» 

marked  with  from  five  to  seven  black- 
ish bands.  The  average  weight  is 
from  2  to  3  pounds.  The  perch  is  a 
voracious  feeder,  devouring  smaller 
fishes,  worms,  etc.  The  female  de- 
posits her  eggs,  united  by  a  viscous 
matter,  in  long  bands,  on  aquatic 
plants. 

Pereira  da  Silva,  Joao  Manuel, 
a  Brazilian  historian ;  born  in  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  in  1817.  He  wrote :  "His- 
tory of  the  Founding  of  the  Empire  of 
Brazil "  ;  "  Brazilian  Plutarch  "  ;  "  Je- 
ronimo  Corte-Real  " ;  "  Second  Period 
of  the  Reign  of  Dom  Pedro  I.  in  Bra- 
zil"; etc. 

Perennial,  lasting  or  continuing 
without  cessation  throughout  the  year ; 
hence,  perpetual ;  unceasing ;  never 
failing;  as  perennial  fountains.  Con- 
tinuing without  intermission,  as  a  fe- 
ver. In  botany,  one  of  those  plants 
whose  roots  remain  alive  more  years 
than  two,  but  whose  stems  flower  and 
perish  annually. 

Perez  de  Zambrana  Luisa,  a  Cu- 
ban story-writer  and  poet ;  bom  in 
El  Cobre,  near  Santiago,  in  1837.  Sev- 
eral of  her  poems  have  been  translat- 
ed into  Italian  and  French. 

Perfumes,  substances  emitting  an 
agreeable  odor,  and  used  about  the 
person,  the  dress,  or  the  dwelling,  hav- 
ing also  some  value  as  disinfectants. 
Perfumes  are  partly  of  animal  origin 
as  civet,  musk,  etc.,  but  are  chiefly 
simple,  or  mixed  essences  of  flowers. 

Pericardium,  a  conical  membran- 
ous sac  containing  the  heart  and  the 
commencement  of  the  great  vessels,  to 
the  extent  of  about  two  inches  from 
their  origin. 

Pericles,  a  great  Athenian  states- 
man ;  born  in  Athens  about  495  B.  C, 
of  a  noble,  influential  and  wealthy 
family.  He  received  a  careful  educa- 
tion from  the  most  eminent  teachers. 
He  applied  himself  to  the  study  of 
philosophy  under  the  guidance  of  An- 
axagoras,  who  had  a  most  powerful 
influence  on  him,  and  remained  one 
of  his  most  intimate  friends.  To  his 
other  acquirements  he  added  that  of 
extraordinary  eloquence,  and  thus  pre- 
pared, he  began  to  take  part  in  public 
affairs  about  469  B.  c,  and  the  pop- 
ular party  soon  recognized  him  as  their 
chief.  Pericles  was  great  as  a  general, 
and  he  displayed  extraordinary  valor 


Verier 

at  the  battle  of  Tanagra;  he  com- 
manded the  expedition  against  Sicyon 
and  Acamania ;  recovered  Delphi  from 
the  Spartans,  and  quelled  the  revolt 
of  Euboea.  In  444  B.  0.  he  became  sole 
ruler  of  Athens,  and  the  aim  of  his 
policy  was  to  extend  and  strengthen 
her  empire,  and  to  make  the  people 
worthy  of  their  position.  Under  his 
administration  the  navy  was  increased, 
commerce  extended,  general  prosperity 
advanced,  and  Athens  adorned  with 
noble  buildings.  In  444  B.  C.  Pericles 
established  a  democratic  constitution 
in  Samos,  and  a  counter  revolution 
taking  place,  he  besieged  the  town,  and 
after  nine  months  reduced  it,  a  suc- 
cess which  procured  him  extraordinary 
honors  on  his  return.  Pericles  directed 
Athens  during  the  first  two  years  of 
the  Peloponnesian  War,  in  the  sec- 
ond year  of  which  the  plague  broke  out 
at  Athens,  and  the  popular  discontent 
vented  itself  in  the  prosecution  of  the 
great  ruler.  He  was  fined,  but  soon 
regained  his  influence.  The  plague 
carried  oS  many  of  his  friends  and 
relatives,  and,  last  of  all,  his  favorite 
son,  Paralus.  This  loss  broke  his 
heart,  and  after  a  lingering  sickness 
he  died  429  b.  c.  He  left  a  son  by 
Aspasia,  who  took  his  father's  name, 
and  was  legitimated  by  the  people. 

Perier,  Casimir,  a  French  states- 
man ;  born  in  Grenoble,  Oct.  21,  1777. 
A  Parisian  banker,  he  condemned  in 
1817  the  financial  policy  of  the  minis- 
try and  thereby  won  a  seat  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  In  1828  he  held 
the  portfolio  of  finance  under  Martig- 
nac,  but  resigned  it  in  August  of  the 
next  year.  Having  taken  an  active 
part  in  the  July  revolution  (1830), 
he  was  rewarded  with  a  seat  in  the 
cabinet.  When  LaflStte  became  presi- 
dent of  the  council  (Nov.  2),  Perier 
undertook  the  presidency  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies,  and  on  March  13, 
1831,  succeeded  Laffitte  as  minister. 
Died  1832.  His  son  Auguste,  adopted 
the  name  of  Casimir-Perier  (q.  v.). 

Perigee,  the  point  in  the  moon's 
orbit  at  which  she  is  nearest  the  earth. 

Perihelion,  or  Perihelinm,  the 
part  of  a  planet's  or  comet's  orbit 
where  it  is  nearest  the  sun,  as  op- 
posed to  aphelion. 

Perim,  a  barren  island,  and  coaling 
and  telegraph  station,  belonging  to 
Great  Britain,  in  the  Strait  of  Bab- 


Perjury 

el-Mandeb,  at  the  S.  entrance  to  the 
Ked  Sea.  It  is  about  3^  miles  long 
by  2^  wide,  crescent-shaped,  the 
horns  embracing  a  spacious  harbor. 

Periodicity^  the  disposition  of  cer- 
tain things  or  phenomena  to  recur  at 
stated  periods.  It  denotes  the  regu- 
lar or  nearly  regular  recursence  of 
certain  phenomena  of  animal  life,  such 
as  sleep  and  hunger.  The  first  indica- 
tion of  a  diseased  state  is  generally  a 
disturbance  of  the  natural  or  ac- 
quired periodicity  of  the  various  func- 
tions of  life. 

Periosteum,  a  dense  lining  mem- 
brane covering  the  whole  surface  of 
bone,  except  the  articulations,  which 
have  a  thin  cartilaginous  layer.  As 
long  as  a  single  portion  of  periosteum 
remains  alive  bone  is  capable  of  be- 
ing reproduced. 

Peritonitis,  inflammation  of  the 
peritoneum ;  it  is  exceedingly  painful 
and  dangerous,  from  its  extent  and 
connection  with  important  organs. 
Peritonitis  may  exist  either  as  an 
acute  or  chronic  disease.  In  the  for- 
mer there  is  usually  great  pain  and 
tenderness  of  the  abdomen,  accompa- 
nied with  fever,  and  a  frequent,  small, 
and  hard  pulse.  Its  causes  are  va- 
rious, as  by  cold,  mechanical  injuries 
of  the  peritoneum,  the  development  of 
tumors,  etc. 

Periwinkle,  a  genus  of  marine 
Gastropods.  The  commonest  is  abun- 
dant between  tide  marks  on  the  rocks, 
and  is  often  collected  and  used  for 
food.  It  is  boiled  in  its  shell,  extract- 
ed as  eaten,  and  is  very  palatable. 
Periwinkles  crawl  about  under  water, 
but  usually  remain  passive  when  left 
uncovered  by  the  tide.  Without  wa- 
ter they  can  survive  for  many  hours, 
and  they  are  also  able  to  endure  a 
considerable  freshening  of  the  salt 
water.  They  feed  on  sea  weeds,  and 
are  often  useful  in  keeping  beds  of 
young  oysters  from  being  smothered. 

Perjury,  the  taking  of  a  wilful 
false  oath  or  afiirmation,  by  a  witness 
lawfully  required  to  depose  the  truth 
in  a  matter  of  some  consequence  to 
the  point  in  question.  A  false  oath, 
therefore,  taken  before  no  court,  or 
before  a  court  incompetent  to  try  the 
issue  in  question,  does  not  constitute 
the  offense  of  perjury  at  common  law. 
Perjurx  is  a  felony. 


Persia 


Persia 


and  W.  margin  of  the  Caspian  are  an 
exception  to  the  rest  of  the  country, 
and  present  some  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  fruitful  pictures  of  richness  and 
abundance  to  be  found  in  Persia.  It 
has  been  computed  that  barely  a  third 
of  the  entire  kingd(nn  is  fit  for  culti- 
vation. 

The  vegetable  productions  of  Persia 
embrace  all  kinds  of  legumes  and  ce- 
reals, except  rye,  oats,  and  rice ;  barley 
and  wheat  are  the  most  abundant 
crops.  Drugs  of  various  kinds  are  ob- 
tained, such  as  senna,  rhubarb,  gums, 
opium,  etc. ;  as  also  oils,  cotton,  indi- 

fo,  sugar,  madder,  dates,  pistachio 
uts,  and  tobacco;  while  in  flowers, 
and  the  perfumes  extracted  from 
them,  especially  the  attar  of  roses,  no 
country  in  the  world  can  compare  with 
Pei-sia  for  beauty,  fragrance,  and 
abundance.  Silk  is  an  important  item ; 
and  plantations  of  mulberry  trees  of 
great  extent  are  very  numerous.  Vast 
flocks  of  sheep  and  goats  are  pastured 
over  the  country,  the  property  and 
wealth  of  the  wandering  tribes  of  the 
interior,  the  Eelauts,  a  kind  of  Bed- 
ouins, devoting  themselves  to  pastoral 
habits.  The  animals  for  which  Persia 
is  famous,  are  camels,  horses,  mules, 
oxen,  asses,  and  buffaloes.  The  mineral 
wealth  consists  of  silver,  copper,  lead, 
iron,  antimony,  salt,  precious  stones  — 
especially  turquoise  —  bitumen,  and 
springs  of  naphtha.  There  are  also 
large,  undeveloped  fields  of  coal  and 
petroleum.  One  of  the  features  of 
Persia  is  the  abundance  of  salt  in 
the  soil,  and  the  large  number  of  its 
salt  lakes ;  about  30  pure  salinas  have 
no  outlet;  and  one,  the  largest,  Ure- 
miyah,  is  280  miles  in  circumference, 
and,  though  supplied  by  14  rivers,  its 
water  is  so  dense,  bitter,  and  loaded 
with  salt,  that  no  fish  can  live  in  it. 
The  climate  of  Persia  embraces  the 
rigors  experienced  on  the  mountains 
of  the  snowy  N.,  and  the  heats  felt 
on  the  sandy  plains  of  Africa.  Cyrus 
the  Younger  told  Xenophon  that  his 
father's  empire  was  so  vast  that  in  the 
N.  the  people  i)erished  of  cold,  and 
in  the  S.  .were  suffocated  with  heat. 

The  manufactures  of  Persia  are  nu- 
merous and  important,  and  embrace  all 
kinds  of  silk'  fabrics,  satins,  taffetas, 
textures  of  silk  and  cotton,  silk  and 
goat's  hair,  or  silk  and  camel's  hair ; 
brocades,  camel's  hair  shawls,  gold  tis- 
sues, gold  velvet,  camlets,  carpets,  cot- 


tons, leather,  firearms,  sword  blades, 
saddlery,  and  jewelfy.  Its  principal 
trade  is  carried  on  with  Russia ;  and, 
though  the  foreign  export  trade  is  in- 
significant, the  internal  traffic  is  very 
great  and  is  entirely  carried  on  by 
caravans. 

The  government  is  highly  despotic; 
an  edict  of  the  sovereign  once  passed, 
can  never  be  repealed,  the  word  of  the 
Shah  is  irrevocable,  and  the  lives  and 
property  of  the  people  are  in  his 
hands.  The  government  is  carried  on 
by  the  Shah  and  his  two  principal  min- 
isters, the  Grand  Vizier  and  the  Lord 
Treasurer.  The  religion  of  the  Per- 
sians is  Mohammedanism.  In  physical 
appearance  the  Persians  are  inclined  to 
corpulence,  have  black  hair,  a  high 
forehead,  an  aquiline  nose,  and  a  large- 
ly developed  chin;  and  in  color  pre- 
sent every  variety,  from  the  dark 
brown  of  the  Indian  to  the  light  olive 
of  the  colder  regions.  The  men  are 
strong,  robust,  fond  of  exercise  and 
martial  glory,  shave  their  heads,  but 
dye  their  beards  black,  preserving  them 
with  an  almost  religious  veneration. 
The  Persians  are  regarded  as  a  gay 
and  hospitable  race,  but  prone  to  sud- 
den anger  and  treachery. 

The  Persian  language  is  the  most 
celebrated  of  all  the  Oriental  tongues, 
for  strength,  copiousness,  beauty,  and 
melody,  and  is  written  from  the  right 
to  the  left.  The  earliest  account  we 
possess  of  Persia  is  from  the  Bible, 
from  which  we  learn  that,  in  the  time 
of  Abraham,  1921  B.  C,  that  portion 
of  modern  Persia  known  as  Elam,  or 
Suisiana,  Southern  Persia,  was  a  pow- 
erful monarchy.  But  the  Persians,  as 
a  nation,  first  rose  into  notice  on  the 
ruins  of  the  great  empires  founded  on 
the  Euphrates.  Babylon  was  taken  by 
Cyrus,  and  his  empire  extended  wider 
than  any  before  established  in  the 
world.  After  a  feeble  struggle,  it 
succumbed  to  the  brave  and  disciplined 
armies  of  Alexander.  It  was  then 
split  into  fragments  by  the  decease  of 
its  founder;  but  Greeks  and  Greek 
sovereigns  continued,  during  several 
centuries,  to  reign  over  Asia.  About 
two  centuries  before  Christ,  Arsaces 
founded  the  monarchy  of  the  Parthi- 
ans ;  and  in  the  3d  century  arose  the 
dynasty  of  the  Sassanidae,  who  restored 
the  name,  with  the  religion  and  laws, 
of  ancient  Persia.  They  were  over- 
thrown by  the  Mohammedan  invaders, 


Persian  Gulf 


leertk 


who  suffered  in  their  turn  from  the 
successive  invasions  by  the  descendants 
of  Genghis,  Timur,  and  by  the  Turks, 
who  entirely  changed  the  aspect  of 
Western  Asia.  At  length,  in  1501,  a 
native  dynasty  again  arose,  under  Is- 
mail, who  placed  himself  on  the  throne. 
His  posterity  having  sunk  into  volup- 
tuousness, Persia,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  18th  century,  was  overrun  by  the 
Afghans,  who  carried  fire  and  sword 
through  its  remotest  extremities,  and 
reduced  its  proudest  capitals  to  ashes. 
The  atrocities  of  the  Afghans  were 
avenged,  and  the  independence  of  Per- 
sia vindicated  by  Nadir  Shah,  but 
though  the  victories  of  this  daring 
chief  threw  a  luster  on  his  country, 
after  his  death  it  was  almost  torn  to 
pieces  by  civil  war,  till  the  fortune  of 
arms  gave  a  decided  superiority  to 
Kereim,  or  Kurreem  Khan.  His  death 
gave  rise  to  another  disputed  succes- 
sion, with  civil  wars  as  furious  as 
before.  At  length,  Aga  Mahommed,  a 
eunuch,  raised  himself,  by  crimes  and 
daring,  to  the  sovereignty,  and  not 
only  swayed  it  during  his  lifetime,  but 
founded  a  dynasty  since  represented 
by  Nasr-ed-Din  from  1848,  Muzzafar- 
ed-Din  from  1896,  Mohammed-Ali- 
Mirza  from  1907,  and  by  his  son  Hus- 
sein-Ali-Mirza  from  July  IG,  1909. 

Persian  Gulf,  an  arm  of  the  In- 
dian Ocean  which  penetrates  between 
Arabia  and  Persia  to  the  extent  of 
650  miles  in  a  general  N.  W.  direc- 
tion. Its  breadth  varies  from  55  miles 
at  the  mouth  to  250  miles,  and  the 
area  is  estimated  at  77,450  square 
miles,  not  including  the  islands,  which 
are  scattered  over  the  W.  half,  or 
lie  close  inshore  along  the  E.  side.  Its 
greatest  depth  is  about  50  fathoms. 
Persimmon.  See  Date  Plum. 
Persius,  full  name  Aulus  Persins 
Flaccus,  a  Roman  satirical  poet ;  born 
A.  D.  34,  at  Volterra  in  Etruria ;  died 
in  G2.  He  vns  well-connected  ;  was  on 
friendly  termcj  with  some  of  the  most 
eminent  men  ot  ;he  time,  and  much  be- 
loved for  the  purity  and  amenity  of  his 
manners.  Six  satires  by  him  have  been 
preserved,  of  which  there  are  several 
translations. 

Personalty,  or  Personal  Prop* 
erty,  movables;  chattels;  things  be- 
longing to  the  person,  as  money,  jew- 
els, furniture,  etc.,  as  distinguished 
from  real  estate  in  lands  and  houses. 


Perspective,  the  science  of  repre- 
senting appearances,  and  as  such 
opposed  to  geometry,  which  is  the  sci- 
ence of  representing  facts.  It  is  found- 
ed upon  such  rules  as  can  be  deduced 
from  the  facts  which  are  discovered 
by  looking  at  objects  through  a  sheet 
of  glass  or  other  transparent  mediuiu 
placed  upright  between  the  object  anJ 
the  observer.  It  is  found  when  ob- 
jects are  so  looked  at  that  their  ap- 
parent form  is  very  different  from 
their  real  one,  both  as  regards  shape 
and  distinctness.  The  portion  of  the 
subject  which  deals  with  the  changes 
in  form  is  absolutely  scientific ;  it  is 
called  linear  perspective.  The  changes 
in  distinctness  are  effected  by  distance 
and  atmosphere,  and  differ  constantly 
with  different  conditions  of  light  and 
atmosphere.  It  is  the  purely  artistic 
side  of  the  science  which  is  called  aeri- 
al perspective,  and  success  in  its  ap 
plication  depends  on  the  individual 
ability  of  the  artist. 

Perspiration,  watery  matter, 
"  breathed  out,"  or  made  to  expire 
from  the  system  by  means  of  the  pores 
in  the  skin.  It  is  more  copious  than 
the  matter  sent  forth  from  the  lungs 
by  respiration,  averaging  11  grains  per 
minute  against  7  from  the  lungs. 

Perth.  Amboy,  a  city  and  port  of 
entry  in  Middlesex  county,  N.  J.;  on 
the  Raritan  river  and  bay  and  sev- 
eral railroads;  21  miles  S.  W.  of 
New  York  city;  settled  in  1680;  in 
colonial  days,  the  seat  of  government 
of  New  Jersey;  has  a  good  harbor, 
valuable  deposits  of  fire-clay  and 
kaolin,  large  shipping  trade  in  farm 
products  and  manufactures,  and  cop- 
per, lead,  brick,  terra  cotta,  emery,  and 
chemical  plants.     Pop.  (1910)  ;32,121. 

Peru,  a  maritime  republic  of  South 
America,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Ecua- 
dor, on  the  W.  by  the  Pacific,  on  the 
S.  and  S.  E.  by  Bolivia  and  Chile,  and 
on  the  E.  by  Brazil;  area,  695,720 
square  miles ;  pop.  4,609,999 ;  capital, 
Lima. 

The  country  is  1,100  miles  in  length, 
780  miles  in  extreme  width  along  the 
N.  boundary,  but  it  is  little  more  than 
50  miles  wide  in  the  extreme  S.  The 
islands  along  the  coast  while  few  in 
number,  are  exceedingly  valuable  in 
that  they  are  rich  in  guano,  vast  quan- 
tities having  been  exported. 

The  surface  of  Peru  is  divided  into 


Fern 


Peru 


three  distinct  and  well  defined  tracts  or 
belts,  the  climates  of  which  are  of 
every  variety,  from  torrid  heat  to  Arc- 
tic cold,  and  the  productions  of  which 
range  from  the  stunted  herbage  of  the 
high  mountain  slopes  to  the  oranges 
and  citrons,  the  sugar  canes  and  cot- 
tons of  the  luxuriant  tropical  valleys. 
These  three  regions  are  the  Coast,  the 
Sierra,  and  the  Montana.  The  Sierra 
embraces  all  the  mountainous  region 
between  the  W.  base  of  the  maritime 
Cordillera  and  the  E.  base  of  the  An- 
des, or  the  East  Cordillera.     Here  the 


ITTOIAN  OF  PEKXT. 

valleys  enjoy  an  Indian  climate,  and 
are  rich  in  tropical  productions ;  to  the 
N.  and  E.  extend  luxuriant  forests, 
while  the  numberless  mountain  slopes 
are  covered  with  waving  crops  of 
wheat,  barley,  and  other  cereals,  and 
with  potatoes;  and  higher  up  extend 
rich  pasture  lands,  where  huge  herds 
of  vicunas  and  pacas  feed.  The  valley 
of  the  river  Maranon,  which  is  up- 
ward of  300  miles  in  length,  is  narrow, 


deep,  and  nearer  the  equator  than  any 
other  valley  of  the  Sierra,  and  conse- 
quently it  is  the  hottest  portion  of 
this  region,  and  its  vegetation  is  thor- 
oughly tropical  in  character.  The  con- 
formation of  the  surface  of  the  Sierra 
is  of  the  most  wonderful  description. 

After  the  table-lands  of  Tibet,  those 
of  the  Peruvian  Andes  are  the  highest 
in  the  world;  but,  unlike  those  of  Ti- 
bet, the  tablelands  of  Peru  are  the  seat 
of  a  comparatively  high  civilization, 
and  are  studded  over  with  towns  and 
villages,  perched  on  heights  exceeding 
in  elevation  the  summits  of  the  Jung- 
frau  and  the  Matterhorru  Nor  are 
such  towns  the  mere  eyries  of  miners 
who  are  tempted  to  ascend  thus  high 
in  search  of  the  precious  metals ;  for, 
even  at  this  elevation,  the  climate  is 
pleasant,  and  wheat,  maize,  barley, 
rye,  and  potatoes  thrive  well.  The 
climate  of  the  Sierra,  however,  is  not 
always  so  delightful.  In  general  terms 
it  may  be  described  as  mild  and  varia- 
ble, with  moderate  rains.  In  the  dis- 
trict of  paucartambo  rain  falls  300 
days  in  the  year.  A  country,  however, 
of  such  an  uneven  surface,  of  snow- 
covered  peaks  and  tropical  valleys,  em- 
braces every  variety  of  climate. 

The  gold  standard  is  now  perma- 
nently established  in  Peru.  The  na- 
tion has  entered  upon  a  new  period  of 
industrial  activity.  Numerous  com- 
panies have  been  formed  to  explore  the 
Amazonian  region ;  new  roads  are  be- 
ing opened  in  every  direction.  There  is 
marked  confidence  in  the  stability  of 
order,  and  under  the  protection  oi. 
peace  old  financial  institutions  and  in- 
dustrial and  mining  enterprises  are 
thriving  and  public  wealth  is  rapidly 
increasing. 

The  wealth  and  resources  of  Peru 
consist  not  in  its  manufactures,  but 
entirely  in  mineral,  vegetable,  and  ani- 
mal products.  Of  the  precious  met- 
als, the  production  has  greatly  fallen 
ofE  since  Peru  became  an  independent 
State.  Nevertheless,  Peru  possesses 
vast  metallic  riches.  The  Andes 
abound  in  mines  of  gold,  silver,  cop- 
per, lead,  bismuth,  etc. ;  and  in  the 
Montana  gold  is  said  to  exist  in  abun- 
dance in  veins  and  in  pools  on  the 
margins  of  rivers.  The  vegetable  pro- 
ductions of  Peru  are  of  every  variety, 
embracing  the  products  both  of  tem- 
perate and  tropical  climes.  North 
American  cereals   and  vegetables  are 


Pemg^ino 

grown  with  perfect  success,  together 
with  maize,  rice,  pumpkins,  tobacco, 
coffee,  sugar  cane,  cotton,  etc.  Fruits 
of  the  most  delicious  flavor  are  grown 
in  endless  variety.  Cotton,  for  which 
the  soil  and  climate  of  Peru  are  ad- 
mirably adapted,  is  now  produced  here 
in  gradually  increasing  quantity.  The 
land  suited  to  the  cultivation  of  this 
plant  is  excellent.  The  animals  com- 
prise those  of  North  America,  together 
with  the  llama  and  its  allied  species. 

The  republic  of  Peru,  formerly  the 
most  important  of  the  Spanish  vice- 
royalties  in  South  America,  issued  its 
declaration  of  independence  July  28, 
1821 ;  but  it  was  not  till  after  a  war, 
protracted  till  1824,  that  the  country 
gained  its  actual  freedom  from  Span- 
ish rule.  The  republic  is  politically 
divided  into  departments,  and  the  de- 
partments into  provinces.  The  pres- 
ent constitution,  proclaimed  Oct.  IG, 
1856,  was  revised  Nov.  25,  1860.  It  is 
modeled  on  that  of  the  United  States, 
the  legislative  power  being  vested  in 
a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representa- 
tives, the  former  composed  of  deputies 
of  the  provinces,  in  proportion  of  one 
for  every  80,000  inhabitants  or  frac- 
tion exceeding  15,000,  and  the  latter  of 
representatives  nominated  by  the  elec- 
toral colleges  of  the  provinces  of  each 
department,  at  the  rate  of  two  when 
the  department  has  two  provinces  and 
one  more  for  every  other  two  prov- 
inces. The  executive  power  is  entrust- 
ed to  a  president.  There  are  two  vice- 
presidents,  who  take  the  place  of  the 
president  only  in  case  of  his  death  or 
incapacity,  and  they  are  elected  for 
four  years.  The  president  has  to  exer- 
cise his  executive  functions  through  a 
cabinet  of  five  ministers,  holding  office 
at  his  pleasure.  None  of  the  presi- 
dent's .acts  have  any  value  without 
the  signature  of  a  minister. 

By  the  terms  of  the  constitution 
there  exists  absolute  political,  but  not 
religious,  freedom,  the  charter  prohib- 
iting the  public  exercise  of  any  other 
religion  than  the  Roman  Catholic, 
which  is  declared  the  religion  of  the 
State.  But  practically  there  is  a 
certain  amount  of  tolerance,  there  be- 
ing in  Callao  and  Lima  Anglican 
churches  as  well  as  Jewish  synagogues. 
Elementary  education  is  compulsory 
for  both  sexes,  and  is  free  in  the 
public  schools  that  are  maintained  by 


FeruTian 

the  municipalities.  High  schools  are 
maintained  by  the  government  in  the 
capitals  of  the  departments,  and  in 
some  provinces  pupils  pay  a  moderate 
fee.  There  is  in  Lima  a  central  uni« 
versity,  called  "  Universidad  de  Sau 
Marcos,"  the  most  ancient  in  Ameri- 
ca; its  charter  was  granted  by  the 
Emperor  Carlos  V. ;  it  has  faculties 
of  jurisprudence,  medicine,  political 
science,  theology,  and  applied  science. 
Peru,  the  origin  of  whose  name  is 
unknown,  is  now  passing  through  its 
third  historical  era,  and  is  manifesting 
its  third  phase  of  civilization.  The 
present  era  may  be  said  to  date  from 
the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the 
Spaniards  in  the  early  part  of  the 
16th  century ;  the  middle  era  embraces 
the  rule  of  the  Incas ;  and  the  earliest 
era,  about  which  exceedingly  little  is 
known,  is  that  of  pre-Incarial  period 
of  unknown  duration,  during  which 
a  nation,  or  nations,  living  in  large 
cities  flourished  in  the  country,  and 
had  a  civilization,  a  language,  and  a 
religion  different,  and  perhaps  in  some 
cases  even  more  advanced,  than  those 
of  the  Incas,  who  succeeded  them  and 
overran  their  territories. 

Perngino,  Pietro,  an  Italian  paint- 
er; born  in  Leitta  Delia  Pieve,  about 
1446.  His  real  name  was  Pietro  Van- 
ned, but  becoming  a  citizen  of  Peru- 
gia, he  acquired  the  name  by  which  he 
is  best  known.  He  studied  under  Ver- 
rocchio,  and  soon  attained  great  dis- 
tinction as  a  painter  in  oil  by  his 
rich  coloring.  He  was  employed  for 
10  years  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  and  the 
Stanze  of  the  Vatican,  and  on  his  re- 
turn to  Perugia  opened  a  school,  and 
had  Raphael  among  his  pupils.  Pern- 
gino was  a  sordid  and  eccentric  man; 
adhered  obstinately  to  the  stiff  con- 
ventional forms  of  the  15th  century, 
and  in  his  latter  years  produced  many 
works,  unworthy  of  him,  for  gain.  His 
best  work  is  the  "  Pieta,"  in  the  Pitti 
Palace.     He  died  in  1524. 

Pemvian  Balsam,  in  botany  and 
commerce,  the  balsam  flowing  from 
incisions  in  the  trunk  of  Myroxylon 
pereirae.  It  is  a  thick,  viscid,  almost 
opaque,  balsam,  like  molasses,  with  a 
reddish  hue,  and  translucent,  when 
in  thin  layers;  its  odor  fragrant,  its 
taste  acrid,  but  aromatic.  It  is 
brought  from  San  Salvador,  in  South 
America. 


Peruvian  Bark 


Peter 


Peruvian  Bark.  See  Babk  Peru- 
vian. 

Pemzzi,  Baldassari,  architect 
and  painter  of  the  Roman  school ;  born 
at  Sienna,  1481 ;  died  at  Rome  1537. 
He  went  early  to  Rome  and  was  em- 
ployed in  the  decoration  of  various 
churches.  He  designed  the  Farnesina 
Villa  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  and  he 
succeeded  Raphael  as  architect  of  St. 
Peter's.  After  the  sack  of  Rome  he 
returned  to  Sienna,  where  he  was 
made  city  architect.  In  1535  he  was 
again  in  Rome,  and  henceforward  de- 
voted himself  entirely  to  architecture. 
His  best  existing  works  in  fresco  are 
at  Sienna. 

Pesaro  (ancient,  Pisaurum),  a 
fortified  town  and  seaport  of  Italy, 
province  of  Pesaro  e  Urbino,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Foglia,  in  the  Adriatic. 
It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop.  The  harbor, 
formed  by  the  mouth  of  the  Foglia, 
has  become  shallow ;  but  the  trade  in 
the  wine,  fruit  (particularly  figs),  oil, 
silk,  and  other  products  of  the  district 
is  considerable.  The  illustrious  com- 
poser Rossini  was  born  here  in  1792. 
Pop.  of  town,  13,609. — The  province 
of  Pesaro  e  Urbino  has  an  area  of 
1,144  square  miles.     Pop.  233,155. 

P^sckerais,  a  tribe  of  Indians,  in- 
habiting Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  both 
borders  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan, 
from  the  island  of  Elizabeth  and  Port 
Famine,  toward  the  E.  as  far  as  the 
group  of  islands  which  spread  out  to 
the  N.  and  S.  of  the  Straits  of  Magel- 
lan. Their  complexion  is  olive,  and 
they  have  huge  forms  and  large  chests, 
though  otherwise  well  formed.  They 
are  a  nomadic  people,  and  only  sub- 
sist by  the  chase  and  fishing. 

Pesckito,  or  Peskito,  the  old  Syr- 
iac  version  of  the  Scriptures,  made 
probably  about  200  A.  D.  The  Old 
Testament,  as  well  as  the  New,  seems 
to  have  been  translated  by  one  or 
more  Christians,  not  by  Jews.  The 
former  was  made  apparently  from  the 
Hebrew,  the  latter  from  the  Greek. 
The  Second  and  Third  Epistles  of 
John,  Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  Jude, 
and  the  Revelation  are  wanting.  The 
apocryphal  books  were  not  in  the  orig- 
inal edition,  but  they  were  added  at 
an  early  date.  The  Peschito  is  of 
great  value  for  critical  purposes. 


Peseta,  the  Spanish  money  unit, 
equivalent  to  a  franc. 

Peso,  a  silver  coin  and  money  of 
account  used  in  Mexico  and  other 
parts  of  Spanish  America,  and  often 
considered  equivalent  to  a  dollar. 

Pessimism,  that  mental  attitude 
which  induces  one  to  give  prepondera- 
ting importance  to  the  evils  and  sor- 
rows of  existence ;  the  habit  of  taking 
a  gloomy  view  of  things. 

Pestalozzi,  Jokann  Heinrick,  a 
Swiss  philanthropist  and  educational 
reformer ;  born  in  174G ;  first  studied 
theology,  then  law ;  and  subsequently 
became  concerned  in  a  calico  manu- 
factory. Afterward  he  devoted  his 
time  and  substance  to  training  chil- 
dren whom  he  collected  in  large  num- 
bers in  his  own  house,  and  this  good 
work  he  carried  on  for  over  20  years 
without  outside  aid  or  even  sympathy. 
The  want  of  means  at  last  compelled 
him  to  abandon  his  gratuitous  insti- 
tution, and  to  seek  pupils  who  could 
pay  for  their  maintenance  and  in- 
sti-uction.  After  a  few  years'  suc- 
cessful teaching  in  various  places  he 
opened  a  school  in  the  Castle  of  Yver- 
dun  (canton  Vaud),  which  the  govern- 
ment had  placed  at  his  disposal.  His 
novel  "Lienhardt_  and  Gertrud"  exert- 
ed a  powerful  moral  influence,  while 
his  educational  treatises  have  laid  the 
foundation  for  the  more  rational  sys- 
tem of  elementary  instruction  which 
now  obtains  in  America  and  Europe. 
He  died  in  1827. 

Peter,  the  Greek  surname  of  an 
apostle  of  Jesus.  It  is  the  rendering 
of  the  East  Aramsean  kepha,  a  cor- 
ruption or  derivation  from  Heb.  keph 
—  a  rock,  and  was  given  by  Jesus. 
Transliterated  into  Greek,  with  a  ter- 
mination, it  became  Kephas.  "  Peter's 
real  name  was  Simon,  his  father's  Jo- 
nas, his  brother's  Andrew.  Peter  wns 
of  an  impulsive  temperament,  gener- 
ous, but  too  forward  in  speech,  and 
rash  in  action.  After  the  Ascension, 
he  was  for  a  time  the  most  prominent 
of  the  apostles,  and  though  specially 
sent  to  the  Jews,  yet  had  the  privilege 
of  being  the  first  to  admit  Gentiles  in- 
to the  Church.  Afterward  he  was 
somewhat  cast  into  the  shade  by  the 
eminence  of  St.  Paul  and  on  one  oc- 
casion dissembling  his  liberal  views 
when  in  narrow  Judaic  company,  was 


Peter 

withstood  by  St.  Paul  to  the  face 
*'  because  he  was  to  be  blamed  "  (Gal. 
ii :  11).  Tradition  makes  him  die  as 
a  martyr  at  Rome,  about  A.  D.  64, 
crucified  with  his  head  downward. 
Roman  Catholics  claim  him  as  the  first 
Bishop  of  Rome,  and  consider  that 
the  authority  delegated  him  by  Jesus 
appertains  also  to  his  successors,  the 
Popes  of  Rome. 

The  First  Epistle  General  of  Peter, 
an  epistle  whigh  claims  to  have  been 
written  by  the  Apostle  Peter,  appar- 
ently from  Babylon,  "  to  the  strangers 
scattered  throughout  Pontus,  Gala- 
tia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and  Bithynia," 
all  places  in  Asia  Minor.  These 
strangers  were  obviously  Christian 
converts,  the  majority  apparently  Gen- 
tiles. There  is  strong  evidence  for  its 
authenticity,  which  has  rarely  been 
doubted. 

The  Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  anoth- 
er epistle  claiming  to  have  been  penned 
by  the  Apostle,  the  author  also  refer- 
ring to  the  transfiguration  scene  as 
one  which  he  personally  witnessed, 
and  to  a  previous  epistle.  In  this  sec- 
ond letter  he  seeks  to  establish  Chris- 
tians in  the  faith,  warns  them  against 
false  teachers,  and  predicts  the  gen- 
eral conflagration  of  the  world.  Its 
style  is  different  from  that  of  the  first. 
The  evidence  for  its  authenticity  is 
much  less  strong  than  that  for  the 
first  epistle.  Clement  of  Alexandria 
seems  to  have  known  it.  It  is  not  in 
the  Pescbito  ;  Cyprian  ignored  it ;  Ori- 
gen  and  Eusebius  placed  it  among  the 
controverted  writings,  but  it  gradual- 
ly obtained  acceptance  before  the  close 
of  the  4th  century. 

Peter  .Alexeievit^cli,  usually 
styled  Peter  the  Great,  Czar  of  Rus- 
sia;  born  in  1672;  and  in  1689  he 
obtained  the  sole  authority,  on  the 
retirement  of  his  brother  Ivan,  with 
whom  he  had  been  before  associated 
in  the  government  of  the  empire.  Aft- 
er having  suppressed  a  conspiracy  of 
the  Strelitz  against  his  life,  in  which 
he  displayed  much  personal  courage,  he 
traveled  in  foreign  countries,  not 
in  the  character  of  czar,  but  as  a 
member  of  an  embassy.  At  Amster- 
dam he  worked,  incognito,  in  a  ship- 
yard, and  in  the  village  of  Saardam, 
where  he  caused  himself  to  be  enrolled 
among  the  workmen,  under  the  name 
of  Peter  Michaeloff.    Here  he  lived  in 


Peter 

a  little  hut  for  seven  weeks,  made  hia 
own  bed,  and  prepared  his  own  food, 
corresponded  with  his  ministers  at 
home,  and  labored  at  the  same  time 
in  shipbuilding.  Induced  by  his  love 
for  the  sea,  to  accept  the  invitation  of 
William  III.  to  visit  London,  he  spent 
some  weeks  there,  keenly  observing 
and  learning  all  that  he  could  of  trade, 
manufactures  and  the  arts.  Having 
proceeded  to  Vienna,  he  there  received 
intelligence  of  a  new  rebellion  of  the 
Strelitz,  on  which  he  returned  home, 
crushed  the  insurrection,  and  visited 
the  rebels  with  fearful  severity.  In 
1700  he  entered  upon  a  war  with  Swe- 
den, which  lasted  till  1721.  He  was 
defeated  by  his  great  rival,  Charles 
XII.,  at  the  battle  of  Narva,  and  the 
wa^  west  on  with  various  results  till 

1709,  when  he  completely  defeated 
Charles  at  Pultowa.  In  the  following 
year  the  Sultan  declared  war  on  him, 
and  he  narrowly  escaped  capture  by 
the  Turks  in  the  campaign  of  1711. 
This  war  ended  in  1713.  Not  satis- 
fied with  his  immense  power  as  czar, 
Peter  had  "suppressed  the  patriarchate, 
and  made  himself  head  of  the  Church 
as  well  as  of  the  State.  In  1703  he 
founded  St.  Petersburg,  and  began  the 
fortifications  of  Cronstadt.  Three 
years  later  he  privately  married  Cath- 
erine, a  girl  of  low  origin  and  immoral 
character ;    married    her    publicly    in 

1710,  and  had  her  crowned  in  1722. 
Peter  extended  the  limits  of  the  em- 
pire both  in  Europe  and  Asia ;  changed 
the  face  of  Russia  by  his  zealous  pro- 
motion of  trade,  navigation,  manufac- 
tures, and  education ;  effected  an  im- 
mense change  in  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  the  Russiatis ;  and  after  the 
conclusion  of  peace  with  Sweden,  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Emjl^ror  of  all  the 
Russias,  and  Father  of  his  Country. 
Reforming  others,  he  failed  to  reform 
himself,  but  remained  to  the  last  an 
ignorantj  coarse,  brutal  savage,  in- 
dulging in  the  lowest  vices,  and  gloat- 
ing over  scenes  of  cruel  suffering.  He 
would  sometimes  put  his  victims  to 
the  torture,  play  judge  and  execution- 
er, too,  and,  drunk  with  wine,  strike 
off  20  heads  in  succession,  proud  of 
his  horrid  dexterity.  His  state  policy 
has  been  adhered  to  by  his  succes- 
sors. Peter  I.  died  in  St.  Peters- 
burg, after  very  severe  suffering,  Jan. 
28,  1725. 


Peter 


Peter  the  Hermit 


Peter  III.,  Emperor  of  Russia  ;  the 
son  of  Anne,  eldest  daughter  of  Peter 
the  Great ;  born  in  1728,  and  succeeded 
Elizabeth  in  1761.  He  married  the 
Princess  Sophia  Augusta  of  Anhalt, 
whose  name  he  changed  to  Catherine, 
and,  being  inspired  with  grand  and 
martial  thoughts,  attempted  to  gov- 
ern his  empire  on  the  model  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great;  but,  wanting  capac- 
ity, energy,  and  courage,  he  signally 
failed  in  all  his  schemes.  His  em- 
press, being  apprised  of  his  intention 
of  divorcing  her,  anticipated  his  de- 
sign, took  him  prisoner,  and  com- 
pelled him  to  sign  an  abdication. 
After  this,  being  sent  to  a  foitresa, 
he  there  perished,  being  murdered, 
it  is  understood,  by  OrlofE  in  1762. 
Peterboro,  city  and  capital  of 
Peterboro  county,  Ontario,  Canada: 
on  the  Otonabee  river  and  Grand 
Trunk  and  Canadian  Pacific  rail- 
roads; 76  miles  N.  E.  of  Toronto;  is 
the  trade  center  of  an  important 
farming  section;  has  what  is  said  to 
be  the  largest  hydraulic  'lift  canal 
lock  in  the  world;  and  is  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  manufacturing. 

Peter  Karageorgevitcli  I.,  King 
of  Servia;  born  in  Belgrade,  June  29 
(O.  S.),  1844;  son  of  Alexander 
Karageorgevitch  and  grandson  of  the 
famous  George  Czerny,  surnamed 
Karageorge,  or  Black  George;  mar- 
ried Princess  Zorka,  of  Montenegro, 
July  30  (O.  S.),  1883;  succeeded  to 
the  throne  on  the  assassination  of 
King  Alexander  I  and  Queen  Draga, 
Jnne  2  (O.  S.).  1903;  heir  to  the 
throne.   Prince   Alexander. 

Peter  Martyr  Anglerins,  born  in 
Arona,  Spain^459;  died  in  Granada, 
1525.  Was  bishop  of  Jamaica,  and 
wrote  "The  New  World"  in  1516, 
giving  the  first  account  of  the  dis- 
covery of  America. 

Peters,  Samnel  Andrexr,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Hebron, 
Conn.,  in  1735 ;  was  ordained  a  min- 
ister in  the  Church  of  England  at 
Part'ord  in  1760.  In  1774  he  sailed 
to  England  to  escape  persecution  on 
account  of  his  toryism,  and  in  1781 
published  the  satirical  "  General  His- 
tory of  Connecticut,"  which  gave  rise 
to  the  misconception  as  to  "  Blue 
Laws,"  which  were  in  the  brain  of 
Peters   instead   of   having   ever   been 


on  the  statute  books  qf  Connecticut. 
He  died  in  New   York   in   1826. 

Petersburg,  a  city  and  port  of 
entry  of  Dinwiddie  co.,  Va. ;  on  the 
S.  bank  of  the  Appomattox  river.  The 
so-called  siege  of  Petersburg  lasted 
from  June  16,  1864,  to  April  2,  1865 ; 
and  during  its  continuance  13  pitched 
battles  were  fought  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. The  intrenchments  of  Lee  and 
Grant  still  form  conspicuous  features 
in  the  landscape.  One.  of  the  best- 
known  engagements  was  that  of  the 
o.ld  _crater,  to  the  E.  of  the  city,  on 
Griffith's  farm,  where  there  is  a  war 
museum.     Pop.  (1910)  24,127. 

Peterson,  Charles  Jacobs,  an 
American  publisher ;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, in  1818 ;  was  the  founder  of 
"  Peterson's  Magazine,"  and  the  au- 
thor of  several  popular  novels.  He 
died  in  Philadelphia,  in  1887. 

Peter's  Pence,  a  voluntary  contri- 
bution raised  among  Catholics,  and 
sent  to  the  Pope  for  his  private  use. 
Before  the  Reformation  it  was  in  Eng- 
land a  legally  collected  tax.  The  name 
arose  from  its  being  collected  on  St. 
Peter's  day. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  a  French 
gentleman  of  Amiens,  in  Picardy,  who 
renounced  a  military  life  to  embrace 
that  of  a  pilgrim.  At  the  end  of  the 
11th  century,  a  general  alarm  was 
spread  that  the  last  day  was  approach- 
ing ;  on  which  numbers  of  persons 
flocked  to  the  Holy  Land  from  all 
countries  with  a  view  of  ending  their 
days  near  the  holy  sepulcher.  Peter 
was  of  the  number,  and  on  his  return 
to  Europe  made  so  pathetic  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  state  of  the  Christians 
in  Palestine  to  Pope  Urban  J  I.,  that 
he  gave  Peter  leave  to  preach  up  the 
necessity  of  a  crusade  throughout 
Christendom.  The  appearance,  zeal, 
and  eloquence  of  the  hermit,  produced 
a  prodigious  effect,  and  all  ranks  and 
ages,  of  both  sexes,  pressed  eagerly 
into  the  service.  With  a  motley  army, 
estimated  at  100,000  men,  Peter  passed 
through  Hungary.  In  his  absence,  his 
followers  attacked  Solyman's  army  at 
Nicea,  and  all,  except  a  few  thou- 
sands, perished,  "  and,"  says  Gibbon, 
"  a  pyramid  of  bones  informed  their 
companions  of  the  place  of  their  de- 
feat." Peter  remained  in  Palestine, 
and  was  at  the  siege  of  Antioch  in 


Peter  Parley 

1097;  but  on  his  attempting  to  make 
his  escape,  shortly  afterward,  was 
brought  back,  and  compelled  to  take 
a  new  oath  of  fidelity  and  obedience 
to  the  holy  cause.  Two  years  later 
he  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Jerusa- 
lem, where  he  displayed  great  bravery, 
and  when  the  place  _was  taken^  was 
made  vicar-general.  Peter  died  in 
1115,  at  the  abbey  of  Neufmoustier  in 
Liege,  which  he  had  founded. 

Peter  Parley.    See  Goodbich. 

Petit  de  JuUeville,  Lonis,  a 
French  historian ;  born  in  Paris,  July 
18,  1841.  His  principal  work  is  "  His- 
tory of  the  Theater  in  France."  It  is 
very  full  with  regard  to  the  old  French 
theater.  He  gives  in  "  The  Theater  in 
France"  (1889)  an  account  of  the 
evolution  of  the  French  drama  down 
to  the  present  time.  He  also  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  the  French  Lan- 
guage and  Literature." 

Petition,  of  Right,  a  declaration 
of  the  rights  of  the  people  put  forward 
by  the  Parliament  of  England  in  the 
third  year  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I., 
and  assented  to  by  him.     They  are : 

(1)  That  no  man  be  compelled  to  pay 
any  moneys  to  the  state  without  com- 
mon   consent    by    act    of    Parliament. 

(2)  That  no  person  be  imprisoned  for 
refusing  the  same,  nor  any  freeman  be 
imprisoned  without  any  cause  shown, 
to  which  he  might  make  answer.  (3) 
That  soldiers  and  mariners  be  not  bil- 
leted in  the  houses  of  the  people.  (4) 
That  commissions  be  no  more  issued 
for  punishing  by  the  summary  process 
of  martial  law. 

Petrarch,  Francesco  Petrarca, 
an  Italian  poet ;  born  in  Arezzo,  Italy, 
in  1304.  In  1341  Petrarch  received 
the  highest  testimony  of  the  renown 
which  he  had  acquired  as  poet  and 
scholar,  by  being  crow-ned  as  laureate 
in  the  Capitol  in  Rome,  Petrarch  was 
at  Rome  during  the  Jubilee  of  1350 ; 
lived  afterward  at  Vaucluse,  Milan, 
Padua,  Venice,  and,  in  1370,  removed 
to  Arqua,  in  the  lovely  Euganean 
Hills.  Petrarch's  works  are  partly  in 
Italian  and  partly  in  Latin.  The  lat- 
ter were  those  on  which  his  reputa- 
tion in  his  own  day  rested ;  but  the 
former  are  those  by  which  he  is  now 
most  known.  His  Italian  "  Sonnets," 
*'  Canzoni,"  and  "  Triumphs,"  all 
sweet,  exquisite,  glowing  variations  on 
one  theme,  "  Laura,"  have  placed  him 

E.  110. 


Petri 

as  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  poets. 
He  modelled  the  Italian  sonnet,  and 
gave  to  it,  and  to  other  forms  of  lyr- 
ical poetry,  not  only  an  admirable 
polish  of  diction  and  melody,  but  a 
delicacy  of  poetic  feeling  whicb  has 
hardly  ever  been  equaled.  After  long 
continued  ill  health,  he  died  sitting 
among  his  books,  July  18,  1374. 

Petrel,  a  popular  name  for  certain 
small  oceanic  birds  of  dusky  plumage, 
nocturnal  in  habit,  widely  distributed 
but   most  abundant  in  the   Southern 


STOEMY  PETBEL. 

Hemisphere.  The  term  stormy  petrel 
is  more  exclusively  applied  to  the 
Thalassidroma  pelagica,  a  bird  which 
seems  to  run  in  a  remarkable  manner 
along  the  surface  of  the  sea,  where  it 
picks  up  its  food.  This  species  is  well 
known  to  sailors  as  Mother  Carey's 
chickens  (q.  v.),  and  their  appearance 
is  supposed  to  foretell  a  storm. 

Petri,  liaurentius,  a  Swedish  re- 
former; born  in  Orebro,  Sweden,  in 
1499;  studied  under  Luther  at  Wit- 
tenberg ;  was  made  Professor  of  Theol- 
ogy at  Upsala,  and  in  1531  first  Prot- 
estant Archbishop  of  Upsala.  Along 
with  his  brother  Olaus  he  was  chiefly 
instrumental  in  converting  Sweden  to 
the  Reformed  doctrines,  and  with  him 
superintended  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Swedish  (1541),  a  work 
that  also  helped  to  fix  the  language. 
He  died  in  1573.    His  brother  Olaus, 


petrifaction 


Peyton 


born  in  Orebro  in  1497,  gained,  a 
few  years  after  his  return  (1519) 
from  Wittenberg,  the  ear  of  Gustavus 
Vasa,  who  called  him  to  the  capital  to 
preach  the  new  doctrines,  and  even- 
tually made  him  (1531)  chancellor  of 
the  kingdom.  This  post  he  resigned 
in  1539,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
as  first  pastor  of  Stockholm.  He  was 
a  man  of  bold  temperament,  great  ac- 
tivity, and  powerful  eloquence,  and 
left  several  works,  including  memoirs, 
a  mystery  play,  hymns,  and  contro- 
versial tracts.  He  died  in  Stockholm 
in  1552. 

Petrifaction,  the  act  or  process  of 
petrifying  or  changing  into  a  stone ; 
the  state  of  being  petrified ;  conversion 
of  any  organic  matter,  animal  or  vege- 
table, into  stone,  or  a  substance  of 
stony  hardness.  A  "  petrifaction  "  is 
not,  strictly  speaking,  a  transforma- 
tion of  the  original  animal  or  plant 
into  stone.  It  is  merely  a  replacement 
of  the  organic  tissue  by  mineral  sub- 
stance. As  each  particle  of  the  plant 
or  animal  decays  and  disappears  its 
place  is  taken,  usually  in  water  or 
mud,  by  a  particle  of  mineral  matter 
deposited  from  the  water  which  has 
held  it  in  suspension.  Thus  the  perish- 
able original  is  changed  into  imperish- 
able stone,  preserving  its  form  and 
even  its  structural  appearance  when 
cut  into. 

Petrified  City,  Ishmonie,  a  ruined 
city  of  Upper  Egypt.  Its  popular 
name  arose  from  the  fact  that  it  con- 
tains a  vast  number  of  statues  of 
human  beings  and  animals  in  every 
possible  posture,  and  which,  according 
to  a  superstitious  notion,  were  once 
living  beings  miraculously  changed 
into  stone. 

Petroleum,  earth  oil,  naphtha, 
mineral  oil,  parafiin  oil.    A  term  ap- 

f)Iied  to  a  variety  of  inflammable 
iquids  found  naturally  in  many  parts 
of  the  earth  and  formed  by  the  grad- 
ual decomposition  of  vegetable  matter 
beneath  the  surface.  These  liquids 
vary  in  color  from  a  faint  yellow  to  a 
brownish-black,  and  in  consistence 
from  a  thin  transparent  oil  to  a  fluid 
as  thick  as  treacle,  and  their  sp.  gr. 
ranges  from  .7-1.1.  They  occur  in 
abundance  in  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  A  light  petroleum 
oil  is  used  all  over  the  world  for  illu- 
minating purposes,  and  a  heavy  oil  for 


lubricating  machinery.  The  total  pro- 
duction of  crude  petroleum  in  the 
United  States  in  1908  was  the  largest 
in  its  history,  179,572,479  barrels 
(42  gallons),  valued  at  $129,706,258; 
and  the  production  in  1859-1908 
was  1,986,180,942  barrels,  valued  at 
$1,784,583,943. 

Petrology,  the  study  of  the  miner- 
alogical  and  chemical  composition  of 
rocks;  including  the  various  changes 
they  have  undergone  through  physi- 
cal and  chemical   agencies. 

Pettenkof  er,  Max  von,  a  German 
chemist ;  born  near  Neuburg,  Dec.  3, 
1818;  studied  in  Munich,  Wurzburg, 
and  Giessen,  and  in  1847  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry  at  Munich.  He 
made  many  valuable  contributions  to 
science  on  subjects  as  various  as  gold- 
refining,  gas-making,  ventilation,  cloth- 
ing, the  influence  of  soils  on  health, 
epidemics,  and  hygiene  generally.  His 
"Hand-book  of  Hygiene"  is  his  best 
known  work.    Died  1901. 

Petty,  Sir  William,  an  English 
political  economist ;  born  in  Romsey, 
Hampshire,  May  26,  1623;  was  edu- 
cated partly  at  Caen,  partly  at  the 
Universities  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
at  Paris.  In  political  economy  he 
claims  a  place  as  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant precursors  of  Adam  Smith, 
on  the  strength  of  his  "  Treatise  on 
Taxes  and  Contributions,"  and  his 
"  Political  Arithmetic,"  the  latter  a 
discussion  of  the  value  of  comparative 
statistics.  He  died  in  London,  Dec. 
16,  1687. 

Petnnia,  a  genus  of  American 
herbaceous  plants,  nearly  allied  to  to- 
bacco. They  are  much  prized  by  hor- 
ticulturists for  the  beauty  of  their 
flowers. 

Pewter.  The  finer  pewter  is  an 
alloy  of  12  parts  tin,  one  part  anti- 
mony, and  a  small  quantity  of  copper; 
the  coarser,  of  80  parts  tin  and  20  of 
lead.  The  same  ingredients  as  the  finer 
pewter,  but  in  different  proportions 
(nine  of  tin  to  one  of  antimony)  con- 
stitute Britannia  metal.  Pewter  is  a 
name  also  for  a  polishing  material 
used  by  marble  workers  and  derived 
from  the  calcination  of  tin. 

Peyton,  Jesse  Enlaws,  an  Ameri- 
can patriot;  bom  in  Mayesville.  Ky., 
Nov.  10,  1815.  He  assisted  in  the 
liquidation    of    Henry    Clay's    debts; 


Peyton 

was  a  founder  of  the  Constitutional 
Union  Party  in  1860;  was  sent  by 
President  Lincoln  on  a  mission  to 
Kentucky  to  dissuade  that  State  from 
seceding ;  and  during  the  Civil  War 
organized  at  his  own  expense  three 
regimeutr:  for  the  Union  army.  He 
was  instrumental  in  promoting  the 
centennial  celebration  of  Independ- 
ence Day,  Bunker  Hill  Day,  Yorktown 
(Va.)  Day,  and  of  the  inauguration 
of  American  constitutional  govern- 
ment, and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was 
organizing  an  international  celebra- 
tion of  the  birth  of  Christ  to  be  held 
in  Jerusalem  in  1900.  He  died  in 
Haddonfield,  N.  J.,  April  28,  1897.  Ha 
was  popularly  known  as  "  the  father 
of  celebrations." 

Peyton,  Jolin  Lewis,  an  American 
lawyer  and  author ;  born  in  Staunton, 
Va.,  Sept.  15,  1824;  studied  law  at 
the  University  of  Virginia,  and  sub- 
sequently practised  in  Chicago;  in 
1861  went  to  Europe  as  agent  of  the 
Confederacy,  and  remained  abroad  till 
1880.  He  published  "  The  American 
Crisis,"  etc.    He  died  in  1896. 

Pfennig,  a  small  copper  coin  ot 
various  values,  current  in  Germany 
and  in  the  neighboring  States.  The 
value  of  the  pfennig  of  the  German 
empire  is  the  hundredth  part  of  the 
mark. 

Pfleiderer,  Otto,  a  German  theo- 
logian; born  in  Stettin,  Wurtemberg, 
Sept.  1,  1839.  In  1875  he  was  called 
to  be  Professor  of  Systematic  Theology 
at  Berlin.  He  made  his  name  as  well 
known  in  America  as  in  Germany  by 
a  series  of  works  which  no  student 
of  philosophy  or  theology  should 
overlook.  The  chief  are  "  Religion, 
its  Essence  and  History";  "Out- 
lint  of  Christian  Faith  and  Ethics"; 
"  The  Philosophy  and  Development 
of  Religion";  etc.     He  died  in  1908. 

His  brother,  Edmund  Pfleideber, 
born  in  Stettin  Oct.  12,  1842,  studied 
at  Tubingen,  and  after  a  short  ex- 
perience as  a  pastor  was  made  Pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy  at  Kiel  in  1873. 
whence  he  was  called  to  Tubingen  in 
1878.  His  writings  include  studies  on 
Leibnitz,  on  Empiricism  and  Scepti- 
cism in  Hume's  Philosophy,  modem 
Pessimism,  etc. 

Phaeton,  in  Greek  mythology,  ac- 
cording to  Ovid,  a  son  of  the  sun,  or 
f  hoebus.    He  asked  and  obtained  from 


Fliaraoli 

his  father  permission  one  day  to  drive 
the  chariot  of  the  sun,  but  being  un- 
able to  control  the  horses,  Jupiter 
struck  him  with  a  thunderbolt,  and 
hurled  him  headlong  from  heaven  into 
the  river  Po.  Also  an  open  carriage 
like  a  chaise,  on  four  wheels,  and 
drawn  by  two  horses. 

Phalanger,  small  woolly-coated 
marsupials,  with  opposable  great  toes, 
which  are  destitute  of  a  nail.  They  are, 
for  the  most  part,  vegetable  feeders. 


PHAIANGEE. 

though  some  are  insectivorous,  and  in 
confinement  any  of  them  will  readily 
devour  small  birds  or  other  animals. 

Phalanx,  in  Greek  antiquities,  the 
close  order  of  battle  in  which  the 
heavy-armed  troops  of  a  Grecian  army 
were  usually  drawn  up. 

Phantasmagoria,  an  optical  effect 
produced  by  a  magic  lantern.  The 
glass  is  painted  black  on  all  parts 
except  that  occupied  by  the  figures, 
which  are  painted  in  transparent 
colors.  The  image  is  thrown  on  a 
transparent  screen  placed  between  the 
spectators  and  the  lantern.  By  mov- 
ing the  instrument  toward  or  from 
the  screen,  the  figures  are  made  to 
diminish  or  increase  in  size,  which  is 
capable  of  producing  startling  effects. 
Also,  the  apparatus  by  which  such 
effect  is  produced. 

Pharaoh,  the  name  borne  in  the 
Bible  by  10  kings  of  Egypt;  the  best 
known  of  which  are,  the  monarch  to 
whom  Joseph  explained  his  dream,  and 
who  loaded  him  with  honors ;  he  who 
commenced  the  persecution  of  the 
Hebrews,   and  who  piit  to  death  all 


Pharisees 


Phi  Beta  K.app|b 


the  male  children  and  who  is  identified 
with  Ilameses  II ;  and  he  who  was 
denounced  by  Moses,  and  who  was 
subjected  to  the  plagues  and  is  identi- 
fied with  Meneptah  I. 

Pharisees,  the  most  numerous  of  the 
three  divisions  or  orders  of  Judaism  in 
the  time  of  Christ,  the  other  two  being 
the  Essenes  and  the  Sadducees.  They 
were  so  called  because  they  kept  aloof 
from  Leviticaliy  impure  food,  separat- 
ed themselves  nom  people  who  disre- 
farded  the  literal  interpretation  of  the 
losaic  law,  and  were  scrupulous  in 
their  minute  observance  of  the  tithe. 
The  sect  arose  after  the  captivity  and 
became  the  str'aitest  of  the  sects. 

Pharmacy,  or  Fharmacentics, 
the  art  of  preparing,  compounding, 
and  combining  substances  for  medical 
purposes;  the  art  of  the  apothecary. 
As  these  substances  may  be  mineral, 
vegetable,  or  animal,  theoretical  phar- 
macy requires  a  knowledge  of  botany, 
zoology,  and  mineralogy;  and  as  it  is 
necessary  to  determine  their  proper- 
ties, and  the  laws  of  their  composition 
and  decomposition,  of  chemistry  also. 
In  a  narrow  sense  pharmacy  is  merely 
the  art  of  compounding  and  mixing 
drugs  according  to  the  prescription  of 
the  physician. 

Pharsalia,  Battle  of,  the  victory 
B.  C.  48,  of  Ca?sar  with  a  much  smaller 
force,  over  Pompey  (q.  v.)  at  Pharsa- 
lus,  now  Phersala,  Thessaly,  Greece. 


PHEASANT. 

Pheasant,  one  of  the  most  highly 
prized    game    birds.     The    adult   male 

Eheasant    is    a   beautiful    bird,    about 
iree  feet  long.    Head  and  neck  deep 


steel-blue,  shot  with  greenish-purple 
and  brown ;  eye  surrounded  by  a  patch 
of  scarlet  skin,  speckled  with  blue- 
black  ;  ear-coverts  brown ;  back  a  light 
golden-red,  the  feathers  of  the  upper 
part  tipped  with  velvet-black,  of  the 
lower  part  marked  with  brown.  Quill 
feathers  brown,  of  various  shades,  tail 
feathers  oaken-brown,  barred  with  a 
darker  shade  and  with  black.  Breast 
and  front  of  the  abdomen  golden-red 
with  purple  reflections,  feathers  edged 
with  black;  rest  of  abdomen  and  un- 
der tail-coverts  blackish-brown.  The 
female  has  yellowish-brown  plumage, 
and  is  about  two*  feet  in  length.  Such 
is  the  common  pheasant.  There  are 
several  other  species. 

Phelps,  Anstini,  an  American! 
clergyman  and  author;  born  in  West 
Brookfield,  Mass.,  Jan.  7,  1820.  He 
was  pastor  of  the  Pine  Street  Congre- 
gational Church,  Boston,  in  1842- 
1848;  and  Professor  of  Sacred  Rhet- 
oric in  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
in  1848-1879.  He  was  noted  as  an 
original  writer  and  an  eloquent 
preacher.  He  died  in  Bar  Harbor,  Me., 
Oct.  13,  1890. 

Phelps,  Edward  John,  an  Ameri- 
can diplomatist ;  born  in  Middlebury, 
Vt.,  July  11,  1822;  was  graduated  at 
Middlebury  College  in  1840;  studied 
at  the  Yale  Law  School;  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  1843;  and  settled 
in  Burlington  in  1845.  In  1S51  he  was 
appointed  Comptroller  of  the  Treas- 
ury and  remained  in  the  oflSce  through 
Fillmore's  administration.  In  1881— 
1885  he  was  Professor  of  Law  in  the 
Yale  Law  School  and  also  lecturer  en 
constitutional  law  in  Boston  Univer- 
sity. He  was  minister  to  England  in 
1885-1889.  During  the  Bering  Sea 
dispute  he«  was  senior  counsel  for  the 
United  States.  He  died  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  March  9,  1900. 

Phi  Beta  Kappa,  the  oldest  of  the 
American  college  Greek-letter  societies. 
It  takes  its  name  from  the  initial  let- 
ters of  its  motto,  said  to  be  Philo- 
sophia  Biou  Kubernetes,  "  Philosophy 
is  the  guide  of  life."  It  was  founded 
in  1776  in  the  old  "  Raleigh  Tavern  " 
at  Williamsburgh,  Va.,  by  44  under- 
graduates of  William  and  Mary  Col- 
lege, of  whom  John  Marshall  ^vas  one. 
Branches  were  established  at  Yale  in" 
1780  and  at  Harvard  in  1781;  and 
today  there  are  nearly  a  score  in  the 


Phidias 


Philadelphia 


principal  colleges  and  universities  of 
the  Union.  The  Phi  Beta  Kappa  is 
now  simply  "  an  agreeable  bond  of 
meeting  among  graduates " ;  since 
1831  its  innocent  mysteries  have  been 
open  secrets. 

Phidias,  the  great  Greek  sculptor; 
I  born  in  Athens,  probably  betvpeen 
490-480  B.  c.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
intimate  friends  of  Pericles,  under 
whose  rule  he  was  appointed  director 
of  all  the  great  temples  and  monu- 
ments which  were  to  be  erected  in  the 
city.  Of  these  the  most  important 
were  the  Parthenon,  or  temple  of 
Athena,  on  the  Acropolis,  and  the 
Propylaea.  He  executed  a  colossal 
statue  of  the  goddess  for  the  interior 
of  the  temple  with  his  own  hand.  The 
well-known  Elgin  Marbles  of  the  Brit- 
ish Museum  were  the  sculptured  dec- 
orations of  that  unrivaled  temple. 
Phidias  spent  some  years  at  Olympia, 
and  there  he  executed  the  most  mag- 
nificent of  all  his  works  —  the  statue 
of  the  Olympian  Zeus.  The  prevailing 
characteristic  of  the  works  of  Phidias 
appears  to  have  been  an  ideal  sublim- 
ity of  form  which  has  never  since 
been  equaled.  According  to  the  gen- 
erally received  account,  he  was  thrown 
into  prison,  and  died  there  432  B.  c. 

Philadelphia,  a  city  coextensive 
with  Philadelphia  co..  Pa. ;  on  the 
Delaware  and  Schuylkill  rivers,  85 
miles  S.  W.  of  New  York.  It  is  the 
largest  city  of  Pennsylvania  and  the 
third  lai'gest  in  the  United  States; 
area,  132  square  miles:  pop.  (1900) 
1.203,697;  (1910)  1.549,008. 

The  city  is  built  chiefly  on  a  low 
peninsula  between  the  two  rivers.  It 
extends  N.  and  S.  about  22  miles,  and 
is  from  5  to  10  miles  in  width.  There 
is  a  water  frontage  on  the  Delaware 
river  of  over  IG  miles,  of  which  more 
than  5  miles  have  docks.  The  harbor 
has  been  greatly  improved  by  the  re- 
moval of  the  islands  in  the  middle  of 
the  river,  and  in  front  of  the  wharves 
there  is  an  average  depth  of  50  feet. 

Among  the  attractions  of  the  city 
is  Fairmount  park,  one  of  the  larg- 
est public  parks  in  the  world.  It 
extends  more  than  7  miles  on  both 
banks  of  the  Schuylkill  river,  and  more 
than  6  miles  on  both  banks  of  Wis- 
sahickon  creek,  giving  it  an  area  of 
over  3,000  acres,  traversed  by  32*/^ 
miles  of  driveways.    In  1876  the  Cen- 


tennial Exposition  was  held  here. 
Memorial  Hall,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
$1,500,000,  which  was  used  for  the 
art  gallery  of  the  Exposition,  now 
contains  a  permanent  industrial  and 
art  collection.  Here  also  is  the  Hor- 
ticultural Building  filled  with  tropical 
and  other  plants  and  surrounded  by  35 
acres  of  ground  devoted  to  horticul- 
ture. 

In  the  heart  of  the  city,  at  the  inter- 
section of  Market  and  Broad  streets, 
stands  the  City  Hall,  on  a  piece  of 
ground  which  was  formerly  Penn 
Square.  This  great  structure,  usually 
called  the  Public  Building,  is  said  to 
be  the  largest  building  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  built  of  white  marble 
and  granite ;  is  486^  feet  long  by  470 
wide;  contains  520  rooms,  and  includ- 
ing a  court  yard  200  feet  square  in 
the  center,  covers  an  area  of  nearly 
41^  acres.  The  central  tower  rises  to 
a  height  of  547  feet,  3  inches,  and  is 
surrounded  by  a  colossal  statue  of 
William  Penn,  37  feet  in  height.  The 
total  cost  of  the  building  was  over 
$20,000,000. 

In  its  manufacturing  products  Phil- 
adelphia ranks  next  to  New  York. 
There  are  upward  of  20,000  manufac- 
turing establishments,  with  a  combined 
capital  of  about  $400,000,000,  and 
nearly  300,000  employes.  The  com- 
bined output  amounts  to  more  than 
$600,000,000.  The  chief  products  are 
locomotives,  sugar  and  molasses,  men's 
clothing,  foundry  and  machine  shop 
products,  carpets  and  rugs,  hosiery 
and  knit  goods,  woolen  and  cotton 
goods,  malt  liquors,  morocco,  chem- 
icals, packed  meat,  refined  petroleum, 
silk,  and  silk  goods.  The  great 
Cramp  shipbuilding  yards  are  on  the 
Delaware,  just  W.  of  the  heart  of  the 
city. 

According  to  recent  educational  sta- 
tistics, the  children  of  school  age  aggre- 
gated 250,630;  the  enrollment  in  the 
public  day  schools  was  179,156,  and 
in  the  private  and  parochial  schools 
(estimated)  78,210.  There  were  3,317 
teachers ;  325  buildings  used  for  school 
purposes ;  and  public  school  property 
valued  at  $12,087,516.  The  institutions 
for  higher  education  include  the  Will- 
iam Penn  Charter  School,  founded  in 
1689;  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  many  others. 

In  September,  1681,  a  small  party 
of  settlers,  sent  out  by  William  Penn, 


PbiladelpMa 

arrived  at  the  site  of  tlie  present  city, 
and  in  the  following  summer  the  place 
was  laid  out  and  named  Philadelphia, 
the  "  city  of  brotherly  love."  The  city 
was  active  in  resisting  British  aggres- 
sion in  1763-17G4.  On  Sept  5,  1774, 
the  1st  Continental  Congress  met  here, 
and  on  May  10,  1775,  the  2d.  Col. 
George  Washington  was  appointed 
General  and  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  American  army  in  the  State  House 
on  June  15,  1775.  Here  also  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence  was  adopted, 
July  4,  and  proclaimed  July  8,  1776. 
The  city  was  occupied  by  the  British 
from  September,  1777,  to  June,  1778. 
In  the  suanmer  of  1787  delegates  from 
the  various  States  met  in  the  State 
House,  and  framed  the  Constitution. 
The  great  Centennial  Exposition  was 
held  here  in  1876. 

Philadelphia,  The,  a  steel,  twin- 
screw  protected  cruiser  of  the  United 
States  navy. 

Philse,  an  island  in  the  Nile,  near 
Assouan  and  S.  of  Syene,  in  Nubia, 
largely  submerged  by  the  great  Assouan 
dam.  It  is  a  small  granite  rock, 
fringed  with  rich  verdure,  about  1,200 
feet  long  and  450  broad,  almost  cov- 
ered with  ancient  buildings  of  great 
architectural  beauty  and  interest, 
datin?  from  about  B.  O.  350. 

Philemon,  a  member  of  the  Colos- 
sian  church.  The  Epistle  of  Paul  to 
Philemon :  An  epistle  of  Paul,  in  con- 
junction with  Timothy,  to  Philemon, 
whose  runaway  slave,  Onesimus,  had 
come  to  Rome,  and  been  converted  by 
the  apostles,  while  the  latter,  was  a 
prisoner,  and  advanced  in  years.  Its 
genuineness  is  generally  admitted. 

Philip,  one  of  the  12  apostles, 
according  to  John's  Gospel,  "  of  Beth- 
saida,  the  city  of  Andrew  and  Peter," 
and  who  was  called  to  follow  Jesus 
at  Bethany.  After  the  resurrection 
he  was  present  at  the  election  of  Mat- 
thias to  the  apostleship,  but  is  not 
again  mentioned.  Philip  the  Evan- 
gelist, often  confounded  with  the 
above,  is  first  mentioned  in  Acts  vi :  5. 
He  preached  at  Samaria,  where  Simon 
M'agus  was  one  of  his  converts;  bap- 
tized the  Ethiopian  eunuch ;  and  en- 
tertained Paul  and  his  companion  on 
their  way  to  Jerusalem. 

Philip  II.  of  Macedonia,  father 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  son  of' 


Philip 

Amynthas  II. ;  born  359  b.  c.  He  be- 
gan to  reign  after  the  death  of  his 
brother,  Perdiccas  III.,  in  359.  With 
great  ability,  energy,  and  success,  he 
first  secured  the  internal  peace  and 
order  of  his  kingdom,  improved  the 
discipline  of  his  army,  and  created  the 
famous  phalanx,  which  contributed  to 
so  many  Macedonian  victories.  He 
cherished  vast  schemes  of  conquest ; 
aspired  first  to  make  himself  master 
of  all  the  states  of  Greece,  and  then 
to  invade  and  conquer  Persia.  The 
former  was  accomplished  after  a  severe 
and  protracted  struggle  culminating  in 
the  victory  of  Chseronea,  over  the 
allied  Athenians  and  Thebans,  338. 
He  soon  after  assembled  a  congress 
at  Corinth,  and  was  named  general  of 
the  Confederate  Greeks  in  the  war  to 
be  undertaken  against  Persia.  But  in 
336  he  was  assassinated  at  -^gea,  and 
that  war  was  reserved  for  his  son. 

Philip  II.  of  France,  surnamed 
Augustus,  son  of  Louis  VII.  and  o2 
Alix,  daughter  of  Thibault,  Count  of 
Champagne ;  born  in  1165,  succeeded 
his  father,  1180,  accompanied  Richard 
Coeur  de  Lion  to  the  Holy  Land,  1190, 
invaded  Normandy  during  Richard's 
captivity,  1193,  confiscated  the  pos- 
sessions of  King  John  in  France,  after 
the  supposed  murder  of  Arthur,  1203, 
prepared  to  invade  England  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  Pope,  1213,  turned  his 
arms  against  Flanders,  and  gained 
the  celebrated  battle  of  Bouvines, 
1214,  and  died  in  1223.  Philip  Augus- 
tus was  one  of  the  ablest  princes  that 
ever  reigned  in  France,  both  as  a 
commander  and  an  administrator. 

Philip  III.,  called  the  Hardy,  the 
son  of  Louis  IX.  and  Margaret  of 
Provence.  He  was  born  in  1245,  and 
succeeded  his  father  in  1270.  The  in- 
vasion of  Sicily  by  Peter  of  Aragon, 
and  the  massacre  of  the  French, 
known  as  the  "  Sicilian  Vespers, 
caused  him  to  make  war  against  that 
prince,  in  the  course  of  which  he  died 
in  1285. 

Philip  II.  of  Spain,  son  of  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  and  Elizabeth  of 
Portugal ;  born  in  Valladolid,  in  1527. 
He  married,  in  1543,  his  cousin  Mary 
of  Portugal,  who  became  the  mother 
of  Don  Carlos,  and  died  in  1545.  In 
1554  he  received  from  his  father  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  and  the  same  year, 
after    troublesome   negotiations,    mar* 


PUlip 

rieJ  Mary,  Queen  of  England.  He 
was  disliked  in  England,  and  soon 
departed.  His  father  gave  up  to  him 
the  Netherlands  in  October,  1555,  and 
the  kingdom  of  Spain  early  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  He  declared  war  on 
France,  and  induced  Queen  Mary  to 
join  him ;  won,  by  his  troops  under  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  the  memorable  victory 
of  St.  Quentin  over  the  French,  in 
1557,  and  was  present  in  person  at  the 
capture  of  the  town,  which  followed. 
He  vowed  never  to  witness  another 
battle,  and  he  never  did.  He  vowed 
also  to  show  his  gratitude  for  his  suc- 
cess by  building  a  monastery,  which 
he  more  than  fulfilled  in  the  magnifi- 
cent Escurial.  A  second  victory  over 
the  French  at  Gravelines,  in  1558,  was 
followed  by  t*e  peace  of  Cateau-Cam- 
bresis.  Immediately  on  his  return  to 
Spain,  he  began  a  terrible  persecution 
of  "  heretics,"  and  was  the  pitiless 
spectator  at  an  auto-da-fe  at  which  40 
persons  perished  at  the  stake. 

The  most  momentous  event  of  his 
reign  was  the  revolt  of  the  Nether- 
lands, first  excited  by  his  edict  against 
heretics,  and  his  attempt  to  establish 
the  Inquisition  there  in  1565,  and  re- 
sulting, after  long  years  of  war  and 
desolation,  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Dutch  Republic.  In  1565,  he  persecut» 
ed  the  Christian  Moors  of  Granada, 
and  provoked  a  revolt,  which  began 
in  1569 ;  and  after  the  greatest  atroc- 
ities on  both  sides,  ended  by  the  flight 
or  submission  of  the  Moors  in  1571. 
On  the  death  of  Henry,  King  of  Por- 
tugal, in  1580,  Philip  conquered  that 
country  and  annexed  it  to  Spain.  He 
made  immense  preparations  for  an  in- 
vasion of  England;  and  in  1588.  the 
year  after  Drake's  attack  on  Cadiz, 
his  great  fleet,  which  he  named  "  the 
Invincible  Armada,"  sailed  from  Lis- 
bon ;  but  a  great  storm  and  contrary 
winds  damaged  and  threw  it  into  dis- 
order, and  it  was  defeated  by  the  Eng- 
lish. Philip  carried  on  intrigues  in 
France  against  Henry  II.  and  Henry 
IV. ;  but  his  aim  was  defeated  by  the 
conversion  of  the  latter  to  the  Roman 
faith.  He  lived  to  see  the  failure  of 
his  designs  on  the  Netherlands,  on 
France,  and  on  England.  It  was  Philip 
II.  who  removed  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment from  Toledo,  and  made  Madrid 
the  capital  of  Spain.  He  died  at  the 
Escurial,    after   severe  suffering,    the 


Pliilippiaii 

fruit  of  his  debaucheries,  Sept.  13, 
1598. 

PMlip,  sachem  of  the  Wampanoag 
tribe  of  Indians,  was  the  second  son 
of  Massasoit,  who  for  nearly  40  years 
had  been  the  first  and  staunchest  ally 
of  the  Pilgrim  settlers  of  Plymouth, 
and  had  obtained  English  names  for 
his  two  sons.  In  1661  Philip  succeed- 
ed his  brother,  and  formally  renewed 
the  treaties  of  his  father,  which  he 
kept  for  some  years.  By  1671,  however, 
goaded  by  the  encroachments  of  the 
whites  he  had  formed  a  confederation 
of  tribes  aggregating  nearly  10,000 
warriors ;  and  in  1675  what  is  known 
as  King  Philip's  War  broke  out.  Aug. 
12,  1676,  at  midnight,  Philip  and  his 
followers  were  surprised  by  Capt. 
Benjamin  Church.  Philip  was  slain 
and  his  head  cut  off.  Afterward  his 
body  was  drawn  and  quartered,  and 
the  head  was  exposed  on  a  gibbet  at 
Plymouth. 

Philip,  Jolin  Woodward,  an 
American  naval  officer ;  born  in  New 
York  city,  Aug.  26,  1840.  He  entered 
the  naval  academy  in  1856,  was  made 
midshipman  in  1861,  and  served  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  on  the  "  Chippewa," 
the  monitor  "Montauk"  and  other  ves- 
sels. He  was  commissioned  captain  in 
1899,  and  was  the  inspector  of  the 
"  New  York "  during  construction. 
During  the  war  with  Spain  he  com- 
manded the  battleship  "  Texas,"  which 
took  an  active  part  in  the  capture  of 
the  Spanish  fleet  under  Cervera,  at 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  Jul:7  3,  1898.  He 
was  promoted  to  rear-admiral  and 
made  commandant  of  the  Brooklyn 
Navy  Yard,  N.  Y.     Died  1900. 

Fhilipena     or     Filopena.       See 

FiLLIPEEN. 

Philippi,  a  city  of  Macedonia; 
named  after  Philip  II.  of  Macedon, 
who  enlarged  it  because  of  the  gold 
mines  in  its  neighborhood.  It  is  fa- 
mous on  account  of  the  two  battles 
fought  in  42  B.  C.  between  Antony  and 
Octavianus  on  the  one  side  and  the  re- 
publicans under  Brutus  and  Cassius 
on  the  other,  in  the  second  of  which 
the  republic  finally  perished.  The 
apostle  Paul  founded  a  Christian 
church  here,  to  which  one  of  his  epis- 
tles is  addressed. 

Philippian,  of  or  pertaining  to 
Philippi  or  its  inhabitants ;  also  a  na« 


Fliilippine  Islands 


FMlippine  Islands 


tive  or  inhabitant  of  Piiilippi.  The 
Epistle  of  Paul  the  apostle  to  the 
Philippians,  an  epistle  addressed  by 
St.  Paul,  in  conjunction  with  Tim- 
othy, "  to  all  the  saints  in  Christ 
Jesus  which  are  at  Philippi,  with  the 
bishop  and  deacons." 

Philippine  Islands,  an  archipel- 
ago in  the  Pacilic  Ocean ;  extending 
almost  due  N.  and  S.  from  Formosa 
to  Borneo  and  the  Moluccas,  compris- 
ing more  than  1,700  islands,  of  which 
the  two  largest  are  Luzon  and  Min- 
danao; area,  about  122,000  square 
miles;  pop.  (1903)  7,635,426.  The 
archipelago  was  ceded  by  Spain  to  the 
United  States  as  a  result  of  the  war  of 
1898,  the  United  States  government 
making  a  payment  of  $20,000,000  to 
Spain,  and  subsequently  $100,000  for 
the  cession  of  the  islands  of  Cagayan 
and  Sibutu  which  were  omitted  in 
the  treaty  of  peace. 

The  following,  taken  from  the  of- 
ficial report  by  Maj.  Gen.  Francis  V. 
Greene,  U.  S.  V.,  sets  forth  the  con- 
ditions and  interests  of  the  islands  at 
the  time  of  the  American  occupation : 
**  These  islands,  including  the  La- 
drones,  Carolines,  and  Palaos,  which 
are  all  under  the  government  of  Ma- 
nila, are  variously  estimated  at  from 
1,200  to  1,800  in  number.   The  greater 

Sortion  are  small  and  are  of  no  value, 
'he  important  islands  are  less  than  a 
dozen  in  number. 

The  total  population  is  somewhere 
between  7,000,000  and  9,000,000.  This 
includes  the  wild  tribes  of  the  moun- 
tains of  Luzon  and  of  the  islands  in 
the  extreme  South. 

In  1899  a  census  was  taken  by  the 
United  States  authorities,  chiefly  for 
educational  purposes,  which  showed  a 
total  of  6,709,810.  The  "  OflScial 
Guide"  gives  a  list  of  more  than  30 
different  races,  each  speaking  a  dif- 
ferent dialect,  but  five-sixths  of  the 
Christian  population  are  either  Taga- 
los  or  Visayas.  The  races  are  mostly  of 
the  Malay  type.  Around  Manila  there 
has  been  some  mixture  of  Chinese 
and^  Spanish  blood  with  that  of  the 
natives,  resulting  in  the  Mestizos,  or 
half-breeds,  but  the  number  of  these 
is  not  very  great.  As  seen  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Cavite  and  Manila,  the  na- 
tives (Tagalos)  are  of  small  stature, 
averaging  probably  5  feet  4  inches  in 
height  and  120  pounds  in  weight  for 


the  women.  Their  skin  is  coppery 
brown,  somewhat  darker  than  that  of 
a  mulatto.  They  seem  to  be  indus- 
trious and  hard-working,  though  less 
so  than  the  Chinese.  The  bulk  of  the 
population  is  engaged  in  agriculture. 

The  climate  is  one  of  the  best 
known  in  the  tropics.  The  thermom- 
eter during  July  and  August  rarely 
went  below  79°  or  above  85°.  The 
extreme  ranges  in  a  year  are  said  to 
be  61°  and  97°.  There  are  three  well- 
marked  seasons  —  temperate  and  dry 
from  November  to  February,  hot  and 
dry  from  March  to  May,  and  tem- 
perate and  wet  from  June  to  October. 
The  total  rainfall  has  been  as  high  as 
114  inches  in  one  year.  Yellow  fever 
appears  to  be  unknown.  The  diseases, 
most  fatal  among  the  natives  are 
cholera  and  smallpox,  both  of  which 
are  brought  from  China. 

It  is  now  generally  known  that  ths 
Philippines  have  such  minerals  as 
iron,  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  granite, 
petroleum,  limestone,  and  quartz,  and 
that  it  is  only  a  matter  of  time  when 
these  minerals  will  be  mined  and  put 
into  the  commercial  markets  of  the 
world. 

Gold  is  reported  on  Luzon,  coal  and 
petroleum  on  Cebu  and  Iloilo  and  sul- 
phur on  Leyte.  The  imports  of  coal 
in  1894  (the  latest  year  for  which 
statistics  have  been  printed)  were 
91,511  tons,  and  it  came  principally 
from  Australia  and  Japan.  In  the 
same  year  the  imports  of  iron  of  all 
kinds  were  9,632  tons.  If  the  Cebu 
coal  proves  to  be  of  good  quality, 
there  is  a  large  piarket  for  it  in  com- 
petition with  coal  from  Japan  and 
Australia. 

Though  agriculture  is  the  chief  oc« 
cupation  of  the  Philippines,  yet  only 
one-ninth  of  the  surface  is  under  cul- 
tivation. The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and 
even  after  deducting  the  mountainous 
areas  it  is  probable  that  the  area  of 
cultivation  can  be  very  largely  ex« 
tended  and  that  the  islands  can  sup« 
port  a  population  equal  to  that  of 
Japan  (42,000,000).  Lack  of  irriga- 
tion prevents  the  development  of^  ex- 
tensive tracts  that  could  by  a  little 
enterprise  be  made  very  productivew 
The  chief  products  are  rice,  com. 
hemp,  sugar,  tobacco,  cocoanuts,  an«i 
cacao.  Coffee  and  cotton  were  for* 
merly  Droduced  in  large  quantities  — 


Philippine  Islands 


Fhilippiue  Islands 


the  former  for  export  and  the  latter 
for  home  consumption ;  but  the  coffee 
plant  has  been  almost  exterminated  by 
insects,  and  the  home-made  cotton 
cloths  have  been  driven  out  by  the 
competition  of  those  imported  from 
England.  The  rice  and  corn  are  prin- 
cipally produced  in  Luzon  and  Min- 
doro  and  are  consumed  in  the  islands. 
The  rice  crop  is  about  765,000  tons. 
It  is  insufficient  for  the  demand  and 
45,000  tons  of  rice  were  imported  in 
1894;  also  8,669  tons  (say  60,000 
barrels)  of  flour,  of  which  more  than 
two-thirds  came  from  China  and  less 
than  one-third  from  the  United  States. 
The  cacao  raised  in  the  S.  islands 
amounts  only  to  150  tons,  and  is  all 
made  into  chocolate  and  consumed  in 
the  islands. 

The  sugar  cane  is  raised  in  the 
Visayas.  The  crop  yielded  in  1894 
about  235,000  tons  of  raw  sugar,  of 
which  one-tenth  was  consumed  in  the 
islands,  and  the  balance,  or  210,000 
tons,  valued  at  $11,000,000,  was  ex- 
ported, the  greater  part  to  China, 
Great  Britain,  and  Australia.  The 
heinp  is  produced  in  S.  Luzon,  Min- 
doro,  the  Visayas,  and  Mindanao.  It 
is  nearly  all  exported  in  bales.  In 
1894  the  amount  was  96,000  tons, 
valued  at  $12,000,000.  Tobacco  is 
raised  in  all  the  islands,  but  the  best 
quality  and  greatest  amount  in  Luzon. 
A  large  amount  is  consumed  in  the 
islands,  smoking  being  universal 
among  women  as  well  as  the  men,  but 
the  best  quality  is  exported.  The 
amount  in  1894  was  7,000  tons  of  leaf 
tobacco,  valued  at  $1,750,000.  Spain 
took  80  per  cent,  and  Egypt  10  per 
cent,  of  the  leaf  tobacco.  Of  the  manu- 
factured tobacco  70  per  cent-  goes  to 
China  and  Singapore,  10  per  cent  to 
England,  and  5  per  cent,  to  Spain. 

Cattle,  goats,  and  sheep  have  been 
introduced  from  Spain,  but  they  are 
not  numerous.  Domestic  pigs  and 
chickens  are  seen  everywhere  in  the 
farming  districts.  The  principal  beast 
of  burden  is  the  carabao,  or  water 
buffalo,  which  is  used  for  plowing  rice 
fields  as  well  as  drawing  heavy  loads 
on  sledges  or  on  carts.  Large  horses 
are  almost  unknown,  but  there  are 
great  numbers  of  native  ponies  from  9 
to  12  hands  high,  possessing  strength 
and  endurance  far  beyond  their  size. 

With  the  construction  of  railways 
in  the  interior  of  Luzon  an  enormous 


extension  could  be  given  to  commerce, 
nearly  all  of  which  would  come  to  the^ 
United  States.  Manila  cigars  of  the 
best  quality  are  unknown  in  America. 
They  are  but  little  inferior  to  the  best 
of  Cuba  and  cost  only  one-third  as- 
much.  The  coffee  industry  can  be  re- 
vived and  the  sugar  industry  extended,, 
mainly  for  consumption  in  the  far 
East.  The  mineral  resources  can  be 
explored  with  American  energy,  and 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
when  this  is  done  the  deposits  of  coal, 
iron,  gold,  and  lead  will  be  found  very 
valuable.  On  the  other  hand,  we  ought 
to  be  able  to  secure  the  greater  part 
of  the  trade  which  now  goes  to  Spain 
in  textile  fabrics,  and  a  considerable 
portion  of  that  with  England  in  the 
same  goods  and  in  iron, . 

On  Jan.  17,  1899,  President  Mc« 
Kinley  appointed  a  commission  con- 
sisting of  Jacob  G.  Schurman,  Ad- 
miral George  Dewey,  Maj.-Gen.  Elwell 
S.  Otis,  Col.  Charles  Denby,  and  Dean 
S.  Worcester,  to  report  on  the  affairs 
of  the  Philippine  islands.  The  report 
of  this  commission  was  sent  to  Con- 
gress in  February,  1900.  It  stated  the 
impossibility  of  withdrawing  the  pro- 
tection and  government  of  the  United 
States  from  the  islands;  and  recom- 
mended the  establishment  of  public 
schools ;  and,  as  far  as  possible,  a  civil 
government  to  replace  the  military.  It 
also  assured  Congress  of  the  willing- 
ness of  the  representative  body  of  the 
population  to  accept  the  protection, 
guidance,  and  authority  of  the  United 
States.  On  April  17,  1900,  President 
McKinley  appointed  a  second  commis- 
sion, comprising  William  H.  Taft, 
Dean  S.  Worcester,  Luke  E.  Wright, 
Henry  C.  Ide,  and  Bernard  Moses; 
and  in  a  message  to  the  Secretary  of 
War  defined  the  duties  of  the  new 
commission. 

On  Jan.  31, 1901,  the  second  (known 
as  the  Taft)  commission  enacted  into 
law  a  code  of  civil  government  for  the 
islands.  It  established  a  fair  system 
of  taxes,  laid  the  basis  for  a  primary- 
school  system,  introduced  a  more  exact 
method  for  collecting  revenues,  andi 
created  certain  civil  and  judicial  of- 
ficers. On  July  4,  1901,  civil  govern- 
ment was  inaugurated  in  the  Philip- 
pines. Judge  Taft  had  been  appointed 
civil  governor;  Gen.  Adna  R.  Chaffee 
military  governor ;  and  the  other  four 


^IdlipsoS 


FliUlipa 


members  of  the  commission  made  heads 
of  the  various  civil  departments. 

On  Dec.  18,  1901,  the  Taft  Com- 
mission submitted  its  annual  report.  It 
Btated  that  the  insurrection  was  con- 
fined to  five  provinces,  and  that  the 
bulli  of  the  population  was  law  abiding. 

The  commission  outlined  a  project 
which  in  brief  contemplated  the  con- 
tinuance for  two  years  of  the  existing 
powers  of  the  commission.  Then  it 
advocated  a  representative  govern- 
ment to  be  formed  composed  of  a  civ- 
il governor,  a  legislative  council,  and 
a  popular  assembly,  the  powers  of  the 
latter  being  closely  limited  so  as  to 
prevent  it  from  choking  the  govern- 
ment in  making  the  budget  during  fits 
of  passion  or  through  inexperience. 
The  President  of  the  United  States 
would,  of  course,  reserve  absolute  veto 

Sower.  The  Filipinos  should  also 
ave  the  right  to  be  represented  be- 
fore Congress  and  the  executive  gov- 
ernment at  Washington  by  two  dele- 
gates. A  full  account  was  given  by 
the  commission  of  the  organization  of 
the  system  of  education  which  had 
been  going  on  vigorously  under  Dr. 
F.  W.  Atkinson,  the  general  super- 
intendent. The  English  language  was 
the  basis  of  all  public  instruction,  and 
nearly  one  thousand  trained  teachers 
from  the  United  States  already  had 
been  put  to  work  in  the  towns  and 
cities  of  the  pacified  provinces.  On 
July  3,  1902,  the  President  proclaimed 
amnesty  to  all  political  prisoners  in 
the  Philippines,  and  on  July  6,  Agui- 
naldo  was  given  his  liberty. 

By  1902  the  United  States  had  es- 
tablished supreme  and  lower  courts; 
raised  the  police  force  to  6,000  men ; 
enrolled  150,000  children  in  public 
schools  with  1,000  American  and  4,000 
native  teachers;  spent  millions  on  im- 
proving roads  and  harbors;  and  had 
$7,000,000  in  the  treasury. 

Governor  Taft  left  Manila  in  Dec. 
1903,  to  accept  a  position  in  President 
Roosevelt's  cabinet,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Gen.  Wright.  To  Gov.  Taft  be- 
longs the  credit  of  gaining  the  confi- 
dence of  the  Philippine  people,  and 
of  establishing  civil  government. 

Philipson,  David,  an  American 
rabbi ;  born  in  Wabash,  Ind.,  Au^.  9, 
1862;  v/as  graduated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Cincinnati  and  at  the  Hebrew 
Union  College  there  in  1883,  and  be- 


came Professor  of  Homiletics  in  the 
Hebrew  Union  College,  and  president 
of  the  Hebrew  Sabbath  School  Union 
of  America.  He  is  author  of  "  The 
Jew  in  English  Fiction,"  "  Old  Euro- 
pean Jewries,"  "The  Oldest  Jewish 
Congregation  in  the  West,"  etc. 

Philistines,  an  ancient  people, 
of  Shemitic  origin.  They  lived  on  the 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  to  the 
south-west  of  Judea.  Nothing  is  known 
of  their  first  appearance  in  Palestine. 
They  were  there  in  the  time  of  Abra- 
ham as  is  evident  from  Gen,  21 :  34. 
That  they  had  a  king  is  mentioned 
Gen.  26 : 8.  In  the  time  of  Joshua, 
they  were  subject  to  five  princes. 
Joshua  was  never  able  to  expel  them 
and  in  the  times  of  the  Judges  they 
became  strong  enough  to  bring  Israel 
into  subjection.  Saul  perished  in  a 
pitched  battle  with  them,  David  con- 
quered them,  but  they  revolted  and 
continued  enemies  of  Israel. 

Phillips,  Adelaide,  an  American 
singer;  born  in  Stratford-on-Avon, 
England,  in  1833.  When  seven  years 
old  she  was  taken  to  Boston,  Mass., 
which  was  her  residence  the  remainder 
of  her  life.  Her  voice  was  a  fine  con- 
tralto. She  made  her  debut  Sept.  25, 
1843,  at  the  Boston  Museum,  as  Lit- 
tle Pickle.  In  1850,  on  the  advice  of 
Jenny  Lind,  she  went  to  Paris  and 
studied  with  Garcia.  She  sang  in 
opera  in  Milan  in  1854,  and  in  1856 
in  New  York,  in  "U  Trovatore."  She 
appeared  later  in  Paris  in  the  same 
role.  She  died  in  Carlsbad,  Oct.  2, 
1882.  Her  sister  Mathilde  was  also  a 
contralto  singer. 

Phillips,  John,  English  geologist ; 
born  1800;  died  1874.  He  was  in- 
structed in  geology  by  his  uncle,  Wil- 
liam Smith,  "the  father  of  English 
geology ;"  became  professor  of  geology 
in  Dublin  (1844),  and  in  Oxford 
(1856).  Among  his  chief  works  are 
a  "Guide  to  Geology"  (1834).  and 
"Life  on  the  Earth"  (1861). 

Phillips,  Stephen,  English  poet; 
b.  Somerton,  near  Oxford,  July  28, 
1868.  Educated  at  grammar  schools, 
he  became  an  actor,  an  army  tutor, 
then  turned  to  literature,  producing 
"  Paolo  and  Francesca,"  "  Herod," 
"The  Sin  of  David,"  etc. 

Phillips,  Wendell,  an  American 
orator  and  abolitionist;  born  in  Bos- 


Philology 

ton,  Mass.,  Nov.  29,  1811.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1831,  studied 
law  there,  and  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1834.  But  before  clients  came  he 
had  been  drawn  away  from  his  pro- 
fession to  the  real  work  of  his  life. 
A  timely  speech  in  Faneuil  Hall  in 
1837  made  him  at  once  the  principal 
orator  of  the  anti-slavery  party;  and 
henceforth,  till  the  President's  procla- 
mation of  Jan.  1,  1863,  he  was  Gar- 
rison's loyal  and  valued  ally,  his  lec- 
tures and  addresses  doing  more  for 
their  cause  than  can  well  be  estimat- 
ed. He  also  championed  the  cause 
of  temperance,  and  that  of  women, 
and  advocated  the  rights  of  the  In- 
dians. In  1870  he  was  nominated  gov- 
ernor by  the  Prohibitionists  and  the 
Labor  Party.  His  speeches  and  let- 
ters were  collected  in  1863  (new  ed. 
1884).  He  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb. 
2,  1884. 

Philology,  in  a  popular  sense : 
(1)  E^tymology,  or  the  science  of  the 
origin  of  words.  (2)  Grammar,  or  the 
science  of  the  construction  of  lan- 
guage in  general  and  of  individual 
languages.  (3)  Literary  criticism,  or 
the  investigation  of  merits  and  de- 
merits in  style  and  diction. 

Philopoemen,  called  the  last  of 
the  Greeks,  really  their  last  great  com- 
mander. He  was  born  in  Arcadia, 
253  B.  c,  becamt  in  210,  generalissimo 
of  the  Achaian  League,  and  conquered 
the  Spartans  —  at  which  time  he  abol- 
ished the  laws  of  Lycurgus.  The 
greatest  of  his  victories  in  this  long 
struggle  was  the  battle  of  Mantinea. 
He  was  put  to  death  by  poison  when 
a  prisoner  of  the  Messenians,  183  B.  C, 
the  same  year  that  proved  fatal  to 
Hannibal  and  Scipio. 

Philosopher's  Stone,  an  imagi- 
nary stone  sought  for  by  the  alche- 
mists, which  should  transmute  every- 
thing it  touched  into  gold. 

Philosophy,  a  term  said  by  Diog- 
enes Laertius  to  have  been  suggest- 
ed^ by  Pythagoras,  who,  on  being  com- 
plimented on  his  wisdom,  said  that  he 
was  not  wise  but  a  lover  of  wisdom 
(philos  Sophia) ,  the  Deity,  alone  being 
wise.  Philosophy,  while  earnest  in 
amassing  knowledge,  aimed  chiefly  at 
penetrating  to  the  principles  of  things. 
Popularly,  it  is  divided  into  natural 
and  mental  philosophy,  the  former  in- 
vestigating  the   physical   la*s  of  na- 


Phoenicia 

ture,  the  latter  those  regulating  the 
human  mind.  The  term  philosophy 
is  now  generally  restricted  to  tbi 
second  of  these. 

Phips,  or  Phipps,  Sir  William, 
governor  of  Massachusetts;  bom  in 
Pemmaquid  (Bristol),  Me.,  Feb.  2, 
1651.  He  was  successively  a  shep- 
herd, a  carpenter,  and  a  trader,  and 
in  1687  recovered  from  a  wrecked 
Spanish  ship  off  the  Bahamas  bullion 
plate,  and  treasure  valued  at  $1,500,- 
000;  this  gained  him  a  knighthood 
and  the  appointment  of  sheriff  of  New 
England.  In  1690  he  captured  Port 
Royal  (now  Annapolis)  in  Nova  Sco- 
tia, but  failed  in  the  following  year  in 
a  naval  attack  on  Quebec.  In  1692, 
through  the  influence  of  Increase  Math- 
er, he  was  appointed  governor  of 
Massachusetts.  He  tolerated  the  witch 
delusion  and  its  accompanying  trage- 
dies until  his  own  wife  was  menaced 
by  the  witch  hunters.  He  died  Feb. 
18,  1694,  in  London,  England,  whither 
he  had  been  summoned  to  answer  cer- 
tain charges  of  arbitrary  conduct. 

Phlebotomy,  or  Venesection,  the 
act  of  letting  blood  by  opening  a  vein ; 
a  method  of  treatment  formerly  ap- 
plied to  almost  all  diseases,  but  now 
chiefly  confined  to  cases  of  general  or 
local  plethora.  Another  mode  of  let- 
ting blood  is  by  cupping  or  by  the  ap- 
plication of  leeches.  It  has  been  one 
of  the  processes  of  the  medical  pro- 
fession from  the  earliest  times. 

Phoebus  ("the  Bright"),  an  epi- 
thet, and  -subsequently  a  name,  of 
Apollo.  It  had  reference  both  to  the 
youthful  beauty  of  the  god  and  to  the 
radiance  of  the  sun,  when,  latterly, 
Apollo  became  identified  with  Helios, 
the  sun  god. 

Phoenicia,  in  ancient  geosraphy,  in 
the  largest  sense,  a  narrow  strip  of 
country  extending  nearly  the  whole 
length  of  the  E.  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  from  Antioch  to  the  bor- 
ders of  Egypt.  But  Phoenicia  proper 
was  included  between  the  cities  of  Lao- 
dicea,  in  Syria,  and  Tyre,  comprehend- 
ing mainly  the  territories  of  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  and  forming  then  only  a  part 
of  the  country  of  Canaan.  Some  au- 
thorities state  that  Agenor  was  the 
first  king  of  Phnenicia,  1497  B.  c. ;  but 
all  agree  that  the  country  itself  was 
the  seat  of  a  great  nation,  and  re- 
nowned for  its  naval  enterprise  at  a 


phoenix 

much  earlier  period.  A  colony  of 
Phoenicians,  led  by  Elissa  or  Dido,  set- 
tled in  Africa  878  B.  c,  and  founded 
Carthage. 

Fhoeniz,  or  Pheniz,  in  astronomy, 
one  of  the  constellations  of  the  South- 
ern Hemisphere,  N.  of  the  bright  star 
Achernar  in  Eridanus. 

Phonetic,  or  Phonetical,  repre- 
senting sound ;  pertaining  to  the  repre- 
sentation of  sounds ;  a  term  applied 
to  alphabetic  or  literal  characters 
which  represent  sounds,  as  a,  b,  c;  as 
opposed  to  ideographic,  which  repre- 
sent objects  or  symbolize  abstract 
ideas,  as  in  Egyptian  hieroglyphics. 
Phonetic  spelling,  a  system  of  spelling 
in  which  the  words  are  spelled  exact- 
ly as  they  are  pronounced,  the  sounds 
being  represented  by  characters  each 
of  which  represents  a  single  sound. 
Phonetic  printing  was  first  suggest- 
ed by  Isaac  Pitman,  of  Bath,  England, 
and  reduced  to  a  system  by  him  in 
conjunction  with  A.  J.  Ellis,  in  the 
years  1843-1846.  Since  that  time 
many  schemes  of  phonetic  spelling 
have  been  proposed  and  several  are 
now  in  daily  use  by  stenographers  in 
the  United  States. 

Phonog^raph,  a  character  used  in 
phonography ;  a  type  or  character 
used  for  expressing  a  sound.  Also 
an  instrument  for  recording  and  re- 
producing sounds,  invented  by  Thomas 
A>  Edison. 


PHONCGBAPHIO  RECORD. 

Phonog^rapliy,  a  description  of  the 
sounds  uttered  by  the  organs  of  speech. 
Also  the  representation  of  sounds  by 
certain  characters,  each  of  which  rep- 
resents one  sound,  and  always  the 
same  sound.  Its  special  application 
is  to  alphabetical  writing,  in  which 
sounds  or  articulations  are  repre- 
sented by  signs  or  letters,  as  opposed 


Phosphoms 

to  the  system  in  which  the  representa- 
tion is  by  ideas,  symbols,  or  cipher. 
Phosgene,  the  luminous  impres- 
sion produced  by  pressure  on  the  eye- 
ball. It  usually  appears  as  a  lumi- 
nous centre,  surrounded  by  colored  or 
dark  rings.  Sometimes  it  seems  to 
consist  of  bright  scintillations  of  vari- 
ous forms.  Similar  appearances  may 
be  observed  at  the  moments  of  open- 
ing or  closing  a  strong  electric  cur- 
rent transmitted  through  the  eyeball. 
Phosgene  Gas,  or  Carbonyl 
Chloride,  colorless,  pungent,  suffo- 
cating gas,  formed  by  exposing  equal 
volumes  of  carbonic  monoxide  and 
chlorine  to  the  action  of  the  sun, 
when  they  combine  and  become  con- 
densed to  one-half  their  joint  volume. 
Water  decomposes  it  into  carbonic 
and  hydrochloric  acids. 

Phosphate,  in  chemistry,  the  ge« 
neric  term  for  the  salts  formed  by  the 
union  of  phosphoric  anhydride  with 
bases  or  water  or  both.  They  hold  a 
leading  part  in  the  chemistry  of  ani- 
mal and  plant  life,  the  most  important 
in  this  connection  being  the  phosphate 
of  soda,  phosphate  of  lime,  and  the 
basic  phosphate  of  magnesia.  In  ag- 
riculture the  adequate  supply  of  phos- 
phates to  plants  in  the  form  of  ma- 
nures becomes  a  matter  of  necessity 
in  all  deplenished  soils. 

Phosphorescence,  the  property 
which  many  substances  and  organic 
beings  possess  of  emitting  light  under 
certain  conditions;  also  a  phosphoric 
light.  The  phosphorescence  of  trop- 
ical, and  to  a  large  extent  also  of  tem- 
perate seas  is  attributed  to  a  small  in- 
fusorial animalcule,  aided  by  Medu- 
sae, Tunicata,  Annelids,  etc.  On  land, 
of  insects,  some  milipedes,  the  female 
glow-worm,  and  the  fireflies,  emit 
light.  In  the  glow-worm  the  light  is 
from  the  under  side  of  the  final  seg- 
ments of  the  abdomen.  The  phos- 
phorescence of  fish  in  a  cupboard  is 
well  known ;  also  of  decaying  animals 
in  marshes. 

Phosphoric  Acid,  a  tribasic  acid 
formed  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid 
upon  phosphorus,  or  by  the  hydration 
of  phosphoric  anhydride.  It  is  very 
deliquescent,  has  an  intensely  sour 
taste,  and  reddens  litmus  paper.  It 
is  not  poisonous. 

Phosphoms,  a  non-metallic  pentad 
element ;  found  in  a  state  of  combina- 


Photo-engraTing 


Phylloxera 


tion  in  the  unstratified  rocks,  the  soil, 
the  organism  of  plants,  and  the  bodies 
of  animals.  Discovered  by  Brandt  in 
1G69.  Used  on  a  very  large  scale  in 
the  preparation  of  safety  matches. 

Photo-engraving,  the  prepara- 
tion of  printing  blocks  or  plates  by 
photography. 

Photography,  the  process  of  ob- 
taining the  representation  of  objects, 
through  the  aperture,  with  or  without 
lenses,  of  a  camera  obscura  (q.  v.),  on 
salts  of  silver  contained  in  a  gelatine 
film  spread  on  glass  or  celluloid,  the 
subsequent  development  and  fixing  of 
the  image,  and  the  printing  of  copies, 
completing  the  process.  Its  practical 
invention  dates  from  the  successes  of 
Daguerre  (q.  v.),  Niepce,  and  Talbot, 
between  1814  and  1839 ;  its  great 
modern  development  after  the  nitrate 
of  silver  and  wet  collodion  process  per- 
fected in  1850,  had  given  way  about 
1880,  to  the  bromide  of  silver  and  dry 
gelatine  emulsion  on  glass  or  cellu- 
loid, discovered  by  Dr.  L.  Maddox  in 
1871.  When  the  light  strikes  the 
sensitized  film  in  a  camera,  a  chemical 
change  takes  place  in  the  salts,  pro- 
ducing a  negative  in  which  the  lights 
and  shades  are  reversed  to  what  they 
are  naturally.  The  image  is  latent  or 
invisible  until  developed,  i.  e.,  placed 
in  a  liquid  such  as  hydrokinine  com- 
bined with  an  alkali,  which  forms  an 
opaque  compound  with  the  part  of  the 
salt  affected  by  the  light;  the  develop- 
ed image  is  then  fixed  or  made  i)erma- 
Dent  in  a  solution  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda,  which  dissolves  the  salt  from 
parts  unaffected  by  light,  and  leaves 
virtually  a  light  or  sun-engraved  silver 
plate  from  which  jjositive  copies  are 
printed  by  contact  with  sensitized 
paper,  and  exposure  to  light. 

The  many  forms  of  cameras,  lenses, 
shutters,  films,  plates,  printing  papers, 
etc.,  and  the  applied  uses  of  photogra- 
phy are  too  numerous  to  be  detailed. 
One  of  its  notable  commercial  develop- 
ments is  Amateur  Photogbaphy, 
which  has  had  phenomenal  and  in- 
creasing popularitv  since  the  advent 
of  the  "dry-plate."  Color  Photog- 
raphy, or  the  reproduction  by  photog- 
raphy of  objects  in  their  natural 
colors,  is  a  branch  that  has  received 
much  scientific  investigation  and  ex- 
periment.     The    most    successful    at- 


tempts hitherto,  are  those  of  Cros  and 
Charpentier  of  Paris,  Prof.  Joly  of 
Dublin,  and  McDonough  of  Chicago. 
The  general  method  is  to  make  three 
negatives  through  red,  blue,  and  green 
glass,  on  specially  sensitized  and  de- 
veloped plates,  and  print  by  superim- 
position. 

Photogravure,  a  term  applied  to 
methods  of  producing,  by  photography, 
Vlates  for  printing  in  a  copperplate 
press. 

Photoheliograph,  an  instrument 
for  photographing  the  sun. 

Phrenology,  the  science  or  doc- 
trine which  teaches  that  a  relation  ex- 
ists between  the  several  faculties  of 
the  human  mind  and  particular  por- 
tions of  the  brain,  the  latter  being  the 
organs  through  which  the  former  act. 
The  localization  of  the  several  fac- 
ulties was  first  attempted  by  Dr.  Franz 
Joseph  Gall,  who  gained,  in  1804,  a 
valuable  coadjutor  in  Dr.  Spurzheim. 
When  Spurzheim  visited  Edinburgh, 
he  met  Mr.  George  Combe,  who  adopt- 
ed his  views,  and  in  1819  published 
"  Essays  on  Phrenology,"  ultimately 
developed  into  his  "  System  of  Phre- 
nology," which  became  very  popular. 
Gall  enumerated  nearly  .30,  Spurzheim 
35,  mental  faculties  which  he  consid- 
ered as  primitive.  These,  Spurzheim 
divides  into  moral,  or  affective,  and 
intellectual.  The  affective  faculties 
are  subdivided  into  propensities  pro- 
ducing desires  or  inclination,  and  sen- 
timents, which  along  with  this  excite 
some  hi.rher  emotion.  The  intellectual 
faculties  are  similarly  divided  into  per- 
ceptive and  reflective.  They  are  then 
localized  on  the  brain,  or  rather  on 
the  skull.     See  Brain;  Skull. 

Phryg^ia,  in  ancient  geography,  an 
inland  province  of  Asia  Minor.  It 
was  called  Phrygia  Pacatiana.  and 
also  Phrygia  Major,  in  distinction 
from  Phrygia  Minor,  which  was  a 
small  district  of  Mysia  near  the  Hel- 
lespont, occupied  by  some  Phrygians 
after  the  Trojan  War.  This  region  was 
a  high  table-land,  fruitful  in  corn  and 
wine  and  celebrated  for  its  fine  breed 
of  cattle  and  sheep. 

Phylloxera,  in  entomology,  a  genus 
of  insects  allied  to  the  Aphis  and  Coc- 
cus families.  The  Phylloxeridse  at- 
tach themselves  to  various  plants,  on 
the    juice    of  .  which    they    feed,    and 


Fliysiclan 

which  they  often  injure  or  destroy. 
/P.  vastatrix  is  the  name  given  to  an 
insect  of  this  family,  which,  since 
18G5,  has  committed  great  devastation 
in  the  vineyards  of  Prance.  Great 
numbers  of  this  insect  appear  on  the 
roots  of  the  vine,  where  they  produce 
galls,  and  their  punctures  are  so  nu- 


PHTSTXOXEBA    INSECT. 

merous  and  incessant  that  the  roots 
can  no  longer  supply  nutriment  to  the 
plant,  which  fades  and  dies.  There  is 
a  form  which  lives  on  the  leaves,  also 
producing  galls. 

Physician,  one  who  is  skilled  in  or 
practises  the  art  of  healing ;  one  who, 
being  duly  qualified,  prescribes  reme- 
dies for  diseases ;  specifically  one  who 
holds  a  certificate  showing  that  he  has 
passed  an  examination  before  a  com- 
petent authority,  such  as  the  medical 
colleges  of  the  United  States  or  the 
State  boards  of  medicine,  authorizing 
him  to  practise.  Strictly  speaking  a 
physician  differs  from  a  surgeon,  in 
that  the  former  prescribes  remedies  for 
diseases,  while  the  latter  performs  op- 
erations. 

Physics,  a  study  of  the  phenomena 
presented  by  bodies.  It  treats  of  mat- 
ter, force  and  motion ;  gravitation  and 
molecular  attraction,  liquids,  gases, 
acoustics,  heat,  light,  magnetism,  and 
electricity.  It  is  called  also  natural 
or  mechanical  philosophy.  In  its 
broadest  acceptance  the  term  physics 
includes  chemistry;  specifically  it  is 
limited  to  those  phenomena  based  on 
the  molecule  as  a  unit,  whereas  the 
unit  of  chemistry  is  the  atom. 


Piatt 

Physiognoiuy,  the  art  or  science 
of  judging  of  a  person's  nature  or 
character  by  his  outward  look,  espe- 
cially by  his  facial  features  and  char- 
acteristics. In  the  ordinary  business 
of  life,  all  men  are  more  or  less  influ- 
enced by  the  belief  that  the  character 
and  disposition  of  a  person  may,  in 
some  measure,  be  judged  of  by  his 
physical  appearance,  and  none  have 
more  confidence  in  this  way  of  judging 
than  those  who  have  most  occasion  to 
act  on  it. 

Physiology,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  processes  which  go  on  in 
the  bodies  of  living  beings  under  nor- 
mal conditions,  and  of  the  use  of  their 
various  parts  or  organs.  It  is  divided 
into  plant  physiology,  animal  physiol- 
ogy (according  to  whether  plants  or 
animals  are  the  subject  of  study),  and 
human  physiology  (a  branch  of  animal 
physiology  in  its  relation  to  man). 

Phytology.     See  Botany. 

Pianoforte,  a  musical  instru- 
ment, the  sounds  of  which  are  pro- 
duced by  blows  from  hammers,  acted 
on  by  levers  called  keys.  This  is  prob- 
ably the  most  widely-known  and  gen- 
erally-used musical  instrument  in  the 
world.  The  earliest  form  of  piano- 
forte, early  in  the  18th  century,  was 
perhaps,  in  some  respects,  inferior  to 
a  fine  harpsichord,  but  it  possessed  the 
elements  of  expansion,  as  now  exhibit- 
ed in  a  modern  grand  trichord  pianb- 
forte  of  more  than  seven  octaves  com- 
pass, with  every  gradation  of  sound, 
from  pianissimo  to  a  splendid  fortissi- 
mo, and  the  most  sensitive  and  deli- 
cate mechanism  between  the  finger  and 
the  hammer. 

Piassaba,  or  Piassava,  a  strong 
vegetable  fiber  imported  from  Brazil, 
and  largely  used  for  making  brooms. 
It  is  chiefly  obtained  from  palms. 

Piaster,  or  Piastre,  a  coin  of 
various  values.  The  gold  piaster  of 
Turkey  =  4.4c. ;  the  silver  piaster  = 
4.35c. ;  the  Egyptian  piaster  =  4.9c. ; 
the  Spanish  piaster  is  synonymous 
with  the  United  States  dollar.  The 
old  Italian  piaster  was  equivalent  to 
about  89  cents. 

Piatt,  Donn,  an  American  jour- 
nalist; born  in  (Cincinnati,  Ohio* 
June  29,  1820,  was  secretary  of  le- 
gation at  Paris,  and  was  for  nearly  a 
year  charge  d'affaires ;  during  the  Civ^ 


Piatt 


Pickens 


War  was  asssistant  adjutant-general  on 
the  staff  of  Gen.  Robert  C.  Schenck ; 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  New 
York  "  Sun "  and  afterward  of  the 
Washington  "  Capital,"  which  he  ed- 
ited for  two  years.  He  died  in  Cleve- 
land, O.,  Nov.  12,  1891. 

Piatt,  John  James,  an  American 
poet ;  born  in  Milton,  Ind.,  March  1, 
1885.  He  entered  journalism ;  be- 
came clerk  of  the  United  States  Treas- 
ury Department  and  of  the  House  of 
Repi-esentatives ;  and  from  1882  to 
1894,  was  consul  at  Cork,  Ireland. 
His  works  include :  "  Poems  by  Two 
Friends,"  with  W.  D.  Howells; 
"  Poems  in  Sunshine  and  Firelight  " ; 
"  Idylls  and  Lyrics  of  the  Ohio  Val- 
ley " ;  etc. 

Piatt,  Sarah  Morgan  (Bryan), 
an  American  poet,  wife  of  JohB  J. ; 
born  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  Aug.  11,  1836. 
Her  best-known  works  are :  "  A 
Woman's  Poems  " ;  "A  Voyage  to  the 
Fortunate  Isles  " ;  "  Dramatic  Persons 
and  Moods " ;  and  "  An  Enchanted 
Castle." 

Piazza,  a  square  open  space  sur- 
rounded by  buildings  or  colonnades; 
popularly,  but  improperly,  applied  to 
an  arcaded  or  colonnaded  walk  under 
cover,  and  even  to  a  veranda. 

Pica,  an  alphabetical  catalogue  of 
things  and  names  in  rolls  and  records ; 
in  medicine,  a  vitiated  appetite,  which 
causes  the  person  affected  to  crave 
things  unfit  for  food,  as  coal,  chalk, 
etc. ;  in  printing,  a  name  given  to  a 
size  of  type,  72  ems  to  the  foot,  or 
6x6  to  the  square  inch.  It  is  the 
standard  of  measurement  in  printing. 

Piccini,  Niccolo,  an  Italian  musi- 
cal composer;  born  in  Bari,  Italy,  in 
1728.  He  composed  comic  and  serious 
operas,  chiefly  for  the  stages  of  Rome 
and  Naples,  with  such  success  that  for 
many  years  he  was  without  a  rival  in 
Italy.  He  wrote  over  150  operas,  be- 
sides numerous  oratorios  and  can- 
tatas. He  died  in  Passy,  France, 
May  7,  1800. 

Piccolo,  a  small  flute,  having  the 
same  compass  as  the  ordinary  orches- 
tral flute,  but  its  sounds  are  one  oc- 
tave higher  than  the  notes  as  they  are 
written ;  called  also  an  octave  flute. 

Piccolomini,  a  distingnished  Sien- 
nese  family,  still  flourishing  in  Italy 
in  two  branch«>«k     The  two  most  cele- 


brated members  are:  (1)  ^neas  Syl- 
vius Bartholomseus,  afterward  Pope 
Pius  II.  (2)  Octavio,  a  grand-nepb- 
ew  of  the  first;  born  in  1599,  died  in 
Vienna  in  1656.  He  served  in  the 
armies  of  the  German  emperor,  and 
became  one  of  the  distinguished  gener- 
als in  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  He 
was  a  favorite  of  Wallenstein,  who 
entrusted  him  with  a  knowledge  of 
his  projects,  when  he  purposed  to  at> 
tack  the  emperor.  In  spite  of  this  he 
made  himself  the  chief  instrument  of 
Wallenstein's  overthrow,  and  after  the 
latter's  assassination  (1634)  was  re- 
warded with  a  portion  of  his  estates. 

Pice,  a  small  East  Indian  coin, 
value  about  three-quarters  of  a  cent. 

Piohegru,  Charles,  a  French  mill* 
tary  officer ;  born  in  Arbois,  France, 
Feb;  16,  1761,  of  humble  parents,  but 
receiving  a  good  education  under  the 
monks  of  his  native  town.  Entering 
the  army  he  rose  to  be  sergeant.  The 
revolution  elevated  him  to  the  rank  of 
general,  and,  in  1794,  he  succeeded 
General  Hoehe  in  the  command  of  the 
Army  of  the  North.  In  1797  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Legislative 
body;  but  his  opposition  to  the  Direct- 
ory, and  his  speeches  in  favor  c  c  the 
royalist  emigrants,  occasioned  an  accu- 
sation against  him  as  designing  to  re- 
store royalty.  He  was  ordered  with- 
out trial  to  be  transported  to  Cayenne, 
whence  he  escaped  to  England,  where 
he  remained  till  the  spring  of  1804; 
he  returned  to  Paris,  was  again  appre- 
hended and  sent  to  the  Temple,  where 
he  was  found  strangled  in  his  bed, 
April  5,  1804. 

Pickens,  Andrei^,  an  American 
military  officer ;  born  in  Paxton,  Pa., 
Sept.  13,  1739,  of  Huguenot  ancestry. 
In  1752  he  removed  to  South  Caro- 
lina; was  engaged  in  the  expedition 
against  the  Cherokees  in  1761.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolution  he  was  promoted 
Brigadier-General;  took  part  in  the 
defense  of  South  Carolina  against  the 
British.  He  served  in  Congress  from 
1793  to  1795;  and  made  treaties  with 
the  Indians.  He  died  in  Tomassee, 
S.  C,  Aug.  17,  1817. 

Pickens,  Israel,  an  American  i>oli- 
tician ;  born  in  North  Carolina,  in 
1780.  He  was  a  Democratic  member 
of  Congress  from  North  Carolina  in 
1811-1817;  governor  of  Alabama  in 
1821-1825 ;  and  became  United  States 


Pickens 


l»ickett 


Senator  in  1826.  He  died  near  Ma- 
tanzas,  Cuba,  in  1827. 

Pickens,  Fort,  a  fort  on  Santa 
Rosa  Island,  Pensacola  harbor,  held 
by  a  small  tJnion  force  under  Lieut. 
A.  J.  Slemmer  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Civil  War.  It  refused  to  surrender 
when  besieged  by  the  Confederates  in 
1861,  and  was  held  till  reinforced. 

Pickerel,  a  small  pike,  a  young 
pike.  The  term  is  applied  to  several 
species  of  fishes  belonging  to  the  pike 
family. 

Pickering,  Ckarles,  an  American 
physician,  grandson  of  Timothy ;  born 
in  Susquehanna  co.,  Pa.,  Nov.  10, 
1805.  He  traveled  extensively,  and 
published  the  volumes :  "  The  Races 
of  Man  and  their  Geographical  Dis- 
tribution " ;  "  Geographical  Distribu- 
tion of  Animals  and  Man  " ;  "Chrono- 
logical History  of  Plants."  He  died 
In  Boston,  March  18,  1878. 

Pickering,  Edtrard  Ckarles,  an 
American  astronomer,  great-grandson 
of  Timothy  Pickering ;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  July  19,  1846;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1865;  Professor  of  As- 
tronomy and  Geodesy,  and  Director 
of  the  Observatory  at  Harvard  after 
187<.  On  July  21,  1901,  he  photo- 
graphed the  spectrum  of  lightning, 
from  the  study  of  which  he  developed 
a  revolutionary  scientific  theory  of  the 
compound  nature  of  the  so-called 
chemical  elements. 

Pickering,  Jokn,  an  American 
philologist,  son  of  Timothy ;  born  in 
Salem,  Mass.,  Feb.  7,  1777.  ^  He  held 
many  important  public  positions;  was 
president  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,  and  a  member  of 
various  learned  associations  at  home 
and  abroad.  He  published  a  paper  on 
the  "  Adoption  of  a  Uniform  Orthog- 
raphy for  the  Indian  Languages  " ;  a 
*'  Vocabulary  of  Words  and  Phrases 
Peculiar  to  the  United  States  " ;  etc. ; 
and  wrote  many  pamphlets  on  scien- 
tific and  political  questions.  He  died 
in  Boston,  May  5,  1846. 

Pickering,  Timotky,  an  Ameri- 
can statesman ;  born  in  Salem,  Mass., 
July  17,  1745;  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1763,  and  admitted  to  the  bar 
In  1768.  He  participated  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Lexington ;  in  1776  joined  the 
Continental  army  in  command  of  700 
men;    was   soon    appointed   adjutant- 


general  by  Washington;  in  1780  was 
selected  for  the  post  of  quartermaster 
of  the  army,  and  from  that  time  till 
the  close  of  the  war  conducted  his  de- 
partment with  great  skill.  Shortly 
after  his  resignation,  he  united  with 
Patrick  Henry  and  Alexander  Hamil- 
ton in  opposing  the  measure  that  drove 
the  Tories  from  the  country.  He  ne- 
gotiated a  treaty  between  the  United 
States  and  the  Six  Nations  in  1791, 
and  a  month  later  was  appointed  Post- 
master-General. He  was  Secretary  of 
State  under  Presidents  Washington 
and  Adams,  but  was  dismissed  during 
the  "  X.  Y.  Z."  papers  dispute  in 
1800.  He  retired  from  politics  for  a 
time,  but  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1804,  and  from  that 
time  continued  actively  in  politics.  He 
died  in  Sal^m,  Jan.  29,  1829. 

Pickering,  William  Henry,  ai? 
American  astronomer ;  born  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  Feb.  15,  1858;  brother  of 
Edward  Charles  Pickering;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology  in  1879;  became  assist- 
ant professor  at  the  Harvard  Observ- 
atory; and  conducted  several  expedi- 
tions to  observe  the  total  solar 
eclipses  in  different  parts  of  the  West- 
ern Hemisphere  in  1878-1893.  He  es- 
tablished astronomical  stations  in 
Southern  California  in  1889;  at  Are- 
quipa,  Peru,  in  1891 ;  and  at  Mande- 
ville,  Jamaica,  W.  I.,  in  1900.  He  has 
climbed  over  100  mountain  peaks. 

Picket,  a  stake  with  a  sharpened 
end,  used  in  laying  off  ground  for 
fortifications.  Also  a  stake  sharpened 
at  both  ends;  one  driven  into  the 
ground  and  the  other  acting  as  an  ob- 
stacle to  tLe  advance  of  the  enemy. 
Also  a  guard  posted  in  front  of  an 
army  to  give  notice  of  the  approach  of 
the  enemy. 

Pickett,  George  Edward,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in 
Richmond,  Va.,  Jan.  25,  1825 ;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1846;  served  in  the 
Mexican  War  as  lieutenant  and  was 
made  captain  in  1855.  In  1861  he  left 
the  United  States  service  and  entered 
the  Confederate  army.  He  was  com- 
missioned Brigadier-General  and  was 
distinguished  throughout  the  war  for 
bravery  and  activity.  In  1862  he  was 
made  Major-General.  He  took  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  battles  of  Fredericks- 


Pickles 


PiercO 


burg,  Gettysburg  (where  his  division 
made  ttie  famous  "  Pickett's  charge  "), 
Petersburg,  and  Five  Forks.  He  died 
in  Norfolk,  Va.,  July  30,  1875. 

Pickles,  a  term  generally  applied 
to  vegetables  preserved  in  vinegar, 
with  or  without  spices ;  though  the 
term  "  pickled  "  applies  to  animal  food 
preserved  in  salt.  The  vegetables 
most  often  pickled  are  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower, gherkins  (young  cucumbers), 
French  beans,  onions,  walnuts,  mush- 
rooms, and  nasturtiums.  Chile  pep- 
pers and  sweet  peppers,  olives,  and 
capers  are  the  most  common  kinds  of 
imported  pickles  and  mangoes  are  oc- 
casionally used. 

Ficquart,  George,  a  French  mili'- 
tary  oflicer ;  born  in  Strassburjc:  in 
1854 ;  was  educated  at  St.  Cyr,  1872- 
1874,  and  at  the  General  Staff  School 
in  1874-1876,  gaining  high  places  at 
the  examinations  in  both  schools.  In 
1896  he  was  given  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant-colonel, but  then  he  began  his  in- 
quiries into  the  Dreyfus  case,  moved 
thereto  by  certain  discoveries  which  he 
made  as  to  Major  Esterhazy.  In  this 
he  was  at  first  encouraged  by  his  of- 
ficial superiors,  but  afterward  discour- 
aged, and  in  January,  1897,  he  was 
sent  in  disgrace  to  Tunis.  He  return- 
ed to  take  a  prominent  part  in  the  in- 
quiries and  legal  proceedings  which 
took  place  in  the  winter  of  1897  and 
during  1898,  and  his  evidence  formed 
the  strongest  proof  of  the  illegality  of 
the  trial  at  which  Dreyfus  was  con- 
demned, and  of  the  astounding  meth- 
ods employed  by  the  War  Office  to  hush 
up  the  affair.  In  February,  1898,  he 
was  placed  on  the  retired  list,  and 
afterward  prosecuted  on  a  charge  of 
revealing  War  Office  secrets,  and  im- 
prisoned. He  vindicated  Dreyfus  (q. 
v.),  was  promoted  Brigadier-General, 
•and,  1906,  French  Minister  of  War. 

Picton,  Sir  Tliomas,  a  British 
military  officer ;  born  in  Poyston,  Pem- 
brokeshire, England,  in  August,  1758. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1772.  In 
1794  he  went  out  to  the  West  Indies; 
took  part  in  the  conquest  of  several  of 
the  islands,  including  Trinidad,  and 
was  appointed  (1797)  governor  of  the 
last  named,  being  shortly  afterward 
promoted  general.  There  he  plotted 
for  the  overthrow  of  Spanish  rule  in 
South  America.  Later  he  was  with 
Wellington,   fought  at  Quatre  Bras, 

B.  117. 


and  at  Waterloo  fell  leading  his  men 
to  the  charge,  June  18,  1815. 
Pidgin,     Ckarles      Felton,     an 

American  statistician;  born  in  Rox- 
bury,  Mass.,  Nov.  1,  1844.  He  in- 
vented many  machines  for  the  mechan- 
ical tabulation  of  statistics,  among- 
them  the  electric  adding  and  multiply- 
ing machine,  addition  register,  and 
typewriter  tabulator.  He  has  writ- 
ten novels  and  musical  compositions. 

Pierce,  Franklin,  an  American 
statesman,  14th  President  of  the 
United  States;  born  in  Hillsboro,  N. 
H.,  Nov.  23,  1804.  He  was  educated 
in  the  schools  of  his  native  State  and 
at  Bowdoin  College,  where  he  studied 
in  company  with  Loiigfellow,  Haw- 
thorne, and  Prentiss,  graduating  in 
1824.  In  1833  he  entered  Congress, 
serving  four  years,  and  in  1837  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate, 
being  the  youngest  member  of  that 
body,  that  contained  such  men  as 
Webster,  Clay,  Calhoun,  Benton,  Bu- 
chanan, and  Silas  Wright.  In  1842 
he  resigned  from  the  Senate  and  re- 
tired to  private  life,  declining  several 
public  offices  tendered  him.  In  1846 
he  enlisted  for  the  Mexican  War,  was 
appointed  brigadier  in  the  volunteer 
army,  and  led  his  brigade  in  the  bat- 
tles of  Contreras  and  Churubusco.  la 
1852  he  was  nominated  for  the  presi- 
dency on  the  49th  ballot,  by  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Convention,  and  was 
elected  by  an  electoral  majority  over 
General  Scott  of  254  to  42.  During 
his  administration  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise was  rei)ealed,  a  reciprocity 
treaty  for  trade  with  the  British 
American  colonies  was  made ;  a  treaty 
with  Japan  was  established;  and  the 
Mexican  boundary  disputes  settled. 
After  his  term  expired,  failing  of  a  re- 
nomination,  he  traveled  abroad  for 
three  years,  and,  returning,  lived  there- 
after in  retirement  at  Concord,  whera 
he  died,  Oct.  8,  1869. 

Pierce,  Henry  Niles,  an.  American; 
clergyman ;  born  in  Pawtucket,  R.  I., 
Oct.  19,  1820.  He  spent  many  years 
in  the  West  as  a  missionary,  and  was 
consecrated  Protestant  Episcopal 
Bishop  of  Arkansas  in  1870,  being  the 
first  incumbent  and  holding  the  office 
for  25  years.  He  published  many  es- 
says, sermons,  and  reviews ;  and  a^ 
volume  of  poems,  etc.  He  died  Sept* 
5,1899. 


Pierponf 

Pierpont,  Francis  Harrison,  an 

American  statesman^,  born  in  Monon- 
galia CO.,  Va.  (now  W.  Va.),  in  1815. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he 
became  governor  of  the  counties  of 
Virginia  that  remained  loyal  to  the 
Union,  and  were  organized  as  the  State 
of  West  Virginia  in  18G1 ;  was  then 
governor  of  all  the  loyal  counties  in 
Eastern  Virginia ;  and  from  June, 
1863,  till  May,  1865,  was  chief  execu- 
tive of  the  present  Virginia.  He  died 
in  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  March  24,  1899. 

Pierrepont,  JUvfrarda,  an  Ameri- 
can diplomatist ;  born  in  North 
Haven,  Conn.,  March  4,  1817;  was 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1837,  and  at  its 
Law  School  in  1840;  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Ohio  bar,  and  after  five 
years  removed  to  New  York  city.  He 
was  elected  a  judge  of  the  Superior 
Court  of  New  York  in  1857.  In  1875 
he  became  attorney-general  of  the 
United  States  in  Grant's  administra- 
tion ;  and  in  the  following  year  was 
appointed  United  States  minister  to 
Great  Britain.  He  tried  many  fa- 
mous cases  during  his  professional  ca- 
reer, and  was  noted  as  an  orator.  He 
died  in  New  York  city,  March  6,  1892. 

Pigeon  Englisli,  the  dialect  used 
by  English  and  American  residents  in 
China  in  their  dealings  with  the  native 
traders.  It  is  a  conglomeration  of 
English  and  Portuguese  words  in  Chi- 
nese idiom. 

Pig  Iron,  iron  in  oblong  masses,  or 
"  pigs,"  as  turned  out  by  the  smelting 
furnace.  The  production  in  the 
United  States  in  the  calendar  year 
1907  was  the  largest  on  record,  25,- 
781.361  long  tons,  valued  at  $529,- 
958,000,  and  the  world's  production 
was  60,680,014  metric  tons.  The 
available  iron-ore  supply  of  the 
United  States  was  estimated  at  4,- 
478,150,000  long  tons;  the  unavail- 
able 75,116,070,000. 

Pigments,  materials  used  for  im- 
parting color,  especially  in  painting, 
but  also  in  dyeing  or  otherwise. 

Pika,  the  calling  hare,  an  animal 
nearly  allied  to  the  hares.  It  is  found 
in  North  America,  Russia,  and  Si- 
beria, and  is  remarkable  for  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  stores  up  its  winter 
provision,  and  also  for  its  voice,  the 
tone  of  which  so  much  resembles  that 
of  a  quail  as  to  be  often  mistaken 
for  it. 


Pike'jr  Peak 

Pike,  a  military  weapon,  consisting 
of  a  narrow,  elongated  lance-head 
fixed  to  a  pole  or  a  simple  spike  of 
metal.  The  end  of  the  staff  had  also 
a  spike  for  insertion  in  the  ground, 
thus  allowing  a  musketeer  to  keep  off 
the  approach  of  cavalry  while  attend- 
ing to  his  other  arms.  It  is  now  su- 
perseded by  the  bayonet.  Also,  a  fish, 
the  common  pike.  It  is  one  of  the 
larger  fresh-water  fishes,  sometimes  at- 
taining a  length  of  five  or  six  feet,  and 
much  esteemed  for  food. 

Pike,  Albert,  an  American  writer ; 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Dec.  29,  1809. 
He  became  a  lawyer  in  Arkansas, 
where  he  revised  the  statutes.  He 
was  attorney  for  the  Cherokees,  re- 
ceiving at  one  time  a  fee  of  $100,000. 
In  1839  his  "Hymns  of  the  Gods" 
was  published.  He  also  wrote  works 
on  Masonry.  He  served  in  an  Arkan- 
sas regiment  during  the  Mexican  War, 
and  in  the  Civil  War  organized  some 
Indian  regiments  which  he  led  in  the 
battles  of  Pea  Ridge  and  Elkhorn. 
After  the  war  he  was  editor  of  the 
Memphis  "Appeal"  till  1868.  Died 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  April  8,  1891. 

Pike,  Mrs.  Mary  Hayden 
(Green),  an  American  novelist;  born 
in  Eastport,  Me.,  Nov.  30,  1825.  She 
will  be  best  remembered  as  the  author 
of  "  Ida  May,"  a  novel  dealing  with 
slavery  and  Southern  life,  which  had 
a  large  sale. 

Pike,  Zebnlon  Montgomery,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in 
Lamberton,  N.  J.,  Jan.  5,  1779;  was 
appointed  an  ensign  in  his  father's 
regiment  in  1799 ;  conducted  an  expe- 
dition sent  by  the  government  to  trace 
the  Mississippi  to  its  source  in  1805; 
also  made  explorations  in  Louisiana 
Territory,  discovering  Pike's  Peak  and 
reaching  the  Rio  Grande  in  the  course 
of  his  travels.  In  1813  he  was  pro- 
moted Brigadier-General,  and  on  April 
13  of  that  year  while  in  command  of 
the  attack  on  York  (now  Toronto), 
in  Upper  Canada,  was  killed. 

Pike  Perck,  a  genus  of  fishes  close* 
ly  allied  to  the  perch,  but  showing  a 
resemblance  to  the  pike  in  its  elon- 
gated body  and  head.  It  occurs  in  the 
fresh  waters  of  North  America,  such 
as  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Upper  Missis- 
sippi, and  the  Ohio. 

Pike's  Peak,  a  peak  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in   Colorado,  65  miles  S. 


Pilate 

of  Denver,  discovered  by  Captain 
Pike,  U.  S.  A.,  in  1806.  It  rises  to  a 
height  of  14,147  feet.  On  its  sum- 
mit is  one  of  the  highest  meteorolog- 
ical stations  in  the  world ;  while  at 
the  base,  at  Colorado  Springs,  there 
is  a  low  level  station.  There  is  a  rail- 
way to  the  top,  9  miles  long  (4i/^ 
miles  of  curves),  with  a  maximum 
gradient  of  1  in  4. 

Pilate,  Pontins,  a  Roman  ruler, 
who  became  governor  of  Judaea,  A.  D. 
26.  He  commanded  in  that  country 
10  years.  The  Jews  brought  Jesus 
Christ  before  Pilate,  who,  perceiving 
that  envy  and  malice  occasioned  their 
charges,  would  have  scourged  the  pris- 
oner and  dismissed  him,  but  being 
threatened  with  the  wrath  of  Caesar, 
Pilate  delivered  Jesus,  whom  he  pro- 
nounced innocent,  to  be  crucified.  He 
is  said  to  have  subsequently  treated 
the  Samaritans  with  great  cruelty,  for 
which  he  was  recalled  by  Tiberius, 
and  banished  to  Gaul,  where  he  slew 
himself,  A.  D.  37  or  38. 

Pilgrimage,  a  journey  undertaken 
by  a  pilgrim ;  specifically,  a  journey 
to  some  distant  place,  sacred  and  ven- 
erable for  some  reason,  undertaken  for 
devotional  purposes.  In  Scripture, 
the  journey  of  human  life.  (Gen. 
xlvii :  9. )  Pilgrimages  are  an  essen- 
tial part  of  the  Hindu  and  Mohamme- 
dan systems,  and  the  visits  to  Jerusa- 
lem three  times  a  year  of  the  Jewish 
race  were  of  the  nature  of  pilgrimages. 
Pilgrim  Fathers,  the  name  given 
to  102  Puritans,  who  sailed  in  the 
"  Mayflower,"  from  Plymouth,  on 
Sept.  6.  1620,  to  seek  in  America  the 
religious  liberty  denied  them  in  Eng- 
land. Landing  on  Plymouth  Rock, 
they,  on  Dec.  25,  1620,  founded  a  col- 
ony, which  became  the  germ  of  the 
New  England  States. 

Pillory,  formerly  a  common  instru- 
ment of  punishment  for  persons  con- 
victed of  forestalling,  use  of  unjust 
weights,  perjury,  forgery,  libel,  etc 
It  consisted  of  a  frame  of  wood,  erect- 
ed on  a  pillar  or  stand,  and  furnished 
with  movable  boards,  resembling  those 
of  the  stocks,  and  holes  through  which 
the  offender's  head  and  hands  were 
put.  In  this  position  he  was  exposed 
for  a  certain  time  to  public  view  and 
insult.  The  use  of  the  pillory  was 
abolished  in  France  in  1832,  in  Eng- 
land in  1837,  and  in  the  United  States 


Pilot  FisE 

about  1839,  except  in  the  State  of 
Delaware. 

Pillow,  Fort,  a  defensive  work, 
erected  by  the  Confederates  during  the 
Civil  War,  about  40  miles  N.  of  Mem- 
phis, Tenn.,  and  abandoned  by  them, 
June,  1862,  and  occupied  by  the  Union 
forces  till  April,  1864,  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  Confederates  imder  Gen- 
eral Forrest,  and  the  garrison  killed. 

Pillow,  Gideon  Jolinson,  an 
American  military  oflScer ;  born  in 
Williamson  co.,  Tenn.,  June  8,  1806; 
served  with  distinction  during  the 
Mexican  War,  first  as  a  Brigadier- 
General  and  later  as  a  Major-General 
of  volunteers.  In  the  Civil  War  he 
was  appointed  a  Brigadier-General  in 
the  Confederate  army ;  was  second  in 
command  at  Fort  Donelson  in  Febru- 
ary, 1862,  and  with  his  chief.  Gen. 
John  B.  Floyd,  escaped,  leaving  Gen- 
eral Buckner  to  surrender  the  fort  to 
General  Grant.  He  died  in  Lee  co.. 
Ark.,  Oct.  6,  1878. 

Pills,  medicines  made  in  globules, 
of  a  convenient  size  for  swallowing 
whole,  the  medicine  being  usually 
mixed  up  with  some  neutral  substance 
such  as  breadcrumbs,  hard  soap,  ex- 
tract of  liquorice,  mucilage,  syrup, 
treacle,  and  conserve  of  roses.  The 
coverings  are  liquorice  powder,  wheat 
flour,  fine  sugar,  and  lycopodium.  In 
many  cases  pills  are  now  enameled  or 
silvered,  which  deprives  them  of  most 
of  their  unpleasantness.  Pills  are  a 
highly  suitable  form  for  administering 
medicines  which  operate  in  small 
doses,  or  which  are  intended  to  act 
slowly  or  not  to  act  at  all  till  they 
reach  the  lower  intestines. 

Pilot,  one  who,  being  properly 
qualified  by  experience,  and  having 
passed  certain  examinations,  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  competent  authority  to 
conduct  ships  into  or  out  of  harbor  or 
along  particular  coasts,  channels,  etc, 
at  a  certain  fixed  rate,  depending  on 
the  draught  of  the  vessel  and  distance. 
The  pilot  has  the  entire  charge  of  the 
vessel  in  the  pilot's  water. 

Pilot  Fisli,  a  small  pelagic  fish, 
about  a  foot  long,  of  bluish  color, 
marked  with  from  five  to  seven  broad, 
dark,  vertical  bars.  It  owes  its  sci- 
entific and  popular  English  name  to 
its  habit  of  keeping  company  with 
ships  and  large  fish,  generally  sharks. 


Pilot  Knoll 


/  Piae 


Pilot  Knob,  a  remarkable  hill  in 
Missouri,  about  8G  miles  S.  W.  of  St. 
Louis.  It  is  nearly  500  feet  high,  and 
is  composed  almost  entirely  of  mag- 
Detic  iron  ore. 

Piloty,  Karl  von,  a  German  paint- 
er; born  in  Munich,  Bavaria,  Oct.  1, 
1826.  Died  in  Munich,  July  21,  1886. 
Pin,  a  piece  of  wood,  metal,  etc., 
generally  pointed  and  used  for  fasten- 
ing separate  articles  together,  or  as  a 
support;  a  peg,  a  bolt.  Also  a  small 
piece  of  wire,  generally  brass,  headed 
and  pointed,  used  as  a  fastening,  etc., 
since  antiquity. 

Pins  were  made  by  hand  of  metal  in 
the  16th  century,  and  were  very  cost- 
ly. Before  that  time  small  skewers  of 
ivory  or  wood  were  used.  The  first 
pin-making  machine  was  made  in  1824 
by  an  American  living  in  England. 
Many  improvements  have  since  been 
introduced. 

Pinchot,  GifPord,  an  American 
forester;  born  in  Simsbury,  Conn., 
Aug.  11.  1865;  studied  forestry  in 
several  European  countries;  inaugu- 
rated the  first  systematic  forestry 
work  in  the  United  States  at  Bilt- 
more,  N.  C,  in  1892;  became  chief  of 
the  National  Forest  Service  in  1898 
and  Professor  of  Forestry  at  Yale  in 
1903;  had  a  notable  controversy  with 
Secretary  Ballinger,  of  the  Interior 
Department,  concerning  the  conser- 
vation of  natural  resources  in  Alaska, 
in  1908-1910;  and  was  dismissed  from 
the  Forest  Service  by  President  Taft 
in  the  latter  year. 

Pinckney,  Charles  Coteswortli* 
an  American  statesman ;  born  in 
Charleston,  S.  C,  Feb.  25,  1746.  He 
was  Washington's  aide-de-camp  at  the 
battles  of  Brandywine  and  German- 
town,  and  afterward,  as  colonel,  saw 
much  active  service,  till  1780,  when  he 
was  taken  prisoner  at  the  surrender 
of  Charleston,  and  retained  till  the 
close  of  the  war.  A  member  of  the 
convention  that  framed  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States  (1787),  he 
introduced  the  clause  forbidding  relig- 
ious tests  as  a  qualification  for  office. 
He  declined  the  secretaryship  of  war 
in  1794,  and  of  state  in  1795 ;  in  1796 
he  was  sent  as  minister  to  France,  but 
the  Directory  refused  to  receive  him, 
and  he  had  to  quit  the  country.  It 
was  while  on  this  mission  that,  when 
It  was  intimated  that  peace  might  be 


granted  in  return  for  a  money  pay- 
ment, he  made  the  reply,  "  Millions  for 
defense,  but  not  a  cent  for  tribute." 
In  1800-1808  he  was  thrice  an  un- 
successful Federalist  candidate  for  the 
presidency.     He  died  Aug.  16,  1825. 

Pinckney,  Thomas,  an  American 
diplomatist,  brother  of  Charles  C. ; 
born  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Oct.  23, 
1750.  In  the  Revolutionary  War  as 
aide  to  General  Lincoln  he  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  assault  on 
Savannah  and  was  severely  wounded 
at  Camden  in  August,  1780.  He  was 
governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1787- 
1789  ;  United  States  minister  to  Great 
Britain  in  1792-1794,  and  to  Spain  in 
1794-1796;  a  Federalist  candidate  for 
the  presidency  in  1796;  and  member 
of  Congress  in  1797-1801.  He  died  in 
Charleston,  Nov.  2,  1828. 

Pindar,  th**  great  Greek  lyric  poet ; 
born  in  or  near  Thebes,  in  Bceotia, 
about  522  b.  c.  Pindar  excelled  in  all 
varieties  of  choral  poetry,  hymns  to 
the  gods,  paeans,  odes  for  processions, 
drinking  songs,  etc.  But  the  only 
poems  of  bis  now  extant  are  the 
"  Epinikia,  or  Triumphal  Odes,"  com- 
posed in  celebration  of  victories  at  the 
great  public  games,  the  Olympian, 
Pythian,  Nemean,  and  Isthmian.  Pin- 
dar attained  the  highest  renown  in  his 
own  age,  and  as  a  lyrical  poet  has  no 
rival.  When  Thebes  was  destroyed  by 
Alexander,  the  conqueror  spared  the 
house  of  Pindar.     He  died  in  443  B.  c. 

Pine,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Coniferse.  The  Linnajan  genus 
includes  all  kinds  of  fir,  larch,  and 
cedar;  but  as  now  limited  the  genus 
Pinus  is  distinguished  by  monoecious 
flowers  and  woody  cones  with  numer- 
ous two-seeded  scales,  the  scales  hav- 
ing an  angular  truncated  apex.  The 
leaves  are  linear  and  very  narrov^,  of 
a  very  dark^  green  color,  growing  in 
clusters  or  in  pairs,  and  surrounded 
by  scarious  scales  at  the  base.  To 
this  genus  belong  many  noble  and  use- 
ful trees.  Many  species  of  pines, 
some  of  them  very  beautiful  and  very 
valuable,  are  found  in  North  America. 
Besides  those  long  known,  and  which 
are  found  in  the  States  and  colonies 
near  the  Atlantic,  a  number  of  the 
noblest  species  of  this  genus  have,  dur- 
ing the  19th  century,  been  discovered 
in  California  and  the  N.  W.  parts  of 
the     Continent.     The     red    Canadian 


Pineapple 

pine  is  found  from  Canada  to  the  Pa- 
cific, but  does  not  reach  far  S.  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  the  yellow  pine 
of  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia. 

Pineapple,  a  plant  of  the  natural 
order  Bromeliaceae.  The  flowers  rise 
from  the  center  of  the  plant,  and 
are  in  a  large  conical  spike,  sur- 
mounted by  spiny  leaves  called  the 
crown.  The  conical  spike  of  flowers 
ultimately  becomes  enlarged  and  juicy, 
constituting  the  pineapple,  considered 


PINEAPPLE. 

one  of  the  finest  of  fruits.  More  than 
50  varieties  have  been  produced.  The 
plant  grows  in  the  S.  portion  of  the 
United  States  and  in  Hawaii.  In  the 
islands  they  sometimes  reach  the 
weight  of  17  pounds,  though  the  aver- 
age weight  is  six.  Since  1883  there 
have  been  large  exports  of  this  fruit 
from  the  various  islands. 

Pine  Bluff,  city  and  capital  of 
Jefferson  county,  Ark.;  on  the  Arkan- 
sas river  and  several  railroads;  48 
miles  S.  E.  of  Little  Rock;  is  the 
trade  center  of  a  large  farming  sec- 
tion; makes  extensive  shipments  of 
hides  and  cotton;  manufactures  cot- 
ton-seed oil  and  meal,  flour  and  grist, 
cotton-gins,  bank  furniture,  and  ma- 
chinery; and  contains  the  Merrill  In- 
stitute, a  Normal  College  for  colored 
students,  and  large  railroad  shops. 
Pop.  (1910)  15,102. 

Ping-Pong,  table  lawn  tennis,  a 
game  that  was  introduced  from  Eug- 


Pinkney 

land  and  became  very  popular  in  the 
United  States.  The  game  is  played 
very  much  as  is  the  regular  game  a£ 
tennis. 

Pingree,  Hazen  S.,  an  American 
manufacturer ;  born  in  Denmark,  Me., 
Aug.  30,  1842.  He  enlisted  in  the 
United  States  army  in  1862;  served 
throughout  the  war  and  was  in  the 
principal  battles.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  he  settled  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  and 
engaged  in  the  shoe  business,  subse- 
quently becoming  the  head  of  the 
largest  factory  of  its  kind  in  the  West. 
He  was  elected  mayor  of  Detroit  in 
1889,  on  the  Reform  ticket.  His 
radical  ideas  on  the  reform  of  monop- 
olies, etc.,  caused  much  agitation,  es- 
pecially in  connection  with  street  car 
companies.  He  also  instituted  the 
"  potato  patch,"  a  scheme  for  employ- 
ing applicants  for  charity  in  product- 
ive labor,  a  plan  which  has  been 
adopted  by  other  cities.  In  1896  he 
was  elected  governor  of  Michigan, 
holding  the  office  of  mayor  also,  till 
March  19,  1897,  when  according  to  a 
decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  he  re- 
linquished the  latter  office.  He  was 
reelected  governor  in  1898.  He  died 
June  18,  1901. 

Finkerton,  Allan,  an  American 
detective ;  bom  in  Glasgow,  Scotland, 
Aug.  25,  1819.  In  1840  he  went  to 
Canada  and  thence  to  Chicago,  where 
in  1850  he  joined  the  detective  depart- 
ment. Subsequently  he  organized  the 
detective  agency  which  still  bears  his 
name.  He  wrote  many  interesting 
stories  of  his  experiences,  which  were 
afterward  collected  in  one  volume.  He 
died  July  1,  1884. 

Pinkney,  'William,  an  American 
diplomatist ;  born  in  Annapolis,  Md., 
March  17,  1764;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1786;  was  a  member  of  the 
Legislature  of  his  State  that  ratified 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
In  1796  Washington  appointed  him  a 
commissioner  to  determine  the  claims 
of  American  merchants  to  compensa- 
tion for  losses  and  damages  caused  by 
the  English  government.  In  1806  he 
was  sent  with  James  Monroe  to  treat 
with  the  English  government  regarding 
the  latter's  repeated  violations  of  the 
rights  of  neutrals  and  was  resident 
minister  in  London  in  1807-1811, 
when  President  Madison  appointed 
him    attorney-general    of    the    United 


pinnated  Grouse 


Plpistrell0 


States.  In  1816  he  was  -appointed 
minister  to  Russia  and  special  envoy 
to  Naples.  After  his  return  in  1818 
he  resumed  law  practice.  In  1820  he 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Sen- 
ate. He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
Dec.   25,   1822. 

Pinnated  Grouse,  known  also  as 
the  prairie  hen,  or  prairie  chicken. 
The  male  is  remarkable  as  possessing 
two  erectile  tufts  in  the  nape,  and  an 
air  bladder  (connected  with  the  wind- 
pipe, and  capable  of  inflation)  on  each 
side  of  the  neck,  in  color  and  shape  re- 
sembling small  oranges ;  general  plu- 
mage brown,  mottled  with  a  darker 
shade;  habitat,  prairies  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi valley,  from  Louisiana,  N. 

Pint,  a  measure  of  capacity  used 
both  for  dry  and  liquid  measures.  It 
contains  34.65925  cubic  inches,  or  the 
eighth  part  of  a  gallon.  In  medicine 
it   is   equivalent   to   12   ounces. 

Pintail  Duck,  has  the  upper  parts 
and  flanks  ash,  with  narrow  stripes  of 


PINTAIL   DUCK. 

black ;  under  parts  white ;  head  umber- 
brown ;  tail  pointed.  It  inhabits  the 
N.  of  America  and  Europe. 

Pinzon,  Vincent  Yanez,  and 
Martin  Alonzo  (brothers),  Spanish 
navigators,  who  had  commands  in  Co- 
lumbus' first  voyage,  and  by  whose  ex- 
ertions mainly  it  was  that  a  suflBcient 
number  of  men  were  induced  to  risk 
their  lives  on  thia  perilous  enterprise. 
Vincent  Yanez  was  the  more  distin- 
guished of  the  brothers ;  he  made  sev- 
eral voyages,  on  the  most  important 


of  which  he  sailed  in  December,  1499, 
and  discovered  Brazil  and  the  river 
Amazon,  three  months  before  Cabral 
took  possession  of  South  America  for 
the  crowTi  of  Portugal. 

Pioneer,  one  of  a  body  of  soldiers 
equipped  with  pickax,  spade,  etc., 
whose  duty  it  is  to  clear  and  repair 
roads,  bridges,  etc.,  as  far  as  possible, 
for  troops  on  the  march.  They  are 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  battalion  of 
which  they  form  a  part,  and  are  com- 
manded by  a  pioneer  sergeant.  Also, 
one  who  goes  before  to  prepare  or 
clear  the  way,  or  remove  obstructions 
for  another,  especially  in  the  settle- 
ment of  a  new  region. 

Pipa,  a  genus  of  Batrachian  reptiles, 
closely  allied  to  the  common  toad,  but 
distinguished  by  the  body  being  hori- 
zontally flattened,  the  head  large  and 
triangular,  tongue  wanting,  tympanum 
concealed  beneath  the  skin,  the  eyes 
small,  placed  near  the  margin  of  the 
upper  jaw.  The  best-known  species  is 
the  Surinam  toad,  which  is  consider- 
ably larger  than  the  common  toad  of 
this  country. 

Pipe,  a  wine-measure,  usually  con- 
taining two  hogsheads  or  105  imperial 
or  126  wine  gallons ;  two  pipes  or  210 
imperial  gallons  make  a  tun.  The 
size  of  the  pipe  varies  according  to 
the  kind  of  wine  contained;  a  pipe  of 
Madeira  contains  110  wine  gallons ;  of 
sherry,  130 ;  of  port,  nearly  138,  and 
Lisbon,  140. 

Pipe  Clay,  a  yariety  of  clay  adapt- 
ed by  its  plasticity  and  freedom  from 
impurities  for  the  manufacture  of 
pipes. 

Pipefisli,  a  fish  distinguished  by  a 
long,  slender,  tapering  body,  and  by 
jaws  united  to  form  a  tube  or  pipe, 
bearing  the  mouth  at  the  tip.  There 
are  several  species. 

Piping:  Crow,  a  bird  from  New 
South  Wales.  It  has  great  powers  of 
mimicry;  called  also  the  flute  player, 

Pipistrelle,  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed of  the  bats;  color  reddish* 
brown,  paler  beneath.  The  wings  ex- 
tend down  to  the  base  of  the  toes,  and 
their  membrane,  like  that  of  the  ears, 
is  of  a  dusky  tint.  This  bat  is  spe- 
cially a  dweller  in  temperate  regions, 
its  period  of  hibernation  is  short,  and 
the  tail  is  used  as  an  organ  of  prehen- 
sion. 


Pipit 

Pipit,  or  Titlark,  a  genus  of 
perching  birds  possessing  striking 
affinities  with  the  larks,  which  they 
resemble  in  the  large  size  of  the  hinder 
claw,  but  commonly  classed  with  the 
■wagtails,  which  they  closely  resemble 
in  their  habits  of  running  swiftly  ou 
the  ground.  One  species  is  common 
in  the  United  States.  All  the  pipits 
build  their  nests  on  the  ground.  The 
8ong  in  all  consists  of  a  clear,  sunple 
note. 

Pippi   Ginlio.      See    GiXJUO    Ro- 

ilAKO. 

Piracy,  the  act,  practice,  or  crime 
of  robbing  on  the  high  seas.  This 
offense  at  common  law  consists  in 
committing  those  acts  of  robbery  and 
depredation  on  the  high  seas  which  if 
committed  upon  land  would  have 
amounted  to  felony  there.  But  other 
offenses  have,  by  various  statutes,  been 
made  piracy,  and  liable  to  the  same 
penalty.    Thus  trading  with,  or  in  any 


way  aiding,  known  pirates,  is  piracy. 
So,  too,  any  commander  or  seaman  of 
a  ship  who  runs  away  with  any  ship, 
boat,  goods,  etc.,  or  who  voluntarily 
delivers  such  up  to  any  pirate,  is 
guilty  of  piracy.  Any  one  who  con- 
veys or  removes  any  person  as  a  slave 
is  also  by  statute  law  of  most  civilized 
nations  guilty  of  piracy.  The  penalty 
is  death,  or  some  lesser  punishment. 
The  most  famous  execution  of  pirates 
was  on  the  beach  at  Newport,  Rhode 
Island,  in  the  colonial  period,  when 
30  pirates  from  one  vessel  were  hanged 
at  one  time. 

Pirai,  or  Piraya,  a  voracious 
fresh-water  fish  of  tropical  America. 
It  is  three  or  four  feet  in  length,  and 
its  jaws  are  armed  with  sharp  lancet- 
shaped  teeth,  from  which  cattle  when 
fording  rivers  sometimes  suffer  ter- 
ribly. 


Pisa 

Pisa,  a  city  of  Central  Italy,  capi- 
tal of  the  province  of  Pisa,  on  the 
Arno,  8  miles  from  its  mouth,  13  miles 
N.  E.  of  Leghorn,  and  50  miles  W.  of 
Lucca.  The  walls  are  5  miles  in 
circuit.  The  Arno  flows  through  the 
city,  and  is  crossed  by  several  bridges, 
the  principal  one  being  of  fine  marble. 
The  cathedral,  with  its  attendant 
buildings,  the  baptistery,  the  cemetery 
and  the  belfry,  is  perhaps,  the  finest 
specimen  that  exists  of  the  style  of 
building  called  by  the  Italians  the 
Gotico-Moresco.  The  most  remarkable 
buildings  in  Pisa  are  the  Campo  Santo 
and  the  belfry,  or  campanile,  a  cylin- 
drical tower,  178  feet  in  height,  con- 
structed of  successive  rows  of  pillars, 
chiefly  of  marble;  it  is  extremely 
graceful  in  its  proportions,  but  its 
chief  peculiarity  consists  in  its  in- 
clination about  13  feet  out  of  the  per- 
pendicular, whence  it  is  commonly 
called  the  Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa.  The 
University  of  Pisa  is  one  of  the  oldest 
in  Italy;  it  has  56  professors  and 
about  1,000  students.  Galileo,  who  was 
a  native  of  Pisa,  was  formerly  one  of 
the  professors.     Pop.  61,321. 

Pisa,  Conncil  of,  a  church  counoil 
generally  included  in  those  called 
ecumenical,  met  and  opened  in  Pisa 
March  25,  1409,  and  the  23d  and  last 
session  of  which  was  held  Aug.  7  fol- 
lowing. Its  aim  was  to  end  the  schism 
which  had  divided  the  Western  Church 
for  30  years ;  and  with  this  view  the 
leading  cardinals,  finding  that  neither 
of  the  rival  Popes,  Gregory  XII.  and 
Benedict  XIII.,  would  keep  their 
promises  to  abdicate,  had  set  aside  the 
claims  of  both,  and  themselves  con- 
voked a  general  council.  It  was  at- 
tended from  first  to  last  by  24  car- 
dinals, 4  patriarchs,  80  bishops,  102 
proctors  of  bishops,  87  abbots,  200 
delegates  of  abbots,  besides  many  gen- 
erals of  orders,  doctors,  deputies  of 
universities,  and  ambassadors.  After 
the  rival  Popes  failed  to  appear  in 
obedience  to  its  summons,  the  council 
formally  tried  the  claims  of  both  in 
turn,  and  deposed  them  as  schismatics 
and  heretics.  The  cardinals  then 
formed  themselves  into  conclave  and 
elected  Cardinal  Philargi,  who  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Alexander  V.  But 
the  council,  instead  of  getting  rid  of 
the  contending  Popes,  had  only  add^ 
a   third,   and    the   Church   of    Roma- 


Pisces 


Pitcairn  Isla^id 


continued  to  be  distracted  for  eight 
years  longer,  down  to  the  time  of  the 
Council    of    Constance. 

Pisces,  in  astronomy,  the  12th  and 
last  of  the  zodiacal  constellations. 

Pisgali,  a  name  that  seems  to  have 
applied  generally  to  the  mountain 
range  or  district  to  the  E.  of  the  Low- 
er Jordan,  identical  with,  or  itself  a 
part  of,  the  mountains  of  Abarrim, 
one  of  the  summits  of  which  is  Mount 
Nebo  (the  modern  Neba),  2,G44  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean. 
From  this  point  INIoses  enjoyed  his 
glimpse  of  the  Promised  Land,  in  early 
spring. 


PISA  :  LEAiaNG  TOWER  AITO  CATHEDRAL 

Pisistratns,  a  citizen  of  Athens 
who  raised  himself  to  the  sovereign 
authority  in  the  time  of  Solon  (to 
whom  he  was  related)  500  b.  c.  He 
was  a  beneficent  ruler,  and  did  much 
to  promote  the  rise  of  Greek  literature. 
We  owe  to  him  the  poems  of  Homor 
in  their  present  form,  Pisistratus  hav- 
ing collected  them,  as  they  were  scat- 
tered in  detached  parts  throughout 
Greece,  and  given  them  orderly  ar- 
rangement. 

Pisqnoiv,  or  Pisliqiiitpali,  a  tribe 
of  North  American  Indians  living  for- 


merly on  the  Wenatchee  or  Pisquow 
river,  Washington.  The  name  has  also 
been  used  collectively  and  applied  to 
the  Methow  and  other  tribes  in  Okano- 
gan county  of  that  State.  They  are 
now  on  the  Yakima  reservation, 
Washington. 

Pistacio  Nut,  the  fruit  of  the  pis- 
tacia  vera.  The  kernel  is  very  oily,  of 
a  peculiar  flavor  and  bright  green  in 
color,  and  is  much  used  in  confec- 
tions, etc. 

Pistole,  a  gold  coin  once  current  iu 
Spain,  France,  and  the  neighboring 
countries ;  and  its  average  value  was 
about  $3.85, 

Pita  Flax,  flax  made  from  the  fiber 
of  the  maguey  and  used  for  twine, 
rope,  hammock  meshes,  etc.  In  Mexi- 
co it  is  also  used  for  oakum.  La- 
billardiere  found  that  its  strength  is 
to  that  of  common  flax  as  7  to  11%. 

Pitaval,  Francois  Gayot  de,  a 
French  lawyer ;  compiler  of  the  fa- 
mous collection  of  "  Celebrated 
Cases " ;  born  in  1G73,  served  in  the 
army,  but  became  an  advocate,  and 
was  known  as  an  industrious  and 
painsfaking  compiler.  Of  his  great 
work  there  have  been  numerous  abridg- 
ments, continuations,  and  transla- 
tions ;  and  his  name  has  become  so 
identified  with  the  collecting  of  crim- 
inal cases  that  a  similar  work,  pub- 
lished by  various  editors  in  Leipsic  in 
1843  and  succeeding  years,  was  called 
"A  New  Pitaval."    He  died  in  1743. 

Pitcairn  Island,  a  solitary  island 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  between  Aus- 
tralia and  South  America,  in  lat.  25° 
3'  S.  and  Ion.  130°  8'  W.,  measures 
2%  miles  by  1  mile.  In  1790  it  was 
taken  possession  of  by  nine  of  the 
mutineers  of  H.  M.  S.  "  Bounty,"  with 
six  Tahitian  men  and  12  women,  the 
ringleader  being  called  Christian.  Ac- 
cording to  one  account,  the  white  men 
and  the  Tahitians  murdered  each  oth- 
er at  intervals,  till  at  the  end  of  10 
years  John  Adams  was  left  alone, 
with  eight  or  nine  women  and  several 
children ;  and  from  them  the  present 
inhabitants  of  the  island  are  descend- 
ed. Adams,  changed  by  these  tragic 
adventures,  and  sobered  by  his  re- 
sponsibilities, set  about  the  education 
of  his  companions  in  Christian  prin- 
ciples. The  little  colony  was  un- 
known to  the  world  till  1808,  when  it 


Pitct 

was  "  discovered  "  by  Captain  Folger 
of  the  American  sealing  ship  "  To- 
paz " ;  the  first  British  vessel  to  visit 
it  did  not  arrive  till  1814.  The  island 
was  annexed  to  Great  Britain  in  1839. 
Nearly  200  of  the  islanders  were  trans- 
ferred to  Norfolk  Island  in  185G,  but 
a  number  of  them  afterward  returned. 
Pitcairn  Island  enjoys  a  lovely  cli- 
mate ;  its  mountainous  surface  reaches 
1,008  feet  in  Outlook  Ridge ;  the  soil 
is  fertile,  and  produces  yams,  cocoa- 
nuts,  bread  fruit,  sweet  potatoes, 
bananas,  etc.  The  people  bear  a  high 
character  for  virtue,  contentedness  and 
uprightness,  and  choose  their  own  pas- 
tor and   magistrate. 

Pitcli,  a  term  applied  to  a  variety 
of  resinous  substances  of  a  dark  color 
and  brilliant  luster,  obtained  from  the 
various  kinds  of  tar  produced  in  the 
destructive  distillation  of  wood,  coal, 
etc.  Pitch  is  extensively  used  in  ship- 
building for  closing  seams,  also  for 
coating  and  preserving  wood  and  iron. 

Pitchblende,  or  Uraninite.  See 
Radium. 

Pitcher  Plant.  The  name  is  ap- 
plied to  any  plant  with  a  pitcher-like 
appendage.  The  California  pitcher 
plant  is  well  known  in  that  region. 

Pitch  Stone,  a  vitreous  rock  of 
pitch-like  luster  and  imperfect  con- 
choidal  fracture;  brittle.  Analyses 
indicate  that  it  is  probably  a  vitreous 
form  of  quartz,  felsite,  or  of  trachyte. 
Color  mostly  blackish-green  or  dark 
olive-green. 

Pitchnrim  Beans,  the  name  given 
to  a  South  American  species  of  laurel, 
the  drupes  of  which  are  used  by  choco- 
late makers  as  a  substitute  for  vanilla. 

Pithecanthropus  Erectus,  the 
name  given  to  the  fossil  remains  of  a 
prehistoric  animal  found  in  Java,  and 
which  represents  a  form  intermediate 
between  man  and  the  higher  apes.  Re- 
cent explorations  indicate  that  this 
animal  may  yet  be  living  in  remote 
Java  forests. 

Pithom,  one  of  the  store  cities 
which  the  children  of  Israel  built  for 
Pharaoh  (Exod.  i:  11),  conclusively 
identified  in  1883  by  the  excavations  of 
M.  Naville  with  the  deserted  Arab 
village  Tell  El-Maskhuta,  on  the  fresh- 
water canal  and  railway  line  from 
Cairo  to  Ismailia.  about  half-way  be- 
tween Ismailia  and  Tell  El-Kebir. 


Pittsburg 

Pitman,  Benn,  an  American  pho- 
nographer ;  born  in  Trowbridge,  Eng- 
land, July  24,  1822;  brother  of  Sir 
Isaac  Pitman,  the  inventor  of  phonog- 
raphy ;  was  educated  in  his  brother's 
academy ;  lectured  and  taught  phonog- 
raphy throughout  Great  Britain  for 
10  years.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1853,  and  founded  the  Pho- 
nographic Institute  in  Cincinnati ;  in- 
vented the  electro-process  of  relief  en- 
graving; was  military  recorder  of 
State  trials  in  the  Civil  War.     D.  1910. 

Pitman,  Sir  Isaac,  an  English 
stenographer ;  bom  in  Trowbridge, 
England,  Jan.  4,  1813.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  phonetic  system  of 
shorthand  writing  and  published  his 
first  treatise  on  the  subject  entitled 
"  Stenographic  Soundhand  "  in  1837. 
He  was  the  head  of  the  Phonetic  Insti- 
tute at  Bath,  and  was  identified  with 
the  spelling  reform.  He  died  Jan. 
22,  1897. 

Pitt,  William,  an  English  states- 
man ;  born  in  Hayes,  England,  May 
28,  1759 ;  was  educated  at  Cambridge 
University ;  studied  law  and  was  elect- 
ed to  Parliament  in  1780.  In  1783 
he  became  prime  minister ;  was  active 
in  the  negotiations  of  peace  with  the 
United  States,  and  was  instrumental 
in  the  passage  of  many  important 
measures.  He  died  in  Putney,  Eng- 
land, Jan.  23,  1806.  For  the  elder 
Pitt  see  Chatham. 

Pittsburg  (according  to  its  city 
charter,  Pittsburgh ) ,  a  city,  port  of 
entry,  and  county-seat  of  Allegheny 
CO.,  Pa. ;  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Monougahela  and  Allegheny  rivers, 
353  miles  W.  of  Philadelphia;  area, 
41  square  miles;  pop.  (1910),  includ- 
ing Allegheny  city,    533,905. 

The  city  owns  a  waterworks  system, 
costing  over  $7,000,000.  The  reser- 
voirs have  a  storage  capacity  of  G8,- 
000,000  gallons,  and  the  water  is  dis- 
tributed through  300  miles  of  mains. 
There  are  in  all  230  miles  of  streets, 
of  which  200  miles  are  paved.  The 
sewer  system  covers  220  miles.  The 
city  is  lighted  by  electricity.  The  an- 
nual death  rate  averages  19  per  1,000. 

The  principal  public  buildings  are 
the  Allegheny  court  house,  the  Car- 
negie Library  and  Institute,  with 
museum,  music  hall,  and  art  gallery, 
nnd  having  an  endowment  of  $2,000,- 
000 ;    the    United   States   Government 


tPittsfield 

Building,  the  West  Pennsylvania  Ex- 
position Society's  Buildings;  Mvmici- 
pal  Hall;  United  States  Arsenal,  and 
the  Western  State  Penitentiary. 

The  two  chief  industries  are  the  pro- 
duction of  iron  and  steel ;  but  there 
are  many  other  flourishing  manufac- 
tures. The  city  is  well  known  as  the 
Iron  City,  for  there  is  nothing  in  the 
iron  industry  which  is  not  here  man- 
ufactured. The  capacity  of  the  iron 
mills  is  over  800,000  tons  annually, 
atid  that  of  the  Bessemer  steel  mills 
upward  of  400,000  tons.  There  are  in 
Pittsburg  besides  blast  furnaces  and 
iron  and  steel  works  over  1,500  man- 
ufacturing establishments,  employing 
more  than  60,000  persons.  The  schools 
are  flourishing  and  their  accommoda- 
tions keep  pace  with  increasing  popu- 
lation. There  are  over  200  churches 
in  Pittsburg.  The  most  important  of 
these  are  Trinity  (P.  E.),  St.  Peter's 
(P.  E.),  First  Presbyterian,  United 
Evangelical  (German),  First  Baptist, 
English  Evangelical,  etc. 

In  1754,  at  the  suggestion  of  George 
Washington,  the  English  began  to 
erect  a  blockhouse  on  the  present  site 
of  the  city.  They  were  driven  away 
by  the  French,  who  built  a  fort  at  the 
junction  of  the  two  rivers  and  named 
it  Du  Quesne.  In  1758,  after  two 
unsuccessful    attempts    to    retake   the 

glace,  the  English  under  General 
'orbes  made  a  third  attempt,  and  the 
French  burned  and  evacuated  the  fort. 
In  the  following  year  another  fort  was 
erected  here,  named  in  honor  of  Will- 
iam Pitt.  The  British  withdrew  from 
the  post  in  1772,  and  it  was  held  by 
Virginia  in  1775-1779.  The  place  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  March  18,  1816. 
In  1877  a  railroad  strike  and  riot  oc- 
curred in  which  much  damage  was 
done  to  railroad  property,  and  for 
which  Allegheny  county  had  to  settle 
at  a  cost  of  $4,000,000. 
I  Pittsfield,  city  and  capital  of 
Berkshire  county,  Mass.;  on  the 
Housatonic  river  and  the  Boston  & 
Maine  and  other  railroads;  40  miles 
N.  W.  of  Springfield;  is  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  cotton, 
woolen,  and  knit  goods,  electrical 
apparatus,  flour,  silk,  and  shoes;  con- 
tains a  beautiful  white  marble  Court 
House,  Berkshire  Athenaeum,  with 
Historical  Society,  Public  Library, 
and  Museum  and  Art  Gallery,  St.  Jo- 


Fins 

soph's  Cathedral  (R.  C),  Bishop 
Training  School  for  Nurses,  head- 
quarters of  the  Agassiz  Association, 
House  of  Mercy,  and  a  public  park 
with  statue  of  "  The  Color  Bearer." 
Pop.  (1910)  32,121. 

Pins,  the  name  of  a  number  of 
Popes,  as  follows: 

Pius  I.,  succeeded  Hyginus  in  142,. 
and  died  in  157 

Pius  II.  (^neas  Sylvani  Pic- 
colomini);  born  in  Tuscany  in  1405, 
was  chosen  to  succeed  Calixtus  III. 
in  1458,  and  died  in  1464. 

Pius  V.  (Michele  Ghislieri)  ;  born 
in  Piedmont  in  1504,  and  early 
entered  the  Dominican  order.  He  so 
distinguished  himself  by  his  austere 
life,  and  his  zeal  against  "  heretics,'* 
that  he  was  appointed  inquisitor  ia 
Lombardy,  and  afterward  inquisitor- 
general.  He  was  created  cardinal  in 
1557,  and  was  chosen  to  succeed  Pius 
IV.,  in  1566.  He  died  in  May,  1572. 

Pius  VI.  (Giovanni  Angelo  Bras- 
chi)  ;  born  in  Cesena  in  1717,  and 
succeeded  Clement  XIV.  in  1775. 
His  first  act  was  to  make  a  reform  in 
the  public  treasury;  he  then  com- 
pleted the  museum  in  the  Vatican; 
but  the  greatest  work  of  his  pontificate 
was  the  draining  of  the  Pontine 
marshes.  Basseville  was  sent  as  envoy 
from  the  republic  of  France  to  Rome, 
where  he  behaved  with  so  much  in- 
solence, that  the  people  assassinated 
him  in  1793.  General  Duphot  entered 
the  city  with  his  troops  to  restore  or- 
der, but  the  papal  soldiers  routed  them, 
and  Duphot  was  slain.  On  this  Bona- 
parte entered  Italy,  and  made  the 
Pope  ■  prisoner  in  the  capitol,  which 
was  plundered.  The  venerable  pontiff 
was  carried  away  by  the  victors,  and 
hurried  over  the  Alps  to  Valence, 
where  he  died  Aug.  29,  1799. 

Pius  VII.  (Gregorio  Barnaba 
Chiaramonti)  ;  born  in  Cesena,  in 
1742 ;  became  a  Benedictine  monk ; 
was  created  cardinal  in  1785,  and  after 
the  death  of  Pius  VI.,  was  chosen, 
after  long  deliberations  of  the  con- 
clave, to  succeed  him  March,  1800.  In 
1804  the  Pope  went  to  Paris  and 
crowned  Napoleon  emperor,  returning 
to  Rome  in  May,  1805.  Soon  after 
Ancona  was  seized  by  the  French,  and 
the  great  quarrel  between  Napoleon 
and  the  Pope  began.  Pius  was  ar- 
rested  by  the  French   oflScer   Miollis 


Pius 

and  sent  to  Savona,  and  afterward  to 
Fontainebleau,  whence  he  was  not  per- 
mitted to  return  to  Italy  till  January, 
1814,  The  Congress  of  Vienna  re- 
stored the  States  of  the  Church  to 
the  Pope,  who  applied  himself  thence- 
forth to  internal  reforms.  He  re- 
established the  Jesuits  and  the  In- 
quisition.    He  died,  Aug.  20,  1823. 

Pius  VIII.  (Cardinal  Castiglione) , 
became  Pope  in  succession  to  Leo 
XII.,  in  1829.  After  a  short  pontifi- 
cate of  one  year,  he  died  in  1830. 

Pius  IX.  (Giovanni  Mario  Mastai 
Ferretti)  ;  born  in  Singaglia,  May  13, 
1790;  was  intended  for  the  army,  but 
resolved  to  devote  himself  to  the 
Church.  He  was  nom.inated  by  Pius 
VII.  on  a  mission  to  the  government 
of  Chile,  and  immediately  on  his  re- 
turn to  Rome  he  was  appointed  by  Leo 
XII.  to  one  of  the  most  important  of 
the  ecclesiastico-civil  departments  of 
administration.  lu  1840  he  was  created 
Cardinal-Archbishop  of  Imola,  in  the 
Romagna.  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  died 
June  1,  1846,  and  Cardinal  Ferretti 
was  elected  to  the  papacy  under  the 
name  of  Pius  IX.,  June  16.  But  the 
French  Revolution  of  1848  gave  a 
much  more  powerful  impulse  to  the  en- 
thusiasm of  the  Italian  patriots.  These 
sweeping  changes  the  Pope  was  not 
prepared  to  support,  and  from  that 
moment  his  popularity  began  to  de- 
cline. The  popular  disaffection  was 
greatly  increased  on  his  taking  for  his 
minister  Count  Rossi,  one  of  the  most 
aristocratic  and  unpopular  men  in 
Rome.  Count  Rossi  was  assassinated 
Nov.  15,  and  Pius  himself,  a  few  days 
later,  escaped  from  Rome  in  disguise, 
and  arrived  safely  in  Gaeta,  the  first 
town  in  the  Neapolitan  territory, 
whither  he  was  followed  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  papal  court  and  the  diplo- 
matic corps.  The  Pope  remained  near- 
ly a  year  and  a  half  at  Gaeta  and 
Portici.  During  his  absence,  Rome, 
which  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
native  troops  under  Garibaldi,  was 
besieged,  and  at  last  taken  by  storm 
by  the  French  army  under  General 
Oudinot,  after  sustaining  some  re- 
verses. The  Pope  left  Portici,  April 
4,  1850,  escorted  by  Neapolitan  and 
French  dragoons,  and  accompanied  by 
the  King  of  Naples  and  several  mem- 
bers of  his  family.  He  crossed  the 
frontier  at  Terracina,  April  6,  and  re- 
entered   Rome    April    12,    amid    the 


__^ ^'"^ 

thunder  of  French  cannon.  His  chief 
ecclesiastical  acts  are  the  formal  def- 
inition of  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  in  December,  1854;  and 
the  bull  summoning  the  Ecumenical 
Council  of  18G9-1870,  which  promul- 
gated the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibil- 
ity. In  September,  1870,  the  French 
troops  were  withdrawn  from  Rome, 
and  in  October  the  States  of  the 
Church  were  annexed  to  the  kingdom 
of  Italy,  thus  ending  the  temporal 
power  of  the  Popes.  He  died  Feb.  7, 
1878. 

Pius  X.,  the  present  Pope  of  Rome, 
family  name  Giuseppe  Sarto  (in  En- 
glish, Joseph  Taylor),  is  an  Italian, 
a  native  of  Treviso,  where  he  was 
born  in  1835.  It  is  a  curious  coinci- 
dence that  in  1303,  exactly  six  hun- 
dred years  ago,  another  native  of  Tre- 
viso was  elected  Pope.  The  Sarto 
family  consisted  of  two  boys  and  six 
girls.  Giuseppe  was  the  younger 
brother.  The  family  was  poor,  and 
to  this  day  all  the  members  are  in 
humble  life.  The  new  Pope's  elder 
brother  holds  a  small  ofiice  under  the 
Government,  for  which  he  receives  a 
salary  of  eighty  dollars  a  year.  Two 
of  his  sisters,  being  unmarried,  have 
resided  with  their  now  famous  brother. 
He  performed  the  duties  of  a  humble 
parish  priest  until  1884,  when  Pope 
Leo  made  him  Bishop  of  Mantua,  and, 
nine  years  later,  he  was  made  a  Car- 
dinal and  Patriarch  of  Venice.  He 
took  no  part  in  the  political  affairs  of 
the  Church,  and  seldom  went  to  Rome, 
but  devoted  himself  to  his  own  diocese, 
where  he  won  the  respect  of  Protest- 
ants, as  well  as  Catholics,  by  his 
charities,  his  interest  in  social  re- 
forms, and  his  kindness  and  courtesy. 
It  is  stated  that  he  was  so  generous 
in  his  gifts  to  the  poor  of  his  diocese, 
that  he  impoverished  himself  to  such 
a  degree  that  he  has  been  known  to 
pawn  his  official  ring,  to  provide  him- 
self with  funds  for  a  temporary  emer- 
gency. It  was  noticed  after  his  elec- 
tion to  the  Pontificate,  by  a  Cardinal 
who  was  making  an  appointment  with 
him,  that  he  was  wearing  a  nickel 
watch,  with  a  common  silk  guard. 
He  has  chosen  to  be  called  Pius  X., 
but  the  inferences  usually  drawn  from 
the  choice  of  a  name  are  ar  fault  in 
this  instance,  as  it  is  not  known  which 
of  his  nine  predecessors  of  that  name 


Plnte 

he  regards  as  a  model.  He  is  said  to 
be  a  man  of  profound  learning  and 
Bterling  honesty  of  character.  Ameri- 
cans who  have  met  him  say  that  in 
personal  appearance  and  manner  he 
bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
late  Phillips  Brooks.  He  has  dis- 
pensed with  some  of  the  stately  sur- 
roundings which  the  late  Pope  main- 
tained.   He  was  elected  Aug,  4,  1903. 

Piute.     See  Paiute. 

Pizarro,  Francisco,  a  Spanish  ex- 
plorer, the  conqueror  of  Peru.  He 
embarked  in  1510,  with  some  other  ad- 
venturers, for  America ;  and,  in  1524, 
he  associated  at  Panama  with  Diego 
de  Almagro  and  Hernandez  Lucque,  a 
priest,  in  an  enterprise  to  make  fresh 
discoveries.  In  this  voyage  they 
reached  the  coast  of  Peru,  but  being 
too  few  to  make  any  attempt  at  a  set- 
tlement, Pizarro  returned  to  Spain. 
Having  raised  some  money,  he  was  en- 
abled again,  in  1531,  to  visit  Peru, 
where  a  civil  war  was  raging  between 
Huascar,  the  legitimate  monarch,  and 
his  half-brother,  Atahualpa,  the  reign- 
ing inca.  Pizarro,  by  pretending  to 
take  the  part  of  the  latter,  was  per- 
mitted to  march  into  the  interior  where 
he  made  the  unsuspecting  king  prison- 
er; then  extorting  from  him,  as  it  is 
said,  a  house  full  of  the  precious 
metals  by  way  of  ransom,  he  had  him 
tried  for  a  pretended  conspiracy,  and 
condemned  him  to  be  burned,  allow- 
ing him  first  to  be  strangled,  as  a  re- 
ward for  becoming  a  Christian.  In 
1533  the  conqueror  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  Lima ;  but,  in  1537,  a  contest 
erose  between  him  and  Almagro,  who 
was  defeated  and  executed.  Pizarro 
was  murdered  by  Almagro's  followers, 
June  26,  1541. 

Pizarro,  Gonzalo,  half  brother  of 
the  preceding ;  bom  in  1502.  His 
brother  appointed  him  governor  of 
Quito  in  1540,  and  after  the  assas- 
sination of  Francisco,  he  raised  an 
army  against  the  new  viceroy,  Blasco 
Nunez,  and  the  latter  was  defeated 
and  slain  near  Quito  in  1546.  But 
Pizarro^  did  not  long  enjoy  his  suc- 
cess, being  beaten,  taken  prisoner,  and 
beheaded   in  1548. 

Plagne,  a  peculiarly  malignant 
fever  of  the  continued  and  contagious 
type,  now  believed  to  be  almost  identic- 
al with  the  worst  kinds  of  typhus 
fever.      The    plague    seems    to    have 


Plain 

been  the  black  death  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury. It  was  known  by  the  name  of 
plague  when,  in  1665,  it  slew  in  Lon- 
don 68,596  people,  about  one-third  of 
the  population. 

In  th«  summer  of  1896  a  very  malig- 
nant form  of  disease,  known  as  the 
"  bubonic "  plague,  made  its  appear- 
ance in  Bombay,  India,  and  spread 
with  great  rapidity.  The  bubonic 
plague  receives  its  name  from  the 
fact  that  it  attacks  the  lymphatic 
glands  in  the  neck,  armpits,  groin, 
and  other  parts  of  the  body.  In  gen- 
eral, the  disease  is  spread  in  the  same 
manner  as  cholera,  except  that  the 
cholera  germ  must  enter  the  intestinal 
tract,  while  the  germ  of  the  plague 
may  attack  any  part  of  the  mucous 
membrane^  or  be  admitted  by  even  the 
minutest  abrasion  of  the  skin.  But 
while  this  germ  is  so  virile  and  so 
easily  taken  into  the  system,  it  is  one 
of  the  most  easily  killed  by  disin- 
fection. 

The  Ten  Plagues  of  Egypt  were  10 
inflictions  divinely  sent  upon  the 
Egyptians  to  compel  them  t»  emanci- 
pate the  Israelites  from  bondage  and 
allow  them  to  quit  the  land.  The 
first  plague  consisted  in  the  turning 
of  the  waters  of  Egypt  into  blood; 
the  second,  of  frogs  that  covered  the 
land;  the  third,  of  lice  annoying  both 
man  and  beast ;  the  fourth  of  grievous 
swarms  of  flies;  the  fifth,  of  murrain 
that  attacked  the  live  stock ;  the  sixth, 
of  boils  "  breaking  forth  with  blains 
upon  man  and  upon  beast " ;  the  sev- 
enth, a  severe  thunder  storm  accom- 
panied by  destructive  hail ;  the  eighth, 
a  plague  of  locusts  that  ate  what  the 
hail  had  spared ;  the  ninth,  a  darkness 
that  could  be  felt ;  the  tenth,  the  death 
of  the  firstborn  of  man  and  beast 
among  the  Egyptians. 

Plain,  an  expanse  of  low-lying  ter- 
ritory as  distinguished  from  a  table- 
land or  plateau.  Speaking  broadly, 
the  Western  Hemisphere  is  the  region 
of  plains,  and  the  Eastern  of  table- 
lands. Nevertheless,  the  former  has 
in  it  what  is  called  the  Great  North- 
ern plain,  extending,  with  the  one 
break  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  from  the 
shores  of  the  Atlantic  nearly  to  Ber- 
ing's Strait,  and  from  the  Arctic  Ocean 
to  the  Caucasus  and  Altai  Moun» 
tains.  In  this  hemisphere  are  the 
Great  Central  and  the  Atlantic  plains 


Plainfield 


Plaster  of  Farla 


of  North  America,  and  the  great 
South  American  plain.  '*  The  Plains  " 
was  a  vast  stretch  of  country  of 
the  United  States  which  emigrants 
crossed  in  going  to  the  Pacific,  now 
divided  into   prosperous  States. 

Plainfield,  a  city  in  Union  ceunty, 
N.  J.;  on  the  Central  Railroad  of  New 
Jersey  and  a  continuation  of  the  Or- 
ange Mountains;  24  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
New  York  city;  is  largely  a  beautiful 
residential  place,  but  has  manufac- 
tories of  printing-presses,  safes,  cloth- 
ing, hats,  and  machinery;  and  contains 
Muhlenberg  Hospital,  and  public 
library.     Pop.  (1910)  20,550. 

Plane  Tree.  Tall  trees  with  pon- 
derous trunks,  the  bark  of  which  peels 
off  annually,  leaving  the  surface 
smooth  and  bare.  American  plane 
tree  has  less  deeply  divided  and  in- 
dented leaves  than  the  plane  tree  of 
Western  Asia  and  Cashmere,  and  no 
membranous  bracts  along  the  female 
flowers.  On  the  banks  of  the  Ohio 
and  the  Mississippi  there  are  trees  10 
to  16  feet  in  diameter.  Called  in  the 
United  States  also,  buttonwood  and 
water  beech,  and  sycamore,  and  in 
Canada,  cotton  tree. 

Planet,  a  heavenly  body  which,  to 
old-time  observers,  seemed  to  wander 
about  aimlessly  in  the  sky.  Sub- 
sequently it  was  discovered  that  the 
seemingly  erratic  bodies  were  as  reg- 
ular in  their  movements  as  the  others, 
revolving,  like  the  earth,  around  the 
Bun.  Shining  only  with  reflected  light, 
they  gleam  with  a  steady  radiance  in 
place  of  twinkling  like  the  fixed  stars. 

Planetoids,  the  name  given  to  a 
great  group  of  minute  planets  placed 
together  between  Mars  and  Jupiter. 
On  Jan.  1,  1801,  a  planetary  body, 
afterward  called  Ceres,  was  found  in 
the  part  of  the  solar  system  theoretic- 
ally indicated;  it  was  far  more  di- 
minutive in  size  than  had  been  ex- 
pected. Within  the  next  six  years  three 
more  asteroids  (Pallas,  Juno,  and 
Vesta)  were  found  in  proximity  to 
Ceres,  and  up  to  November,  1898, 
426  of  these  small  planets  had  been 
discovered,  70  by  Americans.  All  are 
of  minute  size,  and  some  angular  in 
place    of    spherical. 

Plank,  Fort,  or  Fort  Blank,  a 
Revolutionary  fort  in  Montgomery  cc, 
N.  Y.,  2  miles  N.  W.  of  Fort  Plain. 


Plantagenets,  the  surname  of  a 
line  of  English  kings  of  French  origin 
on  the  paternal  side  —  Henry  II.  of 
England,  the  first  of  the  line,  ascended 
the  English  throne  in  1154,  and  his 
descendants  reigned  during  331  years^ 
the  last  monarch  of  the  line  being 
Richard  III.,  who  fell  at  the  battle  of 
Bosworth,  in  1485.  In  the  14th  cen- 
tury the  line  became  divided  «into  two 
great  rival  factions,  those  of  York  w 
and  of  Lancaster,  known  as  the  parties 
of  the  Red  and  White  Rose. 

Plantain,  a  small  tree  closely  akin 
to  the  banana,  from  which  it  differs  in 
not  having  purple  spots  on  its  stem. 
The  fruit  also  is  larger  and  more 
angular.  It  is  very  delicious  and  is 
thoroughly  wholesome.  The  name  plan- 
tain is  also  applied  to  a  common  weed, 
the  seeds  of  which  are  used  as  food 
for  birds. 

Plantain  Eaters,  a  family  of  Pie- 
like birds,  of  African  distribution, 
arboreal   habits,   and   vegetarian   diet. 

Plantation,  a  term  formerly  used 
to  designate  a  colony.  The  term  was 
latterly  applied  to  an  estate  in  the 
Southern  States,  the  West  Indies,  etc., 
cultivated  chiefly  by  negroes.  The 
term  planter  is  applied  to  the  owner 
of  a  plantation. 

Plantin,  Ckristopke,  a  French 
printer;  born  in  St.  Avertin,  near 
Tours,  in  1514,  and  settled  as  a  book- 
binder at  Antwerp  in  1549 ;  some  six 
years  later  he  began  to  print.  The  ' 
most  noted  of  all  his  publications  is 
the  "Biblia  Polyglotta."  Plantin's 
editions  of  the  Bible  in  Latin,  Hebrew, 
and  Dutch,  and  editions  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  classics,  are  scarcely  less 
celebrated.  He  set  up  printing  es- 
tablishments in  Leyden  and  Paris,  and 
these,  with  that  in  Antwerp,  were  car- 
ried on  by  the  husbands  of  his  daugh- 
ters. His  oflice  in  Antwerp  remained 
in  the  iKjssession  of  the  descendants  of 
John  Moretus,  his  son-in-law,  till  it 
was  bought  by  the  city  in  1876  for 
$240,000;  out  of  it  was  created  the 
"  Musee  Plantin."  Plantin  died  in 
Antwerp,  July   1,   1589. 

Plaster,  calcined  gypsum  or  sul- 
phate of  lime,  used,  when  mixed  with 
water,  for  finishing  walls,  molds,  etc. 

Plaster  of  Paris,  the  name  given 
to  gypsum  when  ground  and  used  fo^* 
taking  casts,  etc. 


Plata 

Plata,  Rio  de  la.  River  of  Silver ; 
a  body  of  water  which  extends  for 
more  than  200  miles  between  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic  and  Uruguay,  and 
.  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  river,  but 
rather  an  estuary,  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  great  rivers  Parana  and 
Uruguay.  It  flows  into  the  Atlantic 
between  Cape  St.  Antonio  and  Cape 
St.  Marj%  and  has  here  a  width  of  170 
miles.  It  was  discovered  in  1515  by 
Juan  Diaz  de  Soils,  and  called  Dio  de 
Soils ;  it  owes  its  present  name  to  the 
famous  navigator  Cabot. 

Plating,  the  act,  art,  or  process  of 
covering  articles  with  a  thin  coating 
of  metal ;  especially  the  art  of  cover- 
ing baser  metals  with  a  thin  coating 
of  gold   or  silver. 

Platinum,  a  tetrad  metallic  ele- 
ment discovered  first  in  the  United 
States;  and  still  largely  produced 
there,  also  found  in  the  Ural  chain, 
and  in  copper  ore  from  the  Alps.  Pure 
forged  platinum  takes  a  high  luster,  is 
nearly  as  white  as  silver,  and  very 
ductile  and  malleable.  It  resists  the 
strongest  heat  of  the  forge  fire,  but 
can  be  fused  by  the  electric  current ; 
is  the  heaviest  known  substance  ex- 
cepting osmium  and  iridium,  is  un- 
alterable in  the  air,  dissolves  slowly  in 
nitromuriatic  acid,  but  is  not  at- 
tacked  by   any   single   acid. 

Plato,  a  Greek  philosopher ;  born  in 
Athens  or  in  ^gina,  in  May,  429  B.  c, 
the  year  in  which  Pericles  died.  He 
was  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  and  after 
the  death  of  that  philosopher  Plato 
himself  became  a  teacher  in  the  plane 
tree  grove  of  the  Academia.  He  had 
a  great  number  of  disciples,  many  of 
whom  became  eminent  teachers.  Among 
them  was  Aristotle,  distinguished  as 
the  "  Mind  of  the  School,"  and  per- 
haps Demosthenes.  Women  are  said 
to  have  attended.  In  his  40th  year, 
Plato  visited  Sicily,  but  he  offended 
the  tyrant  Dionysius  by  the  political 
opinions  he  uttered,  and  only  escaped 
death  through  the  influence  of  his 
friend,  Dion.  Two  later  visits  to  the 
court  of  the  younger  Dionysius  were 
the  only  interruptions  to  his  calm  life 
as  a  teacher  and  writer  at  Athens. 
He  died  in  the  act  of  writing,  it  is 
said,  in  May,  347  B.  c. 

Platoff,  Matvei  Ivanovicli, 
Count,  a  Russian  general ;  born  in 
Azov,    Russia,    Aug.    17,    1757.      He 


Platte 

served  ^in  the  Turkish  campaign  of 
1770-1771 ;  he  took  part  in  the  cam- 
paigns against  the  French,  1805-1807. 
He  was  enthusiastically  welcomed,  and 
presented  with  a  sword  of  honor  on 
the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  London  in 
company  with  Blucher.  After  the  war 
he  retired  to  his  own  country,  and 
died  near  Tcherkask,  Jan.  15,  1818. 

Platonic  Love,  an  affection  sub- 
sisting between  two  persons  of  differ- 
ent sex,  which  is  presumed  to  be  un- 
accompanied by  any  sensuous  emotions, 
and  to  be  based  on  moral  or  intellect- 
ual afiinities.  The  expression  has  orig- 
inated in  the  view  of  Plato,  who  held 
that  the  common  sexual  love  of  the 
race,  harasses  and  afilicted  with  flesh- 
ly longings,  is  only  a  subordinate  form 
of  that  perfect  and  ideal  love  of  truth 
which  the  soul  should  cultivate. 

Piatt,  Thomas  Collier,  an  Ameri- 
can legislator ;  born  in  Owego,  N.  Y., 
July  15,  1833 ;  was  a  member  of  the 
class  of  1853  of  Yale  College,  but 
was  compcUf>d  to  give  up  on  account 
of  ill  health ;  received  the  honorary 
degree  of  M.  A.  from  that  college  in 
1876 ;  entered  mercantile  life  soon 
after  leaving  school ;  was  county  clerk 
of  the  county  of  Tioga  in  1859,  ISGO 
and  18G1 ;  was  elected  to  the  43d  and 
44th  Congresses ;  was  elected  United 
States  Senator  Jan.  18,  1881,  and 
resigned  that  ofiice  May  16  of  the  same 
year,  with  Roscoe  Conkling,  both  Sen- 
ators being  offended  because  President 
Garfield  made  New  York  appoint- 
ments without  consulting  them;  was 
chosen  secretary  and  director  of  the 
United  States  Express  Co.  in  1879, 
and  in  1880  was  elected  president  of 
the  company;  was  member  and  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  quarantine  com- 
missioners of  New  Y^ork  from  1880  till 
1888 ;  was  delegate  to  the  National 
Republican  convention  of  187(>,  1880, 
1884,  1888,  1892  and  1806 ;  wafi  presi- 
d«nt  of  the  Southern  Central  railroad ; 
was  a  member  of  the  National  Repub- 
lican committee ;  and  was  elected 
United  States  Senator  in  1896,  and  re- 
elected in  1903.  Senator  Piatt  has 
been  married  twice.  His  first  wife 
died  Feb.  13,  1901,  and  he  was  mar- 
ried to  Mrs.  Lillian  T.  Janeway,  of 
Washington,  widow  of  Dr.  Theodore 
Janeway.    Died  March  6,  1910. 

Platte,  a  river  in  the  United  States, 
which   rises  in  the  Rocky   Mountains 


Playfair 

by  two  branches,  called  respectively 
the  North  and  South  Forks  of  the 
Platte.  The  united  stream  falls  into 
the  Missouri  after  a  course  of  about 
l.GOO  miles. 

Playfair,  Sir  Ijyon,  a  British 
scientist;  son  of  Dr.  G.  Playfair,  in- 
spector-general of  hospitals  in  Bengal ; 
born  in  Meerut,  Bengal,  May  21,  1819. 
His  able  reports  on  the  sanitary  con- 
dition of  the  large  towns  of  Great 
Britain  brought  him  prominently  be- 
fore the  public.  He  held  several  prom- 
inent appointments  under  Liberal  gov- 
ernments.    He  died  May  29,  1898. 

Fleasonton,  Alfred,  an  American 
military  officer ;  born  in  Washington, 
D,  C.  June  7,  1824;  died  there  Feb. 
17,  1897.  He  served  with  distinction 
in  the  Mexican,  the  Sioux,  and  the 
Civil  Wars. 

Plebeians,  or  Plebs,  in  ancient 
Rome,  one  of  the  great  orders  of  the 
Roman  people.  The  whole  government 
of  the  state,  with  the  enjoyment  of  all 
its  offices,  belonged  to  the  patricians, 
with  whom  the  plebeians  could  not  even 
intermarry.  The  civil  history  of  Rome 
is  composed  of  the  struggles  of  the 
plebeians  to  claim  a  place  in  the  com- 
monwealth, to  which  they  were  en- 
titled. It  met  with  success  when  (286 
B.  c.)  the  Lex  Hortensia  gave  the 
enactments  liassed  at  the  plebeian  as- 
semblies, the  force  of  law. 

Plehve,  Wenceslas  Konstantin- 
ovitch,  von,  a  Russian  Minister  of 
the  Interior;  born  in  Poland  in  1838; 
the  son  of  a  poor  noble.  He  studied 
law  in  Moscow,  became  assistant-pro- 
curator, and  later  was  appointed  Im- 
perial Counsel  of  the  Courts  of  War- 
saw. Fearless,  and  sincere  in  his 
belief  that  the  sternest  methods  were 
the  best  means  of  governing  the  mixed 
Russian  masses,  his  suppression  of  nil 
attempts  at  liberal  reform,  while  win- 
ning the  applause  of  the  Russians, 
gained  him  the  hatred  of  the  Poles, 
Finns,  and  Jews.  He  was  assassinated 
by  a  bomb  thrown  at  his  carriage, 
July  28.  1904. 

Pleiades,  or  Pleiads,  a  group  of 
stars  in  the  constellation  Taurus,  the 
Bull.  The  stars  are  so  close  together 
that  it  is  difficult  to  say  how  many 
are  seen  by  the  naked  eye. 

Plesiosanrns,  the  typical  group  of 
the    order    Plesiosauria,    extinct    am- 


Pliny 

phlbian  animals.  Its  organization 
would  fit  it  for  swimming  on  or  near 
the  surface,  and  the  length  and  flexi- 
bility of  its  neck  would  be  eminently 
serviceable  in  capturing  its  prey. 

Plenra,  in  anatomy,  plural,  serous 
membranes  forming  two  shut  sacs, 
each  possessed  of  a  visceral  and  a 
parietal  portion.  The  former  covers 
the  lungs,  and  the  latter  the  ribs,  the 
intercostal   spaces,    etc. 

Pleurisy,  inflammation  of  the  pleu- 
ra, going  on  to  exudation,  fluid  effu- 
sion, absorption,  and  adhesion. 

Plenro-pnenmonia,  pneumonia 
with  bronchitis,  the  former  constitut- 
ing the  chief  disease. 

Plevna,  a  town  of  Bulgaria  on  the 
Vid,  an  affluent  of  the  Danube,  85 
miles  N.  E.  of  Sofia.  It  is  noted  for 
the  desperate  resistance  of  its  Turkish 
garrison  under  Osman  Pasha,  from 
July  to  Dec.  1877,  during  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War.     Pop.  18,700. 

Pleyel,  Ignaz,  composer ;  born 
near  Vienna,  Austria,  in  1757 ;  died  at 
Paris,  1831.  He  studied  under  Haydn, 
and  rapidly  acquired  a  European  rep- 
utation. His  works,  chiefly  instru- 
mental,   are    pleasing  and   expressive. 

PlimsoU,  Samuel,  "  the  sailor's 
friend,"  an  English  legislator ;  born  in 
Bristol,  England,  Feb.  10,  1824.  In 
1854  he  started  business  in  the  coal 
trade  in  London,  and  shortly  afterward 
begr.n  to  interest  himself  in  the  sailors 
of  the  mercantile  marine,  and  the 
dangers  to  which  they  were  exposed, 
especially  through  overloading,  and  the 
employment  of  unseaworthy  ships.  He 
entered  Parliament  in  1868,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  passed  the  Merchant 
Shipping  Act  in  1876.  In  1890  the 
fixing  of  the  load  line  was  taken  out 
of  the  owner's  discretion  and  made  a 
duty  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  Mr. 
Plimsoll  retired  from  parliamentary 
life  in  1880.    Died  June  3,  1898. 

Pliny,  the  Elder  (Caius  Plinius 
Secundus),  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
writers  of  ancient  Rome ;  born  in 
Verona  or  Como  a.  d.  23,  served  in  the 
army  of  Germany,  afterward  became 
an  advocate,  and  was  ultimately  pro- 
curator in  Spain.  Being  at  Misenum 
with  a  fleet,  which  he  commanded,  on 
the  24th  of  August,  A.  D.,  79,  his  sister 
desired  him  to  observe  a  remarkable 
cloud   that   had  just  appeared.  Pliny 


Pliny 

discovered  that  it  proceeded  from 
Mount  Vesuvius,  ordered  his  galleys  to 
sea,  to  assist  the  inhabitants  on  the 
coast,  while  he  himself  steered  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  foot  of  the  mountain. 
Pliny  and  his  companions  landed  at 
Stabise,  but  were  obliged  to  leave  the 
town  for  the  fields,  where  the  danger 
was  equally  great,  from  the  shower  of 
fire  which  fell  on  them.  In  this  state 
they  made  their  way  to  the  shore,  but 
Pliny  fell  down  dead,  sufiEocated  prob- 
ably by  the  noxious  vapors.  The  erup- 
tion which  caused  his  death  was  that 
in  which  the  cities  of  Herculaneum 
and  Pompeii  were  destroyed.  His 
name  and  fame  are  preserved  by  his 
great  work  entitled  "  Natural  His- 
tory," in  37  books,  one  of  the  most 
precious  monuments  of  antiquity  ex- 
tant. Its  contents  are  immensely 
varied  in  character.  It  is  a  laborious 
compilation,  from  almost  innumerable 
sources,  of  facts,  observations,  and 
statements  on  almost  all  branches  of 
natural  science,  on  the  fine  arts,  on  in- 
ventions, and  other  subjects.  It  has 
been  translated  into  most  European 
languages. 

Pliny,  the  Yonnger  (Caius  Plin- 
ius  Caecilius  Secundus),  nephew  of  the 
preceding ;  born  in  Como  A.  d.  62.  In 
bis  18th  year  he  began  to  plead  in  the 
forum ;  he  went  as  military  tribune  to 
Syria.  He  was  promoted  to  the  con- 
sular dignity  by  Trajan.  He  was  aft- 
erward made  proconsul  of  Bithynia, 
from  whence  he  wrote  to  Trajan  his 
"well-known  account  of  the  Christians, 
and  their  manner  of  worship.  The 
*'  Epistles  of  Pliny "  are  agreeably 
"written,  and  very  instructive,  and  have 
been  translated  into  English.  He  died 
after  112. 

Pliocene,  or  Pleiocene,  the  epi- 
thet applied  to  the  most  modern  of  the 
three  periods  into  which  Lyell  divided 
the  Tertiary.  Its  distinguished  charac- 
ter is  that  the  larger  part  of  the  fossil 
shells  are  of  recent  species,  divided  into 
the  Older  and  the  Newer  Pliocene.  In 
the  Older,  the  extinct  species  of  shells 
form  a  large  minority  of  the  whole; 
in  the  Newer,  the  shells  are  almost  all 
of  living  species. 

Plover,  the  common  name  of 
several  wading  birds;  specifically,  the 
golden,  yellow,  or  green  plover.  Plovers 
are  gregarious  in  habit,  and  have  a 
■wide  geographical  range. 


Plntns 

Plum,  the  fruit  of  various  trees  of 
the  genus  Prunus.  It  is  a  native  of 
Asia  Minor,  whence  it  was  introduced 
into  Europe  at  an  early  period,  and 
later  into  America.  There  are  about 
a  dozen  species,  differing  in  size,  form, 
color,  and  taste. 

Plumed  Knighit,  a  name  given  to 
James  G.  Bliiiue,  and  originating  in  a 
speech  made  by  Col.  Robert  G.  Inger- 
soll,  in  nominating  Mr.  Blaine  for  the 
presidency. 

Plush,  a  shaggy  pile  cloth  of  vari- 
ous materials.  An  unshorn  velvet  of 
cotton,  silk,  or  mixed  fiber,  sometimes 
of  a  silk  nap  and  cotton  back.  It 
kas  two  warps,  one  of  which  is 
brought  to  the  surface  to  make  the 
nap. 

Plutarcli,  a  Greek  biographer  and 
moralist,  a  native  of  Chseronea,  in 
Bceotia.  In  A.  D.  66  he  was  a  pupil  of 
the  philosopher  Ammonius  at  Delphi. 
He  visited  Italy,  and  spent  some  time 
at  Rome,  lecturing  there  on  philoso- 
phy as  early  as  the  reign  of  Domitian ; 
but  his  name  is  not  mentioned  by  any 
of  the  eminent  Roman  writers,  his 
contemporaries.  He  returned  to  his 
native  town,  where  he  held  various 
magistracies,  and  was  appointed  priest 
of  Apollo.  He  was  still  living  in  120, 
but  the  time  of  his  death  is  not 
known.  His  great  work  is  entitled 
"  Parallel  Lives,"  and  consists  of  bi- 
ographies of  46  eminent  Greeks  and 
Romans,  arranged  in  pairs,  each  pair 
accompanied  by  a  comparison  of  char- 
acters. 

Pluto,  in  mythology,  the  son  of 
Saturn  and  Ops,  inherited  his  father's 
kingdom  with  his  brothers,  Jupiter 
and  Neptune.  He  received  as  his 
share  the  infernal  regions.  All  the 
goddesses  refused  to  marry  him ;  but, 
on  seeing  Proserpine,  the  daughter  of 
Ceres,  he  became  enamored  of  her,  and 
carried  her  away.  Black  victims,  and 
particularly  a  bull,  were  the  only  sac- 
rifices ofiPered  to  him.  The  dog  Cer- 
berus watched  at  his  feet,  the  harpies 
hovered  around  him,  Proserpine  sat  on 
his  left,  and  the  Parcse  occupied  his 
right  hand. 

Plutus,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
god  of  riches.  He  was  represented  as 
blind,  because  he  distributed  riches  in- 
discriminately;  he  was  lame,  because 
he  came  slowly  and  gradually ;  and  he 


Flymontli 

had  wings,  to  intimate  that  he  flew 
away  with  more  velocity  than  he  ap- 
proached mankind. 
Flymonth,  a  town  and  county-seat 

»  of  Plymouth  co.,  Mass. ;  on  Plymouth 
Bay,  37  miles  S.  E.  of  Boston. 
Plymouth  is  of  importance  as  the  spot 
where  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  landed  on 
Dec.  21,  1620.  A  portion  of  the  rock 
on  which  they  first  stepped  has  been 
placed  in  front  of  Pilgrim  Hall,  in 
which  are  preserved  old  books,  paint- 
ings, pictures,  and  other  valuable  rel- 
ics. The  rock  itself  is  in  Water 
Street,  and  is  covered  by  a  handsome 

,  granite  canopy.  Plymouth  also  has 
the  National  monument,  81  feet  high, 
erected  to  the  Pilgrims  at  a  cost  of 
$200,000,  and  dedicated  in  1889.  Pop. 
(1900)  9,592;  (1910)  12,141. 


PLTMOUTH  BOCK. 

Flymontli,  a  town  and  county-seat 
of  Washington  co.,  N.  G. ;  on  a  small 
creek,  a  few  miles  S.  of  the  Roanoke 
river,  where  it  enters  Albemarle 
Sound;  105  miles  E.  of  Raleigh.  It 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Federal 
troops  early  in  1862,  and  was  taken 
in  April,  1864,  by  the  C!onfederates 
with  the  aid  of  the  iron-clad  ram  "  Al- 
bemarle."     The     "  Albemarle "     was 

,  blown  up  with  a  torpedo  by  Lieut.  W. 

[  B.  Gushing  on  Oct.  27,  and  on  Oct. 

I    31  Plymouth  was  reoccupied. 

Flymontli,  a  borough  in  Luzerne 
county,  Pa.;  on  the  Susquehanna 
river  and  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna 
&  Western  railroad;  4  miles  W^.  of 
Wilkesbarre;  is  in  the  Wyoming  Val- 
ley; has  large  coal  mines  nearby;  and 
contains  collieries,  hosiery  mills,  and 
manufactories  -of  mining  machinery. 
Pop.  (1910)  16,996. 
Plymonth,  a  seaport,  municipal 
B.  118. 


Fneiuaonia 

and  parliamentary  borough  of  Eng- 
land in  Devonshire,  at  the  head  of 
Plymouth  Sound,  between  the  estu- 
aries of  the  Plym  and  Tamar.  Its 
chief  importance  Hes  in  its  position 
as  a  naval  station.  To  secure  safe  an- 
chorage in  the  sound  a  stupendous 
breakwater  has  been  constructed  at  a 
cost  of  about  $10,000,000.  The  West- 
ern Harbor  is  devoted  to  the  navy. 
Pop.   (1901)   107,509. 

Flymonth,  Brethren,  a  body 
which  arose  almost  simultaneously  in 
Dublin  and  Plymouth,  about  1830, 
and,  as  they  called  themselves  "  The 
Brethren,"  outsiders  came  to  know 
them  as  "  Plymouth  Brethren "  from 
the  town  where  they  had  fixed  their 
headquarters.  Their  communities  are 
of  what  is  known  as  the  Evangelical 
Calvinistic  type.  They  baptize  all 
adults,  whether  previously  baptized 
or  not,  and  observe  the  Sacrament 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  weekly.  There 
are  four  bodies  in  the  United  States, 
with  10,566  members. 

Fnenmatic  Dispatch,  propulsion 
by  means  of  compressed  air  or  by 
forming  a  vacuum.  Propulsion  by 
compressed  air  has  of  recent  years 
been  successfully  applied  to  a  variety 
of  practical  uses.  Parcels  are  thus 
conveyed,  and  internal  communication 
in  warehouses,  hotels,  etc.,  is  carried 
on  by  its  means.  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia, and  other  American  cities  use 
a  pneumatic  mail  dispatching  system. 
The  pneumatic  dispatch  plant  con- 
nected with  the  Philadelphia  postofSce 
is  in  many  respects  the  most  complete 
plant  of  the  sort  in  the  world.  It  has 
been  in  use  since  Feb.  17,  1893.  In 
the  annual  report  of  the  Postmaster- 
General  to  Congress  for  1901,  he  ad- 
vocated the  increased  use  of  the  pneu- 
matic dispatch  service  throughout  the 
United  States.  See  Atmosphebio 
Railway. 

Fnenmatic  Gnn,  a  gun  operated 
by  compressed  air.  The  firing  is  done 
by  pulling  a  lanyard. 

Fnei^.matics,  the  science  whicn 
treats  ot  the  mechanical  properties  of 
air  and  other  gases,  investigating  their 
weight,  pressure,  elasticity,  condensa- 
tion, etc.  Air  being  a  vehicle  of 
sound,  pneumatics  includes  also  the 
science  of  acoustics. 

Fnenmonia,  inflammation  of  the 
lung,  usually   caused   by  exposure  to 


Po 


Poet  Laureate 


cold  or  wet,  a  cold  draught  or  chill 
after  being  overheated,  injury  to  the 
chest,  irritation,  or  r."  a  secondary  af- 
fection in  smallpox,  typhoid  or  puer- 
peral fever,  and  other  low  wasting  dis- 
eases. 

Po,  the  largest  river  of  Italy,  rises 
on  Monte  Viso,  one  of  the  Cottian 
Alps,  at  an  altitude  of  6,405  feet, 
close  to  the  French  frontier.  It  has 
an  entire  length  of  3G0  miles,  and 
drains  an  area  of  nearly  28,900  square 
miles.  Below  Piacenza  its  stream  has 
from  ante-Roman  days  been  artificially 
embanked  along  great  stretches  with 
double  lines  of  embankments  on  each 
side. 

Poaching,  the  trespassing  on  an- 
other's property  for  the  purpose  of 
killing  or  stealing  game  or  fish.  While 
nearly  every  State,  if  not  every  one, 
has  game  laws,  they  are  enacted  in 
the  public  interest,  and  bear  no  sim- 
ilarity to  the  game  laws  of  Great 
Britain,  x^'hich  are  feudal  in  their 
character,  and  intended  to  reserve  for 
the  wealthy  alone  the  recreations  of 
hunting  and  hshmg.  -Poaching  in  the 
English  sense  is  unknown  in  America,. 
In  England  when  a  person's  land  ad- 
joins a  stream  where  there  is  no  ebb 
and  flow  that  person  is  assumed  to 
have  an  exclusive  right  to  fish  in  the 
stream  as  far  as  his  land  extends, 
and  up  to  the  middle  of  the  stream ; 
and  so  also  when  a  person's  land  in- 
closes a  pond,  the  fish  in  that  pond  be- 
long to  him.  Where  several  proper- 
ties are  contiguous  to  the  same  lake 
the  right  of  fishing  in  that  lake  belongs 
to  the  proprietors,  in  proportion  to 
the  value  of  their  respective  titles.  Ex- 
clusive right  of  fishing  in  a  public 
river,  that  is,  one  in  which  there  is 
ebb  and  flow  up  to  the  tidal  limit,  or 
a  portion  of  the  sea,  is  held  by  some 
proprietors  by  virtue  of  royal  fran- 
chises granted  prior  to  the  Magna 
Charta. 

Pocalioiitas,  daughter  of  Powha- 
tan, a  powerful  Indian  chief  of  Vir- 
ginia ;  born  about  1595.  She  display- 
ed a  friendliness  toward  the  British 
colonists,  first  at  12  years  of  age,  in 
saving  the  life  of  Capt.  .Tohn  Smith, 
who  had  been  captured  and  condemned 
to  death  by  her  father,  and  on  several 
occasions  making  known  to  the  En- 
glish their  danger  when  about  to  be 
attacked.     In  1612,  while  on  a  visit 


to  a  neighboring  tribe,  she  was  seized,, 
and  held  as  a  hostage  by  the  English, 
as  a  safeguard  against  the  hostility  ot 
her  tribe.  While  on  shipboard  she  be- 
came acquainted  with,  and  married 
John  Rolfe,  an  Englishman,  who  took 
her  to  England,  where,  in  1G16,  she- 
was  presented  at  court.  She  had  one 
son,^  from  whom  numerous  wealthy- 
families  of  Virginia  claim  descent. 
She  died  in  England,  in  1617,  while 
preparing  to  return  to  America. 

Pocliard  or  Poachard,  a  duck, 
inhabiting  the  Arctic  regions.  Its  cryj 
has  been  compared  to  a  serpent's  hiss,! 
Its  flight  is  more  rapid  than  ihat  of\ 
the  wild  duck.  ' 

Fococke,  Richard,  an  English 
tiaveler ;  born  in  Southampton,  Eng-, 
land,  in  1704,  and  educated  there  and 
at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford. 
He  was  the  pioneer  of  Alpine  travel. 
He  died  very  suddenly  in  Charleville, 
near  Tullamore,  Sept.  15,  1765. 

Podargns,  a  genus  of  Australasiau 
nocturnal  birds  of  the  goatsucker  fam- 
ily.    By  day  they  are  drowsy. 

Podophyllnm,  the  May  apple, 
called  also  the  wild  lemon.  The  fruit 
is  eatable. 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  an  Americav* 
poet  and  story-writer ;  born  in  Bos- 
ton, Jan.  19,  1809.  Left. an  orphan 
early,  he  was  adopted  by  John  Allan, 
of  Richmond,  Va.,  and  at  the  age  of 
19  left  this  home  and  published  his 
first  volume  of  verse  at  Boston.  He 
was  a  cadet  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy,  1830-1831 ;  and  sub- 
sequently embarked  on  a  literary  ca- 
reer. He  was  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able characters  in  literature,  gifted 
with  genius,  but  apparently  without 
any  genuine»sense  of  moral  obligation 
to  friends  and  benefactors.  His  place 
among  American  poets,  however,  will 
always  be  high.  Poe  died  in  Balti- 
more, Md.,  Oct.  7,  1849. 

Poet  Lanreate,  an  office  in  the 
household  of  the  sovereigns  of  Great 
Britain.  The  first  appointment  of  a 
poet  laureate  dates  from  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.,  the  first  patent  being^ 
granted  in  1630.  It  was  formerly  the 
duty  of  the  poet  laureate  to  write  an 
ode  on  the  birthday  of  the  monarch, 
but  this  custom  has  been  discontinued 
since  the  reign  of  George  III.  Amon? 
those   who    have   held   this   office   are 


Poetry 

Dryden,  Southey,  Wordsworth,  and 
Tennyson.  Alfred  Austin  is  the  pres- 
ent incumbent. 

Poetry,  that  one  of  the  fine  arts 
■which  has  for  its  object  the  creation  of 
intellectual  pleasure  by  the  use  of  im- 
aginative and  passionate  language, 
-which  is  generally,  though  not  neces- 
sarily, formed  in  regular  measure;  the 
art  of  producing  illusions  of  the  imag- 
ination by  means  of  language.  ^  Also 
poetical,  imaginative,  or  passionate 
language  or  compositions,  whether  ex- 
pressed rhythmically  or  in  prose.  Thus, 
many  parts  of  the  prose  translations 
of  the  Bible  are  genuine  poetry. 

Poincare,  Kaymona,  a  French 
statesman;  born  at  Bar-le-Duc,  France, 
Aug.  20,  1860:  entered  political  life  as  a 
Deputy  in  1886:  was  successively  Min- 
ister of  Agriculture,  Public  Instruction, 
and  Finance;  vice-president  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  for  four  years; 
became  Premier  and  Minister  of  Foreign 
AiTairs,  Jan.  14,  1912;  and  was  elected 
President  of  the  French  Republic,  for 
the  term  of  seven  years,  Jan.  17, 
1913. 

Poison.  Any  agent  which,  when 
introduced  into  the  animal  organism, 
is  capable  of  producing  a  morbid  or 
deadly  effect  upon  it.  Antidotes  vary 
with  the  kinds  of  poisons.  In  cases  of 
poisoning  by  acrid  and  corrosive  sub- 
stances, the  fatty,  mucilaginous  sub- 
stances, as  oil,  milk,  etc.,  sheathe  and 
protect  the  coats  of  the  stomach  and 
bowels  against  the  operation  of  poison. 
Against  metallic  poisons,  substances 
are  employed  which  form  with  the  poi- 
son insoluble  compounds,  such  as  fresh- 
ly prepared  hydrated  oxide  of  iron,  or 
dialysed  iron  for  arsenic,  albumin 
(white  of  egg)  for  mercury.  Lime, 
chalk,  and  magnesia  are  the  best  reme- 
dies for  powerful  acids.  Prussic  acid 
is  neutralized  by  alkalies  and  freshly 
precipitated  oxide  of  iron.  To  arouse 
those  poisoned  by  opium,  use  coffee  and 
ammonia,  and  belladonna  as  an  antag- 
■onistic  drug.  Chloral-hydrate  poison- 
ing is  similarly  treated  ;  and  for  strych- 
nia or  nux  vomica,  animal  charcoal  in 
water  and  chloral-hydrate  are  used. 
Poisoning  was  common  in  ancient 
Rome,  and  in  France  and  Italy  during 
the  17th  century,  and  recent  American 
criminal  records  furnish  noted  cases 
of  poisoning  by  use  of  the  mail. 


Folaad 

Poison  Ivy,  a  climbing  shrub,  a 
species  of  sumac,  resembling  the  wood- 
bine, and  very  irritating  to  sensitive 
skins.  Bathing  the  irritated  parts 
with  camphorated  oil,  vinegar,  butter- 
milk, or  with  a  decoction  of  sweet 
fern  leaves,  steeped  in  boiling  water, 
are  alleviating  remedies. 

Poisson,  Simeon-Denis,  a  French 
geometer ;  born  in  Pithiviers,  depart- 
ment of  Loiret,  June  21,  1781.  He 
v.'as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  science 
of  mathematical  physics.  He  died 
April  25.  1840. 

Pokeweed,  a  North  Americaa 
branching  herbaceous  plant,  which  is 
naturalized  in  some  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia ;  the  young  shoots  are  some- 
times eaten  in  the  United  States  aa 
asparagus. 

Poland,  once  a  large  and  important 
kingdom  situated  in  the  N.  E.  of  Eu- 
rope ;  now  expunged  from  all  maps  as 
an  independent  country.  It  was  the 
most  level  country  in  Europe,  the  Car- 

Eathian  Mountains  on  the  S.  and  W. 
eing  the  only  mountain  range  of  any 
height  in  the  kingdom.  The  rivers  of 
chief  note  are  the  Vistula,  Bug,  Nie- 
men,  Dwina,  Dnieper,  and  Dniester, 
either  flowing  into  the  Baltic  or  the 
Euxine.  The  principal  mineral  prod- 
ucts are  iron,  lead,  gold,  and  silver, 
with  salt,  which  last,  from  the  abun- 
dance of  the  yield,  and  the  size  and 
richness  of  the  mines,  was  considered 
as  the  natural  wealth  of  the  country. 
The  climate  is  extremely  cold,  humid, 
and  unhealthy;  the  soil  generally  fer- 
tile. Cattle  and  wheat  are  still  the 
chief  agricultural  products.  Poland 
was  anciently  divided  into  12  prov- 
inces, each  of  which  was  governed  by 
a  chief,  called  a  "Palatine."  The 
Poles  were  originally  a  tribe  of  Van- 
dals, whose  history  is  quite  unknown 
before  the  6th  century.  From  the  13th 
century,  the  Poles  became  the  most 
warlike  nation  in  Europe,  and  from 
the  time  when  the  Turks  first  crossed 
the  Hellespont  and  settled  in  Greece, 
Poland  was  denojiinated  the  shield  of 
Eastern  Europe.  In  1674,  John  So- 
bieski  was  advanced  to  the  kingly  dig- 
nity, and  under  him  the  Polish  arms 
acquired  a  glory  that  eclipsed  all  other 
nations  of  that  age.  Sobieski  formed 
a  league  with  the  EmperoB  Leopold, 
and  when  that  monarch  had  been  de- 
feated, and  his  capital  on  the  point  o£ 


Poland 


Pole 


falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks, 
Sobieski  advanced  to  Vienna,  raised 
the  siege,  and,  defeating  the  invaders, 
drove  them  back  in  rout  to  Constanti- 
nople. The  war  of  succession  that 
succeeded,  between  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden  and  Frederic  Augustus  of  Sax- 
ony, almost  ruined  the  kingdom  and 
hastened  its  fatal  end.  Count  Poni- 
atowski  who,  in  1704,  was  elected  to 
the  throne  by  the  name  of  Stanislaus 
Augustus,  was  the  last  King  of  Po- 
land. Under  this  unfortunate  sover- 
eign, the  country  became  the  theater 
of  a  long  and  devastating  war ;  and 
Poland  was  divided  between  Catherine 
of  Russia,  Joseph  II.,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  Frederic  of  Prussia. 
This  partition  of  an  ancient  nation 
was  perpetrated  in  1772.  In  1795,  a 
further  dismemberment  was  effected 
between  the  three  great  powers,  and 
the  whole  of  Poland  absorbed,  except 
the  ancient  city  of  Cracow,  with  a  few 
miles  of  adjacent  country,  which  was 
left  to  point  to  future  ages  where  the 
once  warlike  nation  of  Poland  stood 
on  the  physical  map  of  Europe.  Of 
the  three  spoilers  of  Poland,  Russia 
possesses  the  largest  share  of  territory 
aoid  population.  Frequent  insurrec- 
tions have  occurred.  In  1864,  Poland 
was  deprived  of  its  administrative  in- 
dependence, and  in  1868  was  incorpo- 
rated with  Russia.  There  are  two 
parties,  Nationalists  and  Socialists, 
both  opposed  to  the  Russian  govern- 
ment.    Pop.  (1900)  11,671,800. 

Poland,  John  Soroggs,  an  Ameri- 
can military  officer ;  born  in  Princeton, 
Ind.,  Oct.  14,  1836;  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy 
and  appointed  a  2d  lieutenant  in  1801 ; 
served  through  the  Civil  War ;  was  as- 
sistant Professor  of  Geography,  His- 
tory, Ethics  and  Drawing  at  the 
TJnited  States  Military  Academy  in, 
1805-1869;  and  was  chief  of  the  De- 

fartment  of  Law  at  the  United  States 
nfantry  and  Cavalry  School,  Fort 
Leavenworth,  Kan.,  in  1881-1886.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  war  with  Spain 
(1898)  he  was  commissioned  a  Briga- 
dier-General of  volunteers  and  com- 
manded the  2d  division,  1st  Army 
Corps,  stationed  at  Chickamauga 
Park,  Ga.  He  died  in  Asheville,  N. 
C,  Aug.  8,  1898. 

Polar  Bear,  the  largest  individual 
pf  the  family  Ursidse,  and  oae  oi  the 


best  known.  It  is  found  over  the 
whole  of  Greenland,  but  its  numbers 
are  decreasing,  as  it  is  regularly 
hunted  for  the  sake  of  its  skin.  It  is 
quite  white  when  young,  changing  to 
a  creamy  tint  in  maturity. 

Polar  Circles,  two  imaginary  cir- 
cles of  the  earth  parallel  to  the  eQua« 
tor. 

Polarization,  the  act  of  polarizing 
i.  e.,  bestowing  the  quality  of  polarity 
or  opposing  poles.  In  galvanism,  the 
production  or  a  secondary  current  in 
a  galvanic  battery  contrary  to  the 
principal  one,  owing  to  the  gradual 
chemical  change  in  the  elements  of  the 
battery.  This  change  weakens,  or  may 
even  destroy,  the  original  current. 

In  optics,  a  state  into  which  the 
ethereal  undulations  which  cause  the 
sensation  of  light  are  brought  under 
certain  conditions.  These  undulations 
are  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  trans- 
mission of  the  wave,  as  in  a  stretched 
cord,  but  in  a  ray  of  common  light, 
appear  to  take  place  successively  in 
all  directions,  the  vibrations  succes- 
sively passing  through  rectilinear,  el- 
liptical, and  circular  phases  with  in- 
conceivable rapidity.  If  the  vibrations 
become,  or  are  rendered,  stable  in  any 
one  form  of  orbit,  the  light  is  in  the 
condition  known  as  polarized. 

Pole,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the  twe 
points  in  which  the  axis  of  the  earth 
is  supposed  to  meet  the  sphere  of  the 
heavens. 

Pole,  Reginald,  Cardinal,  a 
British  statesman  and  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Mary,  descended  from  the  blood  royal 
of  England;  born  in  Stourton  Castle, 
in  Staffordshire,  in  1500.  He  was 
educated  at  Sheen  Monastery  and 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford;  and  after 
obtaining  preferment  in  the  Church, 
went  to  Italy,  where  he  long  resided. 
On  his  return  to  England  he  opposed 
the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII.  from  Cath- 
erine of  Aragon  in  such  earnest  terms, 
that  the  king  drove  him  from  his  pres- 
ence, and  never  saw  him  more.  He 
again  left  Englr.nd,  was  made  a  cardi- 
nal in  December,  1536,  and  had  the 
offer  of  the  popedom  on  the  death  of 
Paul  III.  When  Mary  ascended  the 
throne,  Pole  returned  to  England  as 
legate,  in  which  capacity  he  absolved 
the  Parliament  from  their  sin  of  her- 
esy, and  reconciled  the  nation  to  the 


Polecat 

Holy  See.  The  very  day  after  the 
burning  of  Cranmer,  the  cardinal  was 
consecrated  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
He  survived  the  queen  but  one  day, 
and  died  Nov.  18,  1558. 

Polecat,  one  of  the  Mustelinse,  akin 
'to  the  marten,  but  with  a  broader 
jhead,  a  blunter  snout,  and  a  much 
shorter  tail.  It  has  a  shorter  neck  and 
a  stouter  body  than  the  weasel.  Two 
glands  near  the  root  of  the  tail  emit 
a  highly  offensive  smell.  It  makes  im- 
mense havoc  in  poultry  yards,  rabbit 
I  warrens,  and  among  hares  and  par- 
'tridges,  killing  everything  which  it 
■  can  overpower. 


POLECAT. 

Pole  Star,  Polaris,  a  bright  star  at 
the  tip  of  the  tail  of  Ursa  Minor,  and 
in  a  line  with  the  pointers  Merak  and 
Dubhe,  the  two  stars  constituting  the 
front  of  the  plowlike  figure  in  Ursa 
Major.  The  pole  star  is  really  a 
double  star  of  yellow  hue,  but  while 
the  larger  or  visible  one  is  between  the 
second  and  third  magnitude,  its  com- 
panion is  only  of  the  ninth,  and  there- 
fore a  telescopic  star.  There  is  no  cor- 
responding star  in  the  Southern  Hem- 
isphere. 

Police,  a  system  of  judicial  and 
executive  administration  of  a  country, 
especially  concerned  with  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  quiet  and  good  order  of 
society.  In  a  more  limited  sense,  the 
administration  of  the  laws,  by-laws, 
and  regulations  of  a  city.  The  des- 
ignation, also,  of  a  body  of  men,  not 
military,  appointed  to  enforce  state 
and  municipal  laws,  and  preserve 
the  peace. 

Political  Economy,  the  science 
which  investigates  the  nature  of  wealth 
and  the  laws  of  its  production  and  dis- 
tribution, including  the  operation  of 


Polk 

causes  by  which  the  condition  of  man- 
kind in  respect  to  this  object  of  hu- 
man desire,  is  made  prosperous  or  the 
reverse.  Inquiries  on  these  point* 
must  have  existed  from  the  earliest 
times  in  every  nation,  but  political 
economy  as  a  science  is  dated  from  re- 
cent times. 

Political  Offenses,  those  offenses 
considered  injurious  to  the  safety  of 
the  state.  In  modern  times  the  crimes 
considered  political  offenses  have 
varied  at  different  periods  and  in  dif- 
ferent states.  In  the  United  Statea 
and  in  most  of  the  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, extradition  treaties  do  not  in- 
clude giving  up  political  offenders. 

Political  Parties,  divisions  of  peo- 
ple in  a  State  marked  off  by  the  par- 
ticular views  they  hold  as  to  the  pub- 
lic policy  to  be  pursued  in  the  best 
interests  of  the  people  at  large.  In  the 
United  States  the  chief  political 
parties  are  the  Democrats  and  the  Re- 
publicans. 

Politics,  the  science  which  treats 
of  the  distribution  of  power  in  a 
country.  Popularly,  the  political  sen- 
timents of  an  individual,  his  procedure 
in  promoting  the  interests  of  his  party. 

Polk,  James  Knox,  an  American 
statesman,  11th  President  of  the 
United  States,  born  in  Mecklenburg 
CO.,  N.  C,  Nov.  2,  1795.  His  ancestors, 
who  bore  the  name  Pollock,  emigrated 
from  the  W.  of  Ireland  early  in  the 
18th  century.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  to 
which  State  his  father  had  removed  in 
1806,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1820.  In  182.3  he  was  sent  to  the  Ten- 
nessee Legislature,  and  in  1824  to  Con- 
gress, to  which  body  he  was  reelected 
for  seven  successive  terms,  serving  till 
1839.  lie  was  made  chairman  of  the 
Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  in 
1833,  and  twice  elected  Speaker  of  the 
House  — 1835-1837.  In  Congress  he 
was  consistently  a  Democrat,  support- 
ing unwaveringly  the  administration 
of  Jackson  and  Van  Buren,  and  op- 
posing that  of  Adams.  In  1839  he  was 
elected  governor  of  Tennessee,  and  in 
1844  unexpectedly  nominated  as  a 
compromise  candidate  of  the  National 
Democratic  Convention  for  the  presi- 
dency, and  elected  over  Henry  Clay, 
the  Whig  candidate.  His  administra- 
tion was  eventful,  and  in  some  respectai 


Polk 


Polo 


brilliant.  Texas  was  annexed,  and  the 
Mexican  War  fought,  which,  with  ter- 
ritorial purchases,  added  the  great  ter- 
ritory now  comprising  Texas,  Califor- 
nia, New  Mexico,  Utah,  Nevada,  and 
the  W.  part  of  Colorado  to  the  domain 
of  the  United  States.  The  Oregon 
boundary  forming  one  of  the  issues  on 
which  he  was  elected,  was  settled  by 
a  compromise  offered  by  England.  He 
was  a  man  of  eminent  administrative 
abilities,  of  consistent  principles,  and 
pure  and  upright  private  character. 
At  the  close  of  his  single  term  Polk 
declined  to  stand  for  renomination, 
and  retired  to  private  life  in  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  where  he  died  June  15, 
1849. 

Polk,  Leonidas,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer;  born  in  Raleigh,  N.  C., 
April  10,  1806 ;  was  a  cousin  of  Presi- 
dent Polk,  and  grandson  of  Col. 
Thomas  Polk,  an  officer  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. Graduating  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  in  1827,  he  received 
a  commission  in  the  artillery,  but  was 
induced  to  study  for  the  ministry, 
and  in  1830  received  deacon's,  and  in 
1831  priest's  orders  in  the  Episcopal 
Church.  In  1838  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Arkansas  and  Indian  Terri- 
tory, with  charge  of  the  dioceses  of 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana; 
in  1841  he  resigned  all  these  except  the 
bishopric  of  Louisiana,  which  he  re- 
tained till  his  death.  Soon  after  the 
outbreak  of  tue  Civil  War  he  was  of- 
fered a  major-generalship  by  Jefferson 
Davis,  and  accepted  it ;  was  promoted 
to  Lieutenant-General.  He  was  killed 
while  reconnoitering  on  Pine  Moun- 
tain, June  14,  1864,  by  a  cannon  shot 
fired  by  some  Northern  officers  who 
wished  to  give  the  bishop's  party  a 
fright. 

Polka,  a  well  known  dance,  the 
music  to  which  is  in  2-4  time,  with  the 
third  %th  note  accented. 

Pollard,  Edward  Albert,  an 
American  journalist  and  author;  born 
in  Virginia,  Feb.  27.  1828.  As  editor 
of  the  Richmond  "  Examiner  "  during 
the  Civil  War,  he  was  an  earnest  advo- 
cate of  the  Confederate  cause,  but  an 
active  opponent  of  Jefferson  Davis.  He 
died  in  Lynchburg,  Va.,  Dec.  12,  1872. 

Pollard,  Josepkine,  an  American 
writer  of  juvenile  literature;  born  in 
New  York  city  in  1843.  She  died 
there  Aug.  15,  1892. 


Pollen,  in  botany,  the  pulverulent 
or  other  substance  which  fills  the  cells 
of  the  anther,  it  consists  of  minute 
•granules  varying  in  size  and  inclosing 
a  fluid  containing  molecular  matter.  In 
entomology,  pollen  collected  from 
plants  and  carried  on  the  outer  surface 
of  the  tibiae  of  bees.  Mixed  with 
honey,  it  becomes  the  food  of  the 
larvae. 

Pollock,  Sir  Frederick,  third 
baronet  of  the  name;   born  Dec.   10, 

1845.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  and 
became  Corpus  Professor  of  Jurispru- 
dence at  Oxford,  and  Professor  of 
Common  Law.  His  younger  brother, 
Walter  Herries  Pollock,  born  Feb.  21, 
1850,  was  called  to  the  bar  and  10 
years  later  became  editor  of  the  "  Sat- 
urday Review." 

Pollock,  Sir  George,  field-mar- 
shal ;  born  Westminster  June  4,  1786 ; 
entered  the  army  of  the  East  India 
Company  as  lieutenant  of  artillery  in 
1803.  In  1838  he  reached  the  rank 
of  major-general.  After  the  massacre 
of  General  Elphinstone  and  his  forces 
in  the  passes  of  Afghanistan  the  In- 
dian government  decided  to  senJ  a 
force  to  the  relief  of  Sir  Robert  Sale. 
The  command  of  the  relieving  force 
was  given  to  General  Pollock.  la 
April,  1842,  he  forced  the  formidable 
Khyber  Pass,  and  reached  Sir  Robert 
Sale;  he  defeated  the  Afghan  chief  at 
Tezeen,  and  destroyed  the  bazaar  in 
Kabul,  and  he  recovered  135  British 
prisoners.    He  returned  to  England  in 

1846,  and  was  created  a  field-marshal 
in  1870.    He  died  Oct.  6,  1872. 

Poll  Tax,  a  tax  levied  per  head.  In 
the  United  States  a  poll  tax  (varying 
from  25  cents  to  ?3  annually)  is  levied 
in  most  of  the  States,  in  addition  to 
the  taxes  on  property. 

FoUnz,  a  celebrated  hero  of  the 
Grecian  mythology,  and  twin  brother 
of  Castor,  after  whose  death  he  im- 
plored Jupiter  to  render  him  immortal. 
His  prayer  could  not  be  entirely  grant- 
ed, but  .Tupiter  divided  immortality 
between  the  brothers,  each  living  and 
dying  alternately.  In  astronomy,  one 
of  the  twins  forming  the  constellation 
Gemini.  Also  the  name  of  a  star  of 
the  second  magnitude  in  the  same  con- 
stellation. 

Polo,  an  equestrian  game,  which 
may  be  shortly  described  as  hockey  on 


Polo  

horseback.  It  is  of  Oriental  origin 
and  of  high  antiquity ;  it  has  been 
claimed  that  it  can  be  traced  back  to 
600  B.  c.  Since  1876  many  polo  clubs 
have  been  started  in  the  United  States. 
Polo,  Marco,  a  Venetian  traveler 
of  the  13th  century,  the  son  of  a  mer- 
chant, who,  with  his  brother,  had 
penetrated  to  the  court  of  Kublai,  the 

§reat  khan  of  the  Tartars.  This  prince, 
eing  highly  entertained  with  their  ac- 
count of  Europe,  made  them  his  am- 
bassadors to  the  Pope ;  on  which  they 
traveled  back  to  Rome,  and,  with  two 
missionaries,  once  more  visited  Tar- 
tary,  accompanied  by  the  young  Marco 
who  became  a  great  favorite  with  the 
khan.  Having  acquired  the  different 
dialects  of  Tartary,  he  was  employed 
on  various  embassies ;  and  after  a  resi- 
dence of  17  years,  all  the  three  Vene- 
tians returned  to  their  own  country  in 
1295,  with  immense  wealth.  Marco 
afterward  served  his  country  at  sea 
against  the  Genoese,  and,  being  taken 
prisoner,  remained  many  years  in  con- 
finement, the  tedium  of  which  he  be- 
guiled by  composing  the  history  of  his 
"Travels."  Marco  Polo  relates  many 
things  which  appear  incredible,  but  the 
general  truthfulness  of  his  narrative 
has  been  established  by  succeeding 
travelers. 

Polonaise,  a  Polish  national  dance, 
which  has  been  imitated,  but  with 
much  variation,  by  other  nations. 

Polyandry,  the  marriage  of  one 
woman  to  several  men  at  once.  There 
are  several  forms  of  it,  each  an  ad- 
vance on  its  predecessor :  ( 1 )  One 
wife  has  several  unrelated  husbands, 
and  each  of  the  husbands  other  unre- 
lated wives;  (2)  the  unrelated  hus- 
bands have  but  one  wife;  (3)  the  hus- 
bands are  related;  (4)  the  husbands 
are  brothers.  The  custom  is  still  wide- 
ly spread  in  the  East. 

Polyanthns,  a  beautiful  and  favor- 
ite variety  of  the  common  primrose, 
growing  in  wo«ds  and  copses  in  a 
moist  clayey  soil.  The  plants  are 
very  hardy,  and  require  to  be  trans- 
planted every  two  years. 

Polybins,  a  Greek  historian;  bom 
in  Megalopolis,  Greece,  probably  about 
204  B.  C.  His  great  work  is  a  general 
history  of  the  affairs  of  Greece  and 
Rome  from  220  b.  c.  to  146  b.  c.  Five 
OEdy  of  its  40  books  are  now  extant, 


Polynesia 

with  some  fragments  of  the  rest,  but 
these  are  among  the  most  important 
literary  remains  of  antiquity.  He 
wrote  several  other  works,  but  they 
have  perished.  Died  at  the  age  of  82. 

Polycarp,  St.,  one  of  the  apostol- 
ical fathers  of  the  Church,  and  a  Chris- 
tian martyr,  who,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, was  a  disciple  of  the  Apostle 
John,  and  by  him  appointed  Bishop  of 
Smyrna ;  suffered  martyrdom  A.  D.  155. 

Polycrates,  a  ruler  of  the  island 
of  Samos  from  about  536  to  522  b.  C. 
He  conquered  several  islands  on  the 
Asiatic  mainland,  waged  war  success- 
fully against  the  inhabitants  of  Miletus 
and  defeated  their  allies  the  Lesbians 
in  a  great  sea  fight.  His  intimate  al- 
liance with  Amasis,  King  of  Egypt, 
proves  the  importance  in  which  this 
daring  island-prince  was  held  even  by 
great  monarchs.  Oroetes,  the  Persian 
satrap  of  Sardis,  had  conceived  a  dead- 
ly hatred  against  Polycrates,  and,  hav- 
ing enticed  the  latter  to  visit  him  at 
Magnesia  by  appealing  to  his  cupidity, 
he  seized  and  crucified  him. 

Polygamy,  the  practice  or  condi- 
tion of  having  a  plurality  of  wives  at 
the  same  time.  It  is  prohibited  by 
law  in  all  Christian  countries,  but  is 
practiced  by  Mohammedans  and  by  the 
uncivilized  peoples  of  Africa  and  the 
South  Seas.  The  Mormons  adopted  it, 
but  have  now  ostensibly  renounced  it. 

Polyglot,  a  collection  of  versions  in 
different  languages  of  the  same  work, 
but  is  almost  exclusively  applied  to 
manifold  versions  of  the  Bible. 

Polygon,  in  geometry,  a  portion  of 
a  plane  bounded  on  all  sides  by  more 
than  four  limited  straight  lines. 

Polygyny,  the  marriage  by  one 
man  of  several  wives  at  the  same  time. 

Polyhymnia,  one  of  the  Muses, 
daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne, 
who  presided  over  singing  and  rhetoric, 
and  was  deemed  the  inventress  of  har- 
mony. 

Polynesia,  a  general  name  for  a 
number  of  distinct  archipelagoes  of 
small  islands  scattered  over  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  extending  from  about  lat. 
35°  N.  to  35°  S.,  and  from  Ion.  135° 
E.  to  100°  W.,  the  Philippines,  New 
Guinea,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand 
being  excluded.  The  islands  are  dis- 
tributed into  numerous  groups,  having 
a  general  direction  from  N.  W.  to  S. 


3Polyp 

B.  The  islands  may  be  divided  into 
two  chief  classes,  volcanic  and  coral 
islands.  Some  of  the  former  rise  to 
a  great  height,  the  highest  peak  in  the 
Pacific,  Mauna  Loa,  in  Hawaii,  reach- 
ing 13,600  feet.  The  elevations  of  the 
■coral  formation  gi'oups  do  not  exceed 
^500  feet. 

Polynesia  has  a  comparatively  mod- 
erate temperature,  and  the  climate  is 
deUghtful  and  salubrious.  The  pre- 
"ffominating  race,  occupying  the  cen- 
tral and  E.  portion  of  Polynesia,  is  of 
Malay  origin,  with  oval  faces,  wide 
nostrils,  and  large  ears.  The  hair  and 
complexion  vary,  but  the  latter  is 
often  a  light  brown.  Their  language 
is  split  up  into  numerous  dialects.  The 
•other  leading  race  is  of  negroid  or 
Papuan  origin,  with  negro-like  fea- 
tures and  crisp  mop-like  hair.  They 
are  confined  to  Western  Polynesia,  and 
speak  a  different  language,  with  nu- 
merous distinct  dialects.  Christianity 
has  been  introduced  into  a  great  many 
of  the  islands,  and  a  large  number  of 
them  are  under  the  control  of  one  or 
•other  of  the  European  powers.  The 
Ladrones  were  discovered  by  Magellan 
in  1521,  the  Marquesas  by  Mandana 
in  1595,  but  it  was  not  till  1767  that 
Wallis,  and  subsequently  Cook,  ex- 
plored and  described  the  chief  islands. 
Since  the  natives  came  in  contact  with 
the  whites  their  numbers  have  greatly 
decreased. 

Polyp,  a  name  usually  applied  to 
■am  animal  like  the  fresh-water  hydra 
■or  like  the  sea  anemone,  having  a  tubu- 
lar body  and  a  wreath  of  many  tenta- 
cles around  the  mouth. 

Polypbemus,  in  mythology,  the 
king  of  all  the  Cyclops  in  Sicily,  and 
«oh  of  Neptune  and  Thoosa.  He  is 
represented  as  a  monster  of  immense 
strength,  and  with  one  eye  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  forehead.  He  fed  on  human 
flesh,  and  kept  his  flocks  on  the  coasts 
■of  Sicily. 

PolypHone,  a  character  or  vocal 
sign  representing  more  than  one  sound, 

Polyteclmic  College,  a  coeduca* 
tional  institution  in  Fort  Worth, 
Tex.;  founded  in  1891  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church. 

Polyteclinio  Institute,  an  educa- 
tional non-sectarian  institute  in  Brook- 
lyn,  N.  Y. ;  founded  in  1854. 


Pomona 

Polyteclinic  School,  an  educa- 
tional establishment  in  which  instruc- 
tion is  given  in  many  arts  and  sci- 
ences, more  especially  with  reference 
to  their  practical  application. 

Polytbeisni,  the  worship  of  many 
gods.  It  is  not  necessarily  the  same  as 
idolatry,  for  gods  may  be  adored  with- 
out of  any  image  of  them  being  made. 

Pombal,  Sebastian  Josepb  de 
Carvalho  e  Mello,  Marquis  of,  a 
Portuguese  statesman ;  born  May  13, 1 
1699,  at  the  castle  of  Soure,  near 
Ooimbra.  In  1739  he  was  appointed 
ambassador  in  London,  and  six  years 
later  was  sent  to  Vienna  in  a  similar 
capacity.  Just  before  Joseph  I.  as- 
cended the  throne  of  Portugal  (1750), 
Pombal  was  appointed  secretary  for 
foreign  affairs.  When  the  great  earth- 
quake happened  at  Lisbon  in  1755 
Pombal  displayed  great  calmness  and 
fertile  resource,  so  that  next  year  the 
king  made  him  prime  minister.  He 
crushed  a  revolt  instigated  by  the 
great  nobles  and  the  Jesuits,  and  in 
1759  banished  the  latter  from  the 
kingdom.  The  tyranny  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion was  broken.  Agriculture,  com- 
merce, and  the  finances  were  all  im- 
proved. In  1758  he  had  been  made 
Count  of  Oeyras,  and  in  1770  he  was 
created  Marquis  of  Pombal.  On  the 
accession  of  Joseph's  daughter,  Maria 
I.  (in  1777),  Pombal  was  deprived  of 
his  offices  and  banished  from  court.  He 
died  in  his  castle  of  Pombal,  May  8, 
1782.  The  cruelty  shown  in  the  pun- 
ishment of  the  conspirators  against 
King  Joseph  is  a  lasting  blot  on  hia 
memory. 

Pomegranate,  a  dense,  spiny 
shrub,  15  to  25  feet  high,  a  native  of 
W.  Asia  and  N.  Africa,  and  cultivated 
in  Florida  and  California  for  its  sweet 
sub-acid  fruit. 

Pomerania,  or  Pommem,  a  prov- 
ince of  Prussia,  bounded  by  the  Baltic, 
Mecklenburg,  Brandenburg,  and  West 
Prussia;  area,  11.628  square  miles; 
pop.  1,634,659.  The  center  of  trade  ig 
Stettin,  which  ranks  as  one  of  the 
chief  commercial  cities  of  Prussia. 
Pomerania  was  originally  inhabited  by 
Goths.  Vandals,  and  Slavs.  It  is  first 
mentioned  in  history  in  1140,  and  was 
an  independent  duchy  until  1637. 

Pomona,  the  Roman  divinity  of  the 
fruit  of  trees.     In  works  of  art  she 


Pomona  College 


Pompeii' 


was  generally  represented  with  fruits 
in  her  lap,  or  in  a  basket,  with  a  gar- 
land 01  fruits  in  her  hair  and  a  prun» 
ing  knife  in  her  right  hand. 

Pomona  College*  a  coedacational 
institution  in  Glaremont,  Gal. ;  founded 
in  1887,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Con- 
gregational Church. 

Pompeii,  a  seaport  at  the  moutU  o% 
the  Sarnus,  on  the  Neapolitan  Hiviera, 
founded  about  600  b.  c.  by  the  Oscans, 
and  after  them,  oooipied  by  the  Tyrr- 
beno-Pelasgians,  and  by  the  Samnites, 
till  these,  about  80  B.  c,  were  dispos- 
sessed by  the  Romans.  From  that  time 
down  to  its  destruction,  A.  D.  79,  it  be- 
came a  sort  of  Rome-super-Mare,  fre- 
quented by  the  aristocracy.  On  Feb. 
5,  A.  D.  63,  by  an  earthquake  in  the 


torrents  that  intermittently  fell.  For 
three  days  the  flight  of  the  inhabitants 
continued  till  Pompeii  was  abandoned; 
by  all  who  could  effect  their  escape. 
By  the  fourth  day  the  sun  had  par- 
tially reappeared,  and  the  more  coura- 
geous of  the  citizens  began  to  return 
for  such  of  their  property  as  they  could 
disinter.  The  reigning  emperor,  Titus, 
organized  relief  on  an  imperial  scale, 
and  even  undertook  the  clearing  and 
rebuilding  of  the  city.  This  attempt 
was  soon  abandoned,  and  Pompeii  re- 
mained a  heap  of  hardened  mud  and 
ashes,  gradually  overgrown  with  grass 
—  the  wall  of  the  great  theater  and 
the  outline  of  the  amphitheater  alone 
marking  its  site  —  till  1592,  when  the 
architect  Fontana,  in  cutting  an  aque>- 


A  POMPEHAN  HOUSE. 


vicinity,  these  buildings  wei*e  all  but 
levelled  with  the  ground,  and  some 
years  elapsed  ere  the  fugitive  citizens 
recovered  confidence  enough  to  reoc- 
cupy  and  rebuild  what  was  once 
Pompeii.  Revolutionized  as  it  was  for 
the  worse,  the  city,  however,  retained 
much  of  Greek  character  and  color- 
ing, and  had  relapsed  into  more  than 
its  former  gaiety  and  licentiousness, 
when  on  Aug.  23  (or,  more  probably 
on  Nov.  23),  79,  with  a  return  of  the 
shocks  of  earthquake,  Vesuvius  was 
seen  to  throw  up  a  column  of  black 
smoke  expanding  like  some  umbrella 
pine  of  the  neighborhood,  till  it  as- 
sumed the  proportions  of  a  great 
Bwarthy  cloud,  dense  with  ashes;  pum- 
ice, and  red-hot  stones,  settling  down 
With  a  force  increased  by  the  rain- 


duct,  came  on  some  aacient  bnildings^ 
Unsystematic,  unscientific  excavations 
proceeded  fitfully  till  1860,  when  the 
Italian  kingdom  took  in  hand  the  un- 
earthing of  the  city.  This  was  carried 
out  with  admirable  ingenuity,  care, 
and  success,  and  it  now  attracts  the 
pilgrim  from  every  clime  for  the  object 
lessons  it  is  unique  in  affording  as  to 
the  public  and  private  life  of  antiquity. 
House  construction  consists  mainly 
of  concrete  or  brick,  and  sometimes  of 
stone  blocks,  especially  at  the  corners. 
Two-storied,  sometimes  three-storied 
houses  are  numerous,  though  the  upper 
floors,  built  of  wood,  have  been  con- 
sumed by  the  eruption.  Stores  usually 
occupied  the  ground  floors  of  dwelling- 
houses,  on  their  street  aspect,  let  out 
to  mercbaats  os  dealexs  as  at  the  pres* 


Pompey 

ent  day,  but  not  connected  with  the 
back  part  of  the  house.  They  could 
be  separated  from  the  street  by  large 
wooden  doors,  while  inside  they  had 
tables  covered  with  marble,  in  which 
«arthen  vessels  for  wine  or  oil  were  in- 
serted. The  storekeeper  had  some- 
times a  second  room  at  the  back,  when 
he  did  not  live  on  an  upper  floor  or  in 
another  part  of  the  town.  Retail 
traffic  must  have  been  considerable  at 
Pompeii,  to  judge  from  the  number  of 
those  stores  along  the  streets.  Only  a 
personal  visit  can  convey  an  idea  of 
the  indoor  life  of  the  Pompeiians,  with 
whom  the  absence  of  glass,  the  fewness 
of  the  openings  in  the  street  aspect 
of  the  house  wall,  and  the  protection 
of  these  with  iron  gratings  are  among 
the  points  noted  by  the  most  casual 
visitor.  As  rebuilt  after  63,  Pompeii 
shows  little  marble,  the  columns  being 
of  tufa  or  brick  cemented  by  mortar. 
A  coating  of  stucco  was  laid  over  wall 
or  column  and  presented  an  ample 
field  for  ornamental  painting.  This 
must  have  given  to  Pompeii  its  bright, 
gay  coloring,  which,  with  its  reds, 
blues,  and  yellows,  on  column  and  cap- 
ital, on  wall  and  partition,  harmonize 
so  well  with  the  glowing  sunlight  of 
the  South. 

Pompey,  Cneins  Pompeins 
Magnus,  son  of  Pompeius  Strabo,  a 
lloman  general ;  born  in  106  B.  c.  He 
ranged  himself  with  the  aristocratic 
party  of  the  republic.  On  the  death 
of  Sylla,  in  78  b.  c,  Pompey  went  as 
proconsul  to  Spain.  With  Crassus  he 
crushed  the  Marian  party,  and  in 
70  B.  c.  Pompey  and  Crassus  were 
elected  consuls.  He  was  made  abso- 
lute dictator  in  the  East,  and  super- 
seded Lucullus  in  the  command  against 
Mithridates.  The  latter  he  completely 
routed  in  66  b.  c.  In  60  b.  c.  he  joined 
Caesar  and  Crassus  in  the  triumvirate, 
the  former  of  whom  gave  him  his 
daughter  .Julia  in  marriage.  In  54 
B.  c.  Julia  died ;  in  the  year  following, 
Crassus  was  slain  in  Asia ;  and  the 
hostility  between  Caesar  and  Pompey 
rapidly  developed  itself.  Caesar  crossed 
the  Rubicon  with  his  troops,  49  b.  c, 
and  Pompey,  accompanied  by  Cato, 
Cicero,  and  other  nobles  of  Rome,  fell 
back  on  Greece,  where  the  great  bat- 
tle of  Pharsalia  decided  his  fate.  Pom- 
pey was  advised  to  seek  an  asylum  in 
Egypt,  then  ruled  by  a  sovereign  be 


PoniatoAVskl 

had  protected,  Ptolemy  XII.  He  was 
received  with  pretended  friendship,  but 
murdered  as  soon  as  he  stepped 
ashore,   48   B.   c. 

Ponce,  second  city  in  commercial 
importance  in  Porto  Rico;  in  Depart- 
ment of  same  name;  2%  miles  N.  of 
the  S.  coast,  45  miles  S.  W.  of  San. 
Juan;  has  a  spacious  harbor;  is 
well-built,  largely  of  brick;  is  the 
seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral; 
has  two  handsome  plazas,  public  li- 
brary, and  several  hospitals  and  asy- 
lums; and  is  chiefly  engaged  in  rais- 
ing sugar  cane,  cacao,  tobacco,  and 
cattle.     Pop.  (1910    35,027. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  Jnan,  a  SpanisB 
explorer,  the  discoverer  of  Florida ; 
born  in  San  Servas,  Spain,  in  1460; 
was  a  court  page,  served  against  the 
Moors,  and  in  1502  sailed  with  Ovando 
to  Hispaniola,  and  became  governor  of 
the  E.  part  of  the  island.  In  1510  he 
obtained  the  government  of  Porto  Rico, 
and  had  conquered  the  whole  island 
by  1512.  He  then  set  out  on  a  quest 
for  the  fountain  of  perpetual  youth, 
and  on  March  27,  1512,  found  Florida. 
He  secured  the  appointment  of  adel- 
antado  of  the  country,  and  returned 
in  1521  to  conquer  his  new  subjects ; 
in  this,  however,  he  failed.  He  retired 
to  Cuba,  and  died  there  in  July  from 
the  wound  of  a  poisoned  arrow. 

Pond,  Frederick  Eugene,  an 
American  journalist  and  author ;  born 
in  Marquette  co.,  Wis.,  April  8,  1856. 

Poniatowski,  Joseph,  Prince,  a 
Polish  general ;  born  in  Warsaw,  Po- 
land, in  1763,  and  when  young  entered 
the  Austrian  service,  but  when  the 
Poles  rose  against  Russia  he  quitted 
it,  and  joining  his  countrymen,  fought 
with  them  under  Kosciusko.  On  the 
defeat  of  this  general,  Poniatowski 
sought  refuge  in  Vienna,  till  the 
French  entered  Warsaw  in  1806,  when 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  Polish  army  which  was  to  co- 
operate with  the  French  against  Rus- 
sia. Napoleon  estimated  his  services 
so  highly,  that  shortly  before  the  bat- 
tle of  Leipsic  he  created  him  a  Mar- 
shal of  France.  After  this  disastrous 
battle,  the  French  were  flying  in  utter 
confusion  over  the  Elster,  and  Ponia- 
towski was  drowned  in  the  attempt, 
Oct.  13,  1813.     , 

PoniatoA«rski,  Stanislas  August 
tna,  the  last  king  of  Poland,  and  one 


Pontcliartrain 


Pove 


of  the  early  lovers  of  Catherine  the 
Great  of  Russia.  lie  died  at  St. 
Petersburg,  in  1798,  of  a  broken  heart. 

Pontcliartrain,  Lake,  in  Louisi- 
ana, about  5  miles  N.  of  New  Orleans, 
is  40  miles  long  and  25  wide.  It  is 
navigated  by  small  steamers,  and  com- 
municates with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  drainage  of  New  Orleans  is  car- 
ried into  the  lake  through  canals. 

Pontiac,  a  celebrated  Indian  chief 
of  the  Ottawa  tribe ;  born  about  1712. 
He  was  the  leader  in  Pontiac's  War, 
and  was  killed  in  Illinois  in  1769. 

Pontiac's  War,  an  Indian  war  of 
1703  between  the  English  settlers  and 
garrisons  on  the  frontiers,  and  a  com- 
bination of  Indian  tribes,  under  the 
leadership  of  Pontiac.  The  war  lasted 
two  years. 

Pontifex,  a  bridge  builder;  a  title 
given  to  the  more  illustrious  members 
of  the  Roman  colleges  of  priests.  Their 
number  was  originally  five,  the  presi- 
dent being  styled  Pontifex  Maximus. 
The  number  was  afterward  increased 
to  nine,  and  later  still  to  15.  The  title 
of  Pontifex  Maximus  is  now  the  title 
of  the  Pope. 

Pontifical,  one  of  the  service  books 
of  the  Church  of  Rome,  in  which  are 
contained  the  several  services. 

Pontoon,  a  floating  vessel  support- 
ing the  roadway  timbers  of  a  floating 
military  bridge. 

Pony,  a  term  applied  to  several  sub- 
varieties  or  races  of  horses,  generally 
of  smaller  size  than  the  ordinary  horses 
and  which  are  bred  in  large  flocks 
and  herds  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  chiefly  for  purposes  of  ridihg 
and  of  lighter  draught  work. 

Poodle,  a  breed  of  dog  whose  origin 
dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century  or  earlier.  The  poodle  is  one 
of  the  few  breeds  of  dogs  which  has 
not  been  properly  appreciated  and  cul- 
tivated in  the  United  States.  From 
his  great  intelligence  and  cleverness  in 
learning  tricks,  he  was  generally  adopt- 
ed as  a  circus  or  "  trick  dog  "  ;  but 
this  fact,  instead  of  making  for  his 
credit,  has  caused  the  poodle  to  be 
treated  with  contempt. 

Pook,  Samnel  Hartt,  an  Ameri- 
can naval  constructor,  born  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  Jan.  17,  1827 ;  was  graduat- 
ed  at    the   Portsmouth   Academy,    N. 


H.,  in  1843.  He  settled  in  Boston  as 
a  naval  architect  and  designed  many 
merchant  and  war  vessels ;  entered 
government  service,  when  the  Civil 
War  broke  out,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  war  entered  the  navy  as  assistant 
naval  constructor  and  served  at  differ- 
ent navy  vards  till  bis. retirement  in 
1899.     He  died   in   1901. 

Pool,  a  game  played  on  a  pool  table. 
The  term  "  poolroom "  is  applied 
to  places,  apart  from  race  tracks,  in 
which  bets  on  horse-races  are  received, 
and  as  this  is  an  illegal  business,  the 
word  frequently  occurs  in  the  daily 
news. 

Also,  an  arrangement  between  sev- 
eral competing  lines  of  railway,  by 
which  the  total  receipts  of  each  com- 
pany are  pooled,  and  distributed  pro 
rata  according  to  agreement. 

Pool,  Maria  Louise,  an  American 
novelist;  bom  in  Rockland,  Mass.,  in 
August,  1841.  She  died  in  Rockland, 
May  19,  1898. 

Poole,  William  Frederick,  an 
American  bibliographer ;  born  in  Sa- 
lem, Mass.,  Dec.  24,  1821;  was  a 
librarian  of  Boston,  Cincinnati,  and 
Chicago.  His  chief  work  is  the  cele- 
brated "  Index  to  Periodical  Litera- 
ture." He  died  in  Evanston,  111., 
March  1,  1894. 

Poor  Clares,  a  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligious order,  having  very  severe  rules, 
and  called  after  the  founder. 

Poore,  Benjamin  Perley,  an 
American  author ;  born  in  Newbury, 
Mass.,  Nov.  2,  1820;  spent  several 
years  abroad.  On  his  return  he  be- 
came active  in  journalism.  He  died 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  May  30,  1887. 

Poor  Priests,  a  name  given  to,  or 
assumed  by,  the  Lollard  clergy  of  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries,  who  wandered 
about  the  country  holding  what  would 
now  be  called  "  missions,"  without  the 
sanction  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese. 

Pope,  specifically,  the  Bishop  of 
Rome.  The  term  Papa,  or  Papas 
(father),  has  always  been  given  by 
the  Greek  Church  to  presbyters,  like 
the  term  Father  now  applied  to  a 
Roman  priest.  In  the  early  centuries 
the  bishops  received  the  same  title  till, 
in  a  council  held  at  Rome  in  1076,  at 
the  instance  of  Gregory  VII.  (Hilde- 
brandt,  it  was  limited  to  the  Bishop 
of   Rome.     Holding   that   office,   being 


Pope 

also  Metropolitan  of  Rome  and  pri- 
mate, and  claiming  to  be  the  earthly 
head  of  the  Church  universal,  it  is  in 
the  last  named  capacity  that  the  term 
Pope  is  held  to  be  specially  applicable. 
It  has  been  a  matter  of  controversy 
among  Roman  Catholics  whether  the 
authority  of  the  Pope  vs^as  above  or 
below  that  of  the  General  Council. 
That  of  Pisa  (1409),  claiming  to  be  a 
General  Council,  deposed  two  rival 
Popes,  and  appointed  a  third ;  but  the 
two  former  repudiated  the  authority 
of  the  council,  and  exercised  their 
functions  as  before.  The  Council  of 
CJonstance  (1414-1418)  also  deposed 
two  rival  Popes  and  elected  one.  "  The 
States  of  the  Church  "  fi.gured  on  the 
map  of  Europe  as  an  independent  sov- 
ereignty till  Sept.  20,  1870,  when  the 
troops  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  King  of 
Italy,  entered  Rome,  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  palace  for  the  Italian 
kingdom.  No  interference  took  place 
:with  the  Pope's  spiritual  authority. 

Pope  Pius  X.     See  Pius. 

Pope,  Alexander,  an  English 
poet;  born  in  London,  England,  May 
21,  1688.  His  education  was  a  desul- 
tory one.  He  picked  up  the  rudiments 
of  Greek  and  Latin  from  the  family 
priest,  and  was  successively  sent  to 
two  schools,  one  at  Twyford,  the  other 
in  London.  Before  he  was  15  he  at- 
tempted an  epic  poem,  and  at  the  age 
of  16  his  "  Pastorals "  procured  him 
the  notice  of  several  eminent  persons. 
In  1711  he  published  his  poem  the 
*'Essay  on  Criticism,"  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  "  The  Rape  of  the  Lock,"  a 
polished  and  witty  narrative  poem 
founded  on  an  incident  of  fashionable 
life.  From  171.'J  to  1726  he  was  en- 
gaged on  a  poetical  translation  of 
Homer's  works,  the  "  Iliad "  (com- 
pleted in  1720)  being  wholly  from  his 
pen,  the  "  Odyssey  "  only  half.  The 
pecuniary  results  of  these  translations 
•showed  a  total  profit  of  nearly  $45,000. 
He  died  in  Twickenham,  May  30,  1744. 

Pope,  John,  an  American  military 
officer ;  born  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  March 
16,  1822 ;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
Btates  Military  Academy  in  1842,  and 
•entered  the  engineers.  He  served  in 
Florida  (1842-1844),  and  in  the  Mex- 
ican War,  and  was  brevetted  captain 
for  gallantry.  He  was  afterward  em- 
ployed in  exploring  and  surveying  in 
the  W<»st,  till  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 


Popisli  Plot 

War,  when  he  was  appointed  Briga- 
dier-General of  volunteers*  For  15 
days  in  August,  1862,  he  faced  Lee, 
but  was  defeated  at  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run,  on  the  29th  and  30th. 
He  then  requested  to  be  relieved,  and 
was  transferred  to  Minnesota,  where 
he  kept  the  Indians  in  check.  He 
held  various  commands  till  1886,  when 
he  retired.  In  1882  he  became  Major- 
General,  U.  S.  A.  Pope  died  in  San- 
dusky, O.,  Sept.  23,  1892. 

Popinjay,  a  parrot;  a  figure  of  a 
bird  put  up  as  a  mark  for  archers  to 
shoot  at.  The  green  woodpecker  is 
also  sometimes  called  popinjay.  Also 
applied  to  a  man  who  dresses  too 
show'ly. 


OPIUM    POPPY. 

a,  whole  plant;  b,  flower  and  leaf;  c,  ripe 
capsule;  d,  seed  and  section  of  seed  ett« 
larged. 

Popish  Plot,  in  English  history,  an 
alleged  plot  made  known  by  Titus 
Gates  in  1678.  He  asserted  that  two 
men  had  been  told  off  to  assassinate 
Charles  II.,  that  certain  Roman  Cath- 
olics whom  be  named  had   been  ap- 


Poplar 

pointed  to  all  the  high  offices  of  the 
State,  and  that  the  extirpation  of 
Protestantism  was  intended.  On  the 
strength  of  his  allegation,  various  per- 
sons were  executed.  Gradually  evi- 
dence arose  that  the  whole  story  was 
a  fabrication,  and  that  the  people  who 
had  been  capitally  punished  were  all 
innocent.  On  May  8,  1085,  Oates, 
Vv'ho  had  received  a  pension  of  $10,000 
for  his  revelations,  was  convicted  of 
perjury,  heavily  fined,  pilloried  and 
publicly  flogged.     He  died  in  1705. 

Poplar,  a  tree.  Known  species  18, 
from  the  N.  temperate  zone.  The 
€reat  white  poplar,  or  abele,  is  a  large 
tree,  growing  in  moist  places  and 
mountain  woods. 

Poplin,  a  silk  and  worsted  stuff, 
watered,  figured,  brocaded,  or  tissued. 
Originally  an  all-silk  French  goods. 

Popocatepetl  ("  smoking  moun- 
tain "),  a  volcano  about  40  miles  S.  E. 
of  the  city  of  Mexico.  It  rises  in  the 
form  of  a  cone  to  a  height  of  17,784 
feet  above  the  sea-level.  No  eruption 
has  been  recorded  since  1540;  it  still 
smokes. 

Poppy,  a  genus  of  plants,  of  which 
there  are  numerous  species,  mostly  na- 
tives of  Europe  and  Asia,  some  of 
them  found  in  the  very  N.  regions,  but 
most  of  them  in  the  warmer  temper- 
ate parts.  By  far  the  most  important 
species  is  that  known  as  the  opium 
poppy,  also  called  the  white  poppy 
und  the  oil  poppy.  But  the  same 
•species  is  important  on  account  of 
the  bland  fixed  oil  of  the  seeds,  and 
is  much  cultivated  as  an  oil  plant. 
Poppy  oil  is  as  sweet  as  olive  oil,  and 
is  used  for  similar  purposes.  It  is 
imported  into  the  United  States  in 
considerable  quantities  from  India.  A 
variety  with  double  flowers  is  culti- 
vated irf  flower  gardens,  under  the 
name  of  carnation  poppy. 

Popnlist,  or  People's  Party,  a 
political  organization  founded  at  Cin- 
cinnati, in  May  1891 ;  an  outgrowth 
of  the  movements  inaugurated  by  the 
Patrons  of  Husbandry  (q.  v.),  and 
the  Farmer's  Alliance.  Appealing  to 
the  agricultural  and  industrial  classes, 
its  avowed  objects  include  free  silver ; 
national  ownership  of  transportation 
and  freight  utilities ;  a  graduated  in- 
come tax ;  prohibition  of  alien  owner- 
ship of  land,  etc. 


Pcrcnpine 

Porcelain,  a  fictile  material  inter- 
mediate between  glass  and  pottery,  be- 
ing formed  of  two  substances,  fusible 
and  infusible,  the  latter  enabling  it  to 
withstand  the  heat  necessary  to  vitrify 
the  former,  thus  producing  its  peculiar 
semi-translucency.  The  infusible  ma' 
terial  is  alumina,  called  kaolin;  the 
fusible  substance  is  felspar,  and  is 
called  pe-tun-tse,  both  Chinese  terms. 


J^  X  -^^^  @  ! 


l7«»-«»«  '77*. 


BSchiV 


tm 


x 


{Karl  TheodorJ.  tmg,  baa  (»--P«la5» 


•t«t-)4 


Sivrea    "sTTii^ 

fcepibUs.     ^    It  10- 14.       tadirlgPhilipp 
Sevrea  (tinea  vii%\ 

POBCELAIN    MABKS. 


Large  quantities  of  porcelain  are  pro- 
duced in  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  and  other 
states,  while  European  porcelain,  and 
Chinese  and  Japanese  ware,  are  fa- 
mous.    See  POTTEBY. 

Porcupine,  a  rodent  quadruped. 
The  North  American  porcupine  is 
about  two  feet  long,  and  of  sluggish 
habits.  The  quills  are  short,  and  con- 
cealed among  the  fur,  and  the  tail  is 
short.  The  "  tree  porcupine  "  of  SoutH 
America  has  a  prehensile  tail,  about 
10  inches  long.  The  porcupine  of 
Southern  Europe  and  Africa  is  about 
28  inches  long,  exclusive  of  the  tail. 
The  head,  fore  quarters,  and  under 
surface  are  clothed  with  short  spines, 
intermixed  with  hairs,  crest  on  head 
and  neck,  hind  quarters  covered  with 
long  sharp  spines,  ringed  with  black 
and  white,  and  erectile  at  will.  They 
are  but  loosely  attached  to  the  skin 
and  readily  fall  out,  a  circumstance 
which  probably  gave  rise  to  the  belief 
that  the  animal  was  able  to  project 
them  at  an  enemy. 


PoTcnpixie  CraB 


Port 


Porcupine  Crab,  a  native  of  Ja- 

{»an.  The  carapace  is  triangular,  and, 
ike  the  limbs,  thickly  covered  with 
spines.  It  is  dull  and  sluggish  in  its 
movements. 

Porcupine  Pish,  a  fish  found  in 
the  tropical  seas.  It  is  about  14 
inches  long,  and  is  covered  with  spines 
or  prickles. 


PEEHENSILE-TAILED    PORCTTPINE. 

Porgy,  Peggy,  or  Paugie,  an  im- 
portant food  fish  found  on  the  coast  of 
the  United  States.  It  attains  a  length 
of  18  inches  and  a  weight  of  about 
four  pounds. 

Pork,  the  flesh  of  swine ;  one  of  the 
most  important  and  widely  used  spe- 
cies of  animal  food.  The  swine  was 
forbidden  to  be  eaten  by  the  Mosaic 
law,  and  is  regarded  by  the  Jews  as 
especially  typical  of  the  unclean  ani- 
mals. Other  Eastern  nations  had  sim- 
ilar opinions  as  to  the  use  of  pork. 
In  the  United  States  the  pork-packing 
industry  is  one  of  the  greatest  factors 
of  wealth.  The  immense  establish- 
ments at  Chicago,  Kansas  City, 
Omaha,  St.  Louis,  Indianapolis,  Cin- 
cinnati, and  other  cities,  represent 
many  millions  of  dollars  invested  in 
this  branch  of  trade  and  commerce. 

Porosity,  the  quality  or  state  of 
being  porous  or  of  having  pores. 

Porphyrio,  a  genus  of  birds  oc- 
curring in  South  America,  in  Africa, 
and  in  the  S.  of  Europe,  but  chiefly 
Oriental.  In  habits  they  resemble  the 
water  hen.  but  are  larger  and  more, 
stately  birds. 

Porphyry,  a  term  originally  ap- 
plied to  a  rock  having  a  purple  cov- 
ered base,  with  inclosed  individual 
crystals  of  a  felspar. 


Porpoise,  a  small  cetacean.  The 
common  porpoise,  when  full  grown,  at- 
tains a  length  of  about  five  feet.  The 
head  is  rounded  in  front,  and  the  snout 
is  not  produced  into  a  beak.  The  ex- 
ternal surface  is  shining  and  hairless, 
dark  grey  or  black  on  the  upper  parts, 
under  pure  white.  It  is  gregarious  in 
habit,  and  is  often  seen  in  small  herds, 
frequenting  the  coasts  rather  than  the 
open  seas.  It -often  ascends  rivers, 
and  ranges  as  far  N.  as  Baffin  Bay 
and  as  far  W.  as  the  coast  of  the 
United  States. 

Porsenna,  or  Porsena,  a  cele- 
brated leader  and  king  of  Etruria,  who 
declared  war  against  the  Romans  be- 
cause they  refused  to  restore  Tarquin 
to  his  throne.  At  first  successful,  he 
would  have  entered  the  gates  of  Rome 
had  not  Horatius  Coccles  stood  at  the 
head  of  a  bridge  and  resisted  the  fury 
of  the  whole  Etrurian  army,  while  his 
companions  behind  were  cutting  off  the 
communication  with  the  opposite 
shore.  This  act  of  bravery  astonished 
Porsenna;  but  when  he  had  seen  Mu- 
tius  Scsevola,  who  had  entered  his 
camp  with  the  intention  of  murdering 
him,  burn  his  hand  without  emotion, 
to  convince  him  of  his  fortitude,  he  no 
longer  dared  to  make  head  against  so 
brave  a  people.  He  made  a  peace  with 
the  Romans,  and  never  after  supported 
the  claims  of  Tarquin. 


poecttpine:  hysteix  cmstata. 


Port,  a  harbor,  natural  or  artificial ; 
into  which  vessels  can  enter,  and  in 
which  they  can  lie  in  safety  from 
storms.  In  law,  a  place  appointed  for 
the  passage  of  travelers  and  merchan- 
dise into  or  out  of  the  United  States; 
a  place  frequented  by  vessels  for  the 
purpose  of  loading  or  discharging  car- 
f,o,  and  provided  with  the  apparatlUr 
necessary  to  enable  them  to  do  so.         ^ 


Tort 


Porter 


Port,  a  species  of  red  wine,  pro- 
duced chiefly  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts of  Portugal,  and  shipped  from 
Oporto. 

Fort  Arthur,  Lnshixrankaii,  or 
Xushunku,  a  former  naval  station  of 
China,  with  a  fine  narrow-mouthed 
harbor  at  the  end  and  on  the  E.  side 
of  the  peninsula  jutting  S.  W.  from 
Manchuria,  opposite  Chifu,  strongly 
fortified ;  formerly  the  headquarters  of 
the  N.  fleet  of  China.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Japanese  in  1894,  and  was  re- 
stored to  China  by  coercion  of  Euro- 
pean powers.  On  Dec.  19,  1897,  a 
Russian  fleet  occupied  Port  Arthur 
"With  China's  consent,  the  pretext  be- 
ing that  the  ships  would  simply  winter 
there.  On  Jan.  28,  1898.  Port  Arthur 
was  ceded  to  Russia.  At  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War  in 
1904,  Port  Arthur  was  immediately 
ass«Med  by  the  Japanese,  and  the  Rus- 
sian fleet  in  the  harbor  so  effectually 
blocked  that  is  was  of  no  use  to  the 
Rusians  during  the  conflict.  It  was 
isolated  on  May  14,  1904.  after  a  siege 
la&ting  232  db.ys  ;  surrendered  January 
2,  1905,  by  the  Russians  to  the  Japa- 
nese— General  Stoessel  to  General  Nogi. 

Port  Arthur  Ship  Canal,  an 
artificial  waterway  in  Texas.  The 
small  town  of  Port  Arthur  is  situated 
on  Sabine  Lake,  a  body  of  water  3 
miles  long  and  10  miles  wide,  which 
marks  the  boundary  of  Texas  and  Lou- 
isiana. Seven  and  one-half  miles  from 
Port  Arthur  Sabine  •  Lake  narrows 
into  a  long  channel  called  Sabine 
Pass.  This  channel  is  from  26  to  40 
feet  deep  and  extends  for  7  miles  to 
the  S.,  terminating  at  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  At  the  outer  end  of  the  pass 
is  a  bar  which  has  been  pierced  by  a 
channel  formed  by  extending  for  a  mile 
or  more  from  shore  two  jetties  of 
piled  stone,  built  by  the  United  States 
government. 

Port-an-Prince,  the  capital  of 
Haiti,  situated  on  the  W.  coast  at 
the  head  of  a  bay  of  the  same  name. 
Pop.  about  50,000. 

Portcullis,  a  strong  defensive 
framework  of  timber,  hung  in  grooves 
within  the  chief  gateway  of  a  fortress, 
or  a  castle,   or  an   edifice  of  safety. 

Porte,  Ottoman,  or  Sublime 
Porte,  the  common  term  for  the  Turk- 
ish govarument.  i 


Porter,  David,  an  American  naval 
officer;  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  1, 
1780,  the  son  of  a  naval  officer  who 
fought  through  the  Revolutionary 
War.  He  was  appointed  midshipman 
in  1798,  and  lieutenant  the  year  after; 
saw  service  against  privateers  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  against  Tripoli  ia 
1801-1803;  became  captain  in  1812, 
and  captured  the  first  British  war- 
ship taken  in  the  war.  In  1813,  with 
the  "  Essex  "  he  nearly  destroyed  the 
English  whale  fishery  in  the  Pacific, 
and  took  possession  of  the  Marquesas 
Islands;  but  in  March,  1814,  his  frig- 
ate was  destroyed  by  the  British  in 
Valparaiso  Harbor,  and  Porter  re- 
turned home  on  parole.  He  afterward 
commanded  an  expedition  against  pi- 
rates in  the  West  Indian  waters,  and 
was  court-martialed  for  compelling 
the  authorities  of  Porto  Rico  to 
apologize  for  imprisoning  one  of  his 
officers.  Porter  resigned  in  1826,  and 
was  for  a  time  at  the  head  of  the 
Mexican  navy.  In  1829  the  United 
States  appointed  him  consul-general 
to  the  Barbary  States,  and  then  min- 
ister at  Constantinople,  where  he 
died  March  3.  1843. 

Porter,  David  Dison,  an  Ameri- 
can naval  officer;  born  in  Chester,  Pa., 
June  8,  1813;  son  of  Commodore  Da- 
vid Porter.  He  entered  the  navy  as 
midshipman  in  1829;  was  employed  in 
1836  to  1841  in  the  survey  of  the 
coast  of  the  United  States;  in  1841  ap- 
pointed as  lieutenant  to  the  frigate 
*'  Congress,"  and  employed  four  years 
on  the  Mediterranean  and  Brazil  sta- 
tions; in  1845  was  transferred  to  the 
National  Observatory  at  Washington, 
and  during  the  Mexican  War  to  the 
naval  rendezvous  at  New  Orleans; 
again  to  the  coast  survey,  and  from 
1849  to  1853  engaged  in  command  of 
the  California  mail  steamers.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  Civil  War  ha 
was  appointed  with  the  rank  of  com- 
mander, to  the  steam  sloop-of-war 
"  Powhatan  " ;  distinguishing  himself 
in  the  capture  of  New  Orleans,  and 
commanded  the  gunboat  and  ^  mortar 
flotilla  which  cooperated  with  tha 
squadron  of  Admiral  Farragut  in  the 
first  attack  on  Vicksburg.  In  the 
fall  of  1862  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  all  the  naval  forces  on  the  W.  riv« 
ers  above  New  Orleans,  with  the  rank 
of  rear-admiraL    At  the  termination  of 


Porter 


Tori  Rndson 


( 


the  war  appointed  superintendent  of 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy, 
Annapolis.  He  was  made  vice-admiral 
in  1806,  and  in  1870  became  admiral. 
lie  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb. 
13,  1891. 

Porter,  Fitz-John,  an  American 
military  officer;  born  in  Portsmouth, 
N.  II.,  June  13,  1822 ;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Acade- 
my in  1845;  served  in  the  Mexican 
War.  In  18G1  was  appointed  colonel 
of  the  15th  U.  S.  Infantry.  For  an 
alleged  disobedience  at  the  second  bat- 
tle of  Bull  Run,  Aug.  29,  18G2,  Por- 
'ter  was  court-martialed,  and  on  Jan. 
El,  1803,  was  cashiered.  In  1878  a 
trial  was  granted,  and  the  court  rec- 
ommended that  the  former  sentence  be 
reversed,  and  that  he  be  restored  to 
his  former  rank  in  the  army,  but  no 
decisive  action  was  taken.  New  evi- 
dence came  to  light.  General  Grant 
affirming  that  Porter  had  been  un- 
justly treated,  and  a  bill  was  intro- 
duced in  Congress  providing  for  his 
reinstatement.  In  1886  the  bill  passed 
both  Houses,  and  became  a  law  by  the 
signature  of  the  President.  He  died 
in  New  York  city  May  21,  1901. 

Porter,  Horace,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer  and  diplomatist ;  born  in 
Huntingdon,  Pa.,  April  15,  1837 ;  son 
of  David  R.  Porter,  who  became  gov- 
ernor of  the  State.  After  a  year  in 
the  scientific  department  of  Harvard 
University  he  entered  th»  United 
States  Military  Academy.  His  grad- 
uation took  place  in  1800.  After  a 
brief  space  as  instructor  in  artillery  at 
West  Point,  he  was  assigned  to  duty 
in  the  Department  of  the  East.  He 
served  through  the  Civil  War,  becom- 
ing brevet  Brigadier-General.  When 
General  Grant  became  Secretary  of 
War  General  Porter  became  the  assist- 
ant secretary,  and  during  his  chief's 
service  as  President  acted  as  private 
secretary.  General  Porter  then  went 
into  business  and  was  exceedingly  suc- 
cessful. The  completion  of  the  Grant 
monument  was  chiefly  due  to  him. 
From  1897-1905  he  was  U.  S.  Am- 
bassador to  France,  and  instituted  the 
search  and  recovery  of  the  body  of 
Paul  Jones  (q.  v.).  He  published 
"Campaigning  with  Grant"    (1897). 

Porter,  James  Da-vis,  born  in 
Paris,  Tenn.,  Dec.  7,  1828;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Nashville 


in  1840 ;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1850 ; 
member  of  the  Tennessee  Legislaturo 
in  1859-1801;  judge  of  the  12th  Judi- 
cial Circuit  in  1870-1874  ;  governor  of 
Tennessee  in  1874-1878;  United 
States  assistant-secretary  of  State  in 
1885-1889;  and  United  States  minis- 
ter to  Chile  in  1893-1897. 

Porter,  Jane,  an  English  author; 
born  in  Durham,  England,  in  1770; 
daughter  of  an  army-surgeon  who  died 
soon  after  her  birth.  She  was  brought 
up  at  Edinburgh  and  in  London,  and 
made  a  great  reputation  in  1803  by 
her  high  flown  romance,  "  Thaddeus  of 
Warsaw,"  which  was  distanced  in  its 
kind  in  1810  by  "The  Scottish  Chiefs." 
She  died  in  Bristol,  England,  May  24, 
1850. 

Porter,  Jolin  Addison,  an  Amer- 
ican journalist ;  born  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  April  17,  1850.  He  was  editor 
of  the  Hartford  "Post."  President 
McKinley  appointed  him  "  secretary 
to  the  President  "  —  an  office  that  was 
created  to  replace  the  misnamed  post 
of  the  "  private  secretary "  at  the 
White  House.  He  died  in  Putnam, 
Conn.,  Dec.  15,  1900. 

Porter,  Ifoalb,  an  American  educa- 
tor; born  in  Farmington,  Conn.,  Dec. 
14,  1811.  In  1846  he  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Metaphysics  at  Yale  Uni- 
versity ;  and  was  president  of  that  in- 
stitution from  1871  to  1885.  He  died 
in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  March  4,  1892. 

Porter,  Robert  P.,  an  American 
statistician ;  born  in  Norfolk,  Eng- 
land, Jan.  30,  1852;  settled  in  the 
United  States  in  1867,  and  soon  after- 
ward engaged  in  journalism ;  was  for 
a  while  superintendent  of  the  11th 
census;  and  was  a  special  United 
States  commissioner  to  Cuba  and  Por- 
to Rico  in  1898-1899. 

Porter,  Rufus,  an  American  in- 
ventor; born  in  West  Roxford,  Mass., 
May  1,  1792;  died  1884.  Devised 
a  thermo-engine,  rotary-engine,  etc. 
Founded   "  The   Scientific  American." 

Port-Hndson,  a  village  of  Louisi- 
ana, on  the  Mississippi,  135  miles 
above  New  Orleans.  A  Confederate 
strategical  stronghold,  it  was  besieged 
by  Admiral  Farragut  and  General 
Banks,  but  resisted  all  assaults  from 
Mar.  14,  to  July  7,  1863,  when  the 
surrender  at  Vicksburg  led  to  ita 
capitulatioQt 


Fort  Hnron 


Porto  BIco 


Port  Huron,  city ;  capital  of  Clair 
Co.,  Mich.,  on  Lake  Huron,  at  the 
head  of  St.  Clair  River,  60  miles  N. 
E.  of  Detroit.  It  has  important  ship- 
building, lumber,  machinery  and  other 
■works,  and  a  large  trade.  Pop.  (1900) 
1D,200;  (1910)   18,863. 

Portland,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Cumberland  county,  Me.; 
on  Casoo  bay  and  the  Maine  Cen- 
tral railroad;  100  miles  N.  E.  of 
Boston;  is  the  largest  and  most  im- 
portant city  in  the  State;  has  an  ex- 
cellent harbor,  protected  by  a  mas- 
sive breakwater;  contains  National 
fortifications.  Government  Building, 
and  Marine  Hospital,  Maine  General 
Hospital,  Longfellow  homestead, 
Portland  School  for  the  Deaf,  Maine 
Historical  Society,  and  many  other 
buildings  of  note;  and  has  large 
manufacturing  and  coastwise  and 
foreign  trade  interests.  Pop.  (1910) 
58,571. 

Portland,  city  and  port  of  entry, 
and  capital  of  Multnomah  county. 
Or.;  on  the  Willamette  river  and  the 
Northern  and  Southern  Pacific  rail- 
roads; 530  miles  N.  of  San  Fran- 
cisco; has  large  trade  with  Great 
Britain,  the  Philippines,  China, 
Japan,  Hawaii,  and  South  American 
countries,  in  flour,  grain,  lumber, 
fish,  and  wool;  contains  Portland 
University,  Medical  and  Law  Schools 
of  the  State  University,  Good  Sa- 
maritan, Portland,  and  St.  Vincent's 
hospitals.  Bishop  Scott  and  St. 
Helen's  schools,  and  St.  Michael's 
College;  was  the  site  of  the  Lewis 
and  Clark  Exposition  in  1905.  Pop. 
(1910)    207,214. 

Porto  Rico,  a  West  Indian  island; 
SO  miles  E.  of  Haiti;  3,600  square 
miles;  pop.  (1910)  1,118,012;  capital, 
San  Juan,  metropolis.  Ponce.  Under 
the  Spanish-American  peace  treaty 
the  island  was  formally  transferred  to 
the  United  States'  on  Oct.  18,  1898. 
The  Spanish  form  of  the  name  of  the 
island  is  Puerto  Rico;  but  an  Act  of 
the  United  States  Congress  approved 
April  12,  1900,  established  the  official 
form  as  Porto  Rico.  While  there  is 
a  great  amount  of  wealth  in  the 
island,  and  in  many  places  evidences 
Of  great  prosperity,  rich  plantations, 
and  promise  of  a  great  future  for 
Porto    Rico^     tiiroughout    the    inte- 


rior  of  the  island  the  people  are  poor 
and  their  homes  are  of  the  poorest 
character,  consisting  almost  altogether 
of  "  shacks  "  constructed  of  the  palm 
and  covered  with  a  straw  thatch  or 
palm  leaves.  Into  the  cities  and  these 
homes  is  crowded  a  large  popu- 
lation, variously  estimated  from 
800,000  to  1,000,000.  They  are  gen- 
erally a  peaceful  and  law-abiding 
people,  and  while  there  is  unques- 
tionably some  lawlessness,  and  soma 
small  offenses  are  being  committed, 
they  do  not  exceed,  if  they  equal, 
the  number  being  committed  in. 
the  States  of  a  like  population.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  from  10  to 
20  per  cent,  only  of  the  people  can 
read  and  write.  The  people  are  anx- 
ious to  have  their  children  educated, 
and  are  exceedingly  solicitous  for  the 
establishment  of  public  schools.  There 
is  no  starvation  upon  the  island,  and 
^vhile  there  is  great  poverty  in  many 
places,  there  can  nofe  be  any  real 
starvation  in  Porto  Rico,  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  people  live  frugally  and 
are  content  with  little,  while  the  soil 
and  the  climate  are  so  productive  of 
many  of  the  simple  necessaries  of  life 
that  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to 
starve  a  people  who  live  upon  tropical 
fruits  and  tropical  vegetable  produc- 
tions. 

Vegetables  of  all  kinds  known  to  our 
climate  grow  in  abundance.  Irish  po- 
tatoes are  not  a  success.  There  are 
no  plums,  cherries,  or  grapes.  It 
would  seem  that  there  would  be  no 
difficulty  in  growing  grapes,  but  so 
far  they  have  not  been  tried.  Indian 
com  is  raised  with  some  success,  and 
while  the  ears  are  small,  that  is  made 
up  by  the  fact  that  two  and  even 
three  crops  can  be  grown  yearly  on  the 
same  ground.  This  can  be  grown  either 
in  the  valleys  or  on  the  hillsides.  No 
wheat  is  grown  on  the  island.  At 
present  all  flour  is  imported. 

The  native  grasses  grow  luxuriantly 
wherever  an  opportunity  offers,  from 
the  lowest  valley  to  the  highest  moun- 
tain top,  and  afford  excellent  pasture 
for  stock  everywhere  all  the  months  of 
the  year.  They  make  no  hay,  but  out 
it  with  sickles  or  the  machete  and 
tie  it  in  small  bundles,  pack  it  on 
ponies  to  the  cities,  and  sell  it  while 
it  is  still  green.  The  cattle  grazing 
in  large  numbers  on  the  pastures  are 


7ort  Said 

found  all  over  the  island,  and  are  most- 
ly in  very  good  condition,  making  ex- 
cellent beef.  Hogs  are  raised  to  a 
limited  extent,  but  are  of  poor  breeds, 
being  of  the  old  "  razor-back "  vari- 
ety. They  are  fed  mainly  from  the 
jiuts  grown  on  the  royal  palm  trees. 
Horses  are  plentiful.  They  are  small, 
and  used  only  to  ride  and  as  pack 
ponies  and  in  carriages.  The  hard 
"work  of  hauling  loads  and  ploughing 
the  land  is  done  with  oxen,  yoked  in 
the  Spanish  fashion  by  tying  the 
yoke  to  the  horns,  and  they  are  guided 
•with  a  whip  or  "  gad."  The  wagons 
are  mostly  two-wheeled  carts  with 
large  wooden  axles. 

There  seems  to  be  a  considerable  de- 

{)osit  of  iron  and  copper  on  the  is- 
and.  In  some  places  these  are  being 
developed  with  good  prospects  of  prov- 
ing paying  investments.  Traces  of 
gold  and  silver  are  also  found  in  the 
mountains,  but  up  to  date  prospecting 
has  not  developed  any  considerable 
quantities  of  these  more  precious 
metals. 

Soon  after  the  surrender  of  San- 
tiago de  Cuba  to  the  American  forces 
under  General  Shafter,  July  17,  1898, 
an  army  numbering  16,973  men  was 
sent  from  Guantanamo  to  Porto  Rico 
to  take  possession  of  that  island.  They 
landed  July  25,  at  Quanica,  15  miles 
W.  of  Ponce.  Lieutenant  Haines, 
commanding  the  marines,  went  ashore 
and  raised  the  American  flag  over  the 
custom  house,  amid  the  cheers  of  the 
people.  General  Wilson  was  the  first 
army  officer  to  land,  and  was  wel- 
comed with  cheers  and  a  serenade.  A 
portion  of  the  army  marched  toward 
the  capital,  San  Juan,  but  were 
stoppped  when  about  half  way  by 
the  suspension  of  hostilities  between 
the  belligerent  powers.  On  Oct.  18 
the  island  was  formally  surrendered 
to  the  United  States  in  the  city  of  San 
Juan. 

In  1899  a  census  of  the  island  was 
taken  under  the  direction  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  War  Department,  which  by 
departments  gave  the  following.  Agu- 
adillo,  99,645 ;  Arecibo,  162,308 ;  Bay- 
amon,  160,046;  Guayamo,  111,986: 
Humacao,  88.501;  Mayaguez,  127,566 
and  Ponce,  203,191  —  total  for  the  is- 
land, 953,243.  The  island  has  pros- 
pered greatly  under  American  rule, 
and  is  fast  becoming  Americanized. 


Portugal 

Port  Said,  a  town  of  Egypt,  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  Suez  Canal,  on  a 
desolate  strip  of  land  between  Lake 
Menzaleh  and  the  Mediterranean. 
The  place  owes  its  origin  to  the  Suez 
Canal,  and  depends  wholly  on  the 
canal  trade. 

Portsmonth,  city  and  capital  of 
Norfolk  county,  Va.;  on  the  Eliza- 
beth river  and  the  Seaboard  Air  Line 
and  other  railroads;  opposite  Norfolk; 
has  a  harbor  accessible  to  the  largest 
vessels;  contains  a  National  Marine 
Hospital,  Marine  Barracks,  and,  in 
the  Gosport  suburb,  the  Norfolk 
navy-yard.     Pop.  (1910)  33,190. 

Portsmonth,  the  principal  station 
of  the  British  navy,  a  seaport,  mu- 
nicipal and  parliamentary  borough 
of  England,  in  Hampshire,  on  the  S. 
W.  extremity  of  the  island  of  Port- 
sea.  The  royal  dockyard  covers  an 
area  of  about  500  acres  and  contains 
a  Royal  Navy  College.  Pop.  189,160. 

Portsmontli,  Treaty  of,  signed 
at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Sept.  5,  1905, 
ended  the  Russo-.Tapanese  War  and 
embodied  15  articles  and  annexes. 
Its  main  points  were  the  cession  of 
half  of  Saghalin  to  Japan  and  Ja- 
pan's sovereignty  over  Korea. 

Portugal,  a  former  kingdom  oi 
Europe;  since  Oct.  5,  1910,  a  repub' 
lie;  bounded  by  Spain  and  the  At- 
lantic; area,  35,490  sq.  miles;  pop. 
5.687.627. 

The  country  generally  inclines  from 
N.  E.  to  S.  W.  Several  of  the  great 
mountain  chains  of  Spain  intersect  it 
from  E.  to  W.  and  terminate  in  large 
promontories  in  the  Atlantic.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Tagus,  the 
Douro,  the  Minho,  and  the  Guadiana. 
These  all  enter  the  country  from 
Spain,  and  flow  W.  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  The  climate  is  healthy,  ex- 
cept in  the  vicinity  of  salt  marshes. 

The  principal  agricultural  produc- 
tions are :  wheat,  barley,  oats,  flax, 
hemp,  vines,  and  maize  in  the  elevated 
tracts;  rice  in  the  low  grounds,  with 
olives,  oranges,  lemons,  citrons,  figs, 
and  almonds.  Silk  is  made  of  a  very 
good  quality.  There  are  extensive 
forests  of  oak  in  the  N.,  chestnut  in 
the  center,  and  the  sea  pine  and  cork 
in  the  S.  Cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and 
swine  are  numerous,  and  fish  abound 
in  the  rivers  and  on  the  coasts.  Iron 
mines  are  worked,  and  the  mountains 


Portugal 


Positive  Fliilosopliy 


abound  in  fine  marble,  and  contain 
traces  of  gold  and  silver.  0£  salt,  large 
quantities  are  formed  in  bays  along 
the  coast,  by  natural  evaporation. 
There  are  numerous  salt  marshes,  and 
upward  of  200  mineral  Firings.  The 
manufactures  are  limited.  Cotton 
spinning  is  followed,  and  paper,  glass, 
and  gunpowder  are  made  in  a  few 
places. 

The  exports  consist  almost  entirely 
of  wine,  salt  and  wool ;  imports,  chief- 
ly corn,  flour,  fish,  woolens,  linen,  cot- 
ton, lace,  hardware,  hats,  shoes,  and 
stockings.  The  state  religion  is  the 
Roman  Catholic ;  but  all  others  are 
tolerated.  The  government  is  a  limit- 
ed monarchy.  The  national  assembly 
is  called  the  Cortes,  and  consists  of  a 
House  of  Deputies  and  a  House  of 
Peers. 

Portugal  forms  the  greater  part  of 
ancient  Lusitania.  It  was  subjugated 
by  the  Romans,  in  the  time  of  Augus- 
tus, and  had  been  made  into  a  prov- 
ince. In  the  5th  century,  on  the  over- 
throw of  the  Roman  supremacy,  Por- 
tugal was  invaded  by  the  Alans  and 
Visigoths,  and  suffered  with  Spain,  of 
which  it  was  then  a  part,  all  the  trou- 
bles and  vicissitudes  endured  by  the 
mhabitants  of  the  peninsula  till  the 
8th  century,  at  which  time  the  Arabs, 
called  indifferently  Saracens  or  Moors, 
possessed  themselves  of  the  whole  of 
Portugal,  and  kept  absolute  dominion 
for  nearly  400  years.  In  the  12th 
century,  Don  Alonzo  Henriquez,  a 
Spanish  prince  of  Leon  and  Castile, 
gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Moors 
of  Portugal,  and  carried  out  his  mili- 
tary operations  with  such  success  that 
his  troops  hailed  him  with  one  voice 
as  king.  He  renounced  all  dependence 
on  Spain,  politically  separated  his  new 
kingdom  from  all  connection  or  author- 
ity with  the  Spanish  crown,  and  es- 
tablished a  free  and  sovereign  state. 

Under  the  descendants  of  Don  Alon- 
Ko  I.,  especially  Dennis  I.  and  Alonzo 
IV.,  Portugal,  during  the  next  two 
centuries,  rose  in  political  importance 
and  commercial  prosperity.  In  1385, 
the  King  of  Castile  having  laid  claim 
to  the  crown  of  Portugal  on  the  death 
of  Ferdinand,  was  opposed  and  de- 
feated by  Don  John,  Ferdinand's 
brother.  Under  John  I.  the  Portu- 
guese first  projected  those  Atlantic 
discoveries    on     the    African     coast, 


fraught  with  such  territorial  and  com- 
mercial advantages  to  the  nation ;  and, 
under  John  II.  and  Emanuel,  between> 
1481  and  1521,  Vasco  da  Gama  ex- 
plored the  Indian  Ocean;  and  Brazil 
was  added  to  the  possessions  of  the- 
crown  of  Portugal.  Sebastian  III., 
fired  with  a  holy  zeal  to  exterminate- 
the  infidels  from  his  country,  com- 
menced a  sanguinary  crusade  against 
the  Moors,  which  he  carried  on  throughi 
such  defeats  that  he  eventually  lost 
both  his  crown  and  life  in  the  strug- 
gle. Henry  the  Cardinal,  his  uncle, 
an  old  man  of  70,  ascended  the  throne, 
but  died  without  heirs,  after  a  reign  of 
only  two  years,  in  1580. 

With  Henry  terminated  the  male- 
line,  after  enduring  for  460  years. 
Spain  once  more  laid  claim  to  the  va- 
cant throne,  and  Portugal  again  be- 
came a  dependency  of  the  Spanish, 
crown.  After  enduring  60  years  of 
intolerable  hardships  and  exactions,  a 
Portuguese  nobleman  named  John,. 
Duke  of  Braganza,  excited  a  revolu- 
tion, which  again  broke  the  Spanish" 
fetters,  while  the  people  hailed  their 
deliverer  as  their  king.  He  was- 
crowned  as  John  IV.,  and  commenced 
the  existing  dynasty  of  the  House- 
of  Braganza.  In  October,  1889,  Carlo» 
I.  succeeded  to  the  throne.  He  was- 
assassinated  Feb.  1, 1908,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Manuel  II.,  who 
was  dethroned  Oct.  5,  1910. 

Portuguese  East  Africa,  ^ee- 
East  Africa,  Portuguese. 

Portnlaca,  purslane ;  low.  succu- 
lent herbs  with  flat  or  cylindrical 
leaves,  and  yellow,  purplish,  or  rose- 
colored  ephemeral  flowers. 

Positive  Pbllosopliy,  the  systemir 
of  philosophy  outlined  by  Auguste- 
Comte  in  his  "  Philosophic  Positive," 
the  sixth  and  last  volume  of  which- 
w-as  published  in  1842.  It  is  the  out- 
come of  the  Law  of  the  Three  Stage* 
and  is  based  on  the  positive  sciences, 
taken  in  the  following  series :  mathe- 
matics (number,  geometry,  mechanics), 
astronomy,  physics,  chemistry,  biolo- 
gy, and  sociology.  It  relinquishes  at- 
tempts to  transcend  the  sphere  of  ex-* 
perience.  and  seeks  to  establish  by 
observation  and  induction  laws  or  con- 
stant relations,  and  resigns  itself  to 
ignorance  of  the  agents.  In  the  opin- 
ion of  its  founder  it  is  capable  of  be- 


Positive  Society 


Post  Mortem 


ing  developed  into  a  religion  and  a 
polity. 

Positive  Society,  a  society  found- 
ed in  Paris  in  1848,  by  Comte,  in  the 
hope  that  it  might  exert  as  powerful 
an  influence  over  the  revolution  as  the 
Jacobin  Club  had  exerted  in  1789. 
In  this  he  was  disappointed,  but  the 
disciples  who  gathered  around  him 
were  the  germ  of  the  Positivist 
Church. 

Positivism,  the  religion  of  Hu- 
manity, developed  from  the  positive 
philosophy,  and  claiming  to  be  a  syn- 
thesis of  all  human  conceptions  of 
the  external  order  of  the  universe. 
Its  professed  aim,  both  in  public 
and  private  life,  is  to  secure  the  vic- 
tory of  social  feeling  over  self  love, 
of  altruism  over  egotism. 

Post,  George  Broivne,  an  Ameri- 
can architect;  born  in  New  York  city; 
studied  with  Richard  M.  Hunt;  de- 
signed numerous  private  residences 
and  public  buildings;  and  became 
president  of  the  American  Institute 
of  Architects,  National  Art  Club,  and 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 

Postal  Savings  Banks,  a  sys- 
tem for  saving  money  by  the  deposit 
of  small  amounts,  established  by  sev- 
eral European  Governments,  and  au- 
thorized by  the  United  States  Con- 
frress  in  1910,  as  a  branch  of  the 
Post-office  Department.  The  system 
had  long  been  urged  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  annual  report  of  the 
British  postal  savings  banks  for  1908 
had  much  effect  on  Congress.  That 
report  showed  for  the  United  King- 
dom a  total  of  18.379,991  deposits, 
aggregating  .$217,877,011,  and  a  total 
of  $781,794,533  to  the  credit  of  11,- 
018,251  depositors.  Deposits  at  post- 
ofBces  and  other  designated  stations 
of  from  10  cents  to  $1  are  repre- 
sented by  stamps;  of  from  $1  to  $50, 
by  certificates  in  duplicate,  punched 
to  indicate  the  amount,  one  being 
retained  by  the  postmaster  or  agent, 
the  other  by  the  depositor.  The  sys- 
tem went  into  operation  Jan.  1.  1911. 
Postal  Service,  the  regulation 
of  communication  between  different 
parts  of  a  country,  or  different  coun- 
tries, including  especially  the  for- 
warding and  delivering  of  letters, 
newspapers  and  small  packages,  and 
the  establishment  of  a  registry  sys- 


tem for  the  transfer  of  money  and 
the  transaction  of  other  financial 
business.  In  some  countries  the  use 
of  the  telephone  and  the  telegraph 
forms  a  part  of  the  postal  service. 

Though  the  conveyance  of  letters  is 
the  primary  work  of  the  postofBce, 
many  other  branches  of  business  have 
been  assumed  by  it.  The  word  "post" 
has  its  particular  application  from 
the  posts,  or  stages,  at  which  on  the 
roads  of  the  Roman  empire  couriers 
were  maintained  for  the  purpose  of 
conveying  news  and  dispatches. 

Under  the  terms  of  a  treaty  con- 
cluded at  Berne,  Oct.  9,  1874,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  secure  uniforms 
ity  in  the  treatment  of  correspondence, 
and  the  simplification  of  accounts, 
as  well  as  the  reduction  of  rates  with- 
in certain  limits,  and  whose  provisions 
were  carried  into  operation  generally 
July  1,  1875,  the  whole  of  Europe, 
the  United  States,  Egypt,  British  In- 
dia, and  all  the  colonies  of  Prance 
were  at  the  outset,  or  shortly  there- 
after, included  in  the  union  and  many 
other  countries  and  colonies  have  since 
joined  it.  The  international  accounts 
in  respect  of  postages  are  based  on  a 
month's  return  of  correspondence  tak- 
en every  third  year. 

At  the  present  time  the  postal  estab- 
lishment of  the  United  States  is  the 
greatest  business  concern  in  the  world. 
It  handles  more  pieces,  employs  more 
men,  spends  more  money,  brings  more 
revenue,  uses  more  agencies,  reaches 
more  homes,  involves  more  details  and 
touches  more  interests  than  any  other 
human  organization,  public  or  pri- 
vate, governmental  or  corporate. 
Though  the  postal  service  of  England, 
France,  and  Germany  includes  the  tel- 
egraph, the  postal  business  of  the 
United  States  surpasses  the  service  of 
any  of  those  countries. 

Since  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the 
Philippines  have  come  under  the  au- 
thority of  the  United  States,  it  has 
become  necessary  to  reconstruct  the 
mail  system  in  those  islands,  and  al- 
ready a  vast  improvement  has  been 
made  in  the  service. 

Post  Mortem,  after  death,  as  a 
post  mortem  examination,  i.  e.,  one 
made  after  the  death  of  a  person,  ia 
order  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  death 
either  in  the  interests  of  science,  or 
for  the  ends  of  justice. 


"■.^F/Ci/AEJ  //V  JTATEJ  REPREJENT  PRODUCr/ON  tN  TfiOUJANDJ  OFBUT/fEU 


jmUPOrATOUAHDYAMj 

PRODUCT/ON /909 


59f32  TMOUSAMP 
BUfHOS 


Post  01}!t 

Post  Obit,  a  bond  given  as  security 
for  the  repayment  of  a  sum  of  money 
to  a  lender  on  the  death  of  some 
specified  person,  from  whom  the  bor- 
rower has  expectations.  Such  loans 
in  almost  every  case  carry  high,  if  not 
usurious,  rates  of  interest,  and  gen- 
erally the  borrower  binds  himself  to 
pay  a  much  larger  sum  than  he  re- 
ceives, in  consideration  of  the  risk 
which  the  lender  runs  in  case  of  the 
borrower  dying  before  the  person  from 
whom  he  has  expectations. 

Postoffice  Department,  one  of 
the  executive  departments  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  government ;  established  in 
1794.  It  is  under  the  management  of 
the  Postmaster-General,  who  since  the 
time  of  Andrew  Jackson,  has  been  a 
member  of  the  President's  Cabinet. 
He  is  appointed  by  the  President  and 
confirmed  by  the  Senate.  The  depart- 
ment is  divided  into  four  great  bu- 
reaus each  under  the  immediate  charge 
of  an  assistant  postmaster-general.  The 
first  assistant's  bureau  has  chai'ge  of 
the  large  clerical  and  carrier  forces 
and  all  the  matters  of  actual  manage- 
ment. It  supervises  an  annual  expen- 
diture of  more  than  $40,000,000.  The 
bureau  of  the  second  assistant  has  the 
immense  task  of  providing  for  the 
transportation  of  the  mails  at  a  year- 
ly-cost  of  $35,000,000.  That  of  the 
third  assistant  looks  after  the  finan- 
cial side,  furnishes  the  stamps, 
and  keeps  the  accounts.  The  fourth 
assistant  has  charge  of  the  appoint- 
ment of  75,000  postmasters  and  di- 
rects the  force  of  inspectors.  The 
United  States  postoffice  department, 
unlike  that  of  Great  Britain,  is  car- 
ried on  at  a  loss;  this  is  due  to  the 
large  amount  of  postal  matter  of  cer- 
tain classes  carried  at  less  than  the 
cost  of  conveyance  and  distribution. 
The  greatest  revenue  in  a  single  year 
has  reached  $203,562,383;  and  the 
greatest  expenditure,  $221,004,102. 

Postulate,  a  position,  supposition, 
or  proposition  assumed  without  proof, 
as  being  self-evident  or  too  plain  to 
require  proof  or  illustration ;  a  thing 
assumed  for  the  purpose  of  future  rea- 
Boning;  an  assumption.  In  geometry, 
the  enunciation  of  a  self-evident  prob- 
lem. It  differs  from  an  axiom,  which 
is  the  enunciation  of  a  self-evident 
proposition.  The  axiom  is  more  gen- 
eral than  the  postulate. 


Potomao 

Potash,  a  term  applied  to  the  hy- 
drate of  potassium,  either  in  the  liquid 
or  solid  state,  but  sometimes  used  to 
denote  potassium  oxide  and  also  crude 
carbonate  of  potassium.  Potash  salts 
are  essential  constituents  in  the  hu- 
man body,  but  if,  when  wasted,  they' 
are  supplied  directly  to  the  blood  they 
are  very  poisonous. 

Potassium,  a  monad  metallic  ele-. 
ment,    very    widely    diffused    through, 
the    vegetable,    mineral    and    animal 
kingdoms.     It  usually  exists   in  com-- 
bination    with    inorganic    and    organ- 
ic acids,  and,  when  its  organic   salts 
are  burned,  they  are  resolved  into  car-^ 
bonate,  f rom  which  all  the  other  salts' 
of  potassium  can  be  prepared.  It  may 
be  obtained  by  electrolysis,  but  is  now 
produced  in  large  quantity  by  distill- 
ing in  an  iron  retort  an  intimate  mix- 
ture of  charcoal  and  carbonate  of  po-' 
tassium,  a   condition  readily  obtained 
by  igniting  crude  tartar  in  a  covered 
crucible. 

Potato,  a  well-known  cultivated 
plant,  the  tubers  of  which  are  eaten. 
It  is  a  native  of  Chile  and  Peru.  Many 
varieties  are  grown,  differing  in  earli- 
ness,  form,  size,  color,  etc. 

The  production  in  the  United  States 
has  reached  over  376,500,000  bushels, 
from  over  3,500,000  acres,  valued  at 
upward  of  $206,500,000,  the  most 
productive  States  being  New  York, 
Michigan,  Maine,  and  Wisconsin,  in 
the  order  given. 

Potato  Fly,  a  dipterous  insect  of 
the  same  genus  with  the  radish  fly, 
cabbage  fly,  turnip  fly.  In  its  perfect 
state  it  is  very  like  the  house  fly.  The 
maggots  are  often  abundant  in  bad 
potatoes  in  autumn,  and  are  different 
from  the  maggots  of  the  house  fly, 
being  horny,  spiny,  bristly,  and  tawny ; 
the  long  tail  ending  in  six  long  bris- 
tles. The  pupa  is  very  like  the  larva. 
The  potato-frog  fly  and  the  caterpillar 
of  the  death's  head  moth  feed  on  the 
leaves  and  stems  of  potatoes,  but  rare- 
ly do  serious  damage. 

Potomac,  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  formed  by  two  branches  which 
rise  in  the  Allegheny  Mountains  in 
West  Virginia,  and  unite  15  miles  S. 
E.  of  Cumberland,  Md.,  from  which 
point  the  river  flows  in  a  generally 
S.  E.  course  400  miles,  and  falls  into 
Chesapeake  Bay.  after  forming  an 
estuary    nearly    100    miles    long,    and 


Potomac 

from  2%  to  7  miles  wide.  The  largest 
ships  can  ascend  to  Washington.  The 
Potomac  forms  the  greater  part  of  the 
boundary  between  Virginia  and  Mary- 
land. 

Potomac,  Army  of  the.  The 
Union  forces  which  operated  in  Vir- 
ginia in  the  Civil  War  were  known  as 
the  "Army  of  the  Potomac."  It  was 
organized  by  Gen.  George  B.  McClellan 
in  18G1,  and  served  under  him  in  the 
Peninsular  campaign  and  later  in  that 
of  Antietam.  General  Burnside  took 
command  in  1862,  and  General  Hooker 
in  1863.  General  Meade  was  in  com- 
mand when  the  victory  at  Gettysburg 
was  won,  in  July,  1863,  and  con- 
tinued in  charge  during  General 
Grant's  operations  in  1864r-1865. 

Potomac,  Society  of  the  Army 
of  the,  a  military  organization  found- 
ed in  New  York,  July  5,  1869,  and  has 
held  annual  reunions  since  that  date. 
All  officers  and  soldiers  who  served  in 


ABMT  OF  THE  POTOMAC  BADGE. 

the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  in  the 
10th  and  18th  Army  Corps,  Army  of 
the  James,  are  eligible  to  membership. 
Pottawattamies,  a  tribe  of  Ameri- 
can Indians,  belonging  to  the  Algon- 
quin stock.  The  early  French  settlers 
established    a   mission    among     them 


Pottery 

at  Green  Bay,  and  to  this  day  many 
of  them  are  Roman  Catholics.  They 
sided  with  the  English  during  the  Rev- 
olutionary War  and  in  the  War  of 
1812,  and  afterward  settled  in  Kan- 
sas.   They  now  number  about  1,200. 

Potter,  Henry  Codman,  aa 
American  clergyman ;  born  in  Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y.,  May  25,  1835.  Educated 
in  theology  in  Virginia,  he  became  rec- 
tor of  Grace  Church,  New  York  city, 
in  1868;  and  was  consecrated  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  bishop  of  New  York 
in  1887.  His  works  include :  "  Gates 
of  the  East :  A  Winter  in  Egypt  and 
Syria  " ;  "  Sermons  of  the  City  " ; 
"  Waymarks  "  ;  etc.  He  was  widely 
known  and  esteemed  for  his  efforts  to 
improve  the  condition  of  the  people. 
He  died  July  21,  1908. 

Potter,  Paul,  a  celebrated  Dutch 
painter  of  animals ;  born  at  Enkhqi- 
sen  in  1625 ;  died  at  Amsterdam  in 
1654.  He  received  his  first  instruction 
in  art  from  his  father,  Pieter  Potter 
(1587-1655),  a  painter  of  some  note. 
He  devoted  himself  specially  to  the 
study  of  animals,  producing  his  first- 
signed  picture,  "  The  Herdsman,"  in 
1643.  His  works  are  highly  esteemed. 
His  coloring  is  brilliant,  and  the  sep- 
arate parts  are  delicately  executed, 
yet  without  stiffness  or  mannerism. 

Pottery,  the  art  of  forming  vessels 
or  utensils  of  any  sort  in  clay.  This 
art  is  of  high  antiquity,  being  prac- 
tised among  various  races  in  prehis- 
toric times. 

The  most  celebrated  wares  of  differ- 
ent times  and  countries  are  distin- 
guished by  distinctive  names;  as.  Ma- 
jolica-ware, Sevres,  Chelsea,  Palissy, 
etc. ;  and  of  these,  the  latter^ —  the 
work  of  Bernard  de  Palissy,  who  lived 
in  the  16th  century  —  deserves  some 
special  attention.  Palissy,  having  re- 
solved to  discover  a  method  of  enam- 
elling stoneware,  succeeded,  after  16 
years*  efforts,  and  proceeded  to  manu- 
facture pottery  characterized  by  a  pe- 
culiar style  and  many  singular  quali- 
ties. It  is  not  decorated  with  flat 
painting,  but  with  figures  and  orna- 
ments, which  are  generally  pure  in 
form,  and  are  all  executed  in  relief  and 
colored.  The  most  remarkable  of  the 
works  of  Palissy  are  his  "  Pieces  rus- 
tiques,"  a  designation  given  by  him  to 
dishes  ornamented  with  fishes,  snakes, 
frogs,    crayfish,    lizards,    shells,    and 


Potts 


Poultry 


plants,  admirably  true  to  nature  in 
form  and  color.  Palissy  ware  may  be 
distinguished  from  imitations  by  the 
fact  that  Palissy  molded  only  the  fos- 
sil shells,  reptiles,  and  plants  of  Par- 
is, while  his  imitators  introduced  re- 
cent shells  and  other  objects  of  natu- 
ral ifistory. 

In  the  United  States  the  highest 
annual  production  value  was  reached 
in  1906,  when  the  total  of  all  prod- 
ucts was  $31,440,884,  white  and 
porcelain  ware  leading. 

Potts,  'William,  an  American 
author;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Jlay  5,  1838.  For  many  years  he  was 
secretary  and  vice-president  of  the  Na- 
tional Civil  Service  League.  He  was 
chief  examiner  of  the  Civil  Service 
Commission  of  New  York  State  in 
ISbl.  He  published  a  volume  of  na- 
ture studies,  "  From  a  New  England 
Hillside,"  and  a  Sunday-school  ser- 
vice book,  "  Noblesse  Oblige,"  etc. 
He  is  also  the  author  of  numerous 
pamphlets. 

Pottstoxim,  a  borough  in  Mont- 
jETomery  county,  Pa.;  on  the  Schuyl- 
kill river  and  canal,  Manatawny 
creek,  and  the  Pennsylvania  '  and 
other  railroads;  18  miles  S.  B.  of 
Reading;  is  chiefly  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  pig  and  structural 
iron,  with  extensive  accessories;  also 
has  planing,  flour,  silk,  hosiery,  and  un- 
derwear mills,  cigar  factories,  and  pork- 
packing  plant.     Pop.  (1910)  15,599. 

Pottsville,  borough  and  capital 
of  Schuylkill  county.  Pa.;  on  the 
Schuylkill  river  and  canal,  Nor- 
wegian creek,  and  the  Priladelphia 
&  Reading  and  other  railroads;  93 
miles  N.  W.  of  Philadelphia;  is  one 
of  the  greatest  coal-shipping  centers 
in  the  State:  and  has  large  iron, 
steel,  and  brass  works,  railroad 
shops,  and  silk,  flour,  and  lumber 
mills.     Pop.  (1910)  20.236. 

Poughkeepsie,  city  and  capital 
of  Dutchess  county,  N.  Y.;  on.  the 
Hudson  river  and  several  railroads; 
75  miles  N.  of  New  York  city;  has 
a  noted  .$5,000,000  cantilever  railroad 
bridge  across  the  river,  daily  steam- 
boat connection  with  Albany  and 
New  York  city,  and  important  manu- 
factures; is  the  seat  of  Vassar  Col- 
lege, Hudson  River  Hospital  for  the 
Insane,  and  numerous  Homes;  was 
settled  by.  the  Dutch  in  1690;  State 


capital  during  the  Revolution.  Pop. 
(1910)   27,936. 

Ponlpe,  a  genua  of  Cephalopoda, 
having  eight  feet  or  arms,  nearly 
equal,  united  at  the  base  by  a  mem- 
brane, and  very  long  in  proportion 
to  the  body.  Poulpcs  swim  by  con- 
tractions of  the  muscular  web  of  the 
body,  which  extends  upon  the  arms. 
They  creep  on  shore  in  a  spider-like 
manner,  with  sprawling  arms. 

Poultry.  American  poultry  include 
several  classes  of  breeds,  among  them 
the  general  utility,  or  American  barn- 
yard fowl;  the  egg-producing,  or 
Mediterranean;  and  the  flesh-making, 
or  Asiatic  types. 

The  chief  of  the  general  utility  fowls 
are  the  handsome,  compact  Plymouth 
Rocks,  those  barred  in  black  and  white 
being  the  most  common,  although 
white  and  buff  are  known.  They  are 
famous  for  their  hardiness;  quick- 
ness of  growth;  steady  production  of 
light  brown  eggs;  quick  maturity  in- 
to well-fleshed  chickens;  and  their  gen- 
eral tractability  and  business-like 
methods  of  foraging,  sitting  and  the 
like.  Wyandottes,  including  the  white, 
silver-laced  and  Columbian  varieties, 
compete  with  the  Plymouth  Rocks. 
The  White  Wyandottes  are  favorites 
in  farmyards,  being  hardy  fowls,  ma- 
turing quickly  into  small,  plump 
broilers  and  roasters,  with  the  popu- 
lar yellow  skins,  and  are  early  and 
steady  egg-layers.  The  large  Rhode 
Island  Reds,  a  somewhat  new  breed, 
gorgeous  in  black  and  scarlet,  lay 
brown  eggs  very  regularly,  and  also 
produce  flesh;  and,  with  the  Orping- 
tons, particularly  the  buff  variety, 
having  similarly  good  habits,  are 
claimed  to  be  in  the  highest  rank  of 
utility  fowls.  Javas  and  the  high- 
crested  Houdans  are  also  said  to  be 
useful  to  the  farmer.  The  latter  is 
a  favorite  French  breed,  mottled 
black  and  white,  laying  many  very 
large  white  eggs,  even  in  winter,  and 
of  fine  quality  as  a  table  fowl. 

The  "fancy"  Hamburgs,  silver  and 
gold,  black  and  red  and  white,  span- 
gled and  laced  and  penciled,  and  most 
perfectly  formed,  are  non-sitters;  and 
the  tall,  iridescent,  black  Minorcas 
are  recommended  for  prolific  egg-lay- 
ing, thriving  when  in  confinement  in 
small  runs. 

The  Mediterranean  type  is  repre* 


Poultry 


Powderly 


seated  by  the  small,  active  Leghorns, 
white  and  brown  and  buff  in  hue,  fa- 
mous egg-layers  even  in  winter,  when 
sheltered  in  warm  houses,  and  picking 
up  much  forage  if  given  a  free  run. 

The  Asiatic  type  is  represented  by 
the  large,  heavy  and  profusely  feath- 
ered light  and  dark  Brahmas,  covered 
with  rounded  masses  of  feathers  and 
with  characteristic  "  pea-combs  "  ;  by 
the  buff,  black  and 'white  Cochins,  still 
more  profusely  feathered,  even  the 
shanks  and  feet  being  covered  with 
plumage ;  especially  in  the  "Partridge" 
variety ;  and  by  the  tall,  black  Lang- 
shans.  They  are  all  excellent  table- 
fowls,  and  lay  quite  a  number  of  eggs 
even  in  winter ;  and  they  are  addicted 
to  sitting,  making  good  mothers.  The 
chicks  mature  early,  and  have  a  large 
sale  as  broilers  and  roasters.  Plump- 
breasted  Dorkings  are  more  valued  in 
England  than  with  us,  the  Americans 
preferring  yellow  legs  and  feet. 

The  red  and  black  game-chickens, 
formerly  grown  for  fighting  in  the 
cock-pits,  are  still  raised,  the  Modern 
Game,  and  various  kinds  of  the  Old 
English  Black-breasted  Reds  and  the 
Cornish  Indian  and  Azeel,  being  ex- 
hibited. Game  hens  are  excellent 
mothers  and  are  magnificent  table 
fowls.  Speckled  Guinea  hens,  having 
a  game-like  flavor,  are  frequently 
raised  for  the  table. 

Bantams  are  miniatur^iS  of  the 
standard  breeds,  the  Buff  Cochin  Ban- 
tam being  recommended  for  hatching 
gam'  -bird's  eggs ;  the  Japanese  Ban- 
tam are  quaint,  little  creatures  with 
long,  sickle-shaped  tail-feathers,  which 
are,  however,  not  so  exaggerated  as 
those  of  the  Yokohama  cocks,  which, 
like  the  silkies,  birds  with  downy 
plumage,  are  grown  occasionally  for 
ornament.  The  gorgeous-hued  pea- 
cocks and  various  kinds  of  pheasants, 
especially  the  Ring-necked,  Golden,  Sil- 
ver and  Reeves  pheasants,  are  raised 
for  their  beauty,  and  the  latter  for 
the  game  market. 

Pigeons,  too,  are  an  important 
branch  of  the  poultry  farm ;  the 
Homer  breed  being  the  bird  most 
"commonly  used  for  squab  raising,  as 
its  young  reach  the  desired  size  very 
quickly.  There  are  numerous  fancy 
breeds,  too,  raised  by  the  fanciers,  as 
the  Fantails,  Pouters,  Turbits  and 
Tumblers. 

Bronze  and  Narragansett  turkejrs 
are  the  largest  and  the  hardiest  varie- 


ties, requiring  a  large  range  for  their 
best  development.  The  black  and  the 
white,  or  Holland  breeds,  being  smaller 
and  more  domesticated. 

The  large  German  white  Embden 
goose,  and  the  dark  gray  Toulouse 
breed  of  French  origin,  are  favorite 
breeds  of  geese,  although  the  Cafiada 
and  Chinese  geese  are  also  good. 

A  Chinese  duck,  the  white  Pekin,  is 
the  favorite  breed  of  this  water-fowl, 
although  the  Rouen  and  Aylesbury 
types,  and  even  Muscovy,  Swedish  and 
the  Indian  Runners,  are  grown.  The 
charming  little  parti-colored  Wood- 
ducks  and  Mandarin  ducks  are  culti- 
vated for  ornament.     See  also  Fowl. 

Poussin,  Gaspar,  a  French  land- 
scape painter  ;  born  in  Rome,  in  1613  ; 
died  in  1675.  His  name  was  Dughet, 
but  he  adopted  that  of  his  teacher  and 
brother-in-law,  Nicolas  Poussin.  Hia 
paintings,  distinguished  by  grandeur 
and  somewhat  sombre  characteristics, 
are  found  in  many  European  galleries. 

Ponssin,  Nicolas,  distinguished 
French  historical  and  landscape  paint- 
er :  born  at  Andelys,  Normandy,  in 
1594;  died  in  Rome  in  1665.  His 
style  is  grand  and  heroic,  and  he  had 
a  fertile  invention.  He  has  been  called 
the  French  Raphael.  Among  his  cele- 
brated works  are  the  "  Seven  Sacra- 
ments," the  "  Death  of  Germanicus," 
the  "  Capture  of  Jerusalem,"  "  Moses 
bringing  Water  from  the  Rock,"  the 
"Worship  of  the  Golden  Calf,"  "John 
Baptizing  in  the  Wilderness,"  etc.,  and 
many  fine  landscapes. 

Pont,  a  young  turkey ;  often  ap- 
plied to  the  young  of  other  domestic 
fowls  and  of  the  grouse  kind ;  a  sea- 
fish  of  the  cod  kind,  so  named  from 
its  power  of  inflating  a  membrane 
which  covers  the  eyes  and  neighboring 
parts  of  the  head. 

Pox^an,  or  Fresli-iurater  Her- 
ring, fish  distinctive  to  Loch  Lomond, 
Scotland,  although  resembling  the  Pol- 
Ian  of  the  Irish  lakes. 

Pow^derly,  Terence  Vincent,  an 
American  lawyer ;  born  in  Carbondale, 
Pa.,  Jan.  22.  1849.  He  was  General 
Master-Workman  of  the  Knights  of 
Labor  in  1879-1893;  then  he  studied 
law ;  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1894.  He  was  appointed  United  States 
commissioner  general  of  immigration 
in  1897,  and  chief  of  Division  of  In- 
formation in  Bureau  of  Immigration 


COPVUIMIT,  r.il:,',  l;v  F.  K.  \\i;M,iir. 


LEADING    BREEDS 


F    CHICKENS 


Powell 


Powers 


(to  distribute  immigrants  throughout 
the  country)  in  1907. 

Powell,  Baden,  an  English  physi- 
cist; born  in  London,  Aug.  22,  1796; 
educated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford;  in 
1821  became  vicar  of  Plumstead.and 
in  1824  was  made  F.  R.  S.  From 
1827  till  his  death,  he  was  Savilian 
Professor  of  Geometry  at  Oxford.  He 
published  a  history  of  natural  philoso- 
phy, treatises  on  the  calculus,  optics, 
and  the  undulatory  theory  of  light 
but  he  is  best  known  by  his  eontrlba> 
tion  on  the  evidences  of  Christianity 
to  the  "  Essays  and  Reviews  ''  and  by 
other  theological  works,  regarded  at 
the  time  as  dangerously  "  liberal "  in 
tendency.  He  died  in  London,  June 
11,   1860. 

Powell,  Jolm  Wesley,  an  Ameri- 
can geologist ;  born  in  Mount  Morris, 
N.  Y.,  March  24,  1834.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Oberlin  College;  was  a  lieu- 
tenant-colonel of  artillery  at  the  close 
of  the  Civil  War;  Professor  of  Geolo- 
gy in  the  Illinois  Wesleyan  University, 
1865;  explored  the  canyon  of  the  Col- 
orado river  in  1867  and  in  1870-1874. 
He  was  director  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  in  1879-1896,  and 
of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Eth- 
nology after  1879.  The  special  vol- 
umes of  reports  written  by  Major  Pow- 
ell are :  "  Exploration  of  the  Colora- 
do River  in  1869-1872";  "Geology 
of  the  Uinta  Mountains  " ;  "  The  Arid 
Regions  of  the  United  States  " ;  "  In- 
troduction to  Study  of  Indian  Lan- 
guages " ;  "  Canyons  of  the  Colorado," 
etc.     He  died  Sept  23,  1902. 

Powell,  Thomas,  an  American  au- 
thor; born  in  London,  England,  Sept. 
3,  1809.  For  many  years  he  was 
connected  with  the  Frank  Leslie  pub- 
lications. He  died  in  Newark,  N.  J., 
Jan.  13,  1887. 

Powelson,  Wilfred  van  Nest,  an 
American  naval  officer ;  born  in  Mid- 
dletown,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  15,  1872;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1893 ;  was  selected  by  the 
government  to  pursue  a  special  course 
in  naval  architecture  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Glasgow,  served  two  years  on 
the  flagship  "  New  York,"  and  later 
on  the  "  Fern."  After  the  destruction 
of  the  "  Maine "  in  Havana  harbor 
he  was  appointed  to  investigate  the 
disaster.    His  report  showing  that  the 


"  Maine "  was  sunk  by  an  exploded 
mine  was  published  and  favorably 
commented  on  by  many  scientific  pe- 
riodicals. He  commanded  the  gun  on 
the  *'  St.  Paul  "  which  sank  the  "  Ter- 
ror," a  Spanish  torpedo  boat,  near 
San  Juan,  Porto  Rico;  promoted  lieu- 
tenant, 1901;  retired,  1902. 

Power.  In  mechanics:  (1)  That 
which  produces  motion  or  force;  that 
which  communicates  motion  to  bodies, 
changes  the  motion  of  bodies, 
or  prevents  the  motion  of  bodies;  a 
mechanical  agent  or  power.  (2)  The 
moving  force  applied  to  overcome  some 
force  or  resistance,  to  raise  a  weight, 
or  produce  other  required  effect;  air, 
water,  steam  and  animal  strength  are 
employed  as  powers.  (3)  The  me- 
chanical effect  or  advantage  produced 
by  a  machine.  Force  or  effect  consid- 
ered as  resulting  from  the  action  of  a 
machine. 

Powers,  Hiram,  an  American 
sculptor ;  bom  in  Woodstock,  Vt.,  Julj 
29,  1805.  In  1835  he  went  to  Wash- 
ington, where  he  executed  the  busts 
of  several  distinguished  persons.  Two 
years  later  he  was  enabled  to  go  to 
Italy  to  study  his  art,  and  he  resided 
in  Florence  till  his  death.  There  he 
produced  his  statue  of  "  Eve,"  which 
excited  the  admiration  of  Thorwald- 
sen,  and  in  1843  the  still  more  popu- 
lar "  Greek  Slave,"  of  which  six  cop- 
ies in  marble,  with  cast  copies  in- 
numerable, were  produced.  ,  Among 
the  other  works  the  chief  were 
"  Proserpine,"  "  II  Penseroso,"  "  Cal- 
ifornia," "  America,"  and  busts  of 
Washington  for  the  State  of  Louisi- 
ana, of  Calhoun  for  South  Carolina, 
and  Daniel  Webster  for  Boston,  as 
well  as  those  of  John  Q.  Adams,  An- 
drew Jackson,  Marshall,  Van  Buren, 
and  other  distinguished  Americans.  He 
died  in  Florence,  Italy,  June  27,  1873. 

Powers,  Horatio  Nelson,  an 
American  poet ;  born  in  Amenia,  N. 
Y.,  April  30,  1826.  He  died  in  Pier- 
mont,  N.  Y.,  Sept  6,  1890. 

Powers,  Le  Grand,  an  American 
statistician ;  born  in  Preston,  N.  Y., 
in  1874 ;  was  graduated  at  Iowa  State 
University  in  1872;  commissioner  of 
labor  in  Minnesota  in  1891-1899 ;  then 
became  chief  statistician  of  the  11th 
Census,  in  charge  of  agriculture. 
Among  his  books  are  "  Minnesota  Bu' 


iPraziteles 


Precession 


length  is  about  four  inches;  color 
bright  gray,  spotted  and  lined  with 
darker  purplish  gray.  It  is  a  fa- 
vorite article  of  food,  and  is  found  in 
vast  numbers  in  the  North  Atlantic. 

Praxiteles,  a  celebrated  Greek 
sculptor ;  born  about  3G0  B.  c,  who 
executed  several  fine  statues  in  bronze 
and  marble  of  Bacchus,  a  satyr,  Ve- 
nus, and  Apollo.  An  ancient  copy  of 
one  of  his  works,  the  "  Apollo  Saur- 
octonos,"  is  the  only  example  extant. 
He  excelled  by  the  grace,  tenderness, 
and  finish  of  his  works.  He  was  es- 
teemed a;?  second  to  Phidias  only.  He 
died  about  280  B.  c. 

Prayer,  a  universally  acknowledged 
part  of  the  worship  due  to  God ;  not 
merely  petition,  but,  according  to  the 
New  Testament  models  and  Christian 
usage,  praise,  adoration,  and  thankful 
acknowledgment  of  mercies  received. 
Nor  is  any  truth  more  indisputably 
taught  in  the  Bible,  or  more  frequent- 
ly brought  into  view,  both  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,  than  that  God 
is  the  hearer  of  prayer. 

Praying  Machine,  Praying 
Mill,  or  Praying  Wheel,  an  ap- 
paratus used  in  Tibet,  and  other  parts 
of  the  East,  as  a  mechanical  aid  to 
prayer.  They  are  of  various  forms, 
the  commonest  being  a  cylinder  or 
barrel  of  pasteboard  fixed  on  an  axle, 
and  inscribed  with  prayers.  The  de- 
vout give  the  barrel  a  t-urn,  and  each 
revolution  counts  as  an  utterance  of 
the  prayer  or  prayers  inscribed.  It  is 
common  enough  to  see  them  fixed  in 
the  bed  of  a  running  stream,  as  they 
are  then  set  in  motion  by  the  water, 
and  go  on  praying  night  and  day,  to 
the  special  benefit  of  the  person  who 
has  placed  them  there.  The  Tartars 
also  suspend  them  over  their  domestic 
hearths,  that  they  may  be  set  in  mo- 
tion by  the  current  of  cool  air  from  the 
opening  in  the  tent,  and  so  twirl  for 
the  peace  and  prosperity  of  the  family. 

Preaching,  the  act  of  preaching; 
a  public  religious  discourse.  The  mod- 
em system  of  preaching  was  unknown 
in  the  early  Church.  The  general 
mode  then  was  for  the  priest  to  read 
portions  of  the  Old  or  New  Testa- 
ment, and  explain  or  enforce  the  pre- 
cepts which  they  contained.  About 
the  13th  century,  the  scholastic  divines 
directed  their  chief  attention  to  the 
study  of  the  sacred   Scriptures,  and 


were  hence  called  Bible  divines,  and 
honored  with  the  pompous  titles  of 
profound,  sublime,  wonderful,  sera- 
phic, angelic  doctors.  They  introduced 
a  new  and  artificial  mode  of  preach- 
ing, called  declaring.  Before  this  time, 
the  clergy  generally  adopted  postulat- 
ing, or  expounding  a  large  portion  of 
Scripture,  sentence  by  sentence.  By 
the  new  method  the  preacher  read  a 
text  out  of  some  book  and  chapter  of 
the  Old  or  New  Testament,  dividing  it 
into  several  parts  and  expounding 
them ;  and,  generally,  the  more  nu- 
merous the  divisions  and  sub-divisions, 
the  better  and  more  highly  was  he 
esteemed.  The  opposition  to  this  text- 
ual mode  of  preaching  continued  for 
upward  of  a  century,  but  at  length  it 
came  generally  to  prevail. 

Preble,  Edward,  an  American  na- 
val ofiicer ;  bom  in  Portland,  Me.,  Aug. 
15,  1761.  Early  in  1803  he  was  mado 
commander  of  the  "  Constitution  " ; 
and  in  June  of  that  year  was  placed 
in  command  of  a  fleet  sent  against 
Tripoli.  He  greatly  distinguished 
himself  in  causing  that  country  to 
sue  for  peace,  a  feat  accomplished  by 
a  number  of  skillful  bombardments- 
He  returned  to  the  United  States  and 
received  through  Congress  the  thanks 
of  the  nation  and  a  gold  medal.  He 
died  in  Portland,  Me.,  Aug.  25,  1807. 

Precedence,  the  order  in  which 
men  and  women  follow  each  other 
according  to  rank  or  dignity  in  a 
State  procession  or  eta  other  public 
occasions.  There  is  no  American  law 
dealing  with  precedence,  tact  and  cour» 
tesy  guiding  the  procedure  on  public 
occasions,  but  in  Europe  it  is  a  sub- 
ject of  very  grave  importance,  and 
moss-grown  with  law  and  custom. 

Precedent,  a  judicial  decision,  in- 
terlocutory or  final,  which  serves  as  a 
rule  for  future  determinations  in  sim- 
ilar cases;  also  a  form  of  proceeding 
to  be  followed  in  similar  cases. 

Precentor,  an  officer  in  a  cathe- 
dral, formerly  sometimes  called 
chaunter,  and  ranking  in  dignity  next 
to  the  dean. 

Precession  of  the  Equinoxes,  in 
astronomy,  the  going  forward  of  the 
equinoxes.  The  arrival  of  the  sun  at 
the  point  Aries  a  little  earlier  than  he 
might  be  expected  to  reach  it  was  first 
observed    by    Hipparchus   about    150 


Predestination 

B.  C.  The  earth's  rotation  simply 
causes  the  points  at  which  the  earth's 
equator  intersects  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic  to  move  slowly  in  a  direction 
opposite  to  that  in  which  the  earth 
rotates.  This  is  what  is  denominated 
the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  It  is 
generally  associated  with  the  sun,  but 
the  moon  is  twice  as  potent  in  produc- 
ing it ;  owing  to  her  comparative  near- 
ness to  the  earth  she  is  able  to  pro- 
duce a  greater  differential  effect  on  the 
nearer  and  more  remote  portions  of 
our  planet.  The  annual  motion  of  the 
first  point  of  Aries  is  about  50",  and 
about  25,867  years  will  be  required  for 
the  entire  revolution.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes may  have  had  some  influence 
in  producing  the  Glacial  Period. 

Predestination,  in  theology,  the 
term  used  to  denote  the  decree  of  God, 
whereby  the  elect  are  foreordained  to 
salvation.  The  theory  of  predestina- 
tion represents  God's  absolute  will  as 
determining  the  eternal  destiny  of 
man,  not  according  to  the  foreknown 
character  of  those  whose  fate  is  so 
determined,  but  according  to  God's 
choice.  It  is  a  characteristic  of  Cal- 
vinistic  theology ;  left  an  open  ques- 
tion since  the  Reformation  by  Episco- 
pal and  Roman  Catholic  Churches. 

Preemption,  the  act  or  right  of 
buying  before  others.  Also,  the  right 
of  a  settler  on  lands  to  purchase  in 
preference  to  others,  when  the  land 
is  sold. 

Preexistence,  existence  previous  to 
or  before  something  else.  Also,  exist- 
ence in  a  previous  state;  existence  of 
the  soul  previous  to  its  imion  with 
the  body.  Preexistence  was  a  doctrine 
of  the  Pythagoreans,  and  several  oth- 
ers of  the  old  philosophers,  and  is  still 
found  in  many  Eastern  religions. 

Prelate,  an  ecclesiastical  dignitary 
of  the  highest  order,  having  author- 
ity over  the  lower  clergy,  as  an  arch- 
bishop, bishop,  or  patriarch ;  a  digni- 
tary of  the  church. 

Prentice,  •George  Denison,  an 
American  journalist ;  born  in  Preston, 
Conn.,  Dec,  18,  1802;  became  editor 
of  the  Louisville  "  Journal,"  1830,  and 
held  that  post  till  his  death,  making 
the  paper  famous  for  satiric  wit  and 
exuberant  fun.  He  died  in  Louisville, 
Ky^  Jan.  22,  1870. 


Presbytey 

Prentiss,  Benjamin  Mayberry^ 

an  American  military  officer ;  born  in 
Belleville,  Va.  (now  W.  Va.),  Nov.  23, 
1819.  He  removed  to  Illinois  in  1842, 
and  served  in  the  Mexican  War  as  a 
captain  of  volunteers.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  War  he  entered 
the  Union  Army  and  was  made  Briga- 
dier-General of  volunteers.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Shiloh,  May  6,  1862 ; 
was  promoted  Major-General  in  the 
same  year;  defeated  Generals  Holmes 
and  Price,  who  attacked  him  at  Hele- 
na, Ark.,  July  4,  1863;  resigned  his 
commission  Oct.  28,  1863,  and  died 
in  1901. 

Prentiss,  Mrs.  Elizabeth.  (Pay- 
son),  an  American  writer  of  fiction; 
born  in  Portland,  Me.,  Oct.  26,  1818. 
She  died  in  Dorset,  Vt.,  Aug.  13,  1878. 

Prentiss,  Seargent  Smitb,  an 
American  orator ;  born  in  Portland, 
Me.,  Sept.  30,  1808;  studied  law,  and 
became,  about  1827,  a  resident  of 
Vicksburg,  Miss.,  where  he  practised 
with  success.  He  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress by  the  Whigs  in  1837.  His  man- 
ner of  speaking  was  at  once  natural 
and  dramatic,  and  he  had  a  high  repu- 
tation as  an  orator,  and  as  an  advo- 
cate in  jury  trials  was  equal  or  supe- 
rior to  any  lawyer  in  the  Southwestern 
States.  He  died  near  Natchez,  Miss., 
July  1,  1850. 

Preposition,  a  part  of  speech,  so 
named  because  originally  prefixed  to 
the  verb,  in  order  to  modify  its  mean- 
ing. Prepositions  are  either  simple  or 
compound.  Simple  prepositions  are 
at,  by,  for,  from,  in,  on,  out,  to,  up, 
with ;  compound  prepositions  are 
across,  after  (a  comparative  form  of), 
against,  above,  about,  along,  amid, 
amidst,  among,  athwart,  but,  into, 
over,  through,  toward,  until,  unto, 
within,  without.  The  prepositions  con- 
cerning, during,  except,  notwithstand- 
ing, etc.,  arise  out  of  a  participial 
construction. 

Pre-Rapliaelism,  an  EnglisU 
school  of  painting,  which^  has  in  re- 
cent years  sprung  into  existence,  and 
has  been  thus  named,  in  accordance 
with  an  erroneous  idea  that  its  ear- 
liest members  were  mainly  anxious  to 
imitate  the  mannerisms  of  the  artists 
who  painted  prior  to  the  time  of  Ra- 
phael. 

Presbyter,  an  elder,  or  a  person 
advanced  in  years  who  had  auUioritji 


press  Clipping  Bureaii 


Price 


According  to  its  provisions  the  presi- 
dential succession  is  arranged  as  fol- 
lows :  Following  the  Vice-President, 
the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  the  Secretary  of  War, 
the  Attorney-General,  the  Postmaster- 
General,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture,  and  the  Secretary 
of  Commerce  and  Labor. 

Press  Clipping  Bureau,  an  ofl5ce 
for  supplying  newspaper  and  maga- 
zine clippings  on  any  required  subjects 
to  any  person  desiring  them.  There 
are  several  such  bureaus  in  New 
York,  Chicago,  and  other  large  cities. 

Press  Gang,  the  name  given  in 
England  to  a  detachment  of  seamen 
who  (under  a  naval  oflScer)  were  em- 
powered, in  time  of  war,  to  lay  hold 
of  seafaring  men  and  compel  them  to 
serve  in  the  king's  ships. 

Preston,  Harriet  Waters,  an 
American  author ;  born  in  Dan  vers, 
Mass.,  about  1843.  At  an  early  age 
she  became  noted  as  a  linguist,  and 
afterward  achieved  a  brilliant  reputa- 
tion as  a  translator  from  the  Latin 
and  Provencal  languages,  and  as  an 
essayist.  Besides  her  translations  she 
has  published  several  bright  original 
books. 

Preston,  Mrs.  Margaret  (Jun- 
kin),  an  American  author;  bom  in 
Philadelphia  about  1825 ;  was  a  resi- 
dent of  Lexington,  Va.,  and  laj;er  of 
Baltimore,  Md.  Her  writings  deal 
chiefly  with  the  period  of  the  Civil 
War.     She  died  in  1897. 

Preston,  William,  an  American 
diplomatist ;  born  near  Louisville,  Ky., 
Oct.  16,  1816;  practised  law  in  Louis- 
ville ;  was  sent  as  minister  to  Spain  in 
1858 ;  was  a  member  of  Congress 
1852-1855 ;  joined  the  Confederates  in 
1861 ;  and  was  made  a  Brigadier-Gen- 
eral. He  died  in  Lexington,  Ky., 
Sept.  21,  1887.  ' 

Presumption,  in  law,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  direct  evidence  that  which 
comes  nearest  to  the  proof  of  a  fact. 

Pretender,  one  who  made  claim  to 
a  throne  under  a  pretense  of  right  (as 
Perkin  Warbeck,  Lambert  Simnel,  in 
English  history)  ;  specially  applied  to 
the  son  and  grandson  of  James  II.,  the 
heirs  of  the  House  of  Stuart,  who  laid 
claim  to  the  throne  of  England,  from 
which  they  bad  been  excluded  by  Par- 


liament in  1688.  The  former,  often 
termed  the  Old  Pretender,  died  in 
1776 ;  his  son,  Charles  Edward  Stuart, 
the  Young  Pretender,  in  1788. 

Pretoria,  the  capital  of  the  former 
South  African  Republic  (Transvaal), 
980  miles  from  Cape  Town,  and  285 
miles  W.  of  Lorenzo  Marques,  on  Del- 
agoa  Bay,  to  which  a  railway  was 
opened  in  1895.  Pretoria  was  founded 
in  1855  by  the  Boer  leader  Pretorius, 
has  broad  streets,  and  pure  water.  It 
owes  its  prosperity  chiefly  to  the  gold 
mines  at  Johannesburg,  about  30 
miles  distant. 

Prevost>Paradol,  Iiucien  Ana> 
tole,  a  French  writer  and  diplomatist ; 
born  in  Paris,  France,  Aug.  8,  1829. 
In  1851  he  obtained  from  the  Academie 
Francaise  the  prize  for  eloquence,  for 
his  "  Eulogy  on  Bemardin  de  Saint 
Pierre."  His  literary  and  political  es- 
says are  among  the  soundest,  the  most 
acute,  the  most  scholarly,  and  the  ipost 
elegant  that  have  proceeded  from  the 
French  journalists  of  the  empire.  In 
1870  he  came  to  the  United  States  as 
minister  plenipotentiary,  and  he  was 
at  Washington  only  a  few  days  when 
he  committed  suicide,  Aug.  11,  1870. 

Priam,  a  King  of  Phrygia,  and  the 
last  sovereign  of  Troy.  Soon  after  his 
accession,  the  discovery  of  a  gold  mine 
in  his  kingdom  enabled  him  to  enlarge 
and  beautify  his  capital,  strengthen 
its  defenses,  and  raise  a  powerful 
army.  Under  his  reign  Troy  was  re- 
garded as  the  largest,  richest,  and  most 
magnificent  city,  and  himself  as  the 
most  powerful  monarch  in  Lesser 
Asia.  The  perfidy  of  his  son  Paris  in 
eloping  with  Helen  led  to  the  long  and 
fatal  war,  which,  after  enduring  for 
10  years,  terminated  in  the  entire  over- 
throw of  the  state,  the  destruction  of 
lUium,  the  death  of  most  of  his  sons, 
and  his  own  murder  by  the  ruthless 
Pyrrhus.  Priam's  death  occurred  about 
1184  B.  C. 

Pribilof  Islands,  a  group  of  is- 
lands on  the  coast  of  Alaska,  in  Ber- 
ing Sea.  The  largest  are  St.  Paul,  St. 
George,  Walrus,  and  Beaver  Islands. 
They  are  frequented  by  numbers  of  fur 
seals.     The  natives  are  Aleutians. 

Price,  Richard,  an  English  phi- 
losopher ;  born  in  Tynton,  Glamorgan- 
shire, Feb.  22,  1723.  He  was  a  Dis- 
senting minister,  and  was  pastoc  of 


Price 

a  congregation  at  Hackney.  He  was 
the  friend  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  and 
sympathized  warmly  with  the  Ameri- 
can colonists.  His  tables  of  vital  sta- 
tistics and  calculations  of  expectancy 
of  life  were  the  basis  of  modern  an- 
nuities and  life  insurance  ;  his  econom- 
ic and  financial  writings  were  of  a 
high  order,  and  the  younger  Pitt  con- 
sulted him  on  finance.  He  wrote  "  The 
American  Revolution  and  the  Means  of 
Rendering  It  a  Benefit  to  the  World," 
etc.     He  died  April  19,  1791. 

Price,  Sterling,  an  American  mili- 
tary oflicer ;  boi-n  in  Prince  Edward 
CO.,  Va.,  Sept.  11,  1809 ;  received  a 
collegiate  education,  and  settled  in 
Missouri  in  1831 ;  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1844 ;  served  in  the  Mexican 
War  as  colonel  and  Brigadier-General 
of  volunteers ;  was  military  governor 
of  Chihuahua  in  1847 ;  governor  of 
Missouri  in  1853-1857,  and  president 
of  the  State  Convention  in  February, 
18G1.  When  the  Civil  War  broke  out 
he  joined  the  Confederate  army,  and 
became  Major-General  of  Missouri 
militia  in  May,  1861.  He  fought 
through  many  campaigns  and  greatly 
distinguished  himself ;  v,  as  commander 
of  the  Department  of  the  West  in 
18G2,  and  afterward  of  the  districts  of 
Tennessee  and  Trans-Mississippi.  At 
the  close  of  the  war  he  went  to  Mexico, 
but  in  18C6  returned  to  Missouri.  He 
died  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Sept.  29,  1867. 

Prickly  Ash,  a  name  given  to 
several  prickly  shrubs  of  the  United 
►States.  They  have  an  aromatic  and 
pungent  bark,  which  from  being  used 
as  a  remedy  for  toothache  gains  them 
the  name  of  toothache  tree. 

Prickly  Heat,  a  skin  disease, 
characterized  by  minute  papulae 
formed  by  the  bj'persemia  of  the  sweat 
follicles.  Few  Caucasian  residents  of 
the  tropics  escape  it  when  they  are  ex- 
posed to  the  sun.  It  is  not  in  the 
least  dangerous. 

Prickly  Pear,  otherwise  called  the 
Indian  fig.  It  is  a  fleshy  and  succu- 
lent plant,  destitute  of  leaves,  covered 
with  clusters  of  spines,  and  consisting 
of  flattened  joints  inserted  upon  each 
other.  The  fruit  is  purplish  in  color, 
covered  with  fine  prickles,  and  edible. 
The  flower  is  large  and  yellow.  It  is 
a  native  of  the  tropical  parts  of  Amer- 
ica. It  is  easily  propagated,  and  in 
some    countries    is    used   as    a    hedge 

F.  120. 


Priestley 

plant.  It  attains  a  height  of  seven  or 
eight  feet. 

Pride  of  Ckina  (also  called  pride 
of  India  and  bead  tree),  a  handsome 
tree  a  native  of  India,  naturalized  in 
the  Sputhern  States  of  the  American 
Union.  It  grows  rapidly,  has  large 
bunches  of  flowers,  and  enormous 
quantities  of  small  fruit.  A  decoc- 
tion of  the  bark  of  its  root  is  used  as 
a  vermifuge. 

Priest,  one  who  in  any  religion  per- 
forms the  sacred  rites  and,  more  or 
less,  intervenes  between  the  worship- 
per and  his  God,  especially  by  offering 
sacrifice. 

In  Judaism,  a  descendant  of  Aaron, 
and  therefore  one  of  the  sacred  caste. 
The  Jewish  priests  filled  all  the  im- 
portant offices  in  connection,  first  with 
the  tabernacle  and  then  with  the  tem- 
ple worship.  In  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church,  a  clergyman  in  priest's 
orders,  as  distinguished  from  a  deacon. 
In  the  Roman  Church,  a  cleric  who 
has  received  the  third  grade  in  holy  or- 
ders, and  who  is  thereby  em])owered 
to  "  offer,  t)less,  rule,  preach,  and  bap- 
tize." 

Priest,  Josiak,  an  American  au- 
thor ;  boi-n  in  New  York,  about  1790. 
He  was  an  unschooled  man,  a  harness- 
maker  by  trade ;  but  published  several 
books,  some  of  which  became  very  pop- 
ular. Among  them  were,  "  Stories  of 
the  Revolution,"  and  "  Slavery  in  the 
Light  of  History  and  Scripture."  He 
died  about  1850. 

Priestley,  Josepk,  an  English 
natural  philosopher;  born  in  Field- 
head,  England,  March  13,  1733.  His 
first  publication  was  the  "History  and 
Present  State  of  Electricity,"  which 
procured  his  election  into  the  Royai 
Society,  and  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
laws  from  Edinburgh.  It  was  here 
also  that  his  political  opinions  were 
first  manifested,  in  an  "  Essay  on  Gov- 
ernment." Soon  after  this  he  went  to 
Leeds,  wheve  he  made  those  important 
discoveries  with  regard  to  the  proper- 
ties of  fixed  air,  foi  which  he  received 
the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society 
in  1772.  In  1776  he  communicated  to 
the  same  learned  body  his  observations 
on  respiration,  in  which  he  first  experi- 
mentally ascertained  that  the  air  parts 
with  its  oxygen  to  the  blood  as  it 
passes  through  the  lungs.    He  next  re- 


prima  Donna 


Primrose 


moved  to  Birmingham,  where  he  be- 
came once  more  minister  of  an  Inde- 
pendent congregation,  and  occupied 
himself  in  his  "  History  of  the  Corrup- 
tions of  Christianity,"  writing,  also, 
in  support  of  the  claims  of  the  Dis- 
senters for  a  repeal  of  the  test  acts. 
But  it  was  the  French  Revolution  that 
afforded  him  the  widest  field,  and  he 
did  not  fail  to  display  his  warm  sym- 
pathy with  it.  This  excited  the  in- 
dignation of  the  High  Church  party; 
and  in  the  riots  which  took  place  in 
July,  1791,  his  house,  library,  manu- 
scripts, and  apparatus  were  committed 
to  the  flames  by  the  mob,  and  he  was 
exposed  to  great  personal  danger.  Aft- 
er this  he  removed  to  Hackney,  where 
he  succeeded  Dr,  Price ;  but,  in  1794, 
compelled  by  incessant  persecutions  to 
fly  his  intolerant  country,  came  to  the 
United  States  and  took  up  his  abode 
at  Northumberland,  Pa.  His  works 
extend  to  between  70  and  80  volumes. 
As  a  natural  philosopher,  his  fame 
principally  rests  on  his  pneumatic  in- 
quiries. He  died  in  Northumberland, 
Pa.,  Feb.  6,  1804. 

Prima  Donna,  the  first  female 
singer  in  an  opera. 

Primate,  the  chief  ecclesiastic  in 
certain  churches.  The  Archbishop  of 
York  is  called  the  Primate  of  England, 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  the  Pri- 
mate of  All  England,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  the 
Primate  of  the  United  States. 

