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EVERYBODY'S 
CYCLOPEDIA 



A concise and accurate compilation of the world's knowledge, 
prepared from the latest and best authorities in every department 
of learning; including a 

Chronological History of the World 

graphically represented by colored charts, showing the most 
important epochs and events of history, from the earliest times 
to the present day. 



containing much valuable information often in demand, but not 
usually found in a single collection. Also 

A Statistical Record of the World 

which includes latest figures from the recent United States Census. 

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 

CHARLES LEON ARD-STUART,B. A. GEORGE J.HAGAR,M. A. 

of the New International, Americana. Special Expert on the International, 
iiritannica. Current Cyclopedia, etc. People's. Imperial, etc. 

EDITORS-IN-CHIEF 

Assisted by a corps of eminent editors, educators, scientists, 
inventors, explorers, etc. 



New To r k 

SYNDICATE PUBLISHING COMPANY 

12 and 14 West 32d Street 



Copyright. 1911, by F. E. Wright 
Copyright, 1912, by F. E. Wright 



Parton 

Parton, James, an American 
writer; born in Canterbury, England 
Feb. 9, 1822. He wrote many valu- 
able biographies. He died in 1891 

Parton, Sara Payson Willis, 
" Fanny Fern," an American essay- 
writer, sister of N. P. Willis, and 
wife of James Parton; born in Port- 
land, Me., July 9, 1811. She is said 
to have contributed an article each 
week tor 16 years to the New York 
" Ledgp-." She died in 1872. 

Partridge, a well-known game 
bird widely distributed. The par- 
tridge prefers open grounds, and often 
nests in exposed situations. It feeds 
on slugs, caterpillars, and grubs to a 
large extent, and so compensates the 
farmer for any injury it does. 

Partridge Berry, a plant of the 
heath family, inhabiting North Amer- 
ica, also known as wintergreen. The 
name is also applied to another North 
American shrub, a pretty little trail- 
ing plant, with white fragrant flow- 
ers and scarlet berries. 

Pasadena, a city in Los Angeles 
county, Cal.; on the Southern Pacific 
and other railroads; 10 miles N. E. 
of Los Angeles; is in the noted San 
(Gabriel valley, at the foot of the 
Sierra Madre Mountains, popularly 
known as the "Italy of America"; 
is chiefly engaged in fruit raising; 
and, besides its equable climate, has 
the attractions of superb scenery, in- 
cluding Wilson's Peak. Mount Lowe, 
Echo Mountain, and the famous San 
Gabriel Mission. Pop. (1910) 30,291. 
Pascal, Blaise. a French author; 
born in Clermont, Auvergne, France, 
in 1623. At 12 years of age, he was 
surprised by his father in the act of 
demonstrating, on the pavement of 
An old hall where he used to play, by 
means of a rude diagram traced with 
a piece of coal, a proposition which 
corresponded to the 32d of the first 
book of Euclid. At the age of 19 
he invented his celebrated arith- 
metical machine, and at the age of 
26 he had composed the greater part 
of his mathematical works, and made 
brilliant experiments in hydrostatics 
and pneumatics, which ranked him 
among the first natural philosophers 
of his age. But a strong religious 
impulse having been imparted he re- 
E. 114. 



Passiflora 

nounced the career to which his genius 
invited him for theology. Died 1662. 

Paschall II., Pope; a native of 
Tuscany, succeeded Urban II. in 
1099. Ht had a contest with the 
Emperor Henry IV., respecting the 
right of investitures. Henry visited 
Rome, to be crowned by the Pope, 
who refused to perform the ceremony 
unless he yielded the matter in dis- 
pute. On this Henry caused Paschal 
to be retired from Rome. Paschal, 
after a captivity of two months, 
conceded his claim to the investi- 
tures. He died in 1118. 

Passaic, a city in Passaic county, 
N. J.; on the Passaic river and sev- 
eral steam and trolley lines; 5 miles 
S. E. of Paterson; is in a good farm- 
ing and grape-growing section; man- 
ufactures cotton, woolen, and rubber 
goods, wine, paper, and blankets; and 
has an Emergency Hospital, Collegi- 
ate School, Manual Training School, 
and handsome churches, public schools 
and residences. Pop. (1910) 54,773. 

Passenger Pigeon, also called 
wild pigeon and migratory pigeon. It 
is found from the Atlantic to the great 
central plains, and from the Southern 
States, where it only 
occasionally occurs, 
to 62 N. 

Passes, a tribe of 
Indians living in 
Brazil on the N. 
side of the Amazon, 
about the mouth of 
the Japura. They 
have always been 
friendly to the 
whites and are a 
peaceful, industrious 
race, many of whom 
lived in the mission 
villages in the 18th 
century. They are a 
branch of the great 
Arawak or Maypure 
stock. 

Passiflora, the 

Generally climbing herbs or shrubs. 
Fruit succulent, seeds many. Found 
chiefly in tropical America. The three 
stigmas seemed to the devout Roman 
Catholics of South America to rep- 
resent nails; one transfixing each 
band, and one the feet of the crucified 




PASSENGEB 
PIGEON. 

passion-flower. 



Passionists 



Passovtr 



Saviour ; the five anthers, His five 

wounds ; the rays of the corona, His 

crown of thorns, or the halo of glory 

around His head ; the digitate leaves, 

the hands of those who scourged Him ; 

the tendrils, the scourge 

itself; while, finally, the 

10 parts of the perianth 

were the 10 apostles 

that is, the 12 wanting 

Judas who betrayed, and 

Peter who denied, his 

Lord. 

Passionists, a con- 
gregation of Roman 
Catholic priests founded 
by Paul Francis (1694- 
1775), surnamed Paul of 
the Cross, in 1737. The 
first convent was estab- 
lished on the Celian Hill 
at Rome. It has been 
revived since 1880, and 
they have been introduced 
lately in the United 
States, where they now 
possess four monasteries. 

Passion Play, a mys- 
tery or miracle play 
founded on the passion of 
our Lord ; a dramatic rep- 
resentation of the scenes 
of the passion. The 
only Passion play still 
kept up is that periodi- 
cally represented at Ober- 
ammergau ir* Bavaria. 

Passover, a festival 
instituted to commemo- 
rate Jehovah's " passing 
over " the Israelite houses 
wnile " passing through " 
those of the Egyptians, 
to destroy in the latter 
all the first-born. The 
first passover (that in 
Egypt) , those subsequent- 
ly occurring in Old 
Testament times, and those of the 
New Testament and later Judaism, 
were all somewhat different. In the 
first of these a Iamb without blem- 
ish was taken on the 10th, and killed 
on the 14th, of the month Abib, thence- 
forward in consequence to be reckoned 
the first month of the ecclesiastical 
year. The blood of the lamb was to 
be sprinkled on the two side posts 
and the single upper door post, and the i 
flesh eaten " with unleavened bread 



and bitter herbs " before the morning. 
That night Jehovah, passing over the 
blood-stained doors, slew the first born 
in the Egyptian houses not similarly 
protected; and, as the emancipated 




PASSION FLOWER. 

Jews that night departed from Egypt, 
that first passover could have con- 
tinued only one day. But the festival 
was to be an annual one. Connected 
with it was to be a feast of unleavened 
bread, continuing seven additional 
days, viz., from the 15th to the 21st 
of Abib, during which no leaven was 
to be eaten, or even allowed to be in 
the house. 

Sometimes the term passover is lim- 
ited to the festival of the 14th of 



Passport 

Abib ; sometimes it includes that and 
the feast of unleavened bread also, the 
two being viewed as parts of one 
whole. When the Jews reached Ca- 
naan, every male was required to pre- 
sent himself before God thrice a year, 
viz., at the passover, or feast of un- 
leavened bread, at that of " harvest " 
and that of " ingathering." In the Old 
Testament six passovers are mentioned 
as having been actually kept: That 
in Egypt, tkat in the wilderness, that 
under Joshua at Gilgal, that under 
Hezekiah, that under Josiah, and that 
under Ezra. After the exile wine 
was introduced. In modern Judaism 
no lamb is sacrificed, but a bone of 
that animal is placed among the 
viands ; leaven is put away, and other 
ceremonies observed. Passover in the 
sense of the paschal lamb, St. Paul 
applies to Christ, whose death was 
typical of that of the paschal lamb 
(1 Cor. v. 7; John xix, 14). 

Passport, a warrant of protection 
and authority to travel, granted to 
persons moving from place to place, by 
a competent authority. In some states 
no foreigner is allowed to travel with- 
out a passport from his government. 
In the United States passports, with 
description of the applicant, are issued 
by the State Department at Washing- 
ton. They -are good for two years 
from date, renewable by stating the 
date and number of the old one. They 
are issued only to citizens, native born 
and naturalized. 

Pasteur, Louis, a French chemist 
and physicist ; born in Dole, Jura, in 
1822 ; educated at Jena University and 
the Ecole Normale, Paris, where in 
1847 he took his degree as doctor. He 
was especially successful in prov- 
ing the part played by microbes _in 
fermentation and decomposition, in in- 
troducing a successful treatment of 
diseases in silkworms and cattle, and 
achieved great success in his efforts 
to check hydrophobia by means of 
inoculation. To enable him to deal 
with this disease under the best condi- 
tions a Pasteur Institute was opened 
in Paris, where patients are received 
from all parts of Europe. A similar 
institution, in New York city, has 
proved very successful. He died in 
Paris, Sept. 28, 1895. 

Pastor, a shepherd; now used al- 
most exclusively in its figurative sense, 



Fastonreanx 

for one who feeds the Christian flock; 
a minister of the Gospel, having charge 
of a church and congregation. In orni- 
thology the rose^colored ousel. It hag 
a wide geographical range, and in hab- 
its resembles the starling. It is often 
called the locust bird. 

Pastoral Poetry, poetry which 
deals, in a more or tess direct form, 
with rustic life. 

Pastoral Staff, in the Roman 
Catholic Church the official staff of a 
bishop or abbot. The 
pastoral staff of an 
archbishop is distin- 
guished by being sur- 
mounted by a crozier. 

Pastoureaux, or 
Pastorels, disorderly 
peasant mobs which 
overran parts of 
France in the 13 tk 
and 14th centuries. 
These outbreaks took 
place : 

(1) In Berry in 
1214. The peasantry 
pillaged chateaux and 
religious houses, and 
proclaimed universal 
equality and the com- 
ing of the Holy Ghost. 

(2) In 1250; the 
ostensible objects were 
the rescue of Louis 
VII. and the recovery 
of the Holy Sepul- 
cher. The rising orig- 
inated in Flanders, 
under the leadership of 
a person of unknown 
name called the Mas- 
ter of Hungary, who, 

when he reached Paris, was at 
the head of 100,000 men. Here they 
not only usurped priestly functions, 
performed marriages, distributed 
crosses, offered absolution to those who 
joined the crusade, but they inveighed 
against the vices of the priesthood. 
They separated into three divisions, 
and marched S., where they were at- 
tacked and cut to pieces. 

(3) In 1320, in the reign of Philip 
V. This outbreak took place under the 
pretense of a crusade. The insurgents 
were excommunicated by Pope John 
XXII. ; and being hemmed in in Car- 
cassonne, numbers perished of disease 




Patagonia 

and famine, and the survivors were 
put to death. 

Patagonia, the name applied to 
that extreme portion of South America 
which is bounded E. by the Atlantic, 
W. by the Pacific, S. by the Strait of 
Magellan, and N. by the Rio Negro. 
Since 1881 this large territory has 
been, by treaty, divided between Chile 
and the Argentine Republic, so that 
the portion W. of the Andes (63,000 
square miles) belongs now to the for- 
mer, and the portion E. of the Andes 
(360,000) belongs to the latter. The 
Straits of Magellan form a S. bound- 
ary of 360 miles, and separate the 
mainland from the numerous islands 
of Tierra del Fuego. Here the Chilean 
government has established the settle- 
ment of Punta Arenas, with stations 
along the coast. Patagonia E. of the 
Andes consists mainly of vast undulat- 
ing plains, frequently covered with 
ehingle and broken up by ridges of 
volcanic rock. The vegetation is 
scanty, except in the region adjoining 
the Andes, and in many places there 
are shallow salt lakes and lagoons. 
The chief rivers are the Rio Negro, 
the Chupat, the Rio Desire, and the 
Rio Chico, all of which have their 
sources in the Andes, and run E. There 
are few t if any good seaports. The 
Patagonians are a tall, muscular race 
averaging fully six feet in height, with 
black hair, thick lips, and skin of a 
dark brown color. They are a nomad 
race, divided into numerous tribes, 
whose chief occupation is in hunting 
and cattle breeding. This native pop- 
ulation is_ rapidly disappearing. Col- 
onization is encouraged by the Argen- 
tine government, and there are many 
tracts suitable for European settle- 
ment. The country was first discov- 
ered by Magellan in 1520. 

Fate de foie gras, a dish made 
from the enlarged livers of overfed 
geese, and much relished by epicures. 
It is made in the form of a pie, and 
from its oily nature is very indigesti- 
ble, and nauseous to most people. 

Patent, an exclusive right granted 
by a government (in letters patent or 
open, whence the name) to any person 
or persons to manufacture and sell a 
chattel or article of commerce of his 
OWP invention. In the United Slates 



Patent 

the person applying for a patent may 
present a petition, specification, oath, 
and filing fee, with a drawing if the 
nature of the case admits of it. On 
favorable action by the patent office, 
letters granting to the patentee, his 
heirs, or assigns, for the term of 17 
years, the exclusive right to make, 
use, and vend the invention or dis- 
covery throughout the United States 
and the Territories thereof, are is- 
sued. Design patents are granted for 
periods of three years and six months, 
seven years, or 14 years, at discretion 
of the applicant. Patents are extend- 
ed only by special congressional legis- 
lation. The filing of a caveat prior 
to applying for a patent entitles the 
inventor to notice of an interfering 
application filed during the life of the 
caveat (one year), during which he 
may perfect his invention. The alleged 
inventions set forth in caveats are 
transferable. In the period of 1837- 
1909 there were filed in the United 
States Patent Office 1,659,249 appli- 
cations and 129,305 caveats; 996,005 
original patents and designs were 
issued; and the receipts exceeded the 
expenditures by $7,060,547. 

By the statute of 1870 it was enacted 
that an invention to be patentable, 
must possess, among other qualifica- 
tions, that of newness. 'He who pro- 
duces an old result by a new mode or 
process is entitled to a patent for that 
mode or process ; but he cannot have 
a patent for a result merely without 
using some new mode or process to 
produce it. A man is entitled to all 
the benefit of the article which he has 
invented and patented. Another who 
happens to discover an additional use 
to which the invention may be applied 
does not, by that discovery and appli- 
cation create a patentable novelty. A 
simple alteration in the form, size, ma- 
terial or proportions of an existing de- 
vice is not such a change as to pro- 
duce a patentable novelty. As a cumu- 
lative definition it may be said that 
novelty consists in producing a new 
substance, or an old one in a new way, 
by new machinery, or by a new com- 
bination of the parts of an old ma- 
chine, operating in a peculiar, better, 
cheaper or quicker method, or by a 
new mechanical employment of prin- 
ciples already known. 



Paterson 

Paterson, a city and county-seat of 
Passaic co., N. J., on the Passaic 
river, 16 miles N. W. of New York. 
The city is chiefly noted for its silk 
industries, on account of which it is 
called the " Lyons of America." It is 
built partly on the slopes of ranges 
of hills which surround it, and partly 
on a broad plain. On Feb. 2-3, 1902, 
the business portion of the city was 
destroyed by fire, entailing a loss of 
over $10,000,000. The principal mu- 
nicipal buildings, churches, banks, pub- 
lic library, and the largest stores were 
swept away by the flames. Wk 

Paterson is an important manufac- 
turing center. Its silk mills are the 
largest in the United States having 
an output of over $22,000,000 per an- 
num, and employing about 12,000 per- 
sons. Its other manufactures include 
locomotives, paper, jute, machinery, 
iron, and steel, engines, boilers, etc. 
The assessed property valuation ex- 
ceeds $92,000,000, and the total bond- 
ed debt is about $4,000,000. 

The city has an area of 8 square 
miles; 200 miles of streets, of which 
55 miles are paved; and a sewer sys- 
tem covering 55 miles. The streets are 
lighted by gas and electricity. The 
annual cost of maintaining the city 
government is about $1,135,000. The 
streets are well paved and broad. 
Among the local attractions are the 
Passaic Falls, 72 feet high. 

Paterson was founded in 1791 by a 
cotton manufacturing society which 
owed its origin to Alexander Hamilton. 
This society had a capital of $1,000,- 
000, with which it intended to lay the 
foundation of a great National manu- 
facturing city. The city was named 
in honor of Gov. William Paterson of 
New Je/sey. In 1851 it was incor- 
porated as a city. Paterson has re- 
cently been visited by floods as well 
as fire, the flood of October, 1903, 
being especially calamitous, but the 
people have faced and overcome these 
disasters with unfailing courage. Pop. 
(1900) 105,171; (IJJlO) 125,600. 

Paterson, William, an English 
financier ; born in Dumfriesshire, Scot- 
land, in 1665. He resided in the Ba- 
hama Islands. Returning to London 
he engaged in trade with success, and 
in 1694 founded the Bank of England, 
being one of its first directors. In 1695 



Paton 

he obtained the sanction of a Scotch 
act of Parliament constituting the 
Darien Company. After the failure of 
this scheme he returned to England. 
When the Treaty of Union between 
England and Scotland was concluded 
in 1707, Paterson, who was one of its 
warmest advocates, after much dif- 
ficulty received an indemnity of $90,- 
000 for the losses he had sustained. 
He died in London in 1719. 

Pathology, the branch of medical 
science which treats of disease. It in- 
vestigates its predisposing and exist- 
ing cause, its characteristic symptoms, 
and its progress from first to last. 

Patmos, a rocky and barren island, 
of most irregular outline, in the 2Egean 
Sea, one of the Sporades, lying to the 
S. of Samos, now called Patino ; area, 
16 square miles. It is celebrated as 
the place to which the apostle John 
was exiled ; in a cave here, it is said, 
he saw the visions recorded in the 
Book of Revelation. The island is un- 
der Turkish rule, but is inhabited by 
about 4,000 Greeks. 

Patna, called also Azimabad, a city 
of Bengal, 140 miles E. of Benares, 
extends 9 miles along the Ganges and 
2 miles back from the river ; tfee streets 
are narrow and crooked, and the 
houses mostly mean in appearance. 
Patna, under its early name of Pa- 
taliputra, is supposed to have been 
founded about 600 B. c. It was visited 
by Magesthenes, the Greek historian, 
about 300 B. c., and called Palibothra 
by him. In modern times Patna is 
notable as the scene of a massacre of 
British prisoners by Mir Kasim in 
1763, which led to war and annexation 
by the English, and for the mutiny at 
Dinapur, the military station of Patna 
in 1857. Patna ranks as the seventh 
city of India in point of population. 
Pop. 165,192. 

Paton, John Gibson, a Scotch 
missionary ; born in Kirkmahoe, Dum- 
friesshire, Scotland, May 24, 1824. He 
offered his services for the foreign mis- 
sion field in connection with the Re- 
formed Presbyterian Church,- and on 
his ordination he settled toward the 
end of 1858 among the cannibal natives 
of Tanna. Here he labored amid trials 
and difficulties till 1862, when he was 
forced to leave, owing to the hostility 



Faton 

of the natives. For the next 20 years 
bis work was on the neighboring island 
of Aniwa, the whole population of 
which became Christian. He died 
Jan. 2, 1907. 

Paton, Sir Joseph Noel, a Scotch 
historical painter ; born in Dunferm- 
line, Scotland, in 1821. He gained one 
of three premiums at the Westminster 
competition by his fresco of the 
" Spirit of Religion," and a prize of 
$1,500 by his paintings " Christ Bear- 
ing the Cross," and " The Reconcilia- 
tion of Oberon and Titania." He died 
in Edinburgh, Dec. 26, 1901. 

Patriarch, the father and ruler of 
a family ; one who governs his family 
or descendants by paternal right. The 
term is usually applied to Abraham, 
Isaac, Jacob, and his sons, or the 
heads of families before the flood. In 
Roman Catholic Church history, the 
highest grade in the hierarchy of or- 
dinary jurisdiction, the see of Rome 
excepted. 

Patrician, a Roman senator; a 
person of noble birth ; a nobleman ; a 
wealthy noble. The Roman patricians 
consisted of about 300 houses, or clans, 
who, descending from the first Roman 
senators, constituted the aristocracy 
of the city and territory. At first the 
patricians monopolized all high offices 
in the state, but after political con- 
tests with the plebeians, lasting for 
centuries, Licinius (365 B. c.) carried 
his rogation, by which plebeians were 
admitted to the consulate, and to the 
custody of the Sibylline books. 

Patrick, St., or Patricias, the 
apostle or patron saint of Ireland ; said 
to have been born near the site of Kil- 
patrick, Scotland. His zeal prompted 
him to cross the channel for the con- 
version of the pagan Irish. His ar- 
rival in Ireland took place probably be- 
tween 440^460. His endeavors were 
crowned with great success, and he es- 
tablished there a number of schools 
and monasteries. He died at an ad- 
vanced age. 

Patrol, or Patrole, a walking or 
marching round of a guard in the 
night to watch and observe what 
passes, and to secure the peace and 
eafety of a camp or other place. 

Patron, in Roman history, one 
who had manumitted a slave between 



Patterson 

whom and his manumissor a new re- 
lation was created, the f reedman owing 
his former master the obedience of a 
son, and the patron assuming many of 
the rights which the power of patron 
conveyed. 

Patron Saint. According to Ro- 
man Catholic and Greek belief, the 
saint under whose invocation coun- 
tries, churches, religious houses or so- 
cieties, or individuals are placed. 




BADGE OP THE OEDEE OF ST. PATRICK, 

Patrons of Husbandry. See 

HUSBANDRY, PATRONS OF. 

Patten, George 'Washington, 

soldier and poet ; born in Newport, R. 
I., Dec. 25, 1808: died in 1882. Edu- 
cated at United States Military Acad- 
emy, he served in the Mexican war. 

Patterson, Joseph, an American 
banker ; born near Norristown, Pa., 
Sept. 25, 1808. During the Civil War 
through his influence the bankers of 
the country made a loan of $50,000,- 
000 in gold to Secretary Chase, and 



Patterson 

$100,000,000 more in the year follow- 
ing. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., 
Sept. 25, 1887. 

Patterson, Robert M., an Ameri- 
can clergyman and author ; born in 
Philadelphia, Pa., July 17, 1832; was 
official reporter of the United States 
Senate in 1850-1855; was graduated 
at Princeton Theological Seminary in 
1859 ; and pastor South Presbyterian 
Church, Philadelphia, in 1867-1880. 
He was a member of the Pan-Presby- 
terian Councils in London in 1875, 
Philadelphia, in 1880, and Belfast, Ire- 
land, in 1884. 

Patti, Adelina Maria Clorinda, 
a popular operatic singer of Italian 
extraction ; born in Madrid, Spain, in 
1843. After a course of professional 
study she sang at an early age in 
New York. Her debut in London took 
place in 1861, and she was ever after- 
ward looked upon as one of the first 
singers of the day. In 1868 she was 
married to the Marquis de Caux, from 
whom she was divorced in 1876. She 
subsequently married M. Nicolini, and 
appeared in the United States, South 
America, and Mexico at various times. 
M. Nicolini died in 1898. She mar- 
ried Baron Rolf Cederstrom, Jan. 25, 
1899, and made a tour of the United 
States in the latter part of 1903. Her 
residence is Craig y Nos Castle, Wales. 

Patti, Carlotta, a popular Italian 
concert singer and sister of Adelina 
Patti ; born in Florence, Italy, in 
1840 ; made her debut in New York in 
1861, and in England in 1863. She 
gave concerts throughout Europe and 
America with great success. She was 
married Sept. 3, 1879, to Ernest de 
Munck, a violoncellist of Weimar, and 
died in Paris, June 27, 1889. 

Pattison, Thomas Harwood, an 
American educator; born in Cornwall, 
England, Dec. 14, 1838. For many 
years he was Professor of Homiletics 
and Pastoral Theology at Rochester 
(N. Y.) Theological Seminary. 

Patton, Francis Landey, an 
American educator ; born in Warwick 
Parish, Bermuda, Jan. 22, 1843. He 
was educated at Knox College and the 
University of Toronto, and was grad- 
uated at Princeton Theological Sem- 
inary in 1865. In 1865-1871 he was 
pastor of several churches; in 1881 
was appointed Professor of Relations 



Paul 

of Philosophy and Science to the 
Christian Religion in Princeton Uni- 
versity, a chair created for him. He 
was president of the university in 
1888-1902; then president of the 
Theological Seminary. 

Patton, Frank Jarvis, an Ameri- 
can inventor; born in Bath, Me., in 
1852 ; was graduated at the United 
States Military Academy in 1877; in- 
vented the multiplex telegraph system 
and the gyroscope now used on ocean 
vessels to determine their position at 
sea. He died in New York city, Nov. 
12, 1900. 

Patton, Jacob Harris, an Ameri- 
can historian ; born in Fayette co^, 
fa., May 20, 1812; died in 1903. 

Paul IV., Pope; Giovanni Pietro 
Caraffa ; born in Naples, in 1476 ; sue- 
I ceeded Marcellus II., in 1555. He es- 
tablished a censorship, and completed 
the organization of the Roman In- 
quisition. His foreign relations in- 
volved him in much labor and perplex- 
ity. Under the weight of so many 
cares, his great age gave way, and he 
died in 1559. 

Paul V., Pope; Camillo Borghese; 
born in Rome, in 1552 ; was elected in 
1605, after the death of Leo XI. He 
embellished Rome with many excellent 
works of sculpture and painting, and 
an aqueduct. He was the founder of 
the Borghese family, one of the weal- 
thiest in Italy. He died in 1621. 

Paul I., Emperor of Russia ; born 
in 1754. He was the only son of Pe- 
ter III. and his wife, Catherine II. He 
married the Princess Mary of Wur- 
temberg ia 1776. On the death of 
Catherine in 1796 he was proclaimed 
emperor. He joined the second coali- 
tion against France; and Russian ar- 
mies appeared in Italy, Switzerland, 
and Holland. But he afterward with- 
drew from it, and entered into friendly 
relations with Napoleon. A conspir- 
acy was formed against him, with 
Count Pahlen at its head, and he was 
murdered in his bedroom, March 24, 
1801. 

Paul, St., one of the apostles of 
Jesus Christ ; originally called Saul ; 
a Hebrew of the tribe of Benjamin, 
and a native of Tarsus, the capital of 
Cilicia, and was born at the beginning 
of the Christian era. His father was 
a Pharisee of the most rigid cast, and 



Paul 

Paul himself, up to the time of his 
conversion, was a most bitter and 
intolerant persecutor of the Christian 
sect; even assisting at the martyrdom 
of St. Stephen. The mode of his con- 
version is fully detailed in the New 
Testament. After his conversion, he 
was baptized at Damascus by Anani- 
as ; from whence, after a brief sojourn, 
he proceeded to Arabia, where he re- 
ceived the Ho'y Ghost. He was 
martyred about A. D. 66. 

Paul, Epistles of, St. There are 
14 epistles in the New Testament usu- 
ally ascribed to Paul, beginning with 
that to the Romans, and ending with 
that to the Hebrews. 

Paulding, James Kirke, an 
American author; born in Dutchess 
co., N. Y., Aug. 22, 1779. He early 
showed a tendency to literature. In 
1837 Van Buren appointed him Secre- 
tary of the Navy. Four years later 
he retired to a country residence at 
Hyde Park, N. Y., where he died, April 
6, 1860. 

Paulist Fathers, a modern Ameri- 
can society of the Roman Catholic 
Church, founded in New York by the 
late Rev. Isaac T. Hecker, in 1858. 
It is composed of 37 priests who are 
engaged in missionary and literary 
work ; many of them are converts from 
Protestantism. They publish "The 
Catholic World," a monthly magazine. 

Panlownia, a genus of trees with 
but one species; a native of Japan, 
and now grown in the United States. 

Paulns Hook, Fort, a Revolu- 
tionary fortress erected by the British 
on the site of Jersey City, N. J. 

Pauncefote, Julian, Lord, an 
English diplomatist ; born in Preston 
Court, Gloucestershire, England, in 
1828. He was the first delegate to the 
Suez Canal International Commission 
at Paris in 1885. In 1889 he was ap- 
pointed British minister to the United 
States and four years later the legation 
was raised to an embassy. He nego- 
tiated the settlement of \he Bering Sea 
dispute; the Anglo- Venezuelan bound- 
ary arbitration, and was chief of the 
British delegates to the Peace Confer- 
ence at The Hague in 1899. He also 
negotiated with the United States two 
conventions for the abrogation of the 
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. He died May 
24. 1902. 



Payne 

Pavement, the hard covering of the 
surface of a road or footway; a floor 
or covering of stones, brick, wood, etc., 
laid evenly on the earth, so as to form 
a level, hard, and convenient passage. 

Pawnbroker, one who is licensed 
to lend, or make a business of lending 
money on goods pawned or pledged. 

Pawnees, a tribe of American In- 
dians who formerly resided in Ne- 
braska, with branches extending into 
Kansas and Texas. They removed 
in 1876 to a reservation of 283,020 
acres in Indian Territory, and are 
now few in number. 

Pawtucket, a city in Providence 
county, R. I.; on the Pawtucket 
river and the New York, New Haven 
& Hartford railroad; 4 miles N. E. 
of Providence; has abundant water- 
power from a 50-foot fall of the 
river; was the site of the first cotton 
mill built in America (by Samuel 
Slater in 1790); and manufactures 
cotton and woolen goods, plush, 
braids, calicoes, leather, and machin- 
ery. Pop. (1910) 51,622. 

Pnxton, Sir Joseph, an English 
architect and horticulturist; born in 
Milton-Bryant, near Woburn, Bed- 
fordshire, Aug. 3, 1803. He began 
life as a gardener. He designed the 
Crystal Palace at Sydenham and 
superintended its construction. He 
died in Sydenham, June 8, 1865. 

Paymaster, an officer of the army 
and navy, from whom the officers and 
men receive their wages, and who is in- 
trusted with money for that purpose. 

Paymaster-General, in the 
United States, a title given to (1) the 
chief paying officer of the War De- 
partment, who ranks as a .Brigadier- 
General; (2) a similar officer in the 
Navy Department, who ranks as a 
rear-admiral, and (3) a corresponding 
staff officer in the militia of a State. 

Payn, James, an English novelist; 
born in Cheltenham, England, in 1830; 
was graduated at Cambridge in 1854. 
His works reach upwards of 100 
books. He died in London, March 25, 
1898. 

Payne, Henry Clay, an American 
jurist; born in Ashfield, Mass., Nov. 
23, 1843 ; was graduated at Shelburne 
Falls Academy (Mass.) in 1859; set- 
tled- in Milwaukee in 1863 : practised 
law in Chicago, 111., in 1883-1893; 




JAPANESE ENVOYS, STAFF, ETC. 



RUSSIAN ENVOYS 




SIGNING OF TREATY 
Stereographs copyright by H. C. White Co., N. Y. 



RUSSIAN- JAPANESE PEACE TREATY 



Payne 

was president of the Chicago Law In- ! 
etitute in 1889 ; judge of the Superior 
Court of Cook co., 111., in 1893-1898. 
On Dec. 16, 1901, he was appointed 
Postmaster-General of the United 
States. He died Oct. 4, 1904. 

Payne, John. Howard, an Ameri- 
can dramatist ; born in New York, 
June 9, 1792. At the age of 16 he 
made his first appearance at the Park 
Theater. He also played in England 
and Ireland, a part of the time with 
Miss O'Neill. In 1851 was appointed 
United States consul to Tunis. He 
wrote, translated and adapted over 
60 plays, but is most famous as the 
author of " Home, Sweet Home." 
He died in Tunis, April 10, 1852. 

Peabody (formerly SOUTH DAN- 
VEBsK' a town in Essex county, 
Mass.; 2 miles E. of Salem; contains 
the Peabody Institute and the Sut- 
ton Reference Library; and was the 
birthplace of George Peabody. Pop. 
(1910) 15,721. 

Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer, an 
American writer and educator ; born 
in Billerica, Mass., May 16, 1804. 
She became a teacher in Boston in 
1822; and was one of the first to in- 
troduce the kindergarten system in the 
United States. She died in Jamaica 
Plain, Mass., Jan. 4, 1894. 

Peabody, George, an American 
philanthropist ; born in Danvers, 
Mass., in 1795. He became chief 
clerk, and, afterward, partner with his 
uncle, John Peabody, in Georgetown, 
D. C., in 1812. Not satisfied with 
their business relations, George left 
his uncle and joined partnership with 
Mr. Elisha Riggs in the drygoods busi- 
ness in Baltimore, in 1815. His busi- 
ness increasing, he found occasion to 
make frequent visits to England, 
where he finally settled in 1829. In 
1837 he withdrew from the firm, and 
established himself as banker in Lon- 
don, where he amassed a fortune. He 
was particularly devoted to promoting 
education (see following). He died 
in London, in Nov. 1869. 

Peabody Education Fund. In 
1867 and 1869 George Peabody estab- 
lished a fund of $3,500,000, to be de- 
voted to education in the Southern 
States of the Union. The fund was 
placed in the charge and control of 
15 trustees, who hold meetings annual- 



Peace Society* 

ly, usually in New York. In its ear- 
lier history the chief aim of the fund 
was to encourage and secure the estab- 
lishment of public school systems for 
the free education of all children. That 
having been accomplished, the income 
of the fund is now used for the train- 
ing of teachers through normal schools 
and teachers' institutes. In 1909 the 
trustees appropriated $1,000,000, out 
of $2,500,000 on hand, to the Pea- 
body Normal School at Nashville, 
Tenn. 

Peace Conference. After the se- 
cession of several of the States of the 
American Union in 1860, Virginia, on 
Jan. 1, 1861, invited the remaining 
States to send delegates to a confer- 
ence in Washington, with the object of 
devising a plan whereby all difficulties 
then existing might be peaceably set- 
tled. The conference met on Feb. 4. 
Fourteen free States and seven slave 
States were represented, and ex-Presi- 
dent John Tyler was made the presid- 
ing officer. A committee of one from 
each State was appointed to draw up 
a report of " what . they may deem 
right, necessary and proper, to restore 
harmony and preserve the Union." 

The report was rejected by both 
Congress and Senate. 

Peace Congress, National, or- 
ganized by the National Arbitration 
and Peace Committee, and held in 
New York city, Apr., 1907, preceding 
The Hague International Peace Con- 
gress of that year. 

Peace Congress, Universal, an 
international gathering at The Hague, 
held in response to an invitation of 
Nicholas II., Czar of Russia, beginning 
May 18, 1899, in which the United 
States took part, and which framed a 
plan, since approved by the powers, 
for a permanent Tribunal of Arbi- 
tration and periodical conferences. 

Peace Society, The, an organiza- 
tion founded in 1816; has for its ob- 
ject the promotion' of permanent and 
universal peace. It welcomes the sup- 
port of Christians of all denomina- 
tions, and also of those persons who 
oppose war on humanitarian or other 
grounds. The society has always ad- 
vocated a gradual, proportionate, and 
simultaneous disarmament by all the 
nations of Europe, and the principle 
of arbitration, and claims as partly 
due to its efforts that this mode of set- 



Peach 

tling international difficulties has been 
frequently adopted. 

Peach, a tree and its fruit, of the 
almond genus ; the Amygdalus Persica 
of many varieties. They are exten- 
sively cultivated in the United States. 

Peacock, a male gallinaceous bird 
of the Pavo genus, distinguished by its 
beautiful disc-like tail. The female is 
called a peahen. 

Peacock Butterfly, a beautiful 
butterfly, two and one-half, or two 
and three-quarter inches across the 
wings. It is seen in numbers on the 
tops of nettles, hi June and July. The 
perfect insect appears in August, lives 
through the winter, and is seen in 
March and April. 

Peale, Charles Wilson, an 
American miscellaneous writer ; born 
in Maryland, April 16, 1741. He at- 
tained distinction as a portrait paint- 
er, and naturalist. He died in Phila- 
delphia, Feb. 22, 1827. 

Peale, Rembrandt, an American 
artist ; born in Bucks co., Pa., Feb. 
22, 1778. When 17 years old executed 
a portrait of Washington, from whom 
he had three sittings ; it was purchased 
by Congress. He died in Philadelphia, 
Pa., Oct. 3, 18GO. 

Pear, a shrub or small tree, 20 to 
40 feet high, with the branches more 
or less spinescent and pendulous, and 
the fruit pyriform, one or two inches 
long, becoming larger and sweeter in 
cultivation. Many hundred cultivated 
varieties exist. 

Pea Ridge, a post village in Ben- 
ton co., Ark. ; about 8 miles E. of Ben- 
tonville. Here, on March 6, 7, and 8, 
1862, occurred one of the most desper"- 
ate battles of the Civil War. Gen. 
Samuel B. Curtis, in command of 
about 11,000 Union troops, with 49 
pieces of artillery, was attacked by a 
superior force of Confederates (said 
to number 20,000) under Gen. Earl 
Van Dorn, and a .series of obstinate 
and sanguinary conflicts ensued ; often 
favoring each army with temporary 
success, finally ended with the with- 
drawal of Van Dorn. 

Pearl, a peculiar product of certain 
marine and freshwater mollusks or 
shellfish. The most famous pearls are 
those from the East ; the coast of Cey- 
1m They are, however, obtained now 
of nearly the same quality in other 



Peary 

parts of the world. These, and indeed 
all the foreign pearls used in jewelry, 
are produced by the pearl oyster. 

Pearly Nautilus, common in the 
Pacific and Indian Oceans, especially 
toward the Moluccas. It is believed 
to inhabit both deep and shallow 
water. The shell is imported into the 
United States for its fine mother-of- 
pearl, much in request with cabinet 
makers and jewelers. 

Pearsons, Daniel Kimball, an 
American philanthropist ; born in Bed- 
ford, Vt, April 14, 1820 ; was gradu- 
ated at the Medical College of Wood- 
stock, Vt. ; practised medicine till 
1857; engaged in real estate operations 
in Chicago till 1888; then devoted him- 
self to assisting small colleges, giving 
away over $5,000,000. He died April 
27, 1912. 

Peary, Robert Edwin, an Arctic 
explorer and civil engineer in the 
United States navy; born in Cresson, 
Pa., May 6, 1856 ; was graduated at 
Bowdoin College, and in 1885 became 
a civil engineer in the United States 
navy, with the rank of lieutenant. In 
1886 he made a journey of reconnois- 
sance to Greenland, advancing for over 
100 miles on the interior ice. In 1891 
and 1893 he made other trips to the 
Polar regions, in which he was accom- 
panied, as far as the winter quarters, 
by his wife, Josephine Diebitsch Peary. 
In ^hese expeditions he made excur- 
sions on a sledge along the coast of 
Greenland, and traversed the inland 
ice from McCormick Bay to the N. E. 
angle of Greenland (Independence 
Bay). He proved the convergence of 
the E. and W. coasts of Northern 
Greenland, and almost with positive- 
ness the insularity of the mainland. 
He discovered new lands (Melville 
Land and Heilprin Land), and named 
many glaciers. In May, 1896, Lieu- 
tenant Peary made a successful expe- 
dition to Greenland for the purpose of 
collecting specimens in natural his- 
tory. He returned to Cape Breton, 
Sept. 27. In 1897 he was given leave 
of absence by the government for the 
purpose of continuing his explorations 
in the northern seas, and to establish 
a station in the far N. of Greenland, 
which should be provisioned and sup- 
plied and made the basis of a series of 
annual expeditions into the Polar re- 
gions. In pursuance of this project ht 



feat 

went N. in the summer of 1897 to take 
the necessary preliminary measures, 
such as securing the aid of the Eski- 
mos, fixing the site of a station, etc. 
He returned in October of that year, 
bringing with him an immense mass 
of meteoric iron, or what is supposed 
to be such, from Cape York, Green- 
land, which was placed in the Mu- 
seum of Natural History in New York 
city. On July 3, 1898, Lieutenant 
Peary again sailed on a search for 
the North Pole, going in the steamer 
" Hope " from St. John's Newfound- 
land, to Sidney, Cape Breton, and 
horn there to Cape York, Baffin's Bay. 
At that place the party and stores 
were transferred to the " Windward," 
which has made several Arctic voy- 
ages. They carried provisions for 
four years. In September, 1901, word 
was received from Peary that he had 
founded the Greenland archipelago 
(the extreme N. land known), and 
reached lat. 83 50' N. He establish- 
ed his headquarters for the winter of 
1901-1902 at Cape Sabine, with the 
plan of again attempting to reach the 
North Pole in the spring of 1902. He 
made a most courageous and danger- 
ous effort to carry out that purpose, 
going on sledges over the ice until 
open water and icefloes made it im- 
possible to proceed. In 1908-1909 he 
made his last attempt, and on April 
6, 1909, reached the latitude of 90, 
and the long sought-for goal was at- 
tained. Promoted captain 1910. See 
ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. 

Feat, a deposit formed in bogs by 
the decay of vegetable matter, fre- 
quently consisting almost entirely of 
sphagnum, or bog moss. In composi- 
tion it differs from coal only in the 
relative proportion of its constituents. 
During the American coal famine of 
1902-1903 peat was used to some ex- 
tent as fuel. 

Peattie, Mrs. Elia Wilkinson, 
an American journalist ; born in Mich- 
igan, in 1862 ; connected with the Chi- 
cago press. 

Pelba, called also the black tatou, 
an armadillo ranging from Texas S. to 
Paraguay. 

Pecaa, or Pecan Nut, a sped _-s of 
hickory and its fruit, growing in Jxorth 
America. 

Peccary, the popular name for two 
species of small suilline mammals from 



Pedagogy 

the New World, nearly allied. The 
collared peccary ranges from Arkansas 
S. to the Rio Negro, and seldom at- 
tacks other animals. The white-lipped 
peccary is rarely met with N. of Brit- 
ish Honduras, or S. of Paraguay. It 
associates in large droves, is very pug- 
nacious, and does not hesitate to at- 
tack man, hunters often having to 
take to a tree for safety. 

Peck, Harry Tlmrston, born in 
Stamford, Conn., in 1856 ; professor 
of Latin at Columbia University, 
1886-1910; editor of "The Book- 
man," of "Harper's Classical Dic- 
tionary," "The New International 
Cyclopedia" (20 vols.), "Students' 
Series of Latin Classics" (32 vols.), 
"The New Websterian (1912) Dic- 
tionary" ; author of "The Semitic 
Theory of Creation," "The Personal 
Equation," "What is Good English?" 
"The Life of Prescott," "Twenty 
Years of the Republic," "Studies in 
Several Literatures," "The New Bae- 
deker," "History of Classical Phil- 
ology," and so forth. 

Pechili. See CHI-LI. 

Peck, George Wilbur, an Amer- 
ican humorist ; born in Henderson, N. 
Y., Sept. 28, 1840. Governor of Wis- 
consin, in 1891-1895. In 1883 he 
published "Peck's Bad Boy and his 
Pa"; in 1890-1891* was mayor of 
Milwaukee; in 1891-1895, governor 
of Michigan. 

Peck, Harry Thnrston, scholar 
and critic; born in Stamford, Conn., 
Nov. 24, 1856; was graduated at 
Columbia College, and in 1888-1910 
was professor of Latin there. 

Peck, Samuel Mintnrn, an 
American poet ; born in Tuscaloosa, 
Ala., in 1854. He was educated at the 
University of Alabama, and later stud- 
ied medicine in New York. 

Pecos River, a river of New Mex- 
ico and Texas, which has a S. E. 
course of about 800 miles, and falls 
into the Rio Grande del Norte, but in 
summer is generally dry. 

Pedagogue, in classical antiquity, 
a slave who led his master's children 
to school, places of amusement, etc., 
till they became old enough to take 
care of themselves. A teacher of 
young children; a schoolmaster. 

Pedagogy, or Pedagogic!, a 
term Anglicized from the German, sig- 



Pedagogy 



Pedro I. 



nifies the SCIENCE OF EDUCATION OB 
TEACHING, for the systematic develop- 
ment of the human faculties. It has 
Mind, Matter, and Method as essen- 
tial factors, and its ideal is to study 
the individual natures of youth, in 
order to ascertain the special functions 
or talents with which each is endowed, 
so as to develop them towards perfec- 
tion by systematized methods of train- 
ing. 

This study is effected under three 
recognized divisions : physiology, the 
constitution of the body ; psychology, 
the constitution of the mind ; ethics 
and religion, the moral and spiritual 
nature. 

The psychology of pedagogy em- 
braces the scientific observation and 
study of children, mental pathology 
or morbid conditions, comparative psy- 
chology, or the growth and grades of 
intelligence, and empirical and educa- 
tional psychology, the latter including 
apperception, or the essential mental 
operation in the act of learning. 

The physiological aspect of peda- 
gogy embraces physical education and 
hygiene, including anthropometry or 
body measurements, supervision of 
eyestrain, spinal curvature, overpres- 
sure, stammering, vocal efforts, the 
ventilation, sanitation, furniture, ap- 
paratus and equipment of school 
grounds and buildings, the gymnastic, 
calisthenic, Delsartian, Swedish and 
other athletic exercises. 

The moral and spiritual side of peda- 
gogy embraces ethics or manners, aes- 
thetics which gives inspiration by a 
taste for and contemplation of the 
beautiful, and civil and religious in- 
struction, which include Sunday- 
schools, and initiate the duties and 
rights of citizenship, the formation of 
religious sentiment and the recognition 
of a supreme moral force. 

The principles and practice of Peda- 
gogy comprise elementary, secondary 
and higher instruction, and school ad- 
ministration. 

School administration and manage- 
ment embrace organization and dis- 
cipline, the question of punishments, 
amusements and general exercises, the 
selection of text-books, libraries, and 
museum collections, supervision of 
studies, elective systems of study, ex- 
aminations and degrees, legislation, and 
endowments, including federal and 



state aid, land grants, and private 
benefactions. 

Elementary instruction is typified 
by the kindergarten children's garden 
or child-study institution, giving in- 
struction in the rudiments of lan- 
guage, number and arithmetic, nature 
(study, object lessons, geography, 
drawing and music. To the elementary 
also belongs the education of orphans 
and neglected children, of colored chil- 
dren negroes, Indians, Eskimos, etc., 
and of defective children, blind, deaf 
mutes, mentally deficient, truants, in- 
corrigibles and offenders, and compul- 
sory education to combat illiteracy. 

Secondary and higher instruction* 
comprise the advanced forms of ele- 
mentary education, together with an- 
cient and modern languages, history, 
economics, politics and sociology, 
mathematics and science. 

Higher instruction also embraces 
night and continuation schools, public 
lectures, college settlements, univer- 
sity extension courses, self-culture, 
and home education. Other forms of 
high pedagogy are found in the 
methods for manual and industrial 
training, typified in the sloyd, slojd, or 
Swedish series of manual exercises. 

The highest pedagogic forms em- 
brace the college and university 
courses for professional education, in- 
cluding training for teaching, theology, 
law, medicine and its sub-divisions 
surgery, dentistry, pharmacy and 
nursing ; fine arts comprising sculp- 
ture, drawing, painting, engraving, 
music and architecture ; science em- 
bracing technology, agriculture, com- 
merce, military and naval training ; 
modern colleges for the education of 
women, and post-graduate courses. 

The literature on every branch of 
Pedagogics is enormous and continu- 
ally increasing. Reference to any spe- 
cial department is best made by con- 
sulting : the " Catalogue of Educa- 
tional Literature of the U. S. Bureau 
of Education," Washington; the "Bul- 
letin of the Books on Education in 
the Libraries of Columbia University," 
New York city ; or the excellent bibli- 
ographies of Education by Prof. W. 
S. Monroe, by G. S. Hall and J. M. 
Mansfield and others. 

CHARLES LEONARD STUART. 

Pedro I., Doiii Antonio Jose 
D'Alcantara, Emperor of Brazil, 



Pedro' 

eldest son of John VI., King of Portu- 
gal, elder brother of Dom Miguel, and 
nephew to Ferdinand VII., King of 
Spain ; born in 1798, and was taken, 
in 1808, with the rest of the royal 
family, to Brazil. In 1822, the Bra- 
eilians having proclaimed their inde- 
pendence, choset Pedro for their em- 
peror. The death of John VI., in 
1826, left Dom Pedro the crown of 
Portugal. After abdicating the crown 
of Portugal in favor of his daughter. 
Dona Maria, he nominated his 
brother, Dom Miguel, regent ; but 
scarcely had he quitted Portugal, when 
Dom Miguel took possession of the 
throne. In 1831 he was compelled to 
abdicate the throne of Brazil in favor 
of his son, Dom Pedro II. Returning 
to Europe, he raised troops in France 
and England, with which he, in 1833, 
drove Dom Miguel from the throne of 
Portugal, and placed the crown upon 
the head of his daughter. He was 
twice married; his first wife being 
Maria Leopoldina, Archduchess of 
Austria, and the second, Amelia, 
daughter of Prince Eugene de Beau- 
harnais. He died in 1834. 

Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil ; born 
in Rio Janeiro, in 1825; succeeded to 
the throne on the abdication of his 
father, Dom Pedro I., in 1831. He 
assisted President Grant in opening 
the Centennial Exposition in Phila- 
delphia in 1876; and was deposed by 
the revolution of 1889. Died in 1891. 

Peebles, James Martin, an 
American physician; born in Whit- 
tingham, Vt., March 23, 1822; was 
a member of the Northwest Congres- 
sional Indian Peace Commission in 
1868; United States consul to Trebi- 
zonde, Turkey, in 1869; and repre- 
sented the Arbitration League at the 
Peace Conference in Berlin. 

Peekskill, a village in West- 
chester county, N. Y.; on the Hud- 
son river and the New York Central 
& Hudson River railroad; 42 miles 
N. of New York city; is surrounded 
by grand mountain scenery; manu- 
factures fire brick, hats, underwear, 
and stoves; and contains the State 
Military Camp, Helping Hand Hos- 
pital, Mohegan Lake School, Field 
Library, and House of the Good 
Shepherd. Pop. (1910) 15,245. 

Peel, Sir Robert, an English 
statesman; son of Sir Robert Peel, 



Peking 

a wealthy manufacturer; born in 
1788, and studied at Harrow and Ox- 
ford. When just 21 years of age he 
entered Parliament, and thenceforth 
the sphere of his exertions and tri- 
umphs was in the House of Commons. 
In 1811 he was made under-secretary 
for the colonies, and in 1812, when 
only 24, he received the appointment 
of chief secretary for Ireland. After 
carrying his celebrated currency meas- 
ure of 1819, he became, in 1822, home 
secretary. He became prime minister 
in 1841. He died in 1850, of internal 
injuries caused by a fall from a horse. 

Peele, John Thomas, an Ameri- 
can artist ; born in Peterborough, 
England, in 1822; settled in New 
York city in 1835; early manifested 
a genius for portrait painting and 
went to Europe to study ; returned to 
New York in 1846. Later, he de- 
voted himself to genre painting, becom- 
ing a specialist in studies of child 
life. He died in 1897. 

Peepul, or Pipal, also known as 
the Sacred Fig of India, a species of 
fig, somewhat resembling the banyan, 
but the branches not rooting like those 
of that tree. The tree is held sacred 
by the Hindus, because Vishnu is said 
to have been born under it. 

Feet, Stephen Denison, an 
; American clergyman and archaeologist ; 
born in Euclid, O., Dec. 2, 1831. He 
became a Congregational minister, and 
an authority on the works of the 
mound builders and American archae- 
ology in general. 

Peirce, Benjamin, an American 
mathematician ; born in Salem, Mass., 
April 4, 1809; studied at Harvard, 
where in 1833 he became professor. 
His paper on the discovery of Neptune 
attracted universal attention, and his 
papers on the constitution of Saturn's 
rings were equally remarkable. He 
died in Cambridge, Mass., Oct. 6, 1880. 

Pekan, Pennant's marten, a North 
American species, about four feet long; 
it often steals the fish used to bait 
traps, whence it is sometimes called the 
fisher. 

Peking, or Pekin, the capital of 
the Chinese empire, province of Chih- 
le, or Pechili, in a vast sandy plain, 
between the Pei-ho and its important 
affluent, the Hoang-ho. 562 miles N. 
W. of Nankin, and 100 miles W. N. 



Pelagians 

W. of the Gulf of Pechili, in the Yel- 
low Sea. It consists of two contigu- 
ous cities, each separately surrounded 
by walls, and together entered by 16 
gates. The entire circumference is 25 
miles. The northern city, which is 
nearly a perfect square, consists of 
three enclosures. The outer one is 
used by Chinese traders. The second 
enclosure contains the residences of the 
dignitaries of the empire and foreign 
legations, the national literary insti- 
tutions, and the temples of An- 
cestors and Peace, and is inhabited 
mostly by the Manchus. The inner en- 
closure, or " forbidden city," sur- 
rounded by walls of yellow tiles, 2 
miles in circumference, hence called 
the "Yellow Wall," contains the pal- 
aces of the emperor and empress. The 
southern city, called the Wai-ching, or 
" outer city," is also square, and occu- 
pied by the Chinese, and is both the 
seat of business and the residence of 
most of the population. The wall is 
30 feet high, 25 feet thick at the base, 
and 12 feet at the top. That of the 
imperial city is 40 feet high. The 
principal streets are very wide and 
regular, running between opposite 
gates. The houses are generally one 
story high, and built of brick. Of the 
ornamental buildings, the most con- 
spicuous are those commonly called 
triumphal arches. They consist of a 
large central gateway, with small ones 
on each side, all covered with nar- 
row roofs, and like the houses are 
splendidly gilded, varnished, and paint- 
ed. Peking is indebted for its im- 
portance to its being the residence of 
the emperor and the seat of govern- 
ment. The country round the city be- 
ing sandy and poor, a large portion 
of its supplies are brought from a dis- 
tance partly from sea by the Pei-ho, 
but principally by the Grand canal and 
the Eu-ho, which connect it with Nan- 
kin, and most of the E. provinces. The 
early history of Peking is involved in 
obscurity. Kublai Khan rebuilt it, 
and made it his capital in 12GO. The 
Mongol dynasty, founded by Kublai 
Ithan, continued to occupy this city 
till it was expelled from China, in 
1367. In 1421, the third emperor of 
the Chinese dynasty of Ming trans- 
ferred his residence thither from 
Nankin, since which it has been the 
capital of the empire. During the 
" Boxer " uprising of 1900 the various 



Feliaa 

foreigners in Peking were besieged in 
the English legation. For weeks they 
were given up as lost, but they man- 
aged to hold out till the arrival of the 
foreign troops. Present pop. (about) 
700,000. 

