EVERYBODY'S
CYCLOPEDIA
A concise and accurate compilation of the world's knowledge,
prepared from the latest and best authorities in every department
of learning; including a
Chronological History of the World
graphically represented by colored charts, showing the most
important epochs and events of history, from the earliest times
to the present day.
containing much valuable information often in demand, but not
usually found in a single collection. Also
A Statistical Record of the World
which includes latest figures from the recent United States Census.
PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
CHARLES LEON ARD-STUART,B. A. GEORGE J.HAGAR,M. A.
of the New International, Americana. Special Expert on the International,
iiritannica. Current Cyclopedia, etc. People's. Imperial, etc.
EDITORS-IN-CHIEF
Assisted by a corps of eminent editors, educators, scientists,
inventors, explorers, etc.
New To r k
SYNDICATE PUBLISHING COMPANY
12 and 14 West 32d Street
Copyright. 1911, by F. E. Wright
Copyright, 1912, by F. E. Wright
Parton
Parton, James, an American
writer; born in Canterbury, England
Feb. 9, 1822. He wrote many valu-
able biographies. He died in 1891
Parton, Sara Payson Willis,
" Fanny Fern," an American essay-
writer, sister of N. P. Willis, and
wife of James Parton; born in Port-
land, Me., July 9, 1811. She is said
to have contributed an article each
week tor 16 years to the New York
" Ledgp-." She died in 1872.
Partridge, a well-known game
bird widely distributed. The par-
tridge prefers open grounds, and often
nests in exposed situations. It feeds
on slugs, caterpillars, and grubs to a
large extent, and so compensates the
farmer for any injury it does.
Partridge Berry, a plant of the
heath family, inhabiting North Amer-
ica, also known as wintergreen. The
name is also applied to another North
American shrub, a pretty little trail-
ing plant, with white fragrant flow-
ers and scarlet berries.
Pasadena, a city in Los Angeles
county, Cal.; on the Southern Pacific
and other railroads; 10 miles N. E.
of Los Angeles; is in the noted San
(Gabriel valley, at the foot of the
Sierra Madre Mountains, popularly
known as the "Italy of America";
is chiefly engaged in fruit raising;
and, besides its equable climate, has
the attractions of superb scenery, in-
cluding Wilson's Peak. Mount Lowe,
Echo Mountain, and the famous San
Gabriel Mission. Pop. (1910) 30,291.
Pascal, Blaise. a French author;
born in Clermont, Auvergne, France,
in 1623. At 12 years of age, he was
surprised by his father in the act of
demonstrating, on the pavement of
An old hall where he used to play, by
means of a rude diagram traced with
a piece of coal, a proposition which
corresponded to the 32d of the first
book of Euclid. At the age of 19
he invented his celebrated arith-
metical machine, and at the age of
26 he had composed the greater part
of his mathematical works, and made
brilliant experiments in hydrostatics
and pneumatics, which ranked him
among the first natural philosophers
of his age. But a strong religious
impulse having been imparted he re-
E. 114.
Passiflora
nounced the career to which his genius
invited him for theology. Died 1662.
Paschall II., Pope; a native of
Tuscany, succeeded Urban II. in
1099. Ht had a contest with the
Emperor Henry IV., respecting the
right of investitures. Henry visited
Rome, to be crowned by the Pope,
who refused to perform the ceremony
unless he yielded the matter in dis-
pute. On this Henry caused Paschal
to be retired from Rome. Paschal,
after a captivity of two months,
conceded his claim to the investi-
tures. He died in 1118.
Passaic, a city in Passaic county,
N. J.; on the Passaic river and sev-
eral steam and trolley lines; 5 miles
S. E. of Paterson; is in a good farm-
ing and grape-growing section; man-
ufactures cotton, woolen, and rubber
goods, wine, paper, and blankets; and
has an Emergency Hospital, Collegi-
ate School, Manual Training School,
and handsome churches, public schools
and residences. Pop. (1910) 54,773.
Passenger Pigeon, also called
wild pigeon and migratory pigeon. It
is found from the Atlantic to the great
central plains, and from the Southern
States, where it only
occasionally occurs,
to 62 N.
Passes, a tribe of
Indians living in
Brazil on the N.
side of the Amazon,
about the mouth of
the Japura. They
have always been
friendly to the
whites and are a
peaceful, industrious
race, many of whom
lived in the mission
villages in the 18th
century. They are a
branch of the great
Arawak or Maypure
stock.
Passiflora, the
Generally climbing herbs or shrubs.
Fruit succulent, seeds many. Found
chiefly in tropical America. The three
stigmas seemed to the devout Roman
Catholics of South America to rep-
resent nails; one transfixing each
band, and one the feet of the crucified
PASSENGEB
PIGEON.
passion-flower.
Passionists
Passovtr
Saviour ; the five anthers, His five
wounds ; the rays of the corona, His
crown of thorns, or the halo of glory
around His head ; the digitate leaves,
the hands of those who scourged Him ;
the tendrils, the scourge
itself; while, finally, the
10 parts of the perianth
were the 10 apostles
that is, the 12 wanting
Judas who betrayed, and
Peter who denied, his
Lord.
Passionists, a con-
gregation of Roman
Catholic priests founded
by Paul Francis (1694-
1775), surnamed Paul of
the Cross, in 1737. The
first convent was estab-
lished on the Celian Hill
at Rome. It has been
revived since 1880, and
they have been introduced
lately in the United
States, where they now
possess four monasteries.
Passion Play, a mys-
tery or miracle play
founded on the passion of
our Lord ; a dramatic rep-
resentation of the scenes
of the passion. The
only Passion play still
kept up is that periodi-
cally represented at Ober-
ammergau ir* Bavaria.
Passover, a festival
instituted to commemo-
rate Jehovah's " passing
over " the Israelite houses
wnile " passing through "
those of the Egyptians,
to destroy in the latter
all the first-born. The
first passover (that in
Egypt) , those subsequent-
ly occurring in Old
Testament times, and those of the
New Testament and later Judaism,
were all somewhat different. In the
first of these a Iamb without blem-
ish was taken on the 10th, and killed
on the 14th, of the month Abib, thence-
forward in consequence to be reckoned
the first month of the ecclesiastical
year. The blood of the lamb was to
be sprinkled on the two side posts
and the single upper door post, and the i
flesh eaten " with unleavened bread
and bitter herbs " before the morning.
That night Jehovah, passing over the
blood-stained doors, slew the first born
in the Egyptian houses not similarly
protected; and, as the emancipated
PASSION FLOWER.
Jews that night departed from Egypt,
that first passover could have con-
tinued only one day. But the festival
was to be an annual one. Connected
with it was to be a feast of unleavened
bread, continuing seven additional
days, viz., from the 15th to the 21st
of Abib, during which no leaven was
to be eaten, or even allowed to be in
the house.
Sometimes the term passover is lim-
ited to the festival of the 14th of
Passport
Abib ; sometimes it includes that and
the feast of unleavened bread also, the
two being viewed as parts of one
whole. When the Jews reached Ca-
naan, every male was required to pre-
sent himself before God thrice a year,
viz., at the passover, or feast of un-
leavened bread, at that of " harvest "
and that of " ingathering." In the Old
Testament six passovers are mentioned
as having been actually kept: That
in Egypt, tkat in the wilderness, that
under Joshua at Gilgal, that under
Hezekiah, that under Josiah, and that
under Ezra. After the exile wine
was introduced. In modern Judaism
no lamb is sacrificed, but a bone of
that animal is placed among the
viands ; leaven is put away, and other
ceremonies observed. Passover in the
sense of the paschal lamb, St. Paul
applies to Christ, whose death was
typical of that of the paschal lamb
(1 Cor. v. 7; John xix, 14).
Passport, a warrant of protection
and authority to travel, granted to
persons moving from place to place, by
a competent authority. In some states
no foreigner is allowed to travel with-
out a passport from his government.
In the United States passports, with
description of the applicant, are issued
by the State Department at Washing-
ton. They -are good for two years
from date, renewable by stating the
date and number of the old one. They
are issued only to citizens, native born
and naturalized.
Pasteur, Louis, a French chemist
and physicist ; born in Dole, Jura, in
1822 ; educated at Jena University and
the Ecole Normale, Paris, where in
1847 he took his degree as doctor. He
was especially successful in prov-
ing the part played by microbes _in
fermentation and decomposition, in in-
troducing a successful treatment of
diseases in silkworms and cattle, and
achieved great success in his efforts
to check hydrophobia by means of
inoculation. To enable him to deal
with this disease under the best condi-
tions a Pasteur Institute was opened
in Paris, where patients are received
from all parts of Europe. A similar
institution, in New York city, has
proved very successful. He died in
Paris, Sept. 28, 1895.
Pastor, a shepherd; now used al-
most exclusively in its figurative sense,
Fastonreanx
for one who feeds the Christian flock;
a minister of the Gospel, having charge
of a church and congregation. In orni-
thology the rose^colored ousel. It hag
a wide geographical range, and in hab-
its resembles the starling. It is often
called the locust bird.
Pastoral Poetry, poetry which
deals, in a more or tess direct form,
with rustic life.
Pastoral Staff, in the Roman
Catholic Church the official staff of a
bishop or abbot. The
pastoral staff of an
archbishop is distin-
guished by being sur-
mounted by a crozier.
Pastoureaux, or
Pastorels, disorderly
peasant mobs which
overran parts of
France in the 13 tk
and 14th centuries.
These outbreaks took
place :
(1) In Berry in
1214. The peasantry
pillaged chateaux and
religious houses, and
proclaimed universal
equality and the com-
ing of the Holy Ghost.
(2) In 1250; the
ostensible objects were
the rescue of Louis
VII. and the recovery
of the Holy Sepul-
cher. The rising orig-
inated in Flanders,
under the leadership of
a person of unknown
name called the Mas-
ter of Hungary, who,
when he reached Paris, was at
the head of 100,000 men. Here they
not only usurped priestly functions,
performed marriages, distributed
crosses, offered absolution to those who
joined the crusade, but they inveighed
against the vices of the priesthood.
They separated into three divisions,
and marched S., where they were at-
tacked and cut to pieces.
(3) In 1320, in the reign of Philip
V. This outbreak took place under the
pretense of a crusade. The insurgents
were excommunicated by Pope John
XXII. ; and being hemmed in in Car-
cassonne, numbers perished of disease
Patagonia
and famine, and the survivors were
put to death.
Patagonia, the name applied to
that extreme portion of South America
which is bounded E. by the Atlantic,
W. by the Pacific, S. by the Strait of
Magellan, and N. by the Rio Negro.
Since 1881 this large territory has
been, by treaty, divided between Chile
and the Argentine Republic, so that
the portion W. of the Andes (63,000
square miles) belongs now to the for-
mer, and the portion E. of the Andes
(360,000) belongs to the latter. The
Straits of Magellan form a S. bound-
ary of 360 miles, and separate the
mainland from the numerous islands
of Tierra del Fuego. Here the Chilean
government has established the settle-
ment of Punta Arenas, with stations
along the coast. Patagonia E. of the
Andes consists mainly of vast undulat-
ing plains, frequently covered with
ehingle and broken up by ridges of
volcanic rock. The vegetation is
scanty, except in the region adjoining
the Andes, and in many places there
are shallow salt lakes and lagoons.
The chief rivers are the Rio Negro,
the Chupat, the Rio Desire, and the
Rio Chico, all of which have their
sources in the Andes, and run E. There
are few t if any good seaports. The
Patagonians are a tall, muscular race
averaging fully six feet in height, with
black hair, thick lips, and skin of a
dark brown color. They are a nomad
race, divided into numerous tribes,
whose chief occupation is in hunting
and cattle breeding. This native pop-
ulation is_ rapidly disappearing. Col-
onization is encouraged by the Argen-
tine government, and there are many
tracts suitable for European settle-
ment. The country was first discov-
ered by Magellan in 1520.
Fate de foie gras, a dish made
from the enlarged livers of overfed
geese, and much relished by epicures.
It is made in the form of a pie, and
from its oily nature is very indigesti-
ble, and nauseous to most people.
Patent, an exclusive right granted
by a government (in letters patent or
open, whence the name) to any person
or persons to manufacture and sell a
chattel or article of commerce of his
OWP invention. In the United Slates
Patent
the person applying for a patent may
present a petition, specification, oath,
and filing fee, with a drawing if the
nature of the case admits of it. On
favorable action by the patent office,
letters granting to the patentee, his
heirs, or assigns, for the term of 17
years, the exclusive right to make,
use, and vend the invention or dis-
covery throughout the United States
and the Territories thereof, are is-
sued. Design patents are granted for
periods of three years and six months,
seven years, or 14 years, at discretion
of the applicant. Patents are extend-
ed only by special congressional legis-
lation. The filing of a caveat prior
to applying for a patent entitles the
inventor to notice of an interfering
application filed during the life of the
caveat (one year), during which he
may perfect his invention. The alleged
inventions set forth in caveats are
transferable. In the period of 1837-
1909 there were filed in the United
States Patent Office 1,659,249 appli-
cations and 129,305 caveats; 996,005
original patents and designs were
issued; and the receipts exceeded the
expenditures by $7,060,547.
By the statute of 1870 it was enacted
that an invention to be patentable,
must possess, among other qualifica-
tions, that of newness. 'He who pro-
duces an old result by a new mode or
process is entitled to a patent for that
mode or process ; but he cannot have
a patent for a result merely without
using some new mode or process to
produce it. A man is entitled to all
the benefit of the article which he has
invented and patented. Another who
happens to discover an additional use
to which the invention may be applied
does not, by that discovery and appli-
cation create a patentable novelty. A
simple alteration in the form, size, ma-
terial or proportions of an existing de-
vice is not such a change as to pro-
duce a patentable novelty. As a cumu-
lative definition it may be said that
novelty consists in producing a new
substance, or an old one in a new way,
by new machinery, or by a new com-
bination of the parts of an old ma-
chine, operating in a peculiar, better,
cheaper or quicker method, or by a
new mechanical employment of prin-
ciples already known.
Paterson
Paterson, a city and county-seat of
Passaic co., N. J., on the Passaic
river, 16 miles N. W. of New York.
The city is chiefly noted for its silk
industries, on account of which it is
called the " Lyons of America." It is
built partly on the slopes of ranges
of hills which surround it, and partly
on a broad plain. On Feb. 2-3, 1902,
the business portion of the city was
destroyed by fire, entailing a loss of
over $10,000,000. The principal mu-
nicipal buildings, churches, banks, pub-
lic library, and the largest stores were
swept away by the flames. Wk
Paterson is an important manufac-
turing center. Its silk mills are the
largest in the United States having
an output of over $22,000,000 per an-
num, and employing about 12,000 per-
sons. Its other manufactures include
locomotives, paper, jute, machinery,
iron, and steel, engines, boilers, etc.
The assessed property valuation ex-
ceeds $92,000,000, and the total bond-
ed debt is about $4,000,000.
The city has an area of 8 square
miles; 200 miles of streets, of which
55 miles are paved; and a sewer sys-
tem covering 55 miles. The streets are
lighted by gas and electricity. The
annual cost of maintaining the city
government is about $1,135,000. The
streets are well paved and broad.
Among the local attractions are the
Passaic Falls, 72 feet high.
Paterson was founded in 1791 by a
cotton manufacturing society which
owed its origin to Alexander Hamilton.
This society had a capital of $1,000,-
000, with which it intended to lay the
foundation of a great National manu-
facturing city. The city was named
in honor of Gov. William Paterson of
New Je/sey. In 1851 it was incor-
porated as a city. Paterson has re-
cently been visited by floods as well
as fire, the flood of October, 1903,
being especially calamitous, but the
people have faced and overcome these
disasters with unfailing courage. Pop.
(1900) 105,171; (IJJlO) 125,600.
Paterson, William, an English
financier ; born in Dumfriesshire, Scot-
land, in 1665. He resided in the Ba-
hama Islands. Returning to London
he engaged in trade with success, and
in 1694 founded the Bank of England,
being one of its first directors. In 1695
Paton
he obtained the sanction of a Scotch
act of Parliament constituting the
Darien Company. After the failure of
this scheme he returned to England.
When the Treaty of Union between
England and Scotland was concluded
in 1707, Paterson, who was one of its
warmest advocates, after much dif-
ficulty received an indemnity of $90,-
000 for the losses he had sustained.
He died in London in 1719.
Pathology, the branch of medical
science which treats of disease. It in-
vestigates its predisposing and exist-
ing cause, its characteristic symptoms,
and its progress from first to last.
Patmos, a rocky and barren island,
of most irregular outline, in the 2Egean
Sea, one of the Sporades, lying to the
S. of Samos, now called Patino ; area,
16 square miles. It is celebrated as
the place to which the apostle John
was exiled ; in a cave here, it is said,
he saw the visions recorded in the
Book of Revelation. The island is un-
der Turkish rule, but is inhabited by
about 4,000 Greeks.
Patna, called also Azimabad, a city
of Bengal, 140 miles E. of Benares,
extends 9 miles along the Ganges and
2 miles back from the river ; tfee streets
are narrow and crooked, and the
houses mostly mean in appearance.
Patna, under its early name of Pa-
taliputra, is supposed to have been
founded about 600 B. c. It was visited
by Magesthenes, the Greek historian,
about 300 B. c., and called Palibothra
by him. In modern times Patna is
notable as the scene of a massacre of
British prisoners by Mir Kasim in
1763, which led to war and annexation
by the English, and for the mutiny at
Dinapur, the military station of Patna
in 1857. Patna ranks as the seventh
city of India in point of population.
Pop. 165,192.
Paton, John Gibson, a Scotch
missionary ; born in Kirkmahoe, Dum-
friesshire, Scotland, May 24, 1824. He
offered his services for the foreign mis-
sion field in connection with the Re-
formed Presbyterian Church,- and on
his ordination he settled toward the
end of 1858 among the cannibal natives
of Tanna. Here he labored amid trials
and difficulties till 1862, when he was
forced to leave, owing to the hostility
Faton
of the natives. For the next 20 years
bis work was on the neighboring island
of Aniwa, the whole population of
which became Christian. He died
Jan. 2, 1907.
Paton, Sir Joseph Noel, a Scotch
historical painter ; born in Dunferm-
line, Scotland, in 1821. He gained one
of three premiums at the Westminster
competition by his fresco of the
" Spirit of Religion," and a prize of
$1,500 by his paintings " Christ Bear-
ing the Cross," and " The Reconcilia-
tion of Oberon and Titania." He died
in Edinburgh, Dec. 26, 1901.
Patriarch, the father and ruler of
a family ; one who governs his family
or descendants by paternal right. The
term is usually applied to Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob, and his sons, or the
heads of families before the flood. In
Roman Catholic Church history, the
highest grade in the hierarchy of or-
dinary jurisdiction, the see of Rome
excepted.
Patrician, a Roman senator; a
person of noble birth ; a nobleman ; a
wealthy noble. The Roman patricians
consisted of about 300 houses, or clans,
who, descending from the first Roman
senators, constituted the aristocracy
of the city and territory. At first the
patricians monopolized all high offices
in the state, but after political con-
tests with the plebeians, lasting for
centuries, Licinius (365 B. c.) carried
his rogation, by which plebeians were
admitted to the consulate, and to the
custody of the Sibylline books.
Patrick, St., or Patricias, the
apostle or patron saint of Ireland ; said
to have been born near the site of Kil-
patrick, Scotland. His zeal prompted
him to cross the channel for the con-
version of the pagan Irish. His ar-
rival in Ireland took place probably be-
tween 440^460. His endeavors were
crowned with great success, and he es-
tablished there a number of schools
and monasteries. He died at an ad-
vanced age.
Patrol, or Patrole, a walking or
marching round of a guard in the
night to watch and observe what
passes, and to secure the peace and
eafety of a camp or other place.
Patron, in Roman history, one
who had manumitted a slave between
Patterson
whom and his manumissor a new re-
lation was created, the f reedman owing
his former master the obedience of a
son, and the patron assuming many of
the rights which the power of patron
conveyed.
Patron Saint. According to Ro-
man Catholic and Greek belief, the
saint under whose invocation coun-
tries, churches, religious houses or so-
cieties, or individuals are placed.
BADGE OP THE OEDEE OF ST. PATRICK,
Patrons of Husbandry. See
HUSBANDRY, PATRONS OF.
Patten, George 'Washington,
soldier and poet ; born in Newport, R.
I., Dec. 25, 1808: died in 1882. Edu-
cated at United States Military Acad-
emy, he served in the Mexican war.
Patterson, Joseph, an American
banker ; born near Norristown, Pa.,
Sept. 25, 1808. During the Civil War
through his influence the bankers of
the country made a loan of $50,000,-
000 in gold to Secretary Chase, and
Patterson
$100,000,000 more in the year follow-
ing. He died in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Sept. 25, 1887.
Patterson, Robert M., an Ameri-
can clergyman and author ; born in
Philadelphia, Pa., July 17, 1832; was
official reporter of the United States
Senate in 1850-1855; was graduated
at Princeton Theological Seminary in
1859 ; and pastor South Presbyterian
Church, Philadelphia, in 1867-1880.
He was a member of the Pan-Presby-
terian Councils in London in 1875,
Philadelphia, in 1880, and Belfast, Ire-
land, in 1884.
Patti, Adelina Maria Clorinda,
a popular operatic singer of Italian
extraction ; born in Madrid, Spain, in
1843. After a course of professional
study she sang at an early age in
New York. Her debut in London took
place in 1861, and she was ever after-
ward looked upon as one of the first
singers of the day. In 1868 she was
married to the Marquis de Caux, from
whom she was divorced in 1876. She
subsequently married M. Nicolini, and
appeared in the United States, South
America, and Mexico at various times.
M. Nicolini died in 1898. She mar-
ried Baron Rolf Cederstrom, Jan. 25,
1899, and made a tour of the United
States in the latter part of 1903. Her
residence is Craig y Nos Castle, Wales.
Patti, Carlotta, a popular Italian
concert singer and sister of Adelina
Patti ; born in Florence, Italy, in
1840 ; made her debut in New York in
1861, and in England in 1863. She
gave concerts throughout Europe and
America with great success. She was
married Sept. 3, 1879, to Ernest de
Munck, a violoncellist of Weimar, and
died in Paris, June 27, 1889.
Pattison, Thomas Harwood, an
American educator; born in Cornwall,
England, Dec. 14, 1838. For many
years he was Professor of Homiletics
and Pastoral Theology at Rochester
(N. Y.) Theological Seminary.
Patton, Francis Landey, an
American educator ; born in Warwick
Parish, Bermuda, Jan. 22, 1843. He
was educated at Knox College and the
University of Toronto, and was grad-
uated at Princeton Theological Sem-
inary in 1865. In 1865-1871 he was
pastor of several churches; in 1881
was appointed Professor of Relations
Paul
of Philosophy and Science to the
Christian Religion in Princeton Uni-
versity, a chair created for him. He
was president of the university in
1888-1902; then president of the
Theological Seminary.
Patton, Frank Jarvis, an Ameri-
can inventor; born in Bath, Me., in
1852 ; was graduated at the United
States Military Academy in 1877; in-
vented the multiplex telegraph system
and the gyroscope now used on ocean
vessels to determine their position at
sea. He died in New York city, Nov.
12, 1900.
Patton, Jacob Harris, an Ameri-
can historian ; born in Fayette co^,
fa., May 20, 1812; died in 1903.
Paul IV., Pope; Giovanni Pietro
Caraffa ; born in Naples, in 1476 ; sue-
I ceeded Marcellus II., in 1555. He es-
tablished a censorship, and completed
the organization of the Roman In-
quisition. His foreign relations in-
volved him in much labor and perplex-
ity. Under the weight of so many
cares, his great age gave way, and he
died in 1559.
Paul V., Pope; Camillo Borghese;
born in Rome, in 1552 ; was elected in
1605, after the death of Leo XI. He
embellished Rome with many excellent
works of sculpture and painting, and
an aqueduct. He was the founder of
the Borghese family, one of the weal-
thiest in Italy. He died in 1621.
Paul I., Emperor of Russia ; born
in 1754. He was the only son of Pe-
ter III. and his wife, Catherine II. He
married the Princess Mary of Wur-
temberg ia 1776. On the death of
Catherine in 1796 he was proclaimed
emperor. He joined the second coali-
tion against France; and Russian ar-
mies appeared in Italy, Switzerland,
and Holland. But he afterward with-
drew from it, and entered into friendly
relations with Napoleon. A conspir-
acy was formed against him, with
Count Pahlen at its head, and he was
murdered in his bedroom, March 24,
1801.
Paul, St., one of the apostles of
Jesus Christ ; originally called Saul ;
a Hebrew of the tribe of Benjamin,
and a native of Tarsus, the capital of
Cilicia, and was born at the beginning
of the Christian era. His father was
a Pharisee of the most rigid cast, and
Paul
Paul himself, up to the time of his
conversion, was a most bitter and
intolerant persecutor of the Christian
sect; even assisting at the martyrdom
of St. Stephen. The mode of his con-
version is fully detailed in the New
Testament. After his conversion, he
was baptized at Damascus by Anani-
as ; from whence, after a brief sojourn,
he proceeded to Arabia, where he re-
ceived the Ho'y Ghost. He was
martyred about A. D. 66.
Paul, Epistles of, St. There are
14 epistles in the New Testament usu-
ally ascribed to Paul, beginning with
that to the Romans, and ending with
that to the Hebrews.
Paulding, James Kirke, an
American author; born in Dutchess
co., N. Y., Aug. 22, 1779. He early
showed a tendency to literature. In
1837 Van Buren appointed him Secre-
tary of the Navy. Four years later
he retired to a country residence at
Hyde Park, N. Y., where he died, April
6, 1860.
Paulist Fathers, a modern Ameri-
can society of the Roman Catholic
Church, founded in New York by the
late Rev. Isaac T. Hecker, in 1858.
It is composed of 37 priests who are
engaged in missionary and literary
work ; many of them are converts from
Protestantism. They publish "The
Catholic World," a monthly magazine.
Panlownia, a genus of trees with
but one species; a native of Japan,
and now grown in the United States.
Paulns Hook, Fort, a Revolu-
tionary fortress erected by the British
on the site of Jersey City, N. J.
Pauncefote, Julian, Lord, an
English diplomatist ; born in Preston
Court, Gloucestershire, England, in
1828. He was the first delegate to the
Suez Canal International Commission
at Paris in 1885. In 1889 he was ap-
pointed British minister to the United
States and four years later the legation
was raised to an embassy. He nego-
tiated the settlement of \he Bering Sea
dispute; the Anglo- Venezuelan bound-
ary arbitration, and was chief of the
British delegates to the Peace Confer-
ence at The Hague in 1899. He also
negotiated with the United States two
conventions for the abrogation of the
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. He died May
24. 1902.
Payne
Pavement, the hard covering of the
surface of a road or footway; a floor
or covering of stones, brick, wood, etc.,
laid evenly on the earth, so as to form
a level, hard, and convenient passage.
Pawnbroker, one who is licensed
to lend, or make a business of lending
money on goods pawned or pledged.
Pawnees, a tribe of American In-
dians who formerly resided in Ne-
braska, with branches extending into
Kansas and Texas. They removed
in 1876 to a reservation of 283,020
acres in Indian Territory, and are
now few in number.
Pawtucket, a city in Providence
county, R. I.; on the Pawtucket
river and the New York, New Haven
& Hartford railroad; 4 miles N. E.
of Providence; has abundant water-
power from a 50-foot fall of the
river; was the site of the first cotton
mill built in America (by Samuel
Slater in 1790); and manufactures
cotton and woolen goods, plush,
braids, calicoes, leather, and machin-
ery. Pop. (1910) 51,622.
Pnxton, Sir Joseph, an English
architect and horticulturist; born in
Milton-Bryant, near Woburn, Bed-
fordshire, Aug. 3, 1803. He began
life as a gardener. He designed the
Crystal Palace at Sydenham and
superintended its construction. He
died in Sydenham, June 8, 1865.
Paymaster, an officer of the army
and navy, from whom the officers and
men receive their wages, and who is in-
trusted with money for that purpose.
Paymaster-General, in the
United States, a title given to (1) the
chief paying officer of the War De-
partment, who ranks as a .Brigadier-
General; (2) a similar officer in the
Navy Department, who ranks as a
rear-admiral, and (3) a corresponding
staff officer in the militia of a State.
Payn, James, an English novelist;
born in Cheltenham, England, in 1830;
was graduated at Cambridge in 1854.
His works reach upwards of 100
books. He died in London, March 25,
1898.
Payne, Henry Clay, an American
jurist; born in Ashfield, Mass., Nov.
23, 1843 ; was graduated at Shelburne
Falls Academy (Mass.) in 1859; set-
tled- in Milwaukee in 1863 : practised
law in Chicago, 111., in 1883-1893;
JAPANESE ENVOYS, STAFF, ETC.
RUSSIAN ENVOYS
SIGNING OF TREATY
Stereographs copyright by H. C. White Co., N. Y.
RUSSIAN- JAPANESE PEACE TREATY
Payne
was president of the Chicago Law In- !
etitute in 1889 ; judge of the Superior
Court of Cook co., 111., in 1893-1898.
On Dec. 16, 1901, he was appointed
Postmaster-General of the United
States. He died Oct. 4, 1904.
Payne, John. Howard, an Ameri-
can dramatist ; born in New York,
June 9, 1792. At the age of 16 he
made his first appearance at the Park
Theater. He also played in England
and Ireland, a part of the time with
Miss O'Neill. In 1851 was appointed
United States consul to Tunis. He
wrote, translated and adapted over
60 plays, but is most famous as the
author of " Home, Sweet Home."
He died in Tunis, April 10, 1852.
Peabody (formerly SOUTH DAN-
VEBsK' a town in Essex county,
Mass.; 2 miles E. of Salem; contains
the Peabody Institute and the Sut-
ton Reference Library; and was the
birthplace of George Peabody. Pop.
(1910) 15,721.
Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer, an
American writer and educator ; born
in Billerica, Mass., May 16, 1804.
She became a teacher in Boston in
1822; and was one of the first to in-
troduce the kindergarten system in the
United States. She died in Jamaica
Plain, Mass., Jan. 4, 1894.
Peabody, George, an American
philanthropist ; born in Danvers,
Mass., in 1795. He became chief
clerk, and, afterward, partner with his
uncle, John Peabody, in Georgetown,
D. C., in 1812. Not satisfied with
their business relations, George left
his uncle and joined partnership with
Mr. Elisha Riggs in the drygoods busi-
ness in Baltimore, in 1815. His busi-
ness increasing, he found occasion to
make frequent visits to England,
where he finally settled in 1829. In
1837 he withdrew from the firm, and
established himself as banker in Lon-
don, where he amassed a fortune. He
was particularly devoted to promoting
education (see following). He died
in London, in Nov. 1869.
Peabody Education Fund. In
1867 and 1869 George Peabody estab-
lished a fund of $3,500,000, to be de-
voted to education in the Southern
States of the Union. The fund was
placed in the charge and control of
15 trustees, who hold meetings annual-
Peace Society*
ly, usually in New York. In its ear-
lier history the chief aim of the fund
was to encourage and secure the estab-
lishment of public school systems for
the free education of all children. That
having been accomplished, the income
of the fund is now used for the train-
ing of teachers through normal schools
and teachers' institutes. In 1909 the
trustees appropriated $1,000,000, out
of $2,500,000 on hand, to the Pea-
body Normal School at Nashville,
Tenn.
Peace Conference. After the se-
cession of several of the States of the
American Union in 1860, Virginia, on
Jan. 1, 1861, invited the remaining
States to send delegates to a confer-
ence in Washington, with the object of
devising a plan whereby all difficulties
then existing might be peaceably set-
tled. The conference met on Feb. 4.
Fourteen free States and seven slave
States were represented, and ex-Presi-
dent John Tyler was made the presid-
ing officer. A committee of one from
each State was appointed to draw up
a report of " what . they may deem
right, necessary and proper, to restore
harmony and preserve the Union."
The report was rejected by both
Congress and Senate.
Peace Congress, National, or-
ganized by the National Arbitration
and Peace Committee, and held in
New York city, Apr., 1907, preceding
The Hague International Peace Con-
gress of that year.
Peace Congress, Universal, an
international gathering at The Hague,
held in response to an invitation of
Nicholas II., Czar of Russia, beginning
May 18, 1899, in which the United
States took part, and which framed a
plan, since approved by the powers,
for a permanent Tribunal of Arbi-
tration and periodical conferences.
Peace Society, The, an organiza-
tion founded in 1816; has for its ob-
ject the promotion' of permanent and
universal peace. It welcomes the sup-
port of Christians of all denomina-
tions, and also of those persons who
oppose war on humanitarian or other
grounds. The society has always ad-
vocated a gradual, proportionate, and
simultaneous disarmament by all the
nations of Europe, and the principle
of arbitration, and claims as partly
due to its efforts that this mode of set-
Peach
tling international difficulties has been
frequently adopted.
Peach, a tree and its fruit, of the
almond genus ; the Amygdalus Persica
of many varieties. They are exten-
sively cultivated in the United States.
Peacock, a male gallinaceous bird
of the Pavo genus, distinguished by its
beautiful disc-like tail. The female is
called a peahen.
Peacock Butterfly, a beautiful
butterfly, two and one-half, or two
and three-quarter inches across the
wings. It is seen in numbers on the
tops of nettles, hi June and July. The
perfect insect appears in August, lives
through the winter, and is seen in
March and April.
Peale, Charles Wilson, an
American miscellaneous writer ; born
in Maryland, April 16, 1741. He at-
tained distinction as a portrait paint-
er, and naturalist. He died in Phila-
delphia, Feb. 22, 1827.
Peale, Rembrandt, an American
artist ; born in Bucks co., Pa., Feb.
22, 1778. When 17 years old executed
a portrait of Washington, from whom
he had three sittings ; it was purchased
by Congress. He died in Philadelphia,
Pa., Oct. 3, 18GO.
Pear, a shrub or small tree, 20 to
40 feet high, with the branches more
or less spinescent and pendulous, and
the fruit pyriform, one or two inches
long, becoming larger and sweeter in
cultivation. Many hundred cultivated
varieties exist.
Pea Ridge, a post village in Ben-
ton co., Ark. ; about 8 miles E. of Ben-
tonville. Here, on March 6, 7, and 8,
1862, occurred one of the most desper"-
ate battles of the Civil War. Gen.
Samuel B. Curtis, in command of
about 11,000 Union troops, with 49
pieces of artillery, was attacked by a
superior force of Confederates (said
to number 20,000) under Gen. Earl
Van Dorn, and a .series of obstinate
and sanguinary conflicts ensued ; often
favoring each army with temporary
success, finally ended with the with-
drawal of Van Dorn.
Pearl, a peculiar product of certain
marine and freshwater mollusks or
shellfish. The most famous pearls are
those from the East ; the coast of Cey-
1m They are, however, obtained now
of nearly the same quality in other
Peary
parts of the world. These, and indeed
all the foreign pearls used in jewelry,
are produced by the pearl oyster.
Pearly Nautilus, common in the
Pacific and Indian Oceans, especially
toward the Moluccas. It is believed
to inhabit both deep and shallow
water. The shell is imported into the
United States for its fine mother-of-
pearl, much in request with cabinet
makers and jewelers.
Pearsons, Daniel Kimball, an
American philanthropist ; born in Bed-
ford, Vt, April 14, 1820 ; was gradu-
ated at the Medical College of Wood-
stock, Vt. ; practised medicine till
1857; engaged in real estate operations
in Chicago till 1888; then devoted him-
self to assisting small colleges, giving
away over $5,000,000. He died April
27, 1912.
Peary, Robert Edwin, an Arctic
explorer and civil engineer in the
United States navy; born in Cresson,
Pa., May 6, 1856 ; was graduated at
Bowdoin College, and in 1885 became
a civil engineer in the United States
navy, with the rank of lieutenant. In
1886 he made a journey of reconnois-
sance to Greenland, advancing for over
100 miles on the interior ice. In 1891
and 1893 he made other trips to the
Polar regions, in which he was accom-
panied, as far as the winter quarters,
by his wife, Josephine Diebitsch Peary.
In ^hese expeditions he made excur-
sions on a sledge along the coast of
Greenland, and traversed the inland
ice from McCormick Bay to the N. E.
angle of Greenland (Independence
Bay). He proved the convergence of
the E. and W. coasts of Northern
Greenland, and almost with positive-
ness the insularity of the mainland.
He discovered new lands (Melville
Land and Heilprin Land), and named
many glaciers. In May, 1896, Lieu-
tenant Peary made a successful expe-
dition to Greenland for the purpose of
collecting specimens in natural his-
tory. He returned to Cape Breton,
Sept. 27. In 1897 he was given leave
of absence by the government for the
purpose of continuing his explorations
in the northern seas, and to establish
a station in the far N. of Greenland,
which should be provisioned and sup-
plied and made the basis of a series of
annual expeditions into the Polar re-
gions. In pursuance of this project ht
feat
went N. in the summer of 1897 to take
the necessary preliminary measures,
such as securing the aid of the Eski-
mos, fixing the site of a station, etc.
He returned in October of that year,
bringing with him an immense mass
of meteoric iron, or what is supposed
to be such, from Cape York, Green-
land, which was placed in the Mu-
seum of Natural History in New York
city. On July 3, 1898, Lieutenant
Peary again sailed on a search for
the North Pole, going in the steamer
" Hope " from St. John's Newfound-
land, to Sidney, Cape Breton, and
horn there to Cape York, Baffin's Bay.
At that place the party and stores
were transferred to the " Windward,"
which has made several Arctic voy-
ages. They carried provisions for
four years. In September, 1901, word
was received from Peary that he had
founded the Greenland archipelago
(the extreme N. land known), and
reached lat. 83 50' N. He establish-
ed his headquarters for the winter of
1901-1902 at Cape Sabine, with the
plan of again attempting to reach the
North Pole in the spring of 1902. He
made a most courageous and danger-
ous effort to carry out that purpose,
going on sledges over the ice until
open water and icefloes made it im-
possible to proceed. In 1908-1909 he
made his last attempt, and on April
6, 1909, reached the latitude of 90,
and the long sought-for goal was at-
tained. Promoted captain 1910. See
ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS.
Feat, a deposit formed in bogs by
the decay of vegetable matter, fre-
quently consisting almost entirely of
sphagnum, or bog moss. In composi-
tion it differs from coal only in the
relative proportion of its constituents.
During the American coal famine of
1902-1903 peat was used to some ex-
tent as fuel.
Peattie, Mrs. Elia Wilkinson,
an American journalist ; born in Mich-
igan, in 1862 ; connected with the Chi-
cago press.
Pelba, called also the black tatou,
an armadillo ranging from Texas S. to
Paraguay.
Pecaa, or Pecan Nut, a sped _-s of
hickory and its fruit, growing in Jxorth
America.
Peccary, the popular name for two
species of small suilline mammals from
Pedagogy
the New World, nearly allied. The
collared peccary ranges from Arkansas
S. to the Rio Negro, and seldom at-
tacks other animals. The white-lipped
peccary is rarely met with N. of Brit-
ish Honduras, or S. of Paraguay. It
associates in large droves, is very pug-
nacious, and does not hesitate to at-
tack man, hunters often having to
take to a tree for safety.
Peck, Harry Tlmrston, born in
Stamford, Conn., in 1856 ; professor
of Latin at Columbia University,
1886-1910; editor of "The Book-
man," of "Harper's Classical Dic-
tionary," "The New International
Cyclopedia" (20 vols.), "Students'
Series of Latin Classics" (32 vols.),
"The New Websterian (1912) Dic-
tionary" ; author of "The Semitic
Theory of Creation," "The Personal
Equation," "What is Good English?"
"The Life of Prescott," "Twenty
Years of the Republic," "Studies in
Several Literatures," "The New Bae-
deker," "History of Classical Phil-
ology," and so forth.
Pechili. See CHI-LI.
Peck, George Wilbur, an Amer-
ican humorist ; born in Henderson, N.
Y., Sept. 28, 1840. Governor of Wis-
consin, in 1891-1895. In 1883 he
published "Peck's Bad Boy and his
Pa"; in 1890-1891* was mayor of
Milwaukee; in 1891-1895, governor
of Michigan.
Peck, Harry Thnrston, scholar
and critic; born in Stamford, Conn.,
Nov. 24, 1856; was graduated at
Columbia College, and in 1888-1910
was professor of Latin there.
Peck, Samuel Mintnrn, an
American poet ; born in Tuscaloosa,
Ala., in 1854. He was educated at the
University of Alabama, and later stud-
ied medicine in New York.
Pecos River, a river of New Mex-
ico and Texas, which has a S. E.
course of about 800 miles, and falls
into the Rio Grande del Norte, but in
summer is generally dry.
Pedagogue, in classical antiquity,
a slave who led his master's children
to school, places of amusement, etc.,
till they became old enough to take
care of themselves. A teacher of
young children; a schoolmaster.
Pedagogy, or Pedagogic!, a
term Anglicized from the German, sig-
Pedagogy
Pedro I.
nifies the SCIENCE OF EDUCATION OB
TEACHING, for the systematic develop-
ment of the human faculties. It has
Mind, Matter, and Method as essen-
tial factors, and its ideal is to study
the individual natures of youth, in
order to ascertain the special functions
or talents with which each is endowed,
so as to develop them towards perfec-
tion by systematized methods of train-
ing.
This study is effected under three
recognized divisions : physiology, the
constitution of the body ; psychology,
the constitution of the mind ; ethics
and religion, the moral and spiritual
nature.
The psychology of pedagogy em-
braces the scientific observation and
study of children, mental pathology
or morbid conditions, comparative psy-
chology, or the growth and grades of
intelligence, and empirical and educa-
tional psychology, the latter including
apperception, or the essential mental
operation in the act of learning.
The physiological aspect of peda-
gogy embraces physical education and
hygiene, including anthropometry or
body measurements, supervision of
eyestrain, spinal curvature, overpres-
sure, stammering, vocal efforts, the
ventilation, sanitation, furniture, ap-
paratus and equipment of school
grounds and buildings, the gymnastic,
calisthenic, Delsartian, Swedish and
other athletic exercises.
The moral and spiritual side of peda-
gogy embraces ethics or manners, aes-
thetics which gives inspiration by a
taste for and contemplation of the
beautiful, and civil and religious in-
struction, which include Sunday-
schools, and initiate the duties and
rights of citizenship, the formation of
religious sentiment and the recognition
of a supreme moral force.
The principles and practice of Peda-
gogy comprise elementary, secondary
and higher instruction, and school ad-
ministration.
School administration and manage-
ment embrace organization and dis-
cipline, the question of punishments,
amusements and general exercises, the
selection of text-books, libraries, and
museum collections, supervision of
studies, elective systems of study, ex-
aminations and degrees, legislation, and
endowments, including federal and
state aid, land grants, and private
benefactions.
Elementary instruction is typified
by the kindergarten children's garden
or child-study institution, giving in-
struction in the rudiments of lan-
guage, number and arithmetic, nature
(study, object lessons, geography,
drawing and music. To the elementary
also belongs the education of orphans
and neglected children, of colored chil-
dren negroes, Indians, Eskimos, etc.,
and of defective children, blind, deaf
mutes, mentally deficient, truants, in-
corrigibles and offenders, and compul-
sory education to combat illiteracy.
Secondary and higher instruction*
comprise the advanced forms of ele-
mentary education, together with an-
cient and modern languages, history,
economics, politics and sociology,
mathematics and science.
Higher instruction also embraces
night and continuation schools, public
lectures, college settlements, univer-
sity extension courses, self-culture,
and home education. Other forms of
high pedagogy are found in the
methods for manual and industrial
training, typified in the sloyd, slojd, or
Swedish series of manual exercises.
The highest pedagogic forms em-
brace the college and university
courses for professional education, in-
cluding training for teaching, theology,
law, medicine and its sub-divisions
surgery, dentistry, pharmacy and
nursing ; fine arts comprising sculp-
ture, drawing, painting, engraving,
music and architecture ; science em-
bracing technology, agriculture, com-
merce, military and naval training ;
modern colleges for the education of
women, and post-graduate courses.
The literature on every branch of
Pedagogics is enormous and continu-
ally increasing. Reference to any spe-
cial department is best made by con-
sulting : the " Catalogue of Educa-
tional Literature of the U. S. Bureau
of Education," Washington; the "Bul-
letin of the Books on Education in
the Libraries of Columbia University,"
New York city ; or the excellent bibli-
ographies of Education by Prof. W.
S. Monroe, by G. S. Hall and J. M.
Mansfield and others.
CHARLES LEONARD STUART.
Pedro I., Doiii Antonio Jose
D'Alcantara, Emperor of Brazil,
Pedro'
eldest son of John VI., King of Portu-
gal, elder brother of Dom Miguel, and
nephew to Ferdinand VII., King of
Spain ; born in 1798, and was taken,
in 1808, with the rest of the royal
family, to Brazil. In 1822, the Bra-
eilians having proclaimed their inde-
pendence, choset Pedro for their em-
peror. The death of John VI., in
1826, left Dom Pedro the crown of
Portugal. After abdicating the crown
of Portugal in favor of his daughter.
Dona Maria, he nominated his
brother, Dom Miguel, regent ; but
scarcely had he quitted Portugal, when
Dom Miguel took possession of the
throne. In 1831 he was compelled to
abdicate the throne of Brazil in favor
of his son, Dom Pedro II. Returning
to Europe, he raised troops in France
and England, with which he, in 1833,
drove Dom Miguel from the throne of
Portugal, and placed the crown upon
the head of his daughter. He was
twice married; his first wife being
Maria Leopoldina, Archduchess of
Austria, and the second, Amelia,
daughter of Prince Eugene de Beau-
harnais. He died in 1834.
Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil ; born
in Rio Janeiro, in 1825; succeeded to
the throne on the abdication of his
father, Dom Pedro I., in 1831. He
assisted President Grant in opening
the Centennial Exposition in Phila-
delphia in 1876; and was deposed by
the revolution of 1889. Died in 1891.
Peebles, James Martin, an
American physician; born in Whit-
tingham, Vt., March 23, 1822; was
a member of the Northwest Congres-
sional Indian Peace Commission in
1868; United States consul to Trebi-
zonde, Turkey, in 1869; and repre-
sented the Arbitration League at the
Peace Conference in Berlin.
Peekskill, a village in West-
chester county, N. Y.; on the Hud-
son river and the New York Central
& Hudson River railroad; 42 miles
N. of New York city; is surrounded
by grand mountain scenery; manu-
factures fire brick, hats, underwear,
and stoves; and contains the State
Military Camp, Helping Hand Hos-
pital, Mohegan Lake School, Field
Library, and House of the Good
Shepherd. Pop. (1910) 15,245.
Peel, Sir Robert, an English
statesman; son of Sir Robert Peel,
Peking
a wealthy manufacturer; born in
1788, and studied at Harrow and Ox-
ford. When just 21 years of age he
entered Parliament, and thenceforth
the sphere of his exertions and tri-
umphs was in the House of Commons.
In 1811 he was made under-secretary
for the colonies, and in 1812, when
only 24, he received the appointment
of chief secretary for Ireland. After
carrying his celebrated currency meas-
ure of 1819, he became, in 1822, home
secretary. He became prime minister
in 1841. He died in 1850, of internal
injuries caused by a fall from a horse.
Peele, John Thomas, an Ameri-
can artist ; born in Peterborough,
England, in 1822; settled in New
York city in 1835; early manifested
a genius for portrait painting and
went to Europe to study ; returned to
New York in 1846. Later, he de-
voted himself to genre painting, becom-
ing a specialist in studies of child
life. He died in 1897.
Peepul, or Pipal, also known as
the Sacred Fig of India, a species of
fig, somewhat resembling the banyan,
but the branches not rooting like those
of that tree. The tree is held sacred
by the Hindus, because Vishnu is said
to have been born under it.
Feet, Stephen Denison, an
; American clergyman and archaeologist ;
born in Euclid, O., Dec. 2, 1831. He
became a Congregational minister, and
an authority on the works of the
mound builders and American archae-
ology in general.
Peirce, Benjamin, an American
mathematician ; born in Salem, Mass.,
April 4, 1809; studied at Harvard,
where in 1833 he became professor.
His paper on the discovery of Neptune
attracted universal attention, and his
papers on the constitution of Saturn's
rings were equally remarkable. He
died in Cambridge, Mass., Oct. 6, 1880.
Pekan, Pennant's marten, a North
American species, about four feet long;
it often steals the fish used to bait
traps, whence it is sometimes called the
fisher.
Peking, or Pekin, the capital of
the Chinese empire, province of Chih-
le, or Pechili, in a vast sandy plain,
between the Pei-ho and its important
affluent, the Hoang-ho. 562 miles N.
W. of Nankin, and 100 miles W. N.
Pelagians
W. of the Gulf of Pechili, in the Yel-
low Sea. It consists of two contigu-
ous cities, each separately surrounded
by walls, and together entered by 16
gates. The entire circumference is 25
miles. The northern city, which is
nearly a perfect square, consists of
three enclosures. The outer one is
used by Chinese traders. The second
enclosure contains the residences of the
dignitaries of the empire and foreign
legations, the national literary insti-
tutions, and the temples of An-
cestors and Peace, and is inhabited
mostly by the Manchus. The inner en-
closure, or " forbidden city," sur-
rounded by walls of yellow tiles, 2
miles in circumference, hence called
the "Yellow Wall," contains the pal-
aces of the emperor and empress. The
southern city, called the Wai-ching, or
" outer city," is also square, and occu-
pied by the Chinese, and is both the
seat of business and the residence of
most of the population. The wall is
30 feet high, 25 feet thick at the base,
and 12 feet at the top. That of the
imperial city is 40 feet high. The
principal streets are very wide and
regular, running between opposite
gates. The houses are generally one
story high, and built of brick. Of the
ornamental buildings, the most con-
spicuous are those commonly called
triumphal arches. They consist of a
large central gateway, with small ones
on each side, all covered with nar-
row roofs, and like the houses are
splendidly gilded, varnished, and paint-
ed. Peking is indebted for its im-
portance to its being the residence of
the emperor and the seat of govern-
ment. The country round the city be-
ing sandy and poor, a large portion
of its supplies are brought from a dis-
tance partly from sea by the Pei-ho,
but principally by the Grand canal and
the Eu-ho, which connect it with Nan-
kin, and most of the E. provinces. The
early history of Peking is involved in
obscurity. Kublai Khan rebuilt it,
and made it his capital in 12GO. The
Mongol dynasty, founded by Kublai
Ithan, continued to occupy this city
till it was expelled from China, in
1367. In 1421, the third emperor of
the Chinese dynasty of Ming trans-
ferred his residence thither from
Nankin, since which it has been the
capital of the empire. During the
" Boxer " uprising of 1900 the various
Feliaa
foreigners in Peking were besieged in
the English legation. For weeks they
were given up as lost, but they man-
aged to hold out till the arrival of the
foreign troops. Present pop. (about)
700,000.
Pelagians, a sect that arose about
the beginning of the 5th century. Their
founder was Pelagius, a monk, a na-
tive of Britain, whose original name
was Morgan. He taught that man is
capable of a religious life, without
the grace of God, and that grace is '
given, not freely, but according to the
merits of the recipient.
Pelagic Sealing, the taking of
seal in the open sea.
Pelaniis, a genus of sea snakes,
with a single species, ranging from
Madagascar to New Guinea, New Zea-
land, and Panama.
Pelasgian, one of an ancient and
widely diffused prehistoric tribe which
was the common parent of the Greeks
and of the earliest civilized inhabitants
of Italy. The origin of this people is
lost in myth. Traces of them are fqund
in Asia Minor and Italy. The term
Pelasgi was used by the classic poets
for the Greeks in general. Some Al-
banian tribes are supposed to be of
Pelasgic descent.
Pclew Islands, or Falan, a group
in the Pacific formerly belonging to
Spain, lying S. E. of the Philippines,
at the W. extremity of the Caroline
Archipelago, with which they are some-
times classed. There are about 200
islands, and surrounded with corai
reefs. Total area, 170 square miles.
The principal is Babelthouap or Babel-
top. The soil is rich and fertile, and
the climate healthy. Bread fruit,
cocoanuts, sugar cane, palms, areca
nuts, yams, etc., are grown. Turtles,
trepang, and fish abound on the coasts.
The inhabitants, about 10,000 in num-
ber, are of the Malay race. The men
go entirely naked and the women,
nearly so. They are described as be-
ing good-natured, and have peculiar
social institutions. The islands were
discovered by the Spaniards in 1543,
and visited again in 1696. In 1899
Spain sold this group, with the Caro-
lines and all of the Ladrones except-
ing Guam, to Germany.
Pelias, the adder, or common viper.
No teeth in upper maxillaries, except
Pelican
PemTia
the poison fangs ; a row of small teeth
on the palatine bone, on each side of
the palate.
Pelican, a large piscivorous water
fowl, with an enormous pouch de-
pendent from the flexible branches of
the lower mandible, but capable of be-
ing contracted when not in use as a
depository for food. The species are
widely distributed, and frequent the
shores of the sea, rivers, and lakes,
feeding chiefly on fish, which they
hunt in shallow water, the pelican of
the United States being the only spe-
cies which dives for its prey. The
common pelican is about the size of a
swan, though its enormous bill and
loose plumage make it look consid-
erably larger ; it is white, slightly
tinged with flesh color, and the breast
feathers become yellow in old birds.
Pelican, The, the ship in which
Sir Francis Drake made his voyage
around the world. He left Plymouth
with four ships besides the " Pelican,"
Nov. 15, 1577, and completed his jour-
ney Sept. 15, 1580. The "Pelican"
was the only ship he brought back
with him, and it was for a long time
carefully preserved by order of "Queen
Elizabeth. When finally broken up a
chair was made from its timbers by
John Davis, the Arctic navigator,
. which is now in the Bodleian Library.
Pelissier, Aimable Jean
Jacques, Duke of Malakoff, a
marshal of France ; born near Rouen
in 1794. He entered the army at the
age of 19, and distinguished himself in
Africa and was created Lieutenant-
General in 1848 and was called in
1855 to take a command in the Crimea
under General Canrobert, whom he
soon superseded as Commander-in-
Chief. He distinguished himself in
the successful attack on Kertch, in
the battle of the Tchernaya, and above
ail in the storming of the Malakoff
Tower at Sebastopol, Sept. 8, 1855.
He was soon after created Marshal
and Duke of Malakoff. In 1858 he
was ambassador to London; was sub-
sequently appointed governor-general
of Algeria, and died there in 1864.
Pellagra, a disease common among
the peasantry of Northern Italy, the
lAsturias, Gascony, Rumania, and
Corfu, caused by living on maize af-
fected by a parasitic fungus.
Pelletier, Sir Charles Al-
phonse Pantaloon, a Canadian of-
ficial: born in Riviere Ouelle, Que-
bec, Jan. 22, 1837; was called to the
bar in 1860; member of the Com-
mons in 1869-1877, of the Provincial
Assembly in 1873-1874, and Senator
in 1877-1905; Speaker of Dominion
Senate in 1896-1901; Quebec City
Solicitor for 40 years; Judge Su-
perior Court, Quebec Province, in
1905-1908; then became Lieutenant-
Governor of the Province.
Pellico, Silvio, an Italian patriot;
born in Saluzza, Piedmont, in 1789;
best known for his tragedy, " Fran-
cesca da Rimini." The volume on
which his fame rests tells the story
of his 10* years' imprisonment. He
died in 1854.
Pelopidas, a Theban general, the
friend of Epaminondas and the asso-
ciate of his victories. When the Spar-
tans conquered Thebes, Pelopidas went
to Athens, where he assembled his ex-
iled countrymen, with whom he re-
turned, seized on Thebes, and expelled
the invaders. Afterward he defeated
the Lacedaemonians at Tegyra, and
shared with Epaminondas the victory
of Leuctra. Pelopidas being sent am-
bassador to Alexander, the tyrant of
Phera?, was thrown into prison ; but
on the appearance of Epaminondas he
obtained his release. He next went to
the court of Persia, and after his re-
turn commanded the forces sent to the
relief of Thessaly, where he fell ha
364 B. c.
Peloponnesus, the ancient name
of the Morea. Among its most im-
portant cities were the Sparta in La-
conia, and Argos the capital of Argolis.
Sparta acquired, after the Messenian
war, a decided supremacy over the
other states, and disputed the suprem-
acy with Athens in a war of almost
30 years' duration (431-^404 B. C.)
the famous Peloponnesian War, of
which the history has been written by
Thucydides. After the Roman con-
quest, the Peloponnesus formed part
of the province of Achaia, and subse-
quently part of the Byzantine empire.
Pelvis, the bony, archlike basin of
the human body, supporting the lower
or hinder limbs.
Pemba, a coral island off the E.
coast of Africa; 50 miles N. E. of
Pemberton
Zanzibar Island, length 46 miles,
breadth 4 1 /; area, 372 square miles.
Pemberton, Max, an English
novelist; born in Birmingham, Eng-
land, June 19, 1863. He was a con-
tributor to " Vanity Fair," and editor
of " Chums," a boys' paper, and in
charge of " Cassell's Magazine." He
has published a number of stories.
Pembroke, town, out-post, and
capital of Renfrew county, Ontario,
Canada; on the Muskrat river, Allu-
mette lake, and the Grand Trunk
and Canadian Pacific railways; 104
miles N. W. of Ottawa; has good
water-power from the river; and is
engaged in lumbering and the manu-
facture of woolen goods and flour.