Primates,  the  first  and  chief  of 
Linnajus'  orders  of  the  class  Mam- 
malia. He  included  under  it  four  gen- 
era :  Homo  ( one  species,  five  varie- 
ties), Simla  (21  species).  Lemur, 
(three  species),  and  Vesper tilio  (seven 
species).  Huxley  divides  it  into  three 
suborders:  (1)  Anthropidae,  (2)  Simi- 
adse  (apes  and  monkeys),  and  (3) 
Lemuridae. 

Prime,  Samnel  Irensens,  an 
American  editor;  bom  in  Ballston,  N. 
Y.,  Nov.  4,  1812;  was  first  a  minister 
in  the  Presbyterian  Church.  About 
1840  he  became  editor  of  the  New 
York  "  Observer,"  and  remained  in 
charge  till  his  death.  He  was  the 
author  of  over  40  volumes,  the  best 
known  being,  "  Travels  in  Europe  and 
the  East,"  "  Letters  from  Switzer- 
land," "  The  Alhambra  and  the  Krem- 
lin," "Life  of  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse." 


He  died  in  Manchester,  Vt.,  July  18, 
1885. 
Prime,  William  Courper,  an 

American  author ;  born  in  Cambridge, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  31,  1825.  He  has  written 
"  Owl  Creek  Letters,"  *'  Coins,  Medals, 
and  Seals,"  "  The  Holy  Cross,"  "  Pot- 
tery and  Porcelain  of  all  Times  and 
Nations,"  etc.  He  edited  "  McClel- 
lan's  Own  Story,"  and  other  works. 
He  died  Feb.  13,  1905. 

Prime  Meridian,  that  meridian 
from  which  longitude  is  measured ;  in 
the  United  States  the  meridian  of 
Washington. 

Prime  Minister,  a  British  officer 
of  State,  who  at  the  summons  of  the 
sovereign  has  succeeded  in  forming  an 
administration,  of  which  he  is  the 
head,  and  which  may  be  named  after 
him.  Though  each  member  of  the  min- 
istry administers  his  own  department 
independently  of  his  colleagues,  all  im- 
portant departmental  matters  are  sub- 
mitted to  him,  the  most  Important  be- 
ing brought  before  the  wMole  ministry, 
and  no  appointment  of  moment  is 
made  or  recommended  to  the  crown 
without  his  knowledge  and  concur- 
rence. His  own  patronage  is  very  ex- 
tensive. No  cabinet  oflBcer  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  possesses  similar  powers. 

Primitive  Methodists,  a  section 
of  the  Wesleyan  community  which 
arose  in  Staffordshire,  England,  under 
the  leadership  of  Hugh  Bourne 
(1792-1852).  Having  held  camp  meet- 
ings like  those  in  the  United  States, 
he  was  censured  for  it  by  the  English 
Wesleyan  Conference  in  1807,  and,  se- 
ceding, formed  a  new  connection.  In 
doctrine  the  Primitive  Methodists 
agree  with  the  Wesleyans.  lu  the 
United  States  they  report  101 
churches,  80  ministers,  and  7,558 
communicants. 

Primogenitnre,  the  right,  system, 
or  rule  under  which  in  cases  of  in- 
testacy, the  eldest  son  of  a  family  suc- 
ceeds to  the  real  estate  of  his  father 
to  the  absolute  exclusion  of  the  young- 
er sons  and  daughters.  Primogeniture 
no  longer  carries  with  it  any  legal  ad- 
vantage over  younger  children  in  the 
United  States. 

Primrose,  a  well  known  flower, 
common  in  copses,  pastures,  hedge- 
banks,  and  woods,  or  by  the  side  o£ 
streams.     Its  rootstock  is  emetic 


Prince 


Princeton  TTnlTersity 


Prince.  (1)  One  who  holds  the 
first,  or  chief  place,  or  rank ;  a  sover- 
eign. (2)  The  ruler  or  sovereign  of 
a  state  or  territory  which  he  holds  of 
a  superior,  to  whom  he  owes  certain 
services.  (3)  The  son  of  a  sovereign, 
or  the  issue  of  the  royal  family;  as, 
the  princes  of  the  blood.  In  British 
heraldic  language,  the  title  of  prince 
belongs  to  dukes,  marquises,  and  earls 
of  Great  Britain,  but  in  ordinary  use 
it  is  confined  to  members  of  the  royal 
family.  The  only  case  in  which  it  is 
a  territorial  title  is  that  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  the  official  title  of  the  heir- 
apparent  to  the  throne.  On  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe  the  title  of  prince  is 
borne  by  members  of  families  not  im- 
mediately connected  with  any  royal 
house.  It  is  frequently  borne  by  per- 
sons who  although  legally  entitled  to 
it  are  in  fact  without  means  of  sup- 
port, and  it  can  be  purchased  in  some 
European  countries  for  a  comparative- 
ly small  sum  of  money.  (4)  The  head 
or  chief  of  any  body  of  men ;  one  who 
is  at  the  head  of  any  class  or  profes- 
sion, or  who  is  preeminent  in  any- 
thing ;  as,  a  merchant  prince. 

Prince,  Le  Baron  Bradford,  an 
American  lawyer;  born  in  Flushing, 
L.  I.,  N.  Y.,  July  3,  1840 ;  was  chief- 
justice  of  New  Mexico  in  1878r-1882; 
territorial  governor  of  New  Mexico  in 
1889-1893;  president  of  the  Interna- 
tional Mining  Congress  in  1897-1898 
and  in  1900-1901;  and  vice-president 
of  the  National  Irrigation  Conference 
in  1901.  He  is  the  owner  of  the 
largest  collection  of  American  stone 
idols  in  the  world.  .  His  publications 
include  various  books  and  pamphlets 
on  archaeology,  political  economy,  and 
history. 

Prince  Edward  Island,  an  island 
forming  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
and  separated  by  Northumberland 
Strait  from  New  Brunswick  on  the  E. 
and  Nova  Scotia  on  the  S. ;  greatest 
length,  from  E.  to  W.,  about  130 
miles ;  breadth,  varying  from  4  to  34 
miles ;  area,  about  2,134  square  miles, 
or  1,365,760  acres,  of  which  over  1,- 
000,000  are  under  cultivation.  Pop. 
(1901)  103,259.  The  coast  line  pre- 
sents a  remarkable  succession  of  large 
bays  and  projecting  headlands.  The 
island  is  naturally  divided  into  three 
peixinsulas,  and  the  whole  is  eminently 


]  agricultural  and  pastoral,  the  forests 
now  being  of  comparatively  limited  ex- 
j  tent  The  climate  is  mild ;  winter, 
I  though  long  and  cold,  is  free  from 
damp,  unwholesome  chills ;  and  sum- 
mer, without  being  oppressively  hot, 
is  fitted  to  promote  the  growth  of  all 
the  ordinary  cereals.  Sheep,  cattle, 
and  horses  are  reared  in  numbers ;  cod, 
mackerel,  herring,  oysters,  and  lob- 
sters form  the  most  productive  part  of 
the  fisheries.  The  manufactures  are 
chiefly  confined  to  linen  and  flannels 
for  domestic  use ;  there  are  also  several 
tanneries,  and  shipbuilding  is  carried 
on  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  ex- 
ports consist  of  timber,  agricultural 
produce,  and  live  stock;  the  imports 
of  drygoods,  hardware,  cordage,  iron, 
etc.  A  railway  runs  from  one  end  of 
the  island  to  the  other.  The  capital  is 
Charlottetown.  Pop.  (1901)  12,080. 
There  is  an  excellent  educational  sys- 
tem, the  elementary  schools  being 
free.  The  island  is  supposed  to  have 
been  discovered  by  Cabot.  It  was 
first  colonized  by  France,  captured  by 
Great  Britain  in  1745,  restored  and 
recaptured,  and  finally  in  1873  was 
admitted  to  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
Princeton,  a  town  in  Mercer 
county,  N.  J.;  on  the  Delaware  & 
Raritan  canal  and  a  spur  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania railroad;  10  miles  N.  E.  of 
Trenton;  is  widely  noted  as  the  seat 
of  Princeton  University,  the  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary,  and  the 
home  of  Grover  Cleveland;  for  a  bat- 
tle that  took  place  at  Stony  Brook, 
about  3  miles  W.  of  the  town,  dur- 
ing the  Revolutionary  War,  in  which 
the  Continental  army  was  victorious; 
and  as  the  place  where  Washington 
received  the  thanks  of  the  young  na- 
tion for  his  conduct  of  the  war  to 
a  successful  termination.  Pop.  (1910) 
5,136. 

Princeton  Tbeologrical  Semi- 
nary, an  educational  institution  in 
Princeton,  N.  J. ;  founded  in  1812, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church. 

Princeton  TTnlversity,  an  educa- 
tional institution  in  Princeton,  N.  J.  It 
was  founded  Oct.  22,  1746,  by  a  char- 
ter given  under  the  seal  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  New  Jersey,  "  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  youth  in  the  learned  languages 
and  in  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences." 
After  the  Civil  War  the  college  began 


Printing 

to  make  rapid  progress.  The  number 
of  students  increased,  the  faculty  was 
enlarged,  and  in  1872  the  Chancellor 
Green  Library  (named  in  honor  of  its 
donor)  was  erected.  Up  to  this  time 
the  course  of  instruction  had  led  ex- 
clusively to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Arts;  but  in  1873  the  John  C.  Green 
School  of  Science  was  added,  and  in 
1875  the  Department  of  Civil  Engi- 
neering was  also  created.  In  1889  the 
Department  of  Electrical  Engineering 
was  founded,  and  in  1901  the 
Graduate  School  was  formally  estab- 
lished. Prof.  Andrew  West  being  ap- 
pointed its  dean. 

On  Oct.  22,  1896,  the  150th  anniver- 
sary of  the  signing  of  the  first  charter, 
the  title  of  Princeton  University  was 
assumed.  In  1897  the  Chancellor 
Green  Library  was  connected  wiih  a 
new  library  building,  having  a  capacity 
to  shelve  1,200,000  volumes.  The  total 
number  of  buildings  now  belonging  to 
the  university  is  over  40.  The  fac- 
ulty numbers  about  160;  average 
student  attendance,  1.300;  graduates, 
10,500;  endowment,  $4,250,000. 

Printing,  the  art  of  producing  im- 
pressions from  characters  or  figures  on 
paper  or  any  other  substance.  Print- 
ing is  of  comparatively  modern  origin, 
only  400  years  having  elapsed  since  the 
first  book  was  issued  from  the  press ; 
yet  we  have  proof  that  the  principles 
on  which  it  was  ultimately  developed 
existed  among  the  ancient  Assyrian 
nations.  Printing  from  movable  types 
was,  according  to  Professor  Douglas, 
probably  practised  in  China  as  early 
as  the  12th  or  13th  century,  as  there 
are  Korean  books  printed  from  mov- 
able clay  or  wooden  types  in  1317.  The 
great  discovery  was  that  of  forming 
every  letter  or  character  of  the  alpha- 
bet separately,  so  as  to  be  capable  of 
rearrangement  and  forming  in  succes- 
sion the  pages  of  a  work,  thereby 
avoiding  the  labor  of  cutting  new 
blocks  of  types  for  every  page.  The 
credit  of  inventing  this  simple  yet  mar- 
velous art  is  contested  by  the  Dutch 
and  Germans.  Printing  was  brought 
to  England  in  1476  or  1477  by  Will- 
iam Caxton.  The  first  printing  press 
set  up  in  America  was  introduced  by 
the  Viceroy  of  Mexico,  Antonio  de 
Mendoza,  and  the  first  book  printed 
by  it  in  the  New  World  was  "  The 
Ladder  de  S.  Juan  Climaco"  (1536). 


Printing 

The  earliest  press  in  the  British- 
American  colonies  was  brought  over 
for  Harvard  College  in  1638,  and  was 
set  up  by  Stephen  Daye.  The  "  Bay 
Psalm  Book"  (1640)  was  its  first 
important  work ;  but  in  1639  it  print- 
ed the  "  Freeman's  Oath  "  and  an  al- 
manac. In  Philadelphia  a  press  was 
set  up  in  1685,  in  New  York  in  1093. 

In  July,  1902,  the  Census  Bureau 
issued  a  report  on  printing  and  pub- 
lishing which  shows  a  capital  of  $292,- 
517,072  invested  in  the  22,312  estab- 
lishments reporting  for  the  industry. 
The  value  of  the  products  is  returned 
at  $347,055,050,  to  produce  which  in- 
volved an  outlay  of  $35,090,719  for 
salaries  of  officials,  clerks,  etc. ;  $84,- 
249,889  for  wages;  $55,897,529  for 
miscellaneous  expenses  and  $86,856,290 
for  material  used. 

In  1890  the  increase  in  the  number 
of  all  publications  was  greater  than 
the  increase  in  population,  but  in  1900 
the  increase  in  number  of  publications 
and  in  population  was  about  the  same. 
During  the  decade  there  was  an  in- 
crease in  the  proportion  of  daily,  tri- 
weekly, semi-weekly  and  monthly  pub- 
lications ;  a  marked  decline  in  the  pro- 
portion of  publications  devoted  to  spe- 
cial topics  and  an  advance  only  in 
the  classes  devoted  to  news  topics  and 
to  general  reading.  The  total  circula- 
tion per  issue  of  dailies  was  enough  to 
supply  one  for  every  five  inhabitants. 
The  total  circulation  per  issue  of  week- 
lies and  monthlies  was  one  to  two  in- 
habitants. Publications  printed  in  En- 
glish formed  94.3  per  cent,  of  all  pub- 
lications reporting  for  1900,  showing 
a  considerable  increase  over  the  corre- 
sponding figures  for  the  preceding  dec- 
ade. One  and  one-quarter  billion 
pounds  of  paper  were  used  during  the 
census  year.  Of  this  amount  77.6  per 
cent,  was  consumed  for  newspapers, 
16.4  per  cent,  for  books  and  periodicals 
and  6  per  cent,  for  job  printing,  but 
the  proportionate  cost  was  58.7  per 
cent.,  24.7  per  cent.,  and  16.6  per  cent, 
respectively.  Daily  evening  news- 
papers increased  more  rapidly  than 
daily  morning  papers.  In  1890  there 
were  two  evening  papers  to  every 
morning  paper;  in  1900  the  propor- 
tion was  about  three  to  one. 

The  19th  was  a  century  of  wonder- 
ful achievement  in  every  branch  of 
printing.  The  Fourdrinier  paper-mak- 
ing machine,  the  Bruce  type-caster,  tha 


prison 

iinotype  type-casting  and  type-setting 
machine,  and  othier  mechanical  type- 
setters of  merit ;  composition  ink  roll- 
ers, the  cylinder  press,  the  web  press, 
and  mechanisms  of  many  kinds  for  the 
rapid  printing  of  the  smallest  label 
or  the  largest  sheet  in  black  or  many 
colors ;  machines  for  folding,  sewing, 
and  binding  books ;  the  arts  of  stereo- 
type, electrotype,  and  photo-engraving 

—  all  these  are  its  outgrowth,  and  the 
more  important  have  been  invented  or 
made  practicable  within  the  memory 
of  men  now  living.  It  is  a  summary 
of  which  the  printing  trade  may  be 
proud.  Printing  was  never  done  bet- 
ter and  never  done  worse.  It  has 
never  been .  furnished  in  so  large  a 
quantity  at  so  small  a  price.  For  one 
or  more  cents  can  be  had  a  newspaper 
with  more  reading  matter  than  would 
fill  a  stout  octavo  volume.  Yet  books 
are  made  and  sold  in  limited  editions 
to  eager  subscribers  at  prices  rang- 
ing from  $5  to  $50  a  volume.  William 
Morris  maintained  that  printing  had 
gone  steadily  from  bad  to  worse  till  he 
revived  its  best  features.  Many  pub- 
lishers maintain,  with  more  reason, 
that  books  of  real  value  for  instruc- 
tion or  amusement  were  never  better 
fitted  than  they  now  are  for  useful- 
ness to  all  classes  of  readers. 

Prison,  a  place  of  detention  for 
persons  convicted  of  crime.  The  most 
advanced  examples  of  prison  disci- 
pline and  construction  are  to  be  found 
in  the  United  States. 

In  some  of  the  Southern  States  pris- 
oners are  leased  out  to  the  highest 
bidders  for  the  term  of  their  sentences ; 
but  this  system,  which  condemns  the 
convicts  to  a  slavery  that  is  not  modi- 
fied even  by  considerations  arising 
from  personal  ownership,  is  gradually 
being  abandoned.  The  first  place  of 
detention  for  juvenile  delinquents  was 
opened  at  New  York  in  1825 ;  the  first 
reformatories  on  the  cottage  or  fam- 
ily  system    were   established    in    Ohio 

—  for  boys  at  Lancaster  in  1858,  for 
girls  at  Delaware  in  1878. 

Prisoners  of  War,  those  who  are 
captured  from  the  enemy  during  naval 
or  military  operations.  In  ancient 
times  the  treatment  of  prisoners  of 
war  was  very  severe.  In  the  Greek 
wars  it  was  no  uncommon  th'ng  to 
put  the  whole  adult  male  population 
of    a   conquered    state    to    the    sword, 


FrivateeY 

while  the  women  and  children  were 
enslaved.  Though  the  putting  to  death 
of  prisoners  became  less  frequent,  they 
and  their  families  were  commonly  re- 
duced to  slavery  to  as  recent  a  period 
as  the  13th  century.  The  act  of  Na- 
poleon in  putting  to  death  the  Turkish 
prisoners  of  war  at  Jaffa  in  1799  was 
universally  condemned,  and  is  probably 
the  last  instance  of  such  barbarity. 
Pritcliett,  Henry  Smith,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  Fayette, 
Mo.,  April  16,  1857;  became  an  as- 
tronomer in  the  United  States  Naval 
Observatory;  astronomer  of  the 
Transit  of  Venus  Expedition  (1882); 
Professor  of  Astronomy  and  Director 
of  Observatory,  Washington  Univer- 
sity. St.  Louis,  Mo.  (1883-1897);  Su- 
perintendent United  States  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey  (1897-1900); 
president,  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  (1900-1906);  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Carnegie  Foundation  for 
the  Advancement  of  Teaching  (1906). 
Privateer,  a  ship  owned  by  a  pri- 
vate individual,  which  under  govern- 
ment permission,  expressed  by  a  letter 
of  marque,  makes  war  on  the  shipping 
of  a  hostile  power.  To  make  war  on 
an  enemy  without  this  commission,  or 
on  the  shipping  of  a  nation  not  speci- 
fied in  it,  is  piracy.  At  the  American 
Revolution  the  new  republic  fully  re- 
alized the  advantage  of  its  position 
in  preying  on  the  mercantile  marine 
of  Great  Britain;  and  in  the  War  of 
1812  British  commerce  suffered  severe- 
ly at  the  hands  of  American  privateers, 
of  which  it  was  computed  that  some 
250  were  afloat.  During  the  American 
Civil  War  the  Confederate  States  of- 
fered letters  of  marque  to  persons  of 
all  countries,  but  no  admittedly  for- 
eign vessels  were  so  commissioned. 
During  the  same  period  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States  empowered  the 
President  to  grant  commissions  to 
privateers,  but  none  such  were  grant- 
ed. The  Confederate  cruisers  were  at 
first  regarded  in  the  North  as  mere 
pirates ;  and  the  "  Alabama  Clairois  " 
originated  in  the  charge  against  Great 
Britain  of  allowing  the  departure  of 
privateers  from  British  ports,  where 
they  were  fitted  out  illegally.  The 
charge  was  fully  sustained,  it  being 
shown  before  the  Geneva  Tribunal  that 
the  Alabama  and  other  so-called  Con- 
federate ships  were  really  British. 


Privet 


Proces* 


Privet,  a  genus  of  plants  contain- 
ing a  number  of  species  of  shrubs  and 
small  trees  with  opposite  leaves,  which 
ai"e  simple  and  entire  at  the  margin ; 
the  flowers  small,  white,  and  in  ter- 
minal panicles.  Common  privet  is  a 
shrub  growing  in  bushy  places  and 
about  the  borders  of  woods  in  the 
middle  and  S.  of  Europe,  and  now  also 
naturalized  in  some  parts  of  North 
America. 

Privileged  Witnesses,  witnesses 
who  are  not  obliged  to  testify  as  to  cer- 
tain things,  as  lawyers  in  relation  to 
their  dealings  with  their  clients,  and 
ofllcers  of  State  as  to  State  secrets ; 
also,  by  statute,  in  "some  instances, 
clergymen  and  physicians  are  placed  in 
the  same  category,  so  far  as  concerns 
information  received  by  them  profes- 
sionally. 

Privy  Council,  in  English  law,  the 
principal  council  of  the  sovereign,  con- 
sisting of  members  chosen  at  his  or 
her  pleasure.  It  is  presided  over  by 
the  Lord  President  of  the  Council,  who 
has  precedence  next  after  the  Lord 
Chancellor.  Members  of  the  privy 
council  are  addressed  as  Right  Hon- 
orable. 

The  office  of  a  privy  councilor  is 
now  confined  to  advising  the  sovereign 
in  the  discharge  of  executive,  legisla- 
tive, and  judicial  duties. 

Privy  Seal,  the  seal  used  in  En- 
gland to  be  appended  to  grants  which 
are  afterward  to  pass  the  great  seal, 
and  to  documents  of  minor  importance, 
which  do  not  require  to  pass  the  great 
seal. 

Prize,  that  which  is  taken  from  an 
enemy  in  war ;  that  which  is  seized  by 
fighting,  especially  a  ship,  with  the 
goods  contained  in  her;  any  descrip- 
tion of  goods  or  property  seized  by 
force  as  spoil  or  plunder. 

Prize  Court,  a  court  established 
to  adjudicate  on  prizes  captured  at  sea. 
In  the  United  States,  the  United 
States  District  Courts  have  jurisdic- 
tion both  as  instance  and  prize  courts. 

Prize  Money,  money  paid  to  the 
captors  of  a  ship  or  place  where  booty 
has  been  obtained,  in  certain  propor- 
tions according  to  rank,  the  money  be- 
ing realized  by  the  sale  of  the  booty. 

Probate,  in  law,  the  official  proof 
of  a  will.  This  is  done  either  in  com- 
mon form,  which  is  upon  the  oath  of 


the  executor  before  the  judge  of  the 
probate  court;  or  per  testes  (by  wit- 
nesses), in  some  solemn  form  of  law, 
in  case  the  validity  of  the  will  is  dis- 
puted. 

Probate  Court,  a  court  of  record 
established  to  exercise  jurisdiction 
and  authority  in  relation  to  probate 
of  wills  and  letters  of  administration, 
and  to  hear  and  determine  all  ques- 
tions relating  to  matters  and  causes 
testamentary.  In  New  York  it  is 
called  the  "  Surrogate's  Court  "  ;  in 
Pennsylvania   the  "  Orphans'   Court." 

Probationer,  one  who  is  in  a  state 
of  probation  or  trial,  so  that  he  may 
give  proof  of  his  qualifications  for  a 
certain  position,  place,  or  state. 

Proboscis  Monkey,  or  Kabau,  a 
native  of  Borneo,  distinguished  par- 
ticularly by  its  elongated  nose,  its 
shortened  thumbs,  and  its  elongated 
tail.  The  general  color  is  a  lightish 
red.  These  monkeys  are  arboreal  in 
habits,  and  appear  to  frequent  the 
neighborhood  of  streams  and  rivers, 
congregating  in  troops. 

Probus,  Marcus  Aurelius,  a  Ro- 
man emperor ;  born  in  Sirmium, 
Pannonia.  By  the  Emperor  Tacitus 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  the 
Asiatic  possessions  of  Rome ;  and  such 
was  the  zealous  attachment  evinced 
for  him  by  his  soldiers  that  on  the 
death  of  Tacitus  they  forced  him  to 
assume  the  purple;  and,  his  rival 
Florianus  having  been  removed,  Pro- 
bus  was  enthusiastically  hailed  ena- 
peror  by  all  classes  (A.  d.  276).  His 
brief  reign  was  signalized  by  brill- 
iant and  important  successes;  the 
Germans  were  driven  out  of  Gaul, 
and  the  barbarians  from  the  Rhaetian, 
Pannonian,  and  Thracian  frontiers; 
and  Persia  was  forced  to  agree  to  a 
humiliating  peace.  The  external  se- 
curity of  the  empire  being  established, 
Probus  devoted  himself  to  the  develop- 
ment of  its  internal  resources.  After 
a  short  reign  he  was  murdered  in  a 
military  Insurrection  in  282  A.  d. 

Procedure,  Civil,  the  method  of 
proceeding  in  a  civil  suit  throughout 
its  various  stages. 

Process,  in  anatomy,  an  enlarge- 
ment, such  as  the  zygomatic  process  of 
the  temporal  bone,  the  vermiform  proc- 
ess of  the  cerebellum,  etc.  In  law,  a 
term  applied  to  the  whole  course  of 


Procession 


FrofiC 


proceedings  in  a  cause,  real  or  per- 
sonal, civil  or  criminal,  from  the  orig- 
inal writ  to  the  end  of  the  suit ;  spe- 
cifically, the  summons  citing  the  party 
affected  to  appear  in  court  at  the 
return  of  the  original  writ. 

Procession,  the  act  or  state  of  pro- 
ceeding or  issuing  forth  or  from.  Also 
a  train  of  persons  marching  on  foot, 
or  riding  on  horseback  or  in  vehicles 
with  ceremonious  solemnity. 

Proclamatio-n,  a  public  notice 
made  by  a  ruler  or  chief  magistrate  to 
the  people,  concerning  any  matter 
which  he  thinks  fit  to  give  notice 
about.  In  the  United  States  the 
President  issues  proclamations  as  to 
treaties,  days  of  thanksgiving,  admis- 
sion of  new  States,  etc. ;  likewise  gov- 
ernors of  States  and  mayors  of  cities 
for   special  purposes. 

Proconsul,  in  Roman  antiquities, 
an  officer  who,  though  not  actually 
holding  the  oflace  of  consul,  exercised 
in  some  particular  locality  all  the 
powers  of  a  consul. 

Procopins,  an  eminent  Greek  his- 
torian of  the  6th  century,  the  leading 
authority  for  Justinian's  reign ;  born 
in  Caesarea,  Palestine.  Of  his  writings 
we  have  the  "  Histories,"  or  as  the 
author  styles  them,  "  Books  about  the 
Wars"  of  his  time  —  Persian,  Van- 
dal, and  Gothic ;  a  treatise  "  On  Build- 
ings"; "Anecdotes"  (posthumous), 
a  supplement  to  the  "  Histories,"  con- 
sisting of  political  and  personal  mat- 
ter he  dared  not  publish  in  his  life- 
time. 

Procter,  Bryan  Waller,  pseudo- 
nym Barry  Cornwall,  an  English 
poet;  born  in  London,  England,  Nov. 
21,  1787.  He  early  published  four 
volumes  of  poems,  and  produced  a 
tragedy  at  Covent  Garden,  whose  suc- 
cess was  largely  due  to  the  acting  of 
Macready  and  Kemble.  He  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1831,  from  1832  to  1861 
was  a  metropolitan  commissioner  of 
lunacy.  His  works  were  issued  undeP 
the  pseudonym  "Barry  Cornwall"  (a 
faulty  anagram  of  his  real  name).  He 
died  Oct.  5,  1874. 

Proctor,  in  an  American  univer- 
sity, an  executive  oflScer  whose  duty 
it  is  to  preserve  order  and  enforce  the 
laws  of  the  institution.  In  England 
the  king's  proctor  is  a  crown  official 
charged  with  upholding  the  interests 


of  the  crown  in  certain  classes  of  pri- 
vate law-suits. 

Proctor,  Edna  Dean,  an  Ameri- 
can poet;  born  in  Henniker,  N.  H., 
Oct.  10,  1838.  Her  works  are: 
"  Poems  " ;  "  The  Song  of  the  Ancient 
People  " ;  "  Mountain  Maid  and  Other 
Poems  of  New  Hampshire " ;   etc. 

Proctor,  Ricliard  Anthony,  an 
English  astronomer,  author  of  a  large 
number  of  popular  works,  principally 
on  astronomy ;  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, March  23,  1837.  He  was  a  grad- 
uate of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1860.  About  1885  he  settled  in  St. 
Louis,  and  later  moved  to  Florida.  He 
was  at  the  time  of  his  death  the  edi- 
tor of  "  Knowledge,"  a  monthly  jour- 
nal of  popular  science.  He  was  a 
very  popular  lecturer.  He  died  in 
New  York  city,  Sept.  12,  1888. 

His  daughter,  Mary,  born  in  Dub- 
lin, Ireland;  was  graduated  at  the 
College  of  Preceptors,  London,  in 
1898;  took  the  course  in  Descriptive 
Astronomy  at  Columbia  University 
in  1900;  observed  and  reported  sev- 
eral notable  astronomical  occur- 
rences; delivered  over  800  lectures 
on  astronomy  since  1893  and  annual 
courses  under  the  New  York  Board 
of  Education  since  1894. 

Professor.  (1)  One  who  professes 
or  makes  open  and  public  declara- 
tion or  acknowledgment  of  his  senti- 
ments, opinions,  belief,  etc.  (2)  One 
who  makes  a  public  profession  of  re- 
ligion in  those  churches  where  such  a 
rule  prevails  instead  of  confirmation. 
(3)  One  who  teaches  any  art,  science, 
or  branch  of  learning ;  specifically  a 
person  appointed  in  a  university,  col- 
lege, etc.,  to  deliver  lectures  and  in- 
struct the  students  in  any  particular 
branch  of  learning;  as,  a  professor  of 
Greek,  a  professor  of  theology,  etc. 
By  common  use,  the  title  professor  has 
become  greatly  abused,  and  is  assumed, 
not  only  by  teachers  of  music,  dan- 
cing, drawing,  etc.,  but  even  _  by 
quacks,  conjurers,  teachers  of  boxing, 
j  animal  trainers,  etc. 

Profit,  any  advantage,  benefit,  or 
accession  of  good  resulting  from  labor 
or  exertion;  valuable  results,  useful 
consequence,  benefit,  gain;  compre- 
hending the  acquisition  of  anything 
valuable  or  advantageous,  corporeal, 
or  intellectual,  temporal  or  spiritual. 


Progressive  Party 


Prong-horn  Antelope 


Progressive  Party,  The,  a  Na- 
tional political  party  organized  in 
Chicago,  111.,  in  June,  1912,  by  regular 
and  unseated  delegates  to  the  Republi- 
can National  Convention  who  favored 
the  candidacy  of  former  President 
Roosevelt.  In  the  balloting  for  the 
nomination,  President  Taft  received 
561  votes  and  Roosevelt  107,  while  344 
delegates  disregarded  their  local  in- 
structions and  acceded  to  Roosevelt's 
request  that  his  supporters  refrain 
from  taking  any  part  m  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Convention,  on  the  ground 
that  the  National  Committee  had  de- 
frauded him  out  of  many  votes  in  their 
decisions  on  contested  seats.  The  new 
party  held  its  first  convention  in 
Chicago   on   August    5-7,    adopted    a 

f)latform  in  consonance  with  the 
ormer  President's  pubhc  speeches  and 
writings,  and  unanimously  nominated 
him  for  President,  with  Governor 
Hiram  W.  Johnson,  of  California,  for 
Vice-President.  Under  the  distinguish- 
ing emblem  of  the  Bull  Moose,  the 
new  party  rapidly  gained  strength 
throughout  the  country,  drawing  its 
largest  forces  from  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Republican  party  who  had 
become  dissatisfied  with  the  methods 
and  policies  of  the  administration  of 
President  Taft.  Prior  to  the  nomina- 
tions, Messrs.  Taft  and  Roosevelt  both 
made  extended  speaking  tours,  but 
afterward  Mr.  Roosevelt  only  con- 
tinued actively  in  the  campaign  (see 
Roosevelt,  Theodore).  The  Demo- 
cratic candidate.  Governor  Woodrow 
Wilson,  was  elected  in  the  ensuing 
election  November  5,  1912. 

Prohibition  Party,  The.  In  re- 
cent years  the  cause  of  absolute  pro- 
hibition has  made  great  strides  in  the 
United  States.  In  the  State  of  Maine, 
tho  mother  State  of  prohibitory  legis- 
lation, what  is  known  throughout  the 
worll  as  the  "  Maine  law"  has  been 
in  successful  operation  for  a  quarter 
of  a  century.  In  various  States  gu- 
bernatorial and  State  tickets  were 
nominated  in  successive  years  from 
1876  to  1886,  but  no  election  resulted 
in  any  case.  In  New  Jersey  and  in 
New  York  in  1886  great  interest  cen- 
tered around  the  efforts  of  the  Pro- 
hibition party,  owing  to  the  closeness 
of  the  vote  between  the  two  older 
parties,  though  the  vote  polled  by  the 


Prohibitionists  amounted  to  only  a 
few  thousands.  In  1872,  1876,  1880, 
1884,  1888,  1892,  1896,  1900,  1904, 
and  1908  a  national  ticket  was  nom- 
inated; votes  as  follows:  1872,  5,608: 
1876,  9,522;  1880,  Dow,  10.305;  1884, 
St.  John,  150,369;  1888,  Fisk,  249,- 
360;  1892,  Bidwell,  264,132:  1896, 
Levering,  131,757:  1900,  Woolley, 
208,833;  1904,  Swallow,  258,536;  1908, 
Chafin,  253,840. 

Proletariat,  a  term  used  to  de- 
note the  poorest  classes  of  the  com- 
munity. 

Prometheus,  in  mythology,  the  son 
of  the  Titan  Japetus,  was  a  brother  to 
Atlas  and  Epimetheus,  and  surpassed 
all  mankind  in  cunning.  He  ridiculed 
the  gods,  and  deceived  Jupiter  him- 
self. To  punish  Prometheus,  Jupiter 
caused  this  wily  mortal  to  be  tied  to 
a  rock  on  Mount  Caucasus,  where,  for 
30,000  years,  a  vulture  was  to  feed  on 
his  liver,  which  was  never  to  be  dimin- 
ished. He  was  delivered  from  thia 
punishment  30  years  afterward  by 
Hercules. 

Promise,  in  law,  a  declaration 
made  by  one  person  to  another  for  a 
good  or  valuable  consideration,  where- 
by the  person  promising  binds  himself 
to  do  or  forbear  some  act,  and  gives 
to  the  promisee  a  legal  right  to  de- 
mand and  enforce  a  fulfillment. 

Promised  liand,  Canaan;  that 
portion  of  Syria  lying  between  the 
Jordan  and  the  Mediterranean.  It  was 
frequently  promised  by  Jehovah  to  the 
patriarchs,  and  finally  bestowed  on 
their  descendants,  the  Israelites. 

Promissory  Note,  a  written  prom- 
ise to  pay  a  given  sum  of  money 
to  a  certain  person,  at  a  specified  date. 
The  phrase  "  for  value  received "  is 
usually  inserted. 

Prompter,  one  who  or  that  which 
prompts,  urges,  or  incites  to  action  or 
exertion.  Also,  one  who  assists  a 
speaker,  when  at  a  loss,  by  suggest- 
ing or  repeating  words.  Specifically, 
a  person  placed  behind  the  scenes  in 
a  theater,  whose  duty' is  to  prompt  or 
assist  the  actors  when  at  a  loss,  by 
uttering  the  first  words  of  a  sentence, 
or  words  forgotten. 

Prong-horn  Antelope,  inhabiting 
the  W.  parts  of  North  America,  from 
53°  N.  to  the  plains  of  Mexico  and 
California.  It  is  rather  more  than 
four  feet  in  length,  and  stands  three 


Prononn 

feet  at  the  shoulder.  Pale  fawn 
above  and  on  the  limbs ;  breast,  abdo- 
men, and  rump  white.  The  horns  are 
branched,  and  are  shed  annually. 


PEONG-HOBN  ANTELOPE. 

Pronoun,  a  word  used  in  place  of  a 
noun  or  name  in  order  to  avoid  the 
too  frequent  repetition  of  such  noun 
or  name,  but  dififering  from  a  noun  in 
not  being  permanently  attached  to 
any  certain  object  or  class  of  objects, 
and  in  not  being  limited  in  its  appli- 
cation. Pronouns  in  English  are  divid- 
ed into:  (1)  Personal,  (2)  Demon- 
strative, (3)  Interrogative,  (4)  Rela- 
tive, and  (5)  Indefinite.  Interrogative 
pronouns  are  those  which  serve  to  ask 
a  question,  as  who?  which?  what? 
Indefinite  pronouns,  or  such  as  do  not 
^<pecify  any  particular  object,  are 
used,  some  as  substantives,  some  as 
adjectives ;  as,  any,  aught,  each,  every, 
other,  etc. 

Propaganda  Fide,  Congrega- 
tion de,  a  commission  of  cardinals 
charged  with  the  direction  of  all  mat- 
ters connected  with  foreign  missions 
in  the  Roman  Church.  Pope  Urban 
VIII.  (1623-1644)  founded  the  Prop- 
aganda College,  and  here  young  men 
of  all  nations  are  trained  for  the 
iu:iesthood,  and  take  an  oath  to  devote 


Prorogation 

themselves  for  life  to  the  foreign  mis- 
sions in  whatever  province  or  vicari- 
ate they  may  be  appointed  to  by  the 
congregation. 

Propeller,  one  who  or  that  which 
propels ;  specifically,  the  screw  by 
which  a  steamship  is  driven  through 
the  water ;  a  vessel  thus  propelled. 

Property  Tax,  a  rate  or  duty 
levied  by  the  State,  county,  or  munici- 
pality on  the  property  of  individuals, 
the  value  of  the  property  being  fixed 
by  assessment. 

Prophet,  one  who  prophesies;  one 
who  is  the  bearer  of  a  divine  message 
to  mankind ;  more  familiarly,  one  who 
predicts  future  events.  The  prophet  was 
a  revealer  in  distinction  from  the  priest, 
whose  functions  nertained  to  ritual. 

Prophets,  School  of  the,  an  as- 
sociation of  the  prophets  in  which  the 
elder  lovingly  trained  the  younger, 
who  were  called  their  sons  ( I  Kings 
XX :  35).  First  Elijah,  and  then 
Elisha,   presided   over  such  a  society. 

Prophets,  The,  men  divinely  in- 
spired, and  who  often  uttered  predic- 
tions of  future  events.  The  order  was 
early  recognized  among  the  Hebrews. 
The  title  was  given  to  Moses,  and  after 
his  time  to  men  who,  as  reformers  or 
teachers,  declared  God's  will  to  the 
nation.  Samuel  and  Elijah  were  no- 
table examples.  Later,  the  prophets 
committed  their  messages  to  writing. 
Sixteen  of  their  books  are  included  in 
the  canon.  They  are  divided  into  four 
groups :  1.  The  prophets  of  the 
Northern  kingdom :  Hosea,  Amos, 
Joel,  and  Jonah ;  2.  The  prophets  of 
the  Southern  kingdom :  Isaiah,  Jere- 
miah, Obadiah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habak- 
kuk,  and  Zephaniah ;  3.  The  prophets 
of  the  Captivity  :  Ezekiel  and  Daniel ; 
4.  The  prophets  of  the  Return  :  Hag- 
gai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachl.  The 
title  was  also  applied  to  John  the  Bap- 
tist and  to  Christ. 

Prophet's  City,  a  name  by  which 
Medina,  in  Arabia,  is  often  referred 
to.  To  this  place  Mohammed  fled  for 
refuge  during  the  Hegira,  July  16, 
622,   and  here  is  his  tomb. 

Prorogation,  in  English  law,  the 
interruption  of  a  session,  as  distin- 
guished from  an  adjournment,  which 
is  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  of 
either  or  both  houses,  while  a  pro- 
rogation   is    of   Parliament,   also   the 


Proscenlnm 


Proteids 


time  during   which   the   English    Par- 
liament is  prorogued. 

Proscenium,  the  stage  of  a  theater, 
or  the  space  included  in  the  front  of 
the  scene;  in  contradistinction  to  the 
postscenium,  or  space  behind  the 
scene.  In  the  modern  theater  it  is  im- 
properly used  to  designate  the  orna- 
mental framework  from  which  the 
curtain  hangs  when  performances  are 
not  going  on,  dividing  the  spectator 
from  all  engaged  on  the  stage. 

Proscription,  in  Roman  history,  a 
mode  of  getting  rid  of  enemies,  first 
resorted  to  by  Sulla  in  82  B.  c,  and 
imitated  more  than  once  afterward  in 
the  stormy  years  that  closed  the  re- 
public. Under  Sulla,  lists  of  namea 
were  drawn  out  and  posted  up  in 
public  places,  with  the  promise  of  a 
reward  to  any  person  who  should  kill 
any  of  those  named  in  the  lists,  and 
the  threat  of  death  to  those  who 
should  aid  or  shelter  any  of  them. 
Their  property  also  was  confiscated, 
and  their  children  were  declared  in- 
capable of  honor's. 

Prosecution,  in  law,  (1)  the  in- 
stituting and  carrying  on  of  a  suit  in 
court  of  law  or  equity  to  obtain  some 
right,  or  to  redress  and  punish  an  in- 
jury or  wrong.  (2)  The  act  or  process 
of  exhibiting  formal  charges  against 
an  offender  before  a  legal  tribunal, 
and  pursuing  them  to  final  judgment; 
the  instituting  and  continuing  of  a 
criminal  suit  against  any  person  or 
persons.  (3)  The  party  by  whom 
criminal  proceedings  are  instituted ; 
the  prosecutor  or  prosecutors  collect- 
ively. 

Proselyte,  a  new  convert  to  some 
religion,  sect,  opinion,  party,  or  sys- 
tem. In  Judaism,  a  gentile  convert. 
Two  kinds  were  discriminated  :  ( 1 ) 
Proselytes  of  the  gate,  who  followed 
a  few  Old  Testament  rules,  and  (2) 
proselytes  oTf  righteousness,  who  ac- 
cepted the  whole  Mosaic  ritual. 

JProserpine,  in  mythology,  a 
daughter  of  Ceres  and  Jupiter,  of  ex- 
treme innocence  and  beauty,  and  who, 
while  gathering  flowers  in  the  lovely 
vale  of  Tempe,  or  the  Mysian  Plain, 
was  seen  and  carried  off  by  the  god 
of  the  infernal  regions,  Pluto.  The 
prayers  and  intercessions  of  her  moth- 
er ultimately  prevailed  on  Pluto  to 
permit  her  to  spend  half  of  each  year 
on  earth,  to  gratify  and  gladden  the 


heart  and  eyes  of  her  devoted  parents, 
the  other  half  being  passed  with  her 
infernal  lord  in  the  realms  below. 

Prosody,  that  part  of  grammar 
which  treats  of  the  quantities  of  sylla- 
bles, of  accent,  and  of  the  laws  of 
versification.  In  Greek  and  Latin 
every  syllable  had  its  determinate 
value  or  quantity,  and  verse  was  con- 
structed by  a  system  of  recurring  feet, 
each  consisting  of  a  certain  number 
of  syllables,  possessing  a  certain  quan- 
tity and  arrangement.  In  English, 
verse  is  constructed  simply  by  accent 
and  number   of   syllables. 

Protection,  one  of  the  theories  con- 
cerning the  best  development  of  a 
country's  industries  by  means  of  taxes 
levied  for  other  than  fiscal  purposes. 
Incidental  protection  does  not  hold 
that  any  tariff  should  be  levied  with 
the  intention  of  protecting  and  fos- 
tering a  given  industry,  but  that  in 
every  case  the  tax  should  be  laid  for 
public  purposes  only  —  i.  e.,  with  the 
intention  of  sustaining  the  state,  and 
be  only  incidentally  directed  to  the 
protection  of  the  weaker  industry. 
These    last    assumptions    furnish    the 

f round  of  political  divergence  between 
reetrade  proper  (q.  v.)  and  incidental 
protection.  The  protectionists  take 
into  consideration  both  the  funda- 
mental conditions  of  the  argument  and 
the  peculiar  character  of  the  indus- 
tries of  a  people.  They  claim  that 
given  pursuits  may  thus  be  strength- 
ened and  encouraged  by  legislative 
provisions,  and  that  natural  and  po- 
litical laws  may  be  made  to  cooperate 
in  varying  and  increasing  the  produc- 
tive  resources  of   the  state. 

Protector,  in  English  history,  on« 
who  had  the  care  of  the  kingdom  dur- 
ing the  minority  of  the  king ;  a  re- 
gent; specifically  applied  to  Oliver 
Cromwell,  who  took  the  title  of  Lord 
Protector  in  1653.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  a  cardinal  belonging 
to  one  of  the  more  important  Catholic 
nations,  who,  in  Rome,  watches  over 
questions  afiEecting  his  country.  There 
are  also  cardinal  protectors  of  relig- 
ious orders,  colleges,  etc. 

Proteids,  a  name  given  to  sub- 
stances analogous  in  composition  to 
protein,  that  is,  consisting  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  some- 
times united  with  sulphur  and  phos- 
phorus.   The  gluten  ©f  flour,  albumin. 


Protest 

the  fibrin  of  the  blood,  syntonin, 
which  is  the  chief  constituent  of 
muscle  and  flesh,  and  casein  are  ex- 
amples of  proteids.  Proteids  are  the 
essential  food  stuffs. 

Protest,  ordinarily,  a  solemn  af- 
firmation or  declaration  of  opinion 
(frequently  in  writing),  generally  in 
opposition  to  some  act  or  proposition ; 
a  solemn  affirmation  by  which  a  per- 
son declares  either  that  he  entirely 
dissents  from  and  disapproves  of  any 
act  or  proposition,  or  else  only  con- 
ditionally gives  his  assent  or  consent 
to  an  act  or  proposition,  to  which 
he  might  otherwise  be  considered  to 
have  assented  unconditionally. 

In  commerce,  a  formal  declaration 
by  the  holder  of  a  bill  of  exchange  or 
promissory  note,  or  by  a  notary  public 
at  his  direction,  that  acceptance  or 
payment  of  such  bill  or  note  has  been 
refused,  and  that  the  holder  intends 
to  recover  all  expenses  to  which  he 
may  be  put  in  consequence  of  such 
non-acceptance  or  non-payment. 

Protestant,  one  who  protests.  In 
Church  history,  the  name  given  to 
those  princes  and  others  who,  on  April 
19,  1529,  at  the  second  diet  of  Speyer, 
protested  against  the  decision  of  the 
majority,  that  the  permission  given 
three  years  before  to  every  prince  to 
regulate  religious  matters  in  his  do- 
minions till  the  meeting  of  a  General 
Council  should  be  revoked,  and  that 
no  change  should  be  made  till  the 
council  met.  The  name  is  now  extend- 
ed to  all  persons  and  churches  hold- 
ing the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation 
and  rejecting  papal  authority. 

Protestant  Episcopal  Clinrcli, 
a  denomination  in  the  United  States 
directly  descended  from  the  Church  of 
England,  which  doctrinally  claims  to 
be  based  on  the  Holy  Scriptures,  as 
interpreted  in  the  Apostles  and  other 
ancient  creeds  of  the  Church  that 
have  been  universally  received,  and 
to  have  kept  herself  aloof  from  all  the 
modern  systems  of  faith,  whether  of 
Calvin,  or  Luther,  or  Arminius,  leav- 
ing her  members  free  to  enjoy  their 
own  opinions  on  all  points  not  repre- 
sented in  the  Scriptures  as  necessary 
to  soul's  health,  and  refusing  to  be 
narrowed  down  to  any  other  creed  or 
creeds  than  those  of  the  Apostles  and 
the  Primitive  Church.  She  claims  also 
to  have  retained  all  that  is  essential 


Protopliytes 

to  church  organization  in  her  episco- 
pate, and  in  her  liturgy  to  have  not 
only  a  wise  and  judicious  compend  of 
doctrine  and  devotion,  but  also  one 
of  the  most  effectual  of  all  possible 
conservative  safeguards  for  the  faith 
once  delivered  to  the  saints.  Three 
clerical  orders  are  recognized — bish- 
ops, priests,  and  deacons  —  the  first 
deriving  their  office  in  direct  succes- 
sion from  the  apostles  by  episcopal 
consecration,  and  the  others  receiving 
ordination  at  the  hands  of  a  bishop. 
Those  of  the  second  order  are  entitled 
archdeacons,  deans,  rectors,  vicars,  or 
curates,  according  to  their  functions. 
A  reader  is  a  layman  licensed  by  the 
bishop  to  read  in  a  church  or  chapel 
where  there  is  no  clergyman.  Parson 
signifies  a  clergyman  in  possession  of 
a  parochial  church. 

From  the  time  of  the  first  congrega- 
tions of  the  Church  of  England,  in 
America,  in  1607,  to  the  close  of  the 
Revolution,  all  the  clergy  in  the  colo- 
nies were  regarded  as  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Bishop  of  London.  The 
first  American  bishop  was  Rev.  Samuel 
Seabury,  who,  in  1783,  was  consecrated 
in  Scotland  as  Bishop  of  Connecticut. 
All  Protestant  Episcopal  churches  in 
the  United  States  are  associated  in 
one  national  body,  called  the  General 
Convention,   which   meets    triennially. 

According  to  a  special  Census  re- 
port on  "  Religious  Bodies  "  (2  vols., 
1910),  there  were  6,845  organiza- 
tions; 6,922  church  edifices;  church 
property  valued  at  over  $125,040,- 
000;  5,368  ministers;  105  bishops  of 
different  grades;  886,942  communi- 
cants; and  5,211  Sunday  schools. 

Protocol,  the  original  draft  or  copy 
of  a  deed,  contract,  or  other  docu- 
ment. In  diplomacy,  the  minutes  or 
rough  draft  of  an  instrument  or  trans- 
action; the  original  copy  of  a  treaty, 
dispatch,  or  other  document;  a  docu- 
ment serving  as  the  preliminary  to 
diplomatic  negotiations;  a  diplomatic 
document  or  minute  of  proceedings, 
signed  by  the  representatives  of 
friendly  powers  in  order  to  secure  cer- 
tain political  ends  peacefully;  a  con- 
vention not  subject  to  the  formalities 
of   ratification. 

Protophytes.  The  lowest  and 
simplest  organisms  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  They  are  regarded  as  among 
the  Algse.   The  life-history  of  simplest 


protoplasm 


Froverlis  of  Soloxaon 


Protophytes  is  exemplified  in  the  Pal- 
moglcea  macrococca,  a  sort  of  green 
scum  or  slime,  growing  on  damp 
stones,  etc.  Tlie  cells  are  generally 
independent,  but  in  some  species  re- 
main adherent  one  to  another  so  as 
to  form  a  filament.  Some  species  have 
spiny  projections  of  the  outer  coat, 
which  is  of  a  horny  consistence,  as 
in  Staurastrum.  Others  are  notched 
on  the  sides ;  some,  as  the  Closterium, 
are  smooth.  Many  of  the  Desmids 
multiply  by  subdivision,  but  the  plan 
is  modified  so  as  to  maintain  the  sym- 
metry characteristic  of  the  tribe.  At 
other  times  multiplication  takes  place 
by  the  subdivision  of  the  endochrome 
into  granular  particles,  or  "  gonidia," 
set  free  by  rupture  of  the  cell  wall. 

Protoplasm,  in  biology,  etc.,  the 
living  matter  from  which  all  kinds  of 
living  things  are  foi'med  and  devel- 
oped, and  to  the  properties  of  which 
all  their  functions  are  ultimately  re- 
ferred. Protoplasm  is  a  transparent 
homogeneous,  or  granular-looking  sub- 
stance. Under  high  microscopic  power, 
in  many  instances,  it  shows  a  more  or 
less  definite  structure,  composed  of 
fibrils  more  or  less  regular,  and  in 
some  instances  grouped  into  a  honey- 
combed or  fibrillar  reticulum,  in  the 
meshes  of  which  is  a  homogeneous  in- 
terstitial substance.  Its  composition 
is  a  problem  with  which  science  is 
still  to  deal. 

Protozoa,  a  group  of  animals,  oc- 
cupying the  lowest  place  in  the  animal 
kingdom.  They  consist  of  a  single  cell, 
or  of  a  group  of  cells  not  differentiated 
into  two  or  more  tissues ;  incapable, 
as  a  rule,  of  assimilating  nitrogen  in 
its  diffusible  compounds  (ammonia  or 
nitrates,  or  carbon  in  the  form  of 
carbonates).  The  food  is  taken  into 
the  protoplasm,  either  by  a  specialized 
mouth  or  by  any  part  of  the  cell  sub- 
stance, in  the  form  of  particles. 

Proudhon,  Pierre  Joseph,  a 
French  publicist ;  bom  in  Besancon, 
France,  July  15,  1809;  died  Jan.  19, 
1865.  In  1840,  appeared  his  fa- 
mous memoir,  entitled,  "  What  is 
Property?"  his  answer  to  this  ques- 
tion, "  Property  is  Theft,"  being  al- 
most all  that  is  popularly  known  of 
him.  A  second  memoir  on  the  same 
subject  exposed  him  to  a  prosecution, 
but  he  was  acquitted.  After  the  revo- 
lution   of    February,    1848,    he    was 


chosen  member  of  the  Constituent 
Assembly  for  the  department  of  the 
Seine.  But  he  found  no  hearing  at 
the  tribune,  and  therefore  started  a 
newspaper  under  the  title  of  "  The 
People,"  which  was  suppressed,  and 
reappeared  three  times.  In  1849,  he 
founded  his  People's  Bank,  but  being 
soon  after  sentenced,  under  the  press 
laws,  to  three  years'  imprisonment 
and  a  fine,  he  left  France,  and  the 
bank  was   closed  by  the  government. 

Prout,  Father.     See  Mahony. 

Provancher,  Leon,  a  Canadian 
priest  and  naturalist ;  born  in  Becan- 
cour,  P.  Q.,  March  10,  1820.  He  estab- 
lished  "  Le  Naturalist  Canadien " 
("The  Canadian  Naturalist")  in 
1868.  His  publications  include :  "  Ele- 
mentary Treatise  on  Botany  " ;  "  Cana- 
dian Plant  Life  " ;  "  Short  History 
of  Canada  " ;  etc. 

Provencal,  a  Romance  dialect  that 
sprang  up  in  France  on  the  decline 
of  literary  Latin.  Originally  Proven- 
cal and  Northern  French  came  from 
the  same  stock,  but  by  the  12th  cen- 
tury they  differed  almost  as  widely  as 
French  and  Italian.  Owing  to  its 
rhyming  facilities  it  was  essentially 
the  language  of  the  troubadours  and 
extended  over  the  area  from  the  Alps 
to  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  Loire,  as  well  as  in  parts  of 
Spain  and  Switzerland. 

Proverb,  an  old  and  common  say- 
ing ;  a  short  or  pithy  sentence  often 
repeated,  and  containing  or  expressing 
some  well-known  truth  or  common 
fact  ascertained  by  experience  or  ob- 
servation; a  sentence  which  briefly 
and  forcibly  expresses  some  practical 
truth.  Unless  a  saying  is  capable  of 
being  applied  to  a  variety  of  cases  it 
can  never  become  a  proverb. 

Proverbs  of  Solomon,  one  of  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
ascribed  to  Solomon.  The  Hebrew 
term  translated  proverbs  means  liter- 
ally, a  similitude  or  comparison  of 
two  objects,  and  this  is  the  form  that 
most  of  them  take.  Solomon,  we  are 
told,  uttered  3,000  proverbs  ;^but  it 
has  been  doubted  whether  he  ever 
made  any  collection  of  them  in  writ- 
ing; and  it  is  expressly  stated  that 
the  latter  part  of  the  book,  beginning 
with  chapter  xxv..  was  written  and 
added  by  order  of  King  Hezekiah.  The 
title  shows  the  author  rather  than  thw 


Providence 

compiler.  It  has  hardly  ever  been  con- 
tended that  a  large  share  in  the  com- 
position of  the  book  is  to  be  ascribed 
to  the  Wise  King;  and  the  divine  au- 
thority of  the  book  is  sufficiently 
proved  by  the  quotations  made  from 
it  in  the  New  Testament.  In  all  ages 
this  book  has  been  regarded  as  a  great 
store  house  of  practical  wisdom. 

Providence,  a  city,  capital  of  the 
State  of  Rhode  Island,  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Providence  CO. ;  on  the  Provi- 
dence river,  an  arm  of  Narrangansett 
Bay,  and  44  miles  S.  W.  of  Boston. 
It  is  the  second  city  of  New  England 
in  population  and  wealth,  and  is  built 
on  a  rolling  plateau. 

Providence  has  upward  of  2,000 
manufacturing  establishments,  with 
a  combined  capital  of  about  $60,000,- 
000,  and  employing-  about  40,000  per- 
sons. It  is  noted  for  its  manufactures 
of  cotton  and^  woolen  goods,  jewelry, 
and  stoves,  arid  is  the-  largest  seat  of 
fine  jewelry  manufactura  in  the  Unit- 
ed States.  The  other  industries  in- 
clude silverware,  tools,  engines,  loco- 
motives, boilers^  sewing  machines, 
screws,  files,  general  hardware,  yarn, 
calico,  laces,  braids,  worsteds,  broad- 
cloth, chemicals,  etc.  There  is  an  ex- 
tensive coastwise  commerce  and  ship- 
ping industry,  especially  in  the  coal, 
cotton  and  wool  trade.  There  is  also 
an  important  shell-fish  industry. 

In  1636  Roger  Williams,  a  Baptist 
clergyman,  was  exiled  from  Massa- 
chusetts because  he  opposed  its  theo- 
cratic laws.  He  first  settled  at  What 
Cheer  rock,  on  the  Seekonk  river,  and 
later  at  the  head  of  the  Providence 
river,  where  the  Indian  chief,  Canoni- 
cus,  granted  him  a  piece  of  land.  In 
1643-1644  local  government  was 
formed  under  a  royal  charter.  Provi- 
dence received  its  city  charter  in  1832, 
and  has  been  enlarged  by  annexation 
of  territory  from  adjoining  towns. 
Pop.    (1900)   175,597;    (1910)   224,326. 

Pradden,  ThebpUl  Mitchell, 
an  American  bacteriologist ;  born  in 
Middlebury,  Conn.,  July  7,  1849.  He 
was  Professor  of  Pathology  in  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons, 
New  York.  His  works  include: 
"  Handbook  of  Pathological  Anatomy 
and  Histology,"  with  F.  Delafield; 
"  Story  of  the  Bacteria  " ;  "  Dust  and 
its  Dangers  " :  "  An  Elder  Brother  to 
the  Cliff  Dweller  " ;  etc 


Pmssla 

Prune,  the  dried  fruit  of  various 
plums,  especially  of  the  varieties 
called  St.  Catherine  and  Green  Gage. 
They  contain  a  large  proportion  of 
sugar,  etc.,  so  that  brandy  can  be  dis- 
tilled from  them. 

Prussia,  the  largest  and  most  pow- 
erful State  of  the  German  empire; 
occupying  a  N.  central  portion  of  the 
European  continent ;  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  the  Baltic  and  Denmark;  on 
the  E.  by  Russia  and  Poland;  on  thr 
S.  by  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg, 
and  Baden ;  and  on  the  W.  by  Bel- 
gium and  the  Netherlands.  From  the 
extreme  E.  frontier  to  Aix-la-Chapelle 
on  the  W.  the  distance  is  about  775 
miles,  and  from  the  promontory  on 
the  Baltic  above  Stralsund,  to  the  ex- 
treme S.  frontier  of  Silesia,  the  dis- 
tance is  404  miles.  The  length  of  the 
coast  line  is  about  250  miles  on  the 
North  Sea,  and  750  miles  on  the  Bal- 
tic. Total  area  of  the  kingdom,  136,- 
076  square  miles. 

Prussia  is  administratively  divided 
into  14  provinces,  which  are  again 
subdivided  into  35  government  dis- 
tricts, with  the  principality  of  Hohen- 
zollern,  the  cradle  of  the  royal  fami^T 

The  surface  of  the  kingdom  is  gen* 
erally  level,  sloping  in  the  N.  to  the 
sea,  and  forming  part  of  the  great  N. 
plain  of  Europe.  The  S.  and  S.  W. 
parts  of  the  kingdom  are  hilly,  or 
even  mountainous.  The  climate  of 
Prussia  is  varied.  Along  the  Baltic  it 
is  moist,  and  in  Eastern  Prussia,  espe- 
cially, the  winter  is  long  and  severe. 
In  Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and  the  Sax- 
on and  Rhenish  provinces,  it  is  com- 
paratively mild. 

About  28,479,800  hectares  are  under 
cultivation.  Large  estates  are  general- 
ly managed  by  stewards  and  the  oc- 
cupants of  smaller  properties  are,  in 
most  cases,  the  owners.  Rye,  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  potatoes,  beet  root,  flax, 
hops,  tobacco  and  hemp  form  the  chief 
products.  Chicory  is  also  largely  cul- 
tivated. The  extensive  beet  root  plan- 
tations give  rise  to  one  of  the  most 
important  industries ;  in  1898  there 
were  312  establishments  manufactur- 
ing beet  root  sugar.  Madder  and  other 
plants  used  in  dyeing  are  also  raised. 
Fruits  and  vegetables  are  most  ex- 
tensively grown  in  the  W.  provinces, 
which  are  also  famous  for  their  wines. 
Horses,  cattle  and  sheep  are  extensive* 


Prussia 


Prussia 


ly  raised,  -wool  being  an  important 
product.  Large  numbers  of  fine  horses 
are  exported  from  East  Prussia. 

The  mineral  products  are  abundant, 
coal  being  the  most  important.  The 
production  of  lignite  is  large.  Copper, 
iron  and  lead  are  extensively  worked. 
Prussia  yields  about  one-half  of  the 
world's  annual  production  of  zinc. 

Though  more  of  an  agricultural 
than  a  manufacturing  country,  Prus- 
sia has  greatly  distinguished  herself, 
particularly  of  late  years,  in  the  va- 
rious manufactures.  Linens  and  coarse 
woolens  for  domestic  consumption  are 
made  in  every  village,  and,  indeed,  in 
most  cottages  throughout  the  kingdom. 
Large  quantities  of  silk  and  cotton 
goods,  and  linen,  are  produced  in 
Elberfeld,  and  other  towns  of  the 
Rhioe  provinces.  Very  superior  broad- 
cloth is  largely  manufactured  at 
Eupen,  Malmedy,  Berlin,  and  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  Prussia  occupies  an  ad- 
vanced rank  as  a  producer  of  the  use- 
ful metals.  The  articles  of  hardware 
made  at  Berlin,  Iserlohn,  Hagen,  So- 
lingen,  Olpe,  and  Essen  enjoy  a  high 
reputation,  the  last-named  place  being 
the  seat  of  the  famous  Krupp  steel 
and  gun  works.  Porcelain,  jewelry, 
watches,  and  carriages  are  also  manu- 
factured in  the  latter  city  on  a  most 
extensive  scale.  Paper,  leather,  soap, 
oil  and  cigars  are  important  manufac- 
tures ;  and  beer  and  spirits  are  very 
extensively  produced. 

Commerce  is  facilitated  by  the  long 
coast  line,  and  by  an  elaborate  sys- 
tem of  railways  and  canals.  Through- 
out the  kingdom,  education  is  general 
and  compulsory.  Absolute  religious 
liberty  is  guaranteed  by  the  constitu- 
tion. Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  popula- 
tion are  Protestants  and  most  of  the 
remainder,  Roman  Catholic.  The  State 
Church  is  Evangelical  or  Protestant, 
and  since  1817  has  consisted  of  a 
fusion  of  the  Lutheran  and  Calvinist- 
ic  bodies.  The  relations  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  to  the  govern- 
ment differ  in  the  various  provinces, 
but  in  every  part  of  the  monarchy  the 
crown  reserves  to  itself  control  over 
the  election  of  bishops  and  priests. 
The  higher  Catholic  clergy  are  paid 
by  the  State. 

^  The  constitution  vests  the  execu- 
tiveand  part  of  the  legislative  author- 
ity in  a  king  who  attains  his  majority 
on  accomplishing  his  18th  year.    The 


crown  is  hereditary  in  the  male  line, 
according  to  primogeniture.  The  king 
is  advised  by  a  council  of  ministers 
appointed  by  royal  decree.  The  repre- 
sentati\'e  assembly,  the  Landtag,  is 
composed  of  two  chambers,  the  House 
of  Lords  (Herrenhaus)  and  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  (Abgeordneten- 
haus).  The  assent  of  the  king  and 
both  chambers  is  requisite  for  all  laws. 
The  executive  government  is  carried 
on  by  a  Ministry  of  State  appointed 
by  the  king  and  holding  office  at  hia 
pleasure. 

The  rise  of  the  Prussian  power  has 
been  rapid  and  extraordinary.  The 
kings  of  Prussia  trace  their  origin  to 
Count  Thassilo  of  ZoUem,  one  of  the 
generals  of  Charlemagne.  His  succes- 
sor, Count  Friedrich  I.,  built  the 
family  castle  of  Hohenzollern,  near 
the  Danube,  in  the  year  980.  A  sub- 
sequent Zollern,  or  Hohenzollern, 
Friedrich  III.,  was  elevated  lo  the 
rank  of  a  prince  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  in  1273,  and  received  the  bur- 
graviate  of  Nuremberg  in  fief ;  and 
his  great-grandson,  Friedrich  VI.  was 
invested  by  the  Emperor  Sigismund, 
in  1411,  with  the  province  of  Branden- 
burg, and  obtained  the  rank  of  Elect- 
or in  1417.  In  1608-1619  the  duchy 
of  Prussia  was  united  to  the  electorate 
of  Brandenburg,  the  territories  of 
which  had  been  greatly  extended  by 
the  valor  and  wisdom  of  Friedrich 
Wilhelm,  "the  Great  Elector,"  under 
whose  fostering  care  arose  the  first 
standing  army  in  central  Europe.  Dy- 
ing in  1688,  he  left  the  province  to  his 
son,  Frederick  1.,  who  assumed  the 
crown  at  Konigsberg,  June  18,  1701. 
Pomerania  was  soon  after  added  to 
Prussia.  When  Frederick  the  Great 
ascended  the  throne  in  1740,  his  dis- 
jointed dominions  did  not  contain  2,- 
500,000  inhabitants,  and  these  had 
made  but  little  progress  in  the  arts, 
or  in  the  accumulation  of  wealth.  But 
before  his  death,  in  1786,  Prussia  had 
been  increased  in  size  nearly  half; 
while  the  population  had  increased  to 
about  6,000,000.  Prussia  acquired, 
by  the  subsequent  partition  of  Poland 
in  1792,  and  its  final  dismemberment 
in  1795,  a  great  extension  of  terri- 
tory, and  upward  of  2,000,000  inhabit- 
ants. Her  disastrous  contest  with 
France  in  1806  lowered  Prussia  for  a 
while;  but  after  Napoleon's  Russian 
campaign,  the  people   rose  en  masse. 


Prnssian  Bine 


Pseudonym 


and  drove  the  French  out  of  Germany. 
At  the  general  peace  of  1815,  Prussia 
recovered  all  her  former  possessions 
(except  a  portion  of  her  Polish  do- 
minions), and  gained  valuable  ac- 
quisitions. After  the  accession,  in 
18G2,  of  King  William  I.,  the  execu- 
tive government  presided  over  by 
Count  von  Bismarck,  made  laws,  and 
even  decreed  budget  estimates,  without 
the  concurrence  of  the  chambers.  In 
1864,  Prussia,  conjointly  with  Aus- 
tria, sent  an  army  to  occupy  the 
duchy  of  Schleswig-Holstein.  A  war 
with  Penmark  followed,  which  re- 
sulted iu  the  annexation  of  that  duchy 
to  Prussia.  In  1866,  Hanover  and 
Saxony  were  occupied  by  the  Prussian 
troops,  and  a  war  followed  jvith  those 
kingdoms  and  with  Austria,  in  which, 
after  a  brillipnt  campaign  of  two 
weeks,  the  latter  powej*  was  obliged  to 
sue  for  peace,  and  relinquish  her 
claims  as  a  German  power.  In  addi- 
tion, Saxony  was  left  a  mere  nominal 
sovereignty  under  the  control  of  Prus- 
sia, while  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel, 
Nassau,  and  the  former  free  city  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Main  became  ab- 
sorbed in  the  Prussian  monarchy.  In 
August,  1870,  Napoleon  III.  declared 
war  against  Prussia,  and  the  French 
armies  marched  toward  the  Rhine.  An 
alliance  having  been  entered  into  be- 
tween Prussia  and  the  Southern  Ger- 
man powers  of  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg, 
and  Baden,  their  combined  forces 
crossed  the  Rhine  into  France.  The 
part  of  Prussia  in  the  Franco-German 
war  is  inextricably  involved  with  that 
of  the  whole  German  nation.  The  con- 
flict seemed  to  precipitate  the  solution 
of  the  question  which  had  always  been 
the  aim  of  tte  king  and  Bismarck, 
German  unity  under  Prussian  leader- 
ship. On  Jan.  18,  1871,  King  Will- 
iam was  crowned  at  Versailles  as 
Emperor  of  Germany,  and  on  March 
21,  the  first  German  Reichstag  as- 
sembled at  Berlin.  The  history  of 
Prussia  since  is  that  of  Germany. 

Prussian  Blue,  a  cyanide  of  iron 
possessed  of  a  deep-blue  color,  and 
much  used  as  a  pigment.  It  is  also 
used  in   medicine. 

Prussian  Broxm,  a  color  obtained 
by  adding  a  solution  of  the  yellow 
prussiate  of  potash  to  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper,  which  throws  down 
a  precipitate   of   deep  brown.     This, 


when  washed  and  dried,  is  equal  to 
madder,  and  possesses  greater  per- 
manency. 

Pmssic  Acid,  a  name  given  to  hy- 
drocyanic acid  because  it  was  first  ob- 
tained from  Prussian  blue. 

Prntz,  Roilbert  Eduard,  a  Ger- 
man poet  and  historian ;  born  in 
Stettin,  May  30,  1816.  He  died  in 
Stettin,  June  21,  1872. 

Psalmist,  a  writer  or  composer  of 
psalms ;  a  title  applied  especially  to 
the  authors  of  the  Scriptural  psalms, 
and  specifically,  with  the  definite  arti- 
cle prefixed,  to  David.  Psalmists,  in 
Church  history,  were  singers  in  the 
early  church  whose  duty  it  was  to 
lead  the  people. 

Psalmody,  the  art  and  practice  of 
singing  psalms.  Psalm  singing  was 
introduced  by  the  Reformers ;  but  Cal- 
vin discouraged  any  but  simple  mel- 
ody, while  Luther  practised  and  fa- 
vored part  harmony,  as  did  also  John 
Knox  in  his  psalter. 

Psalms,  Book  of,  a  book  of  the 
Old  Testament.  It  was  the  praise  book 
or  psalter  of  the  Hebrew  temple  or 
synagogues.  In  the  present  Hebrew 
Bibles  it  is  placed  just  after  the 
Prophets  at  the  head  of  the  Ha- 
giographia,  and  in  Luke  xxiv :  44,  is 
generally  supposed  to  stand  for  that 
division  of  the  Old  Testament  books. 
The  350  psalms  are  arranged  in  He- 
brew in  five  books,  each  terminating 
with  a  doxology,  in  some  cases  closing 
with  "Amen  and  amen."  The  revised 
version  prints  them  separately.  The 
book  of  Psalms  is  quoted  or  alluded 
to  as  an  inspired  composition  by  Our 
Saviour  and  His  apostles  at  least  70 
times :  no  Old  Testament  book  is  more 
frequently  quoted.  Its  canonical  au- 
thority has  never  been  seriously 
doubted.  Its  rhythmical  form  and 
careful  parallelism  (now  rendered  ob- 
vious by  the  revised  version)  adapt  it 
for  the  musical  part  of  public  wor- 
ship. 

Psalter,  the  Book  of  Psalms;  also 
a  book  containing  the  Psalms  sepa- 
rately printed,  and  with  musical  ac- 
companiment adapted  to  each ;  also 
specifically,  the  version  of  the  Psalma 
in  the  English  Book  of  Common 
Prayer. 

Pseudonym,  a  false,  feigned,  or 
fictitious  name;   a  pen-name. 


Fsycliolog^ 

Psycliolog^,  the  science  of  mental 
phenomena.  Opinion  is  far  from 
unanimous  on  many  of  the  most  im- 
portant points  of  psychological  doc- 
trine, especially  on  such  points  as  in- 
volve a  philosophical  view  of  the  na- 
ture of  mind. 

Ptarmigan,  a  game  bird  found  in 
*"he  United  States,  and  also  in  North- 
ern Europe.  In  winter  the  plumage  of 
the  male  is  almost  wholly  white,  with 
a  small  patch  behind  the  eye;  the 
shafts  of  the  primaries  and  the  bases 
of  the  exterior  tail-feathers  are  black, 
an(J  there  is  a  patch  of  bare  red  skin 
around  the  eye.  In  the  summer  the 
black  retains  its  position,  but  the 
white  is  mottled  and  barred  with 
black  and  gray.  The  length  of  the 
adult  male  is  rather  more  than  15 
inches. 

Pterodactyl,  a  remarkable  genus 
of  fossil  lizards,  peculiar  to  the  Sleso- 
zoic  strata.  The  careful  investigations 
of  Cuvier,  however,  showed  that  the 
pterodactyl  was  a  true  lizard,  but 
possessed  of  the  power  of  flight,  which 
it  performed,  not  by  a  membrane 
stretched  over  its  ribs,  like  the  living 
dragons,  but  more  as  in  the  bats,  ex- 
cept that  the  wing  was  attached,  not 
to  several,  but  only  to  a  single  finger 
—  the  fifth  —  the  others  being  free 
and  short.  The  bones  of  the  fifth  finger 
were  very  elongated,  and  the  last  joint 
terminated  in  a  long,  slender,  unguard- 
ed apex ;  the  terminal  joints  in  the 
other  fingers  were  furnished  with 
strong  claws. 

Pterosauria,  an  extinct  order  of 
flying   Reptilia  of   Mesozoic   age. 

Fthab,  or  Plitha,  an  ancient 
Egyptian  divinity,  the  creator  of  all 
things  and  source  of  life,  and  as  such 
father  and  sovereign  of  the  gods.  He 
was  worshiped  chiefly  at  Memphis  un- 
der the  figure  of  a  mummy-shaped 
male,  and  as  a  pygmy  god.  Equivalent 
to  the  Greek  Hephaestus. 

PtolemsenSy  the  dynastic  name  of 
13  kings  of  Egypt,  who  reigned  from 
323  to  43  B.  c.  The  most  famous  was 
Ptolemfpus  Soter,  who  reigned  from 
323  to  285  B.  c. 

Ptolemaic  System,  the  hypothesis 
maintained  by  Ptolemy  in  his  "  Al- 
magest "  that  the  earth  was  a  fixed 
body,  remaining  constantly  at  rest  in 
the  center  of  the  universe,   with  the 


Ptolemy 

sun  and  moon  revolving  round  it  as 
attendant  satellites. 

Ptolemy  I.,  surnamed  Soter,  king 
of  Egypt,  founder  of  the  Grseco- 
Egyptian  dynasty  of  the  Lagides,  was 
a  Macedonian,  supposed  to  be  a  natural 
son  of  Philip  II.,  and  became  a  favor- 
ite general  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
whom  he  accompanied  on  his  expedi- 
tion to  Asia.  On  the  death  of  hir 
master,  in  323  B.  C,  Potelmy  I.,  ob- 
tained Egypt  for  his  province.  For  20 
years  he  was  almost  constantly  en- 
gaged in  war.  He  took  the  title  of 
king.  He  saved  Rhodes  when  besieged 
by  Demetrius,  and  received  the  title 
of  Soter  (saviour)  ;  and  after  the  fall 
of  Antigonus  he  applied  himself  to 
the  promotion  of  commerce,  literature, 
science,  and  the  arts  in  his  own  do- 
minions. Philosophers,  poets,  and 
painters  gathered  to  his  court,  and 
the  foundations  were  laid  of  the  fa- 
mous Alexandrian  Library  and  Mu- 
seum. In  285  Ptolemy  resigned  his 
crown  to  his  son,  surnamed  Philadel- 
phus,  and  died  in  283. 

Ptolemy  II.,  surnamed  Philadel- 
phus  (lover  of  his  brother),  king  of 
Egypt,  born  in  Cos,  311  b.  c,  was 
the  youngest  son  of  the  preceding  by 
his  favorite  wife,  Berenice.  He  be- 
came king  on  the  abdication  of  his 
father  in  285,  and  had  a  long,  and 
for  the  most  part  peaceful  reign.  He 
had  been  carefully  educated,  and  iie 
entered  heartily  into  his  father's  plans 
for  promoting  the  prosperity  of  his 
kingdom,  completing  the  Alexandrian 
Library  Museum,  patronizing  learning 
and  learned  men,  founding  colonies, 
and  increasing  his  army  and  his  rev- 
enue. He  made  a  treaty  of  alliance 
with  the  Romans,  and  encouraged  the 
resort  of  Jews  to  Egypt.  According 
to  tradition  it  was  by  his  order  that 
the  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old 
Testament  was  made.  Ptolemy  was 
twice  married ;  his  second  wife  being 
his  sister  Arsinoe,  widow  of  Ly- 
simachus.      He   died    in   247. 

Ptolemy  XII.,  Dionysius,  son  of 
Ptolemy  Auletes,  king  of  Egypt,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  conjointly  with 
his  sister  Cleopatra,  under  the  protec- 
tion of  Pompey,  in  52.  He  became  a 
partisan  of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war, 
and  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia 
caused  Pompey  who  sought  refuge  in 
his   states,  to  be  assassinated   in  48. 


Ptolemy 


Pneblo 


Aspiring  to  be  sole  king,  he  then  took 
arms  against  Ciesar,  whp  had  decided 
that  Cleopatra  should  continue  to 
reign  with  him,  and  was  drowned  in 
the  Nile  while  nying  from  the  field  of 
battle,   47  B.   c. 

Ptolemy,  Clandius,  a  celebrated 
astronomer  and  geographer,  who  flour- 
ished at  Alexandria,  about  A.  D.  140- 
IGO.  He  is  considered  the  first  as- 
tronomer of  antiquity.  He  corrected 
Hipparchus'  catalogue  of  the  fixed 
:5tars,  and  formed  tables  by  which 
the  motions  of  the  sun,  moon  and 
planets  might  be  calculated  and  regu- 
lated. He  was  the  first  who  collected 
the  scattered  and  detached  observa- 
tions made  by  the  ancients,  and  di- 
gested them  into  a  system ;  this  he 
called  the  "  Great  Construction." 
This  great  work  of  Ptolemy  will  al- 
waj's  be  valuable  on  account  of  the 
observations  he  gives  of  the  places  of 
the  stars  and  planets  in  former  times, 
and  according  to  ancient  astronomers 
that  were  then  extant ;  but  principally 
on  account  of  the  large  and  curious 
catalogue  of  the  stars,  which,  being 
compared  with  modern  catalogues, 
enables  astronomers  to  deduce  the  true 
quantity  of  their  apparent  slow  pro- 
gressive motion  according  to  the  order 
of  the  signs,  or  of  the  precession  of  the 
Cnuinoxes. 

Ptomaine,  a  putrescent  product  of 
animal  origin  and  of  a  basic  or  al- 
kaloidal  nature,  closely  allied  to  the 
vegetable  alkaloids;  a  cadaveric 
poison.  About  150  varieties  of  pto- 
maines are  known,  sojne  being  harm- 
less, others  very  poisonous.  Ordinary 
foods  frequently  undergo  changes  that 
render  them  harmful,  and  especially 
is  this  so  with  mussels,  clams,  oysters, 
fish,  meat,  sausage,  milk,  ice-cream, 
cheese  and  canned  goods.  These 
changes  are  due  to  the  presence  of 
ptomaines.  Heat  will  destroy  the 
ptomaine  bacteria,  but  their  poison 
is  not  eliminated  by  cooking.  I 

Pnblican,  in  Roman  antiquities,  a' 
collector  of  revenues,  or  farmer  of  the! 
taxes  consisting  of  tolls,  tithes,  harbor 
duties,  duties  for  the  use  of  pasture 
lands,  mines,  salt  works,  etc.,  in  Ro-' 
man  provinces.  From  the  nature  ofj 
their  office,  and  the  oppressive  exac- 1 
tions  of  many  of  their  number,  these 
officials  were  generally  regarded  by  the 
inhabitants  with  detestation. 

E.121. 


Public  Healtb  Acts.     In  the 

United  States  scientific  investigation 
into  the  means  for  preserving  health  is 
of  recent  growth,  though  laws  were 
enacted  by  the  colonies  for  the  preven- 
tion of  the  introduction  of  contagious 
or  infectious  diseases  from  foreign 
ports.  State  boards  of  health  have 
been  created  in  nearly  all  the  States. 
In  1878  Congress  passed  "  An  Act  to 
prevent  the  introduction  of  contagious 
or  infectious  diseases  in  the  United 
States,"  providing  that  no  vessel  com- 
ing from  a  foreign  port  where  con- 
tagious or  infectious  disease  may  ex- 
ist shall  enter  any  port  of  the  United 
States,  except  in  manner  prescribed 
by  regulations.  In  1879  a  National 
Board  of  Health  was  created  by  Con- 
gress ;  its  duties  were  to  obtain  in- 
formation on  all  matters  affecting  pub- 
lic health,  and  to  advise  the  several 
departments  of  the  government  and  the 
executives  of  the  several  States  on  all 
questions  submitted  by  them.  Town  or 
city  boards  of  health  have  existed  for 
many  years  in  all  large  municipalities. 

Publicist,  a  term  originally  ap- 
plied to  a  writer  on  international  law, 
now  used  to  denote  a  writer  on  current 
politics. 

P'nblic  Prosecutor,  an  officer  ap- 
pointed to  originate  and  conduct  prose- 
cutions in  the  public  interest. 

Pnccinotti,  Francesco,  an 
Italian  physician;  born  in  Urbino, 
Italy,  in  1794.  In  1838  the  Tuscan 
Archduke  appointed  him  Professor  of 
Medical  Jurisprudence  in  Pisa  Uni- 
versity, and  there  he  published  his 
masterpiece,  the  "  History  of  Medi- 
cine."    He  died  Oct.  8,  1872. 

Pnck,  in  mediaeval  mythology,  the 
"  merry  wanderer  of  the  night," 
whose  character  and  attributes  are 
depicted  in  Shakespeare's  "  Midsum- 
mer Night's  Dream."  He  was  the 
chief  of  the  domestic  tribe  of  fairies. 
Pneblo,  city  and  capital  of  Pue- 
blo county,  Col.;  on  the  Arkansas 
river  and  several  railroads;  118  miles 
S.  E.  of  Denver;  is  an  important 
railroad,  mining,  manufacturing,  and 
live-stock  center;  has  valuable  coal, 
silver,  and  gold  mines  nearby,  and 
large  steel  works  and  smelters;  and 
is  the  seat  of  the  State  Hospital  for 
the  Insane,  State  Agricultural  So- 
ciety, and  a  noted  Mineral  Palace. 
Pop.  ((1910)  44,395, 


Pnelilos 

Pueblos  (Spanish,  pueblo,  "vil- 
lage ") ,  a  semi-civilized  family  of 
American  Indians  in  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona,  dwelling  in  large  single  habi- 
tations, which  are  sometimes  capa- 
cious enough  to  contain  a  whole  tribe. 
These  edifices  —  which  are  often  five 
or  six  stories  high,  and  from  130  to  433 
yards  long,  with  many  rooms  (53  to 
124)  on  each  floor  —  are  commonly 
constructed  of  adobe  or  sun-dried 
brick ;  the  ground  floor  is  invariably 
without  doors  or  windows,  entrance 
being  effected  by  a  ladder  leading  to 
the  second  story ;  and  indoors  ladders 
take  the  place  of  staircases  every- 
where. A  somewhat  pyramidal  aspect 
is  given  to  the  whole  building  by  each 
successive  story  receding  a  few  feet 
from  the  line  of  that  below  it.  Each 
family  of  the  tribe  has  a  separate 
apartment,  and  there  are  also  large 
rooms  for  general  council  chambers  and 
for  tribal  dances.  In  New  Mexico 
there  are  19  such  villages,  with  over 
8,000  occupants,  who  are  skillful  agri- 
culturists, employing  irrigation  ditches 
extensively,  and  rearing  horses,  cattle, 
and  sheep.  Spinning  and  weaving  and 
the  manufacture  of  pottery  also  are 
carried  on.  The  Moquis  of  Arizona 
are  a  related  tribe,  numbering  about 
1,800,  in  seven  villages  built  on  the 
summit  of  isolated  hills.  The  Pueblos 
are  under  Roman  Catholic  mission- 
aries, and  are  making  steady  progress 
in  civilization  and  education,  though 
on  their  Christianity  they  have  grafted 
many  of  their  old  pagan  beliefs  and 
customs,  to  which  they  obstinately 
cling.  They  were  first  visited  by  the 
Spaniards  about  1530,  at  which  period 
their  habits  and  their  habitations  were 
very  much  the  same  as  today.  It  is 
evident,  however,  from  the  wide  area 
over  which  the  ruins  of  old  pueblos 
and  remains  of  ancient  pottery  have 
been  found,  that  they  were  at  one  time 
very  much  more  numerous  than  they 
are  now. 

Pnerto  Cabello,  a  seaport  of 
Venezuela,  in  the  State  of  Carabobo, 
78  miles  W.  of  Caracas.  It  stands  on 
a  long,  low  narrow  peninsula  on  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  and  has  a  safe,  deep, 
and  roomy  harbor,  defended  by  a  fort 
and  batteries.  It  is  the  port  of  Val- 
encia, which  is  34  miles  distant  by 
rail.  There  is  an  active  foreign  trade, 
which  averages  $6,250,000  annually; 


Puffin 

the  chief  exports  are  coffee,  cacao,  in- 
digo, cinchona,  cotton,  sugar,  divi-divi, 
and  copper  ore.  Pop.  about  11,000.  It 
was  bombarded  by  the  Germans  during 
the  recent  blockade  of  Venezuelan 
ports  by  Germans,  British  and  Ital- 
ians. 

Pnf endorf ,  or  Pnffendorf ,  Sam- 
■ael.  Baron  von,  a  German  writer  on 
the  law  of  nature  and  nations;  born 
in  1632.  He  studied  theology  and  law 
at  Leipsic  and  Jena,  and  in  1660  ap- 
peared his  "  Elements  of  General  Ju- 
risprudence." In  1661  he  became  Pro- 
fessor of  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of 
Nations  at  Heidelberg.  In  1667  he- 
published  his  work  "  The  Common- 
wealth of  Germany,"  which,  from  the 
boldness  of  its  attacks  on  the  consti- 
tution of  the  German  empire,  caused 
a  profound  sensation.  In  1670  he 
went  to  Sweden,  became  Professor  of 
Natural  Law  in  the  University  of 
Lund,  and  brought  out  his  chief  work, 
"  Natural  Law  and  the  Law  of  Na- 
tions," and  in  1675  an  abstract  of 
it.  In  1686  he  received  a  summons  to 
Berlin  from  Frederick  William,  Elect- 
or of  Brandenburg,  a  history  of  whom 
Pufendorf  wrote  for  the  Elector's  son, 
the  first  king  of  Prussia.  In  1694  he 
was  created  a  baron  by  the  king  of 
Sweden,  and  in  the  same  year  he  died 
in  Berlin.  There  are  English  transla- 
tions of  his  principal  works. 

Puff  Adder,  one  of  the  most  ven- 
omous serpents  of  South  Africa.  In 
length,  when  full  grown,  it  is  from 
four  to  five  feet,  and  is  as  thick  as 
a  man's  arm.  The  head  is  very  broad, 
the  tail  suddenly  tapered ;  prevailing 
color,  brown,  checkered  with  a  darker 
shade  and  with  white.  It  usually  glides 
along  partially  buried  in  the  sand,  and, 
when  disturbed,  puffs  out  the  upper 
part  of  its  body,  whence  its  popular 
name.  The  Bosjesmans  smear  their 
arrows  with  its  venom. 

Puff  Birds,  a  family  resembling 
kingfishers  in  form,  but  living  on  in- 
sects like  fly  catchers;  they  also  re- 
semble the  bee  eaters,  and  are  found 
only  in  South  and  Central  America. 

Puffin,  a  common  sea  bird,  with 
many  popular  names — bottlenose,  coul- 
temeb,  pope,  seaparrot  and  tammy 
norie,  with  others  that  are  only  locally 
known.  By  extension,  the  name  is 
applied  to  other  species  of  the  g6&us. 


pugilism 

The  common  puffin  is  rather  larger 
than  a  pigeon;  plumage  glossy  black 
above,  under  surface  pure  white;  feet 
orange-red;  bill  very  deep,  and  flat- 
tened laterally,  parti-colored  —  red, 
yellow,  and  blue,  and  grooved  during 
the  breeding  season,  and  undergoing  a 
kind  of  moult  at  its  close  —  a  peculiar- 
ity shared  by  other  species. 

Fng^ilism,  the  practice  of  boxing  or 
fighting  with  the  fists.  In  the  schools 
and  by  amateurs,  it  is  practised  with 
the  gloves ;  in  the  prize  ring  some- 
times with  the  naked  fists.  Man  being 
instinctively  a  pugnacious  animal,  and 
the  fist  being  the  simplest  and  most 
natural  weapon,  it  may  be  taken  for 
granted  that  pugilism,  as  a  mode  of 
settling  differences,  is  coeval  with  man 
himself.  It  formed  one  of  the  earliest 
of  the  athletic  games  of  the  Greeks ; 
and  we  find  the  Greek  poets  describ- 
ing their  heroes  and  gods  as  excelling 
in  the  pugne.  Boxing  for  men  was  in- 
troduced in  the  Olympic  games  in  the 
23d  Olympiad,  and  for  boys  in  the 
37th  OljTnpiad.  With  the  exception 
of  a  girdle  about  the  loins,  the  ancient 
pugilist  fought  nude.  In  the  United 
States  pugilism  as  an  athletic  exercise 
is  permitted,  but  the  brutal  exhibitions 
of  the  prize  ring  are  generally  prohib- 
ited by  law. 

Pnlaski,  Count  Casimir,  a  Po- 
lish patriot  and  military  officer,  who 
participated  in  the  war  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution ;  born  in  1747.  His 
father,  a  Polish  nobleman,  was  the  or- 
ganizer of  the  celebrated  Confedera- 
tion of  Bar,  in  hostility  to  Russia, 
and  for  the  liberation  of  his  country, 
in  which  Casimir  eagerly  joined,  carry- 
ing on  a  desultory  warfare  with  varied 
success  till  the  coalition  of  Russia, 
Austria,  and  Prussia  completed  the 
conquest  of  Poland.  His  father  and 
brothers  being  killed,  Casimir  escaped 
with  difficulty  into  Turkey,  whence  he 
proceeded  by  way  of  France  to  join 
the  Americans,  then  fighting  for  inde- 
pendence, bearing  recommendations 
from  Franklin  to  Washington,  whom 
he  joined  in  1777.  Entering  as  a  vol- 
unteer, he  so  distinguished  himself  at 
the  battle  of  Brandywine  as  to  be 
promoted  by  Congress  to  a  cavalry 
command,  with  the  rank  of  Brigadier- 
General,  which  command,  however,  he 
resigned  five  months  after,  in  1778.  He 
afterward    organized    an    independent 


Pulque 

corps  of  cavalry  and  light  infantry, 
with  which  he  rendered  effectual  serv- 
ice under  General  Lincoln,  in  South 
Carolina,  in  1779,  and  in  the  siege  of 
Savannah,  Ga.,  where,  in  an  assault 
on  the  latter  place,  he  was  mortally 
\younded.     He  died  in  1779. 

Pulaski,  Fort,  a  fortification  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Savannah  river. 
Seized  by  the  Confederates,  Jan.  3, 
1861,  it  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the 
Union  forces,  April  12,  1862. 

Pulgar,  Fernando  de,  a  Spanish 
writer  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  He  wrote  a  "  Chron- 
icle "  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella ;  "  Notable  Men  of  Castile  " ; 
a  commentary  on  the  ancient  "  Couj)- 
lets  of  Mingo  Revulgo." 

Pulitzer,  Josepli,  an  American 
journalist ;  born  in  Budapest,  Hun- 
gary, April  10,  1847.  When  quite 
young  he  came  to  the  United  States 
and  served  in  the  Civil  War.  In  1883 
he  purchased  the  New  York  "World," 
then  on  the  verge  of  failure,  but  he 
built  it  up  till  it  became  one  of  the 
most  substantial  papers  in  the  city. 
In  1903  he  donated  two  millions  of 
dollars  to  Columbia  University,  New 
York  city,  to  establish  a  "  School  of 
Journalism." 

Pullman,  George  Mortimer,  an 
American  inventor;  born  in  Chau- 
tauqua CO.,  N.  Y.,  March  3,  1831; 
learned  the  cabinetmaker's  trade;  set- 
tled in  Chicago;  studied  for  many 
years  the  problem  of  making  journeys 
by  rail  more  comfortable;  and  as  a 
result  invented  the  Pullman  palace  car. 
In  1S63  he  started  building  these  cars, 
and  in  1867  organized  the  Pullman 
Palace  Car  Company.  He  also,  in- 
vented the  vestibule  train  and  founded 
the  town  of  Pullman,  111.,  in  1880.  He 
died  in  Chicago,  Oct.  19,  1897. 

Pulpit,  a  raised  place  or  desk  in 
a  church,  from  which  the  preacher  de- 
livers his  sermon.  They  are  now  gen- 
erally made  of  wood,  but  were  former- 
ly also  made  of  stone,  richly  carved 
and  ornamented.  Hence,  used  figura- 
tively, for  preachers  generally  or 
preaching;   the  teaching  of  preachers. 

Pulque,  a  vinous  beverage,  made  in 
Mexico,  by  fermenting  the  juice  of 
the  various  species  of  the  agave.  It 
resembles  cider,  but  has  a  disagreeable 
odor,  like  that  of  putrid  meat. 


Pulse 

Pulse,  in  physiology,  the  beat  or 
shock  felt  in  any  artery  when  slight 
pressure  is  made  on  it,  caused  by  the 
systole  of  the  heart.  At  birth  the  num- 
ber of  beats  is  about  140,  at  the  end 
of  the  first  year  120,  at  the  end  of  the 
second  110 ;  during  middle  life  between 
70  and  80,  and  in  old  age  usually  a 
little  more.  It  is  slower  in  man  than 
in  woman,  and  is  also  affected  by  the 
position  of  the  body. 

Pulse,  a  general  name  for  legumi- 
nous plants  or  their  seeds;  such  as 
beans,  peas,  etc. 

Pulsometer,  a  form  of  pump  for 
raising  water,  by  the  condensation  of 
steam,  in  a  vessel  situated  at  such 
elevation  above  the  water  supply  that 
the  atmospheric  pressure  will  raise  the 
water  to  the  chamber  and  operate  the 
valves.  Its  most  common  use  is  to 
fill  steam  boilers. 

Puma,  the  cougar  of  the  French,  the 
leon  of  the  South  Americans,  and 
the  panther  or  "  painter  "  of  the  trap- 
pers. It  is  the  largest  feline  of  the 
New  World,  measuring  40  inches  from 
the  nose  to  root  of  tail,  which  is  about 
20  inches  more;  the  head  is  small, 
mane  absent ;  general  color  of  upper 
surface  tawny  yellowish-brown,  vary- 
ing in  intensity  in  different  individ- 
uals; lower  parts  of  the  body  and  in- 
ner surface  of  limbs  dirty  white.  The 
young,  when  born,  are  spotted  with 
brown,  and  the  tail  is  ringed.  The 
puma  is  destructive,  and  slays  far 
more  than  it  can  eat,  but  rarely,  if 
ever,  attacks  man,  and  may  be  tamed 
with  little  diflSculty.  Edmund  Kean 
had  one  which  followed  him  about  like 
a  dog.  It  ranges  from  Canada  to  Pata- 
gonia, being  most  numerous  in  the  for- 
est districts  of  Centi'al  America. 

Pumice,  a  very  porous,  or  cellular, 
froth-like  rock,  of  extreme  lightness, 
floating  on  water.  Structure,  web-like, 
consisting  of  vitreous  threads  either  in- 
timately interwoven  or  parallel.  Like 
the  more  compact  forms  of  vitreous 
lavas,  it  varies  much  in  chemical  com- 
position, which,  however,  is  mostly 
that  of  trachytic  rocks.  It  owes  its 
cellular  structure  to  the  enormous  ex- 
pansion of  aqueous  vapor  consequent 
on  the  relief  from  pressure  during  the 
extrusion  of  vitreous  lavas  at  the 
earth's  surface.  In  commerce,  pumice 
Btone.  It  is  imported  from  the  Lipari 
Isles,  and  is  used  for  polishing  metals 


Pumpelly 

and  marble,  and  smoothing  the  surface 
of  wood  and  pasteboard.  It  is  said  to 
be  a  good  glaze  for  pottery. 

Pump,  a  machine,  engine,  or  device, 
consisting  of  an  arrangement  of  a 
piston,  cylinder,  and  valves,  for  raising 
water  or  other  liquid  to  a  higher  level, 
or  for  compressing  or  exhausting  air 
and  other  gases.  There  are  numerous 
varieties  of  pumps  differing  more  or 
less  in  construetion,  according  to  the 
purposes  for  which  each  is  intended, 
but  the  most  important  are  the  suc- 
tion pump,  the  lifting  or  lift  pump, 
the  force  pump,  and  the  centrifugal  or 
rotary  pump. 


CHAIN    PUMP. 

Pumpelly,  Raphael,  an  Ameri- 
can geologist ;  born  in  Oswego,  N.  Y., 
Sept.  8,  1837.  In  his  early  life  he 
conducted  explorations  for  the  govern- 
ments of  Japan  and  China;  was  pro- 
fessor at  Harvard  for  several  years ; 
and  from  1879  to  1892  geologist  in 
charge  of  the  Archsean  division  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey.  His 
chief  works  are :  "  Geological  Re- 
searches in  China,  Mongolia,  and  Jap- 
an "  "  Across  America  and  Asia," 
"  Mining  Industries  of  the  United 
States,"  etc. 


Pumpkin 

Fampkin,  a  climbing  plant  and  its 
fruit,  originally  from  Astrachan,  but 
widely  cultivated  in  America.  It  has 
rough  leaves,  the  flowers  large,  soli- 
tary. It  is  E^ised.in  the  open  air.  The 
pumpkin,  cooked  in  various  forms,  is 
a  favorite  dish  in  America,  and  es- 
pecially in  the  Northeastern  States 
of  the  Union,  where  the  pumpkin  pie 
is  almost  indispensable  at  the  Yankee 
housewife's  table.  Boiled  and  mashed 
it  is  an  excellent  side  dish. 

Fun,  a  play  on  words,  the  wit  of 
which  depends  on  a  resemblance  in 
sound  between  two  words  of  different 
and  perhaps  contrary  meanings,  or  on 
the  use  of  the  same  word  in  different 
senses,  etc. 

Fnnch,  with  his  wife  Judy  and  dog 
Toby,  the  chief  characters  in  a  popular 
comic  puppet  show,  of  Italian  origin, 
the  name  being  a  contraction  of  Pun- 
chinello, for  Pulcinello,  the  droll  clown 
in  Neapolitan  comedy.  The  exhibition 
soon  found  its  way  to  other  countries. 

Puncli,  or  the  London  Ckari- 
vari,  the  chief  of  English  comic 
journals,  a  weekly  magazine  of  wit, 
humor,  and  satire  in  prose  and  verse, 
illustrated  by  sketches,  caricatures, 
and  emblematic  devices.  It  was  found- 
ed in  1841,  the  first  number  appear- 
ing July  17  of  that  year,  and,  under 
the  joint  editorship  of  Henry  Mayhew 
and  Mark  Lemon,  soon  became  a 
household  word,  while  ere  long  its  sa- 
tirical cuts  and  witty  rhymes  were  ad- 
mitted a  power  in  the  land.  "  Punch  " 
is  recognized  as  an  English  institution. 

Fnnctnation,  the  act,  art,  or 
method  of  punctuating  or  pointing  a 
writing  or  discourse;  the  act,  art,  or 
method  of  dividing  a  discourse  into 
sentences,  clauses,  etc.,  by  means  of 
points  or  stops.  Punctuation  is  per- 
formed with  four  points  or  marks,  viz., 
the  period  (.),  the  colon  (  :),  the  semi- 
colon (;),  and  the  comma  (,).  The 
other  points  used  in  composition  are 
the  note  of  interrogation  or  inquiry 
(  ?) ,  and  of  exclamation,  astonishment, 
or  admiration  (  !).  The  first  printed 
books  had  only  arbitrary  marks  here 
and  there,  and  it  was  not  till  the  16tb 
century  that  an  approach  was  made 
to  the  present  system  by  the  Manutii 
of  Venice. 

Funic,  the  language  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians.    It  was  an  offshoot  of  Phce- 


Fupa 

nician,  belonging  to  the  Canaanitish 
branch  of  the  Semitic  tongues. 

Funic  Wars,  three  great  wars  be- 
tween the  Romans  and  the  Carthagin- 
ians. The  first  (264-241  b.  c.)  was 
for  the  possession  of  Sicily,  and  ended 
by  the  Carthaginians  having  to  with- 
draw from  the  island.  The  second 
(218-202  B.  c),  the  war  in  which 
Hannibal  gained  his  great  victories  in 
Italy,  was  a  death  struggle  between  the 
two  rival  powers ;  it  ended  with  de- 
cisive victory  to  the  Romans.  The 
third  (149-146  B.  c.)  was  a  wanton 
one  for  the  destruction  of  Carthage, 
which  was  effected  in  the  last-named 
year. 

Funiskment,  a  penalty  inflicted  on 
a  person  for  a  crime  or  offense,  by  the 
authority  to  which  the  offender  is  sub- 
ject ;  a  penalty  imposed  in  the  enforce- 
ment or  application  of  law.  The  pun- 
ishments usual  for  criminal  offenses 
in  the  United  States  are  death  by 
hanging  or  electricity,  or  by  shooting, 
imprisonment  with  and  without  hard 
labor,  solitary  confinement,  detention 
in  a  reformatory  school,  subjection  to 
police  supervision,  imposition  of  fines, 
and  putting  under  recognizance.  In 
New  York,  Ohio  and  Massachusetts 
the  death  penalty  is  inflicted  by  elec- 
trocution, and  in  Delaware  whipping 
is  resorted  to  as  a  punishment  for  cer- 
tain  offenses. 

Fun  jab,  an  extensive  territory  in 
the  N.  W.  of  India,  most  of  it  under 
direct  Anglo-Indian  authority,  and 
ruled  by  a  lieutenant-governor,  a  large 
portion  of  the  remainder  constituting 
the  protected  state  of  Kashmir. 

Funt,  .  a  large,  square-built,  flat- 
bottomed  vessel,  without  masts,  used 
as  a  lighter  for  conveying  goods,  etc., 
and  propelled  by  poles.  Also,  a  small, 
flat-bottomed  boat,  with  square  ends, 
used  in  fishing,  and  propelled  by  poles. 

Funta  Arenas.  The  chief  port  on 
the  Pacific  of  the  Central  American 
republic  of  Costa   Rica. 

Fnpa,  or  Fnpe,  in  entomology,  the 
third  stage  in  the  development  of  an 
insect.  On  reaching  its  full  growth 
the  larva  ceases  to  eat,  and  some  time 
later  becomes  encased  in  a  closed  shell 
or  case,  whence  after  a  certain  length- 
ened period,  which  typically  is  one 
of  repose,  it  emerges  as  a  perfect  in-- 
sect. 


Pnpin 

Fnpin,    Mioliael    Idvorsky,    an 

[ALinerican  scientist;  born  in  Idvar, 
Hungary,  Oct.  4,  1858 ;  was  graduated 
at  Columbia  University  in  1883 ;  stud- 
ied at  the  University  of  Berlin;  and 
was  appointed  Adjunct  Professor  of 
Mechanics  at  Columbia  University  in 
1889.  In  1901  he  announced  the  dis- 
covery of  a  new  method  of  ocean 
telephony.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
iAmerican  Mathematical  Society,  Amer- 
ican Philosophical  Society,  etc.  He 
wrote  "  Propagation  of  Long  Electrical 
Waves  " ;  "  Wave  Propagation  Over 
Non-Uniform  Conductors  "  ;  etc. 

Pnrana,  the  last  great  division  of 
Hindu  sacred  literature. 

Purcell,  Henry,  an  EnglisK  com- 
poser ;  born  in  1658.  In  1680,  prob- 
ably, he  composed  for  a  private  semi- 
nary "  Dido  and  Eneas,"  which  has 
been  called  the  first  genuine  English 
opera,  but  has  never  been  produced  on 
the  public  stage.  For  some  years  after 
he  became  organist  of  Westminster 
Abbey  he  composed  mainly  anthems 
and  sacred  music,  all  of  great  excel- 
lence. In  1690  he  wrote  the  music  for 
Dryden's  version  of  "The  Tempest." 
In  1691  he  produced  the  music  to  Dry- 
den's "King  Arthur,"  which,  though 
considered  his  dramatic  masterpiece, 
was  not  publisbed  till  1843.  In  1694 
he  wrote,  for  St.  Cecilia's  Day,  his 
"  The  Jubilate  "  and  "  Te  Deum,''  and 
in  1695  the  music  to  "  Bonduca,"  in 
which  was  "  Britons,  Strike  "Home." 
Purcell  was  equally  great  in  church 
music,  chamber  music,  and  music  for 
the  theater.  He  died  in  1695,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Purchase,  in  law,  the  suing  out 
and  obtaining  a  writ;  the  obtaining 
or  acquiring  the  title  of  lands  and  tene- 
ments by  money,  deed,  gift,  or  any 
means  except  descent.  In  mechanics, 
a  means  of  increasing  applied  power; 
any  mechanical  hold,  advantage, 
power,  or  force  applied  to  the  raising 
or  removing  of  heavy  bodies ;  mechan- 
ical advantage  gained  by  the  applica- 
tion of  any.  power. 

Purdue  tTuiversity,  a  coeduca- 
tional non-sectarian  institution  in  La- 
fayette, Ind. ;  founded  in  1874. 

Purgatory,  in  Roman  theology,  a 
place  in  which  souls  who  depart  this 
life  in  the  grace  of  God  sufiEer  for  a 
time,   because    they   still   need   to   be 


Purse  Crali 

cleansed  from  venial,  or  have  still  to 
pay  the  temporal  punishment  due  to 
.mortal  sins,  the  guilt  and  eternal  pun- 
ishment of  which  have  been  remitted. 

Purification,  a  '  Jewfsh  rite.  It 
was  mainly  the  one  through  the  per- 
formance of  which  an  Israelite  was 
readmitted  to  the  privilege  of  religious 
coromunion,  lost  through  uncleanness. 
The  chief  varieties  of  such  uncleanness, 
and  the  methods  of  purification  from 
it  required,  are  detailed  in  Lev.  xii., 
siv.,  XV.,  and  Numb.  xix. 

Purim,  the  Festival  of  Lots,  whicK 
was  instituted  by  Mordecai  and  is  cele- 
brated to  this  day  by  the  Jews  on  the 
14th  and  15th  of  the  month  Adar 
(March),  in  commemoration  of  their 
wonderful  deliverance  from  the  de- 
struction with  which  they  were  threat- 
ened by  Haman.  On  these  festive 
days  the  book  of  Esther  is  read,  pres- 
ents are  interchanged,  and  gifts  are 
sent  to  the  poor. 

Puritan,  the  name  given,  at  first 
perhaps  in  contempt,  to  those  clergy- 
men and  others  in  the  reign  of  the 
English  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  desired 
a  simpler,  and  what  they  considered 
to  be  a  purer,  form  of  worship  than 
the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities 
sanctioned.  New  England  was  settled 
very  largely  by  the  Puritans.  Also, 
one  who  has  severely  strict  notions  as 
to  what  is  proper  or  who  is  strict  in 
his  religious  duties. 

Purple,  a  secondary  color,  com- 
pounded by  the  union  of  the  primaries 
blue  and  red. 

Purples,  Ear  Cockle,  or  Pep- 
percorn, a  disease  affecting  the  ears 
of  wheat.  Infected  grains  assume 
a  dark-green  color,  which  soon  deepens 
to  a  black,  and  become  rounded  like 
small  peppercorns.  The  husks  open, 
and  the  diseased  grains  are  found  to 
contain  no  flour,  but  a  moist  sub- 
stance. 

Purse  Crab,  a  name  for  decapod 
crustaceans  allied  to  the  hermit  crabs. 
A  species,  the  robber  crab,  found  ia 
the  Mauritius  and  the  more  E.  islands 
of  the  Indian  Ocean,  is  one  of  the 
largest  crustaceans,  being  sometimes 
two  to  three  feet  in  length.  It  resides 
on  land,  while  paying  a  nightly  visit 
to  the  sea,  often  burrowing  under  the 
roots  of  trees,  lining  its  hole  with  the 
fibers  of  the  cocoanut  husk  and  living' 


Pnrser 

on  the  nuts,  which  (according  to  some 
writers)  it  climbs  the  trees  to  pro- 
cure, and  the  shells  of  which  it  cer- 
tainly breaks  with  great  ingenuity. 

Purser,  on  shipboard,  the  oflScer 
whose  duty  is  to  keep  the  accounts  of 
the  ship  to  which  he  is  attached.  In 
mining,  the  paymaster  or  cashier  of  a 
mine,  and  the  official  to  whom  notices 
of  transfer  are  sent  for  registration  in 
the  cost-book. 

Purslane,  a  plant,  with  fleshy  suc- 
culent leaves,  naturalized  throughout 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  world.  Purs- 
lane was  formerly  more  used  than  at 
present  in  salads  as  a  pot  herb,  in 
pickles,  and  for  garnishing.  It  has 
anti-scorbutic  properties. 

Purves,  George  T.,  an  American 
clergyman;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Sept.  27,  1852 ;  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1872 
and  at  the  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary  in  1876;  was  Professor  of 
New  Testament  literature  and  Exege- 
sis at  the  Princeton  Theological  Sem- 
inal y  in  1892-1900,  when  he  accepted 
a  call  to  the  Fifth  Avenue  Presbyter- 
ian Church,  New  York  city.  He  wrote 
"  The  Apostolic  Age  "  ;  etc.  He  died 
(n  New  York  city,  Sept.  24,  1901. 

Pus,  in  physiology  and  pathology, 
the  product  of  suppuration,  a  thick, 
viscid,  yellow  fluid,  consisting  of 
liquor  puris,  pus  corpuscles,  and  other 
histological  particles. 

Pusey,  Caleb,  an  American  Quaker 
colonist;  born  in  Berkshire,  England, 
about  1650.  He  came  with  Penn's 
company  to  America  in  1682,  erected 
the  first  mills  in  the  province,  held 
many  high  places  in  civil  affairs,  and 
was  a  noted  controversialist  writer  of 
his  day.  He  published  a  great  num- 
ber of  pamphlets  and  articles  in  de- 
fense of  his  creed.  He  died  in  Ches- 
ter CO.,  Pa.,  Feb.  25,  1727. 

Pusey,  Ediv^ard  Bonverie,  an 
English  theological  writer,  a  leader  of 
the  Anglo-Catholic  (Tractarian) 
party  in  the  Established  Church;  bom 
near  Oxford  in  1800.  He  published: 
"The  Holy  Eucharist  a  Comfort  to 
the  Penitent,"  a  sermon  which  re- 
sulted in  his  suspension  for  three 
years ;  two  sermons  on  "  The  Entire 
Absolution  of  the  Penitent,"  equally 
revolutionary.  Of  his  larger  works 
the  most  important  are :     "  The  Doc- 


Putnam 

trine  of  the  Real  Presence " ;  and 
"  The  Real  Presence  of  the  Body  and 
Blood  of  Christ  the  Doctrine  of  the 
English  Church."  Died  Sept.  16.  1882. 

Pushkin,  Alexander  Sergeye- 
vitich,  Count,  the  master  poet  of 
Russia ;  born  at  St.  Petersburg  in 
1799;  died  1837.  He  was  govern- 
ment official,  and  in  1825  was  appoint- 
ed Imperial  historiographer.  His 
works  embrace  poems,  dramas,  novels, 
and  histories. 

Pntnam,  Frederick  Ward,  an 
American  scientist ;  born  in  Salem, 
Mass.,  April  16,  1839;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  University  in  1862;  be- 
came chief  of  the  Department  of  Eth- 
nology at  the  World's  Columbian  Ex- 
position in  Chicago  in  1893.  He  is 
a  member  of  numerous  American  and 
foreign  sci€:itific  societies.  The  French 
government  gave  him  the  Cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor. 

Putnam,  George  Haven,  an 
American  publisher  and  author,  son 
of  George  P. ;  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, April  2,  1844.  He  entered  the 
publishing  business  in  1806,  and  be- 
came the  head  of  the  firm  of  G.  P. 
Putnam's  Sons,  New  York.  His 
works  include  :  "  International  Copy- 
right "  (1879);  "Books  and  their 
Makers  during  the  Middle  Ages " 
(1896),  etc. 

Putnam,  George  Palmer,  an 
American  publisher  and  author;  born 
in  Brunswick,  Me.,  Feb.  7,  1814.  In 
1848  he  established  the  publishing 
house  now  conducted  under  the  name 
of  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons;  and  also 
founded  "  Putnam's  Magazine,"  which 
was  subsequently  merged  with  "  Scrib- 
ner's  Monthly."  His  works  include: 
"The  Tourist  in  Europe";  "The 
World's  Progress"  (1850);  "Ten 
Years  of  the  World's  Progress  " ;  etc. 
He  died  in  New  York,  Dec.  20,  1872. 

Putnam,  Herbert,  an  American 
librarian ;  born  in  New  York  city, 
Sept.  20,  1861 ;  was  graduated  ^t 
Harvard  in  1883;  studied  at  the  Co- 
lumbian Law  School;  was  admitted 
to  the  Minnesota  bar  in  1886;  li- 
brarian of  the  Boston  Public  Library 
in  1887-1891;  and  was  appointed  li- 
brarian of  Congress  in  1899. 

Putnam,  Israel,  an  American 
general  in  the  Revolutionary  War ; 
born     in     Danvers     (then     part     of 


Putnam 

Salem),  Mass.,  in  1718.  He  was  des- 
tined to  the  occupation  of  a  farmer, 
and  continued  in  that  vocation  till 
the  I'rench  and  Indian  war  broke  out, 
when,  at  the  age  of  36,  he  took  serv- 
ice in  the  English  army,  and  from  his 
known  courage  and  energy,  received 
the  command  of  a  company  of  light 
troops,  or  "  rangers."  When  the  dis- 
pute between  this  country  and  Eng- 
land commenced,  he  was  following 
the  quiet  life  of  a  farmer  and  tavern 
keeper ;  but  the  first  blood  that  was 
shed  aroused  all  his  fenergy.  He  was 
created  Major-General  by  Congress, 
and  at  Bunker  Hill,  New  York,  and 
during  Washington's  retreat  through 
New  Jersey,  he  showed  himself  one 
of  the  bravest  and  most  devoted  of 
the  patriot  leaders.  But  in  1779  he 
was  stricken  with  paralysis,  and  was 
prevented  from  participating  in  the 
final  triumphs  of  the  national  cause. 
His  character  is  well  depicted  by  the 
inscription  on  his  tomb :  "  He  dared 
to  lead  where  any  dared  to  follow." 
He  died  in  1790. 

Putnam,  Mrs.  Mary  (Loxrell), 
an  American  historical  writer,  sister 
of  James  Russell  Lowell;  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Dec.  3,  1810.  In  1832 
she  married  Samuel  R.  Putnam,  a 
merchant  of  Boston.  Besides  a  trans- 
lation from  the  Swedish,  and  numer- 
ous magazine  articles,  she  published : 
"  History  of  the  Constitution  of  Hun- 
gary " ;  and  two  dramatic  poems  on 
the  subject  of  slavery.  She  died  in 
Boston  in  June,  1898. 

Putnam,  St-^s.  Sarali  A.  Brock, 
an  American  novelist  and  writer ;  born 
in  Madison  Courthouse,  Va.,  about 
1845.  In  1883  she  married  the  Rev. 
Richard  Putnam,  of  New  York.  Her 
works  include :  "  Richmond  during 
the  War";  "The  Southern  Ama- 
ranth " ;  etc. 

Putnam,  William  Le  Baron,  an 
American  jurist ;  born  in  Bath,  Me., 
May  12,  1835 ;  was  graduated  at  Bow- 
doin  College  in  1855  and  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1858;  practised  in  Port- 
land, Me.,  till  1892;  was  a  member 
of  a  commission  to  arrange  with  the 
British  government  the  rights  of 
American  fishermen  in  Canadian 
waters  in  1887;  served  also  as  a  com- 
missioner under  the  treaty  of  Feb.  6, 
;1896,  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain;  and  was  appointed  a 


Pycnogonnm 

judge  of  the  United  States  Circuit 
Court  in  1892. 

Putnam,  Fort,  the  principal  de- 
fense of  West  Point  during  the  Revo- 
lution.    Now  in  ruins. 

Putrefaction,  the  apparently  spon- 
taneous decomposition  of  organic  sub- 
stances, especially  those  rich  in  nitro- 
gen. It  differs  from  fermentation  in 
being  accompanied  by  the  evolution  of 
fetid  and  noxious  gases.  In  the  proc- 
ess of  putrefaction,  organic  bodies  of 
a  higher  order  are  changed,  sometimes 
into  lower  organic  compounds,  some- 
times into  inorganic  compounds,  as 
ammonia,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  etc., 
and  sometimes  into  simple  substances, 
as  hydrogen  and  nitrogen. 

Puts  and  Calls,  terms  used  in 
American  stock  dealings.  The  trade 
in  privileges  is  something  which  is 
scarcely  understood  outside  of  Board 
of  Trade  and  Stock  Exchange  circles. 
For  $1  per  1,000  bushels  a  trader  can 
purchase  the  privilege  to  "  put " 
(sell)  or  "call"  (buy)  from  the  sell- 
er of  the  privilege  at  a  stipulated  price 
and  within  a  stipulated  time.  The 
ordinary  privileges  are  sold  one  day  to 
be  good  to  the  close  of  the  next  ses- 
sion. In  inactive  markets  the  "put" 
and  "  call "  prices  may  be  close  to- 
gether and  close  to  the  market  price 
of  the  property.  They  are  counte- 
nanced by  the  State  of  New  York  and 
are  a  regular  feature  in  the  New 
York  Stock  Exchange.  In  lUinoia 
they  are  specifically  classed  as  gam- 
bling operations.  The  theory  of 
"  privileges  "  is  that  they  are  a  spe- 
cies of  insurance  by  which  an  opera- 
tor can  protect  himself  against  mar- 
ket fluctuations.  A  trader  who  is 
"  short"  in  the  market  can  protect  his 
position  to  a  certain  degree  by  buying 
"  calls  " ;  a  "  long  "  can  prevent 
losses  in  the  same  degree  by  buying 
"  puts."  The  insurance  proposition 
is  a  theory,  however,  as  "  privileges  " 
more  often  serve  to  originate  new 
trades  than  to  serve  as  an  insurance 
on  existing  business   conditions. 

Pyaemia,  or  Pyezaia,  a  diseased 
condition  in  which  the  blood  is  poi- 
soned by  pus  or  by  some  of  its  con- 
stituents; blood  poisoning;  septicae- 
mia. 

Pycnogonnm,  a  genus  of  Arachnl- 
da,  the  sea  spiders.     Some  species  are 


Pygmalion 

parasitic  upon  fishes  and  otlier  marine 
animals,  but  the  common  species  is 
free  when  adult,  and  does  not  appear 
to  be  parasitic  during  any  period  of 
its  existence.  One  species  attaches 
itself  parasitically  to  the  whale. 

Pygmalion,  in  Greek  mythology, 
grandson  of  Agenor,  King  of  Cyprus. 
He  fell  in  love  with  an  ivory  statue 
of  a  young  maiden  he  himself  had 
made,  and  prayed  to  Aphrodite  to  give 
it  life.  His  prayer  was  granted,  on 
which  he  married  the  maiden. 

Pygmy,  or  Pigmy,  in  classical 
mythology,  one  of  a  fabulous  nation 
of  dwarfs  dwelling  somewhere  near 
the  shores  of  the  ocean,  and  maintain- 
ing perpetual  wars  with  the  cranes. 
Ctesias  represented  a  nation  of  them 
as  inhabiting  India.  Other  ancient 
writers  believed  them  to  inhabit  the 
Indian  islands ;  Aristotle  places  them 
in  Ethiopia,  Pliny  in  Transgangetic 
India.  A  race  of  p3'gmies  has  been 
discovered  in  Central  Africa. 

Pyle,  Howard,  an  American  illus- 
trator and  author ;  born  in  Wilming- 
ton, Del.,  March  5,  1853.  He  was 
an  illustrator  for  periodicals,  and  has 
become  popular  also  as  a  writer, 
chiefly  of  juvenile  literature.  His 
works  include :  "  Buccaneers  and 
Marooners  of  America"  (1891)  ;  etc. 
Pylorus,  the  small  and  contracted 
end  of  the  stomach  leading  into  the 
small   intestines. 

Pym,  Jolin,  an  English  statesman 
and  leader  of  the  popular  party  dur- 
ing the  reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles 
I. ;  born  in  Somersetshire,  England, 
in  158i.  He  studied  at  Oxford  and 
became  famous  as  a  lawyer.  He  en- 
tered Parliament  in  1G14,  and  during 
the  reign  of  James  he  attained  great 
influence  by  his  opposition  to  the  ar- 
bitrary measures  of  the  king.  In 
1626  he  took  part  in  the  impeachment 
of  Buckingham  and  was  imprisoned. 
In  the  Short  Parliament  of  1640  Pym 
and  Hampden  were  exceedingly  active 
as  leaders  of  the  popular  party,  and 
in  1641  Pym  was  offered  the  chancel- 
lorship of  the  exchequer.  He  im- 
peached Strafford,  and  at  his  trial  ap- 
peared as  accuser.  He  was  the  main 
author  of  the  Grand  Remonstrance, 
the  final  appeal  presented  in  1641, 
and  one  of  the  five  members  to  arrest 
whom  the  king  went  to  the  House  of 


Pyramifl 

Commons  in  January,  1642.  When 
civil  war  became  inevitable  Pym  was 
appointed  one  of  the  committee  of 
safety,  and  while  he  lived  was  active 
in  resisting  the  negotiations  of  any 
peace  with  the  king  which  did  not  se- 
cure the  liberties  of  the  subject  and 
the  supremacy  of  Parliament.  It  was 
mainly  his  financial  skill  that  enabled 
the  parliamentary  army  to  keep  the 
field.  In  November,  1643,  he  was 
made  lieutenant-general  of  ordnance, 
and  in  the  following  month  he  died, 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
Pyramid  in  Egyptian  antiquities,  a 
solid  structure  substantially  invariable 
in  form,  viz.,  a  simple  mass  resting  on 
a  square  or  sometimes  approximately 
square  base,  with  the  sides  facing 
with  slight  deviations  toward  the  four 
principal  winds,  and  tapering  off  grad- 
ually toward  the  top  to  a  point  or  to 
a  flat  surface,  as  a  substitute  for  an 
apex.  The  proportion  of  the  base  to 
the  height  is  not  always  the  same, 
nor  is  the  angle  of  inclination  uni- 
form. The  pyramids  were  construct- 
ed in  platforms,  and  then  reveted  or 
coated  with  blocks  or  slabs  of  granite, 
as  may  still  be  observed  in  incomplete 
pyramids.  Recently  the  theory  has 
been  maintained  that  in  the  case  of 
the  largest  pyramids,  a  smaller  one 
was  erected  as  a  nucleus,  arid  subse- 
quently enveloped  by  another  laj^er. 
The  interior  of  these  massive  struc- 
tures contains  narrow  passages,  and 
some  totally  dark  halls  or  chambers, 
and  probably  served  as  the  burial 
places  of  the  kings  who  had  caused 
them  to  be  constructed.  The  entrance 
to  these  buildings  is  raised  consider- 
ably above  the  level  of  the  base,  and 
was  blocked  up  by  a  portcullis  of 
granite,  so  as  to  be  on  ordinary  oc- 
casions inaccessible.  In  the  pyramid 
of  Cheops,  the  entrance  is  raised  about 
47  feet,  6  inches  above  the  base.  The 
pyramids  of  Egypt  begin  immediately 
S.  of  Cairo,  and  continue  S.  at  vary- 
ing intervals  for  nearly  70  miles.  The 
largest  is  that  of  Cheops,  at  Ghizeh, 
standing  on  a  base  each  side  of  which 
was  originally  764  feet  long,  but  ow- 
ing to  the  removal  of  the  coating  is 
now  only  746  feet.  Its  perpendicular 
height,  according  to  Wilkinson,  was 
originally  480  feet.  9  inches,  present 
height,  460  feet.  The  principal  cham- 
ber,   the    so-called  Crowning   Hall  or 


Pyrenees 

King's  Chamber,  is  34  feet,  3  inches 
long,  and  17  feet,  1  inch  wide.  Its 
roof  is  formed  of  massive  blocks  of 
granite,  over  which,  with  a  view  to 
support  the  weight,  other  blocks  are 
laid,  with  clear  intervals  between. 
According  to  Herodotus,  the  erection 
of  this  pyramid  employed  100,000  men 
for  20  years. 

In  Mexican  antiquities,  the  Teocal- 
lis,  or  Houses  of  the  Gods,  which  have 
come  down  from  Aztec  times,  are  four- 
sided  pyramids  rising  by  terraces  to  a 
considerable  height.  A  notable  group  of 
such  erections  still  exist  at  Teotihua- 
can,  about  20  miles  N.  E.  of  the  City 
of  Mexico.  There  are  two  large  pyr- 
amids, with  some  hundred  smaller 
ones.  The  base  of  the  largest  is  900 
feet  long,  its  height  160  feet;  the 
height  of  the  second  is  130  feet.  One 
is  dedicated  to  the  sun,  the  other  to 
the  moon.  A  yet  larger  one  is  at 
Cholula ;  its  base  is  1,488  feet  long, 
its  height  178  feet.  All  the  Mexican 
pyramids  face  the  cardinal  points. 
Hence,  applied  to  any  mass  or  heap 
more  or  less  resembling  a  pyramid  in 
form. 

Pyrenees,  an  extensive  mountain 
range  in  the  S.  of  Europe,  dividing 
France  from  Spain,  and  extending 
almost  in  a  straight  line  from  St.  Se- 
bastian, on  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  to 
Cape  Creux,  on  the  Mediterranean. 
Length  270  miles,  with  a  breadth  from 
50  to  100  miles. 

Pyrites,  an  isometric  mineral  oc- 
curring frequently  crystallized,  also 
massive,  iu  mammillary  forms  with 
fibrous  structure,  and  stalactitic  with 
crystalline  surface.  Luster,  metallic, 
splendent;  color,  pale,  brass-yellow; 
streak,  greenish-black ;  opaque ;  frac- 
ture conchoidal  uneven ;  brittle ; 
strikes  fire  when  struck  with  a  ham- 
mer. Composed  of  sulphur  and  iron. 
It  is  distributed  in  rocks  of  all  ages, 
either  as  crystals,  crystal-grains,  or 
nodules,  also  in  metalliferous  veins. 

Pyrrhic,  a  species  of  warlike  dance, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  Pyrrhus  to  grace  the  funeral  of 
his  father  Achilles.  It  consisted 
chiefly  in  such  an  adroit 'and  nimble 
turning  of  the  body  as  represented  an 
attempt  to  avoid  the  strokes  of  an  en- 
emy in  battle,  and  the  motions  neces- 
sary to  perform  it  were  looked  on  as 
a  kind  of  training  for  actual  warfare. 


Pythagoras 

This  dance  is  supposed  to  be  described 
by  Homer  as  engraved  on  the  shield 
of  Achilles.  It  was  danced  by  boys 
in  armor,  accompanied  by  the  lute  or 
lyre.  Also  a  metrical  foot  consisting 
of  two  short  syllables. 

Pyrrius,  King  of  Epirus,  being 
obliged,  on  the  murder  of  his  father,  to 
seek  safety  by  flight,  found  a  home, 
parent,  and  tutor  in  Glaucus,  King  of 
Illyria,  where  he  remained  for  several 
years,  till  old  enough  to  maintain  his 
own  right,  and  ascended  his  father's 
throne,  29.5  B.  C.  In  281  B.  C,  he 
made  war  on  the  Romans,  having  been 
called  to  the  assistance  of  the  Sam- 
nites,  and,  in  a  desperate  battle  fought 
on  the  banks  of  the  Syris,  in  Calabria, 
totally  defeated  the  Roman  army ; 
yet,  so  dearly  was  this  glory  bought, 
that  Pyrrhus  exclaimed  "  Another 
such  victory  will  ruin  me."  After 
several  signal  advantages,  the  Ro- 
mans at  length  triumphed,  and  Pyr- 
rhus, sustaining  many  disasters,  re- 
turned to  Greece,  and,  in  a  subsequent 
war  with  the  Argives,  was  killed,  by  a 
tile  thrown  on  his  head  from  the  roof 
of  a  house,  as  he  entered  Argos,  273 
B.  C. 

•  Pythagoras,  the  celebrated  Greek 
philosopher,  was  born  in  Samos,  prob- 
ably about  580-570  B.  c.  He  was  the 
son  of  Mnesarchus,  and,  perhaps,  a 
disciple  of  Pherecydes.  He  is  said 
to  have  traveled  extensively,  especial- 
ly in  Egypt,  and  to  have  been  initiat- 
ed in  the  most  ancient  Greek  myste- 
ries. He  attached  great  importance 
to  mathematical  studies,  and  is  be- 
lieved to  have  made  several  impor- 
tant discoveries  in  geometry,  music, 
and  astronomy.  He  ultimately  set- 
tled, between  540-530  b.  c.  at  Cro- 
tona,  one  of  the  Greek  cities  of  South- 
ern Italy.  There  he  set  himself  to 
carry  out  the  purpose  of  instituting 
a  society  through  which  he  might  ex- 
ert an  influence  on  political  affairs, 
and  especially  in  opposition  to  demo- 
cratic and  revolutionary  movements. 
His  teachings  relating  to  these  sub- 
jects became  at  length  the  occasion  of 
a  popular  rising  against  the  Pytha- 
goreans at  Crotooa,  504  b.  c. —  the 
house  in  which  they  were  assembled 
was  burned,  many  perished  and  the 
rest  were  exiled.  Similar  tumults 
with  similar  results,  took  place  in 
other  cities  and  Pythagoras  himself  is 


Pytlieas 

believed  to  have  died  sooa  after,  at 
Metapontum.  Among  the  doctrines 
of  Pythagoras  are  the  following : 
that  numbers  are  the  principles  of  all 
things ;  that  the  universe  is  a  har- 
monious whole  (kosmos),  the  heaven- 
ly bodies  by  their  motion  causing 
sounds  (music  of  the  spheres)  ;  that 
the  soul  is  immortal,  and  passes  suc- 
cessively into  many  bodies  (metem- 
psychosis) ;  and  that  the  highest  aim 
and  blessedness  of  man  is  likeness  to 
the  Deity.  He  left  no  written  ac- 
count of  his  doctrines ;  they  were  first 
committed  to  writing  by  Philolaus. 
Pythagoras  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  who  took  the  title  of  philosopher, 
and  the  first  who  applied  the  term 
kosmos  to  the  universe.  He  shares 
with  Thales  and  Xenophanes  the  high 
distinction  of  starting  the  problem  of 
physical  science.  He  died  in  Meta- 
pontum,   Magna    Graecia,    about    500 

B.   C. 

Pytheas,  a  famous  navigator  of  the 
Greek  colony  of  Massilia,  now  Mar- 
seilles ;  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  (say 
380  B.  c. ).  He  is  reputed  to  have 
sailed  along  the  west  coast  of  Europe, 
entered  the  English  Channel,  and  trav- 
eled some  distance  in  Britain,  then, 
continuing  his  journey  northward,  to 
have  arrived  at  Thule  (supposed  to  be 
Iceland).  In  a  second  voyage  he  en- 
tered the  Baltic,  where  he  proceeded 
as  far  as  a  river  which  he  called 
Tanais,  and  on  the  banks  of  which 
amber  was  found.  He  is  mentioned 
by.  Strabo,  Pliny,  and  others. 

Pythian  Gaines,  one  of  the  four 
great  national  festivals  of  the  Greeks, 
held  in  the  Crissaean  plain,  near  Del- 
phi (anciently  called  Pytho),  said  to 
have  been  instituted  by  Apollo  after 
vanquishing  the  snaky  monster. 
Python,  and  celebrated  in  his  honor 
every  four  years. 

Pythias,  Knights  of,  a  benevolent 
and  friendly  order,  founded  during 
the  Civil  War,  and  now  flourishing  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  The  or- 
der is  very  strong  in  the  United 
States.  Justus  H.  Rathbone  founded 
Washington  lodge  No.  1  in  Washing- 
ton, in  December,  1864.     On  Jan.  1, 


Python 

1900,  the  total  membership  of  the  or- 
der was  492,506.  Membership  of  the 
Uniform  Rank  (military  branch), 
45,590.  Membership  of  the  Endow- 
ment Rank  (life  insurance  branch), 
57,401,  representing  an  endowment  of 
$113,840,000.  Total  paid  benefici- 
aries to  July  1,  1900,  $14,865,883. 

Python,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
celebrated  serpent  which  destroyed 
the  people  and  cattle  about  Delphi, 
and  was  slain  by  Apollo.  In  zoology, 
a  genus  and  family  of  serpents  allied 
to  the  family  Boidae  or  Boas.  They 
are  not  venomous,  but  kill  their  prey 
by  compression.  The  pythons  are  of 
enormous  size,  sometimes  attaining  a 
length  of  30  feet.  They  are  found  in 
India  and  in  the  islands  of  the  East- 
ern Archipelago,  in  Africa  and  in  Aus- 
tralia. A  rudimentary  pelvis  and 
traces  of  hinder  limbs  exist  in  the 
pythons,  these  structures  terminating 
externally  in  a  kind  of  a  hooked  claw. 
The  head  exceeds  the  neck  in  thick- 


ptthon:  molubus. 


ness,  and  the  mouth  is  extremely  large. 
Aided  by  their  prehensile  tails  and 
rudimentary  hinder  limbs,  the  pythons 
suspend  themselves  from  the  branches 
of  trees  and  lie  in  wait  near  water 
for  animals  which  come  to  drink.  The 
genus  Python  contains  various  species, 
the  best  known  of  which  is  the  West 
African  python  (P.  sebae).  common  in 
menageries.  The  female  python  hatch- 
es her  eggs  by  the  heat  of  her  body. 


q,  the  17th  letter  and  the 
13th  consonant  of  the 
English  alphabet,  a  con- 
sonant having  only  one 
sound,  that  of  k  or  c.  It 
is  always  followed  by  u,  and  as  this 
combination  can  be  represented  by  kw 
(or  k  when  u  is  silent),  q  is  a  super- 
fluous letter. 

Qnackenbos,  George  Payn,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  New 
York  city,  Sept.  4,  1826;  was  grad- 
uated at  Columbia  College  in  1843  and 
for  many  years  conducted  a  large  col- 
legiate school  in  his  native  city.  He 
was  author  of  "  First  Lessons  in  Com- 

Eosition " ;  "  Advanced  Course  of 
Rhetoric  and  Composition  "  ;  etc.  He 
died  in  New  London,  N.  H.,  July  24, 
1881. 

Qnackenbos,  John  Duncan,  an 
American  physician ;  born  in  New 
York,  N.  Y.,  April  22,  1848;  was 
graduated  at  Columbia  College  in 
18()6  and  at  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  in  1871 ;  began  practice 
in  New  York ;  became  Adjunct  Pro- 
fessor of  the  English  Language  and 
Literature  at  Columbia  College  in 
1884 ;  Professor  of  Rhetoric  in  Bar- 
nard College  in  1891-1893.  He  then 
became  a  specialist  in  mental  diseases 
and  lectured  extensively  on  scientific 
and  literary  topics. 

Qnackenbnsh,  Stephen  Piatt, 
an  American  naval  officer ;  born  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  23,  1823;  joined 
the  navy  in  1840 ;  promoted  lieuten- 
ant-commander in  1862;  had  charge 
of  various  vessels  in  blockading  fleets 
during  the  Civil  War ;  participated  in 
the  action  at  Elizabeth  City  and  New- 
bern,  N.  C,  captured  the  "  Princess 
Royal "  containing  a  cargo  of  ma- 
chinery for  making  projectiles,  quinine 
and  engines  for  an  iron-clad  in  course 


of  construction  in  Richmond ;  and  won 
distinction  in  other  operations.  He 
was  retired  with  the  rank  of  rear-ad- 
miral in  1885.  He  died  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  Feb.  4,  1890. 

Quadrangle,  a  square  or  four- 
sided  court  or  space  surrounded  by . 
buildings,  as  often  seen  in  the  build- 
ings of  a  college,  school,  etc.  In  geom- 
etry, a  figure  having  four  angles,  and 
consequently  four  sides. 

Quadrant,  in  architecture,  the 
same  as  quadrangle.  In  geometry, 
the  fourth  part  of  a  circle ;  the  arc  of 
a  circle  containing  90°  ;  the  space  in- 
cluded between  such  arc  and  two  radii 
drawn  from  the  center  to  the  extrem- 
ities of  the  arc.  Nautically,  an  in- 
strument for  making  angular  meas- 
urements. So  called  from  its  em- 
bracing an  arc  of  90°  or  somewhat 
more.  Formerly  much  employed  in 
making  astronomical  observations.  It 
is  now  superseded  by  the  sextant. 

Quadrature,  the  state  of  being 
quadrate  or  square ;  a  square  space. 
In  astronomy,  the  position  of  one 
heavenly  body  with  respect  to  another 
90°  distant,  as  the  moon  when  midway 
between  the  points  of  opposition  and 
conjunction.  In  geometry,  the  act  of 
squaring ;  the  reducing  of  a  figure  to 
a  square. 

Quadrilateral,  the  name  given  in 
history  to  the  four  fortresses  of  North 
Italy  —  Mantua,  Verona,  Peschiera, 
and  Legnago  —  which  form  a  sort  of 
outwork  to  the  bastion  of  the  moun- 
tains of  the  Tyrol,  and  divide  the  N. 
plain  of  the  Po  into  two  sections  by  a 
most  powerful   barrier. 

Quadrille,  a  dance  consisting  of 
five  figures  or  movements,  executed  by 
four  sets  of  couples,  each  forming  the 
side   of   a    square.     Also,     the     music 


Quadroon 

composed  for  such  a  dance ;  and,  a 
game  of  cards  played  by  four  persons 
with  40  cards. 

Quadroon,  or  Quarter  on,  a  per- 
son who  is  one-quarter  negro  and 
three-quarters  white ;  that  is,  one  of 
whose  grandparents  was  white  and  the 
other  negro ;  and  one  of  whose  imme- 
dite  parents  was  white  and  the  other 
mulatto. 

Quadrumana,  in  zoology,  an  order 
of  Mammalia,  founded  by  Cuvier,  and 
containing  the  monkeys,  apes,  bab- 
oons, and  lemurs.  The  earliest  known 
remains  are  those  of  Lemuravus,  from 
the  Eocene  of  New  Mexico. 

Quadruped,  the  name  popularly 
applied  to  those  higher  vertebrate  ani- 
mals which  possess  four  developed 
limbs.  The  name  is  usually  re- 
stricted to  four-footed  mammals. 

Quadruple  Alliance,  an  alliance, 
60  called  from  the  number  of  the  con- 
tracting parties,  concluded  in  1718 
between  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Austria,  and  acceded  to  by  Holland 
in  1719,  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
peace  of  Utrecht.  The  occasion  of  the 
alliance  was  the  seizure  by  Spain  of 
Sardinia  in  1717,  and  Sicily  m  1718, 
both  of  which  she  was  forced  to  give 
up.  Another  quadruple  alliance  was 
that  of  Austria,  Russia,  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  ^Prussia,  in  1814,  originating 
in  the  coalition  which  had  effected  the 
dissolution  of  the  French  empire. 

Queestor,  in  Roman  history,  two 
quaestores  parricidii,  who  acted  as 
public  prosecutors  in  cases  of  murder, 
or  any  capital  offense,  existed  in 
Rome  during  the  period  of  the  kings. 
Two  qusBstores  classic!,  who  had 
charge  of  the  public  money,  were  first 
appointed  about  485  B.  G.  They  also 
had  charge  of  the  funds  of  the  army, 
to  which  they  were  paymasters.  The 
number  of  quaestors  was  increased  to 
eight,  ^65  B.  c.  Sylla  raised  the  num- 
ber to  20,  and  Julius  Caesar  to  40. 
During  the  time  of  the  emperors  their 
number  varied ;  and  from  the  reign  of 
Claudius  I.  (41-54)  it  became  cus- 
tomary for  quaestors,  on  entering  of- 
fice, to  give  gladiatorial  spectacles  to 
the  people;  so  that  none  but  the 
wealthiest  Romans  could  aspire  to  the 
office. 

Quagga,  a  striped  wild  horse  of 
South  Africa,  now  nearly,  if  not  en- 
tirely extinct. 


Quaker  City 

Quail,  a  small  game  bird;  the  Vir- 
ginia species  is  common  in  North  Amer- 
ica, and  so  far  south  as  Honduras. 
It  is  larger  than  the  European  quail, 
and  is  better  eating.  The  California 
crested  quail  is  another  American  spe- 
cies. The  quail,  genus  Coturnix,  is 
widely  distributed  over  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere,  visiting  Europe  in  early 
summer  and  retmmiug  S.  in  the  au- 


QUAIL :  LOPHOBTTX  CALIFOBNTCUS. 

tumn,  when  immense  numbers  are 
caught  and  fattened  for  the  market. 
Length  about  seven  inches,  general 
color  reddish-brown,  with  buff  streaks 
on  the  upper  surface;  throat  rufous; 
head,  dark  brown  above,  striped  with 
ocherous  white,  sides  reddish-brown, 
lower  parts  pale  buff,  fading  into  white 
on  belly.  Color  less  bright  in  the  hen 
bird,  and  the  rufous  tinge  absent  from 
the  throat.  They  nest  on  the  ground, 
laying  from  9  to  15  pyriform,  yellow- 
ish-white eggs,  blotdhed  with  dark- 
brown.  The  males  are  polygamous 
and  extremely  pugnacious. 

Quaker  City,  Philadelphia,  which 
was  planned  and  colonized  by  William 
Penn  and  other  members  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Friends. 


Quakers 


Qnartley 


Quakers.     See  Friends,  Society  of. 

Qua  mask,  the  North  American 
name  of  a  plant  of  the  lily  family  with 
an  edible  bulb.  These  bulbs  are 
much  eaten  by  the  Indians,  and  are 
prepared  by  baking  in  a  hole  dug  in 
the  ground,  then  pounding  and  drying 
them  into  cakes  for  future  use. 

Quantity,  in  grammar  and  pros- 
ody, the  measure  of  a  syllable  or  the 
time  in  which  it  is  pronounced;  the 
metrical  value  of  syllables  as  regards 
length  or  weight  in  their  pronuncia- 
tion. In  logic,  the  extent  to  which 
the  predicate  in  a  proposition  is  as- 
serted of  the  subject. 

In  mathematics,  anything  that  can 
be  increased,  diminished,  and  measur- 
ed. Thus,  number  is  a  quantity ; 
time,  space,  weight,  etc.,  are  also 
quantities.  In  mathematics,  quanti- 
ties are  represented  by  symbols,  and 
for  convenience  these  symbols  them- 
selves are  called  quantities.  In  al- 
gebra, quantities  are  distinguished  as 
known  and  unknown,  real  and  imag- 
inary, constant  and  variable,  rational 
and  irrational.  Real  quantities  are 
those  which  do  not  involve  any  opera- 
tion impossible  to  perform ;  variable 
quatities  are  those  which  admit  of  an 
infinite  number  of  values  in  the  same 
expression ;  rational  quantities  are 
those  which  do  not  involve  any  radi- 
cals. 

Quarantine,  the  period  (originally 
40  days)  during  which  a  ship  coming 
from  a  port  suspected  of  contagion, 
or  having  a  contagious  sickness  on 
board,  is  forbidden  intercourse  with 
the  place  at  which  she  arrives.  Quar- 
antine was  first  introduced  at  Venice 
in  the  14th  century.  It  is  now  re- 
quired to  be  performed  in  almost  every 
important  country  except  Great  Brit- 
ain. By  act  of  the  United  States 
Congress  passed  in  1879  national 
quarantine  stations  were  established ; 
and  it  is  made  a  misdemeanor  pun- 
ishable by  fine  or  imprisonment,  or 
both,  for  the  master,  pilot,  or  owner 
of  any  vessel  entering  a  port  of  the 
United  States  in  violation  of  the  act, 
or  regulations  framed  under  it.  Dur- 
ing the  period  of  quarantine,  all  the 
goods,  clothing,  etc.,  that  might  be 
supposed  capable  of  retaining  infec- 
tion, are  subjected  to  a  process  of  dis- 
infection, which  is  a  most  important 
part  of  the  quarantine  system. 


Quarry,  a  place,  pit,  or  mine  where 
stones  are  dug  out  of  the  earth,  or  are 
separated  from  the  mass  of  rock  by 
blasting.  The  term  mine  is  generally 
confined  to  pits  or  places  whence  coal 
or  metals  are  taken ;  quarry  to  those 
from  which  stones  for  building,  etc., 
as  marble,  slate,  etc.,  are  taken.  A 
mine  is  subterranean,  and  reached  by 
a  shaft ;  in  a  quarry  the  overlying 
soil  is  simply  removed. 

Quart,  the  fourth  part  of  a  gallon ; 
two  pints ;  the  United  States  dry 
quart  contains  67.20  cubic  inches,  the 
fluid  quart  57.75  cubic  inches;  the 
English  quart  contains  69.3185  cubic 
inches. 

Quarter,  a  measure  of  weight, 
equal  to  the  fourth  part  of  a  hundred- 
weight—  i.  e.,  to  28  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. As  a  measure  of  capacity,  for 
measuring  grain,  etc.,  a  quarter  con- 
tains eight  bushels.  The  common 
American  term  for  twenty-five  cents, 
being  a  quarter  of  a  dollar. 

Quarter  Deck,  in  nautical  lan- 
guage, a  deck  raised  above  the  waist 
and  extending  from  the  stern  to  the 
mainmast.  It  is  especially  a  priv- 
ileged portion  of  the  deck,  being  the 
promenade  of  the  superior  officers  or 
of  the  cabin  passengers.  The  wind- 
ward side  is  the  place  of  honor. 

Quartermaster,  in  military  af- 
fairs, an  officer  who  superintends  the 
issue  of  stores,  food,  and  clothing,  and 
arranges  transportation  for  a  regi- 
ment when  necessary.  In  nautical 
affairs,  a  petty  officer,  who,  besides 
having  charge  of  the  stowage  of  bal- 
last and  provisions,  coiling  of  ropes, 
etc.,  attends  to  the  steering  of  the 
ship.  He  is  appointed  by  the  captain. 

Quartermaster-general,  in  the 
United  States  a  staff-officer  with  rank 
of  Brigadier-General.  He  is  chief 
officer  in  the  quartermaster's  depart- 
ment. 

Quartermaster-sergeant,  in  th« 
United  States,  one  whose  duty  it  is 
to  assist  the  quartermaster. 

Quartet,  a  piece  of  music  arranged 
for  four  voices  or  instrumentSj  in 
which  all  the  parts  are  obligati ;  i.  e., 
no  one  can  be  omitted  without  injur- 
ing the  proper  effect  of  the  composi- 
tion. 

Quartley,  Arthur,  an  American 
artist;  born  in  Paris,  May  24,  1839. 


Qdartb 

He  came  to  the  United  States  when  a 
boy,  and  gained  a  reputation  as  a 
decorator,  but  it  was  not  till  after  1875 
that  he  became  linown  as  an  artist 
of  merit.  His  first  picture  which 
brought  him  into  notice  was  very 
large,  showing  a  waste  of  water  beat- 
ing against  a  rock.  It  was  exhibited 
at  the  Academy  of  Design,  and  belongs 
to  Wellesley  College.  He  had  a  fond- 
ness for  wild  marine  and  coast  scenes. 
He  was  elected  a  National  Acade- 
mician in  1886,  and  died  in  New  York, 
May  24  of  that  year. 


QtTASSIA  :   BITTEBWOOD. 
a.  Fruit. 

Quarto,  name  of  the  size  of  a  book 
in  which  a  sheet  makes  four  leaves. 
Frequently  abbreviated  to  4to.  Also 
a  book  formed  by  folding  a  sheet 
twice,     making     fou  ^p      eight 

pages.     The  term,    .jj  •     usage, 

refers  to  a  book  of  nearly  square 
form.  The  proportions  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  sheets. 

Quartz,  in  mineralogy,  a  rhombo- 
hedral  or  hexagonal  mineral,  crystal- 
lizing mostly  in  hexagonal  prisms 
with  pyramidal  terminations.  Found 
also  massive,  and  of  varying  texture. 
fi^uartz   is   abundantly   distributed,   is 


Quay 

an  essential  constituent  of  many 
rocks,  notably  granite,  gneiss,  various 
schists,  and  constitutes  the  larger  part 
of  mineral  veins.  Many  of  its  varie- 
ties are  largely  employed  in  jewelry. 

Quass,  or  Qnas,  a  thin,  sour,  fer- 
mented liquor,  made  by  pouring  warm 
water  on  rye  or  barley  meal,  and 
drunk  by  the  peasants  of  Russia. 

Quassia,  a  tree  cultivated  in  the 
West  Indies  and  the  parts  adjacent. 
It  has  terminal  clusters  of  large,  red 
flowers,  and  unequally  pinnate  leaves. 
It  comes  to  this  country  in  logs  or 
billets,  and  is  retained  as  chips  or 
raspings.  It  is  given  as  an  extract, 
an  infusion,  or  a  tincture.  An  infu- 
sion of  it  is  used  to  poison  flies. 

Quaternary,  or  Post-Tertiary, 
the  fourth  great  division  of  the  fossil- 
iferous  strata,  which  embraces  the 
Pleistocene  or  Glacial  and  Post-glacial 
and  Recent  systems. 

Quatrefoil,  in  architecture,  a 
piercing  or  panel  divided  by  cusps  or 
foliations  into  four  leaves,  or  more 
correctly  the  leaf-shaped  figure  form- 
ed by  the  cusps.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  flowers  and  leaves  of  a  simi- 
lar form  carved  as  ornaments  on  mold- 
ings, etc.  It  differs  from  the  cinque- 
foil  only  in  the  number  of  cusps. 
In  heraldry,  four-leaved  grass ;  a  fre- 
quent bearing  in  coat-armori 

Quay,  a  landing  place;  a  wharf 
projecting  into  a  stream,  harbor,  or 
basin,  to  which  vessels  are  moored 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  and  deliv- 
ering freight. 


QUATREFOIL 
IN  AKCHITECTUKE 


QUATREFOIL 
IN  HERALDRY. 


Quay,     Matthew     Stanley,     an 

American  legislator ;  born  in  Dills- 
burg,  Pa.,  Sept.  30,  1833;  was  grad- 
uated at  Jefferson  College  in  1850, 
and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1854;  en- 
tered the  Union  army  in  1861  and 
won  distinction;   was  promoted  lieu- 


Qnebee 

tenant-colonel  and  assistant  commis- 
sary general;  received  a  congressional 
medal  of  honor  for  exceptional  serv- 
ice; became  State  treasurer  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1885 ;  and  was  a  United 
States  Senator  in  1887-1899.  Early 
in  the  latter  year  he  was  placed  on 
trial  on  charges  of  misappropriation 
of  public  funds,  and  on  April  21  was 
acquitted.  Governor  Stone  appointed 
him  United  States  Senator  ad  interim 
on  the  same  day,  and  in  January, 
1901,  be  was  reelected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  to  fill  out  the  vacant 
term  caused  by  the  failure  of  the  Leg- 
islature to  elect  a  Senator  in  January, 
1899.    He  died  May  28,  1904. 

Quebec,  a  province  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  formerly  called  Canada 
East;  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Labra- 
dor and  Hudson  Bay;  on  the  E.  by 
Labrador  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence; on  the  S.  by  New  Brunswick, 
Chaleurs  Bay,  Maine,  New  Hamp- 
Bhire,  Vermont,  and  New  York ;  on 
the  S.  W.  and  W.  by  the  province  of 
Ontario;  gross  area,  347,350  square 
miles;  pop.  (1910)  2,124,834;  capital, 
.(Quebec.  The  surface  of  the  prov- 
ince is  varied,  being  diversified  by 
mountains,  rivers,  lakes,  and  exten- 
sive forests.  The  chief  river  is  the 
St.  Lawrence,  which  flows  through 
the  entire  length  of  the  province.  The 
climate  is  variable,  though  salubrious, 
the  temperature  ranging  from  20°  be- 
low zero  in  winter  to  90°  in  summer. 

The  mineral  wealth  is  undeveloped, 
but  is  said  to  be  invaluable.  Copper 
is  mined  in  Brome  and  Megantic  coun- 
ties; gold  in  Beauce;  iron  ore  in  St. 
Maurice;  and  nickel  in  Pontiac.  The 
other  mineral  productions  include  as- 
bestos, apatite,  plumbago,  mica,  slate- 
stone,  etc. 

The  soil  is  generally  fertile  and  is 
chiefly  cultivated  near  the  rivers. 
About  half  of  the  population  of  Que- 
bec is  engaged  in  agriculture.  The 
chief  products  include  maize,  buck- 
wheat, tobacco,  peas,  turnips,  barley, 
wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  and  hay.  But 
little  of  the  forest  wealth,  which  is 
considerable,  has  been  developed. 
Spruce  and  puae  are  exported  and  the 
other  forest  products  include  ash, 
cedar,  cherry,  oak,  elm,  maple,  birch, 
and  beech.  Cattle,  horses,  swine,  and 
sheep  are  the  principal  domestic  ani- 
inalSf    The  fisheries  are  extensive. 


Qneeit 

The  affairs  of  the  province  are  ad- 
ministered by  a  Lieutenant-Governor, 
appointed  by  the  Governor-General  of 
Canada,  assisted  by  a  responsible  ex- 
ecutive council.  There  are  two 
Chambers,  the  Legislative  Council, 
composed  of  24  members  who  hold 
their  appointments  for  life,  and  a 
Legislative  Assembly,  which  has  74 
members,  elected  by  the  people  foi 
five  years.  The  city  of  Quebec  was 
founded  by  Champlain  in  1G08,  who 
later  established  trading  stations  and 
rorts  at  various  places.  The  French 
governed  Quebec  till  1759,  when 
General  Wolfe  won  the  battles  of  the 
Plains  of  Abraham,  and  the  English 
gained  control.  Prior  to  1841  Quebec 
was  called  Lower  Canada,  but  in 
that  year  it  was  united  to  Upper 
Canada.  It  was  made  a  province  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  in  1867  by 
the  Act  of  Confederation. 

Quebec,  city  and  capital  of  Que- 
bec county  and  of  the  Province  ot 
Quebec,  Canada;  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence river  and  several  trunk  line 
railroads;  180  miles  N.  E.  of  Mon- 
treal; is  the  third  city  in  size  and 
importance  in  the  Dominion;  is  a 
port  of  entry,  with  an  extensive  com- 
merce, especially  in  lumber;  has 
large  shipyards  and  many  manufac- 
tories; and  is  particularly  rich  in  his- 
torical associations  and  features.  The 
city  has  a  picturesqe  site,  on  a  high 
tableland;  is  in  a  highly  productive 
farming  section;  and  is  a  strongly- 
fortified  military  post.  There  are 
Anglican  and  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
drals, Laval  University,  the  Church 
of  Notre  Dame  des  Victoires  (1688), 
Champlain  Marktt,  large  drill  hall. 
Auditorium,  Seminary  of  Quebec, 
.Morrin  College,  Grey  Nunnery,  Can- 
adian Institute,  General  and  Jofcery 
Hale  hospitals,  and  many  charitable 
and  benevolent  institutions.  The 
New  Park,  on  the  Plains  of  Abra- 
ham, contains  a  monument  to  Gen- 
eral Wolfe;  Victoria  Park  has  a 
monument  to  the  late  Queen;  and  the 
Esplanade  has  a  monument  to  the 
soldiers  who  fell  in  the  South  Afri- 
can War. 

Qneen,  a  female  who  is  chief  or 
preeminent  among  others;  one  who 
presides;  as,  the  queen  of  beauty,  the 
queen  of  love,  etc.  In  cards,  a  card 
on  which  a  queen  is  depicted.      In 


Qneen   Anne's   Bounty 


Qnesada 


chess,  the  most  powerful  and,  after 
the  king,  the  most  important  of  all 
the  pieces  in  a  set  of  chessmen. 

Qneen  Anne's  Bounty,  the  name 
given  to  a  fund  appropriated  to  in- 
crease the  income  of  the  poorer 
clergy  of  England,  created  out  of  the 
first  fruits  and  tenths. 

Queen  Bee,  in  entomology,  a  fully 
developed  female  bee  in  a  hive  or  nest. 
She  iays  2,000  or  3,000  eggs  daily 
during  the  height  of  summer,  or  more 
than  1,000,000  during  her  lifetime, 
which  is  about  five  years.  When  a 
young  queen  comes  forth,  the  old  one 
becomes  agitated  with  jealousy,  and 
ultimately  quits  the  hive,  surrounded 
by  a  great  multitude  of  workers,  who 
found  a  new  colony,  leaving  the  old 
hive  to  the  possession  of  the  youthful 
rival.  Two  days  to  a  week  after 
coming  to  maturity,  the  young  queen 
temporarily  flies  forth,  and  is  fertil- 
ized in  the  air.     See  Bee. 

Qneen  Charlotte's  Islands,  a 
group  to  the  N.  of  Vancouver  Island, 
off  the  coast  of  British  Columbia ; 
area,  5,100  square  miles.  The  two 
principal  islands,  Graham  and  Mores- 
by, have  a  length  of  160  and  a  great- 
est breadth  of  nearly  70  miles.  The 
climate  is  healthy,  but  very  rainy. 
Anthracite  coal,  copper  and  iron  ore, 
and  gold  bearing  quartz  have  been 
found,  and  forests  abound.  The  in- 
habitants are  about  2,000  Indians, 
who  engage  in  fishing.  Queen  Char- 
lotte's Sound  is  a  strait  separating 
Vancouver  Island  on  the  N.  from  the 
mainland. 

Queen's  College,  for  women,  was 
established  in  London,  in  1848,  and 
incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  18o3. 
Its  aim  is  to  provide  for  the  higher 
education  of  women,  in  the  first  place 
by  a  liberal  school  training,  and  sub- 
sequently by  a  six  years'  course  of 
college  education. 

Queensland,  an  Australian  state, 
comprising  the  whole  N.  E.  portion  of 
Australia  N.  of  New  South  AVales 
and  E.  of  South  Australia  and  its 
Northern  Territory,  being  elsewhere 
bounded  by  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria, 
Torres  Strait,  and  the  Pacific.  A 
considerable  portion  is  thus  within 
the  tropics,  the  extreme  N.  part  form- 
ing a  sort  of  peninsula,  known  as 
York  Peninsula.     It   has  an  area   of 


about  668,497  square  miles;  pop. 
(1910)  592,000;  and  is  divided  into 
12   large  districts. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  valuable 
timber  trees,  and  a  rare  thing  in  Aus- 
tralia, a  few  good  indigenous  fruits. 
Sheep  farming  is  the  chief  industry, 
but  agriculture  (including  sugar- 
growing),  cattle  rearing,  and  mining 
are  also  important.  The  soil  and  cli- 
mate are  well  suited  for  the  produc- 
tion of  all  the  ordinary  cereals,  as 
well  as  maize,  tobacco,  coffee,  sugar, 
cotton,  etc.  The  chief  products  are 
sugar,  maize,  Irish  and  sweet  pota- 
toes, arrow  root,  and  semi-tropical 
fruits.  Sugar  growing  is  becoming  a 
very  important  industry.  Gold,  tin, 
lead,  and  copper  are  the  principal  min- 
erals. The  gold  fields  extend  over  an 
area  of  15,000  square  miles,  and  em- 
ploy about  9,500  miners. 

The  first  settlement  of  Queensland 
took  place  in  1825,  when  the  territory 
was  used  as  a  place  of  transportation 
for  convicts,  who  continued  to  be  sent 
there  till  1839.  In  1842  the  country 
was  opened  to  free  settlers.  It  was 
originally  a  part  of  New  South  Wales, 
and  was  organized  as  a  separate  col- 
ony in  1859.  The  government  of  the 
state  is  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is 
the  crown's  representative,  and  a  Par- 
liament of  two  houses,  the  legislative 
council  and  the  'legislative  assembly. 
The  council  consists  of  39  members 
appointed  by  the  crown  for  life,  and 
the  assembly  of  72  members  elected  by 
the  people  for  five  years,  and  repre- 
senting GO  electoral  districts.  The 
capital  of  the  state  is  Brisbane.  In 
January,  1896,  a  disastrous  flood 
caused  great  loss  of  life  and  property 
in  Brisbane  and  Northern  Queens- 
land. 

Quelpart,  an  island  60  miles  off 
the  S.  coast  of  Korea ;  about  40  miles 
long  by  17  broad.  It  is  rock-bound 
and  mountainous,  the  volcanic  Mount 
Auckland  being  6,500  feet  high.  It 
has  fertile  soil  and  good  timber,  and 
is  populous. 

Quesada,  Gonzalo  de,  a  Cuban 
patriot  and  diplomatist ;  born  in  Ha- 
vana, Cuba,  Dec.  15,  1868;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York  in  1888;  was  secretary  of 
the  Cuban  revolutionary  party  and 
associated  with  Jose  Marti  in  the 
struggle  for  Cuban  independence.     In 


Quesnay 

1900  he  was  the  special  commissioner 
of  Cuba  to  the  United  States,  and  also 
to  the  Paris  Exposition ;  in  1901  was 
a  member  of  the  Cuban  Constitutional 
Convention  and  in  the  same  year  was 
appointed  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  of  France.  He "  published 
"  Patriotism  " ;  "  History  of  Free 
Cuba  " ;  etc.  He  is  now  Cuban  Min- 
ister to  the  United  States. 

Qnesnay,  Francois,  a  French  phy- 
sician and  economist ;  born  near 
Paris,  France,  June  4,  1694.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  school  of  econo- 
mists called  Physiocrats,  and  very  in- 
fluential on  Adam  Smith  and  all  mod- 
ern political  economy.  He  published 
several  medical  works,  in  addition  to 
his  more  famous  ones  on  political 
economy.     He  died  Dec.  16,  1774. 

Qnezal,  a  most  beautiful  Central 
American  bird  of  the  Trogon  family. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  magpie,  and 
the  male  is  adorned  with  tail  feathers 
from  3  to  314  feet  in  length,  and  of  a 
gorgeous  emerald  color.  The  food  of 
the  quezal  consists  chiefly  of  fruits. 
It  lives  in  forests  of  tall  trees.  There 
are  several  allied  species  of  birds,  but 
none  with  the  distinctive  feature  of 
the  quezal. 

Qniclina,  the  name  of  a  native  race 
of  South  America,  inhabiting  Peru, 
parts  of  Ecuador,  Bolivia,  etc.  With 
the  Aymaras  the  Quichuas  composed 
-the  larger  portion  of  the  population 
of  the  empire  of  the  Incas.  The 
Quichua  language,  which  was  former- 
ly the  state  language  of  the  Incas,  is 
still  the  chief  speech  of  Peru,  of  a 
large  portion  of  Bolivia,  of  the  part 
of  Ecuador  bordering  upon  Peru,  and 
of  the  N.  section  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public. It  is  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful and  at  the  same  time  comprehen- 
sive tongues  of  America. 

Quicklime,  lime  in  a  caustic  state ; 
calcium  oxide  deprived  by  heat  of  its 
carbon  dioxide  and  water.  This  is 
extensively  done  in  lime  kilns,  the 
fuel  used  being  fagots,  brushwood,  or 
coal.  The  firewood  and  lime  to  be 
calcined  are  mixed.  Quicklime  treated 
with  water  evolves  much  heat,  and 
falls  into  a  thick  paste.  Lime  thus 
slaked  and  mixed  with  sand  consti- 
tutes mortar. 

Qnioksand,  in  its  usual  signifl- 
cance,  a  tract  of  sand  which,  without 


Qninc* 

differing  much  in  appearance  from  the 
shore  of  which  it  forms  part,  remains 
permanently  saturated  with  water  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  cannot  support 
any  weight.  Quicksands  are  most 
often  found  near  the  mouths  of  large 
rivers.  Quicksands  are  not  commonly 
of  great  extent,  and  their  danger  has 
probably  been  exaggerated  in  the  pop- 
ular mind  by  sensational  descriptions 
in  works  of  fiction.  Persons  sink  in 
a  quicksand  exactly  as  in  water,  only 
more  slowly ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
if  the  victim  did  not  struggle  he  would 
not  sink  over  the  head,  as  experiments 
show  that  water  containing  a  quantity 
of  solid  matter  in  suspension  has  its 
floating  powers  increased.  The  nam? 
quicksand  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
drifting  sands  which  are  carried  by 
wind  over  cultivated  land  bordering 
the  seashore  or  a  desert. 

Quids,  a  name  given  to  the  few 
supporters  of  John  Randolph  when  he 
seceded  from  the  Repilblican  party  in 
1805.  The  Latin  phrase  tertium  quid, 
a  "third  something"  (as  distinguish- 
ed from  the  two  powerful  parties',, 
gave  rise  to  the  name. 

Quietism,  the  doctrine  that  the  es- 
sence of  true  religion  consists  in  the 
withdrawal  of  the  soul  from  external 
and  finite  objects,  and  its  quiet  con- 
centration upon  God. 

Qnilente,  a  tribe  of  North  Ameri- 
can Indians,  who  formerly  lived  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  in  the  State 
of  Washington.  Their  numbers  were 
gradually  reduced  by  wars  with  other 
tribes  and  the  few  remaining  are  found 
in  the  Neah  Bay  reservation  in  Wash- 
ington. 

Qnillaia,  or  Soap-bark,  the  bark 
of  a  South  American  tree  belonging  to 
the  wing-seeded  section  of  the  Ros- 
acese.  It  is  used  to  make  a  latiier  in- 
stead of  soap  in  washing  silks,  woolens, 
etc.    It  is  called  also  Quillaya-bark. 

Quince,  the  fruit  of  Cydonia  vul- 
garis, or  the  tree  itself.  It  is  15  or 
20  feet  high,  with  white  or  pale-red 
flowers,  and  ultimately  golden  fruit. 
It  is  indigenous  in  the  S.  of  Europe, 
the  N.  of  Africa,  the  Himalayas,  etc. 
The  fruit  is  too  aust«re  to  be  eaten 
uncooked,  but  is  used  in  the  prepara- 
tior.  of  marmalade,  jelly,  and  pre- 
serves. Its  mucilaginous  seeds  are 
demulcent,  and  given  by  the  natives 


Qnlnoy 


Quitman 


of  India  in  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  sore 
throat,  and  fever.  The  Japan  quince 
is  a  small  tree  about  six  feet  high, 
■with  oval  crenately  serrated  leaves, 
and  fine  red  flowers. 

Quincy,  city  and  capital  of  Adams 
county,  111.;  on  the  Mississippi  river 
and  several  railroads;  HO  miles  W. 
of  Springfield;  is  the  trade  center  of 
a  large  farming  area,  producing 
grains,  fruits,  and  vegetables;  has 
varied  manufactures,  with  annual 
value  exceeding  $15,000,000;  is  the 
B«e  of  a  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop; 
and  contains  St.  Francis'  Solanus 
College  (R.  C),  Cbadwick  College 
(M.  E),  St.  Mary's  Institute  (R.  C), 
Illinois  State  Soldiers'  and  Sailors' 
Home,  and  Blessing  and  St.  Mary's 
hospitals.     Pop.  (1910)  36,587. 

Qnincy,  a  city  in  Norfolk  county, 
Mass.;  on  Boston  harbor  and  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford 
railroad;  9  miles  S.  of  Boston;  is  the 
Beat  of  the  famous  Quincy  granite 
quarries;  is  chiefly  engaged  in  quar- 
rying and  monumental  work;  con- 
tains the  Crane  Public  Library, 
Adams  Academy,  and  Woodward  In- 
stitute; and  is  noted  as  the  birth- 
place of  John  Hancock  and  Presi- 
dents John  Adams  and  ,Tohn  Quincy 
Adams.     Pop.  (1910)  32,642. 

Quincy,  Joslah,  sometimes  called 
Josiah  Quincy,  Jr.,  an  American  law- 
yer; born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  23, 
1744.  Though  noted  as  a  patriot,  he, 
joined  with  .John  Adams  in  defend 
ing  the  British  soldiers  in  the  Boston 
Massacre  case;  took  part  in  the  town 
meeting  ordering  the  "  Boston  tea-- 
party;"  and  in  September,  1774,  went 
to  England  in  behalf  of  the  colonists. 
He  died  April  26,  1775. 

Quincy,  Josiah,  an  American  au- 
thor and  orator;  born  in  Boston, 
INIass.,  Feb.  4,  1772,  son  of  Josiah 
Quincy.  He  studied  law,  and  entered 
Congress  in  1805,  where  he  distin- 
guished himself  as  an  orator.  In 
1813  he  declined  a  reelection,  and  de- 
voted his  attention  to  scientific  agri- 
culture. In  1829-1845  he  was  presi- 
dent of  Harvard  College.  He  died 
July  1,  1864. 

Quinine,  the  most  important  alka- 
loid of  the  true  cinchona  bark,  first 
obtained  by  Gomez,  of  Lisbon,  in 
1811. 


Quinsy,  or  Quinancy,  inflamma- 
tory sore  throat.  There  is  swelling 
of  one  tonsil,  or  of  both,  attended  with 
difficulty  of  breathing  and  swallowing, 
and  febrile  symptoms.  Quinsy  has, 
though  rarely,  proved  fatal  by  pro- 
ducing   suffocation. 

Quintilian,  Quintilianus  Mar- 
cus Fabius,  a  Roman  rhetorician ; 
native  of  Spain,  His  great  work  is 
entitled,  "  On  Oratory  as  an  Art," 
and  was  written  after  his  retirement, 
out  during  the  reign  of  Domitian.  It 
js  the  most  complete  course  of  rhetoric 
handed  dowoi  from  ancient  times,  and 
is  distinguished  for  its  elegance  of 
style,  as  well  as  for  sound  judgment, 
cultivated  taste,  and  various  knowl- 
edge. The  first  complete  copy  of 
this  work  was  discovered  by  Poggio, 
in  the  abbey  of  St.  Gall,  about  1419, 
and  the  first  printed  edition  appeared 
at  Rome,  in  1470.  Quintilian  is  sup- 
posed to  have  died  about  a.  d.  120. 

Qnirinal,  The,  one  of  the  seven 
Lills  of  ancient  Rome,  and  next  to  the 
Palatine  and  Capitoline,  the  oldest 
and  most  famous  quarter  of  the  city. 
The  Quirinal  is  a  name  applied  to  the 
Italian  government  from  the  fact  that 
the  king  of  Italy  resides  in  the  palace 
of  the  Quirinal. 

Qnirites,  a  designation  of  the  citi- 
zens of  ancient  Rome  as  in  their  civil 
capacity.  The  name  of  Quirites  be- 
longed to  them  in  addition  to  that  of 
Romani,  the  latter  designation  ap- 
plying to  them  in  their  political  and 
military   capacity. 

Quit-claim,  a  deed  of  release;  an 
instrument  by  which  some  claim,  right 
or  title,  real  or  supposed,  to  an  estate, 
is  relinquished  to  another  without 
any  covenant  or  warranty,  express  or 
implied. 

Quitman,  John  Anthony,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in 
Rhinebeck,  New  York,  Sept.  1,  1799. 
Removing  to  Mississippi  in  1821,  ha 
ultimately  became  governor,  which  he 
obtained  through  a  vacancy  in  1836. 
He  soon  after  withdrew  from  political 
life,  and  joined  the  Texans  in  their 
struggle  for  independence.  In  1846, 
he  was  appointed  Brigadier-General  of 
the  United  States  army  in  the  war 
with  Mexico,  distinguishing  himself  at 
Monterey,  Vera  Cruz,  and  Cerro 
Gordo,  after  which  latter  enga«rem«it 


Qnito 


Qno  Warranto 


he  was  brevetted  Major-General,  and 
was  voted  a  sword  by  Congress  for 
gallantry.  He  participated  in  tlie  at- 
tack on  Chapultepec,  and  was  fore- 
most in  the  assault  on  the  City  of 
Mexico,  which  city  he  governed  till 
order  was  established.  In  1855  and 
1857  he  was  elected  to  Congress  by 
large  majorities.  He  died  in  Natchez, 
Miss.,  July  17.  1858. 

Quito,  the  capital  of  Ecuador,  in  a 
ravine  on  the  east  side  of  the  volcano 
of  Pichincha,  9,348  feet  above  the  sea, 
a  little  to  the  south  of  the  equator, 
and  150  miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of  Guaya- 
quil. Its  streets,  with  the  exception  of 
four  which  meet  in  the  large  central 
square,  are  narrow,  uneven,  badly 
paved,  and  extremely  dirty.  The  more 
important  public  buildings  are  the 
cathedral,  several  other  churches  and 
convents ;  the  town-house,  court-house, 
president's  palace,  the  university,  the 
arch-Episcopal  palace,  orphan  asylum, 
and  hospital.  The  manufactures  con- 
sist chiefly  of  woolen  and  cotton  goods  ; 
the  chief  exports  are  hides  and  rubber. 
Quito  was  originally  the  capital  of  a 
native  kingdom  of  the  same  name,  but 
the  modern  town  was  founded  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1534.  It  has  repeatedly 
suffered  from  earthquakes  and  volcanic 
eruptions,  notably  in  1797,  when 
40,000  lives  were  lost.  Pop.  about 
80,000,  largely  consisting  of  half- 
breeds  and  Indians. 

Qnit-rent,  in  law,  a  small  rent 
payable  by  the  tenants  of  most  manors, 
whereby  the  tenant  goes  quit  and  free 
from  all  other  services. 

Qnittali,  a  town  on  the  coast  of 
W.  Africa,  in  the  British  colony  of 
the  Gold  Coast.    Pop.  5,000. 


Quoits,  a  game  played  with  a  flat- 
tish  ring  of  iron,  generally  from  8^ 
to  9^^  inches  in  external  diameter, 
and  between  1  and  2  inches  in  breadth. 
It  is  convex  on  the  upper  side  and 
slightly  concave  on  the  under  side,  so 
that  the  outer  edge  curves  downwards, 
and  is  sharp  enough  to  cut  into  soft 
ground.  The  game  is  played  in  the 
following  manner: — Two  pins,  called 
hobs,  are  driven  into  the  ground  from 
18  to  24  yards  apart ;  and  the  players, 
who  are  divided  into  two  sides,  stand 
beside  one  hob,  and  in  regular  succes- 
sion throw  their  quoits  (of  which 
each  player  has  two)  as  near  the  other 
hob  as  they  can,  giving  the  quoit  an 
upward  and  forward  pitch  with  the 
hand  and  arm,  and  at  same  time  com- 
municating to  it  a  whirling  motion  so 
as  to  make  it  cut  into  the  ground. 
The  side  which  has  the  quoit  nearest 
the  hob  counts  a  point  towards  game, 
or  if  the  quoit  is  thrown  over  the  hob, 
it  counts  two. 

Qnorra,  a  name  given  to  the  loweP 
portion  of  the  Niger   (q.  v.). 

Quorum,  a  term  used  in  commis* 
sions,  of  which  the  origin  is  the  Latin 
expression,  "  quorum  unum  A.  B.  esse 
volumus,"  "  of  whom  we  will  that  A. 
B.  be  one,"  signifying  originally,  cer- 
tain individuals,  without  whom  the 
others  could  not  proceed  in  the  busi- 
ness. In  legislative  and  similar  as- 
semblies a  quorum  is  such  a  number 
of  members  as  is  competent  to  trans- 
act business. 

Quo  Warranto,  in  law,  a  writ  is- 
suing against  any  person  or  corpora- 
tion that  usurps  any  oflBce  or  fran- 
chise, to  inquire  by  what  authority  he 
or  it  supports  his  or  its  claim,  ia 
order  to  determine  the  right. 


r,  the  18th  letter  and  the 
14th  consonant  of  the  Eng- 
lish language,  is  classed  aa 
a  semi-vowel  and  a  liquid. 
It  is  also  called  a  trill.  By 
the  Romans  r  was  called  the  "  dog's 
letter,"  from  its  sound  resembling  the 
snarling  of  dogs.  The  three  R's,  a  hu- 
morous and  familiar  designation  for 
the  three  elementary  subjects  of  edu- 
cation: reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic. 

Ba  (more  properly  Re),  the  name 
of  the  god  of  the  sun  among  the  an- 
cient Egyptians.  He  is  represented, 
like  Horus,  with  the  head  of  a  hawk, 
and  bearing  the  disk  of  the  sun  on 
his  head. 

Rabbi,  in  Jewish  history  and  liter- 
ature, rabbi  is  the  noun  Rab  with 
the  pronominal  suffix,  and  in  Biblical 
flebrew  =  great  man,  distinguished  for 
age,  rank,  office,  or  skill,  where,  how- 
ever, it  only  occurs  without  the  suf- 
fix. In  ordinary  language  it  is  the 
designation  of  a  minister  of  religion 
of  the  Jewish  faith. 

Rabbinic  Hebretr,  that  form  of 
Hebrew  in  which  the  Jewish  scholars 
and  theologians  of  the  Middle  Ages 
composed  their  works.  Grammatically 
it  differs  but  little  from  the  ancient 
Hebrew,  but  in  many  cases  new  mean- 
ings are  attached  to  Hebrew  words 
already  in  use,  in  other  cases  new 
derivatives  are  formed  from  old  He- 
brew roots,  and  many  words  are  bor- 
rowed from  the  Arabic.  The  rabbin- 
ical literature  is  rich  and  well  repays 
study. 

Rabbit,  a  well-known  burrowing 
rodent,  of  the  family  Leoporidae,  to 
which  also  belong  the  hares.  The  rab- 
bit is  smaller  than  the  hare,  with 
shorter  ears  and  hind  legs. 


Rabelais,  Francois,  a  distinguish* 
ed  French  scholar,  satirist  and  humor- 
ist ;  born  about  1490 ;  died  1553.  First 
a  monk,  he  afterwards  studied  and 
practiced  medicine  and  law,  but  became 
better  known  by  his  prolific  literary 
activity  of  which  the  satirico-social- 
political  creations,  "Gargantua,"  "Pan- 
tagruel,"  "  Panurge,"  and  "  Friar 
John,"  are  monuments  to  his  fame. 

Raccoon,  or  Racoon,  a  handsome 
animal,  about  the  size  of  a  large  cat, 
brown  furry  hair,  tail  bushy  and 
ringed;  body  large  and  unwieldy,  legs 
short,  feet  with  strong  fossorial  claws. 
It  is  omnivorous  and  ranges  over  a 
large  part  of  North  America,  where 


BACCOON  :  PBOCYON  LOTOB. 

it  is  hunted  for  its  fur.  The  crab- 
eating  raccoon  of  South  America, 
ranging  as  far  N.  as  Panama,  dif- 
fers chiefly  from  the  former  in  the 
shortness  of  its  fur,  and  consequent 
slender  shape. 

Race,  a  class  of  individuals  sprang 
from  a  common  stock ;  the  descendants 
collectively  of  a  common  ancestor;  a 
family,  tribe,  nation,  or  people  be- 
longing, or  supposed  to  belong,  to  the 
same  stock. 

The  human  family,  according  to 
Blumenbach,  comprises  five  distinct 
races  of  men,  viz. :  The  Caucasian,  or 
white   race,   inhabiting    Southwestern 


Race  Knowledge 


RaclforJI 


Asia,  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  and 
spread  into  other  quarters  of  the 
world;  the  Ethiopian,  black  or  negro 
race,  originating  in  Africa ;  the  Mon- 
golian, or  yellow  race  of  Northern 
and  Eastern  Asia ;  the  Malayan  or 
brown  race  of  the  East  Indies  and 
Australasia ;  and  the  Indian  or  red 
race  of  the  American  continent. 

Race  Kno-wrledge,  a  term  used  by 
Prof.  Patton  of  Princeton  University 
to  designate  the  general  knowledge  of 
a  subject,  useful  to  the  whole  human 
race,  as  distinguished  from  the  de- 
tailed and  specialized  knowledge  re- 
quired by  experts  and  scientists. 

Race  Snicide,  the  avoidance  of 
the  duties  of  motherhood. 

Bacliel,  the  second  daughter  of 
Laban,  the  dearly  beloved  of  Jacob, 
who,  to  obtain  her,  devoted  seven 
years  to  the  flocks  and  herds  of  her 
father.  But,  at  the  end  of  that  period, 
he  found  in  his  veiled  bride  not  Rachel 
but  Leah,  the  elder  sister,  whom  he 
did  not  love,  and  was  obliged  to  labor 
during  seven  more  years  in  order  to 
gain  her.  She  was  the  mother  of 
Joseph   and   Benjamin. 

Rachel,  Eliza  Rachel  Felix,  a 
French  actress ;  born  in  Muraph, 
Switzerland,  Feb.  28,  1820;  was  the 
daughter  of  a  Hebrew  pedlar;  re- 
vived the  classic  school  of  tragedy; 
gained  her  crowning  triumph  in  1843, 
in  her  representation  of  "  Phedre." 
In  1855  she  made  a  visit  to  the 
United  States.   She  died  Jan.  3,  1858. 

Racine,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Racine  county.  Wis.;  on 
Lake  Michigan  and  the  Chicago  & 
Northwestern  and  other  railroads; 
25  miles  S.  of  Milwaukee;  has  a 
large  commerce  in  coal  and  lumber; 
manufactures  farm  implements,  iron 
castings,  lumber,  woolen  goods,  ma- 
chinery, wagons,  shoes,  and  soap; 
and  contains  Racine  College,  Racine 
Academy,  St.  Catherine's  Academy, 
Taylor  Orphan  Asylum,  and  St. 
Luke's  Hospital.    Pop.  (1910)  38,002. 

Racine,  Jean,  an  eminent  French 
dramatic  poet;  born  in  La  Ferte 
Milon,  France,  Dec.  22,  1639;  com- 
menced his  poetical  career  in  16()0. 
In  1688  appeared  his  "Andromaque," 
which  placed  him  far  above  all  his 
contemporaries  except  Corneille.  After 
a  lapse  of  12  years  he  wrote,  by  desire 


of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame  de  Main- 
tenon,  the  sacred  dramas  of  "  Esther  " 
and  "  Athalie,"  which  were  performed 
by  the  young  ladies  of  the  institution 
of  St.  Cyr.     He  died  April  21,  1698. 

Rack,  an  apparatus  for  the  judicial 
torture  of  criminals  or  suspected  per- 
sons. It  consisted  of  a  lar^e,  open, 
wooden  frame,  within  which  the  offend- 
er was  laid  on  his  back  on  the  floor, 
with  his  wrists  and  ankles  fastened  by 
cords  to  two  rollers  at  the  ends  of  the 
frame.  These  rollers  were  then  drawn 
or  moved  in  opposite  directions  till  the 
body  rose  to  a  level  with  the  frame, 
and  the  bones  of  the  sufferer  were 
forced  from  their  sockets.  The  rack 
was  formerly  used  in  Europe  in  the 
cases  of  traitors  or  conspirators,  and 
by  the  ofiicers  of  Inquisition  to  force 
a  recantation  of  heretical  or  so-called 
heretical  opinions. 

Rackets,  a  game  played  in  a  pre- 
pared court,  open  or  close,  with  a 
small,  hard  ball  and  a  racket  or  bat 
like  that  used  for  playing  tennis. 

Radcliffe  College,  an  educational 
non-sectarian  institution  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  for  women ;  founded 
1879. 

Radetzky,  Josepk  Wenceslans, 
Count,  a  famous  Austrian  soldier; 
born  at  Trebnitz,  in  Bohemia,  in  1766. 
Commencing  his  career  in  a  Hungar- 
ian regiment  of  horse  in  1784,  he 
fought  in  most  of  the  campaigns  in 
which  Austria  was  engaged  from  that 
date  up  to  the  nme  of  his  death.  Hia 
most  signal  services  were  in  Italy, 
whither  he  was  called  by  the  commo- 
tions following  the  French  revolution 
of  1830.  The  victory  at  Novara,  Mar. 
23,  1849,  resulted  in  Austrian  suprem- 
acy, and  Radetzky.  field-marshal  since 
1836,  was  appointed  Govei*nor-General 
of  Lombardy  and  Venetia. 

Radford,  William,  an  American 
naval  officer;  born  in  Fincastle,  Va., 
March  1,  1808;  entered  the  navy  in 
March,  1825 ;  served  in  the  war  with 
Mexico,  and  conducted  the  party  which 
in  1847  cut  out  the  "  Malokadel,"  a 
Mexican  war  vessel,  at  Mazatlan. 
When  the  Civil  War  broke  out  he  was 
assigned  to  the  "  Cumberland  " ;  was 
promoted  captain  in  July,  1862,  and 
commodore  in  April,  1863.  During  the 
assault  on  Fort  Fisher,  in  December, 
1864,  he  commanded  the  "New  Iron- 


Radiant 


Baffle 


Bides "  and  the  ironclad  portion  of 
Porter's  fleet.  Radford  was  promoted 
to  rear-admiral  in  July.  18G6,  and  was 
retired  on  Iklarch  1,  1870.  He  died 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  8,  1890. 

Radiant,  in  botany,  diverging  from 
a  common  center,  like  rays.  In  heraldry 
an  epithet  applied  to  any  ordinary  or 
charge,  when  it  is  represented  edged 
with  rays  or  beams ;  rayonnant ; 
rayonnee.  In  astronomy,  the  point  in 
the  heavens  from  which  a  star  shower 
seems  to  proceed.  In  geometry,  a 
straight  line  proceeding  from  a  given 
point  or  fixed  pole,  about  which  it  is 
conceived  to  revolve.  In  optics,  the 
luminous-  body  or  point  from  which 
rays  of  light  falling  on  a  lens  or  mir- 
ror diverge. 

Radiation,  in  physics,  the  trans- 
mission of  heat,  light,  or  actinic  power 
(hence  known  as  forms  of  "radiant 
energy ")  from  one  body  to  another 
without  raising  the  temperature  of 
the  intervening  medium.  It  takes  place 
in  all  directions  around  a  body.  In  a 
homosreneous  medium  it  takes  place  in 
straight  lines. 

Radical,  in  chemistry,  a  group  of 
elements  common  to  a  more  or  less 
numerous  series  of  allied  compounds, 
and  unaffected  by  the  processes  where- 
by these  compounds  are  transformed 
one  into  another. 

Radical,  a  political  term,  applied 
in  the  past  to  Republican  extremists. 
Extreme  English  Liberals. 

Radiobes.     See  Bubke,  J.  B.  B. 

Radiograpli,  a  picture  of  an  ob- 
ject or  objects  obtained  by  means  of 
the  Roentgen  rays  instead  of  light 
rays;  called  also  skiagraph. 

Radiometer,  an  instrument  that  is 
used  for  taking  the  altitudes  of  the 
celestial  bodies.  Also  an  instrument 
invented  by  Crookes  for  measuring  the 
mechanical  effect  of  radiant  energy. 

Radium,  a  metallic  element  ob- 
tained like  uranium,  from  pitch-blende 
or  uraninite,  a  pitchy,  greenish-black, 
lead  oxide  of  uranium,  usually  found 
with  silver  and  lead  ores.  Radium  is 
produced  chiefly  as  a  chloride  or  brom- 
ide, and  was  discovered  by  M.  and 
Mme.  Curie,  and  M.  Bemont,  in  1888. 
Its  radioactivity  or  phosphorescent 
property  of  emitting  rays  capable  of 
traversing  bodies  opaque   to   ordinary 


light,  and  of  affecting  photographic 
plates,  similar  to  the  Roentgen  rays 
(q.  v.),  is  forty  times  that  of  uranium, 
and  its  discovery  and  peculiar  charac- 
teristics have  given  rise  to  many 
interesting  physical  speculations.  The 
speed  of  the  minute  corpuscles  thrown 
off  is  estimated  at  120,000  miles  a 
second,  while  its  temperature  and  radi- 
ations were  thought  to  undergo  no 
chemical  change  or  decrease  of  power, 
suggesting  the  possibility  that  nature 
here  provided  an  element  which  gives 
light  without  heat  and  combustion. 
According  to  Prof.  Rutherford,  of 
Montreal  University,  however,  radium 
is  formed  probably  by  the  decomposi- 
tion of  uranium,  and  changes  spontan- 
eously into  the  gas  helium,  helium 
itself  being  the  decomposition  of  ra- 
dium, and  subject  to  further  decompo- 
sition, each  change  corresponding  to 
the  production  of  a  new  element.  The 
preparation  of  radium  is  very  costly, 
entailing  the  use  of  enormous  quanti- 
ties of  pitchblende  ;  one  pound  of  ra- 
dium is  valued  at  $3,000,000. 

Radins,  in  anatomy,  the  outer  of 
the  two  bones  of  the  forearm.  In 
botany,  and  plural  form,  the  peduncles 
supporting  the  partial  umbels  in  an 
umbellifer.  In  fortification,  a  lino 
drawn  from  the  center  of  the  polygon 
to  the  end  of  the  outer  side.  In  geome- 
try, the  distance  from  the  center  of  a 
circle  to  any  point  of  the  circum- 
ference. 

Raff,  Joachim,  a  German  com- 
poser ;  born  in  Lachen,  on  Lake 
Zurich,  May  27,  1822.  From  1850  to 
1856  he  lived  near  Liszt  in  Weimar, 
then  taught  music  at  Wiesbaden  till 
1877;  and  from  that  year  till  his 
death,  June  24,  1882,  he  was  director 
of  the  musical  conservatory  at  Frank- 
fort-on-Main.  He  published  more 
than  200  musical  productions,  includ- 
ing symphonies,  overtures,  concertos 
for  violin,  'cello,  and  piano,  operas, 
quartettes,  a  great  variety  of  pieces 
for  piano  and  violin,  and  for  piano 
alone. 

Raffle,  formerly  a  game  of  dice; 
one  with  three  dice  in  which  he*  who 
threw  all  alike  won  the  stakes.  Now 
a  chance  or  lottery  in  which  some  ar- 
ticle is  put  up  by  the  owner  to  be 
drawn  or  thrown  for  by  several  per- 
sons who  subscribe  a  small  sum  each, 
he  who  draws  or  throws  the  winning 


Rafinesqne 


Bailroad 


number  to  become  possessor  of  the 
article.  The  money  subscribed  goes 
to  the  original  owner  of  the  article. 

Hafinesque,  Constantine  Sam- 
uel, an  American  botanist ;  born  in 
Galatz,  Turkey,  in  1784.  He  set- 
tled permanently  in  the  United  States 
in  1815,  and  was  made  Professor  of 
Botany  in  Transylvania  University, 
Lexington,  Ky.,  in  1818.  Later,  after 
lecturing  in  various  places,  he  removed 
to  Philadelphia.  His  publications  in- 
clude "  Ancient  History,  or  Annals 
of  Kentucky,"  "  Medical  Flora,  etc., 
of  the  United  States,"  etc.  He  died 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  18,  1842. 

Ragatz,  a  town  of  Switzerlan(?, 
canton  of  St.  Gall,  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  Tamina  with  the 
Rhine,  1,700  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
connected  by  railway  with  Zurich  and 
Coire.  It  is  much  resorted  to  both  for 
its  beautiful  scenery  and  its  mineral 
waters.  Pipes  are  laid  from  Pftlffers, 
a  mountain  village  at  an  altitude  of 
2,696  feet,  2*/^  miles  higher  up,  by 
which  the  water  is  brought  down  from 
the  hot  springs  there  to  a  spacious 
bathing  establishment.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  water  is  97°-100°,  and  it 
is  impregnated  with  carbonate  of  lime, 
magnesia,  and  salt.  The  permanent 
population  is  only  about  2,000,  but 
there  is  a  large  number  of  visitors,  for 
the  accommodation  of  whom  large 
hotels,  restaurants,  etc.,  have  been 
provided.  There  is  also  a  bathing  es- 
tablishment near  the  springs,  erected 
in  1704. 

Rags,  though  valueless  for  most 
purposes,  are  yet  of  great  importance 
in  the  arts,  particularly  in  paper  mak- 
ing. Besides  the  rags  collected  in 
the  United  States,  the  article  is  im- 
ported in  large  quantities  from  various 
foreign  countries.  Woolen  rags,  not 
being  available  for  paper,  are  much 
used  for  manure ;  but  those  of  a  loose 
texture,  and  not  too  much  worn,  are 
unraveled  by  means  of  machinery,  and 
mixed  up  with  good  wool,  to  form 
what  is  known  as  "  shoddy,"  with 
which  cheap  woolen  goods  are  made ; 
while  the  refuse  is  pulverized  and 
dyed  various  colors,  to  form  the  flock 
used  by  paper  stainers  for  their  flock- 
papers. 

Raiatea,  one  of  the  Society  Islands 
In  Southeastern  Polynesia;   area,   75 


square  miles ;  pop.  1,400,  who  have 
been  converted  to  Christianity  by  Eng- 
lish missionaries,  and  are  governed  by 
their  own  chiefs. 

Rail,  the  common  name  of  a  family 
of  grallatorial  birds  comprehending 
the  rails  proper,  the  coots,  water-hens, 
and  crakes.  They  are  characterized  by 
possessing  a  long  bill,  which  is  more 
or  less  curved  at  the  tip  and  com- 
pressed at  the  sides,  by  having  the 
nostrils  in  a  membranous  groove,  the 
wings    of    moderate    length,    the    tail 


"WATER    RAIL. 

short,  the  legs  and  toes  long  and  slMid 
er,  the  hind  toe  placed  on  a  level  with 
the  others.  Most  of  the  members  of 
the  family  are  aquatic,  or  frequent 
marshes ;  but  some,  as  the  crakes, 
frequent  dry  situations.  The  Vir- 
ginian rail  of  the  United  States  is 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  water  rail 
of  Europe;  and  the  great-breasted  rail 
or  freshwater  marsh  hen  is  about  20 
inches  long,  and  inhabits  the  marshes 
of  the  Southern  States  of  the  United 
States.  The  land  rail,  so  named,  is 
the  corn  crake. 

Railroad  (the  usual  form  in  the 
United  States),  or  Railway  (the  Eu- 
ropean form),  a  road  or  way  provided 
with  rails  of  iron  or  steel,  on  which 
the  wheels  of  the  cars  run  in  order  to 
lessen  the  friction.  The  "  rails  "  were 
originally  of  timber,  laid  straight  and 
parallel  on  transverse  sleepers,  and 
secured  with  pegs  of  wood,  the  sleep- 
ers being  imbedded  in  the  material  of 
the  roadway ;  the  wheels  had  flanges 
on  •ne  side  of  the  periphery  to  con- 
fine them  to  the  track.  The  roadway 
was  scantling,  five  by  seven,  pegged 
down  to  oak  sleepers,  four  by  eight, 
six  feet  long,  and  laid  two  and  a 
half  feet  apart.     The  track  for  the 


Kailroad 


Railroad  Systems 


horses  was  filled  in  with  ashes  above 
the  sleepers.  Such  roads  were  first 
laid  near  Newcastle,  England,  in 
1602.  About  1716  the  wooden  ways 
were  capped  with  thin  plates  of  malle- 
able iron,  having  flanges  along  one 
side.  Cast-iron  bars  were  substituted 
in  1767.  The  modern  railway  con- 
sists of  one  or  more  series  of  iron  or 
steel  rails,  laid  parallel  and  continu- 
ously at  a  certain  distance  or  width 
from  each  other,  called  the  gauge.  One 
pair  of  parallel  rails  constitutes  a 
single  track  of  railway,  two  pairs  a 
double  track,  and  so  on.  Railway 
development  in  the  United  States  has 
had  to  adapt  itself  to  the  needs  of  a 
new  and  rapidly  growing  country,  a 
large  part  of  which  was  first  made 
available  for  settlement  by  railways. 
Three  locomotives  were  imported  from 
England  in  1829,  and  the  first  trial 


1852,  2,170  in  1853,  3,442  miles  in 
1854.  The  Civil  War  checked  railway 
construction,  only  3,257  miles  being 
opened  during  the  five  years  ending 
with  1865,  when  the  aggregate  amount- 
ed to  32,996  miles.  Between  1865 
and  1873,  the  mileage  increased  more 
than  100  per  cent,  including  one  road 
in  operation  and  a  second  line  in 
progress  of  construction  to  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  greatest  increase  of  this 
period  was  in  the  Western  and  South- 
western States,  in  which  fully  25,000 
miles  of  trackage  were  made  ready  for 
traflic.  At  the  close  of  1873  the  total 
capital  invested  in  railroads  of  the 
United  States  aggregated  $3,784,543,- 
034,  of  which  $1,836,904,450  repre- 
sented the  bonded  indebtedness.  The 
depression  which  followed  the  panic 
of  that  year  continued  till  1879.  In 
the  latter  year  the  construction  again 


MODERN  AMERICAN  LOCOMOTIVE. 


in  America  took  place  Aug.  8.  1829, 
at  Honesdale,  Pa.  The  first  railway 
constructed  to  be  worked  by  loco- 
motives was  the  South  Carolina  rail- 
road (1826-1830),  though  trials  of 
an  experimental  locomotive  had  been 
made  before  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  railroad,  which  continued  to  be 
worked  by  horsepower  till  1832.  The 
mileage  of  railway  construction  about 
kept  pace  with  that  of  Great  Britain 
till  1850;  at  the  beginning  of  1885 
it  amounted  to  125,379  miles.  The 
mileage  completed  amounted  to  40 
miles  at  the  end  of  1830,  to  3,361 
miles  in  1841,  and  to  5,206  miles  in 
1847,  of  which  1,350  miles  had  been 
opened  within  six  years.  Then  there 
was  a  sudden  and  great  increase,  the 
yearly  additions  for  seven  years  being 
1,056  miles  in  1848,  1.048  in  1849, 
a,261  in  1850,  1,274  in  1851,  2,288  in 


increased  100  per  cent.,  and  between 
1874  and  1888  there  were  built  85,- 
814  miles  of  new  railroad.  Since  the 
revival  of  railroad  construction  in 
1879  there  have  been  completed  suf- 
ficient trackage  to  give  a  total  length 
of  over  3.33,775  miIo3,  This  does  not 
include  the  elevate!  steam  and  elec- 
tric railroads  in  the  i^rttious  large  cities 
of  the  U.  S.    See  Electric  Traction. 

Railroad  Systems.  The  process 
of  absorption  of  smaller  concerns  by 
large  corporations  is  fully  as  marked 
among  the  railroads  as  it  is  among  the 
great  manufacturing  industries.  The 
growth  in  mileage  of  the  largest  roads 
is  truly  phenomenal,  and  the  United 
States  alone  in  North  America  with 
186,245  miles  of  railroads  in  1898, 
surpassed  in  total  mileage,  that  of 
all  the  systems  of  Europe,  which  at 


Raimondi 

that  time  amounted  to  107,510  miles. 
The  largest  aggregation  controlled  by 
any  one  company  is  that  of  the  New 
York  Central  railroad,  which  totals 
10,410  miles ;  making  a  very  close  sec- 
ond is  the  Pennsylvania  system  with 
10,392  miles,  while  the  great  Canadian 
Pacific  Overland  route  and  connections 
total  10,018  miles.  Another  trans- 
continental line  of  almost  equal  size 
is  the  Southern  Pacific,  which  owns 
and  controls  9,441  miles.  There  are 
four  companies  controlling  from  7,000 
to  9,000  miles;  seven  companies  con- 


EARLT   LOCOMOTIVE. 

trolling  from  5,000  to  7,000  miles; 
three  companies  from  3,000  to  5,000 
miles ;  and  nine  companies  controlling 
from  2,000  to  3,000  miles  of  track,  the 
total  mileage  controlled  by  28  com- 
panies being  nearly  150,000  miles.  Of 
the  five  great  transcontinental  com- 
panies the  Canadian  Pacific  and  the 
Southern  Pacific,  with  over  10,000  and 
9,000  miles  respectively,  are  by  far  the 
largest.  The  Atchison,  Topeka,  and 
Santa  Fe  comes  next  with  7,880  miles, 
followed  by  the  Union  Pacific  with 
5,584,  the  Northern  Pacific  with  5,449 
and  the  Great  Northern  with  5,201 
miles    of   track. 

Raimondi,  Marcantonio,  an  Ital- 
ian engraver;  born  in  Bologna,  Italy, 
late  in  the  15th  century.  He  copied 
on  copper  two  sets  of  plates  from 
Albrecht  Durer's  designs  for  the 
"  Life  of  the  Virgin  "  and  the  "  Pas- 
sion of  Christ."  At  Rome,  where  he 
worked  from  1510,  he  was  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  engraving  Raphael's  works. 
On  account  of  the  power  of  his  draw- 
ing and  the  purity  of  his  expression, 
he  is  accounted  the  best  among  the 
engravers  of  the  great  painter.  The 
capture  of  Rome  by  the  Constable 
Bourbon  in  1527  drove  Marcantonio 


Rain  Making 

back  to  Bologna,  where  be  probably 
remained  till  he  died,  some  time  before 
1534. 

Rain,  in  meteorology,  the  fall  of 
water  in  drops  from  the  clouds,  or  the 
drops  which  fall.  A  cloud  consists  of 
aqueous  vapor,  the  individual  vesicles 
of  which  are  very  small.  When  by  the 
constant  condensation  of  fresh  aque- 
ous vanor  these  vesicles  become  large 
and  heavy,  and  several  of  them  unite, 
they  are  unable  to  resist  the  action  of 
gravity  and  fall  as  rain. 

Raiubo-w.  The  rainbow  is  the  best 
known  of  all  optical  meteorological 
phenomena,  consisting  of  a  colored 
arch  formed  opposite  the  sun  on  fall- 
ing raindrops,  and  visible  whenever 
the  necessary  conditions  of  a  passing 
shower  on  one  side  and  a  clear  and 
not  too  high  sun  on  the  other  occur. 
Two  bows  are  frequently  seen,  each 
exhibiting  the  full  spectrum  of  colors 
from  red  to  violet ;  but  in  the  inner  or 
primary  bow  the  red  is  the  outer  edge 
and  violet  the  inner,  while  in  the  outer 
or  secondary  bow  the  order  is  re- 
versed ;  the  red  being  inside  and  the 
violet  on  the  exterior.  The  colors  are 
always  arranged  in  a  definite  order, 
that  of  the  solar  spectrum  —  viz.,  red, 
orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo,  and 
violet,  but  shade  imperceptibly  into 
each  other. 

Rain  Gauge,  an  instrument  or  con- 
trivance for  measuring  the  amount 
of  rain  which  falls  on  a  given  surface. 

Rainier,  Mcnnt,  a  mountain  of ' 
volcanic  origin,  the  highest  in  the 
State  of  Washington,  14,363  feet  high. 
It  is  a  part  of  the  coast  range  near 
Puget  Sound,  E.  of  Tacoma,  and  is 
sometimes  called  by  the  name  of  the 
city.  The  first  ascent  was  made  in  1870. 
Rain  Making.  Various  attempts 
have  been  made  in  sections  of  many 
countries  subject  to  long  periods  of 
drought  to  produce  artificial  rain,  or 
more  properly  to  force  the  fall  of  rain 
out  of  its  due  season.  The  great  majority 
of  experiments  have  been  conducted  on 
the  theory  of  concussion  from  ex- 
plosions. In  1891,  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  made  an  appropriation 
for  a  series  of  experiments  in  Texas, 
with  the  view  of  ascertaining  whether 
means  could  be  provided  for  relieving 
the  arid  territory  of  the  Western  and 
Southwestern     States.       The     experi- 


Bainsford 

ments  were  conducted  by  General 
Dryenforth  for  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  were  watched  with 
much  interest  by  both  scientists  and 
agriculturists.  Scientists  generally 
pronounced  the  experiment  a  failure. 


RAIN    GAUGES. 

Bainsford,  'William  Stephen, 

an  American  clergyman ;  born  in  Dub- 
lin, Ireland,  Oct.  30,  1850;  was  grad- 
uated at  St.  John's  College,  England ; 
made  missionary  tours  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada ;  was  assistant  rec- 
tor of  St.  James  Cathedral,  in  To- 
ronto, and  rector  of  St.  George's 
Church.  New  York  city,  in  1883- 
1905.  Dr.  Rainsford  became  widely 
known  by  his  earnest  advocacy  of  what 
has  become  popularly  known  as  the 
"institutional  church."  He  has  done 
much  to  supply  wholesome  recreation 
for   the  young  of   both  sexes  in   the 


Baleigh 

parish  of  his  church.  After  twenty- 
three  years'  service,  ill-health  com- 
pelled him  to  resign  Jan.  7,  1906. 

Bain  Tree,  a  leguminous  tree  of 
tropical  America,  now  largely  planted 
in  India  for  the  shade  it  furnishes, 
and  because  it  flourishes  in  barren 
salt-impregnated  soils. 

Bainy  Lake,  a  sheet  of  water  form- 
ing a  portion  of  the  boundary  line 
between  Ontario  and  the  United 
States,  W.  of,  and  100  miles  distant 
from  the  nearest  point,  of  Lake  Su- 
perior, and  about  50  miles  long. 

Baisins,  grapes  dried  in  the  sun. 
Inferior  qualities  are  dried  in  an  oven. 
Raisins  are  extensively  produced  in 
California.  They  are  slightly  refrig- 
erant. In  the  United  States  they  are 
used  to  sweeten  preparations,  in  India 
they  are  given  as  a  medicine. 

Bajah,  originally,  a  title  which  be- 
longed to  princes  of  Hindu  race  who, 
either  as  independent  sovereigns  or  as 
feudatories,  governed  a  territory. 

Bakoczy  Marcli,  a  simple  but 
grand  military  air  by  an  unknown 
composer,  dating  from  the  end  of  the 
17th  century,  said  to  have  been  the 
favorite  march  of  Francis  Rakoczy  II. 
of  Transylvania.  The  Hungarians 
adopted  it  as  their  national  march, 
and  in  1848  it  is  alleged  to  have 
had  the  same  inspiriting  effect  on  the 
revolutionary  troops  of  Hungary  as 
the  "  Marseillaise  "  had  on  the  French. 
Bale,  or  Basle,  Sebastien,  a  Jes- 
uit missionary  in  North  America ;  born 
in  1657;  shot  in  1724.  He  is  remem- 
bered by  his  dictionary  of  the  Abenalii 
language,  and  by  his  connection  with 
Dummer's  War  (q.  v.). 

Baleigh,  a  city,  capital  of  the 
State  of  North  Carolina,  and  county- 
seat  of  Wake  Co. ;  on  the  Southern  and 
Seaboard  Air  Line ;  28  miles  S.  E.  of 
Durham.  Here  are  the  State  Capitol, 
United  States  Government  Building, 
State  Penitentiary,  State  Institution 
for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  and  the  Blind, 
etc.    Pop.  (1910)  19,218. 

Baleigh,  Sir  "Walter,  an  English 
soldier,  colonist,  and  philosopher ;  born 
in  Budleigh,  Devonshire,  England,  in 
1552.  He  entered  into  the  troop  of 
gentlemen  volunteers  who  went  to  the 
assistance  of  the  Protestants  in 
France,  where  he  continued  about  five 
or  six  years.     He  subsequently  joined 


Ralpli 

the  expedition  of  General  Norris  to  the 
Netherlands,  in  aid  of  the  cause  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange.  Soon  after  his  re- 
turn he  engaged  with  his  half-brother, 
Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  in  a  voy- 
age to  America,  whence  they  returned 
in  1579.  On  his  return  to  England  he 
introduced  himself  to  the  notice  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  by  a  romantic  piece 
of  gallantry.  Her  majesty,  while  tak- 
ing a  walk,  stopped  at  a  muddy  place, 
hesitating  whether  to  proceed  or  not; 
on  which  Raleigh  took  off  his  new 
plush  cloak  and  spread  it  on  the 
ground.  The  queen  trod  gently  over 
the  foot-cloth,  and  soon  rewarded  the 
sacrifice  of  a  cloak  with  a  handsome 
suit  to  the  owner.  Having  obtained 
from  Elizabeth  an  ample  patent  over 
an  extensive  region,  he  sent  forth  two 
ships,  under  Captains  Amadas  and 
Barlow,  which  reached  the  shores  of 
North  Carolina  in  July,  1584,  and  pro- 
ceeded N.  to  Virginia.  The  name  last 
mentioned  was  given  to  the  new  coun- 
try in  honor  of  the  "  Virgin  Queen." 
Raleigh's  patent  was  confirmed  by  Act 
of  Parliament.  He  was  elected  along 
with  Sir  William  Courtenay,  for  his 
native  shire. 

A  joint-stock  company  was  formed 
by  Sanderson,  a  merchant  of  London, 
Raleigh  and  Sir  Adrian  Gilbert,  an- 
other of  his  half-brothers,  to  find  the 
Northwest  Passage.  The  voyages  of 
Davis  to  the  Arctic  Seas  were  made 
under  their  auspices.  But  Raleigh  and 
his  partners  sent  a  fleet  to  Virginia, 
under  his  relative.  Sir  Richard  Gren- 
ville.  A  party  of  intending  colonists, 
with  Ralph  Lane  at  their  head,  were 
landed  at  Roanoke.  Raleigh  himself 
never  vis' ted  his  settlement  in  Vir- 
ginia, but  he  sent  thither,  in  1587,  a 
fresh  party  of  settlers,  who  founded 
the  city  of  Raleigh,  now  capital  of 
North  Carolina. 

In  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Ar- 
mada, in  1588,  Sir  Walter  bore  a 
glorious  part.  In  1591  he  sailed  on  an 
expedition  against  the  Spanish  fleet. 
About  the  same  time  he  incurred  the 
queen's  displeasure  by  an  intrigue 
with  one  of  her  maids  of  honor,  whom 
be  afterward  married.  In  1595  he 
sailed  to  Guiana,  and  destroyed  the 
capital  of  Trinidad.  The  year  follow- 
ing he  took  a  distinguished  part  in 
the  taking  of  Cadiz.  In  the  succeeding 
reign,  his  fortunes  changed.    He  was 


Rameses 

stripped  of  his  preferments,  tried,  and 
condemned  for  high  treason,  without 
the  least  evidence.  He  remained  ia 
the  Tower  of  London  13  years,  during 
which  time  he  wrote  several  works. 
His  release  in  1G15,  was  occasioned 
because  of  the  flattering  account  he 
had  given  of  some  rich  mines  in 
Guiana.  On  gaining  his  liberty,  he 
sailed  to  that  country  where  he  burned 
the  Spanish  town  of  St.  Thomas,  and 
returned  to  England.  In  consequence 
of  a  complaint  of  the  Spanish  am- 
bassador, he  was  apprehended,  and,  in 
a  most  unprecedented  manner,  be- 
headed, on  his  former  sentence.  He 
died  in  London,  England,  Oct.  29, 
1G17. 

Ralpb,    Jnlian,    journalist;    born 
in    New    York,    May   27,    1853;    died-- 
1903.     He    was    connected    with    the 
New    York    "  Sun,"    the    New    York 
"  Journal,"  and  London  "  Daily  Mail." 

Ram,  in  machinery,  the  weight  of  a 
pile  or  post  driver.  In  nautical  lan- 
guage:  (1)  A  beak  of  iron  or  steel 
at  the  bow  of  a  war- vessel.  (2)  A 
steam  ironclad,  armed  at  the  bow  be- 
low the  water-line  with  such  a  beak.     , 

Ramadan,  the  ninth  month  in  the. 
Mohammedan  year.  In  it  Mohammed 
received  his  first  revelation,  and  every 
believer  is  therefore  enjoined  to  keep 
a  strict  fast  throughout  its  entire 
course,  from  the  dawn  to  sunset.  Dur- 
ing the  night,  however,  the  most  neces- 
sary wants  may  be  satisfied  —  a  per- 
mission which,  practically,  is  inter- 
preted by  a  profuse  indulgence  in  all 
sorts  of  enjoyments. 

Ramayana,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
two  great  epic  poems  of  ancient  India. 

Rameses,  or  Ramses,  the  name  of ' 
several  Egyptian  monarchs,  some  of 
whom  were  known  to  the  Greek  and 
Roman  writers  and  the  chronologists ; 
the  name  signifies  "  bom  of  the  sun," 
or  the  "  nascent  sun."  The  exploits  of 
Rameses  are  confounded  by  the  Greek 
and  Roman  authors  with  those  of 
Sesostris,  and  mingled  in  the  legend  of 
Aramais,  the  Danaus  of  the  Greeks. 
He  is  the  supposed  Sesostris  of  most 
authors,  and  his  sarcophagus  and 
mummy  were  found  in  Egypt  in  1890. 
Rameses  III.  was  the  chief  of  the  20th 
dynasty.  He  founded  the  magnificent 
pile  of  edifices  of  Medinat  Habu,  em- 
bellished  Luxor,    Gurnab,    and    otbeo 


Ramil 

parts  of  Egypt.  In  1889  the  sarcoph- 
agus and  mummies  of  himself  and 
his  queen  were  discovered  in  Egypt  in 
a  marvelous  state  of  preservation. 
Rameses  IV.  reigned  a  short  time  and 
performed  no  distinguished  actions. 
Rameses  V.,  of  whom  inscriptions  are 
found  in  Silsilis.  Rameses  VI.,  whose 
tomb  at  the  Biban-El-Meluk  contains 
some  astronomical  records,  from  which 
the  date  of  his  reign  has  been  calculat- 
ed at  1240  B.  c.  Rameses  VIL,  VIII., 
IX.,  X.,  and  XI.,  undistinguished 
monarchs.  Rameses  XII.,  who  reigned 
above  33  years.  Rameses  XIII.  was  an 
important  monarch.  Rameses  is  also 
the  name  of  one  of  the  fortresses  or 
treasure  cities  built  by  the  Hebrews 
during  their  residence  in  Egypt. 

Bamil,  a  plant  producing  what  is 
popularly  known  as  China  grass. 
China  has  been  making  ramil  fabrics 
since  the  time  of  Confucius,  and  the 
ancient  Romans  wore  robes  woven  of 
its  silky  floss.  The  plant  does  well  in 
the  S.  part  of  the  United  States  and  a 
finer  fiber  can  be  grown  there  than  in 
the  tropics.  In  such  a  climate  the 
fiber  is  long,  silky  and  brilliant,  and 
textiles  made  from  it  are  stronger 
than  linen  and  have  the  luster  of  silk. 

Ramirez,  Ignacio,  a  Mexican 
philosopher;  born  in  San  Miguel  el 
Grande,  June  23,  1818.  He  was  of 
pure  Aztec  blood.  He  died  in  Mexi- 
co, June  15,  1879. 

Rampart,  in  fortification,  an  eleva- 
tion or  mound  of  earth  round  a  place, 
capable  of  resisting  cannon  shot,  and 
on  which  the  parapet  is  raised. 

Rampolla,  Mariano  del  Tin- 
daro,  an  Italian  clergyman ;  born  in 
Polizzi,  Sicily,  Aug.  17,  1843.  On 
the  decease  of  Cardinal  Jacobini,  the 
Papal  Secretary  of  State,  in  1887, 
Pope  Leo  XIII.  created  Rampolla  a 
cardinal  and  also  appointed  him  Pa- 
pal Secretary  of  State.  His  principal 
object  was  a  political  alliance  with 
France.  The  Dreyfus  affair,  having 
given  to  the  French  policy  a  different 
turn,  destroyed  entirely  th^  plan  he 
had  so  laboriously  set  to  work.  Ram- 
polla was  several  times  considered  a 
prominent  candidate  for  the  papal 
ofiice,  but  sacrificed  his  prospects  by 
resigning  in  1903. 

Ramsay,  Allan,  a  Scotch  poet; 
born  in  Leadhills,  Lanarkshire,  Scot- 


Bamsey 

land,  Oct.  15,  1686.  His  fame  reach- 
ed its  acme  on  the  production  of  "  The 
Gentle  Shepherd."  He  died  in  Edin- 
burgh, Jan.  7,  1758. 

Ramsay,  David,  an  American  phy- 
sician and  historian ;  born  in  Lancas- 
ter Co.,  Pa.,  April  2,  1749;  died  in 
Charleston,  S.  C,  May  8,  1815. 

RauLsay,  Francis  Mnnroe,  an 
American  naval  officer ;  born  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  April  5,  1835 ;  appointed 
a  midshipman,  Oct.  5,  1850;  served 
through  the  Civil  War  with  much 
credit ;  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1894 ; 
and  was  retired  on  reaching  the  age 
limit,  April  5,  1897,  after  having  held 
several  important  appointments. 

Ramsay,  Sir  William,  a  distin- 
guished scientist ;  born  in  Glasgow, 
Scotland,  Oct.  2,  1852.  He  graduated 
from  the  universities  in  Glasgow  and 
Tiibingen,  and  after  college  appoint- 
ments in  Glasgow  and  Bristol,  became 
professor  of  chemistry  at  University 
College,  London.  With  Lord  Rayleigh, 
he  discovered  Argon,  and  his  discover- 
ies of  helium,  its  disintegration  from 
radium  (q.  v.),  also  of  the  atmospheric 
gases  neon,  krypton,  and  xenon,  and 
his  numerous  scientific  publications, 
have  placed  him  in  the  foremost  rank 
of  chemists.  Knighted  in  1902,  and  is 
an  honorary  member  of  the  principal 
scientific  institutions  in  the  world. 

Ramsden,  Jesse,  an  English  math- 
ematical instrument-maker;  born  in 
Salterhebble,  near  Halifax,  Yorkshire, 
England  in  1735.  About  1755  he 
moved  to  London,  where  his  skill  as 
an  engraver,  recommended  him  to  the 
mathematical  instrument-makers.  He 
so  improved  the  sextant  that  its  range 
of  error  was  diminished  from  5  min- 
utes to  30  seconds.  He  died  in  Brighton, 
England,  Nov.  5,  1800. 

Ramsey,  Alexander,  an  American 
statesman ;  born  near  Harrisburg, 
Pa.,  Sept.  8,  1815.  He  studied  law 
and  began  practice  at  Harrisburg  in 
1839.  After  filling  several  public  of- 
fices he  was  a  member  of  Congress  in 
184.3-1847 ;  appointed  governor  of  the 
Territory  of  Minnesota  in  1849  and 
1859;  Secretary  of  War  in  1879.  A 
member  of  the  Utah  Commission  in 
1881.     Died  1903. 

Ramsey,  Maratlion  Montrose, 
an  American  educator;  born  in  New- 
ton, Mass.,  in  1867;  was  graduated  at 


XSanavalona 


Randal) 


Columbia  University  in  1894.  He 
was  the  principal  translator  for  the 
International  American  Conference 
in  1889-1890,  and  served  as  a  special 
clerk  for  the  collection  and  classifica- 
tion of  information  on  foreign  mili- 
tary subjects  in  1890-1894.  In  the 
latter  year  he  accepted  the  chair  of 
Romance  Languages  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. He  was  director  of  the  Co- 
lumbian Summer  School  in  1898- 
1900. 

Banavalona  III.,  a  former  Queen 
of  Madagascar ;  born  in  1861.  She 
succeeded  Queen  Ranavalona  II.  in 
1883,  having  been  nominated  by  her  as 
the  future  queen.  She  married  the 
prime  minister,  Rainilaiarivony  (de- 
posed in  1895  and  deceased  in  189G) 
soon  after  ascending  the  throne.  She 
was  crowned  in  November.  1883.  Her 
kingdom  and  capital  were  taken  by 
the  French  in  1895,  and  the  country 
was  made  a  French  colony.  She  is 
not  permitted  to  live  in  Madagascar, 
being  kept  in  exile  under  surveillance. 

Ranee,  Armand  Jean  le  Bontli- 
illier  de,  the  founder  of  the  re- 
formed order  of  La  Trappe;  born  in 
Paris,  France,  Jan.  9,  1626.  Resid- 
ing at  Paris,  he  gave  himself  up  to  a 
life  of  dissipation.  In  1657,  however, 
a  marked  change  took  place  in  his 
character.  He  demitted  all  his  bene- 
fices except  the  priory  of  Boulogne 
and  the  abbey  of  La  Trappe.  Retir- 
ing to  the  latter  place  in  1664,  he  be- 
gan those  reforms  which  have  render- 
ed his  name  famous.  He  died  in  So- 
ligny-la-Trappe,  Orne,  France,  Oct. 
12,  1700. 

RancUng,  the  business  of  cattle- 
breeding  as  pursued  on  a  large  scale 
in  the  unsettled  districts  of  the  United 
States  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Pa-  1 
cific  coasts,  and  from  the  Bad  Lands  j 
of  the  Upper  Missouri  to  the  Gulf  of  [ 
Mexico.    The  name    is  derived    from 
the  Spanish  rancho,  properly  "  mess  •'*  i 
or  "  mess  room,"  but  used  in  Mexico ! 
also  for  a  herdsman's  hut,  and  finalljl 
for  a  grazing  farm.  1 

Rand,  Edward  Ang^nsins,  an 
Episcopal  clergyman  and  writer  of  ju- 
venile books;  born  in  Portsmouth,  N. 
H.,  April  5,  1837;  was  graduated  at 
Bangor  Theological  Seminary,  and  en- 
tered the  Episcopal  ministry.  He 
wrote  "  Pushing  Ahead  "  ;  '*  Two  Col- 
lege Boys  " ;  etc 


Rand,  The,  or  Wbite  Waters 
Range,  a  small  tract  of  land,  extend- 
ing 25  miles  either  side  of  Johannes- 
burg, South  Africa,  and  famous  foi 
its  mineral  wealth.  The  reefs  are  ac- 
cessible and  rather  easily  worked.  The 
deposits  are  unique  in  their  unparal* 
leled  persistence  of  ore,  which  is  in- 
terspersed in  the  quartz  and  sand- 
stone. It  is  not  of  very  high  quality, 
yielding  about  $10  per  ton.  Since  ltd 
discovery  in  1885,  the  Rand  has  yield- 
ed $400,000,000  in  gold,  and  prior  to 
the  Boer  War  was  yielding  at  the  rate 
of  $100,000,000  a  year,  or  one-third  o£ 
the  world's  production.  Since  the  war, 
the  output  is  gradually  rising  to  its 
former  average. 

Randall,  Alexander  WilliaxnSj 
an  American  statesman ;  born  in 
Ames,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  31,  1819;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  and  began  practice 
in  Waukesha,  Wis,,  in  1840;  became 
postmaster  there,  and  in  1847  wa3 
elected  to  the  convention  that  framed 
the  State  constitution.  He  was  elect- 
ed to  the  State  Assembly  in  1855; 
governor  of  Wisconsin  in  1857  and  in 
1859,  and  was  appointed  United 
States  Minister  to  Italy  in  1861.  On 
his  return  he  was  made  assistant  post- 
master-general. He  died  in  Elmira, 
N.  Y.,  July  25,  1872. 

Randall,  Emilins  Oviatt,  an 
American  author ;  born  in  Richfield, 
O.,  Oct.  28,  1850;  was  graduated  at 
Cornell  University  in  1874 ;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1890  and  accepted 
the  chair  of  law  at  the  Ohio  State 
University  in  1893 ;  became  secretary 
of  the  Ohio  State  Archaeological  and 
Historical  Society  in  1894,  and  of- 
ficial reporter  of  the  Ohio  Supreme 
Court  in  1895. 

Randall,  George  M.,  an  Ameri- 
can military  ofiicer ;  born  in  Ohio, 
Oct.  8,  1841.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy, 
and  commissioned  2d  lieutenant  in  the 
4th  Infantry  in  1861 ;  served  through 
the  Civil  War.  In  the  war  with 
Spain  he  was  commissioned  a  Briga- 
dier-General of  volunteers.  May  4, 
1898;  was  honorably  discharged  under 
this  commission  on  April  12,  1898; 
was  reappointed  Brigadier-General, 
Jan.  20,  1900;  and  on  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  regular  army  in  February, 
1901,  was  promoted  Brigadier-Gen- 
eral. U.  S.  A. 


Randall 

Randall,    James    Ryder,    an 

American  journalist  and  composer ; 
bom  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Jan.  1,  1839; 
was  educated  at  Georgetown  College, 
D.  C.  He  gave  powerful  aid  to  the 
Southern  cause  by  his  lyrics.  These 
include,  besides  "  Maryland,  My 
Maryland,"  "  Stonewall  Jackson " ; 
"  There's  Life  in  the  Old  Land  Yet " ; 
etc.  After  1866  he  lived  in  Augusta, 
an.     Died  Jan.  15,   1908. 

Randall,  Samuel  Jackson,  an 
American  statesman ;  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  Oct.  10,  1828.  In  1862 
he  was  elected  to  Congress,  serving 
continuously  till  his  death.  He  was 
Speaker  of  the  House,  1876-1881.  Died 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  April  12,  1890. 

Randolph,  Alfred  Mag^U,  an 
American  clergyman ;  born  in  Win- 
chester, Va.j  Aug.  31,  1836;  was  grad- 
uated at  William  and  Mary  College  in 
1855  and  at  the  Virginia  Theological 
Seminary  in  1858 ;  was  ordained  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  He 
was  a  chaplain  in  the  Confederate 
army  in  1863-1865,  and  was  pastor 
of  Emmanuel  Church,  Baltimore,  Md., 
in  1867-1883.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  jelected  assistant  bishop  of  Vir- 
ginia? 

Randolph,  Edmnnd  Jennings, 
an  American  statesman ;  born  in 
Williamsburg,  Va.,  Aug.  10,  1753 ; 
studied  at  William  and  Mary  College, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1776 
he  helped  to  frame  the  constitution  of 
Virginia,  and  became  the  State's  first 
attorney-general.  In  1786-1788  he 
was  governor  of  Virginia,  and  in  1787 
a  member  of  the  convention  which 
framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  In  1789  he  was  appointed  by 
Washington  Attorney-General  of  the 
United  States.  In  1794  he  was  made 
Secretary  of  State.  Died  in  Clarke  co., 
Va.,  Sept.  13,  1813. 

Randolph,  John,  "of  Roanoke," 
an  American  statesman ;  born  in  Caw- 
Bons,  Chesterfield  co.,  Va.,  June  2, 
1773.  He  claimed  descent  from  Po- 
cahontas, the  Indian  princess.  He 
was  educated  for  the  legal  profession, 
which,  however,  he  never  followed,  de- 
voting his  attention  to  politics.  In 
1799,  he  was  elected  to  Congress.  His 
opposition  to  the  War  of  1812  caused 
his  defeat  in  the  following  election ; 
but  he  was  reelected  to  Congress  in 
1814,  where  he  remained  for  several 


Ranlce 

years.  From  1825  to  1827  he  was  a 
United  States  Senator.  In  1829  he  was 
a  member  of  the  convention  for  revis- 
ing the  constitution  of  Virginia,  and 
the  year  following  was  appointed  Unit- 
ed States  minister  to  Russia.  On  his 
return,  he  was  again  elected  to  Con- 
gress, but  was  unable  to  occupy  his 
seat.  He  was  preeminent  for  his 
poetic  eloquence,  his  absolute  honesty, 
and  the  scathing  wit,  with  which  he 
exposed  every  corrupt  scheme.  He 
died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  on  June 
24,  1833. 

Randolph-Macon  College,  an 
educational  institution  in  Ashland, 
Va. ;  founded  in  1830,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South. 

Range,  in  gunnery,  the  horizontal 
distance  to  which  a  shot  or  other  pro- 
jectile is  carried.  When  a  cannon  lies 
horizontally  it  is  called  the  point-blank 
range ;  when  the  muzzle  is  elevated  to 
45  degrees  it  is  called  the  utmost 
range.  To  this  may  be  added  the 
ricochet,  the  skipping  or  bounding 
shot,  with  the  piece  elevated  from 
three  to  six  degrees. 

Rangoon,  the  capital  of  Lower 
Burma,  and  the  chief  seaport  of  Bur- 
ma, at  the  junction  of  the  Pegu, 
Hlaing  or  Rangoon,  and  Pu-zun- 
doung  rivers ;  about  21  miles  from  the 
sea.  Since  its  occupancy  by  the  Brit- 
ish in  1852  Rangoon  has  undergone 
such  changes  that  it  is  practically  a 
new  town,  and  its  population  has  in- 
creased five-fold.  The  principal  streets 
are  broad,  and  contain  many  large  and 
not  a  few  handsome  buildings ;  there  is 
a  government  dockyard,  and  steam  cars 
have  been  introduced.    Pop.  180,324. 

Ranjit  Singh.  See  RUNJEET 
Singh. 

Rank,  in  the  army  and  navy,  a 
grade  of  various  officers  established  by 
law,  each  one  carrying  distinct  rights, 
privileges,   and  emoluments. 

Ranke,  Leopold  von,  a  German 
historian ;  born  in  Wiehe,  between 
Gotha  and  Halle,  Dec.  21,  1795.  The 
works,  "  A  History  of  the  Roman  and 
German  People  from  1494  to  1535," 
and  "  A  Criticism  on  Modern  His- 
torians," procured  him  a'call  to  Berlin 
as  Professor  of  History  in  1825.  In 
1827  he  was  sent  by  the  Prussian  gov- 
ernment to  consult  the  archives  o£ 
Vienna,  Venice,  Rome,  and  Florence; 


RanMn 

four  j'ears  he  spent  in  this  work,  and 
returned  with  a  mass  of  the  most  val- 
uable historical  materials.  The  re- 
sults of  his  labors  were  seen  in  "  The 
Princes  and  Peoples  of  Southern  Eu- 
rope in  the  IGth  and  17th  Centuries," 
and  other  books  dealing  with  Servia, 
Turkey,  and  Venice;  and  "The  Po- 
man  Popes  in  the  10th  and  17th  Cen- 
turies," one  of  his  great  masterpieces 
of  historical  writing.  Then  he  tr.rned 
his  attention  to  Central  and  Northern 
Europe.  He  began  his  "  Universal 
History  "  when  he  was  an  old  man  of 
82 ;  he  kept  two  schooled  historical  as- 
sistants busy,  studied  critically  the 
Greek  and  other  sources,  dictated  and 
worked  8  to  10  hours  a  day,  and  pub- 
lished one  volume  a  year  regularly, 
till  he  died.  May  23,  1886.  Ranke 
married  an  Irish  lady  in  1843,  and 
was  ennobled  in  1865. 

Rankin,  Jeremiali  Eames,  an 
American  clergyman  and  writer ;  born 
in  Thornton,  N.  H.,  Jan.  2,  1828 ;  was 
graduated  at  Middlebury  College,  Vt., 
in  1848 ;  became  president  of  Howard 
University  in  1889.  He  wrote  several 
hymns, inchulin^  "For  God  and  Home 
and  Native  land."     He  died  in  1904. 

Banney,  William,  an  American 
artist ;  born  in  Middletown,  Conn., 
May  9,  1813 ;  learned  drawing  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  between  Texas  and  Mexico  he 
enlisted  with  the  Texans.  He  died  in 
West  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  Nov.  18,  1857. 

Ransom,  Thomas  Edx^ard 
Greenfield,  an  American  military 
officer ;  born  in  Norwich,  Vt.,  Nov.  29, 
1834.  Before  the  Civil  War  he  was 
an  engineer  in  Illinois ;  became  a  lieu- 
tenant-colonel of  volunteers  in  July, 
1861 ;  was  promoted  Brigadier-Gener- 
al in  January,  1863;  joined  Sher- 
man's army  and  took  command  of  a 
division  just  before  the  capture  of 
Atlanta.  Sept.  2,  1864.  He  died  in 
Rome,  Ga.,  Oct.  29,  1864. 

Ranunculns,  buttercup,  crowfoot ; 
the  typical  genus  of  the  order  Ranuu- 
culacea?.  Known  species  about  160, 
from  temperate  regions.  Many  have 
much  divided  leaves. 

Rape,  in  law,  carnal  knowledge  of 
a  woman  by  force  against  her  will. 

Rape,  a  plant  of  the  cabbage  tribe, 
cultivated  for  its  seeds,  from  which  oil 
is  extracted.    The  oil  cake  made  from 


Rapbael 

rape  seed  is  also  used  as  food  for 
sheep  and  cattle,  and  as  a  fertilizer. 
Raphael,  RafPaello  Sanzio,  or 
Saiiti  d'Urbijio,  the  greatest  of 
rao^'orn  painters;  bom  in  Urbiuo.  Ita- 
ly, March  28,  1483.  He  received  his 
o:nliest  instructions  from  his  father, 
Giovanni  Santi,  after  whoso  death,  in  ' 
1494,  he  became  the  pupil  of  I'eru- 
gino.  In  1504  he  visited  Florence,  and 
lived  there  till  1508,  when  he  was 
called  to  Rome  by  Pope  Julius  II.,  and 
employed  to  paint  the  chambers  of 
the  Vatican.     Raphael  spent  the  rest 


RAiNLl^C^JLT;S. 

of  his  short  life  at  Rome.  In  the  nu- 
merous works,  frescoes,  and  oil  paint- 
ings of  this  unrivaled  master,  three 
styles  are  distinctly  recognizable.  The 
first  is  the  ''  Peruginesque,"  the  second 
"  Florentine,"  and  the  third  style 
"  Roman,"  and  is  peculiarly  Raph- 
ael's own  —  that  which  constitutes 
him  the  greatest  of  painters.  Its  su- 
preme excellence  is  the  equable  devel- 
opment of  all  the  essential  qualities 
of  art,  composition,  expression,  design, 
coloring.  Among  Raphael's  oil  paint- 
ings are  the  "  St.  Cecilia,"  at  Bo- 
logna ;  the  famous  "  Madonna  di  San 
Sisto,"  now  in  the  Dresden  gallery ; 
the  "  Spasimo  di  Sicilia,"  now  -^t  Mad- 
rid ;  and  the  "  Transfiguration,"  his 
last  work.     It  is  now  in  the  Vatican. 


Bapiep 


Rasbi 


His  drawings  are  very  numerous,  and 
are  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  public 
and  private  museums  of  America  and 
Europe.  Raphael,  who  had  occupied 
himself  with  architecture  as  well  as 
painting,  was  charged,  on  the  death  of 
his  friend  Bramante,  in  1514,  with  the 
direction  of  the  building  of  St.  Peter's. 
Raphael  died  in  Rome  from  the  effects 
of  a  cold,  and  after  an  illness  of  a 
fortnight,  on  his  37th  birthday,  April 
6,  1520. 

Rapier,  a  light,  highly-tempered, 
edgeless,  and  finely-pointed  weapon  of 
the  sword  kind  used  for  thrusting.  It 
is  about  three  feet  in  length. 

Rapp,  George,  a  German-Ameri- 
can socialist,  founder  of  the  sect  of 
Economites ;  born  in  Wurtemberg,  in 
1770.  After  an  attempt  to  restore  the 
Church  of  New  Testament  days  in 
Germany,  he  emigrated  with  his  fol- 
lowers to  Western  Pennsylvania  in 
1803.  There  he  established  a  settle- 
ment which  he  named  Harmony.  In 
1815  the  community  removed  to  Indi- 
ana, and  founded  New  Harmony;  but 
this  was  sold  in  1824  to  Robert  Owen, 
and  Rapp  and  his  followers  returned 
to  Pennsylvania,  where  they  built 
Economy.  As  the  years  passed  the 
community  became  wealthy.  Its  num- 
bers have  not  increased,  and  in  1890 
did  not  exceed  70.  He  died  in  Econ- 
omy, Pa.,  Aug.  17,  1847. 

Rapp,  Jean,  Count,  a  French 
military  officer;  born  in  Colmar, 
Haut-Rhin,  France,  April  27,  1772. 
He  was  intended  for  the  Church,  but 
his  taste  for  a  military  life  led  him 
to  enroll  himself  (1788)  in  the  French 
army.  He  became  aide-de-camp  to 
Napoleon.  Captured  by  the  Russians 
at  Danzig,  he  was  sent  as  prisoner  to 
Russia,  and  he  did  not  return  to 
France  till  July,  1814,  where  he  was 
well  received  by  Louis  XVIII. ;  but  in 
1815  he  went  over  to  his  old  master, 
and  was  appointed  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine.  After 
Waterloo,  Rapp  again  submitted  to 
Louis.    He  died  in  Paris,  Nov.  8,  1821. 

Rappahannock,  a  river  of  Vir- 
ginia, rising  in  the  Blue  Ridge  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains,  receiving  the 
Rapidan,  and  flowing  about  125  miles 
S.  E.  to  Chesapeake  Bay.  It  is  tidal 
and  navigable  to  Fredericksburg.  The 
Rappahannock  and  the  Rapidan  were 
the  scenes  of  some  of  the  most  san- 

E.  123. 


guinary  battles  of  the  Civil  War,  at 
Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville,  and 
the  Wilderness. 

Rarefaction,  in  physics,  the  act 
of  rendering  more  rare,  i.  e.,  less 
dense.  Used  specially  of  the  diminu- 
tion in  the  density  of  the  air  in  the 
receiver  of  an  air  pump,  or  a"'  "Treat 
altitudes. 

Rarey,  John  S.,  an  American  horse 
tamer ;  born  in  Franklin  co.,  O.,  in 
1828.  At  an  early  age  he  evinced 
natural  ability  in  the  management  of 
horses.  In  1856  he  went  to  Texas, 
and  on  his  return  to  Ohio  he  began 
to  give  public  exhibitions  of  his  skill, 
subduing  the  most  vicious  and  wildest 


KASPBEKRY. 

horses  and  making  them  obedient  to  his 
will.  About  1861  he  visited  Europe. 
He  died  in  Cleveland,  O.,  Oct.  4,  1866. 

Raritan,  a  river  of  New  Jersey, 
formed  by  two  branches  which  united- 
ly flow  S.  E.,  and  fall  into  Raritan 
Bay  near  Perth  Amboy.  It  is  naviga- 
ble as  far  as  New  Brunswick. 

Rashi,  from  the  initials  of  Rabbi 
Shelomo  Izaaki,  the  greatest  Jewish 
commentator  and  exegete ;  bom  in 
Troyes,  France,  about  1040.  His  chief 
work  is  his  "  Commentary "  on  the 
whole  of  the  Old  Testament.  This 
"  Commentary "  was  the  first  book 
ever  printed  in  Hebrew.  He  was  the 
author  of  numerous  other  works.  He 
died  July  13,  1105. 


Raskolniki 

Raskolniki,  the  collective  name 
given  to  the  adherents  of  the  dissenting 
sects  in  Russia,  which  have  originat- 
ed by  secession  from  the  State  Church. 
The  great  majority  of  these  sects  date 
originally  from  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century,  when  the  liturgical  books, 
etc.,  were  revised  under  the  patriarch 
Nikon.  The  Raskolniki  clung  to  the 
old  texts.  Their  numbers  are  vari- 
ously estimated  at  from  3,000,000  to 
11,000,000. 

Rasp,  a  coarse  file  having,  instead 
of  chisel-cut  teeth,  its  surface  dotted 
with  separate  protruding  teeth,  formed 
by  the  indentations  of  a  pointed  punch. 

Raspail,  Francois  Vincent,  a 
French  chemist ;  born  in  Carpentras, 
France,  Jan.  29,  1794.  He  is  by  some 
considered  the  creator  of  organic  chem- 
istry.    He  died  Jan.  8,  1878. 

Raspberry,  a  shrubby  plant  with 
many  suckers.  Found  in  America  and 
in  the  N.  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The 
species  in  gardens  is  the  wild  plant, 
greatly  improved  by  cultivation.  The 
fruit  resembles  the  strawberry  in  not 
becoming  acid  in  the  stomach.  There 
are  red  and  yellow  varieties. 

Rasse,  a  carnivorous  quadruped, 
closely  allied  to  the  civet,  spread  over 
a  great  extent  of  Asia.  Its  perfume, 
which  is  secreted  in  a  double  pouch, 
is  much  valued  by  the  Javanese.  For 
its  sake  the  animal  is  often  kept  in 
captivity. 


BLACK   BATS. 

Rassienr,  I^eo,  an  American  law- 
yer ;  born  in  Wadern,  Prussia,  April 
19,  1844;  came  to  the  United  States 
in  early  childhood.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  volunteered  as  a 
private  in  the  Union  army,  rising  to 
the  rank  of  major  in  1865.     He  was  i 


Rationalism 

admitted  to  the  St.  Louis  bar  in  1867 ; 
was  elected  judge  of  the  Probate  Court 
on  Jan.  1,  1899.  He  was  elected 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Grand  Ar- 
my of  the  Republic,  Aug.  20,  1900. 

Rat,  in  zoology,  a  name  popularly 
applied  to  the  larger  murines,  but 
more  strictly  applicable  to  two  species, 
the  black  rat  and  the  brown,  or  Nor- 
way rat.  Figuratively:  (1)  One  who 
deserts  his  party  (especially  in  poli- 
tics), as  rats  are  said  to  forsake  a 
falling  house  or  a  doomed  ship.  (2) 
A  workman  who  takes  work  for  less 
than  current  wages,  or  who  takes 
work  in  place  of  a  striker. 

Rata,  a  New  Zealand  tree  related 
to  various  species  of  iron  wood.  The 
tree  begins  life  as  a  climber,  attached 
to  other  forest  trees,  and  attains  a 
height  of  150  feet;  but  when  it  has 
killed  the  supporting  stem  the  rata 
is  able  to  sustain  its  own  weight  and 
to  grow  on  as  an  independent  tree,  at- 
taining ultimately  a  height  of  nearly 
200  feet. 

Ratafia,  a  fine  spirituous  liquor 
flavored  with  the  kernels  of  several 
kinds  of  fruits,  particularly  of  cher- 
ries, apricots,  peaches,  and  almonds. 

Ratel,  a  carnivorous  quadruped  of 
the  badger  family,  found  chiefly  in 
South  and  East  Africa,  and  in  India. 
It  is  said  to  live  principally  on  honey. 
The  Indian  ratel,  however,  eats  also 
rats,  birds,  frogs,  white  ants,  and 
various  insects ;  and  in  the  N.  of  In- 
dia, where  it  is  accused  of  digging  out 
dead  bodies,  it  is  popularly  known  aa 
the  grave-digger. 

Ratification,  in  law,  the  confirma- 
tion, sanction  or  approval  given  by  a 
person  who  has  arrived  at  his  major- 
ity to  acts  done  by  him  during  his 
minority.  It  also  means  any  act,  pub- 
lic or  private,  which  confirms  or  es- 
tablishes a  proposed  transaction,  in- 
complete until  ratified. 

Ratio,  in  mathematics:  The  meas- 
ure of  the  relation  which  one  quantity 
bears  to  another  of  the  same  kind. 

Rationalism,  as  a  "system  of  be- 
lief regulated  by  reason,"  might  be  ex- 
pected to  mean  the  opposite  of  irra- 
tionality, ignorance,  and  perverse  prej- 
udice. But  in  ordinary  usage,  general 
as  well  as  theological,  the  use  of  the 
word  is  substantially  different.  It  is 
generally  employed  as  a  term  of  re- 


Sat  Snake 


Raven 


proach  for  those  who,  without  utterly 
denying  or  attempting  to  overthrow 
the  foundations  of  religion,  make  such 
concessions  as  tend  to  subvert  the 
faith.  They  rely,  more  or  less  exclu- 
sively and  blameworthily,  on  mere 
human  reason  instead  of  simply, 
frankly,  and  fully  accepting  the  dicta 
of  the  divine  word.  An  atheist  would 
not  be  spoken  of  as  a  rationalist,  nor 
would  an  irreligious,  blaspheming 
freethinker. 

Rat  Snake,  a  powerful  snake,  at- 
taining a  length  of  seven  feet  and 
upward.  Common  in  India  and  Cey- 
lon. It  frequently  enters  houses  in 
search  of  mice,  rats,  and  young  fowls. 
It  is  fierce,  and  always  ready  to  bite 
when  annoyed. 

Rattan,  the  commercial  name  for 
the  Sv-em  of  various  species  of  the  ge- 
nus Calamus.  They  abound  in  South- 
ern Asia  in  moist  situations,  and  are 
used  for  making  splints  for  chair  seats 
and  backs,  hanks  for  sails,  etc.  The 
larger  species  grow  to  a  size  of  three 
inches  diameter,  and  to  a  height  of 
100  feet. 


RATTLESNAKE. 

Rattlesnake,  the  English  name  for ', 
any  species  of  the  American  genus 
Crotalus,  the  tail  of  which  is  fur- 
nished with  a  rattle.  Garman  enu-] 
merates  12  species  and  13  varieties. 
The  poison  of  the  rattlesnake  is  usu- 
ally fatal  to  man,  though  fortunately 
they  are  sluggish,  and  never  attempt 
to  strike  unless  they  are  molested. 
They  are  widely  distributed  on  the 
American  continent ;  but  advancing 
civilization  is  rapidly  thinning  their 
numbers. 

Rattlesnake  Root,  an  American 
plant  used  to  cure  the  bite  of  the 
rattlesnake. 


Rauhes  Hans  ("the  Rough 
House"),  the  name  of  an  institution 
founded  at  Horn,  near  Hamburg,  in 
connection  with  the  German  Home 
Mission.  It  is  partly  a  refuge  for 
neglected  children ;  partly  a  boarding 
school  for  the  moral  and  intellectual 
education  of  children  of  the  higher 
classes ;  and,  a  training  school  for 
those  who  wish  to  become  teachers  or 
officials  in  houses  of  correction.  It 
was  opened  Nov.  1,  1831.  By  the  ad- 
dition of  new  houses  the  whole  has 
been  very  much  enlarged.  The  children 
live  in  families  of  12.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  Rauhes  Haus  there  was 
founded  in  1845  a  kind  of  conventual 
institute  for  the  education  of  young 
men  as  superintendents  of  similar  in- 
stitutions. 

Raum,  Green  Berry,  an  American 
lawyer ;  born  in  Golconda,  111.,  Dec. 
3,  1829;  studied  law,  and  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  (1853).  Three  years 
later  he  took  his  family  to  Kansas. 
When  the  war  broke  out  he  enlisted, 
and  was  appointed  major  in  the  5Gth 
Illinois  regiment,  and  when  he  finally 
resigned  his  commission  he  had  risen 
from  major  to  Brigadier-General.  In 
1866  he  was  elected  to  Congress ;  was 
Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue  iu 
1876-1883;  and  commissioner  of 
Pensions  in  1889-1893.   Died  in  1909. 

Raumer,  Friedrick  Iiudwig 
Qeorg  -von,  a  German  historian ;  born 
in  Worlitz,  near  Dessau,  Anhalt,  May 
14,  1781.  He  studied  law  at  Halle 
and  Gottingen,  and  entered  the  Prus- 
sian state  service  in  1801.  In  the 
years  1830-1843  he  made  extensive 
journeys,  coming  as  far  as  the  United 
States:  the  observations  made  during 
these  trips  were  written  in  several 
books  dealing  with  the  United  States, 
etc.  He  died  in  Berlin,  Prussia,  June 
14.  1873. 

Ranmer,  Karl  Georg  von,  a 
German  geologist  and  geographer,  a. 
brother  of  the  preceding ;  born  in 
Worlitz,  Germany,  April  9,  1783; 
studied  at  Gottingen  and  Halle,  and 
at  the  Mining  Academy  at  Freiberg; 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Mineralo- 
gy at  Breslau,  in  1811;  in  1827,  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Mineralogy  and 
Natural  History  at  Erlangen,  where 
he  died  June  2,  1865. 

Raven,  a  large  bird  of  the  crow 
family.     The  raven  has  played  an  im« 


Jtavenala 


Ratrlina 


{)ortant  part  in  mythology  and  folk- 
ore.  It  is  the  first  bird  mentioned 
by  name  in  the  Old  Testament;  by 
the  ministry  of  ravens  Elijah  was  fed, 
and  they  were  to  be  the  ministers  of 
vengeance  on  unruly  children.  The 
raven  was  the  bird  of  Odin,  and  in 
classic  mythology  was  of  ill-omen,  a 
character  often  attributed  to  it  by  the 
early  English  dramatists.  Marlowe 
calls  it  the  "  sad  presageful  raven," 
and  Shakespeare  repeatedly  refers  to 
the  belief  that  its  appearance  fore- 
boded misfortune.  This  belief,  which 
is  widespread,  probably  arose  from 
the  pretematurally  grave  manner  of 
the  bird,  its  sable  plumage,  and  the 
readiness  with  which  it  learns  to  imi- 
tate human  speech. 


BAVEN  :   COKVUS  CORAX. 

Ravenna,  a  city  of  Italy,  capital 
of  a  province,  on  the  Montone,  four 
miles  W.  of  the  Adriatic,  and  43  miles 
S.  E.  of  Bologna.  It  is  an  ancient 
city  with  numerous  historical  build- 
ings.    Pop.  89,957. 

Ravenscroft,  Thomas,  an  Eng- 
lish composer ;  born  in  1592.  He  was 
trained  in  St.  Paul's  choir,  London, 
and  received  the  degree  of  bachelor  of 
music  from  Cambridge.  In  1G21  he 
published  his  "Whole  Book  of 
Psalms,"  containing  a  tune  for  each 
of  the  150  psalms,  harmonized  in  four 
parts  by  all  the  great  musicians  of 
the  period.    He  died  in  1640. 

Ravogli,  Ang:nstiis,  an  American 
Burgeon ;  born  in  Rome,  Italy.  Feb. 
7, 1851 ;  was  graduated  at  the  Medical 


Department  of  the  University  of 
Home,  Italy,  in  1873.  and  served  as 
surgeon  in  the  military  hospital  of  the 
Italian  army  for  several  years.  In 
1880  he  came  to  the  United  States  and 
settled  in  Cincinnati,  O. ;  was  after- 
ward made  Professor  of  Dermatology 
and  Syphilography  at  the  Medical  De- 
partment of  the  University  of  Cincin- 
nati. 

Raw,  Charles,  an  American 
archaeologist;  born  in  Vervien,  Belgi- 
um, in  1826;  was  educated  in  Ger- 
many, and  settled  in  the  United  States 
in  1848.  He  was  made  curator  of 
the  Department  of  Antiquities  in  the 
United  States  Museum  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  in  1875.  About  this  time 
he  began  to  devote  himself  to  the  study 
of  American  archaeology,  in  which  he 
became  an  eminent  authority.  He  died 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  25,  1887. 

Rawle,  William  (Brooke),  an 
American  lawyer ;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  Aug.  29,  1843 ;  adopted  for 
his  surname  Brooke-Rawle ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia in  1863,  and  then  joined  the  army 
as  lieutenant-colonel.  After  the  war 
he  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1867. 

Rawle,  William  Henry,  an 
American  lawyer ;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  Aug.  31,  1823 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia in  1841 ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1844  and  attained  eminence  in  prac- 
tice. On  the  first  call  for  volunteers 
in  1861  he  joined  the  artillery  in  the 
Union  army,  and  when  a  similar  call 
was  issued  in  1863  he  served  as  quar- 
termaster. He  was  vice-provost  of  the 
Law  Academy  in  1865-1873,  and  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  Law  Association 
from  1880  till  his  death  in  Philadel- 
phia, April  19,  1899. 

Rawlins,  John  Aaron,  an 
American  military  oflicer ;  born  in  Ga- 
lena, 111.,  Feb.  13,  1831.  Before  the 
Civil  War  he  was  a  lawyer;  adjutant- 
general  of  General  Grant  in  Septem- 
ber, 1861,  and  served  as  such  in  the 
campaigns  of  1862  and  1863 ;  in 
March,  1865,  was  appointed  chief  of 
General  Grant's  staff,  with  the  rank 
of  Brigadier-General  in  the  U.  S.  A. 
He  became  Secretary  of  War  in 
March,  1869.  He  died  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  Sept.  9,  1869. 


TLaxrlins 

Raivlins,  JosepTi  Lafayette,  an 

American  legislator ;  born  in  Salt 
Lake  co.,  Utah,  March  28,  1850;  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Indi- 
ana ;  was  a  Professor  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Deseret  in  Salt  Lake  City  in 
1873-1875 ;  in  the  latter  year  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  and  practised  till 
1892,  when  he  was  elected  a  delegate 
to  Congress.  He  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1897. 

Rawlinson,  George,  an  English 
Orientalist;  born  in  Chadlington,  En- 
gland, Nov.  23,  1812;  educated  at 
Cambridge ;  was  elected  Camden  Pro- 
fessor of  Ancient  History  in  1861,  and 
made  a  canon  of  Canterbury  in  1872. 
He  died  at  Canterbury,  England,  Octo- 
ber G,  1902. 

Rawlinson,  Sir  Henry  Cres- 
-wicke,  an  English  Orientalist  and 
diplomatist ;  born  in  Chadlington,  En- 
gland, April  11,  1810.  In  1833  he 
went  to  Persia.  During  the  six  years 
he  spent  there  he  began  to  study  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions,  and  made  a 
translation  of  Darius'  famous  Behis- 
tun  inscription.  After  he  left  Persia 
he  held  command  of  Kandahar,  1840- 
1842 ;  was  appointed  political  agent 
at  Bagdad  in  1844,  and  consul-general 
there  in  1851.  Five  years  later  he  re- 
turned home  to  England.  In  1858  he 
went  back  to  Persia  as  British  minis- 
ter, but  remained  at  Teheran  only  one 
year.  Died  in  London,  March  5,  1895. 

Rawson,  Edward  Kirk,  an  Amer- 
ican educator ;  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y., 
Feb.  21,  184G ;  was  graduated  at  Yale 
University  in  18(58  and  at  the  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1872 ;  was 
ordained  in  the  Congregational 
Church  and  served  as  a  chaplain  in 
the  United  States  navy  in  1871-1890 ; 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Ethics  and  English  Studies  at 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
1888  and  was  made  superintendent  of 
"  Naval  War  Records,"  March  31, 
1897.  His  publications  include 
"  Twenty  Famous  Naval  Battles,"  etc. 

Ray,  of  a  composite  flower,  the 
outer  or  circumferential  whorl  of  flor- 
ets, as  distinguished  from  those  of 
the  disk.  In  ichthyology,  one  of  the 
radiating,  bony  rods  serving  to  sup- 
port the  fins.  In  optics,  a  line  of 
light  proceeding  from  a  radiant  point, 
or  a  point  of  reflection. 


Raymond 

Ray,  a  family  of  fishes,  including 
the  skate  and  allied  forms.  They  may 
be  divided  into  two  groups :  Rays 
proper,  with  a  short  snout,  and  skates 
(attaining  a  much  larger  size),  with 
a  long,  pointed  snout. 

Ray,  or  Wray,  John,  an  English 
naturalist ;  born  in  Black  Notley^  Es- 
sex, England,  Nov.  29,  1G28.  Ray's 
zoological  works  are  considered  by 
Cuvier  as  the  foundation  of  modern 
zoology.  He  died  in  Black  Notley, 
Jan.  17,  1705. 

Ray,  W.  George,  an  American 
lawyer ;  born  in  Otselic,  N.  Y.,  Feb. 
3,  1844 ;  was  reared  on  a  farm  and 
received  his  education  at  Norwich 
Academy.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
Civil  War  he  entered  the  Union  army 
as  a  private  in  the  19th  New  York 
Volunteers.  After  the  war  he  studied 
law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
November,  18G7 ;  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1883.  He  declined  the  ap- 
pointment of  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  New  York  State  in  1899. 

Rayleigh,  John  Strutt,  3d 
Baron,  an  English  scientist ;  born  in 
Essex,  England,  Nov.  12,  1842 ;  was 
graduated  at  Cambridge,  in  18G5.  Co- 
lumbia College,  New  York,  bestowed 
on  him  the  Barnard  medal  for  "  mer- 
itorious service  to  science "  since  he 
shares  with  Ramsey  the  merit  of  dis- 
covering the  element  argon.  He  wrote 
many  valuable  scientific  papers. 

Raymond,  Bradford  Paul,  an 
American  clergyman ;  born  in  Stam- 
ford, Conn.,  April  22,  1846;  was  edu- 
cated at  Hamline  University,  Minn., 
and  Lawrence  University,  Wis.,  and 
was  graduated  at  the  Theological 
School  of  Boston  University  and  or- 
dained in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  1874.  He  was  president  of 
Lawrence  University  from  1883  to 
1889,  resigning  to  become  president  of 
Wesleyan  University,  5liddletown 
Conn. 

Raymond,  Jerome  Hall,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  Clinton, 
la.,  March  10,  1869 ;  was  graduated 
at  the  Northwestern  University  in 
1892;  president  and  Professor  of 
Economics  and  Sociology  at  the 
West  Virginia  University  in  1897- 
1901;  Associate  Professor  of  Sociol- 
ogy at  University  of  Chicago  till  1909; 
then  president  Toledo  University. 


Raymond 

Raymond,  Henry  Jar-vis,  an 

[American  journalist ;  born  in  Lima, 
N.  Y.,  Jan.  24,  1820;  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Vermont  in  1840 ; 
in  1841  he  became  managing  editor  of 
the  New  York  "Tribune."  In  1849 
he  was  elected  to  the  State  Assembly; 
was  reelected  and  made  speaker,  but 
relinquished  his  position  on  the  "Cou- 
rier," and  traveled  in  Europe  on  ac- 
count of  ill  health.  On  his  return  to 
[New  York,  in  1851,  he  established  the 
(New  I'^ork  "  Times  " ;  was  chosen  lieu- 
tenant-governor of  New  York ;  was 
iBgain  elected  to  the  State  Legislature, 
and,  in  1864,  was  chosen  as  repre- 
sentative from  New  York  to  the  39th 
Congress.  He  died  in  New  York, 
June  18,  1869. 

Raymond,  Joliii  T.,  right  name 
John  O'Brien,  an  American  actor  ;^ 
born  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  April  5,  1830. 
He  was  educated  for  a  mercantile  life, 
but  the  ways  of  business  did  not  suit 
bim.  In  1867  he  went  to  England. 
He  died  in  Evansville,  Ind.,  April  10, 
1887. 

Raymond,  Rossiter  Worthing^ 
'ton,  an  American  metallurgist ;  born 
in  Cincinnati,  O.,  April  27,  1840 ;  was 
graduated  at  the  Brooklyn  Polytech- 
nic Institute  in  1858.  He  practised 
in  New  York  city  as  a  consulting  en- 
gineer in  1864-1868;  lectured  on  eco- 
nomic geology  at  Lafayette  College  in 
1870-1872.  He  was  United  States 
commissioner  to  the  Vienna  Exposition 
in  1873 ;  New  York  State  commis- 
Bioner  of  electric  subways  for  Brook- 
lyn in  1885. 

Raymond,  William  Galt»  an 
^'American  civil  engineer;  born  in 
Princeton,  la.,  March  2,  1859 ;  stud- 
ied at  the  Kansas  State  University  and 
;was  graduated  at  Washington  Uni- 
yersity  in  1884;  was  instructor  of 
civil  engineering  at  the  California 
(State  University  in  1884-1890;  and 
/accepted  the  chair  of  geodesy,  road 
(engineering,  and  topographical  draw- 
ling at  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute in  1892. 

Raynonard,  Francois  J  n  s  t  e 
Marie,  French  poet  and  philologist ; 
born  1761 ;  died  1836.  He  revised  the 
Btudy  of  the  Provencal  language. 

Razorback,  one  of  the  largest  spe- 
jCies  of  the  whale  tribe,  the  great  ror- 
'flual.    Also  a  name  given  to  a  kind 


Bead 

of   hog,  especially   in    the  S.   part   ot 
the  United  States. 

Razorbill,  an  aquatic  bird,  the 
common  auk,  the  sole  species  of  the 
genus,  the  great  auk   being  extinct. 


A    RAZORBILL. 

Razor  Fisb,  a  species  of  fish  with 
a  compressed  body,  much  prized  for  the 
table. 

Razor  Sbell,  a  genus  of  lamelli- 
branchiate  mollusca ;  common  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic.  These  curious, 
mollusks  always  live  buried  in  the 
sand  in  an  upright  position,  leaving 
only  an  opening  shaped  like  a  key- 
hole, which  corresponds  with  the  two 
siphon  tubes.  They  are  generally 
found  at  a  depth  of  one  or  two  feet; 

Rea,  George  Bronson,  an  Amerr 
lean  electrical  engineer;  born  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  28,  1869 ;  went 
to  Cuba,  where  he  practised  his  pro- 
fession till  the  beginning  of  the  revO' 
lution;  accompanied  the  insurgent 
forces  of  Gomez  and  Maceo  as  special 
correspondent  of  the  New  York  "  Her- 
ald." He  was  present  at  the  bom- 
bardment of  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico, 
and  in  the  operations  before  Santiago 
as  correspondent  for  the  New  York 
"World."^  In  the  early  part  of  the 
Porto  Rico  campaign  he  traveled, 
through  the  island  as  an  agent  in  the 
secret  service  of  the  United  Stateis 
government,  and  acquired  information 
of  large  value  to  the  American  mili- 
tary authorities. 

Read,  HoUis,  an  American  clergy- 
man and  author;  bom  in  Newfano, 
Vt.,  Aug.  26,  1802;  was  graduated  at 
Williams  College  in  1826,  and  received 
his  theological  training  at  Princetoa 


Read 


Reader 


Theological  Seminary ;  was  ordained 
in  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  1829, 
and  went  to  Bombay,  India,  in  1830, 
where  he  remained  five  years.  Re- 
turning to  the  United  States  he  held 
various  pastorates  and  engaged  in  oth- 
er religious  work.  His  publications  in- 
clude "  Commerce  and  Christianity  "  ; 
"  India  and  Its  People,  Ancient  and 
Modern  "  ;  etc.  He  died  in  Somerville, 
N.  J.,  April  7,  1887. 

Read,  Jolm  Elliot,  an  American 
author ;  born  in  South  Amherst,  Mass., 
Jan.  4,  1845.  He  has  written  a  val- 
uable work  on  the  principal  earlier 
Arctic  explorations. 

Read,  Jolin  Meredith.,  an  Amer- 
ican jurist ;  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
July  21,  1797;  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1812 ; 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1818.  He  held 
a  seat  in  the  Pennsylvania  Legisla- 
ture in  1822-1823 ;  was  United  States 
attorney  for  the  Eastern  District  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1837-1844;  and 
served  as  chief-justice  and  attorney- 
general  of  Pennsylvania,  and  solicitor- 
general  of  the  United  States  in  18U0- 
1874.  He  affiliated  with  the  Republi- 
can party  when  it  was  formed  and  in 
the  presidential  campaign  of  1856 
made  an  address  on  the  "  Power  of 
Congress  over  Slavery  in  the  Territo- 
ries," which  had  much  influence 
throughout  the  country.  In  1858,  on 
the  first  victory  of  the  Republican  par- 
ty in  Pennsylvania,  he  was  elected 
judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  by  a  ma- 
jority of  30,000.  In  1860  he  was 
mentioned  as  a  candidate  for  the  pres- 
idential nomination  with  Abraham 
Lincoln  for  Vice-President.  He  died 
in  Philadelpha,  Pa.,  Nov.  29,  1874. 

Read,  Jolm  Meredith,  an  Amer- 
ican diplomatist ;  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Feb.  27,  1837;  was  graduated 
at  Brown  University  and  went  through 
a  legal  course  at  the  Albany  Law 
School ;  was  also  a  student  in  a  mil- 
itary school.  When  the  Civil  War 
broke  out  he  enlisted  and  while  in 
service  early  attained  the  rank  of 
Brigadier-General  of  volunteers.  In 
1868  he  was  appointed  United  States 
consul-general  at  Paris.  He  was  Unit- 
ed States  minister  in  Greece  in  1873- 
1880.  He  died  in  Paris,  France,  Dec. 
27,  1896. 

Read,  Nathan,  an  American  in- 
ventor ;  claimed  to  have  been  the  first 


to  use  steam  engines  for  propelling 
boats  and  carriages ;  born  in  Worces- 
ter CO.,  Mass.,  in  1759.  He  entered 
Harvard  College  in  1777 ;  was  gradu- 
ated in  1781 ;  studied  medicine ;  and 
started  the  Salem  iron  factory  in  1796. 
In  1807,  he  removed  to  Belfast,  Me., 
and  took  out  a  patent  for  an  improved 
steam  engine  boiler  in  1791.  He  con- 
verted the  condensing  engine  of  Watt 
into  a  complete  working,  portable, 
high-pressure  engine,  12  years  before 
the  high-pressure  engine  was  known. 
In  17i50  he  petitioned  Congress  for  a 
patent  for  land  carriages  to  be  driven 
by  steam.  It  created  so  much  amuse- 
ment that  he  withdrew  it..  He  built, 
in  1789,  a  small  steamboat,  substan- 
tially identical  with  Fulton's  of  1807. 
It  is  alleged  that  his  combinations 
amounted  to  the  inland  steamers  now 
in  use.  Died  in  Belfast,  Me.,  in  1849. 

Read,  Opie,  an  American  journal- 
ist ;  born  in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Dec.  22, 
1852.  He  established  and  edited  for 
many  years  the  "  Arkansaw  Travel- 
er." His  studies  of  Arkansas  life  have 
been  widely  read. 

Read,  Thomas  Buchanan,  an 
American  portrait  painter  and  poet ; 
born  in  Chester  co.,  Pa.,  March  12, 
1822 ;  died  in  New  York,  May  11,1872. 

Reade,-  Charles,  an  English  novel- 
ist ;  born  in  Ipsden  House,  Oxford- 
shire, England,  June  8,  1814.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1843  he 
was  called  to  the  bar,  and  it  soon 
became  obvious  that  his  chosen  career 
was  that  of  literature.  The  books  by 
which  he  first  became  known  were  his 
"  Peg  Woffington "  and  "  Christie 
Johnstone."  He  died  in  London,  En- 
gland,  April    11,    1884. 

Reade,  John,  an  Irish-Canadian 
clergyman  and  journalist ;  bom  in 
Ballyshannon,  Ireland,  Nov.  13,  1837. 
He  went  to  Canada  in  1856,  where 
he  engaged  in  teaching,  law,  preach- 
ing, and  journalism. 

Reader,  Francis  Smith,  an 
American  journalist ;  born  in  Coal 
Center,  Pa.,  Nov.  17,  1842;  served 
with  the  Union  army  throughout  the 
Civil  War;  was  taken  prisoner,  June 
20,  1864,  while  on  scout  duty,  but 
escaped  with  three  others  while  on  the 
way  to  Andersonville.  Later  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  "  Beaver  Valley 
News." 


Reading 

Reading,  city  and  capital  of 
Berks  county,  Pa.;  on  the  Schuylkill 
river  and  canal  and  the  Philadelphia 
&  Reading  and  other  railroads;  58 
miles  N.  W.  of  Philadelphia;  has  a 
charming  scenic  environment,  with 
fine  mountain  attractions  for  the 
tourist;  is  in  a  rich  grain  growing  and 
iron-ore,  limestone,  and  coal  mining 
region;  has  varied  manufactures, 
with  annual  output  exceeding  $35,- 
000,000  in  value,  and  an  assessed 
property  valuation  of  over  $55,000,- 
000;  and  contains  Mineral  Springs  and 
Penn's  parks,  and  the  Reading,  St. 
Joseph's,  and  Homoeopathic  hospi- 
tals.    Pop.  (1910)  96,071. 

Reagan,    John    Henninger,    an 

American  jurist;  born  in  Sevier  co., 
Tenn.,  Oct.  8,  1818.  At  the  age  of 
21  he  settled  in  Texas;  in  1856  was 
elected  judge  of  the  district  court, 
hut  resigned  to  go  to  Congress;  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  was  Postmaster- 
General  of  the  Confederate  States, 
and  Acting  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, member  of  the  Constitutional 
Convention  of  his  State  in  1875,  and 
of  Congress  in  1875-1887;  United 
States  Senator  in  1887-1891;  and 
afterward  chairman  of  the  Texas 
State  Railroad  Commission.  He 
died  March  6,  1905. 

Reagent,  in  chemistry,  any  sub- 
stance employed  to  bring  about  a 
chemical  reaction  or  change  in  another 
element,  or  compound, 

Realf,  Richard,  an  English-Amer- 
ican poet ;  born  in  Framlield,  Sussex, 
England,  June  14,  1834.  In  1854  he 
came  to  the  United  States,  enlisted  in 
the  army  in  1862,  and  wrote  some  of 
his  best  lyrics  in  the  field.  ■  His  most 
admired  poems  are  "  My  Slain,"  "  An 
Old  Man's  Idyl,"  and  "Indirection." 
Died  in  Oakland,  Cal.,  Oct.  28,  1878. 

Realism,  in  philosophy,  a  doctrine 
diametrically  opposed  to  Nominalism, 
as  involving  the  belief  that  genus  and 
species  are  real  things,  existing  inde- 
pendently of  our  conceptions  and  their 
expressions,  and  that  these  are  alike 
actually  the  object  of  our  thoughts 
when  we  make  use  of  the  terms. 
AgaiUj  as  opposed  to  Idealism,  the 
word  implies  an  intuitive  cognition  of 
the  external  object,  instead  of  merely 
a  mediate  and  xepresentative  knowl- 
edge of  it. 


Reaumur 

In  art  and  literature  the  word  real- 
ism or  naturalism  is  employed  to  de- 
scribe a  method  of  representation  with- 
out idealization,  which  in  our  day  in 
France  has  been  raised  to  a  system  and 
claims  a  monopoly  of  truth  in  its  ar- 
tistic treatment  of  the  facts  of  nature 
and  life. 

Ream,  a  quantity  of  paper  of  any 
size  containing  20  quires  or  480  sheets. 
A  common  practice  is  now  to  count 
COO  sheets  to  the  ream.  Hence  used 
for  a  large  quantity  of  paper. 

Reaping  Machine,  a  machine  for 
reaping  or  cutting  down  grain  in  the 
field.  There  are  numerous  varieties. 
In  1822  a  self-sharpening  mowing 
machine  was  patented  in  the  United 
States.  Between  1852  and  1874  near- 
ly 3,000  patents  for  reaping  machines 
were  taken  out  for  the  United  States. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  self-delivery 
machines,  the  former  laying  the  cut 
grain  in  swaths  and  the  latter  form- 
ing it  into  sheaves ;  this  form  being 
more  frequently  used. 

Rearick,  Peter  Anton,  an  Amer- 
ican naval  officer;  born  in  Mai'yland, 
Nov.  12,  1838;  entered  the  navy  in 
1800;  served  through  the  Civil  War 
on  various  vessels ;  was  promoted  chief 
engineer  in  1874,  and  in  that  capacity 
served  at  various  posts  till  February, 
1900,  when  he  was  retired  with  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral  under  the  provi- 
sions of  the  Naval  Personnel  Law.  He 
died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb.  9, 
1901. 

Reason,  in  logic,  the  premise  or 
premises  of  an  argument,  and  especial- 
ly the  minor  premise.  In  metaphys- 
ics, the  power  of  thinking  consecutive- 
ly; the  power  of  passing  in  mental 
review  all  the  facts  and  principles 
bearing  on  a  subject,  and,  after  a 
careful  consideration  of  their  bear- 
ings, drawing  conclusions  in  many 
cases  conformable  with  truth. 

Reaumur,  Rene  Antoine  Fer» 
chault  de,  a  French  physicist  and 
naturalist ;  born  in  La  Rochelle, 
France,  Feb.  28,  1683.  He  went  to 
Paris  in  1703 ;  in  1708  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences ; 
and  for  nearly  50  years  continued  to 
be  one  of  its  most  active  members.  As 
a  natural  philosopher  he  is  celebrated 
for  the  invention  of  an  improved  ther- 
mometer,  which   be   made  known   in 


Beanmnr's  Scale 


Rechabite 


1731,  but  his  greatest  work  is  "  Nat- 
ural History  of  Insects"  (ti  vols.). 
Died  in  Maine,  France,  Oct  18,  1757. 

Reanmiir's  Scale,  a  scale  for  a 
thermometer,  in  which  the  two  fixed 
points  being  as  in  the  Centigrade,  the 
division  is  into  80  instead  of  100  parts. 
It  is  still  occasionally  used. 

Reavis,  Logan  Uriali,  an  Amer- 
ican journalist ;  born  in  Sangamon 
Bottom,  111.,  March  20,  1831.  In  18GG 
he  removed  to  St.  Louis,  to  which  city 
he  strenuously  advocated  the  removal 
of  the  National  capital.  To  promote 
this  object  he  lectured  extensively  in 
all  parts  of  the  country.  He  went  to 
England  in  1879  to  inaugurate  a 
movement  for  the  promotion  of  immi- 
gration to  Missouri.  His  publications 
include  :  "  St.  Louis  the  Future  Great 
City  of  the  World  " ;  "A  Representa- 
tive Life  of  Horace  Greeley  "  ;  "  Life 
of  General  William  S.  Harney  " ;  etc. 
Died  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  April  25,  1889. 

Bebekali,  Dangliters  of,  a  degree 
in  the  ritual  of  Odd  Fellowship,  to 
which  women  are  admitted. 

Rebellion,  the  taking  up  of  arms, 
whether  by  natural  subjects  or  others, 
residing  in  the  country,  against  a  set- 
tled government.  By  international 
law  rebellion  is  considered  a  crime, 
and  all  persons  voluntarily  abetting 
it  are  criminals  whether  subjects  or 
foreigners. 

Bebisso,  Louis  T.,  an  American 
sculptor ;  born  in  Italy,  in  1837.  Hav- 
ing taken  an  active  part  in  Mazzini's 
attempt  to  establish  an  Italian  repub- 
lic, at  the  age  of  20,  he  fled  from  Italy 
and  made  his  way  to  Boston,  Mass. 
Subsequently  he  went  to  Cincinnati, 
O.,  where  his  fame  as  an  artist  devel- 
oped. His  leading  works  are  the 
equestrian  statues  of  Gen.  J.  B.  Mc- 
Pherson  in  Washington,  D.  C. ;  of 
Gen.  U.  S.  Grant  in  Lincoln  Park, 
Chicago,  and  of  Gen.  W.  H.  Harrison 
in  Cincinnati.  He  died  in  Norwood, 
a  suburb  of  Cincinnati,  O.,  May  3, 
1899. 

Rebus  ("by  things"),  a  word, 
name  or  phrase  represented  by  the 
figure  of  an  object  which  resembles  in 
sound  the  words,  or  syllables  of  the 
words,  indicated;  an  enigmatical  rep- 
resentation of  words  by  the  use  of 
figures  or  pictures ;  thus,  a  "  bolt  "  and 
a  "  tun  "  represent  "  Bolton." 


Recaption,  in  law,  recaption  or 
reprisal  is  another  species  of  remedy 
by  the  mere  act  of  the  party  injured. 
This  happens  when  any  one  has  de- 
prived another  of  his  property  iu 
goods  or  chattels  personal,  or  wrong- 
fully detains  one's  wife,  child,  or  ser-i 
vant ;  in  which  case  the  owner  of  thel 
goods,  and  the  husband,  parent,  or 
mastet,  may  lawfully  claim  and  retake 
them,  wherever  he  happens  to  find 
them ;  so  it  be  not  in  a  riotous  man- 
ner, or  attended  with  a  breach  of  the 
peace. 

Receipt,  a  written  document,  de-j 
daring  that  certain  goods  or  a  sum 
of  money  have  been  received.  When" 
made  out  in  full,  a  receipt  should  con- 
tain (1)  the  date  when  the  merchan- 
dise or  money  was  received,  (2)  the 
name  of  the  person  or  firm  from  whom 
received,  (3)  the  name  of  the  person 
who  received  it,  and  (4)  for  what  the 
money  is  paid  or  deposited.  A  receipt 
may  be  in  full  or  in  part  payment  of 
an  account,  and  operates  accordingly. 
A  receipt,  though  evidence  of  payment, 
is  not  absolute  proof,  and  this  evidence 
may  be  rebutted  by  proving  that  it  waa 
given  under  misapprehension. 

Receiver,  a  person  specially  ap- 
pointed by  a  court  of  justice  to  receive 
the  rents  and  profits  of  land,  or  the 
produce  of  other  property,  which  is  in 
dispute  in  a  cause  in  that  court.  The 
name  is  also  given  to  a  person  ap- 
pointed in  suits  concerning  the  estates 
of  infants,  or  against  executors,  or 
between  partners  in  business,  or  in- 
solvents, for  the  purpose  of  winding  up 
the  concern. 

Receiver  of  Stolen  Goods,  one 
who  takes  stolen  goods  from  a  thief, 
knowing  them,  to  be  stolen,  and  incurs 
tli«  guilt  of  partaking  in  the  crime. 
In  the  United  States  the  penalty  is 
fixed  by  statutes  in  the  several  States. 

Recbabite,  a  member  of  a  section 
of  the  Kenites,  called  in  Hebrew  rech- 
abim,  from  Rechab,  the  father  of 
Jonadab,  who  enjoined  his  descendants 
to  abstain  from  wine,  from  building 
houses,  sowing  seed,  and  planting 
vineyards,  and  commanded  them  to 
dwell  in  tents.  Hence,  one  who  ab- 
stains from  alcoholic  beverages ;  a 
teetotaler.  Also  a  member  of  the  In- 
dependent Order  of  Rechabites,  a 
society  founded  on  temperance  princi- 
ples   iu    England    in    1835,    in    the 


Reciprocal 


Reconcentrado 


United  States  in  1842,  and  in  other 
countries  later.  The  lodges  are 
called  "  tents "  in  allusion  to  Jer. 
XXXV.  7.  The  total  membership  ia 
over  500,000,  and  the  benefits  dis- 
bnrspd  since  organization  exceed 
?1 0.000,000. 

Reciprocal,  in  grammar,  reflexive. 
Applied  to  verbs  which  have  as  an 
object  a  pronoun  standing  for  the 
subject;  as,  "Bethink  yourself."  It  is 
also  applied  to  pronouns  of  this  class. 
As  a  noun,  that  which  is  reciprocal 
to  another  thing.  Specifically,  in 
mathematics,  the  quotient  resulting 
from  the  division  of  unity  by  the  quan- 
tity. 

Reciprocity,  the  quality  or  state 
of  being  reciprocal ;  specifically,  recip- 
rocal obligation  or  right ;  equal  rights 
to  be  mutually  granted  and  enjoyed, 
as,  in  political  economy,  the  securing 
in  commercial  treaties  between  two 
or  more  nations  mutual  advantages  to 
the  same  extent,  e.  g.,  the  admission, 
mutually,  of  certain  goods,  supposed 
to  be  practically  equivalent  to  each 
other,  duty  free,  or  at  equal  duties  on 
importation. 

Reciprocity  Treaty,  a  treaty 
made  between  two  countries  for  the 
purpose  of  regulating  trade  between 
them.  The  United  States  has  entered 
into  a  number  of  such  compacts,  and 
ihe  tariff  bill  of  1897  provided  for 
the  appointment  of  a  special  commis- 
sioner to  negotiate  such  treaties.  John 
A.  Kasson  was  the  first  commissioner. 

Reclus,  Jean  Jacques  £lisee,  a 
Frencli  geograplier ;  born  in  Sainte- 
Foix  la  Grande,  France,  March  15, 
1830.  In  consequence  of  his  extreme 
democratic  views  he  left. France  after 
the  coup  d'etut  of  1851,  and  spent 
the  next  seven  years  in  England,  Ire- 
land, North  p,nd  Central  America,  and 
Colombia.  He  returned  to  Paris  in 
1858,  and  published  an  introduction  to 
the  "  Dictionarv  of  the  Communes  of 
France"  (18(54).  While  living  in 
exile  in  Switzerland  he  began  his  mas- 
tei-piece,  "  New  General  Geography." 
Reclus  has  also  written  another  great 
work,  a  physical  geography  entitled 
"  The  Earth."    He  died  .Tuly  4.  190.5. 

Recognizance,  or  Recognisance, 
in  law,  an  obligation  of  record,  which 
a  man  enters  into  bf»fo"e  some  court  of 
record  or  magistrate  duly  authorized,  I 


with  condition  to  do  some  particular 
act ;  as,  to  keep  the  peace,  to  pay  a 
debt,  or  the  like. 

RecoUet,  or  Recollect,  Friars  or 
Nuns,  the  name  given  to  a  reformed 
body  of  Franciscans.  The  society  was 
founded  in  Spain,  and  thence  spread 
throughout  Europe,  so  that  in  France, 
before  the  Revolution,  they  had  108 
houses.  The  order  still  exists  at  a 
few  places. 

Reconcentrado  (Spanish),  one  of 
a  class  of  Cubans  during  the  final 
Cuban  rebellion  against  Spain.  Gov- 
ernor-General Weyler  issued  a  decree 
that  all  of  the  peasant  class  not  ac- 
tively engaged  in  the  insurrection  but 
at  their  homes  or  ranches,  should  be 
"  reconcentrated  "  in  or  near  certain 
towns,  disobedience  to  this  decree  in- 
curring the  penalty  of  death.  Ac- 
cordingly, these  people,  non-combatants 
and  mostly  old  men  beyond  the  ability 
of  army  service,  feeble  old  women, 
children,  and  babies,  were  forced  to 
leave  their  homes  and  to  gather  in 
herds  in  and  near  these  towns,  where 
they  were  without  food  and  shelter, 
"  reconcentrated,"  to  starve  and  to 
suffer  from  exposure  to  the  weather 
and  lack  of  all  comfort.  These  help- 
less victims  were  popularly  called 
"  reconcen trades,"  General  Weyler's 
purpose  in  this  "  measure  of  war " 
was  to  desolate  the  island  in  certain 
parts  so  that  the  "  insurgents  "  could 
not  get  aid  and  food.  With  this  end 
in  view,  the  abandoned  homes  were 
destroyed,  and  whatever  remained  of 
value  to  the  Spaniards  was  confiscat- 
ed. Whole  districts  in  the  most  pro- 
ductive part  of  the  island  were  thus 
laid  waste.  Sugar  mills  were  burned 
and  other  industrial  property  was  de- 
stroyed. Nearly  400,000  "  reconcen- 
trados  "  were  forced  to  go  within  the 
Spanish  lines,  where  no  means  of  sub- 
sistence were  provided  for  them.  More 
than  200,000  died  of  starvation  and 
disease,  an  appalling  record  in  mod- 
ern civilization. 

The  United  States  was  shocked  by 
this  atrocity,  and  at  this  time  could 
give  but  little  aid  to  the  sufferers, 
their  undertakings,  including  Chris- 
tian Herald  work,  being  barred  out  or 
limited  by  Spanish  authority.  Later 
American  work  of  "  rescue  in  Cuba  " 
was  largely  effective  for  this  most  un- 
fortunate   class.      When    the    decree. 


Reconstruction 


Recreative  'Religionists 


under  General  Blanco,  was  issued  to 
permit  the  reconcentrados  to  return 
to  their  homes,  there  was  but  desola- 
tion where  their  homes  had  been.  It 
was  at  this  time  that  the  American 
relief  work,  by  readers  of  the  "  Chris- 
tian Herald,"  Red  Cross  ministration, 
and  other  help  availed  this  helpless 
class,  but  not  to  the  full  extent  of 
their  capacities  till  the  American  army 
and  navy  had  extinguished  Spanish 
rule  in  the  "  Pearl  of  the  Antilles." 

Reconstruction,  in  United  States 
history,  a  making-over  of  the  political 
fabric  of  the  States  that  composed  the 
Southern  Confederacy.  At  the  close 
of  the  Civil  War,  these  States  were 
practically  without  governments,  those 
which  they  had  established  after  their 
withdrawal  from  the  Union  having 
been  overthrown.  They  had  been  de- 
clared insurgents  and  therefore  their 
relation  to  the  United  States  govern- 
ment was  that  of  a  conquered  terri- 
tory. 

When  Congress  assembled,  in  De- 
cember, 1805,  Republican  opposition 
was  manifest  in  an  enactment  that  no 
State  should  be  represented  in  either 
House  till  Congress  had  declared  its 
right  to  representation.  A  bill  was 
passed  proposing  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  to  the  National  Constitu- 
tion, and  declaring  the  right  of  rep- 
resentation to  any  States  ratifying. 
The  Civil-Rights  Bill  followed,  and 
the  bill  enlarging  the  provisions  of 
the  freedman's  bureau,^  was  passed 
over  the  President's  veto. 

Congress  then  passed  a  series  of 
laws,  some  of  them  over  the  Presi- 
dent's veto.  Among  these  were  the 
Tenure  of  OflSce  Act,  establishment  of 
universal  suffrage  in  the  territories, 
admission  of  Nebraska  into  the  Union, 
and  making  General  Grant  irremov- 
able as  head  of  the  army.  Meantime, 
but  one  State,  Tennessee,  had  been 
admitted,  July  24,.18G6,  none  of  the 
others  adopting  the  Fourteenth  Amend- 
ment. In  view  of  the  situation.  Con- 
gress divided  the  South  into  five  mili- 
tary districts.  A  military  governor 
was  appointed  for  each  district,  and 
he  was  empowered  to  protect  life  and 
property  through  local  courts  or  mili- 
tary commissions.  Each  governor  was 
to  supervise  the  election  of  delegates 
to  a  constitutional  convention  to  which 
all  but  certain  disqualified  classes  were 


to  be  admitted,  such  delegates  to  ba 
elected  by  those  eligible  to  vote.  It 
was  provided  that  such  constitutions 
should  be  ratified  by  a  .popular  vote, 
and  then  placed  before  Congress ;  the 
next  measure  to  be  a  ratification-of  the 
Fourteenth  Amendment  by  the  new 
Legislature  so  inclu(Jing  the  amend- 
ment in  the  State  constitution,  which 
act  should  entitle  the  State  to  repre- 
sentation in  Congress.  The  bill  with 
such  provisions  was  passed  over  the 
President's  veto,  March  2,  1867.  The 
provisions  of  the  bill  were  carried  out, 
and  the  constitutions  which  were 
adopted  abolished  slavery,  renounced 
the  right  of  secession,  and  agreed  to 
pass  no  laws  limiting  the  liberty  of 
any  class  of  citizens  and  repudiated 
the  debts  incurred  during  the  Civil 
War.  Governors  and  legislators  were 
elected  under  these  constitutions.  Ar- 
kansas was  admitted  June  22,  18G8 ; 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Geor- 
gia, Florida,  Alabama,  and  Louisiana, 
June  28,  18G8;  Virginia,  Jan.  26, 
1870;  Mississippi,  Feb.  23,  1870; 
Texas,  March  30,  1870.  Congress  did 
not  complete  the  readmission  of  Geor- 
gia till  July  15,  1870,  that  State  hav- 
ing failed,,  in  its  compliance  with  the 
general  policy.  The  four  States  last 
named  were  compelled  to  ratify  the 
Fifteenth  Amendment  also,  before  their 
admission,  as  a  penalty  for  delay  in 
complying  with  the  plan  of  Congress. 
The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  in  the  case  of  Texas  vs.  White 
declared  the  action  of  Congress  con- 
stitutional. 

Recorder,  the  chief  judicial  officer 
of  a  city,  exercising  within  it,  in  crim- 
inal matters,  the  jurisdiction  of  a 
court  of  record,  whence  his  title  is 
derived.  The  recorder  of  the  city  of 
New  York  is  an  important  judicial 
officer,  with  power  to  try  the  highest 
crimes.  Several  distinguished  men 
have  held  the  office. 

Recording  and  Registering 
Machines,  devices  that  make  a  per- 
manent record  of  events,  dates  and 
numbers.  A  large  number  of  contriv- 
ances have  been  invented  for  register- 
ing and  recording  in  the  shortest  time 
and  with  the  least  possible  work. 

Recreative  Religionists,  an  as- 
sociation formed  in  England  in  De- 
cember, 1866,  for  giving  popular  sci- 
entific   lectures   on    Sunday   evenings, 


Rectangle 


Red  Cross  Society 


sacred  music  being  performed  at 'in- 
tervals. The  Recreative  Religionists 
have  for  some  years  figured  in  the  reg- 
istrar-general's returns  of  sects,  hav- 
ing registered  places  of  warship. 

Rectangle,  in  geometry,  a  parallel- 
ogram or  quadrilateral  figure  whose 
angles  ara  all  right  angles.  An  equi- 
lateral rectangle  is  a  square. 

Rectify,  to  separate  the  lighter  por- 
tions of  any  liquid,  and  render  pure 
and  homogeneous  any  alcohol,  ether, 
or  volatile  oil,  by  repeated  distillation. 

Rector,  in  the  Episcopal  Church 
and  also  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
a  clergyman  who  has  the  cure  of  a 
parish.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  the  head  of  a  religious  house ; 
among  the  Jesuits,  the  head  of  a 
house  that  is  a  seminary  or  college, 
academy,  or  important  public  school. 

Rectum,  in  anatomy,  the  lowest 
portion  of  the  large  intestine  extend- 
ing from  the  sigmoid  flexure  of  the 
colon  to  the  anus. 

Red,  a  color  resembling  that  of 
arterial  blood ;  the  color  of  that  part 
of  the  solar  spectrum  which  is  far- 
thest from  violet ;  one  of  the  three  pri- 
mary colors.  Reds  are  derived  from 
the  three  kingdoms  of  mature,  carmine 
being  derived  from  the  cochineal  in- 
eect,  the  lakes  and  madders  from  the 
vegetable  world,  and  the  others  from 
the  mineral  world. 

Redan,  in  fortifications,  a  work 
having  two  faces  forming  a  salient 
angle  in  the  direction  from  which  an 
attack  may  be  expected.  It  is  open  at 
the  gorge.  A  double  redan  has  a  re- 
entering angle  for  mutual  defense.  The 
redan  is  the  simplest  field  work,  and 
is  used  for  defending  the  avenues  of 
approach  to  a  village,  bridge,  or  defile. 

Red  Bat,  from  the  temperate  parts 
of  North  America.  Length  about  two 
inches;  fur  long  and  silky,  generally 
light  russet,  tinged  with  yellow, 
darker  and  richer  on  the  back. 

Redbird,  the  popular  name  of  sev- 
eral birds  of  the  United  States,  as  the 
Bummer  redbird,  and  the  Baltimore 
oriole  or  hang  nest. 

Red  Brocket,  a  deer  about  30  inch- 
es high,  reddish-brown,  with  sim- 
J)le,  unbranched  antlers ;  females  horn- 
ess.  Habitat,  the  low,  moist  woods  of 
.South  America. 


Red  Cedar,  a  species  of  juniper 
found  in  North  America  and  the  West 
Indies;  the  heartwood  is  of  a  bright 
red,  smooth,  and  moderately  soft,  and 
is  in  much  request  for  the  outsides  of 
lead  pencils. 

Red  Coral,  an  important  genus 
of  sclerobasic  corals.  Red  coral  is 
highly  valued  for  the  manufacture  of 
jewelry,  and  is  obtained  from  the 
coasts  of  Sicily,  Italy,  and  other  parts 
of  the  Mediterranean. 

Red  Cross  Society,  an  interna- 
tional organization  for  the  protec- 
tion and  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded 
in  war  and  for  the  care  of  sufferers 
from  other  large  calamities.  The  or- 
ganization is  the  result  of  an  interna- 
tional treaty  entered  into  by  most  of 
the  leading  nations  at  a  convention 
held  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  in  Au- 
gust, 18G4.  This  treaty  sustains  the 
neutrality  of  Red  Cross  Societies  in 
all  countries  and  on  all  waters  cov- 
ered by  the  compact,  and  insures  to 
it  the  protection  of  all  conflicting 
forces  in  the  time  of  war.  The  orig- 
inal treaty  covered  all  suffering  caused 
by  war;  but  today  the  Red  Crosa 
cares  for  the  victims  of  pestilence, 
flood  and  fire  as  well  as  for  the  vic- 
tims of  war.  The  treaty  provides  that 
the  hospital  flag  of  every  nation  must 
be  a  red  Greek  cross  on  a  white 
ground,  and  that  every  person,  ambu- 
lance, and  other  parts  of  the  service 
must  be  so  designated.  By  the  arti- 
cles of  the  treaty,  a  sick  or  wounded 
soldier  is  a  "  neutral  case."  The  land 
ambulances  and  the  ambulance  boats 
carrying  the  Red  Cross  flag  move 
about  wherever  needed,  all  civilized 
nations  deferring  to  their  humane  serv- 
ice. In  the  hospitals  every  soldier  and 
sailor  receives  the  best  care  and  if 
cured  is  sent  home  as  a  non-combat- 
ant. The  Red  Cross  treaty  provides 
for  the  mitigation  of  the  horrors  of 
war.  The  nations  that  are  parties  to 
this  treaty  are:  The  United  States, 
Venezuela,  Bolivia,  Chile,  Peru,  Ar- 
gentina, Great  Britain,  Germany, 
France,  Belgium,  Russia,  Austria, 
Sweden,  Norway,  Turkey,  Greece, 
Spain,  Italy,  Servia,  Persia,  the  Ro- 
man States,  Switzerland,  Japan,  and 
other  governments  to  the  number  of  40 
or  more. 

National  Red  Cross. —  This  nation- 
al body  was  incorporated   under  the 


Red  Cross 

laws  of  the  District  of  Columbia, 
October  1,  1881,  and  was  reincorpor- 
ated April  17,  1893,  for  the  relief  of 
suffering  by  war,  pestilence,  famine, 
fiood,  fires,  and  other  calamities  of 
sufficient  magnitude  to  be  deemed 
national  in  extent.  In  1905  it  was 
reorganized  on  a  stricter  business 
basis,  and  incorporated  by  Congi^ss, 
■with  William  H.  Taft,  then  Secre- 
tar  of  War,  as  its  president. 

The  American  National  Red  Cross 
has  been  active  in  the  directions  in- 
dicated, and  the  New  York  Red  Cross 
and  other  organizations  with  similar 
aims  have  done  and  are  doing  most 
creditable  work  in  the  relief  of  suf- 
fering. When  the  awful  condition  of 
the  Cuban  reconcentrados  touched 
every  heart  that  had  a  spark  of  human 
fef ling,  the  readers  of  the  "  Christian 
Herald"  were  prompt  and  generous  in 
contributing  to  relieve  the  unhappy 
victims  of  Spanish  oppression.  Presi- 
dent McKinley  appointed  a  "  Central 
Cuban  Relief  Committee,"  consisting 
of  ex-Mayor  Charles  A.  Schieren,  of 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Louis  Klopsch,  of 
the  "Christian  Herald,"  and  Stephen 
Barton,  vice-president  of  the  National 
Red  Cross,  to  administer  funds  do- 
nated for  Cuban  relief.  The  "Chris- 
tian Herald"  turned  in  $100,000  in 
cash  donations,  and  considerable  sums 
of  money  and  large  quantities  of  goods 
were  received  from  all  parts  of  the 
country.  The  Joint  Traffic  Associa- 
tion offered  to  transport  supplies  free 
of  charge,  and  consignments  of  food, 
clothing  and  medicine  were  sent  to 
Cuba  by  the  regular  steamers  and 
vessels  specially  chartered. 

The  steamer  "  State  of  Texas," 
chartered  by  the  Central  Cuban  Relief 
Committee,  and  loaded  with  supplies 
for  Cuban  sufferers,  started  from  New 
York  the  day  after  war  began,  having 
been  intrusted  by  the  Committee  to  the 
care  of  the  National  Red  Cross.  After 
considerable  delay  at  Key  West  and 
Tampa,  pending  war  operations,  the 
*' State  of  Texas"  proceeded  to  Santi- 
ago, where  Dr.  A.  M.  Lesser,  chief 
surgeon  of  the  New  York  Red  Cross, 
end  his  assistants,  distinguished 
themselves  in  the  field  hospitals. 


Redfleld 

Red  Cross,  The  Royal,  a  decora- 
tion instituted  by  Queen  Victoria  in 
1883.  It  is  conferred  on  any  ladies, 
English  or  foreign,  recommended  by 
the  Secretary  of  State  for  War,  for 
special  exertions  in  providing  for  the 
nursing,  or  for  attending  to  sick  and 
wounded  soldiers  and  sailors.  The 
decoration  is  a  cross  of  crimson  en» 
amel  gold-edged,  attached  to  a  dark- 
blue  ribbon  red-edged,  one  inch  in 
width,  tied  in  a  bow  and  worn  on  the 
left  shoulder. 

Red  Currant,  a  deciduous  shrub 
much  cultivated  for  its  fruit,  indig- 
enous in  the  N.  portions  of  Amer- 
ica and  Europe.  The  juice  of  the 
fruit  is  used  for  making  jelly,  and  a 
fermented  liquor  called  currant  wine. 

Redemption,  in  commerce,  repur- 
chase by  the  issuer  of  notes,  bills, 
bonds,  or  other  evidence  of  debt,  by 
paying  their  value  in  money  to  the 
holders.  In  law,  the  liberation  or  free- 
ing of  an  estate  from  a  mortgage ;  the 
repurchase  of  the  right  to  reenter 
upon  an  estate  on  performance  of  the 
terms  or  conditions  on  which  it  was 
conveyed ;  the  right  of  redeeming  and 
reentering  into  possession.  In  theol- 
ogy, ransoming.  The  ransom  of  sin- 
ners from  the  curse  of  the  law,  i.  e., 
from  the  penalties  of  the  violated  law 
of  God,  effected  through  "  the  blood 
of  Christ,"  i.  e.,  through  His  atoning 
sacrifice. 

Red-eye,  or  Rndd,  a  fish  belonging 
to  the  same  genus  as  roach,  chub, 
and  minnow.  It  is  common  in  lakes, 
slow  rivers,  and  fens,  in  many  parts 
of  Europe  and  in  England.  It  much, 
resembles  the  roach,  but  is  shorter 
and  deeper.  It  is  richly  colored,  the 
name  rudd  referring  to  the  color  of 
the  fins,  the  name  red-eye  to  that  ol 
its  iris. 

Redfield,  Isaac  Fletcher,  an 
American  jurist ;  born  in  Wethers- 
field,  Vt.,  April  10,  1804;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Dartmouth  College  in  1825. 
In  1835  he  was  made  judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Vermont,  and  in 
1852  became  chief-justice,  retiring 
from  the  bench  in  1860.  He  was 
Professor  of  Jurisj)rudence  at  Dart- 


Red  Fish 


Red  Sea 


mouth  College  in  1857-1861;  removed 
to  Boston  in  the  latter  year;  and  in 
1867-1869  was  special  counsel  for  the 
Utiited  States  in  Europe,  conducting 
numerous  important  legal  matters  in 
England  and  France.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  "  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Railways " ;  "  The  Law  of 
Carriers  and  Bailments  " ;  etc.  Died 
in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  March  23. 1876. 

Red  Fish.,  a  species  of  fish  found 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica, a  large  red  fish  caught  in  con- 
siderable numbers  for  food.  A  small- 
er species  receives  the  same  name,  and 
is  called  also  red  perch,  rose  fish,  etc. 

Red  Lead,  an  oxide  of  lead,  pro- 
duced by  heating  the  protoxide  in 
contact  with  air.  It  is  much  used  as 
a  pigment,  and  is  commonly  known 
as  minium. 

Red  Men,  Improved  Order  of, 
a  social,  fraternal,  and  benevolent 
secret  organization  founded  on  the 
customs  and  traditions  of  the  aborig- 
ines of  the  American  continent,  and 
the  oldest  benevolent  society  in  the 
United  States  of  distinctively  Ameri- 
can origin  and  growth.  The  first  au- 
thenticated Red  Men's  Society  was  or- 
ganized in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  early  in 
1763.  The  order  is  composed  of  sub- 
ordinate bodies  called  tribes,  officered 
by  a  sachem,  senior  sagamore,  junior 
sagamore,  prophet,  chief  of  records, 
keeper  of  wampum,  and  minor  sub- 
chiefs.  In  each  State  possessing  nec- 
essary membership  a  Great  Council 
is  constituted,  composed  of  represen- 
tatives from  the  various  tribes  under 
its  jurisdiction,  and  officered  by  sim- 
ilar chiefs  to  the  subordinate  tribes, 
with  the  prefixed  title  of  Great.  The 
Great  Council  of  the  United  States 
is  the  supreme  legislative  body,  and  is 
composed  of  representatives  from  each 
Great  Council.  The  number  of  great 
councils  has  reached  63;  the  member- 
ship, over  475.000;  the  benefits  dis- 
bursed since  organization,  more  than 
$24,000,000,  and  in  a  single  year, 
nearly  $1,500,000. 

Red  Ochre,  a  name  common  to  a 
variety  of  pigments,  rather  than  des- 
ignating an  individual  color,  and  com- 
prehending Indian  red,  light  red,  Ve- 
netian red,  scarlet  ochre,  Indian  ochre, 
reddle,  bole,  and  other  oxides  of  iron. 
As  a  mineral  it  designates  a  soft 
earthy  variety  of  ha;matite. 


Redpath,  James,  an  American 
journalist ;  born  in  Berwick,  Scot- 
land, Aug.  24,  1833.  He  became  assist- 
ant editor  of  the  "North  American 
Review  "  in  1886.  He  published  "  The 
John  Brown  Invasion,  "  Life  of  John 
Brown,"  and  "  Talks  About  Ireland," 
etc.     He  died  Feb.  10,  189L 

Red  Pine,  a  species  of  pine  also 
called  Norway  pine.  Its  wood  is  very 
resinous  and  durable,  and  is  much 
used  in  house  and  shipbuilding.  It 
produces  turpentine,  tar,  pitch,  resin, 
and  lampblack. 

Red  River,  the  lowest  W.  branch 
of  the  Mississippi,  rises  near  the  E. 
border  of  New  Mexico,  flows  E. 
through  Texas,  forming  the  entire  S. 
boundary  of  Indian  Territory,  thence 
S.  E.  through  Arkansas  and  Louisiana 
and  enters  the  Mississippi  below  lat. 
31°  N.  It  is  1,600  miles  long.  It  is 
navigable  for  seven  months  to  Shre^e- 
port    (350  miles). 

Red  River  of  the  North,  a  nav- 
igable river  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  rises  in  Elbow  Lake,  Minn., 
near  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  flows  S.  and  W.  to  Breckinridge, 
then  N.,  forming  the  boundary  be- 
tween Minnesota  and  North  Dakota, 
and  so  into  Manitoba  and  through  a 
flat  country  to  Lake  Winnipeg.  Its 
course  is  665  miles  (525  in  the  United 
States).  The  Red  River  Settlement 
was  the  origin  of  Manitoba. 

Red  Root,  a  genus  of  deciduous 
shrubs.  The  common  red  root  of 
North  America  which  abounds  from 
Canada  to  Florida,  is  a  shrub  of  two 
to  four  feet  high,  with  beautiful  thyrsi 
of  numerous  small  wliiie  flowers.  It 
is  sometimes  called  New  Jersey  tea,  an 
infusion  of  its  leaves  being  sometimes 
used  as  tea.  A  Mexican  species  has 
blue  flowers,  and  a  California  kind  is 
used  for  evergreen  hedges. 

Red  Sea,  an  arm  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  running  N.  N.  W.  from  the 
Gulf  of  Aden,  with  which  it  communi- 
cates by  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb, 
131/^  miles  across.  Its  length  is  about 
1,200  miles,  and  its  width  in  the  cen- 
tral portion  is  between  100  and  200 
miles ;  the  greatest  breadth  being  about 
205  miles ;  it  narrows  toward  the  S. 
entrance,  while  in  the  N.  it  is  divided 
by  the  peninsula  of  Sinai  into  two 
gulfs,  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  170  miles  long 


Red  Snow 


Redivooa 


by  30  miles  wide,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Akaba,  100  miles  in  length. 

In  ancient  times  the  Red  Sea  was 
used  as  the  means  of  communication 
by  the  Phoenicians  and  other  maritime 
peoples,  till  the  discovery  of  the  route 
around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  divert- 
ed the  traffic  into  another  channel, 
only  to  be  revived,  however,  on  a  much 
more  extensive  scale  with  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Suez  Canal. 

Red  Siioiir,  snow  colored  red.  Aris- 
totle hinted  at  its  existence;  Saussure 
in  1760  discovered  it  on  the  St.  Ber- 
nard, and  Captain  Ross  in  1819 
brought  specimens  from  the  Arctic 
regions.  He  had  found  eight  miles  of 
cliffs,  600  feet  high,  colored  by  it,  in 
many  places  to  the  depth  of  12  feet, 
where  the  rock  was  reached.  Captain 
Parry  and  other  Arctic  explorers  have 
Bince  met  with  it  abundantly.  All  au- 
thorities agree  that  it  arises  from 
minute  organisms,  vegetable  or  animal. 
Much  of  it  is  colored  by  the  red  snow 
plant. 

Redstart,  a  fly-catchmg  warbler. 
Male  black  with  patches  of  orange-red. 
Female,  olive  with  yellow  patches. 

Red  Snngets.  The  autumn  of  1883 
and  the  succeeding  few  months  were 
noteworthy  for  the  occurrence  of  brill- 
iant phenomena  in  the  W.  sky  in  every 
part  of  the  globe,  but  especially  in  the 
Indian  Ocean  and  the  South  Pacific. 
Shortly  after  sunset  a  vivid  red  glow 
suffused  the  entire  W.  sky,  remaining 
for  upward  of  an  hour,  when  it  would 
slowly  fade  away.  In  the  latitudes  of 
North  America  these  red  sunsets  were 
of  almost  nightly  occurrence  for  sev- 
eral months.  In  striving  to  account 
for  these  strange  manifestations  a 
number  of  solutions  were  offered,  but 
the  theory  that  met  with  greatest  ac- 
ceptance was  that  they  emanated  from 
volcanic  dust  and  gaseous  matter  vom- 
ited by  Krakatoa,  in  Sunda  Straits. 
Calculations  demonstrated  the  fact 
that  the  manifestations  of  the  red  glow 
coincided  "with  the  course  which  such 
vapors  would  take  on  being  wafted 
away  by  the  prevailing  ■winds.  But 
this  theory  fonnd  many  opponents. 

Red  Top,  a  well-known  species  of 
bent-grass,  highly  valued  in  the  United 
States  for  pasturage  and  hay  for 
cattle. 

Redxiray,  Jaqnes  Wardlaw,  en 
American  geographer;  born  in  Nash- 


ville, Tenn.,  in  May,  1849.  He  en- 
gaged in  mining  in  California  and 
Arizona;  traveled  in  South  America, 
Europe,  and  Asia,  for  the  purpose  of 
pursuing  geographical  investigations, 
and  was  author  of  several  treatises  on. 
physical  geography,  etc.,  among  them 
"  Modern  Facts*  and  Ancient  Fancies 
in  Geography " ;  "  Climate  and  the 
Gulf  Stream";  "A  Treatise  on  the 
Projection  of  Maps,"  etc 

Redwing,  a  North  American  pas- 
serine bird,  of  the  family  Icteridae. 
Male,  black  with  red  spots,  bordered 
with  orange  on  the  wings.  The  name 
is  given  in  Europe  to  a  species  of 
thrush,  closly  allied  to  the  common 
thrush. 

Redwood,  the  name  of  various 
sorts  of  wood  of  a  red  color,  as  the 
wood  of  the  redwood  of  Jamaica;  of 
Andaman  wood ;  of  the  redwood  of  the 
Bahamas;  and  of  a  coniferous  tree  of 
California,  the  redwood  of  the  timber 
trade. 

Redwood  of  California. — This  tree 
is  found  only  in  California  and  in  but 
a  comparatively  contracted  area  even 
there.  The  available  redwood  is  now 
confined  to  about  318  miles  of  coast. 
The  annual  product  in  this  region  is 
about  320,000,000  feet,  and  it  is  esti- 
mated, at  the  present  rate  of  consump- 
tion, that  enough  standing  timber  ex- 
ists to  last  for  150  years. 

The  lumber  is  becoming  more  in  de- 
mand for  decorative  purposes.  Its 
color,  a  light  salmon  when  first  cut, 
afterward  turns  to  a  deep  red.  When 
thoroughly  dried  there  is  no  shrinkage 
and  it  readily  yields  to  the  chisel  of 
the  carver.  Piano  cases  made  from 
the  wood  are  said  to  give  increased 
resonance  to  the  instrument.  Larg» 
quantities  are  consumed  for  intsrioj 
finishing  with  gratifying  effects.  In 
addition  to  other  fine  qualities  the 
wood  takes  on  a  "beautiful  polish  and 
even  the  stumpage,  till  recently  con- 
sidered worthless,  is  found  to  possess 
valuable  qualities.  The  roots  and 
woody  excrescences  at  the  base  of  the 
tree  give  fine  effects  in  wavy  outlines, 
and  when  polished  the  material  is 
much  "valued  for  decorative  purposes. 

In  the  Eel  river  redwood  district, 
Humboldt  county,  there  ^  are  80,000 
acres  of  timber  lands,  which  will  pro- 
duce, at  a  low  estimate,  75,000  feet  to 
the  acre.    In  size  the  trees  range  from 


Reebok 


Reed 


four  to  six  feet  in  diameter;  if  below 
18  inclies  they  are  left  standing.  Of 
the  larger  sizes  from  8,000  to  12,000 
feet  are  produced  from  each  tree.  A 
single  tree  grown  in  this  valley  has 
produced  80,000  feet  of  merchantable 
lumber. 

Reebok,  or  Rbeebok,  an  antelope 
of  South  Africa.  Length  about  5  feet, 
height  at  shoulder  30  inches ;  uniform 
ash  color  on  neck,  shoulders,  sides, 
croup,  and  thighs,  white  or  light  gray 
on  under  surface  and  inside  of  limbs. 
They  live  in  small  groups  of  five  or 
six  individuals. 

Reed,  in  music,  the  sounding  part 
of  several  instruments,  such  as  the 
clarionet,  bassoon,  oboe,  and  bagpipe, 


OEGAN  BEED. 


BAGPIPE  BEEDS. 


SO  called  from  its  being  made  from  the 
outer  layer  of  a  reed.  The  name  is 
also  applied  to  the  speaking  part  of  the 
organ,  though  made  of  metal. 

Reed,  Andretv,  an  English  philan- 
thropist ;  born  in  London,  England, 
Nov.  27,  1788;  was  educated  in  his 
native  city  and  in  1811  was  there 
ordaiued  pastor  of  an  independent 
congregation.  He  visited  the  United 
States  in  1834,  where  he  studied  edu- 
cational and  religious  conditions.  In 
1813  he  established  the  London  Orphan 
Asylum ;  in  1827  the  Infant  Orphan 
Asylum ;  in  1847  the  Asylum  for  Fath- 
erless Children  in  Croydon ;  and  later 
the  Royal  Hospital  for  Incurables  and 
the  Royal  Asylum  for  Idiots.  He  was 
the  author  of  "  Visits  to  the  American 


Churches"  (with  the  Rev.  James 
Matheson,  2  vols.  1836)  ;  "The  Day 
of  Pentecost  "  ;  "  The  Revival  of  Re- 
ligion "  and  "  Advancement  of  Relig- 
ion the  Claim  of  the  Times  "  (1847)  ; 
etc.  He  died  in  London,  England, 
Feb.  25,  1862. 

Reed,  Cbarles  Alfred  Lee,  an 
American  surgeon ;  born  in  Wolf 
Lake,  Ind.,  July  9,  1856.  He  was 
Professor  of  Gynaecology  and  Abdom- 
inal Surgery  at  the  Cincinnati  College 
of  Medicine  and  Surgery  in  1882- 
1895 ;  became  gynaecologist  at  the  Cin- 
cinnati Hospital  in  1896;  and  was 
president  of  the  American  Medical  As- 
sociation in  1900-1901.  His  publica- 
tioci  include  many  monographs  in 
1880-1900,  and  a  "Text  Book  of 
Gynaecology"   (1900). 

Reed,  Elizabetb  Armstrong,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Winthrop, 
Me.,  May  16,  1842.  She  was  the  only 
woman  whose  wox"k  was  ever  accepted 
by  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Great 
Britain.  She  was  chairman  of  the 
Woman's  Congress  of  Philology  in 
Chicago  in  1893,  and  was  a  member  of 
several  learned  societies.  Her  works 
include  "The  Bible  Triumphant," 
"  Hindu  Literature :  or  the  Ancient 
Books  of  India,"  "  Persian  Literature, 
Ancient  and  Modern,"  etc. 

Reed,  George  Edward,  an  Amer- 
ican educator;  born  in  Brownville, 
Me.,  March  26,  1846.  In  1889  was 
elected  president  of  Dickinson  College, 
Carlisle,  Pa.,  and  in  1899  became 
State  Librarian  of  Pennsylvania. 

Reed,  Hngk,  an  American  military 
oflScer;  born  in  Richmond,  Ind.,  Aug. 
17,  1850 ;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1873.  In 
1884  he  was»granted  leave  of  absence 
owing  to  ill  health  brought  on  by  ex- 
posure on  the  Western  plains,  and  was 
retired  April  23,  1889.  His  publica- 
tions include  "  A  Calendar  of  the  Da- 
kota Nation,"  "Signal  Tactics," 
"  Cadet  Regulations,"  "  Artillery  Tac- 
tics," "  Military  Science  and  Tactics," 
"  Standard  Infantry  Tactics,"  etc. 

Reed,  James,  an  American  clergy- 
man; born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Dec.  8, 
1834;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege in  1855.  Later  he  was  elected 
President  of  the  New  Church  Theolog- 
ical School  (Swedenborgian),  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.     He  was  also  for  several 


Jleed 

years  president  of  the  Massachusetts 
Home  for  Intemperate  Women,  and 
editor  of  the  "New  Church  Review." 
His  publications  include  "  Swedenborg 
and  the  New  Church,"  "  Religion  and 
Life,"  and  "  Man  and  Woman,  Equal 
but  Unlike." 

Reed,  Jolm  Joseph,  an  American 
naval  ofBcer ;  born  in  New  Jersey ; 
was  graduated  at  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  in  1861 ;  served 
through  the  Civil  W^ar,  being  in  all  the 
battles  with  Admiral  Farragut  from 
the  Southwest  Pass  of  the  Mississippi 
to  Vicksburg  in  1862-1863 ;  was  pro- 
moted rear-admiral  in  November, 
1900;  and  was  appointed  commandant 
if  the  Portsmouth  navy  yard  in  April, 
1901. 

Reed,  Thomas  Brackett,  an 
i^merican  statesman ;  born  in  Port- 
;and.  Me.,  Oct.  18,  1839 ;  was  gradua- 
ted at  Bowdoin  College  in  1860;  stud- 
ied law ;  appointed  assistant  paymas- 
ter United  States  navy  in  1864;  ad- 
mitted to  the  Portland  bar ;  member  of 
the  Maine  Legislature  1868-1869,  and 
of  the  Senate  1870;  State  attorney- 
general,  1870-1872;  member  of  Con- 
gress, 1877-1899 ;  and  speaker  of  51st, 
54th,  and  55th  Congresses.  In  1896 
Mr.  Reed  was  a  prominent  candidate 
for  the  Republican  presidential  nomi- 
nation. He  resigned  from  Congress  in 
1899,  and  resumed  the  practice  of  law 
in  New  York  city.  He  died  of  uraemia 
atWashmgton,  D.  C,  Dec.  7,  1902. 

Reed  Mace,  also  known  by  the 
name  of  cat-tail,  grows  in  ditches  and 
marshy  places,  and  in  the  borders  of 
ponds,  lakes,  and  rivers.  They  are 
tall,  stout,  erect  plants,  sometimes  six 
or  eight  feet  high,  with  creeping  root 
Btocks,  long  flag-like  leaves,  and  long, 
dense,  cylindrical,  brown  spikes  of  mi- 
nute flowers.  They  are  sometimes  er- 
roneously called  bulrush. 

Reef,  the  portion  of  a  square  sail 
between  the  head  and  any  of  the  reef 
bands.  The  first  reef  in  a  square  sail 
is  included  between  the  head  and  the 
tipper  reef  band;  the  second  reef  be- 
tween this  and  the  next  lower  reef 
band,  and  so  on.  The  object  of  the 
reef  is  to  diminish  the  surface  of  the 
sail  when  the  wind  is  blowing  hard. 
A  balance  reef  is  the  uppermost  or 
closest  reef  extending  diagonally  up- 
ward from  the  outer  leech  when  close- 
reefed. 

B.124. 


Referendiun 

Reef,  E  chain,  mass,  or  range  of 
rocks  in  various  parts  of  the  ocean,  ly- 
ing at  or  near  the  surface  of  the 
water. 

Reel,  a  lively  rustic  dance.  In  the 
United  States  the  Virginia  reel  is 
widely  popular. 

Rees,  J«]ta  Krom,  an  American 
educator ;  born  in  New  York  city,  Oct. 
27,  1851 ;  was  graduated  at  Columbia 
University  in  1872,  and  at  the  Columbia 
School  of  Mines  in  1875.  Subsequently 
he  was  director  of  the  observatory  and 
instructor  in  geodesy  and  practical  as- 
tronomy in  Columbia  University,  and 
in  1892  became  Professor  of  Astron- 
omy there.  He  was  president  of  the 
New  York  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1894:-1896;  secretary  of  the  American 
Metropolitan  Society  in  1882-1896; 
was  elected  Fellow  of  the  Royal  As- 
tronomical Society  of  London  ;  in  1901 
was  made  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor;  died  March  9,  1907. 

Reese,  David  Meredith,  an 
American  physician ;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  in  1800;  was  graduated  at 
the  Medical  Department  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Maryland  in  1820;  removed 
to  New  York  city,  where  he  became 
eminent  in  his  profession ;  was  phy- 
sician-in-chief at  Bellevue  Hospital  for 
several  years,  and  afterward  was 
county  and  city  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic schools.  He  was  the  author  of 
"Observations  on  the  Epidemic  of 
Yellow  Fever,"  "  Review  of  the  First 
Annual  Report  of  the  Anti-Slavery 
Society,"  "  Medical  Lexicon  of  Modem 
Terminology"  (1855);  etc.  He  died 
in  New  York  city,  Aug.  12,  1861. 

ReeTes,  Helen  Buckingham, 
(nee  Mathers),  an  English  novelist; 
born  in  Crewkerne,  Somersetshire, 
Aug.  26,  1853.  Her  novels  treat  of 
domestic  English  life,  and  are  ex- 
ceedingly popular. 

ReeTes,  Mariaa.  Calhoun  Iie« 
pare,  an  American  novelist;  bom  in 
Charleston,  S.  C,  about  1854.  She 
began  to  write  in  1866  under  the  pseu- 
donym of  "  Fadette."     Died  recently. 

Refereadnxi,  a  system  of  legisla- 
tion which  consults  all  the  electors  of 
a  State  as  to  whether  new  laws  shall 
be  confirmed.  In  some  cantons  of 
Switzerland  a  method  resembling  the 
referendum  has  been  practised  since 
the   16th  century.     In  all  the  Swiss 


Refining  of  Metals 


Reformation 


cantons,  except  Freiburg,  the  referen- 
dum is  now  established.  According  to 
the  Swiss  federal  constitution,  all  con- 
stitutional amendLients  must  be  rati- 
fied by  the  Swiss  electorate  before  they 
become  law.  Other  measures  must  be 
submitted  to  the  popular  vote,  if  de- 
manded within  90  days  after  their  pub- 
lication by  30,000  voters,  or  by  the 
governments  of  eight  cantons.  During 
the  17  years,  1874  to  1891,  out  of  149 
laws,  27  were  referred  to  the  people ; 
of  these  15  were  rejected.  The  refer- 
endum has  worked  so  well  that  it  has 
conquered  all  opposition  to  it,  and  it  is 
now  generally  regarded  as  a  check  on 
hasty  and  class  legislation.  There  is 
a  growing  demand  in  the  United  States 
for  the  general  introduction  of  direct 
legislation  by  means  of  the  referen- 
dum, and  in  several  places  the  system 
is  practised.  Amendments  to  State 
Constitutions  are  adopted,  as  a  rule, 
by  a  referendum  vote.  In  November, 
1903,  the  electors  of  New  York  State 
voted  by  referendum  on  the  question 
of  a  vast  improvement  of  the  Erie 
canal. 

Refining  of  Metals,  the  processes 
by  which  the  various  metals  are  ex- 
tracted from  their  ores,  and  obtained 
in  a  state  of  purity. 

Reflecting  Microscope,  a  form  of 
microscope  first  proposed  by  Newton, 
in  which  the  image  formed  by  a  small 
concave  speculum  may  be  viewed  either 
by  the  naked  eye  or  through  an  eye 
piece.  The  object  is  placed  outside  of 
the  tube  of  the  microscope,  and  reflects 
its  image  to  the  speculum  by  means  of 
a  plain  mirror,  inclined  at  an  angle  of 
45°  to  the  axis  of  the  former. 

Reflecting  Telescope,  a  telescope 
in  which  the  rays  are  received  on  an 
object-mirror  and  conveyed  to  a  focus, 
at  which  the  image  is  viewed  by  an 
eye  piece. 

Reflection,  that  which  is  reflected 
or  produced  by  being  reflected;  sn 
image  given  back  from  a  reflecting  sur- 
face. Also  the  act  or  habit  of  turning 
the  mind  to  something  which  has  al- 
ready occupied  it ;  thoughtful,  atten- 
tive, or  continued  consideration  or  de- 
liberation ;  meditation,  thought. 

Reflector,  that  which  reflects,  or 
throws  back  rays  of  light,  heat,  etc. ; 
a  reflecting  surface.  In  optics,  a  de- 
vice by  which  the  rays  proceeding  from 


a  luminous  Ox*  heated  object  are  thrown 
back  or  diverted  in  a  given  direction. 
The  term  mirror  is  less  comprehensive 
than  that  of  reflector,  being  usually 
only  applied  to  such  surfaces  as  afPord 
definite  images  and  colors,  while  a  re- 
flector may  not  merely  be  used  for 
throwing  back  the  rays  of  light  and 
heat,  or  of  heat  only,  but  also  the 
waves  of  sound. 

Reform  Acts,  a  term  applied  to 
certain  acts  of  the  British  Parliament 
by  which  the  regulations  as  to  the  par- 
liamentary representation  of  the  peo- 
ple were  altered. 

Reformation,  the  term  generally 
applied  to  the  religious  revolution  in 
the  loth  century  which  divided  the 
Western  Church  into  two  sections, 
known  as  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
the  Protestant.  Before  this  era  the 
pope  exercised  absolute  authority  over 
the  whole  Christian  Church  with  the 
exception  of  those  countries  in  which 
the  Greek  or  Eastern  Church  had  been 
established.  He  also  claimed  suprem- 
acy in  temporal  affairs  wherever  his 
spiritual  authority  was  recognized. 
Various  abuses  had,  in  process  of  time, 
sprung  up  in  the  Church,  and  atten- 
t  on  had  often  been  called  to  these  both 
'  y  laymen  and  clerics.  The  great 
movement  known  as  the  Reformation 
was  started  by  Martin  Luther,  an 
Augustine  monk  of  Erfurt,  professor 
of  theology  in  the  University  of  Wit- 
tenberg; and  what  immediately  occa- 
sioned it  was  the  sale  of  indulgences 
in  Germany  by  a  duly  accredited  agent, 
Johann  Tetzfl,  a  Dominican  monk,  of 
Leipsic.  Luther  condemned  this  abuse, 
first  in  a  sermon  and  afterwards  in 
ninety-five  theses  or  questions  which  he 
aflixed  to  the  door  of  the  great  Church, 
October  31st,  1.517.  Luther  urged  his 
spiritual  superiors  and  the  pope  to  put 
a  stop  to  the  trafl5c  of  Tetzel  and  to 
reform  the  corruption  of  the  Church 
in  general.  A  heated  controversy  now 
arose,  Luther  was  fiercely  assailed, 
and  in  1520  excommunication  was  pro- 
nounced against  him  by  Pope  Leo  X. 
Upon  this  the  reformer  appealed  to  a 
general  council ;  and  when  his  works 
were  burned  at  Mainz,  Cologne,  and 
Lou  vain,  he  publicly  committed  the 
bull  of  excommunication  with  the  pa- 
pal canons  and  decrees  to  the  flames 
j  December,  1.520).  From  this  time 
Luther    formally   separated   from    the 


Beformation 


Reforiuatioki 


Roman  Church,  and  many  of  the  prin- 
cipal German  nobles,  the  most  emi- 
nent scholars,  and  the  University  of 
"Wittenberg,  publicly  declared  in  favor 
of  the  reformed  doctrines  and  disci- 
pline. Luther's  bold  refusal  to  recant 
at  the  Diet  of  Worms  (April  17th, 
1521)  gave  him  increased  power,  while 
the  edict  of  Worms  and  the  ban  of 
the  emperor  made  his  cause  a  political 
matter.  Leo's  successor,  Adrian  VI., 
now  considered  it  necessary  to  inter- 
fere, but  in  answer  to  his  demands  for 
the  extirpation  of  the  doctrines  of 
Luther  he  received  a  list  of  a  hundred 
complaints  against  the  papal  chair 
from  the  German  states  assembled  at 
the  Diet  of  Nurnberg  (1522).  While 
Luther  was  publishing  his  transla- 
tion of  the  New  Testament,  which  was 
soon  followed  by  the  translation  of 
the  Old,  and  while  Melanchthon  was 
engaged  on  his  Loci  Communes  (the 
first  exposition  of  the  Lutheran  doc- 
trines) serious  preparations  for  the 
reform  of  ecclesiastical  abuses  were 
made  in  Pomerania,  Silesia,  in  the 
Saxon  cities,  in  Suabia,  etc.,  and  the 
Reformation  made  rapid  progress  in 
Germany.  Luther's  Liturgy  had  no 
sooner  appeared  ( 1522 ) ,  than  it  was 
adopted  in  Magdeburg  and  elsewhere. 
Translations  of  the  Bible  into  Dutch 
and  French  now  appeared,  and  at 
Meux  in  France  a  Lutheran  church 
was  organized.  In  1525  John,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Luther's  first  patron  Fred- 
erick in  the  Saxon  electorate,  Philip, 
landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  Albert  of 
Brandenburg,  duke  of  Prussia,  pub- 
licly declared  themselves  Lutherans. 
Aided  in  great  measure  by  the  state 
of  political  affairs,  the  movement  con- 
tinued to  spread  rapidly.  In  these  cir- 
cumstances the  Emperor  convened  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg  (June  1530),  at 
which  Melanchthon  read  a  statement 
of  the  reformed  doctrines,  now  known 
as  the  confession  of  Augsburg.  The 
Catholics  replied  to  this  by  requiring 
the  reformers  to  return  to  the  ancient 
church  within  a  certain  period.  The 
princes  who  favored  the  new  move- 
ment refused  to  comply  with  the  de- 
mand, and  in  March  of  the  following 
year  they  assembled  at  Schmalkald 
and  formed  the  famous  league,  in 
terms  of  which  they  pledged  them- 
selves to  uphold  the  Protestant  cause. 
This  decisive  step  soon  attracted  pow- 
erful  support,   largely  because  of  its 


political  importance,  and  among  oth- 
ers who  joined  the  Schmalkald  League 
were  Francis  I.  of  France  and  Henry 
VIII.  of  England.  After  the  death 
of  Luther  (154G)  war  broke  out,  but 
at  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  (1555)  the 
Reformation  may  be  said  to  have  tri- 
umphed when  each  prince  was  permit- 
ted to  adopt  either  the  Reformed  or 
the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  Prot- 
estantism thus  received  legal,  recogni- 
tion. 

Both  in  Italy  and  Spain  Protestant- 
ism was  mostly  confined  to  the  higher 
and  cultivated  classes,  the  Reformed 
faith  taking  scarcely  any  hold  on  the 
people  at  large.  In  Naples,  Venice, 
Florence,  and  other  cities  Protestant 
churches  were  opened;  but  Protestant- 
ism was  extirpated  in  Italy  by  the  vig- 
orous action  of  the  Inquisition.  In 
Spain  a  few  Protestant  churches  were 
established,  and  many  persons  of  mark 
adopted  the  views  of  the  Reformers. 
But  here  also  the  Inquisition  succeed- 
ed in  arresting  the  spread  of  the  re- 
ligious revolution.  In  the  Swiss  states 
the  progress  of  Protestantism  was  of 
much  more  importance.  It  found  a 
leader  in  Ulrich  Zwingli,  a  preacher 
in  Zurich,  who,  by  sermons,  pam- 
phlets, and  public  discussions,  induced 
that  city  to  abolish  the  old  and  inaugu- 
rate a  new  Reformed  Church.  Ulti- 
mately this  movement  was  merged  in 
political  dissessions  between  the  Re- 
formed and  the  Roman  Catholic  can- 
tons, and  Zwingli  himself  fell  in  bat- 
tle (1531).  Between  Luther  and  Zwin- 
gli there  were  differences  of  opinion, 
chiefly  concerning  the  Lord's  Supper, 
in  which  the  former  showed  consider- 
able acrimony  towards  his  fellow-re- 
former. After  many  tedious  contests 
Calvin's  creed  was  virtually  accepted 
in  the  Netherlands  and  elsewhere,  and 
it  was  introduced  into  Scotland  by 
Knox.  In  France  the  Reformation 
3eemed  at  first  to  find  powerful  sup- 
port. Margaret,  Queen  of  Navarre, 
sister  of  King  Francis  I.,  and  many  of 
the  higher  ecclesiastics  favored  the  re- 
formed doctrine.  The  New  Testament 
was  translated  into  French,  churches 
to  the  number  of  2,000  were  estab- 
lished in  155(5,  and  the  Huguenots  as 
the  Protestants  were  called,  formed  a 
large  religious  par*^y  in  the  state.  Un- 
happily, however,  the  i-eligious  ele- 
ment was  mixed  up  with  the  political 
hatreds,  and  in  the  civil  strifes  before 


Reformatory  Schools 


Reformed  Chnrcli 


and  after  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew (1572)  the  religious  move- 
ment declined.  The  abjuration  of 
Protestantism  by  Henry  IV,  (1593) 
was  a  blow  to  the  Huguenots,  and 
though  they  obtained  toleration  and 
certain  privileges  by  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  this  was  finally  revoked  in 
1685. 

The  Reformation  in  England  was 
only  indirectly  connected  with  the  re- 
form movement  in  Germany.  Wyclif 
and  the  Lollards,  the  revival  of  learn- 
ing, the  writings  of  More,  Colet,  and 
Erasmus,  the  martyrdom  of  Thomas 
Bilney,  had  all  combined  to  make  the 
doctrine  and  discipline  of  the  church 
unpopular.  This  feeling  was  greatly 
increased  when  the  writings  of  Luther 
and  Tyndal's  translation  of  the  Bible 
found  eager  readers.  Then  the  polit- 
ical element  came  in  to  favor  the  pop- 
ular reform  movement.  Henry  VIII., 
in  ^is  efforts  to  obtain  a  divorce  from 
Catherine,  found  it  necessary  to  re- 
pudiate the  papal  supremacy  and  de- 
clare himself  by  act  of  Parliament 
(1534)  the  supreme  head  of  the 
Church  of  England.  To  this  the  pope 
replied  by  threats  of  excommunica- 
tion, which  were  not,  however,  imme- 
diately executed.  Yet  the  breach  with 
Rome  was  complete,  so  far,  at  least, 
as  the  king  was  concerned.  This  move- 
ment was  continued  and  the  Reforma- 
tion effected  in  all  essential  points 
during  the  reign  of  Henry's  succes- 
sor, Edward  VI.  The  Protestant  rit- 
ual and  teaching  was  adopted  by  the 
Church ;  all  images  were  removed  from 
churches ;  a  new  communion  service 
took  the  place  of  the  mass;  a  First 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  com- 
piled by  Cranmer  and  purged  of  dis- 
tinctive Roman  doctrine ;  and  in  1549 
the  First  Act  of  Uniformity  enjoined 
the  use  of  this  book  in  all  the 
churches.  Still  further  in  1551  the 
newly  established  faith  of  the  Re- 
formers was  summed  up  in  the  Forty- 
two  Articles  of  Religion,  which,  in 
the  rrign  of  Elizabeth,  became  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church 
of  England.  By  these  and  other  means 
the  Reformation  was  established 
gradually  throughout  England. 

In  Scotland  the  movement  was  more 
directly  connected  with  the  Conti- 
nent, and  in  particular  with  Geneva. 
In  1546-47  the  Scottish  Reformer 
John    Knox    joined     the     Protestant 


party;  preached  in  Dundee,  Perth, 
and  St.  Andrews,  amid  public  tu- 
mult and  the  destruction  of  images,  al- 
tars, and  churches ;  and  finally,  under 
the  protection  of  the  Lords  of  Con- 
gregation, he  established  himself  as  a 
preacher  of  Protestantism  in  St. 
Giles',  Edinburgh.  From  this  center 
Knox  travelled  all  over  Scotland 
teaching  the  reformed  faith ;  and 
such  was  the  roused  spirit  of  the  peo- 
ple, that  when  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment assembled  (1560)  a  popular  pe- 
tition was  presented  demanding  the 
abolition  of  popery.  This  was  prompt- 
ly accomplished,  and  at  the  assem- 
bling of  the  new  Church  of  Scotland 
shortly  afterward,  Knox  presented  his 
reformed  system  of  government  un- 
der the  name  of  the  First  Book  of 
Discipline,  which  was  adopted  by 
the  assembly.  The  position  thus  se- 
cured by  the  reformer  was  maintained 
and  the  Reformation  successfully  es- 
tablished in  Scotland.  In  Ireland  for 
various  causes  the  Reformation  never 
made  much  progress. 

Reformatory  Schools,  schools  in< 
stituted  for  the  training  of  juvenile 
offenders  who  have  been  convicted  of 
an  offense  punishable  by  imprison- 
ment. 

Reformed  Church,  a  religious 
body  in  the  United  States,  whose  des- 
ignation has  been  changed  from  that 
of  its  progenitor,  the  Reformed  Prot- 
estant Dutch  Church.  The  Church 
was  introduced  into  America  in  1643. 
The  Dutch  language  was  used  exclu- 
sively in  worship  down  to  1763.  The 
government  of  the  Church  is  accord- 
ing to  the  Genevan  model.-  The  offi- 
cers are  ministers,  elders,  and  deacons, 
who  compose  the  consistory,  to  which 
the  government  of  the  individual 
church  belongs.  The  particular  syn- 
ods, of  which  there  are  four.  New 
York,  Albany,  New  Brunswick,  and 
Chicago,  are  delegated  bodies  com- 
posed of  four  ministers  and  four  eld- 
ers from  each  classis  within  the 
bounds  of  each  synod.  In  1867  the 
word  "  Dutch  "  was  dropped  from  the 
corporate  name  of  the  body.  "  The 
Christian  Intelligencer,"  a  weekly 
journal  devoted  to  the  interests  of 
the  church  was  established  in  New 
York,  1828.  There  are  two  theolog- 
ical seminaries,  one  at  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J.,   the  other  in  connection 


Reformed  Clinrcli 


Regeneration 


with  Hope  College,  at  Holland,  Mich. 
Statistics:  Number  of  churches,  640; 
ministers,  710;  members,  124,938. 

Reformed  Chnrch.  in  tbe 
United  States,  formerly  German 
Reformed  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  an  offshoot  of  the 
Reformed  Church  of  Germany;  The 
worship  of  the  Church  is  liturgical; 
its  government  is  presbyterian.  Re- 
ception into  the  full  communion  of 
the  Church  takes  place  by  the  rite  of 
confirmation.  Christmas,  Good  Fri- 
day, Easter,  and  Whitsunday  are  ob- 
served Avith  much  solemnity.  Eleven 
English  and  five  German  papers  are 
published  in  the  interest  of  the 
Church;  and  there  are  16  theological 
and  literary  iiistitutions  under  its 
control.  Statistics:  Number  of 
churches,  1,670;  ministers,  1,180; 
members,  292,654. 

Reformed  Episcopal  Chnrch,  a 

denomination  organized  by  members 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
who  differed  with  it  in  certain  mat- 
ters of  church  practice  and  discipline. 
Statistics:  Churches,  87;  ministers, 
84;  members,  9,682. 

Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church,  or  Cameronians,  a  body  of 
Christians  who  profess  to  hold  the 
principles  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
at  the  period  of  the  second  Reforma- 
tion, between  1638  and  1650.  Long 
an  independent  body,  most  of  them 
were  merged  in  the  Free  Church  in 
1876. 

Refraction.  When  a  beam  of 
light  traveling  in  a  transparent  medi- 
um, impinges  obliquely  upon  the  sur- 
face of  another  transparent  medium, 
what  occurs  in  the  vast  majority  of 
cases  is  that  a  part  of  it  is  reflected, 
and  a  part  of  it  enters  the  .second  medi- 
um, but  in  so  doing  is  "  refracted " 
or  bent  out  of  its  fonner  course.  If, 
fo*"  exa^mple,  the  light  travel  in  air 
and  impinge  obliquely  on  glass,  the 
course  of  the  refracted  portion  is  bent 
so  that  the  refracted  light  travels  more 
directly  or  less  obliquely  through  the 
glass;  and,  conversely,  if  the  light 
travel  in  glass  and  impinge  on  an  air 
surface,  the  portion  which  is  refract- 
ed into  the  air  will  travel  through  the 
air  more  obliquely  with  respect  to  the 
refracting  surface  than  the  original 
light  had  approached  it.     The  law  of 


refraction  was  discovered  by  Snell 
in  1621,  and  is  the  following:  The 
refracted  ray  is  in  the  same  plane  with 
the  incident  and  the  reflected  ray,  and 
is  therefore  in  the  "  plane  of  inci- 
dence," and  the  sine  of  the  angle  of 
incidence  bears  to  the  sine  of  the  angle 
of  refraction  a  ratio  which  remains 
constant,  for  any  two  media,  what- 
ever be  the  angle  of  incidence. 

Refuge,  Cities  of,  in  Jewish  law 
and  history,  six  Levitical  cities  di- 
vinely appointed  as  places  of  refuge 
to  one  who  had  committed  manslaugh- 
ter, and  was  pursued  by  the  "  Re* 
venger  "  or  "  Avenger  "  of  Blood.  If 
the  case  was  proved  to  be  one  of  mur- 
der, the  perpetrator  might  be  taken 
from  the  City  of  Refuge  and  put  to 
death ;  if  it  was  only  manslaughter, 
the  i-efugee  had  to  remain  in  the  city 
to  which  he  had  fled  till  released  by 
the  death  of  the  high  priest. 

Refugee,  a  word  that  probably 
came  into  existence  when  the  Protest- 
ants under  Louis  XIV.  escaped  from 
their  oppressors  to  other  lands,  and 
a  word  was  needed  to  describe  the 
circumstances  of  their  case.  It  is 
applied  also  to  one  who  takes  refuge ; 
one  who  flees  to  a  place  of  refuge  or 
shelter,  and  to  one  who  flies  for  ref- 
uge in  time  of  persecution  or  political 
commotion  to  a  foreign  country. 

Regalecns,  the  deal-fish.  Each  ven- 
tral fin  is  reduced  to  a  long  fila- 
ment, dilated  at  the  extremity,  some- 
what like  the  blade  of  an  oar,  whence* 
they  have  been  called  oar  fishes ;  cau- 
dal rudimentary  or  absent.  Range 
wide;  they  have  been  taken  in  the 
Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans,  the  Medi- 
terranean and  on  the  cOast  of  New 
Zealand.  They  are  sometimes  called 
king  of  the  herrings,  from  the  erro- 
neous notion  that  they  accompany 
shoals  of  the  latter   fish. 

Regalia,  the  ensigns  of  royalty,  in-' 
eluding  more  particularly  the  appara- 
tus of  a  coronation. 

Regatta,  originally  a  gondoja  race 
held  annually  with  great  pomp  in  Ven- 
ice, and  now  applied  to  any  important 
sailing  or  rowing  race,  in  which  a 
number  of  j-achts  or  boats  contend 
for  prizes. 

Regeneration,  in  biology,  the  gen^ 
esis  or  production  of  new  tissue  to 
supply  the  place  of  an  old  texture  lost 


Regina 

or  removed.  In  some  of  the  infe- 
rior animals  an  organ  or  a  limb  can 
thus  be  supplied;  in  man  regeneration 
is  much  more  limited  in  its  operation. 
Thus,  when  a  breach  of  continuity 
takes  place  in  a  muscle,  it  is  repaired 
by  a  new  growth  of  connective  tissue. 
In  Scripture,  regeneration  is  the  state 
of  being  born  again,  i.  e.,  in  a  spirit- 
ual   manner. 

Regina,  city  and  capital  of  the 
Province  of  Saskatchewan,  Canada; 
on  branches  of  the  Canadian  Pacific, 
Canadian  Northern,  and  Grand  Trunk 
railways;  356  miles  N.  W.  of  Winni- 
peg; is  the  trade  center  of  one  of  the 
most  prolific  wheat-growing  regions  of 
the  Dominion;  is  surrounded  by  noted 
himting  grounds;  is  the  headquarters 
of  the  famous  Northwest  Mounted 
Police;  and.  besides  its  large  farm 
trade,  has  manufactories  of  lumber, 
foundry  products,  bricks,  and  flour. 

Regiomontanns,  a  German  as- 
tronomer, whose  real  name  was  Jo- 
hann  Muller ;  born  in  Konigsberg,  in 
Franconia,  June  6,  1436.  In  1471 
he  built  an  observatory  at  Nu- 
remberg, but  he  returned  to  Rome  on 
the  invitation  of  Sixtus  IV.,  who  em- 
ployed him  in  the  reformation  of  the 
calendar.  His  "Kalendarium  No- 
vum"  (New  Calendar)  is  believed  to 
be  the  first  almanac  issued  in  Eu- 
rope.   He  died  July  6,  1746. 

Register,  a  device  for  automat- 
ically indicating  the  number  ^f  revo- 
lutions made  or  amount  of  work  done 
by  machinery ;  or  recording  steam,  air, 
or  water  pressure,  or  other  data,  by 
means  of  apparatus  deriving  motion 
from  the  object  or  objects  whose  force, 
distance,  velocity,  direction,  eleva- 
tion, or  numerical  amount  it  is  de- 
sired to  ascertain.  In  music,  the  com- 
pass of  a  voice  or  instrument,  or  a 
portion  of  the  compass  of  a  voice;  as 
the  upper,  middle,  or  lower  register. 
Also,  an  organ  stop,  or  the  knob  or 
handle  by  means  of  which  the  per- 
former commands  any  given  stop. 

Regnard,  Jean  Francois,  a 
French  comic  dramatist;  born  in 
Paris,  in  February,  1655.  By  com- 
mon consent  his  rank  in  France  is 
second  to  Moliere  only.  He  died  near 
Dourdan,  France,  Sept.  4,  1709. 

Regular  Clergy,  the  term  applied 
in    the    Roman    Catholic    Church    to 


Reicliexibacli 

priests  who  have  taken  the  vows,  and 
who  are  bound  to  follow  the  rules  of 
some  monastic  order,  as  opposed  to  the 
secular  clergy,  that  is,  parish  priests, 
etc.,  not  connected  with  any  of  the 
orders. 

Regrnlns,  the  star  Alpha  Leonis,  the 
brightest  in  the  constellation  of  the 
Lion. 

Regains,  Marcus  Attilins,  a  Ro< 
man  general,  celebrated  for  his  pa- 
triotism and  devotion  in  the  service  of 
his  country.  Made  consul  a  second 
time  about  256  b.  c,  with  his  col- 
league, Manlius  Vulso,  he  commanded 
in  the  first  war  against  Carthage. 
Takea  prisoner  by  the  Carthaginians, 
he  was  sent  to  Rome  with  an  em- 
bassy, that  peace  might  be  procured 
on  favorable  terms,  and  bound  Him- 
self by  an  oath  to  return  if  the  terms 
were  rejected.  He,  however,  consid- 
ered it  his  duty  to  advise  the  continu- 
ance of  the  war;  which,  being  deter- 
mined on,  no  entreaties  or  supplica- 
tions could  prevent  him  from  fulfilling 
his  solemn  engagement ;  and  the^  Car- 
thaginians, on  his  return,  put  him  to 
a  cruel  death. 

Rehan  (originally  Crehan),  Ada, 
an  American  actress ;  born  in  Limer- 
ick, Ireland,  April  22,  1860.  In  1865 
she  came  with  her  parents  to  the 
United  States.  She  first  appeared  on 
the  stage  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  when  14 
years  old,  but  afterward  returned  to 
her  studies  for  a  year.  She  then  ap- 
peared in  Philadelphia,  and  later  in 
New  York.  In  1879  she  joined  Au- 
gustin  Daly's  company.  She  frequent- 
ly played  before  London  audiences, 
and  also  in  France  and  in  Germany. 

Reicb,  Jacqnes,  an  American  etch- 
er; born  in  Waniskoltz,  Hungary, 
Aug.  10,  1852;  settled  in  the  United 
States  in  1873 ;  became  skilled  in  pen- 
and-ink  drawings  and  in  the  etching 
of  portraits  on  copper;  removed  to 
New  York  in  1885.  His  important 
work  includes  a  series  of  portraits 
of  American  and  English  authors  and 
other  prominent  persons ;  a  half  life- 
size  plate  of  President  Roosevelt;  and 
a  large  etching  of  J.  Pierpont  Morgan. 

Relclienbacli,  Charles,  Baron 
von,  a  German  scientist ;  born  Feb. 
12,  3788;  died  in  1869.  He  gave  his 
attention  to  animal  magnetism  in  con- 
nection with  which  he  believed  he  had 


Keiclisraili 

discovered  a  new  force  called  Od,  re- 
garding which  he  published  various 
works.  Among  his  chemical  discov- 
eries were  paraflSn  and  creosote. 

ReichsTath,  the  representative 
council  of  the  empire  of  Austria  (q.  v.) 

Beichstadt,  Duke  of.  See  Na- 
poleon II. 

Reichstag,  the  representative  legis- 
lative body  of  the  German  nation 
as  a  whole,  as  the  Bundesrath  is  of 
the  separate  German  States.  ^1  laws 
of  the  empire  must  receive  the  votes 
of  an  absolute  majority  of  the  Reich- 
stag and  the  Bundesrath.  The  presi- 
dent of  the  Reichstag  is  elected  by 
the  deputies.    See  German  Empire. 

Reid,  Mayne,  a  British  novelist; 
born  in  North  Ireland,  in  1818.  His 
love  of  adventure  took  him  to  Mexico 
and  then  to  the  United  States,  where 
he  traveled  extensively  as  hunter  or 
trader;  he  joined  the  United  States 
army  in  1845  and  fought  in  the  Mex- 
ican War.  He  afterward  returned 
to  London,  where  he  became  well 
known  as  a  writer  of  thrilling  juve- 
nile stories,  many  of  them  based  on 
his  American  experiences.  He  died 
near  London,  Oct.  22,  1883. 

Reid,  Samuel  Chester,  an  Amer- 
ican naval  officer ;  born  in  Norwich, 
Conn.,  Aug.  25,  1783.  He  commanded 
the  American  privateer  "  General 
Armstrong,"  and  repulsed  the  British 
attack  in  the  harbor  of  Fayal,  Azore 
Islands,  Sept.  26,  1814,  the  enemy 
having  three  vessels  with  2,000  men 
to  his  single  vessel  with  90  men.  Dur- 
ing 10  hours'  fighting,  the  British 
lost  300  killed  and  wounded  and  the 
Americans  two  killed  and  seven 
wounded.  He  was  made  harbormaster 
and  warden  of  the  port  of  New  York, 
invented  a  signal  telegraph,  reorgan- 
ized the  pilot-boat  system,  and  estab- 
lished a  lightship  off  Sandy  Hook.  He 
designed  the  present  form  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  flag,  suggesting  the  reten- 
tion of  the  original  13  stripes  and 
the  addition  of  a  star  for  each  new 
State.  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
Jan.  28,  1861. 

Reid,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  philos- 
opher ;  born  in  Strachan,  Scotland, 
April  26,  1710.  In  1764  he  published 
his  weil-known  work,  "  An  Inquiry 
Into  the  Human  Mind  on  the  Prin- 
ciples of  Ck>mmon  Sense."  The  same 


Reindeer 

year  he  succeeded  Adam  Smith  as 
Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy,  in 
Glasgow  University,  a  position  which 
he  occupied  till  1781.  He  was  the 
earliest  expounder  of  what  is  known 
as  the  Scotch  school  of  philosophy, 
in  which  he  was  followed  by  Dugald 
Stewart  and  Sir  William  Hamilton. 
His  doctrines  were  adopted  also  by 
several  eminent  French  philosophers. 
He  died  Oct.  7,  1796. 

Reid,  Whitelaw,  an  American  ed- 
itor ;  born  in  Xenia,  O.,  Oct.  27,  1837. 
He  graduated  at  Miami  University 
in  1856;  was  on  the  editorial  staff 
of  several  leading  Ohio  papers  and 
was  war  correspondent ;  in  1869  be- 
came managing  editor  of  the  New 
York  "Tribune,"  and,  after  1872, 
editor-in-chief  and  in  financial  con- 
trol. He  twice  declined  appointment 
as  minister  to  Germany ;  and  was  min- 
ister to  France  in  1889-1892,  where 
he  negotiated  valuable  reciprcfcity 
treaties.  In  1892  he  was  the  unsuc- 
cessful Republican  candidate  for  Vice- 
President.  He  represented  the  Unit- 
ed States  at  Queen  Victoria's  jubilee  in 
1897;  was  a  member  of  the  American- 
Spanish  Peace  Commission  in  1898: 
the  special  ambassador  of  the  United 
States  at  the  coronation  of  King  Ed- 
ward VII.  in  1902;  and  ambassador  to 
Great  Britain  from  1905  till  his  death 
in  London,  Dec.  15,  1912.  His  re- 
mains were  borne  to  New  York  on  the 
British  cruiser  "Natal." 

Reighard,  Jacob  EUsxrorth,  an 

American  educator ;  born  in  Laporte, 
Ind.,  July  2,  1861 ;  was  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Michigan  in  1882; 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  biological 
survey  of  the  Great  Lakes  for  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission  in 
1898;  and  accepted  the  chaii  of  zo- 
ology at  the  University  of  Michigan 
in  1892.  He  is  the  author  of  many 
scientific  papers. 

Reign  of  Terror,  a  period  of  the 
French  Revolution,  conspicuous  for 
its  horrors  and  cruelties.  It  is  gen- 
erS.lly  considered  to  extend  from  Jan. 
21,  1793,  the  date  of  the  execution  of 
Louis  XIV.,  to  July  28,  1794,'  when 
Robespierre  and  other  sanguinary 
leaders  were  guillotined  on  the  spot 
where  their  victims  had  been  killed. 

Reindeer,  the  only  domesticated 
species  of  the  deer  family.    It  extends 


Reindeer  Moss 


Religious  Liberty 


over  the  boreal  regions  of  both  hemi- 
spheres, and  runs  into  several  well 
marked  varieties.  Many  authors  con- 
sider the  American  reindeer  or  cari- 
bou, which  has  never  been  domesticat- 
ed, as  a  distinct  species.  Both  the  male 
and  female  have  antlers,  and  these 
are  not  alike  on  both  sides,  the  great 
palmated  brow  antler  being,  as  a  rule, 
developed  on  one  side  only.  In  the 
winter  the  fur  is  long,  grayish  brown 
on  the  body ;  neck,  hind-quarters,  and 
belly  white.  In  summer  the  gray  hair 
darkens  into  a  sooty  brown,  and  the 
white  parts  become  gray.  To  the 
Laplander  the  reindeer  is  the  only 
representative  of  wealth,  and  it  serves 
him  as  a  substitute  for  the  horse,  the 
cow,  the  sheep  and  the  goat.  It  is  ex- 
tensively employed  as  a  beast  of 
draught  and  carriage,  being  broken  to 
draw  sledges,  or  to  carry  men  or  pack- 
ages on  its  back.  In  1891  domestic 
reindeer  were  introduced  into  Alaska 
by  Dr.  Sheldon  Jackson  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  natives  who  frequently  suf- 
fered for  food,  and  for  purposes  of 
transportation.  In  1898  Dr.  Jackson, 
^s  agent  of  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, procured  a  colony  of  Lapland- 
ers to  train  the  natives  in  the  care  of 
the  reindeer. 

Reindeer  Moss,  a  lichen  which 
forms  the  winter  food  of  the  reindeer. 
It  is  abundant  in  the  pire  forests 
of  Lapland,  and  flourishes  even  when 
they  have  been  burnt.  Reindeer  feed 
upon  it  and  dig  for  it  when  it  is  cov- 
ered by  snow.  It  tastes  like  wheat 
bran,  but  leaves  a  slightly  burning 
sensation  on  the  palate. 

Reinhart,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
an  American  artist ;  born  near 
Waynesburg,  Pa.,  Aug.  29,  1829.  His 
most  important  works  include  the  en- 
gravings :  "  Cleopatra  "  ;  "  Washington 
Ileceiving  the  News  of  Arnold's  Trea- 
son " ;  "  After  the  Crucifixion,"  etc., 
and  numerous  portraits.  He  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  May  3,   1885. 

Reinhart,  Charles  Stanley,  an 
American  artist ;  born  in  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  May  16,  1844.  He  exhibited  « 
Paris,  Munich,  and  New  York  city, 
and  was  a  member  of  numerous  art 
associations.  He  died  in  Philadelnhia, 
Pa.,  Aug.  30,  189G. 

Reinsch,  Paul  Samuel,  an  Amer- 
ican educator ;  born  in  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  in  1869;  was  graduated  at  the 


University  of  Wisconsin  in  1892  and 
at  its  Law  Department  in  1894.  After 
studying  abroad,  he  was  made  Pro- 
fessor of  Political  Science  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin  in  1899.  His 
publications  include  "  The  Common 
Law  in  the  Early  American  Colonies  " 
(1899)  ;  "World  Politics  at  the  End 
of  the  Ninteenth  Century  as  Influ- 
enced by  the  Oriental  Situation " 
(1900);  "Colonial  Government" 
j[lIK)l)  ;  and  many  magazine  articles. 

Relapsing  Fever  (also  known  as 
Famine  Fever  and  Seven-day  Fever), 
one  of  the  three  great  species  of  con- 
tinued fever,  the  two  others  being  ty- 
phus and  typhoid. 

Release,  a  discharge  of  a  right; 
an  instrument  in  writing,  by  which 
estates,  rights,  titles,  entries,  actions, 
and  other  things  are  extinguished,  and 
discharged,  and  sometimes  transferred, 
abridged,  or  enlarged ;  and,  in  general, 
a  person's  giving  up  or  discliarging 
the  right  or  action  he  has,  or  claims  to 
have,  against  another  or  his  lands. 

Relics.  Articles  regarded  as  sacred 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek 
Churches,  such  as  the  "  Holy  Coat  of 
Treves,"  said  to  have  been  worn  by 
Christ,  alleged  pieces  of  the  cross 
on  which  Christ  was  crucified,  alleged 
bones  of  martyrs  and  other  persons 
held  in  reverence  as  saints,  etc.  It 
is  claimed  that  a  bone  alleged  to  be  of 
St.  Anne,  the  mother  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  has  effected  many  miraculous 
cures  in  New  York  city  in  1903. 

The  Greek  and  other  Oriental 
Churches,  and  most  of  the  Oriental 
sects,  agree  with  Roman  Catholics  in 
the  practice  of  relic  worship.  On  the 
contrary,  the  Reformed  Churches, 
without  exception,  have  rejected  the 
usage ;  though  non-religious  relic  wor- 
ship is  rife  enough,  in  the  form  of 
swords  of  Wallace  and  Bruce,  locks  of 
Prince  Charlie's  hair,  etc.  The  prac- 
tice of  relic  worship  forms  a  notable 
feature  of  the  Mohammedan  usage  of 
pilgrimages,  and  is  an  even  more  im- 
portant feature  of  Buddhism. 

Religions  Liberty,  or  Liberty 
of  Conscience,  is  the  recognition  and 
assertion  by  the  state  of  the  right  of 
every  man,  in  the  profession  of  opin- 
ion and  in  the  outward  forms  and  re- 
quirements of  religion,  to  do  or  ab- 
stain from  doing  whatever  his  individ- 
ual conscience  or  sense  of  right  sug- 


Rembrandt 

gests.  Religious  liberty  is  opposed  to 
the  imposition  by  the  state  of  any  ar- 
bitrary restrictions  on  forms  of  wor- 
ship or  the  propagation  of  religious 
opinions,  or  to  the  enacting  of  any 
binding  forms  of  worship  or  belief. 
The  limit  of  religious  liberty  is  neces- 
sarily the  right  of  the  state  to  main- 
tain order,  prevent  excesses,  and  guard 
against  encroachments  on  private 
right.  In  the  organization  of  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  government  which  pre- 
vailed from  Constantine  to  the  Ref- 
ormation, persecution  was  in  general 
unly  limited  by  dissent;  and  universal 
submission  to  the  dominant  Church 
became  the  condition  of  religious  peace 
throughout  Christendom,  while  relig- 
ious liberty  was  unknown.  The  con- 
test of  opinion  begun  at  the  Reforma- 
tion had  the  effect  of  establishing  re- 
ligious liberty,  as  far  as  it  at  present 
exists,  but  the  principle  itself  was  so 
far  from  being  understood  and  accept- 
!?d  in  its  purity  by  either  party  that 
i»c  hardly  suggested  itself  even  to  the 
Biost  enlightened  reasoners  of  that  age. 
While  the  American  colonies  were  de- 
pendent on  Great  Britain,  religious 
Ubei-ty  in  the  full  sense  existed  only  in 
Rhcde  Island,  toleration  in  Maryland 
having  been  limited  by  laws  which 
punished  conscientious  utterances  re- 
garding religious  dogmas  as  blas- 
phemy. For  many  years  after  inde- 
pendence the  laws  of  Massachusetts, 
New  Hampshire,  and  Connecticut  lim- 
ited religious  liberty. 

Rembrandt,  Van  Ryn,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  painters  and  engrav- 
ers of  the  Dutch  school ;  born  in  liey- 
den,  Holland,  July  15,  1606.  He  ac- 
quired his  art  from  several  masters 
at  Amsterdam,  and  early  in  life  grew 
famous,  his  studio  being  crowded  with 
pupils,  and  his  works  selling  rapidly. 
Rembrandt  was  master  of  all  that  re- 
lates to  coloring,  distribution  of  light 
and  shade,  and  composition,  and 
though  deficient  in  other  requisites  of 
a  true  artist,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
his  pencil  is  masterly  and  unique,  pos- 
sessing an  energy  and  effect  belonging 
to  no  other  painter.  His  etchings  have 
wonderful  freedom,  facility,  and  bold- 
ness. Rembrandt  was  twice  married, 
resided  during  the  greater  part  of  his 
life  at  Amsterdam,  and  acquired  a 
large  fortune.  He  died  in  Amsterdam, 
and  was  buried  Oct.  8. 1669. 


Remington 

Remenyi,  Edonard,  an  Hungar- 
ian violinist ;  born  in  Heves,  Hungary, 
in  1830.  In  1851,  after  the  Hungar- 
ian revolution,  he  was  forced  to  flee 
to  the  United  States,  but  returned  to 
Europe  in  1853.  In  1854  he  visited 
London,  where  he  was  appointed  solo 
violinist  to  Queen  Victoria.  In  1860 
he  obtained  his  amnesty  and  returned 
to  Hungary,  where  he  attained  great 
distinction.  In  1878  he  returned  to 
the  United  States,  where  he  spent 
much  of  his  time  and  gave  many  con- 
certs, though  during  these  years  he 
also  made  visits  to  other  countries. 
Died  in  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  May  15, 
1898. 

Remey,  George  Collier,  an  Amer- 
ican naval  officer ;  born  in  Burling- 
ton, la.,  Aug.  10,  1841 ;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy 
in  1859 ;  served  with  distinction  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War,  and  was  captured 
during  the  assault  on  Fort  Sumter, 
iu  1863.  When  the  war  with  Spain 
broke  out  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  naval  base  at  Key  West,  Fla. 
lie  was  promoted  rear-admiral  in  1898 
and  in  1900  was  given  command  of  the 
Asiatic  Station  at  Yokohama,  and  in 
this  capacity  directed  the  operations 
of  the  United  States  naval  forces  in 
China. 

Remington,  Pbilo,  an  American 
inventor ;  born  in  Litchfield,  N.  Y., 
Oct.  31,  1816.  He  entered  the  small 
arms  factory  of  his  father,  and  for 
25  years  superintended  the  mechanical 
department.  The  perfecting  of  the 
Remington  breech  loading  rifles  and 
of  the  Remington  tj^ewriter  was 
largely  due  to  his  inventive  skill.  He 
died  in  1889. 

Remington,  Frederick,  an  Amer- 
ican artist  and  author ;  born  in  Can- 
ton, N.  Y.,  Oct.  4,  1861 ;  was  educated 
at  the  Yale  Art  School,  and  at  the 
Art  Students'  League,  New  York.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  of 
American  artists  in  "  black  and 
white."     He  died  Dec.  26,  1909. 

Remington,  Josepb  Price,  an 
American  pharmacist ;  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  March  26,  1847;  was 
graduated  at  the  Philadelphia  College 
of  Pharmacy  in  1866;  and  became 
Professor  in  the  Pharmaceutical  Lab- 
oratory and  dean  of  the  Philadelphia 
College  of  Pharmacy  in  1893.  He  is 
a  member  of  many  American  and  for« 


Remittent  Fever 


RenaissancQ 


fiign  pharmaceutical  and  medical 
bodies,  and  author  of  "  Remington's 
Practice  of  Pharmacy." 

Remittent  Fever,  one  of  the  vari- 
eties of  fever  arising  from  malaria  or 
Harsh  poison  —  one  being  intermit- 
tent fever,  or  ague.  In  its  milder 
forms  ij  scarcely  differs  from  severe 
intermittent  fever ;  while  in  its  more 
serious  form  it  may  approximate  close- 
ly to  yellow  fever. 

Remonstrance,  The  Grand,  in 
English  history,  a  remonstrance  con- 
sisting of  206  articles,  condemning 
the  arbitrary  procedure  of  Charles  I. 
It  was  carried  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, Nov.  22,  1641,  by  a  majority  of 
11,  and  presented  to  the  king  Dec.  1. 

Remonstrants,  a  name '  given  to 
the  Dutch  Protestants,  who,  after  the 
death  of  Arminius  (a.  d.  1609)  con- 
tinued to  maintain  his  views,  and  in 
1610  presented  to  the  States  of  Hol- 
land, at  Friesland,  a  remonstrance  in 
five  articles  formulating  their  points 
of  departure  from  Calvinism.  The 
Remonstrants  still  form  a  small  but 
liberal  and  scholarly  sect  in  Holland. 

Remora,  the  sucking-fish,  or  suck- 
er. By  means  of  the  suctorial  disk, 
a  transformation  of  the  spinous  dorsaJ 
fin,  the  species  can  attach  themselves 
to  any  flat  surface.  The  adhesion  is 
so   strong   that  the  fish   can   be  dis- 


HEMOEA,  OE  SUCKER. 

lodged  only  with  difficulty ,_  unless 
pushed  forward  with  a  sliding  mo- 
tion. Being  bad  swimmers,  they  at- 
tach themselves  to  vessels,  or  to  ani- 
mals having  greater  power  of  locomo- 
tion than  themselves;  but  they  can- 
not be  regarded  as  parasites,  as  they 
do  not  obtain  their  food  at  the  expense 
of  their  host. 

Remsen,  Ira,  an  American  chem- 
ist; born  in  New  York  city,  Feb.  10. 