Pelagians, a sect that arose about 
the beginning of the 5th century. Their 
founder was Pelagius, a monk, a na- 
tive of Britain, whose original name 
was Morgan. He taught that man is 
capable of a religious life, without 
the grace of God, and that grace is ' 
given, not freely, but according to the 
merits of the recipient. 

Pelagic Sealing, the taking of 
seal in the open sea. 

Pelaniis, a genus of sea snakes, 
with a single species, ranging from 
Madagascar to New Guinea, New Zea- 
land, and Panama. 

Pelasgian, one of an ancient and 
widely diffused prehistoric tribe which 
was the common parent of the Greeks 
and of the earliest civilized inhabitants 
of Italy. The origin of this people is 
lost in myth. Traces of them are fqund 
in Asia Minor and Italy. The term 
Pelasgi was used by the classic poets 
for the Greeks in general. Some Al- 
banian tribes are supposed to be of 
Pelasgic descent. 

Pclew Islands, or Falan, a group 
in the Pacific formerly belonging to 
Spain, lying S. E. of the Philippines, 
at the W. extremity of the Caroline 
Archipelago, with which they are some- 
times classed. There are about 200 
islands, and surrounded with corai 
reefs. Total area, 170 square miles. 
The principal is Babelthouap or Babel- 
top. The soil is rich and fertile, and 
the climate healthy. Bread fruit, 
cocoanuts, sugar cane, palms, areca 
nuts, yams, etc., are grown. Turtles, 
trepang, and fish abound on the coasts. 
The inhabitants, about 10,000 in num- 
ber, are of the Malay race. The men 
go entirely naked and the women, 
nearly so. They are described as be- 
ing good-natured, and have peculiar 
social institutions. The islands were 
discovered by the Spaniards in 1543, 
and visited again in 1696. In 1899 
Spain sold this group, with the Caro- 
lines and all of the Ladrones except- 
ing Guam, to Germany. 

Pelias, the adder, or common viper. 
No teeth in upper maxillaries, except 



Pelican 



PemTia 



the poison fangs ; a row of small teeth 
on the palatine bone, on each side of 
the palate. 

Pelican, a large piscivorous water 
fowl, with an enormous pouch de- 
pendent from the flexible branches of 
the lower mandible, but capable of be- 
ing contracted when not in use as a 
depository for food. The species are 
widely distributed, and frequent the 
shores of the sea, rivers, and lakes, 
feeding chiefly on fish, which they 
hunt in shallow water, the pelican of 
the United States being the only spe- 
cies which dives for its prey. The 
common pelican is about the size of a 
swan, though its enormous bill and 
loose plumage make it look consid- 
erably larger ; it is white, slightly 
tinged with flesh color, and the breast 
feathers become yellow in old birds. 
Pelican, The, the ship in which 
Sir Francis Drake made his voyage 
around the world. He left Plymouth 
with four ships besides the " Pelican," 
Nov. 15, 1577, and completed his jour- 
ney Sept. 15, 1580. The "Pelican" 
was the only ship he brought back 
with him, and it was for a long time 
carefully preserved by order of "Queen 
Elizabeth. When finally broken up a 
chair was made from its timbers by 
John Davis, the Arctic navigator, 
. which is now in the Bodleian Library. 
Pelissier, Aimable Jean 
Jacques, Duke of Malakoff, a 
marshal of France ; born near Rouen 
in 1794. He entered the army at the 
age of 19, and distinguished himself in 
Africa and was created Lieutenant- 
General in 1848 and was called in 
1855 to take a command in the Crimea 
under General Canrobert, whom he 
soon superseded as Commander-in- 
Chief. He distinguished himself in 
the successful attack on Kertch, in 
the battle of the Tchernaya, and above 
ail in the storming of the Malakoff 
Tower at Sebastopol, Sept. 8, 1855. 
He was soon after created Marshal 
and Duke of Malakoff. In 1858 he 
was ambassador to London; was sub- 
sequently appointed governor-general 
of Algeria, and died there in 1864. 

Pellagra, a disease common among 
the peasantry of Northern Italy, the 
lAsturias, Gascony, Rumania, and 
Corfu, caused by living on maize af- 
fected by a parasitic fungus. 



Pelletier, Sir Charles Al- 
phonse Pantaloon, a Canadian of- 
ficial: born in Riviere Ouelle, Que- 
bec, Jan. 22, 1837; was called to the 
bar in 1860; member of the Com- 
mons in 1869-1877, of the Provincial 
Assembly in 1873-1874, and Senator 
in 1877-1905; Speaker of Dominion 
Senate in 1896-1901; Quebec City 
Solicitor for 40 years; Judge Su- 
perior Court, Quebec Province, in 
1905-1908; then became Lieutenant- 
Governor of the Province. 

Pellico, Silvio, an Italian patriot; 
born in Saluzza, Piedmont, in 1789; 
best known for his tragedy, " Fran- 
cesca da Rimini." The volume on 
which his fame rests tells the story 
of his 10* years' imprisonment. He 
died in 1854. 

Pelopidas, a Theban general, the 
friend of Epaminondas and the asso- 
ciate of his victories. When the Spar- 
tans conquered Thebes, Pelopidas went 
to Athens, where he assembled his ex- 
iled countrymen, with whom he re- 
turned, seized on Thebes, and expelled 
the invaders. Afterward he defeated 
the Lacedaemonians at Tegyra, and 
shared with Epaminondas the victory 
of Leuctra. Pelopidas being sent am- 
bassador to Alexander, the tyrant of 
Phera?, was thrown into prison ; but 
on the appearance of Epaminondas he 
obtained his release. He next went to 
the court of Persia, and after his re- 
turn commanded the forces sent to the 
relief of Thessaly, where he fell ha 
364 B. c. 

Peloponnesus, the ancient name 
of the Morea. Among its most im- 
portant cities were the Sparta in La- 
conia, and Argos the capital of Argolis. 
Sparta acquired, after the Messenian 
war, a decided supremacy over the 
other states, and disputed the suprem- 
acy with Athens in a war of almost 
30 years' duration (431-^404 B. C.) 
the famous Peloponnesian War, of 
which the history has been written by 
Thucydides. After the Roman con- 
quest, the Peloponnesus formed part 
of the province of Achaia, and subse- 
quently part of the Byzantine empire. 

Pelvis, the bony, archlike basin of 
the human body, supporting the lower 
or hinder limbs. 

Pemba, a coral island off the E. 
coast of Africa; 50 miles N. E. of 



Pemberton 

Zanzibar Island, length 46 miles, 
breadth 4 1 /; area, 372 square miles. 

Pemberton, Max, an English 
novelist; born in Birmingham, Eng- 
land, June 19, 1863. He was a con- 
tributor to " Vanity Fair," and editor 
of " Chums," a boys' paper, and in 
charge of " Cassell's Magazine." He 
has published a number of stories. 

Pembroke, town, out-post, and 
capital of Renfrew county, Ontario, 
Canada; on the Muskrat river, Allu- 
mette lake, and the Grand Trunk 
and Canadian Pacific railways; 104 
miles N. W. of Ottawa; has good 
water-power from the river; and is 
engaged in lumbering and the manu- 
facture of woolen goods and flour. 

Pen, an instrument for writing with 
a fluid. Pens of some sort have been 
in use from very early times, adapted 
to the material on which the charac- 
ters were to be inscribed. The metallic 
stilus for the production of incised 
letters was probably the earliest writ- 
ing implement. It was used by the 
Romans for writing on tablets coated 
with wax ; but both they and the 
Greeks also used what is the true an- 
cient representative of the modern pen, 
namely, a hollow reed, as fs yet com- 
mon in Eastern countries. It has been 
asserted that quills were used for writ- 
ing as early as the 5th century A. D. 
In 1803 Wise produced steel pens of 
a barrel form, mounted in a bone case 
for carrying hi the pocket. They were 
of indifferent make, and being expen- 
sive, were very little used. Joseph 
Gillott commenced the manufacture 
about 1820, and succeeded in making 
the pen of thinner and more elastic 
steel, giving it a higher temper and 
finish. Mr. Gillott was followed into 
the same field by Mr. Perry and others, 
and their improvements so reduced 
the cost and raised the quality, that a 
gross of better pens are now sold by 
the same makers at less than one-sixth 
of the price of & single pen in 1821. 
Gold pens tipped with minute particles 
of iridium are now in extensive use, 
and a good one will last for years. 
Fountain pens and penholders, to car- 
ry a considerable supply of ink and 
to discharge it in an equal manner, 
were invented by Joseph Bramah. 

Penal Laws, laws which prohibit 
an act, and impose a penalty for the 
commission of it. 



Pendleton 

Penal Servitude, a form of pun- 
ishment in English criminal law, sub- 
stituted, in 1853, for the punishment 
of transportation. It consists in im- 
prisonment with hard labor for a term 
of years, from two up to the duration 
of life. The term is not used in the 
United States. 

Penance, in Roman Catholic theolo- 
gy and ritual : 1. The virtue which 
inclines the soul to detest ski for its 
own sake that is, because it is an 
offense against God. 2. The outward 
acts by which sorrow for sin is evinced. 
3. The satisfaction which a priest im- 
poses on the penitent before giving ab- 
solution, often called sacramental pen- 
ance. 

Penang, Pnlo-Penang, or 
Prince of Wales Island, an island 
belonging to Great Britain, lying at 
the N. entrance of the Straits of 
Malacca, off the W. coast of the Malay 
Peninsula, from which it is separated 
by a channel 2 to 5 miles across ; area, 
107 square miles. Penang was made 
over by treaty to the East India Com- 
pany in 1786 by the Rajah of Quedah, 
and with Province Wellesley, a long 
strip of the Malay Peninsula opposite 
(area, 270 square miles), it now forms 
one of the Straits Settlements, having 
a resident councillor to control ad- 
ministration. Pop. 235,618. 

Penates, the Roman gods of the 
storeroom and kitchen. The family 
hearth, which formerly stood in the 
atrium, was their altar, and on it their 
images, two in number, were placed, 
with the image of the Lar between 
them. These penates were represented 
dancing and elevating a drinking horn 
in token of joy and plenty. The 
calends, nones, and ides of each month 
were set apart for their worship, as 
were the caristra (Feb. 22) and the 
saturnalia. Each family had its own 
penates, and the State had its public 
penates. The origin of these gods is 
extremely doubtful. As was the case 
with the Lares, their name was a syn- 
onym for home. 

Pencil, a name applied to instru- 
ments for writing, drawing, or paint- 
ing, differing as much in their con- 
struction as in the use to which they 
are applied. 

Pendleton, George Hunt, an 
American statesman ; born in Cincin- 



Fendleton 

nati, O., July 25, 1825. He acted as 
congressman from 1856 to 1865, having 
been elected on the Democratic ticket. 
He was a candidate for the vice-presi- 
dency on the Democratic ticket in 
1864, with George B. McClellan. Be- 
fore his appointment as United States 
minister to Germany by President 
Cleveland, in 1885, he represented 
Ohio in the United States Senate, and 
was an exponent of civil service re- 
form. He died in 1889. 

Pendleton, Louis (Beauregard), 
an American novelist and writer of 
juvenile literature ; born in Georgia in 
1861. His works deal principally 
with Southern scenes and characters. 

Penelope, a celebrated Grecian 
princess, daughter of Icarius, wife of 
Ulysses (Odysseus), and mother of 
Telemachus. According to the Ho- 
meric legend, Ulysses, during his long 
wanderings after the fall of Troy, was 
generally regarded as dead, and Penel- 
ope was vexed by the urgent suits of 
many lovers, whom she put off on the 
pretext that she must first weave a 
shroud for Laertes, her aged father-in- 
law. To protract the time, she un- 
did by night the portion of the web 
she had woven by day. When the 
suitors had discovered this device, her 
position became more difficult than be- 
fore ; but fortunately Ulysses returned 
in time to rescue his chaste spouse 
from their distasteful importunities. 

Penguin, aquatic birds confined to 
the high S. latitudes of both hemi- 
spheres, where they congregate in large 
Hocks. The body is generally elliptic- 
al ; neck of moderate length ; head 
small, bill moderately long, straight, 
compressed ; tail short. They have no 
quills in their wings, which are as 
rigid as the flippers of a cetacean, and 
utterly useless for flight, though they 
move freely at the shoulder joint, 
forming most efficient paddles, and are 
usually worked alternately with a ro- 
tatory motion. In standing, the pen- 
guin preserves an upright position, 
generally resting on the tarsus, which 
is widened like the foot of a quadru- 
ped ; but in progressing this is kept 
nearly vertical, and the weight sup- 
ported on the toes alone. 

Peninsular Campaign, the name 
of the campaign conducted by General 
George B. McClellan in 1862, on the 

E. 115. 



Penitentiary 

peninsula between the York river and 
its tributaries and the James river. 

Penfeisnlar War, the war carried 
on in the beginning of the 19th cen- 
tury in Spain and Portugal by the 
British forces, aided by the native 
troops, against the French. Sir Ar- 
thur Wellesley, afterward the Duke 
of Wellington, landed, with 10,000 
British troops, at Figueras, in Portu- 
gal, Aug. 1-3, 1808, and on the 21st 
defeated the French at Vimiera. On 
August 30, the Convention of Cintra 
was signed, by which Junot agreed to 
evacuate the country. Wellesley re- 
turning home, the command of the 
army, now increased to 20,000 men, 
was given over to Sir John Moore, 
who was forced by Soult to fall back 
on Corunna, where a battle was fought 
on Jan. 16, 1809, in which the former 
lost his life. Wellesley again received 
command of the army, and, after a 
series of sanguinary and generally suc- 
cessful combats, drove the French 
across the Pyrenees, entering France 
on Oct. 7, 1813. 




PENGUIN. 

Penitentiary, a prison in which 
convicted offenders are confined and 



.Penitentiary 

subjected to a course of discipline and 
instruction with a view to their refor- 
mation. Misdemeanants and persons 
guilty of lesser felonies are confined 
therein. 

Penitentiary, one of the offices of 
the Roman Catholic Curia, taking 
special cognizance of matters relating 
to the confessional, and dispensations 
from such impediments to marriage as 
are not diriment. The dignitary who 
presides over the office described above. 
He is a cardinal priest, and must be 
a doctor of theology or canon law. 

Penn, Sir William, an English 
admiral who greatly distinguished him- 
self against the Dutch in the 17th cen- 
tury : born in Bristol in 1621, -entered 
the navy at an early period, and was 
captain at the age of 23. After the 
restoration he was knighted, and died 
in Essex in. 1670. 

Penn, "William, founder of .the 
State of Pennsylvania ; son of the pre- 
ceding ; born in London, Oct. 13, 1644. 
He turned Quaker, was taken up for 
preaching, and sent to prison ; but 
was released through the interest of 
his father; was sent to the Tower, on 
account of a book which he had writ- 
ten ; and, while there, he composed his 
K:-incipal work, entitled " No Cross, 
o Crown," intended to show the ben- 
efit of suffering. On his release, he 
resumed his former labors, and was 
apprehended, with some others, and 
tried for preaching at a conventicle in 
Gracechurch Street. The jury per- 
sisted in finding them not guilty, and 
were fined for acting contrary to the 
dictates of the judge. In 1681 he ob- 
tained from the crown, in lieu of the 
arrears due his father, the grant of 
the province in North America, and it 
was Charles II. who, in honor of Penn 
proposed the name Pennsylvania. Ac- 
companied by emigrants, Penn sailed 
from Deal Sept. 5, 1682, for America, 
and landed at New Castle, Del., Oct. 
24, and at Upland, Pa. (now Ches- 
ter), Oct. 29, 1682. The work of or- 
ganization was rapid. A few Swedes 
and Dutch had previously settled iu 
Pennsylvania, but colonists from vari- 
ous regions of the Old World now 
poured in. Universal toleration was 
proclaimed, a charter of liberties was 
solemnly consecrated, and a democratic 
government was established. In his 
dealings with the Indians and their 



Pennant 

chiefs, Penn manifested his accustomed 
magnanimity, and justice. The capital 
city, Philadelphia, was planned on a 
scale commensurate with Pennsyl- 
vania's expected greatness. Penn's 
family was in England. Hearing that 
his wife was ill he, intrusting his un- 
finished undertakings to such men as 
he deemed competent, hurried anxious- 
ly back. The overthrow of James was 
in more than one respect a misfor- 
tune for Penn. In the spring of 1690 
he was arrested on the charge of hold- 
ing treasonable correspondence with 
the dethroned monarch. The absurd- 
ity of the charge being swiftly and 
glaringly evident, Penn was set at 
liberty. Yet, though his conduct con- 
tinued to be blameless, he was, by 
an order in council, stripped, March 
14, 1692, of his title to the Pennsyl- 
yanian government a tyrannical act 
involving his utter ruin ; for, besides 
that he had risked his whole substance 
jn the Pennsylvanian experiment, his 
estates, both in England and in Ire- 
land, had been grievously misman- 
aged by incompetent or dishonest over- 
seers. An order in council capricious- 
ly restored to Penn, in 1694, that 
Pennsylvanian government of which 
an order in council had so capriciously 
robbed him. But the ownership of 
territories so extensive was almost 
barren to him. A visit to his Irish 
estates preluded Penn's second ex- 
pedition to the New World. His fam- 
ily went with him to America, though 
rather from necessity than choice. 
Penn's residence in the colony was 
more beneficial to the colonists than 
to himself. In 1701 he returned to 
England, and, being encumbered with 
debts, endeavored to negotiate the sale 
of Pennsylvania to the crown for $60,- 
000. This negotiation was interrupt- 
ed in 1712, through his being attacked 
by an apoplectic tit, which, happening 
twice afterward, greatly impaired his 
mental faculties. He survived for 
six years longer, but with a consti- 
tution much shattered, and quite un- 
fitted for any serious employment. 
Penn died July 29, 1718 ; and was 
buried at the village of Jordan, Buck- 
inghamshire. 

Pennant, a small flag or banner. 
In naval affairs, a long, narrow piece 
of bunting carried at the mast-heads 
of vessels of war. 



Penn College 

Penn College s a coeducational in- 
stitution in Oskaloosa, la. ; founded 
in 1873 under the auspices of the So- 
ciety of Friends. 

Pennington, Alexander Cum- 
xuings McWhorter, an American 
military officer ; born in Newark, N. 
J., Jan. 8, 1838; was graduated 
at the United States Military Acad- 
emy in 1800 ; served through the Civil 
War, during the latter part in com- 
mand of a brigade in the Army of the 
Potomac, and was brevetted Brigadier- 
General of volunteers. After the war 
he served at various army posts, was 
promoted Brigadier-General, U. S. A., 
in 1899 and was retired Oct. 17, of 
that year. 

Pennon, or Penon, a small flag or 
streamer half the size of the guidon, 
but shaped like it, of a swallow tail 
form, attached to the handle of a 
lance or spear. 

Pennsylvania, a State in the 
North Atlantic Division of the North 
American Union, bounded by New 
York, New Jersey,. Delaware, Mary- 
land, West Virginia, Ohio, and Lake 
Erie ; one of the original 13 States ; 
capital, Harrisburg; number of coun- 
ties, 67 ; area, 44,985 square miles ; 
pop. (1890) 5,258,014; (1900) 6,302,- 
115; (1910) 7,665,111. 

The State presents three wen de- 
fined physical divisions, the E. plain, 
middle hills, and W. highlands. A 
number of parallel ridges cross it 
from N. to S. with a maximum alti- 
tude of 2,500 feet. Lake Erie forms 
45 miles of the N. boundary of the 
State and has an excellent harbor at 
Erie. 

Pennsylvania ranks first in the 
United States in the amount and value 
of her commercial mineral products. 
In 1900 she ranked first in the pro- 
duction of coal, coke, natural gas, 
building stones, flint, feldspar, mineral 
paints, portland cement, and iron and 
steel products ; second in petroleum 
and clay products ; third in rock ce- 
ment; and fifth in iron ores. Over 50 
per cent, of the iron and steel pro- 
duced in the United States is worked 
in Pennsylvania, in the vicinity of 
Pittsburg. This city is*the center of 
the iron industry of the world. 

As an agricultural State, Penn- 
sylvania stands high. It ranks first 
in the United States in the produc- 



Pennsylvania 

tion of rye, and has large crops of 
other cereals. The S. E. counties are 
remarkably fertile, Chester being not- 
ed for its nurseries, and Lancaster for 
its tobacco crop. The natural forest 
trees include pine, poplar, beech, sugar 
maple, chestnut, birch, wild cherry, 
walnut, oak, hickory,, ash, cherry, elm, 
sycamore, and hemlock. Considerable 
attention is paid to stock raising, and 
dairying is becoming one of the lead- 
ing industries. 

Pennsylvania ranks second in the 
United States in the value of her 
manufactures. Besides the leading in- 
dustries of coal mining, coke, iron and 
steel manufacture, and the production 
of petroleum, the State has extensive 
manufactures of plate and bottle glass, 
paper bags, rag carpets, woolen goods, 
glue, railroad cars, drugs, and chem- 
icals, gunpowder, leather and lumber. 
In 1900, according to the United 
States census, there were 52,185 manu- 
facturing establishments ; employing 
$1,551,542,712 capital, and 733,834 
persons; paying $332,072,670 for 
wages, and $1,042,561,628 for mate- 
rials ; and having finished products 
valued at $1,835,104,431. 

The imports of merchandise at the 
ports of Philadelphia and Erie for 
1900 amounted in value to $49,711,- 
066; and the exports, $31,364,722. 

At the end of the school year, 1899- 
1900, the children of school age num- 
bered 1,759,300 ; enrollment in public 
schools, 1,151,880. There were 14,932 
buildings used for public school pur- 
poses, public school property valued 
at $54,797,506, and 29,390 teachers. 
The principal colleges include, the 
University of Pennsylvania, at Phila- 
delphia ; Lehigh University, at South 
Bethlehem ; Lafayette College, Easton, 
and many others. 

The governor is elected for a term 
of four years and receives a salary 
of $10,000 per annum. Legislative ses- 
sions are held biennially in odd years, 
beginning on the first Tuesday in Jan- 
uary, and are unlimited in length. The 
Legislature has 60 members in the 
Senate and 207 members in the House. 
There are 36 Representatives in Con- 
gress. The country about Delaware 
Bay was first settled by the Swedes, 
ana then passed first under Dutch, and 
then under the English jurisdiction 
generally established in 1664. In 1681 



Pennsylvania 

the territory W. of the Delaware was 
granted by royal charter to William 
Perm who colonized it ; and, by the 
industry and high character of the 
Society of Friends, by cultivating 
peace with the Indians, and encourag- 
ing immigration, founded a flourishing 
State, which, long before the Revolu- 
tion became the seat of learning, 
wealth, and refinement. 

Pennsylvania, University of, a 
coeducational, non-sectarian institution 
in Philadelphia, Pa. ; founded 1740. 

Pennsylvania College, a coedu- 
cational institution in Gettysburg, 
Pa. ; founded in 1832 under the au- 
spices of the Lutheran Church. 

Pennsylvania State College, a 
coeducational, non-sectarian institu- 
tion in State College, Pa. ; founded in 
1855. 

Pennsylvania Dutch, a German 
dialect mixed with English, spoken in 
Pennsylvania by German settlers and 
their descendants. 

Fenny. In the United States the 
term penny is commonly used for 
" cent," the 100th part of a dollar. It 
consists of 95 per cent, of copper and 
5 per cent, tin and zinc. There are 
1,000,000,000 pennies in circulation 
throughout the country and the Phila- 
delphia mint is turning them out at 
the rate of 4,000,000 a month to keep 
up the supply. The British penny is 
the 12th part of a British shilling, 
and worth about two cents. 

Pennyroyal, a species of mint, 
sometimes grown in gardens for its 
reputed medicinal qualities. The name 
pennyroyal is given also to a small 
plant, allied to the mints, and having, 
like them, a pleasant aromatic smell 
and a warm pungent taste. 

Pennyweight, a Troy weight, con- 
taining 24 grains, each grain being 
equal to a grain of wheat from the 
middle of the ear, well dried. Twenty 
pennyweights make one ounce Troy 
weight. 

Pensacola, city, port of entry, 
and capital of Escambia county, 
Fla.; on Pensacola bay and several 
railroads; 10 miles N. of the Gulf of 
Mexico; has one of the finest harbors 
on the Gulf, large export trade in 
naval stores ; cotton, grain, phos- 
phates, coal, iron, and tobacco, manu- 
factures of lumber; cotton compres- 



Pentecosfi 

sors, and fertilizers, and extensive 
fisheries; and contains a Federal 
navy-yard, Federal Marine Hospital, 
Fort Pickens, and the remains of 
Fort McRea. Pop. (1910) 22,982. 

Penshnrst, Charles Hardinge, 
1st Lord, a British administrator; 
born in Kent, England, in 1858; 
brother of 3d Viscount Hardinge; 
entered the diplomatic service in 
1881; was stationed successively at 
Constantinople, Berlin, Washington, 
Bucharest, Teheran, and St. Peters- 
burg; became Ambassador to Russia 
in 1904; Permanent Under Secretary 
of State for Foreign Affairs in 1906, 
and Viceroy of India in 1910. 

Pension, an allowance of money, 
in stipulated amounts and in periodi- 
cal payments, made by government to 
persons in recognition of past ser- 
vice, military, naval, civil, or judi- 
cial. The payment of pensions in the 
United States is regulated by special 
congressional enactment. The sys- 
tem has been in operation nearly ever 
since the adoption of the Federal 
Constitution Pensions are generally 
predicated and allowed on account of 
some disablement which occurred in 
the military or naval service of the 
United States while in line of duty. 
The year of the largest number of 
pensioners of all classes was 1902, 
when there was a total of 999,446. 
The year 1909 had the smallest num- 
ber on the rolls since 1892 (946,194), 
but the total payments that year 
were the largest on record ($161,- 
973,703). From the foundation of 
the Government'to June 30, 1910, the 
totaT amount pnid out for pensions 
aggregated $4,073,056,570. 

Pentateuch, a term applied ex- 
clusively to the first five books of the 
Old Testament collectively, termed in 
Hebrew torah the law. The first) 
mention of the five-fold division is by 
Josephus. 

Pentecost, one of the three greatest 
Jewish festivals. Its Greek name was 
given because it was held on the 50th 
day, counting from the second of the 
Passover, whence it was called in 
Hebrew the Eeast of Weeks. By this 
account the enumeration of the weeks 
was to be from " such time as thou 
beginnest to put the sickle to the 
corn." It was called also the Feast 
of Harvest. 



Pentecost 

Pentecost, George Frederick, an 

American clergyman; born in Albion, 
111., Sept. 23, 1842; entered George- 
town University but left to volunteer 
for the Union army ; was chaplain in. 
1862-1864, and filled various pastor- 
ates in different parts of the country 
in 1864r-1880. In 1887 he engaged in 
evangelical work in Scotland and thea 
went to India on a special mission to 
the English-speaking Brahmins. He 
was called to the First Presbyterian 
Church at Yonkers, N. Y., in 1897. 
He wrote: "Boyhood of Christ"; 
"Bible Studies"; etc, 

Penumbra, a faint shadow thrown 
by a luminous body. It is brighter 
than the true shadow, though less so 
than the luminous body itself. It ia a 
modification of the true shadow pro- 
duced by the commingling with it of 
rays emitted by a portion of the lu- 
minous body. In an eclipse of the 
moon, the rays which have just grazed 
the edge of the earth are bent inward 
by the refraction of the atmosphere, 
besides having become tinged with a 
ruddy or copper hue. Falling on the 
moon, then in shadow, they often ren- 
der it faintly visible, and though of a 
copper hue, yet bright enough to per- 
mit markings on its surface to be seen. 
Yet at this time the moon is so much 
behind the earth that it cannot be 
reached by direct rays from the sun. 
Peonage, a system of agricultural 
servitude common in Mexico, and some 
other parts of Spanish America. The 
peon in debt to his employer was by 
the Spanish system bound to labor for 
his employer till the debt was paid. 
Peoria, city and capital of Peoria 
county, 111.; o/i the Illinois river aiid 
over a dozen railroads; 160 miles W. 
of Chicago; is in an important coal- 
mining region; has the most exten- 
sive manufactories of proof spirits, 
glucose, and farming implements in 
the country; also manufactures cel- 
lulose, cereal foods, flour, straw- 
boards, and machinery; manufac- 
tures exceed $65,000,000 in value of 
annual output; contains the Bradley 
Polytechnic Institute, Spalding In- 
stitute, Federal Building, large Coli- 
seum, Soldiers' Monument, and sev- 
erai notable public buildings; and 
has an assessed property valuation 
of over $25,000,000. Pop. (1910) 
G6.950. 



Pepsin 

Pepiii, The Short, a King ot 
France, the first of the Carlovingian 
kings. He was at first mayor of the 
palace under Childeric III. ; but in 
752 he dethroned that monarch and 
confined him in a monastery. Having 
requested and obtained the sanction of 
the Pope, Pepin was constituted king. 
He assisted Pope Stephen III. against 
the Longobards, defeated the Saxons, 
Bavarians, and other German nations, 
and united Aquitaine to his crown. 
After a reign of 16 years, he died in 
St. Denis, in 768. His son Charle- 
magne succeeded him as King of the 
Franks. 

Pepper, Charles M., journalist, 
traveler and author; born in Ohio, 
Nov. 11, 1859 ; graduated at the Woos- 
ter University, in 1882. He was the 
Washington correspondent of the 
"Chicago Tribune" for many years. 
Subsequently political correspondent 
of "New York Herald." Correspond- 
ent in Cuba, Porto Rico, Mexico, Cen- 
tral America, South America, and 
Hawaii, for "Washington Star" and a 
syndicate of papers. Commissioner in 
Cuba for St. Louis Exposition. Was 
appointed by President McKinley as 
delegate to the Second International 
American Conference, which was held 
in Mexico, 1901-1902. Appointed by 
President Roosevelt as Pan-American 
Railway commissioner. He is the au- 
thor of " Tomorrow in Cuba," " Every- 
day Life in Washington," and other 
books. 

Peppermint, a mint with oblong, 
lanceolate, serrate, glabrous leaves; 
pedicels and flowers nearly smooth ; 
flowers in cylindrical spikes, interrupt- 
ed below. Oil of peppermint, the oil 
distilled from the fresh flowers of pep- 
permint. It enters into the composition 
of peppermint water, essence of pep- 
permint, and spirit of peppermint. It 
is stimulant and carminative, and is 
used to correct flatulence and griping 
in the intestinal canal, and to mask 
the nauseous taste of some medicines. 

Pepper Root, a perennial herba* 
ceous plant, a native of North America, 
with pairs of ternate leaves, and ra- 
cemes of white flowers; the root of 
which has a pungent mustard-like 
taste, and is used as a condiment. 

Pepsin, an azotized ferment, related 
to the proteids, and contained in gas- 
tric juice. It possesses the power, in 



Pericles 



conjunction with hydrochloric acid, of 
dissolving the insoluble proteids and 
converting them into peptones. Pep- 
sin is prepared from the stomach of 
the pig or calf on a commercial scale, 
and is usually employed in the form of 
pills or dissolved in wine. 

Pepys, Samuel, an English author, 
secretary to the admiralty in the reigns 
of Charles II. and James II. ; born 
in Brampton, Huntingdonshire, in 
1032, and educated at Cambridge. He 
early acquired the patronage of Sir 
Edward Montagu, afterward Earl of 
Sandwich, who employed him as sec- 
retary in the expedition for bringing 
Charles II. from Holland. On his re- 
turn he was appointed one of the prin- 
cipal officers of the navy. In 1673, 
when the king took the admiralty into 
his own hands, Pepys was appointed 
secretary to that office, and performed 
his duties with great credit. During 
the excitement of the Popish Plot he 
was committed to the Tower, but was 
after some time discharged without a 
trial, and reinstated in his office at the 
admiralty, which he held till the abdi- 
cation of James II. He was president 
of the Royal Society for two years ; 
but his title to fame rests upon his 
"Diary" (1659-1669), which is a 
most entertaining work, revealing the 
writer's own character very plainly, 
giving an excellent picture of contem- 
porary life, and of great, value for the 
history of the court of Charles II. 
He died in 1703. 

Pequot, Fort, an old Indian fort 
on Pequot Hill, about 8 miles N. E. 
of New London, Conn. 

Pequots, or Pequods, a tribe of 
American Indians, a branch of the 
Mohegans, were warlike and powerful 
in the country round the Thames riv- 
er when Connecticut was first settled, 
and made treaties with the Dutch and 
English. Hostilities, however, broke 
out in 1637, and the tribe was cut to 
pieces and scattered ; yet a few de- 
scendants may be found at Green Bay, 
Wis. 

Perch, a genus of acanthopterous 
fishes, forming the type of the perch 
family (Percidse). The common perch 
(Perca fluviatilis) is a common ten- 
ant of fresh-water lakes and rivers. 
It is colored a greenish-brown on the 
upper parts, the belly being of a yel- 
lovvish or golden-white. The sides are 



marked with from five to seven black- 
ish bands. The average weight ia 
from 2 to 3 pounds. The perch is a 
voracious feeder, devouring smaller 
fishes, worms, etc. The female de- 
posits her eggs, united by a viscous 
matter, in long bands, on aquatic 
plants. 

Pereira da Silva, Joao Manuel, 
a Brazilian historian : born in Rio de 
Janeiro, in 1817. He wrote : "His- 
tory of the Founding of the Empire of 
Brazil " ; " Brazilian Plutarch " ; " Je- 
ronimo Corte-Real " ; " Second Period 
of the Reign of Dom Pedro I. in Bra- 
zil"; etc. 

Perennial, lasting or continuing 
without cessation throughout the year ; 
hence, perpetual ; unceasing ; never 
failing; as perennial fountains. Con- 
tinuing without intermission, as a fe- 
ver. In botany, one of those plants 
whose roots remain alive more years 
than two, but whose stems flower and 
perish annually. 

Perez de Zambrana laiisa, a Cu- 
ban story-writer and poet ; born in 
El Cobre, near Santiago, in 1837. Sev- 
eral of her poems have been translat- 
ed into Italian and French. 

Perfumes, substances emitting an 
agreeable odor, and used about the 
person, the dress, or the dwelling, hav- 
ing also some value as disinfectants. 
Perfumes are partly of animal origin 
as civet, musk, etc., but are chiefly 
simple, or mixed essences of flowers. 

Pericardium, a conical membran- 
ous sac containing the heart and the 
commencement of the great vessels, to 
the extent of about two inches from 
their origin. 

Pericles, a great Athenian states- 
man ; born in Athens about 495 B. C., 
of a noble, influential and wealthy 
family. He received a careful educa- 
tion from the most eminent teachers. 
He applied himself to the study of 
philosophy under the guidance of An- 
axagoras, who had a most powerful 
influence on him, and remained one 
of his most intimate friends. To his 
other acquirements he added that of 
extraordinary eloquence, and thus pre- 
pared, he began to take part in public 
affairs about 469 B. c., and the pop- 
nlar party soon recognized him as their 
chief. Pericles was great as a general, 
and he displayed extraordinary valor 



Verier 

at the battle of Tanagra; he com- 
manded the expedition against Sicyon 
and Acarnania ; recovered Delphi from 
the Spartans, and quelled the revolt 
of Eubcea. In 444 B. 0. he became sole 
ruler of Athens, and the aim of his 
policy was to extend and strengthen 
her empire, and to make the people 
worthy of their position. Under his 
administration the navy was increased, 
commerce extended, general prosperity 
advanced, and Athens adorned with 
noble buildings. In 444 B. C. Pericles 
established a democratic constitution 
in Samos, and a counter revolution 
taking place, he besieged the town, and 
after nine months reduced it, a suc- 
cess which procured him extraordinary 
honors on his return. Pericles directed 
Athens during the first two years of 
the Peloponnesian War, in the sec- 
ond year of which the plague broke out 
at Athens, and the popular discontent | 
vented itself in the prosecution of the 
great ruler. He was fined, but soon 
regained his influence. The plague 
carried off many of his friends and 
relatives, and, last of all, his favorite 
son, Paralus. This loss broke his 
heart, and after a lingering sickness 
he died 429 B. c. He left a son by 
Aspasia, who took his father's name, 
and was legitimated by the people. 

Perier, Casimir, a French states- 
man ; born in Grenoble, Oct. 21, 1777. 
A Parisian banker, he condemned in 
1817 the financial policy of the minis- 
try and thereby won a seat in the 
Chamber of Deputies. In 1828 he held 
the portfolio of finance under Martig- 
nac, but resigned it in August of the 
next year. Having taken an active 
part in the July revolution (1830), 
he was rewarded with a seat in the 
cabinet. When Laffitte became presi- 
dent of the council (Nov. 2), Perier 
undertook the presidency of the Cham- 
ber of Deputies, and on March 13, 
1831, succeeded Laffitte as minister. 
Died 1832. His son Auguste, adopted 
the name of Casimir-Perier (q. v.). 

Perigee, the point in the moon's 
orbit at which she is nearest the earth. 

Perihelion, or Perilieliuin, the 
part of a planet's or comet's orbit 
where it is nearest the sun, as op- 
posed to aphelion. 

Perim, a barren island, and coaling 
and telegraph station, belonging to 
Great Britain, in the Strait of Bab- 



Perjury 

el-Mandeb, at the S. entrance to the 
Ited Sea. It is about 3^ miles long 
by 2% wide, crescent-shaped, the 
horns embracing a spacious harbor. 

Periodicity, the disposition of cer- 
tain things or phenomena to recur at 
stated periods. It denotes the regu- 
lar or nearly regular recurrence of 
certain phenomena of animal life, such 
as sleep and hunger. The first indica- 
tion of a diseased state is generally a 
disturbance of the natural or ac- 
quired periodicity of the various func- 
tions of life. 

Periosteum, a dense lining mem- 
brane covering the whole surface of 
bone, except the articulations, which 
have a thin cartilaginous layer. As 
long as a single portion of periosteum 
remains alive bone is capable of be- 
ing reproduced. 

Peritonitis, inflammation of the 
peritoneum ; it is exceedingly painful 
and dangerous, from its extent and 
connection with important organs. 
Peritonitis may exist either as an 
acute or chronic disease. In the for- 
mer there is usually great pain and 
tenderness of the abdomen, accompa- 
nied with fever, and a frequent, small, 
and hard pulse. Its causes are va- 
rious, as by cold, mechanical injuries 
of the peritoneum, the development of 
tumors, etc. 

Periwinkle, a genus of marine 
Gastropods. The commonest is abun- 
dant between tide marks on the rocks, 
and is often collected and used for 
food. It is boiled in its shell, extract- 
ed as eaten, and is very palatable. 
Periwinkles crawl about under water, 
but usually remain passive when left 
uncovered by the tide. Without wa- 
ter they can survive for many hours, 
and they are also able to endure a 
considerable freshening of the salt 
water. They feed on sea weeds, and 
are often useful in keeping beds of 
young oysters from being smothered. 

Perjury, the taking of a wilful 
false oath or affirmation, by a witness 
lawfully required to depose the truth 
in a matter of some consequence to 
the point in question. A false oath, 
therefore, taken before no court, or 
before a court incompetent to try the 
issue in question, does not constitute 
the offense of perjury at common law. 
Perjury is a felony. 



Persia 

and W. margin of the Caspian are an 
exception to the rest of the country, 
and present some of the most beautiful 
and fruitful pictures of richness and 
abundance to be found in Persia. It 
has been computed that barely a third 
of the entire kingdom is fit for culti- 
vation. 

The vegetable productions of Persia 
embrace all kinds of legumes and ce- 
reals, except rye, oats, and rice ; barley 
and wheat are the most abundant 
crops. Drugs of various kinds are ob- 
tained, such as senna, rhubarb, gums, 
opium, etc. ; as also oils, cotton, indi- 

fo, sugar, madder, dates, pistachio 
uts, and tobacco ; while in flowers, 
and the perfumes extracted from 
them, especially the attar of roses, no 
country in the world can compare with 
Persia for beauty, fragrance, and 
abundance. Silk is an important item ; 
and plantations of mulberry trees of 
great extent are very numerous. Vast 
flocks of sheep and goats are pastured 
over the country, the property and 
wealth of the wandering tribes of the 
interior, the Eelauts, a kind of Bed- 
ouins, devoting themselves to pastoral 
habits. The animals for which Persia 
is famous, are camels, horses, mules, 
oxen, asses, and buffaloes. The mineral 
wealth consists of silver, copper, lead, 
iron, antimony, salt, precious stones 
especially turquoise bitumen, and 
springs of naphtha. There are also 
large, undeveloped fields of coal and 
petroleum. One of the features of 
Persia is the abundance of salt in 
the soil, and the large number of its 
salt lakes ; about 30 pure salinas have 
no outlet; and one, the largest, Ure- 
miyah, is 280 miles in circumference, 
and, though supplied by 14 rivers, its 
water is so dense, bitter, and loaded 
with salt, that no fish can live in it. 
The climate of Persia embraces the 
rigors experienced on the mountains 
of the snowy N., and the heats felt 
on the sandy plains of Africa. Cyrus 
the Younger told Xenophon that his 
father's empire was so vast that in the 
N. the people perished of cold, and 
in the S. were suffocated with heat. 

The manufactures of Persia are nu- 
merous and important, and embrace all 
kinds of silk fabrics, satins, taffetas, 
textures of silk and cotton, silk and 
goat's hair, or silk and camel's hair ; 
brocades, camel's hair shawls, gold tis- 
sues, gold velvet, camlets, carpets, cot- 



Persia 

tons, leather, firearms, sword blades, 
saddlery, and jewelfy. Its principal 
trade is carried on with Russia ; and, 
though the foreign export trade is in- 
significant, the internal traffic is very 
great and is entirely carried on by 
caravans. 

The government is highly despotic; 
an edict of the sovereign once passed, 
can never be repealed, the word of the 
Shah is irrevocable, and the lives and 
property of the people are in his 
hands. The government is carried on 
by the Shah and his two principal min- 
isters, the Grand Vizier and the Lord 
Treasurer. The religion of the Per- 
sians is Mohammedanism. In physical 
appearance the Persians are inclined to 
corpulence, have black hair, a high 
forehead, an aquiline nose, and a large- 
ly developed chin; and in color pre- 
sent every variety, from the dark 
brown of the Indian to the light olive 
of the colder regions. The men are 
strong, robust, fond of exercise and 
martial glory, shave their heads, but 
dye their beards black, preserving them 
with an almost religious veneration. 
The Persians are regarded as a gay 
and hospitable race, but prone to sud- 
den anger and treachery. 

The Persian language is the most 
celebrated of all the Oriental tongues, 
for strength, copiousness, beauty, and 
melody, and is written from the right 
to the left. The earliest account we 
possess of Persia is from the Bible, 
from which we learn that, in the time 
of Abraham, 1921 B. C., that portion 
of modern Persia known as Elam, or 
Suisiana, Southern Persia, was a pow- 
erful monarchy. But the Persians, as 
a nation, first rose into notice on the 
ruins of the great empires founded on 
the Euphrates. Babylon was taken by 
Cyrus, and his empire extended wider 
than any before established in the 
world. After a feeble struggle, it 
succumbed to the brave and disciplined 
armies of Alexander. It was then 
split into fragments by the decease of 
its founder ; but Greeks and Greek 
sovereigns continued, during several 
centuries, to reign over Asia. About 
two centuries before Christ, Arsaces 
founded the monarchy of the Parthi- 
ans ; and in the 3d century arose the 
dynasty of the Sassanida^, who restored 
the name, with the religion and laws, 
of ancient Persia. They were over- 
thrown by the Mohammedan invaders, 



Persian Gulf 

who suffered in their turn from the 
successive invasions by the descendants 
of Genghis, Timur, and by the Turks, 
who entirely changed the aspect of 
Western Asia. At length, in 1501, a 
native dynasty again arose, under Is- 
mail, who placed himself on the throne. 
His posterity having sunk into volup- 
tuousness, Persia, in the beginning of 
the 18th century, was overrun by the 
Afghans, who carried fire and sword 
through its remotest extremities, and 
reduced its proudest capitals to ashes. 
The atrocities of the Afghans were 
avenged, 'and the independence of Per- 
sia vindicated by Nadir Shah, but 
though the victories of this daring 
chief threw a luster on his country, 
after his death it was almost torn to 
pieces by civil war, till the fortune of 
arms gave a decided superiority to 
Kereim, or Kurreem Khan. His death 
gave rise to another disputed succes- 
sion, with civil wars as furious as 
before. At length, Aga Mahommed, a 
eunuch, raised himself, by crimes and 
daring, to the sovereignty, and not 
only swayed it during his lifetime, but 
founded a dynasty since represented 
by Nasr-ed-Din from 1848, Muzzafar- 
ed-Din from 1896, Mohammed-Ali- 
Mirza from 1907, and by his son Hus- 
sein-Ali-Mirza from July 16, 1909. 

Persian Gulf, an arm of the In- 
dian Ocean which penetrates between 
Arabia and Persia to the extent of 
650 miles in a general N. W. direc- 
tion. Its breadth varies from 55 miles 
at the mouth to 250 miles, and the 
area is estimated at 77,450 square 
miles, not including the islands, which 
are scattered over the W. half, or 
lie close inshore along the E. side. Its 
greatest depth is about 50 fathoms. 

Persimmon. See DATE PLUM. 

Persius, full name Aulus Persius 
Flaccus, a Roman satirical poet ; born 
A. D. 34, at Volterra in Etruria ; died 
in 62. He vas well-connected ; was on 
friendly terras with some of the most 
eminent men ot ~he time, and much be- 
loved for the purity and amenity of his 
manners. Six satires by him have been 
preserved, of which there are several 
translations. 

Personalty, or Personal Prop- 
erty, movables; chattels; things be- 
longing to the person, as money, jew- 
els, furniture, etc., as distinguished 
from real estate in, lands and houses. 



fen 

Perspective, the science of repre- 
senting appearances, and as such 
opposed to geometry, which is the sci- 
ence of representing facts. It is found- 
ed upon such rules as can be deduced 
from the facts which are discovered 
by looking at objects through a sheet 
of glass or other transparent medium 
placed upright between the object anJ 
the observer. It is found when ob- 
jects are so looked at that their ap- 
parent form is very different from 
their real one, both as regards shape 
and distinctness. The portion of the 
subject which deals with the changes 
in form is absolutely scientific ; it is 
called linear perspective. The changes 
in distinctness are effected by distance 
and atmosphere, and differ constantly 
with different conditions of light and 
atmosphere. It is the purely artistic 
side of the science which is called aeri- 
al perspective, and success in its ap 
plication depends on the individual 
ability of the artist. 

Perspiration, watery matter, 
" breathed out," or made to expire 
from the system by means of the pores 
in the skin. It is more copious than 
the matter sent forth from the lungs 
by respiration, averaging 11 grains per 
minute against 7 from the lungs. 

Perth Amboy, a city and port of 
entry in Middlesex county, N. J. ; on 
the Raritan river and bay and sev- 
eral railroads; 21 miles S. W. of 
New York city; settled in 1680; in 
colonial days, the seat of government 
of New Jersey; has a good harbor, 
valuable deposits of fire-clay and 
kaolin, large shipping trade in farm 
products and manufactures, and cop- 
per, lead, brick, terra cotta, emery, and 
chemical plants. Pop. (1910) 132,121. 

Peru, a maritime republic of South 
America, bounded on the N. by Ecua- 
dor, on the W. by the Pacific, on the 
S. and S. E. by Bolivia and Chile, and 
on the E. by Brazil; area, 695,720 
square miles ; pop. 4,609,999 ; capital, 
Lima. 

The country is 1,100 miles in length, 
780 miles in extreme width along the 
N. boundary, but it is little more than 
50 miles wide in the extreme S. The 
islands along the coast while few in 
number, are exceedingly valuable in 
that they are rich in guano, vast quan- 
tities having been exported. 

The surface of Peru is divided into 



Peru 



Fern 



three distinct and well defined tracts or 
belts, the climates of which are of 
every variety, from torrid heat to Arc- 
tic cold, and the productions of which 
range from the stunted herbage of the 
high mountain slopes to the oranges 
and citrons, the sugar canes and cot- 
tons of the luxuriant tropical valleys. 
These three regions are the Coast, the 
Sierra, and the Montana. The Sierra 
embraces all the mountainous region 
between the W. base of the maritime 
Cordillera and the E. base of the An- 
des, or the East Cordillera. Here the 




INDIAN OF PEKtr. 

valleys enjoy an Indian climate, and 
are rich in tropical productions ; to the 
N. and E. extend luxuriant forests, 
while the numberless mountain slopes 
are covered with waving crops of 
wheat, barley, and other cereals, and 
with potatoes ; and higher up extend 
rich pasture lands, where huge herds 
of vicunas and pacas feed. The valley 
of the river Maranon, which is up- 
ward of 300 miles in length, is narrow, 



deep, and nearer the equator than any 
other valley of the Sierra, and conse- 
quently it is the hottest portion of 
this region, and its vegetation is thor- 
oughly tropical in character. The con- 
formation of the surface of the Sierra 
is of the most wonderful description. 

After the table-lands of Tibet, those 
of the Peruvian Andes are the highest 
in the world; but, unlike those of Ti- 
bet, the tablelands of Peru are the seat 
of a comparatively high civilization, 
and are studded over with towns and 
villages, perched on heights exceeding 
in elevation the summits of the Jung- 
frau and the Matterhorn. Nor are 
such towns the mere eyries of miners 
who are tempted to ascend thus high 
in search of the precious metals ; for, 
even at this elevation, the climate is 
pleasant, and wheat, maize, barley, 
rye, and potatoes thrive well. The 
climate of the Sierra, however, is not 
always so delightful. In general terms 
it may be described as mild and varia- 
ble, with moderate rains. In the dis- 
trict of paucartambo rain falls 300 
days in the year. A country, however, 
of such an uneven surface, of snow- 
covered peaks and tropical valleys, em- 
braces every variety of climate. 

The gold standard is now perma- 
nently established in Peru. The na- 
tion has entered upon a new period of 
industrial activity. Numerous com- 
panies have been formed to explore the 
Amazonian region ; new roads are be- 
ing opened in every direction. There is 
marked confidence in the stability of 
order, and under the protection ^f 
peace old financial institutions and in- 
dustrial and mining enterprises are 
thriving and public wealth is rapidly 
increasing. 

The wealth and resources of Peru 
consist not in its manufactures, but 
entirely in mineral, vegetable, and ani- 
mal products. Of the precious met- 
als, the production has greatly fallen 
off since Peru became an independent 
State. Nevertheless, Peru possesses 
vast metallic riches. The Andes 
abound in mines of gold, silver, cop- 
per, lead, bismuth, etc. ; and in the 
Montana gold is said to exist in abun- 
dance in veins and in pools on the 
margins of rivers. The vegetable pro- 
ductions of Peru are of every variety, 
embracing the products both of tem- 
perate and tropical climes. North 
American cereals and vegetables are 



Perngino 



Peruvian 



grown with perfect success, together 
with maize, rice, pumpkins, tobacco, 
coffee, sugar cane, cotton, etc. Fruits 
of the most delicious flavor are grown 
in endless variety. Cotton, for which 
the soil and climate of Peru are ad- 
mirably adapted, is now produced here 
in gradually increasing quantity. The 
land suited to the cultivation of this 
plant is excellent. The animals com- 
prise those of North America, together 
with the llama and its allied species. 

The republic of Peru, formerly the 
most important of the Spanish vice- 
royalties in South America, issued its 
declaration of independence July 28, 
1821 ; but it was not till after a war, 
protracted till 1824, that the country 
gained its actual freedom from Span- 
ish rule. The republic is politically 
divided into departments, and the de- 
partments into provinces. The pres- 
ent constitution, proclaimed Oct. 1G, 
1856, was revised Nov. 25, 1860. It is 
modeled on that of the United States, 
the legislative power being vested in 
a Senate and a House of Representa- 
tives, the former composed of deputies 
of the provinces, in proportion of one 
for every 30,000 inhabitants or frac- 
tion exceeding 15,000, and the latter of 
representatives nominated by the elec- 
toral colleges of the provinces of each 
department, at the rate of two when 
the department has two provinces and 
one more for every other two prov- 
inces. The executive power is entrust- 
ed to a president. There are two vice- 
presidents, who take the place of the 
president only in case of his death or 
incapacity, and they are elected for 
four years. The president has to exer- 
cise his executive functions through a 
cabinet of five ministers, holding office 
at his pleasure. None of the presi- 
dent's .acts have any value without 
the signature of a minister. 

By the terms of the constitution 
there exists absolute political, but not 
religious, freedom, the charter prohib- 
iting the public exercise of any other 
religion than the Roman Catholic, 
which is declared the religion of the 
State. But practically there is a 
certain amount of tolerance, there be- 
ing in Callao and Lima Anglican 
churches as well as Jewish synagogues. 
Elementary education is compulsory 
for both sexes, and is free in the 
public schools that are maintained by 



the municipalities. High schools are 
maintained by the government in the 
capitals of the departments, and in 
some provinces pupils pay a moderate 
fee. There is in Lima a central uni- 
versity, called " Universidad de Sau 
Marcos," the most ancient in Ameri- 
ca ; its charter was granted by the 
Emperor Carlos V. ; it has faculties 
of jurisprudence, medicine, political 
science, theology, and applied science. 
Peru, the origin of whose name is 
unknown, is now passing through its 
third historical era, and is manifesting 
its third phase of civilization. The 
present era may be said to date from 
the conquest of the country by the 
Spaniards in the early part of the 
16th century ; the middle era embraces 
the rule of the Incas ; and the earliest 
era, about which exceedingly little is 
known, is that of pre-Incarial period 
of unknown duration, during which 
a nation, or nations, living in large 
cities flourished in the country, and 
had a civilization, a language, and a 
religion different, and perhaps in some 
cases even more advanced, than those 
of the Incas, who succeeded them and 
overran their territories. 