Pen, an instrument for writing with
a fluid. Pens of some sort have been
in use from very early times, adapted
to the material on which the charac-
ters were to be inscribed. The metallic
stilus for the production of incised
letters was probably the earliest writ-
ing implement. It was used by the
Romans for writing on tablets coated
with wax ; but both they and the
Greeks also used what is the true an-
cient representative of the modern pen,
namely, a hollow reed, as fs yet com-
mon in Eastern countries. It has been
asserted that quills were used for writ-
ing as early as the 5th century A. D.
In 1803 Wise produced steel pens of
a barrel form, mounted in a bone case
for carrying hi the pocket. They were
of indifferent make, and being expen-
sive, were very little used. Joseph
Gillott commenced the manufacture
about 1820, and succeeded in making
the pen of thinner and more elastic
steel, giving it a higher temper and
finish. Mr. Gillott was followed into
the same field by Mr. Perry and others,
and their improvements so reduced
the cost and raised the quality, that a
gross of better pens are now sold by
the same makers at less than one-sixth
of the price of & single pen in 1821.
Gold pens tipped with minute particles
of iridium are now in extensive use,
and a good one will last for years.
Fountain pens and penholders, to car-
ry a considerable supply of ink and
to discharge it in an equal manner,
were invented by Joseph Bramah.
Penal Laws, laws which prohibit
an act, and impose a penalty for the
commission of it.
Pendleton
Penal Servitude, a form of pun-
ishment in English criminal law, sub-
stituted, in 1853, for the punishment
of transportation. It consists in im-
prisonment with hard labor for a term
of years, from two up to the duration
of life. The term is not used in the
United States.
Penance, in Roman Catholic theolo-
gy and ritual : 1. The virtue which
inclines the soul to detest ski for its
own sake that is, because it is an
offense against God. 2. The outward
acts by which sorrow for sin is evinced.
3. The satisfaction which a priest im-
poses on the penitent before giving ab-
solution, often called sacramental pen-
ance.
Penang, Pnlo-Penang, or
Prince of Wales Island, an island
belonging to Great Britain, lying at
the N. entrance of the Straits of
Malacca, off the W. coast of the Malay
Peninsula, from which it is separated
by a channel 2 to 5 miles across ; area,
107 square miles. Penang was made
over by treaty to the East India Com-
pany in 1786 by the Rajah of Quedah,
and with Province Wellesley, a long
strip of the Malay Peninsula opposite
(area, 270 square miles), it now forms
one of the Straits Settlements, having
a resident councillor to control ad-
ministration. Pop. 235,618.
Penates, the Roman gods of the
storeroom and kitchen. The family
hearth, which formerly stood in the
atrium, was their altar, and on it their
images, two in number, were placed,
with the image of the Lar between
them. These penates were represented
dancing and elevating a drinking horn
in token of joy and plenty. The
calends, nones, and ides of each month
were set apart for their worship, as
were the caristra (Feb. 22) and the
saturnalia. Each family had its own
penates, and the State had its public
penates. The origin of these gods is
extremely doubtful. As was the case
with the Lares, their name was a syn-
onym for home.
Pencil, a name applied to instru-
ments for writing, drawing, or paint-
ing, differing as much in their con-
struction as in the use to which they
are applied.
Pendleton, George Hunt, an
American statesman ; born in Cincin-
Fendleton
nati, O., July 25, 1825. He acted as
congressman from 1856 to 1865, having
been elected on the Democratic ticket.
He was a candidate for the vice-presi-
dency on the Democratic ticket in
1864, with George B. McClellan. Be-
fore his appointment as United States
minister to Germany by President
Cleveland, in 1885, he represented
Ohio in the United States Senate, and
was an exponent of civil service re-
form. He died in 1889.
Pendleton, Louis (Beauregard),
an American novelist and writer of
juvenile literature ; born in Georgia in
1861. His works deal principally
with Southern scenes and characters.
Penelope, a celebrated Grecian
princess, daughter of Icarius, wife of
Ulysses (Odysseus), and mother of
Telemachus. According to the Ho-
meric legend, Ulysses, during his long
wanderings after the fall of Troy, was
generally regarded as dead, and Penel-
ope was vexed by the urgent suits of
many lovers, whom she put off on the
pretext that she must first weave a
shroud for Laertes, her aged father-in-
law. To protract the time, she un-
did by night the portion of the web
she had woven by day. When the
suitors had discovered this device, her
position became more difficult than be-
fore ; but fortunately Ulysses returned
in time to rescue his chaste spouse
from their distasteful importunities.
Penguin, aquatic birds confined to
the high S. latitudes of both hemi-
spheres, where they congregate in large
Hocks. The body is generally elliptic-
al ; neck of moderate length ; head
small, bill moderately long, straight,
compressed ; tail short. They have no
quills in their wings, which are as
rigid as the flippers of a cetacean, and
utterly useless for flight, though they
move freely at the shoulder joint,
forming most efficient paddles, and are
usually worked alternately with a ro-
tatory motion. In standing, the pen-
guin preserves an upright position,
generally resting on the tarsus, which
is widened like the foot of a quadru-
ped ; but in progressing this is kept
nearly vertical, and the weight sup-
ported on the toes alone.
Peninsular Campaign, the name
of the campaign conducted by General
George B. McClellan in 1862, on the
E. 115.
Penitentiary
peninsula between the York river and
its tributaries and the James river.
Penfeisnlar War, the war carried
on in the beginning of the 19th cen-
tury in Spain and Portugal by the
British forces, aided by the native
troops, against the French. Sir Ar-
thur Wellesley, afterward the Duke
of Wellington, landed, with 10,000
British troops, at Figueras, in Portu-
gal, Aug. 1-3, 1808, and on the 21st
defeated the French at Vimiera. On
August 30, the Convention of Cintra
was signed, by which Junot agreed to
evacuate the country. Wellesley re-
turning home, the command of the
army, now increased to 20,000 men,
was given over to Sir John Moore,
who was forced by Soult to fall back
on Corunna, where a battle was fought
on Jan. 16, 1809, in which the former
lost his life. Wellesley again received
command of the army, and, after a
series of sanguinary and generally suc-
cessful combats, drove the French
across the Pyrenees, entering France
on Oct. 7, 1813.
PENGUIN.
Penitentiary, a prison in which
convicted offenders are confined and
.Penitentiary
subjected to a course of discipline and
instruction with a view to their refor-
mation. Misdemeanants and persons
guilty of lesser felonies are confined
therein.
Penitentiary, one of the offices of
the Roman Catholic Curia, taking
special cognizance of matters relating
to the confessional, and dispensations
from such impediments to marriage as
are not diriment. The dignitary who
presides over the office described above.
He is a cardinal priest, and must be
a doctor of theology or canon law.
Penn, Sir William, an English
admiral who greatly distinguished him-
self against the Dutch in the 17th cen-
tury : born in Bristol in 1621, -entered
the navy at an early period, and was
captain at the age of 23. After the
restoration he was knighted, and died
in Essex in. 1670.
Penn, "William, founder of .the
State of Pennsylvania ; son of the pre-
ceding ; born in London, Oct. 13, 1644.
He turned Quaker, was taken up for
preaching, and sent to prison ; but
was released through the interest of
his father; was sent to the Tower, on
account of a book which he had writ-
ten ; and, while there, he composed his
K:-incipal work, entitled " No Cross,
o Crown," intended to show the ben-
efit of suffering. On his release, he
resumed his former labors, and was
apprehended, with some others, and
tried for preaching at a conventicle in
Gracechurch Street. The jury per-
sisted in finding them not guilty, and
were fined for acting contrary to the
dictates of the judge. In 1681 he ob-
tained from the crown, in lieu of the
arrears due his father, the grant of
the province in North America, and it
was Charles II. who, in honor of Penn
proposed the name Pennsylvania. Ac-
companied by emigrants, Penn sailed
from Deal Sept. 5, 1682, for America,
and landed at New Castle, Del., Oct.
24, and at Upland, Pa. (now Ches-
ter), Oct. 29, 1682. The work of or-
ganization was rapid. A few Swedes
and Dutch had previously settled iu
Pennsylvania, but colonists from vari-
ous regions of the Old World now
poured in. Universal toleration was
proclaimed, a charter of liberties was
solemnly consecrated, and a democratic
government was established. In his
dealings with the Indians and their
Pennant
chiefs, Penn manifested his accustomed
magnanimity, and justice. The capital
city, Philadelphia, was planned on a
scale commensurate with Pennsyl-
vania's expected greatness. Penn's
family was in England. Hearing that
his wife was ill he, intrusting his un-
finished undertakings to such men as
he deemed competent, hurried anxious-
ly back. The overthrow of James was
in more than one respect a misfor-
tune for Penn. In the spring of 1690
he was arrested on the charge of hold-
ing treasonable correspondence with
the dethroned monarch. The absurd-
ity of the charge being swiftly and
glaringly evident, Penn was set at
liberty. Yet, though his conduct con-
tinued to be blameless, he was, by
an order in council, stripped, March
14, 1692, of his title to the Pennsyl-
yanian government a tyrannical act
involving his utter ruin ; for, besides
that he had risked his whole substance
jn the Pennsylvanian experiment, his
estates, both in England and in Ire-
land, had been grievously misman-
aged by incompetent or dishonest over-
seers. An order in council capricious-
ly restored to Penn, in 1694, that
Pennsylvanian government of which
an order in council had so capriciously
robbed him. But the ownership of
territories so extensive was almost
barren to him. A visit to his Irish
estates preluded Penn's second ex-
pedition to the New World. His fam-
ily went with him to America, though
rather from necessity than choice.
Penn's residence in the colony was
more beneficial to the colonists than
to himself. In 1701 he returned to
England, and, being encumbered with
debts, endeavored to negotiate the sale
of Pennsylvania to the crown for $60,-
000. This negotiation was interrupt-
ed in 1712, through his being attacked
by an apoplectic tit, which, happening
twice afterward, greatly impaired his
mental faculties. He survived for
six years longer, but with a consti-
tution much shattered, and quite un-
fitted for any serious employment.
Penn died July 29, 1718 ; and was
buried at the village of Jordan, Buck-
inghamshire.
Pennant, a small flag or banner.
In naval affairs, a long, narrow piece
of bunting carried at the mast-heads
of vessels of war.
Penn College
Penn College s a coeducational in-
stitution in Oskaloosa, la. ; founded
in 1873 under the auspices of the So-
ciety of Friends.
Pennington, Alexander Cum-
xuings McWhorter, an American
military officer ; born in Newark, N.
J., Jan. 8, 1838; was graduated
at the United States Military Acad-
emy in 1800 ; served through the Civil
War, during the latter part in com-
mand of a brigade in the Army of the
Potomac, and was brevetted Brigadier-
General of volunteers. After the war
he served at various army posts, was
promoted Brigadier-General, U. S. A.,
in 1899 and was retired Oct. 17, of
that year.
Pennon, or Penon, a small flag or
streamer half the size of the guidon,
but shaped like it, of a swallow tail
form, attached to the handle of a
lance or spear.
Pennsylvania, a State in the
North Atlantic Division of the North
American Union, bounded by New
York, New Jersey,. Delaware, Mary-
land, West Virginia, Ohio, and Lake
Erie ; one of the original 13 States ;
capital, Harrisburg; number of coun-
ties, 67 ; area, 44,985 square miles ;
pop. (1890) 5,258,014; (1900) 6,302,-
115; (1910) 7,665,111.
The State presents three wen de-
fined physical divisions, the E. plain,
middle hills, and W. highlands. A
number of parallel ridges cross it
from N. to S. with a maximum alti-
tude of 2,500 feet. Lake Erie forms
45 miles of the N. boundary of the
State and has an excellent harbor at
Erie.
Pennsylvania ranks first in the
United States in the amount and value
of her commercial mineral products.
In 1900 she ranked first in the pro-
duction of coal, coke, natural gas,
building stones, flint, feldspar, mineral
paints, portland cement, and iron and
steel products ; second in petroleum
and clay products ; third in rock ce-
ment; and fifth in iron ores. Over 50
per cent, of the iron and steel pro-
duced in the United States is worked
in Pennsylvania, in the vicinity of
Pittsburg. This city is*the center of
the iron industry of the world.
As an agricultural State, Penn-
sylvania stands high. It ranks first
in the United States in the produc-
Pennsylvania
tion of rye, and has large crops of
other cereals. The S. E. counties are
remarkably fertile, Chester being not-
ed for its nurseries, and Lancaster for
its tobacco crop. The natural forest
trees include pine, poplar, beech, sugar
maple, chestnut, birch, wild cherry,
walnut, oak, hickory,, ash, cherry, elm,
sycamore, and hemlock. Considerable
attention is paid to stock raising, and
dairying is becoming one of the lead-
ing industries.
Pennsylvania ranks second in the
United States in the value of her
manufactures. Besides the leading in-
dustries of coal mining, coke, iron and
steel manufacture, and the production
of petroleum, the State has extensive
manufactures of plate and bottle glass,
paper bags, rag carpets, woolen goods,
glue, railroad cars, drugs, and chem-
icals, gunpowder, leather and lumber.
In 1900, according to the United
States census, there were 52,185 manu-
facturing establishments ; employing
$1,551,542,712 capital, and 733,834
persons; paying $332,072,670 for
wages, and $1,042,561,628 for mate-
rials ; and having finished products
valued at $1,835,104,431.
The imports of merchandise at the
ports of Philadelphia and Erie for
1900 amounted in value to $49,711,-
066; and the exports, $31,364,722.
At the end of the school year, 1899-
1900, the children of school age num-
bered 1,759,300 ; enrollment in public
schools, 1,151,880. There were 14,932
buildings used for public school pur-
poses, public school property valued
at $54,797,506, and 29,390 teachers.
The principal colleges include, the
University of Pennsylvania, at Phila-
delphia ; Lehigh University, at South
Bethlehem ; Lafayette College, Easton,
and many others.
The governor is elected for a term
of four years and receives a salary
of $10,000 per annum. Legislative ses-
sions are held biennially in odd years,
beginning on the first Tuesday in Jan-
uary, and are unlimited in length. The
Legislature has 60 members in the
Senate and 207 members in the House.
There are 36 Representatives in Con-
gress. The country about Delaware
Bay was first settled by the Swedes,
ana then passed first under Dutch, and
then under the English jurisdiction
generally established in 1664. In 1681
Pennsylvania
the territory W. of the Delaware was
granted by royal charter to William
Perm who colonized it ; and, by the
industry and high character of the
Society of Friends, by cultivating
peace with the Indians, and encourag-
ing immigration, founded a flourishing
State, which, long before the Revolu-
tion became the seat of learning,
wealth, and refinement.
Pennsylvania, University of, a
coeducational, non-sectarian institution
in Philadelphia, Pa. ; founded 1740.
Pennsylvania College, a coedu-
cational institution in Gettysburg,
Pa. ; founded in 1832 under the au-
spices of the Lutheran Church.
Pennsylvania State College, a
coeducational, non-sectarian institu-
tion in State College, Pa. ; founded in
1855.
Pennsylvania Dutch, a German
dialect mixed with English, spoken in
Pennsylvania by German settlers and
their descendants.
Fenny. In the United States the
term penny is commonly used for
" cent," the 100th part of a dollar. It
consists of 95 per cent, of copper and
5 per cent, tin and zinc. There are
1,000,000,000 pennies in circulation
throughout the country and the Phila-
delphia mint is turning them out at
the rate of 4,000,000 a month to keep
up the supply. The British penny is
the 12th part of a British shilling,
and worth about two cents.
Pennyroyal, a species of mint,
sometimes grown in gardens for its
reputed medicinal qualities. The name
pennyroyal is given also to a small
plant, allied to the mints, and having,
like them, a pleasant aromatic smell
and a warm pungent taste.
Pennyweight, a Troy weight, con-
taining 24 grains, each grain being
equal to a grain of wheat from the
middle of the ear, well dried. Twenty
pennyweights make one ounce Troy
weight.
Pensacola, city, port of entry,
and capital of Escambia county,
Fla.; on Pensacola bay and several
railroads; 10 miles N. of the Gulf of
Mexico; has one of the finest harbors
on the Gulf, large export trade in
naval stores ; cotton, grain, phos-
phates, coal, iron, and tobacco, manu-
factures of lumber; cotton compres-
Pentecosfi
sors, and fertilizers, and extensive
fisheries; and contains a Federal
navy-yard, Federal Marine Hospital,
Fort Pickens, and the remains of
Fort McRea. Pop. (1910) 22,982.
Penshnrst, Charles Hardinge,
1st Lord, a British administrator;
born in Kent, England, in 1858;
brother of 3d Viscount Hardinge;
entered the diplomatic service in
1881; was stationed successively at
Constantinople, Berlin, Washington,
Bucharest, Teheran, and St. Peters-
burg; became Ambassador to Russia
in 1904; Permanent Under Secretary
of State for Foreign Affairs in 1906,
and Viceroy of India in 1910.
Pension, an allowance of money,
in stipulated amounts and in periodi-
cal payments, made by government to
persons in recognition of past ser-
vice, military, naval, civil, or judi-
cial. The payment of pensions in the
United States is regulated by special
congressional enactment. The sys-
tem has been in operation nearly ever
since the adoption of the Federal
Constitution Pensions are generally
predicated and allowed on account of
some disablement which occurred in
the military or naval service of the
United States while in line of duty.
The year of the largest number of
pensioners of all classes was 1902,
when there was a total of 999,446.
The year 1909 had the smallest num-
ber on the rolls since 1892 (946,194),
but the total payments that year
were the largest on record ($161,-
973,703). From the foundation of
the Government'to June 30, 1910, the
totaT amount pnid out for pensions
aggregated $4,073,056,570.
Pentateuch, a term applied ex-
clusively to the first five books of the
Old Testament collectively, termed in
Hebrew torah the law. The first)
mention of the five-fold division is by
Josephus.
Pentecost, one of the three greatest
Jewish festivals. Its Greek name was
given because it was held on the 50th
day, counting from the second of the
Passover, whence it was called in
Hebrew the Eeast of Weeks. By this
account the enumeration of the weeks
was to be from " such time as thou
beginnest to put the sickle to the
corn." It was called also the Feast
of Harvest.
Pentecost
Pentecost, George Frederick, an
American clergyman; born in Albion,
111., Sept. 23, 1842; entered George-
town University but left to volunteer
for the Union army ; was chaplain in.
1862-1864, and filled various pastor-
ates in different parts of the country
in 1864r-1880. In 1887 he engaged in
evangelical work in Scotland and thea
went to India on a special mission to
the English-speaking Brahmins. He
was called to the First Presbyterian
Church at Yonkers, N. Y., in 1897.
He wrote: "Boyhood of Christ";
"Bible Studies"; etc,
Penumbra, a faint shadow thrown
by a luminous body. It is brighter
than the true shadow, though less so
than the luminous body itself. It ia a
modification of the true shadow pro-
duced by the commingling with it of
rays emitted by a portion of the lu-
minous body. In an eclipse of the
moon, the rays which have just grazed
the edge of the earth are bent inward
by the refraction of the atmosphere,
besides having become tinged with a
ruddy or copper hue. Falling on the
moon, then in shadow, they often ren-
der it faintly visible, and though of a
copper hue, yet bright enough to per-
mit markings on its surface to be seen.
Yet at this time the moon is so much
behind the earth that it cannot be
reached by direct rays from the sun.
Peonage, a system of agricultural
servitude common in Mexico, and some
other parts of Spanish America. The
peon in debt to his employer was by
the Spanish system bound to labor for
his employer till the debt was paid.
Peoria, city and capital of Peoria
county, 111.; o/i the Illinois river aiid
over a dozen railroads; 160 miles W.
of Chicago; is in an important coal-
mining region; has the most exten-
sive manufactories of proof spirits,
glucose, and farming implements in
the country; also manufactures cel-
lulose, cereal foods, flour, straw-
boards, and machinery; manufac-
tures exceed $65,000,000 in value of
annual output; contains the Bradley
Polytechnic Institute, Spalding In-
stitute, Federal Building, large Coli-
seum, Soldiers' Monument, and sev-
erai notable public buildings; and
has an assessed property valuation
of over $25,000,000. Pop. (1910)
G6.950.
Pepsin
Pepiii, The Short, a King ot
France, the first of the Carlovingian
kings. He was at first mayor of the
palace under Childeric III. ; but in
752 he dethroned that monarch and
confined him in a monastery. Having
requested and obtained the sanction of
the Pope, Pepin was constituted king.
He assisted Pope Stephen III. against
the Longobards, defeated the Saxons,
Bavarians, and other German nations,
and united Aquitaine to his crown.
After a reign of 16 years, he died in
St. Denis, in 768. His son Charle-
magne succeeded him as King of the
Franks.
Pepper, Charles M., journalist,
traveler and author; born in Ohio,
Nov. 11, 1859 ; graduated at the Woos-
ter University, in 1882. He was the
Washington correspondent of the
"Chicago Tribune" for many years.
Subsequently political correspondent
of "New York Herald." Correspond-
ent in Cuba, Porto Rico, Mexico, Cen-
tral America, South America, and
Hawaii, for "Washington Star" and a
syndicate of papers. Commissioner in
Cuba for St. Louis Exposition. Was
appointed by President McKinley as
delegate to the Second International
American Conference, which was held
in Mexico, 1901-1902. Appointed by
President Roosevelt as Pan-American
Railway commissioner. He is the au-
thor of " Tomorrow in Cuba," " Every-
day Life in Washington," and other
books.
Peppermint, a mint with oblong,
lanceolate, serrate, glabrous leaves;
pedicels and flowers nearly smooth ;
flowers in cylindrical spikes, interrupt-
ed below. Oil of peppermint, the oil
distilled from the fresh flowers of pep-
permint. It enters into the composition
of peppermint water, essence of pep-
permint, and spirit of peppermint. It
is stimulant and carminative, and is
used to correct flatulence and griping
in the intestinal canal, and to mask
the nauseous taste of some medicines.
Pepper Root, a perennial herba*
ceous plant, a native of North America,
with pairs of ternate leaves, and ra-
cemes of white flowers; the root of
which has a pungent mustard-like
taste, and is used as a condiment.
Pepsin, an azotized ferment, related
to the proteids, and contained in gas-
tric juice. It possesses the power, in
Pericles
conjunction with hydrochloric acid, of
dissolving the insoluble proteids and
converting them into peptones. Pep-
sin is prepared from the stomach of
the pig or calf on a commercial scale,
and is usually employed in the form of
pills or dissolved in wine.
Pepys, Samuel, an English author,
secretary to the admiralty in the reigns
of Charles II. and James II. ; born
in Brampton, Huntingdonshire, in
1032, and educated at Cambridge. He
early acquired the patronage of Sir
Edward Montagu, afterward Earl of
Sandwich, who employed him as sec-
retary in the expedition for bringing
Charles II. from Holland. On his re-
turn he was appointed one of the prin-
cipal officers of the navy. In 1673,
when the king took the admiralty into
his own hands, Pepys was appointed
secretary to that office, and performed
his duties with great credit. During
the excitement of the Popish Plot he
was committed to the Tower, but was
after some time discharged without a
trial, and reinstated in his office at the
admiralty, which he held till the abdi-
cation of James II. He was president
of the Royal Society for two years ;
but his title to fame rests upon his
"Diary" (1659-1669), which is a
most entertaining work, revealing the
writer's own character very plainly,
giving an excellent picture of contem-
porary life, and of great, value for the
history of the court of Charles II.
He died in 1703.
Pequot, Fort, an old Indian fort
on Pequot Hill, about 8 miles N. E.
of New London, Conn.
Pequots, or Pequods, a tribe of
American Indians, a branch of the
Mohegans, were warlike and powerful
in the country round the Thames riv-
er when Connecticut was first settled,
and made treaties with the Dutch and
English. Hostilities, however, broke
out in 1637, and the tribe was cut to
pieces and scattered ; yet a few de-
scendants may be found at Green Bay,
Wis.
Perch, a genus of acanthopterous
fishes, forming the type of the perch
family (Percidse). The common perch
(Perca fluviatilis) is a common ten-
ant of fresh-water lakes and rivers.
It is colored a greenish-brown on the
upper parts, the belly being of a yel-
lovvish or golden-white. The sides are
marked with from five to seven black-
ish bands. The average weight ia
from 2 to 3 pounds. The perch is a
voracious feeder, devouring smaller
fishes, worms, etc. The female de-
posits her eggs, united by a viscous
matter, in long bands, on aquatic
plants.
Pereira da Silva, Joao Manuel,
a Brazilian historian : born in Rio de
Janeiro, in 1817. He wrote : "His-
tory of the Founding of the Empire of
Brazil " ; " Brazilian Plutarch " ; " Je-
ronimo Corte-Real " ; " Second Period
of the Reign of Dom Pedro I. in Bra-
zil"; etc.
Perennial, lasting or continuing
without cessation throughout the year ;
hence, perpetual ; unceasing ; never
failing; as perennial fountains. Con-
tinuing without intermission, as a fe-
ver. In botany, one of those plants
whose roots remain alive more years
than two, but whose stems flower and
perish annually.
Perez de Zambrana laiisa, a Cu-
ban story-writer and poet ; born in
El Cobre, near Santiago, in 1837. Sev-
eral of her poems have been translat-
ed into Italian and French.
Perfumes, substances emitting an
agreeable odor, and used about the
person, the dress, or the dwelling, hav-
ing also some value as disinfectants.
Perfumes are partly of animal origin
as civet, musk, etc., but are chiefly
simple, or mixed essences of flowers.
Pericardium, a conical membran-
ous sac containing the heart and the
commencement of the great vessels, to
the extent of about two inches from
their origin.
Pericles, a great Athenian states-
man ; born in Athens about 495 B. C.,
of a noble, influential and wealthy
family. He received a careful educa-
tion from the most eminent teachers.
He applied himself to the study of
philosophy under the guidance of An-
axagoras, who had a most powerful
influence on him, and remained one
of his most intimate friends. To his
other acquirements he added that of
extraordinary eloquence, and thus pre-
pared, he began to take part in public
affairs about 469 B. c., and the pop-
nlar party soon recognized him as their
chief. Pericles was great as a general,
and he displayed extraordinary valor
Verier
at the battle of Tanagra; he com-
manded the expedition against Sicyon
and Acarnania ; recovered Delphi from
the Spartans, and quelled the revolt
of Eubcea. In 444 B. 0. he became sole
ruler of Athens, and the aim of his
policy was to extend and strengthen
her empire, and to make the people
worthy of their position. Under his
administration the navy was increased,
commerce extended, general prosperity
advanced, and Athens adorned with
noble buildings. In 444 B. C. Pericles
established a democratic constitution
in Samos, and a counter revolution
taking place, he besieged the town, and
after nine months reduced it, a suc-
cess which procured him extraordinary
honors on his return. Pericles directed
Athens during the first two years of
the Peloponnesian War, in the sec-
ond year of which the plague broke out
at Athens, and the popular discontent |
vented itself in the prosecution of the
great ruler. He was fined, but soon
regained his influence. The plague
carried off many of his friends and
relatives, and, last of all, his favorite
son, Paralus. This loss broke his
heart, and after a lingering sickness
he died 429 B. c. He left a son by
Aspasia, who took his father's name,
and was legitimated by the people.
Perier, Casimir, a French states-
man ; born in Grenoble, Oct. 21, 1777.
A Parisian banker, he condemned in
1817 the financial policy of the minis-
try and thereby won a seat in the
Chamber of Deputies. In 1828 he held
the portfolio of finance under Martig-
nac, but resigned it in August of the
next year. Having taken an active
part in the July revolution (1830),
he was rewarded with a seat in the
cabinet. When Laffitte became presi-
dent of the council (Nov. 2), Perier
undertook the presidency of the Cham-
ber of Deputies, and on March 13,
1831, succeeded Laffitte as minister.
Died 1832. His son Auguste, adopted
the name of Casimir-Perier (q. v.).
Perigee, the point in the moon's
orbit at which she is nearest the earth.
Perihelion, or Perilieliuin, the
part of a planet's or comet's orbit
where it is nearest the sun, as op-
posed to aphelion.
Perim, a barren island, and coaling
and telegraph station, belonging to
Great Britain, in the Strait of Bab-
Perjury
el-Mandeb, at the S. entrance to the
Ited Sea. It is about 3^ miles long
by 2% wide, crescent-shaped, the
horns embracing a spacious harbor.
Periodicity, the disposition of cer-
tain things or phenomena to recur at
stated periods. It denotes the regu-
lar or nearly regular recurrence of
certain phenomena of animal life, such
as sleep and hunger. The first indica-
tion of a diseased state is generally a
disturbance of the natural or ac-
quired periodicity of the various func-
tions of life.
Periosteum, a dense lining mem-
brane covering the whole surface of
bone, except the articulations, which
have a thin cartilaginous layer. As
long as a single portion of periosteum
remains alive bone is capable of be-
ing reproduced.
Peritonitis, inflammation of the
peritoneum ; it is exceedingly painful
and dangerous, from its extent and
connection with important organs.
Peritonitis may exist either as an
acute or chronic disease. In the for-
mer there is usually great pain and
tenderness of the abdomen, accompa-
nied with fever, and a frequent, small,
and hard pulse. Its causes are va-
rious, as by cold, mechanical injuries
of the peritoneum, the development of
tumors, etc.
Periwinkle, a genus of marine
Gastropods. The commonest is abun-
dant between tide marks on the rocks,
and is often collected and used for
food. It is boiled in its shell, extract-
ed as eaten, and is very palatable.
Periwinkles crawl about under water,
but usually remain passive when left
uncovered by the tide. Without wa-
ter they can survive for many hours,
and they are also able to endure a
considerable freshening of the salt
water. They feed on sea weeds, and
are often useful in keeping beds of
young oysters from being smothered.
Perjury, the taking of a wilful
false oath or affirmation, by a witness
lawfully required to depose the truth
in a matter of some consequence to
the point in question. A false oath,
therefore, taken before no court, or
before a court incompetent to try the
issue in question, does not constitute
the offense of perjury at common law.
Perjury is a felony.
Persia
and W. margin of the Caspian are an
exception to the rest of the country,
and present some of the most beautiful
and fruitful pictures of richness and
abundance to be found in Persia. It
has been computed that barely a third
of the entire kingdom is fit for culti-
vation.
The vegetable productions of Persia
embrace all kinds of legumes and ce-
reals, except rye, oats, and rice ; barley
and wheat are the most abundant
crops. Drugs of various kinds are ob-
tained, such as senna, rhubarb, gums,
opium, etc. ; as also oils, cotton, indi-
fo, sugar, madder, dates, pistachio
uts, and tobacco ; while in flowers,
and the perfumes extracted from
them, especially the attar of roses, no
country in the world can compare with
Persia for beauty, fragrance, and
abundance. Silk is an important item ;
and plantations of mulberry trees of
great extent are very numerous. Vast
flocks of sheep and goats are pastured
over the country, the property and
wealth of the wandering tribes of the
interior, the Eelauts, a kind of Bed-
ouins, devoting themselves to pastoral
habits. The animals for which Persia
is famous, are camels, horses, mules,
oxen, asses, and buffaloes. The mineral
wealth consists of silver, copper, lead,
iron, antimony, salt, precious stones
especially turquoise bitumen, and
springs of naphtha. There are also
large, undeveloped fields of coal and
petroleum. One of the features of
Persia is the abundance of salt in
the soil, and the large number of its
salt lakes ; about 30 pure salinas have
no outlet; and one, the largest, Ure-
miyah, is 280 miles in circumference,
and, though supplied by 14 rivers, its
water is so dense, bitter, and loaded
with salt, that no fish can live in it.
The climate of Persia embraces the
rigors experienced on the mountains
of the snowy N., and the heats felt
on the sandy plains of Africa. Cyrus
the Younger told Xenophon that his
father's empire was so vast that in the
N. the people perished of cold, and
in the S. were suffocated with heat.
The manufactures of Persia are nu-
merous and important, and embrace all
kinds of silk fabrics, satins, taffetas,
textures of silk and cotton, silk and
goat's hair, or silk and camel's hair ;
brocades, camel's hair shawls, gold tis-
sues, gold velvet, camlets, carpets, cot-
Persia
tons, leather, firearms, sword blades,
saddlery, and jewelfy. Its principal
trade is carried on with Russia ; and,
though the foreign export trade is in-
significant, the internal traffic is very
great and is entirely carried on by
caravans.
The government is highly despotic;
an edict of the sovereign once passed,
can never be repealed, the word of the
Shah is irrevocable, and the lives and
property of the people are in his
hands. The government is carried on
by the Shah and his two principal min-
isters, the Grand Vizier and the Lord
Treasurer. The religion of the Per-
sians is Mohammedanism. In physical
appearance the Persians are inclined to
corpulence, have black hair, a high
forehead, an aquiline nose, and a large-
ly developed chin; and in color pre-
sent every variety, from the dark
brown of the Indian to the light olive
of the colder regions. The men are
strong, robust, fond of exercise and
martial glory, shave their heads, but
dye their beards black, preserving them
with an almost religious veneration.
The Persians are regarded as a gay
and hospitable race, but prone to sud-
den anger and treachery.
The Persian language is the most
celebrated of all the Oriental tongues,
for strength, copiousness, beauty, and
melody, and is written from the right
to the left. The earliest account we
possess of Persia is from the Bible,
from which we learn that, in the time
of Abraham, 1921 B. C., that portion
of modern Persia known as Elam, or
Suisiana, Southern Persia, was a pow-
erful monarchy. But the Persians, as
a nation, first rose into notice on the
ruins of the great empires founded on
the Euphrates. Babylon was taken by
Cyrus, and his empire extended wider
than any before established in the
world. After a feeble struggle, it
succumbed to the brave and disciplined
armies of Alexander. It was then
split into fragments by the decease of
its founder ; but Greeks and Greek
sovereigns continued, during several
centuries, to reign over Asia. About
two centuries before Christ, Arsaces
founded the monarchy of the Parthi-
ans ; and in the 3d century arose the
dynasty of the Sassanida^, who restored
the name, with the religion and laws,
of ancient Persia. They were over-
thrown by the Mohammedan invaders,
Persian Gulf
who suffered in their turn from the
successive invasions by the descendants
of Genghis, Timur, and by the Turks,
who entirely changed the aspect of
Western Asia. At length, in 1501, a
native dynasty again arose, under Is-
mail, who placed himself on the throne.
His posterity having sunk into volup-
tuousness, Persia, in the beginning of
the 18th century, was overrun by the
Afghans, who carried fire and sword
through its remotest extremities, and
reduced its proudest capitals to ashes.
The atrocities of the Afghans were
avenged, 'and the independence of Per-
sia vindicated by Nadir Shah, but
though the victories of this daring
chief threw a luster on his country,
after his death it was almost torn to
pieces by civil war, till the fortune of
arms gave a decided superiority to
Kereim, or Kurreem Khan. His death
gave rise to another disputed succes-
sion, with civil wars as furious as
before. At length, Aga Mahommed, a
eunuch, raised himself, by crimes and
daring, to the sovereignty, and not
only swayed it during his lifetime, but
founded a dynasty since represented
by Nasr-ed-Din from 1848, Muzzafar-
ed-Din from 1896, Mohammed-Ali-
Mirza from 1907, and by his son Hus-
sein-Ali-Mirza from July 16, 1909.
Persian Gulf, an arm of the In-
dian Ocean which penetrates between
Arabia and Persia to the extent of
650 miles in a general N. W. direc-
tion. Its breadth varies from 55 miles
at the mouth to 250 miles, and the
area is estimated at 77,450 square
miles, not including the islands, which
are scattered over the W. half, or
lie close inshore along the E. side. Its
greatest depth is about 50 fathoms.
Persimmon. See DATE PLUM.
Persius, full name Aulus Persius
Flaccus, a Roman satirical poet ; born
A. D. 34, at Volterra in Etruria ; died
in 62. He vas well-connected ; was on
friendly terras with some of the most
eminent men ot ~he time, and much be-
loved for the purity and amenity of his
manners. Six satires by him have been
preserved, of which there are several
translations.
Personalty, or Personal Prop-
erty, movables; chattels; things be-
longing to the person, as money, jew-
els, furniture, etc., as distinguished
from real estate in, lands and houses.
fen
Perspective, the science of repre-
senting appearances, and as such
opposed to geometry, which is the sci-
ence of representing facts. It is found-
ed upon such rules as can be deduced
from the facts which are discovered
by looking at objects through a sheet
of glass or other transparent medium
placed upright between the object anJ
the observer. It is found when ob-
jects are so looked at that their ap-
parent form is very different from
their real one, both as regards shape
and distinctness. The portion of the
subject which deals with the changes
in form is absolutely scientific ; it is
called linear perspective. The changes
in distinctness are effected by distance
and atmosphere, and differ constantly
with different conditions of light and
atmosphere. It is the purely artistic
side of the science which is called aeri-
al perspective, and success in its ap
plication depends on the individual
ability of the artist.
Perspiration, watery matter,
" breathed out," or made to expire
from the system by means of the pores
in the skin. It is more copious than
the matter sent forth from the lungs
by respiration, averaging 11 grains per
minute against 7 from the lungs.
Perth Amboy, a city and port of
entry in Middlesex county, N. J. ; on
the Raritan river and bay and sev-
eral railroads; 21 miles S. W. of
New York city; settled in 1680; in
colonial days, the seat of government
of New Jersey; has a good harbor,
valuable deposits of fire-clay and
kaolin, large shipping trade in farm
products and manufactures, and cop-
per, lead, brick, terra cotta, emery, and
chemical plants. Pop. (1910) 132,121.
Peru, a maritime republic of South
America, bounded on the N. by Ecua-
dor, on the W. by the Pacific, on the
S. and S. E. by Bolivia and Chile, and
on the E. by Brazil; area, 695,720
square miles ; pop. 4,609,999 ; capital,
Lima.
The country is 1,100 miles in length,
780 miles in extreme width along the
N. boundary, but it is little more than
50 miles wide in the extreme S. The
islands along the coast while few in
number, are exceedingly valuable in
that they are rich in guano, vast quan-
tities having been exported.
The surface of Peru is divided into
Peru
Fern
three distinct and well defined tracts or
belts, the climates of which are of
every variety, from torrid heat to Arc-
tic cold, and the productions of which
range from the stunted herbage of the
high mountain slopes to the oranges
and citrons, the sugar canes and cot-
tons of the luxuriant tropical valleys.
These three regions are the Coast, the
Sierra, and the Montana. The Sierra
embraces all the mountainous region
between the W. base of the maritime
Cordillera and the E. base of the An-
des, or the East Cordillera. Here the
INDIAN OF PEKtr.
valleys enjoy an Indian climate, and
are rich in tropical productions ; to the
N. and E. extend luxuriant forests,
while the numberless mountain slopes
are covered with waving crops of
wheat, barley, and other cereals, and
with potatoes ; and higher up extend
rich pasture lands, where huge herds
of vicunas and pacas feed. The valley
of the river Maranon, which is up-
ward of 300 miles in length, is narrow,
deep, and nearer the equator than any
other valley of the Sierra, and conse-
quently it is the hottest portion of
this region, and its vegetation is thor-
oughly tropical in character. The con-
formation of the surface of the Sierra
is of the most wonderful description.
After the table-lands of Tibet, those
of the Peruvian Andes are the highest
in the world; but, unlike those of Ti-
bet, the tablelands of Peru are the seat
of a comparatively high civilization,
and are studded over with towns and
villages, perched on heights exceeding
in elevation the summits of the Jung-
frau and the Matterhorn. Nor are
such towns the mere eyries of miners
who are tempted to ascend thus high
in search of the precious metals ; for,
even at this elevation, the climate is
pleasant, and wheat, maize, barley,
rye, and potatoes thrive well. The
climate of the Sierra, however, is not
always so delightful. In general terms
it may be described as mild and varia-
ble, with moderate rains. In the dis-
trict of paucartambo rain falls 300
days in the year. A country, however,
of such an uneven surface, of snow-
covered peaks and tropical valleys, em-
braces every variety of climate.
The gold standard is now perma-
nently established in Peru. The na-
tion has entered upon a new period of
industrial activity. Numerous com-
panies have been formed to explore the
Amazonian region ; new roads are be-
ing opened in every direction. There is
marked confidence in the stability of
order, and under the protection ^f
peace old financial institutions and in-
dustrial and mining enterprises are
thriving and public wealth is rapidly
increasing.
The wealth and resources of Peru
consist not in its manufactures, but
entirely in mineral, vegetable, and ani-
mal products. Of the precious met-
als, the production has greatly fallen
off since Peru became an independent
State. Nevertheless, Peru possesses
vast metallic riches. The Andes
abound in mines of gold, silver, cop-
per, lead, bismuth, etc. ; and in the
Montana gold is said to exist in abun-
dance in veins and in pools on the
margins of rivers. The vegetable pro-
ductions of Peru are of every variety,
embracing the products both of tem-
perate and tropical climes. North
American cereals and vegetables are
Perngino
Peruvian
grown with perfect success, together
with maize, rice, pumpkins, tobacco,
coffee, sugar cane, cotton, etc. Fruits
of the most delicious flavor are grown
in endless variety. Cotton, for which
the soil and climate of Peru are ad-
mirably adapted, is now produced here
in gradually increasing quantity. The
land suited to the cultivation of this
plant is excellent. The animals com-
prise those of North America, together
with the llama and its allied species.
The republic of Peru, formerly the
most important of the Spanish vice-
royalties in South America, issued its
declaration of independence July 28,
1821 ; but it was not till after a war,
protracted till 1824, that the country
gained its actual freedom from Span-
ish rule. The republic is politically
divided into departments, and the de-
partments into provinces. The pres-
ent constitution, proclaimed Oct. 1G,
1856, was revised Nov. 25, 1860. It is
modeled on that of the United States,
the legislative power being vested in
a Senate and a House of Representa-
tives, the former composed of deputies
of the provinces, in proportion of one
for every 30,000 inhabitants or frac-
tion exceeding 15,000, and the latter of
representatives nominated by the elec-
toral colleges of the provinces of each
department, at the rate of two when
the department has two provinces and
one more for every other two prov-
inces. The executive power is entrust-
ed to a president. There are two vice-
presidents, who take the place of the
president only in case of his death or
incapacity, and they are elected for
four years. The president has to exer-
cise his executive functions through a
cabinet of five ministers, holding office
at his pleasure. None of the presi-
dent's .acts have any value without
the signature of a minister.
By the terms of the constitution
there exists absolute political, but not
religious, freedom, the charter prohib-
iting the public exercise of any other
religion than the Roman Catholic,
which is declared the religion of the
State. But practically there is a
certain amount of tolerance, there be-
ing in Callao and Lima Anglican
churches as well as Jewish synagogues.
Elementary education is compulsory
for both sexes, and is free in the
public schools that are maintained by
the municipalities. High schools are
maintained by the government in the
capitals of the departments, and in
some provinces pupils pay a moderate
fee. There is in Lima a central uni-
versity, called " Universidad de Sau
Marcos," the most ancient in Ameri-
ca ; its charter was granted by the
Emperor Carlos V. ; it has faculties
of jurisprudence, medicine, political
science, theology, and applied science.
Peru, the origin of whose name is
unknown, is now passing through its
third historical era, and is manifesting
its third phase of civilization. The
present era may be said to date from
the conquest of the country by the
Spaniards in the early part of the
16th century ; the middle era embraces
the rule of the Incas ; and the earliest
era, about which exceedingly little is
known, is that of pre-Incarial period
of unknown duration, during which
a nation, or nations, living in large
cities flourished in the country, and
had a civilization, a language, and a
religion different, and perhaps in some
cases even more advanced, than those
of the Incas, who succeeded them and
overran their territories.
Perngino, Pietro, an Italian paint-
er; born in Leitta Delia Pieve, about
1446. His real name was Pietro Van-
ucci, but becoming a citizen of Peru-
gia, he acquired the name by which he
is best known. He studied under Ver-
rocchio, and soon attained great dis-
tinction as a painter in. oil by hig
rich coloring. He was employed for
10 years in the Sistine Chapel and the
Stanze of the Vatican, and on his re-
turn to Perugia opened a school, and
had Raphael among his pupils. Peru-
gino was a sordid and eccentric man;
adhered obstinately to the stiff con-
ventional forms of the 15th century,
and in his latter years produced many
works, unworthy of him, for gain. His
best work is the " Pieta," in the Pitti
Palace. He died in 1524.
Peruvian Balsam, in botany and
commerce, the balsaM flowing from
incisions in the trunk of Myroxylon
pereirae. It is a thick, viscid, almost
opaque, balsam, like molasses, with a
reddish hue, and translucent, when
in thin layers; its odor fragrant, its
taste acrid, but aromatic. It is
brought from San Salvador, in South
America.
Peruvian Bark
Peter
Peruvian Bark. See BABK PEBU-
VIAN.
Peruzzi, Baldassari, architect
and painter of the Roman school ; born
at Sienna, 1481 ; died at Rome 1537.
He went early to Rome and was em-
ployed in the decoration of various
churches. He designed the Farnesina
Villa on the banks of the Tiber, and he
succeeded Raphael as architect of St.
Peter's. After the sack of Rome he
returned to Sienna, where he was
made city architect. In 1535 he was
again in Rome, and henceforward de-
voted himself entirely to architecture.
His best existing works in fresco are
at Sienna.
Pesaro (ancient, Pisaurum), a
fortified town and seaport of Italy,
province of Pesaro e Urbino, near the
mouth of the Foglia, in the Adriatic.
It is the see of a bishop. The harbor,
formed by the mouth of the Foglia,
has become shallow ; but the trade in
the wine, fruit (particularly figs), oil,
silk, and other products of the district
is considerable. The illustrious com-
poser Rossini was born here in 1792.
Pop. of town, 13,609. The province
of Pesaro e Urbino has an area of
1,144 square miles. Pop. 233,155.
Pescherais, a tribe of Indians, in-
habiting Tierra del Fuego, and both
borders of the Straits of Magellan,
from the island of Elizabeth and Port
Famine, toward the E. as far as the
group of islands which spread out to
the N. and S. of the Straits of Magel-
lan. Their complexion is olive, and
they have huge forms and large chests,
though otherwise well formed. They
are a nomadic people, and only sub-
sist by the chase and fishing.
Pescliito, or Peshito, the old Syr-
iac version' of the Scriptures, made
probably about 200 A. D. The Old
Testament, as well as the New, seems
to have been translated by one or
more Christians, not by Jews. The
former was made apparently from the
Hebrew, the latter from the Greek.
The Second and Third Epistles of
John, Second Epistle of Peter, Jude,
and the Revelation are wanting. The
apocryphal books were not in the orig-
inal edition, but they were added at
an early date. The Peschito is of
great value for critical purposes.
Peseta, the Spanish money unit,
equivalent to a franc.
Peso, a silver coin and money of
account used in Mexico and other
parts of Spanish America, and often
considered equivalent to a dollar.
Pessimism, that mental attitude
which induces one to give prepondera-
ting importance to the evils and sor-
rows of existence ; the habit of taking
a gloomy view of things.
Pestalozzi, Jonann Heinrich, a
Swiss philanthropist and educational
reformer ; born in 1746 ; first studied
theology, then law ; and subsequently
became concerned in a calico manu-
factory. Afterward he devoted his
time and substance to training chil-
dren whom he collected in large num-
bers in his own house, and this good
work he carried on for over 20 years
without outside aid or e%'en sympathy.
The want of means at last compelled
him to abandon his gratuitous insti-
tution, and to seek pupils who could
pay for their maintenance and in-
struction. After a few years' suc-
cessful teaching in various places he
opened a school in the Castle of Yver-
dun (canton Vaud), which the govern-
ment had placed at his disposal. His
novel "Lienhardt and Gertrud" exert-
ed a powerful moral influence, while
his educational treatises have laid the
foundation for the more rational sys-
tem of elementary instruction which
now obtains in America and Europe.
He died in 1827.
Peter, the Greek surname of an
apostle of Jesus. It is the rendering
of the East Aramsean kepha, a cor-
ruption or derivation from Heb. keph
~ a rock, and was given by Jesus.
Transliterated into Greek, with a ter-
mination, it became Kephas. ' Peter's
real name was Simon, his father's Jo-
nas, his brother's Andrew. Peter was
of an impulsive temperament, gener-
ous, but too forward in speech, and
rash in action. After the Ascension,
he was for a time the most prominent
of the apostles, and though specially
sent to the Jews, yet had the privilege
of being the first to admit Gentiles in-
to the Church. Afterward he was
somewhat cast into the shade by the
eminence of St. Paul and on one oc-
casion dissembling his liberal views
when in narrow Judaic company, was
Peter
withstood by St. Paul to the face
" because he was to be blamed " (Gal.
ii : 11). Tradition makes him die as
a martyr at Rome, about A. D. 64,
crucified with his head downward.
Roman Catholics claim him as the first
Bishop of Rome, and consider that
the authority delegated him by Jesus
appertains also to his successors, the
Popes of Rome.
The First Epistle General of Peter,
an epistle which claims to have been
written by the Apostle Peter, appar-
ently from Babylon, " to the strangers
scattered throughout Pontus, Gala-
tia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia,"
all places in Asia Minor. These
strangers were obviously Christian
converts, the majority apparently Gen-
tiles. There is strong evidence for its
authenticity, which has rarely been
doubted.
The Second Epistle of Peter, anoth-
er epistle claiming to have been penned
by the Apostle, the author also refer-
ring to the transfiguration scene as
one which he personally witnessed,
and to a previous epistle. In this sec-
ond letter he seeks to establish Chris-
tians in the faith, warns them against
false teachers, and predicts the gen-
eral conflagration of the world. Its
style is different from that of the first.
The evidence for its authenticity is
much less strong than that for the
first epistle. Clement of Alexandria
seems to have known it. It is not in
the Peschito ; Cyprian ignored it ; Ori-
gen and Eusebius placed it among the
controverted writings, but it gradual-
ly obtained acceptance before the close
of the 4th century.
Peter .Alexeievitch, usually
styled Peter the Great, Czar of Rus-
sia ; born in 1672; and in 1689 he
obtained the sole authority, on the
retirement of his brother Ivan, with
whom he had been before associated
in the government of the empire. Aft-
er having suppressed a conspiracy of
the Strelitz against his life, in which
he displayed much personal courage, he
traveled hi foreign countries, not
in the character of czar, but as a
member of an embassy. At Amster-
dam he worked, incognito, in a ship-
yard, and in the village of Saardam,
where he caused himself to be enrolled
among the workmen, under the name
of Peter Michaeloff. Here he lived in
Peter
a little hut for seven weeks, made hia
own bed, and prepared his own food,
corresponded with his ministers at
home, and labored at the same time
in shipbuilding. Induced by his love
for the sea, to accept the invitation of
William III. to visit London, he spent
some weeks there, keenly observing
and learning all that he could of trade,
manufactures and the arts. Having
proceeded to Vienna, he there received
intelligence of a new rebellion of the
Strelitz, on which he returned home,
crushed the insurrection, and visited
the rebels with fearful severity. In
1700 he entered upon a war with Swe-
den, which lasted till 1721. He was
defeated by his great rival, Charles
XII., at the battle of Nar?a, and the
war west on with various results till
1709, when he completely defeated
Charles at Pultowa. In the following
year the Sultan declared war on him,
and he narrowly escaped capture by
the Turks in the campaign of 1711.
This war ended in 1713. Not satis-
fied with his immense power as czar,
Peter had "suppressed the patriarchate,
and made himself head of the Church
as well as of the State. In 1703 he
founded St. Petersburg, and began the
fortifications of Cronstadt. Three
years later he privately married Cath-
erine, a girl of low origin and immoral
character ; married her publicly in
1710, and had her crowned in 1722.
Peter extended the limits of the em-
pire both in Europe and Asia ; changed
the face of Russia by his zealous pro-
motion of trade, navigation, manufac-
tures, and education ; effected an im-
mense change in the manners and cus-
toms of the Russians ; and after the
conclusion of peace with Sweden, re-
ceived the title of Emjlfcror of all the
Russias, and Father of his Country.
Reforming others, he failed to reform
himself, but remained to the last an
ignorant, coarse, brutal savage, in-
dulging in the lowest vices, and gloat-
ing over scenes of cruel suffering. He
would sometimes put his victims to
the torture, play judge and execution-
er, too, and, drunk with wine, strike
off 20 heads in succession, proud of
his horrid dexterity. His state policy
has been adhered to by his succes-
sors. Peter I. died in St. Peters-
burg, after very severe suffering, Jan.
28, 1725.
Peter
Peter the Hermit
Peter III., Emperor of Russia ; the
son of Anne, eldest daughter of Peter
the Great ; born in 1728, and succeeded
Elizabeth in 1761. He married the
Princess Sophia Augusta of Anhalt,
whose name he changed to Catherine,
and, being inspired with grand and
martial thoughts, attempted to gov-
ern his empire on the model of Fred-
erick the Great ; but, wanting capac-
ity, energy, and courage, he signally
failed in all his schemes. His em-
press, being apprised of his intention
of divorcing "her, anticipated his de-
sign, took him prisoner, and com-
pelled him to sign an abdication.
After this, being sent to a fortress,
he there perished, being muriered,
it is understood, by Orloff in 1762.
Peterboro, city and capital of
Peterboro county, Ontario, Canada;
on the Otonabee river and Grand
Trunk and Canadian Pacific rail-
roads; 76 miles N. E. of Toronto; is
the trade center of an important
farming section; has what is said to
be the largest hydraulic -lift canal
lock in the world; and is chiefly en-
gaged in manufacturing.
Peter Karageorgevitch I., King
of Servia; born in Belgrade, June 29
(O. S.), 1844; son of Alexander
Karageorgevitch and grandson of the
famous George Czerny, surnamed
Karageorge, or Black George; mar-
ried Princess Zorka, of Montenegro,
July 30 (O. S.), 1883; succeeded to
the throne on the assassination of
King Alexander I and Queen Draga,
June 2 (O. S.), 1903; heir to the
throne, Prince Alexander.
Peter Martyr Anglerins, born in
'Arena, Spain^Jj.459 ; died in Granada,
1525. Was bishop of Jamaica, and
wrote "The New World" in 1516,
giving the first account of the dis-
covery of America.
Peters, Samuel Andrew, an
American author; born in Hebron,
Conn., in 1735 ; was ordained a min-
ister in the Church of England at
Part^ord in 1760. In 1774 he sailed
to England to escape persecution on
account of his toryism, and in 1781
published the satirical " General His-
tory of Connecticut," which gave rise
to the misconception as to " Blue
Laws," which were in the brain of
Peters instead of having ever been
on the statute books qf Connecticut.
He died in New York in 1826.
Petersburg, a city and port of
entry of Dinwiddie co., Va. ; on the
S. bank of the Appomattox river. The
so-called siege of Petersburg lasted
from June 16, 1864, to April 2, 1865 ;
and during its continuance 13 pitched
battles were fought in the neighbor-
hood. The intrenchments of Lee and
Grant still form conspicuous features
in the landscape. One. of the best-
known engagements was that of the
old .crater, to the E. of the city, on
Griffith's farm, where there is a war
museum. Pop. (1910) 24,127.
Peterson, Charles Jacobs, an
American publisher ; born in Philadel-
phia, in 1818 ; was the founder of
" Peterson's Magazine," and the au-
thor of several popular novels. He
died in Philadelphia, in 1887.
Peter's Pence, a voluntary contri-
bution raised among Catholics, and
sent to the Pope for his private use.
Before the Reformation it was in Eng-
land a legally collected tax. The name
arose from its being collected on St.
Peter's day.
Peter the Hermit, a French
gentleman of Amiens, in Picardy, who
renounced a military life to embrace
that of a pilgrim. At the end of the
llth century, a general alarm was
spread that the last day was approach-
ing ; on which numbers of persons
flocked to the Holy Land from all
countries with a view of ending their
days near the holy sepulcher. Peter
was of the number, and on his return
to Europe made so pathetic a repre-
sentation of the state of the Christians
in Palestine to Pope Urban II., that
he gave Peter leave to preach up the
necessity of a crusade throughout
Christendom. The appearance, zeal,
and eloquence of the hermit, produced
a prodigious effect, and all ranks and
ages, of both sexes, pressed eagerly
into the service. With a motley army,
estimated at 100,000 men, Peter passed
through Hungary. In his absence, his
followers attacked Solyman's army at
Nicea, and all, except a few thou-
sands, perished, " and," says Gibbon,
" a pyramid of bones informed their
companions of the place of their de-
feat." Peter remained in Palestine,
and was at the siege of Antioch in
Peter Parley
1097 ; but on his attempting to make
his escape, shortly afterward, was
brought back, and compelled to take
a new oath of fidelity and obedience
to the holy cause. Two years later
he was present at the siege of Jerusa-
lem, where he displayed great bravery,
and when the place _was taken,, was
made vicar-general. Peter died in
1115, at the abbey of Neufmoustier in
Liege, which he had founded.
Peter Parley. See GOODBICH.
Petit de Julleville, Louis, a
French historian; born in Paris, July
18, 1841. His principal work is " His-
tory of the Theater in France." It is
very full with regard to the old French
theater. He gives in " The Theater in
France" (1889) an account of the
evolution of the French drama down
to the present time. He also pub-
lished a " History of the French Lan-
guage and Literature."
Petition of Right, a declaration
of the rights of the people put forward
by the Parliament of England in the
third year of the reign of Charles I.,
and assented to by him. They are :
(1) That no man be compelled to pay
any moneys to the state without com-
mon consent by act of Parliament.
(2) That no person be imprisoned for
refusing the same, nor any freeman be
imprisoned without any cause shown,
to which he might make answer. (3)
That soldiers and mariners be not bil-
leted in the houses of the people. (4)
That commissions be no more issued
for punishing by the summary process
of martial law.