1846;  was  graduated  at  the  College 
of  the  City  of  New  York  in  1865,  and 
later  at  the  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons,  and  at  the  University  of 
Gottingen;  was  Professor  of  Chem- 
istry at  Williams  College  in  1872- 
1876 ;  founded  the  "  American  Chem- 
ical Journal "  in  1879.  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  many  scientific  organizations 
and  societies;  and  ^he  author  of  nu- 
merous textbooks  including  "  The  Prin- 
ciples of  Theoretical  Chemistry " ; 
"  Inorganic  Chemistry  " ;  "  Chemical 
Experiments  " ;  etc. ;  became  Profes- 
sor of  Chemistry  at  Johns  Hopkins 
University  in  1876,  and  succeeded  Dr. 
Daniel  Coit  Oilman  as  president  there 
in  1901. 

Remus,  the  twin  brother  of  Rom* 
ulus,  who  was  the  fabled  founder  of 
Rome.  According  to  the  old  myth, 
Romulus  killed  his  brother. 

Renaissance,  a  name  given  to  tho 
great  intellectual  movement  which 
marks  the  transition  from  the  Middle 
Ages  to  the  modem  world.  It  was  a 
change  in  attitude  of  mind  and  ideal 
of  life,  in  philosophy,  art,  literary 
criticism,  political  and  religious 
thought.  Substantially  a  revolt 
against  the  dogmatism  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  new  spirit  claimed  the  en- 
tire liberation  of  reason,  and  pas- 
sionately recognizing  and  studying  the 
rich  humanity  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
aimed  at  a  complete  rehabilitation  of 
the  human  spirit  with  all  the  free  ac- 
tivities and  arts  and  graces.  To  the 
same  impulse  belonged  also  the  in- 
vention of  printing  and  multiplica" 
tion  of  books,  new  methods  of  paper 
naking,  the  use  of  the  mariner's  com- 
pass, the  discovery  of  America,  and 
the  exploration  of  the  Indian  Sea.  No 
definite  date  can  be  given  for  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Renaissance.  Long  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  Dark  Ages  there 
were  isolated  scholars  and  thinkers 
who  anticipated  the  new  light.  In 
its  main  elements  the  movement  orig- 
inated in  Italy  toward  the  end  of  the 
14th  century,  and,  attaining  its  full 
development  there  in  the  earlier  half 
of  the  16th,  the  Renaissance  communi- 
cated itself  throughout  the  whole  of 
the  rest  of  Europe;  France,  Germany, 
England,  and  other  countries  partici- 
pating later  in  the  movement,  which 
in  each  of  them  took  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent shape. 


Itenan 


Renivicls 


Renau,  Josepli  Ernest,  a  French 
writer ;  born  in  Treguier,  France, 
Feb.  2r,  1823.  In  1862  he  was  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Hebrew,  Chal- 
dee,  and  Syriac  in  the  College  de 
France,  but  the  skeptical  views  man- 
ifested in  his  "  Life  of  Jesus  "  (18G3) , 
raised  an  outcry  against  him,  and  he 
was  removed  from  his  chair,  to  be  le- 
stored  again,  however,  in  1871.  This 
work,  the  publication  of  which  caused 
intense  excitement  throughout  Europe, 
was  the  first  part  of  a  comprehensive 
work  on  the  "  History  of  the  Origins 
of  Christianity,"  written  from  the 
standpoint  of  one  who  disbelieves  in 
the  supernatural  claims  of  Christian- 
ity. Renan's  latest  important  work 
is  the  "  History  of  the  People  of  Is- 
rael till  the  Time  of  King  David."  He 
became  a  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy in  1878.    He  died  Oct.  2,  1892. 

Renegade,  one  who  renounces  his 
religious  faith  and  adopts  another 
creed,  more  particularly  one  who  re- 
nounces Christianity  and  becomes  a 
Moslem ;  in  a  wider  sense  the  word  is 
practically  synonymous  with  traitor, 
one  who  deserts  to  the  enemies  of  his 
country ;  in  American  history  it  was 
applied  to  white  men  who  joined  the 
Indians. 

Rennet,  an  aqueous  infusion  of 
the  dried  stomach  of  the  calf.  It  is 
a  valuable  agent  in  the  coagulation  of 
the  casflin  of  milk  preparatory  to  the 
manufacture  of  cheese.  It  appears  to 
contain  a  soluble  ferment  which  acts 
directly  on  the  milk.  Also  a  variety, 
or  rather  several  sub-varieties,  of  ap- 
ple, with  more  or  less  spotted  fruit; 
ground  color  gray,  or  golden.  There 
is  a  French  and  a  Canadian  rennet ; 
called  also  a  queen. 

Reno,  Jesse  Lee,  an  American  mil- 
itary officer ;  born  in  Wheeling,  W. 
Va.,  June  20,  1823 ;  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1846;  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Mexican  War.  In  November, 
1861,  he  was  appointed  Brigadier- 
General  of  volunteers ;  distinguished 
himself  at  the  capture  of  Roanoke 
Island  and  in  the  engagements  at  New- 
bern  and  Camden ;  was  promoted  Ma- 
jor-General  of  volunteers  in  July  1862  ; 
and  was  present  in  the  actions  at 
Manassas  and  Chantilly.  He  was 
killed  at  South  Mountain,  Md.,  on 
Sept.  14,  1862,  while  leading  a  charge. 


Reno,  Jesse  AVilford,  an  Amer- 
ican inventor ;  born  in  Fort  Leaven- 
worth, Kan.,  Aug.  4,  1861 ;  son  of 
Maj.-Gen.  Jesse  L.  Reno;  was  grad- 
uated at  Lehigh  University  in  1883 
and  afterward  took  a  special  course 
in  mining  and  engineering ;  was  en- 
gaged in  mining  in  Colorado  in  1885- 
1890.  He  invented  an  inclined  eleva- 
tor or  moving  stairway  in  1892,  which 
has  since  been  largely  introduced  in 
department    stores,    etc. 

Reno,  Marcns  A.,  an  American 
military  officer;  born  in  Illinois  about 
1835;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy,  and  was  ap- 
pointed a  brevet  2d  lieutenant  in  the 
1st  Dragoons  in  1857.  He  was  pro- 
moted colonel  U.  S.  A.,  and  Brigadier- 
General,  U.  S.  v.,  for  meritorious  sei'v- 
ices  during  the  war,  in  18(J5 ;  and  was 
dismissed  from  the  service  April  1, 
1880.  In  1876  he  took  part  in  the 
campaign  against  the  Sioux  Indians, 
under  Sitting  Bull,  as  second  in  com- 
mand of  his  regiment,  in  which  Gen. 
George  A  Custer  and  nearly  all  of 
the  regiment  were  killed.  For  failing 
to  support  his  comrades  in  the  fight 
and  for  other  serious  charges  he  was 
dismissed  from  the  sei-vice.  He  died 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  March  31,  1889. 
Reno's  bravery  was  undoubted,  and 
by  many  his  dismissal  is  regarded  as 
unjust. 

Renivick,  James,  an  American 
author  and  physicist ;  born  in  Liver- 
pool, England,  May  30,  1792;  was 
graduated  at  Columbia  College,  New 
York,  in  1807.  In  1820  he  was  made 
Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physics 
in  that  college,  a  position  he  held  till 
1853.  In  1838  he  was  appointed  by 
the  United  States  government  one  of 
the  commissioners  to  explore  the  line 
of  the  boundary  between  Maine  and 
New  Brunswick.  He  wrote,  besides 
smaller  text-books  and  translations, 
"  Treatise  on  the  Steam  Engine  "  ;  sev- 
eral books  on  mechanics,  and  biogra- 
phies of  De  Witt  Clinton,  .Tay  and 
Hamilton,  and  others.  He  died  Jan. 
12,  1863. 

Renxp^ich,  James,  an  American 
architect ;  bom  in  New  York  city, 
Nov.  3,  1818 ;  son  of  the  preceding ; 
was  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in 
1836;  first  engaged  in  civil  engineer- 
ing ;  but  later  devoted  himself  to  ar- 
chitecture.     Among   the   many    build- 


Hepentanee 

ings  which  he  planne3  are  Grace 
<3hurch,  New  York  city,  completed  in  t 
1845 ;  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and 
the  Corcoran  Art  Gallery,  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. ;  the  Vassar  College 
buildings  in  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. ;  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association 
and  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  (R.  C), 
in  New  York  city.  He  died  in  New 
York  city,  June  23,  1895. 

Repentance,  the  act  of  repenting; 
the  state  of  being  penitent ;  sorrow  or  i 
regret  for  what  has  been  done  or  left  | 
undone  by  one's  self ;   especially  sor- ' 
TOW  and  contrition  for  sin.  | 

Replevin,  a  personal  action  which  j 
lies  to  recover  possession  of  goods  or  i 
•chattels  wrongfully  taken  or  detained, 
upon  giving  security  to  try  the  right ' 
to  them  in  a  court  of  law,  and  to  re- 
turn  them   if   the   suit   is   determined 
against    the    plaintiff.      Originally    a 
remedy  peculiar  to  cases  of  wrongful 
distress,    it   is    now   applicable    to   all 
cases    of    wrongful    taking    or    deten-  ( 
tion.     Also  the  writ   by  which  goods 
and  chattels  are  replevined. 

Replica,  in  the  fine  arts,  the  copy 
of  a  picture,  etc.,  made  by  the  artist 
who  executed  the  original. 

Reporting,  an  important  branch' 
of  journalism ;  the  act,  system,  or 
practice  of  making,  reports  of  meetings, 
debates,  or  the  like. 

The  methods  of  newspaper  reporting 
in  the  United  States  have  been  devel- 
oped to  a  degree  of  the  greatest  effi- 
ciency. A  first-class  reporter  com- 
mands higher  pay  than  most  editors, 
.and  some  of  the  articles  which  ap- 
pear in  the  daily_  press  are  equal,  or 
superior  in  descriptive  power  to  the 
best  efforts  of  well  known  authors. 
American  reporters  have  also  done 
honorable  and  able  detective  work  in 
saving  the  innocent  and  bringing  the 
guilty  to  punishment.  The  rapidity 
with  which  reports  of  speeches,  meet- 
ings, notable  incidents,  etc.,  are  fur- 
nished to  the  press  is  something  al- 
most incredible  to  the  uninitiated.  The 
various  press  associations  ot  the  coun- 
try are  the  principal  factors  in  the 
work  of  disseminating  the  results  of 
reportorial  work.     See  Journalism. 

Reponsse,  a  term  applied  to  a 
kind  of  ornamental  metal  work,  formed 
in  relief  by  striking  on  the  metal  from 
behind  with  a  punch  or  hammer  till 


Representatives' 


the  required  forms  are  roughly  pro- 
duced in  relief  on  the  surface ;  the 
work  is  then  finished  by  the  process 
of  chasing.  The  work  of  Benvenilto 
Cellini  (1500-1570),  in  this  branch  of 
art,  is  the  most  celebrated.  Common 
work  of  this  kind,  as  for  tea  or  coffee 
pots,  is  executed  in  pewter  and  Bri- 
tannia metal,  and  then  electrotyped. 

Repplier,  Agnes,  an  American  es 
sayist ;  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1859, 
Her  published  works,  include :  "  Booka 
and  Men  "  ;  "  Points  of  View  " ;  "  Es« 
says  in  Miniature";  ''Philadelphia: 
the  Place  and  the  People " ;  etc.  Sh© 
has  also  compiled  a  "  Book  of  Famoug 
Versew" 

Representative,  an  individual 
standing  as  a  type.  The  representa- 
tive theory  contended  for  by  Swain- 
son  and  other  quinarians  was  that  ini 
each  circle  particular  types  were  rep- 
resented. In  every  circle  of  birds,  fori 
instance,  there  were  raptorial,  inses- 
sorial,  rasorial,  grallatorial,  and  nata- 
torial types.  Any  representative  ofi 
these  was  analogous  to  the  corre- 
sponding type  in  all  other  circles. 

Representatives,  Honse  of,  one 
of  the  branches  of  the  Congress,  also 
known  as  the  Lower  House.  The  mem- 
bers of  this  branch  are  elected' direct- 
ly by  popular  vote.  In  it  is  vested  by 
the  National  Constitution  the  sola 
right  to  originate  laws  concerning  tha 
finances  of  the  country.  The  Commit- 
tee on  "Ways  and  Means  of  the  House 
is  the  original  source  of  all  tarifiE 
legislation,  and  all  bills  providing  for 
the  raising  or  expenditure  of  publia 
moneys  have  their  origin  in  the  House, 
In  each  of  these  two  forms  of  legisla- 
tion the  House  has  the  limited  co- 
operation of  the  Senate,  viz..  the  Sen- 
ate may  amend  a  tariff  bill  or  resolu- 
tion appropriatipg  public  moneys  la 
the  line  either  of  increasing  or  de- 
creasing specific  amounts.  The  House 
has  the  privilege  of  passing  on  these 
Senate  amendments,  and  if  it  declines 
to  accept  any  part  of  such  changes,  it 
is  customary  to  appoint  a  Conference 
Committee  consisting  of  an  equal 
number  of  members  from  the  House 
and  Senate,  to  whom  the  disputed 
subject  is  referred,  and  the  report  of 
this  committee  is  generally  accepted 
in  the  light  of  a  compromise  by  both 
houses.   The  membership  o£  the  Hou~3 


Representative   Gov't 


Reproduction 


is  based  on  the  population  of  the 
country  as  ascertained  decennially  by 
the  census,  and  therefore  changes 
every  ten  years. 

Representative  Govemnient, 
that  form  of  government  in  which 
either  the  whole  of  a  nation,  or  that 
portion  of  it  whose  superior  intelli- 
gence affords  a  sufficient  guarantee 
for  the  proper  exercise  of  the  privilege, 
is  called  on  to  elect  representatives  or 
deputies  charged  with  the  power  of 
controlling  the  public  expenditure,  im- 
posing taxes,  and  assisting  the  execu- 
tive in  enforcing  the  laws. 

Reprieve,  the  suspension  or  delay 
of  the  carrying  out  of  a  sentence 
generally  of  death)  on  a  prisoner.  It 
is  popularly  but  erroneously  supposed 
to  signify  a  permanent  remission,  or 
commutation  of  a  capital  sentence. 

Reprise,  in  maritime  law,  a  ship 
recaptured  from  an  enemy  or  pirate. 
If  recaptured  within  24  hours  of  her 
capture  she  must  be  restored  to  her 
owners  in  whole ;  if  after  that  period, 
she  is  lawful  prize  of  her  recaptors. 

Reprodnction,  the  term  applied 
to  the  whole  process  whereby  life  is 
continued  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion. The  simplest  forms  of  reproduc- 
tion are  found  among  the  single-celled 
plants  and  aninials.  There  we  may 
find  an  organism  like  Schizogenes, 
multiplying  by  breakage,  reproducing 
by  rupture,  presumably  when  the  cell 
has  overgrown  its  normal  size ;  in 
others  numerous  buds  are  liberated  at 
once,  as  in  Arcella  and  Pelomyxa;  in 
many,  familiarly  in  the  yeast  plant, 
one  bud  is  formed  at  a  time ;  in  most 
the  cell  divides  into  two  or  many 
daughter  cells.  The  formation  of  many 
daughter  cells  or  spores  is  little  more 
than  ordinary  division  taking  place 
repeatedly  in  rapid  succession,  and 
within  the  substance  of  the  parent 
cell — in  other  words,  in  limited  time 
and  space. 

It  has  been  shown  that  reproduction 
begins  among  single-celled  organisms 
in  a  kind  of  rupture ;  but  even  among 
the  more  complex  forms  of  life  an 
equally  crude  mode  of  reproduction 
sometimes  occurs.  The  cast-off  arm 
of  a  starfish  may  regrow  the  entire 
animal  with  a  readiness  that  suggests 
a  habit ;  some  kinds  of  worms  (e.  g., 
Nemerteans)   break  into  pieces,  each 


of  which  is  able  regrow  the  whole; 
large  pieces  of  a  sea  anemone  or  of  a 
sponge  are  sometimes  separated  ofE 
and  form  new  organisms.  It  _is  easy 
to  show  experimentally  that  parts  cut 
from  a  hydra,  a  sponge,  or  a  sea 
anemone,  from  a  seaweed,  a  moss,  or 
a  tree,  may  in  certain  conditions  grow 
into  an  entire  organism. 

But  the  usual  mode  of  asexual  re- 
production is  by  the  formation  of 
definite  buds.  When  these  buds  re- 
main continuous,  colonial  organisms 
result,  like  many  sponges,  most  hy- 
droids,  Siphonophora  like  the  Portu- 
guese man-of-war,  many  corals,  almost 
all  the  Polyzoa,  ana  many  Tunicates. 
The  runners  of  a  strawberry  and  the 
suckers  which  grow  around  a  rose 
bush  illustrate  the  same  state. 

Sexual  reproduction  in  its  fully  dif- 
ferentiated form  involves  (a)  the  dis- 
tinctness of  two  parent  organisms, 
(b)  the  formation  of  two  different 
kinds  of  reproductive  elements — e.  g. 
spermatozoa  produced  by  the  male 
and  ova  by  the  female,  and  (c)  the 
fertilization  of  the  egg  cell  by  a  male 
element.  Moreover,  the  process  of 
sexual  reproduction  also  includes  the 
sexual  union  of  the  two  parents,  or 
some  provision  of  nature  by  which  the 
perfect  fertilization  of  the  ovum  is 
secured.  In  some  cases  the  fer- 
tilized ovum  develops  in  organic  rela- 
tion with  the  mother  organism,  from 
which  it  is  eventually  separated  as  an 
embryo.  But,  while  many  organisms 
exhibit  fully  differentiated  sexual  re- 
production, and  while  the  essentials 
of  the  process  are  always  the  same, 
there  are  not  a  few  important  varia- 
tions in  detaiir 

Reproductive  maturity — the  blos- 
soming of  the  individual  life — occurs 
about  the  time  when  growth  ceases. 
In  the  lower  animals  sexual  maturity 
is  attained  relatively  sooner  than  in 
the  higher  forms;  but  there  are  many 
strange  cases  of  precocious  and  re- 
tarded reproduction.  The  physiology 
of  reproduction  must  take  account  of 
that  profound  reaction  which  affects 
the  whole  system  as  sexual  maturity 
is  attained,  of  the  various  ways  in 
which  the  reproductive  elements  are 
separated  from  the  pa.rents,  of  the 
relation  which,  alike  in  plant  and  ani- 
mal, may  be  established  between  the 
fertilized  egg  cell  and  the  mother  or- 


Aeptilia 


Republican  Party 


ganism,  and  of  the  way  in  which  an 
embryo  thus  nurtured  eventually  be- 
comes independent.  Moreover,  there 
are  often  highly  evolved  psychical  ac- 
tivities associated  with  reproduction 
— notably  the  love  between  mates  and 
between  parents  and  ofipspring. 

Reptilia,  reptiles ;  cold-blooded, 
oviparous,  or  ovovivparous,  vertebrate 
animals  having  the  skin  covered  with 
scales  or  scutes ;  heart  with  two 
auricules,  ventricular  chamber  incom- 
pletely divided.  Respiration  takes 
place  by  lungs,  respiratory  movements 
being  slow  and  irregular.  Intestinal 
tract  and  urogenital  organs  open  into 
a  common  cloaca.  When  the  appen- 
dicular parts  of  the  skeleton  are  pres- 
ent, the  sternum  is  never  replaced  by 
membrane  bone,  and  the  posterior 
sternal  ribs  are  attached  to  a  median 
prolongation  of  the  sternum.  The 
metatarsal  bones  are  not  anchylosed 
among  themselves  or  with  the  distal 
tarsal  bone.  The  foetus  is  inclosed  in 
an  amnion  and  allantois,  and  nour- 
ished from  the  vitellus. 

The  first  appearance  of  reptiles  is 
believed  to  be  indicated  by  remains  of 
a  marine  Saurian  of  Carboniferous 
age.  Proterosaurus  is  found  in  the 
Permian.  In  Mesozoie  times  the  rep- 
tilian type  appears  in  such  variety 
and  in  such  a  high  state  of  develop- 
ment that  this  era  has  been  distin- 
guished as  the  Reptilian  age.  In  the 
Trias  large  marine  Saurians  and 
Dinosaurs  are  met  with ;  more  gigan- 
tic forms  were  developed  in  the  Juras- 
sic period ;  and  the  class  attained  its 
highest  culmination  in  the  Chalk. 

Republic,  a  commonwealth ;  a  form 
of  political  constitution  in  which  the 
supreme  power  is  vested,  not  in  an 
hereditary  ruler,  but  in  the  hands 
either  of  certain  privileged  members 
of  the  community  or  of  the  whole  com- 
munity. Theoretically,  the  purest  and 
most  perfect  form  of  a  republic  is  a 
state  in  which  all  the  members  of  the 
community  meet  in  public  assembly 
to  enact  laws,  and  transact  all  other 
national  business.  Such  a  system  is, 
however,  practicable  only  in  very 
small  _  states.  Therefore  it  has  given 
way  in  all  modern  republics  to  the 
representative  system — that  is,  one 
in  which  the  supreme  power  is  vested 
in  rulers  chosen  periodically  by  and 
from  the  whole  body  of  the  people,  or 


by  their  representatives  assembled  in 
a  congress  or  national  assembly,  as  in 
the  present  French  republic.  The  re- 
publics of  Venice  and  Genoa  were  ex- 
clusive oligarchies,  the  supreme  power 
being  vested  in  the  nobles  or  a  few 
priviledged  persons.  The  republics  of 
the  United  States  and  Switzerland  are 
federal  republics — that  is,  composed 
of  a  number  of  separate  states  bound 
together  by  compact,  subject  to  a 
central  government  for  all  national 
purposes,  but  having  powers  of  self- 
government  in  matters  affecting  indi- 
didual  states. 

Republican  Party,  one  of  the  two 

great  political  parties  in  the  United 
States.  The  term  Republican  has  had 
at  different  times,  different  significa- 
tions. In  1792  a  faction  of  the  Anti- 
Federalists,  advocating  more  direct 
control  of  the  government  by  the  peo- 
ple, further  restriction  of  supreme 
authority,  and  a  stronger  emphasis  of 
States  Rights,  began  to  be  known  as 
the  Republican  Party.  This  party 
was  increased  by  numbers  of  voters 
who  called  themselves  Democrats  on 
account  of  their  sympathy  with  the 
French  Jacobins.  The  combination 
was  known  officially  as  the  Democrat- 
ic-Republican party.  Those  members 
having  centralizing  tendencies  having 
seceded,  the  term  Democratic  was 
alone  retained.  This  name,  as  the 
title  of  a  National  party  was  first  used 
in  1825,  the  election  of  1828  being  the 
first  in  which  it  appeared,  at  that 
time  opposing  the  original  holders  of 
the  hame.  The  name  Republican,  as 
the  title  of  a  party  went  out  of  use 
after  the  election  of  1824,  but  was  re- 
sumed in  1856,  during  the  administra- 
tion of  Mr.  Pierce  (1853-1857).  Its 
platform  rested  mainly  on  the  prohibi- 
tion of  slavery  in  the  Territories,  de- 
claring that  freedom  was  the  public 
law  of  the  national  domain ;  the  pro- 
hibition of  polygamy,  which  it  classed 
with  slavery  as  "the  twin  relic  of  bar- 
barism" ;  and  the  admission  of  Kan- 
sas as  a  free  State.  In  1856  the  party 
fairly  divided  the  country  with  its 
Democratic  competitor.  In  June  of 
that  year  its  convention  met  at  Phila- 
delphia and  nominated  John  C.  Fre- 
mont for  President.  Mr.  Buchanan, 
the  Democratic  candidate  was  elected, 
11  of  the  States  voting  for  General 
Fremont.     The  decision  in  the  Dred 


Republican    Party 


Republican   Part> 


Scott  Case  and  tbe  progress  of  events 
in  Kansas  greatly  strengthened  the 
party,  and  after  the  divisions  among 
the  Democrats  over  the  same  question 
the  success  of  the  Republicans  was  as- 
sured. In  18G0  the  party  elected  Abra- 
ham Lincoln  President,  who  received 
the  electoral  votes  of  the  free  States 
except  New  Jersey.  On  the  announce- 
ment of  his  election  the  Southern 
States  prepared  to  secede,  South  Car- 
olina leading,  followed  by  10  others. 
Mr.  Lincoln  was  inaugurated  March 
4,  1801.  He  asserted  that  there  was 
no  right  to  interfere  with  slavery  in 
the  United  States  where  it  existed,  and 
acknowledged  that  of  the  reclamation 
of  fugitive  slaves ;  but  he  expressed 
his  determination  to  execute  the  laws 
and  protect  public  property.  The  con- 
duct of  the  Civil  War  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Republican  party,  though 
northern  Democrats  formed  a  large 
proportion  of  the  Union  army. 

In  18G4  Mr.  Lincoln  was  unani- 
mously nominated  by  the  Republicans, 
and  was  reelected  by  an  overwhelming 
majority.  On  the  14th  of  April,  1865, 
Mr.  Lincoln  was  assassinated,  and 
died  the  next  day.  Andrew  Johnson, 
the  Vice-President,  immediately  suc- 
ceeded him,  and  continued  his  cabinet. 
Mr.  Johnson  had  been  a  loyal  Union 
man  of  Tennessee  and  was  chosen  in 
view  of  the  reconstruction  of  the 
South.  He  soon  disagreed  with  the 
party  and  came  into  actual  conflict 
with  Congress.  He  was  impeached 
March  23,  1868,  but  acquitted  May  16, 
and  26  for  lack  of  a  vote  of  two-thirds 
for  conviction.  Chief-Justice  Chase 
presided  at  this  trial.  In  1868  Ulys- 
ses S.  Grant  was  elected  President. 
His  election  was  urged  on  the  ground 
that  the  Republican  party,  having  suc- 
cessfully finished  the  war,  maintained 
public  credit,  abolished  slavery,  and 
secured  liberty,  was  the  proper  one  to 
carry  on  the  government.  General 
Grant  was  chosen  for  a  second  term 
by  a  largely  increased  electoral  vote, 
and  was  succeeded  by  R.  B.  Hayes  in 
1876,  the  election  of  the  latter  being  de- 
clared by  the  electoral  commission 
(q.  v.).  James  A.  Garfield  was  elect- 
ed President,  and  died  Sept.  19,  1881, 
from  wounds  inflicted  July  2.  and 
Chester  A.  Arthur,  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent, took  his  place.  In  1884  there 
arose  a   considerable   defection    from 


the  party  ranks  many  declining  to  vote 
for  James  G.  Blaine,  the  regular  nom- 
inee. As  a  result  Grover  Cleveland, 
the  Democratic  candidate  was  chosen. 
In  1888  the  party  again  triumphed 
in  the  Natioral  election,  Benjamin 
Harrison  defeating  Grover  Cleveland 
on  the  tariff  issue.  In  1892  the  party 
was  defeated  by  the  second  election  of 
Grover  Cleveland  and  a  Democratic 
Congress.  In  1894  it  again  came  into 
power  in  Congress  by  signal  majori- 
ties carrying  even  Kentucky  and  other 
Democratic  strongholds;  and  in  1896 
regained  all  branches  of  the  govern- 
ment by  the  election  of  William 
McKinley,  who  was  re-elected  in  1900. 
On  his  assassination,  Sept.  14,  1901, 
he  was  succeeded  by  Theodore  Roose- 
velt, Vice-President,  who  was  elected 
President  in  1904  by  an  overwhelm- 
ing majority,  defeating  Alton  B.  Par- 
ker, the  Democratic  candidate. 

In  1908  the  Republican  Party  was 
again  successful  in  electing  its  candi- 
date, William  H,  Taft,  who  defeated 
the  Democratic  nominee,  William 
Jennings  Bryan,  who  had  been  named 
for  the  third  time  by  that  party.  Presi- 
dent Taft's  first  official  act  was  to  sum- 
mon Congress  in  extra  session  to  deal 
with^  several  important  subjects.  Dur- 
ing the  session,  which  closed  June  25, 
1910,  Congress  passed  a  new  tariff 
bill ;  placed  railroad  rate  making,  and 
telegraph  and  telephone  companies  un- 
der government  control ;  imposed  a 
special  tax  on  corporations ;  created  a 
Commerce  Court ;  adopted  a  postal 
telegrnph  bill ;  authorized  the  admis- 
sion of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  into 
the  Union  ;  created  a  bureau  of  mines ; 
and  established  rigid  rules  for  the  pre- 
vention of  collisions  at  sea.  The 
party  suffered  heavy  defeat  through- 
out the  country  in  1910,  when  the 
Democratic  party  secured  control  of 
the  National  House  of  Representatives. 
Later  notable  events  of  this  adminis- 
tration were  the  attempts  to  negotiate 
a  reciprocal  trade  agreement  with 
Canada  and  a  general  arbitration 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  and  France; 
the  passage  of  a  Panama  Canal  bill,  in 
whi-h  American  shipping  was  espe- 
cially favored,  and  under  which  Great 
Britain  file!  two  protests;  intervention 
in  Nicaragua  to  suppress  the  revolu- 
tion of  1912;  the  visit  of  Secretary  of 


Reservation 

State  Knox  to  the  Central  American 
republics  and  to  Japan  as  special  am- 
bassdor  at  the  funeral  of  the  Mikado; 
the  employment  of  the  army  along 
the  Rio  Grande  to  safeguard  American 
lives  and  property  against  the  Mexican 
revolutionists;  and  the  revolt  in  the 
Republican  party,  leading  to  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Progressive  Party 
Xq-  v.)  and  its  nomination  of  former 
President  Roosevelt  (see  Roosevelt, 
Theodore;  Taft,  William  Howard). 
Both  of  these  candidates  were  de- 
feated by  the  Democratic  candidate, 
Gov.  Woodrow  Wilson. 

Reservation,  Papal,  the  privilege, 
introduced  by  John  XXII.  and  con- 
tinued by  Clement  VI.  and  Gregory 
XI.,  of  reserving  to  the  Holy  See  the 
power  of  electing  bishops,  formerly 
possessed  by  the  clergy  and  people  of 
the  several  cities.  Reservations  were 
abolished  by  the  Council  of  Constance, 
March  5,  1436. 

Reserve,  in  military  usage,  a  body 
of  troops  kept  for  any  emergency ; 
that  portion  of  an  army  drawn  up 
for  battle  which  is  reserved  to  sup- 
port the  other  lines  as  occasion  re- 
quires. 

Reserve  Forces,  those  troops 
which,  by  the  terms  of  their  engage- 
ment with  the  State,  compulsory  or 
otherwise,  are  liable  to  be  at  once 
recalled  to  the  field  army  in  case  of 
war.  In  the  United  States  the  Na- 
tional Guard  is  subject  to  call  for 
immediate  duty. 

Reservoir,  Jerome  Paris,  An 
artificial  reservoir  which  when  com- 
pleted will  form  part  of  the  water- 
works system  of  New  York  City. 

The  Jerome  Park  reservoir,  as  the 
new  storage  basin  is  called,  is  located 
on  a  lofty  ridge,  which  runs  N.  and 
S.  between  the  valleys  in  which  are 
located  the  New  York  and  Putnam 
and  the  Harlem  railroads.  The  site  is 
admirably  adapted  by  nature  for  the 
excavation  of  a  large  artificial  basin ; 
for  at  this  point  there  is  a  general  de- 
pression in  the  summit  of  the  ridge, 
and  the  labor  of  excavating  and  em- 
banking the  reservoir  has  been  pro- 
portionately lessened.  The  greatest 
length  of  the  reservoir  in  a  N.  and  S. 
direction  is  a  little  over  one  mile,  and 
its  greatest  width  half  a  mile,  its  area 


Resin 

being  229  acres.  The  whole  of  the 
bottom  is  being  excavated  to  a  uni- 
form depth  of  26^2  feet. 

Though  the  total  amount  of  excava- 
tion is  greatly  lessened  by  the  natural 
depression  of  the  ground,  there  is  no 
point  where  it  is  carried  less  than  16 
feet  below  the  natural  surface,  the 
bottom  of  the  finislied  reservoir  being 
everywhere  311,^  feet  below  the  top 
of  the  embankment. 

The  present  estimate  for  the  total 
excavation  is  6,900,000  cubic  vards 
of  material,  of  which  3,900,000  is 
earth  and  3.000,000  is  solid  rock.  Of 
this  total  2,286,000  cubic  yards  of 
earth  have  been  taken  out  and  1,647,- 
000  yards  of  rock,  so  that  something 
less  than  two-thirds  of  the  work  has 
been  completed.  The  capacity  of  the 
E.  basin  is  1,085,000,000  gallons,  and 
the  capacity  of  the  W.  basin  765,000,- 
000,  making  a  total  of  1,850,000,000 
gallons.  The  excavation  of  the  W.  side 
of  the  reservoir  was  completed  in 
1901,  and  in  the  spring  of  1904  the 
process  of  concreting  and  finishing 
was  completed.  The  total  cost  of  the 
finished  work  will  be  $5,840,000. 

Residence.  The  length  of  time 
which  a  person  shall  remain  within 
the  limits  of  a  State  in  order  to  give 
him  a  legal  residence  there,  varies  in 
the  different  commonwealths,  each  gov- 
ernment being  the  judge  of  the  qualifi- 
cations necessary  to  entitle  a  denizen 
to  claim  permanent  residence  within 
its  boundaries.  An  alien  who  desires 
to  become  a  naturalized  citizen  of  the 
United  States  must  prove  a  residence 
of  five  years  in  the  country  previous 
to  admittance  to  the  right  of  adoption. 

Resin,  or  Rosin,  a  widely  distribu- 
ted class  of  vegetable  substances,  char- 
acterized by  being  insoluble  in  water, 
soluble  to  different  degrees  in  alcohol, 
ether,  and  liquid  hydrocarbons,  soften- 
ing or  melting  at  a  moderate  heat, 
and  at  a  higher  temperature  burning 
with  a  smoky,  luminous  flame.  In  the 
crude  condition  they  form  amorphous 
masses,  having  a  conchoidal  fracture, 
and  are,  either  neutral  or  acid.  Some 
are  employed  in  medicine,  others  in 
the  preparation  of  varnishes,  sealing 
wax,  and  similar  substances.  Resins 
are  also  constituents  of  the  substances 
known  as  gum-resins,  and  of  the  me- 
dicinal preparations  called  balsams,  as 
balsams  of  Peru  and  Tulu. 


iflesonance 


Respiration 


Resonance,     or    Resonancy,     in 

acoustics,  (1)  Sound  reflected  by  a 
surface  less  than  112.5  feet  from  the 
spot  whence  it  originally  traveled. 
The  direct  and  the  reflected  sounds 
are  confounded,  but  the  one  strength- 
ens the  other.  Bare  walls  tend  to  be 
resonant;  walls  hung  with  tapestry 
are  not  so.  (2)  The  increase  of  sound 
produced  by  a  sounding  board,  or  by 
the  body  ,of  a  musical  instrument.  In 
medicine,  a  more  or  less  shrill  sound 
heard  by  auscultation  in  the  larynx 
or  lungs  of  a  person  speaking,  or  of 
one  affected  with  chest  disease. 

Respiration,  a  part  of  the  life  of 
all  organisms,  animal  and  vegetable. 
It  is  a  series  of  chemical  changes,  the 
first,  of  which  is  the  absorption  of 
oxygen  into  the  body,  and  the  last,  of 


BROnCHIAL^ 


THE   TRACHEA     (WINDPIPE)  ,    BRONCHI, 
AND  ONE  OF  THE  LUNGS  IN  SECTION. 

which  is  the  excretion  of  carbonic 
acid.  The  respiration  of  plants  comes 
under  the  head  of  vegetable  physi- 
ology, and  the  general  relation  of  the 
function  of  respiration  to  the  other 
bodily  functions,  under  physiology. 

In  all  animals  which  possess  a  blood 
stream  the  respiration  is  carried  on 

B.  126. 


by  the  simple  diffusion  of  oxygen  into 
and  of  carbonic  acid  out  of  the  blood 
through  a  thin  membrane  from  and 
into  the  air  or  water  in  which  the 
creature  lives.  The  essential  structure, 
therefore,  of  all  breathing  organs, 
lungs,  gills,  or  tracheae,  must  be  the 
same:  a  thin  membrane  exposed  on 
the  one  side  to  the  oxygen-containing 
medium,  air  or  water,  in  which  the 
animal  lives,  on  the  other  side  to  the 
blood  flowing  in  a  network  of  thin- 
walled  vessels,  so  that  the  gases  that 
have  to  pass  in  and  out  of  the  blood 
are  only  separated  from  the  air  or 
water  from  which  and  into  which  they 
have  to  pass  by  thin  partitions  —  by 
the  membranous  wall  of  the  breath- 
ing organ,  and  by  the  thin  wall  of  the 
blood  vessels. 

The  respiratory  mechanism  consists 
of  the  lungs,  a  series  of  minute  air 
chambers  with  a  network  of  capil- 
laries in  the  wall,  the  air  passages 
from  the  air  chambers  of  the  lungs  to 
the  outer  air,  and  the  chest  walls  with 
their  muscles,  which  act  like  bellows 
and  change  the  air  in  the  lungs.  Let 
us  begin  with  the  air  passages.  There 
are  first  the  nose  and  mouth ;  these 
join  the  upper  part  of  the  gullet, 
known  as  the  pharynx.  From  the 
pharynx  arises  the  windpipe  (tra- 
chea) ;  this  passes  through  the  voice 
box  (larynx)  into  the  chest  cavity; 
there  it  divides  into  two  passages  (the 
bronchi)  ;  the  bronchi  go  on  dividing 
again  and  again,  generally  into  two; 
the  ultimate  divisions  (the  bron- 
chioles) open  into  clusters  of  air 
chambers.  The  air  chambers  are  about 
•j^  inch  in  diameter.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  there  are  some  725,- 
000,000  of  them,  and  that  their  total 
surface  is  about  2,000  square  feet. 
The  walls  of  the  air  chambers  are 
formed  of  a  thin  membrane  in  which 
the  blood  and  lymph  capillaries 
ramify.  Minute  openings  lead  from 
the  air  chambers  into  the  lymph 
spaces  of  the  membrane.  The  mem- 
branous walls  are  partly  formed  of 
elastic  tissue.  It  is  this  that  gives  to 
the  lungs  their  elasticity.  The  larger 
air  passages  (trachea  and  bronchi) 
are  kept  open  by  horseshoe-shaped 
plates  or  cartilage;  muscles  stretch 
between  the  poles  of  the  horseshoe, 
complete  the  ring,  and  permit  the  size 
of  the  passages  to  vary,  at  the  samo 


Respiration 

time  resisting  over-distention  when 
the  internal  pressure  rises.  These 
larger  air  passages  are  lined  by  a 
mucous  membrane,  containing  mucous 
glands ;  the  innermost  layer  is  a" 
ciliated  epithelium ;  the  cilia  lash  up- 
ward, and  thus  keep  the  passages  free 
from  mucus  and  remove  foreign  par- 
ticles. As  the  passages  become  smaller 
they  lose  their  cartilages,  and  the 
muscles  form  a  continuous  circular 
layer. 

The  chest  is  an  air-tight  chamber 
enclosing  the  lungs  and  the  heart.  The 
walls  of  the  chest  are  formed  of  bones 
(the  ribs,  sternum,  and  backbone) 
and  muscles;  the  bones  and  muscles 
are  so  arranged  that  the  size  of  the 
chest  cavity  can  be  altered.  In  this 
way  the  chest  acts  as  a  bellows  and 
moves  air  in  and  out  of  the  lungs.  The 
ribs  are  sloped  slightly  downward, 
especially  after  an  expiration ;  when 
an  inspiration  is  taken  certain  muscles 
fix  the  upper  ribs,  and  those  muscles 
connecting  the  ribs  to  each  other  con- 
tract and  the  ribs  are  raised,  and 
thus  the  size  of  the  chest  cavity  is 
increased.  At  the  same  time  a  flat 
muscle  called  the  diaphragm,  which 
separates  the  chest  cavity  from  the 
rest  of  the  body  cavity,  and  which 
after  an  expiration  is  arched  upward 
(by  the  pressure  of  the^  abdominal 
viscera  on  it,  the  viscera  in  turn  be- 
ing pressed  on  by  the  abdominal 
walls),  forcibly  contracts,  becomes 
flatter,  and  therefore  enlarges  the  size 
of  the  chest  cavity,  forcing  the  abdom- 
inal viscera  downward  and  causing 
the  abdomen  to  protrude.  In  these 
two  ways,  then,  the  size  of  the  chest 
cavity  may  be  increased.  The  result 
of  this  enlargement  is  that  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  within  the  cavities  of 
the  lungs  is  lowered ;  air  therefore 
from  without  rushes  through  the  nos- 
trils (one  ought  not  to  breathe 
through  one's  mouth)  down  the  wind- 
pipe into  the  lungs,  and  thus  a  fresh 
supply  of  oxygen  is  intrftduced.  The 
movements  which  produce  this  i-esult 
are  known  as  the  inspiratory  move- 
ments. In  making  an  expiration  the 
reverse  effects  are  produced;  the  chest 
cavity  is  made  smaller,  the  pressure 
of  the  air  in  the  lungs  increases,  and 
some  rushes  out  through  the  nostrils 
into  the  air  till  the  pressures  inside 
and  outside  are  equalized.    An  ordi- 


Respiration 

nary  expiration  is  effected  by  the 
elasticity  of  the  lungs,  by  the  fall  of 
the  ribs,  unsupported  by  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  muscles  that  caused  an  in- 
spiratory movement,  by  the  elasticity 
of  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs  which 
were  twisted  during  inspiration,  and 
by  the  elasticity  of  the  abdominal  wall 
which  was  forced  outward  by  those 
viscera  pushed  downward  by  the 
diaphragm.  An  ordinary  inspiration 
is  therefore  the  result  of  a  number  of 
active  muscular  contractions,  while 
an  ordinary  expiration  is  the  result  of 
mere  passive  elasticity  of  the  parts 
concerned.  The  average  amount  of 
air,  in  the  case  of  an  individual  five 
feet  eight  inches  in  height,  that  goes 
in  and  out  of  the  lungs  at  each  in- 
spiration and  expiration  is  about  20 
cubic  inches ;  this  is  called  the  tidal 
air.  By  means  of  forced  inspiratory 
movements  the  ingoing  tide  may  be 
increased  by  120  cubic  inches ;  by 
means  of  a  forced  expiratioB  vhe  out- 
going tidal  air  may  be  increased  by 
90  cubic  inches.  After  the  most  forced 
expiration  possible  there  always  re- 
main within  the  lungs  about  90  cubic 
inches  of  air.  So  that  if  we  take  as 
deep  a  breath  as  possible,  and  then 
make  as  forced  an  expiration  as  we 
can,  we  shall  drive  out  120  +  20  +  90 
=  230  cubic  inches  of  air.  This  is 
termed  the  respiratory  capacity. 

The  ordinary  respiratory  movements 
differ  in  the  two  sexes  and  at  different 
periods  of  life.  In  young  children  the 
chest  is  altered  in  size  chiefly  by  the 
movements  of  the  diaphragm,  and  the 
protrusion  of  the  abdominal  wall  dur- 
ing inspiration  is  therefore  very 
marked.  In  men  also  it  is  the  dia- 
phragm which  is  chiefly  operative,  but 
the  ribs  are  also  moved.  In  women 
it  is  the  movement  of  the  nibs,  espe- 
cially the  upper  ones,  which  is  the 
most  extensive.  The  respiratory 
rhythm  is  the  relation  of  the  acts  of 
inspiration  and  expiration  to  each 
other  as  regards  time.  It  may  be  ex- 
pressed as  follows:  In.=  3,  Ex.=  4, 
pause  =  3.  The  number  of  respira- 
tions in  a  healthy  person  is  about  14 
or  18  per  minute;  it  is  greater  (near- 
ly double)  in  childhood.  It  varies 
according  to  circumstances,  exercise, 
rest,  health,  disease,  etc. ;  in  disease 
it  may  fall  as  low  as  7  oi^  rise  to  1(X) 
per  minute. 


Respondent 


ResnTTectlon 


Respondent,  in  law  the  designa- 
tion of  the  party  required  to  answer 
in  a  suit,  particularly  in  a  chancery 
Buit. 

Rest,  a  term,  applied  to  various 
kinds  of  supports;  as,  a  support  for 
a  lance  or  spear,  for  the  muzzle  of  a 
gun  in  aiming  or  firing,  for  the  top  of 
the  cue  in  billiards,  and  for  a  piece  of 
work  in  a  lathe  or  vise.  In  music,  an 
interval  of  silence  occurring  in  the 
course  of  a  movement  between  one 
sound  and  another,  hence  the  sign  in- 
dicating the  period  of  silence.  In 
physics,  absolute  rest  is  the  perma- 
nence of  a  body's  position  with  respect 
to  ideal  fixed  points  in  space ;  relative 
rest,  that  with  respect  to  surrounding 
bodies. 

Restitntion  Edict,  an  edict  pub- 
lished A.  D.  1029  by  Ferdinand  III., 
Emperor  of  Germany,  ordering  the 
Protestants  to  deliver  up  to  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  authorities  all  ecclesias- 
tical property  which  had  fallen  into 
their  hands  since  the  religious  peace 
of  Passau  established  in  the  previous 
century.  In  1648,  at  the  end  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  the  edict  was  re- 
voked. 

Restitntionists,  a  religious  sect 
in  New  England.  They  believe  that 
what  man  lost  in  the  fall  is  now  be- 
ginning to  be  restored,  and  that  every- 
thing is  to  come  back  to  its  original 
form  and  purity.  Their  Sabbath, 
therefore,  occurs  on  Saturday,  as  the 
original  day  of  worship ;  and  their 
meetings  are  held  Friday  evening,  be- 
cause it  is  Sabbath  eve. 

Restoration,  a  term  used  in  art 
to  indicate  the  renewal  or  repairing 
of  paintings,  sculptures,  buildings, 
etc.,  which  have  been  defaced  or  par- 
tially ruined.  It  includes  the  re- 
touching of  faded  and  injured  pictures, 
and  the  replacing  of  lost  limbs  or 
features  of  antique  statues.  But  in 
reference  to  architecture  its  meaning 
is  broader;  it  indicates,  first,  a  rep- 
resentation, by  picture  or  model  of  a 
ruined  structure  restored  to  its  orig- 
inal state ;  secondly,  the  rebuilding  of 
dilapidated  or  fallen  portions  of  an 
edifice;  and  thirdly,  taking  down  so- 
called  "  debased "  work  in  a  com- 
posite building,  and  replacing  it  by 
architectural  features  in  harmony 
with  the  general  style  of  the  edifice. 


Restoration,  The,  in  English  his- 
tory a  term  applied  to  the  accessioa 
of  King  Charles  II.,  in  IGGO,  after 
the  civil  war,  to  the  throne  of  Eng- 
land, after  an  interregnum  of  11 
years  and  four  months,  from  January 
30,  1G49,  (when  Charles  I.  was  be- 
headed) to  May  29,  IGGO.  In  French 
history,  the  first  restoration  begins 
May  3,  1814,  when  Louis  XVIII. 
made  his  entry  into  Paris  under  the 
protection  of  foreign  bayonets,  and 
ended  with  the  return  of  Napoleon 
from  Elba,  March  20,  1815.  The  be- 
ginning of  the  second  restoration  is 
generally  reckoned  from  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  June  18,  1815,  and  termi- 
nated on  July  29,  1830,  with  the 
abdication  of  Charles  X. 

Restorationists,  in  Church  his- 
tory, the  followers  of  Origen  in  the 
opinion  that  after  a  certain  purgation 
proportionate  to  their  delinquencies 
all  will  be  restored  to  God's  favor  and 
to  paradise.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit  held  this 
doctrine ;  at  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, it  was  taught  by  the  Anabap- 
tists and  in  the  18th  century  by  the 
Rationalists. 

Resumption,  the  return  to  specie 
payment  by  a  government.  The  Re- 
sumption Act  of  Jan.  14,  1875,  fixed 
Jan.  1,  1879,  as  the  day  on  which 
specie  payments  should  be  resumed 
by  the  United  States  government.  Re- 
sumption actually  took  place  on  Dec. 
17,  1878,  when  the  premium  on  gold 
disappeared.  In  English  law,  resump- 
tion is  the  taking  again  by  the  crown 
of  such  lands,  tenements,  etc.,  "as  on 
false  suggestion,  or  other  error,  had 
been  granted  by   letters  patent. 

Resurrection,  an  expression  de- 
noting the  revival  of  the  human  body 
in  a  future  state  after  it  has  been 
consigned  to  the  grave.  Traces  of  this 
doctrine  are  found  in  other  religions, 
in  Zoroastrianism,  and  especially  in 
later  Judaism,  but  the  doctrine  is  pe- 
culiarly Christian.  In  the  earlier 
Hebrew  Scriptures  there  is  no  men- 
tion of  it.  The  most  detailed  exposi- 
tion of  the  doctrine  is  that  of  the 
Apostle  Paul  in  I  Cor.  15.  The  infer- 
ence from  his  argument  is  that  the  soul 
will  be  clothed  with  a  new  body,  which 
he  calls  a  spiritual  body,  rather  than 
that  the  dead  body  will  be  revivified. 


Xleszke 


Reinming  Boards 


Reszke,  Edouard  de,  a  Polish 
opera  singer ;  born  in  Warsaw,  Po- 
land, Dec.  23,  1855 ;  a  brother  of 
Jean  de  Reszke.  He  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance in  Paris,  in  1876,  taking 
rank  as  a  leading  star  with  a  voice  of 
remarkable  range  and  power.  He 
made  several  visits  to  the  United 
States  filling  the  chief  roles  in  grand 
opera.  In  professional  life,  he  was 
almost  constantly  associated  with  his 
brother. 

Beszke,  Jean  de,  a  Polish  opera 
singer ;  bom  in  Warsaw,  Poland,  Jan. 
14,  1852.  His  debut  was  made  in 
Venice  in  1874,  under  the  name  of 
De  Reschi,  as  a  baritone.  In  1876  and 
in  1883  he  sang  at  the  Theatre  Fran- 
cais,  Paris ;  and  in  the  latter  year, 
his  voice  changed  to  a  tenor  of  re- 
markable scope.  He  has  made  sev- 
eral tours   in  America. 

Retainer,  a  preliminary  fee  paid 
to  a  counsel  to  secure  his  services,  or 
rather  to  prevent  the  other  side  from 
securing  them.  A  special  retainer  is  a 
fee  paid  to  secure  the  services  of  coun- 
sel for  a  particular  case.  A  general 
retainer  is  a  fee  paid  to  secure  a 
priority  of  claim  on  a  counsel's  serv- 
ices 'for  any  cause  which  the  party 
paying  the  fee  may  have  for  trial. 

Retaining  Wall,  a  wall  erected 
to  maintain  a  bank  of  earth  in  posi- 
tion, as  in  sunk  fences,  faces  of  earth- 
works, railway  cuttings,  sea-walls, 
etc. ;  strictly  speaking,  a  wall  erected 
to  hold  an  artificial  bank  in  upright 
or  nearly  upright  position. 

Retention,  in  law,  a  lien ;  the  right 
of  withholding  a  debt  or  of  retaining 
property  till  a  debt  due  to  the  person 
claiming  this  right  be  duly  paid. 

Retina,  the  net-like  expansion  of 
the  optic  nerve,  lying  between  the 
black  pigment  and  the  vitreous 
bumor  of  the  eye.  It  is  the  only  part 
immediately  concerned  in  the  act  of 
sensation. 

Retort,  a  vessel  in  whose  chamber 
an  object  is  subjected  to  distillation 
or  decomposition  by  heat,  a  neck  con- 
ducting off  the  volatile  products.  The 
retort  of  the  chemical  laboratory  is  a 
vessel  of  glass,  platinum,  porcelain,  or 
other  material.  It  is  bottle-shaped, 
baving  a  long  neck  attached,  in  which 
the  products  of  the  distillation  are 
condensed,  and  from  which  Jhey  pass 


into  the  receiver.  The  retort  of  the 
gas  works  is  a  cylinder  or  segment  of 
a  cylinder,  formed  of  clay  or  iron* 


EETOBT  "WITH  CONDENSES. 

Retreat,  a  military  operation,  in 
which  an  army  retires  before  an  en« 
emy ;  properly,  an  orderly  march,  in 
which  circumstance  it  differs  from  a 
flight.  Also  a  military  signal  given  in 
the  army  by  beat  of  drum  or  sound 
of  trumpet  at  sunset,  or  for  retiring 
from  exercise  or  from  action.  In 
Church  usage,  a  period  of  retirement 
to  a  religious  house,  for  self-examina- 
tion, meditation,  and  prayer. 

RetrieTer,  a  breed  of  dog,  trained, 
as  the  name  implies,  to  find  out  and 
bring  back  any  killed  or  wounded 
game.  The  two  varieties  of  retriever 
differ  only  in  coat ;  the  curly  coat 
should  curl  closely  and  firmly  all 
over  the  body,  the  wavy  coat  should 
fall  straight  and  thick.  The  retriever 
makes  a  very  good  watch  dog,  and 
numberless  bad  specimens  of  the 
breed  are  to  be  found  fulfilling  this 
vocation  only.  The  pure  retriever  is 
gentle  in  temper  and  easy  to  com- 
mand. 

Returning  Boards,  boards  form- 
ed to  canvass  votes  cast  in  an  elec- 
tion. They  were  created  in  some  of 
the  reconstructed  States  a  few  years 
after  the  close  of  the  Civil  War,  for 
the  purpose  of  rectifying  fraud  or  vio- 
lence that  might  be  practised  on  the 
negroes  at  the  polls.  In  1868  Arkansas 
established  the  first  returning  board. 
South  Carolina,  Louisiana  and  Flor- 
ida had  similar  boards.  The  various 
returning  boards  were  successively 
abolished  by  the  respective  State  Leg« 
islaturee. 


Reuling 


Revelation  of  St.  John 


Renling,  George,  an  American 
ophthalmologist;  born  in  Romrod, 
Germany,  Nov.  14,  1839;  was  surgeon 
in  the  Prussian  army  during  the  war 
with  Austria ;  assistant  surgeon  in  the 
Eye  Hospital  in  Wiesbaden,  in  186G- 
18G7 ;  studied  in  Paris  and  later  in 
Baltimore  and  became  physician-in- 
chief  of  the  Eye  and  Ear  Infirmary  in 
Baltimore  in  1869.  He  was  Professor 
of  Ophthalmology  in  the  University 
of  Baltimore;  Professor  of  Eye  and 
Ear  Surgery  in  Washington  Univer- 
sity, Baltimore,  Md. ;  and  Professor 
of  Eye  and  Ear  Disease  in  the  Balti- 
more Medical  College  after  1886.  He 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Heidelberg  Oph- 
thalmological  and  the  American 
Laryngological  and  Otological  So- 
cieties; eye  and  ear  surgeon  at  the 
Maryland  General  Hospital;  the 
Maryland  Home  for  the  Aged,  and  for 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  technical  pa- 
pers on,  and  invented  apparatus  for, 
eye  and  surgery. 

Reunion,  formerly  Bourbon,  an 
island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  between 
Mauritius  and  Madagascar,  115  miles 
from  each ;  area,  965  square  miles ; 
population,  173,192  — 15,219  being 
British  Indians,  4,496  natives  of 
Madagascar,  9,848  Africans  and  836 
Chinese.  It  was  annexed  by  France 
in  1643,  and  is  an  important  French 
colony,  now  sending  a  representative 
to  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  form- 
ing practically  almost  a  department 
of  France.  It  is  very  mountainous, 
the  Piton  des  Neiges  reaching  a  height 
of  10,069  feet,  and  the  Piton  de  la 
Fournaise,  an  active  volcano,  of  8,294 
feet.  The  soil  produces  tropical  prod- 
ucts, sugar  being  the  principal  crop. 
Coffee,  cloves,  and  vanilla  are  also 
grown. 

Renter,  Panl  Jnlins,  Baron,  a 
German-English  news  agent,  at  one 
time  well  known  from  the  familiar 
newspaper  heading  "  Reuter's  Tele- 
gram " ;  born  in  Cassel,  July  21,  1821. 
In  Aix-la-Chapelle  he  formed  in  1849 
an  organization  for  collecting  (partly 
by  pigeon  post)  and  transmitting  by 
telegraph  commercial  and  financial 
news ;  and  in  1851  he  transferred  his 
headquarters  to  London.  As  telegraphs 
extended  throughout  the  world  he 
multiplied  the  ramifications  of  his 
system  till  it  embraced  the  remotest 


regions.  He  even  maintained  couriers 
where  the  telegraphs  did  not  reach  — 
e.  g.,  between  Peking  and  Kiachta.  In 
1865  Renter  converted  his  business 
into  a  limited  liability  company,  and 
in  1871  he  was  made  a  baron  of  Ger- 
many. In  1872  the  Shah  of  Persia 
gave  him  the  sole  right  of  making  rail- 
ways, working  mines,  forests,  etc. —  a 
monopoly  never  made  effective,  and 
annulled  in  1889,  when  the  concession 
of  the  Imperial  Bank  of  Persia  was 
conferred  on  him.   Died  Feb.  22,  1899. 

Renterdahl,  Henry,  an  American 
naval  artist;  born  in  Malmo,  Sweden, 
Aug.  12,  1871 ;  received  an  academic 
education  at  Stockholm,  Sweden ; 
served  as  correspondent  during  the 
Spanish- American  War ;  contributed 
to  "  Harper's,"  the  "  Century,"  "  St. 
Nicholas,"  "  McClure's,"  the  London 
"  Graphic "  and  other  magazines ; 
and  in  1902  was  engaged  in  painting 
a  series  of  pictures  of  the  ravies  of 
the  world. 

Reveille,  the  signal  given  in  gar- 
risons at  break  of  day,  by  beat  of 
drum  or  sound  of  bugle,  for  the  sol- 
diers to  rise  and  the  sentinels  to  for- 
bear challenging  until  the  retreat  is 
sounded  in  the  evening. 

Revelation,  the  act  of  revealing, 
disclosing,  or  making  known  that 
which  is  secret,  private,  or  unkno'vyn ; 
disclosure.  Specifically,  the  act  of  re- 
vealing or  communicating  divine 
truth.  Also  that  which  is  revealed, 
disclosed,  or  made  known ;  specifically, 
the  Bible. 

Revelation  of  St.  John,  the  last 
book  of  the  New  Testament,  and  the 
only  distinctively  prophetic  one  given 
to  fling  back  the  veil  which  hides 
futurity  from  the  view.  Its  writer 
was  John,  the  servant  of  God,  the 
"  brother  "  and  "  companion  in  tribu- 
lation "  of  the  then  persecuted  Chrisr 
tians,  himself  an  exile  in  Patmos.  It 
was  there  he  saw  the  prophetic  visions, 
narrating  them  after  he  left  the  island. 
The  majority  of  the  Fathers  and  the 
Church  of  the  Middle  Ages  consid- 
ered, as  do  most  modern  Christians, 
that  the  author  was  Jolm  the  Apostle. 
Respecting  the  canonicity  of  this  book, 
Luther,  Carlstadt.  and  Zwingli  spoke 
of  it  disparagingly,  but  it  is  accepted 
by  Churches  of  the  Reformation,  as 
well  as  by  the  Roman  Church.    Three 


Revenue 

schemes  of  interpretation  exist :  The 
Preterist,  which  makes  the  events  pre- 
dicted now  wholly  passed ;  the  Fu- 
turist, which  regards  them  as  future, 
and  that  of  a  third  and  numerous 
school,  who  regard  the  "Visions  as  a 
historical  or  continuous  prediction  of 
the  whole  history  of  the  Church  from 
apostolic  times  to  the  consummation 
of  all  things. 

Revenne,  the  income  of  a  nation 
derived  from  taxes,  duties,  and  other 
sources,  for  public  uses. 

Revenue  Cutter,  a  small  armed 
steam  vessel,  designed  for  the  pre- 
vention of  smuggling ;  so  called  from 
the  fact  that  originally  the  vessel  was 
of  the  cutter-yacht  type.  The  United 
States  Revenue  Cutter  Service  is  a 
branch  of  the  Treasury  Department 
and  its  purpose  is,  principally,  to  en- 
force the  customs  revenue  laws.  Its 
immediate  supervision  resides  in  a 
bureau  of  the  department  known  as 
the  Division  of  Revenue  Cutter  Serv- 
ice, which  is  In  charge  of  a  chief  and 
a  number  of  assistants. 

Reverberatory  Fnrnace,  a  fur- 
nace in  which  ore,  metal,  or  other 
material  is  exposed  to  the  action  of 
flame,  but  not  to  the  contact  of  burn- 
ing fuel.  The  flame  passes  over  a 
bridge  and  then  downward  on  the  ma- 
terial, which  is  spread  on  the  hearth. 
The  reverberatory  furnace  for  copper 
has  a  furnace  chamber,  hearth,  two 
tuyeres,  and  two  cisterns,  into  which 
the  molten  results  of  the  process  are 
discharged. 

Revere,  Joseph  Warren,  an 
American  military  ofiicer ;  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  May  17,  1812 ;  was 
appointed  a  midshipman  in  the  navv 
in  1828;  lieutenant  in  1841;  took 
part  in  the  Mexican  War ;  and  re- 
signed from  the  navy  in  1850.  He 
served  in  the  Civil  War  as  colonel  of 
the  7th  New  Jersey  Volunteers  and 
afterward  as  Brigadier-General.  He 
had  command  of  a  brigade  at  Freder- 
icksburg; was  transferred  to  the 
command  of  the  famous  "  Excelsior 
Brigade,"  with  which  he  fought  at 
Chancellorsville.  He  was  censured  by 
his  superior  oflicer  after  the  engage- 
ment at  Chancellorsville ;  was  tried  by 
court-martial,  and  was  dismissed  from 
the  service  in  1863;  but  his  dismissal 
was    revoked    by    President    Lincoln,  I 


Reversion 

and  his  resignation  accepted.  He 
wrote  "  Keel  and  Saddle,"  in  which 
he  relates  many  of  his  personal  ad- 
ventures. He  died  in  Hoboken,  N.  J., 
April  20,  1880. 

Revere,  Paul,  an  American  pa- 
triot, famous  for  his  midnight  ride 
from  Boston  to  Lexington ;  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  1,  1735.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  goldsmith  from  Guernsey, 
whose  trade  he  followed  after  serving 
as  a  lieutenant  of  artillery  in  the  ex- 
pedition against  Crown  Point  (1756). 
He  also  engaged  in  copperplate  print- 
ing, and  before  the  Revolution  con- 
structed a  gunpowder  mill.  A  keen 
patriot,  he  was  one  of  the  party  that 
destroyed  the  tea  in  Boston  harbor, 
and  he  was  at  the  head  of  a  volunteer 
committee,  consisting  of  30  young  me- 
chanics, who  formed  a  secret  society 
to  watch  the  British.  When  it  was 
known  that  the  latter  intended  to 
move.  Revere  crossed  over  to  Charles- 
town,  and  April  18,  1775,  the  night 
before  Lexington  and  Concord,  at  a 
signal  rode  on  to  Lexington  and  to 
Lincoln,  rousing  the  minute-men  as 
he  went ;  at  Lincoln  he  was  stopped, 
but  a  companion  succeeded  in  reach- 
ing Concord.  His  ride  is  the  subject 
of  a  well-known  poem  by  Longfellow. 
During  the  war  he  rose  to  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  artillery ;  afterward  he  re- 
turned to  his  goldsmith's  work,  and 
in  1801  founded  the  Revere  Copper 
Company  at  Canton,  Mass.  He  died 
in   Boston,  May   10,   1818. 

Reverend,  worthy  or  deserving  of 
reverence ;  entitled  to  reverence  or  re- 
spect ;  enforcing  reverence  by  the  ap- 
pearance (applied  to  persons  and 
things).  Also  a  title  of  respect  given 
to  clergymen  and  ecclesiastics.  All 
ministers  of  religion  in  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  and  the  British 
colonies  are  given  this  title. 

Reversion,  in  law,  the  return- 
ing of  an  estate  to  the  grantor  or 
his  heirs  after  a  particular  estate  is 
ended.  An  estate  in  reversion  is  the 
residue  of  an  estate  left  in  the 
grantor,  to  commence  in  possession 
after  the  determination  of  some  par- 
ticular estate  granted  out  by  him. 
The  term  is  sometimes  improperly  ex- 
tended to  any  future  estate  in  rever- 
sion or  remainder.  Reversion  of  series, 
in  mathematics,  when  one  quantity  is 


expressed  in  terms  of  another,  by 
means  of  a  series,  the  operation  of 
finding  the  value  of  the  second  in 
terms  of  the  first,  by  means  of  a 
series,  is  called  the  reversion  of  the 
series. 

Revieir,  a  critical  notice  or  exam- 
ination of  a  new  publication;  a  criti- 
cism ;  a  critique.  Hence  a  name  given 
to  certain  periodical  publications  con- 
taining a  collection  of  critical  essays 
on  subjects  of  public  interest,  literary, 
scientific,  political,  moral,  or  theo- 
logical, together  with  critical  examina- 
tions of  new  publications.    ' 

In  law,  the  revision  of  any  inter- 
locutor, decree,  or  sentence,  against 
which  a  person  has  reclaimed  or  ap- 
pealed ;  the  power  which  a  superior 
court  has  of  reviewing  the  judgment 
of  an  inferior  court. 

Revised  Version,  a  revised  edition 
of  the  Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible. 
A  better  text  was  constructed,  manu- 
scripts being  used  which  had  been 
discovered  since  the  Authorized  Ver- 
sion had  been  made.  Revision,  not  re- 
translation,  was  aimed  at,  as  few 
alterations  as  possible  being  intro- 
duced, and  these  only  if  adopted  by 
the  votes  of  two-thirds  of  the  trans- 
lators. The  New  Testament  was  pub- 
lished in  May,  1881,  the  Old  in  May, 
1885.  Each  had  an  immediate  and 
large  sale,  but  the  Authorized  Version 
still  holds  its  place  in  most  evangeli- 
cal churches. 

Revival,  the  act  of  reviving;  the 
state  of  being  revived ;  most  commonly 
used  in  a  religious  sense.  Revivals 
occur  in  all  religions.  When  one 
takes  place  a  large  number  of  per- 
sons who  have  been  comparatively 
dead  or  indifferent  to  spiritual  con- 
siderations, simultaneously  or  in  quick 
succession  become  alive  to  their  im- 
portance, alter  spiritually  and  moral- 
ly, and  act  with  exceeding  zeal  in  con- 
verting others  to  their  views.  A  Mo- 
hammedan revival  takes  the  form  of 
a  return  to  the  strict  doctrines  of  the 
Koran,  and  a  desire  to  propagate  them 
by  the  sword.  A  Christian  minority 
living  in  the  place  is  in  danger  of  be- 
ing massacred  by  the  revivalists. 

Revival  of  Letters,  the  revival 
of  literature  after  the  apparent  death- 
blow which  it  received  when  the  bar- 
barous nations  of  the  North  destroyed 


Revolution; 

the  civilized  Rooan  empire.  It  com- 
menced in  England  feebly  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  11th  century,  and  be- 
came more  potent  in  the  14th,  15th 
and   subsequent   centuries. 

Revocation,  in  law,  the  destroying 
or  annulling  of  a  deed  or  will  which 
had  existence  till  the  act  of  revocation 
made  it  void.  The  revocation  of  a  deed 
can  only  be  effected  when  an  express 
stipulation  has  been  made  in  the  deed 
itself  reserving  this  power.  The  re- 
vocation of  a  will  can  be  made  in 
four  different  ways:  (1)  by  another 
will;  (2)  by  intentional  burning,  or 
the  like;  (3)  by  the  disposition  of 
the  property  by  the  testator  in  his 
lifetime ;  (4)  by  marriage. 

Revoil,  Benedict  Henri,  a 
Erench  novelist  and  dramatist ;  bom 
in  Aix,  Bouches-du-Rhone,  France, 
Dec.  16,  1816.  He  lived  in  the  United 
States  for  nine  years,  during  which 
time  he  collected  the  material  for 
many  of  his  works.  They  include : 
"  Hunting  and  Fishing  of  the  Other 
World"  (1856);  "The  Daughter  of 
the  Comanches  "  and  "  Dramas  from 
the  New  World"  (1864r-1865),  and 
a  number  of  plays  which  he  staged  in 
the  United  States,  and  afterward  pub- 
lished in  France.    Died  June  13,  1882. 

Revolution,  a  fundamental  change 
in  government,  or  in  the  political  con- 
stitution of  a  country,  effected  sud- 
denly and  violently,  and  mainly 
brought  about  by  internal  causes ;  a 
revolt  against  the  constituted  author- 
ity successfully  and  completely  accom- 
plished. In  the  United  States  the 
term  Revolution  is  applied  specifically 
to  the  American  War  for  Independ- 
ence, which  began  in  1775  with  the 
irregular  running  fight  popularly 
known  as  the  battle  of  Lexington,  and  > 
practically  ended  with  the  surrender 
of  Lord  Cornwallis,  at  Yorktown,  Va., 
to  the  combined  forces  of  the  F-rench 
and  Americans,  in  the  year  1781.  By 
this  war  the  colonies  succeeded  in 
casting  off  the  English  authority  and 
in  erecting  the  government  of  the 
United  States.  By  the  English  Revo- 
lution is  generally  meant  that  revo- 
lution in  England  by  which  James  II. 
was  driven  from  the  throne  in  1688, 
but  it  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
overthrow  of  the  monarchy  by  Crom« 
well. 


XteTolniionary  Tribunal 


Reynolds 


Revolutionary    Tribunajl, 

in  French  history,  the  name  given  on 
Oct.  30,  1793,  to  what  had  before 
been  called  the  Extraordinary  Tri- 
bunal. It  sent  many  victims  to  the 
guillotine. 

Revolver,  a  description  of  firearm 
in  which  a  number  of  charges  con- 
tained in  a  revolving  cylinder  are,  by 
pulling  the  trigger,  brought  succes- 
sively into  position  and  fired  through 
a  single  barrel.  For  the  introduction 
of  the  revolver  in  its  present  form  we 
are  indebted  to  Col.  Samuel  Colt,  of 
Hartford,  Conn.,  though  repeating  pis- 
tols had  long  been  known  in  other 
countries.  These  were  made  from  one 
mass  of  metal  bored  into  the  requi- 
site number  of  barrels,  but  were  so 
clumsy  as  to  be  of  very  little  use. 
In  the  Colt  revolver  there  is  a  revolv- 
ing cylinder  containing  six  chambers 
placed  at  the  base  of  the  barrel,  each 
chamber  having  at  its  rear  end  a 
nipple  for  a  cap.  These  contain  the 
cartridges,  which  are  put  in  from  the 
front  of  the  breechpiece  and  driven 
home  by  a  lever  ramrod  placed  in  a 
socket  beneath  the  barrel.  The  re- 
volver is  fired  through  the  single  bar- 
rel, the  cylinder  being  turned  by 
mechanism  connected  with  the  lock, 
till  each  chamber  in  succession  is 
brought  round  so  as  to  form  virtually 
a  continuation  of  the  barrel.  Various 
modifications  of  Colt's  revolver  have 
been  introduced,  wjth  the  view  in  some 
cases  of  increasing  the  rapidity  and  fa- 
cility of  firing,  in  others  of  diminish- 
ing by  safeguards  the  risks  to  which 
inexperienced  hands  must  ever  be  ex- 
posed in  the  use  of  these  weapons.  As 
a  military  weapon  the  revolver  will  it 
is  thought,  be  superseded  by  a  repeat- 
ing pistol  with  mechanism  similar  to 
that  of  magazine  rifles.  The  revolver 
principle  has  also  been  applied  to  ri- 
fles, and  to  guns  for  throwing  small 
projectiles,  as  in  the  Gatling  and  other 
machine  guns. 

Rexf  ord,  Eben  Eugene,  an  Amer- 
ican poet;  born  in  Johnsburg,  N.  Y., 
July  16,  1848.  He  began  to  write 
when  a  mere  child,  contributing  to  peri- 
odicals and  magazines.  He  published 
in  book  form  the  poems  "  Brother  and 
Lover "  and  "  Grandmother's  Gar- 
den." He  wrote  the  popular  songs 
"  Silver  Threads  Among  the  Gold " 
imd  "  Only  a  Pansy-Blossom." 


Reyburn,  Robert,  a  Scotch-Amer- 
ican physician;  born  in  Glasgow, 
Scotland,  Aug.  1,  1833 ;  was  graduated 
at  the  Philadelphia  College  of  Medi- 
cine in  1856  and  practised  his  profes- 
sion in  that  city  till  1862,  when  he 
entered  the  United  States  army  as  an 
acting  assistant  surgeon ;  later  be- 
came surgeon  and  brevet  lieutenant- 
colonel  U.  S.  v.,  and  assistant  surgeon 
U.  S.  A.  in  1867 ;  and  afterward  prac- 
tised in  Washington.  He  was  one  of 
the  surgeons  in  attendance  on  Presi- 
dent Garfield ;  and  was  Professor  of 
Physiology  and  Hygiene  in  the  Med- 
ical Department  of  Howard  Univer- 
sity. He  was  a  member  of  many  sci- 
entific societies,  author  of  "  Clinical 
History  of  the  Case  of  President  Gar- 
field " ;  and  a  contributor  to  medical 
journals.     He  died  in  1909. 

Reynolds,  Dudley  Sharpe,  an 
American  physician ;  born  in  Bowling 
Green,  Ky.,  Aug.  31,  1842;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  Medical  Department  of 
the  University  of  Louisville,  in  1868; 
and  became  Professor  of  Ophthalmol- 
ogy, Otology,  and  Medical  Jurispru- 
dence in  the  Hospital  College  of  Medi- 
cine, Louisville,  in  1874. 

Reynolds,  Edwin,  an  American 
inventor ;  born  in  ^Mansfield,  Conn., 
March  23,  1831 ;  entered  a  machine 
shop  as  apprentice  in  1847,  and  be- 
came superintendent  of  the  Corliss 
Steam  Engine  Company,  at  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  in  1861 ;  later  removed 
to  Milwaukee,  Wis.  He  was  the  in- 
ventor of  the  Reynolds-Corliss  engine ; 
introduced  the  first  triple-expansion 
engine.      He  died  in  1909. 

Reynolds,  Elmer  Robert,  an 
American  ethnologist ;  born  in  Dan- 
ville, N.  Y.,  July  30,  1846;  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Columbian  University ; 
served  through  the  Civil  War ;  in  1877 
became  an  examiner  of  pensions  in 
the  United  States  Civil  Service.  He 
was  engaged  in  exploring  for  aborig- 
inal antiquities  in  Maryland  and  Vir- 
ginia.    He  died  Sopt.  18.  1907, 

Reynolds,  John  Fulton,  an 
American  military  ofiicer ;  born  in 
Lancaster,  Pa.,  Sept.  20,  1820;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1841 ;  served  in  the 
Mexican  War;  was  appointed  com- 
mandant at  West  Point  in  1859; 
served  through  the  Civil  War  in  act- 
ive  service ;    in    1863   was   promotecl 


Reynolds 

Major-General  of  volunteers.  His  corps 
was  the  vanguard  at  Gettysburg,  where 
he  was  killed,  July  1,.  1863. 

Reynolds,  Joseph  Jones,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in 
Flemingsburg,  Ky.,  Jan.  4,  1822;  was 
appointed  to  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  from  Indiana  in  1839 ; 
on  graduation  was  appointed  2d  lieu- 
tenant, 4th  Artillery,  and  after  serv- 
ice at  Fort  Monroe  and  in  Texas,  was 
on  frontier  duty  at  Fort  Washita, 
I.  T.,  in  ISSS'-ISSG ;  was  stationed  at 
various  colleges.  After  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  War  he  rapidly  rose  in 
rank  from  colonel  to  Major-General ; 
was  brevetted  Brigadier-General  in 
18G7  for  gallant  and  meritorious  serv- 
ice, and  was  in  the  same  year  brevet- 
ted Major-General ;  was  transferred"  to 
the  23d  Cavalry  in  3870,  and  after 
that  time  served  at  Fort  McPherson 
and  other  military  stations  till  re- 
tired from  active  service  June  25, 
1877,  for  disability  contracted  in  the 
line  of  dutv.  He  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  Feb.  25,  1899. 

Reynolds,  Josepli  Smith,  an 
American  lawyer :  born  in  New  Len- 
ox, 111.,  Dec.  3,  1839;  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Chicago  in  1860 ; 
served  through  the  Civil  War,  partici- 
pating inmany  battles.  After  the  war 
was  admitted  to  the  bar ;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Illinois  Legislature  in  1866- 
1870 ;  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Chi- 
cago park  system ;  State  Senator  in 
1872-1874 ;  commissioner  to  establish 
a  State  School  for  Feeble-Minded 
Children  in  1875 ;  senior  vice-com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  G.  A.  R.  1875- 
1876;  commander  of  the  Illinois  De- 
partment of  the  G.-A.  R.  in  1877;  and 
first  vice-president  of  the  Society  of 
the  Army  of  the  Tennessee  in  1877. 

Reynolds^  Sir  Joshua,  an  Eng- 
glish  portrait  and  subject  painter ; 
born  in  Plympton  Earls,  near  Plym- 
outh, July  16,  1723.  His  father  in- 
tended him  for  the  medical  profession ; 
but  he  developed  a  strong  aptitude  for 
j^)ainting,  and  at  the  age  of  eight  had 
mastered  the  "  Jesuit's  Perspective," 
and  applied  its  principles  to  drawings 
executed  by  himself.  In  October, 
1740,  he  was  sent  to  London  to  study 
art.  In  174,3  he  returned  to  Devon- 
shire, and  some  of  the  portraits  of 
local  worthies  which  he  then  produced 
still  exist.     In   the  following   year  he 


Reze 

was  again  in  London  pursuing  his  art ; 
but  in  the  beginning  of  1747,  he  set- 
tled in  Plymouth  Dock.  In  1749  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Commodore 
Keppel,  who  invited  him  to  accompany 
him  on  a  cruise  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean ;  and,  after  painting  many  of  the 
British  officers  in  Minorca,  he  made 
his  way  to  Rome,  where  he  studied 
Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo.  He  also 
visited  Bologna,  Genoa,  Florence, 
Parma,  and  Venice.  Returning  to 
England  in  October,  1752,  he  estab- 
lished himself  in  a  studio  in  London, 
and  attracted  notice  by  his  portraits 
of  the  second  Duke  of  Devonshire  and 
Commodore  Keppel.  Before  long  he 
was  in  excellent  practice,  and  in  the 
year  175.5  he  had  no  fewer  than  120 
sitters.  In  1764  he  founded  the  fa- 
mous literary  club  of  which  Dr.  John- 
son, Garrick,  Burke,  Goldsmith,  Bos- 
well,  and  Sheridan  were  members ;  all 
of  whom  were  portrayed  by  his  brush. 
He  was  one  of  the  earliest  members 
of  the  Incorporated  Society  of  Art- 
ists, and  contributed  to  its  exhibitions 
till  1768,  when,  on  the  establishment 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  he  was  elected 
its  first  president.  He  contributed  his , 
picture  of  Miss  Morris  as  "  Hope 
Nursing  Love  "  to  the  first  exhibition 
of  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1771  he 
completed  his  subject  "  Count  Ugolino 
and  his  Children  in  the  Dungeon."  In 
1784  he  succeeded  Allan  Ramsay  as 
painter  to  the  king ;  in  July,  1789,  his 
sight  became  affected  and  he  ceased  to 
paint ;  gradually  his  strength  sank, 
and  he  peacefully  expired  on  Feb.  23, 
1792. 

Reynolds,  William,  an  American 
naval  officer ;  born  in  Lancaster,  Pa., 
Dec.  18,  1815 ;  entered  the  navy  in 
1831 ;  was  commissioned  lieutenant  in 
1841  and  owing  to  broken  health  was 
retired  in  1851.  He  was  later  sent  to 
Hawaii,  where  he  negotiated  a  reci- 
procity treaty.  When  the  Civil  War  be- 
gan he  returned  to  active  duty ;  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  naval  forces 
on  the  Asiatic  Station  in  1862;  was 
promoted  captain  in  1866  and  rear- 
admiral  in  December,  1873,  and  was 
retired  on  account  of  ill  health  in  De- 
cember, 1877.  He  died  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  Nov.  5,  1879. 

Reze,  Frederick,  an  American 
clergyman :  born  in  Hildesheim,  Ger- 
many, in   1797;   fought   in   the  battle 


Rliainnacese 


]R,lieiius 


of  Waterloo ;  and  soon  afterward  was 
ordained  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  and  sent  to  Africa;  and  later 
came  to  the  United  States;  returned 
to  Germany,  in  1827  and  sent  many 
missionaries  to  the  United  States ; 
again  returned  to  the  United  States  in 
1828  and  labored  among  the  Indians  of 
Ohio  and  Michigan.  In  1833  he  was 
sent  to  Detroit,  Mich.,  and  was  conse- 
crated the  first  bishop  of  Michigan  and 
Wisconsin.  He  resigned  his  see  in 
1837,  and  returned  to  Rome,  where  he 
lived  for  several  years.  He  died  in 
Hildesheim,  Germany,  Dec.   27,   1871. 

B-haiuiiacese,  an  order  of  plants. 
There  are  species  in  nearly  all  coun- 
tries, with  the  exception  of  the  Arctic 
zone.  Berries  belonging  to  various 
plants  of  the  order  have  been  used  for 
dyeing  yellow,  green,  or  intermediate 
tints,  others  are  eatable.  One  plant 
is  used  by  the  poorer  classes  in  China 
for  tea. 

Rhapsodist,  strictly,  one  who 
strings  songs  together,  but  usually  ap- 
plied to  a  class  of  persons  in  ancient 
Greece,  who  earned  their  living  by  re- 
citing the  poems  of  Homer.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  to  these  persons  we  are 
chiefly  indebted  for  the  preservation 
of  the  Homeric  poems. 

Rliatany,  or  Rhattany,  half- 
shrubby  plant,  a  native  of  the  cold 
sterile  table-lands  of  the  Andes  in 
Peru  and  Bolivia.  It  is  valued  for 
the  medicinal  properties  of  the  root, 
which  are  shared  more  or  less  by  other 
species  of  the  same  genus,  also  natives 
of  South  America. 

Rhea,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
daughter  of  Ccelus  and  Terra,  or 
Heaven  and  Earth;  the  wife  of  Sat- 
urn, and  mother  of  Jupiter,  Juno, 
Ceres,  Vesta,  and  severa'  other  deities. 

Rliea,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  of 
StruthionidfB.  They  are  sometimes 
called  South  American  ostriches,  but 
are  smaller  than  the  true  ostrich,  and 
the  whole  plumage  is  somber,  ranging 
from  Bolivia,  Paraguay,  and  the  S.  of 
Brazil  down  to  Magellan's  Straits. 

Rliea,  a  variety  of  the  nettle  fam- 
ily, which  grows  luxuriantly  in  India. 
From  the  delicate  fibers  in  its  bark 
the  finest  and  strongest  textile  fabrics 
can  be  produced.  They  can  be  worked 
into  every  variety  of  fabric,  from  vel- 
vets to  laces      It  is  specially  suitable, 


from  its  lightness  and  toughness,  for 
tents  and  ship  canvas,  and  it  is  found 
to  be  far  more  durable  than  linen. 

Rliea,  Mademoiselle  (Mile.  Hor- 
tense  Barbe-Loret  j ,  a  Belgian  actress  ; 
born  in  Brussels,  Belgium,  Sept.  4, 
1844.  Educated  at  the  Ursuline  Con- 
vent, Paris,  France ;  she  began  _  to 
study  for  the  stage  soon  after  leaving 
school ;  was  leading  actress  at  the  Im- 
perial Theater,  St.  Petersburg,  1876- 
1881;  acted  in  the  United  States  in 
1881  and  1882.  She  died  in  Mont- 
morency, France,  May  5,  1899. 

Rhead,  Louis  John,  an  American 
artist;  born  in  Etruria,  England,  in 
1860 ;  was  educated  at  the  Art  Train- 
ing School,  South  Kensington,  Lon- 
don ;  and  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1883.  He  was  a  painter  in  both  wil 
and  water-colors,  and  illustrated  many 
books.  ,  , 

Rhees,  Rush,  an  American  educa- 
tor ;  born  in  Chicago,  111.,  Feb.  8, 
1860 ;  was  graduated  at  Amherst  Col- 
lege in  1883,  and  at  the  Hartford  The- 
ological Seminary.  In  1889  he  ac- 
cepted a  pastorate  at  Portsmouth,  N. 
H.,  where  he  remained  till  1892,  when 
he  went  to  the  Newton  Theological 
Institution,  Newton  Center,  Mass., 
and  in  1894  became  Professor  of  Bib- 
lical Interpretation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. He  was  elected  president  of 
the  University  o^  Rochester,  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  July  1,  1900. 

Rhees,  William  Jones,  an  Amer- 
ican bibliographer ;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  March  13,  1830;  has  been 
chief  clerk  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion and  had  charge  of  its  publications 
since  1852.  He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  Sons  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution. 

Rheims,  or  Reims,  a  city  in  the 
French  department  of  Marne ;  on  the 
Vesle;  100  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Paris. 
It  is  well  built,  and  from  the  preva- 
lence of  the  older  style  of  domestic 
architecture,  has  a  picturesque  ap- 
pearance. Under  the  Frank  rule  it 
was  a  place  of  much  importance,  and 
it  acquired  a  deeply  religious  interest 
from  its  having  been  the  scene  in  496 
of  the  baptism  of  Clovis  and  his  chief 
ofiicers  by  the  bishop,  St.  Remy  (438- 
533).  In  the  8th  century  it  became 
an  archbishopric,  and  from  1179,  when 
Philip  Augustus  was  solemnly  crown- 


Rbesns 

ed  here,  it  became  the  place  for  the 
coronation  of  the  kings  of  France. 
Joan  of  Arc  brought  the  dauphin 
hither,  and  the  only  sovereigns  in  the 
long  series,  down  to  1825,  not  crowned 
at  Kheims  were  Henry  IV.,  Napoleon 
I.,  and  Louis  XVIII.  In  1830  the 
ceremony  of  coronation  at  Rlieima  was 
abolished.  The  cathedral,  though  the 
towers  of  the  original  design  are  still 
unfinished,  is  one  of  the  finest  extant 
specimens  of  Gothic  architecture.  It 
was  built  between  1212  and  1430.  The 
Romanesque  church  of  St.  Remy 
(mainly  llGO-1180),  with  the  saint's 
shrine,  is  nearly  of  equal  size,  but  of 
less  architectural  pretension.  Rheims 
is  one  of  the  principal  entrepots  for 
the  wines  of  Champagne,  and  the  hills 
which  surround  the  town  are  planted 
with  vineyards.     Pop.  107,963. 

Rhesns,  a  genus  of  monkeys  from 
India,  in  some  parts  of  which  it  is 
considered  sacred. 

Rhetoric,  the  theory  of  eloquence, 
whether  spoken  or  written,  treating 
of  the  general  rules  of  prose  style,  in 
view  of  the  end  to  be  served  by  the 
composition.  In  a  narrower  sense  rhet- 
oric is  the  art  of  persuasive  speaking, 
or  the  art  of  the  orator,  which  teaches 
the  composition  and  delivery  of  dis- 
courses intended  to  move  the  feelings 
or  sway  the  will  of  others.  In  the 
wider  sense  rhetoric  treats  of  prose 
composition  in  general,  purity  of  style, 
etc. ;  in  short,  of  whatever  relates 
to  clearness,  preciseness,  elegance, 
and  strength  of  expression.  In  the 
narrower  sense  it  treats  of  the  in- 
vention and  disposition  of  the  matter, 
the  character  of  the  style,  the  delivery 
or  pronunciation,  etc.  Aristotle,  Cicero, 
and  Quintilian  are  the  principal  writ- 
ers on  rhetoric  among  the  ancients. 

Rhett,  Thomas  Grimke,  an 
American  military  oflScer ;  born  in 
South  Carolina  about  1825 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  and  assigned  to  the  Ordnance 
Corps  in  1845,  and  served  at  the 
Washington  arsenal  till  1846,  when  he 
was  transferred  to  the  Mounted  Rifles, 
and  sent  to  Mexico.  He  served  in  the 
Mexican  War ;  became  captain  in 
1853.  He  resigned  his  commission  in 
1861,  and  sought  high  oflSce  in  the 
Provisional  Confederate  army,  but 
not  receiving  it  he  returned  to  South 
Carolina,  where  he  was  commissioned 


Rheumatisitt 

a  Major-General  by  the  governor.  He 
was  chief  of  staff  to  Gen.  Joseph  E. 
Johnston,  till  1862,  when  he  was  or- 
dered to  the  Trans-Mississippi  Depart- 
ment. After  the  war  he  was  colonel 
of  ^ordnance  in  the  Egyptian  army  in 
1870-1873,  when  he  resigned  owing  to 
ill  health.  He  died  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
July  28,  1878. 

Rhenm,  rhubarb;  used  in  the 
United  States  in  the  making  of  pies, 
and  is  often  called  pie  plant. 

In  pharmacy,  three  leading  kinds  of 
rhubarb  are  recognized :  The  Turkey 
or  Russian  rhubarb,  the  East  Indian, 
and  the  Batavian  rhubarb.  An  ex- 
tract, an  infusion,  a  syrup,  a  tinc- 
ture, and  a  wine  of  rhubarb,  with  a 
compound  rhubarb  pill,  are  used  in 
pharmacy. 

Rheumatism,  a  term  which  baa 
been  and  still  is,  rather  vaguely  and 
extensively  used  in  the  nomenclature 
of  disease.  The  usual  exciting  cause 
of  acute  rheumatism  is  exposure  to 
cold,  and  especially  to  cold  combined 
with  moisture.  Men  are  more  subject 
to  the  disease  than  women.  The  pre- 
disposition is  affected  by  age ;  chil- 
dren under  10  years  being  compara- 
tively seldom  attacked,  while  the  dis- 
ease is  most  prevalent  between  the  ages 
of  15  and  40.  Above  this  age  a  first 
attack  is  rare,  and  even  recurrences 
are  less  frequent  than  earlier  in  life. 
Persons  once  affected  become  more 
liable  to  the  complaint  than  they  previ- 
ously were.  Chronic  painful  affec- 
tions of  the  joints,  called  chronic  rheu- 
matism, sometimes  follow  rheumatic 
fever  and  are  a  consequence  of  it.  It 
is  more  common  in  women  than  in 
men ;  most  often  begins  at  or  after 
middle  life,  though  occasionally  even 
in  childhood ;  and  is  apt  to  affect  those 
who  are  weakly  and  who  have  had  a 
life  of  hard  work  with  defective  nour- 
ishment. There  is  no  special  liability 
to  affection  of  the  heart  as  in  true 
rheumatism.  Muscular  rheumatism  is 
the  name  usually  given  to  painful  af- 
fections of  the  muscles  for  which  no 
clear  cause  is  discoverable.  Rheu- 
matic diseases  of  animals  are  less  com- 
mon than  the  corresponding  affections 
of  men.  Horses  are  not  very  liable  to 
acute  rheumatism,  but  suffer  from  a 
chronic  variety.  In  cattle  and  sheep 
rheumatic  disorders  are  more  common 
and    acute    than    in    horses.     Among 


Rliine 


Rliiiioceros 


dogs  rheumatism  is  known  under  the 
name  of  kennel  lameness,  and  is  very 
troublesome  and  intractable  in  low, 
damp,  cold  situations. 

Rliine  (German  Rhein),  the  fin- 
est river  of  Germany,  and  one  of  the 
most  important  rivers  of  Europe,  its 
direct  course  being  460  miles  and  its 
indirect  course  800  miles  (about  250 
miles  of  its  course  being  in  Switzer- 
land, 450  in  Germany,  and  100  in 
Holland)  ;  while  the  area  of  its  basin 
is  75,000  square  miles.  It  is  formed 
in  the  Swiss  canton  Grisons  by  two 
main  streams  called  the  Vorder  and 
Hinter  Rhein.  The  Vorder  Rhein 
rises  in  the  Lake  of  Toma,  on  the  S. 
E.  slope  of  the  St.  Gothard,  at  a 
height  of  7,690  feet  above  the  sea,  near 
the  source  of  the  Rhone,  and  at  Reich- 
enau  unites  with  the  Hinter  Rhein, 
which  issues  from  the  Rheinwald  Gla- 
cier, 7,270  feet  above  sea-level.  Be- 
yond Reichenau  the  united  streams 
take  the  common  name  of  Rhine.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  it  pursues  a  N.  course 
till  it  enters  Holland,  below  Emmer- 
ich, when  it  divides  into  a  number  of 
separate  branches,  forming  a  great 
delta,  and  falling  into  the  sea  by  many 
mouths.  That  which  retains  the  name 
of  Rhine,  a  small  stream,  passes  Ley- 
den  and  entei's  the  North  Sea.  In 
the  German  part  of  its  course  the  chief 
tributaries  are  the  111,  Nahe,  Moselle, 
Ahr,  and  Erft,  Neckar,  Main,  Lahn, 
Sieg,  Ruhr,  and  Lippe.  In  Switzer- 
land its  tributaries  are  short  and  un- 
important, and  this  part  of  its  course 
is  marked  by  the  Falls  of  the  Rhine 
at  SchafiPhausen,  where  the  river  is 
precipitated  in  three  leaps  over  a  ledge 
of  rocks  48  to  60  feet  in  height,  and 
by  the  cataracts  of  Lauterberg  and 
the  rapids  of  Rheinfelden.  It  is  navi- 
gable without  interruption  from  Basel 
to  its  mouth,  a  distance  of  550  miles. 
Large  sums  are  si>ent  every  year  in 
keeping  the  channel  in  order,  and  in 
the  erection  or  repair  of  river  har- 
bors, both  in  Germany  and  Holland. 
The  Rhine  is  distinguished  by  the 
beauty  of  its  scenery,  which  attracts 
many  tourists. 

Rhine  Wines,  a  general  term  for 
wines  made  from  the  grapes  grown  on 
the  borders  of  the  Rhine. 

Bliinoeeros,  the  sole  recent  genus 
of  the  family  Rhinocerotidae.  It  falls 
naturally  into  three  sections : 


(a)  Rhinoceros. —  There  are  two 
well-marked  species :  Rhinoceros 
unicornis,  with  a  single  horn,  and  well 
marked  folds  in  the  skin ;  R.  soudai- 
cus,  the  Javan  rhinoceros,  is  smaller 
and  distinguished  by  the  different  ar- 
rangement of  the  folds  of  the  skin; 
and  by  the  small  size  or  absence  of  the 


EHINOCEROS   BICORNIS. 

horn  in  the  female.  Found  near  Cal- 
cutta, in  Burma,  Malay  Peninsula, 
Java,  Sumatra,  and  probably  Borneo. 

(b)  Ceratorhinus. —  The  folds  are 
not  so  strongly  marked  as  in  the  first 
section.  There  is  a  well-developed 
nasal,  and  a  small  frontal  horn,  sep- 
arated by  an  interval.  Geographical 
range  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Javan  rhinoceros,  but  it  does  extend 
into  Bengal. 

(c)  Atelodus,  with  two  well-marked 
species,  peculiar  to  Africa.  ^  Incisors 
rudimentary  or  wanting,  well-develop- 
ed anterior  and  posterior  horns  in  close 
contact ;  skin  without  definite  per- 
manent folds.  R.  bicornis,  the  com- 
mon two-horned  rhinoceros.  Is  the 
smaller,  and  has  a  pointed  prehensile 
lip.  It  ranges  from  Abyssinia  to 
Cape  Colony,  but  the  progress  of  civ- 
ilization and  the  attacks  of  sportsmen 
are  rapidly  reducing  its  numbers.  Two 
varieties  are  said  to  exist,  the  square- 
mouthed,  or  white  rhinoceros,  has  a 
square'  truncated  lip,  browses  on 
grasses  and  frequents  open  country. 
It  is  the  largest  of  the  family,  an  adult 
male  standing  over  six  feet  at  the 
shoulder. 

Any  individual  of  the  genus  rhinoc- 
eros. The  rhinoceros  is  the  largest 
and  most  powerful  terrestrial  mam- 
mal, except  the  elephant,  to  which,  as 
well  as  to  the  hippopotamus  and  tapir, 
it  is  allied.  They  are  of  low  intelli- 
gence, and  usually  harmless,  but  when 


RMnodon 


Rhode  Island 


provoked  they  display  considerable  fe- 
rocity, and,  though  apparently  so 
clumsily  formed,  can  run  with  great 
speed.  , 

BMnodon,  in  ichthyology,  the  sole 
genus  of  the  family  lihinodontidse,  a 
gigantic  shark,  known  to  exceed  50 
feet  in  length,  and  said  to  attain  70. 
Common  in  the  W.  parts  of  the  In- 
dian Ocean.  It  is  harmless,  the  teeth 
being  small  and  numerous. 

Rhoades,  Mosheim,  an  American 
clergyman  ;  born  in  Williamsburg,  Pa., 
April  14,  1837 ;  was  graduated  at  the 
Theological  Department  of  Susque- 
hanna University,  Selinsgrove,  Pa.,  in 
1861,  and  entered  the  ministry  of  the 
English  Lutheran  Church  the  same 
year.  He  held  charges  in  Pennsyl- 
vania till  1809,  and  in  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
after  1871.  He  was  president  of  the 
General  Synod  of  the  Evangelical  Lu- 
theran Church  in  1885-1886. 


BHINOCEBOS  INDICUS. 

Rhoades,  Samuel  Nicholson,  an 

American  naturalist ;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  April  30,  1802 ;  took  a  spe- 
cial course  in  journalism  in  Harvard 
University;  and  later  studied  at  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  and 
Museum  of  Science  and  Art,  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  at  Carnegie  Museum, 
Pittsburg;  and  after  1893  traveled  as 
a  collector  of  museum  specimens  of 
natural  history. 

Rhodanthe,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
Helychryseae ;  only  known  species  R. 
manglesii,  a  beautiful  composite ;  its 
flowers,  of  the  dry  and  unfading  kind, 
roseate  or  purple  on  the  upper  part, 
and  silvery  belo\v.  It  is  found  in 
Western  Australia,  has  been  intro- 
duced into  European  and  American 
greenhouses,  and  will  grow  also  in  the 


open  air  in  a  temperature  between  60° 
and  80°.     There  are  several  varieties. 

Rhode  Island,  a  State  in  the 
North  Atlantic  Division  of  the  North 
American  Union ;  one  of  the  original 
13  States ;  capital,  Providence ;  num- 
ber of  counties,  5 ;  area,  1,053  square 
miles;  pop.    (1910)  542,674. 

The  State  is  divided  into  two  un- 
equal parts  by  Narragansett  Bay, 
which  extends  inland  about  30  miles. 
The  surface  of  the  W.  portion  or  main- 
land is  hilly,  but  the  hills  are  all  low; 
the  greatest  height,  Woonsocket  Hill, 
having  an  altitude  of  570  feet.  There 
are  numerous  salt  marshes  along  the 
ocean.  The  E.  part  consists  mainly 
of  islands.  Of  these  the  largest  and 
most  important  is  Rhode  Island  from 
which  the  State  derives  its  name.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Pawtucket. 
navigable  as  far  as  Pawtucket,  where 
it  changes  its  name  to  Blackstone,  the 
Pawcatuck,  forming  part  of  the  bound- 
ary between  Rhode  Island  and  Con- 
necticut, and  the  Pawtuxet,  flowing 
across  the  central  part  of  the  State, 
and  emptying  into  the  Providence 
river,  an  arm  of  the  Narragansett 
Bay.  There  are  numerous  coves  and 
bays  branching  off  from  Narragansett ; 
among  them  being  Greenwich  'Bay, 
Saxonnet  river.  Mount  Hope  Bay,  and 
Providence  river.  Block  Island,  10 
mil'ds  from  the  coast,  belongs  to  the 
State. 

The  mineral  resources  of  the  State 
are  not  very  extensive,  though  consid- 
erable anthracite  coal,  excellent  for 
smelting  purposes,  and  much  magnetic 
iron  have  been  mined  at  times.  There 
are  about  20  large  granite  quarries  in 
the  State ;  those  at  Westerly  being 
noted  for  their  value  in  monumental 
work. 

In  common  with  New  England 
States,  Rhode  Island  is  noted  for  its 
manufacturing  interests.  There  were 
reported  by  the  United  States  census 
in  1900,  4,189  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, employing  $183,784,587  cap- 
ital, and  96,528  persons ;  paying  $41,- 
114,084  in  wages  and  $96,392,720  for 
raw  materials;  and  having  an  annual 
output  valued  at  $184,074,378. 

On  Oct.  31,  1901,  there  were  re- 
ported 38  National  banks  in  operation, 
having  $13,105,250  in  capital,  $6,317,- 
750  in  outstanding  circulation,  and 
$4,503,000   in     United    States     bonds. 


Bliodes 


Rhodes 


There  were  also  4  State  banks,  with 
$495,000  capital  and  $1,394,546  re- 
sources ;  9  loan  and  trust  companies, 
with  $3,070,498  capital,  and  $3,013,- 
391  surplus ;  and  25  mutual  savings 
banks,  with  $72,330,141  in  deposits. 

At  the  end  of  the  school  year  1899- 
1900  the  children  of  school  age  num- 
bered 102,250 ;  the  enrollment  in  pub- 
lic schools,  64,537;  and  average  daily 
attendance,  46,087.  There  were  534 
buildings  used  for  public  school  pur- 
poses, public  school  property  valued  at 
$5,175,045,  and  1,913  teachers.  For 
higher  education  there  were  17  public 
high  schools;  11  private  secondary 
schools,  the  Rhode  Island  Normal 
School,  and  Brown  University,  at 
Providence,  which  is  the  principal  ed- 
ucational institution  in  the  State. 

The  strongest  denominations  in  the 
State  are  the  Roman  Catholic;  Regu- 
lar Baptist,  Protestant  Episcopal ; 
Congregational ;  Methodist  Episcopal ; 
Free  Will  Baptist ;  Unitarian,  and  Af- 
rican Methodist. 

The  total  funded  debt  of  the  State, 
Jan.  1,  1902,  was  $2,978,000 ;  sinking 
funds,  $389,436.01 ;  net  debt,  $2,588,- 
503.39.  The  sinking  fund  is  largely 
invested  in  city,  town,  and  district 
bonds  and  notes,  and  is  to  receive  $32,- 
000  yearly.  The  assessed  valuation 
of  real  estate  in  1900  was  $320,318,- 
384;  personal  property,  $8<, 086,388 ; 
total,  $407,404,772;  tax  rate,  $1.80 
per  $1,000. 

The  governor  is  elected  for  a  term 
of  two  years  and  receives  a  salary  of 
$3,000  per  annum.  Legislative  ses- 
sions are  held  annually,  oeginninc  on 
the  first  Tuesday  in  January  ana  are 
limited  to  60  session  days.  The  Legis- 
lature has  38  members  in  the  Senate 
and  100  members  in  the  House,  each 
of  whom  receives  $5.00  per  day  and 
mileage.  There  are  3  Representatives 
in  Congress. 

It  ife  claimed  that  the  Northmen  vis- 
ited this  region  about  A.  D.  1000,  and 
certain  antiquities  have  been  ascribed 
to  them.  The  first  English  settlement 
was  made  at  Providence  in  1636,  by 
Roger  Williams,  whose  religious  opin- 
ions had  caused  his  expulsion  from 
Massachusetts.  The  charter  granted 
by  Charles  II.  to  the  colony  was  so 
liberal  in  its  provision  that  it  remain- 
ed the  fundamental  law  of  the  State 
till  1842.  Rhode  Island  was  firm  in 
opposition    to   the   King   Philip    War. 


King  Philip  himself  was  killed  in 
what  is  now  the  town  of  Bristol.  The 
great  "  swamp  fight"  occurred  in  1675, 
in  the  Narragansett  country,  where 
more  than  1,000  Indians  were  killed. 
The  charter  was  temporarily  suspend- 
ed from  1686  to  1687.  A  new  consti- 
tution was  adopted  in  1842,  this  going 
into  effect  in  1843.  Rhode  Island  was 
the  iast  of  the  States  to  ratify  the 
Federal  Constitution  in  1790,  and 
until  a  recent  period  foreign  born 
citizens  could  not  vote  unless  they 
owned  real  estate.  < 

Rliodes,  an  island  in  the  Mediter-' 
ranean,  appertaining  to  Asiatic  Tur- 
key, near  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor;  is 
40  miles  long,  with  a  breadth  of  18 
miles  at  its  widest  point;  area,  570 
square  miles ;  pop.  about  30,000. 

Bliodes,  the  capital  of  the  island 
of  Rhodes,  situated  at  its  N.  E.  ex- 
tremity. It  is  defended  by  towers 
about  800  feet  distant  from  each  other, 
while  in  the  center  of  the  mole  there 
is  a  square  bastion  120  feet  high.  It 
was  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  of 
this  city  that  stood  the  celebrated  Co- 
lossus of  Rhodes.  Pop.  about  10,000. 
The  ancient  Rhodes  was  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  a  branch  of  the  Doric  race, 
who  held  it  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan 
war,  1184  b.  c.  It  was  of  small  po- 
litical importance  among  the  states  of 
Greece  till  the  city  of  Rhodes  was  built 
and  made  the  capital  of  the  island, 
408  B.  c.  It  was  taken  by  Chosroes 
II.,  King  of  Persia,  in  616;  by  the 
Saracens  in  651 ;  and  by  the  Knights 
of  St.  John,  Aug.  15,  1309.  Moham- 
med II.  besieged  it  ineffectually  in 
1480,  and  tlie  Sultan  Solyman  I.  com- 
pelled it  to  capitulate  after  a  vigorous 
siege  that  lasted  from  June  to  Decem- 
ber, 1522. 

Rhodes,  Cecil  John,  a  South  Afri- 
can statesman  ;  born  July  5,  1853.  He 
was  the  fourth  son  of  the  vicar  of 
Bishop  Stortford,  Hertfordshire,  Eng- 
land ;  was  sent  for  his  health  to  Natal, 
where  his  brother  was  a  planter.  He 
subsequently  went  to  the  Kimberley 
diamond  diggings ;  there  he  soon  be- 
came conspicuous  and  amassed  a  for- 
tune. He  went  back  to  England,  and 
entered  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford, 
and  though  his  residence  was  cut  short 
by  ill-health,  he  ultimately  took  his 
degree.  He  entered  the  Cape  House 
of   Assembly   as   member   for   Barkly; 


Rliodesia 

In  1884  General  Gordon  asked  him  to 
go  with  him  to  Khartum  as  secretary ; 
but  Rhodes  had  just  taken  office  in  the 
Cape  ministry,  and  decided  to  remain 
in  South  Africa.  He  sent  $50,000  to 
Mr.  Parnell  to  forward  the  cause  of 
Irish  Home  Rule.  In  1890  he  be- 
came prime  minister  of  Cape  Colony. 
His  policy  may  be  described  as  the  ul- 
timate establishment  of  a  federal 
South  African  dominion  under  the 
British  flag.  He  was  an  earnest  ad- 
vocate of  the  construction  of  a  railroad 
"  from  Cairo  to  the  Cape."  He  died 
in  Cape  Town,  South  Africa,  March 
26,  1902.  In  his  will  Mr.  Rhodes  left 
about  $10,000,000  to  found  a  number 
of  three-year  scholarships  tenable  at 
Oxford,  England.  The  income  for 
each  scholarship  was  $1,500  a  year, 
and  two  were  offered  to  every  State 
and  Territory  in  the  American  Union, 
to  every  English  speaking  colony ; 
while  five  were  set  apart  for  students 
of  German  descent. 

Rhodesia,  the  name  giTen  to  that 
part  of  South  Africa  which  has  been 
occupied  of  recent  years  by  the  Brit- 
ish South  African  Company,  acting 
mainly  under  Cecil  John  Rhodes.  Area, 
257,575  square  miles;  pop.  1,023,250. 
The  whole  territory  is  administered 
by  the  British  South  African  Com- 
pany, which  was  given  a  royal  charter 
in  October,  1889.  The  river  Zambesi 
flows  through  it,  cutting  the  region 
into  two  portions  —  Southern  and 
Northern  Rhodesia. 

Southern  Rhodesia  consists  of  the 
two  provinces  of  Matabeleland  and 
Mashonaland.  The  capital  and  the 
seat  of  government  of  Rhodesia,  is 
Salisbury,  with  a  population  of  1,800. 
The  other  principal  townships  are  New 
Umtali,  Melsetter,  and  Enkeldoorn.  A 
railway  is  being  built,  running  inland 
.from  Beira,  and  it  will  place  Sal- 
isbury in  direct  communication  with 
the  sea  over  a  line  382  miles  in  length. 
Matabeleland  lies  between  the  Lim- 
popo and  middle  Zambesi  rivers.  The 
principal  town,  and  the  chief  commer- 
cial center  in  Rhodesia,  is  Bulawayo, 
with  a  population  of  5,000.  The  ex- 
tension of  the  Cape  government  W. 
railway  system  through  Kimberley  and 
Vryburg  to  Bulawayo  was  completed 
in  October,  1897.  The  distance  from 
Cape  Town  to  Bulawayo  is  1,360 
miles. 


Bhonib 

Northern  Rhodesia  consists  of  the 
whole  of  the  British  sphere  N.  of  the 
Zambesi,  lying  between  Portuguese 
East  Africa,  German  East  Africa,  the 
Kongo  Free  State,  and  Angola,  with 
the  exception  of  the  strip  of  territory 
forming  the  British  Central  Africa 
Protectorate,  which  is  under  direct 
imperial  administration.  N.  of  the 
Zambesi  the  country  has  as  yet  been 
little  prospected.  Coal  has  been  found 
on  the  shore  of  Lake  Nyassa.  There 
are  5,250  square  miles  of  gold  fields  in 
Rhodesia. 

Itliodinin,  one  of  the  rare  metals 
found  in  platinum  ores.  It  is  very 
hard,  white,  and  brittle,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  iridium,  one  of  the 
most  infusible  of  metals. 

Rhododendron,  a  genus  of  trees 
and  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Eri- 
caceae. The  buds  in  this  and  nearly  al- 
lied genera,  as  Azalea,  are  scaly  and 
conical.     The   species   are   numerous; 


EHODODENDBON'. 

they  have  evergreen  leaves,  and  many 
of  them  are  of  great  beauty  both  in 
foliage  and  in  flowers.  A  few  small 
species  are  natives  of  continental  Eu- 
rope and  of  Siberia ;  but  the  greater 
number  belong  to  the  temperate  parts 
of  North  America,  and  to  the  moun- 
tains of  India. 

Rhomb,  or  Rhombns,  in  geome- 
try, an  oblique  parallelogram  whose 
sides  are  all  equal.  The  diagonals  of 
a  rhombus  bisect  each  other  at  right 
angles.  The  area  of  a  rhombus  is 
equal  to  half  the  product  of  its  diag- 
onals. 


Xtbone 

Rhone  (Latin,  Rhodanus),  a  river 
in  Europe  which  rises  in  Switzerland, 
near  the  E.  frontiers  of  the  canton  of 
Valais,  about  18  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
the  source  of  the  Vorder-Rhein.  Its 
precise  origin  is  the  Rhone  Glacier, 
5,581  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
It  passes  through  the  Lake  of  Geneva, 
and  enters  France,  flowing  first  S.  and 
then  W.  to  the  city  of  Lyons,  where  it 
turns  almost  due  S.,  and  so  continues 
till  it  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Lyons 
by  a  greater  and  smaller^outh,  form- 
ing here  an  extensive  delta.  Its  prin- 
cipal affluent  is  the  Saone,  which  en- 
ters it  at  the  ■  city  of  Lyons ;  other 
large  tributaries  are  the  Isere  and 
Durance.  Its  whole  course  is  about 
500  miles;  its  drainage  area  is  38,000 
miles;  and  it  is  navigable  for  360 
miles.  The  great  obstacles  to  naviga- 
tion and  the  rapid  current,  the  shifting 
character  of  the  channel,  and  periodi- 
cal floods ;  these  obstacles  have  to  a 
great  extent  been  overcome  by  a 
scheme  of  regularization  and  canaliza- 
tion, to  secure  everywhere  a  depth  of 
over  5  feet.  By  canals  the  navigation 
of  the  Rhone  is  connected  with  the 
Rhine  (through  the  Saone),  Seine, 
and  Loire,  and  with  the  Meuse  and 
the  Belgian  system. 

Rhubarb,  a  hardy  perennial  herb. 
See  Rheum. 

Rhus.  See  Sumac;  also  Poison 
Ivy. 

Rhyme,  more  correctly  Rime,  in 
poetry,  a  correspondence  in  sound  of 
the  terminating  word  or  syllable  of 
one  line  of  poetry  with  the  terminating 
word  or  syllable  of  another.  To  con- 
stitute this  correspondence  in  single 
words  or  in  syllables  it  is  necessary 
that  the  vowel  and  the  final  consonant- 
al sound  (if  any)  should  be  the  same, 
or  have  nearly  the  same  sound,  the  in- 
itial consonants  being  different. 

Rhythm,  in  general  a  measured 
succession  of  divisions  or  intervals  in 
written  composition,  music,  or  danc- 
ing. The  rhythm  of  poetry  is  the  reg- 
ular succession  of  accent,  emphasis,  or 
voice  stress ;  or  a  certain  succession  of 
long  and  short  syllables  in  a  verse. 
Prose  also  has  its  rhythm,  and  the 
only  difference  between  verse  and  prose 
is,  that  the  former  consists  of  a  regu- 
lar succession  of  similar  cadences,  di- 
vided by  grammatical  pauses  and  em- 
phases into  proportional  clauses,  so  as 


^ Ribot 

to  present  sensible  responses  to  the 
ear  at  regular  proportioned  distances. 
In  music,  rhythm  is  the  disposition  of 
the  notes  of  a  composition  in  respect 
of  time  and  measure ;  the  measured 
beat  which  marks  the  character  and 
expression  of  the  music. 

Riall,  Sir  Phineas,  a  British  mili- 
tary officer ;  born  in  England  about 
1769 ;  entered  the  army  as  ensign  in 
1794  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major. 
He  was  in  command  of  a  brigade  in 
the  West  Indies  in  1808-1810 ;  became 
colonel  in  1810  and  Major-General  in 
1813 ;  and  later  was  ordered  to  Canada 
to  take  part  in  the  war  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States.  He 
was  chief  in  command  at  the  battles 
of  Chippewa  and  Lundy's  Lane.  He 
was  appointed  governor  of  the  Island 
of  Grenada  in  1810;  was  promoted 
Lieutenant-General  in  1825  and  full 
General  in  1841 ;  and  was  knighted  in 
1833.  He  died  in  Paris,  France,  Nov. 
10,  1851. 

Rib,  in  anatomy,  one  of  the  long 
curved  bones  which  form  the  walls  of 
the  chest.  They  extend  in  an  oblique 
direction  from  the  vertebrae  of  the  back 
to  the  sternum  in  front.  There  are 
usually  12  on  each  side;  but  in  some 
rare  cases  13  have  been  found,  in 
others  only  11.  The  use  of  the  ribs  is 
to  cover  and  defend  the  lungs  and 
heart ;  and  their  articulations  with  the 
vertebrae  and  sternum  admitting  of  a 
slight  motion,  they  assist  in  respira- 
tion. 

Ribbon,  Riband,  or  Ribband, 
a  narrow  woven  fabric  commonly  of 
silk,  used  for  trimming  some  part  of 
woman's  attire ;  also  for  badges  and 
other  decorative  purposes. 

Ribbon  Fish,  known  also  as  the 
oar-fish. 

Ribbon  Grass,  a  species  of  canary 
grass  with  variegated  leaves. 

Ribes,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
order  Grossulariaceae.  Some_  of  the 
species  are  remarkable  for  their  agree- 
able and  wholesome  acid  fruits,  and 
are,  on  this  account,  much  cultivated 
in  our  gardens.  R.  grossularia  is  the 
source  of  numerous  varieties  of  goose- 
berries. R.  rubrum  yields  both  red 
and  white  currants,  and  R.  negrum 
black  currants. 

Ribot,  Alexandre  Felix  Joseph, 
a   French    statesman;     born    in    St. 


F/CUflES  /Af  STATET  /f£P/f£J£A^  PfiODUCT/OAf  /A/  Tf/Ol/JAAfDS  (^ BUfZ/OJ 


RICE 

PfiODUCTION  ISII 
THOUSANDS  OF BUSMELf 


UNITEDJTATES 


22.93V  THOUSAND 
BUSHOS 


'"^•^^IGUKES  IN  STATES  REPRESENTS  PRODUCTION  IN  THOUSANDS  OF  BALES 


\-'  h-^ ^ 


COTTON 

PRODUCTION  1910 
THOUSANU  OF  BALtf 


q      ^^   "1=--— 7/""-||        X  6751 
V  *  11.160  \ 


UNITED  STATES 

//.Vie  THOUSMID 


Ricardo 

Omer,  France,  Feb.  7,  1842.  He 
Btudied  law  in  Paris,  and  in  that  city 
became  prominent  in  legal  and  munici- 
pal affairs;  in  1870,  was  secretary  of 
the  Bar  Society;  was  appointed  direc- 
tor of  pardons  and  of  criminal  mat- 
ters in  1875 ;  becoming  Minister  of 
the  Interior  and  president  of  the  cabi- 
net, January  to  March,  1893.  When 
Faure  became  president,  in  January, 
1895,  M.  Ribot  again  filled  the  post  of 
premier,  and  held  the  oflSce  till  Oc- 
tober of  the  same  year. 

Bicardo,  David,  an  English  politi- 
cal economist ;  born  in  London,  hlng- 
land,  April  19,  1772.  He  stands  next 
to  Adam  Smith  in  the  British  free- 
trade  school  of  political  science,  and 
his  writings  have  exerted  a  vast  influ- 
ence on  all  theories  of  political  econ- 
omy. After  making  his  fortune  in  the 
Stock  Exchange  in  London,  he  retired 
to  devote  himself  to  the  study  of  math- 
ematics, chemistry,  etc.  He  died  in 
Gatcomb  Park,  Gloucestershire,  Sept. 
11,  1823. 

Ricciardelli,  Daniele,  better 
known  by  the  name  of  Daniele  da 
Volterra,  an  Italian  painter;  born  in 
Volterra,  Italy,  in  1509.  His  fame 
rests  chiefly  on  a  series  of  frescoes  in 
the  church  of  La  Trinita  de'  Monti, 
Rome ;  and  of  these  the  "Descent  from 
the  Cross  "  is  well  known.  He  died  in 
Rome,  April  4,  1566. 

Bice,  a  well  known  genus  of  grasses, 
having  panicles  of  one-flowered  spike- 
lets,  with  two  very  small  pointed 
glumes,  the  florets  compressed,  the 
paleaj  strongly  nerved,  awned  or  awn- 
less,  six  stamens,  one  germen,  and  two 
feathery  stigmas.  The  only  important 
species  is  the  common  rice,  one  of  the 
most  useful  and  extensively  cultivated 
of  all  grains,  supplying  the  principal 
food  of  nearly  one-third  of  the  human 
race.  It  seems  to  be  originally  a  na- 
tive of  the  East  Indies,  but  is  now 
cultivated  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe. 
Rice  requires  a  moist  soil,  sometimes 
flooded.  In  some  parts  of  the  East 
canals  are  carried  along  the  sides  of 
hills  for  the  irrigation  of  land  for  the 
cultivation  of  rice.  In  South  Carolina 
rice  is  sown  in  rows  in  the  bottom  of 
trenches,  which  are  about  18  inches 
apart;  the  trenches  are  filled  with 
water  to  the  depth  of  several  inches, 
till  the  seeds  germinate;  then  the 
Water  is  drawn  off,  and  afterward  the 

•G.  126. 


Bioci 

fields  are  again  flooded  for  rather 
more  than  a  fortnight  to  kill  weeds. 
They  are  flooded  again  when  the  graia 
is  near  ripening.  In  Europe  the  cul- 
tivation of  rice  is  most  extensively 
carried  on  in  the  plains  of  Lombardy 
and  in  Valencia  in  Spain.  The  best 
of  all  rice  known  in  the  market  for 
size  and  quality  is  that  of  South  Caro- 
lina. After  South  Carolina  the  prin- 
cipal rice-growing  States  are  Georgia 
and  Louisiana.  The  rice  production 
in  the   United   States   has   increased 


WATER    RICE. 

within  a  few  years  from  100,000.000 
pounds  per  annum  to  over  600,000,000 
pounds,  chiefly  in  Louisiana,  Texas, 
and  South  Carolina;  and  the  world's 
output  is  estimated  at  175,000,000,- 
000  pounds,  chiefly  in  .British  India, 
China,  Japan,  and  Siam.  Besides  its 
home  production,  the  United  States 
has  found  it  necessary  to  import 
217,000,000  pounds  in  a  single  year. 
Rice,  Edmund,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer;  born  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 


JEtlce 

in  1842;  entered  the  Union  army  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War ;  ap- 
pointed captain  in  1861 ;  and  was  mus- 
tered out  of  service  as  colonel  in  1865. 
He  received  a  medal  of  honor  for  con- 
spicuous bravery  in  the  battle  of  Get- 
tysburg. In  1866  he  entered  the  regu- 
lar army,  rose  to  colonel,  and  was 
assigned  to  the  5th  Infantry  in  1870. 
He  organized  and  commanded  the  Co- 
lumbian Guards  at  the  World's  Colum- 
bian Exposition;  was  military  attache 
at  Tokyo,  Japan ;  appointed  Inspector- 
General,  U.  S.  A.,  in  1898;  served  on 
General  Miles'  staff;  and  later  was 
colonel  of  the  26th  Infantry.  He  in- 
vented a  trowel  bayonet,  and  knife- 
intrenching  bayonet.     Died  1906. 

Rice,  James,  an  American  educa- 
tor; born  in  Richmond,  Ky.,  Nov.  25, 
1842;  was  graduated  at  Georgetown 
College,  Ky.,  in  1866,  president  of 
2oncord  College  in  1868-1872  and 
1876-1880;  of  Lebanon  Female  Col- 
lege in  1872-1876 ;  of  Masonic  College 
in  1880-1888;  and  of  the  Southwest 
Baptist  College  after  1897. 

Bice,  Wallace  (de  Groot  Cecil), 
an  American  literary  critic;  born  in 
Hamilton,  Canada,  Nov.  10,  18.59 ;  was 
educated  at  Harvard  University,  and 
admitted  to  the  Chicago  bar  in  No- 
vember, 1884.  He  served  as  reporter 
and  critic  on  various  Chicago  papers. 

Rice,  Willard  Martin,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman ;  born  in  Lowville,  N. 
Y.,  April  30,  1817;  was  graduated  at 
Wesleyan  University  in  1837.  He 
was  ordained  in  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  1858,  and  held  charges  in 
Philadelphia  till  1884.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of 
Publication  in  1862;  and  after  1876 
was  engaged  on  the  various  publica- 
tions of  the  Board.     Died  in  1004. 

Rice,  William.  Morton  Jackson* 
an  American  painter ;  born  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y^  Feb.  18,  1854;  was  grad- 
uated at  Cornell  University  in  1874; 
studied  painting  in  Paris. 

Rice,  William  Nertli,  an  Ameri- 
can educator ;  born  in  Marblehead, 
Mass.,  Nov.  21,  1845 ;  was  graduated 
at  the  Wesleyan  University  in  1865; 
was  Professor  of  Geology  and  Natural 
History  at  the  Wesleyan  University 
in  1867-1884;  and  of  Geology  after 
1884 ;  and  was  assistant  geologist  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey 
in  1891-1892.  ' 


Ricliard 

Rice  Bunting,  a  name  given  to 
two  distinct  birds.  The  first,  also 
known  by  the  name  "  bob-o-link,"  is 
a  bird  of  the  bunting  family,  which 
migrates  over  North  America  from 
Labrador  to  Mexico.  The  song  of  the 
male  is  singular  and  pleasant.  When 
fat  their  flesh  becomes  little  inferior 
in  flavor  to  that  of  the  European  or- 
tolan. The  other  species,  kno'vn  as 
the  rice  bunting,  is  also  known  as  the 
Java  sparrow,  and  paddy  bird.  It 
belongs  to  the  true  finches,  a  group 
nearly  allied  to  the  buntings.  It  is 
dreaded  in  Southern  Asia  on  account 
of  the  ravages  it  commits  in  the  rice 
fields.  It  is  frequently  brought  to 
Europe,  and  is  found  in  aviaries. 

Rice  Paper,  the  produce  of  the 
Aralia  papyrifera,  a  low  shrub,  with 
large  leaves,  from  Formosa,  where  it 
is  wild  and  abundant.  The  trunk 
and  branches  resemble  those  of  the 
elder.  The  pith,  dried  and  rolled,  or 
hammered,  and  pared  by  sharp  knives, 
forms  the  paper. 

Rich,  Edmund,  an  English  eccle* 
siastic;  born  in  Abingdon,  England, 
about  1195.  He  became  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  in  1233,  and  exhibited 
great  energy  as  a  reformer.  He  died 
in  1242. 

Richard  I.,  King  of  England,  sur* 
named  Cceur  de  Lion;  third  son  of 
King  Henry  II.  and  his  wife,  Eleanor 
of  Aquitaine;  born  either  at  Oxford 
or  at  Woodstock,  Sept.  8,  1157.  In 
England  Richard  did  not  spend  in  all 
his  life  a  full  year;  after  he  became 
king  he  spent  only  26  weeks  in  his 
kingdom,  17  weeks  when  he  landed  to 
take  the  crown  and  to  go  through  the 
coronation  ceremony  at  Westminster, 
and  nine  weeks  when  he  came  back 
from  his  imprisonment. 

Richard  became  King  of  England, 
Duke  of  Normandy,  and  Count  of  An- 
jou  on  July  5,  1189,  and  was  crowned 
King  of  England  on  Sept.  3,  follow- 
ing. But  he  had  already  taken  the 
vows  of  the  crusader;  and  besides  his 
coronation,  he  had  another  object  in 
coming  to  England ;  he  wanted  to  raise 
funds  for  his  crusade.  He  effected  this 
latter  purpose  in  a  brief  space  of  time 
by  selling  whatever  he  could  get  a 
purchaser  for.  About  midsummer 
1190  he  met  Philip  of  France  at  the 
rendezvous,  Vezelai  in  France.  Both 
kings  spent  the  winter  in  Sicily,  and 


Bichard 

their  mutual  jealousy  came  within  a 
bair's-breadth   of   a   rupture. 

On  his  way  to  Palestine  in  the 
Bpring  of  1191,  part  of  the  fleet  of  the 
English  king  was  driven  on  to  the  is- 
land of  Cyprus,  and  the  crews  were 
most  inhospitably  treated  by  the 
reigning  sovereign,  Isaac  Comnenus, 
a  nephew  of  the  Emperor  of  Byzanti- 
um, who  had  revolted  from  his  liege 
lord.  Richard  sailed  back  from 
Rhodes,  routed  Isaac  in  battle,  de- 
posed him,  and  gav_e  his  crown  to  Guy 
of  Lusignan.  In  Cyprus,  too,  he  mar- 
ried Berengaria  of  Navarre,  whom  his 
mother  had  brought  to  him  at  Mes- 
sina. At  last,  on  June  8,  the  English 
king  landed  near  Acre,  and  shortly 
afterward  that  stronghold  surrendered, 
the  siege  having  lasted  two  years.  The 
glorious  exploits  of  Richard  the  Lion- 
hearted  —  his  march  to  Joppa  along 
the  seashore,  his  approach  on  Jerusa- 
lem at  Christmas,  his  capture  of  the 
fortresses  in  the  S.  of  Palestine,  his 
second  advance  in  the  summer  of  1192 
on  Jerusalem,  and  his  relief  of  Joppa 
—  made  his  name  ring  throughout  the 
East  and  excited  the  wonder  and  ad- 
miration of  Christendom,  but  brought 
no  real  advantage  to  the  crusading 
cause. 

Richard  in  September  concluded  a 
peace  with  Saladin  for  three  years, 
three  months,  and  three  days,  and  in 
his  impulsive,  impatient  way  started 
off  home  alone,  without  waiting  for  his 
army  and  fleet.  A  storm  shipwrecked 
him  near  the  N.  end  of  the  Adriatic. 
In  disguise  he  began  to  make  his  way 
through  the  dominions  of  his  bitter  en- 
emy, the  Archduke  of  Austria.  He 
was  recognized,  seized,  and  handed 
over  to  the  Emperor  Henry  VI. 
(March,  1193).  The  emperor  de- 
manded a  heavy  ransom  for  his  release, 
but  promised  to  give  him  the  kingdom 
of  Aries  in  addition  to  his  liberty. 
Richard's  loyal  subjects  raised  the 
money ;  and  greatly  to  the  chagrin  of 
Philip  of  France  and  Richard's 
brother  John,  the  captive  king  return- 
ed home  (March  13,  1194). 

In  England  in  the  meantime  Long- 
champ  had  made  himself  so  unpopular 
that  Richard  had  been  obliged  to  su- 
persede him,  appointing  in  his  place 
Walter  of  Coutances,  Archbishop  of 
Rouen.  After  distributing  judicious 
rewards     and     punishments,     raising 


Ricbard 

what  money  he  could,  making  arrange* 
ments  for  the  governance  of  the  king- 
dom, and  being  crowned  again,  Rich- 
ard proceeded  to  France,  and  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  there,  warring  against 
Philip.  England  was  governed  in  his 
absence  by  Hubert  Walter,  Archbish- 
op of  Canterbury,  who  by  the  meas- 
ures he  took  to  raise  -the  vast  sums  d^ 
manded  by  his  master  trained  the  Eng- 
lish people  in  habits  of  self-govern- 
ment. Richard  was  shot,  on  April  7, 
1199,  by  an  archer  of  the  Viscount  or 
Limoges,  while  besieging  that  noble- 
man's castle  of  Chalus-Chabrol,  and 
was  buried  in  the  abbey  church  of 
Fontevraud. 

Bicliard  II.,  King  of  England ;  son 
of  the  Black  Prince  and  Joanna  of 
Kent ;  born  in  Bordeaux,  Jan.  6,  1367 ; 
was  acknowledged  by  Parliament  heir 
to  the  crown  on  the  death  of  his  father 
in  1376,  and  succeeded  his  grand 
father,  Edward  III.,  on  June  21,  1377. 
The  government  was  entrusted  to  a 
council  of  12,  from  which  the  king's 
uncles,  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster, Edmund,  Earl  of  Cambridge, 
and  Thomas,  Earl  of  Buckingham, 
were  excluded.  Nevertheless  the  cen- 
tral figure  during  the  early  years  of 
this  reign,  as  he  had  been  during  the 
last  years  of  the  preceding  reign,  was 
John  of  Gaunt,  whose  overreaching 
ambition  and  inability  were  a  fruitful 
source  of  disquietude. 

The  imposition  of  a  graduated  poll- 
tax  in  1380  provoked  popular  risings, 
directed  principally  against  the  gentry 
and  landholders,  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  kingdom,  at  Whitsuntide  in  the 
following  year.  The  men  of  Essex  and 
Kent,  to  the  number  of  100,000, . 
marched  on  London.  The  former  body, 
whom  the  king  met  at  Mile  End  on 
June  14,  consented  to  return  home 
when  the  the  young  monarch  assured 
them  he  would  grant  their  requests. 
The  men  of  Kent,  after  destroying  the 
Savoy,  burning  Temple  Bar,  opening 
the  prisons,  and  breaking  into  the 
Tower  and  slaying  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  met  the  king  at  Smith- 
field  (loth).  During  the  negotiations, 
William  Walworth,  the  mayor  of  Lon- 
don, struck  down  Wat  Tyler,  the  lead- 
er of  the  insurgents.  The  king  imme- 
diately rode  among  them,  exclaiming 
he  would  be  their  leader,  and  granted 
them  the  concessions  they  asked.  From 


Bicliard 

the  fact  that  the  insurgents  directed 
their  enmity  against  himself  and  the 
advisers  of  the  king,  John  of  Gaunt 
saw  that  he  could  never  hope  to  suc- 
ceed in  his  ambitious  schemes  in  Eng- 
land ;  and  from  this  time  he  kept  very 
much  in  the  background,  till  in  1386 
he  carried  himself  and  his  restless 
plottings  to  Spain  and  Gascony.  Rich- 
ard in  1390  made  him  Duke  of  Aqui- 
taine  for  life.  In  1385  Richard  invad- 
ed Scotland,  and  took  Edinburgh  and 
burned  it ;  but,  not  encountering  the 
Scotch,  returned  home. 

On  May  3,  1389,  Richard  suddenly 
declared  himself  of  age,  and  proceeded 
to  govern  on  his  own  responsibility. 
For  eight  years  he  ruled  as  a  moder- 
ate constitutional  monarch,  and  the 
country  enjoyed  peace  —  hostilities 
with  France  were  not  renewed  after 
1388  —  and  was  fairly  prosperous. 
But  in  1394  Richard's  first  wife,  Anne 
of  Bohemia,  whom  he  had  wedded  in 
1382,  died,  and  two  years  later  he 
married  Isabella,  daughter  of  Charles 
VI.,  of  France,  a  girl  of  eight.  In 
the  Parliament  of  1397  he  began  to  as- 
sert the  pretensions  of  an  absolute 
monarch.  On  July  8  he  had  Glouces- 
ter, Arundel,  and  Warwick  arrested 
on  the  charge  of  conspiring  against  the 
crown.  Arundel  was  beheaded ; 
Gloucester  was  sent  a  prisoner  to  Ca- 
lais, and  died  there  in  prison,  a  fort- 
night after  his  arrest ;  and  Warwick 
was  banished  to  the  Isle  of  Man. 
Thomas  Arundel,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, was  also  banished. 

Richard  soon  aroused  the  slumbering 
discontent  of  his  subjects  by  his  un- 
just methods  of  raising  money,  prin- 
cipally by  means  of  forced  loans,  and 
by  his  arbitrary  and  despotic  rule.  In 
the  beginning  of  1398  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk  and  the  Duke  of  Hereford 
were  accused  to  the  king  of  having 
spoken  treason  against  him.  Richard 
banished  them  —  Norfolk  for  life  and 
Hereford  for  10  years.  In  January, 
1399,  John  of  Gaunt  died,  and  Here- 
ford succeeded  him  as  Duke  of  Lancas- 
ter ;  but  the  king  refused  to  give  up  to 
the  exile  the  lands  of  his  dead  father. 
Richard  in  May  went  over  to  Ireland, 
which  he  had  previously  visited  at  the 
Jiead  of  a  military  expedition  in  1394- 
1395.  Henry  of  Lancaster  seized  on 
the  opportunity  afforded  by  the  king's 
nbsence,  and  landed  on  July  4.  Rich- 
ard  at  once  hurried   back,   but   bad 


Rlcliard 

neither  heart  nor  power  to  withstand 
his  cousin.  He  submitted  to  Lancas- 
ter at  Flint  Aug.  19,  was  carried  to 
London,  and  placed  in  the  Tower.  On 
Sept.  29  he  resigned  the  crown,  and  on 
the  following  day  was  likewise  de- 
posed by  the  Parliament,  which  chose 
Henry  of  Lancaster  as  his  successor. 

A  month  after  his  resignation  Rich- 
ard was  condemned  to  perpetual  im- 
prisonment by  Parliament.  His  fate 
is  wrapped  in  obscurity,  beyond  the  al- 
most certain  fact  that  he  met  a  violent 
death. 

Ricbard  III.,  King  of  England; 
son  of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  a  de- 
scendant of  Edward  III. ;  born  in  Foth- 
eringay  Castle,  Oct.  2,  1452.  After  the 
defeat  and  death  of  his  father  in  1460 
he  was  sent,  along  with  his  brother 
George,  to  Utrecht  for  safety,  but  re- 
turned to  England  after  his  eldest 
brother  Edward  won  the  crown 
( 1401 ) .  Two  years  later  he  was  cre- 
ated Duke  of  Gloucester,  his  brother 
George  being  made  Duke  of  Clarence. 
In  the  final  struggle  between  the  York 
and  Lancaster  factions  he  took  an  ac- 
tive share.  All  through  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.  he  gave  valuable  and 
faithful  support  to  his  brother,  and 
was  rewarded  by  him  with  every  con- 
fidence, and  with  numerous  high  of- 
fices. 

In  1472  he  married  Anne,  the  young- 
er daughter  of  Warwick  the  King- 
maker, who  had  beeh  betrothed  to  the 
murdered  Prince  Edward.  In  1482  he 
was  put  in  command  of  the  army  that 
invaded  Scotland.  Along  with  the 
Duke  of  Albany  he  entered  Edinburgh  ; 
but  his  one  warlike  achievement  was 
the  capture  of  Berwick  town  and  cas- 
tle. In  the  following  year,  while  still 
in  Yorkshire,  he  heard  of  King  Ed- 
ward's death  (April  9),  and  learned 
that  he  himself  had  been  named  guard- 
ian and  protector  of  his  son  and  heir, 
Edward  V.,  then  aged  13.  On  his  way 
S.  the  Protector  arrested  Earl  Rivera 
and  Lord  Richard  Grey,  the  uncle  and 
step-brother  of  the  young  king,  and 
confined  them  in  his  castles. 

The  arrest  of  Rivers  and  Grey  had 
put  the  king  entirely  into  his  hands, 
for  the  queen-mother  had  hastened  to 
take  sanctuary  at  Westminster.  On 
June  13  Gloucester  suddenly  accused 
Lord  Hastings,  an  influential  member 
of  the  council,  of  treason,  arrested  bim 


Sicliard  Plantagenef 


Iticliards 


there  and  then,  and  had  him  instantly 
beheaded.  On  June  16  the  queen-dow- 
ager was  induced  to  give  up,  at  the  de- 
mand of  Richard  and  the  council,  her 
other  son,  the  little  Duke  of  York.  He 
was  put  into  the  Tower  to  keep  his 
brother,  the  king,  company.  On  the 
Sunday  following  (22d)  a  certain  Dr. 
Shaw  preached  at  St.  Paul's  cross  that 
the  children  of  Edward  IV.  were  ille- 
gitimate. Three  days  later  the  Parlia- 
ment desired  Richard  to  assume  the 
crown;  on  the  next  day  (June  26, 
1483)  he  declared  himself  king,  and 
on  July  6  was  crowned  in  state  by 
Cardinal  Bourchier. 

Shortly  after  his  coronation  Richard 
set  out  on  a  tour  through  the  king- 
dom, and  during  the  course  of  it  he 
was  surprised  by  the  intelligence  that 
Buckingham  was  plotting  with  the 
friends  of  Henry  Tudor  (afterward 
Henry  VII.),  to  effect  his  overthrow 
and  proclaim  Henry  king.  But  the  at- 
tempted rising  soon  collapsed,  and 
Buckingham  was  taken  and  on  Nov. 
2  executed.  It  seems  to  have  been 
shortly  before  this  that  Richard  con- 
trived the  foul  crime  that  has  branded 
him  name  with  infamy,  the  murder  of 
his  nephews  in  the  Tower.  The  deed 
was  done  so  secretly  by  Sir  James 
Tyrrell,  one  of  Richard's  devoted  fol- 
lowers, and  a  couple  of  hirelings,  that 
the  nation  did  not  know  of  it  till  some 
time  after. 

During  the  remainder  of  his  short 
reign  Richard  directed  all  his  energies 
to  baffling  the  plans  of  Richmond,  and 
to  making  preparations  to  meet  the  in- 
vasion which  he  saw  to  be  imminent. 
Henry  of  Richmond  at  length  landed 
at  Milford  Haven  on  Aug.  7,  1485. 
Richard  met  him  at  Bosworth  in  Lei- 
cestershire on  the  22d,  and  there  lost 
his  kingdom  and  his  life. 

Richard  Plantagenet,  King  of 
the  Romans ;  second  son  of  John,  King 
of  England;  born  Jan.  5,  1209.  For 
some  years  he  acted  with  the  English 
barons,  to  many  of  whom  he  was  close- 

g  related  by  his  marriage  with  Isabel, 
juntess  of  Gloucester,  daughter  of 
the  Earl  of  Pembroke.  In  1240-1241 
Richard  was  away  on  a  crusade,  and 
the  next  year  he  was  with  his  brother 
in  Gascony;  and  in  1244  he  married 
Sanchia  of  Provence,  sister  of  Queen 
Eleanor,  and  this  second  marriage 
drew  him  away  from  the  baronage,  ta 


1257  he  was  elected  by  a  majority  ti- 
tular king  of  the  Romans,  and  was 
soon  afterward  crowned  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  In  the  great  struggle  which 
took  place  between  Henry  III.  and 
his  nobles  Richard  at  first  acted  as 
a  peacemaker.  Subsequently,  however, 
he  sided  with  his  brother  against  Si- 
mon de  Montfort ;  and  he  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Lewes,  and  imprisoned  for 
a  year,  till  the  battle  of  Evesham 
(1265)  set  him  free.  In  1267  he  was 
a  third  time  married,  to  Beatrice, 
niece  of  the  Elector  of  Cologne.  Rich- 
ard died  at  Kirkham,  Dec.  12,  1271. 

Richards,  Charles  Brincker- 
hoff,  an  American  engineer ;  born  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  23,  1833;  was 
superintendent  of  Colt's  Arms  Com- 
pany, of  Hartford,  for  many  years. 
In  1861  he  invented  the  Richards  in- 
dicator for  steam  engines;  was  one  of 
the  United  States  expert  commission* 
ers  to  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1889; 
editor  of  the  engineering  and  technical 
terms  in  "  Webster's  International 
Dictionary." 

Richards,  Charles  Herbert,  an 
American  clergyman ;  born  in  Meri- 
den,  N.  H.,  March  18,  1839 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Yale  University  in  1860,  and 
at  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary 
in  1865 ;  and  afterward  served  in  the 
ministry  of  the  Congregational  Church. 
He  conducted  the  Monona  Lake  As- 
sembly in  Madison,  Wis.,  in  1881- 
1884;  was  president  of  the  Wisconsin 
Home  Missionary  Society  in  1885- 
1890;  lectured  on  Hymnology  and 
Church  Music  at  Yale  University  in 
1895. 

Richards,  Edgar,  an  American 
chemist ;  born  in  New  York,  Feb.  23, 
1858 ;  took  a  course  in  chemistry  at 
the  School  of  Mines  in  Columbia  Uni- 
versity in  1876-1881 ;  was  assistant 
chemist  in  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  in  1882-1887 ;  as- 
sistant chemist  in  the  Internal  Rev- 
enue Bureau  of  the  United  States 
Treasury  Department  in  1887-1892; 
president  of  the  Washington  Chemical 
Society   in    1889. 

Richards,  Laura  Elizabeth,  an 
American  writer  of  juvenile  books, 
daughter  of  Julia  Ward  Howe;  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1850.  She  pub- 
lished a  great  number  of  children's 
books. 


RicIiaTds 

Richards,    William    Trost,     an 

American  landscape  and  marine  paint- 
er; born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Nov. 
14,  1833.  From  1878  till  1880,  he  had 
a  studio  in  London,  England.  He 
then  returned  to  Philadelphia.  At 
the  Metropolitan  Museum,  in  New 
York  city,  is  a  series  of  47  water- 
color  marines  and  landscapes,  painted 
by  him  in  1871-187G.  His  "  Wissa- 
hickon "  was  on  exhibition  at  the 
Centennial  Exposition  in  1876.  In  the 
Corcoran  Art  Gallery,  Washington, 
D.  C,  is  hung  his  "  On  the  Coast  of 
New  .Jersey."     He  died  Nov.  8,  1905. 

Ricliardson,  Abby  Sage,  an 
American  lecturer  and  writer  on  lit- 
erary topics ;  wife  of  Albert  Deane 
Richardson;  bom  in  Massachusetts, 
in  1837.  She  died  in  Rome,  Italy, 
Dec.  5,  1900.  She  was  a  woman  of 
remarkable  ability,  and  gave  an  ad- 
mirable example  in  the  devoted  care 
of  her  children. 

Richardson,  Benjamin  "Ward, 
an  English  physician ;  born  at  Somer- 
by,  Leicestershii-e,  1828 ;  graduated  in 
medicine  at  St.  Andrews  University  in 
1854.  In  1855  he  edited  the  "Journal 
of  Health;"  and  he  gained  the  Astley 
Cooper  prize  by  his  treatise  on  "  The 
Cause  of  the  Coagulation  of  the 
Blood,"  and  the  Fothergillian  gold 
medal  by  a  disquisition  on  the  "  Di- 
seases of  the  Fcetus,"  in  1856.  He 
originated  the  use  of  ether  spray  for 
the  local  abolition  of  pain  in  surgical 
operations,  and  introduced  methylene 
bichloride  as  a  general  anajsthetic. 
He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Physicians  and  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety. He  was  knighted  in  1893,  and 
died  in  1896. 

Richardson,  Charles,  an  English 
lexicographer;  born  in  1775,  died  1865. 
He  was  trained  as  a  barrister,  but  de- 
voted himself  to  literature.  In  1815 
he  published  "  Illustrations  of  Eng- 
lish Philology."  In  1818  he  under- 
took the  lexicographical  articles  in 
the  "  Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana," 
and  afterwards  published  his  great 
work,  a  "  New  Dictionary  of  the  Eng- 
lish Language  "  (2  vols.  1835-37).  He 
contributed  frequently  to  magazines. 

Richardson,  Henry  Hobson,  an 
American  architect ;  born  in  New  Or- 
leans, La.,  in  38.S8;  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1859.  He  designed  some 
of  the  most  beautiful  buildings  in  this 


Richardson 

country.  He  died  in  Boston,  ^lass., 
April  28,  1886. 

Richardson,  Sir  John,  a  British 
naturalist  and  Arctic  traveler;  born 
in  Dumfries,  Scotland,  Nov.  5,  1787. 
After  studying  medicine  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh  he  entered  the 
royal  navy,  in  1807,  as  assistant-sur- 
geon. He  served  on  various  stations 
till  1819,  and  was  surgeon  and  natu- 
ralist to  the  Arctic  expeditions  of  1819- 
1822  and  1825-1827,  under  Sir  John 
Franklin,  exploring  on  the  latter  oc- 
casion the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean 
between  the  Mackenzie  and  Copper- 
mine rivers.  In  March,  1848,  he  took 
charge  of  an  expedition  to  search  for 
Franklin.  He  died  near  Grasmere, 
England,  June  5,  1865. 

Richardson,  Samnel,  an  English 
novelist ;  born  in  Derbyshire,  in  1689. 
In  1706,  at  the  age  of  16,  he  was 
bound  by  his  own  wish  to  John  Wilde 
of  Stationers'  Hall.  From  1713  to 
1719  he  worked  as  a  journeyman  print- 
er. In  the  latter  year  he  opened  an 
establishment  of  his  own,  and  shortly 
after  married  Miss  Martha  Wilde, 
long  popularly  believed  to  be  his  mas- 
ter's daughter,  but  the  child  of  a  Mr. 
Allington  Wilde.  He  became  master 
of  the  Stationers'  Company  (1754). 

He  printed  more  than  one  news- 
paper, and  by  the  favor  of  Speaker 
Onslow  obtained  the  printing  of  the 
journals  of  the  House  of  Commons,  26 
volumes  of  which  passed  through  hia 
establishment.  He  was  over  50  when 
two  bookselling  friends  invited  him  to 
prepare  a  volume  of  familiar  letters  in 
a  common  style,  on  such  subjects  as 
might  be  of  use  to  those  country 
readers  who  were  unable  to  indite  for 
themselves.  Hence  sprung  "  Pamela," 
published  in  November,  1740.  Its 
title  was  "  Pamela :  or  Virtue  Re- 
warded." • 

In  February  followed  a  second  ei'A- 
tion ;  a  third  succeeded  in  March,  and 
a  fourth  in  May.  Grub  street  fastening 
promptly  on  this  unexampled  popular- 
ity, hastily  put  together  for  a  sequel  a 
"Pamela  in  High  Life." 

Eight  years  elapsed  before  Richard- 
son published  another  novel.  "  Clar- 
issa; or  the  Adventures  of  a  Young 
Lady,"  known  generally  as  "Clarissa 
Harlowe."  The  heroine  is  drawn  with 
a  tenacity  of  insight  to  which  "  Pame« 
la,"  could  scarcely  pretend;  and  thd 


JticliaTclson 


Kicliiuond 


chief  male  character,  that  of  Love- 
lace, is  scarcely  inferior. 

Having  drawn  the  ideal  woman  in 
*'  Clarissa,"  Richardson  proceeded, 
some  five  years  later,  to  portray,  in 
"  Sir  Charles  Grandison,"  the  perfect 
man  —  "the  man  of  true  honor.  This 
is  a  work  of  much  greater  ability  than 
*'  Pamela,"  but  still  far  below  "  Clar- 
issa." In  later  life  a  nervous  disease 
grew  upon  him,  which  terminated  in 
17G1  by  a  fit  of  apoplexy,  of  which  he 
died. 

Ricliardson,  'William  Adams, 
an  American  jurist ;  born  in  Tyngs- 
boro,  Mass.,  Nov.  2,  1821 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  University  in  1843, 
and  at  its  law  school  in  1846,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  Boston  bar  in  1848. 
In  1856  he  was  appointed  judge  of 
the  probate  court  of  Middlesex  coun- 
ty, and  in  1869,  assistant  secretary  of 
the  United  States  Treasury,  becoming 
secretary  in  1873.  He  resigned  that 
ofBce  in  1874  to  accept  a  seat  on  the 
bench  of  the  United  States  Court  of 
Claims,  being  made  chief-justice  of 
the  court  in  1885.  He  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  Oct.  19.  1896. 

Richelieu,  Armand  Jean  Du- 
plessis,  Cardinal,  Due  de,  a  French 
statesman ;  born  in  Richelieu,  Sept.  5, 
1585.  He  abandoned  a  military  career 
for  the  Church.  Representative  of  the 
Poitou  clergy  at  the  States-general  in 
1614,  he  attracted  the  notice  of  the 
queen-mother,  and  rose  in  1616  to  be 
secretary  of  war  and  foreign  affairs ; 
but  the  downfall  of  Marshal  d'Ancre, 
the  queen-regent's  favorite,  in  April, 
1617,  sent  him  back  to  his  diocese. 
In  1622  he  was  named  cardinal  and 
in  1624  Minister  of  State.  His  first 
important  measure  was  the  blow  to 
Spain  of  an  alliance  with  England, 
cemented  by  the  betrothal  -(1625)  of 
the  king's  sister,  Henrietta,  with 
Charles,  then  Prince  of  Wales.  His 
next  task  was  to  destroy  the  political 
power  of  the  Huguenot  party.  After 
a  15  months'  siege,  concentrating  all 
his  energy  on  the  task,  the  great 
stronghold  of  La  Rochelle  was  starved 
into  submission,  Oct.  30,  1628.  Early 
in  1630  he  entered  Italy  and  soon  re- 
duced Savoy  to  submission.  The  first 
treaty  of  Cherasco  (April,  1631), 
ended  the  Italian  war,  the  second 
gave  France  the  important  strategic 
position  of  Pinerolo. 


In  July,  1632,  Richelieu  had  seized 
the  duchy  of  Lorraine.  He  continued 
his  intrigues  with  the  Protestants 
against  Ferdinand,  but  till  1635  he 
took  no  open  part  in  the  war.  In 
May  of  that  year,  after  completing  his 
preparations  he  declared  war  on  Spain 
and  at  once  placed  in  the  field  an 
army  of  132,000  men.  But  his  first 
efforts   were    unsuccessful. 

With  30,000  foot  and  12,000  horse  he 
swept  the  enemy  out  of  Picardy,  while 
his  ally  Bernhard  drove  them  across 
the  Rhine,  and  in  1638  destroyed  the 
imperial  army  in  the  decisive  battle 
of  Rheinfelden.  The  unexpected  death 
of  Bernhard  threw  the  fruit  of  his 
victories  into  the  hands  of  Richelieu  — 
revolts  in  Catalonia,  and  the  loss  of 
Portugal ;  the  victories  of  Wolfen- 
buttel  (1642)  and  Kempten  (1642) 
over  the  Imperialists  in  Germany ; 
and  at  length  in  1641  in  Savoy  also 
in  the  ascendency  of  the  French  party. 
Another  triumph  that  same  year  was 
the  speedy  collapse  of  the  Imperialist 
invasion  in  the  N.  by  the  Count  of 
Soissons,  who  perished  in  the  first 
battle.  The  failure  to  capture  Tarra- 
gona was  the  one  exception  to  the 
complete  triumph  of  the  cardinal's 
latest  years. 

The  last  conspiracy  against  him  was 
that  of  the  grand-equerry,  the  young 
Cinq-Mars,  whose  intrigues  with  Gas- 
ton, the  Duke  of  Bouillon,  and  the 
Spanish  court  were  soon  revealed  to 
the  cardinal.  When  the  hour  was 
ripe  he  placed  in  the  king's  hands  at 
Tarascon  proofs  of  the  traitorous  plot 
with  Spain,  and  was  given  full  powers 
as  lieutenant-general  of  the  '  realm. 
Cinq-Mars  and  De  Thou  were  at  once 
arrested,  and  Gaston  of  Orleans  has- 
tened to  buy  his  own  security  by  be 
fraying  his  accomplices.  Cinq-Mars 
and  De  Thou  were  executed  at  Lyons 
in  the  autumn  of  1CA2.  But  the  great 
minister  was  himself  dying  in  the 
hour  of  his  greatest  triumphs.  He  died 
Dec.  4,  1642,  bequeathing  Mazarin  to 
the  king  as  his  successor. 

Richmond,  a  town  in  Madison  co., 
Ky. ;  25  miles  S.  E.  of  Lexington.  It 
is  memorable  as  the  scene  of  one  of  the 
most  desperate  battles  of  the  Civil 
War.  The  Confederate  general,  E. 
Kirby  Smith,  in  command  of  18.000 
troops,  attacked  a  much  larger  Union 
army  under  command  of  Gens.  M.  D. 


Hicliinond 

Manson  and  William  Nelson,  and  after 
a  three  hours'  battle  utterly  defeated 
the  Union  forces,  whose  loss  including 
killed,  wounded  and  prisoners,  was 
5,000. 

Bicliiuond,  a  city,  port  of  entry, 
capital  of  the  State  of  Virginia,  and 
county-seat  of  Henrico  co. ;  on  the 
James  river ;  116  miles  S.  E.  of  Wash- 
ington, D.  O.  The  city  is  about  127 
miles  from  the  ocean.  The  James 
river  is  navigable  for  large  vessels. 
The  city  is  built  on  seven  hills,  and 
is  surrounded  by  beautiful  scenery. 

There  are  upward  of  GOO  manufac- 
turing establishments,  of  which  nearly 
90  are  engaged  in  the  tobacco  indus- 
try, the  remainder  being  of  flour, 
paper,  fertilizer,  iron,  steel,  etc.  A 
number  of  its  flour  mills  and  one  of 
its  rolling  mills  are  among  the  largest 
in  the  United   States. 

The  city  covers  an  area  of  5  square 
miles ;  and  has  116  miles  of  streets, 
of  which  23  miles  are  paved ;  a  system 
of  waterworks  that  cost  $2,500,000, 
and  100  miles  of  mains ;  and  a  sewer 
system  covering  53  miles.  The  streets 
are  lighted  by  gas  and  electricity. 
There  is  a  public  school  enrollment 
of  nearly  12,000  pupils  and  annual 
expenditures  for  public  education  of 
over  $166,859.21.  The  annual  cost  of 
maintaining  the  city  government  ex- 
ceeds $1,500,000.  The  death  rate 
averages  18.57  per  1,000  annually.  The 
capitol,  which  stands  on  Shockoe  Hill, 
and  is  surrounded  by  most  of  the  other 
public  buildings,  is  an  imposing  struc- 
ture, dating  from  1785.  In  the  Cen- 
tral Hall,  surmounted  by  a  dome,  are 
a  statue  of  Washington  and  bust  of 
Lafayette,  Gen.  Fitz  Hugh  Lee,  and 
others.  The  Senate  Chamber,  to  the 
right,  was  used  as  the  Confederate 
House  of  Representatives  during  the 
Civil  War.  The  House  of  Delegates, 
to  the  left,  contains  portraits  of 
Chatham  and  Jefferson,  and  was  the 
Bcene  of  Aaron  Burr's  trial  for  high 
treason  in  1807  and  of  the  State  Seces- 
sion Convention  in  1861.  The  execu- 
tive mansion  of  the  Confederate 
States,  formerly  the  residence  of  Jef- 
ferson Davis,  has  been  converted  into 
a  museum  which  contains  many  relics 
of  the  Civil  War.  The  other  notable 
public  buildings  include  the  City  Hall, 
State  Library,  State  Penitentiary, 
almshouse,   custom    house,    etc.      The 


Ricliniond 

prominent  educational  institutions  are 
Kichmond  College  (Bapt.),  St.  Jo- 
seph Female  Academy  (R.  C),  the 
Medical  College  of  Virginia,  University 
College  of  Medicine,  Women's  College, 
and  Mechanics'  Institute. 

Richmond  is  said  to  have  first  been 
settled  in  1609.  Fort  Charles  was 
built  as  a  defense  against  the  Indiana 
in  1644^1645.  The  city  was  incor- 
porated in  1742,  and  became  the  cap- 
ital of  the  State  in  1779.  In  June, 
1861,  it  was  selected  as  the  Con- 
federate capital,  and  from  that  period 
was  the  objective  point  of  a  series  of 
formidable  military  expeditions  for  its 
capture.     Pop.    (1910)  127,628. 

During  the  last  three  years  of  the 
Civil  War  (1862-1865)  battles  raged 
all  round  Richmond,  and  remains  of 
the  fortified  lines  constructed  to  pro- 
tect the  city  are  visible  in  various 
parts  of  the  environs.  Both  the  inner 
and  outer  fortifications  may  be  seen 
from  the  Brook  Road,  which  leads  to 
the  Lakeside  Club  House,  with  its 
golf  links,  bowling  alleys  and  boating 
lake.  The  chief  direct  attack  on  Rich- 
mond was  made  on  May  15,  1862, 
when  the  Union  fleet  attempted,  with- 
out success,  to  force  its  way  past  the 
batteries  at  Drewry  Bluff,  on  the 
James  river,  7  miles  below  the  city. 
Simultaneously  General  McClellan  ad- 
vanced with  the  land  forces  up  the 
peninsula  between  the  York  and  James 
rivers  and  invested  Richmond  on  the 
B.  and  N.  This  led  to  the  hardly 
contested  but  indecisive  battle  of  Seven 
Pines  or  Fair  Oaks  (May  31,  1862), 
in  which  the  Confederates  under  Gen. 
Joseph  E.  Johnston  attacked  McClel- 
lan's  left  wing,  to  the  S.  of  the 
Chickahominy.  Large  cemeteries  and 
a  park  now  mark  the  spot,  7  miles  to 
the  E.,  reached  by  the  West  Point 
railroad.  The  district  is  swampy,  and 
McClellan  lost  more  men  by  pestilence 
than  in  fighting.  Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee 
assumed  command  of  the  Confederate 
forces  and  made  an  attempt,  in  combi- 
nation with  Gen.  "  Stonewall  "  Jack- 
son, to  overwhelm  McClellan's  right 
wing,  which  was  posted  at  Mechanics- 
ville,  on  the  Chickahominy,  5^/^  miles 
to  the  N.  of  Richmond,  and  thus  be- 
gan the  famous  Seven  Days'  Battle 
(June  2S-Ju]y  2,  1862).  Mechanics- 
ville  was  followed  by  the  battles  of 
Gaines's  Mill,  Cold  Harbor,  Savage's 


Riclmiond 

Station,  Frazier's  Farm,  and  Malvern 
Hill.  The  upshot  of  this  series  of 
contests,  in  which  40,000  men  fell,  was 
the  relief  of  Richmond,  as  the  Union 
troops  were  compelled  to  retreat  to 
Malvern  Hill,  15  miles  to  the  S.  E., 
where  they  repelled  the  Confederates 
in  their  last  attack  but  soon  after 
withdrew  to  Harrison's  Landing,  on 
the  James  River.  During  1863  there 
were  no  direct  attacks  on  Richmond. 
In  May,  18G4,  General  Grant  marched 
down  through  the  "  Wilderness "  and 
attacked  Lee  in  his  entrenched  posi- 
tion at  Cold  Harbor  (June  3,  1864), 
and  lost  15,000  men  without  making 
much  impression  on  the  enemy.  He 
then  transferred  his  army  to  the  S. 
side  of  the  James ;  and  the  later  stages 
of  the  war  were  rather  a  siege  of 
Petersburg  than  of  Richmond. 

Richmond,  city  and  capital  of 
Wayne  county,  Ind.;  on  the  White 
river  and  the  Grand  Rapids  &  Indi- 
ana and  other  railroads;  68  miles  E. 
of  Indianapolis;  manufactures  church 
furniture,  undertakers'  supplies,  farm 
implements,  brass  and  iron  goods, 
carpets,  and  lawn-mowers;  and  is  the 
seat  of  Earlham  College  (Friends) 
and  the  Eastern  Asylum  for  the  In- 
sane.    Pop.  (1910)  22,324. 

Bicliter,  Johann  Fanl  Fried- 
rich,  known  by  his  pen-name  of  Jean 
Paul,  a  German  humorist;  born  in 
Wunsiedel,  North  Bavaria,  March  21, 
1763.  His  first  literary  "children." 
were  satires;  but  he  could  get  no  pub- 
lisher for  them  till  in  1783  Voss  of 
Berlin  gave  him  40  louis  d'or  for 
"  The  Greenland  Lawsuits." 
I  For  three  years  Jean  Paul  struggled 
on  at  home,  his  mother  spinning  hard 
for  bread,  he  helping  with  a  few 
florins  he  earned  by  his  pen.  He 
read  enormously,  omnivorously.  In 
the  beginning  or  1787  he  began  to 
teach  the  children  of  different  families 
in  the  district,  and  of  course  taught 
by  original  methods.  All  this  time  he 
still  went  on  writing.  "  The  Invisible 
Lodge  "  was  his  first  literary  success ; 
"  Hesperus "  made  him  famous.  In 
1796  Charlotte  von  Kalb  wrote  to 
express  her  admiration  of  the  book ; 
and  a  few  months  later,  at  her  invita- 
tion, Jean  Paul  visited  Weimar.  There 
Goethe  received  him  politely;  that, 
too,  was  Schiller's  attitude,  when  Jean 
Paul  went  on  to  Jena  to  see  him. 


Rickettfl 

Herder  and  his  wife,  on  the  other 
hand,  greeted  the  young  romance- 
writer  with  overflowing  admiration.  He 
settled  finally  at  Baireuth  in  1804.  He 
shortly  afterwards  received  a  pension 
from  the  prince-primate,  Dalberg, 
which  was  continued  by  the  King  of 
Bavaria.  While  staying  in  Berlin  in 
1801  he  married  Karoline  Mayer,  a 
union  which  proved  very  happy.  .  His 
last  years  were  saddened  by  the  death 
of  his  only  son  in  1821.  Jean  Paul's 
works  (he  wrote  under  this  name)  arc 
characterized  by  a  deeply  reflective  and 
philosophic  humor,  but  are  often 
whimsical  and  fantastic.  They  are 
full  of  good  things,  but  show  no  sense 
of  proportion,  arrangement,  or  artistic 
finish.  His  writings,  other  than  those 
noted  above,  include  works  connected 
with  the  history  and  politics  of  the 
time.    He  died  Nov.  14,  1825. 

Richthofen,  Ferdinand,  Baron 
von,  a  German  geographer;  born  in 
Karlsruhe,  Silesia,  May  5,  1833 ;  in 
1860  accompanied  a  Prussian  expedi- 
tion to  Eastern  Asia.  The  next  12 
years  he  spent  in  traveling  through 
Java,  Siam,  Burma,  California,  Sierra 
Nevada,  and  China  and  Japan.  After 
his  return  to  Europe  (1872)  he  was 
appointed  president  of  the  Berlin 
Geographical  Society,  Professor  of 
Geology  at  Bonn,  of  Geography  at 
Leipzig,  and  at  Berlin,  and  in  1902 
director  of  the  newly  founded  Institut 
fiir  Meereskunde.  His  reputation  as  a 
geographer  is  built  principally  upon 
his  "  China."     He  died  Oct.  7,  1905. 

Ricinns,  a  genus  of  plants,  order 
Euphorbiacese.  R.  communis  is  the 
palma  christi  or  castor-oil  plant,  a 
native  of  the  East  and  West  Indies 
and  Florida.  Castor  oil  is  obtained 
from  the  seeds,  either  by  expression 
with  or  without  the  aid  of  heat,  or  by 
decoction,  or  sometimes  by  the  aid  of 
alcohol. 

Rickets,  a  disease  peculiar  to  in- 
fancy, chiefly  characterized  by  changes 
in  the  texture,  chemical  composition, 
and  outward  form  of  the  bony  skeleton 
and  by  altered  functions  of  the  other 
organs,  transient  for  the  most  part, 
but    occasionally    permanent. 

Ricketts,  James  Brewerton,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in 
New  York  city,  June  21,  1817;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  mm- 


tLick.m.an. 

tary  academy,  in  1839 ;  was  a  captain 
in  the  regular  army  in  1852 ;  and 
gained  a  record  for  excellent  service 
during  the  Mexican  War,  In  1801  he 
was  appointed  a  Brigadier-General 
of  volunteers,  and  commanded  a  di- 
vision at  the  battle >  of  Antietam,  in 
September,  1862.  He  was  in  the  thick 
of  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5 
and  6,  1864;  was  severely  wounded  at 
the  "battle  of  Cedar  Creek  Oct.  19, 
1864;  and  was  brevetted  Major-Gen- 
eral,  U.  S.  A.,  in  1865.  He  served  in 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  from  the 
first  battle  of  Bull  Run  till  Peters- 
burg was  besieged  in  1864.  He  died 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  Sept.  22,  1887. 

Bickman,  Thomas,  an  English 
architect;  born  in  Maidenhead,  Berk- 
shire, in  1776;  seems  to  have  always 
had  a  love  for  architecture,  and  to 
have  studied  it  carefully.  Having  sent 
in  a  design  for  a  church  that  proved 
successful  in  a  government  competi- 
tion, he  settled  at  Birmingham  as  an 
arcliitect.     He  died  in  March,  1841. 

Briddle,  John  Wallace,  diplomat, 
b.  July  12,  1864,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
He  entered  the  diplomatic  service  in 
]  893  ;  became  secretary  of  the  embassy 
to  Russia ;  minister  to  Servia  and 
Rumania  in  1905-1906;  Minister  to 
Russia  in  190&-1909. 

Ridean  Canal,  a  Canadian  canal 
constructed  between  Kingston  on  Lake 
Ontario  and  Ottawa  as  a  through 
waterway  by  means  of  the  river  Ot- 
•tawa  to  Montreal,  the  St.  Lawrence 
route  being  interrupted  by  rapids. 
Canals  have  since  been  built  along 
the  St.  Lawrence  to  avoid  these,  and 
the  Rideau  is  now  little  used. 

Bideing,  'William.  Henry,  an 
American  author ;  born  in  Liverpool, 
England,  Feb.  17,  1853.  In  1881  he 
became  associate  editor  of  the 
*'  Youths'   Companion." 

Riders,  additional  provisions  of  a 
bill  under  the  consideration  of  a  leg- 
islative assembly,  having  little  con- 
nection with  the  subject-matter  of  the 
bill.  The  consequence  of  this  custom 
is,  practically,  a  limitation  of  the 
veto  power  of  the  executive.  It  has 
been  proposed  frequently  that  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  be 
Bo  amended  that  the  President  could 
veto  single  objectionable  items,  with- 
out affecting  the  main  purpose  of  bills. 


,  Biel 

Ridgway,  Robert,  an  American 
naturalist;  born  in  Mt.  Carmel,  111., 
July  2,  1850.  He  early  turned  his  at- 
tention to  natural  history  and  was 
zoologist  to  the  United  States  geologi- 
cal expedition  under  Clarence  King 
in  the  Western  States  in  1867-1869. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
American  Ornithologists'  Union,  of 
which  he  became  president. 

Riding,  the  art  of  sitting  on  horse- 
back with  firmness,  ease,  and  grace- 
fulness, and  of  guiding  the  horse  and 
keeping  him  under  perfect  command. 

Ridley,  Nicholas,  an  English 
clergyman.  Bishop  of  London  in  the 
reigns  of  Edward  VI.,  and  his  succes- 
sor Mary ;  born  about  the  commence- 
ment of  the  16th  century ;  filled  the 
office  of  proctor  to  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity. In  1547  he  was  chosen  to  the 
see  of  Rochester,  and  in  1550  super- 
seded Bonner  as  Bishop  of  London. 
On  the  death  of  Edward  he  was  in- 
volved in  an  attempt  to  secure  the 
Protestant  ascendency  by  placing  the 
Lady  Jane  Grey  on  the  throne.  This, 
together  with  his  connection  with 
Cranmer,  led  to  his  being  tried  for 
heresy ;  he  was  found  guilty,  and  con- 
demned to  the  stake.  This  sentence 
he  underwent  with  the  greatest  forti- 
tude, in  company  with  his  friend  and 
fellow-sufferer  Latimer,  Oct.  16,  1555, 
in  Oxford. 

Ridpath,  John  Clark,  an  Ameri- 
can educator ;  born  in  Putnam  co., 
Ind.,  April  26,  1840;  and  later  held 
a  professorship  in  Baker  University, 
Kansas.  In  1869  he  became  Profes- 
sor of  English  Literature  at  Asbury 
University,  Indiana,  and  was  elected 
its  vice-president   in   1879.     In   1874- 

1875  he  published  a  "  History  of  the 
United  States "  which  he  supple- 
mented   with    another    in    1877.      In 

1876  he  issued  a  "  School  History," 
and  in  1879  an  "  English  Grammar." 
Desiring  to  devote  his  whole  time  to 
literature  he  resigned  his  university 
offices.  He  died  in  New  York  oity^ 
Aug.   1,  1900. 

Riel,  liouis,  a  Canadian  insurgent, 
bom  in  Boniface,  Oct.  23,  1844.  He 
led  the  Metis'  Red  River  rebellion  la 
1869,  which  was  subdued  by  a  Canad- 
ian force.  He  fled  from  the  terri- 
tory to  escape  arrest,  and  returned 
after  peace  terms  bad  been  arranged. 


Rienzi 

He  was  elected  to  the  Dominion  Par- 
liament in  1873,  but  was  not  allowed 
to  take  his  seat.  His  attempt  to 
create  resistance  in  1885  was  more 
Buccessful,  but  the  rebellion  was  short- 
lived. Riel  was  captured,  tried  for 
treason,  and  was  sentenced  to  death. 
He  was  executed  Nov.  IG,  1885,  at 
Regina  in  the  Northwestern  Terri- 
tory. 

Bienzi,  Nicola  Gabrini,  a  Ro- 
man patriot ;  born  about  1310.  He 
was  sent  by  his  fellow  citizens  to 
Clement  VI.,  at  Avignon,  in  order  to 
prevail  on  that  pontiff  to  return  to 
Rome.  His  eloquence  pleased  the 
Pope,  though  it  did  not  persuade  him ; 
and  Rienzi  on  his  return  formed  the 
design  of  making  himself  master  of 
Rome.  Haying  gained  a  considerable 
number  of  partisans,  he  entered  the 
Capitol,  harangued  the  people,  and 
elevated  the  standard  of  liberty.  He 
designed  to  unite  the  whole  of  Italy 
into  one  great  republic,  with  Rome  for 
its  capital.  At  length  a  conspiracy 
was  formed  against  him ;  and  having 
lost  the  popular  favor  by  his  arro- 
gance and  tyranny,  he  was  compelled 
to  seek  safety  in  flight,  but  was  taken 
and  cruelly  put  to  death  in  1352. 

Bietbok,  in  zoology  the  reed-buck, 
a  South  African  antelope.  It  is  about 
four  feet  in  length,  and  nearly  three 
feet  high  at  the  shoulder. 

^  Bifle,  a  portable  firearm,  the  inte- 
rior surface  of  the  barrel  of  which  is 
grooved,  the  channels  being  cut  in  the 
form  of  a  screw.  The  number  of  these 
spiral  channels  or  threads,  as  well  as 
their  depth,  varies  in  different  rifles, 
the  most  approved  form  being  with 
the  channels  and  ridges  of  equal 
breadth,  and  the  spiral  turning  more 
quickly  as  it  nears  the  muzzle.  The 
bullet  fired  is  now  always  of  an 
elongated  form.  The  great  advantage 
gained  by  a  weapon  of  this  construc- 
tion is  that  the  bullet  discharged  from 
the  piece,  by  having  a  rotatory  action 
imparted  to  its  axis  coincident  with 
its  line  of  flight,  is  preserved  in  its 
direct  path  without  being  subject  to 
the  aberrations  that  injure  precision 
of  aim  in  firing  with  unrifled  arms. 
As  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  pro- 
jectile being  carried  more  directly  in  its 
line  of  aim,  its  length  of  range,  as 
well  as  its  certainty  in  hitting  the 
Object  is  materially  increased.  Bport- 


Riggs 

ing  rifles  have  a  shorter  range  and 
inferior  velocity  to  the  best  military 
weapons,  their  object  being  not  ex- 
treme range  or  penetration,  but  great 
force  at  impact  to  produce  such  a 
shock  as  will  paralyze  the  animal 
shot. 

Bifle  Bird,  often  spoken  of  as  one 
of  the  "Birds  of  Paradise  ;"  is  perhaps 
the  best-known  of  the  genus  Pitlor- 
his,  which  comprises  four  species  con- 
fined to  Australia  and  to  New  Guinea. 
P.  paradiseus  inhabits  the  S.  E.  dis- 
tricts of  Australia,  and  is  found  only 
in  very  thick  "  bush."  The  male  is 
regarded  as  more  splendid  in  plumage 
than  any  other  Australian  bird. 

Biga,  a  city  and  capital  of  Li- 
vonia, and  after  St.  Petersburg  and 
Odessa  the  third  seaport  of  Russia,  on 
the  Dwina  river,  7  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  and  350  S.  W. 
of  St.  Petersburg,  via  Pskoff.  The  old 
town  has  narrow  streets  and  mediaeval 
houses  and  stores ;  but  the  suburbs  are 
laid  out  in  broad  streets  with  hand- 
some buildings.  The  chief  edifices  are 
the  cathedral  built  in  1204,  burned 
down  in  1547,  but  rebuilt ;  St.  Peter's 
Church  (1406),  with  a  steeple  460 
feet  high ;  the  castle  of  the  old  Knights 
of  the  Sword,  built  1494-1515,  the 
former  residence  of  the  grand-master 
of  the  order;  and  several  old  guild 
houses  and  Hanseatic  halls.  Riga 
was  founded  in  1201  by  Albert,  Bishop 
of  Livonia,  and  soon  became  a  first- 
rate  commercial  town,  and  member 
of  the  Hanseatic  League.  In  1710  was 
annexed  to  Russia.     Pop.  256,197. 

Biggs,  Jobn  Davis  Seaton,  an 
American  educator ;  bom  in  Wash- 
ington, Pa.,  Jan.  29,  1851 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Chicago  in 
1878 ;  principal  of  the  commercial 
department  of  Salt  Lake  Academy, 
Utah ;  and  of  the  preparatory  depart- 
ment of  the  old  University  of  Chicago ; 
joint  principal  of  the  University 
Academy  in  Chicago;  organizer  and 
principal  of  Granville  (now  Doane) 
Academy  of  Denison  University,  and 
president  of  Ottawa  University  after 
1896. 

Biggs,  Kate  Douglas  Wiggin, 
an  American  author;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.;  was  graduated  at  Abbott 
Academy  in  1878;  organized  the  first 
free    kindergarten   for   poor    children 


Riggs 

on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  continued 
interested  in  the  work. 

Biggs,  Robert  Baird,  an  Ameri- 
can chemist ;  born  in  Hazelwood, 
Minn.,  May  22,  1855 ;  was  graduated 
at  Beloit  College,  Wis.,  in  187G;  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry  attheNational  Col- 
lege of  Pharmacy  in  1885-1887;  and 
lateV  became  Professor  of  Chemistry 
at    Trinity    College,    Hartford. 

Rights,  Declaration  and  Bill 
of.  Two  documents  adopted  in  Eng- 
land;  the  Declaration  (February, 
1659),  stated  tliat  James  II.  had 
committed  certain  acts  contrary  to 
the  law,  and  declared  the  throne  va- 
cant. The  Bill  (October,  1689),  set 
forth  that  the  monarch  had  no  power 
of  suspending  laws,  the  levying  of 
money  without  consent  of  parliament 
is  illegal ;  also  the  keeping  of  a  stand- 
ing army  in  time  of  peace  without 
accession  thereto  by  parliament  is  also 
illegal ;  election  of  members  to  par- 
liament should  be  free ;  that  free 
speech  should  be  granted  in  parlia- 
ment ;  condemns  excessive  bail  and  ex- 
cessive fines  or  unusual  punishments ; 
claims  the  right  of  petition  to  the 
crown,  and  trial  by  jury ;  that  parlia- 
ment should  meet  frequently ;  and  that 
all  ecclesiastical  courts  are  illegal.  It 
also  treats  of  succession  to  the  crown. 

Rights  of  Man,  Declaration  of 
the,  a  famous  statement  of  the  con- 
stitution and  principles  of  civil  society 
and  government  adopted  by  the  French 
National  Assembly  in  August,  1789. 
In  historical  importance  it  may  fairly 
be  ranked  with  the  English  Bill  of 
Rights  and  the  American  Declaration 
of  Independence. 

Riis,  Jacob  Angnst,  born  in 
Ribe,  Denmark,  May  3,  1849,  son  of 
Niels  Edward  Riis.  Came  to  New 
York,  and  after  some  interesting  ad- 
ventures joined  the  staff  of  the  New 
York  "  8un "  as  a  police  reporter. 
Kept  his  eyes  open  to  his  surroundings 
and  was  first  to  call  public  attention 
in  vivid  and  impressive  style  to  the 
needs  and  struggles  of  the  poor  of 
America's  metropolis.  His  book,  "  How 
the  Other  Half  Lives,"  was  received 
with  interest  and  awakened  philan- 
thropy to  a  sense  of  its  duty  to  less 
fortunate  humanity  in  the  great  cities. 

Riker,  Albert  Bnrdsall,  an 
lAjuerican   clergyman;    born,   in    New 


Ri&ev 

Albany,  O.,  Oct.  19,  1852;  was  grad« 
uated  at  Wesleyan  University  in  1879 ; 
held  pastorates  in  Ohio,  Tennessee, 
and  West  Virginia,  and  in  1898  be- 
came president  of  Mount  Union  Col- 
lege, Alliance,  O. 

Riley,  Benjamin  Franklin,  an 
American  clergyman ;  born  in  Pine- 
ville,  Ala.,  July  10,  1849;  was  grad- 
uated at  Erskine  College,  South  Caro- 
lina, in  1871 ;  entered  the  ministry  of 
the  Baptist  Church  in  1872 ;  was  pres- 
ident of  Howard  College  in  1888-1893, 
and  Professor  of  English  Literature 
at  the  University  of  Georgia  in  1893. 

Riley,  Franklin  Lafayette,  an 
American  educator;  born  near  He- 
bron, Lawrence  co.,  Miss.,  Aug.  24, 
18G8;  was  graduated  at  the  Missis- 
sippi College  m  1889;  and  later  stud- 
ied at  Johns  Hopkins  University ;  was 
president  of  Hillman  College  for 
Young  Women  in  189G-1897;  and  be- 
came Professor  of  History  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Mississippi   in  1897. 

Riley,  James  Whitcomb,  an 
American  poet;  bom  in  Greenfield, 
Ind.,  in  1853.  His  contributions  to 
newspapers  and  magazines  first  at- 
tracted public  attention  about  1875. 
His  writings  soon  became  so  popular 
that  he  devoted  himself  to  literature 
and  public  readings  of  his  work  with 
great  success.  His  poems  are  char- 
acterized by  both,  humor  and  pathos 
and  by  their  sympathy  with  the  sim- 
plest phases  of  life.  Those  of  the 
Hoosier  type  are  especially  popular. 
.  Rinehart,  William  Henry,  an 
American  sculptor ;  born  in  Carroll 
CO.,  Md.,  Sept.  13,  1825;  went  to 
Baltimore  in  1846;  and  found  em- 
ployment at  his  trade  of  stone  cutter. 
He  attended  night  school  at  the  Mary- 
land Institute  and  studied  art ;  went  to 
Italy  in  1855  and  studied  under  the 
best  masters  in  sculpture.  He  opened 
a  studio  on  his  return  to  Baltimore, 
but  in  1858  established  himself  in 
Rome.  He  completed  Crawford's 
bronze  doors  for  the  National  Capitol 
at  Washington.  He  died  in  Rome, 
Oct.  28,  1874. 

Riner,  John  A.,  an  American 
jurist;  born  in  Preble  co.,  O.,  in  1850; 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
IMichigan  in  1879;  later  removed  to 
Wyoming;  became  city  attorney  of 
Cheyenne  in  1881,  United  States  dis* 


Xting 


Rio  de  Janeiro 


trict  attorney  of  Wyoming  in  1884.  a, 
member  of  the  upper  house  of  the 
Territorial  legislature  in  1886,  and 
of  the  Constitutional  Convention  in 
1889 ;  later  was  a  member  of  the  State 
Senate  and  on  Sept.  23,  1890,  he  was 
appointed  United  States  district  judge 
for  the  district  of  Wyoming. 

Ring,   any   circle  or   section   of   a 
cylinder.    Rings  of  gold,  silver,  and  of 


FIG.  1. 

other  metals  and  materials  have  been 
worn  in  all  times  and  countries,  and 
while  they  have  been  used  to  decorate 
the  ears,  neck,  nose,  lips,  arms,  legs, 
and  toes,  finger  rings  have  always 
occupied  the  most  important  and  sig- 
nificant place  among  such  ornaments. 
From  the  earliest  period  of  civilized 
relationships  the  finger  ring  was  a 
convenient  means  for  carrying  the 
signet  of  its  wearer.  Fig.  1  shows  a 
Jewish  marriage  ring  beautifully 
wrought  in  gold  filigree,  and  richly 
enamelled.  Fig.  2  shows  a  form  of 
betrothal  ring  called  a  gimmel,  or 
linked  ring,  which  was  used  in  later 
times ;  the  upper  figure  shows  the 
three  parts  brought  together,  the  low- 
er figures  the  parts  separately. 

Ringbone,  an  exostosis  or  bony 
tumor  mostly  met  with  on  the  coronet 
of  overworked  horses,  but  sometimes 
seen  on  colts. 

Ring-dove,  or  Cnsliat,  the  largest 
of  the  pigeons  inhabiting  Great  Brit- 
ain, a  bird  which  occurs  very  gener- 
ally throughout  the  wooded   parts  of 


Europe.  It  is  migratory  in  countries 
in  which  the  severe  winters  preclude 
the  possibility  of  its  obtaining  a  due 
supply  of  food,  and  even  in  Great 
Britain,  in  which  it  permanently  re- 
sides, it  appears  on  the  approach  of 
winter  to  assemble  in  flocks,  and  to 
perform  a  limited  migration,  probably 
in  search  of  food. 

Ringed  Snake,  a  harmless  colu- 
brine  snake  with  teeth  so  small  as  to 
be  incapable  of  piercing  the  skin.  It 
is  common  in  England. 

Ring  Money,  a  form  of  currency 
consisting  of  rini^s  which  seems  to 
have  originated  with  the  Egyptians.  It 
is  still  used  in  parts  of  Africa,  and  is 
manufactured  in  Birmingham  for  the 
use  of  African  traders. 

Ring  Ouzel,  a  species  of  thrush, 
rather  larger  than  a  blackbird.  It  is 
a  native  chiefly  of  the  W.  parts  of 
Europe. 


FIG.  2. 

Ringnrorm,  an  eruptive  disease  of 
the  skin,  more  particularly  on  the 
head,  and  of  which  there  are  several 
kinds. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  or  simply  Rio,  a 
city  and  seaport,  capital  of  Brazil  and 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  the 
largest  and  most  important  city  of 
South  America ;  on  the  W.  side  of 
one  of  the  finest  bays  in  the  world,  80 
miles  W.  of  Cape  Frio.  The  city 
stands  on  a  tongue  of  land  close  to  the 
shore,  on  the  W.  side  of  the  bay,  at 
the  foot  of  several  high  mountains 
which  rise  behind  it.  The  houses  are 
generally  .built  of  stone  or  brick.  The 


Rio  Grande 


Rittenlionse 


streets  are  straight,  well  paved,  and 
have  excellent  footpaths.  The  con- 
vents and  churches  are  numerous,  but 
none  of  them  can  be  called  fine  build- 
ings. Parallel  with  the  beach  runs 
the  main  street,  called  Rua  de  Direita, 
from  which  the  minor  streets  branch 
off  at  right  angles  and  are  intersected 
by  others  at  regular  distances.  The 
imperial  palace  skirts  the  beach,  and 
is  seen  to  great  advantage  from  the 
landing  place,  w^hich  is  within  60  yards 
of  its  entrance.  The  other  public 
buildings  are  the  naval  and  military 
arsenal,  a  public  hospital,  a  national 
library  containing  about  100,000 
volumes.  The  entrance  into  it  from 
the  sea  does  not  exceed  a  mile  from 
point  to  point ;  it  afterward  widens  to 
about  three  or  four  miles.  This  city 
is  the  chief  mart  of  Brazil.  Pop.  510,- 
500. 

Rio  Grande,  Rio  Grande  del 
Norte,  or  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte. 
See  NoBTE,  Rio  Grandr  del. 

Rio-Grande-do-Sul,  the  most 
southern  province  in  Brazil,  bounded 
partly  by  the  Atlantic,  and  bordering 
on  Uruguay  and  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic. It  has  an  area  of  91,2.50  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  968,231. 

Rio  Negro  ("black  river"),  the 
name  of  numerous  streams,  of  which 
two  are  important :  ( 1 )  A  river  of 
South  America,  and  principal  tribu- 
tary of  the  Amazon.  It  rises  in  Co- 
lombia, and  joins  the  Amazon  after  a 
course  of  about  1,000  miles,  at  Ma- 
naos,  Brazil.  (2)  A  river  of  South 
America  forming  the  boundary  be- 
tween the  Argentine  Republic  and 
Patagonia.  It  rises  in  the  Andes  in 
Chile,  and  is  about  700  miles  long. 

Riordan,  Patrick  William,  an 
American  clergyman ;  born  in  New 
Brunswick,  Aug.  27,  1841 ;  removed 
to  Chicago;  held  charges  in  Illinois 
till  1883,  when  he  was  consecrated 
titular  archbishop  of  Cabesa  and  co- 
adjutor of  the  Archbishop  of  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  on  whose  resignation 
he  succeeded,  Dec.  28,  1884. 

Riordan,  Roger,  an  Irish-Ameri- 
can journalist;  born  in  1848.  He  re- 
sided in  New  York  city.  His  publica- 
tions include  "  Sunrise  Stories,"  etc. 

Riot,  a  disturbance  of  the  public 
peace,  attended  with  circumstances  of 
tumult  and  commotion. 


Ripley,  George,  an  American 
author;  born  in  Greenfield,  Mass., 
Oct.  3,  1802;  educated  at  Harvard 
University  and  Cambridge  Divinity 
School ;  became  a  Unitarian  minister 
in  Boston ;  lived  some  years  in  Eu- 
rope ;  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Transcendental  magazine,  the  "  Dial," 
and  the  originator  and  conductor  of 
the  communistic  experiment  at  Brook 
Farm.  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
July  4,  1880. 

Ripley,  William  Zebina,  an 
American  educator;  bom  in  Medford, 
Mass.,  in  1867;  was  graduated  at  the 
]NIassachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
in  1890;  became  lecturer  on  Sociology 
at  Columbia  University  in  1893,  and 
Professor  of  Sociology  and  Economics 
at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  in  1895;  was  appointed 
expert  agent  on  transportation  for  the 
United  States  Industrial  Commission. 

Risley,  Samnel  Doty,  an  Ameri- 
can physician ;  born  in  Cincinnati,  O., 
Jan.  16,  1845;  served  in  the  Union 
army  during  the  Civil  War;  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Iowa  in 
1868,  and  at  the  Medical  Department 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1870 ;  made  improvements  on  the 
optometer  and  ophthalmoscope. 

Ristori,  Adelaide,  an  Italian 
actress;  born  in  Cividale,  Italy,  Jan. 
29,  1822.  At  a  very  early  age  she 
played  in  comedy,  but  afterward  ap- 
peared in  tragedy.  She  married  the 
Marquis  Capranica  del  Grillo  in 
1847,  and  afterward  played  in  all  the 
chief  European  capitals  and  in  the 
United  States,  the  last  time  in  1884. 
She  died  at  Rome,  Oct.  9,  1906. 

Ritchie,  Mrs.  Anna  Cora  (Mo- 
watt),  an  American  author ;  born  in 
Bordeaux,  France,  in  1819.  She  went 
in  early  life  to  New  York.  A  once 
popular  actress,  she  retired  from  the 
stage  in  1854,  and  devoted  herself  to 
the  production  of  romances  and 
dramas  with  no  little  success.  She 
died  at  Henley-on-Thames,  England, 
July  28,  1870. 

Rittenhonse,  David,  an  Ameri- 
can astronomer;  born  near  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  April  8,  1732.  Originally 
a  clock  and  mathematical  instrument 
maker,  he  became  master  of  the 
United  States  mint,  and  succeeded 
Franklin  as  president  of  the  Ameri- 


Ritter 

can  Philosophical  Society.  He  was 
the  first  to  use  spider  lines  in  the 
focus  of  a  transit  instrument.  He 
died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  June  26, 
179G. 

Bitter,  Frederic  Louis,  an 
American  musician ;  born  in  Strass- 
burg,  Alsace,  in  1834 ;  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1856,  and  soon  made 
a  reputation  both  here  and  abroad  as 
a  writer  on  musical  topics.  He  died 
in  Antwerp,  Holland,  July  6,  1891. 

Bitter,  KarL  a  German  geogra- 
pher ;  born  in  Quedlinburg,  Prussia, 
Aug.  7,  1779 ;  studied  at  Halle,  became 
a  private  tutor  in  1798,  and  in  1819 
succeeded  Schlosser  as  Professor  of 
History  at  the  Frankfort  Gymnasium ; 
became  Professor  extraordinary  of 
Geography  at  the  University  of  Ber- 
lin, where  he  remained  till  his  death. 
His  great  work  is  "  Geography  in  Its 
Relations  to  Nature  and  History,"  the 
first  two  volumes  of  which  appeared 
in  1817-1818,  but  it  ultimately  com- 
prised upward  of  20  volumes.  He  died 
in  Berlin,  Sept.  28,  1859. 

Bitnal,  the  name  of  one  of  the  serv- 
ice books  of  the  Roman  Church,  in 
which  are  contained  the  prayers  and 
order  of  ceremonial  employed  in  the 
administration  of  certain  of  the  sac- 
raments (communion  out  of  Mass, 
baptism,  penance,  marriage,  extreme 
unction)  and  other  priestly  offices  of 
the  Church,  forms  for  churchings, 
burials  and  blessing.  In  the  Anglican 
Church  the  "  Book  of  Common  Pray- 
er "  may  be  said  to  contain  the  ritual. 
.  Bitnalism,  a  strict  adherence  to 
rites  and  ceremonies  in  public  wor- 
ship. The  term  is  more  especially  ap- 
plied to  a  tendency  recently  manifested 
in  the  Church  of  England,  resulting  in 
a  series  of  changes  introduced  by  vari- 
ous clergymen  of  the  High  Church 
party  into  the  services  of  the  Church. 
These  changes  may  be  described  ex- 
ternally as  generally  in  the  direction 
of  a  more  ornate  worship,  and  as  to 
their  spirit  or  animating  principle,  as 
the  infusion  into  outward  forms  of  a 
larger  measure  of  the  symbolic  ele- 
ment. 

Biver.  Water  falling  on  the  land 
in  the  form  of  rain,  or  resulting  from 
melting  snow,  or  rising  to  the  surface 
in  springs,  flows  over  the  surface  to  a 
lower  level.    Where  two  slopes  of  land 


Bizey 

dip  together  the  surface  drainage  col- 
lects to  form  a  stream,  and  when 
evaporation  is  not  very  rapid  several 
such  streams  ultimately  unite  and  the 
volume  of  water  they  cairy  flows  to 
the  sea  or  to  a  salt  lake.  Small 
streams  are  termed  rivulets,  rills, 
brooks,  becks,  or  burns ;  large  streams 
are  termed  rivers,  but  the  word  has 
no  precise  reference  to  the  magnitude 
of  the  stream  to  which  it  is  applied. 

Biver  Crab,  a  name  given  to  a 
genus  of  crabs  inhabiting  fresh  water, 
and  having  the  carapace  quadrilateral 
and  the  antennae  very  short. 

Biver  Tortoise,  a  name  of  a  fami- 
ly of  tortoises  that  are  aquatic  in  their 
habits,  coming  to  shore  only  to  deposit 
their  eggs.  They  are  exclusively  car- 
nivorous, subsisting  on  fishes,  reptiles, 
birds,  etc.  Well-known  species  are  the 
soft  shelled  turtle  and^  the  large  and 
fierce  snapping  turtle  of  the  United 
States.  They,  inhabit  almost  every 
river  and  lake  in  the  warmer  regions 
in  the  Old  and  New  Worlds. 

Bives,  Alfred  liandon,  an  Ameri- 
can engineer ;  born  in  Pai'is,  France, 
March  25,  1830;  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia ;  was  graduated  at 
the  Ecole  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees, 
Paris,  in  1854;  was  assistant  engineer 
on  the  completion  of  the  National 
Capitol,  Washington ;  engineer  in  the 
construction  of  the  aqueduct  in  Wash- 
ington ;  and  was  in  charge  of  the 
United  States  survey  for  improving 
the  Potomac  river.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  was  colonel  of  engineers  in  the 
Confederate  army;  was  chief  engineer 
of  the  Cape  Cod  Canal.     Died  1903. 

Rives,  Amelie,  an  American  nov- 
elist; born  in  Richmond,  Va.,  Aug.  23, 
1863.  "The  Quick  and  the  Dead," 
was  her  first  success.  She  became  the 
wife  of  John  A.  Chanler  in  1888. 
They  were  divorced  on  account  of  in- 
compatibility. In  1896  she  married 
Prince  Pierre  Troubetskoy,  an  artist. 

Riviere,  Briton,  an  English  sub- 
ject and  animal  painter;  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1840.  He  has  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy  since  1864,  and  is  the 
greatest  English  animal  painter  since 
Landseer. 

Bijcey,  Presley  Marion,  an 
American  physician ;  born  in  Culpeper 
CO.,  Va.,  July  14,  1852 ;  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Virginia  in  1873  i 


ttlzal 

appointed  an  assistant  surgeon  in  the 
navy,  Jan,  28,  1874.  He  became  the 
physician  of  President  McKinley  and 
his  family ;  attended  Mrs.  McKinley 
in  her  severe  illness  in  San  Francisco 
in  the  summer  of  1901 ;  and  was  with 
the  President  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  from 
the  time  he  was  shot,  Sept.  6,  till  his 
death,  Sept.  14,  1901.  In  accordance 
with  the  intention  of  President  Mc- 
Kinley, Dr.  Rixey  was  appointed  by 
President  Roosevelt  surgeon-general  of 
the  navy,  with  the  rank  of  rear-ad- 
miral, Jan.  21,  1902. 

Rizal,  Jose,  a  Filipino  patriot; 
born  in  Catamba,  Luzon,  in  1861.  He 
was  the  son  of  Tagal  parents,  who  des- 
tined him  for  the  Church ;  he  was  sent 
to  Manila,  where  he  entered  the 
Ateneo  Municipal,  a  school  in  charge 
of  the  Jesuits.  In  Manila  Jose  soon 
learned  of  the  reproach  attached  to 
his  Tagal  origin.  He  was  denied  the 
honors  due  him  as  head  of  his  class; 
and  his  patriotic  poems  and  speeches 
met  only  the  derision  and  hatred  of 
the  Spanish  students.  Though  he  had 
been  destined  for  the  Church,  he 
studied  for  and  took  his  medical  degree 
at  Manila.  Then  he  went  to  Paris, 
Heidelberg,  Leipsic,  and  in  all  these 
cities  he  continued  his  medical  studies. 
He  learned  that  Europe  was  almost 
ignorant  of  the  Philippines,  so  he 
wrote  a  novel,  portraying  his  birth- 
land,  which  was  published  in  Berlin 
in  1887.  He  wrote  a  sequel  to  it 
which  was  published  at  Ghent  in  1891. 
In  1887  Rizal  went  to  Hong  Kong 
where  he  organized  the  famous  Philip- 
pine League,  which  was  the  source  of 
the  "  Revolutionary  Society  of  the 
Sons  of  the  Nation."  During  several 
years  of  travel  he  constantly  agitated 
Filipino  revolt,  and  then  in  May, 
1892,  returned  to  Manila.  He  was  ar- 
rested and  exiled  to  Dopitan,  in  one  of 
the  S.  islands.  In  1895  he  was  per- 
mitted to  return  to  Luzon.  He  was, 
however,  arrested  at  Barcelona  and 
transshipped  to  Manila,  tried  and  con- 
demned to  death.  His  last  wishes,  that 
he  might  be  united  by  civil  marriage 
with  Miss  Josephine  Bracken,  whom 
he  first  met  in  Hong  Kong,  and  who 
had  gone  to  Manila  when  his  trial  be- 
gan; and  the  other  that  he  should  be 
shot  through  the  breast,  were  granted. 
He  was  shot  by  a  detail  of  native  sol- 
diers, Dec  80,  1890.  ' 


Boasting 

Roach,  John,  an  American  ship^ 
builder;  born  in  Mitchelstown,  Ire- 
land, in  1815;  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1829;  he  established  a  foun- 
dry in  New  York  city,  and  erected  the 
^tna  Iron  Works,  where  he  built  the 
first  compound  engines  ever  made  in 
the  United  States.  In  1871  he  pur- 
chased the  shipyards  in  Chester,  Pa., 
and  under  the  name  of  the  Delaware 
River  Iron  Shipbuilding  and  Engine 
Works  enlarged  them  till  their  value 
was  estimated  at  $2,000,000.  He  built 
the  first  ships  of  the  new  .United 
States  navy.  He  died  in  New  York 
city,  Jan.  10,  1887. 

Roads,  artificial  pathways  formed 
through  a  country  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  travelers  and  the  carriage  of 
commodities.  Though  the  Romans  set 
an  example  as  roadbuilders,  some  of 
their  public  highways  being  yet  serv- 
iceable, the  roads  throughout  most  of 
Europe  were  in  a  wretched  condition 
till  toward  the  end  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. France  was  in  advance  of  other 
countries  in  road  making;  in  England 
a  decided  improvement  of  the  high- 
ways only  began  in  the  19th  century. 
Before  the  time  of  Macadam  it  was 
customary  to  use  broken  stones  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  to  form  the  roadway,  the 
consequence  being  that  in  course  of 
time  the  smaller  stones  sank,  making 
the  road  rough  and  dangerous.  Mac- 
adam early  in  the  19th  century  intro- 
duced the  principle  of  using  stones  of 
uniform  size  from  top  to  bottom.  What 
is  known  as  the  rule  of  the  road  is 
that  in  passing  other  horsemen  or 
carriages,  whether  going  in  the  same 
or  the  opposite  direction,  the  rider  or 
driver  must  pass  on  the  left  hand,  of 
the  other  rider  or  driver. 

Roanoke,  an  independent  city  of 
Va.;  on  the  Roanoke  river  and  the 
Norfolk  &  Western  railroad;  55 
miles  W.  of  Lynchburg;  is  in  a  rich 
stock-raising,  tobacco-growing,  and 
iron-mining  section;  has  manufac- 
tories of  machinery  and  bridge  and 
iron  work,  canneries,  cotton  mills, 
tobacco  factories,  and  locomotive  and 
car  shops;  and  is  the  seat  of  Vir- 
ginia College,  Gilmer  School  for 
Young  Ladies,  and  Allegheny  Insti- 
tute.    Pop.  (1910)  34,874. 

Roasting,  the  cooking  of  meat  by 
direct    action    of    fire,    either    before 


ftobbery 

the  fire  or  in  an  oven.  Roasting  before 
an  open  fire  is  considered  preferable 
to  roasting  in  an  oven  (which  is  anal- 
ogous to  baking),  on  account  of  the 
free  ventilation  to  which  it  exposes 
the  meat  during  the  process. 

Robbery,  the  unlawful  taking  away 
of  money  or  goods  of  any  value  from 
the  person  of  another,  or  in  his  pres- 
ence, either  by  violence  or  by  putting 
him  in  fear. 

Robbia,  Lnca  Delia,  an  Italian 
sculptor ;  born  in  Florence  in  1399  or 
1400.  He  designed  and  executed  be- 
tween 1431  and  1440  10  panels  of 
"  Angels  and  Dancing  Bojs  "  for  the 
cathedral.  Another  great  work  by  him 
was  a  bronze  door,  with  10  panels  of 
figures  in  relief,  for  the  sacristy  of  the 
cathedral,  made  between  1448  and 
1467.  He  sculptured,  in  marble,  in 
1457-1458,  the  tomb  of  Federighi, 
Bishop  of  Fiesele.  His  name  is  closely 
associated  with  the  production  of  fig- 
ures in  glazed  or  enamelled  terra-cotta, 
made  by  a  process  which,  though  he 
did  not  invent  it,  he  yet  perfected 
greatly.  He  died  in  Florence,  Feb. 
20,  1842.  His  principal  pupil  was  his 
nephew  Andrea  (1435-1525),  who 
worked  chiefly  at  the  production  of 
enamelled  reliefs,  retables,  and  medal- 
lions, these  last  for  the  most  part 
productions  of  the  "  Madonna  and 
Child."  His  son  Giovanni  (1469- 
1529?)  continued  the  activity  of  the 
family  in  this  style  of  work ;  his  best 
productions  are  the  frieze,  representing 
the  "  Seven  Works  of  Mercy,"  outside 
a  hospital  at  Pistoja. 

Robbins,  Francis  Le  Baron,  an 
American  clergyman;  born  in  Ca- 
millus,  N.  Y.,  May  2, 1830 ;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Williams  College  in  1854 ;  held 
pastorates  in  Philadelphia  for  25 
years;  founded  the  Oxford  Presby- 
terian and  Beacon  Churches,  the  lat- 
ter an  institutional  chu^'ch  among  the 
working  class  of  the  Kensington  dis- 
trict of  Philadelphia. 

Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy, 
gurnamed  the  Devil ;  the  younger  son 
of  Duke  Richard  II.  by  his  marriage 
with  Judith,  a  daughter  of  Count  God- 
frey of  Brittany.  In  1027  he  succeed- 
ed his  elder  brother.  Richard  III.  The 
first  years  of  his  government  were  em- 
ployed in  bringing  his  rebellious  vas- 
bals  into  subjection.    In  1034  his  fleet 

E.  127. 


Robert 

was  wrecked  off  Jersey  while  on  its 
way  to  England  to  support  hia 
nephews  Alfred  and  Edward  against 
Canute.  He  concluded  a  truce  with 
Canute,  by  which  the  two  princes  were 
promised  half  of  England.  In  1033 
he  set  out  to  visit  the  holy  places,  and 
subsequently  made  the  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem  on  foot.  While  returning 
he  died  suddenly  in  Nicsea  in  Asia 
Minor  (1035).  William  the  Conquer- 
or was  his  son. - 

Robert  II.,  King  of  Scotland; 
born  in  Scotland,  March  2,  1316;  the 
son  of  Marjory,  daughter  of  Robert 
Bruce,  and  of  Walter,  steward  of 
Scotland,  and  was  thus  the  first  of  the 
Stewart  or  Stuart  kings.  He  was  rec- 
ognized by  Parliament  in  1318  as 
heir  to  the  crown.  On  the  death  of 
David  II.  he  was  crowned  at  Scone, 
MarcJi  26,  1371.  An  act  of  Parlia- 
ment in  1375  settled  the  crown  on  his 
sons  by  his  first  wife  Elizabeth  Mure 
of  Rowallan,  illegitimate  by  ecclesias- 
tical law.  His  reign  was  comparative- 
ly a  peaceful  one,  one  of  the  chief 
events  being  the  battle  of  Otterbum. 
Died  in  Dundonald  Castle,  May  13, 
1390. 

Robert  III.,  King  of  Scotland,  eld- 
est son  of  the  preceding ;  born  in  1340 
and  was  originally  called  John,  but 
changed  his  name  on  his  coronation  in 
1390.  He  trusted  the  management  of 
affairs  almost  entirely  to  his  brother, 
whom  he  created  Duke  of  Albany.  In 
1398  Albany  was  compelled  to  resign 
his  office  by  a  party  who  wished  to 
confer  it  on  the  king's  eldest  son, 
David,  Duke  of  Rothesay.  War  was 
renewed  with  England,  and  the  battle 
of  Homildon  Hill,  Sept.  14,  1402,  re- 
sulted in  a  disastrous  defeat  of  the 
Scotch.  In  this  year  the  Duke  of 
Rothesay  died  in  Falkland  Castle, 
where  he  had  been  imprisoned.  Dread 
of  Albany,  who  had  recovered  the  re- 
gency, induced  the  king  to  send  his 
second  son,  James,  to  France  in  1406; 
but  the  vessel  which  carried  him  was 
captured  by  the  English,  and  Henry 
IV.  long  detained  him  as  a  prisoner. 
Soon  after  this  event  Robert  died  in 
Rothesay,  Bute,  in  1406. 

Robert,  Henry  Martyn,  an 
American  military  engineer ;  bom  in 
Robertsville,  S.  C,  May  2,  1837 ;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mill- 


Robert  of  Gloucester 


Kolierts 


fary  Academy  iu  1857 ;  served  on  fron- 
tier duty  in  1858-1801 ;  was  on  the 
staff  of  General  McClellan  and  on  duty 
as  engineer  during  the  Civil  War ; 
was  promoted  captain  in  1863.  He  is 
the  author  of  the  well-known  treatise 
called  "  Robert's  Rules  of  Order " 
(1870). 

Robert  of  Gloucester,  an  Eng- 
lish chronicler,  living  at  the  time  of  the 
battle  of  Evesham  (1265).  He  is  re- 
markable for  a  metrical  chronicle  of 
England,  from  the  time  of  the  fabu- 
lous Brutus  to  his  own,  based  chiefly 
upon  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth's  book.  It 
extends  to  10,000  lines,  and  is  one  of 
the  earliest  epics  of  the  English  lan- 
guage. 

Roberts,  Brigham  Henry,  an 
American  journalist ;  born  in  War- 
rington, Lancashire,  England,  March 
13,  1857.  In  the  summer  of  1BQ6  he 
emigrated  with  his  parents  to  Davis 
Co.,  Utah ;  attended  the  University  of 
Utah.  Soon  after  his  graduation  he 
was  called  by  the  Mormon  Church  to 
its  missionary  service.  After  laboring 
for  some  years  as  a  missionary  he  was 
elected  to  a  high  office  in  the  Church. 
He  also  engaged  in  journalism  and 
was  for  a  -time  editor-in-chief  of  the 
Salt  Lake  "  Herald."  In  1898  he  was 
elected  to  Congress  by  a  large  major- 
ity. His  election  created  widespread 
agitation  throughout  the  country,  and 
on  Jan.  25,  1900,  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives by  an  overwhelming  major- 
ity voted  to  exclude  him  as  constitu- 
tionally ineligible,  as  a  polygamist,  to 
a  seat  in  that  body. 

Roberts,  Charles  George  Dong- 
las,  a  Canadian  poet;  born  in  Doug- 
las, N.  B.,  Jan.  10,  1800.  He  was  an 
earnest  advocate  of  Canadian  national- 
ism, and  such  of  his  poetical  com- 
positions as  relate  to  this  and  other 
Canadian  subjects  are  excellent. 

Roberts,  Ellis  Henry,  an  Ameri- 
can financier ;  born  in  Utica,  N.  Y., 
Sept.  30,  1827 ;  was  graduated  at  Yale 
University  in  1850.  He  was  assistant 
treasurer  of  the  United  States  in 
1889-1893,  and  became  treasurer  of 
the  United  States  in  1897. 

Roberts,  Frederick,  Lord,  an 
English  military  ofiicer ;  born  in 
Cawnpur,  India,  Sept.  30,  1832.  He 
was  brought  to  England  when  two 
years  old,  educated  at  Clifton.  Eton,  I 


Sandhurst,  and  Addiscombe,  and  ent- 
ered the  Bengal  Artillery  in  1851. 
His  first  taste  of  actual  warfare  was 
iu  the  protracted  siege  of  Delhi,  during 
the  Indian  Mutiny  and  he  took  an  ac- 
tive part  in  the  subsequent  operations 
down  to  the  relief  of  Lucknow.  He 
discharged  the  duties  of  assistant  quar- 
termaster-general in  the  Abyssinian 
expedition  of  1808,  and  in  the  Lushai 
expedition  of  1871-1872.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Afghan  war  in  1878, 
Roberts,  now  Major-General,  was  ap- 
pointed to  command  the  Kurram  di- 
vision of  the  army.  He  forced  in  bril- 
liant fashion  the  Afghan  position  on 
the  peak  of  Peiwar  Kotul  (8,500  feet 
above  sea-level).  After  the  murder  of 
Sir  Louis  Cavagnari  and  the  escort 
of  the  British  mission  at  Kabul,  he 
was  given  command  of  the  force  sent 
to  avenge  them.  He  defeated  the 
Afghans  at  Charasia  on  Oct.  6,  took 
possession  of  Kabul  on  the  12th,  and 
assumed  the  government  of  the  coun- 
try. On  Aug.  9,  Sir  F.  Roberts  set  out 
on  his  memorable  march  through  the 
heart  of  Afghanistan  to  the  relief  of 
Kandahar,  which  he  reached  three 
weeks  later.  He  immediately  gave 
battle  to  Ayub  Khan  and  routed  him 
completely,  capturing  all  his  artillery 
and  his  camp ;  was  appointed  Com- 
mander-in-Chief of  the  Madras  army 
(1881),  and  held  the  rank  of  Com- 
mander-in-Chief in  India  1885-1893. 
He  was  appointed  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  forces  in  Ireland  in  1895 ; 
and  in  1899  took  command  of  the 
English  forces  in  South  Africa;  cap- 
turing Cronje,  relieving  Kimberly,  and 
annexing  the  two  republics.  He  re- 
turned to  England  and  was  made 
Commander-in-Chief  to  succeed  Lord 
Wolseley. 

Roberts,  (Henry)  Cbalmers,  an 
American  journalist;  born  in  Austin, 
Tex.,  July  31,  1870 ;  was  educated  at 
private  schools,  and  studied  law  at  the  • 
University  of  Texas.  After  leaving 
college  he  engaged  in  journalism ;  went 
to  the  seat  of  the  Turko-Grecian  war 
as  a  correspondent  of  the  London 
"  Daily  News,"  and  in  the  Spanish- 
American  War  was  correspondent  for 
the  Brooklyn  "  Eagle,"  and  the  Lon- 
don "  Daily  Mail."  He  traveled  in 
Egypt  for  Harpers,  and  became  edi- 
tor of  the  English  edition  of 
"World's   Work"    in    1906. 


Aobertson 

Robertson,  William,  a  Scotch 
historian ;  born  in  Borthwick,  Scot- 
land, Sept.  19,  1721.  Having  com- 
pleted his  theological  studies  at  Edin- 
burgh, he  obtained  a  license  to  preach 
and  in  1743  was  presented  to  the  liv- 
ing of  Gladsmuir,  in  East  Lothian. 
He  soon  became  distinguished  by  his 
eloquence  as  a  preacher ;  but  it  was 
not  till  1759  that,  by  his  "  History  of 
Scotland,"  he  acquired  a  place  among 
British  classical  writers.  The  distinc- 
tion he  acquired  by  this  work,  which 
reached  a  14th  edition  before  his 
death,  appeared  in  his  successive  pre- 
ferments. He  became  King's  chap- 
lain in  1761,  principal  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh  in  17G2,  and  His- 
toriographer-Royal of  Scotland  in 
1764.  He  died  near  Edinburgh,  June 
11,  1793. 

Robertson,  William  H.,  an 
American  lawyer ;  born  in  Bedford, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  10,  1823.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  rendered  efficient  service  in 
raising  and  organizing  State  troops  for 
the  Union  armies.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1867-1869 ;  was  elected 
to  the  New  York  State  Senate  in  1872 ; 
and  was  appointed  collector  of  the 
port  of  New  York  in  1881.  His  nom- 
ination to  this  office  by  President  Gar- 
field without  consultation  with  the 
senators  from  New  York,  Roscoe 
Conkling  and  Thomas  C.  Piatt,  led  to 
their  resignation  and  to  the  defection 
of  the  "  Stalwart "  wing  of  the  Re- 

Sublican  party.  He  died  in  Katonah, 
L  Y.,  Dec.  6,  1898. 

Robeson,  George  Maxwell,  an 
American  lawyer ;  born  in  Belvidere, 
N.  J.,  in  1829;  was-  graduated  at 
Princeton  University  in  1847;  stud- 
ied law ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1850,  and  in  1867  became  attorney- 
general  of  New  Jersey.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  1869 ; 
served  for  a  short  time  as  Secretary 
of  War  on  the  resignation  of  General 
Belknap  in  1867;  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1878  and  1880.  After  re- 
tiring from  Congress,  he  practised  law 
in  Trenton,  N.  J.,  where  he  died, 
Sept.  27,  1897. 

Robeson,  Henry  Belloxrs,  an 
American  naval  officer;  born  in  New 
Haven,  Conn..  Aug.  5,  1842;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  iu  1860;  served  through  the 


Robespierre 

Civil  War;  participated  in  the  action 
against  the  defenses  of  Charleston,  S. 
C,  April  7,  1863,  and  on  July  10 
of  the  same  year  led  the  landing  party 
from  the  "  New  Ironsides  "  in  an  at- 
tack on  and  capture  of  the  Confederate 
works  on  Morris  Island ;  took  part  in 
both  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher ;  was  pro- 
moted captain  in  1887 ;  commodore  in 
1898;  and  rear-admiral  in  1899;  and 
was  retired  in  the  latter  year. 

Robespierre,  Maximilien  Marie 
Isidore,  a  French  revolutionist;  bora 
of  a  family  of  Irish  origin,  in  Arras, 
May  6,  1758.  Maximilien  early 
showed  unusual  promise,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Arras  and  at  the  College 
Louis-le-Grand  at  Paris,  where  Ca- 
mille  Desmoulins  was  a  fellow  stu- 
dent. He  was  admitted  avocat  in 
1781,  and  next  year  was  named  crim- 
inal judge  by  the  Bishop  of  Arras, 
but  resigned  his  place  soon  after  to 
avoid  passing  a  sentence  of  death.  He 
drew  up  the  cahier  or  list  of  griev- 
ances for  the  guild  of  cobblers,  and 
was  elected  to  the  States-General  in 
1789  as  one  of  the  deputies  for  the 
tiers  etat  of  Artois. 

Three  days  after  the  death  of  Mira- 
beau  he  called  on  the  Assembly  to 
prevent  any  deputy  from  taking  office 
as  minister  for  four  years,  and  in  the 
following  month  (May,  1791)  carried 
the  motion  that  no  member  of  the  pres- 
ent Assembly  should  be  eligible  for 
the  next.  Next  followed  Robespierre's 
appointment  as  public  accuser,  the 
king's  flight  to  Varennes  (June  21), 
Lafayette's  last  effort  to  control  the 
sacred  right  of  Insurrection  on  the 
Champ-de-Mars  (July  17),  the  abject 
terror  of  Robespierre,  his  sheltering 
himself  in  the  house  of  Duplay,  a 
carpenter,  his  hysterical  appeal  to  the 
club,  the  theatrical  oath  taken  by  ev- 
ery member  to  defend  his  life,  and  his 
being  cro^Tied  with  chaplets,  along 
with  Petion,  and  carried  home  in  tri- 
umph by  the  mob  at  the  close  of  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  Sept.  30.  After 
seven  weeks  of  quiet  he  sold  his  small 
patrimony  and  returned  to  Paris,  to 
the  house  of  Duplay,  where  he  re- 
mained till  the  last  day  of  his  life. 

Meantime  the  Girondist  party  had 
been  formed  in  the  new  Legislative 
Assembly,  its  leaders  —  the  loudest, 
Brissot  —  eager  for  war.  Robespierre, 
who  ever  feared  and  disliked  war,  of- 


Bobin 

fered  a  strenuous  opposition  in  the  de- 
bates of  the  Jacobin  Club,  and  some- 
times, if  seldom,  in  his  endless  and 
windy  harangues  rose  into  the  region 
of  real  eloquence.  In  April,  1792,  he 
resigned  his  post  of  public  prosecutor. 
He  was  invisible  during  the  crisis  of 
Aug.  10,  but  joined  the  Hotel-de-Ville 
faction,  and  on  Aug.  16  he  presented 
to  the  Legislative  Assembly  its  peti- 
tion for  a  Revolutionary  Tribunal  and 
a  new  Convention.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear, however,  that  he  was  in  any 
sense  directly  responsible  for  the  atro- 
cious September  massacres  in  the 
prisons,  or  more  than  a  mere  acces- 
sory after  the  fact.  For  his  reward 
he  was  elected  first  deputy  for  Paris 
to  the  National  Convention,  which 
opened  on  Sept.  21. 

The  bitter  attacks  on  him  by  the  Gi- 
rondists were  renewed  only  to  throw 
Robespierre  into  a  closer  union  with 
Danton  and  his  party,  but  the  final 
struggle  was  interrupted  for  a  little 
by  the  momentous  question  of  the 
king's  trial.  Robespierre  opposed  vig- 
orously the  Girondist  idea  of  a  spe- 
cial appeal  to  the  people  on  the  king's 
death,  and  his  execution  (Jan.  21, 
1793)  opened  up  the  final  stage  of 
the  struggle,  which  ended  in  a  com- 
plete triumph  of  the  Jacobins  on  June 
2  of  the  same  year.  The  first  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Safety  —  a  permanent 
Cabinet  of  Revolution  —  was  decreed 
in  April,  1793,  but  Robespierre  was 
not  elected  till  July  27. 

He  was  now  for  the  first  time  one 
of  the  actual  rulers  of  France,  but  it 
is  open  to  question  whether  for  the 
whole  12  months  from  this  time  to  the 
end  he  was  not  merely  the  stalking 
horse  for  the  more  resolute  party 
within  the  Twelve.  He  was  astute 
enough,  moreover,  to  play  off  one  force 
against  another  —  the  Convention, 
the  Commune,  and  the  Committee, 
while  he  derived  his  strength  from  the 
constant  worship  of  the  club. 

The  next  scenes  in  the  dark  drama 
of  the  Revolution  jvere  the  dark  in- 
trigues and  desperate  struggles  that 
sent  Hebert  and  his  friends  to  the 
scaffold  on  March  24,  1794,  and  Dan- 
ton  and  Robespierre's  school  fellow, 
Camille  Desmoulins,  on  April  5,  after. 
The  next  three  months  he  reigned  su- 
preme, but  his  supremacy  prepared  the 
way  for  his  inevitable  fall.    He  nom- 


Robin  Hood 

inated  all  the  members  of  the  govern- 
ment committee,  placed  his  creatures 
in  all  places  of  influence  in  the  com- 
mune of  Paris,  sent  his  henchman 
Saint-Just  on  a  mission  to  the  armies 
on  the  frontier,  assumed  supreme  con- 
trol of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal, 
and  completely  revolutionized  its  meth- 
od of  operation  by  the  atrocious  meas- 
ure introduced  by  his  creature  Couthon 
on  the  22d  Prairial  (June  10),  to  the 
effect  that  neither  counsel  nor  wit- 
nesses need  be  heard  if  the  jury  had 
come  otherwise  to  a  conclusion.  The 
fatal  significance  of  this  change  —  a 
complete  abrogation  of  all  laws  —  is 
seen  in  the  fact  that  from  this  time 
till  the  day  of  Robespierre's  death  the 
daily  tale  of  victims  of  the  guillotine 
averaged  almost  30. 

Meantime  a  party  in  the  Convention 
was  formed  against  Robespierre,  and 
on  July  27th  he  was  openly  accused 
of  despotism.  A  decree  of  arrest  was 
carried  against  him  and  he  was  thrown 
into  Luxembourg  prison.  He  was  re- 
leased by  his  keeper  on  the  night  of 
the  same  day  and  conducted  to  the 
Hall  of  Commune  where  his  supporters 
were  collected.  On  the  following  day 
Barras  was  sent  with  an  armed  force 
to  effect  his  arrest.  Robespierre's  fol- 
lowers deserted  him  and  he  was  guil- 
lotined July  27,  1794,  together  with 
some  23  of  his  supporters. 

Robin,  a  name  given  several  birds, 
especially  to  the  Robin  redbreast  of 
Europe  and  to  an  American  species  of 
blackbird,  also  to  the  bluebird  of  Amer- 
ica. The  typical  American  robin  or 
migrating  thrush  is  found  in  summer 
throughout  North  America  from  Alas- 
ka to  Mexico.  They  retire  from  high- 
er latitudes  only  as  their  food  begins 
to  fail,  or  till  driven  S.  by  inundating 
snows.  During  the  winter  months  they 
are  numerous  in  the  Southern  States. 
Robin  Hood,  the  hero  of  a  gronp 
of  old  English  ballads,  represented  as 
an  outlaw  and  a  robber,  but  of  a  gal- 
lant and  generous  nature,  whose  fa- 
miliar haunts  are  the  forests  of  Sher- 
wood and  Barnsdale,  where  he  fleets 
the  time  carelessly  in  the  merry  green- 
wood. He  is  ever  genial  and  good- 
natured,  religious,  respectful  to  the 
Virgin  and  to  all  women  for  her  sake, 
with  a  kind  of  gracious  and  noble  dig- 
nity in  his  bearing.  He  lives  by  the 
king's    deer,    though    personally   niost 


Robins 

loyal,  and  wages  ceaseless  warfare  on 
all  proud  bishops,  abbots,  and  knights, 
taking  of  their  superfluity,  and  giving 
liberally  to  the  poor  and  to  all  hon- 
est men  in  distress,  of  whatever  degree. 
He  is  unrivalled  with  the  bow  and 
quarterstaff ;  but  in  as  many  as  eight 
of  the  extant  ballads  comes  off  the 
worse  in  the  combat  with  some  stout 
fellow,  whom  he  thereupon  induces  to 
join  his  company.  His  chief  comrades 
are  Little  John,  Scathlok  (Scarlet), 
and  Much ;  to  these  the  "  Gest  "  adds 
Gilbert  of  the  White  Hand  and  Rey- 
nold. A  stalwart  curtal  friar,  called 
Friar  Tuck  in  the  title,  though  not 
in  the  ballad,  fights  with  Robin  Hood, 
and  apparently  accepts  the  invitation 
to  join  his  company,  as  he  appears 
later  in  two  broadsides  which  also 
mention  Maid  Marian.  Such  is  the 
romantic  figure  of  the  greatest  of  En- 
glish popular  heroes  —  a  kind  of  yeo- 
man counterpart  to  the  knightly 
Arthur,  who  is  the  hero  of  Tennyson. 

There  is  no  evidence  worth  anything 
that  Robin  Hood  was  ever  more  than 
a  mere  creation  of  the  popular  imag- 
ination. 

Robins,  Benjamin,  an  English 
mathematician,  the  father  of  the  mili- 
tary art  of  gunnery ;  born  in  Bath, 
England,  in  1707,  of  a  poor  Quaker 
family.  Having  obtained  a  little  in- 
struction in  mathematics,  he  prose- 
cuted this  branch  of  science  with  great 
zest,  and,  having  removed  to  London, 
set  up  for  a  teacher  of  mathematics, 
and  published  several  mathematical 
treatises  which  gained  for  him  consid- 
erable reputation.  Robins  next  com- 
menced his  great  series  of  experiments 
on  the  resisting  force  of  the  air  to 
projectiles,  varying  his  labors  by  the 
study  of  fortification,  and  invented  the 
ballistic  pendulum.  His  great  and 
valuable  work,  the  "  New  Principles 
of  Gunnery,"  on  the  preparation  of 
which  he  had  spent  an  enormous 
amount  of  labor,  appeared  in  1742,  and 
produced  a  complete  revolution  in  the 
art  of  gunnery.     He  died  July  29, 1751. 

Robinson,  Cbarles  Seymonr,  an 
American  clergyman ;  born  in  Ben- 
nington, Vt.,  March  31,  1829.  He  is 
famed  as  a  collector  of  hymns  and 
tunes  used  in  the  Presbyterian 
Church.  His  publications  include 
"  Songs  of  the  Church  "  ;  "  Laudes 
Domini  " ;  and  others.    Died  1899. 


Rob  Roy 

Robinson,  lEdvra.Td,  an  American 
philologist ;  born  in  Southington, 
Conn.,  April  10,  1794 ;  was  graduated 
at  Hamilton  College  in  1816.  In  1830 
he  became  Professor  of  Sacred  Litera- 
ture at  Andover,  in  1837  Professor  of 
Biblical  Literature  in  the  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New  York.  He 
then  made  an  extensive  survey  of  Pal- 
estine, collecting  materials  for  "  Bib- 
lical Researches  in  Palestine  and  Ad- 
jacent Countries"  (1841).  A  second 
visit  in  1852  yielded  fruit  for  its  sec- 
ond edition  (1856).  He  died  in  New 
York  city,  Jan.  27,  1863. 

Robinson,  Stillman  'Williams, 
an  American  inventor ;  born  in  Read- 
ing, Vt.,  March  6,  1838;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Michigan 
in  1863 ;  Professor  of  Mechanical  En- 
gineering at  the  University  of  Illinois 
in  1870-1880,  and  at  the  Ohio  State 
University  in  1878-1894.  He  resigned 
in  the  latter  year  to  care  for  his 
inventions.  He  was  the  inventor  of 
a  thermometer-graduating  machine ; 
machines  for  shoe  manufacturing,  etc., 
and  published  "  Teeth  of  Great  Wheels 
and  the  Robinson  Templet  Odonto- 
graph  "  :  "  Railroad  Economics  "  ; 
"  Principles   of   Mechanism  "  ;   etc. 

Robinson  Crnsoe,  Alexander  Sel- 
kirk, who  was  found  in  the  desert 
island  of  Juan  Fernandez,  where  he 
had  been  left  by  Captain  Stradling. 
He  remained  on  the  island  four  years 
and  four  months,  when  he  was  res- 
cued by  Captain  Rogers  and  taken  to 
England. 

Rob  Roy  (Gaelic,  "  Red  Robert"), 
the  Scotch  Robin  Hood  ;  born  in  1671 ; 
second  son  of  Lieut.-Col.  Donald  Mac- 
gregor  of  Glengyle.  In  consequence  of 
losses  incurred  about  1712  in  unsuc- 
cessful speculations  in  cattle,  for 
which  he  had  borrowed  money  from 
the  Duke  of  Montrose,  his  lands  were 
seized,  his  houses  plundered,  and  his 
wife  shamefully  used,  turned  adrift 
with  his  children  in  midwinter.  Mad- 
dened by  these  misfortunes,  Rob  Roy 
gathered  his  clansmen  and  made  open 
war  on  the  duke,  sweeping  away  the 
whole  cattle  of  a  district,  and  kidnap- 
ing his  factor  with  rents  to  the  value 
of  more  than  $15,000.  Marvellous 
stories  are  current  round  Loch  Katrine 
and  Ldfch  Lomond  (where  a  cave  near 
Inversnaid   still   bears   his  name)    of 


Roo 

bis  hairbreadth  escapes  from  capture, 
of  his  evasions  when  captured,  and 
of  his  generosity  to  the  poor,  whose 
wants  he  supplied  at  the  expense  of 
the  rich.  They  in  turn  gave  him  time- 
ly warning  of  the  designs  of  his  two 
arch-foes, -the  Dukes  of  Montrose  and 
Athole,  and  of  the  red-coats  they  called 
to  their  aid  from  Dumbarton  and  Stir- 
ling ;  besides,  Rob  Roy  enjoyed  the 
protection  of  the  Duke  of  Argyll, 
having  assumed  the  name  Campbell, 
his  mother's.  Late  in  life  he  is  said 
to  have  turned  Catholic,  but  in  the 
list  of  subscribers  to  the  Episcopalian 
Church  history  of  Bishop  Keith  occurs 
the  name  "  Robert  Macgregor  alias 
Rob  Roy."  The  history  came  out  in 
1734,  and  on  Dec.  28  of  that  year  Rob 
Roy  died  in  his  own  house  at  Bal- 
quhidder.  He  left  five  sons,  two  of 
whom  died  in  1734  —  James,  an  out- 
law, in  Paris;  and  Robin,  the  young- 
est, on  the  gallows  at  Edinburgh  for 
abduction. 

Roc,  or  Rnkh,  a  fabulous  bird  of 
immense  size,  mentioned  in  the  "  Ara- 
bian Nights  Entertainments." 

Rochambean,  Jean  Baptiste 
Donatien  de  Vim^nr,  Comte  de,  a 
Marshal  of  France;  born  in  Vendome, 
France,  July  1,  1725;  entered  the 
French  army  in  1742,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Seven  Years'  War,  and 
became  Field-Marshal  in  1761.  In 
1780-1782  he  commanded  the  French 
forces  sent  to  aid  the  revolted  British 
colonists  in  America.  He  became  gov- 
ernor of  Artois  and  Picardy,  and  sub- 
sequently of  Alsace,  was  made  a  Mar- 
shal in  1790,  and  commanded  the 
Army  of  the  North  in  1792.  During 
the  Reign  of  Terror  he  narrowly  es- 
caped the  guillotine.  He  died  in  Tho- 
ri,  May  10,  1807- 

Roche,  James  Jeffrey,  an  Ameri- 
can author;  born  in  Queen's  County, 
Ireland,  May  31,  1847.  He  went  to 
Boston  in  1866  and  became  in  1890 
an  editor  of  the  "  Pilot,"  and  pub- 
lished :  "  Songs  and  Satires  " ;  "  Bal- 
lads of  Blue  Water  " ;  etc.  D.  1908. 
Rochelle  Salt,  the  popular  name 
of  the  tartrate  of  soda  and  potash, 
this  salt  having  been  discovered  in 
1672  by  a  Rochelle  apothecary  named 
Seignette.  It  occurs,  when  pure,  in 
colorless  transparent  prisms,  gener- 
ally eight  sided;  and  in  taste  it  re- 


Rock-crystal 

sembles  common  salt.     This  salt  is  a 
mild  and  efficient  laxative. 

Rochester,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Monroe  co.,  N.  Y. ;  on  the  Gene- 
see river,  229  miles  W.  of  Albany. 
In  the  center  of  the  city  are  the  Up- 
per Falls  of  the  Genesee,  a  perpendic- 
ular cataract  of  96  feet.  Rochester 
is  built  on  a  plateau  on  both  sides  of 
the  river,  263  feet  above  Lake  On- 
tario. 

The  city  is  the  trade  -enter  of  a 
large  and  rich  agricultural  region.  In 
the  Genesee  river  there  are  three  falls, 
96,  26  and  83  feet  respectively,  giv- 
ing abundant  waterpower  for  manu- 
facturing. There  are  about  1,120 
factory-system  plants,  emploving  over 
$71,500,000  capital  and  32.500  wage- 
earnors,  paving  $15,000,000  for  wages, 
and  having  an  ontiint  of  $82,700,000. 
The  most  important  of  these  are  flour 
mills,  with  a  combined  output  val- 
ued at  nearly  $5,000,000;  the  largest 
carriage  and  wagon  factory  in  the 
United  States,  and  manufactories  of 
steam  engines,  agricultural  machinery, 
lamps,  stoves,  glassware,  perfumery, 
india-rubber  goods,  photographic  ma- 
terials, cigarettes,  shoes,  etc.  In  the 
suburbs  is  an  extensive  nursery,  in- 
cluding two  great  plants  for  the  pack- 
ing and  shipment  of  garden  and  farm 
seeds. 

Rochester  is  the  seat  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Rochester,  and  the  Rochester 
Theological  Seminary.  The  most  re- 
markable structure  in  the  city  and 
county  is  the  aqueduct  which  carries 
the  Erie  canal  across  the  Genesee 
river.  It  is  of  cut  stone,  848  feet 
long,  with  a  channel  45  feet  wide,  and 
is  supported  by  nine  arches.  Pop. 
(1900)  162,608;  (1910)  218,149. 

Rochester,  University  of,  a  co- 
educational institution  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y. ;  founded  in  1850  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Baptist  Church. 

Rock,  in  geology,  any  considerable 
aggregation  of  mineral  matter,  wheth- 
er hard  and  massive  like  granite,  mar- 
ble, etc.,  or  friable  and  unconsolidated 
like  clay,  sand,  and  gravel.  In  popular 
language,  however,  it  is  any  large 
mass  of  stony  matter,  as  distinguished 
from  soil,  mud,  sand,  gravel,  etc. 

Rock-cod,  the  American  food  fish 
of  the  genus  Scorprena. 

Rock-crystal.     See  QUABTZ. 


Rockefeller,  Jolm  Davidson,  an 

American  capitalist;  born  in  Rich- 
ford,  Tioga  Co.,  N.  Y.,  July  8,  1839. 
He  engaged  in  business  when  he  was 
19,  and  soon  showed  ability  in  detail 
and  discretion  in  management.  When 
discoveries  of  petroleum  roused  spec- 
ulative interest  in  1860,  he  owned  a 
refinery  in  Cleveland,  O.  He  was 
quick  to  perceive  that  his  opportuni- 
ties were  at  hand.  His  business  de- 
veloped and  enlarged  with  amazing  ra- 
pidity. In  1870  he  became  president 
of  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  and  ac- 
cumulated vast  wealth,  of  which,  in 
his  retirement  from  active  business, 
he  made  great  gifts  to  promote  edu- 
cation, science,  religion,  and  sys- 
tematic charity.  In  1911  his  knowTi 
benefactions  aggregated  $114,000,000. 
His  largest  gifts  were  to  the  General 
Education  Board,  $50,000,000;  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago,  $24,800,000;  Rush 
Medical  College,  $6,000,000;  and  the 
Rockefeller  Institute  of  Medical  Re- 
search,   $2,600,000. 

Rockf  ord,  city  and  capital  of  Win- 
nebago county.  111.;  on  the  Rock 
river  and  the  Illinois  Central  and 
other  railroads;  87  miles  N.  W.  of 
Chicago;  is  essentially  a  manufactur- 
ing city,  having  large  farm  imple- 
ment, paper,  ,flour,  cotton,  woolen, 
furniture,  machinery,  barbed-wire, 
clothing,  hosiery,  and  sewing-machine 

giants;  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Federal 
building,  Rockford  College,  Illinois 
Art  School,  and  a  sanitarium.  Pop. 
(1910)    45,401. 

Rockkill,  William  Woodville, 
an  American  diplomatist;  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  1854;  entered 
the  diplomatic  service  in  1884  as  sec- 
ond secretary  of  legation  at  Peking, 


China;  was  appointed  first  assistant 
secretary  of  State  in  1896.  He  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Bureau  of 
American  Republics  in  May,  1890. 
After  the  rescue  of  the  foreign  dip- 
lomats in  Peking  in  1900,  he  was  ap- 
pointed special  ambassador  to  con- 
clude peace  negotiations.  In  1905- 
1909  he  was  Minister  to  China;  then 
became   Ambassador   to   Russia. 

Rocking  Stones,  or  Logans, 
lai-ge  masses  of  rock  so  finely  poised 
as  to  move  backward  and  forward 
with  the  slightest  impulse.  They  oc- 
cur in  nearly  every  country.  Some 
of  them  appear  to  be  natural,  others 
artificial;  the  latter  seem  to  have 
been  formed  by  cutting  away  a  mass 
of  rock  round  the  center-point  of  its 
base.  The  former  are  chiefiy  granitic 
rocks,  in  which  felspar  is  abundantly 
present.  Various  explanations  have 
been  given  of  the  uses  of  these  singu- 
lar objects.  They  are  supposed  to 
have  been  used  in  very  early  times 
for  purposes  of  divination,  the  num- 
ber of  vibrations  determining  the 
oracle;  hence  it  came  to  be  believed 
that  sanctity  was  acquired  by  walk- 
ing round  them. 

The  famous  rocking  stone  of  Tandil 
in  the  Argentine  Republic,  250  miles 
S.  of  Buenos  Ayres,  weighs  over  700 
tons,  yet  is  so  nicely  poised  that  it 
rocks  in  the  wind  and  may  be  made 
to   crack   a   walnut. 

Rock  Island,  a  city  in  Rock  Island 
CO.,  111.;  on  the  Mississippi  river. 
The  city  derives  its  name  from  a  beau- 
tiful island  in  the  river,  which  belongs 
to  the  United  States,  and  is  used  by 
the  Federal  government  for  a  great 
central  arsenal,  a  large  armory  and 


ftocb  of  Chickamauga 


Rocky  Mountains 


foundry,  military  headquarters,  etc. 
Before  and  during  the  Black  Hawk 
War  there  were  block-house  forts  on 
this  island,  and  during  the  Civil  War 
many  Confederate  prisoners  were 
kept  here.     Pop.   (1910)  24,335. 

Rock  of  Chickamauga,  a  name 
applied  to  Gen.  George  H.  Thomas, 
U.  S.  A.,  on  account  of  his  heroic 
stubbornness  in  holding  his  position  at 
Chickamauga  during  the  Civil  War, 
in  September,   1863. 

Rock  Pigeon,  a  pigeon  that  builds 
its  nest  in  hollows  or  crevices  of  rocks 
and  cliffs. 

^  Rock  Salt,  common  salt,  or  chlo- 
ride of  sodium,  occurring  as  a  mineral 
and  in  a  solid  form.  It  is  a  very  ex- 
tensively-diffused mineral,  and  in  some 
places  forms  great  rock  and  even 
mountain  masses. 

Rock  Scorpion  (Buthus  or  Scor- 
pio afer),  a  species  of  scorpion  found 
in  Africa,  averaging  about  six  inches 
in  length.  The  bite  of  this  animal, 
though  not  absolutely  fatal,  is  yet 
considered  to  be  dangerous. 

Rock  Snake,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  any  individual  of  the  genus 
Python,  Rock  snakes  are  among  the 
largest  of  living  reptiles ;  specimens 
of  18  and  20  feet  long  have  been 
brought  to  the  United  States.  They 
kill  their  prey  by  constriction,  and 
swallow  it  whole,  commencing  with 
the  head.  During  the  digestion  the 
animal  is  lazy  and  unwilling  even  to 
defend  itself  when  attacked. 

Rocky  Mountains,  Tke,  a  chain 
of  mountains  in  the  central  and  W. 
portions  of  the  Noi-th  American  con- 
tinent, are  a  prolongation  of  the  great 
Mexican  Cordillera,  extending  from 
the  N.  frontier  of  Mexico  N.  in  sev- 
eral ranges,  one  of  which,  the  E., 
passing  through  British  North  Amer- 
ica, reaches  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  about 
lat.  70°  N. ;  while  the  W.,  passing 
near  the  Pacific  coast,  terminates  near 
Prince  William's  Sound,  in  about  lat. 
60°  N.  The  territory  occupied  ex- 
tends from  the  Californian  shores  of 
the  Pacific  to  about  Ion.  105°  W.  The 
whole  area  properly  included  by  the 
mountains  and  their  intervening  val- 
leys in  the  country  belonging  to  the 
United  States  is  estimated  at  about 
980,000  square  miles.  The  mountain- 
ous belt  of  Eastern  New  Mexico  and 


Colorado  has  a  general  N.  and  S.  di- 
rection. On  its  E.  margin  stands 
Pike's  Peak,  while  in  Colorado  and 
Nebraska  are  those  portions  of  the 
chain  known  as  the  Three  Parks,  and 
the  Medicine  Bow  Mountains.  From 
Long's  Peak,  in  about  lat.  40°,  the 
range  trends  N.  W.,  connecting  with 
the  Wind  River  Mountains,  which  lat- 
ter includes  Fremont's  Peak,  13,870 
feet  above  sea-level.  Beyond  that  peak 
to  the  N.  boundary  of  the  United 
States  the  range  separates  the  Dako- 
tas  and  Washington,  and  the  pass 
known  as  Lewis  and  Clarke's,  in  lat. 
47°,  is  the  most  N.  pass  of  its  system 
in  the  Union.  In  British  North  Amer- 
ica the  "  Rockies  "  divide  the  waters 
of  the  Pacific  from  those  which  flow 
into  Hudson  Bay.  The  next  great 
range  of  this  mountain  system  toward 
the  W.  is  that  called  the  Wahsatch 
Mountains,  lying  S.  from  Great  Salt 
Lake,  and  toward  the  N.  W.  this  re- 
gion is  traced  along  the  W.  bank  of 
the  Colorado  toward  the  Sierra  Neva- 
da, which  forms  the  E.  boundary  of 
California,  and  the  watershed  of  the 
Colorado,  and  Lewis'  Fork  of  the  Co- 
lumbia river,  in  lat.  37°  and  46°  re- 
spectively. Nearly  the  whole  area  be- 
tween these  points,  and  for  a  breadth 
of  about  10  degrees  of  longitude, 
stretching  E.  from  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
is  a  vast  and  partially  explored  terri- 
tory, from  4,000  to  5,000  feet  above 
sea-level.  In  British  America  this 
section  of  the  chain  interlocks  with  the 
main  trunk  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  W.  portion  of  the  chain  com- 
mences at  the  S.  extremity  of  the 
Lower  California  peninsula,  then 
passing  through  California  it  bifur- 
cates into  two  ranges,  known,  re- 
spectively, as  the  Sierra  Nevada,  at  a 
distance  of  about  160  miles  from  the 
coast,  and  the  Coast  Range,  skirting 
the  shores  of  the  Pacific  from  10  to 
50  miles  inland,  till  it  reconnects  with 
the  Sierra  Nevada  in  Northern  Cal- 
ifornia, in  which  section  Mount  Shas- 
ta attains  an  altitude  of  about  14,000 
feet  above  tide  water.  Throughout  all 
of  Oregon  and  Washington,  the  dis- 
tinction is  still  maintained  between 
the  main  range,  here  called  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains,  and  the  Coast  Range. 
The  latter  traverses  the  central  por- 
tion of  Vancouver  Island  for  its  whole 
length,  and  on  the  mainland  in  Britisk 


Rocky  Monntain  Goat 


Rodgera 


Columbia  the  Sierra  Nevada  proceeds 
N.  and  is  crossed  by  Fraser  river. 
Several  depressions  are  met  with, 
which  serve  as  passes  for  the  routes 
from  Sonora,  Sacramento,  and  Marys- 
vllle,  to  the  E.  by  the  canyon  of  Car- 
Bon  river,  the  range  is  crossed  at  an 
elevation  of  about  7,250  feet ;  and  by 
the  Truckee  Pass  the  elevation  is 
about  6,000  feet.  From  these  passes 
the  route  is  N.  E.  to  the  main  road 
which  crosses  the  Sierra  Nevada  in 
the  N.  portion  of  California,  and  which 
passes  bv  the  Humboldt  Mountains 
to  Salt  Lake  City.  To  the  E,  of  Salt 
Lake  this  route  continues  across  the 
Wahsatch  range  to  the  great  South 
Pass  of  the  Wind  River  Mountains, 
immediately  S.  of  Fremont's  Pea':,  and 
thence  down  the  Sweetwater  to  the 
N.  fork  of  the  Platte.  A  more  S. 
route  connects  Pike's  Peak  with  the 
Utah  basin,  and  thence  turning  S.  W. 
crosses  the  Sierra  Nevada  near  its 
junction  with  the  Coast  Range  in 
Northern  California,  meeting  at  this 
point  the  route  from  Santa  Fe  through 
New  Mexico,  and  the  still  more  S.  one 
from  Texas,  which  follows  the  valley 
of  the  Gila,  and  crosses  that  river 
and  the  Colorado  at  their  junction. 
Mount  St.  Elias,  in  Alaska,  is  one  of 
the  highest  peaks  of  this  extensively 
ramified  mountain  system,  though  sur- 
passed in  height  by  the  neighboring 
Mount  McKinley. 

Rocky  Monntain  Goat,  a  beau- 
tiful animal  of  the  antelope  family, 
which  inhabits  the  heights  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  between  the  forests 
and  the  snow  line,  from  the  44th  to 
the  65th  degree  of  latitude.  It  is 
about  the  size  of  a  goat,  but  is  hand- 
somer and  more  thickset,  and  has 
stronger  legs.  It  is  completely  cov- 
ered with  long,  thick,  white  hair. 

Rod,  called  also  a  pole,  or  perch, 
a  measure  of  length,  equivalent  to 
5%  yards,  or  16%  feet.  The  square 
rod,  called  generally  a  rood,  is  em- 
ployed in  estimating  masonry  work, 
and  contains  16^  X  IQV2,  or  272%, 
square  feet. 

Rodentia,  or  Rodents,  an  order 
of  mammiferous  quadrupeds  occupy- 
ing in  many  respects  an  intermediate 
place  between  the  purely  carnivorous 
and  purely  herbivorous  mammalia,  and 
so   forming   the   connecting    link    be- 


tween them.  The  order  embraces  rata 
and  mice,  hares,  rabbits,  guinea  pigs, 
and  other  well-known  animals.  In 
the  greater  part  of  the  details  of  their 
organization  the  inferiority  of  the  ani- 
mals is  displayed ;  but  some  of  them 
enjoy  a  certain  dexterity,  using  their 
forefeet  for  carrying  their  food  to 
their  mouth;  while  others  again  (the 
squirrels)  climb  trees  with  facility. 
Rodents  are  most  abundant  in  tem- 
perate regions.  They  are  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  world. 

Roderic,  "the  last  of  the  Goths," 
whose  tragic  death,  coincident  with 
the  downfall  of  the  Visigothic  monar- 
chy in  Spain,  has  inspired  poets  and 
romancers,  to  throw  round  him  a  halo 
of  glory.  According  to  the  common 
legend  he  was  the  son  of  a  noble  who 
was  blinded  by  King  Witiza.  A  con- 
spiracy having  been  formed  against 
Witiza,  Roderic  was  elevated  to  the 
throne  (710).  The  sons  of  Witiza 
bided  their  time.  At  length  certain 
nobles  were  engaged  in  a  plot  to  de- 
throne Roderic  by  Count  Julian,  the 
governor  of  Ceuta  (in  North  Africa). 
Julian  brought  with  him  a  Moorish 
chief  named  Tarik  at  the  head  of  12,- 
000  men.  Roderic  met  the  invading 
army  on  the  banks  of  the  Guadalete, 
on  July  26,  711.  The  battle  raged 
six  days ;  but  the  sons  of  Witiza  de- 
serted during  the  contest,  and  the  rout 
of  the  Visigoths  was  complete.  Rod- 
eric either  died  on  the  field  or  waa 
drowned  in  the  Guadalete. 

Rodgers,  Christopher  Raymond 
Perry,  an  American  naval  officer  j 
born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  14, 
1819.  In  1833  he  entered  the  United 
States  navy  as  a  midshipman ;  was 
in  active  service  during  the  Seminole 
and  Mexican  Wars ;  and  in  1861  be- 
came commander.  He  commanded,  in 
1862,  an  expedition  to  St.  Augustine 
and  up  the  St.  Mary's  river.  In  the 
attack  on  the  defenses  of  Charleston, 
April  7,  1863,  he  was  fleet-captain 
on  the  "  New  Ironsides."  He  was  ap- 
pointed superintendent  of  the  United 
States  Naval  Academy  in  1874,  1877, 
and  1881,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
promoted  rear-admiral.  He  was  re- 
tired in  1881;  and  died  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  Jan.  8,  1892. 

Rodgers,  John,  an  American  naval 
officer ;  born  in  Harford  co.,  Md.,  July 


Rodgers 

11,  1771.  He  was  a  captain  in  the 
merchant  service  by  1789,  and  in  1798 
entered  the  navy  as  lieutenant,  be- 
coming captain  the  year  after.  In 
1805  he  extorted  from  Tripoli  and 
Tunis  treaties  abolishing  the  former 
tribute  and  forbidding  the  slavery  of 
Christian  captives.  On  June  23,  1812, 
he  fired  the  first  shot  in  the  war  with 
Great  Britain.     He  died  Aug.  1,  1838. 

Rodgers,  Jolin,  an  American  nav- 
al officer ;  born  in  Maryland,  Aug.  8, 
1812 ;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  May 
5,  1882.  He  was  the  son  of  Commo- 
dore John  Rodgers,  and  entered  the 
navy  in  1825.  He  was  in  the  war 
against  the  Seminole  Indians,  and  ren- 
dered excellent  service  during  the  Civil 
War.  He  was  rear-admiral  in  1871, 
and  in  1877-82  was  superintendent  of 
the  United  States  Naval  Observatory. 

Rodin,  Angniste,  a  French  sculp- 
tor; born  in  1840;  considered  the 
most  virile  of  modern  masters. 

Rodman,  Isaac  Peace,  an  Ameri- 
can military  officer ;  born  in  South 
Kingston,  R.  I.,  Aug.  18,  1822.  He 
entered  the  Union  army ;  was  captain 
in  18C1,  and  the  same  year  led  his 
company  in  the  battle  at  Bull  Run, 
July  21.  He  was  soon  promoted  to 
colonel  and  was  at  the  capture  of 
Roanoke  Island  and  at  Newbern,  N. 
C.  In  1862  he  was  promoted  Briga- 
dier-General of  volunteers.  He  com- 
manded a  division  at  Fredericksburg. 
In  18G2  he  was  engaged  in  the  battle 
of  Antietam,  where  he  received  a 
wound  from  which  he  died  in  Sharps- 
burg,  Md.,  Sept.  30,  1862. 

Rodman,  Thomas  Jefferson,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in 
Salem,  Ind.,  July  30,  1815.  He  be- 
came famous  as  the  inventor  of  the 
cannon  bearing  his  name.  He  died  in 
Rock  Island,  111.,  June  7,  1871. 

Rodney,  Caesar,  an  American  pa- 
triot; born  in  Dover,  Del.,  Oct.  7, 
1728.  In  17G5  he  was  a  delegate  to 
the  Sjamp  Act  Congress  in  New  York. 
In  1767,  when  the  tea  act  was  .pro- 
posed in  the  British  Parliament,  the 
Delaware  Assembly  appointed  him  to 
aid  in  the  formulation  of  an  address 
of  remonstrance  to  the  king.  In  1775 
he  was  elected  for  a  second  time 
to  the  Continental  Congress,  and  in 
May  of  that  year  became  Brigadier- 
General  of  the  Delaware  militia.    He 


Roe 

served  with  distinction  during  the 
Revolutionary  War,  becoming  a  Ma- 
jor-General.  He  was  elected  president 
of  Delaware,  in  which  office  he  served 
till  1782,  when  he  was  reelected  to 
Congress,  but  did  not  take  his  seat 
because  of  illness.  He  died  in  Dover, 
Del.,  June  29,  1784. 

Roe  (Capreolus  caprea),  a  small 
species  of  deer  inhabiting  Europe  and 
some  parts  of  Western  Asia.     It  was 


bOEBUCK. 

once  plentiful  in  Wales  and  in  the 
hilly  parts  of  England,  as  well  as  in 
the  S.  of  Scotland,  but  is  now  very 
rare. 

Roe,  Azel  Stevens,  an  American 
novelist ;  born  in  New  York  city,  Aug. 
16,  nOS.  He  left  the  wine  business 
for  the  production  of  literature,  at- 
taining considerable  success.  He  died 
in  East  W^indsor  Hill,  Conn.,  Jan.  1, 
1886. 

Roe,  CHarles  Francis,  an  Ameri- 
can military  officer ;  born  in  New  York 
city.  May  1,  1848;  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1868,  and  was  assigned  to  the  1st 
Cavalry,  then  on  the  Pacific  slope.  He 
was  post-adjutant  at  Camp  Harney, 
Or.,  under  the  late  Major  Elmer.  He 
was  mustered  out  with  the  2d  Cavalry 
in  1870,  but  was  reappointed.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1888,  he  returned  to  New  York, 
and  the  following  year  was  made  cap- 
tain of  the  newly  organized  Troop  A. 
In  1898  he  was  appointed  a  Briga- 
dier-General of  United  States  volun- 
teers. 

Roe,  Edward  Payson,  an  Ameri- 
can novelist ;  bom  in  Orange  co.,  N. 
Y.,  March  7,  183&    He  wrote  a  great 


THE    ROENTGEN    RAYS.      ^-   CROOKES  tube    (queen  &  CO.'S   PERFEO 

SHADOWGRAPH  CAN  BE  SEEN  ONLY  AFTI 
FOR  THE  PURPOSE  OF  BETTER  EXPLANATION.  THE  SHADOWGRAPH  AS  SHOWN  HERE  ON  PL 
SCREEN  OF  THAT  INSTKUMENT.]  2,  3,  5.  SHADOWGRAPHS  OF  A  HUMAN  HANS,  A  FISH,  fi 
PHII.ADSLPHIA, 


form)  in  operation,  [note:  the  roentgen  rays  are  actually  invisible, and  the 
jeveloping  the  sensitized  plate;  but  both  are  indicated  in  the  illustration 
i  resembles  that  seen  in  the  skiascope  when  projected  upon  the  fluorescent 
0  a  purse  with  contents.    4.  skiascope  designed  and  made  by  queen  &  co., 


Roe 

number  of  very  popular  novels,  which 
were  republished  in  England  and  oth- 
er countries.  He  died  in  Cornwall, 
N.  Y.,  July  19,  1888. 

Roe,  Edmrard  Thomas,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer ;  born  in  Shawneetown, 
111.,  Nov.  28,  1S47;  was  educated  at 
the  Illinois  Wesleyan  University  and 
the  University  of  Albany ;  began  the 
practice  of  law  at  Bloomington,  111., 
in  1870;  appointed  assistant  to  the 
United  States  attorney  for  the  South- 
ern District-  of  Illinois  in  1871,  and 
served  in  that  capacity  and  as  United 
States  district  attorney  for  IG  years. 

Roe,  Francis  Asbnry,  an  Ameri- 
can naval  officer ;  born  in  Elmira,  N. 
Y.,  Oct.  4,  1823;  appointed  an  acting 
midshipman,  Oct.  19,  1841 ;  ordered 
to  the  sloop-of-war  "  John  Adams," 
and  served  a  full  cruise ;  on  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  or- 
dered to  the  "  Pensacola,"  was  execu- 
tive officer  of  that  ship  at  its  memo- 
rable passage  down  the  Potomac  river, 
through  9  miles  of  batteries,  under 
constant  fire.  He  took  the  "  Pensa- 
cola "  to  New  Orleans,  led  the  star- 
board (van)  column  of  Farragut's 
fleet  at  the  battle  and  passage  of  Forts 
Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  and  80  miles 
above  the  Chalmette  Forts.  He  was 
detached  from  the  *'  Pensacola,"  at 
New  Orleans,  Aug.  5,  1862,  and  or- 
dered to  command  the  gunboat  "  Ka- 
tahdin,"  and  the  same  day  fought  the 
battle  of  Baton  Rouge.  He  was  pro- 
moted lieutenant-commander,  Aug.  6, 
18G2.  Subsequently  he  was  ordered  to 
the  Sounds  of  North  Carolina.  Roe 
was  promoted  captain  April  1,  1872, 
and  rear-admiral,  Nov.  3,  1884,  and 
was  retired  Oct.  4,  1885.  He  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  Dec.  28,  1901. 

Roebling,  Jolm  Augustus,  an 
American  engineer;  born  in  Muhlhau- 
sen,  Prussia,  June  12,  1806;  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1831,  and  set- 
tled in  Pittsburg,  Pa.  He  was  invited 
to  make  plans  and  estimates  for  build- 
ing a  suspension  bridge  across  the 
chasm  of  the  Niagara  river  to  unite 
the  New  York  Central  and  Great 
Western  (Canada)  railroads.  He  se- 
cured the  contract  and  in  four  years 
the  first  locomotive  and  train  crossed 
the  bridge,  in  March,  18.55.  His  great- 
est work  was  the  bridge  over  the  East 
river,     connecting     New     York     and 


Roentgen 

Brooklyn.  He  died  while  the  construc- 
tion was  in  progress,  in  Brooklyn, 
July  22,  1869,  and  the  bridge  was 
completed  by  his  son. 

Roebling,  'Wasbington  Augus- 
tus, an  American  civil  engineer;  born 
in  Saxenburg,  Pa.,  May  26,  1837; 
son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute, Troy,  N.  Y.,  in  1857;  was  an 
engineer  officer  during  the  Civil  War 
and  attained  the  rank  of  colonel  of 
volunteers.  In  1865  he  resigned  from 
military  service  to  become  assistant  to 
his  father.  In  1869  he  was  assistant 
engineer  under  his  father  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  suspension  bridge 
over  the  East  river;  and  on  his  fath- 
er's death  became  chief  engineer,  which 
post  he  held  till  the  completion  of  the 
bridge  in  1883.  He  then  became  su- 
perintendent of  the  large  wire  manu- 
factory at  Trenton,  N.  J. 

Roentgen,  William  Conrad, 
Baron,  a  Grerman  scientist;  born  in 
Holland  in  1845 ;  was  graduated  in 
medicine  at  the  University  of  Zurich 
in  1870.  On  Nov.  8,  1895,  he  made 
the  discovery  of  what  has  since  been 
known    as   the   Roentgen,   or   X-rays. 

Roentgen,  or  Rontgen,  Rays, 
certain  invisible  non-refractible  rays 
emanating  from  the  surface  of  an 
electrically  excited  vacuum  tube  op- 
posite the  cathode  electrode,  having 
power  (1)  of  permeating  objects  im- 
pervious to  light  or  heat  rays,  (2)  of 
discharging  electrified  bodies  or  sur- 
faces exposed  to  them,  (3)  of  excit- 
ing fluorescence  in  fluorescent  salts, 
and  (4)  of  affecting  sensitized  photo- 
graphic plates  in  a  manner  similar  to 
light  rays.  They  were  discovered  by 
William  Conrad  Roentgen,  Professor 
of  Physics  at  the  Royal  University  of 
Wurzburg,  in  Germany,  toward  tho 
close  of  the  year  1895.  Not  being  cer- 
tain as  to  the  nature  of  the  rays.  Pro- 
fessor Roentgen  provisionally  termed 
them  the  X-rays.  Besides  obtaining 
radiographs  of  the  bones  in  the  living 
human  hand,  Professor  Roentgen  ra- 
diographed a  compass  card  completely 
inclosed  in  a  metallic  box.  Subsequent 
experiments  have  established  the  fact 
that  the  transparency  of  a  body  to 
the  X-rays  is  proportional  to  its  den- 
sity. As  to  the  real  nature  of  the  X- 
rays  eminent  physicists  differ,  but  aJl 


Rogation  Days 


Kogers 


agree  that  they  must  be  "regarded  as  of 
a  nature  essentially  different  from  or- 
dinary light. 

The  Roentgen  rays  pass  very  freely 
through  the  various  tissues  and  fluids 
of  the  body,  but  are  obstructed  by  the 
bones ;  hence  it  is  possible  to  take  a 
perfect  shadow-picture,  or  radiograph, 
as  it  is  now  generally  called,  of  the 
bones  of  a  living  person  or  animal. 
By  far  the  most  important  result  of 
the  discovery  has  been  the  application 
of  the  new  rays  to  surgery.  Radio- 
graphs of  bones  fractured,  splintered, 
or  diseased,  have  been  of  much  prac- 
tical use  in  aiding  diagnosis  and  treat- 
ment. Needles,  bullets  and  other  for- 
eign objects  in  various  parts  of  the 
body  have  been  successfully  located, 
and  the  invention  of  the  fluoroscope 
has  made  it  possible  to  use  the  Roent- 
gen rays,  not  only  in  surgical  cases, 
in  searching  for  fractures,  etc.,  but  to 
undertake  anatomical  studies  and  make 
the  diagnosis  of  internal  diseases.  The 
full  physiological  effect  of  the  X-rays 
are  not  yet  clearly  understood. 

A  very  interesting  and  practical  ap- 
plication of  the  rays  was  made  at 
Pittsburg,  Pa.,  early  in  March,  1897. 
By  means  of  a  very  powerful  X-ray 
apparatus,  designed  by  Prof.  Reginald 
A.  Fessenden  of  the  Western  Univer- 
sity of  Pittsburg,  tests  were  made  that 
prove  that  blow  holes  in  heavy  ar- 
mor can  be  detected  by  the  aid  of  ra- 
diography. 

Rogation  Days,  the  Monday, 
Tuesday,  and  Wednesday  before  Holy 
Thursday  or  Ascension  Day,  so  called 
from  the  supplications  or  litanies 
which  are  appointed  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  to  be  sung  or  recited 
in  public  procession  by  the  clergy  and 
people. 

Roger  I.,  Count  of  Sicily,  the 
youngest  of  the  12  sons  of  Tancred  de 
Ilauteville  of  Normandy ;  born  in  that 
duchy  in  10.31.  When  27  years  of  age 
he  joined  his  famous  brother  Robert 
Guiscard  in  South  Italy.  In  lOGO 
Roger  was  invited  to  Sicily  to  fight 
against  the  Saracens ;  he  took  Mes- 
sina and  settled  a  garrison  there.  Ev- 
erywhere the  Normans  were  welcomed 
by  the  Christians  of  Sicily  as  their  de- 
liverers from  the  Moslem  yoke,  and 
they  won  town  after  town,  till  in  1071 
the  Saracen  capital,  Palermo,  was 
captured.    Count  Roger  spent  the  rest 


of  his  life  in  completing  the  conquest 
of  Sicily.  As  early  as  1060  Duke 
Robert  had  given  his  brother  the  half 
of  Calabria,  with  the  title  of  count. 
After  Robert's  death  (1085)  Roger 
succeeded  to  his  Italian  possessions, 
and  became  the  head  of  the  Norman 
power  in  Southern  Europe.  Roger 
died  in  Mileto,  Calabria,  in  June,  1101. 
Roger  II.,  King  of  Sicily,  second 
son  of  the  preceding ;  born  in  1096. 
By  the  Anti-Pope  Anacletus  in  lloO 
he  was  honored  with  the  title  of  king. 
In  spite  of  revolts  of  the  barons,  and 
though  the  German  emperor  and  the 
Greek  emperor  were  leagued  against 
him,  and  Innocent  II.  excommunicat- 
ed him,  he  defended  himself  with  suc- 
cess and  defeated  the  Pope's  forces  at 
Galluzzo,  taking  Innocent  prisoner. 
Peace  was  made,  the  Pope  annulled  all 
excommunication  against  Roger,  and 
recognized  his  title  of  king.  He  died 
in  1154. 

Rogers,  Henry  J.,  an  American 
inventor;  born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  in 
1811.  He  devised  the  Rogers  code  of 
flag  signals  adopted  by  the  United 
States  navy  in  1840,  and  invented  the 
first  pyrotechnic  system  of  signals  ever 
used  in  the  United  States.  He  was  as- 
sociated with  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse  in 
the  construction  of  the  first  telegraph 
line  in  the  United  States,  between 
AVashington  and  Baltimore,  in  1844. 
Subsequently  he  invented  several  im- 
portant telegraphic  instruments,  and 
was  one  of  the  incorporators  of  the 
Magnetic  Telegraph  Company,  the  first 
in  the  United  States,  in  1845.  In  the 
Civil  War  he  was  an  acting  master  in 
the  navy.  He  died  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
Aug.  20,    1879. 

Rogers,  Jacob  S.,  an  American 
manufacturer;  born  in  Paterson,  N. 
J. ;  was  president  of  the  Rogers  Loco- 
motive and  Machine  Works  in  that 
city.  He  bequeathed  his  estate  to  the 
Metropolitan  .Museum  of  Art  in  New 
York  city.    He  died  July  2,  1901. 

Rogers,  John,  an  American  sculp- 
tor; born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  Oct.  30, 
1829;  was  a  machinist  in  early  life; 
developed  a  talent  in  clay  modelling; 
and  in  18.58  went  to  Europe  to  study. 
He  returned  to  the  United  States  in 
18.19,  and  soon  became  known  by  the 
"  Rogers  Groups,"  illustrative  of  Amer- 
ican  and   army   life.     His  first  large 


Rogers 

work  was  the  "equestrian  statue  of 
General  Reynolds,"  now  at  the  city 
hall  in  Philadelphia.  He  died  in  New. 
Canaan,  Conn.,  July  26,  1904. 

Rogers,  Randolph,  an  American 
sculptor;  born  in  Waterloo,  N.  Y., 
July  6,  1825 ;  studied  art  in  Europe. 
He  then  returned  to  the  United 
States ;  for  five  years  had  a  studio 
in  New  York,  and  established  himself 
in  Rome  in  1855.  He  executed  the 
bronze  doors  of  the  National  Capitol 
at  Washington,  D.  C.  He  died  Jan. 
15,  1892. 

Rogers,  Robert,  an  American 
author;  born  in  Dunbarton,  N.  H.,  in 
1727 ;  commanded  during  the  French 
and  Indian  Wax-  (1755-1763)  the  cel- 
ebrated corps  known  as  "  Rogers's 
Rangers."  He  left  in  MS.  "  A  Diary 
of  the  Siege  of  Detroit  in  the  War 
with  Pontiac,"  first  published  in  1860. 
He  died  in  1784. 

Roger  Williams  University,  a 
coeducational  institution  for  colored 
students  in  Nashville,  Tenn. ;  founded 
in  1863  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Baptist  Church. 

RoUfs,  Friedricli  Gerliard,  a 
German-African  traveler;  born  in 
Vegesack,  Germany,  April  14,  1831. 
In  1863,  and  again  in  1865,  he  trav- 
eled in  North  Africa,  making  his  way 
on  the  latter  occasion  from  Tripoli  to 
Lake  Tchad,  Bornu,  etc.,  and  finally 
to  Lagos  on  the  W.  coast.  He  joined 
the  English  Abyssinian  expedition  in 
1867.  He  traveled  across  North  Amer- 
ica in  1875-1876,  and  in  1878  he  un- 
dertook a  new  journey  to  Africa  and 
penetrated  to  the  Kufra  Oasis.  In 
1880  he  visited  Abyssinia.  He  was 
appointed  German  general-consul  at 
Zanzibar  in  1884,  and  returned  to 
Germany  in  1885.  His  works  in- 
clude, among  others :  "  Journey 
through  Morocco " ;  "  Land  and  Peo- 
ple of  Africa  " ;  "  What  News  from 
Africa  " ;  etc.  He  died  in  Goderburg, 
Prussia,  June  3,  1896. 

Rokitansky,  Karl,  Baron  von, 
founder  of  the  school  of  pathological 
anatomy  in  Vienna ;  born  in  Konig- 
gratz,  Bohemia,  Feb.  19,  1804;  stud- 
ied medicine  at  Prague  and  Vienna ; 
in  1828  was  appointed  assistant  to 
the  Professor  of  Pathological  Anatomy 
in  the  university  of  the  latter  city  and 
in  1834  succeeded  him.     lie  likewise 


Roland 

held  the  offices  of  prosector  at  the  city 
infirmary,  legal  anatomist  to  the  city, 
and  medical  adviser  to  the  ministry 
of  education  and  public  worship.  In 
1869  he  was  made  president  of  the 
Austrian  Academy  of  Sciences.  He 
retired  from  work  in  1875,  and  died 
July  23,  1878.  He  stands  preeminent 
among  German  medical  teachers  as  the 
one  who  established  pathological  anat- 
omy as  the  basis  of  all  original  scien- 
tific inquiry  in  the  domain  of  medi- 
cine. 

Roland,  the  name  of  the  most 
prominent  hero  in  the  Charlemagne 
legend.  Unlike  most  legendary  he- 
roes, Roland  is  a  figure  in  history 
as  well  as  in  poetry  and  fable,  though 
it  cannot  be  said  that  the  place  he 
occupies  as  a  historical  personage  is 
an  imposing  one.  His  character  was 
that  of  a  brave  and  loyal  warrior,  but 
simple  and  unsuspecting  in  his  dispo- 
sition. According  to  the  Song  of  Ro- 
land, an  old  French  epic,  he  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Roncesvalles  after  a 
desperate  struggle  with  the  Saracens 
who  had  attacked  Charlemagne's  rear 
guard.  Several  epics  are  based  upon 
his  exploits. 

Roland,  Manon  Jeanne  Philip- 
pon,  Madame,  wife  of  Jean  Marie, 
and  herself  the  spirit  of  the  Girondin 
party ;  the  daughter  of  a  Paris  en- 
graver; born  in  that  city,  March  17, 
1754.  She  became  the  wife  of  Ro- 
land in  1779,  and  as  her  love  for  him 
was  founded  on  his  antique  virtues  and 
his  philosophic  spirit,  she  has  been 
called  "The  Heloise  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury." She  became  the  sharer  in  all 
his  studies,  aided  him  in  editing  his 
works,  and  during  his  two  ministries 
acted  as  his  secretary  and  entered  into 
all  the  intrigues  of  his  party  without 
debasing  herself  by  their  meanness. 
After  the  flight  of  her  husband,  Mad- 
ame Roland  was  arrested  by  order  of 
the  Paris  Commune  under  the  dicta- 
tion of  Marat  and  Robespierre,  and 
consigned  to  the  Abbaye  prison,  from 
which,  on  Oct.  31,  she  was  removed 
to  a  more  wretched  abode  in  the  Con- 
ciergerie.  She  was  executed  Nov.  8, 
1793. 

Roland  de  la  Platiere,  Jean 
Marie,  a  French  statesman ;  born  in 
Villefranche,  France,  Feb.  18.  1734; 
was  inspector-general  of  manufactures 
and  commerce  in  that  city  when  the 


Holfc 


Roman  ArcUtectnre 


French  Revolution  commenced,  and 
having  embraced  popular  principles 
became,  in  1790,  member  of  the  Lyons 
municipality.  The  practical  philoso- 
phy, commercial  knowledge,  and  strict 
simplicity  of  Roland,  recommended 
him  to  men  of  all  parties,  and  when 
the  patriot  ministry  was  formed  in 
March,  1792,  he  was  made  minister  of 
the  interior.  He  kept  his  position  till 
June  13,  when  the  royal  veto  on  the 
proposal  to  form  a  patriot  camp 
around  Paris,  and  on  the  decree 
against  the  priests,  provoked  his  cele- 
brated letter  to  the  king,  written, 
however,  by  Madame  Roland,  and,  as 
a  consequence,  his  almost  instant  dis- 
missal. The  struggle  between  the  Gi- 
rondists and  the  municipality  under 
the  guidance  of  Robespierre  filled  up 
the  period   till    May   31 ;    the   former 

{)arty  were  then  vanquished,  and  Ro- 
and  was  among  the  number  who  saved 
their  lives  by  flight.  He  found  an 
asylum  with  his  friends  at  Rouen,  but 
deliberately  killed  himself  with  his 
cane  sword  on  hearing  of  the  execution 
of  his  wife,   Nov.   15,  1793. 

Rolfe,  William  James,  an 
American  editor;  born  in  Newbury- 
port,  Mass.,  Dec.  10,  1827.  He  was 
a  distinguished  Shakespearean  scholar, 
and  published  many  editions  of 
Shakespeare,  annotated.     Died  1910. 

Roller  (Coraciidae),  a  family  of 
Picarian  birds  characteristic  of  the 
Ethiopian  and  Oriental  regions,  though 
the  common  roller  is  extensively  dis- 
tributed in  the  Palsearctic  region  and 
a  few  species  enter  the  Australian  re- 
gion. 

Roller  Boat,  a  boat  propelled  by 
wheels  which  roll  over  and  on  the 
water  instead  of  cutting  through  it. 
Designed  by  Ernest  Bazin,  a  French- 
man, in  1896;  its  slowness  made  it  a 
failure. 

Roller  Skate.  The  earliest  roller 
skate  was  patented  by  a  Frenchman  in 
1819.  About  18G4  the  mania  for 
rolling  skating  first  appeared  in  En- 
gland; but  in  1866  the  "  rinking " 
fever  broke  out  in  Australia,  and 
spread  thence  to  England  and  the 
United  States.  Since  that  time  the 
craze  has  appeared  at  intervals  only 
to  again  die  out.  The  most  recent  of 
these  arose  in  1884^1885  in  the  Unit- 
ed States,  but  soon  shared  the  fate  of 
its    predecessors.      The    most    recent 


form  has  only  two  wheels,  set  one  be- 
hind the  other,  and  resembling  the  ice 
skate  in  its  form  and  action. 

Rollin,  Ambrose  Lucien,  a  West- 
Indian  historian ;  born  in  Trois  Riv- 
ieres, Guadeloupe,  in  1692.  He  devot- 
ed his  leisure  to  researches  upon  the 
Caribs  and  other  Indian  tribes,  and 
published  several  works  which  are  still 
considered  authorities  upon  the  sub- 
jects he  covered.  He  died  at  Pointe 
a  Pitre  in  1749. 

Rollin,  Charles,  a  French  histo- 
rian ;  born  in  Paris,  Jan.  30,  1661. 
His  best-known  work  is  the  "  Ancient 
History"  (1730-1738),  often  reprint- 
ed in  France,  England,  and  the  United 
States.  He  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  14, 
1741. 

Rolling  Mill,  a  combination  of 
machinery  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
malleable  iron  and  other  metals  of  the 
same  nature.  By  it  the  iron  which  is 
heated  and  balled  in  the  puddling  fur- 
nace is  made  into  bars  or  sheets. 

Rollins,  Alice  Marland  (Wel- 
lington), an  American  verse  writer; 
bom  in  Boston,  June  12,  1847.  She 
died   in   Boston,   Dec.   5,   1897. 

Roman  Architecture.  It  can 
hardly  be  said  that  the  early  Romans 
had  any  style  of  architecture  of  their 
own,  since  they  borrowed  their  ideas 
of  building  first  from  the  Etruscans 
and  afterward  from  the  Greeks.  In 
the  time  of  Romulus  their  dwellings 
were  of  the  rudest  description,  being 
chiefly  composed  of  straw ;  and  at  a 
later  period  their  temples  were  only 
small  square  buildings,  scarcely  large 
enough  to  contain  the  statues  of  their 
deities.  The  first  king  who  construct- 
ed works  of  a  large  class  requiring 
architectural  skill  was  Ancus  Martins. 
His  first  attempt  was  the  building  of 
the  city  and  port  of  Ostia,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Tiber.  During  the  first 
two  Punic  wars  many  temples  were 
erected ;  but  they  do  not  appear  to 
have  been  of  great  magnificence.  Al- 
together, very  little  taste  had  been 
shown  in  the  Roman  buildings  till  their 
conquests  extended  and  they  became 
intimate  with  the  more  costly  buildings 
of  their  enemies.  Metellus  Macedoni- 
cus,  the  contemporary  of  Mummius, 
the  victor  of  Corinth,  was  the  first 
who  built  a  temple  of  marble  at  Rome ; 
but  from  that  time  most  of  the  larger 


Roman  Candle 


Romance  I^angnages 


edifices  were  built  of  that  material. 
Grecian  art  and  architecture  were  also 
introduced  about  the  same  period.  Un- 
der Julius  Caesar,  many  new  and  mag- 
nificent buildings  were  erected ;  and 
during  the  Golden  Age,  under  Au- 
gustus, most  of  the  finest  edifices  were 
built ;  architects  flocked  from  all  quar- 
ters, and  especially  from  Greece,  to 
beautify  the  city.  It  was  said  of  Au- 
gustus "  that  he  found  Rome  built 
of  brick  and  left  it  of  marble."  After 
this  period,  however,  architecture  de- 
clined till  Constantine  transferred  the 
seat  of  government  to  Byzantium, 
when  a  new  style  was  introduced. 

A  characteristic  feature  in  Roman 
architecture,  and  one  that  entered 
largely  in  the  system,  is  the  employ- 
ment of  order  above  order  in  the 
same  building.  While  this  arrange- 
ment is  faulty,  for  it  is  incompatible 
with  the  requirements  of  the  highest 
standard  of  taste,  yet  still,  at  the  same 
time,  it  proves  the  Roman  aptness 
of  invention  and  versatility  of  design. 
The  style  of  architecture  called  the 
Roman  order  was  invented  by  the 
Romans  from  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian 
orders ;  and  hence  it  is  sometimes 
called  the  Composite  order. 

Roman  Candle,  a  species  of  fire- 
works consisting  of  a  tube  partially 
filled  with  alternating  perforated  stars 
and  small  charges  of  gunpowder.  Fire 
communicated  to  the  upper  end  ignites 
the  charges  successively,  which  throw 
out  the  stars  till  all  are  discharged. 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  the 
name  of  that  community  of  Chris- 
tians who  profess  the  same  faith,  par- 
take of  the  same  sacraments  and  sac- 
rifice, and  are  united  under  one  head, 
the  Pope  or  Bishop  of  Rome,  called 
successor  of  St.  Peter,  and  under  the 
oishops  subject  to  him.  Its  essential 
parts  are  the  Pope,  bishops,  pastors  — 
so  far  as  they  are  priests  —  and  laity. 
The  distinctive  characteristic  of  the 
Roman  Church  is  the  supremacy  of  the 
papacy.  After  the  Council  of  Trent 
Pope  Pius  IV.  added  to  the  formal 
profession  of  faith  the  articles  on 
transubstantiation,  invocation  of 
saints,  and  others  which  chiefly  dis- 
tinguish the  Roman  from  other  Chris- 
tian communities. 

The  total  number  of  Roman  Catho- 
lics throughout  the  world  is  estimated 
at  300,OOU,UUO.  According  to  a  special 


census  report  on  "  Religious  Bodies  " 
(2  vols.,  1910),  there  were  in  the 
United  States  12,482  church  organi- 
zations; 11,881  church  edifices;  15,177 
clergy  of  all  ranks;  12,079,142  popu- 
lation belonging  to  the  Church;  and 
11,172  Sunday  schools,  with  62.470 
officers  and  teachers,  and  1,481,535 
scholars.  The  hierarchy  included  an 
apostolic  delegate,  one  cardinal,  13 
archbishops  and  90  bishops.  Church 
edifices  were  valued  at  $292,638,787. 

Romance.  Romance  has  long 
since  lost  its  original  signification  ia 
every  country  except  Spain,  where  it 
is  still  occasionally  used  in  speaking 
of  the  vernacular,  as  it  was  in  the 
Middle  Ages  when  Latin  was  the  lan- 
guage of  the  lettered  classes  and  of 
documents  and  writings  of  all  kinds. 
But  even  there  its  commoner  applica* 
tion  is,  as  elsewhere,'  not  to  a  lan- 
guage, but  to  a  form  of  composition. 
In  English  it  has  been  almost  invari- 
ably applied  to  a  certain  sort  of  prose 
fiction,  and,  in  a  secondary  sense,  to 
the  style  and  tone  prevailing  therein. 
By  "  the  romances,"  using  the  term 
specifically,  we  generally  mean  the 
prose  fictions  which,  as  reading  be- 
came a  more  common  accomplishment, 
took  the  place  of  the  lays  and  "  chan- 
sons de  geste "  of  the  minstrels  and 
trouveres,  and  were  in  their  turn  re- 
placed by  the  novel.  Of  these  the 
most  important  in  every  way  are  the 
so-called  romances  of  chivalry,  which 
may  be  considered  the  legitimate  de- 
scendants of  the  "  chansons  de  geste." 
The  chivalry  romances  divide  natural- 
ly into  three  families  or  groups ;  the 
British  (which,  perhaps,  would  be 
more  scientifically  described  as  the  Ar- 
morican  or  the  Anglo-Norman),  the 
French,  and  the  Spanish;  the  first 
having  for  its  center  the  legend  of 
Arthur  and  the  Round  Table ;  the  sec- 
ond formed  round  the  legend  of  Char- 
lemagne and  the  Twelve  Peers;  and 
the  third  consisting  mainly  of  Amadis 
of  Gaul  followed  by  a  long  series  ofi 
sequels  and  imitations  of  one  kind  oB 
another. 

Romance  Xanpraages,  a  general 
name  for  those  modern  languages  that 
are  the  immediate  descendants  of  the 
language  of  ancient  Rome.  They  in- 
clude the  Italian.  French,  Provencal, 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  Rumanian,  and 
Romanscb. 


jftomanesqne  Architectiire 


Rome 


Romanesque     Architecture,     a 

general  term  applied  to  the  styles  of 
architecture  which  prevailed  from  the 
5th  to  the  12th  centuries.  Of  these 
there  are  two  divisions:  (1)  The  de- 
based Roman,  prevalent  from  the  5th 
to  the  11th  centuries,  and  including 
the  Byzantine  modifications  of  the 
Romans,  and  (2)  the  late  or  Gothic 
Romanesque  of  the  11th  and  12th 
centuries,  comprising  the  later  Byzan- 
tine, the  Lombard,  and  the  Rhenish, 
Saxon,  and  Norman  styles.  _  The  for- 
mer is  a  pretty  close  imitation  of  the 
Roman,  with  modifications  in  the  ap- 
plication and  distribution  of  the  pe- 
culiar features ;  the  latter  is  Gothic  in 
Bpirit,  having  a  predominance  of  ver- 
tical lines,  and  various  other  new  fea- 
tures. 

Roman  Roads,  certain  ancient 
roads  in  Great  Britain  which  the  Ro- 
mans left  behind  them.  They  were 
uniformly  raised  above  the  surface  of 
the  neighboring  land  and  ran  in  a 
straight  line  from  station  to  station. 

Romans,  Epistle  to  tlie,  one  of 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  writ- 
ten by  the  Apostle  Paul,  and  ad- 
dressed to  the  Christian  Church  at 
Rome.  It  is  the  5th  in  order  of  time, 
though  placed  first  among  the  epis- 
tles, either  from  the  predominance 
of  Rome,  or  because  it  is  the  longest 
and  most  comprehensive  of  the  apos- 
tle's epistles.  It  is  generally  agreed 
to  have  been  written  about  A.  D.  58, 
after  he  had  passed  through  a  length- 
ened period  of  experience.  That  it  is 
the  genuine  and  authentic  production 
of  the  apostle  has  rarely  been  called 
in  question,  and  is  supported  by  the 
strongest  evidence. 

Roman  Walls,  certain  walls  or 
ramparts  in  Great  Britain  construct- 
ed by  the  Romans.  The  most  celebrat- 
ed of  these  is  the  wall  built  by  Ha- 
drian (a.  d.  120)  between  the  Tyne  and 
the  Solway.  It  was  further  strength- 
ened by  Severus,  and  hence  is  often 
called  the  wall  of  Severus.  In  139 
LoUius  Urbicus  built  a  second  wall 
or  N.  rampart  between  the  Forth  and 
the  Clyde,  which  occupied  the  same 
line  as  the  chain  of  forts  built  by 
Agricola  (a.  d.  80-85).  It  is  known 
as  the  wall  of  Antoninus.  These  walls 
formed  the  N.  boundaries  of  the  Ro- 
man dominions  in  Great  Britain,  and 


were  built  to  prevent  the  incursions  ofi 
the  Picts  and  Scots. 

Rome,  the  most  powerful  State  ofi 
antiquity;  founded  about  753  B.  o. 
by  a  settlement  from  Alba  Longa  led 
by  Romulus.  At  first  the  new  city 
was  ruled  by  kings,  but  in  509  B.  o. 
the  people  established  a  republic  which 
lasted  for  500  years.  Its  most  im- 
portant feature  was  the  struggle  be- 
tween the  plebeians  and  the  patricians, 
settled  finally  in  286  B.  c,  by  admis- 
sion of  plebeians  to  a  share  in  the 
government.  Meanwhile  Rome  had 
been  gradually  spreading  out,  and  by 
275  B.  c.  was  mistress  of  all  Italy. 

The  next  30  years  were  crucial  ia 
the  history  of  Rome.  Her  aggressive 
policy  in  the  Mediterranean  brought 
her  face  to  face  with  Carthage,  and 
under  their  military  genius  Hanni- 
bal, the  Carthaginians  threatened  the 
very  existence  of  Rome  itself.  Car- 
thage was  finally  burned  to  the  ground 
in  146  B.  c.  By  133  B.  c.  Rome  had 
conquered  Macedonia  and  Asia  Mi- 
nor. 

At  this  point  begins  the  decline  of 
Rome  as  a  republic.  A  series  of  bit- 
ter civil  wars  centralized  the  govern- 
ing power  in  the  hands  of  a  few  lead- 
ers and  in  48  B.  c.  Julius  Caesar  was 
created  Imperator.  With  Caesar  the 
republic  and  Rome's  greatest  period 
came  to  an  end.  Under  the  republio 
the  power  of  Rome  had  been  extend- 
ed from  Arabia  to  Great  Britain,  and 
from  Spain  to  Armenia. 

In  27  B.  c.  Octavian  became  first 
emperor  of  Rome  under  the  title  of 
Augustus.  His  immediate  successors 
added  slightly  to  Roman  territory,  but 
under  Marcus  Aurelius  the  decline  be- 
gan. From  A.  D.  180  to  284  Rome 
grew  gradually  weaker.  In  284  Dio- 
cletian reorganized  the  empire,  and 
for  nearly  200  years  these  reforms 
delayed  the  inevitable  disruption;  but 
in  395  the  empire  separated  into  two 
divisions;  the  Eastern,  or  Byzantine, 
and  the  Western;  and^  in  476  the 
Western,  or  Roman  empire,  was  final- 
ly overthrown,  and  Odoacer,  a  German, 
became  King  of  Italy. 

Rome,  the  capital  of  Italy,  as 
formerly  of  the  Roman  empire,  re- 
public, and  kingdom,  and  long  the 
religious  center  of  Western  Christen- 
dom, is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and 
interesting   cities   of   the   world.     IIP 


Rome 

stands  on  both  sides  of  the  Tiber, 
about  15  miles  from  the  sea.  The  city 
is  tolerably  healthy  during  most  of  the 
year,  but  in  late  summer  and  early 
autumn  malaria  prevails  to  some  ex- 
tent. It  has  been  greatly  improved 
in  cleanliness  and  healthfulness  since 
it  became  the  capital  of  modern  Italy. 

The  streets  of  ancient  Rome  were 
crooked  and  narrow,  till  after  the  fire 
that  took  place  in  Nero's  reign,  when 
the  new  streets  were  made  both  wide 
and  straight.  In  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus the  population  is  believed  to  have 
amounted  to  about  1,300,000,  and  in 
that  of  Trajan  was  not  far  short  of 
2,000,000. 

Ancient  Rome  was  adorned  with  a 
vast  number  of  splendid  buildings,  in- 
cluding temples,  palaces,  public  halls, 
theaters,  amphitheaters,  baths,  porti- 
coes, monuments,  etc.,  of  many  of 
which  we  can  now  form  only  a  very 
imperfect  idea.  The  oldest  and  most 
sacred  temple  was  that  of  Jupiter  Cap- 
itolinus,  on  the  Capitoline  Hill.  The 
Pantheon,  ,a  temple  of  various  gods 
(now  Church  of  S.  Maria  Rotonda), 
is  still  in  excellent  preservation.  It  is 
a  great  circular  building  with  a  dome 
roof  of  stone  140  feet  wide  and  140 
feet  high,  a  marvel  of  construction, 
being  2  feet  wider  than  the  great  dome 
of  St.  Peter's.  The  interior  is  light- 
ed by  a  single  aperture  in  the  center 
of  the  dome.  Other  temples  were  the 
Temple  of  Apollo,  which  Augustus 
built  of  white  marble,  on  the  Pala- 
tine, containing  a  splendid  library, 
which  served  as  a  place  of  resort  to 
the  poets ;  the  Temple  of  Minerva, 
which  Pompey  built  in  the  Campus 
Martins,  and  which  Augustus  covered 
with  bronze ;  the  Temple  of  Peace, 
once  the  richest  and  most  beautiful 
temple  in  Rome,  built  by  Vespasian,  in 
the  Via  Sacra,  which  contained  the 
treasures  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem, 
a  splendid  library,  and  other  curiosi- 
ties, but  was  burned  during  the  reign 
of  Commodus ;  the  temple  of  the  Sun, 
which  Aurelian  erected  to  the  E.  of 
the  Quirinal ;  and  the  magnificent 
temple  of  Venus,  which  Caesar  caused 
to  be  built  to  her  as  the  origin  of  his 
family.  The  principal  palace  of  an- 
cient Rome  was  the  Palatium  or  im- 
perial palace,  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  a 
private  dwelling  house  enlarged  and 
adopted  as  the  imperial   residence   by 

E.  128. 


Rome 

Augustus.  Succeeding  emperors  ex- 
tended and  beautified  it. 

Among  the  theaters,  those  of  Pom- 
pey, Cornelius  Balbus,  and  Marcellus 
were  the  most  celebrated.  That  of 
Pompey,  in  the  Campus  Martins,  was 
capable  of  containing  40,000  persons. 
The  most  magnificent  of  the  amphi- 
theaters was  that  of  Titus,  completed 
A.  D.  80,  now  known  as  the  Coliseum 
or  Colosseum.  Though  only  one-third 
of  the  gigantic  structure  remains,  the 
ruins  are  still  stupendous.  The  prin- 
cipal of  the  circuses  was  the  Circus 
Maximus,  between  the  Palatine  and 
Aventine,  which  was  capable  of  con- 
taining 260,000  spectators.  With 
slight  exception  its  walls  have  entirely 
disappeared,  but  its  form  is  still  dis- 
tinctly traceable. 

The  public  baths  or  thermse  in 
Rome  were  also  very  numerous.  The 
largest  were  the  Thermae  of  Titus, 
part  of  the  substructure  of  which  may 
still  be  seen  on  the  Esquiline  Hill ; 
the  Thermae  of  Caracalla,  even  larger, 
extensive  remains  of  which  still  exist 
in  the  S.  E.  of  the  city;  and  the 
Thermae  of  Diocletian,  the  largest  and 
most  magnificent  of  all,  part  of  which 
is  converted  into  a  church.  Of  the 
triumphal  arches  the  most  celebrated 
are  those  of  Titus  (a.  d.  81),  Severus 
(a.  d.  203),  and  that  of  Constantine 
(a.  d.  311),  all  in  or  near  the  Forum 
and  all  well  preserved  structures. 

It  was  not  till  the  17th  century  that 
the  modern  city  was  extended  to  its 
present  limits  on  the  right  bank,  by  a 
wall  built  under  the  pontificates  of 
Urban  VIII.  (1623-1644)  and  Inno- 
cent X.  (1644-1655),  and  inclosing 
both  the  Janiculum  and  the  Vatican 
hills.  The  boundary  wall  on  the  left 
or  E.  bank  of  the  river  follows  the 
same  line  as  that  traced  by  Aurelian 
in  the  3d  century,  and  must  in  many 
parts  be  identical  with  the  original 
structure.  The  walls  on  both  banks 
are  built  of  brick,  with  occasional  por- 
tions of  stone  work,  and  on  the  out- 
side are  about  55  feet  high.  The 
greater  part  dates  from  A.  D.  271  to 
276.  The  city  is  entered  by  12  gates 
(several  of  those  of  earlier  date  being 
now  walled  up)  and  several  railway 
accesses.  Since  Rome  became  the  cap- 
ital of  united  Italy  great  changes  have 
taken  place  in  the  appearance  of  the 
city,  many  miles  of  new  atreets  being 


Rome 

built,  and  much  done  in  the  way  of 
paving,  drainage,  and  other  improve- 
ments. It  has  thus  lost  much  of  its 
ancient  picturesque  appearance,  and 
is  rapidly  acquiring  the  look  of  a  great 
modern  city  with  wide,  straight  streets 
of  uniform-looking  tenements  having 
little  distinctive  character.  It  is  still, 
however,  replete  with  ever  varying 
and  pleasing  prospects. 

The  most  remarkable  of  the  churches 
is  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Peter,  the 
largest  and  most  imposing  to  be  found 
anywhere.  Another  remarkable  church 
is  that  of  San  Giovanni  in  Laterano, 
on  an  isolated  spot  near  the  S.  wall  of 
the  city.  From  the  central  balcony 
the  Pope  pronounces  his  benediction 
on  Ascension  day ;  and  the  church  is 
the  scene  of  the  councils  which  bear 
its  name. 

Among  other  churches  are  Sta. 
Maria  della  Pace,  celebrated  for  its 
paintings,  particularly  the  four  Sibyls, 
considered  among  the  most  perfect 
works  of  Raphael ;  Sta.  Maria  del 
Popolo,  interesting  from  the  number 
of  its  fine  sculptures  and  paintings 
(Jonah  by  Raphael,  ceiling  frescoes 
by  Pinturicchio,  and  mosaics  from 
Raphael's  cartoons  by  Aloisio  della 
Pace). 

The  Vatican,  adjoining  St.  Peter's, 
comprises  the  old  and  new  palaces  of 
the  Popes  (the  latter  now  the  ordi- 
nary papal  residence) ,  the  Sistine 
chapel,  the  Loggie  and  Stanze,  con- 
taining some  of  the  most  important 
works  of  Raphael,  the  picture  gallery, 
the  museums  (Pio-Clementino,  Chiar- 
amonti,  Etruscan  and  Egyptian),  and 
the  library  (220,000  volumes  and  over 
25,000  MSS.).  The  palace  of  the 
Quirinal  was  formerly  a  favorite  sum- 
mer residence  of  the  Popes,  but  is  now 
occupied  by  the  King  of  Italy.  The 
Palazzo  della  Cancelleria  is  the  only 
palace  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
still  occupied  by  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities.  The  building  was  de- 
signed by  Bramante,  and  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  Rome. 

Among  educational  institutions  the 
first  place  is  claimed  by  the  university, 
founded  in  1303.  The  most  flourish- 
ing period  of  the  university  was  the 
time  of  Leo  X.  (1513-1522),  under 
whom  the  building  still  occupied  by 
it  was  begrun.  It  is  now  attended  by 
over  3.000  students  and  auditors. 
Pop.   (1909)  575,000. 


Romney 

Rome,  city  and  capital  of  Floyd 
county,  Ga.;  on  the  Coosa  river  and 
the  Southern  and  other  railroads;  75 
miles  N.  W.  of  Atlanta;  is  one  of 
the  most  important  manufacturing 
cities  in  the  State;  the  seat  of 
Shorter  College  for  Women  (Bapt.) 
and  Battey  and  Emergency  hospitals. 
Pop.  (1910)  12,009. 

Rome,  a  city  in  Oneida  county, 
N.  Y.;  on  the  Mohawk  river,  the  Erie 
and  Black  River  canals,  and  several 
railroads;  14  miles  N.  W.  of  Utica; 
is  in  a  noted  dairying  section;  has 
large  locomotive  works,  iron,  brass, 
and  copper  mills,  and  manufactories 
of  plows,  cheese  presses,  knit  goods, 
canned  goods,  and  compressed  air 
motors;  and  contains  the  Central  New 
York  Institution  for  Deaf  Mutes, 
State  Custodial  Asylum,  and  Jervis 
Library.    Pop.  (1910)  20,497. 

_  Romero,  Don  Matias,  a  Mexican 
diplomatist ;  born  in  Oascaca,  Mexico, 
Feb.  24,  1837;  was  graduated  at  the 
Academy  of  Theoretical  and  Practical 
Law,  Mexico  City,  in  1855.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1857  and  at  an 
early  age  entered  public  life,  being 
sent  to  Washington,  D.  C,  as  secretary 
of  the  Mexican  legation  in  1859.  In 
1800  he  was  made  charge  d'affaires, 
but  in  1863  returned  to  Mexico  to 
take  part  in  the  war  against  the 
French.  Subsequently  he  was  made 
minister  to  the  United  States ;  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  of  Mexico,  and 
postmaster-general.  In  1882  he  was 
reappointed  minister  to  the  United 
States  and  remained  so  till  his  death. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  International 
American  Conference  and  was  a  pro- 
lific writer,  publishing  upward  of  50 
volumes  of  technical  reports.  He  died 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb.  30,  1898. 

Romney,  George,  an  English 
painter ;  born  in  Rickside,  Lancashire, 
Dec.  15,  1734.  He  steadily  rose  in 
popularity,  and  was  finally  recognized 
as  inferior  only  to  Reynolds  and 
Gainsborough  as  a  portrait-painter; 
some  critics  even  placed  him  higher 
than  either.  His  residence  in  London 
was  interrupted  by  occasional  visits 
to  the  Continent  for  purposes  of  study, 
and  his  most  prosperous  period  dates 
from  1775,  after  his  return  from  a 
visit  of  18  months  to  Rome.  Many^ 
distinguished  Englishmen  and  manyi 
ladies  of  rank  sat  to  him  for  their  pocoj 


Som-nlns 


RdoSwoocI  Toiiersr 


traits.  He  did  not  neglect  historical 
or  imaginative  compositions,  and  he 
contributed  several  pictures  to  Boy- 
dell's  famous  Shakespeare  gallery, 
founded  in  1786.  Fine  examples  of 
his  work  command  high  prices.  He 
died  in  Kendal,  Nov.  15,  1802. 

Romulns,  mythical  founder  and 
first  King  of  Rome.  According  to  the 
legends,  he  was  the  son  of  the  vestal 
Rhea  Sylvia  by  the  god  Mars,  Sylvia 
being  a  daughter  of  Numitor,  rightful 
heir  of  the  King  of  Alba,  but  deprived 
by  his  brother.  Exposed  with  his 
twin  brother  Remus,-  the  babes  were 
Buckled  by  a  she  wolf,  and  afterward 
brought  up  by  a  shepherd.  Their 
parentage  was  discovered,  and  they 
determined  to  found  a  city  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tiber,  the  scene  of  their 
exposure.  The  right  to  choose  the  site 
was  acquired  by  Romulus ;  and  Remus 
not  acquiescing,  in  his  disappointment, 
was  slain.  Inhabitants  for  the  new 
city  were  found  by  establishing  a  ref- 
uge for  murderers  and  fugitive  slaves 
on  the  Capitoline  hills,  and  by  carry- 
ing off  the  Sabine  maidens  at  a  feast 
to  which  they  were  invited.  This  led 
to  war  with  the  Sabines,  which  ended, 
through  the  intervention  of  the  Sabine 
women,  in  a  union  of  Romans  and 
Sabines,  under  their  two  kings,  Romu- 
lus and  Titus  Tatius.  The  latter  was 
Boon  slain,  and  Romulus  reigned  alone. 
He  was  regarded  as  the  author  of  the 
fundamental  division  of  the  people 
into  tribes,  curiae,  and  gentes,  and  of 
the  institution  of  the  senate  and  the 
comitia  curiata.  The  date  commonly 
assigned  for  the  foundation  of  Rome 
is  753  B.  c. 

Rondeau,  or  Rondo,  a  kind  of 
poetry  which  returns,  as  it  were,  to 
the  same  point,  or  in  which  part  is 
repeated,  thus  containing  a  refrain. 
In  music,  a  light  form  of  composition, 
in  which  the  subject  or  theme  returns 
frequently;  it  usually  forms  the  last 
movement  of  a  symphony  or  sonata. 

Ronsard,  Pierre  de,  a  French 
poet;  born  in  Vendomois,  France, 
Sept.  11,  1524.  After  a  short  diplo- 
matic career,  he  devoted  himself  to 
literary  studies  and  became  the  chief 
of  the  band  of  seven  poets  afterward 
known  as  the  "  Pl^iade."  Ronsard's 
popularity  and  prosperity  during  his 
life  were  very  great.  Henry  II., 
Francis  II.,  and  Charles  IX.  esteemed 


him,  and  the  last  signally  honored  the 
poet.     He  died  Dec.  27,  1585. 

Rontgen.     See  Roentgen. 

Rood,  a  cross  or  crucifix  ;  specifical- 
lyj  a  representation  of  the  crucified 
Saviour,  or,  more  generally,  of  the 
Trinity,  placed  in  Catholic  churches 
over  the  altar  screen,  hence  termed 
the  rood  screen. 

Roof,  the  external  covering  on  the 
top  of  a  building ;  sometimes  of  stone, 
but  usually  of  wood  overlaid  with 
slates,  tiles,  lead,  etc.  Since  the  intro- 
duction of  iron  in  the  construction  of 
roofs,  spaces  of  almost  any  width  can 
be  roofed  over.  Also  that  which  re- 
sembles, or  corresponds  to,  the 
cover  of  a  building ;  as,  the  roof  of  the 
mouth,  the  roof  of  the  firmament,  etc. 

Rook,  a  European  species  of  crow 
resembling  in  size  and  color  the  car- 
rion crow,  but  differing  in  having  the 
base  of  the  bill  whitish  and  scurfy, 
and  bare  of  feathers.  The  rook  is 
gregarious  at  all  seasons,  resorting 
constantly  to  the  same  trees  every 
spring  to  breed,  when  the  nests  may 
be  seen  crowded  one  over  another 
upon  the  upper  branches. 

Rooke,  Sir  George,  an  English 
admiral ;  born  near  Canterbury,  Eng- 
land, in  1650.  He  entered  the  navy 
at  an  early  age  and  rose  to  be  vice- 
admiral  in  1G92.  For  his  gallantry  in 
a  night  attack  on  the  French  fleet  off 
Cape  La  Hogue  he  was  knighted  in 
1692.  His  further  services  include 
the  destruction  of  the  French  and 
Spanish  fleets  in  Vigo  Bay  (1702), 
and  a  share  in  the  capture  of  Gibral- 
tar in  July,  1704.  In  the  following 
August  he  fought  a  French  fleet  of 
much  superior  force,  under  the  Comte 
de  Toulouse,  off  Malaga.  The  result 
was  undecisive,  and  this  fact  was 
used  against  Rooke  by  his  political  op- 
ponents. Sir  George  quitted  the  serv- 
ice in  disgust  in  1705.  He  served  in 
several  Parliaments  as  member  for 
Portsmouth.  He  died  near  Canter- 
bury, Jan.  24,  1709. 

Rookwood  Pottery,  The,  a  ce- 
ramic establishment  founded  in  Cincin- 
nati in  1880  by  Mrs.  Maria  Long- 
worth  Storer,  whose  father,  Joseph 
Longworth,  was  the  founder  of  the 
art  school  and  a  chief  patron  of  the 
art  museum  of  the  same  city.  The 
distinguishing     mark     of     Rookwood 


Roon 


AooseTelt 


faience  in  all  its  wares  is  the  deco- 
rative quality  of  the  color  grounds, 
carefully  studied  with  reference  to 
harmony. 

Roon,  Albrecht  Tlieodor  von,  a 
Prussian  war  minister ;  born  in  Pleus- 
hagen,  Prussia,  April  30,  1803.  He 
entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  18,  and 
speedily  developed  a  high  talent  for 
the  theoretical  and  educational  branch- 
es of  his  profession.  In  1866  he  was 
made  general  of  infantry,  and  was 
present  with  the  army  in  Bohemia 
during  the  Seven  Weeks'  war  against 
Austria.  On  the  conclusion  of  the 
war  Von  Roon  was  made  a  count,  and 
on  Jan.  1,  1873,  he  became  a  field- 
marshal  and  minister-president  of 
Prussia.  In  November  of  the  same 
year,  however,  he  laid  down  his  public 
offices  and  retired  to  his  estate  in 
Silesia,  where  he  chiefly  resided  till 
his  death.  He  died  in  Berlin,  Feb. 
13,  1879. 

Roosevelt,  Robert  Barn-well,  an 
American  lawyer;  born  in  New  York 
city,  Aug.  7,  1829.  He  was  an  enthu- 
siastic sportsman,  and  published : 
"  The  Game  Birds  of  the  North,"  and 
"  Progressive  Petticoats,"  a  humorous 
satire  on  female  physicians. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  an  Ameri- 
can statesman  and  26th  President  of 
the  United  States;  born  in  New  York 
city,  Oct.  27,  1858;  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  University  in  1880  and  be- 
gan the  study  of  law.  The  next  year  he 
was  elected  to  the  Assembly  from  the 
21st  District  of  New  Y'^ork,  serving  in 
the  Legislatures  of  1883,  1884,  and 
1885.  While  chairman  of  the  Commit- 
tee on  Cities,  he  introduced  reform 
legislation  which  has  proved  immense- 
ly beneficial  to  the  people  of  New  York. 
One  of  his  measures  was  the  act  taking 
from  the  Board  of  Aldermen  power  to 
confirm  or  reject  the  appointments  of 
the  mayor.  He  was  chairman  of  the 
noted  Legislative  Investigating  Com- 
mittee which  bore  his  name  and  which 
revealed  many  of  the  abuses  existing 
in  the  city  government  in  the  early 
eighties. 

In  1886  Mr.  Roosevelt  was  the  Re- 
publican candidate  for  mayor  against 
Abram  S.  Hewitt,  United  Democracy, 
and  Henry  George,  United  Labor. 
Mr.  Hewitt  was  elected  by  about 
22,000  plurality.  Mr.  Roosevelt  was 
appointed  a  Republican  member  of  the 


United  States  Civil  Service  Commis- 
sion by  President  Cleveland  in  his 
first  administration.  His  ability  and 
rugged  honesty  in  the  administration 
of  the  affairs  of  that  office  greatly 
helped  to  strengthen  his  hold  on  popu- 
lar regard.  He  continued  in  that  office 
till  May  1,  1895,  when  he  resigned  to 
accept  the  office  of  police  commissioner 
from  Mayor  Strong.  His  record  as 
president  of  the  board  was  of  the 
highest  character.  He  found  the  ad- 
ministration of  affairs  in  a  demoralized 
condition,  but  the  same  energetic 
methods  that  had  characterized  all  his 
work,  the  same  Uncompromising  hon- 
esty that  is  the  most  prominent  note  in 
his  character, '  when  applied  to  police 
affairs,  soon  brought  the  administra- 
tion of  the  department  to  a  high  de- 
gree of  efficiency. 

From  his  New  York  office  he  was 
called  by  President  McKinley,  April  6, 
1897,  to  be  Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Navy.  There  again  his  energy  and 
quick  mastery  of  detail  contributed 
much  to  the  successful  administration 
of  the  department  and  the  preparation 
of  the  navy  for  the  most  brilliant  feats 
in  naval  warfare  in  the  history  of  the 
world. 

When  war  was  declared  against 
Spain  Mr.  Roosevelt  refused  to  re- 
main in  the  quiet  government  office. 
For  years  he  had  spent  his  summers 
on  a  Dakota  ranch,  and  learned  to 
know  cowboys  as  strong,  sincere  men, 
on  whom  the  nation  could  rely.  From 
these  the  famous  cavalry  troop  known 
as  the  "  Rough  Riders  "  was  largely 
recruited.  Four  years*  membership  in 
the  8th  Regiment  of  the  New  York 
State  National  Guard,  to  which  he 
belonged  and  in  which  he  was  for  a 
time  a  captain,  furnished  at  least  a 
basis  for  his  brilliant  military  career. 
But  more  than  all  else  that  induced 
him  to  go  to  the  front  were  his  de- 
votion to  the  cause  for  which  the  war 
was  fought  and  his  love  for  an  acti.ve 
life.  These  same  reasons  drew  to  him 
scores  of  young  men  of  prominent  fam- 
ilies from  all  parts  of  the  country, 
who  joined  the  Western  cavalrymen. 
The  regiment  thus  formed  was  known 
as  Roosevelt's  Rough  Riders,  though 
it  was  commanded  by  Colonel  Wood 
of  the  regular  army,  Roosevelt  being 
second  in  command,  with  the  rank,  till 
promoted,  of  lieutenant-colonel. 


Root 

For   bravery    in   the  battle   of   Las 
Guasimas     Roosevelt     was     promoted  . 
colonel  and  in  the  three  days  of  fight- 1 
ing  before  Santiago,  and  especially  in  ] 
the  magnificent  charge  up   San  Juan 
Hill,   he  acted  with   conspicuous   gal-  j 
lantry.     On  the  return  of  the  Rough  \ 
Riders  from  Cuba,  Roosevelt  was  the 
popular  idol  of  the  country ;   and  de- ! 
spite  considerable  opposition  from  pro- 1 
fessional    politicians    was    nominated 
for  governor  of  New  York  on  the  Re- 
publican  ticket,   Sept.   27,   1898.     He 
was  elected  by  a  plurality  of  18,000, 
Nov.  4.     In  the  Republican  National 
Convention    held    in    Philadelphia    in 
the  summer  of  1900  Roosevelt  was  en- 
thusiastically    nominated     for     Vice- 
President    on    the    Republican    ticket 
headed  by  William  McKinley.   He  was 
elected  Nov.  4,  and  was  formally  in- 
stalled March  4,  1901.     On  the  death 
of    President    McKinley    in    Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  Sept.  14,  1901,  Roosevelt  took 
the  oath  of  oflice  as  his  successor,  and 
became    the    26th    President    of    the 
United  States.     In  1904  he  was  elected 
President   by   a  popular   plurality   of 
2,545,515  votes  and  an  electoral  ma- 

t'ority  of  196  over  Judge  Alton  B. 
'arker,  the  Democratic  candidate. 
In  this  term  he  gave  the  country  a 
vigorous  administration  and  developed 
a  characteristic  line  of  policies  having 
in  view  the  betterment  of  the  national 
life.  Immediately  after  the  close  of 
his  term  he  withdrew  from  public  life, 
ioined  the  editorial  staff  of  "  The  Out- 
look," and  spent  fifteen  months  in 
traveling  and  hunting  in  Africa  and  in 
visiting  the  principal  capitals  of 
Europe.  While  abroad  he  acted  as  the 
special  ambassador  of  the  United 
States  at  the  funeral  of  King  Ed- 
ward VII. 

Early  in  1912  he  announced  that  he 
would  not  be  a  candidate  for  the  Presi- 
dential nomination  in  that  year,  but 
later  developed  much  opposition  to  the 
Taft  administration  and  sought  the 
nomination.  When  the  Republican 
National  Convention  met  in  Chicago 
in  June  he  declared  that  he  had  been 
defrauded  out  of  many  votes  by  the 
decisions  of  the  National  Committee 
on  contests  by  various  sets  of  dele- 
gates, and  instructed  his  supporters  to 
take  no  part  in  the  proceedings.  Of  the 
total  ballots   for   tne   nomination  on 


Rope 

June  22,  President  Taft  received  561 
and  Roosevelt  107,  by  delegates  who 
disregarded  his  request.  The  iloosevelt 
f9llowing  then  organized  the  Progres- 
sive party,  and,  in  convention  in  Chicago 
on  Aug.  7  following,  nominated  their 
leader  for  President  with  Gov.  Hiram 
W.  Johnson,  of  California,  for  Vice- 
President.  After  his  nomination  he 
made  a  vigorous  campaign  throughout 
the  country  until  Oct.  14,  \vhen  he  was 
shot  in  the  breast  by  an  insane  man 
in  Milwaukee.  He  was  able,  however, 
to  make  a  speech  in  New  York  on  Oct. 
30  following.  In  the  election,  he  was 
defeated  by  Gov,  Woodrow  WUson. 

Root,  Elilin,  an  American  states- 
man; born  in  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  15, 
1845;  was  graduated  at  Hamilton 
College  in  1864,  and  after  teaching 
for  a  while  entered  the  New  York 
University  Law  School  and  was  grad- 
uated in  1867.  On  Aug.  1,  1899,  he 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  War  by 
President  McKinley,  and  on  March 
5,  1901,  was  reappointed.  After  the 
Spanish-American  War,  Secretary 
Root  represented  the  United  States 
government  in  all  oflBcial  communica- 
tions with  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the 
Philippine  Islands.  He  was  Secre- 
tary of  War  in  1899-1904;  Secretary 
of  State  in  1905-1909;  elected  United 
States  Senator  for  the  term  of  1909- 
1915;  chief  counsel  for  the  United 
States  before  the  Permanent  Arbi- 
tration Court  in  1910. 

Root,  George  Frederick,  an 
American  musician  and  song-writer; 
born  in  Sheffield,  Mass.,  Aug.  30, 
1820.  He  was  the  author  of  a  large 
number  of  popular  and  patriotic 
songs.    He  died  Aug.  6,  1895. 

Rope,  a  large,  stout,  twisted  cord 
of  hemp,  of  not  less,  generally,  than  aa 
inch  in  circumference.  A  certain  pro- 
portion of  hemp  twisted  together 
forms  a  yarn,  and  a  number  of  yarns 
form  a  strand.  Three  strands  twisted 
together  form  a  rope.  Other  materials 
besides  hemp  are  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  rope,  but  to  a  smaller  extent. 
Coir  rope,  which  comes  from  Ceylon 
and  the  Maldive  Islands,  is  made  from 
the  fibrous  husk  of  the  cocoanut.  Ma- 
nila rope  from  the  fibers  of  a  species 
of  wild  banana.  Wire  rope,  both  iron 
and  steel,  is  also  employed ;  on  ship- 
board, particularly,  to  a  considerable 
extent. 


Ropes 

Ropes,  Jolm  Codman,  an  Ameri- 
can historian ;  born  in  St.  Petersburg, 
Russia,  April  28,  1836;  was  graduat- 
ed at  Harvard  in  1857;  studied  at  the 
Harvard  law  school,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  18(31.  Largely  through 
his  influence  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment began  the  collection  and  pres- 
ervation of  information  relating  to 
the  Civil  War,  and  he  organized  the 
Military  Historical  Society  of  Massa- 
chusetts. Besides  contributions  to 
this  society  and  to  periodicals  he 
wrote :  "  The  Army  under  Pope " 
(1881);  "The  First  Napoleon" 
(1885);  "The  Campaign  of  Water- 
loo " ;  "  Atlas  of  Waterloo " ;  and 
"  The  story  of  the  Civil  War."  Died 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  28,  1899. 

Roquette,  Adrien  Emmaiiiiel, 
an  American  poet ;  born  in  New  Or- 
leans, La.,  Feb.  13,  1813.  He  wrote 
with  equal  ease  and  grace  in  English 
and  French.  He  died  in  New  Orleans, 
July  15,  1887. 

Roraima,  a  celebrated  mountain  in 
South  America,  where  the  boundaries 
of  British  Guiana,  Venezuela  and 
Brazil  meet,  7,800  feet  high,  flat- 
topped,  with  steep,  rocky  sides,  ren- 
dering the  summit  almost  inaccessible. 
More  than  one  explorer  has  succeed- 
ed, however,  in  reaching  the  top. 

Rorqual,  the  name  given  to  certain 
whales,  closely  allied  to  the  common 
or  whalebone  whales,  but  distinguished 
by  having  a  dorsal  fin,  with  the  throat 
and  under  parts  wrinkled  with  deep 
longitudinal  folds,  which  are  supposed 
to  be  susceptible  of  great  dilatations, 
the  use  of  which  is  as  yet  unknown. 
Two  or  three  species  are  known,  but 
they  are  rather  avoided  on  account  of 
their  ferocity,  the  shortness  and 
coarseness  of  their  baleen  or  whale- 
bone, and  the  small  quantity  of  oil 
they  produce.  The  N.  rorqual  attains 
a  great  size,  being  found  from  80  to 
over  100  feet  in  length,  and  is  thus  the 
largest  living  animal  known.  The  ror- 
qual feeds  on  cod,  herring,  pilchards, 
and  other  fish,  in  pursuing  which  it  is 
not  seldom  stranded  on  the  shore. 

Rosa,  Carl  August  Nicholas, 
originally  Rose,  a  German  opera  man- 
ager and  violinist ;  born  in  Hamburg, 
Germany,  March  22,  1842.  He  came 
to  the  United  States,  where  during  a 
concert  tour  he  met  and  married   (in 


Rosary  Sunday 

New  York,  in  February,  1867)  Mme. 
Parepa ;  formed  an  opera  company,  in- 
cluding Mme.  Parepa-Rosa,  Wachtel, 
Santley,  Ronconi,  and  Formes,  travel- 
ing as  far  as  California.  After  his 
wife's  death  (1874),  he  organized  in 
London  an  English  opera  company 
with  which  he  produced  nearly  a  score 
of  popular  operas  not  previously  given 
in  English.  He  died  in  Paris,  France, 
April  30,  1889. 

Rosa,  Salvator,  an  Italian  painter, 
etcher  and  poet ;  born  near  Naples, 
Italy,  June  20,  1615.  In  1638  Rosa 
settled  in  Rome,  where  he  soon  estab- 
lished his  reputation  and  rose  to  fame 
and  wealth.  The  bitterness  of  his  sat- 
ire, expressed  both  in  his  satirical 
poems  and  in  an  allegorical  painting 
of  the  "  Wheel  of  Fortune  "  rendered 
his  stay  in  Rome  inadvisable.  He 
therefore  accepted  an  invitation  to 
Florence  (1642),  where  he  remained 
nearly  nine  years  under  the , protection 
of  the  Medici.  He  finally  returned  to 
Rome.  Salvator  Rosa  delighted  in  ro- 
mantic landscape,  delineating  scenes 
of  gloomy  grandeur  and  bold  magnifi- 
cence. Rosa  etched  from  his  own  works 
with  great  skill.  He  died  in  Rome, 
Italy,  March  15,  1673. 

Rosacese,  roseworts ;  an  order  of 
plants,  placed  by  Lindley  under  his 
Rosal  Alliance.  The  rosacese  occur 
chiefly  in  the  temperate  and  cold  parts 
of  the  Northern  Hemisphere;  when 
they  occur  in  the  tropics  it  is  general- 
ly on  high  land. 

Rosary,  in  ordinary  language,  a 
chaplet,  a  garland.  Also,  a  bed  of 
roses ;  a  place  where  roses  grow.  In 
comparative  religion,  a  string  of  beads 
by  means  of  which  account  is  kept  of 
the  number  of  prayers  uttered. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church : 
(1)  A  form  of  prayer  in  which  the 
"  Hail  Mary  "  is  recited  150  times  in 
honor  of  the  virgin  Mary.  (2)  The 
beads  on  which  any  of  the  forms  of 
prayers  are  said. 

Rosary  Sunday,  the  first  Sunday 
in  October ;  a  feast  instituted  by  Greg- 
ory XIII.  for  the  Confraternity  of  the 
Rosary,  and  made  of  universal  observ- 
ance after  the  victory  of  Emperor 
Charles  VI.  over  the  Turks,  in  grati- 
tude to  the  Blessed  Virgin.  An  im- 
petus has  been  given  to  the  devotion 
of  the  rosary  by  Leo  XIII.,  who  en- 


Rose 


Rosecrans 


joined  its  daily  use  in  public  during 
October.  Roses  are  blessed  and  dis- 
tributed as  souvenirs,  and  the  rosary 
is  recited  continually  during  the  day. 

Rose,  the  beautiful  and  fragrant 
flower  which  has  given  name  to  the 
large  natural  order  Rosaceae,  which 
seems  to  be  confined  to  the  cooler  parts 
of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The 
species  are  numerous  and  are  extreme- 
ly difficult  to  distinguish.  They  are 
prickly  shrubs,  with  pinnate  leaves, 
provided  with  stipules  at  their  base ; 
the  flowers  are  very  large  and  showy. 
The  rose  is  easily  cultivated,  and  its 
varieties  are  almost  endless. 

The  American  Beauty  rose  had  its 
birth  in  an  almost  neglected  corner 
of  the  Washington  garden  of  the  late 
George  Bancroft.  Amid  a  tangle  of 
roses  of  common  varieties  suddenly 
blossomed  this  new  and  wonderful 
rose.  Slips  were  at  once  experimented 
with.  At  first  they  were  grown  out 
of  doors,  but  before  long  it  was  found 
that  hothouse  culture  such  as  is  given 
to  tea  roses  was  best  suited  to  the 
splendid  new  rose.  During  the  com- 
paratively few  years  of  its  existence 
the  American  Beauty  has  been  stead- 
ily improved  in  size  and  fragrance. 

Rose  Acacia,  a  highly  ornamental 
flowering  shrub  inhabiting  the  S.  parts 
of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  and  now 
frequently  seen  in  gardens  in  Europe. 
It  is  a  species  of  locust ;  the  flowers 
are  large,  rose-colored,  and  inodorous ; 
the  pods  are  glandular-hispid. 

Rosebery,  Archibald  Philip 
Primrose,  Stb  Earl  of,  an  En- 
glish statesman;  bom  May  7,  1847; 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and 
succeeded  his  grandfather  in  1868.  He 
is  an  advanced  Liberal  in  politics, 
and  a  ready  and  effective  speaker.  He 
was  under-secretary  at  the  home  office, 
1881-1883;  lord  privy  seal  and  first 
commissioner  of  works,  1885 ;  next 
year  held  the  secretaryship  of  foreign 
affairs  till  the  fall  of  the  Gladstone 
government ;  was  secretary  of  foreign 
affairs  again  in  1892-1894 ;  prime 
minister.  1894-1895.  In  1878  he  was 
elected  lord-rector  of  Aberdeen  Univer- 
sity ;  in  1881  of  Edinburgh  University. 
In  1899  of  Glasgow  University.  In 
1889  he  became  a  member  of  the  Lon- 
don County  Council,  and  was  appoint- 
ed chairman  of  that  body.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge  conferred  the  de- 


gree of  LL.  D.  on  him  in  1888.  He 
advocated  the  reform  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  was  much  interested  in 
the  questions  of  imperial  federation 
and  the  social  conditions  of  the  masses. 
In  1878  he  married  Hannah,  daughter 
of  Baron  Mayer  de  Rothschild;  she 
died  in  1890.  When  Mr.  Gladstone 
succeeded  to  power  Lord  Rosebery  be- 
came Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
and  in  October  of  the  same  year 
(1892)  he  was  made  a  Knight  of  the 
Garter.  On  the  resignation  of  Mr. 
Gladstone  in  March,  1894,  the  queen 
offered  the  post  of  prime  minister  to 
Lord  Rosebery  and  he  carried  on  the 
government  with  no  little  success  till 
July,  1895.  He  then  urged  on  his 
supporters  that  the  general  election 
should  be  fought  on  the  question  of  the 
predominance  of  the  House  of  Lords. 
During  1896  his  attitude  on  the  Ar- 
menian question  differed  from  that  of 
Mr.  Gladstone,  and  finally  he  decided 
on  resigning  the  leadership  of  the  par- 
ty in  order  to  have  for  himself  an  abso- 
lutely free  hand  on  this  question.  His 
view  was  that  Great  Britain  should 
not  be  hurried  into  an  intervention 
in  the  Armenian  question,  which 
would  lead  to  the  risk  of  a  European 
war.  In  1898  Lord  Rosebery,  from 
his  place  in  the  House  of  Peers,  paid 
a  noble  and  eloquent  tribute  to  the 
life  and  public  services  of  Mr.  Glad- 
stone, and  later  on  spoke  in  the  coun- 
try in  support  of  the  attitude  taken 
up  by  Lord  Salisbury  on  the  Fashoda 
situation.  Lord  Rosebery  keeps  an  ex- 
cellent racing  stud,  and  both  in  1894 
and  1895  he  won  the  Derby. 

Rose  Chafer  (Ce tenia  aurata),  an 
injurious  beetle,  whose  grubs  destroy 
the  roots  of  strawberries  and  other 
plants,  while  the  adults  spoil  the 
flowers  of  roses,  strawberries,  and 
seed  turnips.  The  adults,  which  are 
well  able  to  fly  from  place  to  place, 
measure  about  an  inch  in  length,  are 
golden  green  above,  coppery  with  a 
tint  of  rose  beneath.  The  "  rose- 
bug  "  of  the  Eastern  United  States  is 
another  beetle,  a  voracious  pest  which 
often  appears  in  immense  numbers 
and  destroys  the  flowers  of  rosaceous 
plants. 

Rosecrans,  'William  Starke,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in 
Kingston,  O.,  Sept.  6,  1819.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military 


Rosemary 

Academy  in  1842,  and  entered  the 
army  as  brevet  2d  lieutenant  of  en- 
gineers, but  after  serving  for  a  year 
at  Hampton  Roads  returned  to  West 
Point  as  assistant  Professor  of  En- 
gineering. In  1847  he  again  entered 
active  service,  but  resigned  in  1854 
to  become  a  consulting  engineer  and 
architect  in  Cincinnati,  O.  He  began 
his  career  in  the  Civil  War  by  organ- 
izing and  drilling  the  Home  Guard 
in  Ohio;  and  in  June,  1861,  was 
placed  in  charge  of  Camp  Chase.  He 
was  made  colonel  of  the  23d  Ohio  Vol- 
unteers soon  afterward,  and  in  a 
short  time  was  appointed  a  Brigadier- 
General.  In  May,  1862,  he  command- 
ed the  right  wing  of  the  Army  of  the 
Mississippi  during  the  siege  of  Cor- 
inth ;  and  on  June  11,  1862,  succeed- 
ed General  Halleck  in  the  command 
of  that  a"i-my.  On  Oct.  26,  1862,  he 
relieved  General  Buell  of  the  com- 
mand of  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland, 
and  on  Oct.  30,  began  his  memorable 
march  to  Nashville,  Tenn.  Owing  to 
his  defeat  at  Chiclsamauga  in  Sep- 
tember of  the  following  year  he  was 
superseded  in  command  by  General 
Thomas  and  assigned  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Missouri.     He  was  deprived 


KOSE  CHAFER. 
a,  larva;  b,  cocoon. 

of  his  command  Dec.  9,  1864j  where- 
upon he  retired  to  Cincinnati,  where 
he  remained  inactive  till  the  close  of 
the  war.  In  1868  he  was  appointed 
United  States  minfster  to  Mexico ;  in 
1880  and  1882  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress; and  in  June,  1885,  was  ap- 
pointed register  of  the  United  States 


Boseg 

Treasury.  An  act  passed  in  1898  re- 
stored him  to  the  rank  of  Brigadier- 
General  in  the  army  and  placed  him 
on  the  retired  list.  He  died  near  Re- 
dondo,   Cal.,    March    11,   1898. 

Rosemary,  the  Rosmarinus  offici- 
nalis, a  native  of  the  S.  of  Europe 
and  Asia  Minor,  and  cultivated  in  In- 
dia,   etc. ;    a    very    fragrant    labic.te 


ROSEMABY. 

plant  with  a  white  or  pale-blue  co- 
rolla. The  leaves  are  sessile  and  gray 
with  edges  rolled  round  below.  It 
is  sometimes  made  into  garlands. 

Rosenkranz,  Joliaiin  Karl 
Friedrich,  a  German  philosopher ; 
born  in  Magdeburg,  Prussia,  April  23, 
1805.  He  was  the  best  representa- 
tive of  the  "  center "  of  Hegel's 
school,  and  spent  much  time  in  rear- 
ranging and  reclassifying  the  system. 
His  principal  works,  nearly  all  of 
which  have  received  English  versions, 
are :  "  Psychology,  or  the  Science  of 
Subjective  Mind  "  ;  "  Critical  Expla- 
nations of  Hegel's  System  "  ;  "  Auto- 
biography " ;  "  The  History  of  Litera- 
ture." He  died  in  Konigsberg,  Prus- 
sia, June  14,  1879. 

Roses,  Wars  of  the,  a  disastrous 
dynastic  struggle  which  desolated  En- 
gland during  the  15th  century,  from 
the  first  battle  of  St.  Albans   (1455) 


BrOsetta  Stone 


Bosicrncians 


to  that  of  Bosworth  (1485).  It  was 
so  called  because  the  two  factions  into 
which  the  country  was  divided  upheld 
the  two  several  claims  to  the  throne 
of  the  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster, 
whose  badges  were  the  white  and  the 
red  rose  respectively.  It  did  for  En- 
gland what  the  French  Revolution  did 
three  centuries  later  for  France  in 
virtually  wiping  out  the  old  nobility. 


EOSETTA  STONE. 

Rosetta  Stone,  the  name  given  to 
a  stone  found  near  the  Rosetta  mouth 
of  the  Nile  by  a  French  engineer  in 
1798.  It  is  k  tablet  of  basalt,  with 
an  inscription  of  the  year  136  B.  c 
during  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Epiph- 
anes.  The  inscription  is  in  hiero- 
glyphic, in  demotic,  and  in  Greek.  It 
was  deciphered  by  Dr.  Young,  and 
formed  the  key  to  the  reading  of  the 
hieroglyphic  characters.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  the  English  on  the  defeat  of 
the  French  forces  in  Egypt,  and  is 
now  kept  in  the  British  Museum. 

Rose  'Windo\7,  a  circular  window, 
divided  into  compartments  by  mul- 
lions  and  tracery  radiating  from  a 
center,  also  called  Catharine  wheel 
and  marigold  window  according  to 
modifications  of  the  design.     It  forms 


a  fine  feature  of  the  church  architect- 
ure of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries. 

Rose-wood,  a  valuable  wooa,  the 
best  of  which  comes  from  Brazil.  Two 
kinds,  or  two  qualities,  are  known  in 
commerce.  These  much  resemble  each 
other,  the  one,  which  is  usually  rather 
the  better  figured  of  the  two,  coming 
from  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  the  other 
from  Bahia.  The  South  American  and 
Indian  kinds  are  all  hard  and  durable 
and  take  a  fine  polish.  They  are  in 
every  way  excellent  furniture  woods, 
the  Brazilian  kinds  being  only  more 
valuable  because  they  are  more  beau- 
tifully figured.  The  Indian  rosewood 
is  often  elaborately  carved  by  native 
workmen,  and  for  this  purpose  it  is 
well  suited.  An  inferior  kind  of  rose- 
wood is  brought  from  Honduras.  The 
name  is  said  to  have  been  given  be- 
cause of  a  striking  rose-like  odor  that 
the  wood  gives  out  when  freshly  cut. 

Rosicrncians,  a  mystic  secret 
society  which  became  known  to  the 
public  early  in  the  17th  century,  and 
was  alleged  to  have  been  founded  by 
a  German  noble  called  Christian  Ros- 
enkreuz,  A.  d.  1388.  He  was  said  to 
have  died  at  the  age  of  106.  The  so- 
ciety consisted  of  adepts,  who  perpet- 
uated it  by  initiating  other  adepts. 
The  Rosicrncians  pretended  to  be  able 
to   transmute  metals,  to  prolong   life. 


EOSE    WINDOW. 

and  to  know  what  was  passing  in  dis- 
tant places.  Many  contradictory  hy- 
potheses have  been  brought  forward 
regarding  the  Rosicrncians,  and  as  it  is 
admitted  that  their  secret  was  never 
revealed,  it  is  open  to  doubt  if  there 
was  one  to  reveal.  They  are  said  to 
have  died  out  in  the  18th  century. 


Bosini 


Rossfl 


Bosini,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  lit- 
terateur ;  born  in  Lucignano,  Tuscany, 
Italy,  June  24,  1776.  His  poem  en- 
titled "  The  Marriage  of  Jupiter  and 
Latona "  (1810)  written  on  the  oc- 
casion of  the  marriage  of  Napoleon 
with  Maria  Louisa,  was  awarded  an 
imperial  prize  of  $2,000.  He  was  the 
author  of  many  works  of  prose  and 
poetry.     He  died  May  10,  1855. 

Rosmini,  Antonio  Rosmini- 
Serbati,  an  Italian  philosopher ; 
born  of  noble  family  at  Roveredo  in 
the  Italian  Tyrol,  March  25,  1797.  He 
entered  the  priesthood  and  founded  the 
charitable  order  of  Rosminians  which 
has  branches  in  America,  Italy, 
France,  and  Britain.  He  is  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  modern  Idealism  in 
Italy.  The  chief  points  of  his  system 
are  fully  treated  in  his  "  New  Essay 
on  the  Origin  of  Ideas,"  translated 
into  English  (1883).  He  was  a  most 
voluminous  writer  on  religious  and 
military  subjects,  as  well  as  on  philos- 
ophy.   Died  in  Milan,  Italy,  1827. 

Ross,  "  Charlie,"  the  victim  of  a 
case  of  kidnapping,  many  years  ago, 
which  has  not  yet  lost  interest.  On 
July  3,  1874,  Charles  Ross,  son  of 
Christian  K.  Ross,  and  aged  about 
four  years,  while  playing  near  his 
home  in  the  suburbs  of  Philadelphia, 
was  carried  away  by  two  men.  The 
abductors,  in  newspaper  advertise- 
ments, demanded  $20,000  for  his  re- 
turn. Owing  to  the  efforts  of  the  po- 
lice to  capture  them  the  boy  was  never 
returned,  although  the  father  raised 
the  $20,000,  and  sought  to  exchange 
it  for  the  boy.  His  captors  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  two  men,  William 
Mosher  and  William  Douglas,  who 
were  afterward  killed  while  robbing  a 
house  on  Long  Island,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved the  boy  died  of  neglect  on  a 
sloop  in  Newark  Bay,  on  which  they 
held   him   prisoner. 

Ross,  Clinton,  an  American  novel- 
ist ;  born  in  Binghamton,  N.  Y.,  July 
31,  1861;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1884. 
He  has  written:  "The  Silent  Work- 
man": "Heroes  of  Our  War  With 
Spain  *' ;  "  Bobbie  McDuff,"  etc. 

Ross,  Sir  James  Clark,  an  En- 
glish Arctic  and  Antarctic  explorer ; 
born  in  London,  England,  April  15, 
1800.  He  entered  the  British  navy 
at  the  age  of  12,  accompanied  his  un- 


cle, Sir  John  Ross,  on  his  two  voy- 
ages in  search  of  a  N.  W.  passage, 
and  in  the  interval  between  them  ac- 
companied Capt.  William  Parry  in 
his  three  Arctic  voyages.  He  waa 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  post-captain 
in  1834,  particularly  for  the  discovery 
of  the  North  magnetic  pole  in  1831. 
He  commanded  the  expedition  in  the 
"  Erebus  "  and  "  Terror  "  to  the  Ant- 
arctic Ocean  in  1831>-1843 ;  and  on 
his  return  published  a  narrative  of 
that  voyage,  which  had  contributed 
largely  to  geographical  and  scientific 
knowledge  generally.  Captain  Rosa 
was  knighted  for  his  services,  and  re- 
ceived numerous  other  honors.  In 
1848  he  made  a  voyage  in  the  "  Enter- 
prise "  to  Baffin  Bay  in  search  of  Sir 
John  Franklin.  He  died  in  Aylesbury, 
England,  April  3,  1862. 

Ross,  Sir  John,  an  English  Arctic 
navigator ;  born  in  Inch,  Wigtown- 
shire, Scotland,  June  24,  1777.  In 
1817  he  accepted  the  command  of  an 
admiralty  expedition  to  search  for  a 
N.  W.  passage  but  was  unsuccessful. 
His  next  expedition,  in  the  steamer 
"  "\''ictory,"  set  out  in  May,  1829.  Ross 
entered  Prince  Regent  Inlet  and  dis- 
covered and  named  Boothia  Felix  and 
King  William  Land.  In  1832  he  was 
forced  to  abandon  his  ships,  and  he 
and  his  crew  suffered  great  hardships 
before  they  were  picked  up  in  Au- 
gust, 1833,  by  his  old  ship,  the  "  Isa- 
bella." In  1834  Captain  Ross  was 
knighted,  and  in  the  following  year 
published  a  narrative  of  his  second 
voyage.  From  1839  till  1845  he  was 
consul  at  Stockholm.  In  1850  he  made 
a  last  Arctic  voyage  in  the  "  Felix," 
in  a  vain  endeavor  to  ascertain  the 
fate  of  Sir  John  Franklin.  He  died 
in  London,  England,  Aug.  30,  1856. 

Ross,  Man  of.    See  Kyble. 

Rosse,  William  Parsons,  3d 
Earl  of,  an  English  astronomer; 
born  in  York,  England,  June  17, 
1800.  In  1827  he  constructed  a  tele- 
scope, the  speculum  of  which  had  a 
diameter  of  three  feet,  and  the  success 
and  scientific  value  of  this  instrument 
induced  him  to  attempt  to  cast  a 
speculum  twice  as  large.  After  in- 
numerable difficulties,  and  many  fail- 
ures. Lord  Rosse  succeeded  in  1845 
in  perfecting  machinery  which  turned 
out  the  huge  speculum,  weighing  three 
tons,  without  warp  or  flaw.     It  was 


Rossetti 

then  mounted  in  his  park  at  Parsons- 
town,  at  a  cost  of  $150,000  on  a  tele- 
scope 54  feet  in  length  with  a  tube 
7  feet  ir  diameter.  A  series  of  cranks, 
swivels,  and  pulleys  enables  this  huge 
instrument  to  be  handled  almost  with 
as  much  ease  as  telescopes  of  ordinary 
size.  The  sphere  of  observation  was 
immensely  widened  by  Lord  Rosse's 
instrument,  which  has  been  chiefly 
used  in  observations  of  nebulae.  He 
died  Oct.  31,  1867. 

Rossetti,  Gabriele,  an  Italian 
poet  and  critic ;  born  in  Vasto,  Ab- 
ruzzo  Citeriore,  then  forming  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  Feb.  28, 
1783.  When  King  Ferdinand  abro- 
gated the  constitution  in  1821,  the 
Constitutionalists  were  proscribed 
and  persecuted,  Rossetti  among  them. 
Rossetti  made  his  escape  from  Naples 
with  the  kindly  connivance  of  the  Brit- 
ish admiral.  Sir  Graham  Moore,  who 
shipped  him  off  to  Malta  in  the  dis- 
guise of  a  British  naval  officer.  In 
Malta  he  was  treated  with  great  lib- 
erality and  distinction  by  the  gover- 
nor, and  toward  1824  he  went  to  Lon- 
don, with  good  recommendations,  to 
follow  the  career  of  teacher  of  Ital- 
ian, and  follow  his  favorite  studies. 

In  1826  he  married  Frances  Mary 
Lavinia  Polidori,  daughter  of  a  Tus- 
can father  and  English  mother ;  soon 
afterward  he  was  elected  Professor  of 
Italian  in  King's  College,  London.  Ip 
London  Rossetti  lived  a  studious,  la- 
borious, and  honorable  life,  greatly  re- 
spected by  his  pupils  and  by  Italian 
residents  and  visitors.  His  health  be- 
gan to  fail  in  1842,  and  his  sight  be- 
came dim,  one  eye  being  wholly  lost 
After  some  attacks  of  a  paralytic 
character  he  died  in  London,  April  26, 
1854.  His  son,  Gabriel  Charles  Dante 
Rossetti,  born  May  12,  1828,  died 
April  9,  1882,  gained  high  reputation 
as  pcet  and  painter,  and  his  daughter, 
Christina  Georgina,  born  in  1830, 
also  wrote  poetry  of  a  high  order. 

Rossini,  Gioacchino  Antonio, 
one  of  the  most  popular,  and  perhaps 
the  greatest  Italian  composer  of 
operas ;  born  in  Pesaro,  Italy,  Feb. 
29,  1792.  He  produced  some  light 
operatic  pieces ;  the  only  one  of  his 
juvenile   efforts  that  has  lived  is   the 

Lucky  Trick,"  which  came  out  in 
1812.  "Tancred,"  brought  out  at 
Venice  in  1813,  when  be  was  scarce- 


Roster 

ly  more  than  20  years  of  age,  all  at 
once  made  his  name  famous.  Thus 
encouraged,  Rossini  produced  a  num- 
ber of  other  works  in  quick  succession, 
generally  inferior  to  the  work  which 
brought  him  into  popularity.  In  1816 
he  produced  his  World-famous  "  Barber 
of  Seville  "  at  Rome.  Among  Rossini'a 
other  works  which  still  keep  the  stage 
are :  "  Othello,"  "  Moses  in  Egypt," 
"  The  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  "  Count 
Ory,"  and  "  William  Tell."  This  last, 
the  greatest  and  most  original  of  hia 
works,  was  written  at  the  age  of  37, 
and  with  it  closed  the  career  of  Ros- 
sini as  a  composer.  He  died  in  his 
villa  in  Passy,  near  Paris,  Nov.  13, 
1868. 

Rossiter,  Tliomas  PritcliaTd,  an 
American  artist ;  born  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  Sept.  29,  1817.  He  studied  in 
Rome  in  1840-1846,  and  on  his  re- 
turn opened  a  studio  in  New  York 
city.  He  became  an  Academician  in 
1849.  In  1860  he  removed  to  Cold 
Spring,  N.  Y.,  where  he  resided  till 
his  death.  He  devoted  himself  to  his- 
torical and  scriptural  subjects.  He 
had  admirable  taste  in  coloring.  He 
died  in  Cold  Spring,  N.  Y.,  May  17. 
1871. 

Rostand,  Edmond,  a  French  poet ; 
born  in  Marseilles,  France,  in  1868 ; 
was  educated  in  Paris ;  and  in  1894 
his  first  play  "  The  Romanticists " 
was  produced  at  the  Comedie  Fran- 
caise.  It  was  an  instantaneous  suc- 
cess and  was  followed  by  "  Princess 
Lontaine  " ;  "  The  Samaritan  " ;  "  Cy- 
rano de  Bergerac  " ;  and  "  L'Aiglon." 
The  last  two  were  translated  into  En- 
glish and  played  in  the  United  States 
by  Richard  Mansfield  and  Maude 
Adams;  and  in  1901  Coquelin  and 
Sarah  Bernhardt,  the  leading  French 
actor  and  actress,  presented  the  orig- 
inal versions  in  the  United  States. 
Rostand's  versification  is  of  remark- 
able beauty.  On  May  30,  1901,  he 
was  elected  one  o'  the  40  "immortals." 
In  1910  "  Chpiiteoler,"  another  ©f  his 
plays,  was  produced  with  great  success. 

Roster,  in  military  language,  a 
term  implying  the  seniority  list  from 
which  officers  are  detailed  for  duty  in 
regular  succession ;  hence,  occasional- 
ly, a  list  showing  the  turn  or  rotation 
of  service  or  duty,  as  in  the  case  of 
military  officers  and  others  who  re 
lieve  or  succeed  each  other. 


Rostrum 


Rotifera 


Rostrum,  plural  Rostra,  a  scaf- 
fold or  elevated  platform  in  the  Fo- 
rum at  Rome,  from  which  public  ora- 
tions, pleadings,  funeral  harangues, 
etc.,  were  delivered ;  so  called  from  the 
rostra  or  beaks  of  ships  with  which  it 
was  ornamented.  Also  a  pulpit,  plat- 
form, or  elevated  place  from  which 
a  speaker,  as  a  preacher,  an  auction- 
eer, etc.,  addresses  his  audience. 

Rota  Romana,  the  highest  ecclesi- 
astical court  of  appeal  for  all  Chris- 
tendom during  the  supremacy  of  the 
Popes.  With  the  dwindling  temporal 
power  of  the  Popes  it  gradually  lost 
all  authority  in  foreign  countries. 

Rotation,  in  astronomy,  the  turn- 
ing round  of  a  planet  on  its  imaginary 
axis,  like  that  of  a  wheel  on  its  axle. 
The  rotation  of  the  earth  is  per- 
formed with  a  uniform  motion  from 
W.  to  E.  and  occupies  the  interval 
in  time  which  would  elapse  between 
the  departure  of  a  star  from  a  cer- 
tain point  in  the  sky  and  its  return 
to  the  same  point  again.  The  only 
motions  which  interfere  with  its  regu- 
larity are  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes and  nutation.  The  time  taken 
for  the  rotation  of  the  earth  measures 
the  length  of  its  day.  So  with  the 
other  planets.  The  sun  also  rotates 
as  is  shown  by  the  movement  of  spots 
across  its  disk. 

Rotation  of  Crops,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  a  different  kind  of  crop  each 
year,  for  a  certain  period,  to  prevent 
the  exhaustion  of  the  soil.  If  a  plant 
requiring  specially  alkaline  nutriment 
be  planted  year  after  year  in  the  same 
field  or  bed,  it  will  ultimately  ex- 
haust all  the  alkalies  in  the  soil  and 
then  languish.  But  if  a  plant  be 
substituted  in  large  measure  requir- 
ing siliceous  elements  for  its  growth, 
it  can  flourish  where  its  alkaline 
predecessor  is  starved.  Meanwhile  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere  is  continu- 
ally reducing  to  a  soluble  condition 
small  quantities  of  soil,  thus  restoring 
the  lost  alkalies. 

Rothschild  (red  shield),  the  name 
of  a  Jewish  family  of  European  bank- 
ers and  capitalists,  the  enormousness 
of  whose  aggregate  wealth  has  passed 
into  a  proverb.  The  founder  of  this 
race  or  financiers,  Meyer  Anselm 
Rothschild,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  in  1743,  died  there  in  1812,  aft- 


er having  accumulated  the  most  gigan- 
tic fortune  ever  possessed  by  a  single 
individual  up  to  his  day.  Commenc- 
ing the  world  as  a  small  trader,  he, 
by  his  probity,  frugality,  and  superior 
business  qualifications,  eventually  be- 
came the  banker  of  monarchs  and  the 
creditor  of  states.  Of  the  five  sons 
who  succeeded  to  the  vast  inheritance 
he  bequeathed  them,  the  eldest,  An- 
selm (born  1773,  died  1855),  was  his 
father's  partner  and  successor  at" 
Frankfort.  The  second,  Solomon 
(born  1774,  died  1855),  became  estab- 
lished as  the  representative  of  the 
house  of  Rothschild  at  Vienna.  The 
third,  Nathan  Meyer,  (born  1774, 
died  1836),  settled  as  the  Lon- 
don partner,  and  became  the  lead- 
ing member  and  ablest  financier  of 
the  family.  The  fourth,  Charles 
(born  1788,  died  1855),  filled  the  rep- 
resentation of  the  firm  at  Vienna. 
Lastly,  James  (born  1792,  died  1869), 
eventually  took  up  his  residence  in 
Paris,  where  he  died,  leaving  a  for- 
tune estimated  at  $200,000,000.  With- 
in a  period  of  less  than  12  years  the 
Rothschilds  advanced  in  loans  as  fol- 
lows: to  England,  $200,000,000;  Aus- 
tria, $50,000,000;  Prussia,  $40,000,- 
000;  France,  $80,000,000;  Naples, 
$50,000,000 ;  Russia,  $25,000,000 ; 
Brazil,  $12,000,000;  besides  some  $5,- 
000,000  to  smaller  States;  or,  alto- 
gether, the  almost  incredible  amount  of 
$462,000,000.  The  colossal  financier- 
ing operations  of  the  house  are  now 
conducted  by  descendants  of  the  above- 
mentioned  brothers,  and  the  firm  has 
banking  houses  and  representatives  in 
the  leading  cities  of  the  civilized  world. 
Rotifera,  in  zoology,  wheel-ani- 
malcules ;  a  group  of  Metazoa.  They 
are  microscopic  animals,  contractile, 
crowned  with  vibratile  cilia  at  the  an- 
terior part  of  the  body,  which,  by 
their  motion,  often  resemble  a  wheel 
revolving  rapidly.  Intestine  distinct, 
terminated  at  one  extremity  by  a 
mouth,  at  the  other  by  an  anus;  gen- 
eration oviparous,  sometimes  vivipar- 
ous. The  nervous  system  is  represent- 
ed by  a  relatively  large  single  gan- 
glion, with  one  or  two  eye-spots,  on 
one  side  of  the  body,  near  the  mouth, 
and  there  are  organs  which  appear  to 
be  sensory.  They  are  free  or  adher- 
ent, but  never  absolutely  fixed 
animals. 


Etotterdam 


Round 


Rotterdam,  the  chief  port  and 
second  city  of  Holland ;  on  the  Nieuwe 
Maas  or  Meuse,  at  its  junction  with 
the  Rotte ;  about  14  miles  from  the 
North  Sea,  with  which  it  is  also  di- 
rectly connected  by  a  ship  canal 
(Nieuwe  Waterweg)  admitting  the 
largest  vessels  and  not  interrupted 
by  a  single  lock.  The  town  is  inter- 
sected by  numerous  canals,  which  per- 
mit large  vessels  to  moor  alongside  the 
warehouses  in  the  very  center  of  the 
city.  _  These  canals,  which  are  crossed 
by  innumerable  drawbridges  and 
swing  bridges,  are  in  many  cases  lined 
with  rows  of  trees ;  and  the  hand- 
some quay  on  the  river  front,  1^ 
miles  long,  is  known  as  the  Boompjes 
("little  trees"),  from  a  row  of  elms 
planted  in  1615  and  now  of  great 
size.  Many  of  the  houses  are  quaint 
edifices,  having  their  gables  to  the 
street,  with  overhanging  upper  stories. 
Rotterdam  contains  shipbuilding 
yards,  sugar  refineries,  distilleries,  to- 
bacco factories,  and  large  machine 
works ;  but  its  mainstay  is  commerce. 
It  not  only  carries  on  a  very  exten- 
sive and  active  trade  with  Great  Brit- 
ain, the  Dutch  East  and  West  Indies, 
and  other  transoceanic  countries,  but, 
as  the  natural  outlet  for  the  entire 
basin  of  the  Rhine  and  Meuse,  it  has 
developed  an  important  commerce  with 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Central 
Europe.  Rotterdam  received  town 
rights  in  1340,  and  in  1573  it  ob- 
tained a  vote  in  the  Estates  of  the 
Netherlands ;  but  its  modern  prosper- 
ity has  been  chiefly  developed  since 
1830.    Pop.  309,309. 

Rouble,  the  unit  of  the  Russian 
money  system.  The  present'  silver  rou- 
ble is  equivalent  to  about  SOy^  cents 
in  United  States  gold. 

Rouen,  a  city  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Seine-Inferieure, 
and  formerly  of  the  province  of  Nor- 
mandy, on  the  Seine,  44  miles  from 
its  mouth,  and  67  N.  W.  of  Paris.  It 
is  situate  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Seine,  in  a  fertile,  pleasant,  and  varied 
country.  The  streets,  though  in  gen- 
eral straight,  are  narrow  and  dirty, 
and  some  of  the  houses  are  of  wood. 
The  most  agreeable  part  of  the  town 
is  that  which  adjoins  the  Seine.  The 
public  buildings  of  interest  are,  the 
cathedral,  containing  many  old  monu- 
ments, and  one  of  the  finest  specimens 


of  Gothic  architecture  in  France ;  the 
Church  of  St.  Ouen,  likewise  a  fine 
Gothic  building,  situate  nearly  in  the 
center  of  the  town ;  and  that  of  St. 
Maclou,  considered  a  masterpiece  of 
its  kind.  Manufactures,  cotton  goods, 
woolens,  linens,  iron  ware,  paper, 
hats,  pottery,  wax,  cloth,  and  sugar  re- 
fining. Dyeing,  both  of  woolens  and 
cotton,  is  also  conducted  with  care 
and  success.  Pop.  113,219. 

Rouge,  in  ordinary  language,  a  cos- 
metic prepared  from  dried  flowers  and 
used  to  impart  artificial  bloom  to  the 
cheeks  or  lips. 

Rouge  et  Noir  ( French,  "  red  and 
black  " ) ,  Trente-un  ( "  31 " ) ,  or 
Trente  et  Quarante  ("30  and  40"), 
a  modern  game  of  chance,  played  by 
the  aid  of  packs  of  cards  on  a  table 
covered  with  green  cloth.  This  game 
superseded  faro  and  biribi  in  France 
about  1789,  but  along  with  roulette 
was  forbidden  by  law  in  1838. 

Rough  Riders,  a  name  coined  by 
William  F.  Cody  ("Buffalo  Bill"), 
for  use  in  his  "  Wild  West "  show, 
which  included  a  "  Congress  of  the 
rough  riders  of  the  world."  The  first 
rough  riders  were  the  men  who  car- 
ried messages  over  the  West  in  the 
early  frontier  times  before  the  pony 
express  was  organized  in  1859.  In 
the  army  the  original  rough  riders 
were  the  1st  Regiment  of  United 
States  Volunteer  Cavalry,  organized 
for  the  war  with  Spain  by  Surgeon 
Leonard  Wood,  who  was  commissioned 
colonel,  with  Theodore  Roosevelt  as 
lieutenant-colonel.  The  name  was  ap- 
plied also  to  the  2d  United'  States 
Volunteer  Cavalry.  The  name  was 
given  to  these  regiments  on  account  of 
their  being  composed  largely  of  West- 
ern ranchmen. 

Roulette  (French,  "a  little 
wheel"),  a  game  of  chance  which 
from  the  end  of  the  18th  century  till 
the  beginning  of  1838  reigned  supreme 
over  all  others  in  Paris.  It  continued 
to  be  played  at  German  watering 
places  till  1872,  when  it  ceased  in 
terms  of  an  act  passed  four  years  be- 
fore. Roulette  then  found  a  home  at 
Monaco. 

Round,  in  music,  a  short  compj- 
sition  in  which  three  or  more  voices 
starting  at  the  beginning  of  stated  suc- 
cessive phrases,   sing  the   same  music 


Roundelay 

in  unison  or  octave  (thus  differing 
from  the  canon). 

Roundelay,  a  sort  of  ancient  poem, 
consisting  of  13  verses,  of  which  eight 
are  in  one  kind  of  rhyme  and  five  in 
another.  It  is  divided  into  couplets,  at 
the  commencement  of  the  second  or 
third  of  which  the  beginning  of  tlie 
poem  is  repeated,  and  that,  if  possible, 
in  an  equivocal  or  punning  sense.  Also, 
a  song  or  tune  in  which  the  first  strain 
is  repeated.  Also,  the  tune  to  which 
a  roundelay  was  sung. 

Rounders,  a  game  played  by  two 
parties  or  sides,  somewhat  similar  to 
baseball. 

Roundhead,  a  term  applied  by  the 
Cavaliers  or  adherents  of  Charles  I., 
during  the  Civil  War  of  1642,  to  the 
Puritans  or  adherents  of  the  Parlia- 
mentary party,  from  their  wearing 
their  hair  cut  short,  while  the  Cava- 
liers allowed  their  hair  to  fall  onto 
their  shoulders. 

Round  Robin,  a  name  given  to  a 
protest  or  remonstrance  signed  by  a 
number  of  persons  :n  a  circular  form, 
so  that  no  one  shall  be  obliged  to  head 
the  list. 

Round  Table,  Knights  of  the. 
According  to  tradition,  there  reigned 
in  Britain,  toward  the  end  of  the  5th 
century,  a  Christian  king,  the  British 
Uther-Pendragon,  who  had  for  a  coun- 
sellor a  powerful,  wise,  and  benevo- 
lent enchanter,  named  Merlin,  who  ad- 
vised him  to  assemble  all  his  knights 
distinguished  for  piety,  courage,  and 
fidelity  toward  him,  at  feasts,  about  a 
round  table,  which  should  be  sufficient- 
ly large  to  receive  50  knights,  but  at 
which  at  first  only  49  should  be  seat- 
ed, room  being  left  for  one  yet  un- 
born. This  was  Arthur,  or  Artus,  son 
of  the  king  by  Igerna,  whom  the  king, 
by  the  magic  power  of  Merlin,  was 
permitted  to  enjoy  under  the  form  of 
her  husband.  Merlin  had  exacted  a 
promise  that  the  education  of  the 
prince  should  be  intrusted  to  him, 
and  he  accordingly  instructed  him  in 
everything  becoming  a  brave,  virtuous, 
and  accomplished  knight.  Arthur  in 
due  time  occupied  the  empty  seat  at 
the  Round  Table;  and  under  him  it 
became  the  resort  of  all  valiant,  pious, 
and  noble  knights,  admission  to  it  be- 
coming the  reward  of  the  greatest 
Tirtues  and  feats  of  arms. 


Rousseau 

Rouquette,  Adrien,  an  American 
Roman  Catholic  priest,  poet,  and  mis- 
sionary ;  born  in  New  Orleans,  La.,  in 
1813.  He  was  educated  in  France ; 
graduated  in  Philadelphia,  and  or- 
dained a  priest  by  Bishop  Blanc.  He 
gave  many  years  to  missionary  work 
among  the  Choctaws  of  St.  Tammany. 
He  was  familiar  with  many  tongues, 
and  contributed  much  to  French, 
American,  and  Italian  literature.  Sev- 
eral volumes  of  his  verses  and  two  or 
three  prose  collections  were  published 
in  French,  and  he  was  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  the  local  press.  He  died  in 
1887. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques,  a 
Swiss-French  philosopher,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  and  influential  writ- 
ers of  the  18th  century ;  born  in  Ge- 
neva, Switzerland,  June  28,  1712.  In 
1741  he  went  to  Paris,  and  in  1743 
obtained  the  post  of  secretary  to  the 
French  ambassador  at  Venice.  This 
office  he  resigned,  and  returned  to 
Paris  in  1745,  to  lead  a  precarious 
life,  copying  music  and  studying  sci- 
ence. In  1750  his  essay,  in  which  he 
adopted  the  negative  side  of  the  ques- 
tion whether  civilization  has  contrib- 
uted to  purify  manners,  won  a  prize 
offered  by  the  Academy  of  Dijon,  and 
brought  him  for  the  first  time  into 
general  notice.  In  1752  he  brought 
out  a  successful  operetta  (the  music 
by  himself ) ,  and  soon  after  a  celebrat- 
ed "  Letter  on  French  Music." 

In  1754  he  revisited  Geneva,  but 
later  returned  to  Paris  where  he  wrote 
a  sort  of  novel,  "  Julia,  or  the  New 
Heloise,"  which  was  published  in 
1760,  being  followed  by  "The  Social 
Contract,"  a  political  work,  and 
"  Emile,  or  on  Education,"  another 
story,  in  1762.  The  principles  ex- 
pressed in  these  works  stirred  up 
much  animosity  against  their  author. 
The  confession  of  faith  of  the  Savoyard 
vicar  in  Emile  was  declared  a  danger- 
ous attack  on  religion,  and  the  book 
was  burned  both  in  Paris  and  Geneva. 
Persecution,  exaggerated  by  his  own 
morbid  sensibility,  forced  Rousseau  to 
flee  to  England,  where  he  was  wel- 
comed by  Hume,  Boswell,  and  others 
in  1766.  A  malicious  letter  by  Hor- 
ace Walpole  unluckily  aroused  his  sus- 
picions of  his  English  friends,  and  in 
May,  1767,  he  returned  to  France, 
where  his  presence  was  now  tolerated. 


Rove  Beetles 


Bo-nrland 


He  lived  in  great  poverty,  supporting 
himself  by  copying  music  and  pub- 
lishing occasional  works.  In  May, 
1778,  he  retired  to  Ermenonville  near 
Paris.  His  celebrated  "  Confessions  " 
appeared  at  Geneva  in  1782.  His 
works  contain  the  germ  of  the  doc- 
trines which  were  carried  into  effect 
during  the  French  Revolution.  Rous- 
seau was  also  a  musical  author  and 
critic.  He  died  in  Ermenonville  July 
2,  1778.  it  is  supposed  a  suicide. 

Ronvier,  Pierre  Maurice, 
French  Prime  Minister :  born  at  Aix, 
1842.  He  became  a  lawyer,  opposed 
Napoleon  III. ;  supported  Gambetta  ; 
was  elected  deputy  1876 :  was  min- 
ister of  commerce  and  the  colonies 
1881-82:  under  Ferry  1884-85:  min- 
ister of  finances  1887-1892,  1894-1902; 
senator  1903 :  Prime  Minister,  1905. 

Ro-wan,  Andreiv  Suininers,  an 
American  army  officer ;  born  in  Gap 
Mills,  Va. ;  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1881,  and  first  came  into  prominence 
in  1898,  when  he  was  sent  to  com- 
municate with  General  Garcia,  after 
the  declaration  of  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can War.  He  landed  from  an  open 
boat  near  Turquino  Peak,  Cuba,  on 
April  24,  1898;  marched  through 
swamps  and  underbrush  to  the  moun- 
tains, reached  General  Garcia,  and 
successfully  executed  his  mission, 
bringing  back  full  information  as  to 
the  insurgent  army.  For  this  act  he 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  1st  lieu- 
tenant, U.  S.  A.  After  the  war  he 
was  assigned  to  duty  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands. 

Roivan,  Stephen  Clegg,  an 
American  naval  officer ;  born  near 
Dublin,  Ireland,  Dec.  25,  1808;  came 
to  the  United  States  when  a  boy,  and 
on  Feb.  1,  1826,  was  appointed  a  mid- 
shipman in  the  navy.  He  was  promoted 
lieutenant,  March  8,  1837 ;  took  part 
in  the  capture  of  Monterey  and  San 
Diego  in  the  Mexican  War,  and,  as 
executive  officer  of  the  "  Cyane,"  in 
the  bombardment  of  Guaymas.  In  the 
battle  of  the  Niesa,  Upper  California, 
he  commanded  the  naval  battalion  un- 
der Commodore  Stockton,  and  was  es- 
pecially commended  for  his  skill  in 
leading  the  landing  party  that  made 
a  successful  attack  on  a  Mexican  out- 
post near  Mazatlan.  He  was  promot-l 
ed  commander  Sept.  14,  1855.    At  the  I 


outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  on 
the  "  Pawnee,"  with  which  he  en- 
gaged the  Confederate  battery  at 
Acquia  Creek  on  May  25,  1861;  this 
being  the  first  naval  action  of  the  war. 
He  was  promoted  both  captain  and 
commodore,  July  16,  1862,  for  gal- 
lantry in  the  Goldsborough  expedition 
to  North  Carolina,  and  the  engage- 
ments on  Roanoke  Island  and  Albe- 
marle Sound.  He  forced  the  surren- 
der of  the  forts  at  Newbern,  N.  C, 
and  by  the  capture  of  Fort  Mason  re- 
stored National  authority  in  the  wa- 
ters of  North  Carolina.  He  command- 
ed the  "  New  Ironsides "  in  the  en- 
gagements with  Forts  Wagner,  Gregg, 
and  Moultrie ;  received  a  vote  of 
thanks  from  Congress ;  and  was  pro- 
moted rear-admiral,  July  25,  1866. 
After  the  close  of  the  war  Rear-Ad- 
miral  Rowan  was  appointed  to  vari- 
ous executive  offices ;  was  promoted 
vice-admiral  Aug.  15,  1870 ;  and  was 
chairman  of  the  Lighthouse  Board  at 
the  time  of  his  retirement,  Feb.  26, 
1889.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
March  31,  1890. 

Roive,  Nicholas,  an  English  dra- 
matic poet ;  born  in  1673.  He  was  a 
king's  scholar  at  Westminster ;  stud- 
ied law  at  the  Middle  Temple,  but  de- 
voted himself  to  literature.  He  filled 
several  lucrative  posts,  and  in  1715 
became  poet-laureate  in  succession  to 
Nahum  Tate.  Rowe's  tragedies  are 
passionate  and  forcible  in  language, 
and  his  plots  well  conceived.  Died  in 
1718,  was  buried  in  Westminster  Ab- 
bey. His  translation  of  "  Lucan's 
Pharsalia,"  appeared  after  his  death. 

Rowing,  the  propulsion  of  a  boat 
by  oars.  The  oarsman  sits  with  his 
face  to  the  stern  of  the  boat,  his  feet 
planted  flush  against  his  "  stretcher  " 
or  footboard,  and  the  handle  of  the 
oar  in  his  hands,  the  loom  of  the  oar 
resting  in  the  rowlock,  the  "  button  " 
being  inside  the  thowl-pin. 

Rowland,  Henry  Angnstns,  an 
American  scientist ;  born  in  Hones- 
dale,  Pa.,  Nov.  27,  1848 ;  was  graduat- 
ed at  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute in  1870;  was  made  Professor 
of  Physics  at  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity in  1876.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Electrical  Congress  in  Paris  in 
1881 ;  served  on  the  jury  of  the  Elec- 
trical Exhibition  held  there  that  year, 
and  was  the  inventor  of  a  process  of 


Rowson 


Royal  Institutlott 


ruling  large  diffraction  gratings  di- 
rectly on  concave  mirrors.  He  was 
made  president  of  the  American  Phys- 
ical Society  in  1889,  and  received 
honorary  degrees  from  Yale  Univer- 
sity, in  1895,  and  from  Princeton  Uni- 
versity in  1896.  He  died  in  Balti- 
more, Md.,  April  16,  190L 


POSITIONS   IN  BOWING. 
1,  entering  the  water;  2,  end  of  the  stroke; 
8,  positions  of  the  wrists  in  feathering 
tue  oar. 