Perngino, Pietro, an Italian paint- 
er; born in Leitta Delia Pieve, about 
1446. His real name was Pietro Van- 
ucci, but becoming a citizen of Peru- 
gia, he acquired the name by which he 
is best known. He studied under Ver- 
rocchio, and soon attained great dis- 
tinction as a painter in. oil by hig 
rich coloring. He was employed for 
10 years in the Sistine Chapel and the 
Stanze of the Vatican, and on his re- 
turn to Perugia opened a school, and 
had Raphael among his pupils. Peru- 
gino was a sordid and eccentric man; 
adhered obstinately to the stiff con- 
ventional forms of the 15th century, 
and in his latter years produced many 
works, unworthy of him, for gain. His 
best work is the " Pieta," in the Pitti 
Palace. He died in 1524. 

Peruvian Balsam, in botany and 
commerce, the balsaM flowing from 
incisions in the trunk of Myroxylon 
pereirae. It is a thick, viscid, almost 
opaque, balsam, like molasses, with a 
reddish hue, and translucent, when 
in thin layers; its odor fragrant, its 
taste acrid, but aromatic. It is 
brought from San Salvador, in South 
America. 



Peruvian Bark 



Peter 



Peruvian Bark. See BABK PEBU- 
VIAN. 

Peruzzi, Baldassari, architect 
and painter of the Roman school ; born 
at Sienna, 1481 ; died at Rome 1537. 
He went early to Rome and was em- 
ployed in the decoration of various 
churches. He designed the Farnesina 
Villa on the banks of the Tiber, and he 
succeeded Raphael as architect of St. 
Peter's. After the sack of Rome he 
returned to Sienna, where he was 
made city architect. In 1535 he was 
again in Rome, and henceforward de- 
voted himself entirely to architecture. 
His best existing works in fresco are 
at Sienna. 

Pesaro (ancient, Pisaurum), a 
fortified town and seaport of Italy, 
province of Pesaro e Urbino, near the 
mouth of the Foglia, in the Adriatic. 
It is the see of a bishop. The harbor, 
formed by the mouth of the Foglia, 
has become shallow ; but the trade in 
the wine, fruit (particularly figs), oil, 
silk, and other products of the district 
is considerable. The illustrious com- 
poser Rossini was born here in 1792. 
Pop. of town, 13,609. The province 
of Pesaro e Urbino has an area of 
1,144 square miles. Pop. 233,155. 

Pescherais, a tribe of Indians, in- 
habiting Tierra del Fuego, and both 
borders of the Straits of Magellan, 
from the island of Elizabeth and Port 
Famine, toward the E. as far as the 
group of islands which spread out to 
the N. and S. of the Straits of Magel- 
lan. Their complexion is olive, and 
they have huge forms and large chests, 
though otherwise well formed. They 
are a nomadic people, and only sub- 
sist by the chase and fishing. 

Pescliito, or Peshito, the old Syr- 
iac version' of the Scriptures, made 
probably about 200 A. D. The Old 
Testament, as well as the New, seems 
to have been translated by one or 
more Christians, not by Jews. The 
former was made apparently from the 
Hebrew, the latter from the Greek. 
The Second and Third Epistles of 
John, Second Epistle of Peter, Jude, 
and the Revelation are wanting. The 
apocryphal books were not in the orig- 
inal edition, but they were added at 
an early date. The Peschito is of 
great value for critical purposes. 



Peseta, the Spanish money unit, 
equivalent to a franc. 

Peso, a silver coin and money of 
account used in Mexico and other 
parts of Spanish America, and often 
considered equivalent to a dollar. 

Pessimism, that mental attitude 
which induces one to give prepondera- 
ting importance to the evils and sor- 
rows of existence ; the habit of taking 
a gloomy view of things. 

Pestalozzi, Jonann Heinrich, a 
Swiss philanthropist and educational 
reformer ; born in 1746 ; first studied 
theology, then law ; and subsequently 
became concerned in a calico manu- 
factory. Afterward he devoted his 
time and substance to training chil- 
dren whom he collected in large num- 
bers in his own house, and this good 
work he carried on for over 20 years 
without outside aid or e%'en sympathy. 
The want of means at last compelled 
him to abandon his gratuitous insti- 
tution, and to seek pupils who could 
pay for their maintenance and in- 
struction. After a few years' suc- 
cessful teaching in various places he 
opened a school in the Castle of Yver- 
dun (canton Vaud), which the govern- 
ment had placed at his disposal. His 
novel "Lienhardt and Gertrud" exert- 
ed a powerful moral influence, while 
his educational treatises have laid the 
foundation for the more rational sys- 
tem of elementary instruction which 
now obtains in America and Europe. 
He died in 1827. 

Peter, the Greek surname of an 
apostle of Jesus. It is the rendering 
of the East Aramsean kepha, a cor- 
ruption or derivation from Heb. keph 
~ a rock, and was given by Jesus. 
Transliterated into Greek, with a ter- 
mination, it became Kephas. ' Peter's 
real name was Simon, his father's Jo- 
nas, his brother's Andrew. Peter was 
of an impulsive temperament, gener- 
ous, but too forward in speech, and 
rash in action. After the Ascension, 
he was for a time the most prominent 
of the apostles, and though specially 
sent to the Jews, yet had the privilege 
of being the first to admit Gentiles in- 
to the Church. Afterward he was 
somewhat cast into the shade by the 
eminence of St. Paul and on one oc- 
casion dissembling his liberal views 
when in narrow Judaic company, was 



Peter 

withstood by St. Paul to the face 
" because he was to be blamed " (Gal. 
ii : 11). Tradition makes him die as 
a martyr at Rome, about A. D. 64, 
crucified with his head downward. 
Roman Catholics claim him as the first 
Bishop of Rome, and consider that 
the authority delegated him by Jesus 
appertains also to his successors, the 
Popes of Rome. 

The First Epistle General of Peter, 
an epistle which claims to have been 
written by the Apostle Peter, appar- 
ently from Babylon, " to the strangers 
scattered throughout Pontus, Gala- 
tia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia," 
all places in Asia Minor. These 
strangers were obviously Christian 
converts, the majority apparently Gen- 
tiles. There is strong evidence for its 
authenticity, which has rarely been 
doubted. 

The Second Epistle of Peter, anoth- 
er epistle claiming to have been penned 
by the Apostle, the author also refer- 
ring to the transfiguration scene as 
one which he personally witnessed, 
and to a previous epistle. In this sec- 
ond letter he seeks to establish Chris- 
tians in the faith, warns them against 
false teachers, and predicts the gen- 
eral conflagration of the world. Its 
style is different from that of the first. 
The evidence for its authenticity is 
much less strong than that for the 
first epistle. Clement of Alexandria 
seems to have known it. It is not in 
the Peschito ; Cyprian ignored it ; Ori- 
gen and Eusebius placed it among the 
controverted writings, but it gradual- 
ly obtained acceptance before the close 
of the 4th century. 

Peter .Alexeievitch, usually 
styled Peter the Great, Czar of Rus- 
sia ; born in 1672; and in 1689 he 
obtained the sole authority, on the 
retirement of his brother Ivan, with 
whom he had been before associated 
in the government of the empire. Aft- 
er having suppressed a conspiracy of 
the Strelitz against his life, in which 
he displayed much personal courage, he 
traveled hi foreign countries, not 
in the character of czar, but as a 
member of an embassy. At Amster- 
dam he worked, incognito, in a ship- 
yard, and in the village of Saardam, 
where he caused himself to be enrolled 
among the workmen, under the name 
of Peter Michaeloff. Here he lived in 



Peter 

a little hut for seven weeks, made hia 
own bed, and prepared his own food, 
corresponded with his ministers at 
home, and labored at the same time 
in shipbuilding. Induced by his love 
for the sea, to accept the invitation of 
William III. to visit London, he spent 
some weeks there, keenly observing 
and learning all that he could of trade, 
manufactures and the arts. Having 
proceeded to Vienna, he there received 
intelligence of a new rebellion of the 
Strelitz, on which he returned home, 
crushed the insurrection, and visited 
the rebels with fearful severity. In 
1700 he entered upon a war with Swe- 
den, which lasted till 1721. He was 
defeated by his great rival, Charles 
XII., at the battle of Nar?a, and the 
war west on with various results till 

1709, when he completely defeated 
Charles at Pultowa. In the following 
year the Sultan declared war on him, 
and he narrowly escaped capture by 
the Turks in the campaign of 1711. 
This war ended in 1713. Not satis- 
fied with his immense power as czar, 
Peter had "suppressed the patriarchate, 
and made himself head of the Church 
as well as of the State. In 1703 he 
founded St. Petersburg, and began the 
fortifications of Cronstadt. Three 
years later he privately married Cath- 
erine, a girl of low origin and immoral 
character ; married her publicly in 

1710, and had her crowned in 1722. 
Peter extended the limits of the em- 
pire both in Europe and Asia ; changed 
the face of Russia by his zealous pro- 
motion of trade, navigation, manufac- 
tures, and education ; effected an im- 
mense change in the manners and cus- 
toms of the Russians ; and after the 
conclusion of peace with Sweden, re- 
ceived the title of Emjlfcror of all the 
Russias, and Father of his Country. 
Reforming others, he failed to reform 
himself, but remained to the last an 
ignorant, coarse, brutal savage, in- 
dulging in the lowest vices, and gloat- 
ing over scenes of cruel suffering. He 
would sometimes put his victims to 
the torture, play judge and execution- 
er, too, and, drunk with wine, strike 
off 20 heads in succession, proud of 
his horrid dexterity. His state policy 
has been adhered to by his succes- 
sors. Peter I. died in St. Peters- 
burg, after very severe suffering, Jan. 
28, 1725. 



Peter 



Peter the Hermit 



Peter III., Emperor of Russia ; the 
son of Anne, eldest daughter of Peter 
the Great ; born in 1728, and succeeded 
Elizabeth in 1761. He married the 
Princess Sophia Augusta of Anhalt, 
whose name he changed to Catherine, 
and, being inspired with grand and 
martial thoughts, attempted to gov- 
ern his empire on the model of Fred- 
erick the Great ; but, wanting capac- 
ity, energy, and courage, he signally 
failed in all his schemes. His em- 
press, being apprised of his intention 
of divorcing "her, anticipated his de- 
sign, took him prisoner, and com- 
pelled him to sign an abdication. 
After this, being sent to a fortress, 
he there perished, being muriered, 
it is understood, by Orloff in 1762. 
Peterboro, city and capital of 
Peterboro county, Ontario, Canada; 
on the Otonabee river and Grand 
Trunk and Canadian Pacific rail- 
roads; 76 miles N. E. of Toronto; is 
the trade center of an important 
farming section; has what is said to 
be the largest hydraulic -lift canal 
lock in the world; and is chiefly en- 
gaged in manufacturing. 

Peter Karageorgevitch I., King 
of Servia; born in Belgrade, June 29 
(O. S.), 1844; son of Alexander 
Karageorgevitch and grandson of the 
famous George Czerny, surnamed 
Karageorge, or Black George; mar- 
ried Princess Zorka, of Montenegro, 
July 30 (O. S.), 1883; succeeded to 
the throne on the assassination of 
King Alexander I and Queen Draga, 
June 2 (O. S.), 1903; heir to the 
throne, Prince Alexander. 

Peter Martyr Anglerins, born in 
'Arena, Spain^Jj.459 ; died in Granada, 
1525. Was bishop of Jamaica, and 
wrote "The New World" in 1516, 
giving the first account of the dis- 
covery of America. 

Peters, Samuel Andrew, an 
American author; born in Hebron, 
Conn., in 1735 ; was ordained a min- 
ister in the Church of England at 
Part^ord in 1760. In 1774 he sailed 
to England to escape persecution on 
account of his toryism, and in 1781 
published the satirical " General His- 
tory of Connecticut," which gave rise 
to the misconception as to " Blue 
Laws," which were in the brain of 
Peters instead of having ever been 



on the statute books qf Connecticut. 
He died in New York in 1826. 

Petersburg, a city and port of 
entry of Dinwiddie co., Va. ; on the 
S. bank of the Appomattox river. The 
so-called siege of Petersburg lasted 
from June 16, 1864, to April 2, 1865 ; 
and during its continuance 13 pitched 
battles were fought in the neighbor- 
hood. The intrenchments of Lee and 
Grant still form conspicuous features 
in the landscape. One. of the best- 
known engagements was that of the 
old .crater, to the E. of the city, on 
Griffith's farm, where there is a war 
museum. Pop. (1910) 24,127. 

Peterson, Charles Jacobs, an 
American publisher ; born in Philadel- 
phia, in 1818 ; was the founder of 
" Peterson's Magazine," and the au- 
thor of several popular novels. He 
died in Philadelphia, in 1887. 

Peter's Pence, a voluntary contri- 
bution raised among Catholics, and 
sent to the Pope for his private use. 
Before the Reformation it was in Eng- 
land a legally collected tax. The name 
arose from its being collected on St. 
Peter's day. 

Peter the Hermit, a French 
gentleman of Amiens, in Picardy, who 
renounced a military life to embrace 
that of a pilgrim. At the end of the 
llth century, a general alarm was 
spread that the last day was approach- 
ing ; on which numbers of persons 
flocked to the Holy Land from all 
countries with a view of ending their 
days near the holy sepulcher. Peter 
was of the number, and on his return 
to Europe made so pathetic a repre- 
sentation of the state of the Christians 
in Palestine to Pope Urban II., that 
he gave Peter leave to preach up the 
necessity of a crusade throughout 
Christendom. The appearance, zeal, 
and eloquence of the hermit, produced 
a prodigious effect, and all ranks and 
ages, of both sexes, pressed eagerly 
into the service. With a motley army, 
estimated at 100,000 men, Peter passed 
through Hungary. In his absence, his 
followers attacked Solyman's army at 
Nicea, and all, except a few thou- 
sands, perished, " and," says Gibbon, 
" a pyramid of bones informed their 
companions of the place of their de- 
feat." Peter remained in Palestine, 
and was at the siege of Antioch in 



Peter Parley 

1097 ; but on his attempting to make 
his escape, shortly afterward, was 
brought back, and compelled to take 
a new oath of fidelity and obedience 
to the holy cause. Two years later 
he was present at the siege of Jerusa- 
lem, where he displayed great bravery, 
and when the place _was taken,, was 
made vicar-general. Peter died in 
1115, at the abbey of Neufmoustier in 
Liege, which he had founded. 

Peter Parley. See GOODBICH. 

Petit de Julleville, Louis, a 
French historian; born in Paris, July 
18, 1841. His principal work is " His- 
tory of the Theater in France." It is 
very full with regard to the old French 
theater. He gives in " The Theater in 
France" (1889) an account of the 
evolution of the French drama down 
to the present time. He also pub- 
lished a " History of the French Lan- 
guage and Literature." 

Petition of Right, a declaration 
of the rights of the people put forward 
by the Parliament of England in the 
third year of the reign of Charles I., 
and assented to by him. They are : 

(1) That no man be compelled to pay 
any moneys to the state without com- 
mon consent by act of Parliament. 

(2) That no person be imprisoned for 
refusing the same, nor any freeman be 
imprisoned without any cause shown, 
to which he might make answer. (3) 
That soldiers and mariners be not bil- 
leted in the houses of the people. (4) 
That commissions be no more issued 
for punishing by the summary process 
of martial law. 

Petrarch, Francesco Petrarca, 
an Italian poet ; born in Arezzo, Italy, 
in 1304. In 1341 Petrarch received 
the highest testimony of the renown 
which he had acquired as poet and 
scholar, by being crowned as laureate 
in the Capitol in Rome, Petrarch was 
at Rome during the Jubilee of 1350 ; 
lived afterward at Vaucluse, Milan, 
Padua, Venice, and, in 1370, removed 
to Arqua, in the lovely Euganean 
Hills. Petrarch's works are partly in 
Italian and partly in Latin. The lat- 
ter were those on which his reputa- 
tion in his own day rested ; but the 
former are those by which he is now 
most known. His Italian " Sonnets," 
" Canzoni," and " Triumphs," all 
sweet, exquisite, glowing variations on 
one theme, " Laura," have placed him 

E. 110. 



Petri 

as one of the most celebrated of poets. 
He modelled the Italian sonnet, and 
gave to it, and to other forms of lyr- 
ical poetry, not only an admirable 
polish of diction and melody, but a 
delicacy of poetic feeling which: has 
hardly ever been equaled. After long 
continued ill health, he died sitting 
among his books, July 18, 1374. 

Petrel, a popular name for certain 
small oceanic birds of dusky plumage, 
nocturnal in habit, widely distributed 
but most abundant in the Southern 




STOKMY PETBEL. 

Hemisphere. The term stormy petrel 
is more exclusively applied to the 
Thalassidroma pelagica, a bird which 
seems to run in a remarkable manner 
along the surface of the sea, where it 
picks up its food. This species is well 
known to sailors as Mother Carey's 
chickens (q. v.), and their appearance 
is supposed to foretell a storm. 

Petri, Laurentius, a Swedish re- 
former; born in Orebro, Sweden, in 
1499; studied under Luther at Wit- 
tenberg ; was made Professor of Theol- 
ogy at Upsala, and in 1531 first Prot- 
estant Archbishop of Upsala. Along 
with his brother Olaus he was chiefly 
instrumental in converting Sweden _to 
the Reformed doctrines, and with him 
superintended the translation of the 
Bible into Swedish (1541), a work 
that also helped to fix the language. 
He died in 1573. His brother Olaus, 



Petrifaction 

born in Orebro in 1497, gained, a 
few years after his return (1519) 
from Wittenberg, the ear of Gustavus 
Vasa, who called him to the capital to 
preach the new doctrines, and even- 
tually made him (1531) chancellor of 
the kingdom. This post he resigned 
in 1539, and spent the rest of his life 
as first pastor of Stockholm. He was 
a man of bold temperament, great ac- 
tivity, and powerful eloquence, and 
left several works, including memoirs, 
a mystery play, hymns, and contro- 
versial tracts. He died in Stockholm 
in 1552. 

Petrifaction, the act or process of 
petrifying or changing into a stone ; 
the state of being petrified ; conversion 
of any organic matter, animal or vege- 
table, into stone, or a substance of 
stony hardness. A " petrifaction " is 
not, strictly speaking, a transforma- 
tion of the original animal or plant 
into stone. It is merely a replacement 
of the organic tissue by mineral sub- 
stance. As each particle of the plant 
or animal decays and disappears its 
place is taken, usually in water or 
mud, by a particle of mineral matter 
deposited from the water which has 
held it in suspension. Thus the perish- 
able original is changed into imperish- 
able stone, preserving its form and 
even its structural appearance when 
cut into. 

Petrified City, Ishmonie, a ruined 
city of Upper Egypt. Its popular 
name arose from the fact that it con- 
tains a vast number of statues of 
human beings and animals in every 
possible posture, and which, according 
to a superstitious notion, were once 
living beings miraculously changed 
into stone. 

Petroleum, earth oil, naphtha, 
mineral oil, paraffin oil. A term ap- 
plied to a variety of inflammable 
liquids found naturally in many parts 
of the earth and formed by the grad- 
ual decomposition of vegetable matter 
beneath the surface. These liquids 
vary in color from a faint yellow to a 
brownish-black, and in consistence 
from a thin transparent oil to a fluid 
as thick as treacle, and their sp. gr. 
ranges from .7-1.1. They occur in 
abundance in parts of the United 
States and Canada. A light petroleum 
oil is used all over the world for illu- 
minating purposes, and a heavy oil for 



Peyton 

lubricating machinery. The total pro- 
duction of crude petroleum in the 
United States in 1908 was the largest 
in its history, 179,572,479 barrels 
(42 gallons), valued at $129,706,258; 
and the production in 1859-1908 
Avas 1,986,180,942 barrels, valued at 
$1,784,583,943. 

Petrology, the study of the miner- 
alogical and chemical composition of 
rocks; including the various changes 
they have undergone through physi- 
cal and chemical agencies. 

Pettenkof er, Max von, a German 
chemist ; born near Neuburg, Dec. 3, 
1818; studied in Munich, Wurzburg, 
and Giessen, and in 1847 became Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry at Munich. He 
made many valuable contributions to 
science on subjects as various as gold- 
refining, gas-making, ventilation, cloth- 
ing, the influence of soils on health, 
epidemics, and hygiene generally. His 
"Hand-book of Hygiene" is his best 
known work. Died 1901. 

Petty, Sir William, an English 
political economist ; born in Romsey, 
Hampshire, May 26, 1623; was edu- 
cated partly at Caen, partly at the 
Universities of the Netherlands, and 
at Paris. In political economy he 
claims a place as one of the most im- 
portant precursors of Adam Smith, 
on the strength of his " Treatise on 
Taxes and Contributions," and his 
" Political Arithmetic," the latter a 
discussion of the value of comparative 
statistics. He died hi London, Dec. 
16, 1687. 

Petunia, a genus of American 
herbaceous plants, nearly allied to to- 
bacco. They are much prized by hor- 
ticulturists for the beauty of their 
flowers. 

Pewter. The finer pewter is an 
alloy of 12 parts tin, one part anti- 
mony, and a small quantity of copper ; 
the coarser, of 80 parts tin and 20 of 
lead. The same ingredients as the finer 
pewter, but in different proportions 
(nine of tin to one of antimony) con- 
stitute Britannia metal. Pewter is a 
name also for a polishing material 
used by marble workers and derived 
from the calcination of tin. 

Peyton, Jesse Eiilaws, an Ameri- 
can patriot; born in Mayesville, Ky., 
Nov. 10, 1815. He assisted in the 
liquidation of Henry Clay's debts; 



Peyton 

was a founder of the Constitutional 
Union Party in 1800; was sent by 
President Lincoln on a mission to 
Kentucky to dissuade that State from 
seceding ; and during the Civil War 
organized at his own expense three 
regimentc for the Union army. He 
was instrumental in promoting the 
centennial celebration of Independ- 
ence Day, Bunker Hill Day, Yorktown 
(Va.) Day, and of the inauguration 
of American constitutional govern- 
ment, and at the time of his death was 
organizing an international celebra- 
tion of ihe birth of Christ to be held 
in Jerusalem in 1900. He died in 
Haddonfield, N. J., April 28, 1897. H 
was popularly known as " the father 
of celebrations." 

Peyton, John Lewis, an American 
lawyer and author ; born in Staunton, 
Va., Sept. 15, 1824; studied law at 
the University of Virginia, and sub- 
sequently practised in Chicago; in 
1861 went to Europe as agent of the 
Confederacy, and remained abroad till 
1880. He published " The American 
Crisis," etc. He died in 1896. 

Pfennig, a small copper coin ot 
various values, current in Germany 
and in the neighboring States. The 
value of the pfennig of the German 
empire is the hundredth part of the 
mark. 

Pfleiderer, Otto, a German theo- 
logian; born in Stettin, Wurtemberg, 
Sept. 1, 1839. In 1875 he was called 
to be Professor of Systematic Theology 
at Berlin. He made his name as well 
known in America as in Germany by 
a series of works which no student 
of philosophy or theology should 
overlook. The chief are " Religion, 
its Essence and History"; "Out- 
lint of Christian Faith and Ethics"; 
" The Philosophy and Development 
of Religion"; etc. He died in 1908. 

His brother, EDMUND PFLEIDERER, 
born in Stettin Oct. 12, 1842, studied 
at Tubingen, and after a short ex- 
perience as a pastor was made Pro- 
fessor of Philosophy at Kiel in 1873. 
whence he was called to Tubingen in 
1878. His writings include studies on 
Leibnitz, on Empiricism and Scepti- 
cism in Hume's Philosophy, modern 
Pessimism, etc. 

Phaeton, in Greek mythology, ac- 
cording to Ovid, a son of the sun, or 
Phoebus. He asked and obtained from 



Pharaoh 

his father permission one day to drive 
the chariot of the sun, but being un- 
able to control the horses, Jupiter 
struck him with a thunderbolt, and 
hurled him headlong from heaven into 
the river Po. Also an open carriage 
like a chaise, on four wheels, and 
drawn by two horses. 

Phalanger, small woolly-coated 
marsupials, with opposable great toes, 
which are destitute of a nail. They are, 
for the most part, vegetable feeders, 




PHALANGER. 

though some are insectivorous, and in 
confinement any of them will readily 
devour small birds or other animals. 

Phalanx, in Greek antiquities, the 
close order of battle in which the 
heavy-armed troops of a Grecian army 
were usually drawn up. 

Phantasmagoria, an optical effect 
produced by a magic lantern. The 
glass is painted black on all parts 
except that occupied by the figures, 
which are painted in transparent 
colors. The image is thrown on a 
transparent screen placed between the 
spectators and the lantern. By mov- 
ing the instrument toward or from 
the screen, the figures are made to 
diminish or increase in size, which is 
capable of producing startling effects. 
Also, the apparatus by which such 
effect is produced. 

Pharaoh, the name borne in the 
Bible by 10 kings of Egypt; the best 
known of which are, the monarch to 
whom Joseph explained his dream, and 
who loaded him with honors ; he who 
commenced the persecution of the 
Hebrews, and who put to death all 



Pharisees 

the male children and who is identified 
with Rameses II ; and he who was 
denounced by Moses, and who was 
subjected to the plagues and is identi- 
fied with Meneptah I. 

Pharisees, the most numerous of the 
three divisions or orders of Judaism in 
the time of Christ, the other two being 
the Essenes and the Sadducees. They 
were so called because they kept aloof 
from Levitically impure food, separat 
etl themselves nom people who disre- 
garded the literal interpretation of the 
Mosaic law, and were scrupulous in 
their minute observance of the tithe. 
The sect arose after the captivity and 
became the straitest of the sects. 

Pharmacy, or Pharmaceutics, 
the art of preparing, compounding, 
and combining substances for medical 
purposes ; the art of the apothecary. 
As these substances may be mineral, 
vegetable, or animal, theoretical phar- 
macy requires a knowledge of botany, 
zoology, and mineralogy ; and as it is 
necessary to determine their proper- 
ties, and the laws of their composition 
and decomposition, of chemistry also. 
In a narrow sense pharmacy is merely 
the art of compounding and mixing 
drugs according to the prescription of 
the physician. 

Pharsalia, Battle of, the victory 
B. c. 48, of Caesar with a much smaller 
force, over Pompey (q. v.) at Pharsa- 
lus, now Phersala, Tbessaly, Greece. 




PHEASANT. 



Pheasant, one of the most highly 
prized game birds. The adult male 
pheasant is a beautiful bird, about 
three feet long. Head and neck deep 



Phi Beta Kappa 

steel-blue, shot with greenish-purple 
and brown ; eye surrounded by a patch 
of scarlet skin, speckled with blue- 
black ; ear-coverts brown ; back a light 
golden-red, the feathers of the upper 
part tipped with velvet-black, of the 
lower part marked with brown. Quill 
feathers brown, of various shades, tail 
feathers oaken-brown, barred with a 
darker shade- and with black. Breast 
and front of the abdomen golden-red 
with purple reflections, feathers edged 
with black ; rest of abdomen and un- 
der tail-coverts blackish-brown. The 
female has yellowish-brown plumage, 
and is about two- feet in length. Such 
'is the common pheasant. There are 
several other species. 

Phelps, Austin, an American 
clergyman and author; born in West 
Brookfield, Mass., Jan. 7, 1820. Ho 
was pastor of the Pine Street Congre- 
gational Church, Boston, in 1842- 
1848; and Professor of Sacred Rhet- 
oric in Andover Theological Seminary, 
in 1848-1879. He was noted as an 
original writer and an eloquent 
preacher. He died in Bar Harbor, Me., 
Oct. 13, 1890. 

Phelps, Edward John, an Ameri- 
can diplomatist ; born in Middlebury, 
Vt., July 11, 1822; was graduated at 
Middlebury College in 1840; studied 
at the Yale Law School ; was admit- 
ted to the bar in 1843; and settled 
in Burlington in 1845. In 1551 he was 
appointed Comptroller of the Treas- 
ary and remained in the office through 
Fillmore's administration. In 1881 
1885 he was Professor of Law in the 
Yale Law School and also lecturer en 
constitutional law in Boston Univer- 
sity. He was minister to England in 
1885-1889. During the Bering Sea 
dispute he. was senior counsel for the 
United States. He died in New Haven, 
Conn., March 9, 1900. 

Phi Beta Kappa, the oldest of the 
American college Greek-letter societies. 
It takes its name from the initial jet- 
ters of its motto, said to be Philo- 
sophia Biou Kubernetes, " Philosophy 
is the guide of life." It was founded 
in 1776 in the old " Raleigh Tavern " 
at Williamsburgh, Va., by 44 under- 
graduates of William and Mary Col- 
lege, of whom John Marshall was one. 
Branches were established at Yale in 
1780 and at Harvard in 1781; and 
today there are nearly a score in the 



Phidias 



Philadelphia 



principal colleges and universities of 
the Union. The Phi Beta Kappa is 
now simply " an agreeable bond of 
meeting among graduates " ; since 
1831 its innocent mysteries have been 
open secrets. 

Phidias, the great Greek sculptor; 
I born in Athens, probably between 
490-480 B. c. He was one of the most 
intimate friends of Pericles, under 
whose rule he was appointed director 
of all the great temples and monu- 
ments which were to be erected in the 
city. Of these the most important 
were the Parthenon, or temple of 
Athena, on. the Acropolis, and the 
Propylaea. He executed a colossal 
statue of the goddess for the interior 
of the temple with his own hand. The 
well-known Elgin Marbles of the Brit- 
ish Museum were the sculptured dec- 
orations of that unrivaled temple. 
Phidias spent some years at Olympia, 
and there he executed the most mag- 
nificent of all his works the statue 
of the Olympian Zeus. The prevailing 
characteristic of the works of Phidias 
appears to have been an ideal sublim- 
ity of form which has never since 
been equaled. According to the gen- 
erally received account, he was thrown 
into prison, and died there 432 B. C. 

Philadelphia, a city coextensive 
with Philadelphia co., Pa. ; on the 
Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, 85 
miles S. W. of New York. It is the 
largest city of Pennsylvania and the 
third largest in the United States; 
area, 132 square miles: pop. (1900) 
1.293,697; (1910) 1,549,008. 

The city is built chiefly on a low 
peninsula between the two rivers. It 
extends N. and S. about 22 miles, and 
is from 5 to 10 miles in width. There 
is a water frontage on the Delaware 
river of over 16 miles, of which more 
than 5 miles have docks. The harbor 
has been greatly improved by the re- 
moval of the islands in the middle of 
the river, and in front of the wharves 
there is an average depth of 50 feet. 

Among the attractions of the city 
is Fairmount park, one of the larg- 
est public parks in the world. It 
extends more than 7 miles on both 
banks of the Schuylkill river, and more 
than 6 miles on both banks of Wis- 
sahickon creek, giving it an area of 
over 3,000 acres, traversed by 32% 
miles of driveways. In 1876 the Cen- 



tennial Exposition was held here. 
Memorial Hall, erected at a cost of 
$1,500,000, which was used for the 
art gallery of the Exposition, now 
contains a permanent industrial and 
art collection. Here also is the Hor- 
ticultural Building filled with tropical 
and other plants and surrounded by 35 
acres of ground devoted to horticul- 
ture. 

In the heart of the city, at the inter- 
section of Market and Broad streets, 
stands the City Hall, on a piece of 
ground which was formerly Penn 
Square. This great structure, usually 
called the Public Building, is said to 
be the largest building in the United 
States. It is built of white marble 
and granite ; is 480^ feet long by 470 
wide ; contains 520 rooms, and includ- 
ing a court yard 200 feet square in 
the center, covers an area of nearly 
4% acres. The central tower rises to 
a height of 547 feet, 3 inches, and is 
surrounded by a colossal statue of 
William Penn, 37 feet in height. The 
total cost of the building was over 
$20,000,000. 

In its manufacturing products Phil- 
adelphia ranks next to New York. 
There are upward of 20,000 manufac- 
turing establishments, with a combined 
capital of about $400,000,000, and 
nearly 300,000 employes. The com- 
bined output amounts to more than 
$000,000,000. The chief products are 
locomotives, sugar and molasses, men's 
clothing, foundry and machine shop 
products, carpets and rugs, hosiery 
and knit goods, woolen and cotton 
goods, malt liquors, morocco, chem- 
icals, packed meat, refined petroleum, 
silk, and silk goods. The great 
Cramp shipbuilding yards are on the 
Delaware, just W. of the heart of the 
city. 

According to recent educational sta- 
tistics, the children of school age aggre- 
gated 250,630; the enrollment in the 
public day schools was 179,156, and 
in the private and parochial schools 
(estimated) 78,210. There were 3,317 
teachers ; 325 buildings used for school 
purposes ; and public school property 
valued at $12,087,516. The institutions 
for higher education include the Will- 
iam Penn Charter School, founded in 
1689 ; the University of Pennsylvania, 
and many others. 

In September, 1681, a small party 
of settlers, sent out by William Penn, 



Philadelphia 



Philip 



arrived at the site of the present city, 
and in the following summer the place 
was laid out and named Philadelphia, 
the " city of brotherly love." The city 
was active in resisting British aggres- 
sion in 1763-17G4. On Sept. 5, 1774, 
the 1st Continental Congress met here, 
and on May 10, 1775, the 2d. Col. 
George Washington was appointed 
General and Commander-in-Chief of 
the American army in the State House 
on June 15, 1775, Here also the Dec- 
laration of Independence was adopted, 
July 4, and proclaimed July 8, 1776. 
The city was occupied by the British 
from September, 1777, to June, 1778. 
In the summer of 1787 delegates from 
the various States met in the State 
House, and framed the Constitution. 
The great Centennial Exposition was 
held here in 1876. 

Philadelphia, The, a steel, twin- 
screw protected cruiser of the United 
States navy. 

Philse, an island in the Nile, near 
Assouan and S. of Syene, in Nubia, 
largely submerged by the great Assouan 
dam. It is a small granite rock, 
fringed with rich verdure, about 1,200 
feet long and 450 broad, almost cov- 
ered with ancient buildings of great 
architectural beauty and interest, 
dating 1 from about B. O. 350. 

Philemon, a member of the Colos- 
sian church. The Epistle of Paul to 
Philemon : An epistle of Paul, in con- 
junction with Timothy, to Philemon, 
whose runaway slave, Onesimus, had 
come to Rome, and been converted by 
the apostles, while the latter . was a 
prisoner, and advanced in years. Its 
genuineness is generally admitted. 

Philip, one of the 12 apostles, 
according to John's Gospel, " of Beth- 
eaida, the city of Andrew and Peter," 
and who was called to follow Jesus 
at Bethany. After the resurrection 
he was present at the election of Mat- 
thias to the apostleship, but is not 
again mentioned. Philip the Evan- 
gelist, often confounded with the 
above, is first mentioned in Acts vi : 5. 
He preached at Samaria, where Simon 
Magus was one of his converts ; bap- 
tized the Ethiopian eunuch ; and en- 
tertained Paul and his companion on 
their way to Jerusalem. 

Philip II. of Macedonia, father 
of Alexander the Great, and son of 



Amynthas II. ; born 359 B. c. He be- 
gan to reign after the death of his 
brother, Perdiccas III., in 359. With 
great ability, energy, and success, he 
first secured the internal peace and 
order of his kingdom, improved the 
discipline of his army, and created the 
famous phalanx, which contributed to 
so many Macedonian victories. He 
cherished vast schemes of conquest ; 
aspired first to make himself master 
of all the states of Greece, and then 
to invade and conquer Persia. The 
former was accomplished after a severe 
and protracted struggle culminating in 
the victory of Chseronea, over the 
allied Athenians and Thebans, 338. 
He soon after assembled a congress 
at Corinth, and was named general of 
the Confederate Greeks in the war to 
be undertaken against Persia. But in 
336 he was assassinated at JEgea, and 
that war was reserved for his son. 

Philip II. of France, surnamed 
Augustus, son of Louis VII. and oi! 
Alix, daughter of Thibault, Count of 
Champagne ; born in 1165, succeeded 
his father, 1180, accompanied Richard 
Coeur de Lion to the Holy Land, 1190, 
invaded Normandy during Richard's 
captivity, 1193, confiscated the pos- 
sessions of King John in France, after 
the supposed murder of Arthur, 1203, 
prepared to invade England at the in- 
stance of the Pope, 1213, turned his 
arms against Flanders, and gained 
the celebrated battle of Bouvines, 
1214, and died in 1223. Philip Augus- 
tus was one of the ablest princes that 
ever reigned in France, both as a 
commander and an administrator. 

Philip III., called the Hardy, the 
son of Louis IX. and Margaret of 
Provence. He was born in 1245, and 
succeeded his father in 1270. The in- 
vasion of Sicily by Peter of Aragon, 
and the massacre of the French, 
known as the " Sicilian Vespers, 
caused him to make war against that 
prince, in the course of which he died 
in 1285. 

Philip II. of Spain, son of the 
emperor Charles V. and Elizabeth of 
Portugal ; born in Valladolid, in 1527. 
He married, in 1543, his cousin Mary 
of Portugal, who became the mother 
of Don Carlos, and died in 1545. In 
1554 he received from his father the 
kingdom of Naples, and the same year, 
after troublesome negotiations, mar' 



PMlip 

riecf Mary, Queen of England. He 
was disliked in England, and soon 
departed. His father gave up to him 
the Netherlands in October, 1555, and 
the kingdom of Spain early in the fol- 
lowing year. He declared war on 
France, and induced Queen Mary to 
join him ; won, by his troops under the 
Duke of Savoy, the memorable victory 
of St. Quentin over the French, in 
1557, and was present in person at the 
capture of the town, which followed. 
He vowed never to witness another 
battle, and he never did. He vowed 
also to show his gratitude for his suc- 
cess by building a monastery, which 
he more than fulfilled in the magnifi- 
cent Escurial. A second victory over 
the French at Gravelines, in 1558, was 
followed by rfce peace of Cateau-Cam- 
bresis. Immediately on his return to 
Spain, he began a terrible persecution 
of " heretics," and was the pitiless 
spectator at an auto-da-fe at which 40 
persons perished at the stake. 

The most momentous event of his 
reign was the revolt of the Nether- 
lands, first excited by his edict against 
heretics, and his attempt to establish 
the Inquisition there in 1565, and re- 
sulting, after long years of war and 
desolation, in the establishment of the 
Dutch Republic. In 1565, he persecut- 
ed the Christian Moors of Granada, 
and provoked a revolt, which began 
in 1569; and after the greatest atroc- 
ities on both sides, ended by the flight 
or submission of the Moors in 1571. 
On the death of Henry, King of Por- 
tugal, in 1580, Philip conquered that 
country and annexed it to Spain. He 
made immense preparations for an in- 
vasion of England ; and in 1588. the 
year after Drake's attack on Cadiz, 
his great fleet, which he named " the 
Invincible Armada," sailed from Lis- 
bon ; but a great storm and contrary 
winds damaged and threw it into dis- 
order, and it was defeated by the Eng- 
lish. Philip carried on intrigues in 
France against Henry II. and Henry 
IV. ; but his aim was defeated by the 
conversion of the latter to the Roman 
faith. He lived to see the failure of 
his designs on the Netherlands, on 
France, and on England. It was Philip 
II. who removed the seat of govern- 
ment from Toledo, and made Madrid 
the capital of Spain. He died at the 
Eecurial, after severe suffering, the 



Pliilippian 

fruit of his debaucheries, Sept. 13, 
1598. 

Philip, sachem of the Wampanoag 
tribe of Indians, was the second son 
of Massasoit, who for nearly 40 years 
had been the first and staunchest ally 
of the Pilgrim settlers of Plymouth, 
and had obtained English names for 
his two sons. In 1661 Philip succeed- 
ed his brother, and formally renewed 
the treaties of his father, which he 
kept for some years. By 1671, however, 
goaded by the encroachments of the 
whites he had formed a confederation 
of tribes aggregating nearly 10,000 
warriors ; and in 1675 what is known 
as King Philip's War broke out. Aug. 
12, 1676, at midnight, Philip and his 
followers were surprised by Capt. 
Benjamin Church. Philip was slain 
and his head cut off. Afterward his 
body was drawn and quartered, and 
the head was exposed on a gibbet at 
Plymouth. 

Philip, John Woodward, an 
American naval ofBcer; born in New 
York city, Aug. 26, 1840. He entered 
the naval academy in 1856, was made 
midshipman in 1861, and served dur- 
ing the Civil War on the " Chippewa," 
the monitor "Montauk" and other ves- 
sels. He was commissioned captain in 
1899, and was the inspector of the 
" New York " during construction. 
During the war with Spain he com- 
manded the battleship " Texas," which 
took an active part in the capture of 
the Spanish fleet under Cervera, at 
Santiago de Cuba, Jul? 3, 1898. He 
was promoted to rear-admiral and 
made commandant of the Brooklyn 
Navy Yard, N. Y. Died 1900. 

Philipena or Filopena. See 
FlLLIPEEN. 

Philippi, a city of Macedonia; 
named after Philip II. of Macedon, 
who enlarged it because of the gold 
mines in its neighborhood. It is fa- 
mous on account of the two battles 
fought in 42 B. c. between Antony and 
Octavianus on the one side and the re- 
publicans under Brutus and Cassius 
on the other, in the second of which 
the republic finally perished. The 
apostle Paul founded a Christian 
church here, to which one of his epis- 
tles is addressed. 

PMlippian, of or pertaining to 
Philippi or its inhabitants ; also a na- 



Philippine Islands 



Philippine Islands 



tive or inhabitant of Philippi. The 
Epistle of Paul the apostle to the 
Philippians, an epistle addressed by 
St. Paul, in conjunction with Tim- 
othy, " to all the saints in Christ 
Jesus which are at Philippi, with the 
bishop and deacons." 

Philippine Islands, an archipel- 
ago in the Pacific Ocean ; extending 
almost due N. and S. from Formosa 
to Borneo and the Moluccas, compris- 
ing more than 1,700 islands, of which 
the two largest are Luzon and Min- 
danao ; area, about 122,000 square 
miles; pop. (1903) 7,635,426. The 
archipelago was ceded by Spain to the 
United States as a result of the war of 
1898, the United States government 
making a payment of $20,000,000 to 
Spain, and subsequently $100,000 for 
the cession of the islands of Cagayan 
and Sibutu which were omitted in 
the treaty of peace. 

The following, taken from the of- 
ficial report by Maj. Gen. Francis V. 
Greene, U. S. V., sets forth the con- 
ditions and interests of the islands at 
the time of the American occupation : 
44 These islands, including the La- 
drones, Carolines, and Palaos, which 
are all under the government of Ma- 
nila, are variously estimated at from 
1,200 to 1,800 in number. The greater 
portion are small and are of no value. 
The important islands are less than a 
dozen in number. 

The total population is somewhere 
between 7,000,000 and 9,000,000. This 
includes the wild tribes of the moun- 
tains of Luzon and of the islands in 
the extreme South. 

In 1899 a census was taken by the 
United States authorities, chiefly for 
educational purposes, which showed a 
total of 6,709,810. The "Official 
Guide " gives a list of more than 30 
different races, each speaking a dif- 
ferent dialect, but five-sixths of the 
Christian population are either Taga- 
los or Visayas. The races are mostly of 
the Malay type. Around Manila there 
has been some mixture of Chinese 
and Spanish blood with that of the 
natives, resulting in the Mestizos, or 
half-breeds, but the number of these 
is not very great. As seen in the prov- 
inces of Cavite and Manila, the na- 
tives (Tagalos) are of small stature, 
averaging probably 5 feet 4 inches in 
height and 120 pounds in weight for, 



the women. Their skin is coppery 
brown, somewhat darker than that of 
a mulatto. They seem to be indus- 
trious and hard-working, though less 
so than the Chinese. The bulk of the 
population is engaged in agriculture. 

The climate is one of the best 
known in the tropics. The thermom- 
eter during July and August rarely 
went below 79 or above 85. The 
extreme ranges in a year are said to 
be 61 and 97. There are three well- 
marked seasons temperate and dry 
from November to February, hot and 
dry from March to May, and tem- 
perate and wet from June to October. 
The total rainfall has been as high as 
114 inches in one year. Yellow fever 
appears to be unknown. The diseases 
most fatal among the natives are 
cholera and smallpox, both of which 
are brought from China. 

It is now generally known that the 
Philippines have such minerals as 
iron, gold, silver, copper, lead, granite, 
petroleum, limestone, and quartz, and 
that it is only a matter of time when 
these minerals will be mined and put 
into the commercial markets of the 
world. 

Gold is reported on Luzon, coal and 
petroleum on Cebu and Iloilo and sul- 
phur on Leyte. The imports of coal 
in 1894 (the latest year for which 
statistics have been printed) were 
91,511 tons, and it came principally 
from Australia and Japan. In the 
same year the imports of iron of all 
kinds were 9,632 tons. If the Cebu 
coal proves to be of good quality, 
there is a large market for it in com- 
petition with coal from Japan and 
Australia. 

Though agriculture is the chier oc 
cupation of the Philippines, yet only 
one-ninth of the surface is under cul- 
tivation. The soil is very fertile, and 
even after deducting the mountainous 
areas it is probable that the area of 
cultivation can be very largely ex- 
tended and that the islands can sup* 
Sort a population equal to that of 
apan (42,000,000). Lack of irriga- 
tion prevents the development of ex- 
tensive tracts that could by a little 
enterprise be made very productive. 
The chief products are rice, corn, 
hemp, sugar, tobacco, cocoanuts, and 
cacao. Coffee and cotton were for* 
merly produced in large quantities 



Philippine Islands 



Philippine Islands 



the former for export and the latter 
for home consumption ; but the coffee 
plant has been almost exterminated by 
insects, and the home-made cotton 
cloths have been driven out by the 
competition of those imported from 
England. The rice and corn are prin- 
cipally produced in Luzon and Min- 
doro and are consumed in the islands. 
The rice crop is about 765,000 tons. 
It is insufficient for the demand and 
45,000 tons of rice were imported in 
1894; also 8,669 tons (say 60,000 
barrels) of flour, of which more than 
two-thirds came from China and less 
than one-third from the United States. 
The cacao raised in the S. islands 
amounts only to 150 tons, and is all 
made into chocolate and consumed in 
the islands. 

The sugar cane is raised in the 
Visayas. The crop yielded in 1894 
about 235,000 tons of raw sugar, of 
which one-tenth was consumed in the 
islands, and the balance, or 210,000 
tons, valued at $11,000,000, was ex- 
ported, the greater part to China, 
Great Britain, and Australia. The 
hemp is produced in S. Luzon, Min- 
doro, the Visayas, and Mindanao. It 
is nearly all exported in bales. In 
1894 the amount was 96,000 tons, 
valued at $12,000,000. Tobacco is 
raised in all the islands, but the best 
quality and greatest amount in Luzon. 
A large amount is consumed in the 
islands, smoking being universal 
among women as well as the men, but 
the best quality is exported. The 
amount in 1894 was 7,000 tons of leaf 
tobacco, valued at $1,750,000. Spain 
took 80 per cent, and Egypt 10 per 
cent, of the leaf tobacco. Of the manu- 
factured tobacco 70 per cent, goes to 
China and Singapore, 10 per cent to 
England, and 5 per cent, to Spain. 

Cattle, goats, and sheep have been 
introduced from Spain, but they are 
not numerous. Domestic pigs and 
chickens are seen everywhere in the 
farming districts. The principal beast 
of burden is the carabao, or water 
buffalo, which is used for plowing rice 
fields as well as drawing heavy loads 
on sledges or on carts. Large horses 
are almost unknown, but there are 
great numbers of native ponies from 9 
to 12 hands high, possessing strength 
and endurance far beyond their size. 

With the construction of railways 
in the interior of Luzon an enormous 



extension could be given to commerce, 
nearly all of which would come to the 
United States. Manila cigars of the 
best quality are unknown in America. 
They are but little inferior to the best 
of Cuba and cost only one-third a 
much. The coffee industry can be re- 
vived and the sugar industry extended,, 
mainly for consumption in the far 
East. The mineral resources can be 
explored with American energy, and 
there is every reason to believe that 
when this is done the deposits of coal, 
iron, gold, and lead will be found very 
valuable. On the other hand, we ought 
to be able to secure the greater part 
of the trade which now goes to Spain 
in textile fabrics, and a considerable 
portion of that with England in the 
same goods and in iron, . 

On Jan. 17, 1899, President Me- 
Kinley appointed a commission con- 
sisting of Jacob G. Schurman, Ad- 
miral George Dewey, Maj.-Gen. Elwell 
S. Otis, Col. Charles Denby, and Dean 
S. Worcester, to report on the affairs 
of the Philippine islands. The report 
of this commission was sent to Con- 
gress in February, 1900. It stated the 
impossibility of withdrawing the pro- 
tection and government of the United 
States from the islands ; and recom- 
mended the establishment of public 
schools ; and, as far as possible, a civil 
government to replace the military. It 
also assured Congress of the willing- 
ness of the representative body of the 
population to accept the protection, 
guidance, and authority of the United 
States. On April 17, 1900, President 
McKinley appointed a second commis- 
sion, comprising William H. Taft, 
Dean S. Worcester, Luke E. Wright, 
Henry C. Ide, and Bernard Moses; 
and in a message to the Secretary of 
War denned the duties of the new 
commission. 

On Jan. 31, 1901, the second (known 
as the Taft) commission enacted into 
law a code of civil government for the 
islands. It established a fair system 
of taxes, laid the basis for a primary 
school system, introduced a more exact 
method for collecting revenues, and 
created certain civil and judicial of- 
ficers. On July 4, 1901, civil govern- 
ment was inaugurated in the Philip- 
pines. Judge Taft had been appointed 
civil governor; Gen. Adna R. Chaffee 
military governor ; sad the other four 



JhlHpsog 

members of the commission made heads 
of the various civil departments. 

On Dec. 18, 1901, the Taft Com- 
mission submitted its annual report It 
stated that the insurrection was con- 
fined to five provinces, and that the 
bulk of the population was law abiding. 

The commission outlined a project 
which in brief contemplated the con- 
tinuance for two years of the existing 
powers of the commission. Then it 
advocated a representative govern- 
ment to be formed composed of a civ- 
il governor, a legislative council, and 
a popular assembly, the powers of the 
latter being closely limited so as to 
prevent it from choking the govern- 
ment in making the budget during fits 
of passion or through inexperience. 
The President of the United States 
would, of course, reserve absolute veto 

Eower. The Filipinos should also 
ave the right to be represented be- 
fore Congress and the executive gov- 
ernment at Washington by two dele- 
gates. A full account was given by 
the commission of the organization of 
the system of education which had 
been going on vigorously under Dr. 
F. W. Atkinson, the general super- 
intendent. The English language was 
the basis of all public instruction, and 
nearly one thousand trained teachers 
from the United States already had 
been put to work in the towns and 
cities of the pacified provinces. On 
July 3, 1902, the President proclaimed 
amnesty to all political prisoners in 
the Philippines, and on July 6, Agui- 
naldo was given his liberty. 

By 1902 the United States had es- 
tablished supreme and lower courts; 
raised the police force to 6,000 men; 
enrolled 150,000 children in public 
schools with 1,000 American and 4,000 
native teachers; spent millions on im- 
proving roads and harbors; and had 
$7.000,000 in the treasury. 

Governor Taft left Manila in Dec. 
1903, to accept a position in President 
Roosevelt's cabinet, and was succeeded 
by Gen. Wright. To Gov. Taft be- 
longs the credit of gaining the confi- 
dence of the Philippine people, and 
of establishing civil government. 

Philipson, David, an American 
rabbi ; born in Wabash, Ind., Aug. 9, 
1862; v/as graduated at the Univer- 
sity of Cincinnati and at the Hebrew 
Union College there in 1883, and be- 



Phillips 

came Professor of Homiletics in the 

Hebrew Union College, and president 

i of the Hebrew Sabbath School Union 

of America. He is author of " The 

Jew in English Fiction," " Old Euro- 

: pean Jewries," " The Oldest Jewish 

Congregation in the West," etc. 

Philistines, an ancient people, 
i of Shemitic origin. They lived on the 
coast of the Mediterranean, to the 
south-west of Judea. Nothing is known 
of their first appearance in Palestine. 
They were there in the time of Abra- 
ham as is evident from Gen. 21 : 34. 
That they had a king is mentioned 
Gen. 26 : 8. In the time of Joshua, 
they were subject to five princes. 
Joshua was never able to expel them 
and in the times of the Judges they 
| became strong enough to bring Israel 
! into subjection. Saul perished in a 
i pitched battle with them, David con- 
; quered them, but they revolted and 
continued enemies of Israel. 

Phillips, Adelaide, an American 
singer ; born in Stratford-on-Avon, 
England, in 1833. When seven years 
old she was taken to Boston, Mass., 
which was her residence the remainder 
of her life. Her voice was a fine con- 
tralto. She made her debut Sept. 25, 
1843, at the Boston Museum, as Lit- 
| tie Pickle. In 1850, on the advice of 
; Jenny Lind, she went to Paris and 
i studied with Garcia. She sang in 
opera in Milan in 1854, and in 1856 
in New York, in "II Trovatore." She 
appeared later in Paris in the same 
role. She died in Carlsbad, Oct. 2, 
1882. Her sister Mathilde was also a 
contralto singer. 

Phillips, John, English geologist ; 
born 1800; died 1874. He was in- 
structed in geology by his uncle, Wil- 
liam Smith, "the father of English 
geology ;" became professor of geology 
in Dublin (1844), and in Oxford 
(1856). Among his chief works are 
a "Guide to Geology" (1834), and 
"Life on the Earth" (1861). 

Phillips, Stephen, English poet; 
b. Somerton, near Oxford, July 28, 
1868. Educated at grammar schools, 
he became an actor, an army tutor, 
then turned to literature, producing 
" Paolo and Francesca," " Herod," 
" The Sin of David," etc. 