Petrarch, Francesco Petrarca,
an Italian poet ; born in Arezzo, Italy,
in 1304. In 1341 Petrarch received
the highest testimony of the renown
which he had acquired as poet and
scholar, by being crowned as laureate
in the Capitol in Rome, Petrarch was
at Rome during the Jubilee of 1350 ;
lived afterward at Vaucluse, Milan,
Padua, Venice, and, in 1370, removed
to Arqua, in the lovely Euganean
Hills. Petrarch's works are partly in
Italian and partly in Latin. The lat-
ter were those on which his reputa-
tion in his own day rested ; but the
former are those by which he is now
most known. His Italian " Sonnets,"
" Canzoni," and " Triumphs," all
sweet, exquisite, glowing variations on
one theme, " Laura," have placed him
E. 110.
Petri
as one of the most celebrated of poets.
He modelled the Italian sonnet, and
gave to it, and to other forms of lyr-
ical poetry, not only an admirable
polish of diction and melody, but a
delicacy of poetic feeling which: has
hardly ever been equaled. After long
continued ill health, he died sitting
among his books, July 18, 1374.
Petrel, a popular name for certain
small oceanic birds of dusky plumage,
nocturnal in habit, widely distributed
but most abundant in the Southern
STOKMY PETBEL.
Hemisphere. The term stormy petrel
is more exclusively applied to the
Thalassidroma pelagica, a bird which
seems to run in a remarkable manner
along the surface of the sea, where it
picks up its food. This species is well
known to sailors as Mother Carey's
chickens (q. v.), and their appearance
is supposed to foretell a storm.
Petri, Laurentius, a Swedish re-
former; born in Orebro, Sweden, in
1499; studied under Luther at Wit-
tenberg ; was made Professor of Theol-
ogy at Upsala, and in 1531 first Prot-
estant Archbishop of Upsala. Along
with his brother Olaus he was chiefly
instrumental in converting Sweden _to
the Reformed doctrines, and with him
superintended the translation of the
Bible into Swedish (1541), a work
that also helped to fix the language.
He died in 1573. His brother Olaus,
Petrifaction
born in Orebro in 1497, gained, a
few years after his return (1519)
from Wittenberg, the ear of Gustavus
Vasa, who called him to the capital to
preach the new doctrines, and even-
tually made him (1531) chancellor of
the kingdom. This post he resigned
in 1539, and spent the rest of his life
as first pastor of Stockholm. He was
a man of bold temperament, great ac-
tivity, and powerful eloquence, and
left several works, including memoirs,
a mystery play, hymns, and contro-
versial tracts. He died in Stockholm
in 1552.
Petrifaction, the act or process of
petrifying or changing into a stone ;
the state of being petrified ; conversion
of any organic matter, animal or vege-
table, into stone, or a substance of
stony hardness. A " petrifaction " is
not, strictly speaking, a transforma-
tion of the original animal or plant
into stone. It is merely a replacement
of the organic tissue by mineral sub-
stance. As each particle of the plant
or animal decays and disappears its
place is taken, usually in water or
mud, by a particle of mineral matter
deposited from the water which has
held it in suspension. Thus the perish-
able original is changed into imperish-
able stone, preserving its form and
even its structural appearance when
cut into.
Petrified City, Ishmonie, a ruined
city of Upper Egypt. Its popular
name arose from the fact that it con-
tains a vast number of statues of
human beings and animals in every
possible posture, and which, according
to a superstitious notion, were once
living beings miraculously changed
into stone.
Petroleum, earth oil, naphtha,
mineral oil, paraffin oil. A term ap-
plied to a variety of inflammable
liquids found naturally in many parts
of the earth and formed by the grad-
ual decomposition of vegetable matter
beneath the surface. These liquids
vary in color from a faint yellow to a
brownish-black, and in consistence
from a thin transparent oil to a fluid
as thick as treacle, and their sp. gr.
ranges from .7-1.1. They occur in
abundance in parts of the United
States and Canada. A light petroleum
oil is used all over the world for illu-
minating purposes, and a heavy oil for
Peyton
lubricating machinery. The total pro-
duction of crude petroleum in the
United States in 1908 was the largest
in its history, 179,572,479 barrels
(42 gallons), valued at $129,706,258;
and the production in 1859-1908
Avas 1,986,180,942 barrels, valued at
$1,784,583,943.
Petrology, the study of the miner-
alogical and chemical composition of
rocks; including the various changes
they have undergone through physi-
cal and chemical agencies.
Pettenkof er, Max von, a German
chemist ; born near Neuburg, Dec. 3,
1818; studied in Munich, Wurzburg,
and Giessen, and in 1847 became Pro-
fessor of Chemistry at Munich. He
made many valuable contributions to
science on subjects as various as gold-
refining, gas-making, ventilation, cloth-
ing, the influence of soils on health,
epidemics, and hygiene generally. His
"Hand-book of Hygiene" is his best
known work. Died 1901.
Petty, Sir William, an English
political economist ; born in Romsey,
Hampshire, May 26, 1623; was edu-
cated partly at Caen, partly at the
Universities of the Netherlands, and
at Paris. In political economy he
claims a place as one of the most im-
portant precursors of Adam Smith,
on the strength of his " Treatise on
Taxes and Contributions," and his
" Political Arithmetic," the latter a
discussion of the value of comparative
statistics. He died hi London, Dec.
16, 1687.
Petunia, a genus of American
herbaceous plants, nearly allied to to-
bacco. They are much prized by hor-
ticulturists for the beauty of their
flowers.
Pewter. The finer pewter is an
alloy of 12 parts tin, one part anti-
mony, and a small quantity of copper ;
the coarser, of 80 parts tin and 20 of
lead. The same ingredients as the finer
pewter, but in different proportions
(nine of tin to one of antimony) con-
stitute Britannia metal. Pewter is a
name also for a polishing material
used by marble workers and derived
from the calcination of tin.
Peyton, Jesse Eiilaws, an Ameri-
can patriot; born in Mayesville, Ky.,
Nov. 10, 1815. He assisted in the
liquidation of Henry Clay's debts;
Peyton
was a founder of the Constitutional
Union Party in 1800; was sent by
President Lincoln on a mission to
Kentucky to dissuade that State from
seceding ; and during the Civil War
organized at his own expense three
regimentc for the Union army. He
was instrumental in promoting the
centennial celebration of Independ-
ence Day, Bunker Hill Day, Yorktown
(Va.) Day, and of the inauguration
of American constitutional govern-
ment, and at the time of his death was
organizing an international celebra-
tion of ihe birth of Christ to be held
in Jerusalem in 1900. He died in
Haddonfield, N. J., April 28, 1897. H
was popularly known as " the father
of celebrations."
Peyton, John Lewis, an American
lawyer and author ; born in Staunton,
Va., Sept. 15, 1824; studied law at
the University of Virginia, and sub-
sequently practised in Chicago; in
1861 went to Europe as agent of the
Confederacy, and remained abroad till
1880. He published " The American
Crisis," etc. He died in 1896.
Pfennig, a small copper coin ot
various values, current in Germany
and in the neighboring States. The
value of the pfennig of the German
empire is the hundredth part of the
mark.
Pfleiderer, Otto, a German theo-
logian; born in Stettin, Wurtemberg,
Sept. 1, 1839. In 1875 he was called
to be Professor of Systematic Theology
at Berlin. He made his name as well
known in America as in Germany by
a series of works which no student
of philosophy or theology should
overlook. The chief are " Religion,
its Essence and History"; "Out-
lint of Christian Faith and Ethics";
" The Philosophy and Development
of Religion"; etc. He died in 1908.
His brother, EDMUND PFLEIDERER,
born in Stettin Oct. 12, 1842, studied
at Tubingen, and after a short ex-
perience as a pastor was made Pro-
fessor of Philosophy at Kiel in 1873.
whence he was called to Tubingen in
1878. His writings include studies on
Leibnitz, on Empiricism and Scepti-
cism in Hume's Philosophy, modern
Pessimism, etc.
Phaeton, in Greek mythology, ac-
cording to Ovid, a son of the sun, or
Phoebus. He asked and obtained from
Pharaoh
his father permission one day to drive
the chariot of the sun, but being un-
able to control the horses, Jupiter
struck him with a thunderbolt, and
hurled him headlong from heaven into
the river Po. Also an open carriage
like a chaise, on four wheels, and
drawn by two horses.
Phalanger, small woolly-coated
marsupials, with opposable great toes,
which are destitute of a nail. They are,
for the most part, vegetable feeders,
PHALANGER.
though some are insectivorous, and in
confinement any of them will readily
devour small birds or other animals.
Phalanx, in Greek antiquities, the
close order of battle in which the
heavy-armed troops of a Grecian army
were usually drawn up.
Phantasmagoria, an optical effect
produced by a magic lantern. The
glass is painted black on all parts
except that occupied by the figures,
which are painted in transparent
colors. The image is thrown on a
transparent screen placed between the
spectators and the lantern. By mov-
ing the instrument toward or from
the screen, the figures are made to
diminish or increase in size, which is
capable of producing startling effects.
Also, the apparatus by which such
effect is produced.
Pharaoh, the name borne in the
Bible by 10 kings of Egypt; the best
known of which are, the monarch to
whom Joseph explained his dream, and
who loaded him with honors ; he who
commenced the persecution of the
Hebrews, and who put to death all
Pharisees
the male children and who is identified
with Rameses II ; and he who was
denounced by Moses, and who was
subjected to the plagues and is identi-
fied with Meneptah I.
Pharisees, the most numerous of the
three divisions or orders of Judaism in
the time of Christ, the other two being
the Essenes and the Sadducees. They
were so called because they kept aloof
from Levitically impure food, separat
etl themselves nom people who disre-
garded the literal interpretation of the
Mosaic law, and were scrupulous in
their minute observance of the tithe.
The sect arose after the captivity and
became the straitest of the sects.
Pharmacy, or Pharmaceutics,
the art of preparing, compounding,
and combining substances for medical
purposes ; the art of the apothecary.
As these substances may be mineral,
vegetable, or animal, theoretical phar-
macy requires a knowledge of botany,
zoology, and mineralogy ; and as it is
necessary to determine their proper-
ties, and the laws of their composition
and decomposition, of chemistry also.
In a narrow sense pharmacy is merely
the art of compounding and mixing
drugs according to the prescription of
the physician.
Pharsalia, Battle of, the victory
B. c. 48, of Caesar with a much smaller
force, over Pompey (q. v.) at Pharsa-
lus, now Phersala, Tbessaly, Greece.
PHEASANT.
Pheasant, one of the most highly
prized game birds. The adult male
pheasant is a beautiful bird, about
three feet long. Head and neck deep
Phi Beta Kappa
steel-blue, shot with greenish-purple
and brown ; eye surrounded by a patch
of scarlet skin, speckled with blue-
black ; ear-coverts brown ; back a light
golden-red, the feathers of the upper
part tipped with velvet-black, of the
lower part marked with brown. Quill
feathers brown, of various shades, tail
feathers oaken-brown, barred with a
darker shade- and with black. Breast
and front of the abdomen golden-red
with purple reflections, feathers edged
with black ; rest of abdomen and un-
der tail-coverts blackish-brown. The
female has yellowish-brown plumage,
and is about two- feet in length. Such
'is the common pheasant. There are
several other species.
Phelps, Austin, an American
clergyman and author; born in West
Brookfield, Mass., Jan. 7, 1820. Ho
was pastor of the Pine Street Congre-
gational Church, Boston, in 1842-
1848; and Professor of Sacred Rhet-
oric in Andover Theological Seminary,
in 1848-1879. He was noted as an
original writer and an eloquent
preacher. He died in Bar Harbor, Me.,
Oct. 13, 1890.
Phelps, Edward John, an Ameri-
can diplomatist ; born in Middlebury,
Vt., July 11, 1822; was graduated at
Middlebury College in 1840; studied
at the Yale Law School ; was admit-
ted to the bar in 1843; and settled
in Burlington in 1845. In 1551 he was
appointed Comptroller of the Treas-
ary and remained in the office through
Fillmore's administration. In 1881
1885 he was Professor of Law in the
Yale Law School and also lecturer en
constitutional law in Boston Univer-
sity. He was minister to England in
1885-1889. During the Bering Sea
dispute he. was senior counsel for the
United States. He died in New Haven,
Conn., March 9, 1900.
Phi Beta Kappa, the oldest of the
American college Greek-letter societies.
It takes its name from the initial jet-
ters of its motto, said to be Philo-
sophia Biou Kubernetes, " Philosophy
is the guide of life." It was founded
in 1776 in the old " Raleigh Tavern "
at Williamsburgh, Va., by 44 under-
graduates of William and Mary Col-
lege, of whom John Marshall was one.
Branches were established at Yale in
1780 and at Harvard in 1781; and
today there are nearly a score in the
Phidias
Philadelphia
principal colleges and universities of
the Union. The Phi Beta Kappa is
now simply " an agreeable bond of
meeting among graduates " ; since
1831 its innocent mysteries have been
open secrets.
Phidias, the great Greek sculptor;
I born in Athens, probably between
490-480 B. c. He was one of the most
intimate friends of Pericles, under
whose rule he was appointed director
of all the great temples and monu-
ments which were to be erected in the
city. Of these the most important
were the Parthenon, or temple of
Athena, on. the Acropolis, and the
Propylaea. He executed a colossal
statue of the goddess for the interior
of the temple with his own hand. The
well-known Elgin Marbles of the Brit-
ish Museum were the sculptured dec-
orations of that unrivaled temple.
Phidias spent some years at Olympia,
and there he executed the most mag-
nificent of all his works the statue
of the Olympian Zeus. The prevailing
characteristic of the works of Phidias
appears to have been an ideal sublim-
ity of form which has never since
been equaled. According to the gen-
erally received account, he was thrown
into prison, and died there 432 B. C.
Philadelphia, a city coextensive
with Philadelphia co., Pa. ; on the
Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, 85
miles S. W. of New York. It is the
largest city of Pennsylvania and the
third largest in the United States;
area, 132 square miles: pop. (1900)
1.293,697; (1910) 1,549,008.
The city is built chiefly on a low
peninsula between the two rivers. It
extends N. and S. about 22 miles, and
is from 5 to 10 miles in width. There
is a water frontage on the Delaware
river of over 16 miles, of which more
than 5 miles have docks. The harbor
has been greatly improved by the re-
moval of the islands in the middle of
the river, and in front of the wharves
there is an average depth of 50 feet.
Among the attractions of the city
is Fairmount park, one of the larg-
est public parks in the world. It
extends more than 7 miles on both
banks of the Schuylkill river, and more
than 6 miles on both banks of Wis-
sahickon creek, giving it an area of
over 3,000 acres, traversed by 32%
miles of driveways. In 1876 the Cen-
tennial Exposition was held here.
Memorial Hall, erected at a cost of
$1,500,000, which was used for the
art gallery of the Exposition, now
contains a permanent industrial and
art collection. Here also is the Hor-
ticultural Building filled with tropical
and other plants and surrounded by 35
acres of ground devoted to horticul-
ture.
In the heart of the city, at the inter-
section of Market and Broad streets,
stands the City Hall, on a piece of
ground which was formerly Penn
Square. This great structure, usually
called the Public Building, is said to
be the largest building in the United
States. It is built of white marble
and granite ; is 480^ feet long by 470
wide ; contains 520 rooms, and includ-
ing a court yard 200 feet square in
the center, covers an area of nearly
4% acres. The central tower rises to
a height of 547 feet, 3 inches, and is
surrounded by a colossal statue of
William Penn, 37 feet in height. The
total cost of the building was over
$20,000,000.
In its manufacturing products Phil-
adelphia ranks next to New York.
There are upward of 20,000 manufac-
turing establishments, with a combined
capital of about $400,000,000, and
nearly 300,000 employes. The com-
bined output amounts to more than
$000,000,000. The chief products are
locomotives, sugar and molasses, men's
clothing, foundry and machine shop
products, carpets and rugs, hosiery
and knit goods, woolen and cotton
goods, malt liquors, morocco, chem-
icals, packed meat, refined petroleum,
silk, and silk goods. The great
Cramp shipbuilding yards are on the
Delaware, just W. of the heart of the
city.
According to recent educational sta-
tistics, the children of school age aggre-
gated 250,630; the enrollment in the
public day schools was 179,156, and
in the private and parochial schools
(estimated) 78,210. There were 3,317
teachers ; 325 buildings used for school
purposes ; and public school property
valued at $12,087,516. The institutions
for higher education include the Will-
iam Penn Charter School, founded in
1689 ; the University of Pennsylvania,
and many others.
In September, 1681, a small party
of settlers, sent out by William Penn,
Philadelphia
Philip
arrived at the site of the present city,
and in the following summer the place
was laid out and named Philadelphia,
the " city of brotherly love." The city
was active in resisting British aggres-
sion in 1763-17G4. On Sept. 5, 1774,
the 1st Continental Congress met here,
and on May 10, 1775, the 2d. Col.
George Washington was appointed
General and Commander-in-Chief of
the American army in the State House
on June 15, 1775, Here also the Dec-
laration of Independence was adopted,
July 4, and proclaimed July 8, 1776.
The city was occupied by the British
from September, 1777, to June, 1778.
In the summer of 1787 delegates from
the various States met in the State
House, and framed the Constitution.
The great Centennial Exposition was
held here in 1876.
Philadelphia, The, a steel, twin-
screw protected cruiser of the United
States navy.
Philse, an island in the Nile, near
Assouan and S. of Syene, in Nubia,
largely submerged by the great Assouan
dam. It is a small granite rock,
fringed with rich verdure, about 1,200
feet long and 450 broad, almost cov-
ered with ancient buildings of great
architectural beauty and interest,
dating 1 from about B. O. 350.
Philemon, a member of the Colos-
sian church. The Epistle of Paul to
Philemon : An epistle of Paul, in con-
junction with Timothy, to Philemon,
whose runaway slave, Onesimus, had
come to Rome, and been converted by
the apostles, while the latter . was a
prisoner, and advanced in years. Its
genuineness is generally admitted.
Philip, one of the 12 apostles,
according to John's Gospel, " of Beth-
eaida, the city of Andrew and Peter,"
and who was called to follow Jesus
at Bethany. After the resurrection
he was present at the election of Mat-
thias to the apostleship, but is not
again mentioned. Philip the Evan-
gelist, often confounded with the
above, is first mentioned in Acts vi : 5.
He preached at Samaria, where Simon
Magus was one of his converts ; bap-
tized the Ethiopian eunuch ; and en-
tertained Paul and his companion on
their way to Jerusalem.
Philip II. of Macedonia, father
of Alexander the Great, and son of
Amynthas II. ; born 359 B. c. He be-
gan to reign after the death of his
brother, Perdiccas III., in 359. With
great ability, energy, and success, he
first secured the internal peace and
order of his kingdom, improved the
discipline of his army, and created the
famous phalanx, which contributed to
so many Macedonian victories. He
cherished vast schemes of conquest ;
aspired first to make himself master
of all the states of Greece, and then
to invade and conquer Persia. The
former was accomplished after a severe
and protracted struggle culminating in
the victory of Chseronea, over the
allied Athenians and Thebans, 338.
He soon after assembled a congress
at Corinth, and was named general of
the Confederate Greeks in the war to
be undertaken against Persia. But in
336 he was assassinated at JEgea, and
that war was reserved for his son.
Philip II. of France, surnamed
Augustus, son of Louis VII. and oi!
Alix, daughter of Thibault, Count of
Champagne ; born in 1165, succeeded
his father, 1180, accompanied Richard
Coeur de Lion to the Holy Land, 1190,
invaded Normandy during Richard's
captivity, 1193, confiscated the pos-
sessions of King John in France, after
the supposed murder of Arthur, 1203,
prepared to invade England at the in-
stance of the Pope, 1213, turned his
arms against Flanders, and gained
the celebrated battle of Bouvines,
1214, and died in 1223. Philip Augus-
tus was one of the ablest princes that
ever reigned in France, both as a
commander and an administrator.
Philip III., called the Hardy, the
son of Louis IX. and Margaret of
Provence. He was born in 1245, and
succeeded his father in 1270. The in-
vasion of Sicily by Peter of Aragon,
and the massacre of the French,
known as the " Sicilian Vespers,
caused him to make war against that
prince, in the course of which he died
in 1285.
Philip II. of Spain, son of the
emperor Charles V. and Elizabeth of
Portugal ; born in Valladolid, in 1527.
He married, in 1543, his cousin Mary
of Portugal, who became the mother
of Don Carlos, and died in 1545. In
1554 he received from his father the
kingdom of Naples, and the same year,
after troublesome negotiations, mar'
PMlip
riecf Mary, Queen of England. He
was disliked in England, and soon
departed. His father gave up to him
the Netherlands in October, 1555, and
the kingdom of Spain early in the fol-
lowing year. He declared war on
France, and induced Queen Mary to
join him ; won, by his troops under the
Duke of Savoy, the memorable victory
of St. Quentin over the French, in
1557, and was present in person at the
capture of the town, which followed.
He vowed never to witness another
battle, and he never did. He vowed
also to show his gratitude for his suc-
cess by building a monastery, which
he more than fulfilled in the magnifi-
cent Escurial. A second victory over
the French at Gravelines, in 1558, was
followed by rfce peace of Cateau-Cam-
bresis. Immediately on his return to
Spain, he began a terrible persecution
of " heretics," and was the pitiless
spectator at an auto-da-fe at which 40
persons perished at the stake.
The most momentous event of his
reign was the revolt of the Nether-
lands, first excited by his edict against
heretics, and his attempt to establish
the Inquisition there in 1565, and re-
sulting, after long years of war and
desolation, in the establishment of the
Dutch Republic. In 1565, he persecut-
ed the Christian Moors of Granada,
and provoked a revolt, which began
in 1569; and after the greatest atroc-
ities on both sides, ended by the flight
or submission of the Moors in 1571.
On the death of Henry, King of Por-
tugal, in 1580, Philip conquered that
country and annexed it to Spain. He
made immense preparations for an in-
vasion of England ; and in 1588. the
year after Drake's attack on Cadiz,
his great fleet, which he named " the
Invincible Armada," sailed from Lis-
bon ; but a great storm and contrary
winds damaged and threw it into dis-
order, and it was defeated by the Eng-
lish. Philip carried on intrigues in
France against Henry II. and Henry
IV. ; but his aim was defeated by the
conversion of the latter to the Roman
faith. He lived to see the failure of
his designs on the Netherlands, on
France, and on England. It was Philip
II. who removed the seat of govern-
ment from Toledo, and made Madrid
the capital of Spain. He died at the
Eecurial, after severe suffering, the
Pliilippian
fruit of his debaucheries, Sept. 13,
1598.
Philip, sachem of the Wampanoag
tribe of Indians, was the second son
of Massasoit, who for nearly 40 years
had been the first and staunchest ally
of the Pilgrim settlers of Plymouth,
and had obtained English names for
his two sons. In 1661 Philip succeed-
ed his brother, and formally renewed
the treaties of his father, which he
kept for some years. By 1671, however,
goaded by the encroachments of the
whites he had formed a confederation
of tribes aggregating nearly 10,000
warriors ; and in 1675 what is known
as King Philip's War broke out. Aug.
12, 1676, at midnight, Philip and his
followers were surprised by Capt.
Benjamin Church. Philip was slain
and his head cut off. Afterward his
body was drawn and quartered, and
the head was exposed on a gibbet at
Plymouth.
Philip, John Woodward, an
American naval ofBcer; born in New
York city, Aug. 26, 1840. He entered
the naval academy in 1856, was made
midshipman in 1861, and served dur-
ing the Civil War on the " Chippewa,"
the monitor "Montauk" and other ves-
sels. He was commissioned captain in
1899, and was the inspector of the
" New York " during construction.
During the war with Spain he com-
manded the battleship " Texas," which
took an active part in the capture of
the Spanish fleet under Cervera, at
Santiago de Cuba, Jul? 3, 1898. He
was promoted to rear-admiral and
made commandant of the Brooklyn
Navy Yard, N. Y. Died 1900.
Philipena or Filopena. See
FlLLIPEEN.
Philippi, a city of Macedonia;
named after Philip II. of Macedon,
who enlarged it because of the gold
mines in its neighborhood. It is fa-
mous on account of the two battles
fought in 42 B. c. between Antony and
Octavianus on the one side and the re-
publicans under Brutus and Cassius
on the other, in the second of which
the republic finally perished. The
apostle Paul founded a Christian
church here, to which one of his epis-
tles is addressed.
PMlippian, of or pertaining to
Philippi or its inhabitants ; also a na-
Philippine Islands
Philippine Islands
tive or inhabitant of Philippi. The
Epistle of Paul the apostle to the
Philippians, an epistle addressed by
St. Paul, in conjunction with Tim-
othy, " to all the saints in Christ
Jesus which are at Philippi, with the
bishop and deacons."
Philippine Islands, an archipel-
ago in the Pacific Ocean ; extending
almost due N. and S. from Formosa
to Borneo and the Moluccas, compris-
ing more than 1,700 islands, of which
the two largest are Luzon and Min-
danao ; area, about 122,000 square
miles; pop. (1903) 7,635,426. The
archipelago was ceded by Spain to the
United States as a result of the war of
1898, the United States government
making a payment of $20,000,000 to
Spain, and subsequently $100,000 for
the cession of the islands of Cagayan
and Sibutu which were omitted in
the treaty of peace.
The following, taken from the of-
ficial report by Maj. Gen. Francis V.
Greene, U. S. V., sets forth the con-
ditions and interests of the islands at
the time of the American occupation :
44 These islands, including the La-
drones, Carolines, and Palaos, which
are all under the government of Ma-
nila, are variously estimated at from
1,200 to 1,800 in number. The greater
portion are small and are of no value.
The important islands are less than a
dozen in number.
The total population is somewhere
between 7,000,000 and 9,000,000. This
includes the wild tribes of the moun-
tains of Luzon and of the islands in
the extreme South.
In 1899 a census was taken by the
United States authorities, chiefly for
educational purposes, which showed a
total of 6,709,810. The "Official
Guide " gives a list of more than 30
different races, each speaking a dif-
ferent dialect, but five-sixths of the
Christian population are either Taga-
los or Visayas. The races are mostly of
the Malay type. Around Manila there
has been some mixture of Chinese
and Spanish blood with that of the
natives, resulting in the Mestizos, or
half-breeds, but the number of these
is not very great. As seen in the prov-
inces of Cavite and Manila, the na-
tives (Tagalos) are of small stature,
averaging probably 5 feet 4 inches in
height and 120 pounds in weight for,
the women. Their skin is coppery
brown, somewhat darker than that of
a mulatto. They seem to be indus-
trious and hard-working, though less
so than the Chinese. The bulk of the
population is engaged in agriculture.
The climate is one of the best
known in the tropics. The thermom-
eter during July and August rarely
went below 79 or above 85. The
extreme ranges in a year are said to
be 61 and 97. There are three well-
marked seasons temperate and dry
from November to February, hot and
dry from March to May, and tem-
perate and wet from June to October.
The total rainfall has been as high as
114 inches in one year. Yellow fever
appears to be unknown. The diseases
most fatal among the natives are
cholera and smallpox, both of which
are brought from China.
It is now generally known that the
Philippines have such minerals as
iron, gold, silver, copper, lead, granite,
petroleum, limestone, and quartz, and
that it is only a matter of time when
these minerals will be mined and put
into the commercial markets of the
world.
Gold is reported on Luzon, coal and
petroleum on Cebu and Iloilo and sul-
phur on Leyte. The imports of coal
in 1894 (the latest year for which
statistics have been printed) were
91,511 tons, and it came principally
from Australia and Japan. In the
same year the imports of iron of all
kinds were 9,632 tons. If the Cebu
coal proves to be of good quality,
there is a large market for it in com-
petition with coal from Japan and
Australia.
Though agriculture is the chier oc
cupation of the Philippines, yet only
one-ninth of the surface is under cul-
tivation. The soil is very fertile, and
even after deducting the mountainous
areas it is probable that the area of
cultivation can be very largely ex-
tended and that the islands can sup*
Sort a population equal to that of
apan (42,000,000). Lack of irriga-
tion prevents the development of ex-
tensive tracts that could by a little
enterprise be made very productive.
The chief products are rice, corn,
hemp, sugar, tobacco, cocoanuts, and
cacao. Coffee and cotton were for*
merly produced in large quantities
Philippine Islands
Philippine Islands
the former for export and the latter
for home consumption ; but the coffee
plant has been almost exterminated by
insects, and the home-made cotton
cloths have been driven out by the
competition of those imported from
England. The rice and corn are prin-
cipally produced in Luzon and Min-
doro and are consumed in the islands.
The rice crop is about 765,000 tons.
It is insufficient for the demand and
45,000 tons of rice were imported in
1894; also 8,669 tons (say 60,000
barrels) of flour, of which more than
two-thirds came from China and less
than one-third from the United States.
The cacao raised in the S. islands
amounts only to 150 tons, and is all
made into chocolate and consumed in
the islands.
The sugar cane is raised in the
Visayas. The crop yielded in 1894
about 235,000 tons of raw sugar, of
which one-tenth was consumed in the
islands, and the balance, or 210,000
tons, valued at $11,000,000, was ex-
ported, the greater part to China,
Great Britain, and Australia. The
hemp is produced in S. Luzon, Min-
doro, the Visayas, and Mindanao. It
is nearly all exported in bales. In
1894 the amount was 96,000 tons,
valued at $12,000,000. Tobacco is
raised in all the islands, but the best
quality and greatest amount in Luzon.
A large amount is consumed in the
islands, smoking being universal
among women as well as the men, but
the best quality is exported. The
amount in 1894 was 7,000 tons of leaf
tobacco, valued at $1,750,000. Spain
took 80 per cent, and Egypt 10 per
cent, of the leaf tobacco. Of the manu-
factured tobacco 70 per cent, goes to
China and Singapore, 10 per cent to
England, and 5 per cent, to Spain.
Cattle, goats, and sheep have been
introduced from Spain, but they are
not numerous. Domestic pigs and
chickens are seen everywhere in the
farming districts. The principal beast
of burden is the carabao, or water
buffalo, which is used for plowing rice
fields as well as drawing heavy loads
on sledges or on carts. Large horses
are almost unknown, but there are
great numbers of native ponies from 9
to 12 hands high, possessing strength
and endurance far beyond their size.
With the construction of railways
in the interior of Luzon an enormous
extension could be given to commerce,
nearly all of which would come to the
United States. Manila cigars of the
best quality are unknown in America.
They are but little inferior to the best
of Cuba and cost only one-third a
much. The coffee industry can be re-
vived and the sugar industry extended,,
mainly for consumption in the far
East. The mineral resources can be
explored with American energy, and
there is every reason to believe that
when this is done the deposits of coal,
iron, gold, and lead will be found very
valuable. On the other hand, we ought
to be able to secure the greater part
of the trade which now goes to Spain
in textile fabrics, and a considerable
portion of that with England in the
same goods and in iron, .
On Jan. 17, 1899, President Me-
Kinley appointed a commission con-
sisting of Jacob G. Schurman, Ad-
miral George Dewey, Maj.-Gen. Elwell
S. Otis, Col. Charles Denby, and Dean
S. Worcester, to report on the affairs
of the Philippine islands. The report
of this commission was sent to Con-
gress in February, 1900. It stated the
impossibility of withdrawing the pro-
tection and government of the United
States from the islands ; and recom-
mended the establishment of public
schools ; and, as far as possible, a civil
government to replace the military. It
also assured Congress of the willing-
ness of the representative body of the
population to accept the protection,
guidance, and authority of the United
States. On April 17, 1900, President
McKinley appointed a second commis-
sion, comprising William H. Taft,
Dean S. Worcester, Luke E. Wright,
Henry C. Ide, and Bernard Moses;
and in a message to the Secretary of
War denned the duties of the new
commission.
On Jan. 31, 1901, the second (known
as the Taft) commission enacted into
law a code of civil government for the
islands. It established a fair system
of taxes, laid the basis for a primary
school system, introduced a more exact
method for collecting revenues, and
created certain civil and judicial of-
ficers. On July 4, 1901, civil govern-
ment was inaugurated in the Philip-
pines. Judge Taft had been appointed
civil governor; Gen. Adna R. Chaffee
military governor ; sad the other four
JhlHpsog
members of the commission made heads
of the various civil departments.
On Dec. 18, 1901, the Taft Com-
mission submitted its annual report It
stated that the insurrection was con-
fined to five provinces, and that the
bulk of the population was law abiding.
The commission outlined a project
which in brief contemplated the con-
tinuance for two years of the existing
powers of the commission. Then it
advocated a representative govern-
ment to be formed composed of a civ-
il governor, a legislative council, and
a popular assembly, the powers of the
latter being closely limited so as to
prevent it from choking the govern-
ment in making the budget during fits
of passion or through inexperience.
The President of the United States
would, of course, reserve absolute veto
Eower. The Filipinos should also
ave the right to be represented be-
fore Congress and the executive gov-
ernment at Washington by two dele-
gates. A full account was given by
the commission of the organization of
the system of education which had
been going on vigorously under Dr.
F. W. Atkinson, the general super-
intendent. The English language was
the basis of all public instruction, and
nearly one thousand trained teachers
from the United States already had
been put to work in the towns and
cities of the pacified provinces. On
July 3, 1902, the President proclaimed
amnesty to all political prisoners in
the Philippines, and on July 6, Agui-
naldo was given his liberty.
By 1902 the United States had es-
tablished supreme and lower courts;
raised the police force to 6,000 men;
enrolled 150,000 children in public
schools with 1,000 American and 4,000
native teachers; spent millions on im-
proving roads and harbors; and had
$7.000,000 in the treasury.
Governor Taft left Manila in Dec.
1903, to accept a position in President
Roosevelt's cabinet, and was succeeded
by Gen. Wright. To Gov. Taft be-
longs the credit of gaining the confi-
dence of the Philippine people, and
of establishing civil government.
Philipson, David, an American
rabbi ; born in Wabash, Ind., Aug. 9,
1862; v/as graduated at the Univer-
sity of Cincinnati and at the Hebrew
Union College there in 1883, and be-
Phillips
came Professor of Homiletics in the
Hebrew Union College, and president
i of the Hebrew Sabbath School Union
of America. He is author of " The
Jew in English Fiction," " Old Euro-
: pean Jewries," " The Oldest Jewish
Congregation in the West," etc.
Philistines, an ancient people,
i of Shemitic origin. They lived on the
coast of the Mediterranean, to the
south-west of Judea. Nothing is known
of their first appearance in Palestine.
They were there in the time of Abra-
ham as is evident from Gen. 21 : 34.
That they had a king is mentioned
Gen. 26 : 8. In the time of Joshua,
they were subject to five princes.
Joshua was never able to expel them
and in the times of the Judges they
| became strong enough to bring Israel
! into subjection. Saul perished in a
i pitched battle with them, David con-
; quered them, but they revolted and
continued enemies of Israel.
Phillips, Adelaide, an American
singer ; born in Stratford-on-Avon,
England, in 1833. When seven years
old she was taken to Boston, Mass.,
which was her residence the remainder
of her life. Her voice was a fine con-
tralto. She made her debut Sept. 25,
1843, at the Boston Museum, as Lit-
| tie Pickle. In 1850, on the advice of
; Jenny Lind, she went to Paris and
i studied with Garcia. She sang in
opera in Milan in 1854, and in 1856
in New York, in "II Trovatore." She
appeared later in Paris in the same
role. She died in Carlsbad, Oct. 2,
1882. Her sister Mathilde was also a
contralto singer.
Phillips, John, English geologist ;
born 1800; died 1874. He was in-
structed in geology by his uncle, Wil-
liam Smith, "the father of English
geology ;" became professor of geology
in Dublin (1844), and in Oxford
(1856). Among his chief works are
a "Guide to Geology" (1834), and
"Life on the Earth" (1861).
Phillips, Stephen, English poet;
b. Somerton, near Oxford, July 28,
1868. Educated at grammar schools,
he became an actor, an army tutor,
then turned to literature, producing
" Paolo and Francesca," " Herod,"
" The Sin of David," etc.
Phillips, "Wendell, an American
orator and abolitionist; born in Bos-
Philology
ton, Mass., Nov. 29, 1811. He was
graduated at Harvard in 1831, studied
law there, and was called to the bar
in 1834. But before clients came he
had been drawn away from his pro-
fession to the real work of his life.
A timely speech in Faneuil Hall in
1837 made him at once the principal
orator of the anti-slavery party ; and
henceforth, till the President's procla-
mation of Jan. 1, 1863, he was Gar-
rison's loyal and valued ally, his lec-
tures and addresses doing more for
their cause than can well be estimat-
ed. He also championed the cause
of temperance, and that of women,
and advocated the rights of the In-
dians. In 1870 he was nominated gov-
ernor by the Prohibitionists and the
Labor Party. His speeches and let-
ters were collected in 1863 (new ed.
1884). He died in Boston, Mass., Feb.
2, 1884.
Philology, in a popular sense :
(1) Etymology, or the science of the
origin of words. (2) Grammar, or the
science of the construction of lan-
guage in general and of individual
languages. (3) Literary criticism, or
the investigation of merits and de-
merits in style and diction.
Pliilopoemen, called the last of
the Greeks, really their last great com-
mander. He was born in Arcadia,
253 B. c., becamle in 210, generalissimo
of the Achaian League, and conquered
the Spartans at which time he abol-
ished the laws of Lycurgus. The
greatest of his victories in this long
struggle was the battle of Mantinea.
He was put to death by poison when
a prisoner of the Messenians, 183 B. C.,
the same year that proved fatal to
Hannibal and Scipio.
Philosopher's Stone, an imagi-
nary stone sought for by the alche-
mists, which should transmute every-
thing it touched into gold.
Philosophy, a term said by Diog-
enes Laertius to have been suggest-
ed by Pythagoras, who, on being com-
plimented on his wisdom, said that he
was not wise but a lover of wisdom
(philos sophia) , the Deity, alone being
wise. Philosophy, while earnest in
amassing knowledge, aimed chiefly at
penetrating to the principles of things.
Popularly, it is divided into natural
and mental philosophy, the former in-
vestigating the physical laws of na-
Plioenici.i
ture, the latter those regulating the
human mind. The term philosophy
is now generally restricted to tbl
second of these.
Phips, or Phipps, Sir William,
governor of Massachusetts; born in
Pemrnaquid (Bristol), Me., Feb. 2,
1651. He was successively a shep-
herd, a carpenter, and a trader, and
in 1687 recovered from a wrecked
Spanish ship off the Bahamas bullion
plate, and treasure valued at $1,500,-
000; this gained him a knighthood
and the appointment of sheriff of New
England. In 1690 he captured Port
Royal (now Annapolis) in Nova Sco-
tia, but failed in the following year in
a naval attack on Quebec. In 1692,
through the influence of Increase Math-
er, he was appointed governor of
Massachusetts. He tolerated the witch
delusion and its accompanying trage-
dies until his own wife was menaced
by the witch hunters. He died Feb.
18, 1694, in London, England, whither
he had been summoned to answer cer-
tain charges of arbitrary conduct.
Phlebotomy, or Venesection, the
act of letting blood by opening a vein ;
a method of treatment formerly ap-
plied to almost all diseases, but now
chiefly confined to cases of general or
local plethora. Another mode of let-
ting blood is by cupping or by the ap-
plication of leeches. It has been one
of the processes of the medical pro-
fession from the earliest times.
Phoebus ("the Bright"), an epi-
thet, and -subsequently a name, of
Apollo. It had reference both to the
youthful beauty of the god and to the
radiance of the sun, when, latterly,
Apollo became identified with Helios,
the sun god.
Phoenicia, in ancient geography, in
the largest sense, a narrow strip of
country extending nearly the whole
length of the E. coast of the Mediter-
ranean Sea, from Antioch to the bor-
ders of Egypt. But Phoenicia proper
was included between the cities of Lao-
dicea, in Syria, and Tyre, comprehend-
ing mainly the territories of Tyre and
Sidon, and forming then only a part
of the country of Canaan. Some au-
thorities state that Agenor was the
first king of Phoenicia, 1497 B. c. ; but
all agree that the country itself was
the seat of a great nation, and re-
nowned for its naval enterprise at a
Phoenix
much earlier period. A colony of
Phoenicians, led by Elissa or Dido, set-
tled in Africa 878 B. c., and founded
Carthage.
Phoenix, or Phenix, in astronomy,
one of the constellations of the South-
ern Hemisphere, N. of the bright star
Achernar in Eridanus.
Phonetic, or Phonetical, repre-
senting sound ; pertaining to the repre-
sentation of sounds ; a term applied
to alphabetic or literal characters
which represent sounds, as a, b, c; as
opposed to ideographic, which repre-
sent objects or symbolize abstract
ideas, as in Egyptian hieroglyphics.
Phonetic spelling, a system of spelling
in which the words are spelled exact-
ly as they are pronounced, the sounds
being represented by characters each
of which represents a single sound.
Phonetic printing was first suggest-
ed by Isaac Pitman, of Bath, England,
and reduced to a system by him in
conjunction with A. J. Ellis, in the
years 1843-1846. Since that time
many schemes of phonetic spelling
have been proposed and several are
now in daily use by stenographers in
the United States.
Phonograph, a character used in
phonography ; a type or character
used for expressing a sound. Also
an instrument for recording and re-
producing sounds, invented by Thomas
A. Edison.
PHONOGRAPHIC EECOBD.
Phonography, a description of the
sounds uttered by the organs of speech.
Also the representation of sounds by
certain characters, each of which rep-
resents one sound, and always the
same sound. Its special application
is to alphabetical writing, in which
sounds or articulations are repre-
sented by signs or letters, as opposed
Phosphorus
to the system in which the representa-
tion is by ideas, symbols, or cioher.
Phosgene, the luminous impres-
sion produced by pressure on the eye-
ball. It usually appears as a lumi-
nous centre, surrounded by colored or
dark rings. Sometimes it seems to
consist of bright scintillations of vari-
ous forms. Similar appearances may
be observed at the moments of open-
ing or closing a strong electric cur-
rent transmitted through the eyeball.
Phosgene Gas, or Carbonyl
Chloride, colorless, pungent, suffo-
cating gas, formed by exposing equal
volumes of carbonic monoxide and
chlorine to the action of the sun,
when they combine and become con-
densed to one-half their joint volume.
Water decomposes it into carbonic
and hydrochloric acids.
Phosphate, in chemistry, the ge-
neric term for the salts formed by the
union of phosphoric anhydride with
bases or water or both. They hold a
leading part in the chemistry of ani-
mal and plant life, the most important
in this connection being the phosphate
of soda, phosphate of lime, and the
basic phosphate of magnesia. In ag-
riculture the adequate supply of phos-
phates to plants in the form of ma-
nures becomes a matter of necessity
in all deplenished soils.
Phosphorescence, the property
which many substances and organic
beings possess of emitting light under
certain conditions; also a phosphoric
light. The phosphorescence of trop-
ical, and to a large extent also of tem-
perate seas is attributed to a small in-
fusorial animalcule, aided by Medu-
sae, Tunicata, Annelids, etc. On land,
of insects, some milipedes, the female
glow-worm, and the fireflies, emit
light. In the glow-worm the light is
from the under side of the final seg-
ments of the abdomen. The phos-
phorescence of fish in a cupboard is
well known ; also of decaying animals
in marshes.
Phosphoric Acid, a tribasic acid
formed by the action of nitric acid
upon phosphorus, or by the hydration
of phosphoric anhydride. It is very
deliquescent, has an intensely sour
taste, and reddens litmus paper. It
is not poisonous.
Phosphorus, a non-metallic pentad
element ; found in a state of combina-
Photo-engraving;
Phylloxera
tion in the unstratified rocks, the soil,
the organism of plants, and the bodies
of animals. Discovered by Brandt in
1G69. Used on a very large scale in
the preparation of safety matches.
Photo-engraving, the prepara-
tion of printing blocks or plates by
photography.
Photography, the process of ob-
taining the representation of objects,
through the aperture, with or without
lenses, of a camera obscura (q. v. ), on
salts of silver contained in a gelatine
film spread on glass or celluloid, the
subsequent development and fixing of
the image, and the printing of copies,
completing the process. Its practical
invention dates from the successes of
Daguerre (q. v.), Niepce, and Talbot,
between 1814 and 1839; its great
modern development after the nitrate
of silver and wet collodion process per-
fected in 1850, had given way about
1880, to the bromide of silver and dry
gelatine emulsion on glass or cellu-
loid, discovered by Dr. L. Maddox in
1871. When the light strikes the
sensitized film in a camera, a chemical
change takes place in the salts, pro-
ducing a negative in which the lights
and shades are reversed to what they
are naturally. The image is latent or
invisible until developed, i. e., placed
in a liquid such as hydrokinine com-
bined with an alkali, which forms an
opaque compound with the part of the
Siilt affected by the light; the develop-
ed image is then fixed or made perma-
nent in a solution of hyposulphite of
soda, which dissolves the salt from
parts unaffected by light, and leaves
virtually a light or sun-engraved silver
plate from which positive copies are
printed by contact with sensitized
paper, and exposure to light.
The many forms of cameras, lenses,
shutters, films, plates, printing papers,
etc., and the applied uses of photogra-
phy are too numerous to be detailed.
One of its notable commercial develop-
ments is AMATEUB PHOTOGRAPHY,
which has had phenomenal and in-
creasing popularity since the advent
of the "dry-plate." COLOR PHOTOG-
KAPHY, or the reproduction by photog-
raphy of objects in their natural
colors, is a branch that has received
much scientific investigation and ex-
periment. The most successful at-
tempts hitherto, are those of Cros and
Charpentier of Paris, Prof. Joly of
Dublin, and McDonough of Chicago.
The general method is to make three
negatives through red, blue, and green
glass, on specially sensitized and de-
veloped plates, and print by superim-
position.
Photogravnre, a term applied to
methods of producing, by photography,
plates for printing in a copperplate
press.
Photoheliograph, an instrument
for photographing the sun.
Phrenology, the science or doc-
trine which teaches that a relation ex-
ists between the several faculties of
the human mind and particular por-
tions of the brain, the latter being the
organs through which the former act.
The localization of the several fac-
ulties was first attempted by Dr. Franz
Joseph Gall, who gained, in 1804, a
valuable coadjutor in Dr. Spurzheim.
When Spurzheim visited Edinburgh,
he met Mr. George Combe, who adopt-
ed his views, and in 1819 published
" Essays on Phrenology," ultimately
developed into his " System of Phre-
nology," which became very popular.
Gall enumerated nearly ,30, Spurzheim
35, mental faculties which he consid-
ered as primitive. These, Spurzheim
divides into moral, or affective, and
intellectual. The affective faculties
are subdivided into propensities pro-
ducing desires or inclination, and sen-
timents, which along with this excite
some hijher emotion. The intellectual
faculties are similarly divided into per-
ceptive and reflective. They are then
localized on the brain, or rather on
the skull. See BRAIN; SKULL.
Phrygia, in ancient geography, an
inland province of Asia Minor. It
was called Phrygia Pacatiana, and
also Phrygia Major, in distinction
from Phrygia Minor, which was a
small district of Mysia near the Hel-
lespont, occupied by some Phrygians
after the Trojan War. This region was
a high table-land, fruitful in corn and
wine and celebrated for its fine breed
of cattle and sheep.
Phylloxera, in entomology, a genus
of insects allied to the Aphis and Coc-
cus families. The Phylloxeridse at-
tach themselves to various plants, on
the juice of . which they feed, and
Which they often injure or destroy.
/P. vastatrix is the name given to an
insect of this family, which, since
1865, has committed great devastation
in the vineyards of France. Great
numbers of this insect appear on the
roots of the vine, where they produce
galls, and their punctures are so nu-
PHYLLOXERA INSECT.
merous and incessant that the roots
can no longer supply nutriment to the
plant, which fades and dies. There is
a form which lives on the leaves, also
producing galls.
Physician, one who is skilled in or
practises the art of healing ; one who,
being duly qualified, prescribes reme-
dies for diseases ; specifically one who
holds a certificate showing that he has
passed an examination before a com-
petent authority, such as the medical
colleges of the United States or the
State boards of medicine, authorizing
him to practise. Strictly speaking a
physician differs from a surgeon, in
that the former prescribes remedies for
diseases, while the latter performs op-
erations.
Physics, a study of the phenomena
presented by bodies. It treats of mat-
ter, force and motion ; gravitation and
molecular attraction, liquids, gases,
acoustics, heat, light, magnetism, and
electricity. It is called also natural
or mechanical philosophy. In its
broadest acceptance the term physics
includes chemistry; specifically it is
limited to those phenomena based on
the molecule as a unit, whereas the
unit of chemistry is the atom.
Plait
Physiognomy, the art or science
of judging of a person's nature or
character by his outward look, espe-
cially by his facial features and char-
acteristics. In the ordinary business
of life, all men are more or less influ-
enced by the belief that the character
and disposition of a person may, in
some measure, be judged of by his
physical appearance, and none have
more confidence in this way of judging
than those who have most occasion to
act on it.
Physiology, the science which
treats of the processes which go on in
the bodies of living beings under nor-
mal conditions, and of the use of their
various parts or organs. It is divided
into plant physiology, animal physiol-
ogy (according to whether plants or
animals are the subject of study) , and
human physiology (a branch of animal
physiology in its relation to man).
Phytology. See BOTANY.
Pianoforte, a musical instru-
ment, the sounds of which are pro-
duced by blows from hammers, acted
on by levers called keys. This is prob-
ably the most widely-known and gen-
erally-used musical instrument in the
world. The earliest form of piano-
forte, early in the 18th century, was
perhaps, in some respects, inferior to
a fine harpsichord, but it possessed the
elements of expansion, as now exhibit-
ed in a modern grand trichord pianb-
forte of more than seven octaves com-
pass, with every gradation of sound,
from pianissimo to a splendid fortissi-
mo, and the most sensitive and deli-
cate mechanism between the finger and
the hammer.
Piassaba, or Piassava, a strong
vegetable fiber imported from Brazil,
and largely used for making brooms.
It is chiefly obtained from palms.
Piaster, or Piastre, a coin of
various values. The gold piaster of
Turkey = 4.4c. ; the silver piaster =
4.35c. ; the Egyptian piaster = 4.9c. ;
the Spanish piaster is synonymous
with the United States dollar. The
old Italian piaster was equivalent to
about 89 cents.
Piatt, Bonn, an American jour-
nalist; born in Cincinnati, Ohio*
June 29. 1829, was secretary of le-
gation at Paris, and was for nearly a
year charge d'affaires ; during the Civil
Piatt
Ficlsens
War was assistant adjutant-general on
the staff of Gen. Robert C. Schenck ;
was one of the founders of the New
York " Sun " and afterward of the
Washington " Capital," which he ed-
ited for two years. He died in Cleve-
land, O., Nov. 12, 1891.
Fiatt, John James, an American
poet ; born in Milton, Ind., March 1,
1885. He entered journalism ; be-
came clerk of the United States Treas-
ury Department and of the House of
Representatives; and from 1882 to
1894, was consul at Cork, Ireland.
His works include : " Poems by Two
Friends," with W. D. Howells;
" Poems in Sunshine and Firelight " ;
" Idylls and Lyrics of the Ohio Val-
ley " ; etc.
Piatt, Sarah Morgan (Bryan),
an American poet, wife of John J. ;
born in Lexington, Ky., Aug. 11, 1836.
Her best-known works are : " A
Woman's Poems " ; "A Voyage to the
Fortunate Isles " ; " Dramatic Persons
and Moods " ; and " An Enchanted
Castle."
Piazza, a square open space sur-
rounded by buildings or colonnades ;
popularly, but improperly, applied to
an arcaded or colonnaded walk under
cover, and even to a veranda.
Pica, an alphabetical catalogue of
things and names in rolls and records ;
in medicine, a vitiated appetite, which
causes the person affected to crave
things unfit for food, as coal, chalk,
etc. ; in printing, a name given to a
size of type, 72 ems to the foot, or
6x6 to the square inch, It is the
standard of measurement in printing.
Piccini, Niccolo, an Italian musi-
cal composer ; born in Bari, Italy ? in
1728. He composed comic and serious
operas, chiefly for the stages of Rome
and Naples, with such success that for
many years he was without a rival in
Italy. He wrote over 150 operas, be-
sides numerous oratorios and can-
tatas. He died in Passy, France,
May 7, 1800.
Piccolo, a small flute, having the
same compass as the ordinary orches-
tral flute, but its sounds are one oc-
tave higher than the notes as they are
written ; called also an octave flute.
Piccolo-mini, a distinguished Sien-
nese family, still flourishing in Italy
in two branch***. The two most cele-
brated members are: (1) ^Eneas Syl-
vius Bartholomseus, afterward Pope
Pius II. (2) Octavio, a grand-neph-
ew of the first ; born in 1599, died in
Vienna in 1656. He served in the
armies of the German emperor, and
became one of the distinguished gener-
als in the Thirty Years' War. He
was a favorite of Wallenstein, who
entrusted him with a knowledge of
his projects, when he purposed to at-
tack the emperor. In spite of this he
made himself the chief instrumeat of
Wallenstein's overthrow, and after the
latter 's assassination (1634) was re-
warded with a portion of his estates.
Pice, a small East Indian coin,
value about three-quarters of a cent.
Pichegru, Charles, a French mili-
tary officer ; born in Arbois, France,
Feb. 16, 1761, of humble parents, but
receiving a good education under the
monks of his native town. Entering
the army he rose to be sergeant. The
revolution elevated him to the rank of
general, and, in 1794, he succeeded
General Hoche in the command of the
Army of the North. In 1797 he was
elected a member of the Legislative
body; but his opposition to the Direct-
ory, and his speeches in favor c c the
royalist emigrants, occasioned an accu-
sation against him as designing to re-
store royalty. He was ordered with-
out trial to be transported to Cayenne,
whence he escaped to England, where
he remained till the spring of 1804;
he returned to Paris, was again appre-
hended and sent to the Temple, where
he was found strangled in his bed,
April 5, 1804.
Pickens, Andrew, an American
military officer ; born in Paxton, Pa.,
Sept. 13, 1739, of Huguenot ancestry.
In 1752 he removed to South Caro-
lina; was engaged in the expedition
against the Cherokees in 1761. Dur-
ing the Revolution he was promoted
Brigadier-General; took part in the
defense of South Carolina against the
British. He served in Congress from
1793 to 1795; and made treaties with
the Indians. He died in Tomassee,
S. C., Aug. 17, 1817.
Pickens, Israel, an American poli-
tician ; born in North Carolina, in
1780. He was a Democratic member
of Congress from North Carolina in
1811-1817; governor of Alabama in
1821-1825 ; and became United States
Pickens
Pickett
Senator in 1826. He died near Ma-
tanzas, Cuba, in 1827.
Pickens, Fort, a fort on Santa
Rosa Island, Pensacola harbor, held
by a small Union force under Lieut.
A. J. Slemmer at the beginning of the
Civil War. It refused to surrender
when besieged by the Confederates in
1861, and was held till reinforced.
Pickerel, a small pike, a young
pike. The term is applied to several
species of fishes belonging to the pike
family.
Pickering, Charles, an American
physician, grandson of Timothy ; born
in Susquehanna co., Pa., Nov. 10,
1805. He traveled extensively, and
published the volumes : " The Races
of Man and their Geographical Dis-
tribution " ; " Geographical Distribu-
tion of Animals and Man " ; "Chrono-
logical History of Plants." He died
In Boston, March 18, 1878.
Pickering, Edward Charles, an
American astronomer, great-grandson
of Timothy Pickering ; born in Boston,
Mass., July 19, 1846; was graduated
at Harvard in 1865; Professor of As-
tronomy and Geodesy, and Director
of the Observatory at Harvard after
187<. On July 21, 1901, he photo-
graphed the spectrum of lightning,
from the study of which he developed
a revolutionary scientific theory of the
compound nature of the so-called
chemical elements.
Pickering, John, an American
ghilologist, son of Timothy ; born in
alem, Mass., Feb. 7, 1777. He held
many important public positions; was
president of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, and a member of
various learned associations at home
and abroad. He published a paper on
the " Adoption of a Uniform Orthog-
raphy for the Indian Languages " ; a
" Vocabulary of Words and Phrases
Peculiar to the United States " ; etc. ;
and wrote many pamphlets on scien-
tific and political questions. He died
in Boston, May 5, 1846.
Pickering, Timothy, an Ameri-
can statesman ; born in Salem, Mass.,
July 17, 1745 ; was graduated at Har-
vard in 1763, and admitted to the bar
in 1768. He participated in the bat-
tle of Lexington ; in 1776 joined the
Continental army in command of 700
men; was soon appointed adjutant-
general by Washington ; in 1780 was
selected for the post of quartermaster
of the army, and from that time till
the close of the war conducted his de-
partment with great skill. Shortly
after his resignation, he united with
Patrick Henry and Alexander Hamil-
ton in opposing the measure that drove
the Tories from the country. He ne-
gotiated a treaty between the United
States and the Six Nations in 1791,
and a month later was appointed Post-
master-General. He was Secretary of
State under Presidents Washington
and Adams, but was dismissed during
the " X. Y. Z." papers dispute in
1800. He retired from politics for a
time, but was elected to the United
States Senate in 1804, and from that
time continued actively in politics. He
died in Salom, Jan. 29, 1829.
Pickering, William Henry, an*
American astronomer ; born in Bos-
ton, Mass., Feb. 15, 1858; brother of
Edward Charles Pickering ; was grad'
uated at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology in 1879; became assist-
ant professor at the Harvard Observ-
atory; and conducted several expedi-
tions to observe the total solar
eclipses in different parts of the West-
ern Hemisphere in 1878-1893. He es-
tablished astronomical stations in.