Roxirsoii,  Susanna,  an  English- 
American  novelist;  bom  in  Ports- 
mouth, England  in  1762.  She  ap- 
peared on  the  American  stage  for 
about  a  year;  after  which  she  settled 
in  Boston,  opening  a  school  and  turn- 
ing her  attention  to  literary  pursuits. 
She  wrote  "  Charlotte  Temple :  A  Tale 
of  Truth,"  and  its  sequel  "  Lucy  Tem- 
ple ;  or  the  Three  Orphans."  She  died 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Mar.  2.  1824. 


Royal  Academy.     See  Academy 

OF  AkTS. 

Royal  Arcanuni.     See  FbatebnAL 

Societies. 
Royal  Family  of  England,  the 

wife  or  husband,  children  or  other  de- 
scendants, and  collateral  relatives  of 
the  sovereign.  The  husband  of  a 
reigning  queen  does  not  acquire  any 
share  in  her  prerogative  rights,  but  it 
is  usual  to  grant  him  special  prece- 
dence; King  Philip  and  William  III. 
were  associated  in  title  and  power 
with  their  wives  by  act  of  Parliament. 
Of  the  sovereign's  children,  the  eldest 
son  is,  of  course,  heir-apparent;  he 
is  born  Duke  of  Cornwall,  and  he  is 
always  created  Prince  of  Wales.  The 
Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales  and  the 
Princess  Royal  (the  eldest  slaughter 
of  the  sovereign)  are  within  the  pro- 
tection of  the  statute  of  Edward  III. 
relating  to  treason.  An  heir-presump- 
tive to  the  throne  has  no  special  rank 
or  precedence  as  such.  The  younger 
children  of  the  sovereign  take  rank 
after  the  heir-apparent;  by  a  statute 
of  1540  a  place  is  assigned  to  them  at 
the  side  of  the  cloth  of  estate  in  the 
Parliamentary  chamber;  it  is  custom- 
ary to  confer  peerages  on  all  the 
younger  sons.  On  a  reference  by 
George  II.  to  the  House  of  Lords  it 
was  held  that  Edward,  Duke  of  York, 
second  son  of  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
was  entitled  to  a  place  among  the 
king's  children.  Members  of  the  royal 
family  enjoy  considerable  privileges; 
they  pay  no  tolls  or  duties,  and  they 
are  exempted  from  succession  duty 
and  some  other  taxes. 

Royal  Honseliold,  those  persons 
who  hold  posts  in  connection  with  the 
household  of  the  British  sovereign,  in- 
cluding the  keeper  of  the  privy-purse 
and  private  secretary,  lord-steward, 
treasurer,  comptroller,  master  of  the 
household,  lord  chamberlain,  vice- 
chamberlain,  master  of  the  horse,  cap- 
tains of  the  gentlemen-at-arms  and 
yeomen  of  the  guard,  master  of  the 
buck-hounds,  earl-marshal,  grand  fal- 
coneir,  lord  high  almoner,  hereditary 
grand  almoner,  mistress  of  the  robes, 
ladies  of  the  bedchamber,  bedchamber- 
women,  maids  of  honor,  lords-in-wait- 
ing, master  of  ceremonies,  physicians 
in  ordinary,  poet  laureate,  etc. 

Royal  Institntion,  an  institution 
founded  in  London,  England,  by  Count 


Royal  Marriage  Act 


Royal   University 


Rumford,  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  etc., 
March  9,  1799,  and  incorporated  Jan. 
13, 1800.  It  was  reconstituted  in  1810. 
The  well-known  objects  are  to  diffuse 
knowledge,  to  facilitate  the  general  in- 
troduction of  mechanical  inventions, 
and  teach  by  lectures  and  experiments 
the  application  of  science  to  the  com- 
mon purposes  of  life.  It  has,  as  a  rule, 
had  for  its  lecturers  some  of  the  first 
scientific  men  of  the  age ;  e.  g.,  Thomas 
Young,  Davy,  Brande,  Faraday,  Tyn- 
dall,  Frankland,  and  Rayleigh.  It 
maintains  professors  of  natural  philos- 
ophy, chemistry  and  physiology,  and 
has  laboratories  (including  since  1896 
the  Davy-Faraday  research  laboratory 
presented  by  Dr.  Ludway  Mond). 

Royal  Marriage  Act,  an  act  of 
George  III.  passed  by  the  British  Par- 
liament in  1772,  which  forbids  all  de- 
scendants of  George  II.,  other  than 
the  issue  of  princesses  married  into 
foreign  families,  to  contract  marriage 
without  the  consent  of  the  sovereign, 
signified  under  the  great  seal.  But 
such  descendants,  if  above  the  age  of 
25,  may  dispense  with  the  consent  of 
the  crown,  unless  both  Houses  of  Par- 
liament expressly  declare  their  dis- 
approval within  12  months  after  no- 
tice of  the  intended  marriage  has  been 
given  to  the  privy  council.  Marriages 
otherwise  entered  into  are  void. 

Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich., 
the  famous  English  observatory  found- 
ed by  Charles  II.  in  1G75.  The  first 
observation  was  made  Sept.  19,  1675. 
The  Director  of  the  Observatory  is 
styled  the  Astronomer  Royal,  and  is 
undei"  the  official  control  of  the  Ad- 
miralty, but  receives  his  appointment 
directly  from  the  Prime  Minister,  and 
holds  office  by  warrant  under  the  royal 
sign  manual.  Longitude  is  commonly 
reckoned  from  here. 

Royal  Society  (London),  a  so- 
ciety for  prosecuting  research  in  gen- 
eral and  physico-mathematical  science 
in  particular,  founded  in  1660. 

Many  of  the  most  important  scien- 
tific achievements  and  discoveries  have 
been  due  to  its  enlightened  methods. 
It  deservedly  enjoys  an  influential  a^d 
semi-official  position  as  the  scientific 
adviser  of  the  British  government,  and 
not  only  administers  the  $20,000  an- 
nually voted  by  Parliament  for  scien- 
tific purposes,  but  has  given  sugges- 
tions   and    advice   which    have    borne 

E.  129. 


valuable  fruit,  from  the  voyage  of 
Captain  Cook  in  the  "  Endeavor  "  in 
1768  down  to  the  "  Challenger  "  expe- 
dition, more  than  a  century  later.  The 
roll  of  the  Royal  Society  contains 
practically  all  the  great  scientific 
names  of  its  country  since  its  founda- 
tion. 

Royal  Society  (Edinbnrgli),  a 
Scotch  society  of  a  similar  type  to  the 
English  institution,  which  was  incor- 
porated in  1783,  having  been  devel- 
oped from  the  Philosophical  Society 
of  Edinburgh,  commenced  in  1739. 
Among  its  early  members  were  Hume, 
Reid,  Edmund  Burke,  Hutton,  Du- 
gald  Stewart,  and  James  Watt;  and 
among  its  presidents  have  been  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  Sir  David  Brewster,  the 
Duke  of  Argyll,  Lord  Moncrieff,  and 
Sir  William  Thomson. 

Royal  Society  of  Literature,  a 
society  founded  in  England  under  the 
patronage  of  George  IV.,  in  1823,  and 
chartered  in  1826.  It  awards  gold 
medals. 

Royal  University  of  Ireland, 
an  institution  founded  in  1880  in  pur- 
suance of  the  provisions  of  the  Uni- 
versity Education  (Ireland)  Act, 
1879,  to  take  the  place  of  the  Queen's 
University,  a  similar  institution  estab- 
lished in  connection  with  the  Queen's 
Colleges.  The  Royal  University  cor- 
poration consists  of  a  chancellor,  a 
senate,  and  graduates,  the  government 
being  vested  in  the  chancellor  and  sen- 
ators, the  latter  not  to  exceed  36  in 
number.  It  has  power  to  confer  all 
such  degrees  and  distinctions  as  are 
conferred  by  any  university  in  the 
United  Kingdom  except  in  theology, 
and  these  may  be  bestowed  on  all 
male  and  female  students  who  have 
matriculated  in  the  university  and 
passed  the  prescribed  examinations,  no 
residence  in  any  college  or  attendance 
at  any  course  of  instruction  in  the 
university  being  obligatory  on  any 
candidate  for  a  degree  other  than  a 
degree  in  medicine  or  surgery,  the 
university  in  this  respect  resembling 
that  of  London.  An  act  of  1881  pro- 
vided for  the  payment  of  $100,000  a 
year  out  of  the  surplus  funds  of  the 
Ir'sh  Church  for  the  purposes  of  the 
umversity,  which  has  its  seat  at  Earls- 
fort  Terrace,  Dublin.  The  university 
has  a  considerable  staff  of  examiners, 
but  of  course  no  professors. 


Royce 


Rubidium 


Royce,  Josiali,  an  American  edu- 
cator and  author ;  born  in  Grass  Val- 
ley, Cal.,  Nov.  20,  1855.  He  became 
Professor  of  the  History  of  Philosophy 
in  Harvard  in  1892,  and  published : 
"  A  Primer  of  Logical  Analysis " ; 
"  The  Religious  Aspect  of  Philos- 
ophy " ;  "  The  Conception  of  Immor- 
tality " ;  and  many  articles  and  lec- 
tures. 

Royer-Collard,  Pierre  Panl,  a 
French  statesman ;  born  in  Sompuis, 
France,  June  21,  1763.  In  1811  he 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Philosophy 
in  Paris,  and  exercised  an  immense 
influence  on  the  philosophy  of  France. 
He  was  appointed  president  of  the 
Commission  of  Public  Instruction  in 
1815,  but  resigned  that  post  in  1820; 
in  1815,  also,  he  returned  to  political 
life  as  deputy  for  the  department  of 
Marne.  The  French  Academy  opened 
its  doors  to  him  in  1827;  and  in  1828 
he  was  named  president  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Representatives,  and  in  that 
capacity  presented  the  address  of  the 
221  deputies  (March,  1830)  withdraw- 
ing their  support  from  the  govern- 
ment, which  the  king  refused  to  hear 
read.  Next  day  the  Chamber  was  pro- 
rogued. From  1842  Royer-Collard 
completely  withdrew  from  public  life. 
He  never  was  a  writer,  and  he  became 
a  philosopher  only  by  accident;  his 
true  interest  in  life  was  politics,  his 
real  eminence  as  a  political  orator 
after  the  ancient  pattern  rather  than 
that  of  the  modem  parliamentary  de- 
bater. He  died  in  his  county  seat, 
Chateauvieux,  near  St.  Aignan,  Loir- 
et-Cher,  Sept.  4,  1845. 

Rnatan,  or  Roatan,  an  island  of 
Central  America,  in  the  Bay  of  Hon- 
duras ;  area,  about  240  square  miles. 
Surface,  somewhat  elevated  and  well 
wooded ;  soil,  fertile.  The  shores 
abound  in  fish  and  turtles,  and  near 
the,  S.  extremity  is  a  good  harbor. 

Rubber  Groves,  a  name  applied 
to  the  tracts  of  territory  where  the 
rubber  of  commerce  is  obtained.  While 
the  india-rubber  of  commerce  has  been 
obtained  from  many  different  parts  of 
the  globe,  the  world  has  been  compel- 
led to  look  to  Central  and  South  Amer- 
ica for  the  bulk  of  its  supply.  South 
America,  especially  Brazil,  is  the  terri- 
tory on  which  the  commercial  world 
relies,  the  province  of  Para  yielding 
the  best  rubber.     See  Caouthouc. 


Rubble,  a  common  kind  of  mason- 
ry, in  which  the  stones  are  irregular 
in  size  and  «hape. 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul,  a  distin- 
guished Flemish  painter ;  bom  in 
Siegen,  Westphalia,  June  29,  1577. 
He  went  to  Antwerp  in  1008,  and  was 
soon  after  made  court  painter  to  the 
Archduke  Albert,  Spanish  governor  of 
the  Low  Countries.  In  1620  he  was 
employed  by  the  Princess  Mary  de 
Medici  to  adorn  the  gallery  of  the 
Luxembourg  with  a  series  of  paintings 
illustrative  of  the  principal  scenes  of 
her  life.  While  thus  engaged  he  be- 
came known  to  the  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham, who  purchased  his  museum.  He 
was  afterward  employed  by  the  In- 
fanta Isabella  and  the  King  of  Spain 
in  some  important  negotiations  which 
he  executed  with  such  credit  as  to  be 
appointed  secretary  of  the  privy  coun- 
cil. He  acquired  immense  wealth,  and 
was  twice  married,  the  second  time, 
in  1631,  to  a  lovely  girl  of  16.  Rubens, 
beyond  all  comparison,  was  the  most 
rapid  in  execution  of  all  the  great 
masters,  and  was  incontestably  the 
greatest  perfector  of  the  mechanical 
part  of  his  art  that  ever  existed.  His 
works  are  very  numerous,  and  very 
diversified  in  subject.  There  are  nearly 
100  in  the  Picture  Gallery  at  Munich- 
"  The  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  at 
Antwerp,  is  perhaps  his  masterpiece. 
He  died  in  Antwerp,  May  30,  1640. 

Rubicon,  a  river  in  North  Italy 
(now  the  Fiumicino,  a  tributary  of 
the  Adriatic),  famous  in  Roman  his- 
tory, Caesar  having  by  crossing  this 
stream  (49  B.  c),  at  that  time  regard- 
ed as  the  N.  boundary  of  Italy,  finally 
committed  himself  to  the  civil  war. 
Hence  the  phrase  "  to  pass  the  Rubi- 
con "  is  to  take  the  decisive  step  by 
which  one  commits  one's  self  to  a 
hazardous  enterprise. 

Rubidiuni,  a  metal  much  re- 
sembling caesium,  with  which  it  was 
discovered  in  1860,  by  Bunsen  and 
Kirchofif,  during  the  analysis  of  a 
spring  of  water  which  contained  these 
metals  in  minute  quantities.  Rubidium 
has  since  been  /ound  in  small  quan- 
tities in  other  mineral  waters,  in 
lepidolite,  and  in  the  ashes  of  many 
plants.  This  metal  is  closely  related, 
in  properties,  to  potassium,  but  is 
more  easily  fusible  and  convertible 
into    vapor,    and    actually    surpasses 


Rubinstein 


Bndder  Fi::!> 


that  metal  in  its  attraction  for  oxygen, 
rubidium  taking  fire  spontaneously  in 
flir.  It  burns  on  water  with  exactly 
the  same  flame  as  potassium. 

Rubinstein,  Anton  Gregor,  a 
Polish  musician ;  born  near  Jassy, 
Rumania,  Nov.  28,  1829.  He  was  j 
trained  to  music  in  Moscow  by  his . 
jnother  and  a  master.  Liszt  heard  him, 
•'  an  infant  prodigy,"  play  in  Paris  in 
1841,  recognized  his  genius,  and  en- , 
couraged  him  to  play  in  other  cities.  I 
After  some  further  "  touring  "  he  gave  ! 
himself  to  serious  study  in  Berlin  and 
Vienna,  and  in  1848  settled  in  St. 
Petersburg  as  teacher  of  music.  At  St. 
Petersburg  he  succeeded  in  getting  a 
musical  conservatory  founded  (1862) 
and  became  its  director.  But  his  con- 
*>.ert  tours  engrossed  a  good  deal  of  his 
jme,  and  in  1867  he  resigned  the 
directorship  of  the  conservatory.  In 
1872  he  went  to  the  United  States 
and  had  an  enthusiastic  reception.  He 
ended  his  concert  tours  in  1886.  He 
was  induced  in  the  following  year  to 
resume  the  directorship  of  the  con- 
servatory at  St.  Petersburg.  From  the 
Russian  government  he  received  a 
patent  of  nobility  and  other  honors. 

He  was  a  strongly  pronounced  op- 
ponent of  the  principles  of  \^''agne^. 
As  a  pianist  he  held  the  highest  rank, 
being  usually  reckoned  the  greatest 
since  Liszt.  He  ceased  playing  in  pub- 
lic some  time  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  in  Peterhof,  Russia,  Nov.  20, 
1894. 

Rnbrie,  in  the  language  of  the  old 
copies  of  MSS.  and  of  modern  print- 
ers, any  writing  or  printing  in  red 
ink ;  the  date  and  place  in  a  title-page 
being  frequently  in  red  ink,  the  word 
rubric  has  come  to  signify  the  false 
name  of  a  place  on  a  title-page.  Thus, 
many  books  printed  at  Paris  bear  the 
rubric  of  London,  Geneva,  etc. 

Rnby,  a  term  applied  popularly  to 
two  distinct  minerals  —  the  pyrope 
and  the  spinelle  ruby,  both  of  which 
are  much  valued  as  gems.  The  pyrope 
is  a  silicate  of  magnesia  and  alumina, 
and  occurs  chiefly  in  Saxony,  Bohemia 
and  Scotland.  The  spinelle  ruby  and 
its  varieties,  the  orange-red  rubicelle, 
and  the  violet  or  brown  almandine, 
are  aluminates  of  magnesia,  with  dif- 
ferent proportions  of  iron  and  chro- 
mium. They  are  found  mainly  in  Cey- 
lon At  Ava  and  in  other  parts  of  the 


East  Indies.     Rubies  are  wonderfully 
imitated. 

The  ruby  is  one  of  the  most  ex 
quisite  products  of  nature,  but  it  is 
becoming  rare  and  more  rare  to  find  it 
perfect.  A  ruby  may  bring  10  or  20 
times  the  price  of  a  diamond  of  tha 
same  weight  if  it  is  really  of  a  su- 
perior quality.  In  general  the  cutting 
as  a  brilliant  is  alone  suitable  for  a 
fine  ruby.  The  ruby  is  very  hard,  al- 
most as  hard  as  the  sapphire. 

The  most  beautiful  rubies  coma 
from  Ceylon,  India,  and  China.  There 
are  mines  in  Burma  which  supply  at 
least  one-half  of  the  world's  produc- 
tion. The  Burmese  mines  were  re- 
opened in  1900  under  a  London  com- 
pany. The  mines  of  Pegu  are  nearly 
exhausted,  or  but  little  worked  today. 
The  regions  where  they  are  situated 
are  dangerous  of  approach ;  besides, 
in  the  States  of  the  Grand  Mogul,  the 
exportation  of  rubies  is  forbidden  till 
they  have  been  exhibited  to  the  sov- 
ereign, who  retains  the  most  beautiful. 
The  stone  known  under  the  name  of 
the  ruby  of  Siam  is  distinguished  by 
its  deep  red  color,  somewhat  resem- 
bling the  garnet. 

Rnby  Throat,  the  Trochilus  colu- 
briSi  a  species  of  humming  bird,  bo 
named  from  the  brilliant  ruby  red 
color  of  its  chin  and  throat.  In  sum- 
mer it  is  found  in  all  parts  of  North 
America,  up  to  lat.  57°  N.,  being  thus 
remarkable  for  its  extensive  distribu- 
tion. 

Rnckert,  Friedricb,  a  Germaa 
poet;  bom  in  Schweinfurt,  Bavaria, 
May  16,  1788 ;  was  educated  there  and 
at  Wurzburg.  For  some  years  he  led 
a  wandering  life  studying  philology 
and  poetry.  His  most  popular  books 
are  the  collection  of  lyrics  entitled 
"  Springtime  of  Love,"  and  the  re- 
flective poems  gathered  together  aa 
"  The  Wisdom  of  the  Brahman."  He 
died  Jan.  31,  1860. 

Rnekstnbl,  Frederick  Welling* 
ton,  an  American  sculptor;  born  at 
Breitenbach,  Alsace ;  brought  to  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  in  infancy,  educated  there 
and  in  Paris.  Chief  among  much  nota- 
ble work  is  his  sculpture  scheme  of 
"  New  York  City  Appellate  Court." 

Rndder  Fish,  a  fish  allied  to 
the  mackerel,  very  common  in  the  At- 
lantic and  Pacific  Oceana,  so  named 


Rndini 

from  its  habit  of  swimming  around  the 
sterns  of  ships,  attracted,  doubtless, 
by  the  refuse  thrown  overboard.  The 
flesh  is  said  to  be  coarse  in  flavor. 

Rudini,  Antonio  Starrabba  di. 
Marquis,  an  Italian  statesman ;  born 
in  Palermo,  Sicily,  in  1839.  In  18G9 
he  was  minister  of  the  interior  and 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
serving  in  the  Parliament  till  called 
to  succeed  Crispi  as  premier,  Feb.  7, 
1891.  During  the  Mafia  difficulty  in 
New  Orleans  he  recalled  the  Italian 
minister  from  Washington  to  enforce 
his  demands  on  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment. He  succeeded  Crispi  in  1891, 
was  succeeded  by  Crispi  in  1892,  and 
was  again  made  premier  in  1896, 
when  disasters  to  the  Italian  army  in 
Abyssinia  caused  Crispi's  fall.  His 
third  term  of  office  closed  June  29, 
1898. 

Rudolf  I.,  or  Rudolph,  founder 
of  the  present  imperial  dynasty  of 
Austria ;  bom  in  Limburg  castle  in 
the  Breisgau,  Germany,  Mayl,  1218. 
His  possessions  were  greatly  increased 
by  inheritance  and  by  his  mar- 
riage, till  he  was  the  most  powerful 
prince  of  Swabia.  In  1273  the  electors 
chose  him  to  be  German  king;  as, 
never  having  been  crowned  by  the 
Pope,  he  was  not  entitled  to  be  called 
kaiser  or  emperor.  His  accession  was 
opposed  by  none;  the  Pope's  consent 
was  secured  at  the  price  of  certain 
rights  already  parted  with  by  Rudolf's 
predecessors.  Rudolf  spent  the  greater 
part  of  his  life  that  remained  in  sup- 
pressing the  castles  of  the  robber 
knights  and  putting  an  end  to  their 
lawless  practices.  He  died  in  Spires, 
July  1.5,  1291,  and  was  buried  in  the 
cathedral  there. 

Rue.  The  common  rue  is  a  half- 
shrubby  plant,  two  or  three  feet  high, 
of  a  fetid  odor  and  an  acrid  taste. 
The  bluish-green  leaves  are  pinnate, 
the  flowers  yellow;  a  native  of  South- 
ern Europe,  but  grown  in  gardens  in 
the  United  States,  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  etc. 

Ruff,  a  well  known  migratory  bird 
that  is  a  spring  and  summer  visitor  in 
North  Europe,  having  its  winter  home 
in  Africa.  It  is  rather  larger  than  a 
snipe;  general  plumage  ash-brown, 
spotted  or  mottled  with  black,  but  no 
two  specimens  are  alike.  In  the  breed- 


Rugby 

ing  season  the  neck  is  surrounded  by 
a  frill  or  ruff  of  numerous  long  black 
feathers,  glossed  with  purple,  and 
barred  with  chestnut. 

Ruffe,  a  fish  from  the  rivers  of 
Europe.  It  is  olive-green,  marbled  and 
spotted  with  brown,  and  resembles  the 
perch  in  habits.  The  name  is  said  to 
be  derived  from  the  harsh  sensation 
caused  by  its  ctenoid  scales. 


EUE. 

Ruffed  Grouse,  a  North  [A.mer- 
ican  species  of  grouse  of  the  same 
genus  as  the  hazel  grouse  of  Europe. 
It  is  named  from  the  tufts  of  feathera 
on  the  sides  of  its  neck,  and  frequent3 
forests  and  thickets. 

Rugby,  a  town  in  Warwickshire, 
England;  83  miles  N.  W.  of  London 
and  30  E.  S.  E.  of  Birmingham.  At 
the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which  it  stands 
the  river  Swift  gave  Wyclif's  ashes  to 
the  Avon ;  close  by  at  Ashby  and  at 
Dunchurch  the  Gunpowder  Plot  was 
hatched ;  the  battlefield  of  Naseby  was 
viewed  by  Carlyle  from  its  school 
house  in  1842,  a  few  days  before  Ar- 
nold's death ;  it  is  within  a  drive  of 
Stratford-on-Avon,  Coventry,  Kenil- 
worth.  It  is  at  once  the  center  of  a 
great  hunting  district  and  the  seat  of 


Bnger 


Rumania 


a  world-famous  public  school.  This 
probably  accounts  for  the  large  num- 
ber of  residential  houses  there.  The 
school  was  founded  in  1567  by  Law- 
rence Sheriff,  a  grocer  and  a  staunch 
supporter  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  by  a 
gift  of  property  in  Manchester  Square, 
London.  After  maintaining  its  posi- 
tion for  some  time  as  a  good  school 
for  the  Warwickshire  gentry  and  a 
few  others,  specially  under  Dr.  James 
and  Dr.  Wool,  it  became  of  national 
reputation  under  Dr.  Arnold,  who  in 
raising  his  school  raised  at  the  same 
time  the  dignity  of  his  whole  profes- 
sion. Since  his  time  the  school  has 
never  lacked  able  teachers,  remarkable 
for   independence  of   mind. 

Buger,  Thomas  Hoivard,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in 
Lima,  N.  Y.,  April  2,  1833;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1854;  became  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  the  3d  Wisconsin  regiment 
in  June,  1861;  won  distinction  in 
numerous  engagements  during  the 
Civil  War;  suppressed  the  draft  riots 
in  New  York  city  in  1863 ;  was  brev- 
etted  Major-General  of  volunteers, 
Nov.  30,  1864;  promoted  colonel,  U. 
S.  A.,  in  1867;  Brigadier-General  in 
1886 ;  and  Major-General  in  1895 ;  and 
was  retired   in   1897.     Died  in  1907. 

Rule  Nisi,  or  Rule  to  Show 
Cause,  in  United  States  and  English 
law,  an  order  granted  by  the  court  on 
an  interlocutory  application,  directing 
the  party  opposed  to  the  applicant  to 
do  or  abstain  from  some  act,  unless 
he  can  show  cause  why  the  order 
should  not  be  obeyed.  If  cause  is 
shown,  the  order  is  "  discharged," 
otherwise  it  is  made  *'  absolute,"  and 
the  party  ruled  must  obey  on  pain  of 
attachment  for  contempt. 

Rules  of  the  Road,  the  official 
designation  of  regulations  adopted  by 
national  or  international  authorities 
for  the  management  of  vessels  in 
storms,  fogs,  or  other  danger.  Under 
act  of  the  United  States  Congress,  in 
1896,  the  rules  already  established 
were  considerably  changed  to  comport 
with  the  schedule  to  be  observed  by 
vessels  of  all  civilized  nations  on  and 
after  July  1,  1897.  These  rules  apply 
also  to  inland  waters,  excepting  the 
Great  Lakes,  for  which  a  special  set 
has  been  devised. 


Ruling  Machines,  instruments 
used  for  ruling  paper,  metal,  etc.  The 
first  machine  of  this  kind  was  invent- 
ed by  a  Dutchman,  resident  in  London, 
in  1782,  and  was  subsequently  greatly 
improved  by  Woodmason,  Payne, 
Brown,  and  others.  F.  A.  Nobert  de- 
vised a  ruling  machine  in  1845  for 
the  production  of  microscopical  test 
plates,  diffraction  gratings,  and  mi- 
crometers, etc.,  and  more  recently  Ben- 
jamin Day,  a  New  York  artist,  pat- 
ented one  for  use  by  artists. 

Rum,  a  spirit  distilled  chiefly  in  the 
West  Indies  from  the  fermented  skim- 
mings of  the  sugar-boilers  and  mo- 
lasses, together  with  sufficient  cane 
juice  to  impart  the  necessary  flavor. 
Its  peculiar  flavor  in  due  to  butyric 
ether.  Caramel  is  added  for  coloring. 
Much  of  the  rum  sold  is  merely  plain 
spirit  colored  with  burned  sugar  and 
flavored  with  rum  flavoring.  The  Med- 
ford  rum  manufactured  in  Massachu- 
setts is  largely  exported  to  Africa. 

Rumania,  a  European  kingdom, 
bounded  by  Austria-Hungary,  Servia, 
Bulgaria,  the  Black  Sea,  and  Russia; 
area,  48,307  square  miles ;  pop.,  in- 
cluding the  Dobruja,  5,800,000.  It  in- 
cludes the  former  Danubian  princi- 
palities of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia 
and  the  province  of  Dobruja  on  the 
Black  Sea  (pop.  est.  200,000).  The 
capital  is  Bucharest;  other  chief 
towns  are  Jassy,  Galatz,  Braila,  and 
Giurgevo. 

The  surface  is  mainly  occupied  by 
undulating  and  well-watered  plains  of 
great  fertility,  gradually  sloping  up- 
ward to  the  Carpathians  on  the  N. 
and  W.  borders,  where  the  summits 
range  from  2,650  to  8,800  feet  above 
sea-level.  The  entire  kingdom  is  in  the 
basin  of  the  Danube,  which  has  a 
course  of  595  miles  in  Rumania,  form- 
ing the  boundary  with  Bulgaria  near- 
ly the  whole  way.  The  climate  is 
much  more  extreme  than  at  the  same 
latitude  in  other  parts  of  Europe ;  the 
summer  is  hot  and  rainless,  the  winter 
sudden  and  very  intense ;  there  is  al- 
most no  spring,  but  the  autumn  is 
long  and  pleasant.  Rumania  is  an  es- 
sentially agricultural  and  pastoral 
state,  fully  70  per  cent,  of  the  inhab- 
itants being  directly  engaged  in  hus- 
bandry. The  chief  cereal  crops  are 
maize,  wheat,  barley,  rye,  and  oats; 
tobacco,    hemp,    and    flax    are    also 


nnmford 

frown;  and  wine  is  produced  on  the 
ills  at  the  foot  of  the  Carpathians. 
Cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  are  reared  in 
large  numbers.  -Excellent  timber 
abounds  on  the  Carpathians.  Bears, 
wolves,  wild  boars,  large  and  small 
game,  and  fish  are  plentiful.  The 
country  is  rich  in  minerals  of  nearly 
every  description,  but  salt,  petroleum, 
and  lignite  are  the  only  minerals 
worked.  Manufactures  are  still  in  a 
rudimentary  state. 

Trade  is  fairly  active,  but  it  is 
almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
foreigners ;  the  internal  trade  is 
chiefly  carried  on  by  Jews,  whose 
numbers  and  prosperity  are  constant 
sources  of  anxiety  to  Rumanian  states- 
men, and  who  are  in  consequence  sub- 
ject to  certain  disabilities.  The  chief 
exports  are  grain  (especially  maize), 
cattle,  timber,  and  fruit ;  the  chief  im- 
ports, manufactured  goods,  coal,  etc 
Germany,  Great  Britain,  and  Austria- 
Hungary  appropriate  by  far  the  great- 
est share  of  the  foreign  trade,  the  bulk 
of  which  passes  through  the  Black  Sea 
ports. 

The  Rumanians,  who  call  them- 
Belves  Romani,  claim  to  be  descend- 
ants of  Roman  colonists  introduced  by 
Trajan  ^-but  the  traces  of  Latin  de- 
scent are  in  great  part  due  to  a  later 
immigration,  about  the  12th  century, 
from  the  Alpine  districts.  Their  lan- 
guage and  history  both  indicate  that 
they  are  a  mixed  race  with  many  con- 
stituents. Their  language,  however, 
must  be  classed  as  one  of  the  Romance 
tongues,  though  it  contains  a  large 
admixture  of  foreign  elements.  In  Ru- 
mania there  are  about  4,500,000  Ru- 
manians, 300.000  Jews,  200,000  gip- 
sies, 50,000  Bulgars,  1,500  Magyars, 
20,000  Germans,  20,000  Greeks,  and 
15,000  Armenians.  Three-fourths  of 
the  population  are  peasants,  who  till 
18G4  were  kept  in  virtual  serfdom  by 
the  bolars  or  nobles.  In  that  year  up- 
ward of  400,000  peasant  families  were 
made  proprietors  of  small  holdings 
averaging  10  acres,  at  a  price  to  be 
paid  back  to  the  State  in  15  years. 
About  4.500,000  of  the  people  belong 
to  the  Greek  Church.  Energetic  ef- 
forts are  being  made  to  raise  educa- 
tion from  its  present  low  level.  Ru- 
mania has  two  universities  (at  Bucha- 
rest and  Jassy),  several  gymnasia, 
and  a  system  o£  free  prior  ary  schools. 


XtuminaiitS 

Rumania  is  a  hereditary  constitu- 
tional monarchy  with  a  Legislature  of 
two  bodies.  The  Senate  consists  of 
various  dignitaries  and  officials  and 
120  elected  members;  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  has  183  members,  elected  by 
all  citizens  paying  taxes  or  possesst^d 
of  a  certain  standard  of  education. 
The  constitution,  last  revised  in  1884, 
closely  resembles  that  of  Belgium.  The 
king  is  assisted  by  a  ministry  of  eight 
members.  The  army  is  modeled  on  the 
German  system,  service  being  compul- 
sory from  the  age  of  21  to  46. 

The  persecution  of  Jews  in  Rumania 
in  view  of  their  large  immigration  to 
this  country,  has  evoked  protests  from 
the  American  government.  An  anti- 
semitic  agitation  which  began  in  Dec, 
1906,  developed  into  a  serious  agrarian 
revolt  in  Feb.  and  Mar.,  1907,  and 
was  only  suppressed  by  firm  military 
measures. 

Rvinford,  Benjamin  Thomp- 
son, Count,  an  American  scientist ; 
born  in  Woburn,  Mass.,  March  26, 
1753.  Being  a  Tory  in  sympathy,  he 
lived  in  London  during  the  American 
Revolution.  After  serving  England  for 
a  time,  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  rose  to  the  posi- 
tion of  Minister  of  War,  and  was 
finally  created  a  count  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire.  He  took  the  title 
Rumford  from  the  village  of  that  name 
(now  Concord,  N.  H.),  where  he  had 
married.  He  spent  the  last  years  of 
his  life  at  Auteuil,  busily  engaged  in 
scientific  researches  —  particularly  on 
the  nature  and  effects  of  heat,  studies 
with  which  his  name  is  generally  as- 
sociated. As  an  administrator,  mili- 
tary or  civil,  he  showed  immense  prac- 
tical capacity  in  improving  the  condi- 
tions of  life  for  the  lower  ranks.  His 
best  known  works  include  :  "  Essays : 
Political,  Economical,  and  Philosoph- 
ical "  (1797-1806)  ;  and  studies  in  do- 
mestic economy,  particularly  of  cook- 
ery. Died  in  Auteuil  near  Paris,  Aug. 
21,  1814. 

Ruminants,  or  Ruminantia,  a 
group  of  herbivorous  mammals,  be- 
longing to  the  great  order  of  hoofed  or 
ungulate  mammals,  included  in  the 
Artiodactyle  or  "  even-toed  "  section  of 
these  and  comprising  the  camel,  llama, 
true  deer,  giraffe,  ox,  sheep,  goat,  ante- 
lope, and*  others.  The  faculty  of  rumi- 
nation    is  not  quite  peculiar  to  iL 


Rumination 


Runes 


Ruminants  are  distinguished  from 
other  orders  by  certain  peculiarities  of 
dentition.  Most  of  the  ruminants  are 
suitable  for  human  food.  They  are 
generally  gregarious,  and  are  .  repre- 
sented by  indigenous  species  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  except  Australia. 

Rumination,  the  act  of  chewing 
the  cud.  The  food  of  the  ruminants 
is  grass,  which  requires  a  longer  series 
of  chemical  changes  to  convert  a  por- 
tion of  it  into  blood  than  does  the 
flesh  of  other  animals  eaten  by  the 
Carnivora.  To  produce  these  changes 
there  is  a  complex  stomach  divided 
into  four  parts,  the  rumex  or  paunch, 
the  reticulum  or  honeycomb  bag,  the 
psalterium  or  manyplies,  and  the 
abomasum  or  reed.  A  ruminant  does 
not  chew  the  fodder  which  it  eats,  but 
simply  swallows  it.  When  it  has  had 
enough  it  retires  to  a  quiet  spot,  forces 
up  again  to  the  mouth  a  portion  of 
the  food  in  its  paunch,  thoroughly 
chews  it  and  then  swallows  it  again. 
Another  and  another  bolus  is  thus  dis- 
posed of.  Each  of  these,  started  from 
the  paunch,  is  forced  next  into  the 
honeycomb  bag,  where  it  receives  its 
form,  and  then  goes  up  the  gullet.  On 
returning  it  passes  direct  from  the 
paunch  into  the  manyplies  or  third 
stomach,  and  thence  to  the  abomasum. 
Fluids  may  pass  directly  into  any 
part  of  the  stomach. 

Rump  Parliament,  in  English 
history,  the  remnant,  or  fag-end  of  the 
Long  Parliament,  which  was  assem- 
bled on  May  6,  1659,  and  dissolved 
October  1^  in  the  same  year ;  so  called 
from  the  general  contumely  and  de- 
rision with  which  it  was  treated  by 
the  English  nation  at  large. 

Rumsey,  James,  an  American  in- 
ventor ;  born  in  Bohemia  Manor,  Cecil 
CO.,  Md.,  about  1743.  He  invented  and 
patented  a  boat  "  calculated  to  work 
with  greater  ease  and  rapidity  against 
rapid  rivers  "  •  and  one  to  be  propelled 
by  the  force  of  a  stream  of  water 
pumped  out  at  the  stern,  etc.  The 
Rumsey  Society,  of  which  Benjamin 
Franklin  was  a  member,  was  founded 
in  1788  for  the  purpose  of  furthering 
his  schemes,  a  similar  society  being 
founded  in  England  a  year  later. 
Rumsey  published  "  A  Short  Treatise 
on  the  Application  of  Steam  "  (1788). 
Be  died  in  Loudon,  England,  Dec.  23, 
1792. 


Runes.  In  the  Scandinavian  lands, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway,  thou- 
sands of  inscriptions  have  been  found 
written  in  the  ancient  alphabet  of  the 
heathen  Northmen.  Similar  records 
are  scattered  sparsely  and  sporadically 
over  the  regions  which  were  overrun 
or  settled  by  the  Baltic  tribes  between 
the  2d  century  and  the  10th.  A  few 
are   found   in   Kent,   England,   which 

r  h  1^  P'  R  (Kh^   X   P 

f        n      tb      o       r  k  gCpalat.)   w 

H+  l(4')J^(Wmiit  ^  M 

hnljehpeoatb* 

n  ^Jr5^H  X  Kh  tiiT 

ni      I     ng     <B      d    g(gatt)    a      «      ]r     «• 


ENGLISH  EUNES. 

was  conquered  by  the  Jutes,  others  in 
Cumberland,  Dumfriesshire,  Orkney, 
and  the  Isle  of  Man,  which  were  occu- 
pied by  the  Norwegians,  and  in  York- 
shire, which  was  settled  by  the  Angles. 
One  or  two  have  been  found  in  the 
valley  of  the  Danube,  which  was  the 
earliest  halting  place  of  the  Goths  in 
their  migration  S. ;  and  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  a  similar  alphabet  was 
used  by  the  Visigoths  and  Burgun- 
dians  in  Spain  and  France,  while  it  is 
noteworthy  that  there  is  no  trace  of 
this  writing  having  been  used  in  Ger- 
many or  by  the  Saxons  and  Franks. 

The  writing  is  called  Runic,  the  in- 
dividual letters  are  called  runestaves, 
or  less  correctly  runes,  and  the  runic 
alphabet  is  called  the  futhorc,  from 
the  first  six  letters  f,  u,  th,  o,  r,  c. 
The  old  Norse  word  "  run  "  originally 
meant  something  "  secret  "  or  magical. 
The  oldest  extant  funic  records  may 
date  from  the  1st  century  A.  D.,  the 
latest  from  the  15th  or  16th,  the 
greater  number  being  older  than  the 
11th  century,  when  after  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Scandinavians  the  futhorc 
was  superseded  by  the  Latin  alphabet. 

The  origin  of  the  runic  writing  has 
been  a  matter  of  prolonged  contro- 
versy. The  runes  were  formerly  sup- 
posed to  have  originated  out  of  the 
Phoenician  or  the  Latin  letters,  but  it 
is  now  generally  ^agreed  that  they 
^ust  have  been  derived  about  the  6th 


Runjeet  Singh 


Xtnrilc 


century  B.  c,  from  an  early  form  of 
the  Greek  alphabet  which  was  em- 
ployed by  the  Milesian  traders  and 
colonists  of  Olbia  and  other  towns  on 
the  N.  shores  of  the  Black  Sea. 

Runjeet  Singh,  called  the  "  Lion 
of  the  Punjab,"  founder  of  the  Sikh 
kingdom ;  born  in  Gugaranwalla,  In- 
dia, Nov.  2,  1780.  His  father,  a  Sikh 
chieftain,  died  in  1792,  and  the  gov- 
ernment fell  into  the  hands  of  his 
mother.  At  the  age  of  17,  however, 
Runjeet  rebelled  against  his  mother's 
authority,  assumed  the  reins  himself, 
and  began  a  career  of  ambition.  The 
Shah  of  Afghanistan  granted  him  pos- 
session of  Lahore,  which  had  been 
taken  from  the  Sikhs,  and  Runjeet 
soon  subdued  the  small  Sikh  states  to 
the  N.  of  the  Sutlej.  He  organized 
his  army  after  the  European  model 
with  the  help  of  French  and  English 
officers,  and  steadily  extended  his  pow- 
er, assuming  the  title  of  rajah  in  1812. 
He  gradually  increased  his  territory 
until  he  was  ruler  of  the  entire  Pun- 
jab, and  in  1819  had  already  assumed 
the  title  of  Maharajah,  or  king  of 
kings.  In  1836  he  suffered  a  heavy  de- 
feat from  the  Afghans,  but  until  his 
death  he  retained  his  power  over  his 
20,000,000  subjects.  He  died  in  La- 
hore, June  27,  1839. 

Rnnyon,  Theodore,  an  American 
diplomatist ;  bom  in  Somerville,  N.  J., 
Oct.  25,  1822;  was  graduated  at  Yale 
University  in  1842.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  took  command  of 
the  1st  Brigade  of  New  Jersey  Volun- 
teers, and  on  April  27,  1861,  started 
for  Washington,  D.  O.  On  May  6  he 
reached  the  national  capital,  then  in 
a  state  of  great  excitement  because  of 
an  expected  invasion  by  the  Confed- 
erates with  3,000  men.  He  promptly 
took  possession  of  exposed  parts  of 
the  city  and  fortified  its  approaches, 
especially  those  at  the  Long  Bridge. 
When  the  National  army  met  its  first 
defeat  at  Bull  Run,  and  was  fleeing 
toward  Washington  with  the  Confed- 
erates in  close  pursuit,  he  closed  all 
approaches,  planted  cannon^  and  pre- 
vented both  the  panic-stncken  Na- 
tional troops  and  the  Confederates 
from  entering  the  city.  For  thus  sav- 
ing the  national  capital  he  received 
the  personal  thanks  of  President  Lin- 
coln and  his  cabinet.  Soon  afterward 
he   resigned    from   the  army   and   re- 


sumed the  practice  of  law.  In  1893 
he  became  United  States  minister  to 
Germany,  and  in  September  following 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  ambassador. 
He  died  in  Berlin,  Germany,  Jan.  27, 
1896. 

Rnpee,  a  silver  coin  in  use  in  the 
British  dominions  in  India,  with  cor- 
responding ones  of  much  inferior 
workmanship  and  variable  value  in 
the  native  states.  Prior  to  1893  its 
variable  value  was  a  source  of  great 
inconvenience,  but  in  that  year  stand- 
ard rupee   (32  cents)  was  established. 

Rupert  of  Bavaria,  Prince,  an 
English  military  officer ;  born  in 
Prague,  Bohemia,  Dec.  17,  1619.  After 
some  military  experience  on  the  Con- 
tinent he  went  to  England  to  assist 
his  uncle,  Charles  I.,  and  in  1648 
he  was  made  admiral  of  the  Eng- 
lish royal  fleet.  After  the  Restoration 
he  was  appointed  lord-high-admiral 
and  served  with  Monk  against  the 
Dutch.  He  became  governor  of  Wind- 
sor Castle,  privy-councilor,  etc.  Many 
of  his  later  years  were  devoted  to 
scientific  study,  and  he  was  formerly 
credited  with  the  invention  of  mez- 
zotint engraving,  which  he  improved 
and  introduced  into  England.  He  in- 
vented Prince  Rupert's  Drops.  As 
one  of  the  founders  and  the  first  gov- 
ernor of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company 
his  name  was  given  to  Rupertsland. 
He  died  in  London,  Nov.  29,  1682, 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Rupert's  Ijand,  an  extensive  but 
indeterminate  region  in  the  interior  of 
Canada,  named  in  honor  of  Prince 
Rupert,  and  transferred  to  the  Hud- 
son Bay  Company,  of  which  that 
prince  was  one  of  the  founders,  by 
Charles  II.  in  1670.  This  region  is 
now  included  in  Manitoba  and  the 
Western  Territories,  but  its  name  still 
gives  the  title  to  the  Bishop  of  Ru- 
pertsland, who  resides  at  Winnipeg. 

Rupture,  the  breaking  or  lacera- 
tion of  the  walls  or  continuity  of  an 
organ,  especially  of  a  viscus.  Also, 
the  popular  name  for  hernia. 

Rurik,  the  founder  of  the  Russian 
monarchy ;  flourished  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury ;  he  is  generally  considered  ta 
have  been  a  Varangian  of  Scandina- 
vian origin,  and  to  have  led  a  suc- 
cessful invasion  against  the  Slavs  of 
Novgorod  about  862.    He  died  in  879, 


Rusby 

and  bis  family  reigned  in  Russia  till 
the  death,  in  1598,  of  Feodor,  son  of 
Ivan  the  Terrible,  when  it  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  house  of  Romanoff. 
Many  Russian  families  still  claim  a 
direct  descent  from  Rurik. 

Rusby,  Henry  Hurd,  an  Ameri- 
can botanist ;  born  in  Franklin,  N.  J., 
April  26,  1855 ;  was  connected  with 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  1880- 
1896;  appointed  Professor  of  Botany, 
Physiology,  and  Materia  Medica  in 
the  New  York  College  of  Pharmacy 
in  1888;  Professor  of  Materia  Medica 
at  Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  College ; 
Curator  of  New  York  Botanical  Gar- 
dens ;  revised  botanical  department  of 
the  "  United  States  Pharmacopoeia  " 
in  1900-1901.  He  was  a  member  of 
a  large  number  of  scientific  societies 
and  wrote  "  Essentials  of  Pharma- 
cognosy "  ;  "  Morphology  and  Histol- 
ogy of  Plants  " ;  etc. 

Rush,  a  genus  of  plants  having  a 
glume-like  (not  colored)  perianth, 
smooth  filaments,  and  a  many-seeded, 
generally  three-celled  capsule.  The 
species  are  numerous,  mostly  natives 
*of  wet  or  marshy  places  in  the  colder 
parts  of  the  world ;  some  are  found  in 
tropical  regions.  The  name  rush  per- 
haps properly  belongs  to  those  species 
which  have  no  proper  leaves ;  the 
round  stems  of  which,  bearing  or  not 
bearing  small  lateral  heads  of  flowers, 
are  popularly  known  as  rushes.  The 
soft  rush  is  a  native  of  Japan  as  well 
as  of  Great  Britain,  and  is  cultivated 
in  Japan  for  making  mats.  The  com- 
mon rush  and  the  soft  rush  are  large- 
ly used  for  the  bottoms  of  chairs  and 
for  mats,  and  in  ruder  times,  when 
carpets  were  little  known,  they  were 
much  used  for  covering  the  floors  of 
rooms.  The  stems  of  the  true  rushes 
contain  a  large  pith  or  soft  central 
substance,  which  is  sometimes  used  for 
wicks  to  small  candles  called  rush- 
lights. 

Rusb,  Benjamin,  an  American 
physician ;  bom  in  Philadelphia.  Dec. 
24,  1745 ;  he  was  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton in  1760;  studied  medicine  in  Phil- 
adelphia, Edinburgh,  London,  and 
Paris ;  and  in  1769  was  made  Profes- 
sor of  Chemistry  in  the  Philadelphia 
Medical  College.  Elected  a  member  of 
the  Continental  Congress,  he  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence 
(1776).    In  April,   1777,  he  was  ap- 


Rnsli 

pointed  surgeon-general,  and  in  July 
physician-general,  of  the  ContinentaJ 
army.  In  1778  he  resigned  his  post  in 
the  army  because  he  could  not  pre- 
vent frauds  on  soldiers  in  the  hospital 
stores,  and  returned  to  his  professor- 
ship. He  was  a  founder  of  the  Phila- 
delphia dispensary,  the  first  in  the 
United  States.  He  next  became  Pro- 
fessor of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of 
Medicine  at  Philadelphia,  to  which 
chair  he  added  those  of  the  Institutes 
and  Practice  of  Medicine  and  Clinical 
Practice  (1791)  ;  and  of  the  Practice 
of  Physic  (1797)  ;  and  during  the  epi- 
demic of  1793  he  was  as  successful  as 
devoted  in  the  treatment  of  yellow 
fever.  In  1799  Rush  was  appointed 
treasurer  of  the  United  States  Mint, 
which  post  he  held  till  his  death.  He 
was  called  "  the  Sydenham  of  Amer- 
ica "  and  his  medical  works  brought 
him  honors  from  several  European 
sovereigns.  He  wrote  "  Medical  In- 
quiries and  Observations "  (5  vols. 
1789-1793);  "Essays"  (1798),  and 
"Diseases  of  the  Mind"  (1821).  He 
died  in  Philadelphia,  April  19,  1813. 
Rusb,  Ricbard,  an  American, 
statesman;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Aug.  29,  1780;  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  Col- 
lege in  1797 ;  and  was  attorney-gen- 
eral of  the  United  States  from  1814 
to  1817.  In  1817  he  was  temporary 
Secretary  of  State  under  President 
Monroe,  and  was  by  him  appointed 
minister  to  England,  from  whence  he 
was  recalled  in  1825  by  President 
Adams,  who  made  him  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury.  In  1828  he  was  candi- 
date for  the  vice-presidency  on  the 
same  ticket  with  President  Adams, 
who  was  nominated  for  reelection,  and 
received  the  same  number  of  electoral 
votes.  In  1836  President  Jackson  ap- 
pointed him  commissioner  to  obtain 
the  Smithsonian  legacy,  then  in  the 
English  Court  of  Chancery,  in.  which 
he  wag  successful,  and  returned  in 
1838  with  the  entire  amount,  $515,- 
169.  In  1847  he  was  appointed  min- 
ister to  France.  \t  the  close  of  Presi- 
dent Polk's  term  he  asked  to  be  ri> 
called  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
in  retirement.  He  died  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  July  30,  1859.  He  left 
"  Memoranda  of  a  Residence  at  the 
Court  of  St.  James,"  two  volumes; 
"  Washington     in     Domestic     Life " ; 


nnsbf  ort& 

"  Occasional  Productions,  Political, 
Diplomatic,  etc,  while  the  Author  re- 
sided as  Envoy  Extraordinary  from 
the  United  States,  at  Paris,"  published 
by  his  sons  (1860). 

Rnshforth,  'William  Henry,  an 
American  inventor ;  born  in  Leeds,  En- 
gland, July  11,  1844;  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1878  and  was  ap- 
pointed engineer  in  a  silk  factory  in 
Camden,  N.  J.  He  made  many  inven- 
tions, the  most  important  being  a  fire- 
escape  ladder,  a  series  of  automatic 
safety-car  signals,  and  a  feed-water 
heater,  which  received  a  silver  medal 
and  diploma  at  the  Paris  Exposition 
in  1887.  He  died  in  Rutherford,  N. 
J.,  Aug.  21,  1892. 

Rnsk,  Jeremiah  McLain,  an 
American  agriculturist;  bom  in  Mor- 
gan CO.,  O.j  June  17,  1830;  removed 
to  Wisconsin  in  1858  and  became  a 
farmer.  He  entered  the  Union  service 
during  the  Civil  War,  as  major  of  a 
regiment  he  had  raised,  the  25th  Wis- 
consin Volunteers;  was  promoted 
lieutenant-colonel  in  1863;  was  bre- 
vetted  colonel  and  Brigadier-General, 
1865.  From  1866  to  1870  he  was  bank- 
Comptroller  of  Wisconsin,  and  rep- 
resented his  State-  from  1871  to  1877 
in  Congress.  In  1882  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Wisconsin  and  served  in 
that  capacity  till  1889.  He  was  made 
secretary  of  the  newly-created  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  in  1889,  and  held 
this  office  till  1893.  He  died  in  Viro- 
qua.  Wis.,  Nov.  21,  1893. 

Rnskin,  Jolin,  an  English  author; 
bom  in  London,  Feb.  8,  1819.  He 
studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford; 
gained  the  Newdigate  prize  in  1839, 
and  graduated  in  1842.  In  1867  he 
was  appointed  Rede  lecturer  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  1870-1872,  1876-1878, 
1883-1885  he  was  Slade  Professor  of 
Fine  Arts  at  Oxford,  where  in  1871  he 
gave  $25,000  for  the  endowment  of  a 
university  teacher  of  drawing.  In 
"  Modem  Painters "  he  advocated  a 
complete  revolution  in  the  received 
conventions  of  art  and  art  criticism. 
Ruskin  was  the  first  art  critic  to  place 
criticism  upon  a  scientific  basis.  In 
1851  he  appeared  as  a  defender  of 
pre-Raphaelitism.  About  1860  he  be- 
gan to  write  as  a  political  economist 
and  social  reformer ;  his  chief  works 
in  this  sphere  being  "  Unto  this  Last  " 
"  Munera  Pulveris,"  and  "  Fors  Clavi- 


RusseH 

gera,"  a  periodical  series  of  letters 
to  the  working  men  and  laborers  of 
Great  Britain.  In  this  connection  he 
founded  in  1871,  "The  Guild  of  St. 
George  " ;  founded  a  linen  industry  at 
Keswick,  and  revived  in  Langdale, 
hand  loom  weaving.  His  works  are 
entirely  too  4iumerous  to  admit  of 
mention.  After  1885  he  lived  at  Brant- 
wood,  on  Coniston  Lake,  where  he 
died  Jan.  20,  1900. 

Russell,  Addison  Peale,  an 
American  journalist  and  esayist ;  bora 
in  Wilmington,  Ohio,  Sept.  8,  1826. 
He  wrote:  "Half-Tints";  "Library 
Notes";  "Sub  Ca;lum,"  etc. 

Rnssell,  Sir  Charles  Arthnr,  a 
British  jurist;  born  in  Killowen,  Ire- 
land, Nov.  10,  1832;  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  defended 
the  prisoner  in  the  Maybrick  murder 
case  in  1889,  and  was  counsel  for  the 
defendant  (Parnell)  before  the  Par- 
nell  Commission.  He  was  counsel  for 
Great  Britain  during  the  Bering  Sea 
Arbitration  Tribunal  in  1893;  became 
Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England;  and 
was  created  1st  Baron  Russell  of  Kil- 
lowen in  1894.  In  1896  he  visited 
the  United  States  as  guest  of  the 
American  bar  association ;  and  in  1899 
was  British  arbitrator  in  the  Vene- 
zuelan Boundary  TribunaL  He  died 
Aug.  10,  1900. 

Rnssell,  Irvrin,  an  American 
verse-writer;  born  at  Port  Gibson, 
Miss.,  June  3,  1853.  He  was  among 
the  first  to  put  the  negro  character 
to  literary  account.  His  dialect  and 
other  verse  was  collected  after  his 
death  and  published  as  "  Poems " 
(1888").  He  died  in  New  Orleans,  La., 
Dec.  23.  1879. 

Rnssell,  John,  Earl  Rnssell,  K« 
G.,  an  English  statesman,  third  son  of 
the  6th  Duke  of  Bedford;  bom  in 
London,  Aug.  18,  1792.  Educated  at 
Edinburgh  University,  he  entered  Par- 
liament in  1813  before  attaining  his 
majority.  In  1819  he  mada  his  first 
motion  in  favor  of  parliamentary  re- 
form, of  which  through  life  he  was 
the  champion.  In  1831  he  was  pay- 
master-general in  Lord  Grey's  admin 
istration,  and  introduced  the  first  Re- 
form Bill  to  the  House  of  Commons 
From  1841  till  1845  he  led  the  opposi- 
tion against  Pee!,  with  whom,  how- 
ever, he  was  in  sympathy  on  the  Corn 
Law    question;    and    when    Peel    re- 


Rnssell 


Russia 


signed  in  1846  Russell  formed  a  min- 
istry and  retained  power  till  Feb- 
ruary, 1852.  In  1859  he  became 
foreign  secretary,  the  Trent  affair  with 
the  United  States  occurring  while  he 
was  in  oflBce.  In  1861  he  was  raised 
to  the  peerage,  and  in  1865  succeeded 
Lord  Palmerston  in  the  leadership  of 
the  Liberal  party;  but  when  his  new 
reform  bill  was  rejected  in  1866  he 
went  out  of  office.  He  was  the  author 
of  numerous  books  and  pamphlets,  in- 
cluding lives  of  Thomas  Moore,  Lord 
William  Russell,  and  Charles  Fox, 
and  "  Recollections  and  Suggestions  " 
(1813-1873),  published  in  1875.  He 
died  May  28,  1878. 

Rnssell,  Jolm  Scott,  a  British 
naval  architect,  born  near  Glasgow, 
Scotland,  in  1808.  He  became  a 
science-lecturer  in  Edinburgh,  and  in 
1832-1833  temporarily  filled  the  chair 
of  Natural  Philosophy  at  Edinburgh 
University.  Next  year  he  began  his 
important  researches  into  the  nature 
of  waves,  which  led  to  his  discovery 
of  the  wave  of  translation,  on  which 
he  founded  the  wave-line  system  of 
naval  construction  introduced  into 
practice  in  1835.  He  was  manager  of 
a  large  shipbuilding  yard  on  the  Clyde 
for  several  years,  and  in  1844  estab- 
lished a  yard  of  his  own  on  the 
Thames.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest 
advocates  of  iron-clad  men-of-war,  and 
was  joint  designer  of  the  "  Warrior," 
the  first  English  seagoing  armored 
frigate ;  but  the  most  important  ves- 
sel he  designed  and  constructed  was 
the  "  Great  Eastern."  One  of  his 
chief  engineering  works  was  the  vast 
dome  of  the  Vienna  Exhibition  of 
1873,  which  has  a  clear  span  of  360 
feet.  He  was  the  author  of  "  The 
Modern  System  of  Naval  Architect- 
ure," and  other  writings.  He  died  in 
Ventnor,  June  10,   1882. 

Russell,  'William,  Lord  Rus- 
sell, an  English  statesman,  third  son 
of  the  5th  Earl  of  Bedford ;  born  Sept. 
29,  1639.  He  entered  Parliament  im- 
mediately after  the  Restoration,  and  in 
1669  married  Rachel,  Lady  Vaughan. 
In  1679  he  was  a  member  of  the  new 
privy  council  appointed  by  Charles 
II.  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the 
Whigs.  Resigning  in  1680,  he  became 
conspicuous  in  the  efforts  to  exclude 
the  king's  brother,  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic  Duke  of   York,  from  the  succes- 


sion to  the  throne,  but  retired  from 
public  life  when  the  Exclusion  Bill 
was  rejected.  When  the  Ryehouse  Plot 
was  discovered  in  1683,  Russell  waa 
arrested  on  a  charge  of  high  treason, 
and  though  nothing  was  proved 
against  him  the  law  was  stretched  to 
secure  his  conviction.  He  was  sen- 
tenced to  death,  and  was  beheaded  ia 
London,  July  21,  1683.  An  act  waa 
passed  in  1689  reversing  his  attainder. 

Russell,  William  Clark,  an  En- 
glish  novelist ;  born  (of  English  parent- 
age), in  New  York  city,  Feb.  24,  1844. 
He  spent  much  of  his  early  life  at  sea, 
and  afterward  settled  at  Ramsgate, 
England.  He  published  a  great  num- 
ber of  sea  stories  and  novels. 

Russell,  William.  Enstis,  ani 
American  lawyer;  born  in  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  Jan.  6,  1857;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  University  in  1877;  waa 
governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1890- 
1892.  He  then  resumed  the  practice 
of  law,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Board  of  Indian  Commissioners  in 
November,  1894.  He  was  found  dead 
in  his  fishing  tent  at  Little  Pabos, 
Quebec,  Canada,  on  the  morning  of 
July  16,  1896. 

Russell,  Sir  William  Howard, 
an  English  journalist ;  born  in  Lily- 
water  near  Dublin,  March  28,  1820. 
He  was  special  war  correspondent  of 
the  London  "  Times  "  in  Crimea,  India, 
the  United  States,  Austria,  France, 
South  Africa,  and  Egypt,  during  var- 
ious campaigns.  He  published  "  Ex- 
traordinary Men,"  "  The  Prince  of 
Wales's  Tour,"  etc.  He  received  var- 
ious honors  from  foreign  governments 
and  was  knighted  in  1895.  He  died 
Feb.  10,  1907. 

Russia,  one  of  the  most  powerful 
empires  of  the  world,  second  only  in 
extent  to  the  British  empire.  It  com- 
prehends most  of  Eastern  Europe  and 
all  Northern  Asia,  and  is  bounded  N. 
by  the  Arctic  Ocean ;  W.  by  Sweden, 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  and  the  Baltic, 
Prussia,  Austria,  and  Rumania;  S, 
by  the  Black  Sea,  Turkey  in  Asia, 
Persia,  Afghanistan,  the  Chinese  em- 
pire; E.  by  the  Pacific  and  Bering 
Strait.  The  total  area  has  been  offi- 
cially estimated  at  8,660,395  square 
miles;  w^hile  the  population  (1909) 
was   160,095,200. 

In  the  European  parts  of  Russia 
alone    the    population    increases    an- 


Russia 


Russia; 


nually  at  the  rate  of  nearly  1,500,000. 
The  largest  towns  are  St.  Petersburg 
(1,678,000),  Moscow  (1,359,254),  War- 
saw (756,426),  Odessa  (449,673), 
Lodz  f.S51,570).  Riga  (2^2.230),  Kieff 
(319,000),  Kharkofe  (173,989),  and 
Vilna  (162,63.3).  St.  Petersburg  and 
Moscow  are  the  capitals  of  the  empire. 

European  Russia  consists  almost 
wholly  of  immense  plains,  the  Valdai 
Hills,  between  St.  Petersburg  and 
Moscow,  averaging  500  feet  and  never 
exceeding  1,200  feet  above  sea-level, 
forming  the  only  elevated  region  of 
the  interior  and  an  important  water- 
shed. The  mountains  include ;  the 
Caucasus,  running  from  the  Black 
Sea  to  the  Caspian,  reach  the  height 
of  18,500  feet ;  the  Urals,  stretching 
from  the  Caspian  to  the  Arctic  Ocean 
and  separating  European  from  Asiatic 
Russia,  have  their  greatest  height  be- 
low 7,000  feet.  Beyond  the  Urals 
are  the  vast  Siberian  plains. 

The  whole  of  the  vast  empire 
is  watered  by  numerous  rivers,  some 
running  a  course  of  thousands  of 
miles.  Altogether  Russia  and  Poland 
have  49,000  miles  of  navigable 
rivers.  Asiatic  Russia  has  also  a 
number  of  very  large  rivers,  as  the 
Obi,  Yenisei,  and  Lena  in  Siberia, 
and  the  Amur  toward  the  Chinese 
frontier.  This  complete  river  system 
is  of  incalculable  value  to  Russia,  as 
by  its  means  internal  communication 
is  carried  on.  Canals  connect  the 
navigable  rivers,  so  as  to  form  con- 
tinuous waterways ;  there  being  500 
miles  of  canals  and  717  of  canalized 
rivers. 

As  may  be  expected  from  its  vast- 
ness  this  empire  offers  soils  and  cli- 
mates of  almost  every  variety.  Ex- 
treme cold  in  winter  and  extreme  heat 
in  summer,  are,  however,  a  general 
characteristic  of  Russian  climates.  As 
regards  soil  large  sections  of  Russia 
are  sandy,  barren  wastes  and  vast 
morasses.  The  most  productive  por- 
tion is  that  between  the  Baltic  and 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  the  Volga, 
on  the  N.  and  E. ;  Prussia,  Austria, 
etc.,  on  the  W. ;  and  the  Black  Sea 
on  the  S.  It  has,  generally  speaking, 
a  soft  black  mold  of  great  depth,  most- 
ly on  a  sandy  bottom,  easily  wrought, 
and  very  fertile.  The  more  S.  por- 
tion of  Siberia,  as  far  E.  as  the  river 
Lena,  has,  for  the  most  part,  a  fertile 
soil,    and    produces,    notwithstanding 


the  severity  of  the  climate,  nearly  all 
kinds  «f  grain. 

Boundless  forests  exist,  the  area 
of  the  forest  land  in  Europe  being 
42  per  cent,  of  the  total  area.  The  fir, 
larch,  alder,  and  birch  predominate. 
Most  of  the  forest  land  is  now  under 
government  control,  and  waste  is  pre- 
vented. Agriculture  remains  the  chief 
pursuit  of  the  bulk  of  the  population. 
For  some  years  it  has,  however,  re- 
mained stationary,  while  manufact- 
uring industries  are  steadily  going 
ahead.  The  chief  crops  are  rye,  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  hemp,  flax,  and  tobacco. 
Vine  and  beet  culture  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing, and  the  breeding  of  horses 
and  cattle  is  also  extensively  carried 
on. 

Russia  is  rich  in  minerals.  The 
precious  metals  are  chiefly  obtained 
in  the  Ural  and  Altai  regions.  The 
output  for  1901  was,  gold,  79,084 
pounds  ;  platinum,  12,446  pounds ;  sil- 
ver, 704  pounds.  In  the  Ural,  iron 
beds  are  also  rich  and  numerous,  ex- 
ceeding all  others  in  productiveness. 
Copper  is  most  abundant  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Perm  ;  lead  in  the  Ural  and 
some  parts  of  Poland ;  saltpeter  in 
Astrakhan.  Of  the  coal  mines  those 
of  the  Don  basin  are  the  principal  at 
present,  those  of  Kielce  ranking  sec- 
ond ;  the  mines  around  Moscow  come 
next.  About  60,000  tons  of  manga- 
nese ore  are  annually  extracted  in  the 
Ural  and  the  Caucasus.  The  petroleum 
wells  of  Baku  on  the  Caspian  now 
send  their  products  all  over  Europe. 

Prior  to  the  accession  of  Peter  the 
Great,  Russia  had  no  manufactures ; 
he  started  them,  and  under  the  more 
or  less  fostering  care  of  his  succes- 
sors and  Russia's  protective  policy 
they  have  steadily  grown.  The  latest 
statistics  give  a  total  of  about  1,400,- 
000  persons  as  being  employed  in  the 
various  manufacturing  industries. 
Two-fifths  of  the  entire  production 
comes  from  the  two  capitals,  St. 
Petersburg  and  Moscow.  The  various 
manufactures  rank  approximately  as 
follows :  spirits,  sugar,  cottons  and 
yarns,  flour,  tobacco,  foundry  prod- 
ucts, flax,  yarn,  and  linen,  leather, 
woolen  cloth  and  yarn,  iron,  machin- 
ery, beer,  soap,  timber,  paper,  oil, 
glass,  chemicals,  agricultural  imple- 
ments. 

The  bulk  of  Russia's  external  trade 
is  carried  on  through  the    European 


Russian  Expansion 


Russian  Expansion 


frontier  and  the  Baltic  and  Black 
Sea  ports.  The  chief  exports  are : 
grain  (about  one-half  of  entire  ex- 
ports), flax,  linseed  and  other  oleagi- 
noun  seeds,  timber,  hemp,  wool,  butter 
and  eggs,  spirits,  bristles,  and  furs, 
in  the  order  indicated.  The  chief  im- 
ports are  cotton,  wool,  tea,  machinery, 
coal  and  coke,  cotton  yarn,  metal 
goods,  wine,  olive  oil,  raw  silk,  her- 
rings, textile  goods,  fruit,  coffee,  to- 
bacco. The  import  trade  is  heaviest 
with  Germany,  Great  Britain,  France, 
Austria-Hungary,  and  Belgium,  in  the 
order  named.  In  the  export  trade 
Great  Britain  takes  the  lead,  Holland, 
France,  and  Germany    following. 

Russia  is  an  absolute  hereditary 
monarchy,  the  emperor  (czar  or  tsar) 
being  the  supreme  ruler  and  legisla- 
tor, and  the  final  tribunal  in  all  mat- 
ters political  or  ecclesiastical.  His 
title  is  Emperor  and  Autocrat  of  all 
the  Russias,  Czar  of  Poland,  and 
Grand-prince  of  Finland.  The  ad- 
ministration is  divided  into  12  depart- 
ments, with  a  minister  at  the  head  of 
each  nominated  by  the  emperor.  Hold- 
ing a  distinct  position  from  these  are 
four  great  boards  or  councils.  These 
ave  the  State  council,  the  couasil  "'^ 
ministers,  the  senate  of  the  empire,  and 
the  Holy  Synod.  During  and  after  the 
war  with  Japan  the  agitation  for  an 
elective  Duma  or  Parliament  resulted 
iu  its  creation  Aug.  19,  1905,  but  it  was 
soon  dissolved,  and  internal  troubles 
continued.  Russia  has  a  heavy  for- 
eign debt. 

The  established  religion  of  Russia 
is  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Church,  and 
one  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  the 
State  is  that  the  emperor  must  belong 
to  that  Church,  and  none  of  the  im- 
perial family  may  marry  a  wife  be- 
longing to  another  religion  without 
the  express  sanction  of  the  emperor. 
Dissenters  from  the  Orthodox  Church 
are  known  as  "  raskolniki,"  and  are 
nominally  tolerated,  but  really  subject- 
ed to  serious,  and  often  most  cruel 
maltreatment.  Roman  Catholics  are 
subject  to  certaiii»restrictions,  and  per- 
secution and  piassacre  have  driven  mul- 
titudes of  Jews  into  exile.  Education 
in  spite  of  many  obstacles,  is  progress- 
ing, but  Russia  is  still  nearly  a  century 
behind  most  European  nations.  Only 
23  per  cent,  of  the  aggregate  popula- 
tion receive  education  in  schools.  A 
Jaw  was  passed  in  1888  to  spread  tech- 


nical education ;  there  are  9  leading 
universities,  a  teaching  staff  of  1,039, 
and  14,542  students. 

Russia's  real  greatness  may  be  said 
to  date  from  the  accession  of  Peter 
the  Great  in  1696,  who  first  secured 
for  the  country  the  attention  of  the 
more  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  From 
then  on  the  growth  of  the  empire 
was  continuous. 

Russian  Expansion,  in  tlie 
19tli  Century.  At  the  opening  of  the 
19th  century,  the  Russian  empire,  with 
a  territory  of  some  seven  and  a  half 
millions  of  square  miles,  was  by  far 
the  largest  state  in  the  world.  Its 
population,  however,  of,  say  40,000,- 
000,  though  greater  than  that  of 
France  or  Germany,  was  smaller  than 
that  of  the  part  of  India  already  under 
British  control,  and  insignificant  com- 
pared with  the  teeming  swarms  in 
China.  The  huge,  thinly  settled  domin- 
ions of  which  Alexander  I.  became 
ruler  in  March,  1801,  extended  over 
three  continents ;  and  except  where 
they  reached  the  seas  which  for  the 
most  part  closed  them  in  rather  than 
served  as  outlets,  and  except  where 
they  were  cut  off  from  China  by  the 
range  of  '"He  Tian-Shan  mountains, 
they  lacked  almost  everywhere  natural 
geograhical  boundaries.  Since  then  the 
growth  of  Russia  has  been  of  a  two- 
fold kind,  namely,  the  billing  up  of 
vacant  spaces  within  her  own  borders 
and  an  expansion  along  obvious  lines ; 
for,  over  and  above  the  ambition  of  in- 
dividuals and  the  accidents  of  histor- 
ical development,  we  can  perceive  the 
great  natural  forces  which  have  deter- 
mined her  march  toward  the  open 
sea  and  toward  immediate  contact  with 
the  firm  lijnits  of  the  other  chief  pow- 
ers of  the  civilized  world.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  noteworthy  that  cer- 
tain impulses  which  have  often  built  up 
empires  have  in  her  case  been  con- 
spicuously absent.  Even  in  Russia  the 
days  of  crusades  are  nearly  over,  while 
those  of  commercial  expansion  are  only 
just  beginning.  Nationalism,  too, 
which  has  made  modern  Germany  and 
Italy,  though  it  led  the  government  of 
the  czar  in  the  19th  century  to  attempt 
with  more  or  less  success  the  Russifica- 
tion  of  his  subject  peoples,  did  not  in- 
fluence changes  of  boundaries.  The 
partition  of  Poland  had  already 
brought     under     one     rule     all     the 


Russian  Expansion 


Russian  Expansion 


branches  of  the  nationality  (Great, 
Little,  and  White  Russians)  except 
the  three  millions  of  Little  Russians 
once  Polish  subjects,  now  Austrian, 
and  in  religious  communication  under 
their  own  rites,  with  Rome,  not  Mos- 
cow. United  Russia  has  with  this  ex- 
ception, long  been  a  fact,  and  the  shal- 
low, unpractical  doctrines  of  Panslav- 
ism  have  brought  no  lost  sheep  into 
the  national  fold. 

For  the  sake  of  clearness,  we  shall 
trace  the  changes  first  on  one  and  then 
on  another  of  the  frontiers  of  the  em- 
pire, rather  than  follow  strictly  chron- 
ological order,  noticing  at  the  outset 
that  almost  all  the  gain  since  1815 
has  been  made  in  Asia,  while  the  Euro- 
pean acquisitions  belong  to  the  earli- 
est years  of  the  century,  and  Russian 
America  has  ceased  to  exist.  We  thus 
get  the  keynote  to  the  policy  that  has 
been  followed  and  the  ground  of  its 
success.  Progress  has  been  made  along 
the  lines  of  least  resistance  and  most 
profit.  There  has  been  comparatively 
little  desire  to  annex  thickly  settled 
regions  inhabi-ted  by  highly  civilized 
peoples ;  and  at  the  other  extreme  the 
region  we  now  call  Alaska  was  aban- 
doned as  too  remote  to  be  worth  the 
effort  of  retaining.  Russian  territory 
is  hence  not  only  larger  but  more  com- 
pact than  it  was  a  century  ago. 

Beginning  with  the  European  and 
N.  W.  frontier,  the  first  great  acqui- 
sition of  the  czars  in  the  19th  century 
was  the  province  of  Finland.  Finland 
had  been  for  600  years  a  part  of 
Sweden ;  the  upper  classes  and  the 
populations  of  the  towns  spoke  Swed- 
ish, and  the  whole  people  had  accept- 
ed Lutheran  Protestantism.  In  spite 
also  of  some  discontent,  chiefly  among 
the  aristocracy,  the  land  as  a  whole 
was  perfectly  loyal  to  the  government 
at  Stockholm.  What  made  a  Russian 
conquest  of  Finland  almost  inevitable 
sooner  or  later  was  the  position  of  St. 
Petersburg.  Peter  the  Great  founded 
his  capital  on  his  enemy's  soil,  and 
even  the  victorious  treaties  concluded 
by  him  and  by  his  daughter  Elizabeth, 
still  left  the  town  within  a  few  miles 
of  the  frontier.  How  great  the  danger 
might  be  was  shown  in  1789  by  the 
sudden  attack  of  Gustavus  III.  of 
Sweden,  at  a  moment  when  the  Rus- 
sian armies  were  in  the  far  South 
operating  against  the  Turks.  Prob- 
ably nothing  but  the  mistakes  of  tho 


Swedish  king  and  the  disloyalty  of  his 
ofiicers  saved  Russia  on  this  occasion 
from  the  humiliation  of  seeing  her 
capital  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy.  The  peril  ntill  existed,  for, 
however  weak  Sweden  was  herself, 
her  territory  might  be  used  as  a  base 
of  operations  by  some  stronger  power. 
It  is  not  remarkable,  then,  that  Alex- 
ander profited  by  the  first  opportunity 
of  despoiling  his  neighbor,  showing, 
indeed,  little  scrupulousness  as  to  his 
methods.  In' 1807  his  coalition  against 
France  had  failed,  for  Austria  had  sub- 
mitted to  Napoleon  after  the  battle 
of  Austerlitz,  Jena  had  made  the  con" 
queror  master  of  Prussia,  and  Fried* 
land  exposed  the  czar's  own  lands  to 
invasion  and  to  the  dangers  of  a  Pol- 
ish revolt.  He  accordingly  reversed 
his  policy,  and  after  the  interview  on 
the  raft  in  the  Niemen  and  the  peace 
of  Tilsit  (June  7,  1807),  the  two  sov- 
ereigns, now  sworn  friends,  agreed  to 
combine  against  England  and  to  divide 
the  continent  of  Europe,  as  suited , 
them.  In  return  for  a  free  hand  in  the 
West,  the  French  emperor  abandoned 
Sweden  and  Turkey  to  the  czar.  If  in 
this  transaction  we  can  hardly  blame 
Napoleon  for  showing  little  tenderness 
for  his  fanatical  opponent,  Gustavus 
IV.,  who  had  declared  him  to  be  the 
beast  of  the  Apocalypse,  Alexander 
might  have  been  expected  to  have  some 
hesitation  in  attacking  a  recent  ally 
who  had  given  him  no  real  provoca- 
tion. Even  though  the  blindly  foolish 
conduct  of  Gustavus  did  furnish  the 
pretext  wanted,  the  act  was  one  of 
cold-blooded  and  successful  rapacity. 
Finland,  in  spite  of  the  bravery  of  her 
troops,  was  badly  defended,  owing 
to  the  incompetence  of  the  king  and 
some  of  his  officers.  By  the  treaty 
of  Frederikshamm  (Sept.  17,  1809) 
Sweden  surrendered  the  province,  and 
three  years  later,  Charles  XIV.  (the 
former  French  Marshal  Bernadotte) 
actually  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Russia,  accepting  definitely  what  had 
happened,  in  return  for  the  prospect 
of  getting  Norway. 

Thus  Finland  was  added  with  little 
difficulty  to  the  territories  of  the  czar, 
but  the  circumstances  connected  with 
the  acquisition  are  a  burning  ques- 
tion today.  Alexander  I.  had  been 
brought  up  in  the  cosmopolitan  ideas 
of  the  18th  century,  so  different  from 
the   rabid  nationalism  of  the  present 


Russian  Expansion 


Russian  Expansion 


time.  He  was  as  anxious  as  anyone 
to  enlarge  his  possessions,  but  the  idea 
that  they  must  have  an  exclusive  Rus- 
sian character  \\  as  not  one  that  would 
appeal  to  a  prince  and  court  whose 
language  in  everyday  life  was  French. 
Then,  too,  in  this  the  earlier  period 
of  his  reign,  he  was  full  of  liberal 
dreams.  His  sentimental  nature  saw 
no  incongruity  in  his  being  at  the 
same  time  autocrat  of  all  the  Russias 
and  constitutional  sovereign  of  peo- 
ples used  to  a  freer  form  of  govern- 
ment. As  a  result,  he  treated  Finland 
with  startling  liberality ;  he  made  it 
a  grand-duchy,  almost  independent  of 
Russia,  except  in  foreign  affairs ;  he 
gave  it  a  constitution  based  on  the 
former  one  of  Sweden,  and  he  even 
added  to  the  province  that  part  of  its 
lands  that  had  been  conquered  and 
taken  away  by  Peter  the  Great  and 
Elizabeth.  Under  this  regime  Fin- 
land has  greatly  prospered ;  unfor- 
tunately, however,  the  prosperity  has 
not  unnaturally  excited  the  anger  and 
envy  of  Russians.  They  point  out 
that  the  grand-duchy  has  had  all  the 
advantages  of  its  connection  with  a 
mighty  empire  without  bearing  its  pro- 
portionate share  of  the  burdens,  and 
they  declare  that  what  a  czar  had 
given  a  czar  can  take  away,  and  that 
the  promises  of  Alexander  I.  cannot 
be  regarded  as  binding  on  his  succes- 
sors when  they  entail  an  oljvious  in- 
justice to  the  rest  of  his  peoples.  More 
than  once  has  the  autonomy  of  Fin- 
land been  menaced,  and  at  the  present 
time  when  the  reaction  against  Liber- 
alism is  still  dominant,  and  when  Rus- 
sia, like  many  other  countries,  is  un- 
der the  fierce  influence  of  a  national 
spirit  that  would  like  to  impose  one 
language,  one  law,  and  even  one  re- 
ligion on  all  the  peoples  of  the  em- 
pire, the  privileges  of  the  grand-duchy 
are  more  than  menaced.  Already  the 
separate  tariffs,  stamps,  and  coinage 
are  gone :  the  army  is  to  be  raised  to 
the  same  proportionate  strength  as 
that  of  Russia,  and  practically  incor- 
porated with  it ;  affairs  common  to  all 
parts  of  the  emperor's  domains  are  to 
be  settled  in  St.  Petersburg  alone; 
Russian  will  be  the  oflScial  language, 
and  more  is  yet  to  come.  The  Finns 
have  protested  and  entreated,  but  as 
they  are  far  too  weak  to  be  able  to 
offer  forcible  resistance,  their  ultimate 


fate  would  seem  to  be  only  a  question 
of  time. 

The  same  spirit  which  influenced 
Alexander  as  regards  Finland  dictated 
his  conduct  toward  his  Polish  prov- 
inces. Though  of  the  three  powers 
that  had  partitioned  Poland,  Russia 
had  obtained  the  largest  share,  she 
had  acquired  comparatively  few  sub- 
jects of  strictly  Polish  blood.  The 
great  majority  of  the  genuine  Poles 
(with  their  two  capitals,  Warsaw 
and  Cracow)  had  fallen  to  Prussia 
and  Austria,  while  the  Empress  Cath- 
erine had  taken  territories  chiefly  in- 
habited by  Lithuanians  and  Little  and 
White  Russians,  which  she  might  hope 
in  time  to  assimilate  with  the  rest 
of  her  empire.  Alexander  I.  early 
showed  an  eagerness  for  all  the  Polish 
territory  that  he  could  get.  At  the 
peace  of  Tilsit  it  was  arranged  that 
he  should  obtain  the  province  of  Bialy- 
stok,  at  the  expense  of  his  faithful 
ally  the  Prussian  king;  at  the  peace 
of  Vienna  (1809)  he  was  given  the 
district  of  Tarnopol  in  Galicia  in  re- 
turn for  his  pretense  of  assisting  Na- 
poleon in  the  war  against  Austria ;  in 
1814  and  1815  at  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  he  pushed  to  the  verge  of  a 
general  European  conflict  his  claim 
to  the  whole  grand-duchy  of  Warsaw, 
and  yielded  only  to  the  combined  op- 
position of  Austria,  England,  and 
France,  which  forced  him  to  content 
himself  without  Galicia  and  Posen. 
But  Alexander's  policy  in  all  this  was 
far  from  being  a  national  one;  on  the 
contrary,  under  the  influence  of  his 
friend  Prince  Czartoryski,  he  re-creat- 
ed the  constitutional  kingdom  of  Pol- 
and, the  old  rival  and  at  one  time  the 
dangerous  enemy  of  Russia ;  and  he 
even  would  have  given  to  it  the  dis- 
puted Lithuanian  territories  but  for 
the  unanimous  opposition  of  his  Mus- 
covite subjects.  However  well  meant, 
it  is  very  questionable  whether  the  ex- 
periment tried  in  181.5  was  not  doomed 
to  failure  from  the  outset.  Since  that 
time  the  frontiers  of  the  czar's  domin- 
ions in  this  region  have  remained  un- 
altered; but  the  kingdom  of  Poland 
disappeared  after  the  insurrection  of 
1830,  and  its  last  national  privileges 
were  taken  away  after  that  of  1863. 

When  we  turn  to  the  South  we  find 
that  the  war  between  Russia  and 
Turkey,  which  ended  with  the  peace 
of  Bucharest  in  1812,  gave  to  the  czar 


Russian  Expansion 


Bnssian  Expansion 


the  territory  of  Bessarabia  between 
the  Dniester  and  the  Pruth.  Alexan- 
der's proverbial  good  fortune  served 
him  well  here,  as,  in  order  to  use  all 
his  forces  against  Napoleon's  great  in- 
vasion he  needed  peace,  in  spite  of  his 
victories,  more  than  did  the  Turks. 
Seventeen  years  later,  by  the  peace  of 
Adrianople  in  1829,  Russia  acquired 
the  islands  of  the  Danube  delta,  which 
she  lost  again  in  consequence  of  the 
Crimean  War  and  has  never  got  back, 
though  the  part  of  Bessarabia  that  she 
was  deprived  of  after  her  defeat  was 
returned  to  her  by  the  treaty  of  Ber- 
lin. Her  frontier  is  thus  practically 
the  same  as  it  was  after  1812,  though 
she  had  a  different  neighbor.  Instead 
of  the  Ottoman  empire,  which  she  now 
no  longer  touches  in  Europe,  she  is 
contiguous  to  the  independent  kingdom 
of  Rumania. 

In  the  mountainous  regions  of  the 
Caucasus,  the  spread  of  Russian  rule 
has  been  marked  by  an  almost  un- 
interrupted series  of  wars  and  expe- 
ditions, during  the  first  three-quarters 
of  the  19th  century.  Already,  in  1782, 
Ileraclius,  Prince  of  the  Christian 
State  of  Georgia,  had  put  himself  un- 
der the  protection  of  Catharine  II. 
This  led  to  war  with  the  Shah  of  Per- 
sia, who  claimed  the  overlordship  of 
the  country.  Paul  I.  withdrew  the 
Russian  troops  that  had  been  sent,  but 
in  1801  the  last  Prince  of  Georgia  ab- 
dicated in  favor  of  the  czar,  and  Alex- 
ander I.  promptly  dispatched  fresh 
forces  to  the  rescue.  In  1803  and  1804 
the  Georgian  dependencies  of  Mingrelia 
and  Imeritia  were  taken  over,  and  hos- 
tilities with  Persia  continued  till  the 
treaty  of  Gulistan  in  1813,  by  which 
Russia  obtained  not  only  Georgia  and 
its  appurtenances,  but  also  the  coast 
of  the  Caspian  at  the  E.  end  of  the 
Caucasus,  including  the  famous  pass 
of  the  Iron  Gates.  The  war  of  182G- 
1828  brought  a  fresh  accession  of  Per- 
sian territory  in  the  shape  of  the 
provinces  of  Erivan  and  Nakhchivan, 
with  a  frontier  extending  to  Mt.  Ara- 
rat- The  fierce  mountaineers  of  the 
znain  chain,  however,  especially  the 
Circassians  in  the  W.  and  the  Les- 
ghians  and  Tchesmeans  in  the  E.,  lonj, 
defied  the  efforts  of  the  great  armies 
employed  against  them.  For  many 
years  the  Russian  government  occupied 
only  the  coast  of  the  Kuban  on  the  I 
Black  Sea  to  cut  off  the  Circassians ' 


from  foreign  aid,  and  it  was  not  till 
18(34  that  they  were  finally  subdued, 
and  the  chief  tribes  N.  of  the  moun- 
tains were  given  the  choice  of  moving 
into  other  less  inaccessible  lands  or  of 
emigrating  into  Turkey.  In  the  E., 
in  Daghestan,  Kazi  Mollah  and  his 
more  famous  successor  Shamyl  after 
1824  kept  up  a  desperate  resistance 
repeatedly  escaping  or  defeating  the 
expeditions  sent  against  them,  till  the 
capture  of  Gunib  and  of  Shamyl  him- 
self in  1859.  From  Turkey,  Russia 
acquired  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople 
the  regions  about  the  towns  of  Poti 
and  Achalzig ;  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin, 
the  seaport  of  Batum  and  the  terri- 
tory and  fortress  of  Kars,  though  ow- 
ing to  the  opposition  of  England  she 
was  obliged  to  retrocede  the  city  of 
Bayezid,  near  Mt.  Ararat,  which  had 
been  surrendered  to  her  at  San  Ste- 
fano.  The  province  of  Transcaucasia 
now  has  an  area  of  94,000  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  some  eight  and  a 
half  millions,  unequaled  perhaps  in  the 
world  for  variety  of  nationality  and 
language. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  Caspian, 
in  the  huge  but  thinly  inhabited  re- 
gions of  central  Asia,  we  find  the 
greatest  extension  of  Russia  in  the 
last  century,  and  particularly  in  the 
latter  half ;  for  previous  to  the  reign 
of  Alexander  II.  she  had  done  little 
but  occupy  a  few  bases  of  operations 
and  send  Perovski's  unfortunate  ex- 
pedition against  Khiva  in  1839  and 
1840.  Even  leaving  out  of  considera- 
tion any  ambition  of  the  statesmen  of 
St."  Petersburg  to  push  the  borders  of 
the  empire  toward  the  open  sea,  or  to 
occupy  such  a  position  on  the  flank 
of  India  as  would  force  Great  Britain 
to  think  twice  before  making  troif 
ble  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  the 
conquest  of  Turkestan  (as  it  used 
to  be  called)  was  inevitable,  sooner  or 
later.  No  uncivilized  modern  State 
submits  in  the  long  run  to  the  neigh- 
borhood of  a  jumble  of  barbarous  prin- 
cioalitiee  and  tribes,  unable  and  often 
vinwIlUng  to  maintam  order  within 
their  own  boundaries  or  to  prevent 
depredations  beyond  them.  The  Musco- 
vite campaigns  in  central  Asia  may 
have  been  due  to  political  schemes  of 
the  time  or  to  the  ambition  of  indi- 
viduals, but  at  bottom  they  were 
brought  about  by  perfectly  natural 
causes,  like  the  spread  of  British  rule 


Russian  Expansion 


Russian  Expansion 


in  India  after  it  had  once  obtained 
a  real  foothold.  It  is  unnecessary 
here  to  do  more  than  recapitulate  the 
chief  steps. 

By  18t>4  Tchernaiev  had  conquered 
most  of  the  region  to  the  E.  of  the 
Syr-Daria,  or  Jaxartes ;  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  took  Tashkend  by  storm ; 
in  1868  Samarcand  was  annexed  and 
the  defeated  Emir  of  Bokhara  com- 
pelled to  submit ;  in  1873  Kaufmann 
made  his  successful  expedition  against 
Khiva,  which  was  reduced  to  a  vassal 
state  and  the  desert  regions  to  the  E. 
and  W.  of  it  were  added  to  the  em- 
pire ;  in  187G  Khokand,  having  revolt- 
ed against  its  khan,  was  subdued  and 
annexed.  Up  to  this  point  Russian 
progress  had  been  from  the  N.,  and 
much  impeded  by  the  huge  desert 
stretches  the  troops  had  been  obliged 
to  traverse.  Now,  immediately  after 
the  last  war  with  Turkey  which  so 
nearly  led  to  a  conflict  with  England, 
we  find  the  Russians  starting  from  a 
new  base  of  operations,  their  posts  at 
the  S.  E.  of  the  Caspian,  and  pushing 
•with  more  conscious  purpose  along  a 
line  just  N.  of  the  Persian  frontier, 
maintaining  their  communications  and 
greatly  strengthening  their  position  by 
building  the  Transcaspian  railway  be- 
hind them.  In  1881  Skobelev  took 
Geok  Tepe  by  storm;  two  years  later 
Merv  surrendered  without  resistance ; 
in  1885  Komarov  defeated  the  Afghans 
at  the  Kooshk  river ;  and  the  frontier 
marked  out  by  the  Anglo-Indian  De- 
limitation Commission  in  the  following 
year  gave  Russia  the  district  of  Penj- 
Ueh.  Farther  to  the  E.,  in  the  high 
jiountains  of  the  Pamir  plateau,  the 
meeting  place  of  empires,  a  definite 
boundary  which  now  brings  the  two 
mighty  rivals  into  immediate,  if  al- 
most inaccessible  contact,  was  estab- 
lished in  1895.  In  Persia  the  conflict 
of  influence  between  them  has  lasted 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  century, 
and  still  continues.  At  present,  a  trea- 
ty made  recently  seems  to  put  the 
government  at  Teheran  financially  in 
the  hands  of  that  of  St.  Petersburg, 
but  as  yet  we  cannot  call  Persia 
a  part  of  the  dominions  of  Nicholas 
II.  any  more  than  we  can  say  Afghan- 
istan belongs  to  King  Edward.  On 
the  other  hand,  Khiva  and  Bukhara 
(most  maps  to  the  contrary  notwith- 
standine^    are  ^s  much   a  portion   of 


the  Russian  empire  as  any  native  In- 
dian state  is  of  the  British. 

To  the  N.  E.  of  central  Asia,  Kool- 
dja,  in  the  valley  of  the  upper  waters 
of  the  Hi  river,  had  fallen  into  a 
state  of  anarchy  at  the  time  of  the 
great  Dungan  rebellion  against  China. 
Profiting  by  the  confusion,  as  the  dis- 
trict was  on  their  side  of  the  moun- 
tains and  seemed  only  a  natural  geo- 
graphical continuation  of  their  own 
province  of  Semiretchinsk,  the  Rus- 
sians occupied  it  and  held  it  for  10 
years.  The  Chinese,  however,  having 
reestablished  their  authority  elsewhere, 
now  demanded  back  Kooldja,  to  obtain 
which  they  appeared  ready  to  go  to 
war  if  necessary.  As  such  a  war 
would  have  been  most  unwelcome  to 
the  government  at  St.  Petersburg  it 
yielded  after  some  negotiation,  and 
gave  up  the  greater  part  of  the  terri- 
tory, though  retaining  the  W.  portion. 

Turning  now  to  Siberia,  we  find 
that  almost  the  whole  of  it  has  be- 
longed to  Russia  since  much  earlier 
than  the  19th  century.  Its  recent  his- 
tory, therefore,  has  chiefly  been  one  of 
internal  development  and  of  filling  up 
with  an  immigrant  population,  for 
long  very  slowly,  but  with  an  ever- 
increasing  rush  in  the  last  dozen  years. 
The  Trans-Siberian  railway,  whose 
traflSc  is  already  far  beyond  the  esti- 
mates will  greatly  facilitate  the  devel- 
opment of  the  fresh  sources  of  wealth 
of  many  kinds  that  are  being  discov- 
ered ;  and  the  annual  immigration,  in 
spite  of  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the 
government  to  restrict  it,  has  risen  to 
something  like  two  hundred  thousand 
people.  What  Siberia  needed  most  was 
an  outlet  to  the  E.,  for  the  treaty  of 
Nerchinsk,  in  1689,  had  cut  off  Russia 
for  nearly  two  centuries  from  the  low- 
er valley  of  the  Amur  and  any  sea- 
coast  with  a  temperate  climate.  One 
man,  Muraviev  (appointed  Governor 
of  East  Siberia  in  1847).  acting  on  his 
own  initiative  and  in  spite  of  coldness 
and  of  some  hostility  on  the  part  of 
his  superiors,  made  a  marvelous  change 
in  the  situation.  Trusting  to  the  decay 
of  Chinese  strength  and  authority  in 
these  regions,  he  descended  the  Amur 
river  and  established  on  its  banks  a 
series  of  posts,  including  the  factory  of 
Nikolaievsk  at  the  A^ery  mouth  (1851)  ; 
and  finally,  profiting  by  the  Taiping 
rebellion,  the  troubles  of  China  wit! 
England  and  France,  and  the  general 


Hnssian  Expansion 


Russian  Expansion 


confusion  and  imbecility  at  Peking,  he 
signed  after  six  days'  negotiation  in 
1858  thie  treaty  of  Aigun,  which,  sup- 

1)lemcnted  by  that  of  Peking  two  years 
ater,  gave  Russia  not  only  the  whole 
N.  bank  of  the  Amur,  but  also  the 
maritime  province  between  its  S.  af- 
fluent, the  Ussuri,  and  the  sea,  with 
the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Vladi- 
vostok. The  importance  of  these  ac- 
quisitions can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
Russia  not  only  gained  a  rich  terri- 
tory of  extreme  value  to  the  rest  of 
Siberia,  but  her  relations  with  the 
Chinese  empire  were  revolutionized; 
she  now  had  a  position  of  vantage 
which  properly  defended,  was  of  great 
strategic  and  commercial  importance. 

We  may  note  as  a  small  later  gain 
the  part  of  the  island  of  Sakhalin  held 
by  the  Japanese  and  ceded  by  them  in 
1875  in  return  for  the  Kurile  Islands, 
but  we  need  not  include  in  our  ac- 
count here  the  interference  of  Russia 
in  the  Chinese-Japanese  War,  her  de- 
signs on  Korea,  her  lease  of  Port  Ar- 
thur and  Talien-Wan,  and  her  acqui- 
sition of  partially  sovereign  rights  in 
Manchuria.  In  none  of  these  cases 
was  there  definite,  absolute  cession  of 
territory,  though  it  practically  amount- 
ed to  this  for  Liao-tung  peninsula ; 
still,  in  view  of  what  was  happening  in 
China,  these  last  events  may  be  treated 
as  mere  preliminaries  to  a  chapter  of 
history  belonging  to  the  20th  century. 
It  is  worth  noting,  however,  that  in 
her  attitude  toward  China,  Russia 
seemed  to  be  partly  actuated  by  the 
modern  motives  of  commercialism, 
which  hitherto  had  played  little  role  in 
her  history,  owing  to  the  very  recent 
industrial  development.  In  concluding 
our  survey  of  the  changes  of  bounda- 
ries of  the  empire  of  the  czar,  we 
must  not  forget  that,  on  the  Amer- 
ican continent,  not  only  did  the  at- 
tempt to  found  settlements  near  the 
Columbia  river  in  1809  and  in  Cali- 
fornia in  1812  lead  to  nothing,  but  in 
1867  Russia  sold  all  her  American  pos- 
sessions, amounting  to  over  half  a 
million  square  miles,  to  the  United 
States  for  the  small  sum  of  $7,200,- 
000.    See  Aiaska. 

When  we  try  to  sum  up  our  im- 
pressions of  a  century  of  Russian  ex- 
pansion, the  first  glance  at  the  figures 
should  show  us  the  error  of  the  com- 
mon Anglo-Saxon  notion  that  we  are 
dealing  with  a  particularly  rapacious 


power  growing  faster  than  any  other. 
Counting  up  gains  and  losses,  we  find 
that  the  increase  of  Russian  territory 
during  the  century  has  been  far  less 
than  that  of  Great  Britain,  or  of  the 
United  States,  or  even  of  France,  and 
is  hardly  larger  than  the  colonies  ac- 
quired by  Germany  in  the  last  15 
years.  Even  as  lately  as  a  generation 
ago,  the  Russian  empire  was  double 
the  size  of  the  British;  it  is  now  the 
smaller  of  the  two  by  over  30  per  cent. 
Its  great  accession  of  strength  has 
come  chiefly  from  the  natural  growth 
of  its  population  and  the  development 
of  its  resources.  If  it  were  suddenly 
reduced  today  to  its  frontiers  of  the 
year  1800,  it  would  still  be  the  second 
largest  State  in  the  world,  with  a 
population  of  over  a  hundred  millions 
of  inhabitants.  What  makes  the  power 
of  Russia  appear  so  imposing,  and  her 
advance  so  irresistible,  is  not  so  much 
the  size  of  her  armies  and  the  skill 
and  ambition  of  her  statesmen,  whose 
reputation  has  often  been  exaggerated ; 
it  is  rather  the  compactness  of  her 
enormous  mass  which  gives  her  the 
same  sort  of  practical  invulnerability 
possessed  by  the  United  States.  Where- 
as we  can  without  much  difiiculty  con- 
ceive of  a  war  that  would  deprive  En- 
gland or  France  or  Germany  of  all 
their  colonial  possessions,  and  even 
mutilate  their  territories  so  that  they 
would  forfeit  indefinitely  the  position 
of  great  world  powers  which  they  now 
hold,  such  a  disaster  is  almost  incon- 
ceivable of  Russia.  She  might  be 
beaten  by  a  coalition,  and  exhausted, 
as  she  was  by  the  Crimean  War;  she 
might  lose  Finland,  Poland,  her  terri- 
tories S.  of  the  Caucasus ;  none  of 
these  would  affect  her  vitally,  and 
even  the  taking  away  of  her  coast  on 
the  Pacific  might  check,  but  could  not 
prevent  the  development  of  Siberia, 
and  would  be  difficult  to  maintain  in 
the  end.  However  the  extremities 
might  suffer  the  great  national  bulk 
of  the  empire  would  remain  little 
harmed  and  would  need  but  a  few 
years'  rest  to  begin  to  expand  again 
along  natural  lines.  No  wonder  that 
the  progress  of  Russia  has  been  lik- 
ened to  that  of  a  glacier.  This  prog- 
ress, like  that  of  every  conqueriig 
empire  has  been  marked  by  much  that 
is  unjustifiable,  but  though  perhaps 
there  has  been  more  Eastern  crooked- 
ness in  her  methods  than  in  those  of 


Kusso-Japanese  Dispnte 


Rnsso-Japanese  DispnteV 


some  other  countries,  on  the  score  of 
rapacity  or  the  desire  to  extend  the 
benefits  of  civilization, — call  it  what 
you  will, — no  one  of  the  great  nations 
of  the  world  can  afford  to  throw  stones 
at  the  others.  The  Anglo-Saxon  finds 
it  difiicult  to  sympathize  with  Musco- 
vite ideals  of  government,  and  is  of- 
ten loud  in  his  denunciation  of  the 
practices  of  the  Russians  ;  but  he  must 
admit  that  with  the  possible  exception 
of  Finland  and  Poland,  all  the  regions 
which  have  passed  under  their  rule  in 
the  19th  century  have  found  it,  what- 
ever its  faults,  unquestionably  supe- 
rior to  anything  they  had  before 
known.  A.  O.  Coolidge. 

Rnsso-Japanese  Dispnte  and 
War.  Japan's  victory  over  China  in 
1894-95  in  regard  to  Korean  suze- 
rainty, was  followed  by  Russia's  dip- 
lomatic victory  over  Japan,  when,  with 
the  aid  of  France  and  Germany,  Ja- 
pan was  forced  to  accept  an  indem- 
nity in  lieu  of  the  command  of  the 
Liao-tung  Peninsula  at  the  S.  extrem- 
ity of  Manchuria.  Russia,  however, 
in  1898  obtained  virtual  control  of  the 
peninsula  from  China  by  the  lease  of 
Dalny  and  Port  Arthur,  the  principal 
ports,  and  further  increased  her  ad- 
vantage by  a  military  occupation  of 
Manchuria  during  the  Boxer  troubles 
in  1901,  undertaking,  however,  to  evac- 
uate the  disputed  territory  finally  by 
Oct.,  1903.  Manchuria  and  Korea 
were  indispensable  to  Russia  as  a  base 
for  Asiatic  absorption.  They  were 
equally  indispensable  to  Japan,  as 
affording  living  room  for  her  surplus 
millions,  the  expansion  of  her  com- 
merce, and  as  a  barrier  from  foreign 
aggression.  Long-protracted  diplomatic 
representations  on  the  part  of  Japan 
in  regard  to  Russia's  continued  en- 
croachments in  Manchuria  and  Korea 
and  failure  to  keep  her  promise  of 
evacuation  were  ignored  by  Russia, 
and  on  Feb.  6,  1904,  Japan,  after  noti- 
fication, ceased  further  negotiations. 
War  began  without  a  formal  declara- 
tion on  Feb.  9. 

Port  Arthur  and  Chemulpo  Attacks. 
(Feb.  8  and  9.)  Togo  and  Uriu  com- 
manding the  Japanese  and  Alexiefif  the 
Russians.  Russia  lost  2  vessels  sunk 
and  7  disabled :  the  Japanese.  2  tor- 
pedo boats  sunk.  The  victories  gave 
Japan  the  command  of  Far  Eastern 
sratefs. 


Yalu  River.  (May  1.)  The  Japa- 
nese, under  Kuroki,  defeated  the  Rus- 
sians under  Zassalitch,  thus  opening 
the  way  to  the  invasion  of  Manchuria. 
71,500  men  were  engaged,  the  casual- 
ties being  3,196  Russians  to  1,039  Ja- 
panese. 

Nan  -  Shan  Hill  and  Kin  -  Chow. 
(May  26.)  This  victory  of  the  Japa- 
nese, under  Oku,  cut  Port  Arthur  oflE 
from  the  north.  140,000  men  were 
engaged,  the  casualties  amounting  to 
1,704  Russians  and  3,500  Japanese. 

Wafang-Kao.  (June  14  and  15.) 
Stakelberg's  attempt  to  reenforce  the 
Port  Arthur  garrison  was  defeated  by 
Oku,  the  former  losing  4,635  men  and 
the  latter  1,120.  120,000  were  en- 
gaged. 

Liao-Yang.  (Aug.  26  to  Sept.  4.) 
The  first  general  conflict  between  the 
two  entire  armies,  Kuropatkin  and 
Oyama  commanding  in  person.  Of  the 
420,000  men  engaged  the  Russian 
casualties  are  given  at  22,056  and  the 
Japanese  at  17,539.  The  victory  lay 
with  Japan.  Kuropatkin's  retreat  to 
Moukden  was  masterly. 

Sha  River.  (Oct.  11  to  21.)  A 
second  contest  between  t'le  same  com- 
manders and  forces  as  at  Liao-Yang 
resulted  in  another  vi  tual  draw,  al< 
though  the  Russians  were  compelled  to 
continue  their  retreat.  Total  casual- 
ties, 83,747—67,868  Russians  and  15,- 
879  Japanese. 

203-Metre  Hill.  (Nov.  30.)  The 
bloodiest  of  the  conflicts  waged  about 
Port  Arthur,  the  Japanese  victory 
leading  directly  to  the  later  surrender 
of  the  town.  The  Russians  lost  in 
killed  and  wounded  about  3,000,  the 
Japanese  fully  five  times  as  many. 

Port  Arthur.  Isolated  on  May  14, 
1904 ;  surrendered  Jan.  2,  1905 ;  a 
siege  of  232  days.  The  garrison  (43,- 
632  men  with  778  guns)  was  com- 
manded bv  Stoessel ;  the  attacking 
force  (87,902  men,  with  608  guns)  by 
Nogi.  From  Aug.  19  31  distinct  at- 
tacks were  made  and  3  sorties;  the 
fighting  was  practically  continuous. 
The  total  casualties  have  been  given 
as  :  Russian,  32,745 ;  Japanese,  97,480. 
Russia  surrendered  24,369  men,  546 
guns,  82,670  shells,  127  tons  of  pow- 
der, 35,252  rifles,  2,266,800  cartridges 
and  1,920  horses.  The  victory  had 
cost  .Japan  about  $100,000,000,  while 
the  Russian   financial  loss,    including 


Rnsso-Japanese  Dispnte 


Rntledge 


the  value  of  the  destroyed  fleet,  was 
not  less  than  half  again  as  much.  Con- 
sidered as  a  demonstration  of  the  pitch 
to  which  human  fortitude  and  valor 
may  be  carried,  the  siege  of  Port  Ar- 
thur reflects  the  highest  credit  on  both 
the  defenders  and  the  assailants. 

Hun  River  (Sandepas).  (Jan.  25 
to  29.)  Gripenberg's  brave  but  fruit- 
less attempt  to  turn  the  wing  of 
Oyama's  army  cost  him  12,000  men, 
with  a  loss  to  his  enemy  of  but  5,000 ; 
150,000  were  engaged. 

Moukden.  (Feb.  24  to  March  12.) 
The  greatest  of  the  land  actions  of  the 
war,  Oyama  and  Kuropatkin  again 
facing  each  other  with  forces  of  from 
700,000  to  800,000,  engaged  along  a 
front  extending  from  60  to  100  miles. 
Japan's  casualties  amounted  to  41,- 
222 ;  those  of  Russia  to  nearly  90,000. 
40,000  Russian  prisoners  were  taken. 
Oyama's  spoils  included  60  guns,  200,- 
000  shells,  60,000  rifles,  25,000,000 
rifle  cartridges,  2,000  horses,  350,000 
bushels  of  grain  and  fodder  and  1,000,- 
000  bread  rations.  In  the  numbers 
engaged,  in  extent  of  the  field,  in  the 
duration  of  the  struggle  and  in  the 
magnitude  of  the  losses  Moukden  so 
far  overshadows  all  previous  battles. 

The  Sea  of  Jai>an.  (May  27  to  28.) 
The  annihilation  of  the  combined 
fleets  under  Rojestvensky  (36  vessels 
of  all  classes,  mounting  372  guns)  by 
the  Japanese  fleet  under  Togo  (32  ves- 
sels of  all  classes,  with  a  number  of 
torpedo  boats,  the  whole  mounting  3.30 
guns),  at  a  cost  to  Russia  of  $73,500,- 
000  and  the  gain  to  Japan  of  absolute 
command  of  the  situation  in  the  P"'ar 
East.  Six  battleships,  5  cruisers,  1 
coast  defence  vessel,  2  special  service 
boats  and  3  destroyers  of  the  Russian 
fleet  were  sunk,  and  2  battleships,  2 
coast  defence  vessels  and  1  destroyer 
were  captured,  along  with  3,000  pris- 
oners, including  Admirals  Rojestvensky 
and  Is^ebogatoff;  8,550  Russians  were 
killed  or  drowned,  including  Admiral 
Voelkersam.  Japan  accomplished  this 
at  a  cost  to  herself  of  3  torpedo  boats 
sunk,  113  men  killed  and  444  wounded. 

Total  forces  engaged  since  the  out- 
break of  the  war  has  been  about 
1,540,000. 

Of  these  the  killed,  permanently  dis- 
abled and  invalided  home  have  been 
computed  at  625,000;  375,000  Rus- 
sians and  250,000  Japanese. 


In  money  (including  property  de- 
stroyed) the  war  has  cost  Russia 
$1,075,000,000.  On  June  5,  1905,  it 
was  estimated  at  Tokio  that  the  cost 
to  Japan  was  $475,000,000.  Bringing 
the  total  money  cost  (at  the  time  of 
the  agreement  to  peace  parleys)  to 
$1,550,000,000. 

In  ships  of  all  classes  the  Russians 
lost  68  and  the  Japanese  24. 

June  9,  1905,  President  Roosevelt 
opened  diplomatic  correspondence  with 
the  fighting  powers  looking  to  peace; 
two  days  later  Russia  and  Japan 
pledged  themselves  to  a  peace  parley. 

The  two  empires  agreed,  in  response 
to  President  Roosevelt's  invitation,  to 
send  peace  commissioners  to  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.  The  long  diplomatic 
struggle  was  finally  taken  out  of  their 
hands,  and  the  parley  became  between 
St.  Petersburg  and  Tokio  with  Wash- 
ington as  mouthpiece  for  both. 

The  real  close  of  the  long  struggle 
between  the  envoys  at  Portsmouth 
came  when  Japan  made  her  sudden 
and  unexpected  concessions  in  the 
matter  of  indemnity  and  Saghalien. 
The  Japanese  offer,  at  the  morning 
session  of  Aug.  29,  to  sell  to  Russia 
half  of  the  island  for  $600,000,000, 
Japan's  estimated  war  expenses,  was 
refused  by  Russia.  The  Japanese  en- 
voy then  offered  to  waive  the  indem- 
nity claim  and  to  compromise  on  the 
division  of  Saghalien.  The  Russians 
at  once  accepted.  Copies  of  the  treaty 
left  the  United  States  for  Tokio  and 
St.    Petersburg    on    Sept.    5,    1905. 

Rutland,  city  and  capital  of  Rut- 
land county,  Vt. ;  on  Otter  cr6ek  and 
the  Delaware  &  Hudson  and  other 
railroads;  68  miles  S.  of  Burlington; 
has  important  manufactures;  large 
trade  in  dairy  products,  grain,  wool, 
and  lumber;  chief  industries,  quarry- 
ing and  manufacture  of  marble  and 
slate;  contains  a  Federal  Building, 
Baxter  Memorial  Reference  and  Free 
Public  libraries.  State  House  of  Cor- 
rection. State  Penitentiary,  and  the 
first  State  Capitol.  Pop.  (1910) 
13,546. 

Rntledge,  Edward,  an  American 
statesman:  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C, 
Nov.  23,  1749;  was  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  in  1774-1777; 
and  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  He  was  lieuten- 
ant-colonel of  the  Charleston  Artillery 


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Rntledge 

which  aided  in  expelling  the  British 
from  the  island  of  Port  Royal  in  1779 ; 
and  was  captured  in  1780  and  impris- 
oned for  a  year  in  St.  Augustine.  At 
the  conclusion  of  hostilities,  he  re- 
Bumed  the  practice  of  law  in  Charles- 
ton ;  and  was  elected  governor  of 
South  Carolina  in  1798.  He  died  in 
Charleston,  S.  C,  Jan.  23,  1800. 

Rntledge,  Jolin,  an  American 
jurist,  brother  of  Edward ;  born  in 
Charleston,  S.  C,  in  1739.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  South  Carolina  conven- 
tion of  1774  that  decided  to  take  part 
in  the  Continental  Congress,  and  a 
delegate  to  the  latter  body  in  1775 ; 
chairman  of  the  committee  that  framed 
the  South  Carolina  constitution  in 
1776,  and  elected  that  year  president 
of  the  new  State  government  and 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  militia.  In 
1778  he  was  again  elected  governor 
of  South  Carolina.  In  1780,  when 
Charleston  was  captured  by  the  Brit- 
ish, he  retired  to  North  Carolina, 
joining  Greene's  army;  but  resumed 
the  governorship  at  the  close  of  the 
war.  In  1782  he  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress, and  reelected  in  1783.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  convention  that 
framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  In  July,  1795,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Washington  Chief  Justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  and  served  the 
August  term  of  that  year;  but  his 
mental  faculties  failing,  he  was  not 
confirmed  by  the  Senate  in  December. 
He  died  in  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina, July  23,  1800. 

Ryan,  Abram  Josepli,  an  Ameri- 
can verse-writer ;  bom  in  Norfolk, 
Va.,  Aug.  15,  1839.  It  was  while  chap- 
lain in  the  Confederate  army  that  he 
wrote  his  well  known  poem  *'  The 
Conquered  Banner,"  composed  shortly 
after  Lee's  surrender.  He  died  in 
Louisville,  Ky.,  April  22,  1886. 

Ryan,  Carroll,  a  Canadian  au- 
thor; born  in  Toronto,  Ont,  Feb.  3, 
1839.  On  leaving  the  army,  where  he 
served  during  the  Crimean  War,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  journalism  and  lit- 
erature. He  edited  and  published  a 
number  of  Canadian  newspapers,  con- 
tributed articles  and  poems  to  maga- 
zines, and  lectured  on  the  Liberal  side. 
His  published  works  include :  "  Oscar, 
and  Other  Poems,"  "  The  Canadian 
Northwest  and  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway." 


Ryotwar 

Ryan,  Patrick  John,  an  Ameri- 
can Koman  Catholic  prelate ;  born  ins 
Thurles,  Ireland,  Feb.  20,  1831.  He 
was  ordained  deacon  in  1853;  raised^ 
to  the  priesthood  in  1854;  was  elected 
coadjutor  archbishop  of  St.  Louis  in 
1872;  promoted  archbishop  in  1883 r 
transferred  to  the  see  of  Philadel- 
phia in  1884;  and  died  there,  Feb.. 
11.   1911. 

Ryan,  Thomas  Fanlkner,  capi- 
talist ;  b.  Oct.  17,  1851.  Nelson  Co.,. 
Va.  With  an  elementary  education 
he  became  a  drygoods  clerk  in  Balti- 
more, in  1870  went  to  New  York,  in 
1876  became  a  member  of  the  N.  Y. 
Stock  Exchange,  and  since  identified 
with  Southern  financial,  national 
steam  and  electric  railroad,  munic- 
ipal lighting,  and  insurance  interests. 

Rye,  a  grain  universally  cultivated 
which  grows  on  poor,  light  soils. 

Rye  Honse  Plot,  in  English  his- 
tory a  conspiracy,  planned  in  1083,  the 
immediate  object  of  which  was  to  as- 
sassinate Charles  II.  and  his  brother, 
the  Duke  of  York  (afterward  James 
II.),  as  they  returned  from  the  New- 
market races,  but  it  was  frustrated  by 
the  king  and  his  brother  happening 
to  return  from  Newmarket  earlier 
than  was  expected.  The  detection  of 
the  plot  led  to  the  arrest,  on  a  charge 
of  high  treason,  of  Lords  William 
Russell,  Essex,  and  Algernon  Sidney, 
who  were  in  no  way  connected  with 
it.  Essex  put  an  end  to  his  own  life 
in  the  Tower,  while  Russell  and  Sid- 
ney were  beheaded,  as  also  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Walcot,  one  of  the  real  con- 
trivers of  the  plot. 

Rymer,  or  Rhymer,  Thomas,  the 
(Thomas  Lermont  of  Erceldoune),  a 
Scotch  poet  of  the  13th  century,  who 
occupies  an  important  place  in  the 
mythical  and  legendary  literature  of 
Scotland.  His  name  is  associated  with 
fragments  of  rhymed  or  alliterative 
verse,  many  of  which  have  been  col- 
lected and  published  as  "The  Prophe- 
cies " ;  and  "  Sir  Tristem :  A  Metric- 
al Romance  Edited  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott  from  the  Auchinleck  MSS." 

Ryotwar,  a  system  of  land  tenure 
in  India,  approaching  the  single-tax 
idea,  where  the  land-cultivators  pay 
directly  to  the  government  for  the  use 
of  the  land. 


,  the  19th  letter  and  the 
15th  consonant  of  the  Eng- 
lish alphabet.  It  repre- 
sents a  hissing  sound  and 
is  classed  as  a  sibilant. 
Saba,  a  small  West  Indian  island 
•belonging  to  Holland  and  governed 
as  a  dependency  of  Curacao.  It  con- 
sists of  a  single  volcano  cone  furrowed 
'by  deep,  wooded,  and  fertile  valleys. 
Area  5  square  miles ;  pop.  2,500. 

Sabseans,  the  name  of  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Yemen  in  Southern 
Arabia. 

Sabbatai  Zevi,  Sabbathais 
"Zevi,  or  Sabtai  Zefi,  a  false  mes- 
siah,  the  founder  of  a  widespread  sect 
of  semi-Christians  and  semi-Jews 
throughout  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa ; 
-born  in  Smyrna,  Turkey,  in  1641.  He 
led  thousands  of  followers,  mainly  in 
Smyrna,  Salonica,  Alexandria  and 
Jerusalem,  to  believe  in  him  as  the 
Messiah.  In  16G4  about  80,000  peo- 
ple belonged  to  the  new  empire.  But 
later  he  was  apprehended  at  Smyrna 
and  terrified  into  something  like  a 
recantation  of  his  mission.  Finally 
the  grand  vizier  was  persuaded  to  im- 
prison Sabbatai  once  more,  and  to 
•send  him  to  Albania  or  Servia,  where 
he  died  in  prison  —  acording  to  some, 
in  consequence  of  poison,  while  accord- 
ing to  others  he  was  executed  in  1677, 
10  years  after  his  conversion. 

Sabbatarian,  in  the  16th  century, 
a  sect  who  considered  that  the  Chris- 
tian Sabbath  should  be  kept  on  the 
seventh  day  (Saturday).  In  modern 
times  the  word  means  one  who  holds 
*hat  the  Lord's  day  is  to  be  observed 
among  the  Christians  in  exactly  the 
«ame  manner  as  the  ,Tews  were  enjoin- 
ed to  keep  the  Sabbath  ;  one  who  holds 
Tigid  views  of  Sabbath  observance. 


Sabbatb,  a  sacred  day  of  rest  {the 
word  being  derived  from  shabath,  He- 
brew, to  rest),  the  institution  of  which 
is  first  mentioned  in  Gen.  ii :  2S. 

The  prevailing  interpretation  is 
that  the  Sabbath  was  instituted  at  the 
creation,  for  mankind  in  general,  and 
that  septenary  institutions  may  there- 
fore be  expected  in  all  nations.  Prior 
to  the  giving  of  the  law  from  Mount 
Sinai,  the  Sabbath  is  mentioned  in 
connection  with  the  descent  of  manna. 
The  keeping  holy  of  the  Sabbath  is 
enjoined  in  the  fourth  commandment. 

During  their  early  history  the  ob- 
servance of  the  day  became  a  test  ot 
the  religious  condition  of  the  Hebrews. 
It  was  at  times  rigorously  enforced, 
and  at  other  times  neglected.  After 
the  Exile,  a  code  was  issued,  minutely 
defining  the  acts  which  were  to  be  re- 
garded as  desecrating  the  Sabbath. 
Jesus,  by  act  and  word,  reproved  the 
formalism,  and  was  denounced  by  the 
Scribes  as  a  Sabbath-breaker.  The 
Gentile  converts  to  Christianity  dis- 
regarded the  Jewish  Sabbath,  but, 
recognizing  the  need  of  a  weekly  day 
devoted  to  religion,  set  apart  the  first 
day  of  the  week,  for  the  purpose, 
thereby  commemorating  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Christ. 

Sabellianism,  in  Church  history, 
the  name  given  to  the  doctrines  of 
Sabellius,  a  presbyter  of  Ptolemais  in 
Egypt,  in  the  third  century.  He 
taught  that  the  Trinity  is  one  in  es- 
sence, but  threefold  in  relation  to  the 
world.  He  compared  the  Godhead  to 
the  sun,  the  Son  to  its  illuminating 
effects,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  to  its 
warming  influence.  He  taught  that 
these  manifestations  were  not  simul- 
taneous, but  successive.  The  teach- 
ing was  a  species  of  Pantheism. 


Baler 


Salle 


Saber,  or  Sabre,  a  sword  having  a   observatories  in  different  parts  of  the 
curved    blade,    specially    adapted    for  i  world,   and  in  initiating   the  valuable 


cutting.  That  for  heavy  cavalry  has  a 
slightly  curved,  heavy  blade.  The 
light  cavalry  saber  has  a  lighter  blade, 
Bomewhat  more  curved.  The  horse-ar- 
tillery saber  is  still  shorter,  lighter, 
and  more  curved,  and  has  but  one 
branch  to  the  guard. 

Sabianism,  Sabseantism,  or  Tsa> 
baism,  a  faith  which  recognized  the 
unity  of  God,  but  worshiped  angels  or 
intelligences  supposed  to  reside  in  the 


magnetic  work  now  carried  out  by  the 
admiralty.  He  died  in  Richmond, 
England,  June  26,  1883. 

Sabine,  Lorenzo,  an  American  his- 
torian ;  born  in  New  Lisbon,  N.  H.^ 
Feb.  28,  1803;  settled  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1849,  and  was  made  a 
secret  agent  of  the  United  States. 
Treasury  Department  in  connection 
with  United  States  commerce  as  af- 
fected by  the  Ashburton  Treaty ;  and 


stars  and  guide  their  motions,  whence  j  was  a  Whig  member  of  Congress  in 
the  lapse,  at  least  on  the  part  of  the  1852-1853.  His  publications  include 
common  people,  to  the  worship  of  the   "  The    American    Loyalists,    or    Bio 


stars  became  easy.  They  had  sacrifices 
and  sacred  days,  and  believed  in  a 
future  state  of  retribution.  They  were 
once  numerous  in  Arabia,  Syria,  and 
Mesopotamia,  and  their  sacred  books 
were  in  Syriac. 

Sabin,  Florence,  American  anat- 
omist. A  graduate  of  Smith  Coll.  and 
of  the  Medical  School  of  Johns  Hop- 
kins Univ.,  in  1906  she  was  appointed 
associate  Professor  of  Anatomy  at  the 
latter  institution, 


graphical  Sketches  of  Adherents  to 
the  British  Crown  in  the  War  of  the 
Revolution  " ;  "  Reports  on  the  Prin- 
cipal Fisheries  of  the  American  Seas." 
Died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  April  14,  1877. 
Sabines,  an  ancient  people  of  Italy, 
supposed  to  have  been  named  from 
"  Sabus,"  one  of  their  deities.  Little 
is  known  of  their  history.  They  were 
at  war  with  the  Romans  at  a  very 
early  period.  A  contest  broke  out  be- 
tween them  504  b.  c,  later  a  body  of 


Sabicn,     a    leguminous    hardwood  >  the  Sabines  migrated  to  Rome,  where 

tree  of  Cuba,  employed  in  shipbuilding  |  they   founded   a   powerful    settlement. 

and  cabinet  work.  ^^^  Sabines  carried  their  ravages  to 

Sabine     Sip    -EAxrAvA     a   Rriti<?h    *^®  ^^^'^  ^ates  of  Rome,  469  B.  c.    On 

Set.  14,  .1788.     He..ob,ained  .a  com-    S.ndeJT.aSeTta'JSeSaitrrf 

tories.     They  were  again  at  war  with 
the   Romans,    290   B.   c,    and   having 

ere 


mission   in   the  artillery   in  his   16th 

year,  and  accompanied  Ross  and  Parry 

as  astronomer   in  the   expeditions  of    l;"*^   riomans,^uu   b.   c,    ana   navinj 

1819-1820  in   search  of  a  Northwest  \  ^een  vanquished,  many  of  them  wen 


^<.oo„6-     Between  1821  and  1827  he  i  ^old   as   slaves.       The   remaining  citi- 
undertook  a  series  of  voyages  to  places    ^^^^    were    admitted    to    the    Roman, 


passage 


franchise. 


between  the  equator  and  the  North 
Pole,  making  at  each  point  pendulum 
and  magnetic  experiments  of  great 
value.  Elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1818,  he  was  from  1861  to 
1879  its  president.  In  1856  he  was 
promoted  Major-General,  in  1869  he 
was  created  K.  C.  B.,  retiring  as  gen- 
eral in  1874;  and  in  1875  he  was 
elected  a  corresponding  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  His  scientific  repu- 
tation rests  chiefly  on  his  labors  in 
terrestrial  magnetism,  his  various 
memoirs  in  the  "  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions "  and  "  Reports  "  to  the  Brit- 
ish Association  being  to  this  day  in- 
valuable collections  of  magnetic  facts. 
By  his  personal  influence  he  did  more 
than  aPy  other  single  man  in  inducing  Sable,  a  digitigrade  carnivorous, 
the  government  to  establish  magnetic    mammal,  nearly  allied  to  the  common 


THE  SABLE. 


Aable  Island 

marten  and  pine  marten,  found  chiefly 
in  Siberia  and  Kamtchatka,  and  hunted 
for  its  fur.  Its  length,  exclusive  of 
the  tail,  is  about  18  inches.  Its  fur, 
■which  is  extremely  lustrous,  and  hence 
•of  the  very  highest  value,  is  generally 
brown,  grayish-yellow  on  the  throat, 
and  with  small  grayish-yellow  spots 
scattered  on  the  sides  of  the  neck.  It 
is  densest  during  winter,  and  owing 
to  the  mode  of  attachment  of  the  hairs 
to  the  skin  it  may  be  pressed  or 
smoothed  in  any  direction. 

Sable  Island,  a  low-lying  island 
in  the  Atlantic ;  110  miles  E.  of  the 
central  part  of  Nova  Scotia  (and  not 
near  Cape  Sable,  at  the  S.  E.  cor- 
ner of  Nova  Scotia,  where  there  is  also 
a  Sable  Island).  It  consists  of  two 
parallel  sand  ridges.  The  island  is  dan- 
gerous to  navigation,  and  has  so  fre- 
■quently  been  the  scene  of  wrecks,  as  to 
be  called  the  "  sailor's  grave."  The 
Canadian  government  maintains  two 
lighthouses  here.  The  island  is  grad- 
ually sinking.  Early  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury it  was  40  miles  long;  in  1890 
it  was  reduced  to  20  miles. 

Saccharin,  an  artificial  sugar  pre- 
pared from  coal-tar,  first  introduced  to 
commerce  in  1887  by  its  discoverer 
Dr.  Constantin  Fahlberg  of  Salbke 
(Germany).  Its  sweetening  proper- 
ties are  enormous.  It  is  not  a  fer- 
mentable sugar,  and  is  in  common  use 
in  the  treatment  of  disease,  as  diabe- 
tes, for  instance ;  and  in  many  cases 
in  which  the  palate  craves  for  sweets, 
but  in  which  ordinary  sugar  cannot  be 
permitted  without  danger.  A  French 
'Commission  reported  in  1888,  that  its 
use  in  food  would  seriously  affect  the 
digestive  functions,  and  recommended 
the  government  to  prohibit  its  employ- 
ment in  alimentary  substances.  The 
•discoverer  and  many  eminent  chemists 
deny  that  saccharin  is  injurious  to  the 
?*Viman  system. 

Saccopharyna:,  a  genus  of  Murae- 
flidse,  with  a  single  species,  deep-sea 
•conger  eel,  of  which  but  few  specimens 
have  been  observed.  It  inhabits  the 
<iepths  of  the  Atlantic,  is  perfectly 
black,  and  about  9  feet  long.  It  has  a 
large  pouch-like  head  and  pharynx, 
lience  its  name. 

Sacbs,  Hans,  the  most  distin- 
guished meistersinger  of  Germany  in 
the  16th  century,  born  in  Nuremberg, 
<3ermany,  Nov.  5,  1494.     He  learned 


Sacrament 

the  trade  of  a  shoemaker,  commenced 
business  in  his  native  city,  married 
(1519),  and  prospered.  He  took  les- 
sons under  one  of  the  chief  meister- 
singers  of  Nuremberg,  made  verses 
himself.  As  a  staunch  follower  of 
Luther,  and  an  ardent  advocate  of  his 
teachings,  Sachs  succeeded  in  imi>art- 
ing  to  his  hymns  a  fervor  which  con- 
siderably aided  the  spread  of  the  Ref- 
ormation. He  died  in  Nuremberg,  Jan. 
19,  1576. 

Sack,  formerly  a  general  name  for 
the  different  sorts  of  dry  wines,  exten- 
sively used  in  England  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury. Also  a  term  applied  to  the 
plundering  of  a  town  or  city. 

Sack  Tree,  a  stately  forest  tree, 
growing  on  the  Western  Ghauts,  etc 
Bags  are  manufactured  from  it.  A 
branch  is  cut  corresponding  to  the 
length  and  diameter  of  the  sack  re- 
quired. After  being  soaked  it  is  beaten 
with  clubs  till  the  bark  separates  from 
the  wood.  The  sack  formed  of  the 
bark  is  turned  inside  out,  and  pulled 
down  while  the  wood  is  sawed  off,  a 
small  piece,  however,  being  left  to 
form   the   bottom. 

Sackville-V^est,  Sir  Iiionel 
Sackville,  an  English  diplomatist; 
born  July  19,  1827;  was  British  min- 
ister to  the  United  States  in  1881- 
1888.  He  received  his  passports  from 
President  Cleveland  for  having  writ- 
ten a  letter  during  t\\fi  presidential 
campaign  in  which  he  advised  a  vote 
for  the  Democratic  ticket  as  conduc- 
ing to  British  interests,  in  answer  Xo  a 
correspondent  who  represented  himself 
to  be  a  naturalized  English  citizen 
desiring  political  advice.    -D.  1908. 

Saco,  Jose  Antonio,  a  Cuban  his- 
torical writer  and  publicist ;  born  in 
Bayamo,  Cuba,  May  7,  1797.  He 
died  in  Madrid,  Sept.  26,  1879. 

Sacrament,  the  military  oath 
taken  by  every  Roman  soldier,  pledg- 
ing him  to  obey  his  commander  and 
not  to  desert  his  standard. 

In  Protestant  theology,  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States  and  the  Church  of  England  de- 
fine a  sacrament  as  "  an  outward  and 
visible  sign  of  an  inward  and  spiritual 
grace  given  unto  us,  ordained  by  Christ 
Himself,  as  a  means  whereby  we  re- 
ceive the  same  and  a  pledge- to  assure 
us  thereof."     They  recognize  two  only 


Sacramental 


SacriuiE 


as     incumbent      on      all      Christians, 
Baptism,  and  the  Supper  of  the  Lord. 

In  Roman  Catholic  theology,  a  visi- 
ble sign,  instituted  by  Christ,  which 
confers  by  the  performance  of  the  act 
sanctifying  grace  on  man.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  defines  that  the  Sacra- 
ments of  the  New  Law  were  instituted 
by  our  Lord,  and  are  neither  more 
nor  fewer  than  seven  in  number :  Bap- 
tism, confirmation,  eucharist,  penance, 
extreme  unction,  holy  orders,  and 
matrimony.  The  first  five  are  neces- 
sary for  all  Christians,  the  last  two 
only  for  the  persons  concerned. 

Sacramental,  in  Roman  Catholic 
theology,  a  name  given  to  rites  which 
bear  some  outward  resemblance  to  the 
sacraments,  but  which  are  not  of  di- 
vine institution.  They  are  :  the  prayers 
of  the  Church ;  holy  water,  blessed 
ashes,  palms  and  candles,  blessed 
bread ;  the  general  confession  in  the 
mass  and  office ;  almsgiving,  and  the 
blessings   of   bishops  and   abbots. 

Sacramento,  a  city,  capital  of  the 
State  of  California ;  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Sacramento  and  American 
rivers,  at  the  head  of  low  water  nav- 
igation, 96  miles  N.  E.  of  San  Francis- 
co. It  is  built  on  a  broad,  low  plain 
and  has  strong  levees  as  a  protection 
against  floods.  It  has  a  semi-tropical 
climate  and  vegetation  is  most  lux- 
uriant. There  are  a  number  of  Na- 
tional and  State  banks.  Assessed  prop- 
erty valuation  is  over  $30,000,000. 

The  streets  are  well  laid  out,  and 
mostly  lighted  by  electricity.  The 
State  capitol  stands  in  a  beautiful 
plaza  covering  30  acres.  Within  the 
plaza  are  the  State  printing  office  and 
the  Exposition  Building  of  the  State 
Agricultural  Society.  In  the  latter 
the  resources  of  the  State  are  an- 
nually exhibited. 

Capt.  John  A.  Sutter  built  a  fort 
here  in  1839,  but  the  city  was  not  set- 
tled till  1848,  after  the  discovery  of 
gold.  The  first  house  was  built  in 
1849.  Sacramento  was  made  the 
State  capital  in  1854,  and  received  its 
city  charter  in  18t>3.  It  has  suffered 
severely  twice  from  fire  and  twice 
from  inundation.  Pop.  (1910)  44,696. 
Sacred  Heart,  in  the  Roman 
Church,  the  physical  heart  of  Christ, 
considered,  not  as  mere  flesh,  but  as 
united  to  the  divinity.  It  is  the  ob- 
ject    of  a  special  devotion,  founded 


in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century 
by  a  French  nun.  The  feast  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  is  celebrated  on  the  Fri- 
day (in  England  on  the  Sunday) 
after  the  octave  of  Corpus  Christi. 

Sacred  War,  a  war  about  sacred 
places  or  about  religion.  Four  sacred 
wars  were  waged  in  Greece  (595-338 
B.  c.)  chiefly  for  the  defense  of  the 
temple  of  Delphi  and  the  sacred  ter- 
ritory surrounding  it.  A  Mohammedan 
war  for  the  faith  is  called  a  Jihad. 
The  Crusades  and  the  wars  of  the 
Reformation  were  sacred  wars.  The 
quarrel  which  led  to  the  Crimean  War 
was  at  first  a  dispute  between  Rus- 
sia and  France  about  sacred  spots  at 
Jerusalem.  When  Russia  fights  she 
uniformly  gives  out  that  it  is  a  holy 
war. 

Sacrifice,  the  offering  of  anythiug 
to  God  or  to  any  deity.  Also  that 
which  is  sacrificed,  offered,  or  conse- 
crated to  God  or  to  any  deity  or  divin- 
ity ;  an  immolated  victim,  or  an  offer- 
ing of  any  kind,  laid  on  an  altar  or 
otherwise  religiously  presented  by  way 
of  thanksgiving,  atonement,  or  con- 
ciliation. Sacrifices  form  an  impor- 
tant part  of  all  early  forms  of  religion. 

In  theology,  tbe  evangelical  doctrine 
is  that  the  sacrifices  of  the  older  econ- 
omy were  types  and  shadows  of  the 
atoning  sacrifice  made  by  Christ.  It 
is  held  that  when  Jesus  died,  His  sac- 
rifice once  for  all  satisfied  Divine  jus- 
tice, and  no  other  was  requisite,  or 
would,  if  offered,  be  accepted. 

Sacrilege,  in  a  general  sense,  the 
violation  or  profaning  of  sacrfed 
things;  more  strictly  the  alienating  to 
laymen,  or  common  purposes,  what 
was  given  to  religious  persons  and 
pious  uses.  Church  robbery,  or  the 
taking  things  out  of  a  holy  place  is 
sacrilege. 

Sacmm,  in  anatomy,  the  bony 
structure  which  forms  the  basis  or  in- 
ferior extremity  of  the  vertebral  col- 
umn. The  human  sacrum  forms  the 
back  part  of  the  pelvis,  is  roughly 
triangular  in  shape,  consists  of  five 
united  vertebrae,  and  from  its  solidity 
it  is  well  adapted  to  serve  as  the  key- 
stone of  the  pelvic  arch,  being  wedged 
in  between  and  articulating  with  the 
haunch-bones.  In  most  mammals  the 
number  of  vertebras  forming  the  sac- 
rum is  smaller  than  in  man.  In  birds 
the  lowest  number  is  about  10.    Fishes 


Sacy 

possess  no  sacrum  at  all.  The  sacrum 
in  man  is  fully  ossified  and  completed 
in  development  from  the  25th  to  the 
30th  year  of  life,  but  the  component 
parts  can  generally  be  perceived. 

Sacy,  Antoine  Isaac,  Baron 
Silvestre  de,  a  celebrated  French 
orientalist;  born  in  1758;  died  1838. 

Saddncees,  one  of  the  three  Jewish 
sects.  The  current  tradition,  is  that 
the  Sadducees  derived  their  name  from 
a  certain  Zadok,  a  disciple  of  Antigo- 
nus  of  Soko  (200-170  b.  c).  In  the 
opinion  of  others,  the  Zadok  from 
whom  they  derive  their  name  was  the 
priest  who  declared  in  favor  of  Solo- 
mon when  the  High  Priest  Abiathar 
adhered  to  Adonijah.  His  descendants 
had  a  subsequent  preeminence.  Not 
that  the  Sadducees  became  a  party  so 
«arly,  or  that  Zadok  was  their  found- 
er; but  that  some  of  them  may  have 
^een  his  descendants,  and  admired  his 
fidelity  to  the  government.  It  was 
their  desire  to  be  equally  faithful.  All 
the  Jews  admitted  that  the  Mosaic  law 
was  given  at  Sinai  by  Jehovah.  Most 
of  the  people  believed  that  an  oral  law 
of  Moses  had  similarly  come  from  God. 
The  Sadducees  rejected  this  view,  and 
would  accept  nothing  beyond  the  writ- 
ten word.  In  the  Mosaic  law  there  is 
DO  reference  to  a  state  of  rewards  and 

Sunisbments  in  a  future  world.  When 
esus  proves  the  resurrection  from 
the  Pentateuch,  He  does  so  by  an  in- 
ference, there  being  no  direct  passage 
which  He  can  quote.  The  Sadducees 
denied  the  resurrection  from  the  dead. 
Epiphanius  and  some  other  of  the 
fathers  assert  that  the  Sadducees  re- 
jected all  the  Old  Testament  but  the 
Pentateuch.  Probably,  these  writers 
confounded  the  Sadducees  with  the 
Samaritans.  In  Acts  xxiii:  8,  it  is 
stated  that  they  say  that  "there  is 
neither  angel  nor  spirit."  It  is  sur- 
prising that  a  sect  with  these  views 
should,  at  least  at  one  time,  have  al- 
most monopolized  the  highest  places 
in  the  priesthood;  yet  sucJi  was  the 
case,  at  least  temporarily.  But,  with 
all  their  sacred  ofiice  and  worldly 
rank,  tbey  had  no  hold  on  the  com' 
mon  people.  It  is  probable  that,  when 
Christianity  spread  a  belief  in  the  res- 
urrection, the  Sadducees  must  have 
still  further  lost  ground;  but  they  re- 
vived, and  still  exist,  under  the  name 
of  Karaites. 


Safflower 

Sadi,  or  Saadi,  the  most  celebrated 
didactic  poet  of  Persia;  born  in 
Shiraz,  Persia,  about  the  end  of  the 
12trh  century.  In  his  youth  he  visited 
Hindustan,  Syria,  Palestine,  Abyssin- 
ia, and  made  several  pilgrimages  to 
Mecca  and  Medina.  While  in  Syria 
he  was  taken  by  the  Crusaders,  and 
compelled  to  labor  as  a  slave  at  the 
fortifications  of  Tripoli.  After  about 
50  years  of  wandering  he  returned  to 
his  native  city,  delighting  everybody 
with  his  poems  and  sage  precepts.  He 
died  about  the  end  of  the  13th  century. 

Sadow^a,  a  village  on  the  Bistritz, 
in  Bohemia,  not  far  from  Koniggrjitz. 
It  is  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the  pre- 
liminary engagement,  on  July  3d,  18G6, 
between  the  Austrians  under  Benedek, 
and  the  Prussians  under  Prince  Fred- 
erick Charles,  which  culminated  in  the 
decisive  battle  of  Koniggriitz  and  the 
Austrian  defeat. 

Sadtler,  Samuel  Pliilip,  an 
American  chemist ;  born  in  Pin& 
Grove,  Pa.,  July  18,  1847 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Pennsylvania  College  in  18G7, 
and  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School, 
Harvard  University,  in  1870.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  committee  of  revision 
of  the  "  United  States  Pharmaco- 
poeia," and  edited  the  chemical  arti- 
cles in  the  American  reprint  of  the 
"  Encyclopedia  Britannica,"  and  the 
15th,  16th,  17th,  and  18th  editions  of 
the  "  United  States  Dispensatory." 

Ssemnnd  the  lieamed,  an  Ice- 
landic scholar  of  the  12th  century. 
He  traveled  widely  in  pursuit  of  learn- 
ing, visiting  Paris  and  Rome,  and 
afterward  was  a  priest  at  Oddi.  He 
was  unknown  to  scholars  till  about 
1043,  when  the  then  newly  discovered 
"  Elder  Edda "  was  ascribed  to  him. 
Saemund  had  in  his  day  a  great  repu- 
tation for  learning  and  was  also  re- 
garded as  a  magician. 

Safed,  one  of  the  four  holy  cities  of 
the  modern  Jews  in  Palestine ;  in 
horseshoe  shape  round  a  hill  2,700 
feet  above  the  Mediterranean ;  6  miles 
N.  W.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  The 
Jewish  colony  has  been  settled  here 
since  the  16th  century,  and  embraces 
many  immigrants  from  Poland. 

Safflower,  or  Bastard  Saffron 
(Carthamus  tinctorius),  a  large 
thistle-like  plant  with  orange-colored 
flowers,    cultivated    in   China,    India, 


Safford 

Egypt,  and  in  the  S.  of  Europe.  An 
oil  is  expressed  from  the  seeds,  which 
is  used  as  a  lamp  oil.  The  dried  flow- 
ers afford  two  coloring  matters,  a  yel- 
low and  a  red,  the  latter  being. that 
for  which  they  are  most  valued.  They 
are  chiefly  used  for  dyeing  silk.  Mixed 
with  finely-powdered  talc,  saflBower 
forms  a  common  variety  of  rouge. 

Safford,  James  Merrill,  an 
American  geologist;  born  in  Zanes- 
ville,  O.,  Aug.  13,  1822;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  Ohio  State  University  in 
1844 ;  was  State  geologist  of  Tennes- 
see in  1854-1860 ;  was  reappointed  in 
1871 ;  and  accepted  the  chair  of  nat- 
ural science  at  Vanderbilt  University 
iu  1875.    He  died  in  1907. 

Saffron,  in  botany,  a  species  of 
the  Crocus  with  light  purple  flowers 
which  come  out 
in  autumn.  It 
grows  in  the  S. 
of  Europe  and 
in  parts  of  Asia. 
The  Spa  n  i  s  h 
variety  is  the 
best  for  com- 
m  e  r  c  iai  pur- 
poses, though  it 
is  said  that 
100,000  flowers 
are  necessary  to 
produce  one 
pound  of  saf- 
fron.  They 
have  an  orange 
or  brownish-red 
color,  yellow  in 
the  narrower 
part,  and  an 
agreeable  aro- 
matic odor. 

Sagapenuin, 
a  fetid  gum-res- 
in brought  from 
Persia  and  Al- 
exandria, and 
gen  erally  be- 
"  lieved  to  be  fur- 

nished by  some  species  of  the  genus 
Ferula.  It  occurs  either  in  tears  or 
irregular  masses  of  a  dirty  brownish 
color,  containing  in  the  interior  white 
or  yellowish  grains.  It  has  an  odor 
of  garlic,  and  a  hot,  acrid,  slightly 
bitter  taste.  Occasionally  used  in 
medicine. 

Sagard,  Tlieodat  Gabriel,  a  not- 


saffbon: 
cbocus  sativtjs. 


Sag« 

ed  French  missionary  to  the  Huron  In- 
dians in  the  17th  century.  He  wrote  i 
"  Travels  to  the  Huron  country,  situ* 
ate  in  America,  toward  the  Freshwater 
sea  and  the  uttermost  limits  of  New 
France,  called  Canada ;  wherein  is 
treated  of  all  matters  touching  the 
coimtry,  the  manners  and  character  of 
the  savages,  their  government  and 
their  ways,  as  well  in  their  own  coun- 
try as  when  roaming;  of  their  faith 
and  belief;  with  a  dictionary  of  the 
Huron  language." 

Sagasta,  Praxedes  Mateo,  a 
Spanish  statesman ;  bom  in  Torrecilla, 
July  21,  1827 ;  became  an  engineer, 
but  taking  part  in  insurrections  had 
twice  to  flee  for  a  time  to  France.  He 
had  a  place  in  Prim's  cabinet  (1868)  ; 
supported  Amadeus ;  held  office  under 
Serrano ;  and  under  the  new  monarchy 
became  leader  of  the  Liberals,  being 
premier  1897-1899,  thus  conducting 
public  affairs  during  the  Spanish- 
American  War.    Died  Jan.  15,  1903. 


Sage,  a  plant  much  used  for  flav-^ 
oring  meats,  etc.  It  has  blue  flowers, 
and  has  run  into  many  varieties.  The 
Chinese  use  it  as  a  tonic  for  debility 
of  the  stomach  and  nerves. 


Sage 

Sage,      Henry      Williams,      an 

American  philanthropist ;  born  in  Mid- 
■dletown,  Conn.,  Jan.  31,  1814;  be- 
■came  interested  in  the  lumber  regions 
•of  Canada  and  the  West,  where  he 
bought  large  tracts  of  timber  and  be- 
came one  of  the  most  extensive  land 
owners  in  Michigan.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Legislature  in  1847  and  subse- 
<|uently  associated  himself  with  many 
philanthropic  schemes.  He  was  elected 
a  trustee  of  Cornell  University  in 
1870.  He  died  in  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Sept, 
17,  1897. 

Sage,  Russell,  capitalist,  born 
in  Shenandoah,  Oneida  county,  N.  Y., 
Aug.  4,  1810.  Attended  school  win- 
ters; began  as  an  errand  boy  in  a 
^grocery  store,  became  a  retail  and 
then  a  wholesale  grocer,  and  was 
meantime  alderman,  treasurer  of  Ren- 
«elaer  county,  and  member  of  Con- 
gress; removed  to  New  York  in  1863, 
and  entered  Wall  street,  where  he 
Amassed  a  fortune  of  $80,000,000,  chief- 
ly in  railroads.   He  died  July  22, 1906. 

His  widow,  Makgabet  Olivia  Slo- 
CUM.  Sage,  born  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y., 
•Sept.  8,  1828,  spent  several  years  in 
teaching,  married  Mr.  Sage  in  1869, 
•and  after  his  death  made  large  gifis 
lor  various  purposes,  disposing  of 
.$16,000,000  within  three  years.  Her 
largest  benefactions  were  $10,000,000 
to  the  Sage  Foundation,  for  improv- 
ing social  and  living  conditions,  and 
^1,000,000  each  to  the  Rensselaer 
Polytechnic  Institute  and  the  Eninui 
Willard  School,  both  at  Troy,  N.  Y. 

Sageretia,  in  botany,  a  small 
ehrub,  often  thorny,  with  slender,  half- 
•climbing  branches,  and  black  or  dark- 
ibrown  fruit;  growing  in  China,  the 
Himalayas,  and  the  Salt  and  Suleiman 
ranges;  its  leaves  are  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  tea,  and  its  fruit  is  eaten 
in  China  and  India. 

Sages  of  Greece,  Seven.  Solon, 
•Ohilo,  Pittacus,  Bias,  Periander, 
■Cleobulus,  and  Thales  are  those  most 
generally  named  as  the  seven  wise  men 
of  Greece.  Solon  was  compelled  to 
•engage  in  commercial  adventures,  and 
the  celebrated  law-giver  sought  foreign 
«hores.  His  work  on  returning  to 
Athens  was  that  of  a  patriot,  who 
sought  earnestly  to  compose  the  dis- 
tractions, social  and  political,  which 
then  rent  the  city.     His  motto  was. 


Sagittate 

"  Know  thyself."  Chilo  was  a  Spar- 
tan, wlio  early  directed  his  attention 
to  public  affairs,  and  many  of  whose 
maxims  are  quoted  by  the  ancient 
writers ;  one  of  the  most  famous  of 
"these  was,  "  Consider  the  end."  Pit- 
tacus was  a  native  of  Mitylene,  in  Les- 
bos, became  a  soldier,  rose  to  supreme 
power  in  the  State,  acted  with  great 
patriotism,  placed  severe  restrictions 
on  drunkenness,  and  having  done  mucih 
for  the  people,  voluntarily  resigned 
his  power.  "  Know  thy  opportunity," 
is  attributed  to  him.  Bias,  a  native 
of  Ionia,  was  a  poetical  philosopher, 
who  studied  the  laws  of  his  country. 
Said  Bias :  "  Most  men  are  bad." 
Periander  was  distinguished  for  his 
love  of  science  and  literature,  which 
entitled  him  to  be  ranked  among  the 
seven  wise  men  of  Greece.  Of  Cleobu- 
lus, of  the  island  of  Rhodes,  but  little 
is  known.  His  favorite  maxim  was, 
"  Moderation  is  best."  Thales,  a  cele- 
brated philosopher,  bom  at  Miletus, 
and  founder  of  the  Ionic  sect,  traveled 
like  Solon  in  quest  of  knowledge,  and 
learned  geometry,  philosophy,  and  as- 
tronomy. He  is  said  also  to  have  in- 
vented several  fundamental  proposi- 
tions which  were  afterward  incor- 
porated into  the  elements  of  Euclid. 
He  approached  so  near  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  true  length  of  the  solar 
revolutions  that  he  corrected  the  Greek 
calendar  year  to  contain  365  days. 

Saghalien.     See  Sakhalin. 

Saginair,  city ;  capital  of  Saginaw 
Co.,  Mich.,  on  the  Saginaw  River,  at 
the  head  of  navigation,  100  miles  N. 
W.  of  Detroit.  It  is  the  railroad 
center  and  commercial  metropolis  of 
northern  Michigan,  and  one  of  the 
largest  lumber  manufacturing  cities  in 
the  States;  annual  products,  over 
$12,000,000.     Pop.  (1910)   50,510. 

Sagittarius  (the  archer),  in  as- 
tronomy, the  ninth  sign  of  the  zodiac, 
into  which  the  sun  enters  Nov.  22. 
The  constellation  consists  of  eighf  vis- 
ible stars.  It  is  represented  on  celes- 
tial globes  and  charts  by  the  figure  of 
a  centaur  in  the  act  of  shooting  an 
arrow  from  his  bow. 

Sagittate,  in  botany,  a  term  ap« 
plied  to  the  form  of  leaf  shaped  like 
the  head  of  an  arrow ;  triangular,  hol- 
lowed at  the  base,  with  angles  at  the 
hinder  part. 


Sagittated  Calamary 


Sahara 


Sagittated  Calamary,  in  zoology, 
a  Tree  swimming  marine  worm, 
used  for  bait  in  the  cod-fishery  on  the 
banks  of  Newfoundland. 

Sago,  a  nutritive  farinaceous  sub- 
stance obtained  from  the  pith  of  sev- 
eral  species   of   palms. 

Sago  Starcli,  the  starch  extracted 
from  the  stem  of  Sagus  rumphii,  and 
probably  of  other  species  of  palm.  Sago 
is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  so-called  soluble  cocoas,  and  is  also 
frequently  added  to  the  cheaper  vari- 
eties of  arrow  root. 

Sagoin,  or  Sagouin,  the  native 
South  American  name  of  Brazilian 
monkeys  of  small  size,  and  remarkably 
light,  active,  and  graceful  in  their 
movements. 

Saguenay,  a  river  of  Canada; 
province  of  Quebec ;  formed  by  two 
outlets  of  Lake  St.  John,  which  unite 
about  9  miles  below  the  lake,  from 
which  point  the  river  flows  S.  E.,  and 
falls  into  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Tadou- 
sac  Harbor ;  length  about  100  miles. 
For  many  miles  of  the  latter  part  of 
its  course  the  banks  are  very  lofty,  and 
in  some  parts  there  are  precipices 
more  than  1,000  feet  high.  Ships 
moor  at  rings  fixed  into  some  of  the 
precipitous  walls  of  rock,  the  water 
being  so  deep  as  to  be  unsuitable  for 
anchorage.  The  Saguenay  is  naviga- 
ble for  vessels  of  any  size  to  Ha  Ha 
Bay,  a  distance  of  about  50  miles  to 
CO  miles  from  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  at 
high-water  for  vessels  of  large  dimen- 
sions from  15  miles  to  18  miles  farther. 
It  is  visited  by  many  tourists. 

Sagnntum,  formerly  a  town  in 
Spain  south  of  the  Ebro,  about  three 
miles  from  the  coast.  It  is  famous  in 
Iloman  history ;  its  siege  by  Hannibal 
in  210-218  b.  c.  having  given  rise  to 
the  second  Panic  War. 

Sahara  (Arabic  Sah'ra),  the  vast 
desert  region  of  North  Africa, 
stretching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Nile,  and  from  the  S.  confines  of  Mo- 
rocco, Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli  S. 
to  the  vicinity  of  the  Niger  and  Lake 
Tchad.  It  is  usual  to  regard  the 
Libyan  Desert,  lying  between  Egypt, 
the  Central  Sudan,  and  Tripoli,  as  a 
separate  division.  It  was  long  custom- 
ary to  assert  that  the  Sahara  was  the 
bed  of  an  ancient  inland  sea.  Since 
the  French  became  masters  of  Algeria, 


they  have  completely  revolutionized 
our  knowledge.  The  surface,  instead 
of  being  uniform  and  depressed  below 
sea-level,  is  highly  diversified,  and  at- 
tains in  one  place  an  altitude  of  fully 
8,000  feet.  There  are  still  several  ex- 
tensive tracts  as  to  which  we  have 
next  to  no  information. 

From  the  neighborhood  of  Cape 
Blanco  in  the  W.  a  vast  bow  or  semi- 
circle of  sand  dunes  stretches  round 
the  N.  side  of  the  Sahara-  to  Fezzan, 
skirting  the  Atlas  Mountains  and  the 
mountains  of  Algeria.  This  long  belt 
of  sand  hills  varies  in  width  from  50 
to  300  miles,  called  Erg.  The  hills 
rise  300  feet  though  the  average  eleva- 
tion is  about  70  feet.  They  are  com- 
posed of  pure  quartz  sand,  stationary 
in  character,  though  constantly  chang- 
ing their  outward  form  and  configura- 
tion; and  lie  as  a  rule  in  parallel 
chains.  Water  is  nearly  always  to  be 
found  below  the  surface  in  the  hollows 
between  the  different  chains  and  a  few 
dry  plants  struggle  to  maintain  a 
miserable  existence.  S.  of  Algeria,  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Erg,  the  country 
rises  into  the  lofty  plateau  of  A  haggar 
(4,000  feet),  which  fills  all  the^middle 
parts  of  the  Sahara.  Its  surface  runs 
up  into  veritable  mountains  6,500  feet 
high,  which  are  covered  with  snow 
for  three  months  in  the  year.  On  the 
S.  it  falls  again  toward  the  basins  of 
the  Niger  and  Lake  Tchad;  there  are 
mountain  ranges  along  the  E.  side 
reaching  8,000  feet  in  Mount  Tusidde 
in  the  Tibbu  country,  and  a  mountain 
knot  in  the  oasis  of  Air,  which  reaches 
6,500  feet.  Mountainous  tracts  occur 
also  in  the  W.,  between  Morocco  and 
Timbuctoo,  but  of  inferior  elevation 
(2,000  feet).  These  mountainous  parts 
embrace  many  deep  valleys,  most  of 
them  seamed  with  the  dry  beds  of 
ancient  rivers,  as  the  Igharghar  and 
the  Mya.  These  valleys  always  yield 
an  abundance  of  water,  if  not  on  the 
surface  in  the  watercourses,  then  a 
short  distance  below  it,  and  are  mostly 
inhabited,  and  grazed  by  the  cattle  and 
sheep  and  camels  of  the  natives. 

Another  characteristic  type  of  Sa- 
haran  landscape  is  a  low  plateau 
strewn  with  rough  blocks  of  granite 
and  other  rocks,  and  perfectly  barren. 
These  elevated  stone  fieius — called 
"  hammada  "  —  alternate  with  tracts 
of  bare  flat  sand,  with  broad  marshes, 
where  water  has  stood  and  evaporated^ 


Saiga 


6aigo  Takamorf 


leaving  salt  behind  it,  and  with  ex- 
tensive tracts  of  small,  poli&hed, 
emoothly-rounded  stones.  In  many 
parts  of  the  Sahara,  especially  in  the 
valleys  of  the  mountainous  parts,  in 
the  recesses  or  bays  at  the  foot  of 
the  hills,  alongside  the  water-courses, 
and  in  the  hollows  of  the  sand  dunes, 
in  all  which  localities  water  is  wont 
to  exist,  there  are  oases  —  habitable, 
cultivable  spots,  islands  of  verdure  in 
the  midst  of  the  ocean  of  desert.  These 
oases  mark  the  caravan  routes  between 
the  Central  Sudan  States  and  the 
Mediterranean. 

The  Romans  had  colonies  of  mili- 
tary posts  a  long  way  S.,  in  what  are 
now  desert  regions ;  and  both  Herodo- 
tus and  Pliny  tell  us  that  the  elephant, 
the  rhinoceros,  and  the  crocodile,  all 
animals  that  only  live  near  abundant 
supplies  of  water,  were  common 
throughout  North  Africa  in  their  day. 
None  of  the  Egyptian  inscriptions  or 
animal  sculptures  represent  the  camel, 
nor  do  the  Greek  and  Roman  histo- 
rians mention  it  either  as  being  a  deni- 
zen of  North  Africa.  The  camel  is 
now  the  principal  carrier  across  the 
Sahara,  and  must  have  been  intro- 
duced since  the  beginning  of  the  Chris- 
tian era. 

The  terrors  of  the  desert  sand  storm 
(have  often  been  described.  Thick  de- 
posits of  Sahara  quartz  sand  dust  were 
discovered  by  the  "  Challenger "  on 
the  floor  of  the  Atlantic  a  long  way 
W.  of  the  African  coast.  The  sand  in 
the  dunes  is  so  dry  that  in  several 
places  the  tread  of  a  camel  or  man 
will  make  the  hill  hum,  or  even  thun- 
der, as  a  vast  quantity  of  it  slips  down 
to  a  lower  level.  The  range  of  tem- 
perature is  exceedingly  great;  often 
the  thermometer  falls  from  considera- 
bly more  than  100°  F.  during  the  day 
to  just  below  freezing-point  at  nigJit. 
In  the  W.  of  the  Sahara  the  daily 
average  is  85°  in  the  shade  in  the 
month  of  May.  Rain  falls  in  parts 
of  the  Sahara,  but  in  most  districts 
after  intervals  of  two  to  five  years. 
After  a  fall  of  rain  it  is  not  unusual 
to  see  the  river  beds  in  the  mountain- 
ous regions  filled  with  foaming  tor- 
rents. The  atmosphere  is  so.  dry  and 
clear  that  objects  can  be  seen  and 
sounds  heard  at  a  vast  distance.  Ow- 
ing to  the  extreme  dryness  of  tbe  air> 
the  Sahara  is  very  bealtby. 


The  plant  life  is  very  rich  in  the 
oases,  the  date  palm,  which  has  ita 
home  in  these  regions,  being  the  prin- 
cipal ornament  as  well  as  the  most 
valuable  possession  of  these  fertile 
spots.  In  the  desert  regions  the  plant 
life  is  confined  principally  to  tama- 
risks,, prickly  acacias  and  similar 
thorny  shrubs  and  trees,  salsolacese, 
and  coarse  grasses.  The  animals  most 
commonly  met  with  include  the  giraffe, 
two  or*  three  kinds  of  antelope,  wild 
cattle,  the  wild  ass,  desert  fox,  jackal, 
hare,  lion,  ostrich,  desert  lark,  crow, 
viper,  python,  locusts,  flies.  The  peo- 
ple keep  as  domestic  animals  the 
camel,  horse,  ox,  sheep,  and  goat. 

The  human  inhabitants,  who  are  es- 
timated altogether  at  between  1,500,- 
000  and  2,500,000,  consist  of  Moors, 
Tuareg,  Tibbu,  Negroes,  Arabs,  and 
Jews.  The  Tuareg  are  great  traders 
and  control  the  principal  caravan 
routes.  The  Tibbu,  who  number  about 
200,000,  and  are  regarded  as  being 
ethnically  intermediate  between  the 
Berbers  and  the  Negroes,  occupy  the 
oases  between  Fezzan  and  Lake  Tchad. 
The  Arabs  of  pure  stock  are  very  few. 

The  boring  of  artesian  wells,  and 
with  the  water  so  obtained  irrigating 
the  soil  in  the  vicinity,  was  apparently 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  has  been 
prosecuted  by  the  French  with  great 
energy  since  1856.  By  1890  they  had 
made  a  string  of  these  wells  from  the 
cultivated  districts  of  Algeria  as  far  as 
Tugurt,  on  the  edge  of  the  desert  S.  of  ^ 
Biskra.  Water  is  generally  found  at 
depths  varying  from  10  to  300  feet, 
in  great  abundance,  and  around  them 
date  palm  groves  and  orchards  support 
agricultural  communities.  A  telegraph 
line  across  the  desert  S.  to  Timbuktu 
was  opened  in  1906. 

Saiga,  in  zoology,  an  antelope 
found  in  Eastern  Europe  and  Western 
Asia. 

Saigo  Takamori,  a  Japanese  gen- 
eral ;  born  in  1826 ;  died  in  1877.  He 
was  prominent  in  the  Civil  War  of 
1868  to  overthrow  the  Shogunate,  and 
became  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army.  Dissatisfied  with  the  reform 
movement,  he  raised  a  rebellion  in 
1877,  but  was  defeated  and  killed.  His 
brother  Saigo  Tsukumichi;  bom  in 
1843,  commanded  the  Formosa  expedi- 
tion in  1874,  and  became  a  general 
and  cabinet  officer. 


St.  Albans 


St.  Bartholomew 


St.  Albans,  city  and  capital  of 
Franklin  county,  Vt.;  near  Lake 
Champlain  and  on  the  Central  Ver- 
mont railroad;  30  miles  N.  by  E.  of 
Burlington;  commands  a  fine  view  of 
Lake  Champlain  and  the  Adirondack 
and  Green  Mountains;  contains  large 
railroad  shops,  creameries,  and  manu- 
factories of  farm  implements  and 
clothing;  has  the  St.  Albans  Academy, 
Warner  Home  for  Little  Wanderers, 
Warner  Hospital,  Franklin  Library, 
and  Vila  Barlow  Convent;  was  raided 
by  Confederates  in  1864;  and  was  a 
Fenian  headquarters  in  1866.  Pop. 
(1910)  6,381. 

St.  Andretirs,  a  town  of  Scotland ; 
on  a  rocky  plateau  at  the  edge  of  St. 
Andrews  Bay.  42  miles  N.  N.  E.  of 
Edinburgh.  From  the  number  and 
nature  of  the  remains  of .  ancient 
burial  found  in  and  around  the  city 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  there  was 
a  settlement  here  in  prehistoric  times. 
The  monkish  legend,  assigned  its 
ecclesiastical  origin  to  St.  Regulus, 
who  brought  bones  of  St.  Andrew 
from  Patras  in  the  4th  century,  and 
was  wrecked  at  Muckros,  now  St. 
Andrews.  There  is  reason  for  be- 
lieving not  only  that  those  relics  were 
brought  in  the  8th  century,  but  that 
before  the  end  of  the  6th,  Cainnech, 
the  patron  saint  of  Kilkenny,  had 
founded  a  monastery  at  Rig-Monadh, 
the  Royal  Mount.  Early  in  the  10th 
century  it  became  the  seat  of  the  high 
bishop  of  the  Scotch.  The  Augustin- 
ian  Priory,  founded  in  1144.  was  the 
richest  and  greatest  of  all  the  re- 
ligious houses  of  Scotland.  The 
cathedral,  founded  about  1160,  and 
consecrated  in  1318,  was  stripped  of 
its  images  and  ornaments  in  1559, 
and  afterward  fell  into  ruin.  The  ex- 
treme length  inside  is  355  feet.  The 
bishop's  palace  or  castle,  first  built  in 
1200,  was  frequently  demolished  and 
rebuilt,  and  is  now  a  ruin.  George 
Wishart  and  other  martyrs  were  con- 
fined in  its  dungeon,  and  Cardinal 
Beaton  was  slain  within  its  walls.  St. 
Rule's  Tower  has  probably  occasioned 
more  discussion  and  perplexed  more 
archaeologists  than  any  other  building 
in  Scotland.  Its  arches,  as  well  as 
that  of  its  roofless  chapel,  approach 
the  horseshoe  in  form.  Of  the  Black 
Friars  Monastery  a  portion  of  the 
chapel    remains ;    but    of    the    Grey 


Friars  almost  nothing.  The  schools 
of  St.  Andrews  were  noted  in  1120; 
but  the  university,  the  first  in  Scot- 
land, only  dates  from  1411.  The  town 
was  erected  into  a  free  burgh  between 
1144  and  1153.  The  manufacture  of 
golf  clubs  and  balls  is  naturally  a 
thriving  industry,  St.  Andrews  being 
known  all  over  the  world  as  the  head- 
quarters of  golf.  It  is  a  popular  water- 
ing place   and   summer  resort. 

St.  Augustine,  a  city,  port  of  en- 
try, and  county-seat  of  St.  John  cc, 
Florida ;  on  the  Matanzas  river,  near 
the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  36  miles  S.  of 
Jacksonville.  It  occupies  a  peninsula 
formed  by  the  Matanzas  river  on  the  E. 
and  the  St.  Sebastian  river  on  the  S. 
and  W.  Directly  in  front  is  Anastasia 
Island,  forming  a  breakwater.  The  city 
is  principally  a  winter  resort.  The 
climate  is  mild  and  equable.  St. 
Augustine  is  the  oldest  town  in  the 
United  States,  a  fort  having  been  built 
here  by  the  Spaniards  in  1565.  As 
early  as  1512  Ponce  de  Leon  landed 
near  the  site  of  the  city.  In  1763  it 
became  a  British  possession,  and  dur- 
ing the  Revolutionary  War  was  an 
important  military  depot.  Later  it 
again  passed  into  the  hands  of  Spain,  / 
and  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  in 
1821.    Pop.  (1910).  5,494. 

St.  Bartholomew,  or  St.  Bar- 
tbelemy,  a  French  West  Indian  is- 
land, 190  miles  E.  of  Porto  Rico; 
area,  8  square  miles.  The  treeless  sur- 
face rises  to  1,003  feet;  the  climate 
is  very  dry.  French  from  1(j48  till 
1784,  the  island  then  was  Swedish 
till  1877,  when  it  was  bought  back  by 
France   for  $80,000. 

St.  BartholomeTir,  Massacre  of, 
a  massacre  of  the  Huguenots  which 
took  place  in  Paris,  France,  beginning 
on  the  night  of  Aug.  23-24  (St.  Bar- 
tholomew's day),  1572.  A  large  num- 
ber of  prominent  Huguenots  had  been 
invited  to  the  royal  palace  to  partici- 
pate in  the  wedding  festivities  of 
Henry  of  Navarre.  While  these  guests 
were  in  the  palace  they  where  slaugh- 
tered without  mercy,  and  at  a  signal 
the  massacre  quickly  spread  over  the 
city.  The  anti-Huguenot  leaders  were 
Charles  IX.,  the  queen-mother  Cath- 
arine de  Medici,  and  the  Duke  of 
Guise.  The  massacre  spread  over 
France  and  about  30,000  lives  were 
lost.     A  religious  war  followed. 


St.  Bernard  Dog 


St.  Cyril 


St.  Bernard  Dog,  Great,  a  spe- 
cies of  dog  which  gets  its  name  from 
the  Hospice  of  St.  Bernard,  where  it 
has  long  been  kept  by  the  monks  to 
aid  them  in  rescuing  perishing  trav- 
elers. This  famous  dog,  according  to 
the  traditions  of  the  monastery,  is  the 
result  of  a  cross  between  a  Danish 
bull-bitch  and  a  mastiff,  a  native  hill 
dog.  Many  of  the  finest  St.  Bernards 
measure  over  30  inches  high  at  the 
shoulder  and  weigh  over  150  pounds. 
On  account  of  his  great  size  and 
weight  the  St.  Bernard  often  moves 
in  an  awkward  manner,  a  defect 
which  should  be  avoided.  St.  Ber- 
nards, though  occupying  a  great  deal 
of  space,  are  so  handsome  that  they 
are  kept  as  companions  in  great  num- 
bers ;  as  a  rule  they  are  good  tempered, 
though  many  are  not  to  be  trusted. 


ST.  BEBNABD  DOG. 
St.   Christopher.      See    Cheisto- 

PHEB. 

St.  Clair,  a  lake  in  North  America, 
between  Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Erie, 
and  connected  with  the  former  by  St. 
Clair  River,  with  the  latter  by  Detroit 
River.  It  is  30  miles  long,  greatest 
breadth  24  miles;  area,  3G0  square 
miles.  Its  elevation  above  the  sea- 
level  is  576  feet,  being  6  feet  lower 
than  Lake  Huron. 

St.  Glair,  Arthnr,  an  American 
military  officer ;  born  in  Thurso,  Scot- 
land, in  1734.  He  was  at  Louisburg 
in  1758  and  Quebec  in  1759;  engaged 
in  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Prince- 
ton ;  was  in  command  in  1777  at  Ti- 
conderoga ;  was  at  the  nattle  of  York- 
town;  president  of  Congress  in  1787; 


governor  of  Northwest  Territory  in 
1789-1802.  The  expeditionary  force 
against  the  Miami  Indians,  number- 
ing 1,400,  commanded  by  him,  was 
cut  to  pieces  near  Miami  village  in 

1791.  He   resigned   his   command    ia 

1792,  and  died  near  Greensburg,  Pa., 
Aug.  31,  1818. 

St.  Clair  River,  the  outlet  of 
Lake  Huron ;  is  41  miles  long,  and 
flows  south  on  the  boundary  between 
Michigan  and  Ontario.  A  tunnel  was 
built  under  it  in  1891. 

St.  Cloud,  France.    See  Cloud,  St. 

St.  Cloud,  city  and  capital  of 
Stearns  Co.,  Minn.,  on  the  Missis- 
sippi, 65  miles  N.  W.  of  Minneapolis. 
It  has  large  j,'ranito  and  agricultural 
interests.     Poji.   (1910)   10,600. 

St.  Croix,  an  affluent  of  the  Miss- 
issippi, forming  part  of  the  boundary 
between  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin. 
Length  200  miles. 

St.  Croix,  a  West  Indian  island, 
belonging  to  Denmark,  40  miles  S.  S. 
E.  of  St.  Thomas ;  area,  74  square 
miles ;  pop.  18,430 ;  discovered  by  Co- 
lumbus. The  sale  of  the  island  with 
the  entire  Danish  West  Indian  group 
to  United  States  was  mooted,  1902. 

St.  Cuthbert,  an  English  bishop; 
born  near  Melrose,  England,  early  in 
the  7th  century.  He  was  successively 
prior  of  the  monasteries  of  Melrose 
and  Lindisfame,  retired  afterward  to 
the  lone  and  desolate  isle  of  Fame, 
where  he  might  enjoy  a  life  of  solitude. 
He  finally  yielded  to  the  persuasion  of 
the  Northumbrian  king,  Oswy,  and 
took  the  bishopric  of  the  province  of 
Lindisfame.  He  held  this  office  for 
two  years,  when,  worn  out  by  labors 
and  austerities,  he  died  in  the  island 
of  Fame,  March  20,  687. 

St.  Cjril  of  Alexandria,  an  Egyp- 
tian bishop;  born  in  Alexandria, 
Egypt,  about  376.  He  succeeded  his 
uncle  Theophilus  as  Bishop  of  Alex- 
andria in  412,  He  compelled  the  No- 
vatians  to  silence,  banished  the  Jews, 
and  caused  Nestorius  to  be  condemned 
and  deposed.  A  subsequent  council 
favoring  Nestorius,  excommunicated 
and  deposed  his  opponent.  The  em- 
peror condemned  both  sides,  and  or- 
dered the  rival  champions  to  be  im- 
prisoned. The  intercession  of  Rome 
caused  tTiis  sentence  against  Cyril  to 
be  abrogated.  He  died  in  Atexandria 
in  June,  444. 


8t.  Cyril 


St.  GottbarA 


St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  a  Church 
father:  born  in  or  near  Jerusalem, 
Palestine,  about  315.  He  was  elected 
bishop  of  his  ^ative  city  in  351.  He 
was  engaged  in  hot  conflict  with  his 
metropolitans,  the  Arian  bishop  Aca- 
cius  o"f  Osesarea,  who  caused  him  to  be 
twice  deposed.  He  was  for  the  second 
time  restored  to  his  episcopate  in  383. 
Soon  after,  his  old  enemy  Acacius 
died,  but  Cyril  was  involved  in  new 
difficulties.  After  considerable  strife 
Cyril  was  banished  by  order  of  the 
Emperor  Valens  in  367;  nor  did  he 
return  till  the  emperor's  death  in  378. 
He  died  to  386. 

St.  Denis.     See  Denis. 

Sainte-Benve,  Charles  Aligns^ 
tin,  a  French  writer,  and  one  of  the 
greatest  of  modern  critics ;  born  in 
Boulogne,  France,  in  1804.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Paris,  but  abandoned  that 
science  in  favor  of  literature,  his  first 
work  of  importance  being  on  the 
French  literature  of  the  IGth  century. 
In  1840  he  was  appointed  conservator 
of  the  Mazarin  Library,  and  in  1845 
admitted  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  In  1852  he  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Latin  Poetry  in  the  Col- 
lege of  France ;  he  also  lectured  for 
some  years  on  French  literature  at 
the  Ecole  Normale  Superieure.  Most 
of  his  critical  writings  have  been  re- 
published in  various  editions.  He  also 
wrote  three  volumes  of  poetry.  He 
died  in  Paris  in  1869. 

Sainte-Claira,  Deville,  Henri* 
£tienne,  a  French  chemist ;  born  in 
St.  Thomas,  W.  I.,  March  11,  1818; 
was  educated  in  Paris.  It  was  he 
who  first  produced  aluminum  (1855) 
and  platinum  in  commercial  quan- 
tities, and  demonstrated  the  general 
theory  of  the  dissociation  of  chem- 
ical compounds  at  a  his;h  temperature. 
He  died  in  Paris,  France,  July  1, 
1881. 

St.  Elias,  Monnt.     See  Elias. 

St.  Elmo's  Fire.     See  Elmo. 

Sainte  Marie  -  aux  -  Mines,  or 
UfaTkirch,  a  town  of  Germany,  jn 
Upper  Alsace,  in  a  valley  on  both 
sides  of  the  river  Leber,  40  miles  S. 
W.  of  Strassburg.  Its  silver  mines, 
famous  in  the  Middle  Ages,  have  been 
depleted.  Since  the  18th  century  the 
town  has  been  celebrated  for  its  cot- 
ton and  woolen  manufactures.  Pop. 
12.400. 

E.  131. 


Saintes,  a  town  in  the  W.  of 
France,  department  Charente-Inf§rie- 
ure,  on  the  Charente,  27  miles  S.  E.  of 
Rochefort.  It  has  an  old  cathedral 
and  interesting  Roman  remains.  The* 
manufactures  are  bombazine,  earthen- 
ware, etc. ;  and  the  trade  is  in  brandy,, 
wool,  and  corn.     Pop.  18,200. 

Saint-Etienne.     See  Etienne. 

Saint  Eustatius.     See  Eustatius. 

Saint-Evremond,  Charles  Mar-> 
gnetel  de  Saint-Denis,  Seigneur 
de,  a  French  writer;  born  in  1633; 
died  1703.  At  sixteen  he  entered  the' 
army,  took  part  in  many  of  the  cam- 
paigns of  the  period,  and  rose  to  the 
rank  of  field-marshal,  but  gained  his 
chief  laurels  in  the  salon  of  Ninon  do 
I'Enclos  as  a  brilliant  conversationist 
and  a  graceful  wit.  He  was  a 
staunch  royalist,  but,  compromised  by 
the  disgrace  of  Fouquet,  and  afraid 
of  Mazarin,  he  fled  to  England  in 
1661,  and  was  welcomed  and  pensioneii 
by  Charles  II.  He  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  His  satirical 
writings  and  his  letters  are  of  most 
interest.  One  of  the  former  is  his 
"  La  Comedie  des  Academistes." 

Saint  Francis,  a  river  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  forming  part  of  the  boun- 
dary between  Arkansas  and  Missouri, 
and  entering  the  Mississippi.  At  high- 
water  it  is  navigable  for  about  150 
miles ;  total  length  450  miles. 

Saint  Gall.     See  Gall. 

Saint  Gaudens,  Augustus,  aQ 
American  sculptor ;  born  in  Dublin, 
Ireland,  March  1,  1848;  came  to  the- 
United  States  in  infancy ;  studied  art 
at  Cooper  Institute,  New  York  city ; 
at  the  National  Academy  of  Design,, 
and  at  Paris,  where  he  attended  the- 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts.  In  1871, 
while  in  Rome  he  produced  his  first 
figure,  "  Hiawatha,"  but  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  1872.  He  de- 
signed the  Medal  of  Award  of  the 
Columbian  Expositions  and  the  now 
gold  coins  and  one  cent  piece.  He- 
died  Aug.  3.   1907. 

St.  Gotthard,  a  mountain  knot  of 
the  Alps,  in  the  Swiss  cantons  of  Uri, 
Grisons,  Ticino,  and  Valais.  9,850  feet 
high.  It  bears  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  Alpine  passes  from 
Switzerland  to  Italy.  The  road  that 
crosses  this  pass  (6.936  feet)  leads 
from  the  shores  of  Lake  Lucerne  to 


St.  Helena 

the  shores  of  Lago  Maggiore;  but 
down  to  1820  it  was  not  wider  than 
13  feet.  In  1820-1824  it  was  widened 
to  18  feet  and  smoothed  for  carriages. 
Near  the  summit  of  the  pass  stand  two 
hotels  and  a  hospice.  Since  1882  a 
railway  has  climbed  up  the  lower 
slopes,  and  then  burrowed  through  it 
in  a  tunnel.  This  tunnel  was  begun 
in  1872  and  finished  in  1880;  it  ex- 
tends from  Goschenen  (at  a  height  of 
3,639  feet)  in  Uri  to  Airolo  (3,757 
feet)  in  Ticino,  measures  9^  miles  in 
length,  is  26  feet  wide,  and  21  high, 
rises  with  a  gradient  that  reaches  on 
an  average  26  in  100  feet,  and  cost 
$11,350,000  to  make. 

St.  Helena,  a  lonely  island  in  the 
Atlantic,  1.200  miles  from  the  W. 
coast  of  Africa,  1,695  from  Cape 
Town,  and  4,477  from  Southampton ; 
length,  10  miles;  width,  8  miles;  area, 
47  square  miles.  It  is  part  of  an  old 
volcano  and  reaches  2,823  feet  in  High 
Hill.  Jamestown,  the  capital,  on  the 
N.  W.  coast,  is  a  second-class  im- 
perial coaling  station,  and  fortified. 
St.  Helena  was  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1502,  and  taken  pos- 
session of  by  the  British  in  1651.  It 
is  celebrated  as  the  place  of  Na- 
poleon's imprisonment  from  1815  to 
his  death  in  1821,  In  1900  it  was 
again  prominent  as  a  place  of  cap- 
tivity, Boer  prisoners  including 
Cronje  (q.  v.)  being  sent  there. 

St.  Henri,  a  city  in  Hochelaga 
county,  Quebec,  Canada;  on  the  La- 
chine  canal  and  the  Grand  Trunk 
railway;  2  miles  S.  W.  of  Montreal, 
with  which  it  has  many  business  in- 
terests in  common;  manufactures 
cotton  goods,  leather,  iron,  wire,  pipe, 
sewing-machines,  and  shoes. 

St.  James's  Palace,  a  palace  in 
London,  England.  Originally  a  hos- 
pital dedicated  to  St.  James,  it  was 
reconstructed  and  made  a  manor  by 
Henry  VI XL,  who  also  annexed  to  it 
a  park,  which  he  enclosed  with  a  brick 
wall,  to  connect  St.  James's  with 
Whitehall.  Here  Queen  Mary  died 
(15.58)  ;  Charles  I.  slept  here  the 
night  before  his  execution ;  and  here 
Charles  II.,  the  Old  Pretender,  and 
George  IV.  were  bom.  When  White- 
hall was  burned  in  1697,  St.  James's 
became  the  regular  London  residence 
of  the  British  sovereigns,  and  it  con- 
tinued to  be  so  till  Queen  Victoria's 


1st.  iTosepli 

time.  The  Court  of  St.  James's  is  a 
frequent  designation  of  the  British 
court. 

St.  John,  city  and  port  of  Canada, 
province  New  Brunswick,  capital  of 
St.  John  Co.,  at  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
John  River  which  here  enters  the  Bay 
of  Fundy.  St.  John  is  the  great  com- 
mercial emporium  of  New  Brunswick, 
and  has  a  great  trade  in  lumber,  im- 
portant fisheries,  ship-building,  and  a 
variety  of  industries.    Pop.  40,711. 

St.  Jobn,  Charles  Edward,  an 
American  physicist ;  born  in  Allen, 
Mich.,  March  15,  1857 ;  was  graduated 
at  the  Michigan  Normal  College  in 
1876,  and  studied  physics  abroad ;  was 
instructor  of  physics  at  the  Michigan 
Normal  College,  Ypsilanti,  in  1885- 
1892 ;  associate  professor  of  the  same 
at  Oberlin  College  in  1897-1899;  and 
then  took  the  chair  of  physics  and 
astronomy  there. 

St.  Jolin,  Jolin  Pierce,  an  Amer- 
ican lawyer;  born  in  Brookville,  Ind., 
Feb.  25,  1833;  received  a  common 
school  education ;  entered  the  Union 
army  during  the  Civil  War  and  served 
as  captain  and  lieutenant-colonel ;  re- 
moved to  Kansas  after  the  war  and 
was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  that 
State  in  1872 ;  was  governor  of  Kan- 
sas in  1879-1883.  He  was  a  candidate 
for  President  of  the  United  States 
on  the  Prohibition  ticket  in  1884.  He 
later  became  independent  in  politics. 

St.  John's,  capital  of  Newfound- 
land ;  on  Avalon  Peninsula  in  the  S. 
E.  It  is  attractively  situated  at  the 
inner  end  of  a  capacious  harbor,  and  is 
protected  by  several  strong  batteries 
and  forts.  Cod  and  seal  oils  are  pro- 
duced and  exported  on  a  large  scale. 
In  1892  a  terrible  conflagration  de- 
stroyed nearly  two-thirds  of  the  town. 
Pop.  29,594. 

St.  John's  College,  an  educa- 
tional non-sectarian  institution  in 
Annapolis,  Md. ;  founded  in  1789. 

St.  John's  College,  an  educa- 
tional institution  in  Fordham,  N.  Y. ; 
founded  in  1841  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 

St.  Joseph,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Buchanan  co..  Mo. ;  on  the  Missouri 
river ;  60  miles  N,  W.  of  Kansas  City. 
It  is  the  third  city  in  the  State  in 
population, and  is  one  of  the  wealthiest 
cities  of  its  size  in  the  United  States. 


gaint-Jnst 


St.  Lonia 


St.  Joseph  has  upward  of  400  man- 
ufacturing establishments,  with  a  cap- 
ital exceeding  $10,000,000,  and  an- 
nual products  of  over  $12,000,000. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  clothing, 
shirts,  overalls,  flour,  and  grist  miL 
products,  boots  and  shoes,  furniture, 
machinery,  packed  meat,  and  woolen 
blankets.  The  city  is  the  trade  center 
of  a  large  and  rich  agricultural  re- 
gion. It  is  also  an  important  ship- 
ping point  for  cattle,  hogs  and  grain, 
and  has  stock  yards  covering  about 
450  acres.  The  assessed  property 
valuation  exceeds  $35,000,000,  and  the 
total  bonded  debt  is  about  $1,300,000. 

The  city  has  an  area  of  9  square 
miles.  The  sewer  system  covers  38 
miles,  and  the  streets  are  lighted  by 
electricity.  There  is  a  public  school 
enrollment  of  over  9,G00  pupils,  and 
the  annual  expenditure  for  education 
is  nearly  $140,000.  The  annual  cost 
of  maintaining  the  city  government 
is  about  $320,000. 

The  city  was  established  by  Joseph 
Ribideaux  in  1843 ;  incorporated  as  a 
town  in  1845;  and  chartered  as  a 
city  in  1885.  After  the  discovery  of 
gold  in  California  it  became  promi- 
nent as  the  starting  point  for  mining 
parties  on  their  way  across  the 
prairies.  During  the  Civil  War  it 
was  fortified  by  the  Federal  govern- 
ment.    Pop.  (1910)  77,403. 

Saint-Just,  Antoine  lionis 
licon  Florelle  de,  a  French  revolu- 
tionist; born  in  1767.  He  adopted 
with  enthusiasm  the  principles  of  the 
Revolution,  became  the  right  hand  of 
Robespierre,  and  was  one  of  the  most 
energetic  and  resolute  members  of  the 
Mountain  party.  He  fell  with  Robes- 
pierre through  the  events  of  the  9th 
Thermidor  (July  27,  1794),  and  per- 
ished on  the  same  scaffold  with  him 
on  the  following  day,  July  28,  1704. 

St.  Lawrence,  a  river  of  North 
America,  forming  in  its  upper  reaches 
part  of  the  N.  boundary  of  the  United 
States,  but  for  the  most  part  con- 
fined to  the  Canadian-  Dominion.  It 
issues  from  Lake  Ontario  at  Kingston, 
where  the  name  begins  to  be  applied 
to  the  river,  though  the  remotest  source 
of  the  highest  feeder  of  its  basin,  the 
St.  Louis,  which  enters  the  W.  end  of 
Lake  Superior,  is  in  the  N.  B.  of 
Minnesota.  Passing  through  the  chain 
of  Great  Lakes  on  leaving  Lake  On- 


tario, it  flows  N.  E.,  first  through  the 
beautiful  district  known  as  the  Thou- 
sand Isles,  from  the  number  of  is- 
lands large  and  small  (in  all  about 
1,500) ,  which  here  vary  its  course,  and 
then  forms  the  wide  expanses  called 
Lakes  St.  Francis,  St.  Louis,  and  St. 
Peter.  Below  Quebec  it  forms  a 
broad  estuary,  and  it  enters  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence  by  a  mouth  26  miles 
wide,  between  Point  des  Monts  and 
the  Gaspe  Peninsula.  Length  from 
Lake  Ontario  to  the  Gulf  760  miles, 
to  the  W.  point  of  Anticosti  1,034 
miles.  The  height  of  Lake  Ontario 
above  sea-level  is  246.6  feet  of  which 
the  river  descends  206.75  feet  in  the 
348  miles  above  Montreal.  Since  the 
construction  of  a  ship  canal,  27 1^  feet 
deep,  through  Lake  St.  Peter,  the 
largest  merchant  vessels  afloat  have 
been  able  to  reach  Montreal  in  sum- 
mer. In  the  stretches  above  Montreal 
the  fall  of  the  river  bed  takes  place  in 
a  succession  of  rapids,  to  avoid  which 
canals  have  been  constructed.  The 
basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence  is  estimated 
to  contain  297,000  square  miles,  of 
which  95,000  are  covered  with  the 
waters  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

St.  Laxrrence  University,  a  coed* 
vicational  institution  in  Canton,  N. 
Y. ;  founded  in  1858  under  the  au3» 
pices  of  the   Universalist  Church. 

St.  liOnis,  a  port  of  entry,  and  chief 
city  of  Missouri ;  on  the  W.  bank  of 
the  Mississippi  river,  20  miles  S.  of* 
the  mouth  of  the  Missouri.  It  is  the 
fourth  city  in  the  United  States  iji 
population,  and  the  commercial  me- 
tropolis of  the  Mississippi  valley.  The 
city  is  built  on  rising  ground,  com- 
prising three  terraces,  the  highest  of 
which  is  200  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  river ;  area,  61  square  miles ;  pop. 
(1900)  575,238;  (1910)  687,029. 

The  city  owns  an  extensive  water- 
works system,  costing  $20,000,000. 
The  consumption  averages  60,000,000 
gallons  daily.  There  are  in  all  873 
miles  of  streets,  of  which  432  miles 
are  paved.  The  sewer  system  covers 
488  miles.  The  streets  are  lighted 
by  gas  and  electricity.  The  property 
valuation   exceeds  $585,000,000. 

St.  Louis  has  a  park  system  which 
constitutes  one  of  its  most  attractive 
features.  The  total  area  of  the  parks 
is  2,268  acres.  Forest  Park,  which 
comprises  1,370  acres,  is  the  largest. 


Si.  Lucia 


St.  Martin 


«nd  probably  the  most  beautiful.  Here 
is  situated  Washington  University, 
which  formed  the  nucleus  around 
which  grew  the  fine  buildings  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  in 
3904:,  Tower  Grove  Park,  covering 
'276  acres  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the 
■city,  was  the  donation  of  Henry  Shaw, 
Tvho  also  gave  the  city  the  Missouri 
Botanical  Garden.  Carondelet  Park 
and  Lafayette  Park  are  small  but  ex- 
cellent specimens  of  landscape  gar- 
dening. 

The  principal  public  buildings  are 
the  massive  postofSce  and  custom  house 
■costing  more  than  $6,500,000 ;  the  city 
hall,  built  at  a  cost  of  $2,000,000; 
the  court  house;  the  union  railroad 
station  with  a  train  house  covering  30 
tracks,  and  used  by  21  railroad  com- 
panies, erected  at  a  cost  of  $6,500,000 ; 
and  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  build- 
ing, costing  $2,000,000. 

The  St.  Louis  bridge,  a  massive 
«tructure,  was  completed  in  1874  at  a 
•cost  of  over  $10,000,000.  It  consists 
•of  three  spans,  the  center  one  being 
■520  feet  long,  and  the  other  two  500 
feet  each.  The  piers  upon  which 
these  spans  rest  are  built  of  limestone 
•carried  down  to  bed  rock.  The  main 
passage  for  the  accommodation  of  pe- 
•destrians  is  54  feet  wide,  and  below 
'this  are  two  lines  of  rails.  The  mer- 
■chant's  bridge,  3  miles  N.,  was  com- 
pleted in  1890  at  a  cost  of  $3,000,- 
•  '000.  The  latter  is  used  exclusively  for 
railroad  traffic. 

The  favorable  location  of  St.  Louis 
in  the  heart  of  the  vast  and  fertile 
Mississippi  valley  makes  it  one  of 
the  greatest  commercial  cities  in  the 
United  States.  There  is  an  immense 
trade  in  breadstufifs,  grain,  provisions, 
lumber,  hides,  fur,  agricultural  prod- 
ucts, manufactured  articles,  etc.  There 
are  about  2,500  factory-system 
Ijlants,  employing  •  over  $270,000,00(j 
capital,  and  yielding  annual  products 
valued  at  over  $267,000,000,  St.  Louis 
is  one  of  the  largest  tobacco  manu- 
facturing  cities    in   the  world. 

The  city  has  direct  commimication 
with  more  than  6,000  miles  of  rivers. 
A  considerable  amount  of  its  foreign 
trade  is  entered  and  cleared  at  New 
Orleans. 

On  Sept.  1,  1900,  there  were  6 
National  banks  in  operation,  having 
a    combined    capital    of   $11,400,000; 


and  a  surplus  fund  of-  $2,775,000 ; 
gross  earnings,  $2,059,844.21;  net 
earnings,    $760,986.08. 

At  the  close  of  the  school  year 
1898-1899  the  children  of  school  age 
aggregated  159,978;  the  enrollment  iu 
public  day  schools  was  76,244,  and  the 
private  and  parochial  schools  (largely 
estimated),  26,000;  and  the  average 
daily  attendance  in  public  day  schools 
was  55,006.  There  were  1,547  teach- 
ers; 125  buildings  used  for  school 
purposes;  and  public  school  property 
of  an  estimated  value  of  $5,373,642. 
The  institutions  of  higher  education 
are  Washington  University,  St.  Louis 
University  (It.  C),  the  College  of  the 
Christian  Brothers,  St.  Louis  School 
of  Fine  Arts,  Maria  Consilia  Convent, 
Training  School  for  Nurses,  several 
medical  colleges,  dental  college,  theo- 
logical seminaries  (Luth.  and  Evan. 
Luth. ) ,  Manual  Training  School,  the 
State  School  for  the  Blind,  and  the 
St.  Louis  Day  School  for  Deaf  Mutes. 

There  are  upward  of  300  churches 
in  St.  Louis,  representing  all  the  lead- 
ing religious  sects  in  the  United 
States.  The  value  of  all  church  prop- 
erty is  estimated  to  be  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  $6,000,000. 

On  Feb.  14,  1764,  Auguste  Chou- 
teau, with  about  30  men,  arrived  at 
the  site  of  the  city  to  establish  a  per- 
manent post.  In  1896  the  city  was 
swept  by  a  destructive  tornado  that 
overthrew  many  buildings,  destroyed 
shipping  and  tore  out  a  shore  span  of 
the  great  bridge.  Several  hundred 
lives  were  lost  and  many  rendered 
homeless.  To  celebrate  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  in  1803,  the  St.  Louis 
World's  Fair,  a  great  international 
exposition  was  held  in  1904. 

St.  liucia,  the  largest  of  the  Wind- 
ward Islands,  in  the  West  Indies,  42 
miles  long  and  from  15  to  20  wide; 
area,  233  square  miles ;  pop.  47,976. 
The  climate  is  in  the  main  healthy,  a 
fresh  trade  wind  blowing  almost  con- 
stantly.    The  capital   is  Castries. 

St.  Iklartin,  one  of  the  Lesser  An- 
tilles, W.  I.  Since  1648  it  has  been 
divided  between  France  and  the 
Netherlands.  The  French  portion,  a 
dependency  of  Guadeloupe,  has  an 
area  of  20  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of  3,500.  The  Dutch  portion,  a 
dependency  of  Curacao,  has  an  area  of 
18  square  miles  and  a  poi--.  of  3,984 


St.  Nicliolas 


Si.  Paul's 


St.  Nicliolas,  an  early  bishop  of 
JVIyra  in  Lycia,  Asia  Minor.  He  is  a 
popular  saint  in  the  Roman  and  the 
Greek  Churches.  His  feast  day,  fall- 
ing on  Dec.  6,  was  once  elaborately 
celebrated  in  English  public  schools, 
the  solemnities  continuing  to  Dec.  29. 
It  has  long  been  a  custom  in  certain 
European  countries  to  keep  St. 
Nicholas'  Eve  by  placing  gifts  in  the 
shoes  or  stockings  of  children.  This 
custom  has  been  transferred  to  Christ- 
mas Eve  and  the  transformed  saint  is 
known  as  Santa  Claus  (from  the 
Dutch  Sant  Nicolaus). 

St.  Olaf  College,  a  coeducational 
institution  in  Northfield,  Minn. ; 
founded  in  1874  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Lutheran  Church. 

St.  Fanl,  a  city,  capital  of  the  State 
of  Minnesota,  and  county-seat  of  Ram- 
sey CO. ;  on  the  Mississippi  river.  The 
city  is  built  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
which  are  connected  by  several  bridges 
including  a  fine  iron  structure.  The 
ground  on  both  sides  of  the  river  rises 
in  three  plateaus,  the  highest  being 
200  feet.  The  main  part  of  the  city 
is  on  the  second  and  third  plateaus, 
but  it  also  occupies  the  bottom  lands 
along  the  river.  Area  55  square  miles ; 
pop.  (1910)  214,744. 

The  city  owns  an  extensive  water- 
works system.  The  reservoirs  have  a 
storage  capacity  of  30,000,000  gallons, 
and  the  water  is  distributed  through 
244  miles  of  mains.  There  are  in  all 
885  miles  of  streets,  of  which  50  miles 
are  paved.  The  sewer  system  covers 
about  160  miles.  The  annual  death 
rate  averages  8.47  per  1.000. 

The  principal  public  buildings  are 
the  Capitol,  containing  the  library  of 
the  State  Historical  Society ;  the  court 
house  and  city  hall  erected  at  a  cost 
of  more  than  $1,000,000;  custom 
house  and  postoffice.  Besides  these 
there  are  three  free  hospitals,  and 
Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  or- 
phan asylums. 

The  Federal  census  reports  over 
600  factory-system  plants,  employing 
$36,500,000  capital  and  14,300  wage- 
earners;  paying  $19,500,000,  for  ma- 
terials used  and  $7,210,000  for 
wages;  and  yielding  annual  products 
valued  at  over  $38,500,000. 

On  Sept.  1,  1900,  there  were  5 
National  banks  in  operation,  having  a 
combined   capital  of  $3,800,000,   and 


a  surplus  fund  of  $720,000.  The  gross 
earnings  were  $393,251.21,  and  net 
earnings,  $98,242.54. 

At  the  close  of  the  school  year 
1898-1899  there  were  24,344  pupils 
enrolled  in  public  day  schools,  and  in 
private  and  parochial  schools  12,000; 
and  the  average  daily  attendance  in 
public  day  schools  was  19,010.  There 
were  534  teachers;  46  buildings  used 
for  public  school  purposes;  and  for 
public  property  of  an  estimated  value 
of  $2,575,125.  Tlie  institutions  for 
higher  education  are  Hamline  Univer- 
sity (M.  E.)  ;  Concordia  College 
(Luth.)  ;  Macalester  College  (Pres.)  ; 
St.  Paul's  and  St.  Thomas's  Semi- 
naries (R.  C.)  ;  and  several  medical 
colleges. 

A  French  Canadian  settled  on  the 
site  of  the  city  in  1838.  Three  years 
later,  Father  Gaultier,  a  French  Cath- 
olic priest,  founded  the  first  church 
here,  and  named  it  St.  Paul,  from 
which  the  city  derived  its  name.  It 
received  its  city  charter  in  1854,  and 
united  the  suburb  of  West  St.  Paul 
in  1874.  Since  the  latter  year  there 
has  been  such  a  rapid  growth  that 
the  outskirts  of  the  city  reach  those 
of  Minneapolis.  These  two  cities  are 
known  as  "  The  Twin  Cities  of  the 
West." 

St.  Paul's,  a  cathedral  in  London, 
England,  situated  on  Ludgate  Hill,  an 
elevation  on  the  N.  bank  of  the 
Thames.  The  site  of  the  present 
building  was  originally  occupied  by  a 
church  erected  by  Ethelbert,  King  of 
Kent,  in  610.  This  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1087,  and  another  edifice.  Old 
St.  Paul's,  was  shortly  afterward  com- 
menced. The  structure  was  in  the 
Gothic  style,  in  the  form  of  a  Latin 
cross,  690  feet  long,  130  feet  broad, 
with  a  lead-covered  wooden  spire  ris- 
ing to  the  height  of  520  feet.  Old 
St.  Paul's  was  much  damaged  by  a 
fire  in  1137,  by  lightning  in  1444, 
again  by  fire  in  1561,  and  was  utterly 
destroyed  by  the  great  fire  in  1606. 
The  ruins  remained  for  about  eight 
years,  when  the  rebuilding  was  taken 
in  hand  by  the  government  of  Charles 
II.  (1675-1710).  The  whole  build- 
ing was  completed  at  a  total  cost  of 
$7,556,010.  It  is  of  Portland  stone, 
in  the  form  of  a  cross.  Its  length  is 
510  feet:  the  width  from  N.  to  S. 
portico  282  feet ;  the  general  height  «8 


St.  Peter's 


St.  Peierslinrg 


100  feet.  The  whole  is  surmounted 
by  a  great  dome  raised  on  eight  arches. 
Above  the  dome  is  a  lantern  or  gal- 
lery terminated  above  by  a  ball  and 
gilded  cross,  404  feet  from  the  pave- 
ment beneath.  The  elevated  portico 
forming  the  grand  entrance  consists  of 
12  Corinthian  columns,  with  an  upper 
series  of  eight  pillars  of  the  Com- 
posite order,  supporting  a  pediment; 
the  front  being  flanked  by  two  bell- 
towers    120   feet  in    height. 

St.  Peter's,  th^  Cathedral  of  Rome, 
the  largest  and  one  of  the  most  mag- 
nificent churches  in  Christendom.  It 
is  a  cruciform  building  in  the  Italian 
style,  surmounted  by  a  lofty  dome, 
,built  on  the  legendary  site  of  St. 
Peter's  martyrdom;  the  foundation 
stone  was  laid  on  the  18th  of  April, 
1506.  Michael  Angelo  was  appointed 
architect  in  1546.  He  nearly  com- 
pleted the  dome  and  a  large  portion 
of  the  building  before  his  decease 
(1564).  The  nave  was  finished  in 
1612,  the  facade  and  portico  in  1614, 
and  the  church  was  dedicated  by 
Urban  VIII.  Nov.  18,  1626.  The  in- 
terior diameter  of  the  dome  is  139 
feet,  the  exterior  diameter  195^  feet; 
its  height  fi-om  the  pavement  to  the 
base  of  the  lantern  405  feet ;  to  the  top 
of  the  cross  outside  448  feet.  The 
length  of  the  cathedral  within  the  walls 
is  613%  feet ;  the  height  of  the  nave 
near  the  door  152 1/^  feet;  the 
width  87%  feet.  The  width  of  the 
side  aisles  is  33%  feet;  the  entire 
width  of  the  nave  and  side  aisles,  in- 
cluding the  piers  that  separate  them, 
197%  feet.  The  circumference  of  the 
piers  which  support  the  dome  is  253 
feet.  The  floor  of  the  cathedral  cov- 
ers nearly  5  acres,  and  its  cost  is 
estimated  to  have  exceeded  $50,000,- 
000. 

St.  Petersburg,  the  capital  of  the 
Russian  empire,  at  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  Finland  and  the  mouth  of 
the  Neva.  When  a  strong  wind  is 
blowing  from  the  sea  its  level  rises  by 
peveral  feet,  and  the  poorer  parts  of 
St.  Petersburg  are  inundated  every 
year ;  but  when  the  overflow  exceeds 
10  feet  nearly  the  whole  of  the  city 
is  inundated.  Peter  I.  laid  the  foun- 
dations of  his  capital  in  1702  on  one 
of  the  islands  of  the  delta  and 
dreamed  to  make  of  it  a  new  Amster- 
dam.   The  actual  connection  betwewi 


Russia  and  its  capital  was  established 
through  the  Neva,  which  since  it  was 
connected  by  canals  with  the  upper 
Volga,  became  the  real  mouth  of  the 
immense  basin  of  the  chief  river  of 
Russia  and  its  numberless  tributaries. 
Foreign  trade  and  the  centralization 
of  all  administration  in  the  residence 
of  the  emperor  have  made  of  St.  Pe- 
tersburg a  populous  city  covering  42 
square  miles. 

The  Great  Neva,  the  chief  branch 
of  the  river,  which  has  within  the 
city  itself  a  width  of  from  400  to  700 
yards,  is  so  deep  that  large  ships  can 
lie  alongside  its  granite  embankments. 
Cronstadt,  built  on  an  island  16  miles 
to  the  W.  of  St.  Petersburg,  is  both 
the  fortress  and  the  port  of  the  capital. 
Two-thirds  of  the  foreign  vessels  un- 
load within  the  city  itself.  The  main 
body  of  the  city,  containing  more  than 
one-half  of  its  inhabitants  as  well  as 
all  the  chief  streets,  stands  on  the 
mainland,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Neva;  and  a  beautiful  granite  quay, 
with  a  long  series  of  palaces  and 
mansions,  stretches  for  2%  miles. 
Only  two  permanent  bridges  cross  the 
Neva ;  the  other  two,  built  on  boats, 
are  removed  in  autumn  and  spring. 
The  island  Vasilievsky,  between  the 
Great  and  Little  Nevas,  has  at  its 
head  the  Stock  Exchange,  surrounded 
by  spacious  storehouses,  and  a  row  of 
scientific  institutions,  all  facing  the 
Neva.  On  the  Peterburgskiy  Island, 
between  the  Little  Neva  and  the  Great 
Neva,  stands  the  old  fortress  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul,  facing  the  Winter 
Palace,  and  containing  the  Mint  and 
the  cathedral.  It  has  behind  it  the 
arsenal,  and  a  series  of  wide  streets 
bordered  by  small,  mostly  wooden 
houses,  chiefly  occupied  by  the  poorer 
civil  service  functionaries.  Farther  up 
the  mainland  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Neva  is  covered  by  the  poorer  parts 
of  the  city,  but  contains  some  public 
buildings  and  a  great  number  of  fac- 
tories. Numerous  islands,  separated 
from  each  other  by  small  branches  into 
which  both  Nevas  subdivide,  and  con- 
nected together  by  a  great  number  of 
wooden  bridges,  are  covered  with  beau- 
tiful parks  and  summer  houses,  to 
which  most  of  the  wealthier  and  mid- 
dle-class population  repair  in  the  sum- 
mer. The  main  part  of  St.  Petersburg 
has  for  its  center  the  Old  Admiral- 


Saint-Saens 

ty ;  its  lofty  gilded  spire  and  the  gilded 
dome  of  St.  Isaac's  Cathedral  are 
among  the  first  sights  caught  on  ap- 
proaching St.  Petersburg  by  sea. 
Three  streets  radiate  from  it ;  the 
first  of  them  is  the  famous  Nevskiy 
Prospect. 

The  Nevskiy  Prospect  is  one  of  the 
finest  streets  of  the  world,  not  so 
much  for  its  houses  as  for  its  immense 
width  and  length,  the  crowds  which 
overflow  its  broad  sidewalks,  and  the 
vehicles  which  glide  over  its  wooden 
pavement.  It  runs  for  3,200  yards, 
with  a  width  of  130  feet,  and  then 
with  a  slow  bend  toward  the  S.  for 
another  1,650  yards,  to  reach  again 
the  Neva  near  the   Smolyni  convent. 

The  climate  isi  less  severe  than 
might  be  expected,  but  it  is  unhealthy 
and  very  changeable  on  the  whole. 
The  average  temperatures  are  15.4° 
F.  in  January,  64°  in  July,  and  38.0° 
for  the  year.  A  short  but  hot  summer 
is  followed  by  a  damp  autunm  and 
very  changeable  winter,  severe  frosts 
being  followed  by  rainy  days  in  the 
midst  of  winter,  and  returning  in 
April  and  May  after  the  first  warm 
days    of    the   spring. 

There  are  many  large  factories  in 
the  surrounding  country,  but  the  in- 
dustrial establishments  of  the  capital 
itself  are  chiefly  small.  Pop.  1.678,000. 
Saint-Saens,  Cliexles  Camille,  a 
French  musician ;  bom  in  Paris, 
France,  Oct.  9,  1835.  At  the  age,  it 
is  said,  of  two  and  a  half  years  he 
was  taught  the  pianoforte  by  his 
great-aunt,  and  at  seven  he  had  fur- 
ther instruction  from  Stamaty,  and 
subsequently  learned  harmony  under 
Maleden.  In  1847  he  studied  the  or- 
gan under  Benoist.  At  the  age  of  16 
he  wrote  his  first  symphony,  which 
was  performed  with  success,  and  was 
followed  by  numerous  other  instru- 
mental works.  He  became  organist, 
first  of  the  church  of  St.  Mery,  and  in 
1858  of  the  Madeleine,  where  he  con- 
tinued till  1877.  "  Samson  and 
Dalila."  a  sacred  drama,  was  produced 
at  Weimar  in  1877,  and  was  subse- 
quently successfully  revived  at  Rouen. 
His  reputation  as  a  composer  is  high, 
though  he  has  not  attained  the  highest 
rank  in  opera. 

Saintsbnry,  George  Edward 
Bateman,  an  English  litterateur; 
bom   in  Southampton,  England,  Oct 


St.  Thomas 

23,  1845;  was  educated  at  King's 
College  School,  and  Oxford.  From 
1868  till  1876  he  filled  scholastic  ap- 
pointments at  Manchester,  Guernsey, 
and  Elgin,  but  soon  after  established 
Jiimself  in  the  literary  world  of  Lon- 
don as  one  of  the  most  active  and  in- 
fluential critics  of  his  day. 

St.  Sebastian,  a  celebrated  Roman 
martyr;  born  in  Narbonne  about  255. 
A  captain  in  the  praetorian  guard 
under  Diocletian,  he  used  the  facil- 
ilties  afforded  by  his  station  to  prop- 
agate the  Christian  faith  and  to 
succor  its  persecuted  professors.  Hav- 
ing refused  to  abjure  his  religion,  he 
was  tied  to  a  tree,  shot  with  arrows, 
and  left  for  dead.  A  Christian  wom- 
an, seeking  his  body  by  night,  found 
him  still  alive,  and  cared  for  him  till 
he  was  restored ;  but,  having  ventured 
to  appear  before  Diocletian  to  remon- 
strate against  his  cruelty,  he  was 
beaten  to  death  with  clubs,  and  his 
body  thrown  into  a  sewer,  but  after- 
ward recovered  and  interred.  He  died 
in  Rome,  Jan.  20,  288. 

Saint  Simon,  Claude  Henri, 
Couite  de,  a  French  social  philoso- 
pher, the  founder  of  French  socialism ; 
born  in  Paris,  France,  in  1760.  On , 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution 
bought  a  considerable  quantity  of  con- 
fiscated land,  with  the  view  of  estab- 
lishing a  large  scientific  and  indus- 
trial school ;  the  scheme  was  a  fail- 
ure. From  this  time  he  devoted  him- 
self to  what  he  termed  a  "  physico- 
political "  reformation ;  he  married 
and  continued  to  pursue  his  career, 
in  which  good  and  evil  were  con- 
founded. This,  in  1807,  came  to  an 
end,  and  he  was  compelled  to  become 
a  clerk  in  a  government  office  at  a 
small  salary.  In  1812  he  published  a 
number  of  remarkable  works  which 
attracted  round  him  many  disciples. 
He  died  in  1825. 

St.  Tbomas,  city  and  capital  of 
Elgin  county,  Ontario,  Canada;  on 
Kettle  creek  and  the  Grand  Truuk 
and  other  railways;  17  miles  S.  of 
London;  contains  repair  shops  of  the 
Michigan  Central  railroad  and  manu- 
factories of  car  wheels,  farm  im- 
plements, fiber  ware,  and  bent- wood; 
and  is  the  seat  of  Alma  Ladies'  Col- 
lege, Collegiate  Institute,  Amasa 
Wood  Hospital,  Sinclair  College,  and 
Williams  Home  for  the  Aged. 


St.  Thomas 

St.  Thomas,  a  volcanic  island  of 
Africa  belonging  to  Portugal ;  in  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea ;  170  miles  W.  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Gabun  river.  Its  S.  ex- 
tremity almost  touches  the  equator. 
Measuring  32  miles  by  21,  it  has  an 
area  of  360  square  miles ;  pop.  nearly 
20,000.  Chief  town,  St.  Thomas,  on 
the  N.  E.  coast.  The  island  was  dis- 
covered in  1470,  and  colonized  in 
1493  by  the  Portuguese. 

St.  Thomas,  one  of  the  Virgin 
Islands,  W.  I.,  formerly  belonging  to 
Denmark;  36  miles  E.  of  Porto  Rico; 
area,  33  square  miles.  English  is  the 
language  of  the  educated  classes.  The 
surface  is  hilly  and  the  soil  poor.  The 
port,  Charlotte  Amalie  or  St.  Thomas, 
■was  formerly  a  busy  emporium  for 
the  European  trade  of  the  West  In- 
dies, the  harbor  in  which  the  mer- 
chant fleets  assembled  to  wait  for  their 
convoys,  and  later  the  principal  port 
of  call  in  the  West  Indies.  The  island 
fs  often  visited  by  earthquakes,  but 
they  are  not,  as  a  rule,  so  destruc- 
tive as  the  cyclones.  The  population 
in  3901  was  11,012,  chiefly  descendants 
of  negro  slaves.  St.  Thomas  was  dis- 
covered by  Columbus  in  1493. 
.  St.  Valentine's  Day,  the  14th  day 
of  February,  dear  to  the  hearts  of  all 
youth.  There  is  no  doubt  that .  the 
custom  of  sending  valentines  can  be 
traced  in  origin  to  a  practice  among 
the  ancient  Romans.  At  the  feast  of 
the  Lupercalia,  which  was  held  on 
Feb.  15,  the  names  of  all  the  virgin 
daughters  of  Rome  were  put  in  a  box, 
and  drawn  therefrom  by  the  young 
men.  Each  youth  was  bound  to  of- 
fer a  gift  to  the  maiden  who  fell  to 
his  lot,  and  to  make  her  his  partner 
during  the   time  ot    the    feast. 

St.  Valentine  was  a  bishop  of  Rome 
during  the  3d  century.  He  was  suc- 
cessful in'  converting  the  pagan  Ro- 
mans to  Christianity.  For  this  rea- 
son he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the 
Emperor,  who  hated  and  persecuted 
the  little  Christian  band,  and  he  was 
martyred  by  order  of  that  ruler,  first 
beaten  with  clubs  and  then  beheaded. 
The  date  of  his  death  was  Feb.  14,  270. 
Archbishop  Wheatley  says  that  "  St. 
Valentine  was  so  famous  for  his  love 
and  cliarity  that  the  custom  of  choos- 
ing valentines  on  this  festival  took  its 
rise  from  thence."     When   the  saint 


Saki 

came  to  be  placed  in  the  calendar,  his 
name  was  given  to  the  day  of  his 
death,  and  this  was  made  a  festival. 

St.  Vincent,  one  of  the  British 
islands  in  the  West  Indies,  WindwarcJ 
Group,  105  miles  W.  of  Barbadoes ; 
area,  132  square  miles;  pop.  41,054. 
The  island  is  traversed  from  N.  to  S. 
by  a  chain  of  volcanic  mountains, 
which  rise  in  the  volcano  called  the 
Souferiere  to  3,000  feet.  Many  of  the 
valleys  are  fertile,  and  the  shores  are 
rich  and  productive.  The  climate  is 
healthy.  The  chief  town  is  Kingstown 
at  the  head  of  a  bay  on  the  S.  W. 
coast.  The  island  is  ruled  by  a  gov- 
ernor and  a  nominated  legislative 
council  of  eight  members ;  previous  to 
1877  it  had  a  representative  govern- 
ment. St.  Vincent  was  discovered  by 
Columbus  in  1498. 

Sajon,  a  lively  and  active  monkey, 
of  South  America,  docile,  but  some- 
what capricious.  It  has  a  prehensile 
tail,  though  it  is  not  so  delicate  an  or' 
gan  of  touch  as  in  some  other  species, 

Sajons,  Charles  Euchariste  de* 
Medici,  an  American  physician ;  born 
at  sea  Dec.  13,  1852 ;  was  graduated 
at  Jefferson  Medical  College  in  1878; 
became  dean  and  professor  there,  and 
later  accepted  the  chair  of  anatomy 
and  physiology  in  the  Medico-Chirur- 
gical  College,  Wagner  Institute  of 
Science. 

Sakhalin,  a  long  island  in  the 
North  Pacific,  separated  from  Man- 
churia by  the  Gulf  of  Tartary,  op- 
posite the  mouth  of  the  Amur;  area, 
24.560  sq.  m.  The  center  rises  from 
2,000  to  5,000  ft.  in  three  parallel  N. 
to  S.  ridges.  In  1875  Japan  was  com- 
pelled to  cede  it  to  Russia,  but  in  190.5 
regained  the  southern  half  to  50°N. 
after  the  Russo-Japanese  War  (q.  v.). 

Saki,  a  monkey,  called  also  fox- 
tailed  monkey,  found  in  South  Amer- 
ica. These  animals  usually  reside  in 
the  outskirts  of  forests,  in  small  so- 
cieties of  10  to  12  individuals.  On  the 
slightest  provocation  they  display  a 
morose  and  savage  temper ;  and,  like 
the  howlers,  they  utter  loud  cries  be- 
fore  sunrise  and   after  sunset. 

Saki,  or  Sake,  the  native  beer  and 
common  stimulating  drink  of  the  Jap- 
anese. It  is  made  from  rice,  drunk 
warm,  producing  a  very  speedy  but 
transient  intoxication. 


Sakuntala 


Salamia 


Sakuntala,  one  of  the  most  pleas- 
ing female  characters  of  Hindu  mythol- 
ogy. She  is  mentioned  as  a  water 
nymph  in  the  "  Yajurveda  "  ;  her  name 
has  become  especially  familiar  in  the 
United  States  and  Europe  through  the 
celebrated  drama  of  Kalidasa,  which 
became  the  starting  point  of  Sanskrit 
philology  in  Europe. 

Sal,  one  of  the  most  valuable  tim- 
ber trees  of  India,  growing  to  the 
height  of  100  feet.  Extensive  forests 
of  it  exist  in  Northern  India,  where 
it  is  largely  used  in  carpentry  of  all 
kinds.  It  yields  a  resin  used  to  caulk 
boats  and  ships,  and  also  for  incense. 

Sala,  George  Angnstns  Henry, 
an  English  journalist ;  born  in  Lon- 
don, England,  in  1828.  He  acquired 
a  large  fortune  in  journalism,  but  was 
recklessly  extravagant  and  finally  be- 
came bankrupt.  He  died  in  Brighton, 
England,  Dec.  8,  1895. 

Salaam,  the  general  term  of  salu- 
tation amon^  the  Mohammedans. 

Saladin,  or  Salaheddin,  a  cele- 
brated Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria; 
born  in  1137.  He  made  great  con- 
quests in  Syria,  Arabia,  Persia,  and 
Mesopotamia ;  after  which  he  defeated 
the  Christians  with  great  slaughter 
near  Tiberias.  This  was  followed  by 
the  surrender  of  Jerusalem.  In  1189 
Richard  Coeur-de-Lion,  with  his  ally, 
Philip  Augustus,  King  of  France,  laid 
siege  to  Acre,  which,  after  a  two 
years'  struggle,  was  taken  by  them ; 
but  a  truce  was  concluded  between 
Saladin  and  the  Chiistians;  soon  after 
which  the  Sultan  died  in  Damascus  in 
1192. 

Salamanca,  a  city  of  Spain ;  on 
and  between  four  low  hills  beside  the 
river  Tormes,  110  miles  N.  W.  of 
Madrid.  From  the  middle  of  the  13th 
to  the  close  of  the  17th  century  it  was 
the  seat  of  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
universities  in  Europe.  In  the  IGth 
century  there  were  here  from  G,000  to 
8,000  students ;  at  the  present  day 
there  are  not  more  than  400.  The  uni- 
versity buildings  date  chiefly  from  the 
loth  century  and  are  Gothic  in  style. 
In  Salamanca's  palmy  days  her  pop- 
ulation reached  50,000,  and  the  uni- 
versity counted  more  than  a  score  of 
colleges.  The  city  is  still  surrounded 
with  walls,  pierced  by  10  gates,  and 
preserves  very  much  of  its  mediaeval 


appearance.  The  river  is  crossed  by  a 
bridge  of  27  arches,  in  part  of  Roman 
construction.  The  great  square  is  the 
largest  perhaps  in  Spain.  It  was  used 
for  bull  fights,  and  can  hold  20,000 
spectators.  In  the  Middle  Ages  Sala- 
manca was  famous  for  its  leather 
work.  The  town  was  captured  by 
Hannibal  in  222  B.  c.  The  Moors 
were  expelled  from  its  walls  in  1055. 
During  the  Peninsular  war  it  waa 
taken  by  the  French  (1812),  and  in 
the  vicinity  Wellington  defeated  Mar- 
mont  on  July  22,  1812-. 

Salamander,  a  genus  of  reptiles 
closely  allied  to  the  frog,  from  which 
it  differs  in  having  an  elongated  body 
terminated  by  a  tail,  and  four  feet  of 
equal  length.  Together  with  the  frog, 
this  genus  is  included  under  the  order 
Batrachia,  and  is  easily  distinguislied 


GIANT   SAIAMANDEB. 

from  the  lizards  by  having  no  nails  on 
the  toes,  a  naked  skin  destitute  of 
scales,  and  a  heart  with  a  single  auri- 
cle. Found  in  North  America  and 
Europe. 

Salamis,  or  Fityonssa  (modern 
name  Koluri),  an  irregularly  shaped, 
mountainous  island  of  ancient  Greece, 
oS.  the  coast  of  Attica.     Its  area  is 


Sal  Ammoniac 


Salians 


about  30  square  miles.  It  had  an- 
ciently two  principal  towns,  Old  and 
New  Salamis.  It  is  remembered  chiefly 
on  account  of  the  great  naval  battle 
between  the  Greeks  and  Persians, 
which  was  fought  with  great  bravery 
(480  B.  c.)  a  few  days  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Thermopylae,  but  in  which  the 
Persians  were  entirely  defeated. 

Sal  Ammoniac,  known  also  as 
chloride  of  ammonium,  and  sometimes 
as   hydrochlorate   of   ammonia. 

Salangane,  a  species  of  swift  re- 
sembling swallows,  common  through- 
out the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and  fa- 
mous as  the  producers  of  the  "  edible 
bird's  nests." 

Salanx,  a  small  whitish  fish,  known 
on  the  coast  of  China  as  whitebait. 

SalaTiratty,  an  island  off  the  W. 
extremity  of  New  Guinea,  to  the 
Dutch  portion  of  which  it  is  regarded 
as  belonging;  area  about  750  square 
miles. 

Saldanha  Oliviera  e  Dann,  Joao 
Carlos,  Duke  of,  a  Portuguese 
Statesman ;  born  Nov.  17,  1791 ;  was 
educated  at  Lisbon  and  entered  the 
army.  When  the  French  invaded 
Portugal  he  took  the  patriotic  side. 
From  1817  to  1822  he  was  in  South 
America  and  took  a  leading  part  in 
the  struggle  between  Brazil  and  Mon- 
tevideo. When  Brazil  declared  herself 
independent  of  Portugal,  Saldanha  re- 
turned to  Lisbon,  and  in  1825  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Oporto.  He  took 
the  part  of  Dom  Pedro  against  Dom 
Miguel,  finally  forcing  Miguel  to  sign 
the  convention  of  Evora  Monte  (May 
26,  1834)  and  leave  Portugal.  During 
1836-1846  Saldanha  lived  partly  in 
exile,  partly  in  retirement.  Saldanha 
returned  home  in  1846 ;  and  from  that 
time  down  to  1856  was  alternately  at 
the  head  of  the  government.  During 
the  reign  of  Pedro  II.  he  held  no  great 
office  of  state,  and  under  King  Louis 
was  kept  abroad  as  ambassador  at 
Rome  and  London.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, Nov.  28,  1876. 

Sale,  George,  an  English,  oriental 
scholar;  born  in  1680;  died  1736.  He 
was  a  lawyer  by  profession,  and  a  con- 
tributor to  several  important  publica- 
tions. He  is  chiefly  known  by  his 
translation  of  the  Koran,  which  ap- 
pealed in  1734. 


Salem,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
one  of  the  county-seats  of  Essex  co., 
Mass. ;  on  Massachusetts  Bay,  17  miles 
N.  E.  of  Boston.  With  the  exception 
of  Plymouth,  Salem  is  the  oldest  set- 
tlement in  New  England,  and  is  noted 
for  its  many  historical  interests.  Its 
first  house  was  erected  by  Roger  Con- 
ant  in  1626,  and  two  years  later  John 
Endicott  founded  the  first  permanent 
settlement.  The  framework  of  the 
first  church,  built  in  1634,  is  still  in- 
tact. The  witchcraft  delusion  arose 
here  in  1692,  and  19  persons  were  ex- 
ecuted because  of  it.  On  Oct.  7,  1774, 
the  Massachusetts  House  of  Represent- 
atives with  John  Hancock  in  the 
chair  met  in  Salem  and  declared  the 
independence  of  that  province.  On  Feb. 
14,  1775,  the  British,  in  their  search 
for  war  munitions,  were  foiled  at  the 
North  Bridge  and  forced  to  withdraw. 
During  the  Revolutionary  War  over 
150  privateers  sailed  from  Salem  and 
captured  in  all  445  English  vessels.  In 
1785  the  first  vessel  from  the  United 
States  to  India  and  China  left  this 
port.    Pop.  (1910)  43,697. 

Salem,  city  and  capital  of  Ma- 
rion county  and  of  the  State  of  Ore- 
gon; on  the  Willamette  river  and  the 
Southern  Pacific  railroad;  52  miles 
S.  of  Portland;  has  important  manu- 
factures, fruit  canneries,  and  evap- 
orators; and,  besides  the  State  Capi- 
tol, is  the  seat  of  Willamette  Uni- 
versity (M.  E.),  United  States  Train- 
ing School  for  Indians,  and  the  State 
Prison,  Reform  School,  Asylum  for 
the  Insane,  and  Institutions  for 
Deaf  Mutes  and  the  Blind.  Pop. 
(1910)  14,094. 

Salesian  Nuns,  the  nuns  of  the 
order  of  the  Visitation  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  founded  by  Francis  de  Sales 
and  Madame  de  Cantal,  in  1610, 
at  Annecy,  in  Savoy,  as  a  refuge 
for  widows  and  sick  females. 

Saleyer,  or  Salayer,  Islands,  a 
group  of  islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean; 
S.  of  Celebes,  from  which  Great 
Saleyer  is  separated  by  the  Saleyer 
Strait.  They  are  about  30  in  num- 
ber; pop.  about  50,000. 

Salians,  or  Salian  Franks,  the 
name  given  to  that  section  of  the 
Franks  who  from  the  3d  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  4th  century  were  settled 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lower  Rhine. 


Salicine 


Saliva 


Salicine,  a  bitter  crystalline  sub- 
stance obtained  from  the  bark  of  wil- 
lows, and  used  in  medicine,  especially 
in  the  treatment  of  rheumatic  fever, 
also  in  neuralgia. 

Salic  Law,  the  code  of  laws  of  the 
Salian  Franks.  One  of  the  laws  in 
this  code  excluded  women  from  inherit- 
ing certain  lands,  probably  because 
certain  military  duties  were  connect- 
ed with  the  holding  of  those  lands.  In 
the  14th  century  females  were  exclud- 
ed from  the  throne  of  France  by  the 
application  of  this  law  to  the  succes- 
sion to  the  crown,  and  it  is  in  this 
sense  that  the  term  salic  Jaw  is  com- 
ECionly  used. 

Salicylic  Acid,  an  organic  acid  of 
a  sweetish-sour  taste,  without  smell, 
possessing  great  antiseptic  and  anti- 
putrefactive properties.  It  occurs  in 
nature  in  the  flowers  of  the  meadow- 
sweet, and  in  the  whortle-berry ;  but 
that  preferred  by  the  medical  profes- 
sion is  procured  from  the  oil  of  the 
winter-green  (Gaultheria  procumbens). 
There  are  now  several  processes  for 
manufacturing  salicylic  acid  on  a  large 
scale,  and  it  forms  an  important-  arti- 
cle of  commerce.  It  is  largely  employ- 
ed in  medicine,  having  properties  simi- 
lar to  those  of  quinine,  and  is  given  in 
acute  and  chronic  rheumatism,  used 
as  a  lotion  in  irritation  of  the  skin, 
etc.  A  salt  prepared  from  it,  salicylate 
of  sodium,  is  often  preferred. 

Salina  Formation,  a  name  given 
in  North  America  to  one  of  the  sub- 
divisions of  the  Silurian  sj'stem,  which 
appears  to  be  equivalent  to  the  lower 
portion  of  the  Ludlow  rocks  of  the 
British  series. 

Salina,  a  city,  capital  of  Saline 
Co.,  Kansas,  on  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad,  100  miles  W.  of  Topeka. 
Pop.  6,074. 

Salisbnria,  the  ginkgo,  or  maiden- 
hair tree,  is  60  to  80  feet  high,  with  a 
straight  trunk,  a  pyramidal  head,  and 
fanshaped  deciduous  leaves,  with 
forked  veins.  i 

Salisbury,  or  Wew  Sartim,  a  ca- 
thedral city  of  England,  84  miles  W. 
S.  W.  of  London.     Water  originally 
ran  through  most  of  the  streets,  but 
the  streams  were  covered  over  after ' 
the  visitation  of  the  cholera  in  1849. ! 
The  cathedral,  built  in  1220,  was  re-! 
stored    in    1782-1791,   and   again    in 


1863.  The  spire  is  the  highest  in  Eng- 
land, being  400  feet.  There  is  a  curious 
muniment  room  over  the  vestry  con- 
taining a  copy  of  the  Magna  Charta  of 
King  John,  said  to  be  that  handed  to 
Longespee,  Earl  of  Salisbury,  who  was 
one  of  his  witnesses.  The  cathedral 
stands  apart  from  any  other  building 
in  the  midst  of  a  beautiful  close  of 
about  half  a  square  mile  in  extent,  en- 
circled by  a  wall,  within  which  stand 
the  bishop's  palace,  the  deanery  and 
canons'  houses,  and  many  other  pic- 
turesque buildings.  Blackmore  5lu- 
seum  contains  one  of  the  finest  col- 
lections of  prehistoric  antiquities  in 
England,  the  collection  from  America 
being  probably  unrivaled  anywhere. 

Salisbury,  Edward  Elbridge,  an 
American  philologist ;  born  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  April  0,  1814;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  University  in  1832,  and 
then  studied  theology  till  1835,  when 
he  went  abroad  and  took  a  course  in 
Oriental  languages.  He  was  Professor 
of  Arabic  and  Sanskrit  at  Yale  Uni- 
versity in  1841-1854.     Died  1901. 

Salisbury,  Robert  Artbnr  Tal- 
bot Gascoyne  Cecil,  3d  Marquis 
of,  an  English  statesman ;  born  in 
Hatfield,  Herts,  England,  Feb.  3, 
1830 ;  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Ox- 
ford. As  Lord  Robert  Cecil  he  en- 
tered Parliament  in  1853;  in  1866  he 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for 
India.  In  1865  he  became  Lord  Cran- 
bome  and  heir  to  the  marquisate.  He 
retired  from  the  ministry,  but  on  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1868  and  hia 
elevation  to  the  House  of  Lords  he  re- 
turned to  his  old  party  associations. 
He  resumed  the  secretaryship  for  In- 
dia in  1874.  In  1878  he  accompanied 
Disraeli  to  the  congress  at  Berlin,  and 
on  the  death  of  that  statesman  became 
the  recognized  leader  of  the  Conserva- 
tive party.  He  became  premier  on  the 
fall  of  the  "Gladstone  government  in 
1885.  Gladstone  succeeded  again  to 
power  in  the  end  of  the  same  year,  but 
in  the  June  following  Salisbury  again 
became  premier  and  foreign  secretary. 
In  1892  the  majority  in  Parliament 
being  in  favor  of  a  Home  Rule  bill  for 
Ireland,  Salisbury  retired  from  of- 
fice. In  1895  he  was  recalled,  and 
he  died  Aug.  23,  1903. 

Saliva,  the  transparent  watery 
fluid  secreted  by  glands  connected  with 


Saliz 


Salm-Salna 


the  mouth.  The  quantity  secreted  in 
24  hours  varies ;  its  average  amount 
is  probably  from  1  to  3  pints.  It 
keeps  the  mouth  in  a  due  condition  of 
moisture,  and  by  mixing  with  the  food 
during  mastication  it  makes  it  a  soft 
pulpy  mass  such  as  may  be  easily 
swallowed. 

Saliz,  the  willow.  The  species 
found  in  the.  United  States  are  numer- 
ous, and  commonly  known  as  willows, 
osiers,  and  sallows.  The  wood  of  the 
flexible  branches  and  twigs  is  largely 
employed  for  basket-work,  hoops,  etc. 

Sallnst,  Cains  Sallustins  Cris- 
pns,  a  Roman  historian ;  born  in  Ami- 
ternum  in  86  B.  C.  He  became  tribune  in 
52  B.  c,  and  in  the  civil  war  sided  with 
Caesar.  In  47  B.  c.  he  was  praetor 
elect,  and  in  the  following  year  accom- 
panied Caesar  to  the  African  war, 
where  he  was  left  as  governor  of  Nu- 
midia.  He  returned  with  immense 
wealth,  and  after  Caesar's  death  lived 
in  luxurious  retirement.  Sallust  wrote 
several  historical  works  in  a  clear  and 
concise  style.  He  died  in  Rome  in 
34  B.  c. 

Salmon,  a  well-known  fish,  in- 
habiting both  salt  and  fresh  waters, 
and  ranking  prominent  among  the  food 
fishes  of  the  United  States  and  other 


SALMON. 

countries.  It  generally  attains  a  length 
of  from  three  to  four  feet,  and  an  aver- 
age weight  of  from  12  to  30  pounds. 
In  the  fall  the  salmon  ascends  rivers 
for  the  purpose  of  spawning,  and  often 
encounters  obstacles.  In  many  streams 
they  are  assisted  by  structures  known 
as  "  salmon  ladders." 


Salmon,  Daniel  Elmer,  an  Amer- 
ican veterinary  surgeon ;  born  in  Mt. 
Olive.  N.  J.,  July  23,  1850 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Cornell  University  in  1872, 
and  at  its  Veterinary  Department  in 
1876.  He  accepted  a  post  in  tha 
United  States  Department  of  Agricuk- 
ture  in  1879 ;  was  made  chief  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry in  1884 ;  became  president  of 
the  TJnited  States  Veterinary  Medical 
Association  in  1898 ;  and  was  for  sev- 
eral years  dean  of  the  Veterinary  De» 
partment  of  Columbian  University. 


SALMON  LADDEB. 

Salm-Salm,     Prince     Felix,     a 

German  military  officer;  born  in  An- 
holt,  Prussia,  Dec.  25,  1828.  He  at- 
tained his  first  rank  as  an  officer  in 
the  Prussian  army;  later  entered  the 
Austrian  service,  but  was  forced  to 
resign  on  account  of  pecuniary  diffi- 
culties ;  in  1861  came  to-  the  United 
States  and  as  a  volunteer  served  in  the 
Union  army  during  the  Civil  War, 
attaining  the  brevet  rank  of  Briga- 
dier-General of  volunteers.  In  1866 
he  entered  the  service  of  Maximilian, 
the  Emperor  of  Mexico ;  soon  gained 
the  confidence  of  the  emperor,  and  was 
made  chief  of  the  imperial  household 
and  aide-de-camp  to  his  majesty.  On 
the  overthrow  of  the  empire  he  re- 
turned to  Europe,  reentered  the  Prus- 
sian army  as  major  in  the  Grenadier 
Guards ;  participated  in  the  battle  of 


Salm-Salxu. 


Salt  Lake  City 


Gravelotte     in     the    Franco-Prussian 
War  Aug.  18,  1870,  in  which  he  was 
killed. 
Salm-Salm,  Princess  (Agnes  Le- 

clercq),  an  American  heroine;  born 
in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Dec.  25,  18^0. 
After  winning  some  reputation  as  an 
actress,  in  1862  she  married  Prince 
Balm-Salm  and  accompanied  him  in 
his  campaigns.  She  was  regularly 
commissioned  as  a  captain  in  the  vol- 
unteer service  of  the  United  States  in 
recognition  of  her  untiring  devotion  to 
the  Union  cause.  After  the  Civil  War 
in  the  United  States  she  joined  her 
husband  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  and 
insisted  on  accompanying  him,  armed 
with  a  revolver,  on  a  scouting  trip  to 
the  interior.  Separated  from  him  and 
left  behind  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  she 
had  many  serious  and  exciting  adven- 
tures. At  the  battle  of  Gravelotte  sho 
was  on  the  field  with  a  corps  of  army 
nurses  and  was  thus  enabled  to  reach 
ner  husband's  side  after  he  was  shot; 
not,  however,  in  time  to  see  him  again 
alive.  In  1876  she  married  Charles 
Ileneage  and  afterward  lived  in  Bonn. 
In  the  spring  of  1899  she  visited  the 
United  States  where  she  was  enthu- 
siastically welcomed. 

Salome,  the  mother  of  James  the 
Elder  and  John  the  Evangelist,  one  of 
those  holy  women  of  Galilee  who  at- 
tended our  Saviour  in  His  journeys 
and  ministered  to  Him. 

Salonica  (ancient  Thessalonica) , 
a  large  seaport  of  Turkey  in  Europe, 
on  a  gulf  of  the  ^gean  Sea,  315  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Constantinople,  rising 
from  the  sea  in  the  form  of  an  am- 
phitheater, and  forming  a  mixture  of 
squalor  and  splendor.  In  Salonica  may 
still  be  seen  vestiges  of  Cyclopean 
and  Hellenic  walls,  triumphal  arches, 
and  remains  of  Roman  temples,  By- 
zantine structures,  and  Venetian  cas- 
tles. Its  harbor  is  excellent  and  its 
roadstead  well  sheltered,  and  next  to 
Constantinople  it  is  the  most  impor- 
tant city  of  European  Turkey.  Thes- 
salonica was  founded  in  315  B.  c,  and 
has  had  a  somewhat  eventful  history. 
St.  Paul  preached  the  Gospel  here,  and 
addressed  two  of  his  epistles  to  the 
Christian  converts  of  the  place.  Pop. 
(1900)   est.  150,000. 

Salpa,  a  genus  of  ascidian  or  tuni- 
cate^ mollusca   found   floating   in   the 


Mediterranean  and  the  warmer  parts 
of  the  ocean.  They  are  protected  by  a. 
transparent  gelatinous  coat,  perforated 
for  the  passage  of  water  at  both  ex- 
tremities, and  are  frequently  phosphor- 
escent. 

Salsette,  an  island  N.  of  Bombay,. 
British  India,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  bridge  and  a  causeway. 
Area,  240  square  miles;  pop.  lll.CKX). 
Chief  town,  Thana.  Nearly  100  cave» 
and  cave-temples  exist  at  Kanhari  or 
Keneri,  in  the  middle  of  the  island,  5- 
miles  W.  of  Thana.  They  are  exca- 
vated in  the  face  of  a  single  hill,  and 
contain  elaborate  carvings,  chiefly  rep- 
resentations of  Buddha. 

Salt,  chemically  known  as  Chlo- 
ride OF.  Sodium,  lias  been  in  commoi* 
use  as  a  seasoner  and  preserver  of 
food  from  the  earliest  ages.  It  exists 
in  immense  quaptities  dissolved  in 
sea-water,  and  also  in  the  waters  of 
salt  springs,  and  in  solid  deposits, 
sometimes  on  the  surface,  sometimes, 
at  greater  or  less  depths,  in  almost 
every  geological  series.  Salt  as  a 
commercial  product  constitutes  a 
very  important  industry  in  the^ 
United  States.  As  early  as  1620  the 
Jamestown  colonists  of  Virginia  es- 
tablished salt  works  at  Cape  Charles, 
Rock  salt  is  abundant  in  West  Vir- 
ginia and  Louisiana,  and  salt  "  licks  '* 
and  springs  are  found  in  nearly  all 
the  States  and  Territories.  The 
springs  of  Southern  Illinois  were 
worked  by  the  French  and  Indians  in 
1720;  The  Kentucky  salt  springss- 
were  known  and  used  before  1790. 
The  single-year  record  production  in 
the  United  States  is  28.822,062  bar- 
rels (280  pounds  each),  valued  at 
$7,553,632,  the  chief  producers  being' 
Michigan,  New  York,  Ohio,  Kansas, 
Louisiana,  and  California. 

Salter,  'William  Mackintire,  aa 

American  theologian;  born  in  Burling- 
ton, Va.,  Jan.  30,  1853 ;  was  graduated 
at  Knox  College  in  1871,  and  pur- 
sued courses  at  Yale  and  Harvard 
Divinity  Schools  in  1871-1876  .and 
also  studied  abroad.  He  was  lecturer 
of  the  Society  for  Ethical  Culture  of 
Chicago  and  also  of  Philadelphia. 

Salt  Lake  City,  a  city,  capital  of 
the  State  of  Utah,  and  county-seat  of 
Salt  Lake  co.,  37  miles  S.  of  Ogden. 
It  is  built  at  the  base  of  the  Wah- 


Salt  Lick 

Batch  Mountains  and  has  an  altitude 
of  4,334  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
valley  in  which  the  city  is  located  is 
world-famed  for  its  beauty,  resources, 
climate,  and   health-giving  properties. 

The  city  has  an  area  of  51  square 
miles ;  130  miles  of  streets,  of  which  3 
miles  are  paved;  a  system  of  watei*- 
works,  that  cost  $3,000,000,  with  129 
miles  of  mains;  and  a  sewer  system 
covering  27  miles.  The  streets  are 
lighted  by  electricity.  There  is  a 
public  school  enrollment  of  over  11,000 
pupils ;  and  an  annual  expenditure  for 
public  education  of  nearly  $250,000. 
The  annual  cost  of  maintaining  the 
city  government  exceeds  $742,000. 
The  annual  death  rate  averages  11.90 
per  1,000. 

The  first  point  of  interest  in  the 
city  is  the  Great  Temple  erected  of 
granite  at  an  estimated  cost  of  $5,- 
000,000.  It  is  200  feet  long  by  100 
feet  wide.  Among  the  other  great 
buildings  are  the  tabernacle,  built 
principally  of  wood,  at  a  cost  of  $500,- 
000,  with  the  largest  roof  in  the  world 
unsupported  by  columns,  and  having 
a  seating  capacity  of  13,500;  the  As- 
sembly Hall ;  Endowment  House ;  the 
Gardo  House,  the  residence  of  the 
president  of  the  Mormon  Church ;  and 
the  Lion  and  Bee-hive  Houses,  for- 
mer residences  of  Brigham  Young. 
Fort  Douglas,  a  regimental  post,  is  3 
miles  from  the  city. 

The  city  was  founded  by  143  Mor- 
mons under  Brigham  Young  in  1847. 
Pop.  nOOOl  53.531;  (1910)  92,777. 

Salt  liick,  a  knob  lick;  a  place 
where  salt  is  found  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  to  which  wild  animals  resort 
to    lick    it    up ; 

Salton  Sea  or  Sink,  the  bed  of  an 
ancient  marine  lake  in  Riverside  and 
San  Diego  cos.,  California,  260  ft.  be- 
low sea-level,  converted  1905-00  into 
a  fresh-water  lake  covering  GOO  sq.  m., 
through  the  breaking  of  the  canal 
banks  from  the  Colorado  River,  built 
to  irrigate  the  Imperial  Valley. 

Saltpeter,  or  Saltpetre,  a  natu- 
ral product  of  hot  countries,  prepared 
artificially  by  exposing  a  mixture  of 
calcareous  soil  and  animal  matter  to 
the  atmosnhere,  or  by  decomposing  na- 
tive sodium  nitrate  with  potassium 
carbonate.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder,  fireworks, 
and  nitric  acid. 


Salutes 

Salt  River,  an  imaginary  river  up 
which  defeated  candidates  for  office  in 
the  United  States  are  said  to  row. 

Saltus,  Edgar  Everston.,  an  Amer- 
ican  novelist ;  born  in  New  York,  June 
8,  1858.  He  was  educated  in  Europe 
and  graduated  at  the  Columbia  Law 
School. 

Saltus,  Francis  Saltus,  an 
American  poet,  brother  of  Edgar; 
born  in  1849.  He  was  of  the  mod- 
ern school  of  poets.     He  died  in  1889. 

Saltykov,  Mickail  Yevg^rafo- 
vick,  pseudonym  N.  Sheshedrin,  a 
noted  Russian  satirist ;  bom  Jan.  27, 
1826.  He  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  May 
12,   1889. 

Saltwort,  the  Salsola,  a  genus  )t 
plants.  The  species  are  numerous, 
mostly  natives  of  salt  marshes  and 
sea-shores,  widely  diffused.  It  was 
formerly  collected  in  considerable 
quantities,  to  be  burned  for  the  sake 
of  the  soda  which  it  thus  yields. 

Salutes,  Military,  military  cour- 
tesy requires  the  junior  to  salute  first 
or  when  the  salute  is  introductory  to 
a  report  made  at  a  military  ceremony 
or  formation  to  the  representative  of 
a  common  superior.  When  under 
arms  the  salute  is  made  with  the  sword 
or  saber  if  drawn,  otherwise  with  the 
hand,  and  a  mounted  officer  always 
dismounts  before  addressing  a  supe- 
rior who  is  not  mounted.  On  official 
occasions  officers^  when  indoors  and 
under  arms,  do  not  uncover,  but  salute 
with  the  sword,  if  drawn,  and  other- 
wise with  the  hand.  If  not  under 
arms  they  uncover  and  stand  at  at- 
tention, but  do  not  salute  except  when 
making  or   receiving  a   report. 

Salutes  IVitk  CaBnon.  Salute 
to  the  Union.  This  is  one  gun  for 
each  State,  and  is  commemorative  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  It  is 
fired  at  noon  of  the  Fourth  of  July  at 
every  military  post  and  on  board  com- 
missioned naval  vessels  belonging  to 
the  United  States.  The  National  Sa- 
lute, 21  guns.  This  is  the  salute  for 
the  National  flag,  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  presidents  of  foreign 
republics  or  eovereigns  of  foreign 
States  visiting  the  United  States. 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States, 
American  and  foreign  ambassador^,  19 
guns.  The  president  of  the  Senate, 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Representa- 


Salut  Public 


Salvation  Army 


tives,  members  of  the  cabinet,  the 
chief-justice,  a  congressional  commit- 
tee, governors  within  their  respective 
States  or  Territories,  viceroy  or  gover- 
nor-general of  provinces  belonging  to 
foreign  States,  general  of  the  army, 
admiral  of  the  navy,  and  same  ranks 
in  foreign  armies  and  navies,  17  guns. 
American  or  foreign  envoys,  or  minis- 
ters plenipotentiary,  assistant  Secre- 
taries of  Navy  or  War,  lieutenant- 
general,  or  a  major-general  command- 
ing the  army,  and  corresponding  ranks 
in  the  navy  and  foreign  armies  and 
navies,  15  guns.  Ministers-resident  ac- 
credited to  the  United  States,  major- 
general,  rear-admiral,  and  correspond- 
ing ranks  of  foreign  armies  and  na- 
vies, 13  guns.  Charges  d'affaires, 
brigadier-general,  commodore,  and 
corresponding  ranks  in  foreign  armies 
and  navies,  11  guns.  Consuls-general 
accredited  to  the  United  States,  9 
guns.  Salutes  are  only  fired  between 
sunrise  and  sunset,  and  not  on  Sun- 
days, except  in  international  courte- 
sies. The  national  colors  are  always 
displayed  at  the  time  of  saluting.  The 
salute  to  the  flag  is  the  only  salute 
which  is  returned,  and  this  must  be 
done  with'.n  24  hours. 

Saint  Pnblic,  Comite  de  (French, 
Committee  of  Public  Safety),  the 
term  applied  to  a  number  of  members 
of  the  National  Convention  during 
the  Reign  of  Terror,  1793-1794,  %vho 
acted  as  the  dictators  of  France.  Ro- 
bespierre, the  real  chief,  though  half 
concealed  from  view,  Couthon,  and  St. 
Just,  finally  came  to  be  the  commit- 
tee. Among  these  men  there  was  per- 
fect equanimity  down  to  the  moment 
of  their  fall.  Robespierre,  Couthon 
and  St.  Just  were  executed  on  the 
9th   Thermidor    (July  28,   1794). 

Salvador,  or  San  Salvador,  a  re- 
public in  Central  America ;  on  the 
coast  of  the  Pacific ;  area,  7,225  square 
miles ;  pop.  651,130,  mostly  Spanish- 
speaking  Indians  and  half-breeds.  A 
range  of  volcanic  peaks,  varying  in 
height  from  4,000  to  9,000  feet,  runs 
through  the  center  of  the  country,  di- 
viding an  interior  valley  from  the 
lowlands,  on  the  coast.  The  soil  is 
remarkably  fertile.  Cattle-breeding 
is  carried  on,  but  not  extensively. 
The  manufactures  are  unimportant. 
The  chief  exports  are  coffee,  indigo, 
silver,    raw    sugar,    balsam    of    Peru, 


leather,  etc.  The  established  religion 
is  Roman  Catholicism.  The  govern- 
ment is  carried  on  by  a  president  and 
four  ministers.  There  is  a  congress  of 
70  deputies  elected  by  universal  suf- 
frage. The  inhabitants  had  long  the 
reputation  of  being  the  most  industri- 
ous in  Central  America,  and  the  State, 
in  proportion  to  its  size,  is  still  the 
most  densely  peopled.  Salvador  re- 
mained under  Spanish  rule  till  1821, 
when  it  asserted  its  independence  and 
joined  the  Mexican  Confederation.  In 
1823  it  seceded ;  later,  was  part  of 
the  Republic  of  Central  America  ;  in 
1853  became  an  independent  republic ; 
in  1906  was  embroiled  with  Honduras 
in  the  war  with  Guatemala. 

Salvage,  the  act  of  saving  a  ship 
or  goods  from  extraordinary  danger, 
as  from  fire,  the  sea,  an  enemy,  pi- 
rates, or  the  like. 

Salvation  Army,  a  religious  body 
founded  on  military  principles  in 
London,  Enpland,  July  5,  1865,  by 
the  Rev.  William  Booth,  under  the 
name  of  the  Christian  Mission,  for 
the  purpose  of  reaching  with  the  Gos- 
pel the  large  percentage  of  the  work- 
ing and  other  classes  who  attend  no 
place  of  worship.  The  movement  has 
spread  all  over  the  globe,  and  to  its 
original  purpose  have  been  added 
from  time  to  time  other  functions  of 
a  broad  humanitarian  character,  and 
to-day  it  commands  the  approval  and 
support  of  representatives  of  nearly 
all   creeds  and  peoples. 

In  1878  the  name  was  changed 
from  the  Christian  Mission  to  the 
Salvation  Army,  and  in  1880  the 
movement  was  inaugui-ated  in  the 
United  States,  in  New  York  city. 
Though  at  first  decried,  the  officers 
jfnd  privates  soon  began  reaching 
people  with  whom  the  evangelical 
churches  did  not  come  in  contact. 

The  present  broad  work  of  the 
Army  dates  from  1890,  when  the 
founder  published  a  book  entitled 
"In  Darkest  England  and  the  Way 
Out,"  in  which  he  set  forth  with 
much  detail  principles  and  plans  for 
the  solution  of  the  great  problem  of 
pauperism.  This  soon  led  to  a  rapid 
development  of  the  Salvation  Army 
along  sociological  lines,  in  addition 
to  its  purely  religious  propaganda. 
The  members,  both  male  and  female, 
wear  a  distinctive  uniform. 


SalTini 


Samas 


The  founder,  called  "  General " 
Booth,  is  the  commander-in-chief  of 
all  Salvation  Army  forces  through- 
out the  world,  and  has  his  head- 
<iuarters  in  London.  The  United 
States  is  divided  into  two  Depart- 
ments with  the  National  Headquarters 
in  New  York  city.  Miss  Evangeline 
Booth  is  in  charge  with  Colonel  Wil- 
Jiam  Peart  as  Chief  Secretary.  The 
Department  of  the  West,  which  ad- 
ministers the  affairs  of  the  Western 
States,  has  its  Headquarters  in  Chi- 
■cago.  Commissioner  Thomas  Estill  is 
in  charge  with  Colonel  George  French 
^s   Territorial   Secretary. 

The  following  statistics  cover  the 
.year  ending  Sept.  30,  1910,  and  were 
furnished  expressly  for  this  work  by 
Colonel  Peart  by  direction  of  Com- 
mander Miss  Booth; 

The  Corps  and  Outposts  of  the 
Army  in  the  United  States  in  1910 
numbered  896.  The  indoor  attendance 
at  its  meetings  was  8,248,497,  and 
the  open-air  attendance  1,526,971. 
■The  local  oflBcers  and  bandsmen 
numbered  6,104.  There  were  54,551 
Junior  meetings  held  with  an  attend- 
ance of  1,552,998. 

The  relief  institutions  for  the  poor 
include  107  Industrial  Homes,  to 
which  in  1910  14,668  men  were  ad- 
anitted;  79  Workingmen's  Hotels,  wiih 
shelter  accommodation  for  6.592;  19 
Slum  Posts,  by  which  2,856  sick 
cases  and  21,344  families  were  vis- 
ited during  the  year;  26  Rescue 
Homes  to  which  1,372  girls  and  938 
■children  were  admitted;  a  Bureau 
for  Missing  Friends,  through  which 
205  persons  were  found  during  the 
j^ear;  and  3  colonies  embracing  2,569 
acres  of  land,  in  which  were  399 
persons. 

The  Army  distributed  18,335 
"Thanksgiving  dinners,  and  344,062 
Christmas  dinners.  It  afforded  tem- 
porary relief  to  persons  outside  of 
its  industrial  homes  and  hotels  num- 
bering 309.591  during  the  year. 
Summer  outings  were  given  to  3,972 
mothers  and  35,949  children,  and 
1,593,834  pounds  of  ice  and  4,579.788 
pounds  of  coal  were  distributed  dur- 
ing the  year. 

Salvini,  Tommaso,  an  Italian 
tragedian;  born  in  Milan,  Jan.  1, 
J830.  His  father  and  mother  were 
both  actors.     In  1849  he  fought  with 


distinction  in  the  Revolutionary  War. 
He  scored  successes  in  Brussels  and 
Madrid,  and  visited  the  United  States 
in  1874,  England  in  1875,  but  after 
another  visit  to  the  United  States  in 
1881,  and  to  Great  Britain  in  1884,  he 
retired  from  the  stage  to  enjoy  a  life 
of  leisure  in  his  villa  near  Florence. 

Salvinia,  a  genus  of  the  order  of 
plants  formerly  called  pepperworts, 
now  known  as  the  heterosporous 
ferns. 

Salzburg,  a  city  of  Austria,  capi- 
tal of  the  duchy  of  Salzburg,  situ- 
ated on  both  banks  of  the  rapid  Sal- 
za,  63  miles  S.  E.  of  Munich.  The 
principal  edifices  are  the  cathedral 
(1614-1628)  built  in  imitation  of  St. 
Peter's,  Rome;  the  archbishop's 
palace,  imperial  palace,  exchange, 
museum,  and  several  benevolent  in- 
stitutions. It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Mozart.  The  manufactures  are  va- 
ried, but  not  of  importance.  The 
Bishops  of  Salzburg  were  princes  of 
the  German  empire,  and  held  the 
position  of  sovereigns  over  the  arch- 
bishopric till  it  was  secularized  in 
1802.  Pop.  27,741.  The  duchy  or 
crown-land  of  Salzburg,  area  2,767 
square  miles,  is  a  rugged  mountain- 
ous country,  intersected  by  numerous 
valleys,  but  in  many  of  them  much 
corn  and  fruit  are  raised.  Wood  is 
abundant,  and  the  minerals  include 
gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  cobalt,  iron, 
salt,   and  marble.  , 

Samar,  the  third  largest  of  the 
Philippine  Islands;  S.  E.  of  the 
E.  part  of  the  island  of  Luzon, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Strait  of  San  Bernardino;  and  tii<^ 
extreme  E.  of  the  Visaya  g'-oup. 
On  the  S.  W.  it  is  separated  from 
the  island  of  Leyte  by  the  Strait 
of  San  Juanieo,  The  W-  coast 
is  bounded  by  the  Western  Sea. 
and  the  B.  coast  by  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  The  island  is  mainly  moun- 
tainous, although  there  are  many 
fine  valleys  under  cultivation.  Samar 
extends  156  miles  from  N.  W.  to 
S.  E.,  75  miles  from  the  E.  to 
W.,  and  has  an  area  with  ad- 
jacent islands  of  5,488  square  miles; 
pop.  266,237.  There  are  many  fine 
kinds  of  wood,  numerous  varieties  of 
wild  fruits,  various  kinds  of  bamboo, 
roots      suitable     for     food,      rattan. 


Samara 


Samlnke 


game,  and  fish.  Besides  cocoanuts  there 
is  a  large  production  of  oil,  rice,  and 
hemp.  On  Sept.  28,  1901,  a  large  body 
of  insurgents  surprised  Co.  C,  9th 
United  States  Infantry,  while  its 
members  were  at  breakfast,  and  killed 
48.  The  remaining  24  members,  of 
whom  11  were  wounded,  escaped  to 
Basey.  On  Nov.  7,  1901,  the  command 
of  Maj.  L.  W.  T.  Waller  captured  the 
rebel  stronghold  at  Sojoton,  and  by 
June,  1902,  the  rebel  leaders  had  been 
captured  or  surrendered,  and  civil  gov- 
ernment was  established. 

Samara,  a  town  of  Russia,  capital 
of  the  province  of  same  name ;  550 
miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Moscow,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Samara  with  the  Volga. 
Pop.  91,672.  The  province  lies  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Volga,  and  has  an 
area  of  58,321  square  miles.  A  great 
part  is  flat  and  fertile,  but  is  little 
cultivated.  Wheat  and  other  kinds  of 
grain  are  the  chief  products.  In  1899 
Samara  was  afflicted  with  a  great 
plague  and  famine.  The  Russian  Red 
Cross  Society  was  compelled  to  provide 
food  for  100,000  men,  women  and 
children.     Pop.  2,763,478. 

Samaria,  a  city  and  country  of 
Palestine;  situated  toward  the  N.  of 
Judea.  Samaria  was  the  country  in 
which  the  10  revolted  tribes  raised 
their  independent  state  and  formed 
tke  kingdom  properly  denominated  Is- 
rael, in  contradistinction  to  that  of 
Judah,  embracing  the  two  tribes  of 
Judah  and  Benjamin,  from  which  the 
other  10  had  seceded  when,  refusing 
the  authority  of  Rehoboam,  they  es- 
tablished a  dynasty  of  their  own,  at 
the  head  of  which  they  placed  Jero- 
boam, the  first  king  of  the  nation  of 
Israel.  So  deadly  was  the  animosity 
that  existed  between  these  two  nations 
of  Jews,  that,  from  the  time  of  their 
severance  to  the  destruction  of  their 
capital  and  the  captivity  of  Israel,  an 
almost  perpetual  state  of  warfare  ex- 
isted between  Judah  and  Israel ;  the 
term  of  Samaritan  was  one  of  the  bit- 
terest contempt  and  reproach  that 
could  be  applied  to  any  one.  The  city 
of  Samaria,  and  capital  of  the  king- 
dom, was  situated  on  a  hill,  Mount 
Sameron,  was  founded  by  Omri,  and 
from  that  time  till  its  overthrow  by 
the  Assyrians  was  the  residence  of 
all  the  Kings  of  Israel.  It  was  sub- 
sequently rebuilt  by  Herod,  who  called 

E.  132. 


it  Sebaste  (a  Greek  word  signifying 
Augustus) ,  in  honor  of  Augustus  Cae- 
sar. 

Samaritan  Pentatencli,  a  recen- 
sion of  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, in  use  with  the  Samaritans,  and 
accepted  by  them  as  canonical  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  other  Old  Testament 
writings.  Early  in  the  17th  century 
the  famous  traveler  Pietro  della  Valle 
succeeded  after  much  inquiry  in  pro- 
curing at  Damascus  a  copy  not  only 
of  the  original  of  this  Pentateuch  of 
the  Samaritans,  but  also  of  the  an- 
cient translation,  or  Targum,  in  the 
Samaritan  dialect;  both  documents 
passed  in  1623  into  the  hands  of  the 
Oratorians  in  Paris.  Through  Usshee 
and  others  a  number  of  additionaJ 
Samaritan  codices  were  brought  tO 
Europe  in  the  course  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, so  that  Kennicott  was  able  t© 
use  for  his  Hebrew  Bible  16  MS9> 
more  or  less  complete.  Of  the  MSS 
that  have  reached  Europe  none  are 
older  than  the  10th  century.  All  are 
written  in  a  peculiar  modification  of 
the  old  Semitic  character  which  is 
now  known  to  have  been  at  one  time 
common  to  the  entire  Semitic  domain, 
and  also  to  have  constituted  the  basis 
of  the  Greek  alphabet. 

Samaritan  Societies,  organiza- 
tions founded  for  the  purpose  of  ren- 
dering prompt  aid  to  the  injured.  The 
object  had  a  rapid  and  widespread  rec- 
ognition, and  in  September,  1893,  th<» 
first  international  convention  of  the 
societies  was  held  in  Vienna. 

Samaritans,  a  mixed  people,  which 
inhabited  the  region  between  Judea 
and  Galilee,  and  formed  a  sect  among 
the  Jews.  On  the  return  of  the  Jews 
from  captivity  they  declined  to  mix 
with  the  Samaritans,  though  united 
with  them  in  religion.  The  latter 
attempted  to  prevent  the  Jews  from 
building  the  temple  at  Jerusalem, 
and,  failing  in  this,  built  a  temple  on 
Mount  Gerizim  exclusively  for  their 
own  worship.  A  few  of  the  race  still 
exist  scattered  in  Egypt,  at  Damascus, 
and  at  Gaza. 

Sambnke,  an  ancient  musical  in- 
strument ;  though  applied  sometimes  to 
several  musical  instruments  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  such  as  a  lyre,  a  dulcimer, 
a  triangular  harp  or  trigon,  and  a 
large  Asiatic  harp. 


Samoan  Islands 


Samphire 


Samoan.  Islands,  a  group  in  the 
South  Pacific  Ocean,  formerly  known 
as  the  Navigator  Islands.  They  are 
located  about  2,000  miles  S.  and  300 
miles  W.  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and 
14°  S.  of  the  equator.  They  lie  in  an 
almost  direct  line  between  San  Fran- 
cisco and  Australia  and  slightly  S.  of 
the  direct  steamship  line  connecting 
the  Philippines  with  the  proposed  Pan- 
ama or  Nicaraguan  interoceanic  ca- 
nals. Their  especial  importance  lies 
more  in  their  position  as  coaling  and 
repair  stations  on  these  great  high- 
ways of  commerce  rather  than  in  their 
direct  commerical  value.  The  group 
consists  of  10  inhabited  and  2  unin- 
habited islands,  with  an  area  of  1,700 
square  miles  amd  an  aggregate  popula- 
tion, according  to  the  latest  estimates, 
of  36,000.  The  bulk  of  the  population 
is  located  in  the  three  islands  of  Upo- 
lou,  Savaii,  and  Tutuila.  The  islands 
are  of  volcanic  origin,  but  fertile,  pro- 
ducing cocoanuts,  cotton,  sugar,  and 
coffee,  the  most  important,  however, 
being  cocoanuts. 

The  government  of  the  Samoan  Is- 
lands had  been  from  time  immemorial 
under  the  two  royal  houses  of  Malie- 
toa  and  Tupea,  except  on  the  island 
of  Tutuila,  which  was  governed  by  na- 
tive chiefs.  In  1873,  at  the  suggestion 
oi  foreign  residents,  a  house  of  nobles 
and  a  house  of  representatives  were 
established,  with  Malietoa,  Laupepa, 
and  the  chief  of  the  royal  house  of 
Tupea  as  joint  kings.  Subsequently 
Malietoa  became  sole  king.  In  1887 
he  was  deposed  by  the  German  govern- 
ment on  the  claim  of  unjust  treatment 
of  German  subjects,  who  formed  the 
bulk  of  foreign  population  on  the  is- 
land, and  was  deported  first  to  Ger- 
man New  Guinea  and  then  to  the 
Cameruns,  in  Africa,  and  finally  in 
1888  to  Hamburg,  Tamasese,  a  na- 
tive chief,  being  meantime  proclaimed 
by  the  Germans  as  king,  though 
against  the  protest  of  the  British  and 
American  consuls  at  Samoa.  Mataa- 
fa,  a  near  relative  of  Malietoa,  made 
war  upon  Tamasese  and  succeeded  to 
the  kingship. 

In  1889  a  conference  between  the 
representatives  of  the  American,  Brit- 
ish, and  German  governments  was  held 
at  Berlin,  at  which  a  treaty  was 
signed  by  the  three  powers  guaran- 
teeing  the  neutrality   of  the  islands. 


in  which  the  citizens  of  the  three  sig- 
natory powers  would  have  equal 
rights  of  residence,  trade,  and  per- 
sonal protection.  By  treaty  of  1890 
the  islands  were  divided  between  the 
United  States  and  Germany,  the  Unit- 
ed States  getting  the  important  is- 
land of  Tutuila,  and  the  lesser  is- 
lands of  Ofu  and  Tau.  Pago  Pago 
has  been  made  a  coaling  station,  and 
the  seat  of  American  government  for 
the  islands. 

Samos,  now  Samo,  an  island  in  the 
Grecian  Archipelago  near  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor ;  45  miles  S.  W.  of  Smyr- 
na, forming  a  principality  tributary  to 
Turkey ;  area,  180  square  miles.  It 
has  a  mountainous  surface,  partly  cov- 
ered with  pine  forests ;  several  fertile 
and  well-watered  valleys ;  produces 
corn,  fruit,  and  excellent  wine ;  and 
has  several  valuable  minerals,  includ- 
ing argentiferous  lead,  iron,  and  mar- 
ble. The  principal  town  is  Vathe, 
with  a  good  harbor  on  the  N.  E.  side 
of  the  island.  Samos  was  inhabited 
in  antiquity  by  Ionian  Greeks,  and 
had  an  important  position  among  the 
Greek  communities  as  early  as  the 
7th  century  B.  c.  In  84  B.  c.  it  was 
united  with  the  Roman  province  of 
Asia.  In  1550  it  was  conquered  by 
the  Turks.     Pop.  52,820. 

Samothrace,  or  Samothrakl,  an 
island  in  the  N.  of  the  .3i]gean  Sea, 
belonging  to  Turkey,  about  14  miles 
long  by  8  miles  broad.  It  has  a  very 
mountainous  surface,  one  of  its  sum- 
mits exceeding  5,000  feet.  The  island 
is  of  interest  as  being  in  antiquity 
the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  the 
Cabiri,  and  celebrated  for  its  religious 
mysteries.  It  is  interesting  also  as 
being  visited  by  St.  Paul  in  the  course 
of  his  second  missionary  journey. 

Sampey,  John  Richard,  an  Amer- 
ican theologian ;  born  in  Fort  Deposit, 
Ala.,  Sept.  27,  1863;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  University  in  1882  and  at 
the  Southern  Baptist  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1885 ;  was  an  instructor  in 
the  latter  in  1885-1892;  then  was 
made  Professor  of  Old  Testament  In- 
terpretation there. 

Samphire,  an  umbelliferous  plant, 
very  succulent,  pale  green ;  grows  wild 
along  the  sea  coast,  and  where  _  it 
abounds  it  is  used  as  a  pickle,  an  in- 
gredient in  salads,  or  a  potherb. 


Sample 

Sample,    Robert    Fleming,     an 

American  clergyman ;  born  in  Corning, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  19,  1829;  was  graduated 
at  Jefferson  College  in  1849 ;  was  pas- 
tor in  Bedford,  Pa.,  in  185G-1806,  and 
in  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  in  18G8-1887. 
Subsequently  he  became  Professor  of 
Christian  Ethics  at  Lincoln  Univer- 
sity. He  was  several  times  moderator 
of  the  Presbyterian  General  Assembly 
of  the  U.  S.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
books.     He  died  Aug.  12,  1905. 

Sampson,  Deborali,  an  American 
heroine ;  born  in  Plymouth,  Mass., 
Dec.  17,  17G0.  She  served  in  the 
Continental  Army  during  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  in  the  disguise  of  a  man, 
under  the  name  of  Robert  Shurtleff, 
and  greatly  distinguished  herself  for 
bravery.  In  1797  she  published  "  The 
Female  Review,"  in  which  she  related 
her  experiences  in  the  army.  She 
died  in  Sharon,  Mass.,  April  29,  1827. 

Sampson,  William  Thomas,  an 
American  naval  officer;  born  iu  Pal- 
myra, N.  Y.,  Feb.  9,  1840.  He  at- 
tended the  public  schools  of  his  native 
town,  and  in  1857  entered  the  United 
States  Naval  Academy,  from  which 
he  was  graduated  in  18G0,  and  was 
assigned  to  duty  on  the  frigate  "  Po- 
tomac." On  July  16,  1862,  he  was 
promoted  lieutenant.  In  1864  he  was 
appointed  executive  officer  of  the  iron- 
clad "  Patapsco,"  of  the  South  Atlad- 
tic  Blockading  Squadron,  and  which 
was  blown  up  in  Charleston  harbor 
Jan.  15,  1865,  while  he  was  on  board. 
After  serving  on  the  frigate  "  Colo- 
rado," of  the  European  squadron,  he 
was  promoted  to  lieutenant-commander 
July  25,  1866;  commander  Aug.  9, 
1874;  and  captain,  March  26,  1889. 
Subsequently  he  was  superintendent 
of  the  United  States  Naval  Academy; 
a  member  of  the  International  Prime 
Meridian  and  Time  Conference;  su- 
perintendent of  the  Torpedo  Station ; 
member  of  a  board  on  fortifications 
and  other  defenses ;  chief  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Naval  Ordnance ;  superintend- 
ent of  the  Naval  Observatory ;  a  dele- 
gate from  the  United  States  to  the 
International  Maritime  Conference  in 
Washington ;  and  president  of  the 
Board  of  Inquiry  on  the  "  Maine " 
disaster.  On  March  24,  1898,  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  North 
Atlantic  squadron,  sticceeding  Rear- 
<kdmiral    Sicard.    with    the    rank    of 


San  Antonio 

rear-admiral.  On  June  1  he  joined 
Commodore  Winfield  S.  Schley,  com- 
mander of  the  "  Flying  Squadron," 
off  Santiago  de  Cuba,  and  took  com- 
mand of  the  combined  squadrons- 
which  included  16  warships.  Admiral 
Sampson  was  promoted  to  rear-admir- 
al on  Aug.  12,  1898;  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  Boston  navy  yard  on 
Oct.  14,  1899;  and  was  relieved  of 
this  command,  owing  to  ill  health, 
Oct.  1,  1901.  On  Feb.  9,  1902,  was 
retired  on  reaching  the  age  limit.  He 
died  May  6,' 1902. 

Samson,  in  Scripture,  the  son  o£ 
Manoah,  of  the  tribe  of  Dan.  He  was 
endowed  with  extraordinary  strength 
and  obtained  several  advantages  over 
the  Philistines.  At  length  his  mis- 
tress betrayed  him  into  the  hands  of 
his  enemies,  who  put  out  his  eyes,  and 
made  him  work  at  a  mill.  On  a  pub- 
lic festival  when  the  Philistine  lords 
were  assembled  in  the  temple  of  Da- 
gon,  Samson  was  summoned  to  show 
them  sport.  Laying  hold  of  two  pil- 
lars of  the  temple  as  if  to  support 
himself,  he  pulled  down  the  building 
and  was  buried  in  the  ruins,  with 
more  than  3,000  Philistines. 

Samuel,  in  Scripture,  a  prophet 
and  judge  of  Israel,  of  the  tribe  of 
Levi,  was  called  in  his  youth,  while  at- 
tending Mi,  the  high  priest. 

Samurai,  the  feudal  warrior  class 
of  Japan,  originally  retainers  of  a 
daimio  or  Samurai  chieftain. 

San  Antonio,  city  and  capital  of 
Bexar  county,  Tex.;  on  the  San  An- 
tonio river  and  several  trunk  line 
railroads;  80  miles  S.  W.  of  Austin;  is 
the  largest  city  in  the  State;  is  noted 
as  the  scene  of  the  massacre  of  the 
Alamo  in  1836;  and  in  its  day  seven 
governments  have  possessed  it,  and 
eight  battles  have  been  fought  on  its 
soil  for  the  independence  of  Texas. 
The  city  is  in  a  farming  and  stock- 
raising  section;  has  lignite  coal,  oil, 
and  superior  clays;  manufactures  a 
large  variety  of  commodities;  and 
has  an  extensive  shipping  trade. 
Here  are  many  large  artesian  wells, 
Fort  Sam  Houston,  the  famous 
Alamo,  San  Fernando  Cathedral,  Fed- 
eral Building,  the  Conception  de  la 
Acuna,  San  Jos6,  San  Juan,  and 
Espada  missions,  and  more  than  20 
parks  and  plazas.    Pop.  (1910)  96,614. 


Sanborn 

Sanborn,    Franklin    Benjaniln, 

an  American  journalist;  box-n  in 
Hampton  Falls,  N.  H.,  Dec.  15,  1831 ; 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  University 
in  1855  and  early  turned  his  attention 
to  journalism.  He  was  editor  of  the 
Boston  "  Commonwealth,"  the  Spring- 
field "  Republican  "  and  the  "  Journal 
of  Social  Science." 

Sanborn,  Jobn  Benjamin,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in  Ep- 
som, N.  H.,  Dec.  5,  1857;  was  edu- 
cated at  Dartmouth  College;  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1854,  In  the  Civil  War  he  served 
first  as  organizer  of  Minnesota  troops 
and  later  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
luka,  Corinth,  Port  Gibson,  Ray- 
mond and  Vicksburg,  In  1864  he 
took  command  of  the  District  of 
Southwest  Missouri,  and  in  1865 
fought  against  the  Indians  of  the 
Southwest,  He  was  appointed  to  set- 
tle the  Indian  difficulties  in  1866; 
member  of  the  Indian  Peace  Com- 
mission in  1867-1868.     Died  in  1904. 

Sanborn,  Katharine  Abbott,  an 
American  miscellaneous  writer  and 
lecturer;  bom  in  Hanover,  N.  H., 
July  11,  1839.  She  was  Professor  of 
English  Literature  in  Smith  College 
for  several  years,  and  resigned  in 
1886. 

Sanctification,  a  term  applied  in 
Scripture,  as  well  as  in  theology,  to 
denote  the  process  by  which  the  ef- 
faced image  of  God  in  man  is  re- 
stored, and  the  sinner  becomes  a  saint. 

Sanctnary,  among  the  ancient  Jews 
the  innermost  chamber  of  the  taber- 
nacle —  afterward  of  the  temple,  in 
which  was  kept  the  ark  of  the  Cove- 
nant, and  was  never  entered,  except 
by  the  high  priest  once  a  year.  It 
was  also  called  the  Holy  of  Holies. 

Sand,  comminuted  fragments  of 
igneous,  metamorphic,  or  volcanic 
rocks,  or  of  chert,  flint,  etc.  They 
are  detached  from  the  parent  rock, 
and  as  bowlders  and  pebbles  are 
ground  against  each  other  by  water  on 
Bea-beaches  or  in  any  similar  way. 
The  colors  of  sand  correspond  to  those 
of  the  minerals  in  the  rocks  from 
which  they  were  detached.  In  the 
plural,  tracts  of  land  consisting  of 
sand,  as  the  deserts  of  Arabia  or 
Africa ;  also,  tracts  of  sand  left  ex- 
posed by  the  ebb  of  the  tide. 


Sand 

Sand,  Musical,  sand  which,  under 
certain  conditions,  gives  out  a  mu- 
sical sound.  The  phenomenon  occurs 
on  sea-beaches  in  many  localities  in 
different  parts  of  the  world.  The  most 
striking  is  in  the  district  of  Mana,  on 
the  S.  coast  of  Kauai,  Hawaii.  Ow- 
ing to  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the 
sound  emitted  by  the  sand  in  that  lo- 
cality to  a  dog's  bark,  the  Kauai  mu- 
sical sand  is  known  as  "  barking  '* 
sand. 


SANDALS. 

Sand,  George,  best  known  name  of 
Madame  Armantine  Lucile  Aurore  Du- 
pin  Dudevant,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
French  novelists ;  born  in  Paris,  July 
5,  1804.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Maurice  Dupin,  an  officer  of  the  re- 
publican army.  Till  the  age  of  14  she 
was  brought  up  at  the  Chateau  of 
Nohant,  near  La  Chatre,  mostly  un- 
der the  care  of  her  grandmother,  af- 
terward spending  nearly  three  years 
in  an  Augustinian  convent  in  Paris. 
In  1822  she  married  Baron  Dudevant, 
to  whom  she  bore  a  son  and  a  daugh- 
ter; but  in  1831  separated  from  him, 
and  took  up  her  residence  in  Paris. 
In  conjunction  with  Jules  Sandeau, 
a  young  lawyer,  she  wrote  "  Rose 
and  White,"  which  was  published  in 
1831,  with  the  pseudonym  Jules  Sand. 
The  reception  it  met  with  afforded  her 
an  opportunity  of  publishing  a  novel 
solely  by  herself  —  "  Indiana."  under 
the  name  of  George  Sand,  which  sli? 
ever  after  retained.  In  1836  sht  ob- 
tained a  judicial  separation  from  her 
husband,  with  the  care  of  her  chil- 
dren. She  took  an  active  interest  in 
the  revolution  of  1848,  and  contribut- 
ed considerably  to  newspaper  and  otU- 


Sandal 

«r  political  literature.  In  1854  she 
published  "Story  of  My  Life,"  a 
psychological  autobiography.  Her 
published  works  consist  of  upward  of 
60  separate  novels,  a  large  number  of 
plays,  and  numerous  articles  in  lit- 
erary journals.  She  died  in  Nohant, 
June  8,  1876. 

Sandal,  a  protection  for  the  foot, 
worn  in  ancient  times.  It  was  usual- 
ly a  sole  of  hide,  leather,  or  wood, 
bound  on  the  foot  by  thongs.  It  was 
undoubtedly  the  custom  to  take  off 
the  sandals  on  holy  ground,  in  the  act 
of  worship,  and  in  the  presence  of  a 
superior.  This  is  still  the  well-known 
custom  of  the  East  —  an  Oriental  tak- 
ing off  his  shoe  in  cases  in  which  a 
European  would  remove  his  hat. 

Sandal  Wood,  a  small,  greatly 
branched,  evergreen  tree,  with  leaves 
opposite  and  entire.  The  flowers  are 
at  first  yellowish,  but  afterward  of  a 
deep  ferruginous  hue.  Though  they 
are  inodorous,  the  wood  when  cut,  es- 
pecially near  the  root,  is  highly  fra- 
grant. It  grows  in  the  dry  region  of 
Southern  India,  and  in  the  islands  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago.  When  felled 
the  trunk  is  about  nine  inches  or  a 
foot  in  diameter.  It  is  then  barked, 
cut  into  billets,  and  buried  in  a  dry 
place  for  about  two  months.  It  is 
largely  exported  from  India  to  China 
and  Arabia,  andy  to  a  certain  extent, 
to  Europe.  The  heart  wood  is  used  in 
the  East  for  carving,  for  incense,  and 
for  perfume.  The  seeds  yield  by  ex- 
pression a  thick  viscid  oil. 

Sandal-x7ood  Island,  or  Jeen- 
dana,  a  large  island  in  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  belonging  to  the  Dutch 
residency  of  Timor,  crossed  by  the 
meridian  of  120°  E. ;  area,  4,966 
equare  miles;  with  a  population  of 
about  1,000,000.  The  coast  is  bold, 
and  terminates  at  the  S.  extremity  in 
a  lofty  and  inaccessible  peninsula. 
The  interior  is  mountainous.  Edible 
birds'  nests,  bees'-wax,  and  sandal 
wood  are  obtained  here. 

Sanday,  one  of  the  Orkneys,  an 
island  of  very  irregular  shape,  gen- 
erally with  a  very  flat  surface  and  a 
light  sandy  soil ;  greatest  length,  13 
miles.  There  is  another  small  island 
of  the  same  name  in  the  Inner  Hebri- 
des, connected  with  Canna  at  low 
SPater,  4  miles  N.  W.  of  Rum. 


Sand  Blasf 

Sand  Blast,  one  of  the  most  won< 
derful  uses  of  sand,  by  means  of  which 
glass,  stone,  metals,  or  any  other  hard 
substance  may  be  cut  or  engraved.  If 
a  stream  of  sharp  sand  be  let  fall  from 
a  high  box  (as  high  as  the  ceiling  of 
a  room)  through  a  tube  on  to  a  plate 
of  glass  held  under  it,  the  sand  will 
cut  away  little  grains  of  the  glass  till 
at  length  the  whole  surface  will  be 
cut  or  scratched  and  it  will  look  liko 


SAND  BLAST  APPAEATUS. 

ground  glass.  If,  instead  of  cutting 
the  glass  all  over,  it  is  wanted  to 
engrave  a  pattern  or  figure  on  it,  the 
workman  has  only  to  cover  the  parts 
of  the  glass  which  he  does  not  want 
cut  with  a  stencil  plate  made  of  leath- 
er, rubber,  paper,  wax,  etc.,  for  the 
sand  will  not  cut  any  soft  substance. 
Metals  and  stones  also  may  be  cut 
by  means  of  the  sand  blast,  which  will 


Sand  CraTi 

not  only  scratch  the  surface,  but  will 
cut  it  away  to  any  depth.  The  mar- 
*)le  tombstones  put  up  in  the  Nation- 
»I  cemeteries  to  the  memory  of  soldiers 
killed  in  the  war  were  made  in  this 
way.  Iron  letters  were  fastened  on 
to  the  smooth  face  of  the  stone,  which 
was  then  put  under  the  sand  blast, 
ind  the  sand  cut  away  all  the  marble 
QOt  covered  by  the  letters.  When  the 
iron  patterns  were  taken  off,  the  let- 
ters were  left  raised  as  if  they  had 
oeen  cut  out  with  the  chisel.  The 
work  was  done  so  fast  that  300  head- 
stones were  made  in  a  day,  or  as  many 
as  300  men  could  have  done  in  the 
same  time,  working  with  the  hammer 
md  chisel. 

Sand  Crab,  or  Racing  Crab,  a 
genus  of  crabs  which  live  in  holes  in 
the  sand  along  the  sea  shores  of  warm 
countries. 

Sand  Eel,  in  ichthyology,  a  popular 
name  for  the  genus  Ammodytes.  They 
live  in  shoals,  and  are  much  sought 
after  by  fishermen,  who  discover  their 
presence  on  the  surface  by  watching 
the  porpoises  which  feed  on  them. 

Sandemanians,  in  Church  history, 
the  followers  of  Robert  Sandeman, 
who  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury introduced  into  England  and 
America  the  doctrine  of  the  Glassites. 
The  body  is  not  numerous. 

Sander,  a  species  of  fishes  belong- 
ing to  the  perch  family,  and  found 
in  fresh-water  rivers  and  streams  in 
Germany  and  the  B.  of  Europe  gen- 
erally. It  is  known  under  the  name 
of  pike  perch. 

Sanders,  Frank  Knigbt,  an 
American  theologian ;  born  in  Batti- 
cotta,  Ceylon,  June  5,  1861 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Ripon  College,  Wis.,  in  1882 ; 
Btudied  Semitic  languages  and  Biblical 
literature  at  Yale  University  in  1886- 
1889;  was  instructor  at  Jaffna  Col- 
lege, Ceylon,  in  1882-1886,  and  Pro- 
fessor of  Biblical  Literature  at  Yale 
University  in  1893-1901.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  made  Professor  of  Bibli- 
cal History  and  Archaeology  and  dean 
at  the  Yale  Divinity  School. 

Sanderling,  a  small  gray  sand-pip- 
er common  on  sandy  beaches  in  Ameri- 
ca, Europe,  and  Asia. 

Sand  Flies,  the  name  of  certain 
flies  found  in  various  countries,  the 


Sand  Martia 

bite  of  which  gives  painful  swellings. 
San  Diego,  city  port  of  entry, 
and  capital  of  San  Diego  county,  Cal.; 
on  San  Diego  bay  and  several  rail- 
roads; 120  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Los 
Angeles;  has  the  second  best  land- 
locked harbor  on  the  Pacific  coast; 
contains  a  Federal  Building,  Fort 
Rosecrans,  quarantine  and  naval 
coaling  stations,  old  San  Diego  Mis- 
sion, Coronado  Beach,  with  ostrich 
farm  and  botanical  gardens,  and  a 
Mexican  boundary  monument;  baa 
considerable  manufacturing  and  fish- 
ery interests;  and  is  a  popular  health 
resort.     Pop.   (1910)  39,578. 

Sandison,  George  Henry,  jour- 
nalist and  editor;  born  1850;  was 
connected  with  various  newspapers 
in  editorial  capacities,  and  as  corre- 
spondent, etc.;  in  1881  conducted  suc- 
cessful crusade  for  State  prison  re- 
form, resulting  in  passage  of  laws  in 
New  York  State  which  were  after- 
ward followed  bv  similar  legislature 
in  10  other  States.  In  1890  became 
editor    of    the    "  Christian    Herald." 

Sand  Lizard,  a  common  European 
lizard,  about  seven  inches  long,  of 
which  the  tail  is  four.     Usual  color. 


SAND  lilZABD. 

sandy-brown,  with  obscure  longitudi- 
nal bands  of  a  darker  hue,  line  of 
round  black  spots  on  side.  The  fe- 
male lays  12  to  14  eggs  in  the  sand, 
covers  them,  and  leaves  them  to  be 
hatched  by  solar  heat. 

Sand  Martin,  called  also  the  bank 
martin  and  bank  swallow.  It  makes 
its  nest  in  the  steep  banks  of  rivers, 
sand  pits,  quarries,  and  sea  banks, 
and  deposits  four  or  five  white  eggs. 
It  breeds  in  N.  latitudes,  but  goes  S. 
in  autumn,  returning  again  in  spring. 


Sand  Mole 

Sand  Mole,  a  rodent  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  is  about  the 
size  of  a  wild  rabbit,  with  light  gray- 
ish-brown fur,  ratjer  variable  in  tint 
in  different  individuals.  The  eyes  are 
very  small ;  external  ears  wanting ; 
tail  short. 

'     Sandpiper,    a    popular    name    for 

(several  wading  birds. 


FIGHTING   SANDPIPER. 

Sandringham,  a  Norfolk  estate,  3 
miles  from  the  sea  and  TY2  miles  N. 
N.  E.  of  Lynn,  England,  comprising 
over  7,000  acres ;  was  purchased  in 
1862  by  King  Edward,  then  Prince  of 
Wales.  The  existing  mansion  was 
demolished,  and  the  present  hall  built. 
Sandringham  was  the  scene  of  the 
death  of  the  eldest  son  of  King  Ed- 
ward, the  Duke  of  Clarence  (Jan.  14. 
1892). 

Sands,  Benjamin  Franklin,  an 
American  naval  officer ;  born  in  Bal- 
timore, Md.,  Feb.  11,  1811 ;  entered 
the  navy  in  1828  as  midshipman ;  was 
commissioned  lieutenant  in  1840 ; 
served  in  the  Mexican  War ;  com- 
missioned captain,  1862 ;  and  served 
with  gallantry  throughout  the  Civil 
War ;  appointed  superintendent  of  the 
Naval  Observatory,  1867-1873;  com- 
missioned rear-admiral,  1871 ;  and  re- 
tired, 1874.  He  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  June  30,  1883. 


Sand  Wasp 

Sands,  Henry  Berton,  an  Amer- 
ican surgeon ;  born  in  New  York  city, 
Sept.  27,  1830.  He  was  associated 
with  Willard  Parker  from  1860  to 
1870;  was  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy 
in  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, New  York,  1856-1866;  Profes- 
sor of  Anatomy,  1869-1870,  and  from 
1870  to  his  death  held  the  chair  of 
surgery.  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
Nov.  18,  1888. 

Sands,  James  Hoban,  an  Amer- 
ican naval  officer ;  born  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  July  12,  1845;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1863 ;  served  in  the  Civil 
War  with  the  North  Atlantic  blockad- 
ing squadron;  was  present  at  the 
evacuation  of  Charleston  and  at  the 
attacks  on  Fort  Fisher.  He  was  as- 
signed to  the  Indian  squadron  in  1865, 
and  participated  in  the  skirmish  with 
the  savages  on  the  Island  of  Formosa. 
In  the  Spanish-American  War  in  1898, 
he  served  in  the  North  Atlantic  pa- 
trol squadron ;  was  off  Santiago  at 
the  time  of  the  surrender  of  the  Span- 
ish army ;  and  joined  the  expedition  to 
Porto  Rico.  After  the  war  he  became 
governor  of  the  United  States  Naval 
Home  in  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Sands,  Robert  Charles,  an  Amer- 
ican author ;  born  in  Flatbush,  Long 
Island,  N.  Y.,  May  11,  1799;  in  1824 
edited  the  "  Atlantic  Magazine,"  and 
from  1825  to  1827,  with  Bryant,  the 
New  York  "  Review  " ;  and  from  1827 
till  his  death  was  on  the  staff  of  the 
"  Commercial  Advertiser."  He  also 
published  the  "  Life  and  Correspond- 
ence of  Paul  Jones."  He  died  in  Ho- 
boken,  N.  J.,  Dec.  17,  1832. 

Sandnsky,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Erie  county,  O. ;  on  San- 
dusky bay  (Lake  Erie)  and  the  Lake 
Erie  &  Western  railroad;  56  miles 
W.  of  Cleveland;  has  an  excellent 
harbor,  extensive  lake  commerce,  and 
large  trade  in  iron  ore,  lumber,  Ice, 
wines,  and  fresh  fish;  manufactures 
chemicals,  glass,  cement,  wines,  lum- 
ber products,  engines,  dynamos,  and 
farm  implements;  and  contains  a  Fed- 
eral Building,  State  Soldiers'  and 
Sailors'  Home,  and  State  Pish 
Hatchery.     Pop.   (1910)   19.989. 

Sand  Wasp,  the  common  name  of 
a  family  of  fossorial  hymenopterous 
insects,  which  dig  burrows  in  the  sand. 


Sandxrlcb. 


San  Franolsoo 


Sandixricli  (so  called  after  John 
Montagu,  4th  Earl  of  Sandwich,  En- 
gland, who  used  to  have  sandwiches 
brought  to  him  at  the  gaming  table, 
to  enable  him  to  play  without  stop- 
ping), two  thin  slices  of  bread,  with 
a  slice  of  meat  between  them. 

Sandy  Hook,  a  low  beach  at  the 
mouth  of  New  York  harbor,  about  5 
miles  long,  and  varying  in  width  from 
a  few  hundred  feet  to  %  of  a  mile. 
There  is  a  beacon  light  at  the  very 
extreme  point,  but  the  Sandy  Hook 
lighthouse  is  %  of  a  mile  to  the  S. 
The  National  government  has  recently 
established  Fort  Hancock  here. 

Sandys,  George,  an  English  poet 
and  traveler;  born  in  1577;  died  in 
1644.  He  was  the  seventh  son  of 
Archbishop  Sandys,  and  was  educated 
at  St.  Mary  Hall,  Oxford.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  as  treasurer  of  the 
colony  of  Virginia,  and  in  1621  came 
to  America.  While  there,  besides  estab- 
lishing iron  and  ship-building  works, 
he  translated  Ovid's  "Metamorphoses," 
by  which  he  is  chiefly  remembered. 

Sanford,  Edward,  an  American 
author;  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  July 
8,  1805.  Many  of  his  verses  have 
been  published  in  various  collections. 
He  died  in  Gowanda,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  28, 
1876. 

Sanford,  Henry  Shelton,  an 
American  diplomatist;  born  in  Wood- 
bury, Conn.,  June  15,  1823;  was  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Hartford, 
Conn.,  and  at  the  University  of  Hei- 
delberg; was  secretary  of  the  United 
States  legation  in  Paris  in  1849-1853 
and  United  States  minister  to  Belgium 
in  1861-18G9.  In  1877  he  took  part 
in  the  founding  of  the  Independent 
State  of  the  Kongo,  and  in  1884,  re- 
ceived recognition  of  its  independence 
by  the  United  States  government.  He 
also  represented  the  United  States  at 
the  Berlin  Kongo  Conference  of  1885- 
1886,  which  granted  free  trade  and 
neutrality  to  a  population  of  50,000,- 
000  people,  inhabiting  1,000,000  square 
miles  of  territory.  Mr.  Sanford  es- 
tablished the  city  of  Sanford,  Fla.,  in 
1870.  He  introduced  into  that  State 
the  culture  of  the  lemon  besides  that 
of  several  other  fruits.  He  died  in 
Heating  Springs,  Va.,  May  21,  1891. 

San  Francisco,  the  most  important 
city  of  California,  and  the  principal 


emporium  of  the  Pacific  Coast  of 
America ;  on  San  Francisco  Bay ;  86 
miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of  Sacramentow 
The  bay,  which  is  tO  miles  long  by  5 
miles  wide,  makes  one  of  the  grandest 
harbors  in  the  world,  and  the  principal 
one  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  mean 
altitude  is  130  feet  above  the  sea; 
area.  46  square  miles;  pop.  (1900) 
342.782;  (1910)  416.912. 

The  city  is  served  by  an  extensive 
waterworks  system.  The  reservoirs 
have  a  storage  capacity  of  100,000,- 
000  gallons,  and  the  consumption  av- 
erages 30,000,000  gallons  per  day. 
There  are  in  all  750  miles  of  streets, 
of  which  192  miles  are  paved.  The 
sewer  system  covers  308  miles.  The 
streets  are  lighted  by  gas  and  elec- 
tricity. The  annual  death  rate  aver- 
ages 18.82  per  1,000.  The  annual  cost 
of  maintaining  the'  city  government 
exceeds  $5,700,000. 

The  Golden  Gate  Park,  named  after 
the  popular  name  of  the  entrance  to 
San  Francisco  Bay,  is  the  most  im- 
portant park  in  the  city,  comprising 
1,043  acres.  It  extends  from  the  city 
to  the  ocean.  About  half  of  it  is 
beautifully  laid  out  in  promenades, 
drives,  lawns,  etc.  It  was  here  that 
the  Midwinter  Exposition  was  held  in 
1894.  The  park  contains  a  magnifi- 
cent conservatory,  and  monuments  of 
Francis  Scott  Key,  author  of  "  The  ' 
Star-Spangled  Banner,"  President 
Garfield,  General  Halleck,  and  Thom- 
as Starr  King.  Hill  Park,  lying  a 
half  mile  E.  of  Golden  Gate  Park, 
affords  a  fine  view  from  its  highest 
point,  which  is  570  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  Presidio,  or  Government  Military 
Reservation,  extends  along  the  Gold- 
en (iate  for  about  4  miles,  and  has  aa 
area  of  1,500  acres. 

The  principal  public  buildings  are 
the  city  hall;  the  United  States 
Branch  Mint;  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment building;  United  States  Ap- 
praiser's Building;  the  Merchant's 
Exchange;  the  Palace  Hotel;  the 
First  National  Bank;  the  Flood 
Building;  Mercantile  Library,  con- 
taining 78,500  volumes;  Odd  Fellows* 
Ha  11 ;  the  Mechanics*  Institute,  con- 
taining 82,000  volumes;  the  Cali- 
fornia Market ;  California  Academy  of 
Sciences  ;  Crocker  Building,  and  many 
others,  including  magnificent  churcbeSj 
office  buildings,  and  banks. 


8aa  Francisco 

The  Federal  census  reports  2,251 
factory-system  plants,  employing 
$102,362,378  capital  and  38,429 
wage-earners,  paying  $75,945,898  for 
stock  used  and  $25,015,427  for  wages, 
and  yielding  products  valued  at  $137,- 
788,233. 

San  Francisco  has  an  immense  for- 
eign trade,  chiefly  with  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  Central  America,  Japan,  Chi- 
na, and  Great  Britain.  In  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1910,  the  im- 
ports of  merchandise  aggregated  in 
value  $49,370,643;  and  the  exports 
$31,180,760.  The  movement  in  gold 
and  silver  reported  for  the  San  Fran- 
cisco custom  district  was:  Imports, 
$5,944,456;  exports,  $34,327,278. 

At  the  close  of  the  school  year 
1898-1899  the  children  of  school  age 
aggregated  76,236;  the  enrollment  in 
the  public  day  schools  was  42,612,  and 
in  the  private  and  parochial  schools 
(largely  estimated)  9,910;  and  the 
average  daily  attendance  in  public  day 
schools  was  34,671.  There  were  981 
teachers;  78  buildings  used  for  school 
purposes ;  and  public  school  property 
of  an  estimated  value  of  $5,620,200. 
The  institutions  for  higher  education 
are  the  Law,  Dental,  and  Medical  De- 
partments of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia; St.  Ignatius  College;  the 
Cooper  Medical  College;  the  James 
Lick  School  of  Mechanic  Arts;  Pa- 
cific Theological  Seminary;  the  Hop- 
kins Institute  of  Art;  Irving  Insti- 
tute; Sacred  Heart  College;  and  near 
the  city  at  Palo  Alto,  the  Leland 
Stanford,  Jr.,  University,  and  at 
Berkeley,  across  the  bay,  the  Uni- 
versity of  California. 

As  early  as  1769  a  number  of  Fran- 
ciscan fathers  established  a  mission 
here,  and  seven  years  later  the  Span- 
iards chose  the  place  for  a  military 
post.  In  1835  an  Englishman  erected 
the  fir^  tent  on  the  site  of  the  pres- 
ent city,  in  Yerba  Buena,  3  miles 
from  the  mission.  A  village  which 
soon  grew  up  was  united  with  the  mis- 
sion in  1846.  Two  years  later  gold  was 
discovered  and  by  1850  San  Fran- 
cisco had  a  population  of  25,000.  Dur- 
ing the  latter  year  a  city  charter  was 
received,  and  in  1856  the  county 
and  city  were  consolidated  after  vigi- 
lance committees  had  severely  re- 
pressed crime.  On  Apr.  18,  1906,  se- 
vere earthquakes  and  tires  caused  great 


SangralnariA 

loss  of  life  and  property,  necessitating 
rebuilding  a  large  portion  of  the  city. 
In  1906  the  anti-Japanese  agitation 
also  assumed  serious  proportions. 

San  Francisco  Mountain,  in> 
north  Arizona  near  Flagstaff,  on  the 
Colorado  plateau,  is  12,7M:  feet  high. 

Sanger,  Joseph  Prentice,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in  De- 
troit, Mich.,  May  4,  1840;  served 
through  the  civil  war;  Brigadier- 
General,  U.  S.  v.,  in  1898,  on  duty 
in  Cuba;  Director  of  Census  in  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico  in  1899,  and  of  the 
Philippines  in  1901-1902;  Brigadier- 
General,  U.  S.  A.,  1902,  and  Major- 
General  and  retired,  1904. 

Sangir  Islands,  a  group  of  small 
islands  in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  be- 
tween the  N.  E.  extremity  of  Celebes 
and  the  Philippine  isle  of  Mindanao. 
Most  of  them  are  inhabited  and  are 
covered  with  cocoa  palms.  Rice,  pi- 
sang,  and  sago  are  cultivated.  The 
islands  are  all  mountainous  and  part- 
ly volcanic.  The  natives  are  of  the 
Malay  race  and  profess  Christianity. 
Pop.  about  50,000. 

Sangrealis,  Sangrealt  or  Saint 
Grail.     See  Gbaii,. 

Sangre  de  Cristo,  a  range  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  in  S.  Colorado,  on 
the  N.  E.  boundary  of  St.  Louis  Park. 
Blanca  Peak,  its  highest  point,  has  an 
altitude  of  14,390  feet,  and  is  one  of 
the  two  highest  peaks  of  Colorado. 

Sangster,  Charles,  a  Canadian 
poet ;  born  at  Kingston,  Ont.,  in  1822 ; 
died  in  1893.  He  was  an  editor  at 
Amherstburg  and  Kingston  during  15 
years,  and  from  1868-1886  was  a  Post- 
Oflice  official  at  Ottawa.  He  publish- 
ed "  The  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Sague- 
nay,  and  other  poems ;"  and  "  Hesper- 
us, and  other  poems."  He  was  the 
author  of  the  inspiring  poem  "  Eng- 
land and  America." 

Sangster,  Margaret  Flizabeth 
(Mnnson),  an  American  poet;  born 
in  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  22,  1838. 
She  is  editorially  connected  with 
"  Hearth  and  Home  "  and  "  The  Chris- 
tian Herald " ;  and  in  1889  became 
editor  of  "  Harper's  Bazar."  Her  writ- 
ings are  most  graceful  and  simple  ia 
style,  and  are  very  popular. 

Sangninaria,  a  genus  of  plants, 
of  the  poppy  family.  The  most  inter- 
esting species  is  the  puccoon,  a  native 


Sanliedriiit 


San  MarlnS 


of  North  America,  often  called  blood- 
root,  from  its  containing  a  red  juice. 
Sanbedrim,    or    Sanhedrin,    the 

supreme  national  tribunal  of  the  Jews, 
established  at  the  time  of  the  Macca- 
bees. It  consisted  of  71  members,  and 
was  presided  over  by  the  Nasi 
("prince"),  at  whose  side  stood  the 
Ab-Beth-Din  ("father  of  the  tri- 
bunal"). Its  members  belonged  to-.the 
different  classes  of  society ;  there  were 
priests,  elders,  scribes,  and  others  ex- 
alted by  eminent  learning.  The  presi- 
dentship was  conferred  on  the  high- 
priest  in  preference,  if  he  happened  to 
possess  the  requisite  qualities  of  emi- 
nence ;  otherwise,  "  he  who  excels  all 
others  in  wisdom "  was  appointed, 
irrespective  of  his  station.  The  limits 
of  its  jurisdiction  are  not  known  with 
certainty;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  supreme  decision  over  life  and 
death,  the  ordeal  of  a  suspected  wife, 
and  the  lilse  criminal  matters  were 
exclusively  in  its  hands.  Besides  this, 
however,  the  regulation  of  the  sacred 
times  and  seasons,  and  many  matters 
connected  with  the  religious  ceremonies 
in  general,  except  the  sacerdotal  part, 
which  was  regulated  by  a  special  court 
of  priests,  were  vested  in  it. 

By  degrees  the  whole  internal  ad- 
tninistration  of  the  commonwealth  was 
vested  in  this  body,  and  it  became 
necessary  to  establish  minor  courts, 
similarly  composed,  all  over  the  coun- 
try, and  Jerusalem  itself.  Thus  we 
tear  of  two  inferior  tribunals  at  Jeru- 
salem, each  of  them  consisting  of  23 
men,  and  others  consisting  of  three 
men  only.  These  courts  of  23  men,  as 
well  as  those  of  the  three  men,  prob- 
ably represent  only  smaller  or  larger 
committees  chosen  from  the  general 
body.  Two  scribes  were  always  pres- 
ent, one  registering  the  condemnatory, 
the  other  the  exculpatory  votes.  The 
mode  of  procedure  was  exceedingly 
complicated;  and  such  was  the  cau- 
tion of  the  court,  especially  in  matters 
of  life ,  and  death,  that  capital  pun- 
ishment was  pronounced  in  the  rarest 
instances  only.  The  Nasi  bad  the  su- 
preme direction  of  the  court  and  con- 
voked it  when  necessary.  He  sat  at 
the  head,  and  to  his  right  hand  wua 
the  seat  of  the  Ab-Beth-Din;  in  front 
of  them  the  rest  of  the  members  took 
their  places  according  to  their  dignity, 
in  a  semi-circle. 


The  court  met  on  extraordinary  oc- 
casions in  the  house  of  the  high  priest ; 
its  general  place  of  assembly,  however, 
was  a  hall,  probably  situated  at  the 
S.  W.  corner  of  one  of  the  courts  ofl 
the  temple.  With  exception  of  Sab- 
bath and  feast  days  it  met  daily.  Aftec 
the  destruction  of  the  temple  and  Jeru- 
salem it  finally  established  itself,  aftei; 
many  migrations,  in  Babylon. 

San    JoaS,    city    and    capital    of 
Santa    Clara    county,    Cal.;    on    the 
Guadalupe  and  Coyote  rivers  and  the 
Southern    Pacific    railroad;    51    miles 
I S.   of   San   Francisccf;   was  the  capi- 
tal of  the  State  under  its  first  consti- 
tution; is  in  a  great  fruit  raising  and 
canning     section;     has     large     quick- 
j  silver    mines    nearby;    manufactures 
1  brick,  pottery,  farm  implements,  and 
'woolen  goods;  and  contains  the  Uni- 
I  versity  of  the  Pacific  (M.  E.),  College 
'of  Notre  Dame,  St.  Joseph's  College, 
State   Normal  School,   State  Asylum 
for   Chronic    Insane,    Federal    Build- 
ing, and    Piatt  Home.     Pop.   (1910) 
28,946. 

San  Jnan,  chief  city,  seaport,  and 
I  capital    of    the    Territory    of    Porto 
I  Rico;   on  a   small   island  off  the   N. 
I  coast,  connected  by  bridges  with  the 
I  mainland;  is  a  strongly  fortified  post; 
I  was  bombarded  by  Admiral  Sampson 
during     the     Spanish-American     war 
(INIay,  1898);  contains  the  old  Govern- 
ment House,  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
]  dral,  bishop's  palace.  Military  Hospi- 
tal, arsenal,  quarters  of  the  superior 
courts   of   the  island,  several  educa- 
I  tional     institutions,     and     numerous 
parks  and  plazas.   Pop.  (1910)  48,716. 
Sankey,  Ira  David,  an  American 
evangelist;   born   in   Edinburgh,   Pa., 
Aug.  28,  1840;  was  associated  with 
the    evangelist,    the    late    Dwight  ^  L. 
Moody,    for    some    years,    attracting 
and    holding   the    attention    of    great 
audiences  by  singing  hymns  odmposed 
by  himself. 

San  Lnis  de  Potosi,  a  city  of 
Mexico;  capital  of  the  State  of  the 
same  name ;  198  miles  N.  W.  of  Mex- 
ico, 6,350  feet  above  sea-level.  Pop. 
69,050.  The  state  has  an  area  of  25,- 
316  square  miles,  is  generally  fertile, 
and  has  rich  gold  and  silver  mines. 
Pop.  508,449. 

San  Marino,  the  smallest  republic 
in  Europe,  and  one  of  its  most  an- 


San  Martin. 


San  Stefano 


cient  States ;  is  enclosed  by  the  prov- 
inces of  Forli  and  Pesano  and  Urbino, 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy;  situated  9 
miles  S.  W.  of  Rimini.  The  legisla- 
ture of  the  republic  is  a  senate  of  60 
members,  elected  for  life  equally  from 
the  ranks  of  nobles,  citizens,  and  peas- 
ants. Two  presidents  are  chosen  by 
the  senate  every  six  months,  called 
captains  regent.  Two  secretaries  of 
State  and  two  legal  functionaries  are 
the  other  government  officials.  This 
little  republic  occupies  a  mountainous 
site,  about  2,420  feet  high,  precipitous 
on  all  sides,  with  intervening  dense 
forests  and  valleys  of  fertile  land.  The 
town  is  built  round  a  hermitage, 
founded  in  441,  and  is  accessible  by 
but  one  road.  It  is  surrounded  by 
great  walls  and  has  three  forts.  Many 
of  the  buildings  are  stately  and  mas- 
sive in  structure.  The  inhabitants 
are  principally  engaged  in  agriculture. 
Area.  23  sq.  m. ;  pop.  9,500.  On  Mar. 
20,  190G,  the  U.  S.  Govt,  ratified  a 
treaty  of  extradition  with  San  Ma- 
rino. 

San  Martin,  Jose  de,  a  Spanish- 
American  general ;  born  in  Yapeyu, 
Misiones,  Argentine  Republic,  Feb.  25, 
1778.  He  was  in  the  Spanish  cam- 
paigns against  France  from  1793  till 
1811,  attaining  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel.  He  resigned  from  sesvice  and 
sailed  for  Buenos  Ayres  in  1812, 
where  he  joined  the  patriot  army.  An 
army  of  invasion  was  drilled  for  two 
years  at  Mendoza,  and  then  San  Mar- 
tin in  command  of  4,000  men  began, 
Jan.  17,  1817,  his  famous  march  over 
the  Andes,  leading  his  force  through 
the  Nepallata  Pass,  12,800  feet  high. 
On  Feb.  12,  1817,  he  gained  the  vic- 
tory of  Chacabuco,  which  was  followed 
by  the  capture  and  occupation  of  San- 
tiago, Feb.  15.  He  was  defeated  on 
March  19,  1818,  at  Chancha  Rayada, 
but  gained  a  splendid  victory  on  April 
5  at  the  Malipo,  which  drove  the 
Spaniards  from  Chile.  He  was  offered 
the  supreme  directorship  of  Chile,  but 
declined  it  and  began  preparations  for 
the  invasion  of  Peru.  After  much  ad- 
venturous maneuvering,  he  captured 
and  occupied  Lima,  July  9,  1821,  and 
carried  Callao  through  hard  fighting. 
On  Aug.  8,  San  Martin  was  pro- 
claimed supreme  protector  of  Peru. 
At  this  time  Bolivar  was  leading  an 
army  S.,  and  the  success  of  the  pa- 


triots was  threatened  by  civil  war. 
San  Martin  gave  way  to  his  rival, 
"  for  the  good  of  the  cause."  On 
July  26,  1822,  he  held  an  interview 
with  Bolivar,  after  which  he  resigned 
his  office  to  the  Peruvian  Congress, 
Sept.  22,  leaving  Bolivar  to  complete 
the  independence  of  Peru.  San  Mar- 
tin retired  from  South  American  af- 
fairs, went  to  France  and  lived  there 
in  reduced  circumstances  till  his  death 
in  Boulogne,  France,  Aug.  17,  1856. 

San  Salvador,  a  name  given  by 
Columbus  to  the  first  island  he  dis- 
covered in  the  New  World,  Oct.  12, 
1492. 

Sanskrit,  the  name  of  the  ancient 
literary  language  of  India.  It  forms 
the  extreme  branch  of  the  great  Indo- 
Germanic  (Indo-European,  Aryan) 
stock. of  languages,  and  the  one  which, 
thanks  to  its  early  literary  cultivation 
(from  1500  B.  c.)  and  grammatical 
fixation,  and  its  consequent  transpar- 
ency of  structure  and  fullness  of  form, 
approaches  nearest  to  the  parent  lan- 
guage. In  some  respects,  however,  the 
primitive  appearance  of  the  Sanskrit, 
as  of  the  closely  allied  Iranian  or  Per- 
sic branch,  is  now  generally  ascribed 
to  a  special  Indo-Iranian  development, 
or  to  a  later  return  to  a  phonetic 
phase  already  outgrown  by  the  parent 
language  at  the  time  of  the  separation. 
While  it  is  admitted  on  all  hands  that 
the  Aryan  dialect  out  of  wiiich  the  lit- 
erary language  of  India  has  developed 
can  not  have  been  indigenous  to  the 
peninsula,  but  must  have  been  intro- 
duced from  the  N.  E.,  there  is  still 
considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
the  original  home  of  the  primitive 
Aryan  community  —  whether  it  is  to 
be  sought  for  in  Asia,  as  used  to  be 
universally  believed^ till  recent  years, 
or  whether,  as  many  scholars  are  now 
inclined  to  think,  it  was  from  some 
part  of  Europe  that  the  Asiatic 
Aryans  originally  came.  On  entering 
India,  the  Aryan  tribes  found  the 
country  occupied  by  people  of  different 
races ;  but,  favored  by  physical  and  in- 
tellectual superiority,  they  gradually 
succeeded  in  extending  their  sway,  as 
well  as  their  language,  and  their  social 
and  religious  institutions,  over  the 
whole  of  Northern  India. 

San  Stefano,  Treaty  of,  a  treaty 
which  put  an  end  to  the  Russo-Turk- 
ish  War ;  concluded  March  3,  1878,  at 


Santa  Ana 


Santiago  de  Cuba 


San  Stefano,  a  town  of  W.  Constan- 
tinople and  a  port  of  the  Sea  of  Mar- 
mora. By  its  terms  Bulgaria  was  to 
become  a  principality,  and  Rumania, 
Servia,  and  Montenegro,  were  recog- 
nized as  independent.  Russia  was  to 
receive  a  war  indemnity  of  300,000,000 
roubles,  and  the  Dobrudja,  Kars, 
Batum,  and  other  possessions.  The 
congress  held  at  Berlin,  in  June  and 
July,  1878,  greatly  altered  the  provi- 
sions of  this  treaty,  effecting  i)eace  on 
somewhat  more  moderate  terms. 

Santa  Ana,  a  tribe  of  North  Amer- 
ican Indians  that  live  in  a  pueblo  in 
North  Central  New  Mexico,  on  the 
Rio  Jemez,  a  tributary  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  Spanish  applied  this 
name  to  the  mission  established  at  this 
pueblo,  whose  native  name  was  Tam- 
aya.  This  village  is  one  of  several  in 
New  Mexico  occupied  by  the  Keresan 
stock  of  Indians,  under  different 
names. 

Santa  Ana,  or  Santa  Anna,  An- 
tonio Lopez  de,  a  Mexican  presi- 
dent ;  bora  in  Talaha,  Mexico,  Feb.  21, 
1795.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  from 
Mexico,  and  proclaimed  the  Mexican 
Republic  in  1822.  He  was  in  the  front 
during  all  the  Mexican  troubles  till 
1833,  when  he  became  president.  In 
1836  he  was  defeated  and  taken  pris- 
oner by  the^Texans,  but  returned  the 
following  ye'ar.  He  was  again  presi- 
dent in  1846  and  commanded  in  the 
war  with  the  United  States  (1846- 
1848).  After  General  Scott's  occupa- 
tion of  the  city  of  Mexico,  in  Septem- 
ber, 1847,  he  resigned  and  left  the 
country,  but  was  president  in  1853- 
1855.  He  died  in  the  City  of  Mexico, 
June  21,  1876. 

Santa  Barbara  Islands,  a  group 
of  islands  off  the  coast  of  California, 
extending  about  175  miles.  They  lie 
opposite  Santa  Barbara,  Los  Angeles, 
and  San  Diego  Counties,  at  a  distance 
varying  from  20  to  65  miles.  They 
are  nine  in  number  and  consist  of  San 
Miguel,  Santa  Rosa,  Santa  Cruz,  An- 
acape,  Santa  Barbara,  Santa  Cata- 
lina,  San  Clemente,  San  Nicolas,  and 
San  Juan. 

Santayana,  George,  a  Spanish- 
American  poet  and  educator :  born  in 
Spain  in  1863.  He  was  assistant 
Professor  of  Philosophy  at   Harvard, 


and  published :  "  Sonnets  and  Other 
Poems,"  and  "  The  Sense  of  Beauty : 
An  Outline  of  Esthetic  Theory,"  etc. 

Santal  Wood,  a  dye  wood  obtained 
from  a  leguminous  tree  of  the  East 
Indies,  Madagascar,  etc. ;  also  called 
Sanders  or  saunders  wood  and  red 
sandal  wood.  Santaline,  a  substance 
obtained  from  it,  is  used  in  dyeing 
blue  and  brown. 

Santiago,  the  capital  of  the  Re- 
public of  Chile  and  of  the  province  of 
the  same  name,  beautifully  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  112  miles  E. 
of  Valparaiso.  Owing  to  the  preva- 
lence of  earthquakes  the  houses  are 
mostly  of  one  story,  and  generally  oc- 
cupy a  large  space  of  ground,  having 
gardens  and  patios  or  courts  in  the 
interior.  The  city  was  founded  in 
1541.  Gold,  silver,  and  lead  are  ex- 
ported. It  is  the  largest  city  on  the 
W.  coast  of  South  America.  Pop. 
256,413. 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  a  city,  sea- 
port, and  capital  of  the  province  of 
the  same  name,  Cuba ;  on  a  beautiful 
harbor  opening  through  a  narrow  pass 
into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  It  was  made 
famous  in  the  Spanish-American  War 
by  the  splendid  victory  achieved  by 
the  American  fleet  outside  of  its  har- 
bor, and  the  later  occupation  of  the 
city  by  American  troops  on  the  sur- 
render of  the  Spanish  army.  The 
Spaniards  claim  that  it  is  the  oldest 
city  in  North  America.-  It  was  founded 
in  1514  by  Don  Velasquez,  the  con- 
queror; is  built  on  the  side  of  a  hi'l 
160  feet  above  the  bay  and  its  harbor 
is  one  of  the  best  along  the  American 
continent,  but  extremely  diflScult  of  ac- 
cess owing  to  the  narrowness  of  its 
entrance. 

Like  Havana  and  San  Juan,  San- 
tiago has  its  Castle  Morro,  built  by  the 
old  Spanish  warrior,  Pedro  de  la 
Rocca,  then  governor  of  the  province, 
about  the  year  1640,  on  the  mountain 
to  the  right  of  the  entrance.  The 
word  Morro  means  "  overhanging  lip," 
and  all  three  castles  mentioned  are 
erected  on  extreme  points  of  land  com- 
manding harbor  approaches.  That  at 
Santiago  is  certainly  the  most  pictur- 
esque ;  but  looking  at  it  one  would 
scarcely  credit  it  as  possessing  much 
effectiveness  when  pitted  against  mod- 
ern men-of-war.  From  the  point  of 
view  of  the  artist,  however,  it  is  per* 


Santiago  de  CnBflC 


Santiago  de  Cnba 


feet.  Though  the  guns  are  chiefly  of 
an  old-fashioned  type,  pointing  directly 
toward  the  sea,  they  are  capable  of 
being  used  with  considerable  effect 
against  vessels  attempting  to  force  au 
entrance. 

The    neighborhood    of    Santiago    is 

Jiarticularly  rich  in  minerals,  especial- 
y  iron  and  copper;  but  the  Spaniards 
(have  themselves  done  little  to  develop 
the  mining  industry.  This  has~4>een 
left  to  American  enterprise. 

On  the  assumption  of  control  by  the 
!A.merican  government,  July  17,  1899, 
©f  that  portion  of  the  province  of  San- 
tiago included  in  the  surrendered  ter- 
ritory, industries  were  practically  at  a 
etandstill.  In  the  rural  districts  all 
Industries  were  at  an  end.  The  es- 
tates, almost  without  exception,  had 
been  destroyed,  and  no  work  was  be- 
ing done.  Such  foodstuffs  as  were  be- 
ing produced  in  the  territory  were  the 
work  of  certain  men  of  the  Cuban 
army  who  were  detailed  for  this  pur- 
pose, in  order  to  furnish  such  corn  and 
vegetables  as  it  was  possible  to  secure 
for  their  friends  in  arms. 

Their  cane  fields  had  been  largely 
destroyed  and  the  cane  had  become 
overgrown  with  weeds,  brush,  etc. 
Those  individuals  who  were  engaged 
In  the  raising  of  cattle  had  lost  every- 
thing and  it  was  difBcult  to  find  a  cow 
or  an  ox.  Horses  were  few  and  in 
wretched  condition.  Mining  had 
ceased ;  all  industries  were  practically 
dead.  Every  man  who  could  manage  it 
had  a  tiny  garden,  which  furnished 
very  limited  subsistence.  This  he  sup- 
plemented with  such  wild  fruits  as  he 
could  gather. 

In  the  towns  the  effect  of  recon- 
centration  was  shown  by  large  crowds 
of  women  and  children  and  old  men 
who  were  practically  starving.  They 
were  thin,  pale,  and  barely  able  to 
drag  themselves  about.  The  merchants 
and  a  few  planters  were  the  only 
prosperous  people  in  the  province.  The 
stores  all  seemed  to  have  a  fairly 
good  stock  of  goods,  and  to  have  been 
protected  during  the  war.  Their  trans- 
ections at  first  were  extremely  limited, 
as  people  were  without  money  or  other 
means  of  barter.  Hospitals  were  hor- 
ribly overcrowded  and  practically 
without  supplies  of  either  food,  med- 
icine, or  clothing.  The  same  was  true 
of  the  charitable  institutions  for  chil- 
iisen.  and  old  people.     In  the  country 


towns  a  condition  existed  bordering 
closely  on  starvation.  There  was  no 
work  and  no  one  with  money  sufficient 
to  start  in  on  work  of  any  conse- 
quence, except  a  few  large  planters  al- 
ready referred  to.  Spanish  money 
was  universally  in  circulation,  silver 
being  worth  about  50  cents  on  the 
dollar  and  the  centen  $5.  The  amount 
of  money  in  circulation  was  extremely 
limited.  Wages  were  at  that  time 
from  60  to  80  cents  a  day,  Spanish 
money,  for  ordinary  laborers,  and 
from  $1  up  to  $2.50,  Spanish,  for 
skilled  mechanics.  Such  railroads  as 
existed  in  the  province  were  largely 
crippled  by  the  destruction  of  bridges 
and  rolling  stock,  and  greatly  in  need 
of  repairs,  which  had  not  been  at- 
tended to  during  the  war.  On  the 
different  country  roads  and  highways 
the  bridges  had  been  entirely  de- 
stroyed. 

The  question  of  reaching  the  people 
throughout  the  province  was  a  some- 
what difficult  one.  It  was  solved,  how- 
ever, by  sending  the  food  to  all  the 
seaport  towns  and  to  such  interior 
towns  as  could  be  reached  with  pack 
trains.  Couriers  were  also  sent  through 
the  country  to  notify  the  people  where 
it  could  be  found.  Medicines  and 
clothing  were  also  issued  in  as  large 
amounts  as  possible.  Garrisons  were 
sent  to  all  important  points  with  the 
purpose  of  restoring  order  and  protect- 
ing those  who  wished  to  work,  and  the 
reestablishing  of  the  rural  guard  was 
commenced  for  the  purpose  of  furnish- 
ing proper  police  protection  in  the  in- 
terior districts.  Medical  officers  were 
sent  to  the  interior  with  trains  load- 
ed with  supplies,  and  with  instructioog 
to  do  all  that  they  could  to  relieve  the 
sick  and  prevent  the  spread  of  disease. 
Strict  orders  were  given  to  the  rural 
and  municipal  police  to  treat  robbers 
and  others  severely.  Comparatively 
little  disorder  existed.  The  good  be- 
havior of  the  people  was  quite  remark- 
able under  the  circumstances.  Customs 
officers  were  appointed  and  every  port 
of  any  consequence  was  soon  put  in 
charge  of  a  collector,  assisted  by  a 
force  of  native  clerks,  most  of  whom 
had  had  previous  experience  in  the 
custom  house  under  Spanish  rule.  The 
courts  were  gradually  reorganized  and 
supplied  with  necessary  personnel  and 
materiaL    The  prisons  and  jails  weca 


Kanto  Somingo 


Sanio  Domlngoi 


carefully  examined,  and  all  political 
and  military  prisoners  were,  as  a  rule, 
released.  Rations  were  given  freely  to 
those  unable  to  work ;  to  Ijhose  having 
families  able  to  work,  they  were  given 
in  payment  only  for  labor.  The  amount 
of  rations  issued  was  very  large.  The 
civil  government  was  gradually  estab- 
lished, mayors  and  municipal  officers 
being  appointed  for  the  various  muni- 
cipalities. These  officei^  were  always 
nominated  by  a  committee  of  the  best 
people  and  were  efficient  as  a  class. 
Such  public  work  as  the  American  au- 
thorities had  means  to  undertake,  was 
undertaken,  not  only  for  the  purpose 
of  public  government,  but  for  the  sake 
of  giving  men  work,  with  the  proceeds 
of  which  to  support  themselves  and 
families.  Lighthouses  were  reestab- 
lished, a  new  one  built  at  Guanta- 
namo,  and  the  one  at  Santiago  put  in 
working  condition.  Commanding  offi- 
cers in  all  parts  of  the  island  were 
busily  engaged  in  carrying  out  all 
possible  sanitary  and  administrative 
reforms.  Schools  were  established  in 
the  city  of  Santiago  and  in  the  prov- 
ince, and  both  city  and  province  are 
now  assuming  their  rightful  agricul- 
tural, industrial,  and  commercial  con- 
ditions.    Pop.  of  city,  43,090. 

Santo  Domingo,  a  republic  occu- 
pying the  E.  part  of  the  island  of 
Haiti,  one  of  the  Greater  Antilles, 
West  Indies.  There  are  several  moun- 
tain ranges  running  E.  and  W.,  be- 
tween which  are  large  and  fertile 
plains.  The  coast  is  irregular,  having 
a  number  of  deep  indentations  which 
afford  excellent  harbors.  The  climate 
on  the  coast  is  hot  and  in  some  sec- 
tions unhealthful.  In  the  interior  it 
varies,  being  mild  and  salubrious  in 
the  more  elevated  districts.  Area,  18,- 
045  square  miles.     Pop.  610,000. 

The  population  consists  largely  of  a 
mixed  race  of  the  aborigines  and  the 
first  Spanish  inhabitants,  and  of  ne- 
groes and  mulattoes,  the  former  being 
less  in  number.  There  are  a  consider- 
able number  of  whites  descended  from 
Europeans.  Owing  to  the  influence  of 
the  latter  the  Spanish  language  pre- 
vails. French  and  English  are  spoken 
in  the  towns.  In  more  recent  years 
many  Cubans  have  settled  in  Santo 
Domingo,  and  their  immigration  has 
been  encouraged. 
'^Ibe  State  relision  is  Roman  Catho- 


lic, though  other  forms  of  worship 
with  certains  restrictions  are  tolerated. 

Santo  Domingo  is  governed  under  a 
constitution.  The  legislative  power  is 
vested  in  a  national  congress  of  22 
deputies,  who  are  elected  by  popular 
vote.  The  executive  power  rests  in 
a  president,  elected  for  a  term  of  four 
years,  and  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of 
five  ministers.  A  governor  appointed 
by  the  president  presides  over  each 
province  and  district. 

The  revenue  is  mostly  derived  from 
duties  on  imports  and  exports.  In  1893 
the  custom  house  uas  taken  in  charge 
by  the  American  Santo  Domingo  Im- 
provement Company,  which  agreed  to 
pay  the  interest  on  the  foreign  debt 
from  March  1,  of  that  year,  to  supply 
$90,000  per  month  for  the  budget,  and 
to  build  with  the  help  of  the  govern- 
ment, the  railroad  from  Porto  Plata 
to  Santiago. 

The  principal  occupation  is  that  of 
sugar  growing.  Of  later  years  consid- 
erable progress  has  been  made  under 
the  impulse  of  American  enterprise. 
The  production  of  coffee,  cocoa,  ba- 
nanas, and  tobacco,  is  on  the  increase, 
and  important  industries  ate  connected 
with  forestry.  In  the  S.  and  W.  of 
the  country  extensive  factories  and 
sugar  plantations  are  in  operation. 
The  commerce  of  the  country  is  small. 
The  trade  is  mainly  with  the  West 
Indian  Islands,  the  United  States,  En- 
gland, Spain,  Germany,  and  France. 
The  principal  exports  in  1898  were 
sugar,  mahogany,  tobacco,  coffee, 
cocoa,  logwood,  bananas,  wax,  honey, 
hides,  dividivi,  and  rum. 

The  early  history  of  this  portion  of 
the  island,  which  remained  Spanish 
when  the  W.  part  was  ceded  to 
France  in  1697,  and  which  was  united 
with  the  neighboring  State  in  1795- 
1808,  and  in  1822-1843,  properly  be- 
longs to  that  of  Haiti.  In  1843  it  as- 
sumed a  separate  standing  as  the 
Santo  Domingo  republic,  the  anarchy 
and  misrule  of  which  it  exchanged 
in  1861  for  the  despotism  of  its  former 
masters.  But  the  harsh  Spanish  rule 
brought  on  a  revolt  in  1863.  The 
Spaniards  were  driven  out  by  a  force 
headed  by  Jose  Maria  Cabral  in  1865, 
and  the  constitution  of  1844,  with  a 
few  changes,  was  reaffirmed.  In  No- 
vember, 1869,  Baez,  the  president, 
signed  with  President  Grant  a  treaty 


Santos-Dumont 


Saprophytic  Plants 


for  annexatiou  to  the  U.  S.,  but  rati- 
fication was  refused  bv  the  U.  S. 
Senate.  In  1907  the  United  States 
took  charge  of  the  collection  of  cus- 
toms and  the  payment  of  the  foreign 
debt,  owing  to  the  unsettled  condition 
of  affairs. 

Santos-Dumont,  a,  French  aero- 
naut; born  in  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil, 
July  20,  1873 ;  was  educated  largely 
in  France,  and  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  made  his  home  in  Paris.  In- 
terested in  the  problem  of  aerial  navi- 
gation he  devoted  his  time  and  fortune 
to  the  solution  of  the  question.  In 
1900  he  made  several  partly  successful 
attempts  to  fly  with  his  dirigible  bal- 
loon ;  and  in  1901  succeeded  in  perfect- 
ly controlling  his  machine  in  the  face 
of  a  strong  wind.  In  September,  1901, 
be  won  the  Deutsch  prize  of  $20,000 
for  navigating  a  dirigible  balloon,  and 
Oct.  23,  190G.  the  Deutsch-Archdeacon 
prize  of  $10,000  for  navigating  an 
aeroplane  machine  unsupported  by  gas 
in  a  circle  of  one  kilometer. 

Sap,  the  nutrimental  fluid  which 
circulates  in  plants.  As  it  rises  in  the 
Btem  it  is  of  a  watery  nature  and  con- 
tains the  various  inorganic  matters 
absorlsed  by  the  roots,  also  some  sugar, 
dextrine,  and  other  organic  substances 
which  it  has  dissolved  in  its  upward 
course.  In  its  passage  to  the  leaves 
it  becomes  more  and  more  altered  from 
the  state  \n  which  it  was  absorbed  by 
the  roots;  but  when  it  reaches  the 
leaves  it  is  still  unfitted  for  the  re- 
quirements of  the  plant,  and  is  hence 
termed  crude  sap.  Through  the  action 
of  the  light  and  air  it  undergoes  im- 
portant changes  in  the  leaves  and  oth- 
er green  parts,  and  becomes  adapted 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  plant.  In 
this  state  it  is  termed  elaborated  sap. 

Sapajon,  the  name  generally  given 
to  a  group  of  South  American  pre- 
hensile-tailed monkeys,  including  15 
or  16  species.  One  of  the  most  com- 
mon species  is  the  weeper.  They  are 
small  in  size,  playful  in  disposition, 
leading  a  gregarious  life,  and  feeding 
chiefly  on  fruits  and  insects. 

Sapindacese,  soapworts ;  trees, 
Bhrubs,  twining  and  with  tendrils, 
rarely  climbing  herbs ;  found  in  South 
America,  in  India,  and  various  trop- 
ical c  ountries  Known  genera,  50 ;  spe- 
cies, 3S0. 


Sapindns,  the  soap  tree;  trees 
or  shrubs,  with  equally  pinnate  leaves, 
and  panicles  of  white  or  greenish  flow- 
ers. The  acrid  fruits  placed  in  water, 
form  a  lather  used  in  lieu  of  soap 
in  the  West  Indies.  If  pounded  and 
thrown  into  water  they  intoxicate  fish. 

Sappliire,  a  gem  excelled  in  value 
by  no  precious  stone  except  the  dia- 
mond, and  regarded  as  a  variety  of 
corundum,  highly  transparent  and 
brilliant.  It  is  sometimes  colorless  or 
nearly  so.  It  more  frequently  exhib- 
its exquisite  color,  generally  a  bright 
red  (i.  e.,  the  ruby)  or  a  beautiful 
blue  —  the  latter  being  that  common- 
ly called  sapphire.  Purplish  or  green- 
ish color  indicates  a  flaw ;  and  usual 
defects  are  clouds,  milky  spots,  flakes, 
or  stripes.  It  is  found  crystallized, 
usually  in  six-sided  prisms,  terminat- 
ed by  six-sided  pyramids;  it  is  some- 
times found  imbedded  in  gneiss,  but 
more  frequently  occurs  in  alluvial 
soils.  It  occurs  in  Bohemia  and  Sax- 
ony, but  European  sapphires  are  of  no 
commercial  importance.  The  finest  are 
found  in  Ceylon;  Kashmir  and  Bur- 
ma also  produce  fine  specimens ;  and 
sapphires  are  found  in  Victoria,  New 
South  Wales,  and  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  value  depends  on  qual- 
ity more  than  on  size,  and  does  not  in- 
crease with  the  size  as  does  that  of 
the  ruby. 

Sappho,  a  renowned  Greek  lyric 
poet;  born  in  the  island  of  Lesbos 
about  612  B.  c.  She  wrote  nine  books 
of  poems,  but  besides  some  small  frag- 
ments of  her  poems  we  have  in  com- 
plete form  only  a  "  Hymn  to  Aphro- 
dite "  and  an  "  Ode  to  a  Beautiful 
Girl."  She  was  called  "The  Tenth 
Muse."  She  leaped  to  death  from  the 
Leucadian  rock,  owing  to  her  unre- 
quited love  for  Phaon. 

Saprophytic  Plants,  plants  that 
feed  on  decaying  organic  matter.  Sap- 
rophytes may  obtain  their  nourish- 
ment and  especially  their  carbon  com- 
pounds either  from  the  remains  of 
dead  organisms  or  from  organic  com- 
pounds formed  by  living  organisms. 
The  Fungi  that  live  on  the  bark  of 
trees  and  the  leafsoil  of  forests  and 
meadows  (e.  g.,  mushrooms)  are  ex- 
amples of  the  former  case ;  those  that 
feed  on  the  juice  of  fruits  and  sugary 
solutions  (e.  g.,  molds  and  yeasts? 
o£  the  latter  case.    Examples  of  eapro* 


Sapsnclcev 

phytes  are  found  in  the  Phanerogams, 
the  Fungi,  and  the  Bacteria. 

SapsTLcker,  the  popular  American 
came  of  several  small  woodpeckers. 

Sapucaia  Nuts,  the  seed  of  Lecy- 
this  ollaria  and  L.  zabucajo  trees, 
plentiful  in  the  forests  of  the  N.  of 
Brazil.  The  fruit  is  urn-shaped,  as 
large  as  a  child's  head,  and  opens  by 
a  lid  which  falls  off.  Each  fruit  con- 
tains a  number  of  seeds  or  nuts,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  allied  Brazil  nut; 
but  the  flavor  is  finer  i  form,  oval ; 
Bomewhat  pointed  at  both  ends,  and 
Blishtly  bent  in  opposite  directions. 

Sarabat.     See  Pactolus. 

Saracen,  an  Arabian  or  other  Mus- 
sulman of  the  early  and  proselytizing 
period;  a  propagator  of  Mohammed- 
anism in  countries  lying  to  the  W. 
of  Arabia.  By  mediaeval  writers  the 
term  was  variously  employed  to  desig- 
nate the  Arabs  generally,  the  Moham- 
medans of  Syria  and  Palestine,  or  the 
Arab  Berber  races  of  Northern  Africa. 
At  a  later  time  it  was  also  applied  to 
any  infidel  nation  against  which  cru- 
sades were  preached,  such  as  the 
Turks. 

Saracenic  ArcMtecinre,  the 
style  adopted  by  the  followers  of  Ma- 
homet in  building  their  mosques,  pal- 
aces, and  tombs.  Originally  the 
Arabs  possessed  no  distinctive  archi- 
tectural style,  and  the  style  which 
they  at  length  made  their  own  was  de- 
veloped by  architects  belonging  to  the 
countries  which  they  had  conquered. 
This  style  is  chiefly  represented  in 
Egypt,  Persia,  Spain,  Turkey,  and 
India,  but  the  Saracenic  architecture 
of  Spain  is  generally  called  by  the 
distinctive  name  of  Moorish,  The 
most  prominent  features  of  the  style 
are  the  dome,  the  minaret,  and  the 
pointed  arch.  In  Egypt  the  Saracenic 
art  began  with  the  mosque  which 
Amru  erected  at  Old  Cairo  in  the 
21st  year  of  the  Ilegira  (a.  d.  642). 
Subsequently  repaired  and  altered,  it 
inay  now  be  considered  as  a  good  spe- 
cimen of  Moslem  architectural  art 
when  freed  from  Christian  influence. 
But  the  perfected  Saracenic  ai^t  dates 
from  the  building  of  a  mos^'ie  at 
Cairo  by   Ibn  Tooloon   in  A.  D.   87(5. 

Saragossa,  or  Zaragoza,  a  city  of 
Spain,  in  Aragon,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  about  200  miles 
by  rail  N.  E.  of  Madrid,  in  a  fertile 


Sa  .'atogst 

plain  irrigated  by  the  Ebro.  The 
principal  edifices  are  the  two  cathe- 
drals. La  Seo  and  El  Pilar.  The  form- 
er is  the  metropolitan  archiepiscopal 
church,  and  is  mainly  Gothic  in  style, 
dating  from  the  12th  century;  the 
latter  is  a  huge  unattractive  building 
begun  in  1077.  Other  buildings  are 
the  vast  archiepiscopal  palace,  the 
Torre  Nueva,  the  old  irregular  citadel 
called  the  Aljaferia,  built  by  the  Moors, 
town-house,  hospitals,  exchange,  muse- 
um, etc.  There  is  a  university  of 
three  faculties  and  about  800  students. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  silk,  wool- 
en cloth,  leather,  soap,  hats,  etc.  Pop, 
98,128. 

Saratoff,  a  city  of  Russia,  on  the 
Volga;  500  miles  S.  E.  of  Moscow. 
It  is  a  city  of  broad  streets  and  fine 
squares,  and  stands  on  terraces  ris- 
ing from  the  river.  There  are  nearly 
39  churches;  a  handsome  new  cathe- 
dral (1825),  an  old  cathedral  (1697), 
and  Radistcheff's  Museum,  sheltering 
a  fine  art  gallery  and  a  library. 
Manufactures  of  brandy,  liquors,  flour, 
oil,  and  tobacco  ate  carried  on.  Fish- 
ing is  prosecuted  in  the  river,  and 
market  gardening  (especially  fruit 
and  the  sunflower)  in  the  vicinity. 
There  is  an  important  trade  in  com, 
salt,  iron,  wooden  wares,  textiles,  and 
groceries.  The  city  was  pillaged  by 
Pugatcheff  in  1774  and  suffered  se- 
verelv  from  fire  several  times  during 
the  i9th  century.     Pop.  137,109. 

Saratoga,  Battles  of,  in  the  Rev- 
olutionary War,  two  battles  fought  12 
miles  E.  of  Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y. 
Burgoyne  led  the  British  in  the  first, 
while  the  Americans  were  under  com- 
mand of  Gates,  who  bad  Morgan  and 
Arnold  as  subordinates.  The  fight  on 
Sept.  19,  1777,  was  indecisive.  On 
Oct.  7,  1777,  the  Americans  achieved 
a  splendid  victory  over  the  British, 
the  commanders  of  both  armies  being^ 
tlie  same  as  in  the  first  engagement 
The  result  was  the  surrender  of  Bur- 
goyne and  his  army,  numbering  5,752 
men,  to  the  Americans,  Oct.  17,  1777. 
These  contests  are  sometimes  called  in 
history  the  battles  of  Stillwater  and 
Bemis'  Heights.  The  American  vic- 
tory came  at  a  critical  period  of  the 
Revolution.  It  frustrated  the  British 
plan  for  cutting  off  New  England  from 
the  other  states,  enlisted  the  help  pS 
France,  altered  the  policy  of  Parliai- 


Saratoga  Springs 


Sardine 


ment  and  the  King  and  saved  the 
cause  of  the  patriots.  Creasy  enu- 
merates it  in  his  "  Fifteen  Decisive 
Battles  of  the  World," 

Saratoga  Springs,  a  village  in 
Saratoga  co.,  N.  Y.,  38  miles  N.  of 
Albany.  Besides  being  one  of  the 
most  fashionable  summer  resorts  in 
the  world,  Saratoga  is  visited  by 
many  persons  for  its  medicinal  ad- 
vantages. Here  are  about  30  mineral 
Bprings.  some  of  which  are  of  great 
celebrity.  In  1909  the  Legislature 
took  steps  to  convert  the  entire  min- 
eral tract  into  a  State  reservation. 
Top.  (1910)  12,693. 

Saranvak,  a  State  -of  Borneo,  ex- 
tending from  Cape  Datoo  on  the  W. 
to   the    Samarahan    river   on    the    E. 


Sarcopbagns,  plural  Sarcophagi, 

a  kind  of  stone  used  among  the  Greeks 
for  making  coffins,  and  so  called  be- 
cause it  was  believed  to  have  the  prop- 
erty of  consuming  the  flesh  of  dead 
bodies  deposited  in  it  within  a  few 
weeks. 

Hence  a  coffin  or  tomb  of  stone;  a 
kind  of  stone  chest  used  for  contain- 
ing a  dead  body.  In  modern  times 
stone  coffins  are  occasionally  used  for 
royal  or  distinguished  persons. 

Sardanapalns,  the  name  of  several 
Princes  of  Assyria,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  whom  was  the  last  sover- 
eign of  the  first  Assyrian  empire.  His 
reign  dates  from  836  to  817  B.  c, 
when  he  was  dethroned  by  Arbaces 
and  Belesis,  at  the  head  of  a  revolt 


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SARCOPHAGUS  OF   SCIPIO. 


Area  about  50,000  square  miles.  Coast 
line  about  400  miles.  The  aboriginal 
inhabitants,  called  Dyaks,  consist  of 
various  wild  tribes  who  in  1844  took 
for  their  sovereign  an  Englishman, 
Sir  James  Brooke,  through  whom  the 
country  is  chiefly  known.  Pop.  500,- 
000.    Capital,  Kuching. 

In  1902  the  Rajah  of  Sarawak 
Bent  an  expedition  of  about  ten  thou- 
Band  men  to  punish  the  Dyaks  of  the 
interior  for  hostile  incursions  into 
his  dominions.  The  expedition  pro- 
ceeded in  boats,  but  before  it  had  gone 
far  a  frightful  plague  spread  among 
the  men,  destroying  almost  nine  thou- 
sand of  tbem. 

E.  133. 


of  the  Medes,  Persians,  and  Babylon- 
ians. In  the  last  extremity,  Sardana- 
palus,  who  had  withstood  a  siege  for 
three  years  in  Nineveh,  placed  him- 
self, his  treasures,  his  wives,  and  his 
eunuchs  on  a  funeral  pile,  which  he 
fired  with  his  own  hand.  He  had 
ceased  to  exist  when  the  city  was 
taken,  and  that  event  was  followed 
by  the  dismemberment  of  the  Assyr- 
ian empire.  The  above  date  is  only 
an  approximation  to  the  true  one,  as 
authorities  vary. 

Sardine,  a  name  applied  to  several 
kinds  of  small  fish,  the  true  Mediter- 
ranean sardine.  The  usliing  season 
begins  early  in  June,  and  is  now  sue 


Sardinia 

cessful  in  places  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  and  on  Paget  Sound.  In  the 
United  States  an  extensive  industry  is 
carried  on,  especially  on  the  New  En- 
gland coast,  in  the  way  of  preserving 
small  fish  such  as  smelts,  which  are 
sold  under  the  name  of  sardines. 

Sardinia,  an  island  of  Italy,  after 
Sicily  the  largest  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean ;  135  miles  W.  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Tiber,  and  immediately  S.  of  Cor- 
sica, being  separated  from  it  by  the 
Strait  of  Bonifacio,  7%  miles  wide; 
area,  9,206  square  miles. 

Sardinia  is  in  nearly  all  respects  a 
backward  island.  It  has  fine  natural 
resources  —  fertile  soil,  valuable  mines, 
extensive  forests,  rich  fisheries,  and 
excellent  facilities  for  manufacturing 
industry.  But  owing  to  the  old-fash- 
ioned conservatism  of  the  people,  their 
apathy,  their  primitive  methods  of 
agriculture,  lack  of  enterprise  and 
capital,  and  want  of  means  of  com- 
munication and  long  years  of  negli- 
gent, if  not  ineflacient  government,  its 
resources  are  by  no  means  developed 
to  the  extent  they  could  be;  many 
lucrative  industries  are  in  the  hands 
of  foreigners,  others  are  neglected  by 
the  Sardes,  and  those  that  they,  do 
carry  on  are  often  carried  on  in  a 
half-hearted  manner  and  with  obso- 
lete methods.  Of  the  total  area  about 
one-third  is  arable  land,  one-third  pas- 
ture, and  nearly  one-third  (28  per 
cent.)  forest.  The  first  place  among 
the  natural  resources  is  taken  by  the 
agricultural  products.  The  principal 
produce  is  wheat,  barley,  beans,  pota- 
toes, wine  (21,500,000  gallons  per 
annum),  olive  oil  (1,500,000  gallons), 
oranges,  lemons,  tobacco,  flax  and 
hemp,  cheese,  butter,  and  wool.  The 
breeding  of  horses  is  an  important  in- 
dustry; and  large  numbers  of  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  and  goats  are  kept.  The 
growing  of  fruits  and  the  breeding 
of  the  domestic  animals  are  both  care- 
fully attended  to,  and  the  products  of 
both  industries  are  improving;  but 
the  only  improvement  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  soil  is  the  drainage  of 
the  marshes  by  the  government  and 
private  individuals. 

Besides  being  in  ancient  times  the 
granary  of  Rome,  Sardinia  was  re- 
nowned for  its  mineral  wealth.  Iron, 
copper,  lead,  zinc,  antimony,  manga- 
uesei  and  lignite  exist.   Granite,  mar- 


Sargent 

ble,  and  clay  for  pottery  are  quarried. 
Salt  is  manufactured  from  sea  water, 
chiefly  by  convicts  of  Oagliari.'  The 
mines  are  mostly  situated  in  the  S. 
W.  in  the  neighborhood  of  Iglesias. 
The  center  and  N.  of  the  island  are 
chiefly  covered  with  forests,  though 
they  are  being  all  too  rapidly  dimin- 
ished. The  commonest  as  well  as  the 
most  valuable  trees  are  the  oak,  ilex, 
cork,  and  wild  olive,  which  yield  tim- 
ber, cork  bark  for  tanning,  acorns,  and 
charcoal  to  the  annual  value  of  close 
on  $1,500,000.  It  forms  a  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Sardinia. 

Sardis,  the  capital  of  ancient  Lydia 
in  Asia  Minor;  stood  at  the  N.  foot 
of  Mount  Tmolus  (5,906  feet),  2^^ 
miles  S.  of  Hermus.  Through  its  mar- 
ket place  flowed  the  Pactolus  (q.  v.), 
and  it  was  the  luxurious  capital  of 
Croesus.  As  Byzantium  rose  to  impor- 
tance,   Sardis   gradually   declined. 

Sardou,  Victorien,  a  French 
dramatist;  boru  in  Paris,  Sept.  7, 
3831;  elected  to  the  Academy  in  1877; 
chief  works:  "  Piccolino,"  "Our  In- 
timates," "  Don  Quixote,"  "  Daniel 
Rochat,"  "Fedora,"  "Uncle  Sam," 
"  La  Tosca,"  "  Cleopatra,"  "  Ther- 
midor,"  "Madame  Sans-Gene."  "Mar- 
celle,"  and  "  Pamela."  He  died 
Nov.  8,  1908. 

Sargasso  Sea,  a  North  Atlantic 
seaweed  prairie,  S.  W.  of  the  Azores, 
and  N.  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  first 
mentioned  by  Columbus  who  entered 
it  in  lat.  26°  N.,  long.  48°  W.,  and' 
emerged  from  it  in  long.  66°.  It  con- 
sists of  vast  floating  masses  of  sar- 
gassum  or  gulfweed,  one  of  the  broM'n 
Algae,  which  torn  from  the  coasts 
and  carried  out  to  sea.  have  grownf 
and   formed  a  large   floating   area. 

Sargent,  Aaron  A.,  an  American 
diplomatist;  born  in  Newburyport, 
Mass.,  Sept.  28,  1827.  He  became  dis- 
trict attorney  of  Nevada  in  1856;  wa3r 
vice-president  of  the  Republican  Na-- 
tional  Convention  in  1860;  served  sev- 
eral terms  in  Congress;  was  for  six 
years  a  member  of  the  United  States 
Senate;  and  in  1882  was  appointed 
United  States  minister  to  Germany  by 
President  Garfield.  He  died  in  San[ 
Francisco,  Cal.,  Aug.  14,  1887.  | 

Sargent,  CJiarles  Spragne,  ail\ 
American  arboriculturist ;  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  April  24,  1841.  He  was 
director  of  the  Botanic  Garden  and 


Sargent 


Sarpi 


Arboretum  (1872-1878),  and  Profes- 
sor of  Arboriculture  at  Harvard  after 
1878.  He  wrote  many  authoritative 
reports  and  books. 

Sargent,  Epes,  an  American  an- 
chor ;  born  in  Gloucester,  Mass.,  Sept. 
27,  1813.  His  works  include  a  "  Life 
of  Henry  Clay."  "  Songs  of  the  Sea," 
and  "  A  Life  on  the  Ocean  Wave " 
are  the  most  popular  of  his  verses.  His 
"  Cyclopaedia  of  English  and  Ameri- 
can Poetry  "  was  published  in  1883. 
He  died  in  Boston,  Dec.  31,  1880. 

Sargent,  Herbert  Ho^v^land,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in 
Carlinville,  111.,  Sept.  29,  1858;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1883  and  assigned 
to  frontier  duty.  At  the  breaking  out 
of  the  Spanish-American  War  in  1898, 
be  was  first  engaged  in  organizing 
volunteer  troops,  but  was  early  sent 
to  Santiago,  Cuba;  thence  to  Guan- 
tatiamo  in  1899;  and  back  again  to 
the  United  States  in  May  of  that  year. 
In  July,  1899,  he  was  ordered  to 
Luzon,  where  he  participated  in  sev- 
eral engagements  with  the  insurgents, 
and  commanded  the  attacking  forces 
at  the  battle  of  San  Mateo.  In  June, 
1900,  he  was  appointed  judge  advo- 
cate of  the  department  of  S.  Luzon. 

Sargent,  James,  an  American  in- 
ventor; born  in  Chester,  Yt.,  Dec.  5, 
1824;  became  a  partner  in  the  Yale 
&  Greenleaf  Lock  Co.,  in  1857;  pat- 
ented and  began  the  manufacture  of 
a  burglar-proof  lock  in  Rochester,  N. 
Y.,  in  1865,  and  subsequently  invent- 
ed and  placed  on  the  market  many 
varieties  of  locks.  He  invented  the 
glass  enameled  steel  tanks  and  vacuum 
pumps  used  by  the  Pfaudler  Vacuum 
Fermentation  Co. ;  the  automatic 
semaphore  railroad  signals,  and  in 
1873  patented  the  time  locks  which 
bear  his  name. 

Sargent,  Jolm  Osborne,  an 
American  lawyer;  born  in  Gloucester, 
Mass.,  Sept.  20,  1811;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  University  in  1830.  Later 
with  Alexander  C.  Bullitt  he  founded 
the  "  Republic,"  in  which  he  opposed 
both  the  Secession  and  Abolition  par- 
ties. In  1861-1873  he  lived  abroad, 
but  during  the  latter  year  returned 
to  New  York  city.  His  publications 
include  "  Lectures  on  the  Late  Im- 
provements in  Steam  Navigation  and 
Arts  of  Naval  Warfare,"  etc. 


Sargent,  John  Singer,  an  Amer- 
ican artist;  born  in  Florence,  Italy, 
in  1856;  took  a  medal  of  honor  at  the 
Paris  Exposition  in  1889 ;  and  was 
elected  an  academician  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  England,  in  1891,  and  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Design  in 
New  York  in  1897.  His  works  include 
figure  pieces,  rnd  numerous  sketches, 
ideal  figures,  etc.  He  died  April  13, 
1900. 

Sarmatians,  a  people  of  supposed 
Asiatic  race,  who  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans  occupied  the  vast  region  be- 
tween the  Black,  Baltic,  and  Caspian 
Seas.  They  were  a  nomadic  race, 
whose  women  went  to  war  like  the 
men,  and  they  were  said  by  tradition 
to  be  descended  from  the  Amazons 
by  Scythian  fathers.  Sarmatia  co- 
incided in  part  with  Scythia,  but 
whether  the  people  were  of  the  same 
race  is  doubtful. 

Sarmiento,  Domingo  Fanstino 
a  South  American  diplomat;  born  in 
San  Juan,  Argentina,  Feb.  15.  1811. 
He  was  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion in  1860,  Minister  of  the  Interior 
in  1861,  and  while  minister  to  the 
United  States  was  elected  president 
of  the  republic  (1868).  During  1845- 
1847  he  visited  Europe  and  the 
United  States  to  study  the  system  of 
primary  schools.     Died  in  1888. 

Sarnia,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Lambton  county,  Ontario, 
Canada;  on  the  St.  Clair  river  and 
the  Grand  Trunk  and  other  railroads; 
opposite  Port  Huron,  Mich.;  is  the  E. 
terminus  of  the  St.  Clair  tunnel;  is 
in  a  grain-growing  section;  and  has  a 
large  oil  refinery  and  manufactories 
of  lumber,  leather  goods,  farm  im- 
plements, stoves,  and  carriages  and 
wagons. 

Sarpi,  Pietro  (surnamed  Servita), 
better  known  by  his  monastic  appel- 
lation, Fra  Paolo;  an  Italian  histo- 
rian; born  in  Venice,  Aug.  14,  1552. 
embraced  the  monastic  life,  and  took 
the  vows  in  the  religious  order  of  the 
Servites  in  1565.  Five  years  later  the 
Duke  of  .Mantua  made  him  his  court 
theologian;  but  he  was  soon  after 
summoned  to  be  Professor  of  Philos- 
ophy in  the  Servite  monastery  at  Ven- 
ice, and  there  he  remained  all  the  rest 
of  his  life.  In  the  dispute  between 
the  republic  of  Venice  and  Paul  V. 
on  the  subject  of  clerical  immunities 


Sarsia 

Sarpi  stepped  forward  as  the  valiant 
champion  of  the  republic  and  of  free- 
dom of  thought.  On  the  repeal  (1607) 
of  the  edict  of  excommunication 
Ikunched  against  Venice,  Sarpi  was 
summoned  to  Rome  to  account  for  his 
conduct.  He  refused  to  obey,  and 
was  excommunicated  as  contumacious ; 
and  an  attempt  was  made  on  his  life 
by  a  band  of  assassins.  He  after- 
ward confined  himself  within  his  mon- 
astery, where  he  wrote  "  History  of 
the  Council  of  Trent,"  a  "  History  of 
the  Interdict,"  and  other  works. 

Sarsia,  a  genus  of  coelenterate  ani- 
mals, so  named  after  the  Norwegian 
naturalist,  Sars ;  born  in  1805 ;  died 
in  18G9.  They  belong  to  the  Medusidae 
or  jelly-fishes,  and  perhaps  are  more 
properly  regarded  as  the  floatirg  re- 
productive buds  or  gonophores  of  fixed 
zoophytes. 

Sartain,  Jolin,  an  American  art- 
ist; born  in  London,  England,  Oct. 
24,  1808;  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1830,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to 
introduce  mezzotint  engraving.  _He 
held  various  offices  in  the  Artist's 
Fund  Society,  the  School  of  Design 
for  Women,  and  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy ;  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Society  Artis  et  Amicitise  in  Am- 
sterdam, Holland,  in  1862,  and  in 
1876  had  charge  of  the  art  department 
at  the  Philadelphia  Centennial  Expo- 
sition. He  was  the  author  of  a  large 
number  of  engravings  for  book  illus- 
tration, and  engraved  many  historical 
paintings;  designed  the  monument  to 
Washington  and  Lafayette  in  Monu- 
ment Cemetery,  Philadelphia;  and 
published  interesting  personal  reminis- 
cences. He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Oct.  25,  1897. 

Sarti,  Giuseppe,  an  Italian  mu- 
sical composer ;  born  in  Faenza,  Italy, 
Dec.  1,  1729.  The  success  of  two 
operas,  "  Pompey  in  Armenia "  and 
"The  Shepherd  King"  brought  him 
a  royal  invitation  to  Copenhagen  in 
1753 ;  and  there  he  remained  till  1775. 
After  his  return  to  Italy  he*  was  suc- 
cessively director  of  the  conservatory 
at  Venice,  and  chapel  master  of  Milan 
cathedral.  During  this  period  he  com- 
posed some  of  his  most  successful 
operas.  In  1784  Catharine  II.  in- 
vited him  to  St.  Peteirburg.  He  died 
in  Berlin,  July  28,  1802. 


Saskatcheivan 

Sarto,    Andrea    del,    one    of    the 

most  distinguished  painters  of  the  16th 
century ;  born  near  Florence,  Itgily, 
July  16,  1487.  He  is  best  known  in 
galleries  by  his  "  Holy  Families."  He 
was  highly  distinguished  for  his  ex- 
cellence in  fresco,  and  it  was  in  this 
form  of  art  that  his  naturalness  of 
design,  fineness  of  color,  and  careful 
execution  became  most  apparent.  He 
died  of  the  plague  in  Florence,  Jan. 
22,  1531. 

Sasin,  the  common  Indian  antelope, 
female  destitute  of  horns,  those  of  the 
male  spiral,  wrinkled  at  the  base,  an- 
nulated  in  the  middle  and  smooth  at 
the  tip;  head  small,  body  light,  legs 
Jong  and  slender ;  adult  males  dark 
above,  white  beneath,  the  nose,  lips, 
and  a  gircle  round  each  eye  white ; 
small  brushes  of  hair  on  the  knees; 
females  and  young  males  under  three 
years  old  tawny  above,  white  beneath, 
with  a  light  silvery  band  along  the 
sides.  It  is  common  in  India,  where 
it  herds  in  groups,  one  male  to  many 
females,  with  vigilant  sentinels.  Their 
flesh  being  lightly  esteemed,  they  are 
not  much  hunted. 

Saskatchewan,  a  province  of  Can- 
ada, admitted  Sept.  1,  1905;  formed 
from  the  former  Northwest  Terri- 
torial districts  of  Saskatchewan,  As- 
siniboia,  and  the  eastern  half  of  Atha- 
basca; area  about  225,000  sq.  m.; 
pop.  (1910)  377,590;  capital  Regina; 
uamed  from  the  Saskatchewan  River, 
navigable  throughout  the  province  and 
by  Lake  Winnipeg,  giving  communica- 
tion with  the  South.  The  river  also 
provides  irrigating  facilities  for  the 
rolling  prairies  which  slope  to  the  east 
interspersed  with  occasional  hills. 
The  sources  of  the  Churchill  and 
Nelson  rivers  flowing  to  Hudson  Bay, 
are  also  in  the  province.  Pine  and 
other  forests  cover  the  northeast. 
The  soil  is  rich,  and  farming  and 
ranching  are  profitably  carried  on. 
The  advantages  offered  by  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railroad  are  creating  a 
steady  stream  of  immigrants  and  set- 
tlers. The  Dominion  Govt,  controls 
the  public  lands,  paying  an  annual  al- 
lowance to  the  Provincial  Govt,  repre- 
sented by  a  Lieut.-Gov.  and  responsible 
ministry.  The  Province  is  represented 
in  the  Dominion  Senate  by  four  mem- 
bers. 


Sassafras 


Saturn 


Sassafras,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
plants.  One  kind  is  a  large  tree  with 
yellowish  flowers,  growing  in  the 
United  States. 

Sassanidse,  a  Persian  dynasty  of 
kings,  which  succeeded  the  Parthian 
dynasty  of  the  Arsacidae,  and  reigned 
from  226  B.  C.  to  about  A.  D.  636.  The 
dynasty  began  with  Ardishir  Babigan, 
and  owes  its  name  to  the  grandfather 
of  that  prince,  named  Sassan. 

Satellite,  a  subordinate  attendant ; 
an  obsequious  or  subservient  follower. 
Hence,  in  astronomy,  a  secondary 
planet  revolving  around  a  primary  one. 
The  moon  is  satellite  to  the  earth. 
With  it  there  are  21  satellites  in  the 
solar  system.  Mars  has  two,  Jupiter 
five,  Saturn  eight,  Uranus  four,  and 
Neptune  one. 

Satin,  a  silken  fabric  with  an  over- 
shot woof  and  a  highly  flnisbed  sur- 
face.    The  woof  is  coarse,  and  hidden 


anderneath  the  warp,  which  forms 
the  surface.  The  warp  is  of  organ- 
eine,  the  weft  of  tram.  In  a  full  satin 
twill  there  is  an  interval  of  15  threads. 

Satin  Bird,  a  kind  of  Australian 
bower  bird.  The  adult  male  is  con- 
spicuous for  the  satin  texture  of  its 
glossy  black  plumage. 

Satin  Spar,  in  mineralogy,  a  finely 
fibrous  variety  of  gypsum,  with  a 
pearly  luster  when  polished ;  also  a 
fibrous  variety  of  aragonite,  giving  a 
satin  like  aspect  when  polished ;  dis- 
tinguished from  the  gypseous  mineral 
by  its  greater  hardness  and  its  effer- 
vescence with  acids. 

Satin  Wood,  an  ornamental  cab- 
inetwood  from  the  West  and  East  In- 
dies. 


Satire,  keenness  and  severity  of  re- 
mark; sarcasm;  trenchant  wit;  biting 
ridicule ;  incisive  humor ;  pungent 
irony ;  denunciation  and  exposure  to 
derision  or  reprobation.  In  literature, 
the  representation  of  follies  or  vices 
in  a  ridiculous  form,  either  in  dis- 
course or  dramatic  action.  Though  the 
name  satire  is  usually  confined  to  po- 
etical compositions,  prose  works  of  a 
satirical  character  are  frequently  in- 
cluded under  the  same  head.  Modern 
nations  have  not  generally  furnished 
many  distinguished  satirists.  Among 
the  French  are  Rabelais,  Montaigne, 
and  Voltaire ;  masters  of  satiric  Eng- 
lish iciude  Pope,  Swift,  Fielding,  By- 
ron, Gifford,  Thackeray,  and  Lowell. 

Satterlee,  Henry  Yates,  an  Amer- 
ican clergyman ;  born  in  New  York 
city,  Jan.  11,  1843 ;  was  graduated 
at  Columbia  University  in  1863  and 
was  ordained  in  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  in  1867.  In  1896  he 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Washing- 
ton.    He  died  Feb.  22.  1908. 

Satterlee,  Herbert  Iiivingston, 
an  American  lawyer ;  born  in  New 
York  city,  Oct.  31,  1863 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Columbia  University  in  1883 
and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1885. 
He  served*  as  William  M.  Evart's  pri- 
vate secretary  in  1886-1887 ;  and  was 
lieutenant  U.  S.  N.  and  chief  of  Capt. 
J.  R.  Bartlett's  staff  during  the  Span- 
ish-American War.  He  was  for  sev- 
eral years  president  of  the  Naval  Re- 
serve Association,  and  early  became  a 
member  of  the  American  Social  Sci- 
ence Association.  His  publications  in- 
clude "  Political  History  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  New  York,"  etc. 

Saturday,  for  Saturn,  and  daeg,  a 
day  —  the  day  presided  over  by  the 
planet  Saturn,  the  seventh  or  last  day 
of  the  week;  the  day  of  the  Jewish 
Sabbath. 