Phillips, "Wendell, an American 
orator and abolitionist; born in Bos- 



Philology 

ton, Mass., Nov. 29, 1811. He was 
graduated at Harvard in 1831, studied 
law there, and was called to the bar 
in 1834. But before clients came he 
had been drawn away from his pro- 
fession to the real work of his life. 
A timely speech in Faneuil Hall in 
1837 made him at once the principal 
orator of the anti-slavery party ; and 
henceforth, till the President's procla- 
mation of Jan. 1, 1863, he was Gar- 
rison's loyal and valued ally, his lec- 
tures and addresses doing more for 
their cause than can well be estimat- 
ed. He also championed the cause 
of temperance, and that of women, 
and advocated the rights of the In- 
dians. In 1870 he was nominated gov- 
ernor by the Prohibitionists and the 
Labor Party. His speeches and let- 
ters were collected in 1863 (new ed. 
1884). He died in Boston, Mass., Feb. 
2, 1884. 

Philology, in a popular sense : 
(1) Etymology, or the science of the 
origin of words. (2) Grammar, or the 
science of the construction of lan- 
guage in general and of individual 
languages. (3) Literary criticism, or 
the investigation of merits and de- 
merits in style and diction. 

Pliilopoemen, called the last of 
the Greeks, really their last great com- 
mander. He was born in Arcadia, 
253 B. c., becamle in 210, generalissimo 
of the Achaian League, and conquered 
the Spartans at which time he abol- 
ished the laws of Lycurgus. The 
greatest of his victories in this long 
struggle was the battle of Mantinea. 
He was put to death by poison when 
a prisoner of the Messenians, 183 B. C., 
the same year that proved fatal to 
Hannibal and Scipio. 

Philosopher's Stone, an imagi- 
nary stone sought for by the alche- 
mists, which should transmute every- 
thing it touched into gold. 

Philosophy, a term said by Diog- 
enes Laertius to have been suggest- 
ed by Pythagoras, who, on being com- 
plimented on his wisdom, said that he 
was not wise but a lover of wisdom 
(philos sophia) , the Deity, alone being 
wise. Philosophy, while earnest in 
amassing knowledge, aimed chiefly at 
penetrating to the principles of things. 
Popularly, it is divided into natural 
and mental philosophy, the former in- 
vestigating the physical laws of na- 



Plioenici.i 

ture, the latter those regulating the 
human mind. The term philosophy 
is now generally restricted to tbl 
second of these. 

Phips, or Phipps, Sir William, 
governor of Massachusetts; born in 
Pemrnaquid (Bristol), Me., Feb. 2, 
1651. He was successively a shep- 
herd, a carpenter, and a trader, and 
in 1687 recovered from a wrecked 
Spanish ship off the Bahamas bullion 
plate, and treasure valued at $1,500,- 
000; this gained him a knighthood 
and the appointment of sheriff of New 
England. In 1690 he captured Port 
Royal (now Annapolis) in Nova Sco- 
tia, but failed in the following year in 
a naval attack on Quebec. In 1692, 
through the influence of Increase Math- 
er, he was appointed governor of 
Massachusetts. He tolerated the witch 
delusion and its accompanying trage- 
dies until his own wife was menaced 
by the witch hunters. He died Feb. 
18, 1694, in London, England, whither 
he had been summoned to answer cer- 
tain charges of arbitrary conduct. 

Phlebotomy, or Venesection, the 
act of letting blood by opening a vein ; 
a method of treatment formerly ap- 
plied to almost all diseases, but now 
chiefly confined to cases of general or 
local plethora. Another mode of let- 
ting blood is by cupping or by the ap- 
plication of leeches. It has been one 
of the processes of the medical pro- 
fession from the earliest times. 

Phoebus ("the Bright"), an epi- 
thet, and -subsequently a name, of 
Apollo. It had reference both to the 
youthful beauty of the god and to the 
radiance of the sun, when, latterly, 
Apollo became identified with Helios, 
the sun god. 

Phoenicia, in ancient geography, in 
the largest sense, a narrow strip of 
country extending nearly the whole 
length of the E. coast of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, from Antioch to the bor- 
ders of Egypt. But Phoenicia proper 
was included between the cities of Lao- 
dicea, in Syria, and Tyre, comprehend- 
ing mainly the territories of Tyre and 
Sidon, and forming then only a part 
of the country of Canaan. Some au- 
thorities state that Agenor was the 
first king of Phoenicia, 1497 B. c. ; but 
all agree that the country itself was 
the seat of a great nation, and re- 
nowned for its naval enterprise at a 



Phoenix 

much earlier period. A colony of 
Phoenicians, led by Elissa or Dido, set- 
tled in Africa 878 B. c., and founded 
Carthage. 

Phoenix, or Phenix, in astronomy, 
one of the constellations of the South- 
ern Hemisphere, N. of the bright star 
Achernar in Eridanus. 

Phonetic, or Phonetical, repre- 
senting sound ; pertaining to the repre- 
sentation of sounds ; a term applied 
to alphabetic or literal characters 
which represent sounds, as a, b, c; as 
opposed to ideographic, which repre- 
sent objects or symbolize abstract 
ideas, as in Egyptian hieroglyphics. 
Phonetic spelling, a system of spelling 
in which the words are spelled exact- 
ly as they are pronounced, the sounds 
being represented by characters each 
of which represents a single sound. 
Phonetic printing was first suggest- 
ed by Isaac Pitman, of Bath, England, 
and reduced to a system by him in 
conjunction with A. J. Ellis, in the 
years 1843-1846. Since that time 
many schemes of phonetic spelling 
have been proposed and several are 
now in daily use by stenographers in 
the United States. 

Phonograph, a character used in 
phonography ; a type or character 
used for expressing a sound. Also 
an instrument for recording and re- 
producing sounds, invented by Thomas 
A. Edison. 




PHONOGRAPHIC EECOBD. 

Phonography, a description of the 
sounds uttered by the organs of speech. 
Also the representation of sounds by 
certain characters, each of which rep- 
resents one sound, and always the 
same sound. Its special application 
is to alphabetical writing, in which 
sounds or articulations are repre- 
sented by signs or letters, as opposed 



Phosphorus 

to the system in which the representa- 
tion is by ideas, symbols, or cioher. 
Phosgene, the luminous impres- 
sion produced by pressure on the eye- 
ball. It usually appears as a lumi- 
nous centre, surrounded by colored or 
dark rings. Sometimes it seems to 
consist of bright scintillations of vari- 
ous forms. Similar appearances may 
be observed at the moments of open- 
ing or closing a strong electric cur- 
rent transmitted through the eyeball. 
Phosgene Gas, or Carbonyl 
Chloride, colorless, pungent, suffo- 
cating gas, formed by exposing equal 
volumes of carbonic monoxide and 
chlorine to the action of the sun, 
when they combine and become con- 
densed to one-half their joint volume. 
Water decomposes it into carbonic 
and hydrochloric acids. 

Phosphate, in chemistry, the ge- 
neric term for the salts formed by the 
union of phosphoric anhydride with 
bases or water or both. They hold a 
leading part in the chemistry of ani- 
mal and plant life, the most important 
in this connection being the phosphate 
of soda, phosphate of lime, and the 
basic phosphate of magnesia. In ag- 
riculture the adequate supply of phos- 
phates to plants in the form of ma- 
nures becomes a matter of necessity 
in all deplenished soils. 

Phosphorescence, the property 
which many substances and organic 
beings possess of emitting light under 
certain conditions; also a phosphoric 
light. The phosphorescence of trop- 
ical, and to a large extent also of tem- 
perate seas is attributed to a small in- 
fusorial animalcule, aided by Medu- 
sae, Tunicata, Annelids, etc. On land, 
of insects, some milipedes, the female 
glow-worm, and the fireflies, emit 
light. In the glow-worm the light is 
from the under side of the final seg- 
ments of the abdomen. The phos- 
phorescence of fish in a cupboard is 
well known ; also of decaying animals 
in marshes. 

Phosphoric Acid, a tribasic acid 
formed by the action of nitric acid 
upon phosphorus, or by the hydration 
of phosphoric anhydride. It is very 
deliquescent, has an intensely sour 
taste, and reddens litmus paper. It 
is not poisonous. 

Phosphorus, a non-metallic pentad 
element ; found in a state of combina- 



Photo-engraving; 



Phylloxera 



tion in the unstratified rocks, the soil, 
the organism of plants, and the bodies 
of animals. Discovered by Brandt in 
1G69. Used on a very large scale in 
the preparation of safety matches. 

Photo-engraving, the prepara- 
tion of printing blocks or plates by 
photography. 

Photography, the process of ob- 
taining the representation of objects, 
through the aperture, with or without 
lenses, of a camera obscura (q. v. ), on 
salts of silver contained in a gelatine 
film spread on glass or celluloid, the 
subsequent development and fixing of 
the image, and the printing of copies, 
completing the process. Its practical 
invention dates from the successes of 
Daguerre (q. v.), Niepce, and Talbot, 
between 1814 and 1839; its great 
modern development after the nitrate 
of silver and wet collodion process per- 
fected in 1850, had given way about 
1880, to the bromide of silver and dry 
gelatine emulsion on glass or cellu- 
loid, discovered by Dr. L. Maddox in 
1871. When the light strikes the 
sensitized film in a camera, a chemical 
change takes place in the salts, pro- 
ducing a negative in which the lights 
and shades are reversed to what they 
are naturally. The image is latent or 
invisible until developed, i. e., placed 
in a liquid such as hydrokinine com- 
bined with an alkali, which forms an 
opaque compound with the part of the 
Siilt affected by the light; the develop- 
ed image is then fixed or made perma- 
nent in a solution of hyposulphite of 
soda, which dissolves the salt from 
parts unaffected by light, and leaves 
virtually a light or sun-engraved silver 
plate from which positive copies are 
printed by contact with sensitized 
paper, and exposure to light. 

The many forms of cameras, lenses, 
shutters, films, plates, printing papers, 
etc., and the applied uses of photogra- 
phy are too numerous to be detailed. 
One of its notable commercial develop- 
ments is AMATEUB PHOTOGRAPHY, 
which has had phenomenal and in- 
creasing popularity since the advent 
of the "dry-plate." COLOR PHOTOG- 
KAPHY, or the reproduction by photog- 
raphy of objects in their natural 
colors, is a branch that has received 
much scientific investigation and ex- 
periment. The most successful at- 



tempts hitherto, are those of Cros and 
Charpentier of Paris, Prof. Joly of 
Dublin, and McDonough of Chicago. 
The general method is to make three 
negatives through red, blue, and green 
glass, on specially sensitized and de- 
veloped plates, and print by superim- 
position. 

Photogravnre, a term applied to 
methods of producing, by photography, 
plates for printing in a copperplate 
press. 

Photoheliograph, an instrument 
for photographing the sun. 

Phrenology, the science or doc- 
trine which teaches that a relation ex- 
ists between the several faculties of 
the human mind and particular por- 
tions of the brain, the latter being the 
organs through which the former act. 
The localization of the several fac- 
ulties was first attempted by Dr. Franz 
Joseph Gall, who gained, in 1804, a 
valuable coadjutor in Dr. Spurzheim. 
When Spurzheim visited Edinburgh, 
he met Mr. George Combe, who adopt- 
ed his views, and in 1819 published 
" Essays on Phrenology," ultimately 
developed into his " System of Phre- 
nology," which became very popular. 
Gall enumerated nearly ,30, Spurzheim 
35, mental faculties which he consid- 
ered as primitive. These, Spurzheim 
divides into moral, or affective, and 
intellectual. The affective faculties 
are subdivided into propensities pro- 
ducing desires or inclination, and sen- 
timents, which along with this excite 
some hijher emotion. The intellectual 
faculties are similarly divided into per- 
ceptive and reflective. They are then 
localized on the brain, or rather on 
the skull. See BRAIN; SKULL. 

Phrygia, in ancient geography, an 
inland province of Asia Minor. It 
was called Phrygia Pacatiana, and 
also Phrygia Major, in distinction 
from Phrygia Minor, which was a 
small district of Mysia near the Hel- 
lespont, occupied by some Phrygians 
after the Trojan War. This region was 
a high table-land, fruitful in corn and 
wine and celebrated for its fine breed 
of cattle and sheep. 

Phylloxera, in entomology, a genus 
of insects allied to the Aphis and Coc- 
cus families. The Phylloxeridse at- 
tach themselves to various plants, on 
the juice of . which they feed, and 



Which they often injure or destroy. 
/P. vastatrix is the name given to an 
insect of this family, which, since 
1865, has committed great devastation 
in the vineyards of France. Great 
numbers of this insect appear on the 
roots of the vine, where they produce 
galls, and their punctures are so nu- 




PHYLLOXERA INSECT. 

merous and incessant that the roots 
can no longer supply nutriment to the 
plant, which fades and dies. There is 
a form which lives on the leaves, also 
producing galls. 

Physician, one who is skilled in or 
practises the art of healing ; one who, 
being duly qualified, prescribes reme- 
dies for diseases ; specifically one who 
holds a certificate showing that he has 
passed an examination before a com- 
petent authority, such as the medical 
colleges of the United States or the 
State boards of medicine, authorizing 
him to practise. Strictly speaking a 
physician differs from a surgeon, in 
that the former prescribes remedies for 
diseases, while the latter performs op- 
erations. 

Physics, a study of the phenomena 
presented by bodies. It treats of mat- 
ter, force and motion ; gravitation and 
molecular attraction, liquids, gases, 
acoustics, heat, light, magnetism, and 
electricity. It is called also natural 
or mechanical philosophy. In its 
broadest acceptance the term physics 
includes chemistry; specifically it is 
limited to those phenomena based on 
the molecule as a unit, whereas the 
unit of chemistry is the atom. 



Plait 

Physiognomy, the art or science 
of judging of a person's nature or 
character by his outward look, espe- 
cially by his facial features and char- 
acteristics. In the ordinary business 
of life, all men are more or less influ- 
enced by the belief that the character 
and disposition of a person may, in 
some measure, be judged of by his 
physical appearance, and none have 
more confidence in this way of judging 
than those who have most occasion to 
act on it. 

Physiology, the science which 
treats of the processes which go on in 
the bodies of living beings under nor- 
mal conditions, and of the use of their 
various parts or organs. It is divided 
into plant physiology, animal physiol- 
ogy (according to whether plants or 
animals are the subject of study) , and 
human physiology (a branch of animal 
physiology in its relation to man). 

Phytology. See BOTANY. 

Pianoforte, a musical instru- 
ment, the sounds of which are pro- 
duced by blows from hammers, acted 
on by levers called keys. This is prob- 
ably the most widely-known and gen- 
erally-used musical instrument in the 
world. The earliest form of piano- 
forte, early in the 18th century, was 
perhaps, in some respects, inferior to 
a fine harpsichord, but it possessed the 
elements of expansion, as now exhibit- 
ed in a modern grand trichord pianb- 
forte of more than seven octaves com- 
pass, with every gradation of sound, 
from pianissimo to a splendid fortissi- 
mo, and the most sensitive and deli- 
cate mechanism between the finger and 
the hammer. 

Piassaba, or Piassava, a strong 
vegetable fiber imported from Brazil, 
and largely used for making brooms. 
It is chiefly obtained from palms. 

Piaster, or Piastre, a coin of 
various values. The gold piaster of 
Turkey = 4.4c. ; the silver piaster = 
4.35c. ; the Egyptian piaster = 4.9c. ; 
the Spanish piaster is synonymous 
with the United States dollar. The 
old Italian piaster was equivalent to 
about 89 cents. 

Piatt, Bonn, an American jour- 
nalist; born in Cincinnati, Ohio* 
June 29. 1829, was secretary of le- 
gation at Paris, and was for nearly a 
year charge d'affaires ; during the Civil 



Piatt 



Ficlsens 



War was assistant adjutant-general on 
the staff of Gen. Robert C. Schenck ; 
was one of the founders of the New 
York " Sun " and afterward of the 
Washington " Capital," which he ed- 
ited for two years. He died in Cleve- 
land, O., Nov. 12, 1891. 

Fiatt, John James, an American 
poet ; born in Milton, Ind., March 1, 
1885. He entered journalism ; be- 
came clerk of the United States Treas- 
ury Department and of the House of 
Representatives; and from 1882 to 
1894, was consul at Cork, Ireland. 
His works include : " Poems by Two 
Friends," with W. D. Howells; 
" Poems in Sunshine and Firelight " ; 
" Idylls and Lyrics of the Ohio Val- 
ley " ; etc. 

Piatt, Sarah Morgan (Bryan), 
an American poet, wife of John J. ; 
born in Lexington, Ky., Aug. 11, 1836. 
Her best-known works are : " A 
Woman's Poems " ; "A Voyage to the 
Fortunate Isles " ; " Dramatic Persons 
and Moods " ; and " An Enchanted 
Castle." 

Piazza, a square open space sur- 
rounded by buildings or colonnades ; 
popularly, but improperly, applied to 
an arcaded or colonnaded walk under 
cover, and even to a veranda. 

Pica, an alphabetical catalogue of 
things and names in rolls and records ; 
in medicine, a vitiated appetite, which 
causes the person affected to crave 
things unfit for food, as coal, chalk, 
etc. ; in printing, a name given to a 
size of type, 72 ems to the foot, or 
6x6 to the square inch, It is the 
standard of measurement in printing. 

Piccini, Niccolo, an Italian musi- 
cal composer ; born in Bari, Italy ? in 
1728. He composed comic and serious 
operas, chiefly for the stages of Rome 
and Naples, with such success that for 
many years he was without a rival in 
Italy. He wrote over 150 operas, be- 
sides numerous oratorios and can- 
tatas. He died in Passy, France, 
May 7, 1800. 

Piccolo, a small flute, having the 
same compass as the ordinary orches- 
tral flute, but its sounds are one oc- 
tave higher than the notes as they are 
written ; called also an octave flute. 

Piccolo-mini, a distinguished Sien- 
nese family, still flourishing in Italy 
in two branch***. The two most cele- 



brated members are: (1) ^Eneas Syl- 
vius Bartholomseus, afterward Pope 
Pius II. (2) Octavio, a grand-neph- 
ew of the first ; born in 1599, died in 
Vienna in 1656. He served in the 
armies of the German emperor, and 
became one of the distinguished gener- 
als in the Thirty Years' War. He 
was a favorite of Wallenstein, who 
entrusted him with a knowledge of 
his projects, when he purposed to at- 
tack the emperor. In spite of this he 
made himself the chief instrumeat of 
Wallenstein's overthrow, and after the 
latter 's assassination (1634) was re- 
warded with a portion of his estates. 

Pice, a small East Indian coin, 
value about three-quarters of a cent. 

Pichegru, Charles, a French mili- 
tary officer ; born in Arbois, France, 
Feb. 16, 1761, of humble parents, but 
receiving a good education under the 
monks of his native town. Entering 
the army he rose to be sergeant. The 
revolution elevated him to the rank of 
general, and, in 1794, he succeeded 
General Hoche in the command of the 
Army of the North. In 1797 he was 
elected a member of the Legislative 
body; but his opposition to the Direct- 
ory, and his speeches in favor c c the 
royalist emigrants, occasioned an accu- 
sation against him as designing to re- 
store royalty. He was ordered with- 
out trial to be transported to Cayenne, 
whence he escaped to England, where 
he remained till the spring of 1804; 
he returned to Paris, was again appre- 
hended and sent to the Temple, where 
he was found strangled in his bed, 
April 5, 1804. 

Pickens, Andrew, an American 
military officer ; born in Paxton, Pa., 
Sept. 13, 1739, of Huguenot ancestry. 
In 1752 he removed to South Caro- 
lina; was engaged in the expedition 
against the Cherokees in 1761. Dur- 
ing the Revolution he was promoted 
Brigadier-General; took part in the 
defense of South Carolina against the 
British. He served in Congress from 
1793 to 1795; and made treaties with 
the Indians. He died in Tomassee, 
S. C., Aug. 17, 1817. 

Pickens, Israel, an American poli- 
tician ; born in North Carolina, in 
1780. He was a Democratic member 
of Congress from North Carolina in 
1811-1817; governor of Alabama in 
1821-1825 ; and became United States 



Pickens 



Pickett 



Senator in 1826. He died near Ma- 
tanzas, Cuba, in 1827. 

Pickens, Fort, a fort on Santa 
Rosa Island, Pensacola harbor, held 
by a small Union force under Lieut. 
A. J. Slemmer at the beginning of the 
Civil War. It refused to surrender 
when besieged by the Confederates in 
1861, and was held till reinforced. 

Pickerel, a small pike, a young 
pike. The term is applied to several 
species of fishes belonging to the pike 
family. 

Pickering, Charles, an American 
physician, grandson of Timothy ; born 
in Susquehanna co., Pa., Nov. 10, 
1805. He traveled extensively, and 
published the volumes : " The Races 
of Man and their Geographical Dis- 
tribution " ; " Geographical Distribu- 
tion of Animals and Man " ; "Chrono- 
logical History of Plants." He died 
In Boston, March 18, 1878. 

Pickering, Edward Charles, an 
American astronomer, great-grandson 
of Timothy Pickering ; born in Boston, 
Mass., July 19, 1846; was graduated 
at Harvard in 1865; Professor of As- 
tronomy and Geodesy, and Director 
of the Observatory at Harvard after 
187<. On July 21, 1901, he photo- 
graphed the spectrum of lightning, 
from the study of which he developed 
a revolutionary scientific theory of the 
compound nature of the so-called 
chemical elements. 

Pickering, John, an American 

ghilologist, son of Timothy ; born in 
alem, Mass., Feb. 7, 1777. He held 
many important public positions; was 
president of the American Academy of 
Arts and Sciences, and a member of 
various learned associations at home 
and abroad. He published a paper on 
the " Adoption of a Uniform Orthog- 
raphy for the Indian Languages " ; a 
" Vocabulary of Words and Phrases 
Peculiar to the United States " ; etc. ; 
and wrote many pamphlets on scien- 
tific and political questions. He died 
in Boston, May 5, 1846. 

Pickering, Timothy, an Ameri- 
can statesman ; born in Salem, Mass., 
July 17, 1745 ; was graduated at Har- 
vard in 1763, and admitted to the bar 
in 1768. He participated in the bat- 
tle of Lexington ; in 1776 joined the 
Continental army in command of 700 
men; was soon appointed adjutant- 



general by Washington ; in 1780 was 
selected for the post of quartermaster 
of the army, and from that time till 
the close of the war conducted his de- 
partment with great skill. Shortly 
after his resignation, he united with 
Patrick Henry and Alexander Hamil- 
ton in opposing the measure that drove 
the Tories from the country. He ne- 
gotiated a treaty between the United 
States and the Six Nations in 1791, 
and a month later was appointed Post- 
master-General. He was Secretary of 
State under Presidents Washington 
and Adams, but was dismissed during 
the " X. Y. Z." papers dispute in 
1800. He retired from politics for a 
time, but was elected to the United 
States Senate in 1804, and from that 
time continued actively in politics. He 
died in Salom, Jan. 29, 1829. 

Pickering, William Henry, an* 
American astronomer ; born in Bos- 
ton, Mass., Feb. 15, 1858; brother of 
Edward Charles Pickering ; was grad' 
uated at the Massachusetts Institute 
of Technology in 1879; became assist- 
ant professor at the Harvard Observ- 
atory; and conducted several expedi- 
tions to observe the total solar 
eclipses in different parts of the West- 
ern Hemisphere in 1878-1893. He es- 
tablished astronomical stations in. 
Southern California in 1889 ; at Are- 
quipa, Peru, in 1891 ; and at Mande- 
ville, Jamaica, W. I., in 1900. He has 
climbed over 100 mountain peaks. 

Picket, a stake with a sharpened 
end, used in laying off ground for 
fortifications. Also a stake sharpened 
at both ends; one driven into the 
ground and the other acting as an ob- 
stacle to tLe advance of the enemy. 
Also a guard posted in front of an 
army to give notice of the approach of 
the enemy. 

Pickett, George Edward, an 
American military officer; born in 
Richmond, Va., Jan. 25, 1825 ; was 
graduated at the United States Mili- 
tary t Academy in 1846; served in the 
Mexican W r ar as lieutenant and was 
made captain in 1855. In T861 he left 
the United States service and entered 
the Confederate army. He was com- 
missioned Brigadier-General and was 
distinguished throughout the war for 
bravery and activity. In 1862 he was 
made Major-General. He took a prom- 
inent part in the battles of Fredericks- 



Pickles 



Pierce 



burg, Gettysburg (where his division 
made the famous " Pickett's charge ") 
Petersburg, and Five Forks. He died 
in Norfolk, Va., July 30, 1875. 

Pickles, a term generally applied 
to vegetables preserved in vinegar, 
with or without spices ; though the 
term " pickled " applies to animal food 
preserved in salt. The vegetables 
most often pickled are cabbage, cauli- 
flower, gherkins (young cucumbers), 
French beans, onions, walnuts, mush- 
rooms, and nasturtiums. Chile pep- 
pers and sweet peppers, olives, and 
capers are the most common kinds of 
imported pickles and mangoes are oc- 
casionally used. 

Picquart, George, a French mill- 
tary officer ; born in Strassburg in 
1854; was educated at St. Cyr, 1872- 
1874, and at the General Staff School 
in 1874-1876, gaining high places at 
the examinations in both schools. In 
1896 he was given the rank of lieuten- 
ant-colonel, but then he began his in- 
quiries into the Dreyfus case, moved 
thereto by certain discoveries which he 
made as to Major Esterhazy. In this 
he was at first encouraged by his of- 
ficial superiors, but afterward discour- 
aged, and in January, 1897, he was 
sent in disgrace to Tunis. He return- 
ed to take a prominent part in the in- 
quiries and legal proceedings which 
took place in the winter of 1897 and 
during 1898, and his evidence formed 
the strongest proof of the illegality of 
the trial at which Dreyfus was con- 
demned, and of the astounding meth- 
ods employed by the War Office to hush 
up the affair. In February, 1898, he 
was placed on the retired list, and 
afterward prosecuted on a charge of 
revealing War Office secrets, and im- 
prisoned. He vindicated Dreyfus (q. 
v.), was promoted Brigadier-General, 
and, 190G, French Minister of War. 

Ficton, Sir Thomas, a British 
military officer ; born in Poyston, Pem- 
brokeshire, England, in August, 1758. 
He entered the army in 1772. In 
1794 he went out to the West Indies; 
took part in the conquest of several of 
the islands, including Trinidad, and 
was appointed (1797) governor of the 
last named, being shortly afterward 
promoted general. There he plotted 
for the overthrow of Spanish rule in 
South America. Later he was with 
Wellington, fought at Quatre Bras, 

B. 117. 



and at Waterloo fell leading his men 
to the charge, June 18, 1815. 

Pidgin, Charles Feltcn, an 
American statistician; born in Rox- 
bury, Mass., Nov. 1, 1844. He in- 
vented many machines for the mechan- 
ical tabulation of statistics, among: 
them the electric adding and multiply- 
ing machine, addition register, and 
typewriter tabulator. He has writ- 
ten novels and musical compositions. 

Pierce, Franklin, an American 
statesman, 14th President of the 
United States ; born in Hillsboro, N. 
H., Nov. 23, 1804. He was educated 
in the schools of his native State and 
at Bowdoin College, where he studied 
in company with Longfellow, Haw- 
thorne, and Prentiss, graduating in. 
1824. In 1833 he entered Congress, 
serving four years, and in 1837 was 
elected to the United States Senate* 
being the youngest member of that 
body, that contained such men as 
Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, Bu- 
chanan, and Silas Wright. In 1842 
he resigned from the Senate and re- 
tired to private life, declining several 
public offices tendered him. In 1846 
he enlisted for the Mexican War, was 
appointed brigadier in the volunteer 
army, and led his brigade in the bat- 
tles of Contreras and Churubusco. la 
1852 he was nominated for the presi- 
dency on the 49th ballot, by the Demo- 
cratic National Convention, and was 
elected by an electoral majority over 
General Scott of 254 to 42. During: 
his administration the Missouri Com- 
promise was repealed, a reciprocity 
treaty for trade with the British 
American colonies was made ; a treaty 
with Japan was established; and th 
Mexican boundary disputes settled. 
After his term expired, failing of a re- 
nomination, he traveled abroad for 
three years, and, returning, lived there- 
after in retirement at Concord, where 
he died, Oct. 8, 1869. 

Pierce, Henry Niles, an American 
clergyman ; born in Pawtucket, R. L, 
Oct 19, 1820. He spent many years 
in the West as a missionary, and was 
consecrated Protestant Episcopal 
Bishop of Arkansas in 1870, being the 
first incumbent and holding the office 
for 25 years. He published many es- 
says, sermons, and reviews ; and a 
volumo of poems, etc. He died Sept. 
5,1899. 



Pierpont, Francis Harrison, an 

American statesman \ born in Monon- 
galia co., Va. (now W. Va.), in 1815. 
At the beginning of the Civil War he 
became governor of the counties of 
Virginia that remained loyal to the 
Union, and were organized as the State 
of West Virginia in 18G1 ; was then 
governor of all the loyal counties in 
Eastern Virginia ; and from June, 
1863, till May, 1865, was chief execu- 
tive of the present Virginia. He died 
in Pittsburg, Pa., March 24, 1899. 

Pierrepont, Edwards, an Ameri- 
can diplomatist ; born in North 
Haven, Conn., March 4, 1817; was 
graduated at Yale in 1837, and at its 
Law School in 1840; became a mem- 
ber of the Ohio bar, and after five 
years removed to New York city. He 
was elected a judge of the Super'or 
Court of New York in 1857. In 1875 
he became attorney-general of the 
United States in Grant's administra- 
tion ; and in the following year was 
appointed United States minister to 
Great Britain. He tried many fa- 
mous cases during his professional ca- 
reer, and was noted as an orator. He 
died in New York city, March 6, 1892. 

Pigeon English, the dialect used 
by English and American residents in 
China in their dealings with the native 
traders. It is a conglomeration of 
English and Portuguese words in Chi- 
nese idiom. 

Pig Iron, iron in oblong masses, or 
" pigs," as turned out by the smelting 
furnace. The production in the 
United States in the calendar year 
1907 was the largest on record, 25,- 
781,361 long tons, valued at $529,- 
958,000, and the world's production 
was 60,680,014 metric tons. The 
available iron-ore supply of the 
United States was estimated at 4,- 
478,150,000 long tons; the unavail- 
able 75,116,070,000. 

Pigments, materials used for im- 
parting color, especially in painting, 
but also in dyeing or otherwise. 

Pika, the calling hare, an animal 
nearly allied to the hares. It is found 
in North America, Russia, and Si- 
beria, and is remarkable for the man- 
ner in which it stores up its winter 
provision, and also for its voice, the 
tone of which so much resembles that 
of a quail as to be often mistaken 
for it 



Pike, a military weapon, consisting 
of a narrow, elongated lance-head 
fixed to a pole or a simple spike of 
metal. The end of the staff had also 
a spike for insertion in the ground, 
thus allowing a musketeer to keep off 
the approach of cavalry while attend- 
ing to his other arms. It is now su- 
perseded by the bayonet. Also, a fish, 
the common pike. It is one of the 
larger fresh-water fishes, sometimes at- 
taining a length of five or six feet, and 
much esteemed for food. 

Pike, Albert, an American writer ; 
born in Boston, Mass., Dec. 29, 1809. 
He became a lawyer in Arkansas, 
where he revised the statutes. He 
was attorney for the Cherokees, re- 
ceiving at one time a fee of $100,000. 
In 1839 his "Hymns of the Gods" 
was published. He also wrote works 
on Masonry. He served in an Arkan- 
sas regiment during the Mexican War, 
and in the Civil War organized some 
Indian regiments which he led in the 
battles of Pea Ridge and Elkhorn. 
After the war he was editor of the 
Memphis "Appeal" till 1868. Died 
in Washington, D. C., April 3, 1891. 

Pike, Mrs. Mary Hayden 
(Green), an American novelist ; born 
in Eastport, Me., Nov. 30, 1825. She 
will be best remembered as the author 
of " Ida May," a novel dealing with 
slavery and Southern life, which had 
a large sale. 

Pike, Zebnlon Montgomery, an 
American military officer ; born in 
Lamberton, N. J., Jan. 5, 1779; was 
appointed an ensign in his father's 
regiment in 1799 ; conducted an expe- 
dition sent by the government to trace 
the Mississippi to its source in 1805; 
also made explorations in Louisiana 
Territory, discovering Pike's Peak and 
reaching the Rio Grande in the course 
of his travels. In 1813 he was pro- 
moted Brigadier-General, and on April 
13 of that year while in command of 
the attack on York (now Toronto), 
in Upper Canada, was killed. 

Pike Perch, a genus of fishes close- 
ly allied to the perch, but showing a 
resemblance to the pike in its elon- 
gated body and head. It occurs in the 
fresh waters of North America, such 
as the Great Lakes, the Upper Missis- 
sippi, and the Ohio. 

Pike's Peak, a peak of the Rocky 
Mountains, in Colorado, 65 miles S. 



Pilate 

of Denver, discovered by Captain 
Pike, U. S. A., in 1806. It rises to a 
height of 14,147 feet. On its sum- 
mit is one of the highest meteorolog- 
ical stations in the world; while at 
the base, at Colorado Springs, there 
is a low level station. There is a rail- 
way to the top, 9 miles long < (4 1 /^ 
miles of curves), with a maximum 
gradient of 1 in 4. 

Pilate, Pontius, a Roman ruler, 
who became governor of Judaea, A. D. 
26. He commanded in that country 
10 years. The Jews brought Jesus 
Christ before Pilate, who, perceiving 
that envy and malice occasioned their 
charges, would have scourged the pris- 
oner and dismissed him, but being 
threatened with the wrath of Caesar, 
Pilate delivered Jesus, whom he pro- 
nounced innocent, to be crucified. He 
is said to have subsequently treated 
the Samaritans with great cruelty, for 
which he was recalled by Tiberius, 
and banished to Gaul, where he slew 
himself, A. D. 37 or 38. 

Pilgrimage, a journey undertaken 
by a pilgrim ; specifically, a journey 
to some distant place, sacred and ven- 
erable for some reason, undertaken for 
devotional purposes. In Scripture, 
the journey of human life. (Gen. 
xlvii : 9.) Pilgrimages are an essen- 
tial part of the Hindu and Mohamme- 
dan systems, and the visits to Jerusa- 
lem three times a year of the Jewish 
race were of the nature of pilgrimages. 
Pilgrim Fathers, the name given 
to 102 Puritans, who sailed in the 
" Mayflower," from Plymouth, on 
Sept. 6. 1620, to seek in America the 
religious liberty denied them in Eng- 
land. Landing on Plymouth Rock, 
they, on Dec. 25, 1620, founded a col- 
ony, which became the germ of the 
New England States. 

Pillory, formerly a common instru- 
ment of punishment for persons con- 
victed of forestalling, use of unjust 
weights, perjury, forgery, libel, etc. 
It consisted of a frame of wood, erect- 
ed on a pillar or stand, and furnished 
with movable boards, resembling those 
of the stocks, and holes through which 
the offender's head and hands were 
put. In this position he was exposed 
for a certain time to public view and 
insult. The use of the pillory was 
abolished in France in 1832, in Eng- 
land in 1837, and in the United States 



Pilot Fish 

about 1839, except in the State of 
Delaware. 

Pillow, Fort, a defensive work, 
erected by the Confederates during the 
Civil War, about 40 miles N. of Mem- 
phis, Tenn., and abandoned by them, 
June, 1862, and occupied by the Union 
forces till April, 1864, when it was 
taken by the Confederates under Gen- 
eral Forrest, and the garrison killed. 

Pillow, Gideon Johnson, an 
American military officer ; born in 
Williamson co., Tenn., June 8, 1806; 
served with distinction during the 
Mexican War, first as a Brigadier- 
General and later as a Major-General 
of volunteers. In the Civil War he 
was appointed a Brigadier-General in 
the Confederate army ; was second in 
command at Fort Donelson in Febru- 
ary, 1862, and with his chief, Gen. 
John B. Floyd, escaped, leaving Gen- 
eral Buckner to surrender the fort to 
General Grant. He died in Lee co., 
Ark., Oct. 6, 1878. 

Pills, medicines made in globules, 
of a convenient size for swallowing 
whole, the medicine being usually 
mixed up with some neutral substance 
such as breadcrumbs, hard soap, ex- 
tract of liquorice, mucilage, syrup, 
treacle, and conserve of roses. The 
coverings are liquorice powder, wheat 
flour, fine sugar, and lycopodium. In 
many cases pills are now enameled or 
silvered, which deprives them of most 
of their unpleasantness. Pills are a 
highly suitable form for administering 
medicines which operate in small 
doses, or which are intended to act 
slowly or not to act at all till they 
reach the lower intestines. 

Pilot, one who, being properly 
qualified by experience, and having 
passed certain examinations, is ap- 
pointed by the competent authority to 
conduct ships into or out of harbor or 
along particular coasts, channels, etc., 
at a certain fixed rate, depending on 
the draught of the vessel and distance. 
The pilot has the entire charge of the 
vessel in the pilot's water. 

Pilot Fish, a small pelagic fish, 
about a foot long, of bluish color, 
marked with from five to seven broad, 
dark, vertical bars. It owes its sci- 
entific and popular English name ^to 
its habit of keeping company with 
ships and large fish, generally sharks. 



Pilot Knoli 



Fine 



Pilot Knob, a remarkable hill in 
Missouri, about 86 miles S. W. of St. 
Louis. It is nearly 500 feet high, and 
is composed almost entirely of mag- 
netic iron ore. 

Piloty, Karl von, a German paint- 
er ; born in Munich, Bavaria, Oct. 1, 
1826. Died in Munich, July 21, 1886. 

Pin, a piece of wood, metal, etc., 
generally pointed and used for fasten- 
ing separate articles together, or as a 
support; a peg, a bolt. Also a small 
piece of wire, generally brass, headed 
and pointed, used as a fastening, etc., 
since antiquity. 

Pins were made by hand of metal in 
the 16th century, and were very cost- 
ly. Before that time small skewers of 
ivory or wood were used. The first 
pin-making machine was made in 1824 
by an American living in England. 
Many improvements have since been 
introduced. 

Pinchot, GiflPord, an American 
forester; born in Simsbury, Conn., 
Aug. 11, 1865; studied forestry in 
several European countries; inaugu- 
rated the first systematic forestry 
work in the United States at Bilt- 
more, N. C., in 1892; became chief of 
the National Forest Service in 1898 
and Professor of Forestry at Yale in 
1903; had a notable controversy with 
Secretary Ballinger, of the Interior 
Department, concerning the conser- 
vation of natural resources in Alaska, 
in 1908-1910; and was dismissed from 
the Forest Service by President Taft 
in the latter year. 

Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, 
an American statesman ; born in 
Charleston, S. C., Feb. 25, 1746. He 
was Washington's aide-de-camp at the 
battles of Brandywine and German- 
town, and afterward, as colonel, saw 
much active service, till 1780, when he 
was taken prisoner at the surrender 
of Charleston, and retained till the 
close of the war. A member of the 
convention that framed the Constitu- 
tion of the United States (1787), he 
introduced the clause forbidding relig- 
ious tests as a qualification for office. 
He declined the secretaryship of war 
in 1794, and of state in 1795 ; in 1796 
he was sent as minister to France, but 
the Directory refused to receive him, 
and he had to quit the country. It 
was while on this mission that, when 
it was intimated that peace might be 



granted in return for a money pay- 
ment, he made the reply, " Millions for 
defense, but not a cent for tribute." 
In 1800-1808 he was thrice an un- 
successful Federalist candidate for the 
presidency. He died Aug. 16, 1825. 

Pinckney, Thomas, an American 
diplomatist, brother of Charles C. ; 
born in Charleston, S. C., Oct. 23, 
1750. In the Revolutionary War as 
aide to General Lincoln he distin- 
guished himself at the assault on 
Savannah and was severely wounded 
at Camden in August, 1780. He was 
governor of South Carolina in 1787- 
1789 ; United States minister to Great 
Britain in 1792-1794, and to Spain in 
1794-1796 ; a Federalist candidate for 
the presidency in 1796; and member 
of Congress in 1797-1801. He died in 
Charleston, Nov. 2, 1828. 

Pindar, th<* great Greek lyric poet ; 
born in or near Thebes, in Bceotia, 
about 522 B. c. Pindar excelled in all 
varieties of choral poetry, hymns to 
the gods, paeans, odes for processions, 
drinking songs, etc. But the only 
poems of his now extant are the 
" Epinikia, or Triumphal Odes," com- 
posed in celebration of victories at the 
great public games, the Olympian, 
Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. Pin- 
dar attained the highest renown in his 
own age, and as a lyrical poet has no 
rival. When Thebes was destroyed by 
Alexander, the conqueror spared the 
house of Pindar. He died in 443 B. c. 

Pine, a genus of trees of the natural 
order Conifers?,. The Linnsean genus 
includes all kinds of fir, larch, and 
cedar ; but as now limited the genus 
Pinus is distinguished by monrecious 
flowers and woody cones with numer- 
ous two-seeded scales, the scales hav- 
ing an angular truncated apex. The 
leaves are linear and very narrow, of 
a very dark green color, growing in 
clusters or in pairs, and surrounded 
by scarious scales at the base. To 
this genus belong many noble and use- 
ful trees. Many species of pines, 
some of them very beautiful and very 
valuable, are found in North America. 
Besides those long known, and which 
are found in the States and colonies 
near the Atlantic, a number of the 
noblest species of this genus have, dur- 
ing the 19th century, been discovered 
in California and the N. W. parts of 
the Continent. The red Canadian 



Pineapple 

pine is found from Canada to the Pa- 
cific, but does not reach far S. in the 
United States. It is the yellow pine 
of Canada and Nova Scotia. 

Pineapple, a plant of the natural 
order Bromeliacea?. The flowers rise 
from the center of the plant, and 
are in a large conical spike, sur- 
mounted by spiny leaves called the 
crown. The conical spike of flowers 
ultimately becomes enlarged and juicy, 
constituting the pineapple, considered 




PINEAPPLE. 

one of the finest of fruits. More than 
50 varieties have been produced. The 
plant grows in the S. portion of the 
United States and in Hawaii. In the 
islands they sometimes reach the 
weight of 17 pounds, though the aver- 
age weight is six. Since 1883 there 
have been large exports of 'this fruit 
from the various islands. 

Pine Bluff, city and capital of 
Jefferson county, Ark.; on the Arkan- 
sas river and several railroads; 48 
miles S. E. of Little Rock; is the 
trade center of a large farming sec- 
tion; makes extensive shipments of 
hides and cotton; manufactures cot- 
ton-seed oil and meal, flour and grist, 
cotton-gins, bank furniture, and ma- 
chinery; and contains the Merrill In- 
stitute, a Normal College for colored 
students, and large railroad shops. 
Pop. (1910) 15,102. 

Ping-Pong, table lawn tennis, a 
game that was introduced from Eug- 



Pinkney 

land and became very popular in the 
United States. The game is played 
very much as is the regular game of 
tennis. 

Pingree, Hazen S., an American 
manufacturer ; born in Denmark, Me., 
Aug. 30, 1842. He enlisted in the 
United States army in 1862; served 
throughout the war and was in the 
principal battles. At the close of the 
war he settled in Detroit, Mich., and 
engaged in the shoe business, subse- 
quently becoming the head of the 
largest factory of its kind in the West. 
He was elected mayor of Detroit in 
1889, on the Reform ticket. His 
radical ideas on the reform of monop- 
olies, etc., caused much agitation, es- 
pecially in connection with street car 
companies. He also instituted the 
" potato patch," a scheme for employ- 
ing applicants for charity in product- 
ive labor, a plan which has been 
adopted by other cities. In 1896 he 
was elected governor of Michigan, 
holding the office of mayor also, till 
March 19, 1897, when according to a 
decision of the Supreme Court he re- 
linquished the latter office. He was 
reflected governor in 1898. He died 
June 18, 1901. 

Pinkerton, Allan, an American 
detective ; born in Glasgow, Scotland, 
Aug. 25, 1819. In 1840 he went to 
Canada and thence to Chicago, where 
in 1850 he joined the detective depart- 
ment. Subsequently he organized the 
detective agency which still bears his 
name. He wrote many interesting 
stories of his experiences, which were 
afterward collected in one volume. He 
died July 1, 1884. 

Pinkney, William, an American 
diplomatist ; born in Annapolis, Md., 
March 17, 1764; was admitted to the 
bar in. 1786; was a member of the 
Legislature of his State that ratified 
the Constitution of the United States. 
In 1796 Washington appointed him a 
commissioner to determine the claims 
of American merchants to compensa- 
tion for losses and damages caused by 
the English government. In 1806 he 
was sent with James Monroe to treat 
with the English government regarding 
the latter's repeated violations of the 
rights of neutrals and was resident 
minister in London in 1807-1811, 
when President Madison appointed 
him attorney-general of the United 



Pinnated Grouse 



Piplstrell* 



States. In 1816 he was -appointed 
minister to Russia and special envoy 
to Naples. After his return in 1818 
he resumed law practice. In 1820 he 
was elected to the United States Sen- 
ate. He died in Washington, D. G.. 
Dec. 25, 1822. 

Pinnated Grouse, known also as 
the prairie hen, or prairie chicken. 
The male is remarkable as possessing 
two erectile tufts in the nape, and an 
air bladder (connected with the wind- 
pipe, and capable of inflation) on each 
side of the neck, in color and shape re- 
sembling small oranges ; general plu- 
mage brown, mottled with a darker 
shade ; habitat, prairies of the Mis- 
sissippi valley, from Louisiana, N. 

Pint, a measure of capacity used 
both for dry and liquid measures. It 
contains 34.65925 cubic inches, or the 
eighth part of a gallon. In medicine 
it is equivalent to 12 ounces. 

Pintail Duck, has the upper parts 
and flanks ash, with narrow stripes of 




PINTAIL DUCK. 

black ; under parts white ; head umber- 
brown ; tail pointed. It inhabits the 
N. of America and Europe. 

Pinzon, Vincent Yancz, and 
Martin Alonzo (brothers), Spanish 
navigators, who had commands in Co- 
lumbus' first voyage, and by whose ex- 
ertions mainly it was that a sufficient 
number of men were induced to risk 
their lives on this perilous enterprise. 
Vincent Yanez was the more distin- 
guished of the brothers ; he made sev- 
eral voyages, on the most important 



of which he sailed in December, 1499, 
and discovered Brazil and the river 
Amazon, three months before Cabral 
took possession of South America for 
the crown of Portugal. 

Pioneer, one of a body of soldiers 
equipped with pickax, spade, etc., 
whose duty it is to clear and repair 
roads, bridges, etc., as far as possible, 
for troops on the march. They are 
placed at the head of the battalion of 
which they form a part, and are com- 
manded by a pioneer sergeant. Also, 
one who goes before to prepare or 
clear the way, or remove obstructions 
for another, especially in the settle- 
ment of a new region. 

Pipa, a genus of Batrachian reptiles, 
closely allied to the common toad, but 
distinguished by the body being hori- 
zontally flattened, the head large and 
triangular, tongue wanting, tympanum 
concealed beneath the skin, the eyes 
small, placed near the margin of the 
upper jaw. The best-known species is 
the Surinam toad, which is consider- 
ably larger than the common toad of 
this country. 

Pipe, a wine-measure, usually con- 
taining two hogsheads or 105 imperial 
or 126 wine gallons ; two pipes or 210 
imperial gallons make a tun. The 
size of the pipe varies according to 
the kind of wine contained ; a pipe of 
Madeira contains 110 wine gallons ; of 
sherry, 130 ; of port, nearly 138, and 
Lisbon, 140. 

Pipe Clay, a rariety of clay adapt- 
ed by its plasticity and freedom from 
impurities for the manufacture of 
pipes. 

Pipefish, a fish distinguished by a 
long, slender, tapering body, and by 
jaws united to form a tube or pipe, 
bearing the mouth at the tip. There 
are several species. 

Piping Crow, a bird from New 
South Wales. It has great powers of 
mimicry; called also the flute player. 

Pipistrelle, the most widely dis- 
tributed of the bats; color reddish- 
brown, paler beneath. The wings ex- 
tend down to the base of the toes, and 
their membrane, like that of the ears, 
is of a dusky tint. This bat is spe- 
cially a dweller in temperate regions, 
its period of hibernation is short, and 
the tail is used as an organ of prehen- 
sion. 



Pipit 

Pipit, or Titlark, a genus of 
perching birds possessing striking 
affinities with the larks, which they 
resemble in the large size of the hinder 
claw, but commonly classed with the 
"wagtails, which they closely resemble 
in their habits of running swiftly on. 
the ground. One species is common 
in the United States. All the pipits 
build their nests on the ground. The 
Bong in all consists of a clear, simple 
note. 

Pippi Giulio. See GiUlJO Ro- 

HANO. 

Piracy, the act, practice, or crime 
of robbing on the high seas. This 
offense at common law consists in 
committing those acts of robbery and 
depredation on the high seas which if 
committed upon land would have 
amounted to felony there. But other 
offenses have, by various statutes, been 
made piracy, and liable to the same 
penalty. Thus trading with, or in any 




PIPEFISH. 

way aiding, known pirates, is piracy. 
So, too, any commander or seaman of 
a ship who runs away with any ship, 
boat, goods, etc., or who voluntarily 
delivers such up to any pirate, is 
guilty of piracy. Any one who con- 
veys or removes any person as a slave 
is also by statute law of most civilized 
nations guilty of piracy. The penalty 
is death, or some lesser punishment. 
The most famous execution of pirates 
was on the beach at Newport, Rhode 
Island, in the colonial period, when 
30 pirates from one vessel were hanged 
at one time. 

Pirai, or Piraya, a voracious 
fresh-water fish of tropical America. 
It is three or four feet in length, and 
its jaws are armed with sharp lancet- 
shaped teeth, from which cattle when 
fording rivers sometimes suffer ter- 
ribly. 



Pisa 

Pisa, a city of Central Italy, capi- 
tal of the province of Pisa, on the 
Arno, 8 miles from its mouth, 13 miles 
N. E. of Leghorn, and 50 miles W. of 
Lucca. The walls are 5 miles in 
circuit. The Arno flows through the 
city, and is crossed by several bridges, 
'the principal one being of fine marble. 
The cathedral, with its attendant 
buildings, the baptistery, the cemetery 
and the belfry, is perhaps, the finest 
specimen that exists of the style of 
building called by the Italians the 
Gotico-Moresco. The most remarkable 
buildings in Pisa are the Campo Santo 
and the belfry, or campanile, a cylin- 
drical tower, 178 feet in height, con- 
structed of successive rows of pillars, 
chiefly of marble; it is extremely 
graceful in its proportions, but its 
chief peculiarity consists in its in- 
clination about 13 feet out of the per- 
pendicular, whence it is commonly 
called the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The 
University of Pisa is one of the oldest 
in Italy; it has 56 professors and 
about 1,000 students. Galileo, who was 
a native of Pisa, was formerly one of 
the professors. Pop. 61,321. 

Pisa, Council of, a church council 
generally included in those called 
ecumenical, met and opened in Pisa 
March 25, 1409, and the 23d and last 
session of which was held Aug. 7 fol- 
lowing. Its aim was to end the schism 
which had divided the Western Church 
for 30 years ; and with this view the 
leading cardinals, finding that neither 
of the rival Popes, Gregory XII. and 
Benedict XIII., would keep their 
promises to abdicate, had set aside the 
claims of both, and themselves con- 
voked a general council. It was at- 
tended from first to last by 24 car- 
dinals, 4 patriarchs, 80 bishops, 102 
proctors of bishops, 87 abbots, 200 
delegates of abbots, besides many gen- 
erals of orders, doctors, deputies of 
universities, and ambassadors. After 
the rival Popes failed to appear in 
obedience to its summons, the council 
formally tried the claims of both in 
turn, and deposed them as schismatics 
and heretics. The cardinals then 
formed themselves into conclave and 
elected Cardinal Philargi, who as- 
sumed the name of Alexander V. But 
the council, instead of getting rid of 
the contending Popes, had only add^i 
a third, and the Church of Roma- 



Pisces 



Pitcairn Isla id 



continued to be distracted for eight 
years longer, down to the time of the 
Council of Constance. 

Pisces, in astronomy, the 12th and 
last of the zodiacal constellations. 

Pisgali, a name that seems to have 
applied generally to the mountain 
range or district to the E. of the Low- 
er Jordan, identical with, or itself a 
part of, the mountains of Abarrim, 
one of the summits of which is Mount 
Nebo (the modern Neba), 2,644 feet 
above the level of the Mediterranean. 
From this point Moses enjoyed his 
glimpse of the Promised Land, in early 
spring. 




PISA : LEANING TOWER AND CATHEDRAL 

Pisistratns, a citizen of Athens 
who raised himself to the sovereign 
authority in the time of Solon (to 
whom he was related) 560 B. c. He 
was a beneficent ruler, and did much 
to promote the rise of Greek literature. 
We owe to him the poems of Homer 
in their present form, Pisistratus hav- 
ing collected them, as they were scat- 
tered in detached parts throughout 
Greece, and given them orderly ar- 
rangement. 

Pisquow, or Fisuqnitpah., a tribe 
of North American Indians living for- 



merly on the Wenatchee or Pisquow 
river, Washington. The name has also 
been used collectively and applied to- 
the Methow and other tribes in Okano- 
gan county of that State. They are 
now on the Yakima reservation, 
Washington. 

Pistacio Nut, the fruit of the pis- 
tacia vera. The kernel is very oily, of 
a peculiar flavor and bright green in 
color, and is much used in confec- 
tions, etc. 

Pistole, a gold coin once current in 
Spain, France, and the neighboring 
countries ; and its average value was 
about $3.85. 

Pita Flax, flax made from the fiber 
of the maguey and used for twine, 
rope, hammock meshes, etc. In Mexi- 
co it is also used for oakum. La- 
billardiere found that its strength is 
to that of common flax as 7 to 11%. 

Fitaval, Francois Gayot de, a 
French lawyer ; compiler of the fa- 
mous collection of " Celebrated 
Cases " ; born in 1673, served in the 
army, but became an advocate, and 
was known as an industrious and 
painsfaking compiler. Of his great 
work there have been numerous abridg- 
ments, continuations, and transla- 
tions ; and his name has become so 
identified with the collecting of crim- 
inal cases that a similar work, pub- 
lished by various editors in Leipsic in 
1843 and succeeding years, was called 
"A New Pitaval." He died in 1743. 