Southern California in 1889 ; at Are-
quipa, Peru, in 1891 ; and at Mande-
ville, Jamaica, W. I., in 1900. He has
climbed over 100 mountain peaks.
Picket, a stake with a sharpened
end, used in laying off ground for
fortifications. Also a stake sharpened
at both ends; one driven into the
ground and the other acting as an ob-
stacle to tLe advance of the enemy.
Also a guard posted in front of an
army to give notice of the approach of
the enemy.
Pickett, George Edward, an
American military officer; born in
Richmond, Va., Jan. 25, 1825 ; was
graduated at the United States Mili-
tary t Academy in 1846; served in the
Mexican W r ar as lieutenant and was
made captain in 1855. In T861 he left
the United States service and entered
the Confederate army. He was com-
missioned Brigadier-General and was
distinguished throughout the war for
bravery and activity. In 1862 he was
made Major-General. He took a prom-
inent part in the battles of Fredericks-
Pickles
Pierce
burg, Gettysburg (where his division
made the famous " Pickett's charge ")
Petersburg, and Five Forks. He died
in Norfolk, Va., July 30, 1875.
Pickles, a term generally applied
to vegetables preserved in vinegar,
with or without spices ; though the
term " pickled " applies to animal food
preserved in salt. The vegetables
most often pickled are cabbage, cauli-
flower, gherkins (young cucumbers),
French beans, onions, walnuts, mush-
rooms, and nasturtiums. Chile pep-
pers and sweet peppers, olives, and
capers are the most common kinds of
imported pickles and mangoes are oc-
casionally used.
Picquart, George, a French mill-
tary officer ; born in Strassburg in
1854; was educated at St. Cyr, 1872-
1874, and at the General Staff School
in 1874-1876, gaining high places at
the examinations in both schools. In
1896 he was given the rank of lieuten-
ant-colonel, but then he began his in-
quiries into the Dreyfus case, moved
thereto by certain discoveries which he
made as to Major Esterhazy. In this
he was at first encouraged by his of-
ficial superiors, but afterward discour-
aged, and in January, 1897, he was
sent in disgrace to Tunis. He return-
ed to take a prominent part in the in-
quiries and legal proceedings which
took place in the winter of 1897 and
during 1898, and his evidence formed
the strongest proof of the illegality of
the trial at which Dreyfus was con-
demned, and of the astounding meth-
ods employed by the War Office to hush
up the affair. In February, 1898, he
was placed on the retired list, and
afterward prosecuted on a charge of
revealing War Office secrets, and im-
prisoned. He vindicated Dreyfus (q.
v.), was promoted Brigadier-General,
and, 190G, French Minister of War.
Ficton, Sir Thomas, a British
military officer ; born in Poyston, Pem-
brokeshire, England, in August, 1758.
He entered the army in 1772. In
1794 he went out to the West Indies;
took part in the conquest of several of
the islands, including Trinidad, and
was appointed (1797) governor of the
last named, being shortly afterward
promoted general. There he plotted
for the overthrow of Spanish rule in
South America. Later he was with
Wellington, fought at Quatre Bras,
B. 117.
and at Waterloo fell leading his men
to the charge, June 18, 1815.
Pidgin, Charles Feltcn, an
American statistician; born in Rox-
bury, Mass., Nov. 1, 1844. He in-
vented many machines for the mechan-
ical tabulation of statistics, among:
them the electric adding and multiply-
ing machine, addition register, and
typewriter tabulator. He has writ-
ten novels and musical compositions.
Pierce, Franklin, an American
statesman, 14th President of the
United States ; born in Hillsboro, N.
H., Nov. 23, 1804. He was educated
in the schools of his native State and
at Bowdoin College, where he studied
in company with Longfellow, Haw-
thorne, and Prentiss, graduating in.
1824. In 1833 he entered Congress,
serving four years, and in 1837 was
elected to the United States Senate*
being the youngest member of that
body, that contained such men as
Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, Bu-
chanan, and Silas Wright. In 1842
he resigned from the Senate and re-
tired to private life, declining several
public offices tendered him. In 1846
he enlisted for the Mexican War, was
appointed brigadier in the volunteer
army, and led his brigade in the bat-
tles of Contreras and Churubusco. la
1852 he was nominated for the presi-
dency on the 49th ballot, by the Demo-
cratic National Convention, and was
elected by an electoral majority over
General Scott of 254 to 42. During:
his administration the Missouri Com-
promise was repealed, a reciprocity
treaty for trade with the British
American colonies was made ; a treaty
with Japan was established; and th
Mexican boundary disputes settled.
After his term expired, failing of a re-
nomination, he traveled abroad for
three years, and, returning, lived there-
after in retirement at Concord, where
he died, Oct. 8, 1869.
Pierce, Henry Niles, an American
clergyman ; born in Pawtucket, R. L,
Oct 19, 1820. He spent many years
in the West as a missionary, and was
consecrated Protestant Episcopal
Bishop of Arkansas in 1870, being the
first incumbent and holding the office
for 25 years. He published many es-
says, sermons, and reviews ; and a
volumo of poems, etc. He died Sept.
5,1899.
Pierpont, Francis Harrison, an
American statesman \ born in Monon-
galia co., Va. (now W. Va.), in 1815.
At the beginning of the Civil War he
became governor of the counties of
Virginia that remained loyal to the
Union, and were organized as the State
of West Virginia in 18G1 ; was then
governor of all the loyal counties in
Eastern Virginia ; and from June,
1863, till May, 1865, was chief execu-
tive of the present Virginia. He died
in Pittsburg, Pa., March 24, 1899.
Pierrepont, Edwards, an Ameri-
can diplomatist ; born in North
Haven, Conn., March 4, 1817; was
graduated at Yale in 1837, and at its
Law School in 1840; became a mem-
ber of the Ohio bar, and after five
years removed to New York city. He
was elected a judge of the Super'or
Court of New York in 1857. In 1875
he became attorney-general of the
United States in Grant's administra-
tion ; and in the following year was
appointed United States minister to
Great Britain. He tried many fa-
mous cases during his professional ca-
reer, and was noted as an orator. He
died in New York city, March 6, 1892.
Pigeon English, the dialect used
by English and American residents in
China in their dealings with the native
traders. It is a conglomeration of
English and Portuguese words in Chi-
nese idiom.
Pig Iron, iron in oblong masses, or
" pigs," as turned out by the smelting
furnace. The production in the
United States in the calendar year
1907 was the largest on record, 25,-
781,361 long tons, valued at $529,-
958,000, and the world's production
was 60,680,014 metric tons. The
available iron-ore supply of the
United States was estimated at 4,-
478,150,000 long tons; the unavail-
able 75,116,070,000.
Pigments, materials used for im-
parting color, especially in painting,
but also in dyeing or otherwise.
Pika, the calling hare, an animal
nearly allied to the hares. It is found
in North America, Russia, and Si-
beria, and is remarkable for the man-
ner in which it stores up its winter
provision, and also for its voice, the
tone of which so much resembles that
of a quail as to be often mistaken
for it
Pike, a military weapon, consisting
of a narrow, elongated lance-head
fixed to a pole or a simple spike of
metal. The end of the staff had also
a spike for insertion in the ground,
thus allowing a musketeer to keep off
the approach of cavalry while attend-
ing to his other arms. It is now su-
perseded by the bayonet. Also, a fish,
the common pike. It is one of the
larger fresh-water fishes, sometimes at-
taining a length of five or six feet, and
much esteemed for food.
Pike, Albert, an American writer ;
born in Boston, Mass., Dec. 29, 1809.
He became a lawyer in Arkansas,
where he revised the statutes. He
was attorney for the Cherokees, re-
ceiving at one time a fee of $100,000.
In 1839 his "Hymns of the Gods"
was published. He also wrote works
on Masonry. He served in an Arkan-
sas regiment during the Mexican War,
and in the Civil War organized some
Indian regiments which he led in the
battles of Pea Ridge and Elkhorn.
After the war he was editor of the
Memphis "Appeal" till 1868. Died
in Washington, D. C., April 3, 1891.
Pike, Mrs. Mary Hayden
(Green), an American novelist ; born
in Eastport, Me., Nov. 30, 1825. She
will be best remembered as the author
of " Ida May," a novel dealing with
slavery and Southern life, which had
a large sale.
Pike, Zebnlon Montgomery, an
American military officer ; born in
Lamberton, N. J., Jan. 5, 1779; was
appointed an ensign in his father's
regiment in 1799 ; conducted an expe-
dition sent by the government to trace
the Mississippi to its source in 1805;
also made explorations in Louisiana
Territory, discovering Pike's Peak and
reaching the Rio Grande in the course
of his travels. In 1813 he was pro-
moted Brigadier-General, and on April
13 of that year while in command of
the attack on York (now Toronto),
in Upper Canada, was killed.
Pike Perch, a genus of fishes close-
ly allied to the perch, but showing a
resemblance to the pike in its elon-
gated body and head. It occurs in the
fresh waters of North America, such
as the Great Lakes, the Upper Missis-
sippi, and the Ohio.
Pike's Peak, a peak of the Rocky
Mountains, in Colorado, 65 miles S.
Pilate
of Denver, discovered by Captain
Pike, U. S. A., in 1806. It rises to a
height of 14,147 feet. On its sum-
mit is one of the highest meteorolog-
ical stations in the world; while at
the base, at Colorado Springs, there
is a low level station. There is a rail-
way to the top, 9 miles long < (4 1 /^
miles of curves), with a maximum
gradient of 1 in 4.
Pilate, Pontius, a Roman ruler,
who became governor of Judaea, A. D.
26. He commanded in that country
10 years. The Jews brought Jesus
Christ before Pilate, who, perceiving
that envy and malice occasioned their
charges, would have scourged the pris-
oner and dismissed him, but being
threatened with the wrath of Caesar,
Pilate delivered Jesus, whom he pro-
nounced innocent, to be crucified. He
is said to have subsequently treated
the Samaritans with great cruelty, for
which he was recalled by Tiberius,
and banished to Gaul, where he slew
himself, A. D. 37 or 38.
Pilgrimage, a journey undertaken
by a pilgrim ; specifically, a journey
to some distant place, sacred and ven-
erable for some reason, undertaken for
devotional purposes. In Scripture,
the journey of human life. (Gen.
xlvii : 9.) Pilgrimages are an essen-
tial part of the Hindu and Mohamme-
dan systems, and the visits to Jerusa-
lem three times a year of the Jewish
race were of the nature of pilgrimages.
Pilgrim Fathers, the name given
to 102 Puritans, who sailed in the
" Mayflower," from Plymouth, on
Sept. 6. 1620, to seek in America the
religious liberty denied them in Eng-
land. Landing on Plymouth Rock,
they, on Dec. 25, 1620, founded a col-
ony, which became the germ of the
New England States.
Pillory, formerly a common instru-
ment of punishment for persons con-
victed of forestalling, use of unjust
weights, perjury, forgery, libel, etc.
It consisted of a frame of wood, erect-
ed on a pillar or stand, and furnished
with movable boards, resembling those
of the stocks, and holes through which
the offender's head and hands were
put. In this position he was exposed
for a certain time to public view and
insult. The use of the pillory was
abolished in France in 1832, in Eng-
land in 1837, and in the United States
Pilot Fish
about 1839, except in the State of
Delaware.
Pillow, Fort, a defensive work,
erected by the Confederates during the
Civil War, about 40 miles N. of Mem-
phis, Tenn., and abandoned by them,
June, 1862, and occupied by the Union
forces till April, 1864, when it was
taken by the Confederates under Gen-
eral Forrest, and the garrison killed.
Pillow, Gideon Johnson, an
American military officer ; born in
Williamson co., Tenn., June 8, 1806;
served with distinction during the
Mexican War, first as a Brigadier-
General and later as a Major-General
of volunteers. In the Civil War he
was appointed a Brigadier-General in
the Confederate army ; was second in
command at Fort Donelson in Febru-
ary, 1862, and with his chief, Gen.
John B. Floyd, escaped, leaving Gen-
eral Buckner to surrender the fort to
General Grant. He died in Lee co.,
Ark., Oct. 6, 1878.
Pills, medicines made in globules,
of a convenient size for swallowing
whole, the medicine being usually
mixed up with some neutral substance
such as breadcrumbs, hard soap, ex-
tract of liquorice, mucilage, syrup,
treacle, and conserve of roses. The
coverings are liquorice powder, wheat
flour, fine sugar, and lycopodium. In
many cases pills are now enameled or
silvered, which deprives them of most
of their unpleasantness. Pills are a
highly suitable form for administering
medicines which operate in small
doses, or which are intended to act
slowly or not to act at all till they
reach the lower intestines.
Pilot, one who, being properly
qualified by experience, and having
passed certain examinations, is ap-
pointed by the competent authority to
conduct ships into or out of harbor or
along particular coasts, channels, etc.,
at a certain fixed rate, depending on
the draught of the vessel and distance.
The pilot has the entire charge of the
vessel in the pilot's water.
Pilot Fish, a small pelagic fish,
about a foot long, of bluish color,
marked with from five to seven broad,
dark, vertical bars. It owes its sci-
entific and popular English name ^to
its habit of keeping company with
ships and large fish, generally sharks.
Pilot Knoli
Fine
Pilot Knob, a remarkable hill in
Missouri, about 86 miles S. W. of St.
Louis. It is nearly 500 feet high, and
is composed almost entirely of mag-
netic iron ore.
Piloty, Karl von, a German paint-
er ; born in Munich, Bavaria, Oct. 1,
1826. Died in Munich, July 21, 1886.
Pin, a piece of wood, metal, etc.,
generally pointed and used for fasten-
ing separate articles together, or as a
support; a peg, a bolt. Also a small
piece of wire, generally brass, headed
and pointed, used as a fastening, etc.,
since antiquity.
Pins were made by hand of metal in
the 16th century, and were very cost-
ly. Before that time small skewers of
ivory or wood were used. The first
pin-making machine was made in 1824
by an American living in England.
Many improvements have since been
introduced.
Pinchot, GiflPord, an American
forester; born in Simsbury, Conn.,
Aug. 11, 1865; studied forestry in
several European countries; inaugu-
rated the first systematic forestry
work in the United States at Bilt-
more, N. C., in 1892; became chief of
the National Forest Service in 1898
and Professor of Forestry at Yale in
1903; had a notable controversy with
Secretary Ballinger, of the Interior
Department, concerning the conser-
vation of natural resources in Alaska,
in 1908-1910; and was dismissed from
the Forest Service by President Taft
in the latter year.
Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth,
an American statesman ; born in
Charleston, S. C., Feb. 25, 1746. He
was Washington's aide-de-camp at the
battles of Brandywine and German-
town, and afterward, as colonel, saw
much active service, till 1780, when he
was taken prisoner at the surrender
of Charleston, and retained till the
close of the war. A member of the
convention that framed the Constitu-
tion of the United States (1787), he
introduced the clause forbidding relig-
ious tests as a qualification for office.
He declined the secretaryship of war
in 1794, and of state in 1795 ; in 1796
he was sent as minister to France, but
the Directory refused to receive him,
and he had to quit the country. It
was while on this mission that, when
it was intimated that peace might be
granted in return for a money pay-
ment, he made the reply, " Millions for
defense, but not a cent for tribute."
In 1800-1808 he was thrice an un-
successful Federalist candidate for the
presidency. He died Aug. 16, 1825.
Pinckney, Thomas, an American
diplomatist, brother of Charles C. ;
born in Charleston, S. C., Oct. 23,
1750. In the Revolutionary War as
aide to General Lincoln he distin-
guished himself at the assault on
Savannah and was severely wounded
at Camden in August, 1780. He was
governor of South Carolina in 1787-
1789 ; United States minister to Great
Britain in 1792-1794, and to Spain in
1794-1796 ; a Federalist candidate for
the presidency in 1796; and member
of Congress in 1797-1801. He died in
Charleston, Nov. 2, 1828.
Pindar, th<* great Greek lyric poet ;
born in or near Thebes, in Bceotia,
about 522 B. c. Pindar excelled in all
varieties of choral poetry, hymns to
the gods, paeans, odes for processions,
drinking songs, etc. But the only
poems of his now extant are the
" Epinikia, or Triumphal Odes," com-
posed in celebration of victories at the
great public games, the Olympian,
Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. Pin-
dar attained the highest renown in his
own age, and as a lyrical poet has no
rival. When Thebes was destroyed by
Alexander, the conqueror spared the
house of Pindar. He died in 443 B. c.
Pine, a genus of trees of the natural
order Conifers?,. The Linnsean genus
includes all kinds of fir, larch, and
cedar ; but as now limited the genus
Pinus is distinguished by monrecious
flowers and woody cones with numer-
ous two-seeded scales, the scales hav-
ing an angular truncated apex. The
leaves are linear and very narrow, of
a very dark green color, growing in
clusters or in pairs, and surrounded
by scarious scales at the base. To
this genus belong many noble and use-
ful trees. Many species of pines,
some of them very beautiful and very
valuable, are found in North America.
Besides those long known, and which
are found in the States and colonies
near the Atlantic, a number of the
noblest species of this genus have, dur-
ing the 19th century, been discovered
in California and the N. W. parts of
the Continent. The red Canadian
Pineapple
pine is found from Canada to the Pa-
cific, but does not reach far S. in the
United States. It is the yellow pine
of Canada and Nova Scotia.
Pineapple, a plant of the natural
order Bromeliacea?. The flowers rise
from the center of the plant, and
are in a large conical spike, sur-
mounted by spiny leaves called the
crown. The conical spike of flowers
ultimately becomes enlarged and juicy,
constituting the pineapple, considered
PINEAPPLE.
one of the finest of fruits. More than
50 varieties have been produced. The
plant grows in the S. portion of the
United States and in Hawaii. In the
islands they sometimes reach the
weight of 17 pounds, though the aver-
age weight is six. Since 1883 there
have been large exports of 'this fruit
from the various islands.
Pine Bluff, city and capital of
Jefferson county, Ark.; on the Arkan-
sas river and several railroads; 48
miles S. E. of Little Rock; is the
trade center of a large farming sec-
tion; makes extensive shipments of
hides and cotton; manufactures cot-
ton-seed oil and meal, flour and grist,
cotton-gins, bank furniture, and ma-
chinery; and contains the Merrill In-
stitute, a Normal College for colored
students, and large railroad shops.
Pop. (1910) 15,102.
Ping-Pong, table lawn tennis, a
game that was introduced from Eug-
Pinkney
land and became very popular in the
United States. The game is played
very much as is the regular game of
tennis.
Pingree, Hazen S., an American
manufacturer ; born in Denmark, Me.,
Aug. 30, 1842. He enlisted in the
United States army in 1862; served
throughout the war and was in the
principal battles. At the close of the
war he settled in Detroit, Mich., and
engaged in the shoe business, subse-
quently becoming the head of the
largest factory of its kind in the West.
He was elected mayor of Detroit in
1889, on the Reform ticket. His
radical ideas on the reform of monop-
olies, etc., caused much agitation, es-
pecially in connection with street car
companies. He also instituted the
" potato patch," a scheme for employ-
ing applicants for charity in product-
ive labor, a plan which has been
adopted by other cities. In 1896 he
was elected governor of Michigan,
holding the office of mayor also, till
March 19, 1897, when according to a
decision of the Supreme Court he re-
linquished the latter office. He was
reflected governor in 1898. He died
June 18, 1901.
Pinkerton, Allan, an American
detective ; born in Glasgow, Scotland,
Aug. 25, 1819. In 1840 he went to
Canada and thence to Chicago, where
in 1850 he joined the detective depart-
ment. Subsequently he organized the
detective agency which still bears his
name. He wrote many interesting
stories of his experiences, which were
afterward collected in one volume. He
died July 1, 1884.
Pinkney, William, an American
diplomatist ; born in Annapolis, Md.,
March 17, 1764; was admitted to the
bar in. 1786; was a member of the
Legislature of his State that ratified
the Constitution of the United States.
In 1796 Washington appointed him a
commissioner to determine the claims
of American merchants to compensa-
tion for losses and damages caused by
the English government. In 1806 he
was sent with James Monroe to treat
with the English government regarding
the latter's repeated violations of the
rights of neutrals and was resident
minister in London in 1807-1811,
when President Madison appointed
him attorney-general of the United
Pinnated Grouse
Piplstrell*
States. In 1816 he was -appointed
minister to Russia and special envoy
to Naples. After his return in 1818
he resumed law practice. In 1820 he
was elected to the United States Sen-
ate. He died in Washington, D. G..
Dec. 25, 1822.
Pinnated Grouse, known also as
the prairie hen, or prairie chicken.
The male is remarkable as possessing
two erectile tufts in the nape, and an
air bladder (connected with the wind-
pipe, and capable of inflation) on each
side of the neck, in color and shape re-
sembling small oranges ; general plu-
mage brown, mottled with a darker
shade ; habitat, prairies of the Mis-
sissippi valley, from Louisiana, N.
Pint, a measure of capacity used
both for dry and liquid measures. It
contains 34.65925 cubic inches, or the
eighth part of a gallon. In medicine
it is equivalent to 12 ounces.
Pintail Duck, has the upper parts
and flanks ash, with narrow stripes of
PINTAIL DUCK.
black ; under parts white ; head umber-
brown ; tail pointed. It inhabits the
N. of America and Europe.
Pinzon, Vincent Yancz, and
Martin Alonzo (brothers), Spanish
navigators, who had commands in Co-
lumbus' first voyage, and by whose ex-
ertions mainly it was that a sufficient
number of men were induced to risk
their lives on this perilous enterprise.
Vincent Yanez was the more distin-
guished of the brothers ; he made sev-
eral voyages, on the most important
of which he sailed in December, 1499,
and discovered Brazil and the river
Amazon, three months before Cabral
took possession of South America for
the crown of Portugal.
Pioneer, one of a body of soldiers
equipped with pickax, spade, etc.,
whose duty it is to clear and repair
roads, bridges, etc., as far as possible,
for troops on the march. They are
placed at the head of the battalion of
which they form a part, and are com-
manded by a pioneer sergeant. Also,
one who goes before to prepare or
clear the way, or remove obstructions
for another, especially in the settle-
ment of a new region.
Pipa, a genus of Batrachian reptiles,
closely allied to the common toad, but
distinguished by the body being hori-
zontally flattened, the head large and
triangular, tongue wanting, tympanum
concealed beneath the skin, the eyes
small, placed near the margin of the
upper jaw. The best-known species is
the Surinam toad, which is consider-
ably larger than the common toad of
this country.
Pipe, a wine-measure, usually con-
taining two hogsheads or 105 imperial
or 126 wine gallons ; two pipes or 210
imperial gallons make a tun. The
size of the pipe varies according to
the kind of wine contained ; a pipe of
Madeira contains 110 wine gallons ; of
sherry, 130 ; of port, nearly 138, and
Lisbon, 140.
Pipe Clay, a rariety of clay adapt-
ed by its plasticity and freedom from
impurities for the manufacture of
pipes.
Pipefish, a fish distinguished by a
long, slender, tapering body, and by
jaws united to form a tube or pipe,
bearing the mouth at the tip. There
are several species.
Piping Crow, a bird from New
South Wales. It has great powers of
mimicry; called also the flute player.
Pipistrelle, the most widely dis-
tributed of the bats; color reddish-
brown, paler beneath. The wings ex-
tend down to the base of the toes, and
their membrane, like that of the ears,
is of a dusky tint. This bat is spe-
cially a dweller in temperate regions,
its period of hibernation is short, and
the tail is used as an organ of prehen-
sion.
Pipit
Pipit, or Titlark, a genus of
perching birds possessing striking
affinities with the larks, which they
resemble in the large size of the hinder
claw, but commonly classed with the
"wagtails, which they closely resemble
in their habits of running swiftly on.
the ground. One species is common
in the United States. All the pipits
build their nests on the ground. The
Bong in all consists of a clear, simple
note.
Pippi Giulio. See GiUlJO Ro-
HANO.
Piracy, the act, practice, or crime
of robbing on the high seas. This
offense at common law consists in
committing those acts of robbery and
depredation on the high seas which if
committed upon land would have
amounted to felony there. But other
offenses have, by various statutes, been
made piracy, and liable to the same
penalty. Thus trading with, or in any
PIPEFISH.
way aiding, known pirates, is piracy.
So, too, any commander or seaman of
a ship who runs away with any ship,
boat, goods, etc., or who voluntarily
delivers such up to any pirate, is
guilty of piracy. Any one who con-
veys or removes any person as a slave
is also by statute law of most civilized
nations guilty of piracy. The penalty
is death, or some lesser punishment.
The most famous execution of pirates
was on the beach at Newport, Rhode
Island, in the colonial period, when
30 pirates from one vessel were hanged
at one time.
Pirai, or Piraya, a voracious
fresh-water fish of tropical America.
It is three or four feet in length, and
its jaws are armed with sharp lancet-
shaped teeth, from which cattle when
fording rivers sometimes suffer ter-
ribly.
Pisa
Pisa, a city of Central Italy, capi-
tal of the province of Pisa, on the
Arno, 8 miles from its mouth, 13 miles
N. E. of Leghorn, and 50 miles W. of
Lucca. The walls are 5 miles in
circuit. The Arno flows through the
city, and is crossed by several bridges,
'the principal one being of fine marble.
The cathedral, with its attendant
buildings, the baptistery, the cemetery
and the belfry, is perhaps, the finest
specimen that exists of the style of
building called by the Italians the
Gotico-Moresco. The most remarkable
buildings in Pisa are the Campo Santo
and the belfry, or campanile, a cylin-
drical tower, 178 feet in height, con-
structed of successive rows of pillars,
chiefly of marble; it is extremely
graceful in its proportions, but its
chief peculiarity consists in its in-
clination about 13 feet out of the per-
pendicular, whence it is commonly
called the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The
University of Pisa is one of the oldest
in Italy; it has 56 professors and
about 1,000 students. Galileo, who was
a native of Pisa, was formerly one of
the professors. Pop. 61,321.
Pisa, Council of, a church council
generally included in those called
ecumenical, met and opened in Pisa
March 25, 1409, and the 23d and last
session of which was held Aug. 7 fol-
lowing. Its aim was to end the schism
which had divided the Western Church
for 30 years ; and with this view the
leading cardinals, finding that neither
of the rival Popes, Gregory XII. and
Benedict XIII., would keep their
promises to abdicate, had set aside the
claims of both, and themselves con-
voked a general council. It was at-
tended from first to last by 24 car-
dinals, 4 patriarchs, 80 bishops, 102
proctors of bishops, 87 abbots, 200
delegates of abbots, besides many gen-
erals of orders, doctors, deputies of
universities, and ambassadors. After
the rival Popes failed to appear in
obedience to its summons, the council
formally tried the claims of both in
turn, and deposed them as schismatics
and heretics. The cardinals then
formed themselves into conclave and
elected Cardinal Philargi, who as-
sumed the name of Alexander V. But
the council, instead of getting rid of
the contending Popes, had only add^i
a third, and the Church of Roma-
Pisces
Pitcairn Isla id
continued to be distracted for eight
years longer, down to the time of the
Council of Constance.
Pisces, in astronomy, the 12th and
last of the zodiacal constellations.
Pisgali, a name that seems to have
applied generally to the mountain
range or district to the E. of the Low-
er Jordan, identical with, or itself a
part of, the mountains of Abarrim,
one of the summits of which is Mount
Nebo (the modern Neba), 2,644 feet
above the level of the Mediterranean.
From this point Moses enjoyed his
glimpse of the Promised Land, in early
spring.
PISA : LEANING TOWER AND CATHEDRAL
Pisistratns, a citizen of Athens
who raised himself to the sovereign
authority in the time of Solon (to
whom he was related) 560 B. c. He
was a beneficent ruler, and did much
to promote the rise of Greek literature.
We owe to him the poems of Homer
in their present form, Pisistratus hav-
ing collected them, as they were scat-
tered in detached parts throughout
Greece, and given them orderly ar-
rangement.
Pisquow, or Fisuqnitpah., a tribe
of North American Indians living for-
merly on the Wenatchee or Pisquow
river, Washington. The name has also
been used collectively and applied to-
the Methow and other tribes in Okano-
gan county of that State. They are
now on the Yakima reservation,
Washington.
Pistacio Nut, the fruit of the pis-
tacia vera. The kernel is very oily, of
a peculiar flavor and bright green in
color, and is much used in confec-
tions, etc.
Pistole, a gold coin once current in
Spain, France, and the neighboring
countries ; and its average value was
about $3.85.
Pita Flax, flax made from the fiber
of the maguey and used for twine,
rope, hammock meshes, etc. In Mexi-
co it is also used for oakum. La-
billardiere found that its strength is
to that of common flax as 7 to 11%.
Fitaval, Francois Gayot de, a
French lawyer ; compiler of the fa-
mous collection of " Celebrated
Cases " ; born in 1673, served in the
army, but became an advocate, and
was known as an industrious and
painsfaking compiler. Of his great
work there have been numerous abridg-
ments, continuations, and transla-
tions ; and his name has become so
identified with the collecting of crim-
inal cases that a similar work, pub-
lished by various editors in Leipsic in
1843 and succeeding years, was called
"A New Pitaval." He died in 1743.
Pitcairn Island, a solitary island
in the Pacific Ocean, between Aus-
tralia and South America, in lat. 25
3' S. and Ion. 130 8' W., measures
2% miles by 1 mile. In 1790 it was
taken possession of by nine of the
mutineers of H. M. S. " Bounty," with
six Tahitian men and 12 women, the
ringleader being called Christian. Ac-
cording to one account, the white men
and the Tahitians murdered each oth-
er at intervals, till at the end of 10
years John Adams was left alone,
with eight or nine women and several
children ; and from them the present
inhabitants of the island are descend-
ed. Adams, changed by these tragic
adventures, and sobered by his re-
sponsibilities, set about the education
of his companions in Christian prin-
ciples. The little colony was un-
known to the world till 1808, when it
Pitch
was " discovered " by Captain Folger
of the American sealing ship " To-
paz " ; the first British vessel to visit
it did not arrive till 1814. The island
was annexed to Great Britain in 1839.
Nearly 200 of the islanders were trans-
ferred to Norfolk Island in 1856, but
a number of them afterward returned.
Pitcairn Island enjoys a lovely cli-
mate ; its mountainous surface reaches
1,008 feet in Outlook Ridge; the soil
is fertile, and produces yams, cocoa-
nuts, bread fruit, sweet potatoes,
bananas, etc. The people bear a high
character for virtue, contentedness and
uprightness, and choose their own pas-
tor and magistrate.
Pitch, a term applied to a variety
of resinous substances of a dark color
and brilliant luster, obtained from the
various kinds of tar produced in the
destructive distillation of wood, coal,
etc. Pitch is extensively used in ship-
building for closing seams, also for
coating and preserving wood and iron.
Pitchblende, or Uraninite. See
RADIUM.
Pitcher Plant. The name is ap-
plied to any plant with a pitcher-like
appendage. The California pitcher
plant is well known in that region.
Pitch Stone, a vitreous rock of
pitch-like luster and imperfect con-
ehoidal fracture; brittle. Analyses
indicate that it is probably a vitreous
form of quartz, felsite, or of trachyte.
Color mostly blackish-green or dark
olive-green.
Pitchnrim Beans, the name given
to a South American species of laurel,
the drupes of which are used by choco-
late makers as a substitute for vanilla.
Pithecanthropus Erectus, the
name given to the fossil remains of a
prehistoric animal found in Java, and
which represents a form intermediate
between man and the higher apes. Re-
cent explorations indicate that this
animal may yet be living in remote
Java forests.
Pithom, one of the store cities
which the children of Israel built for
Pharaoh (Exod. i: 11), conclusively
identified in 1883 by the excavations of
M. Naville with the deserted Arab
village Tell El-Maskhuta, on the fresh-
water canal and railway line from
Cairo to Ismailia. about half-way be-
tween Ismailia and Tell El-Kebir.
Pittsburg
Pitman, Benn, an American pho-
nographer ; born in Trowbridge, Eng-
land, July 24, 1822; brother of Sir
Isaac Pitman, the inventor of phonog-
raphy ; was educated in his brother's
academy ; lectured and taught phonog-
raphy throughout Great Britain for
10 years. He came to the United
States in 1853, and founded the Pho-
nographic Institute in Cincinnati ; in-
vented the electro-process of relief en-
graving; was military recorder of
State trials in the Civil War. D. 1910.
Pitman, Sir Isaac, an English
stenographer ; born in Trowbridge,
England, Jan. 4, 1813. He was the
inventor of the phonetic system of
shorthand writing and published his
first treatise on the subject entitled
" Stenographic Soundhand " in 1837.
He was the head of the Phonetic Insti-
tute at Bath, and was identified with
the spelling reform. He died Jan.
22, 1897.
Pitt, 'William, an English states-
man ; born in Hayes, England, May
28, 1759 ; was educated at Cambridge
University ; studied law and was elect-
ed to Parliament in 1780. In 1783
he became prime minister ; was active
in the negotiations of peace with the
United States, and was instrumental
in the passage of many important
measures. He died in Putney, Eng-
land, Jan. 23, 1806. For the elder
Pitt see Chatham.
Pittsburg (according to its city
charter, Pittsburgh), a city, port of
entry, and county-seat of Allegheny
co., Pa. ; at the confluence of the
Monougahela and Allegheny rivers,
353 miles W. of Philadelphia; area,
41 square miles; pop. (1910), includ-
ing Allegheny city, 533,905.
The city owns a waterworks system,
costing over $7,000,000. The reser-
voirs have a storage capacity of 68,-
000,000 gallons, and the water is dis-
tributed through 300 miles of mains.
There are in all 230 miles of streets,
of which 200 miles are paved. The
sewer system covers 220 miles. The
city is lighted by electricity. The an-
nual death rate averages 19 per 1,000.
The principal public buildings are
the Allegheny court house, the Car-
negie Library and Institute, with
museum, music hall, and art gallery,
find having an endowment of $2,000,-
000 ; the United States Government
iPittsfield
Building, the West Pennsylvania Ex-
position Society's Buildings; Munici-
pal Hall; United States Arsenal, and
the Western State Penitentiary.
The two chief industries are the pro-
duction of iron and steel ; but there
are many other flourishing manufac-
tures. The city is well known as the
Iron City, for there is nothing in the
iron industry which is not here man-
ufactured. The capacity of the iron
mills is over 800,000 tons annually,
and that of the Bessemer steel mills
upward of 400,000 tons. There are in
Pittsburg besides blast furnaces and
iron and steel works over 1,500 man-
ufacturing establishments, employing
more than 60,000 persons. The schools
are flourishing and their accommoda-
tions keep pace with increasing popu-
lation. There are over 200 churches
in Pittsburg. The most important of
these are Trinity (P. E.), St. Peter's
(P. E.), First Presbyterian, United
Evangelical (German), First Baptist,
English Evangelical, etc.
In 1754, at the suggestion of George
Washington, the English began to
erect a blockhouse on the present site
of the city. They were driven away
by the French, who built a fort at the
junction of the two rivers and named
it Du Quesne. In 1758, after two
unsuccessful attempts to retake the
place, the English under General
Forbes made a third attempt, and the
French burned and evacuated the fort.
In the following year another fort was
erected here, named in honor of Will-
iam Pitt. The British withdrew from
the post in 1772, and it was held by
Virginia in 1775-1779. The place was
incorporated as a city March 18, 1816.
In 1877 a railroad strike and riot oc-
curred in which much damage was
done to railroad property, and for
which Allegheny county had to settle
at a cost of $4,000,000.
I Pittsfield, city and capital of
Berkshire county, Mass.; on the
Housatonic river and the Boston &
Maine and other railroads; 40 miles
N. W. of Springfield; is chiefly en-
gaged in the manufacture of cotton,
woolen, and knit goods, electrical
apparatus, flour, silk, and shoes; con-
tains a beautiful white marble Court
House, Berkshire Athenaeum, with
Historical Society, Public Library,
and Museum and Art Gallery, St. Jo-
Fins
soph's Cathedral (R. C.), Bishop
Training School for Nurses, head-
quarters of the Agassiz Association,
House of Mercy, and a public park
with statue of " The Color Bearer."
Pop. (1910) 32,121.
Pins, the name of a number of
Popes, as follows:
Pius I., succeeded Hyginus in 142,
and died in 157
Pius II. (^Eneas Sylvani
colomini); born in Tuscany in 1405,
was chosen to succeed Calixtus III.
in 1458, and died in 1464.
Pius V. (Michele Ghislieri) ; born
in Piedmont in 1504, and early
entered the Dominican order. He so
distinguished himself by his austere
life, and his zeal against " heretics,"
that he was appointed inquisitor in
Lombardy, and afterward inquisitor-
general. He was created cardinal in
1557, and was chosen to succeed Pius
IV., in 1566. He died in May, 1572.
Pius VI. (Giovanni Angelo Bras-
chi) ; born in Cesena in 1717, and
succeeded Clement XIV. in 1775.
His first act was to make a reform in
the public treasury; he then com-
pleted the museum in the Vatican ;
but the greatest work of his pontificate
was the draining of the Pontine
marshes. Basseyille was sent as envoy
from the republic of France to Rome,
where he behaved with so much in-
solence, that the people assassinated
him in 1793. General Duphot entered
the city with his troops to restore or-
der, but the papal soldiers routed them,
and Duphot was slain. On this Bona-
parte entered Italy, and made the
Pope prisoner in the capitol, which
was plundered. The venerable pontiff
was carried away by the victors, and
hurried over the Alps to Valence,
where he died Aug. 29, 1799.
Pius VII. (Gregorio Barnaba
Chiaramonti) ; born in Cesena, in
1742 ; became a Benedictine monk ;
was created cardinal in 1785, and after
the death of Pius VI., was chosen,
after long deliberations of the con-
clave, to succeed him March, 1800. In
1804 the Pope went to Paris and
crowned Napoleon emperor, returning
to Rome in May, 1805. Soon after
Ancona was seized by the French, and
the great quarrel between Napoleon
and the Pope began. Pius was ar-
rested by the French officer Miollis
Pius
and sent to Savona, and afterward to
Fontainebleau, whence he was not per-
mitted to return to Italy till January,
1814. The Congress of Vienna re-
stored the States of the Church to
the Pope, who applied himself thence-
forth to internal reforms. He re-
established the Jesuits and the In-
quisition. He died, Aug. 20, 1823.
Pius VIII. (Cardinal Castiglione) ,
became Pope in succession to Leo
XII., in 1829. After a short pontifi-
cate of one year, he died in 1830.
Pius IX. (Giovanni Mario Mastai
Ferretti) ; born in Singaglia, May 13,
1790 ; was intended for the army, but
resolved to devote himself to the
Church. He was nominated by Pius
VII. on a mission to the government
of Chile, and immediately on his re-
turn to Rome he was appointed by Leo
XII. to one of the most important of
the ecclesiastico-civil departments of
administration. Iii 1840 he was created
Cardinal-Archbishop of Imola, in the
Romagna. Pope Gregory XVI. died
June 1, 1846, and Cardinal Ferretti
was elected to the papacy under the
name of Pius IX., June 16. But the
French Revolution of 1848 gave a
much more powerful impulse to the en-
thusiasm of the Italian patriots. These
sweeping changes the Pope was not
prepared to support, and from that
moment his popularity began to de-
cline. The popular disaffection was
greatly increased on his taking for his
minister Count Rossi, one of the most
aristocratic and unpopular men in
Rome. Count Rossi was assassinated
Nov. 15, and Pius himself, a few days
later, escaped from Rome in disguise,
and arrived safely in Gaeta, the first
town in the Neapolitan territory,
whither he was followed by the mem-
bers of the papal court and the diplo-
matic corps. The Pope remained near-
ly a year and a half at Gaeta and
Portici. During his absence, Rome,
which was in the possession of the
nat'ive troops under Garibaldi, was
besieged, and at last taken by storm
by the French army under General
Oudinot, after sustaining some re-
verses. The Pope left Portici, April
4, 1850, escorted by Neapolitan and
French dragoons, and accompanied by
the King of Naples and several mem-
bers of his family. He crossed the
frontier at Terracina, April 6, and re-
entered Rome April 12, amid the
Plus
thunder of French cannon. His chief
ecclesiastical acts are the formal def-
inition of the dogma of the Immaculate
Conception, in December, 1854; and
the bull summoning the Ecumenical
Council of 1809-1870, which promul-
gated the doctrine of papal infallibil-
ity. In September, 1870, the French
troops were withdrawn from Rome,
and in October the States of the
Church were annexed to the kingdom
of Italy, thus ending the temporal
power of the Popes. He died Feb. 7,
1878.
Pius X., the present Pope of Rome,
family name Giuseppe Sarto (in En-
glish, Joseph Taylor), is an Italian,
a native of Treviso, where he was
born in 1835. It is a curious coinci-
dence that in 1303, exactly six hun-
dred years ago, another native of Tre-
viso was elected Pope. The Sarto
family consisted of two boys and six
girls. Giuseppe was the younger
brother. The family was poor, and
to this day all the members are in
humble life. The new Pope's elder
brother holds a small office under the
Government, for which he receives a
salary of eighty dollars a year. Two
of his sisters, being unmarried, have
resided with their now famous brother.
He performed the duties of a humble
parish priest until 1884, when Pope
Leo made him Bishop of Mantua, and,
nine years later, he was made a Car-
dinal and Patriarch of Venice. He
took no part in the political affairs of
the Church, and seldom went to Rome,
but devoted himself to his own diocese,
where he won the respect of Protest-
ants, as well as Catholics, by his
charities, his interest in social re-
forms, and his kindness and courtesy.
It is stated that he was so generous
in his gifts to the poor of his diocese,
that he impoverished himself to such
a degree that he has been known to
pawn his official ring, to provide him-
self with funds for a temporary emer-
gency. It was noticed after his elec-
tion to the Pontificate, by a Cardinal
who was making an appointment with
him, that he was wearing a nickel
watch, with a common silk guard.
He has chosen to be called Pius X.,
but the inferences usually drawn from
the choice of a name are ar fault in
this instance, as it is not known which
of his nine predecessors of that name
Flute
he regards as a model. He is said to
be a man of profound learning and
sterling honesty of character. Ameri-
cans who haw met him say that in
personal appearance and manner he
bears a striking resemblance to the
late Phillips Brooks. He has dis-
pensed with some of the stately sur-
roundings which the late Pope main-
tained. He was elected Aug. 4, 1903.
Piutc. See PAIUTE.
Pizarro, Francisco, a Spanish ex-
plorer, the conqueror of Peru. He
embarked in 1510, with some other ad-
venturers, for America ; and, in 1524,
he associated at Panama with Diego
de Almagro and Hernandez Lucque, a
priest, in an enterprise to make fresh
discoveries. In this voyage they
reached the coast of Peru, but being
too few to make any attempt at a set-
tlement, Pizarro returned to Spain.
Having raised some money, he was en-
abled again, in 1531, to visit Peru,
where a civil war was raging between
Huascar, the legitimate monarch, and
his half-brother, Atahualpa, the reign-
ing inca. Pizarro, by pretending to
take the part of the latter, was per-
mitted to march into the interior where
he made the unsuspecting king prison-
er; then extorting from him, as it is
Baid, a house full of the precious
metals by way of ransom, he had him
tried for a pretended conspiracy, and
condemned him to be burned, allow-
ing him first to be strangled, as a re-
ward for becoming a Christian. In
1533 the conqueror laid the founda-
tion of Lima ; but, in 1537, a contest
erose between him and Almagro, who
was defeated and executed. Pizarro
was murdered by Almagro's followers,
June 26, 1541.
Pizarro, Gonzalo, half brother of
the preceding ; born in 1502. His
brother appointed him governor of
Quito in 1540, and after the assas-
sination of Francisco, he raised an
army against the new viceroy, Blasco
Nunez, and the latter was defeated
and slain near Quito in 1546. But
Pizarro^ did not long enjoy his suc-
cess, being beaten, taken prisoner, and
beheaded in 1548.
Plague, a peculiarly malignant
fever of the continued and contagious
type, now believed to be almost identic-
al with the worst kinds of typhus
fever. The plague seems to have
Plain
been the black death of the 14th cen-
tury. It was known by the name of
plague when, in 1665, it slew in Lon-
don 68,596 people, about one-third of
the population.
In th summer of 1896 a very malig-
nant form of disease, known as the
" bubonic " plague, made its appear-
ance in Bombay, India, and spread
with great rapidity. The bubonic
plague receives its name from the
fact that it attacks the lymphatic
glands in the neck, armpits, groin,
and other parts of the body. In gen-
eral, the disease is spread in the same
manner as cholera, except that the
cholera germ must enter the intestinal
tract, while the germ of the plague
may attack any part of the mucous
membran^ or be admitted by even the
minutest abrasion of the skin. But
while this germ is so virile and so
easily taken into the system, it is one
of the most easily killed by disin-
fection.
The Ten Plagues of Egypt were 10
inflictions divinely sent upon the
Egyptians to compel them te emanci-
pate the Israelites from bondage and
allow them to quit the land. The
first plague consisted in the turning
of the waters of Egypt into blood ;
the second, of frogs that covered the
land; the third, of lice annoying both
man and beast ; the fourth of grievous
swarms of flies; the fifth, of murrain
that attacked the live stock ; the sixth,
of boils " breaking forth with blains
upon man and upon beast " ; the sev-
enth, a severe thunder storm accom-
panied by destructive hail ; the eighth,
a plague of locusts that ate what the
hail had spared ; the ninth, a darkness
that could be felt ; the tenth, the death
of the firstborn of man and beast
among the Egyptians.
Plain, an expanse of low-lying ter-
ritory as distinguished from a table-
land or plateau. Speaking broadly,
the Western Hemisphere is the region
of plains, and the Eastern of table-
lands. Nevertheless, the former has
in it what is called the Great North-
ern plain, extending, with the one
break hi the Ural Mountains, from the
shores of the Atlantic nearly to Ber-
ing's Strait, and from the Arctic Ocean
to the Caucasus and Altai Moun-
tains. In this hemisphere are the
Great Central and the Atlantic plains
Flainfield
Plaster of Paris
of North America, and the great
South American plain. " The Plains "
was a vast stretch of country of
the United States which emigrants
crossed in going to the Pacific, now
divided into prosperous States.
Flainfield, a city in Union ceunty,
N. J.; on the Central Railroad of New
Jersey and a continuation of the Or-
ange Mountains; 24 miles W. by S. of
New York city; is largely a beautiful
residential place, but has manufac-
tories of printing-presses, safes, cloth-
ing, hats, and machinery; and contains
Muhlenberg Hospital, and public
library. Pop. (1910) 20,550.
Plane Tree. Tall trees with pon-
derous trunks, the bark of which peels
off annually, leaving the surface
smooth and bare. American plane
tree has less deeply divided and in-
dented leaves than the plane tree of
Western Asia and Cashmere, and no
membranous bracts along the female
flowers. On the banks of the Ohio
and the Mississippi there are trees 10
to 16 feet in diameter. Called in the
United States also, buttonwood and
water beech, and sycamore, and in
Canada, cotton tree.
Planet, a heavenly body which, to
old-time observers, seemed to wander
about aimlessly in the sky. Sub-
sequently it was discovered that the
seemingly erratic bodies were as reg-
ular in their movements as the others,
revolving, like the earth, around the
eun. Shining only with reflected light,
they gleam with a steady radiance in
place of twinkling like the fixed stars.
Planetoids, the name given to a
great group of minute planets placed
together between Mars and Jupiter.
On Jan. 1, 1801, a planetary body,
afterward called Ceres, was found in
the part of the solar system theoretic-
ally indicated ; it was far more di-
minutive in size than had been ex-
pected. Within the next six years three
more asteroids (Pallas, Juno, and
Vesta) were found in proximity to
Ceres, and up to November, 1898,
426 of these small planets had been
discovered, 70 by Americans. All are
of minute size, and some angular in
place of spherical.
Plank, Fort, or Fort Blank, a
Revolutionary fort in Montgomery co.,
N. Y., 2 miles N. W. of Fort Plain.
Plantagenets, the surname of a
line of English kings of French origin
on the paternal side Henry II. of
England, the first of the line, ascended
the English throne in 1154, and his
descendants reigned during 331 years,
the last monarch of the line being
Richard III., who fell at the battle of
Bosworth, in 1485. In the 14th cen-
tury the line became divided into two-
great rival factions, those of York
and of Lancaster, known as the parties
of the Red and White Rose.
Plantain, a small tree closely akin
to the banana, from which it differs in
not having purple spots on its stem.
The fruit also is larger and more
angular. It is very delicious and is
thoroughly wholesome. The name plan-
tain is also applied to a common weed,
the seeds of which are used as food
for birds.
Plantain Eaters, a family of Pie-
like birds, of African distribution,
arboreal habits, and vegetarian diet.
Plantation, a term formerly used
to designate a colony. The term was
latterly applied to an estate in the
Southern States, the West Indies, etc.,
cultivated chiefly by negroes. The
term planter is applied to the owner
of a plantation.
Plantin, Christophe, a French
printer ; born in St. Avertin, near
Tours, in 1514, and settled as a book-
binder at Antwerp in 1549 ; some six
years later he began to print. The
most noted of all his publications is
the " Biblia Polyglotta." Plantin's
editions of the Bible in Latin, Hebrew,
and Dutch, and editions of the Greek
and Latin classics, are scarcely less
celebrated. He set up printing es-
tablishments in Leyden and Paris, and
these, with that in Antwerp, were car-
ried on by the husbands of his daugh-
ters. His office in Antwerp remained
in the possession of the descendants of
John Moretus, his son-in-law, till it
was bought by the city in 1876 for
$240,000; out of it was created the
" Musee Plantin." Plantin died in
Antwerp, July 1, 1589.
Plaster, calcined gypsum or sul-
phate of lime, used, when mixed with
water, for finishing walls, molds, etc.
Plaster of Paris, the name given
to gypsum when ground and used fo^
taking casts, etc.
Plata
Plata, Rio de la, River of Silver
a body of water which extends fo:
more than 200 miles between the Ar
gentine Republic and Uruguay, an<
. is not, strictly speaking, a river, bu
rather an estuary, formed by the June
tion of the great rivers Parana anc
Uruguay. It flows into the Atlantk
between. Cape St. Antonio and Cape
St. Mary> and has here a width of 170
miles. It was discovered in 1515 by
Juan Diaz de Solis, and called Dio de
Solis ; it owes its present name to the
famous navigator Cabot.
Plating, the act, art, or process ol
covering articles with a thin coating
of metal ; especially the art of cover-
ing baser metals with a thin coating
of gold or silver.
Platinum, a tetrad metallic ele-
ment discovered first in the United
States ; and still largely produced
there, also found in the Ural chain,
and in copper ore from the Alps. Pure
forged platinum takes a high luster, is
nearly as white as silver, and very
ductile and malleable. It resists the
strongest heat of the forge fire, but
can be fused by the electric current ;
is the heaviest known substance ex-
cepting osmium and iridium, is un-
alterable in the air, dissolves slowly in
nitromuriatic acid, but is not at-
tacked by any single acid.
Plato, a Greek philosopher ; born in
Athens or in JEgina, in May, 429 B. c.,
the year in which Pericles died. He
was a disciple of Socrates, and after
the death of that philosopher Plato
himself became a teacher in the plane
tree grove of the Academia. He had
a great number of disciples, many of
whom became eminent teachers. Among
them was Aristotle, distinguished as
the " Mind of the School," and per-
haps Demosthenes. Women are said
to have attended. In his 40th year,
Plato visited Sicily, but he offended
the tyrant Dionysius by the political
opinions he uttered, and only escaped
death through the influence of his
friend, Dion. Two later visits to the
court of the younger Dionysius were
the only interruptions to his calm life
as a teacher and writer at Athens.
He died in the act of writing, it is
said, in May, 347 B. c.
Platoff, Matvei Ivanovich,
Count, a Russian general ; born in
Azov, Russia, Aug. 17, 1757. He
Platte
served in the Turkish campaign of
1770-1771 ; he took part in the cam-
paigns against the French, 1805-1807.
He was enthusiastically welcomed, and
presented with a sword of honor on
the occasion of his visit to London in
company with Blucher. After the war
he retired to his own country, and
died near Tcherkask, Jan. 15, 1818.
Platonic Love, an affection sub-
sisting between two persons of differ-
ent sex, which is presumed to be un-
accompanied by any sensuous emotions,
and to be based on moral or intellect-
ual affinities. The expression has orig-
inated in the view of Plato, who held
that the common sexual love of the
race, harassed and afflicted with flesh-
ly longings, is only a subordinate form
of that perfect and ideal love of truth
which the soul should cultivate.
Platt, Thomas Collier, an Ameri-
can legislator ; born in Ovvego, N. Y.,
July 15, 1833 ; was a member of the
class of 1853 of Yale College, but
was compelled to give up on account
of ill health ; received the honorary
degree of M. A. from that college in
1876 ; entered mercantile life soon
after leaving school ; was county clerk
of the county of Tioga in 1859, 1860
and 1861 ; was elected to the 43d and
44th Congresses ; was elected United
States Senator Jan. 18, 1881, and
resigned that office May 16 of the same
year, with Roscoe Conkling, both Sen-
ators being offended because President
Garfield made New York appoint-
ments without consulting them; was
chosen secretary and director of the
United States Express Co. in 1879,
and in 1880 was elected president of
the company; was member and presi-
dent of the board of quarantine com-
missioners of New York from 1880 till
L888 ; was delegate to the National
Republican convention of 1876, 1880,
1884, 1888, 1892 and 1896 ; was presi-
dent of the Southern Central railroad ;
was a member of the National Repub-
ican committee ; and was elected
Jnited States Senator in 1896, and re-
elected in 1903. Senator Platt hag
>een married twice. His first wife
died Feb. 13, 1901, and he was mar-
ried to Mrs. Lillian T. Janeway, of
Vashington, widow of Dr. Theodore
Janeway. Died March 6, 1910.
Platte, a river in the United States,
vhich rises in the Rocky Mountains
Playfair
by two branches, called respectively
the North and South Forks of the
Platte. The united stream falls into
the Missouri after a course of about
1,600 miles.
Playfair, Sir Lyon, a British
scientist; son of Dr. G. Playfair, in-
spector-general of hospitals in Bengal ;
born in Meerut, Bengal, May 21, 1819.
His able reports on the sanitary con-
dition of the large towns of Great
Britain brought him prominently be-
fore the public. He held several prom-
inent appointments under Liberal gov-
ernments. He died May 29, 1898.
Pleasonton, Alfred, an American
military officer ; born in Washington,
D. C.. June 7, 1824; died there Feb.
17, 1897. He served with distinction
in the Mexican, the Sioux, and the
Civil Wars.
Plebeians, or Plebs, in ancient
Rome, one of the great orders of the
Roman people. The whole government
of the state, with the enjoyment of all
its offices, belonged to the patricians,
with whom the plebeians could not even
intermarry. The civil history of Rome
is composed of the struggles of the
plebeians to claim a place in the com-
monwealth, to which they were en-
titled. It met with success when (286
B. c. ) the Lex Hortensia gave the
enactments passed at the plebeian as-
semblies, the force of law.
Plehve, Wenceslas Konstantin-
ovitch, von, a Russian Minister of
the Interior; born in Poland in 1838;
the son of a poor noble. He studied
law in Moscow, became assistant-pro-
curator, and later was appointed Im-
perial Counsel of the Courts of War-
saw. Fearless, and sincere in his
belief that the sternest methods were
the best means of governing the mixed
Russian masses, his suppression of all
attempts at liberal reform, while win-
ning the applause of the Russians,
gained him the hatred of the Poles.
Finns, and Jews. He was assassinated
by a bomb thrown at his carriage,
July 28, 1904.
Pleiades, or Pleiads, a group of
stars in the constellation Taurus, the
Bull. The stars are so close together
that it is difficult to say how many
are seen by the naked eye.
Plesiosaurus, the typical group of
the order Plesiosauria, extinct am-
Pliiiy
phibian animals. Its organization
would fit it for swimming on or near
the surface, and the length and flexi-
bility of its neck would be eminently
serviceable in capturing its prey.
Pleura, in anatomy, plural, serous
membranes forming two shut sacs,
each possessed of a visceral and a
parietal portion. The former covers
the lungs, and the latter the ribs, the
intercostal spaces, etc.
Plenrisy, inflammation of the pleu-
ra, going on to exudation, fluid effu-
sion, absorption, and adhesion.
Pleuro -pneumonia, pneumonia
with bronchitis, the former constitut-
ing the chief disease.
Plevna, a town of Bulgaria on the
Vid, an affluent of the Danube, 85
miles N. E. of Sofia. It is noted for
the desperate resistance of its Turkish
garrison under Osman Pasha, from
July to Dec. 1877, during the Russo-
Turkish War. Pop. 18,700.
Pleyel, Ignaz, composer ; born
near Vienna, Austria, in 1757 ; died at
Paris, 1831. He studied under Haydn,
and rapidly acquired a European rep-
utation. His works, chiefly instru-
mental, are pleasing and expressive.
Plimsoll, Samuel, " the sailor's
friend," an English legislator ; born in
Bristol, England, Feb. 10, 1824. In
1854 he started business in the coal
trade in London, and shortly aftenyard
begr.n to interest himself in the sailors
of the mercantile marine, and the
dangers to which they were exposed,
especially through overloading, and the
employment of unseaworthy ships. He
entered Parliament in 1868, and suc-
ceeded in getting passed the Merchant
Shipping Act in 1876. In 1890 the
fixing of the load line was taken out
of the owner's discretion and made a
duty of the Board of Trade. Mr.
Plimsoll retired from parliamentary
life in 1880. Died June 3, 1898.