Satnm,  in  mythology,  the  youngest 
son  of  Ccelus  (Uranus)  and  Gaia,  the 
goddess  of  the  earth.  Being  banished 
by  Jupiter  from  heaven,  he  fled  to 
Latium,  and  was  received  by  Janus, 
King  of  Italy,  who  made  him  his  part- 
ner on  the  throne.  Saturn  occupied 
himself  in  softening  the  barbarous 
manners  of  the  people  of  Italy,  and  in 
teaching  them  agriculture  and  the  use- 
ful and  liberal  arts.  His  reign  there 
was  so  mild  and  beneficent  that  man- 
kind have  called   it  the  Golden  Age. 


Saturn 

to  intimate  the  happiness  and  tran- 
quillity which  the  earth  then  enjoyed. 
He  is  generally  represented  as  an  old 
man  bent  through  age  and  infirmity, 
holding  a  scythe  in  his  right  hand. 
His  temple  was  the  State  treasury. 

Saturn,  in  astronomy,  the  6th  of 
the  major  planets  in  order  of  dis- 
tance from  the  sun,  and  the  outermost 
known  to  the  ancients.  Its  mean  di- 
ameter is  about  70,000  miles,  its  mean 
distance  from  the  sun  somewhat  more 
than  872,000,000  miles,  and  its  year 
or    periodical    revolution    around    the 


SATURN,   THE  PLANET. 

sun  nearly  twenty-nine  and  one-half 
years.  Its  mass  is  about  90  times 
that  of  the  earth.  Saturn  is  attend- 
ed by  ten  satellites,  and  surrounded 
by  a  system  of  flat  rings,  which  are 
now  supposed  to  be  an  immense  multi- 
tude of  small  satellites  mixed  prob- 
ably with  vaporous  matter. 

Saturnalia,  the  feast  in  honor  of 
Saturn,  celebrated  by  the  Romans  in 
December,  and  regarded  as  a  time  of 
unrestrained  license  and  merriment  for 
all  classes,  even  for  the  slaves.  Hence, 
any  time  of  noisy  license  and  revelry ; 
unrestrained,  licentious   revelry. 

Satyr,  in  mythology,  one  of  a  num- 
ber of  rural  deities  of  Greece,  identical 
with  the  Fauni  of  the  Latins.  They 
are  regarded  as  the  attendants  of 
Bacchus,  and  are  represented  as 
roaming  through  the  woods,  dwelling 
In  caves,  and  endeavoring  to  gain  the 
love  of  the  Nymphs.  They  are  usually 
represented  with  the  feet  and  legs 
of  goats,  short  horns  on  the  head,  and 
the  body  covered  with  thick  hair. 


Sanndera 

Saner  Krant,  a  well-known  and 
favorite  German  dish,  consisting  of 
cabbage  cut  fine,  pressed  into  a  cask, 
with  alternate  layers  of  salt,  and  suf- 
fered to  ferment  until  it  becomes  sour. 

Saul,  King  of  Israel  from  about 
1095  to  1056  B.  c;  the  son  of  Kish, 
a  Benjamite.  Selected  for  this  office 
by  Samuei,  he  obtained,  by  his  per- 
sonal courage  and  military  capacity, 
several  successes  over  the  Philistines, 
Edomites,  Moabites,  and  Ammonites, 
by  means  of  which  he  consolidated 
the  tribes  and  confirmed  his  author- 
ity. After  a  long  reign  the  wild  na- 
ture of  the  king  at  length  showed 
itself  in  a  kind  of  religioi*  frenzy, 
which  is  briefly  described  in  the  Bible 
as  an  "  evil  spirit  of  God,"  and  led 
him  to  the  massacre  of  the  priests  of 
Nob  and  various  similar  excesses. 
Meanwhile  the  prophet  Samuel,  es- 
tranged by  the  king's  misdeeds,  had 
anointed  David  as  his  successor,  and 
this  took  effect  when  Saul  was  slain. 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  city,  port  of 
entry,  and  capital  of  Chippewa 
county,  Mich.;  on  St.  Mary's  river, 
the  St.  Mary's  Falls  ship-canal,  and 
several  railroads;  near  the  E.  end  of 
Lake  Superior;  opposite  Canadian 
city  of  same  name,  both  cities  being 
connected  by  canals  and  a  railroad 
bridge;  his  unlimited  water-power, 
large  export  trade  in  lumber,  grain, 
fish,  and  farm  produce,  and  manu- 
factories of  lumber,  leather,  woolen 
goods,  flour,  shingles,  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds;  and  remarkable  canal-locks. 
Pop.  (1910)  12,615. 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  a  town  in  Al- 
goma  county,  Ontario,  Canada;  on 
St.  Mary's  river  and  the  Canadian 
Pacific  and  other  railways;  opposite 
American  city  of  same  name;  is  the 
terminus  of  a  Canadian  ship-canal; 
has  iron  and  copper  mines  nearby; 
manufactures  steel  rails,  nickel  ware, 
chemicals,  and  paper  and  puIi);  and 
is  a  popular  summer  resort. 

Saunders,  Frederick,  an  Ameri« 
can  librarian;  born  in  London,  En- 
gland, Aug.  14,  1807.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1837  and  was 
librarian  of  the  Astor  Library,  New 
York,  1859-1896.  He  is  the  author  of 
numerous  works.    Died  1902. 

Saunders,  Richard,  the  name  un« 
der  which  Benjamin  Franklin  pub* 
lished  bis  almanac,  1732-1757. 


LOCK,    SAULT    STE.    MARIE 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    LOCK 

SAULT  STE.  MARIE  CANAJ. 


Sauria 


Savage  Island 


Sauria,  or  Saurians,  an  order  of 

reptiles,  includiug  all  those  which,  like 
the  crocodile  and  lizard,  are  covered 
with  scales  and  have  four  legs.  The 
most  gigantic  and  remarkable  speci- 
mens of  saurian  reptiles  are  now  ex- 
tinct, but  their  fossil  remains,  im- 
mense in  size  and  wonderful  as  they 
appear,  afford  incontestable  evidence 
of  their  similarity  in  structure  to  the 
harmless  little  lizard  of  the  present 
day.  The  diversity  in  the  habits  of 
the  existing  saurians  is  very  consid- 
erable—  some  being  more  or  less 
aquatic,  others  strictly  terrestrial, 
while  others  are  essentially  arboreal. 
The  greater  part  feed  on  animal  sub- 
stances ;  some  of  them  preferring  fish, 
and  others  attacking  small  animals, 
while  some  are  entirely  insectivorous, 
and  a  few  are  herbivorous.  They  are 
all  furnished  with  teeth,  which  are 
of  a  simple  conical  form,  and  adapted 
rather  for  securing  and  tearing  their 
prey  than  for  masticating  it ;  their 
toes  are  generally  furnished  with 
claws,  and  they  all  have  a  tail  more 
or  less  strong,  and  generally  very 
thick  at  the  base.  A  few  species,  ex- 
ceptions to  the  general  character,  have 
only  two  legs. 

Sansage,  an  article  of  food,  eon- 
eisting  of  chopped  or  minced  meat,  as 
pork,  beef,  or  veal,  seasoned  with  sage, 
pepper,  salt,  etc.,  and  stuffed  into 
properly  cleaned  entrails  of  the  ox, 
sheep,  or  pig,  twisted  at  short  inter- 
vals into  sections.  When  sausages  are 
made  on  an  extensive  scale  the  meat 
is  minced  and  stuffed  into  the  intes- 
tines by  machinery. 

Sausage  Poison,  the  poisonous 
agent  or  principle  existing  in  sausages 
made  or  kept  under  certain  unknown 
conditions.  It  has  been  variously  re- 
garded as  empyreumatic  oil,  as  an 
acid  formed  in  consequence  of  a  modi- 
fied process  of  putrefactionj  and  as 
the  effect  of  a  fungus,  Sarcina  botn- 
lina. 

Sanssnre,  Henri  de,  a  Swiss 
naturalist:  born  in  Geneva,  Switzer- 
land, in  1829.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  scientific  expedition  to  Mexico,  and 
wrote  several  memoirs  on  the  insects 
of  that  country.  He  wrote  also : 
"  Memoir  to  Serve  for  the  Natural 
History  of  Mexico,  the  Antilles,  and 
the  United  States,"  "The  Genevan 
Explorers  of  the  Alps."  I 


Sanssnre,  Horace  Benedict  de, 

a  Swiss  physicist ;  born  in  Conches, 
Switzerland,  Feb.  17,  1740;  was  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Physics  and  Phi- 
losophy in  the  University  of  Geneva 
in  1762.  In  1768  he  began  a  tour  of 
the  mountain  regions  of  Europe,  be- 
ing the  first  traveler  to  ascend  to  the 
summit  of  Mont  Blanc.  His  ob- 
servations helped  to  establish  the  basal 
facts  of  geology ;  and  for  his  investi- 
gations he  perfected  the  thermometer, 
the  hygrometer,  the  eudiometer,  elec- 
trometer and  anemometer  and  invent- 
ed the  cyanometer  and  diaphanometer. 
He  died  in  Geneva,  Jan.  23,  17U"J. 

Savage,  James,  an  American  his- 
torian ;  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  July 
13,  1784;  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
University  in  1803.  He  served  as 
president  of  the  Massachusetts  Histor- 
ical Society  for  several  years.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Genealogical  Dic- 
tionary of  the  first  settlers  of  New 
England,"  and  other  historical  works. 
He  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  8, 
1873. 

Savage,  Jobn,  an  American  jour* 
nalist;  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  Dec. 
13,  1828.  He  settled  in  New  York 
in  1848,  and  subsequently  in  Wash- 
ington became  proprietor  of  "  The 
States,"  the  organ  of  Stephen  A. 
Douglas.  He  died  in  Spragueville, 
Pa.,  Oct.  9,  1888. 

Savage,  Minot  Jndson,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman ;  born  in  Norridgewock, 
Me.,  June  10,  1841.  He  was  graduat- 
ed at  the  Theological  Seminary  at 
Bangor,  1864.  He  accepted  a  call  t« 
the  Third  Unitarian  Church  in  Chi- 
cago in  1873,  and  after  a  year  there 
was  installed  pastor  of  the  Church 
of  the  Unity,  Boston,  where  he  re- 
mained for  22  years.  After  1896  he 
was  minister  in  the  Church  of  ths 
Messiah,  New  York,  in  association 
with  Dr.  Robert  Collyer.  In  his  very 
active  career  he  has  published  ovei 
80  books  on  religious,  social  and 
moral  questions. 

Savage,  Richard  Henry,  author ; 
born  in  Utica.  N.  Y.,  June  12,  1846 ; 
graduate  of  West  Point,  and  lieuten- 
ant in  U.  S.  army,  and  later  with 
Egyptian  army.  Died  October,  1903. 
Savage  Island,  a  small  coral  island 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  between  the  Sa- 
moan  and  Tongan  islands.    It  is  about 


SaTannah 

30  miles  in  circuit  and  has  a  popula- 
tion of  5,000  nominal  Christians.  It 
was  annexed  by  Great  Britain  in  1888. 

Savannah,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Chatham  county,  Ga.;  on 
the  Savannah  river  and  the  Atlantic 
Coast  line  and  other  railroads;  18 
miles  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  90 
miles  S.  W.  of  Charleston;  is  the 
second  city  in  commercial  importance, 
and  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities, 
in  the  South;  has  an  excellent  har- 
bor, large  foreign  commerce,  and 
much  trade  on  the  river,  which  is 
navigable  from  the  ocean  to  Augusta; 
ships  great  quantities  of  cotton,  fer- 
tilizers, lumber,  rice,  wool,  naval 
stores,  and  hides;  manufactures  foun- 
dry products,  fertilizers,  guano,  and 
farm  implements;  and  contains  a 
Federal  Building,  Cotton  Exchange, 
Telfair  Academy  of  Arts,  Medical 
College,  Episcopal  Orphans'  Home, 
Chatham  Academy,  St.  Joseph's  In- 
firmary, and  Convent  of  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul.  The  city  was  founded  in 
1733  by  General  Oglethorpe  and  was 
occupied  by  the  British  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  and  by  the  Federal 
army  in  the  Civil  War.  Pop.  (1910) 
G5,064. 

S  a  vary,  Ann  Jean  Marie  Rene, 
Due  de  Rovigo,  a  French  military 
officer;  born  in  Marcq,  France,  April 
26,  1774.  Created  Duke  of  Rovigo, 
he  was  sent  to  Spain  and  negotiated 
the  arrangement  by  which  the  Span- 
ish king  and  his  son  were  kidnapped. 
In  1810  he  superseded  Fouche  as 
minister  of  police.  After  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  he  wished  to  accompany 
him  to  St.  Helena;  but  he  was  con- 
fined by  the  British  government  at 
Malta  for  some  months.  In  1831  he 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  in  Algeria;  but  ill  health 
forced  him  to  withdraw  to  France. 
He  died  June  2.  1833. 

Savigny,  Friedricli,   Karl  von, 

a  German  jurist;  born  in  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main,  Feb.  21,  1779.  He  stood 
long  at  the  head  or  what  is  termed 
the  historical  school  of  jurisprudence. 
He  died  in  Berlin,  Oct.  25,  18G1. 

Savonarola,  Girolamo,  an  Italian 
reformer ;  born  of  a  noble  family  in 
Ferrara,  Sept.  21,  1452.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  home,  and  at  a  very  early 
age  became  deeply  versed  in  the  phi- 
losophy of  the  schools;  but  bis  dispo-' 


SavonaroUt 

sition  was  from  the  first  tinged  with 
religious  asceticism,  and  in  1474  he 
formally  withdrew  from  secular  af- 
fairs and  entered  the  Dominican  Or- 
der at  Bologna.  Having  completed  hi? 
novitiate  and  the  studies  of  the  order, 
he  seems  to  have  made  his  first  public 
appearance  as  a  preacher  in  1482,  at 
Florence.  His  first  trial,  however, 
was  a  failure. 

His  second  appearance  in  the  pul- 
pit of  San  Marco  was  a  complete  suc- 
cess. The  great  subject  of  his  decla- 
mation was  the  sinfulness  and  apos- 
tasy of  the 'time;  and  for  his  half-ex- 
positions, half-prophetical  outpour- 
ings, his  followers  claimed  for  him 
the  character  of  an  inspired  prophet. 

Up  to  this  time,  however,  Savona- 
rola's relations  with  the  Church  were, 
if  not  of  harmony,  at  least  not  of  an- 
tagonism ;  and  when,  in  the  year  1493, 
a  reform  of  the  Dominican  Order  in 
Tuscany  was  proposed  undel"  his  aus- 
pices, it  was  approved  by  the  Pope, 
and  Savonarola  was  named  the  first 
vicar-general.  About  this  date,  how- 
ever, his  preaching  had  assumed  a  di- 
rectly political  character,  and  the  pre- 
dictions and  denunciations  which 
formed  the  staple  of  many  of  his  dis- 
courses pointed  plainly  to  a  political 
revolution  in  Florence  and  in  Italy  as 
the  divinely  ordained  means  for  the 
regeneration  of  religion  and  morality. 
In  one  of  his  discourses  he  pointed 
plainly  to  the  advent  of  the  French 
under  Charles  VIII.  Very  soon,  how- 
ever, the  French  were  compelled  ta 
leave  Florence,  and  a  republic  was 
established,  of  which  Savonarola  be- 
came, though  without  political  func- 
tions, the  guiding  and  animating 
spirit,  his  party  being  completely  in 
the  ascendant. 

It  was  during  this  brief  tenure  of 
influence  that  Savonarola  displayed 
to  the  fullest  extent  both  the  extraor- 
dinary powers  of  his  genius  and  the 
full  extravagance  of  the  theories  _  to 
which  his  enthusiastic  asceticism  im- 
pelled him.  The  republic  of  Florence 
was  to  be  the  model  of  a  Christian 
commonwealth,  of  which  God  Him- 
self was  the  chief  ruler,  and  His  Gos- 
pel the  sovereign  law ;  and  thus  the 
most  stringent  enactments  were  made 
for  the  repression  of  vice,  and  of  all 
the  sinful  follies  by  which  it  is  fo- 
mented and  maintained. 


Savoy 


Savoy  Conference 


Meanwhile,  the  extremes  of  his  rig- 
orism, the  violence  of  hi?  denuncia- 
tions, which  did  not  spare  even  the 
Pope  himself,  drew  on  him  the  dis- 
pleasure of  Rome.  He  was  cited,  in 
the  year  1495,  to  answer  a  charge  of 
heresy  at  Rome ;  and,  on  his  failing 
to  appear,  he  was  forbidden  to  preach ; 
the  brief  by  which  the  Florentine 
branch  of  his  order  had  been  made  in- 
dependent was  revoked  ;  he  was  offered 
a  cardinal's  hat  on  condition  of  his 
changing  his  style  of  preaching  —  an 
offer  he  indignantly  refused ;  and  he 
was  again  forbidden  to  preach.  Once 
again  Savonarola  disregarded  this  or- 
der. 

At  the  critical  point  of  the  struggle 
of  parties  came,  in  1497,  a  sentence 
of  excommunication  from  Rome 
against  Savonarola.  Savonarola  open- 
ly declared  the  censure  invalid,  be- 
cause unjust,  and  refused  to  hold  him- 
self bound  by  it.  When  the  new 
elections  took  place,  the  party  op- 
posed to  Savonarola,  the  AiTabbiati, 
came  into  power.  He  was  ordered  to 
desist  from  preaching ;  and  the  strug- 
gle was  brought  to  a  crisis  by  the 
counterdenun«iations  of  a  preacher  of 
the  Franciscan  order,  long  an  antag- 
onist of  Savonarola,  Francesco  da 
Puglia. 

In  the  midst  of  this  reaction  he  wae 
cited  before  the  council,  and  brought 
to  trial  for  falsely  claiming  to  have 
seen  visions  and  uttered  real  prophe- 
cies, for  other  religious  errors,  and  for 
political  insubordination.  He  denied 
the  charges ;  but,  put  to  the  torture, 
he  made  avowals  which  he  afterward 
withdrew.  The  conclusion  was  a  fore- 
gone one ;  he  was  declared  guilty  of 
heresy  and  of  seditious  teaching,  and 
of  being  an  enemy  to  the  peace  of  the 
Church.  The  acts  of  the  trial  were 
sent  to  Rome,  where  the  sentence  was 
confirmed ;  he,  with  two  disciples  of 
his  order,  was  given  up  to  the  secular 
power;  so  on  May  23,  1498,  this 
extraordinary  man  and  his  two  com- 
panions, brothers  Domenico  and  Sil- 
vestro,  were  strangled,  and  their  bodies 
burned  by  the  executioner.  They  died 
professing  their  adherence  to  the  Cath- 
olic Church,  confessed  and  received 
absolution,  and  on  the  morning  of  the 
execution  Savonarola  administered  the 
last  c  -mmunion  to  his  two  companions 
and  himself.  There  seems  no  doubt 
that  Savonarola  firmly  believed  in  the 


dogmas  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church ;  and  it  is  only  as  a  moral  and 
religious  reformer,  and  not  a  theolog- 
ical teacher,  that  he  can  in  any  way 
be  regarded  as  a  forerunner  of  the 
Reformation  of  the  lOth  century. 

Savoy,  House  of,  one  of  the  most 
ancient  royal  families,  and  also 
distinguished  for  having  produced  more 
great  warriors  and  politicians  than 
any  other  royal  house  of  Europe.  Its 
origin  is  not  historically  established, 
but  most  genealogists  trace  it  to  a 
German  count,  Berthold,  who,  in  the 
11th  century,  established  himself  on 
the  W,  f'.cpe  of  the  Alps  between 
Mont  Blanc  and  Lake  Leman.  In  1111 
liis  descendants  were  enrolled  among 
the  counts  of  tLe  Holy  Roman  em- 
pire. Count  Amadeus,  in  1383,  found- 
ed a  law  of  primogeniture  which  great- 
ly strengthened  the  family,  leading 
to  the  immediate  acquisition  of  the 
territory  of  Nice.  In  1416  the  Counts 
of  Savoy  adopted  the  title  of  duke ; 
and  in  1418  they  acquired  the  princi- 
pality of  Piedmont.  Taking  part  in 
the  great  wars  between  France  and 
the  Holy  Roman  empire,  now  on  the 
one  side  and  then  on  the  other,  as 
policy  dictated,  the  Princes  of  Savoy 
increased  their  possessions  in  all  di- 
rections, but  chiefly  toward  the  S. ; 
and  at  the  peace  of  Utrecht  in  1713 
they  obtained  the  island  of  Sicily,  with 
the  title  of  king.  Sicily  had  to  be 
exchanged,  in  1720,  for  the  isle  of 
Sardinia,  to  which  henceforth  the 
royal  dignity  remained  attached. 
Genoa  and  the  surrounding  territory 
were  added  to  the  Sardinian  crown 
at  the  peace  of  1815.  The  direct  male 
line  of  the  house  of  Savoy  died  out 
with  King  Charles  Felix,  in  1831,  and 
the  existing  Salic  law  prohibiting  the 
accession  of  females,  the  crown  fell 
to  Prince  Charles  -Albert,  of  the  House 
of  Savoy-Carignan.  The  latter  branch 
—  taking  its  name  from  a  small  town 
in  the  province  of  Turin  —  was  found- 
ed by  Thomas  Francis,  born  in  1596, 
a  younger  son  of  Duke  Charles  Eman- 
uel I.  of  Savoy.  King  Charles  Albert, 
the  first  of  the  house  of  Savoy- 
Carignan,  abdicated  the  throne,  March 
23,  1849,  in  favor  of  his  son,  Victor 
Emanuel  II.,  the  first  King  of  Italj'. 

Savoy  Conference,  in  Church  his- 
tory, the  name  given  to  the  meetings 
of  the  Commissioners  for  the  Revision 


Saw-BUl 

of  the  Liturgy  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.  Twelve  bishops  took  part  in  the 
proceedings  on  behalf  of  the  Establish- 
ment, while  the  Nonconformists  were 
represented  by  Baxter,  Calamy, 
Re3molds,  and  others  of  their  leaders. 
The  first  meeting  took  place  on  April 
15,  1661,  and  the  Commission  sat  for 
four   months. 

Saiv-Bill,  a  family  of  birds  distin- 
guished by  a  serrate  beak ;  known  in 
Jlorth  America  as  Mexican  saw-bill 

Sawfish,  so  called  from  the  saw- 
like weapon  into  which  the  snout  is 
produced.  They 
are  common  in 
tropical  and  less 
60  in  subtropical 
seas,  and  attain  a 
considerable  size, 
specimens  with  a 
saw  six  feet  long 
and  a  foot  broad 
at  the  base  being 
far  from  rare. 
Their  offensive 
weapon  renders 
them  dangerous  to 
almost  all  other 
large  inhabitants 
of  the  ocean. 

Sawflies,  a 
group  of  insects. 
The  turnip  fly  and 
the  gooseberry  fly 
are  examples. 

Sawyer, 
Charles     Henry. 
an  American  man- 
ufacturer; born  in 
Watertown,  N.  Y., 
HEAD  OF  SAWFISH  March     30,     1840. 
FBOM  BELOW.      He  was  a  Republi- 
can    governor     of 
New    Hampshire    in    1887-1889.      In 
the    latter    year    he    was    the    New 
HanipsUire  cuumiissioner  to  the  Paris 
Exposition.     He  died  in  1908. 

Sawyer,  Leicester  Ambrose,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Pinckney, 
N.  Y.,  July  28,  1807.  He  was  pastor 
of  various  churches  (1842-1859),  and 
published  a  notable  new  translation 
of  the  New  Testament,  without  the 
usual  division  into  verses.  Died  1898. 
Sawyer,  Sylvanns,  an  American 
inventor;  born  in  Templeton,  Mass., 
April  15,  1822.  In  1843  he  patented 
a   machine   for   preparing  chair-cane 


Sazicava 

from  rattan ;  brought  about  many  im- 
provements in  rifled  cannon  projectiles 
in  1853-1855;  took  out  patents  on 
dividers  and  calipers  in  1867;  in- 
vented a  steam  generator  in  1868;  ob- 
tained a  patent  for  a  sole-sewing  ma- 
chine in  1876,  and  for  a  watchmak- 
er's lathe  in  1882.  He  died  in  Tem- 
pleton, Mass.,  Oct.  28,  1895. 


TURNIP  SAWFLT. 

Saze,  John  Godfrey,  an  Ameri' 
can  humorous  poet ;  born  in  High- 
gate,  Vt.,  June  2,  1816.  He  was  also 
well  known  as  a  lecturer.  His  most 
popular  verses  include  "  Rhyme  of 
the  Rail "  and  "  The  Proud  Miss  Mc- 
Bride  " ;  and  many  published  works. 
He  died  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  March  31, 
1887. 

Saxhorn,  a  brass  instrument,  in- 
vented by  A.  A.  J.  Sax,  constructed 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  large  por- 
tion, after  passing  under  the  arm  of 
the  performer,  repasses  over  his 
shoulder,  presenting  the  bell  to  the 
front.  The  advantage  of  this  shape 
is  that  it  avoids  the  elbows,  which 
would  otherwise  impair  the  progress 
of  the  sound.  Saxhorns  have  great 
powers,  more  especially  the  contra 
bassos  in  E  and  B  flat;  the  latter  of 
which  has  48  feet  of  development  in 
its  tube. 

Saxicava,  a  genus  of  marine  mol- 
lusks  with  numerous  species  rang- 
ing from  low  water  to  140  fathoms. 
It  is  found  in  the  Arctic  seas,  where 
it  attains  its  largest  size,  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, at  the  Canaries,  and  in 
Cape  Colony.  It  bores  into  stone,  and 


Saxon  ArcMteotnre 


Saf 


has  done  great  damage  to  submarine 
masonry. 

Saxon  AroMteotnre,  the  style  of 
architecture  in  use  in  England  from 
the  time  of  its  conversion  till  the  Con- 
guest.  It  is  easily  recognized  by  its 
massive     columns     and     semicircular 


SAXON  ABCHITECTTJRE. — ^TOWER  IN" 
NOBTHAMPTONSHIBE,    ENGLAND. 

arches,  which  usually  spring  from 
capitals  without  the  intervention  of 
the  entablature. 

Saxons,  a  Germanic  people,  wLose 
name  is  usually  derived  from  an  old 
Teutonic  word  sahs,  meaning  "  knife," 
though  some  authorities  believe  it  to 
be  another  form  of  Sassen  =  "  the 
settled  people."  In  the  3d  century  they 
invaded  the  Roman  territory;  but 
thefr  piratical  descents  on  the  coasts 
of  Britain  and  Gaul  are  far  more 
famous.  About  450  they  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Angles  established  them- 
selves permanently  in  the  island  and 


founded  the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms. 
Saxony  (German,  Sachsen),  a 
kingdom  and  state  of  Central  Ger- 
many ;  bounded  on  the  north-west, 
north,  and  east  by  Prussia,  south-east 
and  south  by  Bohemia,  south-west  by 
Bavaria,  and  west  by  Reuss,  Saxe- 
Weimar,  and  Saxe-AItenburg ;  greatest 
length,  135  miles ;  greatest  breadth,  75 
miles;  area,  5,787  square  miles  (or 
rather  less  than  Yorkshire)  ;  pop. 
4,202,216.  For  administrative  pur- 
poses it  is  divided  into  the  four  dis- 
tricts of  Dresden,  Leipzig,  Zwickau, 
and  Bautzen  or  Budissin. 

Saxophone,  the  name  of  a  family 
of  musical  instruments  invented  by  M. 
Sax.  They  consist  of  a  conical  brass 
tube,  sounded  by  a  mouthpiece  fur- 
nished with  a  single  reed  similar  to 
that  of  the  clarinet,  and  are  made  in 
as  many  different  keys  as  the  saxhorn. 
They  are  greatly  valued  in  military 
music,  but  are  not  much  used  in  the 
orchestra- 
Say,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French 
economist ;  born  in  Lyons,  France, 
Jan.  5,  1767.  He  popularized  the 
theories  of  Adam  Smith  in  France. 
His  best-known  v/ork  is  "  Treatise  on 
Political  Economy."  His  "  theory  of 
markets "  attracted  great  attention. 
He  died  in  Paris,  Nov.  15,  1832. 

Say,  Jean  Baptiste  I<eon,  a 
French  statesman  and  economist; 
grandson  of  the  preceding;  born  in 
Paris,  June  6,  1826.  He  was  elected 
to  the  National  Assembly  in  1871,  and 
in  the  following  year  became  Minister 
of  Finance  in  the  government  of  M. 
Thiers.  He  occupied  this  position  in 
successive  ministries ;  was  appointed 
ambassador  to  London  in  1880,  and 
soon  afterward  was  elected  president 
of  the  Senate.  Among  his  works  are: 
"  Finances  of  France  " ;  "  State  So- 
cialism " ;  "  Democratic  Solution  of 
the  Tariff  Question  "  ;  and  "  Turgot." 
He  edited  "The  Dictionary  of  Fi- 
nance "  and  "  The  New  Dictionary  of 
Political  Economy."  He  died  April  21, 
1896. 

Say,  Thomasy  an  American 
naturalist;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
July  27,  1787 ;  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 
in  Philadelphia  in  1812;  participated 
in  a  scientific  exploration  of  the  coasts 
and  adjacent  islands  of  Georgia  and 


Sayce 

Florida  in  1818 ;  was  chief  geologist  of 
an  expedition  to  the  Rocky  Mountains 
in  1819-1820.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
discovered  more  new  species  of  insects 
than  any  naturalist  prior  to  his  time. 
He  died  in  New  Harmony,  Ind.,  Oct. 
10,  1834. 

Sayce,  Archibald  Henry,  an  En- 
glish Orientalist;  born  near  Bristol, 
England,  Sept.  25,  1846.  His  works 
extend  over  various  fields  and  are  of 
great  importance  for  comparative  phi- 
lology and  history. 

Sayles,  John,  an  American  author ; 
born  in  Vernon,  N.  Y.,  March  9,  1825. 
He  served  in  the  Civil  War  as  Brig- 
adier-General of  Texan  militia ;  and  in 
1880  became  Professor  of  Law  in  Bay- 
lor University.  He  was  the  author  of 
many  works  on  Texan  law.  He  died 
in  Abilene,  Tex.,  May  22,  1897. 

Sayre,  David  Austen,  an  Ameri- 
can philanthropist;  bom  in  Battle 
Hill,  N.  J.,  March  12,  1793;  removed 
to  Lexington,  Ky.,  where  he  became  a 
successful  merchant  and  banker.  He 
was  noted  for  his  benevolence ;  gave 
$100,000  to  found  Sayre  Institute; 
and  about  $400,000  to  other  benevolent 
objects.  He  died  in  Lexington,  Ky., 
Sept.  11,  1870. 

Sayre,  I^e'nris  Albert,  an  Ameri- 
can surgeon;  born  in  Battle  Hill,  N. 
J.,  Feb.  29,  1820.  In  1842  he  became 
prosecutor  to  the  Professor  of  Surgery 
in  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, which  ofiice  he  held  till  made 
prosecutor  emeritus  in  1852.  lie  was 
the  first  American  to  remove  the  head 
of  the  femur  in  hip-joint  disease.  He 
performed  this  operation  in  1854,  and 
in  seven  years  had  created  by  this  and 
other  original  methods  a  practically 
new  department  in  his  profession.  "He 
died  in  New  York  city,  Sept.  21,  1900. 

Scab,  a  disease  of  sheep,  analogous 
to  itch  in  man,  or  mange  in  horses  t>r 
dogs,  depending  on  the  irritation  of 
three  varieties  of  minute  acari,  some  of 
which  burrow  in  the  skin,  especially  if 
dirty  and  scurfy,  causing  much  itch- 
ing, roughness,  and  baldness.  A  good 
remedy  is  lard  or  palm-oil,  2  pounds; 
oil  of  tar,  %  pound ;  sulphur,  1  pound  ; 
mixed  together. 

Scabbard  Fisb,  a  fish  fairly 
common  in  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  Atlantic.    It  is 


Scale 

probably  a  deep  sea  fish.  Its  length  is 
from  five  to  six  feet. 

Scad,     or     Horse     Mackerel,     a 

genus  of  fishes  included  in  the  family 
mackerels,  and  found  around  the  coasts 
of  Great  Britain.  It  appears  in  large 
shoals,  and  the  flesh,  though  coarse,  is 
esteemed  and  eaten  salted  during  the 
winter  months. 

Scadding,  Henry,  a.  Canadian 
author ;  born  in  Dunkeswell,  Devon- 
shire, England,  July  29,  1813  ;  removed 
to  Canada  in  1821 ;  was  graduated  at 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  Eng- 
land, in  1837;  was  rector  of  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in  Toronto 
in  1847-1875;  and  president  of  the 
Canadian  Institute  in  Toronto  in  1870- 
1876. 

Scagliola,  a  term  applied  to  orna* 
mental  plaster  work,  made  of  finely- 
ground  calcined  gypsum  worked  into 
a  paste  with  glue.  It  produces  the 
most  perfect  imitation  of  marble,  from 
which  it  can  scarcely  be  distinguished 
either  by  the  eye  or  the  touch,  as  it 
takes  an  equally  high  polish  and  is 
equally  hard  and  cold  to  the  touch. 

Scald  Head,  the  popular  name  of  a 
fungous  parasitic  disease  of  the  scalp 
(and  occasionally  of  the  face  and  other 
parts).  The  primary  seat  of  the  para- 
site is  in  the  lowest  portion  of  the  hair 
follicles,  outside  the  layer  of  epithe- 
lium which  covers  the  root  of  the  hair. 

Scale,  a  measure,  consisting  of  a 
slip  of  wood,  ivory,  or  metal,  divided 
into  equal  parts,  usually  main  divi- 
sions and  subdivisions;  as,  inches  or 
octonary  fractions  for  carpenters' 
work,  decimal  divisions  and  subdivi- 
sions for  chain  work,  duodecimal  for 
plotting  carpenters'  work,  which  is  in 
feet  and  iirches.  The  meter  and  its 
decimal  subdivisions  are  also  some- 
times employed.  Also  any  instrument, 
figure-  or  scheme  graduated  for  the 
purpose  of  measuring  extent  or  pro- 
portions. 

In  music,  the  sounds  in  consecutive 
order  used  by  various  nations  in  dif- 
ferent forms  as  the  material  of  music. 
In  a  proper  succession  such  sounds 
form  melody,  in  proper  combinations 
they  constitute  harmony.  The  modern 
scale,  universally  used  among  the  more 
civilized  nations,  consists  of  12  divi- 
sions, called  semitones,  included  in  one 
octave. 


Scale  Moss 


Scansores 


Scale  Moss,  a  iwpular  name  given 
to  certain  plants  resembling  moss. 
They  grow  on  the  trunks  of  trees,  in 
damp  earth,  and  in  similar  places,  and 
are  so  called  from  the  small  scale-like 
leaves. 

Scalene,  in  mathematics,  a  term 
applied  to  a  triangle  whose  sides  are 
all  unequal ;  also  to  a  cone  such  that  a 
section  made  by  a  plane  through  the 
axis  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
base  is  a  scalene  triangle.  In  this  lat- 
ter case  the  term  is  equivalent  to 
oblique. 

Scales,  the  imbricated  plates  on  the 
exterior  of  certain  animals,  as  the  pan- 
golins or  scaly  ant  eaters,  serpents  and 
other  reptiles,  and  especially  fishes. 

Scales,  Alfred  Moore,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer;  born  in  Reedsville,  N.  C, 
Nov.  2G,  1827.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1853.  When  the  Civil  War 
broke  out  he  entered  the  Confederate 
army  as  a  private,  and  was  rapidly 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  Brigadier- 
General.  After  the  war  he  resumed 
law  practice;  member  of  Congress  in 
1875-1884;  governor  of  North  Caro- 
lina in  1884-1888.    Died  Feb.  9,  1892. 

Scaliger,  Julius  Caesar  (original- 
ly Delia  Scala),  a  celebrated  Italian 
scholar;  born  near  Lag«  di  Garda, 
Italy,  April  23,  1484.  He  went  to 
France  in  152G,  and  there  practised 
medicine.  According  to  some  scholars, 
"  no    one   of    the    ancients    could    be 

E laced  above  him,  and  the  age  in  which 
e  lived  could  not  show  his  equal "  in 
learning  and  talent.  He  published  an 
"Oration  against  Erasmus"  (1531), 
In  reply  to  that  scholar's  "  Ciceroni- 
anus  " ;  "  Poems,"  in  Latin,  filling 
several  volumes ;  "  Comic  Meters  " ; 
and  a  variety  of  dissertations  and  es- 
says on  classical  subjects.  He  died  in 
Agen,  France,  Oct.  21,  1558. 

Scallop,  a  well-known  bivalve,  one 
of  those  with  a  single  muscle  closing 
the  shell.  The  beautiful  coloring  of 
the  shells  is  remarkable  even  among 
bivalves.  On  the  margins  of  the 
mantle  there  are  hundreds  of  small 
sparkling  eyes  of  different  degrees  of 
visual  efficiency.  The  scallops  are 
widely  distributed  in  all  seas,  at  depths 
of  3  to  40  fathoms.  About  180  living 
species  are  known,  and  over  400  are 
recorded  as  fossiLp  from  Carboniferous 
fitrata. 


Scalp,  the  term  employed  to  desig- 
nate the  outer  covering  of  the  skull  or 
brain  case.  Except  in  the  fact  that 
hair  in  both  sexes  grows  more  luxuri- 
antly on  the  scalp  than  elsewhere,  the 
skin  of  the  scalp  differs  but  slightly 
from  ordinary  skin. 

Scalping,  the  act,  peculiar  to 
North  American  Indian  warfare,  of 
partly  cutting,  partly  tearing  off  a 
piece  of  the  skin  of  the  head,  with  the 
hair  attached ;  whether  the  victim  is 
alive  or  dead  at  the  time  does  not 
affect  the  operation.  The  Indians,  with 
whom  scalps  are  the  trophies  of  vic- 
tory, have  always  left  a  long  lock  or 
tuft  on  the  scalp  as  a  challenge. 
Bounties  have,  in  American  history, 
more  than  once  been  offered  for  scalps : 
in  1724  £100  (about  $500)  was  of- 
fered by  Massachusetts  for  Indian 
scalps ;  in  1754,  during  the  French  and 
Indian  war,  a  bounty  was  offered  by 
the  French  for  British  scalps,  and  by 
the  colonies  for  Indian  scalps ;  in  1755 
Massachusetts  offered  £40  (about 
$200)  for  every  scalp  of  a  male  In- 
dian over  12  years  old,  and  £20  (about 
$100)  for  scalps  of  women  and  chil- 
dren. 

Scanderbeg  (properly  Iskander- 
beg,  or  Prince  Alexander),  an  Al- 
banian chief  whose  real  name  was 
George  Castriota ;  born  in  Croia,  Al- 
bania, in  1403.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
Christian  prince,  but  was  brought  up 
by  the  Turks  and  fought  for  some  time 
for  Amurath  II.  Becoming  possessed 
of  the  chief  city  of  his  country,  which 
the  Turks  had  taken/,  he  turned  against 
them,  abjured  Mohammedanism,  and 
raised  the  whole  of  Epirus  in  revolt. 
For  25  years  he  withstood  all  the  ef- 
forts of  the  Turks  to  overcome  him, 
defeating  them  in  22  battles,  even 
when  led  by  the  Sultan.  Shortly  be- 
fore he  died,  he  was  compelled  to  yield 
to  superior  forces.  He  died  in  Alessio, 
Albania,  Jan.  17,  14G8. 

Scandinavia,  the  ancient  name  of 
the  region  now  comprehending  the 
three  kingdoms,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and 
Norway,  or  Sweden  and  Norway  alone» 
and  still  not  uncommonly  used. 

Scansores,  an  order  of  birds,  popu- 
larly known  as  climbing  birds,  having 
the  feet  provided  with  four  toes,  of 
which  two  are  turned  backward  and 
two  forward.  This  conformation  of  the 


Scape 

foot  enables  the  scansores  to  climb 
with  unusual  facility.  Their  food  con- 
sists of  insects  and  fruit ;  their  nests 
are  usually  made  in  the  hollows  of  old 
trees.  The  most  important  families  are 
the  cuckoos,  the  woodpeckers  and  wry 
necks,  the  parrots,  the  toucans,  and 
the  trogons.  Not  all  of  this  order  are 
actually  climbers,  and  there  are  climb- 
ing birds  which  do  not  belong  to  this 
order. 

Scape,  in  architecture,  the  shaft  of 
a  column ;  also,  the  apophyge  of  a 
shaft ;  also,  a  botanical  term  for  a 
(Sower  stalk  springing  straight  from 
the  root,  as  in  the  primrose,  snow- 
drop, etc. 

Scape  Goat,  a  term  applied  to  one 
who  is  made  to  bear  the  blame  due  to 
another.  The  idea  is  drawn  from  the 
Tewish  ritual,  in  which  a  scape  goat 
was  a  goat  designed  to  'scape,  i.  e., 
escape,  as  opposed  to  one  killed  and 
offered  in  sacrifice. 

Scapnla,  in  anatomy,  one  of  the 
two  bones,  the  other  being  the  clavicle, 
which  together  form  the  pectoral  arch 
or  shoulder  girdle.  The  scapula  con- 
stitutes its  posterior  part. 

Scapular,  or  Scapnlary,  a  dress 
originally  worn  over  their  other  dress 
by  the  monks  when  at  manual  labor, 
but  now  forming  part  of  the  habit  of 
the  older  religious  orders  ;  also  a  minia- 
ture copy  of  a  monk's  scapular  made 
of  two  pieces  of  cloth,  connected  by 
strings,  worn  by  Roman  Catholics 
from  motives  of  devotion.  In  surgery, 
a  bandage  for  the  shoulder  blade. 

Scarborongli,  William  Saun- 
ders, an  American  educator ;  born  in 
Macon,  Ga.,  in  1852  of  negro  parent- 
age ;  was  graduated  at  Oberlin  College 
in  1875 ;  was  Professor  of  Classical 
Greek  at  Wilberforce  University  for 
19  years  and  Professor  of  Hellenistic 
Greek  at  the  Theological  Department 
of  the  same  institution  in  1891-1895. 
He  then  returned  to  the  university 
proper  as  a  Professor  of  Ancient  Lan- 
guages. He  was  identified  with  many 
learned  societies.  His  publications  in- 
clude "  Theory  and  Functions  of  the 
Thematic  Vowel  in  the  Greek  Verb  " ; 
*' Our  Political  Status";  many  arti- 
cles on  the  Negro  question,  Negro  folk- 
lore ;  etc. 

Scarfing,  a  particular  method  of 
uniting  two  pieces  of  timber  together 


Scepticism 

by  the  extremities,  the  end  of  one  be- 
ing cut  or  notched  so  as  to  fit  into  the 
other,  making  the  part  where  the  junc- 
tion takes  place  of  the  same  thickness 
as  the  rest  of  the  pieces  of  timber. 

Scarification,  in  surgery,  the  act 
of  separating  the  gum  ttom  the  teeth, 
in  order  the  better  to  get  at  them  with 
an  instrument ;  the  act  of  making  a 
number  of  incisions  in  the  skin  with  a 
lancet  or  scarificator,  for  the  purpose 
of  letting  blood  or  of  drawing  off  a 
fluid ;  the  act  of  making  incisions  gen- 
erally. 

Scarificator,  in  surgery,  an  instru- 
ment used  in  dental  surgery  in  sep- 
arating the  gum  from  the  teeth ;  also 
an  instrument  used  in  cupping.  Also 
a  lancet  for  scarifying  the  skin  or  an 
engorged  membrane. 

Scarlatti,  Alessandro,  an  Italian 
composer,  born  in  1050,  who  was  the 
founder  of  the  Neapolitan  school  of 
music,  in  which  most  of  the  composers 
of  the  18th  century  were  trained.  Scar- 
latti originated  the  overture.  He  is 
said  to  have  written  200  masses,  lOQ 
operas,  and  3,000  cantatas.  His  writ- 
ings, though  they  produced  a  revolu- 
tion in  the  style  of  operatic  music,  are 
almost  all  completely  forgotten.  He 
died  in  Naples,  Oct.  24,  1725.  His  son 
Domenico  (1683-1757)  was  considered 
the  greatest  harpsichord  player 
(pianist)    of  his  time. 

Scarlet,  a  beautiful  bright  red 
color,  brighter  than  crimson.  The 
finest  scarlet  dye  is  obtained  from 
cochineal. 

Scarlet  Bean,  or  Scarlet  Run- 
ner, a  twining  plant,  a  native  of 
Mexico,  cultivated  as  a  green  vegetable 
or  as  an  ornamental  plant. 

Scarlet  Fever,  or  Scarlatina,  a 
contagious  febrile  disease  almost  al- 
ways attended  during  a  part  of  its 
course  by  a  rash  and  by  sore  throat. 

Scepticism,  that  negative  system 
of  philosophy  which,  by  doubting  of 
everything  beyond  the  region  of  phe- 
nomena, doubts  the  possibility  of  all 
speculation ;  or,  according  to  Sextus 
Empiricus,  "  the  power  of  opposing,  in 
all  their  contradiction,  the  sensuous 
representations  and  the  conceptions  of 
the  mind,  and  thus  to  induce  perfect 
suspension  of  judgment."  The  sceptic, 
in  general,  accepts  of  the  phenomena 
of  nature  as  he  finds  them,  and,  con- 


Scepter 

vinced  of  the  impossibility  of  diving 
beneatli  the  appearances  to  the  real 
causes  of  things,  contents  himself  with 
a  spirit  of  doubt  and  indifference.  The 
most  celebrated  thinkers  of  this  class 
in  andent  times  were  Pyrrho,  Timon, 
Gilnesidemus,  and  Sextus  Empiricus ; 
in  modern  times,  David  Hume.  The 
scepticism  of  Hume  is,  beyond  all 
doubt,  the  most  thorough  and  wide- 
reaching  that  philosophy  has  yet  wit- 
nessed. He  starts  with  the  popular 
theory  of  experience,  and  proceeds 
with  surprising  coolness  to  hew  down 
every  intelligent  principle  for  which 
bis  theory  was  incapable  of  accounting. 
In  open  argument,  in  candid  state- 
ment, and  in  solid  attack,  the  Scotch 
sceptic  is  greatly  in  advance  of  his 
Greek  predecessors.  His  scepticism 
called  forth  a  host  of  assailants,  and 
has  more  or  less  influenced  philosoph- 
ical thought  and  opinion  since  his  time. 

Scepter,  a  staff  or  baton  borne  by 
a  sovereign  or  ruler  as  a  symbol  of 
office  or  authority ;  the  ensign  of  roy- 
alty borne  in  the  hand.  -The  English 
Bcepter  is  cruciform. 

Schaeberle,  Jolm  Martin,  an 
American  astronomer ;  born  in  Ger- 
many in  1853 ;  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Michigan  in  187G.  He 
was  acting  Professor  of  Astronomy  at 
that  institution  in  1878^1888  and  as- 
tronomer of  Lick  Observatory,  Mt. 
Hamilton,  in  1888-1898.  He  had 
charge  of  the  eclipse  expedition  of 
Lick  Observatory  to  Cayenne  and  Chile 
in  1889  and  1893,  and  to  Japan  in 
1896.  He  discovered  three  comets,  one 
with  a  telescope  made  by  himself,  and 
carried  on  considerable  other  original 
investigation.  He  was  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  astronomical  periodicals. 

ScIiaefFer,  Nathan  C,  an  Ameri- 
can educator ;  born  in  Berks  co..  Pa., 
Feb.  3,  1849 ;  was  graduated  at  Frank- 
lin and  Marshall  College.  In  1893  he 
was  made  State  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  of  Pennsylvania.  He 
became  editor  of  the  "  Pennsylvania 
School  Journal  "  in  1893. 

SchafP,  Philip,  an  American 
clergyman :  born  in  Coire,  Switzerland, 
Jan,  1,  1819.  After  1870  he  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Sacred  Literature  in  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York.  He 
was  a  prolific  writer.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Committee  on 


Sclielling 

Bible  Revision  in  1871.    He  died  in 
New  York  city,  Oct.  20,  1893. 

Schamyl,  a  Caucasian  chief;  born 
in  Northern  Daghestan  in  1797.  In 
1824  he  joined  in  the  struggle  which 
then  broke  out  against  the  Russians, 
lie  was  ultimately  elected  chief  and 
continued  to  resist  the  Russian  power 
until  1859,  when  he  was  captured  and 
taken  to  St.  Petersburg.  He  was  as- 
signed a  residence  at  Kaluga  in  the 
middle  of  Russia,  with  a  pension  ^ 
$5,000,  and  he  died  in  Medina,  Arabia, 
in  March,  1871,  having  taken  up  his 
residence  in  Mecca  the  year  previously. 
In  faith  he  was  a  Sufi. 

Scharnliorst,  Gerhard  Johann 
David  von,  a  Prussian  military  offi- 
cer ;  born  in  Bordenau,  Hanover,  Nov. 
.12,  1756.  In  1807  he  was  put  at  the 
head  of  the  commission  for  reorganiz- 
ing the  armies  of  Prussia.  He  reformed 
the  army,  introduced  the  short  service 
system,  created  a  better  spirit  among 
both  officers  and  men,  and  so  convert- 
ed what  had  been  a  mercenary  force 
into  a  national  army.  Scharnhorst  w-as 
wounded  at  Grossgorschen  while  acting 
as  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  Silesian 
army,  and  died  in  Prague,  Bohemia 
June  28,  1813. 

Scheele,  Karl  W^ilhelm,  a  Swed- 
ish chemist;  born  in  Stralsund, 
Sweden,  Dec.  IS,  1742.  To  him  we  owe 
the  discovery  of  fluorine,  chlorine,  and 
of  molybdic,  tungstic,  arsenic,  lactic, 
gallic,  tartaric,  oxalic,  citric,  malic, 
purpuric,  and  lactic  acids,  glycer- 
ine, and  oxygen.  He  ascertained  the 
nature  and  the  constituents  of  am- 
monia and  prussic  acid,  the  charac- 
ters of  barytes  and  manganese,  and 
the  elements  of  the  atmosphere.  Few 
men  of  his  century,  with  the  exception 
of  Priestley,  can  be  compared  with 
him  as  a  discoverer.  He  died  May  21, 
1786. 

Scheffer,  Emil,  an  American  chem- 
ist ;  born  about  1812.  In  1870  he  dis- 
covered the  formula  for  making  liquid 
pepsin,  and  two  years  later  one  for 
making  the  dry  or  powdered  form  of 
pepsin,  which  created  much  interest  in 
medical  and  chemical  circles.  He  died 
in  Louisville,  Ky.,  Jan.  22,  1002. 

Schelling,  Friedrich.  "Willielnk 
Joseph  von,  a  German  philosopher; 
born  in  Leonberg,  Wurtemberg,  Jan. 
27,  1775.   He  was  the  last  survivor  ol 


Schenolc 

that  famous  band  of  German  philoso- 
phers of  which  Kant,  Jacobi,  Herbart, 
richte,  and  Hegel  are  the  other  chiefs. 
By  the  nature  of  his  speculations,  de- 
Teloped  in  a  number  of  fragmentary 
publications,  chiefly  in  the  earlier  part 
of  bis  life,  Schelling's  place  in  the 
^reat  series  of  German  philosophers  is 
determined  to  be  between  Fichte  and 
Hegel.  His  metaphysical  theory  is  gen- 
erally known  by  the  name  of  the 
■"  System  of  Identity."  It  rests  on  the 
principle  that  the  two  elements  of 
thought,  the  objects  respectively  of  un- 
derstanding and  reason,  are  only  rel- 
atively opposed  to  one  another  as  dif- 
ferent forms  of  the  absolute  or  infi- 
nite, hence  sometimes  called  the  two 
Joles  of  the  absolute.  He  died  in 
Lagatz,   Switzerland,  Aug.  20,   1S54. 

Schenck,  Robert  Cnmming,  an 

American  diplomatist;  born  in  Frank- 
lin, O.,  Oct.  4,  1809.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  was  appointed  a 
Brigadier-General  of  volunteers.  After 
performing  effective  services  in  the 
<jrettysburg  campaign  he  resigned  his 
commission  in  18G3  to  take  his  place 
in  the  National  House  of  Representa-j 
lives.  He  was  reelected  to  Congress  in] 
18G6  and  1868,  and  minister  to  Great 
Britain  in  1870-1876.  Died,  1890.  | 
Schenectady,  city  and  capital  of 
Schenectady  county,  N.  Y.;  on  the  Mo- 
hawk river,  Erie  canal,  and  the  New 
York  Central  &  Hudson  River  and 
the  Delaware  &  Hudson  railroads; 
17  miles  N.  W.  of  Albany;  is  one  of 
the  oldest  cities  in  the  State  —  settled 
in  1661;  is  the  scat  of  Union  Univer- 
sity (formerly,  College),  founded  in 
1795;  has  very  large  locomotive  and 
electrical  works,  knitting  and  lace 
xaills,  and  farm  machinery  plant; 
contains  a  State  Armory,  Ellis  Hos- 
pital, Children's  Home,  Home  for  the 
Friendless,  and  several  notable  pub- 
lic buildings.    Pop.  (1910)  72,826.       j 

Scheppegrell,  William,  an  Amer- 
ican physician;  born  in  Hanover,  Ger-I 
many,  Sept.  22,  1860.  He  invented 
numerous  appliances  for  treating  the 
ear,  nose,  and  throat.  I 

ScUaTone,  Andrea,  an  Italian 
painter ;  true  name,  Medola ;  born  in  ' 
Sebenico,  Dalmatia,  in  1522.  He  stud- '. 
ied  under  Titian,  who  emploved  him  in 
the  library  of  St  Mark,  where  he  is! 
said  to  have  painted  three  entire  ceil- ' 


SchUUng 

ings.    He  died  in  1582. 

Sclii£P,  Jacob  Henry,  banker ;  b. 
1847  at  Frankfort,  Germany.  He  came 
to  the  U.  S.  in  1865,  and  became  iden- 
tified with  banking,  railroad,  and  phil- 
anthropic interests. 

Scbiller,      Jobann      Cbrlstopb 
Friedricb  von,  a  German  poet ;  born 
in_Marbach,    Wurtemberg,    Nov.    10, 
l<o9.    After  having  studied  medicine 
and  become  surgeon  in  a  regiment,  he, 
in  his  22d  year,  wrote  the  tragedy  Ot 
,  "  The  Robbers,     which  at  once  raised 
him  to  the  foremost  rank  among  the 
I  dramatists  of  his  country.   It  was  per- 
formed   at   Mannheim   in    1782.     But 
some  passages  of  a  revolutionary  tend- 
ency  having  incurred  the  displeasure 
j  of  the  Duke  of  Wurtemberg,  Schiller 
j  left  Stuttgart  by  stealth  and  made  his 
way  to  Mannheim,  where,  after  vari- 
(  ous  wanderings  and  many  hardships, 
,  he    got     bis     tragedy     of     "  Fiesco " 
brought  out  on  the  stage.    In  1789  he 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  history 
in  the  University  of  Jena,  and  besides 
lecturing  to  crowded  audiences  he  pub- 
lished   his    "  History    of    the    Thirty 
I  Years'  War  "  and  engaged  in  various 
literary  enterprises   which   had  great 
influence  on  the  literatuie  of  Germanyc 
About    1790    he    exhibited    a    strong 
tendency   to   consumption,   which,    by 
precluding  him  from  lecturing,  greatly 
reduced  his  income;    but  he  was  re- 
lieved from  the  pressure  of  misfortune 
by  the  kindness  of  the  Prince  of  Den- 
mark, who  settled  on  him  a  pension  of 
$1,000  for  three  years,  and  thus  en- 
abled him  to  pursue  his  studies  free 
at   once    from    narrow    circumstances 
and  public  duties.    He  soon  after  set- 
tled at  Weimar,  in  order  to  direct  the 
theater  in  conjunction  with  Goethe; 
and    here    at    intervals    he    published 
the  following  works :    "  Wallenstein," 
"  Mary  Stuart,"  "  Joan  of  Arc,"  and 
"  William  Tell."    He  died  in  Weimar, 
Germany,  May  9,  1805. 

Scbilling;,  Jobann,  a  Germani 
sculptor;  bom  in  Mittweida,  Saxony, 
June  23,  1828;  studied  art  at  Berlin 
and  Dresden.  In  1868  he  became  pro- 
fessor at  the  Dresden  Royal  Academy. 
His  chief  works  include  the  "  Four 
Seasons  "  at  Dresden ;  Schiller  statue 
at  Vienna;  Maximilian's  statue  at 
Trieste;  War  Memorial  at  Hamburg; 
the  German  National  Monument  on 
the  Niederwald,  opposite  Bingen  ea 


JKcMsitt 

the  Rhine,  with  a  colossal  figure  of 
Germania ;  and  the  statue  of  the  Em- 
peror William  I.  at  Wiesbaden  (1894). 

Schism,  kn  ecclesiastical  division 
In  a  Church  or  separation  from  a 
Church ;  as  also  the  tendency  to  pro- 
mote such  division.  The  Great  Schism 
or  Greek  Schism  is  the  separation  of 
the  Greek  Church  from  the  Latin. 

Schist,  a  term  used  for  rocks  con- 
sisting of  mineral  ingredients  arranged 
so  as  to  impart  a  more  or  less  laminar 
structure,  that  may  be  broken  into 
slabs  or  slaty  fragments.  Such  are 
mica  schists,  chlorite  schists,  etc 

Schlegel,  August  Wilhelm.  von, 
a  German  author ;  bom  in  Hanover, 
Prussia,  Sept.  8,  17G7.  He  was  Pro- 
iPessor  of  Literature  in  the  University 
of  Bonn.  His  most  notable  works  in 
literary  and  art  criticism  are :  "  Lec- 
tures on  Dramatic  Art  and  Liter- 
ature"  (3  vols.  1809-1811),  translat- 
ed into  nearly  all  the  lailguages  of 
Western  Europe.  He  translated  many 
of  the  plays  of  Shakespeare  and  made 
the  English  dramatist  a  German 
classic.  He  translated  Dante,  Cal- 
deron,  Camoens,  and  other  foreign 
masters  of  literature.  He  wrote  son- 
nets, an  elegy,  "Rome"  (1812),  and 
other  poems.  He  died  in  Bonn,  Ger- 
many, May  12,  1845. 

Schlegel,  Friedrich  von,  a  Ger- 
man philologist ;  born  in  Hanover, 
Prussia,  March  10,  1772.  He  first  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  Greek 
antiquity,  and  in  1794  publisjjed  his 
great  essay  "On  the  Schools  of  Gre- 
cian Poetry  " ;  following  it  with  many 
others  of  a  like  tenor.  In  his  "  Frag- 
ments," he  essayed  to  establish  the 
theory  of  a  new  romanticism.  His  work 
"  Language  and  Wisdom  of  the  In- 
dians" (1808)  was  a  valuable  con- 
tribution to  the  science  of  language. 
He  died  in  Dresden,  Saxony,  Jan.  12, 
1829. 

Schley,  Winfield  Scott,  an  Amer- 
ican naval  officer ;  born  in  Frederic 
CO..  Md.,  Oct.  9,  1839.  He  entered  tue 
United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1854, 
and  began  his  seafaring  experience  by 
making  the  voyage  to  Japan  on  board 
the  United  States  vessel  which  escort- 
ed the  Japanese  embassy  home  in  1860. 
He  remained  abroad  till  the  Civil  War, 
when  he  secured  the  first  prize  ship 
of  the  war,  the  "  General  Parkhill." 

E.  134. 


Schley 

At  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  he  waa 
ordered  to  the  Pacific  coast,  where  ha 
performed  various  missions  of  a  peril- 
ous character,  being  present  at  the 
bombardment  of  Valparaiso  and  Callao 
by  the  Spanish  fleet,  and  during  the 
same  cruise  he  suppressed  insurrections 
at  both  Middle  Chincha  Island  and  La 
Union,  Honduras.  Equal  in  importance 
to  these  services  in  time  of  war  waa 
his  voluntary  command  of  the  expedi- 
tion for  the  rescue  of  Greely  from  the 
desolate  shore  of  Cape  Sabine  in  1884. 
The  marvelously  short  period  in  which 
this  dash  into  the  kingdom  of  the  frost 
king  was  accomplished  and  the  starv- 
ing victims  snatched  back  to  their 
homes  and  civilization  form  a  bright 
testimonial  to  his  skill  and  daring.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Spanish-American 
War  he  had  attained  the  rank  of  com- 
modore, and  was  chairman  of  the 
Lighthouse  Board,  to  which  office  he 
was  elected  by  unanimous  vote  of  the 
board  on  April  15,  1897.  In  anticipa- 
tion of  the  war  with  Spain,  Commo- 
dore Schley  was,  on  March  25,  1898, 
placed  in  command  of  the  "  Flying 
Squadron "  at  Hampton  Roads,  com- 
prising the  armored  cruiser  "  Brook- 
lyn," the  battleships  "  Massachusetts  " 
apd  "  Texas,"  the  dispatch  boat  "  Scor- 
pion," and  a  collier.  On  May  13,  under 
sealed  orders,  he  steamed  out  to  sea, 
presumably  for  the  purpose  of  inter- 
cepting and  destroying  the  Spanish 
fleet  tmder  Admiral  Cervera,  which 
was  reported  to  be  on  its  way  from  the 
Cape  Verde  Islands  to  Cuban  waters. 
Disregarding  various  misleading  re- 
ports sent  out  from  Madrid  as  to  the 
movements  of  the  Spanish  fleet.  Com* 
modore  Schley  divined  the  probable 
course  the  Spanish  admiral  would  take, 
and  on  May  28  arrived  off  the  harbor 
of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  in  which  the 
Spanish  fleet  had  taken  refuge,  and  by 
blockading  the  entrance  prevented  its 
escape.  His  squadron  was  united  with 
Rear-Admiral  Sampson's  fleet  on  Tune 
30,  and  on  July  3  the  combined  fleet, 
under  Commodore  Schley,  destroyed 
the  Spanish  fleet  while  endeavoring  to 
escape,  an  unfortunate  "  loop  "  move- 
ment of  Schley's  ship,  however,  creat- 
ing much  adverse  comment.  In  Au- 
gust, 1898,  he  was  promoted  rear-ad- 
miral. Rear-Admiral  Sampson  was 
absent  from  the  battle  of  Santiago, 
and  a  controversy  arose  between  the 


Schmnlkald 


Sclinlizei^ 


friends  of  the  two  oliicers  as  lo 
whom  the  credit  for  the  victory  be- 
longed. Of  this  discussion  neith«r 
Schley  act  Sampson,  personally,  took 
any  notice  till  the  publication  of  a 
work  by  Edgar  Stanton  Maclay,  en- 
titled "  History  of  the  United  States 
Navy."  In  the  third  volume  of  this 
work,  Maclay  referred  to  Commodore 
Schley  as  a  "caititf,  poitioou,  and 
coward."  The  proofs  of  the  book  had 
been  read  and  approved  by  various 
naval  officers,  among  them  Rear-Ad- 
miral  Sampson ;  and  on  July  22,  1901, 
Schley  applied  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  for  the  appointment  of  a  court 
of  inquiry  into  his  conduct.  This  re- 
quest was  granted  on  July  24.  The 
court  was  convened  Sept.  12,  and  its 
sessions  lasted  exactly  one  month.  It 
consisted  of  Admiral  Dewey,  president, 
and  Rear-Admirals  Benham  and  Ram- 
say. The  verdict,  returned  Dec.  14, 
1901,  was  a  disagreement ;  Admiral 
Dewey  refusing  to  subscribe  to  the 
censures  on  Schley's  conduct  which 
were  made  by  the  two  other  members. 
The  majority  report  found  Schley 
guilty  of  vacillation,  lack  of  enterprise, 
and  disobedience ;  while  Dewey's  re- 
port praised  Schley  for  promptness 
and  efficient  service,  and  gave  him  the 
credit  for  the  destruction  of  Cervera's 
fleet.  Schley  filed  with  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  objections  to  the  majority 
report,  but  it  was  nevertheless  ap- 
proved by  Secretary  Long,  Dec.  20, 
1901.  In  January,  1902,  Rear-Ad- 
miral  Schley  appealed  from  the  ver- 
dict to  the  President,  who,  however, 
confirmed  Secretary  Long's  approval. 

Schmalkald,  League  of,  a  de- 
fensive alliance  concluded  at  Schmal- 
kalden,  April  4,  1531,  between  nine 
Protestant  princes  and  11  imperial 
cities,  with  whom  other  princes  and 
imperial  cities  subsequently  made  com- 
mon cause.  The  Elector  of  Saxony 
and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  were  ap- 
pointed "chiefs  of  the  league.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  formidable  alliance,  which 
included  nearly  all  the  Protestant 
States  from  Denmark  to  Switzerland, 
was  the  common  defense  of  the  re- 
ligion and  political  freedom  of  the 
Protestants  against  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  and  the  Catholic  States. 
The  confederation  was  consolidated  by 
the  "Articles  of  Schmalkald,"  drnwn 
np  by  Luther  at  Wittenberg,  in  1536. 


A  conflict  was  of  course  inevita- 
ble. In  the  war  of  Schmalkald  that 
ensued  (1546)  and  in  the  battle  of 
Muhlberg  (April  24,  1547)  the  Elector 
of  Saxony,  Philip  of  Hesse,  and  other 
Protestant  chiefs  were  taken  prison- 
ers and  their  army  routed.  This 
caused  the  league  to  break  up. 

Scliiuidt,  Nathaniel,  an  Amer- 
ican educator ;  born  in  Hudiksvall, 
Sweden,  May  22,  1862 ;  settled  in  the- 
United  States  and  was  Professor  of 
Semitic  Languages  and  Literature  nt 
Colgate  University  in  1888-1896.  la 
the  latter  year  he  accepted  a  similar 
chair  at  Cornell  University. 

Sclmeider,  Albert,  an  American, 
botanist ;  born  in  Granville,  111.,  April 
i3,  1863.  In  1897  he  was  made  Pro- 
fessor of  Botany,  Pharmacognosy  and 
Materia  Medica  in  the  School  of  Phar- 
macy, Northwestern  University,  Chi- 
cago. His  publications  include  many- 
works  on  science. 

Schneider,  George,  an  American 
journalist ;  born  in  Pirmasens,  Rhen- 
ish Bavaria,  Dec.  13,  1823 ;  engaged 
in  journalism  there,  but  was  forced  to 
flee  the  country  owing  to  his  partici- 
pation in  the  revolution  of  1848-1849* 
In  the  latter  year  he  settled  in  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  where  he  founded  the- 
"  Unsere  Zeit,"  the  first  abolitionist 
paper  in  the  State ;  removed  to  Chi- 
cago in  1851  and  there  founded  the- 
"  Daily  Staats-Zeitung " ;  was  made- 
United  States  commissioner  for  Ger- 
many and  the  Northern  countries  of 
Europe'  and  consul  to  Denmark  in 
1861  to  influence  public  opinion  to- 
ward the  Federal  government,  and  also 
to  negotiate  loans  for  the  United 
States.  In  1862-1866  he  was  collec- 
tor of  internal  revenue;  in  1871-189T 
was  president  of  the  National  Bank 
of  Illinois ;  and  in  1892-1893,  a  direc- 
tor of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposi- 
tion. 

Schnitzer,  Edward,  better  knowa 
as  Emin  Pasha,  an  African  explorer; 
born  in  Oppeln,  Germany,  March  28,. 
1840.  In  1878  he  was  appointed  by- 
Gordon  Pasha  governor  of  the  Equa- 
torial Province.  He  showed  himself 
an  enlightened  ruler  and  a  bitter  fo& 
to  slavery.  He  added  greatly  to  the 
anthropological  knowledge  of  Central 
Africa  and  published  valuable  geo- 
graphical papers.  He  entered  the  Ger 


SclinoTr  Ton  Carolsfeld 


ScliooX 


man  service,  1889,  and  commanded  an 
•expedition  to  Central  Africa.  He  was 
murdered  by  Arab  slave  traders  in  the 
Kongo  Free  State,  Oct.  20,  1892. 

Schnorr  von  Carolsfeld,  Baron 
•Julius,  a  German  painter ;  born  in 
iicipsic,  Germany,  March  26,  1794.  In 
1846  he  accepted  the  appointment  of 
professor  at  the  Fine  Art  Academy 
in  Dresden,  coupled  with  the  director- 
ship of  the  Royal  Picture  Gallery. 
Schnorr's  designs  for  180  pictures  to 
illustrate  the  narratives  of  the  Bible 
«re  accounted  by  many  authorities  the 
best  things  he  did.  His  skill  as  a 
draughtsman  and  designer  are  further 
exhibited  in  stained  glass  windows  in 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  and  in 
■Glasgow  Cathedral.  He  died  in  Dres- 
den, May  24,  1872. 

Schoenbom,  August,  an  Amer- 
ican architect ;  born  in  Germany  about 
1822.  He  rendered  valuable  service 
during  the  Civil  War  in  preparing 
maps  and  plans  for  General  McDow- 
■ell,  as  well  as  for  forts,  barracks,  hos- 
pitals, and  other  buildings  for  the 
•quartermaster-general.  He  was  best 
known  for  his  plans  for  the  dome  of 
the  Capitol.  He  died  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  Jan.  25,  1902. 

Schofield,  Jolin  McAllister,  an 
American  military  ofhcer ;  born  in 
•Gerry,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  29,  1831;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1853.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  served  in  the  Missouri 
campaign  under  General  Lyon ;  com- 
manded the  Department  of  the  Ohio; 
took  part  in  the  Atlanta  campaign ; 
find  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Frank- 
lin, Tenn.,  Nov.  30,  1864,  for  which 
lie  was  made  Brigadier-General  and 
brevet  Major-General  in  the  regular 
army.  After  the  war  he  became  com- 
mander of  the  Division  of  the  Pacific ; 
was  Secretary  of  War  in  1868-1869; 
•commanded  the  army  of  the  United 
States  as  senior  Major-General;  and 
was  promoted  Lieutenant-General  (a 
.grade  created  for  him)  and  was  re- 
tired in  1895.  He  was  the  author  of 
"  Forty-six  Years  in  the  Army " 
(1897).    He  died  Mar.  4,  1906. 

Scholarsliip,  a  name  given  in  the 
tmiversities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
England,  to  foundations  for  maintain- 
ing sf-lio'irs.  A  scholarship  is,  like  a 
fellowship,  subject  to  certain  regula- 


tions and  conditions ;  is  inferior  t» 
the  latter,  but  superior  to  an  exhibi- 
tion. In  the  United  States  most  of 
the  colleges  have  endowed  scholar- 
ships. In  some  cases  the  power  of 
appointment  is  vested  in  certain  col- 
lege officers,  and  in  others  the  scholar- 
ship is  won  by  competitive  examina- 
tions. 

Scholasticism,  in  philosophy  and 
Church  history,  the  name  given  to  a 
movement  which  began  with  the  open- 
ing of  cloister  schools  by  Charle- 
magne (742-814),  attained  its  great- 
est development  in  the  early  part  of 
the  13th  century  under  Aquinas  and 
Scotus,  and  gradually  subsided  at  the 
Renaissance.  Scholasticism  was  the 
reproduction  of  ancient  philosophy  un- 
der the  control  of  ecclesiastical  disci- 
pline, the  former  being  accommodated 
to  the  latter  in  case  of  any  discrepancy 
between  them. 

Sclioniburgk,  Sir  Robert  Her« 
maun,  a  I'russian  traveler ;  born  ia 
Freiburg,  Prussian  Saxony,  June  5, 
1804.  He  was  trained  for  the  mer- 
cantile profession  and  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1829 ;  but  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  removed  to  Anegada, 
one  of  the  Virgin  Isles.  In  1840  he 
returned  to  Guiana  to  survey  the 
colony  for  the  government,  and  to 
draw  the  long  controverted  "  Schom- 
burgk  line  "  as  a  provisional  boundary 
with  Venezuela  and  Brazil.  He  was 
knighted.  He  died  in  Schoneberg, 
near  Berlin,  March  11,  1865.  His 
boundary  line  was  the  subject  of  much 
argument  in  the  British-Venezuelan 
arbitration  tribunal  in  1897. 

Scboolcraft,  Henry  Howe,  an 
American  author,  noted  as  an  Indian 
authoritv ;  born  in  Albany  co.,  N.  Y., 
March  28,  1793.  Thirty  years  of  hia 
life  he  spent  among  the  Indians,  and 
through  him  many  laws  were  enacted 
for  their  protection.  Among  his  nu- 
merous publications  are :  "  Travels 
in  the  Central  Portions  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,"  "  The  Indian  and  His 
Wigwam,"  etc.  He  died  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  Dec.  10,   1864. 

Scbool,  a  place,  house,  or  estab- 
lishment where  instruction  is  given  in 
arts,  sciences,  languages,  or  any  other 
branch  of  learning;  a  place  of  educa- 
tion and  training  in  mental  or  me- 
chanical  arts.    Also    the   pupils   col* 


School  Board 


Schopenliauer 


lectively  in  any  place  of  instruction, 
and  under  the  discipline  and  direction 
of  one  or  more  teachers. 

Very  early  in  the  settlement  of  the 
United  States  the  cause  of  education 
received  a  great  share  of  the  public 
attention,  and  schools  of  almost  every 
grade  were  established  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  young  and  for  fitting  older 
students  for  various  professions.  The 
first  noted  foundation  in  this  connec- 
tion was  Harvard  College,  which  be- 
gan its  existence  in  16ii6,  under  pa- 
tronage of  the  Rev.  John  Harvard. 
For  57  years  this  institution  was  with- 
out a  rival. 

From  this  time  onward,  despite  the 
troublous  times  of  the  Revolution,  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  higher 
schools  was  rapid  and  steady,  and  to- 
day there  is  not  a  State  in  the  Union 
which  is  not  liberally  supplied  with 
facilities  for  its  people  acquiring 
higher  education.  The  idea  of  public 
schools  maintained  by  the  States  was 
also  of  early  date,  and  in  the  Northern 
and  Anti- Slavery  States  was  put  into 
practice. 

In  the  United  States  any  primary 
school  conducted  under  the  auspices 
or  supervision  of  any  religious  de- 
nomination is  termed  a  parochial 
school. 

School  Board,  in  the  United 
States,  a  committee  of  citizens  elected 
to  take  charge  of  the  public  schools  in 
any  district,  town,  or  city  and  to  con- 
trol the  money  appropriated  for  school 
purposes. 

School  Savings  Banks,  a  system 
for  encouraging  school  children  in 
saving  their  money.  It  was  intro- 
duced in  the  United  States  by  John 
H.  Thiry,  of  what  was  then  Long 
Island  City,  N.  Y.,  in  1885,  being  mod- 
ified by  him  from  the  methods  in  use 
in  the  schools  of  England,  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  and  Belgium. 

The  method  of  depositing  is  simple. 
Teachers  devote  10  minutes  each  Mon- 
day morning  to  the  collection  of  the 
sums,  from  one  cent  upward,  which 
pupils  have  saved  for  the  bank.  When 
a  boy  or  girl  has  a  dollar  to  his  credit 
he  gets  a  bank  book  free.  On  the  last 
Monday  of  each  month  the  teacher 
deposits  the  collections  in  a  chosen 
savings  institution,  and  there  they  are 
duly  credited  to  the  several  depositors. 
Bums  of  $2  and  upward  bearing  in- 


terest. The  pupil  can  only  draw  on 
his  account  by  signing  a  check,  which 
must  also  bear  the  signed  approval  of 
his  parent  or  guardian  and  teacher. 

The  pronounced  success  of  the  sys- 
tem of  school  savings  banks  has  been 
widely  remarked  in  the  public  press 
and  by  prominent  educators  and  com- 
missioners of  education.  It  was  de- 
signed not  only  to  stimulate  the  ac- 
cumulation of  capital  on  the  part  of 
the  children  who  should  take  an  inter- 
est in  it,  but  to  build  up  habits  of  fru- 
gality and  self-denial  in  them,  to  di- 
vert their  spending  money  from  foolish 
or  injurious  to  practical  channels,  and 
to  give  them  sound  ideas  of  the  value 
of  money. 

The  system  is  now  in  operation  in 
more  than  1,200  schools  in  over  120 
cities  in  25  States.  The  number  of 
banks  exceeds  8,500,  and  depositors 
203,500.  Since  the  introduction  of 
the  system  the  pupils  in  these  schools 
have  deposited  in  small  amounts  more 
than  .$5.0.50.000,  withdrawing  over 
!f4  000.000.  and  having  a  balance  to 
thoir  credit  of  about  $1,000,000  — a 
f»T-and  evidence  of  the  importance  of 
^''is  form  of  thrift. 

Schooner,  a  two  or  three-masted 
vessel  whose  sails  are  of  the  fore-and- 
aft  class  —  i.  e.,  extended  on  booms. 
The  masts  have  but  one  splice,  the 
topgallant,  if  any,  forming  part  of 
the  topmast  stick.  When  a  schooner 
has  none  but  fore-and-aft  sails,  she  is 
termed  a  fore-and-aft  schooner;  if 
carrying  a  square  foretopsail  and  fore- 
topgallant  sail,  a  topsail  schooner. 
This  latter  rig,  formerly  common,  has 
now  become  rare.  Square-rigged  ves- 
sels have  also  lower  fore-and-aft  sails, 
denominated  spencers  or  trysails,  but 
these  are  small  and  are  brailed  up^  to 
the  gaff  when  furled,  instead  of  being 
lowered  like  those  of  a  schooner. 

The  first  seven-masted  schooner  ever 
constructed,  the  "  Thomas  W.  Law- 
son,"  was  launched  in  Boston,  July 
10,  1902. 

Schopenhauer,  Arthur,  a  Ger- 
man philosopher ;  born  in  Danzic,  Feb. 
22,  1788.  The  principal  work  of 
Schopenhauer  is  entitled  "  The  World 
as  Will  and  Idea."  It  appeared  in 
1819,  and  after  being  neglected  for 
many  years  attracted  a  good  deal  of 
attention  and  received  some  sharp 
blows  of  criticism.    The  practical  up- 


Schott 


Schumann 


shot  of  his  system,  which  makes  will 
the  one  sole  reality,  is  intolerably 
melancholy,  taking  "from  man  all  that 
constitutes  his  greatness,  his  goodness, 
or  his  bliss.  God  —  futurity  —  the 
soul  —  mere  names,  illusions ;  and  the 
,  world  of  men  is  to  him  bad,  hopelessly 
bad,  and  made  so.  Schopenhauer  pub- 
lished several  other  works  of  philoso- 
phy, of  which  the  most  important  is 
"  The  Two  Sound  Problems  of  Eth- 
ics." He  died  in  Prankfort-on-the- 
Main,  Sept.  21,  18C0. 

Schott,  Charles  Anthony,  an 
American  scientist;  born  in  Mann- 
heim, Germany,  Aug.  7,  1826 ;  was 
graduated  at  the  Polytechnic  School 
ia  Carlsruhe ;  settled  in  the  United 
States  in  1848,  and  became  connected 
with  the  United  States  Coast  and  Ge- 
odetic Survey ;  was  made  assistant  of 
that  survey  in  1856;  was  sent  to  the 
International  Conference  on  Terres- 
trial Magnetism,  Bristol,  England,  in 
1S98;  became  identified  with  numer- 
ous scientific  and  philosophical  socie- 
ties. His  publications  include  articles 
on  tides,  hydrography,  terrestrial  mag- 
netism, physics,meteorology.  Died  1901. 

Schottische,  a  quick  kind  of  dance, 
performed  by  two  persons,  and  danced 
in  common  time;  may  be  described 
briefly  as  a  combination  of  the  polka 
and  mazourka.  In  music,  a  piece  of 
music  set  in  appropriate  time  to  the 
steps  of  such  a  dance. 

Schonler,  John,  an  American 
naval  officer ;  born  in  Lowell,  Mass., 
Nov.  30,  1846;  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
1864;  was  chief  of  staff  of  the  5forth 
Atlantic  Squadron  in  1895-1897;  and 
was  afterward  assigned  to  special  duty 
iir  the  Bureau  of  Navigation.  He  was 
retired  as  rear-admiral  November, 
1899. 

Schrader,  Frank  Charles,  an 
American  geologist;  born  in  Sterling, 
111.,  Oct.  6,  1860 ;  was  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Kansas;  was  an  in- 
structor of  geology  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  1895-1896.  In  the  latter 
year  he  became  connected  with  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey ;  was 
assistant  geologist  in  an  expedition  to 
Yukon,  Alaska,  in  1896,  in  one  to 
Idaho  and  Arizona  in  1897 ;  etc.  In 
1901  he  had  charge  of  the  geological 
work  in  the  expedition  to  the  Arctic 
toast  of  Alaska. 


Schrader,  Frederick  Franklin, 

an  American  journalist ;  born  in  Ham- 
burg, Germany,  Oct.  27,  1857;  settled 
in  the  United  States  with  his  parents 
in  1869 ;  was  the  Washington  cor- 
respondent of  the  St.  Louis  "  Globe- 
Democrat  "  in  1891-1894,  and  political 
writer  for  the  Washington  "  Post "  in 
1894-1896.  In  the  latter  year  he  be- 
came correspondent  of  a  syndicate  of 
Western  papers. 

Schroeder,  Seaton,  an  American 
naval  ofiicer;  born  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  Aug.  17,  1849 ;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy 
in  1868.  Subsequently  he  served  in 
the  Hydrographic  OflBce;  was  detailed 
to  special  duty  in  the  Mediterranean ; 
attached  to  the  Fish  Commission 
steamer  "  Albatross  " ;  etc.  He  was 
assigned  to  the  battleship  "  Massachu- 
setts "  in  1896  and  served  on  that  ves- 
sel through  the  Spanish-American 
War ;  was  made  secretary  of  the  Naval 
Inspection  Board;  and  in  1900  was 
appointed  governor  of  the  island  of 
Guam. 

Schubert,  Franz  Peter,  an  Aus- 
trian composer;  bom  in  Vienna,  Aus- 
tria, Jan.  31,  1797.  The  number  and 
variety  of  his  compositions  is  extraor- 
dinary. The  most  admired  is  his 
"  Songs,"  and  among  them  "  The  Erl 
King  "  and  "Ave  Maria,"  are  perhaps 
the  best  known.  But  he  wrote  also 
operas,  sonatas,  symphonies,  over- 
tures, cantatas,  six  masses,  etc.  He 
left  numerous  works  unpublished  at 
the  time  of  his  death.  Schubert  spent 
almost  his  whole  life  at  Vienna,  and 
died  there  Nov.  19,  1828. 

Schumann,  Rpbert,  a  German 
musical  composer  ;  born  in  Zwickau  in 
the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  June  8,  1810. 
The  celebrated  pianiste,  Clara  Wieck, 
became  his  wife  in  1840.  In  the  year 
following  his  marriage  he  published 
nearly  150  songs,  many  on  Heine's 
words,  and  all  marking  an  advance  on 
previous  composers  in  the  fidelity  and 
subtilty  with  which  they  reproduced 
the  most  delicate  shades  of  meaning 
in  the  poems  selected  for  musical  treat- 
ment. He  then  commenced  his  great 
series  of  orchestral  works,  his  sym- 
phony in  B  flat  being  first  performed 
at  the  close  of  1841.  Under  stress  of 
work,  however,  his  reason  failed  him, 
and  after  an  attempt  to  drown  himself 


Sdmrman 

in  1854  he  was  confined  in  a  lunatic 
asylum,  where  he  died  July  29,  1856. 
Schurman,     Jacob     Gould,     an 

American  educator;  born  in  Free- 
town, Prince  Edward's  Island,  May 
22,  1854.  He  won  the  Gilchrist  Do- 
minion scholarship,  1875;  was  grad- 
uated at  London  University,  1877 ; 
was  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  Aca- 
dia College,  1880-1882;  in  Dalhousie 
€ollege,  Halifax,  1882-1886.  He  be- 
came Professor  of  Philosophy  at  Cor- 
nell University,  and  president  in  1892. 
In  1899  he  was  appointed  president 
of  the  first  Philippine  Commission.  He 
lias  published :  "  Kantian  Ethics," 
*'  The  Ethical  Import  of  Darwinism," 
*'  Agnosticism  and  Religion,"  "  A  Gen- 
eration of  Cornell,"  and  "  Report  of 
the  Philippine  Commission."  He  was 
also  editor  of  the  "  Philosophical  Re- 
•view." 

Schnrz,  Carl,  an  American  states- 
man; b<irn  in  Sibhar,  near  Cologne, 
Prussia,  March  2,  1829;  he  was  a 
student  at  Bonn  in  1847-1848.  In  the 
«arly  part  of  1849  he  participated  in 
the  revolutionary  movements  in  the 
Palatinate  and  at  Baden,  and  on  the 
defeat  of  the  insurrection  fled  to  Switz- 
erland to  escape  arrest.  About  1852 
he  came  to  the  United  States,  and 
settled  in  Madison,  Wis.  In  1861  he 
was  appointed  minister  to  Spain,  but 
when  the  Civil  War  broke  out  he  re- 
signed that  he  might  return  and  join 
the  Union  army.  He  took  part  in  the 
second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  com- 
manded a  division  at  Chancellorsville, 
May,  1863,  and  a  corps  at  Gettys- 
iburg,  July  1-3  of  that  year.  He  re- 
signed from  the  army  in  1865,  and  in 
1869  was  elected  United  States  Sena- 
tor from  Missouri.  He  was  Secretary 
of  the  Interior  under  President  Hayes 
from  1877  to  1881.  In  1881-1884  he 
was  editor  of  the  New  York  "  Evening 
Post,"  and  was  conspicuous  in  the 
*■  Mugwump  "  movement  of  1884.  In 
1892  he  became  president  of  the  Na- 
tional Civil  Service  Reform  League. 
He  afterward  wrote  several  books.  He 
died  in  New  York,  May  14,  1906. 

ScHnssele,  Christian,  an  Amer- 
ican artist;  born  in  Guebvillers,  Al- 
sace, April  16,  1824.  He  settled  in 
the  United  States  in  1848,  and  en- 
gaged in  chromo-lithography ;  later  he 
devoted  most  of  his  time  to  painting; 


Schwabaolt' 

and  was  Professor  of  Painting  and 
Drawing  in  the  Pennsylvania  Acad- 
emy in  1868-1879.  He  died  in  Mer- 
chantville,  N.  J.,  Aug.  20,  1879. 

Schuyler,  Engene,  an  American 
diplomatist;  born  in  Ithaca,  N.  Y., 
Feb.  26,  1840 ;  was  graduated  at  Yale 
University  in  1859  and  at  the  Law 
School  of  Columbia  University  in 
1863.  He  was  United  States  consul 
at  Moscow  in  1866-1869,  and  consul- 
general  at  Cairo,  Egypt,  in  1899- 
1890.  He  made  a  remarkable  tour 
through  Turkestan,  Khokan,  and  Bok- 
hara; investigated  the  Turkish  massa- 
cres in  Bulgaria;  and  was  authorized 
to  conclude  the  commercial  treaties 
with  Servia  and  Rumania.  On  his 
return  to  the  United  States  in  1884, 
he  engaged  in  literary  work  and  pub- 
lished :  "  Peter  the  Great,  Emperor  of 
Russia,"  "  American  Diplomacy  and 
the  Furtherance  of  Commerce,"  etc. 
He  died  in  Cairo,  Egypt,  July  18, 
1890. 

Schnyler,  Philip,  an  American 
military  ofiicer ;  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y., 
in  November,  1733.  He  was  Federal- 
ist United  States  Senator  from  New 
York  in  1789-1791,  and  was  again 
elected  a  Senator,  in  place  of  Aaron 
Burr,  in  1797.  One  of  his  daughters 
was  the  wife  of  Alexander  Hamilton. 
He  died  in  Albany,  Nov.  18,  1804. 

Schuylkill,  a  river  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, which  rises  in  the  N.  side  of 
the  Blue  Mountains,  runs  S.  E.,  passes 
through  the  confines  of  Philadelphia, 
and  unites  with  the  Delaware  5  miles 
below  that  city.  It  is  120  miles  long, 
and  navigable  for  boats  of  300  or  400 
tons  to  Philadelphia. 

Schivab,  Charles  M.,  an  Amer« 
ican  manufacturer;  born  in  Williams- 
burg, Pa.,  April  18,  1862.  At  the  age 
of  18  he  went  to  work  for  the  Edgar 
Thomson  Steel  Works  and  rose  rap- 
idly. He  was  superintendent,  first  of 
the  Edgar  Thomson,  and  afterward  of 
the  Homestead  Steel  Works,  and  took 
management  of  both  in  1892;  became 
President  of  the  U.  S.  Steel  Corpora- 
tion in  1901 ;  resigned  1903,  owing  to 
ill-health.  Is  a  director  of  the  U.  S. 
Shipbuilding  Corporation  and  others. 

Schwabach,  Articles  of,  a  con- 
fession of  faith  drawn  up  by  Luther 
for  the  princes  and  cities  assembled  in 
1529   at    Schwabach.    The   cities   o£ 


ScliTPan 


Scilly  Island* 


Southern  Germany,  inclining  to  the 
Swiss  doctrine,  refused  to  subscribe, 
and  these  articles,  adopted  by  the 
Schmalkaldic  League,  became  thus  a 
chief  obstacle  to  a  union  between  the 
party  of  Luther  and  Zwingli. 

Schi^ran,  Theodore,  an  American 
military  officer;  born  in  Germany, 
July  9,  1841,  came  to  the  United 
States  and  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the 
regular  army  in  1857;  served  credita- 
bly during  the  Civil  War;  was  pro- 
moted 1st  lieutenant  in  1864,  and 
brevetted  major  for  gallant  and  meri- 
torious services  in  1867.  In  1898  he 
was  appointed  a  Brigadier-General  of 
volunteers,  and  won  distinction  in  the 
Philippines,  where  he  captured  Cavite, 
"Viejo,  San  Cruz  and  other  places  in 
the  province  of  Cavite.  He  was  pro- 
moted Brigadier-General,  U.  S.  A.,  in 
February,  1901. 

Scliirantlialer,  Lndiirig  Mich- 
ael, a  German  sculptor ;  born  in 
Munich,  Aug.  26,  1802.  In  1835  he 
was  appointed  professor  at  the  Munich 
Academy.  The  number  of  his  works 
is  singularly  great,  while  their  excel- 
lence places  him  in  the  first  rank  of 
German  sculptors.  He  died  Nov.  28, 
1848,  leaving  his  models  to  the  nation. 

Schxrartz,  Berthold,  a  monk  of 
the  order  of  Cordeliers,  at  the  end  of 
the  13th  century,  was  a  native  of  Fri- 
bourg,  in  Germany,  and  an  able  chem- 
ist. It  is  said  tbat  as  he  was  making 
some  experiments  with  niter  he  was 
led  to  his  invention  of  gunpowder, 
which  was  first  applied  to  warlike 
purposes  by  the  Venetians  in  1300. 
There  is,  however,  much  discrepancy 
in  the  accounts  of  this  discovery ;  and 
it  is  certain  that  Roger  Bacon,  who 
died  in  1292,  was  acquainted  with  an 
inflammable  composition  similar  to 
gunpowder. 

SchTB'atka,  Frederick,  an  Amer- 
ican Arctic  explorer;  born  in  Galena, 
111.,  Sept.  29.  1849 ;  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1871,  and  served  as  a  lieutenant  of 
cavalry  on  the  frontier  till  1877,  mean- 
while being  also  admitted  to  the 
Nebraska  bar  and  taking  a  medical 
degree  in  New  York.  After  exploring 
the  course  of  the  Yukon  in  Alaska,  in 
1884  he  resigned  his  commission.  In 
1886  he  commanded  the  New  York 
"  Times  "  Alaskan  expedition,  and  as- 


cended Mount  St.  Elias  to  a  height  of 
7.200  feet;  in  1891  he  led  another 
party  to  Alaska  which  opened  up 
some  700  miles  of  new  country  in  the 
same  quarter.  He  published  "  Along 
Alaska's  Great  River,"  "  The  Childrea 
of  the  Cold,"  etc.  He  died  in  Portland- 
Or.,  Nov.  2,  1892. 

Schforeinitz,  Iionis  Davis  von^ 
an  American  botanist ;  born  in  Bethle- 
hem, Pa.,  Feb.  13,  1780 ;  was  educated 
in  Germany  in  1798-1812;  spent  all 
his  time  from  childhood  in  the  study 
of  botany.  His  original  researches  re- 
sulted in  an  addition  of  over  1,400 
new  species  to  the  catalogue  of  Amer- 
ican flora.  Of  these  more  than  1,200 
were  fungi,  which  prior  to  his  tim& 
had  been  little  studied.  He  be- 
queathed his  large  and  valuable  collec- 
tion of  plants  to  the  Academy  of  Nat- 
ural Science  of  Philadelphia.  He  died 
in  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  Feb.  8,  1834. 

Sciatica,  acute  pain  produced  by 
neuralgia  following  the  course  of  the 
great  sciatic  nerve,  generally  in  only 
one  limb. 

Science,  in  its  widest  significance, 
the  correlation  of  all  knowledge.  A 
term  applied  to  the  generalized  and 
systematized  divisions  of  knowledge. 
It  includes  mathematics,  physics, 
chemistry,  zoology,  etc»  To  know  _a 
truth  in  its  relation  to  other  truths  is 
to  know  it  scientifically. 

Scilly  Islands,  a  group  of  islands 
belonging  to  Cornwall,  England; 
about  27  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Land's 
End.  They  occupy  about  30  square 
miles  of  sea  room,  and  consist  of  six 
large  islands  —  St.  Mary's  (1,52S 
acres),  Tresco  (697  acres),  St.  Mar- 
tin's (515  acres),  St.  Agnes  (31S 
acres),  Bryher  (269  acres),  and  Sam- 
son (78  acres)  — and  some  30  small 
ones,  besides  innumerable  rocks  and 
ledges,  of  which  about  100  are  named. 
They  are  composed  entirely  of  a  coarse 
type  of  granite,  a  continuation  of  that 
running  through  Devon  and  Cornwall. 

Farming  is  practised,  and  early  po- 
tatoes and  broccoli  are  exported ;  but 
the  principal  industry  now  is  the  cul- 
tivation of  narcissus  and  other  lilies 
— 100  tons  of  flowers  being  shipped 
in  a  single  spring.  In  May  and  June, 
during  the  mackerel  fishing,  there  is 
one  steamer  (often  two)  daily  with 
cargoes  of  sometimes  over  100,0*00  fish. 


Scintillation 


Sclrrhus 


Politically  the  islands  belong  to  the 
St.  Ives  division  of  Cornwall. 

Scintillation,  a  twinkling  of  the 
stars;  a  familiar  phenomenon  to  all 
who  have  directed  their  attention  to 
the  firmament  above  us.  Under  or- 
dinary atmospheric  conditions  this 
flickering  is  possessed  only  by  the  so- 
called  fixed  stars.  A  planet  shines 
steadily  and  by  this  mark  can  readily 
be  picked  out.  When  near  the  horizon, 
however,  planets  have  been  observed 
to  scintillate  slightly,  while  stars  at 
low  altitudes  invariably  twinkle 
more  vigorously  than  stars  over- 
head. Scintillation  may  be  said  to  de- 
pend on  three  factors:  (1)  The  vast 
distance  even  of  the  nearest  stars  re- 
ducing the  largest  of  them  to  mere 
points  of  light.  (2)  The  ever-chang-? 
ing  variableness  in  condition  of  the 
atmosphere  through  which  the  light 
must  come  to  us.  (3)  The  smallness 
of  aperture  of  our  eye,  which  receives 
an  almost  ideal  single  ray  of  light. 

Scipio,  .Smilianns  Africanus 
(The  Younger),  Publius  Cornelius, 
conqueror  of  Carthage ;  born  about 
B.  c.  185.  He  was  the  youngest  son 
of  ^milius  Paulus,  and  the  adopted 
son  of  Publius  Scipio,  son  of  Afri- 
canus the  elder.  He  began  his  mili- 
tary service  in  Spain  in  151 ;  gained 
great  reputatit)n  soon  after  in  Africa, 
in  the  third  Punic  War;  and  in  148, 
though  not  of  fit  age,  was  chosen  con- 
sul. The  next  year,  accompanied  by 
Polybius  and  C.  LjeHus,  he  went  to 
Africa,  and  at  once  commenced  the 
siege  of  Carthage,  which  was  heroical- 
ly defended.  It  was  entered  by  the 
Romans  in  the  spring  of  146;  and  at 
last  a  fire  broke  out  that  raged  nearly 
a  week.  Scipio  mused  mournfully  over 
these  horrors,  and  foreboded  like  ruin 
for  Rome.  Scipio  had  a  magnificent 
triumph  on  his  return.  He  led  a  sim- 
ple and  frugal  life,  and  during  his 
censorship,  142-141,  tried  to  effect  re- 
forms in  the  manners  of  his  country- 
men, but  without  success.  By  his  bold 
resistance  to  the  proposed  reforms  he 
lost  the  favor  of  the  popular  party ; 
and  at  last,  in  129,  he  was  found  dead 
in  his  bed.  Suspicion  of  murder  fell 
on  various  persons,  but  chiefly  on  Car- 
bo,  one  of  the  most  rash  advocates  of 
the   Agrarian   reforms. 

Scipio,  Africanus  {The  Elder). 
Publius  Cornelius,  one  of  the  grsatest 


of  the  Romans,  born  b.  C.  234.  At 
the  age  of  24  he  was  chosen  to  com- 
mand, as  pro-consul,  in  Spain,  where, 
instead  of  risking  a  battle  with  the 
superior  forces  of  the  Carthaginians, 
he  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Carthago 
Nova  and  took  it  the  same  year.  In 
206  he  returned  to  Rome  and  was 
chosen  consul  for  the  next  year.  Sicily 
was  given  to  him  as  his  province,  and 
having  attracted  by  his  character  and 
success  an  army  of  volunteers,  he  i 
crossed,  in  204,  into  Africa.  Hanni-  j 
bal  was  called  to  oppose  Scipio  in 
Africa,  and  the  Second  Punic  War 
was  terminated  by  the  total  defeat  of 
Hannibal  at  the  battle  of  Zama,  Oct. 
19,  202.  Peace  was  signed  the  next 
year,  and  Scipio,  on  his  return  home, 
had  the  most  splendid  triumph  which 
had  yet  been  seen,  and  received  the 
surname  Africanus.  He  declined  other 
honors  which  were  offered  him ;  was 
subsequently  censor,  consul  a  second 
time,  and  in  193  ambassador  to  An- 
tiochus.  King  of  Syria,  at  whose  court 
he  is  said  to  have  met  Hannibal. 
Having  accompanied  his  brother  Lu- 
cius to  the  Syrian  war  as  lieuten- 
ant in  190,  they  were  accused  of  mis- 
appropriation of  moneys  received  from 
Antiochus.  Cato  was  the  leader  of 
the  party  opposed  to  Scipio,  and  the 
prosecution  of  Lucius  was  successful, 
but  that  of  Africanus  was  dropped  by 
the  advice  of  Tiberius  Gracchus.  The 
popularity  of  Scipio  had  waned,  and 
he  left  Rome  never  to  return.  He 
died  at  his  villa,  in  Liternum,  183 
B.  c,  the  same  year  in  which  Hanni- 
bal died. 

Scirefacias  (Latin,  "cause  him  to 
know"),  a  judicial  writ  to  enforce  the 
execution  of  judgments,  etc.,  directed 
against  a  person  who  is  called  upon  to 
show  cause  why  something  should  not 
be  done  on  behalf  of  the  party  in 
whose  interest  the  writ  is  issued. 

Scirpns,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
order  Cyperacese,  commonly  called 
club  rushes;  the  common  bulrush  of 
ponds  and  sluggish  streams  is  a  fa- 
miliar example.  There  are  about  300 
species  of  this  genus.    See  Bulrush. 

SciTrhus,  or  Hard  Cancer,  is  the 
most  frequent  variety  of  cancer.  It 
has  its  seat  sometimes  in  the  stomach, 
rectum,  and  elsewhere  ;  but  by  far  most 
frequently  it  attacks  the  female  breast. 
If  detected  in  time  it  can  be  removed 


Scollard 

from  the  breast  with  every  prospect 
of  success. 

Scollard,  Clinton,  an  American 
poet ;  born  in  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  18, 
1861.  In  1888  he  was  made  assistant 
Professor  of  Rhetoric  at  Hamilton  Col- 
lege, and  later  Professor  of  English 
Literature,  resigning  in  1896  to  devote 
himself  to  literature. 

Scoatbridse,  in  ichthyology,  mack- 
erel ;  a  family  of  fishes,  from  all  seas 
of  the  tropical  and  temperate  zones. 
They  are  fishes  of  prey,  and  move 
about  in  shoals,  approaching  the  shore 
in  pursuit  of  other  fishes  on  which 
they  feed. 

Scone,  a  parish  in  Perthshire,  Scot- 
land, lying  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tay. 
It  is  famous  as  the  seat  of  one  of  the 
most  venerable  of  Scotch  abbeys.  Scone 
is  first  mentioned  in  the  beginning  of 
the  10th  century,  when  a  council  was 
held  there  in  the  sixth  year  of  the 
reign  of  King  Constantine.  A  monas- 
tery was  built  at  Scone  probably  about 
the  same  period,  and  there  was  located 
the  famous  stone  said  to  have  been 
"  Jacob's  Pillow,"  on  which  the  kings 
of  Scotand  were  inaugurated,  and 
which  was  carried  by  Edward  I.  of 
England  to  Westminster  Abbey.  Alex- 
ander III.,  the  last  of  the  ancient  race 
of  kings,  and  Robert  Bruce,  the  found- 
er of  the  new  dynasty,  were  crowned 
at  Scone,  but  after  the  accession  of 
the  House  of  Stuart  the  coronation 
sometimes  took  place  in  other  churches. 
The  last  coronation  celebrated  here 
was  that  of  Charles  II.,  in  1651. 

Scopss,  an  ancient  Greek  sculptor, 
founder  of  the  later  Attic  school ;  a 
native  of  the  island  of  Paros,  and 
flourished  during  the  first  half  of  the 
4th  century  b.  C.  One  of  his  earliest 
works  was  the  temple  of  Athena  Alea 
at  Tcgea  in  Arcadia,  on  the  site  of  a 
previous  one  burned  down  in  395  B.  c. 
Some  15  years  or  so  later  he  settled 
in  Athens,  where  for  more  than  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century  he  labored  at  his  pro- 
fession. Toward  the  end  of  his  life 
he  was  associated  with  Leochares  and 
others  in  preparing  sculpture  for  the 
great  mausoleum  of  Halicarnassus  in 
Asia  Minor.  He  excelled  in  statues 
of  single  gods  and  goddesses. 

Score,  in  music,  compositions  for 
several  voices  or  instruments,  »r  for 
au  orchestra,  so  written  that  each  part 


Scorpi4 

has  a  separate  staff  for  itself,  these 
staves  being  placed  over  each  other, 
bar  corresponding  for  bar. 

Scoresby,  "William,  an  English 
Arctic  explorer ;  born  in  Cropton,  near 
Whitby,  Oct.  5,  1789 ;  commenced  a 
seafaring  life  at  the  age  of  11  by  ac- 
companying his  father,  a  whaling  cap- 
tain, to  the  Greenland  seas;  and  next 
succeeding  his  father,  he  made  several 
voyages  to  the  Spitzbergen  and  Green- 
land whaling  grounds.  He  attended 
classes  at  Edinburgh  University,  car- 
ried on  investigations  in  natural  his- 
tory, botany,  meteorology,  magnetism, 
etc.  In  1822  he  surveyed  400  miles  of 
the  E.  coast  of  Greenland.  After  one 
more  voyage  he  retired  from  seafaring 
life  in  order  to  enter  the  Church ;  and 
having  studied  at  Cambridge  and  been 
ordained  (1825)  at  Bessingby,  labored 
faithfully  at  Liverpool,  Exeter,  and 
Bradford.  At  length  failing  health 
compelled  him  to  retire  (1849)  to  Tor- 
quay; but  he  still  continued  his  phys- 
ical researches.  For  the  better  prose- 
cution of  these  researches  Scoresby 
made  a  voyage  to  the  United  States  in 
1847,  and  to  Australia  in  1856.  He 
died  in  Torquay,  March  21,  1857. 


ETJBOPEAN  SCORPION. 

Scorpio,  in  astrology,  the  "  ac- 
cursed constellation,"  the  "  false  sign," 
ominous  of  war,  discord,  and  woe. 

Scorpio,  in  astronomy,  the  eighth 
zodiacal  constellation.  It  is  a  small  but 
very  brilliant  constellation.  Also  the 
eighth  sign  of  the  zodiac,  which  the 
sun  enters  about  Oct.  28. 


Scorpion 

Scorpion,  in  antiquity,  a  military 
engine  formerly  used,  chiefly  in  the 
defense  of  a  castle  or  town. 

In  Scripture,  a  painful  scourge ;  a 
kind  of  whip  armed  with  points  like 
a  scorpion's  tail. 

In  zoology,  any  individual  of  the 
family  Scorpionides.  The  European 
species  are  three  or  four  inches  long, 
and  confined  to  the  S.  pr.rts  of  the 
<Jont)nent,  but  scorpions  have  a  wide 
geographical  range  in  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical regions,  and  in  Equatorial 
Africa  and  South  America  they  grow 
to  a  length  of  9  or  10  inches.  They 
are  nocturnal  in  habit,  concealing 
themselves  under  stones,  the  loose  bark 
of  trees,  and  in  crevices  in  walls, 
coming  forth  at  dusk.  They  prey  on 
■other  spiders  and  insects. 

Scorpion  Fish,  or  Sea  Scorpion, 
a  genus  of  teleostean  (acanthopterous) 
fishes,  belonging  to  the  gurnard  family. 
The  red  scorpion  fish  is  the  common 
form.  The  spotted  scorpion  fish  is  a 
second  species,  and,  like  the  preceding 
form,  occurs  in  British  waters  as  well 
as  in  the  Mediterranean,  Atlantic,  and 
the  tropical  seas. 

Scorpion  Fly,  a  genus  of  insects 
belonging  to  the  order  Neuroptera,  or 
that  of  the  dragon  flies. 

Scorpion  Shell,  the  name  given  to 
the  shells  of  certain  gasteropodous  mol- 
lusks,  belonging  to  the  family  Strom- 
bidae,  from  the  projecting  spines  with 
which  the  shells  are  provided. 


VELVET  SCOTERS. 

Scot,  Reg^inald,  or  Reynold,  one 

of  the  first  and  boldest  writers  against 
the  belief  in  witchcraft,  alchemy,  as- 
trology, and  other  prevalent  supersti- 
tions of  his  time ;  bom  in  the  early 
part  of  the  16th  century.    He  studied 


Scotland 

at  Oxford,  and  spent  his  life  in  the 
study  of  old  and  obscure  mystical  au- 
thors, and  the  pleasures  of  gardening, 
till  his  death.     He  died  in  1599. 

Scoter,  or  Snrf  Duck,  a  genus  of 
sea  ducks.  The  most  familiar  species 
is  the  common  or  black  scoter.  It 
occurs  in  the  Arctic  regions  in  sum- 
mer. An  American  species  of  scoter 
is  known  as  surf  duck. 

Scotland,  the  N.  division  of  the 
island  of  Great  Britian.  The  great- 
est length,  from  N.  N.  E.  to  S.  S.  W., 
between  Dunnet  Head  and  the  Mull 
of  Galloway,  is  287  miles.  The  breadth 
varies  from  140  miles  to  less  than  30, 
the  latter  in  the  N.,  between  Dornoch 
Firth  and  Loch  Broom,  Few  points 
in  the  mainland  are  more  than  40  miles 
from  the  sea,  the  country  being  so 
much  penetrated  by  inlets. 

The  most  important  cities,  with  their 
population  in  1901,  are :  Glasgow, 
760,423 ;  Edinburgh,  316,479 ;  Dundee, 
160,871;   and  Aberdeen,   153,108. 

The  islands  of  Scotland  are  said  to 
number  altogether  nearly  800.  On  the 
E.  coast  they  are  few  and  small ;  but 
on  the  N.  E.  coast  are  the  two  large 
groups  of  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands ; 
while  on  the  W.  coast  the  islands  are 
large  and  numerous.  The  W.  coast  of 
the  mainland  is  generally  a  wild,  deep- 
ly indented  mountain  wall,  presenting 
a  series  of  inlets  or  sea  lochs,  while 
toward  the  middle  the  coast  is  cleft 
by  two  great  inlets  with  openings  to 
the  S.  W.,  the  Firth  of  Lorn  and  its 
continuation  Loch  Linnhe,  and  the 
Firth  of  Clyde  and  its  ramifications 
running  far  inland.  The  E.  coast  is 
sometimes  low  and  sandy,  but  is  often 
formed  of  steep  rocky  cliffs  of  consid- 
erable elevation,  the  chief  inlets  being 
the  Firth  of  Forth  and  Tay,  and  the 
Moray  Firth,  Cromarty  Firth,  etc. 

Both  from  the  configuration  of  the 
surface  and  the  geological  structure, 
the  country  divides  into  three  divisions, 
the  Highlands,  Central  Lowlands,  and 
Southern  Uplands.  The  first  of  these 
divisions  lies  N.  of  a  line  stretching 
in  a  S.  W.  direction  from  the  coast  of 
Kincardineshire  to  the  Firth  of  Clyde ; 
the  third  is  the  country  S.  of  a  line 
drawn  from  Dunbar  S.  W.  to  Girvan; 
the  country  between  these  lines  forms 
the  Central  Lowlands.  The  Highland 
division  is  remarkable  for  the  num- 
ber   and    elevation    of    its    mount8,ia 


Scotland 

masses  (many  of  the  summits  being 
over  4,000  feet  high).  The  mountains 
best  known  by  name  are  the  Gram- 
pians, which  form  a  system  covering  a 
large  arep,  and  culminating  on  the  W. 
coast  in  Ben  Nevis,  4,406  feet  high ; 
while  55  miles  to  the  N.  E.  rises  a 
remarkable  cluster  of  summits  reaching 
in  Ben  Macdhui  the  height  of  4,29(3 
feet.  The  Grampians  and  their  con- 
nections are  separated  from  the  moun- 
tains farther  to  the  N.  by  Glenmore 
or  the  Great  Glen  of  Scotland,  a  re- 
markable depression  stretching  quite 
across  the  country  from  sea  to  sea, 
and  forming  by  the  series  of  lakes  oc- 
cupying it  aiid  the  Caledonian  canal 
connecting  them,  a  waterway  from 
the  W.  coast  to  the  E.  The  Southern 
Uplands  are  also  essentially  a  moun- 
tainous region,  summits  of  over  2,000 
feet  being  frequent,  though  none  ex- 
ceed 3,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
central  region,  though  much  less  ele- 
vated than  the  other  two  divisions, 
has  none  of  tne  monotony  usual  in  flat 
countries.  Though  occupying  not 
more  than  a  sixth  of  the  whole  sur- 
face, the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  its 
mineral  treasures  make  this  part  by 
far  the  wealthiest  and  most  populous. 
The  slope  of  the  ancient  plateau  may 
be  determined  by  the  direction  of  the 
principal  rivers ;  in  the  N.  part  it  is 
chiefly  toward  the  E.,  in  the  S.  more 
equally  E.  and  W. 

The  chief  rivers  flow  to  the  E.,  and 
enter  the  German  Ocean,  the  largest 
being  the  Tweed,  Forth,  Tay,  South 
Esk,  North  Esk,  Dee,  Don,  Deveron, 
Spey,  and  Findhorn ;  those  entering 
the  sea  on  the  W.  are  the  Clyde,  Ayr, 
Doon,  Dee,  Nith,  Annan,  and  Esk.  The 
Clyde  in  its  lower  course  carries  a 
vast  traffic,  this  being  rendered  pos- 
sible chiefly  by  dredging.  Many  of 
the  rivers  are  valuable  from  the  num- 
bers of  salmon  they  produce.  A  strik- 
ing feature  of  the  country  is  the  great 
multitude  of  lakes,  varying  in  size 
from  Loch  Lomond  (28  square  miles) 
to  the  pool-like  mountain  tarns.  In 
the  Northern  Highlands  almost  every 
glen  has  its  lake  and  every  mountain 
hollow  is  filled  by  a  stream  or  spring. 
The  most  valuable  mineral  region  is 
the  Central  Lowlands,  where  coal  and 
iron  exist  in  such  quantity  as  to  make 
this  one  of  the  most  important  mineral 
fields  of  Great  Britain. 

The  Parliament  of  Scotland  ancient- 


Scotlanjt 

ly  comprised  all  who  held  any  portion 
of  land,  however  small,  from  the  crown 
by  tenure  of  military  service,  till  the 
reign  of  James  VL,  when  the  small 
barons  or  freeholders  were  excused 
from  attendance  in  person,  "  two  or 
more  wise  men  "  being  deputed  from 
each  county  in  proportion  to  its  size. 
Its  powers  were  nominally  extensive^ 
but  the  supreme  power  was  virtually 
in  the  king,  who  by  his  influence  often 
entirely  controlled  its  proceedings.  The- 
Parliament  in  the  whole  consisted  of 
three  estates  —  the  nobility,  the  dig- 
nified clergy,  and  the  lesser  barons,  or 
representatives  of  shires  and  burghs. 
When  presbyterianism  was  formally 
ratified  by  law  after  the  revolution 
of  1688,  the  ecclesiastical  estate  ceased 
to  have  a  place  in  Parliament.  Pre- 
viously to  the  era  of  the  Revolution  the- 
privy  council  of  Scotland  assumed  in- 
quisitorial powers,  and  even  torture 
was  administered  under  the  sanction 
of  its  authority ;  but  it  is  now  entirely 
merged  in  the  privy  council  of  Great 
Britain.  The  number  of  peers  in  the 
Scotch  Parliament  was  formerly  160, 
and  of  commons  155,  and  all  sat  in 
one  house  and  voted  promiscuously. 
At  the  union  of  the  kingdoms  the  polit- 
ical system  of  Scotland  was  almost  en- 
tirely incorporated  with  that  of  Eng- 
land. 

The  Court  of  Sessions  is  the  su- 
preme civil  court  of  Scotland.  The 
Court  of  Justiciary,  or  criminal  courts 
coniposed  only  of  judges  of  the  Court 
of  Sessions,  is  supreme  in  the  highest 
sense,  since  its  decisions  in  criminal! 
cases  are  not  subject  to  any  review. 
The  principal  subordinate  judicatories- 
are  sherifiE  courts,  established  in  each 
county  or  stewartry.  Sheriff-substi- 
tutes, or  judges  ordinary,  one  or  more 
holding  separate  courts  in  different  dis- 
tricts, decide  in  the  first  instance,  sub- 
ject to  the  review  of  the  principal 
sheriff  or  sheriff  depute,  whose  decis- 
ions, though  final  within  the  limits- 
of  his  jurisdiction,  are  reviewable  by 
the  Court  of  Sessions.  Besides  the 
sheriff  court,  each  county  or  district 
of  a  county  has  its  justice  of  peace 
courts,  in  which  judges  decide  on  prin- 
ciples of  equity  in  minor  crimes ;  and 
in  every  town  of  any  importance  are 
bailie,  dean  or  guild,  and  police  courts, 
with    limited    jurisdictions. 

Scotland  has  had  the  advantage  of  a 
national  system  of  elementary  educa- 


Scotland 

tion  for  over  two  centuries,  a  school 
having  been  established  in  every  parish 
by  a  law  of  1696.  This  scheme  did 
effective  service  for  the  education  of 
the  people,  till  the  great  increase  of 
population,  especially  in  towns,  ren- 
dered it  unequal  to  the  task  laid  on  it. 
By  the  passing  of  the  Education  Act 
of  1872  board  schools  have  superseded 
the  old  parish  schools.  Other  insti- 
tutions are  the  normal  or  training 
schools  and  colleges  of  the  different 
religious  bodies,  and  the  four  univer- 
sities of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aber- 
deen, and  St.  Andrews.  The  first  uni- 
versity was  that  of  St.  Andrews,  dat- 
ing from  1411 ;  next  came  that  of 
Glasgow  (1450),  then  King's  College 
and  University,  Aberdeen  (1494),  then 
Edinburgh  University  (1582),  lastly 
Marischal  College  and  University, 
Aberdeen  (1593).  The  two  Aberdeen 
universities  were  united  in  1860. 

Scotland  was  first  visited  by  the 
Roman  troops  under  Agricola,  who 
penetrated  to  the  foot  of  the  Grampian 
Mountains.  It  was  afterward  ex- 
posed to  the  ravages  of  the  Norwe- 
gians and  Danes,  with  whom  many 
bloody  battles  were  fought.  Various 
contests  were  also  maintained  with 
the  Kings  of  England.  Robert  Bruce, 
however,  secured  the  independence  of 
the  country  and  his  title  to  the  throne 
by  the  decisive  battle  of  Bannockburn 
in  1314.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
nephew,  Robert  Stewart,  and  he  by  his 
eldest  son,  Robert.  He  being  a  weak 
prince,  the  reins  of  government  were 
seized  by  the  Duke  of  Albany,  who 
stoned  to  death  the  eldest  son  of  the 
king.  James,  his  second  son,  to  es- 
cape a  similar  fate,  fled  to  France ;  in 
the  year  1424  he  returned  to  Scotland, 
and  having  excited  the  jealousy  of  the 
nobility,  he  was  assassinated  in  a 
monastery  near  Perth.  James  II.,  his 
son,  an  infant  prince,  succeeded  him 
in  1437.  He  was  killed  by  the  burst- 
ing of  a  cannon  at  the  siege  of  the 
castle  of  Roxburgh.  James  III.  ascend- 
ed the  throne  at  the  age  of  seven  years. 
His  reign  was  weak  and  inglorious, 
and  he  was  murdered  in  the  house  of 
a  miller,  whither  he  had  fled  for  pro- 
tection. James  IV.,  a  generous  and 
brave  prince,  began  his  reign  in  1488. 
He  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Flodden. 
James  V.,  an  infant  of  less  than  two 
years  of  age,  succeeded  to  the  crown. 
He  died  in  1542,  and  was  succeeded  by 


Scotland 

his  daughter,  the  celebrated  Queen 
Mary.  She  was  succeeded  by  her  son 
James,  who,  in  1603,  ascended  the 
throne  of  England,  vacant  by  the  death 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  when  the  two 
kingdoms  were  united  into  one  great 
monarchy  which  was  legislatively 
united  in  1707. 

Scotland,  Cliurcli  of.  The  origi- 
nal Scotch  Church  seems  to  have  been 
that  of  the  Culdees,  then  in  mediaeval 
times  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  was 
to  a  certain  extent  the  national  church 
in  Scotland.  The  church  resisted-  the 
claims  of  supremacy  over  it  put  forth 
at  one  time  by  the  Archbishop  of  York, 
at  another  time  by  the 'Archbishop  of 
Canterbury;  and  in  1176  in  self-de- 
fense cast  itself  into  the  arms  of  the 
Roman  pontiff.  When  the  Reforma- 
tion struggle  began,  the  crown  remain- 
ed adherent  to  the  old  faith,  while  the 
nobility  tended  to  the  new.  From 
the  war  of  independence  Scotland  had 
considered  it  good  policy  to  guard 
against  any  aggression  on  the  part  of 
England  by  a  close  alliance  with 
France,  and  when  the  Reformation  be- 
gan there  were  actually  French  troops 
in  Scotland.  The  Protestant  "  Lords 
of  the  Congregation,"  who  had  taken 
up  arms  to  defend  their  cause,  applied 
for  aid  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  sent 
troops  to  aid  them  in  expelling  the 
French.  By  a  treaty  signed  on  July 
T,  1560,  it  was  stipulated  that  both 
the  French  and  the  English  troops 
should  withdraw  from  Scotland.  On 
Aug.  24  of  the  same  year  the  Scotch 
Parliament  abolished  the  papal  juris- 
diction. The  reformers  adopted  what 
is  now  called  Presbyterian  Church 
government,  though  certain  superin- 
tendents were  appointed  whose  offices 
after  a  time  were  swept  away.  The 
first  General  Assembly  was  held  on 
Dec.  20,  1560. 

The  semi-republican  constitution  of 
the  Church,  which  became  more  marked 
after  the  office  of  superintendent  had 
been  swept  away,  and  the  second  book 
of  discipline  published  (the  latter 
event  in  1578) ,  created  jealousy  in  the 
minds  of  regents  and  of  sovereigns, 
and  four  or  five  generations  of  Stuart 
kings  put  forth  long  and  determined 
efforts  to  transform  Presbyterian  into 
Episcopal  government.  The  project 
cost  the  lives  and  liberties  of  far  more 
people  than  the  short,  sharp  Reforma* 


Scots  Guards 


Scott 


tion  struggle  had  done,  and  ended  in 
failure.  The  Revolution  settlement  of 
1690  reestablished  Presbyterianism, 
and  the  General  Assembly,  which  had 
been  interrupted  for  nearly  40  years, 
began  again  to  sit  and  has  done  so 
annually  from  that  time  till  now. 

In  1712  an  Act  of  Parliament  re- 
introduced patronage  which  had  been 
swept  away.  The  operation  of  this  en- 
actment was  one  main  cause  of  three 
secessions :  that  of  the  Secession,  pre- 
eminently so  called,  in  1833;  the  Re- 
lief in  1752 ;  and,  the  greatest  of  all, 
that  which  created  the  Free  Church  in 
1843.    • 

The  Church  of  Scotland  claims 
about  half  the  people  as  at  least  its 
nominal  adherents.  In  1784  the  Pat- 
ronage Act  of  1712  was  repealed,  and 
each  congregation  now  elects  its  own 
pastor.  Its  chief  rivals  in  Scotland 
are  the  Free  Church  and  the  United 
Presbyterians,  the  latter  resulting 
^^rom  a  union  of  the  old  Secession  and 
Relief  Churches. 

Scots  Gnards,  the  name  of  a  well- 
known  regiment  of  guards  in.  the  Brit- 
ish army. 

Scott,  Austin,  an  Ameri^  an  educa- 
tor ;  bom  in  Maumee,  O.,  Aug.  10, 
1848;  was  graduated  at  Yale  Uni- 
versity in  1869 ;  taught  German  in  the 
University  of  Michigan  in  1873-1875 ; 
was  Professor  of  History  in  Rutgers 
College  in  1883-1890,  and  president 
in  1890-1906.  He  was  associated 
with  George  Bancroft  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  his  "  History  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States." 

Scott,  David,  a  Scotch  painter; 
born  in  Edinburgh,  Oct.  10,  1806.  He 
early  determined  to  become  a  painter, 
and  in  1828  he  exhibited  his  first  pict- 
ure, "  The  Hopes  of  Earlv  Genius  Dis- 
pelled by  Death."  In  1832  he  visited 
London,  Paris,  and  Geneva,  most  of 
the  art  cities  of  Italy,  and  finally 
reached  Rome,  where  he  studied  during 
two  years.  Having  returned  to  Edin- 
burgh he  continued  the  practice  of  his 
art.  Died  in  Edinburgh,  March  5,  1849. 

Scott,  Duncan.  Campbell,  a 
Canadian  poet;  born  in  Ottawa,  Ont., 
Aug.  2,  1862. 
> Scott,  Fred  New^ton,  an  American 
educator;  born  in  Terre  Hauie,  Ind., 
Aug.  20,  1860;  was  graduated  at  the 
tlniversity  of  Michigan  in  1884 ;  was  . 
assistant  librarian  in  that  institution ' 


in  1884-1885  and  in  1887-1889;  be- 
came instructor  of  English  in  the  same 
in  1889,  and  assistant  Professor  of 
Rhetoric  in  1890;  and  was  made 
junior  Professor  of  Rhetoric  in  1896. 

Scott,  Frederick  George,  a  Cana- 
dian poet ;  born  in  Montreal,  Canada, 
April  7,  1861. 

Scott,  Sir  George  Gilbert,  an 
English  architect ;  born  in  Gawcott, 
near  Buckingham,  July  13,  1811.  His 
tastes  drew  him  mainly  to  the  study 
of  Gothic  architecture,  and  to  him  is 
due  in  a  great  measure  its  revival  in 
Great  Britain.  He  was  very  largely 
employed  in  the  restoration  of  cathe 
drals,  the  erection  of  new  churches, 
colleges,  and  secular  public  buildings. 
He  died  in  London,  March  27,  1878. 

Scott,  Hugb  Lenox,  an  American 
military  officer ;  born  in  Danville,  Ky., 
Sept.  22,  1853 ;  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1876,  and  detailed  to  duty  in  the  West, 
where  he  served  in  numerous  Indian 
campaigns  till  1897.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Spanish-American  War  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  1st  Army 
Corps  ;  was  appointed  adjutant-general 
of  the  Department  of  Havana  in  1899 ; 
and  of  the  Department  of  Cuba  1900. 

Scott,  Irving  Murray,  an  Amer- 
ican shipbuilder;  born  in  Hebron 
Mills,  Md.,  Doc.  25,  1837;  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Baltimore  Mechanics'  In- 
stitute ;  entered  a  machine  shop  in 
Baltimore  and  became  an  expert 
draughtsman  and  engineer ;  went  to 
San  Francisco,  Cal.  He  designed  the 
machinery  for  the  Comstock  mines ;  in- 
vented and  improved  cut-off  engines 
and  other  machines  ;  and  was  the  build- 
er of  the  famous  battleship  "  Oregon  '* 
besides  other  ships  of  the  United 
States  navy.  In  1898  he  went  to  St. 
Petersburg  to  advise  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment in  regard  to  the  building  of 
warships.     He  died  1903. 

Scott,  James  Hntcbinson,  an 
American  nav.il  officer:  born  in  East 
Liberty,  Pa.,  Feb.  11,  1868;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  Cadet  School  of  the  Rev- 
enue Cutter  Service  in  1890.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Spanish-American 
War  he  was  made  executive  officer  of 
the  revenue  cutter  "  Hudson,"  which 
took  a  distinguished  part  at  the  battle 
of  Cardenas  Bay,  Cuba,  May  11,  189a 
After  the  war  he  was  assigned  to  the 


Scott 

revenue  cutter  "Manhattan,"  and 
later  to  the  "  Washington."  He  was 
navigator  of  the  "  Gresham "  wlien 
she  rescued  the  Portuguese  bark  "  Fra- 
ternidada,"  saving  113  lives. 

Scott,  Sir  Richard  William,  a 
Canadian  statesman;  born  in  Prescott, 
Ontario,  P>b.  24,  1825;  called  to  the 
bar  in  1848;  member  of  the  Senate 
and  Secretary  of  State  in  1873-1878; 
Opposition  leader  in  Senate  in  1879- 
1896;  carried  through  Parliament  the 
bill  giving  Roman  Catholics  the  right 
to  establish  separate  schools;  author 
of  the  Canada  Temperance  Act  (local 
option);  Secretary  of  State  of  Canada 
in  1896-1908;  knighted  in  1909. 

Scott,  Robert  Kingston,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in 
Armstrong  co.,  Pa.,  July  8,  1826;  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  various  cam- 
paigns in  the  Civil  War;  became  a 
Brigadier-General  and  brevet  Major- 
General  of  volunteers  in  1865.  In  1868 
he  was  elected  the  first  governor  of 
the  reconstructed  State  of  South  Car- 
olina, and  in  1870  was  reelected.  In 
1871  the  "Ku  Klux  Klan "  perpe- 
trated outrages  which  caused  him  to 
call  on  the  Federal  authorities  for 
aid  and  United  States  troops  Were 
sent  to  restore  order.  Later  General 
Scott  settled  in  Napoleon,  O.,  where 
he  died  Aug.  13.  1900. 

Scott,  Sntton  Selxryn,  an  Amer- 
ican lawyer ;  born  in  Huntsville,  Ala., 
Nov.  26,  1829;  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Tennessee  in  1850;  held 
a  seat  in  the  Alabama  Legislature  in 
1857-1858  and  in  1859-1800;  was  com- 
missioner of  Indian  Affairs  for  the 
Confederacy  in  1863 ;  was  again  jj 
member  of  the  Alabama  Legislature 
in  1884  and  1890.  He  also  served  as 
United  States  commissioner  to  adjudi- 
cate claims  in  New  Mexico  and  Colo- 
rado in  1885-1887.     He  died  in  1907. 

Scott»  Tbomas  Alexander,  an 
American  railroad  manager;  born  in 
Loudon,  Pa.,  Dec  28,  1824;  became 
connected  with  the  Pennsylvania  rail- 
road in  1850;  was  made  its  general 
superintendent  in  1858,  and  its  vice- 
president  in  the  following  year.  When 
the  Civil  War  broke  out  he  was  placed 
on  the  staff  of  Gov.  Andrew  G.  Curtin 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  had  charge  of 
the  sending  of  volunteers  to  the  front. 
In  April,  1861,  the  Secretary  of  War 
requested    him    to    build    a    railroad 


Scott 

branch  from  Philadelphia  to  Washing- 
ton, which  be  did  in  a  surprisingly 
short  time;  in  May,  1861,  he  was 
commissioned  a  colonel  of  volunteers 
and  placed  in  command  of  all  govern- 
ment telegraphs  and  railroads.  On 
Aug.  1  of  the  same  year  be  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  Seci.tary  of  War. 
He  resigned  this  post  in  June,  1862, 
to  give  his  time  wholly  to  railroad 
management ;  but  reentered  the  serv- 
ice of  the  fovernment  in  September, 
1863,  and  directed  the  movement  of 
two  army  corps  to  Chattanooga  to  re- 
lieve Gen.  William  S.  Rosecrans. 
Though  he  transported  these  troops 
by  a  great  number  of  trains,  many 
of  which  had  to  run  over  improvisrod 
tracks  connecting  various  lines,  he  ac- 
complished the  task  with  remarkable 
quickness.  He  was  president  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company  in 
1874-1880.  He  died  in  Darby,  Pa., 
May  21,  1881. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  a  British 
author;  born  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
Aug.  15,  1771.  From  the  commence- 
ment of  his  litera.y  career  in  1790, 
when  he  published  his  translations  or 
Burger's  "  Lenore  "  and  "Wild  Hunts- 
man," to  the  year  of  his  decease,  he 
produced  numerous  works  of  which  the 
border  poems  and  "  Waverley  "  novels 
are  enduring  monuments.  In  1800  he 
obtained  the  preferment  of  sheriff  of 
Selkirkshire,  with  about  £300  (.$1,- 
500)  a  year,  and  in  1806  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  principal  clerks 
of  the  session  in  Scotland.  In  1811 
he  built  a  mansion  on  the  Tweed," 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Abbots- 
ford.  In  1825  the  firm  of  Constable 
&  Co.,  at  Edinburgh,  engaged  Scott 
to  compose  a  "  Life  of  Bonaparte." 
It  was  in  progress  when  these  pub- 
lishers became  bankrupts,  and  Scott 
found  himself  involved  on  their  be- 
half, and  begaii,  at  the  age  of  55,  the 
task  of  redeeming  a  debt  exceeding 
$500,000.  His  work,  which  appeared 
during  the  summer  of  1827,  in  nine 
volumes  8vo.,  realized  the  sum  of  $60,- 
000,  being  at  the  rate  of  $165  a  day 
for  the  time  he  had  devoted  to  it. 
After  the  payment  of  $270,000,  his 
creditors  presented  to  him  the  library 
and  manuscripts,  curiosities,  and  plat^ 
which  had  once  been  his  own.  In  1831 
he  went  to  Italy  for  his  health,  re- 
turning the  following  year.     He  died 


Scott 

in  Abbotsford,  Sept.  21,  1832,  and 
Avas  buried  in  Drj'burgii  Abbey. 

Scott,  William  Amasa,  an  Amer- 
ican educator  ;  born  in  Clarkson,  N.  Y., 
April  17,  18G2;  was  graduated  at  the 
l^niversity  of  Rochester  in  1886;  Pro- 
fessor of  History  and  Political  Science 
at  the  University  of  South  Dakota 
in  1887-1890;  instructor  of  History 
at  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  1892- 
1893 ;  associate  Professor  of  Political 
Economy  at  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin in  1893-1897;  full  professor  in 
1897-1900;  then  became  director  of  a 
School  of  Commerce  and  Professor  of 
Economic  History  and  Theory  at  the 
university. 

Scott,  Winfield,  an  American 
Jnilitary  officer ;  born  near  Petersburg, 
Va.,  June  13,  1783;  was  educated  at 
William  and  Mary  College,  and  stud- 
ied law.  In  1808  he  was  appointed 
captain  of  light  artillery  in  General 
Wilkinson's  division,  stationed  at 
Baton  Rouge,  La. ;  but  was  suspended 
for  having  accused  his  general  of  com- 
plicity with  the  conspiracy  of  Aaron 
Burr.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
"War  of  1812  he  was  appointed  lieuten- 
ant-colonel and  fought  at  Queenstown 
Heights.  In  1813  he  was  promoted 
adjutant-general;  in  1814,  Brigadier- 
Oeneral  and  brevet  Major-General.  On 
July  3  he  took  Fort  Erie,  on  the  5th 
fought  the  battle  of  Chippewa,  and  20 
days  after,  that  of  Lundy's  Lane.  He 
took  part  in  the  operations  against  the 
Seminoles  and  Creeks  (1835-1837), 
in  the  Nullification  disturbances  in 
South  Carolina,  and  in  the  Canadian 
revolt  of  1837-1838.  In  1841  he  was 
appointed  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
United  States  army,  and  in  1846  com- 
manded in  the  Jlexican  War.  In  1847 
he  won  the  victories  of  Vera  Cruz, 
"Cerro  Gordo,  Jalapa,  Perote,  Puebla, 
Contreras,  Churubusco,  Molino  del  Rey 
and  Chapultepec;  and  seized  Mexico, 
Seyj.  14.  The  same  year  he  was 
ii revetted  Lieu  tenant-General.  In  1859 
he  was  a  commissioner  to  settle  the 
■San  Juan  dispute  with  Great  Britain ; 
and  in  1852  was  the  unsuccessful  can- 
didate of  the  Whig  party  for  the  presi- 
dency. In  1861  he  retired  from  office, 
retaining,  by  special  act  of  Congress, 
liis  pav  and  allowance.  He  died  in 
AVest  Point,  N.  Y.,  May  29,  1866. 

Sootus  Erigena,  Joannes,  a  re- 
oowQed  mediaeval   philosopher  of  the 


Scranton 

9th  century.  He  was  an  Irishman. 
His  life  seems  to  have  been  passed 
mostly  in  France. 

Scovel,  Sylvester,  an  American 
journalist ;  born  in  Denny  Station,  Pa., 
July  29,  1869;  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Michigan ;  went  to  Cuba 
as  war  correspondent  1895 ;  was  im- 
prisoned in  Havana  in  January,  1896, 
but  made  his  escape;  broke  through 
the  Spanish  police  and  military  lines 
30  times ;  was  captured  by  the  Span- 
iards in  February,  1897,  and  impris- 
oned in  Sancti  Spiritus,  Cuba,  but 
was  released  on  the  request  of  the 
United  States  government.  He  next 
represented  the  New  York  "  World  " 
in  Greece  during  the  war  betwt  n  that 
country  and  Turkey;  was  sent  by  the 
same  paper  to  Spain ;  later  to  the 
Klondike,  Alaska ;  and  afterward  to 
Havana.  He  served  as  correspondent 
throughout  the  Spanish  war,  and  was 
later  in  the  service  of  the  U.  S.  Mili- 
tary government  in  Cuba.  He  died 
in  1905. 

Scovel,  Sylvester  FitMan,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  Harrison, 
O.,  Dec.  29,  1835 ;  received  a  collegiate 
education;  became  a  Presbyterian 
clergyman  in  1857  and  held  various 
pastorates;  was  made  president  and 
Professor  of  Morals  and  Sociology  in 
the  University  of  Wooster  in  1883 ; 
and  resigned  the  presidency  in  1898. 

Scranton,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Lackawanna  co..  Pa. ;  on  the  i^acka- 
wanna  river ;  18  miles  N.  E.  of  Wilkes- 
barre.  The  city  is  the  third  largest 
in  the  State  in  population,  and  is  the 
heart  of  the  extensive  anthracite  coal 
section,  recently  the  scene  of  a  great 
strike. 

Scranton  has  a  large  general  trade, 
and  is  one  of  the  chief  points  for  the 
shipment  of  anthracite  coal.  The  man- 
ufacture of  iron  and  steel  forms  the 
principal  industry. 

The  city  has  an  area  of  19  square 
miles;  149  miles  of  streets,  of  which 
18  miles  are  paved ;  and  a  sewer  sys- 
tem covering  52  miles.  The  streets 
are  lighted  by  electricity.  There  is 
a  public  school  enrollment  of  nearly 
16,000  pupils,  and  annual  expenditures 
for  public  education  of  over  $383,000. 
The  annual  average  death  rate  is 
16.88  per  1,000.  Among  the  public 
buildings  are  a  court  house.  United 
States  government  building,  College  •£ 


Screamer 

St.  Thomas  (R.  C),  St.  Cecilian 
Academy  (R.  O.),  Pennsylvania  Oral 
School  for  the  Deaf,  Lackawanna  In- 
stitute of  History  and  Science,  Al- 
bright Public  Library,  Welch  Philo- 
sophical Society,  and  Taylor  Hospital. 

The  city  was  established  in  1840  by 
George  W.  and  Joseph  H.  Scrapton. 
It  received  its  city  charter  in  1866. 
i'op.  (1910)  129,867.  , 
'  Screamer,  in  ornithology,  a  popu- 
lar name  for  any  individual  of  the 
South  American  family  Palamediidae. 
They  are  gentle  and  shy,  and  the 
crested  screamer  is  said  to  be  domesti- 
cated, and  to  defend  the  poultry  of  its 
master  from  birds  of  prey. 

Screw,  in  mechanics,  a  cylinder  sur- 
rounded by  a  spiral  ridge  or  groove, 
every  part  of  which  forms  an  equal 
angle  with  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  so 
that  if  developed  on  a  plane  surface 
it  would  be  an  inclined  plane.  The 
screw  is  considered  as  one  of  the  six 
mechanical  powers,  but  is  really  only 
a   modification   of   the  inclined  plane. 

Screw  Nails,  nails  called  in  the 
trade  "  wood  screws,"  and  made  from 
mild  steel  and  iron ;  or  from  brass,  cop- 
per, and  zinc,  when  the  others  would 
be  destroyed  by  rust. 

Screw  Fine,  in  botany,  the  genus 
Pandanus.  The  name  is  given  because 
the  prickly  leaves  are  arranged  spirally 
in  a  triple  series,  forming  dense  tufts 
or  crowns  like  those  of  the  pineapple. 

Screw  Freyeller,  a  spiral  blade  on 
a  cylindrical  axis,  called  the  shaft  or 
spindle,  parallel  with  the  keel  of  ves- 
sels, made  to  revolve  by  steam  i)ower 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  water, 
usually  at  the  stern,  as  a  means  of 
propulsion. 

Screws,  Williams  Wallace^  as 
American  journalist ;  born  in  Barbour, 
CO.,  Ala.,  Feb.  25,  1839;  studied  law 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1868; 
followed  his  profession  till  1861,  whem 
he  entered  the  Confederate  army ;  par- 
ticipated in  the  capture  of  Fort  Baran- 
cas  and  the  navy  yard  at  Pensacola; 
was  promoted  lieutenant  of  the  59th 
Alabama  Regiment;  was  with  Bragg's 
army  in  Kentucky  and  experienced 
much  hardship  at  Chickamauga  and 
Knoxville.  During  the  last  year  of 
the  war  he  fought  with  General  Lee 
in  Virginia;  became  a  correspondent 
of  the  Montgomery  "  Advertiser  "  dur- 


Scrivener 

ing  his  military  service,  after  which 
he  was  placed  on  the  editorial  staff. 
Later  he  became  president  of  the  "  Ad- 
vertiser "  Company,  and  also  editor- 
in-chief.  He  was  secretary  of  state 
of  Alabama  in  1868-1872  and  post- 
master of  Montgomery,  Ala.,  in  1893- 
1897.^ 

Scribe  (Hebrew,  sofer),  among  the 
Jews,  originally  a  kind  of  military 
officer,  whose  business  appears  to  have 
been  the  recruiting  and  organizing  of 
troops,  the  levying  of  war-taxes,  and 
the  like.  Later  the  Hebrew  name 
sofer  seems  to  have  been  especially 
bestowed  on  a  copyist  of  the  law  books. 
After  the  exile,  under  Ezra,  apparently 
the  copyist  became  more  and  more  an 
expounder  of  the  law.  In  Christ's 
time  the  name  had  come  to  designate 
a  learned  man,  a  doctor  of  the  law. 
As  a  rule  they  were  Pharisees,  and 
zealous  to  keep  the  law  pure  from  any 
foreign  influence,  even  Chasdim. 
Among  famous  scribes  are  to  be  reck- 
oned Hillel,   Shammai,  and   Gamaliel. 

Scribner,  William  Marshall,  an 
American  penman ;  born  in  Water- 
boro.  Me.,  in  1824.  He  lived  for  many 
years  in  Boston,  Mass. ;  took  an  active 
part  in  educational  work  in  the  West ; 
and  became  widely  known  as  the  au- 
thor of  the  system  of  penmanship  copy- 
books bearing  his  name.  He  died  in 
Chicago,   111.,  Jan.  15,  1902. 

Scriptnre,  Edward  Wbeeler,  ao 
American  psychologist ;  born  in  Mason, 
N.  H.,  May  21,  1864;  was  graduated 
at  the  College  of  the  city  of  New 
York  in  1884;  pursued  special 
studies  abroad;  returned  to  the 
United  States  and  was  made  di- 
rector of  the  psychological  lab- 
oratory of  Yale  University.  His  in- 
vestigations resulted  in  several  im- 
portant discoveries,  including  a  meth- 
od of  producing  anaesthesia  by  electric- 
ity, a  method  of  measuring  hallucina- 
tions and  imaginations,  and  the  law 
of  "  mediate  associations  of  ideas.'* 
He  also  invented  a  color-sight  tester. 

Scrivener,  Frederick  Henry 
Ambrose,  English  biblical  scholar; 
born  in  1813;  died  in  1891.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  graduated  M.  A.  in  1838, 
In  1870  he  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  Company  of  Revision  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  in  1872  received  a  gov- 
ermnent  pension  in  recognition  of  his 


Scrivener's  Palsy 


Scurry 


services  in  connection  with  biblical 
criticism.  Dr.  Scrivener  held  high 
rank  in  the  philological  criticism  of 
the  New  Testament. 

Scrivener's  Palsy.  See  Wbit- 
EEs'  Cramp. 

Scrofula,  a  tedious  and  multiform 
disease,  hereditary  in  its  nature,  and 
one  of  the  most  characteristic  marks 
of  which  is  a  tendency  to  swelling  of 
the  glandular  parts,  which  sometimes 
suppurate,  and  discharge  a  curdy 
mixed  matter,  and  are  very  diflScult 
to  heal.    See  King's  Evil. 

Scroggs,  Sir  "Williant,  a  British 
judge,  whose  name  is  used  as  a 
synonym  for  an  unjust,  venial,  and 
brutal  judge.  He  became  chief-justice 
of  the  King's  Bench  in  1678,  and  was 
specially  notorious  for  cruelty  and 
partiality  during  the  trial  of  the  un- 
fortunates accused  of  complicity  in  the 
alleged  Popish  Plot.  In  1680  he  was 
impeached  by  the  CommonSj  but  re- 
moved from  office  by  the  king  on  a 
pension.     He  died  in  1683. 

Scrub  Bird,  in  ornithology,  the 
genus  Atrichia.  The  English  name 
has  reference  to  its  habitat,  the  dense 
scrubs  of  Western  Australia.  There  is 
but  one  species,  the  noisy  scrub  bird, 
about  eight  inches  long. 

Scruggs,  WiUiam  L.,  an  Amer* 
ican  diplomatist ;  born  near  Knoxville, 
Tenn.,  Sept.  14,  1834;  was  educated 
at  Strawberry  Plains  College,  East 
Tennessee,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1860.  He  was  engaged  in  newspaper 
work  in  1862-1871 ;  was  United  States 
minister  to  Colombia  in  1871-1877 
and  1881-1887;  United  States  elec- 
trical engineer  to  Venezuela  in  1888^- 
1893;  and  legal  adviser  and  special 
agent  of  the  Venezuelan  government 
during  the  determination  of  the  Anglo- 
Venezuelan  boundary  in  1893-1898,  in 
which  capacity  he  aided  in  bringing 
the  dispute  to  a  pacific  settlement  by 
arbitration. 

Scndder,  H*race  Elislia,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Oct.  16,  1838.  From  1890- 
1898  he  was  editor  of  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly."    IHed  1902. 

Soudder,  Saotuel  Hubbard,  an 
'American  naturalist ;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  April  13,  1837;  was  graduated 
at  Williams  College  in  1857  and  at 
the    Lawrence    Scientific    School    in 

E.  135. 


1862;  was  assistant  to  Prof.  Louis 
Agassiz  at  the  Cambridge  Museum  of 
Comparative  Zoology  in  1862-1864; 
secretary  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Nat- 
ural History  in  1862-1870;  and  its 
president  in  1880-1887.  He  was 
palajontologist  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  in  1886-1892. 

Scudery,  Madeleine  de,  a  Frencb 
romancist ;  born  at  Harve  in  1607. 
She  became  one  of  the  conspicuous 
figures  in  the  literary  circle  of  Paris, 
acquiring  great  fame  by  her  romances 
"  Artameme  ou  le  Grand  Cyrus ;" 
"Ilrahinx;"  "  Clelie,"  etc.  She  died 
in  1701.  Her  brother,  Geoeges  de 
ScuDEBY,  was  a  writer  of  tragedies, 
etc.,  and  an  enemy  of  Corneille.  Born 
in  1601 :  he  died  in  1667. 

Sculpture,  the  art  of  cutting  or 
carving  any  material  so  as  to  repre- 
sent form.  Sculpture  may  be  broadly 
divided  into  relievo  and  round.  In 
the  former,  single  figures  or  groups 
are  represented  as  more  or  less  raised, 
but  without  being  entirely  detached 
from  a  background.  According  to  the 
latter  method,  insulated  figures,  such 
as  statues,  or  collections,  or  groups, 
are  made,  so  as  to  be  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  a  background. 

Sculptured  Stones,  a  general 
name  given  in  Great  Britain  to  a  class 
of  monuments  of  the  early  Christian 
period,  many  of  them  being  mere  un- 
hewn stones,  with  sculpturings  of  rude 
inscriptions,  or  symbols,  or  ornamental 
designs,  corresponding  in  style  and 
patterns  to  the  illuminated  decorations 
of  Celtic  manuscripts  of  the  Gospels. 

Scuncbeon,  in  architecture,  the 
stones  or  arches  thrown  across  the 
angles  of  a  square  tower  to  support 
the  alternate  sides  of  the  octag- 
onal spire ;  also  the  cross-pieces  of 
timber  across  the  angles  to  give 
strength  and  firmness  to  a  frame. 

Scuppers,  channels  cut  through  the 
sides  of  a  ship  at  the  edges  of  the  deck 
to  carry  water  off  the  deck  into  the 
sea. 

Scurvy,  or  Scorbutus,  a  disease 
characterized  by  a  depraved  condition 
of  the  blood.  In  consequence  of  this 
morbid  state  of  the  blood  there  is  great 
debility  of  the  system  at  large,  with  a 
tendency  t©  congestion,  hemorrhage, 
etc.,  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  and 
especially  in  the  gums. 


Scnrvy  Grass 

Scurvy  Grass,  Cochlearia  oflScinal- 
Js,  a  cruciferous  plant,  growing  in 
<jreat  Britain  and  elsewhere  on  the 
seashore  and  on  the  mountains. 

Scylla,  in  classical  mythology,  a 
daughter  of  Nisus,  King  of  Megara. 
When  Minos  came  from  Crete  to  take 
vengeance  for  the  death  of  his  son, 
Androgeos,  his  efforts  to  take  the  city 
were  fruitless  as  long  as  the  purple 
lock  on  the  head  of  Nisus  remained  un- 
shorn. Urged  by  her  love  for  Minos, 
Scylla  cut  off  the  fatal  lock,  and  with 
It  destroyed  the  life  of  her  father  and 

the  safety  of  the  city.     According  to    greater  part  of  the  earth's   surface; 
•one  version  Minos  tied  Scylla  to  the  i  the  ocean.     In  a  more  limited  sense 


Sea 

Scythians,  a  name  very  vaguely 
used  by  ancient  writers.  It  was  some- 
times applied  to  all  the  nomadic  tribes 
which  wandered  over  the  regions  to  the 
north  of  the  Black  and  the  Caspian 
Seas,  and  to  the  east  of  the  latter.  In 
the  7th  century  B.  c,  they  invaded 
Media  and  were  driven  off  only  after 
a  10  years'  struggle.  In  the  time  of 
the  Roman  Empire  the  name  Scythia 
extended  over  Asia  from  the  Volga  to 
the  frontiers  of  India  and  China. 

Sea,  a  general  name  for  the  great 
body  of  salt  water  which  covers  the 


stem  of  his  ship  and  drowned  her; 
but  another  tale  says  that  she  was 
changed  into  a  fish,  which  Nisus  trans- 
formed into  an  eagle,  constantly  pur- 
sued. The  myth  was  localized  in  the 
names  of  the  port  of  Nisaea  and  the 
promontory  Scyllaeum.  The  "  Odys- 
sey "  speaks  of  another  Scylla,  a 
daughter  of  Cratseis,  as  a  monster  with 


the  term  is  applied  to  a  part  of  the 
ocean  which  from  its  position  or  con- 
figuration is  looked  upon  as  distinct 
and  deserving  of  a  special  name,  as 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  the  Black  Sea, 
etc.  The  term  is  also  occasionally  ap- 
plied to  inland  lakes,  as  the  Caspian 
Sea,  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  etc. 

The  waters  of  the  sea  cover  about 
143,259,300  square  miles,  or  about  five- 
sevenths  of  the  surface  of  the  earth. 


12   feet,   six   necks,   and   six  mouths, 

Th?s  bTng  hlSlted'IVcronfhe'ftS:   ^he  solid  globe  or  lithosphere,  viewed 
tl'\^l'^.^.   o  "°  ;iw?^^  *l°Jif \i-l   as   to.  its  superficial   aspect,    may   be 


ian  coast ;  a  neighboring  rock  being 
tenanted  by  Charybdis,  who  thrice 
«very  day  swallowed  the  waters  of 
the  sea,  and  thrice  threw  them  up 
again.  Like  Medusa  Scylla  is  repre- 
sented in  some  legends  as  having  been 
beautiful,  and  as  having  been  changed 
into  a  monster  through  the  jealousy 
of  Circe  or  Amphitrite. 

Scylla,  and  Charybdis,  the  former 
a  famous  promontory  and  town  of 
Southern  Italy  at  .  the  entrance 
•of  the  narrow  strait  separating  Italy 
from  Sicily.  The  promontory  is 
200  feet  high,  projecting  into  the 
seaj  and  at  its  base  is  the  town. 
Charybdis  (q.  v.)  is  a  celebrated  whirl- 
pool in  the  Straits  of  Messina,  nearly 
opposite  the  entrance  to  the  harbor 
of  Messina  in  Sicily,  and  in  ancient 
"writings  always  mentioned  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Scylla.  The  navigation  of 
this  whirlpool  is  considered  to  be  very 
■dangerous,  and,  must  have  been  exceed- 
ingly so  to  the  ancients. 

Scymnidse,  a  family  of  sharks,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  absence  of  an  anal 
fin,  and  by  dorsals  unfurnished  with 
epines.  The  head  is  furnished  with  a 
pair   of   small  spiracles.      The  Green 


regarded  as  divided  into  two  great 
planes ;  one  of  these  corresponds  to 
the  dry  land  or  upper  surface  of  the 
continental  masses,  and  occupies  about 
two-sevenths  of  the  earth's  surface; 
the  other,  corresponding  to  the  abysmal 
regions  of  the  ocean,  is  depressed  over 
2%  miles  below  the  general  level  of 
the  continental  plane,  and  occupies 
about  four-sevenths  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face. The  transitional  area,  uniting 
these  two  planes,  forms  the  sides  or 
walls  of  the  ocean  basins,  and  occupies 
about  one-seventh  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face. Were  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth 
to  be  reduced  to  one  uniform  level  by 
removing  the  elevated  continental 
masses  into  the  depressed  abysmal 
areas,  the  surface  of  the  earth  would 
theji  be  covered  by  a  universal  ocean 
or  hydrosphere  with  a  depth  of  about 
2  miles.  The  bulk  of  water  in  the 
whole  ocean  is  estimated  at  323,800,- 
000  cubic  miles.    See  Ocean. 

The  temperature  of  the  surface 
waters  of  the  ocean  varies  from  28°  F. 
in  the  polar  regions  to  85°  or  86°  in 
equatorial  regions.  The  temperature  of 
the  water  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean 
over   the   abysmal   areas  ranges  from 


id  sharK  is  the  best-known  species. '  32.7°  F.  to  36^8°  F*  la  the  oj^  ocean 


Sea  Anemone 


Seabury 


the  temperature  usually  decreases  as 
the  depth  increases,  the  coldest  water 
being  found  at  the  bottom.  In  en- 
closed or  partially  enclosed  seas,  cut 
off  by  barriers  from  the  great  ocean 
basins,  the  temperature  remains  uni- 
form from  the  height  of  the  barrier 
down  to  the  bottom.  In  regions  where 
there  are  heavy  rains,  or  where  rivers 
pour  fresh  water  into  the  sea,  alternat- 
ing layers  of  colder  and  warmer  water 
have  been  observed  within  a  hundred 
fathoms  from  the  surface. 

The  circulation  of  oceanic  waters  is 
maintained  by  the  motion  of  the  pre- 
vailing winds  on  the  surface  layers.  In 
the  oceanic  areas  the  prevailing  winds 
are  governed  by  the  large  anticyclonic 
areas  situated  toward  the  centers  of 
the  North  and  South  Atlantic  and 
North  and  South  Pacific.  The  winds 
blow  out  from  and  around  these  anti- 
cyclonic  areas.  In  the  Southern  Hem- 
isphere the  warm  salt  water  of  the 
tropical  regions  is  driven  to  the  S. 
along  the  E.  coasts  of  South  America, 
Africa,  and  Australia,  till  on  reaching 
a  latitude  of  between  50°  and  55°  S. 
it  sinks  on  being  cooled  and  spreads 
slowly  over  the  floor  of  the  ocean  to 
the  N.  and  S.  A  similar  circulation 
takes  place  in  the  Northern  Hem- 
isphere, though  much  modified  by  the 
peculiar  configuration  of  the  land 
masses ;  the  cold  salt  water  at  30°  F. 
which  occupies  the  deeper  parts  of  the 
Arctic  basin  is  largely  made  up  of  the 
dense  Gulf  Stream  water,  which  sinks 
to  the  bottom  on  being  cooled  in  the 
Norwegian  Sea.  The  water  evapo- 
rated from  the  sea  surface  is  borne  to 
the  land  masses  and  condensed  on  the 
mountain  slopes.  It  is  estimated  thai 
over  6,500  cubic  miles  of  this  water  is 
returned  to  the  sea  by  rivers  annually, 
bearing  along  with  it  a  burden  of  solu- 
ble salts  and  earthy  matters  in  sus- 
pension ;  in  this  way  the  ocean  has  in 
all  probability  become  salt  in  the 
course  of  ages.  The  saltest  waters  are 
found  in  the  regions  of  greatest  evap- 
oration ;  for  instance,  in  the  Red  Sea, 
Mediterranean,  and  in  the  trade-wind 
regions  of  the  great  ocean  basins. 

Sea  Anemone,  the  popular  name 
given  to  a  number  of  animals  of  the 
sub-kingdom  Ccelenterata  and  class' 
Actinozoa.  They  are  among  the  most 
interesting  organisms  met  with  on  the 
sea  beach,  and  in  aquaria  form  a  great 


attraction.  All  sea  anemones,  how- 
ever varied  in  coloration  or  form,  pre- 
sent the  essential  structure  and  ap- 
pearance of  a  fleshy  cylinder,  attached; 
by  its  base  to  a  rock  or  stone,  and' 
presenting  at  its  free  extremity  the- 
mouth,  surrounded  by  a  circlet  of  arms 
or  tentacles.  With  these  tentacles,  iu 
some  cases  exceeding  200  in  number,, 
they  seize  and  secure  their  food  which 
they  paralyze  by  means  of  the  thread 
cells,  common  to  them  with  all  Ccelen- 
terata. The  sea  anemones  resemble 
the  Hydrae  in  their  marvelous  powers- 
of  resisting  injuries  and  mutilation. 
Thus  if  a  sea  anemone  be  divided 
longitudinally,  a  new  animal  will  in 
due  time  be  formed  out  of  each  half. 
They  appehr  singularly  insusceptible- 
also  to  the  action  of  hot  or  cold- 
water,  and  seem  to  be  wonderfully 
long-lived. 

Sea  Bear,  a  name  sometimes  given> 
to  the  polar  bear ;  also  to  a  kind  of 
seal,  on  account  of  its  appearance. 

Sea  Bncktborn,  or  Salloxir 
Thorn,  large  shrubs  or  trees  with 
gray  silky  foliage  and  entire  leaves* 
There  is  but  one  known  species,  some- 
times called  the  sea  buckthorn,  a  large- 
thomv  shrub  or  low  tree,  a  native  of 
parts  of  the  sandy  sea  coasts  of  Eng- 
land and  the  continent  of  Europe,  andi 
found  also  throughout  a  great  part  of 
Tartary.  It  is  sometimes  planted  to 
form  hedges  near  the  sea,  growing 
luxuriantly  where  few  shrubs  will  suc- 
ceed. The  berries  are  orange  colored 
and  are  gratefully  acid. 

Seabnry,  Samnel,  an  American 
clergyman ;  born  in  Groton,  Gonn.,^ 
Nov.  30,  1729 ;  was  graduated  at  Yale- 
in  1748;  studied  medicine  at  Edin- 
burgh ;  and  received  deacon's  and 
priest's  orders  in  England  in  1753 ;  in 
1757  he  was  promoted  to  the  "  living  " 
of  Jamaica,  Long  Island,  and  10  years 
later  to  that  of  Westchester,  N.  Y. 
He  removed  to  New  York,  where  he 
made  his  medical  knowledge  contribute 
to  his  support,  acted  as  chaplain  of  the 
King's  American  Regiment,  and  wrote 
a  series  of  pamphlets  which  earned  for 
him  the  special  hostility  of  the  pa- 
triots. On  March  25,  1783,  the  clergy 
of  Connecticut  met  at  Woodbury  an^ 
elected  Seabury  bishop;  and  for  19 
months  he  waited  vainly  for  consecra- 
tion. On  Nov.  14,  1784,  he  was  corr 
secrated  at   Aberdeen.     Bishop   Sea 


Sea  Dragon 

bury's  jurisdiction  embraced  Rbode 
Island  as  well  as  Connecticut,  and  he 
acted  also  as  rector  of  St.  James's 
Church,  New  London.  In  1792  he 
joined  with  three  bishops  of  the  Eng- 
lish succession  in  consecrating  a  fifth. 
Bishop  Claggett,  through  whom  every 
American  bishop  derives  from  Seabury 
and  the  Scotch  Church.  He  died  Feb. 
26,  1796. 

Sea  Dragon,  in  ichthyology,  Pe- 
gasus draconis,  common  in  the  Indian 
Ocean.  The  popular  name  has  refer- 
ence to  the  resemblance  of  this  fish 
to  the  mythical  dragon. 

Sea  Eagle,  a  name  applied  to  one 
or  two  members  of  the  eagle  family; 
but  probably  with  most  distinctive 
value  to  the  white-tailed  ea«le  or  erne, 
found  in  all  parts  of  Europe.  The 
American  bald-headed  eagle  from  its 
frequenting  the  seacoasts  is  also  named 
the  sea  eagle. 

Sea  Elepbant,  a  large  seal,  called 
also  bottle-nosed  seal  and  seal  ele- 
phant. It  is  the  largest  of  the  seal 
family,  being  larger  than  an  elephant. 
The  average  length  of  the  male  is  12 
to  14  feet,  but  some  of  20  and  25  feet 
are  mentioned.  The  female  is  generally 
about  10  feet  long.  It  gets  its  name 
from  its  size  and  from  its  proboscis, 
which  stretches  out  a  foot  or  more, 
somewhat  like  the  trunk  of  an  ele- 
phant. The  sea  elephant  was  once 
found  in  abundance  at  Heard's  Island 
in  the  Southern  Indian  Ocean,  and  at 
the  Falkland  and  South  Shetland  Is- 
lands and  other  islands  in  the  South 
Atlantic,  and  thousands  of  barrels  of 
oil  were  brought  from  there  every 
year,  but  the  elephants  were  hunted 
so  persistently  that  few  are  now  left. 
It  was  once  common  on  the  coast  of 
California,  but  is  now  seldom  seen. 

Sea  Hare,  the  popular  name  of  a 
genus  of  gasteropodous  mollusca.  These 
animals  are  slug-like  in  appearance, 
and  derive  their  popular  name  from 
the  prominent  character  of  the  front 
pair  of  tentacles,  which  somewhat  re- 
semble the  ears  of  a  hare. 

Sea  Horse,  a  popular  name  for  the 
hippopotamus  and  the  walrus.  Also  a 
small  pipe-fish  constituting  the  genus 
Hippocampus,  and  so  named  from  its 
head  resembling  that  of  a  horse.  It 
has  a  prehensile  tail  by  which  it  clings 
to  weeds  and  other  supports. 


Seal 

Sea  Kale,  a  species  of  colewort, 
called  also  sea  cabbage.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  seacoasts  of  Europe,  and  is 
much  cultivated  in  gardens  as  a  table 
vegetable. 

Seal,  an  impression  made  on  paper, 
clay,  wax,  or  other  substance,  by 
means  of  a  die  of  metal,  stone,  or 
other  hard  material.  The  stamp  which 
yields  the  impression  is  frequently  it- 
self called  the  seal. 

Seal,  in  zoology,  the  family  Pho- 
cidae,  or  seal  tribe,  are,  of  all  four- 
limbed  mammiferous  animals,  those 
which  display  the  most  complete 
adaptation  to  residence  in  the  water. 
The  seal  has  considerable  resemblance 
to  a  quadruped  in  some  respects,  and 
to  a  fish  in  others.  The  head  is  round, 
and  the  nose,  which  is  broad,  resembles 
that  of  a  dog,  with  the  same  look  of 
intelligence   and   mild   and   expressive 


HOODED    SEAL. 

physiognomy.  It  has  large  whiskers, 
oblong  nostrils,  and  great  black  spark- 
ling eyes.  It  has  no  external  ears, 
but  a  valve  exists  in  the  orifices,  which 
can  be  closed  at  will,  so  as  to  keep 
out  the  water;  the  nostrils  have  a 
similar  valve ;  and  the  clothing  of  the 
body  consists  of  stiff  glossy  hairs,  very 
closely  set  against  the  skin.  The  body 
is  elongated  and  conical,  gradually 
tapering  from  the  shoulders  to  the 
tail.  The  spine  is  provided  with  strong 
muscles,  which  bend  it  with  consider- 
able force;  and  this  movement  is  of 
great  assistance  to  the  propulsion  of 
the  body.  There  are  many  species 
of  these  animals ;  some  are  found  in 
almost  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  but 
chiefly  in  the  frigid  or  temperate  re- 
gions. 


Sealed  Orders 


Sears 


The  common  seal,  abundant  in  the 
cool  and  frigid  regions,  is  three  to 
five  feet  long,  and  is  much  hunted  for 
its  skins,  and  for  its  oil  and  flesh. 
The  sljins  though  their  covering  is 
hair,  not  fur,  are  much  valued.  The 
sea  lion  is  found  on  both  coasts  of  the 
Pacific  from  California  and  Japan  N., 
and  there  is  an  Antarctic  species.  The 
S.  fur  seals  have  been  nearly  exter- 
minated. The  celebrated  N.  species 
which  yields  the  valuable  sealskins  of 
commerce,  is  confined  to  the  North 
Pacific,  breeding  only  on  two  of  the 
Pribilof  Islands,  in  Bering  Sea,  and 
two  of  the  Commander  Islands. 

Sealed  Orders,  written  instruc- 
tions, generally  to  naval  officers.  The 
custom  of  having  warships  sail  "  un- 
der sealed  orders  "  has  arisen  from  the 
desire  of  maritime  powers  to  prevent 
their  plans  from  becoming  known  to 
the  enemy.  In  the  American  navy 
such  orders  come  from  the  President 
and  are  delivered  to  a  commander  of 
a  ship  or  squadron  by  a  confidential 
messenger  who  knows  nothing  of  their 
contents.  Sailing  under  sealed  or- 
ders is  now  the  common  naval  practice 
in  time  of  war. 

Sea  Iiemon,  Doris,  a  genns  of  gas- 
teropodous  mollusca.  It  is  destitute  of 
a  shell,  and  moves  by  means  of  a  broad 
▼entral  foot.  The  gills  exist  in  the 
form  of  a  circle  of  plumes  in  the 
middle  of  the  back,  at  the  posterior  ex- 
tremity of  the  body,  and  can  be  re- 
tracted at  will  within  the  body._  The 
name  sea  lemon  has  been  applied  to 
these  mollusks  from  their  usually  yel- 
low color  and  somewhat  lemon-like 
shape. 

Sea  Letter,  a  document  Issued  from 
the  custom  house,  carried  by  every 
neutral  ship  on  a  foreign  voyage  in 
time  of  war.  It  specifies  the  nature 
and  quantity  of  the  cargo,  the  place 
whence  it  comes,  and  its  destination. 

Sealing  Wax,  a  composition  of 
colored  shellac  or  resin,  for  sealing  or 
securely  fastening  letters  or  packets. 

Sea  Lion,  a  popular  name  for  the 
genus  Otaria;  specifically,  the  hair 
seal  of  the  Pribilofs,  or  Steller's  sea 
lion.  ^  It  is  destitute  of  fur,  and  its 
skin  is  of  little  value,  but  the  hide, 
fat,  flesh,  sinews,  and  intestines  are 
all  useful  to  the  Aleutian  islanders. 
Sea  lions  are  found  round  Kamchatka 


and  the  Asiatic  coast  to  the  Kurila 
islands,  and  there  is  a  colony  of  them 
at  San  Francisco  protected  by  the 
National  government. 

Sea  Mat,  or  Horntrrack,  Flustra, 
a  genus  of  MoUuscoida.  The  sea  mat, 
which  presents  the  appearance  of  a 
piece  of  pale  brown  seaweed,  is  a  com- 
pound organism,  produced  by  a  process 
of  continuous  gemmation  or  budding  • 
from  a  single  primitive  polypide,  which  . 
latter  was  in  turn  developed  from  a 
true  egg. 

Sea  Mouse,  Aphrodite,  a  genus  of 
dorsibranchiate    Annelids    or    marine 
worms.     The  most  notable  feature  in  ■ 
connection  with  the  sea  mouse  consists 
in  the  beautiful  iridescent     hues  ex- , 
hibited  by  the  hairs  or  bristles  which  • 
fringe  the  sides  of  the  body.    The  sea 
mouse  inhabits  deep  water,  and  may . 
be  obtained  by  dredging,  though  it  is  , 
frequently   cast    up   on   shores   after ' 
storms. 

Sea  Mussel,  a  family  of  mollusks^  ' 
comprising  acalepha  which  have  the 
shell  equivalved,  oval  or  elongated,  and 
the  epidermis  thick  and  dark.  They 
seek  concealment,  and  spin  a  nest  of 
sand,  or  burrow  in  mud  banks.  There 
are  more  than  100  living,  and  250 
fossil  species. 

Search  Idglit,  an  electric  arc  light 
the  rays  of  which  are  collected  into  a 
parallel  beam  that  may  be  projected 
to  a  great  distance  and  turned  in  any 
direction. 

Searcli,  Riglit  of,  in  international 
law,  the  right  of  belligerents,  during 
war,  to  visit  and  search  the  vessels  of 
neutrals  for  contraband  of  war.  The 
government  of  the  United  States  has 
always  firmly  refused  to  ratify  the 
right.  This  question  was  one  of  the 
chief  causes  of  the  War  of  1812. 

Searcli  Warrant,  in  law,  a  war- 
rant granted  by  a  justice  of  the  peace 
to  enter  the  premises  of  a  person  sus- 
pected of  secreting  stolen  goods,  in 
order  to  discover  and  seize  the  goods 
if  found. 

Sears,  Lorenzo,  an  American 
rhetorician;  born  in  Seai'sville,  Mass., 
April  18,  1830;  was  graduated  at 
Yale  University  in  1861,  and  at  th© 
General  Theological  Seminary  of  New 
York  in  1864;  held  various  charges  in 
New  England  in  1864-1885;  was 
Professor  of  Rhetoric  and  English  Lit- 


Sea  Serpent 

erature  at  the  University  of  Vermont 
in  1885-1888;  and  became  Professor 
of  Rhetoric  and  American  Literature 
at  Brown  University  in  1890. 

Sea  Serpent,  the  name  given  to 
gigantic  animals,  presumedly  of  ser- 
pentine form,  which  have  been  fre- 
quently described  by  sailors  and  oth- 
ers, and  which  are  believed  by  many 
naturalists  to  exist  in  the  sea  depths, 
especially    in    tropical    oceans. 

Sea  Sickness,  a  nausea,  or  ten- 
dency to  vomit,  which  varies,  in  re- 
spect of  duration,  in  different  persons 
upon  their  first  going  to  sea.  Its  ex- 
act cause  is  imperfectly  understood, 
and  preventive  and  curative  measures 
are  many   and  conflicting. 

Seaside  Grape,  a  small  tree  which 
grows  on  the  sea  coasts  of  Florida 
and  the  West  Indies.  It  has  clusters 
of  edible  fruit  somewhat  resembling 
the  currant  in  appearance,  a  beautiful 
hard  wood  which  produces  a  red  dye, 
and  yields  the  extract  known  as  Ja- 
maica kino. 

Sea  Snake,  any  individual  of  the 
family  Hydrophidae.  They  have  de- 
pressed heads,  dilated  behind  and  cov- 
ered with  shields.  Their  bodies  are 
covered  with  square  plates ;  their  tails 
are  very  much  compressed  and  raised 
vertically,  so  as  to  aid  them  in  swim- 
ming. They  are  very  venomous;  but 
rarely,  if  ever,  exceed  four  feet  in 
length.  They  are  found  off  the  coast 
of  India  in  the  seas  around  the  In- 
dian islands,  and  in  the  Pacific,  but 
at  no  great  distance  from  land. 

Season,  the  alterations  in  the  rela- 
tive length  of  day  and  night,  heat  and 
cold,  etc.,  which  take  place  each  year. 
In  the  United  States  there  are  four 
seasons,  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and 
winter.  The  Anglo-Saxons  reckoned 
only  three,  spring,  summer,  and  winter, 
the  words  for  which  are  all  from 
Anglo-Saxon ;  autumn  was  borrowed 
from  the  Romans. 

Sea  Spider,  or  Spider  Crab,  a 
marine  crab.  Its  body  is  somewhat 
triangular  in  shape,  and  its  legs  are 
slender  and  generally  long.  It  lives 
in  deep  water,  and  is  seldom  seal  on 
the  shore. 

Sea  Surgeon,  or  Surgeon  Fisk, 
80  named  from  the  presence  of  a  sharp 
spine  on  the  side  and  near  the  extrem- 
ity o£  the  tail,  bearing  a  resemblance 


Seattle 

to  a  surgeon's  lancet.  It  occurs  oa 
the  Atlantic  coasts  of  South  America 
and  Africa,  and  in  the  Garibbeaa 
seas. 

Seaton,  'William  Winston,  an 
American  journalist ;  bom  in  Kinsr 
William  co.,  Va.,  Jan  11,  1785;  was 
educated  in  a  private  academy.  He- 
early  engaged  in  journalism ;  settled 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1812,  and 
became  associated  with  his  brother-in- 
law,  Joseph  Gales,  Jr.,  in  editing  and 
publishing  the  "  National  Intelli- 
gencer." In  1812-1820  they  were  the 
only  reporters  of  Congress,  one  work- 
ing in  the  Senate  and  the  other  in  th© 
House  of  Representatives.  He  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  June  16,  1866. 

Seattle,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
King  CO.,  Wash. ;  on  the  E.  shore  of 
Puget  Sound,  28  miles  N.  of  Tacoma. 
The  city  is  built  on  undulating  ground 
with  valleys  running  N.  and  S.  A  re- 
markable view  is  presented  by  the 
steep  rise  of  the  hills  from  the  Sound. 
Within  sight  of  the  city  are  the  'snow- 
capped ranges,  the  Olympics,  on  the 
W.,  and  the  Cascades  on  the  S.  E.,  and 
Mount  Rainier  on  the  S.,  with  an  alti- 
tude of  14,444  feet. 

The  city  is  the  base  of  supplies  for 
a  lai'ge  tract  of  inland  country  in 
which  are  mines,  lumber  camps,  and 
extensive  agricultural  interests.  It  is 
the  commercial  center  of  Puget  Sound. 
In  1897  it  became  the  chief  N.  starting 
point  in  the  United  States  for  th» 
Alaska  gold  fields. 

The  city  has  an  area  of  28  square 
miles;  105  miles  of  streets,  of  which 
2  miles  are  paved ;  a  system  of  water- 
works, costing  $1,300,000,  with  12T 
miles  of  mains;  and  a  sewer  system 
covering  65  miles.  The  streets  are 
lighted  by  gas  and  electricity.  There 
is  a  public  school  enrollment  of  nearly 
11,000  pupils,  and  annual  expendi- 
tures for  public  education  of  over 
$290,000.  The  annual  cost  of  main- 
taining the  city  government  is  about 
$834,000.  The  annual  death  rate 
averages  8.44  per  1,000.  Seattle  con- 
tains the  State  University,  a  Baptist 
University,  College  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  Seattle  Female  College, 
the  Academy  of  Holy  Names,  a  United 
States  weather  bureau  station,  United 
States  custom  house,  and  a  United 
States  land  oflSce. 

It  was  in  1852  that  the  first  per- 


Sea  Urchin 

manent  settlers  came  to  the  vicinity 
of  Seattle.  It  took  Seattle  three  years 
to  gain  its  first  150  inhabitants.  Then 
followed  an  Indian  war,  and  even  that 
small  population  was  reduced,  slowly 
to  grow  again.  In  1902  Seattle  and  its 
environs  had  not  less  than  110,000 
population.     Pop.  (1910)  237,194. 

Sea  Urchin.     See  Echimus. 

Sea\ireed,  a  plant  growing  wholly 
in  water,  fresh  or  salt.  Some  are  so 
small  and  delicate  that  they  can  be 
seen  only  with  a  microscope,  and  oth- 
ers are  of  such  immense  growths  that 
they  almost  fill  up  the  seas  in  which 
they  live.     See  Algae. 

Seawell,  Molly  Elliot,  an  Amer- 
ican author ;  born  in  Gloucester  Co., 
Va.,  Oct.  23,  1860.  She  commenced  a 
literary  career  in  1886,  and  in  1890 
came  into  prominence  by  "  Little  Jar- 
vis,"  winning  the  $500  prize  offered  by 
the  "  Youth  s  Companion  "  for  a  boy 
story.  In  1895  she  won  the  "  New 
York  Herald  "  prize  of  $3,000  with  the 
*'  Sprightly  Romance  of  Marsac," 
other  works  include  "  Gavin  Hamil- 
ton," "  The  Fortune  of  Fifi,"  etc. 

Seay,  Abraham  J., '  an  American 
jurist ;  bom  in  Amherst  co.,  Va.,  Nov. 
28,  1832 ;  was  taken  by  his  parents  to 
Osage  CO.,  Mo.,  in  1835,  and  reared  on 
a  farm.  In  1861  he  entered  the  Union 
army  and  served  throughout  the  war, 
participating  in  the  march  to  the 
sea ;  became  a  colonel  of  volunteers. 
He  served  as  circuit  judge  in  1875- 
1887,  and  as  supreme  judge  of  Okla- 
homa in  1890-1892;  was  governor  of 
that  Territory  in  1892-1893 ;  then  en- 
gaged in  banking,  stock-growing  and 
farming. 

Sebastes,  a  genus  of  fish  with 
about  20  species,  widely  distributed  in 
temperate  seas.  They  range  from  one 
to  four  pounds  in  weight,  in  general 
appearance  resemble  the  sea  perches, 
and  are  esteemed  as  food. 

Sebastian,  Dom,  King  of  Portu- 
gal ;  born  in  Lisbon  in  1554 ;  ascended 
the  throne  at  three  years  of  age,  on  the 
death  of  his  grandfather,  John  III. 
He  determined  to  carry  on  war  against 
the  Moors  in  Africa,  hoping  to  effect 
something  for  Christianity  and  the 
fame  of  Portugal.  He  equipped  a  fleet 
and  an  army,  which  comprised  the 
flower  of  the  Portuguese  nobility  and 
sailed  for  Africa  in  1578,  at  the  age 


Sebastopol 

of  23  years.  A  general  engagement 
soon  took  place  at  Alcacer-el-Xebir  and 
the  ardor  of  the  king  bore  him  into 
the  midst  of  the  enemy.  Sebastian 
fought  with  bravery,  while  most  of  his 
attendants  were  slain  by  his  side.  He 
disappeared ;  and  so  complete  was  the 
slaughter  that  not  more  than  50  Portu- 
guese survived  this  ill  fated  expedi- 
tion. His  death  is  supposed  to  have 
occurred  Aug.  4,  1578. 

Sebastiani,  Francois  Horace 
Bastien,  Count,  a  Marshal  of 
France ;  bom  in  Porta  d'Ampugnano, 
Corsica,  Nov.  10,  1772.  He  fought  at 
Marengo,  executed  some  important  dip- 
lomatic service  in  Turkey  in  1802- 
1803,  after  which  he  became  general  of 
brigade  and  was  wounded  at  Auster- 
litz.  In  1806  he  was  deputed  to  Tur- 
key. But  the  deposition  of  the  Sultan 
and  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  put  an  end 
to  the  French  intrigues  in  Turkey,  and 
Sebastiani  was  recalled  (June,  1807). 
He  commanded  the  4th  French  army 
corps  in  Spain,  and  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812 
and  at  Leipsic.  On  the  exile  of  Na- 
poleon to  Elba  he  gave  in  his  ad- 
herence to  the  Bourbon  government, 
but  joined  his  old  master  on  his  return. 
After  the  revolution  of  1830  he  held 
for  brief  periods  the  portfolios  of 
naval  and  foreign  affairs,  and  the 
embassies  to  Naples  and  London.  He 
died   in   Paris,   July  20,   1851. 

Sebastopol,  or  Sevastopol,  a 
fortified  town  and  seaport  of  Euro- 
pean Russia,  on  the  W.  coast  of  the 
Crimea.  It  stands  on  a  creek  on  the 
S.  side  of  one  of  the  finest  bays  in 
the  world,  the  Etenus  of  Strabo,  which 
is  defended  by  strong  forts  on  both 
sides.  In  1853  Russia  demanded  from 
the  Turkish  government  guarantees  for 
the  rights  of  the  Greek  Christians  of 
Turkey,  which  the  Porte  refused  to 
concede.  This  led  to  the  beginning  of 
the  Crimean  War,  in  which  France, 
England  and  Sardinia  took  sides  with 
Turkey.  The  armies  of  the  allies  ef- 
fected a  landing  at  the  Bay  of  Eupa- 
toria,  Sept.  14,  1854.  On  their  S. 
march  toward  Sebastopol  they  en- 
countered the  Russian  forces,  com- 
manded by  Prince  Menzikoff,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Alma.  A  bloody  battle 
was  fought  (Sept.  20),  in  which  the 
Russians  were  compelled  to  retreat. 
On  Sept.  25  tlie  British  forces  seized 


Sebesten 


Secession  Church 


Balaklava,  and  on  Oct.  9  the  regular 
siege  of  Sebastopol  commenced.  On 
Oct.  25  and  Nov.  5,  the  Russians  vain- 
ly attempted  to  annihilate  the  besieg- 
ing forces  in  the  battles  of  Balaklava 
and  Inkermann,  but  afterward  con- 
fined themselves  mainly  to  the  defen- 
sive. The  final  bombardment  waa 
opened  Sept.  5,  1855,  and  lasted  three 
days.  On  Sept.  8  the  Malakoff  and 
Redan  were  stormed  and  taken  by  the 
allies.  The  Russians,  after  having 
blown  up  their  extensive  fortifications 
on  the  S.  shore  of  the  harbor,  retreated 
to  the  N.  side,  which  the  allies  never 
seriously  attempted  to  conquer.  The 
latter  remained  inactive  in  their 
camps,  and  no  further  faats  of  arms 
were  accomplished.  The  forces  of  the 
allies  were  withdravm  in  the  summer 
and  autumn  of  1856.  By  the  peace  of 
Paris  (1856)  Russia  lost  the  right  of 
navigation  on  the  Danube,  besides  a 
strip  of  territory  to  the  N.  of  that 
river,  and,  also,  the  unrestricted  navi- 
gation of  the  Black  Sea.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1870,  Russia,  availing  herself  of 
the  Franco-Prussian  imbroglio,  de- 
manded and  obtained  from  the  West- 
ern Powers  a  revision  of  the  treaty 
of  Paris,  in  so  far  as  it  affected  the 
restrictions  placed  on  her  in  the  Black 
Sea.  Sebastopol  is  one  of  Russia's 
greatest  naval  headquarters. 

Sebesten,  or  Sebestan,  in  the 
plural,  in  botany,  the  nuts  of  Gordia 
myxa  and  C.  latifolia,  believed  to  be 
the  Persea  of  Dioscorides,  and  the 
trees  themselves.  The  nuts  are  sweet, 
and  when  cut  have  a  heavy  smell. 
They  are  eaten  in  India. 

Secamonc,  erect  or  climbing 
smooth  shrubs,  with  opposite  leaves,  a 
cymose  inflorescence  and  small  flowers, 
of  the  order  Asclepiadaceae.  They  are 
natives  of  Africa,  India,  and  Australia. 

Seccbi,  Angelo,  an  Italian  as- 
tronomer ;  born  in  Reggio,  Italy,  July 
29,  1818,  and  trained  as  a  Jesuit.  In 
1848  he  became  Professor  of  Physics 
at  Georgetown  College,  Washington, 
and  in  1850  at  the  Goll«gio  Romano, 
Italy,  and  director  of  the  Roman  ob- 
servatory, where  he  labored  till  his 
death.  His  chief  discoveries  were  in 
the  region  of  spectrum  analysis  and 
solar  physics.  He  died  in  Rome,  Feb. 
26,  1878. 

Secession.  Whenever  a  State  has 
claimed  the  right  to  withdraw  from 


the  Union,  it  has  based  its  claim  on 
the  doctrine  of  State  sovereignty.  This 
claim  must  be  considered  as  emphat- 
ically distinct  from  the  right  of  revo- 
lution, insurrection,  or  violent  revolts, 
in  all  of  which  there  is  no  claim  of 
legal  right,  and  the  appeal  of  which  is 
to  force  instead  of  to  reason.  In  its 
turn,  nearly  every  State  in  the  Union 
has  advanced  the  right  of  secession, 
and  usually  each  has  been  condemned 
by  the  others  as  treasonable.  This  claim 
was  specifically  brought  forward  or 
involved  in  the  Kentucky  "  Resolu- 
tions," the  Hartford  "  Convention," 
and  the  "  Nullification  Ordinance." 
The  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln, 
when  the  political  situation  was 
flanked  with  sectional  differences  rest- 
ing on  State  claims,  was  all  that  was 
necessary  to  change  the  theory  of 
secession  in  the  South  into  an  attempt 
to  effect  the  reality.  South  Carolina 
took  the  lead.  No  single  State  was 
prepared  or  willing  to  secede  alone, 
but  Florida,  Mississippi  and  Alabama 
agreed  to  secede  with  any  other  State. 
Again  South  Carolina  was  leader,  in 
calling  a  State  convention,  and  on 
Dec.  20,  1860,  the  Act  of  1788,  ratify- 
ing  the  National  Constitution,  was  re- 
pealed, and  it  was  declared  "  that  the 
union  now  subsisting  between  South 
Carolina  and  other  States,  under  the 
name  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
is  hereby  dissolved."  A  declaration 
of  the  causes  for  this  act  was  formu- 
lated, and  on  the  24th  was  adopted. 
The  governor  proclaimed  "  the  seces- 
sion of  South  Carolina,"  the  same  day. 
Mississippi  Was  the  first  to  follow  this 
example,  Jan.  9,  1861,  then  in  succes- 
sion came  Florida,  Jan.  10;  Alabama, 
Jan.  11 ;  Georgia,  Jan.  19 ;  Louisiana, 
Jan.  26;  and  Texas,  Feb.  1,  though  in 
the  case  of  this  last  State  the  pro- 
ceedings were  decidedly  irregular.  Vir- 
ginia followed  in  April ;  Arkansas  and 
North  Carolina  in  May;  and  Ten- 
nessee in  June.  The  Civil  War  was  the 
consequence.  The  final  issue  was  the 
victory  of  the  government,  the  sur- 
render of  the  Confederate  to  the  Fed- 
eral army,  and  the  full  union  of  the 
United    States   of  America. 

Secession  Cburck,  in  Scotch  ec* 
clesiastical  history,  a  religious  body 
which  broke  off  from  the  Established 
Church  of  Scotland  in  1733.  In  1820 
they  were  reunited  -as  the  Associated 


Second 

Synod,  and  in  1847,  joining  with  the 
Relief,  constituted  the  United  Pres- 
byterian Church.  / 

Second,  a  military  term  used  when 
an  ofl5cer  accepts  civil  employment 
under  the  state,  and  after  6  months  is 
seconded,  i.  e.,  retains  his  rank  with- 
out pay. 

Second  Adventists,  a  religious  or- 
ganization having  six  slightly  differing 
branches  in  the  United  States.  They 
are  Protestants  and  their  belief  is 
characterized  by  faith  that  at  some 
time  in  the  future  there  will  be  a 
visible  reappearance  of  Christ.  They 
do  not  agree  among  themselves  whether 
this  "  divine  return "  will  be  visible 
to  all  the  Church,  or  to  the  whole 
world,  or  to  certain  elect  "  first  fruits  " 
of  the  Church.  The  original  Adven- 
tists  were  called  Millerites,  and  were 
followers  of  William  Miller  from  1781 
till  1849.  Miller  promulgated  a  belief 
that  the  world  would  end  and  the 
millennium  would  begin  in  October, 
1843.  Many  people  had  such  implicit 
faith  in  his  prophecy  that  they  did  not 
*'  plant  or  reap  "  crops,  neglected  their 
business,  and  spent  months  of  time 
before  the  appointed  hour  in  religious 
exercises  so  as  to  be  in  readiness  to 
ascend  to  heaven.  When  Miller's  pre- 
diction proved  a  failure,  some  of  his 
followers  lost  faith  in  the  doctrine, 
while  others  decided  that  an  error  in 
calculation  had  been  made.  Other 
predictions  have  been  made  since  that 
time,  and  other  dates  have  been  set  for 
the  "  end  of  the  world."  Disappoint- 
ment, however,  has  not  materially 
lessened  the  number  of  Adventists, 
since  from  50,000  in  1843  they  in- 
creased to  60,000  in  1890,  and  in  1900 
attained  a  following  of  over  125,000. 

Secondary  Rocks,  in  geology,  an 
extensive  series  of  stratified  rocks,  hav- 
ing certain  characters  in  common  dis- 
tinguishing them  from  the  primary 
rocks  beneath,  and  the  Tertiary  above 
them. 

Secondary  Scliools,  educational 
institutions  in  the  United  States  high- 
er in  grade  than  the  common  schools, 
and  next  below  the  grade  of  colleges. 
Under  this  head  are  classed  all  public 
high  schools,    academies,    etc. 

Second  Rome,  Aquiljar,  a  town  of 
Austria.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans 
it  svas  entrepot  and  commercial  center 


Secretion 

of  Northern  and  Western  Europe  and 
the  Emperor  Augustus  often  resided 
there.  It  was  taken  and  burned  by 
Attila,  at  which  time  its  populatioa 
was  reckoned  at  100,000. 

Second  Sight,  a  gift  of  prophetic 
vision,  long  supposed  in  the  Scotch 
Highlands  and  elsewhere  to  belong  to 
particular  persons.  The  most  com- 
mon form  it  took  was  to  see  the 
wraith,  fetch,  or  shadowy  second  self 
of  some  person  soon  to  die,  often  wrap- 
ped in  a  shroud,  or  attended  with  some 
other  of  the  special  circumstances  of 
death  or  burial. 

Secretary  Bird,  the  Serpentarius 
secretarius,  from  South  Africa,  a  bird 
protected   by   the  native  and  English 


SECBETABY  BIRD. 

authorities  for  the  service  it  renders 
in  destroying  venomous  serpents,  which 
it  kills  by  blows  from  its  powerful  feet 
and  bill,  though  occasionally  the  ser- 
pent succeeds  in  inflicting  mortal  in- 
jury on  its  foe. 

Secretion,  in  physiology,  the  proc- 
ess by  which  materials  are  separated 
from  the  blood,  and  from  the  organs 
in  which  they  are  formed,  for  the 
purpose  either  of  serving  some  ulte- 
rior office  in  the  animal  economy,  or 
being  discharged  from  the  body  as  ex- 
crement. Secretion  is  one  of  the  nat» 


Secret  Serrlce 


Sedative 


ural  functions  of  the  living  body,  and 
is  as  necessary  to  health  as  nutrition. 
Where  the  secreted  materials  have 
Bome  ulterior  purpose  to  serve,  they 
are  known  as  secretions;  where  they 
are  discharged  from  the  body,  ex- 
cretions. 

Secret  Service,  United  States, 
a  bureau  connected  with  the  Treasury 
Department,  whose  chief  and  almost 
Bole  object  is  to  guard  against  the 
counterfeiting  of  the  money  of  the 
United  States  and  the  detection  and 
punishment  of  the  counterfeiters.  It  is 
presided  over  by-  a  chief,  who  has  un- 
der him  a  number  of  skillful  detec- 
tives, who  are  stationed  in  various 
parts  of  the  country  or  assigned  to 
special  fields  of  operation  on  occasions 
of  emergency. 

Secret  Societies,  organizations 
that  in  some  form  or  other  have  existed 
in  all  ages  of  the  world's  history.  The 
Freemasons  and  the  Odd  Fellows  are 
perhaps  the  best  known  of  the  secret 
societies  in  the  United  States.  Specu- 
lative Freemasonry  does  not  go  fur- 
ther back  than  the  18th  century ;  its 
objects  are  philanthropic  and  moral. 
There  are  associations  similar  in  char- 
acter to  it  in  Tahiti  and  others  of  the 
Pacific  Islands,  and  among  the  Foulah 
and  the  Negroes  of  Sierra  Leone  and 
the  adjacent  parts  of  Africa.  There 
have  been  numerous  associations  of  a 
secret  kind  formed  for  criminal  pur- 
poses, and  for  mutual  assistance 
against  and  in  defiance  of  the  laws  of 
the  land ;  the  Assassins  in  Persia  and 
Syria,  the  Thugs  in  India,  the  Ca- 
morra,  the  Mafia,  and  the  Decisi 
(1815)  in  Italj  and  Sardinia,  may 
be  instanced. 

There  are  perhaps  no  people  in  the 
world  who  favor  secret  societies  more 
than  the  Chinese  and  the  inhabitants 
of  the  United  States.  But  while  the 
objects  of  these  associations  in  the 
former  country  are  mostly  political, 
in  the  latter  they  are  predominantly 
social.  The  most  powerful  organization 
of  this  nature  in  China  —  indeed  its 
ramifications  extend  to  all  parts  of  the 
world  where  Chinamen  are  allowed  to 
settle  —  is  the  Tien-ti  Hwuy  (Union 
of  Heaven  and  Earth),  and  presents 
many  features  analogous  to  Free- 
masonry, such  as  secret  signs,  solemn 
initiation  ceremonies,  peculiar  observ- 
anctes.  and  so  forth.  Secret  societies  o£ 


all  kinds,  and  for  nearly  all  conceiv- 
able purposes,  are  found  in  the  United 
States,  from  the  Vigilance  Committee, 
formed  in  the  Western  States  for  the 
preservation  of  public  order,  to  the 
associations  in  the  colleges  and  univer- 
sities. 

Section,  a  distinct  part  or  portion 
of  a  book  or  writing;  a  division  or 
sub-division  of  a  chapter ;  a  para- 
graph ;  a  division  of  a  statute  or 
other  writing.  Hence  often  applied  to 
the  sign  §,  used  to  denote  such  a 
division  or  sub-division.  Also  a  distinct 
part  or  portion  of  a  country,  people, 
community,  class,  or  the  like ;  a  class, 
a  division.  In  that  portion  of  the 
United  States  once  general  government 
land  and  surveyed  by  order  of  the 
National  authorities,  one  of  the  por- 
tions of  a  square  of  640  acres,  or  one 
square  mile  each,  into  which  the  pub- 
lic lands  are  divided.  Each  section  is 
1-3G  of  a  township.  The  sections  ia 
each  township  are  numbered.  Sections 
are  sub-divided  into  half-sections,  quar- 
ter-sections, and  even  into  eighths  of  a 
section.  In  preempting  a  homestead  a 
settler  may  claim  a  quarter  section. 

Secular,  occurring  or  observed  once 
in  an  age,  century,  or  cycle;  as  a 
secular  j-ear.  Also  pertaining  to  an 
age,  generation,  or  period  of  time;  as 
secular  inequality.  Or  pertaining  to 
things  not  spiritual  or  holy, 

Sedalia,  city  and  capital  of  Pettis 
county,  Mo,;  on  the  Missouri  Pacific 
and  other  railroads;  95  miles  E.  of 
Kansas  City;  is  in  a  grain,  live-stock, 
coal,  and  building  stone  section;  has 
machine  shops,  railroad  repair  shops, 
flour  and  woolen  mills,  and  shoe, 
shirt,  and  overall  factories;  contains 
Smith  College,  St.  .Joseph's  Academy, 
convent.  Federal  Buildinsr,  and  Car- 
negie Library,     Pop,  (3910)  17.822. 

Sedan,  a  town  in  France,  depart- 
ment of  Ardennes,  on  the  Meuse,  on 
the  frontier  of  Luxemburg,  164  miles 
N,  E,  of  Paris,  The  staple  industry  is 
the  manufacture  of  fine  black  cloth. 
Here  on  Sept.  2,  1870,  Napoleon  III. 
and  his  whole  army  surrendered  to  the 
Germans  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War 
(q.  v.).     Pop.  19,349. 

Sedative,  in  medicine,  a  remedy 
which  allays  irritability  and  irritation, 
and  which  assuages  pain.  They  are 
used  both  externally  and  internally. 


Sedge 

Sedge,  an  extensive  genus  of  grass- 
like plants  containing  thousands  of 
«pecies,  mostly  inhabiting  the  N.  and 
temperate  parts  of  the  globe.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  species  are 
marsh  plants.  The  sedges  in  general 
are  of  but  little  utility  to  man.  They 
furnish  coarse  fodder,  which  is  re- 
jected by  most  of  the  domestic  quadru- 
peds. The  decomposed  roots  and  leaves 
contribute  largely  to  turn  the  soil  of 
marshes  into  peat. 

Sedgnrick,  Jolin,  an  American 
military  officer ;  born  in  Cornwall, 
<:;onn.,  Sept.  13,  1813.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1837;  served  in  the  Mexi- 
can and  Seminole  War  as  1st  lieuten- 
ant (1846-1847)  ;  was  a  lieutenant- 
■colonel  in  the  regular  army  when  the 
-Civil  War  began ;  served  in  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  as  commander  of  bri- 
gade and  division  till  February,  1863, 
when  he  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  6th  Army  Corps.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  Fair  Oaks,  May  31, 
and  June  1,  1862 ;  took  part  in  the 
Seven  Days'  battles,  June  25  to  July 
1 ;  and  having  displayed  great  bravery 
and  skill  at  Antietam,  Sept.  16  and  17, 
was  promoted  to  Major-General  in  De- 
•cember.  He  was  severely  wounded  at 
Antietam ;  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
battles  of  Chancellorsville,  Gettysburg, 
and  the  Wilderness ;  and  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Spottsylvania,  May  9, 
1864. 

Sedg^vick,  'William  Thompson, 
an  American  biologist ;  born  in  West 
Hartford,  Conn.,  Dec.  29,  1855 ;   was 

Graduated  at  the  Sheffield  Scientific 
chool  of  Yale  University  in  1877 ;  in- 
structor of  biology  at  Johns  Hopkins 
University  in  1880-1883 ;  Professor  of 
Biology  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology  since  1883.  He  was 
joint  author  of  "  General  Biology." 

Sedition,  a  factious  rising  or  com- 
motion in  a  State,  not  amounting  to 
insurrection ;  the  stirring  up  or  fo- 
menting of  such  a  commotion  ;  the  stir- 
ring up  or  fomenting  of  discontent 
against  government,  and  disturbance 
of  public  tranquillity,  as,  by  inflamma- 
tory speeches  or  writings;  acts  or 
language  inciting  to  a  breach  of  the 
public  peace ;  excitement  of  resistance 
to  lawful  authority.  Sedition  com- 
prises such  offenses  of  this  class  as  do 
cxot  amount  to  treason,  being  without' 


Seed 

the  overt  acts  which  are  essential  to 
the  latter. 

Sedley,  Henry,  an  American  au- 
thor; born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  April  4, 
1835,  Originally  a  civil  engineer,  he 
surveyed  and  mapped  many  of  the 
streets  of  San  Francisco,  CaL,  after 
doing  which  he  went  round  the  world. 
He  afterward  became  a  journalist,  and 
was  at  one  time  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  New  York  "  Evening  Post," 
"  Times,"  and  ' '  Commercial  Adver- 
tiser " ;  was  founder  and  for  a  time 
editor  of  the  "  Round  Table,"  which 
was  later  changed  to  the  "  Nation." 
He  died  in  New  York  city,  Jan.  18, 
1899. 

See,  a  diocese ;  the  seat  of  episcopal 
authority ;  the  jurisdiction ;  as,  an 
episcopal  see ;  the  province  or  jurisdic- 
tion of  an  archbishop ;  as,  an  archi- 
episcopal  see ;  the  seat,  place,  or  office 
of  the  Pope  or  Roman  pontiff;  as,  the 
Papal  See ;  the  authority  of  the  Pope 
or  court  of  Rome ;  as,  he  was  delegated 
by  the  See  of  Rome. 

See,  Thomas  Jefferson  Jackson, 
an  American  astronomer ;  born  near 
Montgomery  City,  Mo.,  Feb.  19,  1866 ; 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Missouri  in  1889,  and  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Berlin  in  1892 ;  was  in  charge 
of  the  observatory  of  the  University 
of  Missouri  in  1887-1889;  had  charge 
of  and  aided  in  the  organization  of  the 
Yerkes  Observatory  of  the  University 
of  Chicago  in  1893-1896;  was  astron- 
omer of  the  Lowell  Observatory  during 
the  survey  of  the  Southern  heavens 
in  1896-1898;  became  Professor  of 
Mathematics  in  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  in  1899;  and  in  De- 
cember of  that  year  took  charge  of  the 
26-inch  equatorial  telescope  of  the 
United  States  Naval  Observatory.  He 
completed  about  45  orbits  of  double 
stars;  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  As- 
tronomical Society;  member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society ;  the 
American  Mathematical  Society,  the 
Astronomische  Gesellschaft,  etc. ;  and 
was  the  author  of  numerous  astronom- 
ical papers  and  books,  including  "  Re- 
searches on  the  Evolution  of  the  Stel- 
lar Systems,"  and  "  The  Evolution  of 
the  Double-star  System." 

Seed,  reproductive  ovule  of  a  plant. 
It  consists  essentially  of  the  young 
plant  or  embryo,   inclosed  in  integu- 


Seeley 

ments.  The  latter  consists  of  two 
seed-coats — the  outer  named  the  epi- 
sperm  or  testa,  the  inner  the  tegmen  or 
endopleura ;  and  the  two  together  are 
sometimes  termed  the  spermoderm.  The 
embryo  is  the  young  plant  contained 
in  the  seed.  It  consists  of  a  general 
axis,  one  part  of  which  is  destined  to 
form  the  root,  the  other  to  form  the 
stem.  The  axial  portion  is  provided 
with  fleshy  organs  called  cotyledons  or 
seed-leaves,  which  serve  to  nurse  the 
young  plant  before  the  appearance  of 
the  true  leaves.  Plants  possessing  one 
cotyledon  are  termed  monocotyledon- 
ous,  those  having  two  are  denominated 
dicotyledonous, 

Seeley,    Jolin    Robert,    Sir,    an 

English  historian;  born  in  London,  in 
1834 ;  in  1869  he  became  Professor  of 
Modern  History  in  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity. He  first  came  into  notice  through 
"  Ecce  Homo"  (a  life  of  Christ),  in 
1865,  which  made  a  great  sensation 
and  was  reviewed  by  Sir.  Gladstone ; 
he  published  'Hl^atural  Religion "  in 
1882 ;  and  in  "  Lectures  and  Essays  " 
(1870)  he  wrote  on  art,  ethics,  and 
education.  He  died  in  Cambridge,  Jan. 
13,  1895. 

Seelye,  Jnlins  Havrley,  an  Amer- 
ican educator ;  born  in  Bethel,  Conn., 
Sept.  14,  1824.  He  was  president  of 
Amherst  College  (1876-1890),  and  in- 
augurated the  "  Amherst  system  "  of 
self-government, .  which  was  produc- 
tive of  good  results.  He  died  in  Am- 
herst, Mass.,  May  12,  1895. 

Seelye,  Lanrenns  '  Clark,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  Bethel, 
Conn.,  Sept.  20,  1837;  was  graduated 
at  Union  College  in  1857;  studied  in 
the  Universities  of  Berlin  and  Heidel- 
berg; became  Professor  of  Rhetoric 
and  English  liiterature  in  Amherst 
College  in  18(54.  He  was  president  of 
Smith  College  in  1878-1909. 

Segnin,    Edonard,    an    American 

Shysician;  born  in  Clamecy,  France, 
an.  20,  1812;  studied  medicine  and 
surgery,  devoted  himself  specially  to 
the  study  of  idiocy  and  the  training  of 
idiots  and  the  insane.  He  settled  in 
the  United  States  after  the  revolution 
of  1848.  In  1873  he  was  United  States 
commissioner  on  education  to  the 
Vienna    Exposition.      He    invented    a 

Shysiologicgl  thermometer.  He  died  in 
[ew  York  city,  Oct.  28,  1880. 


Seiss 

Seidl,  Anton,  a  Hungarian  orches- 
tra conductor ;  born  in  Budapest,  Hun- 
gary, May  6,  1850.  He  obtained  the 
position  of  conductor  at  the  Leipsic 
Opera  House  in  1879,  through  Wag- 
ner's influence.  In  1882  he  made  a 
tour  of  Europe  as  conductor  of  the 
Nibelungen  Opera  Troupe.  In  1883 
he  was  apointed  conductor  at  the  Bre- 
men Opei'a  House,  where  he  remained 
till  1885 ;  when  he  became  conductor 
of  German  opera  in  New  York  city, 
succeeding  Dr.  Leopold  Damrosch.  He 
afterward  directed  the  concerts  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society  in  that  city,  suc- 
ceeding Theodore  Thomas.  He  died  in 
New  York  city,  March  28,  1898. 

Seigniorage,  an  ancient  royalty  or 
prerogative  of  the  crown  whereby  it 
claimed  a  percentage  upon  the  bullion 
brought  to  the  mint  to  be  coined  or  to 
be  exchanged  for  coin.  As  used  in  the 
United  States,  the  term  seigniorage 
means  the  pro,fit  arising  from  the  coin- 
age of  bullion.  The  government  does 
not  purchase  gold  bullion,  but  coins 
it  on  private  account.  There  is  no 
profit  from  its  coinage,  the  face  value 
of  gold  coins  being  the  same  as  their 
bullion  value ;  but  at  the  present  ratio 
of  16  to  1,  the  face  value  of  the  silver 
dollar  is  greater  than  its  bullion 
v."lue ;  therefore,  when  silver  bullion  is 
purchased  and  coined  into  dollars  there 
is  a  profit  arising  frpm  such  coinage, 
the  amount  of  which  depends  on  the 
price  paid  for  the  bullion.  The  silver 
purchased  by  the  government  is  car- 
ried on  the  books  of  the  treasury  at  its 
actual  cost,  and  the  seigniorage  is  de- 
clared OH  the  coinage  of  each  month 
and  paid  into  the  treasury. 

Seismolog^y,  the  study  of  earth- 
quakes. Though  seismology  can  scarce- 
ly be  said  to  have  existed  before  the 
early  part  of  the  19th  century,  it  has 
a  rapidly  growing  bibliography  and  is 
accumulating  a  store  of  facts  and  ob- 
servations on  which  generalizations 
may  be  based.  Seismic  experts  are 
sanguine  that  earthquake  warnings  in 
countries  subject  to  these  disturbances, 
will  be  as  common  and  as  trustworthy 
as  the  storm  warnings  at  our  seaports. 
See  Earthquakes. 

Seiss,  Joseph  Angnstns,  an 
American  clergyman ;  born  in  Fred- 
erick CO.,  Md.,  March  18,  1823.  In 
1858  he  was  called  to  the  Church  of 


Selaspltoms 

the  Holy  Communion  in  Philadelphia ; 
became  eminent  as  a  preacher  and  a 
writer  on  prophecy.    Died,  June,  1904. 

Selasphoms,  in  ornithology,  flame- 
bearers  ;  a  genus  with  eight  species, 
ranging  from  Veragua  in  Central 
America  to  Mexico,  thence  along  West- 
ern North  America  to  Nootka  Sound. 
The  tail  is  spreading,  and  the  outer 
tail  feathers  are  pointed.  The  throat 
feathers  are  elongated  at  the  side,  and 
form  a  shield  of  brilliant  coloring.  The 
sound  produced  by  their  wings  when 
in  motion  is  a  loud  rattling  noise,  like 
the  shrill  chirrup  of  a  locust. 

Selfridge,  Thoinas  Oliver,  an 
American  naval  ofiicer;  bom  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  April  24,  1804;  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  United  States  navy  in 
1818,  and  commissioned  a  lieutenant 
in  1827.  During  the  Mexican  War  he 
commanded  the  sloop  "  Dale  "  of  the 
Pacific  squadron,  and  took  part  in  the 
engagements  at  Matanzas  and  Guay- 
mas,  and  in  the  Civil  War  served  on 
the  steam-frigate  "  Mississippi  "  in  the 
Gulf  squadron.  Later  he  was  pro- 
moted rear-admiral ;  commanded  the 
Mare  Island  navy  yard  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal. ;  and  was  president  of  the 
naval  examining  board.  He  was  re- 
tired in  1866.     Died  1902. 

Selfridge,  Thomas  Oliver,  Jr., 
an  American  naval  officer ;  born  in 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  Feb.  6,  1836 ;  son 
of  the  preceding ;  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
1854.  During  the  Civil  War  he  was 
serving  on  board  the  "  Cumberland  " 
when  she  was  sunk  by  the  "  Merri- 
mac "  in  Hampton  Roads  in  1862 ; 
commanded  the  ironclad  "  Cairo," 
which  was  blown  up  on  the  Yazoo 
river;  had  charge  of  a  battery  at  the 
capture  of  Vicksburg ;  participated  in 
both  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher,  and  com- 
manded several  vessels  in  the  Missis- 
sippi fleet.  He  was  promoted  com- 
mander in  1869  and  had  charge  of  the 
surveys  for  the  canal  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien  in  1869-1873 ;  was 
a  member  of  the  International  Con- 
gress at  Paris  in  1876  and  in  1896  was 
promoted  rear-admiral.  He  was  re- 
tired, Feb.  6,  1898. 

Seligman,  Edivin  Robert  An> 
derson,  an  American  educator;  born 
in  New  York  city,  April  25,  1861 ;  was 
graduated  at  Columbia  University  in 
1879;    then   studied    abroad;    became 


Seljnks 

Professor  of  Political  Economy  and 
Finance  at  Columbia  University  in 
1891 ;  editor  of  the  "  Political  Science 
Quarterly." 

Seljnks,  a  division  of  the  Hoei-he 
collection  of  the  Turkish  tribes,  who 
were  settled  on  the  Jaxartes  and  in 
Transoxiana  in  the  11th  century,  when 
they  became  converts  to  Islam.  Togrul 
Beg,  grandson  of  a  chief  named  Seljuk, 
severely  crippled  the  empire  of  Ghazni 
(1040)  ;  turning  W.  conquered  Persia, 
and  10  years  later  he  marched  on  Bag- 
dad, to  the  assistance  of  the  Abbasside 
Caliph,  Togrul  being  of  the  orthodox 
Sunnite  faith,  was  nominated  by  the 
caliph  "  Commander  of  the  Faithful." 
Dying  in  1063,  Togrul  was  succeeded 
by  his  nephew  Alp  Arslan.  This  sov« 
ereign  wrested  Syria  and  Palestine 
from  the  rival  Fatimite  caliph  of 
Egypt,  and  in  1071  defeated  the  By- 
zantine emperor  Romanus  Diogenes, 
and  captured  him.  The  price  of  his 
release  was  a  heavy  ransom  and  the 
cession  of  great  part  of  Anatolia  or 
Asia  Minor  to  the  Seljuk.  Alp  Arslan 
was  stabbed  by  a  captive  enemy  in 
Turkestan  (1072),  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Malik  Shah.  His  reign  ia 
chiefly  remarkable  for  the  enlightened 
rule  of  his  grand  vizier,  Nizam  ul- 
Mulk,  the  schoolfellow  of  Omar  Khay- 
yam, the  poet. 

After  the  death  of  Malik  (1092)  the 
extensive  empire  began  to  break  up 
into  smaller  kingdoms.  During  his 
lifetime,  and  that  of  his  predecessors, 
powerful  tributary  princes  had  ruled 
over  separate  provinces  in  Syria,  Ker- 
man  and  Asia  Minor.  During  the  first 
half  of  the  12th  century  the  most  pow- 
erful of  these  provincial  rulers  was 
Sinjar,  who  governed  Khorassan.  He 
spent  his  life  fighting  against  the 
Ghaznevids,  the  Turkestan  chiefs,  and 
the  Mongols.  It  was  the  rulers  of 
these  two  provinces  or  kingdoms  who 
persecuted  the  Christian  pilgrims  and 
so  provoked  the  Crusades,  and  it  was 
the  rulers  of  the  same  two  kingdoms 
against  whom  the  crusaders  of  Europe 
principally  fought.  A  memorable  line 
of  rulers  made  Iconium  their  capital 
in  the  first  half  of  the  12th  century. 
This  dynasty  reached  the  acme  of  its 
power  under  Kaikavus  (1211-1234), 
who  ruled  over  nearly  the  whole  of 
Asia  Minor  and  extensive  territories  in 
Mesopotamia  and  Northern  Persia. 


Selldrk 

During  the  reign  of  his  son  Kaik- 
hosran  II.  the  poet  Jelal-ed-Din  Rumi 
flourished  and  the  various  orders  of 
•dervishes  arose ;  and  at  the  same  time 
the  Mongols  began  to  threaten  the  E. 
borders  of  the  state.  From  about 
1243  the  real  sovereign  power  of  that 
part  of  Asia  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Mongol  chiefs,  Hulagu  and  his  succes- 
sors, till  the  rise  of  the  Ottoman 
princes.  These  last,  Turks  like  the 
Seljuks,  had  retreated  W.  before  the 
all-conquering  Mongols  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  13th  century,  and  at  the 
■end  of  it  they  entered  the  service  of 
the  Seljuk  ruler  of  Asia  Minor.  After 
that  the  name  Ottoman  superseded 
that  of  Seljuk  as  the  appellative  of  the 
Turkish  rulers.  The  Seljuks  had,  cen- 
turies before,  lost  a  good  many  of  their 
peculiarly  Turkish  characteristics  and 
had  become  "  Turkomans,"  "  Like  the 
Turks" ;  and  with  their  conversion  to 
Islam  they  adopted  the  Perso-Arabian 
civilization  and  customs. 

Selkirk,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  ad- 
venturer ;  born  in  Largo,  Scotland,  in 
1G76.  He  was  a  skillful  seaman,  and 
made  several  voyages  to  the  South  Sea, 
in  one  of  which,  having  quarrelled  with 
his  commander,  he  was  put  ashore  on 
the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez,  with  a 
few  necessaries,  a  fowling-piece,  gun- 
powder, and  shot.  Here  he  lived  alone 
during  four  years  and  four  months, 
and  was  then  rescued  by  Captain 
Woods  Rogers.  During  the  time  of  his 
remaining  on  the  island  he  had  nearly 
forgotten  his  native  language.  He  re- 
turned to  England  in  1711,  and  is  said 
to  have  given  his  papers  to  Defoe,  who 
took  from  them  his  story  of  "  Robin- 
eon  Crusoe."  He  died  on  the  ship 
"Weymouth,"  in  1723. 

Selling  Skort,  a  proceeding  in  the 
€tock  market  conducted  as  follows :  A 
customer  X  directs  broker  A  to  sell 
short  100  shares  of  Union  Pacific  at 
par.  Broker  B  buys  it.  A,  not  having 
the  stock,  goes  to  broker  C,  and  bor- 
rows from  him  100  shares  of  Union 
Pacific,  giving  as  security  $10,000  in 
cash.  This  stock  is  tl^en  delivered  by 
A  to  B,  who  pays  A  $10,000  therefor. 
Matters  then  rest  till  Union  Pacific 
advances  or  declines  enough  to  make 
X  wish  to  close  his  account,  he  then  di- 
rects A  to  buy  Union  Pacific,  say  at  95 
and  A  gets  the  stock  from  Broker  D. 
The  stock  thus  obtained  is  delivered  to 


Seminolea 

C,  who  thereupon  returns  the  money 
which  he  has  had  as  security  and  $9,- 
500  of  the  amount  goes  to  D,  leaving 
$500  less  expenses  as  the  profit  of  X 
on  the  transaction.  While  X  is  wait- 
ing to  see  what  the  market  is  going  to 
do,  G  has  the  use  of  A's  $10,000,  and 
under  ordinary  conditions  pays  interest 
on  this  money.  This  interest  is  called 
the  loaning  rate  on  stocks  and  is 
usually  a  little  below  the  current  rate 
for  loans  on  collateral. 

Semapkore,  a  kind  of  telegraph 
or  apparatus  for  conveying  informa- 
tion by  visible  signs,  such  as  oscillating 
arms  or  flags  by  daylight,  and  by  the 
disposition   of    lanterns    by    night. 

Sembrick,  Marcella,  an  Austrian 
opera  singer;  born  in  Lemberg,  Aus- 
tria, Feb.  18,  1858.  Her  first  appear- 
ance was  at  Athens,  where  her  sing- 
ing attracted  considerable  attention. 
Subsequently  she  appeared  in  all  the 
large  cities  of  Europe  with  great  suc- 
cess, and  in  1883  came  to  the  United 
States.  She  reappeared  in  concerts  in 
United  States  in  1897-1898,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Grau  Opera  Com- 
pany. 

Semele,  in  classical  mythology,  a 
daughter  of  Cadmus  by  Hermione.  She 
was  beloved  by  Jupiter ;  but  Juno,  de- 
termining to  punish  her  rival,  visited 
the  house  of  Semele  in  the  guise  of 
her  nurse,  and  persuaded  her  to  en- 
treat her  lover  to  come  to  her  with  the 
same  majesty  as  he  approached  Juno. 
Jupiter  had  sworn  by  the  Styx  to 
grant  Semele  whatever  she  required; 
he  therefore  came  attended  by  the 
clouds,  the  lightning,  and  thunder- 
bolts. Semele,  unable  to  endure  so 
much  majesty,  was  instantly  consumed 
by  fire.  Her  child  was,  however,  saved 
from  the  flames  by  Mercury.  This 
child  was  called  Bacchus,  or  Diony- 
sos. 

Seminoles,  a  tribe  of  American 
Indians,  originally  a  branch  of  the 
Creeks.  In  1805,  they  aided  in  driving 
the  Appalaches  from  Florida;  and  in 
1817,  they  joined  with  the  Creeks  and 
some  negroes  who  had  taken  refuge 
with  them,  ravaged  the  white  settle- 
ments in  Georgia.  General  Jackson, 
sent  to  punish  them,  took  at  the  same 
time  several  Spanish  fortS,  and  has- 
tened the  negotiations  which  ended 
in  the  cession  of  Florida  to  the  United 
States.     By  this  cession,  in  1823,  the 


Semipalatinslc 

Seminoles  engaged  to  retire  into  the  in- 
terior and  not  molest  the  settlers;  but 
as  the  negroes  continued  to  take  refuge 
with  them,  a  treaty  was  made  with 
some  of  the  chiefs,  in  1832,  for  the  re- 
moval of  the  whole  tribe  W.  of  the 
Mississippi.  This  treaty  was  repudiat- 
ed by  the  tribe,  at  the  instigation  of 
Osceola,  one  of  their  chiefs.  A  war 
then  commenced  which  ended  in  1842, 
when  the  Seminoles  were  removed  to 
the  Indian  Territory,  where  nearly  all 
the  members  of  the  tribe  are  now  set- 
tled ;  a  few.  however,  are  still  to  be 
found  in  Florida. 

Semipalatinsk,  or  Semipola- 
tinsk,  a  fortified  town  of  Siberia,  on 
the  Irtish.  Pop.  26,353.  The  prov- 
ince of  Semipalatinsk  has  an  area  of 
184,631  square  miles.  It  is  mountain- 
ous in  the  S.  E.,  and  consists  of  steppe 
land  in  the  N.  W.     Pop.  685,197. 

Semiramis,  a  queen  of  Assyria. 
As  the  story  goes,  she  was  a  daughter 
of  the  fish  goddess  Derceto  of  Ascalon, 
in  Syria,  by  a  Syrian  youth.  Being 
exposed  by  her  mother,  she  was  mirac- 
ulously fed  by  doves  till  discovered  by 
the  chief  of  the  royal  shepherds,  who 
adopted  her.  Attracted  by  her  beauty, 
Onnes,  governor  of  Nineveh,  married 
her.  She  accompanied  him  to  the 
siege  of  Bactra,  where  by  her  advice, 
she  assisted  the  king's  operations.  She 
became  endeared  to  Ninus,  the  founder 
of  Nineveh  (about  2182  B.  c),  but 
Onnes  refused  to  yield  her,  and  being 
threatened  by  Ninus,  hanged  himself. 
Ninus  resigned  the  crown  to  Semir- 
amis, and  had  her  proclaimed  Queen 
of  Assyria.  She  built  Babylon,  and 
rendered  it  the  mightiest  city  in  the 
world.  She  was  distinguished  as  a 
warrior,  and  conquered  many  of  the 
adjacent  countries.  Having  been  com- 
pletely defeated  on  the  Indus,  she  was 
either  killed  or  compelled  to  abdicate 
by  her  son  Ninyas,  after  reigning  42 
years.  According  to  popular  legend, 
she  disappeared  or  was  changed  into  a 
dove,  and  was  worshiped  as  a  divinity. 

Semites,  a  name  given  to  a  group 
of  nations  closely  allied  in  language, 
religion,  manners,  and  physical  feat- 
ures, who  are  represented  in  Gen.  x. 
as  descended  chiefly  from  Shem,  a 
son  of  Noah.  Their  habitat  is  Abys- 
Binia,  Arabia,  Palestine,  Phoenicia, 
Syria,  and  the  countries  of  the  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris. 


Semine* 

Semitic  Iiang^ages,  dialects  of 
the  Somites  (q.  v.);  nearly  extinct. 

Semi-Universalists,  a  name  given 
to  those  members  of  the  Reformed 
Churches  in  Germany  who  held  that 
God  wishes  to  make  all  men  happy^ 
but  only  on  condition  of  their  be- 
lieving. 

Semmes,  Alexander  Jenkins,  an 
American  surgeon ;  born  in  George- 
town, D.  C,  Dec.  17,  1828 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  National  Medical  College, 
Washington,  in  1854.  He  later  set- 
tled in  New  Orleans ;  was  made  a 
surgeon  in  the  Confederate  army  ia 
1861,  and  was  with  Gen.  Thomas  J. 
Jackson  in  Virginia  till  1862,  when  h© 
was  appointed  medical  inspector  of  the 
Department  of  Northern  Virginia.  In 
JL863  he  was  inspector  of  hospitals  iu 
.the  Department  of  Virginia.  In 
1870-1876  he  was  Professor  of  Phys- 
iology at  the  Savannah  Medical  Col- 
lege. He  afterward  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  in  1886  was 
made  president  of  Pio  Nono  College, 
Macon,  Ga. 

Semmes,  Rapkael,  an  American 
naval  officer ;  bocn  in  Charles  co.,  Md., 
Sept.  27,  1809 ;  was  appointed,  in 
1828,  a  midshipman  on  board  the 
"  Lexington,"  and  rose  by  successive 
steps  to  the  rank  of  commander  in 
1855.  He  was  nominated,  in  1858, 
secretary  to  the  Lighthouse  Board, 
which  situation  he  held  when  the  war 
broke  out.  He  then  joined  the  Con- 
federate service,  March  26,  1861.  He 
was  ordered  to  take  the  command  of  a 
vessel  built  in  England,  which  became 
famous  as  the  "  Alabama."  The 
'"  Alabama,"  which  had  been  into  Cher- 
bourg, France,  for  repairs,  encounter- 
ed outside  the  harbor  a  United  States 
war  steamer,  the  "  Kearsarge,"  Capt. 
John  A.  Winslow,  June  10,  1864,  and 
the  fight  which  took  place  about  9 
miles  out  was  both  short  and  decisive. 
In  rather  more  than  an  hour  from  the 
beginning  of  the  fight  the  "  Alabama  " 
was  completely  disabled.  The  crew 
tried  to  reach  the  French  coast  with 
her,  but  failed  in  the  attempt,  and  she 
began  to  sink.  Commander  SemmesJ 
and  some  of  the  sailors,  including  15 
officers,  were  saved  by  the  boats  of  an 
English  steam  yacht,  the  "  Deer- 
hound,"  which  had  accompanied  the 
"  Alabama  "  from  Cherbourg  to  be  a 
spectator  of  the  fight.     Semmes  sue- 


Seinnopitli.ecn8 

ceeded,  after  some  difficulty,  in  making 
his  way  back  to  the  Southern  States ; 
but  the  effectual  blockade  of  their 
ports  deprived  him  of  any  further 
chance  of  continuing  his  adventurous 
career.  He  died  in  Mobile,  Ala.,  Aug. 
30,  1877. 

Semnopitheciis,  sacred  monkeys, 
sacred  apes ;  distinguished  by  the  pres- 
*ence  of  a  small  functional  thumb  and 
their  absence  from  Africa.  The  spe- 
cies are  numerous,  spread  over  almost 
the  whole  of  the  Oriental  region. 

Senate,  in  ancient  history,  the  de- 
liberative assembly  of  the  Roman  peo- 
ple; but  the  term  has  been  applied  to 
very  different  powers  and  constitu- 
tions in  different  countries. 

In  the  United  States  the  higher 
branch  of  Gongress;  composed  of  two 
,  senators  from  each  State,  irrespective 
of  the  population  therein,  who  are 
elected  by  the  State  Legislatures. 
Some  of  the  most  important  functions 
of  the  Senate,  as  distinct  from  the 
House,  are  the  supervision  of  the 
presidential  appointments  of  the  high- 
est grade  of  public  officers,  the  passing 
of  judgment  on  all  treaties  contracted 
with  foreign  powers,  and  the  sole 
power  to  try  all  impeachments.  In 
the  latter  case  impeachment  proceed- 
ings must  originate  in  the  House, 
which  presents  the  charges  to  the  Sen- 
ate; this,  in  turn,  acts  as  the  court. 
The  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States  is  president  of  the  Senate,  but 
has  no  vote  except  in  the  case  of  a  tie. 

In  France  the  upper  legislative 
chamber  under  Napoleon  I.,  and  Na- 
poleon III.,  was  called  the  Senate,  and 
the  name  is  still  in  use  in  the  French 
republic,  and  also  in  Spanish-America. 

Seneca,  Xiucins  Annsens,  a  Ro- 
man pnilosopher,  son  of  M.  Annseus 
Seneca,  an  eminent  rhetorician ;  was 
born  in  Corduba,  Spain,  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Christian  era.  Taken 
early  to  Rome,  he  became  an  advo- 
cate, gained  some  distinction,  and 
was  made  quaestor.  Under  Claudius, 
an  accusation  brought  against  him  by 
the  infamous  Messalina,  led  to  his  be- 
ing banished  to  Corsica.  Returning 
after  an  exile  of  eight  years,  he  was 
intrusted  by  Agrippina  with  the  edu- 
cation of  her  son  Nero.  He  was  made 
consul,  A.  D.  57.  An  attempt  on 
Nero's    part    to    poison    him    having 


Senegal 

failed,  he  was  drawn  into  the  Pison- 
ian  conspiracy,  accused,  convicted,  and 
condemned.  Left  free  to  choose  his 
mode  of  death,  he  opened  his  veins, 
and  gradually  succumbed  to  syncope, 
A.  D.  65.  His  second  wife,  Pompeia 
PauUina,  who  wished  to  die  with  him, 
and  actually  had  her  own  veins  in- 
cised for  the  purpose,  survived  him  a 
few  years. 

Seneca,  Marcns  Annsens,  a  Ro- 
man rhetorician ;  father  of  the  preced- 
ing ;  a  native  of  Corduba,  in  Spain ; 
born  about  61  b.  c.  He  went  to  Rome 
during  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and 
there  taught  rhetoric  with  great  suc- 
cess for  several  years.  He  died  in 
Rome  toward  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
Tiberius  (A.  D.  37). 

Seneca  Indians,  a  tribe  of  North 
American  Indians  belonging  to  the  Iro- 
quois, and  formerly  occupying  West- 
ern New  York  and  a  portion  of 
Northwestern  Pennsylvania.  They 
were  once  powerful ;  and  their  most 
famous  chief  was  Sagoyewatha,  or 
"  Red  Jacket."  They  now  occupy  res- 
ervations in  Kansas. 

Senefelder,  Aloys,  the  inventor 
of  lithography ;  born  in  Prague,  Bohe- 
mia, Nov.  6,  1771  u  died  in  Munich, 
Bavaria,  Feb.  26,  1834. 

Senega,  or  Seneka,  the  dried  root 
of  the  rattlesnake  root. 

Senegal,  or  French  Senegambia, 
a  French  colony ;  between  the  Sahara 
and  the  Gambia  river ;  extends  from 
the  Atlantic  on  the  W.  to  the  French 
Sudan  on  the  E. ;  area,  about  80,000 
square  miles.  The  name  Senegambia 
has  been  applied  to  this  region,  being 
compounded  from  the  names  of  the 
rivers,  Senegal  and  Gambia,  betweea 
which  it  lies.  Gold,  silver,  copper, 
and  quicksilver  are  found.  Much  of 
the  soil  is  rich.  The  natives  culti- 
vate millet,  maize,  and  rice ;  other 
products  are  gums,  castor-beans, 
ground  nuts,  cocoanuts,  rubber,  and 
kola.  The  domestic  animals  comprise 
cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  camels.  The 
native  industries  are  weaving  and  the 
making  of  bricks,  pottery,  and  jewelry. 
A  railway  connects  the  coast  towns  of 
Dakar  and  St.  Louis. 

For  administrative  purposes  the 
colony  is  divided  into  four  communes ; 
St.  Louis  (the  capital  and  residence 
of  the  governor  of  West  Africa),  Da- 


Senegal  Jackal 


Sentinel  Crali 


kar,  Goree,  and  Rufisque;  nine  cir- 
cles; various  countries  directly  under 
the  French  protection ;  and  self-gov- 
erning states  which  have  accepted  the 
French  protectorate.  In  October, 
1899,  a  portion  of  the  West  Sudan 
was  placed  under  the  same  adminis- 
tration as  Senegal.  Pop.  about  1,- 
180,000. 

Senegal  Jackal,  a  well-marked 
variety  of  the  jackal.  It  is  larger 
than  the  common  kind,  more  elegantly 
built,  and  has  long  legs. 

Senlac.    See  Hastings. 

Senn,  Nickolas,  an  American  sur- 
geon; born  in  Buchs,  Switzerland, 
Oct.  31,  1844;  removed  with  his  pa- 
rents to  Ashford,  Wis.,  in  1853;  was 
graduated  at  the  Chicago  Medical  Col- 
lege in  1868;  removed  to  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  in  1874.  In  1885  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons,  Chicago ;  Professor  of 
the  Principles  of  Surgery  and  Surgical 
Pathology  in  Rush  Medical  College  in 
1888,  and  removed  to  Chicago  in  1891. 
He  was  made  surgeon-general  of  Wis- 
consin before  his  removal,  and  served 
in  the  field  during  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can War.     He  died  Jan.  2,  1908. 


setina:  cassia  obovata. 

Senna,   in  botany,  various   species 
of  cassia  with  cathartic  properties. 

E.  136. 


Sennacherib,  an  Assyrian  king, 
son  of  Sargon,  whom  he  succeeded  705 
B.  c.  He  suppressed  the  revolt  of 
Babylonia,  and  marched  against  the 
Aramaean  tribes  on  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  of  whom  he  took  200,000 
captive.  He  then  reduced  part  of  Me- 
dia ;  rendered  tributary  Tyre,  Aradus, 
and  other  Phoenician  cities;  advanced 
on  Philistia  and  Egypt,  and  finally 
proceeded  against  Hezekiah,  King  of 
Judah,  who  had  revolted.  Yielding  to 
panic,  Hezekiah  paid  the  tribute  exact- 
ed of  300  talents  of  silver  and  30  tal- 
ents of  gold.  On  his  return  to  Assy- 
ria Sennacherib  again  attacked  Baby- 
lonia and  afterward  reinvaded  Judah. 
Having  marched  through  Palestine  he 
besieged  Libnah  and  Lachish,  and 
wrote  a  threatening  letter  to  Heze- 
kiah ;  but  in  consequence  of  a  mirac- 
ulous visitation,  which  caused  the 
death  of  185,000  of  his  troops,  Sen- 
nacherib returned  to  Nineveh  and 
troubled  Judah  no  more.  He  was 
murdered  by  his  own  sons  Adramme- 
lech  and  Sharezer,  681  b.  c. 

Sensation,  the  change  in  conscious- 
ness which  results  from  the  transmis- 
sion of  nervous  impulses  to  the  brain. 

Sensationalism,  in  philosophy,  the 
doctrine  that  knowledge  is  the  outcome 
of  sensation. 

Sensitive  Plants,  the  Mimosa  pu- 
dica  and  M.  sensitiva,  which  possess  a 
vegetable  irritability,  causing  them  to 
shrink  from  the  touch. 

Sentence,  in  law,  a  judgment  pro- 
nounced by  a  court  or  judge  on  a 
criminal ;  a  judicial  decision  publicly 
and  oflBcially  declared  in  a  criminal 
prosecution.  In  grammar,  a  sentence 
is  the  form  of  words  in  which  a 
thought  or  a  proposition  is  expressed. 

Sentinel,  or  Sentry,  a  private 
soldier,  marine,  or  sailor  posted  at  a 
point  of  trust,  with  the  duty  of  watch- 
ing the  approach  of  an  enemy  or  any 
person  suspected  of  hostile  intentions. 
During  the  night  each  sentry  is  in- 
structed with  the  "  word,"  or  "  coun- 
tersign " ;  and  no  person,  however  ex- 
alted in  position,  may  attempt  to  ap- 
proach or  pass  him  without  giving  that 
as  ^  signal. 

Sentinel  Crab,  in  zoology,  Po- 
dophthalmus  vigil,  two  to  four  inchea 
long,  from  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  eyes 
are  set  on  long  footstalks,  which,  when 


Seoul 


Serfs 


the  animal  is  alarmed,  are  erected  so 
as  to  command  an  extensive  view. 

Seoul,  the  capital  of  Korea;  on  the 
Han  river,  75  miles  from  its  entrance 
into  the  Yellow  Sea,  and  57  miles  from 
its  port  Chemulpo,  with  which  it  has 
been  connected  by  rail  since  July, 
1900.  It  lies  in  a  natural  basin,  among 
granite  hill  ranges,  and  is  surrounded 
with  walls.  The  city  includes  several 
■wide,  desolate  squares.  The  royal 
palace  and  its  adjuncts  cover  600  acres 
of  ground.  Silk,  paper,  tobacco,  mats, 
fans,  and  similar  commodities  are  the 
principal  products  of  native  industry. 
There  are  schools  for  the  teaching  of 
Japanese,  French,  Chinese,  Korean, 
Russian,  and  English,  and  an  Ameri- 
can Mission  School,  which  is  subsi- 
dized. Pop.  201,000;  including  exten- 
sive suburbs,  300,000. 

Sepal,  in  botany,  the  segments, 
divisions,  or  leaves  of  a  calyx. 

Seqnoia  (named  after  the  Ameri- 
can Indian  Sequoya,  who  invented  the 
Cherokee  alphabet),  a  genus  of  coni- 
fers, otherwise  called  Wellingtonia  or 
Washingtonia,  consisting  of  two  spe- 
cies only — S.  seinpervirens,  the  red- 
wood of  the  timber  trade,  and  S.  gigan- 
tea,  the  Wellingtonia  of  British  gardens 
and  shrubberies,  the  big  or  mammoth 
tree  of  the  Americans.  They  are  both 
natives  of  Western  America,  the  latter 
having  been  discovered  in  the  Sierra 
Nevada  in  1852.  One  specimen  in 
Calaveras  Co.,  Cal.,  has  a  height  of 
325  feet,  and  a  girth  6  feet  from  the 
ground  of  45  feet.  The  Mariposa 
Grove,  16  miles  south  of  the  Yosemite 
Valley,  contains  upwards  of  100  trees 
over  40  feet  in  circumference,  and  one 
over  93  feet  at  the  ground,  and  64  feet 
at  11  feet  higher.  This  grove  is.  gov- 
ernment property.  Some  of  these  trees 
indicate  an  age  of  over  2,000  years. 

Seraglio,  the  palace  of  the  Sultan, 
occupying  a  point  of  land  between  the 
Golden  Horn  and  the  Sea  of  Marmora, 
and  forming  the  E.  portion  of  the  city 
of  Constantinople.  It  is  surrounded 
by  walls  nearly  3  miles  in  circuit, 
and  contains  government  buildings, 
mosques,  gardens,  baths,  as  "Well  as  the 
Sultan's  harem,  which  occupies  its  in- 
ner enclosure,  and  consists  of  a  group 
of  houses  and  gardens,  each  occupied 
by  one  of  the  Sultan's  wives.  With 
the  exception  of  the  harem,  the  serag- 
lio may  be  visited  by  strangers. 


Seraphim,  according  to  Isaiah  vi: 
2-6,  creatures  with  hands,  feet,  six 
wings,  and  a  human  voice.  The  ser- 
aphim were  God's  messengers  between 
heaven  and  earth.  In  short,  the  cher- 
ubim and  the  seraphim  originally  sym- 
bolized, the  former  storm  clouds,  which 
concealed  the  deity,  or  winds,  and  the 
latter  the  lightning  (Ps.  civ.  3,  4.) 

Serapis,  or  Sarapis  (also  found 
as  Osarapis) ,  the  Greek  name  of  an 
Egyptian  deity,  introduced  into  Egypt 
in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  I.  or  Soter,  and 
really  a  combination  of  the  Greek 
Hades  and  Egyptian  Osiris.  He  was 
not  an  Egyptian,  but  the  Greek  deity, 
with  some  Egyptian  characters  super- 
added; and  his  temple  was  not  admit- 
ted into  the  precincts  of  Egyptian 
cities,  finding  favor  only  in  the  Greek 
cities  founded  in  Egypt.  The  god  had 
a  magnificent  temple,  the  Serapeum,  at 
Alexandria,  to  which  was  attached  the 
celebrated  library;  another  at  Mem- 
phis, in  the  vicinity  of  the  cemetery  of 
the  mummies  of  the  Apis,  and  another 
temple  at  Canopus.  It  appears  that 
he  represented  or  was  identified  with 
the  Hesiri  Api,  or  Osorapis,  the  "  Os- 
irified  "  or  "  dead  Apis,"  who  was  also 
invested  with  many  of  the  attributes 
of  Osiris.  The  worship  of  Serapis,  in- 
troduced into  Egypt  by  the  Ptolemies, 
subsequently  became  greatly  extended 
in  Asia  Minor;  and  his  image,  in  alli- 
ance with  that  of  Isis  and  other  deities, 
appears  on  many  of  the  coins  of  the 
imperial  days  of  Rome.  A  celebrated 
temple  of  Serapis  existed  at  Puteoli, 
near  Naples,  and  the  remains  of  it  are 
still  seen.  In  Egypt  itself  the  worship 
of  the  deity  continued  till  the  fall  of 
paganism,  the  image  at  Alexandria 
continuing  to  be  worshipped  till  de- 
stroyed, A.  D.  398,  by  Theophilus,  arch- 
bishop of  that  city. 

Serfs,  a  term  applied  to  a  class  of 
laborers  existing  under  the  feudal  sys- 
tem, and  whose  condition,  though  not 
exactly  that  of  slaves,  was  little  re- 
moved from  it.  There  were  two  classes 
of  laborers,  the  villeins  and  the  serfs 
proper.  The  former  occupied  a  middle 
position  between  the  serfs  and  the  free- 
men. A  serf  could  not  be  sold  but 
could  be  transferred  along  with  the 
property  to  which  he  was  attached.  A 
serf  could  obtain  his  freedom  by  pur- 
chase, or  by  residing  for  a  year  and  a 
day  in  a  borough,  or  by  military  serv- 


Sergeant 


Serpent  Worsliip 


ice.  By  these  various  means  the  serf 
population  gradually  decreased.  In 
most  parts  of  the  Continent  they  had 
disappeared  by  the  15th  century.  The 
extinction  of  serfdom  in  England  and 
Scotland  was  very  gradual.  Serfdom 
in  Russia  was  abolished  by  a  manifesto 
of  Alexander  II.  on  March  17,  18G1. 

Sergeant,  Thomas,  an  American 
jurist ;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Jan. 
14,  1782 ;  was  graduated  at  Princeton 
College  in  1798,  and  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1802.  He  was  made  associate 
justice  of  the  Philadelphia  District 
Court  in  1814;  was  Secretary  of  State 
in  1817-1819,  and  associate  justice  in 
the  Pennsylvania  Supreme  Court  in 
1834-1846.  He  resumed  practice  in 
1847.  It  is  said  that  up  to  this  time 
he  was  the  only  judge  in  Pennsylvania 
who  had  never  had  a  decision  reversed. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  May  8, 
1860. 

Sergeant,  or  Serjeant.  In  mili- 
tary language,  the  second  permanent 
grade  in  the  non-commissioned  ranks 
of  the  army.  In  the  United  States 
service  there  are  regimental  as  well  as 
company  sergeants.  Their  duties  are 
mainly  indicated  by  the  title,  which  is 
a  compound  of  sergeant  with  the  supe- 
rior officer  or  the  department  they  are 
intended  to  serve ;  as,  sergeant-major, 
color  sergeant,   etc. 

Sergins,  the  name  of  several  popes. 

Sergius  I. ;  born  in  Syria,  about 
630,  succeeded  Conova  in  687.  He 
died  in  Rome  in  701. 

Sergius  II..  was  a  native  of  Rome, 
and  succeeded  Gregory  IV.  in  844. 
He  was  elected  without  the  authoriza- 
tion of  the  Emperor  Lothaire,  who 
dispatched  an  army  into  Italy,  under 
the  command  of  his  son  Louis.  But 
the  Pope  succeeded  in  inducing  that 
prince  to  retire,  after  having  crowned 
him  King  of  Italy.     He  died  in  847. 

Sergius  III.,  became  Pope  in  904, 
through  the  influence  of  the  Marquis 
of  Tuscany  and  of  the  notorious  Ro- 
man lady,  Marozia.     He  died  in  911. 

Sergius  IV..  was  elected  Pope  in 
succession  to  John  XVIII.,  in  1009. 
Under  his  rule,  and  in  consequence  of 
his  exhortation,  the  Italian  princes 
combined  to  drive  out  the  Saracens 
from  the  country.  In  his  time,  also, 
the  Normans  began  to  enter  Italy. 
He  died  in  1012. 


Serpent,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the 
48  ancient  constellations  extending 
serpent-like  through  a  wide  expanse  of 
sky.  The  head  is  under  Corona  bore- 
alis,  the  body  winds  through  Ophiu- 
chus,  and  the  tail  reaches  the  Milky 
Way  near  the  constellation  Aquila. 

In  music,  an  almost  obsolete  bass 
instrument  of  a  powerful  character. 
It  is  a  wooden  tube,  about  eight  feet 
long,  increasing  conically  from  inch 
diameter  at  the  mouth-piece  to  four 
inches  at  the  open  end,  twisted  into 
U-shaped  turns,  followed  by  a  large 
circular  convolution.  This  is  covered 
with  leather,  and  has  a  mouth-piece 
like  a  horn  or  trombone,  and  keys  for 
the  several  notes  to  be,  produced.  In 
pyrotechny,  a  small  paper  tube,  filled 
with  mealed  powder  or  rocket  compo- 
sition, not  very  compactly  driven. 

Serpent,  in  zoology,  the  ophidia,  an 
order  of  reptiles  popularly  distin- 
guished from  the  rest  of  the  class  by 
having  a  very  elongated  body  and  no 
external  limbs.  They  are  very  widely 
distributed,  abounding  in  the  tropics, 
where  they  attain  their  greatest  size, 
absent  only  from  the  Arctic  and  Ant- 
arctic regions,  and  they  are  mentioned 
in  the  earliest  records  of  the  human 
race.  The  length  of  the  body  is  a 
marked  feature. 

Serpent  Charming,  an  art  of 
great  antiquity,  confined  in  practice 
exclusively  to  Eastern  countries.  Sev- 
eral allusions  are  made  to  it  in  the 
Bible,  and  also  in  classical  writers. 
The  power  exercised  by  the  charmers 
over  poisonous  serpents  is  unquestion- 
ably remarkable,  though  there  is 
little  doubt  that  the  common  practice 
of  the  charmers  is  to  extract  the  fangs 
before  exhibiting  their  feats. 

Serpentine,  an  abundant  mineral 
occurring  in  one  or  other  of  its  numer- 
ous varieties  in  all  parts  of  the 
world.  It  contains  some  protoxide  of 
iron,  and  other  impurities  which  cause 
a  great  variation  in  color,  which  is 
often  of  a  dull  green,  but  is  also  mar- 
bled and  mottled  with  red  and  purple. 
It  takes  a  high  polish,  and  is  turned 
into  ornamental  articles. 

Serpent  "Worship,  ophiolatry  ;  the 
worship  of  serpents  as  symbols  or 
avatars  of  a  deity,  a  branch  of  animal 
worship  with  a  wide  range  in  time  and 
space.     In  modern  times  serpent  wor- 


Berrel 

Bhip  is  prevalent  to  a  great  extent  in 
India,  and  in  Haiti,  West  Indies. 
Serrel,    Edward    Wellman,    an 

[American  engineer ;  born  in  New  York 
city,  Nov.  5,  1826 ;  was  assistant  en- 
gineer of  the  Central  Railroad  of  New 
Jersey  in  1845,  and  of  the  Panama 
Survey  in  1848;  superintended  the 
building  of  the  Niagara  suspension 
bridge  in  1850;  had  charge  of  the 
Hoosac  tunnel  in  1858;  and  directee^ 
the  construction  of  the  Bristol  bridge 
over  the  Avon  river,  England.  In  the 
Civil  War  he  served  as  chief  engineer 
of  the  Army  of  the  James;  designed 
and  superintended  the  construction  of 
the  "  Swamp  Angel "  battery  that 
bombarded  Charleston ;  suggested 
many  valuable  improvements  in  guns 
and  processes;  and  was  brevetted 
Brigadier-General  of  volunteers  in 
1865.  Subsequently  he  settled  in  New 
York  city,  as  consulting  raiiroad  engi- 
neer.   He  died  in  April,  1906. 

Sertorius,  Qnintus,  a  Roman  gen- 
eral ;  a  native  of  Nursia,  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  Sabines.  He  served  under 
Marius  in  the  Cimbric  War,  afterward 
in  Spain,  and  was  made  quaetor  91 
B.  c.  Appointed  praetor  in  83,  he  went 
to  Spain,  where  he  had  to  retire  before 
the  forces  of  Sulla,  and  went  to  Africa. 
On  the  invitation  of  the  Luistanins 
lie  returned  and  put  himself  at  their 
head  to  fight  for  independence,  and 
soon  made  himself  master  of  the  great- 
er part  of  Spain.  Metellus  Pius  was 
sent  against  him  in  79,  but  could  effect 
nothing ;  two  years  later  Pompey  join- 
ed Metellus,  but  Sertorius  reinforced 
by  Perpenna  held  out  against  both  till 
72  B.  c,  when  he  was  assassinated  by 
Perpenna,  his  ally. 

Serum,  the  thin  transparent  part 
of  the  blood,  which  separates  from  the 
thicker  part,  during  coagulation. 

Serval,  the  Felis  serval,  the  bush 
cat,  or  African  tiger-cat,  distributed 
over  Africa,  abounding  in  the  S. 

Servetns,  Michael,  or  Servede 
Mig:nel,  a  Spanish  physician ;  born 
in  1509,  at  Villa  Nuvea  in  Aragon, 
and  memorable  as  a  victim  of  religious 
intolerance.  He  studied  at  Saragossa, 
and  at  Toulouse,  mingling  theology 
with  medicine.  He  became  a  success- 
ful physician  and  is  said  to  have 
discovered  the  circulation  of  blood. 
He  published  various  anti-Trinitarian 


Serrla 

works  in  Germany,  and  was  imprison- 
ed for  blasphemy  and  heresy.  While 
escaping  to  Italy  he  was  captured  at 
Geneva,  where  chiefly  through  Calvin's 
efforts,  be  was  condemned  and  burned» 
Oct.  27,  1553. 


SEEVAI,  OB  BUSH  CAT. 

Servia  (Slavonic,  Serbia;  Turkish, 
Syrp),  an  independent  kingdom  or 
Eastern  Europe;  area,  19,050  square 
miles;  pop.  2,312,484.  Capital,  Bel- 
grade; pop.  59,494.  The  surface  of 
Servia  is  elevated  and  is  traversed  by 
ramifications  of  the  Carpathians  ia 
the  N.  E.,  of  the  Balkans  in  the  S.  E., 
and  of  the  Dinaric  Alps  in  the  W.  The 
summits  seldom  exceed  3,000  feet, 
Ihough  the  highest  reaches  6,325.  The 
whole  surface  belongs  to  the  basin  of 
the  Danube.  The  climate  is  somewhat 
rigorous  in  the  elevated  districts,  but 
mild  in  the  valleys  and  plains.  There 
are  extensive  forests  and  uncultivated 
wastes,  the  forest  area  being  42  per 
cent,  of  the  total  area.  The  chief  ag- 
ricultural products  are  maize,  wheat, 
flax,  hemp,  and  tobacco.  Wine  is 
grown  in  the  districts  adjoining  Hun- 
gary, and  the  cultivation  of  prunes  is 
extensive.  Lead,  zinc,  quicksilver, 
copper,  iron  and  coal  are  found.  The 
bulk  of  the  trade  is  with  Austria.  In 
1898  there  were  354  miles  of  railway 
and  2,526  miles  of  telegraph.  The 
great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Slavonians,  and  adhere  to  the  Greek 
Church.  The  Servian  language,  for* 
merly  often  called  the  Illyrian,  ia  a 
melodious  Slavonic  dialect  closely  aI-> 
lied  to  the  Bulgarian  and  Slovenian, 
and  forms  with  them  the  southern 
Slavonic  group.  The  present  consti-. 
tution  of  Servia  dates  from  1889. 
The  government  is  an  hereditary  mon- 
archy, and  the  people  are  represented 
by  an  elected  legislative  assembly. 

JSeryla  was  anciently  inhabited  b|] 


Serrlce  Meil 


Sesosirig 


Thracian  tribes;  subsequently  it 
formed  part  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Moesia.  It  was  afterward  occupied  in 
succession  by  Huns,  Ostrogoths,  Lom- 
bards, Avares,  and  other  tribes.  The 
Servians  entered  it  in  the  7th  century, 
and  were  converted  to  Christianity  in 
the  next  century.  They  acknowledged 
the  supremacy  of  the  Byzantine  emper- 
ors, but  latterly  made  themselves  in- 
dependent, and  under  Stephen  Dushan 
X 1336-1356)  the  kingdom  of  Servia 
included  all  Macedonia,  Albania, 
Thessaly,  Northern  Greece,  and  Bul- 
garia. About  1374  a  new  dynasty  as- 
cended the  throne  in  the  person  of 
Lazar  I.,  who  was  captured  by  the 
Turks  at  the  battle  of  Kossova  (in 
Albania)   in  1389,  and  put  to  death. 

In  the  prolonged  struggle  for  free- 
dom from  the  Turkish  yoke,  in  the  ear- 
ly part  of  the  19th  century  two  fam- 
ilies became  prominent,  that  of  Black 
George,  or  the  Karageorgevitch  fam- 
ily, and  that  of  Milosh  Obrenovitch, 
both  of  humble  origin.  Milosh  Ob- 
renovitch was  acknowledged  Prince  of 
Servia  by  Turkey  in  1829,  and  the 
reins  of  power  afterward  alternated, 
t%eough  assassination  and  other  causes, 
between  the  two  houses.  Servia  took 
advantage  of  the  defeat  of  Turkey  by 
Russia  to  make  war  on  Turkey,  and 
by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878  Servia 
was  recognized  as  independent,  and  the 
reigning  prince,  Milan  Obrenovitch, 
assumed  the  title  of  king.  He  was  de- 
feated by  the  Bulgarians  in  1885,  abdi- 
cated in  1889,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Alexander,  who  wrested  the  roy- 
al authority  from  the  regency  early  in 
1903,  and  with  his  queen,  Draga,  was 
murdered  by  mihtary  conspirators, 
June  10,  1903.  Peter  Karageorge- 
vitch was  recalled  from  exile  and 
chosen  king  under  the  title  of  Peter  I. 
Gfi  Oct.  13,  1912,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  and 
Greece  declared  war  against  Turkey, 
and  Servia  immediately  threw  her 
mobihzed  army  across  the  border,  with 
Kng  Peter  at  its  head,  and  engaged  the 
unprepared  Turks.  See  Balkan  Penin- 
sula. 

Service  Men  of  tHe  Spanisli 
War,  an  association  organized  at 
Lexington,  Ky.,  Nov.  5,  1898.  The 
founders  of  the  new  society  made 
choice  of  the  designation  "  service 
men "  as  equally  distinctive  of  the 
men  who  waited  in  vain  for  orders  to 


go  to  the  front,  and  the  more  favored 
ones  who  were  in  actual  conflict. 

Servitude,  a  state  or  condition  of 
a  serf,  slave,  or  bondman;  stat»  of 
voluntary  or  involuntary  subjection  to 
a  master  or  employer;  service;  slav- 
ery ;  bondage. 

Servins  Tnllins,  the  6th  king  of 
Rome.  According  to  the  tradition  he 
was  the  son  of  a  slave  given  by  the 
elder  Tarquin  to  Tanaquil,  his  wife. 
He  married  Tarquin's  daughter,  and 
on  the  death  of  his  father-in-law  (578 
B.  C.)  he  was  raised  to  the  throne. 
He  defeated  the  Veientines  and  the 
Etruscans,  and  divided  the  population 
of  Rome  into  tribes.  According  to  the 
common  story  Servius  married  his  two 
daughters  to  the  grandsons  of  hia 
father-in-law;  the  elder  to  Tarquin» 
and  the  younger  to  Aruns.  The  wife 
of  Aruns  murdered  her  own  husband 
to  unite  herself  to  Tarquin,  who  had 
assassinated  his  wife.  Servius  was 
murdered  by  Tarquin,  and  his  own 
daughter  Tullia  ordered  her  chariot  to 
be  driven  over  the  mangled  body  of 
her  father  (534  B.  c). 

Sesame,  an  annual  herbaceous 
plant  cultivated  throughout  the  East 
from  Egypt  to  Japan  for  the  sake  of 
the  seeds,  which  yield  gingili  oil.  The 
oil  is  used  in  cookery  —  as  a  substi- 
tute for  butter  —  for  lighting,  and  for 
the  purposes  of  lubrication.  It  is  in- 
odorous, has  a  sweet  taste,  and  keeps 
for  years  without  becoming  rancid. 
In  Egypt  and  Arabia  it  is  preferred  to 
olive  oil.  Egyptian  women  consider  it 
the  best  of  cosmetics  and  the  most 
perfect  preservative  of  the  hair.  The 
oil  cake,  mixed  with  honey  and  pre- 
served citron,  is  an  Oriental  luxury. 
The  leaves  of  sesame  abound  in  a 
gummy  substance,  which  they  readily 
impart  to  water,  making  a  mucilage 
used  in  the  S.  parts  of  the  United 
States  as  a  demulcent  drink. 

Sesostris,  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  early  kings  of  Egypt.  He,  on 
succeeding  to  the  throne,  became  am- 
bitious of  military  fame,  and  marched 
at  the  head  of  a  numerous  army  to 
make  the  conquest  of  the  world.  He 
marched  through  Asia,  and  penetrated 
farther  into  the  Eayt  than  the  con- 
queror of  Darius.  He  also  invaded 
Europe.  In  his  old  age,  Sesostris, 
having  grown  infirm  and  blind,  de* 


Sesterce 


Seventeen-Tear  Locust 


Btroyed  himself.  The  time  of  Sesostris 
is  placed  from  1400  to  1250  B.  c. 
Sesostris,  so  called  by  the  Greeks,  is 
identical  with  Rameses  II.,  one  of  the 
most  famous  of  the  Pharaohs. 

Sesterce,  a  Roman  coin,  the  fourth 
part  of  the  denarius,  containing  at 
first  two  librae.  The  name  is  an  ab- 
breviation of  the  Latin  semis-tertius, 
which  was  their  mode  of  expressing 
two,  and  their  custom  was  to  derive 
the  names  of  all  their  coins  from  the 
foundation  of  their  money  system,  the 
As.  Later  when  the  denarius  was 
made  to  contain  16  asses,  the  sesterce 
contained  4. 

Sethos  I.,  or  Seti,  an  Egyptian 
monarch,  the  second  Pharaoh  of  the 
XIX.  dynasty;  which  lasted  from 
1462  B.  c.  to  1288  B.  c.  He  seems  to 
have  been  one  of  the  shepherd  race  in 
the  E.  part  of  Delta.  He  was  distin- 
guished as  a  builder  and  a  warrior, 
erecting  the  temples  of  Osiris  at  Aby- 
dos,  the  "  hall  of  columns "  in  his 
palace  at  Karnak,  and  establishing 
the  power  of  Egypt  over  Western 
Asia.     He  reigned  about  30  years. 

Seton,  Elizabeth.  Ann,  an  Amer- 
ican philanthropist ;  born  in  New  York 
city,  Aug.  28,  1774;  was  the  founder 
of  the  order  of  Sisters  of  Charity ;  es- 
tablished the  nucleus  of  that  society 
at  Emmitsburg,  Md.,  in  1809,  and  sent 
the  first  colony  of  the  Sisters  to  Phil- 
adelphia, Pa.,  and  another  to  New 
York  city  in  1817.  She  established 
20  communities.  She  died  in  Emmits- 
burg, Md.,  Jan.  4,  1821. 

Seton.     See  Thompson-Seton. 

Setter,  a  breed  of  dog  employed  in 
shooting,  where  he  fills  the  same  voca- 
tion as  the  pointer.  The  setter  is 
divided  into  three  varieties  —  the  En- 
glish setter,  the  Gordon  setter,  which 
is  native  to  Scotland,  and  the  Irish 
Better.  There  was  also  at  one  time  a 
variety  known  as  the  Welsh  setter,  but 
it  is  now  extinct,  and  probably  never 
differed  from  the  English  setter. 

Seven  Pines,  the  name  of  a  locality 
in  Virginia,  6  miles  from  Richmond, 
where,  May  31,  1862,  the  Confeder- 
ates, commanded  by  Generals  Long- 
Btreet  and  Stuart,  defeated  the  Na- 
tionals under  General  Casey.  The 
battle  received  its  name  from  seven 
solitary  pine  trees  at  the  spot  where 
the  fiercest  fighting;  took  place. 


Seven  Sleepers,  the  heroes  of  a 
celebrated  legend.  According  to  the 
story,  during  the  flight  of  the  Chris- 
tians from  the  persecution,  seven 
Christians  of  Ephesus  took  refuge  in 
a  cave  near  the  city,  where  they  were 
discovered  by  their  pursuers,  who 
walled  up  the  entrance  in  order  to 
starve  them  to  death.  They  fell  in- 
stead into  a  preternatural  sleep,  in 
which  they  lay  for  nearly  200  years. 
This  is  supposed  to  have  taken  place 
in  250  or  251 ;  and  it  was  not  till  the 
reign  of  Theodosius  II.  (447)  that 
they  awoke.  They  imagined  that  their 
sleep  had  been  but  of  a  single  night; 
and  one  of  the  seven  went  secretly 
into  the  city  to  purchase  provisions, 
and  he  was  amazed  to  see  the  cross 
erected  on  the  churches  and  other 
buildings.  Offering  a  coin  of  Decius 
in  a  baker's  shop  he  was  arrested,  his 
startling  story  not  being  believed  till 
he  guided  the  citizens  to  the  cavern 
where  he  had  left  his  comrades.  The 
emperor  heard  from  their  lips  enough 
to  convince  him  of  the  life  beyond  th« 
grave,  whereupon  they  sank  again  to 
sleep  till  the  resurrection. 


SETTER       HEATHER   GROUSE. 


Seventeen-Tear  Locust,  the  Ci- 
cada septendecim.  There  is  no  insect 
known  which  affords  such  an  interest- 
ing study  as  does  this  locust.  He  be- 
gins and  ends  life  in  the  bright  sun- 
shine, but  spends  17  years  in  the 
earth  —  more  than  two  years  in  dark- 
ness for  every  week  in  light.  Safelj 
hidden  from  sight  he  gnaws  away  at 
the  roots  of  trees,  does  his  best  to  kill 
them,  and  then,  emerging  into  the 
light,  completes  the  death  dealing  ope- 
ration by  making  as  vicious  an  attack 
on  the  branches  as  was  made  en  the 


^eventli-Day  Baptists 


Seventb-Say  Baptisti 


roots.  Its  habits  and  life  history  in 
some  respects  almost  pass  belief. 
When  the  insect  emerges  from  the 
ground  after  its  17  years'  buriaL  it 
works  its  body  rapidly  backward  and 
forward  like  a  man  trying  to  put  on 
an  extremely  tight  coat.  The  result 
of  the  movement  is  the  breaking  of  the 
shell  which  covers  the  creature  and 
the  immediate  appearance  of  its  wings. 
The  remarkable  power  of  instinct  is 
shown  as  soon  as  the  insect  is  freed 
of  its  enveloping  armor.  It  makes  in- 
stantly for  the  nearest  tree.  The  lo- 
custs pair  at  once. 

The  females  prepare  the  nest  by 
clasping  a  branch  of  moderate  size  and 
perforating  it  with  holes  by  means  of 


JBEVENTEEN  YEAE  LOCUST, 

•n  awl-shaped  piercing  instrument 
with  which  they  are  provided.  They 
repeatedly  thrust  this  piercer  oblique- 
ly into  the  bark  and  wood  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  fibers,  at  the  same  time 
putting  in  motion  lateral  saws  which 
detach  little  splinters  of  wood  and 
make  a  fibrous  lid  over  the  whole.  In 
each  fissure  made  by  the  piercer  the 
female  deposits  from  10  to  20  eggs  in 
pairs.  It  takes  her  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  to  prepare  one  nest  and  fill  it 
with  eggs  and  she  usually  makes  be- 
from  15  to  20  fissures  in  one  limb. 
She  lays  between  400  and  500  eggs 
and  then  dies. 

The  perforations  made  by^  the  fe- 
males in  the  limbs  cause  their  death, 
and  that  orchard  which  receives  a 
visit  from  the  seventeen-year  locusts 
soon  stands  a  brown  and  blasted  ruin. 
Six  weeks  after  the  eggs  are  laid  they 
hatch.  The  young  are  grublike  in 
form  and  have  sii  legs,  the  first  pair 
of  which  are  large  and  are  shaped  like 
lobster  claws,  having  strong  spines  be- 
neath. On  the  shoulders,  where  17 
years  later  the  wings  appear,  are  little 


protuberances  and  directly  under  the 
breast  is  a  long  beak  for  suction. 
After  being  hatched  the  young  locusts 
deliberately  loosen  their  hold  on  the 
limb  and  fall  to  the  earth.  They  in- 
stantly dig  their  way  into  the  ground 
where  they  seek  out  the  tender  roota 
of  plants  and  trees.  These  they  cut 
with  their  beaks  and  draw  out  the 
vegetable  juices  which  constitute  their 
sole  nourishment  —  and  thus  it  is  for 
17  long  years. 

The  drums  of  the  male  locusts,  on 
which  they  perform  during  their  short 
lives  above  ground,  are  formed  of  con- 
vex pieces  of  parchment  gathered  into 
numerous  fine  plaits  and  are  lodged  in 
cavities  behind  the  thorax.  The  in- 
sects play  on  these  drums  by  the 
means  of  muscles  whirh  contract  and 
relax  with  great  rapidity.  One  has  to 
hear  a  concert  of  the  seventeen-year 
locusts  to  realize  the  numerical 
strength  of  the  chorus  and  its  tremen- 
dous volume  of  sound. 

Seventli-Day  Baptists,  a  body  of 
believers  who  hold  that  the  command 
to  observe  the  seventh  day  of  the  week 
as  the  Sabbath,  has  never  been  abro- 
gated, and  is  binding  on  Gentiles  a3 
well  as  on  Jews.  They  accordingly 
disregard  the  Christian  Lord's  Day, 
and  keep  Saturday  holy,  as  do  the 
Jews.  They  practise  baptism  by  im- 
mersion, and,  with  the  exception  of 
their  views  on  the  Sabbath,  hold  the 
doctrines  of  the  Baptist  Church.  They 
appeared  in  Germany  about  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century  and  in  Eng- 
land a  few  years  later.  They  were 
persecuted  and  many  imprisoned. 

The  churches  in  the  United  States 
were  the  result  of  emigration  from 
England.  The  first  Seventh-day  Bap- 
tist Church  in  America  was  organized 
at  Newport  in  1671.  A  second  branch 
was  founded  near  Philadelphia,  about 
1700.  A  third  was  founded  in  North- 
ern New  Jersey  in  1705.  From  these 
three  points  the  denomination  has 
spread  slowly  W.  and  S.  In  1818  the 
General  Conference  adopted  Seventh- 
day  Baptists,  instead  of  Sabbatar[an,  as 
the  denominational  title.  The  de- 
nomination reports  96  churches;  82 
ministers;  8,239  mombers. 

Seventh-Day  German  Baptists, 
an  offshoot  from  the  Bunkers,  in  Ger- 
many, about  1728.  Branches  were  eS" 
tablisbed  in  York  and  Bedford  cos.. 


Seven  'Wonders 


Seven.  Tears'  Way 


Pa.,  in  1763.     Their  principal  settle- 
ment is  Snow  Hill,  Franklin  co.,  Pa. 
Seven  Wonders  of  tlie  World, 

in  ancient  times,  the  Pyramids  of 
Egypt,  the  Hanging  Gardens  of  Semir- 
amis  at  Babylon,  the  Temple  of  Di- 
ana at  Ephesus,  the  Statue  of  Jupiter 
at  Athens  by  Phidias,  the  Mausoleum, 
the  Colossus  at  Rhodes,  and  the  Pha- 
ros of  Alexandria. 

Seven  Years'  War,  a  famous 
European  war  which  lasted  from  1756 
to  1763.  As  the  result  of  a  war  with 
Prussia  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria  had 
to  cede  Silesia  to  Frederick  the  Great. 
With  a  view  to  recover  her  lost  ter- 
ritory she  concluded  an  alliance  with 
Russia,  secured  the  support  of  Poland 
and  Saxony,  and  attempted  to  form  a 
closer  union  with  France.  In  the 
meantime  war  broke  out  between 
France  and  England  (1755),  and 
George  II.,  in  order  to  protect  his  Ger- 
man states,  concluded  an  alliance  with 
Prussia,  while  France  agreed  to  aid 
Austria  against  Frederick.  Being  in- 
formed of  these  negotiations  Frederick 
resolved  to  anticipate  his  enemies.  In 
August,  1756,  he  invaded  Saxony,  oc- 
cupied the  chief  towns,  and  compelled 
the  Saxon  army  to  surrender.  This 
step  created  a  stir  in  the  European 
courts,  and  in  1757  Austria,  Russia, 
France,  Sweden,  and  the  German  em- 
pire were  in  arms  against  Frederick, 
while  he  had  no  ally  but  England  and 
a  few  German  states.  In  1757  Fred- 
erick marched  into  Bohemia  and 
gained  a  bloody  battle  at  Prague 
(May  6).  Soon  after,  however,  the 
Austrians  under  Daun  defeated  Fred- 
erick at  Kollin  (June  18),  relieved 
Prague,  and  forced  the  Prussians  to 
retreat  to  Saxony  and  Lusatia.  The 
French  army,  after  defeating  Freder- 
ick's German  allies  (under  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland)  at  Hastenbeck,  unit- 
ed with  the  imperial  forces ;  Frederick 
met  them  at  Rossbach  and  routed  both 
armies  on  Nov.  5.  He  then  hurried 
back  to  Silesia,  which  was  occupied 
by  the  Austrians,  and  vanquished  a 
superior  army  under  Daun  at  Leuthen 
(Dec.  5),  thus  recovering  Silesia. 
While  Frederick  was  thus  occupied  in 
the  S.  and  W.,  his  general  Lehwald 
had  successfully  repelled  the  Swedes 
and  Russians  on  the  N.  and  E. 

The  next  campaign  was  opened  in 
February,  1758,  by  Ferdinand,  Duke 


of  Brunswick,  who,  at  the  head  o£ 
Frederick's  allies,  opposed  the  French 
in  Lower  Saxony  and  Westphalia.  He 
defeated  the  French  at  Krefeld  in 
June,  and  ultimately  drove  the  enemy 
behind  the  Rhine.  Frederick,  driven 
out  of  Moravia,  defeated  the  Russians, 
who  had  advanced  to  Zorndorf,  in 
Brandenburg,  was  defeated  in  turn  by 
Daun  at  Hofkirchen,  but  before  the 
end  of  the  year  drove  the  Austrians 
from  Silesia  and  Saxony.  Louis  XV. 
and  his  mistress,  the  Marchioness  de 
Pompadour,  were  bent  on  continuing 
the  war,  and  concluded  a  new  alliance 
with  Austria,  Dec.  30,  1758.  Freder- 
ick, however,  had  also  obtained  a 
new  treaty  with  Great  Britain,  which 
promised  him  a  large  yearly  subsidy. 
The  new  campaign  was  opened  in 
March,  1759,  Prince  Henry,  Freder- 
ick's brother,  marching  into  Bohe- 
mia, where  he  dispersed  the  hostile 
forces,  and  captured  immense  quanti- 
ties of  military  stores.  The  Russians, 
having  defeated  the  Prussian  general 
Wedel  near  Zullichau  (July  23),  ad- 
vanced to  Frankfort-on-the-Oder. 
Frederick  hastened  to  meet  them  in 
person,  and  had  already  defeated  them 
at  Kunersdoff  (Aug.  12)  when  his 
victory  was  snatched  from  him  by  the 
Austrians  under  Laudon,  who  inflict- 
ed on  him  a  defeat  such  as  he  had 
never  sustained  before.  Frederick's  po- 
sition was  now  extremely  precarious. 
The  Russians  were  victorious  in  his 
hereditary  states,  Daun  was  in  Lusa- 
tia with  a  large  army,  and  Saxony 
was  overrun  by  the  imperial  troops. 
In  the  W.  Frederick's  allies  had  been 
more  successful.  On  Aug.  1  Ferdinand 
gained  a  splendid  victory  at  Minden 
over  the  French  troops  under  Conta- 
des  and  Broglio.  On  the  same  day  his 
nephew  defeated  the  French  at  Goh- 
feld,  and  they  were  driven  over  the 
Lahn  on  one  side  and  over  the  Rhine 
on  the  other.  The  Swedes,  also,  who, 
after  the  battle  of  Kunersdorf  in- 
vaded Prussian  Pomerania,  were  driv- 
en by  Manteufifel  and  Platen  under 
the  cannon  of  Stralsund.  The  cam- 
paifim  of  1760  seemed  at  first  to  fore- 
bode ill  success  to.  Frederick.  While 
he  himself  was  engaged  in  Saxony 
Fouque  suffered  a  defeat  in  Silesia, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  Austrians 
occupied  the  whole  country.  Freder- 
ick thereupon  gave  up  Saxony  iu  of 


Severns 


Seville 


der  to  recover  Silesia.  On  Aug.  15 
he  defeated  Laudon  at  Liegnitz,  by 
which  he  effected  his  purpose  of  recov- 
ering Silesia.  He  then  returned  to 
Saxony  and  attacked  the  imperial 
forces  at  Torgau,  on  the  Elbe  (Nov. 
3),  defeated  them  in  a  bloody  engage- 
ment and  went  into  winter  quarters 
in  Saxony.  The  Russians  also  were 
force*  to  retire  to  Poland,  and  Ferdi- 
nand defeated  the  French  at  Marburg 
(July  31). 

In  the  campaign  of  1761  the  opera- 
tions of  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  and 
the  French  on  the  Rhine  consisted  of 
alternate  advances  and  retreats,  and 
the  Russians  and  Austrians  were  so 
enfeebled  that  they  failed  to  make  any 
impression  on  Frederick's  remnant  of 
an  army.  In  the  campaign  of  1702 
the  French  were  defeated  (June  24) 
at  Wilhelmsthal,  and  Cassel  surren- 
dered to  the  allies  on  Nov.  1.  Two 
days  after  this  the  preliminaries  of 
peace  between  Great  Britain  and 
France  were  signed,  and  the  peace 
itself  was  confirmed  at  Paris,  Feb.  10, 
17()3.  After  a  short  negotiation  Fred- 
erick concluded  a  peace  with  Austria 
and  Saxony  at  Hubertsburg  (Feb. 
15),  by  which  he  retained  Silesia.  The 
war  in  Europe  was  accompanied  by 
war  by  sea  and  land  between  the 
French  and  British  abroad,  the  result 
of  which  was  to  give  Great  Britain  a 
decided  superiority  over  France  both 
in  America  and  India. 

Severns,  liucins  Septimius,  a 
Roman  emperor ;  born  near  Leptis 
Magna,  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  April 
4,  140.  After  holding  the  highest  of- 
fices under  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Corn- 
modus,  he  obtained  command  of  the 
legions  in  Gaul,  and  when  in  193  news 
came  of  the  murder  of  Pertinax,  he 
was  proclaimed  emperor.  Meanwhile 
the  Roman  legions  in  Asia  had  pro- 
claimed their  general,  Pescennius  Ni- 
ger, emperor.  Severus  overthrew  him 
at  Issus  in  194.  After  a  successful 
campaign  against  the  Parthians,  he  re- 
turned to  Rome,  but  was  soon  en- 
gaged in  a  struggle  with  another  ri- 
val, Clodius  Albinus,  whom  he  con- 
quered at  Lugdunum  in  197.  New 
campaigns  in  the  E.  were  ended  by  the 
capture  of  Ctesiphon,  the  Parthian 
capital.  Severus  then  spent  several 
years  (202-208)  at  Rome,  gratifying 
the  people  by   bis   magnificence,    and 


distributing  large  donations  to  the 
troops.  In  208  he  hastened  to  Britain 
to  quell  a  rebellion  there ;  but  after  an 
undecisive  campaign,  and  just  as  he 
was  planning  a  new  attack  on  the 
Caledonians,  he  died  in  Eboracum 
(York),  Feb.  4,  211. 

Severns,  Wall  of,  the  name  given 
to  the  wall  or  barrier  formed  at  the 
boundary  of  the  Roman  empire  in 
Britain  between  the  Solway  and  the 
Tyne  by  the  Roman  emperor  Severus 
about  A.  D.  210,  following  the  line  of 
a  similar  structure  made  in  the  reign 
of  Hadrian  (a.  d.  120),  and  usually 
called  Hadrian's  Wall. 

Seville  (Spanish  Sevilla),  a  fa- 
mous city  of  Spain ;  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name  ;  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Guadalquivir,  80  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  353%  miles  S. 
S.  W.  of  Madrid.  The  river  is  crossed 
by  a  fine  iron  bridge  connecting  Se- 
ville with  Triana,  one  of  its  suburbs. 
The  city  has  many  fine  promenades,  of 
which  the  most  frequented  are  the 
Alameda  Vieja,  El  Paseo  de  Christina 
and  Las  Delicias. 

The  Cathedral  (1401-1519),  on  the 
site  of  the  grand  mosque  of  the  Moors, 
is  one  of  the  most  imposing  Gothic 
edifices  in  Europe.  It  is  431  feet  long, 
315  feet  wide,  145  feet  high  under  the 
transept  dome,  has  seven  aisles,  93 
windows,  several  of  which  are  beauti- 
fully painted,  and  an  organ  with  5,400 
pipes.  It  contains  the  "  Biblioteca  Co- 
lumbiana "  of  20,000  volumes,  be- 
queathed by  Ferdinand  Columbus,  and 
is  rich  in  paintings  by  Murillo,  Cam- 
pana,  the  Herreras,  and  other  masters 
of  the  school  of  Seville.  The  Alcazar 
was  the  ancient  Moorish  palace.  Some 
parts  of  its  interior  are  as  ,fine  as  the 
Alhambra.  The  Lonja,  or  Exchange, 
is  a  square  building,  each  side  100 
feet  long,  in  which  all  the  American 
archives  are  preserved.  Other  build- 
ings are  the  Torre  del  Oro.  a  12-sided 
tower  on  the  river,  so  called  from  its 
having  received  the  cargoes  of  the 
American  treasure  ships ;  the  palace 
San  Telmo,  built  by  Ferdinand  Colum- 
bus, and  the  great  amphitheater,  ca- 
pable of  accommodating,  as  a  Plaza 
de  Toros,  18,000  people. 

One  of  the  greatest  monuments  of 
antiquity  is  the  Canos  de  Carmona, 
an  aqueduct  on  410  high  arches,  which 
conveys  water   from  Alcala  de  Qua- 


Sewage 

daira.  It  was  built  by  the  Romans 
and  repaired  by  the  Moors.  Seville 
has  a  university,  founded  1504,  two 
theaters,  several  upper  schools  and 
learned  societies.  The  city  is  visited 
by  laree  numbers  of  strangers  dur- 
ing the  Santa  Semana  ("holy 
week"),  which  commences  about  the 
middle  of  April.     Pop.  118,888. 

Sewage,  the  matter  which  passes 
through  the  drains,  conduits,  or  sew- 
ers leading  away  from  human  habita- 
tions singly,  or  from  houses  collected 
into  villages,  towns,  and  cities.  It  is 
made  up  of  excreted  matter,  solid  and 
liquid,  the  water  necessary  to  carry 
such  away,  and  the  waste  water  of 
domestic  operations ;  but  to  these  are 
added  the  liquid  waste  products  of 
manufacturing  operations,  and  gen- 
erally much  of  the  surface  drainage 
water  of  the  area  in  which  the  con- 
veying sewers  are  situated. 

Sewall,  Frank,  an  American 
writer  and  Swedenborgian  minister ; 
born  in  Bath,  Me.,  Sept.  24,  1837; 
was  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1858;  studied  in  the  universities 
of  Tubingen  and  Berlin,  Germany, 
and  attended  lectures  at  the  Sorbonne  ; 
was  pastor  in  Ohio  and  Glasgow, 
Scotland ;  president  of  Urbana  Univer- 
sity, O.,  for  16  years;  after  1890 
at  Washington,  D.  O.  He  wrote  many 
denominational    and    religious    works. 

Sewall;  Harriet  (Winslow),  an 
American  poet ;  born  in  Portland,  Me., 
June  30,  1819.  She  died  in  Wellesley, 
Mass.,  in  February,  1889. 

Sew^all,  Jonathan  Mitchell,  an 
American  poet ;  born  in  Salem,  Mass., 
1748.  During  the  Revolutionary  War 
he  wrote  a  ballad,  "  War  and  Wash- 
ington," which  was  very  popular;  in 
his  epilogue  (1780)  to  Addison's  "  Ca- 
to  "  occurs  the  line  "  No  pent-up  Uti- 
ca  contracts  your  powers."  He  died 
in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  March  29,  1808. 

Sewall,  Samnel,  an  American 
jurist ;  bom  in  Bishopstoke,  England, 
March  28,  1G52.  He  came  to  Amer- 
ica very  young,  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1075,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  council;  and  as  judge  of  the 
probate  court  (1692)  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  trials  during  the  Sa- 
lem witrhorfift  excitement.  He  is 
cliieflv  retmrknble  in  literary  annals 
for    his     "  Diary "     and     "  Letters," 


Sew^ard 

which  have  been  publi^ed  by  the 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society.  He 
died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  1,  1730. 

Sew^all,  Stephen,  an  American 
Hebrew  scholar;  born  in  York,  Me., 
April  4,  1734.  He  became  librarian 
and  instructor  at  Harvard  College 
(1762),  and  Professor  of  Hebrew 
1764-1785).  He  left  a  manuscript 
"  Chaldee  and  English  Dictionary," 
now  preserved  in  Harvard  College  Li- 
brary. He  died  in  Boston,  Slass., 
July  23,  1804. 

Sew^ard,  Frederick  William,  an 

American  lawyer ;  born  in  Auburn, 
N.  Y.,  July  8,  1830;  was  graduated 
at  Union  College  in  1849;  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1851 ;  and  for  10  years 
was  one  of  the  editors  and  owners 
of  the  Albany  "  Evening  Journal." 
He  was  sent  to  warn  Abraham  Lin- 
coln of  the  plot  to  assassinate  him  in 
Baltimore  in  1861 ;  was  assistant  Sec- 
retary of  State  in  1861-1869  and 
1877-1881 ;  accompanied  Admiral  Por- 
ter on  the  special  mission  to  negotiate 
West  India  treaties  in  1867;  par- 
ticipated in  the  purchase  of  Alaska; 
was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Legis- 
lature in  1875. 

Seward,  George  Frederick,  an 
American  diplomatist ;  bom  in  Flor- 
ida, N.  Y.,  Nov.  8,  1840;  was  educat- 
ed at  Union  College ;  was  United 
States  consul  and  consul-general  to 
Shanghai.  China,  in  1861-1876,  and. 
minister  to  China  in  1876-1880.  Dur- ' 
ing  his  diplomatic  career  he  was  large- 
ly instrumental  in  reducing  riots  and 
piracy  in  China.  In  1893  he  became 
president  of  the  Fidelity  and  Casualty 
Company  of  New  York.     D.   1910. 

Seward,  William,  Henry,  an 
American  statesman ;  born  in  Florida, 
Orange  co.,  N.  Y.,  May  16,  1801.  He 
studied  for  the  bar,  and  began  prac- 
tising in  Auburn  in  1823,  but  gradu- 
ally drifted  into  polities,  and  in  1830 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  New 
York  Senate.  Displacing  marked  abil- 
ities as  a  politician  he  was  in  1838  and 
1840  chosen  povemor  of  his  native 
State,  and  In  1849  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate.  In  1860  he 
was  a  candidate  for  the  presidency, 
but  being  defeated  in  the  convention 
by  Abraham  Lincoln  he  exerted  him- 
self to  secure  Lincoln's  election.  Lin- 
coln afterward  appointed  Seward  See- 


Sewell 


Seymour 


retary  of  State,  in  which  post  he  dis- 
charged his  duties  with  great  ability, 
showing  notable  tact  in  dealing  with 
Great  Britain  in  the  "  Trent  Affair," 
inducing  France  to  withdraw  her 
troops  from  Mexico,  and  effecting  the 
cession  to  the  United  States  by  Rus- 
sia of  Alaslia  (18G7).  He  was  dan- 
gerously wounded  in  April,  1805,  when 
President  Lincoln  was  assassinated, 
but  recovered  and  filled  the  same  ofiice 
under  Lincoln's  successor,  Andrew 
Johnson.  He  resigned  his  post  on  the 
accession  of  President  Grant  in  18(39. 
He  died  in  Auburn,  Cayuga  co.,  N. 
Y.,  Oct.  10,  1872.  He  did  inestimable 
service  to  his  country  not  only  in  the 
Civil  War,  but  in  compelling  the 
French  to  leave  the  pretended  emperor 
Maximilian  to  his  fate  in  Mexico. 

Se^rell,  William  Joyce,  an  Amer- 
ican statesman ;  born  in  Castlebar, 
Ireland,  Dec.  6,  1835 ;  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1851 ;  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Civil  War,  attain- 
ing the  rank  of  Major-General  of  vol- 
unteers ;  was  .a  member  of  the  New 
Jersey  Senate  in  1872-1881;  United 
States  Senator  in  1881-1887,  1895- 
1901,  and  reelected  for  the  term  1901- 
1907.  He  was  a  commissioner  of  the 
World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chi- 
cago in  1893,  and  for  several  years 
commanded  the  2nd  brigade  of  the 
National  Guard  of  New  Jersey.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish-American 
War  he  was  nominated  one  of  the  first 
Major-Generals  of  volunteers,  but  his 
colleagues  believing  he  could  be  of 
more  service  in  the  Senate  than  in  the 
field,  he  declined  the  appointment. 
Died  in  Camden,  N.  J.,  Dec.  27,  1901. 

Sextant,  an  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  angular  distance  of  objects 
by  means  of  reflection.  The  principle 
of  its  construction  depends  on  the 
theorem  that  if  a  ray  of  light  suffer 
double  reflection  the  angle  between  the 
original  ray  and  its  direction  after  the 
second  reflection  is  double  the  angle 
made  by  the  reflecting  surfaces.  The 
instrument  of  which  this  theorem  is 
the  principle  is  a  brass  sector  of  a 
circle  in  outline,  the  sector  being  the 
sixth  part  of  a  complete  circle,  for 
which  reason  the  instrument  is  called 
a  sextant. 

Sexton,  an  under  oflBcer  of  the 
church,  whose  duty  is  to  take  care  of 


the  vessels,  vestments,  etc.,  belonging 
to  the  church,  to  attend  on  the  officiat- 
ing minister,  and  perform  other  du- 
ties pertaining  to  the  church,  to  which 
is,  in  England,  added  the  duty  of  dig- 
ging and  filling  up  graves  in  the 
churchyard. 

Seychelles,  a  group  of  about  30 
islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  They 
were  first  occupied  by  the  French,  and 
were  ceded  to  the  British  in  1814. 
The  settlers  are  mostly  of  French  ex- 
traction. 

Seymour,  George  Franklin,  an 
American  clergyman;  born  in  New 
York  city,  Jan.  5,  1829 ;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Columbia  College  in  1850  and 
at  the  General  Theological  Seminary 
in  1854;  was  ordained  in  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church  in  1855 ;  held 
various  charges  till  1865,  when  he 
was  made  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical 
History  at  the  General  Theological 
Seminary.  He  was  also  dean  in  1875- 
1879.  He  was  consecrated  first  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Bishop  of  Spring- 
field  in  June,   1878.      Died  in  1906. 

Seymour,  Horatio,  an  American 
statesman;  bom  in  Pompey  Hill, 
Onondago  co.,  N.  Y.,  May  31,  1810.  In 
1852  he  was  elected  governor  of  New 
York  on  the  Democratic  ticket.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was 
decidedly  in  favor  of  the  supremacy 
of  the  Constitution,  and  as  governor 
a  second  time  (1863-1865)  showed 
conspicuous  energy  and  ability  in 
raising  troops.  His  second  incumben- 
cy of  the  governorship  was  marked  by 
the  draft  riots  in  1863.  In  1868  he 
was  defeated  for  the  presidency  by 
General  Grant.  He  died  in  Utica,  N. 
Y.,  Feb.  12,  1886. 

Seymour,  Thomas  Day,  an  Amer- 
ican educator;  born  in  Hudson,  O., 
April  1,  1848 ;  was  graduated  at  West- 
ern Reserve  College  in  1870 ;  and  was 
made  Professor  of  Greek  at  Yale  Uni- 
versity in   1880.     Died  in  1907. 

Seymour,  Thomas  Hart,  an 
American  lawyer;  born  in  Hartford, 
Conn.,  in  1808 ;  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1843-1845 ;  then  refused  a 
renomination ;  entered  the  army  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Mexican  War  as  ma- 
jor of  the  9th  Regiment  of  New  En- 
gland Volunteers.  He  was  later  made 
commander  of  the  regiment  and  par- 
ticipated   in    the   capture    of    Mexico 


Shad 

City.  He  was  elected  governor  of 
Connecticut  in  1850,  1851,  1852,  and 
1853 ;  and  was  minister  to  Russia  in 
1853-1857.  He  died  in  Hartford, 
Conn.,  Sept.  3,  18G8. 

Shad,  the  popular  name  of  three 
anadromous  fishes  of  the  genus  Clu- 
pea :  ( 1 )  The  allice  or  European  shad. 
(2)  The  American  shad,  an  important 


COMMON  SHAD. 

food  fish,  abundant  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  America,  and  in  some  of 
the  American  rivers.  It  spawns  in 
fresh  water.  Great  quantities  are 
salted.  (3)  The  Twaite  shad,  com- 
mon on  the  coasts  of  Europe,  ascend- 
ing rivers ;  abundant  in  the  Nile.  The 
flesh  is  coarser  than  that  of  the  allice 
shad. 

Shaddock,  sometimes  called  pom- 
pelmoose,  a  large  species  of  orange,  at- 
taining the  diameter  of  seven  or  eight 
inches,  with  a  white,  thick,  spongy, 
and  bitter  rind,  and  a  red  or  white 
pulp  of  a  sweet  taste,  mingled  with 
acidity.  It  is  a  native  of  China  and 
Japan,  and  was  brought  to  the  West 
Indies  by  a  Captain  Shaddock,  from 
whom  it  derived  its  name. 

Shadow.  (1)  Shade  within  de- 
fined limits ;  the  .figure  of  a  body  pro- 
jected on  the  ground,  etc.,  by  the  in- 
terception of  light;  obscurity  or  dep- 
rivation of  light,  apparent  on  a  sur- 
face or  plane,  and  representing  the 
form  of  the  body  which  intercepts  the 
rays  of  light  (2)  Darkness,  gloom, 
shade,  obscurity.  (3)  The  dark  part 
of  a  picture;  the  representation  of 
comparative  deficiency  or  deprivation 
of  light;  shade.  (4)  A  reflected  im- 
age, as  in  a  mirror  or  water,  b«ice, 
any  image  or  portrait. 

Shaffer,  Newton  Melman,  an 
American  physician ;  born  in  Kinder- 


Shaftesbnry 

hook,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  14,  1846 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  Medical  College  of  New 
York  University  in  18(j7 ;  was  assist- 
ant surgeon  of  the  New  York  Ortho- 
paedic Dispensary  and  Hospital  in 
1871-1875,  and  surgeon-in-chief  in 
1870-1898.  In  the  latter  year  he  be- 
came Professor  of  Orthopaedic  Surgery 
at  the  Medical  College  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity. He  designed  numerous  ap- 
paratus for  deformities,  particularly 
for  hip,  spine,  and  clubfeet. 

Shaffner,  Taliaferro  Preston, 
an  American  inventor ;  born  in  Smith- 
field,  Va.,  in  1818.  He  was  an  as- 
sociate of  Prof.  S.  F.  B.  Morse  in 
the  introduction  of  the  telegraph ; 
built  the  line  from  Louisville,  Ky.,  to 
New  Orleans,  and  that  from  St.  Lou- 
is to  Jefferson  City  in  1851 ;  was  a 
projector  of  a  North  Atlantic  cable; 
the  inventor  of  several  methods  of 
blasting ;  and  held  office  in  various  tel- 
egraph companies.  He  engaged  in  the 
Dano-Prussian  War  in  1861 ;  was  a 
member  of  various  scientific  societies 
of  Europe,  and  published  several  trea- 
tises on  the  telegraph.  He  died  in 
Troy,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  11,  1881. 

Shafter,  'William  Rnfns,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in 
Galesburg,  Mich.,  Oct.  16,  1835;  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  en- 
tered the  7th  Michigan  Infantry  as 
a  1st  lieutenant,  Aug.  22,  1861 ;  be- 
came brevet  Brigadier-General  of  vol- 
unteers for  gallant  and  meritorious 
services  during  the  war ;  and  was  mus- 
tered out  of  the  volunteer  service  Nov. 
2,  1865.  He  entered  the  regular  army 
and  became  lieutenant-oolopel  of  the 
41st  Infantry,  Jan.  26,  1867;  and 
Brigadier-General  May  3,  1897.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Spanish-Amer- 
ican War  he  was  given  command  of 
the  army  mobilized  for  the  invasion  of 
Cuba;  his  first  decisive  move  was  the 
landing  of  16,000  men  in  Cuba  in 
about  12  hours  without  an  accident. 
After  the  war  he  commanded  the  De» 
partments  of  California  and  Columbia 
in  1899-1901,  and  was  retired  Juno 
30,  1901.     He  died  Nov.  12.  1900. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley 
Cooper,  1st  Earl  of,  an  Englisn 
statesman ;  born  in  Wimbome,  St. 
Giles,  Dorsetshire.  England,  July  22, 
1621.  After  the  deposition  of  Richard 
Cromwell  he  aided  the  restoration  o* 


Shaftesbury 

Charles  II.  with  all  his  influence,  and 
in  1661  was  created  Baron  Ashley, 
and  appointed  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer and  a  lord  of  the  treasury. 
In  1672  he  was  created  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury  and  lord  high  chancellor. 
His  conduct  on  the  bench  was  able 
and  impartial,  but  he  was  deprived  of 
office,  probably  through  the  influence 
of  the  Duke  of  York;  and  he  at  once 
became  one  of  the  most  powerful  lead- 
ers of  the  opposition.  For  his  warmth 
in  asserting  that  a  prorogation  of  15 
months  amounted  to  a  dissolution  of 
Parliament  he  was  confined  in  the 
Tower  from  February,  1677,  to  Feb- 
ruary, 1678.  After  his  liberation  he 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  attacks 
on  Catholics  during  the  popish-plot 
scare.  In  1679  he  became  president 
of  the  council  and  the  same  year  was 
instrumental  in  passing  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Act.  In  1681  he  was  indicted 
for  high  treason  but  acquitted.  He 
entered  into  the  plots  of  the  Mon- 
mouth party  and  had  to  fly  to  Hol- 
land, where  he  died  in  Amsterdam, 
Jan.  21,  1683.  He  is  the  Achitophel 
of  Dryden's  famous  satire. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley 
Cooper,  3d  Earl  of,  an  English 
philosophical  and  moral  writer,  grand- 
son of  the  preceding;  born  in  Exeter 
House,  London,  England,  Feb.  26, 
1671.  In  1708-1709  he  published  sev- 
eral works  of  a  philosophical  charac- 
ter, among  others  a  "  Letter  on  En- 
thusiasm "  and  an  "  Inquiry  concern- 
ing Virtue  or  Merit."  In  1710  his 
rapidly  declining  health  led  him  to 
fix  his  residence  at  Naples.  He  died 
in  Naples,   Italy,  Feb.  15,  1713. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley 
Cooper,  7th  Earl  of,  an  English 
philanthropist,  son  of  the  6th  earl ; 
born  in  London,  England,  April  28, 
1801.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  sat  in  the  House  of  Commons 
from  1826  to  1851,  when  he  succeeded 
to  the  peerage.  He  supported  the  ad- 
ministrations of  Liverpool  and  Can- 
ning, and  zealously  labored  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  laboring  classes. 
He  was  president  of  the  Bible  Society, 
of  the  Pastoral  Aid  Society,  of  the 
Protestant  Alliance,  and  of  other  re- 
ligious organizations.  He  died  in 
Folkestone,  England,  Oct.  1,  1885. 

Shagreen,  a  species  of  leather,  or 
rather   parchment,    prepared    without 


Shakespeare 

tanning,  from  the  skins  of  horses, 
asses,  and  camels.  It  was  formerly 
much  used  for  cases  for  spectacles,  in- 
struments, watches,  etc. 

Shahy  the  title  given  by  European 
writers  to  the  sovereign  of  Persia; 
in  his  own  country  he  is  known  by 
the  compound  title  Padishah.  Also  a 
chieftain  or  prince. 

Shahan,  Thomas  Joseph,  an 
American  educator;  bom  in  Man- 
chester, N.  H.,  Sept.  11,  1857;  was 
educated  at  the  American  College  of 
Rome  and  at  the  Roman  Seminary; 
and  was  ordained  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  in  1882.  He  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Church  History  and  Patrol- 
ogy  at  the  Catholic  University  of 
America  in  1891. 

Shakers,  a  name  given  to  an  Amer- 
ican sect  of  celibates  of  both  sexes, 
founded  by  Ann  Lee,  an  English  emi- 
grant, about  1776,  from  their  using  a 
kind  of  dance  in  their  religious  exer- 
cises, but  who  call  themselves  the 
United  Society  of  Believers  in  Christ's 
Second  Appearing.  Their  chief  set- 
tlement is  at  Mount  Lebanon,  N.  Y. 
Their  foundress  was  called  the  Elect 
Lady,  and  Mother  of  all  the  Elect, 
and  claimed  to  be  the  woman  men- 
tioned in  Rev.  xii.  The  Shakers  pro- 
fess to  have  passed  through  death  and 
the  resurrection  into  a  state  of  grace 
—  the  resurrection  order,  in  which  the 
love  which  leads  to  marriage  is  not 
allowed,  and  are  known  as  brothers 
and  sisters.  They  abstain  from  wine 
and  pork,  live  on  the  land  and  shun 
towns.  They  cultivate  the  virtues  of 
sobriety,  prudence,  and  meekness,  take 
no  oaths,  deprecate  law,  avoid  con- 
tention, and  repudiate  war.  Their 
Church  is  based  on  these  grand  ideas : 
The  kingdom  of  heaven  has  come, 
Christ  has  actually  appeared  on  earth  ; 
the  personal  rule  of  God  has  been  re- 
stored ;  the  old  law  is  abolished ;  the 
command  to  multiply  has  ceased :  Ad- 
am's sin  has  been  atoned ;  the  inter- 
course of  heaven  and  earth  has  been 
restored ;  the  curse  is  taken  away  from 
labor ;  the  earth,  and  all  that  is  on  it, 
will  be  redeemed ;  angels  and  spirits 
have  become,  as  of  old,  the  familiars 
and  ministers  of  men. 

Shakespeare,  William,  an  En- 
glish dramatist  and  poet;  born  in 
Stratford-on-Avon,  Warwickshire,  En- 


Sbale 

gland,  in  April,  1564.  His  birthplace, 
as  pointed  out  by  traditions,  is  the 
bouse  in  Henley  street,  Stratford, 
which  belonged  to  his  father.  In  his 
i9th  year  he  married  Anne  Hatha- 
way, daughter  of  a  yeoman  at  the 
neighboring  hamlet  of  Shottery,  and 
eight  years  older  than  himself. 

He  went  to  London  about  1586,  and 
lived  there  many  years,  leaving  his 
wife  and  children  at  Stratford;  he 
gained  an  honorable  position  as  actor, 
playwriter,  and  shareholder  in  the  the- 
ater of  Blackfriars,  and  afterward  in 
that  of  the  Globe;  enjoyed  the  favor 
and  patronage  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
James  I.,  and  the  Earl  of  Southamp- 
ton, the  warm  friendship  of  Ben  Jon- 
son,  and  the  highest  respect  and  ad- 
miration of  his  associates,  not  only 
for  his  preeminence  as  a  poet,  but  for 
his  honesty,  geniality,  and  worth  as  a 
man. 

Of  his  end  we  have  no  other  account 
than  the  short  statement  in  the  diary 
of  the  Rev.  John  Ward-,  vicar  of 
Stratford  that  "  Shakespease,  Dray- 
ton, and  Ben  Jonson  had  a  merry 
meeting,  and  it  seems  drank  too  hard, 
for  Shakespeare  died  of  a  fever  then 
contracted."  The  date  of  his  death 
is  April  23,  1616. 

The  first  collected  edition  of  Shake- 
speare's plays  was  the  folio  of  1623. 
His  poems  of  "  Venus  and  Adonis," 
and  "  The  Rape  of  Lucrece,"  were 
published  in  1593  and  1594,  and  were 
the  only  works  which  appeared  with 
his  name  in  his  lifetime.  Of  the  36 
plays  (exclusive  of  "Pericles"),  the 
dates  of  publication  of  only  a  few  are 
known.  "  The  Two  Gentlemen  of  Ve- 
rona," and  "  Love's  Labor's  Lost," 
were  among  the  earliest ;  and  "  Tem- 
pest," "  TroiluS  and  Cressida,"  "  Henry 
VIIL,"  "  Coriolanus,"  "Julius  C«- 
sar,"  and  "  Antony  and  Cleopatra  " 
among  the  latest.  The  "  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream,"  "  Merchant  of  Ven- 
ice," "  Romeo  and  Juliet,"  "  Richard 
IL,"  "Richard  IIL,"  "Henry  IV.," 
and  "  King  John  "  were  all  produced 
before  1598.  A  copy  of  "  Hamlet "  is 
extant,  bearing  the  date  1602. 
"  Twelfth  Night "  was  produced  in 
1601 ;  "  King  Lear "  was  printed  in 
1607;  the  "ITempest "  was  written  in 
1611.  The  second  folio  edition  of  the 
collected  plays  appeared  in  1632,  and 
two  others  subsequently.     It  is  said 


SliaiLka 

that  by  1830  not  less  than  82  editions 
had  been  published,  without  including 
separate  plays,  and  poems,  and  com- 
mentaries. Since  then  the  niunber  has 
been  enormously  increased. 

Shale,  in  geology  an  indurated 
clay,  chiefly  composed  of  silica  and 
alumina;  is  of  a  gray  or  grayish-black 
color;  and  is  used  for  making  slate 
pencils. 

Slialer,  Nathaniel  Soutligate, 
an  American  geologist;  born  near 
Newport,  Ky.,  Feb.  20,  1841.  He 
served  two  years  as  an  artillery  officer 
in  the  Union  army  during  the  Civil 
War;  was  Professor  of  Geology;  dean 
of  Lawrence  Scientific  School;  and 
after  1884  geologist  in  charge  of  At- 
lantic Division  United  States  Geolog- 
ical Survey.     He  died  Apr.  10,  1906. 

Shamokin,  a  borough  in  North- 
umberland county,  Pa.;  on  the  Le- 
high Valley  and  other  railroads;  98 
miles  N.  E.  of  Reading;  is  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  mining  and  shipping  anthra- 
cite coal,  and  contains  railroad  re- 
pair shops,  and  wagon,  hosiery,  un- 
derwear, shirt,  silk  goods,  and  door 
knob  plants.  ,  Pop.  (1910)  19,538. 

Shamrock,  the  trefoil  plant  adopt« 
ed  as  the  Irish  national  emblem. 

Shamyl.  See  Schamyl. 
Shanghai,  a  city  and  seaport  of 
China,  in  the  province  of  Kiangsu; 
near  the  junction  of  the  Hwang-pu 
and  the  Wu-sung  rivers.  The  Chi- 
nese city  proper  is  inclosed  within 
walls  24  feet  high,  the  streets  being 
narrow  and  dirty,  and  the  buildings 
low,  crowded,  and  for  the  most  part 
unimportant.  In  1843  Shanghai  was 
opened  as  one  of  the  five  treaty  ports, 
and  an  important  foreign  settlement 
is  now  established  (with  a  separate 
government)  outside  the  city  walls. 
Shanghai  has  water  communication 
with  about  a  third  of  China,  and  its 
trade  has  become  extensive.  Pop. 
(1908)  651,000. 

Shanklin,  'William  Arnold,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  Carroll- 
ton,  Mo.,  April  18,  1864;  ordained  in 
the  Methodist  ministry  in  1889;  con- 
tinued in  pastoral  work  till  1905;  was 
president  of  Upper  Iowa  University 
in  1905-1909;  then  became  president 
of  Wesleyan  University  (Conn.). 

Shanks,  "William  Franklin 
Gore,  an  American  journalist;  born 


Shark 

in  Shelby ville,  Ky.,  April  20,  1837. 
He  was  war  correspondent  for  the 
New  York  "Herald"  (1861-1865); 
subsequently  editorially  connected 
with  the  same  paper,  with  "  Harper's 
Weekly,"  the  New  York  "Times," 
"Tribune,"  and  "Daily  Star";  in 
1880  organized  the  National  Press  In- 
telligence Company ;  in  1891  estab- 
lished "  The  Daily  and  Weekly  Bond 
Buyer,"  which  he  owned  and  edited. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  served  as 
volunteer  aide-de-camp  on  the  staffs 
of  Generals  Rousseau  and  Thomas, 
and  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Chickamauga.  He  was  imprisoned  for 
refusing  to  divulge  the  name  of  a 
writer  of  an  article  in  the  New  York 
"  Tribune."    He  died  Feb,  22,  1905. 

Shark,  an  English  popular  name 
for  any  individual  of  the  group  Sela- 
choidei.  Sharks 
are  scaleless, 
and  the  skin 
usually  rough. 
They  are  nu- 
merous in  trop- 
ical seas,  becom- 
ing scarcer  as 
they  recede  from 
the  warmer  re- 
gions, a  few 
only  reaching 
the  Arctic  circle. 
They  are  rapid 
swimmers,  with 
great  power  of 
^  endurance ;  the 
larger  sharks 
are  exclusively 
carnivorous,  and 
some  of  them  ex- 
tremely danger- 
ous to  man. 
They  scent  their 
food  from  a  dis- 
tance, and  are 
readily  attract- 
ed by  the  smell 
of  blood  or  de- 
composing 
bodies.  The  flesh 
of  sharks  is 
coarse,  but  it  is 
sometimes  eaten 
EGG  OF  SHARK.  ■ —  the  Chinese 
(sCYixiUMCHiLENSE.)use  sharks'  fins 
for  making  thick 
gelatinous  soups,  and  the  liver  yields 


Shasta 

an  oil,  for  the  sake  of  which  a  shark 
fishery  is  prosecuted  on  the  coast  of 
Ceylon.  Their  rough  skin  is  employed 
by  joiners  to  polish  fine-grained  wood, 
and  by  cutlers  to  cover  the  hilts  of 
swords  to  make  them  firmer  in  the 
grasp.  Figuratively,  a  greedy,  artful 
fellow ;  one  who  fills  his  pocket  by  sly 
tricks. 

Sharp,  Granville,  an  English 
abolitionist ;  son  of  the  archdeacon  of 
Northumberland ;  born  in  Durham, 
England,  in  1734.  He  was  the  author 
of  upward  of  61  publications — mainly, 
pamphlets  —  on  philological,  legal,  po- 
litical, and  theological  subjects ;  but 
his  principal  writings  and  the  main 
labors  of  his  life  were  in  defense  of 
the  negro,  and  for  the  abolition  of 
the  slave  trade  and  slavery.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Association 
for  the  Abolition  of  Negro  Slavery. 
He  died  in  London,  July  6,  1813. 

Sharp,  'William,  British  poet, 
essayist  and  author ;  b.  near  Paisley, 
1856.  He  was  a  prolific  writer  and 
editor  of  valuable  works,  and  after  his 
death,  Dec.  14,  1905,  in  Sicily,  it  be- 
came known  that  he  wrote  the  presum- 
ably feminine  novels  of  Fiona  Mac- 
Leod. 

Sharpless,  James,  an  American 
artist ;  born  in  England  about  1751 ; 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1794  and 
began  the  making  of  pastel  portraits. 
Among  his  sitters  were  Washington, 
Jefferson,  Monroe,  Burr,  Hamilton 
and  other  prominent  Americans.  These 
portraits,  about  40  in  all,  were  placed 
in  the  National  Museum  in  Independ- 
ence Hall,  Philadelphia,  in  1876.  He 
died  in  New  York  city,  Feb.  26,  1811. 

Sharsvrood,  George,  an  American 
jurist ;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July 
7,  1810;  was  graduated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  in  1828  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1831.  In  1867 
of  the  latter  year  he  became  a  justice 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Supreme  Court; 
and  was  chief  justice  in  1878-1882. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  May 
28,  1883. 

Shasta,  Monnt,  a  peak  of  volcanic 
origin  in  Siskiyou  co.,  CaL,  at  the  N. 
end  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  14,350  feet 
above  sea-level.  On  its  summit  are 
three  glaciers,  one  of  which,  the  Whit- 
ney glacier,  is  3  miles  long.  On  its 
slopes  are  some  gigantic  trees  over  300 


Shattnck 


Shaxvnee  Indiana 


feet  high.    The  mountain  is  almost  a 
perfect  cone,  and  is  a  dormant  vol- 
cano. 
Shattnck,  Harriette  Robinson, 

■  an  American  parliamentarian ;  born  in 
Lowell,  Mass.,  Dec.  4,  1850;  received 
a  public  school  education.  She  was 
for  several  years  assistant  clerk  and 
in  1872  clerk  of  the  Massachusetts 
House  of  Representatives,  and  was 
the  only  woman  that  ever  held  that 
post.  Later  she  became  a  teacher  of 
parliamentary  law.  Her  publications 
include  "  Shattuck's  Advanced  Rules 
of  Parliamentary  Law"   (1895). 

Shatv,  Albert,  an  American  edi- 
tor; born  in  Shandon,  Butler  co.,  O., 
July  23,  1857;  was  educated  at  Iowa 
College  and  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity. After  1891  he  was  the  editor 
of  the  American  "  Review  of  Re- 
views." "  Municipal  Government  in 
Great  Britain  "  and  "  Municipal  Gov- 
ernment in  Continental  Europe"  are 
his  principal  works. 

Shaw,  George  Bernard,  British 
critic,  essayist  and  dramatist ;  b.  Dub- 
lin, 1856.  He  settled  in  London  in 
1876  and  soon  achieved  fame  as  a 
brilliant  man  of  letters,  by  problem 
novels,  plays,  and  Socialistic  lectures. 

Sbaw,  Henry  Wheeler  ("Josh 
Billings"),  humorist;  b.  Lanesbor- 
ough.  Mass.,  Apr.  21,  1818.  His  "  Essa 
on  the  Mul,"  in  1860,  brought  him 
wide  fame,  and  127,000  copies  of  his 
travesty  on  the  "  Old  Farmer's"  Al- 
manac "  were  sold  in  its  second  year. 
He  was  a  prolific  writer  and  lecturer 
until  his  death  in  Monterey,  Cal.,  Oct. 
14,  1885. 

Shaw,  John,  an  American  naval 
oflScer ;  born  in  Mount  Mellick,  Ire- 
land, in  1773 ;  removed  to  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  in  1790.  When  war  with 
France  became  probable,  he  joined  the 
the  United  States  navy  as  a  lieuten- 
ant; and  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  schooner  "  Enterprise  "  in  Decem- 
ber, 1799.  During  an  eight  months* 
cruise  with  this  vessel  he  engaged  in 
five  severe  actions,  recaptured  11 
American  prizes  and  took  5  French 
privateers.  He  was  promoted  cap- 
tain in  August,  1807,  and  commanded 
the  fleet  which  was  blockaded  by  the 
British  in  the  Thames  river  in  1814. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  17, 
lo2o. 


Shaw,  John  Balcom,  an  Amer« 
ican  clergyman;  born  in  Bellport,  N. 
Y.,  May  12,  1860;  was  graduated  at 
Lafayette  College  in  1885,  and  at  the 
Union  Theological  Seminary  in  1888; 
was  ordained  in  the  Presbyterian 
Church  and  became  pastor  in  New 
York. 

Shaw,  Lemnel,  an  American  ju- 
rist; born  in  Barnstable,  Mass.,  Jan. 
9,  1781 ;  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
University  in  1800  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1804;  became  chief -jus- 
tice of  the  Massachusetts  Supreme 
Court  in  1830-1860.  He  died  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  March  30,  1861. 

Shaw,  Leslie  Mortier,  an  Amer* 
ican  statesman ;  born  in  Morristown, 
Vt.,  Nov.  2,  1848;  was  graduated  at 
Cornell  College,  Mt.  Vernon,  la.,  ia 
1874,  and  at  the  Iowa  College  of  Law 
in  1876,  and  in  the  latter  year  began 
the  practice  of  law  in  Denison,  la. 
Some  years  later  he  became  interested 
in  banking  and  was  made  president  of 
the  Bank  of  Denison  and  also  of  the 
Bank  of  Manila,  la.  He  first  became 
prominent  in  politics  in  1896,  when 
he  came  out  strongly  for  William  Mc» 
Kinley,  and  soon  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  public  speaker.  He  was 
elected  governor  of  Iowa  for  the  terms 
of  1898-1900  and  1900-1902 ;  and  was 
chairman  of  the  International  Mone- 
tary Conference  in  Indianapolis,  Ind., 
in  1898.  He  resigned  the  office  of  gov- 
ernor in  1902  to  succeed  Lyman  J, 
Gage  as  Secretary  of  the  United  States 
Treasury  Department. 

Shaw  University,  a  coeducational 
institution  in  Raleigh,  N.  O.,  for  col- 
ored students;  founded  in  1865  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Baptist  Church. 

Shaw^l,  an  article  of  dress  worn 
by  both  sexes  in  the  East,  but  in 
the  West  chiefly  by  females.  Some  of 
the  Eastern  shawls  are  beautiful  and 
costly  fabrics.  Norwich  and  Paisley 
were  long  famed  for  their  shawls  made 
in  imitation  of  those  from  India.  The 
use  of  shawls  in  America  belongs  al- 
most entirely  to  the  present  century. 

Shawnee  Indians,  a  tribe  of 
American  Indians  of  the  Algonquin 
family,  formerly  settled  mainly  in  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio,  but 
driven  W.  by  the  Iroquois.  They 
helped  the  French  against  the  English, 
gave    trouble    to    the    newly-founded 


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NVMBER  IN  THOUJANDr 


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SWINE  or  ALL  ACES 

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JIVINE 


Shays 

United  States,  and  in  1812  some  bands 
joined  the  English.  They  afterward 
removed  to  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  In- 
dian Territory. 

Shays,  Daniel,  an  American  insur- 
gent ;  born  in  Hopkinton,  Mass.,  in 
1747 ;  served  as  ensign  at  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  the  Continental  army.  He 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  popular 
movement  in  Western  Massachusetts 
for  the  redress  of  alleged  grievances, 
appearing  before  Springfield,  Mass., 
at  the  head  of  1,000  men  to  prevent 
the  session  of  the  Supreme  Court  at 
that  place,  and  commanding  the  rebel 
party  at  Pellham  and  at  the  engage- 
ment with  the  militia  at  Petersham. 
After  the  rebelliofl  was  put  down, 
however,  he  was  pardoned  by  the  gov- 
ernment and  later,  in  his  old  age,  was 
allowed  a  pension  for  his  services  dur- 
ing the  Revolutionary  War.  He  died 
in  Sparta,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  29,  1825. 

Shea,  John  Davrson  Gilmary,  an 
American  historian;  bom  in  New 
York  city,  July  22.  1824;  was  edu- 
cated at  Columbia  College  :  studied  law 
and  was  admitted  to  the  oar,  but  de- 
voted himself  chiefly  to  literature.  He 
edited  the  "  Historical  Magazine  "  in 
1859-1865 ;  was  one  of  the  founders 
and  first  president  of  the  United  States 
Catholic  Historical  Society ;  a  mem- 
ber of  numerous  historical  societies  in 
Canada  and  the  United  States;  and 
corresponding  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  History,  Madrid,  Spain. 
Died  in  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  Feb.  22,  1892. 

Sheartails,  a  genus  of  humming- 
birds of  which  the  slender  sheartail 
and  Gold's  sheartail  are  two  familiar 
species.  These  birds  occur,  the  for- 
mer in  Central  America  generally ;  the 
latter  in  Peru  and  in  the  Andes  val- 
leys. They  derive  their  name  from 
the  elongation  of  the  two  central  tail 
feathers  of  the  males. 

Sheanvater,  the  name  of  several 
marine  birds  of  the  genus  PufBnus. 
The  great  shearwater,  which  is  18 
inches  long,  is  found  on  the  S.  W. 
coasts  of  England  and  Wales.  They 
fly  rapidly,  skimming  over  the  sea, 
from  which  they  pick  up  small  fishes, , 
mollusks,  etc.  The  name  is  sometimes 
applied  to  the  scissor-bill  or  skimmer. 

Sheatfish,  a  name  applied  to  any 
fish  of  the  family  Siluridae,  but  specifi- 

E.  lai. 


Sheep 

cally  to  the  sly  silurus,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  sturgeon,  the  largest 
European  fresh-water  fish,  and  the 
only  European  member  of  the  family. 
It  is  allied  to  the  catfish.  It  occurs 
in  the  Rhine,  and  is  common  in  Ger- 
many, Poland,  Styria,  the  Danube,  and 
the  rivers  of  Southern  Russia.  It  at- 
tains a  weight  of  from  300  to  400 
pounds. 

Sheboygan,  city  and  capital  of 
Sheboygan  county,  Wis.;  on  Lake 
Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  She- 
boygan river,  and  the  Chicago  & 
Northwestern  railroad;  52  miles  N.  of 
Milwaukee;  has  a  large  lake  com- 
merce in  lumber,  fish,  and  farm  prod- 
ucts; is  especially  noted  for  its  manu- 
factures of  chairs;  also  produces 
stamped  steel  and  cast-iron  work, 
furniture,  brick  and  tile,  and  leather; 
and  contains  a  Federal  Building,  Day 
School  for  the  Deaf,  Asylum  for  the 
Chronic  Insane,  and  Home  for  the 
Friendless.     Pop.  (1910)  26,398. 

Shedd,  Mrs.  Jnlia  Ann  (Clark), 
an  American  art  writer;  born  in  New- 
port, Me.,  Aug.  8,  1834;  chief  work: 
"  Famous   Painters   and  Paintings." 

Shedd,  William  Greenougb 
Thayer,  an  American  theologian ; 
born  in  Acton,  Mass.,  June  21,  1820 ; 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Vermont  in  1839,  and  at  Auburn  The- 
ological Seminary  in  1843.  He  be- 
came Professor  of  English  Literature 
in  the  University  of  Vermont  in  1845, 
which  chair  he  held  till  appointed  to 
that  of  Sacred  Rhetoric  in  Auburn 
Theological  Seminary  in  1852.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  Professor  of  Church 
History  in  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary; associate  pastor  of  the  Brick 
Church,  New  York  city ;  and  Professor 
of  Biblical  Literature  and  Theology  in 
the  Union  Theological  Seminary.  He 
died  in  New  York  city,  Nov.  17,  1894. 

Sheep,  the  common  name  of  the 
genus  Ovis,  belonging  to  the  hollow- 
homed  ruminant  family.  Naturalists 
are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to  what  was 
the  original  breed  of  this  invaluable 
animal,  which  is  in  modern  farming 
almost  equally  important  for  furnish- 
ing the  farm  with  a  dressing  of  man- 
ure, and  the  community  at  large  with 
mutton,  clothing  and  other  necessaries 
of  life.  The  leading  fact  in  the  geo- 
graphical history  of  this  •genus  is  that 


,>.r».s,  V 


Blieep's-Head 

3t  occurs  both  in  the  New  and  the  Old 
iWorld,  whereas  the  goat  tribe  are  nat- 
urally unknown  in  America.  It  is 
usually  regarded  by  naturalists  as 
being  not  only  specifically,  but  ge- 
nerically,  distinguished  from  the  goat 
tribe ;  but  some  authorities,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  inclined  to  believe  that 
the  generic  separation  is  founded  chief- 
ly on  characters  which  have  arisen 
from  the  influential  power  of  man.  In 
a  state  of  nature,  the  sheep  is  scarcely 
less  active  or  energetic  than  the  goat ; 
its  dimensions  are  greater,  its  muscu- 
lar strength  at  least  equal  both  in 
force  and  duration.  It  is  also  an  Al- 
pine animal,  and  am«ng  its  native  fast- 
nesses bounds  from  rock  to  rock  with 
almost  inconceivable  swiftness  and 
agility. 

The  three  unsubdued  races  of  sheep 
are  as  follows:  The  Musmon,  the 
bearded  sheep  of  Africa;  the  Argali, 
or  wild  sheep  of  Asia ;  and  the  Rocky 
Mountain  sheep  of  the  United  States. 
The  latter  is  larger  than  the  largest 
varieties  of  domestic  breeds.  The  horns 
of  the  male  are  of  great  dimensions, 
arising  a  short  way  above  the  eyes, 
and  occupying  almost  the  entire  space 
between  the  ears,  but  without  touching 
each  other  at  their  bases.  The  hair  in 
this  species  resembles  that  of  a^  deer, 
and  is  short,  dry,  and  flexible  in  its 
autumn  growth;  but  becomes  coarse, 
dry  and  brittle  as  the  winter  advances. 

The  most  important  breed  of  sheep 
as  regards  the  texture  of  the  wool  is 
the  Merino,  in  modern  times  brought 
to  the  greatest  perfection  in  Spain, 
though  their  originals  probably  formed 
the  flocks  of  the  patriarchs  thousands 
of  years  ago,  and  have  been  the  stock 
of  all  the  fine-wooled  sheep.  They 
readily  form  cross  breeds,  called  demi- 
merinos,  which  have  been  brought  to 
great  perfection  in  France,  whence,  as 
well  as  from  Spain,  they  have  been 
imported  into  the  United  States.  The 
total  number  of  sheep  in  the  United 
States  is  reported  at  over  57.000,000, 
Talued  at  more  than  $233,600,000,  the 
largest  number  being  in  Wyoming, 
over  7,316,000,  and  Montana,  over 
5,747,000.  In  1911  the  world's  sheep 
flocks  were  estimated  at  over  434,- 
500,000,  Australia  leading. 

Sheep's-Head,  the  name  of  a  fish 
caught  on  the  shores  of  Connecticut 
and  Long  Island.     It  is  allied  to  the 


Sheffield 

gilt-head  and  the  bream,  and  is  con- 
sidered a  delicious  food.  It  receives  its 
name  from  the  resemblance  of  its  head 
to  that  of  a  sheep. 

Slieep  Tick,  a  well-known  dipter- 
ous insect,  belonging  to  the  family 
horse  flies.  The  pupae  produced  from 
the  eggs  are  shining  oval  bodies  which 
become  attached  to  the  wool  of  tha 
sheep.  From  these  issue  the  tick, 
which  is  horny,  bristly,  of  a  rusty 
ochre  color,  and  wingless.  It  fixes  its 
head  in  the  skin  of  the  sheep  and  ex- 
tracts the  blood,  leaving  a  large  round 
tumor.    Called  also  sheep  louse. 

Sheemess,  a  seaport,  dockyard, 
and  garrison  town  of  England,  county 
of  Kent,  in  the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  on  the 
river  Medway,  at  its  junction  with  the 
Thames,  47  miles  east  of  London  by 
rail.  The  harbor  is  safe  and  commodi- 
ous, and  the  fortifications,  which  are 
modern,  are  of  immense  strength.  The 
admiralty  dockyard  employes  a  large 
number  of  men,  and  is  principally 
utilized  for  repairs.  Sheerness  baz 
large  military  and  naval  barrack  ac- 
commodation.    Pop.  18,300. 

Sheers,  or  Shears,  in  nautical 
language,  an  apparatus  consisting  of 
two  masts  or  legs,  secured  together  at 
the  top,  and  provided  with  ropes  op 
chains  and  pulleys ;  used  principally 
for  masting  or  dismantling  ships, 
hoisting  in  and  taking  out  boilers,  etc. 
The  legs  are  separated  at  their  feet 
to  form  an  extended  base  and  are 
lashed  together  at  their  upper  ends,  to 
which  the  guy  ropes  and  tackles  are  at- 
tached. 

Sheffield,  a  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  England,  county 
of  York  (West  IWding)  ;<  on  hilly 
ground  at  the  junction  of  the  Sheaf 
apd  Don,  about  160  miles  N.  of  Lon- 
don. In  the  central  parts  great  im- 
provements have  recently  been  made 
in  the  crowded  streets  by  the  corpora- 
tion, and  the  suburban  districts  are 
well  built  and  picturesquely  situated. 
The  trade  of  Sheffield  is  chiefly  con- 
nected with  cutlery,  for  which  it  has 
long  been  famous,  and  the  manufacture 
of  all  forms  of  steel,  iron,  and  brass 
work.  The  steel  manufacture  includes 
armor  plating,  rails,  engine  castings, 
rifles,  etc.  There  are  also  manufac- 
tures of  engines,  machinery,  plat«d 
goods,  Britannia-metal  goods,  optioai 


Sheik 


Shell 


instruments,    stoves    and    grates,    etc. 
Pop.   (1901)   380,717. 

Sheik,  or  Sheikh  (Arabian,  an 
elder,  a  chief),  the  head  of  a  Bedouin 
family  of  importance  with  its  retain- 
ers, or  of  a  clan  or  tribe.  He  is  sov- 
ereign within  the  portion  of  the  des- 
ert occupied  or  traversed  by  his  peo- 
ple, but,  if  too  despotic,  can  be  kept 
within  bounds  by  the  knowledge  that 
a  portion  of  his  clan  may  transfer  its 
allegiance  to  some  other  sheik.  When 
war  exists,  the  sheiks  of  a  region  con- 
federate together  and  choose  one  of 
their  number  as  a  sheik  or  chief. 

Shekel,  in  Hebrew  weights,  the 
fundamental  weight  in  the  Hebrew 
scale.  It  is  believed  to  have  weighed 
8.78  drachms  avoirdupois,  10  penny- 
weights troy.  Three  hundred  shekels 
constituted  a  talent.  In  Hebrew 
money,  a  coin  believed  to  have  been 
\\orth  54.74  cents,  but  money  was 
then,  perhaps,  10  times  as  valuable  as 
now.  Shekels  of  the  Maccabee  period 
still  exist. 

Shelby,  Isaac,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer ;  born  in  North  Mountain, 
Md.,  Dec.  11,  1750.  In  1774  he  was 
made  a  lieutenant  in  a  company  com- 
manded by  his  father.  He  was  pres- 
ent at  the  action  of  Point  Pleasant, 
where  his  skill  won  the  day,  and  he 
commanded  the  fort  there  till  July, 
1775.  Later  Shelby  was  appointed 
commissary-general  of  the  Virginia 
troops  with  the  rank  of  captain ;  was 
made  colonel  in  1779;  and  in  the 
following  year  with  John  Sevier 
planned  the  expedition  which  brought 
about  the  action  of  King's  Mountain 
and  changed  the  whole  aspect  of  the 
Revolutionary  War.  In  1792,  when 
Kentucky  became  a  State  he  was  cho- 
sen its  first  governor  by  an  overwhelm- 
ing majority.  He  refused  to  be  a  can- 
didate for  a  second  term,  but  settled 
down  to  farm  life  which  he  declined  to 
leave  for  public  office.  When  the  War 
of  1812  broke  out  and  Michigan  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  though 
63  years  old,  he  recruited  and  led 
4,000  men  to  reenforce  Gen.  William 
H.  Harrison.  In  recognition  of  this 
service  Congress  voted  him  a  gold 
medal  and  he  received  the  thanks  of 
both  that  body  and  the  Legislature  of 
Kentucky.  He  died  near  Stanford, 
Ky.,  July  18,  1826.  i 


Sheldon,     Charles    Monroe,    an 

American  clergyman;  born  in  Wells- 
ville,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  26,  1857 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Brown  University  in  1883 
and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary 
in  1886 ;  was  ordained  in  the  Congre- 
gational Church  the  same  year,  and 
became  pastor  of  the  Central  Congre- 
gational Church,  Topeka,  Kan.,  in 
1899.  He  edited  the  Topeka  "  Capi- 
tal "  for  one  week  in  1900,  as  a  dis- 
tinctly Christian  newspaper,  and  was 
the  author  of  numerous  books,  includ- 
ing "  His  Brother's  Keeper,"  "  In  His 
Steps,"  "  Malcolm  Kirk,"  ,"  Edward 
Blake,"  "  Born  to  Save,"  etc. 

Sheldon,  Grace  Carew,  an  Amer- 
ican journalist ;  born  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y. ; 
was  graduated  at  Wells  College  in 
1875.  She  founded  and  became  the 
head  of  the  Woman's  Exchange  of 
Buffalo  in  May,  1886.  This  exchange 
receives  work  only  from  self-support- 
ing women  in  the  United  States.  In 
September,  1895,  she  went  to  the  In- 
ternational Press  Congress  held  in 
Bordeaux  as  the  first  American  woman 
delegate.  Later  she  traveled  in  North- 
ern Venezuela,  Orinoco,  Curacao,  Hai- 
ti, and  the  West  Indies,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  contributing  special  articles  to 
New  York  and  Buffalo  papers. 

Sheldon,  Lionel  Allen,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer ;  born  in  Otsego 
CO.,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  30,  1829.  In  1860 
he  was  commissioned  a  Brigadier-Gen- 
eral of  militia,  and  in  that  capacity 
raised  many  recruits  for  the  Union 
army.  He  was  made  colonel  of  the 
42d  Ohio  Infantry  in  1802;  won  dis- 
tinction in  the  battles  of  Chickasaw 
Bayou  and  Arkansas  Post ;  was 
wounded  in  the  action  at  Fort  Gibson ; 
and  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Vicks- 
burg.  He  was  brevetted  Brigadier- 
General  of  volunteers  in  1865.  After 
the  war  he  removed  to  New  Orleans, 
where  he  practised  law ;  was  a  Re- 
publican member  of  Congress  in  1869- 
1875 ;  and  governor  of  New  Mexico 
in  1881-1885. 

Shell,  in  zoology,  the  hard  cal- 
careous substance  which  either  pro- 
tects the  testaceous  mollusca  exter- 
nally, or  supports  certain  species  of 
them  internally.  Shells  are  divided 
into  Multivalves,  Bivalves,  and  Uni- 
valves. The  first  order,  Multivalve,  is 
made  up  of  shells  consisting  of  more 


tfhelley 

shelly  parts  or  pieces  than  two.  Ev- 
ery part  of  a  shell  which  is  connected 
with  a  corresponding  part  by  a  carti- 
lage, ligament,  hinge,  or  tooth,  is 
called  a  valve  of  such  shell.  The  sec- 
ond order.  Bivalve,  is  made  up  of 
shells  having  two  parts  or  valves,  gen- 
erally connected  by  cartilage  or  hinge ; 
as  in  the  cockle  and  mussel.  The  third 
order.  Univalve,  is  made  up  of  shells 
complete  in  one  piece  —  as  in  the  peri- 
winkle and  the  whelk  —  and  they  are 
subdivided  into  shells  with  a  regular 
spire,  and  those  without  a  spire.  The 
shells  composing  this  order  are  far 
more  numerous  than  those  of  the  two 
preceding,  both  in  genera  and  species. 
Shells  increase  in  size  by  the  depo- 
sition of  new  layers  internally  on 
those  already  formed.  Each  new  layer 
extends  more  or  less  beyond  the  mar- 
gin of  the  layer  to  which  it  is  ap- 
plied, so  that  as  the  animal  becomes 
older  its  shell  becomes  larger  and 
thicker.  The  outer  surface  is  general- 
ly covered  by  a  thin  layer  of  mem- 
braneous or  homy  matter,  named  the 
epidermis,  and  the  inner  surface  is 
often  covered  with  a  layer  of  a  pearly 
nature.  It  is  universally  found  that 
the  marine  shells  of  warm  climates 
excped  all  others  in  beauty  of 'coloring 
and  in  taking  a  fine  polish. 

In  military  usage  the  name  shell  is 
given  to  a  hollow  vessel  of  metal  con- 
taining gunpowder,  or  other  explosive 
compound,  so  arranged  that  it  shall 
explode  at  a  certain  point  and  spread 
destruction  around  by  the  forcible  dis- 
persion of  its  fragments.  Shells  are 
usually  made  of  cast-iron  or  steel. 

Shellac.     See  Lac-Insect. 

Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe,  an  En- 
glish poet,  son  of  Sir  Timothy  Shel- 
ley :  born  in  Horsham,  England,  Aug. 
4,  1792;  was  educated  at  Sion  House 
School,  Brentford,  at  Eton,  and  at 
University  College,  Oxford.  At  Oxford 
he  published  anonymously,  a  scholastic 
thesis  entitled  "  A  Defense  of  Athe- 
ism." The  authorship  being  known  he 
was  challenged,  and  refusing  either  to 
acknowledge  or  deny  it,  was  at  once 
expelled.  After  leaving  the  university, 
he  completed  his  poem  of  "  Queen 
Mab,"  begun  some  time  previously, 
and  privately  printed  in  1813.  His 
first  great  poem,  "  Alastor,  or  the 
Spirit  of  Solitude,"  (1816),  was  fol- 
lowed   in    1817    by   the    "Revolt   of 


Shenandoalt 

Islam,"  a  poem  in  the  Spenserian 
stanza.  In  September,  1811,  six 
months  after  his  expulsion,  he  eloped 
to  Edinburgh  with  Harriet  Westbrook, 
the  daughter  of  a  retired  innkeeper. 
She  was  16  years  of  age,  his  own  age 
being  19.  The  marriage  turned  out 
unhappily,  and  after  nearly  three 
years  of  a  wandering  unsettled  life 
Mrs.  Shelley  returned  with  two  chil- 
dren to  her  father's  house.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1816,  she  committed  suicide  by 
drowning.  Shelley  was  deeply  afEected 
by  this  event,  but  soon  after  married 
Mary  Godwin,  with  whom  he  had 
visited  the  Continent  in  1814,  and  by 
whom  he  already  had  a  child.  By  ai 
suit  in  Chancery  decided  in  1817,  Mr. 
Westbrook  obtained  the  guardianship 
of  the  children,  on  the  plea  that  his 
atheistical  opinions  and  irregular 
views  on  marriage  made  the  father 
unfit  to  be  instrusted  with  them.  Part- 
ly from  his  lungs  being  affected,  and. 
partly  from  anxiety  lest  he  should  be 
deprived  of  the  children  of  his  second 
marriage,  Shelley  left  England  in 
March,  1818,  and  the  remainder  of 
his  life  was  passed  in  Italy.  On  July 
8,  1821,  he  was  sailing  with  a  Mr. 
Williams  in  the  Bay  of  Spezia  when 
both  were  drowned  by,  as  was  be- 
lieved, the  upsetting  of  the  boat,  but 
there  is  some  suspicion  that  the  boat 
was  purposely  run  down  for  plunder. 

Shenandoah,  a  borough  in  Schuyl- 
kill county,  Pa.;  on  the  Philadelphia 
&  Reading  and  other  railroads;  12 
miles  N.  of  Pottsville;  is  the  mining 
and  trade  center  of  the  great  Schuyl- 
kill coal  region;  is  chiefly  engaged  in 
mining  and  shipping  coal.  Pop.  (1910) 
25.774. 

Shenandoah,  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  which  flows  N.  E.  through  the 
valley  of  Virginia,  and  immediately 
below  Harper's  Ferry  joins  the  Poto- 
mac, of  which  it  is  the  principal  tribu- 
tary. Its  length  is  170  miles,  the 
greater  part  of  which  is  navigable  for 
boats.  The  valley  of  the  Shenandoah 
was  the  scene  of  numerous  military 
operations  in  the  American  Civil  War, 
and  was  devastated  by  General  Sheri- 
dan in  1864. 

Shenandoah,  The,  a  ship  in  the 
Confederate  service  during  the  Amer- 
ican Civil  War.  It  was  built  at  Glas- 
gow in  1863  for  the  China  trade,  and 
in  1864  was  purchased  by  the  Con* 


Sheol 


Sherldaa 


federates.  Her  war  record  included 
the  capture  of  38  Federal  vessels.  Her 
career  was  continued  for  several 
months  after  Lee's  surrender,  and  in- 
cluded the  last  hostile  acts  of  the 
Civil  War.  When  Commander  Wad- 
dell  learned  of  the  close  of  the  war, 
he  sailed  to  Liverpool  and  surrendered 
to  the  British  government.  The  com- 
mander and  crew  were  liberated  and 
the  ship  was  handed  over  to  the  Unit- 
ed States  consul.  The  "  Shenandoah  " 
was  the  only  vessel  that  carried  the 
Confederate  flag  around  the  world. 

Sheol,  in  Jewish  belief,  the  place 
of  the  dead,  from  a  Hebrew  word 
meaning  a  cave.  In  the  Authorized 
Version  of  the  Bible  it  is  translated 
by  the  words,  hell,  grave,  or  pit.  In 
the  Revised  Version  the  word  "  sheol  " 
is,  generally  left  untranslated  in  the 
text,  while  "  grave "  is  put  in  the 
margin. 

Sliepard,  Charles  Upham,  an 
American  mineralogist ;  born  in  Little 
Compton,  R.  I.,  June  29,  1804;  was 
graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1824. 
In  1835  he  discovered  a  new  species 
of  microlite ;  in  1838  that  of  war- 
wickite :  and  in  1839  that  of  dan- 
burite.  During  his  residence  in  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  he  discovered  valuable  de- 
posits of  phosphate  of  lime  near  that 
city,  which  proved  very  useful  in  the 
manufacture  of  fertilizers  and  added 
greatly  to  the  chemical  industries  of 
the  State.  He  died  in  Charleston,  S. 
C,  May  1,  1886. 

Shepard,  Thomas,  an  Anglo- 
American  colonial  clergyman :  born  in 
England  in  1605;  died  in  1669.  He 
graduated  from  Emmanuel  College, 
Cambridge ;  became  a  non-conformist, 
and  emigrated  to  Boston  in  1635.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  Harvard 
College,  and  author  of  several  works. 

Shepherd  Kings,  the  chiefs  of  a 
nomadic  tribe  of  Arabs,  who  estab- 
lished themselves  in  Lower  Egypt 
some  2,000  years  B.  c.  Manetho  says 
they  reigned  511  years,  Eratosthenes 
says  470  years,  Africanus,  284  years, 
Eusebius,  103  years.  Some  say  they 
extended  over  five  dynasties,  some  over 
three,  some  limit  their  sway  to  one ; 
some  give  the  name  of  only  one  mon- 
arch, some  of  four,  and  others  of  six. 
Bunsen  places  them  1639  b,  c.  ;  Lep- 
sius.  1842  B.  c. ;  others,  1900  or  2000. 


Shepherd's     Pnrse,     an     annual 

'  weed  of  the  order  Cruciferae. 

Sherbrooke,  city  and  capital  of 
Sherbrooke  county,  Quebec,  Canada; 
at  junction  of  the  St.  Francis  and 
Magog  rivers  and  on  the  Grand  Trunk 
and  other  railroads;  101  miles  E.  of 
Montreal;  is  in  a  grain,  farm  produce, 
dairying,  live-stock,  and  gold  and  cop- 
per section;  has  fine  water-power  and 
important  manufactures;  and  con- 
tains St.  Charles  College,  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
building.  Art  and  Public  Library 
building,  Victoria  and  Racine  parks, 
several  fine  squares,  and  many 
churches  and  benevolent  institutions. 

Sherbrooke,  Robert  Ijovre, 
Viscount,  an  English  statesman ; 
born  in  Bingham,  England,  Dec.  4, 
1811.  He  obtained  in  Mr.  Gladstone's 
ministry  the  office  of  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer;  exchanging  it  in  1873  for 
that  of  Home  Secretary.  In  1880  he 
went  to  the  Upper  House  as  Viscount 
Sherbrooke.  He  died  in  London,  Eng- 
land, July  27,  1892. 

Sheridan,  Mount,  a  mountain  of 
Wyoming,  situated  in  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park ;  is  a  summit  of  the 
Red  Range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It 
is  10,420  feet  high,  with  a  range  of 
vision  over  an  immense  expanse  and 
several  hundred  distinct  mountain 
summits,  at  distances  varying  from  30 
to  200  miles.  A  large  part  of  it  is 
formed  of  porphyry  of  a  purplish- 
pink  color ;  and  was  named  for  Gen. 
Philip   H.    Sheridan. 

Sheridan,  Philip  Henry,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  March  6,  1831;  was 
graduated  at  the  Military  Academy  at 
West  Point  in  1853.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  appoint- 
ed quartermaster  of  the  army  in 
Southwestern  Missouri ;  in  1862  be- 
came chief  quartermaster  of  the  West- 
em  Department,  and  colonel  of  the  2d 
Michigan  Volunteer  Cavalry.  He  cut 
the  railroads  S.  of  Corinth ;  defeated 
two  separate  forces  of  cavalry  at 
Baldwin  and  Guntown  in  June,  1862, 
and  fought  at  Booneville ;  was  pro- 
moted Brigadier-General  of  volun- 
teers ;  took  command  of  the  11th  Divi- 
sion of  the  Army  of  Ohio;  distin- 
guished himself  at  Perryville  and  at 
Stone  river  or  Murfreesboro.  Dec.  31 
and  Jan.  3,  1863,  for  which  be  wa» 


'Sheridan 

promoted  Major-General  of  volunteers. 
He  was  engaged  at  Chickamauga, 
Sept.  19  and  20,  1863,  and  in  the 
operations  around  Chattanooga;  was 
appointed,  in  April,  1864,  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  cavalry  corps  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac;  took  part  in 
the  battles  of  the  Wilderness,  Meadow 
Bridge,  and  Cold  Harbor,  in  May;  in 
June,  led  a  cavalry  expedition  into  the 
heart  of  the  Confederate  country  and 
was  given  the  command  of  the  Army 
of  the  Shenandoah;  defeated  General 
Early  in  several  engagements  in  the 
Shenandoah  valley.  On  Oct.  19  oc- 
curred his  famous  ride  from  Winches- 
ter. Under  orders  from  Grant  he  dev- 
astated the  valley.  He  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  chief  command  of  the  cav- 
alry, which  branch  of  the  Federal 
forces,  under  his  able  and  energetic 
direction,  acquired  an  efficiency  and 
gained  a  -eputation  such  as  it  had 
never  borne  before.  Sheridan  war 
promoted  Brigadier-General,  U.  S.  A., 
Sept.  20,  1864,  and  Major-General, 
Nov.  8  of  the  same  year.  On  Feb.  9, 
1865,  the  thanks  of  Congress  were 
tendered  to  him  for  "  the  gallantry, 
military  skill,  and  courage  displayed 
in  the  brilliant  series  of  victories 
achieved  by  his  army  in  the  valley  of 
the  Shenandoah,  especially  at  Cedar 
Creek."  After  the  capture  of  Staun- 
ton, he  pressed  on  to  Columbia,  lay- 
ing waste  the  country  in  every  direc- 
tion ;  gained  the  battle  of  Five  Forks, 
April  1,  1865;  assisted  in  compelling 
the  Confederate  forces  to  evacuate 
Petersburg  and  Richmond,  and  near 
Appomattox  Court-house  encountered 
General  Lee,  who  surrendered  April  9. 
On  March  4,  1869,  he  was  promoted 
Lieutenant-General,  and  Nov.  1,  1883, 
succeeded  Sherman  in  command  or 
the  army.  Congress  revived  the  grade 
of  general,  to  which  he  was  appointed, 
June  1,  1888.  He  died  in  Nonquitt, 
Mass.,  Aug.  5,  1888. 

Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley 
Bntler,  a  British  dramatist  and 
statesman;  bom  in  Dublin  in  1751. 
He  was  educated  at  Harrow,  and  in 
1775  commenced  a  career  of  dramatic 
composition  with  "  The  Rivals."  His 
reputation,  and  social  gifts,  brought 
him  into  intimacy  with  the  Whig  lead- 
ers, and  in  1780  was  returned  to  Par- 
liament for  Stafford.  In  1782  he  be- 
came under-secretary  of  state ;  in  1783 


Sherman 

secretary  of  the  treasury ;  in  1806 
treasurer  of  the  navy  and  privy-coun- 
cillor. He  won  fame  as  an  orator. 
"The  Rivals;"  and  "The  School  for 
Scandal ;"  are  his  chief  dramatic 
works.  Died  in  London,  July  6,  1816, 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
Sherman.  James  Schoolcraft, 
an  American  statesman;  bom  in  Utira, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  24,  1855;  received  a  col- 
legiate education;  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1880;  Republican  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1887-1891  and  1893-1909: 
elected  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States  on  the  ticket  with  William  H. 
Taft  in  1908;  renominated  with  Presi- 
dent Taft  at  Chicago,  June  22,  1912; 
died  at  Utica,  N.  y!,  Oct.  30,  1912. 

Sherman,  John,  an  American 
statesman ;  born  in  Lancaster,  O., 
May  10,  1823;  brother  of  Gen.  Will- 
iam T.  Sherman ;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1844 ;  served  as  a  delegate  to 
the  National  Whig  conventions  of 
1848  and  1852 ;  and  was  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1855-1861.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  proceedings  of 
the  House ;  was  on  the  Committee  of 
Inquiry  sent  to  Kansas ;  and  joined 
the  movement  for  the  formation  of 
the  Republican  party.  In  1861-1877 
he  was  in  the  Senate  and  there  was 
prominently  identified  with  the  sup- 
port of  all  measures  for  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  Civil  War ;  defended  the 
protective  tariff,  the  restoration  of 
specie  payments,  and  the  refunding  of 
the  National  debt.  He  was  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  in  1877-1881,  and 
superintended  the  resumption  of  specie 
payments  in  1879,  after  a  suspension 
of  17  years.  He  was  reelected  to  the 
Senate  in  1881  and  continued  to  hold 
that  office  till  1897,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  State  by  Presi- 
dent McKinley.  He  resigned  that  of- 
fice, however,  in  1898,  on  account  of 
failing  health.  He  was  a  candidate  for 
the  presidential  nomination  in  1884 
and  1888.  Died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
Oct.  22.  1900. 

Sherman,  Roger,  an  American 
statesman ;  born  in  Newton,  Mass., 
April  19,  1721.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1754.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Continental  and  National  Con- 
gress in  1774-1791 ;  one  of  the  com- 
mittee to  draft  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,    of    which    he    waa   a 


Sherman 


Sherman 


signer;  and  in  1787,  in  conjunction 
with.  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  and  Oliver 
Ellsworth,  served  as  a  delegate  to  the 
convention  charged  with  the  duty  of 
framing  the  Federal  Constitution.  Died 
in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  July  23,  1793. 

Sherman,  Thomas  West,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in 
Newport,  R.  I.,  March  26,  1813;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1836.  He  served  in 
the  Florida  and  Mexican  Wars,  and 
for  his  services  in  the  latter  was  bre- 
vetted  major,  Feb.  23,  1847.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  a  battery  of 
United  States  artillery,  and  later  was 
made  chief  of  light  artillery  in  the 
defense  of  Washington,  D.  G.  While 
leading  a  column  in  the  assault  on 
Port  Hudson,  La.,  on  May  27,  1863, 
he  lost  his  right  leg,  in  consequence 
of  which  he  was  on  leave  of  absence 
till  February,  1864.  On  his  return 
to  duty  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  a  reserve  brigade  of  artillery  in  the 
Department  of  the  Gulf,  and  later 
took  charge  of  the  defenses  of  New 
Orleans  and  the  Southern  and  East- 
ern Districts  of  Louisiana.  On  March 
13,  1865,  he  was  brevetted  Major- 
General  of  volunteers  and  Major-Gen- 
eral,  U.  S.  A.,  for  gallant  services 
during  the  war.  He  was  retired  aS 
full  Major-General,  U.  S.  A.,  on  Dec 
31,  1870 ;  and  died  in  Newport,  'R.  I., 
March  16,  1879. 

Sherman,  William  Tecnmseh, 
an  American  military  officer ;  born  in 
Lancaster,  O.,  Feb.  8,  1820 ;  was  grad- 
uated from  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1840;  entered  the  army, 
and  was  promoted  to  1st  lieutenant  in 
1841.  He  acted  as  assistant  adjutant- 
general  in  1847,  and  obtained  a  brevet 
of  captain.  May,  1848,  for  meritorious 
services  in  California  during  the  war 
with  Mexico.  After  the  fall  of  Fort 
Sumter  he  was  commissioned  colonel 
of  the  13th  United  States  Infantry, 
and  commanded  the  3d  Brigade  at  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1881. 
On  the  reorganization  of  the  National 
army  he  was  made  Brigaaier-Generai 
of  volunteers,  accompanied  General 
Anderson  to  Kentucky,  succeeded  him 
temporarily  in  command  till  at  his 
own  request  he  was  relieved  by  Gen- 
eral Buell  and  was  ordered  to  Mis- 
souri.   In  the  early  part  of  1862  he 


was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a 
division  under  General  Grant,  and 
acted  with  great  bravery  at  the  battle 
of  Shiloh,  April  6;  was  promoted  to 
Major-General,  May  1 ;  and  when  the 
Department  of  Tennessee  was  formed, 
in  December,  was  made  commander  of 
the  15th  Army  Corps.  He  commanded 
the  wing  of  the  army  that  captured 
Fort  Hindman,  Ark.,  Jan.  10,  1863, 
after  which  he  resumed  command  of 
the  15th  Army  Corps;  took  part  in 
the  siege  of  Vicksburg,  which  capitu- 
lated July  3,  1863 ;  and  led  the  expe- 
dition which  captured  Jackson  city, 
July  10. 

\Mien  General  Grant  was  placed  m 
command  of  the  army  previously  un- 
der General  Rosecrans,  he  gave  the 
command  of  the  Department  of  the 
Tennessee  to  General  Sherman,  who 
encountered  General  Longstreet,  and 
obliged  him  to  retreat,  Nov.  20;  and 
in  February,  1864,  made  his  expedi- 
tion to  Meridian,  Miss.,  and  broke  up 
that  important  railroad  center,  driv- 
ing General  Polk's  army  out  of  Mis- 
sissippi. Having  been  charged  with 
the  command  of  the  army  in  Georgia, 
May  4,  he  commenced  the  expedition 
through  that  State  which  ended  in 
the  capture  of  Atlanta,  the  capital 
city.  General  Hood  thrice  attacked 
the  Federal  army  and  was  repulsed, 
sustaining  considerable  loss.  After  his 
third  failure  General  Hood  acted 
merely  on  the  defensive  at  Atlanta, 
which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Na- 
tionals in  the  beginning  of  September. 
In  October  Hooa  began  hit  movement 
toward  Tennessee.  Sherman  followed 
him  as  far  as  Resaca,  75  miles,  drove 
him  from  the  railroad,  and  then  sent 
part  of  his  army  to  Tennessee  to  de- 
fend that  State,  and  with  the  balance 
began  his  "  march  to  the  sea,"  to  act 
in  concert  with  the  Union  army  in 
Virginia  against  Lee.  The  distance 
from  Atlanta  to  Savannah  is  290 
miles.  General  Sherman  accomplished 
the  march  with  very  little  loss  in  23 
days;  and  Savannah  fell  into  his 
hands  Dec.  21,  1864.  General  Sher- 
man defeated  the  Confederates  at  Ben- 
tonville,  N.  C,  March  19,  1865,  and 
soon  afterward  paid  a  visit  to  General 
Grant,  to  concert  those  measures  for 
the  defeat  of  General  Lee  which  ended 
in  the  submission  of  that  general  and 
that  ofc  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston  who  sup 


Sbenaan  Act 

rendered  his  army  to  General  Sher- 
man, April  26,  1865,  which  was  one 
of  the  closing  actions  of  the  war.  Gen- 
eral Sherman  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  Lieutenant-General,  July  25, 
1866;  succeeded  General  Grant  as 
General,  March  4,  1869;  was  retired 
iFeb.  8,  1884,  and  died  in  New  York 
city,  Feb.  14,  1891.  A  magnificent 
equestrian  statue  of  General  Sherman 
has  been  erected  at  the  S.  E.  entrance 
of  Central  Park,  New  York,  and  on 
the  very  spot  in  Washington  from 
which  he  watched,  in  1865,  the  grand 
march  of  the  Union  army  returned 
from  the  war,  another  splendid  eques- 
trian .statue  of  the  general  was  un- 
veiled on  Oct.  15,  1903. 

Sherman  Act,  an  act  of  the 
United  States  Congress,  approved  July 
14,  1890.  It  instructed  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  to  buy  silver  bullion 
to  the  amount  of  4,500,000  ounces  a 
month,  and  to  issue  Treasury  notes 
in  payment.  The  business  depression 
of  the  summer  of  1893.  wa9  believed  to 
be  a  consequence  of  the  bill,  and 
President  Cleveland  summoned  Con- 
gress to  convene  in  special  session, 
Aug.  7.  A  bill  to  repeal  the  silver- 
purchasing  proviso  of  the  Sherman 
Act  passed  the  House  Aug.  28.  In 
the  Senate,  the  Voorhees  bill  was  pre- 
Bented  as  a  substitute,  its  provisions 
being  a  repeal  of  the  silver-purchasing 
clause,  but  affirming  bimetallism  as  a 
National  policy.  After  a  protracted 
contest  the  Voorhees  bill  passed  the 
Senate,  Oct.  30.  It  was  concurred  in 
by  the  House  Nov.  1,  and  the  Presi- 
dent approved  it  the  same  day. 

Sherry,  a  favorite  Spanish  wine, 
prepared  from  small  white  grapes 
grown  in  the  province  of  Andalusia, 
those  which  furnish  the  better  qual- 
ities being  cultivated  in  the  vineyards 
of  Xeres. 

Sherwood,  Sidney,  an  American 
educator;  bom  in  Saratoga  co.,  N. 
ly..  May  28,  1860 ;  was  graduated  at 
Princeton  College  in  18TO  and  later 
studied  at  the  Columbia  Law  School. 
He  took  a  three  years'  course  at  Johns 
Hopkins  University  in  history,  eco- 
nomics, and  politics;  and  in  1892  was 
made  associate  Professor  of  Political 
Economy  there.  He  was  the  author  of 
••History  and  Theory  of  Money"; 
ftad  numerous  essajrs.    Died  1901. 


Shield 

Shetland,    or    Zetland    Islands 

a  group  of  90  Scotch  Islands  (of  which 
30  are  inhabited)  lying  N.  N.  E.  of 
the  Orkney  Islands;  together  with 
which  they  form  a  county;  area,  325 
square  miles ;  pop.  about  30,000.  The 
climate  is  humid  and  mild,  but  severe 
storms  rage  during  winter.  It  seems 
peculiarly  healthy  for  the  natives, 
who  frequently  attain  a  great  age, 
and  enjoy  unusual  freedom  from  pul- 
monary diseases.  In  the  latitude  of 
Shetland  in  midsummer  daylight  con- 
tinues throughout  the  whole  24  hours, 
while  in  midwinter  the  sun  is  only 
above  the  horizon  for  5^4  hours. 

The  chief  occupation  of  the  Shet- 
landers  is  fishing.  The  group  produces 
peculiar  diminutive  breeds  of  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep.  The  ponies,  called 
"  shelties,"  are  remarkably  sure-footed. 

Shetland  Pony,  a  very  small  va- 
riety of  the  horse,  with  flowing  manes 
and  tails,  peculiar  to  Shetland.  They 
are  very  strong,  and  capable  of  en- 
during great  fatigue,  but  do  not  aver- 
age more  than  eight  bands  in  height. 

Shibboleth,  the  test  word  used  by 
the  Gileadites  under  Jephthah  after ,  t_' 
their  victory  over  the  Ephraimites.  i 
The  latter  could  not  pronounce  the 
sh,  and,  by  saying  sibboleth,  betrayed 
themselves,  and  were  slaughtered  at 
the  ford.  The  word  shibboleth  is  still 
used  to  mean  a  test  of  opinions  and 
manners. 

Shield,  a  portion  of  defensive 
armor  held  in  the  left  hand  or  worn 
on  the  left  arm  to  ward  off  sword 
strokes  or  missiles.  The  earliest  known 
shields  date  from  the  close  of  the 
bronze  age.  They  are  circular  and 
flat,  or  but  slightly  convex,  with  a 
central  boss,  under  and  across  which 
the  handle  is  fixed.  The  material  is 
thin  beaten  bronze. 

From  the  downfall  of  the  Roman 
empire  to  the  10th  and  11th  centuries 
there  seems  to  have  been  considerable 
variety  in  the  forms  of  the  shields  in 
use  among  European  nations,  though 
the  circular  shield  was  perhaps  the 
most  common.  The  shields  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  invaders  of  England  and 
of  the  Scandinavian  Vikings  were 
mostly  circular.  But  the  Norman 
shield  of  the  11th  century  was  kite- 
shaped,  and  the  triangular  form  con- 
tinued to  prevail  till  the  15tb  century. 


Sbield 

becoming  gradually  shorter  and  more 
obtusely  pointed,  or  heart-shaped.  Aft- 
er the  14th  century  the  small  round 
buckler  came  into  fashion,  and  re- 
tained its  place  till  the  16th  century. 
By  this  time  the  use  of  firearms  had 
made  the  shield  practically  useless  in 
warfare.  Many  savage  tribes  still  use 
shields  of  wood  or  hide  of  various 
forms. 

SMeld,  William,  a  British  com- 
poser ;  born  in  Swalwall,  Durham, 
March  5,  1748.  He  studied  music  with 
zeal  by  help  of  Avison,  and  composed 
anthems  that  were  sung  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  Durham;  and  ere  long  he  was 
a  conductor  of  concerts  at  Scarbor- 
ough. But  he  is  best  known  by  his 
songs,  among  which  are  "The  Heav- 
ing of  the  Lead,"  "The  Arethusa," 
"  The  Thorn,"  "  The  Ploughboy,"  and 
"The  Wolf."  The  tune  of  "Auld 
Lang  Syne,"  as  now  sung,  was  intro- 
duced into  his  "  Rosina,"  the  author- 
ship both  of  it  and  of  "  Comin' 
through  the  Rye "  have  even  been 
claimed  for  Shield.  In  1792  he  trav- 
eled and  studied  in  France  and  Italy. 
At  his  death,  Jan.  25,  1829,  he  was 
Master  of  the  King's  Musicians, 

Shields,  Charles  Woodruff,  an 
American  theologian ;  born  in  New  Al- 
bany, Ind.,  April  4,  1825 ;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  College  in  1844  and 
later  at  the  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary ;  was  ordained  in  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  1849,  and  re- 
mained in  the  pastorate  till  1865,  when 
he  was  made  Professor  of  the  Har- 
mony of  Science  and  Revealed  Relig- 
ion at  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary. In  December,  1898,  he  became 
a  clergyman  in  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church,  but  still  continued  in 
his  professorship.    Died  Aug.  26.  1904. 

Shields,  G.  O.,  an  American 
sportsman ;  born  in  Batavia,  O.,  Aug. 
26,  1846 ;  was  mainly  self-educated ; 
served  in  the  Union  army  in  1861- 
1865 ;  was  a  writer  for  the  "  Inter- 
Ocean,"  "  Harper's  Magazine,"  Chi- 
cago "TribL^ne,"  etc.,  in  1866-1894. 
In  the  latter  year  when  "  Recrea- 
tion "  was  founded  he  was  made  its 
manager  and  editor.  In  1898  he  formed 
the  League  of  American  Sportsmen, 
of  which  he  was  president  till  1900. 
He  also  formed  the  Camp  Fire  Club 
ia  1897,  and  became  its  president. 


Shilling 

Shields,  James,  an  American 
military  officer;  born  in  Dungannon, 
Ireland,  in  1810;  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1826 ;  became  a  lawyer ; 
served  through  the  Mexican  War,  and 
was  brevetted  Major-General  for  gal- 
lantry at  Cerro  Gordo  and  Chapulte- 
pec.  He  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  from  Illinois  in  1849, 
and  from  Minnesota  in  1857.  When 
the  Civil  War  broke  out,  he  volun- 
teered and  entered  the  Federal  serv- 
ice. He  commanded  the  division  which 
defeated  "  Stonewall "  Jackson  near 
Winchester,  March  23,  1862;  was  de- 
feated in  an  engagement  with  the 
Confederates  at  Port  Republic,  June 
9,  1862 ;  and  resigned  his  commission 
in  1863.  He  died  in  Ottumwa,  la., 
June  1,  1879. 

Shiites,  the  name  given  by  ortho- 
dox Muslims  or  Sunnites  to  Ali's  fol- 
lowers. They  were  the  champions  of 
All's  right  to  be  Mohammed's  succes- 
sor as  being  his  cousin  and  son-in-law ; 
and  after  Ali's  death  they  took  the 
side  of  the  sons  Hassan,  Hussein,  and 
Mohammed  ibn  al-Hanafiyyah.  The 
Persians  are  Shiites. 

Shillaber,  Benjamin  Fenhal- 
loTT,  an  American  humorist ;  born  in 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  July  12,  1814;' 
was  best  known  as  the  author  of  the 
popular  sayings  of  "  Mrs.  Parting- 
ton." He  was  connected  with  the 
"  Boston  Post,"  the  "  Saturday  Even- 
ing Gazette,"  and  other  periodicals, 
and  wrote  "  Rhymes  with  Reason  and 
Without,"  "  Ike  Partington  and  His 
Friends,"  etc.  He  died  in  Chelsea, 
Mass.,  Nov.  25,  1890. 

Shilling,  an  English  silver  coin 
and  money  of  account  equal  to  12 
pence,  or  the  20th  part  of  a  sovereign 
or  pound  sterling ;  and  equivalent  in 
the  United  States  to  about  241-3 
cents.  In  the  United  States,  a  de- 
nomination of  money  formerly  in  use, 
differing  in  value  relatively  to  the 
dollar  in  different  states,  but  below 
that  of  the  English  shilling,  with  a 
corresponding  value  for  the  penny  and 
the  pound.  The  diversity  arose  from 
the  scarcity  of  coin  in  the  American 
colonies,  and  was  fixed  at  an  early 
period  in  their  history.  York  shilling, 
a  designation  given  in  some  parts  of 
Canada  to  a  silver  sixpenny  piece  or 
English  sixpence. 


BliUoli 

Shiloli,    Battle    of,    one    of    the 

most  memorable  battles  of  the  Ameri- 
can Civil  War.  Shiloh  was  a  locality 
in  Hardin  co.,  Tenn.,  near  Pittsburg 
Landing,  on  the  Tennessee,  and  88 
miles  E.  of  Memphis.  It  took  its 
name  from  a  log  chapel  known  as 
"Shiloh  Church."  The  battle  was 
fought  on  April  6  and  7,  1862,  Grant 
and  Sherman  leading  the  Federals, 
and  Albert  S.  Johnston  and  Beaure- 
gard the  Confederates.  The  first  day 
the  Confederates,  taking  the  Federals 
by  surprise,  drove  them  from  their 
lines  with  heavy  loss  in  men  and 
gvms ;  but  the  second  day  the  Federals, 
having  received  reinforcements  under 
Buell,  and  largely  outnumbering  the 
Confederates,  regained  their  lines,  and 
forced  the  Confederates  to  retreat  to 
their  former  position  at  Corinth. 
General  Johnston  was  killed  on  the 
first  day.  The  Federal  loss  yr&B 
13,573;  the  Confederate  10,699. 

Shimonoseki,  or  Simonoseki,  a 
port,  fortified  town,  and  railway  ter- 
minal of  Japan,  at  the  S.  W.  point  of 
Hondo,  on  the  narrow  strait  separat- 
ing Hondo  from  Kiushiu.  It  is  an  im- 
portant station  for  the  transmission  of 
foreign  imports  to  the  interior,  and  for 
export  traflic.  In  1864  it  was  bom- 
barded by  an  allied  force  of  United 
States,  British,  French,  and  Dutch 
warships,  owing  to  an  unprovoked  at- 
tack on  foreign  commercial  ships ; 
and  here  in  1895  the  treaty  of  peace 
was  signed  which  ended  the  Chino-Jap- 
anese  War. 

Shimose,  an  explosive  of  high 
power,  invented  by  Gian  Shimose  (b. 
1858),  a  Japanese  chemist. 

Shingles,  an  eruptive  disease  which 
starts  from  the  backbone  and  goes 
half  round  the  body,  forming  a  belt 
of  inflamed  patches  with  clustered  ves- 
icles. It  rarely  encircles  the  body, 
though  the  popular  opinion  that  if  it 
does  it  will  prove  fatal  is  a  delusion. 

SMn  Plaster,  a  bank-note,  espe- 
cially one  of  a  low  denomination;  a 
Siece  of  paper  money.  According  to 
lartlett,  from  an  old  soldier  of  the 
Revolutionary  period  having  used  a 
quantity  of  worthless  paper  currency 
as  plasters  for  a  wounded  leg.     ^ 

Shinto,  the  religious  belief  of  the 
peopl«»  of  Japan  prior  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  Buddhism  from  Korea  in  a.  d. 
652.     The  new  belief  almost  entirely 


Ship  Canal 

absorbed   the  old,  being,  however,  it- 
self modified  in  the  process. 

Shiogoon,  or  Tycoon,  the  title  o£ 
the  hereditary  military  ruler  of  Japan 
for  many  centuries  till  the  revolution 
of  1868,  which  reinstated  the  Mikado 
in  power. 

Ship,  in  the  most  general  sense,  a 
vessel  intended  for  navigating  the 
ocean.  In  contradistinction  to  boat, 
which  is  the  most  general  term  for  a 
navigable  vessel,  it  signifies  a  vessel 
intended  for  distant  voyages.  Ships 
are  of  various  sizes,  and  fitted  for  va- 
rious uses,  and  receive  various  names, 
according  to  their  rig  and  the  purposes 
to  which  they  are  applied,  as  man-of- 
war  ships,  transports,  merchantmen, 
barques,  brigs,  schooners,  luggers, 
sloops,  xebecs,  galleys,  etc.  The  name 
as  descriptive  of  a  particular  rig,  and 
as  roughly  implying  a  certain  size, 
has  been  used  to  designate  a  vessel 
furnished  with  a  bowsprit  and  three 
or  four  masts,  each  of  which  is  com- 
posed of  a  lower  mast,  a  top  mast,  and 
a  top-gallant  mast,  and  carrying  a  cer- 
tain number  of  square  sails  on  each 
of  the  masts.  These  masts  are  named, 
beginning  with  the  foremost,  the  fore, 
the  main,  and  mizzen  masts;  and 
when  there  is  a  fourth  it  is  called  the 
jigger  mast.  The  principal  sails  are 
named  according  to  the  masts  to 
which  they  belong.  Owing  to  increase 
of  size  and  the  development  of  steam 
navigation  the  restricted  application 
of  the  term  ship  is  now  of  little  value. 

Ship  Canal,  a  canal  for  the  pas- 
sage  of  sea-going  vessels.  Ship  canals 
are  intended  either  to  make  an  inland 
or  comparatively  inland  place  a  sea- 
port; to  connect  sea  with  sea,  and 
thus  obviate  a  long  ocean  navigation; 
or  to  promote  direct  navigation  by 
avoiding  obstructions.     See  Canal. 