Pitcairn Island, a solitary island 
in the Pacific Ocean, between Aus- 
tralia and South America, in lat. 25 
3' S. and Ion. 130 8' W., measures 
2% miles by 1 mile. In 1790 it was 
taken possession of by nine of the 
mutineers of H. M. S. " Bounty," with 
six Tahitian men and 12 women, the 
ringleader being called Christian. Ac- 
cording to one account, the white men 
and the Tahitians murdered each oth- 
er at intervals, till at the end of 10 
years John Adams was left alone, 
with eight or nine women and several 
children ; and from them the present 
inhabitants of the island are descend- 
ed. Adams, changed by these tragic 
adventures, and sobered by his re- 
sponsibilities, set about the education 
of his companions in Christian prin- 
ciples. The little colony was un- 
known to the world till 1808, when it 



Pitch 

was " discovered " by Captain Folger 
of the American sealing ship " To- 
paz " ; the first British vessel to visit 
it did not arrive till 1814. The island 
was annexed to Great Britain in 1839. 
Nearly 200 of the islanders were trans- 
ferred to Norfolk Island in 1856, but 
a number of them afterward returned. 
Pitcairn Island enjoys a lovely cli- 
mate ; its mountainous surface reaches 
1,008 feet in Outlook Ridge; the soil 
is fertile, and produces yams, cocoa- 
nuts, bread fruit, sweet potatoes, 
bananas, etc. The people bear a high 
character for virtue, contentedness and 
uprightness, and choose their own pas- 
tor and magistrate. 

Pitch, a term applied to a variety 
of resinous substances of a dark color 
and brilliant luster, obtained from the 
various kinds of tar produced in the 
destructive distillation of wood, coal, 
etc. Pitch is extensively used in ship- 
building for closing seams, also for 
coating and preserving wood and iron. 

Pitchblende, or Uraninite. See 
RADIUM. 

Pitcher Plant. The name is ap- 
plied to any plant with a pitcher-like 
appendage. The California pitcher 
plant is well known in that region. 

Pitch Stone, a vitreous rock of 
pitch-like luster and imperfect con- 
ehoidal fracture; brittle. Analyses 
indicate that it is probably a vitreous 
form of quartz, felsite, or of trachyte. 
Color mostly blackish-green or dark 
olive-green. 

Pitchnrim Beans, the name given 
to a South American species of laurel, 
the drupes of which are used by choco- 
late makers as a substitute for vanilla. 

Pithecanthropus Erectus, the 
name given to the fossil remains of a 
prehistoric animal found in Java, and 
which represents a form intermediate 
between man and the higher apes. Re- 
cent explorations indicate that this 
animal may yet be living in remote 
Java forests. 

Pithom, one of the store cities 
which the children of Israel built for 
Pharaoh (Exod. i: 11), conclusively 
identified in 1883 by the excavations of 
M. Naville with the deserted Arab 
village Tell El-Maskhuta, on the fresh- 
water canal and railway line from 
Cairo to Ismailia. about half-way be- 
tween Ismailia and Tell El-Kebir. 



Pittsburg 

Pitman, Benn, an American pho- 
nographer ; born in Trowbridge, Eng- 
land, July 24, 1822; brother of Sir 
Isaac Pitman, the inventor of phonog- 
raphy ; was educated in his brother's 
academy ; lectured and taught phonog- 
raphy throughout Great Britain for 
10 years. He came to the United 
States in 1853, and founded the Pho- 
nographic Institute in Cincinnati ; in- 
vented the electro-process of relief en- 
graving; was military recorder of 
State trials in the Civil War. D. 1910. 

Pitman, Sir Isaac, an English 
stenographer ; born in Trowbridge, 
England, Jan. 4, 1813. He was the 
inventor of the phonetic system of 
shorthand writing and published his 
first treatise on the subject entitled 
" Stenographic Soundhand " in 1837. 
He was the head of the Phonetic Insti- 
tute at Bath, and was identified with 
the spelling reform. He died Jan. 
22, 1897. 

Pitt, 'William, an English states- 
man ; born in Hayes, England, May 
28, 1759 ; was educated at Cambridge 
University ; studied law and was elect- 
ed to Parliament in 1780. In 1783 
he became prime minister ; was active 
in the negotiations of peace with the 
United States, and was instrumental 
in the passage of many important 
measures. He died in Putney, Eng- 
land, Jan. 23, 1806. For the elder 
Pitt see Chatham. 

Pittsburg (according to its city 
charter, Pittsburgh), a city, port of 
entry, and county-seat of Allegheny 
co., Pa. ; at the confluence of the 
Monougahela and Allegheny rivers, 
353 miles W. of Philadelphia; area, 
41 square miles; pop. (1910), includ- 
ing Allegheny city, 533,905. 

The city owns a waterworks system, 
costing over $7,000,000. The reser- 
voirs have a storage capacity of 68,- 
000,000 gallons, and the water is dis- 
tributed through 300 miles of mains. 
There are in all 230 miles of streets, 
of which 200 miles are paved. The 
sewer system covers 220 miles. The 
city is lighted by electricity. The an- 
nual death rate averages 19 per 1,000. 

The principal public buildings are 
the Allegheny court house, the Car- 
negie Library and Institute, with 
museum, music hall, and art gallery, 
find having an endowment of $2,000,- 
000 ; the United States Government 



iPittsfield 

Building, the West Pennsylvania Ex- 
position Society's Buildings; Munici- 
pal Hall; United States Arsenal, and 
the Western State Penitentiary. 

The two chief industries are the pro- 
duction of iron and steel ; but there 
are many other flourishing manufac- 
tures. The city is well known as the 
Iron City, for there is nothing in the 
iron industry which is not here man- 
ufactured. The capacity of the iron 
mills is over 800,000 tons annually, 
and that of the Bessemer steel mills 
upward of 400,000 tons. There are in 
Pittsburg besides blast furnaces and 
iron and steel works over 1,500 man- 
ufacturing establishments, employing 
more than 60,000 persons. The schools 
are flourishing and their accommoda- 
tions keep pace with increasing popu- 
lation. There are over 200 churches 
in Pittsburg. The most important of 
these are Trinity (P. E.), St. Peter's 
(P. E.), First Presbyterian, United 
Evangelical (German), First Baptist, 
English Evangelical, etc. 

In 1754, at the suggestion of George 
Washington, the English began to 
erect a blockhouse on the present site 
of the city. They were driven away 
by the French, who built a fort at the 
junction of the two rivers and named 
it Du Quesne. In 1758, after two 
unsuccessful attempts to retake the 
place, the English under General 
Forbes made a third attempt, and the 
French burned and evacuated the fort. 
In the following year another fort was 
erected here, named in honor of Will- 
iam Pitt. The British withdrew from 
the post in 1772, and it was held by 
Virginia in 1775-1779. The place was 
incorporated as a city March 18, 1816. 
In 1877 a railroad strike and riot oc- 
curred in which much damage was 
done to railroad property, and for 
which Allegheny county had to settle 
at a cost of $4,000,000. 
I Pittsfield, city and capital of 
Berkshire county, Mass.; on the 
Housatonic river and the Boston & 
Maine and other railroads; 40 miles 
N. W. of Springfield; is chiefly en- 
gaged in the manufacture of cotton, 
woolen, and knit goods, electrical 
apparatus, flour, silk, and shoes; con- 
tains a beautiful white marble Court 
House, Berkshire Athenaeum, with 
Historical Society, Public Library, 
and Museum and Art Gallery, St. Jo- 



Fins 

soph's Cathedral (R. C.), Bishop 
Training School for Nurses, head- 
quarters of the Agassiz Association, 
House of Mercy, and a public park 
with statue of " The Color Bearer." 
Pop. (1910) 32,121. 

Pins, the name of a number of 
Popes, as follows: 

Pius I., succeeded Hyginus in 142, 
and died in 157 

Pius II. (^Eneas Sylvani 
colomini); born in Tuscany in 1405, 
was chosen to succeed Calixtus III. 
in 1458, and died in 1464. 

Pius V. (Michele Ghislieri) ; born 
in Piedmont in 1504, and early 
entered the Dominican order. He so 
distinguished himself by his austere 
life, and his zeal against " heretics," 
that he was appointed inquisitor in 
Lombardy, and afterward inquisitor- 
general. He was created cardinal in 
1557, and was chosen to succeed Pius 
IV., in 1566. He died in May, 1572. 

Pius VI. (Giovanni Angelo Bras- 
chi) ; born in Cesena in 1717, and 
succeeded Clement XIV. in 1775. 
His first act was to make a reform in 
the public treasury; he then com- 
pleted the museum in the Vatican ; 
but the greatest work of his pontificate 
was the draining of the Pontine 
marshes. Basseyille was sent as envoy 
from the republic of France to Rome, 
where he behaved with so much in- 
solence, that the people assassinated 
him in 1793. General Duphot entered 
the city with his troops to restore or- 
der, but the papal soldiers routed them, 
and Duphot was slain. On this Bona- 
parte entered Italy, and made the 
Pope prisoner in the capitol, which 
was plundered. The venerable pontiff 
was carried away by the victors, and 
hurried over the Alps to Valence, 
where he died Aug. 29, 1799. 

Pius VII. (Gregorio Barnaba 
Chiaramonti) ; born in Cesena, in 
1742 ; became a Benedictine monk ; 
was created cardinal in 1785, and after 
the death of Pius VI., was chosen, 
after long deliberations of the con- 
clave, to succeed him March, 1800. In 
1804 the Pope went to Paris and 
crowned Napoleon emperor, returning 
to Rome in May, 1805. Soon after 
Ancona was seized by the French, and 
the great quarrel between Napoleon 
and the Pope began. Pius was ar- 
rested by the French officer Miollis 



Pius 

and sent to Savona, and afterward to 
Fontainebleau, whence he was not per- 
mitted to return to Italy till January, 
1814. The Congress of Vienna re- 
stored the States of the Church to 
the Pope, who applied himself thence- 
forth to internal reforms. He re- 
established the Jesuits and the In- 
quisition. He died, Aug. 20, 1823. 

Pius VIII. (Cardinal Castiglione) , 
became Pope in succession to Leo 
XII., in 1829. After a short pontifi- 
cate of one year, he died in 1830. 

Pius IX. (Giovanni Mario Mastai 
Ferretti) ; born in Singaglia, May 13, 
1790 ; was intended for the army, but 
resolved to devote himself to the 
Church. He was nominated by Pius 
VII. on a mission to the government 
of Chile, and immediately on his re- 
turn to Rome he was appointed by Leo 
XII. to one of the most important of 
the ecclesiastico-civil departments of 
administration. Iii 1840 he was created 
Cardinal-Archbishop of Imola, in the 
Romagna. Pope Gregory XVI. died 
June 1, 1846, and Cardinal Ferretti 
was elected to the papacy under the 
name of Pius IX., June 16. But the 
French Revolution of 1848 gave a 
much more powerful impulse to the en- 
thusiasm of the Italian patriots. These 
sweeping changes the Pope was not 
prepared to support, and from that 
moment his popularity began to de- 
cline. The popular disaffection was 
greatly increased on his taking for his 
minister Count Rossi, one of the most 
aristocratic and unpopular men in 
Rome. Count Rossi was assassinated 
Nov. 15, and Pius himself, a few days 
later, escaped from Rome in disguise, 
and arrived safely in Gaeta, the first 
town in the Neapolitan territory, 
whither he was followed by the mem- 
bers of the papal court and the diplo- 
matic corps. The Pope remained near- 
ly a year and a half at Gaeta and 
Portici. During his absence, Rome, 
which was in the possession of the 
nat'ive troops under Garibaldi, was 
besieged, and at last taken by storm 
by the French army under General 
Oudinot, after sustaining some re- 
verses. The Pope left Portici, April 
4, 1850, escorted by Neapolitan and 
French dragoons, and accompanied by 
the King of Naples and several mem- 
bers of his family. He crossed the 
frontier at Terracina, April 6, and re- 
entered Rome April 12, amid the 



Plus 

thunder of French cannon. His chief 
ecclesiastical acts are the formal def- 
inition of the dogma of the Immaculate 
Conception, in December, 1854; and 
the bull summoning the Ecumenical 
Council of 1809-1870, which promul- 
gated the doctrine of papal infallibil- 
ity. In September, 1870, the French 
troops were withdrawn from Rome, 
and in October the States of the 
Church were annexed to the kingdom 
of Italy, thus ending the temporal 
power of the Popes. He died Feb. 7, 
1878. 

Pius X., the present Pope of Rome, 
family name Giuseppe Sarto (in En- 
glish, Joseph Taylor), is an Italian, 
a native of Treviso, where he was 
born in 1835. It is a curious coinci- 
dence that in 1303, exactly six hun- 
dred years ago, another native of Tre- 
viso was elected Pope. The Sarto 
family consisted of two boys and six 
girls. Giuseppe was the younger 
brother. The family was poor, and 
to this day all the members are in 
humble life. The new Pope's elder 
brother holds a small office under the 
Government, for which he receives a 
salary of eighty dollars a year. Two 
of his sisters, being unmarried, have 
resided with their now famous brother. 
He performed the duties of a humble 
parish priest until 1884, when Pope 
Leo made him Bishop of Mantua, and, 
nine years later, he was made a Car- 
dinal and Patriarch of Venice. He 
took no part in the political affairs of 
the Church, and seldom went to Rome, 
but devoted himself to his own diocese, 
where he won the respect of Protest- 
ants, as well as Catholics, by his 
charities, his interest in social re- 
forms, and his kindness and courtesy. 
It is stated that he was so generous 
in his gifts to the poor of his diocese, 
that he impoverished himself to such 
a degree that he has been known to 
pawn his official ring, to provide him- 
self with funds for a temporary emer- 
gency. It was noticed after his elec- 
tion to the Pontificate, by a Cardinal 
who was making an appointment with 
him, that he was wearing a nickel 
watch, with a common silk guard. 
He has chosen to be called Pius X., 
but the inferences usually drawn from 
the choice of a name are ar fault in 
this instance, as it is not known which 
of his nine predecessors of that name 



Flute 

he regards as a model. He is said to 
be a man of profound learning and 
sterling honesty of character. Ameri- 
cans who haw met him say that in 
personal appearance and manner he 
bears a striking resemblance to the 
late Phillips Brooks. He has dis- 
pensed with some of the stately sur- 
roundings which the late Pope main- 
tained. He was elected Aug. 4, 1903. 

Piutc. See PAIUTE. 

Pizarro, Francisco, a Spanish ex- 
plorer, the conqueror of Peru. He 
embarked in 1510, with some other ad- 
venturers, for America ; and, in 1524, 
he associated at Panama with Diego 
de Almagro and Hernandez Lucque, a 
priest, in an enterprise to make fresh 
discoveries. In this voyage they 
reached the coast of Peru, but being 
too few to make any attempt at a set- 
tlement, Pizarro returned to Spain. 
Having raised some money, he was en- 
abled again, in 1531, to visit Peru, 
where a civil war was raging between 
Huascar, the legitimate monarch, and 
his half-brother, Atahualpa, the reign- 
ing inca. Pizarro, by pretending to 
take the part of the latter, was per- 
mitted to march into the interior where 
he made the unsuspecting king prison- 
er; then extorting from him, as it is 
Baid, a house full of the precious 
metals by way of ransom, he had him 
tried for a pretended conspiracy, and 
condemned him to be burned, allow- 
ing him first to be strangled, as a re- 
ward for becoming a Christian. In 
1533 the conqueror laid the founda- 
tion of Lima ; but, in 1537, a contest 
erose between him and Almagro, who 
was defeated and executed. Pizarro 
was murdered by Almagro's followers, 
June 26, 1541. 

Pizarro, Gonzalo, half brother of 
the preceding ; born in 1502. His 
brother appointed him governor of 
Quito in 1540, and after the assas- 
sination of Francisco, he raised an 
army against the new viceroy, Blasco 
Nunez, and the latter was defeated 
and slain near Quito in 1546. But 
Pizarro^ did not long enjoy his suc- 
cess, being beaten, taken prisoner, and 
beheaded in 1548. 

Plague, a peculiarly malignant 
fever of the continued and contagious 
type, now believed to be almost identic- 
al with the worst kinds of typhus 
fever. The plague seems to have 



Plain 

been the black death of the 14th cen- 
tury. It was known by the name of 
plague when, in 1665, it slew in Lon- 
don 68,596 people, about one-third of 
the population. 

In th summer of 1896 a very malig- 
nant form of disease, known as the 
" bubonic " plague, made its appear- 
ance in Bombay, India, and spread 
with great rapidity. The bubonic 
plague receives its name from the 
fact that it attacks the lymphatic 
glands in the neck, armpits, groin, 
and other parts of the body. In gen- 
eral, the disease is spread in the same 
manner as cholera, except that the 
cholera germ must enter the intestinal 
tract, while the germ of the plague 
may attack any part of the mucous 
membran^ or be admitted by even the 
minutest abrasion of the skin. But 
while this germ is so virile and so 
easily taken into the system, it is one 
of the most easily killed by disin- 
fection. 

The Ten Plagues of Egypt were 10 
inflictions divinely sent upon the 
Egyptians to compel them te emanci- 
pate the Israelites from bondage and 
allow them to quit the land. The 
first plague consisted in the turning 
of the waters of Egypt into blood ; 
the second, of frogs that covered the 
land; the third, of lice annoying both 
man and beast ; the fourth of grievous 
swarms of flies; the fifth, of murrain 
that attacked the live stock ; the sixth, 
of boils " breaking forth with blains 
upon man and upon beast " ; the sev- 
enth, a severe thunder storm accom- 
panied by destructive hail ; the eighth, 
a plague of locusts that ate what the 
hail had spared ; the ninth, a darkness 
that could be felt ; the tenth, the death 
of the firstborn of man and beast 
among the Egyptians. 

Plain, an expanse of low-lying ter- 
ritory as distinguished from a table- 
land or plateau. Speaking broadly, 
the Western Hemisphere is the region 
of plains, and the Eastern of table- 
lands. Nevertheless, the former has 
in it what is called the Great North- 
ern plain, extending, with the one 
break hi the Ural Mountains, from the 
shores of the Atlantic nearly to Ber- 
ing's Strait, and from the Arctic Ocean 
to the Caucasus and Altai Moun- 
tains. In this hemisphere are the 
Great Central and the Atlantic plains 



Flainfield 



Plaster of Paris 



of North America, and the great 
South American plain. " The Plains " 
was a vast stretch of country of 
the United States which emigrants 
crossed in going to the Pacific, now 
divided into prosperous States. 

Flainfield, a city in Union ceunty, 
N. J.; on the Central Railroad of New 
Jersey and a continuation of the Or- 
ange Mountains; 24 miles W. by S. of 
New York city; is largely a beautiful 
residential place, but has manufac- 
tories of printing-presses, safes, cloth- 
ing, hats, and machinery; and contains 
Muhlenberg Hospital, and public 
library. Pop. (1910) 20,550. 

Plane Tree. Tall trees with pon- 
derous trunks, the bark of which peels 
off annually, leaving the surface 
smooth and bare. American plane 
tree has less deeply divided and in- 
dented leaves than the plane tree of 
Western Asia and Cashmere, and no 
membranous bracts along the female 
flowers. On the banks of the Ohio 
and the Mississippi there are trees 10 
to 16 feet in diameter. Called in the 
United States also, buttonwood and 
water beech, and sycamore, and in 
Canada, cotton tree. 

Planet, a heavenly body which, to 
old-time observers, seemed to wander 
about aimlessly in the sky. Sub- 
sequently it was discovered that the 
seemingly erratic bodies were as reg- 
ular in their movements as the others, 
revolving, like the earth, around the 
eun. Shining only with reflected light, 
they gleam with a steady radiance in 
place of twinkling like the fixed stars. 

Planetoids, the name given to a 
great group of minute planets placed 
together between Mars and Jupiter. 
On Jan. 1, 1801, a planetary body, 
afterward called Ceres, was found in 
the part of the solar system theoretic- 
ally indicated ; it was far more di- 
minutive in size than had been ex- 
pected. Within the next six years three 
more asteroids (Pallas, Juno, and 
Vesta) were found in proximity to 
Ceres, and up to November, 1898, 
426 of these small planets had been 
discovered, 70 by Americans. All are 
of minute size, and some angular in 
place of spherical. 

Plank, Fort, or Fort Blank, a 
Revolutionary fort in Montgomery co., 
N. Y., 2 miles N. W. of Fort Plain. 



Plantagenets, the surname of a 
line of English kings of French origin 
on the paternal side Henry II. of 
England, the first of the line, ascended 
the English throne in 1154, and his 
descendants reigned during 331 years, 
the last monarch of the line being 
Richard III., who fell at the battle of 
Bosworth, in 1485. In the 14th cen- 
tury the line became divided into two- 
great rival factions, those of York 
and of Lancaster, known as the parties 
of the Red and White Rose. 

Plantain, a small tree closely akin 
to the banana, from which it differs in 
not having purple spots on its stem. 
The fruit also is larger and more 
angular. It is very delicious and is 
thoroughly wholesome. The name plan- 
tain is also applied to a common weed, 
the seeds of which are used as food 
for birds. 

Plantain Eaters, a family of Pie- 
like birds, of African distribution, 
arboreal habits, and vegetarian diet. 

Plantation, a term formerly used 
to designate a colony. The term was 
latterly applied to an estate in the 
Southern States, the West Indies, etc., 
cultivated chiefly by negroes. The 
term planter is applied to the owner 
of a plantation. 

Plantin, Christophe, a French 
printer ; born in St. Avertin, near 
Tours, in 1514, and settled as a book- 
binder at Antwerp in 1549 ; some six 
years later he began to print. The 
most noted of all his publications is 
the " Biblia Polyglotta." Plantin's 
editions of the Bible in Latin, Hebrew, 
and Dutch, and editions of the Greek 
and Latin classics, are scarcely less 
celebrated. He set up printing es- 
tablishments in Leyden and Paris, and 
these, with that in Antwerp, were car- 
ried on by the husbands of his daugh- 
ters. His office in Antwerp remained 
in the possession of the descendants of 
John Moretus, his son-in-law, till it 
was bought by the city in 1876 for 
$240,000; out of it was created the 
" Musee Plantin." Plantin died in 
Antwerp, July 1, 1589. 

Plaster, calcined gypsum or sul- 
phate of lime, used, when mixed with 
water, for finishing walls, molds, etc. 

Plaster of Paris, the name given 
to gypsum when ground and used fo^ 
taking casts, etc. 



Plata 

Plata, Rio de la, River of Silver 
a body of water which extends fo: 
more than 200 miles between the Ar 
gentine Republic and Uruguay, an< 
. is not, strictly speaking, a river, bu 
rather an estuary, formed by the June 
tion of the great rivers Parana anc 
Uruguay. It flows into the Atlantk 
between. Cape St. Antonio and Cape 
St. Mary> and has here a width of 170 
miles. It was discovered in 1515 by 
Juan Diaz de Solis, and called Dio de 
Solis ; it owes its present name to the 
famous navigator Cabot. 

Plating, the act, art, or process ol 
covering articles with a thin coating 
of metal ; especially the art of cover- 
ing baser metals with a thin coating 
of gold or silver. 

Platinum, a tetrad metallic ele- 
ment discovered first in the United 
States ; and still largely produced 
there, also found in the Ural chain, 
and in copper ore from the Alps. Pure 
forged platinum takes a high luster, is 
nearly as white as silver, and very 
ductile and malleable. It resists the 
strongest heat of the forge fire, but 
can be fused by the electric current ; 
is the heaviest known substance ex- 
cepting osmium and iridium, is un- 
alterable in the air, dissolves slowly in 
nitromuriatic acid, but is not at- 
tacked by any single acid. 

Plato, a Greek philosopher ; born in 
Athens or in JEgina, in May, 429 B. c., 
the year in which Pericles died. He 
was a disciple of Socrates, and after 
the death of that philosopher Plato 
himself became a teacher in the plane 
tree grove of the Academia. He had 
a great number of disciples, many of 
whom became eminent teachers. Among 
them was Aristotle, distinguished as 
the " Mind of the School," and per- 
haps Demosthenes. Women are said 
to have attended. In his 40th year, 
Plato visited Sicily, but he offended 
the tyrant Dionysius by the political 
opinions he uttered, and only escaped 
death through the influence of his 
friend, Dion. Two later visits to the 
court of the younger Dionysius were 
the only interruptions to his calm life 
as a teacher and writer at Athens. 
He died in the act of writing, it is 
said, in May, 347 B. c. 

Platoff, Matvei Ivanovich, 
Count, a Russian general ; born in 
Azov, Russia, Aug. 17, 1757. He 



Platte 

served in the Turkish campaign of 
1770-1771 ; he took part in the cam- 
paigns against the French, 1805-1807. 
He was enthusiastically welcomed, and 
presented with a sword of honor on 
the occasion of his visit to London in 
company with Blucher. After the war 
he retired to his own country, and 
died near Tcherkask, Jan. 15, 1818. 

Platonic Love, an affection sub- 
sisting between two persons of differ- 
ent sex, which is presumed to be un- 
accompanied by any sensuous emotions, 
and to be based on moral or intellect- 
ual affinities. The expression has orig- 
inated in the view of Plato, who held 
that the common sexual love of the 
race, harassed and afflicted with flesh- 
ly longings, is only a subordinate form 
of that perfect and ideal love of truth 
which the soul should cultivate. 

Platt, Thomas Collier, an Ameri- 
can legislator ; born in Ovvego, N. Y., 
July 15, 1833 ; was a member of the 
class of 1853 of Yale College, but 
was compelled to give up on account 
of ill health ; received the honorary 
degree of M. A. from that college in 
1876 ; entered mercantile life soon 
after leaving school ; was county clerk 
of the county of Tioga in 1859, 1860 
and 1861 ; was elected to the 43d and 
44th Congresses ; was elected United 
States Senator Jan. 18, 1881, and 
resigned that office May 16 of the same 
year, with Roscoe Conkling, both Sen- 
ators being offended because President 
Garfield made New York appoint- 
ments without consulting them; was 
chosen secretary and director of the 
United States Express Co. in 1879, 
and in 1880 was elected president of 
the company; was member and presi- 
dent of the board of quarantine com- 
missioners of New York from 1880 till 
L888 ; was delegate to the National 
Republican convention of 1876, 1880, 
1884, 1888, 1892 and 1896 ; was presi- 
dent of the Southern Central railroad ; 
was a member of the National Repub- 
ican committee ; and was elected 
Jnited States Senator in 1896, and re- 
elected in 1903. Senator Platt hag 
>een married twice. His first wife 
died Feb. 13, 1901, and he was mar- 
ried to Mrs. Lillian T. Janeway, of 
Vashington, widow of Dr. Theodore 
Janeway. Died March 6, 1910. 

Platte, a river in the United States, 
vhich rises in the Rocky Mountains 



Playfair 

by two branches, called respectively 
the North and South Forks of the 
Platte. The united stream falls into 
the Missouri after a course of about 
1,600 miles. 

Playfair, Sir Lyon, a British 
scientist; son of Dr. G. Playfair, in- 
spector-general of hospitals in Bengal ; 
born in Meerut, Bengal, May 21, 1819. 
His able reports on the sanitary con- 
dition of the large towns of Great 
Britain brought him prominently be- 
fore the public. He held several prom- 
inent appointments under Liberal gov- 
ernments. He died May 29, 1898. 

Pleasonton, Alfred, an American 
military officer ; born in Washington, 
D. C.. June 7, 1824; died there Feb. 
17, 1897. He served with distinction 
in the Mexican, the Sioux, and the 
Civil Wars. 

Plebeians, or Plebs, in ancient 
Rome, one of the great orders of the 
Roman people. The whole government 
of the state, with the enjoyment of all 
its offices, belonged to the patricians, 
with whom the plebeians could not even 
intermarry. The civil history of Rome 
is composed of the struggles of the 
plebeians to claim a place in the com- 
monwealth, to which they were en- 
titled. It met with success when (286 
B. c. ) the Lex Hortensia gave the 
enactments passed at the plebeian as- 
semblies, the force of law. 

Plehve, Wenceslas Konstantin- 
ovitch, von, a Russian Minister of 
the Interior; born in Poland in 1838; 
the son of a poor noble. He studied 
law in Moscow, became assistant-pro- 
curator, and later was appointed Im- 
perial Counsel of the Courts of War- 
saw. Fearless, and sincere in his 
belief that the sternest methods were 
the best means of governing the mixed 
Russian masses, his suppression of all 
attempts at liberal reform, while win- 
ning the applause of the Russians, 
gained him the hatred of the Poles. 
Finns, and Jews. He was assassinated 
by a bomb thrown at his carriage, 
July 28, 1904. 

Pleiades, or Pleiads, a group of 
stars in the constellation Taurus, the 
Bull. The stars are so close together 
that it is difficult to say how many 
are seen by the naked eye. 

Plesiosaurus, the typical group of 
the order Plesiosauria, extinct am- 



Pliiiy 

phibian animals. Its organization 
would fit it for swimming on or near 
the surface, and the length and flexi- 
bility of its neck would be eminently 
serviceable in capturing its prey. 

Pleura, in anatomy, plural, serous 
membranes forming two shut sacs, 
each possessed of a visceral and a 
parietal portion. The former covers 
the lungs, and the latter the ribs, the 
intercostal spaces, etc. 

Plenrisy, inflammation of the pleu- 
ra, going on to exudation, fluid effu- 
sion, absorption, and adhesion. 

Pleuro -pneumonia, pneumonia 
with bronchitis, the former constitut- 
ing the chief disease. 

Plevna, a town of Bulgaria on the 
Vid, an affluent of the Danube, 85 
miles N. E. of Sofia. It is noted for 
the desperate resistance of its Turkish 
garrison under Osman Pasha, from 
July to Dec. 1877, during the Russo- 
Turkish War. Pop. 18,700. 

Pleyel, Ignaz, composer ; born 
near Vienna, Austria, in 1757 ; died at 
Paris, 1831. He studied under Haydn, 
and rapidly acquired a European rep- 
utation. His works, chiefly instru- 
mental, are pleasing and expressive. 

Plimsoll, Samuel, " the sailor's 
friend," an English legislator ; born in 
Bristol, England, Feb. 10, 1824. In 
1854 he started business in the coal 
trade in London, and shortly aftenyard 
begr.n to interest himself in the sailors 
of the mercantile marine, and the 
dangers to which they were exposed, 
especially through overloading, and the 
employment of unseaworthy ships. He 
entered Parliament in 1868, and suc- 
ceeded in getting passed the Merchant 
Shipping Act in 1876. In 1890 the 
fixing of the load line was taken out 
of the owner's discretion and made a 
duty of the Board of Trade. Mr. 
Plimsoll retired from parliamentary 
life in 1880. Died June 3, 1898. 

Pliny, the Elder (Caius Plinius 
Secundus), one of the most celebrated 
writers of ancient Rome ; born in 
Verona or Como A. D. 23, served in the 
army of Germany, afterward became 
an advocate, and was ultimately pro- 
curator in Spain. Being at Misenum 
with a fleet, which he commanded, on 
the 24th of August, A. D., 79, his sister 
desired him to observe a remarkable 
cloud that had just appeared. Pliny 



Pliny 

discovered that it proceeded from 
Mount Vesuvius, ordered his galleys to 
sea, to assist the inhabitants on the 
coast, while he himself steered as near 
as possible to the foot of the mountain. 
Pliny and his companions landed at 
Stabise, but were obliged to leave the 
town for the fields, where the danger 
was equally great, from the shower of 
fire which fell on them. In this state 
they made their way to the shore, but 
Pliny fell down dead, suffocated prob- 
ably by the noxious vapors. The erup- 
tion which caused his death was that 
in which the cities of Herculaneum 
and Pompeii were destroyed. His 
name and fame are preserved by his 
great work entitled " Natural His- 
tory," in 37 books, one of the most 
precious monuments of antiquity ex- 
tant. Its contents are immensely 
varied in character. It is a laborious 
compilation, from almost innumerable 
sources, of facts, observations, and 
statements on almost all branches of 
natural science, on the fine arts, on in- 
ventions, and other subjects. It has 
been translated into most European 
languages. 

Pliny, the Younger (Caius Plin- 
ius Caecilius Secundus), nephew of the 
preceding ; born in Como A. D. 62. In 
nis 18th year he began to plead in the 
forum ; he went as military tribune to 
Syria. He was promoted to the con- 
sular dignity by Trajan. He was aft- 
erward made proconsul of Bithynia, 
from whence he wrote to Trajan his 
well-known account of the Christians, 
and their manner of worship. The 
44 Epistles of Pliny " are agreeably 
"written, and very instructive, and have 
been translated into English. He died 
after 112. 

Pliocene, or Pleiocene, the epi- 
thet applied to the most modern of the 
three periods into which Lvell divided 
the Tertiary. Its distinguished charac- 
ter is that the larger part of the fossil 
shells are of recent species, divided into 
the Older and the Newer Pliocene. In 
the Older, the extinct species of shells 
form a large minority of the whole; 
in the Newer, the shells are almost all 
of living species. 

Plover, the common name of 
several wading birds; specifically, the 
golden, yellow, or green plover. Plovers 
are gregarious in habit, and have a 
wide geographical range. 



__ Plains 

Plum, the fruit of various trees of 
the genus Prunus. It is a native of 
Asia Minor, whence it was introduced 
into Europe at an early period, and 
later into America. There are about 
a dozen species, differing in size, form, 
color, and taste. 

Plumed Knight, a name given to 
James G. Blaiue, and originating in a 
speech made by Col. Robert G. Inger- 
soll, in nominating Mr. Blaine for the 
presidency. 

Plush, a shaggy pile cloth of vari- 
ous materials. An unshorn velvet of 
cotton, silk, or mixed fiber, sometimes 
of a silk nap and cotton back. It 
kas two warps, one of which is 
brought to the surface to make the 
nap. 

Plutarch, a Greek biographer and 
moralist, a native of Chseronea, in 
Brootia. In A. D. 66 he was a pupil of 
the philosopher Ammonius at Delphi. 
He visited Italy, and spent some time 
at Rome, lecturing there on philoso- 
phy as early as the reign of Domitian ; 
but his name is not mentioned by any 
of the eminent Roman writers, his 
contemporaries. He returned to his 
native town, where he held various 
magistracies, and was appointed priest 
of Apollo. He was still living in 120, 
but the time of his death is not 
known. His great work is entitled 
" Parallel Lives," and consists of bi- 
ographies of 46 eminent Greeks and 
Romans, arranged in pairs, each pair 
accompanied by a comparison of char- 
acters. 

Pluto, in mythology, the son of 
Saturn and Ops, inherited his father's 
kingdom with his brothers, Jupiter 
and Neptune. He received as his 
share the infernal regions. All the 
goddesses refused to marry him ; but, 
on seeing Proserpine, the daughter of 
Ceres, he became enamored of her, and 
carried her away. Black victims, and 
particularly a bull, were the only sac- 
rifices offered to him. The dog Cer- 
berus watched at his feet, the harpies 
hovered around him, Proserpine sat on 
his left, and the Parcse occupied his 
right hand. 

Plutns, in Greek mythology, the 
god of riches. He was represented as 
blind, because he distributed riches in- 
discriminately ; he was lame, because 
he came slowly and gradually; and he 



Pneumonia 



had wings, to ultimate that he flew 
away with more velocity than he ap- 
proached mankind. 
Plymouth, a town and county-seat 

4 of Plymouth co., Mass. ; on Plymouth 
Bay, 37 miles S. E. of Boston. 
Plymouth is of importance as the spot 
where the Pilgrim Fathers landed on 
Dec. 21, 1620. A portion of the rock 
on which they first stepped has been 

. placed in front of Pilgrim Hall, in 
which are preserved old books, paint- 
ings, pictures, and other valuable rel- 
ics. The rock itself is in Water 
Street, and is covered by a handsome 
, granite canopy. Plymouth also has 
the National monument, 81 feet high, 
erected to the Pilgrims at a cost of 
$200,000, and dedicated in 1889. Pop. 
(1900) 9,592; (1910) 12,141. 




PLYMOUTH BOCK. 

Plymouth, a town and county-seat 
of Washington co., N. G. ; on a small 
creek, a few miles S. of the Roanoke 
river, where it enters Albemarle 
Sound; 105 miles E. of Raleigh. It 
fell into the hands of the Federal 
troops early in 1862, and was taken 
in April, 1864, by the ^Confederates 
with the aid of the iron-clad ram " Al- 
bemarle." The " Albemarle " was 
blown up with a torpedo by Lieut. W. 
B. CushSng on Oct. 27, and on Oct. 
31 Plymouth was reoccupied. 

Plymouth, a borough in Luzerne 
county, Pa.; on the Susquehanna 
river and the Delaware, Lackawanna 
& Western railroad; 4 miles W. of 
Wilkesbarre; is in the Wyoming Val- 
ley; has large coal mines' nearby; and 
contains collieries, hosiery mills, and 
manufactories -of mining machinery. 
Pop. (1910) 16,996. 

Plymouth, a seaport, municipal 
E. 118. 



and parliamentary borough of Eng- 
land in Devonshire, at the head o-f 
Plymouth Sound, between the estu- 
aries of the Plym and Tamar. Its 
chief importance lies in its position 
as a naval station. To secure safe an- 
chorage in the sound a stupendous 
breakwater has been constructed at a 
cost of about $10,000,000. The West- 
ern Harbor is devoted to the navy. 
Pop. (1901) 107,509. 

Plymouth. Brethren, a body 
which arose almost simultaneously in 
Dublin and Plymouth, about 1830, 
and, as they called themselves " The 
Brethren," outsiders came to know 
them as " Plymouth Brethren " from 
the town where they had fixed their 
headquarters. Their communities are 
of what is known as the Evangelical 
Calvinistic type. They baptize all 
adults, whether previously baptized 
or not, and observe the Sacrament 
of the Lord's Supper weekly. There 
are four bodies in the United States, 
with 10,566 members. 

Pneumatic Dispatch, propulsion 
by means of compressed air or by 
forming a vacuum. Propulsion by 
compressed air has of recent years 
been successfully applied to a variety 
of practical uses. Parcels are thus 
conveyed, and internal communication 
in warehouses, hotels, etc., is carried 
on by its means. New York, Phila- 
delphia, and other American cities use 
a pneumatic mail dispatching system. 
The pneumatic dispatch plant con- 
nected with the Philadelphia postofEce 
is in many respects the most complete 
plant of the sort in the world. It has 
been in use since Feb. 17, 1893. In 
the annual report of the Postmaster- 
General to Congress for 1901, he ad- 
vocated the increased use of the pneu- 
matic dispatch service throughout the 
United States. See ATMOSPHEEIO 
RAILWAY. 

Pneumatic Gun, a gun operated 
iy compressed air. The firing is done 
by pulling a lanyard. 

Pneumatics, the science whicb 
treats ot the mechanical properties of 
air and other gases, investigating their 
weight, pressure, elasticity, condensa- 
tion, etc. Air being a vehicle of 
sound, pneumatics includes also the 
science of acoustics. 

Pneumonia, inflammation of the 
lung, usually caused by exposure to 



Po 



Poet Laureate 



cold or wet, a cold draught or chill 
after being overheated, injury to the 
chest, irritation, or m a secondary af- 
fection in smallpox, typhoid or puer- 
peral fever, and other low wasting dis- 
eases. 

Po, the largest river of Italy, rises 
on Monte Viso, one of the Cottian 
Alps, at an altitude of 6,405 feet, 
close to the French frontier. It has 
an entire length of 300 miles, and 
drains an area of nearly 28,900 square 
miles. Below Piacenza its stream has 
from ante-Roman days been artificially 
embanked along great stretches with 
double lines of embankments on each 
side. 

Poaching, the trespassing on an- 
other's property for the purpose of 
killing or stealing game or fish. While 
nearly every State, if not every one, 
has game laws, they are enacted in 
the public interest, and bear no sim- 
ilarity to the game laws of Great 
Britain, which are feudal in their 
character, and intended to reserve for 
the wealthy alone the recreations of 
hunting and fashing. -Poaching in the 
English sense is unknown in America. 
In England when a person's land ad- 
joins a stream where there is no ebb 
and flow that person is assumed to 
have an exclusive right to fish in the 
stream as far as his land extends, 
and up to the middle of the stream; 
and so also when a person's land in- 
closes a pond, the fish in that pond be- 
long to him. Where several proper- 
ties are contiguous to the same lake 
the right of fishing in that lake belongs 
to the proprietors, in proportion to 
the value of their respective titles. Ex- 
clusive right of fishing in a public 
river, that is, one in which there is 
ebb and flow up to the tidal limit, or 
a portion of the sea, is held by some 
proprietors by virtue of royal fran- 
chises granted prior to the Magna 
Charta. 

Poealiontas, daughter of Powha- 
tan, a powerful Indian chief of Vir- 
ginia ; born about 1595. She display- 
ed a friendliness toward the British 
colonists, first at 12 years of age, in 
saving the life of Capt. John Smith, 
who had been captured and condemned 
to death by her father, and on several 
occasions making known to the En- 
glish their danger when about to be 
attacked. In 1612, while on a visit 



to a neighboring tribe, she was seized,, 
and Held as a hostage by the English, 
as a safeguard ; against the hostility of 
her tribe. While on shipboard she be- 
came acquainted with, and married 
John Rolfe, an Englishman, who took 
her to England, where, in 1616, she- 
was presented at court. She had one 
son, from whom numerous wealthy 
families of Virginia claim descent. 
She died in England, in 1617, while 
preparing to return to America. 

Pochard or Poachard, a duck, 
inhabiting the Arctic regions. Its cry,i 
has been compared to a serpent's hissJ 
Its flight is more rapid than that ot\ 
the wild duck. 

Fococke, Richard, an English 
tiaveler ; born in Southampton, Eng-. 
land, in 1704, and educated there and 
at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. 
He was the pioneer of Alpine travel. 
He died very suddenly in Charleville, 
near Tullamore, Sept. 15, 1765. 

Podargns, a genus of Australasian 
nocturnal birds of the goatsucker fam- 
ily. By day they are drowsy. 

Podophyllum, the May apple, 
called also the wild lemon. The fruit 
is eatable. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, an American 
poet and story-writer ; born in Bos- 
ton, Jan. 19, 1809. Left, an orphan 
early, he was adopted by John Allan, 
of Richmond, Va., and at the age of 
19 left this home and published his 
first volume of verse at Boston. He 
was a cadet at the United States Mili- 
tary Academy, 1830-1831; and sub- 
sequently embarked on a literary ca- 
reer. He was one of the most remark- 
able characters in literature, gifted: 
with genius, but apparently without 
any genuinesense of moral obligation 
to friends and benefactors. His place 
among American poets, however, will 
always be high. Poe died in Balti- 
more, Md., Oct. 7, 1849. 

Poet Laureate, an office in the 
household of the sovereigns of Great 
Britain. The first appointment of a 
poet laureate dates from the reign of 
Edward IV., the first patent being 
granted in 1630. It was formerly the 
duty of the poet laureate to write an 
ode on the birthday of the monarch, 
but this custom has been discontinued 
since the reign of George III. Among: 
those who have held this office are 



Poetry 

Dryden, Southey, Wordsworth, and 
Tennyson. Alfred Austin is the pres- 
ent incumbent. 

Poetry, that one of the fine arts 
which has for its object the creation of 
intellectual pleasure by the use of im- 
aginative and passionate language, 
which is generally, though not neces- 
sarily, formed in. regular measure ; the 
art of producing illusions of the imag- 
ination by means of language. Also 
poetical, imaginative, or passionate 
language or compositions, whether ex- 
pressed rhythmically or in prose. Thus, 
many parts of the prose translations 
of the Bible are genume poetry. 

Poincare, Raymond, a French 
statesman; born at Bar-le-Duc. France, 
Aug. 20, 1860: entered political life as a 
Deputy in 1886 : was successively Min- 
ister of Agriculture, Public Instruction, 
and Finance; vice-president of the 
Chamber of Deputies for four years; 
became Premier and Minister of Foreign 
Affairs, Jan. 14, 1912; and was elected 
President of the French Republic, for 
the term of seven years, Jan. 17, 
1913. 

Poison. Any agent which, when 
introduced into the animal organism, 
is capable of producing a morbid or 
deadly effect upon it. Antidotes vary 
with the kinds of poisons. In cases of 
poisoning by acrid and corrosive sub- 
stances, the fatty, mucilaginous sub- 
stances, as oil, milk, etc., sheathe and 
protect the coats of the stomach and 
bowels against the operation of poison. 
Against metallic poisons, substances 
are employed which form with the poi- 
son insoluble compounds, such as fresh- 
ly prepared hydrated oxide of iron, or 
dialysed iron for arsenic, albumin 
(white of egg) for mercury. Lime, 
chalk, and magnesia are the best reme- 
dies for powerful acids. Prussic acid 
is neutralized by alkalies and freshly 
precipitated oxide of iron. To arouse 
those poisoned by opium, use coffee and 
ammonia, and belladonna as an antag- 
onistic drug. Chloral-hydrate poison- 
ing is similarly treated ; and for strych- 
nia or nux vomica, animal charcoal in 
water and chloral-hydrate are used. 
Poisoning was common in ancient 
Rome, and in France and Italy during 
the 17th century, and recent American 
criminal records furnish noted cases 
Of poisoning by use of the mail. 



Poland 

Poison Ivy, a climbing shrub, a 
species of sumac, resembling the wood- 
bine, and very irritating to sensitive 
skins. Bathing the irritated parts 
with camphorated oil, vinegar, butter- 
milk, or with a decoction of sweet 
fern leaves, steeped in boiling water, 
are alleviating remedies. 

Poisson, Simeon-Denis, a French 
geometer ; born in Pithiviers, depart- 
ment of Loiret, June 21, 1781. He 
was one of the founders of the science 
of mathematical physics. He died 
April 25, 1840. 

Poke-weed, a North American 
branching herbaceous plant, which is 
naturalized in some parts of Europe 
and Asia ; the young shoots are some- 
times eaten in the United States as 
asparagus. 

Poland, once a large and important 
kingdom situated in the N. E. of Eu- 
rope ; now expunged from all maps as 
an independent country. It was the 
most level country in Europe, the Car- 
pathian Mountains on the S. and W. 
being the only mountain range of any 
height in the kingdom. The rivers of 
chief note are the Vistula, Bug, Nie- 
men, Dwina, Dnieper, and Dniester, 
either flowing into the Baltic or the 
Euxine. The principal mineral prod- 
ucts are iron, lead, gold, and silver, 
with salt, which last, from the abun- 
dance of the yield, and the size and 
richness of the mines, was considered 
as the natural wealth of the country. 
The climate is extremely cold, humid, 
and unhealthy; the soil generally fer- 
tile. Cattle and wheat are still the 
chief agricultural products. Poland 
was anciently divided into 12 prov- 
inces, each of which was governed by 
a chief, called a "Palatine." The 
Pols were originally a tribe of Van- 
dals, whose history is quite unknown 
before the 6th century. From the 13th 
century, the Poles became the most 
warlike nation in Europe, and from 
the time when the Turks first crossed 
the Hellespont and settled in Greece. 
Poland was denominated the shield or 
Eastern Europe. In 1674, John So- 
bieski was advanced to the kingly dig- 
nity, and under him the Polish arms 
acquired a glory that eclipsed all other 
nations of that age. Sobieski formed 
a league with the Emperoi? Leopold, 
and when that monarch had been de- 
feated, and his capital on the point of 



Poland 



Pole 



falling into the hands of the Turks, 
Sobieski advanced to Vienna, raised 
the siege, and, defeating the invaders, 
drove them back in rout to Constanti- 
nople. The war of succession that 
succeeded, between Charles XII. of 
Sweden and Frederic Augustus of Sax- 
ony, almost ruined the kingdom and 
hastened its fatal end. Count Poni- 
atowski who, in 1764, was elected to 
the throne by the name of Stanislaus 
Augustus, was the last King of Po- 
land. Under this unfortunate sover- 
eign, the country became the theater 
of a long and devastating war ; and 
Poland was divided between Catherine 
of Russia, Joseph II., Emperor of 
Germany, and Frederic of Prussia, 
This partition of an ancient nation 
was perpetrated in 1772. In 1795, a 
further dismemberment was effected 
between the three great powers, and 
the whole of Poland absorbed, except 
the ancient city of Cracow, with a few 
miles of adjacent country, which was 
left to point to future ages where the 
once warlike nation of Poland stood 
on the physical map of Europe. Of 
the three spoilers of Poland, Russia 
possesses the largest share of territory 
and population. Frequent insurrec- 
tions have occurred. In 1864, Poland 
was deprived of its administrative in- 
dependence, and in 1868 was incorpo- 
rated with Russia. There are two 
parties, Nationalists and Socialists, 
both opposed to the Russian govern- 
ment. Pop. (1909) 11,671,800. 

Poland, John. Scroggs, an Ameri- 
can military officer ; born in Princeton, 
Ind., Oct. 14, 1836 ; was graduated at 
the United States Military Academy 
and appointed a 2d lieutenant in 1861 ; 
served through the Civil War ; was as- 
sistant Professor of Geography, His- 
tory, Ethics and Drawing at the 
United States Military Academy in, 
1865-1869; and was chief of the De- 

Jartment of Law at the United States 
nfantry and Cavalry School, Fort 
Leavenworth, Kan., in 1881-1886. At 
the beginning of the war with Spain 
(1898) he was commissioned a Briga- 
dier-General of volunteers and com- 
manded the 2d division, 1st Army 
Corps, stationed at Cbickamauga 
Park, Ga. He died in Asheville, N. 
C., Aug. 8, 1898. 

Polar Bear, the largest individual 
of the family Ursidse, and oue o the 



best known. It is found over the 
whole of Greenland, but its numbers 
are decreasing, as it is regularly 
hunted for the sake of its skin. It is 
quite white when young, changing to 
a creamy tint in maturity. 

Polar Circles, two imaginary cir- 
cles of the earth parallel to the equa- 
tor. 

Polarization, the act of polarizing 
i. e., bestowing the quality of polarity 
or opposing poles. In galvanism, the 
production or a secondary current in, 
a galvanic battery contrary to the 
principal one, owing to the gradual 
chemical change in the elements of the 
battery. This change weakens, or may 
even destroy, the original current. 

In optics, a state into which the 
ethereal undulations which cause the 
sensation of light are brought under 
certain conditions. These undulations 
are perpendicular to the line of trans- 
mission of the wave, as in a stretched 
cord, but in a ray of common light, 
appear to take place successively in 
all directions, the vibrations succes- 
sively passing through rectilinear, el- 
liptical, and circular phases with in- 
conceivable rapidity. If the vibrations 
become, or are rendered, stable in any 
one form of orbit, the light is in the 
condition known as polarized. 

Pole, in astronomy, one of the twe 
points in which the axis of the earth 
is supposed to meet the sphere of the 
heavens. 

Pole, Reginald, Cardinal, a 
British statesman and Archbishop of 
Canterbury in the reign of Queen 
Mary, descended from the blood royal 
of England; born in Stourton Castle, 
in Staffordshire, in 1500. He was 
educated at Sheen Monastery and 
Magdalen College, Oxford ; and after 
obtaining preferment in the Church, 
went to Italy, where he long resided. 
On his return to England he opposed 
the divorce of Henry VIII. from Cath- 
erine of Aragon in such earnest terms, 
that the king drove him from his pres- 
ence, and never saw him more. He 
again left England, was made a cardi- 
nal in December, 1536, and had the 
offer of the popedom on the death of 
Paul III. When Mary ascended the 
throne, Pole returned to England as 
legate, in which capacity he absolved 
the Parliament from their sin of her- 
esy, and reconciled the nation to the 



Polecat 

Holy See. The very day after the 
burning of Cranmer, the cardinal was 
consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury. 
He survived the queen but one day, 
and died Nov. 18, 1558. 
Polecat, one of the Mustelinae, akin 

'to the marten, but with a broader 

(head, a blunter snout, and a much 
shorter tail. It has a shorter neck and 
a stouter body than the weasel. Two 
glands near the root of the tail emit 
a highly offensive smell. It makes im- 
mense havoc in poultry yards, rabbit 

I warrens, and among hares and par- 
tridges, killing everything which it 

can overpower. 




POLECAT. 

Pole Star, Polaris, a bright star at 
the tip of the tail of Ursa Minor, and 
in a line with the pointers Merak and 
Dubhe, the two stars constituting the 
front of the plowlike figure in Ursa 
Major. The pole star is really a 
double star of yellow hue, but while 
the larger or visible one is between the 
second and third magnitude, its com- 
panion is only of the ninth, and there- 
fore a telescopic star. 'There is no cor- 
responding star in the Southern Hem- 
isphere. 

Police, a system of judicial and 
executive administration of a country, 
especially concerned with the mainte- 
nance of the quiet and good order of 
society. In a more limited sense, the 
1 administration of the laws, by-laws, 
and regulations of a city. The des- 
ignation, also, of a body of men, not 
military, appointed to enforce state 
and municipal laws, and preserve* 
I the peace. 

Political Economy, the science 
which investigates the nature of wealth 
and the laws of its production and dis- 
tribution, including the operation of 



Polk 

causes by which the condition of man- 
kind in respect to this object of hu- 
man desire, is made prosperous or the- 
reverse. Inquiries on these point* 
must have existed from the earliest 
times in every nation, but political 
economy as a science is dated from re- 
cent times. 

Political Offenses, those offenses 
considered injurious to the safety of 
the state. In modern times the crimes 
considered political offenses have 
varied at different periods and in dif- 
ferent states. In the United States, 
and in most of the countries of Eu- 
rope, extradition treaties do not in- 
clude giving up political offenders. 

Political Parties, divisions of peo- 
ple in a State marked off by the par- 
ticular views they hold as to the pub- 
lic policy to be pursued in the best 
interests of the people at large. In the 
United States the chief political 
parties are the Democrats and the Re- 
publicans. 

Politics, the science which treats 
of the distribution of power in a 
country. Popularly, the political sen- 
timents of an individual, his procedure 
in promoting the interests of his party. 