Pliny, the Elder (Caius Plinius
Secundus), one of the most celebrated
writers of ancient Rome ; born in
Verona or Como A. D. 23, served in the
army of Germany, afterward became
an advocate, and was ultimately pro-
curator in Spain. Being at Misenum
with a fleet, which he commanded, on
the 24th of August, A. D., 79, his sister
desired him to observe a remarkable
cloud that had just appeared. Pliny
Pliny
discovered that it proceeded from
Mount Vesuvius, ordered his galleys to
sea, to assist the inhabitants on the
coast, while he himself steered as near
as possible to the foot of the mountain.
Pliny and his companions landed at
Stabise, but were obliged to leave the
town for the fields, where the danger
was equally great, from the shower of
fire which fell on them. In this state
they made their way to the shore, but
Pliny fell down dead, suffocated prob-
ably by the noxious vapors. The erup-
tion which caused his death was that
in which the cities of Herculaneum
and Pompeii were destroyed. His
name and fame are preserved by his
great work entitled " Natural His-
tory," in 37 books, one of the most
precious monuments of antiquity ex-
tant. Its contents are immensely
varied in character. It is a laborious
compilation, from almost innumerable
sources, of facts, observations, and
statements on almost all branches of
natural science, on the fine arts, on in-
ventions, and other subjects. It has
been translated into most European
languages.
Pliny, the Younger (Caius Plin-
ius Caecilius Secundus), nephew of the
preceding ; born in Como A. D. 62. In
nis 18th year he began to plead in the
forum ; he went as military tribune to
Syria. He was promoted to the con-
sular dignity by Trajan. He was aft-
erward made proconsul of Bithynia,
from whence he wrote to Trajan his
well-known account of the Christians,
and their manner of worship. The
44 Epistles of Pliny " are agreeably
"written, and very instructive, and have
been translated into English. He died
after 112.
Pliocene, or Pleiocene, the epi-
thet applied to the most modern of the
three periods into which Lvell divided
the Tertiary. Its distinguished charac-
ter is that the larger part of the fossil
shells are of recent species, divided into
the Older and the Newer Pliocene. In
the Older, the extinct species of shells
form a large minority of the whole;
in the Newer, the shells are almost all
of living species.
Plover, the common name of
several wading birds; specifically, the
golden, yellow, or green plover. Plovers
are gregarious in habit, and have a
wide geographical range.
__ Plains
Plum, the fruit of various trees of
the genus Prunus. It is a native of
Asia Minor, whence it was introduced
into Europe at an early period, and
later into America. There are about
a dozen species, differing in size, form,
color, and taste.
Plumed Knight, a name given to
James G. Blaiue, and originating in a
speech made by Col. Robert G. Inger-
soll, in nominating Mr. Blaine for the
presidency.
Plush, a shaggy pile cloth of vari-
ous materials. An unshorn velvet of
cotton, silk, or mixed fiber, sometimes
of a silk nap and cotton back. It
kas two warps, one of which is
brought to the surface to make the
nap.
Plutarch, a Greek biographer and
moralist, a native of Chseronea, in
Brootia. In A. D. 66 he was a pupil of
the philosopher Ammonius at Delphi.
He visited Italy, and spent some time
at Rome, lecturing there on philoso-
phy as early as the reign of Domitian ;
but his name is not mentioned by any
of the eminent Roman writers, his
contemporaries. He returned to his
native town, where he held various
magistracies, and was appointed priest
of Apollo. He was still living in 120,
but the time of his death is not
known. His great work is entitled
" Parallel Lives," and consists of bi-
ographies of 46 eminent Greeks and
Romans, arranged in pairs, each pair
accompanied by a comparison of char-
acters.
Pluto, in mythology, the son of
Saturn and Ops, inherited his father's
kingdom with his brothers, Jupiter
and Neptune. He received as his
share the infernal regions. All the
goddesses refused to marry him ; but,
on seeing Proserpine, the daughter of
Ceres, he became enamored of her, and
carried her away. Black victims, and
particularly a bull, were the only sac-
rifices offered to him. The dog Cer-
berus watched at his feet, the harpies
hovered around him, Proserpine sat on
his left, and the Parcse occupied his
right hand.
Plutns, in Greek mythology, the
god of riches. He was represented as
blind, because he distributed riches in-
discriminately ; he was lame, because
he came slowly and gradually; and he
Pneumonia
had wings, to ultimate that he flew
away with more velocity than he ap-
proached mankind.
Plymouth, a town and county-seat
4 of Plymouth co., Mass. ; on Plymouth
Bay, 37 miles S. E. of Boston.
Plymouth is of importance as the spot
where the Pilgrim Fathers landed on
Dec. 21, 1620. A portion of the rock
on which they first stepped has been
. placed in front of Pilgrim Hall, in
which are preserved old books, paint-
ings, pictures, and other valuable rel-
ics. The rock itself is in Water
Street, and is covered by a handsome
, granite canopy. Plymouth also has
the National monument, 81 feet high,
erected to the Pilgrims at a cost of
$200,000, and dedicated in 1889. Pop.
(1900) 9,592; (1910) 12,141.
PLYMOUTH BOCK.
Plymouth, a town and county-seat
of Washington co., N. G. ; on a small
creek, a few miles S. of the Roanoke
river, where it enters Albemarle
Sound; 105 miles E. of Raleigh. It
fell into the hands of the Federal
troops early in 1862, and was taken
in April, 1864, by the ^Confederates
with the aid of the iron-clad ram " Al-
bemarle." The " Albemarle " was
blown up with a torpedo by Lieut. W.
B. CushSng on Oct. 27, and on Oct.
31 Plymouth was reoccupied.
Plymouth, a borough in Luzerne
county, Pa.; on the Susquehanna
river and the Delaware, Lackawanna
& Western railroad; 4 miles W. of
Wilkesbarre; is in the Wyoming Val-
ley; has large coal mines' nearby; and
contains collieries, hosiery mills, and
manufactories -of mining machinery.
Pop. (1910) 16,996.
Plymouth, a seaport, municipal
E. 118.
and parliamentary borough of Eng-
land in Devonshire, at the head o-f
Plymouth Sound, between the estu-
aries of the Plym and Tamar. Its
chief importance lies in its position
as a naval station. To secure safe an-
chorage in the sound a stupendous
breakwater has been constructed at a
cost of about $10,000,000. The West-
ern Harbor is devoted to the navy.
Pop. (1901) 107,509.
Plymouth. Brethren, a body
which arose almost simultaneously in
Dublin and Plymouth, about 1830,
and, as they called themselves " The
Brethren," outsiders came to know
them as " Plymouth Brethren " from
the town where they had fixed their
headquarters. Their communities are
of what is known as the Evangelical
Calvinistic type. They baptize all
adults, whether previously baptized
or not, and observe the Sacrament
of the Lord's Supper weekly. There
are four bodies in the United States,
with 10,566 members.
Pneumatic Dispatch, propulsion
by means of compressed air or by
forming a vacuum. Propulsion by
compressed air has of recent years
been successfully applied to a variety
of practical uses. Parcels are thus
conveyed, and internal communication
in warehouses, hotels, etc., is carried
on by its means. New York, Phila-
delphia, and other American cities use
a pneumatic mail dispatching system.
The pneumatic dispatch plant con-
nected with the Philadelphia postofEce
is in many respects the most complete
plant of the sort in the world. It has
been in use since Feb. 17, 1893. In
the annual report of the Postmaster-
General to Congress for 1901, he ad-
vocated the increased use of the pneu-
matic dispatch service throughout the
United States. See ATMOSPHEEIO
RAILWAY.
Pneumatic Gun, a gun operated
iy compressed air. The firing is done
by pulling a lanyard.
Pneumatics, the science whicb
treats ot the mechanical properties of
air and other gases, investigating their
weight, pressure, elasticity, condensa-
tion, etc. Air being a vehicle of
sound, pneumatics includes also the
science of acoustics.
Pneumonia, inflammation of the
lung, usually caused by exposure to
Po
Poet Laureate
cold or wet, a cold draught or chill
after being overheated, injury to the
chest, irritation, or m a secondary af-
fection in smallpox, typhoid or puer-
peral fever, and other low wasting dis-
eases.
Po, the largest river of Italy, rises
on Monte Viso, one of the Cottian
Alps, at an altitude of 6,405 feet,
close to the French frontier. It has
an entire length of 300 miles, and
drains an area of nearly 28,900 square
miles. Below Piacenza its stream has
from ante-Roman days been artificially
embanked along great stretches with
double lines of embankments on each
side.
Poaching, the trespassing on an-
other's property for the purpose of
killing or stealing game or fish. While
nearly every State, if not every one,
has game laws, they are enacted in
the public interest, and bear no sim-
ilarity to the game laws of Great
Britain, which are feudal in their
character, and intended to reserve for
the wealthy alone the recreations of
hunting and fashing. -Poaching in the
English sense is unknown in America.
In England when a person's land ad-
joins a stream where there is no ebb
and flow that person is assumed to
have an exclusive right to fish in the
stream as far as his land extends,
and up to the middle of the stream;
and so also when a person's land in-
closes a pond, the fish in that pond be-
long to him. Where several proper-
ties are contiguous to the same lake
the right of fishing in that lake belongs
to the proprietors, in proportion to
the value of their respective titles. Ex-
clusive right of fishing in a public
river, that is, one in which there is
ebb and flow up to the tidal limit, or
a portion of the sea, is held by some
proprietors by virtue of royal fran-
chises granted prior to the Magna
Charta.
Poealiontas, daughter of Powha-
tan, a powerful Indian chief of Vir-
ginia ; born about 1595. She display-
ed a friendliness toward the British
colonists, first at 12 years of age, in
saving the life of Capt. John Smith,
who had been captured and condemned
to death by her father, and on several
occasions making known to the En-
glish their danger when about to be
attacked. In 1612, while on a visit
to a neighboring tribe, she was seized,,
and Held as a hostage by the English,
as a safeguard ; against the hostility of
her tribe. While on shipboard she be-
came acquainted with, and married
John Rolfe, an Englishman, who took
her to England, where, in 1616, she-
was presented at court. She had one
son, from whom numerous wealthy
families of Virginia claim descent.
She died in England, in 1617, while
preparing to return to America.
Pochard or Poachard, a duck,
inhabiting the Arctic regions. Its cry,i
has been compared to a serpent's hissJ
Its flight is more rapid than that ot\
the wild duck.
Fococke, Richard, an English
tiaveler ; born in Southampton, Eng-.
land, in 1704, and educated there and
at Corpus Christi College, Oxford.
He was the pioneer of Alpine travel.
He died very suddenly in Charleville,
near Tullamore, Sept. 15, 1765.
Podargns, a genus of Australasian
nocturnal birds of the goatsucker fam-
ily. By day they are drowsy.
Podophyllum, the May apple,
called also the wild lemon. The fruit
is eatable.
Poe, Edgar Allan, an American
poet and story-writer ; born in Bos-
ton, Jan. 19, 1809. Left, an orphan
early, he was adopted by John Allan,
of Richmond, Va., and at the age of
19 left this home and published his
first volume of verse at Boston. He
was a cadet at the United States Mili-
tary Academy, 1830-1831; and sub-
sequently embarked on a literary ca-
reer. He was one of the most remark-
able characters in literature, gifted:
with genius, but apparently without
any genuinesense of moral obligation
to friends and benefactors. His place
among American poets, however, will
always be high. Poe died in Balti-
more, Md., Oct. 7, 1849.
Poet Laureate, an office in the
household of the sovereigns of Great
Britain. The first appointment of a
poet laureate dates from the reign of
Edward IV., the first patent being
granted in 1630. It was formerly the
duty of the poet laureate to write an
ode on the birthday of the monarch,
but this custom has been discontinued
since the reign of George III. Among:
those who have held this office are
Poetry
Dryden, Southey, Wordsworth, and
Tennyson. Alfred Austin is the pres-
ent incumbent.
Poetry, that one of the fine arts
which has for its object the creation of
intellectual pleasure by the use of im-
aginative and passionate language,
which is generally, though not neces-
sarily, formed in. regular measure ; the
art of producing illusions of the imag-
ination by means of language. Also
poetical, imaginative, or passionate
language or compositions, whether ex-
pressed rhythmically or in prose. Thus,
many parts of the prose translations
of the Bible are genume poetry.
Poincare, Raymond, a French
statesman; born at Bar-le-Duc. France,
Aug. 20, 1860: entered political life as a
Deputy in 1886 : was successively Min-
ister of Agriculture, Public Instruction,
and Finance; vice-president of the
Chamber of Deputies for four years;
became Premier and Minister of Foreign
Affairs, Jan. 14, 1912; and was elected
President of the French Republic, for
the term of seven years, Jan. 17,
1913.
Poison. Any agent which, when
introduced into the animal organism,
is capable of producing a morbid or
deadly effect upon it. Antidotes vary
with the kinds of poisons. In cases of
poisoning by acrid and corrosive sub-
stances, the fatty, mucilaginous sub-
stances, as oil, milk, etc., sheathe and
protect the coats of the stomach and
bowels against the operation of poison.
Against metallic poisons, substances
are employed which form with the poi-
son insoluble compounds, such as fresh-
ly prepared hydrated oxide of iron, or
dialysed iron for arsenic, albumin
(white of egg) for mercury. Lime,
chalk, and magnesia are the best reme-
dies for powerful acids. Prussic acid
is neutralized by alkalies and freshly
precipitated oxide of iron. To arouse
those poisoned by opium, use coffee and
ammonia, and belladonna as an antag-
onistic drug. Chloral-hydrate poison-
ing is similarly treated ; and for strych-
nia or nux vomica, animal charcoal in
water and chloral-hydrate are used.
Poisoning was common in ancient
Rome, and in France and Italy during
the 17th century, and recent American
criminal records furnish noted cases
Of poisoning by use of the mail.
Poland
Poison Ivy, a climbing shrub, a
species of sumac, resembling the wood-
bine, and very irritating to sensitive
skins. Bathing the irritated parts
with camphorated oil, vinegar, butter-
milk, or with a decoction of sweet
fern leaves, steeped in boiling water,
are alleviating remedies.
Poisson, Simeon-Denis, a French
geometer ; born in Pithiviers, depart-
ment of Loiret, June 21, 1781. He
was one of the founders of the science
of mathematical physics. He died
April 25, 1840.
Poke-weed, a North American
branching herbaceous plant, which is
naturalized in some parts of Europe
and Asia ; the young shoots are some-
times eaten in the United States as
asparagus.
Poland, once a large and important
kingdom situated in the N. E. of Eu-
rope ; now expunged from all maps as
an independent country. It was the
most level country in Europe, the Car-
pathian Mountains on the S. and W.
being the only mountain range of any
height in the kingdom. The rivers of
chief note are the Vistula, Bug, Nie-
men, Dwina, Dnieper, and Dniester,
either flowing into the Baltic or the
Euxine. The principal mineral prod-
ucts are iron, lead, gold, and silver,
with salt, which last, from the abun-
dance of the yield, and the size and
richness of the mines, was considered
as the natural wealth of the country.
The climate is extremely cold, humid,
and unhealthy; the soil generally fer-
tile. Cattle and wheat are still the
chief agricultural products. Poland
was anciently divided into 12 prov-
inces, each of which was governed by
a chief, called a "Palatine." The
Pols were originally a tribe of Van-
dals, whose history is quite unknown
before the 6th century. From the 13th
century, the Poles became the most
warlike nation in Europe, and from
the time when the Turks first crossed
the Hellespont and settled in Greece.
Poland was denominated the shield or
Eastern Europe. In 1674, John So-
bieski was advanced to the kingly dig-
nity, and under him the Polish arms
acquired a glory that eclipsed all other
nations of that age. Sobieski formed
a league with the Emperoi? Leopold,
and when that monarch had been de-
feated, and his capital on the point of
Poland
Pole
falling into the hands of the Turks,
Sobieski advanced to Vienna, raised
the siege, and, defeating the invaders,
drove them back in rout to Constanti-
nople. The war of succession that
succeeded, between Charles XII. of
Sweden and Frederic Augustus of Sax-
ony, almost ruined the kingdom and
hastened its fatal end. Count Poni-
atowski who, in 1764, was elected to
the throne by the name of Stanislaus
Augustus, was the last King of Po-
land. Under this unfortunate sover-
eign, the country became the theater
of a long and devastating war ; and
Poland was divided between Catherine
of Russia, Joseph II., Emperor of
Germany, and Frederic of Prussia,
This partition of an ancient nation
was perpetrated in 1772. In 1795, a
further dismemberment was effected
between the three great powers, and
the whole of Poland absorbed, except
the ancient city of Cracow, with a few
miles of adjacent country, which was
left to point to future ages where the
once warlike nation of Poland stood
on the physical map of Europe. Of
the three spoilers of Poland, Russia
possesses the largest share of territory
and population. Frequent insurrec-
tions have occurred. In 1864, Poland
was deprived of its administrative in-
dependence, and in 1868 was incorpo-
rated with Russia. There are two
parties, Nationalists and Socialists,
both opposed to the Russian govern-
ment. Pop. (1909) 11,671,800.
Poland, John. Scroggs, an Ameri-
can military officer ; born in Princeton,
Ind., Oct. 14, 1836 ; was graduated at
the United States Military Academy
and appointed a 2d lieutenant in 1861 ;
served through the Civil War ; was as-
sistant Professor of Geography, His-
tory, Ethics and Drawing at the
United States Military Academy in,
1865-1869; and was chief of the De-
Jartment of Law at the United States
nfantry and Cavalry School, Fort
Leavenworth, Kan., in 1881-1886. At
the beginning of the war with Spain
(1898) he was commissioned a Briga-
dier-General of volunteers and com-
manded the 2d division, 1st Army
Corps, stationed at Cbickamauga
Park, Ga. He died in Asheville, N.
C., Aug. 8, 1898.
Polar Bear, the largest individual
of the family Ursidse, and oue o the
best known. It is found over the
whole of Greenland, but its numbers
are decreasing, as it is regularly
hunted for the sake of its skin. It is
quite white when young, changing to
a creamy tint in maturity.
Polar Circles, two imaginary cir-
cles of the earth parallel to the equa-
tor.
Polarization, the act of polarizing
i. e., bestowing the quality of polarity
or opposing poles. In galvanism, the
production or a secondary current in,
a galvanic battery contrary to the
principal one, owing to the gradual
chemical change in the elements of the
battery. This change weakens, or may
even destroy, the original current.
In optics, a state into which the
ethereal undulations which cause the
sensation of light are brought under
certain conditions. These undulations
are perpendicular to the line of trans-
mission of the wave, as in a stretched
cord, but in a ray of common light,
appear to take place successively in
all directions, the vibrations succes-
sively passing through rectilinear, el-
liptical, and circular phases with in-
conceivable rapidity. If the vibrations
become, or are rendered, stable in any
one form of orbit, the light is in the
condition known as polarized.
Pole, in astronomy, one of the twe
points in which the axis of the earth
is supposed to meet the sphere of the
heavens.
Pole, Reginald, Cardinal, a
British statesman and Archbishop of
Canterbury in the reign of Queen
Mary, descended from the blood royal
of England; born in Stourton Castle,
in Staffordshire, in 1500. He was
educated at Sheen Monastery and
Magdalen College, Oxford ; and after
obtaining preferment in the Church,
went to Italy, where he long resided.
On his return to England he opposed
the divorce of Henry VIII. from Cath-
erine of Aragon in such earnest terms,
that the king drove him from his pres-
ence, and never saw him more. He
again left England, was made a cardi-
nal in December, 1536, and had the
offer of the popedom on the death of
Paul III. When Mary ascended the
throne, Pole returned to England as
legate, in which capacity he absolved
the Parliament from their sin of her-
esy, and reconciled the nation to the
Polecat
Holy See. The very day after the
burning of Cranmer, the cardinal was
consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury.
He survived the queen but one day,
and died Nov. 18, 1558.
Polecat, one of the Mustelinae, akin
'to the marten, but with a broader
(head, a blunter snout, and a much
shorter tail. It has a shorter neck and
a stouter body than the weasel. Two
glands near the root of the tail emit
a highly offensive smell. It makes im-
mense havoc in poultry yards, rabbit
I warrens, and among hares and par-
tridges, killing everything which it
can overpower.
POLECAT.
Pole Star, Polaris, a bright star at
the tip of the tail of Ursa Minor, and
in a line with the pointers Merak and
Dubhe, the two stars constituting the
front of the plowlike figure in Ursa
Major. The pole star is really a
double star of yellow hue, but while
the larger or visible one is between the
second and third magnitude, its com-
panion is only of the ninth, and there-
fore a telescopic star. 'There is no cor-
responding star in the Southern Hem-
isphere.
Police, a system of judicial and
executive administration of a country,
especially concerned with the mainte-
nance of the quiet and good order of
society. In a more limited sense, the
1 administration of the laws, by-laws,
and regulations of a city. The des-
ignation, also, of a body of men, not
military, appointed to enforce state
and municipal laws, and preserve*
I the peace.
Political Economy, the science
which investigates the nature of wealth
and the laws of its production and dis-
tribution, including the operation of
Polk
causes by which the condition of man-
kind in respect to this object of hu-
man desire, is made prosperous or the-
reverse. Inquiries on these point*
must have existed from the earliest
times in every nation, but political
economy as a science is dated from re-
cent times.
Political Offenses, those offenses
considered injurious to the safety of
the state. In modern times the crimes
considered political offenses have
varied at different periods and in dif-
ferent states. In the United States,
and in most of the countries of Eu-
rope, extradition treaties do not in-
clude giving up political offenders.
Political Parties, divisions of peo-
ple in a State marked off by the par-
ticular views they hold as to the pub-
lic policy to be pursued in the best
interests of the people at large. In the
United States the chief political
parties are the Democrats and the Re-
publicans.
Politics, the science which treats
of the distribution of power in a
country. Popularly, the political sen-
timents of an individual, his procedure
in promoting the interests of his party.
Polk, James Knoz, an American
statesman, llth President of the
United States, born in Mecklenburg
co., N. C., Nov. 2, 1795. His ancestors,
who bore the name Pollock, emigrated
from the W. of Ireland early in the
18th century. He was educated at the
University of Nashville, Tenn., to
which State his father had removed in
1806, and was admitted to the bar in
1820. In 1823 he was sent to the Ten-
nessee Legislature, and in 1824 to Con-
gress, to which body he was reflected
for seven successive terms, serving till
1839. He was made chairman of the
Committee of Ways and Means in
1833, and twice elected Speaker of the
House 1835-1837. In Congress he
was consistently a Democrat, support-
ing unwaveringly the administration
of Jackson and Van Buren, and op-
posing that of Adams. In 1839 he was
elected governor of Tennessee, and in
1844 unexpectedly nominated as a
compromise candidate of the National
Democratic Convention for the presi-
dency, and elected over Henry Clay,
the 'Whig candidate. His administra-
tion was eventful, and in some respects:
Polk
brilliant. Texas was annexed, and the
Mexican War fought, which, with ter-
ritorial purchases, added the great ter-
ritory now comprising Texas, Califor-
nia, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, and
the W. part of Colorado to the domain
of the United States. The Oregon
boundary forming one of the issues on
which he was elected, was settled by
a compromise offered by England. He
was a man of eminent administrative
abilities, of consistent principles, and
pure and upright private character.
At the close of his single term Polk
declined to stand for renomination,
and retired to private life in Nash-
ville, Tenn., where he died June 15,
1849.
Folk, Leonidas, an American mili-
tary officer ; born in Raleigh, N. C.,
April 10, 1806 ; was a cousin of Presi-
dent Polk, and grandson of Col.
Thomas Polk, an officer of the Revolu-
tion. Graduating at the United States
Military Academy in 1827, he received
a commission in the artillery, but was
induced to study for the ministry,
and in 1830 received deacon's, and in
1831 priest's orders in the Episcopal
Church. In 1838 he was consecrated
Bishop of Arkansas and Indian Terri-
tory, with charge of the dioceses of
Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana;
in 1841 he resigned all these except the
bishopric of Louisiana, which he re-
tained till his death. Soon after the
outbreak of tne Civil War he was of-
fered a major-generalship by Jefferson
Davis, and accepted it ; was promoted
to Lieutenant-General. He was killed
while reconnoitering on Pine Moun-
tain, June 14, 1864, by a cannon shot
fired by some Northern officers who
wished to give the bishop's party a
fright.
Polka, a well known dance, the
music to which is in 2-4 time, with the
third %th note accented.
Pollard, Edward Albert, an
American journalist and author; born
in Virginia, Feb. 27, 1828. As editor
of the Richmond " Examiner " during
the Civil War, he was an earnest advo-
cate of the Confederate cause, but an
active opponent of Jefferson Davis. He
died in Lynchburg, Va., Dec. 12, 1872.
Pollard, Josephine, an American
writer of juvenile literature; born in
New York city in 1843. She died
there Aug. 15, 1892.
Polo
Pollen, in botany, the pulverulent
or other substance which fills the cells
of the anther. It consists of minute
granules varying in size and inclosing
a fluid containing molecular matter. In
entomology, pollen collected from
plants and carried on the outer surface
of the tibise of bees. Mixed with
honey, it becomes the food of the
Pollock, Sir Frederick, third
baronet of the name; born Dec. 10,
1845. He was called to the bar and
became Corpus Professor of Jurispru-
dence at Oxford, and Professor of
Common Law. His younger brother,
Walter Herries Pollock, born Feb. 21,
1850, was called to the bar and 10
years later became editor of the " Sat-
urday Review."
Pollock, Sir George, field-mar-
shal ; born Westminster June 4, 1786 ;
entered the army of the East India
Company as lieutenant of artillery in
1803. In 1838 he reached the rank
of major-general. After the massacre
of General Elphinstone and his forces
in the passes of Afghanistan the In-
dian government decided to send a
force to the relief of Sir Robert Sale.
The command of the relieving force
was given to General Pollock. In
April, 1842, he forced the formidable
Khyber Pass, and reached Sir Robert
Sale; he defeated the Afghan chief at
Tezeen, and destroyed the bazaar in
Kabul, and he recovered 135 British
prisoners. He returned to England in
1846, and was created a field-marshal
in 1870. He died Oct. 6, 1872.
Poll Tax, a tax levied per head. In
the United States a poll tax (varying
from 25 cents to $3 annually) is levied
in most of the States, in addition to
the taxes on property.
Pollux, a celebrated hero of the
Grecian mythology, and twin brother
of Castor, after whose death he im-
plored Jupiter to render him immortal.
His prayer could not be entirely grant-
ed, but Jupiter divided immortality
between the brothers, each living and
dying alternately. In astronomy, one
of the twins forming the constellation
Gemini. Also the name of a star of
the second magnitude in the same con-
stellation.
Polo, an equestrian game, which
may be shortly described as hockey on
Polo
horseback. It is of Oriental origin
and of high antiquity ; it has been
claimed that it can be traced back to
600 B. c. Since 1876 many polo clubs
have been started in the United States.
Polo, Marco, a Venetian traveler
of the 13th century, the son of a mer-
chant, who, with his brother, had
penetrated to the court of Kublai, the
great khan of the Tartars. This prince,
being highly entertained with their ac-
count of Europe, made them his am-
bassadors to the Pope ; on which they
traveled back to Rome, and, with two
missionaries, once more visited Tar-
tary, accompanied by the young Marco
who became a great favorite with the
khan. Having acquired the different
dialects of Tartary, he was employed
on various embassies ; and after a resi-
dence of 17 years, all the three Vene-
tians returned to their own country in
1295, with immense wealth. Marco
afterward served his country at sea
against the Genoese, and, being taken
prisoner, remained many years in con-
finement, the tedium of which he be-
guiled by composing the history of his
" Travels." Marco Polo relates many
things which appear incredible, but the
general truthfulness of his narrative
has been established by succeeding
travelers.
Polonaise, a Polish national dance,
which has been imitated, but with
much variation, by other nations.
Polyandry, the marriage of one
woman to several men at once. There
are several forms of it, each an ad-
vance on its predecessor: (1) One
wife has several unrelated husbands,
and each of the husbands other unre-
lated wives; (2) the unrelated hus-
bands have but one wife; (3) the hus-
bands are related; (4) the husbands
are brothers. The custom is still wide-
ly spread in the East.
Polyanthus, a beautiful and favor-
ite variety of the common primrose,
growing in wods and copses in a
moist clayey soil. The plants are
very hardy, and require to be trans-
planted every two years.
Polybius, a Greek historian; born
in Megalopolis, Greece, probably about
204 B. C. His great work is a general
history of the affairs of Greece and
Rome from 220 B. C. to 146 B. c. Five
only of its 40 books are now extant,
Polynesia
with some fragments of the rest, but
these are among the most important
literary remains of antiquity. He
wrote several other works, but they
have perished. Died at the age of 82.
Polycarp, St., one of the apostol-
ical fathers of the Church, and a Chris-
tian martyr, who, according to tradi-
tion, was a disciple of the Apostle
John, and by him appointed Bishop of
Smyrna ; suffered martyrdom A. D. 155.
Polycrates, a ruler of the island
of Samos from about 536 to 522 B. c.
He conquered several islands on the
Asiatic mainland, waged war success-
fully against the inhabitants of Miletus
and defeated their allies the Lesbians
in a great sea fight. His ultimate al-
liance with Amasis, King of Egypt,
proves the importance in which this
daring island-prince was held even by
great monarchs. Orcetes, the Persian
satrap of Sardis, had conceived a dead-
ly hatred against Polycrates, and, hav-
ing enticed the- latter to visit him at
Magnesia by appealing to his cupidity,
he seized and crucified him.
Polygamy, the practice or condi-
tion of having a plurality of wives at
the same time. It is prohibited by
law in all Christian countries, but is
practiced by Mohammedans and by the
uncivilized peoples of Africa and the
South Seas. The Mormons adopted it,
but have now ostensibly renounced it.
Polyglot, a collection of versions in
different languages of the same work,
but is almost exclusively applied to
manifold versions of the Bible.
Polygon, in geometry, a. portion of
a plane bounded on all sides by more
than four limited straight lines.
Polygyny, the marriage by one
man of several wives at the same time.
Polyhymnia, one of the Muses,
daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne,
who presided over singing and rhetoric,
and was deemed the inventress of har-
mony.
Polynesia, a general name for a
number of distinct archipelagoes of
small islands scattered over the Pa-
cific Ocean, extending from about lat.
35 N. to 35 S., and from Ion. 135
E. to 100 W., the Philippines, New
Guinea, Australia, and New Zealand
being excluded. The islands are dis-
tributed into numerous groups, having
a general direction from N. W. to S.
Tolyp
E. The islands may be divided into
two chief classes, volcanic and coral
islands. Some of the former rise to
a great height, the highest peak in the
Pacific, Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, reach-
ing 13,600 feet. The elevations of the
coral formation groups do not exceed
;500 feet.
Polynesia has a comparatively mod-
erate temperature, and the climate is
dejjghtful and salubrious. The pre-
dominating race, occupying the cen-
tral and E. portion of Polynesia, is of
Malay origin, with oval faces, wide
nostrils, and large ears. The hair and
complexion vary, but the latter is
often a light brown. Their language
is split up into numerous dialects. The
-other leading race is of negroid or
Papuan origin, with negro-like fea-
tures and crisp mop-like hair. They
^are confined to Western Polynesia, and
speak a different language, with nu-
merous distinct dialects. Christianity
has been introduced into a great many
of the islands, and a large number of
them are under the control of one or
other of the European powers. The
Ladrones were discovered by Magellan
in 1521, the Marquesas by Mandana
in 1595, but it was not till 1767 that
Wallis, and subsequently Cook, ex-
plored and described the chief islands.
Since the natives came in contact with
the whites their numbers have greatly
decreased.
Polyp, a name usually applied to
*n animal like the fresh-water hydra
-or like the sea anemone, having a tubu-
lar body and a wreath of many tenta-
cles around the mouth.
Polyphemus, in mythology, the
king of all the Cyclops in Sicily, and
gon of Neptune and Thoosa. He is
represented as a monster of immense
strength, and with one eye in the mid-
dle of the forehead. He fed on human
flesh, and kept his flocks on the coasts
of Sicily.
Polyphone, a character or vocal
ign representing more than one sound.
Polytechnic College, a coeduca-
tional institution in Fort Worth,
Tex.; founded in 1891 under the
auspices of the Methodist Episcopal
Church.
Polytechnic Institute, an educa-
tional non-sectarian institute in Brook-
lyn, N. Y. ; founded in 1854.
Pomona
Polytechnic School, an educa-
tional establishment in which instruc-
tion is given in many arts and sci-
ences, more especially with reference
to their practical application.
Polytheism, the worship of many
gods. It is not necessarily the same as
idolatry, for gods may be adored with-
out of any image of them being made.
Pombal, Sebastian Joseph de
Carvalho e Mello, Marquis of, a
Portuguese statesman ; born May 13, !
1699, at the castle of Soure, near
Ooimbra. In 1739 he was appointed
ambassador in London, and six years
later was sent to Vienna in a similar
capacity. Just before Joseph I. as-
cended the throne of Portugal (1750),
Pombal was appointed secretary for
foreign affairs. When the great earth-
quake happened at Lisbon in 1755
Pombal displayed great calmness and
fertile resource, so that next year the
king made him prime minister. He
crushed a revolt instigated by the
great nobles and the Jesuits, and in
1759 banished the latter from the
kingdom. The tyranny of the Inquisi-
tion was broken. Agriculture, com-
merce, and the finances were all im-
proved. In 1758 he had been made
Count of Oeyras, and in 1770 he was
created Marquis of Pombal. On the
accession of Joseph's daughter, Maria
I. (in 1777), Pombal was deprived of
his offices and banished from court. He
died in his castle of Pombal, May 8,
1782. The cruelty shown in the pun-
ishment of the conspirators against
King Joseph is a lasting blot on his
memory.
Pomegranate, a dense, spiny
shrub, 15 to 25 feet high, a native of
W. Asia and N. Africa, and cultivated
in Florida and California for its sweet
sub-acid fruit.
Pomerania, or Pommern, a prov-
ince of Prussia, bounded by the Baltic,
Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, and West
Prussia: area, 11.628 square miles;
pop. 1,634,659. The center of trade is
Stettin, which ranks as one of the
chief commercial cities of Prussia.
Pomerania was originally inhabited by
Goths, Vandals, and Slavs. It is first
mentioned in history in 1140, and was
an independent duchy until 1637.
Pomona, the Roman divinity of the
frr.it of trees. In works of art she
"Pomona College
Pompeii
was generally represented with fruits
in her lap, or in a basket, with a gar-
land of fruits in her hair and a prun*
ing knife in her right hand.
Pomona College, a coeducational
institution in Claremont, Cal. ; founded
in 1887, under the auspices of the Con-
gregational Church.
Pompeii, a seaport at the mouth of
the Sarnus, on the Neapolitan Riviera,
founded about 600 B. c. by the Oscans,
and after them, oooipied by the Tyrr-
heno-Pelasgians, and by the Samnites,
till these, about 80 B. c., were dispos-
sessed by the Romans. From that time
down to its destruction, A. D. 79, it be-
came a sort of Rome-super-Mare, fre-
quented by the aristocracy. On Feb.
5, A. D. 63, by an earthquake in the
torrents that intermittently fell. For
three days the flight of the inhabitants
continued till Pompeii was abandoned:
,by all who could effect their escape.
By the fourth day the sun had par-
tially reappeared, and the more coura-
geous of the citizens began to return
for such of their property as they could
disinter. The reigning emperor, Titus,
organized relief on an imperial scale,
and even undertook the clearing and
rebuilding of the city. This attempt
was soon abandoned, and Pompeii re-
mained a heap of hardened mud and
ashes, gradually overgrown with grass
the wall of the great theater and
the outline of the amphitheater alone
marking its site till 1592, when the
architect Fontana, in cutting an aque-
A POMPETTAN HOUSE.
vicinity, these buildings were all but
levelled with the ground, and some
years elapsed ere the fugitive citizens
recovered confidence enough to reoc-
cupy and rebuild what was once
Pompeii. Revolutionized as it was for
the worse, the city, however, retained
much of Greek character and color-
ing, and had relapsed into more than
its former gaiety and licentiousness,
when on Aug. 23 (or, more probably
on Nov. 23), 79, with a return of the
shocks of earthquake, Vesuvius was
seen to throw up a. column of black
smoke expanding like some umbrella
pine of the neighborhood, till it as-
sumed the proportions of a great
swarthy cloud, dense with ashesj pum-
ice, and red-hot stones, settling down
with a force increased by the rain-
I duct, came on some ancient buildings.
I Unsystematic, unscientific excavations
proceeded fitfully till 1860, when the
Italian kingdom took in hand the un-
earthing of the city. This was carried
out with admirable ingenuity, care,
and success, and it now attracts the
pilgrim from every clime for the object
lessons it is unique in affording as to
the public and private life of antiquity.
House construction consists mainly
of concrete or brick, and sometimes of
stone blocks, especially at the corners.
Two-storied, sometimes three-storied
houses are numerous, though the upper
floors, built of wood, have been con-
sumed by the eruption. Stores usually
occupied the ground floors of dwelling-
houses, on their street aspect, let out
to merchants or dealers as at the pres-
Poinpey
ent day, but not connected with the
back part of the house. They could
be separated from the street by large
wooden doors, while inside they had
tables covered with marble, in which
earthen vessels for wine or oil were in-
serted. The storekeeper had some-
times a second room at the back, when
he did not live on an upper floor or in
another part of the town. Retail
traffic must have been considerable at
Pompeii, to judge from the number of
those stores along the streets. Only a
personal visit can convey an idea of
the indoor life of the Pompeiians, with
whom the absence of glass, the fewness
of the openings in the street aspect
of the house wall, and the protection
of these with iron gratings are among
the points noted by the most casual
visitor. As rebuilt after 63, Pompeii
shows little marble, the columns being
of tufa or brick cemented by mortar.
A coating of stucco was laid over wall
or column and presented an ample
field for ornamental painting. This
must have given to Pompeii its bright,
gay coloring, which, with its reds,
blues, and yellows, on column and cap-
ital, on wall and partition, harmonize
so well with the glowing sunlight of
the South.
Pompey, Cneius Pompeius
Magnus, son of Pompeius Strabo, a
Roman general ; born in 106 B. c. He
ranged himself with the aristocratic
party of the republic.. On the death
of Sylla, in 78 B. c., Pompey went as
proconsul to Spain. With Crassus he
crushed the Marian party, and in
70 B. c. Pompey and Crassus were
elected consuls. He was made abso-
lute dictator in the East, and super-
seded Lucullus in the command against
Mithridates. The latter he completely
routed in 66 B. c. In 60 B. c. he joined
Caesar and Crassus in the triumvirate,
the former of whom gave him his
daughter Julia in marriage. In 54
B. c. Julia died ; in the year following,
Crassus was slain in Asia ; and the
hostility between Caesar and Pompey
rapidly developed itself. Caesar crossed
the Rubicon with his troops, 49 B. C.,
and Pompey, accompanied by Cato,
Cicero, and other nobles of Rome, fell
back on Greece, where the great bat-
tle of Pharsalia decided his fate. Pom-
pey was advised to seek an asylum in
t, then ruled by a sovereign he
Poniatowski
had protected, Ptolemy XII. He was
received with pretended friendship, but
murdered as soon as he stepped
ashore, 48 B. c.
Ponce, second city in commercial
importance in Porto Rico; in Depart-
ment of same name; 2% miles N. of
the S. coast, 45 miles S. W. of San.
Juan; has a spacious harbor; is
well-built, largely of brick; is the
seat of a Roman Catholic Cathedral;
has two handsome plazas, public li-
brary, and several hospitals and asy-
lums; and is chiefly engaged in rais-
ing sugar cane, cacao, tobacco, and
cattle. Pop. (1910 35,027.
Ponce de Leon, Juan, a Spanish
explorer, the discoverer of Florida ;
born in San Servas, Spain, in 1460;
was a court page, served against the
Moors, and in 1502 sailed with Ovando
to Ilispaniola, and became governor of
the E. part of the island. In 1510 he
obtained the government of Porto Rico,
and had conquered the whole island
by 1512. He then set out on a quest
for the fountain of perpetual youth,
and on March 27, 1512, found Florida.
He secured the appointment of adel-
antado of the country, and returned
in 1521 to conquer his new subjects ;
in this, however, he failed. He retired
to Cuba, and died there in July from
the wound of a poisoned arrow.
Pond, Frederick Eugene, an
American journalist and author ; born
in Marquette co., Wis., April 8, 1856.
Poniatowski, Joseph, Prince, a
Polish general ; born in Warsaw, Po-
land, in 1763, and when young entered
the Austrian service, but when the
Poles rose against Russia he quitted
it, and joining his countrymen, fought
with them under Kosciusko. On the
defeat of this general, Poniatowski
sought refuge in Vienna, till the
French entered Warsaw in 1806, when
he was appointed to the command of
the Polish army which was to co-
operate with the French against Rus-
sia. Napoleon estimated his services
so highly, that shortly before the bat-
tle of Leipsic he created him a Mar-
shal of France. After this disastrous
battle, the French were flying in utter
confusion over the Elster, and Ponia-
towski was drowned in the attempt,
Oct. 13, 1813.
Poniatowski, Stanislas Augus-
tus, the last king of Poland, and one
Pontchartrain
of the early lovers of Catherine the
Great of Russia. He died at St.
Petersburg, in 1798, of a broken heart.
Pontchartrain, Lake, in Louisi-
ana, about 5 miles N. of New Orleans,
is 40 miles long and 25 wide. It is
navigated by small steamers, and com-
municates with the Gulf of Mexico.
The drainage of New Orleans is car-
ried into the lake through canals.
Fontiac, a celebrated Indian chief
of the Ottawa tribe ; born about 1712.
He was the leader in Pontiac's War,
and was killed in Illinois in 1769.
Pontiac's War, an Indian war of
1703 between the English settlers and
garrisons on the frontiers, and a com-
bination of Indian tribes, under the
leadership of Pontiac. The war lasted
two years.
Pontifex, a bridge builder; a title
given to the more illustrious members
of the Roman colleges of priests. Their
number was originally five, the presi-
dent being styled Pontifex Maximus.
The number was afterward increased
to nine, and later still to 15. The title
of Pontifex Maximus is now the title
of the Pope.
Pontifical, one of the service books
of the Church of Rome, in which are
contained the several services.
Pontoon, a floating vessel support-
ing the roadway timbers of a floating
military bridge.
Pony, a term applied to several sub-
varieties or races of horses, generally
of smaller size than the ordinary horses
and which are bred in large flocks
and herds in various parts of the
world, chiefly for purposes of riding
and of lighter draught work.
Poodle, a breed of dog whose origin
dates from the beginning of the 17th
century or earlier. The poodle is one
of the few breeds of dogs which has
not been properly appreciated and cul-
tivated in the United States. From
his great intelligence and cleverness in
learning tricks, he was generally adopt-
ed as a circus or " trick dog " ; but
this fact, instead of making for his
credit, has caused the poodle to be
treated with contempt.
Pook, Samuel Hartt, an Ameri-
can naval constructor, born in Brook-
lyn, N. Y., Jan. 17, 1827 ; was graduat-
ed at the Portsmouth Academy, N.
Pope
H., in 1843. He settled in Boston as
a naval architect and designed many
merchant and war vessels ; entered
government service, when the Civil
War broke out, and at the close of
the war entered the navy as assistant
naval constructor and served at differ-
ent navy yards till bis- retirement in
1899. He died in 1901.
Pool, a game played on a pool table.
The term " poolroom " is applied
to places, apart from race tracks, in
which bets on horse-races are received,
and as this is an illegal business, the
word frequently occurs in the daily
news.
Also, an arrangement between sev-
eral competing lines of railway, by
which the total receipts of each com-
pany are pooled, and distributed pro
rata according to agreement.
Pool, Maria Louise, an American
novelist; born in Rockland, Mass., in
August, 1841. She died in Rockland,
May 19, 1898.
Poole, "William Frederick, an
American bibliographer ; born in Sa-
lem, Mass., Dec. 24, 1821; was a
librarian of Boston, Cincinnati, and
Chicago. His chief work is the cele-
brated " Index to Periodical Litera-
ture." He died in Evanston, 111.,
March 1, 1894.
Poor Clares, a Roman Catholic re-
ligious order, having very severe rules,
and called after the founder.
Poore, Benjamin Perley, an
American author ; born in Newbury,
Mass., Nov. 2, 1820 ; spent several
years abroad. On his return he be-
came active in journalism. He died
in Washington, D. C., May 30, 1887.
Poor Priests, a name given to, or
assumed by, the Lollard clergy of the
14th and 15th centuries, who wandered
about the country holding what would
now be called " missions," without the
sanction of the bishop of the diocese.
Pope, specifically, the Bishop of
Rome. The term Papa, or Papas
(father), has always been given by
the Greek Church to presbyters, like
the term Father now applied to a
Roman priest. In the early centuries
the bishops received the same title till,
in a council held at Rome in 1076, at
the instance of Gregory VII. (Hilde-
branclt, it was limited to the Bishop
of Rome. Holding that office, being
Pope
also Metropolitan of Rome and pri-
mate, and claiming to be the earthly
head of the Church universal, it is in
the last named capacity that the term
Pope is held to be specially applicable.
It has been a matter of controversy
among Roman Catholics whether the
authority of the Pope was above or
below that of the General Council.
That of Pisa (1409), claiming to be a
General Council, deposed two rival
Popes, and appointed a third ; but the
two former repudiated the authority
of the council, and exercised their
functions as before. The Council of
Constance (1414-1418) also deposed
two rival Popes and elected one. " The
States of the Church " figured on the
map of Europe as an independent sov-
ereignty till Sept. 20, 1870, when the
troops of Victor Emmanuel, King of
Italy, entered Rome, and took pos-
session of the palace for the Italian
kingdom. No interference took place
with the Pope's spiritual authority.
Pope Pius X. See Pius.
Pope, Alexander, an English
poet; born in London, England, May
<J1, 1688. His education was a desul-
tory one. He picked up the rudiments
of Greek and Latin from the family
priest, and was successively sent to
two schools, one at Twyford, the other
in London. Before he was 15 he at-
tempted an epic poem, and at the age
of 16 his " Pastorals " procured him
the notice of several eminent persons.
In 1711 he published his poem the
*'Essay on Criticism," which was fol-
lowed by " The Rape of the Lock," a
polished and witty narrative poem
founded on an incident of fashionable
life. From 1718 to 1726 he was en-
gaged on a poetical translation of
Homer's works, the " Iliad " (com-
pleted in 1720) being wholly from his
pen, the " Odyssey " only half. The
pecuniary results of these translations
showed a total profit of nearly $45,000.
He died in Twickenham, May 30, 1744.
Pope, John, an American military
officer; born in Louisville, Ky., March
16, 1822 ; was graduated at the United
States Military Academy in 1842, and
entered the engineers. He served in
Florida (1842-1844), and in the Mex-
ican War, and was brevetted captain
for gallantry. He was afterward em-
ployed in exploring and surveying in
the Wat, till the outbreak of the Civil
Popish Plot
War, when he was appointed Briga-
dier-General of volunteers. For 15
days in August, 1862, he faced Lee,
but was defeated at the second battle
of Bull Run, on the 29th and 30th.
He then requested to be relieved, and
was transferred to Minnesota, where
he kept the Indians in check. He
held various commands till 1886, when
he retired. In 1882 he became Major-
General, U. S. A. Pope died in San-
dusky, O., Sept. 23, 1892.
Popinjay, a parrot; a figure of a
bird put up as a mark for archers to
shoot at. The green woodpecker is
also sometimes called popinjay. Also
applied to a man who dresses too
show'ly.
OPIUM POPPY.
a, whole plant; b, flower and leaf; c, ripe
capsule; d, seed and section of seed ett
larged.
Popish Plot, in English history, an
alleged plot made known by Titus
Gates in 1678. He asserted that two
men had been told off to assassinate
Charles II., that certain Roman Cath-
olics whom he named had been ap-
Poplar
pointed to all the high offices of the
State, and that the extirpation of
Protestantism was intended. On the
strength of his allegation, various per-
sons were executed. Gradually evi-
dence arose that the whole story was
a fabrication, and that the people who
had been capitally punished were all
innocent. On May 8, 1685, Oates,
who had received a pension of $10,000
for his revelations, was convicted of
perjury, heavily fined, pilloried and
publicly flogged. He died in 1705.
Poplar, a tree. Known species 18,
from the N. temperate zone. The
great white poplar, or abele, is a large
tree, growing 'in moist places and
mountain woods.
Poplin, a silk and worsted stuff,
watered, figured, brocaded, or tissued.
Originally an all-silk French goods.
Popocatepetl ("smoking moun-
tain "), a volcano about 40 miles S. E.
of the city of Mexico. It rises in the
form of a cone to a height of 17,784
feet above the sea-level. No eruption
bas been recorded since 1540 ; it still
smokes.
Poppy, a genus of plants, of which
there are numerous species, mostly na-
tives of Europe and Asia, some of
them found in the very N. regions, but
most of them in the warmer temper-
ate parts. By far the most important
species is that known' as the opium
poppy, also called the white poppy
and the oil poppy. But the same
species is important on account of
the bland fixed oil of the seeds, and
is much cultivated as an oil plant.
Poppy oil is as sweefc as olive oil, and
is used for similar purposes. It is
imported into the United States in
considerable quantities from India. A
variety with double flowers is culti-
vated in* flower gardens, under the
name of carnation poppy.
Populist, or People's Party, a
political organization founded at Cin-
cinnati, in May 1891 ; an outgrowth
of the movements inaugurated by the
Patrons of Husbandry (q. v.), and
the Farmer's Alliance. Appealing to
the agricultural and industrial classes,
its avowed objects include free silver ;
national ownership of transportation
and freight utilities ; a graduated in-
come tax ; prohibition of alien owner-
ship of land, etc.
Porcupine
Porcelain, a fictile material inter-
mediate between glass and pottery, be-
ing formed of two substances, fusible
and infusible, the latter enabling it to
withstand the heat necessary to vitrify
the former, thus producing its peculiar
semi-translucency. The infusible ma*
terial is alumina, called kaolin; the
fusible substance is felspar, and is
called pe-tun-tse, both Chinese terms.
SLepublic. ^ 1810-14. Lndwig Pt
Sevres (sinct tf
PORCELAIN MABKS.
Large quantities of porcelain are pro-
duced in New Jersey, Ohio, and other
states, while European porcelain, and
Chinese and Japanese ware, are fa-
mous. See POTTERY.
Porcupine, a rodent quadruped.
The North American porcupine is
about two feet long, and of sluggish
habits. The quills are short, and con-
cealed among the fur, and the tail is
short. The " tree porcupine " of SoutH
America has a prehensile tail, about
10 inches long. The porcupine of
Southern Europe and Africa is about
28 inches long, exclusive of the tail.
The head, fore quarters, and under
surface are clothed with short spines,
intermixed with hairs, crest on head
and neck, hind quarters covered with
long sharp spines, ringed with black
and white, and erectile at will. They
are but loosely attached to the skin
and readily fall out, a circumstance
which probably gave rise to the belief
that the animal was able to project
them at an enemy.
Porcupine Crab
Port
Porcupine Crab, a native of Ja-
pan. The carapace is triangular, and,
like the limbs, thickly covered with
spines. It is dull and sluggish in its
movements.
Porcupine Fish, a fish found in
the tropical seas. It is about 14
inches long, and is covered with spines
or prickles.
PREHENSILE-TAILED PORCUPINE.
Porgy, Poggy, or Paugie, an im-
portant food fish found on the coast of
the United States. It attains a length
of 18 inches and a weight of about
four pounds.
Pork, the flesh of swine ; one of the
most important and widely used spe-
cies of animal food. The swine was
forbidden to be eaten by the Mosaic
law, and is regarded by the Jews as
especially typical of the' unclean ani-
mals. Other Eastern nations had sim-
ilar opinions as to the use of pork.
In the United States the pork-packing
industry is one of the greatest factors
of wealth. The immense establish-
ments at Chicago, Kansas City,
Omaha, St. Louis, Indianapolis, Cin-
cinnati, and other cities, represent
many millions of dollars invested in
this branch of trade and commerce.
Porosity, the quality or state of
being porous or of having pores.
Pprphyrio, a genus of bird* oc-
curring in South America, in Africa,
and in the S. of Europe, but chiefly
Oriental. In habits they resemble the
water hen, but are larger and more,
stately birds.
Porphyry, a term originally ap-
plied to a rock having a purple cov-
ered base, with inclosed individual
crystals of a felspar.
Porpoise, a small cetacean. The
common porpoise, when full grown, at-
tains a length of about five feet. The
head is rounded in front, and the snout
is not produced into a beak. The ex-
ternal surface is shining and hairless,
dark grey or black on the upper parts,
under pure white. It is gregarious in
habit, and is often seen in small herds,
frequenting the coasts rather than the
open seas. It -often ascends rivers,
and ranges as far N. as Baffin Bay
and as far W. as the coast of the
United States.
Porsenna, or Porsena, a cele-
brated leader and king of Etruria, who
declared war against the Romans be-
cause they refused to restore Tarquin
to his throne. At first successful, he
would have entered the gates of Rome
had not Horatius Coccles stood at the
head of a bridge and resisted the fury
of the whole Etrurian army, while hi
companions behind were cutting off the
communication with the opposite
shore. This act of bravery astonished
Porsenna ; but when he had seen Mu-
tius Scsevola, who had entered his
camp with the intention of murdering
him, burn his hand without emotion,
to convince him of his fortitude, he no
longer dared to make head against so
brave a people. He made a peace with
the Romans, and never after sapported
the claims of Tarquin.
PORCUPINE: HYSTRIX CRISTATA.
Port, a harbor, natural or artificial ;
into which vessels can enter, and in
which they can lie in safety from
storms. In law, a place appointed for
the passage of travelers and merchan-
dise into or out of the United States;
a place frequented by vessels for the
purpose of loading or discharging car-
, and provided with the apparatus
necessary to enable them to do so.
'Port
Porter
Port, a species of red wine, pro-
duced chiefly in the mountainous dis-
tricts of Portugal, and shipped from
Oporto.
Port Arthur, Lushwankau, or
Lushunku, a former naval station of
China, with a fine narrow-mouthed
harbor at the end and on the E. side
of the peninsula jutting S. W. from
Manchuria, opposite Chifu, strongly
fortified ; formerly the headquarters of
the N. fleet of China. It was taken
by the Japanese in 1894, and was re-
stored to China by coercion of Euro-
pean powers. On Dec. 19, 1897, a
Russian fleet occupied Port Arthur
with China's consent, the pretext be-
ing that the ships would simply winter
there. On Jan. 28, 1898, Port Arthur
was ceded to Russia. At the break-
ing out of the Russo-Japanese War in
1904, Port Arthur was immediately
assMed by the Japanese, and the Rus-
sian fleet in the harbor so effectually
blocked that is was of no use to the
Rusians during the conflict. It was
isolated on May 14, 1904. after a siege
la&ting 232 d^ys ; surrendered January
2, 1905, by the Russians to the Japa-
nese General Stoessel to General Nogi.
Port Arthur Ship Canal, an
artificial waterway in Texas. The
small town of Port Arthur is situated
on Sabine Lake, a body of water 3
miles long and 10 miles wide, which
marks the boundary of Texas and Lou-
isiana. Seven and one-half miles from
Port Arthur Sabine Lake narrows
into a long channel called Sabine
Pass. This channel is from 26 to 40
feet deep and extends for 7 miles to
the S., terminating at the Gulf of
Mexico. At the outer end of the pass
is a bar which has been pierced by a
channel formed by extending for a mile
or more from shore two jetties of
piled stone, built by the United States
government.
Port-au-Prince, the capital of
Haiti, situated on the W. coast at
.the head of a bay of the same name.
Pop. about 50,000.
Portcullis, a strong defensive
framework of timber, hung in grooves
within the chief gateway of a fortress,
or a castle, or an edifice of safety.
Porte, Ottoman, or Sublime
Porte, the common term for the Turk-
ish government.
Porter, David, an American naval
officer; born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 1,
1780, the son of a naval officer who
fought through the Revolutionary
War. He was appointed midshipman
in 1798, and lieutenant the year after;
saw service against privateers in the
West Indies, and against Tripoli itt
1801-1803; became captain in 1812,
and captured the first British war-
ship taken in the war. In 1813, with
the " Essex " he nearly destroyed the
English whale fishery in the Pacific,
and took possession of the Marquesas
Islands ; but in March, 1814, his frig-
ate was destroyed by the British in
Valparaiso Harbor, and Porter re-
turned home on parole. He afterward
commanded an expedition against pi-
rates in the West Indian waters, and
was court-rnartialed for compelling
the authorities of Porto Rico to
apologize for imprisoning one of his
officers. Porter resigned in 1826, and
was for a time at the head of the
Mexican navy. In 1829 the United
States appointed him consul-general
to the Barbary States, and then min-
ister at Constantinople, where he
died March 3, 1843.
Porter, David Dixon, an Ameri-
can naval officer; born in Chester, Pa.,
June 8, 1813; son of Commodore Da-
vid Porter. He entered the navy as
midshipman in 1829; was employed in
1836 to 1841 in the survey of the
coast of the United States; in 1841 ap-
pointed as lieutenant to the frigate
" Congress," and employed four years
on the Mediterranean and Brazil sta-
tions; in 1845 was transferred to the
National Observatory at Washington,
and during the Mexican War to the
naval rendezvous at New Orleans;
again to the coast survey, and from
1849 to 1853 engaged in command of
the California mail steamers. At the
commencement of the Civil War ha
was appointed with the rank of com-
mander, to the steam sloop-of-war
" Powhatan " ; distinguishing himself
in the capture of New Orleans, and
commanded the gunboat and ^ mortar
flotilla which cooperated with tha
squadron of Admiral Farragut in the
first attack on Vicksburg. In the
fail of 1862 he was placed in command
of all the naval forces on the W. riv-
ers above New Orleans, with the rank
of rear-admiral. At the termination ot
Porter
the war appointed superintendent of
the United States Naval Academy,
Annapolis. He was made vice-admiral
in 1866, and in 1870 became admiral.