The  artificial  waterways  which  may 
properly  be  termed  ship  canals  are 
ten  in  number : 

(1)  The  Suez  Canal,  begun  in  1859 
and  completed  in  1869.  (2)  The 
Kronstadt  and  St.  Petersburg  Canal, 
begun  in  1877  and  completed  in  1890. 
(3)  The  Corinth  Canal,  begun  in  1884 
and  completed  in  1893.  (4)  The  Man- 
chester Ship  Canal,  completed  in  1894. 
(5)  The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal,  con- 
necting the  Baltic  and  the  North  Seas, 
completed  in  1895.  (6)  The  Elbe  and 
Trave    Canal,    connecting    the    North 


SMp  PendnliLia 


Shirley 


Sea  and  the  Baltic,  opened  in  1900. 

i7)  The  Welland  Canal,  connecting 
ake  Erie  with  Lake  Ontario.  (8) 
and  (9)  The  two  canals.  United 
States  and  Canadian,  respectively,  con- 
necting Lake  Superior  with  Lake 
Huron.  (10)  The  Panama  Canal, 
which  is  expected  to  be  completed  in 
1913,  to  cost  about  $375,000,000,  and 
is  to  be  about  50  miles  in  length.  See 
Panama  Canal. 

The  business  of  the  St.  Mary's  Falls 
canals  by  far  surpasses  in  volume  that 
of  any  other  canal  of  the  world,  the 
registered  tonnage  of  the  American 
and  Canadian  canals  in  a  single 
month  reaching  nearly  8,000,000  tons. 

Ship  Pendnlum,  a  pendulum 
with  a  graduated  arc,  used  in  the  navy 
to  ascertain  the  heel  of  a  vessel,  so 
that  allowance  may  be  made  in  laying 
a  gun  for  the  inclination  of  the  deck. 

Shippen,  Edward,  an  American 
physician;  bom  in  New  Jersey,  June 
18,  1826;  was  graduated  at  Princeton 
College  in  1845,  and  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1848,  and  commis- 
sioned surgeon  in  the  navy  in  1861. 
He  was  on  the  "  Congress  "  when  she 
was  destroyed  by  the  "  Merrimac  "  in 
Hampton  Roads;  was  present  at  both 
attacks  on  Fort  Fisher,  as  surgeon  on 
the  "  New  Ironsides  " ;  and  served  in 
the  operations  at  Bermuda  Hundred. 
lAf  ter  the  Civil  War  he  made  the  Rus- 
sian cruise  under  Admiral  Farragut; 
was  commissioned  medical  inspector  in 
1871 ;  fleet  surgeon  of  the  European 
squadron  in  1871-1873;  in  charge  o£ 
the  Naval  Hospital  in  Philadelphia  in 
1874r-1877 ;  became  medical  director  in 
1876;  and  was  president  of  the  naval 
medical  examining  board  in  1880- 
1882.  He  was  a  member  of  several 
medical  and  naval  organizations,  and 
author  of  "Thirty  Years  at  Sea"; 
"  A  Christmas  at  Sea,"  and  numerous 
magazine  articles. 

Ship  Railway,  a  railway  system 
for  the  transportation  of  vessels  over 
stretches  of  land.  The  most  noteworthy 
one  was  that  planned  by  James  B. 
Eads  for  the  transportation  of  ves- 
sels across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuante- 
pec.  It  was  devised  as  a  saving  in 
time  and  money  over  the  Panama  or 
Nicaraguan  canal  routes,  and  a  com- 
pany was  incorporated  in  1887  to  con- 
struct it,  but  Captain  Eads  dying  soon 
after,  the  scheme  was  abandoned. 


Ship's  Papers,  the  papers  or 
documents  required  for  the  manifesta- 
tion of  the  property  of  the  ship  and 
cargo.  They  are  of  two  kinds:  (1) 
Those  required  by  the  laws  of  a  par- 
ticular country,  as  the  certificate  of 
registry,  license,  charter-party,  bills  of 
lading,  bills  of  health,  etc.,  required 
by  the  laws  of  the  United  States  to 
be  on  board  American  ships.  (2) 
Those  required  by  the  laws  of  nations 
to  be  on  board  neutral  ships,  to  indi- 
cate their  title  to  that  character. 

Ships,  Registration  of,  the  en- 
rollment of  ships  on  a  government  reg- 
ister. In  the  United  States  the  navi- 
gation laws  require  all  vessels  to  be 
registered  periodically,  and  steam  ves- 
sels to  be  inspected  and  certificated. 
A  list  of  merchant  vessels  is  published 
analogous  to  Lloyd's  list  issued  in 
London.  The  Bureau  of  Navigation, 
in  the  Treasury  Department  at  Wash- 
ington, has  charge  of  registration. 

Ship  Worm,  an  animal  rightly 
called  the  teredo ;  once  thought  to  be  a 
worm,  but  is  not  a  worm,  though  its 
body  looks  long  and  worm-like.  It  is 
covered  with  a  sort  of  sheath  or  shelly 
coat,  and  is  a  kind  of  mollusk.  It  is 
called  ship  worm  because  it  bores  boles 
into  ship  timbers,  and  often  injures 
them  so  much  that  they  will  crumble 
at  the  touch.  Not  only  ships'  timbers 
but  all  other  kinds  of  woodwork  under 
water  are  eaten  by  it.  Once  the  coast 
of  Holland  was  threatened  with  a  del- 
uge because  the  ship  worm  ate  the 
piles  of  the  dyke  which  kept  out  the 
sea,  and  it  cost  a  great  deal  of  money 
to  repair  them.  Ships'  bottoms  are 
covered  usually  with  copper  plates  to 
save  their  timbers  and  planks  from 
these  animals. 

Shire,  in  the  United  States,  a  di- 
vision of  a  State,  comprising  several 
contiguous  townships  —  a  distinction 
must  be  drawn  in  the  application 
of  this  word  as  between  English  and 
American  usage;  as,  for  instance,  it 
is  correct  in  the  United  States  to 
say  "  the  county  of  Berkshire " ; 
whereas  in  England  such  an  expres- 
sion would  be  tautological,  or,  in  other 
words,  would  convey  the  sense  of  "  a 
county  of  a  county." 

Shirley,  James,  an  English 
dramatist;  born  in  London,  England, 
Sept.  13,  1596;  went  to  Merchant 
Taylors'  School,  whence  he  passed  in 


Shishak 


Shoe 


1612  to  St.  John's  CJollege,  Oxford. 
Most  of  his  plays  are  tragi-comedies 
and  his  best  work  is  ever  the  tragic 
and  pathetic  portions.  In  1646  he 
printed  a  volume  of  his  poems,  includ- 
ing his  masque  of  "  The  Triumph  of 
Beauty."  As  a  writer  of  masques 
he  is  second  only  to  Ben  Jonson.  He 
died  in  poverty,  Oct.  29,  1666. 

Shishak,  the  name  of  several 
monarchs  of  the  22d  or  Bubastite 
Egyptian  dynasty. 

Shitepoke,  the  small,  green  her- 
on of  North  America.  The  plumage 
of  its  crest  and  upper  parts  is  mainly 
glossy  green ;  the  under  parts,  are 
brownish-ash,  varied  with  white  on 
its  belly.  Also  called  poke  and  fly- 
up-tbe-creek. 

Shittim  Wood,  the  wood  of  the 
shittah  tree  of  the  Bible,  of  which 
the  tabernacle  in  the   wilderness  was 

Erincipally  constructed.  It  is  a  light 
ut  cross-grained  and  enduring  wood, 
of  a  fine  orange-brown  color. 

Skoad,  or  Skode,  in  mining,  sur- 
face ore  in  pieces  mixed  with  other 
matters,  and  indicating  the  outcrop  of 
a  lode  or  vein  in  the  vicinity.  The 
method  of  finding  the  vein  by  tracing 
the  shoad  stones  to  their  source  at  the 
strike  is  called  shoading.  Holes  dug 
to  prospect  or  intercept  the  vein  are 
called  shoad  pits. 

Shock,  a  collection  of  sheaves 
standing  together  in  the  field  for  the 
grain  to  ripen;  also  called  a  shook  or 
stook.  It  has  usually  12  sheaves,  but 
customs  differ.  Also  a  collection  of 
cut  stalks  of  corn  standing  in  the 
field  around  a  central  core  of  four 
stalks,  whose  tops  are  diagonally 
woven  together  and  bound  at  the  in- 
tersection. 

In  electricity:  Frictional;  it  is  a 
sensation  as  of  a  more  or  less  painful 
concussion  or  blow  attended  by  a  sud- 
den contraction  or  convulsion  of  the 
muscles,  produced  by  a  discharge 
through  them  of  electricity  from  a 
charged  body. 

Skock,  William  Henry,  an 
American  engineer;  born  in  Balti- 
more, Md.,  .lune  l5,  1821 ;  entered 
the  United  States  navy  as  an  assist- 
ant engineer  in  1845;  served  in  the 
Mexican  War,  and  was  promoted  chief 
engineer  March  11,  1851.  He  superin- 
icended  the  building  of  the  marine  en- 1 


[gines  at  West  Point,  N.  Y. ;  was 
president  of  the  examining  board  of 
engineers  in  1860-1862;  had  charge 
of  the  construction  of  the  river  moni- 
tors at  St.  Louis  in  1862-1863;  was 
fleet  engineer  under  Admiral  Farra- 
gut  at  Mobile  and  later  under  Admiral 
Thatcher  in  1863-1865 ;  and  engineer- 
in-chief  of  the  navy  in  1877-1883,  be- 
ing retired  June  15,  1883.  He  invent- 
ed and  patented  numerous  improve- 
ments in  guns,  steam  devices,  etc., 
and  was  the  author  of  "'  Steam  Boil- 
ers ;  Their  Design,  Construction  and 
Management."  He  died  in  1905.  i 
Shoddy,  old  woolen  or  worsted 
fabrics  torn  to  pieces  by  a  machine 
having  spiked  rollers  (termed  a 
devil),  cleansed,  and  the  fiber  spun 
with  a  certain  proportion  of  new 
wool,  the  yarn  being  afterward  woven 
into  the  full  bodied  but  flimsy  fabric 
also  known  as  shoddy,  and  made  into 
cheap  cloth,  table  covers,  etc 


SHOE-BUXED    STOBK. 

Shoe,  a  covering  of  protection  for 
the  foot,  usually  of  leather.  The  an- 
cients usually  wore  sandals.  The  cres* 


SLIPPERS  OF  ALL  NATIONS,   ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 

{See  Following  Illustrations) 

1.  ENGLISH  POULAINE      15th  century 

2.  ENGLISH  CHILD'S  SHOE      16th  century 

3.  FRENCH  SHOE      17th  century 

4.  ENGLISH  SHOE 18th  century 

5.  DOUBLE-SOLED  SHOE Early  17th  century 

6.  ENGLISH  SHOE 18th  century 

7.  EGYPTIAN  SANDAL About  5th  century 

8.  ROMAN  SANDAL      

9.  INDIAN  SLIPPER 

10.  ENGLISH  SLIPPER      17th  century 

11.  ENGLISH  MULE        16th  century 

1'2.  FRENCH  SHOE      About  18th  century 

13.  PERSIAN  SLIPPER       

14.  COLONIAL  SLIPPER        19th  century 

15.  SANDAL  OF  EARLY  POPE 7th  century 

16.  PIERCED  SHOE 14th  century 

17.  SLIPPER  OF  ROMAN  GAUL" About  5th  century 

18.  SLIPPER  OF  ROMAN  GAUL About  3rd  century 

19.  FRENCH  SANDAL About  7th  century 

20.  MEROVINGIAN  SLIPPER      About  5th  century 

21.  FRENCH  SHOE      About  11th  century 

22.  GRECIAN  SANDAL      

23.  BURMESE  SANDAL 

24.  SPANISH  SANDAL 

25.  ORIENTAL  SANDAL 

26.  FRENCH  SLIPPER       19th  century 

27.  ORIENTAL  SANDAL 

28.  GERMAN  SHOE 16th  century 

29.  WOODEN  SHOE 16th  century 

30.  CHINESE  WOMAN'S  SHOE       

31.  INDIAN  SLIPPER 

32.  ENGLISH  SHOE 18th  century 

33.  IROQUOIS  MOCCASIN 19th  century 

34.  FINNISH  BIRCHBARK  SANDAL        

35.  AMERICAN  SLIPPER      20th  century 

36.  AMERICAN  PUMP        20th  century 

37.  AMERICAN  SLIPPER      20th  century 

38.  FRENCH  SHOE,  COPPER  TOE 16th  century 

39.  ENGLISH  SHOE 16th  century 

40.  FRENCH  SHOE      About  8th  century 

41.  AMERICAN  SLIPPER      20th  century 


COPVKKJUT,  191^,  liV   t.  ii.   WklGHl. 


SLIPPERS    OF     VARIOUS    NATI 

FOR    DESCRIPTIVE    KEY, 


Shonis 

cent  was  employed  as  an  ornament  on 
the  shoes  of  Romans  of  exalted  rank, 
who  appear  to  have  carried  on  the  art 
of  shoe  making  with  great  taste  and 
skill.  Only  one  instance  is  known  of 
an  ancient  monumenlf  exhibiting  shoes 
with  separate  heel  pieces.  The  custom 
of  making  shoes  right  and  left  was 
common  in  classical  times. 

The  Tarious  branches  of  the  leather 
boot  and  shoe  industry  of  the  United 
States  now  employ  a  capital  exceed- 
ing $136,800,000,  and  have  annual 
products  valued  at  over  $357,680,000. 
Rubber  boots  and  shoes  have  a  capi- 
tal of  over  $39,400,000,  and  prod- 
ucts,  over  $70,000,000, 

Shonts,  Tlieodore  Perry,  ex- 
Chairman  of  the  Panama  Canal  Com- 
mission, b.  18.56,  Crawford  Co.,  Pa. 
He  graduated  at  Monmouth  Coll.,  111., 
1876,  became  an  accountant,  a  rail- 
road official,  manager,  and  president; 
in  1905  head  of  the  Panama  Canal 
Works  and  in  1907  of  the  N.  Y.  0. 
Interborough-Metropolitan    Company. 

Shooting  Stax,  a  small  celestial 
body  suddenly  becoming  luminous  and 
darting  across  the  sky,  its  course  be- 
ing marked  by  a  streak  of  silvery  ra- 
diance, which  is  an  optical  illusion, 
caused  by  the  rapidity  of  its  passage. 

Shorey,  Paul,  an  American  edu« 
cator;  born  in  Davenport,  la.,  Aug. 
3,  1857 ;  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
University  in  1878;  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  Chicago  in  1880;  was  Profes- 
sor of  Greek  at  Tryn  Mawr  College 
in  1885-1892.  In  the  latter  year  he 
accepted  a  similar  chair  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  C*iicago. 

Short,  Charles,  an  American  edu- 
cator; born  in  Haverhill,  Mass.,  May 
28,  1821 ;  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
University  in  1846.  In  1863  he  ac- 
cepted the  chair  of  moral  and  intel- 
lectual philosophy  and  the  presidency 
of  Kenyon  College,  Ohio;  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Latin  at  Columbia  Univer- 
sity in  1868-1886.  He  died  in  New 
York  city,  Dec.  24,  1886. 

Shorter  Catechism,  a  Presby- 
terian catechi'm  composed  under  the 
direction  of  the  Westminster  Assem- 
bly. It  was  called  Shorter  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  Larger  Catechism, 
which  had  oeen  finished  just  previous- 
ly. A  small  Committee  of  Assembly 
was  appointed  on  Aug.   5,  1647,  ta 


Shorthand! 

prepare  the  Shorter  Catechism.  When 
completed,  it  was  presented  to  the 
British  Parliament  on  Nov.  26.  Both 
Houses  of  Parliament  thanked  the  di- 
vines who  had  composed  it,  and  or- 
dered 600  copies,  but  requested  that 
proofs  should  be  appended.  This  be- 
ing done,  the  Catechism  with  proofs 
was  presented  to  Parliament  on  April 
16,  1648,  and  ordered  to  be  printed. 
It  was  adopted  by  the  Scotch  General 
Assembly  on  July  28,  1648,  the  deci- 
sion being  ratified  by  the  Scotch  Par- 
liament on  Feb.  7,  1649.  It  is  still 
most  extensively  used  among  English- 
speaking  Presbyterians  all  over  the 
world. 

Shorthand,  an  art  by  which  writ- 
ing is  abbreviated,  so  as  to  keep  pace 
with  speaking.  Its  great  and  general 
utility  has  been  recognized  in  every 
age,  and  numberless  systems  have 
been  devised  to  facilitate  its  acquire- 
ment. It  was  practised  by  the  an- 
cients for  its  secrecy  as  well  as  for 
its  brevity,  and  a  work  is  extant  on 
the  art,  which  is  ascribed  to  Tiro,  the 
freedman  of  Cicero.  The  first  En- 
glish treatise  on  stenography,  in  which 
marks  represent  words,  was  published 
in  1588  by  Timothy  Bright,  M.  D., 
under  the  title,  "  Characterie ;  an 
Art  of  Short,  Swift,  and  Secret  Writ- 
ing by  Character." 

In  1837  appeared  Pitman's  "Pho- 
nography "  —  the  first  really  popular 
system.  Melville  Bell,  following  in 
the  path  marked  out  by  Pitman- 
founded  hi8  system  on  the  sounds  oi 
the  language.  The  first  sketch  ap- 
peared in  1849;  in  1852  the  first  com- 
plete edition,  under  the  title  "  Semi- 
Phonography." 

Shorthand  is  now  largely  practised 
in  both  the  United  States  and  En- 
gland, and  has  extended  its  benefits 
to  many  classes  besides  that  of  the 
professional  reporter.  This  is  due 
chiefly  to  the  excellences  of  Pitman's 
system  and  to  his  activity  in  dissem- 
inating its  principles.  The  existence 
of  two  styles  of  phonography,  one 
adapted  for  letter  writing  cud  the 
other  for  reporting  —  the  second, 
however,  being  only  an  extension  of 
the  first,  and  not  a  new  system  in  it- 
self—  has  been  the  chief  basis  of  the 
popularity  of  phonetic  shorthand. 
Popular  modifications  of  Pitman's 
system  have  been  made  in  the  United 


Shortliom 


Sbowers  of  Fisbes 


States  by  Graham,  Burnz,  and  Mun- 
son. 

Shortliorn,  a  breed  of  cattle 
^characterized  by  short  horns,  rapidity 
of  growth,  aptitude  to  fatten,  and 
good  temper.  It  was  produced  by 
Charles  and  Robert  Colling,  at  Ket- 
ton  and  Barmpton,  near  Darlington, 
England,  by  a  process  of  in-and-in 
breeding  between  1780  and  1818.  The 
process  has  been  followed  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  since  1817. 

Slioslioiie  Falls,  an  attractive  fall 
in  the  Lewis  or  Snake  river,  Idaho. 
They  rank  among  the  waterfalls  of 
North  America,  next  to  those  of  Ni- 
agara in  grandeur,  being  about  250 
yards  wide  and  200  feet  high. 

Shoshone  Indians,  a  family  of 
American  Indians,  also  known  as 
Snakes,  living  since  1805  to  the  W. 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains;  they  are 
now  on  four  reservations,  two  in 
Idaho  (1,231),  one  in  Wyoming 
(842),  and  one  in  Nevada  (329).  Hos- 
tilities ceased  in  1867,  after  an  expe- 
dition had  destroyed  a  great  part  of 
their  braves  and  stores.  Total  num- 
ber 2,402. 

Shot,  any  solid  projectile;  those 
for  cannon  and  carronades  being  of 
iron,  those  for  small  arms  of  lead. 
The  latter  are  known  as  bullets  and 
small  shot.  The  shot  discharged  from 
artillery  are  no  longer  made  solid,  if 
of  more  than  three  pounds  in  weight, 
except  when  made  for  old  style  ord- 
nance, such  as  smooth  bore  or  Arm- 
strong guns.  Even  the  Pallister  chilled 
shot  used  for  piercing  armor  are  not 
solid,  but  are  made  with  a  small  in- 
ternal cavity. 

Shoulder  Joint,  the  articulation 
of  the  upper  arm  or  humerus  with  the 
glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula  or  shoul- 
der blade.  The  shoulder  joint 
forms  an  example  of  the  ball-and- 
socket  joints,  the  ball-like  or  round- 
ed head  of  the  aumerus  working  ip 
the  shallow  cup  of  the  glenoid  cav- 
ity. Such  a  form  of  joint  necessarily 
allows  of  very  considerable  movement, 
while  the  joint  itself  is  guarded 
against  dislocation  or  displacement  by 
the  strong  ligaments  surrounding  it,  as 
well  as  by  the  tendons  of  its  investing 
and  other  muscles. 

Shovel,  Sir  Clondesley,  an 
English  naval  oflScer;   born  probably 


in  Clay,  a  Norfolk  fishing  village, 
about  1650.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a 
shoemaker,  but  he  ran  away  to  sea, 
and  rose  by  his  remarkable  ability  and 
courage  until  in  January,  1705,  he 
was  made  rear-admiral  of  England. 
That  year  he  took  part  with  Peter- 
borough in  the  capture  of  Barcelona, 
but  failed  in  his  attack  on  Toulon 
in  1707.  On  the  voyage  home  his  ship, 
the  "  Association,"  struck  a  rock  off 
the  Scilly  Isles  on  the  foggy  night  of 
Oct.  22,  1707,  and  went  down  with 
800  men.  Four  vessels  of  the  squad- 
ron perished  with  2,000  men.  Sir 
Cloudesley,  washed  ashore  in  a  semi- 
conscious state,  was  murdered  by  a 
woman-wrecker. 

Shovel  Fish,  a  genus  of  ganoid 
fishes  belonging  to  the  sturgeon  fam- 
ily, and  found  in  North  American  riv- 
ers. It  is  so  named  from  the  flat- 
tened form  of  the  head. 

Shoveler,  in  ornithology,  the 
broadbill  or  spoonbill  duck,  widely 
distributed  over  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere. Length  about  20  inches;  bill 
much  widened  on  each  side  near  tip. 


SHOVELEB  DUCK. 

somewhat  resembling  that  of  the 
spoonbill ;  head  and  upper  part  of  neck 
in  adult  male  rich  green,  lower  part 
white,  back  brown,  breast  and  abdo- 
men chestnut  brown. 

Showers  of  Fishes  occasionally 
fall  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  ex- 
citing great  astonishment.  Such  down- 
falls are  more  common  in  tropical 
countries.  In  India  a  shower  of  fishes 
varying  from  a  pound  and  a  half  to 
three  pounds  in  weight  has  been  re- 


Slirapnel 

ported.  They  are  always  of  kinds  abun- 
dant in  the  sea  or  fresh  waters  of 
the  neighborhood. 

Shrapnel,  Henry,  an  English  in- 
ventor,  entered  the  lioyal  Artillery  in 
1779,  served  with  the  Duke  of  York's 
army  in  Flanders,  and  shortly  after 
the  siege  of  Dunkirk  invented  the  case 
shot  knovsTi  by  the  name  of  shrapnel 
shells,  an  invention  for  which  he  re- 
ceived from  government  a  pension  of 
$6,000  a  year  in  addition  to  his  pay 
in  the  army.  He  retired  from  active 
service  in  1825,  attained  the  rank  of 
Lieutenant-General  in  1827,  and  died 
in  1842. 

Shreve,  Henry  Miller,  an  Amer- 
ican inventor ;  born  in  Burlington  co., 
N.  J.,  Oct.  21,  1785;  early  engaged  in 
navigation  on  the  Western  rivers,  and 
in  1815  ascended  the  Mississippi  to 
Louisville,  Ky.,  in  the  "  Enterprise," 
the  first  steam  vessel  that  ever  per- 
formed such  a  voyage.  Later  he  built 
the  "  "Washington  "  of  400  tons  bur- 
den, with  improvements  on  Robert 
Fulton's  steamboat;  remodelled  it  in 
1824,  so  as  to  operate  each  of  the  side 
wheels  with  a  separate  engine ;  invent- 
ed the  snag  boat  "  Heliopolis,"  for  re- 
moving snags  and  sawyers  from  rivers  ; 
and  in  1829  patented  a  steam  batter- 
ing ram  for  harbor  defense.  In  1826 
he  was  made  superintendent  of  im- 
provements in  Western  rivers,  and  con- 
tinued in  that  office  till  1841^  He  died 
in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  March  6<  1854. 

Shreveport,  city  and  capital  of 
Caddo  parish,  La.;  on  the  Red  river 
and  several  railroads;  326  miles  N. 
W.  of  New  Orleans;  is  one  of  the 
most  important  cities  in  the  State; 
in  a  noted  stock-raising  and  cotton- 
growing  section;  ships  large  quanti- 
ties of  cotton,  lumber,  grain,  wool, 
and  hides;  manufactures  cotton  com- 
presses, cotton-seed  oil  and  meal,  fer- 
tilizers, and  machinery;  and  contains 
a  Federal  Building,  and  Federal 
Marine  Hospital.     Pop.  (1910)  28,015. 

Shrew,  in  zoology,  a  popular  name 
for   any    individual    of   the    Soricidae. 

Shrew  Mole,  a  genus  of  insectiv- 
orous mammals,  belonging  to  the  fam- 
ily of  shrew  mice,  but  also  by  some 
zoologists  placed  in  the  mole  family. 
It  is  found  in  North  America,  usually 
near  rivers  and  streams,  and  burrows 
after  the  fashion  of  the  common  mole, 
like  which,  also,  its  fur  is  fine  and 


Shrnb 

closely  set.  The  average  length  is 
about  seven  inches. 

Shreyyogel,  Charles,  an  Amer- 
ican artist ;  born  in  New  York  city, 
Jan.  4, 1861.  For  the  excellence  of  his 
work  he  was  awarded  the  "  Thomas 
B.  Clarke  Prize "  at  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  in  New  York  city, 
together  with  a  medal  at  the  Paris  Ex- 
position in  1900. 

Shrimp,  a  popular  name  for  any 
individual  of  the  genus  Crangon,  allied 
to  lobster,  crayfish,  and  prawn.  The 
common  shrimp  about  two  inches  long, 


COMMON   SHBIMP. 

greenish-gray  dotted  with  brown,  is 
esteemed  as  an  article  of  food;  other 
species,  from  warmer  latitudes,  are 
equally  prized.  They  are  usually  taken 
by  a  net. 

Shrine,  a  case,  a  box,  or  reliquary 
in  which  the  bones  or  other  remains 
of  saints  were  deposited.  They  were 
often  richly  ornamented  with  gold, 
precious  stones,  and  elaborate  carv- 
ings, and  were  generally  placed  near 
the  altar  of  the  church. 

Shrouds,  a  range  of  large  ropes 
extended  from  the  heads  of  the  lower 
masts  to  both  sides  of  a  ship  to  sup- 
port the  masts,  and  named,  from  the 
masts  to  which  they  belong,  the  main, 
fore,  and  mizzen  shrouds.  Topmast, 
topgallant,  and  bowsprit  shrouds  are 
all  similar  in  their  object. 

Shrnb,  in  botany,  a  plant  with 
woody  stem  and  branches  like  a  tree, 
but  of  smaller  size,  not  generally  ex- 
ceeding 20  feet  in  height,  and  branch- 
ing near  the  root,  so  as  to  have  no 
main  stem  of  considerable  height. 
When  a  shrub  is  of  small  size  and 
much  branched,  it  is  often  called  a 
bush.  There  is  no  more  important 
botanical  distinction  between  trees  and 
shrubs,  and  the  same  genus  very  often 
includes  species  of  both  kinds.  Many 
shrubs,  as  honeysuckles,  are  climbers. 


Shufeldt 


Siam 


Also  a  liquor  composed  of  acid,  par- 
ticularly lemon  juice  and  sugar,  with 
spirit  to  preserve  it. 

Shnfeldt,  Robert  'Wilson,  an 
American  surgeon ;  born  in  New  York 
city,  Dec.  1,  1850 ;  was  graduated  at 
the  Medical  Department  of  Columbia 
University  in  1876.  He  was  1st  lieu- 
tenant and  later  captain  in  the  medical 
department  of  the  army  in  1876- 
1889 ;  and  was  honorary  curator  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  1895-1897. 

Shumivay,  Edgar  Solomon,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  Belcher- 
town,  Mass.,  June  6,  1856;  was  grad- 
uated at  Amherst  College  in  1879; 
then  studied  abroad,  was  adjunct  and 
full  Professor  of  Latin  Language  and 
Literature  at  Rutgers  College  in 
1883-1900.  He  lectured  on  Roman 
law  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1900,  was  also  for  some  years  uni- 
versity extension  lecturei;  for  New 
Jersey  and  New  York  on  Greek  and 
Hellenistic  and  Roman  art. 

Shurtleff,  Roswell  Morse,  an 
American  artist;  born  in  Rindge,  N. 
H.,  June  14,  1838;  was  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College  in  1851.  He  has 
made  numerous  paintings  of  land- 
scapes in  both  water  and  oil ;  many  of 
the  most  excellent  of  these  are  scenes 
in  the  Adirondacks. 

SHnte,  Daniel  Kerfoot,  an 
American  physician ;  bom  in  Alexan- 
dria, Va.,  Oct.  22,  18.58.  He  graduated 
at  Columbia  University  in  1879,  and  at 
its  Medical  Department  in  1883.  He 
was  made  Professor  of  Anatomy  at  the 
Medical  Department  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity in  1888. 

Shnt-in  Society,  an  organization 
in  the  United  States  founded  for  the 
purpose  of  brightening  the  life  of  per- 
sons in  sickness  by  providing  various 
objects  which  they  would  otherwise  be 
unable  to  obtain.  The  members  of 
local  societies,  besides  supplying  their 
sick  members  with  fruit,  flowers,  read- 
ing material,  medicines,  and  nourish- 
ing food,  also  undertake  to  supply  easy 
chairs  and  other  helps  to  convalescents. 
The  Shut-in  Society  is  not  connected 
with  any  religious  or  other  organiza- 
tion. 

Shnttle,   Schyttyl,   or   Shyttell, 

in  weaving,  an  instrument  used  by 
weavers  for  shooting  or  passing  the 
thread  of  the  weft  from  one  side  of 


the  web  to  the  other,  between  the 
threads  of  the  warp.  It  is  a  boat 
shaped  piece  of  wood  which  carries  a 
bobbin  or  cop  containing  the  yarn  of 
the  weft  or  woof. 

In  a  sewing  machine^  the  sliding 
threadholder  which  carries  the  lower 
thread  between  the  needle  and  the 
upper  thread,  to  make  a  lock  stitch. 
In  hydraulic  engineering,  tke  gate 
which  opens  to  allow  the  water  to 
flow  onto  a  wheel.  That  side  of  a 
wheel  which  receives  the  water  is 
known  as  the  shuttle  side. 

Siam,  a  kingdom  embracing  a 
great  part  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Pen- 
insula, and  part  of  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula, and  lying  between  Burma  on  the 
W.,  and  Annam  and  Cambodia  on  the 
E.  and  S.  E.  Its  boundaries  are  ill  de- 
fined on  the  N.  and  N.  E.,  but  its  area 
is  estimated  at  about  300,000  square 
miles,  and  its  population  at  5,000,000. 

A  large  part  of  the  territory  is  not 
well  known.  Siam  proper  consists 
mainly  of  the  low  lying  alluvial  basin 
of  the  Menam  and  its  numerous  tribu- 
taries, which  flows  S.  into  the  Gulf 
of  Siam,  forming  an  extensive  and  in- 
tricate delta,  on  which  is  situated 
Bangkok,  the  capital.  This  alluvial 
plain,  intersected  by  numerous  streams 
and  canals,  is  extremely  fertile,  pro- 
ducing crops  of  rice,  sugar,  cotton, 
maize,  and  indigo.  Both  sides  of  the 
Manam  basin  are  skirted  by  densely 
wooded  ranges  of  hills,  forming  the 
water  partings  toward  the  Salwin  and 
Mekong,  the  latter  of  which  is  the 
great  river  of  Eastern  Siam.  The  min- 
erals include  gold,  tin,  iron,  copper, 
lead,  zinc,  and  antimony,  besides  sev- 
eral precious  stones,  such  as  the  sap- 
phire, Oriental  ruby,  and  Oriental 
topaz.  Mining  is  chiefly  in  the  hands 
of  the  Chinese.  Cocoa  and  areca 
palms  are  numerous  in  Siam ;  fruits 
are  abundant  and  of  excellent  quality, 
black  pepper,  tobacco,  cardamoms,  and 
gamboge  are  important  products.  The 
forests  produce  aloes  wood,  sappan 
wood,  teak  timber,  bamboos,  rattans, 
gutta  percba,  dammar,  catechu,  ben- 
zoin, etc.  Among  wild  animals  are  the 
tiger,  leopard,  bear,  otter,  orang-ou- 
tang, single-homed  rhinoceros,  and  ele- 
phant, which  here  attains  a  size  and 
beauty  elsewhere  unknown.  The  last, 
when  of  a  white  color,  is  held  in  the 
highest  reverence.    The  forests  abound 


Siamang 


Siberia 


with  peacocks,  pheasants,  and  pigeons ; 
and  in  the  islands  are  large  flocks  of 
the  swallows  that  produce  the  famed 
edible  birds'  nests.  Crocodiles,  geckoes, 
and  other  kinds  of  lizards,  tortoises, 
and  green  turtles  are  numerous.  The 
python  serpent  attains  an  immense 
size,  and  there  are  many  species  of 
snakes. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  the  trade  of 
Siam  is  in  the  hands  of  foreigners,  and 
the  foreign  trade  centers  at  Bangkok. 
The  chief  export  is  rice,  after  which 
come  teak,  pepper,  dried  fish,  birds' 
nestb,  cattle,  and  teel  seed.  The  chief 
imports  are  gold  leaf  and  treasure  and 
cottons,  after  which  come  opium,  china 
goods,  gunny  bags,  hardware,  kerosene 
oil,  and  silk  goods.  The  trade  is  chiefly 
with  Hong  Kong  and  Singapore,  and 
to  a  much  less  extent  with  Lower  Bur- 
ma and  Great  Britain. 

The  Siamese  are  members  of  the 
great  Mongolian  family,  and  of  the 
same  race  as  the  people  of  Burma  and 
Annam.  The  Siamese  profess  Bud- 
dhism, introduced  into  the  country 
about  the  middle  of  the  7th  century. 
Christianity  is  now  making  some  prog- 
ress in  the  country.  The  language 
forms  a  connecting  link  between  the 
Chinese  and  Malay.  The  written  char- 
acters seem  to  be  derived  from  a  form 
of  Sanskrit. 

The  legislative  power  is  exercised  by 
the  king  in  conjunction  with  a  council 
of  ministers.  The  present  king  is 
Chulalongkorn  I.,  who  was  born  in 
1853  and  sueceeded  his  father  in  1868. 
Like  his  father  he  has  had  an  educa- 
tion in  English,  and  is  alive  to  the 
advantages  to  be  obtained  by  adopting 
European  inventions  and  discoveries. 

Siamang,  in  zoology,  a  gibbon  from 
Sumatra  and  the  Malay  peninsula.  It 
is  larger  than  the  rest  of  the  genus 
(true  gibbons),  and  has  abnormally 
long  pectoral  limbs.  It  can  walk  fair- 
ly well  in  the  erect  position,  by  bal- 
ancing itself  with  its  arms,  or  by  plac- 
ing them  over  the  head,  and  is  quiet 
and  affectionate  in  captivity. 

Siamese  Tivins,  the  best  known 
example  of  two  male  individuals  hav- 
ing their  bodies  connected  inseparably 
from  their  birth,  being  joined  by  a 
thick  fleshy  ligament  from  the  lower 
end  of  the  breastbone  of  each,  having 
the  common  navel  on  its  lower  border 
so  that  they  stood  in  a  sort  of  oblique  ] 

E.  138. 


position  toward  each  other.  Born  in 
Siam  in  1811,  of  a  Chinese  father  and 
a  Chino-Siamese  mother,  and  named 
Eng  ("right")  and  Chang  ("left"), 
they  were  brought  to  the  United  States 
in  1829.  They  were  on  exhibition  in 
America  and  Europe  a  number  of  times, 
and  ultimately  settled  in  North  Caro- 
lina. They  married  two  sisters  and 
had  large  families  of  children,  none 
of  whom  exhibited  any  malformation. 
Chang  received  a  paralytic  stroke  in 
1870,  and  three  years  later  was  affect- 
ed with  an  inflammatory  disease  of  the 
respiratory  organs.  He  died  unex- 
pectedly, Jan.  17,  1874,  while  his 
brother  was  asleep,  and  Eng  died  a 
few  hours  afterward.  The  Siamese 
twins  attracted  great  attention  during 
their  lifetime,  particularly  from  physi- 
ologists and  medical  men,  some  of 
whom  thought  that  the  ligament  con- 
necting them  might  have  been  cut 
without  causing   the   death   of  either. 

Siberia,  a  great  division  of  the 
Russian  dominions;  occupies  all  North 
Asia,  stretching  uninterruptedly  E. 
from  the  Ural  Mountains  to  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  and  S.  from  the  Arctic 
Ocean  to  the  Chinese  dominions  and 
Russian  Central  Asia;  total  area,  4,- 
883,496  square  miles;  pop.  (1909)  7,- 
878,500.  It  is  divided  into  the  gov- 
ernor-generalships of  Western  Siberia, 
Eastern  Siberia,  and  the  Amur  region. 
A  region  of  such  vast  extent  has  nat- 
urally a  very  diversified  configuration  ; 
but  generally  speaking  Siberia  may  be 
considered  as  a  vast  inclined  plane 
sloping  gradually  from  the  Altai, 
Syan,  and  Yablonoi  Mountains  on  the 
S.  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the  N.  In 
the  E.  it  is  traversed  in  different  direc- 
tions by  several  mountain  ranges,  but 
elsewhere  it  is  almost  unbroken  by 
any  greater  heights  than  a  few  hills. 
The  coast  line  is  very  extensive,  but 
the  Arctic  Ocean  is  ice  bound  at  least 
10  months  out  of  the  12,  and  is  almost 
valueless  for  commercial  purposes. 

Siberia  has  a  warm  summer,  but 
the  winter  is  exceedingly  severe.  South 
Siberia  has,  in  many  parts,  a  very  fer- 
tile soil,  which  yields  rich  crops  of 
wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  potatoes ;  but 
immense  ti*acts  of  Siberia  are  utterly 
unfit  for  tillage,  more  particularly  the 
tundras,  or  great  stretches  of  boggy 
country  along  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Cat- 
tle breeding  and  bee  keeping  are  large- 


Sibley 

ly  pursued.  Hunting  and  fishing  are 
also  sources  of  remuneration,  ermines, 
sables,  and  other  furbearing  animals 
being  numerous.  The  wild  animals  in- 
clude the  elk,  reindeer,  and  other  deer, 
bear,  wolf,  white  and  blue  fox,  lynx, 
etc.  The  forests  are  extensive  and  val- 
uable. Manufactures  and  mining  are 
in  a  backward  state,  though  Siberia 
has  very  considerable  mineral  wealth. 
Large  quantities  of  gold  are  obtained, 
as  well  as  silver,  platinum,  lead,  iron, 
coal,  etc.  The  trade  is  mainly  with 
Russia,  which  takes  every  year  from 
Sibeiia  about  $20,000,000  worth  of 
raw  products,  chiefly  tallow,  hides, 
furs,  and  grain;  and  sends  every  year 
to  Siberia  about  $60,000,000  worth  of 
manufactured  wares.  The  foreign 
trade  is  insignificant.  Yermak  the 
Cossack,  entered  Western  Siberia  in 
1580,  and  made  a  rapid  conquest  of 
the  W.  portion  of  the  country,  which 
he  handed  over  to  Ivan  the  Terrible 
of  Russia.  Exile  to  Siberia  began  soon 
after  the  conquest,  and  ever  since  Si- 
beria has  been  a  great  penal  colony. 
Hardened  convicts  and  important  po- 
litical offenders  are  kept  under  close 
control,  but  the  great  majority  of  the 
exiles  are  simply  placed  in  a  particu- 
lar district  and  allowed  to  shift  for 
themselves.  The  Russian  population  of 
Siberia,  which  is  more  than  three- 
fourths  of  the  whole,  consists  largely 
of  exiles  or  the  descendants  of  exiles. 
The  railway  connection  between  Rus- 
sia and  Siberia  forms  the  greatest  rail- 
way system  in  the  world. 

Sibley,  Henry  Hastings,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in  De- 
troit, Mich.,  Feb.  20,  1811.  He  was 
elected  the  first  governor  of  Minnesota 
in  1858;  organized  and  led  a  military 
force  against  the  Sioux  Indians  in 
1862 ;  and  was  commissioned  a  Briga- 
dier-General of  volunteers.  He  put  an 
end  to  the  Sioux  War  in  1863,  and 
was  brevetted  Major-General.  During 
the  last  20  years  of  his  life  he  took 
no  active  part  in  political  issues,  but 
identified  himself  with  the  educational 
interests  of  the  State.  He  died  in  St. 
Paul,  Minn.,  Feb.  18,  1891. 

Sibley,  Henry  Hopkins,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in 
Natchitoches,  La.,  May  25,  1816 ;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary xVcademy  in  1838;  served  in  the 
Mexican  War  and  in  Florida;  took 


Siciliea 

part  in  the  notable  military  expedition 
to  Utah ;  and  was  conspicuous  in  the 
campaign  against  the  Navajo  Indians. 
He  entered  the  Confederate  army  in 
1861  and  attained  the  rank  of  Briga- 
dier-General. He  went  to  Egypt  after 
the  war,  and  in  1809  entered  the  Egyp- 
tian army  and  as  Brigadier-General 
served  under  the  Khedive.  In  1875  he 
returned  to  the  United  States,  and 
died  in  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  Aug.  23, 
1886. 

Sibley,  Jobn  Liangdon,  an  Amer« 
lean  librarian ;  born  in  Union,  Me., 
Dec.  29,  1804;  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  1825;  and  was  chief 
librarian  of  Harvard  University  in 
1850-1877,  when  he  was  retired  from 
active  service  and  made  librarian 
emeritus.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences and  of  the  Massachusetts  His- 
torical Society ;  founder  of  a  charity 
fund  of  Phillips  Exeter  Academy ;  and 
editor  of  the  "  American  Magazine  of 
Useful  Knowledge,"  He  died  in  Cam- 
bridi^e,  Mass.,  Dec.  9,  1885. 

Sibntn.    See  Cibitu. 

Sicard,  Montgomery,  an  Amer< 
ican  naval  officer ;  born  in  Utica,  N. 
Y.,  Sept.  30,  1836;  was  appointed  to 
the  navy  in  1851 ;  promoted  lieutenant 
in  1861 ;  and  assigned  to  the  Gulf 
blockading  squadron  in  1861.  As  execu- 
tive officer  of  the  "  Oneida  "  he  par- 
ticipated in  numerous  engagements. 
Later,  as  commander  of  the  "  Seneca," 
he  participated  in  both  attacks  on  Fort 
Fisher.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Span- 
ish-American War  he  was  placed  on 
the  sick  list,  and  the  command  given 
to  Rear-Admiral  Sampson;  but  after 
a  partial  recovery  he  was  made  presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Srategy.  He  died 
in  Westernville,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  14,  1900. 

Sicilian  Vespers.  Charles  of 
Anjou,  brother  of  Louis  IX.,  King  of 
France,  having  seized  Sicily  by  virtue 
of  a  grant  from  Pope  Alexander  IV., 
the  natives  rose  against  the  French 
on  Easter  Monday,  March  31,  1282.  A 
massacre  of  2,000  French  soldiers  en- 
sued. It  was  begun  by  a  crowd  emerg- 
ing from  a  Vesper  service.  It  is  known 
in  history  as   the   Sicilian  Vespers. 

Sicilies,  The  Two,  a  former 
kingdom  of  Italy,  consisting  of  Naples 
(or  S.  Italy)  and  Sicily.  In  1047, 
while  Greeks  and  Saracens  were  strug- 
gling for  the  possession  of  Lower  Italy 


Sicily 


Sidereal  Clock 


and  Sicily,  the  12  sons  of  Tancred  de 
Hauteville,  a  count  in  Lower  Nor- 
mandy, came  in  with  their  followers. 
Robert  Guiscard,  one  of  these  broth- 
ers, subdued  Apulia  and  Calabria,  tak- 
ing the  title  of  duke,  and  his  young- 
est brother.  Count  Roger,  conquered 
Sicily.  Roger's  son  and  successor, 
Roger  II.,  completed  the  conquest  of 
all  Lower  Italy  by  subduing  Capua, 
Amalfi,  and  Naples,  at  that  time  cele- 
brated commercial  republics,  and  in 
1130  took  the  title  of  king,  calling  his 
kingdom  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  In  1759,  when  Charles  IV. 
ascended  the  Spanish  throne  under  the 
name  of  Charles  III.,  he  conferred  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  on  his 
third  son  Ferdinand,  and  decreed  at 
the  same  time  that  It  should  never 
again  be  united  to  the  Spanish  mon- 
archy. The  reign  of  Ferdinand  ex- 
tended through  the  stormy  period  of 
the  French  Revolution  and  the  subse- 
quent European  commotions.  A  varied 
experience  followed  during  which  the 
country  was  successively  subject  to 
Germany,  France,  and  Spain.  In 
1860,  an  insurrection  broke  out  in 
Sicily,  and  an  expedition  of  volun- 
teers from  Piedmont  and  other  Ital- 
ian provinces  under  Garibaldi  sailed 
from  Genoa  to  the  assistance  of  the 
insurgents.  The  result  was  that  the 
Neapolitan  troops  were  driven  from 
the  island.  Garibaldi,  following  up  his 
success,  crossed  over  to  the  mainland, 
where  he  met  little  or  no  opposition ; 
Francis  II.  fled  from  Naples;  the 
strong  places  in  his  hands  were  re- 
duced; and  by  a  popular  vote  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  ceased 
to  exist  as  such  and  became  an  inte- 
gral part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

Sicily,  an  island  belonging  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, the  largest  and  the  finest  in  that 
sea,  lying  at  the  S.  W.  extremity  of 
Italy,  from  which  it  is  parted  by  the 
narrow  Strait  of  Messina.  Area,  9,- 
936  square  miles;  pop.  (estimated 
1900)  3,643,038.  The  plains  and  val- 
leys which  compose  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  island  are  remarkably  fer- 
tile, and  yield  large  crops  of  maize^ 
wheat,  rice,  pulse,  all  kinds  of  vege- 
tables, and  abundance  of  fruits;  the 
silk  worm  is  largely  cultivated.  The 
minerals  are  marble,  iron,  copper, 
stone,   agate,   jasper,   salt,   and  coal. 


while  of  sulphur  the  yield  is  enormous 
—  above  150  mines,  finding  constant 
work  for  12,000  men.  The  manufac- 
tures are  unimportant ;  the  exports 
comprise  all  native  produce.  A  fright- 
ful earthquake  in  December,  1908,  de- 
stroyed the  city  of  Messina  and  many 
other  places  in  Sicily  and  Italy. 

Sickingen,  Franz,  von,  a  famous 
German  knight ;  born  in  1481.  As  a 
protector  of  the  oppressed,  he  tried  to 
abolish  the  ecclesiastical  principalities 
and  established  the  Reformation.  Be- 
sieged in  his  castle,  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  and  died  May  7,  1523. 

Sickles,  Daniel  Edgar,  major- 
general  U.  S.  A.,  retired ;  born  New 
York,  Oct.  20,  1825.  Was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1844,  was  a  member  of 
the  legislature  in  1847,  corporation 
attorney  of  New  York  in  1853,  and 
appointed  secretary  of  American  lega- 
tion in  London,  same  year.  He  was 
also  major  in  the  12th  Regiment  of 
the  New  York  National  Guard.  Was 
in  the  State  Senate  1856-1857,  and 
in  the  latter  year  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress, and  reelected  in  1859.  On 
February  27th,  1859  he  shot  and  killed 
Philip  Barton  Key  for  intimacy  with 
Mrs.  Sickles,  and  after  a  trial  which 
lasted  twenty  days  he  was  acquitted 
of  the  charge  of  murder.  His  bravery 
in  the  Civil  War  was  recognized  by 
promotion  to  major-general,  and  he 
lost  a  leg  at  Gettysburg.  He  was 
placed  on  the  retired  list  of  the  army 
with  the  rank  of  major-general,  and 
was  United  States  minister  to  Spain 
1869-1873.  He  has  since  been  presi- 
dent of  the  New  York  State  Board  of 
Civil  Service  Commissioners,  Commis- 
sioner of  Emigration,  Sheriff  of  New 
York,   and   member   of   Congress. 

Siddons,  Mrs.  Scott,  an  English 
actress ;  born  in  India  in  1844 ;  the 
great-granddaughter  of  Sarah  Siddons ; 
was  educated  in  Germany.  As  Lady 
Macbeth  she  made  her  first  profession- 
al appearance  in  England,  at  Notting- 
ham. She  appeared  in  the  United 
States  first  as  a  dramatic  reader  in 
New  York  city,  and  she  made  her  de- 
but as  a  dramatic  star  at  the  Boston 
Museum  about  1868. 

Sidereal  Clock,  a  clock  regulated 
to  measure  sidereal  time,  reckoned  by 
sidereal  days  of  23  hours,  56  minutes, 
4  seconds  mean  solar  time,  which  are 
measured  by  the  interval  between  two 


Sidereal  Time 


Siemens 


successive  passages  of  any  fixed  star 
over  the  same  meridian,  and  divided 
into  24  sidereal  hours. 

Sidereal  Time,  time  measured  by 
the  apparent  motion  of  the  stars.  A 
sidereal  day  is  the  time  from  the  pass- 
age of  a  star  across  the  meridian  till 
its  next  passage,  and  is  exactly  the 
period  of  the  revolution  of  the  earth 
on  its  axis.  It  is  the  most  constant 
unit  of  time  we  possess.  Its  length 
is  23  hours  56  minutes  4.098  seconds. 
A  sidereal  year  is  the  period  in  which 
the  fixed  stars  apparently  complete  a 
revolution  and  come  to  the  same  point 
in  the  heavens,  and  is  the  exact  period 
of  the  revolution  of  the  earth  round 
the  sun.  There  are  366.2563612  side- 
real days  in  a  sidereal  year. 

Sidney  or  Sydney,  Algernon,  an 
English  military  officer ;  born  in  Pens- 
hurst,  Kent,  in  1622.  In  1644  he  was 
lieutenant-colonel  of  a  regiment  of 
horse  in  Manchester's  army,  and  was 
severely  wounded  at  Marston  Moor. 
In  1645  he  was  given  the  command  of 
a  cavalry  regiment  in  Cromwell's  divi- 
sion of  Fairfax's  army,  and  was  re- 
turned to  Parliament  for  Cardiff.  He 
was  nominated  one  of  the  commission- 
ers to  try  Charles  I.,  but  took  no  part 
in  the  trial,  though  he  approved  of 
the  sentence.  He  was  soon  after  ap- 
pointed a  commissioner  to  mediate  a 
peace  between  Denmark  and  Sweden, 
and  while  he  was  engaged  in  this  em- 
bassy the  Restoration  took  place. 
Conscious  of  the  offense  he  had  given 
the  royal  party  he  refused  to  return 
and  remained  an  exile  for  17  years. 
At  length,  in  1677,  the  influence  of  his 
friends  procured  him  permission  to  re- 
turn to  England.  After  the  death  of 
Shaftesbury  in  1682,  he  entered  into 
the  conferences  held  between  Mon- 
mouth, Russell,  Essex,  Hampden,  and 
others,  and  on  the  discovery  of  the 
Rye  House  Plot  he  was  arrested  and 
sent  to  the  Tower  on  a  charge  of  high 
treason.  He  was  tried  before  the 
notorious  Ghief-Justice  Jeffreys,  and 
his  trial  was  conducted  with  a  shame- 
less absence  of  equity  which  has  con- 
ferred on  him  all  the  glory  of  a  mar- 
tyr. He  was  executed  on  Tower  Hill, 
Dec.  7,  1683.  His  "Discourses  Con- 
cerning Government  '*  were  first  print- 
ed in  1698, 

Sidon,  anciently  a  city  of  Phoenicia ; 
on  the  E.  coast  of  the  Mediterranean; 


half  way  between  Tyre  and  Beyrout. 
It  soon  rose,  both  by  its  exceptional 
position  and  the  enterprising  charac- 
ter of  its  inhabitants,  to  the  first  po- 
sition among  the  cities  of  Phoenicia, 
so  that  the  whole  country  is  some- 
times designated  by  the  name  Sidon, 
"The  Great,"  "the  Metropolis."  The 
extensive  commerce  of  Sidon  is  well 
known  from  ancient  authorities.  At 
length  it  surrendered  to  Shalmaneser, 
King  of  Assyria.  But  under  Assyrian, 
Chaldean,  and  Persian  domination  it 
retained  a  kind  of  independence  fou 
its  internal  affairs,  and  under  the  Per- 
sians reached  its  highest  prosperity. 
Through  the  Middle  Ages  little  is 
heard  of  it,  except  that  it  was  taken 
by  the  Crusaders.  The  present  to'wn 
of  Saida  has  10,000  inhabitants,  of 
whom  7,000  are  Mohammedans.  The 
town  was  stormed  by  the  allies  under 
Napier  in  1840. 

Siege,  State  of.  The  "state  of 
siege "  as  defined  by  continental  ju- 
rists is  a  condition  of  things  in  which 
civil  law  is  suspended  or  made  sub- 
ordinate to  military  law.  A  fortress, 
city,  or  district  is  thus  put  under  mar- 
tial law  —  i.  e.  under  the  authority  of 
the  military  power  —  either  on  ac- 
count of  the  presence  of  an  enemy,  as 
at  a  siege,  or  because  of  the  failure  of 
the  civil  power,  as  in  the  case  of  do- 
mestic insurrection,  or  of  a  conquered 
district  in  military  occupation.  The 
"  minor  state  of  siege,"  a  modification 
of  the  more  severe  rule,  usually  suf- 
fices for  domestic  troubles.  No  such 
provision  is  made  by  the  laws  of  the 
United  States,  or  of  the  British  em- 
pire, though  very  similar  powers  are 
exercised  when  martial  law  is  pro- 
claimed. 

Siege  Gnn,  a  cannon  sufficiently 
light  to  be  conveniently  transported, 
and  throwing  projectiles  adapted  for 
breaching  fortifications  in  sieges. 

Siemens,  Sir  Charles  "William, 
a  German  engineer ;  born  in  Hanover, 
April  4,  1823.  The  great  works  of  Sie- 
mens Brothers  at  Charlton,  West 
Woolwich,  for  the  manufacture  of 
submarine  electric  telegraph  cables, 
were  established  in  18.58;  and  the 
great  steel  works  at  Landore,  Swan- 
sea, in  1868.  He  labored  mainly  in 
two  distinct  fields,  the  applications 
of  heat  and  the  applications  of  elec- 
tricity,  and   won  a   great   reputation 


Siemens 


Sigel 


in  both.  He  was  knighted,  April 
1883,  in  recognition  of  his  services, 
which  had  been  previously  recognized 
by  numerous  scientific  societies,  and 
by  the  Universities  of  Oxford,  Glas- 
gow, Dublin,  and  Wurzburg.  He  died 
in  London,  Nov.  19,  1883. 

Siemens,  'Werner  von,  a  Ger- 
man engineer  and  electrician ;  bom  in 
Leuthe,  Hanover,  Dec.  13,  1816.  He 
early  showed  scientific  tastes,  and  in 
1841  took  out  his  first  patent  for  gal- 
vanic silver  and  gold  plating.  He  was 
of  peculiar  service  in  developing  the 
telegraphic  system  in  Prussia,  and  dis- 
covered in  this  connection  the  valuable 
insulating  property  of  gutta-percha  for 
underground  and  submarine  cables.  In 
1849  he  left  the  army,  and  shortly  aft- 
er the  service  of  the  State  altogether, 
and  devoted  his  energies  to  the  con- 
Btruction  of  telegraphic  and  electrical 
apparatus  of  all  kinds.  Besides  de- 
vising numerous  useful  forms  of  gal- 
vanometers and  other  electrical  instru- 
ments of  precision,  Werner  Siemens 
was  one  of  the  discoverers  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  self-acting  dynamo.  In 
1886  he  gave  500,000  marks  for  the 
founding  of  an  imperial  institute  of 
technology  and  physics ;  and  in  1888 
he  was  ennobled.     He  died  Dec.  6, 1892. 

Sienkiexricz,  Henry,  a  Polish  au- 
thor ;  born  in  Lithuania  in  1845.  He 
is  the  author  of  the  historical  novels, 
"  Quo  Vadis,"  "  Sword  and  Fire," 
"  Knights  of  the  Cross,"  etc. 

Sierra  Lieone,  a  British  colony 
and  protectorate  on  the  W.  coast  of 
Africa.  Total  area,  34,000  square 
miles;  pop.  1,077,000. 

Sierra  Madre  ("Main  Chain"),  a 
general  name  for  the  mountains  that 
in  Mpsico  stretch  N.  from  about  Gua- 
dalajara to  Arizona,  forming  the  W. 
wall  of  the  plateau,  and  separating 
Chihuahua  from  the  maritime  States 
of  Sinaloa  and  Sonora.  Along  the 
E.  foothills  of  the  range,  in  Northwest 
Chihuahua,  the  country  is  very  fer- 
tile. The  so-called  Sierra  Madre  pla- 
teau, on  the  United  States  frontier,  is 
a  continuation  of  the  Chihuahua  pla- 
teau. The  name  has  often  been  more 
widely  extended,  however,  to  include 
the  central  and  E.  ranges  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras. 

Sierra  Nevada,  a  mountain  range 
of  California,  extending  N.  and  S. 
Along  the  E.  boundary  o£  the  State. 


It  consists  of  an  aggregate  of  ranges, 
on  an  average  some  70  miles  wide, 
with  numerous  peaks  reaching  an  ele- 
vation of  10,000  and  15,000  feet. 
Gold  mining,  timber  cutting,  and 
sheep  rearing  are  important  industries 
in  these  ranges. 

Siesta,  the  name  given  to  the  prac- 
tice indulged  in  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  hot  climates  gener- 
ally, of  sleeping  two  or  three  hours  in 
the  middle  of  the  day,  when  the  heat 
is  too  oppressive  to  admit  of  their 
going  from  home. 

Sieyes,  Emmanuel  Joseph,  bet- 
ter known  as  the  Abbe  Sieyes,  a 
French  revolutionist;  born  in  Frejus, 
France,  May  3,  1748,  and  pursued  his 
studies  for  the  Church  at  Paris.  Dur- 
ing the  Reign  of  Terror  he  withdrew 
into  the  country,  but  after  Robes- 
pierre's downfall  he  returned  to  the 
convention  and  took  an  active  part  in 
affairs.  In  1799,  on  his  return  from  a 
mission  to  Berlin,  by  which  he  se- 
cured the  neutrality  of  Prussia,  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  directory.  He 
subsequently  suppressed  the  Jacobin 
Club,  and  was  active  in  bringing 
about  the  overthrow  of  the  directory 
and  the  substitution  of  the  consular 
government  by  the  revolution  of  the 
18th  Brumaire,  the  new  constitution 
being  devised  by  him.  Sieyes  soon 
found  his  speculations  completely 
overmatched  by  Bonaparte's  practical 
energy,  and  though  a  consul  provi 
sionally,  he  saw  it  desirable  to  tev- 
minate  his  political  career.  He  le- 
tired  with  the  title  of  count,  and  ob- 
tained grants  of  land  and  propertv  to 
the  value  of  at  least  $250,000.  He  was 
exiled  at  the  restoration,  but  returned 
on  the  Julv  revolution  of  1830,  and 
died  in  Paris,  June  20,  1836. 

Sigel,  Franz,  an  American  military 
officer;  born  in  Sinsheim,  Baden, 
Nov.  18,  1824.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1852,  and  when  the  Civil 
War  broke  out,  organized  a  regiment 
and  went  to  the  front,  where  he 
served  with  unusual  distinction,  be- 
ing promoted  Major-General.  Subse- 
quently he  settled  in  New  York  city, 
where  he  entered  politics ;  was  made 
collector  of  internal  revenue  in  May, 
1871;  register  of  the  city  in  October, 
1871,  and  pension  agent  in  1886 :  later 
was  editor  and  publisher  of  the  "  New 
York  Monthly.'^  Died  Aug.  21,  1902. 


Sighing 

Sighing,  a  respiratory  act,  often 
prompted  by  mental  impressions  of 
conscious  or  unconscious  kind,  which 
is  commenced  by  a  prolonged  effort  of 
inspiration,  in  which  the  diaphragm 
descends.  The  expiratory  act  which 
follows,  and  which  constitutes  the 
"  sigh,"  is  caused  by  the  recoil  of  the 
chest  walls  and  lungs,  and  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  abdominal  muscles.  Sigh- 
ing illustratesi  simple  respiration  as 
modified  by  mental  conditions. 

Sight.     See  Eye. 

Sigismnnd,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many and  King  of  Hungary  and. 
Bohemia,  second  son  of  the  Em- 
peror Charles  IV. ;  born  in  1361.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1378,  he 
became  Margrave  of  Brandenburg.  He 
married,  in  1386,  Maria,  daughter  of 
Ludwig  Louis,  King  of  Hungary,  and 
was  crowned  king  the  same  year.  He 
soon  after  extended  his  dominions  by 
the  conquest  of  Wallachia.  His 
queen  dying  in  1392,  his  claim  to  the 
crown  of  Hungary  was  contested  by 
Ladislaus  V.,  King  of  Poland,  but  un- 
successfully;  and  the  frequent  con- 
spiracies formed  against  Sigismund  by 
the  nobles  made  him  suspicious  and 
cruel.  In  1410  he  was  chosen  emperor 
by  one  party  of  the  electors,  Jobst, 
Marquis  of  Moravia,  being  chosen  by 
another  party,  and  Wenceslaus,  who 
had  been  deposed,  still  retaining  the 
title  of  emperor.  At  the  same  period 
there  were  also  three  rival  Popes. 

But  the  death  of  Jobst  and  the 
acquiescence  of  Wenceslaus  left  Sig- 
ismund without  a  rival  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  He  was  crowned  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  November,  1414,  and 
went  thence  to  the  great  Council  of 
Constance.  The  Bohemian  reformer, 
John  Huss,  had  come  to  Constance  un- 
der a  safe  conduct  of  the  emperor; 
but  he  was  nevertheless  burnt,  as  was 
also  his  disciple,  Jerome  of  Prague. 
By  the  death  of  his  brother,  Wences- 
laus, in  1419,  he  succeeded  to  the 
crown  of  Bohemia.  In  1431,  Sigis- 
mund was  crowned  King  of  Italy  at 
Milan ;  and  in  1433,  Emperor  of  Rome 
by  Eugenius  IV.  He  died  Dec.  9,  1437. 

Sigismnnd  III.,  surnamed  De 
Vasa;  bom  in  1566,  was  son  of  John 
III.,  King  of  Sweden,  and  of  Catha- 
rine, the  daughter  of  Sigismund  I.  He 
was  elected  King  of  Poland  in  1.587, 
and  succeeded  to  the  crown  of  Sweden 


Signals 

in  1594.  Being  a  Catholic,  his  uncle, 
Charles,  Duke  of  Sudermania,  easily 
undermined  his  authority  in  Sweden, 
and  he  lost  that  kingdom  in  1604.  In 
1610  he  succeeded  in  placing  his  son, 
Vladislaus,  on  the  throne  of  Russia, 
but  was  afterward  obliged  to  succumb. 
He  died  in  Warsaw  in  1632. 

Sign,  in  astronomy,  a  portion  of 
the  ecliptic  or  zodiac,  containing  30 
degrees,  or  a  12th  part  of  the  com- 
plete circle.  The  first  commences  at 
the  point  of  the  equator  through 
which  the  sun  passes  at  the  time  of 
the  vernal  equinox ;  and  they  are 
counted  onward,  proceeding  from  W. 
to  E.,  according  to  the  annual  course 
of  the  sun,  all  round  the  circle.  The 
names  of  the  12  signs,  in  the  order  in 
which  they  follow  each  other,  are  as 
follows :  Aries,  Taurus,  Gemini,  Can- 
cer, Leo,  Virgo,  Libra,  Scorpio,  Sagit- 
tarius, Capricornus,  Aquarius,  Pisces. 

Signal  Corps,  in  the  United  States 
army,  a  body  of  men  specially  trained 
in  the  methods  of  conveying  informa- 
tion. The  means  employed  include  the 
telephone,  telegraph,  balloons,  sight 
and  sound  demonstrations,  and  other 
methods  of  transmitting  intelligence 
with  promptness  and  in  the  briefest 
possible  time. 

Sig^nals,  the  means  by  which  com- 
munications are  made  to  greater  dis- 
tances than  can  be  reached  by  the  hu- 
man voice.  To  the  eye  these  are  con- 
veyed by  flags,  lights,  etc.,  and  to  the 
ear  by  guns,  steam-whistles,  fog-horns, 
etc.  The  most  complete  systems  of 
signaling  are  those  devised  to  enable 
ships  some  distance  apart  to  communi- 
cate with  each  other.  Of  these  the 
most  important  ones  in  the  United 
States  navy  are  the  international  code, 
the  secret  naval  code,  the  wig-wag 
system,  the  Ardois  night  signal  code, 
system  of  wireless  telegraphy  and  mi- 
crophonic submarine  signals. 

Signals,  Railroad.  At  night  col- 
ored lights  are  used,  and  during  the 
day  colored  flags  are  displayed  to  con- 
vey information.  Red  always  signi- 
fies danger  and  is  a  signal  to  stop. 
Green  signifies  caution,  and  is  the  sig- 
nal to  go  slow.  White  signifies  safe- 
ty, and  is  the  signal  to  go  ahead.  Blue 
is  a  signal  seldom  used,  and  is  placed 
on  a  car  or  engine  to  forbid  its  being 
moved,  as  in  the  case  of  an  accidentt 


Signature 


Slkha 


Sometimes  torpedoes  are  placed  on  the 
track  when  lights  are  not  available. 
Torpedoes  have  the  same  meaning  as 
red  lights  or  flags.  Colored  fuses  are 
also  placed  on  the  track,  and  have  the 
same  meaning  as  colored  lights.  Tor- 
pedoes and  fuses  are  unseen  and  un- 
heard by  the  passengers  of  a  train. 
Lantern  signals  are  the  most  common 
in  use  on  all  railroads,  but  are  most 
generally  used  by  freight  crews. 

Signature,  in  music,  in  writing 
music  in  any  key  with  sharps  or  flats, 
the  sharps  and  flats  belonging  to  the 
key,  instead  of  being  prefixed  to  each 
note  as  required,  are  placed  together 
immediately  after  the  clef  on  the  de- 
grees of  the  staff  to  which  they  be- 
long; and  this  collection  of  sharps  or 
flats  is  called  the  signature.  In  print- 
ing, a  letter  or  figure  at  the  bottom  of 
the  first  page  of  each  sheet,  to  denote 
the  order  of  the  sheet  and  to  facilitate 
the  arrangement  of  them  for  binding. 

Signboard,  a  board  on  which  a 
man  sets  out  his  occupation  or  gives 
notice  of  articles  for  sale.  Sign- 
boards were  known  to  both  Greeks  and 
Romans.  There  are  allusions  to  them 
in  classic  writers ;  and  specimens  have 
been  found  at  Pompeii  and  Hercula- 
neum,  sometimes  painted,  but  oftener 
carved. 

Sigpciet,  a  seal,  especially  the  seal 
nsed  for  the  sign  manual  of  a  sover- 
eign. 

Signer  elli,  Lnca  (called  also, 
from  his  birthplace,  Luca  di  Cor- 
tona),  an  Italian  painter;  born 
in  Cortona,  Italy,  about  1441,  and 
studied  under  Piero  della  Francesca 
at  Arezzo.  He  began  to  distinguish 
himself  about  1472,  and  painted  till 
1512,  or  perhaps  later.  He  was  the 
first  to  apply  anatomical  knowledge 
to  painting,  and  thus  became  the  pre- 
cursor of  Michael  Angelo.  His  great- 
est works  are  a  series  of  magnificent 
frescoes  in  the  Cathedral  of  Orvieto. 
He  died  in  Cortona,  1523. 

Sigonmey,  Lydia  (Hnntley),  an 
American  author ;  born  in  Norwich, 
Conn.,  Sept.  1,  1791.  In  her  "Let- 
ters of  Life,"  published  (1866)  post- 
humously, she  enumerates  46  distinct 
\Morks  wholly  or  partially  from  her 
pen,  besides  over  2,000  articles  in 
prose  and  verse,  contributed  by  her 
to  nearly  300  periodicals.  She  died  in 
Hartford,  Conn.,  June  10,  1865. 


Sigsbee,     Cbarles     Dwigbt,     an 

American  naval  officer;  born  in  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  Jan.  16,  1845 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1863;  served  in  the  Gulf 
blockading  squadron  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  Civil  War;  and  partici- 
pated in  the  battle  of  Mobile  Bay. 
After  the  war  he  commanded  a  Coast 
Survey  vessel,  and  served  for  several 
years  in  the  hydrographic  office  of  the 
Navy  Department  at  Washington.  He 
invented  a  deep-sea  sounding  appa- 
ratus. As  captain  he  was  assigned  to 
the  command  of  the  battleship 
"Maine"  in  1897.  He  showed  great 
coolness  at  the  time  of  its  destruction 
in  Havana  harbor,  and  the  testimony 
before  the  Court  of  Inquiry  proved 
that  he  had  been  extremely  watchful 
and  had  maintained  the  most  perfect 
order  in  all  the  appointments  of  the 
vessel  and  the  strictest  discipline  on 
the  part  of  the  crew.  During  the 
Spanish-American  War  he  command- 
ed the  auxiliary  cruiser  "  St.  Paul," 
which  rendered  excellent  service  as  a 
naval  scout.  The  deepest  valley  in 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  named  "  Sigs- 
bee's  Deep,"  after  Captain  Sigsbee, 
and  the  scientific  name  of  Sigsbeia 
murrhina  is  given  to  one  of  the  rarest 
species  of  deep-sea  fauna.  It  was 
Sigsbee,  too,  who  discovered  near  the 
Morro  light,  many  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  the  pentacrini,  or  sea  lilies, 
and  who,  while  in  command  of  the 
"  Blake,"  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
scientific  investigators  the  first  exten- 
sive collection  of  this  ancient  genus. 
Thus  has  Captain  Sigsbee  associated 
his  name  with  the  harbor  of  Havana, 
both  by  scientific  investigations  and 
by  exhibition  of  the  highest  qualities 
of  command.  In  1898  Captain  Sigs- 
bee was  given  command  of  the  battle- 
ship "  Texas,"  and  in  1900  became, 
chief  of  the  bureau  of  naval  intelli- 
gence. 

Sikbs,  a  religious  sect  in  Hindu- 
Stan,  which  worships  one  only  and  in- 
visible God.  Its  founder  was  Nanak 
Shah,  born  in  1469  in  the  province  of 
Lahore.  He  labored  to  lead  the  peo- 
ple to  a  practical  religion,  to  a  pure 
worship  of  God  and  love  to  mankind. 
He  died  about  1540.  Of  his  succes- 
sors, Arjun-mal  gave  stability  and 
unity  to  the  religion  by  publishing 
Nanak's  writings  in  the  Adi-Granth, 


Silene 

the  first  sacred  book  of  the  Sikhs.  The 
real  founder  of  the  Sikh  state  was 
GoVind  Sinh  or  Singh,  the  10th  ruler 
from  Nanak.  He  abolished  the  sys- 
tem of  castes  and  gave  all  men  equal 
rights.  His  followers  received  the 
title  of  Sinhs  or  lions.  Govind  Sjnh 
vtrote  the  Dasema  Padshah  ke 
Granth,  or  book  of  the  10th  prince, 
which,  besides  treating  of  religious 
subjects,  contained  the  history  of  the 
author's  exploits.  The  Sikhs  hold  it 
in  equal  veneration  with  the  Adi- 
Granth.  Govind  Sinh  died  in  1708, 
and  the  Sikhs  gradually  yielded  to  the 
superior  power  of  the  Mohammedans. 
A  small  number  of  the  Sikhs  escaped 
to  inaccessible  mountains,  and  pre- 
served the  doctrines  of  their  fathers 
and  an  inextinguishable  hatred  to- 
ward the  Mohammedans.  After  Nadir 
Shah's  return  to  Persia  they  left  the 
mountains  and  subdued  all  Lahore. 
The  Sikhs  then  broke  up  into  a  num- 
ber of  independent  communities,  each 
governed  by  a  sirdar;  but  in  1792 
Runjeet  Singh  established  himself  as 
despotic  ruler  of  the  Sikhs,  with  the 
title  of  Maharajah.  The  territory  of 
the  Sikhs  comprehended  the  whole 
Punjab,  part  of  Multan,  and  most  of 
the  country  between  the  Jumna  and 
Sutlej;  total  area,  69,000  square 
miles.  After  Runjeet  Singh's  death  in 
1839  a  period  of  anarchy  followed.  A 
treaty  was  signed  in  1846  by  which 
Great  Britain  held  the  city  of  Lahore, 
and  a  British  resident  took  supervi- 
sion of  the  government.  In  1848  a 
general  revolt  broke  out,  and  in  1849 
the  Sikh  dominion  was  proclaimed  at 
an  end,  and  the  Punjab  was  annexed 
to  the  British  empire  in  India. 

Silene,  in  botany,  the  catchfly; 
many  species  are  cultivated  as  orna- 
mental plants  in  gardens. 

Silenns,  in  mythology,  a  primitive 
woodland  deity  of  Asia  Minor,  whom 
men  try  to  catch  when  in  a  drunken 
sleep,  in  order  to  compel  him  to 
prophesy  and  sing. 

Silhouette,  a  profile  or  outline 
representation  of  an  object  filled  in 
with  black.  The  first  notice  of  the 
modern  practice  of  the  art  was  in  re- 

fard  to  portraits  made  by  Elizabeth 
*yberg,  who  cut  the  profiles  of  the 
English  sovereigns,  William  and 
Mary,  out  of  black  paper,  1699.         < 


Silk 

Silica,  oxide  of  silicon.  It  enters 
largely  into  the  composition  of  agate, 
chalcedony,  flint,  opal,  sandstone, 
felspar,  and  a  vast  number  of  other 
minerals.  In  a  perfectly  pure  state 
it  is  quite  transparent  and  color- 
less. Its  hardness  is  next  to  that  of 
the  precious  stones.  The  industrial 
applications  of  silica  are  very  numer- 
ous. Glass  and  pottery  are  com- 
pounds of  silica  with  various  metallic 
oxides.  It  is  extensively  used  in 
metallurgical  operations  as  a  flux  for 
effecting  the  decomposition  of  ores  by 
the  formation  of  a  light  glassy  slag 
which  floats  on  the  top  of  the  molten 
metal,  carrying  with  it  the  impuri- 
ties in  the  mineral. 

Silicon,  in  chemistry,  one  of  the 
non-metallic  elements,  the  base  of 
silica,  discovered  by  Berzelius  in 
1823.  It  was  at  first  supposed  to  be 
a  metal,  and  received  the  name  of 
silicium ;  but  is  now  considered  to  be 
a  non-metallic  element.  It  is  the  most 
abundant  solid  element  in  nature. 


COMMON  SILKWOEM. 
a,  larva  fnll  ^own;  b,  larva,  seripositing;  e 
cocoon     a,  chrysalis;  e,  female   motn;  f> 
male  moth. 

Silk,  the  peculiar  glossy  thread 
spun  by  the  caterpillars  or  larvae  of 
species  of  moths,  and  a  well-known 
kind  of  fabric  manufactured  from  it* 


Sill 


Silliman 


In  the  manufacture  of  silk  fabrics 
France  has  held,  since  1750,  the  lead- 
ing place  in  Europe,  Lyons  being  the 
chief  seat  of  the  trade.  The  culti- 
vation and  production  of  silk  was 
commenced  in  the  United  States  at  a 
very  early  period.  In  1734  eight 
pounds  of  silk  cocoons  raised  in 
Georgia  were  taken  to  England  by 
Governor  Oglethorpe.  Later,  a  court 
dress  was  made  for  Queen  Caroline  of 
silk  made  from  American  cocoons. 
Nearly  a  century  afterward  the  first 
silk  made  by  machinery  in  the  United 
States  was  manufactured  at  Mans- 
field, Conn.  (1829).  Silk  cultiva- 
tion is  now  a  firmly  established  in- 
dustry in  California  and  several  other 
States,  and  there  are  extensive  silk 
manufactories  at  Paterson,  N.  J., 
Hartford  and  South  Manchester, 
Conn.,  and  other  points  in  Massachu- 
setts, Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  New 
York,  etc.  Sewing  silks  of  American 
manufacture  are  regarded  throughout 
the  world  as  superior  in  many  re- 
spects to  those  manufactured  else- 
where. The  manufacture  of  silk  and 
silk  goods  in  the  United  States  em- 
ploys over  $109,500,000  capital,  and 
has  over  $133,300,000  in  products. 

Sill,  John  Mahelm  Berry,  an 
American  diplomatist;  born  in  Black 
Rock,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  23,  1831 ;  was.  g-ad-. 
uated  at  the  Michigan  State  Normal 
School  in  1854;  taught  there  as  pro- 
fessor in  1854^1803  and  as  principal 
in  1886-1894;  was  twice  principal  of 
the  Detroit  public  schools ;  member 
of  the  State  Board  of  Regents  of  the 
University  of  Michigan  in  1867-1870; 
and  United  States  minister  to  Korea 
in  1894-1897.  He  died  in  Detroit, 
Mich.,  April  6,   1901. 

Silliman,  Benjamin,  an  Amer- 
ican scientist ;  born  in  North  Strat- 
ford, Conn.,  Aug.  8,  1779,  was  grad- 
uated at  Yale  College  in  1796  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1802.  At  the 
solicitation  of  President  Dwight,  of 
Yale,  he  abandoned  law  to  devote 
himself  to  science,  and  in  1802  was 
chosen  Professor  of  Chemistry  and 
Natural  History  at  Yale.  In  1807 
wrote  the  earliest  authentic  account 
of  a  fall  of  a  meteor  in  America.  In 
1811  he  began  a  series  of  experiments 
with  the  compound  blow  pipe  and  ob- 
tained for  the  first  time  in  the  United 
States  the  metals  sodium  and  potas- 


sium. He  discovered  the  fusion  of 
the  carbons  in  the  voltaic  arc  in  1822 ; 
was  one  of  the  corporate  members 
named  by  Congi'ess  for  the  formation 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1863.  In  1818  he  founded  the 
"  American  Journal  of  Science."  He 
died  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Not.  24, 
1864. 

Silliman  Benjamin,  an  Amer- 
ican chemist ;  son  of  the  preceding ; 
born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Dec.  4, 
1816;  was  graduated  at  Yale  Uni- 
versity in  1837,  and  immediately  be- 
came an  assistant  to  his  father,  then 
Professor  of  Chemistry  at  Yale.  At 
the  foundation  of  the  Shefiield  Scien- 
tific School  at  Yale,  in  1847,  he  was 
made  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the 
School  of  Applied  Chemistry;  deliv- 
ered the  first  series  of  lectures  on 
agricultural  chemistry  ever  given  in 
the  United  States,  and  in  1869  be- 
came one  of  the  State  chemists  of 
Connecticut.  He  was  one  of  the  orig- 
inal members  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  in  1863.  He  died  in 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  Jan.  14,  1885. 

Silliman,  Benjamin  Donglas,  an 
American  lawyer;  born  in  Newport, 
R.  L,  Sept.  14,  1805;  was  graduated 
at  Yale  University  in  1824  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1829.  He  began 
his  political  career  as  a  member  of 
the  Assembly  from  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
in  1838,  and  three  years  later  be- 
came prominent  in  Whig  politics.  He 
was  appointed  United  States  District 
Attorney  for  the  Eastern  District  of 
New  York  in  1804;  was  a  member  of 
the  convention  which  revised  the  New 
York  State  constitution  in  1872 ;  and 
was  defeated  as  Republican  candidate 
for  attorney-general  of  New  York  in 
1873.  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
Jan.  24,  1901. 

Silliman,  Renben  Daniel,  an 
American  lawyer ;  born  in  Hudson, 
Wis.,  May  17,  1871;  was  graduated 
at  the  law  department  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan  in  1894;  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  the  same  year.  He 
practised  law  in  Duluth,  Minn.,  in 
1894-1898,  and  in  Honolulu  in  1898- 
1899 ;  was  appointed  judge  of  the  Cir- 
cuit Court  of  the  1st  Circuit  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  in  March,  1900,  by 
President  Dole  of  the  Republic  of 
Hawaii ;  ind  to  the  same  office  by 
President  McKinley,  in  June,  1900. 


Siloam. 

Siloam,  or  Siloali,  a  pool  in  Jeru- 
salem, fed  by  the  waters  of  the  Gihon 
and  forming  part  of  the  ancient 
water-supply  system  of  the  city.  In 
1880  the  famous  "  Siloam  inscrip- 
tion "  was  discovered  in  the  aqueduct. 
It  is  the  oldest  Hebrew  inscription 
known. 

Silotvaar,  an  explosive,  invented 
by  the  Russian  engineer,  Rucktchell, 
in  1886.  As  compared  with  ordinary 
gunpowder,  its  penetrating  power, 
when  used  for  cartridges,  is  stated  to 
be  10  times  greater.  It  emits  no 
smoke  or  heat,  and  the  discharge  is 
unaccompanied  by  any  report. 

Silurian  System,  in  geology,  a 
term  implying  that  the  rocks  so  de- 
scribed were  well  developed  in  the 
country  of  the  old  Silures. 


SILUETJS. 

Siluridse,  in  zoology,  a  family  of 
malecopterygious  fishes,  the  type  of 
which  is  the  genus  Silurus,  compris- 
ing species  of  large  size.  The  genus 
Pimelodus  contains  the  cat  fishes  of 
the  United  States,  of  which  there  are 
about  30  species.  The  cat  fish  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  is  from  two  to  four 
feet  long,  and  attains  the  weight  of 
30  pounds. 

Silvanns,  in  Roman  mythology,  a 
deity  among  the  Romans,  who  had  the 
care  of  fields  and  cattle  and  presided 
over  boundaries.  He  was  usually  rep- 
resented as  old,  and  bearing  a  cy- 
press plucked  up  by  the  roots;  and 
the  legend  of  Apollo  and  Cyparissus 
was  transferred  to  him.  The  usual 
offering  to  Silvanus  was  milk. 

Silvas,  or  Selvas,  a  name  given  to 
the  immense  wooded  plains  of  the 
Central  Amazon,  the  area  of  which  is 
estimated  at  from  750,000  to  1,000,- 
000  square  miles.  Being  low,  they 
are  flooded  for  a  fifth  part  of  their  ex- 
tent by  the  annual  rise  of  the  Ama- 
zon   and   its    tributaries. 


Simbirsk 

Silver,  a  precious  metal.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  known  almost  as 
early  as  gold,  and,  without  doubt,  for 
the  same  reason,  because  it  occurs 
very  frequently  in  a  state  of  purity  in 
the  earth  and  requires  but  an  ordinary 
heat  for  its  fusion.  Pure  silver  is  of 
a  fine  white  color.  It  is  softer  than 
copper  but  harder  than  gold. 

Silver  isi  now  obtained  in  the 
United  States  in  18  States  and  Terri- 
tories, the  annual  production  being 
about  54,000,000  fine  ounces,  and  the 
commercial  value  fluctuating  around 
50  cents  per  fine  ounce.  The  world's 
production  is  estimated  at  203,186,000 
fine  ounces,  with  a  coining  value  of 
nearly  $263,000,000. 

Silver  Age,  the  second  mythological 
period  in  the  history  of  the  world, 
under  the  care  of  Jupiter.  It  suc- 
ceeded the  golden  age  and  was  char- 
acterized by  voluptuousness.  The 
phrase  is  also  applied  to  a  period  of 
Roman  literature  succeeding  the  most 
brilliant  period,  and  extending  from 
about  A.  D.  14  to  A.  D.  180. 

Silver  Certificate,  a  certificate  o. 
deposit  issued  by  the  United  States 
treasury  for  a  certain  number  of  sil- 
ver dollars  payable  to  the  bearer  on 
demand.     It  circulates  as  money. 

Silver  Fir,  in  botany,  the  Abi^s 
pectinata.  It  is  named  from  its  sil- 
very-white bark;  native  of  Central 
Europe,  where  it  sometimes  reaches 
100  feet  high. 

Silver  Fish,  a  fish  of  the  size  of  a 
small  carp,  having  a  white  colov 
striped  with  silvery  lines.  It  is  a  va- 
riety of  the  gold  fish. 

Silver  Fox,  in  zoology,  a  variety  of 
the  Virginian  fox.  When  adult,  the 
fur  is  of  a  deep  glossy  black  (whence 
it  is  also  called  the  black  fox),  with 
a  silvery  grizzle  on  the  forehead,  and 
on  the  flanks  passing  upward  to  the 
rump.  It  is  extremely  rare,  and  the 
fur  is  very  valuable. 

Simbirsk,  an  eastern  government 
of  Russia;  area,  29,657  square  miles. 
It  consists  in  general  of  an  extensive 
fertile  plain  watered  by  the  Volga  and 
its  aflBuents.  Agriculture  and  cattle- 
breeding  are  the  leading  industries. 
The  princinal  crops  are  grain,  hemp, 
flax,  hay,  and  tobacco.  Minerals  are 
unimportant.  There  is  an  abundance 
of   fish   in   the   rivers   and  numeroua 


Sinicoe 

small  lakes.  Pop.  1,481,811-— Sim- 
birsk, the  capital,  stands  on  a  lofty 
bank  of  the  Volga,  448  miles  E.  S.  E. 
of  Moscow.    Pop.  43,298. 

Simcoe,  a  lake  in  the  province  of 
Ontario,  Canada.  It  is  about  30 
miles  long,  and  18  miles  broad,  sit- 
uated between  Lake  Ontario  and  the 
arm  of  Lake  Huron  called  Georgian 
Bay,  into  which  it  discharges  its 
waters  through  Lake  Couchiching  and 
the  Severn. 

Simeon,  in  Scripture,  the  second 
son  of  Jacob  and  Leah;  born  about 
1755  B.  O.  When  he  and  his  breth- 
ren went  into  Egyi)t  to  buy  corn,  his 
brother  Joseph  insisted  on  Benjamin, 
the  youngest  brother,  being  brought  to 
him,  and  detained  Simeon  as  a  hos- 
tage for  his  forthcoming.  He  gave  his 
name  to  one  of  the  Twelve  Tribes, 
which  dwelt  to  the  N.  of  the  territory 
occupied  by  the  tribe  of  Judah. 

Simeon,  Charles,  an  English 
preacher ;  was  born  in  Reading,  Berk- 
shire, Sept.  24,  1759 ;  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge; 
took  orders ;  and  immediately  after 
was  appointed  Perpetual  Curate  of 
Trinity  Church,  Cambridge,  an  office 
which  he  held  till  the  close  of  his 
life,  Nov.  13,  1836. 

Simile,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  by 
which  two  things  are  considered  with 
regard  to  a  third  that  is  common  to 
both. 

Simmons,  Franklin,  an  American 
sculptor ;  born  in  Webster,  Me.,  Jan. 
11,  1839;  first  came  into  prominence 
in  1865-1806  when,  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  he  produced  several  life-size 
bronze  medallions  of  the  members  of 
the  cabinet  and  prominent  army  and 
navy  officers.  In  1868  he  went  to 
Rome,  Italy. 

Simms,  William  Gilmore,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Charleston, 
S.  C,  April  17,  1806.  He  died  in 
Charleston,  June  11,  1870. 

Simon,  Jules  Francois,  a  French 
statesman ;  born  in  Lorient,  Morbi- 
han,  Brittany,  Dec.  27,  1814;  was  a 
disciple  of  Victor  Cousin,  the  great 
French  philosopher,  and  when  25 
years  of  age  succeeded  him  in  the 
chair  of  philosophy  at  the  Sorbonne. 
After  the  revolution  in  1848  he  was 
elected  to  the  assembly  from  the 
Gotes-du-Nord.     In   March,   1849,    he 


Simontoa 

was  elected  to  the  Council  of  State. 
In  1863  he  was  elected  to  the  Corps 
Legislatif,  where  he  served  till  the 
fall  of  the  empire,  when  he  was  placed 
with  Thiers  and  Gambetta  at  the 
head  of  the  provisional  government, 
whose  affairs  he  administered  during 
the  siege.  From  the  conclusion  of 
peace  in  1871  till  the  fall  of  Thiers  he 
was  prominent  in  the  Assembly  at 
Bordeaux  and  at  Versailles,  and  in 
1875  was  elected  a  life  senator.  He 
died  in  Paris,  France,  June  8,  1896; 

Simonides,  a  Greek  lyric  poet; 
born  in  the  island  of  Ceos,  556  B.  c. 
He  lived  at  Athens  during  the  reign 
of  Hipparchus  and  spent  his  last 
years  at  the  court  of  Hieron  of  Syra- 
cuse. Only  fragments  of  his  poems 
are  extant.  Simonides  made  poetry 
his  profession,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  poet  who  wrote  for  pay. 
He  died  467  B.  c. 

Simon,  Richard,  the  father  of 
Biblical  criticism ;  born  in  Dieppe, 
France,  May  13,  1638.  He  entered 
the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  in 
1659,  but  soon  after  withdrew,  to  re- 
turn in  the  latter  part  of  1662.  He 
was  sent  first  to  lecture  on  philosophy 
in  the  college  of  Juilly,  but  was 
afterward  appointed  to  catalogue  the 
Oriental  MSS.  in  the  library  of  the 
Order  of  Paris.  The  scandal  oc- 
casioned by  the  appearance  of  his 
'"Critical  History  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment" led  to  his  again  withdrawing 
from  the  Oratory  and  retiring  to 
Belleville  as  cur6.  In  1682  he  re- 
signed his  parish  and  lived  in  retire- 
ment. Died  in  Dieppe,  April  11,  1712. 

Simons,  Frederic  "William,  an 
American  geologist;  born  in  Charles- 
town,  Mass.,  July  3,  1853 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Cornell  University  in  1875 ; 
was  instructor  of  Geology  and  Pa- 
lajontology  there  in  1875-1877.  He 
held  the  professorship  of  botany, 
geology,  and  zoology  at  the  University 
of  North  Carolina  1877-1881;  and 
that  of  geology  and  biology  at  the 
University  of  Arkansas  in  1887-1890; 
and  accepted  the  chair  of  geology  at 
the  University  of  Texas  in  1895. 

Simonton,  Charles  H.,  an  Amer- 
ican  jurist ;  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C, 
July  11,  1829;  was  graduated  at  the 
South  Carolina  College  at  the  head  of 
bis  elass.     He  then  studied  law  and 


Simony 

practised  in  his  native  city ;  was  a 
membei?  of  the  Legislature  of  South 
Carolina  in  1858-1886,  excepting  the 
periods  of  the  Civil  War  and  recon- 
struction. He  joined  the  Confederate 
army  in  1861 ;  was  captain  of  the 
Washington  Light  Infantry,  and 
afterward  colonel  of  the  25th  South 
Carolina  Volunteers.  During  the  lat- 
ter months  of  the  war  he  was  a  pris- 
oner at  Fort  Delaware.  In  1886-1893 
he  was  United  States  district  judge  of 
South  Carolina.     He  died  in  1904. 

Simony  (so  called  from  its  re- 
semblance to  the  sin  of  Simon  Magus) 
in  English  law,  an  offense  consisting 
in  the  presentation  to  an  ecclesiastical 
benefice  for  a  reward. 

Simoom,  a  noxious  hot  wind  which 
occurs  in  most  countries  situated  at 
no  great  distance  from  sandy  deserts, 
and  which  always  blows  from  that 
quarter  in  which  the  desert  is  sit- 
uated. _  The  approach  of  the  simoom 
is  indicated  by  terrible  appearances. 
The  E.  horizon  is  pervaded  by  a  dull 
yellow  hue ;  a  thick  sulphurous  ex- 
halation rises  from  the  ground,  which 
is  first  hurried  round  in  rapid  gyra- 
tions, and  then  ascends  into  the  air 
covering  the  whole  heavens.  Hissing 
and  crackliug  sounds  are  heard ;  and 
a  hot  current  of  air  rushes  over  the 
ground.  There  is  generally  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  fine  sand  in  the  hot 
air,  and  the  wind  affects  the  human 
body  very  powerfully,  often  producing 
great  feebleness  and  sometimes  even 
death. 

Simplon  Tunnel,  a  tunnel  through 
the  Alps,  designed  to  give  France  and 
Switzerland  direct  communication  by 
rail  with  Milan,  the  greatest  distrib- 
uting point  in  Italian  trade.  Among 
Italians  it  is  believed  that  the  tunnel 
will  double  the  commerce  of  Genoa 
and  make  that  city,  instead  of  Mar- 
seilles, the  first  among  the  Mediter- 
ranean ports.  Work  was  begun  on 
the  tunnel  on  Nov.  13,  1898.  It  will 
be  the  longest  tunnel  in  the  world, 
121/4.  Diiles.  When  completed,  it  will 
be  the  third  one  connecting  Italy  with 
outlying  countries  by  direct  rail.  The 
Simplon  tunnel  begins  in  Switzerland 
near  the  little  town  of  Brig,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Rhone,  Canton  Wallis, 
and  ends  in  the  valley  of  the  Diveria, 
on    the    Italian   side   near    Isella.     It 


Simpson 

is  perfectly  straight,  except  for  a  small 
curve  at  the  entrance  and  exit.  The 
boring  was  completed  Feb.  24,  1905, 
and  the  road  oiiened  to  traffic  Apr.  2, 
notwithstanding  unexpected  engineer- 
ing difficulties,  floods  of  hot  and  cold 
springs,  quicksands,  etc.  The  cost, 
borne  jointly  by  the  Italian  and  Swiss 
governments,  amounted  to  $15,000,000. 

Simpson,  Hdxirard,  an  American 
naval  officer;  born  in  New  York  city, 
March  3,  1824 ;  took  part  in  the  Mex- 
ican and  Civil  Wars ;  and  became  a 
rear-admiral  in  1884.  He  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  March  2,  1888. 

Simpson,  Sir  James  Young,  a 
British  physician ;  born  in  Bathgate, 
Linlithgowshire,  June  7,  1811.  At 
the  age  of  15  he  proceeded  to  Edin- 
burgh University,  and  in  1830  was 
licensed  by  the  Royal  College  of  Sur- 
geons. In  1832  he  graduated  as 
M.  D.,  and  became  assistant  to  Pro- 
fessor John  Thomson.  He  was  short- 
ly afterward  elected  one  of  the  presi- 
dents of  the  Royal  Medical  Society, 
and  in  1835  he  published  a  paper  on 
diseases  of  the  placenta,  which  was 
translated  into  different  European 
languages.  In  1839  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  midwifery  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  His  first  paper 
on  chloroform  was  read  before  the 
Medico-Chirurgical  Society  of  Edin- 
burgh on  March  10,  1847,  and  it  soon 
came  into  general  use.  He  died  in 
Edinburgh,  May  6,   1870. 

Simpson,  Matthew,  an  American 
clergyman ;  born  in  Cadiz,  O.,  June 
20,  1810;  tutor  in  Madison  (now 
Allegheny)  College  in  his  19th  year; 
was  graduated  in  medicine  in  1833, 
and  soon  after  entered  the  ministry 
in  Pittsburg  Conference  (M.  E.)  ; 
elected  vice-president  and  professor 
in  Allegheny  College,  1837;  elected 
president  of  Indiana  Asbury  Uni- 
versity, 1839;  elected  editor  of  the 
"Western  Christian  Advocate"  1848. 
In  1852  he  was  elected  bishop.  Dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  he  delivered  nu- 
merous addresses  in  behalf  of  the 
Union  and  the  freedmen,  and  officiated 
at  the  funeral  of  President  Lincoln. 
In  1874  he  visited  Mexico,  and  later 
presided  at  the  conferences  in  Eu- 
rope; and  in  1881  visited  Europe  for 
the  third  time  as  delegate  to  the  first 
Methodist  Ecumenical  Council  and  de" 


Simpson  College 


Singapore 


livered  the  opening  address.  He  died 
in  Philadelphia,   Pa.,  June  18,  1884. 

Simpson  College,  a  coeducational 
institution  in  Indianola,  la. ;  founded 
in  18G7  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

Simrock,  Karl  Joseph,  a  German 
poet ;  born  in  Bonn,  Germany,  Aug. 
28,  1802.  He  studied  at  the  univer- 
sity of  his  native  city  and  at  Berlin, 
and  in  1826  entered  the  Prussian 
State   service.     In    1850   he   was   ap- 

Eointed  Professor  of  Old  German 
language  and  Literature  at  Bonn,  a 
Sost  \vhich  he  held  till  his  death, 
uly  18,  1876. 

Sims,  James  Marion,  an  Amer- 
ican surgeon ;  born  in  Lancaster, 
S.  C,  Jan.  25,  1813 ;  studied  medicine 
at  Charleston  and  Philadelphia,  and 
having  begun  practice  had  his  atten- 
tion specially  drawn  to  some  of  the 
special  diseases  of  women,  for  which 
he  gained  a  distinguished  name,  in- 
troducing new  instruments  and  oper- 
ations. He  was  instrumental  in  get- 
ting a  woman's  hospital  established  in 
•New  York.  Practised  for  some  years 
in  Europe.  He  died  in  New  York 
city,  Nov.  13,  1883. 

Sims,  Winfield  Scott,  an  Amer- 
ican inventor ;  born  in  New  York  city, 
April  6,  1844;  was  graduated  at  the 
Newark  (N.  J.)  High  School  in  1861, 
and  sserved  during  the  Civil  War  in 
the  37th  New  Jersey  regiment.  Sub- 
sequently he  turned  his  attention  to 
the  investigation  of  electric  appa- 
ratus ;  constructed  an  electric  motor  by 
means  of  which  he  was  enabled  to 
propel  a  16-foot  boat  at  the  rate  of  4 
miles  an  hour;  was  the  first  to  apply 
electricity  to  the  propulsion  and  guid- 
ance of  movable  torpedoes,  and  later 
devised  a  dynamite  boat  with  a  speed 
of  18  miles  an  hour,  to  be  u§ed  in  the 
harbor  and  coast  defense  service. 

Simson,  Robert,  a  Scotch  mathe- 
matician ;  born  in  Kerton  Hall,  Ayr- 
shire, Oct.  14,  1687;  was  educated  at 
the  tJniversity  of  Glasgow.  In  1711 
be  was  appointed  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics in  Glasgow,  and  he  occupied 
this  chair  for  half  a  century.  One  of 
the  first  subjects  to  which  he  turned 
hie  attention  was  the  restoration  of 
Euclid's  lost  treatise  on  "Porisms." 
It  is  Simson's  greatest  achievement 
that  he  elucidated  the  nature  of  the 


ancient  porisms,  though  his  restora- 
tion of  them  is  not  complete.  He 
died  Oct.  1,  1768. 

Sinai,  a  mountain,  or  mountain 
range  in  Arabia  Petrsea,  in  the  penin- 
sula, formed  by  the  two  arms  of  the 
Red  Sea,  and  rendered  memorable  as 
the  spot  where,  according  to  the 
Pentateuch,  the  law  was  given  to 
Israel  through  Moses.  This  mountain 
range  is  divisible  into  three  groups : 
a  N.  W.,  reaching,  in  Mount  Serbal, 
an  elevation  of  6,340  feet ;  an  E.  and 
central,  attaining,  in  Jebel  Katherin, 
a  height  of  8,160  feet;  and  a  S.  E., 
whose  highest  peak,  Um  Shaumer,  is 
the  culminating  point  of  the  whole 
Sinaitic  range. 

Sinaloa,  a  state  of  Mexico,  border- 
ing on  the  Bay  of  Cnlifornia;  area, 
36,200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  223,684. 

Sinclair,  May,  English  novelist; 
b.  Rock  Ferry,  Cheshire,  1867.  Her 
first  poems  were  published  in  1887  and 
"  Audrey  Craven,"  her  first  novel,  in 
1897.  "The  Divine  Fire,"  published 
in  1904,  achieved  a  remarkable  success. 

Sinclair,  Upton,  novelist ;  b.  Bal- 
timore, Sept.  20,  1878.  Graduate  of 
New  York  City  College,  of  Columbia 
Univ.,  published  "  Springtime  and 
Harvest"  (1901),  followed  by  other 
works  including  "  The  Jungle " 
(1905),  depicting  Chicago  stock  yard 
conditions ;  it  created  a  phenomenal 
sensation. 

Si-ngan-fn,  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  Shen-si,  Northwest  China. 
Pop.  estimated  1,000,000. 

Singapore,  the  capital  of  the  in- 
sular dependency  of  the  same  name,  in 
the  British  Straits  Settlements.  It  is 
a  picturesque  well-built  town,  with 
fine  public  buildings  and  all  kinds  of 
appliances  in  the  nature  of  public 
works.  It  possesses  a  governor's  resi- 
dence, St.  Andrew's  Protestant  cathe- 
dral, a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  Mo- 
hammedan mosques,  Hindu  temples. 
Chinese  joss-houses,  Raffles  museum, 
the  supreme  law-courts,  postoffice, 
hospitals,  jail,  barracks,  and  fine  bo- 
tanical and  zoological  gardens.  It  is 
defended  by  numerous  batteries  and 
forts,  and  is  a  naval  coaling  station 
and  depot.  The  docks,  stores,  and 
dwelling  houses  extend  for  6  miles  or 
more  along  the  sea  front.  The  har- 
bor is  spacious  and  safe  and  remark- 


singing 

ably  easy  of  access.  The  death  rate 
is  high,  yet  the  climate,  in  spite  of 
Singapore  being  situated  little  more 
than  1°  N.  of  the  equator,  is  uniform 
and  agreeable,  the  nights  being  partic- 
ularly cool  and  refreshing.  The  ther- 
mometer ranges  between  67°  and  94° 
F,  The  rainfall  varies  from  65.6  to 
92.2  inches  in  the  year.  It  was  made 
the  capital  of  the  Straits  Settlements 
in  1830,  superseding  Penang.  Pop. 
160,000. 

Singing,  the  production  of  music 
by  the  human  voice.  The  principal 
requisites  in  singing  are  a  good  voice, 
a  correct  ear,  and  a  sound  rudimen- 
tary knowledge  of  music.  By  careful 
practice,  purity  of  tone  and  flexibility 
of  execution  may  be  attained,  and  the 
sweetness,  brilliancy,  and  compass  of 
the  voice  increased  in  a  marked  de- 
gree.   See  Voice. 

Single  Standard,  a  phrase  used  in 
the  discussion  of  bimetallism  to  in- 
dicate a  single  standard  of  value ;  that 
is,  gold  alone  or  silver  alone. 

Single  Tax,  the  principle  held  by 
Henry  George  and  his  followers,  that 
the  value  which  the  growth  and  im- 
provement of  the  community  attaches 
to  land  should  be  taken  for  the  use  of 
the  community,  so  that  no  tax  need 
be  levied  on  the  product  of  labor,  but 
all  public  revenues  for  national,  state, 
county,  and  municipal  purposes  could 
be  raised  by  a  single  tax  on  land 
values,  irrespective  of  improvement. 
The  originator  urged  the  adoption  of 
his  theory  on  two  grounds,  "  govern- 
mental expediency  "  and  "  social  jus- 
tice." 

Sinister,  in  heraldry,  a  term  which 
denotes  the  left  side  of  the  escutch- 
eon. 

Sinking  Fnnd,  a  fund  set  aside, 
from  various  sources  of  revenue,  by  a 
government,  State,  or  company,  for 
the  gradual  extinction  or  amortization 
of  its  debt. 

Sin  Offering,  in  Judaism,  the  He^ 
brew  chhattath,  a  sacrifice  for  the  re- 
moval of  sin,  first  instituted  in  lUev.  iv. 

Sinon,  the  Greek  who,  according  to 
the  legend,  threw  himself  into  the 
hands  of  the  Trojans  and  persuaded 
them  to  admit  the  wooden  horse. 

Sinople,  red  ferruginous  quartz,  of 
a  blood  or  brownish  red  color,  some- 


Si« 

times  with  a  tinge  of  yellow.  It  oc- 
curs in  small  crystals,  resembling 
some  varieties  of  jasper. 

Sioux  City,  city  and  capital  of 
Woodbury  county,  la.;  on  the  Mis- 
souri river  and  the  Union  Pacific  and 
other  railroads;  97  miles  N.  of  Coun- 
cil Bluffs;  is  a  great  railroad  center; 
in  a  very  rich  farming  section;  has 
large  general  jobbing,  pork  and  beef 
packing,  and  live-stock  market  inter- 
ests; manufactures  linseed  oil,  beef 
and  pork  products,  flour,  oatmeal,  and 
brick;  and  contains  Morningside  Col- 
lege, Medical  College,  normal  school. 
Federal  Building,  St.  Joseph's  and 
Samaritan  hospitals,  Homes  for  the 
Friendless,  Boys  and  Girls,  and  Ba- 
bies, and  the  Floyd  Monument.  Pop. 
(1910)  47,828. 

Sioux,    or   Dakotah    Indians,    a 

once  powerful  family  of  North  Amer- 
ican Indians.  Their  number  is  esti- 
mated at  25,000;  they  are  well  ad- 
vanced in  civilization  and  are  increas- 
ing in  population.  In  1862,  the  Sioux 
under  the  lead  of  Little  Crow,  a  noted 
chief,  in  consequence  of  the  annuity 
not  having  been  paid  to  their  satis- 
faction, waged  a  war  on  the  whites 
of  Minnesota;  and  so  well  concerted 
were  their  schemes  that  no  less  than 
640  men,  women,  and  children,  and 
94  soldiers,  were  killed  before  the 
massacre  was  stayed.  They  are  now 
divided  into  small  branches,  and  lo- 
cated on  several  reservations,  chiefly 
in  North  and  South  Dakota  and  Min- 
nesota. 

Sioux  Falls,  city  and  capital  9f 
Minnehaha  county,  S.  D.;  on  the  Big 
Sioux  river  and  several  railroads;  90 
miles  N.  of  Sioux  City,  la.;  is  the 
metropolis  of  the  State  and  the  dis- 
tributing point  for  farming  imple- 
ments and  mercantile  supplies;  de- 
rives immense  water-power  from  the 
falls  of  the  river;  has  important  man- 
ufactures and  granite  and  other  stone 
works;  and  contains  Sioux  Falls  Uni- 
versity (Bapt.),  State  Institute  for 
Deaf  Mutes,  State  Penitentiary,  State 
Normal  School,  and  the  seat  of  a 
Protestant  Episcopal  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  bishop.     Pop.  (1910)  14,094. 

Sir,  a  term  of  complimentary  ad- 
dress applied  commonly,  without  re- 
gard to  position  or  standing,  to  men 
of   any    degree;    a   general    title    by 


Siren 


Sisal 


which  a  person  addresses  the  man  to 
whom  he  is  speaking. 

Siren,  in  acoustics,  an  instrument 
for  determining  the  number  of  vibra- 
tions corresponding  to  a  note  of  any 
given  pitch. 

In  classical  mythology,  certain 
melodious  divinities  who  dwelt  on  the 
shores  of  Sicily  and  so  charmed  pass- 
ing mariners  by  the  sweetness  of  their 
song  that  they  forgot  their  homes  and 
remained  there  till  they  perished  of 
hunger.  According  to  one  legend  they 
threw  themselves  into  the  sea,  from 
rage  and  despair,  on  hearing  the  more 
melodious  song  of  Orpheus.  Originally 
there  were  only  two  sirens ;  but  their 
number  was  afterward  increased  to 
three,  and  their  names  are  given  with 
great  variety. 

In  zoology,  mud  eels :  a  genus  of 
Urodela  or  of  Perennibranchiate  Ich- 
thyoidea,  constituting  the  family  Si- 
renidffi.  They  are  eel-like  amphibians, 
with  two  anterior  feet  and  permanent 
branchiae,  and  range  from  Texas  to 
Carolina.  There  are  three  species.  S. 
lacertina  is  the  mud  eel. 

Sirenia,  an  order  of  aquatic  Mam- 
malia, including  the  manatee,  dugong, 
rytina,  etc. ;  allied  to  the  Cetacea, 
with  which  they  were  formerly  and 
are  still  occasionally  classed.  The 
body  is  long,  compact,  and  cylindrical, 
narrowing  toward  the  tail,  which  is 
set  horizontally  and  terminates  either 
in  forked  flukes  or  a  flat  fibrous  ex- 
pansion. Hind  limbs  and  sacrum 
absent;  anterior  limbs  converted  into 
paddles.  Snout  fleshy  and  well  de- 
veloped; nostrils  on  upper  surface; 
lips  fleshy,  the  upper  lip  usually  with 
a  moustache.  The  skin  is  rough  and 
sparsely  hairy,  or  smooth  like  that  of 
the  whale.  The  sirenia  pass  their  life 
In  the  water,  living  chiefly  in  shallow 
bays,  estuaries,  lagoons,  and  rivers, 
tiever  straying  far  from  shore,  and 
feeding  solely  on  aquatic  vegetation. 

Sirez,  in  entomology,  the  typical 
tailed  wasp.  It  is,  however,  an  aber- 
rant sawfly,  the  apparent  sting  being 
a  projecting  ovipositor.  It  is  not  un- 
common in  pine  and  fir  woods. 

Siidns,  in  astronomy,  the  dog  star, 
by  far  the  brightest  fixed  star  in  the 
sky.  It  is  alpha  Canis  Major,  situated 
a  little  below  Orion,  and  is  mytholog- 
ically  regarded  as  one  of  the  hounds 


held  in  leash  by  Orion,  Procyon  in 
Canis  Minor  being  the  other.  Ptolemy, 
in  the  2d  century,  ranked  Sirius 
among  red  stars ;  now  it  is  white,  and 
is  a  very  brilliant  object,  its  light  be- 
ing 324  times  as  great  as  that  of  a 
star  of  the  sixth  magnitude.  It  is 
about  1,000,000  times  as  far  from  us 
as  the  sun,  and  its  mass  is  about  20 
times  as  great.  Some  irregular  move- 
ments of  Sirius  led  to  the  belief  that 
a  heavenly  body  existed  near  enough 
to  produce  a  perturbation,  and  a  son 
of  Alvan  Clark,  of  Boston,  discovered, 
on  Jan.  31,  1862,  what  appears  to  be 
a  planet  jevolving  around  Sirius  as 
its  sun,  it  is  thought  in  about  49 
years. 

Sirocco,  a  hot  wind  storm.  Most 
of  the  hot  winds  of  the  Old  World 
are  modified  forms  of  the  simoom.  The 
sirocco  originates  in  the  Sahara  and 
travels  N.  to  the  Mediterranean  and 
Southern  Europe,  but  it  is  not  so 
deadly  as  the  prototype.  It  brings 
with  it  great  quantities  of  the  desert 
sand,  and  the  air  becomes  so  dense  at 
times  that  the  sun  is  obscured  as  if  by 
fog.  While  it  remains  on  the  African 
mainland  it  is  characterized  by  a  very 
marked  dryness,  as  there  are  no  ex- 
tensive water  surfaces  to  supply  it 
with  moisture.  As  soon,  however,  as 
it  is  launched  over  the  Mediterranean 
it  begins  to  take  up  copious  draughts, 
so  that  when  it  reaches  Malta,  Sicily, 
and  the  S.  shores  of  Europe  as  a 
wind  from  between  S.  E.  and  S.  W., 
it  has  undergone  a  change  from  a  hot, 
dry  wind  to  a  hot,  damp  wind.  During 
its  prevalence  iron  rusts,  clothes  spoil 
with  mildew,  meat  turns  putrid, 
grapes  and  green  leaves  wither,  wine 
will  not  fine,  and  paint  will  not  dry. 
Sicily  experiences  the  sirocco  about  a 
dozen  times  a  year,  but  it  is  not  so 
frequently  met  with  in  other  parts  of 
Europe. 

Sisal,  or  Grass  Hemp,  a  species  of 
agave  yielding  a  valuable  fiber,  a  na- 
tive of  Mexico,  Honduras,  Central 
America,  and  specially  cultivated  in 
Yucatan.  It  is  grown  on  stony  ground, 
and  the  leaves,  from  which  the  fiber 
is  prepared,  are  from  two  to  three 
feet  long.  The  pulp  is  cleaned  away 
from  each  side  of  the  leaf  and  the  re- 
maining fiber  is  then  washed  and  sun- 
dried. 


Siskin 


Sivalik  Strata 


Siskin,  the  American  pinefinch, 
an  autumnal  visitant  from  the  N.  to 
temperate  regions,  generally  leaving 
in  the  spring,  though  many  pairs  re- 
main and  breed.  Breeders  often  pair 
the  siskin  with  the  canary  to  obtain 
a  song  bird  whose  note  is  less  shrill 
than  that  of  the  pure  canary. 

Sisterkoods,  societies  or  communi- 
ties of  women  living  together  under  a 
religious  rule,  binding  upon  all,  and 
with  a  common  object  for  their  uni'od 
life.  But  in  common  use  the  word 
denotes  those  communities  which  are 
not  enclosed. 

Sisyrinckinm,  small  grass-like 
plants,  the  most  common  being  the 
blue-eyed  grass,  a  little  plant  with 
blue  flowers  found  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada. 

Sitka,  or  New  Arckangel,  a  port 
of  entry  and  seat  of  administration  of 
Alaska  Territory;  on  the  W.  coast 
of  the  island  of  Sitka  or  Baranof; 
about  1,300  miles  N.  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. It  is  located  amid  beautiful 
scenery,  and  has  a  wide  and  deep  har- 
bor, somewhat  difficult  of  entrance.  Its 
bay,  dotted  with  evergreen  islands, 
opens  out  into  the  Pacific,  and  within 
view  are  river,  forests,  and*  snow- 
covered  mountains.  Ferns  and  mosses 
are  found  in  great  variety.  It  is  said 
that  on  the  small  island  of  Sitka  there 
grow  more  than  300  kinds  of  wild 
flowers.  The  town  contains  a  hospital, 
museum,  an  industrial  and  public 
school,  the  Greek  Church  of  St.  Mich- 
ael, built  in  1816,  and  in  which  the 
Russians  still  maintain  the  national 
religion,  and  a  Presbyterian  mission 
where  about  200  boys  and  girls  receive 
an  industrial  training  in  connection 
with  the  ordinary  branches  of  an 
English  education.  When  Alaska  was 
transferred  to  the  United  States  in 
1867,  Sitka  contained  only  about  100 
log  huts.   Pop.  (1900)   est.  2,000. 

Sitting  Bull,  a  chief  of  the  Sioux 
Indians;  bom  about  1837;  was  re- 
garded as  a  great  "  medicine  man  "  by 
his  tribe;  and  was  an  obdurate  foe 
of  the  whites.  He  was  conspicuous  in 
the  Sioux  massacre  of  1862 ;  was  con- 
stantly on  the  war  path  for  14  years ; 
was  a  leader  in  the  Indian  outbreaks 
of  1876;  and  was  in  command  at  the 
battle  of  the  Little  Big  Horn  in  which 
General  Custer  and  his  entire  force 


were  killed.  With  his  band  he  escaped 
into  Canada,  but  continued  even  there 
to  incite  rebellion  among  the  Sioux. 
In  1880,  receiving  the  promise  of  par- 
don, he  returned  to  Dakota  and  sur- 
rendered to  General  Miles.  He  again 
incited  the  Indians  to  renewed  out- 
breaks. His  arrest  was  ordered  and 
the  Indian  police  were  detailed  on 
this  duty.  In  attempting  to  resist 
them,  he  was  killed  Dec.  15,  1890. 

Sium,  in  botany,  the  water  parsnip ; 
a  genus  of  Umbelliferse,  family  Ammi- 
nidse ;  poisonous  herbs  with  small 
white  flowers. 

Siva  (a  Sanskrit  word,  literally 
meaning  "happy,"  "  auspicious  "),  the 
name  of  the  third  god  of  the  Hindu 
Trimurti  or  triad,  in  which  he  repre- 
sents the  characters  both  of  Destroyer 
and  Reproducer.  The  name  Siva,  as 
that  of  a  deity,  is  unknown  in  the 
Vedic  hymns,  but  established  as  such 
in  the  epic  poems,  Puranas  and  Tan- 
tras.  The  Saivas,  or  worshipers  of 
Siva,  assign  to  him  the  first  place  in 
the  Trimurti ;  and  to  them  he  is  not 
only  the  chief  deity,  but  the  deity 
which  comprises  in  itself  all  other 
deities.  The  symbol  of  Siva  is  the 
Linga,  emblematic  of  creation,  which 
follows  destruction.  From  each  of  his 
numerous  attributes  or  characteristics 
he  derives  a  name  or  epithet.  He  has 
five  heads  (hence  his  name  Pancha- 
nana,  "the  five-faced");  three  eyes 
(hence  his  name,  Trincetra,  "  three- j 
eyed  " ) ,  one  of  which  is  on  his  fore- ' 
head,  and  indicates  his  power  of  con- 
templation ;  and  in  the  middle  of  his 
forhead  he  wears  a  crescent.  His  hair 
is  clotted  together  and  brought  over 
the  head  so  as  to  project  like  a  horn 
from  the  forehead.  On  his  head  he 
carries  the  Ganges,  whose  course  he 
intercepted  by  his  hair,  when  this 
river  descended  from  heaven,  so  as  to 
enable  the  earth  to  bear  its  fall. 
Round  his  neck  he  carries  a  garland 
of  human  skulls.  In  his  hands  he 
holds  the  trident,  a  club  or  pole  armed 
at  the  upper  end  with  transverse  pieces 
representing  the  breastbone  and  ribs 
adjoining,  and  surmounted  by  a  skull 
and  one  or  two  human  heads. 

Sivalik  Strata,  in  geology,  certain 
fresh-water  strata  found  in  the  Si- 
valik Hills  in  India,  etc.  They  were 
originally  regarded  as  Miocene. 


Siac  Companies 


Skagway 


Six  Companies,  an  organization 
of  Chinamen  with  headquarters  in 
San  Francisco,  Cal.,  partly  benevolent 
and  partly  commercial.  Originally, 
they  guaranteed  to  send  back,  dead  or 
alive,  the  body  of  every  Chinaman 
who  sailed  from  home  to  this  country, 
but  they  now  ship  back  to  China  the 
bones  only  of  those  whose  families  de- 
sire those  relics  buried  in  the  sacred 
earth  of  the  Flowery  Kingdom.  They 
began  in  1850  and  1851  hiring  men 
in  China  to  meet  the  demand  for  labor 
in  California.  The  business  grew  and 
other  Chinese  firms  went  into  it.  Then 
the  agents  of  all  these  firms  found  it 
necessary  to  unite  for  self-protection. 
There  were  six  of  these  agencies,  and 
they  called  themselves  the  Six  Com- 
panies. They  are  secret  societies  only 
to  the  initiated;  to  the  rest  they  do 
.  not  differ  widely  in  their  main  design 
from  the  societies  which  white  men 
established  in  California  during  the 
gold  fever,  when  people  from  every 
State  in  the  Union  had  their  head- 
quarters there.  The  Six  Companies 
have  added  arbitration  bureaus  and 
banking  operations  to  their  original 
scheme. 

Six-principle  Baptists,  an 
/  American  sect  of  Baptists,  claiming 
descent  from  the  original  settlement  of 
Roger  Williams  at  Providence,  R.  I., 
in  1630.  The  six  principles  from 
which  they  derive  their  name,  are  re- 
pentance for  dead  works,  faith  toward 
God,  the  doctrine  of  baptism,  laying 
on  of  hands,  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
and  eternal  judgment. 

Sixtus,  the  name  of  several  popes : 

Sixtus  I.,  successor  of  Alexander  I. 
in  119;  martyred  in  127. 

Sixtus  II.,  the  successor  of  Stephen 
I.  He  is  stated  to  have  been  an 
Athenian  and  pagan  philosopher  be- 
fore his  conversion  to  Christianity.  He 
was  one  of  those  who  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom in  the  persecution  of  the 
Christians  by  Valerianus  in  258. 

Sixtus  III.,  successor  of  Celestin  I. 
in  432.  He  endeavored  to  reconcile  the 
disputes  existing  in  the  Eastern 
Church,  particularly  in  the  case  of 
Cyril.  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  and  John 
of  Antioch.  He  was  also  a  munificent 
patron  of  learning,  and  is  stated  to 
have  left  5,000  silver  marks  to  be  ex- 
pended in  the  embellishment  of  eccle- 
siastical structures.  He  died  in  440. 

E.  139. 


Sixtus  IV. ;  bom  in  Savona,  July 
22,  1414;  was  the  son  of  a  fisherman 
on  the  coast  of  Genoa,  but  became  a 
monk  of  the  order  of  Cordeliers.  He 
became  general  of  his  order,  and  was 
honored  with  the  cardinalship  by  Paul 
II.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1471.  He 
died  Aug.  18,  1484. 

Sixtus  v.,  (Felice  Peretti),  Pope; 
born  near  Montalto,  Dec.  13,  1521. 
He  entered  the  convent  of  the  Corde- 
liers at  Ascoli.  Pius  V.,  who  had  been 
his  pupil,  had  him  chosen  general  of 
the  Cordeliers,  named  him  his  confes- 
sor, and,  in  1570,  created  him  car- 
dinal. He  was  not  in  favor  with 
Gregory  XIII.,  and  it  is  said  that  in 
his  retirement  he  feigned  great  feeble- 
ness, walked  leaning  on  a  stick,  his 
head  declined,  and  his  voice  broken. 
These  signs  of  old  age  vanished  with 
surprising  suddenness  the  moment  of 
his  election  as  successor  to  Gregory  in 
April,  1585.  He  threw  away  his  staff, 
lifted  up  his  head,  and  made  the  place 
ring  with  his  loud  Te  Deum.  His  first 
care  was  to  repress  brigandage,  and 
make  Rome  and  the  States  of  the 
Church  safe  from  the  violence  which 
had  long  prevailed.  Before  the  end  of 
1585  Sixtus  published  a  bull  of  ex- 
communication against  Henry  of  Na- 
varre and  the  Prince  of  Conde.  Dur- 
ing the  five  years  of  his  pontificate 
Sixtus  formed  and  executed  many  de- 
signs for  the  improvement  and  adorn- 
ment of  Rome ;  completed  a  great 
aqueduct  for  the  supply  of  Rome  with 
water;  rebuilt  the  library  of  the  Vati- 
can, and  established  the  celebrated 
printing  ofiice  in  connection  with  it; 
had  new  editions  of  the  "  Septuagint  " 
and  the  "  Vulgate "  published  at  his 
own  expense,  and  yet  left  the  treasury 
rich.  Sixtus  fixed  the  number  of  car- 
dinals at  70.  He  died  in  Rome,  Aug. 
27,  1590. 

Size,  a  kind  of  glue  or  adhesive  var- 
nish used  in  many  industrial  pursuits. 

Skager  Back,  a  broad  arm  of  the 
German  Ocean,  which  washes  Norway 
on  the  N.,  Jutland  on  the  S.,  i\nd 
Sweden  on  the  E.,  where  it  communi- 
cates with  the  Cattegat ;  length,  W.  S. 
W.  to  E.  N.  E.,  about  150  miles; 
breadth,  80  miles.  Its  depth  varies 
from  30  to  upward  of  200  fathoms. 

Skagway,  a  town  on  Chilkat  Inlet, 
Alaska;  at  the  head  of  Lynn  canal^ 


Skate 

and  at  the  entrance  to  the  White  Pass. 
It  is  a  result  of  expeditions  to  the 
Yukon  gold  fields  in  1897,  when  the 
White  Pass  began  to  be  used  as  a 
means  of  reaching  the  Klondike  and 
its  vicinity.  In  1899  the  first  college 
in  Alaska  was  opened  here.  Skagway 
is  a  miner's  town,  and  a  landing  place 
fop  steamers.  Its  name  is  derived  from 
the  Indian  name  of  a  river  which 
flows  into  the  sea  near  the  town. 

Skate,  in  ichthyology,  the  popular 
came  of  any  individual  of  a  section  of 


COMMON  SKATE. 

the  genus  Raia,  differing  from  the 
rays  proper  in  having  a  long  pointed 
snout. 

Skeat,  Rev.  "Walter  'William, 
an  English  philologist ;  born  in  1835. 
Since  1878  he  is  professor  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  at  Cambridge.  Is  known  through 
his  early  English  publications. 

Skeleton,  a  general  term  for  the 
more  or  less  hard  parts  of  animals, 
whether  forming  an  internal  support- 
ing framework  —  an  endoskeleton,  or 
an  external  exoskeleton,  often  useful 
as  armor.  The  term  includes  many 
differents  kinds  of  structure  and  ma- 
terial. 

Skene,  William  Forbes,  a  Scotch 
historian ;  born  in  Inverie,  in  Kincar- 
dineshire, .Tune  7,  1800.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh  High  School ;  in 
Germany;  and  at  the  universities  of 


Skerrett 

St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh,  after- 
ward in  1831  becoming  a  writer  to  the 
Signet  in  Edinburgh.  In  1881  he  suc- 
ceeded Hill  Burton  as  historiographer 
for  Scotland.  He  died  Aug.  29,  1892. 
Skerrett,  Josepk  Salatkiel,  an 
American  naval  officer ;  born  in  Chilli- 
cotbe,  O.,  Jan.  18,  1833 ;  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  United  States  navy  in  1848 
and  later  assigned  to  duty  with  the 


HUMAN  SKELETON. 

African  squadron  engaged  in  the  ex- 
termination of  the  slave  trade.  His 
principal  service  during  the  Civil  War 
was  in  June,  1864,  when,  as  com- 
mander of  the  gunboat  "  Aroostook," 
he  successfully  attacked  the  Confed- 
erate fortifications  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Brazos  river,  Texas.  Subsequently 
he  commanded  the  apprentice  ship 
"  Portsmouth  " ;  was  on  duty  at  the 
Naval  Academy,  and  when  at  Hono- 
lulu prevented  the  outbreak  of  the 
threatened  revolution  of  1873.  While 
commanding  the  "  Bichmond,"  of  the 


Skerryvore  Lighthouse 


Skin 


Asiatic  station,  in  1881-1884,  he  visit- 
ed Apia,  Samoa,  where  he  settled  the 
trouble  in  which  the  United  States 
consul  had  become  involved.  In  1884- 
1886  he  was  at  the  Naval  Asylum  in 
Philadelphia;  in  1892-1893  was  com- 
mander of  the  Pacific  station ;  and  in 
1893  became  commander  of  the  Asiatic 
squadron.  He  died  in  Washington,  D. 
C.,  Dec.  31,  189G. 

Skerryvore  Ligktkouse,  a  light- 
house built  on  a  rock  forming  part  of 
an  extensive  reef  lying  about  12  miles 
S.  W.  from  the  wild  Isle  of  Tyree  on 
the  W.  coast  of  Scotland. 

Skew  Bridge,  in  engineering,  a 
bridge  in  which  the  passages  under 
and  over  the  arch  intersect  each  other 
obliquely. 

Ski,  large  snow-shoes  worn  in  Nor- 
way and  other  extreme  N.  countries. 
They  are  light  in  their  construction 
and  are  about  eight  feet  long.  Without 
these  it  would  be  impossible  for  the 
peasants  to  get  about  during  the 
months  of  deep  snow,  when  ordinary 
walking  is  impossible.  The  children 
wear  them  and  acquire  great  pro- 
ficiency in  their  use,  and  every  village 
has  its  competition  for  speed,  style, 
and  leaping.  On  the  first  Sunday  in 
February,  when  the  snow  is  usually 
at  its  best  condition,  an  annual  "  ski  " 
competition  is  held  at  Holmenkollen 
and  famous  races  and  "  jumps "  are 
made.  A  leap  of  120  feet  has  been  re- 
corded. The  ski  has  become  popular 
in  Canada  and  in  some  parts  of  the 
United  States,  especially  in  the  North- 
western States,  where  there  is  a  large 
Scandinavian  population.  Here  "  ski 
running "  has  become  a  prominent 
feature  of  winter  sport.  There  have 
been  a  number  of  ski  tournaments  in 
Minnesota,  and  the  increasing  number 
of  ski  runners  in  the  United  States 
has  warranted  the  organization  of  a 
National    Ski   Association. 

Skiagraph.    See  Hadiogbafh. 
Skiascope,  an  apparatus  for  mak- 
ing  observations   of   the  influence   of 
the   Roentgen   rays    on  a   fluorescent 
screen. 

Skid,  or  Skeed,  an  iron  shoe  or 
socket  for  checking  the  speed  of  a 
carriage  when  going  down  hill ;  it  is 
attached  to  the  carriage  by  a  chain  of 
such  length  as  will  permit  the  wheel 
to  ride  on  it  instead  of  revolving.    In 


the  United  States,  a  lengthy  square 
piece  of  timber  along  which  something 
is  rolled  or  by  which  it  is  supported. 
In  nautical  language,  any  beam  or  tim- 
ber used  as  a  support  for  some  heavy 
body,  to  prevent  its  weight  falling  on 
a  weak  part  of  the  vessel's  structure. 
Also  timbers  that  ^re  laid  crosswise 
in  a  ship's  waist,  to  sustain  the  larger 
boats,   the  launch  in  particular. 

Skimmer,  or  Scissors  Bill 
(Rhynchops),  a  genus  of  long-winged 
sea  birds  belonging  to  the  gull  family 
(Laridae).  Their  most  distinctive  fea- 
ture is  the  long,  thin  bill  with  the 
lower  half  longer  than  the  upper. 
There  are  only  three  known  species, 
occurring  in  America,  Asia,  and 
Africa.  Darwin  describes  the  Ameri- 
can skimmers,  or,  as  they  are  also 
called,  shear-waters,  as  skimming 
along  the  surface  of  the  water,  gener- 
ally in  small  flocks,  ploughing  up 
small  fish  with  their  projecting  lower 
mandible,  and  securing  them  with  the 
upper  half  of  their  scissors-like  bills. 

Skin,  that  membrane  of  variable 
thickness  which  covers  the  whole  body 
externally  and  extends  inward  into  all 
the  natural  openings,  where  it  changes 
its  properties,  becoming  soft  and 
moist,  and  hence  known  as  mucous 
membrane.  The  skin  is  generally  de- 
scribed as  composed  of  three  layers: 
the  cuticle,  the  rete  mucosum,  and  the 
cutis  vera,  the  last  being  the  most  in- 
ternal. The  cutis  (dermis),  or  true 
skin,  consists  of  two  layers,  of  which 
the  deeper  is  called  the  corium,  and 
the  more  superficial,  the  papillary 
layer.  The  corium  is  composed  of  nu- 
merous fibers  closely  interlaced,  and 
forming  a  smooth  surface  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  papillary  layer.  It  varies 
in  thickness,  being,  as  a  general  rule, 
thick  on  the  exposed  parts  and  thin 
on  the  protected.  The  papillary  layer 
is  soft,  and  formed  by  numerous 
papillae  which  cover  its  whole  surface. 
It  contains  the  expansions  of  the  sen- 
sitive nerves.  The  rete  mucosum 
(mucous  network)  lies  immediately 
over  the  cutis,  and  in  some  measure 
diminishes  the  inequalities  of  its  sur- 
face, being  thicker  between  the  papillae 
and  thinner  on  their  summit.  It  is 
composed  of  minute,  uncleated  cells, 
and  is  almost  pulpy  in  consistence.  It 
is  very  slightly  developed  in  the  white 
races,  but  is  very  distinct  and  thick 


Skin  Grafting 


Sknll 


In  those  that  are  darker,  the  cells, 
which  are  filled  with  a  pigment,  being 
that  which  gives  the  dark  color  to 
their  skin.  The  cuticle,  scarfskin,  or 
epidermis  is  a  disorganized  scaly  sub- 
stance, serving  to  protect  from  injury 
the  more  delicate  cutis.  It  is  thickest 
on  the  most  exposed  parts ;  and  on  the 
palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the 
feet  it  consists  of  several  layers.  The 
skin  performs  various  important  func- 
tions. It  is  the  seat  of  common  sensa- 
tion, and  is  furnished  with  numerous 
pores  or  openings  which  give  passage 
to  the  sweat  and  other  exhalations. 
It  is  in  this  way  the  great  regulator 
of  the  heat  of  the  body. 

Skin  Grafting,  in  surgery,  a 
method  for  the  treatment  of  large 
ulcerated  surfaces  by  the  transplanta- 
tion of  small  pieces  of  skin  from  an- 
other part  of  the  body,  or  from  the 
body  of  another  person. 

Skink,  or  Scink,  in  zoology,  the 
popular  name  for  Scincus  officinalis, 
or  any  individual  of  the  family  Scin- 
cidae,  considered  by  some  naturalists 
as  forming  a  connecting  link  between 
the  lizards  and  the  serpents,  since  it 
contains  individuals  which  are  lacerti- 
form,  others  having  rudimentary 
limbs,  and  others  again  serpentiform 
in  appearance,  the  external  limbs  be- 
ing entirely  absent. 
I  Skinner,  William,  an  American 
manufacturer;  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, in  1824;  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1845  and  engaged  in  the  silk 
business  in  Northampton,  Mass.  In 
1848  he  became  a  partner  in  a  silk 
manufacturing  firm,  and  in  1851 
started  a  factory  of  his  own  in  Will- 
iamsburg, Mass.,  which  was  entirely 
destroyed  in  the  great  Mill  river  flood 
in  1874.  In  the  same  year  he  started 
again  in  Holyoke.  He  died  in  Holyoke, 
Mass.,  Feb.  28,  1902. 

Skipper,  in  zoology,  the  common 
name  of  the  lepidopterous  insects  com- 
posing the  family  Hesperidae.  Skippers 
fly  with  a  jerking  motion,  and  hence 
their  name.  They  are  generally  of  a 
rich  brown,  marked  with  yellow  spots. 

Skirmish,  a  slight  fight  in  war,  be- 
tween small  parties  and  less  than  a 
battle;  a  loose,  desultory  kind  of  en- 
gagement in  presence  of  two  armies, 
Between  small  detachments  sent  out 
for  the  purpose  either  of  drawing  on  a 


battle  or  of  concealing  by  their  fire 
the  movements  of  the  troops  in  the 
rear. 

Skirret,  the  Slum  Sisarum,  a  per- 
ennial plant  of  the  natural  order 
Umbelliferae,  a  native  of  China  and 
Japan,  but  which  has  long  been  culti- 
vated in  gardens  in  Europe  for  the 
sake  of  its  roots,  which  are  tuberous 
and  clustered,  sometimes  six  inches 
long,  and  of  the  thickness  of  the  finger. 
They  are  sweet,  succulent,  and  nu- 
tritious, with  a  somewhat  aromatic 
flavor,  and  when  boiled  are  a  very 
agreeable  article  of  food. 

Skobeleff,  Mikkail  Dmitri- 
vitck,  a  Russian  general ;  born  in 
1843.  He  received  a  military  educa- 
tion and  saw  early  service  against  the 
Polish  revolutionists  in  1863.  He 
took  part  in  the  Khiva  expedition  in 
1873;  commanded  the  cavalry  at  the 
capture  of  Khokand  in  1875;  and  in 
the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1877-78, 
stormed  Lovatz,  occupied  Plevna,  and 
with  other  generals  surrounded  the 
Turkish  forces  in  the  Shipka  Pass, 
Jan.  9,  1878,  and  forced  them  to  sur- 
render. In  1880-81  he  led  the  expedi- 
tion into  Turkestan,  and  suppressed 
the  Tekkes  by  the  storming  of  Geok- 
Tepe.  In  1881  he  was  made  governor 
of  Minsk.  He  died  at  Moscow,  July 
8.  1882. 

Skna,  in  ornithology,  the  popular 
name  of  a  species  of  gull.  They  are 
predatory  swimming  birds,  rarely  .fish- 
ing for  themselves,  and  generally  pur- 
suing smaller  gulls  and  terns,  and 
compelling  them  to  drop  or  disgorge 
their  prey.  Four  species  visit  the  tem- 
perate regions  of  America  and  Europe. 

Sknll.  The  skeleton  of  the  head  of 
a  vertebrate  animal;  it  is  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  cranium  and  the  face. 
In  human  anatomy  it  is  customary  to 
describe  the  former  as  consisting  of 
eight  and  the  latter  14  bones;  the 
eight  cranial  bones,  which  constitute 
the  brain  case,  being  the  occipital,  two 
parietal,  frontal,  two  temporal  sphe- 
noid and  ethmoid;  while  the  14  facial 
bones,  which  surround  the  cavities  of 
the  mouth  and  nose  and  complete  thff 
orbits  or  cavities  for  the  eyes,  are  the 
two  nasal,  two  superior  maxillary,  two 
lachrymal,  two  malar,  two  palate,  two 
inferior  turbinated,  vomer,  and  in- 
ferior maxillary.  The  bones  of  the  ear, 
the  teeth,  and  the  Wormian  bones  are 


Sknll"  

not  included  in  this  enumeration.  The 
lower  jaw  articulates  with  the  tem- 
poral bones  by  means  of  a  diarthrodia 
joint,  but  all  the  others  are  joined  by 
sutures.  On  the  base  of  the  cranium 
the  occipital  and  sphenoid  bones  articu- 
late by  means  of  a  plate  of  cartilage 
(synchondrosis)  in  young  subjects;  in 
adults  this  becomes  bony  union. 
Sutures  are  named  from  the  bones  be- 
tween which  they  are  found,  but  to 
those  around  the  parietal  bones  special 
names  are  given —  e.  g.,  interparietal 
or  sagittal ;  occipito-pari^tal  or  lamb- 
doid ;  f ronto-parietal  or  coronal ;  pa- 
rieto-temporal  or  squamous.  During 
adult  life  many  of  the  sutures  close  by 
bony   union  and  disappear,  but  both 


HUMAN    SKUIX,    SIDE   VIEW. 

1,  frontal  bone;  2,  parietal  bone;  3,  sphe- 
noid bone;  4,  temporal  bone;  5,  process 
of  the  cheek  bone;  6,  superior  maxilla; 
7,  nasal  bone;  8,  lachrymal  bone;  9,  eth- 
moid bone;  10,  inferior  maxilla;  11,  chin; 
12,  anterior  nasal  aperture;  13  optic  fora- 
men; 14,  mastoid  process  of  the  temporal 
bone;  15,  coronal  suture;  16,  squamous 
suture;  17,  superior  ledge  of  the  eye- 
orbit 

the  age  at  which  this  occurs  and  the 
order  of  its  occurrence  are  subject  to 
variation.  Wormian  bones  are  irregu- 
lar ossifications  found  in  relation  to 
the  sutures  of  cranial  bones,  but  sel- 
dom seen  in  relation  to  the  bones  of 
the  face.  They  are  most  frequent  in 
relation  to  the  lambdoid  suture,  and 


Sknll 

seldom  one  inch  in  diameter.  The 
closure  of  a  suture  stops  the  growth 
of  the  skull  along  that  line,  and  in 
order  to  compensate  for  this  defect  an 
increase  of  growth  may  occur  at  right 
angles  to  the  close  suture  and  thu3 
irregularities  of  form  may  result. 
Irregular  forms  may  be  produced  arti- 
ficially by  pressure  applied  early  in 
life.  This  is  best  seen  among  certain 
American  tribes  who  compress  their 
children's  heads  by  means  of  boards 
and  bandages.  The  bones  of  the  skull 
are  pierced  by  holes  (foramina),  and 
similar  holes  are  found  in  relation  to 
the  adjacent  margins  of  bones.  Most 
of  these  foramina  are  situated  in  the 
base  or  floor  of  the  skull,  and  are  for 
the  ingress  of  arteries  and  the  exit  of 
veins  in  cranial  nerves.  The  largest 
of  these  foramina  —  the  foramen  mag- 
num—  is  found  in  the  occipital  bone. 
It  is  situated  immediately  above  the 
ring  of  the  atlas  vertebra,  and  through 
it  the  continuity  between  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord  is  established,  and 
further,  it  transmits  the  vertebral 
arteries  which  supply  blood  to  the 
brain.  Compared  with  the  skulls  of 
animals,  the  form  of  the  human  skull 
is  modified  (1)  by  the  proportionately 
large  size  of  the  brain  and  the  conse- 
quent expansion  of  the  bones  which 
surround  it;  (2)  by  the  smaller  size 
of  the  face,  especially  of  the  jaws,  so 
that  the  face  of  man,  instead  of  pro- 
jecting in  front  of,  is  under  the  fore- 
part of  the  cranium;  (3)  by  the  erect 
attitude,  which  places  the  base  of  the 
skull  at  a  considerable  angle  with  the 
vertebral  column,  and,  in  consequence 
of  a  development  backward  from  its 
point  of  articulation  with  the  verte- 
brae, the  skull  is  nearly  balanced  ou 
the  summit  of  the  vertebral  column. 
Hence  the  orbits  look  forward  and  the 
nostrils  look  downward.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  skull  is  a  subject  of  great 
interest,  not  only  in  itself,  but  aa 
throwing  light  on  many  points  which 
the  study  of  the  adult  skull  would  fail 
to  explain. 

The  fact  that  concussion  of  the 
brain  scarcely  ever  proves  fatal,  un- 
less there  is  also  fracture  of  the  skull, 
affords  the  most  distinct  evidence  that 
the  skull  is  constructed  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  so  long  as  it  maintains  its 
integrity  it  is  able  to  protect  its  con- 
tents from  serious  lesion.    This  mar- 


Skunk 


Skye  Terrier 


velous  protective  power  is  due  to  its 
rounded  shape,  whereby  its  strength 
is  increased,  and  in  consequence  of 
which  blows  tend  to  glide  off  it  with- 
out doing  material  damage.  More- 
over, the  curved  lines  or  ridges  which 
may  be  traced  round  the  skull  tend  to 
strengthen  it.  The  weakest  part  of  the 
skull  is  at  the  base.  Hence,  notwith- 
standing its  removal  from  exposure  to 
direct  injury  and  the  protection  afford- 
ed by  the  soft  parts,  fracture  takes 
place  more  frequently  at  the  base  than 
at  any  other  part  of  the  skull,  frac- 
ture often  taking  place  here  even 
when  the  skull  was  not  broken  at  the 
part  struck.  There  are  two  points  in 
the  architecture  of  the  bones  of  the 
face  which  deserve  special  notice  — 
viz.  (1)  the  great  strength  of  the 
nasal  arch;  and  (2)  the  immobility 
of  the  upper  jaw,  which  is  fixed  by 
three  buttresses  —  the  nasal,  the  zygo- 
matic, and  the  pterygoid. 

Skunk,  the  Mephitis,  a  genus  of 
small  carnivorous  quadrupeds  of  the 
weasel  family.  All  the  species  are 
American,  and,  as  they  differ  little  in 
habit,  the  common  skunk  may  be  taken 
as  typical  of  the  whole  genus.  It  is 
an  animal  about  the  size  of  a  cat ; 
has  fur  of  a  glossy  black ;  on  the  fore- 
head is  a  patch  of  white  diverging  into 
two  lines  which  extend  the  whole 
length  of  the  back  and  meet  again  in 
the  beautiful  bushy  tail.  The  under  sur- 
face of  the  tail  is  also  white,  and  is 
usually  carried  erect  or  laid  over 
against  the  body.  The  common  skunk 
is  found  throughout  North  America, 
but  is  most  abundant  in  the  Hudson 
Bay  region.  It  is  notorious  for  the 
»)owerful  and  offensive  odor  which  it 
emits.  So  penetrating  is  the  evil  odor 
of  this  fluid  that  it  is  perceptible  a 
mile  off :  and  so  persistent  is  it  that 
clothes  defiled  by  it  can  only  be  puri- 
fied by  prolonged  hanging  in  smoke. 
Skunks  usually  raise  from  6  to  10 
young  in  a  season.  If  taken  early 
they  are  easily  tamed  and  make  pretty 
pets,  for  they  are  cleanly  in  habit 
and  rarely  emit  their  effensive  secre- 
tion  save  when  provoked. 

Sknnkbill,  Skunkkead,  or 
Skunktop,  the  name  given  several 
species  of  ducks  in  the  United  States, 
as,  the  surf  duck,  and  the  Labrador 
duck. 


Skunk  Cabbage  ( Symplocarpus 
fcetidus^,  a  plant  of  the  natural  order 
Araceae  or  arums,  so  named  from  its 
smell. 

Skye,  after  Lewis,  the  largest  of  the 
Scotch  islands,  and  the  most  N.  of  the 
Inner  Hebrides,  is  included  in  Inver- 
ness-shire ;  area,  547  square  miles.  It 
is  very  irregular  in  shape,  and  is  so 
cut  up  by  inlets  that  no  part  of  it  is 
more  than  4  miles  from  the  sea.  Its 
extreme  length  from  Aird  Point  to 
Sleat  Point  is  47  miles ;  its  greatest 
breadth,  from  Portree  to  Copnahow 
Head,  22  miles.  Skye  is  a  wild,  high- 
land country,  and  its  rocky  mountains 
and  pale  headlands  are  shrouded  in 
the  mists  of  the  Atlantic. 

Toward  the  S.  W.,  bounding  Loch 
Scavaig,  are  the  romantic  Cuchullin 
Hills,  jagged  and  precipitous,  attaining 
their  greatest  height  of  3,183  feet  in 
Scuirna-Gillean.  The  outlying  Blab- 
hein  (pronounced  Blaayin),  3,200  feet 
high,  rises  to  a  narrow  ledge,  over- 
hanging a  lofty  precipice  on  either 
side.  In  the  bleak  promontory  of 
Trotternish  rises  the  Quiraing  (1,774 
feet) ,  perhaps  the  most  singular  sight 
in  Skye.  It  is  a  natural  basaltic 
cathedral,  formed  by  huge  fluted  col- 
umns of  basalt  and  rugged  pyramidal 
masses,  in  the  midst  of  which  stands  a 
truncated  rocky  hill.  This  hill  rises 
abruptly ;  its  sides  are  worn  by  rivu- 
lets and  ribbed  with  fissures,  and  at  its 
top  is  a  spacious  verdant  plateau,  100 
paces  by  60. 

The  N.  part  of  Skye  is  still  spoken 
of  as  "  Macleod's  country,"  and  the 
S.  part  is  the  country  of  the  Mac- 
donalds. 

The  inhabitants  are  mainly  Celtic, 
and  universally  speak  Gaelic,  though 
the  use  of  English  is  gradually  in- 
creasing. Since  1851  the  population 
has  decreased,  cbiefly  by  emigration, 
to  the  extent  of  one-fifth.  The  chief 
families  in  Skye  are  the  Macdonalds 
of  Sleat,  who  trace  their  descent  to 
the  Lords  of  the  Isles,  and  the  Mac- 
leods,  originally  Norsemen,  who  still 
occupy  old  Devegan  Castle.  The  is- 
land is  historically  interesting  as  the 
home  of  Flora  Macdonald  and  the 
refuge   of   Prince   Charles. 

Skye  Terrier,  a  breed  of  dogs  sup- 
posed to  be  the  outcome  of  a  cross 
between  the  native  dog  of  Skye  and  a 
Maltese  terrier. 


Skylark 


Slater ' 


Skylark,  one  of  the  most  popular 
European  cage  birds  from  the  variety 
and  power,  rather  than  the  quality, 
of  its  song,  and  the  ease  ivtiich 

its  health  is  preserved  in  captivity.  It 
is  an  inhabitant  of  all  the  countries  of 
Europe,  many  migrating  to  the  S.  in 
winter. 

Sky-rocket,  a  firework  composed 
of  a  mixture  of  niter,  sulphur  and 
charcoal  tightly  rammed  in  a  stout 
paper  case,  which  ascends  when  the 
compound  is  ignited  at  the  lower  end. 
A  stick  is  attached  to  one  side  of  the 
case  to  steady  the  flight. 

Sky-scraper,  a  name  given  to  the 
very  tall  buildings  to  be  seen  in  the 
larger  American  cities,  particularly 
New  York  and  Chicago.  They  are  all 
strong  structures  supported  by  steel 
frames  resting  on  great  cantilevers 
sunk  down  to  bed  rock,  some  70  feet 
below  the  street  level. 

Sladen,  Douglas  Brooke 
Wkeelton,  an  English  poet ;  born  in 
London,  Feb.  5,  1856. 

Slafter,  Edmund  Farwell,  an 
American  historian ;  born  in  Norwich, 
Vt.,  May  30,  1816 ;  was  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College  in  1840;  took  a 
course  at  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary ;  was  ordained  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  1845;  and  held 
various  pastorates.  In  1877  he  turned 
his  attention  to  the  study  of  history. 
His  publications  include  "  Sir  William 
Alexander  and  American  Coloniza- 
tion," "  Voyages  of  the  Northmen  to 
America,"  etc. 

Slag,  in  metallurgy,  vitreous  min- 
eral matter  removed  in  the  reduction 
of  metals ;  the  scoria  from  a  smelting 
furnace.  It  is  used  for  making  ce- 
ment and  artificial  stone,  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  alum  and  crown  glass,  and 
is  cast  into  slabs  for  pavements,  gar- 
den  rollers,  etc. 

Slaked  "Lime,  calcium  hydrate; 
produced  by  sprinkling  calcium  oxide 
with  water.  When  a  mass  of  lime  is 
moistened  with  water,  an  energetic 
combination  takes  place,  accompanied 
occasionally  with  slight  explosions, 
due  to  the  sudden  evolution  of  steam ; 
the  mass  splits  in  all  directions,  and 
finally  Tumbles  to  a  soft,  white,  bulky 
powder.  It  is  chiefly  employed  in  the 
preparation  of  mortar  for  building 
purposes. 


Slander,  defamation ;  a  false  tale 
or  report  maliciously  uttered,  and 
tending  to  injure  the  reputation  of  an- 
other. 

Slang,  a  low  and  inelegant,  but 
often  expressive,  form  of  colloquial 
language.  Many  words  which  originate 
as  slang  finally  take  their  places  in 
the  language  of  literature  and  speech. 

Slate,  a  very  remarkable  form  of 
clay  rock,  frequently  fossiliferous  and 
not  confined  to  one  geological  period. 
Consisting  essentially  of  clay,  the 
particles  of  slate  are  so  mechanically 
arranged  that  the  rock  splits  with 
perfect  facility  into  almost  indefinitely 
thin  layers  in  one  direction  only,  and 
in  all  others  either  breaks  with  a  jag- 
ged edge,  or  in  well  defined  joints  at 
some  distance  from  each  other.  Miner- 
alogically  slate  is  nothing  more  than 
a  pure  clay ;  nor  does  there  seem  any 
reason  to  suppose  that  any  approach 
is  made  in  it  toward  crystalline  struc- 
ture. Practically  slate  is  very  val- 
uable, owing  to  its  peculiar  facility  of 
splitting  and  the  perfectly  smooth  nat- 
ural face  which  it  presents.  Its  hard- 
ness and  compactness  preserve  it  from 
all  weathering  by  mere  exposure, 
though,  when  ground  down,  it  easily 
passes  back  into  fine  clay.  For  a  long 
time  slate  was  used  almost  exclusively 
for  roofing.  Slabs  are  now  used  in 
house  fittings;  as  in  strong  rooms, 
powder  magazines,  larders,  partitions, 
baths,   stables,   floors,    drains,   etc. 

Slater,  Jokn  Fox,  an  American 
philanthropist ;  born  in  Slaterville,  R. 
I.,  March  4,  1815;  engaged  in  busi- 
ness and  so  enlarged  his  operations 
that  in  1872  he  became  sole  owner  of 
the  mill  property  he  was  conducting. 
He  also  made  profitable  investments, 
and  in  a  few  years  acquired  a  large 
fortune.  He  was  early  interested  in 
the  cause  of  education,  and  gave  lib- 
erally to  the  establishment  of  the  Nor- 
wich Free  Academy.  He  died  in  Nor- 
wich, Conn.,  May  7,  1884. 

Slater,  Samuel,  an  American 
manufacturer;  bom  in  Belper,  Eng- 
land, June  9,  1768 ;  was  apprenticed 
to  Strutt,  Arkwright's  partner  in  cot- 
ton spinning,  in  1782 ;  came  to  the 
United  States  to  promote  cotton  man- 
ufactures in  1789;  settled  in  Paw- 
tucket,  R.  I.,  in  1790 ;  and  there  built 
and  started  the  first  cotton  mill  in  the 


fSlaier  Fnnd 

United  States,  with  72  spindles  and 
three  carding  machines.  Afterward  he 
built  cotton  mills  at  what  is  now 
,  Webster,  Mass.,  and  erected  woolen 
mills  at  the  same  place  in  1815-1816. 
He  died  in  Webster,  Mass.,  April  21, 
1835. 

Slater  Fund,  a  gift  of  $1,000,000 
made  by  John  Fox  Slater,  of  Norwich, 
Conn.,  in  1882,  to  a  board  of  trus- 
tees, for  the  purpose  of  "  uplifting  the 
lately  emancipated  population  of  the 
Southern  States  and  their  posterity." 
For  this  patriotic  and  munificent  gift 
the  thanks  of  Congress  were  voted, 
and  a  medal  was  presented.  Neither 
principal  nor  income  is  expended  for 
land  or  buildings.  Education  in  in- 
dustries and  the  preparation  of  teach- 
ers are  promoted  in  institutions  be- 
lieved to  be  on  a  permanent  basis. 

SlaugliteT    Houses,    premises    in 

which  cattle  are  slaughtered  and  pre- 

•  pared   for   human    food.     The   largest 

slaughter  houses  in   the  world  are  in 

Chicago,  111.,  and  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Slavery,  the  state  or  condition  of 
a  slave,  bondage.  Slavery  in  the  full 
sense  of  the  term  implies  that  the 
slave  is  the  property  or  at  the  dis- 
posal of  another,  who  has  a  right  to 
employ  or  treat  him  as  he  pleases  ;  but 
the  system  has  been  subjected  to  in- 
numerable limitations  and  modifica- 
tions. Slavery  probably  arose  at  an 
early  period  of  the  world's  history  out 
of  the  accident  of  capture  in  war. 

Slavic  Nations,  a  group  that 
forms  a  large  and  important  branch 
of  the  Aryan  family,  numbering  ^bout 
80,000,000,  and  occupying  nearly  a 
third  of  Europe.  Of  their  history  prior 
to  the  6th  century  of  our  era  little  is 
known  with  certainty.  No  evidence 
exists  even  in  tradition  as  to  the  time 
at  which  the  Slavs  entered  Europe, 
but  their  wave  of  immigration  ap- 
pears to  have  been  later  than  the 
Celtic,  Grseco-Italic,  and  Teutonic 
waves.  The  E.  shores  of  the  Baltic, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  which  are  still 
found  the  dwindling  remains  of  the 
Lettic  races,  are  claimed  as  the  early 
homes  of  some  Slavic  tribes,  while 
others  are  supposed  to  have  dwelt  near 
the  N.  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  or 
roamed  over  the  vast  tract  vaguely 
designated  as  Sarmatia,  stretching 
from  the  Caspian  toward  the  mouth 


Sleeper 

of  the  Vistula.  From  the  5th  cen- 
tury B.  c.  they  are  supposed  to  have 
existed  in  Europe  for  nearly  1,000 
years  w.^-out  materially  affecting  its 
history.  At  length  a  S.  movement 
seems  to  have  brought  them  into  con- 
tact with  the  Roman  empire,  and  in 
the  6th  century  of  our  era  they  appear 
in  the  works  of  the  historians  Jor- 
nandes  and  Procopius  as  Sclavini  or 
Sclabenoi ;  names  from  which  comes 
the  superfluous  c  in  the  word  "  Sclav- 
onic." The  origin  of  the  name  Slav 
is  uncertain.  Ranked  at  first  among 
the  barbaric  foes  of  the  Empire,  the 
S.  and  W.  Slavs  gradually  became  civ- 
ilized. The  N.  Slavs  were  not  all 
equally  fortunate,  many  of  their  tribes 
being  gradually  driven  out  or  absorbed 
without  ever  attaining  political  im- 
portance. But  in  the  N.  E.  a  combi- 
nation of  Scandinavian  rulers  and 
Slav  subjects  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  power  which  eventually  developed 
into  the  Russian  empire. 

Sleep,  that  natural  state  or  con- 
dition of  unconsciousness  in  animals 
which  alternates  with  a  period  of 
activity.  In  this  state  the  in.roIuntary 
functions,  such  as  those  of  nutrition, 
secretion,  etc.,  go  on  as  usual,  but  the 
voluntary  powers  are  quiescent.  All 
action  in  the  living  economy  produces 
waste  of  tissue;  and  rest  is  necessary 
in  order  that  the  deficiency  may  be 
made  up.  Hence  it  is  that  we  feel 
refreshed  after  sleep ;  the  muscles  pos- 
sess greater  strength,  the  nerves  have 
attained  a  higher  sensibility,  and  the 
powers  of  the  mind  are  more  active. 

Sleeper,  in  shipbuilding,  a  fore- 
and-aft  floor  timber  in  a  ship's  bottom. 
Also  a  knee-piece  connecting  the  tran- 
som and  after-timbers  to  strengthen 
the  counter.  Similar  timbers  strength- 
en the  bows  of  whalers.  In  ordnance, 
the  undermost  timbers  of  a  gun  or 
mortar  platform,  or,  generally,  of  any 
frame  work.  In  carpentry,  one  of  the 
set  of  timbers  supporting  the  lower 
floor  of  the  building.  The  sleepers  in 
a  wooden  frame,  rest  on  the  sills.  In 
a  brick  or  stone  house  they  rest  on  the 
walls.  Also,  one  of  a  ^et  of  logs  or 
scantlings  laid  beneath  a  rough  floor, 
as  of  a  pen,  shed,  or  temporary  stable. 
In  railroad  building,  one  of  the  tim- 
bers supporting  a  railway  track.  When 
it  is  longitudinal  with  the  track  it  is 
called  a  stringer  or  sill;  when  it  ia 


Sleeping  Sickness 


Sling 


transverse,  a  sleeper  or  tie.  In  weav- 
ing the  upper  threading  point  of  a 
draw-loom  heddle. 

Sleeping  Sickness,  an  African 
disease  caused  by  the  sting  of  the 
Tsetse  Fly,  introducing  trypanosom- 
ata   microbes   in   the   human   system. 

Sleigks,  traveling  vehicles  without 
wheels,  which  in  some  form  are  in 
use  in  all  countries  where  snow  lies 
for  any  considerable  part  of  the  year. 
Usually  they  are  on  runners  —  either 
one  or  two  pairs  —  which  are  con- 
nected by  a  framework  and  support 
the  body  of  the  vehicle.  In  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  where  sleighs  are 
brought  to  great  perfection,  lightness, 
and  beauty,  they  take  the  place  of 
carriages  in  winter ;  and  sleds  of  light- 
er build,  and  supporting  a  light  plat- 
form or  seat,  are  made  for  coasting 
down  hills.  In  Canada  toboggans  are 
in  popular  use  for  coasting  and  con- 
sist of  a  single  length  of  wood  about 
%  inch  thick,  curved  backward  in 
front,  and  the  curved  portion  held 
back    by    leather    thongs. 

Slickter,  Charles  Snmner,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  St.  Paul, 
Minn.,  April  16,  1864 ;  was  graduated 
at  the  Northwestern  University  in 
1885.  He  was  made  Professor  of 
Applied  Mathematics  at  the  University 
of  Wisconsin  in  1892  and  commission- 
er and  secretary  of  the  Wisconsin 
Geological  and  Natural  History  Sur- 
vey in  1900. 

Slidell,  John,  an  American  states- 
man ;  born  in  New  York  city,  about 
1793  ;  was  graduated  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity in  1810;  studied  law,  and  in 
1819  went  to  New  Orleans,  where  he 
soon  acquired  a  large  practice.  He 
was  appointed  United  States  district 
attorney  for  Louisiana  in  1834;  elect- 
ed to  Congress  in  1843 ;  made  minister 
to  Mexico  in  1845;  and  was  in  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1853-1861.  In 
September,  1861,  he  was  appointed  a 
Confederate  commissioner  to  France, 
and  in  November  set  out  with  his  as- 
fsociate,  James  M.  Mason,  for  South- 
ampton. Both  commissioners  were 
seized  on  the  English  mail  steamer 
"Trent"  by  Capt.  Charles  Wilkes 
of  the  United  States  steamer  "  San 
Jacinto,"  and  brought  to  the  United 
States.  He  was  released  and  sailed 
for  England  in  January,  1862.  From 


England  he  at  once  went  fo  Paris, 
where  his  mission,  which  had  for  its 
object  the  recognition  of  the  Confed- 
erate States  by  France,  was  a  failure, 
but  he  succeeded  in  negotiating  a 
large  loan  and  in  securing  the  ship 
"  Stonewall "  for  the  Confederate 
government.  After  the  war  he  settled 
in  London,  England,  where  he  died 
July  29,  187L 

Sliding  Scale,  a  scale  of  payments 
varying  under  certain  conditions,  as : 
(1)  A  scale  for  raising  or  lowering 
imposts  in  proportion  to  the  fall  or 
rise  in  the  price  of  the  goods.  (2)  A' 
scale  of  prices  for  manufactured  goods, 
which  is  regulated  by  the  rise  and  fall 
in  the  price  of  the  raw  material.  (8) 
A  scale  of  wages  which  rises  and  falls 
in  proportion  to  the  rise  or  fall  in  the 
market  value  of  the  goods  turned  out; 


ANCIENT  SLING  AND  SUNGEE. 

Sling,  a  short  leather  strap  having 
a  string  secured  to  each  end,  by  which 
a  stone   is  hurled. 

In  machinery,  a  device  for  holding 
articles  securely  while  being  hoisted 
OF  lowered. 


Slips 


SlotL. 


Slips,  Propagation  by,  a  mode 
of  propagating  plants,  which  consists 
in  separating  a  young  branch  from  the 
parent  stock  and  planting  it  in  the 
ground.  Slips  from  trees  of  which  the 
wood  is  white  and  light  succeed  best. 

Sloane,  Rnsh  Ricbard,  an  Amer- 
ican abolitionist;  born  in  Sandusky, 
O.  He  was  twice  elected  probate 
judge;  delegate  to  the  Pittsburg  con- 
vention which  organized  the  Republi- 
can party ;  for  several  years  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Republican  State  Commit- 
tee of  Ohio;  chairman  of  the  Ohio 
Republican  State  Central  Committee 
in  1865-1866;  elected  mayor  of  San- 
dusky in  1878;  and  prominent  in 
Democratic  politics  after  1872.  He 
became  conspicuous  in  the  abolition 
movement ;  and  for  defending  five 
slaves  who  had  escaped  from  bondage 
was  arrested  under  the  second  Fugitive 
Slave  Act  in  1852,  being  the  only  per- 
son prosecuted  under  that  law. 

Sloane,  Thomas  O'Conor,  an 
American  scientist ;  bom  in  New  York 
Nov.  24,  1851 ;  was  graduated  at  St. 
Francis  Xavier's  College,  New  York 
city,  in  1869;  and  soon  afterward  be- 
came Professor  of  Natural  Sciences  in 
Seton  Hall  College,  South  Orange, 
N.  J.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a  self- 
recording  photometer,  described  a  new 
process  of  determining  sulphur  in 
illuminating  gas ;  and  was  successive- 
ly the  editor  of  the  "  Plumber  and 
Sanitary  Engineer,"  the  "  Scientific 
American,"  and  the  "  Youth's  Com- 
panion." 

Sloane,  William  Milligan,  an 
American  historian ;  born  in  Rich- 
mond, O.,  Nov.  12,  1850;  was  grad- 
uated at  Columbia  in  1868 ;  studied  in 
Berlin  and  Leipsic  (1872-1876),  and 
during  part  of  that  time  was  private 
secretary  of  George  Bancroft,  then 
minister  at  Berlin.  He  was  for  sev- 
eral years  a  professor  at  Princeton, 
later  Professor  of  History  at  Colum- 
bia. In  1897  he  brought  out  a  very 
important  "  Life  of  Napoleon." 

Sloanea  (named  after  Sir  Hans 
Sloane,  1660-1753).  Tropical  Ameri- 
can trees,  often  above  100  feet  high, 
with  very  hard  wood.  S.  jamaicensis 
is  the  breakax  or  ironwood.  The  fruit 
of  S.  dentata  is  eaten. 

Slocnm,  Henry  Warner,  an 
American    military    officer ;    born    in 


Delphi,  Onondaga  co.,  N,  Y.,  Sept.  24, 
1827.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1852 ; 
resigned  his  commission  in  1856 ; 
studied  law,  and  practised  in  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  State  Legislature  in  1859.  When 
the  Civil  War  broke  out  he  was  com- 
missioned a  colonel  of  volunteers  in 
the  Union  army ;  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  a  corps  on  the  left  wing  of 
General  Sherman's  army ;  and  took 
part  in  tke  great  "  March  to  the 
Sea,"  leading  the  left  wing  of  the 
army  from  Atlanta  to  Savannah.  In 
September,  1865,  he  resigned  from  the 
army;  settled  in  Brooklyn;  and  re- 
sumed the  practice  of  law.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1869  and  served 
till  1873.  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N. 
Y.,  April  14,  1894. 

Slocnm,  Joshna,  an  American 
navigator ;  born  in  Wilmot  township, 
Annapolis  co.,  Nova  Scotia,  Feb.  20, 
1844 ;  was  a  sailor  from  boyhood ; 
studied  nautical  astronomy  and  marine 
architecture.  He  built  a  steamer  of 
90  tons'  register  in  1897 ;  and  the 
"  Spray  "  of  9  tons'  register,  in  Fair- 
haven,  Mass.,  in  1892,  in  which  he 
made  a  complete  voyage  around  the 
world  alone  in  1898. 

Sloe,  or  Slo,  a  small,  bitter  Euro- 
pean plum.  Found  in  hedges,  cop- 
pices, and  woods.  Called  also  black- 
thorn, and,  more  rarely,  blackthorn 
may.  The  leaves  of  the  sloe  are  often 
used  to  adulterate  tea. 

Sloop,  a  fore-and-aft  rigged  vessel 
with  one  mast,  like  a  cutter,  but  hav- 
ing a  jibstay  and  standing  bowsprit, 
which  the  cutter  has  not.  Sloop-of- 
war,  formerly  vessels  carrying  from 
10  to  18  guns,  but  since  the  introduc- 
tion of  steamships  the  number  of  guns 
has  ceased  to  be  distinctive,  and  the 
term  is  now  seldom  used. 

Slotli,  in  zoology,  the  popular 
name  for  any  individual  of  the  Eden- 
tate group  Tardigrada,  from  their 
slow  and  awkward  movements  on  the 
ground,  owing  to  the  peculiar  structure 
of  the  wrist  and  ankle  joints.  The 
feet  are  armed  with  long  claws,  and 
turned  toward  the  body,  so  that  the 
animal  is  compelled  to  rest  on  the 
side  of  the  hind  foot,  while  the  dispro- 
portionate length  of  the  fore-limbs 
causes  it  to  rest  also  on  the  elbows. 


Slotli  Bear 


Sluice 


It  shuffles  forward,  alternately  stretch- 
ing the  fore  legs  and  hooking  the  claws 
into  the  ground,  or  grasping  some  ob- 
ject to  draw  itself  along.  Sloths  are 
natives  of  South  America,  nocturnal 
in  habit,  and  are  found  in  the  forests 
of  that  region,  passing  their  lives 
among  the  branches  of  trees,  on  the 
leaves  and  young  shoots  of  which  they 
feed.    See  Megatherium. 


GIANT  SLOTH. 

Sloth.  Bear,  in  zoology,  the  Indian 
bear,  found  throughout  the  Peninsula 
and  in  Ceylon. 

Slovaks,  the  name  nf  Ihe  Slavic 
inhabitants  of  North  Hungary  who 
in  the  9th  century  formed  the  nucleus 
of  the  great  Moravian  kingdom,  but 
who,  after  the  bloody  battle  of  Pres- 
burg  (a.  d.  907),  were  gradually  sub- 
jugated by  the  Magyars,  to  whom 
even  yet  they  entertain  no  friendly 
feeling.  Their  number  is  reckoned  at 
2.750.000,  of  whom  800,000  belong  to 
the  Protestant,  and  the  rest  to  the 
}  Catholic  Church.  The  Slovaks,  whose 
character  probably  comes  nearest  to 
that  of  the  old  Slavic  type,  travel  in 
great  numbers  over  Germany  and  Po- 
land as  peddlers.  Their  language  is 
a  dialect  of  the  Bohemian. 

Slo'w  Match,  a  match  made  so  as 
to  burn  very  slowly.  The  commonest 
kind  of  slow  match  is  a  piece  of 
slightly  twisted  hemp  rope  dipped  in 
a  solution  of  saltpeter,  sugar  of  lead, 


etc.  Slow  matches  are  chiefly  used 
to  fire  mines  or  blasts,  the  object  of 
using  them  being  to  allow  the  person 
who  fires  them  to  escape  to  a  safe  dis- 
tance before  the  explosion  takes  place. 

Sloyd,  the  name  given  to  a  certain 
system  of  manual  instruction  which 
obtains  popularity  in  the  schools  of 
Finland  and  Sweden,  and  which  has 
been  largely  adopted  in  other  countries, 
especially  in  the  United  States.  The 
word  properly  denotes  work  of  an 
artisan  kind  practised  not  as  a  trade 
or  means  of  livelihood,  but  in  the  in- 
tervals of  other  employment.  The 
fundamental  idea  of  the  educational 
sloyd  is  to  utilize  this  sloyd  work  in 
the  schools  in  a  disciplinary  way  as 
an  integral  part  of  general  education. 
To  this  end  the  older  children,  gener- 
ally boys,  are  engaged  for  a  certain 
number  of  hours  a  week  in  making 
articles  of  common  household  use 
varying  from  simple  objects  such  as  a 
flower  stick  or  a  pen  rest  to  more  com- 
plicated articles  such  as  a  cabinet  or 
small  table.  These  objects  are  made 
from  drawings  or  from  models,  but 
to  exact  measurements,  and  the  ut- 
most accuracy  and  finish  are  insisted 
on.  The  tools  employed  are  the  ordi- 
nary tools  of  the  carpenter,  with  cer- 
tain exceptions,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  the  knife.  It  is  held  that  work 
of  this  kind  is  valuable  as  supple- 
menting and  correcting  the  ordinary 
school  education  in  the  three  R's. 

Slug,  in  zoology,  naked,  air-breath- 
ing mollusks,  universally  distributed, 
committing  great  ravages  in  fields  and 
garden  crops  in  moist  weather,  but 
becoming  dormant  during  frosts.  The 
body  is  generally  oval  or  oblong,  elon- 
gated, from  one  to  three  inches  in 
length ;  the  creeping  disk,  or  sole  of 
the  foot,  extends  the  whole  length  of 
the  animal,  but,  like  snails,  slugs  fre- 
quently raise  their  heads  and  move 
their  tentacles  in  search  of  objects 
above  them.  They  often  climb  trees, 
and  can  lower  themselves  to  the  ground 
by  the  accumulation  of  mucus  at  the 
extremity  of  the  tail  hardening  into 
a   gelatinous   thread. 

Sluice,  in  hydraulics,  a  frame  of 
timber,  stone,  or  other  solid  substance, 
serving  to  retain  and  raise  the  water 
of  a  river  or  canal,  and  when  neces- 
sary, to  give  it  vent.     The  word  ia 


Slur 


Smart 


also  applied  to  the  stream  of  water  is- 
suing through  a  flood-gate. 

Slnr,  in  music,  the  smooth  blend- 
ing of  two  or  more  notes  not  on  the 
same  degree ;  also  a  curved  line  placed 
over  or  under  notes,  directing  that 
they  are  to  be  played  legato. 

Smack,  a  small  vessel  rigged  as  a 
cutter,  sloop,  or  yawl,  used  in  the 
coasting  trade  and  in  fishing. 

Smalkaldic  Articles,  articles  of 
guarantee  drawn  up  by  Luther  at 
Wittenberg  in  1536,  and  subscribed  by 
the  theologians  present  at  a  meeting 
of  the  League  in  1537.  It  was  a  sum- 
mary of  the  religious  principles  of  the 
League,  designed  to  be  presented  to 
the  council  proclaimed  by  Pope  Paul 
IIL 

Smalkaldic  Xieague,  a  defensive 
alliance,  formed  in  1531,  between  the 
whole  of  Northern  Germany,  Den- 
mark, Saxony,  Wurtemberg,  with 
portions  of  Bavaria  and  Switzerland, 
for  the  defense  of  the  Protestant  re- 
ligion and  the  political  freedom  of  its 
adherents  against  Charles  V.  and  the 
Catholic  powers.  The  struggle  known 
as  the  War  of  Smalkald  commenced  in 
1546,  and  was  carried  on  with  varying 
fortune  on  both  sides  till  the  objects 
of  the  League  were  attained  in  1552, 
when  Maurice,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
compelled  the  Emperor  to  grant  the 
treaty  of  Passau,  which  was  ratified 
in  1555. 

Smalley,  George  Waskburn,  an 
American  journalist ;  born  in  Frank- 
lin, Mass.,  June  2,  1833.  During  the 
American  Civil  War,  the  war  between 
Prussia  and  Russia,  and  the  Franco- 
German  War,  he  distinguished  him- 
self as  war  correspondent  of  the  New 
York  "  Tribune,"  and  as  representa- 
tive of  the  same  in  London  (1867- 
1895)  he  gained  an  eminent  rank  in 
journalism.  He  became  American 
correspondent  of  the  London  "  Times  " 
in  1895. 

Smallpox,  an  eruptive  febrile  dis- 
ease, which  happily  is  not  now  nearly 
BO  prevalent  as  it  once  was.  This  dis- 
ease commonly  commences  with  the 
dsual  febrile  symptoms ;  as  rigors,  pain 
in  the  back  and  loins,  great  prostration 
of  strength,  followed  by  heat  and  dry- 
ness of  the  skin.  About  the  third  day 
an  eruption  of  small,  hard,  red-colored 
pimples  makes  its  appearance  about  the 


face  and  neck,  and  gradually  extends 
over  the  trunk  and  extremities.  The 
pimples  gradually  ripen  into  pustules, 
which,  on  the  eighth  day,  generally 
begin  to  break,  and  crusts  or  scabs 
form  on  these  last,  falling  off  in  four 
or  five  days  more.  The  severity  of  the 
disease  varies  much  in  different  in- 
stances, but  is  almost  always  in  di- 
rect relation  to  the  quantity  of  the 
eruption.  When  the  pustules  are  nu- 
merous they  run  together  and  form  an 
irregular  outline;  when  fewer  they 
are  distinct  and  of  a  regularly  circum- 
scribed circular  form ;  the  former  be- 
ing never  free  from  danger,  the  latter 
seldom  or  never  dangerous. 

Like  measles  and  scarlatina,  this  dis- 
ease frequently  gives  rise  to  others  of 
a  troublesome  or  dangerous  nature ;  as 
glandular  swellings,  abscesses,  pleu- 
risy, loss  of  sight,  consumption,  etc. 
Smallpox  is  the  effect  of  specific  con- 
tagion communicated  by  contact  or 
through  the  air.  The  parasite  of  small- 
pox, a  delicate  ameloid  body  with  nu- 
merous minute  spores,  was  not  discov- 
ered until  1904  by  Dr.  Korte.  Small- 
pox rarely  attacks  an  individual  more 
than  once. 

Smalt,  in  chemistry,  a  vitreous  sub- 
stance prepared  by  melting  roasted 
cobalt  ore  with  silica  and  potash,  and 
grinding  the  product  to  a  fine  pow- 
der. It  is  sometimes  called  powder 
blue,  and  is  used  to  give  a  blue  tinge 
to  writing  paper,  linen  and  starch, 
and  not  being  affected  by  fire  is  fre- 
quently employed  in  painting  earthen- 
ware. 

Smart,  Sir  George  Tkomas,  an 
English  musician;  born  in  London, 
England,  May  10,  1776.  By  industry 
and  careful  study  he  rose  to  be  com- 
poser and  organist  to  the  Chapel- 
Royal,  St.  James's,  and  directed  the 
music  at  the  coronation  of  William 
IV.  and  Queen  Victoria.  He  was 
knighted  in  1811.  Among  his  pupils 
were  Madame  Sontag  and  Jenny  Lind. 
He  died  in  London,  Feb.  23,  1867. 

Smart,  Mrs.  Helen  Hamilton 
(Gardener),  an  American  novelist; 
bom  in  Winchester,  Va.,  Jan.  21, 
1858.  She  labored  for  social  and  eth- 
ical reform  and  for  the  development 
of  woman.  Amon^  her  works  are : 
"  An  Unofltcial  Patriot,"  "  Historical 
Sketches  of  Our  Navy,"  etc. 


Sxneaton 

Smeaton,  Jolin,  an  English  civil 
engineer ;  born  in  Austhorpe,  near 
Leeds,  England,  June  8,  1724.  In 
1751  he  invented  a  machine  for  meas- 
uring a  ship's  way  at  sea,  and  also  a 
new  form  of  compass.  In  1753  he  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
and  was  awarded  the  Copley  medal  in 
1759.  In  1755  he  was  intrusted  with 
the  rebuilding  of  the  Eddystone  light- 
house, which  was  completed  in  Octo- 
ber, 1759.  It  stood  till  1882,  when  it 
was  replaced  by  a  new  structure. 
Smeaton  was  subsequently  employed 
on  manySworks  of  great  public  utility, 
including  the  Forth  and  Clyde  canal 
and  Ramsgate  harbor.  He  also  per- 
fected Newcomen's  steam  engine.  He 
died  in  Austhorpe  Oct.  28,  1792. 

Sxaell,  in  physiology,  the  power  or 
faculty  of  perceiving  odors.  For  this 
purpose  the  animal  is  provided  with  a 
special  nerve  called  the  olfactory 
nerve,  in  which  alone  this  faculty  re- 
sides. In  man  the  filaments  of  this 
nerve  are  distributed  in  minute  ar- 
rangements in  the  mucous  membrane 
covering  the  interior  and  upper  cavi- 
ties of  the  nose.  All  animals  do  not 
perceive  the  same  odors  in  an  equal 
degree.  Carnivorous  animals,  for  in- 
stance, have  the  power  of  detecting  by 
the  smell  the  special  peculiarities  of 
animal  matters,  and  of  tracking  other 
animals  by  the  scent,  but  apparently 
are  not  sensible  to  the  odors  of  plants 
and  flowers ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
herbivorous  animals  are  peculiarly 
sensitive  to  the  latter  and  have  little 
sensibility  to  animal  odors. 

Man  is  inferior  to  many  animals  in 
respect  to  acuteness  of  smell,  but  his 
sphere  of  susceptibility  to  various 
odors  is  more  uniform  and  extended. 
The  cause  of  the  difference  in  the  ef- 
fect of  different  odors  is  unknown. 
Great  differences  in  this  respect  exist 
among  different  individuals,  many 
odors  which  are  generally  thought 
agreeable  being  to  some  persons  in- 
tolerable and  different  persons  de- 
scribe differently  the  sensations  which 
arise  from  the  same  odorous  sub- 
stances. Further,  the  acuteness  of  this 
sense  differs  greatly  in  different  in- 
dividuals, and  there  seems  to  be  in 
some  persons  insensibility  to  certain 
odors,  and  in  the  case  of  sight  to  cer- 
tain colors.  Linnaeus  has  divided  odors 
into  seven  different  classes :  Aromatic, 


Smelting 

as  the  carnation ;  fragrant,  as  the  lily ; 
ambrosial,  as  musk ;  alliaceous,  as 
garlic;  fetid,  as  the  rag-wort,  vale- 
rian ;  virulent,  as  Indian  pink ;  nau- 
seous, as  the  gourd. 

Smelt,  a  small  anadromous  fish; 
common  on  the  coasts  and  in  the  fresh 
waters  of  Northern  and  Central  Eu- 
rope, and  of  corresponding  American 
latitudes,  from  August  to  May,  return- 
ing to  the  sea  after  it  has  deposited 
its  eggs.  The  smelt  is  one  of  the  most 
delicate  food  fishes. 


HOT  BLAST  SMELTING  FUBNACE. 

Smelting,  the  act  or  process  of  ob- 
taining metal  from  ore  by  the  com- 
bined action  of  heat,  air,  and  fluxes. 
In  smelting  iron  the  ore  is  first  roast- 
ed in  a  kiln  in  order  to  drive  off  the 
water,  sulphur,  and  arsenic  with 
which  it  is  more  or  less  combined  In  ita 
native  state,  and  is  then  subjected  to 
the  heat  of  a  blast  furnace  along  with 
certain  proportions  of  coke  or  coal  and 


Smilaz 

limestone,  varying  according  to  the 
composition  of  the  ore  to  be  heated. 

Smilax,  sarsaparilla ;  the  roots 
of  several  species  or  varieties  con- 
stitute the  sarsaparilla  of  the  ma- 
teria medica.  The  most  valued  is  that 
known  as  Jamaica  sarsaparilla.  It  is 
not  the  produce  of  Jamaica,  but  of 
Central  America  and  South  America. 

Smiles,  Samnel,  British  author ; 
born  in  Haddington,  Scotland,  Dec. 
23,  1812 ;  died  Apr.  16,  1904.  He  was 
educated  as  a  physician,  but  became 
famous  as  the  author  of  "  Self  Help ;" 
"Character ;"  "  Thrift ;"  "  Duty  ;"  and 
other  works  of  industrial  tendencies, 
characterized  by  sound  moral  teaching. 
He  died  April  16,  1904. 

Smith,  Adam,  a  Scotch  political 
economist ;  born  in  Kirkcaldy,  Fife- 
shire,  Scotland,  June  5,  1723.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  at 
Glasgow  University  in  1752.  Toward 
the  close  of  1763  he  accepted  an  invi- 
tation to  travel  with  the  Duke  of  Buc- 
cleuch,  and  having  resigned  his  chair, 
made  a  long  tour  in  France,  becoming 
acquainted  at  Paris  with  some  of  the 
most  eminent  philosophers  and  econ- 
omists. Returning  in  1766,  he  spent 
the  next  10  years  in  retirement  at 
Kirkcaldy,  engaged  in  the  composition 
of  his  great  work,  the  "  Inquiry  into 
the  Nature  and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of 
Nations"  (1776).  It  has  a  high  rank 
among  the  successful  books  of  the 
world  —  overthrowing  the  grave  errors 
which  it  attacked,  and  establishing 
their  opposite  truths.  Its  main  prin- 
ciple is  that  labor,  not  money  or  land, 
is  the  real  source  of  wealth.  The  means 
of  making  labor  most  fruitful,  the  di- 
vision of  labor,  what  wealth  consists 
in,  the  mischiefs  of  legislative  inter- 
ference with  industry  and  commerce, 
the  necessity  of  freedom  of  trade,  are 
admirably  discussed  and  expounded. 
The  book  may  be  regarded  as  the  basis 
of  modem  political  economy.  Smith 
was  chosen  lord-rector  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Glasgow  in  1787.  He  died  in 
Edinburgh,  July  17,  1790. 

SmitH,  Andrew  Jackson,  an 
American  military  ofiicer;  bom  in 
Bucks  CO.,  Pa.,  April  28,  1815;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1838,  and  assigned  to 
frontier  duty.    At  the  outbreak  of  the 


Smith 

Civil  War  he  was  assigned  to  the  De- 
partment of  Missouri.  Subsequently 
he  was  transferred  to  the  Department 
of  the  Ohio,  and  later  to  the  Army  of 
the  Tennessee,  which  he  accompanied 
on  the  Yazoo  river  expedition.  He 
was  mustered  out  of  the  volunteer 
service  in  January,  1866,  and  in  July 
became  colonel  of  the  7th  United 
States  Cavalry,  but  resigned  in  1869. 
On  Jan.  22,  1889,  was  reappointed  to 
the  army,  and  on  the  same  day  was 
placed  on  the  retired  list.  He  died  in 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Jan.  30,  1897. 

Smith,  Bnckingham,  an  Amer- 
ican historian  and  philologist ;  born  on 
Cumberland  Island,  Ga.,  Oct.  31,  1810. 
He  was  secretary  of  legation  at  Mexi- 
co (1850-1852),  and  at  Madrid 
(185D-1858).  He  made  an  exhaustive 
study  of  Mexican  history  and  an- 
tiquities, and  published  many  mono- 
graphs and  historical  papers.  He  died 
in  New  York,  Jan.  5,  1871. 

Smith,  Charles  Emory,  an  Amer* 
ican  journalist;  born  in  Mansfield, 
Conn.,  Feb.  18,  1824;  was  graduated 
at  Union  College  in  1861.  He  was 
United  States  minister  to  Russia  in 
1890-1892 ;  and  postmaster-general 
1898-1901,  when  he  resigned  to  re- 
sume the  editorship  of  the  Philadel- 
phia "  Press."  He  died  in  1908. 

Smith,  Charles  Fergnson,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  April  24,  1807 ;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1825.  He  was  in  act- 
ive service  during  the  Mexican  War, 
commanding  a  light  battalion,  and  won 
distinction  for  bravery  at  Palo  Alto, 
Resaca  de  la  Palma,  Monterey,  Churu- 
busco,  etc.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  he  was  appointed  a  Brig- 
adier-General of  volunteers ;  at  the 
head  of  a  division  captured  the  heights 
commanding  the  fort  at  the  battle  of 
Fort  Donelson  in  1862.  In  March  of 
the  same  year  was  promoted  Major- 
General  of  volunteers.  He  died  in 
Savannah,  Tenn.,  April  25,  1862. 

Smith,  Charles  Henry,  pseudo- 
nym "  Bill  Arp,"  an  American  humor- 
ist ;  born  in  Lawrenceville,  Ga.,  June 
15,  1826;  served  in  the  Confederate 
army  in  1861-1865,  becoming  major 
on  staff  of  3d  Georgia  Brigade.  His 
literary  career  began  (1861)  in  a 
series  of  letters.    Died  1903. 


Smith 

Smith,  David  M.,  an  American 
inventor;  born  in  Hartland,  Yt.,  in 
1809 ;  patented  a  combination  lock  in 
1849  and  in  1860  began  the  manufac- 
ture of  a  spring  liook  and  eye  for 
which  he  also  devised  the  machinery. 
Subsequently  he  took  out  nearly  60 
patents,  among  which  was  that  for  the 
machinery  used  in  folding  newspapers. 
Died  in  Springfield,  Vt.,  Nov.  10,  1880. 

Smith,  Edmnnid  Kirby,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer ;  born  in  St.  Au- 
gustine, Fla.,  May  1(3,  1824 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1845,  and  appointed  a  lieu- 
tenant of  infantry.  In  the  war  with 
Mexico  he  was  twice  brevetted  for  gal- 
lantry. In  18G1  he  was  promoted 
major,  but  resigned  on  the  secession 
of  Florida  and  entered  the  Confederate 
army.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Bull  Run.  In  1864  he  defeated  Gen- 
eral Banks  in  his  Red  river  campaign. 
He  was  president  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Telegraph  Company  in  1866- 
1868;  chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Nashville  in  1870-1875 ;  and  Professor 
of  Mathematics  in  the  University  of 
the  South,  Sewanee,  Tenn.,  from  1875 
till  his  death  there,  March  28,  1893. 

Smith,  Mrs.  Erminnie  Adelle 
(Flatt),  an  American  ethnologist; 
born  in  Marcellus,  N.  Y.,  April  26, 
1836.  When  only  16  years  old  she  was 
graduated  from  Willard's  Troy  Semi- 
nary. In  1880  the  managers  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  obtained  her 
services  to  investigate  the  history,  cus- 
toms, and  lore  of  the  Iroquois  Indians. 
Mrs.  Smith  joined  the  tribe,  and  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Ka-tel-tee-sta- 
Keost,  the  English  of  which  is  "  Beau- 
tiful Flower."  She  continued  her  In- 
dian studies,  and  at  the  time  of  her 
death  was  preparing  a  dictionary  of 
the  Iroquois  tongue.  She  wrote  many 
papers  on  Indian  subjects.  She  died 
in  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  June  9,  1886. 

Smith,  Francis  Hopkinson,  an 
American  painter,  writer  and  civil  en- 
gineer; bom  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Oct. 
23,  1838.  He  was  educated  as  a 
mechanical  engineer;  built  the  govern- 
ment wall  around  Governor's  Island, 
one  at  Tompkinsville,  S.  I.,  the  Race 
Rock  lighthouse  off  New  London, 
Conn.,  the  foundation  for  the  statue 
of  Liberty  Enlightening  the  World  in 
New  York  harbor,  etc    He  won  fame 


Smith 

as  a  water-color  artist  and  an  illus- 
trator and  lecturer  on  art.  Among  his 
most  popular  books  are :  "  Caleb 
West,"  "The  Other  Fellow,"  etc. 

Smith,  George  Otis,  an  American 
geologist;  born  in  Hodgdon,  Me.,  Feb. 
22,  1871;  joined  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  in  1896;  was  as- 
sistant and  full  geologist  in  1896- 
1907;  then  became  Director. 

Smith,  Gerrit,  an  American  phi- 
lanthropist; born  in  Utica,  N.  Y., 
March  6,  1797;  was  graduated  at 
Hamilton  College  in  1818.  He  gave 
pecuniary  aid  to  John  Brown,  in 
whose  affair  at  Harper's  Ferry,  he, 
however,  it  is  thought,  had  no  part; 
was  a  member  of  Congress  in  1853- 
1854;  with  Horace  Greeley  signed  the 
bail  bond  of  Jefferson  Davis  in  1867; 
was  an  earnest  advocate  of  temper- 
ance and  a  supporter  of  a  number  of 
reforms.     He  died  Dec.  28,  1874. 

Smith,  Goldwin,  an  English  his- 
torian ;  born  in  Reading,  England, 
Aug.  13,  1823;  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  Oxford.  As  a  lecturer  he  at- 
tracted great  attention  both  on  ac- 
count of  his  strongly  democratic  views 
and  his  striking  originality.  Having 
during  the  American  Civil  War 
strongly  defended  the  cause  of  the 
North,  he  was  at  the  close  of  the  war 
invited  to  visit  the  States  to  deliver  a 
course  of  lectures,  and  his  visit  re- 
sulted in  his  becoming  Professor  of 
History  at  Cornell  ^  University,  New 
York.  He  resigned  in  1871,  and  was 
appointed  member  of  the  senate  of  the 
University  of  Toronto,  where  he  re- 
sided till  his  death,  June  7.  1910. 

Smith,  Green  Clay,  an  American 
politician,  military  officer,  and  clergy- 
man ;  bom  in  Richmond,  Ky.,  July  2, 
1832.  He  served  a  year  in  the  Mexi- 
can War.  In  1862  he  entered  the 
volunteer  service  of  the  Union  army, 
in  which  he  attained  the  rank  of  Brig- 
adier-General ;  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress from  Kentucky  in  1863-1866; 
governor  of  Montana  Territory  in 
1866-1869;  later  a  Baptist  minister, 
mostly  an  evangelist,  but  in  1895  ac- 
cepted the  pastorate  of  the  Metropoli- 
tan Baptist  Church,  Washington,  D. 
C.  In  1876  he  was  the  Prohibition 
candidate  for  the  presidency  of  the 
United  States.  He  died  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  June  29,  1895. 


Smith 

Smitli,    Gustavus    'Woodson,   an 

American  military  oflScer ;  born  in 
Scott  CO.,  Ky.,  Jan.  1,  1822 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1842.  In  September,  1846, 
he  was  assigned  to  duty  under  General 
Scott  in  Mexico,  as  commander  of  the 
corps  of  sappers  and  miners,  and  for 
his    services    during    that    war,    espe- 

!  cially  at  Vera  Cruz,  Cerro  Gordo,  and 

J  Coutreras,  was  brevetted  1st  lieuten- 
ant and  captain.  In  1861  was  commis- 

'  sioned  a  Major-General  in  the  Confed- 
erate army.  He  was  in  command  at 
Richmond  in  1862;  head  of  the  State 
troops  of  Georgia  in  1864-1865;  and 
after  the  war  engaged  in  business  in 
Tennessee,  Kentucky,  and  New  York. 
Died  in  New  York  city,  June  23,  1896. 

'      Smith,  Henry  John  Stephen,  an 

^  Irish  mathematician ;  born  in  Dub- 
lin, Nov.  2,  1826;  was  educated  at 
Rugby  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
taking  a  double-first  in  1849.  In  1861 
he  becasne  Savilian  Professor  of  Geom- 
etry.    He  was  the  greatest  authority 

-  of  his  day  on  the  theory  of  numbers, 
and  also  wrote  on  elliptic  functions 
and  modern  geometry.  In  1881  the 
French  Academy  offered  their  "  Grand 
Prix  "  for  a  demonstration  of  certain 
theorems,  ignorant  of  the  fact  that 
they  had  already  been  demonstrated 
14  years  before  by  Smith,  to  whom  ac- 
cordingly   the   prize    of    3,000    francs 

■  ($600)  was  awarded,  but  not  till  a 
month  after  his  death.  He  died  Feb. 
3,  1883. 

Smith,  Henry  Preserved,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  Troy,  O., 
Oct.  23,  1847;  was  graduated  at  Am- 
herst College  in  1869.  He  came  into 
special  prominence  in  1892  when  he 
was  accused  of  heresy  and  tried  by  the 
Cincinnati  Presbytery.  In  1893,  pend- 
ing the  review  of  his  case  by  the 
Synod  and  the  General  Assembly,  he 
resigned  his  chair  in  Lane  Seminary, 
Being  convicted  by  both  of  these  bodies 
he  retired  from  the  Presbyterian 
Church  and  accepted  a  professorship 
at  Amherst  College. 

Smith,  Hezekiah  Wright,  an 
American  engraver ;  born  in  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland,  in  1828;  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1833  and  entered  an 
engraving  establishment.  In  1850  he 
settled  in  Boston,  Mass.  Among  his 
most    important    plates    are    a    full- 


Smith 

length  of  Daniel  Webster ;  a  three- 
quarter  length  of  Edward  Everett; 
and  Gilbert  Stuart's  head  of  Wash- 
ington. Subsequently  he  removed  to 
New  York  city  and  later  to  Philadel- 
phia. He  gave  up  engraving  in  1879. 

Smith,  James  Argyle,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer ;  born  July  1, 
1831 ;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1853 ; 
served  in  the  Confederate  army  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War,  becoming  a  Brig- 
adier-General in  November,  1863  ;  was 
elected  State  Superintendent  of  Edu- 
cation of  Mississippi  in  1878  and 
1882 ;  engaged  in  the  United  States  In- 
dian service  in  1893-1897;  and  was 
afterward  marshal  of  the  Mississippi 
Supreme  Court.  He  died  in  Jackson, 
Miss.,  Dec.  6,  1901. 

Smith,  James  Francis,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer;  born  in  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  Jan.  28,  1859.  In  1898 
he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  1st 
California  Volunteers  and  accom- 
panied the  first  expedition  to  the  Phil- 
ippines, where  he  took  part  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Malate  on  July  31,  1898,  and  in 
the  capture  of  Manila  in  August.  On 
April  29,  1899,  he  M^as  promoted  Brig- 
adier-General of  volunteers ;  on  July 
24  following  became  military  governor 
of  the  island  of  Negros  ;  in  1900  of  the 
Viscayas ;  and  in  June,  1906,  Gov.- 
Gen.  of  the  Philippines. 

Smith,  John,  an  English  adventure 
er,  the  founder  of  Virginia ;  born  in 
Willoughby,  in  Lincolnshire,  England, 
in  January,  1579. 

Smith  entered  with  enthusiasm  into 
the  project  of  colonizing  the  New 
World,  and  with  Gosnold,  Winkfield, 
Hunt,  and  others  set  out  in  Decem- 
ber, 1606,  with  a  squadron  of  three 
small  vessels  for  Virginia,  under  the 
authority  of  a  charter  granted  by 
James  I.  Amidst  the  unhappy  dissen- 
sions, difficulties,  and  distress  of  the 
first  years  of  the  great  enterprise, 
Smith  rendered  the  most  important 
services  by  his  irrepresible  hopeful- 
ness, practical  wisdom,  and  vigorous 
government.  But  for  his  wisdom  and 
noble  exertions  the  project  would  prob- 
ably have  been  abandoned.  He  made 
important  geographical  explorations 
and  discoveries.  In  1607,  ascending 
the  Chickahominy,  and  penetrating 
into  the  interior  of  the  country,  Smith 


Smith 


Smitli 


and  his  comrades  were  captured  by  the 
Indians,  and  he  only,  by  his  rare  self- 
possession,  escaped  with  life.  He  re- 
mained a  prisoner  for  some  weeks, 
carefully  observed  the  country,  got 
some  knowledge  of  the  language  of 
the  natives,  and  when  at  last  they 
were  going  to  put  him  to  death  he  was 
saved  by  the  affectionate  pleading  of 
Pocahontas,  the  daughter  of  the  chief 
Powhatan,  a  girl  10  or  12  years  old. 
He  visited  Virsrinia  in  1G14,  was  cap- 
tured by  the  French  in  the  following 
year,  and  on  his  return  to  London 
after  three  months  heard  of  the  arrival 
of  his  Indian  friend  Pocahontas.  Smith 
made  known  her  services,  and  she  was 
presented  to  Queen  Elizabeth  and 
loaded  with  marks  of  honor  and  grat- 
itude. Smith  published  in  1608  "  A 
True  Relation  of  such  Occurrences 
and  Accidents  of  Note  as  hath  Hap- 
pened in  Virginia  since  the  First 
Planting  of  that  Colony."  He  died 
in  London,  June  21,  1631. 

Smith,  John  liairrence,  an  Amer- 
ican chemist ;  born  near  Charleston,  S. 
C,  Dec.  17,  1818;  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Virginia  and  at  the 
Medical  School  of  South  Carolina. 
Later  he  was  appointed  by  the  State 
of  South  Carolina  to  assay  the  bullion 
from  the  gold  fields  of  Georgia  and  the 
Carolinas;  investigated  meteorological 
conditions,  soils,  and  modes  of  cotton 
culture.  He  devoted  much  attention  to 
meteorites,  and  his  collection,  which 
he  bequeathed  to  Harvard,  was  the 
finest  in  the  United  States.  He  was 
a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor ; 
president  of  the  American  Chemical 
Society ;  one  of  the  commissioners  to 
the  World's  Fair  in  Paris  in  1867;  a 
judge  in  the  Department  of  Chemical 
Arts  at  the  Centennial  Exposition  in 
Philadelphia  in  1876;  and  author  of 
many  valuable  reports,  scientific  and 
technical  papers,  etc.  He  died  in 
Louisville,  Ky.,  Oct.  12,  1883. 

Smith,  Joseph,  an  American  naval 
oflScer ;  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March 
30,  1790 ;  was  appointed  to  the  United 
States  navy  in  1809,  and  commissioned 
lieutenant  in  1813.  He  was  1st  lieu- 
tenant on  the  brig  "  Eagle "  in  the 
victory  on  Lake  Champlain ;  served 
on  board  the  frigate  "  Constitution " 
in  the  Mediterranean  in  1815-1817, 
and  in  1843-184.5  commanded  the  Med- 
iterranean squadron.     Died  in  1877. 

E.  140. 


"  Cumberland  "  as  his  flagship.  On 
his  return  to  the  United  States  he  was 
appointed  chief  of  the  bureau  of  yards 
and  docks,  which  post  he  filled  till 
1869,  when  he  was  made  president  of 
the  examining  board  for  the  promotion 
of  ofiicers.  He  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  Jan.  17,  1877. 

Smith,  Joseph,  the  founder  of  the 
Mormons  ;  born  in  Sharon,Windsor  co., 
Vt.,  Dec.  23,  1805.  About  1820  Joseph 
claimed  to  be  a  constant  witness  of 
supernatural  visions  and  to  be  gifted 
with  a  supernatural  sight.  He  pre- 
tended that  he  received  in  1828  a  di- 
vine revelation  inscribed  in  mysterious 
hieroglyphics  on  golden  plates  which 
were  delivered  to  him  by  an  angel,  and 
that  the  "  Book  of  Mormon,"  which  he 
published  in  1830,  was  translated  from 
those  golden  plates.  The  translation 
was  dictated  by  him  while  he  sat  be- 
hind a  curtain  as  if  in  the  society  of 
mysterious  spiritual  companions.  He 
gathered  a  number  of  converts,  and  as 
"  prophet "  went  with  them  first  to 
Kirtland,  O.,  and  afterward  to  In- 
dependence, Mo.  The  subsequent 
events  of  his  life  are  a  part  of  the 
early  history  of  the  Mormons. 

Smith,  Joseph  Fielding,  a  Mor- 
mon apostle ;  born  in  Far  West,  Mo., 
Nov.  13,  1838.  He  was  ordained  to 
one  of  the  "  seventies "  in  1858  and 
to  apostleship  in  1866,  becoming  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Twelve  in 
1867.  He  was  several  times  a 
member  of  the  Utah  Legislature,  and 
in  1882  presided  over  the  Constitu- 
tional Convention  which  framed  the 
constitution  for  the  State  of  Utah. 
He  succeeded  Lorenzo  Snow  as  pres- 
ident of  the  Mormon  Church  in 
October,  1901. 

Smith,  Leigh,  an  English  Arctic 
explorer  ;  after  amassing  a  fortune  was 
seized  with  a  desire  to  spend  it  in  a 
search  for  the  North  Pole.  He  made 
two  voyages  of  exploration  and  brought 
back  important  contributions  to  our 
knowledge    of    the   polar    regions. 

The  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society  was  awarded  to  the 
plucky  and  fortunate  explorer,  who  set 
sail  again  June  13,  1881,  with  Dr. 
Neale,  Captain  Lofley,  and  a  crew  of 
22  men,  the  vessel  being  provisioned 
for  14  months  and  having  a  two  years'' 
supply  of  flour  and  bread.  The  "  Eira  " 
was  last  seen  on  July  8,  1881,  off  the 


Smith 

W.  coast  of  Nova  Zembia,  going  N. 
No  word  having  been  received  from  the 
ship  for  over  a  year  an  expedition  was 
fitted  out  to  send  in  search  of  her.  It 
consisted  of  a  steam  whaler,  the 
"  Hope,"  which  was  commanded  by 
Sir  Allan  Young.  It  left  London  in 
June,  1882.  The  "Hope"  reached 
Peterhead,  Aberdeen,  on  Aug.  20, 
following,  bringing  the  entire  crew 
of  the  missing  vessel.  The  "  Eira  " 
had  "been  caught  in  the  ice  and  sunk 
off  Cape  Flora,  on  Aug.  21,  1881. 

Smith,  (Michael)  Hoke,,  an 
American  lawyer;  born  in  Newton, 
N.  C,  Sept.  2,  1855;  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  in  1873;  prac- 
ticed there  till  1909;  owned  the  At- 
lanta "Journal"  in  1887-1898;  Sec- 
retary of  the  Interior  in  1893-1896; 
Governor  of  Georgia  in  1907-1909; 
re-elected  Governor  in  1910. 

Smith,  Sydney,  an  English  clergy- 
man ;  born  in  Woodford,  Essex,  Eng- 
land, June  3,  1771.  Educated  at  Win- 
chester School,  Sydney,  in  1789,  en- 
tered New  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
took  his  degree  of  M.  A.  in  179G,  be- 
coming fellow  a  few  years  afterward. 
In  1799  he  went  to  Edinburgh  as 
tutor  to  a  young  gentleman,  continued 
there  for  five  years,  and  was  one  of 
the  founders  in  1802  of  the  "  Edin- 
burg  Review,"  being  also  one  of  its 
most  influential  contributors.  In  1804 
he  removed,  to  London,  about  the  same 
time  married,  and  became  renowned 
as  one  of  the  wittiest  and  most  genial 
of  men.  In  1831,  during  the  ministry 
of  Earl  Grey,  he  became  one  of  the 
canons  of  St.  Paul's.  Died  in  Lon- 
don,  Feb.   22,    1845. 

Smith,  Thomas  Southivood,  an 
English  sanitarian ;  born  in  Martock, 
Somersetshire,  England,  in  1778.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh.  After 
several  years  of  hospital  work  he  em- 
bodied his  experience  in  a  "  Treatise 
on  Fever"  (1830),  which  has  been 
described  by  a  competent  authority  as 
the  best  work  on  the  subject  that  has 
ever  been  written.  In  1832  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to 
inquire  into  the  condition  of  factory 
children,  and  his  report  led  to  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Factory  Act,  which  put 
an  end  to  the  inhuman  treatment  to 
which  children  had  been  subjected  in 
factories  up  to  that  time.  His  in- 
quiry   into    the   condition   of  children 


Smith 

and  young  persons  employed  in  mines 
led  to  the  exclusion  of  children  and 
women  from  British  mines.  In  1846 
his  report  on  the  means  requisite  for 
the  improvement  of  the  health  of  the 
metropolis  resulted  in  the  Public 
Health  Act  of  1848.  He  also  did  im- 
mense service  to  the  cause  of  science 
by  his  reports  on  cholera  and  quaran- 
tine. He  died  in  Florence,  Italy, 
in  1861. 

Smith,  "William,  the  "  father  of 
English  geology  "  ;  born  in  Churchill, 
Oxfordshire,  England,  March  23,  1769. 
He  became  convinced  that  each 
stratum  contained  its  own  peculiar  fos- 
sils, and  might  be  discriminated  by 
them,  and  in  1815  he  was  able  to  sub- 
mit a  complete  colored  map  of  the 
strata  of  England  and  Wales  to  the 
Society  of  Arts,  and  received  the  pre- 
mium of  $250  which  had  ior  several 
years  been  offered  for  such  a  map. 
His  fame  as  an  original  discoverer  was 
now  secure ;  but  becoming  involved  in 
pecuniary  difficulties  he  was  obliged 
to  part  with  his  geological  collection 
to  the  government  for  $3,500.  Subse- 
quently a  pension  was  granted  to  him 
by  the  government.  He  died  in  North- 
ampton, England,  Aug.  28,  1839. 

Smiith,  William,  an  English  clas- 
sical scholar ;  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, in  1813  or  1814.  He  was  of 
great  learning,  and  his  works  have 
been  very  influential  in  the  guidance 
and  extension  of  scholarship.  They 
include :  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Antiquities"  (1840-1842); 
"  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biography  and  Mythology"  (1843- 
1849),  etc.     He  died  Oct.  7,  1893. 

Smith,  William  Farrar,  an 
American  military  engineer ;  born  in 
St.  Albans,  Vt.,  Feb.  17,  1824;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1845.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  he  was  assigned 
to  duty  under  General  Butler,  and 
later  commanded  a  division  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  at  the  siege  of 
Yorktown  and  in  the  battles  of  Wil- 
liamsburg, Malvern  Hill,  Antietam, 
etc.  He  was  appointed  chief  engineer 
of  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland  on 
Oct.  3,  1863,  and  subsequently  planned 
the  battles  of  Brown's  Ferry  and  Mis- 
sionary Ridge,  and  threw  a  bridge 
1,500  feet  long  across  the  Tennessee 
river  for  Sherman's  army.     After  the 


Smiili 


Smoky  Mountains 


war  he  resigned  from  the  army  and 
became  president  of  the  International 
Ocean  Telegraph  Company  and  of  the 
New  York  Board  of  Police.  Died  1903. 
Smith,  Sir  ^Villiam  Sidney,  an 
English  naval  officer ;  born  in  West- 
minster, England,  July  21,  1765.  He 
entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of  12,  re- 
ceived his  lieutenancy  at  10,  and  when 
19  was  created  post  captain.  Appointed 
later  to  the  "Tiger,"  Sir  Sidney  did 
good  service  in  Syria  and  subsequently 
in  Egypt  against  Bonaparte,  receiving 
a  severe  wound  at  the  battle  of  Alex- 
andria. On  his  return  to  England 
various  marks  of  distinction  were  be- 
stowed or  him,  and  in  1802  he  en- 
tered Pa  'liament  as  member  for 
Rochester,  He  was  created  rear-ad- 
miral of  the  blue  in  1805,  and  in  1806, 
as  commander  of  a  small  squadron,  in- 
flicted signal  injuries  on  the  French 
off  the  coast  of  Naples.  Next  year  he 
accompanied  Admiral  Duckworth  to 
the  Dardanelles,  where  he  distinguish- 
ed himself  by  the  destruction  of  a 
Turkish  squadron.  He  was  made  vice- 
admiral  in  1810,  admiral  in  1821,  and 
in  1830  succeeded  King  William  IV. 
as  lieutenant-general  of  marines.  As 
a  reward  for  his  services  he  received 
a  pension  of  .$5,000  a  year  and  the 
decoration  of  K.  C.  B.  He  died  in 
Paris,  France,   May  26,  1841. 

Smith  College,  an  educational 
non-sectarian  institution  for  women  in 
Northampton,  Mass. ;  founded  in  1875. 

Smithson,  James,  an  English 
philanthropist :  natural  son  of  Hugh 
Percj%  3d  Duke  of  Northumberland ; 
born  in  England  about  1754 ;  was 
graduated  at  Oxford  in  1786,  and 
elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety in  1787.  In  1835  his  property, 
amounting  to  $508,318,  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment, having  been  bequeathed  by 
him  •'  for  the  purpose  of  founding  an 
institution  at  Washington,  D.  C,  to  be 
called  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowl- 
edge among  men."  He  died  in  Genoa, 
Italy,  June  27,  1829. 

Smithsonian  Institution,  a 
literary,  scientific,  and  philosophical 
institution,  organized  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  by  Act  of  Congress  in  1846, 
pursuant  to  the  will  of  James  Smith- 
son,  The  management  of  the  institu-  j 
tion  is   in   the  hands   of  regents   ap-l 


pointed  by-  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, and  a  spacious  structure,  con- 
taining a  museum,  library,  cabinets 
of  natural  history,  and  lecture  rooms, 
has  been  the  result  of  their  able  ad- 
ministration of  the  testator's  wishes. 
The  library  (150,000  volumes),  care- 
fully collected,  is  unsurpassed  in  the 
United  States  as  a  resource  for  scien- 
tific reference,  while  in  its  museum 
are  collected  the  rich  acquisitions  of 
national  exploring  expeditions.  Some 
part  of  its  income  is  devoted  to  sci- 
entific researches,  and  the  productioE 
of  works  too  costly  for  publication  by 
private  individuals.  Departments  of 
astronomy,  ethnology,  meteorology,  and 
terrestrial  magnetism,  have  been  es- 
tablished. The  United  States  Weather 
Bureau  has  grown  out  of  its  depart- 
ment of  meteorology,  and  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission  was  estab- 
lished in  connection  with  its  work  in 
ichthyology.  Under  its  direction  are 
the  United  States  National  Museum ; 
the  Bureau  of  International  Ex- 
changes ;  the  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology ;  the  Astro-Physical  Ob- 
servatory ;  and  the  National  Zoological 
Park, 

Smith  Sound,  a  passage  of  water 
leading  to  the  Arctic  regions,  at  the 
N.  extremity  of  Baffin  Bay,  between 
Prudhoe,  in  Greenland,  and  Ellesmere 
Land.  Its  S.  entrance  was  discovered 
by  Baffin  in  1616.  In  1854  it  was 
surveyed  by  a  United  States  expedi- 
tion under  Dr.  Elisha  Kent  Kane.  A 
gulf  110  miles  long  was  found  at  its 
N.  E.  end. 

Smoke,  the  exhalations,  visible  va- 
por or  substance  that  escapes,  or  is 
expelled,  in  the  process  of  combustion, 
from  the  substance  burning.  In  great 
cities,  where  bituminous  coal  is  con- 
sumed on  a  large  scale  for  rqanufact- 
uring  purposes,  the  atmosphere  is  con- 
stantly charged  with  clouds  of  smoke, 
which  is  diffused  over  everything.  This 
has  led  to  the  manufacture  of  various 
devices  to  consume  or  otherwise  do 
away  with  smoke  which  have  met  with 
various   degrees   of   success. 

Smoky  Mountains,  or  Great 
Smoky  Mountains,  a  range  on  the 
boundary  of  North  Carolina  and  Ten- 
nessee ;  is  a  part  of  the  Appalachian 
sj'stem.  Mount  Guyot,  6,636  feet  high, 
and  Clingman's  Peak,  6,660  feet  high, 
are  among  its  loftiest  summits. 


Smollett 

Smollett,      Tobias      George,      a 

British  novelist  and  miscellaneous 
writer ;  born  near  Renton,  Dumbarton- 
Bhire,  Scotland,  in  March,  1721.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  and  was  apprenticed  to  a 
surgeon.  In  1740  he  went  to  London 
and  in  1748  he  published  his  "  Ad- 
ventures of  Roderick  Random,"  a 
novel  which  brought  him  fame  and 
fortune,  which  latter  he  needed  badly. 

He  went  to  Paris  in  1750,  and  about 
this  time  wrote  his  "  Adventures  of 
Peregrine  Pickle,"  which  appeared  in 
1751.  He  now  obtained  the  degree 
of  M.  D.,  but  never  succeeded  in  prac- 
tice. In  17G1,  1762,  and  1765  appeared 
his  "  Continuation  of  the  History  of 
England  down  to  1765,"  since  often 
reprinted  as  a  continuation  of  Hume's 
history.  In  1766,  after  a  residence 
of  about  two  years  on  the  Continent, 
he  published  his  "  Travels  through 
France  and  Italy";  and  1767  his 
"  History  and  Adventures  of  an 
Atom."  He  died  in  Monte  Nuovo,  near 
Leghorn,  Italy,  Oct  21,  1771. 

Smolt,  a  name  given  to  young  river 
salmon  when  they  are  bluish  along 
the  upper  half  of  the  body  and  silvery 
along  the  sides. 

Smnggling,  originally  and  strictly 
a  crime  of  commerce,  a  violation  of 
customs  laws,  to  be  distinguished  from 
such  a  crime  of  manufacture  as  illicit 
distillation,  which  violates  excise  laws. 
But  the  term  is  commonly  applied  also 
to  the  evasive  manufacture  and  dis- 
posal of  commodities  liable  to  excise 
as  well  as  to  the  clandestine  importa- 
tion of  articles  on  which  customs 
duties  have  been  imposed.  Defrauding 
the  government  of  revenue  by  the 
evasion  of  customs  duties  or  excise 
taxes  may  therefore  serve  as  a  defini- 
tion. 

Smiitt,  in  botany,  dust-brand;  a 
fungus,  which  attacks  the  ears  of  bar- 
ley, oats,  and  rye,  but  is  seldom  found 
on  wheat.  In  appearance  it  resembles 
bunt,  but  it  is  inodorous.  When  ex- 
amined microscopically,  the  black  pow- 
der is  found  to  consist  of  round  spores, 
smaller  than  those  of  bunt  and  without 
reticulations.  It  has  been  ascertained 
that  one  square  inch  of  surface  would 
contain  not  less  than  eight  millions 
of  spores. 

Smyrna  (Turkish,  Izmer),  an 
ancient   city   and   seaport   of  A^siatic 


SnaU 

Turkey,  on  the  W.  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  the 
same  name.  Smyrna  has  been  for  cen- 
turies the  most  important  place  of 
trade  in  Asia  Minor.  The  chief  im- 
ports are  cotton  manufactures,  woolen 
cloths,  colonial  goods,  iron,  steel,  and 
hardware  goods.  The  principal  exports 
are  dried  fruits  (especially  figs),  cot- 
ton, silk,  goats'  hair,  sheep  and  camels' 
wool,  valonia,  madder  root,  yellow  ber- 
ries, sponges,  and  opium.  The  origin 
of  Smyrna  is  lost  in  antiquity.  It 
has  repeatedly  suffered  from  earth- 
quake.   Pop.  estimated  at  200,000. 

Smyrna,  Gulf  of,  formerly  the 
Hermaean  Gulf,  an  inlet  of  t'le  JEgean 
Sea  on  the  coast  of  Asiatic  'j.urkey,  so 
called  from  the  town  of  Smyrna,  which 
stands  at  its  head.  It  is  40  miles  in 
length  by  20  at  its  broadest  part,  and 
contains  several  islands  and  affords 
good  anchorage. 

Smythe,  "William  Ellsworth,  an 
American  journalist ;  born  in  Wor- 
cester, Mass.,  Dec.  24,  1861.  Initiated 
the  National  Irrigation  Congress  of 
1891 ;  established  the  "  Irrigation 
Age"  in  1891,  and  edited  it  till 
1896;  founded  the  notable  settle- 
ment of  New  Plymouth,  in  Idaho, 
in  1895,  and  lectured  extensively 
on  irrigation  and  Western  insti- 
tutions throughout  the  United    States. 


COMMON   SNAU,. 
a,  eggs;  h,  appearance  when  newly  hatched; 
c,    slightly    advanced    stage;    d,    mature 
snail. 

Snail,  the  common  name  of  gaster- 
opodous  mollusks.  They  feed  chiefly 
on  vegetable  substances,  though  they 
are  very  indiscriminate  in  their  appe- 
tite and  even  devour  the  dead  of  their 
own  kind.  The  mischief  which  they  d» 
to  garden  crops  is  well  known.  Snails 
delight  in   warm,   moist   weather;    in 


Snake 

dry  weather,  their  chief  time  of  activ- 
ity is  during  the  night,  and  they  hide 
themselves  by  day ;  but  after  rain  they 
come  forth  at  any  hour  in  quest  of 
food.  At  the  approach  of  winter  or 
in  very  dry  weather  they  close  the 
mouth  of  the  shell  with  a  membrane 
(epiphragm),  formed  by  the  drying 
of  the  mucous  substance  which  they 
secrete,  and  become  inactive  and  torpid. 

Snake,  a  serpent,  any  species  of  the 
order  Ophidia.  The  best-known  harm- 
less snake  is  probably  the  common 
snake,  known  also  as  the  ringed  or 
grass  snake.  The  black  snake,  of  which 
there  are  two  species,  is  also  very 
common  in  the  United  States.  The 
common  snake  has  no  poison  fangs, 
but  is  furnished  with  scent  glands 
which  secrete  a  volatile  substance  of 
offensive  and  penetrating  odor.  Snakes 
are  partial  to  damp  situations  and 
enter  water  readily,  swimming  with 
ease.  They  are  voracious  and 
swallow  their  prey  —  frogs,  mice,  and 
small  birds  —  alive  and  entire,  their 
teeth,  which  are  in  two  rows  on  each 
side  of  the  jaws  and  directed  back- 
ward, being  too  weak  to  tear  or  mas- 
ticate. 

Snakeroot,  the  popular  name  of 
numerous  American  plants  of  different 
species  and  genera,  most  of  which  are, 
or  formerly  were,  reputed  to  be  effica- 
cious as  remedies  for  snake  bites. 

Snapping  Tnrtle,  a  fresh  water 
tortoise  widely  distributed  over  the 
United  States.  They  grow  to  a  con- 
siderable size,  a  weight  of  20  pounds 
being  far  from  uncommon,  and  are 
prized  as  food.  Their  popular  name 
is  derived  from  their  ferocity  in  captiv- 
ity, and  their  habit  of  biting  or  snap- 
ping at  everything  that  comes  in  their 
way.  Called  also  alligator  terrapin 
and  alligator  tortoise. 

Sneezing,  a  sudden  violent  and  con- 
vulsive explosion  of  air  through  the 
nostrils,  with  a  peculiar  sound.  It  is 
preceded  by  a  more  or  less  long-drawn 
and  deep  inspiration,  like  that  which 
precedes  coughing ;  but  the  opening 
from  the  pharynx  into  the  mouth  is 
closed  by  the  contraction  of  the  an- 
terior pillars  of  the  fauces  and  the 
descent  of  the  soft  palate,  so  that  the 
force  of  the  blast  is  driven  entirely 
through  the  nose.  It  is  caused  by  the 
irritation  of  the  inner  membrane  of 
the  nostrils,  and  is  designed  to  throw 


Snipe 

off  any  particles  causing  the  morbid 
action. 

Snelling,  Fort,  a  military  post  in 
Hennepin  co.,  Minn.,  on  the  Missis- 
sippi river,  opposite  St.  Paul. 

Snider,  Jacob,  inventor  of  a 
method  for  converting  Enfield  muzzle- 
loading  rifles  into  breechloaders,  origi- 
nally a  Philadelphia  wine  merchant ; 
busied  himself  in  inventions  connected 
with  dyeing,  brewing,  coach  wheels, 
the  sheathing  of  ships,  etc.,  and  went 
to  England  in  1859  to  induce  the  Brit- 
ish government  to  adopt  his  system  of 
breech  loading  or  converting.  In  this 
he  succeeded,  but  for  one  reason  or 
another  found  himself  unable  to  ob- 
tain the  expected  remuneration.  He 
died  Oct.  25,  1866,  without  having  re- 
ceived the  reward  of  his  labors,  worn 
out  by  delays,  lawsuits,  poverty,  and 
debts. 

Snider,  Denton  Jacqnes,  an 
American  author ;  born  in  Mt.  Gilead, 
O.,  Jan.  9,  1841 ;  was  graduated  at 
Oberlin  College  in  1862.  His  studies 
of  the  great  poets.  Homer,  Shakes- 
peare, Dante,  Goethe,  and  his  writings 
on  kindred  topics,  are  very  numerous, 
comprising  some  18  volumes.  His  book 
"A  Walk  in  Hellas"  (1882),  is  a 
remarkable  study  of  Greece  as  it  is 
today,  illuminated  by  what  it  was  in 
its  prime. 


COMMON    SNIPE. 

Snipe,     the    name    of    a     common 
family  of  birds.     The  common  Ameri- 


Snoring 

can  snipe  is  about  equal  in  size  to 
the  common  snipe  of  Europe,  and 
much  resembles  it  also  in  plumage. 
The  tail  has  16  feathers.  This  species  is 
abundant  in  summer  in  the  N.  parts  of 
the  United  States  and  in  Canada,  and 
in  the  more  S.  States  in  winter.  It  is 
much  in  request  for  the  table,  and  is 
often  caught  in  snares.  It  is  much  es- 
teemed as  a  delicious  and  well-flavored 
dish. 

Snoring,  an  abnormal  and  noisy 
mode  of  respiration  produced  by  deep 
inspirations  and  expirations  through 
the  nose  and  open  mouth,  the  noise  be- 
ing caused  by  the  vibrations  of  the 
soft  palate  and  uvula.  Sometimes  the 
noise  arises  in  the  glottis,  the  vocal 
chords  vibrating  loosely.  Keeping  the 
mouth  shut  will  usually  make  snoring 
impracticable. 


Snoxv 

constitute  the  clouds,  when  the  tem- 
perature of  the  latter  is  below  zero. 
They  are  more  regular  when  formed  in 
a  calm  atmosphere.  Their  form  may 
be  investigated  by  collecting  them  on 
a  black  surface,  and  viewing  them 
through  a  strong  lens.  The  regularity, 
and  at  the  same  time  variety,  of  their 
forms,  are  truly  beautiful. 

In  the  economy  of  nature  snow  an- 
swers many  valuable  purposes.  By  its 
gradual  melting  in  high  regions  it 
serves  to  supply  streams  of  running 
water  which  a  sudden  increase  in  the 
form  of  rain  would  convert  into  de- 
structive torrents  or  standing  pools. 
In  many  countries  snow  tempers  the 
burning  heat  of  summer  by  cooling 
the  winds  which  pass  over  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  colder  climates  snow 
serves  as  a  defense  against  the  severity 


SNOW    CKYSTALS    MAGNIFIED. 


Snorri  Sturluson,  an  Icelandic 
poet  and  historian ;  born  in  Hvami, 
in  the  Dala  district  of  Iceland,  in 
1178.  By  his  marriage,  first  with 
Herdys  (1199),  and  after  her  death 
with  Hallveg  Ormsdatter,  gained  great 
possessions,  sometimes  appearing  at 
the  Althing  with  a  following  of  800 
to  900  men.  Snorri  was  the  last  and 
one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Northern 
skalds.  He  wrote  many  panegyrics 
and  heroic  songs,  and  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  part  of  the 
"  Younger  Edda."  His  prkicipal  work 
is  the  "  Heimskringla  "  ("ring  of  the 
world"),  a  collection  of  sagas  on  the 
ancient  history  of  Norway. 

Snoiv,  in  meteorology,  water  solidi- 
fied in  stellate  crystals,  variously  mod- 
ified, and  floating  in  the  atmosphere. 
These  crystals  arise  from  the  con- 
gelation of  the  minute  vesicles  which 


of  winter,  where  it  protects  plants 
against  the  frost  and  serves  as  a  shel- 
ter to  animals,  which  bury  themselves 
in  it.  The  elevation  at  which  moun- 
tains are  covered  with  perpetual  snow 
is  called  the  "  snow  line,"  or  plane  of 
perpetual  snow.  The  snow  line  on 
the  N.  side  of  the  Himalayan  Moun- 
tains is  18,G00  feet ;  on  Chimborazo, 
15,802  feet.  The  altitude  of  perpetual 
snow  under  the  equator  was  fixed  by 
Humboldt  at  15,748  feet;  toward  the 
poles  it  is  considerably  lower.  The 
snow  line  of  the  Alps,  N.  latitude  46°, 
is  only  8,860  feet ;  and  that  of  the  Pyr- 
enees about  8,850  feet.  At  the  North 
Cape,  in  lat.  71°,  it  Is  only  2,300  feet. 
Sncw,  IJorenzo,  a  Mormon  apos- 
tle ;  born  in  Mantua,  O.,'  April  3,  1814; 
was  converted  to  Mormonism  in  1836 ; 
became  a  missionary  in  1837,  and 
traveled  in  England  and  other"  coun- 


Snowball  Tree 


Soap  Bubbles 


tries ;  and  on  his  return  to  the  United 
States  organized  and  captained  the 
Nauvoo  Legion,  the  body  of  Mormon 
troops  in  Illinois.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Utah  Legislature  in  1852- 
1882;  founded  Brigham  City,  Utah; 
was  ordained  one  of  the  Twelve  Apos- 
tles of  the  Church  in  1849,  and  suc- 
ceeded Wilford  Woodruff  as  president 
of  the.  Mormon  Church  in  1838.  Died 
in  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  Oct.  10,  1901. 

Snowball  Tree,  the  garden  variety 
of  the  guelder  rose. 

Snowberry,  a  bushy,  deciduous 
shrub,  native  of  the  N.  parts  of  North 
America.  It  has  simple  leaves,  small 
flowers,  and  white  uneatable  berries 
about  the  size  of  black  currants,  re- 
maining on  the  bush  after  the  leaves. 

Snow^bird,  the  common  name  of 
a  genus  of  birds,  distinguished  by 
their  bill  small  and  conical,  the  wings 
reaching  the  basal  fourth  of  the  ex- 
posed portion  of  the  tail,  and  the  tail 
slightly  emarginate.  The  common 
snowbird,  or  black  snowbird,  of  ^  the 
United  States  E.  of  the  Missouri,  is 
G%  inches  long;  grayish  or  dark  ashy 
black.  These  birds  appear  in  flocks 
in  winter  and  are  very  tame ;  the  flesh 
is  delicate  and  juicy,  and  is  often  sold 
in  the  New  Orleans  market. 

Snow  Bnnting,  an  Arctic  pas- 
serine bird,  visiting  more  S.  latitudes 
in  the  winter.  It  is  about  seven  inches 
in  length,  and  its  plumage  varies  con- 
siderably at  different  seasons."  They 
feed  on  seeds  and  insects,  and  soon 
after  their  arrival  in  temperate  regions 
become  fat,  and  are  then  esteemed  a 
delicacy.  The  Greenlanders  kill  them 
In  great  numbers  and  dry  them  for 
winter  use.  Their  song  is  not  unlike 
that  of  the  lark,  and  when  singing 
they  perch  near  a  mate ;  their  call  is 
a  shrill  piping  note  generally  uttered 
on  the  wing. 

Snowdrop,  a  well-known  garden 
plant.  It  bears  solitary,  drooping,  and 
elegant  white  flowers,  which  appear 
early  in  spring ;  is  a  native  of  the 
Alps,  but  quite  common  in  gardens  in 
the  Northern  United  States. 

Snow^drop  Tree,  a  name  of  orna- 
mental trees  of  the  Southern  United 
States  with  flowers  like  snowdrQps,  be- 
longing to  the  styrax   family. 

Snow  Goose,  in  ornithology,  the 
Anser    hyberboreus.      It    obtains    its 


snow-white  plumage  only  at  maturity. 
It  breeds  in  large  numbers  in  the  bar- 
ren grounds  of  Arctic  America  and 
migrates  S.  during  the  winter. 

Snow  Plow,  an  implement  used  to 
clear  a  road  or  track  of  snow. 

Suowsboe,  a  light  frame  made  of 
bent  wood  and  interlacing  thongs,  used 
to.  give  the  wearer  a  broader  base  of 
support  when  walking  on  snow.  They 
are  usually  from  three  to  four  feet  in 
length.;  and  a  foot  to  18  inches  broad 
io  the  middle. 

Snowy  Owl,  a  native  of  America 
and  the  N.  of  Europe.  It  flies  by  day 
and  preys  on  the  smaller  mammalia 
and  on  various  birds  which  it  is  able 
to  capture. 

Snnff,  a  fragrant  powdered  prepa- 
ration of  tobacco  inhaled  through  the 
nose.     There  are  numerous   varieties. 

Snyder,  Simon,  an  American  mili- 
tary ofEcer;  born  in  Selin's  Grove, 
Pa.,  Feb.  9,  1839;  was  appointed  a 
2nd  lieutenant  in  the  5th  United  States 
Infantry,  April  26,  1861 ;  was  an  aide- 
de-camp  of  General  Couch  during  the 
Confederate  raid  into  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania  in  1864,  and  an  acting 
aide  to  General  Merritt  in  Sheridan's 
campaign.  After  the  Civil  War  he 
served  at  various  posts  in  the  East  and 
West  till  the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  when  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  1st  Army  Corps  for 
service  in  Cuba.  He  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  province  of  Santa 
Clara,  Cuba,  Dec.  6,  1898,  and  later 
served  on  special  duty  at  Ponce,  Porto 
Rico.  He  was  mustered  out  of  the 
volunteer  service.  May  12,  1899,  and 
ordered  to  the  Philippines,  where  he 
commanded  the  United  States  troops 
in  the  district  of  Cebu.  On  his  re- 
turn to  the  United  States  he  w^as  ap- 
pointed acting  inspector  of  the  De- 
partment of  the  Lakes. 

Soap,  strictly  speaking,  a  salt  con- 
sisting of  a  fatty  acid  in  combination 
with  a  metallic  base.  Ordinary  soap 
is  freely  soluble  in  both  hot  and  cold 
water,  but  if  any  of  the  earths,  such 
as  lime,  be  present,  an  insoluble  com- 
pound is  immediately  formed;  or,  in 
common  language,  the  soap  curdles, 
from  the  water  being  hard. 

Soap  Bnbbles.  The  blowing  of 
soap  bubbles  is  of  great  antiquity, 
and    is    to    be    seen    depicted   on   an 


Soap  Flanf 


Soccer 


Etruscan  vase  in  the  Louvre.  The 
beautiful  play  of  colors  familiar  to 
all  is  due  to  the  excessive  but  variable 
thinness  of  the  soap  films.  The  spher- 
ical form  of  the  ordinary  soap  bubble 
is  a  direct  result  of  the  action  of  sur- 
face tension,  the  geometrical  condition 
being  that  with  given  volume  the  sur- 
face must  have  minimum  area. 

Soap  Plant,  a  name  common  to 
several  plants  used  in  place  of  soap, 
as  the  Phalangium  pomaridianum,  a 
Californian  plant. 

Soapstone,  or  Steatite,  a  hy- 
drated  silicate  of  magnesia,  with  a 
gmooth  greasy  feel  like  that  of  soap, 
and  so  soft  as  to  yield  to  the  nail. 
It  is  a  massive  variety  of  talc,  which, 
when  pure  and  compact,  is  much  used 
as  a  refractory  material  for  lining 
furnaces,  being  infusible  in  any  ordi- 
nary furnace  heat.  It  is  easily  turned 
in  the  lathe,  or  cut  with  knives  and 
saws,  and  is  made  into  culinary  ves- 
sels. When  very  strongly  heated,  soap- 
Btone  loses  the  small  portion  of  com- 
bined water  which  it  contains  and  be- 
comes harder  and  susceptible  of  polish. 


SOAPWOKT. 

Soapwort  (Saponaria),  a  genus 
of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Caryo- 
phyllaceffi;  so  called  because  the 
bruised  leaves  produce  a  lather  like 
soap  when  agitated  in  the  water.  Com- 
mon soapwort  grows  by  the  roadside 
ia  the  United  States  from  New  Eius,<- 


land  to  Georgia.  It  is  a  native  of 
many  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  found 
on  waysides,  river  banks,  and  thickets ;  . 
in  Great  Britain  it  is  found  in  alluvial 
meadows  and  under  hedges.  It  has 
handsome  pink-like  flowers. 

Socage,  or  Soccage,  in  old  law,  a 
tenure  by  any  certain  and  determinate 
service ;  being  in  this  sense  put  in  op- 
position to  knight  service  where  the 
render  was  precarious  and  uncertain, 
and  to  villeinage,  where  the  service 
was  of  the  meanest  kind. 

Soccer,  or  Socker,  the  popular 
name  for  Intercollegiate  Association 
Football.  Introduced  from  Great 
Britain,  it  was  first  taken  up  in  the 
United  States  by  Haverford  College, 
Pa.,  in  1901,  was  soon  adopted  by  all 
leading  colleges,  and  is  now  regulated 
by  the  Intercollegiate  Association 
Football  League,  organized  in  190G. 
The  game  is  fast  and  clean,  and  dan- 
gerous play  is  barred.  No  tripping, 
kicking  or  jumping  at  a  player  is  al- 
lowed. Except  the  goal-keeper,  no 
player  intentionally  handles  the  ball 
under  any  pretence.  A  player  must 
not  use  his  hands  to  hold  or  push  an 
opponent.  Charging  is  permissible, 
jjut  it  must  not  be  violent  or  danger- 
ous. A  player  shall  not  be  charged 
from  behind  unless  he  is  intentionally 
obstructing  an  opponent.  When,  how- 
ever, cases  of  handling  the  ball  and 
tripping,  pushing,  kicking,  or  holding 
an  opponent,  and  charging  an  oppo- 
nent from  behind,  may  so  happen  as 
to  be  considered  unintentional,  a  deci- 
sion of  the  International  Board  rules 
that  in  such  a  case  no  penalty  shall 
be  inflicted.  Tripping  is  defined  as  in- 
tentionally throwing,  or  attempting  to 
throw,  an  opponent  by  the  use  of  the 
legs,  or  by  stooping  in  front  of  or 
behind  him.  Holding,  as  obstruct- 
ing a  player  by  the  hand  or  any 
part  of  the  arm  extended  from  the 
body.  A  player  shall  not  wear  any 
nails  (except  such  as  have  their  heads 
driven  in  flush  with  the  leather)  or 
metal  plates  or  projections,  or  gutta 
percha,  on  boots  or  on  shin  guards, 
but  soft  india-rubber  on  the  soles  of 
boots  is  allowed.  If  bars  or  studs 
on  the  soles  or  h^els  of  the  boots  are 
used,  they  shall  not  project  more  than 
half  an  inch,  and  shall  have  all  their 
fastenings  driven  in  flush  with  the 
leather.    Bara  shall  be  transverse  and 


Soccer 


Socialism 


flat,  and  not  less  than  half  an  inch 
in  width,  and  shall  extend  from  side 
to  side  of  the  boot.  Studs  shall  be 
round  in  plan,  not  less  than  half  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  in  no  case  coni- 
cal or  pointed.  The  International 
Board  rules  that,  if  required,  the 
Referee  shall  examine  the  players' 
boots  before  the  commencement  of  a 
match,  and  any  player  discovered  in- 
fringing these  provisions  is  prohibited 
from  taking  part.  Born  of  experience, 
the  elimination  of  these  unnecessary 
dangers  regenerated  football  at  a  time 
when  such  a  game  for  the  masses  in 
the  fall  and  early  spring  was  a  neces- 
sity in  the  national  athletic  field. 

The  game  is  played  by  a  field  of 
eleven  players  on  each  side.  The  field 
of  play  marked  by  boundary  lines  has 
a  maximum  length  of  130  yards  and 
a  minimum  length  of  100  yards,  a 
maximum  breadth  of  100  yards  and 
a  minimum  breadth  of  50  yards.  The 
lines  at  each  end  are  the  goal-lines, 
and  the  lines  at  the  side  drawn  at 
right  angles  with  the  goal-lines  are 
the  touch-lines.  A  flag  with  a  staff 
not  less  than  five  feet  high  is  placed 
at  each  corner.  A  half-way  line  is 
marked  out  across  the  field  of  play, 
and  the  centre  of  the  field  is  indicated 
by  a  suitable  mark,  a  circle  with  a 
10  yards  radius  being  made  around  it. 
The  goals  are  upright  posts  fixed  on 
the  goal-lines,  equi-distant  from  the 
corner  flag-staffs,  8  yards  apart,  with 
a  bar  across  them  8  feet  from  the 
ground.  Lines  are  marked  6  yards 
from  each  goal-post  at  right  angles 
to  the  goal-lines  for  a  distance  of  G 
yards,  and  these  are  connected  with 
each  other  by  a  line  parallel  to  the 
goal-lines,  the  space  within  these  Hues 
being  the  goal  area.  The  penalty  area 
is  marked  by  lines  from  each  goal-post 
at  right  angles  to  the  goal-lines  for 
the  distance  of  18  yards,  and  con- 
nected with  each  other  by  a  line  paral- 
lel to  the  goal-lines.  A  suitable  mark 
made  opposite  the  centre  of  each  goal 
12  yards  from  the  goal-line  is  the 
penalty  kick  mark.  The  touch  and 
goal-lines  must  not  be  marked  by  a 
V-shaped  rut.  The  duration  of  the 
game  is  90  minutes  unless  otherwise 
mutually  agreed  upon.  Ends  are 
changed  only  at  half-time,  when  the 
interval  does  not  exceed  five  minutes 
except  by  consent  of  the  referee.    For 


the  various  laws  and  rules  concerning 
the  dimensions  of  the  ball,  choice  of 
goals,  the  kick-off,  the  scoring  of  a 
goal,  the  throw-in,  off-side,  goal  kick, 
corner  kick,  goal-keeper's  privileges, 
duties  and  powers  of  referee  and  lines- 
men, terms  used  in  the  game,  and 
other  details,  consult  Spalding's  publi- 
cations on  "  How  to  Play  Soccer " 
and  "  Soccer  Football  Guide,"  New 
York,  1907.     See  Football. 

Sociable.  (1)  An  open  carriage 
with  seats  facing  each  other,  and  thus 
convenient  for  conversation.  (2)  A 
species  of  tricycle.  (3)  A  kind  of  seat 
with  a  curved  S-shaped  back,  for  two 
persons  who  sit  partially  facing  each 
other.  (4)  A  gathering  of  people  for 
social  purposes ;  a  social  party ;  an 
informal  meeting. 

Social  Contract,  or  Original 
Contract,  that  imaginary  bond  of 
union  which  keeps  mankind  together, 
and  which  consists  in  a  sense  of  mu- 
tual weakness  and  dependence. 

Social  Insects,  the  name  applied 
generally  to  the  species  of  bees,  wasps, 
hornets,  ants,  white  ants  or  termites, 
etc.,  which  live  in  communities. 

Socialism,  a  term  sometimes  used 
in  a  very  general  sense  to  designate 
the  theories  and  plans  of  those  who, 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present, 
have  advocated  radical  changes  in  our 
social  and  economic  order,  and  have 
done  so  in  modern  times  especially 
in  the  interests  of  the  common  man, 
till  the  wage  earner  has  now  become 
the  central  figure  in  socialistic  theory 
and  agitation.  While  socialism  in  the 
broad  general  sense  has  reference  to 
most  diverse  changes  of  a  radical  sort 
in  the  social  and  economic  order,  in  a 
narrower  and  more  modern  sense  it 
means  the  theories  and  plans  of  those 
who  would  substitute  public  property 
in  land  and  capital  for  private  prop- 
erty in  these  instruments  of  produc- 
tion. 

Modern  socialism,  as  a  popular 
movement  has  become  thoroughly  dem- 
ocratic, looks  with  little  favor  on  the 
idea  of  classes  permanently  set  apart 
for  rulership,  and  is  inclined  to  favor 
equal  incomes  while  allowing  each  one 
to  use  his  income  as  he  might  see  fit. 

Socialism  holds  that  the  present  sys- 


Socialist  Party 


Society  for  Researcli 


tem  of  industry  which  is  carried  on  by 
private  competing  capitalists,  served 
by  competitive  wage  labor,  must  be 
Buperseded  by  a  system  of  free  asso- 
ciated workers  utilizing  a  collective 
capital  with  a  view  to  an  equitable 
system  of  distribution.  On  this  theory 
private  property  in  land  and  capital 
will  be  abolished  and  the  private  re- 
ceipt of  rent  and  interest  will  cease. 
Incomes  would  be  private  as  already 
stated,  and  all  such  moderate  wealth 
as  would  be  devoted,  not  to  production, 
but  to  consumption  might  be  regarded 
as  at  the  free  disposition  of  the  owner. 
Socialism  is  the  extension  to  industry 
and  economics  of  the  free  self-govern- 
ing principle  recognized  in  democracy. 
It  is  industry  of  the  people  by  the 
people  for  the  people.  The  company 
or  private  corporation  is  at  present 
the  growing  power  in  industry;  but 
the  control  ot  the  State  and  of  social 
opinion  is  continually  extending. 

Socialist  Party,  The,  a  National  po- 
litical organization  originating  in  the  So- 
cial Democracy  of  America  (1897)  and 
the  later  Social  Democratic  party,  which 
placed  its  first  national  ticket  in  the  field 
in  1900,  under  the  leadership  of  Eugene 
V.  Debs  (q.  v.)-  In  the  election  of  1904 
the  party  was  distinguished  by  its 
present  name  from  the  Socialist  Labor 
party,  and  has  since  maintained  its  or- 
ganization independent  of  all  others. 
In  1900  Mr.  Debs  received  87,814  pop- 
ular votes  for  President  of  the  United 
States;  in  1904,  402,283;  in  1908,  420,- 
793;    and  in   1912,  875,083.  . 

Social  Science.      See  Sociology. 

Social  War,  the  name  of  a  noted 
struggle  in  Roman  history.  M.  Livius 
Drusus  proposed  a  law  for  investing 
Italian  allies  with  the  privileges  of  Ro- 
man citizens ;  but  it  was  strongly  op- 
posed by  the  senators,  the  knights,  and 
the  people,  and  Drusus  was  assas- 
sinated 91  B.  c.  The  Marsi,  who  took 
the  lead  (whence  the  name  Marsian  or 
Marsic,  also  given- to  that  war),  the 
Peligni,  the  Samnites,  the  Lucani,  and 
almost  every  nation  in  Italy  except 
the  Latins,  Tuscans,  and  Umbrians, 
revolted  and  established  a  republic  in 
opposition  to  that  of  Rome.  The  Ro- 
mans were  induced,  hearing  that  Mith- 
ridates  VI.,  King  of  Pontus,  intended 
to  aid  the  allies,  to  adopt  measures  of 
conciliation,  and  one  state  after  an- 
other submitted  and  received  the  gift 


of  Roman  citizenship.  After  this  the 
war  dwindled  away  till  it  was  brought 
to  a  conclusion  88  b.  c,  by  the  re- 
mainder of  the  Italian  states  receiving 
the  concessions   they   required. 

Society  Islands,  an  archipelago  !a 
the  South  Pacific,  lying  between  lat. 
16°-18°  S.,  and  Ion.  148°-155''  W. 
There  are  13  principal  islands,  besides 
numerous  islets,  and  the  total  area  of 
the  group  is  estimated  at  734  square 
miles,  with  a  pop.  of  about  16,000.  The 
chief  islands  are  Tahiti,  Eimeo,  Hua- 
hine,  Raiatea,  Tahaa  and  Bora-Bora. 
The  Society  Islands  are  of  basaltic 
formation  and  abound  in  lofty  and  pre- 
cipitous mountains  usually  fringed  by 
a  belt  of  flat  land.  Two  peaks  in  Ta- 
hiti are  respectively  7,000  and  8,700 
feet  high.  Coral  reefs  are  very  abun- 
dant roimd  all  the  islands.  The  soil 
being  extremely  fertile  and  water  plen- 
tiful, the  vegetation  of  the  islands  ia 
most  luxuriant.  The  climate  is  healthy, 
but  enervating.  The  inhabitants  be- 
long to  the  Polynesian  race  and  are 
handsome,  brave,  and  intelligent,  but 
indolent,  fickle,  immoral,  and  passion- 
ately fond  of  ardent  spirits.  On  ac- 
count of  their  indolence  Chinese  and 
Hervey  Islanders  are  imported  to  work 
the  cotton  plantations.  The  people  of 
Huahine,  however,  ar„-  enterprising 
traders,  and  their  flag  is  seen  as  far 
away  as  San  Francisco.  The  Society 
Islands  were  discovered  by  De  Quiros 
in  1606,  but  were  first  made  known  to 
the  world  by  Cook,  who  visited  them 
in  1769,  and  named  them  after  the 
Royal  Society.  They  have  been  the 
scene  of  missionary  labors  since  1797, 
and  have  for  many  years  been  entirely 
Christian.  Taking  advantage  of  a 
quarrel  between  the  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  the 
French  espoused  the  cause  of  the  lat- 
ter, who  were  the  last  in  the  field,  and 
seized  the  islands  in  1844.  In  1847 
they  were  expelled  by  the  natives  from 
Huahine,  Raiatea,  and  Bora-Bora, 
which,  with  small  dependencies,  were 
again  ruled  by  their  own  sovereigns. 
Over  the  remainder  of  the  group  the 
French  exercise  a  protectorate  tanta- 
mount to  possession.  The  nominal 
sovereign,  Pomare,  Queen  of  Tahiti, 
died  Sept.  17,  1877. 

Society  for  PsycUcal  Researcli, 
a  society  founded  in  England  in  1882 
for  the  purpose  of  "  making  an  organ- 


Socinus 

Ized  attempt  to  investigate  that  large 
group  of  debatable  phenomena  des- 
ignated by  such  terms  as  mesmeric, 
psychical,  and  spiritualistic."  It  has 
a  membership  of  more  than  900,  with 
a  branch  in  the  United  States  with 
more  than  500  members  and  associates. 

Socinus,  the  Latinized  name  of  two 
celebrated  theologians,  uncle  and 
nephew,  who  have  given  their  name 
to  a  religious  sect,  the  Socinians, 
whose  modified  doctrines  are  now 
known  as  Unitarianism.  Laelius  So- 
cinus (Lelio  Sozzini),  born  in  1525 
at  Siena,  in  Tuscany,  and  destined  for 
the  legal  profession,  abandoned  juris- 
prudence for  the  study  of  the  Script- 
ures. In  1546  he  was  admitted  a  mem- 
ber of  a  secret  society  at  Vicenza, 
formed  for  the  discussion  of  religious 
questions,  which  arrived  at  the  con- 
clusion that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trin- 
ity was  untenable,  and  that  many  of 
the  dogmas  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  were  repugnant  to  reason.  The 
nature  of  their  deliberations  having 
become  known  the  society  was  broken 
up,  several  of  its  members  put  to 
death,  and  others,  among  whom  was 
Socinus,  fled  the  country.  He  visited 
France,  England,  Holland,  etc.,  and 
resided  for  some  time  in  Poland,  where 
he 'found  many  persons  who  were  in 
sympathy  with  his  views.  He  died 
in  Zurich  in  1562. 

Faustus  Socinus  (Fausto  Soz- 
zini), a  nephew  of  the  preceding; 
born  in  Siena  in  1539,  was  obliged  to 
leave  that  town  in  his  20th  year  on 
account  of  his  heretical  notions.  On 
the  death  of  his  uncle  he  came  into 
possession  of  the  manuscripts  of  the 
latter,  by  the  study  of  which  he  found 
his  former  opinions  confirmed.  He 
began  to  publish  his  views  at  Florence 
in  anonymous  writings,  but  afterward 
retired  to  Basel  to  escape  the  Inquisi- 
tion. His  opinions  were  still  more 
fully  developed  during  a  residence  in 
Transylvania,  and  in  Poland  he  had 
numerous  adherents.  His  death  took 
place  in  1604. 

Sociology,  the  science  of  the  evolu- 
tion and  constitution  of  human  so- 
ciety. It  has  for  its  subject  the  origin, 
organization,  and  development  of  hu- 
man society  and  culture,  especially  on 
the  side  of  social  and  political  institu- 
tions. Sociology  embraces  all  social 
phenomena   under    their    statical   and 


Socraiea 

dynamical  aspects.  It  is  the  study  of 
the  conditions  of  existence  and  perma- 
nence of  the  social  state ;  social  dy- 
namics studies  the  laws  which  govern 
the  evolution  of  society.  The  field  of 
Anthropology  is  usually  restricted  to 
the  discussion  of  the  earlier  stages  of 
social  development  and  survivals  from 
that  stage  into  the  present. 

Sockeye,  so  named  from  the  In- 
dian sauqui  or  sawkeye,  the  blueback 
salmon  of  the  Pacific,  one  of  the  chief 
of  its  species. 

Socotra,  an  island  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  150  miles  E.  by  N.  from  Cape 
Guardafui,  and  220  from  the  S.  coast 
of  Arabia  ;  70  miles  long  by  20  broad ; 
area,  1,380  square  miles.  The  inte- 
rior embraces  numerous  barren  pla- 
teaus (1,500  to  2,000  feet),  with 
several  well-wooded  mountains  rising 
to  4,500  feet;  there  are  fertile  valleys 
between  the  ranges  and  belts  of  rich 
soil  along  the  coasts.  The  climate  is 
moist  and  warm,  but  healthy.  The  in- 
habitants, about  10,000  in  all,  belong 
to  two  distinct  types  —  one  with  a 
comparatively  light-colored  skin  and 
straight  hair,  the  other  darker  with 
curly  hair.  But  all  speak  the  same 
peculiar  language,  which  has  cer- 
tain aflSnities  with  the  South 
Arabian  dialect  of  Mahra.  The 
people  show  traces  of  intermixture 
with  Negro,  Arab,  and  Indian  tribes; 
and  in  ancient  times  the  inhabitants 
of  Socotra  were  believed  to  have  been 
acquainted  with  Greek  civilization. 

Socrates,  a  great  Athenian  philoso- 
pher, the  son  of  Sophroniscus  and 
PhiBnarete;  born  near  Athens  in  469 
B.  c.  He  was  brought  up  to  his  fa- 
ther's calling,  that  of  a  sculptor,  and 
for  a  time  gained  his  living  by  it.  He 
was  an  eager  student,  and  soon  gave 
himself  up  entirely  to  philosophy.  He 
led  an  active  social  life,  married  Xan- 
tippe,  served  his  country  as  a  soldier, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  cour- 
age. His  robust  constitution  made 
him  indifferent  to  the  extremes  of 
temperature ;  he  could  dress  alike  and 
go  barefoot  all  the  year  round.  He 
appears  to  have  scarcely  ever  held  any 
political  office  and  seems  to  have  in- 
clined rather  to  the  aristocratic  than 
the  democratic  party. 

It  was  as  a  teacher  that  Socrates 
made  himself  the  foremost  man  of 
Athens   and    perhaps   of    the   ancient 


Soda 


Sodom 


world.  He  wrote  no  book,  he  did  not 
establish  a  school  or  constitute  a  sys- 
tem of  philosophy.  But  he  almost  lived 
abroad,  and  mixed  with  men  familiar- 
ly, and  in  the  street  or  any  place  of 
public  resort,  where  listeners  gathered 
round  him,  he  talked  and  questioned 
and  discussed,  not  for  pay,  but  from 
the  love  of  truth  and  a  sense  of  duty. 
He  was  persuaded  that  he  had  a  high 
religious  mission  to  fulfill,  and  that 
a  divine  voice  habitually  interfered  to 
restrain  him  from  certain  actions ;  and 
instead  of  encouraging  profitless  spec- 
ulations on  nature  or  the  rhetorical 
charlatanry  of  the  Sophists,  he  turned 
the  thoughts  of  men  to  themselves, 
their  actions,  and  their  duties.  Soc- 
rates was  distinguished  chiefly  by  his 
theory  of  virtue.  Virtue,  he  said,  con- 
sisted in  knowledge.  To  do  right  was 
the  only  road  to  happiness ;  and  as 
every  man  sought  to  be  happy,  vice 
could  arise  only  from  ignorance  or 
mistake  as  to  the  means ;  instead  of 
asserting  and  imparting,  he  questioned, 
and  suggested,  and  showed,  and  led 
the  way  to  real  knowledge. 

As  early  as  424  b.  c.  he  was  at- 
tacked by  Aristophanes,  in  his  comedy 
of  the  "  Clouds  "  as  the  arch-sophist, 
the  enemy  of  religion,  and  corrupter 
of  youth ;  substantially  the  same 
charges  as  those  on  which  he  was  pros- 
ecuted 20  years  later.  He  was  perse- 
cuted during  the  tyranny  of  the  Thirty, 
and  after  their  fall  he  was  impeached 
by  Anytus,  one  of  their  leading  op- 
ponents, with  whom  were  associated 
Melitus,  a  tragic  poet,  and  Lycon,  an 
orator.  He  was  charged  with  not  be- 
lieving in  the  gods  which  the  State 
worshiped;  with  introducing  new  di- 
vinities; and  with  corrupting  the 
youth.  Death  was  proposed  as  the 
penalty.  Socrates  defended  himself  in 
a  tone  of  confident  innocence  and 
worthiness  which  aggravated  the  ill- 
will  of  his  judges.  He  was  condemned 
by  a  majority  of  six ;  but  his  addition- 
al speech  in  mitigation  of  the  sentence 
raised  the  majority  against  him  to  80. 
Thirty  days  elapsed  between  his  sen- 
tence and  its  execution,  in  pursuance 
of  the  law  that  no  criminal  must  be 
put  to  death  during  the  voyage  of  the 
sacred  ship,  the  "  Theoris  "  to  Delos 
with  the  annual  offerings.  During  that 
period  Socrates  had  the  society  of  his 
friends   and  conversed  with   them   as 


usual ;  the  last  conversation  being  on 
the  immortality  of  the  soul.  He  re- 
fused the  offer  of  some  of  his  friends 
to  procure  means  of  escape  for  him; 
drank  the  hemlock  cup  with  perfect 
composure,  and  so  died  in  the  70th 
year  of  his  age  in  399  b.  c. 

Soda,  the  protoxide  of  the  alkaline 
metal  sodium.  It  may  be  procured  in 
an  anhydrous  state  by  burning  the 
metal  in  dry  air  or  oxygen.  It  is  of  a 
white  color,  greedily  abstracting  water 
from  the  air,  which  cannot  be  expelled 
by  heat.  In  this  state  it  forms  hydrate 
of  soda,  or  caustic  soda. 

Soda  'Water,  a  well-known  bever- 
age, which  as  usually  prepared,  is  a 
supersaturated  solution  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  in  water.  Soda  water,  prop- 
erly called,  consists  of  one,  two,  or 
three  drachms  of  carbonate  of  soda, 
dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water  highly 
impregnated  with  carbonic  acid.  The 
mere  aqueous  solution  of  carbonic  acid 
which  is  made  by  forcing  the  gas  into 
water  by  a  condensing  pump  and  a 
pressure  of  six  or  eight  atmospheres 
is  an  agreeable  and  harmless  diluent. 

Sodium,  the  alkaline  metal  of 
which  soda  is  the  oxide.  It  was  dis- 
covered in  1807.  It  occurs  in  large 
quantities  in  nature,  chiefly  in  combi- 
nation with  chlorine,  as  sea  salt.  It 
is  also  found  united  with  oxygen  in 
certain  common  minerals,  such  as  al- 
bite,  analcime,  labradorite,  and  kryo- 
lite.  It  also  occurs  in  the  form  of 
nitrate,  carbonate,  biborate,  and  sul- 
phate. It  is  found  in  the  ashes  of 
plants,  especially  those  which  grow 
near  the  sea,  such  as  the  salsola  soda. 
Sodium  has  lately  become  an  article 
of  commerce,  in  consequence  of  the  de- 
mand which  has  arisen  for  it  for  the 
manufacture  of  aluminum.  Chloride 
of  Sodium  constitutes  the  rock  salt  of 
commerce,  or  common  table  salt. 

Sodom,  one  of  the  cities  of  the 
plain,  and  for  some  time  the  dwelling 
place  of  Lot.  Its  crimes  and  vices 
were  so  enormous  that  God  destroyed 
it  by  fire  from  heaven,  with  three 
neighboring  cities,  Gomorrah,  Zeboim, 
and  Admah,  which  were  as  wicked  as 
itself.  The  plain  in  which  the  doomed 
cities  stood,  was  pleasant  and  fruitful, 
like  an  earthly  paradise;  but  it  was 
first  burned,  and  afterward  mostly 
overflowed  by  the  waters  of  the  Dead 
Sea  or  Lake  of  Sodom. 


Sodom 

Sodom,  Apple  of,  a  fruit  men- 
tioned by  early  writers  as  growing  on 
the  sliores  of  the  Dead  Sea,  which  was 
beautiful  to  the  eye,  but  when  eaten 
filled  the  mouth  with  ashes. 

Soem.mering's  Gazelle,  found  in 
Eastern  Abyssinia.  It  is  about  30 
inches  high,  sandy  fawn  above,  with 
massive  lyrate  horns,  which  are  more 
Blender  in  the  female. 

Sofia,  or  Sophia,  capital  of  Bul- 
garia;  300  miles  N.  W.  of  Constanti- 
nople ;  dates  from  the  Roman  Sardica. 
It  has  been  largely  rebuilt  and  mod- 
ernized since  1878.     Pop.  67,920. 

Soft  Grass  (Holcus),  a  genus  of 
grasses  growing  naturally  in  mead- 
ows, pastures,  by  waysides,  etc.,  with 
a  marked  partiality  for  damp,  peaty 
soil.  It  is  of  little  value,  for  either 
hay  or  pasture. 

Soil,  that  part  of  the  disintegrated 
surface  of  the  earth's  crust  in  which 
the  roots  of  plants  ramify,  and  from 
which  growing  plants  derive  the  min- 
eral substances  necessary  for  their 
proper  development.  Soils  are  formed 
by  the  disintegration  of  the  rocks 
through  the  continued  action  of  wa- 
ter and  air  at  various  temperatures, 
and  by  the  accumulation  of  the  decay- 
ing remains  of  vegetable  organisms. 
Soils  may  be  characterized  by  their 
prevailing  ■  primitive  earths ;  hence, 
they  are  reduced  to  sands  and  gravels, 
clays,  chalky  and  limestone  soils,  al- 
luvial soil  and  peat  bogs.  Sandy  soils 
are  loose,  never  present  a  firm  surface, 
and  from  being  without  cohesion  are 
incapable  of  retaining  moisture.  Being 
readily  permeable  by  both  water  and 
air,  they  powerfully  promote  the  de- 
composition of  organic  matter,  while 
they  as  readily  permit  it  to  be  washed 
away  by  rains  or  to  escape  in  the  form 
of  gas.  One  great  advantage  they 
possess  is  their  natural  warmth;  and 
being  loose  and  friable  on  the  surface 
they  are  well  adapted  for  the  germina- 
tion of  seeds.  Gravelly  soils  are  more 
readily  penetrated  by  rain,  and  more 
readily  dried  by  filtration  and  evap- 
oration, than  sands.  Clayey  soil,  rela- 
tively to  water,  is  the  very  reverse  of 
Band ;  relatively  to  heat,  clays  do  not 
admit  the  atmosphere  between  their 
particles,  and  an  unimproved  clay 
soil  is  a  cold  one.  Lime  and  chalk 
soil  is  much  less  common  than  either 
sand  or  clay.    Alluvial  soils  are  com- 


Solanacea 

posed  of  very  fine  particles  of  the 
debris  of  several  kinds  of  rocks,  which 
have  been  held  in  suspension  by  wa- 
ter, and  deposited  in  plains  or  along 
the  banks  of  rivers,  along  with  or- 
ganic matter  also  held  in  suspension. 
Peat  or  bog  is  composed  of  partially 
decayed  vegetable  matter,  soft,  light, 
and  spongy  to  the  touch.  It  holds 
water  like  a  sponge,  so  that  in  its 
natural  state  it  is  quite  unfit  for  the 
growth  of  crops. 

Soiree,  properly  an  evening  party 
held  for  the  sake  of  conversation  only ; 
now  applied  to  various  kinds  of  even- 
ing parties,  at  which  ladies  and  gen- 
tlemen meet,  whatever  may  be  the 
amusements  introduced.  The  word  is 
frequently  employed  to  denote  a  meet- 
ing or  reunion  of  the  members  of 
societies  or  bodies  and  their  friends. 

Sojourner  Trntli,  an  American 
abolitionist;  born  of  slave  parents  in 
Ulster  CO.,  N.  Y.,  about  1775;  was 
sold  to  John  J.  Dumont  when  10 
years  old ;  was  freed  by  the  act  of  the 
New  York  Legislature  in  1817,  but  did 
not  secure  her  liberty  till  1827,  when 
she  escaped  to  New  York  city.  In 
1851,  in  company  with  other  aboli- 
tionists, she  began  lecturing  on  wom- 
en's rights,  temperance,  politics,  and 
other  questions  concerning  the  wel- 
fare of  her  race.  Her  name  was 
Isabella,  but  she  adopted  the  name  of 
"  Sojourner,"  claiming  to  have  heard 
it  from  the  Lord.  To  this  she  added 
the  word  *'  Truth "  to  indicate  that 
all  she  imparted  to  men  was  absolutely 
true.  She  died  in  Battle  Creek,  Mich., 
Nov.  26,  1883. 

Sola,  or  Shola,  a  small  half-float- 
ing papilionaceous  bush  found  in 
marshes  in  Bengal,  India,  and  grow- 
ing most  during  the  season  of  inunda- 
tion. 

Solanacese,  or  Solanese,  a  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants  and  shrubs, 
but  including  a  few  tropical  trees. 
The  plants  of  this  order  are  mostly 
natives  of  tropical  countries,  a  small 
number  extending  into  the  temperate 
climates :  in  the  coldest  regions  they 
are  entirely  wanting.  They  are  mostly 
distinguished  by  an  offensive  smell  and 
by  containing  a  narcotic,  poisonous 
substance,  usually  associated  with  a 
pungent  principle,  and  some  of  them 
are  among  the  most  active  poisons 
known  to  man. 


Solan  Goose 


Solder 


Solan  Goose,  the  gannet,  Sula  bas- 
sana.  Thej'  breed  in  immense  num- 
bers on  the  coasts  of  North  America, 
Europe  and  South  Africa. 

Solanum,  the  nightshade ;  the  typi- 
cal genus  of  Solanacese.  Herbs  or 
shrubs,  rarely  trees.  Flowers  in  or 
above  the  forks  of  the  stem.  Known 
species  between  500  and  GOO,  most 
of  them  from  the  tropics,  others  from 
temperate  climes.  S.  tuberosum  is 
the  potato. 

Solar  Cycle,  in  chronology,  a  term 
applied  to  one  of  those  artificial  pe- 
riods made  use  of  in  chronological  re- 
searches. It  comprehends  a  period  of 
28  years,  compounded  of  7  and  4,  the 
number  of  days  in  a  week,  and  the 
number  of  years  in  the  interval  of  two 
leap  years.  This  cycle  remained  un- 
disturbed till  the  end  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  year 
1900  not  being  reckoned  as  a  leap 
year,  the  whole  cycle  was  thereby 
overthrown. 

Solar  Plexus,  in  anatomy,  a  nerv- 
ous center  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
abdomen  behind  the  stomach  and  in 
front  of  the  aorta  and  the  pillars  of 
the  diaphragm.  It  is  the  largest  of 
the  pre-vertebral  centers.  Called  also 
the  epigastric  plexus.  • 

Solar  Star,  the  name  given  to 
those  stars  which  from  the  spectrum 
analysis  of  their  light  are  supposed  to 
be  in  the  same  state  of  heat,  etc.,  as 
our  central  sun  is  at  the  present  time. 

Solar  System,  the  sun  and  all  the 
bodies,  by  whatever  name  they  may 
be  called,  which  periodically  revolve 
round  the  sun  as  a  center.  Visible  to 
us  are  seven  distinct  orders  or  sys- 
tems of  revolving  worlds.  They  are 
the  zodiacal  light,  whatever  that  may 
be,  the  planetary,  the  satellltic,  the 
meteoric,  the  cometary,  the  stellar,  and 
the  nebular  systems.  All  but  the  lat- 
ter two  belong  to  our  solar  system. 
The  limits  of  the  planetary  system, 
as  far  as  known,  are  Mercury,  the 
nearest  to  the  sun,  and  Neptune,  the 
moot  distant.  The  bodies  as  far  as 
known  that  are  denizens  of  our  solar 
system  are  the  sun  (the  center),  the 
planets  of  Mercury,  Venus,  earth  with 
one  satellite,  Mars  with  2  satellites, 
428  asteroids,  Jupiter  and  5  satellites, 
Saturn  with  5  rings  and  8  satellites, 
Uranus  with  4,  and  Neptune  with  1, 


also  Halley's,  Pons',  and  Olbers'  com- 
ets of  long  period,  and  about  25  of 
short  period,  ranging  from  3.3  years 
(Encke's)  to  13.78  years,  commonly 
called  Tuttle's  comet.  To  the  list 
must  be  added  200  or  more  meteoric 
rings,  which,  while  the  earth  is  pass- 
ing through  them,  produce  the  star 
showers.  The  next  return  of  Halley's 
comet  is  calculated  for  about  1912 ; 
Pons',  1995;  Olbers',  19G0.  Every 
member  of  the  solar  system,  be  it 
planet,  satellite,  meteoroid  or  comet, 
moves  in  an  orbit  called  an  ellipse,  of 
greater  or  lesser  eccentricity. 

Solar  Time,  time  as  indicated  by  a 
sundial.  The  successive  hours  so  in- 
dicated are  not  equal  intervals  of 
time. 

Solatium,  in  ordinary  language, 
anything  which  consoles  or  compen- 
sates for  suffering  or  loss ;  a  compen- 
sation. In  law,  a  sum  of  money  paid' 
over  and  above  actual  damages  to  an 
injured  party,  by  the  person  who  in- 
flicted the  injury,  as  solace  for  wound- 
ed feelings.  In  ecclesiology,  an  addi- 
tional daily  portion  of  food  allotted 
to  the  inmates  of  religious  houses  un- 
der  exceptional   circumstances. 

Solberg,  Thorvirald,  an  American 
copyright  expert ;  born  in  Manitowoc, 
Wis.,  xYpril  22,  1852;  served  on  the 
staff  of  the  Library  of  Congress  in 
187G-1889;  was  manager  of  the  liter- 
ary department  of  the  Boston  Book 
Company  in  1889-1897;  took  an  ac- 
tive part  in  the  effort  to  secure  an 
international  copyright ;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  American  Copyright 
League,  the  International  Literary 
and  Artistic  Association  of  Paris,  and 
in  July,  1897,  was  appointed  United 
States  register  of  copyrights. 

Solder,  or  Soder,  a  metal  or  alloy 
used  to  unite  adjacent  metallic  edges 
or  surfaces.  It  must  be  rather  more 
fusible  than  the  metal  or  metals  to 
be  united,  and  with  this  object  the 
components  and  their  relative  amounts 
are  varied  to  suit  the  character  of 
the  work.  Hard  solders  are  such  as 
require  a  red  heat  to  fuse  them ;  they 
are  employed  for  joining  brass,  iron, 
and  the  more  refractory  metals.  Soft 
solders  melt  at  a  comparatively  low 
temperature,  and  are  used  with  tin  and 
lead,  of  which  metals  they  are  wholly 
or  in  part  composed. 


Soldiers*  Homes 


Solitaire 


Soldiers'  Homes,  institutions  pro- 
vided by  National  and  State  govern- 
ments for  the  care  of  sick  and  dis- 
abled soldiers  and  sailors.  The  United 
States  National  Home  for  Disabled 
Volunteer  Soldiers  has  branches  at 
Dayton,  O. ;  Milwaukee,  Wis. ;  Togus, 
Me. ;  Hampton,  Va. ;  Leavenworth, 
Kan. ;  Santa  Monica,  Cal. ;  Marion, 
Ind. ;  and  Danville,  111.  The  aggre- 
gate number  of  inmates  is  about 
27,000.  The  requirements  for  admis- 
sion are  :  ( 1 )  An  honorable  discharge 
from  the  United  States  service.  (2) 
Disability  v^hich  prevents  the  appli- 
cant from  earning  his  living  by  labor. 
(3)  Applicants  for  admission  will  be 
required  to  stipulate  and  agree  to 
abide  by  all  the  rules  and  regulations 
made  by  the  Board  of  Managers.  At- 
tention is  called  to  the  fact  that  by 
the  law  establishing  the  Home  the 
members  are  made  subject  to  the 
Rules  and  Articles  of  War,  and  will 
be  governed  thereby  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  if  they  were  in  the  army  of 
the  United  States.  (4)  A  soldier  or 
sailor  must  forward  with  his  applica- 
tion for  admission  his  discharge  pa- 
per, and  when  he  is  a  pensioner,  his 
I)ension  certificate,  and  if  he  has  been 
a  member  of  a  State  Home,  his  dis- 
charge from  that  Home,  before  his 
application  will  be  considered.  Sol- 
diers or  sailors  whose  pensions  ex- 
ceed $16  a  month  are  not  eligible  to 
the  Home  unless  the  reasons  are  pecu- 
liar and  are  explained  to  the  manager 
and  are  satisfactory  to  him.  Those 
who  have  been  members  of  the  State 
Homes  must  have  been  discharged 
from  those  Homes  at  least  six  months 
before  they  can  be  admitted  to  a 
branch  of  the  National  Home,  except 
by  a  vote  of  the  Board  of  Managers. 
Applicants  are  requested  to  conform 
strictly  to  the  above  requirements. 
The  United  States  Soldiers'  Home  in 
the  District  of  Columbia  receives  and 
maintains  discharged  soldiers  of  the 
regular  army.  All  soldiers  who  have 
served  20  years  as  enlisted  men  in  the 
army  (including  volunteer  service,  if 
any),  and  all  soldiers  of  less  than  20 
years'  service  who  have  incurred  such 
disability,  by  wounds,  disease,  or  in- 
juries in  the  line  of  duty  while  in  the 
regular  army,  as  unfits  them  for  fur- 
ther service,  are  entitled  to  the  bene- 
fits of  the   Home.     There  are   State 


Homes  for  disabled  volunteer  soldiers 
provided  by  the  States  of  California, 
Colorado,  Connecticut,  Idaho,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Massachu- 
setts, Michigan,  Minnesota,  Missouri, 
Montana,  Nebraska,  New  Hampshire, 
New  Jersey,  Ne^v  York,  North  Da- 
kota, Ohio,  Oregon,  .  Pennsylvania, 
Rhode  Island,  South  Dakota,  Ver- 
mont, Washington,  Wisconsin,  and 
Wyoming. 

Sole  (Solea  vulgaris),  a  marine  fish 
belonging  to  the  flat  fishes,  of  au 
oblong  or  oval  form.  These  fish 
abound  on  all  the  coasts  of  Europe, 
except  the  most  N.  where  the  bot- 
tom is  sandy.     They  furnish  a  whole- 


^Sjv„ 


COMMO:X    SOLE. 

some  and  delicious  article  of  food. 
The  name  is  given  in  America  to 
flounders,  somewhat  resembling  the 
true  sole  in  form.  The  sole  is  at  its 
worst  from  February  to  the  end  of 
March,  this  being  the  spawning  sea- 
son. 

Solemn  League  and  Covenant, 
the  agreement  during  the  English  Civil 
War  between  the  Scotch  people  and 
the  Parliamentarians.     See  CoVe^'ANT. 

Solenhofen  Beds,  in  geology,  beds 
consisting  chiefly  of  a  fine  fissile  slate, 
used  for  lithographic  purposes,  found 
at  Solenhofen  and  Eichstadt. 

Solenostoma,  in  ichthyology,  the 
sole  recent  genus  of  Solenostomidae 
with  two  or  three  small  species  from 
the  Indian  Ocean.  This  genus  is  re- 
markable as  being  one  of  the  two 
genera  of  fishes  in  which  the  care  of 
the  eggs  and  young  is  undertaken  by 
the  female,  the  other  being  the  Silu- 
roid  genus  Aspredo. 

Solitaire,  in  ornithology,  an^  ex- 
tinct genus  of  Dididae,  with  a  single 
species ;  from  the  island  of  Rodriguez. 
It  was  described  by  Lequat  in  1708 
from  personal  observation,  and  prob- 


Solomon 

ably  survived  till  1761.  It  was  allied 
to  the  Dodo,  but  the  neck  and  legs 
were  longer,  and  the  bird  was  more 
slightly  built.  They  -were  formerly 
very  abundant,  and,  being  excellent 
eating,  the  early  voyagers  destroyed 
great  numbers  of  them.  The  intro- 
duction of  swine,  which  ran  wild  in 
the  forests,  and  fed  on  the  eggs  and 
the  young  birds,  completed  their  ex- 
termination. 

Solomon  (Hebrew,  Shelomoh,  the 
Prince  of  Peace),  son  of  David,  King 
of  Israel,  by  Bathsheba,  formerly  the 
wife  of  Uriah,  was  appointed  by  David 
to  be  his  successor  in  preference  to 
his  elder  brothers.  By  his  remarkable 
judicial  decisions  and  his  completion 
of  the  political  institutions  of  David 
Solomon  gained  the  respect  and  ad- 
miration of  his  people ;  while  by  the 
building  of  the  temple,  which  gave  to 
the  Hebrew  worship  a  magnificence  it 
had  not  hitherto  possessed,  he  bound 
the  nation  more  strongly  to  his  throne. 
The  wealth  of  Solomon,  accumulated 
by  a  prudent  use  of  the  treasures  in- 
herited from  his  father  ;*by  successful 
commerce ;  by  a  careful  administration 
of  the  royal  revenues ;  and  by  an  in- 
crease of  taxes,  enabled  him  to  meet 
the  expenses  of  erecting  the  temple, 
building  palaces,  cities,  and  fortifica- 
tions, and  of  supporting  the  extrava- 
gance of  a  luxurious  court.  Fortune 
long  seemed  to  favor  this  great  king ; 
Israel  scarcely  perceiving  that  he  A'as 
continually  becoming  more  despotic. 
Contrary  to  the  laws  of  Moses,  he  ad- 
mitted foreign  women  to  his  harem; 
and  from  love  of  them  he  was  weak 
enough  in  his  old  age  to  permit  the 
free  practice  of  their  idolatrous  wor- 
ship and  even  to  take  part  in  it  him- 
self. Toward  the  close  of  his  reign 
troubles  arose  in  consequence  of  these 
delinquencies,  and  the  growing  dis- 
content, coming  to  a  head  after  his 
death,  resulted  in  the  division  of  the 
kingdom,  which  his  feeble  son  Reho- 
boam  could  not  prevent.  The  40 
years'  reign  of  Solomon  is  still  cele- 
brated among  the  Jews,  for  its  splen- 
dor and  its  happy  tranquillity,  as  one 
of  the  brightest  periods  of  their  his- 
tory. The  writings  attributed  to  Sol- 
omon are  "  The  Book  of  Proverbs," 
"  Ecclesiastes,"  and  the  "  Song  of  Sol- 
omon," with  the  apocryphal  book  the 
*'  Wisdom  of  Solomon." 


Solomon's  Song 

Solomon  Islands,  a  group  in  th« 
South  Pacific;  lying  S.  tl.  of  A'ew 
Britain  and  El.  of  New  Guinea;  ex- 
tending in  a  S.  E.  direction  between 
laU  4°  and  11°  S.,  and  long.  152° 
to  154°  E.  These  islands  were  first 
discovered  and  explored  by  the  Span- 
ish navigator  Mendana  in  15t)8.  He 
named  them  Solomon  Islands  on  tho 
imagined  idea  that  the  riches  of  Solo- 
mon's temple  had  been  brought  from 
them.  While  on  his  way  to  colonize 
them  in  1595,  he  died,  and  the  islands 
were  not  again  visited  till  they  were 
rediscovered  by  Carteret  in  17G7. 
They  were  visited  several  times  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century, 
and  parts  of  the  coast  line  of  the 
larger  islands  were  surveyed,  but  be- 
tween 1794  and  1838,  they  became  al- 
most forgotten.  After  the  latter  date 
the  survey  of  the  coast  was  renewed, 
and  both  traders  and  missionaries  en- 
deavored to  settle  on  the  islands. 
There  never  has  been  any  white  set- 
tlement of  any  permanency  on  the 
islands.  The  Solomon  group  is  com- 
posed of  seven  larger  islands,  and  a 
great  number  of  small  ones,  the  area 
of  the  whole  being  estimated  at  about 
10,000  square  miles.  The  shores  of 
the  group  are  generally  low,  and  bor- 
dered in  some  places  with  mangrove 
swamps,  but  several  of  the  islands  are 
traversed  in  the  interior  by  mountains 
of  considerable  height.  Numerous 
streams  flow  from  the  hills  and  the 
tropical  atmosphere  is  cooled  with 
abundant  rains.  The  soil  is  very  fer- 
tile. The  islands  are  mainly  inhab- 
ited by  negrillos  though  there  are  some 
IMalays  in  the  N.  part.  Of  their  man- 
ners and  customs  very  little  is  known. 
They  are  broken  into  numerous  clans 
which  are  almost  constantly  at  war. 
In  accordance  with  the  Anglo-Ger- 
man agreement  of  1899  the  islands  of 
Choiseul  and  Isabel,  with  their  sur- 
rounding islets,  were  transferred  to 
Great  Britain,  Germany  retaining  the 
islands  of  Bougainville  and  Buka. 

Solomon's  Seal,  the  common  name 
of  plants  of  the  genus  Polygonatum. 
They  are  perennial,  the  stems  rising 
from  knotted  rootstalks ;  flowers  white 
or  greenish.  Common  in  the  Eastern 
tinited  States  and  Europe. 

Solomon's  Song,  called  also  the 
Song  of  Songs,  or  Canticles,  one  of 
xhe  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 


Solon 


Somnns 


ment.  From  the  earliest  period  this 
book  has  been  the  subject  of  volu- 
minous controversies.  It  seems  to  have 
been  a  recognized  part  of  the  Jewish 
canon  in  the  time  of  Jesus.  Modem 
critics  attribute  it  to  an  author  of 
Northern  Israel,  who  wrote  it  about 
the  middle  of  the  10th  century  B.  C, 
shortly  after  the  death  of  Solomon,  in 
a  spirit  of  protest  against  the  corrupt 
splendor  of  the  court  of  Zion.  The 
unity  of  the  poem  is  sufficiently  evi- 
denced by  the  continuity  of  names, 
characters,  and  subject.  The  main 
subject  of  dispute  has  been  as  to  its 
interpretation.  The  various  theories 
in  regard  thereto  naturally  fall  into 
two  classes,  the  literal  and  allegorical. 
The  highest  form  of  allegorical  sig- 
nificance contended  for  is  the  mystical 
or  spiritual  interpretation,  by  which 
the  whole  poem  becomes  a  figurative 
representation  of  the  hopes  and  as- 
pirations, together  with  the  trials  and 
difficulties,  of  a  spiritual  life.  This 
interpretation,  whether  applied  indi- 
vidually or  collectively  to  the  Church 
or  nation  of  Israel,  was  almost  uni- 
versally received  both  by  Jews  and 
Christians  till  recent  times.  The  most 
favored  literal  interpretation  is  that 
originally  given  by  Jacobi,  that  the 
poem  represents  the  temptation  and 
triumph  of  virtuous  love. 

Solon,  one  of  the  seven  sages  of 
Greece,  and  the  celebrated  legislator 
of  Athens ;  born  in  Salamis,  in  the 
7th  century  B.  c.  He  was  chosen 
archon  594  B.  c,  and  having  received 
full  power  to  do  whatever  he  judged 
needful,  he  set  himself  to  the  task 
of  improving  the  condition  of  his 
countrymen.  He  formed  a  new  con- 
stitution founded  on  the  principle  of 
making  property,  not  birth,  the  title 
to  the  honors  and  offices  of  the  State. 
He  made  many  special  laws  also  relat- 
ing to  trade  and  commerce,  marriage, 
disposition  of  property  by  will,  etc., 
and  is  said  to  have  bound  the  Athe- 
nians by  an  oath  not  to  make  any 
changes  in  his  code  for  10  years.  He 
then  left  the  country,  to  avoid  being 
obliged  to  make  any  alteration  in 
it,  and  visited  Egypt,  Cyprus,  and 
Lydia.  On  his  return,  after  an  ab- 
sence of  10  years,  he  found  the  State 
torn  by  party  violence,  and  his  kins- 
man Pisistratus  aiming  at  the  sov- 
ereignty, which  he  soon  seized.     Solon 

E.  141. 


then  withdrew  from  public  life  and 
is  supposed  to  have  died  at  the  ag« 
of  80»  about  558  b.   c. 

Solor  Islands,  a  group  of  four 
East  Indian  inlands,  lying  E.  of 
Flores.  Solor,  area,  105  square  miles ; 
pop.  15,000;  Adanara,  area,  302 
square  miles ;  Lomblem,  area,  520 
square  miles ;  Pantar,  area,  275  square 
miles.  The  first  three  are  inhabited 
by  Malays,  most  of  whom  are  Mo- 
hammedans; Pantar,  by  Papuans. 
Adanara  is  independent;  the  Dutch 
hold  the  others. 

Solstice,  in  astronomy,  the  time 
when  the  sun  is  at  its  greatest  dis- 
tance from  the  equator  —  and  is  so 
called  because  he  then  appears  to 
stand  still,  and  not  to  change  his  dis- 
tance from  the  equator  for  some  time. 
There  are  two  solstices  in  each  year  — 
the  summer  and  the  winter  solstice. 
The  former  is  when  the  sun  seems  to 
enter  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  is  on  June 
21,  the  longest  day;  the  latter  solstice 
is  when  the  sun  enters  the  tropic  of 
Capricorn,  on  Dec,  22,  the  shortest 
day.  This  is  only  to  be  understood  of 
the  Northern  Hemisphere,  as  in  the 
Southern  the  sun's  entrance  into  Cap- 
ricorn makes  the  summer  solstice,  and 
into   Cancer  the  winter  solstice. 

Somerville,  a  city  in  Middlesex 
county,  Mass.;  on  the  Mystic  river 
and  the  Boston  &  Maine  railroad;  2 
miles  W.  of  Boston,  with  which  it  has 
many  business  and  residential  inter- 
ests in  common;  is  chiefly  engaged  in 
manufacturing,  with  an  annual  out- 
put of  over  $25,000,000  in  value:  is 
built  on  several  hills,  some  of  which 
were  fortified  during  the  Revolution- 
ary War;  contains  the  remains  of 
some  defensive  works  and  the  old 
powder  house  on  Quarry  Hill;  and 
has  an  assessed  property  valuation  of 
over  $05,000,000.     Pop.  (1910)  77,236. 

Sommers,  Richard,  an  American 
naval  officer;  born  in  Egg  Harbor, 
N.  J.,  in  1778;  was  appointed  to  the 
navy  in  April,  1798.  In  the  war  with 
Tripoli  he  commanded  the  schooner 
'* Nautilus;"  proposed  to  destroy  the 
Tripolitan  fleet  by  exploding  the  "  In- 
trepid "in  its  midst;  and  was  killed 
in  the  attempt,  Sept.  4,  1804. 

Somnns,  in  Roman  mythology,  the 
son  of  Erebus  and  Nox,  and  one  of  the 
infernal  deities,  who  presided  over 
sleep.    According  to  Hesiod  his  palace 


Sondeli 


Soot 


is  a  dark  cave  where  the  sun  never 
penetrates.  At  the  entrance  are  a 
number  of  poppies  and  somniferous 
herbs.  The  god  himself  is  represented 
as  asleep  on  a  bed  of  feathers,  with 
black  curtains.  The  Dreams  stand 
by  him,  and  Morpheus,  as  his  princi- 
pal minister,  guards  his  slumbers  from 
interruption. 

Sondeli,  the  Sorex  murinus,  a 
species  of  shrew  mice,  also  named  the 
muskrat.  It  exudes  a  strong  odor  of 
musk  from  the  inguinal  or  abdominal 
glands.  Though  named  "  muskrat,"  it 
is  not  a  true  rat. 

Song,  a  short  poem  intended  to  be 
sung.  The  term  is  applied  to  either 
a  short  poetical  or  musical  composi- 
tion, but  most  frequently  to  both  in 
union. 

Sonnet,  a  species  of  poetic  com- 
position, first  brought  into  notice  by 
Petrarch,  and  consisting  properly  of 
14  iambic  verses  of  .11  syllables.  It  is 
divided  into  two  chief  parts,  an  octet 
and  sestet,  the  former  comprising  two 
quotations  (4  line  strophes),  and  the 
latter  two  tersets  (3  line  strophes). 
The  sonnet  generally  contains  one 
principal  idea  pursued  through  the 
various  antitheses  of  the  different 
strophes,  and  is  adorned  with  the 
charm  of  rhyme. 

Sonora,  a  frontier  State  in  the  N. 
W.  of  Mexico;  on  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia ;  is  the  second  largest  in  the  re- 
public; area,  77,526  square  miles.  The 
coast  is  flat  and  sandy,  the  interior 
filled  with  wooded  mountains  and  fer- 
tile valleys.  The  climate  is  hot,  but 
in  the  mountains  there  is  frost  for  five 
months  in  the  year.  The  principal 
wealth  of  the  State  is  in  its  minerals, 
especially  gold,  silver,  mercury,  and 
iron.  Pop.  220,553.  Capital,  Her- 
mosillo. 

Sons  of  America,  Patriotic 
Order  of,  a  society  first  organized  in 
Philadelphia  in  1847,  as  the  "  Junior 
Sons  of  America,"  and  afterward  re- 
organized under  its  present  name.  Its 
objects  are  principally  patriotic  and 
benevolent,  and  its  membership  is  con- 
fined to  male  persons  "  born  on  the 
soil  or  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
United    States   of  America." 

Sons  of  Liberty,  an  association  of 
the  colonists  of  North  America,  called 
Into    existence    by    Lord    Grenville's 


"  Stamp  Act."  They  combined  to 
thiow  off  the  allegiance  to  Great  Brit- 
ain and  make  North  America  inde- 
pendent. The  association  began  in 
New  York  and  Connecticut.  The  term 
"  Sons  of  Liberty  "  was  suggested  by 
a  speech  of  Colonel  Barre's.  Also  a 
secret  organization  opposed  to  the 
prosecution  of  the  war  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  Union  (1861-1865). 
It  was  suppressed  by  military  com- 
mission in  1864. 

Sontag,  Henrietta,  a  German  so- 
prano singer;  born  in  Cobleutz,  Prus- 
sia, May  13,  1805.  Henrietta  was 
the  favorite  of  the  Berlin  stage  before 
she  was  18.  She  soon  rose  to  the  fore- 
most place  among  European  vocalists. 
About  1830  she  married  Count  Rossi, 
a  Piedmontese  nobleman,  and  left  the 
theater.  But  she  never  lost  her  love 
for  her  art,  and  continued  to  make 
progress  as  an  artist  in  the  midst  of 
all  the  enjoyments  of  high  life.  After 
a  happy  union  of  nearly  20  years  her 
husband  lost  his  fortune.  Without 
hesitation  she  resolved  to  have  re- 
course to  her_  art.  She  sang  for  sev- 
eral seasons  in  Europe,  and  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1852.  After  a 
brilliant  and  successful  tour  through 
the  Union,  she  accepted  a  tempting 
offer  from  Mexico,  where  she  wa,s  cut 
off  by  cholera,   June  17,   1854. 

Sontbals,  an  aboriginal  hill  tribe 
found  in  Southern  Bengal,  India,  who 
have  attracted  considerable  attention. 
They  are  a  nomad  race,  with  little 
affection  for  home,  but  a  strong  rever- 
ence for  mountains  and  rivers.  They 
supply  a  large  portion  of  the  hired 
labor  of  the  plains.  In  1855,  owing 
to  the  exactions  of  Hindu  landlords 
and  money-lenders,  they  broke  into 
an  armed  rebellion  which  required  to 
be  repressed  by  vigorous  measures. 
At  the  same  time  the  tract  where 
they  are  most  numerous  was  formed 
into  a  new  district,  called  the  Son- 
thai  Pergunnahs ;  area,  5,488  square 
miles ;  pop.  1,259,287.  The  district  of 
the  Sonthals  covers  the  Rajmehal 
hills,  and  is  also  peopled  by  another 
aboriginal  tribe  of  Pahariya  Mais. 

Soot,  a  black  substance  formed  by 
combustion,  or  disengaged  from  fuel 
in  the  process  of  combustion,  rising 
in  fine  particles  and  adhering  to  the 
sides  of  the  chimney  or  pipe  conveying 
the  smoke.    The  soot  of  coal  and  that 


Sophia 

of  wood  difEer  very  materially  in  their 
composition,  the  former  containing 
more  carbonaceous  matter  than  the 
latter.  Coal  soot  contains  substances 
usually  derived  from  animal  matter ; 
also  sulphate  and  hydrochlorate  of 
ammonia ;  and  has  been  used  for  the 
preparation  of  the  carbonate. 

SopIiia>  Empress  of  Constantinople, 
niece  of  Theodora,  and  wife  of  Jus- 
tinian II.,  with  whom  she  shared  in 
the  government  of  the  state.  After 
the  death  of  that  prince  in  578  she 
conspired  against  Tiberius  Constan- 
tine,  who  had  been  raised  to  the 
throne  by  her  advice,  and,  being  de- 
feated by  him,  was  compelled  to  live 
in  privacy. 

Sophia,  half-sister  of  Peter  the 
Great,  and  Czarina  of  Kussia;  born 
in  16t)7;  in  1682  she  placed  herself  at 
the  head  of  the  revolt  of  the  Strelitz. 
Having  succeeded  in  her  ambitious 
designs,  she  reigned  over  the  Musco- 
vites under  the  names  of  her  broth- 
ers, Peter  and  Ivan.  The  former 
(Peter  the  Great)  finally  possessed 
himself  of  the  sole  power ;  and  So- 
phia died  a  prisoner  in  a  convent  in 
1704. 

Sophia,  Church  of  St.,  in  Con- 
stantinople, the  most  celebrated  ec- 
clesiastical edifice  of  the  tireek 
Church,  now  used  as  a  mosque ;  was 
built  by  the  Emperor  Justinian,  and 
dedicated  in  558.  It  is  in  the  Byzan- 
tine style  of  architecture,  has  a  fine 
dome  rising  to  the  height  of  180  feet, 
and  is  richly  decorated  in  the  in- 
terior. The  mass  of  the  edifice  is  of 
brick,  but  is  overlaid  with  marble ; 
the  floor  is  of  mosaic  work,  composed 
of  porphyry  and  verd  antique.  The 
great  piers  which  support  the  dome 
consist  of  square  blocks  of  stone  bound 
with  hoops  of  iron.  The  numerous 
pillars  supporting  the  internal  gal- 
leries, etc.,  are  of  white  and  colored 
marbles,  porphyry,  granite,  etc.,  and 
have  capitals  of  various  peculiar 
forms.  The  interior  of  the  church  is 
243  feet  in  width  from  N.  to  S.,  and 
269  in  length  from  E.  to  W. 

Sophists.  The  Greek  word  sophis- 
tes  (from  sophos="  skilled,"  "  wise  ") 
meant  originally  any  one  of  acknowl- 
edged or  professed  skill ;  thus,  the 
term  was  applied  to  the  seven  sages, 
to  poets,  musicians,  etc.  In  the  5th 
and  4th  centuries  B.  c.  it  came  to  be 


Sophists 

applied  specially  to  those  who  made 
a  profession  of  teaching  all  or  any 
of  the  higher  branches  of  learning. 
The  great  intellectual  awakening  of 
Athens  after  the  Persian  War,  and  the 
growth  of  democracy,  in  Sicily  and 
elsewhere,  as  well  as  at  Athens,  which 
gave  skill  in  public  speaking  a  new 
importance,  led  to  the  demand  for  an 
education  which  should  go  beyond  the 
old  training  in  "  gymnastic "  and 
"  music."  To  meet  this  demand  there 
arose  a  class  of  professional  teachers, 
wandering  scholars,  who  undertook  to 
provide  what  we  should  call  "  higher 
education."  This  new  movement  pre- 
sents certain  resemblances  to  the  rise 
of  the  universities  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury, to  the  popularizing  of  learning 
and  science  in  the  18th  and  19th  cen- 
turies, to  the  "  University  Extension  " 
movement  of  today.  Some  of  the 
"  Sophists "  were  more  specially 
teachers  of  rhetoric.  Other  Sophists 
gave  more  attention  to  the  matter  of 
public  speech,  and  in  this  way  they 
were  the  beginners  of  moral  and  po- 
litical philosophy.  The  ambitious 
youth  of  Athens  flocked  to  a  fash- 
ionable Sophist  from  intellectual  in- 
terest in  the  new  learning  and  in 
order  to  acquire  an  education  which 
would  fit  them  to  obtain  success  in  the 
law  courts  and  in  the  popular  assem- 
bly, or  to  acquit  themselves  with  dis- 
tinction in  a  discussion  on  any  suD- 
ject  whatever.  The  various  Sophists 
naturally  differed  much  from  each 
other  in  ability,  in  character,  a  id 
in  the  degree  of  seriousness  with 
which  they  regarded  their  function  as 
teachers ;  and  some  may  very  well 
have  deserved  the  censure  expressed 
in  Aristotle's  definition  of  the  So- 
phist as  "  a  man  who  makes  money 
by  sham  wisdom."  The  very  opinions 
maintained  by  certain  Sophists  re- 
appear in  more  fully  developed  forms 
among  English  and  French  writers 
of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  Much 
of  the  teaching  of  the  Sophists  was 
undoubtedly  destructive  of  the  old 
fabric  of  Greek  belief  and  of  Greek 
society,  •which  rested  on  the  narrow 
basis  of  an  exclusive  citizen  caste 
with  a  substructure  of  slavery.  The 
modern  student  will  not  necessarily 
think  the  worse  of  the  Sophists  on 
that  account ;  though  the  majority  of 
them  were  probably  by  no  means  con- 


Sophocles, 

Bcious  of  the  s"!gnificance  of  the  criti- 
cal weapons  they  handled.  By  rais- 
ing problems  in  almost  every  depart- 
ment of  thought  for  which  they  could 
(ind  no  satisfactory  answers,  they  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  great  period 
of  Athenian  philosophy.  In  later 
times  the  term  "  Sophist  "  came  into 
reputation  again ;  and  some  of  the 
Greek  professors  of  rhetoric  under  the 
Koman  empire  were  described  as  So- 
phists on  their  tombs. 

Sophocles,  a  Greek  tragic  poet; 
born  in  the  Attic  demus  or  village  of 
Colonus,  495  B.  c,  30  years  later  than 
.35schylus.  He  received  a  good  edu- 
cation, and  at  an  early  age  gained 
the  prize  in  music  and  gymnastics. 
He  was  15  when  the  battle  of  Sala- 
mis  was  fought,  and  for  his  remark- 
able beauty  and  skill  in  music  he 
was  chosen  to  lead  the  chorus  which 
Bang  the  psean  of  victory.  His  first 
appearance  as  a  dramatist  was  in 
468,  when,  under  memorable  circum- 
stances, he  had  ^schylus  for  his  rival 
and  won  the  victory.  The  number  of 
plays  attributed  to  him  without  ques- 
tion was  113,  of  which  81  were  prob- 
ably produced  after  the  "  Antigone." 
Seven  only  are  extant,  viz.,  "  Anti- 
gone," "  Electra,"  "  Trachinian  Wom- 
en," "  King  CEdipus,"  "  Ajax," 
"  Philoctetes,"  and  "  Oedipus  at  Co- 
lonus."   He  died  in  406  B.  c. 

Sorel,  city  and  capital  of  Riche- 
lieu county,  Quebec,  Canada;  on 
Lake  St.  Peter  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Richelieu  river  and  on  the  Quebec 
Southern  railway;  45  miles  N.  E.  of 
Montreal;  is  a  port  of  entry,  with 
much  river  commerce;  is  in  a  rich 
farming  section;  has  considerable 
manufacturing  and  ship-building  in- 
terests; is  the  site  of  a  fort  built  in 
1665;  and  has  Abenakis  Springs. 

Sorghnm,  Is  the  Indian  or  great 
millet,  or  guinea  corn.  It  is  an  an- 
nual cane-like  cereal,  bearing  a  dense 
head  of  spikelets,  with  small  corn- 
like seeds.  In  India  it  forms  with  rice 
and  wheat  the  chief  staple  of  the 
country,  but  is  considered  heating. 
Bread,  porridge,  etc.,  are  made  from 
it ;  its  seeds  when  crushed  constitute 
an  auxiliary  food  for  cattle,  sheep, 
horses,  swine,  and  poultry.  Some  Ta- 
rietios  of  sorghum  are  cultivated  in 
the  Northern  United  States  and  in 
Canada. 


Sonl 

SoTosis,  in  botany,  a  collective 
fruit,  formed  of  a  number  of  separate 
flowers,  firmly  coherent  in  a  fleshy  or 
pulpy  mass  with  the  thalamus  on 
which  they  are  situated.  The  pine- 
apple is  an  example ;  each  hexagonal 
division  represents  a  flower,  while  the 
crown  of  leaves  above  consists  of 
empty  bracts.  The  breadfruit,  jack- 
fruit,  and  mulberry  are  examples. 

Sorosis,  the  name  of  the  first 
women's  club  in  the  United  States, 
founded  by  Mrs.  "  Jenny  June  "  Croly 
and  some  of  her  associates,  in  New 
York  city,  in  1868. 

Sorrel,  a  dioecious  plant,  having 
the  lower  leaves  sagittate,  the  upper 
ones  sessile,  the  outer  fruiting  sepals 
reflexed,  the  inner  enlarged,  orbicular, 
quite  entire,  scarious,  tubercled  at  the 
base.  Found  in  meadows  and  pas- 
tures, it  contains  a  large  quantity 
of  binoxalate  of  potash.  The  leaves 
are  used  as  a  salad  and  a  potherb,  and 
in  decoction  as  a  febrifuge. 

Sorrel  Tree,  a  tree  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Ericaceae.  It  in- 
habits the  range  of  the  Alleghanies 
from  Virgina  to  Georgia.  The  leaves 
are  four  or  five  inches  long,  oval- 
acumiuate,  finely  toothed,  and  strong- 
ly acid  in  taste.  The  flowers  are 
small,  white,  and  disposed  in  long  one- 
sided racemes,  clustered  in  an  open 
panicle. 

Sosigenes,  a  philosopher  who  aided 
Julius  Cassar  in  reforming  the  cal- 
endar in  the  year  46  b.  c. 

Soul.  In  Scripture  and  theology 
the  word  soul  is  used  chiefly  for  "  that 
spiritual,  reasonable,  and  immortal 
substance  in  man  which  is  the  origin 
of  our  thoughts,  of  our  desires,  of  our 
reasonings,  which  distinguishes  us 
from  the  brute  creation,  and  which 
bears  some  resemblance  to  its  Divine 
Master"  (Cruden).  All  Christians 
admit  the  responsibility  of  the  soul 
to  God  for  the  deeds  done  in  the  body ; 
and  the  orthodox  view — 'that  of  the 
Anglican,  Roman,  and  Greek  Churches 
and  of  the  great  dissenting  bodies  — 
is  that  at  the  final  judgment  the  lot 
of  every  soul  will  be  irrevocably 
fixed,  and  that  it  will  either  eternally 
enjoy  the  Beatific  Vision  in  heaven 
or  share  the  endless  torments  prepared 
for  the  devil  and  his  angels.  Two 
other  views  —  both  of  which  have 
found  supporters  in  the  Church  from 


Soul 

early  ages —  are  coming  increasingly 
to  the  front:  (1)  That  of  the  Kes- 
torationists,  of  whom  there  are  two 
Bchools:  (a)  the  Dogmatic,  who  as- 
sert, and  (b)  those,  i-ep resented  by 
Archdeacon  Farrar,  who  express  a 
hope  that  all  men  will  be  finally 
saved;  and  (2)  the  Annihilationists 
or  Destructionists,  who  hold  that 
^hile  the  righteous  will  be  forever 
in  a  state  of  bliss,  the  wicked,  after 
receiving  the  punishment  of  their  sins, 
will  be  blotted  out  of  existence.  Ori- 
gen,  with  Plato,  held  the  doctrine  of 
the  preexistence  of  souls.  Two  dis- 
tinct views  have  at  different  times 
found  supporters  in  the  Christian 
Church:  (1)  "That  the  soul  is  pro- 
duced by  natural  generation;  (2)  that 
each  soul  is  separately  created  by 
God. 

Soul,  Korea.     See  Seoul. 

Sonle,  Pierre,  an  American  states- 
man ;  born  in  Castillon,  France,  in 
September,  1802.  He  went  to  Paris 
in  1824,  where  he  became  editor  of 
"  Le  Nain  Jaune"  ("The  Yellow 
Dwarf"),  a  paper  noted  for  its  ex- 
treme liberal  ideas.  For  the  publi- 
cation of  a  bitter  article  attacking 
the  ministers  of  Charles  X.  he  was 
sentenced  to  imprisonment,  but  es- 
caped and  arrived  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
in  182G.  Subsequently  he  went  to 
New  Orleans.  In  1847  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  United  States  Senate 
and  elected  to  a  full  term  in  that 
body  in  1849.  Later  he  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  Spain  with  the  object 
of  negotiating  for  the  acquisition  of 
Cuba  by  the  United  States ;  and  in 
1854  was  one  of  the  ministers  who 
framed  the  famous  "  Ostend  Mani- 
festo." Up  to  the  time  of  Abraham 
Lincoln's  election  he  had  advocated 
secession,  but  thereafter  favored  co- 
operation. On  the  passage  by  the 
Southern  States  of  the  ordinances  of 
secession,  he  tendered  his  services  to 
the  Confederate  government,  and  in 
18G2  became  an  honorary  aide  on  the 
staff  of  General  Beauregard.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  returned  to  New 
Orleans  and  practiced  law  till  his 
death  there,   March  26,   1870. 

Sound,  strictly  the  sensation  which 
results  from  the  stimulating  action  of 
atmospheric  or  other  vibrations  upon 
the  aural  nerves.  Beyond  ourselves  it 
has  no  existence,  it  is  purely  subject- 


Soup 

ive,  and  as  a  sensation  must  be  care- 
fully distinguished  from  the  vibratory 
motion  which  is  one  of  the  necessary 
conditions  of  its  existence.  Further, 
the  existence  of  this  vibratory  mo- 
tion is  itself  conditioned  by  two  things 
—  a  distributing  cause  and  a  suitable 
medium  for  transmitting  the  disturb- 
ance to  the  ear.  The  study  of  these 
in  all  their  possible  relations  consti- 
tutes the  science  or  theory  of  sound. 
As  far  as  the  physics  of  the  subject  is 
concerned,  it  is  immaterial  what  the 
nature  of  the  medium  is,  provided  it  ia 
elastic  enough  to  vibrate ;  physiology, 
however,  demands  that  the  medium  be 
fluid,  otherwise  the  transmission  of 
the  vibrations  to  the  organs  of  hearing 
would  be  impossible.  Sounds  are  usu- 
ally classified  under  two  heads  of 
noises  and  musical  sounds.  A  musical 
sound  is  caused  by  a  regular  series  of 
exactly  similar  disturbances  or  pulses 
succeeding  each  other  at  precisely 
equal  intervals  of  time;  if  these  con- 
ditions are  not  fulfilled,  the  sound  is  a 
noise. 

Sounding,  the  operation  of  trying 
the  depth  of  water  and  the  quality 
of  the  bottom,  especially  by  means 
of  a  plummet  sunk  from  a  ship.  In 
navigation  two  plummets  are  used, 
one  called  the  hand  lead,  weighing 
about  eight  or  nine  pounds ;  and  the 
other,  the  deep  sea  lead,  weighing 
from  25  to  30  pounds  (see  Lead). 
The  former  is  used  in  shallow  wa- 
ters, and  the  latter  at  a  distance  from 
shore.  The  nature  of  the  bottom  is 
commonly  ascertained  by  using  a  piece 
of  tallow  stuck  upon  the  base  of  the 
deep-sea  lead,  and  thus  bringing  up 
sand,  shells,  ooze,  etc.,  which  adhere 
to  it. 

Sounding  Board,  in  a  pianoforte, 
a  piece  of  wood,  usually  the  best 
Swiss  fir,  placed  behind  the  strings  in 
order  that  the  resonance  may  be  in- 
creased. The  term  is  also  applied  to 
a  wood  screen  placed  behind  a  speaker 
in  halls  and  churches  for  acoustic  pur- 
poses. 

Soup.  As  a  general  rule  soup  is 
made  by  boiling  meat  or  vegetables  in 
what  is  called  "  stock."  To  prepare 
the  latter  the  cook  obtains  fresh  meat, 
bones,  and  vegetables  such  as  carrots 
or  leeks,  and  after  the  addition  of  salt 
allows  them  to  simmer  for  some  hours 


Sonsa 


South  Carolina 


in  sufficient  water.  The  stock  is  the 
infusion  thus  prepared, 

Sousa,  Jolm  Philip,  an  American 
musician;  born  in  Washington,  D,  C, 
Nov.  6,  1854;  studied  music,  and  was 
leader  of  a  band  when  only  17.  He 
was  band  leader  of  the  United  States 
Marine  Corps,  1880-1892,  and  in  the 
latter  year  organized  the  famous  Sou- 
ea  Band,  which  gave  concerts  in  Eng- 
land. France,  Germany,  and  all  over 
the  United  States.  He  composed  nu- 
merous songs,  waltzes,  operas,  or- 
chestral suites,  and  popular  marches. 

Sontli  Africa,  Union  of,  a  feder- 
ation of  the  former  British  colonies 
of  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  Orange  River 
Colony,  and  the  Transvaal  Colony; 
proclaimed  May  31,  1910.  The  for- 
mer colonies,  with  such  as  may  be  ad- 
mitted hereafter,  will  be  known  as 
provinces.  The  Union  has  a  Parlia- 
ment (Senate  and  House  of  Assem- 
bly), and  each  province  has  an  admin- 
istrator, appointed  by  the  Union  gov- 
ernment for  five  years,  and  an  elec- 
tive council  of  not  less  than  25  mem- 
bers, chosen  for  three  years.  Cape 
Town  was  made  the  seat  of  the  leg- 
islative authority,  and  Pretoria  that 
of  the  executive. 

Southampton,  a  borough  and  sea- 
port town  of  England,  in  the  county 
of  Hants,  18  miles  N.  W.  of  Ports- 
mouth; is  the  most  important  mail 
packet  station  in  the  kingdom.  Pop. 
(1901)   103,500. 

South  Bend,  city  and  capital  of 
St.  Joseph  county,  Ind.;  on  the  St. 
Joseph  river  and  several  railroads;  86 
miles  S.  E.  of  Chicago;  was  named 
from  a  sharp  bend  in  the  river  here; 
is  a  very  important  commercial  center; 
noted  for  the  variety  and  extent  of  its 
manufactures,  which  have  an  annual 
output  value  of  over  $25,000,000;  con- 
tains the  University  of  Notre  Dame 
(R.  C),  St.  Mary's  and  St.  .Joseph's 
academies  (R.  C),  the  Catholic  Refer- 
ence Library  of  America,  Protestant 
and  Roman  Catholic  hospitals,  and 
Public  Library.  La  Salle  landed 
here  in   1679.     Pop.   (1910)  53,843. 

South  Bethlehem,  a  borough  in 
Northampton  county.  Pa.;  on  the  Le- 
high river  and  the  Lehigh  Valley  and 
other  railroads;  57  miles  N.  W.  of 
Philadelphia;  is  noted  as  the  seat  of 
Lehigh  University;  also  has  the 
Bishoptborpe  School,  Training  School 


for  Nurses,  and  St.  Luke's  Hospital; 
and  contains  the  Bethlehem  Steel 
Works,  large  silk  mills,  zinc  and  iron 
plant,  and  foundry  and  machine  shops. 
Pop.   (1910)   19,973. 

South  Carolina,  a  State  in  the 
South  Atlantic  Division  of  the  North 
American  Union;  bounded  by  North 
Carolina,  Tennessee,  Georgia,  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean;  one  of  the  original 
13  States;  number  of  counties,  40; 
capital,  Columbia;  area,  30,170  square 
miles;  pop.  (1890),  1,151,149;  (1900) 
1,340,316;  (1910)  1,515,400. 

The  State  has  a  seaboard  of  210 
miles,  and  running  W.  from  this  is  a 
low,  sandy,  and  in  places,  marshy 
plain,  from  80  to  100  nliles  wide.  Be- 
yond this  plain  is  what  is  known  as 
the  middle  country,  consisting  of  low 
sand  hills.  A  series  of  terraces  rises 
W.  of  this  and  terminates  in  the  Blue 
Ridge  Mountains,  passing  through  the 
N.  W.  of  the  State.  In  1900  the 
principal  mineral  productions  were 
gold,  5,854  fine  ounces,  valued  at 
$121,000;  silver,  400  fine  ounces, 
valued  at  $248;  phosphate  rock,  329,- 
173  long  tons,  valued  at  $1,041,970; 
mineral  waters,  352,208  gallons, 
valued  at  $37,046;  granite,  valued  at 
$500,802;  limestone,  $38,415;  and  clay 
products,  $605,229. 

The  soil  is  as  a  rule  either  loam 
or  clay,  rich  in  phosphate,  lime,  and 
potash.  Cotton,  maize,  wheat,  rice 
and  sweet  potatoes  are  the  chief 
staples.  The  magnolia  and  palmetto 
grow  abundantly  along  the  coast,  pine 
and  cypress  characterize  the  low  coun- 
try, and  hardwoods  the  highlands. 
The  cotton  crop  in  1900  was  830,714 
bales,  that  of  the  Sea  Islands  being 
of   especially  fine  quality. 

According  to  the  United  States  cen- 
sus of  1900  the  State  had  3,762  man- 
ufacturing establishments,  emploving 
$67,356,465  capital  and  49,662  per- 
sons; paying  $10,782,952  for  wages 
and  $34,027,795  for  materials  used; 
and  having  a  combined  output  valued 
at  $58,748,731.  The  principal  indus- 
tries according  to  the  value  of  out- 
put were  cotton  manufactures,  lum- 
ber and  timber  products,  fertilizers, 
cottonseed,  oil  and  cake,  flour  and 
grist  mill  products,  planing  mill  prod- 
ucts, rice  cleaning  and  polishing, 
turpentine  and  rosin,  railroad  cars, 
cotton  ginning,  and  brick  and  tile. 


South  Carolina  College 


Soutli  Dakota 


At  the  end  of  the  school  year  1899- 
1900  there  were  reported  497,700  chil- 
dren of  school  age ;  enrollment  in  pub- 
lic schools,  281,891.  For  highei  educa- 
tion there  were  99  public  high  schools, 
31  private  secondary  schools,  1  public, 
and  4  private  normal  schools,  9  col- 
leges for  men  and  for  both  sexes,  and 
9  women's  colleges. 

State  Government. —  The  governor 
is  ejected  for  a  term  of  two  years  and 
receives  a  salary  of  $3,500  per  annum. 
Legislative  sessions  are  held  annually 
beginning  on  the  second  Tuesday  in 
January,  and  are  not  limited  as  to  dura- 
tion. The  Legiskture  has  41  mem- 
bers in  the  Senate  and  124  in  the  House. 
There  are  7  Representatives  in  Con- 
gress. 

South  Carolina  was  the  first  State 
to  secede  from  the  Union,  on  Dec.  20, 
1860.  The  first  hostile  act  in  the 
Civil  War  was  the  bombardment  of 
Fort  Sumter,  in  April,  18G1.  During 
the  war  the  State  suffered  greatly,  her 
harbors  were  blockaded,  and  much 
property  was  destroyed  by  the  Federal 
soldiers  on  the  great  march  under 
General  Sherman.  In  1865  the  ordi- 
nance of  secession  was  repealed  and 
slavery  abolished.  A  new  constitution, 
establishing  perfect  equality  between 
the  white  and  the  colored  races,  was 
adopted  in  1869 ;  and  in  the  same  year 
the  ratification  of  the  15th  Amend- 
mend  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  being  carried  by  a  vote  of  18 
to  1  in  the  Senate  and  88  to  3  in  the 
House,  the  State  was  readmitted  to 
representation  in  Congress. 

Sontli  Carolina  College,  a  coedu- 
cational non-sectarian  institution  in 
Columbia,  S.  C. ;  founded  in  1801. 

South  Dakota,  a  State  in  the 
North  Central  Division  of  the  North 
American  Union ;  bounded  by  North 
Dakota,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Nebraska, 
Wyoming,  and  Montana ;  admitted  to 
the  Union,  Nov.  2,  1889:  number  of 
counties,  78;  capital,  Pierre;  area, 
76.850  square  miles;  pop.  (1900)  401,- 
570;  (1910)  583,888. 

The"  surface  of  the  E.  portion  of  the 
State  is  a  level  plain,  including  the 
great  plateau  of  the  Missouri  and  a 
similar  plateau  E.  of  the  James  river. 
W.  of  the  Missouri  river  the  surface 
is  broken,  and  contains  the  Black 
Hills,  averaging  6,000  feet  in  height. 
The  Black  Hills  contain  some  of  the 


most  valuable  mineral  deposits  in  the 
United  States.  In  1900  the  principal 
mineral  productions  were  gold,  298,- 
842  fine  ounces,  valued  at  $6,177,600 ; 
silver,  530,200  fine  ounces,  valued  at 
$332,444 ;  mineral  waters,  valued  at 
J^62,189  ;  granite,  $114,115  ;  sandstone, 
$12,675;  limestone,  $47,762;  natural 
gas,  $9,817;  Portland  cement,  $76,- 
000 ;  clay  products,  $40,500  ;  and  mica, 
sheet,  123,090  pounds,  scrap,  258  short 
tons. 

The  soil  is  a  light  but  rich  loam 
overlying  a  fertile  clay  subsoil,  and  is 
especially  adapted  to  raising  cereals. 
Wild  fruits  grow  in  great  abundance, 
rich  grass  covers  the  prairies  in  the 
E.  and  the  Black  Hills  and  Bad  Lands 
afford  excellent  advantages  for  dairy 
farming  and  stock  raising.  The  prin- 
cipal farm  crops  are  corn,  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  potatoes,  and  hay. 

According  to  the  United  States  cen- 
sus of  1900  the  State  had  1,639  man- 
ufacturing establishments,  employing 
$7,578,895  capital  and  3,432  persons; 
paying  $1,728,642  for  wages  and  $7,- 
827,110  for  materials  used ;  and  hav- 
ing a  combined  output  valued  at  $12,- 
231,239.  The  most  important  products 
according  to  the  value  of  output  were 
flour  and  grist,  and  cheese,  butter,  and 
condensed  milk. 

At  the  end  of  the  school  year  189&- 
1900  the  children  of  school  age  num- 
bered 124,404 ;  enrollment  in  public 
schools,  98,822.  For  higher  education 
there  were  39  public  high  schools,  7 
private  secondary  schools,  4  public  and 
1  private  normal  schools,  and  8  col- 
leges. 

The  governor  is  elected  for  a  term 
of  two  years  and  receives  a  salary  of 
$3,000  per  annum.  Legislative  ses- 
sions are  held  biennially  in  odd  years, 
beginning  on  the  Tuesday  after  the 
first  Monday  in  January,  and  are  lim- 
ited in  time  to  60  days  each.  The  Leg- 
islature has  45  members  in  the  Senate 
and  lOO  in  the  House.  There  are  3 
Representatives  in  Congress. 

The  country  now  known  as  the 
Dakotas  was  acquired  by  the  United 
States  as  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase. In  1883  a  convention  to  frame 
a  State  constitution  for  Dakota  met  at 
Sioux  Falls.  Dissensions  between  the 
people  of  the  two  sections  of  the  Ter- 
ritory followed,  and  in  1888  it  was 
decided  to  divide  the  territorial  area 


South  Dakota 


Sow 


into  two  States,  under  the  names  of 
North  and  South  Dakota.  The  bill 
for  their  admission  passed  Congress 
and  was  signed  by  the  President,  Feb. 
22.  1889. 

Soutli  Dakota,  University  of,  a 
coeducational  non-sectarian  institution 
in  Vermillion,  S.  D.,  founded  in  1883. 

Sontkern  California,  Universi- 
ty of,  a  coeducational  institution  in 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  founded  in  1880 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church. 

Soutkey,  Robert,  an  English 
poet;  born  in  Bristol,  England,  Aug. 
12,  1774.  In  1801  he  devoted  himself 
to  literature,  and  soon  after  took  up 
his  residence  at  Keswick,  in  Cumber- 
land, where  the  remainder  of  his  life 
was  passed,  he  being  thenceforth 
classed  as  one  of  the  Lake  poets.  In 
1807  he  obtained  a  pension  from  the 
government,  and  on  the  death  of  Pye 
was  appointed  poet  laureate.  The  lat- 
ter years  of  his  life  were  clouded  by 
a  mental  imbecility  _which  attended 
him  to  his  death,  March  21,  1843.  His 
chief  poems  are:  "  Joan  of  Arc,"  "A 
Vision  of  Judgment,"  etc.  Among 
his  prose  works  are:  History  of 
Brazil."     "Life  of  Nelson." 

South  Omaha*  a  city  in  Douglas 
cx)unty,  Neb.;  on  the  Missouri  river 
and  nearly  a  dozen  railroads;  4  miles 
S.  of  Omaha;  is  chiefly  engaged  with 
livestock  and  packing-house  interests, 
having  very  extensive  stock-yards  and 
meat-packing  and  rendering  plants. 
Pop.  (1910)  26,259. 

South  Polar  Explorations.  The 
South  Pole  has  been  sought  less  often 
than  the  North,  mainly  because  of  its 
remoteness.  But  some  explorations 
•were  made  by  Ross  (1842),  the  "Chal- 
lenger" expedition  (1874),  and  Borch- 
grevinck  (1900).  Since  1900  vigor- 
ous attempts  to  reach  the  Pole  have 
been  made  by  German,  British,  Swed- 
ish, Norwegian,  and  Belgian  expedi- 
tions, conducted  in  a  systematic  man- 
ner and  resulting  in  the  discovery  of 
the  Pole.  The  successful  discoverer 
was  the  Norwegian,  Roald  Amundsen. 
He  left  Norway  in  June,  1909,  on  board 
the  "Fram"  with  nineteen  men.  Nom- 
inally, he  was  bound  for  the  North 
Pole;  but,  in  fact,  on  reaching  Madei- 
ra he  changed  his  course,  and  nothing 
was  heard  from  him  after  that  until 


March  27,  1911,  when  Lieut.  Pennell, 
attached  to  Capt.  R.  F.  Scott's  Antarc- 
tic expedition,  had  come  upon  Amund- 
sen's ship  in  what  he  called  Framheim, 
about  two  miles  distant  (long.  164°W., 
lat.  78°  40'  S.).  Hence,  on  Feb.  10, 
1911,  they  began  to  work  their  way 
South.  On  Dec.  6,  1911,  they  reached 
88°  23',  and  established  a  station.  Then 
came  the  dash  to  the  Pole,  which  was 
gained  on  Dec.  14,  1911.  "The  Norwe- 
gian flag  was  planted,  and  on  Dec.  17, 
1911,  they  started  back.  They  reached 
Tasmania,  and  thence  sent  by  telegraph 
their  discovery  over  all  the  world. 

South  Sea,  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The 
name  was  bestowed  by  Vasco  Nunez 
de  Balboa,  in  1513,  because  from  the 
spot  where  he  obtained  his  first  view 
of  the  great  expanse  of  water,  only  its 
S.  aspect  was  visible. 

South  Shetlands,  a  group  of 
islands  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean  S.  of 
South  America,  on  the  Antarctic  cir- 
cle; originally  discovered  by  a  Dutch 
seaman  named  Dirk  Cherrits  in  1599. 
The  islands  are  uninhabited. 

South'vrell,  Robert,  an  English 
poet,  bom  about  1562.  In  1592  he 
was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy 
against  Queen  Elizabeth's  government, 
and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  for  three 
years.  He  was  tried,  found  guilty, 
and  hanged  at  Tyburn,  Feb.  22,  1595. 
His  longest  poem  is  "Saint  Peter's 
Complaint";  his  most  famous,  "The 
Burning  Babe." 

,  South-western  Baptist  Univer- 
sity,  a  coeducational  institution  in 
Jackson,  'Tenn.,  founded  in  1845  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Baptist  Church. 

Southwestern  University,  a  co- 
educational institution  in  Georgetown, 
Tex.;  founded  in  1873  under  the  au- 
spices of  the  M.  E.  Church. 

Sovereign,  a  gold  coin,  the  stand- 
ard of  the  English  coinage.  It  equals 
20  shillings  sterling,  and  has  a  standard 
weight  of  123.247  grains,  being  of  22 
carats  fineness,  and  coined  at  the  rate 
of  1,869  sovereigns  from  40  pounds 
troy  of  gold;  amount  in  U.  S.  $4.86. 

Sow,  in  founding,  the  main  trough 
leading  from  the  tap  hole  of  a  cupola 
or  smelting  furnace,  and  from  which 
ramify  the  passages  leading  to  the  sep- 
arate molds  in  casting,  or  to  the  shal- 
low ditches  in  the  floor  which  receive 
the  pigs  of  cast  metal. 


Spada 

is  found  in  Massachusetts  and  South- 
ern New  York. 

Spada,  liionello,  Italian  painter; 
born  at  Bologna,  1576 ;  died  at  Parma, 
1622.  He  became  the  pupil  of  Car- 
avaggio,  with  whom  he  traveled.  On 
his  master's  death  he  returned  to  Bo- 
logna, and  spent  his  latter  days  at 
the  court  of  the  Duke  of  Parma. 
Among  his  works,  "  S.  Dominic  burn- 
ing the  heretical  books,"  and  "  an 
altar-piece  in  the  church  of  S.  Domeni- 
co  at  Bologna,"  are  considered  his  best. 

Spagnoletto  ("little  Spaniard"), 
a  celebrated  painter,  whose  true  name 
was  Giuseppe  Ribera,  or  Ribeira ;  born 
at  Xativa,  in  Valencia,  1588;  died  at 
Naples,  1656.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cara- 
vaggio,  and  improved  himself  by  study 
at  Rome  and  Parma.  Settled  in  Na- 
ples ;  was  appointed  court  painter. 

Spain,  a  kingdom  in  the  S.  W.  of 
Europe,  forming  with  Portugal  the 
|;reat  S.  W.  peninsula  of  Europe.  It 
IS  separated  from  France  on  the  N. 
E.  by  the  chain  of  the  Pyrenees,  and 
is  otherwise  bounded  by  Portugal  and 
the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean.  In 
greatest  breadth  N.  and  S.  it  measures 
540  miles ;  greatest  length  E.  and  W., 
620  miles;  total  area,  191,100  square 
miles;  pop.  (19C9»  ostimatod,  19,712,- 
585.  Spain  retains  practically  none 
of  her  once  magnificent  colonies.  The 
war  with  the  United  States  deprived 
her  of  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  the  Philip- 
pine and  Sulu  islands,  and  Guam ; 
and  a  treaty  with  Germany,  Feb.  8, 
1899,  of  the  Marianne  (or  Ladroue), 
Caroline,  and  Pelew  islands.  On  Nov. 
8,  1900,  Spain  sold  the  islands  of 
Cagayan  and  Sibutu  to  the  United 
States  for  $100,000.  Her  last  re- 
maining colonies  are  in  Africa  with 
pop.  136,000. 

The  coast  line  is  not  much  broken, 
but  sweeps  round  in  gentle  curves, 
presenting  few  remarkable  headlands, 
or  indentations.  The  interior  is  con- 
siderably diversified,  but  its  charac- 
teristic feature  is  its  central  table- 
land, which  has  an  elevation  of  from 
2,200  to  2,800  feet,  and  a  superficial 
extent  of  not  less  than  90,000  square 
miles.  It  descends  gradually  on  the 
W.  toward  Portugal ;  but  on  the  E., 
toward  the  provinces  of  Catalonia  and 
Valencia,  it  presents  an  abrupt  steep 
or  line  of  cliffs,  with  the  character 
of  an  ancient  sea  margin.    It  is  bound- 


Spain 

ed  on  the  N.  by  the  Asturian  and  Can- 
tabrian  Mountains,  reaching  an  ele- 
vation of  about  8,500  feet  and  on  the 
S.  by  the  Sierra  Morena.  Besides 
these  ranges  there  is  the  chain  of  the 
Pyrenees,  which,  though  partly  ^belong- 
ing to  France,  presents  its  boldest 
front  to  Spain  and  has  its  loftiest 
summits  within  it. 

The  whole  country  teems  with  min- 
eral wealth,  the  minerals  including 
in  greater  or  less  quantities  gold,  sil- 
ver, quicksilver,  lead,  copper,  iron, 
zinc,  calamine,  antimony,  tin,  coal, 
etc.  The  exploitation  of  the  minerals 
has,  however,  in  recent  times  been 
mostly  accomplished  by  foreign  capi- 
tal, while  most  of  the  ore  is  exported 
to  foreign  counti*ies  in  its  raw  state. 
In  1900  the  value  of  the  mineral  pro- 
duction was  $57,714,681.44;  and  the 
value  of  the  minerals  at  the  mines, 
$26,914,274.65.  The  most  important 
mineral  was  iron  ore,  total  value  $5,- 
406,632.29. 

About  one-sixth  of  the  acreage  is 
under  wood ;  the  more  remarkable 
trees  being  the  Spanish  chestnut  and 
several  varieties  of  oak,  and  in  par- 
ticular the  cork  oak.  Fruits  are  ex- 
tremely abundant,  and  include,  in  ad- 
dition to  apples,  pears,  cherries,  plums, 
peaches,  and  apricots,  the  almond, 
date,  fig,  orange,  citron,  olive,  and 
pomegranate :  and  in  the  lower  dis- 
tricts of  the  S.,  the  pineapple  and 
banana.  The  culture  of  the  vine  is* 
general,  and  great  quantities  of  wine 
are  made,  both  for  home  consumption 
and  exportation.  The  rtiore  important 
farm  crops  are  wheat,  rice,  maize,  bar- 
ley, and  legumes.  In  the  S.  cotton  and 
the  sugar  cane  are  grown.  Hemp, 
flax,  esparto,  the  mulberry  for  rear- 
ing silk  worms,  saffron,  licorice,  are 
also  to  be  mentioned. 

The  manufactures  of  Spain  are  not 
as  a  whole  important,  but  considerable 
advances  have  been  made  in  recent 
times.  The  most  important  industries 
are  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  wool- 
ens and  linens,  cutlery  and  metal 
goods,  paper,  silk,  leather,  tobacco, 
and  cigars,  besides  wine,  flour,  and 
oil.  Since  the  loss  of  her  colonies, 
most  of  Spain's  manufacturing  inter- 
ests have  suffered  severely.  The  chief 
articles  of  export  are  wine  (by  far 
the  first),  fruits  (especially  oranges 
and  raisins),  cork,  lead,  iron  ore,  oils, 


Spalding 


Spamsh-Aniericaii  VTar 


soap,  and  agricultural  jproducg  (in- 
cluding cattle  and  wool) .  The  chief  for- 
eign trade  is  with  France. 

By  the  constitution  of  1876  Spain 
was  declared  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy, with  executive  power  vested  in 
the  king,  and  the  legislative  power  in 
the  Cortes  with  the  king.  The  Cortes 
consists  of  a  Senate  and  Congress.  The 
Senate  is  composed  of  three  classes : 
Those  who  sit  by  right  of  birth  or  offi- 
cial position,  members  nominated  by 
the  crown  (these  two  classes  not  num- 
bering more  than  180  together),  and 
180  elected  by  the  largest  taxpayers 
of  the  kingdom  and  certain  corporate 
bodies.  The  Congress  contains  431 
deputies,  elected  by  citizens  of  25 
years  of  age  who  have  enjoyed  full 
civil  rights  in  any  municipality  for  two 
years. 

The  people  of  Spain  are  of  very 
mixed  origin,  the  most  ancient  inhab- 
itants, th0  Iberians  (now  represented 
probably  by  the  Basques  or  Biscay- 
ans  of  the  N.  E.),  being  afterward 
mingled  with  Celts,  Phoenicians,  and 
Carthaginians,  Roman  colonists, 
Goths,  Jews,  and  Arabs  or  Moors. 
Under  the  constitution  the  State  binds 
itself  to  maintain  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion,  but  a  restricted  liberty  of 
worship  is  permitted  to  Protestants, 
of  whom,  however,  there  are  very  few. 

Spain  was  first  known  to  the  Phoe- 
nicians, subsequently  to  the  Cartha- 
ginians, and,  in  the  3d  century  b.  c, 
to  the  Romans.  A  very  eventful  his- 
tory followed,  Spain  at  one  time  oc- 
cupying a  prominent  part  in  the  gen- 
eral aflfairs  of  Europe.  Later,  how- 
ever, her  prestige  declined.  In  1873 
a  republic  was  formed,  with  Castelar 
as  its  leading  spirit,  but  it  was  soon 
brought  to  an  end,  and  the  throne 
was  offered  in  1874  to  Alphonso,  the 
young  son  of  a  former  exiled  Queen, 
Isabella.  Alphonso  XII.  died  in 
1885;  and  on  the  birth  of  a  posthu- 
mous son.  May  17,  1886,  the  regency 
was  intrusted  to  his  widow,  Christina. 
In  1902  this  son  came  to  the  throne 
vmder  the  title  of  Alphonso  XIII.  His 
reign  has  been  marked  by  the  loss  of 
Spain's  colonial  possessions,  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  Spanish-American  War, 
and  by  industrial  and  anarchist  dis- 
turbances. In  October,  1903,  an  an- 
archist plot  to  blow  up  the  Cortes  was 
discovered  and  frustrated. 


Spalding,    John    liancaster,    an 

American  clergyman ;  bom  in  Leban- 
on, Ky.,  June  2,  1840 ;  was  educated 
at  St.  Mary's  College,  Emmitsberg, 
Md.,  in  Belgium,  and  in  Rome ;  was 
chancellor  of  the  diocese  of  Louisville, 
Ky.,  in  1871 ;  was  Roman  Catholic 
Bishop  of  Peoria,  111.,  after  1877. 
He  did  much  to  establish  educational 
institutions  in  this  country. 

Spalding,  Martin  Jolin,  an 
American  clergyman :  born  near  Leb- 
anon, Ky.,  May  23,  1810;  was  grad- 
uated at  St.  Mary's  College  in  1826, 
and  in  1830  entered  the  College  of  the 
Propaganda  in  Rome ;  was  ordained 
priest  in  1834 ;  became  Roman  Catho- 
lic Bishop  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  1849, 
and  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  in  1864. 
In  1866  he  was  apostolic  delegate  and 
convened  the  Second  National  Coun- 
cil of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  at 
Baltimore ;  and  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  Vatican  Council  (1870- 
1871).  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
controversialist  and  polemical  writer, 
and  published  many  works.  He  died 
in   Baltimore,    Feb.   7,   1872. 

Spaniel,  the  name  given  to  several 
varieties  or  breeds  of  dogs.  Their  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics  are  a  rather 
broad  muzzle,  remarkably  long  and 
full  ears,  hair  plentiful  and  beautiful- 
ly waved,  particularly  that  of  the  ears, 
tail,  and  hinder  parts  of  the  thighs 
and  legs.  The  prevailing  color  is  liver 
and  white,  sometimes  red  and  white 
or  black  and  white,  and  sometimes 
deep  brown,  or  black  on  the  face  and 
breast,  with  a  tan  spot  over  each  eye. 
The  English  spaniel  is  a  superior  and 
very  pure  breed.  The  King  Charles' 
dog  is  a  small  variety  of  the  spaniel 
used  as  a  lapdog.  The  Maltese  dog 
is  also  a  small  species  of  spaniel.  The 
water  spaniels,  large  and  small,  differ 
from  the  common  spaniel  only  in  the 
roughness  of  their  coats,  and  in  unit- 
ing the  aquatic  propensities  of  the 
Newfoundland  dog  with  the  fine  hunt- 
ing qualities  of  their  own  race.  Span- 
iels possess  a  great  share  of  intelli- 
gence, affection,  and  obedience,  which 
qualities,  combined  with  much  beauty, 
make  them  highly  prized  as  compan- 
ions. 

Spanish-American  War,  a  war 
between  the  United  States  and  Spain 
that  began  April  21,  1898,  that  date 


Spanish-American  W^ar 


Spanish-American  'War 


being  named  in  an  Act  of  Congress 
passed  on  April  25,  declaring  that  a 
state  of  war  existed.  Spain  issued  a 
declaration  of  war  on  April  24.  Hos- 
tilities ended  with  the  signing  of  a 
protocol  by  the  Secretary  of  State 
for  the  United  States  and  M.  Cam- 
bon,  the  French  ambassador,  acting 
for  Spain,  on  Aug.  12,  1898.  The  final 
treaty  of  peace  signed  by  the  com- 
missioners in  Paris,  Dec.  10,  1898, 
was  signed  by  President  McKinley 
Feb.  10,  and  by  the  Queen  Regent 
of  Spain  March  17,  1899. 

From  its  opening  to  its  close  the  war 
lasted  114  days.  In  that  time  the 
United  States  land  and  sea  forces  de- 
stroyed two  Spanish  fleets,  received 
the  surrender  of  more  than  35,000 
Spanish  soldiers,  took  by  conquest  the 
fortified  cities  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  in 
Cuba,  Ponce,  in  Porto  Rico,  and  Ma- 
nila, on  the  island  of  Luzon,  in  the 
Philippines,  and  secured  control,  pend- 
ing negotiations  of  peace,  of  the  en- 
tire Spanish  possessions  in  the  West 
Indies,  the  Philippines,  and  Guam  of 
the  Ladrone  Islands.  The  Americans 
sufiPered  no  loss  of  ships  or  territory 
and  but  279  killed  and  1,465  wounded 
in  battle,  while  the  cost  to  Spain, 
aside  from  prisoners,  ships,  and  lost 
territory,  was  2,199  killed,  and  2,948 
wounded.  The  cost  to  the  United 
States  in  money  was  $141,000,000. 

The  principal  events  preceding  and 
during  the  war  and  the  dates  on  which 
they  occurred  are  as  follows : 
Feb.  15  — The   United   States   battle- 
ship  "  Maine  "    was   blown   up 
in  the  harbor  of  Havana.     Ac- 
cording  to    the    report    of    the 
Court  of  Inquiry  appointed  by 
the  United  States  the  explosion 
was  due  to  an  external  mine. 
April  20  —  President    McKinley,    au- 
thorized by   Congress   to   inter- 
vene in  Cuba,  using  the  United 
States      military      and      naval 
forces,    sent    an    ultimatum    to 
Spain.      The    Spanish   minister 
at   once    left   Washington,    and 
the  next  day  the  United  States 
minister  left  Madrid. 
April  22  —  A  proclamation  was  issued 
by  the  President  blockading  the 
principal   ports   of   Cuba. 
April  23  —  President      McKinley      is- 
sued a  call  for   125,000  volun- 
teers to  serve  for  two  years. 


April  27  —  The  batteries  of  Matan- 
zas,  Cuba,  were  shelled  by  Ad- 
miral Sampson's  flagship,  the 
"  New  York,"  with  the  moni- 
tor "  Puritan  "  and  the  cruiser 
"  Cincinnati." 

April  29  —  The  Spanish  fleet,  com- 
manded by  Admiral  Cervera, 
consisting  of  the  "  Cristobal  Co- 
lon," the  "  Almirante  Oquen- 
do,"  the  "  Maria  Teresa,"  and 
the  "  Viscaya,"  and  the  torpedo 
boats  "  Furor,"  "  Terror,"  and 
"Pluton,"  left  the  Cape  Verde 
Islands  for  Cuba. 

May  1  —  Commodore  Dewey,  com- 
manding the  United  States  Asi- 
atic squadron,  destroyed  the  en- 
tire   Spanish    fleet    in    Manila 

•  Bay,    Philippines,   without   los- 

ing a  man. 

May  11  —  The  "  Wilmington,"  "  Win- 
slow,"  and  "  Hudson  "  engaged 
the  Spanish  batteries  at  Carde- 
nas. Ensign  Bagley  and  four 
of  the  "  Winslow's  "  crew  were 
killed.  Maj.-Gen.  Wesley  Mer- 
ritt  was  ordered  to  the  Philip- 
pines as  military  governor. 

May  12  —  A  United  States  fleet,  com- 
manded by  Rear-Admiral  Samp- 
son, bombarded  the  fortifica- 
tions of  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico. 

May  19  —  Admiral  Cervera's  fleet 
reached  Santiago  de  Cuba,  and 
a  few  days  later  was  "  bottled 
up  "  there  by  the  "  flying  squad- 
ron "  of  Commodore  Schley. 

May  25  —  President  McKinley  called 
for  75,000  more  volunteers. 
Twenty-five  hundred  United 
States  troops  sailed  from  San 
Francisco  for  Manila,  several 
thousand   more   following   at   a 

May  31  —  The  "  Massachusetts,"  "Io- 
wa," and  "  New  Orleans  "  bom- 
barded the  fortifications  at  the 
mouth  of  Santiago  harbor.  They 
were  bombarded  again  several 
times  after  Admiral  Sampson 
took  command  of  the  fleet. 

June  3  —  Assistant  Naval  Construc- 
tor Hobson  with  seven  men  ran 
the  collier  "  Merrimac  "  to  the 
mouth  of  Santiago  harbor  and 
'  sank  her  in  the  channel  under 
the  fire  from  the  Spanish  forts. 
Hobson  and  his  men  were  taken 
prisoners. 


Spanish-Amerioan  War 


Spanisli-Aiuerican  War 


June  10  —  Six  hundred  marines  were 
landed  at  Caimanera,  Guantan- 
amo  Bay,  Cuba,  where  sharp 
skirmishing  continued  for  sev- 
eral days,  several  Americans  be- 
ing killed. 

June  12  —  The  5th  Army  Corps,  com- 
manded by  General  Shafter, 
sailed  from  Tampa  on  29  trans- 
ports for  Santiago,  arriving  off 
there  on  June  20. 

June  13  —  President  McKinley  signed 
the  War  Revenue  Bill,  provid- 
ing for  the  raising  of  revenues 
by  a  stamp  tax  and  providing 
for  a  popular  bond  loan  which 
was  immediately  subscribed. 

June  17  —  A  Spanish  fleet  under  Ad- 
miral Camara  left  Cadiz  for 
the  Philippines,  but  returned 
after  passing  through  the  Suez 
Canal. 

June  22  —  General  Shafter's  troops 
began  disembarking  at  Baiquiri 
and  Siboney,  near  Santiago. 

June  24  —  Roosevelt's  Rough  Riders 
were  attacked  while  advancing 
toward  Santiago ;  16  Americans 
were  killed  and  40  more  wound- 
ed before  the  Spaniards  were 
repulsed. 

July  1  —  General  Lawton  took  El  Ca- 
ney,  near  Santiago,  and  Gen- 
eral Kent,  commanding  the  1st 
division  of  the  5th  Army  Corps, 
which  included  the  2d,  6th,  9th, 
10th,  13th,  16th,  and  24th  m- 
fantry,  and  the  71st  New  York 
volunteers,  took  San  Juan  Hill 
after  heavy  fighting.  OflBcial 
reports  gave  the  American  loss- 
es 231  killed  and  1,364  wound- 
ed and  missing. 

July  3  —  Admiral  Cervera's  squadron 
made  a  dash  out  of  Santiago 
harbor,  and  every  vessel  was 
sunk  or  disabled  by  the  Ameri- 
can fleet  General  Shafter  de- 
manded the  surrender  of  San- 
tiago. The  seizure  of  Guam, 
in  the  Ladrone  Islands,  by  the 
"  Charleston  "  was  reported  at 
this  time. 

July  7  —  President  McKinley  signed 
resolutions  passed  by  the  Senate 
annexing  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
to  the  United  States,  and  the 
"  Philadelphia  "  was  ordered  to 
Honolulu  to  raise  the  American 


July  17  —  General  Toral,  in  com- 
mand of  the  Spanish  troops  at 
Santiago,  General  Linares  be- 
ing wounded,  surrendered  his 
forces  and  the  E.  portion  of 
the  province  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba  to  General   Shafter. 

July  20  —  Gen.  Leonard  R.  Wood, 
formerly  colonel  of  the  1st  Vol- 
unteer cavalry,  was  appointed 
military  governor  of  Santiago. 

July  25  —  United  States  troops,  un- 
der Gen.  Nelson  A.  Miles,  land- 
ed at  Guanica,  Porto  Rico,  the 
town  having  surrendered  to  the 
"  Gloucester." 

July  26  —  Through  the  French  am- 
bassador, the  government  of 
.Spain  asked  President  McKin- 
ley on  what  terms  he  would 
consent  to  peace. 

July  28  —  Ponce,  the  second  largest 
city  in  Porto  Rico,  surrendered 
to  General  Miles,  and  he  was 
received  by  the  residents  with 
joyful  acclamations.  Capture 
of  several  other  towns,  with  lit- 
tle or  no  fighting,  followed. 

July  30  —  President  McKinley's 
statement  of  the  terms  on  which 
he  would  agree  to  end  the  war 
was  given  to  the  French  am- 
bassador. The  President  de- 
manded the  independence  of  Cu- 
ba, cession  of  Porto  Rico  and 
one  of  the  Ladrones  to  the 
United  States,  and  the  retention 
of  Manila  by  the  United  States 
pending  the  final  disposition  of 
the  Philippines  by  a  joint  com- 
mission. 

July  31  —  United  States  troops  en- 
gaged the  Spaniards  at  Malate, 
near  Manila,  in  the  Philip- 
pines, and  repulsed  them,  with 
some  loss  on  both  sides. 

Aug.  9  —  The  French  ambassador 
presented  to  President  McKin- 
ley Spain's  reply,  accepting  his 
terms  of  peace. 

Aug.  12  —  Protocols  agreeing  as  to 
the  preliminaries  for  a  treaty 
of  peace  were  signed  by  Secre- 
tary Hay  and  the  French  am- 
bassador. United  States  mili- 
tary and  naval  commanders 
were  ordered  to  cease  hostili- 
ties. The  blockades  of  Cuba, 
Porto  Rico  and  Manila  were 
lifted  and  hostilities  ended. 


Spanish  Foxels 


Aug.  13  —  Manila    surrendered    after 
a  combined  assault  by  the  ar- 
my under  General  Merritt  and 
Dewey's  fleet. 
Spanish  Fowls,  a  breed  of  domes- 
tic  poultry  of  Mediterranean  origin; 
tall,  with  stately  carriage ;  tarsi  long ; 
comb  single,  of  great  size,  deeply  ser- 
rated ;  wattles  largely  developed ;  eai'- 
lobes  and  side  of  face  white;  plumage 
black,  glossed  with  green.     They  are 
tender  in  constitution. 

Spanish  Main,  a  name  given  to 
the  N.  coast  of  South  America  from 
the  Orinoco  to  Darien,  and  to  the 
shores  of  the  former  Central  Ameri- 
can provinces  of  Spain  contiguous  to 
the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  name,  how- 
ever, is  often  popularly  applied  to  the 
Caribbean  Sea  itself,  and  in  this  sense 
occurs  frequently  in  connection  with 
the  buccaneers. 

Sparidse,  a  family  of  fishes.  They 
somewhat  resemble  the  perches  in 
form,  the  body  being  generally  of  an 
ovate  form  and  covered  with  large 
scales.  The  Sparidae  are  mostly  in- 
habitants of  warm  climates.  They  are 
edible,  and  some  of  them  much  es- 
teemed. The  sheep's  head  of  the  At- 
lantic coast  of  the  United  States  is 
very  highly  prized. 

Sparks,  Jared,  an  American  his- 
torian; born  in  Willington,  Conn., 
May  lO;  17S9 ;  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  1815;  studied  theolo- 
gy ;  and  was  ordained  in  the  Unitarian 
Church  in  Baltimore  in  1819.  He 
took  part  in  the  doctrinal  controversy 
with  orthodox  theologians ;  was  chosen 
chaplain  of  the  National  House  of 
Representatives  in  1821 ;  edited  the 
"  Unitarian  Miscellany  and  Christian 
Monitor"  in  1821-1823;  conducted 
the  "  North  American  Review "  in 
1824-1831 ;  and  was  the  originator  and 
first  editor  of  the  "  American  Almanac 
and  Repository  of  Useful  Knowledge." 
He  was  Professor  of  Ancient  and 
Modern  History  at  Harvard  'n  1839- 
1849;  president  of  the  coilege  in 
1849-1863 ;  and  the  author  of  a  large 
number  of  sermons,  biographical  and 
historical  works,  theological  papers, 
etc.,  most  notably  "  The  Library  of  j 
American  Biography"  and  "Corre- 
spondence of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion." He  died  in  Cambridge,  Mass- 
March  14.  1866.  I 


Sparroxr  Hawk 


Sparrow,  a  well-known  bird  of  the 
Fringillidse,  or  finch  family,  commonly 
known  as  the  European  house-spar- 
row. It  ranges  over  Europe,  into  the  N. 
of  Africa  and  Asia,  and  has  been  intro- 
duced into  America  and  Australia. 
Sparrows  are  found  even  in  crowded 
cities  and  in  manufacturing  towns, 
these  differing  only  from  country  birds 
in  being  dirtier,  and,  if  possible,  more 
daring.  Mantle  of  male  brown,  striped 
with  black  ;  head  bluish-gray  ;  two  nar- 
row bands,  one  white  and  the  other 
rusty-yellow,  on  wings  ;  cheeks  grayish- 
white,  front  of  neck  black,  under-parts 
light-gray.    See  Fbingillid^. 


COMMON  SPABEOW  HAWK. 

Sparrow  Hawk,  in  ornithology, 
extending  across  Europe,  through  Asia 
to  Japan.  The  adult  male  is  about 
12  inches  long,  dark-brown  on  the  up- 
per surface,  softening  into  gray  as 
the  bird  grows  old;  the  entire  under 
surface  is  rusty-brown,  with  bands  of 
a  darker  shade.  The  sparrow  hawk 
is  very  destructive  to  small  quadru- 
peds and  young  birds.  The  name  ia 
also  applied  to  the  American  falcon, 
the  Australian  collared  isparrow  hawk, 
the  European  kestrel,  and  th()  New 
Zealand  quail  hawk. 


Sparta 

Sparta,  or  Iiacedaemon,  a  cele- 
brated city  of  ancient  Greece ;  capital 
of  Laconia  and  of  the  Spartan  State, 
and  tlie  chief  city  in  the  Peloponne- 
sus ;  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Eurotas 
river,  and  embraced  a  circuit  of  6 
miles.  Sparta  was  a  scattered  city 
consisting  of  five  separate  quarters. 
Unlike  Athens  it  was  plainly  built, 
and  had  few  notable  public  buildings ; 
consequently  there  are  no  imposing 
ruins  to  be  seen  here  as  in  Athens, 
and  the  modern  Sparta  is  only  a  vil- 
lage of  some  4,000  inhabitants. 

The  Spartan  State  was  founded,  ac- 
cording to  traditio^i,  by  Lacedaemon, 
son  of  Zeus.  The  most  celebrated  of 
its  legendary  kings  was  Menelaus. 
Shortly  after  their  settlement  in  the 
Peloponnesus  it  is  probable  that  the 
Spartans  extended  their  sway  over 
all  the  territory  of  Laconia,  a  portion 
of  the  inhabitants  of  which  they  re- 
duced to  the  condition  of  slaves.  They 
also  waged  war  with  the  Messenians, 
the^  Arcadians,  and  the  Argives, 
against  whom  they  were  so  successful 
that  before  the  close  of  the  6th  cen- 
tury B.  c.  they  were  recognized  as  the 
leading  people  in  all  Greece. 

Early  in  the  following  century  began 
the  Persian  wars,  in  which  a  rivalry 
grew  up  between  Athens  and  Sparta. 
This  rivalry  led  to  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  in  which  Athens  was  humiliated 
and  the  old  ascendency  of  Sparta  re- 
gained. Soon  after  this  the  Spartans 
became  involved  in  a  war  with  Persia, 
and  Athens,  Thebes,  Corinth,  and 
some  of  the  Peloponnesian  States  took 
this  opportunity  to  declare  war 
against  them.  This  war,  known  as 
the  Boeotian  or  Corinthian  war,  last- 
ed eight  years  and  increased  the  rep- 
utation and  power  of  Athens.  To 
break  the  alliance  of  Athens  with  Per- 
sia, Sparta,  in  387  B.  c,  concluded 
with  the  latter  power  the  peace  known 
by  the  name  or  Antalcidas;  and  the 
designs  of  Sparta  became  apparent 
when  she  occupied,  without  provoca- 
tion, the  city  of  Thebes,  and  intro- 
duced an  aristocratical  constitution 
there.  Pelopidas  delivered  Thebes,  and 
the  celebrated  Theban  war  (378-363) 
followed,  in  which  Sparta  was  much 
enfeebled.  During  the  following  cen- 
tury Sparta  steadily  declined,  though 
one  or  two  isolated  attempts  were 
made  to  restore  its  former  greatness. 


Spartacxts 

The  principal  of  these  was  made  by 
Cleomenes  (230-222),  but  his  endeav- 
ors failed,  because  there  were  then 
scarcely  700  of  Spartan  descent,  and 
the  majority  of  these  were  in  a  state 
of  beggary.  With  the  rest  of  Greece 
Sparta  latterly  passed  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  Romans  in  14G  B.  C. 

Spartacus,  the  leader  of  the  Ro- 
man slaves  in  the  great  revolt  which 
broke  out  about  73  B.  c. ;  a  Thracian 
by  birth,  who  from  a  shepherd  became 
a  leader  of  a  band  of  robbers  when  he 
was  captured  and  sold  to  a  trainer 
of  gladiators  at  Capua.  On  the  mur- 
der of  his  father  by  the  Romans  he 
had  made  an  oath  to  wage  war 
against  Rome;  and  he  formed  a  con- 
spiracy to  escape,  and,  when  it  was 
discovered,  broke  out  with  some  70 
followers,  with  whom  he  made  for 
the  crater  of  Vesuvius,  where  hordes 
of  runaway  slaves  soon  joined  him. 
He  first  overpowered  and  seized  the 
arms  of  a  force  sent  against  him  from 
Capua,  next  routed  an  army  of  3,000 
men  under  C.  Clodius,  and  so  passed 
from  victory  to  victory,  overrunning 
Southern  Italy  and  sacking  many  of 
the  cities  of  Campania,  his  numbers 
growing  to  100,000  men.  Spartacus, 
who  failed  to  get  support  from  the 
Italian  communities,  and  from  the 
first  knew  the  real  weakness  of  his 
position,  strove  to  persuade  his  vic- 
torious bands  to  march  N.  to  the  Alps 
and  disperse  to  their  native  regions ; 
but  they  were  intoxicated  with  vic- 
tory, and  saw  glittering  before  their 
eyes  all  the  plunder  of  Italy.  Against 
his  better  judgment  he  continued  the 
war,  showing  himself  a  consummate 
captain  in  the  strategy  and  valor  with 
which  he  routed  one  Roman  consular 
army  after  another,  and  the  policy  by 
which  for  long  Jie  assuaged  the  jeal- 
ousies and  dissensions  among  his  fol- 
lowers. At  length  in  71  M.  Licinius 
Crassus  received  the  command,  and 
after  some  time  of  cautious  delay 
forced  Spartacus  into  the  narrow  pen- 
insula of  Rhegium,  from  which,  how- 
ever, he  burst  out  through  the  Ro- 
man lines  with  a  portion  of  his  force. 
Crassus  urged  the  Senate  to  recall 
Lucullus  from  Asia  and  Pompey  from 
Spain,  but  meantime  he  himself  pur- 
sued active  hostilities  against  the 
dreaded  enemy.  Spartacus  finding  all 
hope  at  an  end  made  a  dash  on  Brun- 


Spartanburg 

dusiura,  hoping  to  seize  the  shipping 
and  get  across  the  Adriatic,  but  was 
foiled  by  the  presence  of  Lucullus, 
whereupon  he  fell  back  on  the  river 
Silarus,  and  there  made  a  heroic  stand 
against  Crassus  till  he  was  cut  down. 

Spartanburg,  city  and  capital  of 
Spartanburg  county,  S.  C;  on  the 
Charleston  &  Western  Carolina  and 
other  railroads;  93  miles  N.  W.  of 
Columbia;  is  a  popular  mountain 
sport  and  health  resort;  has  cotton 
mills  and  iron  works;  and  is  the 
seat  of  Wofiford  College  (M.E.),  Con- 
verse College  for  Women,  and  the 
State  Institution  for  the  Deaf,  Dumb 
and    Blind.      Pop.    (1910)    17,517. 

Spasms,  irregular  and  violent  con- 
tractions of  muscular  structures,  but 
less  violent  than  convulsions.  There 
are  two  varieties,  tonic  and  clonic. 
Tonic  spasms  consist  in  contractions 
attended  with  rigidity  or  hardness  of 
muscles.  Clonic  spasms  consist  in  al- 
ternating contraction  and  relaxation. 

Spathe,  or  Spatha,  in  botany,  a 
large  bract  or  floral  leaf  enveloping 
the  immature  inflorescence  of  some 
monocotyledons,  and  so  guarding  it 
from  injury.  The  enclosed  inflores- 
cence often  consists  of  an  axis  bear- 
ing numerous  closely-packed  sessile 
flowers,  arranged  in  a  spike-like  man- 
ner —  this  is  termed  a  spadix.  The 
genus  Arum  offers  a  good  example  of 
spathe  and  spadix. 

Spatula,  a  knife,  with  a  broad, 
thin,  flexible  blade,  used  by  druggists, 
color  compounders,  painters,  etc.,  for 
spreading  plasters  and  working  pig- 
ments. In  surgery,  a  flat  instrument, 
angular  or  straight,  for  depressing  the 
tongue. 

Spatnlaria,  or  Folyodon,  a  genus 
of  fishes  belonging  to  the  sturgeon 
tribe.  They  are  remarkable  for  the 
form  of  their  snouts,  which  are  enor- 
mously long  and  leaf-like  in  form.  The 
type  of  the  genus  is  the  paddle  fish  of 
the  Mississippi. 

Spaulding,  Solomon,  an  Amer- 
ican clergyman  and  writer;  born  in 
Ashford,  Conn.,  in  1761.  He  was  a 
Revolutionary  soldier,  a  Congregation- 
al minister,  and  afterward  4  manufac- 
turer of  iron.  While  living  at  Con- 
neaut,  Pa.  (1811-1812),  he  wrote  a 
romance,  "  The  Manuscript  Found," 
published  in  1812,  purporting  to  have 


Speaker 

been  discovered  in  an  ancient  mound. 
This  work  was  said  to  have  fur- 
nished the  basis  for  the  "  Book  of 
Mormon" ;  in  denial  of  which  the 
original  manuscript  of  Spaulding's  ro- 
mance was  republished  by  the  Mor- 
mons in  1885.  He  died  in  Amity,  Pa., 
Oct.  20,  1816. 

Spavin,  a  disease  of  horses  which 
occurs  under  two  different  forms,  both 
interfering  with  soundness.  In  j'O.ung, 
weakly,  or  over-worked  subjects  the 
hock-joint  is  sometimes  distended  with 
dark-colored  thickened  sjmovia  or  joint 
oil.  This  is  bog  spavin.  The  second 
variety  of  spavin  is  the  more  common. 
Toward  the  inside  of  the  hock,  at  the 
head  of  the  shank  bones,  or  between 
some  of  the  small  bones  of  the  hock, 
a  bony  enlargement  may  be  seen  and 
felt.  This  is  bone  spavin.  At  first 
there  is  tenderness,  heat,  swellina'.  and 
considerable  lameness ;  but  as  the  in- 
flammation in  the  bone  and  its  invest- 
ing membrane  abates  the  lameness 
may  entirely  disappear,  or  a  slight 
stiffness  may  remain. 

Spavrn,  the  eggs  or  ova  of  fishes, 
frogs,  etc.,  from  which,  when  fertilized 
by  the  males,  a  new  progeny  arises 
that  continues  the  species.  In  the  ovi- 
parous fishes  with  distinct  sexes  the 
eggs  are  impregnated  externally,  and 
arrive  at  maturity  without  the  aid  of 
the  mother.  The  spawn  being  deposit- 
ed by  the  female,  the  male  then  pours 
on  it  the  impregnating  fluid.  In  the 
ovoviviparous  fishes  sexual  intercourse 
takes  place,  and  the  eggs  are  hatched 
in  the  uterus.  Fishes  exhibit  a  great 
variety  in  regard  to  the  number  of 
their  eggs.  In  the  spawn  of  a  cod- 
fish, for  example,  no  fewer  than  3,- 
500,000  eggs  have  been  found.  In 
general,  before  spawning,  fish  forsake 
the  deep  water  and  approach  the 
shore,  and  some  fish  leave  the  salt 
water  and  ascend  the  rivers  before 
spaw^ning,  and  then  return  again. 

Speaker,  in  politics,  one  who  pre- 
sides over  a  deliberative  assembly,  pre- 
serving order  and  regulating  the  de- 
bates ;  as,  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives ;  the  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Lords  or  Commons,  etc.  The 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives is  chosen  by  ballot  from  among 
the  members  upon  the  assembling  of 
Congress,  and  occupies  that  office  till 


Speaking  Trumpet 


Spectroscope 


the  expiration  of  the  body  by  adjourn- 
ment sine  die.  If  an  extra  session  be 
called  there  is  no  new  election  of 
speaker,  the  same  officer  presiding  over 
the  deliberations.  The  presiding  offi- 
cer in  the  Senate  is  styled  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate,  and  he  is  not  elect- 
ed by  that  body,  the  office  being  held 
ex-officio  by  the  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States. 

Speaking  Trumpet,  an  instru- 
ment for  enabling  the  sound  of  the 
human  voice  to  be  conveyed  to  a  great- 
er distance.  It  is  of  the  utmost  use 
on  shipboard  in  enabling  the  officers 
to  convey  orders  during  windy  weather 
from  one  part  of  the  deck  to  another, 
or  to  the  rigging.  The  invention  is  as- 
cribed to  Sir  Samuel  Morland  in  1670. 

Spear,  a  weapon  of  offense,  consist- 
ing of  a  wooden  shaft  or  pole  varying 
in  length  up  to  eight  or  nine  feet,  and 
provided  with  a  sharp  piercing  point. 
The  spear  may  be  regarded  as  the  pro- 
totype of  the  various  forms  of  pierc- 
ing weapons,  such  as  the  arrow,  bolt, 
and  dart,  which  are  projected  from 
bows,  catapults,  or  other  engines,  and 
the  javelin,  assegai,  and  lance,  held 
in  or  thrown  by  the  hand.  The  long- 
er and  heavier  spears  and  lances  are 
mainly  retained  in  the  hand  while  in 
use,  but  there  is  no  absolute  distinc- 
tion, and  the  throwing  of  a. spear  has 
in  all  ages  been  a  form  of  offensive 
warfare.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
a  weapon  such  as  the  spear  is  the  most 
ancient  as  well  as  the  most  universal 
of  warlike  and  hunting  weapons. 

Spear,  James,  an  American  manu- 
facturer; born  in  Mauch  Chunk,  Pa., 
Feb.  17,  1827;  removed  to  Philadel- 
phia in  1848,  and  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  stoves.  He  made  the  first 
successful  car  heater,  and  invented  a 
number  of  familiar  devices,  the  prin- 
cipal one  being  the  anti-clinker  grate, 
which  is  now  in  general  use.  He  took 
an  active  interest  in  the  Blind  Men's 
Home,  was  one  of  the  incorporators 
of  the  Hayes  Mechanics'  Home,  and 
aided  many  institutions,  especially  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  died 
in  Wallingford,  Pa.,  Jan.  30,  1902. 

Spearmint,  or  Spiremint,  in 
botany,  a  mint,  with  oblong,  lanceo- 
late, sub-acute,  serrate  leaves,  and 
slender  spikes  of  flowers.  Found  in 
.watery  places.    It  is  iised  in  cookery 


as  a  sauce,  and  yields  an  aromatic  and 
carminative  oil,  oil  of  spearmint. 

Spear  Thistle,  a  common  thistle 
It  grows  on  waysides  and  in  pastures. 
The  leaves  are  downy  beneath,  and 
their  points  long  and  very  sharp,  and 
it  has  handsome  heads  of  purple 
flowers. 

Spearwort,  a  plant  including  the 
great  spearwort  and  the  lesser  spear- 
wort.  The  latter  is  an  American 
plant,  with  lanceolate  undivided  leaves 
and  yellow  flowers,  growing  in  wet 
localities. 

Species,  in  biology,  a  somewhat  am- 
biguous term  used  to  denote  a  limited 
group  of  organisms,  resembling  each 
other,  and  capable  of  reproducing  sim- 
ilar organisms,  animal  or  vegetable,  as 
the  case  may  be.  A  species  is  de- 
fined by  Haeckel  as  "  the  sum  of  al: 
cycles  of  reproduction  which,  under 
similar  conditions  of  existence,  ex- 
hibit similar  forms."  Linnaeus  held 
that  all  species  were  the  direct  de- 
scendants from  and  had  the  charac- 
ters of  primevally  created  forms,  and 
in  this  he  was  followed  by  those  who 
accepted  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis 
in  a  strictly  literal  sense.  Buffon 
and  Cuvier,  leaving  the  question  of 
origin  on  one  side,  held  the  distin- 
guishing marks  of  a  species  to  be 
similarity  and  capability  of  reproduc- 
tion. 

Darwin  in  his  "  Origin  of  Species  " 
says :  "  I  look  at  the  term  species  as 
one  arbitrarily  given  for  the  sake  of 
convenience  to  a  set  of '  individuals 
closely  resembling  each  other,  and 
that  it  does  not  essentially  differ  from 
the  term  variety,  which  is  given  to 
less  distinct  and  more  fluctuating 
forms." 

Spectacle,  in  the  plural,  a  familiar 
and  invaluable  optical  instrument 
used  to  assist  or  correct  defects  of 
vision. 

Spectacled  Bear,  the  sole  repre- 
sentative of  the  bears  in  South 
America,  inhabiting  the  high  moun- 
tain forests  of  Chile  and  Peru.  So 
called  from  the  light  colored  rings 
round  the  eyes  having  exactly  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  pair  of  spectacles;  the 
rest  of  the  face  and  body  being  black. 

Spectroscope,  an  instrument  for 
observing  spectra,  or  for  spectrum 
analysis.    With  a  single  glass  prism. 


Spectrum 


Speed 


the  few  most  prominent  lines  in  a 
solar  spectrum  may  be  seen  by  using 
a  narrow  slit  to  admit  the  light,  which 
was  the  first  great  improvement  made 
upon  Newton's  experiment,  since  a  hole 
or  wide  slit  gives  confusion  of  effect. 
The  second  great  improvement  was 
to  place  a  collimating  lens  behind  the 
slit  at  its  focal  distance,  whereby  all 
the  rays  from  the  slit  became  a  paral- 
lel bundle  before  passing  through  the 
prism.  Finally  a  small  telescope  was 
mounted  behind  the  prism  to  magnify 
and  define  the  image  thus  obtained. 
The  whole  arranged  on  a  table,  with 
means  of  adjusting  the  collimating 
and  eye  tubes  at  the  proper  angles 
with  the  prism,  forms  the  ordinary 
single-prism  spectroscope.  Further 
prisms  may  be  added  to  increase  the 
dispersion,  and  as  many  as  11  have 
been  used,  but  it  is  more  usual  to  em- 
ploy half  the  total  number,  and  hav- 
ing sent  the  rays  once  through  their 
lower  portion,  to  reflect  them  back 
again  through  the  upper  ends,  thus 
using  each  prism  twice. 