Polk, James Knoz, an American 
statesman, llth President of the 
United States, born in Mecklenburg 
co., N. C., Nov. 2, 1795. His ancestors, 
who bore the name Pollock, emigrated 
from the W. of Ireland early in the 
18th century. He was educated at the 
University of Nashville, Tenn., to 
which State his father had removed in 
1806, and was admitted to the bar in 
1820. In 1823 he was sent to the Ten- 
nessee Legislature, and in 1824 to Con- 
gress, to which body he was reflected 
for seven successive terms, serving till 
1839. He was made chairman of the 
Committee of Ways and Means in 
1833, and twice elected Speaker of the 
House 1835-1837. In Congress he 
was consistently a Democrat, support- 
ing unwaveringly the administration 
of Jackson and Van Buren, and op- 
posing that of Adams. In 1839 he was 
elected governor of Tennessee, and in 
1844 unexpectedly nominated as a 
compromise candidate of the National 
Democratic Convention for the presi- 
dency, and elected over Henry Clay, 
the 'Whig candidate. His administra- 
tion was eventful, and in some respects: 



Polk 

brilliant. Texas was annexed, and the 
Mexican War fought, which, with ter- 
ritorial purchases, added the great ter- 
ritory now comprising Texas, Califor- 
nia, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, and 
the W. part of Colorado to the domain 
of the United States. The Oregon 
boundary forming one of the issues on 
which he was elected, was settled by 
a compromise offered by England. He 
was a man of eminent administrative 
abilities, of consistent principles, and 
pure and upright private character. 
At the close of his single term Polk 
declined to stand for renomination, 
and retired to private life in Nash- 
ville, Tenn., where he died June 15, 
1849. 

Folk, Leonidas, an American mili- 
tary officer ; born in Raleigh, N. C., 
April 10, 1806 ; was a cousin of Presi- 
dent Polk, and grandson of Col. 
Thomas Polk, an officer of the Revolu- 
tion. Graduating at the United States 
Military Academy in 1827, he received 
a commission in the artillery, but was 
induced to study for the ministry, 
and in 1830 received deacon's, and in 
1831 priest's orders in the Episcopal 
Church. In 1838 he was consecrated 
Bishop of Arkansas and Indian Terri- 
tory, with charge of the dioceses of 
Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana; 
in 1841 he resigned all these except the 
bishopric of Louisiana, which he re- 
tained till his death. Soon after the 
outbreak of tne Civil War he was of- 
fered a major-generalship by Jefferson 
Davis, and accepted it ; was promoted 
to Lieutenant-General. He was killed 
while reconnoitering on Pine Moun- 
tain, June 14, 1864, by a cannon shot 
fired by some Northern officers who 
wished to give the bishop's party a 
fright. 

Polka, a well known dance, the 
music to which is in 2-4 time, with the 
third %th note accented. 

Pollard, Edward Albert, an 
American journalist and author; born 
in Virginia, Feb. 27, 1828. As editor 
of the Richmond " Examiner " during 
the Civil War, he was an earnest advo- 
cate of the Confederate cause, but an 
active opponent of Jefferson Davis. He 
died in Lynchburg, Va., Dec. 12, 1872. 

Pollard, Josephine, an American 
writer of juvenile literature; born in 
New York city in 1843. She died 
there Aug. 15, 1892. 



Polo 

Pollen, in botany, the pulverulent 
or other substance which fills the cells 
of the anther. It consists of minute 
granules varying in size and inclosing 
a fluid containing molecular matter. In 
entomology, pollen collected from 
plants and carried on the outer surface 
of the tibise of bees. Mixed with 
honey, it becomes the food of the 



Pollock, Sir Frederick, third 
baronet of the name; born Dec. 10, 

1845. He was called to the bar and 
became Corpus Professor of Jurispru- 
dence at Oxford, and Professor of 
Common Law. His younger brother, 
Walter Herries Pollock, born Feb. 21, 
1850, was called to the bar and 10 
years later became editor of the " Sat- 
urday Review." 

Pollock, Sir George, field-mar- 
shal ; born Westminster June 4, 1786 ; 
entered the army of the East India 
Company as lieutenant of artillery in 
1803. In 1838 he reached the rank 
of major-general. After the massacre 
of General Elphinstone and his forces 
in the passes of Afghanistan the In- 
dian government decided to send a 
force to the relief of Sir Robert Sale. 
The command of the relieving force 
was given to General Pollock. In 
April, 1842, he forced the formidable 
Khyber Pass, and reached Sir Robert 
Sale; he defeated the Afghan chief at 
Tezeen, and destroyed the bazaar in 
Kabul, and he recovered 135 British 
prisoners. He returned to England in 

1846, and was created a field-marshal 
in 1870. He died Oct. 6, 1872. 

Poll Tax, a tax levied per head. In 
the United States a poll tax (varying 
from 25 cents to $3 annually) is levied 
in most of the States, in addition to 
the taxes on property. 

Pollux, a celebrated hero of the 
Grecian mythology, and twin brother 
of Castor, after whose death he im- 
plored Jupiter to render him immortal. 
His prayer could not be entirely grant- 
ed, but Jupiter divided immortality 
between the brothers, each living and 
dying alternately. In astronomy, one 
of the twins forming the constellation 
Gemini. Also the name of a star of 
the second magnitude in the same con- 
stellation. 

Polo, an equestrian game, which 
may be shortly described as hockey on 



Polo 

horseback. It is of Oriental origin 
and of high antiquity ; it has been 
claimed that it can be traced back to 
600 B. c. Since 1876 many polo clubs 
have been started in the United States. 

Polo, Marco, a Venetian traveler 
of the 13th century, the son of a mer- 
chant, who, with his brother, had 
penetrated to the court of Kublai, the 
great khan of the Tartars. This prince, 
being highly entertained with their ac- 
count of Europe, made them his am- 
bassadors to the Pope ; on which they 
traveled back to Rome, and, with two 
missionaries, once more visited Tar- 
tary, accompanied by the young Marco 
who became a great favorite with the 
khan. Having acquired the different 
dialects of Tartary, he was employed 
on various embassies ; and after a resi- 
dence of 17 years, all the three Vene- 
tians returned to their own country in 
1295, with immense wealth. Marco 
afterward served his country at sea 
against the Genoese, and, being taken 
prisoner, remained many years in con- 
finement, the tedium of which he be- 
guiled by composing the history of his 
" Travels." Marco Polo relates many 
things which appear incredible, but the 
general truthfulness of his narrative 
has been established by succeeding 
travelers. 

Polonaise, a Polish national dance, 
which has been imitated, but with 
much variation, by other nations. 

Polyandry, the marriage of one 
woman to several men at once. There 
are several forms of it, each an ad- 
vance on its predecessor: (1) One 
wife has several unrelated husbands, 
and each of the husbands other unre- 
lated wives; (2) the unrelated hus- 
bands have but one wife; (3) the hus- 
bands are related; (4) the husbands 
are brothers. The custom is still wide- 
ly spread in the East. 

Polyanthus, a beautiful and favor- 
ite variety of the common primrose, 
growing in wods and copses in a 
moist clayey soil. The plants are 
very hardy, and require to be trans- 
planted every two years. 

Polybius, a Greek historian; born 
in Megalopolis, Greece, probably about 
204 B. C. His great work is a general 
history of the affairs of Greece and 
Rome from 220 B. C. to 146 B. c. Five 
only of its 40 books are now extant, 



Polynesia 

with some fragments of the rest, but 
these are among the most important 
literary remains of antiquity. He 
wrote several other works, but they 
have perished. Died at the age of 82. 

Polycarp, St., one of the apostol- 
ical fathers of the Church, and a Chris- 
tian martyr, who, according to tradi- 
tion, was a disciple of the Apostle 
John, and by him appointed Bishop of 
Smyrna ; suffered martyrdom A. D. 155. 

Polycrates, a ruler of the island 
of Samos from about 536 to 522 B. c. 
He conquered several islands on the 
Asiatic mainland, waged war success- 
fully against the inhabitants of Miletus 
and defeated their allies the Lesbians 
in a great sea fight. His ultimate al- 
liance with Amasis, King of Egypt, 
proves the importance in which this 
daring island-prince was held even by 
great monarchs. Orcetes, the Persian 
satrap of Sardis, had conceived a dead- 
ly hatred against Polycrates, and, hav- 
ing enticed the- latter to visit him at 
Magnesia by appealing to his cupidity, 
he seized and crucified him. 

Polygamy, the practice or condi- 
tion of having a plurality of wives at 
the same time. It is prohibited by 
law in all Christian countries, but is 
practiced by Mohammedans and by the 
uncivilized peoples of Africa and the 
South Seas. The Mormons adopted it, 
but have now ostensibly renounced it. 

Polyglot, a collection of versions in 
different languages of the same work, 
but is almost exclusively applied to 
manifold versions of the Bible. 

Polygon, in geometry, a. portion of 
a plane bounded on all sides by more 
than four limited straight lines. 

Polygyny, the marriage by one 
man of several wives at the same time. 

Polyhymnia, one of the Muses, 
daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne, 
who presided over singing and rhetoric, 
and was deemed the inventress of har- 
mony. 

Polynesia, a general name for a 
number of distinct archipelagoes of 
small islands scattered over the Pa- 
cific Ocean, extending from about lat. 
35 N. to 35 S., and from Ion. 135 
E. to 100 W., the Philippines, New 
Guinea, Australia, and New Zealand 
being excluded. The islands are dis- 
tributed into numerous groups, having 
a general direction from N. W. to S. 



Tolyp 

E. The islands may be divided into 
two chief classes, volcanic and coral 
islands. Some of the former rise to 
a great height, the highest peak in the 
Pacific, Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, reach- 
ing 13,600 feet. The elevations of the 
coral formation groups do not exceed 
;500 feet. 

Polynesia has a comparatively mod- 
erate temperature, and the climate is 
dejjghtful and salubrious. The pre- 
dominating race, occupying the cen- 
tral and E. portion of Polynesia, is of 
Malay origin, with oval faces, wide 
nostrils, and large ears. The hair and 
complexion vary, but the latter is 
often a light brown. Their language 
is split up into numerous dialects. The 
-other leading race is of negroid or 
Papuan origin, with negro-like fea- 
tures and crisp mop-like hair. They 
^are confined to Western Polynesia, and 
speak a different language, with nu- 
merous distinct dialects. Christianity 
has been introduced into a great many 
of the islands, and a large number of 
them are under the control of one or 
other of the European powers. The 
Ladrones were discovered by Magellan 
in 1521, the Marquesas by Mandana 
in 1595, but it was not till 1767 that 
Wallis, and subsequently Cook, ex- 
plored and described the chief islands. 
Since the natives came in contact with 
the whites their numbers have greatly 
decreased. 

Polyp, a name usually applied to 
*n animal like the fresh-water hydra 
-or like the sea anemone, having a tubu- 
lar body and a wreath of many tenta- 
cles around the mouth. 

Polyphemus, in mythology, the 
king of all the Cyclops in Sicily, and 
gon of Neptune and Thoosa. He is 
represented as a monster of immense 
strength, and with one eye in the mid- 
dle of the forehead. He fed on human 
flesh, and kept his flocks on the coasts 
of Sicily. 

Polyphone, a character or vocal 
ign representing more than one sound. 

Polytechnic College, a coeduca- 
tional institution in Fort Worth, 
Tex.; founded in 1891 under the 
auspices of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church. 

Polytechnic Institute, an educa- 
tional non-sectarian institute in Brook- 
lyn, N. Y. ; founded in 1854. 



Pomona 

Polytechnic School, an educa- 
tional establishment in which instruc- 
tion is given in many arts and sci- 
ences, more especially with reference 
to their practical application. 

Polytheism, the worship of many 
gods. It is not necessarily the same as 
idolatry, for gods may be adored with- 
out of any image of them being made. 

Pombal, Sebastian Joseph de 
Carvalho e Mello, Marquis of, a 
Portuguese statesman ; born May 13, ! 
1699, at the castle of Soure, near 
Ooimbra. In 1739 he was appointed 
ambassador in London, and six years 
later was sent to Vienna in a similar 
capacity. Just before Joseph I. as- 
cended the throne of Portugal (1750), 
Pombal was appointed secretary for 
foreign affairs. When the great earth- 
quake happened at Lisbon in 1755 
Pombal displayed great calmness and 
fertile resource, so that next year the 
king made him prime minister. He 
crushed a revolt instigated by the 
great nobles and the Jesuits, and in 
1759 banished the latter from the 
kingdom. The tyranny of the Inquisi- 
tion was broken. Agriculture, com- 
merce, and the finances were all im- 
proved. In 1758 he had been made 
Count of Oeyras, and in 1770 he was 
created Marquis of Pombal. On the 
accession of Joseph's daughter, Maria 
I. (in 1777), Pombal was deprived of 
his offices and banished from court. He 
died in his castle of Pombal, May 8, 
1782. The cruelty shown in the pun- 
ishment of the conspirators against 
King Joseph is a lasting blot on his 
memory. 

Pomegranate, a dense, spiny 
shrub, 15 to 25 feet high, a native of 
W. Asia and N. Africa, and cultivated 
in Florida and California for its sweet 
sub-acid fruit. 

Pomerania, or Pommern, a prov- 
ince of Prussia, bounded by the Baltic, 
Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, and West 
Prussia: area, 11.628 square miles; 
pop. 1,634,659. The center of trade is 
Stettin, which ranks as one of the 
chief commercial cities of Prussia. 
Pomerania was originally inhabited by 
Goths, Vandals, and Slavs. It is first 
mentioned in history in 1140, and was 
an independent duchy until 1637. 

Pomona, the Roman divinity of the 
frr.it of trees. In works of art she 



"Pomona College 



Pompeii 



was generally represented with fruits 
in her lap, or in a basket, with a gar- 
land of fruits in her hair and a prun* 
ing knife in her right hand. 

Pomona College, a coeducational 
institution in Claremont, Cal. ; founded 
in 1887, under the auspices of the Con- 
gregational Church. 

Pompeii, a seaport at the mouth of 
the Sarnus, on the Neapolitan Riviera, 
founded about 600 B. c. by the Oscans, 
and after them, oooipied by the Tyrr- 
heno-Pelasgians, and by the Samnites, 
till these, about 80 B. c., were dispos- 
sessed by the Romans. From that time 
down to its destruction, A. D. 79, it be- 
came a sort of Rome-super-Mare, fre- 
quented by the aristocracy. On Feb. 
5, A. D. 63, by an earthquake in the 



torrents that intermittently fell. For 
three days the flight of the inhabitants 
continued till Pompeii was abandoned: 
,by all who could effect their escape. 
By the fourth day the sun had par- 
tially reappeared, and the more coura- 
geous of the citizens began to return 
for such of their property as they could 
disinter. The reigning emperor, Titus, 
organized relief on an imperial scale, 
and even undertook the clearing and 
rebuilding of the city. This attempt 
was soon abandoned, and Pompeii re- 
mained a heap of hardened mud and 
ashes, gradually overgrown with grass 
the wall of the great theater and 
the outline of the amphitheater alone 
marking its site till 1592, when the 
architect Fontana, in cutting an aque- 




A POMPETTAN HOUSE. 



vicinity, these buildings were all but 
levelled with the ground, and some 
years elapsed ere the fugitive citizens 
recovered confidence enough to reoc- 
cupy and rebuild what was once 
Pompeii. Revolutionized as it was for 
the worse, the city, however, retained 
much of Greek character and color- 
ing, and had relapsed into more than 
its former gaiety and licentiousness, 
when on Aug. 23 (or, more probably 
on Nov. 23), 79, with a return of the 
shocks of earthquake, Vesuvius was 
seen to throw up a. column of black 
smoke expanding like some umbrella 
pine of the neighborhood, till it as- 
sumed the proportions of a great 
swarthy cloud, dense with ashesj pum- 
ice, and red-hot stones, settling down 
with a force increased by the rain- 



I duct, came on some ancient buildings. 

I Unsystematic, unscientific excavations 
proceeded fitfully till 1860, when the 
Italian kingdom took in hand the un- 
earthing of the city. This was carried 
out with admirable ingenuity, care, 
and success, and it now attracts the 
pilgrim from every clime for the object 
lessons it is unique in affording as to 
the public and private life of antiquity. 
House construction consists mainly 
of concrete or brick, and sometimes of 
stone blocks, especially at the corners. 
Two-storied, sometimes three-storied 
houses are numerous, though the upper 
floors, built of wood, have been con- 
sumed by the eruption. Stores usually 
occupied the ground floors of dwelling- 
houses, on their street aspect, let out 
to merchants or dealers as at the pres- 



Poinpey 

ent day, but not connected with the 
back part of the house. They could 
be separated from the street by large 
wooden doors, while inside they had 
tables covered with marble, in which 
earthen vessels for wine or oil were in- 
serted. The storekeeper had some- 
times a second room at the back, when 
he did not live on an upper floor or in 
another part of the town. Retail 
traffic must have been considerable at 
Pompeii, to judge from the number of 
those stores along the streets. Only a 
personal visit can convey an idea of 
the indoor life of the Pompeiians, with 
whom the absence of glass, the fewness 
of the openings in the street aspect 
of the house wall, and the protection 
of these with iron gratings are among 
the points noted by the most casual 
visitor. As rebuilt after 63, Pompeii 
shows little marble, the columns being 
of tufa or brick cemented by mortar. 
A coating of stucco was laid over wall 
or column and presented an ample 
field for ornamental painting. This 
must have given to Pompeii its bright, 
gay coloring, which, with its reds, 
blues, and yellows, on column and cap- 
ital, on wall and partition, harmonize 
so well with the glowing sunlight of 
the South. 

Pompey, Cneius Pompeius 
Magnus, son of Pompeius Strabo, a 
Roman general ; born in 106 B. c. He 
ranged himself with the aristocratic 
party of the republic.. On the death 
of Sylla, in 78 B. c., Pompey went as 
proconsul to Spain. With Crassus he 
crushed the Marian party, and in 
70 B. c. Pompey and Crassus were 
elected consuls. He was made abso- 
lute dictator in the East, and super- 
seded Lucullus in the command against 
Mithridates. The latter he completely 
routed in 66 B. c. In 60 B. c. he joined 
Caesar and Crassus in the triumvirate, 
the former of whom gave him his 
daughter Julia in marriage. In 54 
B. c. Julia died ; in the year following, 
Crassus was slain in Asia ; and the 
hostility between Caesar and Pompey 
rapidly developed itself. Caesar crossed 
the Rubicon with his troops, 49 B. C., 
and Pompey, accompanied by Cato, 
Cicero, and other nobles of Rome, fell 
back on Greece, where the great bat- 
tle of Pharsalia decided his fate. Pom- 
pey was advised to seek an asylum in 
t, then ruled by a sovereign he 



Poniatowski 

had protected, Ptolemy XII. He was 
received with pretended friendship, but 
murdered as soon as he stepped 
ashore, 48 B. c. 

Ponce, second city in commercial 
importance in Porto Rico; in Depart- 
ment of same name; 2% miles N. of 
the S. coast, 45 miles S. W. of San. 
Juan; has a spacious harbor; is 
well-built, largely of brick; is the 
seat of a Roman Catholic Cathedral; 
has two handsome plazas, public li- 
brary, and several hospitals and asy- 
lums; and is chiefly engaged in rais- 
ing sugar cane, cacao, tobacco, and 
cattle. Pop. (1910 35,027. 

Ponce de Leon, Juan, a Spanish 
explorer, the discoverer of Florida ; 
born in San Servas, Spain, in 1460; 
was a court page, served against the 
Moors, and in 1502 sailed with Ovando 
to Ilispaniola, and became governor of 
the E. part of the island. In 1510 he 
obtained the government of Porto Rico, 
and had conquered the whole island 
by 1512. He then set out on a quest 
for the fountain of perpetual youth, 
and on March 27, 1512, found Florida. 
He secured the appointment of adel- 
antado of the country, and returned 
in 1521 to conquer his new subjects ; 
in this, however, he failed. He retired 
to Cuba, and died there in July from 
the wound of a poisoned arrow. 

Pond, Frederick Eugene, an 
American journalist and author ; born 
in Marquette co., Wis., April 8, 1856. 

Poniatowski, Joseph, Prince, a 
Polish general ; born in Warsaw, Po- 
land, in 1763, and when young entered 
the Austrian service, but when the 
Poles rose against Russia he quitted 
it, and joining his countrymen, fought 
with them under Kosciusko. On the 
defeat of this general, Poniatowski 
sought refuge in Vienna, till the 
French entered Warsaw in 1806, when 
he was appointed to the command of 
the Polish army which was to co- 
operate with the French against Rus- 
sia. Napoleon estimated his services 
so highly, that shortly before the bat- 
tle of Leipsic he created him a Mar- 
shal of France. After this disastrous 
battle, the French were flying in utter 
confusion over the Elster, and Ponia- 
towski was drowned in the attempt, 
Oct. 13, 1813. 

Poniatowski, Stanislas Augus- 
tus, the last king of Poland, and one 



Pontchartrain 

of the early lovers of Catherine the 
Great of Russia. He died at St. 
Petersburg, in 1798, of a broken heart. 

Pontchartrain, Lake, in Louisi- 
ana, about 5 miles N. of New Orleans, 
is 40 miles long and 25 wide. It is 
navigated by small steamers, and com- 
municates with the Gulf of Mexico. 
The drainage of New Orleans is car- 
ried into the lake through canals. 

Fontiac, a celebrated Indian chief 
of the Ottawa tribe ; born about 1712. 
He was the leader in Pontiac's War, 
and was killed in Illinois in 1769. 

Pontiac's War, an Indian war of 
1703 between the English settlers and 
garrisons on the frontiers, and a com- 
bination of Indian tribes, under the 
leadership of Pontiac. The war lasted 
two years. 

Pontifex, a bridge builder; a title 
given to the more illustrious members 
of the Roman colleges of priests. Their 
number was originally five, the presi- 
dent being styled Pontifex Maximus. 
The number was afterward increased 
to nine, and later still to 15. The title 
of Pontifex Maximus is now the title 
of the Pope. 

Pontifical, one of the service books 
of the Church of Rome, in which are 
contained the several services. 

Pontoon, a floating vessel support- 
ing the roadway timbers of a floating 
military bridge. 

Pony, a term applied to several sub- 
varieties or races of horses, generally 
of smaller size than the ordinary horses 
and which are bred in large flocks 
and herds in various parts of the 
world, chiefly for purposes of riding 
and of lighter draught work. 

Poodle, a breed of dog whose origin 
dates from the beginning of the 17th 
century or earlier. The poodle is one 
of the few breeds of dogs which has 
not been properly appreciated and cul- 
tivated in the United States. From 
his great intelligence and cleverness in 
learning tricks, he was generally adopt- 
ed as a circus or " trick dog " ; but 
this fact, instead of making for his 
credit, has caused the poodle to be 
treated with contempt. 

Pook, Samuel Hartt, an Ameri- 
can naval constructor, born in Brook- 
lyn, N. Y., Jan. 17, 1827 ; was graduat- 
ed at the Portsmouth Academy, N. 



Pope 

H., in 1843. He settled in Boston as 
a naval architect and designed many 
merchant and war vessels ; entered 
government service, when the Civil 
War broke out, and at the close of 
the war entered the navy as assistant 
naval constructor and served at differ- 
ent navy yards till bis- retirement in 
1899. He died in 1901. 

Pool, a game played on a pool table. 
The term " poolroom " is applied 
to places, apart from race tracks, in 
which bets on horse-races are received, 
and as this is an illegal business, the 
word frequently occurs in the daily 
news. 

Also, an arrangement between sev- 
eral competing lines of railway, by 
which the total receipts of each com- 
pany are pooled, and distributed pro 
rata according to agreement. 

Pool, Maria Louise, an American 
novelist; born in Rockland, Mass., in 
August, 1841. She died in Rockland, 
May 19, 1898. 

Poole, "William Frederick, an 
American bibliographer ; born in Sa- 
lem, Mass., Dec. 24, 1821; was a 
librarian of Boston, Cincinnati, and 
Chicago. His chief work is the cele- 
brated " Index to Periodical Litera- 
ture." He died in Evanston, 111., 
March 1, 1894. 

Poor Clares, a Roman Catholic re- 
ligious order, having very severe rules, 
and called after the founder. 

Poore, Benjamin Perley, an 
American author ; born in Newbury, 
Mass., Nov. 2, 1820 ; spent several 
years abroad. On his return he be- 
came active in journalism. He died 
in Washington, D. C., May 30, 1887. 

Poor Priests, a name given to, or 
assumed by, the Lollard clergy of the 
14th and 15th centuries, who wandered 
about the country holding what would 
now be called " missions," without the 
sanction of the bishop of the diocese. 

Pope, specifically, the Bishop of 
Rome. The term Papa, or Papas 
(father), has always been given by 
the Greek Church to presbyters, like 
the term Father now applied to a 
Roman priest. In the early centuries 
the bishops received the same title till, 
in a council held at Rome in 1076, at 
the instance of Gregory VII. (Hilde- 
branclt, it was limited to the Bishop 
of Rome. Holding that office, being 



Pope 

also Metropolitan of Rome and pri- 
mate, and claiming to be the earthly 
head of the Church universal, it is in 
the last named capacity that the term 
Pope is held to be specially applicable. 
It has been a matter of controversy 
among Roman Catholics whether the 
authority of the Pope was above or 
below that of the General Council. 
That of Pisa (1409), claiming to be a 
General Council, deposed two rival 
Popes, and appointed a third ; but the 
two former repudiated the authority 
of the council, and exercised their 
functions as before. The Council of 
Constance (1414-1418) also deposed 
two rival Popes and elected one. " The 
States of the Church " figured on the 
map of Europe as an independent sov- 
ereignty till Sept. 20, 1870, when the 
troops of Victor Emmanuel, King of 
Italy, entered Rome, and took pos- 
session of the palace for the Italian 
kingdom. No interference took place 
with the Pope's spiritual authority. 

Pope Pius X. See Pius. 

Pope, Alexander, an English 
poet; born in London, England, May 
<J1, 1688. His education was a desul- 
tory one. He picked up the rudiments 
of Greek and Latin from the family 
priest, and was successively sent to 
two schools, one at Twyford, the other 
in London. Before he was 15 he at- 
tempted an epic poem, and at the age 
of 16 his " Pastorals " procured him 
the notice of several eminent persons. 
In 1711 he published his poem the 
*'Essay on Criticism," which was fol- 
lowed by " The Rape of the Lock," a 
polished and witty narrative poem 
founded on an incident of fashionable 
life. From 1718 to 1726 he was en- 
gaged on a poetical translation of 
Homer's works, the " Iliad " (com- 
pleted in 1720) being wholly from his 
pen, the " Odyssey " only half. The 
pecuniary results of these translations 
showed a total profit of nearly $45,000. 
He died in Twickenham, May 30, 1744. 

Pope, John, an American military 
officer; born in Louisville, Ky., March 
16, 1822 ; was graduated at the United 
States Military Academy in 1842, and 
entered the engineers. He served in 
Florida (1842-1844), and in the Mex- 
ican War, and was brevetted captain 
for gallantry. He was afterward em- 
ployed in exploring and surveying in 
the Wat, till the outbreak of the Civil 



Popish Plot 

War, when he was appointed Briga- 
dier-General of volunteers. For 15 
days in August, 1862, he faced Lee, 
but was defeated at the second battle 
of Bull Run, on the 29th and 30th. 
He then requested to be relieved, and 
was transferred to Minnesota, where 
he kept the Indians in check. He 
held various commands till 1886, when 
he retired. In 1882 he became Major- 
General, U. S. A. Pope died in San- 
dusky, O., Sept. 23, 1892. 

Popinjay, a parrot; a figure of a 
bird put up as a mark for archers to 
shoot at. The green woodpecker is 
also sometimes called popinjay. Also 
applied to a man who dresses too 
show'ly. 




OPIUM POPPY. 

a, whole plant; b, flower and leaf; c, ripe 
capsule; d, seed and section of seed ett 
larged. 

Popish Plot, in English history, an 
alleged plot made known by Titus 
Gates in 1678. He asserted that two 
men had been told off to assassinate 
Charles II., that certain Roman Cath- 
olics whom he named had been ap- 



Poplar 

pointed to all the high offices of the 
State, and that the extirpation of 
Protestantism was intended. On the 
strength of his allegation, various per- 
sons were executed. Gradually evi- 
dence arose that the whole story was 
a fabrication, and that the people who 
had been capitally punished were all 
innocent. On May 8, 1685, Oates, 
who had received a pension of $10,000 
for his revelations, was convicted of 
perjury, heavily fined, pilloried and 
publicly flogged. He died in 1705. 

Poplar, a tree. Known species 18, 
from the N. temperate zone. The 
great white poplar, or abele, is a large 
tree, growing 'in moist places and 
mountain woods. 

Poplin, a silk and worsted stuff, 
watered, figured, brocaded, or tissued. 
Originally an all-silk French goods. 

Popocatepetl ("smoking moun- 
tain "), a volcano about 40 miles S. E. 
of the city of Mexico. It rises in the 
form of a cone to a height of 17,784 
feet above the sea-level. No eruption 
bas been recorded since 1540 ; it still 
smokes. 

Poppy, a genus of plants, of which 
there are numerous species, mostly na- 
tives of Europe and Asia, some of 
them found in the very N. regions, but 
most of them in the warmer temper- 
ate parts. By far the most important 
species is that known' as the opium 
poppy, also called the white poppy 
and the oil poppy. But the same 
species is important on account of 
the bland fixed oil of the seeds, and 
is much cultivated as an oil plant. 
Poppy oil is as sweefc as olive oil, and 
is used for similar purposes. It is 
imported into the United States in 
considerable quantities from India. A 
variety with double flowers is culti- 
vated in* flower gardens, under the 
name of carnation poppy. 

Populist, or People's Party, a 
political organization founded at Cin- 
cinnati, in May 1891 ; an outgrowth 
of the movements inaugurated by the 
Patrons of Husbandry (q. v.), and 
the Farmer's Alliance. Appealing to 
the agricultural and industrial classes, 
its avowed objects include free silver ; 
national ownership of transportation 
and freight utilities ; a graduated in- 
come tax ; prohibition of alien owner- 
ship of land, etc. 



Porcupine 

Porcelain, a fictile material inter- 
mediate between glass and pottery, be- 
ing formed of two substances, fusible 
and infusible, the latter enabling it to 
withstand the heat necessary to vitrify 
the former, thus producing its peculiar 
semi-translucency. The infusible ma* 
terial is alumina, called kaolin; the 
fusible substance is felspar, and is 
called pe-tun-tse, both Chinese terms. 



SLepublic. ^ 1810-14. Lndwig Pt 
Sevres (sinct tf 




PORCELAIN MABKS. 

Large quantities of porcelain are pro- 
duced in New Jersey, Ohio, and other 
states, while European porcelain, and 
Chinese and Japanese ware, are fa- 
mous. See POTTERY. 

Porcupine, a rodent quadruped. 
The North American porcupine is 
about two feet long, and of sluggish 
habits. The quills are short, and con- 
cealed among the fur, and the tail is 
short. The " tree porcupine " of SoutH 
America has a prehensile tail, about 
10 inches long. The porcupine of 
Southern Europe and Africa is about 
28 inches long, exclusive of the tail. 
The head, fore quarters, and under 
surface are clothed with short spines, 
intermixed with hairs, crest on head 
and neck, hind quarters covered with 
long sharp spines, ringed with black 
and white, and erectile at will. They 
are but loosely attached to the skin 
and readily fall out, a circumstance 
which probably gave rise to the belief 
that the animal was able to project 
them at an enemy. 



Porcupine Crab 



Port 



Porcupine Crab, a native of Ja- 
pan. The carapace is triangular, and, 
like the limbs, thickly covered with 
spines. It is dull and sluggish in its 
movements. 

Porcupine Fish, a fish found in 
the tropical seas. It is about 14 
inches long, and is covered with spines 
or prickles. 




PREHENSILE-TAILED PORCUPINE. 

Porgy, Poggy, or Paugie, an im- 
portant food fish found on the coast of 
the United States. It attains a length 
of 18 inches and a weight of about 
four pounds. 

Pork, the flesh of swine ; one of the 
most important and widely used spe- 
cies of animal food. The swine was 
forbidden to be eaten by the Mosaic 
law, and is regarded by the Jews as 
especially typical of the' unclean ani- 
mals. Other Eastern nations had sim- 
ilar opinions as to the use of pork. 
In the United States the pork-packing 
industry is one of the greatest factors 
of wealth. The immense establish- 
ments at Chicago, Kansas City, 
Omaha, St. Louis, Indianapolis, Cin- 
cinnati, and other cities, represent 
many millions of dollars invested in 
this branch of trade and commerce. 

Porosity, the quality or state of 
being porous or of having pores. 

Pprphyrio, a genus of bird* oc- 
curring in South America, in Africa, 
and in the S. of Europe, but chiefly 
Oriental. In habits they resemble the 
water hen, but are larger and more, 
stately birds. 

Porphyry, a term originally ap- 
plied to a rock having a purple cov- 
ered base, with inclosed individual 
crystals of a felspar. 



Porpoise, a small cetacean. The 
common porpoise, when full grown, at- 
tains a length of about five feet. The 
head is rounded in front, and the snout 
is not produced into a beak. The ex- 
ternal surface is shining and hairless, 
dark grey or black on the upper parts, 
under pure white. It is gregarious in 
habit, and is often seen in small herds, 
frequenting the coasts rather than the 
open seas. It -often ascends rivers, 
and ranges as far N. as Baffin Bay 
and as far W. as the coast of the 
United States. 

Porsenna, or Porsena, a cele- 
brated leader and king of Etruria, who 
declared war against the Romans be- 
cause they refused to restore Tarquin 
to his throne. At first successful, he 
would have entered the gates of Rome 
had not Horatius Coccles stood at the 
head of a bridge and resisted the fury 
of the whole Etrurian army, while hi 
companions behind were cutting off the 
communication with the opposite 
shore. This act of bravery astonished 
Porsenna ; but when he had seen Mu- 
tius Scsevola, who had entered his 
camp with the intention of murdering 
him, burn his hand without emotion, 
to convince him of his fortitude, he no 
longer dared to make head against so 
brave a people. He made a peace with 
the Romans, and never after sapported 
the claims of Tarquin. 




PORCUPINE: HYSTRIX CRISTATA. 

Port, a harbor, natural or artificial ; 
into which vessels can enter, and in 
which they can lie in safety from 
storms. In law, a place appointed for 
the passage of travelers and merchan- 
dise into or out of the United States; 
a place frequented by vessels for the 
purpose of loading or discharging car- 

, and provided with the apparatus 
necessary to enable them to do so. 



'Port 



Porter 



Port, a species of red wine, pro- 
duced chiefly in the mountainous dis- 
tricts of Portugal, and shipped from 
Oporto. 

Port Arthur, Lushwankau, or 
Lushunku, a former naval station of 
China, with a fine narrow-mouthed 
harbor at the end and on the E. side 
of the peninsula jutting S. W. from 
Manchuria, opposite Chifu, strongly 
fortified ; formerly the headquarters of 
the N. fleet of China. It was taken 
by the Japanese in 1894, and was re- 
stored to China by coercion of Euro- 
pean powers. On Dec. 19, 1897, a 
Russian fleet occupied Port Arthur 
with China's consent, the pretext be- 
ing that the ships would simply winter 
there. On Jan. 28, 1898, Port Arthur 
was ceded to Russia. At the break- 
ing out of the Russo-Japanese War in 
1904, Port Arthur was immediately 
assMed by the Japanese, and the Rus- 
sian fleet in the harbor so effectually 
blocked that is was of no use to the 
Rusians during the conflict. It was 
isolated on May 14, 1904. after a siege 
la&ting 232 d^ys ; surrendered January 
2, 1905, by the Russians to the Japa- 
nese General Stoessel to General Nogi. 

Port Arthur Ship Canal, an 
artificial waterway in Texas. The 
small town of Port Arthur is situated 
on Sabine Lake, a body of water 3 
miles long and 10 miles wide, which 
marks the boundary of Texas and Lou- 
isiana. Seven and one-half miles from 
Port Arthur Sabine Lake narrows 
into a long channel called Sabine 
Pass. This channel is from 26 to 40 
feet deep and extends for 7 miles to 
the S., terminating at the Gulf of 
Mexico. At the outer end of the pass 
is a bar which has been pierced by a 
channel formed by extending for a mile 
or more from shore two jetties of 
piled stone, built by the United States 
government. 

Port-au-Prince, the capital of 
Haiti, situated on the W. coast at 
.the head of a bay of the same name. 
Pop. about 50,000. 

Portcullis, a strong defensive 
framework of timber, hung in grooves 
within the chief gateway of a fortress, 
or a castle, or an edifice of safety. 

Porte, Ottoman, or Sublime 
Porte, the common term for the Turk- 
ish government. 



Porter, David, an American naval 
officer; born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 1, 
1780, the son of a naval officer who 
fought through the Revolutionary 
War. He was appointed midshipman 
in 1798, and lieutenant the year after; 
saw service against privateers in the 
West Indies, and against Tripoli itt 
1801-1803; became captain in 1812, 
and captured the first British war- 
ship taken in the war. In 1813, with 
the " Essex " he nearly destroyed the 
English whale fishery in the Pacific, 
and took possession of the Marquesas 
Islands ; but in March, 1814, his frig- 
ate was destroyed by the British in 
Valparaiso Harbor, and Porter re- 
turned home on parole. He afterward 
commanded an expedition against pi- 
rates in the West Indian waters, and 
was court-rnartialed for compelling 
the authorities of Porto Rico to 
apologize for imprisoning one of his 
officers. Porter resigned in 1826, and 
was for a time at the head of the 
Mexican navy. In 1829 the United 
States appointed him consul-general 
to the Barbary States, and then min- 
ister at Constantinople, where he 
died March 3, 1843. 

Porter, David Dixon, an Ameri- 
can naval officer; born in Chester, Pa., 
June 8, 1813; son of Commodore Da- 
vid Porter. He entered the navy as 
midshipman in 1829; was employed in 
1836 to 1841 in the survey of the 
coast of the United States; in 1841 ap- 
pointed as lieutenant to the frigate 
" Congress," and employed four years 
on the Mediterranean and Brazil sta- 
tions; in 1845 was transferred to the 
National Observatory at Washington, 
and during the Mexican War to the 
naval rendezvous at New Orleans; 
again to the coast survey, and from 
1849 to 1853 engaged in command of 
the California mail steamers. At the 
commencement of the Civil War ha 
was appointed with the rank of com- 
mander, to the steam sloop-of-war 
" Powhatan " ; distinguishing himself 
in the capture of New Orleans, and 
commanded the gunboat and ^ mortar 
flotilla which cooperated with tha 
squadron of Admiral Farragut in the 
first attack on Vicksburg. In the 
fail of 1862 he was placed in command 
of all the naval forces on the W. riv- 
ers above New Orleans, with the rank 
of rear-admiral. At the termination ot 



Porter 

the war appointed superintendent of 
the United States Naval Academy, 
Annapolis. He was made vice-admiral 
in 1866, and in 1870 became admiral. 
He died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 
13, 1891. 

Porter, Fitz-Jonn, an American 
military officer ; born in Portsmouth, 
N. H., June 13, 1822; was graduated 
at the United States Military Acade- 
my in 1845 ; served in the Mexican 
War. In 1861 was appointed colonel 
of the loth U. S. Infantry. For an 
alleged disobedience at the second bat- 
tle of Bull Run, Aug. 29, 1862, Por- 
'ter was court-martialed, and on Jan. 
El, 1863, was cashiered. In 1878 a 
trial was granted, and the court rec- 
ommended that the former sentence be 
reversed, and that he be restored to 
his former rank in the army, but no 
decisive action was taken. New evi- 
dence came to light, General Grant 
affirming that Porter had been un- 
justly treated, and a bill was intro- 
duced in Congress providing for his 
reinstatement. In 1886 the bill passed 
both Houses, and became a law by the 
signature of the President. He died 
in New York city May 21, 1901. 

Porter, Horace, an American mili- 
tary officer and diplomatist ; born in 
Huntingdon, Pa., April 15, 1837 ; son 
of David R. Porter, who became gov- 
ernor of the State. After a year in 
the scientific department of Harvard 
University he entered th United 
States Military Academy. His grad- 
uation took place in 1860. After a 
brief space as instructor in artillery at 
West Point, he was assigned to duty 
in the Department of the East. He 
served through the Civil War, becom- 
ing brevet Brigadier-General. When 
General Grant became Secretary of 
War General Porter became the assist- 
ant secretary, and during his chief's 
service as President acted as private 
secretary. General Porter then went 
into business and was exceedingly suc- 
cessful. The completion of the Grant 
monument was chiefly due to him. 
From 1897-1905 he was U. S. Am- 
bassador to France, and instituted the 
search and recovery of the body of 
Paul Jones (q. v.)- He published 
"Campaigning with Grant" (1897). 

Porter, James Davis, born in 
Paris, Tenn., Dec. 7, 1828; was grad- 
uated at tiie University of Nashville 



"Port Hudson 

in 1840 ; admitted to the bar in 1850 ; 
member of the Tennessee Legislaturo 
in 1859-1861; judge of the 12th Judi- 
cial Circuit in 1870-1874 ; governor of 
Tennessee in 1874-1878; United 
States assistant-secretary of State in> 
1885-1889; and United States minis- 
ter to Chile in 1893-1897. 

Porter, Jane, an English author; 
born in Durham, England, in 1776; 
daughter of an army-surgeon who died 
soon after her birth. She was brought 
up at Edinburgh and in London, and 
made a great reputation in 1803 by 
her high flown romance, " Thaddeus of 
Warsaw," which was distanced in its 
kind in 1810 by "The Scottish Chiefs." 
She died in Bristol, England, May 24, 
1850. 

Porter, John Addison, an Amer- 
ican journalist ; born in New Haven, 
Conn., April 17, 1856. He was editor 
of the Hartford " Post." President 
McKinley appointed him " secretary 
to the President " an office that was 
created to replace the misnamed post 
of the " private secretary " at the 
White House. He died in Putnam, 
Conn., Dec. 15, 1900. 

Porter, Moan, an American educa- 
tor ; born in Farmington, Conn., Dec. 
14, 1811. In 1846 he was appointed 
Professor of Metaphysics at Yale Uni- 
versity ; and was president of that in- 
stitution from 1871 to 1885. He died 
in New Haven, Conn., March 4, 1892. 

Porter, Robert P., an American 
statistician; born in Norfolk, Eng- 
land, Jan. 30, 1852; settled in the 
United States in 1867, and soon after- 
ward engaged in journalism ; was for 
a while superintendent of the llth 
census; and was a special United 
States commissioner to Cuba and Por- 
to Rico in 1898-1899. 

Porter, Rufns, an American in- 
ventor ; born in West Roxford, Mass., 
May 1, 1792; died 1884. Devised 
a thermo-engine, rotary-engine, etc. 
Founded " The Scientific American." 

Port Hudson, a village of Louisi- 
ana, on the Mississippi, 135 miles 
above New Orleans. A Confederate 
strategical stronghold, it was besieged 
by Admiral Farragut and General 
Banks, but resisted all assaults from 
Mar. 14, to July 7, 1863, when the 
surrender at Vicksburg led to its 
capitulation. 






Fort Huron 



Porto Rico 



Port Huron, city ; capital of Clair 
Co., Mich., on Lake Huron, it the 
head of St. Clair River, 60 miles N. 
E. of Detroit. It has important ship- 
building, lumber, machinery and other 
works, and a large trade. Pop. (1900) 
10,200; (1910) 18,863. 

Portland, city, port of entry, and 
capital of Cumberland county, Me.; 
on Casoo bay and the Maine Cen- 
tral railroad; 100 miles N. E. of 
Boston; is the largest and most im- 
portant city in the State; has an ex- 
cellent harbor, protected by a mas- 
sive breakwater; contains National 
fortifications, Government Building, 
and Marine Hospital, Maine General 
Hospital, Longfellow homestead, 
Portland School for the Deaf, Maine 
Historical Society, and many other 
buildings of note; and has large 
manufacturing and coastwise and 
foreign trade interests. Pop. (1910) 
58,571. 

Portland, city and port of entry, 
and capital of Multnomah county, 
Or.; on the Willamette river and the 
Northern and Southern Pacific rail- 
roads; 530 miles N. of San Fran- 
cisco; has large trade with Great 
Britain, the Philippines, China, 
Japan, Hawaii, and South American 
countries, in flour, grain, lumber, 
fish, and wool; contains Portland 
University, Medical and Law Schools 
of the State University, Good Sa- 
maritan, Portland, and St. Vincent's 
hospitals, Bishop Scott and St. 
Helen's schools, and St. Michael's 
College; was the site of the Lewis 
and Clark Exposition in 1905. Pop. 
(1910) 207,214. 

Porto Rico, a West Indian island; 
SO miles E. of Haiti; 3,600 square 
miles; pop. (1910) 1,118,012; capital, 
San Juan, metropolis, Ponce. Under 
the Spanish-American peace treaty 
the island was formally transferred to 
the United States' on Oct. 18, 1898. 
The Spanish form of the name of the 
island is Puerto Rico; but an Act of 
the United States Congress approved 
April 12, 1900, established the oflacial 
form as Porto Rico. While there is 
a great amount of wealth in the 
island, and in many places evidences 
Of great prosperity, rich plantations, 
and promise of a great future for 
Porto Rico, throughout the inte- 



rior of the island the people are poor 
and their homes are of the poorest 
character, consisting almost altogether 
of " shacks " constructed of the palm 
and covered with a straw thatch or 
palm leaves. Into the cities and these 
homes is crowded a large popu- 
lation, variously estimated from 
800,000 to 1,000,000. They are gen- 
erally a peaceful and law-abiding 
people, and while there is unques- 
tionably some lawlessness, and some 
small offenses are being committed, 
they do not exceed, if they equal, 
the number being committed in 
the States of a like population. It 
has been estimated that from 10 to 
20 per cent, only of the people can 
read and write. The people are anx- 
ious to have their children educated, 
and are exceedingly solicitous for the 
establishment of public schools. There 
is no starvation upon the island, and 
while there is great poverty in many 
places, there can not be any real 
starvation in Porto Rico, for the rea- 
son that the people live frugally and 
are content with little, while the soil 
and the climate are so productive of 
many of the simple necessaries of life 
that it would be almost impossible to 
starve a people who live upon tropical 
fruits and tropical vegetable produc- 
tions. 

Vegetables of all kinds known to our 
climate grow in abundance. Irish po- 
tatoes are not a success. There are 
no plums, cherries, or grapes. It 
would seem that there would be no 
difficulty in growing grapes, but so 
far they have not been tried. Indian 
corn is raised with some success, and 
while the ears are small, that is made 
up by the fact that two and even 
three crops can be grown yearly on the 
same ground. This can be grown either 
in the valleys or on the hillsides. No 
wheat is grown on the island. At 
present all flour is imported. 

The native grasses grow luxuriantly 
wherever an opportunity offers, from 
the lowest valley to the highest moun- 
tain top, and afford excellent pasture 
for stock everywhere all the months of 
the year. They make no hay, but out 
it with sickles or the machete and 
tie it in small bundles, pack it on 
ponies to the cities, and sell it while 
it is still green. The cattle grazing 
in large numbers on the pastures are 



Port Said 

found all over the island, and are most- 
ly in very good condition, making ex- 
cellent beef. Hogs are raised to a 
limited extent, but are of poor breeds, 
being of the old " razor-back " vari- 
ety. They are fed mainly from the 
jiuts grown on the royal palm trees. 
Horses are plentiful. They are small, 
and used only to ride and as pack 
ponies and in carriages. The hard 
work of hauling loads and ploughing 
the land is done with oxen, yoked in 
the Spanish fashion by tying the 
yoke to the horns, and they are guided 
with a whip or " gad." The wagons 
are mostly two-wheeled carts with 
large wooden axles. 

There seems to be a considerable de- 
posit of iron and copper on the is- 
land. In some places these are being 
developed with good prospects of prov- 
ing paying investments. Traces of 
gold and silver are also found in the 
mountains, but up to date prospecting 
has not developed any considerable 
quantities of these more precious 
metals. 

Soon after the surrender of San- 
tiago de Cuba to the American forces 
under General Shafter, July 17, 1898, 
an army numbering 16,973 men was 
sent from Guantanamo to Porto Rico 
to take possession of that island. They 
landed July 25, at Quanica, 15 miles 
W. of Ponce. Lieutenant Haines, 
commanding the marines, went ashore 
and raised the American flag over the 
custom house, amid the cheers of the 
people. General Wilson was the first 
army officer to land, and was wel- 
comed with cheers and a serenade. A 
portion of the army marched toward 
the capital, San Juan, but were 
stoppped when about half way by 
the suspension of hostilities between 
the belligerent powers. On Oct. 18 
the island was formally surrendered 
to the United States in the city of San 
Juan. 

In 1899 a census of the island was 
taken under the direction of the Unit- 
ed States War Department, which by 
departments gave the following. Agu- 
adillo, 99,645 ; Arecibo, 162,308 ; Bay- 
amon, 160,046; Guayamo, 111,986; 
Humacao, 88.501; Mayaguez, 127,566 
and Ponce, 203,191 total for the is- 
land, 953,243. The island has pros- 
pered greatly under American rule, 
and is fast becoming Americanized. 



Portugal 

Port Said, a town of Egypt, on 
the W. side of the Suez Canal, on a 
desolate strip of land between Lake 
Menzaleh and the Mediterranean. 
The place owes its origin to the Suez 
Canal, and depends wholly on the 
canal trade. 

Portsmouth, city and capital of 
Norfolk county, Va.; on the Eliza- 
beth river and the Seaboard Air Line 
and other railroads; opposite Norfolk; 
has a harbor accessible to the largest 
vessels; contains a National Marine 
Hospital, Marine Barracks, and, in 
the Gosport suburb, the Norfolk 
navy-yard. Pop. (1910) 33,190. 

Portsmouth, the principal station 
of the British navy, a seaport, mu- 
nicipal and parliamentary borough 
of England, in Hampshire, on the S. 
W. extremity of the island of Port- 
sea. The royal dockyard covers an 
araa of about 500 acres and contains 
a Royal Navy College. Pop. 189,160. 

Portsmouth, Treaty of, signed 
at Portsmouth, N. H., Sept. 5, 1905, 
ended the Russo-Japanese War and 
embodied 15 articles and annexes. 
Its main points were the cession of 
half of Saghalin to Japan and Ja- 
pan's sovereignty over Korea. 

Portugal, a former kingdom of 
Europe; since Oct. 5, 1910, a repub- 
lic; bounded by Spain and the At- 
lantic; area, 35,490 sq. miles; pop. 
5.687.627. 

The country generally inclines from 
N. E. to S. W. Several of the great 
mountain chains of Spain intersect it 
from E. to W. and terminate in large 
promontories in the Atlantic. The 
principal rivers are the Tagus, the 
Douro, the Minho, and the Guadiana. 
These all enter the country from 
Spain, and flow W. to the Atlantic 
Ocean. The climate is healthy, ex- 
cept in the vicinity of salt marshes. 

The principal agricultural produc- 
tions are : wheat, barley, oats, flax, 
hemp, vines, and maize in the elevated 
tracts; rice in the low grounds, with 
olives, oranges, lemons, citrons, figs, 
and almonds. Silk is made of a very 
good quality. There are extensive 
forests of oak in the N., chestnut in 
the center, and the sea pine and cork 
in the S. Cattle, sheep, goats, and 
swine are numerous, and fish abound 
in the rivers and on the coasts. Iron 
mines are worked, and the mountains 



Portugal 



Positive Philosophy 



abound in fine marble, and contain 
traces of gold and silver. Oi salt, large 
quantities are formed in bays along 
the coast, by natural evaporation. 
There are numerous salt marshes, and 
upward of 200 mineral PM rings. The 
manufactures are limited. Cotton 
spinning is followed, and paper, glass, 
and gunpowder are made in a few 
places. 

The exports consist almost entirely 
of wine, salt and wool ; imports, chief- 
ly corn, flour, fish, woolens, linen, cot- 
ton, lace, hardware, hats, shoes, and 
stockings. The state religion is the 
Roman Catholic ; but all others are 
tolerated. The government is a limit- 
ed monarchy. The national assembly 
is called the Cortes, and consists of a 
House of Deputies and a House of 
Peers. 

Portugal forms the greater part of 
ancient Lusitania. It was subjugated 
by the Romans, in the time of Augus- 
tus, and had been made into a prov- 
ince. In the 5th century, on the over- 
throw of the Roman supremacy, Por- 
tugal was invaded by the Alans and 
Visigoths, and suffered with Spain, of 
which it was then a part, all the trou- 
bles and vicissitudes endured by the 
jnhabitants of the peninsula till the 
8th century, at which time the Arabs, 
called indifferently Saracens or Moors, 
possessed themselves of the whole of 
Portugal, and kept absolute dominion 
for nearly 400 years. In the 12th 
century, Don Alonzo Henriquez, a 
Spanish prince of Leon and Castile, 
gained a great victory over the Moors 
of Portugal, and carried out his mili- 
tary operations with such success that 
his troops hailed him with one voice 
as king. He renounced all dependence 
on Spain, politically separated his new 
kingdom from all connection or author- 
ity with the Spanish crown, and es- 
tablished a free and sovereign state. 

Under the descendants of Don Alon- 
EO I., especially Dennis I. and Alonzo 
IV., Portugal, during the next two 
centuries, rose in political importance 
and commercial prosperity. In 1385, 
the King of Castile having laid claim 
to the crown of Portugal on the death 
of Ferdinand, was opposed and de- 
feated by Don John, Ferdinand's 
brother. Under John I. the Portu- 

Suese first projected those Atlantic 
iscoveries on the African coast, 



fraught with such territorial and com- 
mercial advantages to the nation ; and, 
under John II. and Emanuel, between- 
1481 and 1521, Vasco da Gama ex- 
plored the Indian Ocean; and Brazil 
was added to the possessions of the- 
crown of Portugal. Sebastian III., 
fired with a holy zeal to exterminate- 
the infidels from his country, com- 
menced a sanguinary crusade against 
the Moors, which he carried on through; 
such defeats that he eventually lost 
both his crown and life in the strug- 
gle. Henry the Cardinal, his uncle, 
an old man of 70, ascended the throne, 
but died without heirs, after a reign of 
only two years, in 1580. 