He died in Washington, D. C., Feb.
13, 1891.
Porter, Fitz-Jonn, an American
military officer ; born in Portsmouth,
N. H., June 13, 1822; was graduated
at the United States Military Acade-
my in 1845 ; served in the Mexican
War. In 1861 was appointed colonel
of the loth U. S. Infantry. For an
alleged disobedience at the second bat-
tle of Bull Run, Aug. 29, 1862, Por-
'ter was court-martialed, and on Jan.
El, 1863, was cashiered. In 1878 a
trial was granted, and the court rec-
ommended that the former sentence be
reversed, and that he be restored to
his former rank in the army, but no
decisive action was taken. New evi-
dence came to light, General Grant
affirming that Porter had been un-
justly treated, and a bill was intro-
duced in Congress providing for his
reinstatement. In 1886 the bill passed
both Houses, and became a law by the
signature of the President. He died
in New York city May 21, 1901.
Porter, Horace, an American mili-
tary officer and diplomatist ; born in
Huntingdon, Pa., April 15, 1837 ; son
of David R. Porter, who became gov-
ernor of the State. After a year in
the scientific department of Harvard
University he entered th United
States Military Academy. His grad-
uation took place in 1860. After a
brief space as instructor in artillery at
West Point, he was assigned to duty
in the Department of the East. He
served through the Civil War, becom-
ing brevet Brigadier-General. When
General Grant became Secretary of
War General Porter became the assist-
ant secretary, and during his chief's
service as President acted as private
secretary. General Porter then went
into business and was exceedingly suc-
cessful. The completion of the Grant
monument was chiefly due to him.
From 1897-1905 he was U. S. Am-
bassador to France, and instituted the
search and recovery of the body of
Paul Jones (q. v.)- He published
"Campaigning with Grant" (1897).
Porter, James Davis, born in
Paris, Tenn., Dec. 7, 1828; was grad-
uated at tiie University of Nashville
"Port Hudson
in 1840 ; admitted to the bar in 1850 ;
member of the Tennessee Legislaturo
in 1859-1861; judge of the 12th Judi-
cial Circuit in 1870-1874 ; governor of
Tennessee in 1874-1878; United
States assistant-secretary of State in>
1885-1889; and United States minis-
ter to Chile in 1893-1897.
Porter, Jane, an English author;
born in Durham, England, in 1776;
daughter of an army-surgeon who died
soon after her birth. She was brought
up at Edinburgh and in London, and
made a great reputation in 1803 by
her high flown romance, " Thaddeus of
Warsaw," which was distanced in its
kind in 1810 by "The Scottish Chiefs."
She died in Bristol, England, May 24,
1850.
Porter, John Addison, an Amer-
ican journalist ; born in New Haven,
Conn., April 17, 1856. He was editor
of the Hartford " Post." President
McKinley appointed him " secretary
to the President " an office that was
created to replace the misnamed post
of the " private secretary " at the
White House. He died in Putnam,
Conn., Dec. 15, 1900.
Porter, Moan, an American educa-
tor ; born in Farmington, Conn., Dec.
14, 1811. In 1846 he was appointed
Professor of Metaphysics at Yale Uni-
versity ; and was president of that in-
stitution from 1871 to 1885. He died
in New Haven, Conn., March 4, 1892.
Porter, Robert P., an American
statistician; born in Norfolk, Eng-
land, Jan. 30, 1852; settled in the
United States in 1867, and soon after-
ward engaged in journalism ; was for
a while superintendent of the llth
census; and was a special United
States commissioner to Cuba and Por-
to Rico in 1898-1899.
Porter, Rufns, an American in-
ventor ; born in West Roxford, Mass.,
May 1, 1792; died 1884. Devised
a thermo-engine, rotary-engine, etc.
Founded " The Scientific American."
Port Hudson, a village of Louisi-
ana, on the Mississippi, 135 miles
above New Orleans. A Confederate
strategical stronghold, it was besieged
by Admiral Farragut and General
Banks, but resisted all assaults from
Mar. 14, to July 7, 1863, when the
surrender at Vicksburg led to its
capitulation.
Fort Huron
Porto Rico
Port Huron, city ; capital of Clair
Co., Mich., on Lake Huron, it the
head of St. Clair River, 60 miles N.
E. of Detroit. It has important ship-
building, lumber, machinery and other
works, and a large trade. Pop. (1900)
10,200; (1910) 18,863.
Portland, city, port of entry, and
capital of Cumberland county, Me.;
on Casoo bay and the Maine Cen-
tral railroad; 100 miles N. E. of
Boston; is the largest and most im-
portant city in the State; has an ex-
cellent harbor, protected by a mas-
sive breakwater; contains National
fortifications, Government Building,
and Marine Hospital, Maine General
Hospital, Longfellow homestead,
Portland School for the Deaf, Maine
Historical Society, and many other
buildings of note; and has large
manufacturing and coastwise and
foreign trade interests. Pop. (1910)
58,571.
Portland, city and port of entry,
and capital of Multnomah county,
Or.; on the Willamette river and the
Northern and Southern Pacific rail-
roads; 530 miles N. of San Fran-
cisco; has large trade with Great
Britain, the Philippines, China,
Japan, Hawaii, and South American
countries, in flour, grain, lumber,
fish, and wool; contains Portland
University, Medical and Law Schools
of the State University, Good Sa-
maritan, Portland, and St. Vincent's
hospitals, Bishop Scott and St.
Helen's schools, and St. Michael's
College; was the site of the Lewis
and Clark Exposition in 1905. Pop.
(1910) 207,214.
Porto Rico, a West Indian island;
SO miles E. of Haiti; 3,600 square
miles; pop. (1910) 1,118,012; capital,
San Juan, metropolis, Ponce. Under
the Spanish-American peace treaty
the island was formally transferred to
the United States' on Oct. 18, 1898.
The Spanish form of the name of the
island is Puerto Rico; but an Act of
the United States Congress approved
April 12, 1900, established the oflacial
form as Porto Rico. While there is
a great amount of wealth in the
island, and in many places evidences
Of great prosperity, rich plantations,
and promise of a great future for
Porto Rico, throughout the inte-
rior of the island the people are poor
and their homes are of the poorest
character, consisting almost altogether
of " shacks " constructed of the palm
and covered with a straw thatch or
palm leaves. Into the cities and these
homes is crowded a large popu-
lation, variously estimated from
800,000 to 1,000,000. They are gen-
erally a peaceful and law-abiding
people, and while there is unques-
tionably some lawlessness, and some
small offenses are being committed,
they do not exceed, if they equal,
the number being committed in
the States of a like population. It
has been estimated that from 10 to
20 per cent, only of the people can
read and write. The people are anx-
ious to have their children educated,
and are exceedingly solicitous for the
establishment of public schools. There
is no starvation upon the island, and
while there is great poverty in many
places, there can not be any real
starvation in Porto Rico, for the rea-
son that the people live frugally and
are content with little, while the soil
and the climate are so productive of
many of the simple necessaries of life
that it would be almost impossible to
starve a people who live upon tropical
fruits and tropical vegetable produc-
tions.
Vegetables of all kinds known to our
climate grow in abundance. Irish po-
tatoes are not a success. There are
no plums, cherries, or grapes. It
would seem that there would be no
difficulty in growing grapes, but so
far they have not been tried. Indian
corn is raised with some success, and
while the ears are small, that is made
up by the fact that two and even
three crops can be grown yearly on the
same ground. This can be grown either
in the valleys or on the hillsides. No
wheat is grown on the island. At
present all flour is imported.
The native grasses grow luxuriantly
wherever an opportunity offers, from
the lowest valley to the highest moun-
tain top, and afford excellent pasture
for stock everywhere all the months of
the year. They make no hay, but out
it with sickles or the machete and
tie it in small bundles, pack it on
ponies to the cities, and sell it while
it is still green. The cattle grazing
in large numbers on the pastures are
Port Said
found all over the island, and are most-
ly in very good condition, making ex-
cellent beef. Hogs are raised to a
limited extent, but are of poor breeds,
being of the old " razor-back " vari-
ety. They are fed mainly from the
jiuts grown on the royal palm trees.
Horses are plentiful. They are small,
and used only to ride and as pack
ponies and in carriages. The hard
work of hauling loads and ploughing
the land is done with oxen, yoked in
the Spanish fashion by tying the
yoke to the horns, and they are guided
with a whip or " gad." The wagons
are mostly two-wheeled carts with
large wooden axles.
There seems to be a considerable de-
posit of iron and copper on the is-
land. In some places these are being
developed with good prospects of prov-
ing paying investments. Traces of
gold and silver are also found in the
mountains, but up to date prospecting
has not developed any considerable
quantities of these more precious
metals.
Soon after the surrender of San-
tiago de Cuba to the American forces
under General Shafter, July 17, 1898,
an army numbering 16,973 men was
sent from Guantanamo to Porto Rico
to take possession of that island. They
landed July 25, at Quanica, 15 miles
W. of Ponce. Lieutenant Haines,
commanding the marines, went ashore
and raised the American flag over the
custom house, amid the cheers of the
people. General Wilson was the first
army officer to land, and was wel-
comed with cheers and a serenade. A
portion of the army marched toward
the capital, San Juan, but were
stoppped when about half way by
the suspension of hostilities between
the belligerent powers. On Oct. 18
the island was formally surrendered
to the United States in the city of San
Juan.
In 1899 a census of the island was
taken under the direction of the Unit-
ed States War Department, which by
departments gave the following. Agu-
adillo, 99,645 ; Arecibo, 162,308 ; Bay-
amon, 160,046; Guayamo, 111,986;
Humacao, 88.501; Mayaguez, 127,566
and Ponce, 203,191 total for the is-
land, 953,243. The island has pros-
pered greatly under American rule,
and is fast becoming Americanized.
Portugal
Port Said, a town of Egypt, on
the W. side of the Suez Canal, on a
desolate strip of land between Lake
Menzaleh and the Mediterranean.
The place owes its origin to the Suez
Canal, and depends wholly on the
canal trade.
Portsmouth, city and capital of
Norfolk county, Va.; on the Eliza-
beth river and the Seaboard Air Line
and other railroads; opposite Norfolk;
has a harbor accessible to the largest
vessels; contains a National Marine
Hospital, Marine Barracks, and, in
the Gosport suburb, the Norfolk
navy-yard. Pop. (1910) 33,190.
Portsmouth, the principal station
of the British navy, a seaport, mu-
nicipal and parliamentary borough
of England, in Hampshire, on the S.
W. extremity of the island of Port-
sea. The royal dockyard covers an
araa of about 500 acres and contains
a Royal Navy College. Pop. 189,160.
Portsmouth, Treaty of, signed
at Portsmouth, N. H., Sept. 5, 1905,
ended the Russo-Japanese War and
embodied 15 articles and annexes.
Its main points were the cession of
half of Saghalin to Japan and Ja-
pan's sovereignty over Korea.
Portugal, a former kingdom of
Europe; since Oct. 5, 1910, a repub-
lic; bounded by Spain and the At-
lantic; area, 35,490 sq. miles; pop.
5.687.627.
The country generally inclines from
N. E. to S. W. Several of the great
mountain chains of Spain intersect it
from E. to W. and terminate in large
promontories in the Atlantic. The
principal rivers are the Tagus, the
Douro, the Minho, and the Guadiana.
These all enter the country from
Spain, and flow W. to the Atlantic
Ocean. The climate is healthy, ex-
cept in the vicinity of salt marshes.
The principal agricultural produc-
tions are : wheat, barley, oats, flax,
hemp, vines, and maize in the elevated
tracts; rice in the low grounds, with
olives, oranges, lemons, citrons, figs,
and almonds. Silk is made of a very
good quality. There are extensive
forests of oak in the N., chestnut in
the center, and the sea pine and cork
in the S. Cattle, sheep, goats, and
swine are numerous, and fish abound
in the rivers and on the coasts. Iron
mines are worked, and the mountains
Portugal
Positive Philosophy
abound in fine marble, and contain
traces of gold and silver. Oi salt, large
quantities are formed in bays along
the coast, by natural evaporation.
There are numerous salt marshes, and
upward of 200 mineral PM rings. The
manufactures are limited. Cotton
spinning is followed, and paper, glass,
and gunpowder are made in a few
places.
The exports consist almost entirely
of wine, salt and wool ; imports, chief-
ly corn, flour, fish, woolens, linen, cot-
ton, lace, hardware, hats, shoes, and
stockings. The state religion is the
Roman Catholic ; but all others are
tolerated. The government is a limit-
ed monarchy. The national assembly
is called the Cortes, and consists of a
House of Deputies and a House of
Peers.
Portugal forms the greater part of
ancient Lusitania. It was subjugated
by the Romans, in the time of Augus-
tus, and had been made into a prov-
ince. In the 5th century, on the over-
throw of the Roman supremacy, Por-
tugal was invaded by the Alans and
Visigoths, and suffered with Spain, of
which it was then a part, all the trou-
bles and vicissitudes endured by the
jnhabitants of the peninsula till the
8th century, at which time the Arabs,
called indifferently Saracens or Moors,
possessed themselves of the whole of
Portugal, and kept absolute dominion
for nearly 400 years. In the 12th
century, Don Alonzo Henriquez, a
Spanish prince of Leon and Castile,
gained a great victory over the Moors
of Portugal, and carried out his mili-
tary operations with such success that
his troops hailed him with one voice
as king. He renounced all dependence
on Spain, politically separated his new
kingdom from all connection or author-
ity with the Spanish crown, and es-
tablished a free and sovereign state.
Under the descendants of Don Alon-
EO I., especially Dennis I. and Alonzo
IV., Portugal, during the next two
centuries, rose in political importance
and commercial prosperity. In 1385,
the King of Castile having laid claim
to the crown of Portugal on the death
of Ferdinand, was opposed and de-
feated by Don John, Ferdinand's
brother. Under John I. the Portu-
Suese first projected those Atlantic
iscoveries on the African coast,
fraught with such territorial and com-
mercial advantages to the nation ; and,
under John II. and Emanuel, between-
1481 and 1521, Vasco da Gama ex-
plored the Indian Ocean; and Brazil
was added to the possessions of the-
crown of Portugal. Sebastian III.,
fired with a holy zeal to exterminate-
the infidels from his country, com-
menced a sanguinary crusade against
the Moors, which he carried on through;
such defeats that he eventually lost
both his crown and life in the strug-
gle. Henry the Cardinal, his uncle,
an old man of 70, ascended the throne,
but died without heirs, after a reign of
only two years, in 1580.
With Henry terminated the male-
line, after enduring for 460 years.
Spain once more laid claim to the va-
cant throne, and Portugal again be-
came a dependency of the Spanish,
crown. After enduring 60 years of
intolerable hardships and exactions, a
Portuguese nobleman named John,
Duke of Braganza, excited a revolu-
tion, which again broke the Spanish*
fetters, while the people hailed their
deliverer as their king. He was-
crowned as John IV., and commenced
the existing dynasty of the House
of Braganza. In October, 1889, Carlo*
I. succeeded to the throne. He was-
assassinated Feb. 1, 1908, and was suc-
ceeded by his son, Manuel II., who
was dethroned Oct. 5, 1910.
Portuguese East Africa. S.ee-
EAST AFRICA, PORTUGUESE.
Fortulaca, purslane ; low. succu-
lent herbs with flat or cylindrical
leaves, and yellow, purplish, or rose-
colored ephemeral flowers.
Positive Philosophy, the system'
of philosophy outlined by Auguste-
Comte in his " Philosophic Positive,"
the sixth and last volume of which
was published in 1842. It is the out-
come of the Law of the Three Stage*
and is based on the positive sciences,
taken in the following series : mathe-
matics (number, geometry, mechanics),
astronomy, physics, chemistry, biolo-
gy, and sociology. It relinquishes at-
tempts to transcend the sphere of ex-
perience, and seeks to establish by
observation and induction laws or con-
stant relations, and resigns itself _to
ignorance of the agents. In the opin-
ion of its founder it is capable of be-
Positive Society
Post Mortem
ing developed into a religion and a
polity.
Positive Society, a society found-
ed in Paris in 1848, by Comte, in the
hope that it might exert as powerful
an influence over the revolution as the
Jacobin Club had exerted in 1789.
In this he was disappointed, but the
disciples who gathered around him
were the germ of the Positivist
Church.
Positivism, the religion of Hu-
manity, developed from the positive
philosophy, and claiming to be a syn-
thesis of all human conceptions of
the external order of the universe.
Its professed aim, both in public
and private life, is to secure the vic-
tory of social feeling over self love,
of altruism over egotism.
Post, George Browne, an Ameri-
can architect; born in New York city;
studied with Richard M. Hunt; de-
signed numerous private residences
and public buildings; and became
president of the American Institute
of Architects, National Art Club, and
American Society of Civil Engineers.
Postal Savings Banks, a sys-
tem for saving money by the deposit
of small amounts, established by sev-
eral European Governments, and au-
thorized by the United States Con-
gress in 1910, as a branch of the
Post-office Department. The system
had long been urged in the United
States, and the annual report of the
British postal savings banks for 1908
had much effect on Congress. That
report showed for the United King-
dom a total of 18.379,991 deposits,
aggregating $217,877,011, and a total
of $781,794,533 to the credit of 11,-
018,251 depositors. Deposits at post-
offices and other designated stations
of from 10 cents to $1 are repre-
sented by stamps; of from $1 to $50,
by certificates in duplicate, punched
to indicate the amount, one being
retained by the postmaster or agent,
the other by the depositor. The sys-
tem went into operation Jan. 1. 1911.
Postal Service, the regulation
of communication between different
parts of a country, or different coun-
tries, including especially the for-
warding and delivering of letters,
newspapers and small packages, and
the establishment of a registry sys-
tem for the transfer of money and
the transaction of other financial
business. In some countries the use
of the telephone and the telegraph
forms a part of the postal service.
Though the conveyance of letters is
the primary work of the postoffice,
many other branches of business have
been assumed by it. The word "post"
has its particular application from
the posts, or stages, at which on the
roads of the Roman empire couriers
were maintained for the purpose of
conveying news and dispatches.
Under the terms of a treaty con-
cluded at Berne, Oct. 9, 1874, the
object of which was to secure uniform^
ity in the treatment of correspondence,
and the simplification of accounts,
as well as the reduction of rates with-
in certain limits, and whose provisions
were carried into operation generally
July 1, 1875, the whole of Europe,
the United States, Egypt, British In-
dia, and all the colonies of France
were at the outset, or shortly there-
after, included in the union and many
other countries and colonies have since
joined it. The international accounts
in respect of postages are based on a
month's return of correspondence tak-
en every third year.
At the present time the postal estab-
lishment of the United States is the
freatest business concern in the world,
t handles more pieces, employs more
men, spends more money, brings more
revenue, uses more agencies, reaches
more homes, involves more details and
touches more interests than any other
human organization, public or pri-
vate, governmental or corporate.
Though the postal service of England,
France, and Germany includes the tel-
egraph, the postal business of the
United States surpasses the service of
any of those countries.
Since Cuba, Porto Rico, and the
Philippines have come under the au-
thority of the United States, it has
become necessary to reconstruct the
mail system in those islands, and al-
ready a vast improvement has been
made in the service.
Post Mortem, after death, as a
post mortem examination, i. e., one
made after the death of a person, in
order to ascertain the cause of death
either in the interests of science, or
for the ends of justice.
r/GURS /N STATES PEPfiESEMT PP.ODL/CT/ON /N THOUSANDS OF BUSHELS
POTATOES
PRODUCT/ON 1911
THOUSANDS OF BUSHELS
IN JTATEf fiEPfiEJENT PRODUCTION IN THOUJANDJ Of BUT/fELT
JMr POTATOES AHDYA
PRODUCTION /909
THOUSANDS OT 6UfHLf
UNITED STATES
iS.232 THOUJAMD
BUffifLT
Post Ofcit
Post Obit, a bond given as security
for the repayment of a sum of money
to a lender on the death of some
specified person, from whom the bor-
rower has expectations. Such loans
in almost every case carry high, if not
usurious, rates of interest, and gen-
erally the borrower binds himself to
pay a much larger sum than he re-
ceiyes, in consideration of the risk
which the lender runs in case of the
borrower dying before the person from
whom he has expectations.
Postoffice Department, one of
the executive departments of the Unit-
ed States government ; established in
1794. It is under the management of
the Postmaster-General, who since the
time of Andrew Jackson, has been a
member of the President's Cabinet.
He is appointed by the President and
confirmed by the Senate. The depart-
ment is divided into four great bu-
reaus each under the immediate charge
of an assistant postmaster-general. The
first assistant's bureau has charge of
the large clerical and carrier forces
and all the matters of actual manage-
ment. It supervises an annual expen-
diture of more than $40,000.000. The
bureau of the second assistant has the
immense task of providing for the
transportation of the mails at a year-
ly-cost of $35,000,000. That of the
third assistant looks after the finan-
cial side, furnishes the stamps,
and keeps the accounts. The fourth
assistant has charge of the appoint-
ment of 75,000 postmasters and di-
rects the force of inspectors. The
United States postoffice department,
unlike that of Great Britain, is car-
ried on at a loss; this is due to the
large amount of postal matter of cer-
tain classes carried at less than the
cost of conveyance and distribution.
The greatest revenue in a single year
has reached $203,562.383; and the
greatest expenditure, $221,004,102.
Postulate, a position, supposition,
or proposition assumed without proof,
as being self-evident or too plain to
require proof or illustration ; a thing
assumed for the purpose of future rea-
soning; an assumption. In geometry,
the enunciation of a self-evident prob-
lem. It differs from an axiom, which
is the enunciation of a self-evident
proposition. The axiom is more gen-
eral than the postulate.
Potomac
Potash, a term applied to the hy-
drate of potassium, either in the liquid
or solid state, but sometimes used to
denote potassium oxide and also crude
carbonate of potassium. Potash salts
are essential constituents in the hu-
man body, but if, when wasted, they'
are supplied directly to the blood they
are very poisonous.
Potassium, a monad metallic ele-.
ment, very widely diffused through,
the vegetable, mineral and animal
kingdoms. It usually exists in com--
bination with inorganic and organ-
ic acids, and, when its organic salts
are burned, they are resolved into car- %
bonate, from which all the other salts "
of potassium can be prepared. It may
be obtained by electrolysis, but is now
produced in large quantity by distill-
ing in an iron retort an intimate mix-
ture of charcoal and carbonate of po-'
tassium, a condition readily obtained
by igniting crude tartar in a covered
crucible.
Potato, a well-known cultivated
plant, the tubers of which are eaten.
It is a native of Chile and Peru. Many
varieties are grown, differing in earli-
ness, form, size, color, etc.
The production in the United States
has reached over 376,500,000 bushels,
from over 3,500,000 acres, valued at
upward of $206,500,000. the most
productive States being New York,
Michigan, Maine, and Wisconsin, in
the order given.
Potato Fly, a dipterous insect of
the same genus with the radish fly,
cabbage fly, turnip fly. In its perfect
state it is very like the house fly. The
maggots are often abundant in bad
potatoes in autumn, and are different
from the maggots of the house fly,
being horny, spiny, bristly, and tawny ;
the long tail ending in six long bris-
tles. The pupa is very like the larva.
The potato-frog fly and the caterpillar
of the death's head moth feed on the
leaves and stems of potatoes, but rare-
ly do serious damage.
Potomac, a river of the United
States, formed by two branches which
rise in the Allegheny Mountains in
West Virginia, and unite 15 miles S.
E. of Cumberland, Md., from which
point the river flows in a generally
S. E. course 400 miles, and falls into
Chesapeake Bay, after forming an
estuary nearly 100 miles long, and
Potomac
from 2% to 7 miles wide. The largest
ships can ascend to Washington. The
Potomac forms the greater part of the
boundary between Virginia and Mary-
land.
Potomac, Army of the. The
Union forces which operated in Vir-
ginia in the Civil War were known as
the "Army of the Potomac." It was
organized by Gen. George B. McClellan
in 1861, and served under him in the
Peninsular campaign and later in that
of Antietam. General Burnside took
command in 1862, and General Hooker
in 1863. General Meade was in com-
mand when the victory at Gettysburg
was won, in July, 1863, and con-
tinued in charge during General
Grant's operations in 1864-1865.
Potomac, Society of the Army
of the, a military organization found-
ed in New York, July 5, 1869, and has
held annual reunions since that date.
All officers and soldiers who served in
AEMY OF THE POTOMAC BADGE.
the Army of the Potomac and in the
10th and 18th Army Corps, Army of
the James, are eligible to membership.
Pottawattamies, a tribe of Ameri-
can Indians, belonging to the Algon-
quin stock. The early French settlers
established a mission among them
Pottery
at Green Bay, and to this day many
of them are Roman Catholics. They
sided with the English during the Rev-
olutionary War and in the War of
1812, and afterward settled in Kan-
sas. They now number about 1,200.
Potter, Henry Co dm an, an
American clergyman ; born in Schenec-
tady, N. Y., May 25, 1835. Educated
in theology in Virginia, he became rec-
tor of Grace Church, New York city,
in 1868 ; and was consecrated Protest-
ant Episcopal bishop of New York
in 1887. His works include : " Gates
of the East : A Winter in Egypt and
Syria " ; " Sermons of the City " ;
" Waymarks " ; etc. He was widely
known and esteemed for his efforts to
improve the condition of the people.
He died July 21, 1908.
Potter, Paul, a celebrated Dutch
painter of animals ; born at Enkhui-
sen in 1625 ; died at Amsterdam in
1654. He received his first instruction
in art from his father, Pieter Potter
(1587-1655), a painter of some note.
He devoted himself specially to the
study of animals, producing his first-
signed picture, " The Herdsman," in
1643. His works are highly esteemed.
His coloring is brilliant, and the sep-
arate parts are delicately executed,
yet without stiffness or mannerism.
Pottery, the art of forming vessels
or utensils of any sort in clay. This
art is of high antiquity, being prac-
tised among various races in prehis-
toric times.
The most celebrated wares of differ-
ent times and countries are distin-
guished by distinctive names ; as, Ma-
jolica-ware, Sevres, Chelsea, Palissy,
etc.; and of these, the latter the
work of Bernard de Palissy, who lived
in the 16th century deserves some
special attention. Palissy, having re-
solved to discover a method of enam-
elling stoneware, succeeded, after lt>
years' efforts, and proceeded to manu-
facture pottery characterized by a pe-
culiar style and many singular quali-
ties. It is not decorated with flat
painting, but with figures and orna-
ments, which are generally pure in
form, and are all executed in relief and
colored. The most remarkable of the
works of Palissy are his " Pieces rus-
tiques," a designation given by him to
dishes ornamented with fishes, snakes,
frogs, crayfish, lizards, shells, and
Potts
plants, admirably true to nature in
form and color. Palissy ware may be
distinguished from imitations by the
fact that Palissy molded only the fos-
sil shells, reptiles, and plants of Par-
is, while his imitators introduced re-
cent shells and other objects of natu-
ral History.
In the United States the highest
annual production value was reached
in 1906, when the total of all prod-
ucts was ,$31,440,884, white and
porcelain ware leading.
Potts, William, an American
author; born in Philadelphia, Pa.,
May 5, 1838. For many years he was
secretary and vice-president of the Na-
tional Civil Service League. He was
chief examiner of the Civil Service
Commission of New York State in
18^7. He published a volume of na-
ture studies, " From a New England
Hillside," and a Sunday-school ser-
vice book, " Noblesse Oblige," etc.
He is also the author of numerous
pamphlets.
Pottstown, a borough in Mont-
gomery county, Pa.; on the Schuyl-
kill river and canal, Manatawny
creek, and the Pennsylvania and
other railroads; 18 miles S. B. of
Reading; is chiefly engaged in the
manufacture of pig andi structural
iron, with extensive accessories; also
has planing, flour, silk, hosiery, and un-
derwear mills, cigar factories, and pork-
packing plant. Pop. (1910) 15,599.
Pottsville, borough and capital
of Schuylkill county, Pa.; on the
Schuylkill river and canal, Nor-
wegian creek, and the Philadelphia
& Reading and other railroads; 93
miles N. W. of Philadelphia; is one
of the greatest coal-shipping centers
in the State: and has large iron,
steel, and brass works, railroad
shops, and silk, flour, and lumber
mills. Pop. (1910) 20.236.
Poughkeepsie, city and capital
of Dutchess county, N. Y.; on. the
Hudson river and several railroads;
75 miles N. of New York city; has
a noted $5.000.000 cantilever railroad
bridge across the river, daily steam-
boat connection with Albany and
New York city, and important manu-
fnctures; is the seat of Vassar Col-
lege, Hudson River Hospital for the
Insane, and numerous Homes; was
settled by. the Dutch in 1690; State
Poultry
capital during the Revolution. Pop.
(19rO) 27,936.
Ppulpe, a genus of Cephalopoda,
having eight feet or arms, nearly
equal, united at the base by a mem-
brane, and very long in proportion
to the body. Poulpes swim by con-
tractions of the muscular web of the
body, which extends upon the arms.
They creep on shore in a spider-like
manner, with sprawling arms.
Poultry. American poultry include
several classes of breeds, among them
the general utility, or American -barn-
yard fowl; the egg-producing, or
Mediterranean; and the flesh-making,
or Asiatic types.
The chief of the general utility fowls
are the handsome, compact Plymouth
Rocks, those barred in black and white
being the most common, although
white and buff are known. They are
famous for their hardiness; quick-
ness of growth; steady production of
light brown eggs; quick maturity in-
to well-fleshed chickens; and their gen-
eral tractability and business-like
methods of foraging, sitting and the
like. Wyandottes, including the white,
silver-laced and Columbian varieties,
compete with the Plymouth Rocks.
The White Wyandottes are favorites
in farmyards, being hardy fowls, ma-
turing quickly into small, plump
broilers and roasters, with the popu-
lar yellow skins, and are early and
steady egg-layers. The large Rhode
Island Reds, a somewhat new breed,
gorgeous in black and scarlet, lay
brown eggs very regularly, and also
produce flesh; and, with the Orping-
tons, particularly the buff variety,
haying similarly good habits, are
claimed to be in the highest rank of
utility fowls. Javas and the high-
crested Houdans are also said to be
useful to the farmer. The latter is
a favorite French breed, mottled
black and white, laying many very
large white eggs, even in winter, and
of fine quality as a table fowl.
The "fancy" Hamburgs, silver and
gold, black and red and white, span-
gled and laced and penciled, and most
perfectly formed, are non-sitters; and
the tall, iridescent, black Minorcas
are recommended for prolific egg-lay-
ing, thriving when in confinement in
small runs.
The Mediterranean type is repre
Poultry
sented by the small, active Leghorns,
white and brown and buff in hue, fa-
mous egg-layers even in winter, when
sheltered in warm houses, and picking
up much forage if given a free run.
The Asiatic type is represented by
the large, heavy and profusely feath-
ered light and dark Brahmas, covered
with rounded masses of feathers and
with characteristic " pea-combs " ; by
the buff, black and 'white Cochins, still
more profusely feathered, even the
shanks and feet being covered with
plumage ; especially in the "Partridge"
variety ; and by the tall, black Lang-
shans. They are all excellent table-
fowls, and .lay quite a number of eggs
even in winter; and they are addicted
to sitting, making good mothers. The
chicks mature early, and have a large
sale as broilers and roasters. Plump-
breasted Dorkings are more valued in
England than with us, the Americans
preferring yellow legs and feet.
The red and black game-chickens,
formerly grown for fighting in the
cock-pits, are still raised, the Modern
Game, and various kinds of the Old
English Black-breasted Reds and the
Cornish Indian and Azeel, being ex-
hibited. Game hens are excellent
mothers and are magnificent table
fowls. Speckled Guinea hens, having
a game-like flavor, are frequently
raised for the table.
Bantams are miniatures of the
standard breeds, the Buff Cochin Ban-
tam being recommended for hatching
gam- -bird's eggs ; the Japanese Ban-
tam are quaint, little creatures with
long, sickle-shaped tail-feathers, which
are, however, not so exaggerated as
those of the Yokohama cocks, which,
like the silkies, birds with downy
plumage, are grown occasionally for
ornament. The gorgeous-hued pea-
cocks and various kinds of pheasants,
especially the Ring-necked, Golden, Sil-
ver and Reeves pheasants, are raised
for their beauty, and the latter for
the game market.
Pigeons, too, are an important
branch of the poultry farm ; the
Homer breed being the bird most
' commonly used for squab raising, as
its young reach the desired size very
quickly. There are numerous fancy
breeds, too, raised by the fanciers, as
the Fantails, Pouters, Turbits and
Tumblers.
Bronze and Narragansett turkeys
are the largest and the hardiest varie-
Powderly
ties, requiring a large range for their
best development. The black and the
white, or Holland breeds, being smaller
and more domesticated.
The large German white Embden
goose, and the dark gray Toulouse
breed of French origin, are favorite
breeds of geese, although the Caftada
and Chinese geese are also good.
A Chinese duck, the white Pekin, is
the favorite breed of this water-fowl,
although the Rouen and Aylesbury
types, and even Muscovy, Swedish and
the Indian Runners, are grown. The
charming little parti-colored Wood-
ducks and Mandarin ducks are culti-
vated for ornament. See also FOWL.
Poussin, Gaspar, a French land-
scape painter ; born in Rome, in 1613 ;
died in 1675. His name was Dughet,
but he adopted that of his teacher and
brother-in-law, Nicolas Poussin. His
paintings, distinguished by grandeur
and somewhat sombre characteristics,
are found in many European galleries.
Poussin, Nicolas, distinguished
French historical and landscape paint-
er : born at Andelys, Normandy, in
1594; died in Rome in 1665. His
style is grand and heroic, and he had
a fertile invention. He has been called
the French Raphael. Among his cele-
brated works are the " Seven Sacra-
ments," the " Death of Germanicus,"
the " Capture of Jerusalem," " Moses
bringing Water from the Rock," the
"Worship of the Golden- Calf," "John
Baptizing in the Wilderness," etc., and
many fine landscapes.
Pont, a young turkey ; often ap-
plied to the young of other domestic
fowls and of the grouse kind ; a sea-
fish of the cod kind, so named from
its power of inflating a membrane
which covers the eyes and neighboring
parts of the head.
Powan, or Fresh-water Her-
ring, fish distinctive to Loch Lomond,
Scotland, although resembling the Pol-
Ian of the Irish lakes.
Powderly, Terence Vincent, an
American lawyer ; born in Carbondale,
Pa., Jan. 22, 1849. He was General
Master- Workman of the Knights of
Labor in 1879-1893; then he studied
law ; and was admitted to the bar in
1894. He was appointed United States
commissioner 'general of immigration
in 1897, and chief of Division of In-
formation in Bureau of Immigration
BARRED & BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCKS
COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY F. E. WRIGHT.
LEADING BREEDS
F CHICKENS
Powell
Powers
(to distribute immigrants throughout
the country) in 1907.
Powell, Baden, an English physi-
cist ; born in London, Aug. 22, 1796 ;
educated at Oriel College, Oxford; in
1821 became vicar of Plumstead, and
in 1824 was made F. R. S. From
1827 till his death, he was Savilian
Professor of Geometry at Oxford. He
published a history of natural philoso-
phy, treatises on the calculus, optics,
and the undulatory theory of light,
but he is best known by his contriba*
tion on the evidences of Christianity
to the " Essays and Reviews '' and by
other theological works, regarded at
the time as dangerously " liberal " in
tendency. He died in London, June
11, 1860.
Powell, John Wesley, an Ameri-
can geologist ; born in Mount Morris,
N. Y., March 24, 1834. He was edu-
cated at Oberlin College; was a lieu-
tenant-colonel of artillery at the close
of the Civil War; Professor of Geolo-
gy in the Illinois Wesleyan University,
1865 ; explored the canyon of the Col-
orado river in 1867 and in 1870-1874.
He was director of the United States
Geological Survey in 1879-1896, and
of the United States Bureau of Eth-
nology after 1879. The special vol-
umes of reports written by Major Pow-
ell are : " Exploration of the Colora-
do River in 1869-1872"; "Geology
of the Uinta Mountains " ; " The Arid
Regions of the United States " ; " In-
troduction to Study of Indian Lan-
guages " ; " Canyons of the Colorado,"
etc. He died Sept. 23, 1902.
Powell, Thomas, an American au-
thor ; born in London, England, Sept.
3, 1809. For many years he was
connected with the Frank Leslie pub-
lications. He died in Newark, N. J.,
Jan. 13, 1887.
Powelson, Wilfred van Nest, an
American naval officer ; born in Mid-
dletown, N. Y., Sept. 15, 1872; was
graduated at the United States Naval
Academy in 1893 ; was selected by the
government to pursue a special course
in naval architecture at the Univer-
sity of Glasgow, served two years on
the flagship " New York," and later
on the " Fern." After the destruction
of the " Maine " in Havana harbor
he was appointed to investigate the
disaster. His report showing that the
" Maine " was sunk by an exploded
mine was published and favorably
commented on by many scientific pe-
riodicals. He commanded the gun on
the " St. Paul " which sank the " Ter-
ror," a Spanish torpedo boat, near
San Juan, Porto Rico; promoted lieu-
tenant, 1901; retired, 1902.
Power. In mechanics: (1) That
which produces motion or force; that
which communicates motion to bodies,
changes the motion of bodies,
or prevents the motion of bodies; a
mechanical agent or power. (2) The
moving force applied to overcome some
force or resistance, to raise a weight,
or produce other required effect; air,
water, steam and animal strength are
employed as powers. (3) The me-
chanical effect or advantage produced
by a machine. Force or effect consid-
ered as resulting from the action of a
machine.
Powers, Hiram, an American
sculptor ; bom in Woodstock, Vt., Julj
29, 1805. In 1835 he went to Wash-
ington, where he executed the busts
of several distinguished persons. Two
years later he was enabled to go to
Italy to study his art, and he resided
in Florence till his death. There he
produced his statue of " Eve," which
excited the admiration of Thorwald-
sen, and in 1843 the still more popu-
lar " Greek Slave," of which six cop-
ies in marble, with cast copies in-
numerable, were produced. , Among
the other works the chief were
" Proserpine," " II Penseroso," " Cal-
ifornia," " America," and busts of
Washington for the State of Louisi-
ana, of Calhoun for South Carolina,
and Daniel Webster for Boston, as
well as those of John Q. Adams, An-
drew Jackson, Marshall, Van Buren,
and other distinguished Americans. He
died in Florence, Italy, June 27, 1873.
Powers, Horatio Nelson, an
American poet ; born in Amenia, N.
Y., April 30, 1826. He died in Pier-
mont, N. Y., Sept 6, 1890.
Powers, Le Grand, an American
statistician ; born in Preston, N. Y.,
in 1874; was graduated at Iowa State
University in 1872 ; commissioner of
labor in Minnesota in 1891-1899 ; then
became chief statistician of the llth
Census, in charge of agriculture.
Among his books are " Minnesota Bu<
Praxiteles
length is about four inches ; color
bright gray, spotted and lined with
darker purplish gray. It is a fa-
vorite article of food, and is found in
vast numbers in the North Atlantic.
Praxiteles, a celebrated Greek
sculptor; born about 360 B. c., who
executed several fine statues in bronze
and marble of Bacchus, a satyr, Ve-
nus, and Apollo. An ancient copy of
one of his works, the " Apollo Saur-
octonos," is the only example extant.
He excelled by the grace, tenderness,
and finish of his works. He was es-
teemed a;? second to Phidias only. He
died about 280 B. c.
Prayer, a universally acknowledged
part of the worship due to God ; not
merely petition, but, according to the
New Testament models and Christian
usage, praise, adoration, and thankful
acknowledgment of mercies received.
Nor is any truth more indisputably
taught in the Bible, or more frequent-
ly brought into view, both in the Old
and New Testament, than that God
is the hearer of prayer.
Praying Machine, Praying
Mill, or Praying Wheel, an ap-
paratus used in Tibet, and other parts
of the East, as a mechanical aid to
prayer. They are of various forms,
the commonest being a cylinder or
barrel of pasteboard fixed on an axle,
and inscribed with prayers. The de-
vout give the barrel a turn, and each
revolution counts as an utterance of
the prayer or prayers inscribed. It is
common enough to see them fixed in
the bed of a running stream, as they
are then set in motion by the water,
and go on praying night and day, to
the special benefit of the person who
has placed them there. The Tartars
also suspend them over their domestic
hearths, that they may be set in mo-
tion by the current of cool air from the
opening in the tent, and so twirl for
the peace and prosperity of the family.
Preaching, the act of preaching;
a public religious discourse. The mod-
ern system of preaching was unknown
in the early Church. The general
mode then was for the priest to read
portions of the Old or New Testa-
ment, and explain or enforce the pre-
cepts which they contained. About
the 13th century, the scholastic divines
directed their chief attention to the
study of the sacred Scriptures, and
Precession
were hence called Bible divines, and
honored with the pompous titles of
profound, sublime, wonderful, sera-
phic, angelic doctors. They introduced
a new and artificial mode of preach-
ing, called declaring. Before this time,
the clergy generally adopted postulat-
ing, or expounding a large portion of
Scripture, sentence by sentence. By
the new method the preacher read a
text out of some book and chapter of
the Old or New Testament, dividing it
into several parts and expounding
them ; and, generally, the more nu-
merous the divisions and sub-divisions,
the better and more highly was he
esteemed. The opposition to this text-
ual mode of preaching continued for
upward of a century, but at length it
came generally to prevail.
Preble, Edward, an American na-
val officer ; born in Portland, Me., Aug.
15, 1761. Early in 1803 he was made
commander of the " Constitution " ;
and in June of that year was placed
in command of a fleet sent against
Tripoli. He greatly distinguished
himself in causing that country to
sue for peace, a feat accomplished by
a number of skillful bombardments-
He returned to the United States and
received through Congress the thanks
of the nation and a gold medal. He
died in Portland, Me., Aug. 25, 1807.
Precedence, the order in which
men and women follow each other
according to rank or dignity in a
State procession or dn other public
occasions. There is no American law
dealing with precedence, tact and cour-
tesy guiding the procedure on public
occasions, but in Europe it is a sub-
ject of very grave importance, and
moss-grown with law and custom.
Precedent, a judicial decision, in-
terlocutory or final, which serves as a
rule for future determinations in sim-
ilar cases ; also a form of proceeding
to be followed in similar cases.
Precentor, an officer in a cathe-
dral, formerly sometimes called
chaunter, and ranking in dignity next
to the dean.
Precession of the Equinoxes, in
astronomy, the going forward of the
equinoxes. The arrival of the sun at
the point Aries a little earlier than he
might be expected to reach it was first
observed by Hipparchus about 150
Predestination
B. c. The earth's rotation simply
causes the points at which the earth's
equator intersects the plane of the
ecliptic to move slowly in a direction
opposite to that in which the earth
rotates. This is what is denominated
the precession of the equinoxes. It is
generally associated with the sun, but
the moon is twice as potent in produc-
ing it ; owing to her comparative near-
ness to the earth she is able to pro-
duce a greater differential effect on the
nearer and more remote portions of
our planet. The annual motion of the
first point of Aries is about 50", and
about 25,867 years will be required for
the entire revolution. It has been sup-
posed that the precession of the equi-
noxes may have had some influence
in producing the Glacial Period.
Predestination, in theology, the
term used to denote the decree of God,
whereby the elect are foreordained to
salvation. The theory of predestina-
tion represents God's absolute will as
determining the eternal destiny of
man, not according to the foreknown
character of those whose fate is so
determined, but according to God's
choice. It is a characteristic of Cal-
vinistic theology ; left an open ques-
tion since the Reformation by Episco-
pal and Roman Catholic Churches.
Preemption, the act or right of
buying before others. Also, the right
of a settler on lands to purchase in
preference to others, when the land
is sold.
Preexistence, existence previous to
or before something else. Also, exist-
ence in a previous state; existence of
the soul previous to its union with
the body. Preexistence was a doctrine
of the Pythagoreans, and several oth-
ers of the old philosophers, and is still
found in many Eastern religions.
Prelate, an ecclesiastical dignitary
of the highest order, having author-
ity over the lower clergy, as an arch-
bishop, bishop, or patriarch ; a digni-
tary of the church.
Prentice, George Denison, an
American journalist ; born in Preston,
Conn., Dec., 18, 1802 ; became editor
of the Louisville " Journal," 1830, and
held that post till his death, making
the paper famous for satiric wit and
exuberant fun. He died in Louisville,
Ky n Jan. 22, 1870.
Presbyter
Preutiss, Benjamin Mayberry,
an American military officer ; born in
Belleville, Va. (now W. Va.), Nov. 23,
1819. He removed to Illinois in 1842,
and served in the Mexican War as a
captain of volunteers. At the begin-
ning of the Civil War he entered
the Union Army and was made Briga-
dier-General or volunteers. He was
taken prisoner at Shiloh, May 6, 1862 ;
was promoted Major-General in the
same year ; defeated Generals Holmes
and Price, who attacked him at Hele-
na, Ark., July 4, 1863; resigned his
commission Oct. 28, 1863, and died
in 1901.
Prentiss, Mrs. Elizabeth (Pay-
son), an American writer of fiction ;
born in Portland, Me., Oct. 26, 1818.
She died in Dorset, Vt., Aug. 13, 1878.
Prentiss, Seargent Smith, an
American orator; born in Portland,
Me., Sept. 30, 1808; studied law, and
became, about 1827, a resident of
Vicksburg, Miss., where he practised
with success. He was elected to Con-
gress by the Whigs in 1837. His man-
ner of speaking was at once natural
and dramatic, and he had a high repu-
tation as an orator, and as an advo-
cate in jury trials was equal or supe-
rior to any lawyer in the Southwestern
States. He died near Natchez, Miss.,
July 1, 1850.
Preposition, a part of speech, so
named because originally prefixed to
the verb, in order to modify its mean-
ing. Prepositions are either simple or
compound. Simple prepositions are
at, by, for, from, in, on, out, to, up,
with ; compound prepositions are
across, after (a comparative form of),
against, above, about, along, amid,
amidst, among, athwart, but, into,
over, through, toward, until, unto,
within, without. The prepositions con-
cerning, during, except, notwithstand-
ing, etc., arise out of a participial
construction.
Pre-Kaphaelism, an English
school of painting, which has in re-
cent years sprung into existence, and
has been thus named, in accordance
with an erroneous idea that its ear-
liest members were mainly anxious to
imitate the mannerisms of the artists
who painted prior to the time of Ra-
phael.
Presbyter, an elder, or a person
advanced in years who had authority
Press Clipping Bureau
Price
According to its provisions the presi-
dential succession is arranged as fol-
lows : Following the Vice-President,
the Secretary of State, the Secretary
of the Treasury, the Secretary of War,
the Attorney-General, the Postmaster-
General, the Secretary of the Navy,
the Secretary of the Interior, Secre-
tary of Agriculture, and the Secretary
of Commerce and Labor.
Press Clipping Bureau, an office
for supplying newspaper and maga-
zine clippings on any required subjects
to any person desiring them. There
are several such bureaus in New
York, Chicago, and other large cities.
Press Gang, the name given in
England to a detachment of seamen
who (under a naval officer) were em-
powered, in time of war, to lay hold
of seafaring men and compel them to
serve in the king's ships.
Preston, Harriet Waters, an
American author ; born in Danvers,
Mass., about 1843. At an early age
she became noted as a linguist, and
afterward achieved a brilliant reputa-
tion as a translator from the Latin
and Provencal languages, and as an
essayist. Besides her translations she
has published several bright original
books.
Preston, Mrs. Margaret (Jun-
kin), an American author; born in
Philadelphia about 1825 ; was a resi-
dent of Lexington, Va., and laer of
Baltimore, Md. Her writings deal
chiefly with the period of the Civil
War. She died in 1897.
Preston, William, an American
diplomatist ; born near Louisville, Ky.,
Oct. 16, 1816 ; practised law in Louis-
ville ; was sent as minister to Spain in
1858 ; was a member of Congress
1852-1855 ; joined the Confederates in
1861 ; and was made a Brigadier-Gen-
eral. He died in Lexington, Ky.,
Sept. 21, 1887. '
Presumption, in law, in the ab-
sence of direct evidence that which
comes nearest to the proof of a fact.
Pretender, one who made claim to
a throne under a pretense of right (as
Perkin Warbeck, Lambert Simnel, in
English history) ; specially applied to
the son and grandson of James II., the
heirs of the House of Stuart, who laid
claim to the throne of England, from
which they had been excluded by Par-
liament in 1688. The former, often
termed the Old Pretender, died in
1776 ; his son, Charles Edward Stuart,
the Young Pretender, in 1788.
Pretoria, the capital of the former
South African Republic (Transvaal),
980 miles from Cape Town, and 285
miles W. of Lorenzo Marques, on Del-
agoa Bay, to which a railway was
opened in 1895. Pretoria was founded
in 1855 by the Boer leader Pretorius,
has broad streets, and pure water. It
owes its prosperity chiefly to the gold
mines at Johannesburg, about 30
miles distant.
Prcvost-Paraclol, Imcien Ana-
tole, a French writer and diplomatist ;
born in Paris, France, Aug. 8, 1829.
In 1851 he obtained from the Academie
Francaise the prize for eloquence, for
his " Eulogy on Bernardin de Saint
Pierre." His literary and political es-
says are among the soundest, the most
acute, the most scholarly, and the most
elegant that have proceeded from the
French journalists of the empire. In
1870 he came to the United States as
minister plenipotentiary, and he was
at Washington only a few days when
he committed suicide, Aug. 11, 1870.
Priam, a King of Phrygia, and the
last sovereign of Troy. Soon after his
accession, the discovery of a gold mine
in his kingdom enabled him to enlarge
and beautify his capital, strengthen
its defenses, and raise a powerful
army. Under his reign Troy was re-
garded as the largest, richest, and most
magnificent city, and himself as the
most powerful monarch in Lesser
Asia. The perfidy of his son Paris in
eloping with Helen led to the long and
fatal war, which, after enduring for
10 years, terminated in the entire over-
throw of the state, the destruction of
Illium, the death of most of his sons,
and his own murder by the ruthless
Pyrrhus. Priam's death occurred about
1184 B. C.
Pribilof Islands, a group of is-
lands on the coast of Alaska, in Ber-
ing Sea. The largest are St. Paul, St.
George, Walrus, and Beaver Islands.
They are frequented by numbers of fur
seals. The natives are Aleutians.
Price, Richard, an English phi-
losopher : born in Tynton, Glamorgan-
shire, Feb. 22, 1723. He was a Dis-
senting minister, and was pastor of
Price
a congregation at Hackney. He was
the friend of Benjamin Franklin, and
sympathized warmly with the Ameri-
can colonists. His tables of vital sta-
tistics and calculations of expectancy
of life were the basis of modern an-
nuities and life insurance ; his econom-
ic and financial writings were of a
high order, and the younger Pitt con-
sulted him on finance. He wrote " The
American Revolution and the Means of
Rendering It a Benefit to the World,"
etc. He died April 19, 1791.
Price, Sterling, an American mili-
tary officer ; born in Prince Edward
co., Va., Sept. 11, 1809 ; received a
collegiate education, and settled in
Missouri in 1831 ; was elected to Con-
gress in 1844 ; served in the Mexican
War as colonel and Brigadier-General
of volunteers ; was military governor
of Chihuahua in 1847 ; governor of
Missouri in 1853-1857, and president
of the State Convention in February,
1861. When the Civil War broke out
he joined the Confederate army, and
became Major-General of Missouri
militia in May, 1861. He fought
through many campaigns and greatly
distinguished himself ; r, as commander
of the Department of the West in
18G2, and afterward of the districts of
Tennessee and Trans-Mississippi. At
the close of the war he went to Mexico,
but in 1866 returned to Missouri. He
died in St. Louis, Mo., Sept. 29, 1867.
Prickly Ash, a name given to
several prickly shrubs of the United
otates. They have an aromatic and
pungent bark, which from being used
as a remedy for toothache gains them
the name of toothache tree.
JPrickly Heat, a skin disease,
characterized by minute papulae
formed by the hypersemia of the sweat
follicles. Few Caucasian residents of
the tropics escape it when they are ex-
posed to the sun. It is not in the
least dangerous.
Prickly Pear, otherwise called the
Indian fig. It is a fleshy and succu-
lent plant, destitute of leaves, covered
with clusters of spines, and consisting
of flattened joints inserted upon each
other. The fruit is purplish in color,
covered with fine prickles, and edible.
The flower is large and yellow. It is
a native of the tropical parts of Amer-
ica. It is easily propagated, and in
some countries is used as a hedge
F. 120.
Priestley
plant. It attains a height of seven or
eight feet.
Pride of China (also called pride
of India and bead tree), a handsome
tree a native of India, naturalized in
the Southern States of the American
Union. It grows rapidly, has large
bunches of flowers, and enormous
quantities of small fruit. A decoc-
tion of the bark of its root is used as
a vermifuge.
Priest, one who in any religion per-
forms the sacred rites and, more or
less, intervenes between the worship-
per and his God, especially by offering
sacrifice.
In Judaism, a descendant of Aaron,
and therefore one of the sacred caste.
The Jewish priests filled all the im-
portant offices in connection, first with
the tabernacle and then with the tem-
ple worship. In the Protestant Epis-
copal Church, a clergyman in priest's
orders, as distinguished from a deacon.
In the Roman Church, a cleric who
has received the third grade in holy or-
ders, and who is thereby empowered
to " offer, t>less, rule, preach, and bap-
tize."
Priest, Josiah, an American au-
thor ; born in New York, about 1790.
He was an unschooled man, a harness-
maker by trade ; but published several
books, some of which became very pop-
ular. Among them were, " Stories of
the Revolution," and " Slavery in the
Light of History and Scripture." He
died about 1850.
Pristley, Joseph, an English
natural philosopher; born in Field-
head, England, March 13, 1733. His
first publication was the "History and
Present State of Electricity," which
procured his election into the Royai
Society, and the degree of doctor of
laws from Edinburgh. It was here
also that his political opinions were
first manifested, in an " Essay on Gov-
ernment." Soon after this he went to
Leeds, where he made those important
discoveries with regard to the proper-
ties of fixed air, foi which he received
the Copley medal of the Royal Society
in 1772. In 1776 he communicated to
the same learned body his observations
on respiration, in which he first experi-
mentally ascertained that the air parts
with its oxygen to the blood as it
passes through the lungs. He next re-
Prima Donna
moved to Birmingham, where he be-
came once more minister of an Inde-
pendent congregation, and occupied
himself in his " History of the Corrup-
tions of Christianity," writing, also,
in support of the claims of the Dis-
senters for a repeal of the test acts.
But it was the French Revolution that
afforded him the widest field, and he
did not fail to display his warm sym-
pathy with it. This excited the in-
dignation of the High Church party;
and in the riots which took place in
July, 1791, his house, library, manu-
scripts, and apparatus were committed
to the flames by the mob, and he was
exposed to great personal danger. Aft-
er this he removed to Hackney, where
he succeeded Dr. Price ; but, in 1794,
compelled by incessant persecutions to
fly his intolerant country, came to the
United States and took up his abode
at Northumberland, Pa. His works
extend to between 70 and 80 volumes.
As a natural philosopher, his fame
principally rests on his pneumatic in-
quiries. He died in Northumberland,
Pa., Feb. 6, 1804.
Prima Donna, the first female
singer in an opera.
Primate, the chief ecclesiastic in
certain churches. The Archbishop of
York is called the Primate of England,
the Archbishop of Canterbury the Pri-
mate of All England, and the Roman
Catholic Archbishop of Baltimore the
Primate of the United States.
Primates, the first and chief of
Linnaeus' orders of the class Mam-
malia. He included under it four gen-
era : Homo ( one species, five varie-
ties), Simia (21 species), Lemur,
(three species), and Vespertilio (seven
species). Huxley divides it into three
suborders: (1) Anthropidffi, (2) Simi-
adffi (apes and monkeys), and (3)
Lemurid*.
Prime, Samuel Ircnseus, an
American editor ; born in Ballston, N.
Y., Nov. 4, 1812 ; was first a minister
in the Presbyterian Church. About
1840 he became editor of the New
York " Observer," and remained in
charge till his death. He was the
author of over 40 volumes, the best
known being, " Travels in Europe and
the East," " Letters from Switzer-
land," " The Alhambra and the Krem-
lin," "Life of Samuel F. B. Morse."
Primrose
He died in Manchester, Vt., July 18,
1885.
Prime, William Cowper, an
American author ; born in Cambridge,
N. Y., Oct. 31, 1825. He has written
" Owl Creek Letters," " Coins, Medals,
and Seals," " The Holy Cross," " Pot-
tery and Porcelain of all Times and
Nations," etc. He edited " McClel-
lan's Own Story," and other works.
He died Feb. 13, 1905.
Prime Meridian, that meridian
from which longitude is measured ; in
the United States the meridian of
Washington.
Prime Minister, a British officer
of State, who at the summons of the
sovereign has succeeded in forming an
administration, of which he is the
head, and which may be named after
him. Though each member of the min-
istry administers his own department
independently of his colleagues, all im-
portant departmental matters are sub-
mitted to him, the most important be-
ing brought before the wMole ministry,
and no appointment of moment is
made or recommended to the crown
without his knowledge and concur-
rence. His own patronage is very ex-
tensive. No cabinet officer in the Unit-
ed States possesses similar powers.