One  of  the  largest  spectroscopes  in 
the  world  was  completed  in  1899  by 
Prof.  John  A.  Brashear,  an  astrono- 
mer of  Allegheny,  Pa.,  for  Dr.  Hans 
Hauswaldt,  a  scientist  of  Magdeburg, 
Germany.  This  powerful  concave  grat- 
ing instrument  is  21  feet  long  and  re- 
quires a  room  about  25  feet 
square  in  which  to  operate  it. 
The  grating  used  on  the  spec- 
troscope has  a  six-inch  aperture 
and  is  ruled  with  110,000  lines.  So 
accurately  are  these  lines  ruled  that 
none  of  them  varies  more  than 
3-1,000,000  of  an  inch  from  the  cor- 
rect position ;  and  so  powerful  is  the 
instrument  that  whereas  an  ordinary 
spectroscope  would  show  from  100  to 
200  lines  belonging  to  the  spectrum  of 
iron,  this  apparatus  will  reveal  more 
than  2,000. 

Spectrum,  in  optics,  the  colored 
image  or  images  produced  when  the 
rays  from  any  source  of  light  are  de- 
composed or  dispersed  by  refraction 
through  a  prism. 

Spectrum  Analysis,  in  physics 
and  chemistry,  the  determination  of 
the  chemical  composition,  the  physic- 
al condition,  or  both,  of  any  body  of 
the  spectrum  of  the  light  which  it 
emits  or  suffers  to  pass  through  it, 
under   certain    conditions.      For   such 

E.  142. 


determinations  an  instrument  is  used 
called  the  spectroscope,  which  employs 
the  light  passing  through  a  very  nar- 
row slit,  and,  by  using  more  prisms 
than  one,  disperses  or  separates  the 
colors  a  great  deal  more  than  one 
prism  alone   can  do. 

Speech,  spoken  language;  uttered 
sounds  intended  to  convey  meaning, 
and  produced  by  the  organs  of  voice, 
namely,  the  larynx,  and  the  mouth  and 
its  parts,  including  the  tongue  and 
teeth.  In  speech  two  great  classes 
of  sounds  are  produced,  these  being 
usually  known  as  vowels  and  conso- 
nants. Vowels  are  pronounced  by 
sounds  coming  primarily  from  the 
larynx  and  passing  with  comparative 
freedom  through  the  mouth  cavity, 
though  modified  in  certain  ways ;  while 
consonants  are  formed  by  sounds 
caused  by  the  greater  or  less  interrup- 
tion of  the  current  of  air  from  the 
larynx  in  the  mouth.  A  single  sound 
may  convey  an  idea  of  itself  and  thus 
form  a  word,  or  several  may  be  com- 
bined to  form  a  word,  and  if  the  word 
is  uttered  by  several  distinct  succes- 
sive changes  in  position  of  the  vocal 
organs  it  is  a  word  of  so  many  syl- 
lables. Words,  again,  are  combined  to 
form  sentences  or  complete  state- 
ments, and  the  aggregate  of  words 
used  by  any  people  or  community  in 
mutual  intercourse  forms  its  lan- 
guage. 

Speed,  James,  an  American  law- 
yer ;  born  in  Jefferson  co.,  Ky.,  March 
11,  1812.  The  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  found  Judge  Speed  an  uncom- 
promising Union  man,  and  he  took 
charge  of  the  recruiting  stations  in 
Kentucky.  He  was  a  brother  of 
Joshua  F.  Speed,  the  friend  of  Abra- 
ham Lincoln,  and  it  was  probably 
through  this  acquaintance  with  his 
brother  that  Lincoln  came  to  select 
Speed  for  a  place  in  his  cabinet, 
though  he  had  previously  gained  dis- 
tinction as  a  lawyer  and  professor  in 
the  Law  School  of  Transylvania  Uni- 
versity at  Lexington.  Speed  was  ap- 
pointed Attorney-General  in  Novem- 
ber, 1864,  and  was  retained  in  the 
office  by  President  Johnson  after  the 
assassination  of  Mr.  Lincoln  till  July, 
18G6,  when  he  resigned.  He  died  June 
25,  1887. 

Speed,  Jolin  Gilmer,  an  Amer- 
ican   journalist;    born   in    Kentucky, 


Spelling  Reform 


Spenser 


Sept.  21,  1853;  was  graduated  at  the 
Uuiversity  of  Louisville  in  1869;  be- 
came an  engineer;  joined  the  staff  of 
the  New  York  "World"  in  1877; 
was  managing  editor  in  1879-1883; 
traveled  abroad  in  1883-1888;  and  was 
editor  of  the  "American  Magazine " 
in  1889,  and  of  "  Leslie's  Weekly  "  in 
189(r-lS9S.     Died  in  1909. 

Spelling  Reform,  an  attempt  to 
simplify  the  present  form  of  spelling 
certain  words,  advocated  by  several 
learned  societies  in  the  United  States, 
England,  and  Canada,  and  especially 
promoted  by  the  American  Spelling 
Reform  Association.  In  1884  the  lat- 
ter body  published  a  set  of  rules  on 
which  it  based  its  proposed  reform, 
and  in  1900  Andrew  Carnegie  pro- 
vided funds  for  the  organization  and 
work  of  a  Simplitied  (Spelling  Board, 
composed  of  prominent  scholars  and 
business  specialists.  P'rom  time  to 
time  this  Board  has  published  its  rec- 
ommendations for  changes,  which  now 
amount  to  over  300. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  an  English 
philosopher ;  born  at  Derby,  1820 ; 
educated  by  his  father,  a  teacher  of 
mathematics,  and  his  uncle,  a  clergy- 
man ;  was  apprenticed  as  a  civil  en- 
gineer, and  worked  several  years  on 
railways ;  contributed  several  profes- 
sional papers  to  the  Civil  Engineers' 
and  Architects'  Journal,  besides  a 
series  of  letters  in  1842,  on  the  Proper 
Sphere  of  Government,  to  the  Non- 
conformist ;  became  in  1848  sub-editor 
to  the  Economist ;  published  Social 
Statics,  and  Principles  of  Psy- 
chology. About  the  year  1859  he  pro- 
jected his  scheme  of  philosophy,  based 
on  the  principle  of  evolution  in  its  re- 
lation to  life,  mind,  society,  and 
morals.  This  great  scheme  he  com- 
pleted before  his  death.  It  comprises : 
"  First  Principles,"  one  vol. ;  "  Prin- 
ciples of  Biology,"  two  vols. ;  "  Prin- 
ciples of  Psychology,"  two  vols. ;  "  Cer- 
emonial Institutions,"  "  Political  In- 
stitutions," "  Ecclesiastical  Institu- 
tions," in  "  Principles  of  Sociology," 
and  "  Principles  of  Ethics."  Ilis  other 
works  include  "Education :"  "  Es- 
says :  Scientific,  Political,  and  Specu- 
lative ;"  "  Classification  of  the  Sci- 
ences;" "The  Study  of  Sociology;" 
**  Data  of  Ethics ;"  and  "  Man  versus 
the  State."  Besides  his  own  work  he 
published  eight  parts  of  an  elaborate 


"  Descriptive  Sociology,"  compiled  by 
other  writers,  but  classified  and  ar- 
ranged by  himself.  Spencer  will  not 
be  forgotten  for  a  style  distinguished 
by  unity  and  great  lucidity.  He  died 
Dec.  8,  1903. 

Spencer,  Jesse  Ames,  an  Amer* 
ican  educator ;  born  in  Hyde  Park,  N. 
Y.,  June  17,  1816 ;  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Greek  in  the  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York  in  1869,  and  was 
the  author  of  "  History  of  the  United 
States,"  etc.    Died  in  1898. 

Spencer,  Piatt  Rogers,  an  Amer- 
ican penman ;  born  in  East  Fishkill, 
N.  Y.,  Nov.  7,  1800;  taught  his  first 
writing  class  in  1815;  was  employed 
as  a  clerk  and  bookkeeper  in  1816^ 
1821;  studied  law  in  1821-1824;  and 
subsequently  taught  in  the  common 
schools.  Later  he  was  county  treas- 
urer for  12  years,  and  in  1848  pub- 
lished a  system  of  penmanship  under 
the  title  "  Spencer  and  Rice's  System 
of  Business  and  Ladies'  Penmanship," 
which  was  followed  by  his  "  Spencer- 
ian,  or  Semi-Angular  Pennmanship." 
Through  his  work  and  influence  as  a 
teacher  he  was  instrumental  in  found* 
ing  "  business  colleges  "  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  promoting  their  growth 
and  development.  He  died  in  Geneva, 
O.,  May  16,  1804. 

Spencer,  'William  Loring  (be* 
cause  of  her  masculine  name  called 
"The  Major"),  an  American  author, 
second  wife  of  Gen.  George  E.  Spen- 
cer; born  in  St.  Augustine,  Fla.  She 
wrote :  "  Salt  Lake  Fruit,"  "  Story  of 
Mary,"  etc. 

Spenser,  Edmnnd,  an  English 
poet;  born  in  London,  England,  prob- 
ably in  the  year  1552.  He  entered  as 
a  sizar  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge, 
in  1569,  became  B.  A.  in  1573,  and 
M.  A.  in  1576.  In  1569  appeared  a 
book  "  devised "  by  S.  John  Vander 
Noodt,  the  title  of  which  begins,  "  A 
Theater  wherein  he  represented  as  well 
the  Miseries  and  Calamities  that  fol* 
low  the  Voluptuous  Worldlings,  as  also 
the  greate  joyes  and  Pleasures  which 
the  Faithfull  do  enjoy."  This  volume 
was  prefaced  by  the  first  six  of  "  Pe- 
trarch's Visions "  done  into  verse 
styled  "  Epigrams,"  and  15  "  Sonnets," 
which  were  published  subsequently 
among  Spenser's  works,  in  which  pub- 
lications they  are  said  to  have  beea 
"  formerly  translate(?  " 


Spermaceti 

In  1589  he  was  visited  by  Raleigh  at 
Kilcolman  Castle,  Cork  county,  where 
bis  friends  obtained  for  bim  from 
Queen  Elizabeth  3,028  acres  of  land, 
the  grant,  which  is  extant,  being  dated 
Oct.  26,  1591.  The  "  Faerie  Queene  " 
was  already  begun  in  1580,  and  three 
books  were  finished  by  the  close  of 
the  year  1589.  Raleigh  was  so  much 
delighted  with  what  Spenser  showed 
him  of  his  poem,  that  he  carried  him 
over  to  England,  where  it  was  printed. 
Spenser  was  also  introduced  to  Eliza- 
beth, who,  a  year  after  the  publiaation 
of  the  "  Faerie  Queene  "  (1590) ,  made 
him  virtually  her  laureate  with  a 
■  pension  of  $250  a  year.  In  the  same 
year  he  returned  to  Ireland,  and  no 
sooner  was  his  back  turned  on  Lon- 
don than  the  publisher  of  the  "  Faerie 
Queene "  gathered  all  scraps  of  his 
minor  poems  together  and  published 
them  in  a  volume  entitled  "  Com- 
plaints," which  include  "  The  Ruines 
of  Time,"  "  The  Teares  of  the  Muses," 
"  Vergil's  Gnat,"  "  Mother  Hubbard's 
Tale,"  "  The  Ruines  of  Rome  by  Bel- 
lay,"  "  Muiopotomos,  or  the  Tale  of 
the  Butterflie,"  "Visions  of  the 
World's  Vanitie,"  "  Bellayes,"  and 
**  Petrarches  Visions." 

In  1592  he  married  a  lady  named 
Elizabeth,  to  whom  his  "  Amoretti," 
or  "Sonnets"  (1595),  are  addressed, 
and  who  is  celebrated  in  his  "  Epitha- 
lamium,"  "  the  most  perfect  of  all  his 
poems,  the  most  beautiful  of  all  bridal 
songs."  At  the  same  time  as  the 
"  Amoretti  "  appeared  "  Colin  Clout 
comes  Home  Againe  " ;  and  probably 
at  the  close  of  the  same  year  Spenser 
returned  to  England  to  superintend  the 
publication  of  books  IV.-VI.  of  the 
*'  Faerie  Queene."  During  his  stay  in 
England  he  wrote  the  "  Hymns  to 
Heavenly  Love  and  Heavenly  Beauty  " 
and  the  "  Prothalamium,"  his  last 
works.  In  1597  he  returned  to  his 
quiet  life  at  Kilcolman,  but  in  the  next 
year  Tyrone's  rebellion  forced  him  to 
flee,  for  he  represented  the  government 
as  clerk  of  the  council  of  Munster, 
and  was  sheriff-designate  of  Cork.  His 
house  was  burnt,  and  a  child  perished 
in  the  flames,  according  to  a  state- 
ment made  by  Ben  Jonson  to  Drum- 
Inond  of  Hawthornden.  Spenser  reached 
England  brokenhearted,  and  died,  Jan. 
16,  1599,  in  a  tavern  in  King  street, 
Westminster,  "  for  lack  of  bread,"  as 


I       SplLagnnxsi 

Jonson  told  Drummond.  This,  how- 
ever, must  have  been  an  exaggeration, 
for  though  Spenser  returned  "  inops," 
according  to  Camden,  he  was  still  in 
receipt  of  a  pension,  and  must  still 
have  had  influential  friends.  He  was 
buried  near  Chaucer  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 

Spermaceti,  a  neutral,  inodorous, 
and  nearly  tasteless,  fatty  substance, 
extracted  from  the  oily  matter  of  the 
head  of  the  sperm  whale  by  filtration 
and  treatment  with  potash-lye.  Sper- 
maceti was  formerly  given  as  a  medi- 
cine ;  now  it  is  chiefly  employed  ex- 
ternally as  an  emollient  and  in  the 
preparation  of  a  blistering  paper. 

Spermatozoa,  the  microscopic  aifi- 
malcule-like  bodies  developed  in  the 
semen  of  animals,  each  consisting  of  a 
body  and  a  vibratile  filamentary  tail, 
exhibiting  active  movements  compar- 
able to  those  of  the  ciliated  zoospores 
of  the  algae,  or  the  ciliated  epithelial 
cells  of  animals.  Spermatozoa  are  es- 
sential to  impregnation. 

Sperm  Oil,  the  oil  of  the  sperma- 
ceti whale,  which  is  separated  from 
the  spermaceti  and  the  blubber.  This 
kind  of  oil  is  much  purer  than  train 
oil,  and  burns  away  without  leaving 
any  charcoal  on  the  wicks  of  lamps. 
In  composition  it  differs  but  slightly 
from  common  whale  oil. 

Spezia,  a  seaport  town  in  Italy; 
50  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Genoa,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Spezia,  which  here  forms  an 
admirable  harbor.  It  is  a  great  Ital- 
ian naval  station,  and  has  a  marine 
arsenal,  cannon-foundries,  various 
yards,  docks,  and  basins,  and  is  de- 
fended by  two  forts.    Pop.  65,612. 

Splisernlaria,  a  nematode  or 
round  parasitic  worm  existing  in  cer- 
tain species  of  bees.  The  female  is 
nearly  an  inch  in  length,  and  consists 
of  little  else  than  a  mass  of  fatty 
tissue  with  reproductive  organs,  nei- 
ther mouth,  (Esophagus,  intestine,  nor 
anus  being  present.  The  male  is  only 
about  the  28,000th  part  the  size  of  the 
female. 

Sphagnnm,  a  genus  of  mosses, 
widely  diffused  over  the  earth  in  tem- 
perate climates,  readily  recognized  by 
their  pale  tint,  fasciculate  branchlets, 
and  apparently  sessile  globose  capsules. 
They  are  aquatic  plants,  and  consti- 
tute the  great  mass  of  our  bogs  iQ 
swampy  and  moory  districts. 


Speyer 

Speyer,  James,  banker,  head  of 
the  Wall  Street  firm  of  Speyer  and 
Company,  one  of  the  leading  banking 
houses  of  the  nation,  largely  interested 
in  civic  and  industrial  enterprises. 
Within  a  quarter  of  a  century  the  firm 
floated  a  multitude  of  loans  involving 
millions  of  dollars  in  city  bond  issues. 
A  graduate  of  Columbia  Univ.,  Mr. 
Speyer  came  into  international  promi- 
nence in  1905  by  the  generous  gift  of 
an  endowment  fund  vested  in  the 
guardianship  of  the  trustees  of  his 
alma  mater  to  establish  the  "  Tlieodore 
Roosevelt  professorship  of  American 
history  and  institutions  "  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin,  a  courtesy  recipro- 
cated by  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
See  Burgess,  J.  W. ;  Hadley,  A.  T. 

Sphegidse,  or  Sphecidse,  a  family 
of  hymenopterous  insects,  winged  in 
both  sexes,  and  much  resembling  bees 
or  wasps  in  general  appearance.  They 
are  solitary  in  their  habits.  Many  of 
them  burrow  in  sand  and  are  known  as 
sand  wasps. 

Sphenodon,  a  peculiar  genus  of 
lizards,  regarded  as  forming  a  family 
by  itself.  The  only  known  species  is  a 
native  of  New  Zealand,  and  though 
once  abundant  is  now  being  rapidly 
thinned.  Of  late  it  has  become  the 
favorite  food  of  the  pig  and  is  eaten 
by  man.  It  frequents  rocky  islets, 
living  in  holes  in  the  sand  or  among 
stones.       4» 

Sphenopteris,  a  genus  of  ferns, 
having  the  leaves  twice  or  thrice-pin- 
nate; the  leaflets  not  adhering  to  the 
rachis  by  their  whole  base,  but  resem- 
bling small  wedges  reversed,  the  nerv- 
ures  dividing  pinnately  from  the  base. 
From  the  Devonian  to  the  Wealden. 
In  the  Carboniferous  rocks  there  are 
34  species,  and  in  the  Jurassic  17. 

Sphere,  in  astronomy,  a  term 
formerly  applied  to  any  one  of  the 
concentric  and  eccentric  revolving 
transparent  shells  in  which  the  heav- 
enly bodies  were  supposed  to  be  fixed, 
and  by  which  they  were  carried  so  as 
to  produce  their  apparent  motions.  The 
word  now  signifies  the  vault  of  heav- 
en, which  to  the  eye  seems  the  concave 
side  of  a  hollow  sphere,  and  on  which 
the  imaginary  circles  marking  the  po- 
sitions of  the  equator,  the  ecliptic,  etc., 
are  supposed  to  be  drawn.  It  is  that 
portion  of  limitless  space  which  the 
eye  is  powerful  enough  to  penetrate, 


Sphinx 

and  appears  a  hollow  sphere  because 
the  capacity  of  the  eye  for  distant  vis- 
ion is  equal  in  every  direction. 

In  geometry,  a  solid  or  volume^ 
bounded  by  a  surface,  every  point  of 
which  is  equally  distant  from  s  -^oint 
within,,  called  the  center.  Or  iv  is  a 
volume  that  may  be  generated  by  re- 
volving a  semicircle  about  its  diameter 
as  an  axis. 

In  logic,  the  extension  of  a  general 
conception ;  the  individuals  and  species 
comprised  in  any  general  conception. 
The  doctrine  of  the  sphere  is  the  ap- 
plication of  geometrical  principles  to 
geography  and  astronomy.  An  oblique 
sphere,  or  spherical  projection,  is  the 
projection  made  on  the  plane  of  the 
horizon  of  any  place  not  on  the  equator 
or  at  the  poles. 

Sphez,  a  genus  of  hymenopterous 
insects,  closely  allied  to  the  true  wasps. 
The  sphex  wasps  are  solitary  in  habit, 
and  there  are  no  workers  as  in  the  so- 
cial forms.  The  female  hollows  out,  at 
the  end  of  a  long  passage,  three  or  four 
chambers,  in  each  of  which  she  deposits 
an  egg  and  a  store  of  food  for  the  lar- 
va she  will  never  see.  The  food  con- 
sists of  grasshoppers  or  other  insects. 
Four  paralyzed  insects  are  placed  in 
each  chamber,  which  is  sealed  up  as  it 
is  finished.  When  all  are  full  the 
mouth  of  the  passage  is  also  closed, 
and  the  nest  is  abandoned. 

Sphincter,  in  anatomy,  a  name  ap- 
plied generally  to  a  kind  of  circular 
muscles,  or  muscles  in  rings,  which 
serve  to  close  the  external  orifices  of 
organs,  as  the  sphincter  of  the  mouth, 
of  the  eyes,  etc.,  and  more  particular- 
ly to  those  among  them  which,  like 
the  sphincter  of  the  anus,  have  the 
peculiarity  of  being  in  a  state  of  per- 
manent contraction,  independently  of 
the  will,  and  of  relaxing  only  when  it 
is  required  that  the  contents  of -the  or- 
gans which  they  close  should  be  evac- 
uated. 

Sphingidse,  the  hawk  moth  family 
comprising  the  most  robust  and  pow- 
erful insects  in  the  order,  and  gener- 
ally distinguished  by  their  strength  of 
flight  and  large  size. 

Sphinx,  a  Greek  word  signifying 
"  strangler,"  applied  to  certain  sym- 
bolical forms  of  Egyptian  origin,  hav- 
ing the  body  of  a  lion,  a  human  or  an 
animal  head,  and  two  wings.  Various 
other   combinations   of   animal    forms 


Sphinx  Baboon 


Spider 


have  been  called  by  this  name,  though 
they  are  rather  grilhus  or  chimseras. 
Human-headed  sphinxes  have  been 
called  andro-sphiuxes ;  that  with  the 
head  of  a  ram,  a  criosphinx ;  and  that 
with  a  hawk's  head,  a  hieracosphinx. 
The  form  when  complete  had  the 
wings  added  at  the  sides ;  but  these 
are  of  a  later  period  and  seem  to  have 
originated  \\ith  the  Babylonians  or 
Assyrians.  In  Egypt  the  sphinx  also 
occurs  as  the  symbolical  form  of  the 
monarch  considered  as  a  conqueror, 
the  head  of  the  reigning  king  being 
placed  on  a  lion's  body,  the  face 
bearded,  and  the  usual  head  dress. 
Thus  used,  the  sphinx  was  generally 
male ;  but  in  the  case  of  female  rulers 
that  figure  has  a  female  head  and  the 
body  of  a  lioness. 

The  most  remarkable  sphinx  is  the 
Great  Sphinx  at  Gizeh  (Giza),  a  co- 
lossal form  hewn  out  of  the  natural 
rock,  and  lying  about  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  S.  E.  of  the  Great  Pyramid.  It 
is  sculptured  out  of  a  spur  of  the  rock 
itself,  to  which  masoni-y  has  been 
added  in  certain  places  to  complete 
the  shape,  and  it  measures  172  feet  6 
inches  long  by  56  feet  high. 


THE  SPHINX  NEAR  GIZEH. 

Sphinx  Baboon,  a  large  species 
from  the  West  of  Africa.  They  are 
good-tempered  and  playful  when 
young,  but  become  morose  and  fierce 
'  as  they  grow  older.  They  bear  con- 
finement well,  and  are  common  in  men- 
ageries. 

Sphinx  Moth,  a  species  of  moth 
deriving  its  popular  name  from  a  sup- 
posed resemblance  which  its  caterpil- 
lars present  when  they  raise  the  fore 
part  of  their  bodies  to  the  "  sphinx  " 
of  Egyptian  celebrity.  The  sphinx 
moth  is  common  in  some  parts  of  the 
United  States. 


Spica  Virginis,  or  Spica  Azi- 
meth,  in  astronomy,  a  star  of  the 
first  magnitude.  Alpha  Virginis,  in  the 
constellation  Virgo.  If  a  line  be 
drawn  through  two  opposite  angles  of 
the  rectangular  figure  in  the  Great 
Bear,  and  prolonged  with  a  slight 
curve,  it  will  pass  through  Spica  Vir- 
ginis. 

Spices,  aromatic  and  pungent  vege- 
table substauces  used  as  condiments 
and  for  flavoring  food.  They  are  al- 
most exclusively  the  productions  ot 
tropical  countries.  In  ancient  times 
and  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  all 
the  spices  known  in  Europe  were 
brought  from  the  East;  and  Arabia 
was  regarded  as  the  land  of  spices, 
but  rather  because  they  came  through 
it  or  were  brought  by  its  merchants 
than  because  they  were  produced  in  it, 
for  they  were  really  derived  from  far- 
ther E.  They  owe  their  aroma  and 
pungency  chiefly  to  essential  oils  which 
they  contain.  They  are  yielded  by 
different  parts  of  plants ;  some,  as  pep- 
per, cayenne  pepper,  pimento,  nutmeg, 
mace,  and  vanilla,  being  the  fruit  or 
particular  parts  of  the  fruit :  while 
some  as  ginger,  are  the  root  stock ;  and 
others,  as  cinnamon  and  cassia,  are 
the  bark.  Tropical  America  produces 
some  of  the  spices,  being  the  native 
region  of  cayenne  pepper,  pimento, 
and  vanilla;  but  the  greater  number 
are  from  the  East. 

Spider,  in  zoology,  the  popular 
name  of  any  individual  of  Huxley's 
Araneina.  The  species  are  very  nu- 
merous and  universally  distributed, 
the  largest  being  found  in  the  tropics. 
The  abdomen  is  without  distinct  divi- 
sions, and  is  generally  soft  and  tumid ; 
the  legs  are  eight  in  number,  seven- 
jointed,  the  last  joint  armed  vtith  two 
hooks  usually  toothed  like  a  comb. 
There  are  two  or  four  pulmonary  sacs 
and  a  tracheal  system ;  eyes  generally 
eight  in  number;  no  auditory  organs 
have  been  discovered;  Their  most 
characteristic  organ  is  the  arachni- 
dium,  the  apparatus  by  which  fine 
silky  threads  —  in  the  majority  of 
the  species  utilized  for  spinning  a  web 
—  are  produced.  In  i!he  common  gar- 
den spider,  more  than  1,000  glands, 
with  separate  excretory  ducts,  secrete 
the  viscid  material  of  the  web.  These 
ducts  ulitmately  enter  the  six  n-omi- 
nent  arachnidial  mammillae,  projecting 


Spider  Fly 

from  the  hinder  end  of  the  abdomen, 
and  having  their  terminal  faces  beset 
with  minute  arachnidial  papillae,  by 
which  the  secretion  of  the  gland  is 
poured  out. 

By  means  of  these  silky  threads, 
spiders  form  their  dwellings  and  con- 
struct ingenious  nets  for  the  capture 
of  their  prey ;  these  threads  serve  also 
as  a  safeguard  against  falling,  and  as 
a  means  of  support  from  one  elevated 
object  to  another,  being  thrown  out  as 
a  sort  of  flying  bridge.  The  webs  are 
in  high  repute  for  stanching  blood ; 
the  threads  are  employed  for  the  cross 
lines  in  astronomical  telescopes,  and 
have  been  made  into  textile  fabrics  as 
articles  of  curiosity.  Spiders  are  ex- 
tremely pugnacious,  and  in  their  com- 
bats often  sustain  the  loss  of  a  limb, 
which,  like  the  Crustaceans,  they  have 
the  power  of  reproducing.  The  males 
are  smaller  than  the  females,  which 
they  approach  with  great  caution,  as 
they  run  great  risk  of  being  devoured, 
even  at  the  time  of  impregnation. 
The  eggs  are  numerous,  and  usually 
enveloped  in  a  cocoon  or  egg  case ; 
the  young  undergo  no  metamorphosis. 


SPIDER  FLY. 

Spider  Fly,  a  genus  of  dipterous 
insects,  chiefly  allied  to  the  forest  fly. 
The  insects  art  paiasitical  on  birds, 
never  on  quadrupeds.  One  species 
frequently  infests  the  common  fowl, 
the  black-cock,  and  other  birds.  It  is 
greenish-yello\^',  with  smoke-colored 
wings. 

Spider  Monkey,  a  general  name 
applied  to  many  species  of  platyrhine 
or  New  World  monkeys,  distinguished 
by  the  great  relative  length,  slender- 
ness,  and  flexibility  of  their  limbs, 
and  by  the  prehensile  power  of  their 
tails.     A.  familiar  species  is  the  cha- 


Spiking 

meek,  which  occurs  abundantly  in 
Brazil.  The  body  is  about  20  inches, 
the  tail  2  feet  long,  and  the  color  is  a 
general  black.  The  coaita,  another 
typical  species,  has  an  average  length 
of  12  inches ;  the  tail  measures  over  2 
feet  long,  and  the  fur  is  of  a  glossy 
black  hue. 


SPIDEB  MONKEY. 

Spike,  in  botany,  that  kind  of  in- 
florescence in  which  sessile  flowers,  or 
flowers  having  very  short  stocks,  are 
arranged  around  an  axis,  as  in  the 
greater  plantain,  common  vervain, 
common  lavender,  and  some  species  of 
sedge.  In  rye,  wheat,  barley,  darnel, 
and  many  other  grasses  there  is  a  sort 
of  compound  spike  —  i.  e.,  the  flow- 
ers or  fruits  are  arranged  together  in 
spikelets  on  short  stalks,  which  again 
surround  the  top  of  the  culm  in  the 
form  of  a  spike.  The  catkin,  the  spa- 
dix,  and  the  cone  may  be  regarded  as 
varieties  of  the  spike. 

Spiking,  the  operation  of  quickly 
rendering  a  muzzle-loading  gun  use- 
less, resorted  to  by  troops  compelled 
to  abandon  their  own  pieces  or  unable 
to  remove  those  of  the  enemy  which 
they  have  captured.  The  process  con- 
sists in  driving  a  cast  iron  spike  into 
the  vent  or  touch  hole  and  then  break- 
ing it  off  short  with  a  hammer.  A 
spiking  party  of  artillerymen  always 
accompanied  a  storming  party.  To 
render  a  spiked  gun  again  serviceable 
it  was  generally  necessary  to  drill  a 
fresh  vent.  Breech  loading  guns  are 
best   rendered    temporarily    unservice- 


Spimach 


Spinning  Jenny 


able  by  removing  part  of  the  breech 
mechanism. 

Spinach,  or  Spinage,  a  whole- 
some though  somewhat  insipid  vege- 
table. It  is  a  native  of  Siberia.  The 
fleshy  leaves  are  somewhat  triangular 
in  outline,  deep  green  in  color,  and 
for  table  are  generally  served  boiled 
and  chopped,  or  as  an  ingredient  in 
soups  and  stews. 

Spinal  Cord,  the  name  given  in 
anatomy  to  the  great  cord  or  rod  of 
nervous  matter  which  is  inclosed  with- 
in the  backbone  or  spine  of  verte- 
brates. The  spinal  cord  in  man, 
which  is  from  15  to  18  inches  long, 
has  direct  connection  with  the  brain 
by  means  of  the  medulla  oblongata, 
and  passes  down  the  back  till  it 
terminates  in  a  line  thread  at  the  level 
of  the  first  lumbar  vertebra.  Lodged 
in  the  bony  vertebrae  it  varies  in  thick- 
ness throughout,  and  like  the  brain  is 
invested  by  membranes  called  re- 
spectively pia  mater  and  dura  mater. 
Situated  between  these  two  are  the 
delicate  layers  of  the  arachnoid  mem- 
brane, inclosing  a  space  which  con- 
tains the  cerebro-spinal  fluid.  Besides 
these  protective  coverings  there  is  also 
a  packing  of  fatty  tissue  which  fur- 
ther tends  to  diminish  all  shocks  and 
jars.  The  spinal  nerves,  to  the  num- 
ber of  31  on  each  side,  pass  out  from 
the  cord  at  regular  intervals,  pierce 
the  dura  mater,  escape  from  the  back- 
bone, and  ramify  thence  through  the 
soft  parts  of  the  body.  In  its  func- 
tions the  spinal  cord  forms  a  tract 
along  which  sensory  impressions  may 
pass  to  the  brain,  and  along  which 
motor  impulses  may  travel  to  the 
muscles.  It  is  besides  a  great  reflex 
center. 

Spinal  Nerves,  the  name  applied 
to  the  paired  nerves  which  arise  from 
the  spinal  cord,  and  which  are  distrib- 
uted to  the  various  parts  of  the  body. 
The  spinal  nerves  are  so  named  in- 
contradistinction  to  the  cranial  nerves, 
or  those  which  originate  from  the 
brain  itself.  Thirty-one  pairs  of 
spinal  nerves  arise  from  the  spinal 
cord  of  man.  They  pass  from  the 
spinal  cord  and  spine  through  the  in- 
tervertebral foramina,  or  openings  be- 
tween the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae. 

Spine,  the  term  applied  to  the  back- 
bone of  a  vertebrated  animal,  and  so 
called  from  the  thorn-like  processes  of 


the  vertebrae.  The  human  vertebral 
column  is  composed,  in  the  child,  of 
33  separate  pieces,  but  in  the  adult 
the  number  is  only  26,  several  pieces 
having  become  blended  together.  These 
separate  bones  are  arranged  one  on 
the  top  of  the  other,  with  a  layer  of 
gristle  between,  which  helps  to  unite 
them,  while  this  union  is  completed 
by  partially  movable  joints  and  strong 
fibrous  ligaments. 

Spine,  in  botany,  a  sharp  process 
from  the  woody  part  of  a  plant.  It 
differs  from  a  prickle,  which  proceeds 
from  the  bark.  A  spine  sometimes 
terminates  a  branch,  and  sometimes  is 
axillary,  growing  at  an  angle  formed 
by  the  branch  or  leaf  with  the  stem. 
The  wild  apple  and  pear  are  armed 
with  spines ;  the  rose,  bramble,  goose- 
berry, etc.,  are  armed  with  prickles. 
The  term  is  applied  in  zoology  to  a 
stout,  rigid,  and  pointed  process  of 
the  integument  of  an  animal,  formed 
externally  by  the  epidermis  and  inter- 
nally of  a  portion  of  the  cutis  or  cor- 
responding structure. 

Spinet,  in  music,  a  musical  stringed 
instrument  resembling  the  harpsi- 
chord, and,  like  that  instrument,  now 
superseded  by  the  pianoforte.  Each 
note  had  but  one  string,  which  was 
struck  by  a  quilled  jack  acted  on  by 
one  of  the  finger  keys.  The  strings 
were  placed  horizontally,  and  nearly 
at  right  angles  to  the  keys ;  and  the 
general  outline  of  the  instrument  re- 
sembled that  of  a  harp  laid  in  a  hori- 
zontal position,  on  which  account  the 
spinet,  when  first  introduced,  fwas 
called  the  couched  harp. 

Spinner,  Francis  Ellas,  an 
American  financier ;  born  in  Mohawk, 
N.  Y.,  Jan.  21.  1802;  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1854  as  an  Anti-slavery 
Democrat,  being  twice  reelected,  serv- 
ing till  1861 ;  from  1861-1875  he  was 
United  States  Treasurer,  and  handled 
the  immense  receipts  and  disburse- 
ments of  the  Civil  War  without  the 
loss  of  a  cent  of  the  nation's  money. 
Died,  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  Dec.  31,  1896. 

Spinning,  the  art  of  combining  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  fibers  into  contin- 
uous threads  fit  for  the  process  of 
weaving,   sewing,   or   ropemaking. 

Spinning  Jenny,  the  name  given 
by  James  Hargreaves  to  the  spinning 
machine    invented    by    him    in    1767. 


Spinoxa 

Spinoza,  Bamcli,   or  Benedict, 

B  celebrated  Dutch-Hebrew  philoso- 
pher; born  in  Amsterdam,  Nov.  24, 
1632;  died  Feb.  21,  1677.  Carefully 
educated  as  a  Hebrew,  he  aroused  not 
only  the  antagonism  of  his  race,  which 
excommunicated  him,  but  also  that  of 
the  Catholics,  by  his  advanced,  liberal 
thought,  and  plea  for  liberty  of  speech 
in  philosophy.  He  led  a  life  of  isola- 
tion, and  ceased  printing  his  works,  of 
which  a  complete  edition  was  published 
in  Amsterdam  after  his  death.  The  cen- 
tral conception  of  his  system  of  phil- 
osophy is,  that  God,  who  is  the  in- 
herent cause  of  the  universe,  is  one 
absolutely  infinite  substance,  of  which 
all  the  several  parts  which  we  recog- 
nize are  but  finite  expressions;  that 
man,  being  but  a  part  of  this  greater 
whole,  has  neither  a  separate  existence 
nor  a  self-determining  will ;  but  that 
he  can,  by  knowledge  and  love,  so  far 
control  his  passions  as  to  enter  into 
the  joy  which  springs  from  this  idea 
of  an  all-embracing  God. 

Spirit,  an  immaterial  intelligent 
substance  or  being;  vital  or  active 
principle,  essence,  force,  or  energy,  as 
distinct  from  matter;  life  or  living 
substance  considered  apart  from  ma- 
terial or  corporeal  existence ;  as,  the 
soul  of  mau,  as  distinguished  from  the 
body  wherein  it  dwells.  Hence,  a 
ghost ;  a  specter ;  a  supernatural  ap* 
paiition  or  manifestation;  also,  some- 
times, an  elf;  a  fay;  a  sprite.  Also, 
real  meaning;  intent;  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  letter  or  to  formal 
statement;  and  characteristic  quality, 
particularly  such  as  is  derived  from 
the  individual  genius  or  the  personal 
{Character;  as,  tue  spirit  of  the  law. 

In  chemistry,  a  name  generally  ap- 
plied to  fluids,  mostly  of  a  lighter 
specific  character  than  water,  and  ob- 
tained by  distillation.  But  in  a  strict- 
er sense  the  term  spirit  is  understood 
to  mean  alcohol  in  its  potable  condi- 
tion, of  which  there  are  very  numer- 
ous varieties  deriving  their  special 
characters  from  the  substances  used 
in  their  production,  as  brandy,  rum, 
whisky,  gin,  arrack,  etc. 

In    theology,    the    Spirit,    or   Holy  i 
Bpint,  the  Holy  Ghost ;  the  Spirit  of  j 
God,  or  the  third  person  of  the  Trin- 
ity.    The  spirit  also  denotes  the  hu- 
man spirit  as  animated  by  the  Divine 
epirit.  1 


Spiritualism  ^ 

Spirit  Level,  an  instrument  used 
for  determining  a  line  or  plane  paral- 
lel to  the  horizon,  and  also  the  rela- 
tive  heights  of  two  or  more  stations. 
It  consists  of  a  glass  tube  nearly  filled 
with  alcohol,  preferably  colored.  The 
remaining  space  in  the  tube  is  a  bub- 
ble of  air,  and  this  occupies  a  position 
exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  tube  when 
the  latter  is  perfectly  horizontal.  The 
tube  is  mounted  on  a  wooden  bar, 
which  is  laid  on  a  beam  or  other  ob- 
ject to  be  tested ;  or  it  is  mounted  on 
a  telescope  or  theodolite,  and  forma 
the  means  of  bringing  these  instru- 
ments to  a  level,  the  slightest  devia- 
tion from  the  horizontal  position  being 
indicated  by  the  bubble  rising  toward 
the  higher  end  of  the  tube.  Spirit 
level  quadrant,  an  instrument  fur- 
nished with  a  spirit  level  and  used  foB 
taking  altitudes. 

Spiritualism,  the  term  used  in 
philosophy  to  indicate  the  opposite  of 
materialism,  and  the  belief  in  the  ex- 
istence and  life  of  the  spirit  apart 
from,  and  independent  of,  the  material 
organism,  and  in  the  reality  and  value 
of^  intelligent  intercourse  between 
spirits  embodied  and  spirits  disembod- 
ied. The  belief  in  spirit  manifesta- 
tions has  long  obtained,  but  in  its  lim- 
ited and  modern  form  spiritualism 
dates  from  the  Fox  sisters  in  1848. 
In  this  year  a  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Fox,  who 
lived  with  their  two  daughters  at 
Hydeville,  N.  Y.,  were  disturbed  by 
repeated  and  inexplicable  rappinga 
throughout  the  house.  At  length  it 
was  accidentally  discovered  by  one  of 
the  daughters  that  the  unseen  "  rap- 
per" was  so  intelligent  as  to  be  able 
to  reply  to  various  pertinent  ques- 
tions, and  so  communicative  as  to  de- 
clare that  he  was  the  spirit  of  a  mur- 
dered peddler.  When  this  discovery 
was  noised  abroad  a  belief  that  inter- 
course could  be  obtained  with  the 
spirit  world  became  epidemic,  and 
numerous  "  spirit  circles "  were 
formed  in  various  parts  of  America. 
The  manifestations  thus  said  to  be  re- 
ceived from  the  spirit  were  rappings, 
table  turnings,  musical  sounds,  writ- 
ings, the  unseen  raising  of  heavy  bod- 
ies, and  the  like.  These  lower  man!'* 
festatlons  of  spiritualism  are  said  to 
be  given  to  the  nonbeliever  as  evi- 
dence that  the  facts  on  which  the 
spintualistic    beliefs    are    based  aro 


Spite 

realistic.  Part  of  the  peculiarity  of 
these  phenomena  was  that  they  were 
always  more  or  less  associated  with  a 
medium,  who  was  supposed  to  have  an 
organization,  sensitively  fitted  to  com- 
municate with  the  spirit  world.  Me- 
diums are  usually  persons  who  see 
visions  and  hear  voices,  and  show  evi- 
dence of  their  power  even  in  chiict- 
hood.  In  the  United  States,  the  be- 
lievers in  spiritualism  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  have  many  newspapers,  mag- 
azines, and  books  to  explain  and  en- 
force their  belief.     In  1884  the  Lon- 

'  don  Spiritualist  Alliance  was  founded, 
and  was  incorporated  in  1896.  The 
chief  work  of  the  society  has  been  to 
maintain  and  expound  the  principles 
of  spiritualism.  There  are  local  or- 
ganizations in  almost  all  towns  of  any 
importance.     The   belief   of   spiritual- 

/  ism  is  that  our  existence  in  this  world 
is  but  one  stage  in  an  endless  career ; 
that  the  whole  material  Tsorld  exists 
simply  for  the  development  of  spirit- 
ual beings,  death  being  but  a  transi- 
tion from  this  existence  to  the  first 
grade  of  spirit  life;  that  our  thoughts 
and  deeds  here  will  affeck  our  condi- 
tions later;  and  that  our  happiness 
and  progress  depend  wholly  on  the  use 
we  make  of  our  opportunities  and  fac- 
ulties in  this  plane.  Among  spirit- 
ualists are  found  persons  of  every  be- 
lief, from  the  Roman  Catholic  to  the 
Unitarian,  as  it  does  not  modify  the 
creeds  or  dogmas  of  any  sect.  In 
France  is  a  class  of  spiritualists  who 
believe  existence  of  the  soul  is  alter- 
nating spirit  life  and  reincarnation. 

Spitz,  or  Pomeranian  Dog,  the 
result  of  a  cross  from  the  Eskimo  dog, 
the  native  dog  of  the  Arctic  regions. 
The  spitz  is  about  the  size  of  the  span- 
iel, with  a  sharp-pointed  face  and  an 
abundant  white  coat  sometimes  of 
great  beauty.  Other  colors  are  known, 
including  black.  It  is  comparatively 
common  in  the  United  States. 

SpitzBergen,  a  group  of  three 
large  and  several  small  islands  in  the 
'Arctic  Ocean,  nearly  equidistant  be- 
tween Greenland  and  Nova  Zembla, 
the  largest  being  West  Spitzbergen 
and  Northeast  Land.  Very  little  is 
known  of  their  interior,  but  the  coasts 
have  been  repeatedly  explored,  and 
present  immense  glaciers  and  moun- 
tain   chains.      Spitzbergen    has    long 


Splint 

been  a  "  No  Man's  Land."  No  nation 
has  ever  established  sovereignty  over 
it.  Russia,  Norway,  and  Sweden 
claim  rights  there,  but  it  is  due 
wholly  to  American  capital  and  en- 
ergy that  the  great  natural  resources 
of  the  group  are  now  being  developed. 
In  1911  it  was  proposed  to  submit 
the  question  of  ownership  to  inter- 
national arbitration. 

Spleen,  one  of  the  abdominal  glands 
at  the  left  side  of  the  body,  close  to 
the  stomach  and  pancreas.  It  is 
somewhat  oval-shaped  and  concave  in- 
ternally, whei'e  it  is  divided  by  a  fis- 
sure named  the  ilium.  Here  blood- 
vessels enter  and  leave  the  organ,  and 
the  nerves  also  enter.  The  upper  ex- 
tremity of  the  spleen  is  thick;  the 
lower,  which  is  in  contact  ^sith  the 
colon,  is  more  pointed.  The  average 
length  of  the  spleen  is  5  inches,  ila 
breadth  3  or  4  inches,  and  its  thick- 
ness 1  or  ly^  inches.  Its  weight  is 
about  seven  ounces.  The  spleen  is  a 
meshwork  of  fibers  or  trabecule,  sup- 
porting a  soft  matter  named  the  spleen 
pulp.  Microscopically  examined,  the 
latter  is  found  to  consist  of  blood 
corpuscles  in  a  state  of  disintegration. 
The  spleen  substance  also  includes 
certain  small  round  bodies,  attached 
to  the  sheaths  of  the  blood-vessels  of 
the  spleen,  and  named  Malpighian  or 
splenic  corpuscles.  During  digestion 
the  spleen  increases  in  size,  but  under 
starvation  it  decreases,  and  the  Mal- 
pighian bodies  disappear.  This  organ 
may  be  excised  from  man  and  other 
animals  without  impairing  the  health, 
hence  we  may  conclude  that  its  func- 
tions are  capable  of  being  carried  on 
ijy  some  other  glands.  In  all  prob- 
ability the  spleen  is  one  of  the  blood 
glands,  of  which  the  thymus  and  thy- 
roid glands,  and  indeed  the  whole 
lymphatic  system,  are  examples.  In 
the  spleen  the  blood  corpuscles  under- 
go some  changes ;  possibly  the  organ 
may  be  the  seat  of  manufacture  or 
red  blood  corpuscles,  as  well  as  of 
their  final  disintegration. 

Splint,  or  Splent,  a  bony  enlarge- 
ment on  a  horse's  leg,  between  the 
knee  and  fetlock,  usually  appearing 
on  the  inside  of  one  or  both  fore  legs, 
frequently  situated  between  the  large 
and  small  cannon  bones,  depending  on 
concussion,  and  most  common  in  yonrg 


SpUnt 

horses  that  have  been  rattled  rapidly 
along  hard  roads  before  their  bones 
are  consolidated. 

Splint,  in  surgery,  a  mechanical 
contrivance  for  keeping  a  fractured 
limb  in  its  proper  position,  and  for 
preventing  any  motion  of  the  ends  of 
the  broken  bone ;  they  are  also  em- 
ployed for  securing  perfect  immobility 
of  the  parts  to  which  they  are  applied 
in  other  cases,  as  in  diseased  joints, 
after  resection  of  joints,  etc. 

Spofford,  Ains-trortli  Rand,  an 
American  librarian ;  born  in  Gilman- 
ton,  N.  H.,  Sept.  12,  1825.  He  was  a 
journalist  to  1861,  when  appointed 
chief  assistant  librarian  of  the  Con- 
gressional Library,  and  was  librarian 
in  18G4-1897,  when  he  became  again 
chief  assistant.  He  was  famed  for  a 
comprehensive  and  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  books  and  their  contents,  and 
besides  many  essays  and  articles  on 
historical,  literary,  and  scientific  sub- 
jects for  the  current  journals  pub- 
lished :  "  The  American  Almanac," 
for  several  years;  and,  with  others, 
edited  "  Library  of  Choice  Litera- 
ture," "  Library  of  Wit  and  Humor," 
etc.     He  died  Aug.  11,  1908. 

Spofford,  Harriet  Presvott,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Calais,  Me., 
April  3,  1835;  was  graduated  at  the 
Pinkerton  Academy  in  Derry,  N.  H., 
in  1852.  In  1859  she  published  "  In 
a  Cellar  "  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly." 
This  story  made  her  reputation,  and 
thereafter  she  became  a  contributor 
to  the  chief  periodicals  of  the  country. 
Her  "  New  England  Legends "  is 
popular. 

Spokane,  city  and  capital  of  Spo- 
kane county.  Wash.;  on  the  Spokane 
river,  which  here  has  three  deep  falls, 
and"  on  the  Great  Northern,  the 
Northern  I'acific,  and  other  railroads; 
544  miles  N.  E.  of  Portland,  Or.;  is 
the  mining  and  lumber  trade  center 
of  the  Pacific  Northwest;  has  excep- 
tional water-power  for  manufacturing 
and  other  purposes;  over  $10,000,000 
invested  in  manufacturing  plants, 
with  more  than  $15,000,000  in  valu^ 
of  annual  output;  assessed  property 
valuation  exceeding  $70,000,000;  is 
the  seat  of  Gonzaga  College  (R.  C.) 
and  other  collegiate  institutions;  and, 
in  the  suburbs,  has  the  military  post 
Of  Fort  Wright.   Pop.  (1910)  104,402. 


Spontlnl 

Sponge,  Spongida,  a  horny  sub- 
stance valued  for  its  ready  imbibition 
of  water,  and  consisting  of  the  kera- 
tode  skeleton  of  certain  Protozoa  or 
lowest  animals.  A  sponge  is  thus  a 
colony  of  living  animals.  Such  a  col- 
ony communicates  with  the  outer 
world  by  means  of  certain  openings 
(capable  of  being  closed  at  will), 
traceable  in  an  ordinary  sponge,  and 
of  which  the  larger  are  named  oscula 
and  the  smaller  pores. 

The  sponges  of  commerce  come 
from  the  Eastern  Mediterranean 
Sea,  the  West  Indies,  and  the  coasts 
of  Florida.  In  the  Archipelago,  Crete, 
Cyprus,  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  Barbary,  and  the  Bahama  Is- 
lands, sponge  fisheries  constitute  a 
very  important  industry.  The  finest 
sponges  are  obtained  from  Turkey. 

Spontini,  Gasparo,  an  Italian 
composer;  born  in  Majolatti,  near 
Jesi,  in  the  Roman  States,  Nov.  14, 
1774.  He  was  educated  at  the  Con- 
servatorio  de  la  Pieta  of  Naples,  and 
began  his  career  when  17  years  of 
age  as  the  composer  of  an  opera, 
"  The  Punctilio  of  Women."  This  was 
followed  by  some  IG  operas,  produced 
within  six  years,  for  the  theaters  of 
Italy  and  Sicily,  but  not  a  note  of 
which  has  survived.  In  1803  Spon- 
tini went  to  Paris ;  in  1807  he  was  ap- 
pointed music  director  to  the  Em- 
press Josephine;  and  in  1808  he  pro- 
duced his  most  famous  work  "  The 
Vestal "  with  brilliant  and  decisive 
success.  His  "  Fernando  Cortez ' 
appeared  in  1809;  and  the  next  year 
witnessed  his  appointment  to  the  di- 
rectorship of  the  Italian  Opera  iu 
Paris,  which  he  held  for  10  years.  In 
1820  the  magnificent  appointments  of- 
fered by  the  court  of  Prussia  tempted 
him  to  leave  Paris  for  Berlin,  m 
Which  capital  his  three  grand  operas, 
"Nourmahal"  (founded  on  Lalla 
Rookh"),  "Alcidor,"  and  "Agnes  of 
HohenstauEfen,"  were  produced  with 
great  splendor.  Spontini  continued 
to  reside  as  first  chapel-master  m  Ber- 
lin till  the  death  of  the  king  in  1840. 
The  latter  period  of  his  sojourn  at 
Berlin  was  embittered  by  professional 
disputes;  and  in  1842  he  repaired  to 
Paris,  where  in  1839  he  had  been 
elected  one  of  the  five  members  of  the 
Acaderaie  des  Beaux  Arts.  He  died 
ia  Majolatti,  Jan.  14,  1851. 


'Spontoon 


Spottsylvania  Court-liouse 


Spontoon,  the  half-pike  formerly 
carried  by  infantry  officers,  and  used 
for  signalling  orders  to  the  regiment. 
Discontinued  in  British  army  in  1787. 

Spoonbill,  the  popular  name  of 
the  birds  of  the  genus  Platalea,  be- 
longing to  the  heron  family  (Ardeidse), 
order  Grallatores,  from  the  shape  of 
the  bill,  which  is  somewhat  like  a 
spoon,  being  curiously  widened  out 
at  the  tip.  Live  in  society  in  wooded 
marshes,  and  on  the  sea-shore.  Adult 
male   is  about   32   inches   long;    plu- 


THE  SPOONBILL. 

tnage  white  with  pale  pink  tinge;  at 
the  junction  of  the  neck  with  the 
breast  there  is  a  band  of  bufify  yel- 
low ;  the  naked  skin  on  the  throat  is 
yellow ;  legs  and  feet  black ;  bill  about 
eight  inches  long,  very  much  flattened 
and  grooved  at  the  base,  the  expanded 
portion  yelIo\^',  the  rest  black.  There 
IS  a  white  occipital  crest  in  both  sexes. 
The  spoonbill  possesses  no  power  of 
modulating  its  voice.  The  windpipe 
is  bent  on  itself,  like  the  figure  8, 
the  coils  applied  to  each  other  and 
held  in  place  by  a  thin  membrane. 
This  peculiarity  does  not  exist  in 
young  birds.  The  roseate  spoonbill, 
a  native  of  the  United  States,  has 
rose-colored  plumage. 

Sporadic,  a  term  applied  to  any 
disease  that  is  commonly  epidemic  or 
contagious,  when  it  attacks  only  a  few 
persons  in  a  district  and  does  not 
spread  in  its  ordinary  manner.  The 
conditions  which  determine  the  occur- 
rence of  epidemic  or  contagious  dis- 
eases in  a  sporadic  form  are  unknown. 
Among  the  diseases  which  occur  in 
this  form  may  be  especially  mentioned 
cholera,  dysentery,  measles,  scarla- 
tina, and  smallpox. 


Spore,  the  reproductive  body  in  a 
cryptogam,  which  differs  from  a  seed 
in  being  composed  simply  of  cells  and 
not  containing  an  embryo.  Called 
also  sporules.  Applied  also  to  the  re- 
productive bodies  produced  either 
singly  or  at  the  tips  of  the  fruit-bear- 
ing threads  in  fungi.  Piants  repro- 
duce themselves  in  two  different  ways, 
"  vegetatively  "  or  "  truly."  The  vege- 
tative mode  of  reproduction  is  merely 
a  continuotfl  growth  of  parts  already 
formed.  It  is  quite  common  in  na- 
ture. In  the  true  mode  of  reproduc- 
tion the  growth  is  not  continuous. 
Certain  cells  of  a  plant  are  set  apart 
for  this  function.  These  cells  are 
called  spores.  In  plants  higher  than 
the  Thallophytes  such  cells  do  not 
grow  directly  into  a  plant  like  that 
from  which  they  have  come,  but  they 
give  rise  to  a  plant  which  in  its  turn, 
when  it  reaches  maturity,  produces 
cells  of  two  sorts,  male  and  female, 
which  unite  with  one  another,  and 
then  from  the  new  cell  of  dual  origin 
there  grows  a  plant  like  that  from 
which  the  spore  originally  came. 
Thus,  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
fronds  of  ferns  there  may  often  be 
seen  many  small  spore  cases.  The 
spores  fall  to  the  ground,  and  produce 
a  little  green  plant  called  the  prothal- 
lium  of  the  fern.  The  prothallium 
produces  the  sex  elements.  These 
unite,  and  from  their  union  grows  a 
new  "  fern."  This  indirect  mode  of 
reproduction  is  spoken  of  as  the  alter- 
nation of  generations. 

Sporting  Plant,  in  botany,  the 
name  given  by  gardeners  to  plants 
^hich  have  suddenly  produced  a  single 
bud  with  a  new  and  sometimes  widely 
different  character  from  that  of  the 
other  buds.  Darwin  calls  them  bud 
variations,  and  says  that  they  can  be 
propagated  by  grafts,  etc.,  and  some- 
times by  seed.  They  rarely  occur  in 
plants  in  a  state  of  nature,  but  are 
common  under  culture. 

Spotted  VTild  Cat,  an  Indian 
species,  about  18  inches  long,  the  tall 
being  about  a  foot  more.  It  is  gray, 
spotted  with  black,  and  the  ears  are 
tufted,  indicating  a  relationship  with 
the  lynxes. 

Spottsylvania  Conrt-lionse,  a 
small  village  in  Virginia,  5.5  miles  N. 
by  W.  of  Richmond,  the  scene  of  one 
of  the  most  desperate  battles  of  the 


Spragne 


Sprenger 


American  Civil  War.  On  May  10, 
18()4,  during  the  Wilderness  cam- 
paign, Grant  attacked  Lee  in  his 
earthworks,  and  was  repulsed  with 
dreadful  slaughter ;  yet  on  the  next 
day  he  wrote  to  the  Secretary  of  War, 
"  I  propose  to  fight  it  out  on  this  line 
if  it  takes  all  summer,"  and  on  the 
12th  repeated  the  assault,  when  Han- 
cock's corps  carried  and  held  the 
"  bloody  angle."  The  next  morning 
Lee,  unable  to  bear  his  share  of  the 
heavy  losses,  withdrew  within  an  in- 
ner line  of  entrenchments,  and  on  the 
20th  Grant,  having  failed  to  dislodge 
him,  moved  round  his  flank  toward 
Richmond. 

Sprague,  Anstln  Velorous  Mil- 
ton, an  American  inventor ;  born  in 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  May  28,  1840.  He 
went  to  the  Pennsylvania  oil  fields  in 
1805,  and  turned  his  attention  to  im- 
proving methods  of  oil  production.  In 
order  to  prevent  boiler  explosions  be- 
cause of  the  use  of  brackish  water,  he 
conceived  and  executed  a  plan  for  rais- 
ing the  water  of  the  Allegheny  river 
to  a  reservoir  whence  it  flowed  to  feed 
several  hundred  boilers.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  various  household  articles ; 
improvements  in  laundry  machinery ; 
disinfectors,  sterilizers,  and  thermsero- 
therapic  apparatus;  in'jroduced  steam 
for  the  sterilization  of  surgical  instru- 
ments and  dressings,  and  for  the  dis- 
infection of  textile  fabrics,  etc. 

Sprague,  Charles,  an  American 
poet ;  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  20, 
1791 ;  was  the  author  of  "  The  Winged 
Worshippers" ;  "  Curiosity"  ;  and 
"  The  L'amily  Meeting."  A  collection 
of  his  works  entitled  "  Poetical  and 
Prose  Writings "  was  published  in 
18^.     Died  in  Boston,  Jan.  22,  1875. 

Spragne,  Charles  Ezra,  an  Amer- 
ican author ;  born  in  Nassau,  N.  Y., 
Oct.  9,  1842.  He  was  an  officer 
through  the  Civil  War,  and  afterward 
the  secretary  and  president  of  a  New 
York  bank.  He  was  the  editor  of 
"  Volaspodel,"  the  organ  of  the  pro- 
posed international  language  called 
V'olapuk. 

Sprague,  William,  an  American 
statesman ;  born  in  Cranston,  R.  I., 
Sept.  12,  1830;  was  governor  of 
Rhode  Island  in  18G0-1863;  raised  a 
battery  of  light  artillery  with  which 
he    took   part    in    the   battle   of   Bull 


Run ;  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Peninsular  campaign ;  and  w  as  United 
States  Senator  in  1803-1875.  Former- 
ly a  millionaire  manufacturer  he  be- 
came bankrupt  thirty  years  ago,  but 
was  permitted  to  save  a  portion  of  his 
property,  and  lives  in  comfort  at  Nar- 
ragansett  Pier,  with  his  second  wife, 
■whom  he  married  about  twenty  years 
ago,  after  his  first  wife,  the  late  Kate 
Chase  Sprague,  daughter  of  the  late 
Chief  Justice  Salmon  P.  Chase,  had 
been  divorced  from  him. 

Sprain,  or  Strain,  a  term  em- 
ployed in  surgery  to  designate  a  vio- 
lent stretching  of  tendinous  or  liga- 
mentous parts  with  or  without  rup- 
ture of  some  of  their  fibers.  Sprains 
are  very  frequent  in  all  the  joints  of 
the  upper  limbs,  especially  ^  in  the 
wrist  and  the  articulations  of  the 
thumb.  In  the  lower  extremity  the 
ankle  is  the  joint  by  far  the  most  fre- 
quently affected ;  and  this  is  account- 
ed for  anatomically  by  the  small  size 
of  the  articular  surfaces,  the  great 
weight  the  astragalus  (the  bone  pre- 
senting the  lower  articular  surface) 
has  to  support,  and  the  unyielding 
nature  of  the  lateral  ligaments.  In 
slight  sprains  of  this  joint  the  liga- 
ments are  only  stretched  or  slightly 
lacerated,  but  in  more  severe  cases 
they  may  be  completely  torn  through. 
Sprains  of  the  ankle  are  sometimes 
mistaken  for  fractures,  and  vice  versa ; 
and    the    two    injuries    may    coexist. 

Sprenger,  Jacob,  of  the  Order  of 
Preachers,  and  Professor  of  Theology 
in  Cologne,  and  Henricus  Institor 
(Latinized  form  of  Kramer),  two 
names  of  enduring  infamy  as  the 
authors  of  the  famous  "  Malleus 
Maleficarum  "  or  "  Hexenhammer  " 
(1489),  which  first  formulated  in  de- 
tail the  doctrine  of  witchcraft,  and 
formed  a  text-book  of  procedure  for 
witch  trials.  They  were  appointed  in- 
quisitors under  the  bull  "  Summis  de- 
siderantes  affectibus "  of  Innocent 
VIII.  in  1484,  and  their  work  is  ar- 
ranged in  three  parts  —  "  Things  that 
pertain  to  Witchcraft";  "The  Effects 
of  Witchcraft";  and  "The  Remedies 
for  Witchcraft."  It  discusses  the 
question  of  the  nature  of  demons ;  the 
causes  why  they  seduce  men,  and  par- 
ticularly women ;  transformations 
into  beasts,  as  wolves  and  cats;  and 
the  various  charms  and  exorcisms  to 


'  Spring 

be  employed  against  witches.  The 
writers  detail  the  extraordinary  dan- 
gers to  which  they  were  exposed  in 
their  task,  and  how  all  the  artillery  of 
hell  had  been  employed  against  them- 
selves in  vain,  and  they  tell  with  com- 
plete composurp  of  mind  how  in  one 
glace  40,  in  an>  ^er  50,  persons  were 
urned  by  their  means.  They  admit 
bodily  transmission  of  sorcerers 
through  the  air,  and  relate  numerous 
cases  of  the  devilish  malice  of  witches 
on  horses  and  cattle  as  well  as  man- 
kind ;  and  in  the  latter  part,  consist- 
ing of  35  questions,  give  minute  direc- 
tions for  the  manner  in  which  prison- 
ers are  to  be  treated,  the  means  to  be 
used  to  force  them  to  a  confession, 
and  the  degree  of  evidence  required 
for  a  conviction  of  those  who  would 
not  confess.  The  book  contains  no 
distinct  allusion  to  the  proceedings  at 
the  Witches'  Sabbath  any  more  than 
did  the  "  Formicarium "  (1440)  of 
John  Nider,  whose  fifth  book  is  de- 
voted to  the  subject  of  sorcery. 

Spring,  an  elastic  substance  of  any 
kind,  having  the  power  of  recovering, 
by  its  elasticity,  its  natural  state, 
after  being  bent  or  otherwise  forced, 
interposed  between  two  objects  in  or- 
der to  impart  or  check  motion  or  per- 
mit them  to  yield  relatively  to  each 
other.  Springs  are  made  of  various 
materials,  as  india-rubber,  strips  of 
wire  or  steel  coiled  spirally,  steel  rods 
or  plates,  etc.,  and  are  used  for  many 
purposes;  as,  for  diminishing  concus- 
sions in  carriages,  for  motive  power, 
acting  through  the  tendency  of  a  me- 
tallic coil  to  unwind  itself,  as  in  clocks 
and  watches;  to  measure  weight  and 
other  forces  as  in  the  spring  balance, 
etc. 

In  physical  geography  and  geology, 
an  overflow  of  water  or  other  liquid. 
When  rain  falls  on  a  porous  soil  it  is 
•  rapidly  absorbed,  the  surface  of  the 
Boil  being  soon  dry  again.  Meanwhile 
the  water  has  percolated  downward 
till  it  has,  at  a  greater  or  less  depth, 
been  intercepted  by  an  impervious 
stratum,  where  it  gradually  forms  a 
reservoir.  It  then  presses  with  great 
force  laterally,  and  a  system  of  sub- 
terranean drainage  is  established.  If 
the  impervious  stratum  be  some  dis- 
tance up  a  hillside,  the  water  finds  its 
way  out,  not,  however,  all  along  the 
itratum.   for   the  existence   of   rents. 


Springer 

fissures,  and  inequalities  confines  it  to 
a  few  spots.  If  the  reservoir  be  on 
an  elevation  and  a  boring  be  made  on 
a  lower  level  to  any  of  the  branches 
leading  from  it,  the  water  will  rise  in 
the  bore  to  the  surface  and  shoot  up 
into  the  air  to  a  height  proportional  to 
the  pressure  from  the  reservoir,  as  an 
artesian  well,  which  is  akin  to  a 
spring. 

Spring,  Leverett  "Wilson,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  Grafton, 
Vt.,  Jan.  5,  1840;  was  graduated  at 
Williams  College  in  1863,  and  took  a 
theological  course  at  the  Hartford  and 
Andover  Theological  Seminaries ;  and 
in  1880  he  became  professor  of  Eng- 
lish literature  at  Williams  College. 
He  is  the  author  of  "  Kansas," 
'■  Mark  Hopkins,"  etc. 

Springbok,  in  zoology,  an  ante- 
lope exceedingly  common  in  South 
Africa.  It  is  about  30  inches  high, 
the  horns  lyrate,  very  small  in  the  fe- 
male ;  color  yellowish  dun,  white  be- 
neath. Two  curious  folds  of  skin  as- 
cend from  the  root  of  the  tail,  and 
terminate  near  the  middle  of  the 
back ;  they  are  usually  closed,  but 
open  out  when  the  animal  is  in  rapid 
motion,  and  disclose  a  large  triangular 
white  space,  which  is  otherwise  con- 
cealed. 

Springer,  a  name  given  to  several 
varieties  of  the  spaniel.  The  ears  are 
long  and  pendulous,  and  the  color 
usually  white  with  red  spots.  It  is 
employed  to  start  or  spring  birds  from 
coverts.  The  chief  breeds  are  the 
Clumber,  Sussex,  and  Norfolk. 

Springer,   Renben  Rnnyan,   an 

American     philanthropist;      born      in 

Frankfort,  Ky.,  Nov.  16,  1800.     After 

leaving  school,  he  became  a  clerk  on  a 

steamboat   plying   between    Cincinnati 

and    New   Orleans,    and    soon   bought 

an  interest  in  this  boat,  with  which  he 

laid    the    foundation    of    his    wealth. 

Subsequently  he  acquired  a  large  in- 

I  terest   in    a   flourishing   grocery   busi- 

I  ness  in  Cincinnati,  where  the  fine  Mu- 

{sic   Hall    and   other   institutions,    are 

monuments    to    his    munificence.      He 

died  in  that  city,  Dec.  10,  1884.        j, 

Springer,  William  McKen  Iree- 
an  American  jurist;  born  in  Sullivai 
CO.,  Ind.,  May  30,  1836;  was  gradu 
ated  at  the  Indiana  State  University 
in  1858.     He  was  a  member  of  Con* 


Springfield 

gress  in  1875-1895.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  the  law  known  as  the 
"  Springer  Bill,"  which  gave  a  judicial 
system  to  the  Indian  Territory  and  es- 
tablished the  Territory  of  Oklahoma. 
He  also  introduced  the  bill  creating 
the  States  of  North  and  South  Dako- 
ta, Washington,  and  Montana.  In 
1895-1899  he  was  United  States  judge 
for  the  Northern  District  of  Indian 
Territory,  and  chief-justice  of  the 
United  States  Court  of  Appeals  for 
Indian  Territory.  He  then  estab- 
lished himself  in  law  practice  in 
Washington,  D.  C.     Died  in  1903. 

Springfield,  city  and  capital  of 
Sangamon  county  and  of  the  State  of 
Illinois;  on  the  Chicago  &  Alton  and 
other  railroads;  185  miles  S.  W.  of 
Chicago;  is  in  one  of  the  richest  farm- 
ing sections  of  the  country,  with  ex- 
tensive coal  mines  nearby;  has  large 
rolling  mill,  a  noted  watch  factory, 
woolen  and  flour  mills,  and  elevator, 
farm  implement,  and  canning  plants; 
contains  a  $4,000,000  State  Capitol, 
the  Lincoln  National  Monument,  Con- 
cordia College  (Luth.),  Bettie  Stuart 
Institute,  St.  Agatha's  School  (P.  E.), 
and  State  Arsenal.  Pop.  (1910)  51,678. 

Springfield,  city  and  capital  of 
Hampden  county,  Mass.;  on  the  Con- 
necticut river  and  the  Boston  & 
Maine  and  other  railroads;  100  miles 
S.  W.  of  Boston;  has  abundant  water- 
power,  the  largest  National  Armory 
and  Arsenal  in  the  country,  and  fire- 
arm, envelope,  railroad  car,  needle, 
machinery,  and  cotton  and  woolen 
goods  plants;  founded  in  1636;  burned 
in  King  Philip's  War  in  1675;  unsuc- 
cessfully attacked  in  Shay's  Rebellion 
in  1787.    Pop.  (1910)  88,926. 

Springfield,  city  and  capital  of 
Greene  county,  Mo.;  on  the  Kansas 
City,  Clinton  &  Springfield  and  other 
railroads;  238  miles  S.  W.  of  St. 
Louis;  is  the  metropolis  of  a  large 
farmiug  section;  manufactures  flour, 
tobacco,  foundry  products,  railroad 
cars,  and  wagons;  and  contains  Drury 
College  (Cong.),  Federal  Building, 
Normal  School,  Zoological  Gardens, 
National  and  Confederate  cemeteries, 
and,  nearby,  several  natural  caves.  In 
the  Civil  War  a  number  of  battles  oc- 
curred here.     Pop.  (1910)  35,201. 

Springfield,  city  and  capital  of 
Clarke  county,  O.;  on  the  Mad  river 
and  several  railroads;  84  miles  N.  E.' 


Spy 

of  Cincinnati;  is  the  center  of  a  large 
farming  and  stock-raising  section;  is 
noted  for  its  extensive  manufactures 
of  farm  implements,  besides  turbine 
water-wheels  and  stationary  and  port- 
able steam  engines;  and  contains  a 
Federal  Building.  Wit^pnberg  College 
(Luth.),  Springfield  Se  inary,  and  the 
Warder  Library.    Pop.  (1910)  46,921. 

Spnrgie,  a  vast  genus  (upward  of 
700  species)  of  herbs,  shrubs,  or  soft- 
wooded  trees  with  fleshy  branches, 
abounding  in  milky  juice. 

Spnrgeon,  Charles  Haddon,  an 
English  preacher ;  born  in  Kelvedon, 
England,  June  19,  1834.  In  1854  he 
entered  on  the  pastorate  of  the  New 
Park  Street  Chapel,  London,  where 
his  preaching  proved  so  attractive 
that  in  two  years'  time  the  building 
had  to  be  greatly  enlarged.  His  hear- 
ers continuing  to  increase,  the  Surrey 
Music  Hall  was  for  some  time  en- 
gaged for  his  use ;  and  finally  his  fol- 
lowers built  for  him  his  well-knowu 
"  Tabernacle "  in  Newington  Butts, 
opened  in  1861.  The  evangelistic 
and  philanthropic  agencies  in  con- 
nection with  this  immense  chapel  com- 
prise the  Stockwell  Orphanage,  a  pas- 
tors' college,  where  hundreds  of  young 
men  are  trained  for  the  ministry ;  the 
Golden  Lane  Mission,  etc.  Spurgeon 
preached  in  the  Tabernacle  every 
Sunday  to  thousands  of  hearers.  His 
sermons  were  published  weekly  from 
1854,  and  yearly  volumes  were  issued 
from  1856.  They  had  an  enormous 
circulation,  many  of  them  being  trans- 
lated into  various  languages.  He  died 
in  Mentone,  France,  Jan.  31,  1892. 

Spy,  a  secret  emissary  sent  into  the 
enemy's  camp  or  territory  to  inspect 
their  works,  ascertain  their  strength 
and  their  intentions,  to  watch  their 
movements,  and  report  thereon  to  the 
proper  officer.  By  the  laws  of  war 
among  all  civilized  nations  a  spy  is 
subjected  to  capital  punishment.  To 
be  treated  as  a  spy  one  must  first  be 
caught  in  the  enemy's  territory,  and 
in  dress  other  than  the  adopted  mili- 
tary uniform  of  his  country.  It  must 
also  be  clearly  shown  that  the  object 
of  the  accused  person  is  to  gain  infor- 
mation for  the  enemy  which  it  would 
be  to  their  advantage  to  know.  If, 
when  captured,  the  prisoner  can  show 
that  his  errand  in  getting  through  was 
o£  a  personal  nature,  or  that  he  was 


Squadron 

trading  with  the  enemy,  lie  can  only 
be  held  as  a  prisoner  of  war.  In  try* 
ing  a  spy  his  military  rank  counts  for 
much.  An  officer  of  high  ranis  re- 
ceives a  more  thorough  trial  than  a 
private,  though  both  are  tried  by 
court-martial.  In  the  United  States 
the  verdict  is  sent  to  the  President  ot 
the  Secretary  of  War  or  Navy,  for  ap- 
proval before  execution.  When  a  spy 
is  caught  in  the  act  all  these  formali- 
ties are  omitted.  He  is  tried  by  a 
drum-head  court-martial  composed  of 
the  first  five  or  more  officers  handy; 
he  is  allowed  to  make  an  explanation 
and  a  verdict  is  rendered  without 
much  deliberation.  If  he  is  found 
guilty  the  verdict  is  sent  to  the  high- 
est commanding  officer  in  camp,  and 
on  his  approval  the  sentence  is  car- 
ried out,  after  which  a  full  report  is 
made  to  the  President.  The  two  most 
famous  spies  in  American  history  are 
Nathan  Hale  and  Maj.  John  Andre, 
both  of  whom  were  captured  when 
about  to  pass  with  their  information 
back  to  their  own  lines,  and  the  evi- 
dence against  both  was  conclusive. 
Hale  received  only  a  trial  by  drum- 
head court-martial,  while  Andre  had 
every  opportunity  to  prove  his  inno- 
cence. 

Squadron,  in  military  language,  a 
force  of  cavalry  commanded  by  a  cap- 
tain, and  averaging  from  120  to  200 
men.  Each  squadron  is  composed  of 
two  troops,  each  commanded  by  a  cap- 
tain for  purposes  of  administration, 
but  united  under  the  senior  for  serv- 
ice in  the  field.  Four  squadrons  form 
a  regiment.  The  squadron  is  frequent- 
ly considered  the  tactical  unit,  of  cav' 
airy.  As  a  naval  term,  a  division  of 
a  fleet;  a  detachment  of  ships  of  war 
employed  on  a  particular  service  or 
station,  and  under  the  command  of  a 
junior  flag  officer. 

Sqnatter,  one  who  without  a  title 
settles  on  new  or  uncultivated  land. 
In  the  early  days  of  the  United  States 
its  meaning  was  confined  to  the  fore- 
going sense.  In  Australia,  one  who 
occupies  an  unsettled  tract  of  land ;  as 
a  sheep  farm  under  lease  from  gov- 
ernment at  a  nominal  rent. 

Sqnaw  Berry,  in  New  England  the 
fruit  of  the  wintergreen  is  sometimes 
called  squaw  berry;  but  in  Utah,  Ari- 
zona, Southern  California,  and  New 
Mexico  the  name  is  given  to  the  fruit 


Squirrel 

of  a  shrub  five  to  eight  feet  high,  out 
of  the  twigs  of  which  the  Indians 
make  their  baskets.  This  fruit,  which 
is  red  and  very  sour,  is  gathered  in 
the  summer  in  great  quantities  by  the 
Indian  squaws,  and  is  eaten  both  fresh 
and  dried.  A  very  pleasant  drink  also 
is  made  by  washing  the  berries  in 
water.  The  twigs,  which  are  tougher 
and  more  durable  than  willow,  have  a 
peculiar  scent  which  never  leaves 
articles  made  of  it.  Baskets  made  of 
them  are  very  strong,  will  hold  water, 
and  are  even  used  to  cook  in,  hot 
stones  being  dropped  in  from  time  to 
time  till  the  food  is  done. 

Sqna-nr  Hoot,  a  singular  scaly 
plant,  native  of  America,  found  grow- 
ing in  clusters  among  fallen  leaves  in 
oak  woods. 

Squid,  a  popular  name  of  certain 
cuttle  fishes  included  in  several  gen- 
era ;  the  most  familiar  is  the  calama- 
ries.    See  also  Flying  Squid. 

Sqnier,  Ephraim  George,  an 
American  archaeologist;  born  in  Beth- 
lehem, Pa.,  June  17,  1821.  While  a 
journalist  at  Chillicothe,  O.,  he  pre- 
pared an  account  of  discoveries  in  an- 
cient mounds  (he  being  the  principal 
authority  on  the  subject)  for  the 
"  Smithsonian  Contributions  to 
Knowledge"  (1848).  He  was  charge 
d'affaires  to  the  Central  American 
States  (1849),  consul-general  to 
Peru  (1863),  and  to  Honduras 
(1868).  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
April  17,  1888. 

Squire,  originally  an  attendant  on 
a  knight;  a  knight's  shield  or  armor- 
bearer  ;  now  a  title  commonly  given  to 
justices  of  the  peace. 

Squirrel,  in  zoology,  a  popular 
name  for  any  of  the  Sciuridae ;  wide- 
ly distributed  in  America,  Europe, 
the  Caucasus,  Southern  Siberia,  and 
probably  in  Persia.  It  is  a  little  ani- 
mal with  bright  black  eyes ;  from  8  to 
10  inches  in  length,  with  a  bushy  tail 
nearly  as  long;  color  gray  or  reddish- 
brown,  white  beneath,  but  the  hue 
vari-»s  with  the  seasons,  in  Lapland 
and  Siberia  the  upper  surface  becomea 
gray,  and  in  Central  Europe  is  sprin- 
kled with  gray  in  the  winter.  Squir- 
rels haunt  woods  and  forests,  nesting 
in  trees,  and  displaying  marvelous 
agility  among  the  branches.  They  feed 
on  nuts,  acorns,   beech    mast,   whicb 


Squirrel  Monkey 


Stag 


they  store  up,  birds'  eggs,  and  the 
young  bark,  shoots,  and  buds  of  trees, 
domg  no  small  amount  of  damage. 
They  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of 
partial  hibernation,  waking  up  in  fine, 
warm  weather,-  when  the  provision 
laid  up  iri.  the  summer  is  made  use  of 
for  food.  They  are  monogamous,  and 
the  female  produces  three  or  four 
young,  usually  in  June.  In  Lapland 
and  Siberia  they  are  killed  in  great 
numbers  for  the  sake  of  their  winter 
coat.  This,  though  valuable,  is  in- 
ferior to  the  fur  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can gray  squirrel. 

Squirrel  Monkey,  from  South 
America.  It  is  about  10  inches  long, 
with  a  tail  half  as  much  again;  fur 
olive-gray  on  the  body,  limbs  red,  muz- 
zle dark.  They  are  affectionate  and 
playful  in   disposition. 

Staal,  Marguerite  Jeanne,  Bar- 
oness de,  a  French  author ;  born  in 
Paris,  May  30,  1684.  She  had  a  sound 
education  at  the  convent  of  Saint 
Louis  at  Rouen,  and  at  27  was  at- 
tached to  the  person  of  the  imperious 
and  intriguing  Duchesse  de  Maine  at 
the  little  court  of  Sceaux.  Here  she 
saw  before  her  eyes  all  that  comedy 
of  life  which  she  was  later  to  describe 
with  such  penetrating  insight.  In  1735 
she  married  Baron  de  Staal,  an  officer 
of  the  Guard.  Her  "  Memoires "  (4 
vols.  1755),  show  intellect  and  obser- 
vation, as  well  as  remarkable  mastery 
of  subtle  irony,  and  are  written  in  a 
style  clear,  firm,  and  individual.  Her 
"  Complete  Works  "  appeared  at  Paris 
in  two  volumes  in  1821.  She  died  in 
Paris,  June  16,  1750. 

Stabat  Mater,  in  music,  a  well- 
known  Latin  hymn  on  the  Crucifixion, 
sung  during  Passion  week  in  the  Ro- 
man Church. 

Staff,  a  kind  of  artificial  stone  used 
for  covering  and  ornamenting  build- 
ings. It  is  made  chiefly  of  powdered 
gypsum  or  plaster  of  Paris,  with  a 
little  cement,  glycerin,  and  dextrine, 
mixed  with  water  until  it  is  about  as 
thick  as  molasses,  when  it  may  be 
cast  in  molds  into  any  shape.  To 
strengthen  it  coarse  cloth  or  bagging, 
or  fibers  of  hemp  or  jute,  are  put  into 
the  moulds  before  casting.  It  becomes 
hard  enough  in  about  a  half  hour  to 
be  removed  and  fastened  on  the  build- 
ing in  construction.    Staff  may  easily 


be  bent,  sawed,  bored,  or  nailed.  Its 
natura'  color  is  murky  white,  but  it 
may  be  aade  of  any  tint  to  resemble 
any  kind  of  stone,  and  may  be  painted 
and  gilded.  It  i^  fire-proof  and  water- 
proof and  if  cared  for  will  last  a  long 
time,  as  it  may  be  3asily  repaired  with 
a  trowel  and  a  pailful  of  the  mixture. 

Staf  \f  a  eelebiat'id  island  on  the 
W.  of  Scotland.  It  forms  an  oval  un- 
even table-land,  rising  at  its  highest 
to  144  feet  above  the  water,  1%  miles 
in  circumference,  and  71  acres  in  area. 
The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the 
island  is  Fingal's  or  the  Great  Cave, 
the  entrance  to  which  is  formed  by 
columnar  ranges  on  each  side,  sup- 
porting a  lofty  arch.  The  entrance  is 
42  feet  wide,  and  66  feet  high,  and 
the  length  of  the  cave  is  227  feet.  The 
floor  of  this  marvelous  chamber  is  the 
sea,  which  throws  up  flashing  and 
many-colored  lights  against  the  pendant 
columns,  whitened  with  calcareous 
stalagmite,  that  form  the  roof,  and 
against  the  pillared  walls  of  the  cave. 

Stafford,  "Wendell  Pkillips,  an 
American  jurist ;  born  in  Barre,  Vt., 
May  1,  1801 ;  received  an  academic 
education  and  was  graduated  at  the 
Law  Department  of  Boston  Univer- 
sity in  1883.  In  1900  he  was  made 
judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  that 
State.  He  was  author  of  "  Eurylochus 
Transformed  "  ;  "  Wendell  Phillips  " ; 
etc. 


BED    DEER :    HIND    AND    CALF. 
Stag,    or    Red    Deer,    a    typical 
species  of  deer,  occurring  in  the  N.  of 


stag  Beetle 

Europe  and  Asia.  It  was  once  found 
throughout  the  whole  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, but  is  now  confined  to  the  Scotch 
Highlands.  The  horns  or  antlers  are 
round  and  have  a  basal  snag  in  front. 
The  females  are  hornless  and  are 
named  hinds.  The  horns  of  the  first 
year  are  mere  bony  projections ;  they 
advance  in  development  during  the 
second  year,  when  the  stag  is  named 
a  brocket.  In  each  succeeding  year 
the  horns  grow  more  and  more 
branched,  the  stag  being  named  a  hart 


STAGS. 

in  its  sixth  year,  when  the  horns  may 
be  said  to  reach  their  maximum  size. 
As  in  all  deer,  the  horns  are  shed 
annually.  The  average  height  of  a 
full-gro^Ti  stag  is  about  four  feet  at 
the  shoulders;  the  winter  coat  i^ 
greyish-brown;  in  summer,  brown  is 
the  prevailing  tint.  The  food  of  the 
stag  consists  of  grasses  and  the  young 
shoots  of  trees,  lichens  forming  the 
greater  part  of  its  food  in  winter. 
The  stag  is  a  powerful  runner  and 
swimmer.  Driven  to  bay,  it  becomes 
a  formidable  adversary  to  the  largest 
and  most  powerful  staghound,  or  even 
to  man  himself.  The  pairing  season 
occurs  in  August,  and  the  males  then 
E.  143. 


Staghound 

engage  in  combats  for  the  females  and 
become  peculiarly  fierce.  The  flesh  ia 
somewhat  coarse. 

Stag  Beetle,  in  entomology,  one 
of  the  larger  insects,  the  male  being 
about  two  inches  long.  Their  project- 
ing mandibles  are  denticulated,  and 
somewhat  resemble  stag's  horns ;  with 
these  they  can  inflict  a  pretty  severe 
wound.  The  stag  beetle  is  common  in 
forests,  and  flies  about  in  the  evening 
in  summer.  Some  of  the  tropical  stag 
beetles  are  very  brilliantly  colored. 

Stage,  in  theaters  and  some  other 
places  of  amusement,  a  platform  ele- 
vated above  the  ground,  and  specific- 
ally applied  to  the  raised  floor  on 
which    performances    are   exhibited. 

Stage-Coacb.,  a  vehicle  for  carry- 
ing passengers  on  regular  routes,  the 
journey  being  accomplished  by  stages. 
Such  vehicles  were  formerly  universal 
in  the  United  States  and  Great  Brit- 
ain, but  the  railway  system  has  led  to 
their  almost  entire  discontinuance,  ex- 
cept in  localities  to  which  the  railway 
has  not  reached. 

Staggers,  a  popular  term  applied 
to  several  diseases  of  horses.  Mad  or 
sleepy  staggers  is  inflammation  of  the 
brain,  a  rare  but  fatal  complaint, 
marked  by  high  fever,  a  staggering 
gait,  violent  convulsive  struggling, 
usually  terminating  in  stupor.  Grass 
or  stomach  staggers  is  acute  indiges- 
tion, usually  occasioned  by  overload- 
ing the  stomach  and  bowels  witk 
tough  hard  grass,  vetches,  or  clover, 
a  full  meal  of  wheat,  or  other  indi- 
gestible food. 


-^, 


STAQHOimD. 


Staghound,  thj  Scotch  deerhound, 
i^.lled  also  the  wolf  dog,  a  breed  that 


Is  rapidly  dying  out.  These  dogs  hunt 
chiefly  by  sight  and  are  used  for  stalk- 
ing deer,  for  which  purpose  a  cross 
between  the  rough  Scotch  greyhound 
and  colley  or  the  foxhound  is  also 
often  employed.  True  staghounds  are 
wiry-coated,  shaggy,  generally  yellow- 
ish-gray, but  the  most  valuable  are 
dark  iron-gray,  with  white  breast. 
Stainer,  Sir  John,  an  English 
organist  and  composer;  born  in  1840; 
died,  1901.  He  was  a  chorister  at  St. 
Paul's  from  his  seventh  to  his  six- 
teenth year;  appointed  organist  first, 
at  St.  Michael's  College,  Tenbury, 
then  in  1859  to  Magdalen  College,  Ox- 
ford, and  ultimately  in  1872  to  St. 
Paul's.  The  oratorio  "Gideon"  (1875), 
is  one  of  his  compositions. 

Stalactite  and  Stalag^mite,  for- 
mations of  carbonate  of  lime.  Stalac 
titic  formations  occur  chiefly  in  long 
and  more  or  less  fantastic-shaped 
masses  suspended  from  the  roofs  of 
caverns  in  limestone  rocks.  The  flat- 
ter deposits,  called  stalagmites,  are 
formed  on  the  floor  of  the  cavern  by 
the  water  there  depositing  that  por- 
tion of  its  carbonate  of  lime  which  is 
not  separated  during  the  formation  of 
the  stalactite.  The  most  remarkable 
instances  of  their  occurrence  are  Lu- 
ray  (Virginia)  and  Mammoth  (Ken- 
tucky)  Caves  in  the   United    States. 

Stall,  Sylvanns,  an  American 
clergyman;  born  in  Elizaville,  N.  Y., 
Dct.  18,  1847;  was  graduated  at  Penn- 
sylvania College,  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  in 
1872;  studied  theology  there  in  Union 
Theological  Seminary;  was  ordained 
In  the  Lutheran  Church;  and  held 
various  pastorates.  His  publications 
Include  "How  to  Pay  Church  Debts;" 
"Talks  to  the  King's  Children;"  etc. 

Stamford,  a  city  in  Fairfield  co., 
Conn.;  on  Long  Island  Sound  and  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford 
railroad;  35  miles  E.  of  New  York 
city;  manufactures  woolen  goods,  lum- 
ber, typewriters,  pianos,  tiling,  paint, 
stoves,  dye  stuffs,  patent  medicines, 
hardware  and  pottery;  has  handsome 
villas  and  parks  on  neighboring  hills; 
is  residential  place  of  many  New 
York  business  men.  Pop.  (1910) 
25.138;  town  of  same  name,  28.836. 

Stamen,  in  botany,  the  male  organ 
of  a  flower,  called  by  the  old  botanists 
an  apes  and  a  cbive. 


Standard 

Stammering,   or  Stuttering,  an 

infirmity  of  speech,  the  result  of  fail- 
ure in  coordinate  action  of  certain 
muscles  and  their  appropriate  nerves. 
It  is  analogous  to  some  kinds  of  lame- 
ness; to  cramp  or  spasm,  or  partial 
paralysis  of  the  arms,  wrists,  hands, 
and  fingers,  occasionally  suffered  by 
violinists,  pianists,  and  swordsmen ;  to 
the  scrivener's  palsy,  or  writer's  crampi 
of  men  who  write  much.  For  speech 
—  like  writing,  fencing,  fingering  a, 
musical  instrument,  and  walking  —  is 
a  muscular  act  involving  the  coordi- 
nate action  of  many  nerves  and 
muscles. 

Stamp  Act,  an  act  for  regulating 
the  stamp  duties  to  be  imposed  on 
various  documents,  specifically  an  act 
passed  by  the  British  Parliament  in 
1765,  imposing  a  stamp  duty  on  all 
paper,  parchment,  and  vellum  used  in 
the  American  colonies,  and  declaring 
all  writings  on  unstamped  paper,  etc., 
to  be  null  and  void.  The  indignation 
roused  by  this  act  was  one  of  the 
causes  of  the  Revolutionary  War. 

Stamp  Duty,  a  tax  or  duty  im- 
posed on  pieces  of  parchment  or  paper, 
on  which  many  species  of  legal  instru- 
ments are  written.  The  internal  rev- 
enue acts  of  the  United  States  of  1862, 
and  subsequent  years,  required  stamps 
for  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  under 
severe  penalties  in  the  way  of  fines 
and  invalidating  of  written  instru- 
ments ;  stamps  for  liquors  and  tobacco 
are  still  in  use. 

Stamp  Mill,  a  contrivance  of  great 
utility  in  reducing  hard  mineral  ores 
to  a  pulverized  condition.  It  consists 
of  an  engine  containing  a  series  of 
heavy  iron  shod  pestles  moved  by 
water  or  steam  power. 

Standard,  a  flag  or  ensign  round 
which  men  rally,  or  under  which  they 
unite  for  a  common  purpose ;  a  flag 
or  carved  symbolical  figure,  etc.,  erect- 
ed on  a  long  pole  or  staff,  serving  as 
a  rallying  point  or  the  like.  The  an- 
cient military  standard  consisted  of  a 
symbol  carried  on  a  pole  like  the  Ro- 
man eagle,  which  may  be  considered 
as  their  national  standard.  Eaclji 
cohort  had  its  own  standard  by  whicn 
it  was  known,  and  which  was  sur- 
mounted with  a  figure  of  Victory,  an 
open  hand,  etc.,  the  pole  being  deco* 
rated  with  circular,  medallions,  etc 


CURRENT  STAMPS  OF  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES 


1. 

TURKEY. 

2. 

GERMANY. 

3. 

ORANtlE   RIVER   COLONY. 

4. 

UNION   OF   SOUTH   AFRICA, 

5. 

QUEENSLAND. 

6. 

VICTORIA. 

7. 

BELGIUM. 

8. 

NORWAY. 

9. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

10. 

PERU 

11. 

VENEZUELA. 

12. 

CAPE   OF   GOOD   HOPF. 

13. 

GREAT   BRITAIN. 

14. 

GREECE. 

15. 

JAPAN. 

16. 

INDIA. 

17. 

COLOMBIA. 

18. 

GUATEMALA. 

19. 

BRAZIL. 

20. 

FRENCH   GUIANA. 

21. 

SWITZERLAND. 

22. 

SIAM. 

23. 

BRITISH   GUIANA. 

24. 

CUBA. 

25. 

FRANCE. 

26. 

NETHERLANDS. 

27. 

CHILI. 

28. 

NICARAGUA. 

29. 

BRITISH   HONDURAS. 

30. 

HAYTI. 

31. 

NEW   ZEALAND. 

32. 

CHINA. 

33. 

ITALY. 

34. 

SOUTH   AUSTRALIA. 

35. 

MEXICO. 

36. 

ARGENTINA. 

37. 

ECUADOR. 

38. 

WESTERN   AUSTRALIA. 

39. 

PORTUGUESE   INDIES. 

40. 

SWEDEN. 

41. 

BOLIVIA. 

42. 

PANAMA. 

43. 

HONDURAS. 

44. 

NATAL. 

45. 

DENMARK. 

46. 

RUSSIA. 

47. 

EGYPT. 

48. 

LIBERIA. 

49. 

SPAIN. 

,50. 

PERSIA. 

51. 

PARAGUAY. 

52. 

CANADA. 

53. 

EGYPTIAN  SUDAN. 

64. 

TASMANIA. 

55. 

URAGUAY. 

56. 

AUSTRIA. 

COPYRIGHT,  I'Jl^,  BY  F.  E.  WRIGHT. 


CURRENT    LETTER     POSTAGE    STAMPS    OF 
FOREIGN     NATIONS 


standard 


Stanford 


Standard,  Battle  of  the,  a  battle 
in  which  David  I.  of  Scotland,  who 
had  espoused  the  cause  of  Maud 
against  Stephen,  was  signally  defeated 
by  the  English  under  the  Bishop  of 
Durham.  It  was  fought  ir  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Northallertoi. ,  in  York- 
shire, on  Aug.  22,  1138,  and  it  re- 
ceived its  name  from  the  fact  that  the 
English  forces  were  gathered  round  a 
tall  cross  mounted  on  a  car,  and  sur- 
rounded by  the  banners  of  St.  Cuth- 
bert,  St.  Wilfred,  and  St.  John  of 
Beverley. 

Standard  Time,  a  system  of  time- 
reckoning,  chiefly  for  the  convenience 
of  railroads  in  the  United  States.  The 
United  States,  beginning  at  its  ex- 
treme E.  limit  and  extending  to  the 
Pacific  coast,  is  divided  into  four 
time-sections :  E.,  central,  mountain, 
and  Pacific.  The  E.  section,  the  time 
of  which  is  that  of  the  75th  meridian, 
lies  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and 
an  irregular  line  drawn  from  Detroit, 
Mich.,  to  Charleston,  S.  C.  The  cen- 
tral, the  time  of  which  is  that  of  the 
90th  meridian,  includes  all  between 
the  last-named  line  and  an  irregular 
line  from  Bismarck,  N.  D.,  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande.  The  moun- 
tain, the  time  of  which  is  that  of  the 
105th  meridian,  includes  all  between 
the  last-named  line  and  the  W.  boun- 
dary of  Montana,  Idaho,  Utah,  and 
Arizona.  The  Pacific,  the  time  of 
which  is  that  of  the  120th  meridian, 
includes  all  between  the  last-named 
line  and  the  Pacific  coast.  The  dif- 
ference in  time  between  adjoining  sec- 
tions is  one  hour. 

Standing  Stones,  rude  unhewn 
blocks  of  stone  in  an  upright  position 
in  almost  every  part  of  the  world,  in 
Europe,  India,  Persia,  and  even  jn 
Mexico.  Whatever  may  have  been  the 
period  of  their  erection,  their  great 
size  would  necessitate  the  knowledge 
of  the  use  of  mechanical  power.  They 
are  found  more  frequently  in  Great 
Britain,  and  were  supposed  to  belong 
to  the  time  of  the  Druids;  but  mod- 
ern investigations  have  deprived  this 
theory  of  its  certainty, 

Standisli,  Myles,  an  American 
soldier;  born  in  Duxbury,  Lancashire, 
about  1584;  served  in  the  Nether- 
lands; and,  though  not  a  member  of 
the   Leydeu  congregation,  sailed  with 


the  "  Mayflower "  colony  to  Massa- 
chusetts in  1620,  and  became  the 
champion  of  the  Pilgrims  against  the 
Indians.  During  the  (first  winter  his 
wife  died,  and  the  traditional  account 
of  his  first  effort  to  secure  another 
partner  has  been  made  familiar  by 
Longfellow.  In  1622,  warned  of  a  plot 
to  exterminate  the  English,  he  enticed 
three  of  the  Indian  leaders  into  a 
room  at  Weymouth,  where  his  party, 
after  a  desperate  fight,  killed  them, 
and  a  battle  that  followed  ended  in 
the  flight  of  the  natives.  Standish 
was  the  military  head  of  the  colony, 
and  long  its  treasurer.  A  monument, 
100  feet  high  and  surmounted  by  a 
statue,  has  been  erected  to  him  on 
Captain's  Hill  at  Duxbury.  In  1632 
he  settled  at  Duxbury,  Mass.,  where 
he  died,  Oct.  3,  1656. 

Stand-Pipe,  a  boiler  supply  pipe 
of  sufiicient  elevation  to  enable  the 
water  to  flow  into  the  boiler  notwith- 
standing the  pressure  of  the  steam.  In 
hydraulic  engineering,  a  stand-pipe  is 
a  vertical  pipe,  arranged  as  a  part 
of  the  main  in  waterworks  to  give 
the  necessary  head  to  supply  elevated 
points  in  the  district,  or  to  equalize 
the  force  against  which  the  engine 
has  to  act. 

Stanford,  Jane  liathrop,  an 
American  philanthropist ;  born  in  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  Aug.  25,  1825 ;  was  the 
wife  of  Leland  Stanford,  the  founder 
of  the  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  Univer- 
sity. She  built  and  endowed  the  Chil- 
dren's Hospital  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  at  a 
cost  of  $200,000 ;  gave  $160,000  to  the 
kindergartens  in  San  Francisco,  Cal., 
and  after  the  death  of  her  husband  in 
1893  devoted  herself  to  the  develop- 
ment and  support  of  the  Leland  Stan- 
ford University.  In  1901  she  supple- 
mented her  gifts  to  the  university  by 
turning  over  to  its  trustees  stocks 
valued  at  $18,000,000;  her  residence 
in  San  Francisco,  valued  at  $400,000, 
for  a  museum  and  art  gallery;  and 
1.000.000  acres  of  land  worth  $12,- 
000.000.  These  gifts  swelled  the  en- 
dowment of  the  university  to  more 
than  $45,000,000.  She  died  under  sus- 
picious circumstances  from  poison  at 
Honolulu,  Feb.  28,  1905. 

Stanford,  Iieland,  an  American 
philanthropist ;  bora  in  Watervliet, 
Albany  co.,  N.  Y.,  March  9,  1824.     In 


Stanhope 

1852  he  went  to  California,  where  he 
engaged  iu  mining,  but  in  185G  re- 
moved to  San  Francisco  and  there 
engaged  in  business,  laying  the  foun- 
dation of  a  fortune  estimated  at  more 
than  $50,000,000.  He  was  elected 
president  of  the  Central  Pacific  rail- 
road in  1861 ;  was  governor  of  Cali- 
fornia in  1801-1863 ;  and  in  1885  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate. 
In  memory  of  a  deceased  son,  Leland 
Stanford,  Jr.,  he  gave  $20,000,000  for 
the  founding  of  Leland  Stanford  Uni- 
versity at  Palo  Alto,  Cal.  He  died  in 
Palo  Alto,  June  21,  1893. 

Stanhope,  the  name  of  a  noble 
English  family.  James,  1st  Earl  of 
Stanhope;  born  in  Paris,  France,  in 
1673.  He  entered  the  army,  served  as 
Brigadier-General  under  the  Earl  of 
Peterborough  at  the  capture  of  Barce- 
lona in  1705,  was  appointed  Com- 
mander-in-Chief of  the  British  forces 
in  Spain,  and  in  1708  took  Port 
Mahon.  He  died  in  London,  Feb.  5, 
1721.  Charles,  the  3d  earl ;  grandson 
of  the  preceding;  born  in  London, 
England,  Aug.  3,  1753;  was  celebrat- 
ed chiefly  as  an  inventor.  His  chief 
inventions  were  an  arithmetical  ma- 
chine and  a  printing  press,  which 
bears  his  name.  He  died  in  London, 
Dec.  15,  1816.  Philip  Henry,  5th  earl, 
grandson  of  the  preceding;  bom  in 
Walmer,  Kent,  Jan.  31,  1805.  He 
filled  various  official  positions  in  the 
ministry  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  but  he 
was  best  known  under  his  title  of 
Lord  ^lahon,  as  the  author  of  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Succession  "War  in  Spain," 
etc.  He  died  in  Bournemouth,  Hamp- 
shire, Dec.  24,  1875.  Lady  Hester 
Lucy,  an  English  traveler ;  daughter 
of  the  3d  Earl  Stanhope,  t>om  in 
Chevening,  England,  March  12,  1776. 
For  many  years  she  resided  with  her 
uncle,  William  Pitt.  Her  "Memoirs" 
were  published  in  184.5-1846.  She 
died  in  Mar  Elias,  Syria,  June  23, 
1839. 

Stanislans  Angrnstns,  Stanislaus 
II.,  the  last  King  of  Poland,  son  of 
Count  Stanislaus  Poniatowski ;  born 
in  Wolczyn,  Lithuania,  Jan.  17,  1732, 
Sent  by  Augustus  III.,  of  Poland  on 
a  mission  to  St.  Petersburg,  he  be- 
came a  favorite  with  the  grand-prin- 
cess (afterward  the  Empress  Cathe- 
riae),    by    whose    influence    he    was 


Stanley 

crowned  King  of  Poland  at  Warsaw 
in  1764.  The  nobility  forcibly  com- 
pelled the  king  to  abdicate  (1771). 
He  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  Feb.  12, 
1798,  as  a  pensioner  of  the  Emperor 
Paul  I. 

Stanislai^j  Leszczynski,  Stanis- 
laus I.,  King  of  Poland ;  born  in  Lem- 
berg,  Galicia,  Oct.  20,  1677.  He  was 
elected  and  crowned  (1705),  but  after 
the  disastrous  battle  of  Poltava 
(1709),  he  had  to  flee  from  Poland. 
He  found  refuge  in  France  ultimately, 
where  his  daughter  Maria  became  wife 
to  Louis  Xy.  His  writings  were  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  "  Works  of 
the  Beneficent  Philosopher"  (1765). 
He  died  Feb.  23,  1706. 

Stanley,  Henry  Morton,  an 
American  explorer ;  born  near  Den- 
bigh, Wales,  in  1840 ;  name  originally 
.John  Rowlands.  When  three  years 
old  he  became  an  inmate  of  the  poor- 
house  at  St.  Asaph,  where  he  made 
such  progress  in  the  school  that  he 
was  employed  as  a  teacher  of  other 
children  at  Mold,  Flintshire,  when  he 
went  away  at  the  age  of  13.  Two 
years  later  he  sailed  as  cabin  boy  on 
board  a  vessel  bound  for  New  Orleans, 
and  in  that  city  he  found  a  friend  in 
a  merchant,  who  adopted  him  and 
gave  him  his  own  name,  but  died  leav- 
ing no  will.  Young  Stanley,  left  to 
his  own  resources,  went  to  (California, 
where  he  sought  his  fortune  in  the 
gold  mines.  When  the  Civil  War 
broke  out  he  became  a  soldier  in  the 
Confederate  army.  He  was  made  pris- 
oner, and  subsequently  took  service  in 
the  United  States  navy,  becoming  act- 
ing ensign  on  the  iron  clad  "  Ticon- 
deroga."  After  the  close  of  the  war 
he  became  a  newspaper  correspondent, 
writing  a  series  of  letters  from  Crete 
and  Asia  Minor.  When  the  English 
expedition  was  sent  against  King 
Theodore  of  Abyssinia  in  1867  he  ac- 
companied it  as  commissioner  of  the 
New  York  "Herald."  In  1868  he 
went  to  Spain  to  report  the  Carlist 
War  for  the  same  paper.  He  was 
called  away  from  there  in  October, 
1869,  to  go  in  search  of  Dr.  David 
Livingstone  in  Africa,  from  whom  no 
news  had  been  received  for  more  than 
two  years.  He  reached  Zanzibar  early 
in  January,  1871.  There  he  organized 
a  large  expedition  of  192  men,  which 


stannaries 


Stanton 


he  sent  off  in  five  parties.  His  ob- 
jective point  was  Ujiji,  which  he 
reached,  and  found  Livingstone,  Nov. 
10,  1871.  After  remaining  with  the 
veteran  explorer  four  months  he  re- 
turned, Livin.ffstone  refusing  to  give 
un  his  enterprise  till  he  had  complet- 
ed his  work.  Stanley  arrived  at  Zan- 
zibar in  Mav.  1872.  In  1874  he  set 
out  on  a  second  African  expedition  for 
the  "  Herald "  and  London  "  Daily 
Telegraph."  At  Zanzibar  he  learned 
that  Livingstone  had  died  in  the 
autumn  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Bang- 
weolo.  He  reached  Victoria  Nyanza 
in  February,  1875.  He  was  the  first 
to  circumnavigate  Victoria  Lake,  and 
discovered  the  Shimeeyu  river.  He 
reached  England  again  in  February, 
1878.  Then  came  the  Belgian  enter- 
prise, out  of  which  was  developed  the 
Free  State  of  Kongo,  with  Stanley  as 
its  conductor,  with  large  means  at  his 
disposal.  Near  the  close  of  1886  Stan- 
ley, under  the  auspices  of  the  Egyp- 
tian government  and  of  English  so- 
cieties and  individuals,  undertook  an 
expedition  for  the  relief  of  Emin 
Pasha.  For  this  purpose  he  left  Eng- 
land in  January,  1887,  and  returned 
in  1890,  after  escorting  Emin  Bey 
and  a  large  troop  of  followers  from 
the  interior  to  the  coast.  Stanley's 
last  journey  in  Africa  lasted  1,012 
days,  of  which  hardly  20  were  devoid 
of  perils  and  tragic  incidents.  The 
cost  of  the  expedition  was  $150,000. 
He  wrote :  "  How  I  Found  Living- 
stone," "Through  the  Dark  Continent," 
"  Congo  and  the  Founding  of  its  Free 
State,"  "  Slavery  and  the  Slave 
Trade,"  "  In  Darkest  Africa,"  etc. 
Was  made  a  D.  C.  L.  of  Oxford  Uni- 
versity in  1890,  and  the  same  year 
was  married  to  Miss  Dorothy  Tennent 
in  Westminster  Abbey.  In  1890-1891 
he  made  a  lecturing  tour  of  the  Unit- 
ed States,  and  in  1895  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  English  House  of  Com- 
mons.    He  died  May  10,  1904. 

Stannaries,  the  mines  from  whicL 
tin  is  dug.  The  term  is  most  generally 
used  with  reference  to  the  peculiar 
laws  and  usages  of  the  tin  mines  in 
the  counties  of  Cornwall  and  Devon, 
England. 

Stanton,  Edwin  McMasters,  an 
American  statesman  •  bom  in  Steuben- 
Ville,  O.,  Dec.  19.  1814.    In  1860  he 


was  appointed  Attorney-General  of 
the  United  States.  In  1862  he  suc- 
ceeded Simon  Cameron  as  Secretary 
of  War  and  held  that  office  for  six 
years.  His  opposition  to  President 
Johnson's  plan  of  reconsti-uction  led 
the  latter  to  request  his  resignation 
in  1867.  He  refused  to  resign,  but  on 
Aug.  12  surrendered  his  office  under 
protest  to  General  Grant  as  secretary 
ad  interim.  On  Jan.  13,  1868,  the 
United  States  Senate  reinstated  him, 
but  the  President,  appointed  Adjt.- 
Gen.  Lorenzo  Thomas  to  fill  his  place. 
Stanton  refused  to  vacate  the  office, 
however,  and  the  impeachment  of  the 
President  followed.  On  the  President's 
acquittal,  Stanton  resigned  and  re- 
sumed law  practice.  On  Dec.  20,  1869, 
he  was  nominated  by  President  Grant 
as  an  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States,  but  died 
before  taking  his  seat,  in  Washington, 
Dec.  24. 

Stanton,  Elizabeth  Cady,  an 
American  reformer ;  born  in  Johns- 
town, N.  T.,  Nov.  12,  1815 ;  called  the 
first  Woman's  Rights  Convention  in 
Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y.,  in  1848;  ad- 
dressed the  New  York  Legislature  on 
the  rights  of  married  women  in  1854, 
and  in  advocacy  of  divorce  for  drunk- 
enness in  1860 ;  and  was  an  unsuc- 
cessful candidate  for  Congress  in  1868. 
She  was  the  author  of  "  The  History 
of  Woman  Suffrage,"  and  other  works. 
She  died  Oct.  26,  1902. 

Stanton,  Henry  Brewster,  an 
American  abolitionist ;  born  in  Gris- 
wold,  Conn.,  June  29,  1805.  He  was 
husband  of  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton. 
He  assisted  in  organizing  the  Republi- 
can party  (1858-1860),  and  from  1868 
was  an  editor  of  the  New  York  "Sun." 
He  published  "  Sketches  of  Reform 
and  Reformers  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland " ;  and  "  Random  Recollec* 
tions."    He  died  Jan.  14,  1887. 

Stanton,  Henry  Thompson,  an 
American  poet ;  born  in  Alexandria, 
Va.,  June  30,  1834;  studied  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy; 
served  in  the  Confederate  army 
throughout  the  Civil  War,  first  as  cap- 
tain and  later  as  major.  He  designed 
an  iron  tie  for  binding  cotton  bales, 
and  was  the  author  of  "  The  Money- 
less Man  and  Other  Poems."  He  died 
in  1898. 


Stanton. 


Star  Chamber 


Stanton,     Richard     Henry,     an 

American  jurist ;  born  in  Alexandria, 
Va.,  Sept.  9,  1812 ;  was  a  Democratic 
member  of  Congress  from  Kentucky  in 
1849-1855,  and  district  judge  in  1868- 
1874.  Publications:  "  Code  of  Prac- 
tice in  Civil  and  Criminal  Cases  in 
Kentucky;"  "  Practical  Treatises  for 
Justices  of  Peace;"  etc.    Died  1891. 

Stanton,  Theodore,  an  American 
journalist,  son  of  Henry  B.  and  Eliza- 
beth Cady;  born  in  Seneca  Falls,  N. 
Y.,  Feb.  10,  1851.  He  was  a  corre- 
spondent for  the  New  York  "  Trib- 
une "  at  Berlin ;  held  other  important 
positions  abroad,  and  has  for  some 
time  past  been  literary  representative 
of  Harper  &  Brothers  in  Paris. 

Staple,  the  modern  form  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  word  stapel,  meaning  a 
heap,  or  regularly  piled  up  accumula- 
tion, of  goods ;  hence  a  place  where 
foods  are  stored  up  for  sale.  In  the 
liddle  Ages,  when  the  term  was  in 
common  use,  a  staple  meant  both  the 
trading  town  for  particular  commo- 
dities and  the  commodities  that  were 
wont  to  be  exposed  for  sale  there. 

Star,  one  of  the  self-luminous  bodies 
which  surround  our  solar  system  on 
all  sides.  They  are  distinguished  from 
the  planets  by  their  flickering  light, 
by  the  comparative  constancy  of  their 
relative  positions  in  space,  and  by 
their  inappreciable  diameter  even  when 
viewed  by  the  most  powerful  optical 
instruments.  The  number  of  stars  vis- 
ible to  the  naked  eye  is  estimated  at 
about  5,000;  and  these  have  from  an 
early  age  been  grouped  in  constella- 
tions and  classified  according  to  their 
brightness  or  magnitude.  Those  be- 
longing to  the  first  six  magnitudes  are 
visible  to  the  naked  eye ;  but  the  tele- 
scope reveals  myriads  which  are  dis- 
tinguished down  to  the  16th  magni- 
tude. Of  modern  catalogues,  Arge- 
lander's  "  Sternverzeichniss "  is  the 
largest,  enumerating  more  than  300,- 
000  down  to  the  ninth  magnitude,  all 
situated  between  the  pole  and  2°  S.  of 
the  equator. 

Starch,  a  proximate  principle  of 
plants,  universally  diffused  in  the  vege- 
table kingdom,  and  of  great  impor- 
tance. It  occurs  in  seeds,  as  in  those 
of  wheat  and  other  cereal  grains,  and 
also  in  leguminous  plants ;  in  roots,  as 
in  the  tubers  o£  the  potato ;  in  the  stem 


and  pith  of  many  plants,  as  in  the  sago 
plant ;  in  some  barks,  as  in  that  of 
cinnamon ;  and  in  pulpy  fruits,  such 
as  the  apple.  Finally,  it  is  obtained  in 
the  expressed  juice  of  most  vegetables, 
such  as  the  carrot,  in  a  state  of  sus- 
pension, being  deposited  on  standing. 
The  starch  of  commerce  is  chiefly  ex- 
tracted from  wheat  and  potatoes.  It 
is  composed  of  transparent  rounded 
grains,  the  size  of  which  varies  in  dif- 
ferent plants,  those  of  the  potato  being 
among  the  largest,  and  those  of  wheat 
and  rice  the  smallest.  It  is  insoluable 
in  cold  water,  alcohol,  and  ether ;  but 
when  heated  with  water  it  is  converted 
into  a  kind  of  solution,  which,  on  cool- 
ing, forms  a  stiff  semi-opaque  jelly. 
If  dried  up  this  yields  a  translucent 
mass,  which  softens  and  swells  into  a 
jelly  with  water.  It  is  employed  for 
stiffening  linen  and  other  cloth.  When 
roasted  at  a  moderate  heat  in  an  oven 
it  is  converted  into  a  species  of  gum 
employed  by  calico-printers ;  potato 
starch  answers  best  for  this  purpose. 
Starch  is  also  the  chief  ingredient 
of  bread. 

Star  Ghamher,  a  British  tribunal 
which  met  in  the  old  council  chamber 
of  the  palace  of  Westminster,  and  is 
said  to  have  received  its  name  from 
the  roof  of  that  apartment  being  dec- 
orated with  gilt  stars,  or  because  in  it 
"  starres  "  or  Jewish  bonds  had  been 
kept.  It  is  supposed  to  have  originat- 
ed in  early  times  out  of  the  exercise 
of  jurisdiction  by  the  king's  council, 
whose  powers  in  this  respect  had 
greatly  declined  when  in  1487  Henry 
VIII.,  anxious  to  repress  the  insolence 
and  illegal  exactions  of  powerful  land- 
owners, revived  and  remodelled  them, 
or,  according  to  some  investigators, 
instituted  what  was  practically  an  en- 
tirely new  tribunal.  The  statute  con- 
ferred on  the  Chancellor,  the  Treas- 
urer, and  the  Keeper  of  the  Privy 
Seal,  with  the  assistance  of  a  bishop 
and  a  temporal  Lord  of  the  Council, 
and  Chief-justices,  or  two  other  jus- 
tices in  their  absence,  a  jurisdiction  t» 
punish,  without  a  jury,  the  misde- 
meanors of  sheriffs  and  juries,  as  well 
as  riots  and  unlawful  assemblies. 
Henry  VIII.  added  to  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  court  the  president  of  the 
Council,  and  ultimately  all  the  privy- 
councillors  were  members  of  it.    Tref 


Starflsli 

resulting  tribunal  was,  during  the 
Tudor  age,  of  undoubted  utility  as  a 
means  of  bringing  to  justice  great  and 
powerful  offenders  who  would  other- 
wise have  had  it  in  their  power  to  set 
the  law  at  defiance.  It  was  independ- 
ent of  a  jury,  and  at  that  time  juries 
were  too  easily  terrorized  by  the 
nobles.  The  proceedings  of  the  Star 
Chamber  were  viewed  with  distrust 
by  the  commons ;  but  during  the  reign 
of  Charles  I.  its  excesses  reached  a 
pitch  that  made  it  absolutely  odious 
to  the  country  at  large,  and  in  1641 
a  bill  was  carried  in  both  Houses 
which  decreed  the  abolition  of  the 
Star  Chamber  and  the  equally  un- 
popular High  Commission  Court. 

Starfisb,  m  zoology,  a  popular 
name  for  any  individual  of  the  family 
Asteridse,    a    familiar   object    on    the 


STABFISHES  AND  BKITTLE  STABS. 

<1)    Common   Starfish    (Asterias  rubens); 

(2)  Gibbous  Starlet  (Asterlna  glbbosa) ; 

(3)  Common  Starfish,  reproducing  rays; 

(4)  Eyed    Cribella    (Crlbella   oculata) ; 
(6)  Lesser  Sand-star  (Ophlura  alblda). 

Atlantic  coasts.  The  body  is  more  or 
less  star  shaped,  and  consists  of  a 
central  portion,  or  disk,  surrounded  by 
five  or  more  lobes,  or  arms,  radiating 
from  the  body  and  containing  prolon- 
gations of  the  viscera.  The  mouth  is 
situated  in  the  center  of  the  lower 
surface  of  the  body,  and  the  anus  is 
either  absent  or  on  the  upper  surface. 
Locomotion  is  effected  by  means  of 
peculiar  tube-like  processes,  which  are 
protruded  from  the  under  surface  of 


Starling 

the  arms.  They  possess  in  a  high  de- 
gree the  power  of  reproducing  lost 
members  and  abound  in  all  seas. 

Star  Gazer,  a  species  of  acanthop- 
terygious  fishes  of  the  perch  family, 
inhabiting  the  Mediterranean,  and  so 
called  because  the  eyes  are  situated 
on  the  top  of  the  head  and  directed 
toward  the  heavens.  It  is  found  in  the 
rivers  of  Guiana,  and  acquires  its 
name  of  "  four  eyes  "  from  its  prom- 
inent and  apparently  divided  eyes. 

Stark,  Jolin,  an  American  military 
officer;  born  in  Londonderry,  N.  H., 
Aug.  28,  1728;  joined  the  troops  un- 
der Major  Rogers  in  the  war  against 
the  French  and  Indians  in  1754;  ren- 
dered efficient  service  at  Ticonderoga 
in  1758,  and  was  actively  employed 
in  the  subsequent  campaign.  In  1775, 
after  the  battle  of  Lexington  he  re- 
ceived a  colonel's  commission,  and  re- 
cruited a  regiment  which  formed  the 
left  of  the  American  line  at  Bunker 
Hill.  In  1777  he  resigned  his  com- 
mission, feeling  slighted  by  Congress 
in  its  list  of  promotions.  When,  how- 
ever, information  was  received  that 
Ticonderoga  had  been  taken,  he  set 
out  at  the  head  of  a  small  force,  met 
and  defeated  Baum's  forces  at  Ben- 
nington, and  likewise  defeated  the 
British  reenforcements  of  500  men 
which  Burgoyne  had  sent  to  Baum's 
aid.  For  this  victory  he  was  promot- 
ed Brigadier-General.  He  died  in  Man- 
chester, N.  H.,  May  8,  1822. 


STABLING. 


Starling,  in  ornithology,  a  popular 
name  for  any  individual  of  the  genua 


Starnosed  Mole 


Starr 


Sturnus,  abundant  in  most  parts  of 
the  continent  of  Europe,  frequently 
visiting  Northern  Africa  in  its  winter 
migrations.  The  male  is  about  eight 
inches  long,  general  color  of  the  plum- 
age, black,  glossed  wth  blue  and 
purple,  the  feathers,  except  those  of 
the  head  and  fore  neck,  having  a 
triangular  white  spot  on  the  tip.  They 
become  exceedingly  familiar  in  con- 
finement, and  display  great  imitative 
powers,  learning  to  whistle  tunes  and 
to  articulate  words  and  phrases  with 
great  distinctness. 

Starnosed  Mole,  a  North  Amer- 
ican genus  of  moles,  distinguished  by 
bearing  at  the  extremity  of  their  muz- 
zle a  remarkable  structure  of  fleshy 
and  somewhat  cartilaginous  rays  dis- 
posed in  the  form  of  a  star. 

Star  of  Bethleheiu,  the  celestial 
phenomenon  described  in  the  New 
Testament  as  accompanying  the  birth 
of  Christ.  Some  astronomers  have  at- 
tempted to  account  for  this  on  the 
hypothesis  of  the  conjunction  of  two 
or  more  bright  planets  in  about  the 
same  part  of  the  sky  at  that  time,  but 
with  little  success.  At  various  times 
since  the  appearance  of  Tycho  Brahe's 
star  in  the  constellation  Cassiopeia  in 
1572,  the  celebrated  Nova  of  that 
year,  it  has  been  suggested  that  this 
might  be  a  variable  star  of  long  pe- 
riod, though  there  is  nothing  now  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  place  of  this  star 
brighter  than  the  12th  or  13th  mag- 
nitude. Nevertheless,  a  reported  ap- 
pearance of  a  bright  star  in  some- 
where near  that  part  of  the  heavens 
about  the  middle  of  the  13th  century 
combined  with  a  still  more  vague  ac- 
count of  some  similar  appearance  a 
little  more  than  300  years  earlier, 
furnished  plenty  of  material  for  con- 
jecture that  these  might  possibly  be 
former  appearances  of  the  star  of 
1572,  giving  a  period  of  about  310  or 
315  years,  and  a  further  use  of  the 
imagination  would  carry  it  back  three 
periods  more  to  about  the  time  of  the 
birth  of  Christ.  This  is  all  the  ground 
there  is  for  supposinjj  any  connection 
between  Tycho's  star  of  1572  and  the 
Star  of  Bethlehem.  Astronomers,  since 
the  invention  of  the  telescope,  have 
kept  a  pretty  close  watch  of  the  few 
faint  stars  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of    the    place     indicated     by     Tycho 


Brahe's  measures  to  see  if  any  of 
them  changed  in  brightness,  but  with- 
out any  evidence  of  such  change. 
Nevertheless,  some  years  ago,  as  it 
was  getting  to  be  about  time  for  an- 
other appearance  of  the  star  on  the 
310  or  315  years  hypothesis,  the  story 
was  revived  again,  and  the  newspa- 
pers predicted  a  reappearance  of  the 
"  Star  of  Bethlehem,"  but  no  such  ap- 
pearance came. 

Star  of  Bethlehem,  in  botany,  a 
bulbous-rooted  plant  with  white  star- 
like flowers.  It  is  naturalized  in  the 
United  States. 

Starr,  Ella,  an  American  journal- 
ist; bom  in  New  York  city.  A  book 
of  Shakespearean  tales  arranged  for 
children  and  one  on  "  Mythology/' 
were  left  unfinished  at  her  death  in 
Fishkill,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  14,  1902. 

Starr,  Eliza  Allen,  an  American 
author ;  born  in  Deerfield,  Mass.,  Aug. 
29,  1824.  In  1856  she  settled  in  Chi- 
cago, 111.,  and  devoted  her  time  to 
teaching  and  to  literary  work.  Her 
publications  include  "  Poems  "  ;  "  Pa- 
tron Saints " ;  "  Pilgrims  and 
Shrines " ;  etc.  In  1900  she  received 
a  cameo  medallion  from  Pope  Leo 
XIII.  in  recognition  of  her  literary 
work.  She  died  in  Durand,  111.,  Sept. 
9,  1901. 

Starr,  Frederick,  an  American 
educator ;  born  in  Auburn,  N.  Y., 
Sept.  2,  1858;  was  Professor  of  Sci- 
ences at  the  State  Normal  School, 
Lock  Haven,  Pa.,  in  1883-1884;  had 
charge  of  the  Department  of  Anthro- 
pology at  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History  in  1889-1891.  He 
was  called  to  the  chair  of  anthro- 
pology at  the  University  of  Chicago 
in  1893.  His  publications  include : 
"  On  the  Hills  " ;  "  Some  First  Steps 
in  Human  Progress " ;  "  Indians  of 
Southern  Mexico " ;  "  Strange  Peo- 
ple " ;  etc. 

Starr,  Lonis,  an  American  physi- 
cian ;  bom  in  Philadelphia ;  became 
prominent  by  his  treatment  of  chil- 
dren's diseases ;  was  Clinical  Profes- 
sor of  the  Diseases  of  Children  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1884— 
1890.  His  publications  include  "  Dis- 
eases of  Digestive  Organs  in  Infancy 
and  Childhood " ;  "  Hygiene  of  the 
Nursery " ;  "  Diets  for  Infants  and 
Children  in  Health  and  Disease  " ;  etc. 


star  Routes 

Star  Routes,  a  term  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  United  States  postal 
Bervice.  Prior  to  1845  it  was  the  cus- 
tom in  letting  the  contracts  for  the 
transportation  of  inland  mails,  other 
than  by  railroad  or  steamboat  routes, 
to  give  the  preference  to  bidders  who 
offered  stage  or  coach  service.  This 
was  abolished  by  act  of  Congress. 
March  3,  1845,  which  provided  that 
the  postmaster  general  should  let  all 
such  contracts  to  the  lowest  bidder 
tendering  sufficient  guarantee  for 
faithful  performance,  without  any 
condition  except  to  provide  for  due 
celerity,  certainty  and  security  of 
transportation.  These  bids  for  such 
service  became  classified  as  "  celerity, 
certainty  and  security  bids,"  and  for 
brevity  were  designated  on  the  route 
registers  by  three  stars  (***)  and 
known  as  star  routes.  These  routes 
vary  ir  Jength  from  a  fraction  of  a 
mile  up  to  several  hundred  miles,  the 
longest  one  in  operation  in  1899  being 
that  from  Juneau,  Alaska,  via  Circle 
in  the  same  territory,  along  the  Yukon 
river  to  Tanana,  a  distance  of  1,618 
miles,  connecting  at  the  last  named 
point  with  -the  next  longest  route 
which  runs  from  Tanana  to  St.  Mi- 
chaels, a  distance  of  900  miles. 

Early  in  1881  rumors  were  in  circu- 
lation of  extensive  frauds  in  this 
branch  of  the  mail  service.  Proceed- 
ings were  begun,  but  no  conviction 
was  secured  either  on  these  charges  or 
on  others  which  were  made  in  1883. 

Stars  and  Bars,  the  flag  of  the 
Confederate  States  of  America.  It  was 
merely  an  adaptation  of  the  stars  and 
stripes,  having  three  "  alternate 
stripes  red  and  white,"  instead  of  13 
such  stripes,  and  a  circle  of  white 
stars  on  a  blue  field,  corresponding  to 
the  number  of  States  of  the  confed- 
eracy. 

Stars  and  Stripes,  the  national 
banner  of  the  United  States. 

Star  Spangled  Banner,  the 
national  banner  of  the  United  States. 
First  applied  to  the  American  flag  by 
Francis  S.  Key  on  the  morning  after 
the  British  attack  on  Fort  McHenry, 
at  Baltimore,  in  1814. 

Star  Tliistle,  a.  British  plant 
which  grows  in  gravelly,  sandy,  and 
waste  places  in  the  middle  and  S.  of 
England,^,  especially  near  the  sea,  and 


"        Stftte 

is  remarkable  for  its  long  spreading 
spiny  bracts.  The  star  thistle,  native 
in  Arkansas  and  Louisiana,  has  very 
showy,  pale-purple  heads. 

State,  one  of  the  members  of  the 
North  American  federation  or  union. 
The  erection  of  the  constituent  mem- 
bers of  the  Union  into  their  present 
status  and  reciprocal  relations  may  be 
said  properly  to  have  begun  with  the 
formal  ratification  of  the  first  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States,  the 
order  of  which,  by  States,  is  given  be- 
low. Prior  to  this  action  on  their  part, 
the  colonies  had  occupied  simply  the 
position  of  congeries  of  provinces 
banded  together  for  mutual  defense, 
and  having  no  other  organic  union 
than  a  common  legislative  body  com- 
posed of  delegates  sent  from  each  col- 
ony, which  delegates  might  be  with- 
held and  all  connection  with  the  gen- 
eral body  dissolved  by  the  independ- 
ent action  of  any  one  of  the  common- 
wealths composing  it.  The  first  to 
enter  the  sisterhood  of  States  by 
ratifying  the  Constitution  was  Dela- 
ware, which,  on  Dec.  7,  1787,  unani- 
mously voted  its  adoption ;  then  fol- 
lowed Pennsylvania,  Dec.  12,  1787, 
vote  46  to  23;  New  Jersey,  Dec.  18, 

1787,  unanimously;   Georgia,   Jan.   2, 

1788,  unanimously;  Connecticut,  Jan. 
9,  1788,  vote  128  to  40;  Massachu- 
setts, Feb.  6,  1788,  vote  187  to  168; 
Maryland,  April  28,  1788,  vote  63  to 
12;  South  Carolina,  May  23,  1788, 
vote  149  to  73 ;  New  Hampshire,  June 
21,  1788,  vote  57  to  46;  Virginia, 
June,  1788,  vote  89  to  79 ;  New  York, 
July  26,  1788,  vote  30  to  28;  North 
Carolina,  Nov.  21,  1789,  vote  193  to 
75;  Rhode  Island,  May  29,  1790, 
vote  34  to  32.  It  will  thus  be  seen 
that  Delaware  is  really  the  oldest 
State  in  the  Union,  while  Rhode  Is- 
land is  the  youngest.  After  the  rati- 
fication of  the  Constitution  and  the 
entrance  into  statehood  by  the  13 
original  parties  to  the  contract,  the 
other  members  of  the  Union  were  ad- 
mitted by  act  of  Congress,  upon  their 
own  petition  on  the  following  dates: 

Alabama    Dec.  14,  1819- 

Arizona     Feb.  14,  1912 

Arkansas     '. June  15,  1836 

California     Sept.    9,  1850 

Colorado     Aug.    1,  1876 

Florida    March    3,  1845 

Idaho    July     3,  1890 


State 


Illinois    Dec.    3, 

Indiana    Dec.  11, 

Iowa    . . ; Dec.  28, 

Kansas    Jan.  29, 

Kentucky    June    1, 

Louisiana    April  30, 

Maine     March  15, 

Michigan 


1818 
1816 
1846 
1861 
1792 
1812 
1820 
Jan.  26,     1837 


Minnesota    May  11,  1858 

Mississippi     Dec.  10,  1817 

Missouri     Aug.  10.  1821 

Montana     Nov.    8,  1889 

Nebraska     March    1,  1867 

Nevada     Oct.  31,  1864 

New  Mexico     Jan.    6,  1912 

North  Dakota     Nov.    2,  1889 

Ohio Jan.  19,  1803 

Oklahoma March    4,  1906 

Oregon Feb.  14,  1859 

South  Dakota Nov.  2,  1889 

Tennessee June    1,  1796 

Texas Dec.  29,  1845 

Utah Jan.  14,  1896 

Vermont March    4,  1791 

Washington Nov.  11,  1889 

West  Virginia June  19,  1863 

Wisconsin May  29,  1848 

Wyoming July  10  1889 

Alaska,  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philip- 
pines have  restricted  Delegates. 

After  the  Civil  War,  the  seceding 
States  were  deprived  of  statehood. 
Gradually,  however,  a  recons'truction 
of  the  States  was  accomplished,  and 
they  were  readmitted  into  full  fellow- 
Bhip  in  the  galaxy  of  States.  The 
government  of  each  State  is  an  au- 
tonomy, and  each  is  the  supreme 
judge  of  its  own  laws,  except  bo  far 
as  affected  by  the  laws  or  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States,  the 
superior  power  of  which  is  granted 
expressily  in  the  compact  of  the  union. 
The  chief  executive  is  a  governor 
elected  by  the  people  for  terms  of 
varying  length.  The  legislative  body 
is  composed  of  two  houses,  an  upper 
and  lower,  also  elected  by  the  people; 
•while  the  judiciary  is  selected  by 
varying  methods,  ia  some  States  be- 
ing elected  directly  by  the  people,  in 
others  by  the  Legislature,  and  in  still 
others  appointed  (in  some  instances) 
by  the  governor.  Each  State  has  in 
the  National  Congress  two  senators 
and  a  number  of  represenatives  in 
the  lower  house  based  on  the  popula- 
tion of  the  State.  From  1913  to  1923. 
based  on  the  United  States  census  of 
1910,  the  ratio  is  one  representative 
to  211,877  of  population.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  number  of 
electoral  votes  and  Congressional  rep- 
resentatives by  States: 


Electoral 
vote 

Alabama 12 

Arizona 3 

Arkansas 9 

California 13 

Colorado 6 

Connecticut 7 

Delaware 3 

Florida 6 

Georgia 14 

Idado 4 

Illinois 29 

Indiana 15 

Iowa 13 

Kansas 10 

Kentucky 13 

I>ouisiana 10 

Maine 6 

Maryland 8 

Massachusetts 18 

Michigan 15 

Minnesota 12 

Mississippi 10 

Missouri 18 

Montana 4 

Nebraska 8 

Nevada 3 

New  Hampshire 4 

New  Jersey 14 

New  Mexico 3 

New  York 45 

North  Carolina 12 

North  Dakota 5 

Ohio 24 

Oklahoma 10 

Oregon 5 

Pennsylvania 38 

Rhode  Island 5 

South  Carolina 9 

South  Dakota 5 

Tennessee 12 

Texas 20 

Utah..     4 

Vermont 4 

Virginia 12 

Washington 7 

West  Virginia 8 

Wisconsin 13 

Wyoming 3 

.-,31 


State 

Repre- 
sentatives 
10 

1 

7 
11 

4 

5 

1 

4 
12 

2 
27 

13     . 
11 

8 
11 


16 

13 

10 
S 

16 
2 
6 
1 
2 

12 
1 

43 

10 
3 

22 
8 
3 

33 
3 
7 
3 

10 

18 
2 
2 

10 
5 
6 

11 
1 

435 


State,  Department  of,  an  execu- 
tive department  of  U.  S.  government, 
established  by  Act  of  Congress,  1789. 
At  its  head  is  the  Secretary  of  State, 
who  is  appointed  by  President  and 
confirmed  by  Senate.  Through  him 
communication  is  made  between  the 
United  States  government  and  aay  of 
the  States  or  any  foreign  country.  He 
has  charge  of  the  great  seal  of  the 
United  States;  of  all  ambassadors 
and  consuls,  and  in  his  custody  are 
all  engrossed  copies  of  the  laws  of  the 
United  States  and  all  treaties. 


Staten  Island 


Stay 


Staten  Island,  an  island  com- 
prising .Richmond  co.,  N.Y.,  and  Rich- 
mond borough,  New  Yorli  city; 
bounded  N.  by  the  Kill  von  Kull,  E. 
by  New  York  bay,  S.  S.  E.  by  Rari- 
tan  and  Lower  bays,  W.  by  Staten 
Island  bay;  area,  58%  square  miles; 
contains  numerous  towns  and  villages, 
Midland  and  South  beaches  (summer 
resorts).  Sailors'  Snug  Harbor  (home 
for  aged  and  infirm  seamen),  and  Fort 
Wadsworth  and  a  line  of  water  bat- 
teries, commanding  the  entrance  to 
New  York  harbor.    Pop.  (1910)  85,969. 

Station,  name  applied  in  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  certain  places  re- 

Euted  of  special  sanctity.  The  word 
owever,  is  employed  in  a  still  more 
remarkable  manner  in  reference  to  a 
ver^  popular  and  widely-received  de- 
votional practice  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church,  known  as  that  of  "  The 
Stations  of  the  Cross."  This  devotion 
prevails  in  all  Catholic  countries ;  and 
the  traveler  often  recognizes  it  even 
at  a  distance  by  the  emblems  which 
are  employed  in  directing  its  observ- 
ance —  the  lofty  "  Calvary  "  crowning 
some  distant  eminence,  with  a  series 
of  fresco  pictures  or  bas  reliefs  ar- 
ranged at  intervals  along  the  line  of 
approach.  But  the  same  series  of  im- 
ages or  pictures  is  ranged  round  most 
Roman  Catholic  churches,  usually 
starting  from  one  side  of  the  high  al- 
tar and  ending  at  the  other.  These 
representations,  the  subjects  of  which 
are  supplied  by  scenes  from  the  several 
stages  of  the  Passion  of  our  Lord,  are 
called  Stations  of  the  Cross,  and  the 
whole  series  is  popularly  known  as  the 
Via  Calvarii,  or  Way  of  Calvary. 

Statistics,  a  collection  of  facts,  ar- 
ranged and  classified,  respecting  the 
condition  of  a  people  in  a  state  or  com- 
munity, or  of  a  class  of  people,  their 
health,  longevity,  domestic  economy, 
their  social,  moral,  intellectual,  phys- 
ical and  economical  condition,  re- 
sources, etc.,  especially  those  facts 
which  can  be  stated  in  numbers,  or 
tables  of  numbers,  or  in  any  tabular 
and  classified  arrangement.  Also,  that 
department  of  political  science  which 
classifies,  arranges,  and  discusses  sta- 
tistical facts. 

Stature,  the  natural  height  of  an 
animal :  bodily  height  or  tallness. 
(Generally  used  of  human  bodies.) 
The  Anthropometric  Committee  of  the 


British  Association,  in  1883,  reported 
that  of  the  natives  of  the  British  Isles 
the  Scotch  stand  first  in  height,  aver- 
aging G8.71  inches;  the  Irish  stand 
second,  being  67.90  inches ;  the  En- 
glish come  next,  67.36  inches;  and 
the  Welsh  last,  being  66.66  inches ;  the 
Polynesian  tribes,  69.33  inches ;  the 
Patagonians,  whose  stature  has  been 
much  exaggerated,  69  inches ;  the 
American  whites  in  the  United  States, 
67.67 ;  the  Zulus,  67.19,  the  American 
negroes,  66.62 ;  the  English  Jews, 
66.57 ;  the  French  upper  classes, 
66.14 ;  the  Germans,  66.10 ;  the  Arabs, 
66.08;  the  Russians,  66.04;  the 
French  working  classes,  65.24 ;  the 
Hindus,  64.76;  the  Chinese,  64.17;  the 
Bushmen  of  South  Africa,  the  lowest 
of  stature  of  any  known  people,  52.78 
inches. 


A    STEAMBOAT    OF    1736. 

Stay,  nautically,  a  strong  rope 
which  stiffens  and  supports  a  mast  in 
its  erect  position,  by  connecting  its 
head  to  some  part  of  the  hull,  or  to  a 
part  stayed  from  the  hull.  The  fore- 
and-aft  stays  lead  forward  in  the  ves- 
sel's line  amidships ;  the  back  stays 
pass  somewhat  abaft  the  shrouds,  and 
are  attached  to  the  side  of  the  ves- 
sel, at  the  channels ;  the  breast  and 
standing  stays  lead  from  the  mastheads 
down  to  the  gunwale  on  each  side. 
Spring  stays  are  preventer  stays  to 
assist  the  principal  ones.  The  fore- 
and-aft  stays  support  the  stay-sails  by 
means  of  hanks.  The  stays  are  named 
from  the  masts  they  support ;  as,  the 
forestay,  foretopmast  stay,  main«^op- 
mast  stay,  jib  and  flying-jib  stay,  bob 
stay,  etc.  A  jumper  stay  is  a  movable 
stay  leading  from  the  head  of  a  main- 
mast to  a  pair  of  eye  bolts  in  the  deck 
close  to  the  after  part  of  the  fore 
rigging.  The  triatic  stay  is  connected 
at  its   ends   to  the  heads  of   the   fore 


stead 


Steam 


and  main  masts,  and  has  a  thimble 
spliced  to  its  bight  for  the  suspension 
of  the  stay  tackle. 

Stead,  William  Thomas,  an  En- 
glish journalist ;  born  in  Embleton, 
Northumberland,  July  5,  1849.  He  is 
widely  known  as  editor  of  the  "  Re- 
view of  Reviews,"  which  he  founded 
in  January,  1890.  In  1893  he  estab- 
lished "  Borderland,"  a  periodical  de- 
voted to  Spiritualism.  "If  Christ  Came 
to  Chicago  "  is  another  of  his  publica- 
tions. 

Steadman,  Fort,  a  defensive  work 
on  the  James  river,  about  18  miles 
below  Richmond,  Va.  It  was  captured 
by  the  Confederates,  March  14,  1865, 
and  retaken  by  the  Union  troops  short- 
ly afterward. 


steam  at  212°,  without  raising  the 
temperature  of  the  steam  at  all.  If 
the  temperature  of  steam  at  212°  is 
lowered  by  only  a  very  small  amount, 
part  of  the  steam  is  condensed ;  hence 
steam  at  this  temperature  is  termed 
moist  or  saturated  steam.  At  high 
temperatures  and  pressures,  steam  be- 
haves like  a  perfect  gas ;  but  at  lower 
pressures  and  at  temperatures  near  the 
boiling  point  of  water,  its  behavior  dif- 
fers markedly  from  that  of  perfect 
gases ;  and  this  change  of  properties 
has  to  be  taken  into  account  in  all  cal- 
culations connected  with  the  expan- 
sion of  steam  in  steam  engines.  If  in- 
stead of  allowing  the  steam  to  escape 
freely,  the  water  is  boiled  in  a  closed 
vessel,    the    steam    accumulates,    and 


STEAMBOAT   OF  1812. 


Steam,  in  physics,  water  in  its 
gaseous  form.  It  is  a  colorless,  invisible 
gas,  quite  distinct  from  the  visible 
cloud  which  issues  from  a  kettle,  etc., 
which  is  composed  of  minute  drops  of 
water  produced  by  the  condensation 
of  the  steam  as  it  issues  into  the  colder 
air.  Under  ordinary  atmospheric  pres- 
sure, water  boils  in  an  open  vessel  at 
a  temperature  of  212°,  and  the  steam 
always  has  this  temperature,  no  mat- 
ter how  fast  the  water  is  made  to  boil. 
The  heat  which  is  supplied  simply 
suffices  to  do  the  work  of  converting 
the  liquid  water  at  212°  into  gaseous 


both  pressure  and  temperature  rapidly 
increase,  till  the  former  becomes  sev- 
eral times  greater  than  that  of  the 
atmosphere.  If  now  the  steam  is  al- 
lowed to  escape,  it  rapidly  expands, 
and  if  it  escapes  into  the  cylinder  of 
a  steam  engine  the  expansion  can  be 
utilized  and  converted  into  work.  As 
the  steam  expands,  its  pressure  of 
course  becomes  less  and  less  till  it  is 
not  greater  than  that  of  the  atmos- 
phere ;  and  at  the  same  time  its  tem- 
perature is  reduced,  the  reduction  de- 
pending on  the  rapidity  with  which  ex- 
pansion  takes   place.       The   economic 


steamboat 


Steamboat 


uses  of  steam  are  extremely  numerous. 
The  most  important  is  that  of  an 
agent  for  the  production  of  mechanical 
force  on  railways,  in  steamboats,  and 
in  manufactories.  It  is  also  largely 
employed  in  warming  buildings,  in 
heating  baths,  in  brewing,  in  distilling, 
and  for  cooking  purposes. 


year  1785.  In  the  first  he  employed 
a  large  pipe  kettle  for  generating  the 
steam,  the  motive  power  being  side 
paddles  working  after  the  fashion  6f 
oars  on  a  common  rowboat.  In  the 
second  Fitch  craft  the  same  mode  of 
propulsion  w^as  adopted  with  the  ex- 
ception  that   the   paddles   were   made 


AMEEICAlSr  EIVER   STEAMBOAT. 


Steamboat,  a  boat  or  vessel  pro- 
pelled by  steam  acting  either  on  pad- 
dles or  on  a  screw.  The  term  espe- 
cially belongs  to  steam  river  craft ; 
ocean-going  craft  being  called  steam- 
ers, steamships,  etc.  The  first  steam- 
boat was  built  by  Denis  Papin,  who 
navigated  it  safely  down  the  Fulda 
as  long  ago  as  1707.     Unfortunately 


to  imitate  a  revolving  wheel  and  were 
fixed  to  the  stern. 

This  last  mentioned  boat  was  the 
first  American  steam  vessel  that  can 
be  pronounced  a  success.  It  made  its 
first  trip  to  Burlington  in  July,  1788. 
But,  after  all,  it  was  not  till  after  the 
opening  of  the  19th  century  that  steam 
navigation  started  into  actual  life.  In 


MODERN   SOUND  PBOPELLEE. 


this  pioneer  craft  was  destroyed  by 
jealous  sailors,  and  even  the  very  mem- 
ory of  it  was  lost  for  three-quarters  of 
a  century. 

The  first  American  to  attempt  to 
apply  steam  to  navigation  was  John 
Fitch,  a  Connecticut  mechanic,  who 
made   his    initial   experiments   in   the 


1801  Symington  designed  a  boat  for 
towing,  which  attained  a  speed  of 
SV2  miles  an  hour.  In  1807  Robert 
Fulton,  an  American,  in  conjunction 
with  one  Robert  R.  Livingston,  built 
the  "  Clermont "  and  established  a 
regular  packet  service  between  New 
York  and  Albany. 


steam  Engine 


Steam  Hammes 


The  success  of  this  undertaking  was 
60  satisfactory  that  four  new  boats 
were  built  before  the  end  of  _  1811,  at 
least  two  of  them  being  designed  tor 
service  in  other  rivers. 

Steam  Engine.  Steam  engines  in 
their  infancy  were  known  as  "fare 
(i,  e.,  heat)  engines;  and  in  point  ot 
fact  the  older  term  is  the  more  cor- 
rect, because  the  water  or  steam  is 
only  used  as  a  convenient  medium 
through  which  the  form  of  energy 
which  we  call  heat  is  made  to  perform 
the  required  mechanical  operations.  In 
modern  engines  sufficient  heat  is  added 
to  the  steam  to  raise  it  to  a  very  high 
pressure,  and  the  excess  of  this  pres- 
sure over  the  pressure  opposed  to  it 
(either  atmospheric    pressure   or    tlie 


The  common  mode  of  employing 
steam  in  an  engine  is  by  causing  it  to 
press  alternately  on  the  two  surfaces 
of  a  movable  diaphragm  or  piston  en- 
closed in  a  fixed  steam-tight,  cylin- 
drical  box.  The  piston,  by  means  of 
a  rod,  passing  through  the  end  of  the 
box,  is  made  to  communicate  motion 
to  the  rest  of  the  machinery.  The 
steam  is  first  admitted  to  one  end  ot 
the  cylinder  through  an  opening  or 
"port,"  and  forces  the  piston  along 
to  the  other  end.  The  current  of  steam 
from  the  boiler  is  then  allowed  to  pass 
into  the  other  end  of  the  cylinder 
through  the  opening,  and  forces  the 
piston  back  again  to  its  original  posi- 
tion and  so  on.  But  it  is  obvious  that 
while  this  return  motion  is  going  on 


MODERN  OCEAN  STEAMSHIP. 


still  lower  pressure  in  a  condenser) 
is  both  the  cause  and  measure  of  the 
work  done  by  the  engine.  In  earlier 
machines,  however,  the  steam  was 
raised  only  to  atmospheric  pressure, 
and  admitted  into  the  engine  only  to 
be  at  once  condensed  by  a  jet  ot  com 
water.  The  excess  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure  above  the  pressure  in  the  par- 
tial vacuum  caused  by  the  condensa- 
tion was  then  the  direct  cause  of  work. 
Engines  of  this  kind  were  called  at- 
mospheric engines.  The  invention  of 
Bte^pi  as  a  moving  power  is  claimed 
by  various  nations;  but  the  first  ex- 
tensive employment  of  it,  and  most  ot 
the  improvements  made  on  the  steam 
engine,  the  world  indisputably  owes 
to  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain. 


the  steam  previously  admitted  must  be 
allowed  some  exit,  or  the  piston  could 
not  be  forced  back.  The  manner  of  this 
exit  constitutes  the  difference  between 
the  two  principal  classes  of  engines, 
according  as  the  steam  is  allowed  sim- 
ply to  rush  out  into  the  atmosphere  or 
is  conducted  into  a  separate  vessel  and 
there  "  condensed." 

Steam  Gauge,  an  instrument  at- 
tached to  a  boiler  to  indicate  the  pres- 
sure of  steam. 

Steam  Hammer,  a  hammer 
worked  by  means  of  steam.  In  ISrfy 
James  Nasmyth  invented  the  steam 
hammer  called  after  him  and  patented 
it  in  1842.  In  Nasmyth's  hammer  the 
head  is  attached  to  the  piston  rod  ot 
'an    inverted    cylinder   supported   ver- 


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Steamships 

tically,  and  the  piston  is  raised  by  the 
action  of  the  steam  admitted  into  the 
cylinder  below  the  piston.  The  ham- 
mer is  allowed  to  fall  by  its  own 
weight,  or  is  driven  downward  with 
still  greater  velocity  by  the  action  of 
steam  admitted  into  the  cylinder  above 
the  piston.  The  admission  of  steam 
into  the  cylinder  is  regulated  by  a 
side  valve  worked  by  a  lever,  and  the 
force  of  the  stroke  can  be  controlled 
to  such  an  extent  by  regulating  the 
admission  of  steam,  that  the  largest 
hammer  can  be  made  to  crack  a  nut, 
or  to  come  down  on  a  mass  of  iron 
with  a  momentum  of  many  hundred 
foot  tons.  The  cylinder,  which  is  sup- 
ported on  a  strong  iron  framework, 
is  very  strong,  and  the  steam  pipes 
are  of  extra  strength,  because  of  the 
high  pressure  at  which  the  steam  is 
employed.  The  piston  rod  is  of  stout 
wrought  iron  or  steel,  and  the  ham- 
mer itself  is  also  of  steel.  The  weight 
of  the  hammer  ranges  from  about  200 
pounds  to  25  tons;  and  the  object  to 
be  struck  is  placed  on  an  anvil  con- 
sisting of  a  slab  of  iron  resting  on  a 
huge  mass  of  piles  and  concrete,  which 
frequently  descends  a  great  depth  into 
tne    ground. 

Steamsliips.  It  is  believed  that 
the  first  vessel  ever  propelled  over  the 
water  by  steam  was  built  in  1785-86 
by  James  Rumsey,  of  Charleston,  in 
,  what  is  now  West  Virginia.  Robert 
Fulton  has  been  generally  recognized 
by  historians  as  the  builder  of  the  first 
steamboat ;  but  Fulton's  steamboat, 
the  Clermont,  was  not  launched  on  the 
Hudson  until  1807,  and  in  those  very, 
waters  he  was  preceded  two  years  by 
Col.  A.  S.  Stevens,  who  built  and  ran 
a  steam-launch,  a  portion  of  whose 
mechanism  is  still  preserved  in  the 
Stevens  Institute,  in  Hoboken. 

The  development  of  steamships  as 
measured  by  construction  may  be 
summarized  as  follows :  Up  to  1845, 
wooden  construction ;  then  iron  began 
to  come  into  use ;  about  1835  the 
screw  began  to  replace  the  paddle- 
wheel  ;  between  1865  and  1870  com- 
pound engines  were  introduced  ;  about 
1875  steel  commenced  to  replace  iron 
for  the  structural  work ;  about  1880 
triple-expansion  engines  furthered  the 
development ;  in  1885  twin-screws 
came  into  use,  and  since  then  forced 
drafts  and   quadruple-expansion  have 


Steel 

been  developed.  The  largest  early- 
built  steamship  was  the  Great  East- 
ern, launched  in  1858,  her  length  being 
exactly  one-eighth  of  a  mile,  and 
breadth  over  paddle-boxes,  118  feet ; 
displacement,  32,160  tons ;  cost,  $3,- 
650,000;  speed,  11.13  knots. 

Modern  construction,  developed  on 
practical  lines,  has  surpassed  this 
leviathan  of  the  deep,  there  being 
afloat  several  vessels  of  over  700  feet 
in  length.  Chief  among  these  are  the 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  II,  and  the  Kronprin- 
zessin  Cecilie,  707  feet,  of  the  North 
German  Lloyd  Line,  the  Baltic  and 
Adriatic,  726  feet,  of  the  White  Star 
Line,  and  the  Mauretania  and  Lusi- 
tania,  790  feet,  of  the  Cunard  Line. 
These  last  two  have  each  a  displace- 
ment of  45,000  tons  and  68,000  indi- 
cated horse  power. 

Development  may  be  seen  in  the 
record  speeds  achieved  in  crossing  the 
Atlantic,  and  these  have  been  w^idely 
published  for  many  years,  the  regular 
reductions  in  time  exciting  much  pub- 
lic interest. 

The  list  of  record-breakers  on  the 
New  York  and  Queenstown  route, 
measuring  from  Sandy  Hook  to 
Roche's  Point,  about  2,800  miles,  fol- 
low : 


Dele. 

Steamer. 

Defjis. 

Hours. 

Min. 

1877 

7 
7 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
5 
5 
6 
5 
ft 
4 
4 

h) 
7 

18 
11 
10 
6 
4 
1 
19 
18 
16 
15 
11 
12 

f 
15 
10 
10 

1S80 

1882 

37 

1S81 

1881 

0 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1883 
1891 

City  of  Paris 

Majestic 

18 

1891 
1892 
1892 
1893 

Teutonic 

City  of  Paris 

City  of  Paris 

31 
68 
21 

1891 

1895 

23 

1908 

0 

1909 
1910 

Mauretania 

Hauretania 

51 
41 

Record  trip  of  the  Lusitania  was 
made  from  Queenstown  to  New  York. 
The  record  from  New  York  to 
Queenstown  is  held  by  the  Maureta- 
nia: 4  d.  14  h.  and  41  m.,  made  Sept. 
1909;  as  is  also  the  westward  record 
from  Queenstown  to  New  York.  4  d. 
10  h.  and  41  m.,  made  Sept.  11,  1910. 

Steel.  Recent  improvements  in  the 
metallurgical  treatment  of  iron  have 
so  broken  down  all  dividing  lines  be- 


Step'iiens 

Stephens,    Charles    Asbury,    an 

American  author ;  born  in  Norway 
Lake,  Me.,  in  1847.  He  published: 
"Camping  Out";  "Off  to  the  Gey- 
sers," also  works  on  biology,  "  Living 
Matter  " ;  "  Pluricellular  Man  " ;  and 
"  Long  Life." 

Stephens,  John  Lloyd,  an  Amer- 
ican author ;  born  in  Shrewsbury,  N. 
J.,  Nov.  28,  1805;  was  graduated  in 
1822  at  Columbia  College ;  studied  law 
and  practised  in  New  York.  In  1839 
he  was  sent  by  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment to  negotiate  a  treaty  with 
the  government  of  Central  America ; 
and  as  the  result  of  his  experiences 
and  investigations  in  that  country  he 
published  "  Incidents  of  Travel  in 
Central  America,  Chiapas,  and  Yuca- 
tan "  (1841);  and  after  further  ex- 
ploration, "  Incidents  of  Travel  in  Yu- 
catan "  (1843),  describing  the  ruined 
cities  and  monuments  of  this  part  of 
America.  He  was  one  of  the  organ- 
izers of  the  first  Atlantic  steam  navi- 
gation company  and  one  of  the  first 
presidents  of  the  company  which  con- 
structed a  railway  across  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  and  superintended  the  con- 
struction. He  died  in  New  York  city, 
Oct.  10,  1852. 

Stephens,  Uriah  Smith,  an 
American  labor  reformer ;  born  near 
Cape  ]May,  N.  J.,  Aug.  3,  1821.  Dec, 
9,  1SG9,  with  six  others  he  founded 
the  Knights  of  Labor.  Jan.  1,  1878 
was  chosen  first  Grand  Master  Work- 
man of  the  General  Assembly.  He 
died  in  Europe  Feb.  13,  1882. 

Stephenson,  George,  an  English 
engineer ;  born  in  Wylam,  England, 
June  9,  1781.  In  1812  he  was  appoint- 
ed engineer  to  the  colliery,  at  a  sal- 
ary of  $500  a  year.  Soon  after  this 
he  built  his  first  traveling  engine  to 
draw  the  wagons  along  the  tramway, 
which,  though  clumsy  and  weak  in 
power,  was  immensely  superior  to  any 
engine  then  in  use.  Improvement  fol- 
lowed on  improvement  in  rapid  succes- 
sion, not  only  in  the  form  of  the  loco- 
motive, but  in  the  rails  and  in  every 
department  to  which  steam  was  appli- 
cable. In  1822  he  opened  the  first 
railway,  eight  miles  long.  The  whola 
system  of  railway  locomotion  with  all 
its  complications  of  stations,  signals, 
tenders,  and  carriages,  was  completed 
by  the  opening  of  the  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  Railway  in  1830.    In  1845 


Stereoscope 

he  retired  from  all  railway  undertak- 
ings, after  having  been  instrumental 
in  establishing  all  the  foreign  and 
home  lines.  He  died  near  Chesterfield, 
England,  Aug.  12,  1848. 

Stephenson,  Robert,  a  British 
civil  engineer,  only  son  of  George 
Stephenson ;  born  near  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne,  Oct.  16,  1803;  joined  his 
father  in  his  operations  on  the  Liver- 
pool line;  became  the  permanent  en- 
gineer of  that  company ;  surveyed  sev- 
eral new  lines,  visited  South  America 
to  inspect  the  gold  and  silver  mines 
of  that  country;  and  established  a 
name  as  the  first  civil  engineer  in 
Europe.  In  1847  he  entered  Parlia- 
nwnt  for  Whitby ;  he  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society,  and  a  member  of 
nearly  all  the  scientific  societies  of 
Europe.  He  published  two  valuable 
works,  "  The  Locomotive  Steam  En- 
gine," and  "  The  Atmospheric  Rail- 
way System."  He  died  in  London, 
Oct.  12,  1859,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey  where  there  is  a  me- 
morial window  in  his  honor. 

Steppe,  a  term  applied  to  one  of 
those  extensive  plains  which,  with  the , 
occasional  interpolation  of  low  ranges 
or  hills,  stretch  from  the  Dnieper 
across  the  S.  E.  of  European  Russia, 
round  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  and 
Aral  seas,  between  the  Altai  and  Ural 
chains,  and  occupy  the  low  lands  of 
Siberia.  In  spring  they  are  covered 
with  verdure,  but  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  year  they  are  dry  and  barren. 
There  are  three  different  kinds  of 
steppe,  viz.,  grass,  salt,  and  sand 
steppes,  each  maintaining  peculiar 
forms  of  vegetation. 

Stereopticon,  a  magic  lantern 
having  two  objective  tubes  that  can  be 
focused  on  the  same  part  of  a  screen, 
and  by  the  alternate  projection  of  pic- 
tures from  the  separate  tubes  produce 
the  well-known  phenomenon  of  "  dis- 
solving views."  The  stereopticon  has 
been  successfully  adapted  to  the  pro- 
jection of  instantaneous  photographs 
of  moving  objects,  producing  the  same 
effect  of  motion  on  the  screen  as  ob- 
served in  the  kinetoscope. 

Stereoscope,  a  simple  and  popular 
optical  contrivance,  by  which  two 
flat  slightly  dissimilar  pictures  of  an 
object  are  fused  into  one  image,  hav- 
ing ^he  actual  appearance  of  relief. 
The  stereoscope  is  constructed  in  ao» 


stereotype 

cordance  with  the  visual  phenomena 
which  convey  to  the  mind  impressions 
of  the  relative  forms  and  positions  of 
an  object.  When  a  near  object  hav- 
ing three  dimensions  is  looked  at,  a 
different  perspective  representation 
of  it  is  seen  by  each  eye ;  in  other 
words,  there  is  distinct  binocular  par- 
allax. Certain  parts  are  seen  by  the 
right  eye,  the  left  being  closed,  that 
are  invisible  to  the  left  eye,  the  right 
being  closed,  and  vice  versa,  and  the 
relative  positions  of  the  portions  visi- 
ble to  each  eye  in  succession  differ. 
These  two  visual  impressions  are  si- 
multaneously perceived  by  both  eyes, 
and  are  combined  into  one  image,  pro- 
ducing the  impression  of  perspective 
and  relief.  If,  then,  truthful  right- 
and-left  monocular  pictures  of  any  ob- 
ject be  so  presented  to  the  two  eyes 
that  the  optic  axes,  when  directed  to 
them,  shall  converge  at  the  same 
angle  as  when  directed  to  the  object 
itself,  a  solid  image  will  be  seen. 
This  is  effected  with  the  stereoscope, 
a  reflecting  form  of  which  was  in- 
vented by  Professor  Wheatstone  in 
1838. 

Stereotype,  fixed  type;  hence  a 
plate  cast  from  a  plaster  or  papier- 
mache  mold,  on  which  is  a  facsimile 
of  the  page  of  type  as  set  up  by  the 
compositor,  and  which,  when  fitted  to 
a  block,  may  be  used  under  the  press, 
exactly  as  movable  type.  A  paper 
matrix  is  formed  by  spreading  paste 
over  a  sheet  of  moderately  thick  un- 
sized paper,  and  covering  it  with  suc- 
cessive sheets  of  tissue  paper,  each 
carefully  patted  down  smooth,  and  the 
pack  then  saturated.  The  face  of  the 
type  is  oiled,  the  face  of  the  paper 
laid  on  the  type,  and  then  the  matrix 
dabbed  by  a  beating  brush  from  the 
back,  so  as  to  drive  the  soft  paper  into 
all  the  interstices  between  the  letters 
of  the  form.  A  reinforce  sheet  of 
damp  matrix  paper  is  laid  on  the  back 
of  the  matrix,  and  the  matrix  beaten 
again,  to  perfect  the  impression  and 
establish  a  junction.  The  hollows  in 
the  back  are  filled  up,  and  the  matrix, 
after  being  covered  \^ith  a  double 
thickness  of  blanket,  is  placed  in  a 
press  and  subjected  to  strong  pressure 
over  a  steam  chest,  the  heat  of  which 
dries  the  matrix.  The  press  is  un- 
screwed, the  matrix  removed,  its  edges 
pared,  and  it  is  warmed  on  the  mold- 


Sternberg 

ing  press.  The  matrix  is  then  placed 
in  the  previously-heated  iron  casting 
mold;  a  casting  gauge  to  determine 
the  thickness  of  the  stereotype  is 
placed  round  three  sides  of  the  ma- 
trix, the  other  side  being  left  open  for 
a  gate,  at  which  the  molten  metal  is 
poured  in.  The  cover  is  screwed 
tight,  the  mold  tipped  to  bring  the 
mouth  up,  and  the  metal  poured  in. 
When  the  metal  is  set,  the  mold  is 
opened  and  the  matrix  removed.  The 
plate  is  then  trimmed  and  otherwise 
prepared  in  the  usual  manner.  For 
rotary  printing  machines  both  matrix 
and  plate  form  the  segment  of  a  cir- 
cle to  enable  the  plate  to  fit  on  the 
impression  cylinder. 

Sterilized  Milk,  milk  which  has 
been  subjected  to  a  process  that  de- 
stroys the  bacteria  causing  lactic  or 
butyric  acid  fermentation  and  the 
germs  of  disease. 

Sterling  Gold,  gold  having  the 
value  or  fineness  of  the  standard  es- 
tablished by  the  British  government. 
It  consists  of  22  parts  (called  carats) 
of  pure  gold  and  two  parts  of  alloy, 
either  silver  or  copper. 

Sterling  Silver,  silver  "having  the 
value  or  fineness  of  the  standard  es- 
tablished by  the  British  government. 
It  consists  of  37  parts  of  silver  and  3 
of  copper. 

Sternberg,  George  Miller,  an 
American  surgeon ;  born  in  Otsego  co., 
N.  Y.,  June  8,  1838;  was  graduated 
at  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons in  New  York  city  in  1860.  He 
was  appointed  an  assistant  surgeon 
in  the  army  in  1861 ;  promoted  cap- 
tain and  assistant  surgeon  May  28, 
1866 ;  major,  Dec.  1,  1875 ;  lientenant- 
colonel  Jan.  2,  1891 ;  and  Brigadier- 
General  and  Surgeon-General  May 
30,  1893.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
served  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
and  in  the  Department  of  the  Gulf. 
Afterward  he  served  through  several 
cholera  and  yellow  fever  epidemics, 
and  in  1898  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Spanish-American  War  he  planned 
the  army  hospital  train,  and  had 
charge  of  the  medical  service  of  the 
army.  He  was  secretary  of  the 
Havana  Yellow  Fever  Commission  in 
1879;  president  of  the  American  Med- 
ical Association  in  1898 ;  and  the  au- 
thor of  "  Photo-Micrographs,  and  How 
to  Make  Them  " ;  etc. 


Sterne 

Sterne,  Laurence,  an  Englfsh 
humorist ;  born  in  Ireland  in  1713 ; 
died  in  London  in  1768.  He  graduated 
M.  A.  from  Jesus  College,  Cambridge 
in  1740,  received  holy  orders,  and  be- 
came rector  of  Sutton  and  a  prebend 
of  York.  In  1759  he  came  into  promi- 
nence as  author  of  "Tristram  Shandy  ;" 
this  with  a  "  Sentimental  Journey 
through  France  and  Italy,"  notwith- 
standing its  occasional  indelicacy,  con- 
tain some  of  the  finest  humor  in  Eng- 
lish literature.  "  Letters  to  his  Inti- 
mate Friends"  appeared  in  1775. 

Stetlinometer,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  external  movements  in 
the  walls  of  the  chest  during  respira- 
tion, as  a  means  of  diagnosis  in  tho- 
racic diseases.  In  one  form  a  cord 
is  extended  round  the  chest,  and  its 
extension  as  the  thorax  is  expanded 
wojks  an  index  finger  on  a  dial  plate. 
It  thus  becomes  a  measure  of  the  ex- 

{)ansive  power  and  capacity  of  the 
ungs. 

Stethoscope,  an  instrument  em- 
ployed in  auscultation.  The  chief  use 
of  the  stethoscope  is  to  enable  the 
medical  man  to  sound  small  portions 
of  lung  at  a  time,  and  so  detect  more 
correctly  than  by  the  unaided  ear  the 
exact  seat  of  disease. 

Stenben,  Frederic  William  An- 
gnstus,  Baron,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer;  born  in  Magdeburg, 
Prussia,  Nov.  15,  1730.  He  came  to 
America  in  1777  and  his  offer  of  serv- 
ice was  readily  accepted.  Having  re- 
ceived the  appointment  of  inspector- 
general,  with  the  rank  of  Major-Gen- 
eral,  he  proved  of  efficient  service  to 
the  American  army  in  establishing  a 
system  of  discipline  and  tactics,  a  per- 
fect knowledge  of  which  he  had  ac- 
quired as  an  officer  under  Frederick 
the  Great.  He  spent  his  whole  for- 
tune in  clothing  his  men  and  gave  his 
last  dollar  to  the  soldiers.  Congress 
made  tardy  reparation,  and  in  1790 
voted  him  an  annuity  of  $2,500  and 
a  township  of  land  in  the  State  of 
New  York,  both  of  which  he  divided 
with  his  fellow  officers.  He  died  on 
his  estate  near  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  28, 
1794.  On  Dec  7,  1910,  a  statue  to  his 
memory  was  unveiled  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  with  high  official  ceremonies. 

Stenbenville,  city  and  capital  of 
Jefferson    county,    O.;    on    the    Ohio 


Stevens 

river  and  the  Pennsylvania  Co.'s 
railroad;  43  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Pitts- 
burg; is  an  important  mercantile  and 
manufacturing  center;  has  an  abund- 
ance of  natui'al  gas;  produces  large 
quantities  of  bituminous  coal,  iron, 
glass,  and  pottery.    Pop.  (1910)  22,391. 

Stevens,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
an  American  bibliographer;  born  in 
Barnet,  Vt.,  Feb.  19,  1833;  was  en- 
gaged  for  more  than  30  years  in  mak- 
ing a  manuscript  chronological  and  al- 
phabetical catalogue  index  of  Ameri- 
can papers  in  many  archives  in  Eng- 
land, Holland  and  Spain ;  made  fac- 
similes of  many  such  manuscripts; 
and  devoted  much  time  to  the  compila- 
tion of  unpublished  manuscript  pa- 
pers pertaining  to  the  American  Rev- 
olution.    Died   1902. 

Stevens,  Henry,  an  American  bib? 
liographer;  born  in  Barnet,  Vt.,  Aug. 
24,  1819 ;  was  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1843 ;  became  interested  in  the 
Colonial  history  of  the  United  States; 
went  to  England  in  search  of  American 
historical  data  in  1845,  and  there 
succeeded  in  gathering  an  immense 
amount  of  valuable  material  relating 
to  the  early  history  of  the  United 
States.  His  publications  include: 
"  Catalogue  of  a  Library  of  Works 
Relating  to  America,"  etc.  Died  in 
South  Hampstead,  England,  Feb.  28, 
1886. 

Stevens,  Jolin  Austin,  an  Amer* 
ican  historian ;  born  in  New  York 
city,  Jan.  21,  1827.  He  was  secre- 
tary of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
librarian  of  the  New  York  Historical 
Society,  and  founder  of  the  "Maga- 
zine of  American  History."    D.  1910. 

Stevens,  John  F.,  engineer;  born 
in  Gardiner,  Me.,  Apr.  25,  1853.  After 
much  railroad  engineering,  notably  on 
the  Great  Northern  line  in  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains,  he  was  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  Panama  Canal  in  1905K)7. 
Stevens,  Thaddens,  statesman ; 
horn  in  Danville,  Vt..  Apr.  4.  1792. 
He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in 
1814,  became  a  lawyer  and  in  1828 
a  prominent  Whig.  In  1848  nnd 
again  in  1850  he  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress, where  he  maintained  strong  op* 
position  to  the  Fugitive-Slave  Law, 
the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  and  all  mea- 
sures favoring  the  independence  of  the 
South.    In  1858  he  was  again  elected 


Stevens  Institute 


Stewart 


to  Congress  and  retained  his  seat  till 
his  death,  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Aug. 
11,   18G8. 

Stevens  Institnte  of  Technol- 
osy*  an  educational  non-sectarian  in- 
stitution in  Hoboken,-  N.  J. ;  founded 
in  1870. 

Stevenson,  Adlai  Eiving,  an 
American  statesman ;  born  in  Chris- 
tian CO.,  Ky.,  Oct.  23,  1835 ;  early  took 
an  active  part  in  politics  as  a  Demo- 
crat, and  in  1875-1877  and  1879-1881 
represented  Illinois  in  the  National 
House  of  Representatives.  In  1885 
was  appointed  first  assistant  postmas- 
ter-general, and  after  the  renomina- 
tion  of  Grover  Cleveland  in  1892  was 
chosen  the  candidate  for  the  vice- 
presidency.  The  Democratic  candi- 
dates were  elected,  and  after  the  ex- 
piration of  his  term  he  was  appointed 
a_  member  of  the  xVmerican  commis- 
sion to  visit  Europe  and  endeavor  to 
secure  the  adoption  of  international 
bimetallism. 

Stevenson,  Edward  Irenaens,  an 
American  journalist;  born  iu  Madi- 
son, N.  J.,  in  1858.  He  -was  editorially 
connected  with  the  New  York  "  Inde- 
pendent "  after  1881,  and  also  with 
•*  Harper's  Weekly  "  and  several  musi- 
cal journals. 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis  Bal- 
four, a  British  author ;  son  of  Robert 
Stevenson ;  born  in  Edinburgh,  Scot- 
land, Nov.  13,  1850 ;  educated  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  was  intend- 
ed for  his  father's  profession,  but 
studied  law ;  in  1873  went  abroad  for 
his  health ;  wrote  for  periodicals  till 
1878,  when  his  first  book  appeared; 
visited  California  in  1879 ;  spent  the 
winter  of  1887-1888  in  the  Adiron- 
dacks;  cruised  in  the  Pacific;  bought 
a  tract  of  land  ("  Vailima  "  or  "  Five 
Streams")  in  Samoa,  where  he  made 
his  home.  He  published  a  large  num- 
ber of  works.  He  died  in  Vailima, 
near  Apia,  Samoa,  Dec.  3,  1894. 

Steward,  in  the  original  sense,  one 
who  looked  after  the  domestic  ani- 
mals and  gave  them  their  food ;  hence, 
one  who  provides  for  his  master's  ta- 
ble, and,  generally,  one  who  superin- 
tends household  affairs  for  another. 
A  person  employed  on  a  large  estate 
or  establishment,  or  in  a  family  of 
consequence  and  wealth,  to  manage  the 
domestic  affairs,  superintend  the  other 


servants,  collect  rents,  keep  the  ac- 
counts, etc.  An  officer  in  a  college 
who  provides  food  for  the  students 
and  superintends  the  affairs  of  the 
kitchen. 

Stewart,  Alexander  Peter,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in 
Rogersville,  Tenn.,  Oct.  2,  1821;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1842.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  sei'ved  under  Generals 
Bragg,  Johnston,  Hood,  and  others  in 
the  Confederate  army;  was  chancel- 
lor of  the  University  of  Mississippi 
in  1874-1886;  commissioner  of  the 
Chickamauga  National  Park  from 
1890  till  his  death,  Aug.  30,  1908. 

Stewart,  Alexander  Turney,  an' 
American  merchant ;  born  near  Bel- 
fast, Ireland,  Oct.  12,  1803;  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1823  and  en- 
gaged in  teaching.  In  1825  he  began, 
in  New  York  city,  a  dry-goods  business 
which  gradually  expanded  into  one  of 
the  largest  mercantile  concerns  in  the 
world.  He  died  in  New  York,  April 
10,  3876.  His  body  was  stolen  from 
the  grave  in  New  York  city,  and  ran- 
som demanded.  It  is  understood  that 
his  widow  paid  $25,000  for  the  re- 
turn of  the  remains  which  were  then 
entombed  in  the  Cathedral  at  Garden 
City,  Long  Island. 

Stew^art,  Charles,  an  American 
naval  officer;  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  July  28,  1778;  entered  the  navy 
in  1789  as  lieutenant  of  the  frigate 
"  United  States."  As  commander  of 
the  brig  "  Siren "  he  participated  in 
the  naval  operations  of  1804  against 
Tripoli  and  aided  in  the  destruction  of 
the  "Philadelphia."  In  1813  he  took 
command  of  the  "  Constitution,"  and 
in  December  sailed  from  Boston  on 
a  cruise  to  the  coast  of  Guiana  and 
the  Windward  Islands,  which  resulted 
in  the  capture  of  the  British  schoon- 
er "  Picton "  and  several  merchant 
vessels.  He  commanded  a  squadron 
in  the  Mediterranean  in  1816-1820, 
and  in  the  Pacific  in  1821-1823; 
served  on  the  board  of  navy  commis- 
sioners ;  commanded  the  home  squad- 
dron ;  and  had  charge  of  the  naval 
station  at  Philadelphia.  In  1857  he 
was  placed  on  the  reti'-ed  list,  but  re- 
sumed service  in  1859  as  commander 
of  the  Philadelphia  navy  yard,  and  on 
July  16,  1862,  was  made  rear-admiral 


■feyn 

on  the  retired  list.     He  died  in  Bor- 
dentown,  N.  J.,  Nov.  7,  1869. 

Steyn,  Martinns  Theunis,  a  Boer 
Btatesinau ;  born  in  Winburg,  Orange 
Free  State,  Oct.  2,  1857;  worked  on 
his  father's  farm  till  1876,  when  he 
%vent  to  England  to  study.  He  re- 
turned to  Africa  in  1882  and  practiced 
law  in  Bloemfontein  till  1889,  when 
he  was  made  second  puisne  judge  and 
state  attorney.  Later  he  became  first 
puisne  judge,  and  in  1896  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Orange  Free  State. 
For  a  number  of  years  before  his  elec- 
tion to  the  presidency  he  had  been 
in  communication  with  President  Kru- 
ger  and  their  close  relations  finally 
resulted  in  the  union  of  the  interests 
of  the  Orange  Free  State  and  the 
Transvaal  in  their  struggle  against 
Great  Britain.  When  the  Boer  War 
broke  out  he  took  the  field  in  person 
with  the  Free  State  troops.  After  the 
surrender  he  went  to  Europe  seriously 
ill,  but  has  partly  recovered. 

Stigma  (plural,  Stig:xaas,  or  Stig- 
mata), a  mark  made  with  a  redhot 
iron ;  a  brand  impressed  on  slaves  and 
others ;  also  a  small  red  speck  on  the 
human  skin,  causing  no  elevation  of 
the  cuticle ;  a  natural  mark  or  spot 
on  the  skin ;  figuratively,  any  mark  of 
infamy,  disgrace,  or  reproach  which 
attaches  to  a  person  on  account  of 
bad  conduct ;  a  slur.  In  anatomy,  the 
projecting  part  of  a  Graafian  follicle 
at  which  rupture  occurs.  In  biology, 
stigmata  are  the  external  openings  of 
the  tracheal  apparatus  in  the  Insecta 
and  Arachnida.  In  botany,  the  part  of 
the  pistil  to  which  the  pollen  is  ap- 
plied. It  is  generally  situated  at  the 
upper  extremity  of  the  style. 

Stigmatization,  the  appearance  or 
impression  of  counterparts  of  all  or 
some  of  the  wounds  received  by  Jesus 
in  His  Passion,  in  their  appropriate 
positions  on  the  human  body.  The 
first  case  on  record,  and  the  most  im- 
portant, is  that  of  St.  Francis  of  As- 
sisi,  the  founder  of  the  Franciscans. 
It  is  said  that  while  the  saint  was  en- 
gaged in  a  fast  of  40  days  on  Mount 
Alvernus,  in  the  year  1224,  a  crucified 
seraph  with  six  wings  appeared  and 
discoursed  to  him  of  heavenly  things. 
Francis  fainted,  and  on  recovering 
consciousness  found  himself  marked 
with  the  wounds  of  crucifixion  in  his 
hands,  bis  feet,  and  right  side.  Thomas 


StiU 

a  Celana  and  St.  Buonaventura  at- 
tested the  case,  and  Pope  Alexander 
IV.  (1254-1261)  claimed  to  have  seen 
the  stigmata  during  the  lifetime  of 
St.  Francis  and  after  his  death. 

Stiletto,  a  small  dagger,  with  a 
round  pointed  blade  from  6  to  12  ins, 
long,  introduced  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Stilicho,  Flavins,  a  Vandal  of 
great  genius  and  bravery,  who  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  declining  period 
of  the  Roman  empire,  was  advanced 
to  the  highest  dignities  of  the  state 
by  Theodosius  the  Great,  and  married 
Serena,  the  emperor's  adopted  daugh- 
ter, besides  being  intrusted  in  394  with 
the  guardianship  of  his  two  sons,  Ar- 
cadius  and  Honorius.  On  the  divi- 
sion of  the  empire,  Stilicho  became 
virtual  governor  of  the  West,  in  the 
character  of  first  minister  to  Hono- 
rius, while  the  same  power  in  the 
East  was  exercised  by  Rufinus,  under 
Arcadius,  the  other  emperor.  The 
military  genius  of  Stilicho,  after  this 
period,  was  exhibited  in  the  reduction 
of  Africa,  which  had  been  led  into  a 
revolt  by  Eutropius  the  successor  of 
Rufinus  at  the  Eastern  court,  and  sub- 
sequently in  the  great  contests  with 
Alaric  and  Radagasius.  While  Stili- 
cho lived  he  sustained  the  fortunes  of 
the  Roman  name,  but  he  was  accused 
of  having  a  secret  understanding  with 
Alaric,  and  was  treacherously  put  to 
death  in  408.  The  wives  and  chil- 
dren of  30,000  Germans  who  were  in 
his  service  were  massacred  at  the  same 
time. 

Still,  an  apparatus  for  distillation. 
It  consists  essentially  of  a  vessel  in 
which  the  liquid  to  be  distilled  is 
placed,  the  vapor  being  conducted  by 
means  of  a  head  or  neck  to  the  con- 
denser or  worm,  where  it  is  cooled  by 
water  or  other  means,  and  again 
forms  liquid.  The  still  itself  varies 
greatly  according  to  the  purpose  for 
which  it  is  used.  It  is  made  of  copper, 
iron,  earthenware,  or  glass,  and  is 
heated  by  naked  flame  or  steam  heat. 
Still,  William,  an  American  phi- 
lanthropist  and  anti-slavery  advocate, 
of  African  descent ;  born  in  Shamony, 
N.  J.,  Oct.  7,  1821 ;  was  chairman 
and  secretary  of  the  Philadelphia 
branch  of  the  famous  "  underground 
railroad"  of  1851-1861,  and  wrote 
out  the  narratives  of  escaping  slaveSi 


Stille 


Stinkxr^ood 


which  constitute  the  only  full  account 
of  this  organization.     He  died  1902. 

Stille,  Charles  Janeway,  an 
American  historian;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  Sept.  23,  1819;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1839,  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  but  devoted  himself 
to  literary  pursuits.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  was  an  active  member  of  the 
United  States  Sanitary  Commission, 
of  which  he  afterward  became  the  his- 
torian. In  May,  1866,  he  was  made 
Professor  of  History  and  English  Lit- 
erature in  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  in  1868  was  chosen  its 
provost.     He  died  in  1899. 

Stillxnan,  Thomas  Bliss,  an 
American  chemical  engineer ;  born  in 
Plainfield,  N.  J.,  May  24,  1852 ;  stud- 
ied chemical  engineering  in  Wiesba- 
den, Germany.  Returning  to  the 
United  States  he  was  made  professor 
of  analytical  chemistry  at  Stevens  In- 
stitute of  Technology  in  1886.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  the  principal  engi- 
neering societies,  and  was  editor  of 
the  Stevens  Institute  "  Indicator  "  in 
1895-1898. 

Stillman,  William  James,  an 
American  artist,  journalist,  author, 
and  traveler;  born  in  Schenectady,  N. 
Y.,  June  1,  1828;  was  graduated  at 
Union  College  in  1848;  founded  and 
edited  the  "  Crayon,"  an  art  journal 
in  New  York.  He  was  for  many  years 
a  correspondent  of  the  London 
"  Times  "  and  the  New  York  "  Even- 
ing Post."  He  was  consul-general  to 
Crete,  1865-1869.  He  died  in  Frim- 
ley  Green,  Surrey,  near  London,  Eng- 
land, July  8,  1901. 

Stilson,  Daniel  Chapman,  an 
American  inventor ;  born  in  Durham, 
N.  H.,  March  25,  1830 ;  was  a  machin- 
ist in  the  Charleston  navy  yard,  and 
in  1862  was  appointed  assistant  engi- 
neer in  the  navy.  After  the  Civil 
War  he  resumed  his  trade  as  a  ma- 
chinist and  later  invented  a  wrench 
that  made  his  name  known  through- 
out the  mechanical  world,  and  de- 
vised other  apparatus  including  a 
safetv  fire  sprinkler.  He  died  in 
Somerville,   Mass.,   Aug.  21,   1899. 

Stimson,  Frederic  Jesnp,  an 
American  lawyer ;  born  in  Dedham, 
Mass.,  July  20,  1855 ;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  University  in  1876,  and  at 
Harvard  Law  School  in  1878;  was 
chosen  general  counsel  to  the  United 


States  Industrial  Commission.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  law  books, 
novels,  essays,  etc. 

Stimulants,  in  pharmacy,  agents 
which  increase  vital  action,  first  in  the 
organ  to  which  they  are  applied,  and 
next  in  the  system  generally.  Stimu- 
lants are  of  three  kinds,  stomachic, 
vascular,  and  spinal.  The  name  is 
popularly  restricted  to  the  first  of 
these,  which  act  on  the  stomach,  ex- 
pelling flatulence,  besides  allaying  pain 
and  spasm  of  the  intestines.  They 
are  also  called  carminatives.  Exam- 
ples, ginger,  capsicum  and  chillies, 
cardamoms,  mustard,  pepper,  etc. 

Sting,  in  botany,  a  stinging  hair. 
Stinging  hairs  are  sharp,  stiff  hairs, 
containing  an  acrid  fluid  which  is  in- 
jected into  the  wound  which  they  pro- 
duce ;  stimuli.  Example,  the  nettle, 
in  which  the  apex  is  expanded 'into  a 
little  bulb  which  is  broken  oS  when 
the  sting  is  slightly  touched.  In  en- 
tomology, a  weapon  of  defense,  con- 
cealed within  the  abdomen  of  bees, 
wasps,  etc.,  and  capable  of  exsertion, 
or  forming  part  of  the  last  joint  of 
the  tail  in  scorpions.  The  sting  of  the 
bee  appears  to  the  naked  eye  a  simple 
needle-shaped  organ ;  but  the  micro- 
scope shows  that  it  is  formed  of  three 
pieces :  A  short,  stout,  cylindrico- 
conical  sheath  containing  two  setae, 
or  lancets,  one  edge  thickened  and  fur- 
nished -with  teeth  directed  backward, 
the  other  sharp  and  cutting.  The 
poison  apparatus  consists  of  two  glan- 
dular elongated  sacs,  and  terminates 
by  one  or  two  excretory  ducts.  Mor- 
phologically viewed,  a  sting  is  an  al- 
tered oviduct.  The  term  sting  is  some- 
times inaccurately  used  for  the  bite  of 
a  venomous  serpent,  and  of  the  forked 
tongue  of  snakes. 

Stingray,  a  fish  allied  to  the  rays 
proper.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  long, 
flexible,  whip-like  tail,  which  is  armed 
with  a  projecting  bony  spine,  very 
sharp  at  the  point,  and  furnished 
along  both  edges  with  sharp  cutting 
teeth.  One  species  is  common  on  the 
E.  coasts  of  North  America.  These 
fishes  sometimes  inflict  serious  wounds 
with  their  tails. 

Stink-wood,  a  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Lauraceae,  a  native  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  remarkable  for  the 
strong  disagreeable  smell  of  its  wood, 
which,  however,  is  bard,  very  durable. 


Sti]ga 

takes  an  excellent  polish,  and  resem- 
bles walnut.  It  has  been  used  in 
shipbuilding. 

Stipa,  feather  grass.  Steudel  de- 
scribes 104  species.  They  are  widely 
distributed,  but  are  most  abundant  in 
warm  countries.  The  common  feather 
grass  has  rigid,  setaceous,  grooved 
leaves,  and  exceedingly  long  awns, 
feathery  at  the  point.  It  is  very 
ornamental  in  gardens  in  summer,  and 
if  gathered  before  the  seeds  are  ripe 
it  retains  its  long  feathery  awns, 
and  is  sometimes  dyed  various  col- 
ors and  used  for  decorative  purposes. 


A  STINGRAY. 

Stirrup,  a  leather  strap  or  similar 
device,  suspended  fi'om  a  saddle  and 
having  at  its  lower  end  a  loop,  ring, 
or  other  suitable  appliance  for  receiv- 
ing the  foot  of  the  rider,  and  used 
to  assist  him  in  mounting  a  horse, 
as  well  as  to  enable  him  to  sit  stead- 
ily in  the  saddle  while  riding,  and 
also  to  relieve  him  by  supporting  a 
part  of  the  weight  of  the  body. 

Stitchwort,  a  genus  of  which 
there  are  about  70  species  —  all  slen- 
der herbs,  widely  distributed  through 
the  temperate  and  cold  regions  of  the 
globe.  The  best  known  members  are 
the  great  stitch\^x)rt  which  from  its 
large  white  flowers  in  early  summer 
is  an  ornament  of  hedgerows  and  pas- 
tures; wood  stitchwort  and  the  chick- 
weed,  native   through  Arctic  and  N. 


Stockholm 

temperate  regions,  and  now  a  cosmo- 
politan naturalized  weed.  The  great 
stitchwort  was  supposed  to  cure 
"  stitch  "  in  the  side,  hence  the  name. 

Stock,  a  name  originally  applied  to 
a  cruciferous  garden  plant  (called 
more  fully  stock  gillyflower),  but  now 
extended  to  certain  allied  plants  of  the 
same  order.  They  are  herbaceous  or 
shrubby,  biennial  or  sometimes  peren- 
nial, and  have  single  or  double  fra- 
grant flowers.  The  Virginia  stock 
has  been  introduced  from  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  like  the  species  already 
mentioned  is  a  great  favorite  in  the 
flower  garden  on  account  of  its  beauty 
and  fragrance. 

Stockade,  an  inclosure  or  pen  made 
with  posts  and  stakes.  In  civil  engi- 
neering, a  row  of  piles,  or  a  series  of 
rows  with  brushwood  in  the  intervals, 
driven  into  a  sea  or  river  shore,  to 
prevent  the  erosion  of  the  banks.  In 
fortification,  stout  timbers  planted  in 
the  ground  so  as  to  touch  each  other, 
and  loopholed  for  musketry.  In  its 
most  effective  form  it  is  eight  or  nine 
feet  high,  has  a  ditch  in  front  and  a 
banquette  in  the  rear. 

Stock  Dove,  the  common  wild 
pigeon,  14  inches  in  length,  and  with 
a  general  bluish  gray  plumage,  the 
breast  being  purplish.  It  raises  two 
or  three  broods  in  a  season  and  builds 
its  nest  in  a  tree  stump  or  in  a  rabbit 
burrow. 

Stock  Exckange,  a  market  for 
the  purchase  and  sale  of  public  stocks, 
shares,  and  other  securities  of  a  sim- 
ilar nature.  Such  institutions  are 
now  found  in  all  large  cities  of  the 
United  States.  The  New  York  Stock 
Exchange  was  founded  in  1792. 

Stockkolm,  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  Sweden ;  on  several  islands  and 
the  adjacent  mainland,  between  a  bay 
of  the  Baltic  and  Lake  Malar;  in  a 
situation  that  is  accounted  one  of  the 
most  picturesque  in  Eurppe.  The  nu- 
cleus of  Stockholm  is  an  island  in 
mid-channel  called  "  the  Town  " ;  on  it 
stand  the  imposing  royal  palace 
(1697-1754)  ;  the  principal  church 
(St.  Nicholas),  in  which  the  kings  are 
crowned;  the  House  of  the  Nobles 
(1648-1670),  in  which  that  class  hold 
their  periodical  meetings;  the  town 
house;  the  ministries  of  the  kingdom: 
and  the  principal  wharf,  a  magnificent 


Stock  JoTiliing; 


Stockyard 


granite  quay,  fronting  E.  Immedi- 
ately W.  of  the  central  island  lies 
the  Knights'  Island;  it  is  almost  en- 
tirely occupied  with  public  buildings, 
as  the  Houses  of  Parliament;  the  old 
Franciscan  Church,  in  which  all  the 
later  sovereigns  of  Sweden  have  been 
buried ;  the  royal  archives ;  and  the 
chief  law  courts  of  the  kingdom. 
There  is  considerable  industry  in  the 
making  of  sugar,  tobacco,  silks  and 
ribbons,  candles,  linen,  cotton,  and 
leather,  and  there  are  large  iron  foun- 
dries and  machine  shops.  The  water 
approaches  to  the  city  are  in  general 
rendered  inaccessible  by  ice  during 
three  or  four  months  every  winter ;  but 
to  remedy  this  defect  it  is  proposed 
to  build  a  new  harbor  at  Nynas  on  the 
Baltic  shore,  30  miles  to  the  S.  In 
spite  of  the  winter  drawback  Stock- 
holm is  the  seat  of  a  trade  sufficient 
to  bring  an  average  of  1,760  vessels 
of  635,000  tons  into  the  port  every 
year,  carrying  principally  grain 
(wheat  and  rye),  rice,  flour,  herrings, 
oils  and  oilcake,  cork,  groceries, 
metals,  and  wine  and  spirits  (im- 
ports). The  commodities  exported 
consist  chiefly  of  iron  and  steel,  oats, 
and  tar.  Though  Stockholm  was 
founded  by  Birger  Jarl  in  1255,  it 
was  not  made  the  capital  of  Sweden 
till  modern  times.  Pop.  (1909)  339,582. 

Stock  Jobbing,  the  practice  of 
dealing  in  stocks  or  shares,  especially 
by  persons  who  buy  and  sell  on  the 
stock  exchange  on  their  own  account 
and  not  for  clients,  as  do  the  stock- 
brokers properly  so  called. 

Stocks,  an  apparatus  formerly  used 
for  the  punishment  of  petty  offenders, 
such  as  vagrants,  trespassers,  and  the 
like.  It  consisted  of  a  frame  of  tim- 
ber, with  holes,  in  which  the  ankles, 
and  sometimes  the  ankles  and  wrists, 
of  the  offenders  were  confined.  In 
finance,  a  stock  is  a  fund  employed 
in  the  carrying  on  of  some  business  or 
enterprise,    and    divided    into   shares. 

Stockton,  city  and  capital  of  San 
Joaquin  county,  Cal.;  on  a  branch 
of  the  San  Joaquin  river,  and  the 
Southern  Pacific  and  other  railroads; 
48  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Sacramento;  has 
daily  steamboat  connection  with  San 
Francisco;  grows  and  ships  large 
quantities  of  barley,  wheat,  fruit,  and 
vegetables;  manufactures  wine,  wool- 
en goods,  and  farm  implements;  and 


contains  a  State  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane, St.  Mary's  College,  St.  Agnes's 
Academy,  and  Hazelton  Public  Li- 
brary.    Pop.  (1910)  23.253. 

Stockton,  Francis  Rickard,  an 

American  author;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  April  5,  1834;  became  aa 
engraver  and  draughtsman;  was  con- 
nected with  the  Philadelphia  *'  Post,'* 
and  with  "  Hearth  and  Home,"  New 
York ;  joined  the  editorial  staff  of 
"  Scribner's  Monthly,"  and  became  as- 
sistant editor  of  "  St.  Nicholas  " ;  his 
earliest  writings  were  odd  tales  for 
children,  but  he  attained  an  en- 
viable reputation  as  a  writer  of  high* 
ly  entertaining  short  stories.  He  died 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  April  20,  1902. 

Stockton,  Robert  Field,  an 
American  naval  officer ;  bom  iu 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  Aug.  20,  1795;  en- 
tered the  navy  in  1810.  He  was  one 
of  the  earliest  advocates  of  a  steam 
navy;  drew  the  plans  for  the  steam 
sloop  of  war  "  Princeton,"  the  ex- 
plosion of  one  of  whose  guns  at  Wash- 
ington in  1844  caused  the  death  of 
the  secretaries  of  war  and  the  navy; 
was  actively  interested  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  Delaware  and  Ran- 
tan  canal ;  and  during  the  Mexican 
War,  as  commander  of  the  naval 
force  on  the  Pacific,  took  possession 
of  California  in  the  name  of  the  Unit- 
ed States.  On  his  return  in  18.50  he 
resigned  his  commission ;  entered  pol- 
itics; and  in  1851  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  where  he  in- 
troduced and  put  through  a  bill  for  the 
abolition  of  flogging  in  the  navy,  and 
also  urged  the  adoption  of  measures 
for  coast  defense.  In  1853,  however, 
he  retired  from  the  Senate,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  development  of 
the  Delaware  and  Raritan  canal.  He 
died  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Oct.  7,  1866. 

Stockyard,  an  inclosure  for  cattle 
on  the  way  to  or  at  market.  With 
the  development  of  the  Central  and 
Western  States  of  the  Union  there 
arose  a  necessity  for  central  markets 
for  the  disposition  and  distribution  of 
the  enormous  live  stock  production  of 
these  regions.  To  meet  such  a  demand 
there  were  established  at  convenient 
points  at  the  convergence  of  the  great 
lines  of  railway,  immense  stockyards. 
By  this  term  is  not  to  be  understood 
merely  inclosures  into  which  live  stock 


Stoddard 

can  be  driven  and  herded,  but  all  the 
buildings  and  conveniences  necessary 
''  for  the  shipping,  to  all  parts  of  the 
world,  of  the  animals  there  collected 
either  "  on  the  hoof  "  or  in  the  various 
forms  in  which  their  slaughtered  car- 
casses are  known  to  commerce.  Dur- 
ing the  earlier  years  of  this  particular 
branch  of  domestic  enterprise  the  cen- 
ters of  the  business  were  unsettled, 
and  we  find  various  cities  throughout 
the  great  cattle-raising  regions  dis- 
puting for  supremacy  in  the  amount 
of  business  done.  Great  stockyards 
were  established  and  still  exist  in 
Cincinnati,  Indianapolis,  East  St. 
Louis,  Kansas  City,  Chicago,  and 
other  cities.  Owing  to  the  remarkable 
growth  of  Chicago,  not  many  years 
elapsed  before  that  city  had  out- 
stripped all  competitors.  Besides  the 
great  establishments  of  the  West  and 
Northwest  there  are  like  institutions 
of  minor  importance  distributed 
throughout  other  portions  of  the 
Union. 

Stoddard,  Amos,  an  American 
military  officer ;  born  in  Woodbury, 
Conn.,  Oct.  26,  1762.  He  fought  in 
the  Revolutionary  War;  was  governor 
of  Missouri  Territory  in  1804-1805; 
served  in  the  War  of  1812;  published 
"Sketches  of  Louisiana"  (1812); 
and  died  in  Fort  Meigs,  O.,  May  11, 
1813. 

Stoddard,  Charles  Warren,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  7,  1843;  for  seven  years 
special  traveling  correspondent  of  the 
San  Francisco  "  Chronicle,"  visiting 
nearly  every  quarter  of  the  globe; 
from  1885  to  1887  Professor  of  Eng- 
lish Literature  at  Notre  Dame  Col- 
lege, Indiana;  and  from  1889  at  the 
Catholic  University  of  America.  He 
died  April  24,  1909. 

Stoddard,  Elizabeth.  Dreiv 
(Barsto\ir),  an  American  novelist  and 
poet ;  born  in  Mattapoisett,  Mass., 
May  6,  1823.  She  was  the  wife  of 
Richard  H.  Stoddard,  and  the  author 
of  three  distinguished  novels,  "  The 
Morgesons  "  ;  "  Two  Men  "  "  Temple 
House,"  illustrative  of  English  char- 
acter and  scenery  (1867).  She  died 
Aug.  1,  1902. 

Stoddard,  Richard  Henry,  an 
American  poet;  born  in  Hingham, 
Mass.,  July  2,  1825.     In  1849  he  prp- 


Stoics 

duced  a  small  volume  of  poems  only 
to  suppress  it  afterward  ;  but  1852  saw 
the  birth  of  a  sturdier  collection. 
From  1853  to  1870  he  served  in  the 
New  York  custom  house ;  in  1870^1873 
was  clerk  to  General  McClellan  and 
for  a  year  city  librarian ;  he  did  also 
much  reviewing  and  writing  for  the 
publishers.  His  poems  include  "  Songs 
in  Summer  "  ;  "  The  King's  Bell,"  etc. 
He  wrote  also  "  Life  of  Humboldt " ; 
"  Abraham  Lincoln  "  ;  "  Life  of  Wash- 
ington Irving."    He  died  in  1903. 

Stoddard,  William  Osborn,  an 
American  author ;  born  in  Homer,  N. 
Y.,  Sept.  24,  1835;  was  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Rochester  in  1857, 
and  after  serving  for  a  short  time  in 
the  Civil  War  was  made  secretary  to 
President  Lincoln,  which  oflSce  he  held 
till  1864  when  he  became  United 
States  marshal  of  Arkansas.  Subse- 
quently he  engaged  in  business  and 
journalism  in  New  York  city,  where 
he  also  held  several  public  offices  un- 
der the  municipal  government.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  stories, 
sketches  and  poems,  including  "  Life 
of   Abraham   Lincoln,"   etc. 

Stoics,  the  name  appplied  to  a  body 
of  philosophers  who  flourished  first 
in  Greece  about  the  4th  century,  but 
whose  influence  finally  spread  over 
the  whole  classical  world.  Their  place 
in  the  history  of  philosophy  is  imme- 
diately after  Plato  and  Aristotle. 
These  two  mighty  geniuses  had  in  turn 
made  the  greatest  efforts  that  have 
ever  been  mace  to  give  finality  to 
philosophy,  by  putting  forth  a  rea- 
soned theory  of  the  universe.  Later 
thinkers  began  to  seek  rather  for  a 
practical  system  by  which  to  live  than 
to  again  attempt  to  solve  the  secret 
of  existence.  Hence  stoicism  is  a 
code  of  practical  rules  as  much  as  a 
reasoned  theory ;  still,  as  it  was  the 
former  in  a  philosophical  manner,  it 
necessarily  had  the  latter.  The  lead- 
ing thought  of  the  Stoics  may  be  thus 
stated.  They  divided  philosophy  into 
three  parts  —  logic,  physics,  and 
ethics.  "  Logic  supplies  the  method 
for  attaining  to  true  knowledge ;  phys- 
ic's teach  the  nature  and  order  of  the 
universe ;  and  ethics  draw  thence  the 
inferences  for  practical  life."  Though 
stoicism  as  a  system  fell  to  pieces 
with  the  ancient  world,  it  essentially 


stores 

reappeared  in  the  ascetic  forms  of 
Christianity  and  other  religions.  But 
the  reason  is,  not  that  they  were 
descended  from  stoicism,  but  that 
both  came  from  a  common  source. 
Stoicism  has  its  origin  in  human  na- 
ture. It  is  not  all  truth,  but  truth 
is  many  sided  and  this  system  is  at 
least  one  aspect  of  it. 

Stokes,  Frank  "Wilbert,  an  Amer- 
ican artist ;  born  in  Nashville,  Tenn. 
In  1892  while  employed  as  an  artist 
for  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  he  ac- 
companied the  Peary  relief  expedi- 
tion, and  in  1893-1894  he  was  with 
the  North  Greenland  expedition.  He 
became  identified  with  the  Anthro- 
pological Society,  the  Geographical 
Society,  the  Polar  Research  Club,  and 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  in 
Philadelphia.  His  publications  in- 
clude essays  on  "  Color  in  the  Far 
North,"  etc. 

Stola,  a  loose  garment  worn  by 
Roman  matrons  over  the  tunic.  To 
the  bottom  of  it  a  border  or  flounce 
was  sewed,  the  whole  reaching  down 
Bo  low  as  to  conceal  the  ankles  and 
part  of  the  feet.  It  was  the  charac- 
teristic dress  of  the  Roman  matrons, 
as  the  toga  was  of  the  men ;  divorced 
women  or  courtesans  were  not  allowed 
to  wear  it.  It  was  usually  gathered 
and  confined  at  the  waist  by  a  girdle, 
and  frequently  ornamented  at  the 
throat  by  a  colored  border.  It  had 
either  short  or  long  sleeves,  and  was 
fastened  over  the  shoulder  by  a  fibula. 

Stole,  a  long,  loose  garment  extend- 
ing to  the  feet ;  also  the  sucker  or 
shoot  of  a  plant.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  a  narrow  band  of 
silk  or  stuff,  sometimes  enriched  with 
embroidery  and  jewels,  worn  on  the 
left  shoulder  of  deacons,  and  across 
both  shoulders  of  bishops  and  priests, 
pendent  on  each  side  nearly  to  the 
ground ;  —  used  in  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments  and  all  other  sacred 
functions. 

Stolon,  in  botany,  a  branch  which, 
as  of  the  currant,  gooseberry,  etc., 
naturally  curves  or  falls  down  to  the 
ground,  where,  favored  by  shade  and 
moisture,  it  strikes  root,  and  then 
forms  an  ascending  stem,  capable  of 
drawing  its  nourishment  directly  from 
the  soil,  and,  by  the  perishing  of  the 
.portion   which   connects   it   with    the 


Stone 

parent  stem,  at  length  acquiring  an 
entirely   separate   existence. 

Stomack,  in  comparative  anatomy, 
a  membranous  sac.  formed  by  a  dila- 
tation of  the  alimentary  canal,  in 
which  food  is  received  and  subjected 
to  the  processes  of  digestion  among 
the  Vertebrata.  The  human  stomach 
is  an  elongated,  curved  pouch,  from 
10  to  12  inches  long,  and  four  or  five 
inches  in  diameter  at  its  widest  part, 
lying  almost  immediately  below  the 
diaphragm,  nearly  transversely  across 
the  upper  and  left  portion  of  the 
abdominal  cavity,  and  having  the 
form  of  a  bagpipe.  It  is  very  dilat- 
able and  contractile,  and  its  average 
capacity  is  about  five  pints.  The  food 
enters  the  stomach  through  the  oesoph- 
agus by  the  cardia  or  cardiac  ori- 
fice, and  after  having  been  acted  on 
by  the  gastric  juice,  is  passed  on  in  a 
semi-fluid  or  pulpy  state  through  the 
pylorus  into  the  small  intestines.  Ow- 
ing to  the  recent  improvements  in 
electrical  apparatus,  the  physiology 
and  pathology  of  the  human  stomach 
in  life  is  becoming  much  better  known. 
Medical  electricians  have  recently  de- 
vised a  plan  by  which  the  interior 
of  the  human  stomach  may  be  illumi- 
nated for  examination.  The  patient  is 
laid  on  the  operating  table  and  a 
slender  tube,  carrying  a  glass  bead  on 
its  end,  is  introduced  into  the  stom- 
ach. A  small  light  inside  the  bead 
is  supplied  by  fine  wires  running  o'Jt 
through  the  tube  and  connected  to  a 
small  battery.  The  interior  of  the 
stomach  is  plainly  lighted  and  all  its 
parts  are  brought  into  view  by  a  small 
movable  mirror  at  the  end  of  the  tube. 

Stomack  Fnmp,  in  surgery,  a  suc- 
tion and  force  pump  for  withdrawing 
the  contents  of  the  stomach  in  cases 
of  poisoning,  etc.,  and  also  used  as  an 
injector.  It  resembles  the  ordinary 
syringe,  except  that  it  has  two  aper- 
tures near  the  end,  in  which  the  valve 
opens  different  ways,  so  as  to  consti- 
tute a  sucking  and  forcing  passage. 

Stone,  a  hard  concretion  of  some 
species  of  earth,  as  lime,  silex,  clay, 
and  the  like;  also,  the  material  obtain- 
ed by  quarrying  rocks.  The  principal 
component  parts  are  silex,  alumina, 
zirconia,  glucina,  lime,  and  magnesia. 

The  production  of  different  kinds 
of  stone  in  the   United   States  broke 


Stone 

the  record  in  1907.  when  it  reached 
a  total  value  of  $71,105,805.  Lime- 
stone ranked  first,  with  an  output  of 
$31,737,631.  and  was  followed,  in  the 
order  given,  by  granite.  $18,064,708; 
marble,  $7,837,685;  sandstone,  $6,753,- 
762;  trap  rock,  $4,594,103;  and  blue- 
stone,  $2,117,916. 

Stoue,  Charles  Pomeroy,  aq 
American  military  officer ;  born  in 
Greenfield,  Franklin  co.,  Mass.,  in 
1826 ;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  and  entered 
the  army  as  lieutenant  of  ordnance  in 
1845 ;  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Mexican  War,  and  subsequently  set- 
tled in  California.  At  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  the  first 
volunteer  officer  sworn  into  the  serv- 
ice ;  after  a  short  period  of  military 
duty  he  ■was  arrested  and  imprisoned 
in  Port  Lafayette,  where  he  remained 
for  a  year ;  after  his  release  he  re- 
joined the  army  and  went  with  Gen- 
eral  Banks  up  the  Red  River,  serving 
till  the  end  of  the  war;  resigned  from 
the  army  in  1864.  He  subsequently 
went  to  Egypt  and  served  as  chief  of 
staff  in  the  Egyptian  army,  receiving 
the  title  of  pasha.  He  was  an  engi- 
neer and  his  last  work  was  as  engi- 
neer-in-chief in  charge  of  the  build- 
ing of  the  pedestal  of  the  Statue  of 
Liberty  in  ^ew  York  harbor.  He  died 
in  New  York  city,  Jan.  24,  1887. 

Stone,  Charles  'Wellington,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  Temple- 
ton,  Mass.,  Dec.  13,  1853 ;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  University  in  1874; 
founded  a  college  preparatory  school 
in  1879 ;  and  was  secretary  of  the 
Handel  and  Haydn  Society  in  1890- 
1897.  His  publications  include  "  Nee- 
dies  of  Pine,"  school  books ;  and  es- 
says on  historical  and  educational 
subjects. 

Stone,  Ellen  M.,  an  American 
missionary ;  born  in  Roxbury,  Mass., 
July  24,  1846.  She  went  to  Bulgaria 
as  a  missionary  in  1878.  About  Sept. 
1,  1901,  with  a  companion,  Mme. 
Tsilka,  a  native  Bulgarian  teacher, 
she  was  kidnapped  by  brigands  who  a 
few  days  later  demanded  an  indemnity 
of  $110,000,  the  money  to  be  paid 
\\1thin  30  days.  On  Sept.  5,  the 
news  of  Miss  Stone's  detention  reached 
the  United  States,  and  her  friends  im- 
mediately notified  the  State  Depart- 


Stone 

ment  at  Washington  and  began  a 
popular  subscription  to  raise  the  re- 
quired amount.  The  United  States 
government  communicated  with  the 
Bulgarian  and  Turkish  authorities, 
who  ordered  troops  to  search  for  the 
retreat  of  the  brigands  for  the  pur- 
pose of  releasing  the  captives.  The 
troops  were  later  ordered  to  cease  pur- 
Buit,  presumably  at  the  instance  of 
the  United  States,  fear  being  expressed 
lest  the  presence  of  the  soldiers  would 
lead  to  the  torture  or  murder  of  Miss 
Stone.  More  than  one-half  of  the  in- 
demnity was  raised  by  subscription, 
readers  of  the  "  Christian  Herald  "  be- 
ing large  contributors,  and  it  was  in- 
timated that  the  United  States  would 
guarantee  the  whole  amount  and  aft- 
erward demand  damages  from  the 
Turkish  government  for  the  outrage. 
On  Feb.  6,  $72,500  of  the  ransom  de- 
manded was  paid,  and  on  Feb.  23 
Miss  Stone  was  released. 

Stone,  James  Samuel,  an  Amer- 
ican clergyman ;  born  in  England, 
April  27,  1852 ;  was  graduated  at  the 
Philadelphia  Divinity  School  in  1877 
and  at  the  Cambridge  Theological 
School  in  1880;  was  ordained  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  1877 ; 
and  held  pastorates  in  Toronto,  Mon- 
treal, and  Philadelphia  in  1877-1895. 
In  the  latter  year  he  became  rector 
of   St.   James   Church,   Chicago. 

Stone,  liucy  (Blackxvell),  an 
American  reformer ;  born  in  West 
Brookfield,  Mass.,  Aug.  13,  1818.  She 
was  graduated  at  Oberlin  College  in 
1847.  In  1855  she  married  Dr.  Henry 
B.  Blackwell,  retaining  her  owin  name. 
She  published  a  protest,  "  Taxation 
without  Representation."  In  1869  she 
helped  organize  the  American  Wom- 
an's Suffrage  Association ;  became 
connected  with  the  "  Woman's  Jour- 
nal "  in  1872,  and  was  editor  after 
1888.  Her  lectures  on  woman  suf- 
frage made  her  known  throughout  the 
country.  She  died  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Oct.   18,  1893. 

Stone,  Marvin  Chester,  an  Amer- 
ican inventor;  born  in  Portage  co., 
O.,  in  1842 ;  was  the  inventor  of  a 
machine  for  making  paper  cigarette 
holders;  a  process  for  making  paper 
"straws"  for  use  with  cold  drinks; 
and  a  method  of  coloring  china  in 
imitation  of  the  famous  "  peach-blow  " 


Stone 

vase.  He  was  highly  successful  hs  a 
manufacturer  and  engaged  extens  vely 
in  philaTithropic  projects.  He  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  May  17,  1899. 

Stone,  Melville  Elijah,  an  Amer- 
ican journalist ;  born  in  Hudson,  111., 
Aug.  22,  1848.  In  18S1  with  Victor 
F.  Lawson  he  founded  the  Chicago 
"  Morning  News  ''  which  subsequently 
became  the  Chicago  "  Record."  Ow- 
ing to  ill  health  he  retired  from  news- 
paper work  in  1888  and  spent  several 
years  abroad.  Returning  to  the  Unit- 
ed States  he  settled  in  New  York 
city,  and  was  made  general  manager 
of  the  Associated  Press. 

Stone,  Ormond,  an  American  as- 
tronomer ;  born  in  Fekin,  111.,  Jan. 
11,  1847 ;  Director  of  the  Cincinnati 
Observatory  (1875)  ;  and  Professor 
of  Astronomy  and  Director  of  the  Ob- 
servatory of  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia (1882).  His  principal  astro- 
nomical work  has  been  in  the  field  of 
double-star  observations  and  the  dis- 
covery of  nebulae.  He  was  editor  of 
the  "  Annals  of  Mathematics,"  pub- 
lished  at  the   University  of  Virginia. 

Stone  Age,  or  Age  of  Stone,  is  a 
term  used  in  archaeology  to  denote  the 
condition  of  a  people  using  stone  as 
the,  material  for  the  cutting  tools  and 
weapons  which,  in  a  higher  condition 
of  culture,  were  made  of  metals.  The 
expression  "  age,"  when  used  in  this 
connection,  is  not  therefore  signifi- 
cant of  a  fixed  period  in  chronology, 
but  implies  merely  the  time,  longer 
or  sliorter,  earlier  or  later,  during 
which  the  condition  subsisted.  The 
duration  of  such  a  condition  must 
necessarily  have  varied  from  various 
causes  in  different  areas,  and  chiefly 
in  consequence  of  contact  with  higher 
degrees  of  culture.  Populations 
placed  in  remote  situations,  and  on 
that  account  remaining  uninfluenced 
by  such  contact  —  like  the  islanders  of 
the  South  Pacific  and  the  Eskimos  of 
the  extreme  North  for  instance  —  have 
remained  in  their  stone  age  to  the 
20th  century.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
populations  of  the  European  area,  in 
portions  of  which  there  were  suc- 
cessive centers  of  high  culture  and 
civilization  from  a  very  early  period, 
had  all  emerged  from  their  stone  age, 
through  the  use  of  bronze,  many  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  era. 


Stoneman 

Stone  Chat,  an  insessorial  bird  of 
the  family  of  w^arblers.  The  stone 
chat  is  common  in  Europe,  and  fre- 
quents moors  and  other  open  wastes. 


STONE  CHAT. 

Its  color  on  the  upper  part  generally 
is  black,  the  belly  is  yellowish  white, 
and  the  breast  a  light  chestnut  brown. 
It  runs  with  much  celerity.  It  is  ac- 
cidental in  the  N.  part  of  North 
America. 

Stone  Fly,  a  genus  of  insects. 
The  hind  wings  are  brc?der  than  the 
fore  wnngs,  and  folded  at  the  inner 
edge.  The  body  is  elongated,  narrow, 
and  flattened ;  the  wings  fold  close  to 
the  body,  which  generally  bears  two 
terminal  bristles.  A  number  of  species 
are  well  known  to  anglers  as  an  at- 
tractive lure  for  fishes. 

Stone  Fruits,  a  name  popularly 
applied  to  those  fruits  in  which  the 
single  kernel  is  enclosed  in  a  stone, 
and  this  enveloped  in  an  edible  pulpy 
mass  covered  by  a  thin  skin.  Exam- 
ples are  found  in  the  cherry,  peach, 
plum,  olive,  etc.  Botanically  this  kind 
of  fruit  is  called  a  drupe,  the  skin 
being  the  epicarp,  the  pulp  the  meso- 
carp,  and  the  hard  shell  of  the  seed 
the  endocarp. 

Stoneman,  George,  an  American 
military  officer ;  born  in  Busti,  N.  Y., 
Aug.  8,  1822 ;  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1846.  In  August,  1861,  he  became 
Brigadier-General  of  volunteers  and 
chief  of  cavalry  in  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac.  He  commanded  the  cavalry 
in  the  Peninsular  campaign  of  1862, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  the  battle 
of  Williamsburg  on  May  5  of  that 
year;  was  promoted  Major-General  of 
volunteers  in  the  following  November. 
He  was  promoted  colonel  of  the  21st 


Stone  Plover 


Stork 


Infantry  in  July,  1866,  and  was  bre- 
vetted  Brigadier-General  and  Major- 
General  U.  S.  A.,  in  recognition  of 
his  meritorious  services.  In  August, 
1871,  he  resigned  from  the  army  and 
settled  in  California,  of  which  State 
he  was  Democratic  governor  in  1883- 
1887.  He  died  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Sept. 
5,  1894. 

Stone  Plover,  a  large  species  of 
plover.  It  appears  in  England  at  the 
latter  end  of  April,  frequents  open 
hilly  situations ;  makes  no  nest,  but 
lays  t\\o  eggs  on  the  bare  ground,  and 
emigrates  in  small  flocks  about  the 
end  of  September. 

Stonewall  Jackson,  a  name  given 
to  Gen.  T.  J.  Jackson  during  the 
Civil  War.. 

Stoneivare,  a  very  hard  kind  of 
pottery,  with  which  are  made  jars, 
drain  pipes,  and  a  variety  of  chem- 
ical utensils.  It  is  constituted  of  plas- 
tic clay,  united  in  various  proportions 
with  some  felspathic  mineral  sands  of 
different  kinds,  and  in  some  cases  with 
cement,  stone,  or  chalk.  These  mix- 
tures are  then  subjected  to  a  heat 
sufficiently  great  to  cause  a  partial 
fusion  of  the  mass.  This  condition  of 
semi-fusion  is  the  distinguishing  char- 
acter of  stoneisare.  The  finer  varie- 
ties of  stoneware  are  made  from  care- 
fully selected  clays,  which  when  burnt 
will  not  have  much  color.  These  are 
united  with  some  fluxing  substance,  by 
which  the  particular  state  of  semi- 
fusion  above  mentioned  is  brought 
about.  Formerly  the  glaze  of  stone- 
ware was  always  a  salt  glaze ;  recent- 
ly, however,  it  has  been  customary 
to  glaze  with  a  mixture  of  Cornish 
stone,  flint,  etc.,  as  in  the  manufacture 
of   earthenware. 

Stone  Vrorskip,  divine  honors  paid 
to  stones  either  as  the  embodiments  or 
the  representatives  of  deities.  It  is  a 
part  of  stock-and-stone  worship,  dating 
from  remote  antiquity,  and  was  once 
widespread.  Grote  notes  that  it  ex- 
isted among  the  ancient  Greeks.  It 
lingered  on  in  France  and  Europe  till 
the  Early  Middle  Ages,  in  Norway  till 
the  end  of  the  18th  century. 

Stony  Point,  a  small  rocky  prom- 
ontory on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Hud- 
son river,  opposite  Verplanck's  Point, 
42  miles  N.  of  New  York  city,  at  the 


entrance  to  the  Highlands.  A  forti- 
fication of  some  importance  in  the 
Revolutionary  War,  it  was  captured 
and  strengthened  by  the  British,  but 
was  recovered  in  a  night  attack  by 
Wayne.  It  is  connected  by  a  marsh 
with  the  shore,  and  supports  a  light- 
house and  fog-bell  tower.  In  the  vil- 
lage here  is  the  house  where  Benedict 
Arnold  held  his  treasonable  interviews. 
The  property  at  Stony  Point,  con- 
sisting of  34  acres,  has  been  acquired 
by  the  State  for  a  public  park,  $2.5,- 
000  having  been  appropriated  for  that 
purpose    by    the    legislature    in    1897. 

Storer,  Bellamy,  diplomat,  born 
at  Cincinnati,  O.,  Aug.  28,  1847.  He 
graduated  from  Harvard  Univ.  1867, 
from  Cincinnati  Law  School  1869,  and 
practiced  as  a  lawjer.  He  was^ elected 
member  of  Congress  1891-95 ;  was 
minister  to  Belgium  1897-99  ;  to  Spain 
1899-1902;  and  to  Austria-Hungary 
1902-06.  He  was  "  separated  from  the 
service  "  and  returned  to  the  United 
States,  the  disclosures  of  religious  and 
feminine  ambition  in  his  career  pro- 
viding a  sensation  in  Dec,  1906, 
through  a  tilt  in  official  polemics  with 
Pres.  Roosevelt. 

Storer,  Francis  Hnmpkreys,  an 
American  chemist;  bom  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  March  27,  1832;  was  chemist 
of  the  United  States  Exploring  Ex- 
pedition in  1853;  studied  in  Europe 
in  1855-1857;  and  followed  his  pro- 
fession in  Boston  in  1857-1865.  He 
held  the  chair  of  industrial  and  gen- 
eral chemistry  at  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  in  1865-1870. 
In  the  latter  year  he  became  Professor 
of  Agricultural  Chemistry  at  the  Bus- 
sey   Institution,    Harvard    University. 

Storer,  Horatio  Robinson,  an 
American  physician ;  bom  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Feb.  27,  1830;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  University  in  1850,  and  at 
its  Medical  Department  in  1853.  Later, 
he  was  Professor  of  Obstetrics  and 
Medical  Jurisprudence  at  Harvard  till 
1865;  held  the  chair  of  obstetrics  and 
medical  jurisprudence  at  the  Berkshire 
Medical  College  in  1865-1869 ;  and  in- 
vented several  surgical  and  gynaecolog- 
ical instruments. 

Stork,  in  ornithology,  any  individ- 
ual of  the  genus  Ciconia.  In  form  the 
storks  resemble  the  herons,  but  are 
more    robust,    and    have    larger    bills, 


storm 

shorter  toes,  with  a  non-serrated  claw 
on  the  middle  toe.  They  inhabit  the 
vicinity  of  marshes  and  rivers,  where 
they  find  an  abundant  supply  of  food, 
consisting  of  frogs,  lizards,  frshes,  and 
even  young  birds.  Storks  are  migra- 
tory, arriving  from  the  S.  at  their 
breeding  haunts  in  the  early  spring, 
and  departing  again  in  the  autumn. 


■WHITE   STOB^. 

Storm,  a  violent  commotion  or  dis- 
turbance of  the  atmosphere,  producing 
or  attended  by  wind,  rain,  snow,  hail, 
or  thunder  and  lightning ;  a  tempest ; 
often  applied  to  a  heavy  fall  of  rain, 
Bnow,  etc.,  without  a  high  wind. 

Storm  Glass,  a  tube  containing  a 
liquid  holding  a  solution  which  is  sen- 
sible to  atmospheric  changes.  In  clear 
weather  the  substance  is  seen  to  set- 
tle near  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  the 
liquid  rejiaining  comparatively  clear; 
previous  to  a  storm  the  substance  rises, 
causing  the  liquid  to  present  a  turbid 
and  flocculent  appearance. 

Storm-signal,  a  cone  and  drum 
used  to  indicate  the  approach  of  a 
etorm.  The  cone  exhibited  alone  with 
its  apex  down  portends  a  south  gale ; 
with  its  apex  up,  a  north  gale.  The 
cone  with  the  apex  down  and  the  drum 


Story 

over  it  portends  dangerous  winds  from 
the  south  ;  with  the  apex  up  and  the 
drum  under,  dangerous  winds  from  the 
north. 

Storrs,    Emory    Alezaader,    an 

American  lawyer;  born  in  Hinsdale, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  12,  1835 ;  removed  to  Chi- 
cago in  1859.  He  became  prominent 
as  a  criminal  laywer,  and  for  several 
years  figured  as  counsel  in  almost  every 
important  criminal  case  in  the  Chi- 
cago courts.  He  became  well  known 
as  a  presidential  campaign  orator,  and 
was  a  delegate-at-Iarge  to  the  National 
Republican  Conventions  of  1868,  1872, 
and  1880,  where  he  was  influential  in 
shaping  the  platform  of  the  party. 
He  died  in  Ottawa,  111.,  Sept.  12,  1885. 

Storrs,  Richard  Salter,  an  Amer- 
ican clergyman ;  born  in  Braintree, 
Mass.,  Aug.  21,  1821 ;  graduated  at 
Amherst  College  in  1839  and  at  the 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1845,  In  1846  he  was  called,  to  the 
Church  of  the  Pilgrims  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  was  pastor  emeritus 
at  the  time  of  his  death.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  "  Independent  " 
in  1848  and  remained  on  its  editorial 
staff  till  1861.  He  died  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  June  5,  1900. 

Story,  Josepli,  an  American  ju- 
rist; born  in  Marblehead,  Mass.,  Sept. 
18,  1779.  In  1811  he  was  appointed 
an  associate  justice  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court,  and  held  the 
office  till  his  death.  He  died  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  Sept.  10,  1845. 

Story,  William.  Edward,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  April  29,  1850;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1871;  studied 
physics  and  mathematics  in  Europe  in 
1871-1875,  was  assistant  professor  and 
Professor  of  Mathematics  at  Johns 
Hopkins  University  in  1876-1889 ;  and 
in  the  latter  year  he  accepted  the  chair 
of  mathematics  at  Clark  University. 
He  became  identified  with  several 
mathematical  and  other  learned  so- 
cieties. His  publications  include  con- 
tributions  to    technical    periodicals. 

Story,  William.  Wetmore,  an 
American  sculptor,  son  of  Judge 
Joseph ;  born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  Feb.  19, 
1819 ;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1838;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and 
practised  five  years ;  went  to  Rome 
to  study  art  and  made  Italy  his  home. 


stow 

Among  his  sculptures  are :  a  statue 
of  Edward  Everett  (in  the  Boston 
Public  Garden)  ;  and  one  of  Prescott 
at  Bunker  Hill ;  "  Cleopatra  "  ;  "  Se- 
miramis  " ;  "  Judith  "  ;  "  Jerusalem  "  ; 
"Medea";  "The  Sibyl";  etc.;  and 
busts  of  Judge  Story,  Lowell,  Bryant, 
etc.  lie  published :  "  Treatise  on 
the  Law  of  Sales  of  Personal  Prop- 
erty," "  Life  and  Letters  of  Joseph 
Story."  "  Poems,"  "  The  American 
Question,"  etc.  He  died  in  Vallom- 
brosa,  near  Florence,  Italy,  Oct.  7, 1895. 

Stoxir,  Baron,  an  American  clergy- 
man ;  born  in  Croydon,  N.  H.,  June  16, 
1801 ;  was  graduated  at  Columbia  Col- 
lege m  1825.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
eloquent  and  prominent  preachers  in 
the  Baptist  Church.  His  work  as  a 
member  of  the  Executive  Committee 
of  the  American  jMissionary  Union 
greatly  strengthened  that  movement- 
Died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Dec.  27,  1869. 

StoTPe,  Calvin  Ellis,  an  American 
educator :  born  in  Natick,  Mass.,  April 
6,  1802;  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
College  in  1824,  at  Andover  Seminary 
in  1828;  and  edited  the  Boston  "Re- 
corder "  in  1829-1830.  He  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  Dartmouth  College 
in  1830^1832,  and  of  Sacred  Liter- 
ature in  Lane  Theological  Seminary, 
Cincinnati,  O.,  in  1833-1835.  He  mar- 
ried Harriet  Elizabeth  Beecher  in 
January,  1836,  and  went  to  Europe 
to  examine  the  public  school  systems. 
He  was  professor  at  Bowdoin  in  1850 ; 
and  at  Andover  in  1852-1864 .  His 
publications  include  "  Lectures  on  the 
Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,"  "  Report  on 
Elementary  Education  in  Europe," 
(tc.  He  died  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  Aug. 
22,   1886. 

Stowe,  Harriet  Elizabeth 
Beecher,  an  American  novelist, 
daughter  of  Lyman  Beecher  and  sister 
of  Henry  Ward  Beecher;  born  in 
Litchfield,  Conn.,  June  14,  1811 ;  was 
educated  at  Litchfield  Academy  and  at 
the  school  of  her  sister  Catherine  in 
Hartford ;  at  the  age  of  14  she  began 
teaching ;  in  1832  removed  to  Cincin- 
nati, O.  In  1836  she  was  married  to 
Prof.  Calvin  Ellis  Stowe;  in  1^50  she 
removed  to  Brimswick,  Me.,  and  later 
to  Andover,  Mass. ;  in  1864  she  set- 
tled in  Hartford,  Conn.,  where  she 
spent  the  remainder  of  her  life.  She 
published :  "  The  Mayflower ;  or 
Sketches    of    Scenes    and    Characters 


Strabismus 

among  the  Descendants  of  the  Pil- 
grims," "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin ;  or,  Life 
among  the  Lowly,"  and  a  large  number 
of  other  works.  Her  best-known  work, 
"Uncle  Tom's  Cabin"  (suggested  by 
the  life  of  Josiah  Henson)  has  been 
translated  into  many  languages,  its 
sale  exceeding  that  of  any  previous 
work  of  English  fiction.  She  died  in 
Hartford,  Conn.,  July  1,  1890. 

Stoxcell,  Charles  Henry,  an 
American  author ;  born  in  Perry,  N. 
Y.,  Oct.  27,  1850 ;  was  graduated  at 
the  Medical  Department  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  in  1872;  held  the 
chair  of  physiology  at  the  University 
of  Michigan  in  1876-1885;  followed 
his  profession  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
in  1885-1897;  afterward  applied  him- 
self to  technical  literature.  His  pub- 
lications include  "  Primer  of  Health" ; 
"  Microscopical  Diagnosis  "  ;  "  Struct- 
ure of  Teeth  " ;  etc.  He  also  became 
editor  of  several  monthly  journals,  in- 
cluding "  Practical  Medicine"; 
"  Food  " ;  "  The  Microscope  " ;  "Train- 
ed Motherhood  " ;  and  the  "  National 
Medical  Review." 

Stowell,  'William  Scott,  Lord, 
an  English  jurist,  eldest  brother  of 
Lord  Eldon ;  born  in  Heworth,  Dur- 
ham, England,  Oct.  17,  1745.  As  a 
barrister  at  Doctors'  Commons  he  ob- 
tained a  large  practice,  and  his  pro- 
motion was  rapid.  In  1788  he  was 
appointed  judge  in  the  Consistory 
Court,  knighted,  and  nominated  a 
privy  councillor.  In  1798  he  became 
judge  of  the  Court  of  Admiralty.  Both 
as  an  ecclesiastical  and  admiralty 
judge  he  won  high  distinction.  He 
wrote  no  systematic  treatise  or  text- 
book, but  his  judgments  were  admira- 
bly reported ;  and  he  was  long  the  high- 
est English  authority  on  the  law  of 
nations.  He  represented  Oxford  in 
the  House  of  Commons  for  20  years ; 
but  took  no  part  in  the  business  of 
Parliament.  At  the  coronation  of 
George  IV.  he  was  raised  to  the  peer- 
age under  the  title  of  Baron  Stowell 
of  Stowell  Park.  In  1828  he  retired 
from  the  bench.  He  died  Jan.  28,  1836. 

Strabismus,  squinting  arising  from 
the  optic  axes  of  the  eyes  in  certain 
individuals  not  being  as  in  normal 
cases,  parallel.  Strabismus  may  affect 
one  or  both  eyes,  and  may  be  upward, 
downward,  inward,  outward,  or  in  the 
intermediate  directions. 


Stralio 

Strabo,  a  noted  geographer;  born 
Ih  Amasea,  Pontus,  about  63  B.  c.  He 
seems  to  have  been  possessed  of  ample 
means  which  he  expended  on  travel, 
the  results  of  which,  after  a  lifetime's 
toil,  he  has  bequeathed  to  us  in  his 
"  Geography."  But  he  also  devoted 
himself  to  philosophy,  and  is  cited  by 
Plutarch  (Lucullus  28,  Sulla  2G)  as 
Strabo,  the  philosopher.  His  work  en- 
titled "  Historica  Hypomnemata  "  in 
43  books  is  supposed  to  have  contained 
a  narrative  of  the  events  from  the 
close  of  the  "  History  "  of  Polybius  to 
the  battle  of  Actium.  His  geography 
in  seventeen  books  has  been  preserved 
entire  with  the  exception  of  the 
seventh  book,  of  which  there  is  only 
an  epitome.  The  first  two  books  are 
introductory,  the  next  ten  treat  of 
Europe,  the  four  following  of  Asia, 
and  the  last  of  Africa. 

Stradivari,  Antonio  (Stradi- 
▼arius),  an  Italian  violin  maker; 
born  in  Cremona,  Italy,  about  1649. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Nicolo  Amati,  in 
whose  employment  he  remained  till 
1700,  when  he  began  making  on  his 
own  account.  "  It  was  he  who  settled 
the  typical  pattern  of  the  Cremona 
violin,  and  his  instruments,  for  tone 
and  finish,  have  never  yet  been  ex- 
celled. He  died  in  Cremona  Dec. 
17,  1737. 

StrafPord,  Thomas  'Wentivortli, 
Earl  of,  an  English  statesman,  the 
eldest  son  of  Sir  William  Wentworth ; 
born  in  London,  April  13,  1593.  He 
sat  in  Parliament  for  Yorkshire  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  when  Charles  I. 
asserted  that  the  Commons  enjoyed 
no  rights  but  by  royal  permission,  he 
was  strongly  opposed  by  Sir  Thomas 
Wentworth.  In  1628  he  was  succes- 
sively created  Baron  Wentworth, 
privy-councillor,  and  President  of  the 
North.  Archbishop  Laud  selected  him 
to  proceed  to  Ireland  as  lord  deputy 
in  1G32.  Here  he  greatly  improved 
the  state  of  the  country,  both  as  re- 
garded law,  revenue,  and  trade.  For 
these  services  he  was  created  Earl 
of  Strafford.  When  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment met,  the  very  first  movement  of 
the  party  opposed  to  arbitrary  power 
was  to  impeach  Strafford  of  high 
treason.  His  defense,  however,  was 
BO  strong  that  the  original  impeach- 
ment was  deserted  for  a  bill  of  at- 
tainder.    The   bill  passed   the   Com- 

E.  146. 


Strassbnrg 

mons  by  a  great  majority,  and  was 
feebly  supported  by  the  House  of 
Lords.  The  king  endeavored  to  secure 
his  safety,  but  yielded  to  the  advice 
of  his  counsellors,  backed  by  a  letter 
from  Strafford  himself,  who  urged 
him,  for  his  own  safety,  to  ratify  the 
bill.  Strafford  was  accordingly  be- 
headed on  Tower  Hill  May  12,  1G4L 

Straight-ont  Democrats,  a  po- 
litical party  which  arose  in  the  United 
States  in  1872,  their  distinguishing 
tenet  being  that  governments  should 
be  limited  to  police  functions. 

Strangles,  a  disease  attacking 
horses,  generally  between  the  ages  of 
three  and  five  years.  It  consists  of 
an  abscess,  which  occurs  between  the 
branches  of  the  lower  jaw.  It  is  con- 
sidered contagious.  The  name  is  also 
appl'ed  to  a  similar  infectious  disease 
in  swine. 

Strangling  Bug,  a  large  water 
bug,  which  made  its  appearance  in 
New  Jersey  and  other  places  in  the 
summer  of  1898.  It  was  given  the 
name  of  "  strangling  bug "  from  its 
tendency  to  fasten  its  hooked  claws 
into  the  neck  of  its  victim. 

Strangulation,  an  act  of  violence 
in  which  constriction  is  applied  direct- 
ly to  the  neck,  either  around  it  or  in 
the  forepart,  in  such  a  way  as  to  de- 
stroy life.  This  definition  obviously 
includes  hanging,  which  differs  from 
other  forms  of  strangulation  only  in 
that  the  body  is  suspended.  The  di- 
rect cause  of  death  in  the  great  ma- 
jority of  cases  is  arrest  of  the  respira- 
tion owing  to  pressure  on  the  wind- 
pipe—  i.  e.,  asphyxia.  If  much  vio- 
lence is  used,  death  may  be  produced 
by  direct  injury  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  spinal  cord  from  fracture  or  dis- 
location of  the  cervical  vertebrae  (as 
is  now  the  rule  in  execution  by  hang- 
ing), or  by  syncope  from  shock,  and 
in  such  cases  must  be  almost  instanta- 
neous ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  constric- 
tion is  so  applied  as  to  compress  the 
great  vessels  in  the  neck  and  not  the 
windpipe,  as  may  happen  in  "garot- 
ting,"  it  is  due  to  coma,  and  is  some- 
what slower  than  in  cases  of  asphyxia. 
Or  if.  both  vesels  and  windpipe  are 
compressed,  coma  and  asphyxia  may 
both  contribute  to  cause  death. 

Strassbnrg,  a  town  and  fortress  of 
Germany,  in  Alsace ;  capital  of  the  ter- 


strategy 

ritory  of  Alsace-Lorraine ;  on  the  III ; 
about  2  miles  W.  of  the  Rhine,  to 
which  its  glacis  extends ;  250  miles  E. 
by  S.  of  Paris,  and  about  370  miles 
S.  W.  of  Berlin.  By  means  of  canals 
which  unite  the  111  with  the  Rhine, 
Rhone,  and  Marne,  it  is  brought  into 
communication  with  the  Atlantic  and 
the  Mediterranean.  It  has  always 
been  regarded  as  a  place  of  strategical 
importance,  and  strong  fortifications 
and  a  pentagonal  citadel  were  erected 
by  Vauban  in  1682-1684.  The  chief 
building  is  the  cathedral,  a  structure 
which  presents  the  architectural  styles 
of  the  centuries  from  the  11th  to  the 
loth,  in  which  it  was  built,  but  whose 
main  element  is  Gothic.  It  is  sur- 
mounted by  towers  466  feet  high,  has 
a  splendid  W.  facade,  with  statues 
and  great  rose  window,  fine  painted 
glass  windows,  and  a  famous  astronom- 
ical clock,  made  in  1547-1580.  The 
other  notable  buildings  are  the  Church 
of  St.  Thomas,  the  Temple-Neuf  or 
Neukirche,  the  old  Episcopal  palace, 
the  town  hall,  the  new  university 
building,  opened  in  1884,  and  the  new 
imperial  palace.  United  to  France  in 
1681,  Strassburg  was  ceded  with  the 
territories  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  to 
Germany  in  1871.  Pop.  (1900)  150,- 
268. 

Strategy,  Board  of,  a  board  of 
United  States  naval  officers  organized 
at  the  commencement  of  the  Spanish- 
American  War  in  1898;  consisted  of 
Rear-Admiral  Montgomery  Sicard, 
Capts.  A.  T.  Mahan,  A.  S.  Crownln- 
shield,  and  A.  S.  Barker,  and  had 
charge  of  conduct  of  the  war  at  sea. 

Stratford,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Perth  county,  Ontario, 
Canada;  on  the  Avon  river  and  the 
Grand  Trunk  railroad;  88  miles  W.  of 
Toronto;  is  in  a  grain,  flax,  and  live- 
stock section;  has  extensive  locomo- 
tive and  car  shops,  and  manufactories 
of  milling  machinery,  iron  bridge 
work,  wire  fencing,  flax  cordage, 
brick  and  tile,  farm  implements,  and 
woolen  goods. 

Stratford-on-Avon,  a  town  of 
Warwicksiiire, England  ;  8  miles  S.  W. 
of  Warwick ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Avon  river,  famous  as  the  home  of 
Shakespeare.  "  Shakespeare's  House, 
that  is,  the  house  in  which  he  was 
born,  having  been  purchased  by  sub- 
ecription  and  dedicated  to  the  public 


Stratum 

in  1847,  was  restored  in  1859,  and  now 
contains  the  Shakespeare  library  and 
museum,  the  Stratford  portrait,  etc. 
The  grounds  are  now  open  free. 
In  the  cruciform  parish  church  are 
his  grave  and  portrait  bust,  also  the 
font  in  which  he  was  baptized.  The 
old  parish  register  with  the  entry  of 
Shakespeare's  baptism  and  burial,  is 
shown  near  the  N.  door  of  the  church. 
The  central  tower  of  the  church  dates 
from  the  13th  century.  Other  monu- 
ments are  the  Shakespeare  Memorial 
Theater,  built  in  1879  at  a  cost  of 
over  $200,000,  intended  for  occasional 
Shakespearean  celebrations,  and  pos- 
sibly as  a  dramatic  college,  and  having 
attached  to  it,  a  Shakespeare  library 
and  museum;  the  Shakespeare  foun- 
tain, built  by  an  American,  and  the 
Shakespeare  monument.  Apart  from 
Shakespeare,  the  town  is  interesting 
as  containing  the  early  home  of  the 
mother  of  John  Harvard,  founder  of 
America's  oldest  university.  The  town 
owes  its  name  to  the  old  ford  of  the 
Avon  parallel  to  the  bridge  on  the 
road  from  London  to  the  N.  W. 

Strathcona  and  Mount  Royal, 
Donald  Alexander  Smith,  1st 
Baron,  a  Canadian  statesman  and 
philanthropist;  born  in  Scotland  in 
1820;  entered  the  service  of  the  Hud- 
son Bay  Company  in  early  youth; 
was  a  special  commissioner  on  sev- 
eral important  Canadian  affairs;  mem- 
ber of  the  Commons  repeatedly;  ac- 
tively interested  in  large  railroad  and 
other  corporations;  High  Commission- 
er for  Canada  from  1896;  Chancellor 
Aberdeen  University,  1903;  and  donor 
of  several  millions  of  dollars  to  Ca- 
nadian and  other  British  institutions. 

Stratum,  a  bed  or  mass  of  matter 
spread  out  over  a  certain  surface,  in 
most  cases  by  the  action  of  water,  but 
sometimes  also  by  that  of  wind.  Most 
strata  have  a  dip  and  a  strike.  The 
fossils  will  in  most  cases  show  wheth- 
er strata  are  lacustrine,  fluviatile,  or 
marine.  They  prove  that  deposit  was 
very  slow.  One  stratum  may  over- 
lap" another,  or  a  stratum  may  thin 
out,  or  an  outcrop  of  it  may  exist. 
As  a  rule,  the  lowest  are  the  oldest, 
but  some  great  convulsion  may  have 
titled  over  strata  in  limited  areas,  so 
that  the  oldest  have  been  thrown  up- 
permost. The  thickness  of  the  strati- 
fied rocks  is  believed  to  be  20  miles. 


Straus 

Strans,  Oscar  Solomon,  an  Amer- 
ican diplomatist;  born  in  Ottenberg, 
Bavaria,  Dec.  23,  1850;  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1854;  appointed 
Minister  to  Turkey  in  1887  and  1898, 
and  Ambassador  in  1909;  menber  of 
Permanent  Court  of  Arbitratioa  from 
1902;  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  La- 
bor in  1906-1909;  author  of  "Roger 
Williams,  the  Pioneer  of  Religious 
Liberty,"  "  The  Development  of  Re- 
ligious Liberty  in  the  United  States." 

Stranss,  Jobann,  an  Austrian 
musician;  born  in  Vienna,  Oct.  25, 
1825 ;  began  the  composition  of  waltzes 
at  the  age  of  six.  Aji  operetta,  "  Indi- 
go "  produced  in  1871,  met  with  in- 
stantaneous success.  Subsequently  he 
produced  "  The  Forty  Thieves ;"  "Cag- 
liostro ;"  "  The  Gypsy  Baron  ;"  etc., 
and  numerous  w^altzes,  the  best  known 
being  "The  Beautiful  Blue  Danube." 
He  died  in  Vienna,  June  3,  1899. 
His  brothers  Joseph  and  Eduaed, 
were  also  celebrated  musicians. 

Strauss,  Joseph,  a  naval  officer; 
born  in  Mount  Morris,  N,  Y.,  Nov.  16, 
1861 ;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Naval  Academy  in  1881.  He 
invented,  with  Admiral  Sampson,  the 
superposed  turret  system  of  mounting 
guns  on  battleships  in  1895 ;  cruised 
in  South  American  waters  in  1896- 
1900;  and  engaged  in  the  blockade  of 
the  Cuban  coast  in  1898.  From  1900- 
3,  he  was  in  charge  of  the  United 
States  Naval  Proving  Ground ;  since 
then  attached  to  the  U.  S.  S.  Arkan- 
sas. 

Strauss,  Richard,  a  German  com- 
poser; born  at  Munich  in  1864;  rec- 
ognized as  the  most  advanced  expo- 
nent of  the  Wagnerian  School. 

Straiv.  Apart  from  the  importance 
of  the  straw  of  various  cereal  plants 
as  a  feeding  and  bedding  material  in 
agriculture,  such  substances  also  pos- 
sess no  inconsiderable  value  for  pack- 
ing merchandise,  for  thatching,  for 
making  mattresses,  and  for  door  mats. 
Straw  is  also  a  paper-making  material 
of  some  importance,  and  split,  flatten- 
ed, and  colored,  it  is  employed  for 
making  a  mosaic-like  veneer  on  fancy 
boxes.  But  it  is  in  the  form  of  plaits 
that  straw  finds  its  most  outstanding 
industrial  application,  these  being 
used  to  an  enormous  extent  for  mak- 
ing hats  and  bonnets  and  for  small 
boskets,  etc 


Stress 

Strair  Bail,  worthless  security  fur- 
nished by  an  offender  against  the  law 
for  his  appearance  for  trial,  the  bonds 
given  being  fraudulent  statements  of 
property  owned  by  the  person  offer- 
mg  it. 

Strawberry,  a  well-known  fruit 
and  plant.  It  is  remarkable  for  the 
manner  in  which  the  receptacle,  com- 
monly called  the  fruit,  increases  and 
becomes  succulent;  but  the  true  fruit 
is  the  small  seeds  or  achenes  on  the 
surface  of  the  receptacle.  The  species 
are  perennial  plants  throwing  out  run- 
ners which  take  root  and  produce  new 
plants ;  they  are  natives  of  temperate 
and  cold  climates  in  America,  Europe, 
and  Asia. 

Street,  Alfred  Billings,  an 
American  author ;  born  in  Poughkeep- 
sie,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  17,  1811.  In  1839  lie 
removed  to  Albany,  N.  Y.,  where  be 
practised  law  for  a  number  of  years. 
Among  his  best  known  poems  are 
"  The  Burning  of  Schenectady " ; 
"  Drawings  and  Tintings  " ;  "  Fugi- 
tive Poems  " ;  etc.  He  died  in  Pough- 
keepsie,  N.  Y.,  June  2,  1881. 

Street  Railnrays,  iron  ways  laid 
along  a  road,  or  the  streets  of  a  town 
or  city,  on  which  cars  for  passengers 
are  drawn  by  horses,  steam,  electricity, 
or  other  mechanical  means.  The  first 
use  of  cable  cars  was  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cincinnati,  and  other  Western 
cities,  where  the  steep  grade  of  certain 
streets  rendered  horse  cars  imprac- 
ticable. Later  they  were  generally 
adopted  throughout  the  United  States 
«s  a  substitute  for  horse  cars  on  ac- 
count of  their  greater  efficiency.  Elec- 
tricity was  employed  in  storage  bat- 
teries and  by  means  of  overhead  trol- 
leys, but  the  most  satisfactory  form 
is  that  of  the  underground  electric  con- 
ductor, which  has  been  adopted  by 
many  of  the  large  cities.  A  general 
feature  of  this  form  of  street  railway 
motive  power  is  the  large  number  of 
accidents  due  to  the  speed  of  the  cars. 

Stress,  a  convenient  term  intro- 
duced by  Professor  Rankine  to  express 
the  mutual  action  between  any  two 
portions  of  matter.  Thus  the  pressure 
between  a  table  and  a  book  resting 
on  it  is  of  the  nature  of  a  stress,  which 
has  two  aspects,  according  as  we  fix 
our  attention  on  the  table  or  the  book. 
With  reference  to  the  former  the  pres- 
sure is  downward,  with  reference  to 


stricture 

the  latter  upward,  and  these  two 
forces,  which  according  to  Newton's 
third  law  are  equal  and  opposite,  form 
when  regarded  as  a  whole  the  stress. 

Stricture,  a  terji  employed  in  sur- 
gery to  denote  an  unnatural  contrac- 
tion, either  congenital  or  acquired,  of 
a  mucous  canal,  such  as  the  urethra, 
oesophagus,  or  intestine.  When,  how- 
ever, the  affected  part  is  not  men- 
tioned, and  a  person  is  stated  to  suffer 
from  stricture,  it  is  always  the 
urethral  canal  that  is  referred  to. 
Contraction  of  this  canal  may  be  either 
permanent  or  transitory ;  the  former 
is  due  to  a  thickening  of  the  walls  of 
the  urethra  in  consequence  of  organic 
deposits  and  is  hence  termed  organic 
stricture ;  while  the  latter  may  be  due 
either  to  local  inflammation  or  conges- 
tion, or  to  abnormal  muscular  action ; 
the  first  of  these  varieties  may  be 
termed  inflammatory  or  congestive 
stricture,  and  the  second  spasmodic 
stricture.  The  last  named  form  sel- 
dom exists  except  as  a  complication  of 
the  other  kinds  of  stricture. 

Strikes,  a  term  applied  to  concerted 
movement  on  the  part  of  workingmen 
to  quit  work  unless  their  employers 
agree  to  some  demand  made  by  the 
men.  The  earliest  strike  of  which 
there  is  a  record  in  the  United  States 
occurred  in  Philadelphia  in  1796, 
when  300  shoemakers  struck  for  higher 
wages.  The  struggle  was  success- 
ful. In  1848  occurred  a  great 
strike  of  weavers  at  Fall  River,  and 
in  1877  occurred  the  first  railroad 
strike.  From  1888  to  1891  there  were 
a  great  number  of  important  strikes, 
including  the  street  car  strike  of  New 
York  city.  In  1892  there  were  six 
great  strikes,  including  the  one  at 
Homestead,  Pa.,  during  which  10  men 
were  killed,  the  militia  was  called  out, 
and  such  destitution  prevailed  that 
the  government  ordered  an  investiga- 
tion. In  1892  there  were  two  great 
railroad  strikes.  Perhaps  the  most 
notable  strike  in  the  history  of  the 
United  States  occurred  in  1894  among 
the  railroad  employes  of  the  roads 
centering  at  Chicago.  Fully  100,000 
men  were  affected.  The  strike  origi- 
nated among  the  3,000  employes  of 
the  Pullman  Car  Company,  who  de- 
manded higher  wages.  Just  as  their 
strike  was  about  to  fail,  the  cause  of 
the  strikers  was  espoused  by  the  Amer- 


Strong 

ican  Railway  Union,  an  organization 
numbering  over  100,000  railroad  men. 
These  men  refused  to  handle  Pullman 
cars,  an  immense  amount  of  rioting 
followed,  and  the  President  was  oblig- 
ed to  c  (1  on  the  Federal  troops  to  re- 
store order,  after  first  issuing  two 
proclamations  to  the  strikers.  The 
railroads  lost  in  property  dnrins  this 
strike  .$700,000,  and  in  earnings  $5,- 
000,000.  Far  spreading  in  its  effects 
was  the  meat  strike  throughout  the 
West  in  1904,  with  its  disturbances 
at  Chicago,  Sioux  City  and  other 
places. 

Stringliam,  Silas  Horton,  an 
American  naval  officer;  born  in  Mid- 
dletown,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  7,  1798;  joined 
the  navy  in  1809 ;  and  served  on  the 
frigate  "  President."  Promoted  cap- 
tain m  1841  he  served  on  the  "  Ohio  " 
duririg  the  bombardment  of  Vera  Cruz 
in  1847.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  was  ordered  to  Washington 
to  advise  concerning  war  preparations. 
He  strongly  advocated  the  relief  of 
Fort  Sumter,  but  before  his  advice 
was  followed  the  place  was  reduced. 
He  was  later  given  the  command  of 
the  North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squad- 
ron, which  bombarded  and  received  the 
surrender  of  the  forts  at  Hatteras  In- 
let. This  was  the  first  important  naval 
victory  of  the  war.  In  December, 
1861,  Stringham  was  promoted  com- 
modore and  retired  from  active  serv- 
ice owing  to  age ;  and  in  July,  1862, 
was  promoted  rear-admiral  on  the  re- 
tired list.  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N. 
Y.,  Feb.  7,  1876. 

Strobel,  Edward  Henry,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  Dec.  7,  1855.  He  was  sec- 
retary of  the  United  States  legation  in 
Madrid,  Spain,  in  1885-1890;  a  spe- 
cial United  States  agent  to  Morocco  in 
1888  and  1889;  and  United  States 
minister  to  Chile  in  1894-1897.  He 
was  counsel  for  the  latter  country  be- 
fore the  United  States  and  Chilean 
Claims  Commission  in  1899.  His  pub- 
lications include:  "The  Spanish  Rev- 
olution," etc. 

Strong,  Angnstns  Hopkins,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  Aug.  3,  1836.  In  1872  he 
became  President  and  Professor  of  Sys- 
tematic Theology  in  the  Rochester 
Theological  Seminary.  He  was  the 
author  of   "  Systematic   Theology." 


Strong 

Strong,  James,  an  American  edu- 
cator ;  born  in  Kew  York  city  Aug.  14, 
1822;  was  Professor  of  Biblical  Lit- 
erature at  Troy  University  in  1858- 
1861 ;  and  became  Professor  of  Exe- 
getical  Theology  at  Drew  Theological 
Seminary  in  1868.  The  principal  work 
of  his  life  was  the  "  Cyclopaedia  of 
Biblical,  Theological,  and  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Literature"  (10  vols.  1867-1881; 
2  supplement  vols.  1885-1887).  Died 
in  Round  Lake,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  7,  1894, 

Strong,  Josiah,  an  American  cler- 
gyman ;  born  in  Naperville,  111.,  Jan. 
19,  1847;  settled  with  bis  parents  in 
Hudson,  O.,  in  1852.  Pie  was  secre- 
tary of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  for 
the  United  States  from  1886  to  1898; 
president  of  the  League  for  Social 
Service,  1898-1902;  is  president  of 
the  American  and  Foreign  Christian 
Union,  has  written  books  of  great 
value  for  the  religious  betterment  of 
humanity,  and  is  one  of  America's 
leading  divines. 

Strong,  Latliani  Cornell,  an 
American  author ;  born  in  Troy,  N.  Y., 
June  12,  1845.  He  was  editorially  con- 
nected with  the  Troy  "Whig."  His 
published  volumes  include :  "  Castle 
Windows  " ;  "  Pots  of  Gold."  He  died 
in  Tarrytown,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  17,  1879. 

Strong,  Ifatlian,  an  American 
Congregational  clergyman ;  born  in 
Coventry,  Conn.,  Oct.  16,  1748.  He 
was  a  chaplain  in  the  Revolutionary 
army ;  projected  and  sustained  the 
"  Connecticut  Evangelical  Magazine," 
founded  and  conducted  the  Connecticut 
Missionary  Society  and  compiled  the 
"  Hartford  Collection  of  Hymns."  He 
died  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  Dec.  25,  1816. 

Strong,  Theodore,  an  American 
mathematician ;  born  in  South  Had- 
ley,  Mass.,  July  26,  1790.  He  was 
professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  and 
Mathematics  at  Hamilton  College  in 
1816-1827 ;  and  held  a  similar  chair 
at  Rutgers  College  in  1827-1861.  In 
the  realm  of  pure  mathematics  he  was 
conceded  to  have  no  superior.  After 
the  ablest  mathematicians  of  Europe 
had  failed  to  solve  the  irreducible  case 
of  cubic  equations  left  by  Cardan,  he 
discovered  its  solution  by  a  direct 
method.  He  was  also  the  discoverer  of 
the  method  of  extracting  any  root  of 
any  integral  number  by  a  direct  proc- 
ess. He  died  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
Feb.  1.  1869. 


Stryker 

Strother,  David  Hunter,  pseu- 
donym Porte  Crayon ;  an  American 
author  t  born  in  Martinsburg,  Va., 
Sept.  16,  1816.  His  series  of  sketches 
contributed  to  "  Harper's  Magazine," 
were  great  popular  favorites ;  they  were 
republished  in  book  form  under  the 
titles  "  The  Blackwater  Chronicle," 
and  "  Virginia  Illustrated."  He  died 
in  Charleston,  W.  Va.,  March  8,  1888. 
Stryclinine,  a  highly  poisonous 
alkaloid,  discovered  in  1818  by  Pelle- 
tier  and  Caventou  in  St.  Ignatius' 
beans,  and  shortly  afterward  in  Nux 
vomica  seeds.  It  is  obtained,  together 
with  brucine,  by  boiling  Nux  vomica 
seeds  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  till  they 
become  soft,  crushing  the  seeds,  and 
adding  to  the  expressed  liquid  an  ex- 
cess of  calcium  hydrate,  which  throws 
down  the  two  alkaloids.  On  washing 
with  cold  alcohol,  brucine  is  dissolved, 
leaving  strychnine  in  an  impure  state. 
Strychnine  was  scarcely  heard  of  as 
a  means  of  poisoning  before  the  year 
1855,  the  date  of  the  Rugeley  murders 
in  England,  for  which  Palmer  was 
tried  at  the  Old  Bailey  in  1856,  and 
executed.  The  symptoms  are  very 
marked,  and  comprise  violent  tetanic 
convulsions,  laborious  respiration,  from 
the  tightening  of  the  chest  muscles, 
spasmodic  contraction  of  the  heart, 
and  rigidity  of  the  spinal  column. 
These  are  succeeded  by  a  short  calm, 
after  which  they  are  again  repeated  till 
death  or  progress  toward  recovery  en- 
sues, the  time  being  about  two  hours 
after   taking   the   poison. 

Stryker,  Melanctkon  Woolsey* 
an  American  educator;  born  in  Ver- 
non, N.  Y.,  Jan.  7,  1851.  In  1892  he 
became  president  of  Hamilton  College. 
He  was  the  author  of  numerous  hymns 
and  poems  including,  "  Song  of 
Miriam  " ;  "  Lattermath  " ;  *'  Letter  of 
James  " ;  etc. 

Stryker,  William  Scndder,  an 
American  historian;  born  in  Trenton, 
N.  J.,  June  6,  1838.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  served  on  General  Gillmore's 
staff  and  distinguished  himself  at  the 
capture  of  Morris  Island  and  in  the 
assault  on  Fort  Wagner.  From  1867 
till  his  death  he  was  adjutant-general 
of  New  Jersey,  and  in  1874  was 
fcrevetted  Major-General.  He  pub- 
lished "  OflBcial  Register  of  the  Offi- 
cers and  Men  of  New  Jersey  in  the 
Revolutionary  War  " ;  "  The  New  Jer« 


Stuart  Family 

Bey  Volunteers " ;  etc.  He  died  in 
Trenton,  N.  J.,  Oct  29,  1900» 

Stuart  Family,  The.  This  house 
derives  its  name  from  the  important 
olDce  of  steward  of  the  royal  house- 
hold of  Scotland.  The  founder  of  the 
house  seems  to  have  been  a  Norman 
baron  named  Alan,  whose  second  son 
Walter  entered  the  service  of  David 
1.  of  Scotland,  and  became  dapifer 
or  steward  of  the  royal  household. 
Walter,  the  sixth  steward,  married 
Marjory,  daughter  of  King  Robert  I., 
a  union  which  secured  to  his  family 
the  crown  of  Scotland  in  the  event  of 
the  extinction  of  the  royal  line.  He 
died  in  1326,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Robert,  the  seventh  steward, 
who,  on  the  death  of  David  II.  with- 
out issue,  succeeded  to  the  crown  a^ 
Robert  II.  in  1371. 

Succeeding  monarchs  of  this  house, 
with  dates  of  their  accession,  were, 
Robert  III.  (1390)  ;  James  I.  (1424)  ; 
James  II.  (1437)  ;  James  111.(1460)  ; 
James  IV.  (1488)  ;  James  V.  (1513)  ; 
Mary  Stnart  (1542)  ;  James  VI.  of 
Scotland  (1568)  ;  and  of  England, 
James  I.  (1603)  ;  Charles  I.  (1625)  ; 
Charles  II.  (1649)  ;  and  James  II. 
of  England  (1685).  The  last  male  rep- 
resentative of  the  branch  of  the  Stuart 
line  descended  from  Henrietta  Maria, 
daughter  of  Charles  I.,  was  Francis 
v.,  ex-Duke  of  Modena,  who  died  child- 
less Nov.  20,  1875. 

Stuart,  Charles  Ed-orard  Lexris 
Casimir,  known  as  "  The  Young  Pre- 
tender," eldest  son  of  James  Francis 
Edward,  known  as  "The  Old  Pre- 
tender," and  who  was  the  son  of 
James  II.  of  England  and  VII.  of 
Scotland,  driven  out  by  the  people  on 
account  of  his  tyranny  and  his  ef- 
forts to  establish  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith.  "  The  Young  Pretender  "  was 
born  at  Rome,  1720,  and  died  at  Rome 
in  1788.  In  1745  he  landed  in  Scot- 
land, and  the  highlanders  and  many 
lowlanders  gathered  to  his  standard. 
He  defeated  the  English  at  Preston 
Pans  and  Falkirk,  but  his  army  was 
utterly  crushed  at  Culloden.  His  fol- 
lowers wiere  executed  wherever  cap- 
tured, and  he  wandered  about  with  a 
reward  of  $150,000  offered  for  his 
head,  but  was  shielded  by  loyal  peas- 
ants. He  escaped  to  the  continent, 
where  he  passed  an  aimless  and  disso- 
lute life  until  bis  deaUi. 


Stuckenberg 

Stnart,      Gilbert     Charles,     an 

American  painter ;  born  in  Narragan- 
sett,  R.  I.,  Dec.  3,  1755.  In  1775  he 
went  to  London,  where  he  became  a 
fashionable  portrait  painter.  In  1792 
he  returned  to  the  United  States,  and 
painted  portraits  of  Washington,  Jef- 
ferson, Madison,  John  Adams,  and 
many  of  the  distinguished  men  of  the 
period.  Died  in  Boston,  July  27,  1828. 
Stuart,  James  Elxirell  Bro\irn,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in  Pat- 
rick Co.,  Va.,  in  1832 ;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1854;  and  became  captain  in  1860. 
In  1861  he  resigned  his  commission  in 
the  United  States  army  and  entered 
the  Confederate  service.  He  was  in 
charge  of  the  Confederate  cavalry  at 
the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run.  He  was 
promoted  Major-General  and  com- 
manded troops  at  Chancellorsville  and 
at  Gettysburg.  In  1864  he  opposed 
Sheridan's  cavalry,  but  was  mortally 
wounded  in  a  fight  at  the  Yellow  Tav- 
ern. He  died  in  Richmond,  Va.,  May 
11,  1864. 

Stnart,  properly  I^eonard-Stu- 
art,  Charles,  cyclopsedist  and  trans- 
lator ;  born  in  1868.  He  was  educated 
in  France  and  in  England,  and  after 
leaving  college,  spent  several  years  in 
study,  travel,  and  residence,  in  Europe 
and  northern  Africa,  contributing  ar- 
ticles, stories,  poems,  and  translations, 
to  various  European  periodicals.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1897, 
and  became  associated  with  the  "  New 
International,"  "Americana,"  "Britan- 
nica,"  "Globe,"  "Review  of  Reviews," 
"United  Editors,"  and  other  encyclope- 
dias, the  "  International  Year  Book," 
"  Pictorial  Gazetteer  of  the  World," 
"  New  Knowledge,"  etc.  In  1906,  he 
joined  the  Editor's  Cabinet  of  "  Suc- 
cess Magazine,"  and  became  editor  of 
the  "  Century  Reference  Library." 

Stuart,  Ruth  McEnery,  an  Amer* 
lean  author ;  born  in  Avoyelles  parish. 
La.,  in  1856.  Her  published  writings 
include:  "A  Golden  Wedding,  and 
Other  Tales";  "Sonny";  etc. 

Stuckenberg,  John  Henry  Wil- 
bnrn,  an  American  clergyman;  born 
in  Bramsche,  Germany,  Jan.  6,  1835. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  was  present, 
as  chaplain  of  the  14.5th  Pennsylvania 
Volunteers,  at  the  battles  of  Fred- 
ericksburg, Chancellorsville,  and  Get- 
tysburg.     He    was    professor    in    the 


Stundists 

Theological  Department  of  Witten- 
berg College  in  1873-1880,  and  pastor 
of  the  American  Church  in  Berlin, 
Germany,  in  1881-1894.  His  publica- 
tions include,  "Christian  Sociology" ; 
"  The  Final  Science,"  etc.    Died  1903. 

Stnndists,  a  body  of  Russian  Chris- 
tians who  have  renounced  the  Greek 
Church.  The  name  comes  from  the 
German  word,  "  stunde"  (an  hour), 
referring  to  their  observance  of  the 
hour  of  prayer.  They  are  of  two 
kinds.  One  of  them  believes  in  Trans- 
substantiation  ;  the  other,  and  larger 
division,  hold  doctrines  practically 
identical  with  those  of  American  Bap- 
tists. They  refuse  to  bear  arms,  and 
on  that  account,  have  been  savagely 
persecuted  by  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment. 

Sturgeon,  a  genus  of  ganoid  fishes,^ 
the  skin  being  either  naked  or  with 
hard,  bony  plates,  as  in  the  sturgeon. 
They  live  in  the  sea  and  great  lakes, 
and  ascend  the  great  rivers.  All  are 
of  considerable  size,  and  supply  val- 
uable commodities,  for  which  they  are 
regularly  captured  on  a  large  scale. 
These  commodities  are  their  flesh, 
which  is  palatable  and  wholesome, 
their  roe  and  their  air  bladders,  from 
which  isinglass  is  made. 

Stuttgart,  capital  of  the  Kingdom 
of  VVurtemberg,  Southern  Germany, 
beautifully  situated  near  the  left  bank 
of  the  Neckar,  and  closely  surrounded 
by  vineyard  slopes,  816  feet  above  the 
sea.  With  the  exception  of  part  of 
the  lower  and  older  town,  it  consists 
of  spacious  streets  and  squares  lined 
with  fine  buildings.  There  are  several 
high-class  educational  establishments, 
the  Polytechnic  being  the  chief.  Stutt- 
gart is  the  chief  center  in  South  Ger- 
many for  the  book  trade,  connected 
with  which  are  paper  mills,  type 
foundries,  printing  presses,  and  litho- 
graphic establishments.  The  other 
leading  manufactures  include  dyes, 
chemicals,  woolen  and  cotton  goods, 
various  fancy  articles,  jewelry,  mu- 
sical* instruments,  mathematical  and 
scientific  instruments,  liquors,  confec- 
tionery, and  beer.  E.  from  Stuttgart, 
and  almost  connected  with  it  by  the 
royal  palace  grounds,  is  the  town  of 
Cannstatt.     Pop.    (1900)    170,318. 

Stuyvesant,  Peter,  a  Dutch  mili- 
tary governor;  born  in  Holland  in 
1G02;  served  in  the  West  Indies,  was 


Style 

director  of  the  Dutch  colony  of  Cura- 
cao, and  lost  a  leg  in  an  attack  on  the 
Spanish  island  of  St.  Martin.  In  1647 
he  was  made  director-general  of  the 
New  Netherlands,  and  reached  New 
Amsterdam  (now  New  York),  in  May 
of  that  year.  Under  his  direction 
boundary  lines  were  established  be- 
tween the  Dutch  and  English  posses- 
sions in  America;  but  the  British  en- 
croachments persisted  till  in  August, 
1G64,  an  English  fleet  appeared  in  the 
bay  and  compelled  the  surrender  of 
New  Amsterdam,  after  which  its  name 
was  changed  to  New  York.  Stuyvesant 
went  to  Holland  in  1665,  but  after- 
ward returned  and  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life  on  his  farm  called  the 
Bouwerij,  from  which  the  name  Bow- 
ery was  given  to  a  well-known  thor- 
oughfare in  New  York  city.  He  died 
in  August,  1682. 

Style,  a  piece  of  iron  or  other  ma- 
terial pointed  at  one  end,  used  by  the 
ancients  for  writing  by  scratching  on 
wax  tablets.  The  other  end  was  made 
blunt  and  smooth,  and  was  used  to 
make  erasures.  Hence,  a  hard  point 
for  tracing,  in  manifold  writing.  A 
pointed  tool  used  in  graving.  Also, 
the  manner  of  writing  with  regard  to 
language ;  the  peculiar  manner  in 
which  a  person  expresses  his  ideas  or 
conceptions ;  the  particular  mode  or 
form  of  expressing  ideas  in  language 
which  distinguishes  one  writer  or 
speaker  from  another;  the  distinctive 
manner  of  writing  characteristic  of 
each  author,  or  of  each  body  of  au- 
thors, allied  as  belonging  to  the  same 
school,  country,  or  epoch. 

Also  mode  of  presentation,  especially 
in  music  or  any  of  the  fine  arts ;  char- 
acteristic or  peculiar  mode  of  develop- 
ing an  idea  or  accomplishing  a  result ; 
the  peculiar  manner  in  which  an  artist 
expresses  his  ideas.;  it  is  exhibited  in 
his  choice  of  forms  and  mode  of  treat- 
ing them,  and  is  determined  in  differ- 
ent ways,  according  to  the  changes  of 
thought  at  different  times  and  stages 
of  its  development.  Besides  the  indi- 
vidual style,  there  is  also  a  national 
style ;  as  the  Egyptian,  the  Grecian 
styles  of  architecture.  Each  of  the 
various  branches  of  art  has  its  peculiar 
style ;  as,  the  epic,  lyric,  and  dramatic 
styles  of  poetry ;  the  historical  and  the 
landscape  styles  of  painting,  etc.  In 
architecture,  a  particular  character  aa 


Styx 


Submarine  Mines 


to  the  general  artistic  idea  prevailing 
in  a  building ;  as,  the  Gothic  or  Nor- 
man styles. 

Styx,  in  mythology,  one  of  the  riv- 
ers of  Hades  —  the  10th  part  of  the 
waters  of  Oeeanus  —  flowing  round  it 
seven  times  with  dark  and  sluggish 
stream,  across  which  Charon  ferries 
the  shades  of  the  departed. 

Snb-deacon,  the  lowest  step  in 
holy  orders  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  the  highest  of  the  minor 
orders  among  the  Greeks.  In  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  sub-deacons  pre- 
pare the  sacred  vessels  and  the  bread 
and  wine  for  mass,  pour  the  water 
into  the  chalice  at  the  offertory,  and 
sing  the  Epistle;  in  the  Greek  Church 
they  prepare  the  sacred  vessels,  and 
guard    the    gates    of    the    sanctuary. 


rial,  designed  to  rest  on  the  bottom 
of  a  body  of  water,  and  serve  as  a  con- 
ductor for  the  currents  transmitted  by 
an  electro-magnetic  telegraphic  appa- 
ratus. 

In  all  there  are  now  about  200,000 
miles  of  submarine,  cables,  enough  to 
go  about  eight  times  around  the  earth. 
They  have  cost  about  $200,000,000, 
but  their  market  value  is  considerably 
higher,  as  deep-sea  cables  are  solid 
and  profitable  investments.  Of  the 
total  mileage,  the  Eastern  and  its  as- 
sociated companies  control  practically 
half,  or,  to  be  precise,  99,262  nautical 
miles  of  cables,  with  161  stations,  and 
11  cable  steamers.  There  are  about 
1,700  submarine  cables  ranging  from 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  15,000  miles. 
Nearly   all   the   short   lines   belong   to 


A    SUBMARI^'E   BOAT. 


There  are  no  sub-deacons  in  the  An- 
glican Communion. 

Submarine  Battery,  a  vessel  ca- 
pable of  being  submerged  and  main- 
tained at  a  given  depth  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  and  provided  with 
means  for  penetrating  the  hull  of  an 
enemy's  ship  below  the  water  line, 
or  of  blowing  her  up  —  usually  a  tor- 
pedo arrangement,  which  may  be  de- 
tached from  the  battery  and  attached 
to  the  bottom  of  the  ship. 

Submarine  Boat,  a  boat  capable 
of  being  propelled  under  the  water. 
The  first  was  probably  that  construct- 
ed by  Drebbel,  a  Dutchman,  for  James 
I.,  and  Robert  Fulton  made  an  ef- 
fort In  the  same  direction  in  1801. 
'Among  recent  submarine  boats  the 
most  noteworthy  is  the  Holland  sub- 
marine torpedo  boat. 

Submarine  Cable,  a  wire,  or  com- 
bination of  wires,  protected  by  flex- 
ible, non-conducting  waterproof  mate- 


governments,  but  though  only  about 
420  cables  belong  to  private  compa- 
nies, these  include  at  present  all  the 
deep-sea  cables  and  about  90  per  cent, 
of  the  total  length  of  cables  in  the 
world. 

Submarine  Forest,  in  geology, 
the  remains  of  a  forest  beneath  the 
present  level  of  the  sea.  Such  a  for- 
est exists  along  the  N.  shore  of  Fife- 
shire,  Scotland,  and  beyond  that  area. 
It  consists  of  a  peat  bed,  with  the 
roots,  leaves,  and  branches  of  trees. 

Submarine  Mines,  explosives 
placed  under  water  in  a  harbor,  or 
along  the  coast,  to  destroy  the  vessels 
of  an  enemy.  Submarine  mining  orig- 
inated with  the  Germans  who  used  it 
with  great  effect  during  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War.  The  Spanish-Ameri- 
can War  demonstrated  the  inefficiency 
of  torpedoes  and  torpedo  boats  against 
rapid-fire  guns,  but  the  submarine 
mines  remained  a  constant  source  of 


Substance 


Sucker  State 


dread  of  the  battleships.  In  1904,  the 
destruction  of  the  Russian  battleship 
"  Petropavlosk,"  also  of  the  Japanese 
ships  "  Hatsuse  "  and  "  Yoshino,"  by 
submarine  mines,  and  the  indiscrimin- 
ate scattering  of  mines  in  the  Gulf  of 
Pe-chi-li  were  features  of  the  war. 

Submarine  Signaling.  See  Sig- 
nals. 

Substance,  in  philosophy,  that 
which  is  and  abides  as  distinguished 
from  accident,  which  has  no  existence 
of  itself,  and  is  essentially  mutable. 
"  The  idea,  then,  to  which  we  give 
the  name  of  substance,  being  nothing 
but  the  supposed  but  unknown  sup- 
port of  these  qualities  (accidents)  we 
find  existing,  which  we  imagine  can- 
not subsist  without  something  to  sup- 
port them,  we  call  that  support  sub- 
stantia, which,  according  to  the  true 
import  of  the  word  is  in  plain  Eng- 
lish (something)  standing  under  and 
upholding." 

Sub-Treasury  System,  a  sys- 
tem established  by  the  United  States 
under  the  Act  of  July  4,  1840,  when 
for  the  first  time,  the  National  gov- 
ernment assumed  charge  of  its  own 
fundff,  and  sub-treasuries  were  estab- 
lished at  New  York,  Boston,  Charles- 
ton, St.  Louis,  Philadelphia,  and  New 
Orleans.  A  new  sub-treasury  act,  sub- 
santially  the  same  as  the  first,  be- 
came law  in  August,  1846.  The  sys- 
tem then  established  is  still  in  force. 
The  government  acts  as  its  own  bank, 
keeping  its  funds  in  the  vaults  of  the 
treasury  and  of  the  various  sub-treas- 
uries ;  in  addition,  the  government 
may  deposit  its  funds  with  certain  of 
the  National  banks  designated  as  de- 
positories, they  giving  security  there- 
for m  the  shape  of  government  bonds. 

Sub'ways,  a  term  generally  applied 
to  arched  passages  or  small  tunnels 
under  streets  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
taining gas  pipes,  water  pipes,  and 
sometimes  sewer  pipes,  or  at  least 
drains  for  surface  water.  Some  also 
contain  telegraph  wires  and  pipes  for 
the  transmission  of  compressed  air. 
They^  are  made  of  suflicient  size  to 
permit  of  workmen  walking  to  and 
fro  in  them  to  examine  the  pipes  and 
to  execute  repairs,  they  save  the  ne- 
cessity for  breaking  up  streets  to  get 
%t  the  pipes  for  repairs,  an  operation 
which  not  only  obstructs  the   traflic. 


but  prevents  the  surface  being  kept  in 
proper  condition.  The  name  subway 
is  also  applied  to  underground  tunnels 
of  city  railways,  such  as  those  in  New 
York,  Chicago,  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
Hoboken,  Jersey  City,  and  other  cities 
in  the  United  States,  and,  notably, 
in  London,  England.  In  1910  there 
were  six  railway  tubes  under  the  Hud- 
son River  and  eight  under  the-  East 
River,  at  New  York,  and  the  already 
extensive  system  of  mainland  subways 
was  undergoing  a  more  than  double- 
capacity  enlargement.     See  Tunnel. 

Succession,  law  of  succession. 
The  law  or  rule  according  to  which 
the  succession  to  the  property  of  de- 
ceased persons  is  regulated.  In  gen- 
eral this  law  obtains  only  in  cases 
in  which  the  deceased  person  has  died 
intestate,  or  in  which  the  power  of 
bequeathing  property  by  will  is  lim- 
ited by  the  legislature.  In  the  United 
States  each  State  has  its  own  law  of 
succession.  Usually  succession  is  by 
families. 

Sucbau,  previous  to  the  Taiping 
rebellion,  one  of  the  largest  cities  in 
China;  on  the  Imperial  canal,  80 
miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Shanghai,  in  the 
province  of  Kiangsu.  It  stands  on 
numerous  islands  separated  by  canals* 
and  since  1896  has  been  accessible  as 
a  treaty  port.  The  city  walls  have  a 
circuit  of  10  miles.  Suchau  has  for 
generations  been  a  noted  center  of  the 
silk  manufacture  and  of  the  printing 
of  cheap  Chinese  classics.  It  was 
captured  by  the  Taipings  but  re- 
covered by  "  Chinese "  Gordon  iff 
1863,  on  which  occasion  the  city  with 
its  many  handsome  buildings  was  al* 
most  wholly  destroyed.  Pop.  500,000. 

Sucker,  or  Sucking  Fish,  a  nam? 
applied  popularly  to  the  Remora,  to 
the  lump-sucker,  and  also  to  the  fisliea 
belonging  to  the  genus  which  is  near- 
ly allied  to  the  lumpsuckers.  The  best- 
known  forms  are  Montague's  sucker, 
and  the  common  sucker  or  seasnail, 
which  adheres  to  stones  and  other 
fixed  objects  by  means  of  their  united 
ventral  fins.  They  are  small  fishes, 
three  or  four  inches  long. 

Sucker  State,  a  popular  name  for 
Illinois,  whose  inhabitants  are  pretty 
generally  dubbed  -"  suckers "  by  thei* 
fellow  citizens  of  neighboring  State* 
The   following   is    the   origin   of    thfc 


Sudan 


Sue 


epithet :  A  writer  in  the  "  Providence 
Journal "  says :  "  The  western 
prairies  are  full  of  the  holes  made  by 
the  crawfish,  which  burrows  to  reach 
the  water  beneath  the  soil.  In  the 
early  days  of  the  country's  settlement 
travelers  armed  themselves  with  slen- 
der hollow  reeds,  which  they  thrust, 
when  thirsty,  into  these  natural  reser- 
voirs, and  thus  easily  supplied  their 
longings  by  sucking  the  water  through 
the  reed  or  pipe." 

Sudan,  the  Arab  name  given  to  the 
vast  extent  of  country  in  Central 
Africa  which  lies  between  the  Sahara 
on  the  N.,  Abyssinia  and  the  Red  Sea 
on  the  E.,  the  countries  draining  to 
the  Kongo  basin  on  the  S.,  and 
Senegambia  on  the  W.  Its  area  is 
estimated  at  2,000,000  square  miles. 
The  inhabitants  comprise  numerous 
nations  of  different  races,  chiefly  the 
Negro,  together  with  Arab  colonists 
and  traders.  Western  and  Central 
Sudan  are  divided  into  a  number  of 
independent  and  semi-independent 
States :  Bambarra,  Gando,  Sokoto, 
Adamawa,  Bomu,  Baghirmi,  Wadai, 
and  Kanem.  These  States  have  been 
absorbed  into  provinces  formed  by  the 
European  powers.  French  Sudan  ex- 
tends from  Algeria  and  Tunis  on  the 
N.  to  Nigeria  (British  territory)  on 
the  S.  and  from  the  West  coast  "  hin- 
terlands "  (French  territory),  to  a 
line  running  from  the  extreme  S. 
point  of  Tripoli  to  Lake  Tchad.  The 
boundary  lines  were  fixed  by  the 
Anglo-French  agreement  of  1899.  In 
the  same  year  the  administration  of 
French  Sudan  was  changed,  the  re- 
gions in  the  W.  and  S.  W.  being 
put  under  the  control  of  the  Governor- 
General  of  West  Africa,  while  the 
regions  in  the  N.  and  N.  E.  were 
made  into  two  military  departments. 
Pop.    about   2,500,000. 

The  Egyptian  or  Eastern  Sudan 
comprises  Dongola,  Khartum,  Suakin, 
Senaar,  Kordofan,  Darfur,  jind  the 
Equatorial  Province,  with  Fazogli 
and  Bahr-el  Gbazal.  The  estimated 
area  is  about  950,000  square  miles. 
Egyptian  rule  was  first  extended  to 
the  Eastern  Sudan  in  the  early  part 
of  the  19th  century  by  Mohammed 
Ali,  under  whom  Ibrahim  Pasha  car- 
ried it  as  far  S.  as  Kordofan  and 
Senaar.  An  Egyptian  expedition  un- 
der Sir  Samuel  Baker  in  1870  led  to 


the  conquest  of  the  equatorial  regions 
on  the  Nile  farther  S.  than  the  Sudan 
proper,  of  which  General  Gordon  was 
appointed  Governor-General  in  1874. 
On  the  fall  of  Ismail  Pasha  of  Egypt, 
Gordon  was  recalled,  and  hordes  of 
Turks,  Circassians,  and  Bashi-Bazouks 
were  let  loose  to  plunder  the  Sudanese. 
Egyptian  misrule  then  became  intoler- 
able, and  in  this  crisis  appeared  Mo- 
hammed Ahmed  of  Dongola,  who 
gave  himself  out  to  be  the  Mahdi,  the 
long-expected   redeemer  of   Islam. 

The  revolt  of  the  Mahdi  broke  up 
the  Egyptian  Sudan  into  various  dis- 
tricts. After  the  Mahdi's  death  the 
insurrection  was  continued  by  one  of 
his  lieutenants  called  the  Kalifa.  In 
1897  the  Anglo-Egyptian  army  com- 
menced operations  for  the  recovery 
of  the  lost  provinces.  In  1898  the 
territory  was  practically  regained,  and 
the  last  resistance  disappeared  when 
Osman  Digna  was  captured  Jan.  19, 
1900.  By  the  convention  of  Jan.  19, 
1899,  the  Egyptian  Sudan  is  admin- 
istered by  a  governor-general  appointed 
by  Egypt  with  the  assent  of  Great 
Britain.  The  receipts  to  be  collected 
in  the  Sudan  were  estimated  at  $790,- 
000,  and  the  expenditures  at  $2,875,- 
000,  the  balance  to  be  made  up  by 
Egypt.  In  1898,  there  were  strained 
relations  between  the  Egyptian  and 
the  French  governments,  owing  to  the 
presence  in  the  Egyptian  Sudan  of  a 
French  force  under  Major  Marchand. 
The  diflSculty  was  settled  by  March- 
and's  evacuation  of  Fashoda,  and  by 
the  delimitation  of  the  respective 
"  spheres  of  influence "  of  the  two 
governments,  with  a  mutual  agree- 
ment not  to  acquire  territory  or  polit- 
ical influence  beyond  the  designated 
boundary.  Khartum  is  the  capital  of 
the  Egyptian  Sudan.  Estimated  pop. 
of  the  region,  before  the  Mahdi's  re- 
volt, about  10,000,000. 

Sue,  Marie  Josepli  Eugene,  a 
French  novelist ;  born  in  Paris  Dec. 
10,  1804.  He  adopted  his  father's 
profession  of  medicine,  became  a  sur- 
geon in  the  army,  and  served  in  Spain 
in  182.3.  In  1825  he  joined  the  naval 
service,  and  in  the  capacity  of  sur- 
geon was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Navarino  in  1827.  On  his  father's 
death  in  1829,  he  inherited  an  im- 
mense fortune,  and,  having  abandoned 
his  profession,  he  devoted  himself  to 


Snet 

literary  composition.  His  first  worls 
was  a  sea  novel  entitled  "  Kernock  the 
Pirate."  His  most  famous  works  are  : 
"  The  Mysteries  of  Paris,"  and  "  The 
Wandering  Jew."  In  1850  he  was 
elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly, 
and  sat  as  an  advanced  radical.  After 
the  coup  d'etat  by  Napoleon  III.  in 
1851  he  left  France  and  retired  to 
Savoy.  He  died  in  Annecy,  Savoy, 
July  3,  1857. 

Suet,  the  solid  fat  deposited  round 
the  loins  and  kidneys  of  the  ox  or 
sheep,  the  latter  being  the  more  solid, 
and  containing  more  stearin  than  beef 
fat,  but  less  palmatin.  Both  contain 
a  little  olein.  When  rendered  down  it 
forms  tallow.  Chopped  suet  is  used  in 
cooking  for  making  boiled  puddings, 
and  for  various  other  purposes,  as 
stuffing,  etc. 

Snetonius  Tranquillus,  Cains, 
a  Roman  author;  lived  and  wrote  be- 
tween A.  D.  75  and  160.  .  The  date  of 
his  death  is  unknown.  He  was  a 
voluminous  writer.  His  works,  in  part 
enumerated  by  Suidas,  consisted  of 
grammatical  treatises  and  works  an- 
tiquarian, legal,  moral,  and  biograph- 
ical, most  of  which  have  been  lost.  His 
"  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Caesars,"  "  Lives 
of  Eminent  Grammarians,"  and  a  por- 
tion of  "  Lives  of  Eminent  Rhetori- 
cians," survive.  On  the  first  his  repu- 
tation rests.  It  is  pregnant  with  in- 
terest, replete  with  curious  informa- 
tion and  endless  anecdote  and  scandal 
bearing  on  the  imperial  coterie  —  a 
perfect  storehouse,  in  fact,  of  details 
of  the  profligacy  and  lust  of  the 
Caesar  family,  set  forth  with  all  the 
sincerity,  impartiality,  and  relish  of 
an  arch  gossip.  Yet  withal  there  is 
no  reason  to  doubt  his  veracity.  As 
a  writer  his  language  is  brief  and  pre- 
cise, occasionally  obscure,  but  with- 
out affectation. 

Snevi,  an  appellation  of  various 
Germanic  tribes  in  classic  authors; 
used  somewhat  loosely,  as  we  find  it 
employed  to  designate  peoples  widely 
removed  from  each  other.  On  six  dif- 
ferent occasions  tribes  probably  Ger- 
manic, though  possibly  mixed  with 
Celtic  and  Slavonic  elements,  appear 
in  history  under  this  name.  (1)  Caesar 
mentions  Suevi  living  on  the  E.  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  and  possessing  100  vil- 1 
lages.  (2)  Tacitus  places  them  N.  and ' 


Snfism 

S.  of  this,  on  both  sides  of  the  Upper 
and  Middle  Elbe.  (3)  In  the  2d  and 
3d  centuries  they  appear  along  with 
the  Quadi  and  Marcomanni  in  Mora- 
via and  Bohemia.  (4)  In  406  Suevi 
cross  the  Rhine  along  with  the  Van- 
dals and  Alans,  and  break  into  Spain, 
settling  more  especially  in  Leon  and 
Castile,  whence  they  were  driven  by 
the  Visigoths  in  584.  (5)  In  420  an- 
other tribe  called  Suevi  are  spoken  ot 
in  Upper  Germany,  who  left  their 
name  to  the  modern  Swabia.  (6)  In 
the  6th  century  we  hear  of  Nordsuevi, 
with  a  village  of  S  we  von  on  the  Upper. 
Elbe. 

Snez  Canal.  In  1854  M.  de  Les- 
seps,  a  member  of  the  French  diplo- 
matic service  in  Egypt,  obtained  from 
the  pasha  the  concession  of  building 
a  ship  canal  from  Tyneh  (near  the 
ruins  of  ancient  Pelusium)  to  Suez. 
In  1855  a  new  European  commission 
was  appointed,  which  reported  that 
M.  de  Lesseps's  scheme  was  practic- 
ahle.  The  result  of  the  report  was  the 
formation  of  a  joint-stock  company, 
and  the  work  was  accordingly  begun. 
The  canal  was  to  be  dredged  through 
Lake  Menzaleh,  which  runs  far  into 
the  land  directly  toward  Suez,  to  be 
connected  with  Lake  Temsah,  the 
Bitter  Lake,  and  other  marshy 
swamps,  and  so  with  Suez.  Only  a 
third  of  the  way  required  to  be  ex- 
cavated through  the  sands  and  rockg 
of  the  desert.  Work  was  begun  in  the 
end  of  1860.  On  Nov.  16,  1869,  the 
Suez  canal  was  opened  in  form,  with 
a  procession  of  English  and  foreign 
steamers,  in  presence  of  the  Khedive, 
the  Empress  of  the  French,  the  Em- 
peror of  Austria,  the  Crown  Prince  of 
Prussia,   and   others. 

Suffrage,  the  right  to  vote  for  any 
purpose,  but  more  especially  the  right 
to  vote  for  a  political  representative. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  practically 
universal  for  all  male  citizens. 

Suffragette.  See  Women's  Suf- 
frage. 

Snfism,  the  pantheistic  mysticism  of 
the  Mohammedan  East,  which  strives 
for  the  highest  illumination  of  the 
mind,  the  most  perfect  calmness  of  the 
soul,  and  the  union  of  it  with  God 
by  an  ascetic  life  and  the  subjugation 
of  the  appetites.  This  pantheism, 
clothed   in  a  mystico-religious   gark» 


Sngar 

has  been  professed  since  the  9th  and 
10th  centuries  by  a  sect  which  at  pres- 
ent is  gaining  adherents  continually 
among  the  more  cultivated  Mohamme- 
/lans,  particularly  in  Persia  and  India. 
The  name  is  from  sufi,  a  religious  as- 
cetic, an  Eastern  term  applied  to  all 
members  of  religious  monastic  bodies 
leading  an  ascetic  life.  The  Sufis 
were  originally  devout  persons  who, 
perplexed  by  the  discord  prevailing 
among  the  various  systems  of  Mo- 
hammedan philosophy  in  the  2d  cen- 
tury of  the  Hegira,  found  consolation 
in  pious  mysticism.  Their  teachings, 
though  at  first  consonant  with  ortho- 
dox Mohammedanism,  gradually  led  to 
a  mode  of  thought  totally  irreconcil- 
able with  the  Koran.  About  the  be- 
ginning of  the  10th  century  the  Sufis 
divided  into  two  branches,  one  of 
which  followed  Bostanie,  who  openly 
embraced  pantheism,  and  the  other 
Juneid,  who  sought  to  reconcile 
Sufism  with  Mohammedanism.  Among 
eminent  Persian  poets  belonging  to 
the  Sufis  we  may  mention  Hafiz,  a  dis- 
tinguished Sufi ;  Ferid-ed-din,  and 
Jam!.  The  celebrated  philosopher  and 
jurist    Alghazzali  was  also  a  Suifi. 

Sugar,  a  sweet,  crystallized  sub- 
stance manufactured  from  the  express- 
ed juice  of  various  plants,  especially 
from  the  sugar  cane;  also,  any  sub- 
stance more  or  less  resembling  sugar 
in  any  of  its  properties;  as  sugar  of 
lead;  figuratively,  sweet,  honeyed,  or 
soothing  words  or  flattery,  used  to  dis- 
guise or  hide  something  distasteful. 

Cane  sugar,  called  also  sacch.7.rose, 
sucrose,  and  canose,  is  found  in  the 
juice  of  many  grasses,  in  the  sap  of 
several  trees,  and  in  beet  and  several 
other  roots.  It  appears  to  be  the 
transition  product  between  starch  and 
invert  sugar  in  all  plants  which  yield 
the  latter  compounds.  It  is  extracted 
most  easily  from  sugar  cane,  but  is 
also  manufactured  on  a  large  scale 
from  beet  root.     See  Beet  Sugab. 

Sugar  Cane,  a  strong,  cane- 
stemmed  grass,  from  _  8  to  12  feet 
high,  producing  a  large,  feathery 
plume  of  flowers.  It  is  wild  or  cul- 
tivated in  the  Southern  United  Statos, 
India,  China,  the  South  Sea  Islands, 
the  West  Indies,  and  South  America, 
flourishing  in  the  zone  or  belt  from 
the  equator  to  35»  or  40°  N.  and  S. 


Suicide 

The  land  chosen  for  its  cultivation  is 
usually  a  good  loam  or  light  clay  well 
manured.  The  leafy  ends  of  the  canes 
of  the  preceding  season  are  cut  off,  or 
the  whole  cane  is  cut  up,  each  piece 
being  made  to  contain  two  nodes  or 
joints.  Twenty .  thousand  of  these 
are  planted  on  each  acre  in  January 
and  February,  the  harxest  begins  earl:' 
in  December,  and  the  cutting  anc 
crushing  of  the  canes  are  carried  on 
till  January  or  February.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  the  sugar  cane. 

Sugar  Maple,  an  American  tree 
sometimes  80  feet  high,  largely  pre- 
vailing in  New  Brunswick,  Nova 
Scotia,  part  of  the  United  States,  etc. 
It  is  tapped  in  the  spring  for  its  juice, 
which  yields  sugar. 

Sugar  Mill,  a  mill  for  expressing 
the  juice  from  sugar  canes.  It  has 
usually  three  rollers ;  two  in  the  same 
horizontal  plane,  and  the  third  over 
and  between  these.  The  canes  are 
fed  in  between  the  upper  and  first 
horizontal  rollers,  where  they  receive 
their  first  squeeze,  the  juice  running 
down  into  a  trough  at  the  base  of  the 
mill ;  they  then  travel  onward,  re- 
ceiving a  second  squeeze  between  the 
top  roller  and  the  second  horizontal 
roller. 

Suicide,  the  act  of  designedly  de« 
stroying  one's  own  life.  To  constitute 
suicide,  in  a  legal  sense,  the  person 
must  be  of  the  years  of  discretion  and 
of  a  sound  mind. 

The  causes  leading  to  suicide  have 
been  variously  assigned,  but  the  fol- 
lowing based  on  actual  reports  per 
100  cases  may  be  regarded  as  reliable : 
In  European  countries  the  record 
shows  that  19  per  cent,  was  due  to 
vice  and  crime;  18  per  cent,  to  mad- 
ness and  delirium ;  14  per  cent,  to  loss 
of  intellect;  11  per  cent,  to  alcohol- 
ism; 6  per  cent,  to  moral  sufferings; 
4  per  cent,  to  family  matters;  4  per 
cent,  to  poverty  and  want ;  3  per  cent, 
to  consequence  of  crime ;  2  per  cent,  to 
disease ;  and  19  per  cent,  to  unknown 
causes.  In  the  United  States  the 
causes  run  about  the  same,  except 
that  insanity  leads  the  list.  It  is  also 
phown  that  two-thirds  of  the  sui- 
cides are  committed  during  the  day- 
time, and  that  June  is  the  favorite 
month,  and  the  11th  the  favorite  day 
of  the  month. 


F/CUff£S  /JV  JTAT£J  fiEPJlEJlMT  PftODUCT/Off /A/ r/fOU/AAfOf  OPPOUAfDf 


TOBACCO 

PPODUCnON  1911 
THOUfANDf  or  POUMOr 


$<&I09TH0U/Am 
POUMOl 


Sulla 


Sullivan's  Islaxicl 


Sulla,  Lucius  Cornelius,  a  Ro- 
man dictator;  born  in  138  B.  c.  He 
received  a  good  education,  but  was 
notorious  from  his  youth  upward  for 
his  excessive  dissipation  and  de- 
bauchery. He  served  with  distinction 
under  Marius  in  the  Jugurthine  (107 
B.  c.)  and  Cimbrian  (104-102)  wars, 
and  in  93  was  chosen  prtEtor.  For  his 
services  in  the  Social  War  (90-88) 
he  was  appointed  consul  (88  B.  c), 
and  the  province  of  Asia,  with  the 
conduct  of  the  war  against  Mith- 
ridates,  fell  to  his  lot.  Marius  was 
also  ambitious  for  this  command  and 
resorted  to  acts  of  violence  to  carry 
his  point,  by  which  Sulla  was  com- 
pelled to  escape  from  Rome.  But 
Sulla  reentered  the  city  at  the  head 
of  his  army,  drove  Marius  to  Africa, 
and  then  sailed  for  Greece  at  the  be- 
ginning of  87  B.  c.  He  expelled  the 
armies  of  Mithridates  from  Europe 
(86),  crossed  into  Asia  (84),  and 
was  everywhere  victorious,  gaining 
plenty  of  wealth  for  himself  and  his 
soldiers,  and  forcing  Mithridates  to 
conclude  a  peace.  Marius  had  died  in 
86  B.  c,  after  proscribing  Sulla  and 
confiscating  his  property,  but  the 
party  of  Marius  was  still  strong. 
Sulla  now  hastened  to  Italy,  and 
landed  at  Brundusium  with  40,000 
men,  83  B.  c.  He  was  joined  by 
many  of  his  friends  who  had  been 
banished  from  Rome.  He  gained  four 
battles  over  the  Roman  forces  in 
person,  and  defeated  a  Samnite  army 
under  Telesinus.  He  entered  'the  city 
victorious  in  82,  and  immediately  put 
to  death  between  6,000  and  7,000 
prisoners  of  war  in  the  circus.  Rome 
and  all  the  provinces  of  Italy  were 
filled  with  the  most  revolting  scenes 
of  cruelty.  After  satisfying  his  ven- 
geance by  the  murder  or  proscription 
of  thousands  he  caused  himself  to  be 
named  dictator  for  an  indefinite 
period  (81  b.  c).  He  now  ruled 
without  restraint,  repealed  and  made 
laws,  abolished  the  tribuneship,  and 
settled  his  veterans  in  various  parts 
of  Italy.  In  79  B.  c.  he  laid  down  his 
dictatorship,  and  retiring  to  Puteoli 
abandoned  himself  to  all  sorts  of  de- 
bauchery.    He  died  in  78  b.  c. 

Sullivan,  Sir  Arthur  Seymour, 
an  English  composer ;  born  in  Lon- 
don, England,  May  13,  1842:  be- 
came a  member  of  the  boy  choir  in  the 


Chapel  Royal  at  St.  James's,  and  at 
the  age  of  13  published  his  first  com- 
position. In  the  following  year  he  won 
the  Mendelssohn  scholarship  at  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and  in  1858, 
while  at  Leipsic,  he  composed  his 
"  Feast  of  Roses "  and  the  music  to 
Shakespeare's  "  Tempest."  Subse- 
quently he  produced  numerous  songs, 
operas,  oratorios,  etc.  He  was  knight- 
ed in  1883  and  made  chevaHer  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  of  France  in  the 
same  year.  He  died  in  London,  Nov* 
21,  1900. 

Sullivan,  James  William,  an 
American  writer ;  born  in  Carlisle,  Pa., 
March  9,  1848.  He  was  author  of: 
"  Working  People's  Rights,"  "  A  Con- 
cept of  Political  Justice,"  "  Direct 
Legislation  Through  the  Initiative  and 
Referendum  " —  this  book  started  the 
referendum  movement  in  the  United 
States,  etc. 

Sullivan,  Jolin,  an  Americal  mili- 
tary officer ;  born  in  Berwick,  Me., 
Feb.  17,  1740.  He  was  commissioned 
a  major  of  militia  in  1772 ;  repre- 
sented New  Hampshire  at  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  held  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  in  1774 ;  was  appointed  a  Brig- 
adier-General of  the  American  army 
in  1775 ;  and  given  command  of  the 
left  wing  of  the  forces  then  laying 
siege  to  Boston.  In  June,  1776,  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  army 
on  the  Canadian  boundary.  On  Aug. 
29,  1778,  he  attacked  the  British  at 
Butt's  Hill,  near  Newport,  R.  I.,  and 
after  a  12-hours'  severe  battle,  in 
which  about  6,000  men  fought  on  each 
side,  the  Americans  drove  the  Brit- 
ish from  the  field  at  the  point  of  the 
bayonet.  Lafayette  pronounced  this 
engagement  the  best  contested  one  of 
the  whole  war.  Sullivan  resigned  from 
the  army  in  1780  owing  to  ill  health, 
and  was  a  second  time  a  delegate  to 
the  Continental  Congress.  He  later  re- 
sumed the  practice  of  law  in  New 
Hampshire ;  and  was  United  States 
judge  of  that  State  from  1789  till  his 
death,  in  Durham,  N.  H.,  Jan.  23, 
1795. 

Sullivan's  Island,  an  island  at  the 
N.  side  of  the  entrance  to  Charleston 
harbor,  S.  C. ;  0  miles  from  Charles- 
ton. It  is  6  miles  long,  but  very 
narrow,  and  is  a  favorite  sea-bathing 
resort.     On  it  is  situated  Fort  Moul- 


Sully 


trie,  a   position  of  importance  during 
the  Civil   War. 

Sully,  Alfred,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer ;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
in  1821 ;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1841,  and 
assigned  to  the  2d  Infantry,  with 
which  he  took  part  in  the  Seminole 
War;  served  in  the  war  with  Mexico 
in  1846-1847;  and  was  then  assigned 
to  duty  on  recruiting  service  in  the 
North.  In  18G1-18G2  he  served  in 
Washington  and  in  the  latter  year 
was  made  colonel  of  the  3d  Minnesota 
Volunteers;  won  distinction  in  the 
battles  of  Fair  Oaks  and  Malvern  Hill ; 
was  promoted  Brigadier-General  of 
volunteers  in  October,  18G2,  and  later 
participated  in  the  battle  of  Chan- 
cellorsville.  In  1863  he  was  given 
command  of  the  Department  of  Da- 
kota, and  greatly  distinguished  him- 
self in  his  campaigns  against  hostile 
Indians.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he 
was  brevetted  Major-General  of  vol- 
unteers, and  Brigadier-General,  U.  S. 
A.,  for  gallantry  during  the  war;  and 
was  promoted  colonel  of  the  10th  In- 
fantry in  1872.  He  died  in  Fort  Van- 
couver,  Wash.,   April   17,   1879. 

Sully,  Maximllien  de  Betliniio, 
Due  de.  Marshal  of  France  and  first 
minister  of  Henry  IV. ;  born  in  Bosny 
France,  Dec.  13,  1560;  was  educated 
in  the  Protestant  (Calvinistic)  faith. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Ivri  in  1590,  where  he  was  severe- 
ly wounded,  and  was  afterward  of 
great  assistance  to  the  king  in  resist- 
ing the  intrigues  of  the  League.  In 
1597  he  was  appointed  controller  of 
finance,  and  by  his  excellent  adminis- 
tration largely  reduced  taxation,  and 
eventually  paid  o£E  a  state  debt  of 
300,000,000  livres.  He  also  received 
many  other  offices  and  dignities,  and 
became  adviser  of  the  king  in  all  his 
councils.  His  industry  was  un- 
wearied, and  he  did  all  he  could  to 
encourage  agriculture,  which  he  re- 
garded as  the  mainstay  of  the  state. 
In  1606  the  territory  of  Sully-sur- 
Loire  was  erected  into  a  duchy  in  his 
favor.  After  the  murder  of  Henry 
IV.  (1611)  he  retired  from  court 
and  resigned  most  of  his  charges.  He 
now  occupied  himself-  chiefly  with 
agriculture,  and  rarely  took  part  in 
political    affairs.      He    was    created 


Sulphates 

Marshal  by  Richelieu  in  1634,  and 
died  in  Villebon  Castle,  France,  Dee. 
22,  1641.  He  left  memoirs  which 
have  been  published  in  English. 

Sully,  Thomas,  an  American  art- 
ist ;  born  in  Horncastle,  Lincolnshire, 
England,  in  1783;  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  with  his  parents  in 
1792;  studied  painting  in  Charleston; 
established  himself  in  Richmond,  Va., 
as  a  portrait  painter  in  1803 ;  removed 
afterward  to  New  York ;  and  in  1809 
settled  in  Philadelphia  where  hef  aft- 
erward lived.  His  reputation  as  one 
of  the  leading  American  portrait 
painters  is  founded  on  numerous 
works,  the  best  known  of  which  are 
the  full-length  portraits  of  Dr.  Benja- 
min Rush,  Commodore  Decatur, 
Thomas  Jefferson,  and  Lafayette.  The 
Boston  Museum  possesses  his  cele- 
brated picture  of  "  Washington  Cross- 
ing the  Delaware."  He  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, Nov.  5,  1872. 

Sulphates,  salts  of  sulphuric  acid. 
Sulphuric  acid  is  dibasic,  forming 
two  classes  of  sulphates,  viz.,  neutral 
sulphates,  in  which  the  two  hydrogen 
atoms  of  the  acid  are  replaced  by 
metal,  and  acid  sulphates,  in  which 
one  hydrogen  atom  only  is  so  replaced. 
Of  the  sulphates,  some  are  found  na- 
tive; some  are  very  soluble,  some 
sparingly  soluble,  and  some  insoluble. 
The  most  important  sulphates  are: 
Sulphate  of  aluminum  and  potassium, 
or  alum;  sulphate  of  ammonium,  em- 
ployed for  making  carbonate  of  am- 
monia; sulphate  of  copper,  or  blue 
vitriol,  much  used  as  an  escharotic  in 
surgery,  and  also  used  in  dyeing  and 
for  preparing  certain  green  pigments ; 
sulphate  of  iron,  or  green  vitriol,  used 
in  making  ink,  and  very  extensiyely  in 
dyeing  and  calico  printing;  it  is  also 
much  used  in  medicine;  sulphate  of 
calcium,  or  gypsum ;  sulphate  of  mag- 
nesium, or  Epsom  salts ;  sulphate  of 
manganese,  used  in  calico  printing; 
sulphate  of  mercury,  used  in  the  prep- 
aration of  corrosive  sublimate  rind  of 
calomel;  bisulphate  of  potash,  much- 
used  as  a  flux  in  mineral  analysis; 
sulphate  of  sodium,  or  Glauber's 
salts ;  sulphate  of  quinine,  much  used 
in  medicine;  sulphate  of  zinc  or  white 
vitriol,  used  in  surgery,  also  in  the 
preparation  of  drying  oils  for  var- 
nishes,  and  in   the   reserve   or   resist 


Sulphur 


Sulphuric  Ether 


pastes    of    the   calico   printer.      Many 
double  sulphates  are  known. 

Sulphur.  Sulphur,  or  brimstone, 
has  been  known  and  used  from  the 
earliest  times.  It  is  found  native  in 
mechanical  combination  with  various 
earthy  impurities  in  most  volcanic  dis- 
tricts, more  particularly  in  Sicily  and 
the  countries  bordering  on  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  native  sulphur  of 
commerce  is  derived  chiefly  from 
Sicily,  where  it  occurs  in  beds  of  blue- 
clayey  formation.  It  is  found  native 
in  two  forms  —  in  transparent  amber 
crystals,  as  virgin  sulphur ;  or  in 
opaque,  lemon-yellow  crystalline 
masses,  as  volcanic  sulphur.  It  is 
found  in  combination  with  the  differ- 
ent metals,  forming  metallic  sulphides, 
in  nearly  every  portion  of  the  earth. 
Zinc  blende,  iron,  and  copper  pyrites, 
galena,  cinnabar,  gray  antimony,  and 
realgar,  are  a  few  instances  of  the* 
valuable  ores  containing  sulphur.  In 
its  oxidized  condition,  as  sulphuric 
acid,  it  is  also  very  largely  distributed 
over  the  mineral  kingdom. 

Sulphuric  Acid,  a  very  important 
acid  which  occurs  in  nature  in  large 
quantities,  both  in  the  vegetable  and 
mineral  kingdoms,  in  combination 
with  the  various  bases,  more  particu- 
larly the  alkalies,  alkaline  earths,  and 
the  oxides  of  iron,  copper,  lead,  zinc, 
alumina,  etc.  Its  mineral  combina- 
tions are  generally  known  as  vitriols, 
a  name  which,  in  the  case  of  the  sul- 
phates of  iron,  copper,  and  zinc,  has 
been  transferred  to  the  manufactured 
products.  Sulphuric  acid  is  formed 
by  the  oxidation  of  sulphurous  acid, 
or  some  other  oxide  of  sulphur.  In  its 
perfectly  anhydrous  condition,  it  oc- 
curs as  a  white  crystalline  fibrous 
mass,  somewhat  resembling  asbestos 
in  appearance.  It  can  be  molded  in  the 
fingers  like  wax  without  charring  the 
skin ;  it  fumes  in  the  air,  and  is  very 
deliquescent,  hissing  violently  when 
thrown  into  water;  thereby  becoming 
sulphuric  acid.  It  chars  wood,  paper, 
sugar,  and  other  similar  substances, 
by  abstracting  water  from  them.  It 
melts  at  65°  F.,  and  boils  at  110°  F., 
forming  a  colorless  vapor.  It  possesses 
no  acid  properties  whatever,  and  is 
not  regarded  as  such  by  the  followers 
of  Gerhardt,  by  whom  it  is  called  sul- 
phuric anhydride. 


When  pure,  sulphuric  acid  is  a 
heavy,  oily  colorless,  inodorous  liquid, 
and  having  a  sp.  gr.  of  1.842.  It  is  in- 
tensely caustic,  and  chars  almost  all 
organic  substances,  by  abstracting 
water  from  them.  Its  affinity  for 
water  is  very  great,  doubling  its 
weight  by  the  absorption  of  vapor 
from  the  air,  if  left  exposed  in  any 
open  vessel  for  several  days.  It  mixes 
with  water  in  all  proportions.  It  freezes 
at  29°  F.,  and  boils  at  590°  F.,  its 
vapor  being  colorless  and  very  suffo- 
cating, forming  dense  fumes  in  moist 
air.  When  mixed  with  water,  it 
evolves  considerable  heat.  Sulphuric, 
acid  is  the  starting  point  of  nearly' 
every  important  chemical  manufac- 
ture. Acetic,  nitric,  and  hydrochloric 
acids  are  made  by  its  means ;  and  it 
will  be  only  necessary  to  allude  to 
the  important  part  it  plays  in  the 
manufacture  of  soda  from  common 
salt,  to  appreciate  the  saying  of  Lie- 
big,  "  that  the  amount  of  sulphuric 
acid  made  in  a  country  is  a  sure  index, 
of  its  wealth  and  prosperity."  In  the 
hands  of  the  chemist  it  has  numerous 
and  important  uses.  Its  salts,  the 
sulphates,  are  among  the  most  im- 
portant chemical  agents  in  the  lab- 
oratory. In  its  concentrated  form,  it 
is  in  daily  use  by  the  scientific  chemist 
to  promote  the  crystallization  of  deli- 
quescent substances  in  vacuo,  from 
its  intense  avidity  for  water.  The 
sulphates  are  a  numerous  and  impor- 
tant class  of  salts.  They  are  mostly 
composed  of  an  equivalent  of  acid  and 
an  equivalent  of  the  metallic  oxide. 
They  vary  somewhat  in  the  numbers 
of  atoms  of  water  of  crystallization, 
some  being  anhydrous,  others  con- 
taining as  many  as  12  equivalents. 

Sulphuric  Ether  (ethylic,  vinic, 
or  ordinary  ether) ,  a  colorless  trans- 
parent liquid,  of  a  pleasant  smell  and 
a  pungent  taste,  extremely  exhilarat- 
ing, and  producing  a  degree  of  intoxi- 
cation when  its  vapor  is  inhaled  by 
the  nostrils.  It  is  produced  by  dis- 
tilling a  mixture  of  equal  weights  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  alcohol  and  by 
various  other  means.  It  is  employed 
in  medicine  as  a  stimulant  and  anti- 
spasmodic. Ether,  by  its  spontaneous 
evaporation,  produces  a  great  degree 
of  cold,  and  is  used  in  the  form  of 
spray    in    minor    surgical    operations 


Snlpliiirons  Acid 

for  freezing  the  part,  and  thus  ren- 
dering it  insensible  to  pain. 

Snlphnrous  Acid,  an  acid  formed 
by  the  union  of  an  equivalent  of  sul- 
phur with  two  of  oxygen  in  a  variety 
of  ways,  the  most  familiar  being  its 
production  during  the  combustion  of 
sulphur  in  the  open  air  or  in  oxygen. 
The  gas  produced  is  endowed  with 
the  properties  of  a  weak  acid,  and  is 
the  sole  product  of  the  combustion, 
provided  the  air  or  oxygen  be  perfectly 
dry.  It  has  a  pungent,  suffocating 
odor,  and  when  in  a  concentrated 
form  cannot  be  breathed  with  im- 
punity. It  is  not  inflammable,  and  ex- 
tinguishes burning  bodies.  At  ordi- 
nary temperatures,  sulphurous  acid  is 
a  gas;  but  it  may  be  readily  con- 
densed into  a  liquid  by  a  pressure  of 
three  atmospheres,  or  by  a  freezing 
mixture  of  ice  and  salt. ,  - 

Sultan,  in  Arabic,  signifies  "  mighty^ 
one,  lord."  It  is  the  ordinary  title  of 
Mohammedan  rulers.  The  ruler  of 
Turkey  assumes  the  title  of  Sultan-es- 
selatin,  "  Sultan  of  sultans."  The 
title  sultan  is  also  applied  to  the  sul- 
tan's daughters,  and  his  mother,  if 
living,  is  styled  Sultan  Valide. 

Snln  Islands,  a  group  in  the  In- 
dian Archipelago,  consisting  of  more 
than  150  islands,  which  stretch  from 
the  N.  E.  point  of  Borneo  to  the 
Philippine  Islands ;  total  estimated 
area,  1,G00  square  miles ;  pop.  esti- 
mated at  200,000.  The  islands  are  of 
volcanic  origin,  and  produce  all  kinds 
of  tropical  plants  and  trees.  The  in- 
habitants are  of  Malay  descent,  and 
nearly  all  profess  the  Mohammedan 
religion.  The  islands  were  ceded  by 
Spam  to  the  United  States. 

Sulzer,  William,  an  American 
statesman;  born  in  Elizabeth,  N.  J., 
March  IS,  1863;  admitted  to  the  bar 
and  settled  in  New  York  City  to  prac- 
tice in  1884;  member  New  York  As- 
sembly in  1890-1894,  and  speaker  in 
1893;  member  of  Congress  in  1895- 
1912;  conspicuous  in  legislation  for  the 
parcels  post  service  and  the  abrogation 
of  the  treaty  with  Russia  of  1832; 
elected  governor  of  New  York  in  1912. 

Sumac  (Rhus),  a  genus  of  shrubs 
with  pinnate  leaves  and  small  flowers. 
They  all  have  a  lactescent  acrid  juice, 
and  most  of  them  possess  valuable 
tamiing   properties.      More    than    70 


Sumatra; 

species  are  known.  R.  typhina  is  an: 
American  species  with  hairy  branches, 
hence  its  common  name  of  stag's- 
horn  sumac.  It  produces,  small  red 
berries,  and  is  cultivated  in  European 
gardens  for  ornament.  R.  glabra,  an- 
other American  species,  is  also  grown 
for  ornament,  and  its  berries  and 
branches  are  used  for  dyeing  pur- 
poses. R.  venenata,  commonly  called 
dogwood  or  poison  sumac,  is  a  shrub 
of  the  American  swamps.  It  grows 
from  12  to  20  feet  high,  and  produces 
greenish-white  flowers.  It  is  extreme- 
ly poisonous,  in  some  cases  giving  rise 
to  inflammation  of  the  skin  followed 
by  a  pustular  eruption.  R.  radicans, 
often  called  poison  ivy,  is  a  climbing 
variety.  It  affects  certain  individuals 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  poison 
sumac,  but  it  is  less  virulent.  The 
leaves  of  several  of  these  species  are 
now  extensively  collected  in  America 
for  tanning  and  other  purposes.  The 
celebrated  Japan  varnish  is  obtained 
from  a  species  of  Rhus  with  downy 
and  velvety  leaves.  The  varnish  oozes 
from  the  tree  when  wounded,  and 
grows  thick  and  black  when  exposed 
to  the  air.     See  also  Poison  Ivy. 

Sumatra,  an  island  in  the  Indian 
Seas  immediately  under  the  equator; 
separated  from  the  peninsula  of 
Malacca  by  the  Straits  of  Malacca 
and  from  Java  by  the  Straits  of 
Sunda;  greatest  length  about  1,000 
miles ;  breadth,  about  240  miles ;  area, 
161,<512  square  miles;  pop.  (1897) 
3,209,037.  Banca  and  other  islands 
adjoin  the  coast.  The  W.  side  of  the 
island  is  mountainous,  with  peaks  rang- 
ing in  height  from  2,000  feet  in  the 
S.  to  5,000  feet  further  N.;  and  cul- 
minating in  Indrapura,  a  volcano  12,- 
572  feet  high.  The  E.  side  spreads 
out  into  interminable  plains.  There 
are  several  volcanoes  in  the  island. 
Copper,  tin,  and  iron  are  found  in 
abundance  and  deposits  of  coal  exist. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Rokan,  Musi, 
Jambi,  and  Indragiri,  which  all  form 
extensive  deltas  at  their  mouths.  Su- 
matra enjoys  great  equability  of  cli- 
mate, but  in  many  low-lying  parts  is 
unhealthy;  rain  falls  almost  inces- 
santly in  the  S.  Mangroves  grow 
near  the  coast,  and  at  higher  eleva- 
tions myrtles,  palms,  figs,  and  oaks 
of  various  species  are  met  with.  The 
camphor  tree  prevails  in  the  N.,  and 


Sujumer 


Sumner 


among  vegetable  curiosities  are  the 
upas  tree  and  the  gigantic  rafflesia. 
Pepper,  rice,  sugar,  tobacco,  indigo, 
cotton,  coffee,  are  cultivated  for  ex- 
port, and  camphor,  benzoin,  catechu, 
gutta-percha  and  caoutchouc,  teak, 
ebony,  and  sandalwood  are  also  ex- 
ported. The  fauna  includes  the  ele- 
phant, the  tapir,  the  rhinoceros,  the 
tiger,  the  orang-outang  and  other 
apes,  ,3ome  species  of  deer  and  ante- 
lope, and  numerous  birds  and  reptiles. 

The  ,sland  is  for  the  most  part 
under  the  authority  of  the  Dutch,  and 
their  possessions  are  divided  into  six 
governments.  Sumatra  has  a  very 
mixed  population  consisting  of  Ma- 
lays, Chinese,  Arabs,  and  many  na- 
tive tribes.  The  Battas  are  a  peculiar 
and  interesting  race  approaching  the 
Caucasian  type.  Writing  has  been 
known  among  them  from  a  very  early 
period  and  their  ancient  books  are 
written  in  a  brilliant  ink  on  paper 
made  of  bark. 

The  tidal  wave  accompanying  the 
volcanic  eruption  of  Krakatoa  in  1883 
:;aused  great  destruction  on  the  S. 
i^oast  of  Sumatra. 

Snininer,  that  season  of  the  year 
when  the  sun  shines  most  directly  on 
any  region ;  the  warmest  season  of 
the  year.  N.  of  the  equator  it  is  com- 
monly taken  to  include  the  months  of 
June,  July,  and  August ;  though  some 
substitute  May,  June,  and  July.  The 
former  view  conforms  bettei-  to  fact. 
July,  which  by  this  arrangement  is  mid- 
summer month,  is  the  hottest  in  Ihe 
year,  for  though  the  maximum  of 
heat  is  obtained  on  June  21,  the  long- 
est day,  the  amount  received  for  many 
subsequent  days  is  greater  than  that 
lost  by  radiation,  and  the  tempera- 
ture continues  to  increase.  Summer  is 
the  appropriate  season  for  the  hay 
harvest  and  for  the  ripening  of  the 
earlier  fruits.  Astronomically  con- 
sidered, summer  begins  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere,  when  the  sun  enters  the 
sign  of  Cancer  about  June  21,  and 
continues  till  Sept.  23,  during  which 
time  he  passes  through  Cancer,  Leo, 
and  Virgo. 

Summer  Duck  is  a  native  of 
North  America,  and  in  the  breeding 
season  is  distributed  over  the  United 
States,  migrating  S.  in  winter.  It  is 
capable  of  domestication.     Called  also 


wood  duck,  from  its  habit  of  nesting 
in  holes  in  trees. 

Summons,  in  law,  a  writ  command- 
ing the  sheriff,  or  other  authorized  of- 
ficer, to  notify  a  party  to  appear  in 
court,  to  answer  a  complaint  made 
against  him,  and  in  the  same  writ 
specify  some  day  therein  mentioned. 

Sumner,  Charles,  an  American 
statesman ;  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Jan.  6,  1811 ;  was  educated  at  Har- 
vard University.  In  1834  he  was  called 
to  the  bar,  and  shortly  afterward  be- 
came reporter  of  the  United  States 
Circuit  Court.  In  183G  he  published 
three  volumes  of  Judge  Story's  de- 
cisions, subsequently  known  as  "  Sum- 
ner's Reports,"  and  edited  a  periodical 
called  the  "  American  Jurist."  He 
visited  Europe  in  1837,  and  returned 
to  Boston  in  1840  where  he  resumed 
his  legal  practice.  Between  1844  and 
1846  he  edited  and  published  "  Vesey's 
Reports  "  in  20  volumes.  In  1851  he 
was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  strong  antipathy  to  slav- 
ery. In  May,  185G,  after  delivering 
a  speech  vigorously  attacking  the 
slaveholders,  he  was  violently  assault- 
ed by  Preston  S.  Brooks,  member  from 
South  Carolina.  His  injuries  com- 
pelled him  to  absent  himself  from  pub- 
lic duties  for  nearly  four  years.  He 
was  a  supporter  of  Lincoln  and  Ham- 
lin, and  in  1861  he  became  chairman 
of  the  Senate  Committee  on  Foreign 
Relations.  He  was  an  enemy  to  the 
policy  of  President  Johnson  and  op- 
posed the  home  and  foreign  policy  of 
President  Grant.  After  the  latter's 
I  reelection  in  1872  Sumner  seldom  ap- 
i  peared  in  debate.  He  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  March  11,  1874. 

Sumner,  Charles  Allen,  an  Amer- 
ican lawyer ;  born  in  Great  Barring- 
ton,  Mass.,  Aug.  2,  1835;  received  an 
academic  education ;  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  in  1883-1885.  After- 
ward he  was  editor  of  several  news- 
papers, including  the  San  Francisco 
"  Mirror."  the  Sacramento  "  Senti- 
nel," the  San  Francisco  "  Herald," 
etc.     Died  1903. 

Sumner,  Edwin  Vose,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer ;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Jan.  30,  1797.  He  was  a  cap- 
tain in  the  Black  Hawk  war;  served 
with   distinction  in  the  Mexican  war 


SSnmner 


Snniter 


in  1846-1847,  especially  at  the  battles 
of  Cerro  Gordo  and  MoHno  del  Rey ; 
was  made  major  in  184G;  governor  of 
New  Mexico  in  1851-1853;  in  1855 
was  made  colonel  and  was  one  of  the 
escort  of  Abraham  Lincoln  from 
Springfield,  111.,  to  Washington,  D. 
O.,  in  February,  1861 ;  in  March, 
1861,  promoted  Brigadier-General  U. 
S.  A.  During  the  Civil  War  he  com- 
manded a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Fair 
Oaks,  May  31-June  1,  1862;  at  Mal- 
vern Hill  July  1,  and  at  the  battle  of 
Antietam  Sept.  17  of  that  year;  he 
also  commanded  one  of  the  three 
great  divisions  of  Burnside's  army  at 
the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  Dec.  13, 
1862 ;  was  given  command  of  the  De- 
partment of  the  Missouri  in' 1863.  He 
died  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  March  21, 
1863. 
^  Snmner,  George  Watson,  an 
American  naval  officer ;  born  in  Con- 
stantine,  St.  Joseph  co.,  Mich.,  Dec. 
31,  1841 ;  was  appointed  to  the  navy 
in  1858  and  attended  the  United 
States  Naval  Academy  till  1861.  In 
the  Civil  War  he  took  part  in  the 
bombardment  of  Forts  Jackson  and  St. 
Philip  ;  commanded  the  "  Massasoit  " 
on  the  James  river,  and  with  the 
"  Onondaga,"  forced  the  Confederate 
ironclad  to  relinquish  the  purpose  of 
attacking  Grant's  transports  and  base 
of  supplies  at  City  Point,  Va.  After 
the  war  he  served  in  various  capaci- 
ties, was  commandant  of  the  Naval 
Station,  Port  Royal,  S.  C,  in  1899- 
1901 ;  and  in  January,  1901,  was  ap- 
pointed commandant  of  the  Philadel- 
phia Navy    Yard  and   Station. 

Sumner,  Samuel  Storroiv,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in 
Pennsylvania,  Feb.  6,  1842 ;  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  army  from  New  York 
in  1861 ;  served  with  distinction  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War,  and  against  hostile 
Indians  in  the  campaign  of  1869.  In 
May,  1898,  he  was  appointed  a  Brig- 
adier-General of  volunteers  and  in  the 
Spanish-American  War,  was  assigned 
to  duty  in  Cuba  where  he  took  part 
in  the  Santiago  campaign.  He  was 
mustered  out  of  the  volunteer  service 
in  1899,  and  ordered  to  England  as 
military  attache,  but  left  there  in 
1900  to  join  the  United  States  troops 
in  China.  Later  he  was  sent  to  the 
Philippines,  where  be  was  placed  in 


command  of  the  1st  district  of  South- 
ern Luzon.  He  was  promoted  Briga- 
dier-General U.  S.  A.,  Feb.  4,  1901. 

Sumner,  William  Graham,  an 
American  political  economist ;  born  in 
Paterson,  N.  J.,  Oct.  30,  1840;  was 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1863 ;  studied  at 
Geneva,  Gottingen,  and  Oxford;  was 
tutor  at  Yale  in  1806-1869;  in  1867 
took  orders  in  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church ;  was  assistant  at  Calvary 
Church,  New  York,  and  rector  of  the 
Church  of  the  Redeemer,  Morristown, 
N.  J. ;  appointed  Professor  of  Political 
Economy  and  Social  Science  at  Yale 
College  in  1872.     He  died  in  1910. 

Sumter,  Thomas,  an  American 
military  officer ;  born  in  Virginia  in 
1734.  In  the  early  part  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  he  was  lieutenant-col- 
onel of  a  regiment  of  South  Carolina 
riflemen,  but  after  the  capture  of 
Charleston  in  1780,  he  was  made  a 
Brigadier-General  of  light  cavalry.  In 
the  spring  of  1781  he  again  began 
active  service  and  took  a  distinguished 
part  in  the  Tjattle  of  Eutaw  Springs. 
The  thanks  of  Congress  were  ten- 
dered him  in  1791,  and  he  was  after- 
ward sent  to  that  body  as  a  repre- 
sentative of  South  Carolina.  In  1809 
he  was  appointed  United  States  minis- 
ter to  Brazil  and  two  years  later  was 
elected  United  States  Senator  from 
his  native  State.  At  the  close  of  his 
term  he  retired  to  private  life,  and 
died  near  Camden,  S.  C,  June  1,  1832. 

Sumter,  Fort  (named  after  Gen. 
Thomas  Sumter,  1734-1832),  an^ Amer- 
ican fort  associated  with  both  the  be- 
ginning and  the  end  of  the  Civil  War ; 
built  of  brick,  in  the  form  of  a  trun- 
cated pentagon  38  feet  high,  on  a  shoal, 
partly  artilicial,  in  Charleston  Har- 
bor, SYz  miles  from  the  city.  On  the 
withdrawal  of  South  Carolina  from 
the  Union  in  December,  1860,  Major 
Anderson,  in  command  of  the  defenses 
of  the  harbor,  abandoned  the  other 
forts,  and  occupied  Fort  Sumter,' 
mounting  62  guns,  with  a  garrison  of 
some  80  men.  The  attack  on  the  fort 
was  opened  by  General  Beauregard 
April  12,  1861,  and  it  surrendered 
on  the  14th ;  this  event  marked  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war.  The  Confederates 
strengthened  it,  and  added  10  guns 
and  4  mortars.  In  April,  1863,  an 
attack  by  a  fleet   of  monitors  failed. 


Sun 


Sua 


In  July  batteries  were  erected  on  Mor- 
ris Island,  about  4,000  yards  off,  from 
which  in  a  week  5,000  projectiles,  ! 
weighing  from  100  to  300  pounds,  were  ! 
hurled  against  the  fort ;  at  the  end  of 
that  time  it  was  silenced  and  in  part  i 
demolished.  Yet  the  garrison  held  on 
amid  the  ruins  and  in  September  beat 
off  a  naval  attack ;  and  in  spite  of  a 
40  days'  bombardment  in  October-De- 
cember, 18G3,  and  for  still  longer  in 
July  and  August,  18(34,  it  was  not  till 
after  the  evacuation  of  Charleston  it- 
self, owing  to  the  operations  of  Gen- 
eral Sherman,  that  the  garrison  retired, 
and  the  United  States  flag  was  again 
raised  April  14,  1865 ;  an  event  soon 
followed  by  the  evacuation  of  Rich- 
mond and  the  Confederate  surrender. 
Sun,  the  central  orb  of  the  solar 
system,  that  around  which  revolve  the 
earth  and  other  planets.  The  sun  ap- 
pears to  be  a  perfect  sphere,  with  a 
diameter  of  866,900  miles ;  its  mean 
density  is  about  %,  taking  that  of  the 
earth  as  1 ;  its  mean  distance  from  the 
earth  is  taken  as  93,000,000  miles.  It 
rotates  on  its  own  axis ;  this  axis  of 
rotation  being  to  the  ecliptic  at  an 
angle  of  82°  40';  and  its  rotation 
period  is  variously  estimated  at  from 
25  to  28  days.  The  mass  of  the  sun 
is  about  750  times  that  of  the  solar 
system  combined  and  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  solar  system  lies  some- 
where in  the  sun,  whatever  may  be  the 
relative  positions  of  the  planets  in 
their  orbits.  The  dark  spots  on  thq 
sun  discovered  by  Galileo  have  been 
shown  to  be  hollows,  and  their  depth 
has  been  estimated  to  be  at  from  3,000 
to  10,000  miles.  The  spots  are  very 
changeable  in  their  figure  and  dimen- 
sions, and  vary  in  size  from  mere 
points  to  spaces  of  50,000  miles  or 
more  in  diameter.  It  is  from  observa- 
tions of  these  spots  that  the  sun's  ro- 
tation on  its  axis  has  been  calculated. 
The  frequency  of  sun  spots  attains  a 
maximum  every  10^  years,  the  num- 
ber of  spots  falling  off  during  the  in- 
terval to  a  minimum,  from  which  it 
recovers  gradually  to  the  next  maxi« 
mum.  This  periodicity  has  been 
thought  to  be  intimately  connected 
with  the  meteorological  phenomena  ob- 
served on  the  earth,  especially  with 
the  rainfall.  Spots  are  called  maculae, 
brighter  portions  of  the  sun  are  called 
faculse,  and  the  lesser  markings  are 


called  mottlings.  The  sun  is  now  gen- 
erally believed  to  be  of  gaseous  con- 
stitution, covered  with  a  sort  of 
luminous  shell  of  cloud  formed  by  the 
precipitation  of  the  vapors  which  are 
cooled  by  external  radiation.  This 
dazzling  shell  is  termed  the  photo- 
sphere. The  spots  are  supposed  to  be 
cavities  in  this  cloud-layer,  caused  by 
the  unequal  velocities  of  neighboring 
portions  of  the  solar  atmosphere. 
Zollner,  who  considers  the  body  of  the 
sun  to  be  liquid,  sees  in  them  slags  or 


SUN  SPOTS. 

scoriae  floating  on  a  molten  surface, 
and  surrounded  by  clouds.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  sun's  radiation  would 
melt  a  shell  of  ice  covering  its  own 
surface  to  about  a  depth  of  between 
39  and  40  feet  in  one  minute,  but  the 
temperature  of  the  surface  has  not 
yet  been  ascertained.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  the  temperature  and 
radiation  have  remained  constant  for 
a  long  period.  The  photosphere  is 
overlaid  by  an  atmosphere  which  is 
shown  by  the  spectroscope  to  contaia 


Snn 

nearly  all  materials  which  enter  into 
the  composition  of  the  sun.  And  in 
the  lines  of  the  spectrum  of  sunlight  is 
found  proof  of  the  existence  of  the 
Bolar  atmosphere  of  the  following  sub- 
stances :  Iron,  titanium,  calcium, 
manganese,  nickel,  cobalt,  chromium, 
barium,  sodium,  magnesium,  copper, 
hydrogen,  zinc,  sulphur,  cerium, 
strontium,  and  potassium.  In  1706 
Captain  Stannyan  observed  a  blood- 
red  streak  just  before  the  limb  of  the 
Bun  appeared  after  a  total  eclipse,  and 
such  appearances  were  subsequently  ob- 
served, being  first  scientifically  de- 
scribed in  1842  imder  the  names  of 
flames,  protuberances,  or  prominences. 
In  1868  the  spectroscope  showed  that 
these  appearances  were  due  to  enor- 
mous masses  of  glowing  hydrogen  gas 
floating  above  the  sun,  similarly  to 
clouds  in  our  atmosphere.  The  region 
outside  of  the  photosphere  in  which 
these  colored  prominences  are  observed 
has  been  called  the  chromosphere, 
which  has  an  average  depth  of  from 
3,000  to  8,000  miles.  The  incandes- 
cent hydrogen  clouds  stretch  out  be- 
yond this  to  altitudes  of  20,000  to 
1,000,000  miles,  and  jets-  of  chromo- 
Bpheric  hydrogen  have  been  observed  to 
reach  a  height  of  200,000  miles  in  20 
minutes  and  disappear  altogether 
within  half  an  hour. 

Outside  the  chromosphere,  extending 
very  far  out  from  the  sun,  is  the 
corona,  an  aurora  of  light  observed 
during  total  eclipses,  and  which  is 
now  the  chief  object  to  be  observed  by 
eclipse  expeditions.  This  phenomenon 
has  been  shown  to  be  connected  with 
the  existence  of  what  is  called  the 
"  coronal  atmosphere,"  but  the  nature 
of  this  atmosphere  is  as  yet  undeter- 
mined. The  amount  of  light  sent  forth 
by  the  sun  is  not  exactly  measurable, 
but  the  amount  of  heat  has  been  pret- 
ty accurately  computed,  and  it  is 
equivalent  in  mechanical  efiPect  to  the 
action  of  7,000  horse-power  on  every 
square  foot  of  the  solar  surface,  to 
the  combustion  on  every  square  foot  of 
upwards  of  13%  cwts.  of  coal  per 
hour. 

One  of  the  largest  spots  that  has 
appeared  on  the  sun  in  recent  years 
was  discovered  in  October,  1903,  by 
John  A.  Brashear,  chancellor  of  the 
Western  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Its  area  is  so  great  that  it  can  be 


Snn  Bear 

seen  by  the  naked  eye  if  smoked  -^lasa 
is  used; 

"  We  call  the  comparatively  dark 
areas  *  spots,' "  said  Ifrofessor  Bra- 
shear,  "  but  some  of  them  have  many 
times  the  area  of  the  earth.  In  square- 
miles  this  newly  discovered  spot  is  12 
times  the  area  of  the  earth.  The  spot* 
on  the  sun  indicate  great  solar  storms. 
The  present  spot  is  probably  the  larg- 
est that  has  been  seen  ,for  many 
years." 

Of  the  effect  of  the  sun  spot's  on  the 
earth  Professor  C.  A.  Young  says : 
"  While  it  is  not  unlikely  that  in- 
vestigation will  establish  some  real 
influence  of  sun  spots  upon  oi3r  ter- 
restrial meteorology  and  determine 
its  laws,  it  is  practically  certain  that 
this  influence  is  extremely  slight  and 
so  masked  and  veiled  by  other  in- 
fluences more  powerful  that  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  bring  to  light." 

Snn,  Eclipses  of  the,  caused  by 
the  moon  coming  between  the  earth, 
and  the  sun,  may  be  either  partial, 
total,  or  annular.  In  a  partial  eclipse 
the  observer  is  situated  in  the  penum- 
bra of  the  moon's  shadow,  and  only  a 
part  of  the  sun's  light  is  cut  off  on  one 
side.  In  a  total  eclipse  the  observer 
is  in  the  umbra  of  the  moon's  shadowv 
and  all  the  light  of  the  sun  is  cut  off 
except  that  from  the  prominences  and 
corona  surrounding  the  sun.  In  an 
annular  eclipse  the  disk  of  the  moon  is 
wholly  projected  on  that  of  the  sun, 
but  is  not  large  enough  to  cover  it 
completely,  so  that  a  ring  of  sunlight 
is  left  all  round  the  moon.  At  present 
the  only  scientific  importance  of  par- 
tial and  annular  eclipses  is  the  use 
that  may  be  made  of  them  for  deter- 
mining the  relative  positions  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  and  thus  correcting 
the  elements  of  the  terrestrial  and 
lunar  orbits.  But  the  fleeting  minutes 
of  every  total  eclipse  are  now  utilized 
so  far  as  possible  to  study  the  sun's 
surroundings,  especially  the  mysterious 
corona,  which  is  so  faint  that  it  is  only 
visible  when  the  bright  light  of  the 
photosphere   is  cut   off. 

Snn  Bear,  a  sub-genus,  comprising 
bears  found  in  Indui  and  the  Eastern 
Archipelago.  The  Thibetan  sun  bear 
is  a  black  species  wUh  a  white  patch 
on  the  breast.  The  Bornean  sun  bear 
has  an  orange-colored  patch.  All  the 
sun  bears  are  slenderly  made,  and  their 


Sun  Bird 

fur  is  not  so  heavy  and  thick  as  that 
of  the  other  bears. 

Sun  Bird,  the  passerine  bird  of 
the  Nectarinidse,  forming  two  sub-fam- 
ilies, one  containing  the  sun  birds  prop- 
er, and  the  other  the  long-tailed  sun 
birds.  They  are  found  over  the  whole 
of  Africa,  ranging  through  Palestine 
to  India,  thence  through  the  Indian 
and  Malayan  Islands  to  Northern  Aus- 
tralia, where  a  single  species  inhabits 
Cape  York  peninsula  and  Northern 
Queensland.  They  are  small  birds, 
of  brilliant  and  metallic  plumage,  with 
a  striking  external  resemblance  to 
humming  birds,  with  which  they  are 
not  infrequently  confounded. 

Sunday-School,  according  to 
Schafif,  "  an  assembly  of  persons  on  the 
Lord's  day  for  the  study  of  the  Bible, 
moral  and  religious  instruction,  and 
the  worship  of  the  true  God.  It  is  a 
method  of  training  the  young  and  ig- 
norant in  the  duties  we  owe  to  God 
and  to  our  neighbor." 

Modern  Sunday-schools  date  from 
1780  or  1781,  when  Robert  Raikes,  of 
Gloucester,  England,  began  to  collect 
a  few -children  from  the  streets  of  that 
city  on  Sundays,  and  paid  teachers 
to  instruct  them  in  religious  knowl- 
edge. The  improvement  in  the  conduct 
and  morals  of  the  children  was  so 
marked  that,  when  Raikes  published 
an  account  of  his  success,  his  example 
■was  followed  in  several  other  places, 
and  in  1785  a  society  was  formed  for 
the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
Sunday-schools  in  all  parts  of  the  king- 
dom, a  large  sum  being  expended  in 
the  payment  of  teachers.  In  1803  the 
Sunday-School  Union  was  formed  to 
secure  continuous  instruction  by  un- 
paid teachers,  and  to  publish  books, 
tracts,  and  other  matter,  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  cause. 

The  first  Sunday-schools  united  secu- 
lar with  religious  instruction,  as  did 
those  of  Borromeo  and  La  Salle;  but 
the  spread  of  elementary  education  has 
to  a  large  extent  removed  the  necessity 
of  teaching  reading  and  writing  on 
Sundays.  The  Society  of  Friends  has, 
however,  retained  the  practice  in  its 
large  Sunday-morning  schools,  with 
great  benefit  as  regards  influence  over 
the  working  classes  above  the  age  of 
childhood,  and  in  some  of  the  Wesleyan 
Sunday-schools,  classes  for  elementary 
instruction  are  held  early  in  the  morn- 


Sunder]  an  A 

ing.  Sunday-schools  were  introduced 
into  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  America 
immediately  following  their  establish- 
ment in  England.  According  to  special 
Census  report  on  "  Religious  Bodies  " 
(2  vols..  1910),  there  were  in  the- 
United  States  178.214  Sunday-schools 
of  all  creeds,  with  1.648.«i64  officers 
and  teachers,  and  14,085,997  scholars, 

Sunderland,  a  seaport,  and  munici- 
pal and  parliamentary  borough  of 
England,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wear, 
county  of  Durham,  13  miles  N.  E.  of 
Durham,  and  12  miles  S.  E.  of  New- 
castle. It  includes  nearly  the  whole 
of  three  parishes  —  Sunderland,  Bish- 
opwearmouth,  and  Monkwearmouth. 
The  town  is  for  the  most  part  new 
and  well  built.  The  harbor  with  its 
docks  covers  78  acres,  and  its  entrance 
is  formed  by  two  stone  piers  with 
lighthouses.  The  staple  trade  interests 
of  the  place  are  shipping,  the  coal 
trade,  and  ship  building,  and  there 
are  also  large  factories  for  the  making 
of  marine  engines,  iron  work,  bottles, 
glass,  earthenware,  rope,  etc.  Coal  is 
the  chief  export ;  the  imports  are 
chefly  timber  and  grain,  with  various 
raw  materials  and  provisions,  from 
the  Baltic  ports  and  Holland.  Pop. 
(1901)  146,828. 

Sunderland,  Jabez  Thomas,  an 
American  clergyman ;  born  in  York- 
shire, England,  Feb.  11,  1842;  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago in  1867  and  at  the  Union  Bap- 
tist Theological  Seminary  in  1870; 
was  ordained  in  the  Unitarian  Church  ; 
and  held  pastorates  in  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  Chicago,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  Lon- 
don, England,  Toronto,  Can.,  and  other 
cities.  In  1866-1895  he  was  editor  of 
the  "  Unitarian  Monthly." 

Sunderland,  Le  Roy,  an  Amer- 
ican author ;  born  in  Exeter,  R.  I. 
May  18,  1802;  was  ordained  a  Metho- 
dist preacher  in  182.3,  and  soon  became 
an  orator  of  marked  eloquence,  espe- 
cially in  the  temperance  and  anti- 
slavery  movements.  In  October,  1834,. 
he  was  chairman  of  the  meeting  in 
New  York  city  at  which  the  first  Meth- 
odist anti-slavery  society  was  formed, 
and  afterward  was  a  prominent  dele- 
gate to  several  anti-slavery  conven- 
tions. Later  he  turned  against  Chris- 
tianity and  opposed  it  for  many  years. 
He  died  in  Quincy,  Mass.,  May  15^ 
1885. 


Snnfish 

.  Snnfisli,  called  also  opah  and 
kingfish,  is  a  small  fish  about  6  inches 
long.  The  Mola  mola  sunfish  is  a 
huge  circular  fish. 

Sunflower,  a  genus  of  coarse,  tall, 
herbaceous  plants,  with  large  rough 
leaves  and  yellow  flowers ;  natives  of 
America.  One,  an  introduction  from 
Peru,  which  has  long  been  grown  as 
a  showy  and  large-flowered  annual 
in  gardens,  has  recently  been  found 
to  possess  high  economic  value.  In 
Germany,  Russia,  India,  and  other 
countries  it  is  now  grown  on  a  large 
scale.  The  seed-like  nutlets  in  a  nat- 
ural state  are  excellent  food  for  poul- 
try and  pigs ;  roasted  they  are  said  to 
be  a  good  substitute  for  coffee ;  crushed 
and  pressed,  they  yield  a  limpid  bland 
oil  second  in  value  only  to  olive  oil, 
either  for  household  purposes  or  as  a 
lubricator  for  the  delicate  machinery 
of  textile  fabrics,  while  the  residuum 
can  be  used  as  an  oil  cake  to  fatten 
cattle ;  the  stalks  furnish  a  good  fibre ; 
the  blossoms  yield  a  brilliant  lasting 
yellow  dye,  and  the  leaves  serve  as 
manure. 

Snnnites,  the  so-called  orthodox 
Mohammedans,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  Shiites  or  heterodox  Mohamme- 
dans. They  form  by  far  the  larger  of 
the  two  divisions,  embracing  the  Mo- 
hammedans of  Egypt  and  the  rest  of 
Africa,  Syria,  Turkey  in  Europe  and 
Asia,  Arabia,  etc.  They  chiefly  differ 
from  the  Shiites  in  receiving  the  Sun- 
na  (a  collection 'of  traditions  relating 
to  Mohammedanism)  as  of  equal  im- 
portance with  the  Koran,  while  the 
Shiites  reject  it  absolutely.  There  are 
several  diversities  in  the  copies  of  the 
Sunna,  and  the  Sunnites  are  subdivid- 
ed, on  account  of  some  minute  differ- 
ences of  custom  and  law,  into  four 
minor  sects.  The  Persians  are  the 
principal  Shiites. 

Snnshine  Society.  The  Sunshine 
Society  had  its  origin  in  1896  in  the 
oflice  and  among  the  workers  of  a  New 
York  newspaper.  Its  object  was  and 
is  to  incite  the  members  to  the  pei*- 
formance  of  kind  and  helpful  deeds, 
and  thus  bring  the  sunshine  of  happi- 
ness into  the  greatest  number  of  hearts 
end  homes.  Did  you  ever  notice  how 
the  face  of  a  little  child  lights  up  if 
you  smile  at  it  as  you  pass  on  the 
street?  That  smile  is  a  ray  of  sun- 
shine for  the  little  one.     It  costs  you 


Snnstroke 

nothing  and  brightens  the  path  for 
the  toddling  feet.  And  so  it  is  through 
life.  There  are  maay  kind  and  help- 
ful deeds  that  bring  sunshine  and  hap- 
piness to  others  which  really  require 
no  effort  on  one's  own  part  —  prob- 
ably less  effort  than  the  gloomy  look, 
the  acid  word,  the  disfiguring  frown. 
The  Sunshine  Society,  in  short,  aims 
to  spread  sunshine.  Any  worthy  per- 
Bon  can  become  a  member  by  helping 
to  carry  on  the  work,  and  the  only 
fee  is  any  act  or  suggestion  that  will 
carry  sunshine  where  it  is  needed.  The 
annual  meeting  is  held  on  the  third 
Thursday  in  May  in  the  Waldorf  As- 
toria, New  York,  and  the  official  publi- 
cation is  the  "  Sunshine  Bulletin,"  ed- 
ited by  Mrs.  Cynthia  Westover  Alden, 
while  the  international  medium  is  the 
Ladies'  Home  Journal,  of  which  Mr. 
Edward  Bok  is  editor.  The  Sunshine 
Society,  from  a  small  beginning  has 
spread  to  both  hemispheres,  and  its 
success  has  more  than  fulfilled  the 
hopes  of  its  founder  and  President 
General,  Mrs.  Alden. 

Sunstroke,  a  very  fatal  affection  of 
the  nervous  system,  which  is  very 
common  in  India  and  tropical  coun- 
tries, and  also  in  more  favored  regions 
in  extremely  hot  weather.  The  symp- 
toms of  the  disease  are  liable  to  be 
greatly  modified  in  different  cases.  In 
the  cerebro-spinal,  the  commoner  form, 
the  symptoms  usually  come  on  grad- 
ually ;  nausea  and  giddiness  may  be 
present  at  first;  but  the  most  strik- 
ing feature  of  the  disease  is  either 
wild  delirium  or  coma,  with  a  pun- 
gently  hot  skin  and  extremely  high 
temperature  — 106°  F.  or  upward. 
Even  those  who  recover  from  this 
form  of  the  disease  are  apt  to  suffer 
for  a  long  period,  or  it  may  be  per- 
manently, from  severe  headache,  epi- 
lepsy, enfeebled  mental  power,  or  other 
nervous  disorders.  Intermediate  va- 
rieties are  also  met  with,  forming 
links  between  these  two  extremes.  The 
mortality  from  sunstroke  is  about  50 
per  cent,  of  those  affected.  In  the 
cases  that  terminate  favorably  a  grad- 
ual remission  of  the  symptoms  takes 
place ;  and  when  the  skin  becomes  coo! 
and  moist,  anfl  sleep  has  been  pro- 
cured (phenomena  which  usually  oc- 
cur within  36  hours  of  the  attack), 
the  patient  may  be  regarded  as  out  of 
danger. 


San  Worship 

Sun.  Worship,  a  form  of  nature 
worship,  widely,  though  by  no  means 
universally  diffused  at  the  present 
day  among  races  of  low  culture.  Sun 
worship  found  its  highest  form  of 
development  in  Peru,  where  the  sun 
was  held  to  be  the  ancestor  and 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Incas, 
who  made  sun  worship  the  great 
State  religion. 

Snper,  Charles  William,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  Potts- 
ville,  Pa.,  Sept.  12,  1842;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Dickinson  College  in  1866 
and  studied  in  Tubingen,  Germany, 
in  1869-1871.  He  was  Professor  of 
Languages  at  the  Cincinnati  Wes- 
leyan  College  in  1872-1878;  and  sub- 
sequently became  Professor  of  Greek 
at  the  Ohio  University,  and  was  its 
president  in  1884-1901. 

Snper,  Ovando  Byron,  an  Amer- 
ican educator;  born  near  Newport, 
Pa.,  March  2,  1848;  was  graduated 
Rt  Dickinson  College  in  1873;  was 
Professor  of  Languages  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Denver  in  1880-1884;  and 
held  the  chair  of  modern  languages 
at  Dickinson  College  in  1894-1900. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  made  Pro- 
lessor    of    Romance    Languages. 

Superior,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Douglas  county.  Wis.;  at 
the  W.  end  of  Lake  Superior,  on 
several  railroads,  and  opposite  Du- 
luth,  Minn.;  has  three  deep,  sheltered, 
and  connected  harbors,  extensive 
coal  docks,  many  large  grain  eleva- 
tors, immense  plant  for  building  the 
famous  whaleback  steamers,  steel 
barge  works,  saw  and  planing  mills, 
and  iron,  wagon,  and  chain  works;  is 
a  great  shipping  point  for  coal,  grain, 
and  lumber;  and  comprises  the 
former  ports  of  East,  West,  South, 
and  Old  Superior.     Pop.  (1910)  40,384. 

Superior,  Iiake,  the  extreme  W. 
and  most  extensive  of  the  great  lakes 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  basin,  in  North 
America,  being  the  largest  existing 
body  of  fresh  water.  Its  length,  E. 
to  W.,  is  about  360  miles,  with  a  mean 
breadth  of  about  80  miles,  so  that  its 
area  may  be  taken  at  about  28,600 
square  miles.  The  mean  depth  is  esti- 
mated at  900  feet,  and  the  height  of 
its  surface  at  about  640  feet  above 
the  Atlantic.  It  receives  upward  of 
50  rivers,  but  none  is  of  much  im- 
portance except  the  St.  Louis  which 


SupremacT^ 

enters  at  its  S.  W.  extremity,  and 
the  Riviere  au  Grand  Portage.  Dur- 
ing the  melting  of  the  snow,  these  and 
the  other  rivers  sweep  into  the  lake 
vast  quantities  of  sand,  bowlder 
stones,  and  drift  timber.  It  discharges 
itself  at  its  E.  extremity  into  Lakes 
Huron  and  Michigan,  by  the  river  and 
falls  of  St.  Mary.  This  lake  em- 
bosoms many  large  and  well-wooder' 
islands,  the  chief  of  which  is  Isk 
Iloyal.  Toward  each  extremity  the 
lake  contracts  in  width,  and  at  the 
lower  end  terminates  in  a  bay  which 
falls  into  the  outlet,  the  St.  MaryH 
river,  at  the  two  opposite  headlandc 
of  Gros  Cape  on  the  N.  and  Point 
Iroquois  on  the  S.  Thence  to  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Mary's  at  Lake  Hu- 
ron is  about  60  miles.  The  navigation 
of  this  river  is  interrupted  20  miles 
below  its  source  at  the  Falls  of  St. 
Mary,  or,  as  the  place  is  commonly 
called,  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  Here  the 
river  descends  in  a  succession  of  rap- 
ids extending  %  of  a  mile,  from  18 
to  21  feet,  the  fall  varying  with  the 
gtage  of  the  water  in  Lake  Superior. 

Ship  canals  have  been  constructed 
past  the  falls  by  the  United  States  and 
the  Canadian  governments,  so  that  now 
the  lake  is  accessible  to  vessels  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  water  of 
Lake  Superior,  remarkable  for  its 
coldness,  purity,  and  transparency,  is 
inhabited  by  many  kinds  of  fish,  among 
which  are  the  delicious  white  fish  and 
the  gray  trout. 

Suppuration,  a  morbid  process 
which  gives  rise  to  the  formation  of 
pus,  one  of  the  destructive  termina- 
tions of  the  inflammatory  action.  Sup- 
puration in  the  interior  of  the  body 
usually  terminates  in  the  formation  of 
an  abscess;  but  in  some  cases  the 
matter  is  diffused  through  the  inter- 
stices of  the  part,  and  is  termed  dif- 
fuse  inflammation. 

Supremacy,  Papal,  the  authority, 
partly  spiritual  and  partly  temporal, 
which  the  Pope,  as  Bishop  of  Rome 
and  successor  of  St.  Peter,  claims  to 
exercise  over  the  clergy,  and,  through 
them,  over  the  laity,  of  the  whole 
world.  The  development  of  this  su- 
premacy dates  from  the  time  when 
Christianity  became  the  State  reli- 
gion of  the  Roman  empire  under  Con- 
stantine.     Its  influence  was  great  in 


Supremacy 


Supreme  Court 


England  under  the  Norman  kings,  and 
reached  its  highest  point  in  Ihe  reign 
of  John  (1199-121G),  from  which  pe- 
riod it  began  to  decline,  and  received 
its  death  blow  from  the  Act  of  Su- 
premacy, in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 

Supremacy,  Royal,  the  supremacy 
in  the  Church  of  England,  as  by  law 
established,  of  the  temporal  power 
in  all  causes  purely  temporal,  and  in 
the  temporal  accidents  of  spiritual 
things.  By  an  act  of  Henry  VIII. 
the  king  was  declared  t©  be  the  "  only 
supreme  Head  on  earth  of  the  Church 
joi  England,"  though  it  was  expressly 
declared  that  he  did  not  "  pretend 
to  take  any  power  from  the  succes- 
sors of  the  apostles  that  was  given 
them  by  God."  In  the  same  year 
(1535)  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester, 
and  Sir  Thomas  More  were  beheaded 
■for  denying  the  royal  claim.  On  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth  the  title  was 
kept  in  the  background ;  but  the  su- 
premacy of  the  sovereign  in  all  causes, 
as  well  ecclesiastical  as  civil,  was 
asserted.  The  royal  supremacy  was 
one  of  the  main  causes  of  the  civil 
war  in  the  17th  century ;  it  received 
a  check  at  the  revolution  of  1688 
which  enforced  toleration  of  Noncon- 
formity, but  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
19th  century  more  than  one  clergyman 
■was  committed  to  prison  for  disobey- 
ing the  ruling  of  the  law  courts  in 
ecclesiastical  matters. 

Supreme  Court  of  tlie  United 
States.  In  the  formation  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  it 
svas  intended  that  the  three  general 
■departments  of  the  government  should 
be  of  correlative  rank  and  influence. 
And  the  decisions  of  the  Supreme 
-Court,  especially  those  rendered  since 
the  Civil  War,  in  the  construction  of 
the  constitutional  amendments  which 
were  made  as  a  result  of  that  war, 
have  been  of  such  fundamental  and 
far  reaching  consequeYices  that  the 
value  and  importance  of  this  tribunal 
in  the  United  States  system  of  govern- 
ment have  been  made  more  strikingly 
conspicuous  than  ever  before.  Its 
judgments,  for  example,  in  regard  to 
civil  rights,  interstate  commerce,  pro- 
hibition liquor  laws,  the  Mormon 
question,  the  right  of  Congress  to 
authorize  the  use  of  paper  money  in 
time  of  peace,  the  legislation  of  Con- 


gress in  regard  to  the  Southern  States 
by  so-called  "  force-bills,"  the  relations 
of  the  States  to  the  federal  govern- 
ment, etc.,  have  been  of  the  highest 
importance,  and  their  influence  in  the 
future  will  be  almost  incalculable.  The 
Supreme  Court,  at  its  first  session  in 
1790,  consisted  of  a  chief  justice  and 
five  associates.  By  successive  acts 
of  Congress  the  number  of  associate 
justices  was  increased  to  six  in  1807, 
to  eight  in  1837,  and  the  statute  now 
in  force,  passed  in  1869,  fixes  the  num- 
ber at  eight.  The  retirement  of  su- 
preme justices  at  the  age  of  70  is  not 
compulsory,  but  a  mere  personal  priv- 
ilege. This  provision  was  originally 
enacted  April  10,  1869.  The  United 
States  Constitution  expressly  provides 
that  the  judges  "  shall  hold  their 
oflices  during  good  behavior,"  so  that 
if  they  do  not  voluntarily  take  advan- 
tage of  the  foregoing  provision  and  are 
not  removed,  they  are  entitled  to  exer- 
cise the  duties  of  their  office  till  death. 
The  Supreme  Court  is  the  judicial 
court  of  last  resort  in  the  Federal 
system  of  courts.  The  chief  justice 
has  a  salary  ot  $13,000,  r.nd  the  asso- 
ciate justices  receive  .$12,.".no  each,  and 
their  compensation  cannot  be  dimin- 
ished during  their  continuance  in  of- 
fice. The  sessions  are  held  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  and  any  six  justices 
constitute  a  quorum.  Each  judge  of 
the  court,  moreover,  must,  at  least 
once  in  every  two  years,  attend  a 
term  in  one  of  the  nine  circuit  courts 
in  those  parts  of  the  country  where 
those  courts  are  held.  The  judicial 
power  of  the  Supreme  Court  and  of 
the  inferior  federal  courts  extends  to 
all  cases  in  law  and  equity  arising 
under  the  Constitution,  the  laws  of 
the  United  States,  and  treaties  made 
under  their  authority ;  to  all  cases 
affecting  ambassadors,  other  public 
ministers,  and  consuls ;  to  all  cases  of 
admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction ; 
to  controversies  to  which  the  United 
States  is  a  party,  and  to  controver- 
sies between  two  or  more  States  or 
between  citizens  of  different  States, 
etc. ;  but  not  to  suits  against  one  of 
the  States  by  citizens  of  another  State, 
or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  for- 
eign State.  The  Supreme  Court  has 
original  jurisdiction  in  cases  affect- 
ing ambassadors,  public  ministers,  and 
consuls,  and  when  a  State  is  a  party ; 


Surety 

but  its  chief  jurisdiction  is  appellate. 
Thus  it  hears  appeals  from  the  circuit 
courts  and  from  certain  district  courts 
having  circuit  court  powers ;  in  civil 
actions  where  the  matter  in  dispute 
exceeds  ip5,000,  or  in  equity  and  mari- 
time cases,  $2,000.  But  there  are 
some  cases,  as,  for  example,  in  regard 
to  patents  and  copyrights,  revenue 
laws,  and  civil  rights,  where  an  ap- 
peal is  allowed  without  regard  to  the 
value  in  dispute.  Moreover,  if  deci- 
sions in  the  highest  courts  of  the  va- 
rious States  are  in  conflict  with  the 
Constitution,  treaties,  or  laws  of  the 
United  States,  they  may  be  appealed 
to  the  Supreme  Court.  No  appeals 
from  Territorial  courts,  from  the 
Court  of  Claims,  etc.,  are  heard  in 
this  court. 

Surety,  in  law,  one  who  is  bound 
with  and  for  another  who  is  prima- 
rily liable,  and  who  is  called  the  prin- 
cipal ;  one  who  enters  into  a  bond 
or  recognizance  to  answer  for  his  pay- 
ment of  a  debt,  or  for  the  performance 
of  some  act,  and  who,  in  case  of  the 
failure  of  the  principal,  is  liable  to 
pay  the  debt  and  damages;  a  bonds- 
man, a  bail. 

Surface  Grub,  a  name  applied  to 
the  larva  or  caterpillar  of  the  great 
yellow  underwing  moth,  attaining  a 
length  of  an  inch  and  a  half,  and  of 
a  pale-green  color  tinted  with  brown 
and  spotted  with  black.  The  larva  is 
destructive  to  vegetables.  It  appears 
commonly  in  hayfields  in  spring  and 
summer.  The  moth  itself  is  of  a 
pale  tawny  color  on  the  upper  wings, 
and  has  the  hind  wings  of  an  orange 
hue. 

Surf  Duck,  or  Surf  Sc*ter,  a 
species  of  duck,  about  the  size  of  a 
mallard,  frequent  on  the  coasts  of 
Labrador,  Hudson  Bay,  and  other 
parts  of  North  America. 

Surgeon,  one  ^  who  practises  sur- 
gery ;  in  a  more  limited  sense,  one 
who  cures  diseases  or  injuries  of  the 
bodj'  by  operating  manually  upon  the 
patient.  In  a  more  general  sense,  one 
whose  occupation  is  to  treat  diseases 
or  injuries  by  medical  appliances, 
whether  internal  or  external. 

Surgeon-fish,  a  popular  name  for 
any  species  of  the  genus  Acanthurus, 
from  the  sharp,  erectile,  lancet-shaped 
spine  wjth  which  each  side  of  the  tail 


Surplus 

is  armed.  In  the  early  stages  of  their 
growth  these  fish  are  so  different  from 
the  fully-developed  individuals,  that 
for  some  time  the  young  fish  were 
placed  in  a  separate  genus. 


SUEGEON  FISH. 

Surgeon-general,  in  the  United 
States  army,  the  chief  of  the  medical 
department.  In  the  British  army,  a 
surgeon  ranking  next  below  the  chief 
of  the  medical  department. 

Surmullet,  a  name  of  fishes,  allied 
to  the  perches,  and  often  called  red 
mullets.  They  have  two  dorsal  fins 
with  a  wide  interval  between  them, 
the  first  being  spinous,  and  two  long 
barbels  hanging  from  the  lower  jaw. 
The  common  red  mullet  of  the  Med- 
iterranean is  about  12  inches  long, 
esteemed  very  delicious  food,  and  was 
muclj  prized  by  the  Romans. 

Surplice,  the  outer  garment  of  an 
officiating  priest,  deacon,  or  chorister 
in  the  Church  of  England  and  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church,  worn  over  their 
other  dress  during  the  performance  of 
religious  services.  It  is  a  loose,  flow- 
ing vestment  of  white  linen,  generally 
reaching  almost  to  the  feet,  with 
broad,  full  sleeves.  It  differs  from  the 
alb  in  being  fuller,  and  in  having  no 
girdle,  nor  embroidery  at  the  foot. 

Surplus,  The,  the  money  which 
annually  remains  in  the  Treasury  of 
the  United  States  after  the  officers  of 
the  treasury  department  have  collect- 
ed the  taxes  laid  on  the  people  by  the 
laws  of  Congress  and  have  paid  all 
the  expenses  and  obligations  of  the 
government,    except   principal    of   the 


Surrey 


Snsa 


interest-bearing  debt.  The  disposition 
of  this  surplus  has  always  been  an 
important  question,  especially  when 
there  was,  no  public  debt  outstanding 
at  the  time,  or  when  such  debt  had 
not  matured,  and  was,  therefore,  not 
redeemable.  In  1835  the  debt  of  the 
United  States  was  $37,733,  but  the 
obligations  had  not  been  presented  for 
payment.  The  surplus  accumulated 
and  in  183G  amounted  to  over  $40,- 
000,000.  It  was  decided  by  Congress 
to  apportion  this  out  to  those  States 
who  would  authorize  their  treasurers 
to  receive  the  amounts  and  agree  to 
refund  them  when  demanded.  The  sum 
of  $5,000,000  was  reserved  by  the 
government,  and  the  remainder,  $37,- 
468,859,  was  to  be  paid  in  four  install- 
ments. The  first  three  were  paid  to  all 
but  the  few  States  that  had  refused  to 
accept  it  on  the  conditions  proposed. 
The  fourth  installment  was  not  paid 
on  account  of  the  financial  depression 
of  1837.  The  return  of  these  loans 
to  the  States  has  never  been  demanded 
by  the  general  government. 