With Henry terminated the male- 
line, after enduring for 460 years. 
Spain once more laid claim to the va- 
cant throne, and Portugal again be- 
came a dependency of the Spanish, 
crown. After enduring 60 years of 
intolerable hardships and exactions, a 
Portuguese nobleman named John, 
Duke of Braganza, excited a revolu- 
tion, which again broke the Spanish* 
fetters, while the people hailed their 
deliverer as their king. He was- 
crowned as John IV., and commenced 
the existing dynasty of the House 
of Braganza. In October, 1889, Carlo* 
I. succeeded to the throne. He was- 
assassinated Feb. 1, 1908, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Manuel II., who 
was dethroned Oct. 5, 1910. 

Portuguese East Africa. S.ee- 
EAST AFRICA, PORTUGUESE. 

Fortulaca, purslane ; low. succu- 
lent herbs with flat or cylindrical 
leaves, and yellow, purplish, or rose- 
colored ephemeral flowers. 

Positive Philosophy, the system' 
of philosophy outlined by Auguste- 
Comte in his " Philosophic Positive," 
the sixth and last volume of which 
was published in 1842. It is the out- 
come of the Law of the Three Stage* 
and is based on the positive sciences, 
taken in the following series : mathe- 
matics (number, geometry, mechanics), 
astronomy, physics, chemistry, biolo- 
gy, and sociology. It relinquishes at- 
tempts to transcend the sphere of ex- 
perience, and seeks to establish by 
observation and induction laws or con- 
stant relations, and resigns itself _to 
ignorance of the agents. In the opin- 
ion of its founder it is capable of be- 



Positive Society 



Post Mortem 



ing developed into a religion and a 
polity. 

Positive Society, a society found- 
ed in Paris in 1848, by Comte, in the 
hope that it might exert as powerful 
an influence over the revolution as the 
Jacobin Club had exerted in 1789. 
In this he was disappointed, but the 
disciples who gathered around him 
were the germ of the Positivist 
Church. 

Positivism, the religion of Hu- 
manity, developed from the positive 
philosophy, and claiming to be a syn- 
thesis of all human conceptions of 
the external order of the universe. 
Its professed aim, both in public 
and private life, is to secure the vic- 
tory of social feeling over self love, 
of altruism over egotism. 

Post, George Browne, an Ameri- 
can architect; born in New York city; 
studied with Richard M. Hunt; de- 
signed numerous private residences 
and public buildings; and became 
president of the American Institute 
of Architects, National Art Club, and 
American Society of Civil Engineers. 

Postal Savings Banks, a sys- 
tem for saving money by the deposit 
of small amounts, established by sev- 
eral European Governments, and au- 
thorized by the United States Con- 
gress in 1910, as a branch of the 
Post-office Department. The system 
had long been urged in the United 
States, and the annual report of the 
British postal savings banks for 1908 
had much effect on Congress. That 
report showed for the United King- 
dom a total of 18.379,991 deposits, 
aggregating $217,877,011, and a total 
of $781,794,533 to the credit of 11,- 
018,251 depositors. Deposits at post- 
offices and other designated stations 
of from 10 cents to $1 are repre- 
sented by stamps; of from $1 to $50, 
by certificates in duplicate, punched 
to indicate the amount, one being 
retained by the postmaster or agent, 
the other by the depositor. The sys- 
tem went into operation Jan. 1. 1911. 
Postal Service, the regulation 
of communication between different 
parts of a country, or different coun- 
tries, including especially the for- 
warding and delivering of letters, 
newspapers and small packages, and 
the establishment of a registry sys- 



tem for the transfer of money and 
the transaction of other financial 
business. In some countries the use 
of the telephone and the telegraph 
forms a part of the postal service. 

Though the conveyance of letters is 
the primary work of the postoffice, 
many other branches of business have 
been assumed by it. The word "post" 
has its particular application from 
the posts, or stages, at which on the 
roads of the Roman empire couriers 
were maintained for the purpose of 
conveying news and dispatches. 

Under the terms of a treaty con- 
cluded at Berne, Oct. 9, 1874, the 
object of which was to secure uniform^ 
ity in the treatment of correspondence, 
and the simplification of accounts, 
as well as the reduction of rates with- 
in certain limits, and whose provisions 
were carried into operation generally 
July 1, 1875, the whole of Europe, 
the United States, Egypt, British In- 
dia, and all the colonies of France 
were at the outset, or shortly there- 
after, included in the union and many 
other countries and colonies have since 
joined it. The international accounts 
in respect of postages are based on a 
month's return of correspondence tak- 
en every third year. 

At the present time the postal estab- 
lishment of the United States is the 
freatest business concern in the world, 
t handles more pieces, employs more 
men, spends more money, brings more 
revenue, uses more agencies, reaches 
more homes, involves more details and 
touches more interests than any other 
human organization, public or pri- 
vate, governmental or corporate. 
Though the postal service of England, 
France, and Germany includes the tel- 
egraph, the postal business of the 
United States surpasses the service of 
any of those countries. 

Since Cuba, Porto Rico, and the 
Philippines have come under the au- 
thority of the United States, it has 
become necessary to reconstruct the 
mail system in those islands, and al- 
ready a vast improvement has been 
made in the service. 

Post Mortem, after death, as a 
post mortem examination, i. e., one 
made after the death of a person, in 
order to ascertain the cause of death 
either in the interests of science, or 
for the ends of justice. 



r/GURS /N STATES PEPfiESEMT PP.ODL/CT/ON /N THOUSANDS OF BUSHELS 




POTATOES 

PRODUCT/ON 1911 
THOUSANDS OF BUSHELS 



IN JTATEf fiEPfiEJENT PRODUCTION IN THOUJANDJ Of BUT/fELT 




JMr POTATOES AHDYA 

PRODUCTION /909 

THOUSANDS OT 6UfHLf 



UNITED STATES 

iS.232 THOUJAMD 
BUffifLT 



Post Ofcit 

Post Obit, a bond given as security 
for the repayment of a sum of money 
to a lender on the death of some 
specified person, from whom the bor- 
rower has expectations. Such loans 
in almost every case carry high, if not 
usurious, rates of interest, and gen- 
erally the borrower binds himself to 
pay a much larger sum than he re- 
ceiyes, in consideration of the risk 
which the lender runs in case of the 
borrower dying before the person from 
whom he has expectations. 

Postoffice Department, one of 
the executive departments of the Unit- 
ed States government ; established in 
1794. It is under the management of 
the Postmaster-General, who since the 
time of Andrew Jackson, has been a 
member of the President's Cabinet. 
He is appointed by the President and 
confirmed by the Senate. The depart- 
ment is divided into four great bu- 
reaus each under the immediate charge 
of an assistant postmaster-general. The 
first assistant's bureau has charge of 
the large clerical and carrier forces 
and all the matters of actual manage- 
ment. It supervises an annual expen- 
diture of more than $40,000.000. The 
bureau of the second assistant has the 
immense task of providing for the 
transportation of the mails at a year- 
ly-cost of $35,000,000. That of the 
third assistant looks after the finan- 
cial side, furnishes the stamps, 
and keeps the accounts. The fourth 
assistant has charge of the appoint- 
ment of 75,000 postmasters and di- 
rects the force of inspectors. The 
United States postoffice department, 
unlike that of Great Britain, is car- 
ried on at a loss; this is due to the 
large amount of postal matter of cer- 
tain classes carried at less than the 
cost of conveyance and distribution. 
The greatest revenue in a single year 
has reached $203,562.383; and the 
greatest expenditure, $221,004,102. 

Postulate, a position, supposition, 
or proposition assumed without proof, 
as being self-evident or too plain to 
require proof or illustration ; a thing 
assumed for the purpose of future rea- 
soning; an assumption. In geometry, 
the enunciation of a self-evident prob- 
lem. It differs from an axiom, which 
is the enunciation of a self-evident 
proposition. The axiom is more gen- 
eral than the postulate. 



Potomac 

Potash, a term applied to the hy- 
drate of potassium, either in the liquid 
or solid state, but sometimes used to 
denote potassium oxide and also crude 
carbonate of potassium. Potash salts 
are essential constituents in the hu- 
man body, but if, when wasted, they' 
are supplied directly to the blood they 
are very poisonous. 

Potassium, a monad metallic ele-. 
ment, very widely diffused through, 
the vegetable, mineral and animal 
kingdoms. It usually exists in com-- 
bination with inorganic and organ- 
ic acids, and, when its organic salts 
are burned, they are resolved into car- % 
bonate, from which all the other salts " 
of potassium can be prepared. It may 
be obtained by electrolysis, but is now 
produced in large quantity by distill- 
ing in an iron retort an intimate mix- 
ture of charcoal and carbonate of po-' 
tassium, a condition readily obtained 
by igniting crude tartar in a covered 
crucible. 

Potato, a well-known cultivated 
plant, the tubers of which are eaten. 
It is a native of Chile and Peru. Many 
varieties are grown, differing in earli- 
ness, form, size, color, etc. 

The production in the United States 
has reached over 376,500,000 bushels, 
from over 3,500,000 acres, valued at 
upward of $206,500,000. the most 
productive States being New York, 
Michigan, Maine, and Wisconsin, in 
the order given. 

Potato Fly, a dipterous insect of 
the same genus with the radish fly, 
cabbage fly, turnip fly. In its perfect 
state it is very like the house fly. The 
maggots are often abundant in bad 
potatoes in autumn, and are different 
from the maggots of the house fly, 
being horny, spiny, bristly, and tawny ; 
the long tail ending in six long bris- 
tles. The pupa is very like the larva. 
The potato-frog fly and the caterpillar 
of the death's head moth feed on the 
leaves and stems of potatoes, but rare- 
ly do serious damage. 

Potomac, a river of the United 
States, formed by two branches which 
rise in the Allegheny Mountains in 
West Virginia, and unite 15 miles S. 
E. of Cumberland, Md., from which 
point the river flows in a generally 
S. E. course 400 miles, and falls into 
Chesapeake Bay, after forming an 
estuary nearly 100 miles long, and 



Potomac 

from 2% to 7 miles wide. The largest 
ships can ascend to Washington. The 
Potomac forms the greater part of the 
boundary between Virginia and Mary- 
land. 

Potomac, Army of the. The 
Union forces which operated in Vir- 
ginia in the Civil War were known as 
the "Army of the Potomac." It was 
organized by Gen. George B. McClellan 
in 1861, and served under him in the 
Peninsular campaign and later in that 
of Antietam. General Burnside took 
command in 1862, and General Hooker 
in 1863. General Meade was in com- 
mand when the victory at Gettysburg 
was won, in July, 1863, and con- 
tinued in charge during General 
Grant's operations in 1864-1865. 

Potomac, Society of the Army 
of the, a military organization found- 
ed in New York, July 5, 1869, and has 
held annual reunions since that date. 
All officers and soldiers who served in 




AEMY OF THE POTOMAC BADGE. 

the Army of the Potomac and in the 
10th and 18th Army Corps, Army of 
the James, are eligible to membership. 
Pottawattamies, a tribe of Ameri- 
can Indians, belonging to the Algon- 
quin stock. The early French settlers 
established a mission among them 



Pottery 

at Green Bay, and to this day many 
of them are Roman Catholics. They 
sided with the English during the Rev- 
olutionary War and in the War of 
1812, and afterward settled in Kan- 
sas. They now number about 1,200. 

Potter, Henry Co dm an, an 
American clergyman ; born in Schenec- 
tady, N. Y., May 25, 1835. Educated 
in theology in Virginia, he became rec- 
tor of Grace Church, New York city, 
in 1868 ; and was consecrated Protest- 
ant Episcopal bishop of New York 
in 1887. His works include : " Gates 
of the East : A Winter in Egypt and 
Syria " ; " Sermons of the City " ; 
" Waymarks " ; etc. He was widely 
known and esteemed for his efforts to 
improve the condition of the people. 
He died July 21, 1908. 

Potter, Paul, a celebrated Dutch 
painter of animals ; born at Enkhui- 
sen in 1625 ; died at Amsterdam in 
1654. He received his first instruction 
in art from his father, Pieter Potter 
(1587-1655), a painter of some note. 
He devoted himself specially to the 
study of animals, producing his first- 
signed picture, " The Herdsman," in 
1643. His works are highly esteemed. 
His coloring is brilliant, and the sep- 
arate parts are delicately executed, 
yet without stiffness or mannerism. 

Pottery, the art of forming vessels 
or utensils of any sort in clay. This 
art is of high antiquity, being prac- 
tised among various races in prehis- 
toric times. 

The most celebrated wares of differ- 
ent times and countries are distin- 
guished by distinctive names ; as, Ma- 
jolica-ware, Sevres, Chelsea, Palissy, 
etc.; and of these, the latter the 
work of Bernard de Palissy, who lived 
in the 16th century deserves some 
special attention. Palissy, having re- 
solved to discover a method of enam- 
elling stoneware, succeeded, after lt> 
years' efforts, and proceeded to manu- 
facture pottery characterized by a pe- 
culiar style and many singular quali- 
ties. It is not decorated with flat 
painting, but with figures and orna- 
ments, which are generally pure in 
form, and are all executed in relief and 
colored. The most remarkable of the 
works of Palissy are his " Pieces rus- 
tiques," a designation given by him to 
dishes ornamented with fishes, snakes, 
frogs, crayfish, lizards, shells, and 



Potts 

plants, admirably true to nature in 
form and color. Palissy ware may be 
distinguished from imitations by the 
fact that Palissy molded only the fos- 
sil shells, reptiles, and plants of Par- 
is, while his imitators introduced re- 
cent shells and other objects of natu- 
ral History. 

In the United States the highest 
annual production value was reached 
in 1906, when the total of all prod- 
ucts was ,$31,440,884, white and 
porcelain ware leading. 

Potts, William, an American 
author; born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
May 5, 1838. For many years he was 
secretary and vice-president of the Na- 
tional Civil Service League. He was 
chief examiner of the Civil Service 
Commission of New York State in 
18^7. He published a volume of na- 
ture studies, " From a New England 
Hillside," and a Sunday-school ser- 
vice book, " Noblesse Oblige," etc. 
He is also the author of numerous 
pamphlets. 

Pottstown, a borough in Mont- 
gomery county, Pa.; on the Schuyl- 
kill river and canal, Manatawny 
creek, and the Pennsylvania and 
other railroads; 18 miles S. B. of 
Reading; is chiefly engaged in the 
manufacture of pig andi structural 
iron, with extensive accessories; also 
has planing, flour, silk, hosiery, and un- 
derwear mills, cigar factories, and pork- 
packing plant. Pop. (1910) 15,599. 

Pottsville, borough and capital 
of Schuylkill county, Pa.; on the 
Schuylkill river and canal, Nor- 
wegian creek, and the Philadelphia 
& Reading and other railroads; 93 
miles N. W. of Philadelphia; is one 
of the greatest coal-shipping centers 
in the State: and has large iron, 
steel, and brass works, railroad 
shops, and silk, flour, and lumber 
mills. Pop. (1910) 20.236. 

Poughkeepsie, city and capital 
of Dutchess county, N. Y.; on. the 
Hudson river and several railroads; 
75 miles N. of New York city; has 
a noted $5.000.000 cantilever railroad 
bridge across the river, daily steam- 
boat connection with Albany and 
New York city, and important manu- 
fnctures; is the seat of Vassar Col- 
lege, Hudson River Hospital for the 
Insane, and numerous Homes; was 
settled by. the Dutch in 1690; State 



Poultry 

capital during the Revolution. Pop. 
(19rO) 27,936. 

Ppulpe, a genus of Cephalopoda, 
having eight feet or arms, nearly 
equal, united at the base by a mem- 
brane, and very long in proportion 
to the body. Poulpes swim by con- 
tractions of the muscular web of the 
body, which extends upon the arms. 
They creep on shore in a spider-like 
manner, with sprawling arms. 

Poultry. American poultry include 
several classes of breeds, among them 
the general utility, or American -barn- 
yard fowl; the egg-producing, or 
Mediterranean; and the flesh-making, 
or Asiatic types. 

The chief of the general utility fowls 
are the handsome, compact Plymouth 
Rocks, those barred in black and white 
being the most common, although 
white and buff are known. They are 
famous for their hardiness; quick- 
ness of growth; steady production of 
light brown eggs; quick maturity in- 
to well-fleshed chickens; and their gen- 
eral tractability and business-like 
methods of foraging, sitting and the 
like. Wyandottes, including the white, 
silver-laced and Columbian varieties, 
compete with the Plymouth Rocks. 
The White Wyandottes are favorites 
in farmyards, being hardy fowls, ma- 
turing quickly into small, plump 
broilers and roasters, with the popu- 
lar yellow skins, and are early and 
steady egg-layers. The large Rhode 
Island Reds, a somewhat new breed, 
gorgeous in black and scarlet, lay 
brown eggs very regularly, and also 
produce flesh; and, with the Orping- 
tons, particularly the buff variety, 
haying similarly good habits, are 
claimed to be in the highest rank of 
utility fowls. Javas and the high- 
crested Houdans are also said to be 
useful to the farmer. The latter is 
a favorite French breed, mottled 
black and white, laying many very 
large white eggs, even in winter, and 
of fine quality as a table fowl. 

The "fancy" Hamburgs, silver and 
gold, black and red and white, span- 
gled and laced and penciled, and most 
perfectly formed, are non-sitters; and 
the tall, iridescent, black Minorcas 
are recommended for prolific egg-lay- 
ing, thriving when in confinement in 
small runs. 

The Mediterranean type is repre 



Poultry 

sented by the small, active Leghorns, 
white and brown and buff in hue, fa- 
mous egg-layers even in winter, when 
sheltered in warm houses, and picking 
up much forage if given a free run. 

The Asiatic type is represented by 
the large, heavy and profusely feath- 
ered light and dark Brahmas, covered 
with rounded masses of feathers and 
with characteristic " pea-combs " ; by 
the buff, black and 'white Cochins, still 
more profusely feathered, even the 
shanks and feet being covered with 
plumage ; especially in the "Partridge" 
variety ; and by the tall, black Lang- 
shans. They are all excellent table- 
fowls, and .lay quite a number of eggs 
even in winter; and they are addicted 
to sitting, making good mothers. The 
chicks mature early, and have a large 
sale as broilers and roasters. Plump- 
breasted Dorkings are more valued in 
England than with us, the Americans 
preferring yellow legs and feet. 

The red and black game-chickens, 
formerly grown for fighting in the 
cock-pits, are still raised, the Modern 
Game, and various kinds of the Old 
English Black-breasted Reds and the 
Cornish Indian and Azeel, being ex- 
hibited. Game hens are excellent 
mothers and are magnificent table 
fowls. Speckled Guinea hens, having 
a game-like flavor, are frequently 
raised for the table. 

Bantams are miniatures of the 
standard breeds, the Buff Cochin Ban- 
tam being recommended for hatching 
gam- -bird's eggs ; the Japanese Ban- 
tam are quaint, little creatures with 
long, sickle-shaped tail-feathers, which 
are, however, not so exaggerated as 
those of the Yokohama cocks, which, 
like the silkies, birds with downy 
plumage, are grown occasionally for 
ornament. The gorgeous-hued pea- 
cocks and various kinds of pheasants, 
especially the Ring-necked, Golden, Sil- 
ver and Reeves pheasants, are raised 
for their beauty, and the latter for 
the game market. 

Pigeons, too, are an important 
branch of the poultry farm ; the 
Homer breed being the bird most 
' commonly used for squab raising, as 
its young reach the desired size very 
quickly. There are numerous fancy 
breeds, too, raised by the fanciers, as 
the Fantails, Pouters, Turbits and 
Tumblers. 

Bronze and Narragansett turkeys 
are the largest and the hardiest varie- 



Powderly 

ties, requiring a large range for their 
best development. The black and the 
white, or Holland breeds, being smaller 
and more domesticated. 

The large German white Embden 
goose, and the dark gray Toulouse 
breed of French origin, are favorite 
breeds of geese, although the Caftada 
and Chinese geese are also good. 

A Chinese duck, the white Pekin, is 
the favorite breed of this water-fowl, 
although the Rouen and Aylesbury 
types, and even Muscovy, Swedish and 
the Indian Runners, are grown. The 
charming little parti-colored Wood- 
ducks and Mandarin ducks are culti- 
vated for ornament. See also FOWL. 

Poussin, Gaspar, a French land- 
scape painter ; born in Rome, in 1613 ; 
died in 1675. His name was Dughet, 
but he adopted that of his teacher and 
brother-in-law, Nicolas Poussin. His 
paintings, distinguished by grandeur 
and somewhat sombre characteristics, 
are found in many European galleries. 

Poussin, Nicolas, distinguished 
French historical and landscape paint- 
er : born at Andelys, Normandy, in 
1594; died in Rome in 1665. His 
style is grand and heroic, and he had 
a fertile invention. He has been called 
the French Raphael. Among his cele- 
brated works are the " Seven Sacra- 
ments," the " Death of Germanicus," 
the " Capture of Jerusalem," " Moses 
bringing Water from the Rock," the 
"Worship of the Golden- Calf," "John 
Baptizing in the Wilderness," etc., and 
many fine landscapes. 

Pont, a young turkey ; often ap- 
plied to the young of other domestic 
fowls and of the grouse kind ; a sea- 
fish of the cod kind, so named from 
its power of inflating a membrane 
which covers the eyes and neighboring 
parts of the head. 

Powan, or Fresh-water Her- 
ring, fish distinctive to Loch Lomond, 
Scotland, although resembling the Pol- 
Ian of the Irish lakes. 

Powderly, Terence Vincent, an 
American lawyer ; born in Carbondale, 
Pa., Jan. 22, 1849. He was General 
Master- Workman of the Knights of 
Labor in 1879-1893; then he studied 
law ; and was admitted to the bar in 
1894. He was appointed United States 
commissioner 'general of immigration 
in 1897, and chief of Division of In- 
formation in Bureau of Immigration 



BARRED & BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCKS 




COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY F. E. WRIGHT. 



LEADING BREEDS 




F CHICKENS 



Powell 



Powers 



(to distribute immigrants throughout 
the country) in 1907. 

Powell, Baden, an English physi- 
cist ; born in London, Aug. 22, 1796 ; 
educated at Oriel College, Oxford; in 
1821 became vicar of Plumstead, and 
in 1824 was made F. R. S. From 
1827 till his death, he was Savilian 
Professor of Geometry at Oxford. He 
published a history of natural philoso- 
phy, treatises on the calculus, optics, 
and the undulatory theory of light, 
but he is best known by his contriba* 
tion on the evidences of Christianity 
to the " Essays and Reviews '' and by 
other theological works, regarded at 
the time as dangerously " liberal " in 
tendency. He died in London, June 
11, 1860. 

Powell, John Wesley, an Ameri- 
can geologist ; born in Mount Morris, 
N. Y., March 24, 1834. He was edu- 
cated at Oberlin College; was a lieu- 
tenant-colonel of artillery at the close 
of the Civil War; Professor of Geolo- 
gy in the Illinois Wesleyan University, 
1865 ; explored the canyon of the Col- 
orado river in 1867 and in 1870-1874. 
He was director of the United States 
Geological Survey in 1879-1896, and 
of the United States Bureau of Eth- 
nology after 1879. The special vol- 
umes of reports written by Major Pow- 
ell are : " Exploration of the Colora- 
do River in 1869-1872"; "Geology 
of the Uinta Mountains " ; " The Arid 
Regions of the United States " ; " In- 
troduction to Study of Indian Lan- 
guages " ; " Canyons of the Colorado," 
etc. He died Sept. 23, 1902. 

Powell, Thomas, an American au- 
thor ; born in London, England, Sept. 
3, 1809. For many years he was 
connected with the Frank Leslie pub- 
lications. He died in Newark, N. J., 
Jan. 13, 1887. 

Powelson, Wilfred van Nest, an 
American naval officer ; born in Mid- 
dletown, N. Y., Sept. 15, 1872; was 
graduated at the United States Naval 
Academy in 1893 ; was selected by the 
government to pursue a special course 
in naval architecture at the Univer- 
sity of Glasgow, served two years on 
the flagship " New York," and later 
on the " Fern." After the destruction 
of the " Maine " in Havana harbor 
he was appointed to investigate the 
disaster. His report showing that the 



" Maine " was sunk by an exploded 
mine was published and favorably 
commented on by many scientific pe- 
riodicals. He commanded the gun on 
the " St. Paul " which sank the " Ter- 
ror," a Spanish torpedo boat, near 
San Juan, Porto Rico; promoted lieu- 
tenant, 1901; retired, 1902. 

Power. In mechanics: (1) That 
which produces motion or force; that 
which communicates motion to bodies, 
changes the motion of bodies, 
or prevents the motion of bodies; a 
mechanical agent or power. (2) The 
moving force applied to overcome some 
force or resistance, to raise a weight, 
or produce other required effect; air, 
water, steam and animal strength are 
employed as powers. (3) The me- 
chanical effect or advantage produced 
by a machine. Force or effect consid- 
ered as resulting from the action of a 
machine. 

Powers, Hiram, an American 
sculptor ; bom in Woodstock, Vt., Julj 
29, 1805. In 1835 he went to Wash- 
ington, where he executed the busts 
of several distinguished persons. Two 
years later he was enabled to go to 
Italy to study his art, and he resided 
in Florence till his death. There he 
produced his statue of " Eve," which 
excited the admiration of Thorwald- 
sen, and in 1843 the still more popu- 
lar " Greek Slave," of which six cop- 
ies in marble, with cast copies in- 
numerable, were produced. , Among 
the other works the chief were 
" Proserpine," " II Penseroso," " Cal- 
ifornia," " America," and busts of 
Washington for the State of Louisi- 
ana, of Calhoun for South Carolina, 
and Daniel Webster for Boston, as 
well as those of John Q. Adams, An- 
drew Jackson, Marshall, Van Buren, 
and other distinguished Americans. He 
died in Florence, Italy, June 27, 1873. 

Powers, Horatio Nelson, an 
American poet ; born in Amenia, N. 
Y., April 30, 1826. He died in Pier- 
mont, N. Y., Sept 6, 1890. 

Powers, Le Grand, an American 
statistician ; born in Preston, N. Y., 
in 1874; was graduated at Iowa State 
University in 1872 ; commissioner of 
labor in Minnesota in 1891-1899 ; then 
became chief statistician of the llth 
Census, in charge of agriculture. 
Among his books are " Minnesota Bu< 



Praxiteles 

length is about four inches ; color 
bright gray, spotted and lined with 
darker purplish gray. It is a fa- 
vorite article of food, and is found in 
vast numbers in the North Atlantic. 

Praxiteles, a celebrated Greek 
sculptor; born about 360 B. c., who 
executed several fine statues in bronze 
and marble of Bacchus, a satyr, Ve- 
nus, and Apollo. An ancient copy of 
one of his works, the " Apollo Saur- 
octonos," is the only example extant. 
He excelled by the grace, tenderness, 
and finish of his works. He was es- 
teemed a;? second to Phidias only. He 
died about 280 B. c. 

Prayer, a universally acknowledged 
part of the worship due to God ; not 
merely petition, but, according to the 
New Testament models and Christian 
usage, praise, adoration, and thankful 
acknowledgment of mercies received. 
Nor is any truth more indisputably 
taught in the Bible, or more frequent- 
ly brought into view, both in the Old 
and New Testament, than that God 
is the hearer of prayer. 

Praying Machine, Praying 
Mill, or Praying Wheel, an ap- 
paratus used in Tibet, and other parts 
of the East, as a mechanical aid to 
prayer. They are of various forms, 
the commonest being a cylinder or 
barrel of pasteboard fixed on an axle, 
and inscribed with prayers. The de- 
vout give the barrel a turn, and each 
revolution counts as an utterance of 
the prayer or prayers inscribed. It is 
common enough to see them fixed in 
the bed of a running stream, as they 
are then set in motion by the water, 
and go on praying night and day, to 
the special benefit of the person who 
has placed them there. The Tartars 
also suspend them over their domestic 
hearths, that they may be set in mo- 
tion by the current of cool air from the 
opening in the tent, and so twirl for 
the peace and prosperity of the family. 

Preaching, the act of preaching; 
a public religious discourse. The mod- 
ern system of preaching was unknown 
in the early Church. The general 
mode then was for the priest to read 
portions of the Old or New Testa- 
ment, and explain or enforce the pre- 
cepts which they contained. About 
the 13th century, the scholastic divines 
directed their chief attention to the 
study of the sacred Scriptures, and 



Precession 

were hence called Bible divines, and 
honored with the pompous titles of 
profound, sublime, wonderful, sera- 
phic, angelic doctors. They introduced 
a new and artificial mode of preach- 
ing, called declaring. Before this time, 
the clergy generally adopted postulat- 
ing, or expounding a large portion of 
Scripture, sentence by sentence. By 
the new method the preacher read a 
text out of some book and chapter of 
the Old or New Testament, dividing it 
into several parts and expounding 
them ; and, generally, the more nu- 
merous the divisions and sub-divisions, 
the better and more highly was he 
esteemed. The opposition to this text- 
ual mode of preaching continued for 
upward of a century, but at length it 
came generally to prevail. 

Preble, Edward, an American na- 
val officer ; born in Portland, Me., Aug. 
15, 1761. Early in 1803 he was made 
commander of the " Constitution " ; 
and in June of that year was placed 
in command of a fleet sent against 
Tripoli. He greatly distinguished 
himself in causing that country to 
sue for peace, a feat accomplished by 
a number of skillful bombardments- 
He returned to the United States and 
received through Congress the thanks 
of the nation and a gold medal. He 
died in Portland, Me., Aug. 25, 1807. 

Precedence, the order in which 
men and women follow each other 
according to rank or dignity in a 
State procession or dn other public 
occasions. There is no American law 
dealing with precedence, tact and cour- 
tesy guiding the procedure on public 
occasions, but in Europe it is a sub- 
ject of very grave importance, and 
moss-grown with law and custom. 

Precedent, a judicial decision, in- 
terlocutory or final, which serves as a 
rule for future determinations in sim- 
ilar cases ; also a form of proceeding 
to be followed in similar cases. 

Precentor, an officer in a cathe- 
dral, formerly sometimes called 
chaunter, and ranking in dignity next 
to the dean. 

Precession of the Equinoxes, in 
astronomy, the going forward of the 
equinoxes. The arrival of the sun at 
the point Aries a little earlier than he 
might be expected to reach it was first 
observed by Hipparchus about 150 



Predestination 

B. c. The earth's rotation simply 
causes the points at which the earth's 
equator intersects the plane of the 
ecliptic to move slowly in a direction 
opposite to that in which the earth 
rotates. This is what is denominated 
the precession of the equinoxes. It is 
generally associated with the sun, but 
the moon is twice as potent in produc- 
ing it ; owing to her comparative near- 
ness to the earth she is able to pro- 
duce a greater differential effect on the 
nearer and more remote portions of 
our planet. The annual motion of the 
first point of Aries is about 50", and 
about 25,867 years will be required for 
the entire revolution. It has been sup- 
posed that the precession of the equi- 
noxes may have had some influence 
in producing the Glacial Period. 

Predestination, in theology, the 
term used to denote the decree of God, 
whereby the elect are foreordained to 
salvation. The theory of predestina- 
tion represents God's absolute will as 
determining the eternal destiny of 
man, not according to the foreknown 
character of those whose fate is so 
determined, but according to God's 
choice. It is a characteristic of Cal- 
vinistic theology ; left an open ques- 
tion since the Reformation by Episco- 
pal and Roman Catholic Churches. 

Preemption, the act or right of 
buying before others. Also, the right 
of a settler on lands to purchase in 
preference to others, when the land 
is sold. 

Preexistence, existence previous to 
or before something else. Also, exist- 
ence in a previous state; existence of 
the soul previous to its union with 
the body. Preexistence was a doctrine 
of the Pythagoreans, and several oth- 
ers of the old philosophers, and is still 
found in many Eastern religions. 

Prelate, an ecclesiastical dignitary 
of the highest order, having author- 
ity over the lower clergy, as an arch- 
bishop, bishop, or patriarch ; a digni- 
tary of the church. 

Prentice, George Denison, an 
American journalist ; born in Preston, 
Conn., Dec., 18, 1802 ; became editor 
of the Louisville " Journal," 1830, and 
held that post till his death, making 
the paper famous for satiric wit and 
exuberant fun. He died in Louisville, 
Ky n Jan. 22, 1870. 



Presbyter 

Preutiss, Benjamin Mayberry, 

an American military officer ; born in 
Belleville, Va. (now W. Va.), Nov. 23, 
1819. He removed to Illinois in 1842, 
and served in the Mexican War as a 
captain of volunteers. At the begin- 
ning of the Civil War he entered 
the Union Army and was made Briga- 
dier-General or volunteers. He was 
taken prisoner at Shiloh, May 6, 1862 ; 
was promoted Major-General in the 
same year ; defeated Generals Holmes 
and Price, who attacked him at Hele- 
na, Ark., July 4, 1863; resigned his 
commission Oct. 28, 1863, and died 
in 1901. 

Prentiss, Mrs. Elizabeth (Pay- 
son), an American writer of fiction ; 
born in Portland, Me., Oct. 26, 1818. 
She died in Dorset, Vt., Aug. 13, 1878. 

Prentiss, Seargent Smith, an 
American orator; born in Portland, 
Me., Sept. 30, 1808; studied law, and 
became, about 1827, a resident of 
Vicksburg, Miss., where he practised 
with success. He was elected to Con- 
gress by the Whigs in 1837. His man- 
ner of speaking was at once natural 
and dramatic, and he had a high repu- 
tation as an orator, and as an advo- 
cate in jury trials was equal or supe- 
rior to any lawyer in the Southwestern 
States. He died near Natchez, Miss., 
July 1, 1850. 

Preposition, a part of speech, so 
named because originally prefixed to 
the verb, in order to modify its mean- 
ing. Prepositions are either simple or 
compound. Simple prepositions are 
at, by, for, from, in, on, out, to, up, 
with ; compound prepositions are 
across, after (a comparative form of), 
against, above, about, along, amid, 
amidst, among, athwart, but, into, 
over, through, toward, until, unto, 
within, without. The prepositions con- 
cerning, during, except, notwithstand- 
ing, etc., arise out of a participial 
construction. 

Pre-Kaphaelism, an English 
school of painting, which has in re- 
cent years sprung into existence, and 
has been thus named, in accordance 
with an erroneous idea that its ear- 
liest members were mainly anxious to 
imitate the mannerisms of the artists 
who painted prior to the time of Ra- 
phael. 

Presbyter, an elder, or a person 
advanced in years who had authority 



Press Clipping Bureau 



Price 



According to its provisions the presi- 
dential succession is arranged as fol- 
lows : Following the Vice-President, 
the Secretary of State, the Secretary 
of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, 
the Attorney-General, the Postmaster- 
General, the Secretary of the Navy, 
the Secretary of the Interior, Secre- 
tary of Agriculture, and the Secretary 
of Commerce and Labor. 

Press Clipping Bureau, an office 
for supplying newspaper and maga- 
zine clippings on any required subjects 
to any person desiring them. There 
are several such bureaus in New 
York, Chicago, and other large cities. 

Press Gang, the name given in 
England to a detachment of seamen 
who (under a naval officer) were em- 
powered, in time of war, to lay hold 
of seafaring men and compel them to 
serve in the king's ships. 

Preston, Harriet Waters, an 
American author ; born in Danvers, 
Mass., about 1843. At an early age 
she became noted as a linguist, and 
afterward achieved a brilliant reputa- 
tion as a translator from the Latin 
and Provencal languages, and as an 
essayist. Besides her translations she 
has published several bright original 
books. 

Preston, Mrs. Margaret (Jun- 
kin), an American author; born in 
Philadelphia about 1825 ; was a resi- 
dent of Lexington, Va., and laer of 
Baltimore, Md. Her writings deal 
chiefly with the period of the Civil 
War. She died in 1897. 

Preston, William, an American 
diplomatist ; born near Louisville, Ky., 
Oct. 16, 1816 ; practised law in Louis- 
ville ; was sent as minister to Spain in 
1858 ; was a member of Congress 
1852-1855 ; joined the Confederates in 
1861 ; and was made a Brigadier-Gen- 
eral. He died in Lexington, Ky., 
Sept. 21, 1887. ' 

Presumption, in law, in the ab- 
sence of direct evidence that which 
comes nearest to the proof of a fact. 

Pretender, one who made claim to 
a throne under a pretense of right (as 
Perkin Warbeck, Lambert Simnel, in 
English history) ; specially applied to 
the son and grandson of James II., the 
heirs of the House of Stuart, who laid 
claim to the throne of England, from 
which they had been excluded by Par- 



liament in 1688. The former, often 
termed the Old Pretender, died in 
1776 ; his son, Charles Edward Stuart, 
the Young Pretender, in 1788. 

Pretoria, the capital of the former 
South African Republic (Transvaal), 
980 miles from Cape Town, and 285 
miles W. of Lorenzo Marques, on Del- 
agoa Bay, to which a railway was 
opened in 1895. Pretoria was founded 
in 1855 by the Boer leader Pretorius, 
has broad streets, and pure water. It 
owes its prosperity chiefly to the gold 
mines at Johannesburg, about 30 
miles distant. 

Prcvost-Paraclol, Imcien Ana- 
tole, a French writer and diplomatist ; 
born in Paris, France, Aug. 8, 1829. 
In 1851 he obtained from the Academie 
Francaise the prize for eloquence, for 
his " Eulogy on Bernardin de Saint 
Pierre." His literary and political es- 
says are among the soundest, the most 
acute, the most scholarly, and the most 
elegant that have proceeded from the 
French journalists of the empire. In 
1870 he came to the United States as 
minister plenipotentiary, and he was 
at Washington only a few days when 
he committed suicide, Aug. 11, 1870. 

Priam, a King of Phrygia, and the 
last sovereign of Troy. Soon after his 
accession, the discovery of a gold mine 
in his kingdom enabled him to enlarge 
and beautify his capital, strengthen 
its defenses, and raise a powerful 
army. Under his reign Troy was re- 
garded as the largest, richest, and most 
magnificent city, and himself as the 
most powerful monarch in Lesser 
Asia. The perfidy of his son Paris in 
eloping with Helen led to the long and 
fatal war, which, after enduring for 
10 years, terminated in the entire over- 
throw of the state, the destruction of 
Illium, the death of most of his sons, 
and his own murder by the ruthless 
Pyrrhus. Priam's death occurred about 
1184 B. C. 

Pribilof Islands, a group of is- 
lands on the coast of Alaska, in Ber- 
ing Sea. The largest are St. Paul, St. 
George, Walrus, and Beaver Islands. 
They are frequented by numbers of fur 
seals. The natives are Aleutians. 

Price, Richard, an English phi- 
losopher : born in Tynton, Glamorgan- 
shire, Feb. 22, 1723. He was a Dis- 
senting minister, and was pastor of 



Price 

a congregation at Hackney. He was 
the friend of Benjamin Franklin, and 
sympathized warmly with the Ameri- 
can colonists. His tables of vital sta- 
tistics and calculations of expectancy 
of life were the basis of modern an- 
nuities and life insurance ; his econom- 
ic and financial writings were of a 
high order, and the younger Pitt con- 
sulted him on finance. He wrote " The 
American Revolution and the Means of 
Rendering It a Benefit to the World," 
etc. He died April 19, 1791. 

Price, Sterling, an American mili- 
tary officer ; born in Prince Edward 
co., Va., Sept. 11, 1809 ; received a 
collegiate education, and settled in 
Missouri in 1831 ; was elected to Con- 
gress in 1844 ; served in the Mexican 
War as colonel and Brigadier-General 
of volunteers ; was military governor 
of Chihuahua in 1847 ; governor of 
Missouri in 1853-1857, and president 
of the State Convention in February, 
1861. When the Civil War broke out 
he joined the Confederate army, and 
became Major-General of Missouri 
militia in May, 1861. He fought 
through many campaigns and greatly 
distinguished himself ; r, as commander 
of the Department of the West in 
18G2, and afterward of the districts of 
Tennessee and Trans-Mississippi. At 
the close of the war he went to Mexico, 
but in 1866 returned to Missouri. He 
died in St. Louis, Mo., Sept. 29, 1867. 

Prickly Ash, a name given to 
several prickly shrubs of the United 
otates. They have an aromatic and 
pungent bark, which from being used 
as a remedy for toothache gains them 
the name of toothache tree. 

JPrickly Heat, a skin disease, 
characterized by minute papulae 
formed by the hypersemia of the sweat 
follicles. Few Caucasian residents of 
the tropics escape it when they are ex- 
posed to the sun. It is not in the 
least dangerous. 

Prickly Pear, otherwise called the 
Indian fig. It is a fleshy and succu- 
lent plant, destitute of leaves, covered 
with clusters of spines, and consisting 
of flattened joints inserted upon each 
other. The fruit is purplish in color, 
covered with fine prickles, and edible. 
The flower is large and yellow. It is 
a native of the tropical parts of Amer- 
ica. It is easily propagated, and in 
some countries is used as a hedge 

F. 120. 



Priestley 

plant. It attains a height of seven or 
eight feet. 

Pride of China (also called pride 
of India and bead tree), a handsome 
tree a native of India, naturalized in 
the Southern States of the American 
Union. It grows rapidly, has large 
bunches of flowers, and enormous 
quantities of small fruit. A decoc- 
tion of the bark of its root is used as 
a vermifuge. 

Priest, one who in any religion per- 
forms the sacred rites and, more or 
less, intervenes between the worship- 
per and his God, especially by offering 
sacrifice. 

In Judaism, a descendant of Aaron, 
and therefore one of the sacred caste. 
The Jewish priests filled all the im- 
portant offices in connection, first with 
the tabernacle and then with the tem- 
ple worship. In the Protestant Epis- 
copal Church, a clergyman in priest's 
orders, as distinguished from a deacon. 
In the Roman Church, a cleric who 
has received the third grade in holy or- 
ders, and who is thereby empowered 
to " offer, t>less, rule, preach, and bap- 
tize." 

Priest, Josiah, an American au- 
thor ; born in New York, about 1790. 
He was an unschooled man, a harness- 
maker by trade ; but published several 
books, some of which became very pop- 
ular. Among them were, " Stories of 
the Revolution," and " Slavery in the 
Light of History and Scripture." He 
died about 1850. 

Pristley, Joseph, an English 
natural philosopher; born in Field- 
head, England, March 13, 1733. His 
first publication was the "History and 
Present State of Electricity," which 
procured his election into the Royai 
Society, and the degree of doctor of 
laws from Edinburgh. It was here 
also that his political opinions were 
first manifested, in an " Essay on Gov- 
ernment." Soon after this he went to 
Leeds, where he made those important 
discoveries with regard to the proper- 
ties of fixed air, foi which he received 
the Copley medal of the Royal Society 
in 1772. In 1776 he communicated to 
the same learned body his observations 
on respiration, in which he first experi- 
mentally ascertained that the air parts 
with its oxygen to the blood as it 
passes through the lungs. He next re- 



Prima Donna 

moved to Birmingham, where he be- 
came once more minister of an Inde- 
pendent congregation, and occupied 
himself in his " History of the Corrup- 
tions of Christianity," writing, also, 
in support of the claims of the Dis- 
senters for a repeal of the test acts. 
But it was the French Revolution that 
afforded him the widest field, and he 
did not fail to display his warm sym- 
pathy with it. This excited the in- 
dignation of the High Church party; 
and in the riots which took place in 
July, 1791, his house, library, manu- 
scripts, and apparatus were committed 
to the flames by the mob, and he was 
exposed to great personal danger. Aft- 
er this he removed to Hackney, where 
he succeeded Dr. Price ; but, in 1794, 
compelled by incessant persecutions to 
fly his intolerant country, came to the 
United States and took up his abode 
at Northumberland, Pa. His works 
extend to between 70 and 80 volumes. 
As a natural philosopher, his fame 
principally rests on his pneumatic in- 
quiries. He died in Northumberland, 
Pa., Feb. 6, 1804. 

Prima Donna, the first female 
singer in an opera. 

Primate, the chief ecclesiastic in 
certain churches. The Archbishop of 
York is called the Primate of England, 
the Archbishop of Canterbury the Pri- 
mate of All England, and the Roman 
Catholic Archbishop of Baltimore the 
Primate of the United States. 

Primates, the first and chief of 
Linnaeus' orders of the class Mam- 
malia. He included under it four gen- 
era : Homo ( one species, five varie- 
ties), Simia (21 species), Lemur, 
(three species), and Vespertilio (seven 
species). Huxley divides it into three 
suborders: (1) Anthropidffi, (2) Simi- 
adffi (apes and monkeys), and (3) 
Lemurid*. 

Prime, Samuel Ircnseus, an 
American editor ; born in Ballston, N. 
Y., Nov. 4, 1812 ; was first a minister 
in the Presbyterian Church. About 
1840 he became editor of the New 
York " Observer," and remained in 
charge till his death. He was the 
author of over 40 volumes, the best 
known being, " Travels in Europe and 
the East," " Letters from Switzer- 
land," " The Alhambra and the Krem- 
lin," "Life of Samuel F. B. Morse." 



Primrose 

He died in Manchester, Vt., July 18, 
1885. 
Prime, William Cowper, an 

American author ; born in Cambridge, 
N. Y., Oct. 31, 1825. He has written 
" Owl Creek Letters," " Coins, Medals, 
and Seals," " The Holy Cross," " Pot- 
tery and Porcelain of all Times and 
Nations," etc. He edited " McClel- 
lan's Own Story," and other works. 
He died Feb. 13, 1905. 

Prime Meridian, that meridian 
from which longitude is measured ; in 
the United States the meridian of 
Washington. 

Prime Minister, a British officer 
of State, who at the summons of the 
sovereign has succeeded in forming an 
administration, of which he is the 
head, and which may be named after 
him. Though each member of the min- 
istry administers his own department 
independently of his colleagues, all im- 
portant departmental matters are sub- 
mitted to him, the most important be- 
ing brought before the wMole ministry, 
and no appointment of moment is 
made or recommended to the crown 
without his knowledge and concur- 
rence. His own patronage is very ex- 
tensive. No cabinet officer in the Unit- 
ed States possesses similar powers. 

Primitive Methodists, a section 
of the Wesleyan community which 
arose in Staffordshire, England, under 
the leadership of Hugh Bourne 
(1792-1852). Having held camp meet- 
ings like those in the United States, 
he was censured for it by the English 
Wesleyan Conference in 1807, and, se- 
ceding, formed a new connection. In 
doctrine the Primitive Methodists 
agree with the Wesleyans. In the 
United States they report 101 
churches, 80 ministers, and 7,558 
communicants. 

Primogeniture, the right, system, 
or rule under which in cases of in- 
testacy, the eldest son of a family suc- 
ceeds to the real estate of his father 
to the absolute exclusion of the young- 
er sons and daughters. Primogeniture 
no longer carries with it any legal ad- 
vantage over younger children hi the 
United States. 

Primrose, a well known flower, 
common in copses, pastures, hedge- 
banks, and woods, or by the side of 
streams. Its rootstock is emetic. 



Prince 



Princeton University 



Prince. (1) One who holds the 
first, or chief place, or rank ; a sover- 
eign. (2) The ruler or sovereign of 
a state or territory which he holds of 
a superior, to whom he owes certain 
services. (3) The son of a sovereign, 
or the issue of the royal family; as, 
the princes of the blood. In British 
heraldic language, the title of prince 
belongs to dukes, marquises, and earls 
of Great Britain, but in ordinary use j 
it is confined to members of the royal 
family. The only case in which it is 
a territorial title is that of the Prince 
of Wales, the official title of the heir- 
apparent to the throne. On the Con- 
tinent of Europe the title of prince is 
borne by members of families not im- 
mediately connected with any royal 
house. It is frequently borne by per- 
sons who although legally entitled to 
it are in fact without means of sup- 
port, and it can be purchased in some 
European countries for a comparative- 
ly small sum of money. (4) The head 
or chief of any body of men ; one who 
is at the head of any class or profes- 
sion, or who is preeminent in any- 
thing; as, a merchant prince. 

Prince, Le Baron Bradford, an 
American lawyer ; born in Flushing, 
L. I., N. Y., July 3, 1840 ; was chief- 
justice of New Mexico in 1878-1882; 
territorial governor of New Mexico in 
1889-1893; president of the Interna- 
tional Mining Congress in 1897-1898 
and in 1900-1901; and vice-president 
of the National Irrigation Conference 
in 1901. He is the owner of the 
largest collection of American stone 
idols in the world. . His publications 
include various books and pamphlets 
on archaeology, political economy, and 
history. 

Prince Edward Island, an island 
forming a province of the Dominion of 
Canada, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
and separated by Northumberland 
Strait from New Brunswick on the E. 
and Nova Scotia on the S. ; greatest 
length, from E. to W., about 130 
miles ; breadth, varying from 4 to 34 
miles ; area, about 2,134 square miles, 
or 1,365,760 acres, of which over 1,- 
000,000 are under cultivation. Pop. 
(1901) 103,259. The coast line pre- 
sents a remarkable succession of large 
bays and projecting headlands. The 
island is naturally divided into three 
peninsulas, and the whole is eminently 



! agricultural and pastoral, the foresta 
now being of comparatively limited ex- 
I tent. The climate is mild ; winter, 
! though long and cold, is free from 
damp, unwholesome chills ; and sum- 
mer, without being oppressively hot, 
is fitted to promote the growth of all 
the ordinary cereals. Sheep, cattle, 
and horses are reared in numbers ; cod, 
mackerel, herring, oysters, and lob- 
sters form the most productive part of 
the fisheries. The manufactures are 
chiefly confined to linen and flannels 
for domestic use ; there are also several 
tanneries, and shipbuilding is carried 
on to a considerable extent. The ex- 
ports consist of timber, agricultural 
produce, and live stock; the imports 
of drygoods, hardware, cordage, iron, 
etc. A railway runs from one end of 
the island to the other. The capital is 
Charlottetown. Pop. (1901) 12,080. 
There is an excellent educational sys- 
tem, the elementary schools being 
free. The island is supposed to have 
been discovered by Cabot. It was 
first colonized by France, captured by 
Great Britain in 1745, restored and 
recaptured, and finally in 1873 was 
admitted to the Dominion of Canada. 
Princeton, a town in Mercer 
county, N. J.; on the Delaware & 
Raritan canal and a spur of the Penn- 
sylvania railroad; 10 miles N. E. of 
Trenton; is widely noted as the seat 
of Princeton University, the Prince- 
ton Theological Seminary, and the 
home of Grover Cleveland; for a bat- 
tle that took place at Stony Brook, 
about 3 miles W. of the town, dur- 
ing the Revolutionary War, in which 
the Continental army was victorious; 
and as the place where Washington 
received the thanks of the young na- 
tion for his conduct of the war to 
a successful termination. Pop. (1910) 
5,136. 

Princeton Theological Semi- 
nary, an educational institution in 
Princeton, N. J. ; founded in 1812, 
under the auspices of the Presbyterian 
Church. 

Princeton University, an educa- 
tional institution in Princeton, N. J. It 
was founded Oct. 22, 1746, by a char- 
ter given under the seal of the Prov- 
ince of New Jersey, " for the instruc- 
tion of youth in the learned languages 
and in the liberal arts and sciences.' 
After the Civil War the college began 



Printing 

to make rapid progress. The number 
of students increased, the faculty was 
enlarged, and in 1872 the Chancellor 
Green Library (named in honor of its 
donor) was erected. Up to this time 
the course of instruction had led ex- 
clusively to the degree of Bachelor of 
Arts; but in 1873 the John C. Green 
School of Science was added, and in 
1875 the Department of Civil Engi- 
neering was also created. In 1889 the 
Department of Electrical Engineering 
was founded, and in 1901 the 
Graduate School was formally estab- 
lished, Prof. Andrew West being ap- 
pointed its dean. 

On Oct. 22, 1896, the 150th anniver- 
sary of the signing of the first charter, 
the title of Princeton University was 
assumed. In 1897 the Chancellor 
Green Library was connected wij;h a 
new library building, having a capacity 
to shelve 1,200,000 volumes. The total 
number of buildings now belonging to 
the university is over 40. The fac- 
ulty numbers about 160; average 
student attendance, 1.300; graduates, 
10,500; endowment, $4,250,000. 

Printing, the art of producing im- 
pressions from characters or figures on 
paper or any other substance. Print- 
ing is of comparatively modern origin, 
only 400 years having elapsed since the 
first book was issued from the press; 
yet we have proof that the principles 
on which it was ultimately developed 
existed among the ancient Assyrian 
nations. Printing from movable types 
was, according to Professor Douglas, 
probably practised in China as early 
as the 12th or 13th century, as there 
are Korean books printed from mov- 
able clay or wooden types in 1317. The 
great discovery was that of forming 
every letter or character of the alpha- 
bet separately, so as to be capable of 
rearrangement and forming in succes- 
sion the pages of a work, thereby 
avoiding the labor of cutting new 
blocks of types for every page. The 
credit of inventing this simple yet mar- 
velous art is contested by the Dutch 
and Germans. Printing was brought 
to England in 1476 or 1477 by Will- 
iam Caxton. The first printing press 
set up in America was introduced by 
the Viceroy of Mexico, Antonio de 
Mendoza, and the first book printed 
by it in the New World was " The 
Ladder de S. Juan Climaco" (1536). 



Printing 

The earliest press in the British- 
American colonies was brought over 
for Harvard College in 1638, and was 
set up by Stephen Daye. The " Bay 
Psalm Book" (1640) was its first 
important work ; but in 1639 it print- 
ed the " Freeman's Oath " and an al- 
manac. In Philadelphia a press was 
set up in 1685, in New York in 1693. 

In July, 1902, the Census Bureau 
issued a report on printing and pub- 
lishing which shows a capital of $292,- 
517,072 invested in the 22,312 estab- 
lishments reporting for the industry. 
The value of the products is returned 
at $347,055,050, to produce which in- 
volved an outlay of $35,090,719 for 
salaries of officials, clerks, etc. ; $84,- 
249,889 for wages; $55,897,529 for 
miscellaneous expenses and $86,856,290 
for material used. 