Primitive Methodists, a section
of the Wesleyan community which
arose in Staffordshire, England, under
the leadership of Hugh Bourne
(1792-1852). Having held camp meet-
ings like those in the United States,
he was censured for it by the English
Wesleyan Conference in 1807, and, se-
ceding, formed a new connection. In
doctrine the Primitive Methodists
agree with the Wesleyans. In the
United States they report 101
churches, 80 ministers, and 7,558
communicants.
Primogeniture, the right, system,
or rule under which in cases of in-
testacy, the eldest son of a family suc-
ceeds to the real estate of his father
to the absolute exclusion of the young-
er sons and daughters. Primogeniture
no longer carries with it any legal ad-
vantage over younger children hi the
United States.
Primrose, a well known flower,
common in copses, pastures, hedge-
banks, and woods, or by the side of
streams. Its rootstock is emetic.
Prince
Princeton University
Prince. (1) One who holds the
first, or chief place, or rank ; a sover-
eign. (2) The ruler or sovereign of
a state or territory which he holds of
a superior, to whom he owes certain
services. (3) The son of a sovereign,
or the issue of the royal family; as,
the princes of the blood. In British
heraldic language, the title of prince
belongs to dukes, marquises, and earls
of Great Britain, but in ordinary use j
it is confined to members of the royal
family. The only case in which it is
a territorial title is that of the Prince
of Wales, the official title of the heir-
apparent to the throne. On the Con-
tinent of Europe the title of prince is
borne by members of families not im-
mediately connected with any royal
house. It is frequently borne by per-
sons who although legally entitled to
it are in fact without means of sup-
port, and it can be purchased in some
European countries for a comparative-
ly small sum of money. (4) The head
or chief of any body of men ; one who
is at the head of any class or profes-
sion, or who is preeminent in any-
thing; as, a merchant prince.
Prince, Le Baron Bradford, an
American lawyer ; born in Flushing,
L. I., N. Y., July 3, 1840 ; was chief-
justice of New Mexico in 1878-1882;
territorial governor of New Mexico in
1889-1893; president of the Interna-
tional Mining Congress in 1897-1898
and in 1900-1901; and vice-president
of the National Irrigation Conference
in 1901. He is the owner of the
largest collection of American stone
idols in the world. . His publications
include various books and pamphlets
on archaeology, political economy, and
history.
Prince Edward Island, an island
forming a province of the Dominion of
Canada, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
and separated by Northumberland
Strait from New Brunswick on the E.
and Nova Scotia on the S. ; greatest
length, from E. to W., about 130
miles ; breadth, varying from 4 to 34
miles ; area, about 2,134 square miles,
or 1,365,760 acres, of which over 1,-
000,000 are under cultivation. Pop.
(1901) 103,259. The coast line pre-
sents a remarkable succession of large
bays and projecting headlands. The
island is naturally divided into three
peninsulas, and the whole is eminently
! agricultural and pastoral, the foresta
now being of comparatively limited ex-
I tent. The climate is mild ; winter,
! though long and cold, is free from
damp, unwholesome chills ; and sum-
mer, without being oppressively hot,
is fitted to promote the growth of all
the ordinary cereals. Sheep, cattle,
and horses are reared in numbers ; cod,
mackerel, herring, oysters, and lob-
sters form the most productive part of
the fisheries. The manufactures are
chiefly confined to linen and flannels
for domestic use ; there are also several
tanneries, and shipbuilding is carried
on to a considerable extent. The ex-
ports consist of timber, agricultural
produce, and live stock; the imports
of drygoods, hardware, cordage, iron,
etc. A railway runs from one end of
the island to the other. The capital is
Charlottetown. Pop. (1901) 12,080.
There is an excellent educational sys-
tem, the elementary schools being
free. The island is supposed to have
been discovered by Cabot. It was
first colonized by France, captured by
Great Britain in 1745, restored and
recaptured, and finally in 1873 was
admitted to the Dominion of Canada.
Princeton, a town in Mercer
county, N. J.; on the Delaware &
Raritan canal and a spur of the Penn-
sylvania railroad; 10 miles N. E. of
Trenton; is widely noted as the seat
of Princeton University, the Prince-
ton Theological Seminary, and the
home of Grover Cleveland; for a bat-
tle that took place at Stony Brook,
about 3 miles W. of the town, dur-
ing the Revolutionary War, in which
the Continental army was victorious;
and as the place where Washington
received the thanks of the young na-
tion for his conduct of the war to
a successful termination. Pop. (1910)
5,136.
Princeton Theological Semi-
nary, an educational institution in
Princeton, N. J. ; founded in 1812,
under the auspices of the Presbyterian
Church.
Princeton University, an educa-
tional institution in Princeton, N. J. It
was founded Oct. 22, 1746, by a char-
ter given under the seal of the Prov-
ince of New Jersey, " for the instruc-
tion of youth in the learned languages
and in the liberal arts and sciences.'
After the Civil War the college began
Printing
to make rapid progress. The number
of students increased, the faculty was
enlarged, and in 1872 the Chancellor
Green Library (named in honor of its
donor) was erected. Up to this time
the course of instruction had led ex-
clusively to the degree of Bachelor of
Arts; but in 1873 the John C. Green
School of Science was added, and in
1875 the Department of Civil Engi-
neering was also created. In 1889 the
Department of Electrical Engineering
was founded, and in 1901 the
Graduate School was formally estab-
lished, Prof. Andrew West being ap-
pointed its dean.
On Oct. 22, 1896, the 150th anniver-
sary of the signing of the first charter,
the title of Princeton University was
assumed. In 1897 the Chancellor
Green Library was connected wij;h a
new library building, having a capacity
to shelve 1,200,000 volumes. The total
number of buildings now belonging to
the university is over 40. The fac-
ulty numbers about 160; average
student attendance, 1.300; graduates,
10,500; endowment, $4,250,000.
Printing, the art of producing im-
pressions from characters or figures on
paper or any other substance. Print-
ing is of comparatively modern origin,
only 400 years having elapsed since the
first book was issued from the press;
yet we have proof that the principles
on which it was ultimately developed
existed among the ancient Assyrian
nations. Printing from movable types
was, according to Professor Douglas,
probably practised in China as early
as the 12th or 13th century, as there
are Korean books printed from mov-
able clay or wooden types in 1317. The
great discovery was that of forming
every letter or character of the alpha-
bet separately, so as to be capable of
rearrangement and forming in succes-
sion the pages of a work, thereby
avoiding the labor of cutting new
blocks of types for every page. The
credit of inventing this simple yet mar-
velous art is contested by the Dutch
and Germans. Printing was brought
to England in 1476 or 1477 by Will-
iam Caxton. The first printing press
set up in America was introduced by
the Viceroy of Mexico, Antonio de
Mendoza, and the first book printed
by it in the New World was " The
Ladder de S. Juan Climaco" (1536).
Printing
The earliest press in the British-
American colonies was brought over
for Harvard College in 1638, and was
set up by Stephen Daye. The " Bay
Psalm Book" (1640) was its first
important work ; but in 1639 it print-
ed the " Freeman's Oath " and an al-
manac. In Philadelphia a press was
set up in 1685, in New York in 1693.
In July, 1902, the Census Bureau
issued a report on printing and pub-
lishing which shows a capital of $292,-
517,072 invested in the 22,312 estab-
lishments reporting for the industry.
The value of the products is returned
at $347,055,050, to produce which in-
volved an outlay of $35,090,719 for
salaries of officials, clerks, etc. ; $84,-
249,889 for wages; $55,897,529 for
miscellaneous expenses and $86,856,290
for material used.
In 1890 the increase in the number
of all publications was greater than
the increase in population, but in 1900
the increase in number of publications
and in population was about the same.
During the decade there was an in-
crease in the proportion of daily, tri-
weekly, semi-weekly and monthly pub-
lications ; a marked decline in the pro-
portion of publications devoted to spe-
cial topics and an advance only in
the classes devoted to news topics and
to general reading. The total circula-
tion per issue of dailies was enough to
supply one for every five inhabitants.
The total circulation per issue of week-
lies and monthlies was one to two in-
habitants. Publications printed in En-
glish formed 94.3 per cent, of all pub-
lications reporting for 1900, showing
a considerable increase over the corre-
sponding figures for the preceding dec-
ade. One and one-quarter billion
pounds of paper were used during the
census year. Of this amount 77.6 per
cent, was consumed for newspapers,
16.4 per cent, for books and periodicals
and 6 per cent, for job printing, but
the proportionate cost was 58.7 per
cent., 24.7 per cent., and 16.6 per cent,
respectively. Daily evening news-
papers increased more rapidly than
daily morning papers. In 1890 there
were two evening papers to every
morning paper; in 1900 the propor-
tion was about three to one.
The 19th was a century of wonder-
ful achievement in every branch of
printing. The Fourdrinier paper-mak-
ing machine, the Bruce type-caster, the
Prison
/inotype type-casting and type-setting
machine, and other mechanical type-
setters of merit ; composition ink roll-
ers, the cylinder press, the web press,
and mechanisms of many kinds for the
rapid printing of the smallest label
or the largest sheet in black or many
colors ; machines for folding, sewing,
and binding books ; the arts of stereo-
type, electrotype, and photo-engraving
all these are its outgrowth, and the
more important have been invented or
made practicable within the memory
of men now living. It is a summary
of which the printing trade may be
proud. Printing was never done bet-
ter and never done worse. It has
never been . furnished in so large a
quantity at so small a price. For one
or more cents can be had a newspaper
with more reading matter than would
fill a stout octavo volume. Yet books
are made and sold in limited editions
to eager subscribers at prices rang-
ing from $5 to $50 a volume. William
Morris maintained that printing had
gone steadily from bad to worse till he
revived its best features. Many pub-
lishers maintain, with more reason,
that books of real value for instruc-
tion or amusement were never better
fitted than they now are for useful-
ness to all classes of readers.
Prison, a place of detention for
persons convicted of crime. The most
advanced examples of prison disci-
Sline and construction are to be found
i the United States.
In some of the Southern States pris-
oners are leased out to the highest
bidders for the term of their sentences ;
but this system, which condemns the
convicts to a slavery that is not modi-
fied even by considerations arising
from personal ownership, is gradually
being abandoned. The first place of
detention for juvenile delinquents was
opened at New York in 1825 ; the first
reformatories on the cottage or fam-
ily system were established in Ohio
for boys at Lancaster in 1858, for
girls at Delaware in 1878.
Prisoners of War, those who are
captured from the enemy during naval
or military operations. In ancient
times the treatment of prisoners of
war was very severe. In the Greek
wars it was no uncommon th ; ng to
put the whole adult male population
of a conquered state to the sword,
Privateer
while the women and children were
enslaved. Though the putting to death
of prisoners became less frequent, they
and their families were commonly re-
duced to slavery to as recent a period
as the 13th century. The act of Na-
poleon in putting to death the Turkish
prisoners of war at Jaffa in 1799 was
universally condemned, and is probably
the last instance of such barbarity.
Pritchett, Henry Smith, an
American educator; born in Fayette,
Mo., April 16, 1857; became an as-
tronomer in the United States Naval
Observatory; astronomer of the
Transit of Venus Expedition (1882);
Professor of Astronomy and Director
of Observatory, Washington Univer-
sity, St. Louis, Mo. (1883-1897); Su-
perintendent United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey (1897-1900);
president, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (1900-1906); and presi-
dent of the Carnegie Foundation for
the Advancement of Teaching (1906).
Privateer, a ship owned by a pri-
vate individual, which under govern-
ment permission, expressed by a letter
of marque, makes war on the shipping
of a hostile power. To make war on
an enemy without this commission, or
on the shipping of a nation not speci-
fied in it, is piracy. At the American
Revolution the new republic fully re-
alized the advantage of its position
in preying on the mercantile marine
of Great Britain ; and in the War of
1812 British commerce suffered severe-
ly at the hands of American privateers,
of which it was computed that some
250 were afloat. During the American
Civil War the Confederate States of-
fered letters of marque to persons of
all countries, but no admittedly for-
eign vessels were so commissioned.
During the same period the Congress
of the United States empowered the
President to grant commissions to
privateers, but none such were grant-
ed. The Confederate cruisers were at
first regarded in the North as mere
pirates ; and the " Alabama Claims "
originated in the charge against Great
Britain of allowing the departure of
privateers from British ports, where
they were fitted out illegally. The
charge was fully sustained, it being
shown before the Geneva Tribunal that
the Alabama and other so-called Con-
federate ships were really British.
Privet
Privet, a genus of plants contain-
ing a number of species of shrubs and
small trees with opposite leaves, which
are simple and entire at the margin ;
the flowers small, white, and in ter-
minal panicles. Common privet is a
shrub growing in bushy places and
about the borders of woods in the
middle and S. of Europe, and now also
naturalized in some parts of North
America.
Privileged Witnesses, witnesses
who are not obliged to testify as to cer-
tain things, as lawyers in relation to
their dealings with their clients, and
officers of State as to State secrets ;
also, by statute, in "some instances,
clergymen and physicians are placed in
the same category, so far as concerns
information received by them profes-
sionally.
Privy Council, in English law, the
principal council of the sovereign, con-
sisting of members chosen at his or
her pleasure. It is presided over by
the Lord President of the Council, who
has precedence next after the Lord
Chancellor. Members of the privy
council are addressed as Right Hon-
orable.
The office of a privy councilor is
now confined to advising the sovereign
in the discharge of executive, legisla-
tive, and judicial duties.
Privy Seal, the seal used in En-
gland to be appended to grants which
are afterward to pass the great seal,
and to documents of minor importance,
which do not require to pass the great
seal.
Prize, that which is taken from an
enemy in war ; that which is seized by
fighting, especially a ship, with the
goods contained in her ; any descrip-
tion of goods or property seized by
force as spoil or plunder.
Prize Court, a court established
to adjudicate on prizes captured at sea.
In the United States, the United
States District Courts have jurisdic-
tion both as instance and prize courts.
Prize Money, money paid to the
captors of a ship or place where booty
has been obtained, in certain propor-
tions according to rank, the money be-
ing realized by the sale of the booty.
Probate, in law, the official proof
of a will. This is done either in com-
mon form, which is upon the oath of
Process
the executor before the judge of the
probate court ; or per testes (by wit-
nesses), in some solemn form of law,
in case the validity of the will is dis-
puted.
Probate Court, a court of record
established to exercise jurisdiction
and authority in relation to probate
of wills and letters of administration,
and to hear and determine all ques-
tions relating to matters and causes
testamentary. In New York it is
called the " Surrogate's Court " ; in
Pennsylvania the " Orphans' Court."
Probationer, one who is in a state
of probation or trial, so that he may
give proof of his qualifications for a
certain position, place, or state.
Proboscis Monkey, or Kah.au, a
native of Borneo, distinguished par-
ticularly by its elongated nose, its
shortened thumbs, and its elongated
tail. The general color is a lightish
red. These monkeys are arboreal in
habits, and appear to frequent the
neighborhood of streams and rivers,
congregating in troops.
Probus, Marcus Anrelius, a Ro-
man emperor ; born in Sirmium,
Pannonia. By the Emperor Tacitus
he was appointed governor of the
Asiatic possessions of Rome ; and such
was the zealous attachment evinced
for him by his soldiers that on the
death of Tacitus they forced him to
assume the purple; and, his rival
Florianus having been removed, Pro-
bus was enthusiastically hailed em-
peror by all classes (A. D. 276). His
brief reign was signalized by brill-
iant and important successes; the
Germans were driven out of Gaul,
and the barbarians from the Rhaetian,
Pannonian, and Thracian frontiers ;
and Persia was forced to agree to a
humiliating peace. The external se-
curity of the empire being established,
Probus devoted himself to the develop-
ment of its internal resources. After
a short reign he was murdered hi a
military insurrection in 282 A. D.
Procedure, Civil, the method of
proceeding in a civil suit throughout
its various stages.
Process, in anatomy, an enlarge-
ment, such as the zygomatic process of
the temporal bone, the vermiform proc-
ess of the cerebellum, etc. In law, a
term applied to the whole course of
Procession
proceedings in a cause, real or per-
sonal, c.ivil or criminal, from the orig-
inal writ to the end of the suit ; spe-
cifically, the summons citing the party
affected to appear in court at the
return of the original writ.
Procession, the act or state of pro-
ceeding or issuing forth or from. Also
a train of persons marching on foot,
or riding on horseback or in vehicles
with ceremonious solemnity.
Proclamation, a public notice
made by a ruler or chief magistrate to
the people, concerning any matter
which he thinks fit to give notice
about. In the United States the
President issues proclamations as to
treaties, days of thanksgiving^ admis-
sion of new States, etc. ; likewise gov-
ernors of States and mayors of cities
for special purposes.
Proconsnl, in Roman antiquities,
an officer who, though not actually
holding the office of consul, exercised
in some particular locality all the
powers of a consul.
Procopius, an eminent Greek his-
torian of the 6th century, the leading
authority for Justinian's reign ; born
in Caesarea, Palestine. Of his writings
we have the " Histories," or as the
author styles them, " Books about the
Wars" of his time Persian, Van-
dal, and Gothic ; a treatise " On Build-
ings " ; " Anecdotes " ( posthumous) ,
a supplement to the " Histories," con-
sisting of political and personal mat-
ter he dared not publish in his life-
time. .
Procter, Bryan "Waller, pseudo-
nym Barry Cornwall, an English
poet; born in London, England, Nov.
21, 1787. He early published four
Volumes of poems, and produced a
tragedy at Covent Garden, whose suc-
cess was largely due to the acting of
Macready and Kemble. He was called
to the bar in 1831, from 1832 to 1861
was a metropolitan commissioner of
lunacy. His works were issued under 1
the pseudonym " Barry Cornwall " (a
faulty anagram of his real name). He
died Oct. 5, 1874.
Proctor, in an American univer-
sity, an executive officer whose duty
it is to preserve order and enforce the
laws of the institution. In England
the king's proctor is a crown official
charged with upholding the interests
Profit
of the crown in certain classes of pri-
vate law-suits.
Proctor, Edna Dean, an Ameri-
can poet; born in Henniker, N. H.,
Oct. 10, 1838. Her works are:
" Poems " ; " The Song of the Ancient
People " ; " Mountain Maid and Other
Poems of New Hampshire " ; etc.
Proctor, Richard Anthony, an
English astronomer, author of a large
number of popular works, principally
on astronomy ; born in London, Eng-
land, March 23, 1837. He was a grad-
uate of St. John's College, Cambridge,
in 1860. About 1885 he settled in St.
Louis, and later moved to Florida. He
was at the time of his death the edi-
tor of " Knowledge," a monthly jour-
nal of popular science. He was a
very popular lecturer. He died in
New York city, Sept. 12, 1888.
His daughter, MARY, born in Dub-
lin, Ireland; was graduated at the
College of Preceptors, London, in
1898; took the course in Descriptive
Astronomy at Columbia University
in 1900; observed and reported sev-
eral notable astronomical occur-
rences; delivered over 800 lectures
on astronomy since 1893 and annual
courses under the New York Board
of Education since 1894.
Professor. (1) One who professes
or makes open and public declara-
tion or acknowledgment of his senti-
ments, opinions, belief, etc. (2) One
who makes a public profession of re-
ligion in 'those churches where such a
rule prevails instead of confirmation.
(3) One who teaches any art, science,
! or branch of learning ; specifically a
person appointed in a university, col-
lege, etc., to deliver lectures and in-
struct the students in any particular
branch of learning; as, a professor of
Greek, a professor of theology, etc.
By common use, the title professor has
become greatly abused, and is assumed,
not only by teachers of music, dan-
I cing, drawing, etc., but even by
j quacks, conjurers, teachers of boxing,
animal trainers, etc.
Profit, any advantage, benefit, or
I accession of good resulting from labor
or exertion ; valuable results, useful
consequence, benefit, gain; compre-
hending the acquisition of anything
valuable or advantageous, corporeal,
or intellectual, temporal or spiritual.
Progressive Party
Prong-horn Antelope
Progressive Party, The, a Na-
tional political party organized in
Chicago, 111., in June, 1912. by regular
and unseated delegates to the Republi-
can National Convention who favored
the candidacy of former President
Roosevelt. In the balloting for the
nomination, President Taft received
561 votes and Roosevelt 107, while 344
delegates disregarded their local in-
structions and acceded to Roosevelt's
request that his supporters refrain
from taking any part in the proceed-
ings of the Convention, on the ground
that the National Committee had de-
frauded him out of many votes in their
decisions on C9ntested seats. The new
party held its first convention in
Chicago on August 5-7, adopted a
platform in consonance with the
former President's public speeches and
writings, and unanimously nominated
him for President, with Governor
Hiram W. Johnson, of California, for
V ice-President. Under the distinguish-
ing emblem of the Bull Moose, the
new party rapidly gained strength
throughout the country, drawing its
largest forces from among the mem-
bers of the Republican party who had
become dissatisfied with the methods
and policies of the administration of
President Taft. Prior to the nomina-
tions, Messrs. Taft and Roosevelt both
made extended speaking tours, but
afterward Mr. Roosevelt only con-
tinued actively in the campaign (see
Roosevelt, Theodore). The Demo-
cratic candidate, Governor Woodrow
Wilson, was elected in the ensuing
election November 5, 1912.
Prohibition Party, The. In re-
cent years the cause of absolute pro-
hibition has made great strides in the
United States. In the State of Maine,
th? mother State of prohibitory legis-
lation, what is known throughout the
worl 1 as the "Maine law" has been
in successful operation for a quarter
of a century. In various States gu-
bernatorial and State tickets were
nominated in successive years from
1876 to 1886, but no election resulted
in any case. In New Jersey and in
New York in 1886 great interest cen-
tered around the efforts of the Pro-
hibition party, owing to the closeness
of the vote between the two older
parties, though the vote polled by the
Prohibitionists amounted to only a
few thousands. In 1872, 1876, 1880.
1884, 1888, 1892, 1896, 1900, 1904,
and 1908 a national ticket was nom-
inated; votes as follows: 1872, 5,608:
1876, 9,522; 1880, Dow, 10,305; 1884,
St. John, 150,369; 1888, Fisk, 249,-
360; 1892, Bidwell, 264,132; 1896,
Levering, 131,757: 1900, Woolley,
208,833; 1904, Swallow, 258,536; 1908.
Chafin, 253,840.
Proletariat, a term used to de-
note the poorest classes of the com-
munity.
Prometheus, in mythology, the son
of the Titan Japetus, was a brother to
Atlas and Epimetheus, and surpassed
all mankind in cunning. He ridiculed
the gods, and deceived Jupiter him-
self. To punish Prometheus, Jupiter
caused this wily mortal to be tied to
a rock on Mount Caucasus, where, for
30,000 years, a vulture was to feed on
his liver, which was never to be dimin-
ished. He was delivered from thig
punishment 30 years afterward by
Hercules.
Promise, in law, a declaration
made by one person to another for a
good or valuable consideration, where-
by the person promising binds himself
to do or forbear some act, and gives
to the promisee a legal right to de-
mand and enforce a fulfillment
Promised Land, Canaan; that
portion of Syria lying between the
Jordan and the Mediterranean. It was
frequently promised by Jehovah to the
patriarchs, and finally bestowed on
their descendants, the Israelites.
Promissory Note, a written prom-
ise to pay a given sum of money
to a certain person, at a specified date.
The phrase " for value received " is
usually inserted.
Prompter, one who or that which
prompts, urges, or incites to action or
exertion. Also, one who assists a
speaker, when at a loss, by suggest-
ing or repeating words. Specifically,
a person placed behind the scenes in
a theater, whose duty is to prompt or
assist the actors when at a loss, by
uttering the first words of a sentence,
or words forgotten.
Prong-horn Antelope, inhabiting
the W. parts of North America, from
53 N. to the plains of Mexico and
California. It is rather more than
four feet in length, and stands three
Pronoun
feet at the shoulder. Pale fawn
above and on the limbs ; breast, abdo-
men, and rump white. The horns are
branched, and are shed annually.
PRONG-HORN ANTELOPE.
Pronoun, a word used in place of a
noun or name in order to avoid the
too frequent repetition of such noun
or name, but differing from a noun in
not being permanently attached to
any certain object or class of objects,
and in not being limited in its appli-
cation. Pronouns in English are divid-
ed into: (1) Personal, (2) Demon-
strative, (3) Interrogative, (4) Rela-
tive, and (5) Indefinite. Interrogative
pronouns are those which serve to ask
a question, as who? which? what?
Indefinite pronouns, or such as do not
specify any particular object, are
used, some as substantives, some as
adjectives ; as, any, aught, each, every,
other, etc.
Propaganda Fide, Congrega-
tion de, a commission of cardinals
charged with the direction of all mat-
ters connected with foreign missions
in the Roman Church. Pope Urban
VIII. (1623-1644) founded the Prop-
aganda College, and here young men
of all nations are trained for the
nriesthood, and take an oath to devote
Prorogation
themselves for life to the foreign mis-
sions in whatever province or vicari-
ate they may be appointed to by the
congregation.
Propeller, one who or that which
propels ; specifically, the screw by
which a steamship is driven through
the water; a vessel thus propelled.
Property Tax, a rate or duty
levied by the State, county, or munici-
pality on the property of individuals,
the value of the property being fixed
by assessment.
Prophet, one who prophesies; one
who is the bearer of a divine message
to mankind ; more familiarly, one who
predicts future events. The prophet was
a revealer in distinction from the priest,
whose functions pertained to ritual.
Prophets, School of the, an as-
sociation of the prophets in which the
elder lovingly trained the younger,
who were called their sons (I Kings
xx : 35). First Elijah, and then
Elisha, presided over such a society.
Prophets, The, men divinely in-
spired, and who often uttered predic-
tions of future events. The order was
early recognized among the Hebrews.
The title was given to Moses, and after
his time to men who, as reformers or
teachers, declared God's will to the
nation. Samuel and Elijah were no-
table examples. Later, the prophets
committed their messages to writing.
Sixteen of their books are included in
the canon. They are divided into four
groups : 1. The prophets of the
Northern kingdom : Hosea, Amos,
Joel, and Jonah ; 2. The prophets of
the Southern kingdom : Isaiah, Jere-
miah, Obadiah, Micah, Nahum, Habak-
kuk, and Zephaniah ; 3. The prophets
of the Captivity : Ezekiel and Daniel ;
4. The prophets of the Return : Hag-
gai, Zechariah, and Malachi. The
title was also applied to John the Bap-
tist and to Christ.
Prophet's City, a name by which
Medina, in Arabia, is often referred
to. To this place Mohammed fled for
refuge during the Hegira, July 16,
622, and here is his tomb.
Prorogation, in English law, the
interruption of a session, as distin-
guished from an adjournment, which
is from day to day, and may be of
either or both houses, while a pro-
rogation is of Parliament, also the
Proscenium
Proteids
time during which the English Par-
liament is prorogued.
Proscenium, the stage of a theater,
or the space included in the front of
the scene ; in contradistinction to the
postscenium, or space behind the
scene. In the modern theater it is im-
properly used to designate the orna-
mental framework from which the
curtain hangs when performances are
not going on, dividing the spectator
from all engaged on the stage.
Proscription, in Roman history, a
mode of getting rid of enemies, first
resorted to by Sulla in 82 B. c., and
imitated more than once afterward in
the stormy years that closed the re-
public. Under Sulla, lists of names
were drawn out and posted up in
public places, with the promise of a
reward to any person who should kill
any of those named in the lists, and
the threat of death to those who
should aid or shelter any of them.
Their property also was confiscated,
and their children were declared in-
capable of honors.
Prosecution, in law, (1) the in-
stituting and carrying on of a suit in
court of law or equity to obtain some
right, or to redress and punish an in-
jury or wrong. (2) The act or process
of exhibiting formal charges against
an offender before a legal tribunal,
and pursuing them to final judgment;
the instituting and continuing of a
criminal suit against any person or
persons. (3) The party by whom
criminal proceedings are instituted ;
the prosecutor or prosecutors collect-
ively.
Proselyte, a new convert to some
religion, sect, opinion, party, or sys-
tem. In Judaism, a gentile convert.
Two kinds were discriminated: (1)
Proselytes of the gate, who followed
a few Old Testament rules, and (2)
proselytes of righteousness, who ac-
cepted the whole Mosaic ritual.
Proserpine, in mythology, a
daughter of Ceres and Jupiter, of ex-
treme innocence and beauty, and who,
while gathering flowers in the lovely
vale of Tempe, or the Mysian Plain,
was seen and carried off by the god
of the infernal regions, Pluto. The
prayers and intercessions of her moth-
er ultimately prevailed on Pluto to
permit her to spend half of each year
on earth, to gratify and gladden the
heart and eyes of her devoted parents,
the other half being passed with her
infernal lord in the realms below.
Prosody, that part of grammar
which treats of the quantities of sylla-
bles, of accent, and of the laws of
versification. In Greek and Latin
every syllable had its determinate
value or quantity, and verse was con-
structed by a system of recurring feet,
each consisting of a certain number
of syllables, possessing a certain quan-
tity and arrangement. In English,
verse is constructed simply by accent
and number of syllables.
Protection, one of the theories con-
cerning the best development of a
country's industries by means of taxes
levied for other than fiscal purposes.
Incidental protection does not hold
that any tariff should be levied with
the intention of protecting and fos-
tering a given industry, but that in
every case the tax should be laid for
public purposes only i. e., with the
intention of sustaining the state, and
be only incidentally directed to the
protection of the weaker industry.
These last assumptions furnish the
f round of political divergence between
reetrade proper (q. v.) and incidental
protection. The protectionists take
into consideration both the funda-
mental conditions of the argument and
the peculiar character of the indus-
tries of a people. They claim that
given pursuits may thus be strength-
ened and encouraged by legislative
provisions, and that natural and po-
litical laws may be made to cooperate
in varying and increasing the produc-
tive resources of the state.
Protector, in English history, on
who had the care of the kingdom dur-
ing the minority of the king; a re-
gmt; specifically applied to Oliver
romwell, who took the title of Lord
Protector in 1653. In the Roman
Catholic Church a cardinal belonging
to one of the more important Catholic
nations, who, in Rome, watches over
questions affecting his country. There
are also cardinal protectors of relig-
ious orders, colleges, etc.
Proteids, a name given to sub-
stances analogous in composition to
protein, that is, consisting of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, some-
times united with sulphur and phos-
phorus. The gluten of flour, albumin,
Protest
the fibrin of the blood, syntonin,
which is the chief constituent or
muscle and flesh, and casein are ex-
amples of proteids. Proteids are the
essential food stuffs.
Protest, ordinarily, a solemn af-
firmation or declaration of opinion
(frequently in writing), generally in
opposition to some act or proposition ;
a solemn affirmation by which a per-
son declares either that he entirely
dissents from and disapproves of any
act or proposition, or else only con-
ditionally gives his assent or consent
to an act or proposition, to which
he might otherwise be considered to
have assented unconditionally.
In commerce, a formal declaration
by the holder of a bill of exchange or
promissory note, or by a notary public
at his direction, that acceptance or
payment of such bill or note has been
refused, and that the holder intends
to recover all expenses to which he
may be put in consequence of such
non-acceptance or non-payment.
Protestant, one who protests. In
Church history, the name given to
those princes and others who, on April
19, 1529, at the second diet of Speyer,
protested against the decision of the
majority, that the permission given
three years before to every prince to
regulate religious matters in his do-
minions till the meeting of a General
Council should be revoked, and that
no change should be made till the
council met. The name is now extend-
ed to all persons and churches hold-
ing the doctrines of the Reformation
and rejecting papal authority.
Protestant Episcopal Church,
a denomination in the United States
directly descended from the Church of
England, which doctrinally claims to
be based on the Holy Scriptures, as
interpreted in the Apostles and other
ancient creeds of the Church that
have been universally received, and
to have kept herself aloof from all the
modern systems of faith, whether of
Calvin, or Luther, or Arminius, leav-
ing her members free to enjoy their
own opinions on all points not repre-
sented in the Scriptures as necessary
to soul's health, and refusing to be
narrowed down to any other creed or
creeds than those of the Apostles and
the Primitive Church. She claims also
to have retained all that is essential
to church organization in her episco-
pate, and in her liturgy to have not
only a wise and judicious compend of
doctrine and devotion, but also one
of the most effectual of all possible
conservative safeguards for the faith
once delivered to the saints. Three
clerical orders are recognized bish-
ops, priests, and deacons the first
deriving their oflice in direct succes-
sion from the apostles by episcopal
consecration, and the others receiving
ordination at the hands of a bishop.
Those of the second order are entitled
archdeacons, deans, rectors, vicars, or
curates, according to their functions.
A reader is a layman licensed by the
bishop to read in a church or chapel
where there is no clergyman. Parson
signifies a clergyman in possession of
a parochial church.
From the time of the first congrega-
tions of the Church of England, in
America, in 1607, to the close of the
Revolution, all the clergy in the colo-
nies were regarded as under the super-
vision of the Bishop of London. The
first American bishop was Rev. Samuel
Seabury, who, in 1783, was consecrated
in Scotland as Bishop of Connecticut.
All Protestant Episcopal churches in
the United States are associated in
one national body, called the General
Convention, which meets triennially.
According to a special Census re-
port on " Religious Bodies " (2 vols.,
1910), there were 6.845 organiza-
tions; 6,922 church edifices; church
property valued at over $125.040,-
000; 5.368 ministers; 105 bishops of
different grades; 886,942 communi-
cants; and 5,211 Sunday schools.
Protocol, the original draft or copy
of a deed, contract, or other docu-
ment. In diplomacy, the minutes or
rough draft of an instrument or trans-
action; the original copy of a treaty,
dispatch, or other document; a docu-
ment serving as the preliminary to
diplomatic negotiations ; a diplomatic
document or minute of proceedings,
signed by the representatives of
friendly powers in order to secure cer-
tain political ends peacefully; a con-
vention not subject to the formalities
of ratification.
Protophytes. The lowest and
simplest organisms in the vegetable
kingdom. They are regarded as among
the Algse. The life-history of simplest
Protoplasm
Proverbs of Solomon
Protophytes is exemplified in the Pal-
moglcea macrococca, a sort of green
scum or slime, growing on damp
stones, etc. The cells are generally
independent, but in some species re-
main adherent one to another so as
to form a filament. Some species have
spiny projections of the outer coat,
which is of a horny consistence, as
in Staurastrum. Others are notched
on the sides ; some, as the Closterium,
are smooth. Many of the Desmids
multiply by subdivision, but the plan
is modified so as to maintain the sym-
metry characteristic of the tribe. At
other times multiplication takes place
by the subdivision of the endochrome
into granular particles, or " gonidia,"
set free by rupture of the cell wall.
Protoplasm, in biology, etc., the
living matter from which all kinds of
living things are formed and devel-
oped, and to the properties of which
all their functions are ultimately re-
ferred. Protoplasm is a transparent
homogeneous, or granular-looking sub-
stance. Under high microscopic power,
in many instances, it shows a more or
less definite structure, composed of
fibrils more or less regular, and in
some instances grouped into a honey-
combed or fibrillar reticulum, in the
meshes of which is a homogeneous in-
terstitial substance. Its composition
is a problem with which science is
still to deal.
Protozoa, a group of animals, oc-
cupying the lowest place in the animal
kingdom. They consist of a single cell,
or of a group of cells not differentiated
into two or more tissues ; incapable,
as a rule, of assimilating nitrogen in
its diffusible compounds (ammonia or
nitrates, or carbon in the form of
carbonates). The food is taken into
the protoplasm, either by a specialized
mouth or by any part of the cell sub-
stance, in the form of particles.
Proncllioii, Pierre Joseph, a
French publicist; born in Besancon,
France, July 15, 1809; died Jan. 19,
1865. In 1840, appeared his fa-
mous memoir, entitled, " What is
Property?" his answer to this ques-
tion, "Property is Theft," being al-
most all that is popularly known of
him. A second memoir on the same
subject exposed him to a prosecution,
but he was acquitted. After the revo-
lution of February, 1848, he was
chosen member of the Constituent
Assembly for the department of the
Seine. But he found no hearing at
the tribune, and therefore started a
newspaper under the title of " The
People," which was suppressed, and
reappeared three times. In 1849, he
founded his People's Bank, but being
soon after sentenced, under the press
laws, to three years' imprisonment
and a fine, he left France, and the
bank was closed by the government.
Prout, Father. See MAHONY.
Frovan.cli.er, Leon, a Canadian
priest and naturalist ; born in Becan-
cour, P. Q., March 10, 1820. He estab-
lished " Le Naturalist Canadien "
("The Canadian Naturalist") in
1868. His publications include : " Ele-
mentary Treatise on Botany " ; " Cana-
dian Plant Life " ; " Short History
of Canada " ; etc.
Provencal, a Romance dialect that
sprang up in France on the decline
of literary Latin. Originally Proven-
cal and Northern French came from
the same stock, but by the 12th cen-
tury they differed almost as widely as
French and Italian. Owing to its
rhyming facilities it was essentially
the language of the troubadours and
extended over the area from the Alps
to the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean
to the Loire, as well as in parts of
Spain and Switzerland.
Proverb, an old and common say-
ing ; a short or pithy sentence often
repeated, and containing or expressing
some well-known truth or common
fact ascertained by experience or ob-
servation; a sentence which briefly
and forcibly expresses some practical
truth. Unless a saying is capable of
being applied to a variety of cases it
can never become a proverb.
Proverbs of Solomon, one of the
sacred books of the Old Testament
ascribed to Solomon. The Hebrew
term translated proverbs means liter-
ally, a similitude or comparison of
two objects, and this is the form that
most of them take. Solomon, we are
told, uttered 3,000 proverbs ; but it
has been doubted whether he ever
made any collection of them in writ-
ing; and it is expressly stated that
the latter part of the book, beginning
with chapter xxv.. was written and
added by order of King Hezekiah. The
title shows the author rather than tbx
Providence
compiler. It has hardly ever been con-
tended that a large share in the com-
position of the book is to be ascribed
to the Wise King ; and the divine au-
thority of the book is sufficiently
proved by the quotations made from
it in the New Testament. In all ages
this book has been regarded as a great
store house of practical wisdom.
Providence, a city, capital of the
State of Rhode Island, and the county-
Beat of Providence CO. ; on the Provi-
dence river, an arm of Narrangansett
Bay, and 44 miles S. W. of Boston.
It is the second city of New England
in population and wealth, and is built
on a rolling plateau.
Providence has upward of 2,000
manufacturing establishments, with
a combined capital of about $60,000,-
000, and employing- about 40,000 per-
sons. It is noted for its manufactures
of cotton and^ woolen goods, jewelry,
and stoves, and is the- largest seat of
fine jewelry manufacture in the Unit-
ed States. The other industries in-
clude silverware, tools, engines, loco-
motives, boilers t sewing machines,
screws, files, general hardware, yarn,
calico, laces, braids, worsteds, broad-
cloth, chemicals, etc. There is an ex-
tensive coastwise commerce and ship-
ping industry, especially in the coal,
cotton and wool trade. There is also
an important shell-fish industry.
In 1636 Roger Williams, a Baptist
clergyman, was exiled from Massa-
chusetts because he opposed its theo-
cratic laws. He first settled at What
Cheer rock, on the Seekonk river, and
later at the head of the Providence
river, where the Indian chief, Canoni-
cus, granted him a piece of land. In
1643-1644 local government was
formed under a royal charter. Provi-
dence received its city charter in 1832,
and has been enlarged by annexation
of territory from adjoining towns.
Pop. (1900) 175,597; (1910) 224,326.
Piudclen, Thebphil Mitchell,
an American bacteriologist ; born in
Middlebury, Conn., July 7, 1849. He
was Professor of Pathology in the
College of Physicians and Surgeons,
New York. His works include:
" Handbook of Pathological Anatomy
and Histology," with F. Delafield?
" Story of the Bacteria " ; " Dust and
its Dangers " : " An Elder Brother to
the Cliff Dweller"; etc.
Prussia
Prune, the dried fruit of various
plums, especially of the varieties
called St. Catherine and Green Gage.
They contain a large proportion of
sugar, etc., so that brandy can be dis-
tilled from them.
Prussia, the largest and most pow-
erful State of the German empire;
occupying a N. central portion of the
European continent ; bounded on the
N. by the Baltic and Denmark; on
the E. by Russia and Poland ; on thr
S. by Bohemia, Bavaria, Wurtemberg,
and Baden ; and on the W. by Bel-
gium and the Netherlands. From the
extreme E. frontier to Aix-la-Chapelle
on the W. the distance is about 775
miles, and from the promontory on
the Baltic above Stralsund, to the ex-
treme S. frontier of Silesia, the dis-
tance is 404 miles. The length of the
coast line is about 250 miles on the
North Sea, and 750 miles on the Bal-
tic. Total area of the kingdom, 136,-
076 square miles.
Prussia is administratively divided
into 14 provinces, which are again
subdivided into 35 government dis-
tricts, with the principality of Hohen-
zollern, the cradle of the royal fami'T
The surface of the kingdom is gen-
erally level, sloping in the N. to the
sea, and forming part of the great N.
plain of Europe. The S. and S. W.
parts of the kingdom are hilly, or
even mountainous. The climate of
Prussia is varied. Along the Baltic it
is moist, and in Eastern Prussia, espe-
cially, the winter is long and severe.
In Silesia, Brandenburg, and the Sax-
on and Rhenish provinces, it is com-
paratively mild.
About 28,479,800 hectares are under
cultivation. Large estates are general-
ly managed by stewards and the oc-
cupants of smaller properties are, in
most cases, the owners. Rye, wheat,
barley, oats, potatoes, beet root, flax,
hops, tobacco and hemp form the chief
products. Chicory is also largely cul-
tivated. The extensive beet root plan-
tations give rise to one of the most
important industries ; in 1898 there
were 312 establishments manufactur-
ing beet root sugar. Madder and other
plants used in dyeing are also raised.
Fruits and vegetables are most ex-
tensively grown in the W. provinces,
which are also famous for their wines.
Horses, cattle and sheep are extensive
Prussia
Prussia
ly raised, wool being an important
product. Large numbers of fine horses
are exported from East Prussia.
The mineral products are abundant,
coal being the most important. The
production of lignite is large. Copper,
iron and lead are extensively worked.
Prussia yields about one-half of the
world's annual production of zinc.
Though more of an agricultural
than a manufacturing country, Prus-
sia has greatly distinguished herself,
particularly of late years, in the va-
rious manufactures. Linens and coarse
woolens for domestic consumption are
made in every village, and, indeed, in
most cottages throughout the kingdom.
Large quantities of silk and cotton
goods, and linen, are produced in
Elberfeld, and other towns of the
Rhine provinces. Very superior broad-
cloth is largely manufactured at
Eupen, Malmedy, Berlin, and Aix-la-
Chapelle. Prussia occupies an ad-
vanced rank as a producer of the use-
ful metals. The articles of hardware
made at Berlin, Iserlohn, Hagen, So-
lingen, Olpe, and Essen enjoy a high
reputation, the last-named place being
the seat of the famous Krupp steel
and gun works. ^ Porcelain, jewelry,
watches, and carriages are also manu-
factured in the latter city on a most
extensive scale. Paper, leather, soap,
oil and cigars are important manufac-
tures; and beer and spirits are very
extensively produced.
Commerce is facilitated by the long
coast line, and by an elaborate sys-
tem of railways and canals. Through-
out the kingdom, education is general
and compulsory. Absolute religious
liberty is guaranteed by the constitu-
tion. Nearly two-thirds of the popula-
tion are Protestants and most of the
remainder, Roman Catholic. The State
Church is Evangelical or Protestant,
and_ since 1817 has consisted of a
fusion of the Lutheran and Calvinist-
ic bodies. The relations of the Ro-
man Catholic Church to the govern-
ment differ in the various provinces,
but in every part of the monarchy the
crown reserves to itself control over
the election of bishops and priests.
The higher Catholic clergy are paid
by the State.
> The constitution vests the execu-
tive^and part of the legislative author-
ity in a king who attains his majority
on accomplishing his 18th year. The
crown is hereditary in the male line,
according to primogeniture. The king
is advised by a council of ministers
appointed by royal decree. The repre-
sentative assembly, the Landtag, is
composed of two chambers, the House
of Lords (Herrenhaus) and the
Chamber of Deputies (Abgeordneten-
haus). The assent of the king and
both chambers is requisite for all laws.
The executive government is carried
on by a Ministry of State appointed
by the king and holding office at hia
pleasure.
The rise of the Prussian power has
been rapid and extraordinary. The
kings of Prussia trace their origin to
Count Thassilo of Zollern, one of the
generals of Charlemagne. His succes-
sor, Count Friedrich I., built the
family castle of Hohenzollern, near
the Danube, in the year 980. A sub-
sequent Zollern, or Hohenzollern,
Friedrich III., was elevated lo the
rank of a prince of the Holy Roman
Empire, in 1273, and received the bur-
graviate of Nuremberg in fief ; and
his great-grandson, Friedrich VI. was
invested by the Emperor Sigismund,
in 1411, with the province of Branden-
burg, and obtained the rank of Elect-
or in 1417. In 1608-1.619 the duchy
of Prussia was united to the electorate
of Brandenburg, the territories of
which had been greatly extended by
the valor and wisdom of Friedrich
Wilhelm, "the Great Elector," under
whose fostering care arose the first
standing army in central Europe. Dy-
ing hi 1688, he left the province to his
son, Frederick I., who assumed the
crown at Konigsberg, June 18, 1701.
Pomerania was soon after added to
Prussia. When Frederick the Great
ascended the throne in 1740, his dis-
jointed dominions did not contain 2,-
500,000 inhabitants, and these had
made but little progress in the arts,
or in the accumulation of wealth. But
before his death, in 1786, Prussia had
been increased in size nearly half;
while the population had increased to
about 6,000,000. Prussia acquired,
by the subsequent partition of Poland
in 1792, and its final dismemberment
in 1795, a great extension of terri-
tory, and upward of 2,000,000 inhabit-
ants. Her disastrous contest with
France in 1806 lowered Prussia for a
while; but after Napoleon's Russian
campaign, the people rose en masse,
Prussian Blue
Pseudonym
and drove the French out of Germany.
At the general peace of 1815, Prussia
recovered all her former possessions
(except a portion of her Polish do-
minions), and gained valuable ac-
quisitions. After the accession, in
1862, of King William I., the execu-
tive government presided over by
Count von Bismarck, made laws, and
even decreed budget estimates, without
the concurrence of the chambers. In
1864, Prussia, conjointly with Aus-
tria, sent an army to occupy the
duchy of Schleswig-Holstein. A war
with Penmark followed, which re-
sulted iii the annexation of that duchy
to Prussia. In 1866, Hanover and
Saxony were occupied by the Prussian
troops, and a war followed ..with those
kingdoms and with Austria, in which,
after a brilliant campaign of two
weeks, the latter power was obliged to
sue for peace, and relinquish her
claims as a German power. In addi-
tion, Saxony was left a mere nominal
sovereignty under the control of Prus-
sia, while Hanover, Hesse-Cassel,
Nassau, and the former free city of
Frankfort-on-the-Main became ab-
sorbed in the Prussian monarchy. In
August, 1870, Napoleon III. declared
war against Prussia, and the French
armies marched toward the Rhine. An
alliance having been entered into be-
tween Prussia and the Southern Ger-
man powers of Bavaria, Wurtemberg,
and Baden, their combined forces
crossed the Rhine into France. The
part of Prussia in the Franco-German
war is inextricably involved with that
of the whole German nation. The con-
flict seemed to precipitate the solution
of the question which had always been
the aim of tre king and Bismarck,
German unity under Prussian leader-
ship. On Jan. 18, 1871, King Will-
iam was crowned at Versailles as
Emperor of Germany, and on March
21, the first German Reichstag as-
sembled at Berlin. The history of
Prussia since is that of Germany.
Prussian Blue, a cyanide of iron
possessed of a deep-blue color, and
much used as a pigment. It is also
used in medicine.
Prussian Brown, a color obtained
by adding a solution of the yellow
prussiate of potash to a solution of
sulphate of copper, which throws down
a precipitate of deep brown. This,
when washed and dried, is equal to
madder, and possesses greater per-
manency.
Prussic Acid, a name given to hy-
drocyanic acid because it was first ob-
tained from Prussian blue.
Prutz, Robert Eduard, a Ger-
man poet and historian ; born in
Stettin, May 30, 1816. He died in
Stettin, June 21, 1872.
Psalmist, a writer or composer of
psalms ; a title applied especially to
the authors of the Scriptural psalms,
and specifically, with the definite arti-
cle prefixed, to David. Psalmists, in
Church history, were singers in the
early church whose duty it was to
lead the people.
Psalmody, the art and practice of
singing psalms. Psalm singing was
introduced by the Reformers ; but Cal-
vin discouraged any but simple mel-
ody, while Luther practised and fa-
vored part harmony, as did also John
Knox in his psalter.
Psalms, Book of, a book of the
Old Testament. It was the praise book
or psalter of the Hebrew temple or
synagogues. In the present Hebrew
Bibles it is placed just after the
Prophets at the head of the Ha-
giographia, and in Luke xxiv : 44, is
generally supposed to stand for that
division of the Old Testament books.
The 350 psalms are arranged in He-
brew in five books, each terminating
with a doxology, in some cases closing
with "Amen and amen." The revised
version prints them separately. The
book of Psalms is quoted or alluded
to as an inspired composition by Our
Saviour and His apostles at least 70
times ; no Old Testament book is more
frequently quoted. Its canonical au-
thority has never been seriously
doubted. Its rhythmical form and
careful parallelism (now rendered ob-
vious by the revised version) adapt it
for the musical part of public wor-
ship.
Psalter, the Book of Psalms; also
a book containing the Psalms sepa-
rately printed, and with musical ac-
companiment adapted to each ; also
specifically, the version of the Psalms
in the English Book of Common
Prayer.
Pseudonym, a false, feigned, or
fictitious name; a pen-name.
Psychology
Psychology, the science of mental
phenomena. Opinion is far from
unanimous on many of the most im-
portant points of psychological doc-
trine, especially on such points as in-
volve a philosophical view of the na-
ture of mind.
Ptarmigan, a game bird found in
*he United States, and also in North-
ern Europe. In winter the plumage of
the male is almost wholly white, with
a small patch behind the eye; the
shafts of the primaries and the bases
of the exterior tail-feathers are black,
and. there is a patch of bare red skin
around the eye. In the summer the
black retains its position, but the
white is mottled and barred with
black and gray. The length of the
adult male is rather more than 15
inches.
Pterodactyl, a remarkable genus
of fossil lizards, peculiar to the Meso-
zoic strata. The careful investigations
of Cuvier, however, showed that the
pterodactyl was a true lizard, but
possessed of the power of flight, which
it performed, not by a membrane
stretched over its ribs, like the living
dragons, but more as in the bats, ex-
cept that the wing was attached, not
to several, but only to a single finger
the fifth the others being free
and short. The bones of the fifth finger
were very elongated, and the last joint
terminated in a long, slender, unguard-
ed apex ; the terminal joints in the
other fingers were furnished with
strong claws.
Pterosauria, an extinct order of
flying Reptilla of Mesozoic age.
Pthab, or Phtha, an ancient
Egyptian divinity, the creator of all
things and source of life, and as such
father and sovereign of the gods. He
was worshiped chiefly at Memphis un-
der the figure of a mummy-shaped
male, and as a pygmy god. Equivalent
to the Greek Hephaestus.
Ptoleniieus, the dynastic name of
13 kings of Egypt, who reigned from
323 to 43 B. c. The most famous was
Ptolemaeus Soter, who reigned from
323 to 285 B. c.
Ptolemaic System, the hypothesis
maintained by Ptolemy in his " Al-
magest " that the earth was a fixed
body, remaining constantly at rest in
the center of the universe, with the
Ptolemy
sun and moon revolving round it as
attendant satellites.
Ptolemy I., surnamed Soter, king
of Egypt, founder of the Grseco-
Egyptian dynasty of the Lagides, was
a Macedonian, supposed to be a natural
son of Philip II., and became a favor-
ite general of Alexander the Great,
whom he accompanied on his expedi-
tion to Asia. On the death of hir
master, in 323 B. p., Potelmy I., ob-
tained Egypt for his province. For 20
years he was almost constantly en-
gaged in war. He took the title of
king. He saved Rhodes when besieged
by Demetrius, and received the title
of Soter (saviour) ; and after the fall
of Antigonus he applied himself to
the promotion of commerce, literature,
science, and the arts in his own do-
minions. Philosophers, poets, and
painters gathered to his court, and
the foundations were laid of the fa-
mous Alexandrian Library and Mu-
seum. In 285 Ptolemy resigned his
crown to his son, surnamed Philadel-
phus, and died in 283.
Ptolemy II., surnamed Philadel-
phus (lover of his brother), king of
Egypt, born in Cos, 311 B. c., was
the youngest son of the preceding by
his favorite wife, Berenice. He be-
came king on the abdication of his
father in 285, and had a long, and
for the most part peaceful reign. He
had been carefully educated, and ue
entered heartily into his father's plans
for promoting the prosperity of his
kingdom, completing the Alexandrian
Library Museum, patronizing learning
and learned men, founding colonies,
and increasing his army and his rev-
enue. He made a treaty of alliance
with the Romans, and encouraged the
resort of Jews to Egypt. According
to tradition it was by his order that
the Septuagint version of the Old
Testament was made. Ptolemy was
twice married ; his second wife being
his sister Arsinoe, widow of Ly-
simachus. He died in 247.
Ptolemy XII., Dionysius, son of
Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, suc-
ceeded to the throne conjointly with
his sister Cleopatra, under the protec-
tion of Pompey, in 52. He became a
partisan of Caesar in the civil war,
and after the battle of Pharsalia
caused Pompey who sought refuge in
his states, to be assassinated in 48.
Ptolemy
Aspiring to be sole king, be then took
arms against Caesar, who had decided
that Cleopatra should continue to
reign with him, and was drowned in
the Nile while flying from the field of
battle, 47 B. c.
Ptolemy, Claudius, a celebrated
astronomer and geographer, who flour-
ished at Alexandria, about A. D. 140-
1GO. He is considered the first as- \
tronomer of antiquity. He corrected
Hipparchus' catalogue of the fixed :
stars, and formed tables by which i
the motions of the sun, moon and
planets might be calculated and regu-
lated. He was the first who collected
the scattered and detached observa-
tions made by the ancients, and di-
gested them into a system ; this he
called the " Great Construction." i
This great work of Ptolemy will al- 1
ways be valuable on account of the
observations he gives of the places of
the stars and planets in former times,
and according to ancient astronomers
that were then extant; but principally;
on account of the large and curious
catalogue of the stars, which, being
compared with modern catalogues,
enables astronomers to deduce the true
quantity of their apparent slow pro-
gressive motion according to the order j
of the signs, or of the precession of the
equinoxes.
Ptomaine, a putrescent product of
animal origin and of a basic or al-
kaloidal nature, closely allied to the
vegetable alkaloids ; a cadaveric
poison. About 150 varieties of pto-
maines are known, sqme being harm-
less, others very poisonous. Ordinary
foods frequently undergo changes that
render them harmful, and especially
is this so with mussels, clams, oysters,
fish, meat, sausage, milk, ice-cream,
cheese and canned goods. These
changes are due to the presence of
ptomaines. Heat will destroy the
ptomaine bacteria, but their poison
is not eliminated by cooking.
Publican, in Roman antiquities, a
collector of revenues, or farmer of the
taxes consisting of tolls, tithes, harbor
duties, duties for the use of pasture
lands, mines, salt works, etc., in Ro-
man provinces. From the nature of
their office, and the oppressive exac-
tions of many of their number, these
officials were generally regarded by the
inhabitants with detestation.
E. 121.
Pueblo
Public Health Acts. In the
United States scientific investigation
into the means for preserving health is
of recent growth, though laws were
enacted by the colonies for the preven-
tion of the introduction of contagious
or infectious diseases from foreign
ports. State boards of health have
been created in nearly all the States.
In 1878 Congress passed " An Act to
prevent the introduction of contagious
or infectious diseases in the United
States," providing that no vessel com-
ing from a foreign port where con-
tagious or infectious disease may ex-
ist shall enter any port of the United
States, except in manner prescribed
by regulations. In 1879 a National
Board of Health was created by Con-
gress ; its duties were to obtain in-
formation on all matters affecting pub-
lic health, and to advise the several
departments of the government and the
executives of the several States on all
questions submitted by them. Town or
city boards of health have existed for
many years in all large municipalities.
Publicist, a term originally ap-
plied to a writer on international law,
now used to denote a writer on current
politics.
Public Prosecutor, an officer ap-
pointed to originate and conduct prose-
cutions in the public interest.
Puccinotti, Francesco, an
Italian physician ; born in Urbino,
Italy, in 1794. In 1838 the Tuscan
Archduke appointed him Professor of
Medical Jurisprudence in Pisa Uni-
versity, and there he published his
masterpiece, the " History of Medi-
cine." He died Oct. 8, 1872.
Puck, in mediaeval mythology, the
" merry wanderer of the night,"
whose character and attributes are
depicted in Shakespeare's " Midsum-
mer Night's Dream." He was the
chief of the domestic tribe of fairies.
Pueblo, city and capital of Pue-
blo county, Col.; on the Arkansas
river and several railroads; 118 miles
S. E. of Denver; is an important
railroad, mining, manufacturing, and
live-stock center; has valuable coal,
silver, and gold mines nearby, and
large steel works and smelters; and
is the seat of the State Hospital for
the Insane, State Agricultural So-
ciety, and a noted Mineral Palace.
Pop. ((1910) 44,395.