Another  large  surplus  accumulated 
in  1852,  which  was  used  in  the  pay- 
ment of  government  obligations.  The 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  prevented 
any  surplus  for  some  years.  During 
a  period  of  26  years,  the  surplus  was 
smallest  in  1874,  being  $2,344,882.30, 
and  greatest  in  1882,  being  $145,543,- 
810.71.  In  1887  it  amounted  to  $103,- 
471,097.69;  in  1892  to  $26,838,541; 
and  in  1901  to  $77,717,984.38. 

Surrey,  Henry  Hoxrard,  Earl  of, 
an  English  poet.  He  succeeded  to 
the  courtesy  title  of  Earl  of  Surrey 
when  his  father  became  2d  Duke  of 
Norfolk  in  1524.  The  Howards  held 
an  eminent  position  at  the  court  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and  Surrey's  cousin, 
Catherine  Howard,  became  the  king's 
fifth  wife.  Surrey  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  early  poetic  movement 
under  Henry  VIII.  Most  of  his  poems 
were  translations  or  adaptations  of 
Italian  originals.  Ilis  translations  of 
the  second  and  fourth  books  of  the 
.^neid  are  the  first  attempt  at  blank 
verse  in  the  English  language.  Short- 
ly before  Henry's  death  Surrey  and 
Ins  father  were  suspected  of  aiming 
at  the  throne,  and  were  arrested  and 
lodged  in  the  Tower,  and  Surrey  was 
Tried,  condemned,  and  executed  on 
Tower  Hill,  Jan.  19,  1547. 


Surveying,  the  act  or  art  of  deter- 
mining the  boundaries,  form,  area, 
position,  contour,  etc.,  of  any  portion 
of  the  earth's  surface,  tradft  of  coun- 
try, coast,  etc.,  by  means  of  meas- 
urements taken  on  the  spot ;  the  art  of 
determining  the  form,  area,  surface, 
contour,  etc.,  of  any  portion  of  the 
earth's  surface,  and  delineating  it  ac- 
curately on  a  map  or  plan.  Land  sur- 
veying is  the  art  of  applying  the  prin- 
ciples ot  geometry  and  trigonometry 
to  the  measurement  of  land.  Geodesic 
surveying  comprises  all  the  operations 
of  surveying  carried  on  under  the 
supposition  that  the  earth  is  spheroid- 
al.     It  embraces  marine  surveying. 

Marine  or  hydrographical  surveying 
ascertains  the  forms  of  coast  lines, 
harbors,  etc.,  and  of  objects  on  the 
shore,  the  entrances  to  harbors,  chan- 
nels, their  depth,  width,  etc.,  the  posi- 
tion of  shoals,  the  depth  of  wat<  r 
thereon ;  and  it  embraces  all  the  ope'"- 
ations  necessary  to  a  complete  detei. 
mination  of  the  contour  of  the  bot- 
tom of  a  harbor  or  other  sheet  of  wa- 
ter. Mining  surveying  may  be  either 
for  the  purpose  of  determining  the 
situation  and  position  of  the  shafts, 
galleries,  and  other  underground  ex- 
cavations of  a  mine  already  in  exist- 
ence ;  or  it  may  be  for  determining  the 
proper  positions  for  the  shafts,  gal- 
leries, etc.,  of  a  mine  not  yet  opened. 
Railway  surveying  is  a  comprehensive 
term,  embracing  surveys  intended  to 
ascertain  the  best  line  of  communica- 
tion between  two  given  points;  it 
also  includes  all  surveys  for  the  con- 
struction of  aqueducts  for  the  supply 
of  water  to  towns,  etc.  Topograph- 
ical surveying  embraces  all  the  oper- 
ations incident  to  finding  the  contour 
of  a  portion  of  the  earth's  surface, 
and  the  various  methods  of  represent- 
ing it  upon  a  plane  surface. 

Snsa,  one  of  the  capitals  of  ancient 
Persia ;  was  situated  on  the  Choaspes, 
and  has  now  been  identified  with  the 
extensive  ruins  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Kerkha,  about  250  miles  S.  E. 
of  Bagdad.  It  had  a  circumference 
of  120  stadia,  and  like  Babylon  was 
built  of  burnt  bricks  cemented  with 
asphalt.  It  was  without  walls,  but 
its  citadel,  containing  the  treasury 
and  mausoleum  of  the  Persian  kings, 
was  strongly  fortified.  After  Alex- 
ander   and    his    successors    had    fixed 


Suspension 

their  court  at  Babylon  Susa  declined 
in  importance,  though  when  besieged 
by  Antigonus  in  315  B.  c.  it  was  still 
one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Persia,  and 
even  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  7th 
century  A.  D.  it  offered  under  Hormu- 
zan  an  obstinate  resistance  to  the 
Saracens;  but  by  the  13th  century  it 
had  become  a  heap  of  ruins. 

Suspension,  in  English  and  Ro- 
man canon  law,  a  censure  inflicted  on 
a  clerk  or  priest  in  orders,  for  reme- 
dial purposes,  the  effect  of  which  is 
to  take  away  from  him,  for  a  fixed 
time,  or  till  he  repents  and  makes 
satisfaction,  the  exercise  of  his  sacred 
functions  in  his  office  or  benefice.  In 
rhetoric,  a  keeping  of  the  hearer  in 
doubt  and  jn  attentive  expectation  of 
what  is  to  follow,  or  what  is  to  be 
the  inference  or  conclusion  from  the 
arguments  or  observations.  Pleas  in 
suspension,  in  law,  those  pleas  which 
ghow  some  matter  of  temporary  in- 
capacity to  proceed  with  the  action  or 
suit.  Points  of  suspension,  in  me- 
chanics, the  points,  as  in  the  axis  of  a 
beam^or  balance,  at  which  the  weights 
act  or  from  which  they  are  suspended. 
Suspension  of  arms,  a  short  truce  or 
cessation  of  operations  agreed  on  by 
the  commanders  of  the  opposing  forces, 
as  for  the  burying  of  the  dead,  mak- 
ing proposals  for  surrender,  peace,  etc. 

Suspension  Railuray,  a  railway 
in  which  the  carriage  is  suspended 
from  an  elevated  track,  one  carriage 
on  each  side  of  a  single  track,  so  as 
to  balance,  or  suspended  between  two 
tracks.  There  is  an  elevated  single- 
track  railway  in  Algeria,  where  (50 
miles  of  suspension  railway  are  at 
work,  employed  chiefly  in  carrying 
esparto. 

Snsqnehanna,  a  river  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  formed  by  two  branches,  an 
eastern  or  northern  branch,  250  miles 
long  from  Lake  Otsego  in  New  York, 
and  a  western  branch,  200  miles  from 
the  western  slope  of  the  Alleghanies, 
which  unite  at  Northumberland  in 
Pennsylvania.  The  united  stream 
flows  south  and  south-east,  and  after 
a  course  of  150  miles  reaches  the  head 
of  Chesapeake  Bay  at  Havre  de  Grace, 
Maryland ;  nowhere  navigable  to  any 
extent,  save  in  the  spring. 

Sutro,  Adolph  Heinrich  Jo- 
■epb,  ah  American  mining  engineer; 


Suture 

born  in  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Prussia,  April 
29,  1830;  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1850  and  settled  in  San  Francisco, 
Cal.  There  he  engaged  in  business 
till  1860,  when  he  conceived  the  plan 
of  the  great  "  Sutro  tunnel,"  as  a 
means  of  developing  the  Comstock 
mine  in  Nevada.  He  interested  cap- 
italists in  the  project  and  work  was 
begun  on  the  tunnel  in  18G9.  His  con" 
tract  with  the  mine-owners  called  for 
$2.00  royalty  on  every  ton  of  ore  tak- 
en from  the  mines,  and  when  the 
work  was  completed  in  1879  he  was 
paid  about  $15,000.  He  sold  out  his 
interest  in  the  tunnel ;  went  to  San 
Francisco,  invested  in  real  estate,  and 
soon  became  one  of  the  wealthiest  men 
on  the  Pacific  slope.  He  was  a  donor 
of  large  sums  of  money  to  public  in- 
stitutions ;  founder  of  the  Sutro  Li- 
brary of  San  Francisco  and  mayor  of 
that  city  in  1894.  After  his  death 
there,  Aug.  8,  1898,  his  will,  in  which 
he  bequeathed  nearly  his  whole  for- 
tune to  the  city,  was  contested  and 
broken. 

Sutro,  Florence  Clinton,  an 
American  musician ;  born  in  England  ; 
was  graduated  at  the  Grand  Conserva- 
tory of  Music  in  New  York  with  the 
decree  of  Mus.  D.,  being  the  first 
woman  in  the  United  States  to  receive 
that  degree,  and  at  the  Law  School  of 
the  University  of  New  York.  She  was 
a  member  of  numerous  literary,  mu- 
sical, and  social  societies ;  honorary 
president  of  the  Grand  Conservatory 
Alumnifi ;  president  of  the  Hospital 
for  Crippled  Children,  and  prominent 
as  a  writer  for  the  advancement  of 
women  as  composers  and  musicians. 
She  founded  the  National  Federation 
of  Musical  Clubs  and  Societies  in 
1898.     She  died   in   1906. 

Sutton,  Rhoades  Stansbury,  an 
American  physician ;  born  in  Indiana, 
Pa.,  July  8,  1841 ;  was  graduated  at 
Washington  and  Jefferson  College  in 
1802,  and  at  the  Medical  Department 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1865.  He  was  major  of  volunteers 
and  surgeon  in  the  army  during  the 
Spanish-American  War.  His  publica- 
tions include  many  contributions  on 
surgery  and  medicine  to  technical  pe- 
riodicals.    He  died  in  1906. 

Suture,  in  ordinary  language,  the 
act   of  sewing,   the  line  along  which 


Snvoroff 


Swan 


two  things  are  joined,  united,  or  sewed 
together,  so  as  to  form  a  seam,  or 
something  resembling  a  seam.  Tech- 
nically, in  anatomy,  the  immovable 
junction  of  two  parts  by  their  mar- 
gins; as,  the  sutures  of  the  sliull,  i. 
€.,  the  lines  of  junction  of  the  bones 
of  which  the  skull  is  composed.  Va- 
xi.ous  types  of  suture  exist,  as  the  ser- 
iated or  dentated  suture,  the  squa- 
mous or  scaly  suture,  and  the  har- 
monic suture  or  harmonia.  Arranged 
according  to  their  situation,  there  are 
coronal,  frontal,  fronto-parietal,  occip- 
ito-parietal  and  many  other  sutures. 

Suvoroff,  or  Snwarof,  Alexei 
Vassilievitcli,  Count,  Prince 
JEtaliski,  a  Russian  field-marshal ; 
born  in  1729;  died  in  1800.  In  his 
17th  year  he  entered  the  service  as  a 
common  soldier.  He  served  in  the  war 
against  Sweden,  in  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  in  Poland,  and  against  the  Turks, 
becoming  general  of  division  in  1773. 
In  1783  he  reduced  the  Kuban  Tartars 
under  the  Russian  yoke.  In  1787,  he 
conducted  the  defence  of  Kinburn  to  a 
successful  issue  ;  and  in  1789  he  gained 
the  dignity  of  count  by  his  great  vic- 
tory on  the  banks  of  the  Rymnik, 
■over  the  Turks.  For  his  successful 
campaign  against  Poland,  he  received 
a.  field-marshal's  baton  and  a  Polish 
estate.  The  last  and  most  celebrated 
of  his  services  was  his  campaign  in 
Italy  in  1799,  when  his  brilliant  vic- 
tories at  Piacenza,  Novi,  etc.,  drove 
the  French  from  all  the  towns  and 
fortresses  of  Upper  Italy,  and  he  was 
rewarded  with  the  title  of  Prince 
Italiski. 

Svastika,  a  religious  symbol  used 
by  early  races  of  Aryan  stock  from 
Scandinavia  to  Persia  and  India.  It 
consists  of  a  Greek  cross,  either  en- 
closed in  a  circle  the  circumference  of 
"which  passes  through  its  extremities 
or  with  its  arms  bent  back,  and  was 
intended  to  represent  the  sun,  being 
found  invariably  associated  with  the 
Tvorship  of  Aryan  sun  gods  (Apollo, 
Odin).  Similar  devices  occur  in  the 
monumental  remains  of  the  ancient 
Mexicans  and  Peruvians,  and  on  ob- 
jects exhumed  from  the  prehistoric 
burial  mounds  of  the  United  States. 

Svalloiv-,  in  ornithology,  any  one 
of  the  numerous  passerine  birds.  In 
the  United  States  the  best  known  spe- 


cies are :  the  barn  swallow ;  the  cliff, 
eaves,  or  chimney  swallow ;  the  white 
bellied  or  tree  swallow,  and  the  bank 
swallow.      The    species    usually    de- 


SWAIXOWS. 

scribed  by  naturalists  as  the  type  of 
the  family  is  Hirundo  rustica,  a  well- 
known  European  visitor,  whose  arrival 
from  Africa  (usually  about  the  middle 
of  April)  is  eagerly  looked  for  as  a 
sign  of  approaching  summer.  Swal- 
lows usually  arrive  in  pairs — a  male 
and  a  female — though  several  pairs 
often  form  a  small  flight ;  but  if  a 
single  bird  is  seen  to  arrive,  there  is 
a  strong  presumption  that  it  has  lost 
its  mate.  They  return  with  unfailing 
regularity  to  their  old  haunts,  and  in 
May    commence    building   their   nests. 

Sxiramp  Deer,  is  about  four  feet  in 
height,  rich  light  yellow  in  color,  and 
congregates  in  large  herds  in  moist 
situations.  The  antlers  are  large,  with 
a  long  beam  which  branches  into 
an  anterior  continuation  of  the  main 
portion,  and  a  smaller  posterior  tyne 
which  is  bifurcated. 

Swamp  Hickory,  a  North  Amer- 
ican tree  with  small  ovate  fruits,  the 
rind  of  which  remains  permanently 
fleshy.  The  kernel  is  very  bitter; 
hence  the  tree  is  sometimes  called  bit- 
ter nut. 

Swan,  In  ornithology,  any  individ- 
ual of  the  genus  Cygnus.    The  swans 


Sxran 


Sxv^eden 


:form  a  sharply-defined  group;  the 
body  is  elongated,  the  neck  very  long, 
liead  moderate ;  beak  about  as  long  as 
head ;  legs  short,  and  placed  far  back. 
■On  the  under  surface  the  plumage  is 
thick  and  fur-like ;  on  the  upper  side 
the  feathers  are  broad,  but  both  above 
and  below  the  body  is  thickly  covered 
with  dbwn.  Their  short  legs  render 
their  movements  on  land  awkward 
and  ungainly,  but  in  the  water  these 
birds  are  graceful  to  a  proverb.  Their 
food  consists  of  veo'etable  substances 
and  weeds,  their  long  necks  enabling 
them  to  dip  below  the  surface  and  to 
reach  their  food  at  considerable 
depths. 


COMMON   SWAN. 

Sxran,     Joseph     Rockxp^ell,      an 

American  jurist ;  bom  in  Western- 
ville,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  28,  1802;  settled 
in  Columbus,  O.,  in  1824,  and  became 
judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  1854. 
In  1859  he  rendered  his  most  impor- 
tant decision.  The  United  States  Dis- 
trict Court  in  Ohio  had  sentenced  a 
prisoner  for  violating  the  Fugitive- 
Slave  Law.  Under  a  writ  of  habeas 
corpus  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State 
sought  to  set  aside  the  sentence,  but 
it  was  sustained  by  Judge  Swan,  who 
declared  that  the  State  could  not  re- 
verse the  decisions  of  the  United 
States  courts.  His  publications  include  : 
"  Statutes  of  Ohio  "  ;  "  Swan's  Plead- 
ings and  Practice  " ;  "  Commentaries 
on  Pleadings  under  the  Ohio  Code," 
etc.  He  died  in  Columbus,  O.,  Dec. 
18,    1884. 

Sixrank,  James  Moore,  an.  Amer- 
ican statistician ;  born  in  Westmore- 
land CO.,  Pa.,  July  12,  1832 ;  in  1871- 
1872  he  was  chief  clerk  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  He 
«arly  became  a  strong  advocate  of  the 


policy  of  protective  tariff.  His  pub- 
lications include  "  History  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture";  "Iron 
Making  and  Coal  Mining  in  Pennsyl- 
vania "  ;  "  History  of  the  Manufacture 
of  Iron  in  all  Ages  " ;  and  many  tariff 
tracts. 

Swayne,  Xoah  Haynes,  an  Amer- 
ican jurist ;  born  in  Culpeper  co., 
Va.,  Dec.  7,  1804;  settled  in  Coshoc- 
ton, O.,  in  1825 ;  in  1829  he  became  a 
Democratic  member  of  the  Ohio  Leg- 
islature. He  was  United  States  dis- 
trict attorney  for  Ohio  in  1831-1841. 
He  often  appeared  as  counsel  in  fugi- 
tive-slave cases  and  on-  account  of 
his  anti-slavery  views  joined  the  Re- 
publican party  on  its  formation.  He 
was  an  associate  justice  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  in  1862-1881. 
In  the  latter  year  he  resigned  owing 
to  advanced  age.  He  died  in  New 
York   city,   June   8,    1884. 

Sw^eating  System,  the  system  by 
which  sub-contractors  undertake  to  do 
work  in  their  own  houses  or  small 
workshops,  and  employ  others  to  do  it, 
making  a  profit  for  themselves  by  the 
difference  between  the  contract  prices 
and  the  wages  they  pay  their  assist- 
ants. Laws  have  recently  been  enact- 
ed both  in  England  and  the  United 
States  to  rep-ulate  the  system,  and 
providing  penalties  for  the  employ- 
ment of  children  and  others  in  over- 
crowded and  ill-ventilated  "  sweat 
shops." 

Sweden  (Sverige),  a  kingdom  in 
Norway,  Europe,  formerly  compris- 
ing with  Norway  and  Lapland  the 
whole  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
of  which  it  forms  the  E.,  S.,  and 
most  important  portion ;  having  N,  E. 
Russian  Finland;  E.  and  S.  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia  and  the  Baltic;  S.  W.  the 
Sound,  Cattegat,  and  Skagerrack;  and 
W.  and  N.  Norway,  from  which  it 
is  for  the  most  part  divided  by  the 
great  mountain  chain  of  Scandinavia. 
Length  N.  to  S.  950  miles;  average 
breadth  about  190  miles,  area  172,876 
square  miles ;  pop.  estimated  at  5,- 
062,918.  Capital,  Stockholm;  pop. 
295,789. 

Sweden  is  divided  into  three  princi- 
pal regions;  Gothland  (Gothia)  in 
the  S. ;  Sweden  proper,  occupying  the 
center;  and  Norland  (by  far  the  larg- 
est part),  comprising  the  remainder. 


'  Sureden 

These  three  regions  are  again  subdivid- 
ed into  24  lans,  or  districts.  Sweden 
is  mountainous  in  the  W.,  but,  in 
general,  flat ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that 
along  the  whole  road  from  Gottenburg 
in  the  W.,  to  Stockholm  in  the  E., 
there  is  not  a  single  acclivity  of  conse- 
quence till  within  a  few  miles  of  the 
latter.  • 

The  climate  is  less  severe  than 
might  be  expected  in  so  high  a  lati- 
tude. The  summers  are  hot,  and 
spring  is  almost  unknown.  In  the 
N.,  snow  covers  the  ground  for  five 
or  six  months  in  the  year;  and  the 
W.  coasts  .  are  milder  and  more  hu- 
mid than  the  E. 

The  domestic  animals  are  the  same 
as  those  of  North  America.  The  oth- 
ers are  hares  and  foxes,  beavers, 
wolves  and,  in  the  cold  provinces  of 
the  N.,  bears,  the  leming  and  the  rein- 
deer. Water  fowl  are  abundant  and 
the  mosquitoes  are  as  troublesome  as 
they  are  in  tropical  countries. 

Only  about  a  fiftieth  part  of  the 
country  is  cultivated.  Agriculture  is 
in  a  very  backward  state,  but  has 
been  recently  much  improved.  Apple, 
pear,  knd  cherry  trees  grow  but  lan- 
guidly ;  while  berries  of  many  differ- 
ent kinds  are  produced  spontaneously 
and  spread  luxuriantly.  Wheat  suc- 
ceeds only  in  the  S.  provinces;  oats 
are  raised  more  generally,  and  in 
larger  quantities ;  but  rye  and  barley 
are  the  kinds  of  grain  most  frequently 
met  with. 

Sweden's  government  is  a  constitu- 
tional monarchy.  The  King  of  Swe- 
den, who  was  also  King  of  Norway, 
must  be  a  member  of  the  Lutheran 
Church.  His  person  is  inviolable.  lie 
has  the  right  to  declare  war  and  make 
peace^  and  grant  pardon  to  condemned 
criminals.  He  nominates  to  all  ap- 
pointments, both  military  and  civil ; 
concludes  foreign  treaties,  and  has  a 
right  to  preside  in  the  supreme  court 
of  justice.  The  king  has  an  absolute 
veto  upon  any  decrees  of  the  Diet, 
and  possesses  legislative  power  in  mat- 
ters of  provincial  administration  and 
police.  In  all  other  respects,  the  foun- 
tain of  law  is  the  Diet.  This  Diet,  or 
Congress  of  the  realm,  consists  of  two 
chambers,  or  estates,  both  elected  by 
the  people,  but  representing  different 
interests. 

The  two    kingdoms,   Gothland  and 


Sivedenborg 

Sv^aland,  of  which  Sweden  once  con- 
sisted, were  united  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury by  the  failure  of  the  royal  line 
in  the  former.  In  1397  by  the  treaty 
of  Calmar,  Sweden  became  subject  to 
Margaret  of  Denmark,  who  has  been 
styled  the  Semiramis  of  the  North, 
and  who  joined  the  three  kingdoms 
in  one.  Gustavus  Vasa  asserted  the 
independence  of  Sweden  and  ascended 
the  throne  in  1521.  He  bequeathed 
the  crown  to  his  posterity,  who  con- 
tinued to  reign,  and  in  general  with 
distinction ;  but  most  of  them,  and 
in  particular,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  his 
daughter  Christina,  Charles  XI I. ,  and 
Gustavus  III.,  discovered  a  romantic 
spirit  approaching,  in  the  case  of 
Charles  XII.,  to  a  degree  of  infatua- 
tion. This  dynasty  ended  in  a  prince 
(Gustavus  IV.)  who  had  all  the  ec- 
centricity and  hardly  any  of  the  tal- 
ents of  his  predecessors.  In  1809  this 
last  monarch  engaging  in  undertakings 
totally  beyond  the  resources  of  his 
people,  was  deposed ;  and  next  year 
Marshal  Bernadotte  of  France  was 
elected  crown-prince,  and  in  1818  as 
Charles  John  XIV.,  ascended  the 
throne.  In  1814  Norway  was  an- 
nexed to  Sweden.  In  1857  Charles 
XV.  succeeded  his  father,  Oscar  I., 
and  died  in  1872,  leaving  the  crowa 
to  his  son,  Oscar  II.  Strained  rela- 
tions with  Norway  developed  an  acute 
crisis  over  the  demand  for  a  separate 
consular  service,  and  on  June  7,  1905, 
the  Norwegian  Storthing  dissolved  the 
union  and  Sweden  recognized  the  inde- 
pendence of  Norway.  Oscar  II.  died 
Dec.  8,  1907,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Gustavus  V. 

SivedenboTg,  Emanuel,  founder 
of  the  Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem, 
and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  men 
of  science  of  the  18th  century ;  born  in 
Stockholm,  Sweden,  Jan.  29,  1G88. 
He  was  carefully  educated  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Lutheran  Church.  After 
pursuing  his  studies  and  taking  tho 
degree  of  Ph.  D.  at  Upsala,  he  went  on 
his  travels  in  1710,  and  visited  tha 
universities  of  England,  Holland, 
France,  and  Germany.  He  had  in 
the  previous  year  achieved  a  great 
engineering  feat,  in  the  transport,  over 
a  mountain  district,  of  several  galleys 
and  boats  for  service  at  the  siege  of 
Frederickshall.  He  continued  his  sci- 
entific   studies    with    an    ardor    that 


Sixredish  Turnip 


Siveet  Chestunl; 


placed  him  \n  the  first  rank  of  Euro- 
pean philosojihers,  till  the  year  1743, 
when,  as  he  himself  afiirms,  a  new 
era  of  his  life  commenced,  and  he  was 
permitted  to  hold  intercourse  with  the 
inhabitants  of  the  invisible  world.  In 
1747,  he  resigned  his  office  in  the  min- 
ing coUege,  retired  from  public  life, 
and  spending  his  time  alternately  in 
Sweden  and  in  England,  devoted  him- 
self to  the  publication  of  his  theolog- 
ical works.  The  believers  in  his  doc- 
trines are  now  become  a  numerous 
body.  Among  his  very  numerous  works 
are :  "  Philosophical  and  Mineralogical 
Works " ;  "  Oi^conomia  Regni  Ani- 
malis "  (Economy  of  the  Animal 
Kingdom);  and  "  Regnum  Animale  " 
(The  Animal  Kingdom);  "Arcana 
Cojlestia  "  (The  Secrets  of  Heaven)  ; 
"  On  Heaven  and  Hell,"  "  On  Conju- 
gal Love  "  and  the  "  True  Christian 
Religion."  Died  in  London,  England, 
March  29,  1772. 

Sxredisli  Turnip,  a  kind  of  turnip, 
introduced  originally  from  Sweden. 
The  bulb  is  elongated,  the  leaves  glau- 
cous, the  inside  either  white  or,  more 
generally,  yellow,  the  quality  not  be- 
ing affected  by  the  variation  of  color. 
It  is  very  hardy,  not  generally  suffer- 
ing injury  from  intense  cold. 

Sfxreeney,  Thomas  William,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in 
Cork,  Ireland.  Dec.  25,  1820;  settled 
in  the  United  States  in  1832.  In 
184G  he  was  made  2d  lieutenant  in  the 
1st  New  York  Volunteers ;  took  part 
in  the  bombardment  of  Vera  Cruz  and 
in  the  assault  on  Churubusco.  After 
the  Mexican  War  he  was  commissioned 
2d  lieutenant  in  the  2d  United  States 
Infantry,  and  was  on  duty  in  Califor- 
nia and  at  other  posts  in.  the  West, 
where  he  was  often  engaged  against 
the  hostile  Indians.  In  January, 
1861,  he  was  promoted  captain  and 
assigned  to  the  command  of  the  ar- 
senal in  St.  Louis.  He  became  a  Brig- 
adier-General of  volunteers  in  May, 
18G1,  and  later  colonel  of  the  52d 
Illinois  Volunteers,  with  which  regi- 
ment he  took  part  in  the  capture  of 
Fort  Donelson.  During  the  first  day 
of  the  action  at  Shiloh  he  held  the 
key  of  the  Union  position.  He  was 
promoted  major  of  the  16th  United 
States  Infantry  in  October,  1863.  He 
won  his  greatest  distinction  on  July 


22,  1864,  in  the  engagement  before 
Atlanta.  He  there  routed  the  enemy 
with  great  slaughter,  took  900  prison- 
ers, and  four  battle  flags.  He  was 
retired  in  May,  1870,  with  the  rank  of 
Brigadier-General  U.  S.  A.  He  died 
in  Astoria,  L.   I.,  April  10,   1892. 

Stceet,  Alexander  Ed'w^in,  an 
American  journalist ;  born  in  St. 
John,  N.  B.,  March  28,  1841.  He 
served  in  the  Confederate  army  in  the 
Civil  War ;  was  editor  of  the  San  An- 
tonio (Texas)  "  Herald,"  and  of 
"Texas  Siftings "  from  1881.  Died 
in  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  May  20,  1901. 

Sweet,  Benjamin  Jeffrey,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in 
Kirkland,  N.  Y.,  April  24,  1832 ;  set- 
tled with  his  parents  in  Stockbridge, 
Wis.,  in  1838.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  he  recruited  the  21st 
and  22d  Wisconsin  regiments,  becom- 
ing colonel  of  the  former.  For  his  serv- 
ices while  in  command  at  Camp  Doug- 
las, Chicago,  in  preventing  an  out- 
break of  the  Confederate  prisoners. 
Sweet  was  promoted  Brigadier-General 
of  volunteers.  In  January,  1872,  he 
was  made  1st  Deputy  Commissioner  of 
Internal  Revenue  and  removed  to 
Washington,  D.  C,  where  he  died  Jan. 
1,  1874. 

Sxveet  Briar,  or  Svreet  Brier, 
naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and 
grows  wild,  but  is  often  planted  in 
hedges  and  gardens  on  account  of  the 
sweet  balsamic  smell  of  its  small 
leaves  and  flowers.  It  is  also  called 
the  eglantine. 

Sweet  Chestnut,  a  tree  with  ob- 
long leaves,  and  clusters  of  minute, 
pale  greenish-yellow  flowers  in  spikes. 
The  fruit  is  a  prickly  husk,  with  on« 
or  more  nuts,  each  with  one  large 
seed.  It  grows  wild  in  America  and 
in  the  S.  of  Europe.  On  the  slopes  of 
Etna,  where  there  are  forests  of  it, 
there  grow  some  old  trees  with  trunks 
of  enormous  girth.  The  chestnuts  of 
commerce  are  derived  chiefly  from  the 
cultivated  varieties  of  the  tree,  and 
are  larger  and  sweeter  than  the  wild 
fruit.  The  nuts  are  consumed  as  an 
article  of  daily  food  in  the  S.  of  Eu- 
rope, and  in  parts  of  France  are  served 
up  for  breakfast,  boiled  in  milk.  The 
timber  is  extensively  used  in  America, 
especially  for  the  inside  finishing  of 
houses,    furniture,    eta 


Sxreetflag 


Swift 


Sweetflag,  a  plant,  also  called 
sweetrush,  found  in  marshy  places 
throughout  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 
The  stem  bears  a  lateral,  dense,  green- 
ish spike  of  flowers ;  the  root  is  long, 
cylindrical,  and  knotted.  The  root 
has  a  strong  aromatic  odor,  and  a 
warm,  pungent,  bitterish  taste,  and 
has  been  employed  in  medicine  since 
the  time  of  Hippocrates.  It  is  also 
used  by  confectioners  as  a  candy,  and 
by  perfumers  in  the  preparation  of 
aromatic  vinegar,  hair  powder,  etc. 

Sweet  Gum,  a  North  American  tree 
'  about  GO  feet  high  with  apetalous 
flowers.  The  w^ood  is  fine-grained, 
and  well  adapted  for  furniture ;  the 
fragrant  gum  exuding  from  it  when 
incisions  are  made  in  its  bark  con- 
stitutes liquidambar. 

Sweet  Pea,  a  familiar  garden  an- 
nual plant.  It  is  a  native  of  Sicily 
and  other  parts  of  the  S.  of  Europe, 
and  has  been  cultivated  for  its  beau- 
tiful and  fragrant  flowers  in  Ameri- 
can gardens  for  about  100  years.  The 
varieties  are  very  numerous,  distin- 
guished chiefly  by  the  different  shades 
of  color  of  the  flowers.  It  is  culti- 
vated as  a  hardy  annual,  and_  is  so 
hardy  that  it  may  be  sown  in  au- 
tumn and  will  not  only  withstand  the 
cold  of  winter  in  all  but  the  coldest 
districts,  but  will  bloom  earlier  and 
better  than  when  sown  only  in  spring. 
Sowing  in  the  latter  season  is,  how- 
ever, necessary  to  provide  prolonga- 
tion of  bloom. 

Sweet  Potato,  a  genus  of  plants 
with  stems  five  or  six  feet  long.  The 
leaves  are  five  or  six  inches  long, 
lieart-shaped  at  the  base;  the  flowers 
pale  purple,  closely  resembling  those 
of  the  common  convolvulus  or  bind- 
weed. The  roots  grow  to  a  great 
size  —  to  as  much  as  50  pounds 
weight,  according  to  some  authorities, 
in  Java,  but  the  ordinary  average  is 
from  3  to  12  pounds.  In  favorable 
conditions  in  the  United  States  the 
yield  per  acre  is  from  200  to  300 
bushels.  The  taste  of  the  roots  is 
sweetish  and  agreeable,  and  they  are 
considered  to  be  superior  to  the  com- 
mon  potato   in   flesh-forming  matters. 

Sweet  William,  in  botany  and 
horticulture  a  plant  with  leaves  lance- 
olate and  nerved ;  the  flowers  are  ag- 
gregated in   bundles;    petals   bearded, 


whence  the  book  name  of  bearded 
pink.  It  may  be  single  or  double ;  the 
petals  dark  purple,  red,  speckled,  or 
white. 

Swift,  like  swallows  in  many  re- 
spects, their  structure  is  almost  en- 
tirely different,  and  some  naturalists 
rather  class  them  with  the  humming 
birds  or  the  goat  suckers.  The  swift 
has  all  four  toes  directed  forward ;  it 
is  larger  than  the  swallow;  its  flight 
is  more  rapid  and  steady ;  and  its 
scream  is  very  different  from  the  twit- 
tering of  the  swallow.     Its  weight  is 


COMMON   SWIFT. 

most  disproportionately  small  to  its 
extent  of  wing,  the  former  being 
scarcely  an  ounce,  the  latter  18  inches, 
the  length  of  the  body  being  about  8 
inches.  Its  color  is  a  somber  or  sooty 
black,  a  whitish  patch  appearing  be- 
neath the  chin.  It  builds  in  holes  in 
the  roofs  of  houses,  in  towers,  or  in 
hollow  trees.  A  common  North  Amer- 
ican swift  is  the  so-callod  chimney 
swallow,  which  builds  its  nest  in  chim- 
neys. 

Swift,  Jonathan,  the  greatest  of 
English  satirists ;  born  in  Dublin,  Ire- 
land, Nov.  30,  10G7.  He  was  the 
posthumous    son    of    Jonathan   Swift, 


Swift 


SvritzerlanX 


an  Englishman,  steward  of  the  Irish 
inns  of  court,  and  was  educated  at 
Kilkenny  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin. In  17U1  he  took  his  doctor's 
degree,  and  in  1704  he  published 
Anonymously  his  famous  "  Tale  of  a 
Tub,"  to  which  was  appended  the 
"  Battle  of  the  Books."  In  1708  ap- 
peared, among  other  things,  an  attack 
bn  astrology  under  the  title  of  "  Pre- 
dictions for  the  Year  1708,  by  Isaac 
Bickerstaff,  Esq.,"  and  in  1709  a 
"  Project  for  the  Advance  of  Re- 
ligion," dedicated  to  Lady  Berkeley, 
the  only  work  to  which  he  ever  put 
his  name.  His  "  Proposal  for  the  Uni- 
versal Use  of  Irish  Manufactures " 
(1720),  and  his  celebrated  "  Drapier's 
Letters"  (1723),  made  him  the  idol 
of  the  Irish  people.  His  famous  "Gul- 
liver's Travels  "  appeared  in  172G.  ITe 
died  in  Dublin  Oct.  19,  1745,  bequeatli- 
ing  the  greatest  part  of  his  fortune 
to  a  hospital  for  lunatics  and  idiots. 
As  a  writer  Swift  has,  perhaps,  never 
been  exceeded  in  grave  irony,  which 
he  veils  with  an  air  of  serious  sim- 
plicity, admirably  calculated  to  set  it 
off.  He  abounds  in  ludicrous  ideas, 
which  often  deviate,  both  in  his  poetry 
and  prose,  into  very  unpardonable 
grossness.  His  style  forms  a  fine  ex- 
ample of  easy  familiarity. 

Sxvift,  Lewis,  an  American  astron- 
omer; born  in  Clarkson,  N.  Y.,  Feb. 
29,  1820.  He  became  interested  in 
astronomy,  built  and  set  up  his  own 
telescope  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and  be- 
gan to  make  observations.  For  years 
he  searched  the  heavens  for  comets, 
and  discovered  the  notable  one  of 
18G2.  In  18G9  he  observed  a  total 
Bolar  eclipse  and  secured  valuable  re- 
sults. Two  years  later  he  found  an. 
other  comet,  and  in  1877-1879  dis- 
covered other  comets,  for  which  he 
was  three  times  awarded  the  court 
prize  and  received  a  gold  medal  from 
the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
Vienna.    He  died  Jan.  5,  1913. 

Swinburne,  Algermea  Ckarles, 
an  English  poet  and  essayist,  son  of 
Admiral  Charles  Henry  Swinburne; 
born  in  London,  England,  1837.  His 
first  productions  were  "  Queen  Moth- 
er "  and  "Rosamund"  (1861).  They 
were  followed  by  two  tragedies :  "  At- 
alanta  in  Calydon,"  and  "  Chastelard," 
and    by    "  Poems    and    Ballads,"    re- 

B.  147^ 


printed  as  "  Laus  Veneris."  He  also 
wrote  "  A  Study  of  Ben  Jonson " ; 
"  Astrophel,  and  Other  Poems " ; 
"  Studies  in  Prose  and  Poetry  " ;  "The 
Tale  of  Balen  " ;  and  "  Rosamund." 
Died  April  10,  1909. 

Swintem,  J*]ui,  an  American  jour- 
nalist ;  born  in  Salton,  Scotland,  Dec. 
12,  1830 ;  early  learned  the  printer'* 
trade;  came  to  Canada  about  1853 
and  afterward  to  New  York  city; 
was  chief  of  editorial  staff  of  the 
"Times"  from  18G0  through  tha 
war ;  then  with  Horace  Greeley  oa 
the  "Tribune"  till  about  1874;  then 
chief  of  staff  of  the  "  Sun  "  till  1883,. 
when  he  resigned  to  start  "  John  Swin- 
ton's  Paper,"  conducting  it  till  1887. 
He  wrote  "  The  New  Issue  " ;  "  John 
Swinton's  Travels  " ;  etc.  He  died  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  15,  1901.  He 
was  a  man  of  remarkable  courage  in 
the  avowal  of  an  unpopular  conviction, 
and  esteemed  even  by  those  who  detest- 
ed his  views. 

S\7int«n,  William,  an  American, 
educator,  brother  of  John;  bom  in 
Salton,  Scotland,  April  23,  1833.  Dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  he  was  war  cor- 
respondent of  the  New  York  "Times" ; 
from  18G9  to  1872  he  was  Professor 
of  English  Language  and  Literature 
in  the  University  of  California.  Aft- 
er 1874  he  devoted  his  time  to  the 
preparation  of  educational  works.  His 
v,'ritings  include :  "Rambles  Among 
Words,"  and  "  Twelve  Decisive  Bat- 
tles of  the  War."  He  died  in  New 
York  city,  Oct.  25,  1892. 

Switzerland,  a  federal  republic  of 
Central  Europe ;  bounded  N.  by  Al- 
sace-Lorraine and  Baden,  from  which 
it  is  separated  for  the  most  part  by 
the  Rhine ;  N.  E.  by  Wurtemberg  and 
Bavaria,  from  which'  it  is  separated  by 
the  Lake  of  Constance ;  E.  by  Austria 
and  the  principality  of  Liechtenstein, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the, 
Rhine  and  the  Orisons  Alps;  S.  by 
Italy  and  France,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Alps  and  the  Lake 
of  Geneva;  and  W.  and  N.  W.  by 
France,  from  which  it  is  separated  in 
part  by  the  Jura  Mountains,  the 
Doubs  river  and  Lake  Geneva;  great- 
est length  210  miles;  greatest  breadth 
12G  miles.  It  is  composed  of  22  can- 
tons, three  of  which  are  divided  into 
two  parts  with  separate  governments 


Siv^itzerland 


Switzerland 


united  successively  for  federal  pur- 
poses from  1291  to  1815.  The  consti- 
tution of  1848,  revised  May  29,  1874, 
transformed  the  federation  of  States 
into  a  federal  State.  The  largest  cit- 
ies are  Geneva,  Zurich,  Basel,  and 
Berne,  the  last  being  the  federal  cap- 
ital ;  total  area,  15,976  square  miles ; 
pop.  3,119,635. 

The  characteristic  physical  features 
of  Switzerland  are  its  lofty  mountain 
ranges,  enormous  glaciers,  magnificent 
lakes,  and  romantic  valleys.  The  loft- 
iest mountain  chains  belong  to  the 
Alps,  and  are  situated  chiefly  in  the 
South.  The  central  nucleus  is  Mount 
St.  Gothard,  which  unites  the  princi- 
pal watersheds  of  Europe,  and  sends 
its  waters  into  four  large  basins,  N. 
by  the  Rhine  to  the  German  Ocean, 
S.  W.  by  the  Rhone  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, S.  E.  by  the  Po  to  the  Adri- 
atic, and  E.  by  the  Danube  to  the 
Black  Sea.  In  like  manner  it  forms 
a  kind  of  starting  point  for  the  loft- 
iest ranges  of  the  Alps  —  the  Helve- 
tian or  Lepontine  Alps  to  which  ^  it 
belongs  itself ;  the  Pennine  Alps  which 
include  Mont  Blanc,  the  culminating 
point  of  Europe,  beyond  the  Swiss 
frontiers  in  Savoy;  and  the  Rhaetian 
Alps  which  stretch  E.  and  N.  E.  across 
the  canton  of  Grisons  into  Tyrol.  Be- 
sides the  Alps,  properly  so  called,  the 
only  range  deserving  of  notice  is  that 
of  the  Jura,  which  is  linked  to  the 
Alps  by  the  small  range,  the  Jorat. 

Owing  to  differences  of  elevation 
the  climate  is  extremely  variable  even 
in  the  same  localities.  Owing  to  the 
same  cause,  few  countries  in  Europe 
even  of  larger  extent  can  boast  of  a 
more  varied  vegetation  than  Switzer- 
land. In  regard  to  vegetation  it  has 
been  divided  into  Seven  regions.  The 
characteristic  product  of  the  first  is 
the  vine,  which  grows  up  to  1,700  or 
1,800  feet  above  sea-level.  The  next 
is  the  hilly  or  lower  mountain  region, 
rising  to  the  height  of  2,800  feet, 
and  characterized  by  the  luxuriance  of 
its  walnut  trees,  with  good  crops  of 
spelt  and  excellent  meadows.  The 
third  or  upper  mountain  region,  which 
has  its  limit  at  4,000  feet,  produces 
forest  timber,  more  especially  beech, 
and  has  good  crops  of  barley  and  oats, 
and  excellent  pastures.  Above  this, 
and  up  to  the  height  of  5,500  feet,  is 
the   fourth   or   subalpine   region,   dis- 


tinguished by  its  pine  forests  and  ma- 
ples ;  here  no  regular  crops  are  grown. 
The  fifth  or  lower  alpine  region,  ter- 
minating at  6,500  feet,  is  the  proper 
region  of  alpine  pastures.  In  the 
sixth  or  upper  alpine  region  the  vege- 
tation becomes  more  and  more  stunt- 
ed, and  the  variation  of  the  seasons  is 
lost.  The  seventh  6r  last  region  is 
that  of  perpetual  snow.  Many  parts 
even  of  the  lower  regions  of  Switzer- 
land are  of  a  stony,  sterile  nature, 
but  on  every  side  the  effects  of  per- 
severing industry  are  apparent,  and 
no  spot  that  can  be  turned  to  good 
account  is  left  unoccupied.  Of  the 
total  area,  28.4  per  cent,  is  unproduc- 
tive; of  the  productive  area  nearly 
35.8  per  cent,  is  under  grass  and  mead- 
ows ;  29  per  cent,  under  forest ;  18.7 
per  cent,  under  fruit;  and  16.4  per 
cent,  under  crops  and  gardens.  The 
chief  crops  are  wheat,  spelt,  rye,  oats, 
and  potatoes. 

Of  the  population  about  40  per  cent, 
are  dependent  on  agriculture,  and 
about  34  per  cent,  on  the  manufactur- 
ing industry.  Switzerland  is  thus 
mainly  an  agricultural  and  manufac- 
turing country.  The  system  of  peas- 
ant proprietorship  prevails  largely,  it 
being  estimated  tha^  there  are  nearly 
300,000  peasant  proprietors.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  cotton, 
silk,  embroidery,  watches  and  jewelry. 
Geneva  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  watch 
industry,  Basel  of  the  silk  industry, 
and  St.  Gallen  of  embroidery. 

According  to  the  constitution  of 
1874  there  is  absolute  liberty  of  con- 
science and  of  creed.  About  59  per 
cent,  of  the  inhabitants  belong  to  the 
Protestant  Church,  and  about  41  per 
cent,  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Primary  education  i?  secular  and  com- 
pulsory throughout  the  confederation. 

The  cantons  of  Switzerland  are 
united  together  as  a  federal  republic 
for  mutual  defense,  but  retain  their 
individual  independence  in  regard  to 
all  matters  of  internal  administration. 
The  legislative  power  of  the  confed- 
eration belongs  to  a  federal  assembly, 
and  the  executive  power  to  a  federal 
council. 

The  Swiss  are  a  mixed  people  in 
race  and  language.  German,  French, 
Italian,  and  a  corrupt  kind  of  Latin 
called  Rhaetian  or  Roumansch,  are 
spoken  in  different  parts. 


Sirord 

Sword,  a  weapon  of  offense  consist- 
ing of  a  blade  fitted  into  a  hilt  or 
handle,  with  a  guard,  the  blade  being 
formed  to  cut  or  to  pierce,  generally 
to  do  both.  It  is  the  most  highly 
honored  of  all  weapons,  a  symbol  of 
military  dignity  and  authority ;  and  it 
is  the  instrument  with  which  the 
monarch  confers  knightly  honors.  Its 
forms  and  modifications,  and  the 
names  under  which,  in  different  shapes, 
it  has  been  known  in  different  lands 
and  in  successive  ages,  are  beyond 
computation. 

S'wordbill,  a  popular  name  for  any 
individual  of  the  humming  bird  ge- 
nus, Docimastes.  The  bill  which  ex- 
ceeds in  length  the  body  of  the  bird, 
is   a   character  by   which   this   hum- 


SWOBDBILL. 

ming  bird  may  be  distinguished  at  the 
first  glance.  Its  use  is  to  reach  the 
insects  on  which  the  bird  feeds  at  the 
bottom  of  long  tubular  flowers.  One 
species  is  known)  an  inhabitant  of 
Colombia,  Ecuador,  and  Peru. 

Swordfish,  in  astronomy,  the  con- 
stellation  Dorado.  In  ichthyology,  a 
popular  name  for  any  individual  of 
the  Xiphiidse.  They  are  pelagic  fishes, 
widely  distributed  in  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical seas,  and  are  extremely  strong 
and  swift.  Their  popular  name  is  de- 
rived from  their  formidable  sword-like 
yreapon,  formed  by  the  coalescence  and 


Sydenham. 

prolongation  of  the  maxillary  and  in- 
termaxillary bones  beyond  the  lower 
jaw;  it  is  very  hard  and  strong,  and 
capable  of  inflicting  terrible  wounds. 


SWOEDFISH. 

Sycamore,  an  umbrageous  tree,  4(V 
to  60  feet  high ;  with  spreading: 
branches ;  large,  five-lobed,  coarsely 
and  unequally  serrate  leaves.  It  flow- 
ers in  May  and  June.  The  wood  i» 
used  for  bowls,  trenchers,  and  other 
turnery.     The  sap   is   sacchariferous. 

Sycamore,  a  tree  of  the  genus  Fi- 
cus,  the  sycomore  of  Scripture,  a  kind 
of  fig  tree.  It  is  very  common  in  Pal- 
estine, Arabia,  and  Egypt,  growing 
thick  and  to  a  great  height,  and  though 
the  grain  is  coarse,  much  used  in  build- 
ing and  very  durable.  Its  wide- 
spreading  branches  afford  a  grateful" 
shade  in  those  hot  climates,  and  its 
fruit  which  is  produced  in  clusters  oa 
the  trunk  and  the  old  limbs,  Is  sweet 
and  delicate. 

Sydenham,  Thomas,  an  English 
physician  ;  born  in  1624.  As  licentiate 
of  the  College  of  Physicians,  he  pub- 
lished his  "Method  of  Curing  Fevers" 
in  1666;  and  10  years  after  took  hia 
M.  D.  degree  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge. In  1668  he  published  a  sec- 
ond edition  of  his  book  on  fevers,  add- 
ing to  it  a  chapter  on  plague,  with 
a  fine  poem  in  Latin  elegiacs  addressed 
to  him  by  Locke.  A  third  and  en- 
larged edition,  entitled  "  Medical  Ob- 
servations," appeared  in  1676.  la 
1680  he  published  two  "  Letters  in. 
Response,"  the  one  "  On  Epidemics,'' 
and  the  other  on  the  "  Lues  Venera.  ■ 
His  "  Epistolary  Dissertation  "  on  con- 


Sydney 


Syllogism, 


(fluent  smallpox  and  hysteria  was  fol- 
iowed  by  bis  yet  more  famous 
"  Treatise  on  Podagra."  Died  in  1G89. 

Sydney,  town,  port  of  entry,  and 
former  capital  of  Cape  Breton 
Colony,  Nova  Scotia;  on  Cape  Breton 
island;  200  miles  N.  E.  of  Halifax; 
lias  one  of  the  finest  and  safest  har- 
bors on  the  Atlantic  coast,  large  iron 
and  stee!  works,  and  extensive  ship- 
ments of  coal,  iron,  and  steel;  contains 
a  County  Academy,  Insane  Asylum, 
and  Convent  of  the  Holy  Angels. 

Sydney,  the  capital  of  New  South 
Wales,  i)ictures<iuelj  situated  on  the 
S.  shore  of  Port  Jackson,  the  shore 
line  being  deeply  indented  by  capa- 
?;'ous  bays  or  inlets  which  form  har- 
Drs  in  themselves,  and  are  lined  with 
vharves,  quays,  and  warehouses. 
Some  of  the  older  streets  are  narrow 
and  crooked,  bearing  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  those  of  an  English  town ; 
but  the  more  modem  streets  rank  high 
in  order  of  architectural  merit.  The 
steam  tramway  system  is  extended  to 
all  parts  of  the  suburbs,  and  water 
communication  between  the  city  and 
its  transmarine  suburbs,  Balmain, 
North  Shore,  Manly  Beach,  etc.,  is 
maintained  by  numerous  steam  ferries. 
The  entrance  from  the  Pacific  Ocean 
to  Port  Jackson,  about  4  miles  N.  E. 
of  Sydney,  is  1  mile  in  width,  and  is 
strongly  fortified;  the  bay  itself  is 
about  10  miles  in  length  and  3  in  av- 
erage breadth ;  it  is  well  skeltered, 
and  has  a  depth  of  water  sufficient  to 
float  the  largest  vessels.  Besides 
"wharves  and  quays  there  are  dry  docks 
and  other  accommodation  for  shipping, 
and  the  trade  of  the  port  is  very 
large.  The  principal  exports  are  wool, 
tallow,  hides,  preserved  meat,  tin,  cop- 
per, 3tc. ;  the  imports,  grain,  tea,  cof- 
fee, sugar,  wine,  and  spirits,  ironware 
and  machinery,  cotton  and  woolen 
soods,  wearing  apparel,  furniture,  etc 
Sydney  was  founded  in  1788,  and 
was  named  in  honor  of  Viscount  Syd- 
ney, the  colonial  secretary.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1842.  The  discovery 
of  gold  in  :ne  colony  in  1851  gave  an. 
immense  impetus  to  its  progress.  Pop- 
tilation  386,400. 

Sykes,  George,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer;  born  in  Dover,  Del.,  Oct. 
9,  1822;  was  graduated  at  the  Unit- 
><?d  States  Military  Academy  in  1842; 
find  during  the  war  with  Mexico  took 


part  at  the  actions  of  Monterey,  Vera 
Cruz,  Cerro  Gordo,  Contreras,  Chur- 
ubusco,  and  the  siege  and  surrender 
of  the  City  of  Mexico.  In  May,  1861, 
he  was  promoted  major  of  the  14th 
Infantry,  and  in  September  of  the 
same  year  appointed  Brigadier-Gen- 
eral of  volunteers.  Later  he  won  dis- 
tinction at  Gaines'  Mills,  and  in  the 
several  subsequent  operations  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac ;  was  promoted 
Major-General  of  volunteers  in  No- 
vember, 1862 ;  took  part  in  the  battles 
of  Chancellorsville*and  commanded  the 
5th  Army  Corps  during  the  battle  of 
Gettysburg.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
he  was  brevetted  Major-General  U.  S. 
A.  for  gallantry  in  service  during  the 
war.  He  was  promoted  colonel  of 
the  20th  United  States  Infantry  in 
January,  1808.  He  died  in  Browns- 
ville, Tex.,  Feb.  9,  1880,  while  in 
command  of  Fort  Brown.  His  re- 
mains were  removed  to  the  West  Point 
cemetery  at  the  expense  of  Congress 
and  a  fine  monument  was  erected  to 
his   memory. 

Syllabns,  -in  Church  history,  a  list 
embracing  the  "  chief  errors  and  false 
doctrines  of  our  most  unhappy  age," 
compiled  by  order  of  Pope  Pius  IX., 
and  sent,  with  an  encyclical  letter, 
dated  Dec.  8,  1864,  "to  all  the  bish- 
ops of  the  Catholic  world,  in  order 
that  these  bishops  may  have  before 
their  eyes  all  the  errors  and  pernicious 
doctrines  which  he  had  reprobated  and 
condemned,"  the  number  of  which 
amounts  to  80,  probably  in  imitation 
of  the  80  heresies  mentioned  by  Epi- 
phanius  as  existing  in  the  first  three 
centuries. 

Syllogism,  in  logic,  an  argument 
expressed  in  strict  logical  form,  so  that 
its  conclusiveness  is  manifest  from  the 
structure  of  the  expression  alone, 
without  any  regard  to  the  meaning 
of  the  terms.  ( Whately.)  In  a  per- 
fect syllogism  there  must  be  three,  and 
not  more  than  three  propositions,  the 
last  of  which,  containing  the  matter 
to  be  proved,  is  called  the  conclusion ; 
the  other  two,  containing  the  means 
by  which  the  conclusion  is  arrived  at, 
are  called  the  premises.  The  subject 
of  the  conclusion  is  called  the  minor 
term,  and  its  predicate  the  major 
term ;  tlie  third  term,  with  which  the 
minor  and  major  terms  are  compared 
in  the  premises,  is  called  the  middle 


Sylplis 


Sympatlietic  Powder 


term.  The  premise  which  brings  into 
relation  the  major  and  the  middle 
terms  is  called  the  major  premise,  and 
that  which  brings  the  minor  and  mid- 
dle term  into  a  similar  relation  is 
called  the  minor  premise. 

Sylphs,  in  the  fantastic  system  of 
the  Paracelsists,  the  elemental  spirits 
of  the  air,  just  as  the  salamanders 
are  of  fire  and  the  gnomes  of  earth. 
They  hold  an  intermediate  place  be- 
tween immaterial  and  material  beings. 
They  eat,  drink,  speak,  move  about, 
beget  children,  and  are  subject  to  in- 
firmities like  men;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  resemble  spirits  in  being 
more  nimble  and  swift  in  their  mo- 
tions, while  their  bodies  are  more  di- 
aphanous than  those  of  the  human 
race.  They  also  surpass  the  latter  in 
their  knowledge,  both  of  the  present 
and  the  future,  but  have  no  soul,  and 
when  they  die  nothing  is  left. 

Sylva,  Carmen,  pseudonym  of 
Elizabeth,  Queen  of  Rumania,  a  Ger- 
man author;  born  in  Castle  Monre- 
pos  near  Neuwied,  Rumania,  Dec  29, 
1843.  In  1869  she  was  married  to 
Charles,  then  Prince,  now  King  of 
Rumania;  a  daughter  born  in  1870, 
died  in  1874.  Her  publications  in- 
clude "  Thoughts  of  a  Queen  ;"  "  Ed- 
leen  Vaughan ;"  "  Shadows  on  Life's 
Dial ;"  and  many  poems,  novelettes, 
and  dramas. 

Sylvester  I.,  a  Pope  who  governed 
the  Church  during  the  reign  of  Con- 
stantino I.  He  was  famous  for  the 
number  of  churches  completed  during 
his  reign,  among  them  the  basilicas 
St.  Peter's  and  St.  Paul's;  for  his 
various  Church  laws  and  his  influence 
over  the  emperor.  He  held  office  in 
314-335. 

Sylvester  II.,  a  Pope.  His  at  " 
tainments  in  science  procured  him  the 
reputation  of  a  magician.  Among  the 
numerous  useful  inventions  attributed 
to  Sylvester  II.  is  the  balance  clock 
which  was  in  use  till  the  adoption  of 
the  pendulum  in  1650.  Sylvester  H. 
was  tutor  to  Otho  III.,  and  subse- 
quently head  of  the  school  of  Rheims, 
which  he  made  one  of  the  first  in  Eu- 
rope. Robert,  afterward  King  ot 
France,  was  among  his  pupils.  He 
was  called  to  the  papal  chair  on  the 
death  of  Gregory  V.,  and  administered 
the  affairs  of  the  Church  with  much 


prudence  and  moderation.  He  was 
the  first  French  Pope.  He  djed  at  a 
great  age  in  1003. 

Symbiosis,  a  biological  term  intro- 
duced by  De  Bary  to  denote  certain 
kinds  of  physiological  partnership  be- 
tween organisms  of  different  kinds. 
Consortism  is  synonymous.  As  there 
are  many  kinds  of  organic  association, 
it  is  convenient  to  restrict  the  term 
symbiosis  to  such  intimate  and  com- 
plementary partnerships  as  exist  be- 
tween algoid  and  fungoid  elements  in 
lichens,  or  between  unicellular  algae 
and  radiolarians. 

Symbol,  that  which  specially  distin- 
guishes one  regarded  in  a  particular 
character,  or  as  occupying  a  particular 
office ;  and  fulfilling  its  duties ;  a  fig- 
ure marking  the  individuality  of  some 
being  or  thing ;  as,  a  trident  is  the 
symbol  of  Neptune.  In  chemistry,  an 
abbreviation  of  the  name  of  an  ele- 
mentary body :  thus  C  for  carbon,  H, 
hydrogen,  P,  phosphorus,  etc. 

Sympatbetic  Nerve,  in  anatomy, 
a  nerve,  or  system  of  nerves,  run- 
ning from  the  base  of  the  skull  to  the 
coccyx,  along  both  sides  of  the  body, 
and  consisting  of  a  series  of  ganglia 
along  the  spinal  column  by  the  side 
of  the  vertebrse.  With  this  trunk  of 
the  sympathetic  there  are  communi- 
cating branches  which  connect  the 
ganglia,  or  the  intermediate  cord,  with 
all  the  spinal  and  several  of  the  cra- 
nial nerves  proceeding  to  primary 
branches  on  the  neighboring  organs  or 
other  ganglia,  and  finally  numerous 
flexures  of  nerves  running  to  the  vis- 
cera. Various  fibers  from  the  sym- 
pathet'c  communicate  with  those  of 
the  cerebro-spinal  system.  The  term 
sympathetic  has  been  applied  on  the 
supposition  that  it  is  the  agent  in 
producing  sympathy  between  different 
parts  of  the  body.  It  more  certainly 
affects  the  secretions.  Called  also  sym- 
pathetic system. 

Sympatbetic  Po^wder,  in  old 
mediciue,  powder  of  sympathy;  a  pow- 
der of  vitriol,  introduced  by  Sir  Ken- 
elm  Digby  (1(;03-1065),  who  pub- 
lished a  small  book  on  its  merits,  and 
made  known  the  method  of  its  prep- 
1  ration  in  his  "  Chymical  Secrets." 
The  powder  was  said  to  be  highly 
rtic.T clous  "in  stanching  of  desperate 
'.eidhig  at  the  nose,  in  stanching  the 


Sympathetic  Strike 


Syndicates 


blood  of  a  wound,  and  in  curing  any 
green  wound  (where  there  is  no  frac- 
ture of  bones)  without  any  plaister  or 
oyntment,  in  a  few  days." 

Sympathetic  Strike,  a  labor 
strike  carried  out  by  other  crafts  than 
the  one  primarily  concerned,  to  the 
end  that  the  first  strike  may  be  forced 
to  a  successful  issue  by  a  general  ces- 
sation of  business  till  the  point  in 
dispute  in  the  initial  strike  may  be 
decided.  Of  such  a  character  was 
the  great  railroad  strike  in  the  United 
States  in  1894,  when  the  railroad  em- 
ployes struck  in  sympathy  with  the 
I'uUman  Car  Company's  employes. 

Sympathy,  a  feeling  corresponding 
to  that  felt  by  another;  the  quality 
or  state  of  being  affected  by  the  affec- 
tions of  another,  with  feelings  corre- 
sponding in  kind  if  not  in  degree ; 
compassion,  fellow  feeling,  commis- 
eration. Also,  an  agreement  of  affec- 
tions or  inclinations ;  a  conformity 
of  natural  temperament,  which  makes 
two  persons  pleased  or  in  accord  with 
each  other ;  mutual  or  reciprocal  af- 
fection or  passion;  community. of  in- 
clination or  disposition. 

Symphony,  an  elaborate  musical 
composition  for  a  full  orchestra,  con- 
sisting, usually,  like  the  sonata,  of 
three  or  four  contrasted,  yet  inwardly 
related  movements.  Haydn,  Mozart, 
Mendelssohn,  and  Beethoven  are  the 
most  successful  composers  of  this  class 
of  compositions. 

Synagogue,  a  congregation  or  as- 
sembly of  Jews  for  the  purpose  of 
worship  or  the  performance  of  relig- 
ious rites.  Also,  a  building  set  apart 
for  Jewish  as  a  church  or  chapel  is 
for   Christian  worship. 

Synchronograph,  a  telegraphic  de- 
vice invented  by  Prof.  Albert  C.  Cre-. 
hore,  of  Dartmouth  College,  and  Lieut. 
George  O.  Squier,  two  young  scien- 
tists who  were  associated  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  polarizing  photo- 
chronograph,  the  machine  adopted  by 
the  United  States  government  for 
measuring  the  velocity  of  projectiles. 
The  invention  of  the  synchronograph 
is  based  on  the  use  of  alternating 
currents  in  telegraphing.  In  the  in- 
struments now  in  common  use,  a  con- 
tinuous current  is  employed.  This 
current  is  broken  to  make  the  re- 
quired dots  and  dashes,  by  which  the 


messages  are  sent,  resulting  in 
"  sparking  "  and  delay.  In  an  alter- 
nating circuit,  however,  there  is  r.. 
point  at  each  alternation  when  the 
current  is  not  running  at  all.  This 
exact  instant  is  seized  in  the  new 
machine  for  making  and  breaking  the 
circuit,  and  hence  the  "  sparking  and 
consequent  delay  are  avoided.  In  the 
words  of  Professor  Bedell,  the  signal- 
ing over  a  line  is  accomplished  by 
means  of  omitting  particular  waves 
of  the  alternating  current. 

Syncopation,  in  grammar,  the  con- 
traction of  a  word  by  the  omission 
of  one  or  more  letters  or  syllables 
from  the  middle.  In  music,  suspension 
or  alteration  of  rhythm  by  driving  the 
accent  to  that  part  of  a  bar  not 
usually  accented.  Syncopation  may 
be  completed  in  a  bar,  or  it  may  be 
carried  by  sequence  through  several 
bars,  or  it  may  be  so  that  more  than 
one  bar  is  involved  in  the  syncopa- 
tion. Syncopated  counterpoint  is  the 
fourth  species  of  counterpoint. 

Syncope,  the  name  given  to  that 
form  of  death  characterized  by  'fail- 
ure and  cessation  of  the  heart's  action 
as  its  primary  feature.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  the  state  of  faint- 
ing produced  by  a  diminution  or  in- 
terruption of  the  action  of  the  heart, 
and  of  respiration,  accompanied  with 
a  suspension  of  the  action  of  the 
brain  and  a  temporary  loss  of- sensa- 
tion, volition,  and  other  faculties.  Fa- 
tal syncope  is  usually  the  result  of 
some  nervous  "shock,"  resulting  from 
some  severe  lesion  of  organs,  or  from 
a  want  of  blood,  or  an  altered  and 
abnormal  state  of  blood  pressure.  Or- 
dinary syncope  is  caused  chiefly  by 
weakness,  mental  emotion,  etc. 

Syucretistic  Controversy,  the 
name  given  to  a  series  of  controver- 
sies which  arose  in  the  Lutheran 
Church  in  the  17th  century,  from  the 
subject  of  the  discussion  —  the  promo- 
tion of  fellowship  and  union  between 
the  Protestant  churches  of  Germany. 

Syndicates,  originally,  councils  or 
bodies  of  syndics ;  afterward,  associa- 
tions of  persons  formed  with  a  view 
of  promoting  some  particular  enter- 
prise, discharging  some  trust,  or  the 
like;  now,  combinations  of  capitalists 
for  the  purpose  of  controlling  produc- 
tion   and    raising    prices ;    popularly 


Syneslns 


Synoptic  Gospels 


known  in  the  United  States  as 
•'  trusts." 

The  terms  "syndicate"  and  "trust" 
have,  however,  both  lost  their  original 
meaning  as  applied  to  industrial  com- 
binations, the  trust  method  of  main- 
taining separate  corporationts,  and  in- 
trusting their  stock  to  certain  trus- 
tees representing  the  parties  interested 
having  given  way  almost  entirely  to 
the  later  and  lawful  plan  of  the  or- 
ganization of  a  new  corporation  which 
purchases  out  and  out  the  interests  of 
the  companies  and  individuals  con- 
cerned. This  latter  form  of  monopoly 
cannot  be  successfully  assailed  in  the 
courts,  although  its  effect  in  destroy- 
ing and  preventing  competition  is  even 
more  potent  than  was  the  trust  meth- 
od. The  United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion, for  instance,  became  the  abso- 
lute owner  of  the  plants  under  its 
control,  subject  only  to  a  first  mort- 
gage to  Andrew  Carnegie.  Yet  the 
term  _"  trust,"  in  the  sense  of  monop- 
oly, is  colloquially  and  in  ordinary 
newspaper  parlance  applied  to  this  or- 
ganization. 

The  term  "  syndicate  "  is  not,  prop- 
erly speaking,  synonymous  with 
"  trust  "  in  any  sense.  It  is  a  com- 
bination of  financial  interests,  usually 
large  moneyed  houses,  in  New  York 
and  other  cities,  to  carry  forward 
some  great  enterprise,  to  float  the 
bonds  of  some  new  corporation,  or  to 
accept  and  dispose  of  a  National,  State 
or  municipal  loan.  It  is  of  necessity 
temporary  in  its  existence  and  opera- 
tions, and  in  no  sense  like  a  "  trust  " 
or  corporate  monopoly,  which  has  per- 
manent profit  in  view. 

Synesins,  Bishop  of  Ptolemais  in 
the  Libyan  Pentapolis,  acted  also  the 
various  parts  of  soldier,  diplotiiatist, 
orator,  philosopher  and  poet;  born  in 
Cyrene  about  a.  d.  375. 

In  411  the  people  of  Ptolemais, 
fearing  the  appointment  of  a  corrupt 
governor,  fixed  on  Synesius  as  their 
bishop.  Synesius  was  most  unwill- 
ing; but  at  last  he  yielded  and  was 
consecrated  at  Alexandria  in  410. 

The  Ausurians  invaded  the  country, 
and  Synesius  had  to  spend  his  nights 
on  the  ramparts  and  personally  direct 
the  defense.  About  this  time  his  only 
surviving  child  died.  Synesius  was 
completely  broken  with  his  numerous 


troubles,  and  although  the  city  was 
relieved  he  fell  ill  and  died  about  413. 

Synod,  a  meeting  or  assembly  of 
ecclesiastical  persons  for  mutual  de- 
liberation on  matters  of  difiiculty  or 
of  general  interest  affecting  the 
churches  over  which  they  rule,  and 
designed  for  their  guidance.  In  the 
early  Church  there  were  four  kinds 
of  synod.  First,  an  CEcumenical,  that 
is,  a  General  or  Universal  Synod, 
commonly  called  a  General  Council ; 
second,  a  National  Synod,  attended  by 
the  clergy  of  one  nation  only ;  third, 
a  Provincial  Synod,  attended  by  the 
clergy  of  a  province ;  and  fourth,  a 
Diocesan  Synod,  attended  by  the 
clergy  of  a  single  diocese.  Among  the 
Presbyterians  a  synod  is  a  "court"  in- 
termediate between  the  General  As- 
sembly and  a  Presbytery,  or,  if  no 
Assembly  exist,  it  is  then  itself  the 
highest  court.  It  is  divided  into  Pres- 
byteries, of  which  there  are  never  less 
than  three.  Each  congregation  is  rep- 
resented by  a  minister  and  an  elder. 

Synodical  Period,  in  astronomy, 
the  period  between  two  successive  con- 
junctions or  oppositions  of  two  heav- 
enly bodies.  A  synodical  month  is  a 
lunation,  being  the  period  from  one 
full  moon  to  the  next  full  moon,  or 
from  new  moon  to  next  new  moon. 
It  is  29  days,  12  hours,  44  minutes, 
2.37  seconds.  "• 

Synonym,  a  term  commonly  ap- 
plied in  a  restricted  sense  to  words 
having  substantially  the  same  mean- 
ing, with  only  slight  shades  of  dif- 
ference —  as  "  observe  "  and  "  re- 
mark." 

Synoptic  Gospels,  the  first  three 
Gospels,  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luka, 
which  regard  events  from  the  same 
point  of  view,  and  present  close  re- 
semblances to  each  other.  Four  hypoth- 
eses have  been  framed  to  account 
for  the  correspondences:  (1)  That 
the  Synoptic  Gospels  were  derived 
from  the  common  written  source  or 
sources.  (2)  That  the  earlier  Gos- 
pels were  consulted  in  the  composition 
of  the  later  ones.  (3)  That  all  the 
three  were  derived  from  oral  tradition. 
(4)  That  they  were  all  derived  partly 
from  oral  tradition,  but  that  the  sec- 
ond was  also  copied  from  the  first,  and 
the  third  from  the  first  and  second. 
The    Synoptic    Gospels    treat    of    the 


Syntax 

humanity  rather  than  the  divinity  of 
Jesus,  though  not  in  any  way  ignoring 
the   latter. 

Syntax,  that  part  of  grammar 
which  treats  of  the  manner  of  con- 
necting words  into  regular  sentences, 
constructing  sentences  by  the  due  ar- 
rangement of  words  or  members  in 
their  mutual  relations  according  to 
established  usage. 

Synthesis,  in  chemistry,  the  build- 
ing up  of  more  or  less  complex  bodies 
by  the  direct  union  of  their  elements, 
or  of  groups  of  elements.  Thus,  water 
can  be  produced  synthetically  by  the 
union  of  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  with 
one  atom  of  oxygen.  In  logic,  the 
method  by  composition,  in  opposition 
to  the  method  of  resolution  or  analy- 
sis. In  synthesis,  we  reason  from 
axioms,  definitions,  and  already  known 
princinles,  till  we  arrive  at  a  desired 
conclusion.  Of  this  nature  are  most 
of  the  processes  of  geometrical  rea- 
soning. In  synthesis,  we  ascend  from 
particular  cases  to  general  ones ;  in 
analysis,  we  descend  from  general 
cases  to  particulars. 

Syra,  the  most  important,  though 
not  the  largest  of  that  group  of  islands 
in  the  .33gean  Sea  known  as  the  Cy- 
clades.  It  is  about  10  miles  long  by 
5  broad,  has  an  area  of  42^  square 
miles  and  is  bare,  rocky,  and  not  very 
fertile.  Its  prosperity  is  of  quite  mod- 
ern growth.  Pop.  of  island  31,573. 
The  capital,  Syra,  is  the  chief  com- 
mercial entrepot  of  the  yEgean.  Every 
year  it  imports,  principally  manufac- 
tured wares  (one-third  of  total), 
hides,  grain  and  flour,  yarns,  timber, 
iron,  salt  fish,  rice  and  coal  to  the 
average  value  of  $6,052,500,  and  ex- 
ports tobacco,  emei-y  stone,  valonia, 
sponges,  and  fresh  vegetables  to  the 
average  value  of  .$516,400. 

Syracuse,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Onondaga  co.,  N.  Y. ;  on  Onondaga 
Lake,  and  the  Erie  canal.  It  has  large 
salt  interests,  and  the  product  is 
known  far  beyond  the  bounds  of  the 
United  States,  while  its  institutions  of 
learning,  both  public  and  private  are 
of  a  high  order,  and  well  attended. 

The  chief  industry  has  always  been 
the  manufacture  of  salt.  There  are 
numerous  salt  companies,  which  man- 
ufacture both  by  solar  and  artificial 
heat,    employing    a-    vast    amount    of 


Syracuse 

capital  and  a  multitude  of  men.  Other 
industries  include  iron  furnaces,  ma- 
chine shops,  manufactories  of  silver, 
tinware,  s'^eot  iron,  coach  and  wagorjt 
factories,  and  brewcrios.  Pop.  (1900) 
108,374;    (1910)    137,249. 

Syracuse,  anciently  a  famous  city 
of  Sicily ;  on  the  S.  E.  coast  of  the 
island ;  80  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Messina ; 
was  founded  by  Corinthian  settlers 
about  733  b.  c.  Tlie  colonists  seem 
to  have  occupied  the  little  isle  of 
Ortygia,  which  stretches  S.  E.  from 
the  shore.  The  settlement  rapidly 
rose  to  prosperity,  and  toward  the  end 
of  the  6th  century  b.  c.  sent  out  col- 
onies of  its  own.  Little  is  known  of 
the  early  political  state  of  Syracuse ; 
but  about  485  the  ruling  families, 
probably  descendants  of  the  original 
colonists,  were  expelled  by  the  lower 
classes  of  citizens.  Gelon,  despot  of 
Gela,  restored  the  exiles  and  at  the 
same  time  made  himself  master  of 
Syracuse.  He  increased  both  the  pop- 
ulation and  the  power  of  his  new 
state,  and  won  the  highest  prestige 
by  a  great  victory  over  the  Cartha- 
ginians at  Himera.  In  467  B.  c.  the 
democracy  again  got  the  upper  hand 
—  Thrasybulus,  a  "  tyrant "  of  the 
baser  sort,  being  expelled ;  and  for  60 
years  a  free  and  democratic  govern- 
ment was  enjoyed,  under  which  Syra- 
cuse flourished  more  than  it  had  ever 
done.  During  this  period  occurred 
the  great  struggle  with  Athens  (415- 
414  B.  c).  Nine  years  later  Dionysius 
restored  the  "  tyranny  "  of  Gelon,  and 
during  a  reign  of  nearly  40  years 
greatly  increased  the  strength  and 
importance  of  the  city.  In  317  B.  c 
Agathocles,  a  rude  soldier  of  fortune, 
once  more  restored  the  despotic  form 
of  government,  which  continued  with 
scarcely  an.  interruption  through  the 
reign  (50  years)  of  the  enlightened 
Hiero  II.,  the  friend  and  ally  of 
Rome,  down  to  the  conquest  of  the  city 
by  the  Romans  after  a  siege  of  two 
years,  in  which  Archimedes  perished 
(212  B.  c).  Under  the  Romans  Syra- 
cuse sloA\"ly  declined,  though  with  its 
handsome  public  buildings  dnd  its 
artistic  and  intellectual  culture,  it  al- 
ways continued  to  be  the  first  city  of 
Sicily.  It  was  captured,  pillaged,  and 
burned  by  the  Saracens  in  A.  D.  878, 
and  after  that  sank  into  complete  and 
ruinous  decay. 


STracnse  TJniTersity 


Sy  stylo 


The  modern  city  Siracusa,  is  con- 
fined to  the  original  limits,  Ortygia, 
which,  however,  is  no  longer  an  island 
but  a  peninsula.  The  people  manu- 
facture chemicals  and  pottery,  and 
trade  in  fruits,^  olive  oil,  wine  (ex- 
ports), wheat,  timber,  and  petroleum 
(imports)  to  the  annual  value  of  $1,- 
250,000.     Pop.    2G,072. 

Syracuse  TJniversity,  a  coed- 
ucational institution  in  Syracuse,  N. 
Y. ;  founded  in  1871  under  the  au- 
spices of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church. 

Syria,  a  country  of  Western  Asia, 
embracing  the  regions  that  lie  be- 
tween the  Levant  and  the  Euphrates 
from  Mount  Taurus  in  the  N.  to  the 
S.  border  of  Palestine,  or  even  to  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai.  The  physical 
conformation  of  Syria  is  throughout 
simple  and  uniform.  A  range  of  moun- 
tains, split  in  the  N.  into  two  parallel 
chains  —  Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus 
—  fronts  the  Mediterranean,  ranging 
in  height  from  6,000  feet  in  the  N. 
up  to  10,000  feet  in  the  central  parts, 
but  falling  again  in  the  S.  to  3,500 
feet.  Behind  these  mountains  lies  a 
table-land,  that  gradually  falls  away 
E.  to  the  desert.  The  climate  on  the 
plateau  is  generally  dry,  and  in  certain 
localities  hot.  The  valley  of  the  Jor- 
dan is  remarkably  hot.  The  soil  is  in 
many  parts  possessed  of  good  fertility, 
and  in  ancient  times,  when  irrigation 
was  more  extensively  practised,  yield- 
ed a  much  greater  return  than  it  dees 
at  the  present  time.  Damascus  is 
noted  for  its  gardens  and  orchardst 
Northern  Syria  is  the  home  of  the 
olive.  The  vine  grows  in  nearly  all 
p^rts  of  the  country.  Fruit  (oranges, 
figs,  etc.) .  is  cultivated  on  the  coast 
plains,  sheep  and  goats  are  the  most 
important  of  the  domestic  animals. 
The  principal  exports  are  silks,  cere- 
als, soap,  sponges,  sesame,  licorice, 
cottons,  and  tobacco.  Manchester 
(England) goods  are  the  chief  imports. 
Chief  port,  Beyrout,  and  to  it  must 
be  added  Acre,  Caiffa  (Haifa),  Tyre. 
and  Tripoli.  The  pop.  is  estimated 
at  3,317,600.  The  bulk  of  the  inhab- 
itants are  Mohammedans,  but  do  not 
all  profess  the  orthodox  Sunnita 
creed ;  for  instance,  there  are  the 
Druses,  certain  sects  of  Shiites,  and 
others.  The  Christians  make  up  about 
one-fifth  of  the  total.     The  principal ' 


ethnic  elements  in  the  population  are 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Syrians 
(Aramaeans)  and  Arabs,  these  last 
both  settled  and  nomad. 

Syriac,  a  dialect  or  branch  of  the 
Aramaic,  and  thus  one  of  the  Semitic 
family  of  languages.  It  was  a  ver- 
nacular dialect  in  Syria  during  the 
early  centuries  of  our  era,  but  ceased 
to  be  spoken  as  a  living  language 
about  the  10th  century,  being  crowded 
out  by  that  of  the  Arabian  con- 
querors. A  very  corrupted  form  of 
it,  however,  is  still  spoken  by  a  few 
scattered  tribes,  and  principally  by 
the  Nestorians  of  Kurdistan  and 
Persia. 

Syringa,  an  Oleacesean  genus  of 
deciduous  shrubs,  with  simple  leaves, 
and  very  fragrant  flowers  in  terminal 
thyrsoid  panicles.  Known  species 
about  six.  Natives  apparently  of 
Southeastern  Europe  and  Central 
and  Eastern  Asia.  Syringa  vulgaris 
is  the  lilac. 

Syrup,  in  popular  language,  the  un- 
crystallizable  fluid  finally  separated 
from  crystallized  sugar  in  the  proc- 
ess of  refining,  either  by  the  draining 
of  sugar  in  loaves,  or  by  being  forci- 
bly ejected  by  the  centrifugal  appa- 
ratus in  preparing  moist  sugar,  com- 
monly known  as  golden  syrup.  By 
sugar  manufacturers  the  term  syrup 
is  applied  to  all  strong  saccharine  so- 
lutions which  contain  sugar  in  a  con- 
dition capable  of,  being  crystallized 
out,  the  ultimate  uncrystallizable  fluid 
beiug  distinguished  as  molasses  or 
treacle.  In  chemistry,  a  saturated,  or 
nearly  saturated,  solution  of  sugar  in 
water.  In  pharmacy,  syrup  is  a 
preparation  in  which  sugar  forms  an 
important  ingredient,  and  gives  a  pe- 
culiar consistence  to  the  liquid.  Its 
general  use  is  to  disguise  the  flavor 
of  drugs ;  but  in  some  cases,  as  in 
that  of  the  iron  iodide,  the  sugar  pre- 
serves the  active  ingredient  from 
undergoing  chemical  change. 

Systyle,  in  architecture,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  a  building  in  which  the  pil- 
lars are  closely  placed,  but  not  quite 
so  close  as  in  the  pycnostyle,  the 
intercolumniation  being  only  two  di- 
ameters, or  four  modules,  of  the  col« 
umns.  A  temple  or  other  edifice  which 
has  a  row  of  columns  set  close  to- 
gether around  it,  as  in  the  Parthenon, 
at  Athens, 


j^^^  t,  the  20th  letter  and  16th 
m^V^M  consonant  of  the  English 
[W>rw9  alphabet,  is  a  sharp,  mute 
(^^gg^i  consonant,  and  closely  al- 
lied to  d,  both  being  den- 
tals. It  is  formed  by  pressing  the 
tip  of  the  tongue  closely  against  the 
root  of  the  upper  teeth,  and  differs 
from  d  only  in  being  non-vocal,  while 
d  is  uttered  with  the  voice. 

Tabard,  Taberd,  Tabert,  or  Ta- 
beld,  a  light  vestment  worn  over  the 
armor,  and  generally  embroidered 
with  the  arms  of  the  wearer.  It  was 
close-fitting,  open  at  the  sides,  with 
wide  sleeves  or  flaps  reaching  to  the 
elbows.  It  originally  reached  to  the 
middle  of  the  leg,  and  was  afterward 
made  shorter.  It  was  at  first  worn 
chiefly  by  the  military,  but  afterward 
became  an  ordinary  article  of  dress 
of  other  classes  in  England  and 
France  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
office  was  created  in  1417  by  Henry 
V.  for  the  service  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter,  which  till  then  had  been  at- 
tended by  Windsor  heralds.  The  tab- 
ard is  now  worn  only  by  heralds  and 
pursuivants  at  arms,  and  is  embroid- 
ered with  the  arms  of  the  sovereign. 

Tabb,  Jobn  Banister,  an  Amer- 
ican educator  and  author ;  born  in  Vir- 
ginia, March  22,  1845.  He  was  Pro- 
fessor of  English  Literature  at  St. 
Charles  College,  Ellicott  City,  Md.  He 
wrote  :  "  Poems  "  ;  "  Lyrics  "  ;  "  Rules 
of  English  Grammar  ";  etc.       D.  1909. 

Tabby,  silk  or  other  stuff  having  an 
irregular  waved  or  watered  surface 
produced  by  pressure,  usually  between 
engraved  rollers  in  the  mode  of  cal- 
endering, known  as  tabbying.  There 
is  but  little  difference  between  tabby- 
ing, watering,  and  moire,  the  effect 
in  each  case  being  produced  by  the 
flattening  of  some  of  the  fibres  while 


the  others  remain  undisturbed,  caus- 
ing the  different  parts  to  reflect  the 
light  unequally.  A  mixture  of  lime 
with  shells,  gravel,  or  stones  in  equal 
proportions,  forming  a  mass  which, 
when  dry,  becomes  as  hard  as  rock. 
It  is  used  in  Morocco  as  a  substitute 
for  brick  or  stone  in  building. 

Tabernacle,  a  slightly-constructed 
temporary  building  or  habitation ;  a 
tent,  a  pavilion.  Figuratively,  a  tem- 
ple ;  a  place  of  worship ;  a  sacred 
place ;  specifically,  the  central  place  of 
worship  for  Israel  till  Solomon  built 
the  temple.  Also,  the  human  frame  as 
the  temporary  abode  of  the  soul. 

In  the  Roman  Church,  a  receptacle 
for  the  consecrated  host  for  benedic- 
tion and  the  ciborium  containing  jthe 
smaller  hosts  which  the  laity  receive. 

Tabernacles,  Feast  of,  in  Jewish 
antiquities,  one  of  the  three  leading 
Jewish  feasts,  on  the  recurrence  of 
which  all  the  males  were  required  to 
present  themselves  at  Jerusalem. 
During  this  feast  the  people  dwelt 
on  their  house-tops  or  elsewhere  in 
booths  made  of  the  branches  of  trees, 
in  commemoration  of  their  tent  life 
in  the  wilderness. 

Tabes,  a  term  formerly  applied  to  a 
disease  characterized  by  a  gradually 
progressive  emaciation  of  the  whole 
body,  accompanied  with  languor,  de- 
pressed spirits,  and,  for  the  most  part, 
imperfect  or  obscure  hectic  fever, 
without  the  real  cause  of  the  affection 
being  properly  localized  or  defined. 

Tablatnre,  in  anatomy,  a  division 
or  parting  of  the  skull  into  two 
tables.  In  art,  a  painting  on  a  wall 
or  ceiling.  In  music,  a  general  name 
for  all  the  signs  and  characters  used 
in  music ;  those  who  were  well  ac- 
quainted with  these  signs  were  said 
to  sing  by  the  tablature. 


Tableaux  Vivants 


Taboritea 


Tableaux  Yivants,  ""living  pio- 
tures,"  representations  of  works  of 
painting  and  sculpture,  or  of  scenes 
from  history  or  fiction,  by  living  per-_ 
sons.  Tliey  are  said  to  have  been" 
invented  by  Madame  de  Genlis,  when 
she  had  charge  of  the  education  of 
the  children  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 
They  were  long  common  in  theatres 
as  they  are  now  in  private  circles. 

Table-land,  in  physical  geography, 
a  plateau ;  a  plain  existing  at  som 
considerable  elevation  above  the  sea- 
Volcanic  rocks  often  make  such  table- 
lands, as  in  Central  India ;  so  do 
limestones.  Or  a  sea  bed  or  a  lake 
bed,  or  a  great  stretch  of  country, 
may  be  upheaved.  In  North  America 
there  are  plateaux  along  the  Pacific 
Labrador,  etc.,  and  in  South  America, 
in  Brazil  and  the  adjacent  countries 

Tables,  in  mathematical  science, 
pure  or  applied,  lists  of  numbers  giv 
ing  the  values  of  a  function  of  a  va- 
riable for  different  values  of  that 
variable.  The  function  may  be 
physical  property  common  to  different 
substances,  as  in  tables  of  densities, 
specific  heats,  etc. ;  or  it  may  be 
mathematical  function  of  a  continu- 
ously varying  variable  tabulated  for 
definite  successive  values  of  that  va- 
riable, as  in  tables  of  logarithms,  sines, 
tangents,  and  astronomical  tables  gen^ 
erally. 

Taboo,  01*  Tabn,  a  Polynesian 
word,  denoting  an  institution  which 
was  formerly  in  existence  through- 
out Polynesia  and  New  Zealand,  but 
has  now  to  a  large  extent  disap- 
pjeared  before  the  spread  of  Chria- 
tianity  and  civilization.  The  word 
signifies  something  set  apart,  either 
as  consecrated  or  accursed,  the  idaa 
of  prohibition  being  conveyed  in  either 
case,  whence  the  English  word, 
tabooed,  i.  e.,  forbidden.  For  exam- 
ple, in  New  Zealand  the  person  of  a 
chief  was  strictly  taboo,  and  hence 
might  not  be  touched;  while  the  vol- 
cano Tongariro  was  taboo  as  bein^ 
the  supposed  residence  of  demons, 
and  even  to  look  on  it  was  at  one 
time    forbidden. 

Tabor,  Motint^  a  solitary  elevation 
on  the  N.  E.  border  of  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon.  It  is  remarkable  for  the 
symmetry  of  its  form,  which  resem- 
bles a  truncated  cone,  from  certain 
points    appearing    almost    hemispher- 


[  icali  The  top  measures  abouli  half 
a  mila  across,  and  is  about  1,300  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  plain.  It  is 
not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
but  there  is  a  tradition  that  it  was 
the  scene  of  the  Transfiguration. 
This,  however,  is  rendered  impossible 
by  the  town  on  the  top. 

Tabor,  Horace  Austin  Mar' 
ner,  an  American  capitalist;  born  in 
Holland,  Vt.,  Nov.  30,  1830;  went  to 
Colorado  in  1859,  and  engaged  in  min- 
ing. He  worked  with  only  moderate 
success  till  1878,  when  he  discovered 
a  rich  deposit  of  silver  in  what  was 
afterward  known  as  the  "  Little 
Pittsburg "  mine.  A  year  later  he 
sold  his  interests  in  this  property  for 
?1,000,000;  a  sum  which  eventually 
yielded  him  a  fortune  estimated  at 
$6,000,000.  In  1884  he  was  chosen 
United  States  Senator,  to  fill  the  un- 
expired term  of  Henry  M.  Teller. 
Soon  aftervsard  he  began  to  suffer 
serious  financial  losses.  Bad  invest- 
ments and  the  panic  of  1893  swept 
away  all  his  fortune  and  drove  him 
to  begin  life  anew  as  a  miner.  He 
returned  to  Colorado  and  opened  a 
mine  which  proved  a  failure.  He  was 
appointed  postmaster  of  Denver  in 
1898,  in  which  office  he  continued  to 
serve  till  his  death,  April  10,  1899. 
During  his  prosperous  days  he  did 
much  toward  the  improvement  of  the 
city  of  Denver. 

Taborites,  a  section  of  Calixtines, 
who  received  their  name  from  a  great 
encampment  organized  by  them  on  a 
mountain  near  Prague  in  1419,  fou 
the  purpose  of  receiving  the  Com- 
munion in  both  kinds.  On  the  same 
spot  they  founded  the  city  of  Tabor, 
and,  assembling  an  insurrectionary 
force,  marched  on  Prague  under  the 
lead  of  Ziska  (July  30,  1410),  and 
committed  great  atrocities  under  the 
pretense  of  avenging  insults  offered 
to  the  Calixtine  custom  of  communi- 
cating under  both  kinds.  On  the 
death  of  King  Wenceslaua  (Aug.  16, 
1419)  they  began  to  destroy  churches 
and  monasteries,  to  persecute  the 
clergy,  and  to  appropriate  church 
property  on  the  ground  that  Christ 
was  shortly  to  appear  and  establish 
His  personal  reign  among  them.  They 
were  eventually  conquered  and  dis- 
persed in  1453  by  George  Podiebrada 
(afterward  King  of  Bohemia). 


Tabriz 


Tactics 


Tabriz,  or  Tabreez  (the  ancient 
Tauris),  a  city  of  Persia,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Azerbijan,  on  tf;e  Aigi, 
3G  miles  above  its  entrance  into  X^ake 
Urumia.  It  is  surrounded  with  a 
wall  of  sun-dried  bvick,  with  bastions, 
and  entered  by  seven  or  eight  gates. 
There  are  numerous  mosques,  bazaars, 
baths,  and  caravanserais.  Tabriz  has 
manufactures  of  silks,  cottons,  car- 
pets, leather  and  leather  goods,  etc. 
It  is  the  great  emporium  for  the  trade 
of  Persia  on  the  W.,  and  has  an  ex- 
tensive commerce.  It  has  frequently 
Buffered  from  earthquakes.  Popula- 
tion 180,000. 

Tacitus,  the  historian,  is  known  to 
us  chiefly  from  autobiographical 
touches  in  his  own  writings  and  from 
allusions  in  Pliny's  letters.  Born  per- 
haps in  Rome,  under  the  Emperor 
Claudius  between  a.  d.  52  and  54,  it 
is  inferred  that  his  family  was  re- 
spectable from  his  education,  his  pro- 
fession, and  his  marriage.  He  rose 
to  eminence  as  a  pleader  at  the  Ro- 
man bar ;  and  in  77  or  78  married  the 
daughter  of  Agricola,  the  conqueror 
and  governor  of  Britain. 

Under  Emperor  Nerva  he  became 
consul  suffectus,  succeeding  the  great 
and  good  Virginius  Rufus,  on  whom 
he  delivered  in  the  Senate  a  splendid 
oraison  funebre.  In  A.  D.  99,  con- 
jointly with  the  younger  Pliny,  he 
prosecuted  the  political  malefactor, 
Marius  Priscus,  and  the  "  characteris- 
tic dignity  "  with  which  his  share  of 
the  prosecution  was  conducted  won 
him  the  thanks  of  the  Senate.  After 
this  we  lose  sight  of  him,  but  may 
assume  it  as  certain  that  he  saw  the 
close  of  Trajan's  reign,  if  not  the  open- 
ing of  Hadrian's.  The  high  repu- 
tation he  enjoyed  in  life  is  attested 
by  the  eulogistic  mention  of  him  re- 
peatedly made  in  Pliny's  letters,  and 
in  the  3d  century  the  Emperor  Taci- 
tus, proud  to  claim  kinship  with  him, 
built  in  his  honor  a  tomb  which  was 
Btill  standing  in  the  later  decades  of 
the  16th  century,  when  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  Pope  Pius  V.  The  same 
emi>eror  also  issued  an  edict  by  which 
the  works  of  his  namesake  were  to  be 
copied  out  10  times  yearly  for  presen- 
tation to  as  many  public  libraries. 

Tacitus,  Marcns  Clandins,  a 
Roman  emperor;  born  in  Terni,  Um- 


bria,  about  A.  D.  200;  was  elected  oa 
the  death  of  Aurelian,  a.  d.  275, 
when  in  his  75th  year.  He  was  de- 
scended from  the  great  historian,  and 
had  been  tw  ice  consul ;  but  he  reigned 
only  six  months,  in  which  short  space 
he  displayed  singular  wisdom,  vigor, 
and  moderation.  He  was  assassinat- 
ed at  Tyana,  in  Cappadocia,  in  276. 

Tack,  in  nautical  language:  (1) 
The  lower  forward  corner  of  a  fore- 
and-aft  sail.  (2)  The  lower,  weather 
corner  of  a  course,  or  lower  square 
sail.  (3)  The  rope  by  which  the  for- 
ward lower  comer  of  a  course  or  stay- 
sail is  drawn  forward  and  confined. 
(4)  A  rope  by  which  the  lower  corner 
of  a  studding-sail  is  drawn  outward 
and  held  to  the  boom.  (5)  Hence, 
the  couree  of  a  ship  in  regard  to  the 
position  of  her  sails ;  as,  the  star- 
board tack  or  port  tack ;  the  formei; 
when  she  has  the  wind  on  her  star- 
board, the  latter  when  the  wind  is 
on  her  port  side. 

Tackett,  John  Bobert,  an  Amer- 
ican physician;  born  near  Water  Val- 
ley, Miss.,  July  28,  1857;  commis- 
sioner to  Havana,  Cuba,  to  investi- 
gate the  yellow-fever  conditions  for 
the  State  Board  of  Health  in  1897. 
During  the  Spanish-American  War 
he  was  in  charge  of  the  yellow-fever 
hospital  near  Santiago,  Cuba. 

Tacoma,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Pierce  county.  Wash.;  at 
the  head  of  Commencement  bay,  an 
arm  of  Puget  Sound,  and  oil  the< 
Northern  Pacific  and  other  rail- 
roads; 25  miles  N.  E.  of  Olympia; 
commands  a  fine  view  of  the  Sound, 
Cascade  Mountains,  and  Mt.  Rainier 
(14,363  ft.),  44  miles  to  the  S.  E.;  is 
the  second  industrial  city  of  the 
State;  has  an  annual  manufacturing 
output  valued  at  over  $25,000,000, 
and  an  assessed  property  valuation 
exceeding  $60,000,000;  and  is  the  seat 
of  the  University  of  Puget  Sound 
(M.  E.),  Pacific  University  (Luth.), 
Whitworth  College  (Presb.),  Ferry 
Museum  of  Art,  Academy  of  the 
Visitation  (R.  C),  and  Annie  Wright 
Seminary.     Pop.  (1910)  83,743. 

Tactics,  Military,  the  branch 
of  military  science  which  relates  to 
the  conduct  of  troops  in  battle.  Strat- 
egy, on  the  other  hand,  refers  to  the 
movements  leading  up  to  a  battle. 


Tactics 


Tseniada 


Tactics,  Naval,  the  art  of  maneu- 
vering ships  and  fleets  for  the  pur- 
pose of  battle.  Naval  strategy,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  the  science  of  combin- 
ing and  employing  fleets  or  single 
ships  in  order  to  carry  out  defined 
operations  at  sea  or  against  an  ene- 
my's coast,  for  obtaining  command  of 
the  sea  or  certain  portions  of  it. 

Tactile  Corpuscle,  in  anatomy, 
one  of  the  three  kinds  of  sensory  ter- 
minal organs.  They  were  discovered 
by  R.  Wagner  and  Meissner.  They 
are  mostly  of  oval  form,  nearly  one 
three-hundredth  of  an  inch  long,  by 
one  eigth-hundredth  thick.  They  have 
a  core  of  soft  homogeneous  substance 
within,  and  a  capsule  of  connective 
tissue  ■with  oblong  transverse  nuclei 
outside.  They  exist  in  certain  pap- 
illsB  in  the  skin  of  the  hand  and  foot, 
on  the  fore-arm,  and  the  nipple. 


f    I   T  I 


METAMORPHOSIS   OF  A   TADPOLE. 

Tadpole,  the  larva  of  the  anurous 
amphibia,  sometimes  so  far  extended 
as  to  include  larvae  of  the  urodela, 
which  undego  a  much  less  complete 
metamorphosis.  At  first  the  young 
have  no  respiratory  organs  or  limbs. 
They  are  all  head  and  tail  with  sim- 
ple entire  gills  which  soon  disappear. 


to  be  followed  by  others  of  more 
complicated  structure,  situated  withia 
the  cavity  of  the  body  as  in  fishes. 
After  a  certain  length  of  time  the 
hind  legs  begin  to  appear,  the  head 
becomes  more  developed,  and  the  body 
assumes  a  more  compact  form.-  Still 
later  the  forelegs  are  found  to  exist 
fully  formed  beneath  the  skin  and 
ready  ultimately  to  burst  forth.  The 
tadpole  at  first  seems  to  derive  its- 
subsistence  from  the  fluid  absorbed 
within  its  body  and  on  the  surface,, 
but  soon  begins  to  seek  its  food  amidst 
softened  or  decomposing  vegetable 
matter.  From  that  period  the  tadpole 
begins  to  assume  more  and  more  the 
appearance  of  a  frog.  Toes  appear  on 
its  hind  legs,  the  tail  very  rapidly 
disappears  by  absorption,  and  finally 
the  fore-legs  become  fully  developed 
and  the  metamorphosis  of  the  tad- 
pole is  completed. 

Tael,  a  money  of  account  in  Ohina^ 
the  value  of  which  varies  considerably 
according  to  locality  and  the  rate  of 
exchange.  On  Oct.  1,  1901,  it  wa» 
worth  in  different  localities  from. 
$0,639  to  $0,704  in  American  gold. 
The  tael  is  also  a  definite  weight, 
equal  to  1.208  ounces  Troy. 

Tseniada,  cestoid  worms;  an  order 
containing  the  tapeworms  and  blad- 
der worms.  Internal  parasites,  her- 
maphrodite when  mature.  The  body- 
is  elongated  and  consists  of  a  head 
with  many  flattened  articulations. 
The  small  narrow  head  or  scolex  con- 
tains nearly  all  the  organs  of  the 
body,  and  is  essentially  the  animal,, 
the  articulations,  called  metameres  or 
proglottides,  being  generative  seg- 
ments thrown  off  by  the  head  in  the 
manner  called  budding  or  "  gemma- 
tion." Each  reproductive  joint  con- 
tains both  male  and  female  organs. 
The  joints  nearest  the  head  are  the 
newest,  those  farthest  from  it  are 
the  most  mature.  The  anterior  end  of 
the  body,  or  forepart  of  the  scolex,  is 
provided  with  suckers,  hooks,  or  foli- 
aceous  appendages,  or  with  all  three 
combined.  There  is  no  mouth  or  ali- 
mentary canal,  so  that  it  must  derive 
materials  for  its  nourishment  only 
by  absorption  through  the  skin.  The 
^\hole  animal  is  called  a  strobilus. 
After  a  time  some  of  the  metamerea 
break  off,  the  worm  continuing  to  grow. 


Taffcty  — 

Taffety,  or  TafPeta,  a  term  for- 
merly applied  to  all  plain  silks  simply 
-  woven  by  regular  alternations  of  tlie 
warp  and  weft.  Modifications  have, 
however,  been  introduced,  by  varying 
the  quality  of  the  warp  and  weft  and 
by  the  substitution  of  various  colors 
for  the  single  one  of  the  original  taf- 
fety. It  has  therefore  become  a  sort 
•of  generic  term  for  plain  silk,  and 
<;ven  for  some  combinations  of  silk, 
rtool,   etc. 

TafPrail,  originally  the  upper  flat 
part  of  a  ship's  stern,  so  called  be- 
cause frequently  ornamented  with 
carvings  or  pictures;  now  a  trans- 
verse rail  which  constitutes  the  up- 
permost member  of  a  ship's  stern. 

Taft,  Alphonso,  an  American  ju- 
rist ;  born  in  Townsend,  Vt.,  Nov.  5, 
1810;  was  graduated  at  Yale  Univer- 
sity. He  was  judge  of  the  Cincinnati 
Superior  Court  in  18GG-1872;  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  War,  March 
■8,  1876;  served  in  that  capacity  till 
May  22  of  the  same  year;  and  was 
then  made  attorney-general.  He  ^as 
United  States  minister  to  Austria  in 
1882-1884,  and  to  Russia  in  1884- 
1885.    He  died  May  21,  1891. 

Taft,  William  Howard,  first  civil 
governor  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  aiul 
twenty-seventh  President  of  the 
United  States;  was  born  in  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio,  Sept.  15,  1857,  son  of 
Alphonso  Taft;  was  graduated  from 
Yale  in  1878,  and  from  Law  School 
of  Cincinnati  College  in  1880;  ad- 
mitted to  Ohio  bar  same  year ;  has 
been  public  prosecutor,  judge  of  the 
Superior  Court  of  Ohio;  judge  of 
United  States  Circuit  Court,  and  in 
June,  1901,  was  appointed  governor 
of  the  Philippines.  He  became  Secre- 
tary of  War  in  1904  and  was  re-ap- 
pointed in  1906.  In  1906  he  was  sent 
by  the  President  to  Cuba  to  adjust  the 
insurrectionary  co.nditions  there,  and 
in  1907  to  Panama  to  inspect  the 
canal.  He  visited  it  again  in  1909, 
after  his  election  to  the  Presidency. 
lie  was  nominated  for  President  by 
the  Republican  party  in  1908,  and  was 
elected  by  a  popular  vote  of  7,677,788 
and  an  electoral  vote  of  321,  over  Wil- 
liam Jennings  Bryan,  who  received 
6,407,982  popular  and  162  electoral 
votes.  *  In  1912  he  was  the  candidate 
of  his  party  for  a  second  term,  and  the 


Tail-piece 

campaign  of  that  year  was  marked  by 
the  defection  of  a  large  number  of 
members  of  the  Republican  party,  the 
efforts  of  former  President  Roosevelt 
to  secure  the  nomination,  the  organi- 
zation in  the  Republican  ranks  of  the 
Progressive  party,  the  nomination  of 
Mr.  Roosevelt  by  the  latter,  the 
spirited  campaign  and  attempted  assas- 
smation  of  Mr.  Roosevelt,  and  the 
small  heed  paid  to  the  political  situa- 
tion by  the  business  interests  of  the 
country.  A  remarkable  degree  of  gen- 
eral prosperity  sprang  up  during  the 
campaign,  crops  reached  a  larger  out- 
put than  ever  in  the  history  of  the 
country,  the  iron  and  steel  industry 
grew  beyond  the  capacity  of  its  plants, 
and  the  railroads  were  unable  tQ  supply 
sufficient  rolling  stock  for  shipping  re- 
quirements. Ihe  Republican  party 
einphasized  these  conditions  as  a  reason 
for  support,  while  the  Democratic  party 
made  its  cnief  issue  on  the  necessity  for 
tariff  reform.  In  the  ensuing  elections 
Nov.  5,  1912,  Pres.  Taft  was  defeated  by 
Woodrow  Wilson,  the  Democratic  can- 
didate. (See  Progressive  Party;  Roose- 
velt, Theodore;  Wilson,  Woodrow.) 

Tages,  in  mythology,  a  grandson  of 
Jupiter^  and  the  first  who  taught  the 
12  nations  of  the  Etruscans  the  arts 
of  augury  and  divination. 

Taguicati,  the  warree,  or  white- 
lipped  peccary. 


TAIL-PIECE. 

Tail-piece,  a  piece  at  the  end,  as 
of  a  series  of  engravings ;  an  append- 
age. Also  a  piece  of  ebony  or  other 
material  appended  to  the  end  of  a 
violin  or  other  similar  instrument,  to 


Taine 

which  the  strings  are  fastened.  In 
printing,  tail-pieces  are  ornaments  in 
wood  or  metal  placed  in  short  pages, 
partly  to  fill  up  the  vacancy. 

Taine,  Hippolyte  Adolphe,  a 
French  writer;  born  in  Vouziers,  Ar- 
dennes, France,  April  21,  1828;  was 
educated  at  the  College  Bourbon  and 
the  Ecole  Normale.  His  "  History  of 
English  Literature,"  one  of  the  best 
and  most  philosophical  works  on  the 
subject,  appeared  in  1864  (4  vols.). 
He  died  in  Paris,  March  5,  1893. 

Tainter,  Charles  Sumner,  sax 
American  inventor ;  born  in  Water- 
town,  Mass.,  April  25,  1854;  was  the 
inventor  of  the  graphophone,  and  an 
associate  inventor  of  the  radiophone, 
an  instrument  for  transmitting  sounds 
to  a  distance  through  the  agency  of 
light;  and  was  a  member  of  the 
United  States  expedition  to  the  South 
Pacific  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus 
in  1874.  He  received  a  gold  medal  at 
the  Electrical  Exhibition  in*  Paris 
in  1881,  and  in  1899  was  decorated  by 
the  French  Academy. 

Tai-ping,  or  Universal  Peace, 
che  name  of  the  dynasty  which  Hung- 
Hsiu-ch'wan  or  Tien-te,  a  Chinese  rev- 
olutionist, wished  to  found  in  1850,  by 
restoring  the  ancient  national  religion 
of  Shan-ti,  and  overthrowing  the  Man- 
chu  dynasty.  The  rebellion  was  not 
suppressed  until  1865  after  a  long 
period  of  civil  war.  Followers  of  Hung 
Hsiu-ch'wan  were  called  Tai-pings. 

Tait,  Arcliibald  Campbell,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury ;  born  in  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland,  Dec.  22,  1811;  was 
educated  at  the  Edinburgh  Academy 
and  Glasgow  University,  whence  he 
passed  as  a  Snell  exhibitioner  to 
Balliol  College,  Oxford.  In  1»42  he 
was  appointed  successor  to  Di;  Ar-  i 
nold  as  head  master  of  Rugby,  in  1849 
became  Dean  of  Carlisle,  and  in  1856 
Bishop  of  London,  as  successor  to 
Blomfield.  In  1868  he  was  made  pri- 
mate of  all  England  by  Mr.  Disraeli. 
He  took  a  keen  interest  in  missions, 
and  greatly  helped  to  extend  and  im- 
prove the  organization  of  the  Church 
in  the  colonies.  The  Lambeth  Con- 
ference of  1878  took  place  under  his 
auspices.  He  lost  in  1878  both  his 
only  son,  the  Rev.  Craufurd  Tait,  and 
his  wife,  a  daughter  of  Archdeacon 
gpooner,   whom    he   had   married   in 


Taj  Mahal 

1843 ;  and  he  himself  died  Dec.  3, 
1882. 

Tait,  John  Robinson,  an  Amer- 
ican artist ;  born  in  Cincinnati,  O., 
Jan.  14,  1834.  He  was  for  several 
years  the  art  critic  of  the  New  York 
"  Mail  and  Express "  and  Tvas  the 
author  of  "  European  Life,  Legend 
and  Landscape,"  "  Dolce  far  Niente  " 
and  numerous  papers  on  art  subjects 
in  leading  magazines. 

Tai-Ynen,  a  town  of  China,  capital 
of  Shan-si ;  on  the  Fuen-Ho,  an  afilu- 
ent  of  the  Hoangho,  250  miles  S.  W. 
of  Peking.  For  many  years  the  resi- 
dence of  the  emperors,  it  is  noted  for 
its  magnificent  mausoleums.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  sword  blade* 
and  knives.     Pop.  about  200,000. 

Tajacn,  or  Tajassn,  in  zoology, 
the  collared  peccary,  the  smaller  of  the 
two  species  of  the  genus.  It  is  about 
36  inches  long,  dark  gray  in  color, 
with  a  white  or  light  gray  band 
across  the  chest  from  shoulder  to 
shoulder. 


THE  TAJ  MAHAX. 

Taj  Mahal,  or  Mehal   ( "  Gem  of 

Buildings"),  a  famous  mausoleum, 
erected  at  Agra,  India,  by  Shah  Jehan 
for  his  favorite  wife.  It  is  186  feet 
square  with  the  corners  cut  off,  and 


Talaratclil 

consists  of  two  tiers  of  arches,  with 
a  single-arched  porch  in  the  middle 
of  each  side,  the  whole  surmounted 
by  a  dome  58  feet  in  diameter  and 
about  210  feet  in  height,  flanked  by 
four  octagonal  kiosks.  The  interior 
is  divided  into  four  domed  chambers 
in  the  comers,  and  a  large  central 
arcaded  octagon,  all  connecting  by 
cojjidors.  The  central  octagon  con- 
tains two  cenotaphs  surrounded  by  a 
very  noticeable  openwork  marble  rail. 
The  only  light  admitted  enters 
through  the  delicately  pierced  marble 
screens  of  the  windows.  The  decora- 
tion is  especially  noticeable  for  the 
stone  mosaics  of  flower  themes  and 
arabesques,  much  of  them  in  agate, 
jasper,  and  bloodstone.  The  entire 
structure  stands  on  a  white  marble 
platform  18  feet  high  and  313  feet 
square,  with  tapering  cylindrical  min- 
arets 133  feet  high  at  the  corners. 

Talavatchi,  a  subtle  poison,  of 
which  the  constituents  are  unknown, 
formerly  manufactured  by  the  Aztecs, 
and  by  them  handed  down  to  their 
descendants,  the  Mexican  Indians. 
Skillfully  administered,  it  is  said  to 
destroy  the  mind  while  leaving  slight 
effects  on  the  body.  The  peculiar 
effect  of  the  poison  seems  to  be  to 
induce  monomania  or  epilepsy,  and 
sometimes  both. 

Talbot,  Charles  Remingrten,  an 
!A.merican  Episcopal  clergyman  and 
writer ;  born  in  1851 ;  died  in  1891. 

Talbot,  Eugene  S.,  an  American 
dentist;  born  in  Sharon,  Mass.,  March 
8,  1847;  was  graduated  at  the  Penn- 
sylvania Dental  College  in  1871 ;  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  M.  D.  from  the 
Rush  Medical  College  in  1880;  and 
became  Professor  of  Dental  Surgery 
at  the  Woman's  Medical  College.  In 
1890  he  was  honorary  president  of  the 
Dental  Section  at  the  10th  Interna- 
tional Medical  Congress  in  Berlin, 
and  in  1897  honorary  president  of  the 
Dental  Section  at  the  12th  Interna- 
tional Medical  Congress  in  Moscow. 

Talc,  an  orthorhombic  mineral  oc- 
curring in  short  hexagonal  prisms  and 
plates,  also  in  globular  and  stellated 
groups,  compact,  massive.  Luster, 
pearly;  color,  apple-green,  white 
shades  of  gray;  sectile;  feel,  greasy. 
Composition,  varying  with  the  amount 
of  water  present,  but  essentially  a  hy- 


Talent 

drated  silicate  of  magnesia.  Being 
thoroughly  incombustible  it  is  of  great 
value  in  the  manufacture  of  flreproof 
wall  paper,  paper  window  curtains, 
etc.  Even  in  its  crude  state  it  is 
found  to  yield  one  of  the  best  lubri- 
cants known.  .  Mixed  with  common 
grades  of  soap,  it  makes  them  as 
pleasant  to  the  touch  as  the  choicest 
brands,  rendering  the  skin  smooth  and 
soft,  though  entirely  without  any 
cleansing  qualities.  It  is  also  large- 
ly used  in  the  manufacture  of  patent 
•nail  plaster,  in  which  its  addition 
gives  a  smooth,  glossy  finish  to  walla 
and  ceilings  that  no  other  substance 
lends.  Talc  powder,  duly  refined,  is 
exquisitely  soft  and  fine  grained. 
Hence  it  makes  an  excellent  infant 
powder,  softening  the  tenderest  skin 
and  preventing  chafing,  irritation,  or 
even  "  prickly  heat,"  as  will  no  other 
substance.  So,  too,  it  makes  an  un- 
surpassed molding  sand  for  casting 
metals,  in,  both  its  fire-proof  and  fire- 
grained  qualities  being  very  valuable 
in  fine  work.  The  richest  talc  mines 
are  now  being  worked  in  Cherokee 
CO.,  N.  C.,  where  it  is  found  in  leaves 
and  scales,  very  much  like  slate. 

Talegalla,  or  Brnsb  Turkey,  a 
genus  of  gallinaceous  birds.  Of  the 
four  species  the  Australian  is  best 
known.  It  is  a  large  bird,  almost 
the  size  of  a  female  turkey,  with 
blackish-brown  plumage,  pink-red 
head  and  neck,  and  yellow  wattle.  It 
inhabits  the  thickly-wooded  parts  of 
New  South  Wales.  The  flesh  of  the 
bird  is  excellent,  and  the  eggs  are  also 
very  delicate  and  eagerly  sought  after. 
It  is  thought  tliat  this  bird  might  be 
added  to  the  list  of  domestic  poultry. 

Talent,  figuratively:  (1)  A  gift, 
endowment,  or  faculty ;  some  peculiar 
faculty,  ability,  power,  or  accomplish- 
ment, natural  or  acquired.  (2)  Men- 
tal endowments  or  capacities  of  a  su- 
perior kind:  general  mental  power 
(used  in  either  the  singular  or  the 
plural).  (3)  Hence,  used  for  talented 
persons  collectively ;  men  of  ability 
or  talent.  (4T  Habitual  backers  of 
horses,  or  takers  of  odds,  as  opposed 
to  the  bookmakers,  or  layers  of  odds. 

In  Greek  antiquity,  the  name  of  a 
weight  and  also  of  a  denomination  of 
silver  money  equal  to  $1,218.75.  It 
is  also  applied  by  Greek  writers  and 


Ta-lien-'wan 

their  translators  to  various  foreign 
weights  and  denominations  of  money. 

Ta-Iien-wan.     See  Dalny. 

Taliera,  in  botany,  a  palm  tree, 
akin  to  the  talipot,  but  only  about 
SO  feet  high.  The  trunk  is  nearly 
cylindrical,  and  has  at  the  top  a  num- 
ber of  fan-shaped  leaves.  The  fruit 
which  is  about  the  size  of  a  crab 
apple,  is  wrinkled  and  of  a  dark  color. 
It  grows  in  India,  where  the  leaves 
are  used  for  roofing  houses.  The 
natives  also  write  on  them  with  their 
iron  or  steel  styles. 

Talipot,  Talipat,  or  Talipnt,  a 

Salm  tree,  native  of  Ceylon  and  the 
lalabar  coast,  and  cultivated  in 
Bengal  and  Burma.  It  has  a  tall, 
cylindrical  stem,  with  a  soft  rind  and 
soft  pink  internal  pith,  both  formed 
of  vascular  bundles.  The  leaves  are 
in  a  cluster  at  the  top  of  the  stem, 
and  are  fan-shaped.  The  pith  is  made 
into  a  kind  of  sago,  the  leaves  are 
written  upon  by  the  natives  with  a 
steel  stylus ;  they  are,  moreover,  made 
into  fans,  mats,  and  umbrellas. 

Talisman,  a  species  of  charm,  con- 
sisting of  a  figure  engraved  on  metal 
or  stone  v^hen  two  planets  are  in  con- 
junction, or  when  a  star  is  at  its  cul- 
minating point,  and  supposed  to  exert 
some  protective  influence  over  the 
wearer  of  it.  The  terms  talisman  and 
amulet  are  often  considered  nearly 
synonymous,  but  the  proper  distinct- 
ive peculiarity  of  the  former  is  its 
astrological  character. 

Talitms,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of 
Amphipoda,  or  small  crustaceans,  com- 
monly known  as  sandhoppers.  They 
are  about  half  an  inch  long.  They 
exist  in  myriads  along  sandy  shores 
between  high  and  low  water  mark, 
feeding  on  decaying  garbage.  They 
can  leap  several  feet  into  the  air,  and 
escape  pursuit  by  burrowing  into  damp 
sand  or  taking  refuge  under  seaweed. 

Talladega  College,  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  in  Talladega,  Ala., 
founded  in  1867  under  the  auspices 
of  the   Congregational  Church. 

Talleyrand-Periprord,  Charles 
JAanrice  de.  Prince  of  Beneven- 

to,  a  French  diplomatist ;  bom  in 
Paris,  France,  Feb.  13,  1754.  In 
1790  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
National  Assembly.  In  1792  he  was 
«ent  to  London  charged  with  diplo- 
E.  148. 


Tallien 

matic  functions,  and  during  his  stay 
there  was  proscribed  for  alleged  royal- 
ist intrigues.  Forced  to  leave  England 
by  the  provisions  of  the  Alien  Act,  in 
1794  he  sailed  for  the  United  States, 
but  returned  to  France  in  1796.  The 
following  year  he  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs ;  but  being  sus- 
pected of  keeping  up  an  understand- 
ing with  the  agents  of  Louis  XVIII. 
he  was  obliged  to  resign  in  July,  179I|. 
He  now  devoted  himself  entirely  to 
Bonaparte,  whom  he  had  early  recog- 
nized as  the  master  spirit  of  the  time, 
and  after  Bonaparte's  return  from 
Egypt  contributed  greatly  to  the 
events  of  the  18th  Brumaire  (Nov. 
10,  1799),  when  the  directory  fell 
and  the  consulate  began.  He  was 
then  reappointed  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  for  the  next  few  years 
was  the  executant  of  all  Bonaparte's 
diplomatic  schemes.  After  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  empire  in  1804  he  was 
appointed  to  the  ofiice  of  grand-cham- 
berlain, and  in  1806  was  created 
Prince  of  Benevento.  After  the  peace 
of  Tilsit  in  1807  a  coolness  took  place 
between  him  and  Napoleon,  and  be- 
came more  and  more  marked.  In 
1808  he  secretly  joined  a  royalist  com- 
mittee. In  1814  he  procured  Napo- 
leon's abdication,  and  afterward  ex- 
erted himself  very  effectually  in  re- 
establishing Louis  XVIII.  on  the 
throne  of  his  ancestors.  He  took  part 
in  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  and  in 
1815,  when  the  allies  again  entered 
Paris,  he  became  president  of  the 
council  with  the  portfolio  of  foreign 
affairs;  but  as  he  objected  to  sign 
the  second  peace  of  Paris  be  gave  in 
his  resignation.  After  this  he  retired 
into  private  life,  in  which  he  remained 
for  15  years.  When  the  revolution 
of  July,  1830,  broke  out,  he  advised 
Louis  Philippe  to  place  himself  at  its 
head  and  to  accept  the  throne.  De- 
clining the  office  of  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  he  proceeded  to  London  as  am- 
bassador, and  crowned  his  career  by 
the  formation  of  the  Quadruple  Al- 
liance. He  resigned  ia  November, 
1834,  and  quitted  public  life  forever. 
He  died  In  Paris,  May  17,  1838.- 

Tallien,  Jean  Lambert,  a  French 
revolutionist;  born  in  Paris  in  1769. 
A  prominent  Jacobin,  he  became,  after 
Aug.    10,   secretary   of   the   Insurrec- 


Tallzaadge 

tionary  Commune,  was  one  of  the 
leading  "  Septembrists,"  and  after- 
ward eloquently  defended  the  massa- 
cres he  had,  promoted.  His  services 
on  this  occasion  gained  him  a  seat  in 
the  Convention,  where  he  was  an  earn- 
est defender  of  Marat,  and  a  savage 
advocate  for  the  execution  of  the 
king.  Tallien  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  party  afterward  known 
4S  the  Thermidorians,  vigorously  at- 
tacked the  triumvirate  of  terror,  and 
ultimately  brought  about  its  downfall. 
From  this  point  his  political  influence 
declined.  Tallien  continued  in  the 
legislature  till  1798,  when  he  accom- 
panied Bonaparte  to  Egypt  in  the 
character  of  savant.  The  ship  in 
which  he  was  returning  was  captured 
by  an  English  cruiser,  and  he  was 
feted  by  the  Whig  party  in  London  in 
1801.  Tallien,  after  holding  for  some 
years  the  post  of  French  consul  at 
Alicante,  died  in  Paris,  Nov.  16,  1820, 
in  poverty  and  obscurity. 

Tallmadge,  Benjamin,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer ;  born  in  Brook- 
haven,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  25,  1754.  He 
attained  the  rank  of  colonel ;  in  Sep- 
tember, 1779,  captured  a  band  of 
Tories  on  Long  Island ;  and  in  1780 
took  Fort  George,  on  the  same  island. 
He  was  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1801-1817.  He  died  in  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  March  7,  1835. 

Talloiv,  in  chemistry,  a  name  ap- 
plied to  the  harder  and  less  fusible 
fats  occurring  chiefly  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  the  most  common  being  beef 
and  mutton  tallow.  When  pure  it  is 
white  and  almost  tasteless,  and  con- 
sists of  stearin,  palmitin,  and  olein  in 
varying  proportions. 

Tallow  Tree,  a  native  of  China. 
The  leaves  are  rhomboidal,  tapering 
at  the  tip,  with  two  glands  at  the  top 
of  the  petiole.  The  fruits  are  about 
half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  have 
three  seeds,  which  are  covered  by  a 
kind  of  wax,  used  in  China  for  mak- 
ing candles,  whence  the  name. 

Tally,  a  notched  stick  employed  as 
a  means  of  keeping  accounts.  In 
buying  or  selling  it  was  customary 
for  the  parties  to  the  transaction  to 
have  two  sticks,  or  one  stick  cleft 
longitudinally  into  two  parts,  on 
each  of  which  was  marked  with 
notches  or  cuts  the  number  or  quality 


Talmage 

of  goods  delivered,  or  the  amount  due 
between  debtor  and  creditor,  the  seller 
keeping  one  stick  and  the  buyer  the 
other.  The  mode  of  keeping  accounts 
by  tallies  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land by  the  Normans,  10G6.  Besides 
accounts,  other  records  were  formerly 
kept  on  notched  sticks,  as  almanacs, 
in  which  red-letter  days  were  signified 
by  a  large  notch,  ordinary  days  by 
small  notches,  etc.  Such  were  for- 
merly very  common  in  most  European 
countries.  In  England  tallies  were 
long  issued  in  lieu  of  certificates  of 
indebtedness  to  creditors  of  the  State. 
In  1696,  according  to  Adam  Smith, 
this  species  of  security  was  at  40-60 
per  cent,  discount,  and  bank  notes  20 
per  cent.  Seasoned  sticks  of  willow 
or  hazel  were  provided,  and  these 
were  notched  on  the  edge  to  represent 
the  amount.  Small  notches  repre- 
sented pence;  larger,  shillings;  still 
larger,  pounds ;  proportionately  larger 
and  wider,  were  10,  100,  1,000  pounds. 
The  stick  being  now  split  longitudi- 
nally, one  piece  was  given  to  the  cred- 
itor, and  the  other  was  laid  away  as 
a  record.  When  an  account  was  pre- 
sented for  payment,  the  voucher  was 
compared  with  the  record.  When 
paid,  the  tally  and  counter-tally  were 
tied  up  together,  and  laid  away,  ac- 
cumulating for  a  long  series  of  years. 
The  system  of  issuing  exchequer  tal- 
lies was3  abolished  by  an  act  of  George 
III.,  and  by  acts  of  William  IV. 

Talmage,  John  Van  Nest,  Amer- 
ican clergyman  ;  born  Aug.  18,  1819,  at 
Somerville,  N.  J.  Educated  at  Rut- 
gers College.  Went  as  missionary, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Reformed 
Dutch  Church,  to  Amoy,  China,  in 
1847.  His  labors  there  were  very  suc- 
cessful, and  were  continued,  with  brief 
intermissions  until  1890,  when  he  re- 
turned to  the  United  States  intending 
to  remain  a  short  time,  for  the  recovery 
of  his  health.  His  disease  proved  in- 
curable, and  he  died  August  19,  1892. 

Talmage,  Thomas  De  Witt,  an 
American  clergyman ;  born  in  Bound 
Brook,  N.  J.,  Jan.  7,  1832 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  New  Brunswick  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1856.  He  was 
pastor  of  the  Central  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  1869- 
1894,  and  afterward  became  associate 
and  later  became  full  pastor  of  tbs 


Talmage 

First  Presbyterian  Church  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  He  held  this  charge 
till  1899,  when  he  resigned  in 
order  to  apply  himself  wholly  to 
literary  work.  His  sermons  were 
published  every  week  for  SO  years, 
and  in  1901  it  was  estimated  that 
their  publication  in  3,600  different 
papers  had  carried  them  to  no  fewer 
than  30,000,000  people  weekly.  He 
was  for  many  years  the  editor  of  the 
"  Christian  Herald,"  and  was  the 
author  of  "Crumbs  Swept  Up,"  "  Wo- 
man :  Her  Powers  and  Privileges " ; 
"  From  Manger  to  Throne  "  ;  "  Every- 
Da"  Religion,"  etc.  He  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  April  12,  1902. 

Talmage,  James  Edward,  an 
American  geologist ;  born  in  Hunger- 
ford,  England,  Sept.  21,  1862.  His 
family  immigrated  to  Utah  in  1876, 
having  become  Mormons.  He  was 
president  of  the  Latter-day  Saints 
College,  Salt  Lake  City,  in  1888-1893, 
and  president  of  the  University  of 
Utah  in  1894:-1897,  when  he  resigned 
the  presidency  of  the  latter,  but  re- 
tained the  chair  of  geology  there. 

Talmnd,  the  name  of  the  funda- 
mental code  of  the  Jewish  civil  and 
canonical  law,  comprising  the  "  Mish- 
na"  and  the  "  G^mara,"  the  former 
as  the  text,  the  latter  as  the  com- 
mentary and  complement.  The  "  Ge- 
mara "  consists  of  minute  directions 
as  to  conduct,  sometimes  of  a  puerile 
nature,  other  parts  again  containing 
the  loftiest  expression  of  religious  feel- 
ing, passages  which  are  said  to  be  the 
source  of  almost  all  that  is  sublime  in 
the  liturgy  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
and  those  liturgies  which  have  been 
mainly  derived  from  it.  Interspersed 
throughout  the  whole  are  numerous 
tales  and  fables,  introduced  for  the 
sake  of  illustration.  The  Jews  are 
carefully  instructed  in  it,  and  its  lan- 
guage is  sometimes  quoted  and  ac- 
knowledged in  the  New  Testament. 
The  "  Gemara  "  was  originally  an  oral 
commentary  of  the  "  Mishna,"  as  the 
"Mishna"  itself  was  originally  an  oral 
commentary  of  the  "  Mikra,"  or  writ- 
ten law.  These  oral  comments  were 
'  handed  down  from  age  to  age,  differing 
of  course  in  different  localities,  and 
gradually  increasing  in  quantity.  They 
were  at  last  committed  to  writing  in 
two  forms,  the  one  called  the  "  Jerusa- 


Tambonrine 

lem  "  and  the  other  the  "  Babylonian 
Gemara,"  or,  with  the  addition  of  the 
"  Mishna,"  which  is  common  to  both, 
the  "  Jerusalem  and  the  Babylonian 
Talmud."  The  "  Mishna,"  with  its 
corresponding  "  Gemara,"  is  divided 
into  six  principal  divisions ;  agricul- 
ture, festivals,  women,  damages,  holy 
things,  and  purifications ;  these  are 
subdivided  into  sixty-three  tracts. 

Tamarack,  the  American  or  black 
larch.  It  has  weak  and  drooping 
branches,  \vhich  sometimes  take  root, 
forming  a  natural  arch.  The  leaves 
are  clustered  and  deciduous,  the 
cones  oblong  with  numerous  spreading 
scales.  It  constitutes  a  feature  of 
the  forests  in  Canada  and  the  North- 
ern United  States.  Its  timber  is  val- 
uable, but  less  so  than  the  larch. 

Tamarin,  the  name  of  certain 
South  American  monkeys.  The  tam- 
arins  are  active,  restless,  and  irritable 
little  creatures,  two  of  the  smallest 
being  the  silky  tamarin  and  the  little 
lion  monkey,  the  latter  of  which  is 
only  a  few  inches  in  length. 

Tamarind,  an  evergreen  tree,  80 
feet  high  by  25  in  circumference,  cul- 
tivated in  India  as  far  N.  as  the 
Jhelum,  and  very  largely  planted  in 
avenues  and  "  topes."  The  wood, 
which  is  yellowish-white,  sometimes 
with  red  streaks,  is  hard  and  close- 
grained.  It  weighs  about  83  pounds 
per  cubic  foot,  is  highly  prized,  but 
is  very  diflScult  to  work,  and"  is  used 
in  India  for  turning  wheels,  mallets, 
planes,  furniture,  rice-pounders,  oil 
and  sugar  mills,  etc.  The  West  In- 
dian and  South  American  variety  has 
legumes  only  three  times  at  long  as 
broad,  whereas  the  Indian  tree  has 
them  six  times  as  long. 

The  tamarinds  sold  in  the  United 
States  are  chiefly  West  Indian  tam- 
arinds. They  differ  from  the  Black 
or  East  Indian  tamarinds,  of  which 
the  preserved  pulp  is  black. 

Tambourine,  or  Tambonrin,  an 
ancient  pulsatile  musical  instrument 
of  the  drum  class,  popular  among  all 
European  people,  but  particularly 
those  of  the  S.  The  Biscayan  and 
Italian  peasantry  employ  it  on  every 
festal  occasion.  It  is  formed  of  a 
hoop  of  wood,  sometimes  of  metal, 
over    which    is    stretched    a    piece    of 


Tambour  "Work 


Tanagers 


parchment  or  skin;  the  sides  of  the 
hoop  are  pierced  with  holes,  in  which 
are  inserted  pieces  of  metal  in  pairs, 
called  jingles.  Small  bells  are  some- 
times fastened  on  to  the  other  edge  of 
the  hoop.  It  is  sounded  by  being 
struck  with  the  knuckles,  or  by 
drawing  the  fingers  or  thumb  over  the 
skin,  which  produces  what  is  called 
"  the  roll,"  a  peculiar  drone  mingled 
with  the  jingle  of  the  bells  or  pieces  of 
metal. 


TAMABIND  :  BBANCH  IN  FLOWEB. 
a  seed-pod  section. 

Tambonr  Work,  a  species  of  em- 
broidery on  muslin  or  other  thin  ma- 
terial, worked  on  circular  frames 
which  resemble  drum  heads.  The 
practice  of  tambouring  is  rapidly  dy- 
ing out,  being  replaced  by  pattern 
weaving,  by  which  tambour  work  can 
be  closely  imitated. 

Tamias,  in  zoology,  the  ground 
squirrel ;  a  genus  with  four  species, 
all  found  in  North  America.  They  are 
popularly  known  as  chipmunks,  and 
are  among  the  commonest  of  the  indig- 
enous rodents. 

Tamils,  the  name  of  a  race  which 
inhabits  South  India  and  Ceylon.  The 
Tamils  belong  to  the  Dravidian  stock 
of  the  inhabitants  of  India,  and  are 
therefore  to  be  regarded  as  among  the 
original  inhabitants  who  occupied  the 
country    before    the    Aryan    invasion 


from  the  N.,  but  they  adopted  the 
higher  civilization  of  the  Aryans.  The 
Tamil  language  is  spoken  not  only  in 
South  India  and  Ceylon,  but  also  by  a 
majority  of  the  Indian  settlers  in 
places  further  E.,  as  Peru  and  Pe- 
nang.  There  is  an  extensive  literature, 
the  greater  part  of  it  in  verse. 

Tammany,  Society  of,  or  Co- 
lumbian Order,  formed  in  New 
York  city  in  1789,  as  a  counterweight 
to  the  so-called  "  aristocratic  "  Society 
of  the  Cincinnati ;  deriving  its  name 
from  a  noted  friendly  Delaware  chief 
named  Tammany,  who  had  been  can- 
onized by  the  soldiers  of  the  Revolu- 
tion as  the  patron  saint  of  America. 
The  grand  sachem  and  13  sachems 
were  intended  to  typify  the  President 
and  the  governors  of  the  13  original 
States. 

The  society  was  at  first  a  social  or- 
ganization, but  about  1800  entered 
politics.  Tammany  was  for  a  short 
time  allied  with  DeWitt  Clinton, 
but  they  separated  and  Tammany 
came  to  be  recognized  as  the  regular 
Democratic  organization  of  New  York 
City  (now  of  Manhattan  and  the 
Bronx  boroughs),  a  position  which 
it  still  holds. 

Strictly  speaking  the  Tammany  So- 
ciety is  wholly  distinct  from  the  Tam- 
many Organization,  the  former  being 
still  in  name  at  least  a  benevolent  in- 
stitution, while  the  organization  ia 
wholly  political,  and  includes  all 
'*  regular  "  Democrat;    'n  the  city. 

Tampa,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Hillsboro  county,  Fla.;  on 
Hillsboro  river,  Tampa  bay,  and  the 
Plant  System  and  other  railroads; 
30  miles  E.  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico; 
is  a  popular  health  and  winter  re- 
sort; has  large  orange,  lemon,  phos- 
phate, and  fishery  interests;  contains 
many  hotels  and  cigar  factories,  and 
in  the  Spanish-American  war  was 
the  chief  mobilizing  point  for  the 
American  army.     Pop.  (1910)  37,782. 

Tanagers,  a  family  of  the  Passeri- 
formes,  or  perching  birds,  containing 
nearly  400  species;  the  bill  is  usually 
conical,  more  or  less  triangular  at  the 
base,  with  the  cutting  edges  not  much 
inflected,  and  frequently  notched  near 
the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible.  They 
are  mostly  birds  of  small  size,  the 
largest  barely  exceeding  a  song  thrush. 


Tanana 

and  the  smallest  being  hardly  four 
inches  in  length.  With  the  exception 
of  a  few  species  which  visit  North 
America  in  summer,  the  tanagers  are 
confined  to  Central  and  South  Amer- 
ica and  the  West  Indies.  Some  genera 
of  tanagers  are  remarkable  for  their 
beauty  of  plumage,  which  is  some- 
times confined  to  the  male  sex,  and 
sometimes  possessed  by  the  female. 

Tanana,  a  rich  gold  digging  settle- 
ment of  Alaska,  on  the  Yukon  opposite 
the  mouth  of  the  Tanana. 

Tancred,  a  hero  of  the  first  cru- 
sade; born  in  Sicily  in  1078;  in  1098 
assumed  the  cross,  and  with  his  cousin 
Bohemund  set  out  on  the  crusade.  At 
Dorylaion  (July  4,  1097)  his  bravery 
saved  the  camp  of  priests  and  women ; 
his  banner  was  the  first  to  float  from 
the  towers  of  Tarsus,  though  Bald- 
win's jealousy  dislodged  it  thence.  In 
the  siege  of  Antioch  he  slew,  say 
chroniclers,  700  infidels ;  with  Robert 
of  Normandy  he  first  set  foot  in  the 
Holy  City  July  15,  1099.  Appointed 
by  Godfrey  de  Bouillon  prince  of  Gali- 
lee, he  founded  churches  in  Nazareth, 
in  Tiberias,  and  on  Mount  Tabor,  and 
helped  at  Ascalon  to  guard  the  new 
Christian  kingdom  against  the  Fati- 
mite  caliph.  He  was  busy  with  plans 
for  bringing  the  Syrian  chieftains  un- 
der his  sway,  when  he  died  in  Antioch 
of  a  wound  received  in  battle  (1112). 

Taney,  Roger  Brooke,  an  Amer- 
ican statesman ;  born  in  Calvert  co., 
Md.,  March  17,  1777;  was  graduated 
at  Dickinson  College  in  1795.  During 
the  war  with  Great  Britain  he  led  the 
wing  of  the  Federal  party  that  upheld 
the  policy  of  the  government.  In  1827 
he  became  attorney-general  of  Mary- 
land and  in  December,  1831,  succeed- 
ed John  M.  Berrien  as  attorney-gen- 
eral of  the  United  States.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  the  Treasury  un- 
der President  Jackson  on  Sept.  24, 
1833,  but  was  forced  to  resign  the 
next  year,  owing  to  his  action  with 
regard  to  the  removal  of  the  treasury 
deposits.  On  Dec.  26,  1835,  however, 
he  was  nominated  Chief-Justice  of  the 
United  States  and  confirmed  by  the 
United  States  Senate  on  March  15, 
1836.  While  in  this  office  he  rendered 
decisions  on  many  important  cases, 
notably  those  of  Dred  Scott,  and  Sher- 
tian  M.  Booth,  both  bearing  on  the 


Tanner 

Fugitive  Slave  Law.  He  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  Oct.  12,  1864. 

Taqg^ier,  a  seaport  of  Morocco,  on 
the  Atlantic,  near  the  Strait  of  Gibral- 
tar. It  stands  on  two  heights  near  a 
spacious  bay,  and  rises  from  the  sea  in 
the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  defended 
by  walls  and  a  castle.  The  harbor  is 
a  mere  roadstead.     Pop.  about  20,000. 

Tanistry,  a  mode  of  tenure  among 
various  Celtic  tribes,  according  to 
which  the  tanist  or  holder  of  lands  or 
honors  had  only  a  life  estate  in  them, 
and  his  successor  was  appointed  by 
election.  According  to  this  system  the 
right  of  succession  was  hereditary  in 
the  family,  but  elective  in  the  indi- 
vidual. The  primitive  intention  seems 
to  have  been  that  the  inheritance 
should  descend  to  the  most  worthy  of 
the  blood  and  name  of  the  deceased. 
This  was  in  reality  giving  it  to  the 
strongest,  and  the  practice  often  occa- 
sioned bloody  wars  in  families. 

Tank  Worm,  the  Guinea  worm  in 
a  certain  stage  of  its  development, 
when  the  young  have  been  set  free 
from  the  body  of  their  parent  and  in- 
habit the  "tanks"  so  common  in  India. 
It  is  supopsed  that  it  penetrates  the 
body  of  bathers  when  it  is  very  mi- 
nute. 

Tanner,  Benjamin  Tncker,  an 
American  clergyman ;  born  of  African 
parents  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  Dec.  25, 
1835 ;  studied  theology  in  the  West- 
ern Theological  Seminary  in  Holland, 
Mich. ;  was  editor  of  the  "  Christian 
Recorder  "  for  16  years,  and  founded 
the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
"  Church  Review,"  of  which  he  was 
editor  for  four  years. 

Tanner,  Henry  S.,  an  American 
cartographer;  born  in  New  York  city 
in  1786;  settled  in  Philadelphia  in 
early  life,  but  returned  to  New  York 
in  1850,  and  engaged  in  map  making. 
Ilis  maps  include  the  "  Map  of  the 
United  States  and  Mexico  " ;  "  Map 
of  the  United  States  of  America,"  etc. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  "  Descrip- 
tion of  the  Canals  and  Railroads  of 
the  United  States,"  and  other  topo- 
graphical works.  He  died  in  New 
York  city  in  1858. 

Tanner,  James,  an  American  law- 
yer ;  born  in  Richmondville,  N.  Y., 
April  4,  1844 ;  enlisted  as  a  private 
in  the  87th  New  York  Volunteers  in 


Tannhansex' 


Tantalus 


1861 ;  was  promoted  corporal ;  and 
took  part  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run  where  he  lost  both  his  legs.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  in  the  engagement 
but  was  soon  paroled  and  in  1866  re- 
turned to  JS[ew  York ;  studied  law ; 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1869. 
He  then  accepted  a  place  in  the  New 
York  custom  house,  was  promoted 
through  the  various  grades  to  deputy 
collector,  and  in  1877  became  deputy 
tax  collector  under  General  Arthur. 
He  held  that  office  till  1885,  and  in 
1889  was  appointed  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Pensions. 

TannliaTiser,  or  Tanhanser,  in 
old  German  legend,  a  knight  who 
gains  admission  into  a  hill  called  the 
Venusberg,  in  the  interior  of  which 
Venus  holds  her  court,  and  who  for  a 
long  time  remains  buried  in  sensual 
pleasures,  but  at  last  listens  to  the 
voice  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  whom  he 
hears  calling  on  him  to  return.  The 
goddess  allows  him  to  depart,  when 
he  hastens  to  Rome  to  seek  from  the 
Pope  (Pope  Urban)  absolution  for  his 
sins.  The  Pope,  however,  when  he 
knows  the  extent  of  the  knight's  guilt, 
declares  to  him  that  it  is  as  impos- 
sible for  him  to  obtain  pardon  as  it 
is  for  the  wand  which  he  holds  in  his 
hand  to  bud  and  bring  forth  green 
leaves.  Despairing,  the  knight  retires 
from  the  presence  of  the  pontiff,  and 
enters  the  Venusberg  once  more. 
Meanwhile  the  Pope's  wand  actually 
begins  to  sprout,  and  the  Pope,  taking 
this  as  a  sign  from  God  that  there 
was  still  an  opportunity  of  salvation 
for  the  knight,  hastily  sends  messen- 
gers into  all  lands  to  seek  for  him. 
But  Tannhauser  is  never  again  seen. 
The  Tannhauser  legend  has  been 
treated  poetically  by  Tieck,  and  Rich- 
ard Wagner  has  adopted  it  (with 
modificati6ns)  as  the  subject  of  one 
of  his  operas. 

Tansy,  a  genus  of  Compositse,  num- 
bering about  50  species  of  strong- 
scented  herbs,  often  shrubby  below, 
with  alternate  usually  much-divided 
leaves,  and  solitary  or  corymbose 
heads  of  rayless  yellow  flowers.  The 
^enus  is  represented  in  North  Amer- 
ica, Europe,  North  and  South  Africa, 
temperate  and  cold  Asia.  Common 
tansy  has  long  had  a  reputation  as 
a  medicinal  herb,  causing  it  to  be 
much  grown  in  gardens  iia  the  past. 


Tantalidse,  a  family  of  grallatorial 
birds,  the  chief  of  which  inhabit  trop- 
ical latitudes,  living  almost  entirely  on 
the  swampy  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes. 
The  genus  Tantalus  is  characterized 
by  having  the  head  in  the  adult  en- 
tirely destitute  of  feathers.  It  in- 
cludes the  wood  ibis  of  the  Southern 
States.  Among  the  American  species 
are  the  red  or  scarlet  ibis  of  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  acci- 
dental in  the  United  States ;  and  the 
white    ibis,   or   white   curlew    of    the 


TANSY. 

South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  rare- 
ly N.,  which  is  25  inches  long,  the 
wing  11,  and  the  bill  7  inches ;  color 
white.  This  species  feeds  largely  on 
crawfish.  The  sacred  ibis,  or  Egyp- 
tian ibis  is  an  African  bird,  30  inches 
in  length,  and  covered  with  white  and 
black  plumage.  It  was  one  of  the 
birds  worshipped  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians. 

Tantalns,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
King  of  Lydia,  son  of  Zeus.  He  was 
father  of  Niobe  and  Pelops,  by  Dione, 
one  of  the  Atlantides,  and  is  repre- 
sented by  the  poets  as  punished  in 
Hades  with  an  insatiable  thirst,  and 
placed  up  to  the  chin  in  the  midst  of 
a  pool  of  water,  which  flowed  away  as 


Tantalum 

soon  as  he  attempted  to  taste  it.  Other 
tantalizing  punishments  were  inflicted 
for  his  lasciviousness,  impiety,  cruelty 
and  thefts. 

Tantalum,  a  metallic  element  dis- 
covered in  1803,  but  only  utilized  since 
1003.  through  improved  processes,  for 
1  orinff  tools  and  incandescent  light 
threads. 

Taoism,  or  Taonism,  one  of  the 
three  religions  of  China.  Its  founder, 
Laotse,  lived,  according  to  tradition, 
in  the  6th  century  B.  c.  Tao  is  a 
word  meaning  "  way."  It  would  seem 
that  Tao  represented  the  course  which 
Laotse  thought  a  man  should  pursue 
in  order  to  overcome  evil.  The  whole 
teaching  was  vague  and  unsatisfac- 
tory; but  its  followers  made  a  great 
advance  on  those  that  had  preceded 
them,  by  believing  firmly  that  ulti- 
mately good  would  gain  the  victory 
over  evil,  and  by  insisting  that  good 
should  be  returned  for  evil,  as  the 
sure  way  to  overcome  it.  Taoism  was 
Ijlrgely  modified  by  Buddhism,  some  of 
the  doctrines  and  practices  of  which 
it  adopted ;  but  it  still  adheres  to  its 
old  superstitions,  though  in  its  trea- 
tises it  enjoins  much  of  the  Confucian 
and  the  Buddhistic  morality. 

Tapestry,  an  ornamental  textile 
used  for  the  covering  of  walls  and 
furniture,  and  for  curtains  and  hang- 
ings. In  its  method  of  manufacture 
it  is  intimately  related  to  Oriental 
carpets,  which  are  made  in  precisely 
the  same  way  as  certain  kinds  of  tap- 
estry, the  only  distinction  being  that 
carpets  are  meant  for  floor-coverings 
alone.  Fine  storied  tapestries  are, 
however,  much  more  elaborate  and 
costly  than  any  carpets,  and  they  have 
altogether  different  artistic  preten- 
sions. 

The  art  of  tapestry-working  is  of 
high  antiquity.  It  came  to  Europe 
from  the  East,  and  so  well  was  this 
recognized  that  during  the  Middle 
Ages  the  fabric  was  generally  known 
as  Sarrazinois.  So  far  as  is  known 
the  art  of  high  warp  tapestry  weaving 
was  first  practised  in  Flanders  toward 
the  end  of  the  12th  century,  and  it 
flourished  in  the  rich  and  prosperous 
towns  of  Arras  (whence  the  name  of 
"arras  applied  to  tapestry),  Val- 
enciennes, Lille,  Brussels,  etc.,  while 
the  famous  Gobelin  factory  was  estab- 
lished in  Paris  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1667. 


Tapeurorm 

Tapestries  —  especially  the  high 
warp  storied  varieties  —  are  the  tex- 
tiles of  kings.  In  earlier  times  the 
monarchs  of  Europe  resorted  to  the 
Netherlands  for  pieces  for  the  decora- 
tion of  their  palaces;  and  when  the 
manufacture  came  to  be  more  dis- 
seminated it  was  almost  entirely  under 
State  supervision  and  control  that  the 
work  was  carried  on.  The  pieces 
made  were  almost  exclusively  reserved 
for  royal  use,  and  to  be  given  as 
presents  in  connection  with  great  State 
celebrations  and  functions.  The  very 
foremost  artists  devoted  their  best  en- 
ergies to  the  production  of  designs  and 
full-sized  cartoons  for  the  guidance  of 
the  weavers ;  and  it  was  as  patterns 
for  tapestry  that  Raphael  produced 
the  immortal  series  of  cartoons  illus- 
trating the  acts  of  Christ  and  the 
Apostles  which  were  executed  in  Brus- 
sels for  the  Sistine  Chapel.  Seven  of 
these  cartoons,  purchased  by  Charles 
I.  under  the  advice  of  Rubens,  are 
now  in  South  Kensington  Museum. 

Tapetrorm,  an  intestinal  worm. 
Taenia  solium,  in  form  somewhat  re- 
sembliiJg  tape.  Its  length  is  from  5  to 
15  yards,  and  its  breadth  from  two 
lines  at  the  narr(>west  part  to  four  op 


TAPEWOEMS. 

a,  ovum  with  contained  embryo;  b,  cysticei- 
cus  longicollis;  c,  head  of  taenia  solium 
(enlarged) ;  d,  a  single  segment  or  pro- 
glottis magnified;  1,  generating  pore;  2, 
water  vessels;  3,  dendritic  ovary;  e,  por- 
tion of  tapewcrm,  natural  size,  showinj 
the  alternating  arrangement  of  the  gener 
ative  pores. 

five  at  the  other  or  broader  extremity. 
At  the  narrow  end  is  the  head,  which 
is  terminated  anteriorly  by  a  central 
rostellum,  surrounded  by  a  crown  of 
small  recurved  hooks,  and  behind  them 
four  suctorial  depressions;  then  fol- 
low an  immense  number  of  segments. 


°  Tapiooa 

each  full  of  microscopic  ova.  The  seg- 
ments are  capable  of  being  detached 
when  mature,  and  reproducing  the 
parasite.  There  is  no  mouth ;  but  nu- 
trition appears  to  take  place  through 
the  tissues  of  the  animal,  as  algae  de- 
rive nourishment  from  the  sea  water 
in  which  they  float  The  digestive 
system  consists  of  two  tubes  or  lateral 
canals,  extending  from  the  anterior  to 
the  posterior  end  of  the  body,  and  a 
transverse  canal  at  the  summit  of 
(each  joint. 

The  tapeworm  lives  in  the  small  in- 
testines of  man,  affixing  itself  by  its 
double  circle  of  hooks.  When  the  re- 
productive joints  or  proglottides  be- 
come mature,  they  break  off  and  are 
voided  with  the  stools.  They  may  get 
into  water,  or  may  be  blown  about 
with  the  wind,  till  some  of  them  are  at 
length  swallowed  by  the  pig,  and  pro- 
duce a  parasite  which  causes  measles 
in  the  pig.  When  the  measly  pork  is 
eaten  by  man,  a  tapeworm,  the  ordi- 
nary, appears  in  his  intestines.  This 
Bpecies  mainly  affects  the  poor,  who 
are  the  chief  pork-eaters.  Called  more 
fully  the  pork  tape'worm.  The  beef 
tapeworm  has  no  coronet  of  hooks  on 
the  head.  The  segments  are  somewhat 
larger  than  in  the  ordinary  tapeworm. 
It  is  15  to  23  feet  long.  The  cysticer- 
cus  of  this  species  forms  measles  in 
the  ox,  and  is  swallowed  by  man  in  eat- 
ing beef.  It  chiefly  affects  the  rich. 
The  broad  tapeworm,  Bothriocephalus 
latus,  is  25  feet  long  by  nearly  an  inch 
broad,  and  chiefly  affects  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Switzerland,  Russia  and  Po- 
land. 

Tapioca,  the  powdered  root  or  rhi- 
zome of  Manihot  utilissima.  The  root, 
which  is  about  30  pounds  in  weight, 
and  is  full  of  a  poisonous  juice,  is 
washed,  rasped,  or  rasped  and  grated, 
to  a  pulp.  This,  being  well  bruised 
and  thoroughly  washed,  is  heated  on 
iron  plates,  by  which  process  the  poi- 
son is  drawn  off.  The  powder,  -when 
dry,  consists  of  pure  starch,  and  is 
baked  into  bread  by  the  natives  of 
Central  America.  In  the  United 
States  and  Europe  it  is  generally  made 
into  puddings,  and  forms  a  light  and 
nutritious  diet.  Pearl  tapioca  is 
made  from  prepared  grain. 

Tapir,  any  individual  of  the  genus 
Tapirus.  The  South  American  tapir 
is  about  the  size  of  a  small  ass,  but 


Tappen 

more  stoutly  built,  legs  short,  snout 
prolonged  into  a  proboscis,  but  des- 
titute of  the  finger-like  process  which 
is  present  in  the  elephant's  trunk. 
The  skin  of  the  neck  forms  a  thick 
rounded  crest  on  the  nape,  with  a 
short,  stiff  mane.  It  is  plentiful 
throughout  Sout^  America,  ranging 
from  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  to  the 
Straits  of  Magellan. 


AMERICAN     TAPIR. 

Tappan,  Benjamin,  an  American 
naval  oflBcer ;  born  in  New  Orleans, 
La.,  April  10,  1856;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy, 
June  20,  1876.  He  served  on  the 
"  Raleigh,"  on  which  he  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Manila  Bay,  May  1, 
1898.  During  the  attack  on  Manila 
city,  in  August,  1898,  he  commanded 
the  launch  "  Barcelo,"  took  her 
through  the  breakers  and  captured  a 
Spanish  battery.  For  this  he  was 
advanced  five  numbers,  Aug.  23,  1898; 
was  commissioned  lieutenant-com- 
mander July  1,  1899.  He  was  as- 
signed to  duty  in  the  branch  hydro- 
graphic  office  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
March  26,  1900. 

Tappen,  Frederick  D.,  an  Amer* 
lean  financier ;  born  in  New  York  city 
Jan.  29,  1829;  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  New  York  in  1849,  and 
in  the  following  year  became  specie 
clerk  in  the  National  bank  of  New 
York,  now  the  Gallatin  National 
bank,  of  which  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent in  1868.  He  was  president  of 
the  New  York  Clearing  House  Asso- 
ciation for  many  years,  and  was  ex- 
ceptionally instrumental  in  enabling 
the  banks  and  large  business  concerns 


Tar 

of  the  city  to  successfully  meet  several 
great  financial  panics.  He  died  in 
Lakewood,  N.  J.,  Feb.  28,  1902. 

Tap,  a  product  of  the  destructive 
distillation  of  various  organic  sub- 
stances ;  but  the  tars  of  commerce  are 
obtained :  1st,  from  the  distillation  of 
coal,  etc.,  for  gas  (gas  tar  or  coal 
tar),  and  2d,  from  the  distillation  of 
wood  (wood  tar).  Gas  or  coal  tar, 
which  was  formerly  regarded  as  a 
troublesome  and  almost  useless  by- 
product of  the  gas  manufacture,  is 
now  a  substance  of  so  much  value 
that  it  is  second  only  in  importance 
to  the  gas  itself.  Its  value  in  recent 
times  has  arisen  almost  entirely  from 
the  fact  that  it  is  the  source  of  the 
wide  range  of  important  dyeing  sub- 
stances, which,  derived  from  aniline, 
phenol  and  anthracene  respectively, 
may  all  be  classed  as  tar  colors. 

Wood  tar  is  obtained  as  a  by-prod- 
uct in  the  destructive  distillation  of 
wood  for  the  manufacture  of  pyroligne- 
ous  acid  (wood  vinegar),  and  methyl 
alcohol  (wood  spirit).  It  is  in  the 
same  way  obtained  in  Northern  Eu- 
rope in  connection  with  the  prepara- 
tion of  wood  charcoal.  In  addition  to 
its  various  uses  in  the  arts  of  coating 
and  preserving  timber  and  iron  in  ex- 
posed situations,  and  for  impregnating 
ships'  ropes  and  cordage,  it  has  va- 
rious applications  for  external  use  in 
medicine  owing  to  its  antiseptic  prop- 
erties. 

Tara  Fern,  a  large  species  of 
bracken,  the  rhizome  of  which  was  one 
of  the  principal  articles  of  food  of  the 
Maoris  before  the  settlement  of  New 
Zealand  by  the  British  colonists.  The 
roots,  about  an  inch  in  circumference, 
were  cut  in  pieces,  dried,  and  stacked. 
For  use  the  root  was  steeped  in  water, 
dried  in  the  sun,  and  then  roasted. 
Good  flour  was  obtained  from  it  by 
beating  on  a  stone. 

Tarantnla,  a  large  spider,  with  a 
body  about  an  inch  in  length ;  its  bite 
was  formerly  supposed  to  produce  Ta- 
rantism,  and  doubtless  in  some  cases, 
produces  disagreeable  symptoms.  It  is 
a  native  of  Italy,  but  varieties,  or 
closely  allied  species,  are  found  through- 
out the  S.  of  Europe.  The  tarantulas 
of  Texas  and  adjacont  countries  are 
large  species  of  I^Iygale.  Also,  a  dance, 
or  the  music  to  \v^hich  it  is  performed. 


Tare 

Taraxacin,  the  bitter  principle  of 
dandelion  root,  extracted  from  the 
milky  juice  by  boiling  with  wate.  and 
allowing  the  concentrated  decoction 
to  evaporate.  It  forms  soluble  warty 
crystals  of  a  sharp,  bitter  taste. 

Tarbell,  Ida  Minerva,  an  Amer- 
ican writer;  born  in  Erie  co.,  Pa., 
Nov.  5,  1857;  was  graduated  at  Alle- 
gheny College;  studied  in  Paris  1891- 
1894;  was  associate  editor  of  "  The 
Chautauqua "  (1883-1891),  "  Mc- 
Clure's  Magazine "  (1894-1906), 
"American  Slagazine  "  (1906-  ) ; 
and,  besides  several  "  Lives,"  pub- 
lished a  notable  "  History  of  the 
Standard  Oil  Co."   (2  vols.,  1904). 


TABANTUTA. 

Tare,  the  common  name  of  different 
species  of  a  genus  of  leguminous 
plants,  known  also  by  the  name  of 
vetch.  There  are  numerous  species 
and  varieties  of  tares  or  vetches,  but 
that  which  is  found  best  adapted  for 
agricultural  purposes  is  the  common 
tare,  of  which  there  are  two  principal 
varieties,  the  summer  and  winter  tare. 
They  afford  excellent  food  for  horses 
and  cattle,  and  hence  are  extensively 
cultivated  throughout  Europe.  One 
species  is  found  in  the  fields  in  United 
States. 

Tare,  an  allowance  or  deduction 
made  on  the  gross  weight  of  goods 
sold  in  boxes,  barrels,  bags,  etc.,  for 
the  weight  of  the  boxes,  etc.  Tare,  is 
said  to  be  real  when  the  true  weight 


Target 

of  the  package  is  known  and  allowed 
for;  average,  when  it  is  estimated 
from  similar  known  cases ;  and  cus- 
tomary, when  a  uniform  rate  is  de- 
ducted. 

Target,  a  shield  or  buckler  of  a 
small  size,  circular  in  form,  cut  out 
of  ox-hide,  mounted  on  light  but  strong 
wood,  and  strengthened  by  bosses, 
spikes,  etc. ;  often  covered  externally 
with  a  considerable  amount  of  orna- 
mental work.  Also,  the  mark  set  up 
to  be  fired  at  in  archery,  musketry,  or 
artillery  practice,   or  the  like. 

Target  Practice.  The  use  of  sta- 
tionary targets  for  practice  in  the 
United  States  army  has  given  place  to 
that  of  appearing  and  disappearing 
targets,  which  stimulate  activity  and 
increase  the  skill  of  the  gunners. 
American  soldiers,  and  particularly 
those  of  the  regular  service,  have  the 
reputation  of  being  the  best  shots  in 
the  world,  the  latter  having  had  much 
experience  in  snap  shooting  by  reason 
of  their  service  on  the  plains. 

Targniu,  the  general  term  for  the 
Aramaic  versions — often  paraphrases 
— of  the  Old  Testament,  which  became 
necessary  when,  after  and  perhaps 
during  the  Babylonian  Exile,  He- 
brew began  to  die  out  as  the  popular 
language,  and  was  supplanted  by  Ara- 
maic. The  targum,  long  preserved  by 
oral  transmission,  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  committed  to  writing  until 
the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian 
Era,  There  were  different  Targums, 
all  of  which  taken  together  form  a 
paraphrase  of  the  whole  of  the  Old 
Testament  except  Nehemiah,  Ezra, 
and  Daniel. 

Tariff,  a  list  or  table  of  goods  with 
the  duties  or  customs  to  which  they 
are  liable,  either  on  exportation  or  im- 
portation ;  a  list  or  table  of  duties  or 
customs  to  be  paid  on  goods  imported 
or  exported,  whether  such  duties  are 
imposed  by  the  government  of  a  coun- 
try or  are  agreed  on  between  the  gov- 
ernments of  two  countries  having 
commerce  with  each  other.  The  scale 
of  duties  depends  on  the  supply  and 
demand  of  goods,  the  interests  and 
wants  of  the  community,  etc,  and  is 
therefore  constantly  changing. 

The  tariff  legislation  of  the  United 
States  has  been  constantly  fluctuating, 
and  has  grown  yearly  in  importancs 


Tariff 

as  a  question  of  foreign  policy.  The 
most  noted  tariff  bill  ever  passed  by 
Congress  was  that  taking  its  name 
from  the  then  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Ways  and  Means,  the  late 
President  McKinley.  This  tariff  im-, 
posed  high  duties  on  imports,  some 
specific  and  others  ad  valorem.  It 
was  repealed  in  1894  by  the  passage 
of  the  Wilson  bill,  which  became  a 
law  by  the  refusal  of  President  Cleve-' 
land  to  sign  or  veto  it.  On  the  tariff! 
question  the  nation  has  generally  been 
pretty  evenly  divided,  or  with  but  a 
slight  preponderance  in  favor  of  a 
high  protective  duty.  Of  former 
tariff  measures  that  proposed  in  1833 
by  Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  and 
known  as  the  compromise  tariff,  occu- 
pies the  most  prominent  place  in 
American  history. 

At  the  present  time,  though  Great 
Britain  is  regarded  as  a  free-trade 
country,  yet  on  her  tariff  are  listed  19 
articles  of  import,  from  which  she  de- 
rives an  average  of  about  20  per  cent, 
of  her  total  revenue.  The  British 
tariff  is  based  not  on  an  ad  valorem 
tax,  but  depends  entirely  on  a  specific 
impost,  in  some  cases  modified  by  a 
range  of  price  between  the  highest  and 
lowest  figures,  which  it  sets  for  an 
article.  Thus  for  spirits  worth  a_  cer- 
tain amount  per  gallon,  the  tax  is  so 
much  per  barrel,  while  for  spirits  of 
the  next  higher  grade  (according  to 
price  per  gallon)  a  higher  duty  per 
barrel  is  collected.  The  cjuestion  of 
a  protective  tariff  was  an  issue  in  the 
United  States  between  the  two  great 
political  parties,  and  largely  figured  in 
the  presidential  contest  of  1904  and 
1908.  Public-  opinion  irrespective 
of  party  seems  to  be  favorable  to  this 
method  of  raising  revenue,  and  as 
there  is  use  for  all  the  revenue  raised, 
tariff  discussion  is  largely  academic  in 
the  United  States.  In  England  the  is- 
sue has  been  accentuated  in  1903  by 
the  stand  of  Joseph  Chamberlain,  the 
great  English  statesman,  favored  by 
Premier  Balfour,  in  behalf  of  "fair 
trade,"  the  English  equivalent  for  pro- 
tective duties.  "  English  Free  Trade; 
its  Foundation,  Growth  and  Decline," 
by  Henry  Mann,  1888,  which  is  out  of 
print,  but  in  most  large  libraries,  tells 
the  story  of  the  struggle  for  "fair 
trade"  in  England  up  to  the  date  of 
publication. 


Taxkio  College 


Tarsus 


Tarkio  College,  a  coeducational 
institution  in  Tarkio,  Mo. ;  founded  in 
1883 ;  under  the  auspices  of  thie  Unit- 
ed Presbyterian  Church. 

Tarpan,  the  wild  horse  of  Tartary, 
belonging  to  one  of  those  races  which 
are  by  some  authorities  regarded  as 
original.  They  are  not  larger  than  an 
ordinary  mule.  The  color  is  invari- 
ably tan  or  mouse,  with  black  mane 
and  tail.  During  the  cold  season 
their  hair  is  long  and  soft,  but  in 
summer  it  falls  much  away.  They  are 
sometimes  captured  by  the  Tartars, 
but  are  tamed  with  difficulty. 

Tarpon,  or  Tarpnm,  the  Mega- 
lops  atlanticus,  a  herring-shaped  fish, 
found  on  the  southern  coasts  of  the 
United  States  and  in  the  West  Indies. 
It  reaches  a  length  of  5  or  6  feet ;  from 
a  hundred  to  several  hundred  pounds 
weight,  and  is  of  giant  strength. 

Tarquinins,  Lucius,  surnamed 
Priscus  (the  first  or  the  elder),  in 
Roman  tradition  the  5th  King  of 
Rome.  According  to  Livy  he  made 
war  with  success  on  the  Latins  and 
Sabines,  from  whom  he  took  numer- 
ous towns.  Tarquinius  also  distin- 
guished his  reign  by  the  erection  of 
the  Cloaca  Maxima,  the  Forum,  the 
wall  round  the  city,  and,  as  is  sup- 
posed, he  commenced  the  Capitoline 
Temple.  After  a  reign  of  about  36 
years  he  was  killed  by  assassins  em- 
ployed by  the  sons  of  Ancus  Martins 
in  578  B.  C. 

Tarquinins,  Lucius,  surnamed 
Superbus  ("the  proud"),  the  last  of 
the  legendary  kings  of  Rome,  was  the 
son  of  Lucius  Tarquinius  Priscus. 
Tarquin,  on  reaching  man's  estate, 
murdered  his  father-in-law.  King  Ser- 
vlus  Tullius  (the  date  usually  given 
for  this  event  is  534  B.  c),  and  as- 
sumed the  regal  dignity.  He  abolished 
the  privileges  conferred  on  the  plebe- 
ians ;  banished  or  put  to  death  the 
senators  whom  he  suspected,  never 
filled  up  the  vacancies  in  the  senate, 
and  rarely  consulted  that  body.  He 
continued  the  great  works  of  bis  father 
and  advanced  the  power  of  Rome 
abroad  both  by  wars  and  alliances.  By 
the  marriage  of  his  daughter  with 
Octavius  Mamilius  of  Tusculum,  the 
most  powerful  of  the  Latin  chiefs,  and 
other  political  measures,  he  caused 
himself  to  be  recognized  as  the  head 
o£   the   Latin  confederacy.     After   a 


reign  of  nearly  25  years  a  conspiracy 
broke  out  by  which  he  andhis  family 
were  exiled  from  Rome  (5i0  B.  c.). 
He  died  in  495  B.  c. 

Tarr,  Ralph  Stockman,  an 
American  scientist;  born  in  Glouces- 
ter, Mass.,  Jan.  15,  1864;  became 
Professor  of  Dynamic  Geology  and 
Physical  Geography  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity in  1897. 

Tarrytoiim,  a  village  in  West- 
chester county,  N.  Y.:  on  the  Hudson 
river  and  the  New  York  TI!entral  & 
Hudson  River  railroad;  25  miles  N. 
of  New  York  city;  is  the  site  of  the 
Philipse  Manor  House  (168.3),  Dutch 
Church  (1699),  Irving  Institute,  Tar- 
rytown  Lyceum,  the  "  Castle  "  School, 
and  a  Revolutionary  Soldiers'  -Mon- 
ument; is  near  Washington  Irving's 
"Sleepy  Hollow"  home;  and  is  his- 
torically noted  as  the  scene  of  the 
capture  of  Major  Andr§  (1780)  Pop. 
(1910)  5.600. 

Tarsus,  the  ancient  capital  of  Cili- 
cia,  and  one  of  the  most  important 
cities  in  Asia  Minor ;  on  the  Cydnus 
river ;  12  miles  from  the  sea  in  the 
midst  of  a  productive  plain.  It  was  a 
great  emporium  for  the  traffic  carried 
on  between  Syria,  Egypt,  and  the  cen- 
tral region  of  Asia  Minor.  Tarsus, 
which  was  sacred  to  Baal  Tars,  and 
is  thought  by  some  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  Sennacherib,  690  B.  C,  was 
probably  of  Assyrian  origin,  but  the 
first  historical  mention  of  it  occurs  in 
the  "Anabasis"  of  Xenophon,  where  it 
figures  as  a  wealthy  and  populous 
city,  ruled  by  a  prince  tributary  to 
Persia.  In  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great  it  was  governed  by  a  Persian 
satrap ;  it  next  passed  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  Seleucidae,  and  finally 
became  the  capital  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Cilicia  (66  b.  c).  Under 
the  early  Roman  emperors  Tarsus 
^\as  as  renowned  for  its  culture  as 
for  its  commerce,  Strabo  placing  it,  in 
respect  to  its  zeal  for  learning,  above 
even  Athens  and  Alexandria.  The  na- 
tives were  vain  and  luxurious ;  a  Mos- 
lem general  estimated  their  number  at 
100,000.  Weaving  goats'  hair  was 
the  staple  manufacture.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  the  apostle  Paul,  who 
received  the  greater  part  of  his  edu- 
cation there.  Gradually,  during  the 
confusions  that  accompanied  the  de- 
cline  of    the    Roman    and    Byzantine 


Tartan 


Tasimetei* 


power,  it  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks,  and  fell  into  comparative  de- 
cay ;  but  even  yet  this  modern,  squalid 
and  ruinous  city,  under  the  name  of 
Tarso  or  Tersus,  has  a  permanent 
population  of  7,000,  and  a  pop.  of 
oO,000  in  winter,  and  exports  corn, 
cotton,  wool,  gall  nuts,  wax,  goats* 
hair,  skins,  bides,  etc. 

Tartan,  woolen  cloth,  cross-barred 
with  stripes  of  various  colors,  formin{; 
panes,  and  constituting  the  peculiar 
patterns  which  are  said  to  have  for- 
merly distinguished  the  different  Scotch 
Highland  clans,  each  clan  having  its 
own  peculiar  pattern.  The  term  is 
also  applied  to  the  checkered  patterns 
themselves  in  which  the  cloth  is 
woven,  and  which  ^are  frequently 
printed  or  painted  on  various  sur- 
faces, as  paper,  wood,  etc. 

Tartar,  the  substance  called  also 
argal,  or  argol,  deposited  from  wines 
incompletely  fermented,  and  adhering 
to  the  sides  of  the  casks  in  the  form 
of  a  hard  crust.  Tartar  of  the  teeth 
is  an  earthy-like  substance  which  oc- 
casionally concretes  on  the  teeth  and 
is  deposited  from  the  saliva.  It  con-, 
sists  of  salixary  mucus,  animal  matter 
and  phosphate  of  lime. 

Tartaric  Acid,  the  most  important 
of  vegetable  acids,  occurs  in  many 
fruits,  especially  the  grape.  During 
fermentation  the  juice  of  the  grape 
deposits  the  substance  known  in  com- 
merce as  tartar  or  ergol.  This  sub- 
stance, essentially  the  bitartrate'  of 
potash,  is  hardly  soluble  in  cold  water, 
but  may  be  crystallized  by  cooling 
from  its  solution  in  boiling  water. 
Thus  purified  it  is  known  as  cream  of 
tartar. 

Tartars,  or  Tatars,  originally  cer- 
tain Tungusic  tribes  in  Chinese  Tar- 
tary,  but  extended  to  the  Mongol, 
Turkish,  and  other  warriors,  who  un- 
der Genghis  Khan  and  other  chiefs 
were  the  terror  of  the  European  Mid- 
dle Ages.  The  term  is  used  loosely 
for  tribes  of  mixed  origin  in  Tartary, 
Siberia,  and  the  Russian  steppes,  in- 
cluding Kazan  Tartars,  Grim  Tartars, 
Kipchaks,  Kalmucks,  etc.,  and  has  no 
definite  ethnological  meaning.  In  the 
classification  of  languages  Tartaric  is 
used  of  the  Turkish  group. 

Tartary,  properly  Tatary,  the  name 
under~  which,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  wag 


comprised  the  whole  central  belt  of 
Central  Asia  and  Eastern  Europe, 
from  the  Sea  of  Japan  to  the  Dnieper, 
including  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Chi- 
nese Turkestan,  Independent  Turkes- 
tan, the  Kalmuck  and  Kirghiz  steppes, 
and  the  old  khanates  of  Kazan,  As- 
trakhan, and  the  Crimea,  and  even  the 
Cossack  countries ;  and  hence  arose  a 
distinction  of  Tartary  into  European 
and  Asiatic.  But  latterly  the  name 
Tartary  had  a  much  more  limited 
signification,  including  only  Chinese 
Turkestan  and  Western  Turkestan. 
It  took  its  name  from  the  Tatars  or 
Tartars. 

Tashkend,  or  Tashkent,  the  cap- 
ital of  Russian  Turkestan ;  300  miles 
N.  E.  of  Samarcand ;  on  a  small  river 
which  empties  itself  into  the  Syr- 
Daria  or  Jaxartes.  It  consists  of  an 
ancient  walled  city  and  a  new  Euro- 
I)ean  quarter  with  broad  streets  bor- 
dered by  canals  and  avenues  of  trees. 
The  Russian  citadel  lies  a  little  to  the 
S.  There  are  extensive  military 
stores,  official  buildings,  Russian 
schools  of  all  grades,  an  observatory 
and  geographical  society,  Russian  and 
Kirghiz  newspapers,  and  a  brisk  trade 
with  Russia  and  other  parts  of  Cen- 
tral Asia.  It  is  connected  with  the 
European  system  of  telegraphs,  and 
has  manufactures  of  silk,  leather,  felt 
goods,  and  coarse  porcelain.  Once 
capital  of  a  separate  khanate,  Tash- 
kend  was  in  1810  conquered  by  Kho- 
kand,  and  since  1868  has  been  Rus- 
sian.   Pop.  156,414. 

Tasimeter,  an  instrument,  invented 
by  Edison,  for  measuring  very  minute 
variations  of  pressure,  temperature, 
moisture,  etc.  It  is  founded  on  the 
discovery  of  the  inventor  that  carbon, 
when  pressed  in  the  form  of  a  button, 
affects  the  electric  currents  passing 
through  the  same,  and  offers  a  resist- 
ance which  diminishes  with  the  pres- 
sure. So  sensitive  is  the  carbon  that, 
when  this  pressure  varies  to  the 
amount  of  one  millionth  part  of  an 
inch,  the  variation  in  the  electric  cur- 
rent passing  through  it  will  cause  a 
proportional  deflection  of  the  galvan- 
ometer needle.  The  practical  uses  of 
the  instrument  are  said  to  be:  (1) 
Warning  to  vessels  of  the  approach  of 
icebergs,  by  exposure  to  the  air  or  to 
the  water  cooled  by  their  vicinity; 
(2)     Indicating    otherwise    inappreci" 


Tasmania 


Tasso 


able  weights;  (3)  Recording  pres- 
sures of  air  in  motion,  thus  affording 
a  useful  addition  to  the  anemometer. 
Tasmania,  formerly  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  an  island  in  the  Southern 
Ocean,  100  miles  S.  of  Australia, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  Bass 
Strait;  greatest  length,  186  miles; 
mean  breadth,  165  miles ;  area,  26,385 
square  miles ;  pop.  146,667.  The  capi- 
tal is  Hobart  on  the  S.  coast;  pop. 
24.905. 

The  island  may  be  roughly  described 
as  heart-shaped.  The  coasts,  which 
are  all  much  broken  and  indented, 
have  Gome  excellent  harbors.  The 
islands  belonging  to  Tasmania  are 
numerous,  the  principal  being  the  Fur- 
neaux  group,  on  the  N.  E.  extremity. 
Tasmania  is  traversed  by  numerous 
mountain  ranges.  The  climate  is  very 
mild.  Mount  Wellington  is  frequently 
covered  with  snow  in  the  summer 
months ;  but  at  Hobart,  in  its  imme- 
diate vicinity,  snow  never  falls.  In 
December,  January,  and  February,  the 
summer  months,  during  which  there 
is  little  rain,  the  average  temperature 
is  62°,  extreme  100°  to  110.  The 
mean  temperature  throughout  the 
year  is  about  5.5.4°. 

Much  of  the  soil  of  Tasmania  is 
well  adapted  for  cultivation.  Wheat, 
oats,  barley,  potatoes,  peas,  beans, 
and  hops  are  largely  cultivated,  and 
the  fruit  includes  grapes,  cherries, 
plums,  quinces,  mulberries,  peaches, 
apricots,  walnuts,  filberts,  almonds, 
etc.  Fruit-preserving  forms  an  im- 
portant industry. 

Among  the  minerals  are  gold,  sil- 
ver, copper,  iron,  tin,  coal,  freestone, 
limestone,  and  roofing  slate.  Smelting 
works  1  ave  been  erected  at  Hobart 
for  the  iron  which  abounds  in  that 
district. 

The  staple  export  from  Tasmania  is 
wool,    and    the   other   articles   include 
-'old,   tin,   timber,   grain,   fruit,   hides, 
nd  bark. 

The  constitution  is  settled  by  the 
Act  18  Victoria  (1854),  supplemented 
jy  acts  passed  in  1871  and  1885,  by 
\,-hich  are  constituted  a  legislative 
council  and  house  of  assembly,  called 
the  Parliament  of  Tasmania.  The 
legislative  council  is  composed  of  18 
members,  and  the  house  of  assembly 
of  30  members,  the  latter  being  elected 
for  five  years.     The  governor   is  ap- 


pointed by  the  crown,  and  he  has  a 
responsible  cabinet  of  four  official 
members,  the  colonial  secretary,  treas- 
urer, attorney-general,  and  minister 
of  land  and  works. 

Tasmania  was  discovered  in  1642 
by  Abel  Jansen  Tasman,  who  named 
it  after  Van  Dieman,  the  governor  of 
the  Dutch  East  Indies.  In  1797  Bass 
discovered  the  strait  which  has  been 
called  after  him.  The  first  settle- 
ment was  made  in  1803  by  a  guard 
with  a  body  of  convicts,  who  settled 
at  Restdown,  but  afterward  removed 
to  the  site  now  occupied  by  Hobart. 
Till  1824  Tasmania  was  a  dependency 
of  New  S«uth  Wales,  but  in  that  year 
it  was  made  an  independent  colony. 
When  gold  was  discovered  in  Austra- 
lia in  1851,  a  rapid  emigration  from 
Tasmania  to  Australia  began  to  take 
place.  This  naturally  gave  a  great 
check  to  its  prosperity,  but  for  years 
it  has  now  been  fairly  prosperous  and 
progressing  with  moderate  rapidity. 

Tasso,  Torqnato,  an  Italian  epic 
poet,  born  in  Sorrento,  Italy,  March 
11,  1544.  At  the  age  of  16  he  was 
sent  to  the  University  of  Padua  to 
study  law,  but  at  this  time,  to  the 
surprise  of  his  friends,  he  produced 
the  "  Rinaldo,"  an  epic  poem  in  12 
cantos.  The  reputation  of  this  poem 
procured  for  Torquato  an  invitation 
to  the  University  of  Bologna,  which 
he  accepted.  Here  he  displayed  an 
aptitude  for  philosophy,  and  began  to 
write  his  great  poem  of  "  Gierusalemme 
Liberata  "  (Jerusalem  Delivered).  He 
was  introduced  to  the  court  of  Al- 
fonso II.  of  Ferrara.  Here  in  1573 
he  brought  out  the  "  Aminta,"  a  pas- 
toral, which  was  represented  at  the 
court.  In  1575  he  completed  his  epic 
of  "  Gierusalemme  Liberata." 

About  this  time  he  became  a  prey 
to  morbid  fancies,  and  so  outrageous 
did  his  conduct  become  that  he  was 
seized  and  confined  as  a  madman  in 
the  hospital  of  St.  Anne  at  Ferrara. 
Here  he  remained  from  1579  to  1586, 
till  he  was  i-eleased  at  the  solicitation 
of  Vincent  di  Gonzaga.  Finally,  in 
1595  he  proceeded  to  Rome  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Pope,  who  desired  him 
to  be  crowned  with  laurel  in  the  capi- 
tol,  but  the  poet  died  on  April  25, 
while  the  preparations  for  the  cere- 
mony were  being  made.  Tasso  wrote 
numerous  poems,   but  his  fame  rests 


Taste 

chiefly  on  his  "  Rime,"  or  lyrical 
poems,  his  "  Aminta,"  and  his  "  Gieru- 
salemme  Liberata "  (translated  into 
English  by  Fairfax),  His  letters  also 
are  interesting. 

Taste,  one  of  the  special  senses. 
The  parts  of  the  mouth  affected  by 
sapid  substances  are  the  surface  and 
sides  of  the  tongue,  the  roof  of  the 
mouth,  and  the  entrance  to  the  phar- 
ynx. The  mucous  membrane  is  in- 
vested by  stratified  squamous  epithe- 
lium, which,  over  the  surface  of  the 
tongue,  covers  little  vascular  projec- 
tions  termed  papillae 

Into  these  trenches  Ebner's  glands 
secrete  a  watery  albuminous  fluid, 
keeping  them  perpetually  moist  and 
free  from  foreign  particles.  In  the 
epithelium  lining  these  trenches  curi- 
ous little  bodies  called  taste  bulbs  are 
lodged ;  the  parts  which  are  probably 
more  especially  concerned   in   taste. 

While  it  is  almost  certain  that  these 
taste  bulbs  are  organs  of  taste,  it  is 
not  equally  certain  that  other  parts 
are  not  involved.  The  reason  for  this 
belief  is  that  in  the  front  and  sides 
of  the  tongue  these  taste  bulbs  are 
few  in  number,  while  in  these  regions 
taste  sensations  are  pretty  acute.  It 
is  therefore  not  improbable  that  the 
nerves  which  abundantly  pass  into  the 
epithelium  of  the  tongue  end  in  other 
ways,  but  unfortunately  we  are  at 
present  much  in  the  dark  concerning 
their  exact  method  of  termination.  It 
is  to  be  noted  that  the  protective  layer 
of  the  mucous  membrane  is  thin,  and 
might  conceivably  be  permeated  read- 
ily by  the  juices  of  the  mouth,  which 
would  reach  the  lower  cells  into  which 
some  of  the  nerves  certainly  pass. 
From  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth  the  impressions  produced  by 
sapid  substances  are  carried  probably 
by  fibers  belonging  to  the  fifth  nerve. 
These  fibers,  though  they  belong  to 
this  nerve,  are  found  to  run  in  the 
greater  part  of  their  course  in  other 
nerve  trunks  —  viz.  the  glosso-pharyn- 
geal,  to  the  back  of  the  mouth  and 
tongue,  and  the  chorda  tympani  to 
the  front  of  the  tongue. 

Tatiaxt,  a  heresiarch  of  the  2d  cen- 
tury, was  born  in  Assyria  about  120, 
and  died  about  172.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  Greek  philosophy;  travelled 
extensively;  caused  himself  to  be  ini- 
tiated in  the  rites  of  various  religions ;  • 


Tattnall 

and  eventually  embraced  Christianity. 
Tatian  became  a  disciple  of  Justin, 
after  whose  martyrdom  he  left  Rome 
and  journeyed  into  Mesopotamia, 
where  he  preached  certain  Gnostic 
and  heretical  doctrines.  He  seems  to 
have  disbelieved  in  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  and  his  teachings  inculcated 
abstinence  from  wine,  from  animal 
flesh,  and  from  marriage. 

Tattle,  a  screen  made  of  split  bam- 
boo placed  vertically  in  doors  and 
windows  in  India  (the  window  frames 
being  temporarily  taken  out)  while 
the  dry  hot  wind  is  blowing  during 
April,  May,  and  June.  A  native  with 
a  pail  of  water  stands  outside  drench- 
ing the  mat,  so  that  every  interstice 
has  a  drop  of  water.  As  the  dry  wind 
blows  into  the  house  through  these 
drops,  evaporation  takes  place  with 
such  speed  as  to  cool  the  wind,  which 
enters  the  house  at  a  temperature 
quite  refreshing.  A  single  pane  of 
.glass  is  sometimes  placed  in  the  win- 
dow tattle  to  afford  the  inmates  of 
the  room  a  small  amount  of  lightJ 
When  the  hot  season  is  succeeded  by 
the  rainy  season,  the  tatties  are  re- 
moved, as  the  wind  is  already  satu- 
rated with  moisture,  and  the  tempera- 
ture does  not  require  to  be  artificially 
reduced. 

Tattnall,  Josiah,  an  American 
military  officer ;  born  in  Bonaventura, 
Ga.,  in  1762 ;  went  to  England  with 
his  parents  who  were  Loyalists,  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary 
War,  but  ran  away  from  home  in 
1770;  returned  to  Georgia,  and  joined 
the  army  under  Gen.  Nathanael 
Greene.  He  was  made  colonel  of 
militia  in  1793  and  Brigadier-General 
in  1800 ;  took  an  active  part  in  the 
military  affairs  in  the  State ;  and  was 
United  States  Senator  from  Georgia 
in  1796-1799  and  governor  of  that 
State  in  1800.  He  died  in  Nassau, 
New  Providence,  June  6,  1803. 

Tattnall,  Josiak,  an  American  na- 
val officer ;  born  near  Savannah,  Ga., 
Nov.  9,  1795.  He  served  in  the  War 
of  1812;  in  the  Algerine  War;  in  the 
West  Indies ;  and  in  the  Mexican 
Wai".  In  1857  he  was  appointed  flag- 
officer  of  the  Asiatic  station.  While 
in  the  East  he  violated  the  law  of 
neutrality  by  aiding  the  British  in  an 
attack  on  a  Chinese  fort,  but  in  this 
was    sustained     by    his    government. 


Tattooing 

During  the  Civil  War  he  was  made 
a  captain  in  the  Confederate  navy 
and  in  1862  succeeded  Franklin  Bu- 
chanan in  command  of  the  "  Merri- 
mac."  In  the  same  year  he  destroyed 
the  ship  to  prevent  her  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  Federals.  He  died 
in  Savannah,  Ga.,  June  14,  1871. 

Tattooing,  the  custom  of  marking 
the  skin  with  figures  of  various  kinds 
by  means  of  slight  incisions  or  punc- 
tures and  a  coloring  matter.  The 
word  itself  is  Tahitian  (ta,  "  a 
mark"),  but  the  practice  is  very 
widely  spread,  being  universal  in  the 
South  Sea  Islands,  and  also  found 
among  the  North  and  South  Ameri- 
can Indians,  the  Dyaks,  the  Burmese, 
Chinese,   and  Japanese,   and  common 


TATTOOBID   HAOBI   CHIEF. 

enough  still  among  civilized  sailors. 
It  is  expressely  forbidden  in  Scripture 
(Lev.  xix :  28),  from  which  it  is  to 
be  concluded  that  it  was  common 
among  the  ancient  nations.  Among 
the  Polynesians  the  operation  is  at- 
tended with  circumstances  of  cere- 
mony, and  the  figures  represented  are 
often  religious  in  signification  or  sym- 
bolic of  rank,  not  seldom  the  totem  or 
special  tribal  badge.  The  New  Zea- 
landers  were  distinguished  by  elabo- 
rate tattooing  of  the  face,  and  many 
of  their  heads  are  preserved  in  Eu- 
ropean museums.  As  it  was  formerly 
a  common  custom  for  shipmasters  to 
purchase  these  on  visiting  New  Zea- 
land there  is  little  doubt  that  the  de- 
mand stimulated  the  supply. 

Dr.    Wuttke    labors    to    prove   that 
tattooing   is   a   kind   of   writing,   but, 


Tattooing 

whatever  may  be  the  case  elsewhere, 
its  origin  in  Japan,  where  it  reached 
its  greatest  perfection,  is  neither  cere- 
monial nor  symbolical,  but  merely  cos- 
metic. Its  end  is  to  take  the  part  of 
a  garment  or  decoration,  those  parts 
of  the  body  only  being  tattooed  which 
are  usually  covered,  and  only  in  the 
cases  of  such  workmen  as  runners, 
grooms,  bearers,  who  work  in  a  half- 
nude  state.  Still  further,  this  is 
found  only  in  large  and  civilized  towns 
where  nudity  might  have  been  ob- 
jectionable. It  was  a  substitute  for 
clothing,  but  now  that  clothing  is 
compulsory  in  Japan  it  has  lost  its 
meaning,  and  may  be  expected  to  dis- 
appear. Dr.  Baelz,  writing  in  1885, 
estimated  that  a  few  years  before 
there  were  in  Tokyo  alone  as  many 
as  30,000  men  who  were  tattooed.  The 
head,  neck,  hands,  and  feet  are  never 
tattooed,  and  it  is  found  among  the 
lower  classes  alone,  and  very  seldom 
among  women,  and  these  only  the  dis- 
solute. ' 

Among  the  Ainos  again  the  tattoo- 
ing is  done  on  the  exposed  parts  of 
the  body,  and  largely  practised  by 
women.  The  Igorrotos  in  the  moun- 
tainous region  above  Luzon  tattoo 
elaborately,  but  in  series  of  lines  and 
curves.  They  ornament  the  hands, 
arms,  breast,  and  part  of  the  legs,  the 
back  only  in  one  tribe,  and  a  favorite 
form  is  a  picture  of  the  sun  as  a  num- 
ber of  concentric  circles  on  the  back 
of  the  hand.  According  to  the  Arch- 
duke Joseph  of  Austria,  tattooing  is 
unknown  among  the  gypsies,  but  thia 
is  questioned  by  Bataillard  and  Mac- 
Ritchie. 

Many  savages  paint  their  skins  as  a 
means  of  protection  against  cold,  or 
against  the  sun's  heat  or  the  bites  of 
insects;  others  again  attempt  thus  to 
make  their  aspect  more  terrible  in 
war,  as  Caesar  tells  us  did  the  ancient 
Britons,  Tattooing  has  often  been 
employed  as  a  badge  of  brotherhood 
in  some  cause,  and  more  often  still  as 
a  means  of  identification  for  slaves 
and  criminals.  The  so-called  branding 
of  the  letters  D.  and  B.  C.  on  military 
deserters  and  incorrigible  characters, 
only  given  up  in  1879,  was  merely 
tattooing  with  needles  and  India  ink. 
Among  the  lower-class  criminal  popu- 
lation in  Europe  the  practice  of  tattoo- 
ing is  still  common,  but  almost  ex- 
clusively among  males. 


Taunton. 

Taunton,  city  and  capital  of  Bris- 
tol county,  Mass.;  on  ithe  Taunton 
river  and  the  New  Yoi-k,  New  Ha- 
ven &  Hartford  railroad:  37  miles  S. 
of  Boston;  contains  a  Federal  Build- 
ing. State  Hospital  for  the  Insane, 
and  Bristol  Academy  (1792);  mami 
factures  locomotives,  machinery,  cot 
ton  and  print  cloths,  printing  presses, 
nails  and  tacks,  "hrick  and  tile,  and 
stoves.     Pop.   (1910)   34.259. 

Taurus,  in  astronomy,  the  Bull 
second  of  the  constellations;  bounded 
E.  by  Gemini.  W.  by  Aries,  N.  by 
Perseus  and  Auriga,  and  S.  by  Orion 


TAUEUS. 

and  Eridanus.  It  is  composed  of 
many  small  stars,  but  has  a  large 
one  (Aldebaran)  situated  in  the  midst 
of  a  group  called  the  Uyades.  They 
constitute  the  Bull's  forehead  and 
eye.  Another  group  falling  within 
the  limits  of  Taurus  is  that  of  the 
Pleiades.  It  is  situated  on  the  shoul 
der  of  the  Bull.  Taurus  contains  also 
the  Crab  cluster.  Also  the  second 
sign  of  the  zodiac. 

Taussig,  EdDcard  David,  an 
American  naval  oflBcer;  born  in  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  Nov.  20,  1847;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Naval  Acad- 
emy in  1867;  commissioned  lieuten- 
ant-commander in  1892;  served  in 
various  stations  in  Atlantic  and  Pacif- 
ic waters,  and  in  the  coast  survey; 
and  was  appointed  commander  of  the 


Tavojr 

"  Bennington  "  in  1898.  He  took  pos- 
session of  VVaku  Island  for  the 
United  States,  was  placed  in  charge 
of  Anam  on  Feb.  1,  1S99;  and  later, 
was  assigned  to  duty  in  the  Philip- 
pines and  in  China.  He  commanded 
the  Norfolk  Navy  Yard  from  1907; 
promoted  rear-admiral  1008. 

Tautog,  the  hlackfish ;  common 
on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  temperate 
North  America.  It  attains  a  size  of 
from  12  to"  14  pounds,  and  brings  a 
high  price  for  the  table. 

Tavernier,  Jean  Baptiste,  Bar* 
on  d'Aubonne,  the  son  of  a  Datcli 
merchant  settled  in  Paris ;  was  bom 
at  Paris  about  1605,  and  diod  at  Mos- 
cow in  1689.  Before  his  twenty-first 
year  he  had  visited  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  Europe,  and  he  repeatedly 
traveled  through  Turkey,  Persia,  In- 
dia, and  other  eastern  countries,  trad- 
ing as  a  diamond  merchant.  In  1669, 
having  realized  a  large  fortune,  and. 
obtained  a  patent  of  nobility  from  the 
French  king,  he  retired  to  his  estate 
of  Aubonne,  in  the  Genevese  territo- 
ries. He  compiled,  with  the  aid  of 
French  litterateurs,  "  Nouvelle  Rela- 
tion de  rinterieur  du  Serail  du  Grand 
Seigneur,"  "  Six  Voyages,"  and  "  Re- 
cueil  de  Plusieurs  Relations,"  which 
have  often  been  reprinted  and  trans- 
lated. 

Tavistock,  a  market-town,  Eng- 
land, County  of  Devon,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Tavy,  16  miles  north  of  JPlymouth. 
It  has  a  guild-hall,  public  library,  etc., 
and  some  remains  oi  a  once  magnifi- 
cent abbey.  Copper,  tin,  manganese, 
arsenic,  and  iron  are  found  in  the 
neighborhood.  It  ceased  to  be  a  par- 
liamentary borough,  1885.    Pop.  6,879. 

Tavoy,  a  district  in  the  Tenasse- 
rim  division  of  British  Burma;  area, 
7,150  square  miles.  The  country  is 
mountainous,  with  thick  forests  and 
jungle,  and  the  chief  rivers  are  the 
Tavoy  and  the  Tenasserim.  Pop.  84.- 
988.  The  chief  town  and  the  head- 
quarters of  the  deputy-commissioner  is 
Tavoy,  situated  about  30  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same 
name.  Pop.  22,371. — There  is  also  an 
Island  of  Tavoy,  the  largest  and  most 
northern  of  the  extensive  chain  which 
fronts  the  Tenasserim  coast.  It  is 
about  18  miles  long  and  2  broad,  and 
on  the  eastern  side  there  is  a  well- 
sheltered  harbor  called  Port  Owen, 


Taxation 

Taxation,  the  act  of  imposing  a 
tax  or  taxes  on  the  subjects  of  a  state 
or  government,  or  on  the  members  of  a 
corporation  or  company  by  the  proper 
authority,  for  the  raising  of  revenue 
to  meet  the  expenses  of  public  serv- 
ices ;  the  raising  of  revenue  by  means 
of  taxes;  the  system  by  which  such 
revenue  is  raised.  Also  a  tax  or  as- 
sessment imposed ;  the  aggregate  of 
particular  taxes. 

Taxel,  the  American  badger.  The 
body  is  of  a  whitish  color,  sometimes 
shaded  with  gray  or  tawny.  Length, 
excluding  the  tail,  about  24  inches, 
tall  6  inches.  It  abounds  on  the 
plains  watered  by  the  Missouri,  but 
its  S.  range  is  not  exactly  defined. 

Taxidermy,  the  name  given  to  the 
art  of  putting  up  natural  history  spec- 
imens in  the  dried  state.  It  includes 
the  skinning  and  stuffing  of  fishes,  rep- 
ti'.ps!,  amphibians,  birds,  and  mam- 
mals; insects  and  other  invertebrata. 
But  it  does  not  properly  comprise  the 
making  of  wet  zoological  preparations 
which  are  to  be  preserved  in  spirits ; 
nor,  strictly  speaking,  does  if  include 
the  articulating  of  skeletons,  though 
this  is  usually  treated  of  in  books  on 
taxidermy. 

Taxin,  in  chemfstry,  a  resinous  sub- 
stance extracted  from  the  leaves  of 
the  yew  tree  by  treatment  with  alco- 
hol containing  tartaric  acid.  It  is 
slightly  soluble  in  water,  soluble  in 
alcohol,  ether,  and  dilute  acids,  and 
precipitated  from  acid  solutions  by  al- 
kalies in  white  bulky  flocks. 

Taxns,  in  botany,  the  yew.  The  com- 
mon yew  is  an  evergreen  tree  which 
often  attains  a  great  size.  Specimens 
of  remarkable  antiquity  are  commonly 
seen  in  old  churchyards.  The  timber 
is  extremely  durable  and  valuable,  and 
was  formerly  much  used  for  making 
bows.  Its  leaves  and  young  branches 
act  as  narcotic-acrid  poisons  when 
eaten  by  man  or  the  lower  animals. 

Taylor,  Archibald  Alexander 
Edivard,  an  American  clergyman ; 
born  in  Springfield,  O.,  Aug.  27,  1834 ; 
was  graduated  at  the  Princeton  Col- 
lege in  1854  and  at  the  Princeton  The- 
ological Seminary  in  1857;  was  or- 
dained in  the  Presbyterian  Church ; 
held  pastorates  in  Kentucky,  Iowa, 
and  Ohio  in  1857-1873 :  was  president 
of  the  University  of  Wooster.  O.,  in 
1873-1883;  and  dean  and  professor  of 

^..  149. 


Taylor 

its  post-graduate  department  in  1884— 
1887.  He  became  pastor  of  the  West- 
minster Church,  Columbus,  O.,  in 
1892. 

Taylor,  Bayard,  an  American 
writer  and  traveler ;  born  in  Kennett 
Square,  Chester  co.,  Pa.,  Jan.  11, 
1825.  lie  learned  the  trade  of  a  print- 
er ;  contributed  to  various  magazines ; 
made  a  journey  through  Europe  on 
foot  in  1844-1845 ;  on  his  return  pub- 
lished "  Views  Afoot  in  Europe,"  and 
in  this  way  gained  a  position  on  the 
staff  of  the  New  York  "  Tribune."  He 
afterward  traveled  extensively.  He  re- 
sided in  Germany  for  lengthened  pe- 
riods, was  for  some  time  United  States 
secretary  of  legation  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  latterly  was  United  States 
minister  to  Germany.  He  died  in  Ber- 
lin, Dec.  19,  1878. 

Taylor,  Benjamin  Franklin,  an 
American  author ;  born  in  Lowville, 
N.  Y.,  July  19,  1819.  He  was  for  sev- 
eral years  connected  with  the  Chicago 
"  Evening  Journal."  He  died  in  Cleve- 
land, O.,  Feb.  24,  1887. 

Taylor,  Charles  Jay,  an  American 
artist ;  born  in  New  York  city,  Aug. 
11,  18G5 ;  was  graduated  at  the  Law 
Department  of  Columbia  College,  and 
then  studied  art.  Many  of  his  works 
have  been  exhibited  at  the  Academy  ot 
Fine  Arts,  Chicago,  the  Paris  Exhibi- 
tion, etc. 

Taylor,  George  Boardman,  an 
American  clergyman ;  bom  in  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  Dec.  27,  1832 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Richmond  College  and  the 
University  of  Virginia ;  ordained  in 
the  Baptist  Church  ;  and  served  as  pas- 
tor in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  Staunton, 
Va.  In  1873  he  took  a  Baptist  mis- 
sion  in   Italy.    He  died  in  1907. 

Taylor,  Sir  Henry,  an  English 
writer ;  born  near  Durham,  England, 
Oct.  18,  1800.  At  the  age  of  14  he 
entered  the  navy;  contributed  to  vari- 
ous periodicals  an^  accepted  an  ap- 
pointment in  the  colonial  office,  where 
he  remained  for  nearly  50  years.  He 
died  in  Bournemouth,  March  27,  1880. 

Taylor,  Henry  Clay,  an  American 
naval  officer ;  born  in  Washington,  D. 
C,  Mar.  4,  1845;  entered  the  navy  in 
September,  1860;  promoted  ensign  in 
May,  1863,  and  attached  to  the 
"  Shenandoah  "  where  he  continued  to 
serve  till  1864,  when  he  was  assigned 


Taylor 

to  special  service  in  the  "  Iroquois." 
In  November,  1893,  was  appointed 
president  of  the  Naval  War  College 
in  Newport,  R.  I. ;  and  on  April  16, 
1894,  was  promoted  captain.  Later  he 
was  made  commander  of  the  battleship 
"  Indiana,"  and  took  part  in  the  de- 
struction of  Cervera's  fleet.  He  be- 
came a  rear-admiral  in  1901 ;  was  ap- 
pointed chief  of  Bureau  of  Navigation, 
April  26,   1902.     Died  July  26,  1904. 

Taylor,  Horace  A.,  an  American 
financier ;  born  in  Norfolk,  N.  Y.,  May 
24,  1831 ;  moved  to  Wisconsin  in 
1847,  and  there  engaged  in  newspaper 
work,  banking  and  lumbering.  He 
was  United  States  consul  to  France ; 
a  member  of  the  Wisconsin  Senate ; 
United  States  railroad  commissioner ; 
and  one  of  the  commissioners  of  the 
World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chi- 
cago. He  was  promoted  assistant 
secretary  of  the  United  States  treas- 
ury in  1897. 

Taylor,  James  Edivard,  an  Amer- 
ican artist ;  born  in  Cincinnati,  O., 
Dec.  12,  1839;  studied  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  IS'^otre  Dame,  South  Bend,  Ind. 
He  early  manifested  a  marked  taste 
for  drawing  and  painting;  and  just 
after  finishing  his  education  produced 
a  panorama  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion. In  1860  he  began  the  study  of 
art ;  but  when  the  Civil  War  broke 
out  he  entered  the  army  with  the  10th 
New  York  Regiment.  During  his 
spare  time  in  the  army  he  made  nu- 
merous sketches  of  camp  life.  In  1863 
he  became  artist  and  war  correspond- 
ent for  Frank  Leslie.  In  1867  he  was 
sent  as  artist  with  the  Peace  Commis- 
sion to  the  Indians.  lie  also  accom- 
panied President  Grant's  Commission 
to  Santo  Domingo.  He  retired  from 
"  Leslie's  Illustrated  Newspaper  "  in 
18S3,  after  which  he  devoted  himself 
to,  painting.  One  of  his  best  known 
works  is  "  The  Last  Grand  Review," 
made  for  General  Sherman.  Four  other 

gaintings  arg  in  the  Congressional  Li- 
rarv  in  Washington,  D.  C.    He  died 
in  New  York  city,  June  22,  1901. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  "  the  modern 
Chrysostom  " ;  born  in  Cambridge,  En- 
gland. He  studied  at  Caius  College, 
and  took  his  degree  of  M.  A.  in  1633. 
Shortly  after  he  was  admitted  to  holy 
orders.  In  1638  he  was  appointed  rec- 
tor of  Uppingham  in  Rutlandshire.  In 
the  civil  war,  Taylor  took  the  royal 


Taylo» 

side,  and  so  lost  all  his  preferments. 
For  many  years  he  lived  in  retirement 
in  Wales,  busily  engaged  in  writing 
books.  In  1658  he  went,  on  the  in- 
vitation of  the  Earl  of  Conway,  to 
Ireland.  Immediately  after  the  Res- 
toration he  was  made  Bishop  of  Down 
and  Connor,  which  see,  as  also  that  of 
Dromore,  he  held  till  his  death  at  Lis- 
burne,  Aug.  13,  1667. 

Taylor,  Jolm,  styled  by  himself 
"  The  King's  Majesty's  Water-Poet  "  ; 
born  in  Gloucester,  England,  in  Au- 
gust, 1580.  After  serving  in  16  voy- 
ages, having  been  with  Essex  at  Cadiz 
and  the  Azores,  he  began  to  ply  as  a 
waterman  on  the  Thames.  He  was 
chiefly  distinguished  by  the  perform- 
ance of  several  fantastic  feats  of  row- 
ing. The  memorable  incident  of  his 
life,  however,  was  his  traveling  on 
foot  from  London  to  Edinburgh,  "  not 
carrying  any  money  to  or  fro,  neither 
begging,  borrowing,  or  asking  meat, 
drink,  or  lodging."  He  set  out  on  July 
14,  1618,  and  reached  Edinburgh  on 
Aug.  13.  In  1630  Taylor  published 
"  All  the  Works  of  J.  T.,  being  Sixty 
and  Three  in  Number,"  but  before  his 
death  in  1654  he  had  produced  138  sep- 
arate publications. 

Taylor,  John,  an  American  Mor- 
mon ;  born  in  Winthrop,  Westmore- 
I  land,  England,  Nov.  1,  1808 ;  went  to 
Toronto,  Canada,  in  1832,  and  was 
there  converted  to  Moj-monism.  In 
1838  he  was  made  an  "  apostle  "  and 
settled  in  Missouri.  For  10  years  he 
preached  his  faith  in  France  and  En- 
gland, but  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  1852.  He  was  with  Joseph 
Smith  when  the  latter  was  killed,  and 
was  himself  shot  four  times.  When 
Utah  applied  for  admission  to  the 
Union  he  represented  that  territory  in 
Congress,  and  on  the  death  of  Brigham 
Young  was  elected  president  of  the 
Mormon  Church.  In  1885  he  was  in- 
dicted for  polygamy,  and  in  order  to 
avoid  arrest  was  forced  to  exile  him- 
self.    He  died  July  25,  1887. 

Taylor,  Joliu  Louis,  an  American 
jurist;  born  in  London,  England, 
March  1,  1769;  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1781 ;  was  educated  at  Will- 
iam and  Mary  College ;  and  removed 
to  Fayetteville,  N.  C.  where  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Legislature ;  elected  judge  of 
the  Superior  Court  in  1798;  and  be- 


Taylor 

came  chief  justice  in  1808.  In  1817 
tie  was  appointed  a  commissioner  to 
revise  the  statute  laws  of  North  Caro- 
lina ;  and  in  1818  one  of  the  judges 
of  the  newly  established  court,  where 
he  served  till  his  death  in  Raleigh,  N. 
C,  Jan.  29,  1829. 

Taylor,  Marshall  William,  an 
American  clergyman ;  born  in  Louis- 
ville, Ky,,  July  1,  1846;  became  a 
teacher  in  Hardinsburg,  Ky.,  under 
the  Freedman's  Bureau  in  1867 ;  en- 
tered the  ministry  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  Kentucky  in 
1870 ;  delegate  to  the  Ecumenical 
Methodist  Conference  in  London  in 
1881 ;  was  editor  of  the  "  Southwest- 
ern Christian  Advocate  "  in  1884.  He 
died  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  Sept.  11,  1887. 

Taylor,  Nathaniel  William,  an 
American  clergyman ;  born  in  New 
Milford,  Conn.,  June  23,  1786;  stud- 
ied at  Yale ;  became  pastor  of  a  Con- 
gregational church  at  New  Haven  in 
1812 ;  and  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Yale  College  in  1822.  He  died  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  March  10,  1858. 

Taylor,  Richard,  an  American 
military  officer ;  born  in  New  Orleans, 
La.,  Jan.  27,  1826;  was  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1845 ;  and  entered  the 
Mexican  War  with  his  father,  Zach- 
ary  Taylor.  In  1861  he  became  col- 
onel in  the  Confederate  ai"my.  He 
was  made  a  Brigadier-General  in  Oc- 
tober, 1861 ;  served  under  "Stonewall" 
Jackson  in  Virginia ;  was  promoted 
Major-General ;  and  in  1863-1864 
served  in  the  Trans-Mississippi  De- 
partment. Afterward  he  was  in  com- 
mand at  Mobile.  He  died  in  New 
York  city  April  12,  1879. 

Taylor,  Thomas,  an  American  sci- 
entist :  born  in  Perth,  Scotland,  April 
22,  1820 ;  was  educated  at  the  Ander- 
sonian  University  in  Glasgow,  Scot- 
land. He  invented  the  first  inter- 
leaved electrical  condenser  in  1841 ; 
a  pneumatic  battery  for  igniting  ex- 
plosives in  1850;  a  safety  lamp  for 
coal  miners;  and  in  1851  came  to 
the  United  States  and  demonstrated 
that  electricity  could  be  transmitted 
across  the  sea  without  wires.  He  be- 
came connected  with  the  Ordnance  De- 
partment of  the  army. 

Taylor,  Tom,  an  English  drama- 
tist ;  born  in  Sunderland,  in  1817.  He 
received  his  education  at  Glasgow  Uni- 


Taylor 

versify  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge ;  became  professor  for  two  year* 
in  University  College,  London ;  was 
called  to  the  bar ;  wrote  and  adapted 
for  the  stage  a  great  number  of  plays ; 
was  editor  of  "  Punch."  He  died  ia 
Wandsworth,  England,  July  12,  1880. 

Taylor,  W^illiam,  an  American 
clergyman;  born  in  Rockbridge  co., 
Va.,  May  2,  1821 ;  was  a  member  of 
the  Baltimore  Conference  in  1843 ;  in 
1849  was  pent  by  the  Missionary  So- 
ciety of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  to  San  Francisco  where  he 
labored  till  1856,  when  he  started  on 
an  evangelistic  tour  through  Canada 
and  the  Eastern  States.  In  1862  he 
went  abroad  to  continue  his  work.  In 
1872  he  started  the  self-supporting 
missions  in  Bombay,  and  later  en- 
gaged in  similar  work  in  Africa,  of 
which  he  was  made  missionary  bishop 
in  1884.  He  was  relieved  of  his  charge 
in  Africa  in  1896.    Died  May  18,  1902. 

Taylor,  William  Boirer,  an 
American  physicist ;  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  May  23,  1821;  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1840;  admitted  to  the^ 
Philadelphia  bar  in  1844;  and  later 
studied  civil  engineering.  He  was 
examiner  in  the  United  States  patent 
office  in  1854-1877;  and  editor  of  the 
publications  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution after  1878.    Died  in  1895. 

Taylor,  William  George  Lang- 
■worthy,  an  American  educator ;  born 
in  New  York  city  May  13,  1859;  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  University  in 
1880,  and  at  its  Law  Department  in 
1883.  In  1893  was  made  Professor  of 
Economics  at  the  University  of  Ne- 
braska. 

Taylor,  Zachary,  an  American 
statesman,  12th  President  of  the 
United  States ;  born  in  Orange  co., 
Va.,  Sept.  24,  1785.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  Virginia  colonel,  who  served  in 
the  Revolutionary  War.  The  family 
removed  to  Kentucky  in  178.5.  In 
1808  he  was  appointed  a  lieutenant  of 
infantry,  and  in  1810  promoted  to 
captain.  In  1812  he  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  Fort  Harrison, 
near  the  present  city  of  Terre  Haute, 
Ind.,  which  he  defended  with  his 
troops  from  the  attack  of  a  large  force 
of  Indians,  for  which  he  was  brevetted 
major.    He  served  in  the  Black  Hawk 


Taylor  University 


Tea 


War  of  1832,  and  in  1837  was  given 
full  command  in  Florida,  where  he 
defeated  the  Indians  in  the  battle  of 
Okechobee,  thereby  putting  an  end 
to  the  Indian  War.  In  1840  he  was 
given  command  in  the  Southwest. 
When  Texas  was  annexed,  he  marched 
to  Corpus  Christi.  In  1846  he  was 
ordered  to  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Mexi- 
can invasion  having  been  already 
planned.  He  established  a  camp  op- 
posite Matamoras.  The  Mexicans 
claimed  that  the  ^Jueces  was  the  actual 
Texas  boundary,  and  the  Mexican 
commander  ordered  Taylor  to  with- 
draw. Acting  under  orders  from  his 
government,  he  refused.     Fearing  his 


founded  in  1893  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

Tayra,  in  zoology,  a  small  carnivo- 
rous mammal,  about  the  size  of  a  mar- 
ten, from  tropical  America.  It  is  easily 
tamed,  and  becomes  a  lively  and  amus- 
ing pet  in  captivity. 

Tchad,  CTliad,  or  Tsad,  Lake,  a 
large  fresh-water  lake  of  Central 
Africa,  in  the  Sudan,  having  the  terri- 
tories of  Bornu,  Kanem,  and  Bagirmi 
surrounding  it;  length,  about  150 
miles ;  breadth,  about  100  miles ;  area, 
about  20,000  square  miles,  with  a 
variable  expanse  according  as  it  is  the 
wet  or  dry  season. 


TEA    PLANT,    FRUIT    AND    FLOWER. 


base  of  supplies  at  Point  Isabel  would 
be  cut  off,  Taylor  marched  for  that 
place.  On  the  way  he  was  attacked, 
and  won  the  two  victories  of  Palo 
Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  on  two 
successive  days.  Having  been  or- 
dered to  send  his  best  troops  to  re- 
inforce General  Scott,  he  won  the  vic- 
torjy  of  Buena  Vista,  nevertheless,  in 
1847,  with  a  force  much  inferior  to 
the  enemy's.  In  1848  he  was  nom- 
inated by  the  Whig  Convention  for 
the  presidency,  and  was  elected.  Inau- 
jrurated  on  March  4,  1849,  he  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  July  9,  1850. 

Taylor    University,    a    coeduca- 
tional   institution    in    Upland,    Ind. ; 


Tchernozem,  the  name  for  a  black 
soil  in  Russia  of  extraordinary  fer- 
tility, covering  at  least  100,000,000 
acres,  from  the  Carpathians  to  the 
Ural  Mountains,  to  the  depth  of  from 
4  to  20  feet. 

Tea,  the  dried  leaf  of  an  evergreen 
shrub  of  the  natural  order  Ternstroe- 
miacese.  It  includes  the  China  plant, 
and  the  indigenous  Assam  plant.  At  one 
time  it  was  supposed  that  two  Chinese 
species  were  grown  of  which  one  fur- 
nished the  black  tea  and  the  other 
the  green  tea  of  commerce,  but  further 
research  has  shown  that  these  species 
j  cannot  be  maintained.  Whether  the 
I  tea  shrub  is  indigenous  in  China  and 


Teak 


Te  Denm 


Japan  is  a  doubtful  question.  The 
fact  has  been  historically  established 
that  the  culture  of  tea  existed  in  China 
in  the  4th  century,  and  in  Japan  in 
the  0th  century,  and  from  these  coun- 
tries it  was  exclusively  obtained  for 
any  other  part  of  the  globe  till  the 
time  of  the  present  generation. 

The  discovery  of  the  indigenous 
plant  in  the  forest  country  of  Upper 
Assam  was  made  in  1834,  and  since 
1840  its  cultivation  there  has  taken 
very  firm  root. 

Teak,  one  of  the  most  valuable  tim- 
bers known ;  the  wood  of  a  large  de- 
ciduous tree,  with  leaves  from  10  to 
20  inches  in  length,  and  from  8  to 
15  inches  in  breadth.  The  tree,  which 
has  small  white  flowers  in  panicles,  is 
found  in  Central  and  Southern  India. 
There  are  extensive  forests  of  it  in 
Burma  and  Siam,  and  it  extends  into 
Java  and  some  neighboring  islands. 
The  wood  is  of  a  quiet  yellow  color, 
tending  to  brown,  and  like  many  other 
kinds  of  timber  has  a  characteristic 
odor.  It  is  classed  as  a  hardwood, 
though  it  is  only  of  medium  hardness, 
taking,  however,  a  good  polish ;  and 
it  is  straight  grained  and  strong. 

Teal,  the  common  name  for  ducks 
of  the  genus  Querquedula.  the  small- 
est and  most  beautiful  of  the  Anatidae, 
or  duck  family,  widely  distributed  over 
the  world,  generally  frequenting  rivers 
and  lakes,  and  feeding,  principally  at 
night,  on  aquatic  insects,  worms,  small 
mollusks  and  vegetable  matter. 
_  Tears,  usually  pure  water,  with  sa- 
line traces ;  but  in  cases  of  poisoning 
may  show  the  poison,  and  in  diabetes 
become  saccharine  like  the  other  se- 
cretions. Serving  normally  to  moisten 
eyeballs,  interior  eyelids,  and  nose, 
they  are  regularly  secreted  in  normal 
quantities,  and  disappear  by  the  duct 
into  the  nose.  In  man  they  are  also 
the  natural  outlets  of  strong  emotion, 
and  are  secreted  in  greatly  increased 
quantity ;  they  much  more  constantly 
accompany  crises  of  fear,  anxiety, 
grief,  affection,  and  keen  joy  than 
physical  pain.  Old  age  is  compara- 
tively tearless. 

Teasel,  in  botany,  the  genus  Dip- 
sacus.  About  150  species  are  known, 
natives  of  the  temperate  parts  of  the 
Old  World  and  of  America.  The  only 
valuable  species  of  the  order  is  ful- 
ler's  teaseL     The    crooked    awns    are 


fixed  around  the  circumference  of  large 
broad  wheels  or  cylinders,  and  woolen 
cloth  is  held  against  them.  They  raise 
a  nap  on  it  which  is  afterward  cut 
level.  A  piece  of  fine  broadcloth  re- 
quires 1,500  or  2,000  of  them  to  bring 
out  the  nap,  after  which  the  teasels 
are  broken  and  useless.  Steel  substi- 
tutes for  teasels  have  been  tried,  but 
ineffectually;  they  are  not  suflSciently 
pliant. 

Tecknology,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  arts,  more  particularly 
the  mechanical.  It  is  properly  the  sci- 
ence of  the  arts. 

Technology,  Schools  of,  institu- 
tions for  the  training  of  students  iu 
the  industrial  arts  and  exact  sciences; 
chieUy  civil,  electrical,  mining,  and 
mechanical  engineering. 

Tecumseh,  an  American  Indian; 
born  near  Springfield,  O.,  about  1768; 
first  appeared  in  a  fight  with  Ken- 
tucky troops  on  Mad  river  in  1788.  In 
1805,  with  his  brother,  Ellskwatawa, 
he  projected  the  union  of  all  the  West- 
em  Indians  against  the  whites.  His 
defeat  in  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe 
ruined  these  plans,  but  he  continued 
his  efforts  among  the  Southern  tribes, 
and  ultimately  succeeded  in  inciting 
the  Creek  Nation  to  insurrection.  He 
then  joined  the  English,  and  com- 
manded the  Indian  allies  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  1812-1813.  He  was  in  the 
action  of  Raisin  river,  and  after  be- 
ing wounded  at  Maguaga  was  made 
a  Brigadier-General  in  the  royal  army. 
He  led  2,000  warriors  in  the  siege  of 
Port  Meigs,  where  he  saved  the  Amer- 
ican prisoners  from  massacre ;  and 
commanded  the  right  wing  under  Gen- 
eral Proctor  in  the  battle  of  the 
Thames,  Canada,  where  his  Indiana 
were  driven  back  and  he  himself  killed 
Oct.  5,  1813. 

Tecumseh,  The,  a  slngle-turreted, 
ironclad  monitor  of  the  United  States 
navy.  During  the  Civil  War,  under 
the  command  of  Captain  Craven,  it 
formed  a  part  of  Admiral  Farra- 
gufs  fleet  in  the  attack  on  Mobile, 
Ala.,  and  was  sunk  by  a  torpedo  in 
Mobile  Bay,  Aug.  5,  1864. 

Te  De-am  ("  Te  Deum  laudamus," 
"We  praise  thee,  O  God"),  a  well- 
known  Latin  hymn  of  the  Western 
Church.  The  hymn  is  one  oi  the 
most  simple,  and  at  the  same  time  the 


Tegea 


Tel-el-Amarna 


most  solemn  and  majestic,  in  the 
:whole  range  of  Latin  hymnology.  Its 
authorship  is  micertain. 

Tegea,  a  city  of  Arcadia,  in  ancient 
Greece.  It  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Platsea  in  479  B.  o. ;  was  on  the  side 
of  Sparta  in  the  Peloponnesian  and 
Corinthian  wars,  but  opposed  her  at 
the  battle  of  Mantinea  in  302  b.  C.  ; 
and  joined  the  Arcadian  Confederacy 
and   ^tolian  and  Archaean  Leagues. 

Telieran,  or  Teliran,  the  capital  of 
Persia ;  70  miles  S.  of  the  shore  of  the 
Caspian  Sea.  A  wall,  10  m.  in  cir- 
cumference, with  12  gates,  completed 
1873,  circles  the  city.  The  Shah's  pal- 
ace occupies  the  citadel.  Besides  his 
town  palace,  the  Shah  has  five  others 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood.  The 
bazaars,  some  of  which  are  very  hand- 
some structures,  are  filled  with  every 
kind  of  native  and  foreign  merchau- 
dise.  From  Teheran  lines  of  telegraph 
radiate  in  almost  every  direction  to 
the  extremities  of  the  kingdom.  In 
1886  a  short  line  of  railway  was  con- 
structed from  Teheran  to  Shah  Ab- 
dul Azim,  a  shrine  and  place  of  pil- 
grimage about  0  miles  S.  of  the  town. 
Pop.  estimated  at  210,000. 

Tehnantepec,  iBthmns  of,  the 
narrowest  part  of  Mexico  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  A  rail- 
road 192  miles  long,  completed  at  a 
cost  of  $2.^,000,000  in  1900,  connects 
Coatzucoalcos  and  Salina  Cruz,  and  is 
a  rival  to  the  Panama  Canal  and  rail- 
road. 

Teinds,  the  name  given  in  Scotland 
to  tithes  or  the  proportion  of  the  an- 
nual produce  of  the  earth  devoted  to 
the  maintenance  of  the  clergy. 

Telantograpli,  an  instrument 
which  will  at  any  distance  transmit 
accurately  and  to  the  smallest  detail 
in  exact  facsimile  anything  that  may 
be  written  or  drawn  on  the  transmit- 
ting device. 

TelediagTapb,  The,  an  apparatus 
by  which  pictures  can  be  reproduced 
by  telegraph  at  long  istances.  It  was 
used  for  the  first  time  in  January, 
1898,  in  the  New  York  "Herald"  of- 
fice, when  a  picture  of  JIayor  Van 
Wyck  was  sent  over  a  6-mile  circuit, 
liater  pictures  were  sent  to  the  "Her- 
ald" from  Camden,  N.  J.,  and  Key 
West,  Fla.  In  the  early  part  of  1899 
a  picture   of   the   first   gun    fired   ^t 


Manila  was  telegraphed  from  New 
York  to  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Philadel- 
phia, and  Boston  simultaneously  over 
a  single  wire. 

Teledn,  in  zoology,  the  stinking 
badger ;  a  small,  nocturnal,  burrowing 
mammal,  found  only  in  Java  and  Su- 
matra. Like  the  skunk,  it  has  the 
power  of  ejecting  an  intensely  fetid 
liquid  from  its  anal  glands. 

Telegraph,  an  apparatus  or  proc- 
ess for  the  rapid  communication  of 
intelligence  between  distant  points. 
The  invention  of  the  electric  telegraph. 
is  due  to  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  who,  in 
1832,  during  a  homeward  voyage  from 
France  to  New  York,  conceived  the 
idea  of  writing  on  a  distant  strip  of 
moving  paper  by  means  of  a  pencil 
worked  by  an'  electro-magnet  and  a 
single  conducting  circuit,  and  who  in 
1844  completed  the  first  line  between 
Washington  and  Baltimore.  The  in- 
vention of  the  Leyden  jar,  and  the 
discovery  of  the  fact  that  the  earth 
and  intervening  bodies  of  water  may 
be  employed  as  part  of  an  electric 
circuit,  were  among  the  most  impor- 
tant steps  which  gradually  led  to  the 
completion  of  the  present  system  of 
telegraphy.  See  Electric  Telegraph  ; 
for  wireless  system  of  telegraphy, 
Marconi,  and  Wireless  Telegraph. 

Teleiconog^apli,  a  combination  of 
the  telescope  and  camera.  The  prin- 
ciple is  that  of  allowing  the  image 
transmitted  by  the  object  glass  of  a 
telescope  to  prss  through  a  prism  con- 
nected with  the  eye  piece.  The  rays 
of  light  that  would  in  the  ordinary 
use  of  the  telescope  be  transmitted  di- 
rect to  the  eye  are  refracted  by  the 
prism,  and  thrown  down  on  a  table 
placed  below  the  eye  piece. 

Tel-el-Amama,  or  Tell-el-Ama* 
rina,  the  modern  name  of  a  mass  of 
ruins  a  little  to  the  N.  of  Assiout,  on 
the  E.  bank  of  the  Nile,  representing 
the  capital  of  the  heretic  Egyptian 
king  Amenhotep  IV.  ^ere  was  found 
in  1887  a  collection  of  tablets  in 
Babylonian  cuneiform,  at  a  period 
some  time  before  the  exodus  of  the 
Israelites  out  of  Egypt.  These  tab- 
lets were  mainly  reports  from  Egyp- 
tian governors  of  Palestine,  Syria, 
Mesopotamia,  and  Babylonia,  some  of 
which  implored  help  against  the  Hit- 
tites. 


Telelectroscope 


Telephotograpli 


Telelectroscope,  an  electrical  ap- 
paratus for  transmitting  over  a  wire 
and  reproducing  at  a  distance  images 
of  objects  in  their  natural  colors. 

Telemacliiis,  in  mythology,  the  son 
cf  Ulysses  and  Penelope ;  was  an  in- 
fant when  his  father  left  home  to  join 
in  the  war  against  Troy;  but  during 
his  20  years'  absence  grew  into  man- 
hood. His  quest  for  his  long-lost  sire, 
guided  bj'  Athene  disguised  as  Mentor, 
his  return  to  Ithaca  where  he  found 
his  father  in  the  guise  of  a  beggar,  and 
their  slaying  of  Penelope's  troublesome 
suitors,  forms  one  of  the  pleasing  tales 
of  mythology. 

Telemicrophoiie,  a  combined  ap- 
paratus simultaneously  producing  the 
effects  of  the  microphone  and  the  tele- 
phone, and  reversible  like  the  latter. 

Telemobiloskop,  a  German  inven- 
tion in  1906,  which,  by  electric  waves, 
automatically  registers  the  approach 
of  one  ship  to  another. 

Teleology,  in  philosophy,  a  branch 
ef  metaphysics ;  the  doctrine  of  final 
causes  and  of  the  uses  which  every 
part  of  nature  was  designed  to  sub- 
serve; the  argument  from  design  in 
proof  of  the  existence  of  God. 

Teleosanms,  a  genus  of  fossil  croe- 
odiles,  the  remains  of  which  occur  in 
the  lower  Jurassic  rocks.  They  are 
found  associated  with  marine  fossils, 
and  the  peculiar  modification  of  their 
skeleton  seems  to  have  specially  fitted 
them  for  an  aquatic  life. 

Telepathy,  the  power  of  communi- 
cation between  one  mind  and  another 
by  means  unknown  to  the  ordinary 
sense  organs. 

Telephone,  an  instrument  for 
transmitting  sounds  or  speech  to  dis- 
tances where  such  would  be  inaudible 
through  aerial  waves.  The  true  in- 
ventor was  undoubtedly  Philip  Reis. 
who  showed,  in  1861,  that  variation-:\ 
in  an  electric  current  caused  by  a  vi- 
brating membrane  could  reproduce  the 
necessary  vibrations.  Reis  transmitted 
musical  sounds  and  even  words;  but 
his  apparatus  was  imperfect,  and  it 
■was  reserved  for  Alexander  Graham 
Bell  to  perfect  that  which  is  still  com- 
monly used  and  known  as  the  Bell 
telephone.  In  1892  a  long-distance 
telenbone  was  erected  between  Chicago 
and  the  larger  E.  cities   and  has  siocQ 


been  in  successful  operation.  In  1902 
a  patent  was  sought  in  the  United 
States  for  a  wireless  telephone  ser- 
vice, which  the  inventor  claimed  was 
equally  practicable  under  water  and 
on  land.  The  invention  of  Dr.  MichaeJ 
I.  Pupin  of  Columbia  University, 
New  York  city,  enables  the  telephone, 
overland  or  submarine,  to  be  used 
over  a  distance  of  3,000  miles,  and 
has  perfected  the  use  of  the  long  dis- 
tance telephone  between  such  distant 
points  as  New  York  and  San  Fran- 
cisco. Of  the  utmost  simplicity,  the 
device  consists  of  putting  coils  of 
wire  at  certain  intervals  about  the 
wire  which  transmits  the  waves  of . 
sound.  The  device  makes  a  differ- 
ence in  the  vibrations  and  preserves 
them  at  a  greater  distance.  The  es- 
tablishment of  telephonic  communica- 
tion between  London  and  New  York 
is  projected,  although  mechanical  dif- 
ficulties are  to  be  overcome  owing 
to  the  bulk  of  the  induction  coils. 
In  telephonic  cables  between  England 
and  France,  and  also  Ireland,  the 
introduction  of  induction  coils  has 
improved  their  capacity  by  one  hun- 
dred per  cent.  Prof.  Slaby  of  Ger- 
many, reported  in  1906  successful  re- 
sults attained  in  wireless  telephony 
over  a  distance  of  24  miles.  Recent 
achievements  in  wireless  telephony 
were  the  sending  of  messages  a  dis- 
tance of  60  miles  in  Germany  in 
1907;  a  distance  of  more  than  100 
miles  between  a  French  cruiser  and 
land  in  1909;  and  the  establishment 
of  clear  communication  through  1.300 
yards  of  solid  earth  in  England  in^ 
1910.     See  Wireless  Telegraphy. 

Telephote,an  instrument  for  trans- 
mitting to  a  distance  images  of  ob- 
jects by  the  agency  of  electricity  act- 
ing on  selenium. 

Telephotograph,  The  Rapid» 
officially  called  "  rapid  telegraph,"  an 
invention  which  transmits  as  many  as 
160,000  words  per  hour  on  a  single 
wire  if  the  voltage  and  resistance  of 
the  line  be  sufficient,  and  to  obtain 
telegrams  in  ordinary  handwriting  in- 
stead of  the  variation  of  the  Morse 
alphabet.  The  apparatus,  though 
looking  rather  complicated,  is  a  mar- 
vel of  simplicity  in  construction  and 
handling.  The  chief  advantages  are 
an  enormous  speed  on  wires  with  very 
low  voltage  currents,  a  permanent  and 
clearly    legible    automatic    record    in 


Telescope 

usual  handwriting,  automatic  control 
of  the  receiver  from  the  sending  sta- 
tion, transmission  from  perforated 
paper  and  automatic  receiving  by  pho- 
tographins:  tho  movements  of  tele- 
phones' diaphragms  (membranes). 

Telescope,  an  optical  instrument  to 
assist  the  naked  eye  in  examining  dis- 
tant objects,  by  magnifying  the  appar- 
ent angular  dimensions  of  the  object, 
and  by  collecting  more  light  than  the 
pupil  of  the  eye  could  alone  do  to 
form  the  image  on  the  retina. 

Telescope  Fish,  or  Telescope 
Carp,  in  ichthyology,  the  most  highly- 
prized  of  the  many  varieties  of  the 
goldfish. 

Telescopiuiu,  one  of  the  14  S.  con- 
stellations added  to  the  heavens  by 
Lacaille  in  connection  with  his  work 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  is  not 
a  conspicuous  constellation,  its  bright- 
■  est  star  being  of  3.5  magnitude. 

Telescriptor,  The,  a  long-distance 
typewriter.  This  instrument  is 
formed  on  the  order  of  a  typewriter, 
but  furnished  with  an  electric  current 
under  each  key  so  that  when  a  key 
is  depressed  at  one  end  of  the  wire  in- 
"  stantaneous  currents  can  be  sent  to 
any  distance.  The  operator  strikes 
the  keys  exactly  as  if  he  were  writing 
on  a  typewriter,  and  the  words  come 
out  on  a  strip  of  paper  that  unrolls 
before  him,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  message  is  being  writtep  tefore 
the  eyes  of  the  man  at  the  other  end 
of  the  line.  The  peculiar  value  of  the 
•'  telescriptor "  is  that  it  leaves  a 
printed  record  of  communication  both 
with   the  sender    and  the    receiver. 

Telespectroscope,  in  optics,  an  in- 
strument for  observing  the  light  from 
the  planets  and  fixed  stars,  for  ascer- 
taining ■  their  physical  condition  and 
the  composition  of  their  atmospheres. 

Telestereoscope,  an  instrument 
for  producing  an  appearance  of  relief 
in  the  objects  of  a  landscape  at  mod- 
erate distances.  It  consists  of  a  frame 
on  which  are  set  at  a  convenient  dis- 
tance apart  two  plane  mirrors  at  an 
angle  of  45°,  which  receive  the  rays 
of  light  from  the  objects;  these  are 
reflected  to  two  central  mirrors,  form- 
ing an  angle  of  45°  with  the  first,  in 
which  they  are  viewed  by  the  eye. 
Televue.o   an   electrical   device   an- 


Ten 

nounced  in  1906,  to  show  the  person 
with  whom  one  is  conversing  over  the 
telephone. 

Telford,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  engi- 
neer;  born  in  Westerkirk,  Scotland, 
Aug.  9,  1757 ;  became  a  mason  and 
later  as  civil  engineer  superintended 
the  building  of  the  Caledonian  canal, 
the  Severn  bridges,  and  the  Menai 
Strait  suspension  brid?e.  He  died 
Sept.  2,  1834. 

Telharmonium,  an  instrument 
perfected  in  1906  by  Dr.  Thaddeiis 
Cahill,  to  convey  music  over  wires.  It 
produces  musical  tones  by  different 
electrical  currents,  generated  by  hun- 
dreds of  dynamos,  and  from  the  New 
York  Headquarters.  Telharmonio  Hall, 
Broadway  and  39th  St..  transmits 
music  to  buildings  and  homes  many 
miles  distant  by  the  manipulation  of 
an  operator  at  a  special  keyboard. 

Tell,  William,  the  champion  of 
Swiss  liberty;  wa^  a  native  of  Burg- 
len,  in  the  canton  of  Uri.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished by  his  skill  in  archery,  hia 
strength  and  courage.  He  joined  the 
league  of  the  Three  Forest  cantons 
formed  to  free  the  country  from  Aus- 
trian tyranny.  The  Austrian  govern- 
or of  Switzerland,  Herman  Gessler, 
pushed  his  insolence  so  far  as  to  re- 
quire the  Swiss  to  uncover  their  heads 
before  his  hat,  and  is  said  to  have 
condemned  Tell,  who  refused  to  com- 
ply with  this  mandate,  to  shoot  an  ap- 
ple from  the  head  of  his  own  son. 
Tell  was  successful,  but  confessed  that 
a  second  arrow,  which  he  bore  about 
his  person,  was  intended,  in  case  he 
had  failed,  for  the  punishment  of  the 
tyrant,  and  he  was  therefore  retained 
prisoner.  While  crossing  the  Lake  of 
the  Four  Cantons,  or  Lake  of  Lu- 
cerne, in  the  same  boat  with  Gessler, 
a  violent  storm  arose.  Tell,  as  the 
most  vigorous  and  skillful  helmsman, 
was  set  free,  and  he  conducted  the  boat 
successfully  to  the  shore,  but  seized 
the  opportunity  to  spring  on  a  rock, 
at  the  same  time  pushing  off  the  boat. 
On  this  rock,  since  called  the  Rock  of 
Tell,  a  commemorative  monument  OP 
chapel  has  been  erected.  When  the 
governor  finally  escaped  the  storm,  and 
reached  the  shore.  Tell  fatally  shot 
him.  This  event  was  the  signal  for  a 
general  rising,  and  a  most  obstinate 
war  between  the  Swiss  and  Austrians, 


Teller 


Temperature  of  the  Body 


which  was  not  brought 'to  a  close  till 
1499. 

Teller,  Henry  Moore,  an  Ameri- 
can statesman ;  born  in  Granger,  N. 
Y.,  May  23,  1830;  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  185G ;  practiced  law  in  Illi- 
nois ;  went  to  Colorado  in  1861 ;  was 
Major-General  of  the  Colorado  mili- 
tia ;  United  States  Senator ;  Secretary 
of  the  Interior  in  President  Arthur's 
Cabinet.  He  was  again  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1897. 

Tellurion,  an  apparatus  for  the 
purpose  of  illustrating  to  the  eye  the 
real  and  apparent  movements  of  the 
earth. 

Telpher  Line,  in  electricity,  a  line 
on  which  transportation  is  automatic- 
ally effected  by  the  aid  of  electricity.  It 
is  composed  of  two  sets  of  steel  rails, 
supported  on  wooden  T-shaped  posts. 
A  wire  is  supported  on  each  end  of 
the  cross-piece  of  the  T.  The  carriers 
are  of  iron,  furnished  with  handles  by 
which  their  contents  are  tilted  over  by 
a  man  with  a  pole,  or  automatically 
tilted  by  these  handles  coming  suc- 
cessively into  contact  with  a  wooden 
arm  standing  out  from  the  post  where 
it  is  desired  they  should  be  emptied. 
The  great  practical  advantage  of  a 
telpher  line  is  that  it  can  be  carried 
through  a  district  without  any  inter- 
ference with  the  fields,  rivers,  or 
roads,  that  cutting  and  tunneling  are 
not  necessary,  and  that  no  ground  has 
to  be  purchased,  as  for  ordinary  rail- 
ways. 

Telngn,  or  Telinga,  one  of  the 
languages  of  India,  belonging  to  the 
Dravidian  group,  and  spoken  in 
Southern  India  by  about  17,000,000 
people. 

Temperament,  that  individual  pe- 
culiarity of  physical  organization  by 
which  the  manner  of  acting,  feeling, 
and  thinking  of  each  person  is  per- 
manently affected. 

Temperance  Movement,  a  move- 
ment designed  to  minimize  or  to  abol- 
ish the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  as 
beverages.  The  first  total  abstinence 
pledge  was  drafted  by  Micaiah  Pen- 
dleton of  Virginia.  Not,  hov^ever,  till 
1836  was  the  American  Temperance 
Union  formed  on  the  basis  of  total  ab- 
Btinence.  In  1840  the  Washington- 
lans  were  founded  in  the  city  of  Balti- 
more, and  in  1842  the  Sous  of  Tem- 


perance were  instituted  in  New  York 
city.  From  1845  commenced  the  vari- 
ous orders  with  ritual  and  insignia, 
which  have  gradually  been  extended  to 
or  imitated  in  Europe.  In  1838 
Father  Theobald  Mathew  became  the 
apostle  of  temperance  for  Ireland,  and 
by  the  end  of  1839  obtained  1,800,000 
recruits  to  the  cause.  In  1868  the  In- 
dependent Order  of  Good  Templars, 
probably  the  most  widespread  of  all 
temperance  organizations,  was  planted 
in  England  by  Joseph  Malins.  The 
feeling  in  favor  of  temperance  is 
steadily  growing,  and  the  numerous- 
societies  with  their  large  membership 
constitute  a  very  potent  social  and 
political  force. 

The  National  Woman's  Chrtstian 
Temperance  Union,  with  its  auxiliary 
state  and  territorial  unions,  besides 
that  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  is  the 
largest  society  ever  composed  exclu- 
sively of  women  and  conducted  entire- 
ly by  them.  It  has  been  organized  in 
every  State  and  Territory  of  the  na- 
tion, and  locally  in  about  10,000  towns 
and  cities.  Great  Britain,  Canada  and 
Australia,  Hawaiian  Islands,  New 
Zealand,  India  and  Japan,  Madagas- 
car and  South  Africa,  have  also  or- 
ganized, and  have  many  local  unions. 
See  Prohibition  Party,  The. 

Temperatnre,  the  thermal  con- 
dition of  a  body  which  determines 
the  interchange  of  heat  between  it  and 
other  bodies.  Our  first  ideas  of  tem- 
perature are  derived  from  our  sensa- 
tions of  hot  and  cold.  The  effect  of 
adding  heat  to  a  body  is  to  make  it 
hotter,  unless  it  is  at  its  melting  or 
boiling  point.  In  meteorology  the  dis- 
tribution of  atmospheric  temperature 
is  one  of  the  most  important  problems 
calling  for  discussion, 

Temperatnre  of  the  Body.  The 
terms  cold-blooded  and  warm-blooded 
animals  serve  roughly  to  indicate,  the 
former,  those  animals  which  possess 
a  temperature  little  raised  above  that 
of  the  surrounding  medium ;  the  lat- 
ter, those  with  one  considerably 
higher.  Fishes,  frogs,  and  reptiles  are 
cold-blooded  animals,  while  birds  and 
quadrupeds  are  warm-blooded.  The 
circumstances  which  influence  •  the 
temperature  of  the  human  body  in 
health  are  varied.  The  normal  temper- 
ature of  the  internal  parts  varies  from 


rempering 

98.5  to  99.5.  The  average  temperature 
of  the  armpit  is  98.6.  In  infant  life  the 
temperature  is  about  1°  F.  above  that 
of  the  adult;  and  the  temperature  of 
old  age  resembles  that  of  infancy.  The 
temperature  of  the  female  slightly  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  male ;  and  the  tem- 
perature of  the  human  body  falls  to 
its  lowest  level  in  the  early  morning. 

Tempering,  in  metal  work,  the 
process  of  producing  in  a  metal,  par- 
ticularly steel,  that  peculiar  degree  of 
hardness  and  elasticity  which  adapts 
it  for  any  of  the  purposes  to  which  it 
is  to  be  applied. 

Templars,  a  famous  military  order, 
which  owed  its  origin  to  the  Crusades. 
In  the  year  1119  two  comrades  of  God- 
frey de  Bouillon,  Hugues  de  Payen 
and  Geoffroi  de  Saint-Adhemar,  bound 
themselves  and  seven  other  French 
knights  to  guard  pilgrims  to  the  holy 
places  from  the  attacks  of  the  Sara- 
cens, taking  before  the  patriarch  of 
Jerusalem  solemn  vows  of  chastity, 
poverty,  and  obedience.  King  Bald- 
win II.  gave  them  for  quarters  part  of 
his  palace,  which  was  built  on  the  site 
of  the  Temple  of  Solomon  close  to  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  Hence 
they  took  their  name  as  Templars, 
•and  the  houses  of  the  order  that  of  the 
Temple.  At  the  Council  of  Troyes 
(1128)  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  drew  up 
its  rule  in  72  statutes,  substantially 
the  groundwork  of  the  statutes  as  fi- 
nally revised  in  the  middle  of  the  13th 
century.  The  order  at  first  consisted 
of  knights  alone,  but  later  its  mem- 
bers were  grouped  as  knights,  all  of 
noble  birth,  chaplains,  and  men-at- 
arms,  besides  mercenaries,  retainers, 
and  craftsmen  affiliated,  and  enjoying 
ita  protection.  The  knights  took  the 
vows  for  life  or  for  a  certain  period, 
and  they  alone  wore  the  white  linen 
mantle,  with  the  eight-pointed  red 
cross  on  the  left  shoulder,  and  white 
linen  girdle ;  black  or  brown  garments 
were  worn  by  all  others.  The  seal  «f 
the  order  showed  the  Temple,  later 
two  riders  —  a  Templar  and  a  helpless 
pilgrim  —  on  one  horse. 

The  discipline  of  the  order  waa  au- 
stere, excluding  all  needless  luxury 
or  display  in  food,  dress,  or  armor,  and 
all  worldly  pleasures  were  forbidden. 
Married  brethren  were  admitted,  but 
no  women  might  enter  the  order,  and 


Templars 

all  brethren  were  enjoined  to  shun  the 
kiss  of  a  woman.  The  beard  was  worn, 
the  hair  cut  short,  and  all  slept  alone 
in  shirt  and  breeches,  with  a  light 
constantly  burning.  At  the  head  of 
the  whole  order  stood  the  Grand-mas- 
ter ;  under  him  Masters,  Grand  Priors, 
Commanders,  or  Preceptors  ruled  the 
various  provinces.  Second  in  com- 
mand to  the  Grand-Master  stood  the 
Seneschal,  his  deputy ;  next  the  Mar- 
shal, whose  business,  moreover,  was 
to  provide  arms,  horses,  and  all  the 
material  of  war.  Visitors-general 
conveyed  the  commands  of  the  Grand- 
master and  convent  or  chapter  of 
Jerusalem  to  the  various  provinces, 
exercised  discipline,  and  settled  dis- 
putes. The  Prior  or  Preceptor  of  the 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  also  styled 
Grand-preceptor  of  the  Temple,  was 
also  general  treasurer  of  the  order. 
The  Templars  were  by  a  papal  bull 
in  1172  rendered  independent  of  the 
authority  of  the  bishops,  owning  alle- 
giance to  the  Pope  alone,  the  imme- 
diate bishop  of  the  entire  order.  It 
was  their  proud  boast  that  20,000  of 
their  number  perished  for  the  cause 
in  Palestine ;  of  their  22  Grand-mas- 
ters seven  died  on  the  field  of  battle, 
five  of  their  wounds,  one  of  voluntary 
starvation  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of 
Saladin.  The  most  famous  successors 
of  Hugues  de  Payen  (died  1136)  were 
Bernard  de  Tremelai,  who  fell  at 
Ascalon  in  1153;  Eudes  de  Saint- 
Amand  (died  1179),  Gerard  de  Rider- 
fort,  who  died  in  battle  under  the 
walls  of  Acre  in  1189 ;  Robert  de 
Sable,  who  aided  Richard  Coeur  de 
Lion  to  gain  a  glorious  victory  in  the 
plain  of  Arsouf  (1191),  and  bought 
from  him  the  island  of  Cyprus,  which 
was  soon  transferred  to  Guy  de  Lusig- 
nan,  whereupon  Acre  became  the  seat 
of  the  order,  the  famous  stronghold  of 
Pilgrim's  Castle  being  built,  whose 
stupendous  ruins  exist  to  this  day ; 
Peter  de  Montaigu,  whose  courage 
helped  to  take  Damietta  in  1219 ;  Her- 
mann de  Perigord,  who  rebuilt  the 
fortress  of  Safed ;  Guillaume  de  Son- 
nac,  slain  beside  St.  Louis  at  the  Nile 
in  12.50 ;  Thomas  Berard,  under  whom 
Safed  was  lost  in  1266,  Jaffa  and 
Antioch  in  1268;  and  Guillaume  de 
Beaujeu,  fell  in  the  bloody  capture  of 
Acre  in  1291.  The  remnant  of  the 
Templars  sailed  to   Cyprus,  and    the 


Temple 


Temple 


latest  dying  gleams  of  the  order's 
vigor  in  the  East  were  the  attempts 
to  capture  Alexandria  (1300),  and 
to  establish  a  settlement  at  Tortosa 
(1300-1302)  under  the  last  and  most 
ill-fated  of  its  grand-masters. 

The  Templars  had  failed  in  their 
work;  their  usefulness  was  past;  the 
order  had  now  only  to  sink  into  ex- 
tinction in  one  of  the  darkest  tragedies 
of  history.  The  Grand-master  Jacques 
de  Molay,  was  summoned  from  Cyprus 
by  the  Pope  in  1306;  he  went  taking 
with  him  the  treasure  of  the  order, 
and  awaited  his  fate  in  France.  On 
Oct.  13,  1307,  the  Grand-master  and 
1-40  Templars  were  seized  at  the 
Temple  and  flung  into  prison.  Two 
degraded  Templars  supplied  some  of 
the  charges  Philip  required ;  tortures, 
infamous  beyond  the  infamies  of  the 
Inquisition,  provided  the  remainder. 
In  August,  I3O8,  Clement  sent 
throughout  Christendom  the  127  arti- 
cles of  interrogation  for  the  accused, 
and  evidence  in  detail,  self-contradic- 
tory beyond  all  parallel,  was  quickly 
accumulated. 

On  May  12,  1310,  54  knights  were 
slowly  burned  to  death.  The  Pope 
laid  the  order  under  perpetual  inhibi- 
tion, and  transferred  its  property  to 
the  Hospital  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 

Temple,  an  edifice  erected  and  dedi- 
cated to  the  service  of  some  deity  or 
deities,  and  connected  with  some  sys- 
tem of  worship.  The  term  is  general- 
ly applied  to  such  structures  among 
the  Greeks,  Romans,  Egyptians,  and 
other  ancient  nations.  It  is  also  an 
edifice  erected  among  Christians  as  a 
place  of  public  worship ;  a  church. 

Temple,  Solomon's,  the  building 
reared  by  Solomon  as  a  habitation  for 
Jehovah.  David  had  planned  the  Tem- 
ple, but  was  divinely  forbidden  to 
erect  it,  as  he  had  shed  so  much  blood 
in  his  wars.  He  made  great  prepara- 
tions for  his  son  and  successor,  who, 
he  learned  from  the  prophet  Nathan, 
was  destined  to  achieve  the  work.  It 
was  built  on  jMount  Moriah,  chiefly  by 
Tyrian  workmen,  and  had  massive 
foundations.  The  stone  for  its  erection 
was  dressed  before  its  arrival,  so  that 
the  edifice  arose  noiselessly ;  the  floor 
was  of  cedar,  boarded  over  with 
planks  of  fir ;  the  wainscoting  was  of 
cedar,  covered  with  gold,  as  was  the 
whole  interior.    It  was  modeled  inside 


on  the  tabernacle,  which  was  Jeho- 
vah's dwelling  while  journeyings  were 
continually  taking  place.  There  was 
a  Holy  and  Most  Holy  Place.  The 
Temple  was  ^urrounded  by  an  inner 
court  for  the  priest.  There  was  also 
a  Great  or  Outward  Court,  called  spe- 
cially the  Court  of  the  Lord's  House. 
This  temple  was  destroyed  by  the 
Babylonians  during  the  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem under  Nebuchadnezzar.  On  the 
return  from  Babylon,  a  temple,  far 
inferior  to  Solomon's,  was  commenced 
under  Zerubbabel,  b.  c.  534,  and,  after 
a  long  intermission,  was  resumed  B.  c. 
520,  and  completed  B.  C.  516,  under 
Darius  Hystaspes.  The  second  temple 
was  gradually  removed  by  Herod,  as 
he  proceeded  with  the  building  or  re- 
building of  a  temple  designed  to  rival 
the  first  rather  than  the  second.  The 
work  was  commenced  b.  c.  21  or  20; 
the  temple  itself  was  finished  in  about 
a  year  and  a  half,  the  courts  in  eight 
years,  but  the  subsequent  operations 
were  carried  on  so  dilatorily  that  the 
Jews  reckoned  46  years  as  the  whole 
time  consumed.  In  the  courts  of  this 
temple  Jesus  preached  and  healed  the 
sick.  It  caught  fire  during  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem  under  Titus,  and  was 
burned  to  the  ground. 

Temple,  Oliver  Perry,  an  Amer- 
ican lawyer ;  bom  in  Green  co.,  Tenn., 
Jan.  27,  1820;  was  graduated  at 
Washington  College,  Tenn.,  in  1844, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1846. 
President  Fillmore  made  him  a  com- 
missioner to  visit  the  Indian  tribes  of 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  California 
in  1850.  Prior  to  and  during  the  Civil 
War  he  was  one  of  the  Union  leaders 
in  Eastern  Tennessee.  He  was  chan- 
cellor of  Tennessee  in  1866-1878;  re- 
tired in  1881;  died  in  1907. 

Temple,  Sir  'William,  an  English 
statesman ;  born  in  London,  in  1628 ; 
was  educated  at  Emanuel  College, 
Cambridge.  After  the  Restoration 
(1660)  he  was  nominated  one  of  the 
commissioners  from  the  Irish  Parlia- 
ment to  the  king.  In  conjunction  with 
DeWitt  he  concluded  the  treaty  be- 
tween England,  Holland,  and  Sweden 
(Triple  Alliance,  1008).  He  attended, 
as  ambassador  extraordinary,  when 
peace  was  concluded  between  France 
and  Spain  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1668, 
and     subsequent     to     that     time     re^ 


Temple 

siding  at  The  Hague  as  ambassador, 
became  familiar  with  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  afterward  William  III.  Re- 
called in  l(j69,  remained  in  retirement 
till  1674,  when  he  was  again  ambas- 
sador to  the  States-General  (1679). 
He  was  instrumental  in  promoting 
the  marriage  of  the  Prince  of  Orange 
with  Mary,  eldest  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  York  (James  II.,  1677). 
Shortly  after  his  return  he  was  elect- 
ed to  Parliament.  In  1681  he  retired 
from  public  life  altogether.  He  died 
in  Moor  Park,  Surrey,  Jan.  27,  1699. 
Temple,  William  Greenville,  an 
American  naval  officer;  born  in  Rut- 
land, Vt.,  March  23,  1824 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1846;  entered  the  navy 
as  midshipman  in  1840 ;  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Mexican  War.  He 
was  on  duty  at  the  United  States 
Naval  Observatory  in  1848;  engaged 
in  surveying  the  Florida  reefs  and  the 
Gulf  stream  in  1848-1850 ;  had  charge 
of  the  surveys  and  hydrographic  work 
for  the  projected  canal  and  railroad 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  in 
1850-1852 ;  and  was  on  coast  survey 
duty  in  1852-1859.  He  was  promoted 
master  in  1854,  and  lieutenant  in 
1855.  He  served  throughout  the  Civil 
War.  He  was  promoted  commander 
in  1865,  captain  in  1870,  commodore 
in  1878,  and  rear-admiral  Feb.  22, 
1884,  and  was  retired  the  following 
week.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
June  28,  1894. 

Temple  Society,  a  body  of  Ger- 
man Christians  who  wait  for  the  sec- 
ond coming  of  Christ. 

Templet,  a  pattern  whose  edge 
is  dressed  and  shaped  to  the  required 
conformation,  and  is  laid  against  the 
object  made  so  as  to  test  its  conform- 
ities thereto. 

Temporal  Poxrer,  the  power 
which  the  Pope  exercised  as  sovereign 
of  the  States  of  the  Church.  Pius  VII. 
was  partially  deprived  of  his  domin- 
ions by  Napoleon  I.  in  1797,  and  en- 
tirely in  1808.  The  Pope  replied  by 
a  bull  of  excommunication ;  ha  was 
then  arrested  and  kept  a  close  pris- 
oner in  France  till  the  falj  of  Na- 
poleon in  1814,  when  he  was  reinstat- 
ed in  the  government  of  an  undimin- 
ished territory.  In  1870  Victor  Em- 
manuel, King  of  Italy,  took  possession 


Tendon, 

of  the  papal  territory,  leaving  to  the 
Pope  only  the  Vatican. 

Temporary  Star,  a  star  appearing 
for  a  time,  and  then  gradually  vanish- 
ing away.  In  November,  1572,  a  star 
burst  out  in  Cassiopeia  with  a  bril- 
liancy greater  than  that  of  any  one 
near  it.  It  rapidly  increased  in  mag- 
nitude till  it  became  visible  at  noon. 
Then  it  diminished  in  size,  and  in 
March,  1574,  became  invisible  to  the 
naked  eye,  nor  has  it  been  seen  since. 

Tenacity,  that  property  of  material 
bodies  by  which  they  ar**  able  to  re- 
sist a  severe  strain  withoo*:  rupturing 
or  splitting. 

Tenail,  or  Tenaille,  in  fortifica- 
tion, an  outwork  or  rampart  raised  in 
the  main  ditch  immediately  in  front 
of  the  curtain  between  two  bastions. 

Tenant,  in  law,  one  who  occupies, 
or  has  temporary  possession  of  lands 
or  tenements,  the  titles  of  which  are 
in  another,  the  landlord. 

Tench,  the  sole  species  of  a  fish 
found  all  over  Europe  in  stagnant 
waters  with  soft  bottom.  Like  most 
other  carps  it  passes  the  winter  in  a 
torpid  state,  concealed  in  the  mud. 

Tender,  in  law,  an  offer  of  money 
or  other  thing  in  satisfaction  of  a 
debt  or  liability.  Legal  tender,  coin  or 
paper  money,  which,  so  far  as  regards 
the  nature  and  quality  thereof,  a 
creditor  may  be  compelled  to  accept 
in  satisfaction  of  his  debt.  In  this 
country  gold  and  silver  coin  are  a 
legal  tender  to  any  amount,  so  far  as 
a  debt  admits  of  being  paid  in  gold  or 
silver ;  and  national  treasury  notes  or 
greenbacks  are  also  legal  tender. 

Tender,  a  small  vessel  appointed  to 
attend  a  larger  one,  and  employed  for 
her  service  in  procuring  stores,  etc.  In 
railways  a  tender  is  a  carriage  at- 
tached to  the  locomotive  for  carrying 
the  fuel,  water,  etc. 

Tendon,  the  white  fibrous  tissue 
reaching  from  the  end  of  a  muscle  to 
bone  or  some  other  structure  which 
is  to  serve  as  a  fixed  attachment  for 
it,  or  which  it  is  intended  to  move. 
Tendons  have  been  divided  into  (1) 
Funicular,  or  rope-like,  as  the  long 
tendon  of  the  biceps  muscle  of  the 
arm.  (2)  Fasicular,  as  the  short  ten- 
don of  that  muscle  and  as  the  great 
majority    of    tendons    generally.     (3) 


Tendotome 


Tennessee 


Aponeurotic  or  tendinous  expansions, 
sometimes  of  considerable  extent,  and 
serviceable  in  strengthening  the  walls 
of  cavities,  as  the  tendons  of  the  ab- 
dominal muscles.  The  tendons  com- 
mence by  separate  fascicles  from  the 
end  of  each  muscular  fiber,  and 
they  similarly  terminate  by  sep- 
arate fascicles  in  distinct  depressions 
in  the  bones,  besides  being  closely  in- 
corporated vpith  the  periosteum.  The 
tendons  most  frequently  ruptured  are 
the  Achilles  Tendon,  and  the  tendons 
of  the  rectus  femoris  and  the  triceps 
huiaeri. 

Tendotome,  in  surgery,  a  subcu- 
taneous knife,  having  a  small  oblan- 
ceolate  blade  on  the  end  of  a  long 
stem,  and  used  for  severing  deep-seat- 
ed tendons  without  making  a  large 
incision  or  dissecting  down  to  the  spot. 

Tendrac,  in  zoology,  a  small  insec- 
tivorous mammal,  from  Madagascar. 
It  is  about  two-thirds  the  size  of  the 
common  hedgehog. 

Tendril,  in  botany,  a  curling  and 
twining  thread-like  process  by  which 
a  plant  clings  to  another  body  for 
the  purpose  of  support.  It  may  be  a 
modification  of  the  midrib,  as  in  the 
pea ;  a  prolongation  of  a  leaf,  as  in 
Nepenthes;  or  a  modification  of  the 
inflorescence,  as  in  the  vine.  They 
have  been  divided  into  stem  tendrils 
and  leaf  tendrils.  Called  also  cirrhus, 
and  by  the  old  authors  capreolus  and 
clavicula. 

Tenebrse,  the  oflSce  of  Matins  and 
Lauds  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
for  the  Thursday,  Friday,  and  Satur- 
day in  Holy  Week,  sung  on  the  after- 
noon or  evening  of  Wednesday,  Thurs- 
day, and  Friday  respectively  with  ex- 
tinguished lights.  The  extinction  of 
the  lights  is  said  to  figure  the  grow- 
ing darkness  of  the  world  at  the  time 
of  the  Crucifixion,  and  the  last  candle 
is  hidden  for  a  time  to  signify  that 
death  could  not  really  obtain  domin- 
ion over  Christ,  though  it  appeared 
to  do  so.  A  noise  is  made  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  oflSce  to  symbolize  the 
convulsions  of  nature  at  the  death  of 
Christ. 

Tenebrlonidse,  in  entomology,  a 
family  of  heteromerous  beetles,  tribe 
Atrachelia.  Black  or  dull-colored  in- 
sects, with  a  peculiar  odor,  slow  in 
their    moTements    and    nocturnal    in 


their  habits.  A  few  aberrant  specie* 
are  found  on  trees  and  plants.  They 
feed  generally  on  decaying  animal  and 
vegetable  matter.  About  5,000  species 
are   known. 

Tenement  Honse,  a  house  divided 
into  tenements  occupied  by  separate 
families.  In  tenement  houses  the  land- 
lord does  not  usually  reside  on  the 
premises.  In  most  large  cities  of  the 
United  States,  owing  to  the  exorbi- 
tantly high  price  of  land  whereon  to 
build,  the  policy  has  obtained  of  build- 
ing houses  containing  apartments  to 
accommodate  as  many  persons  as  can 
be  crowded  into  them.  These  apart- 
ments are  let  by  the  landlord  either 
in  suites  or  by  the  single  room. 

In  a  legal  sense  the  term  "  tene- 
ment "  applies,  in  the  United  States, 
to  the  higher  class  apartment  houses, 
as  well  as  to  the  abodes  of  the  poorest. 
Of  late  years  there  has  been  great  im- 
provement in  New  York  and  other 
cities  in  the  construction  of  tene- 
ments. New  York  in  particular  has 
stringent  laws  for  the  well  being  of 
tenement  residents,  and  unsanitary 
conditions  are  being  fast  eliminated. 
Rooms  without  apertures  for  air  are 
no  longer  permitted,  and  there  must 
be  a  certain  amount  of  open  space  for 
every  new  building.  The  better  class 
of  tenements  are  usually  called  "apart- 
ments," and  while  the  cheaper  apart-" 
ments  have  heat,  hot  \vater,  gas  and 
other  comforts,  the  higher-priced  are 
almost  palatial  in  their  luxurious  fit- 
tings. 

Teneriffe.     See  Canaey  Islands. 

Teniers,  David,  the  name  of  two 
famous  Flemish  artists ;  the  father 
born  in  1582 ;  died  in  1649 ;  the  son, 
born  in  1010;  died  in  1G90.  Their 
pictures  of  rural  scenes,  fairs,  mar- 
kets, etc.,  are  highly  prized. 

Tennessee,  a  State  in  the  South 
Atlantic  Division  of  the  North  Amer- 
ican Union ;  admitted  to  the  Union 
June  1,  1796;  capital,  Nashville; 
number  of  counties,  96:  area.  42.050 
square    miles;    pop.    (1910i    2.1S4.789. 

Topographically,  Tennessee  is  divid- 
ed into  three  sections.  East  Tennessee 
is  extremely  picturesque.  On  its  bor- 
ders rise,  in  huge,  ridge-like  masses  and 
treeless  domes,  the  Appalachian  moun- 
tains, stretching  to  the  Cumberland 
mineral  district,  which  has  an  average 
elevation  of  2,000  feet  above  the  sea. 


Tennessee 


Tennessee 


and  abounds  in  coal,  iron,  and  other 
minerals.  Middle  Tennessee  extends 
from  the  dividing  line  on  the  table- 
land to  the  lower  Tennessee  river ;  and 
West  Tennessee  from  the  Tennessee 
river  to  the  Mississippi.  The  Unaka 
Mountains,  a  part  of  the  Appalachian 
■chain,  run  along  the  E.  boundary,  and 
have  an  average  elevation  of  5,000 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  Mississippi, 
with  the  Tennessee  and  the  Cumber- 
land, drains  three-fourths  of  the  State, 
The  two  latter  are  navigable  for  a 
<:onsiderable  distance,  and  other  rivers 
with  numerous  tributaries  supply 
valuable  water  power. 

The  State  is  rich  in  its  mineral  re- 
sources, asbestos,  kaolin,  granite,  cop- 
per, iron,  manganese,  barytes,  clay, 
building  stones,  lead,  and  zinc  being 
ximong  the  leading  products.  Coal 
measures  occupy  over  5,000  square 
jniles  in  the  Cumberland  Mountain 
region.  Limestone  caves  are  found  in 
many  places,  few  having  been  ex- 
plored. In  1900  the  principal  mineral 
productions  were  coal,  coke,  phosphate 
rock,  metallic  paint,  mineral  waters, 
•clay  products,  slate,  marble,  limestone, 
red  hematite,  and  brown  hematite. 

The  soil  is  exceedingly  fertile,  near- 
ly every  agricultural  product  thriving 
well,  according  to  locality.  The  prin- 
cipal grain  crops  are  Indian  corn, 
wheat,  and  oats ;  and  cotton,  tobacco, 
flax,  and  hemp  are  extensively  culti- 
Tated.  The  rearing  and  fattening  of 
live  stock  are  carried  on  under  pecu- 
liar advantages,  and  immense  numbers 
•of  hogs  grow  up  on  the  mast  of  the 
forests,  which  cover  a  very  large  area. 

According  to  the  United  States 
census  of  1900,  the  State  had  8,007 
manufacturing  establishments,  employ- 
ing $71,182,906  capital  and  53,820 
persons ;  paying  $19,777,449  for  wages 
and  $63,384,665  for  materials;  and 
having  products  aggregating  in  value 
-$107,437,879. 

On  Oct.  31,  1901,  there  were  re- 
ported 56  National  banks  in  opera- 
tion, having  $7,300,000  in  capital, 
$3,717,930  in  outstanding  circulation, 
and  $3,637,500  in  United  States  bonds. 
There  were  also  132  State  banks,  with 
^5,656,337  capital,  and  $1,009,350  sur- 
plus ;  and  7  stock  savings  banks,  with 
$392,500  capital,  and  $3,519,333  in 
savings  deposits. 
,^  The  imports  of  merchandise  at  the 


ports  of  Memphis,  Nashville,  Knox- 
ville,  and  Chattanooga,  during  th« 
year  1900  aggregated  in  value  $126,« 
609.  The  collections  for  internal  rev- 
enue in  the  State  during  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1900,  amounted 
to  $2,295,606. 

At  the  end  of  the  school  year  1899- 
1900,  the  children  of  school  census 
age  numbered  691,570 ;  the  enrollment 
in  public  schools,  485,354;  and  the 
average  daily  attendance  338,566, 
There  were  7,185  public  school  build- 
ings, public  school  property  valued  at 
$3,063,568;  and  9,195  teachers.  The 
receipts  for  the  year  amounted  to 
$1,809,246;  and  the  expenditures, 
$1,751,047.  For  higher  education  there 
were  101  public  high  schools,  101  pri- 
vate secondary  schools,  1  public  and 
13  private  normal  schools,  27  univer- 
sities and  colleges  for  men  and  for 
both  sexes,  and  12  women's  colleges. 
The  principal  colleges  are  the  Uni- 
versity of  Nashville,  and  Vanderbilt 
University,  at  Nashville ;  University 
of  the  South  at  Sewanee ;  U.  S.  Grant 
University,  at  Athens,  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tennessee,  at  Knoxville. 
The  women's  colleges  include  the  Ten- 
nessee Female  College,  at  Franklin ; 
Ward  Seminary,  at  Nashville;  and 
Rogersville  Synodical  College  at 
Rogersville. 

The  strongest  denominations  In  the 
State  are  the  Methodist  Episcopal, 
South ;  African  Methodist ;  Regular 
Baptist,  colored;  Cumberland  Presby- 
terian; Methodist  Episcopal;  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ;  Roman  Catholic; 
Presbyterian,  South ;  Primitive  Bap- 
tist; Protestant  Episcopal;  and  Pres- 
byterian, North. 

On  June  1,  1901,  the  total  interest 
bearing  debt  of  Tennessee  was  $15,- 
946,000;  and  the  estimated  amount  of 
bonds  not  yet  funded,  $678,666. 

The  governor  is  elected  for  a  term 
of  two  years  and  receives  a  salary  of 
$4,000  per  annum.  Legislative  ses- 
sions are  held  biennially  and  are  lim- 
ited in  length  to  75  days  each.  The 
Legislature  has  33  members  in  the 
Senate  and  99  in  the  House,  each  of 
whom  receives  $4.00  per  day  and  mile- 
age. There  are  10  Representatives  in 
Congress. 

In  1756  a  settlement  was  formed 
near  Knoxville,  then  a  part  of  North 
Carolina;  Nashville  was  settled  near 


Tennessee 

the  close  of  the  Revolution;  in  1790 
Tennessee  was  organized  as  a  territory 
with  Kentucky;  and  admitted  in  179(3 
to  the  Union  as  a  separate  State.  In 
January,  18G1,  a  proposition  to  secede 
from  the  Union  was  defeated ;  but  in 
June,  carried  by  a  majority  of  57,567. 
In  10  months  the  State  raised  50  regi- 
ments for  the  Southern  Confederacy; 
while  5  or  6  were  also  recruited  for 
the  Union.  The  State  was  the  scene, 
at  Knoxville  and  Chattanooga,  of 
some  of  the  most  important  opera- 
tions of  the  war.  For  years  after  the 
general  pacification  of  the  country, 
local  disorders  continued  in  Tennessee 
to  disturb  the  tranquillity  of  the  com- 
munity, and  it  was  only  in  1870  that, 
after  the  adoption  of  the  15th  amend- 
ment to  the  Constitution  of  the  Unit- 
ed States,  and  of  a  new  State  con- 
stitution, Tennessee  was  readmitted 
to  representation  in  Congress. 

Tennessee,  Society  of  tlie  Army 
of  the,  the  second  society  composed 
of  soldiers  organized  during  the  Civil 
War.  The  preliminary  meeting  for 
the  formation  of  the  society  was  held 
in  the  Senate  Chamber  at  the  State 
capitol,  Raleigh,  N.  C,  April  14,  1865. 
Membership  in  the  society  was  re- 
stricted to  officers  who  had  served 
with  the  Old  Army  of  the  Tennessee. 

Tennessee,  University  of,  a  co- 
educational non-sectarian  institution 
in  Knoxville,  Tenn. ;  founded  in  1794. 

Tenney,  Edw^ard  Payson,  an 
American  author ;  born  in  Concord, 
N.  H.,  Sept.  29,  1835;  studied  at 
Dartmouth  College  in  1854-1855,  and 
was  graduated  at  Bangor  Seminary  in 
1858.  He  was  for  many  years  the 
pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church 
in  Easton,  Mass. ;  for  a  short  time 
editor  of  the  "  Pacific  "  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  the  "  Congregational  Re- 
view "  in  Boston ;  and  president  of 
Colorado  College  in  1876-1884. 

Tenney,  Mrs.  Sarah  (Broivn- 
son),  an  American  novelist ;  born  in 
Chelsea,  Mass.,  June  7,  1839.  She 
was  a  daughter  of  Orestes  A.  Brown- 
son. 

Tennis,  a  game  played  with  small 
hard  balls  in  a  specially  constructed 
court  by  two  opponents  who  keep  the 
ball  continually  in  motion  by  striking 
it  with  a  racket.  Tennis  is  supposed, 
from  the  terms  still  used  in  the  game, 


Tennyson 

to  have  originated  in  France  prior  to 
the  15th  century.  It  became  very 
fashionable  in  England  during  Charles 
II. 's  reign. 

Tennis,  Lawn,  an  out-door  game 
played  with  balls,  which  are  of  hollow 
rubber,  covered  with  smooth  white^ 
cloth,  cemented  to  the  ball,  on  a  piece 
of  smooth,  level  sward.  It  remotely 
resembles  tennis.  The  modern  game 
of  lawn  tennis  was  originated  by  Ma- 
jor Wingfield  in  Wales  in  1874,  and 
introduced  into  the  United  States  the 
same  year  by  F.  R.  Sears  and  James 
Dwigbt. 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  Lord,  an  En- 
glish poet ;  born  in  Somersby,  En- 
gland, Aug.  6, 1809.  He  attended  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge,  where  in  1829- 
he  won  the  chancellor's  medal  by  a 
poem  in  blank  verse  entitled  "  Tim- 
buctoo."  His  literary  career  may  be 
said  to  date  from  1830,  when  he  pub- 
lished a  volume  entitled  "  Poems, 
chiefly  Lyrical."  It  was  not  received 
with  any  great  favor  by  the  public. 
Its  success  was  sufficient  to  encourage 
the  poet  to  prepare  a  second  collec- 
tion, which  appeared  in  1833,  and 
contained  such  poems  as  "  A  Dream, 
of  Fair  Women,"  "  CEnone,"  and 
others.  It  was  not  till  1842  that  he 
again  appealed  to  the  public  with  a 
selection  of  his  poems  in  two  volumes. 
His  reputation  was  more  than  sus- 
tained by  the  works  that  immediately 
followed.  He  received  the  laureate- 
ship  (1850)  upon  the  death,  of  Words- 
worth. Thereafter  hardly  a  year 
passed  without  his  adding  some  gem 
to  our  language.  In  1855  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  conferred  on  Tennyson 
the  honorary  degree  of  D.  0.  L.  Among^ 
his  later  compositions  are  the  dramas, 
"Queen  Mary"  (1875);  "Harold" 
(1876),  and  "The  Cup."  The  latter 
was  successfully  produced  by  Mr. 
Irving  at  the  Lyceum  Theater  in  1881, 
as  had  also  been  "  Queen  .  Mary." 
"  The  Falcon,"  another  drama,  was 
produced  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Kendal  in 
1882,  and  "The  Promise  of  May" 
was  brought  out  at  the  Globe  Theater 
the  same  year.  Tennyson  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  in  1884  as  Baron  Ten- 
nyson of  Aldworth,  Sussex,  and  Fresh- 
water, Isle  of  Wight.  He  died  in  Aid- 
worth,  England,  Oct.  6,  1892,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 


Tenon 


Tennre-of-Office  Act 


Tenon,  or  Tennon,  in  carpentry, 
the  projecting  end  of  a  piece  of  timber 
fitted  for  insertion  into  a  mortise, 
formed  by  cutting  away  a  portion  on 
one  or  more  sides;  sometimes  made 
cylindrical. 

Tenor,  in  music,  the  third  of  the 
four  kinds  of  voices  arranged  with  re 
gard  to  their  compass.  It  is  the  high- 
est of  the  male  chest  voices,  and  its 
extent  lies  between  tenor  C  and  treble 
A.  The  third  of  the  four  parts  in 
which  concerted  or  haimonized  music 
for  mixed  voices  is  usually  composed ; 
the  part  above  the  bass.  One  who  pos- 
sesses a  tenor  voice.  An  instrument 
which  plays  a  tenor  part. 

Tenos,  or  Tinos,  an  island  in  the 
Grecian  Archipelago,  one  o  the  Cy- 
clades,  immediately  south-east  of  An- 
dres ;  area,  about  85  square  miles. 
It  produces  barley,  silk,  wine,  figs, 
oranges,  and  honey.  There  is  a  town 
of  the  same  name  near  the  south  coast. 
Pop.  of  island,  11,022;  of  town,  2,028. 


THE  TEKTEEC. 

Tenrec,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  In- 
sectivora,  represented  by  one  species, 
which  is  restricted  to  Madagascar, 
Bourbon,  and  Mauritius.  It  is  the 
largest  known  insectivore,  measuring 
from  12  to  16  inches  in  length;  and 
it  is  probably  the  most  prolific  of 
mammals,  since  as  many  as  21  young 
are  said  to  have  been  brought  forth  at 
a  birth.  It^  feeds  chiefly  on  earth- 
worms, and  is  said  to  become  dormant 
daring  the  hottest  part  of  the  year. 

Tent,  a  portable  pavilion  or  lodge, 
consisting  of  some  flexible  material, 
8uch  as  skins,  matting,  canvas,  or 
other  strong  textile  fabric,  stretched 
over  and  supported  on  poles.    Among 


uncivilized  and  wandering  tribes  tenta 
have  been  ordinary  dwelling  places 
from  the  earliest  times,  but  among 
civilized  nations  they  are  principally 
used  as  temporary  lodgings  for  soldiers 
when  engaged  in  the  field,  for  travel- 
ers on  an  expedition,  or  for  providing 
accommodation,  refreshment,  etc.,  for 
large  bodies  of  people  collected  to- 
gether out  of  doors  on  some  special 
occasion. 

^  The  tent  is  the  one  human  habita- 
tion which  seems  never  to  have 
changed  in  form.  Nineveh  sculptures 
show  the  tent  of  King  Sennacherib, 
which  was  supported  by  ropes  ju^t  like 
a  modern  tent.  The  Roman  soldiers 
had  the  tent  proper,  but  they  also  had 
huts  of  branches,  hides,  straw,  etc., 
not  unlike  the  temporary  dwellings  of 
our  soldiers  when  they  stopped  for 
more  than  a  few  hours  at  one  place  in 
the  late  Civil  War.  The  Indian  tent 
of  buffalo  hide  was  familiar  to  every 
frontiersman  and  soldier  on  the  plains, 
but  it  has  disappeared  with  the  buf- 
falo, and  with  the  altered  conditions 
of  frontier  life. 

Tentacle,  in  zoology,  an  elongated 
appendage  proceeding  from  the  head 
or  cephalic  extremity  of  many  of  the 
lower  animals,  and  used  as  an  instru- 
ment of  exploration  and  prehension. 

Tennre,  the  act,  manner,  or  right 
of  holding  property,  especially  real  es- 
tate. Land  may  be  held  according  to 
two  main  principles,  feudal  or  allo- 
dial. The  former  is  the  principle  uni- 
versal in  England.  In  the  United 
States  the  title  to  land  is  essentially 
allodial,  and  every  tenant  in  fee-sim- 
ple has  an  absolute  and  perfect  title. 

Tenure  of  land  in  American  cities 
and  vicinity  is  often  subject,  how- 
ever, to  restrictions,  such  as  perpetual 
prohibition  of  the  use  of  land  for  cer- 
tain purposes  judged  by  the  former 
owner  to  be  injurious,  such  as  the  sale 
of  liquor,  etc. 

Tennre-of-office  Act,  in  the 
United  States,  a  bill  passed  by  Con- 
gress in  February,  1867,  limiting  the 
powers  of  the  President  in  removals 
from  office.  Among  other  things,  it 
took  from  the  President  the  power  to 
remove  members  of  his  cabinet  ex- 
cepting by  permission  of  the  Senate, 
declaring  that  they  should  hold  ofRce 
"  for  and  during  the  term  of  the  Presi- 
dent by  whom  they  may  have  been  ap- 


Tenures  of  Land 


Terebratnla 


pointed,  and  for  one  month  thereafter, 
subject  to  removal  by  and  with  the 
consent  of  the  Senate."  President 
Johnson  vetoed  this  bill,  but  it  was 
passed  over  his  veto  and  became  a 
law. 

Tenures  of  Land.  Nearly  all  the 
real  property  of  England  is  supposed 
to  have  been  granted  by  a  superior 
lord,  and  to  be  held  from  him  in  con- 
sideration of  certain  services  to  be 
rendered  t6  him  by  the  tenant. 

Teocalli  (House  of  God),  the 
name  given  by  the  ancient  Mexicans 
to  their  places  of  worship.  They  were 
built  in  the  form  of  four-sided  pyra- 
mids, consisting  of  two,  three  or  more 
stories,  or  terraces,  with  the  temple 
proper  on  a  platform  on  the  summit. 
These  temples  were  the  scenes  of  the 
horrible  human  sacrifices  which  were 
the  principal  feature  of  Aztec  wor- 
ship, and  accompanied  by  cannibalism, 
the  I'emains  of  the  victims  being  di- 
vided among  the  worshippers,  and 
taken  home  to  be  cooked  as  food. 
Wars  were  carried  on  for  the  sole  ob- 
ject of  obtaining  victims  for  the  san- 
guinary rites  of  the  "  teocalli,"  and 
thousands  were  being  sacrified  yearly 
when  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  put 
an  end  to  the  practice.  Some  of  these 
temples  still  exist,  the  most  celebrated 
being  the  pyramid  of  Cholula,  measur- 
ing 1,440  feet  each  -way,  and  177  feet 
in  height. 

Tephrine,  or  Tephrite,  a  name 
originally  given  to  a  gray,  ashlike  rock 
of  loose  texture,  the  base  of  which  was 
trachytic.  Subsequent  investigation 
has  shown,  however,  that  it  consists 
of  a  plagioclase  felspar,  associated 
with  either  nepheline  or  leucite,  and 
sometimes  with  both,  and  also  several 
accessory  minerals. 

TerapMm,  a  Hebrew  plural  word, 
occurring  in  the  Old  Testament,  and 
supposed  to  designate  certain  house- 
hold images.  How  far  these  images 
were  objects  of  reverence  does  not 
seem  to  be  clear.  They  may  have 
been  honored  only  for  their  associa- 
tions, and  because  handed  down  from 
father  to  son,  and  probably  this  was 
the  case  with  the  better-informed  and 
more  intelligent  class,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  this  perfectly  proper  and 
natural  attachment  may  have  given 
place    to    idolatrous    worship    among 

E,  150. 


those  who  were  inclined  t5^  the  prac- 
tices of  neighboring  peoples.  The  ven- 
eration shown  the  teraphim  appears- 
to  have  been  regarded  as  an  abuse  by 
some  of  the  more  devout  worshippers 
of  Jehovah,  and  was  dealt  with  at 
times  accordingly. 

Terburg,  or  Terborch,  Gerard^ 
a  Dutch  portrait  and  genre  painter,, 
born  at  Zwolle,  near  Overyssel,  about 
1617.  His  father,  a  historical  paint- 
er, gave  him  his  first  lessons  in  paint- 
ing. He  continued  his  studies  at  Haar- 
lem, and  afterwards  visited  Germany, 
Italy,  Spain,  England,  and  France, 
On  the'  meeting  of  the  peace  congress 
at  Munster  in  1646  he  painted  the  as- 
sembled plenipotentiaries,  which  ia 
now  in  the  National  Gallery,  Lon- 
don. He  subsequently  visited  Madrid, 
London,  and  Paris,  whence  he  returned 
to  Overyssel,  married,  and  became  bur- 
gomaster of  Deventer,  dying  in  1681. 
His  portraits  and  pictures  of  social 
life  are  remarkable  for  elegance.  He 
excelled    in    painting    textile    fabrics. 

Terce,  one  of  the  two  legal  life 
rents  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  being  a 
real  right  constituted  without  cove- 
nant, or  sasine.  By  it  a  widow,  who 
has  not  accepted  any  special  provision, 
is  entitled  to  the  life  rent  of  one-third 
of  her  husband's  heritable  (real)  es- 
tate, provided  the  marriage  has  lasted 
for  a  year  and  a  day,  or  has  produced 
a  living  child.  If  special  provision  is 
granted  by  a  husband  to  his  wife  by 
any  antenuptial  or  postnuptial  con- 
tract or  other  deed,  the  wife  shall  be 
thereby  excluded  from  her  terce,  un- 
less the  contrary  be  provided  in  the 
same  deed.  The  life  rent  bears  its 
proportion  of  burdens  affecting  the  es- 
tate. The  mansion  house,  if  there  be 
only  one,  feu  duties,  rights  of  rever- 
sion, superiority,  and  patronage,  are 
not  subject  to  the  right  of  terce. 

Terceira,  an  island  of  the  Atlan- 
tic, one  of  the  Azores ;  greatest  length, 
20  miles ;  average  breadth,  13  miles ; 
area,  223  square  miles.  The  soil  pos- 
sesses great  natural  fertility,  and 
heavy  crops  of  grain,  pulse,  etc.,  and 
abundance  of  oranges,  lemons,  and 
other  fruits  are  produced.  The  cap- 
ital is  Angra.     Pop.  46,528. 

Terebratula,  a  genus  of  deep-sea 
brachiopod  bivalve  mollusks  found 
moored  to  rocks,  shells,  etc.     One  of 


Teredo 

the  valves  is  perforated  to  permit  the 
passage  of  a  fleshy  peduncle,  by  means 
of  ^\hich  the  animal  attaches  itself. 
There  are  few  living  species,  but  the 
fossil  ones  are  numerous,  and  are 
found  most  abundantly  in  the  second- 
ary and  tertiary  formations. 

Teredo,  in  botany,  any  disease  in 
plants  produced  by  the  boring  of  in- 
sects. In  zoology  and  palseontology, 
&  genus  of  worm-like  mollusks,  includ- 
ing the  teredo  or  shipworm,  which 
bores  into  timber,  and  is  excedingly 
destructive  to  ships.  In  1731  and 
1732  it  created  alarm  in  Holland  by 
boring  into  the  piles  constituting  part 
of  the  defense  of  the  country  against 
the  inroads  of  the  sea.  Though  teak 
is  not  so  easily  attacked  as  many  other 
kinds  of  timber,  yet  it  does  not  wholly 
escape.  The  best  protection  against 
the  teredo  is  metal  sheathing  and 
broad  headed  iron  nails  hammered  into 
the  wood.  Fossil  species  24,  from 
the  Lias  onward.  Used  also  of  any  in- 
dividual of  the  genus. 

Terentius  Afer,  Publius  (more 
commonly  Terence),  a  Roman  poet; 
bom  in  Carthage,  185  B.  c,  Following 
immediately  after  Caecilius,  the  most 
popular  representative  of  Roman  com- 
edy after  Plautus,  he  was  the  last  of 
the  comic  dramatists  of  Rome  of  whom 
we  have  anything  remaining.  He  was 
either  taken  prisoner  in  war  or  sold  in 
the  slave  market.  His  purchaser,  or 
at  all  events  the  Roman  into  whose 
hands  he  fell,  was  a  senator,  Lucanus 
Terentius.  On  obtaining  his  freedom 
he  took  his  patron's  name.  A  liberal 
education  followed,  and  we  soon  find 
him  the  friend  and  associate  of  the 
great  and  noble.  He  was  gifted  with 
dramatic  genius.  Terence  was  beyond 
question  the  chief  dramatist  of  his 
time.  He  used  the  Latin  tongue  with 
singular  grace  and  elegance.  Critics 
have  denied  to  him  the  possession  of 
lively  humor.  Ancients  and  modems 
are  agreed  that,  though  a  freedman 
and  a  foreigner,  he  divides  with 
Caesar  and  Cicero  the  palm  of  pure 
Latin  ity.  Terence  was  the  interpre- 
ter of  Menander;  but  he  was  more 
than  a  mere  translator.  His  six  come- 
dies that  remain  belong  to  the  "  Fab- 
«la  Palliata."  It  is  said  that  Terence 
went  to  Greece  and  translated  108  of 
Menander's   plays.     Whether    he   was 


Term 

lost  on  his  homeward  voyage,  as  some 
say,  or  lost  his  transcripts  and  died  of 
grief  in  consequence,  we  have  no 
means  of  deciding.  He  died  in  hia 
26th  year,  159  b.  c.  He  owned  an  es- 
tate of  20  jugera  contiguous  to  the  Ap- 
pian  Way,  and  after  his  death  his 
only  daughter  married  a  Roman 
knight. 

Teresa,  or  Theresa,  St.,  a  saint 
of  the  modern  Roman  calendar ;  born 
in  Avila,  Old  Castile,  Spain,  March 
28,  1515.  She  inaugurated  notable  re- 
forms in  the  Carmelite  order  with  a 
result  that  the  influence  of  that  asso- 
ciation was  greatly  increased  and  ex- 
tended. She  died  at  Alba,  Oct.  4, 
1582,  and  was  canonized  by  Gregory 
XV.  in  1622. 

Terhune,  Albert  Payson,  an 
American  journalist ;  born  in  New- 
ark, N.  J.,  Dec.  21,  1868;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Columbia  University  in  1893 ; 
and  after  traveling  through  Syria, 
where  he  investigated  the  leper  settle- 
ments and  lived  among  the  Bedouins 
of  the  desert,  returned  to  New  York 
and  joined  the  editorial  stafE  of  the 
New  York  "World." 

Terhune,  Mary  Virginia,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Amelia  co., 
Va.,  Dec.  21,  1831 ;  received  an  aca- 
demic education,  and  early  began  to 
write  for  the  press.  She  contributed 
extensively  to  numerous  magazines ; 
was  for  several  years  the  editor  of 
"Babyhood"  and  "The  Home  Mak- 
er " ;  conducted  departments  in  "Wide 
Awake  "  and  "  St.  Nicholas  " ;  anC 
served  on  the  editorial  stafE  of  ths 
Chicago  "  Daily  News." 

Term,  a  limit.  The  limitation  of 
an  estate;  or,  rather,  the  whole  time 
or  duration  of  the  holding  of  an  es- 
tate. The  time  in  which  a  court  is 
held  or  open  for  the  trial  of  causes. 
The  time  during  which  instruction  is 
regularly  given  to  students  in  univer- 
sities and  colleges.  A  word  or  ex- 
pression ;  the  word  by  which  a  thing 
is  expressed;  that  which  fixes  or  de- 
termines ideas ;  a  word  or  expression 
that  denotes  something  peculiar  to  an 
art.  The  subject  or  predicate  of  a 
proposition  in  logic.  In  algebra,  a 
member  of  a  compound  quantity.  In 
the  plural,  conditions ;  propositions 
stated  or  promises  made,  which,  when 
assented   to   or   accepted   by   another. 


TTermagaiit 

settle  the  contract  and   bind   both  of 
the  parties. 

Termagant,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
idols  whom  the  Saracens  are  repre- 
sented in  mediaeval  romances  as  wor- 
shiping. He  was  afterward  intro- 
duced into  the  old  Moralities  as  a  per- 
son of  violent  temper,  so  that  a  rant- 
ing actor  might  appear  to  advantage 
3n  that  character.  The  word,  in  com- 
mon usage,  means  a  turbulent,  brawl- 
ing, scolding  or  abusive  person. 

Terminalia,  in  Roman  antiquities, 
a  festival  celebrated  annually  on  Feb. 
23,  in  honor  of  Terminus,  the  god  of 
boundaries.  It  was  then  usual  for 
peasants  to  assemble  near  the  princi- 
pal landmarks  which  sepai-ated  their 
■fields,  and,  after  they  had  crowned 
them  with  garlands  and  flowers,  to 
make  libations  of  milk  and  wine,  end 
to  sacrifice  a  lamb  or  a  young  pig. 
The  public  festival  was  celebrated  at 
the  sixth  milestone  on  the  road  to 
Laurentum,  because  at  one  time  that 
•was  the  limit  of  Roman  territory. 

In  botany  (as  a  pseudo-singular), 
the  typical  genuis  of  Terminaleae. 
Trees  and  shrubs  from  the  tropics  of 
America  and  Asia.  T.  chebula  is  a 
large  and  valuable  tree,  80  to  100  feet 
■faigh,  growing  in  India  and  Burma. 
The  fruit  is  ellipsoid  or  obovoid  and 
five-ribbed,  fi-om  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  to  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in 
length.  The  pounded  rind  gives  the 
black  myrobalan.  The  bark  of  the 
tree  is  used  for  tanning  and  dyeing. 
There  are  often  galls  on  it,  which  are 
also  used  for  dyeing.  Another  of  the 
Myrobalans  is  T.  belerica,  60  or  80 
feet  high.  It  grows  in  India.  The 
leaves  and  the  fruit  are  used  for  tan- 
ning and  dyeing. 

Terminisiu,  in  Church  history,  the 
belief  that  there  is  a  terminus  in  each 
man's  life,  after  which  he  is  no  longer 
•capable  of  receiving  grace  or  pardon 
for  his  sins. 

Terminns,  in  mythology,  a  divinity 
among  the  Romans  supposed  to  pre- 
side over  boundaries,  frontiers,  and 
landmarks.  He  was  represented  with 
a  human  head  and  neck,  placed  on  a 
plinth,  or  column,  and  being  destitute 
of  legs  or  arms. 

Tern,  in  ornithology,  the  popular 
name  of  any  species  of  the  genus 
Sterna.  They  are  slenderly  built  birds, 


Terra- Cotta 

with  long,  narrow,  sharp-pointed 
wings,  and  forked  tail,  from  which,  as 
well  as  from  their  swift  and  circling 
manner  of  flight,  they  are  often  called 
sea  swallows.  They  are  extensively 
distributed,  inhabiting  every  zone,  but 
prefer  warm  and  temperate  climates 
to  the  colder  regions,  which  they  only 
visit  for  a  short  period  during  the 
year.  All  are  exceedingly  active,  and 
from  sunrise  to  sunset  are  on  the 
wing,  generally  flying  very  near  the 
surface  of  the  water,  rising  and  sink- 
ing as  the  waves  heave  and  fall.  They 
walk  badly  and  are  not  good  swim- 
mers, their  small  feet  rendering  them 
but  little  assistance,  so  that  they  are 
tossed  about  like  corks.  They  feed  on 
small  fish  and  marine  animals,  always 
taking  their  prey  on  the  wing. 

Terpodion,  in  music,  a  keyed  in- 
strument invented  by  John  David 
Buschmann,  of  Hamburg,  about  1816, 
resembling  a  pianoforte  in  appearance 
but  producing  notes  from  blocks  of 
w'ood  struck  with  hammers.  The 
sound  could  be  increased  or  dimin- 
ished at  pleasure. 

Terpsichore,  in  classical  antiqui- 
ties, one  of  the  muses,  daughter  of 
Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne.  She  pre- 
sided over  dancing,  of  which  she  was 
reckoned  the  inventress,  and  in  which, 
as  her  name  intimates,  she  took  de- 
light. She  is  represented  as  a  young 
virgin  crowned  with  laurel,  and  hold- 
ing in  her  hands  a  musical  instru- 
ment. 

Terrace,  a  raised  level  space  or 
platform  of  earth,  supported  on  one 
or  more  sides  by  masonry,  a  bank  or 
platfoi-m  of  turf  or  the  like.  In  phys- 
ical geography  and  geology,  a  platform, 
often  of  soft  material,  flat  above,  and 
more  or  less  steep  on  the  sides. 

Terra-Cotta,  an  Italian  term  for 
pottery  or  earthenware.  The  name  is 
not  ordinarily  applied  to  pottery  ves- 
sels with  thin  walls,  but  is  confined  to 
statues,  statuettes,  bas-reliefs,  and 
architectural  members  such  as  col- 
umns, and  the  like  made  of  burnt 
clay.  But  the  term  is  not  necessarily 
confined  to  articles  of  a  decorative 
character.  The  color  of  terra-cotta  is 
either  buff,  yellow,  or  red,  the  former 
being  the  more  common.  Many  mas- 
terpieces of  ancient  Greek  and  Roman 
sculpture  are  executed  in  this  mate- 


Terre   Haute 

rial,  and  a  considerable  number  of 
works  in  burnt  clay,  by  Italian  art- 
ists who  lived  in  tiie  Middle  Ages  and 
early  Renaissance  periods,  are  also 
exquisite  productions.  Architectural 
ornaments  of  a  very  effective  kind 
were  also  executed  in  this  material  in 
ancient  times.  Distinguished  modern 
sculptors  sometimes  produce  works  in 
terra-cotta,  and  for  the  last  30  or  40 
years  it  has  been  increasingly  em- 
ployed, either  partly  or  wholly,  for 
the  fronts  and  other  portions  of  im- 
portant buildings.  Ornamental  terra- 
cotta work  reached' its  highest  pro- 
duction in  the  United  States  in  1907, 
when  the  total  output  was  valued  at 
$6,026,977.  New  Jersey  led  among 
12  producing  States,  with  New  York 
second  and  California  third, 

Terre  Haute,  city  and  capital  of 
Vigo  county,  Ind.;  on  the  Wabash 
river  and  the  Chicago  &  Eastern 
Illinois  and  other  railroads;  73  miles 
S.  W.  of  Indianapolis;  is  one  of  the 
most  important  commercial  and  man- 
ufacturing centers  of  the  State,  has 
an  annual  industrial  output  valued 
at  over  $35,000,000,  and  an  assessed 
property  valuation  exceeding  $32,- 
000,000;  is  in  a  fine  farming  region, 
with  block  and  bituminous  coal,  fire- 
clay, and  petroleum;  breeds  and 
trains  fine  horses;  and  is  the  seat  of 
the  Rose  Polytechnic  Institute,  State 
Normal  School,  Coates  Female  Col- 
lege, Union  Home  for  Invalids,  Rose 
Dispensary,  Rose  Orphan  Home,  and 
several  hospitals.  Pop.  (1910)  58,157. 

Terrell,     Edwin     Holland,     an 

American  diplomatist ;  born  in  Brook- 
ville,  Ind.,  Nov.  21,  1848;  \^as  gradu- 
ated at  De  Pauw  University  in  1871 ; 
studied  in  Europe  in  1873-1874;  and 
practised  law  in  Indianapolis  in  1874- 
1877.     He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Re- 

Sublican  National  Conventions  from 
'exas  in  1880  and  1888 ;  United  States 
minister  to  Belgium  in  1889-1893; 
conducted  the  negotiations  for  the 
United  States  with  the  six  powers 
holding  possessions  in  the  Kongo  basin 
and  secured  from  them  the  "  Proto- 
col" of  Dec.  22,  1890,  granting  the 
United  States  and  its  citizens  full 
commercial  privileges,  etc.  He  was 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  negotiate 
a  commercial  treaty  with  the  Kongo 
Free  State  in  1891 ;  commissioner  to 
tmd  vice-president  of  the  International 


Territory 

Monetary   Conference  at  Brussels   in 
1892. 

Terrier,  a  name  originally  applied 
to  any  breed  of  dog  used  to  burrow 
underground,  but  now  applied  to  any 
small  dog.  Terriers  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes ;  those  able  to  fol- 
low their  game  into  its  earth,  those 
kept  for  hunting  above-ground,  and 
those  kept  merely  as  companions. 
Among  terriers  proper  the  fox  terrier 
holds  the  position  of  greatest  popu- 
larity. The  Scotch  terrier,  though 
long  familiar  in  Scotland,  only  be- 
came generally  known  about  1870,  but 
is  spreading  so  rapidly  that  it  threat- 
ens even  the  popularity  of  the  fox 
terrier.  The  third  variety  used  for 
going  to  ground  is  the  Dandle  Din- 
mont.  The  Dandie  is  a  low  and  pow- 
erful dog,  very  courageous,  a  quality 
probably  gained  by  an  admixture  of 
bulldog  blood,  but  headstrong  and 
difficult  to  keep  under  control. 

Among  terriers  kept  for  hunting 
above  ground  the  most  popular  is  the 
Irish  terrier.  The  coat  is  like  the 
Scotch  terrier's,  but  a  light  red  in 
color.  The  ears  used  always  to  be  cut 
to  a  fine  point,  standing  erect,  but  are 
now  allowed  to  fall  over  in  their  nat- 
ural shape.  Among  terriers  kept  as 
companions  the  Skye  is  probably  the 
most  common.  The  black-and-tan  ter- 
rier, though  a  breed  of  great  antiquity, 
is  fast  being  supplanted  by  the  white 
English  terrier.  Both  breeds  are  iden- 
tical in  shape  and  resemble  a  light  and 
elegant  bull  terrier.  The  toy  terrier  is 
a  cross  from  the  black-and-tan,  as  is 
the  Yorkshire  terrier.  Both  varieties 
are  fit  only  for  house  dogs  and  are  not 
true  terriers. 

Territory,  a  term  applied  in  the 
United  States  to  an  area  similar  to  a 
State  of  the  Union,  but  not  having 
the  independent  position  of  one.  The 
unorganized  Territories  are  under  the 
direct  control  of  Congress.  Each  or- 
ganized Territory  has  a  governor,  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  for  four 
years  and  ratified  by  the  Senate.  The 
Legislature,  officially  knovtn  as  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  is  composed  of 
a_  council  and  a  house  of  representa- 
tives, chosen  every  two  years  by  the 
people.  A  delegate  to  Congress  is 
electe<l  for  the  same  term.  He  has 
the  right  of  debate,  but  not  a  vote  in 
the    House.     Territorial     courts    are 


Tevror 

provided  for,  the  judges  of  which  are 
appointed  by  the  President  for  four 
years,  and  confirmed  by  the  Senate, 
and  over  which  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States  has  appellate  juris- 
diction. 

Terror,  Reig:ii  of,  the  term  usual- 
ly applied  to  the  period  of  the  French 
revolutionary  government  from  the  ap- 

g ointment  of  the  revolutionary  tri- 
unal  and  the  committee  of  public 
safety  (April  6,  1793)  to  the  fall  of 
Robespierre   (July  27,  1794). 

Terror,  The,  one  of  the  vessels 
which  accompanied  the  ill-fated  Arctic 
exploring  expedition  under  Sir  John 
Franklin  in  1845.  From  documents 
found  on  King  William's  Land  by 
Captain  McClintock,  it  is  known  that 
Franklin  died  in  1847,  and  that  the 
ships  "  Erebus  "  and  "  Terror  "  were 
deserted  by  the  remainder  of  the  ex- 
plorers who  started  for  the  Great  Fish 
River.  They  all  perished  and  their  re- 
mains were  found  by  Lieutenant  Sch- 
watka,  in  his  expedition  of  1879-1880 ; 
no  traces  of  the  vessels  were  ever 
found. 

Terry,  Alfred  Hoxve,  an  Amer- 
ican military  oflScer;  born  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  Nov.  10,  1827;  studied 
law  at  Tale  College  and  began  its 
practice  in  1848.  From  1854  to  1860 
he  was  clerk  of  the  Superior  and  Su- 
preme Courts  of  Connecticut.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  col- 
onel of  a  regiment  of  militia,  was 
made  a  Major-General  of  volunteers, 
and  Brigadier-General  in  the  regular 
army.  In  March,  1865,  he  was  placed 
■  in  command  of  the  10th  Corps,  and  in 
June,  of  the  Department  of  Virginia. 
From  1869  to  1872  he  was  at  the  head 
of  the  Department  of  the  South,  and 
after  1872  had  charge  of  various  di- 
visions and  departments  of  the  army. 
In  March,  1886,  he  was  promoted  to 
the  major-generalship,  made  vacant 
by  the  death  of  General  Hancock,  and 
in  the  following  April  took  command 
of  the  Department  of  the  Missouri. 
He  retired  in  1888,  and  died  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  Dec.  16,  1890. 

Terry,  Ellen  Alice,  an  English 
actress ;  born  in  Coventry,  England, 
Feb.  27,  1848,  and  made  her  first  ap- 
pearance on  the  stage  during  Charles 
Kean's  Shakespearian  revivals  in 
185a     In  1864  she  married  and  left 


Terry 

the  stage,  but  i-eturned  in  1867.  She 
visited  the  U.  S.  with  Mr.  Irving  on 
several  tours.  The  jubilee  of  her  ap- 
pearance on  the  stage  was  celebrated 
in  London,  Apr.  27,  1906. 

Terry,  Henry  Taylor,  an  Amer- 
ican lawyer ;  born  in  Hartford,  Conn., 
Sept.  19,  1847 ;  was  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1869,  and  admitted  to  the 
Connecticut  bar  in  1872.  In  1878  he 
became  Professor  of  Law  at  the  Im- 
perial University  of  Tokyo,  Japan, 
but  returned  to  the  United  States  in 
1884,  and  began  the  practice  of  his 
profession  in  New  York  city.  In  1894 
he  resumed  his  chair  in  the  Imperial 
University. 

Terry,  Milton  Spenser,  an  Amer- 
ican  educator ;  born  in  Coeymans, 
N,  Y.,  Feb.  22,  1840;  was  graduated 
at  Troy  University  and  the  Yale  Di- 
vinity School ;  held  pastorates  in  va- 
rious Methodist  Episcopal  churches  in 
New  York  city  in  1863-1884;  and  in 
1885  was  made  Professor  of  Christian 
Doctrines  in  the  Garret  Biblical  In- 
stitute,   Northwestern    University. 

Terry,  Silas  Wright,  an  Ameiv 
ican  naval  officer;  born  in  Kentucky, 
Dec.  28,  1842;  was  appointed  to  the 
navy  in  1858.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  he  was  assigned  to  the 
"Dale"  in  the  Atlantic  Coast  Block- 
ading Squadron,  in  which  he  served 
till  1863,  when  he  was  transferred  to 
the  "  Black  Hawk,"  of  the  Mississippi 
Squadron.  Soon  afterward  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  transport 
"  Benefit "  to  carry  dispatches  and 
supplies  to  Admiral  Porter;  to  whose 
staff  he  was  appointed  and  under 
whom  he  served  till  the  cJose  of  the 
war.  Afterward  he  cruised  on  the 
"  Ticonderoga  "  in  European  waters ; 
was  executive  oflScer  on  the  flagships 
"  Severn  "  and  "  Worcester  "  ;  in- 
spector of  the  Maryland  Lighthouse 
District ;  and  commanded  the  "  Mar- 
ion," attached  to  the  South  Atlantic 
Squadron.  In  1887  he  went  to  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  where  he  was  engaged 
on  board  duty  till  1892.  He  was  pro- 
moted captain  in  1893,  and  during  the 
Spanish-American  War  commanded 
the  receiving  ship  "  Franklin  "  at  Nor- 
folk. He  was  made  commandant  of  the 
navy  yard  at  Washington,  D.  C, 
March  24,  1900;  and  on  March  29, 
following,  was  promoted  rear-admirali 


Tertlaries 

Tertiaries,  a  name  given  by 
Church  writers  to  a  class  in  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church,  who,  without 
entering  into  the  seclusion  of  a  mon- 
astery, aspire  to  practise  in  ordinary 
life  all  the  substantial  obligations  of 
the  scheme  of  virtue  laid  down  in  the 
Gospel. 

Tertiary,  a  color,  as  citrine,  russet, 
or  olive,  produced  by  the  mixture  of 
the  two  secondary  colors.  In  geology, 
the  third  leading  division  of  fossiUfer- 
ous  sedimentary  rocks ;  called  also  the 
Cainozoic  or  Kainozoic.  The  succes- 
sion and  importance  of  the  Primary 
(Palaeozoic)  and  the  Secondary  (Me- 
Bozoic)  rocks  were  understood  before 
the  nature  and  extent  of  the  Tertiary 
were  recognized,  these  last  strata  be- 
ing confounded  with  the  superficial  al- 
luviums. They  were  observed  to  oc- 
cur in  patches  (some  of  fresh-water 
and  others  of  marine  origin)  in  small 
areas  or  barjins  in  the  ,  Secondary 
rocks,  suggesting  the  idea  that  they 
had  been  deposited  in  bays,  lakes,  es- 
tuaries, or  inland  seas,  after  a  great 
part  of  what  is  now  Europe  had  been 
converted  into  dry  land. 

TertuUianns,  Qnintits  Septim» 
ins  Florens  (more  commonly,  Ter- 
tullian),  a  theologian  of  the  Western 
Church;  born  of  heathen  parents  in 
Carthage  about  160.  He  did  not  be- 
come a  Christian  till  about  190,  and 
he  has  not  recorded  the  history  of  his 
conversion.  That  he  was  married  is 
shown  by  his  two  books  "  To  the 
Wife,"  in  which  he  argues  against  sec- 
ond marriages.  Some  time  between 
199  and  203  his  opposition  to  the 
spirit  of  worldliness  in  the  Church 
culminated  in  his  becoming  a  leader  of 
the  Montanist  sect.  He  died  between 
220  and  240,  "  in  decrepit  old  age." 

Tesla,  Nikola,  an  American  elec- 
trical inventor;  born  in  Smiljan,  Aus- 
tria-Hungary in  1857;  studied  engi- 
neering in  Parian  and  in  1884  came  to 
the  United  States,  and  for  several 
years  was  employed  at  Edison's  lab- 
oratory, near  Orange,  N.  J.  He  then 
opened  a  laboratory  of  his  own.  In 
1888  he  completed  his  discovery  of  the 
rotating  magnetic  fluid  by  the  inven- 
tion ^  of  the  rotary  field-motor,  the 
multi-phase  system  of  which  is  used  in 
the  50,000  horse-power  plant  built  to 
transmit:  -^he  water  power  of  Niagara 


^ Test  Oaili 

Falls  to  Buffalo  and  other  cities.  He 
invented  many  methods  and  appliances 
for  the  use  of  electricity,  among  them 
the  production  of  eflScient  light  from 
lamps  without  filaments,  and  the  pro- 
duction and  transmission  of  power  and 
intelligence  without  wires.  In  No- 
vember, 1898,  Tesla  announced  the  dis- 
covery of,  and  on  May  1,  1900,  pat- 
ented, a  method  of  transmitting  elec- 
trical energy  without  wires.  Work- 
ing along  the  same  line  Willian* 
Marconi  invented  his  wireless-teleg- 
raphy. In  1901  Tesla  discovered  that 
the  capacity  of  the  electrical  conduc- 
tor is  variable. 

Test  Act,  in  English  history,  an  act 
passed  in  1563  by  which  an  oath  of 
allegiance  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  of 
abjuration  of  the  temporal  authority 
of  the  Pope,  was  exacted  of  all  hold- 
ers of  oflice,  lay  or  spiritual,  within 
the  realm,  except  peers. 

Testing,  the  process  of  examining 
various  substances  by  means  of  chem- 
ical reagents,  with  the  view  of  discov- 
ering their  composition. 

Testing  Clause,  in  Scotch  law,  th© 
clause  in  a  formal  written  deed  or  in- 
strument by  which  it  is  authenticated 
according  to  the  form  of  law.  It  con- 
sists essentially  of  the  name  and  des- 
ignation of  the  writer,  the  number  of 
pages  of  which  the  deed  consists,  the 
names  and  designations  of  the  wit- 
nesses, the  name  and  designation  of 
the  person  who  penned  the  deed,  and 
the  date  and  place  of  signing. 

Testing  Machines,  machines  used 
for  the  accurate  testing  of  iron,  steel 
and  other  materials  used  in  construc- 
tive work.  The  problem  which  these 
machines  are  intended  to  solve  is  the 
adjustment  with  certainty  of  a  safe 
margin  of  strength  with  a  minimum  ol 
weight,  which  can  be  determined  only 
by  experimental  tests  on  full  sized 
sections  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
construction.  One  method  is  to  use 
machines  designed  to  test  small  sam- 
ple pieces  under  such  conditions  that 
the  breaking  strength  of  the  test-piece 
is  measured  by  the  machine,  and  from 
the  figures  thus  obtained  is  calculated 
the  strength  per  square  inch  of  the 
full-sized    constructive    material. 

Test  Oath,  an  oath  prescribed  by 
the    United    States    Congress   July   2, 


Test  Papers 

18G2,  to  be  taken  by  persons  in  the 
former  Confederate  States  appointed 
to  office  under  the  National  govern- 
ment. 

Test  Papers,  in  chemistry,  are 
made  by  dipping  unsized  paper  into  an 
alcoholic  solution  of  a  vegetable  color- 
ing matter  which  changes  color  when 
exposed  to  the  action  of  an  acid  or  al- 
kaline solution. 

Testudinidse,  the  land  tortoises; 
very  widely  distributed  in  both  hemi- 
spheres, but  absent  from  Australia. 
They  are  vegetable  feeders,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  species  belong  to 
the  type  genus  Testudo.  In  some 
classifications  the  family  includes  the 
fret?h-water  tortoises;  now  generally 
made  a  separate  family. 

Testndo,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
cover  or  screen  used  in  assaults  on 
fortified  towns.  In  cases  where  the 
town  was  of  small  size  and  accessible 
on  every  side,  while  the  force  at  the 
disposal  of  the  besiegers  was  large,  a 
ring  of  soldiers  was  drawn  round  the 
walls,  a  portion  of  whom  kept  up  a 
constant  discharge  of  missiles  on  those 
who  manned  the  battlements,  while 
the  rest,  advancing  on  every  side  si- 
multaneously, with  their  shields  joined 
above  their  heads  so  as  to  form  a  con- 
tinuous covering  like  the  shell  of 
a  tortoise,  planted  scaling  ladders 
against  a  number  of  different  points, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  endeavored  to 
burst  open  the  gates. 

Tetanus,  stiffness  or  spasm  of  the 
neck ;  a  disease  common  to  mankind 
and  animals.  It  is  characteri.red  by 
the  contraction  of  a  greater  or  less 
number  of  muscles  by  paroxysmal 
spasms,  which  aggravate  the  contrac- 
tions, and  by  troubles  more  or  less  ac- 
centuated in  the  calorification  of  the 
circulation  and  respiration.  It  Is 
most  commonly  located  in  the  jaw  and 
begins  with  painful  stiffness  at  the 
maxillary  muscles  and  the  muscles  at 
the  nape  of  the  neck  or  by  difficulty  in 
s\Nallowing.  The  progress  of  tetanus 
is  either  acute  or  chronic.  The  acute 
form  develops  in  from  one  to  four 
days;  the  chronic  form  may  last  a 
fortnight.  In  acute  tetanus  the  aver- 
age number  of  deaths  ranges  from  65 
to  80  per  cent. 

TetHys,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
greatest   of  the  sea   deities,   wife   of 


Tentones 

Oceanus,  daughter  of  Uranus  and  Ter- 
ra, and  uu  other  of  the  chief  rivers  of 
the  universe,  Nile,  Peneus,  Simois, 
Scamander,  etc.,  and  about  3,000 
daughters  called  Oceanides.  The  name 
Tethys  is  said  to  signify  nurse,  la 
astronomy,  a  satellite  of  Saturn.  In 
zoology,  a  genus  of  Tritoniidae,  with 
one  species,  from  the  Mediterranean. 
It  attains  a  foot  in  length,  and  feeds 
on  other  moUusks  and  on  small  Crus- 
tacea. 

Tetrachordon,  in  music,  an  instru- 
ment similar  in  appearance  to  a  cot- 
tage pianoforte,  and  like  it  played  by 
finger-board,  but  the  tone,  instead  of 
being  produced  by  striking,  is  obtain- 
ed by  means  of  a  cylinder  of  india- 
rubber  charged  with  resin,  kept  in  mo- 
tion by  a  pedal,  variety  of  tone  being 
gained  by  the  depth  of  pressure  on  the 
keys  by  the  fingers.  It  is  called  the 
tetrachordon  from  an  idea  that  its 
sounds  are  similar  to  those  produced 
by  a  string  quartet. 

TetragoAiiriis,  a  rare  fish,  more 
frequentlv  met  with  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean than  in  the  Atlantic.  Noth- 
ing is  known  of  its  habits,  but  as, 
when  young,  it  accompanies  the  Me- 
dusse,  it  must  be  regarded  as  a  pelagic 
form.  At  a  later  period  of  its  exist- 
ence, it  probably  descends  to  greater 
depths,  coming  to  the  surface  only  at 
night.  It  attains  a  length  of  about 
18  inches. 

Tetrarcli  ("  governor  of  the  fourth 
part"),  a  title  originally  designating 
what  is  signified  by  its  etymology,  the 
governor  of  one  of  four  divisions  of  a 
kingdom  or  country;  but  in  the  usage 
of  the  later  Roman  empire  given  un- 
distmguishingly  to  all  minor  rulers, 
especially  in  the  East,  possessing  sov- 
ereign right  within  their  territory,  but 
dependent  on  the  emperor,  and  in  many 
cases  removable  at  his  pleasure.  This 
was  especially  the  case  in  Syria,  where 
the  prmces  of  the  family  of  Herod  are 
called  indiscriminately  by  this  title 
and  by  that  of  king. 

Tentones,  or  Teutons,  in  antiqui- 
ty, a  powerful  German  tribe,  which, 
in  alliance  with  the  Cimbri,  advanced 
into  Illyria,  and  defeated  the  consul 
On.  Papirius  Carbo,  at  Noreia  113 
B.  c.  They  afterward  forced  their  way 
into  Roman  Gaul,  and  defeated  Man- 
lius  and  Scipio  105  B.  C. ;  and  they 
invaded  Spain  104  B.  c.    On  their  re- 


Teutonic  Kniglits 


Tewfik  Pasliai 


treat  from  Spain,  they  were  met  by 
the  Romans,  under  Marius,  at  Aquae 
Sextise,  the  modern  Aix,  and  totally 
defeated,  102  b.  0. 

Teutonic  Kniglits,  one  of  the 
three  military-religious  orders  of 
knighthood  founded  during  the  period 
of  the  Crusades.  There  had  been  a 
German  hospital  in  Jerusalem  from 
1128  to  1187,  and  the  new  arrange- 
ment at  Acre  was  in  some  sort  a  con- 
tinuance of  this,  being  called  the  Hos- 
pital St.  Mary  of  the  Germans  in  Je- 
rusalem. The  new  hospital,  the  at- 
tendants and  founders  of  which 
formed  themselves  into  a  monastic  or- 
der with  the  same  rules  as  the 
Knights  Hospitallers  of  St.  John, 
found  a  patron  in  Duke  Frederick  of 
Swabia,  and  through  him  secured  the 
countenance  of  his  brother,  the  Em- 
peror Henry  VI..  and  the  confirma- 
tion of  the  Pope  (1191).  Seven  years 
later  it  was  converted  into  a  knightly 
or  military  order;  and  the  change 
was  stamped  with  the  papal  approval 
in  1199.  The  knights,  in  addition  to  the 
usual  monastic  vows,  bound  themselves 
to  tend  the  sick  and  wounded,  and 
wage  incessant  war  on  the  heathen. 
Their  distinguishing  habiliment  was  a 
white  mantle  with  a  black  cross.  The 
chief  officer  of  the  order  was  the  grand- 
master or  "  high-master,"  who  was 
assisted  by  five  other  dignitaries.  The 
chapter  consisted  of  these  six  officers 
in  conjunction  with  the  provincial 
masters.  The  minor  districts  and  in- 
dividual castles  were  governed  by  com- 
manders, who  constituted  also  the  re- 
spective provincial  councils.  There 
was,  moreover,  a  class  of  "  serving 
brothers,"  who  performed  menial  of- 
fices about  the  hospitals ;  and  to  these 
were  added  in  certain  places  a  class 
of  inferior  female  domestics  called 
^'  half-sisters." 

About  the  year  1225  the  Duke  of 
Masovia  (in  Poland)  invited  the  Teu- 
tonic Knights  to  help  him  against  the 
heathen  Prussians.  The  grand-mas- 
ter, Hermann  von  Salza,  sent  a  body 
of  knights,  who  experienced  little  diffi- 
culty in  establishing  themselves  in  the 
territories  of  the  heathen.  Twelve  years 
later  they  were  strengthened  by  the 
absorption  into  their  order  of  the 
Brethren  of  the  Sword,  a  military  or- 
der which  had  been  formed  to  con- 
vert to  Christianity  with  the   sword 


the  Livonians,  Esthonians,  and  Cour- 
landers.  The  successive  encroachments 
of  the  knights  roused  the  Prussians 
to  bitter  opposition.  A  fierce  warfare 
was  carried  on  for  nearly  a  quarter  of 
a  century;  but  by  1283  the  knights 
were  masters  of  the  territory  lying  be- 
tween the  Vistula  and  the  Memel,  and 
as  heirs  of  the  extinct  Brethren  of 
the  Sword  they  had  also  extensive 
possessions  in  Livonia  and  Courland. 
In  1309  the  executive  officers  of  the 
order  established  themselves  in  the 
great  castle  of  Marienburg,  near  the 
Vistula.  After  subduing  the  Prus- 
sians, the  order  entered  on  a  hundred 
years  contest  against  the  Lithua- 
nians. But  a  most  serious  blow  was 
struck  at  the  knights  by  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Lithuanians  to  Christian- 
it  j;  and  the  accession  (1386)  of  their 
prince  to  the  throne  or  Poland. 

From  this  time  the  order  began  to 
decline.  In  1525  the  order  was  secu- 
larized; its  grand-master,  Albert  of 
Brandenburg-Anspach,  being  created 
hereditary  Duke  of  Prussia  under  the 
suzerainty  of  Poland.  The  headquar- 
ters of  the  order  was  fixed  at  Mergen- 
theim  in  Swabia,  and  its  possessions 
were  reorganized  in  12  bailiwicks. 
Thus  it  existed  till  1801,  when  the  es- 
tates W.  of  the  Rhine  were  annexed 
by  France ;  in  1809  the  order  was  en- 
tirely suppressed  by  Napoleon  in  all 
the  German  States.  This  left  only 
a  couple  of  bailiwicks  in  Austria  and 
one  at  Utrecht;  and  these  still  exist, 
severely  aristocratic  in  both  countries. 
The  Austrian  branch,  reorganized  in 
1840,  justifies  its  existence  by  main- 
taining an  organization  for  the  care 
of  the  wounded  in  war. 

Teutonic  Peoples,  a  term  now  ap- 
plied: (1)  to  the  High  Germans,  in- 
cluding the  German  inhabitants  of 
Upper  and  Middle  Germany  and  those 
of  Switzerland  and  Austria.  (2)  The 
Low  Germans,  including  the  Frisians, 
the  Plattdeutsch,  the  Dutch,  the 
Flemings,  and  the  English  descended 
from  the  Saxons,  Angles,  etc.,  who 
settled  in  Britain.  (3)  The  Scandi- 
navians, including  the  Norwegians, 
Swedes,  Danes  and  Icelanders. 

Tewfik  Pasha,  Khedive  of  Egypt ; 
born  Nov.  15,  1852;  eldest  son  of  Is- 
mail Pasha;  succeeded  on  his  father's 
abdication  in  1879,  in  virtue  of  the 
arrangement  of  1866  between  Ismail 


TeirkeBlinry 

and  the  Sultan.  The  chief  events  of 
his  reign  were  the  insurrection  of 
Arabi,  the  war  with  the  Mahdi,  the 
pacification  of  the  Sudan  frontiers, 
and  the  steady  improvement  of  the 
condition  of  Egypt  under  English  ad- 
ministration.    He  died  Jan.   7,  1892. 

TeTrkesbnry,  an  old  market  town 
of  Gloucestershire,  England.  On  the 
site  of  the  cell  of  the  hermit  Theoc, 
from  whom  the  place  received  its 
name,  was  founded  in  715  a  monas- 
tery, refounded  in  1102  as  a  great 
Benedictine  abbey.  Its  noble  church, 
consecrated  in  November,  1123,  meas- 
ures 317  feet  by  124  feet  across  the 
transepts,  and  remains  essentially  Nor- 
man, in  spite  of  later  additions  — 
Early  English,  Decorated,  and  Perpen- 
dicular. It  was  restored  in  1875- 
1879.  Within  half  a  mile  was  fought 
(May  4,  1471)  the  famous  battle  of 
Tewkesbury,  in  which  the  Yorkists 
under  Edward  IV.  gained  a  crowning 
victory  over  the  Lancastrians. 

Texas,  a  State  in  the  South  Central 
Division  of  the  North  American 
Union;  admitted  to  the  Union  Dec. 
29,  1845 ;  capital,  Austin ;  number  of 
counties  24(:j:  area,  265.780  square 
miles;  pop.   (1910)  3,896,542. 

The  surface  in  the  N.  W.  is  covered 
with  mountains,  which,  in  proceeding 
S.  E.,  subside  into  hills  and  undulating 
plateaus,  succeeded  on  approaching  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  by  low  alluvial  plains. 
These  extend  inland  from  20  to  80 
miles,  are  furrowed  with  deep  ravines, 
and  consist  for  the  most  part  of  rich 
prairie  or  forest  land.  The  hilly  re- 
gion behind  this  is  formed  chiefly  of 
sandstone  and  limestone  ridges,  sep- 
arated by  valleys  of  considerable  fer- 
tility. In  the  mountainous  region 
many  of  the  summits  are  lofty,  and 
covered  with  snow  several  months  of 
the  year.  ^  The  general  slope  of  the 
country  gives  all  the  rivers  a  more 
or  less  southerly  direction.  The  Rio 
Grande,  rising  in  Colorado,  forms  the 
W.  and  S.  W.  boundary  of  the  State, 
from  the  32d  parallel  to  the  sea.  The 
Red  river,  which  has  its  source  in  the 
Staked  Plain,  forms  the  greater  part 
of  the  N.  boundary.  The  other  im- 
portant rivers  are  the  Colorado,  the 
Brazos,  the  San  Jacinto  and  Trinity, 
and  the  Sabine,  which,  during  the 
greater  part  of  its  course,  is  the  boun- 
dary _  betw/een   Texas  and   Louisiana. 


Texas 

A  long  chain  of  lagoons  stretches  along 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Coal  is  the  most  valuable  mineral 
product,  but  extensive  beds  of  iron, 
lead,  silver,  bismuth,  and  gold  are  also 
found.  Salt,  building  stones,  clay,  ar- 
senic, antimony,  mineral  oils,  and  fer- 
tilizers are  among  smaller  productions. 
There  are  numerous  mineral  springs 
and  oil  wells.  In  the  latter  part  of 
1900  extensive  oil  fields  were  discov- 
ered near  Beaumont,  and  produced  a 
great  boom  in  the  Texas  oil  industry. 

The  soil  of  Texas  is,  as  a  whole,  ex- 
tremely fertile.  The  two  staple  prod- 
ucts are  cotton  and  maize,  both  of 
which  are  largely  cultivated  in  the 
lower  or  coast  region,  where  the  sugar 
cane  and  tobacco  also  grow  luxuriant- 
ly. Wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley  thrive 
best  in  the  black  land  prairie  regions; 
and  both  there  and  at  lower  levels 
fruits  in  almost  endless  variety  are 
abundant  The  forests  contain  large 
tracts  of  oak.  The  pastures  are  often 
covered  with  the  richest  natural 
grasses,  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  is 
carried  on  to  the  greatest  advantage. 
The  principal  farm  crops  in  1900  were 
corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  pota- 
toes, and  hay.  The  cotton  crop  of 
1899-1900  was  2,438,555  bales,  mak- 
ing Texas  the  first  cotton  growing 
State. 

According  to  the  United  States  cen- 
sus of  1900,  the  State  had  12,289 
manufacturing  establishments,  employ- 
ing $90,433,882  capital  and  51,712 
persons ;  paying  $23,781,430  for  wages 
and  $67,102,769  for  materials;  and 
having  an  aggregate  output  valued  at 
$119,414,982.  The  prmcipal  indus- 
tries according  to  the  value  of  the  out- 
put were  the  manufacture  of  lumber 
and  timber,  cotton-seed  oil  and  cake 
flour  and  grist,  railroad  cars,  ginned 
cotton,  packed  meat,  saddlery  and 
harness,  and  foundry  and  machine- 
shop  products. 

On  Oct.  31,  1901,  there  were  re- 
ported 288  National  banks  in  opera- 
tion, having  $22,570,510  in  capital, 
$9,695,463  in  outstanding  circulation, 
and  $9,192,480  in  United  States 
bonds.  There  were  also  33  private 
banks,  with  $1,108,744  in.  capital,  and 
$274,746  surplus. 

The  imports  of  merchandise  at  the 

ports  of  Brazos  de  Santiago,  Corpus 

Christi,    Galveston,  'Paso    del    Norte, 

'  and  Saluria,  for  the  year  1900,  aggre- 


9eza« 


Tesins  Receptns 


gated  in  value  $5,113,450 ;  and  the  ex- 
ports, $11^,160,714,  The  imports  of 
gold  and  silver  amounted  to  $15,633,- 
299 ;  and  the  exports,  $28,592. 

According  to  official  reports  in 
1900  the  children  of  school  census 
age  numbered  1,070,000 ;  the  enroll- 
ment in  public  schools,  578,418;  and 
the  average  daily  attendance  393,780. 
There  were  11,133  public  school  build- 
ings, public  school  property  valued  at 
$9,166,550;  and  15,000  teachers.  For 
higher  education  there  were  201  pub- 
lic high  schools,  64  private  secondary 
schools,  3  public  and  6  private  normal 
schools,  16  universities  and  colleges 
for  men  and  for  both  sexes,  and  5  wom- 
en's colleges.  The  principal  colleges 
are  the  University  of  Texas,  at  Aus- 
tin ;  Fort  Worth  University,  and  Poly- 
technic College,  at  Fort  Worth ; 
Southwestern  University,  at  George- 
town ;  and  Baylor  University,  at 
Waco.  The  women's  colleges  include 
the  Baylor  Female  College,  at  Belton ; 
Carlton  College  at  Bonham ;  and  the 
Mary   Nash   College,  at   Sherman. 

The  strongest  denominations  in  the 
State  are  the  Methodist  Episcopal, 
South  ;  Regular  Baptist,  South  ;  Regu- 
lar Baptist,  Colored ;  Roman  Catholic ; 
African  Methodist;  Disciples  of 
Christ ;  Methodist  Episcopal ;  Cumber- 
land Presbyterian ;  Presbyterian, 
South ;  Lutheran,  General  Council ; 
Protestant  Episcopal ;  and  Primitive 
Baptist. 

The  total  bonded  debt  of  Teias  on 
Sept.  1,  1901,  was  $3,989,400 ;  sinking 
funds,  school  fund,  $2,972,800 ;  asylum 
fund,  $299,400 ;  net  public  debt,  $717,- 
200.  The  assessed  valuation  in  1900 
was  real  estate,  $()06,904,488 ;  person- 
al property,  $247,103,146;  total  val- 
uation, $914,007,634.  Tax  rate,  $3,466 
per  $1,000. 

The  Governor  is  elected  for  a  term 
of  two  years  and  receives  a  salary  of 
$4,000  per  annum.  Legislative  sessions 
are  held  biennially  and  are  unlimited 
in  length.  The  Legislature  has  31 
members  in  the  Senate  and  109  in 
the  House,  each  of  whom  receives 
$5.00  per  day  for  the  first  60  days  and 
$2.00  per  day  thereafter  with  mileage. 
There  are  18  Representatives  in  Con- 
gress. - 

The  first  settlement  in  Texas  was 
made  at  Matagorda  by  the  French, 
who  in  1689  were  massacred  by  the 


coast  savages.  It  afterward  in  con- 
junction with  Coahuila  became  one 
of  the  States  of  the  Mexican  Confed- 
eration. Several  colonies  of  Ameri- 
can citizens,  invited  by  the  Mexicans^ 
settled  in  the  central  and  E.  section, 
and  gradually  increased  in  numbers* 
When  Santa  Ana  overthrew  the  federal 
system  Zacatecas  rebelled  but  was  soon, 
subdued.  Texas  then  revolted  from 
the  Mexican  government,  and  in  1836 
declared  itself  independent.  Santa  Ana 
attempted  to  reduce  it,  but  failed,  be- 
ing himself  beaten  and  taken  prisoner 
at  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto  by  Gen- 
eral Houston.  Texas  now  managed 
its  own  affairs  as  an  independent  re- 
public till  1845,  when  it  became  one 
of  the  United  States,  and  thus  gave 
rise  to  the  war  which  proved  dis- 
astrous to  Mexico.  It  joined  the  Con- 
federates during  the  Civil  War,  and 
was  the  last  to  submit.  It  was  under 
military  control  till  1870,  when  it  waa 
restored  to  the  Union. 

Texas,  University  of,  a  coeduca- 
tional non-sectarian  iustitution  in  Aus-  i 
tin,  Tex.,  with  a  medical  department 
at  Galveston.  It  was  founded  in 
1876  and  opened  in  1883,  upon  a  leg- 
islative grant  of  2,000,000  acres  of 
land.  It  has  an  endowment  of  over 
$2,000,000;  average  number  of  fac- 
nltv.  85;  average  student  attendance, 
2,500;  ordinary  income,   $340,000. 

Tezel,  an  island  in  the  province  of 
North  Holland,  14  miles  in  length  and 
6  in  its  greatest  breadth,  situated  at 
entrance  of  the  Buyder  Zee  :  separated 
from  North  Holland  by  the  narrow 
channel  of  Mars-Diep.     Pop.  6,300. 

Tezcoco,  or  Tezcuco,  a  town  of 
Mexico,  in  the  department  of  Mexico, 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Lake  of 
Texcuco.  In  ancient  times  it  was  the 
second  city  in  the  kingdom.  Here  are 
the  remains  of  three  pyramids,  each 
iLeasuring  400  feet  along  the  base  of 
their  fronts.  The  modern  town  car- 
ries on  an  active  trade.    Pop.  5,000, 

Teztns  Receptns,  in  Biblical  criti- 
cism, a  received  text;  one  from  which, 
as  being  the  best  accessible,  transla- 
tors made  their  version  into  the  ver- 
nacular. The  textus  receptus  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  the  Hebrew  text, 
from  which  the  Authorized  English 
Version  of  that  iwrtion  of  the  Bible 
was  made.  The  textus  receptus  of  the 
New   Testament    is   the   Greek    text. 


Thaclier 

from  which  the  Authorized  English 
Version   was  produced, 

Thacher,  John  Boyd,  an  Amer- 
ican reformer ;  born  in  Ballston,  N. 
Y.,  Sept.  11,  1847;  was  graduated  at 
Williams  College  in"  18G9  ;  member  of 
the  New  Yorli  Senate  in  18M-1885, 
when  he  introduced  the  measures 
which  resulted  in  the  tenement  house 
reforms;  mayor  of  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in 
1886-1887,  1896-1897;  and  chairman 
of  the  Bureau  of  Awards  at  the 
World's  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chi- 
cago in  1893.     He  died  in  19€9. 

Thackeray,  William  Make- 
peace, an  English  novelist ;  born  in 
Calcutta,  India,  July  IS,  1811.  Being 
well  provided  for  he  chose  the  profes- 
sion of  an  artist.  He  spent  several 
years  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy, 
staying  at  Weimar,  Rome,  and  Paris, 
but  gradually  became  convinced  that 
art  was  not  his  vocation,  and  having 
lost  his  fortune,  he  resolved  to  turn 
his  attention  to  literature.  His  first 
appearance  in  this  sphere  was  as  a 
0_  journalist.  In  1846-1848  his  novel  of 
"  Vanity  Fair "  was  published  in 
monthly  parts,  with  illustrations  by 
himself ;  and  long  before  its  completion 
its  author  was  unanimously  placed  in 
the  first  rank  of  British  novelists. 
His  next  novel  was  the  "  History  of 
Pendennis,"  completed  in  1850.  In 
1851  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures 
in  London  on  the  "  English  Humorists 
of  the  18th  Century,"  which  were  re- 
peated in  Scotland  and  America,  and 
published  in  1853.  In  1855-1856  he 
delivered  a  series  of  lectures  in  the 
United  States  — "  The  Four  Georges," 
and  afterward  in  England  and  Scot- 
land. In  18.59  he  became  editor  of  the 
"  Cornhill  Magazine,"  but  he  retired 
from  that  post  in  1862.  He  died  in 
Kensington  Palace  Gardens,  London, 
Dec.  24,  1863. 

Tkalamepkonis,  or  Tkalame- 
pkoros,  in  Egyptian  antiquities,  a 
kneeling  figure  supporting  a  shrine  or 
inscribed  tablet.  These  statues  prob- 
ably represent  priests  and  initiated 
women  who  carried  about  in  proces- 
sions the  statues  of  the  gods. 

Tkales,  the  earliest  of  the  Greek 
philosophers,  called  the  father  of  phi- 
losophy ;  born  in  Miletus  640  B.  C.  He 
was  the  founder  of  the  Ionic  school, 
one  of  the  chief  sources  of  Grecian 
philosophy.     He  visited  Egypt  for  in- 


Tkane 

struction  in  the  sciences  professed  by 
the  priesthood.  Besides  abstract  phi- 
losophy, he  studied  geometry  .and  as- 
tronomy. His  biographers  mention, 
among  his  services  to  astronomy  a, 
calculation  of  the  length  of  the  year,, 
and  of  the  interval  between  solstices- 
and  equinoxes.  He  left  nothing  in 
writing.     He  died  about  550. 

Thalia,  one  of  the  nine  r.:Iuses. 
She  was  the  patron  of  comedy,  and  is 
usually  repi'esented  with  the  comie 
mask,  and  the  shepherd's  crook  in  her 
hand.  One  of  the  Graces  was  also 
called  Thalia. 

Thames,  the  most  important  r'ver 
of  Great  Britain ;  usually  said  to  rise 
about  3  miles  S.  W.  of  Cirencester  in 
Gloucestershire,  near  a  bridge  over 
the  Thames  and  Severn  canal,  called 
Thameshead  Bridge,  but  is  more  prop- 
erly formed  by  the  Isis,  Churn,  Colne, 
and  Leach,  which  have  their  sources 
on  the  E.  side  of  the  Cotswold  Hills, 
and  unite  near  Lechlade.  Its  total 
course  is  estimated  at  250  miles.  Its. 
tributaries  include  the  Windrush, 
Cherwell,  Thame,  Colne,  Brent,  Lea, 
and  Roding,  on  the  left;  the  Kennet, 
Loddon,  Wey,  and  Mole,  on  the  right. 
Thameshead  Bridge  is  376  feet  above 
sea-level ;  the  junction  of  the  Colne 
above  Lechlade  is  243  feet.  At  Lon- 
don Bridge  the  width  of  the  river  is 
266  yards,  at  Woolwich  490  yards,  at 
Gravesend  800  yards,  and  3  miles  be- 
low, 1,290  yards.  The  depth  of  the 
river  in  the  fair  way  above  Greenwich 
to  London  Bridge  is  12  to  13  feet, 
while  its  tides  have  a  mean  range  of 
17  feet  and  an  extreme  rise  of  22  feet. 
By  means  of  numerous  canals  imme- 
diate access  is  given  from  its  basin 
to  those  of  all  the  great  rivers  of  En- 
gland. 

Thane,  a  title  of  honor  or  dignity 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons.  In  England 
a  freeman  not  noble  was  raised  to  the 
dignity  of  a  thane  by  acquiring  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  land,  by  making  three 
sea  voyages,  or  by  receiving  holy  or- 
ders. The  thanes  had  the  right  of 
voting  in  the  Witenagemot,  not  only 
of  their  own  shires,  but  also  of  the 
whole  kingdom,  on  important  ques- 
tions. There  were  two  orders  of 
thanes:  The  king's  thanes,  or  those 
who  attended  at  his  court  and  held 
lands  immediately  from  him,  and  or- 
dinary thanes,  or  lords  of  the  manor. 


Tlianet 

and  who  had  a  particular  jurisdic- 
tion within  their  limits.  On  the  ces- 
sation of  his  actual  personal  service 
about  the  king,  the  thane  received  a 
grant  of  land.  After  the  Norman 
conquest,  thanes  and  barons  were 
classed  together,  and  the  title  fell  into 
disuse  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 

Thanet,  Octave,  pseudonym  of 
Alice  French,  an  American  novelist ; 
born  in  Andover,  Mass.,  March  19, 
1850. 

'  Thanksgiving  Day,  in  the  United 
States,  an  annual  festival  of  thanks- 
giving for  the  mercies  of  the  closing 
year.  Practically  it  is  a  National  har- 
vest festival,  fixed  by  proclamation  of 
the  President  and  the  governors  of 
States,  and  ranks  as  a  legal  holiday. 
In  1789  the  Episcopal  Church  formal- 
ly recognized  the  civil  government's 
authority  to  appoint  such  a  feast,  and 
in  1888  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
also  decided  to  honor  a  festival  which 
had  long  been  nearly  universally  ob- 
served —  though  nowhere  with  such 
zest  as  in  the  New  England  States, 
where  it  ranks  as  the  great  annual 
family  festival,  taking  the  place  which 
in  England  is  accorded  to  Christmas. 
The  earliest  harvest  thanksgiving  in 
America  was  kept  by  the  Pilgrim  Fa- 
thers at  Plymouth  in  1621.  Congress 
recommended  days  of  thanksgiving  an- 
nually during  the  Revolution,  and  in 
1784  for  the  return  of  peace  —  as  did 
President  Madison  in  1815.  Washing- 
ton appointed  such  a  day  in  1789  after 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution,  and 
in  1795  for  the  general  benefits  and 
welfare  of  the  nation.  Since  1863 
the  Presidents  have  always  issued  proc- 
lamations appointing  the  last  Thurs- 
day in  November  as  Thanksgiving  Day. 

Tliaso,  ancient  Thasos,  an  island 
in  the  ^gean  Sea,  a  few  miles  S.  of 
the  Macedonian  coast,  belonging  to 
Turkey.  It  is  of  a  circular  form,  about 
16  miles  in  diameter,  and  is  traversed 
by  high  woody  hills.     Pop.  12,000. 

Thatclier,  Henry  Knox,  an 
American  naval  officer ;  born  in  Thom- 
astou,  Me.,  May  26,  1806 ;  entered  the 
navy  as  midshipman  in  1823 ;  be- 
came lieutenant  in  1833.  He  served  in 
various  parts  of  the  world:  and  in 
1855  attained  the  rank  of  commodore. 
He  was  in  command  of  the  sloop  "  De- 
catur "  of  the  Pacific  station ;  ordered 
to  the  sailing  sloop  "  Constellation " 


Thayer 

on  the  Mediterranean  station;  and  in 
1862  commanded  the  first  division  of 
Commodore  Porter's  fleet  in  both  at- 
tacks on  Fort  Fisher.  After  the  war 
he  commanded  the  Gulf  Squadron  till 
1866  and  the  Pacific  Squadron  in 
1866-1868;  promoted  rear-admiral  in 
July,  1866;  retired  in  1868;  and  was 
port-admiral  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  in 
1809-1871.  He  died  in  Boston,  Mass., 
April  5,  1880. 

Thatclier,  Oliver  Joseph,  an 
American  historian ;  was  graduated  at 
Wilmington  College,  O.,  in  1878,  and 
at  the  Union  Theological  Seminary  in 
1885;  studied  abroad  in  1885-1888; 
was  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History 
at  the  United  Presbyterian  Theological 
Seminary  in  1890-1892.  He  became 
assistant  Professor  of  History  at  the 
University  of  Chicago  in  1893,  and 
was  made  associate  Professor  of  Medi- 
aeval and  English  History  there  in 
1890. 

Thaxter,  Mrs.  Celia  (Leighton), 
an  American  poet ;  born  in  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.,  June  20,  1836.  She  • 
spent  her  childhood  and  most  of  her 
later  life  at  the  Isles  of  Shoals.  She 
died  on  the  island  of  Appledore,  Isles 
of  Shoals,  Aug.  26,  1894. 

Thayer,  Alexander  Wheelook, 
an  American  writer  on  music  and 
musicians;  born  in  1817.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  "Dictionary  of  Music" ; 
was  musical  critic  of  the  New  York 
"  Tribune  "  ;  afterward  was  consul  at 
Trieste,  1859-1897.  He  died  in  Tri- 
este, July  15,  1897. 

Thayer,  Eli,  an  American  educa- 
tor; born  in  Mendon,  Mass.,  June  11, 
1819;  was  graduated  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity in  1845.  He  originated  and 
organized  the  "  Emigrant  Aid  Com- 
pany," and  labored  till  1857  to  obtain 
the  support  of  the  Northern  States 
for  his  plan  to  send  anti-slavery  set- 
tlers to  Kansas.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1856-1861,  when  he 
made  his  famous  speeches  on  "  Cen- 
tral American  Colonization,"  "  Suicide 
of  Slavery,"  and  the  admission  of  Ore- 
gon. While  the  Civil  War  was  in 
progress  he  proposed  a  plan  for  the 
military  colonization  of  Florida  as  a 
war  measure.  Subsequently  he  urged 
his  colonization  scheme  as  a  remedy 
for  polygamy  in  Utah ;  wrote  and  pub- 
lished several  books ;  and  invented  a 
hydraulic    elevator,    a    safety    steam 


Thayer 

boiler,  and  an  automatic  boiler  clean- 
er. He  died  in  Worcester,  Mass., 
April  15,  1899. 

Thayer,  Emma  Hom.aii,  an  Amer- 
ican  autlior ;  born  in  New  York  city, 
Feb.  13,  1842;  was  educated  at  Rut- 
gers College  and  took  a  course  in  art 
at  the  National  Academy  of  Design, 
New  York  city,  wliere  she  exhibited 
numerous  figure  paintings;  settled  in 
Colorado  in  1882 ;  and  made  sketches 
of  the  flora  of  that  vicinity.  Her  pub- 
lications include :  "  Wild  Flowers  of 
Colorado,"  "  Wild  Flowers  of  the  Pa- 
cific Coast,"  etc. 

Thayer,  James  Bradley,  an 
American  educator  ;  born  in  Haverhill, 
Mass.,  Jan.  15,  1831 ;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1852  and  at  its 
law  school  in  18.5G ;  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  Boston  the  same  year  and  prac- 
tised there  till  1873,  when  he  became 
Royall  Professor  of  Law  at  Harva^fi 
University.  Professor  Thayer  was  the 
author  of  many  well-known  law  books. 
JSe  died  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Feb. 
^,  1902. 

Thayer,  Joseph  Henry,  an  Amer- 
ican educator;  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Nov.  7,  1828;  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard University  in  1850  and  at  the 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1857 ;  was  Professor  of  Sacred  Litera- 
ture at  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary in  18GJr-1884 ;  and  in  the  latter 
year  became  Professor  of  New  Testa- 
ment Criticism  and  Interpretation  in 
the  ,  Harvard  Divinity  School.  His 
publications  include :  "  Books  and 
Their  Use";  "The  Change  of  Atti- 
tude Toward  the  Bible,"  etc.  Died 
1901. 

Thayer,  Martin  Russell,  an 
American  jurist ;  born  in  Petersburg, 
Va.,  Jan.  27,  1819;  was  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1840,  and  admitted  to  the  Pennsyl- 
vania bar  in  1842.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1863-1867;  judge  of 
the  district  court  of  Philadelphia  in 
1867 ;  and  presiding  judge  of  the  Court 
of  Common  Pleas  in  1874-1896.  His 
publications  include :  "  The  Duties  of 
Citizenship  " ;  "  What  is  Demanded  of 
the  United  States  by  the  Obligations 
of  Duty  and  National  Honor " ;  and 
many  essays,  speeches,  reviews,  etc. 

Thayer,  Sylvanns,  an  American 
military    officer;    born    in    Braintree, 


Thayer 

Mass.,  June  9,  1785;  was  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  in  1807 ;  and 
the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1808;  and  assigned  to  the  Engi- 
neer Corps.  He  took  part  in  the  War 
of  1812-1815 ;  was  chief  engineer  on 
the  Niagara  frontier,  at  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  and  in  the  defense  of  Norfolk, 
Va. ;  was  promoted  captain  of  en- 
gineers in  1813,  and  brevetted  major 
in  1815  for  distinguished  services.  In 
1815  he  was  sent  to  Europe  to  ex- 
amine military  works  and  schools,  and 
to  study  the  operations  of  the  allied 
armies  before  Paris ;  was  recalled  in 
1817  on  being  appointed  superintend- 
ent of  the  United  States  Military 
Academy,  which  post  he  held  till 
1833,  when  he  resigned.  During  his 
administration  he  organized  the  in- 
stitution on  its  present  basis.  He  was 
brevetted  lieutenant-colonel  in  1823, 
major  in  1828,  and  colonel  in  1833.  In 
1838-1863  he  was  engaged  in  the  con- 
struction of  defenses  in  and  about  Bos- 
ton harbor.  He  was  promoted  lieu-' 
tenant-colonel  of  engineers  in  1838, 
colonel  in  1863,  and  brevet  Brigadier- 
General  May  31,  1863,  and  was  re- 
tired the  following  day.  He  was  a 
member  of  various  scientific  associa- 
tions ;  gave  $70,000  to  found  the 
Thayer  School  of  Civil  Engineering  at 
Dartmouth  College ;  $10,000  to  Brain- 
tree  for  a  public  library ;  and  be- 
queathed $300,000  for  the  endowment 
of  an  academy  in  Braintree.  He  was' 
the  author  of  "  Papers  on  Practical 
Engineering"  (1844).  He  died  in 
South  Braintree,  Mass.,  Sept.  7,  1872. 
His  body  was  reinterred  in  West  Point, 
Nov.  8,  1877,  where  a  statue  was 
raised  to  his  honor  which  bears  the 
inscription,  "  Colonel  Thayer,  Father 
of  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy." 

Thayer,  William  Makepeace, 
an  American  clergyman ;  born  in 
Franklin,  Mass.,  Feb.  23,  1820.  His 
books  attained  great  popularity,  sev- 
eral being  reprinted  abroad  in  German, 
French,  Italian,  Greek,  Swedish,  etc. 
Among  his  works  are :  "  The  Bobbin 
Boy,"  "  The  Pioneer  Boy,"  "  Ethics  of 
Success,"  etc.  He  died  in  Franklin,^ 
Mass.,  April  7,  1898. 

Thayer,  William  Roscoe,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Jan.  16,  1859;  studied  in  Eu- 
rope, and  was  graduated  at  Harvarc} 


Theater 

University  in  1881 ;  became  editor  of 
the  "  Harvard  Graduates'  Magazine  " 
in  1892,  His  publications  include : 
*'  Tlie  Dawn  of  Italian  Independence," 
^'  History  and  Customs  of  Harvard 
University,"  etc. 

Theater,  or  Theatre,  a  building 
devoted  to  the  representation  of  dra- 
matic spectacles ;  a  play-house.  Among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  theaters  were 
the  chief  public  edifices  next  to  the 
temples,  and  many  of  them  were  of 
•enormous  size.  The  theater  of  Mar- 
cellus  at  Rome,  the  external  walls  of 
which  are  still  in  existence  contained 
seats  for  30,000  spectators.  The  Greek 
theaters  were  semi-circular;  that  part 
in  which  the  chorus  danced  and  sang 
was  called  the  orchestra ;  behind  this, 
and  facing  the  audience,  was  the  stage 
for  the  performers,  who  took  part  m 
the  drama ;  the  back  of  the  stage  being 
filled  in  by  a  permanent  architecturally 
decorated  scene.  Roman  theaters  also 
formed  semi-circles  with  seats  rising 
in  the  form  of  an  amphitheater  for  the 
spectators,  at  the  chord  of  which  was 
the  stage  (scena),  with  its  permanent 
decorations.  The  orchestra,  which  was 
the  space  between  the  stage  and  the 
lowest  tier  of  spectators,  was  employed 
by  the  Greeks  for  theatrical  purposes, 
whereas  the  Romans  turned  it  into 
seats  for  the  senators.  The  topmost 
tier  was  generally  crowned  with  a  cov- 
ered portico.  The  whole  mass  of  the 
rows  of  seats  was  supported  by  a  solid 
substructure  of  piers  and  arches, 
which  formed  passages  of  three  stories 
one  above  another,  retaining  the  cir- 
cular form  of  the  building;  while  ex- 
ternally they  formed  arcades,  which 
were  surrounded  with  half-columns 
or  piers  with  entablatures  over  them. 
Blodern  theaters  are  generally  con- 
structed on  a  semi-circular  or  horse- 
shoe plan,  with  galleries  running  round 
the  walls.  The  portion  of  a  modern 
theater  corresponding  to  the  ancient 
orchestra  is  occupied  mainly  by  spec- 
tators, the  orchestra  taking  up  only 
a  small  part  of  it  next  to  the  stage. 

Theban  Leg^lon,  according  to  tra- 
dition, a  body  composed  of  Christians, 
who  submitted  to  martyrdom  rather 
than  attack  their  brethren  during  the 
persecution  of  the  Emperor  Maximin 
or  sacrifice  to  the  gods,  about  a.  d.  286. 
Their  leader,  Maurice,  has  been  canon- 
ized. 


Thebes 

Thebes,  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
Egyptian  city,  formerly  the  capital  of 
Southern  or  Upper  Egypt;  called  by 
the  Egyptians  Tuabu,  by  the  Hebrews 
No-Amon,  by  the  Greeks  Thebae,  and 
at  a  later  period  Diospolis  Magna.  It 
lies  in  the  broadest  section  of  the  val- 
ley of  the  Nile,  in  about  latitude  20" 
N.  The  central  situation  of  Thebes 
secured  it  from  the  attacks  of  the  N. 
enemies  of  Egypt,  and  contributed  to 
its  prosperity ;  and  here  the  worship 
of  Amen-Ra  arose  in  all  its  splendor ; 
magnificent  palaces  and  temples  were 
built  in  its  different  quarters  by  the 
great  monarchs  of  the  Theban  dy- 
nasties, and  were  added  to  by  later 
kings,  down  to  the  time  of  the  Ptole- 
mies and  Antoninus,  to  the  2d  century 

A.  D.  It  was  enriched  by  the  spoils 
of  Asia  and  the  tributes  of  Ethiopia, 
and  its  fame  and  reputation  had 
reached  the  early  Greeks. 

In  the  plenitude  of  its  power  it 
sent  forth  an  army  of  20,000  war  char- 
iots ;  but  about  1100  b.  c.  the  Buba- 
stite  and  Tanite  dynasties  removed  the 
capital  again  to  the  N.,  to  Sais  and 
Memphis,  and  thenceforth  Thebes  de- 
clined in  importance. 

Thebes,  or  Thiva,  the  capital  of 
Boeotia  in  ancient  Greece ;  founded, 
according  to  tradition,  by  a  colony  of 
Phoenicians,      under     Cadmus,      1550 

B.  C.  or  1400  B.  c.  They  were  driven 
out  by  the  Boeotians,  1124  b.  c.  Pla- 
tiBa,  one  of  the  Boeotian  cities,  revolt- 
ed from  Thebes  510  b.  c,  and  applied 
for  help  to  Athens.  A  war  ensued 
between  Thebes  and  Athens,  in  which 
the  latter  was  victorious.  This  caused 
much  animosity  between  Thebes  and 
Athens,  and  in  the  Persian  war,  480 
B.  c.  the  Thebans  deserted  the  cause  of 
Greece  and  fought  against  the  Athen- 
ians at  Plataea,  479  B.  c.  The  Athen- 
ians invaded  Boeotia,  and  established 
a  democratic  government  in  Thebes, 
456  B.  c.  The  Thebans  were  allies  or 
the  Spartans  in  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  431  to  404  B.  C.  Sparta  having 
claimed  supremacy  over  the  whole  of 
Greece,  the  Thebans  joined  the  Athen- 
ians, 395  B.  o.  The  peace  of  Antal- 
cidas  put  an  end  to  the  war,  387  b.  c, 
and  deprived  Thebes  of  her  suprem- 
acy over  Boeotia.  The  Spartaus,  who 
treacherously  seized  the  citadel  of 
Thebes  382  b.  c.  were  defeated  at 
Leuctra,  in  July,  371  b.  c,  and  the 


Tlieism 

rhebans  regained  their  power  in 
Greece.  Thebes  was  razed  to  the 
ground  by  Alexander  III.,  335  B.  c, 
after  which  it  never  again  formed  an 
independent  State.  Cassander  re- 
stored the  city  315  B.  c,  and  it  was 
taken  by  Demetrius  293  B.  C,  and 
again  290  B.  c.  The  Thebans  were  de- 
feated in  an  attempt  to  expel  the  Bul- 
garians from  Greece  in  1040,  and  their 
city  was  plundered  by  the  Normans  of 
Sicily  in  1146.  It  was  one  of  the 
most  flourishing  cities  of  Greece  dur- 
ing the  10th  and  11th  centuries.  The 
modern  Thebes  was  almost  wholly  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake  in  1893. 

Theism,  etymologically  equivalent 
to  belief  in  a  god  or  gods,  and  as  such 
opposed  to  Atheism,  is  now  usually 
understood  to  mean  the  doctrine  of 
the  one,  supreme,  personal  God,  "  in 
whom  we  live,  and  move,  and  have  our 
being  " —  as  distinguished  from  Poly- 
theism, which  recognizes  more  gods 
than  one ;  from  Pantheism,  which  de- 
nies the  divine  personality;  from  Ag- 
nosticism, which  denies  that  we  can 
know  anything  of  God ;  and  from  De- 
ism, which,  etymologically  equivalent 
to  Theism,  is  generally  defined  as  rec- 
ognizing the  personality  of  God,  but 
denying  His  providence  and  active 
presence  in  the  life  of  the  world.  De- 
ism further  explicitly  rejects  revela- 
tion and  trinitarian  conceptions  of 
the  godhead,  while  Theism  may  or  may 
not  accept  these  doctrines. 

Themis,  in  Greek  mythology,  one 
of  the  Titanides,  the  daughter  of 
.Uranus  and  Ge,  was  after  Metis  mar- 
ried to  Zeus,  and  bore  him  the  Horse 
• — Eunomia  ("Equity");  Dike 
("  Justice  ") ,  and  Eirene  ("  Peace  ") , 
also  the  Moirai  or  Fates.  She  was 
regarded  as  the  personification  of 
order  and  justice,  or  of  whatever  is 
established  by  use  and  wont ;  and  as 
such  was  charged  by  Zeus  to  convoke 
the  gods,  and  preside  over  them  when 
assembled,  being  likewise  represented 
as  reigning  in  the  assemblies  of  men. 
In  art  Themis  holds  a  cornucopia  and 
a  pair  of  scales. 

Themistocles,  an  Athenian  general 
and  statesman ;  born  about  514  b.  c. 
He  saw  what  was  best  for  Athens 
when  he  turned  the  attention  of  his 
countrymen  to  the  sea  and  convinced 
them  that  a  powerful  fle<»t  was  ab- 


Theodolite 

solutely  necessary  for  their  welfare.  A 
large  sum  of  money,  the  produce  of 
the  silver  mines  of  Laurium,  which  it 
was  proposed  to  divide  among  the  peo- 
ple, was  devoted  to  its  construction. 
During  the  war  with  Persia  which 
followed,  Themistocles  commanded 
the  Athenian  squadron,  which  almost 
totally  destroyed  the  Persian  fleet  at 
Salamis.  Tne  victor  of  Salamis  was 
now  the  foremost  name  in  the  minds 
and  mouths  of  men.  The  rebuilding  of 
the  walls  of  Athens  by  his  advice  on 
a  scale  far  larger  than  anything  in 
existence  aroused  great  uneasiness 
among  the  allies  of  Sparta,  but,  by  a 
series  of  adroit  stratagems,  Themis- 
tocles succeeded  in  cajoling  the 
ephors  till  the  walls  had  reached  a 
height  sufficient  for  defense.  But  his 
popularity  was  now  waning,  and  in 
471  B.  c.  ostracism  was  demanded,  and 
he  was  banished  from  Athens,  and 
later  took  refuge  at  the  Persian  court, 
where  he  was  treated  with  great  dis- 
tinction. He  died  in  449,  according 
to  some  accounts,  by  his  own  hands. 

Theocracy,  that  government  of 
which  the  chief  is,  or  is  believed  to  be, 
God  himself,  the  priests  being  the 
promulgators  and  expounders  of  the 
divine  commands.  The  most  notable 
theocratic  government  of  all  times  is 
that  established  by  Moses  among  the 
Israelites.  The  early  colonial  govern- 
ments of  Massachusetts  and  New 
Haven  have  sometimes  been  called 
theocracies,  owing  to  the  predominance 
of  the  religious  element  in  their  ad- 
ministration. 

Theocritus,  a  Greek  poet ;  born  at ' 
Syracuse,  who  flourished  about  B.  c. 
280.  We  have  imder  his  name  30  idyls 
or  pastoral  poems,  of  which,  however, 
several  are  probably  by  other  authors. 
Most  of  his  idyls  have  a  dramatic 
form  and  consist  of  the  alternate  re- 
sponses of  musical  shepherds.  His 
language    is    strong    and    harmonious. 

Theodolite,  a  most  important  in- 
strument for  measuring  horizontal  and 
vertical  angles,  but  particularly  adapt- 
ed for  accurately  measuring  the  for- 
mer. Its  principle  is  identical  with 
that  of  the  altitude  and  azimuth  in- 
strument; the  construction  and  pur- 
pose of  the  two,  however,  differ,  the 
latter  being  employed  for  astronomical 
purposes,  while  the  theodolite  is  used 


Theodora 


Theodoret 


for  land  surveying;  but  the  better  in- 
struments of  this  class  may  be  em- 
ployed for  observing  the  altitude  of 
celestial  bodies.  The  vertical  circle  is 
not  generally,  however,  of  sufficient 
size,  nor  so  graduated  as  to  be  avail- 
able for  very  accurate  astronomical 
observations. 

When  a  point  is  to  be  viewed  with 
the  telescope,  the  telescope  is  moved 
so  that  the  image  of  the  point  coin- 
cides with  the  intersection  of  the  cross 
wires.  The  vertical  limb  is  divided 
into  degrees,  and  is  capable  of  being 
read  by  means  of  the  vernier  and  the 
microscope  to  thirds  of  a  minute.  A 
pair  of  plates,  constituting  at  their 
edge  the  horizontal  limb  of  the  instru- 
ment, are  free,  when  undamped,  to 
move  independently  of  each  other.  The 
plate  carries  a  magnetic  compass  and 
two  spirit  levels  at  right  angles  to 
each  other,  by  means  of  which  the 
circle  may  be  brought  accurately  into 
the  horizontal  plane  by  raising  or  de- 
pressing it  by  means  of  the  screws. 
The  plate  is  furnished  with  two  ver- 
niers, diametrically  opposite  to  each 
other,  the  degrees  marked  on  which 
are  read  off  by  the  microscope.  By 
the  motion  of  the  telescope,  on  the 
horizontal  axis  of  the  vertical  limb, 
altitudes  and  vertical  angles  can  be 
measured,  while,  by  its  motion  on  the 
vertical  axis,  the  angular  distances 
between  two  objects  can  be  ascertained 
by  the  readings  on  the  horizontal 
circle. 

Theodora,  the  famous  consort  of 
the  Byzantine  emperor,  Justinian  I. ; 
was,  according  to  the  dubious  evidence 
of  Procopius,  the  daughter  of  Acacius, 
a  bear-ward  at  Constantinople ;  and 
had  already  been  by  turns  actress, 
dancer,  and  harlot,  when  she  won  the 
heart  of  the  austere  and  ambitious 
Justinian,  to  become  in  succession  his 
mistress,  his  wife,  and  the  sharer  of 
his  throne  (527).  Theodora  was  of 
less  than  middle  height,  and  her  com- 
plexion was  pale,  but  such  was  her 
beautpr  that  Procopius  tells  us  "  it 
was  impossible  for  mere  rnan  to  de- 
scribe her  comeliness  in  words,  or 
imitate  it  in  art."  Never  thereafter 
did  the  breath  of  scandal  touch  her 
name;  she  became  Justinian's  truest 
counsellor,  bore  a  chief  share  in  the 
work  of  government,  and  saved  the 
throne  by  her  high  courage   at  the 


crisis  of  the  Nika  riots  (532).  She 
lavished  her  bounty  on  the  poor,  and 
especially  on  the  unfortunate  of  her 
own  sex,  and  died  at  40  (548),  her 
slender  and  graceful  frame  worn  out 
by  the  anxieties  of  State. 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  an 
exegete  of  the  early  Church ;  born  in 
Antioch  about  the  middle  of  the  4th 
century.  About  the  year  383  he  be- 
came a  presbyter  in  Antioch,  and 
about  392  he  was  chosen  Bishop  of 
Mopsuestia  in  Cilicia.  Theodore  wrote 
commentaries  on  almost  all  the  books 
of  Scripture,  of  which  only  remain, 
in  the  Greek,  that  on  the  Minor 
Prophets ;  in  Latin  translations,  those 
on  the  lesser  epistles  of  Paul,  besides 
many  fragments,  especially  on  the 
epistle  to  the  Romans.  He  died  at 
peace  with  all  men  in  428  or  429. 

Theodore  II.,  King  of  Abyssinia; 
born  in  the  province  of  Kwara  in 
1818 ;  for  many  years  a  rebel ;  finally 
fought  his  way  to  the  throne  in  1855. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  parts,  an  in- 
veterate foe  of  Islamism,  a  born  ruler, 
and  an  intelligent  reformer.  But  in- 
tolerance of  any  power  save  his  own 
finally  made  a  tyrant  of  him;  and  in 
consequence  of  the  imprisonment  of 
Consul  Cameron  and  other  British 
subjects  he  brought  on  himself  a  war 
with  England,  which  ended,  April  13, 
1868,  in  the  storming  of  Magdala  and 
the  death  (supposedly  by  suicide)  of 
Theodore. 

Theodorei,  a  Church  historian; 
born  in  Antioch  about  390;  early  en- 
tered a  monastery ;  and  in  423  became 
Bishop  of  Cyrus,  a  city  of  Syria.  Here 
he  labored  with  the  utmost  zeal,  and 
he  himself  claims  to  have  converted 
over  1,000  Marcionites.  As  a  foremost 
representative  of  the  school  of  Anti- 
och he  became  deeply  involved  in  the 
great  Nestorian  and  Eutychian  con- 
troversies, and  was  finally  deposed 
from  office  by  the  celebrated  Council 
of  Ephesus  in  449.  This  was  reversed 
by  the  general  council  of  Chalcedon  in 
451,  but  Theodoret  did  not  long  sur- 
vive his  restoration,  dying  about  457. 
His  works  consist  of  commentaries  on 
Canticles,  the  Prophets,  Psalms,  and 
the  whole  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles;  a 
"  History  of  the  Church,"  from  a.  d. 
325  to  429,  in  five  books;  "A  Cott- 
cise  History  of  Heresies,"  etc. 


H 

As 

5  FOR   REFERENCE 

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