Pueblos
Pueblos (Spanish, pueblo, "vil-
lage ") , a semi-civilized family of
American Indians in New Mexico and
Arizona, dwelling in large single habi-
tations, which are sometimes capa-
cious enough to contain a whole tribe.
These edifices which are often five
or six stories high, and from 130 to 433
yards long, with many rooms (53 to
124) on each floor are commonly
constructed of adobe or sun-dried
brick ; the ground floor is invariably
without doors or windows, entrance
being effected by a ladder leading to
the second story ; and indoors ladders
take the place of staircases every-
where. A somewhat pyramidal aspect
is given to the whole building by each
successive story receding a few feet
from the line of that below it. Each
family of the tribe has a separate
apartment, and there are also large
rooms for general council chambers and
for tribal dances. In New Mexico
there are 19 such villages, with over
8,000 occupants, who are skillful agri-
culturists, employing irrigation ditches
extensively, and rearing horses, cattle,
and sheep. Spinning and weaving and
the manufacture of pottery also are
carried on. The Moquis of Arizona
are a related tribe, numbering about
1,800, in seven villages built on the
summit of isolated hills. The Pueblos
are under Roman Catholic mission-
aries, and are making steady progress
in civilization and education, though
on their Christianity they have grafted
many of their old pagan beliefs and
customs, to which they obstinately
cling. They were first visited by the
Spaniards about 1530, at which period
their habits and their habitations were
very much the same as today. It is
evident, however, from the wide area
over which the ruins of old pueblos
and remains of ancient pottery have
been found, that they were at one time
very much more numerous than they
are now.
Puerto Cabello, a seaport of
Venezuela, in the State of Carabobo,
78 miles W. of Caracas. It stands on
a long, low narrow peninsula on the
Caribbean Sea, and has a safe, deep,
and roomy harbor, defended by a fort
and batteries. It is the port of Val-
encia, which is 34 miles distant by
rail. There is an active foreign trade,
which averages $6,250,000 annually;
Puffin
the chief exports are coffee, cacao, in-
digo, cinchona, cotton, sugar, divi-divi,
and copper ore. Pop. about 11,000. It
was bombarded by the Germans during
the recent blockade of Venezuelan
ports by Germans, British and Ital-
ians.
Puf endorf, or Puffendorf , Sam-
uel, Baron von, a German writer on
the law of nature and nations; born
in 1632. He studied theology and law
at Leipsic and Jena, and in 1660 ap-
peared his " Elements of General Ju-
risprudence." In 1661 he became Pro-
fessor of the Law of Nature and of
Nations at Heidelberg. In 1667 he
published his work " The Common-
wealth of Germany," which, from the
boldness of its attacks on the consti-
tution of the German empire, caused
a profound sensation. In 1670 he
went to Sweden, became Professor of
Natural Law in the University of
Lund, and brought out his chief work,
" Natural Law and the Law of Na-
tions," and in 1675 an abstract of
it. In 1686 he received a summons to
Berlin from Frederick William, Elect-
or of Brandenburg, a history of whom
Pufendorf wrote for the Elector's son,
the first king of Prussia. In 1694 he
was created a baron by the king of
Sweden, and in the same year be died
in Berlin. There are English transla-
tions of his principal works.
Puff Adder, one of the most ven-
omous serpents of South Africa. In
length, when full grown, it is from
four to five feet, and is as thick as
a man's arm. The head is very broad,
the tail suddenly tapered ; prevailing
color, brown, checkered with a darker
shade and with white. It usually glides
along partially buried in the sand, and,
when disturbed, puffs out the upper
part of its body, whence its popular
name. The Bosjesmans smear their
arrows with its venom.
Puff Birds, a family resembling
kingfishers in form, but living on in-
sects like fly catchers ; they also re-
semble the bee eaters, and are found
only in South and Central America.
Puffin, a common sea bird, with
many popular names bottlenose, coul-
terneb, pope, seaparrot and tammy
norie, with others that are only locally
known. By extension, the name is
applied to other species of the genua.
Pugilism
The common puffin is rather larger
than a pigeon; plumage glossy black
above, under surface pure white ; feet
orange-red; bill very deep, and flat-
tened laterally, parti-colored red,
yellow, and blue, and grooved during
the breeding season, and undergoing a
kind of moult at its close a peculiar-
ity shared by other species.
Pugilism, the practice of boxing or
fighting with the fists. In the schools
and by amateurs, it is practised with
the gloves ; in the prize ring some-
times with the naked fists. Man being
instinctively a pugnacious animal, and
the fist being the simplest and most
natural weapon, it may be taken for
granted that pugilism, as a mode of
settling differences, is coeval with man
himself. It formed one of the earliest
of the athletic games of the Greeks ;
and we find the Greek poets describ-
ing their heroes and gods as excelling
in the pugne. Boxing for men was in-
troduced in the Olympic games in the
23d Olympiad, and for boys in the
37th Olympiad. With the exception
of a girdle about the loins, the ancient
pugilist fought nude. In the United
States pugilism as an athletic exercise
is permitted, but the brutal exhibitions
of the prize ring are generally prohib-
ited by law.
Pnlaski, Count Casimir, a Po-
lish patriot and military officer, who
participated in the war of the Ameri-
can Revolution ; born in 1747. His
father, a Polish nobleman, was the or-
ganizer of the celebrated Confedera-
tion of Bar, in hostility to Russia,
and for the liberation of his country,
in which Casimir eagerly joined, carry-
ing on a desultory warfare with varied
success till the coalition of Russia,
Austria, and Prussia completed the
conquest of Poland. His father and
brothers being killed, Casimir escaped
with difficulty into Turkey, whence he
proceeded by way of France to join
the Americans, then fighting for inde-
pendence, bearing recommendations
from Franklin to Washington, whom
he joined in 1777. Entering as a vol-
unteer, he so distinguished himself at
the battle of Brandywine as to be
promoted by Congress to a cavalry
command, with the rank of Brigadier-
General, which command, however, he
resigned five months after, in 1778. He
afterward organized an independent
Pulque
corps of cavalry and light infantry,
with which he rendered effectual serv-
ice under General Lincoln, in South
Carolina, in 1779, and in the siege of
Savannah, Ga., where, in an assault
on the latter place, he was mortally
wounded. He died in 1779.
Pulaski, Fort, a fortification at
the mouth of the Savannah river.
Seized by the Confederates, Jan. 3,
1861, it was besieged and taken by the
Union forces, April 12, 1862.
Pulgar, Fernando de, a Spanish
writer in the latter part of the fif-
teenth century. He wrote a " Chron-
icle " of the reign of Ferdinand and
Isabella ; " Notable Men of Castile " ;
a commentary on the ancient " Coup-
lets of Mingo Revulgo."
Pulitzer, Joseph, an American
journalist ; born in Budapest, Hun-
gary, April 10, 1847. W nen Quite
young he came to the United States
and served in the Civil War. In 1883
he purchased the New York "World,"
then on the verge of failure, but he
built it up till it became one of the
most substantial papers in the city.
In 1903 he donated two millions of
dollars to Columbia University, New
York city, to establish a " School of
Journalism."
Pullman, George Mortimer, an
American inventor ; born in Chau-
tauqua co., N. Y., March 3, 1831;
learned the cabinetmaker's trade; set-
tled in Chicago; studied for many
years the problem of making journeys
by rail more comfortable ; and as a
result invented the Pullman palace car.
In 1863 he started building these cars,
and in 1SG7 'organized the Pullman
Palace Car Company. He also, in-
vented the vestibule train and founded
the town of Pullman, 111., in 1880. He
died in Chicago, Oct. 19, 1897.
Pulpit, a raised place or desk in
a church, from which the preacher de-
livers his sermon. They are now gen-
erally made of wood, but were former-
ly also made of stone, richly carved
and ornamented. Hence, used figura-
tively, for preachers generally or
preaching; the teaching of preachers.
Pulque, a vinous beverage, made in
Mexico, by fermenting the juice of
the various species of the agave. It
resembles cider, but has a disagreeable
odor, like that of putrid meat.
Pulse
Pulse, in physiology, the beat or
shock felt in any artery when slight
pressure is made on it, caused by the
systole of the heart. At birth the num-
ber of beats is about 140, at the end
of the first year 120, at the end of the
second 110 ; during middle life between
70 and 80, and in old age usually a
little more. It is slower in man than
in woman, and is also affected by the
position of the body.
Pulse, a general name for legumi-
nous plants or their seeds ; such as
beans, peas, etc.
Pulsometer, a form of pump for
raising water, by the condensation of
steam, in a vessel situated at such
elevation above the water supply that
the atmospheric pressure will raise the
water to the chamber and operate the
valves. Its most common use is to
(fill steam boilers.
Puma, the cougar of the French, the
leon of the South Americans, and
the panther or " painter " of the trap-
pers. It is the largest feline of the
New World, measuring 40 inches from
the nose to root of tail, which is about
20 inches more ; the head is small,
mane absent ; general color of upper
surface tawny yellowish-brown, vary-
ing in intensity in different individ-
uals ; lower parts of the body and in-
ner surface of limbs dirty white. The
young, when born, are spotted with
brown, and the tail is ringed. The
puma is destructive, and slays far
more than it can eat. but rarely, if
ever, attacks man, and may be tamed
with little difficulty. Edmund Kean
had one which followed him about like
a dog. It ranges from Canada to Pata-
gonia, being most numerous in the for-
est districts of Central America.
Pumice, a very porous, or cellular,
froth-like rock, of extreme lightness,
floating on water. Structure, web-like,
consisting of vitreous threads either in-
timately interwoven or parallel. Like
the more compact forms of vitreous
lavas, it varies much in chemical com-
position, which, however, is mostly
that of trachytic rocks. It owes its
cellular structure to the enormous ex-
pansion of aqueous vapor consequent
on the relief from pressure during the
extrusion of vitreous lavas at the
earth's surface. In commerce, pumice
stone. It is imported from the Lipari
Isles, and is used for polishing metals
Pumpelly
and marble, and smoothing the surface
of wood and pasteboard. It is said to
be a good glaze for pottery.
Pump, a machine, engine, or device,
consisting of an arrangement of a
piston, cylinder, and valves, for raising
water or other liquid to a higher level,
or for compressing or exhausting air
and other gases. There are numerous
varieties of pumps differing more or
less in construction, according to the
purposes for which each is intended,
but the most important are the suc-
tion pump, the lifting or lift pump,
the force pump, and the centrifugal or
rotary pump.
CHAIN PUMP.
Pumpelly, Raphael, an Ameri-
can geologist : born in Oswego, N. Y.,
Sept. 8, 1837. In his early life he
conducted explorations for the govern-
ments of Japan and China ; was pro-
fessor at Harvard for several years ;
and from 1879 to 1892 geologist in
charge of the Archaean division of the
United States Geological Survey. His
chief works are : " Geological Re-
searches in China, Mongolia, and Jap-
an " " Across America and Asia,"
" Mining Industries of the United
States," etc.
Pumpkin
Pumpkin, a climbing plant and its
fruit, originally from Astrachan, but
widely cultivated in America. It has
rough leaves, the flowers large, soli-
tary. It is caised.in the open air. The
pumpkin, cooked in various forms, is
a favorite dish in America, and es-
pecially in the Northeastern States
of the Union, where the pumpkin pie
is almost indispensable at the Yankee
housewife's table. Boiled and mashed
it is an excellent side dish.
Pun, a play on words, the wit of
which depends on a resemblance in
sound between two words of different
and perhaps contrary meanings, or on
the use of the same word in different
senses, etc.
Punch, with his wife Judy and dog
Toby, the chief characters in a popular
comic puppet show, of Italian origin,
the name being a contraction of Pun-
chinello, for Pulcinello, the droll clown
in Neapolitan comedy. The exhibition
soon found its way to other countries.
Punch, or the London Chari-
vari, the chief of English comic
journals, a weekly magazine of wit,
humor, and satire in prose and verse,
illustrated by sketches, caricatures,
and emblematic devices. It was found-
ed in 1841, the first number appear-
ing July 17 of that year, and, under
the jojnt editorship of Henry Mayhew
and Mark Lemon, soon became a
household word, while ere long its sa-
tirical cuts and witty rhymes were ad-
mitted a power in the land. " Punch "
is recognized as an English institution.
Punctuation, the act, art, or
method of punctuating or pointing a
writing or discourse; the act, art, or
method of dividing a discourse into
sentences, clauses, etc., by means of
points or stops. Punctuation is per-
formed with four points or marks, viz.,
the period (.) , the colon ( :) , the semi-
colon (;), and the comma (,). The
other points used in composition are
the note of interrogation or inquiry
( ?) , and of exclamation, astonishment,
or admiration (!). The first printed
books had only arbitrary marks here
and there, and it was not till the 16th
century that an approach was made
to the present system by the Manutii
of Venice.
Punic, the language of the Cartha-
ginians. It was an offshoot of Phce-
Fnpa
nician, belonging to the Canaanitish
branch of the Semitic tongues.
Punic Wars, three great wars be-
tween the Romans and the Carthagin-
ians. The first (264-241 B. c.) was
for the possession of Sicily, and ended
by the Carthaginians having to with-
draw from the island. The second
(218-202 B. c.), the war in which
Hannibal gained his great victories in
Italy, was a death struggle between the
two rival powers ; it ended with de-
cisive victory to the Romans. The
third (140-146 B. c.) was a wanton
one for the destruction of Carthage,
which was effected in the last-named
year.
Punishment, a penalty inflicted on
a person for a crime or offense, by the
authority to which the offender is sub-
ject ; a penalty imposed in the enforce-
ment or application of law. The pun-
ishments usual for criminal offenses
in the United States are death _ by
hanging or electricity, or by shooting,
imprisonment with and without hard
labor, solitary confinement, detention
in a reformatory school, subjection to
police supervision, imposition of fines,
and putting under recognizance. In
New York, Ohio and Massachusetts
the death penalty is inflicted by elec-
trocution, and in Delaware whipping
is resorted to as a punishment for cer-
tain offenses.
Punjab, an extensive territory in
the N. \V. of India, most of it under
direct Anglo-Indian authority, and
ruled by a lieutenant-governor, a large
portion of the remainder constituting
the protected state of Kashmir.
Punt, a large, square-built, flat-
bottorned vessel, without masts, used
as a lighter for conveying goods, etc.,
and propelled by poles. Also, a small,
flat-bottomed boat, with square ends,
used in fishing, and propelled by poles.
Pnnta Arenas. The chief port on
the Pacific of the Central American
republic of Costa Rica.
Pupa, or Pupe, in entomology, the
third stage in the development of an
insect. On reaching its full growth
the larva ceases to eat, and some time
later becomes encased in a closed shell
or case, whence after a certain length-
ened period, which typically is one
of repose, it emerges as a perfect in--
sect.
Fupin
Fupin, Micliael Idvorsky, an
American scientist; born in Idvar,
Hungary, Oct. 4, 1858 ; was graduated
at Columbia University in 1883 ; stud-
ied at the University of Berlin; and
was appointed Adjunct Professor of
Mechanics at Columbia University in
1889. In 1901 he announced the dis-
covery of a new method of ocean
telephony. He was a member of the
American Mathematical Society, Amer-
ican Philosophical Society, etc. He
wrote " Propagation of Long Electrical
Waves " ; " Wave Propagation Over
Non-Uniform Conductors " ; etc.
Purana, the last great division of
Hindu sacred literature.
Purcell, Henry, an English com-
poser; born in 1658. In 1680, prob-
ably, he composed for a private semi-
nary " Dido and Eneas," which has
been called the first genuine English
opera, but has never been produced on
the public stage. For some years after
he became organist of Westminster
Abbey he composed mainly anthems
and sacred music, all of great excel-
lence. In 1690 he wrote the music for
Dryden's version of " The Tempest."
In 1691 he produced the music to Dry-
den's "King Arthur," _ which, though
considered his dramatic masterpiece,
was not published till 1843. In 1694
he wrote, for St. Cecilia's Day. his
" The Jubilate " and " Te Deum,'' and
in 1695 the music to " Bpnduca," in
which was " Britons, Strike "Home."
Purcell was equally great in church
music, chamber music, and music for
the theater. He died in 1695, and was
buried in Westminster Abbey.
Purchase, in law, the suing out
and obtaining a writ; the obtaining
or acquiring the title of lands and tene-
ments by money, deed, gift, or any
means except descent. In mechanics,
a means of increasing applied power ;
any mechanical hold, advantage,
power, or force applied to the raising
or removing of heavy bodies; mechan-
ical advantage gained by the applica-
tion of any, power.
Purdue TTniyersity, a coeduca-
tional non-sectarian institution in La-
fayette, Ind. ; founded in 1874.
Purgatory, in Roman theology, a
place in which souls who depart this
life in the grace of God suffer for a
time, because they still need to be
Purse Crafc
cleansed from venial, or have still to
pay the temporal punishment due to
.mortal sins, the guilt and eternal pun-
ishment of which have been remitted.
Purification, a'Jewfsh rite. It
was mainly the one through the per-
formance of which an Israelite was
readmitted to the privilege of religious
communion, lost through uncleanness.
The chief varieties of such uncleanness,
and the methods of purification from
it required* are detailed in Lev. xii.,
xiv., xv., and Numb. xix.
Purint, the Festival of Lots, whicb
was instituted by Mordecai and is cele-
brated to this day by the Jews on the
14th and 15th of the month Adar
(March), in commemoration of their
wonderful deliverance from the de-
struction with which they were threat-
ened by Haman. On these festive
days the book of Esther is read, pres-
ents are interchanged, and gifts are
sent to the poor.
Puritan, the name given, at first
perhaps in contempt, to those clergy-
men and others in the reign of the
English Queen Elizabeth, who desired
a simpler, and what they considered
to be a purer, form of worship than
the civil and ecclesiastical authorities
sanctioned. New England was settled
very largely by the Puritans. Also,
one who has severely strict notions as
to what is proper or who is strict in
his religious duties.
Purple, a secondary color, com-
pounded by the union of the primaries
blue and red.
Purples, Ear Cockle, or Pep-
percorn, a disease affecting the ears
of wheat. Infected grains assume
a dark-green color, which soon deepens
to a black, and become rounded like
small peppercorns. The husks open,
and the diseased grains are found to
contain no flour, but a moist sub-
stance.
Purse Crab, a name for decapod
crustaceans allied to the hermit crabs.
A species, the robber crab, found in
the Mauritius and the more E. islands
of the Indian Ocean, is one of the
largest crustaceans, being sometimes
two to three feet in length. It resides
on land, while paying a nightly visit
to the sea, often burrowing under the
roots of trees, lining its hole with the
fibers of the cocoanut husk and living"
Purser
on the nuts, which (according to some
writers) it climbs the trees to pro-
cure, and the shells of which it cer-
tainly breaks with great ingenuity.
Purser, on shipboard, the officer
whose duty is to keep the accounts of
the ship to which he is attached. In
mining, the paymaster or cashier of a
mine, and the official to whom notices
of transfer are sent for registration in
the cost-book.
Purslane, a plant, with fleshy suc-
culent leaves, naturalized throughout
the warmer parts of the world. Purs-
lane was formerly more used than at
present in salads as a pot herb, in
pickles, and for garnishing. It has
anti-scorbutic properties.
Purves, George T., an American
clergyman; born in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Sept. 27, 1852 ; was graduated at the
University of Pennsylvania in 1872
and at the Princeton Theological
Seminary in 1876; was Professor of
New Testament literature and Exege-
sis at the Princeton Theological Sem-
inaiy in 1892-1900, when he accepted
a call to the Fifth Avenue Presbyter-
ian Church, New York city. He wrote
" The Apostolic Age " ; etc. He died
(n New York city, Sept. 24, 1901.
Pus, in physiology and pathology,
the product of suppuration, a thick,
dscid, yellow fluid, consisting of
liquor puris, pus corpuscles, and other
histological particles.
Pusey, Caleb, an American Quaker
colonist ; born in Berkshire, England,
about 1650. He came with Penn's
company to America in 1682, erected
the first mills in the province, held
many high places in civil affairs, and
was a noted controversialist writer of
his day. He published a great num-
ber of pamphlets and articles in de-
fense of his creed. He died in Ches-
ter co., Pa., Feb. 25, 1727.
Pusey, Edward Bouverie, an
English theological writer, a leader of
the Anglo-Catholic (Tractarian)
party in the Established Church; born
near Oxford in 1800. He published :
" The Holy Eucharist a Comfort to
the Penitent," a sermon which re-
sulted in his suspension for three
years ; two sermons on " The Entire
Absolution of the Penitent," equally
revolutionary. Of his larger works
the most important are : " The Doc-
Putnam
trine of the Real Presence " ; and
" The Real Presence of the Body and
Blood of Christ the Doctrine of the
English Church." Died Sept. 16. 1882.
Pushkin, Alexander Sergeye-
vitich, Count, the master poet of
Russia ; born at St. Petersburg in
1799; died 1837. He was govern-
ment official, and in 1825 was appoint-
ed Imperial historiographer. His
works embrace poems, dramas, novels,
and histories.
Putnam, Frederick Ward, an
American scientist ; born in Salem,
Mass., April 16, 1839; was graduated
at Harvard University in 1862; be-
came chief of the Department of Eth-
nology at the World's Columbian Ex-
position in Chicago in 1893. He is
a member of numerous American and
foreign scientific societies. The French
government gave him the Cross of the
Legion of Honor.
Putnam, George Haven, an
American publisher and author, son
of George P. ; born in London, Eng-
land, April 2, 1844. He entered the
publishing business in 1866, and be-
came the head of the firm of G. P.
Putnam's Sons, New York. His
works include : " International Copy-
right " (1879); "Books and their
Makers during the Middle Ages "
(1896), etc.
Putnam, George Palmer, an
American publisher and author ; born
in Brunswick, Me., Feb. 7, 1814. In
1848 he established the publishing
house now conducted under the name
of G. P. Putnam's Sons; and also
founded " Putnam's Magazine," which
was subsequently merged with " Scrib-
ner's Monthly." His works include :
" The Tourist in Europe " ; " The
World's Progress" (1850); "Ten
Years of the World's Progress " ; etc.
He died in New York, Dec. 20, 1872.
Putnam, Herbert, an American
librarian ; born in New York city,
Sept. 20, 1861; was graduated at
Harvard in 1883 ; studied at the Co-
lumbian Law School; was admitted
to the Minnesota bar in 1886; li-
brarian of the Boston Public Library
in 1887-1891 ; and was appointed li-
brarian of Congress in 1899.
Putnam, Israel, an American
general in the Revolutionary War ;
born in Danvers (then part of
Putnam
Salem), Mass., in 1718. He was des-
tined to the occupation of a farmer,
and continued in that vocation till
the French and Indian war broke out,
when, at the age of 36, he took serv-
ice in the English army, and from his
known courage and energy, received
the command of a company of light
troops, or " rangers." When the dis-
pute between this country and Eng-
land commenced, he was following
the quiet life of a farmer and tavern
keeper ; but the first blood that was
shed aroused all his energy. He was
created Major-General by Congress,
and at Bunker Hill, New York, and
during Washington's retreat through
New Jersey, he showed himself one
of the bravest and most devoted of
the patriot leaders. But in 1779 he
was stricken with paralysis, and was
prevented from participating in the
final triumphs of the national cause.
His character is well depicted by the
inscription on his tomb : " He dared
to lead where any dared to follow."
He died in 1790.
Putnam, Mrs. Mary (Lowell),
an American historical writer, sister
of James Russell Lowell; born in
Boston, Mass., Dec. 3, 1810. In 1832
she married Samuel R. Putnam, a
merchant of Boston. Besides a trans-
lation from the Swedish, and numer-
ous magazine articles, she published :
" History of the Constitution of Hun-
gary " ; and two dramatic poems on
the subject of slavery. She died in
Boston in June, 1898.
Putnam, M-s. Sarah A. Brock,
an American novelist and writer ; born
in Madison Courthouse, Va., about
1845. In 1883 she married the Rev.
Richard Putnam, of New York. Her
works include : " Richmond during
the War"; "The Southern Ama-
ranth " ; etc.
Putnam, William Lc Baron, an
American jurist ; born in Bath, Me.,
May 12, 1835 ; was graduated at Bow-
doin College in 1855 and admitted to
the bar in 1858 ; practised in Port-
land, Me., till 1892 ; was a member
of a commission to arrange with the
British government the rights of
American fishermen in Canadian
waters in 1887; served also as a com-
missioner under the treaty of Feb. 6,
2896, between the United States and
Great Britain; and was appointed a
Pycnogonnm
judge of the United States Circuit
Court in 1892.
Putnam, Fort, the principal de-
fense of West Point during the Revo-
lution. Now in ruins.
Putrefaction, the apparently spon-
taneous decomposition of organic sub-
stances, especially those rich in nitro-
gen. It differs from fermentation in
being accompanied by the evolution of
fetid and noxious gases. In the proc-
ess of putrefaction, organic bodies of
a higher order are changed, sometimes
into lower organic compounds, some-
times into inorganic compounds, as
ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, etc.,
and sometimes into simple substances,
as hydrogen and nitrogen.
Puts and Calls, terms used in
American stock dealings. The trade
in privileges is something which is
scarcely understood outside of Board
of Trade and Stock Exchange circles.
For $1 per 1,000 bushels a trader can
purchase the privilege to " put "
(sell) or "call" (buy) from the sell-
er of the privilege at a stipulated price
and within a stipulated time. The
ordinary privileges are sold one day to
be good to the close of the next ses-
sion. In inactive markets the "put"
and " call " prices may be close to-
gether and close to the market price
of the property. They are counte-
nanced by the State of New York and
are a regular feature in the New
York Stock Exchange. In Illinois
they are specifically classed as gam-
bling operations. The theory of
" privileges " is that they are a spe-
cies of insurance by which an opera-
tor can protect himself against mar-
ket fluctuations. A trader who is
" short" in the market can protect his
position to a certain degree by buying
calls " ; a " long " can prevent
losses in the same degree by buying
" puts." The insurance proposition
is a theory, however, as " privileges "
more often serve to originate new
trades than to serve as an insurance
on existing business conditions.
Pyaemia, or Pyemia, a diseased
condition in which the blood is poi-
soned by pus or by some of its con-
stituents; blood poisoning; septicae-
mia.
Pycnogonnm, a genus of Arachni-
da, the sea spiders. Some species are
Pygmalion
parasitic upon fishes and other marine
animals, but the common species is
free when adult, and does not appear
to be parasitic during any period of
its existence. One species attaches
itself parasitically to the whale.
Pygmalion, in Greek mythology,
grandson of Agenqr, King of Cyprus.
He fell in love with an ivory statue
of a young maiden he himself had
made, and prayed to Aphrodite to give
it life. His prayer was granted, on
which he married the maiden.
Pygmy, or Pigmy, in classical
mythology, one of a fabulous nation
of dwarfs dwelling somewhere near
the shores of the ocean, and maintain-
ing perpetual wars with the cranes.
Ctesias represented a nation of them
as inhabiting India. Other ancient
writers believed them to inhabit the
Indian islands : Aristotle places them
in Ethiopia, Pliny in Transgangetic
India. A race of pygmies has been
discovered in Central Africa.
Pyle, Howard, an American illus-
trator and author ; born in Wilming-
ton, Del., March 5, 1853. He was
an illustrator for periodicals, and has
become popular also as a writer,
chiefly of juvenile literature. His
works include : " Buccaneers and
Marooners of America" (1891) ; etc.
Pylorus, the small and contracted
end of the stomach leading into the
small intestines.
Pym, John, an English statesman
and leader of the popular party dur-
ing the reigns of James I. and Charles
I. ; born in Somersetshire, England,
in 1584. He studied at Oxford and
became famous as a lawyer. He en-
tered Parliament in 1G14, and during
the reign of James he attained great
influence by his opposition to the ar-
bitrary measures of the king. In
1626 he took part in the impeachment
of Buckingham and was imprisoned.
In the Short Parliament of 1640 Pym
and Hainpden were exceedingly active
as leaders of the popular party, and
in 1641 Pym was offered the chancel-
lorship of the exchequer. He im-
peached Strafford, and at his trial ap-
peared as accuser. He was the main
author of the Grand Remonstrance,
the final appeal presented in 1641,
and one of the five members to arrest
whom the king went to the House of
Pyramid
Commons in January, 1642. When
civil war became inevitable Pym was
appointed one of the committee of
safety, and while he lived was active
in resisting the negotiations of any
peace with the king which did not se-
ure the liberties of the subject and
the supremacy of Parliament. It was
mainly his financial skill that enabled
the parliamentary army to keep the
field. In November, 1643, he was
made lieutenant-general of ordnance,
and in the following month he died,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Pyramid in Egyptian antiquities, a
solid structure substantially invariable
in form, viz., a simple mass resting on
a square or sometimes approximately
square base, with the sides facing
with slight deviations toward the four
principal winds, and tapering off grad-
ually toward the top to a point or to
a flat surface, as a substitute for an
apex. The proportion of the base to
the height is not always the same,
nor is the angle of inclination uni-
form. The pyramids were construct-
ed in platforms, and then reveted or
coated with blocks or slabs of granite,
as may still be observed in incomplete
pyramids. Recently the theory has
been maintained that in the case of
the largest pyramids, a smaller one
was erected as a nucleus, arid subse-
quently enveloped by another layer.
The interior of these massive struc-
tures contains narrow passages, and
some totally dark halls or chambers,
and probably served as the burial
places of the kings who had caused
them to be constructed. The entrance
to these buildings is raised consider-
ably above the level of the base, and
was blocked up by a portcullis of
granite, so as to be on ordinary oc-
casions inaccessible. In the pyramid
of Cheops, the entrance is raised about
47 feet, 6 inches above the base. The
pyramids of Egypt begin immediately
S. of Cairo, and continue S. at vary-
ing intervals for nearly 70 miles. The
largest is that of Cheops, at Ghizeh,
standing on a base each side of which
was originally 764 feet long, but ow-
ing to the removal of the coating is
now only 746 feet. Its perpendicular
height, according to Wilkinson, was
originally 480 feet, 9 inches, present
height, 460 feet. The principal cham-
ber, the so-called Crowning Hall or
Pyrenees
King's Chamber, is 34 feet, 3 inches
long, and 17 feet, 1 inch wide. Its
roof is formed of massive blocks of
granite, over which, with a view to
support the weight, other blocks are
laid, with clear intervals between.
According to Herodotus, the erection
of this pyramid employed 100,000 men
for 20 years.
In Mexican antiquities, the Teocal-
lis, or Houses of the Gods, which have
come down from Aztec times, are four-
sided pyramids rising by terraces to a
considerable height. A notable group of
such erections still exist at Teotihua-
can, about 20 miles N. E. of the City
of Mexico. There are two large pyr-
amids, -with some hundred smaller
ones. The base of the largest is 900
feet long, its height 160 feet; the
height of the second is 130 feet. One
is dedicated to the sun, the other to
the moon. A yet larger one is at
Cholula ; its base is 1,488 feet long,
its height 178 feet. All the Mexican
pyramids face the cardinal points.
Hence, applied to any mass or heap
more or less resembling a pyramid in
form.
Pyrenees, an extensive mountain
range in the S. of Europe, dividing
France from Spain, and extending
almost in a straight line from St. Se-
bastian, on the Bay of Biscay, to
Cape Creux, on the Mediterranean.
Length 270 miles, with a breadth from
50 to 100 miles.
Pyrites, an isometric mineral oc-
curring frequently crystallized, also
massive, iu mammillary forms with
fibrous structure, and stalactitic with
crystalline surface. Luster, metallic,
splendent ; color, pale, brass-yellow ;
streak, greenish-black ; opaque ; frac-
ture conchoidal uneven ; brittle ;
strikes fire when struck with a ham-
mer. Composed of sulphur and iron.
It is distributed in rocks of all ages,
either as crystals, crystal-grains, or
nodules, also in metalliferous veins.
Pyrrhic, a species of warlike dance,
which is said to have been invented
by Pyrrhus to grace the funeral of
his father Achilles. It consisted
chiefly in such an adroit 'and nimble
turning of the body as represented an
attempt to avoid the strokes of an en-
emy in battle, and the motions neces-
sary to perform it were looked on as
a kind of training for actual warfare.
Pythagoras
This dance is supposed to be described
by Homer as engraved on the shield
of Achilles. It was danced by boys
in armor, accompanied by the lute or
lyre. Also a metrical foot consisting
of two short syllables.
Pyrrh-us, King of Epirus, being
obliged, on the murder of his father, to
seek safety by flight, found a home,
parent, and tutor in Glaucus, King of
Illyria, where he remained for several
years, till old enough to maintain his
own right, and ascended his father's
throne, 295 B. C. In 281 B. C., he
made war on the Romans, having been
called to the assistance of the Sam-
nites, and, in a desperate battle fought
on the banks of the Syris, in Calabria,
totally defeated the Roman army ;
yet, so dearly was this glory bought,
that Pyrrhus exclaimed " Another
such victory will ruin me." After
several signal advantages, the Ro-
mans at length triumphed, and Pyr-
rhus, sustaining many disasters, re-
turned to Greece, and, in a subsequent
war with the Argives, was killed, by a
tile thrown on his head from the roof
of a house, as he entered Argos, 273
B. C.
Pythagoras, the celebrated Greek
philosopher, was born in Samos, prob-
ably about 580-570 B. C. He was the
son of Mnesarchus, and, perhaps, a
disciple of Pherecydes. He is said
to have traveled extensively, especial-
ly in Egypt, and to have been initiat-
ed in the most ancient Greek myste-
ries. He attached great importance
to mathematical studies, and is be-
lieved to have made several impor-
tant discoveries in geometry, music,
and astronomy. He ultimately set-
tled, between 540-530 B. C. at Cro-
tona, one of the Greek cities of South-
ern Italy. There he set himself to
carry out the purpose of instituting
a society through which he might ex-
ert an influence on political affairs,
and especially in opposition to demo-
cratic and revolutionary movements.
His teachings relating to these sub-
jects became at length the occasion of
a popular rising against the Pytha-
goreans at Crotooa, 504 B. C. the
house in which they were assembled
was burned, many perished and the
rest were exiled. Similar tumults
with similar results, took place in
other cities and Pythagoras himself is
Pytheas
believed to have died soon after, at
Metapontum. Among the doctrines
of Pythagoras are the following :
that numbers are the principles of all
things ; that the universe is a har-
monious whole (kosmos), the heaven-
ly bodies by their motion causing
sounds (music of the spheres) ; that
the soul is immortal, and passes suc-
cessively into many bodies (metem-
psychosis) ; and that the highest aim
and blessedness of man is likeness to
the Deity. He left no written ac-
count of his doctrines ; they were first
committed to writing by Philolaus.
Pythagoras is said to have been the
first who took the title of philosopher,
and the first who applied the term
kosmos to the universe. He shares
with Thales and Xenophanes the high
distinction of starting the problem of
physical science. He died in Meta-
pontum, Magna Grsecia, about 500
B. C.
Pytheas, a famous navigator of the
Greek colony of Massilia, now Mar-
seilles ; supposed to have lived about
the time of Alexander the Great (say
330 B. c.). He is reputed to have
sailed along the west coast of Europe,
entered the English Channel, and trav-
eled some distance in Britain, then,
continuing his journey northward, to
have arrived at Thule (supposed to be
Iceland). In a second voyage he en-
tered the Baltic, where he proceeded
as far as a river which he called
Tanais, and on the banks of which
amber was found. He is mentioned
by. Strabo, Pliny, and others.
Pythian Games, one of the four
great national festivals of the Greeks,
held in the Crissaean plain, near Del-
phi (anciently called Pytho), said to
have been instituted by Apollo after
vanquishing the snaky monster,
Python, and celebrated in his honor
every four years.
Pythias, Knights of, a benevolent
and friendly order, founded during
the Civil War, and now flourishing in
various parts of the world. The or-
der is very strong in the United
States. Justus H. Rathbone founded
Washington lodge No. 1 in Washing-
ton, in December, 1864. On Jan. 1,
Python
1900, the total membership of the or-
der was 492,506. Membership of the
Uniform Rank (military branch),
45,590. Membership of the Endow-
ment Rank (life insurance branch),
57,401, representing an endowment of
113,840,000. Total paid benefici-
aries to July 1, 1900, $14,865,883.
Python, in Greek mythology, a
celebrated serpent which destroyed
the people and cattle about Delphi,
and was slain by Apollo. In zoology,
a genus and family of serpents allied
to the family Boidae or Boas. They
are not venomous, but kill their prey
by compression. The pythons are of
enormous size, sometimes attaining a
length of 30 feet. They are found in
India and in the islands of the East-
ern Archipelago, in Africa and in Aus-
tralia. A rudimentary pelvis and
traces of hinder limbs exist in the
pythons, these structures terminating
externally in a kind of a hooked claw.
The head exceeds the neck in thick-
PYTHON: MOLUEUS.
ness, and the mouth is extremely large.
Aided by their prehensile tails and
rudimentary hinder limbs, the pythons
suspend themselves from the branches
of trees and lie in wait near water
for animals which come to drink. The
genus Python contains various species,
the best known of which is the West
African python (P. sebae). common in
menageries. The female python hatch-
es her eggs by the heat of her body.
q, the 17th letter and the
13th consonant of the
English alphabet, a con-
sonant having only one
sound, that of k or c. It
is always followed by u, and as this
combination can be represented by kw
(or k when u is silent), q is a super-
fluous letter.
Qnackenbos, George Payn, an
American educator ; born in New
York city, Sept. 4, 1826; was grad-
uated at Columbia College in 1843 and
for many years conducted a large col-
legiate school in his native city. He
was author of " First Lessons in Com-
position " ; " Advanced Course of
Rhetoric and Composition " ; etc. He
died in New London, N. H., July 24,
1881.
Qnackenbos, John Duncan, an
American physician ; born in New
York, N. Y., April 22, 1848; was
graduated at Columbia College in
18G6 and at the College of Physicians
and Surgeons in 1871 ; began practice
in New York ; became Adjunct Pro-
fessor of the English Language and
Literature at Columbia College in
1884 ; Professor of Rhetoric in Bar-
nard College in 1891-1893. He then
became a specialist in mental diseases
and lectured extensively on scientific
and literary topics.
Quackenbnsh, Stephen Platt,
an American naval officer ; born in
Albany, N. Y., Jan. 23, 1823; joined
the navy in 1840 ; promoted lieuten-
ant-commander in 1862; had charge
of various vessels in blockading fleets
during the Civil War ; participated in
the action at Elizabeth City and New-
bern, N. C., captured the " Princess
Royal " containing a cargo of ma-
chinery for making projectiles, quinine
and engines for an iron-clad in course
of construction in Richmond ; and won
distinction in other operations. He
was retired with the rank of rear-ad-
miral hi 1885. He died in Washing-
ton, D. C., Feb. 4, 1890.
Quadrangle, a square or four-
sided court or space surrounded by .
buildings, as often seen in the build-
ings of a college, school, etc. In geom-
etry, a figure having four angles, and
consequently four sides.
Quadrant, in architecture, the
same as quadrangle. In geometry,
the fourth part of a circle ; the arc of
a circle containing 90 ; the space in-
cluded between such arc and two radii
drawn from the center to the extrem-
ities of the arc. Nautically, an in-
strument for making angular meas-
urements. So called from its em-
bracing an arc of 90 or somewhat
more. Formerly much employed in
making astronomical observations. It
is now superseded by the sextant.
Quadrature, the state of being
quadrate or square ; a square space.
In astronomy, the position of one
heavenly body with respect to another
90 distant, as the moon when midway
between the points of opposition and
conjunction. In geometry, the act of
squaring ; the reducing of a figure to
a square.
Quadrilateral, the name given in
history to the four fortresses of North
Italy Mantua, Verona, Peschiera,
and Legnago which form a sort of
outwork to the bastion of the moun-
tains of the Tyrol, and divide the N.
plain of the Po into two sections by a
most powerful barrier.
Quadrille, a dance consisting of
ive figures or movements, executed by
! pur sets of couples, each forming the
side of a square. Also, the music
Quadroon
composed for such a dance ; and, a
game of cards played by four persons
with 40 cards.
Quadroon, or Quarteron, a per-
son who is one-quarter negro end
three-quarters white ; that is, one of
whose grandparents was white and the
other negro ; and one of whose imme-
dite parents was white and the other
mulatto.
Quadrumana, in zoology, an order
of Mammalia, founded by Cuvier, and
containing the monkeys, apes, bab-
oons, and lemurs. The earliest known
remains are those of Lemuravus, from
the Eocene of New Mexico.
Quadruped, the name popularly
applied to those higher vertebrate ani-
mals which possess four developed
limbs. The name is usually re-
stricted to four-footed mammals.
Quadruple Alliance, an alliance,
BO called from the number of the con-
tracting parties, concluded in 1718
between Great Britain, France, and
Austria, and acceded to by Holland
in 1719, for the maintenance of the
peace of Utrecht. The occasion of the
alliance was the seizure by Spain of
Sardinia in 1717, and Sicily in 1718,
both of which she was forced to give
up. Another quadruple alliance was
that of Austria, Russia, Great Brit-
ain, and ^Prussia, in 1814, originating
in the coalition which had effected the
dissolution of the French empire.
Quaestor, in Roman history, two
quaestores parricidii, who acted as
public prosecutors in cases of murder,
or any capital offense, existed in
Rome during the period of the kings.
Two quaestores classici, who had
charge of the public money, were first
appointed about 485 B. G. They also
had charge of the funds of the army,
to which they were paymasters. The
number of quaestors was increased to
eight, 265 B. c. Sylla raised the num-
ber to 20, and .Julius Caesar to 40.
During the time of the emperors their
number varied ; and from the reign of
Claudius I. (41-54) it became cus-
tomary for quaestors, on entering of-
fice, to give gladiatorial spectacles to
the people; so that none but the
wealthiest Romans could aspire to the
office.
Quagga, a striped wild horse of
South Africa, now nearly, if not en-
tirely extinct.
Quaker City
Quail, a small game bird ; the Vir-
ginia species is common in North Amer-
ica, and so far south as Honduras.
It is larger than the European quail,
and is better eating. The California
crested quail is another American spe-
cies. The quail, genus Coturnix, is
widely distributed over the Eastern
Hemisphere, visiting Europe in early
summer and returning 3. in the au-
QTTAIL : LOPHORTTX CALIFOBNICTTS.
tumn, when immense numbers are
caught and fattened for the market.
Length about seven inches, general
color reddish-brown, with buff streaks
on the upper surface ; throat rufous ;
head, dark brown above, striped with
ocherous white, sides reddish-brown,
lower parts pale buff, fading into white
on belly. Color less bright in the hen
bird, and the rufous tinge absent from
the throat. They nest on the ground,
laying from 9 to 15 pyriform, yellow-
ish-white eggs, blotdhed with dark-
i brown. The males are polygamous
and extremely pugnacious.
Quaker City, Philadelphia, which
was planned and colonized by William
Penn and other members of the So-
ciety of Friends.
Quakers
Quakers. See Friends, Society of.
Qua mash, the North American
name of a plant of the lily family with
an edible bulb. These bulbs are
much eaten by the Indians, and are
prepared by baking in a hole dug in
the ground, then pounding and drying
them into cakes for future use.
Quantity, in grammar and pros-
ody, the measure of a syllable or the
time in which it is pronounced ; the
metrical value of syllables as regards
length or weight in their pronuncia-
tion. In logic, the extent to which
the predicate in a proposition is as-
serted of the subject.
In mathematics, anything that can
be increased, diminished, and measur-
ed. Thus, number is a quantity ;
time, space, weight, etc., are also
quantities. In mathematics, quanti-
ties are represented by symbols, and
for convenience these symbols them-
selves are called quantities. In al-
gebra, quantities are distinguished as
known and unknown, real and imag-
inary, constant and variable, rational
and irrational. Real quantities are
those which do not involve any opera-
tion impossible to perform ; variable
qualities are those which admit of an
infinite number of values in the same
expression ; rational quantities are
those which do not involve any radi-
cals.
Quarantine, the period (originally
40 days) during which a ship coming
from a port suspected of contagion,
or having a contagious sickness on
board, is forbidden intercourse with
the place at which she arrives. Quar-
antine was first introduced at Venice
in the 14th century. It is now re-
quired to be performed in almost every
important country except Great Brit-
ain. By act of the United States
Congress passed in 1879 national
quarantine stations were established;
and it is made a misdemeanor pun-
ishable by fine or imprisonment, or
both, for the master, pilot, or owner
of any vessel entering a port of the
United States in violation of the act,
or regulations framed under it. Dur-
ing the period of quarantine, all the
goods, clothing, etc., that might be
supposed capable of retaining infec-
tion, are subjected to a process of dis-
infection, which is a most important
part of the quarantine system.
Qnartley
Quarry, a place, pit, or mine where
stones are dug out of the earth, or are
separated from the mass of rock by
blasting. The term mine is generally
confined to pits or places whence coal
or metals are taken ; quarry to those
from which stones for building, etc.,
as marble, slate, etc., are taken. A
mine is subterranean, and reached by
a shaft ; in a quarry the overlying
soil is simply removed.
Quart, the fourth part of a gallon ;
two pints ; the United States dry
quart contains 67.20 cubic inches, the
fluid quart 57.75 cubic inches; the
English quart contains 69.3185 cubic
inches.
Quarter, a measure of weight,
equal to the fourth part of a hundred-
weight i. e., to 28 pounds avoirdu-
pois. As a measure of capacity, for
measuring grain, etc., a quarter con-
tains eight bushels. The common
American term for twenty-five cents,
being a quarter of a dollar.
Quarter Deck, in nautical lan-
guage, a deck raised above the waist
and extending from the stern to the
mainmast. It is especially a priv-
ileged portion of the deck, being the
promenade of the superior officers or
of the cabin passengers. The wind-
ward side is the place of honor.
Quartermaster, in military af-
fairs, an officer who superintends the
issue of stores, food, and clothing, and
arranges transportation for a regi-
ment when necessary. In nautical
affairs, a petty officer, who, besides
having charge of the stowage of bal-
last and provisions, coiling of ropes,
etc., attends to the steering of the
ship. He is appointed by the captain.
Quartermaster-general, in the
United States a staff-officer with rank
of Brigadier-General. He is chief
officer in the quartermaster's depart-
ment.
Quartermaster-sergeant, in the
United States, one whose duty it is
to assist the quartermaster.
Quartet, a piece of music arranged
for four voices or instruments, in
which all the parts are obligati ; i. e.,
no one can be omitted without injur-
ing the proper effect of the composi-
tion.
Qnartley, Arthur, an American
artist; born in Paris, May 24, 1839.
Qnartb
He came to the United States when a
boy, and gained a reputation as a
decorator, but it was not till after 1875
that he became known as an artist
of merit. His first picture which
brought him into notice was very
large, showing a waste of water beat-
ing against a rock. It was exhibited
at the Academy of Design, and belongs
to Wellesley College. He had a fond-
ness for wild marine and coast scenes.
He was elected a National Acade-
mician in 1886, and died in New York,
May 24 of that year.
QUASSIA : BITTEBWOOD.
a, Fruit.
Quarto, name of the size of a book
in which a sheet makes four leaves.
Frequently abbreviated to 4to. Also
a book formed by folding a sheet
twice, making fou T eight
pages. The term, ^.> usage,
refers to a book of nearly square
form. The proportions vary accord-
ing to the size of the sheets.
Quartz, in mineralogy, a rhombo-
hedral or hexagonal mineral, crystal-
lizing mostly in hexagonal prisms
with pyramidal terminations. Found
also massive, and of varying texture.
Quartz is abundantly distributed, is
Quay
an essential constituent of many
rocks, notably granite, gneiss, various
schists, and constitutes the larger part
of mineral veins. Many of its varie-
ties are largely employed in jewelry.
Quass, or Qnas, a thin, sour, fer-
mented liquor, made by pouring warm
water on rye or barley meal, and
drunk by the peasants of Russia.
Quassia, a tree cultivated in the
West Indies and the parts adjacent.
It has terminal clusters of large, red
flowers, and unequally pinnate leaves.
It comes to this country in logs or
billets, and is retained as chips or
raspings. It is given as an extract,
an infusion, or a tincture. An infu-
sion of it is used to poison flies.
Quaternary, or Post-Tertiary,
the fourth great division of the fossil-
iferous strata, which embraces the
Pleistocene or Glacial and Post-glacial
and Recent systems.
Qnatref oil, in architecture, a
piercing or panel divided by cusps or
foliations into four leaves, or more
correctly the leaf-shaped figure form-
ed by the cusps. The name is also
given to flowers and leaves of a simi-
lar form carved as ornaments on mold-
ings, etc. It differs from the cinque-
foil only in the number of cusps.
In heraldry, four-leaved grass ; a fre-
quent bearing in coat-armor;
Quay, a landing place; a wharf
projecting into a stream, harbor, or
basin, to which vessels are moored
for the purpose of receiving and deliv-
ering freight.
QUATREFOIL
IN ARCHITECTURE
QUATREFOIL
IN HERALDRY.
Quay, Matthew Stanley, an
American legislator ; born in Dills-
burg, Pa., Sept. 30, 1833; was grad-
uated at Jefferson College in 1850,
and admitted to the bar in 1854; en-
tered the Union army in 1861 and
won distinction ; was promoted lieu-
Quebec
tenant-colonel and assistant commis-
sary general ; received a congressional
medal of honor for exceptional serv-
ice; became State treasurer of Penn-
pylvania in 1885 ; and was a United
States Senator in 1887-1899. Early
in the latter year he was placed on
trial on charges of misappropriation
of public funds, and on April 21 was
acquitted. Governor Stone appointed
him United States Senator ad interim
on the same day, and in January,
1901, he was reelected to the United
States Senate to fill out the vacant
term caused by the failure of the Leg-
islature to elect a Senator in January,
1899. He died May 28, 1904.
Quebec, a province of the Dominion
of Canada, formerly called Canada
East; bounded on the N. by Labra-
dor and Hudson Bay; on the E. by
Labrador and the Gulf of St. Law-
rence ; on the S. by New Brunswick,
Chaleurs Bay, Maine, New Hamp-
shire, Vermont, and New York ; on
the S. W. and W. by the province of
Ontario; gross area, 347,350 square
miles; pop. (1910) 2,124,834; capital,
.(Quebec. The surface of the prov-
ince is varied, being diversified by
mountains, rivers, lakes, and exten-
sive forests. The chief river is the
St. Lawrence, which flows through
the entire length of the province. The
climate is variable, though salubrious,
the temperature ranging from 20 be-
low zero in winter to 90 in summer.
The mineral wealth is undeveloped,
but is said to be invaluable. Copper
is mined in Brome and Megantic coun-
ties; gold in Beauce; iron ore in St.
Maurice; and nickel in Pontiac. The
other mineral productions include as-
bestos, apatite, plumbago, mica, slate-
stone, etc.
The soil is generally fertile and is
chiefly cultivated near the rivers.
About half of the population of Que-
bec is engaged in agriculture. The
chief products include maize, buck-
wheat, tobacco, peas, turnips, barley,
wheat, oats, potatoes, and hay. But
little of the forest wealth, whioh is
considerable, has been developed.
Spruce and pine are exported and the
other forest products include ash,
cedar, cherry, oak, elm, maple, birch,
and beech. Cattle, horses, swine, and
Sheep are the principal domestic ani-
mals. The fisheries are extensive.
Queen
The affairs of the province are ad-
ministered by a Lieutenant-Governor,
appointed by the Governor-General of
Canada, assisted by a responsible ex-
ecutive council. There are two
Chambers, the Legislative Council,
composed of 24 members who hold
their appointments for life, and a
Legislative Assembly, which has 74
members, elected by the people foi
five years. The city of Quebec was
founded by Champlain in 1608, who
later established trading stations and
torts at various places. The French
governed Quebec till 1759, when
General Wolfe won the battles of the
Plains of Abraham, and the English
gained control. Prior to 1841 Quebec
was called Lower Canada, but in
that year it was united to Upper
Canada. It was made a province of
the Dominion of Canada in 1867 by
the Act of Confederation.
Quebec, city and capital of Que-
bec county and of the Province of
Quebec, Canada; on the St. Law-
rence river and several trunk line
railroads; 180 miles N. E. of Mon-
treal; is the third city in size and
importance in the Dominion; is a
port of entry, with an extensive com-
merce, especially in lumber; has
large shipyards and many manufac-
tories; and is particularly rich in his-
torical associations and features. The
city has a picturesqe site, 'on a high
tableland; is in a highly productive
farming section; and is a strongly-
fortified military post. There are
Anglican and Roman Catholic cathe-
drals, Laval University, the Church
of Notre Dame des Victoires (1688),
Champlain Marktt, large drill hall,
Auditorium, Seminary of Quebec,
.Morrin College, Grey Nunnery, Can-
adian Institute, General and Joffery
Hale hospitals, and many charitable
and benevolent institutions. The
New Park, on the Plains of Abra-
ham, contains a monument to Gen-
eral Wolfe; Victoria Park has a
monument to the late Queen; and the
Esplanade has a monument to the
soldiors who fell in the South Afri-
can War.
Queen, a female who is chief or
preeminent among others; one who
presides; as, the queen of beauty, the
queen of love, etc. In cards, a card
on which a queen is depicted. In
Queen Anne's Bounty
Qnesada
chess, the most powerful and, after
the king, the most important of all
the pieces in a set of chessmen.
Queen Anne's Bounty, the name
given to a fund appropriated to in-
crease the income of the poorer
clergy of England, created out of the
first fruits and tenths.
Queen Bee, in entomology, a fully
developed female bee in a hive or nest.
She lays 2,000 or 3,000 eggs daily
during the height of summer, or more
than 1,000,000 during her lifetime,
which is about five years. When a
young queen comes forth, the old one
becomes agitated with jealousy, and
ultimately quits the hive, surrounded
by a great multitude of workers, who
found a new colony, leaving the old
hive to the possession of the youthful
rival. Two days to a week after
coming to maturity, the young queen
temporarily flies forth, and is fertil-
ized in the air. See BEE.
Queen Charlotte's Islands, a
group to the N. of Vancouver Island,
off the coast of British Columbia ;
area, 5,100 square miles. The two
principal islands, Graham and Mores-
by, have a length of 160 and a great-
est breadth of nearly 70 miles. The
climate is healthy, but very rainy.
Anthracite coal, copper and iron ore,
and gold bearing quartz have been
found, and forests abound. The in-
habitants are about 2,000 Indians,
who engage in fishing. Queen Char-
lotte's Sound is a strait separating
Vancouver Island on the N. from the
mainland.
Queen's College, for women, was
established in London, in 1848, and
incorporated by royal charter in 1833.
Its aim is to provide for the higher
education of women, in the first place
by a liberal school training, and sub-
sequently by a six years' course of
college education.
Queensland, an Australian state,
comprising the whole N. E. portion of
Australia N. of New South Wales
and E. of South Australia and its
Northern Territory, being elsewhere
bounded by the Gulf of Carpentaria,
Torres Strait, and the Pacific. A
considerable portion is thus within
the tropics, the extreme N. part form-
ing a sort of peninsula, known as
York Peninsula. It has an area of
about 668,497 square miles; pop.
(1910) 592,000; and is divided into
12 large districts.
There are many kinds of valuable
timber trees, and a rare thing in Aus-
tralia, a few good indigenous fruits.
Sheep farming is the chief industry,
but agriculture (including sugar-
growing), cattle rearing, and mining
are also important. The soil and cli-
mate are well suited for the produc-
tion of all the ordinary cereals, as
well as maize, tobacco, coffee, sugar,
cotton, etc. The chief products are
sugar, maize, Irish and sweet pota-
toes, arrow root, and semi-tropical
fruits. Sugar growing is becoming a
very important industry. Gold, tin,
lead, and copper are the principal min-
erals. The gold fields extend over an
area of 15,000 square miles, and em-
ploy about 9,500 miners.
The first settlement of Queensland
took place in 1825, when the territory
was used as a place of transportation
for convicts, who continued to be sent
there till 1839. In 1842 the country
was opened to free settlers. It was
originally a part of New South Wales,
and was organized as a separate col-
ony in 1859, The government of the
state is vested in a governor, who is
the crown's representative, and a Par-
liament of two houses, the legislative
council and the 'legislative assembly.
The council consists of 39 members
appointed by the crown for life, and
the assembly of 72 members elected by
the people for five years, and repre-
senting GO electoral districts. The
capital of the state is Brisbane. In
January, 1896, a disastrous flood
caused great loss of life and property
in Brisbane and Northern Queens-
land.
Quelpart, an island 60 miles off
the S. coast of Korea ; about 40 miles
long by 17 broad. It is rock-bound
and mountainous, the volcanic Mount
Auckland being 6,500 feet high. It
has fertile soil and good timber, and
is populous.
Qnesada, Gonzalo de, a Cuban
patriot and diplomatist ; born in Ha-
vana, Cuba, Dec. 15, 1868; was grad-
uated at the College of the City of
New York in 1888; was secretary of
the Cuban revolutionary party and
associated with Jose Marti in the
struggle for Cuban independence. In
Quesiiay
1900 he was the special commissioner
of Cuba to the United States, and also
to the Paris Exposition ; in 1901 was
a member of the Cuban Constitutional
Convention and in the same year was
appointed a chevalier of the Legion of
Honor of France. He " published
" Patriotism " ; " History of Free
Cuba " ; etc. He is now Cuban Min-
ister to the United States.
Quesnay, Francois, a French phy-
sician and economist ; born near
Paris, France, June 4, 1694. He was
the founder of the school of econo-
mists called Physiocrats, and very in-
fluential on Adam Smith and all mod-
ern political economy. He published
several medical works, in addition to
his more famous ones on political
economy. He died Dec. 16, 1774.
Que