In 1890 the increase in the number 
of all publications was greater than 
the increase in population, but in 1900 
the increase in number of publications 
and in population was about the same. 
During the decade there was an in- 
crease in the proportion of daily, tri- 
weekly, semi-weekly and monthly pub- 
lications ; a marked decline in the pro- 
portion of publications devoted to spe- 
cial topics and an advance only in 
the classes devoted to news topics and 
to general reading. The total circula- 
tion per issue of dailies was enough to 
supply one for every five inhabitants. 
The total circulation per issue of week- 
lies and monthlies was one to two in- 
habitants. Publications printed in En- 
glish formed 94.3 per cent, of all pub- 
lications reporting for 1900, showing 
a considerable increase over the corre- 
sponding figures for the preceding dec- 
ade. One and one-quarter billion 
pounds of paper were used during the 
census year. Of this amount 77.6 per 
cent, was consumed for newspapers, 
16.4 per cent, for books and periodicals 
and 6 per cent, for job printing, but 
the proportionate cost was 58.7 per 
cent., 24.7 per cent., and 16.6 per cent, 
respectively. Daily evening news- 
papers increased more rapidly than 
daily morning papers. In 1890 there 
were two evening papers to every 
morning paper; in 1900 the propor- 
tion was about three to one. 

The 19th was a century of wonder- 
ful achievement in every branch of 
printing. The Fourdrinier paper-mak- 
ing machine, the Bruce type-caster, the 



Prison 

/inotype type-casting and type-setting 
machine, and other mechanical type- 
setters of merit ; composition ink roll- 
ers, the cylinder press, the web press, 
and mechanisms of many kinds for the 
rapid printing of the smallest label 
or the largest sheet in black or many 
colors ; machines for folding, sewing, 
and binding books ; the arts of stereo- 
type, electrotype, and photo-engraving 

all these are its outgrowth, and the 
more important have been invented or 
made practicable within the memory 
of men now living. It is a summary 
of which the printing trade may be 
proud. Printing was never done bet- 
ter and never done worse. It has 
never been . furnished in so large a 
quantity at so small a price. For one 
or more cents can be had a newspaper 
with more reading matter than would 
fill a stout octavo volume. Yet books 
are made and sold in limited editions 
to eager subscribers at prices rang- 
ing from $5 to $50 a volume. William 
Morris maintained that printing had 
gone steadily from bad to worse till he 
revived its best features. Many pub- 
lishers maintain, with more reason, 
that books of real value for instruc- 
tion or amusement were never better 
fitted than they now are for useful- 
ness to all classes of readers. 

Prison, a place of detention for 
persons convicted of crime. The most 
advanced examples of prison disci- 

Sline and construction are to be found 
i the United States. 

In some of the Southern States pris- 
oners are leased out to the highest 
bidders for the term of their sentences ; 
but this system, which condemns the 
convicts to a slavery that is not modi- 
fied even by considerations arising 
from personal ownership, is gradually 
being abandoned. The first place of 
detention for juvenile delinquents was 
opened at New York in 1825 ; the first 
reformatories on the cottage or fam- 
ily system were established in Ohio 

for boys at Lancaster in 1858, for 
girls at Delaware in 1878. 

Prisoners of War, those who are 
captured from the enemy during naval 
or military operations. In ancient 
times the treatment of prisoners of 
war was very severe. In the Greek 
wars it was no uncommon th ; ng to 
put the whole adult male population 
of a conquered state to the sword, 



Privateer 

while the women and children were 
enslaved. Though the putting to death 
of prisoners became less frequent, they 
and their families were commonly re- 
duced to slavery to as recent a period 
as the 13th century. The act of Na- 
poleon in putting to death the Turkish 
prisoners of war at Jaffa in 1799 was 
universally condemned, and is probably 
the last instance of such barbarity. 
Pritchett, Henry Smith, an 
American educator; born in Fayette, 
Mo., April 16, 1857; became an as- 
tronomer in the United States Naval 
Observatory; astronomer of the 
Transit of Venus Expedition (1882); 
Professor of Astronomy and Director 
of Observatory, Washington Univer- 
sity, St. Louis, Mo. (1883-1897); Su- 
perintendent United States Coast 
and Geodetic Survey (1897-1900); 
president, Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology (1900-1906); and presi- 
dent of the Carnegie Foundation for 
the Advancement of Teaching (1906). 
Privateer, a ship owned by a pri- 
vate individual, which under govern- 
ment permission, expressed by a letter 
of marque, makes war on the shipping 
of a hostile power. To make war on 
an enemy without this commission, or 
on the shipping of a nation not speci- 
fied in it, is piracy. At the American 
Revolution the new republic fully re- 
alized the advantage of its position 
in preying on the mercantile marine 
of Great Britain ; and in the War of 
1812 British commerce suffered severe- 
ly at the hands of American privateers, 
of which it was computed that some 
250 were afloat. During the American 
Civil War the Confederate States of- 
fered letters of marque to persons of 
all countries, but no admittedly for- 
eign vessels were so commissioned. 
During the same period the Congress 
of the United States empowered the 
President to grant commissions to 
privateers, but none such were grant- 
ed. The Confederate cruisers were at 
first regarded in the North as mere 
pirates ; and the " Alabama Claims " 
originated in the charge against Great 
Britain of allowing the departure of 
privateers from British ports, where 
they were fitted out illegally. The 
charge was fully sustained, it being 
shown before the Geneva Tribunal that 
the Alabama and other so-called Con- 
federate ships were really British. 



Privet 

Privet, a genus of plants contain- 
ing a number of species of shrubs and 
small trees with opposite leaves, which 
are simple and entire at the margin ; 
the flowers small, white, and in ter- 
minal panicles. Common privet is a 
shrub growing in bushy places and 
about the borders of woods in the 
middle and S. of Europe, and now also 
naturalized in some parts of North 
America. 

Privileged Witnesses, witnesses 
who are not obliged to testify as to cer- 
tain things, as lawyers in relation to 
their dealings with their clients, and 
officers of State as to State secrets ; 
also, by statute, in "some instances, 
clergymen and physicians are placed in 
the same category, so far as concerns 
information received by them profes- 
sionally. 

Privy Council, in English law, the 
principal council of the sovereign, con- 
sisting of members chosen at his or 
her pleasure. It is presided over by 
the Lord President of the Council, who 
has precedence next after the Lord 
Chancellor. Members of the privy 
council are addressed as Right Hon- 
orable. 

The office of a privy councilor is 
now confined to advising the sovereign 
in the discharge of executive, legisla- 
tive, and judicial duties. 

Privy Seal, the seal used in En- 
gland to be appended to grants which 
are afterward to pass the great seal, 
and to documents of minor importance, 
which do not require to pass the great 
seal. 

Prize, that which is taken from an 
enemy in war ; that which is seized by 
fighting, especially a ship, with the 
goods contained in her ; any descrip- 
tion of goods or property seized by 
force as spoil or plunder. 

Prize Court, a court established 
to adjudicate on prizes captured at sea. 
In the United States, the United 
States District Courts have jurisdic- 
tion both as instance and prize courts. 

Prize Money, money paid to the 
captors of a ship or place where booty 
has been obtained, in certain propor- 
tions according to rank, the money be- 
ing realized by the sale of the booty. 

Probate, in law, the official proof 
of a will. This is done either in com- 
mon form, which is upon the oath of 



Process 

the executor before the judge of the 
probate court ; or per testes (by wit- 
nesses), in some solemn form of law, 
in case the validity of the will is dis- 
puted. 

Probate Court, a court of record 
established to exercise jurisdiction 
and authority in relation to probate 
of wills and letters of administration, 
and to hear and determine all ques- 
tions relating to matters and causes 
testamentary. In New York it is 
called the " Surrogate's Court " ; in 
Pennsylvania the " Orphans' Court." 

Probationer, one who is in a state 
of probation or trial, so that he may 
give proof of his qualifications for a 
certain position, place, or state. 

Proboscis Monkey, or Kah.au, a 
native of Borneo, distinguished par- 
ticularly by its elongated nose, its 
shortened thumbs, and its elongated 
tail. The general color is a lightish 
red. These monkeys are arboreal in 
habits, and appear to frequent the 
neighborhood of streams and rivers, 
congregating in troops. 

Probus, Marcus Anrelius, a Ro- 
man emperor ; born in Sirmium, 
Pannonia. By the Emperor Tacitus 
he was appointed governor of the 
Asiatic possessions of Rome ; and such 
was the zealous attachment evinced 
for him by his soldiers that on the 
death of Tacitus they forced him to 
assume the purple; and, his rival 
Florianus having been removed, Pro- 
bus was enthusiastically hailed em- 
peror by all classes (A. D. 276). His 
brief reign was signalized by brill- 
iant and important successes; the 
Germans were driven out of Gaul, 
and the barbarians from the Rhaetian, 
Pannonian, and Thracian frontiers ; 
and Persia was forced to agree to a 
humiliating peace. The external se- 
curity of the empire being established, 
Probus devoted himself to the develop- 
ment of its internal resources. After 
a short reign he was murdered hi a 
military insurrection in 282 A. D. 

Procedure, Civil, the method of 
proceeding in a civil suit throughout 
its various stages. 

Process, in anatomy, an enlarge- 
ment, such as the zygomatic process of 
the temporal bone, the vermiform proc- 
ess of the cerebellum, etc. In law, a 
term applied to the whole course of 



Procession 

proceedings in a cause, real or per- 
sonal, c.ivil or criminal, from the orig- 
inal writ to the end of the suit ; spe- 
cifically, the summons citing the party 
affected to appear in court at the 
return of the original writ. 

Procession, the act or state of pro- 
ceeding or issuing forth or from. Also 
a train of persons marching on foot, 
or riding on horseback or in vehicles 
with ceremonious solemnity. 

Proclamation, a public notice 
made by a ruler or chief magistrate to 
the people, concerning any matter 
which he thinks fit to give notice 
about. In the United States the 
President issues proclamations as to 
treaties, days of thanksgiving^ admis- 
sion of new States, etc. ; likewise gov- 
ernors of States and mayors of cities 
for special purposes. 

Proconsnl, in Roman antiquities, 
an officer who, though not actually 
holding the office of consul, exercised 
in some particular locality all the 
powers of a consul. 

Procopius, an eminent Greek his- 
torian of the 6th century, the leading 
authority for Justinian's reign ; born 
in Caesarea, Palestine. Of his writings 
we have the " Histories," or as the 
author styles them, " Books about the 
Wars" of his time Persian, Van- 
dal, and Gothic ; a treatise " On Build- 
ings " ; " Anecdotes " ( posthumous) , 
a supplement to the " Histories," con- 
sisting of political and personal mat- 
ter he dared not publish in his life- 
time. . 

Procter, Bryan "Waller, pseudo- 
nym Barry Cornwall, an English 
poet; born in London, England, Nov. 
21, 1787. He early published four 
Volumes of poems, and produced a 
tragedy at Covent Garden, whose suc- 
cess was largely due to the acting of 
Macready and Kemble. He was called 
to the bar in 1831, from 1832 to 1861 
was a metropolitan commissioner of 
lunacy. His works were issued under 1 
the pseudonym " Barry Cornwall " (a 
faulty anagram of his real name). He 
died Oct. 5, 1874. 

Proctor, in an American univer- 
sity, an executive officer whose duty 
it is to preserve order and enforce the 
laws of the institution. In England 
the king's proctor is a crown official 
charged with upholding the interests 



Profit 

of the crown in certain classes of pri- 
vate law-suits. 

Proctor, Edna Dean, an Ameri- 
can poet; born in Henniker, N. H., 
Oct. 10, 1838. Her works are: 
" Poems " ; " The Song of the Ancient 
People " ; " Mountain Maid and Other 
Poems of New Hampshire " ; etc. 

Proctor, Richard Anthony, an 
English astronomer, author of a large 
number of popular works, principally 
on astronomy ; born in London, Eng- 
land, March 23, 1837. He was a grad- 
uate of St. John's College, Cambridge, 
in 1860. About 1885 he settled in St. 
Louis, and later moved to Florida. He 
was at the time of his death the edi- 
tor of " Knowledge," a monthly jour- 
nal of popular science. He was a 
very popular lecturer. He died in 
New York city, Sept. 12, 1888. 

His daughter, MARY, born in Dub- 
lin, Ireland; was graduated at the 
College of Preceptors, London, in 
1898; took the course in Descriptive 
Astronomy at Columbia University 
in 1900; observed and reported sev- 
eral notable astronomical occur- 
rences; delivered over 800 lectures 
on astronomy since 1893 and annual 
courses under the New York Board 
of Education since 1894. 

Professor. (1) One who professes 
or makes open and public declara- 
tion or acknowledgment of his senti- 
ments, opinions, belief, etc. (2) One 
who makes a public profession of re- 
ligion in 'those churches where such a 
rule prevails instead of confirmation. 
(3) One who teaches any art, science, 

! or branch of learning ; specifically a 
person appointed in a university, col- 
lege, etc., to deliver lectures and in- 
struct the students in any particular 
branch of learning; as, a professor of 
Greek, a professor of theology, etc. 
By common use, the title professor has 
become greatly abused, and is assumed, 
not only by teachers of music, dan- 

I cing, drawing, etc., but even by 

j quacks, conjurers, teachers of boxing, 
animal trainers, etc. 
Profit, any advantage, benefit, or 

I accession of good resulting from labor 
or exertion ; valuable results, useful 
consequence, benefit, gain; compre- 
hending the acquisition of anything 
valuable or advantageous, corporeal, 
or intellectual, temporal or spiritual. 



Progressive Party 



Prong-horn Antelope 



Progressive Party, The, a Na- 
tional political party organized in 
Chicago, 111., in June, 1912. by regular 
and unseated delegates to the Republi- 
can National Convention who favored 
the candidacy of former President 
Roosevelt. In the balloting for the 
nomination, President Taft received 
561 votes and Roosevelt 107, while 344 
delegates disregarded their local in- 
structions and acceded to Roosevelt's 
request that his supporters refrain 
from taking any part in the proceed- 
ings of the Convention, on the ground 
that the National Committee had de- 
frauded him out of many votes in their 
decisions on C9ntested seats. The new 
party held its first convention in 
Chicago on August 5-7, adopted a 
platform in consonance with the 
former President's public speeches and 
writings, and unanimously nominated 
him for President, with Governor 
Hiram W. Johnson, of California, for 
V ice-President. Under the distinguish- 
ing emblem of the Bull Moose, the 
new party rapidly gained strength 
throughout the country, drawing its 
largest forces from among the mem- 
bers of the Republican party who had 
become dissatisfied with the methods 
and policies of the administration of 
President Taft. Prior to the nomina- 
tions, Messrs. Taft and Roosevelt both 
made extended speaking tours, but 
afterward Mr. Roosevelt only con- 
tinued actively in the campaign (see 
Roosevelt, Theodore). The Demo- 
cratic candidate, Governor Woodrow 
Wilson, was elected in the ensuing 
election November 5, 1912. 

Prohibition Party, The. In re- 
cent years the cause of absolute pro- 
hibition has made great strides in the 
United States. In the State of Maine, 
th? mother State of prohibitory legis- 
lation, what is known throughout the 
worl 1 as the "Maine law" has been 
in successful operation for a quarter 
of a century. In various States gu- 
bernatorial and State tickets were 
nominated in successive years from 
1876 to 1886, but no election resulted 
in any case. In New Jersey and in 
New York in 1886 great interest cen- 
tered around the efforts of the Pro- 
hibition party, owing to the closeness 
of the vote between the two older 
parties, though the vote polled by the 



Prohibitionists amounted to only a 
few thousands. In 1872, 1876, 1880. 
1884, 1888, 1892, 1896, 1900, 1904, 
and 1908 a national ticket was nom- 
inated; votes as follows: 1872, 5,608: 
1876, 9,522; 1880, Dow, 10,305; 1884, 
St. John, 150,369; 1888, Fisk, 249,- 
360; 1892, Bidwell, 264,132; 1896, 
Levering, 131,757: 1900, Woolley, 
208,833; 1904, Swallow, 258,536; 1908. 
Chafin, 253,840. 

Proletariat, a term used to de- 
note the poorest classes of the com- 
munity. 

Prometheus, in mythology, the son 
of the Titan Japetus, was a brother to 
Atlas and Epimetheus, and surpassed 
all mankind in cunning. He ridiculed 
the gods, and deceived Jupiter him- 
self. To punish Prometheus, Jupiter 
caused this wily mortal to be tied to 
a rock on Mount Caucasus, where, for 
30,000 years, a vulture was to feed on 
his liver, which was never to be dimin- 
ished. He was delivered from thig 
punishment 30 years afterward by 
Hercules. 

Promise, in law, a declaration 
made by one person to another for a 
good or valuable consideration, where- 
by the person promising binds himself 
to do or forbear some act, and gives 
to the promisee a legal right to de- 
mand and enforce a fulfillment 

Promised Land, Canaan; that 
portion of Syria lying between the 
Jordan and the Mediterranean. It was 
frequently promised by Jehovah to the 
patriarchs, and finally bestowed on 
their descendants, the Israelites. 

Promissory Note, a written prom- 
ise to pay a given sum of money 
to a certain person, at a specified date. 
The phrase " for value received " is 
usually inserted. 

Prompter, one who or that which 
prompts, urges, or incites to action or 
exertion. Also, one who assists a 
speaker, when at a loss, by suggest- 
ing or repeating words. Specifically, 
a person placed behind the scenes in 
a theater, whose duty is to prompt or 
assist the actors when at a loss, by 
uttering the first words of a sentence, 
or words forgotten. 

Prong-horn Antelope, inhabiting 
the W. parts of North America, from 
53 N. to the plains of Mexico and 
California. It is rather more than 
four feet in length, and stands three 



Pronoun 

feet at the shoulder. Pale fawn 
above and on the limbs ; breast, abdo- 
men, and rump white. The horns are 
branched, and are shed annually. 




PRONG-HORN ANTELOPE. 

Pronoun, a word used in place of a 
noun or name in order to avoid the 
too frequent repetition of such noun 
or name, but differing from a noun in 
not being permanently attached to 
any certain object or class of objects, 
and in not being limited in its appli- 
cation. Pronouns in English are divid- 
ed into: (1) Personal, (2) Demon- 
strative, (3) Interrogative, (4) Rela- 
tive, and (5) Indefinite. Interrogative 
pronouns are those which serve to ask 
a question, as who? which? what? 
Indefinite pronouns, or such as do not 
specify any particular object, are 
used, some as substantives, some as 
adjectives ; as, any, aught, each, every, 
other, etc. 

Propaganda Fide, Congrega- 
tion de, a commission of cardinals 
charged with the direction of all mat- 
ters connected with foreign missions 
in the Roman Church. Pope Urban 
VIII. (1623-1644) founded the Prop- 
aganda College, and here young men 
of all nations are trained for the 
nriesthood, and take an oath to devote 



Prorogation 

themselves for life to the foreign mis- 
sions in whatever province or vicari- 
ate they may be appointed to by the 
congregation. 

Propeller, one who or that which 
propels ; specifically, the screw by 
which a steamship is driven through 
the water; a vessel thus propelled. 

Property Tax, a rate or duty 
levied by the State, county, or munici- 
pality on the property of individuals, 
the value of the property being fixed 
by assessment. 

Prophet, one who prophesies; one 
who is the bearer of a divine message 
to mankind ; more familiarly, one who 
predicts future events. The prophet was 
a revealer in distinction from the priest, 
whose functions pertained to ritual. 

Prophets, School of the, an as- 
sociation of the prophets in which the 
elder lovingly trained the younger, 
who were called their sons (I Kings 
xx : 35). First Elijah, and then 
Elisha, presided over such a society. 

Prophets, The, men divinely in- 
spired, and who often uttered predic- 
tions of future events. The order was 
early recognized among the Hebrews. 
The title was given to Moses, and after 
his time to men who, as reformers or 
teachers, declared God's will to the 
nation. Samuel and Elijah were no- 
table examples. Later, the prophets 
committed their messages to writing. 
Sixteen of their books are included in 
the canon. They are divided into four 
groups : 1. The prophets of the 
Northern kingdom : Hosea, Amos, 
Joel, and Jonah ; 2. The prophets of 
the Southern kingdom : Isaiah, Jere- 
miah, Obadiah, Micah, Nahum, Habak- 
kuk, and Zephaniah ; 3. The prophets 
of the Captivity : Ezekiel and Daniel ; 
4. The prophets of the Return : Hag- 
gai, Zechariah, and Malachi. The 
title was also applied to John the Bap- 
tist and to Christ. 

Prophet's City, a name by which 
Medina, in Arabia, is often referred 
to. To this place Mohammed fled for 
refuge during the Hegira, July 16, 
622, and here is his tomb. 

Prorogation, in English law, the 
interruption of a session, as distin- 
guished from an adjournment, which 
is from day to day, and may be of 
either or both houses, while a pro- 
rogation is of Parliament, also the 



Proscenium 



Proteids 



time during which the English Par- 
liament is prorogued. 

Proscenium, the stage of a theater, 
or the space included in the front of 
the scene ; in contradistinction to the 
postscenium, or space behind the 
scene. In the modern theater it is im- 
properly used to designate the orna- 
mental framework from which the 
curtain hangs when performances are 
not going on, dividing the spectator 
from all engaged on the stage. 

Proscription, in Roman history, a 
mode of getting rid of enemies, first 
resorted to by Sulla in 82 B. c., and 
imitated more than once afterward in 
the stormy years that closed the re- 
public. Under Sulla, lists of names 
were drawn out and posted up in 
public places, with the promise of a 
reward to any person who should kill 
any of those named in the lists, and 
the threat of death to those who 
should aid or shelter any of them. 
Their property also was confiscated, 
and their children were declared in- 
capable of honors. 

Prosecution, in law, (1) the in- 
stituting and carrying on of a suit in 
court of law or equity to obtain some 
right, or to redress and punish an in- 
jury or wrong. (2) The act or process 
of exhibiting formal charges against 
an offender before a legal tribunal, 
and pursuing them to final judgment; 
the instituting and continuing of a 
criminal suit against any person or 
persons. (3) The party by whom 
criminal proceedings are instituted ; 
the prosecutor or prosecutors collect- 
ively. 

Proselyte, a new convert to some 
religion, sect, opinion, party, or sys- 
tem. In Judaism, a gentile convert. 
Two kinds were discriminated: (1) 
Proselytes of the gate, who followed 
a few Old Testament rules, and (2) 
proselytes of righteousness, who ac- 
cepted the whole Mosaic ritual. 

Proserpine, in mythology, a 
daughter of Ceres and Jupiter, of ex- 
treme innocence and beauty, and who, 
while gathering flowers in the lovely 
vale of Tempe, or the Mysian Plain, 
was seen and carried off by the god 
of the infernal regions, Pluto. The 
prayers and intercessions of her moth- 
er ultimately prevailed on Pluto to 
permit her to spend half of each year 
on earth, to gratify and gladden the 



heart and eyes of her devoted parents, 
the other half being passed with her 
infernal lord in the realms below. 

Prosody, that part of grammar 
which treats of the quantities of sylla- 
bles, of accent, and of the laws of 
versification. In Greek and Latin 
every syllable had its determinate 
value or quantity, and verse was con- 
structed by a system of recurring feet, 
each consisting of a certain number 
of syllables, possessing a certain quan- 
tity and arrangement. In English, 
verse is constructed simply by accent 
and number of syllables. 

Protection, one of the theories con- 
cerning the best development of a 
country's industries by means of taxes 
levied for other than fiscal purposes. 
Incidental protection does not hold 
that any tariff should be levied with 
the intention of protecting and fos- 
tering a given industry, but that in 
every case the tax should be laid for 
public purposes only i. e., with the 
intention of sustaining the state, and 
be only incidentally directed to the 
protection of the weaker industry. 
These last assumptions furnish the 

f round of political divergence between 
reetrade proper (q. v.) and incidental 
protection. The protectionists take 
into consideration both the funda- 
mental conditions of the argument and 
the peculiar character of the indus- 
tries of a people. They claim that 
given pursuits may thus be strength- 
ened and encouraged by legislative 
provisions, and that natural and po- 
litical laws may be made to cooperate 
in varying and increasing the produc- 
tive resources of the state. 

Protector, in English history, on 
who had the care of the kingdom dur- 
ing the minority of the king; a re- 
gmt; specifically applied to Oliver 
romwell, who took the title of Lord 
Protector in 1653. In the Roman 
Catholic Church a cardinal belonging 
to one of the more important Catholic 
nations, who, in Rome, watches over 
questions affecting his country. There 
are also cardinal protectors of relig- 
ious orders, colleges, etc. 

Proteids, a name given to sub- 
stances analogous in composition to 
protein, that is, consisting of carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, some- 
times united with sulphur and phos- 
phorus. The gluten of flour, albumin, 



Protest 



the fibrin of the blood, syntonin, 
which is the chief constituent or 
muscle and flesh, and casein are ex- 
amples of proteids. Proteids are the 
essential food stuffs. 

Protest, ordinarily, a solemn af- 
firmation or declaration of opinion 
(frequently in writing), generally in 
opposition to some act or proposition ; 
a solemn affirmation by which a per- 
son declares either that he entirely 
dissents from and disapproves of any 
act or proposition, or else only con- 
ditionally gives his assent or consent 
to an act or proposition, to which 
he might otherwise be considered to 
have assented unconditionally. 

In commerce, a formal declaration 
by the holder of a bill of exchange or 
promissory note, or by a notary public 
at his direction, that acceptance or 
payment of such bill or note has been 
refused, and that the holder intends 
to recover all expenses to which he 
may be put in consequence of such 
non-acceptance or non-payment. 

Protestant, one who protests. In 
Church history, the name given to 
those princes and others who, on April 
19, 1529, at the second diet of Speyer, 
protested against the decision of the 
majority, that the permission given 
three years before to every prince to 
regulate religious matters in his do- 
minions till the meeting of a General 
Council should be revoked, and that 
no change should be made till the 
council met. The name is now extend- 
ed to all persons and churches hold- 
ing the doctrines of the Reformation 
and rejecting papal authority. 

Protestant Episcopal Church, 
a denomination in the United States 
directly descended from the Church of 
England, which doctrinally claims to 
be based on the Holy Scriptures, as 
interpreted in the Apostles and other 
ancient creeds of the Church that 
have been universally received, and 
to have kept herself aloof from all the 
modern systems of faith, whether of 
Calvin, or Luther, or Arminius, leav- 
ing her members free to enjoy their 
own opinions on all points not repre- 
sented in the Scriptures as necessary 
to soul's health, and refusing to be 
narrowed down to any other creed or 
creeds than those of the Apostles and 
the Primitive Church. She claims also 
to have retained all that is essential 



to church organization in her episco- 
pate, and in her liturgy to have not 
only a wise and judicious compend of 
doctrine and devotion, but also one 
of the most effectual of all possible 
conservative safeguards for the faith 
once delivered to the saints. Three 
clerical orders are recognized bish- 
ops, priests, and deacons the first 
deriving their oflice in direct succes- 
sion from the apostles by episcopal 
consecration, and the others receiving 
ordination at the hands of a bishop. 
Those of the second order are entitled 
archdeacons, deans, rectors, vicars, or 
curates, according to their functions. 
A reader is a layman licensed by the 
bishop to read in a church or chapel 
where there is no clergyman. Parson 
signifies a clergyman in possession of 
a parochial church. 

From the time of the first congrega- 
tions of the Church of England, in 
America, in 1607, to the close of the 
Revolution, all the clergy in the colo- 
nies were regarded as under the super- 
vision of the Bishop of London. The 
first American bishop was Rev. Samuel 
Seabury, who, in 1783, was consecrated 
in Scotland as Bishop of Connecticut. 
All Protestant Episcopal churches in 
the United States are associated in 
one national body, called the General 
Convention, which meets triennially. 

According to a special Census re- 
port on " Religious Bodies " (2 vols., 
1910), there were 6.845 organiza- 
tions; 6,922 church edifices; church 
property valued at over $125.040,- 
000; 5.368 ministers; 105 bishops of 
different grades; 886,942 communi- 
cants; and 5,211 Sunday schools. 

Protocol, the original draft or copy 
of a deed, contract, or other docu- 
ment. In diplomacy, the minutes or 
rough draft of an instrument or trans- 
action; the original copy of a treaty, 
dispatch, or other document; a docu- 
ment serving as the preliminary to 
diplomatic negotiations ; a diplomatic 
document or minute of proceedings, 
signed by the representatives of 
friendly powers in order to secure cer- 
tain political ends peacefully; a con- 
vention not subject to the formalities 
of ratification. 

Protophytes. The lowest and 
simplest organisms in the vegetable 
kingdom. They are regarded as among 
the Algse. The life-history of simplest 



Protoplasm 



Proverbs of Solomon 



Protophytes is exemplified in the Pal- 
moglcea macrococca, a sort of green 
scum or slime, growing on damp 
stones, etc. The cells are generally 
independent, but in some species re- 
main adherent one to another so as 
to form a filament. Some species have 
spiny projections of the outer coat, 
which is of a horny consistence, as 
in Staurastrum. Others are notched 
on the sides ; some, as the Closterium, 
are smooth. Many of the Desmids 
multiply by subdivision, but the plan 
is modified so as to maintain the sym- 
metry characteristic of the tribe. At 
other times multiplication takes place 
by the subdivision of the endochrome 
into granular particles, or " gonidia," 
set free by rupture of the cell wall. 

Protoplasm, in biology, etc., the 
living matter from which all kinds of 
living things are formed and devel- 
oped, and to the properties of which 
all their functions are ultimately re- 
ferred. Protoplasm is a transparent 
homogeneous, or granular-looking sub- 
stance. Under high microscopic power, 
in many instances, it shows a more or 
less definite structure, composed of 
fibrils more or less regular, and in 
some instances grouped into a honey- 
combed or fibrillar reticulum, in the 
meshes of which is a homogeneous in- 
terstitial substance. Its composition 
is a problem with which science is 
still to deal. 

Protozoa, a group of animals, oc- 
cupying the lowest place in the animal 
kingdom. They consist of a single cell, 
or of a group of cells not differentiated 
into two or more tissues ; incapable, 
as a rule, of assimilating nitrogen in 
its diffusible compounds (ammonia or 
nitrates, or carbon in the form of 
carbonates). The food is taken into 
the protoplasm, either by a specialized 
mouth or by any part of the cell sub- 
stance, in the form of particles. 

Proncllioii, Pierre Joseph, a 
French publicist; born in Besancon, 
France, July 15, 1809; died Jan. 19, 
1865. In 1840, appeared his fa- 
mous memoir, entitled, " What is 
Property?" his answer to this ques- 
tion, "Property is Theft," being al- 
most all that is popularly known of 
him. A second memoir on the same 
subject exposed him to a prosecution, 
but he was acquitted. After the revo- 
lution of February, 1848, he was 



chosen member of the Constituent 
Assembly for the department of the 
Seine. But he found no hearing at 
the tribune, and therefore started a 
newspaper under the title of " The 
People," which was suppressed, and 
reappeared three times. In 1849, he 
founded his People's Bank, but being 
soon after sentenced, under the press 
laws, to three years' imprisonment 
and a fine, he left France, and the 
bank was closed by the government. 

Prout, Father. See MAHONY. 

Frovan.cli.er, Leon, a Canadian 
priest and naturalist ; born in Becan- 
cour, P. Q., March 10, 1820. He estab- 
lished " Le Naturalist Canadien " 
("The Canadian Naturalist") in 
1868. His publications include : " Ele- 
mentary Treatise on Botany " ; " Cana- 
dian Plant Life " ; " Short History 
of Canada " ; etc. 

Provencal, a Romance dialect that 
sprang up in France on the decline 
of literary Latin. Originally Proven- 
cal and Northern French came from 
the same stock, but by the 12th cen- 
tury they differed almost as widely as 
French and Italian. Owing to its 
rhyming facilities it was essentially 
the language of the troubadours and 
extended over the area from the Alps 
to the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean 
to the Loire, as well as in parts of 
Spain and Switzerland. 

Proverb, an old and common say- 
ing ; a short or pithy sentence often 
repeated, and containing or expressing 
some well-known truth or common 
fact ascertained by experience or ob- 
servation; a sentence which briefly 
and forcibly expresses some practical 
truth. Unless a saying is capable of 
being applied to a variety of cases it 
can never become a proverb. 

Proverbs of Solomon, one of the 
sacred books of the Old Testament 
ascribed to Solomon. The Hebrew 
term translated proverbs means liter- 
ally, a similitude or comparison of 
two objects, and this is the form that 
most of them take. Solomon, we are 
told, uttered 3,000 proverbs ; but it 
has been doubted whether he ever 
made any collection of them in writ- 
ing; and it is expressly stated that 
the latter part of the book, beginning 
with chapter xxv.. was written and 
added by order of King Hezekiah. The 
title shows the author rather than tbx 



Providence 

compiler. It has hardly ever been con- 
tended that a large share in the com- 
position of the book is to be ascribed 
to the Wise King ; and the divine au- 
thority of the book is sufficiently 
proved by the quotations made from 
it in the New Testament. In all ages 
this book has been regarded as a great 
store house of practical wisdom. 

Providence, a city, capital of the 
State of Rhode Island, and the county- 
Beat of Providence CO. ; on the Provi- 
dence river, an arm of Narrangansett 
Bay, and 44 miles S. W. of Boston. 
It is the second city of New England 
in population and wealth, and is built 
on a rolling plateau. 

Providence has upward of 2,000 
manufacturing establishments, with 
a combined capital of about $60,000,- 
000, and employing- about 40,000 per- 
sons. It is noted for its manufactures 
of cotton and^ woolen goods, jewelry, 
and stoves, and is the- largest seat of 
fine jewelry manufacture in the Unit- 
ed States. The other industries in- 
clude silverware, tools, engines, loco- 
motives, boilers t sewing machines, 
screws, files, general hardware, yarn, 
calico, laces, braids, worsteds, broad- 
cloth, chemicals, etc. There is an ex- 
tensive coastwise commerce and ship- 
ping industry, especially in the coal, 
cotton and wool trade. There is also 
an important shell-fish industry. 

In 1636 Roger Williams, a Baptist 
clergyman, was exiled from Massa- 
chusetts because he opposed its theo- 
cratic laws. He first settled at What 
Cheer rock, on the Seekonk river, and 
later at the head of the Providence 
river, where the Indian chief, Canoni- 
cus, granted him a piece of land. In 
1643-1644 local government was 
formed under a royal charter. Provi- 
dence received its city charter in 1832, 
and has been enlarged by annexation 
of territory from adjoining towns. 
Pop. (1900) 175,597; (1910) 224,326. 

Piudclen, Thebphil Mitchell, 
an American bacteriologist ; born in 
Middlebury, Conn., July 7, 1849. He 
was Professor of Pathology in the 
College of Physicians and Surgeons, 
New York. His works include: 
" Handbook of Pathological Anatomy 
and Histology," with F. Delafield? 
" Story of the Bacteria " ; " Dust and 
its Dangers " : " An Elder Brother to 
the Cliff Dweller"; etc. 



Prussia 

Prune, the dried fruit of various 
plums, especially of the varieties 
called St. Catherine and Green Gage. 
They contain a large proportion of 
sugar, etc., so that brandy can be dis- 
tilled from them. 

Prussia, the largest and most pow- 
erful State of the German empire; 
occupying a N. central portion of the 
European continent ; bounded on the 
N. by the Baltic and Denmark; on 
the E. by Russia and Poland ; on thr 
S. by Bohemia, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, 
and Baden ; and on the W. by Bel- 
gium and the Netherlands. From the 
extreme E. frontier to Aix-la-Chapelle 
on the W. the distance is about 775 
miles, and from the promontory on 
the Baltic above Stralsund, to the ex- 
treme S. frontier of Silesia, the dis- 
tance is 404 miles. The length of the 
coast line is about 250 miles on the 
North Sea, and 750 miles on the Bal- 
tic. Total area of the kingdom, 136,- 
076 square miles. 

Prussia is administratively divided 
into 14 provinces, which are again 
subdivided into 35 government dis- 
tricts, with the principality of Hohen- 
zollern, the cradle of the royal fami'T 

The surface of the kingdom is gen- 
erally level, sloping in the N. to the 
sea, and forming part of the great N. 
plain of Europe. The S. and S. W. 
parts of the kingdom are hilly, or 
even mountainous. The climate of 
Prussia is varied. Along the Baltic it 
is moist, and in Eastern Prussia, espe- 
cially, the winter is long and severe. 
In Silesia, Brandenburg, and the Sax- 
on and Rhenish provinces, it is com- 
paratively mild. 

About 28,479,800 hectares are under 
cultivation. Large estates are general- 
ly managed by stewards and the oc- 
cupants of smaller properties are, in 
most cases, the owners. Rye, wheat, 
barley, oats, potatoes, beet root, flax, 
hops, tobacco and hemp form the chief 
products. Chicory is also largely cul- 
tivated. The extensive beet root plan- 
tations give rise to one of the most 
important industries ; in 1898 there 
were 312 establishments manufactur- 
ing beet root sugar. Madder and other 
plants used in dyeing are also raised. 
Fruits and vegetables are most ex- 
tensively grown in the W. provinces, 
which are also famous for their wines. 
Horses, cattle and sheep are extensive 



Prussia 



Prussia 



ly raised, wool being an important 
product. Large numbers of fine horses 
are exported from East Prussia. 

The mineral products are abundant, 
coal being the most important. The 
production of lignite is large. Copper, 
iron and lead are extensively worked. 
Prussia yields about one-half of the 
world's annual production of zinc. 

Though more of an agricultural 
than a manufacturing country, Prus- 
sia has greatly distinguished herself, 
particularly of late years, in the va- 
rious manufactures. Linens and coarse 
woolens for domestic consumption are 
made in every village, and, indeed, in 
most cottages throughout the kingdom. 
Large quantities of silk and cotton 
goods, and linen, are produced in 
Elberfeld, and other towns of the 
Rhine provinces. Very superior broad- 
cloth is largely manufactured at 
Eupen, Malmedy, Berlin, and Aix-la- 
Chapelle. Prussia occupies an ad- 
vanced rank as a producer of the use- 
ful metals. The articles of hardware 
made at Berlin, Iserlohn, Hagen, So- 
lingen, Olpe, and Essen enjoy a high 
reputation, the last-named place being 
the seat of the famous Krupp steel 
and gun works. ^ Porcelain, jewelry, 
watches, and carriages are also manu- 
factured in the latter city on a most 
extensive scale. Paper, leather, soap, 
oil and cigars are important manufac- 
tures; and beer and spirits are very 
extensively produced. 

Commerce is facilitated by the long 
coast line, and by an elaborate sys- 
tem of railways and canals. Through- 
out the kingdom, education is general 
and compulsory. Absolute religious 
liberty is guaranteed by the constitu- 
tion. Nearly two-thirds of the popula- 
tion are Protestants and most of the 
remainder, Roman Catholic. The State 
Church is Evangelical or Protestant, 
and_ since 1817 has consisted of a 
fusion of the Lutheran and Calvinist- 
ic bodies. The relations of the Ro- 
man Catholic Church to the govern- 
ment differ in the various provinces, 
but in every part of the monarchy the 
crown reserves to itself control over 
the election of bishops and priests. 
The higher Catholic clergy are paid 
by the State. 

> The constitution vests the execu- 
tive^and part of the legislative author- 
ity in a king who attains his majority 
on accomplishing his 18th year. The 



crown is hereditary in the male line, 
according to primogeniture. The king 
is advised by a council of ministers 
appointed by royal decree. The repre- 
sentative assembly, the Landtag, is 
composed of two chambers, the House 
of Lords (Herrenhaus) and the 
Chamber of Deputies (Abgeordneten- 
haus). The assent of the king and 
both chambers is requisite for all laws. 
The executive government is carried 
on by a Ministry of State appointed 
by the king and holding office at hia 
pleasure. 

The rise of the Prussian power has 
been rapid and extraordinary. The 
kings of Prussia trace their origin to 
Count Thassilo of Zollern, one of the 
generals of Charlemagne. His succes- 
sor, Count Friedrich I., built the 
family castle of Hohenzollern, near 
the Danube, in the year 980. A sub- 
sequent Zollern, or Hohenzollern, 
Friedrich III., was elevated lo the 
rank of a prince of the Holy Roman 
Empire, in 1273, and received the bur- 
graviate of Nuremberg in fief ; and 
his great-grandson, Friedrich VI. was 
invested by the Emperor Sigismund, 
in 1411, with the province of Branden- 
burg, and obtained the rank of Elect- 
or in 1417. In 1608-1.619 the duchy 
of Prussia was united to the electorate 
of Brandenburg, the territories of 
which had been greatly extended by 
the valor and wisdom of Friedrich 
Wilhelm, "the Great Elector," under 
whose fostering care arose the first 
standing army in central Europe. Dy- 
ing hi 1688, he left the province to his 
son, Frederick I., who assumed the 
crown at Konigsberg, June 18, 1701. 
Pomerania was soon after added to 
Prussia. When Frederick the Great 
ascended the throne in 1740, his dis- 
jointed dominions did not contain 2,- 
500,000 inhabitants, and these had 
made but little progress in the arts, 
or in the accumulation of wealth. But 
before his death, in 1786, Prussia had 
been increased in size nearly half; 
while the population had increased to 
about 6,000,000. Prussia acquired, 
by the subsequent partition of Poland 
in 1792, and its final dismemberment 
in 1795, a great extension of terri- 
tory, and upward of 2,000,000 inhabit- 
ants. Her disastrous contest with 
France in 1806 lowered Prussia for a 
while; but after Napoleon's Russian 
campaign, the people rose en masse, 



Prussian Blue 



Pseudonym 



and drove the French out of Germany. 
At the general peace of 1815, Prussia 
recovered all her former possessions 
(except a portion of her Polish do- 
minions), and gained valuable ac- 
quisitions. After the accession, in 
1862, of King William I., the execu- 
tive government presided over by 
Count von Bismarck, made laws, and 
even decreed budget estimates, without 
the concurrence of the chambers. In 
1864, Prussia, conjointly with Aus- 
tria, sent an army to occupy the 
duchy of Schleswig-Holstein. A war 
with Penmark followed, which re- 
sulted iii the annexation of that duchy 
to Prussia. In 1866, Hanover and 
Saxony were occupied by the Prussian 
troops, and a war followed ..with those 
kingdoms and with Austria, in which, 
after a brilliant campaign of two 
weeks, the latter power was obliged to 
sue for peace, and relinquish her 
claims as a German power. In addi- 
tion, Saxony was left a mere nominal 
sovereignty under the control of Prus- 
sia, while Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, 
Nassau, and the former free city of 
Frankfort-on-the-Main became ab- 
sorbed in the Prussian monarchy. In 
August, 1870, Napoleon III. declared 
war against Prussia, and the French 
armies marched toward the Rhine. An 
alliance having been entered into be- 
tween Prussia and the Southern Ger- 
man powers of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, 
and Baden, their combined forces 
crossed the Rhine into France. The 
part of Prussia in the Franco-German 
war is inextricably involved with that 
of the whole German nation. The con- 
flict seemed to precipitate the solution 
of the question which had always been 
the aim of tre king and Bismarck, 
German unity under Prussian leader- 
ship. On Jan. 18, 1871, King Will- 
iam was crowned at Versailles as 
Emperor of Germany, and on March 
21, the first German Reichstag as- 
sembled at Berlin. The history of 
Prussia since is that of Germany. 

Prussian Blue, a cyanide of iron 
possessed of a deep-blue color, and 
much used as a pigment. It is also 
used in medicine. 

Prussian Brown, a color obtained 
by adding a solution of the yellow 
prussiate of potash to a solution of 
sulphate of copper, which throws down 
a precipitate of deep brown. This, 



when washed and dried, is equal to 
madder, and possesses greater per- 
manency. 

Prussic Acid, a name given to hy- 
drocyanic acid because it was first ob- 
tained from Prussian blue. 

Prutz, Robert Eduard, a Ger- 
man poet and historian ; born in 
Stettin, May 30, 1816. He died in 
Stettin, June 21, 1872. 

Psalmist, a writer or composer of 
psalms ; a title applied especially to 
the authors of the Scriptural psalms, 
and specifically, with the definite arti- 
cle prefixed, to David. Psalmists, in 
Church history, were singers in the 
early church whose duty it was to 
lead the people. 

Psalmody, the art and practice of 
singing psalms. Psalm singing was 
introduced by the Reformers ; but Cal- 
vin discouraged any but simple mel- 
ody, while Luther practised and fa- 
vored part harmony, as did also John 
Knox in his psalter. 

Psalms, Book of, a book of the 
Old Testament. It was the praise book 
or psalter of the Hebrew temple or 
synagogues. In the present Hebrew 
Bibles it is placed just after the 
Prophets at the head of the Ha- 
giographia, and in Luke xxiv : 44, is 
generally supposed to stand for that 
division of the Old Testament books. 
The 350 psalms are arranged in He- 
brew in five books, each terminating 
with a doxology, in some cases closing 
with "Amen and amen." The revised 
version prints them separately. The 
book of Psalms is quoted or alluded 
to as an inspired composition by Our 
Saviour and His apostles at least 70 
times ; no Old Testament book is more 
frequently quoted. Its canonical au- 
thority has never been seriously 
doubted. Its rhythmical form and 
careful parallelism (now rendered ob- 
vious by the revised version) adapt it 
for the musical part of public wor- 
ship. 

Psalter, the Book of Psalms; also 
a book containing the Psalms sepa- 
rately printed, and with musical ac- 
companiment adapted to each ; also 
specifically, the version of the Psalms 
in the English Book of Common 
Prayer. 

Pseudonym, a false, feigned, or 
fictitious name; a pen-name. 



Psychology 

Psychology, the science of mental 
phenomena. Opinion is far from 
unanimous on many of the most im- 
portant points of psychological doc- 
trine, especially on such points as in- 
volve a philosophical view of the na- 
ture of mind. 

Ptarmigan, a game bird found in 
*he United States, and also in North- 
ern Europe. In winter the plumage of 
the male is almost wholly white, with 
a small patch behind the eye; the 
shafts of the primaries and the bases 
of the exterior tail-feathers are black, 
and. there is a patch of bare red skin 
around the eye. In the summer the 
black retains its position, but the 
white is mottled and barred with 
black and gray. The length of the 
adult male is rather more than 15 
inches. 

Pterodactyl, a remarkable genus 
of fossil lizards, peculiar to the Meso- 
zoic strata. The careful investigations 
of Cuvier, however, showed that the 
pterodactyl was a true lizard, but 
possessed of the power of flight, which 
it performed, not by a membrane 
stretched over its ribs, like the living 
dragons, but more as in the bats, ex- 
cept that the wing was attached, not 
to several, but only to a single finger 
the fifth the others being free 
and short. The bones of the fifth finger 
were very elongated, and the last joint 
terminated in a long, slender, unguard- 
ed apex ; the terminal joints in the 
other fingers were furnished with 
strong claws. 

Pterosauria, an extinct order of 
flying Reptilla of Mesozoic age. 

Pthab, or Phtha, an ancient 
Egyptian divinity, the creator of all 
things and source of life, and as such 
father and sovereign of the gods. He 
was worshiped chiefly at Memphis un- 
der the figure of a mummy-shaped 
male, and as a pygmy god. Equivalent 
to the Greek Hephaestus. 

Ptoleniieus, the dynastic name of 
13 kings of Egypt, who reigned from 
323 to 43 B. c. The most famous was 
Ptolemaeus Soter, who reigned from 
323 to 285 B. c. 

Ptolemaic System, the hypothesis 
maintained by Ptolemy in his " Al- 
magest " that the earth was a fixed 
body, remaining constantly at rest in 
the center of the universe, with the 



Ptolemy 

sun and moon revolving round it as 
attendant satellites. 

Ptolemy I., surnamed Soter, king 
of Egypt, founder of the Grseco- 
Egyptian dynasty of the Lagides, was 
a Macedonian, supposed to be a natural 
son of Philip II., and became a favor- 
ite general of Alexander the Great, 
whom he accompanied on his expedi- 
tion to Asia. On the death of hir 
master, in 323 B. p., Potelmy I., ob- 
tained Egypt for his province. For 20 
years he was almost constantly en- 
gaged in war. He took the title of 
king. He saved Rhodes when besieged 
by Demetrius, and received the title 
of Soter (saviour) ; and after the fall 
of Antigonus he applied himself to 
the promotion of commerce, literature, 
science, and the arts in his own do- 
minions. Philosophers, poets, and 
painters gathered to his court, and 
the foundations were laid of the fa- 
mous Alexandrian Library and Mu- 
seum. In 285 Ptolemy resigned his 
crown to his son, surnamed Philadel- 
phus, and died in 283. 

Ptolemy II., surnamed Philadel- 
phus (lover of his brother), king of 
Egypt, born in Cos, 311 B. c., was 
the youngest son of the preceding by 
his favorite wife, Berenice. He be- 
came king on the abdication of his 
father in 285, and had a long, and 
for the most part peaceful reign. He 
had been carefully educated, and ue 
entered heartily into his father's plans 
for promoting the prosperity of his 
kingdom, completing the Alexandrian 
Library Museum, patronizing learning 
and learned men, founding colonies, 
and increasing his army and his rev- 
enue. He made a treaty of alliance 
with the Romans, and encouraged the 
resort of Jews to Egypt. According 
to tradition it was by his order that 
the Septuagint version of the Old 
Testament was made. Ptolemy was 
twice married ; his second wife being 
his sister Arsinoe, widow of Ly- 
simachus. He died in 247. 

Ptolemy XII., Dionysius, son of 
Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, suc- 
ceeded to the throne conjointly with 
his sister Cleopatra, under the protec- 
tion of Pompey, in 52. He became a 
partisan of Caesar in the civil war, 
and after the battle of Pharsalia 
caused Pompey who sought refuge in 
his states, to be assassinated in 48. 



Ptolemy 

Aspiring to be sole king, be then took 
arms against Caesar, who had decided 
that Cleopatra should continue to 
reign with him, and was drowned in 
the Nile while flying from the field of 
battle, 47 B. c. 

Ptolemy, Claudius, a celebrated 
astronomer and geographer, who flour- 
ished at Alexandria, about A. D. 140- 
1GO. He is considered the first as- \ 
tronomer of antiquity. He corrected 
Hipparchus' catalogue of the fixed : 
stars, and formed tables by which i 
the motions of the sun, moon and 
planets might be calculated and regu- 
lated. He was the first who collected 
the scattered and detached observa- 
tions made by the ancients, and di- 
gested them into a system ; this he 
called the " Great Construction." i 
This great work of Ptolemy will al- 1 
ways be valuable on account of the 
observations he gives of the places of 
the stars and planets in former times, 
and according to ancient astronomers 
that were then extant; but principally; 
on account of the large and curious 
catalogue of the stars, which, being 
compared with modern catalogues, 
enables astronomers to deduce the true 
quantity of their apparent slow pro- 
gressive motion according to the order j 
of the signs, or of the precession of the 
equinoxes. 

Ptomaine, a putrescent product of 
animal origin and of a basic or al- 
kaloidal nature, closely allied to the 
vegetable alkaloids ; a cadaveric 
poison. About 150 varieties of pto- 
maines are known, sqme being harm- 
less, others very poisonous. Ordinary 
foods frequently undergo changes that 
render them harmful, and especially 
is this so with mussels, clams, oysters, 
fish, meat, sausage, milk, ice-cream, 
cheese and canned goods. These 
changes are due to the presence of 
ptomaines. Heat will destroy the 
ptomaine bacteria, but their poison 
is not eliminated by cooking. 

Publican, in Roman antiquities, a 
collector of revenues, or farmer of the 
taxes consisting of tolls, tithes, harbor 
duties, duties for the use of pasture 
lands, mines, salt works, etc., in Ro- 
man provinces. From the nature of 
their office, and the oppressive exac- 
tions of many of their number, these 
officials were generally regarded by the 
inhabitants with detestation. 

E. 121. 



Pueblo 

Public Health Acts. In the 

United States scientific investigation 
into the means for preserving health is 
of recent growth, though laws were 
enacted by the colonies for the preven- 
tion of the introduction of contagious 
or infectious diseases from foreign 
ports. State boards of health have 
been created in nearly all the States. 
In 1878 Congress passed " An Act to 
prevent the introduction of contagious 
or infectious diseases in the United 
States," providing that no vessel com- 
ing from a foreign port where con- 
tagious or infectious disease may ex- 
ist shall enter any port of the United 
States, except in manner prescribed 
by regulations. In 1879 a National 
Board of Health was created by Con- 
gress ; its duties were to obtain in- 
formation on all matters affecting pub- 
lic health, and to advise the several 
departments of the government and the 
executives of the several States on all 
questions submitted by them. Town or 
city boards of health have existed for 
many years in all large municipalities. 

Publicist, a term originally ap- 
plied to a writer on international law, 
now used to denote a writer on current 
politics. 

Public Prosecutor, an officer ap- 
pointed to originate and conduct prose- 
cutions in the public interest. 

Puccinotti, Francesco, an 
Italian physician ; born in Urbino, 
Italy, in 1794. In 1838 the Tuscan 
Archduke appointed him Professor of 
Medical Jurisprudence in Pisa Uni- 
versity, and there he published his 
masterpiece, the " History of Medi- 
cine." He died Oct. 8, 1872. 

Puck, in mediaeval mythology, the 
" merry wanderer of the night," 
whose character and attributes are 
depicted in Shakespeare's " Midsum- 
mer Night's Dream." He was the 
chief of the domestic tribe of fairies. 
Pueblo, city and capital of Pue- 
blo county, Col.; on the Arkansas 
river and several railroads; 118 miles 
S. E. of Denver; is an important 
railroad, mining, manufacturing, and 
live-stock center; has valuable coal, 
silver, and gold mines nearby, and 
large steel works and smelters; and 
is the seat of the State Hospital for 
the Insane, State Agricultural So- 
ciety, and a noted Mineral Palace. 
Pop. ((1910) 44,395. 



Pueblos 

Pueblos (Spanish, pueblo, "vil- 
lage ") , a semi-civilized family of 
American Indians in New Mexico and 
Arizona, dwelling in large single habi- 
tations, which are sometimes capa- 
cious enough to contain a whole tribe. 
These edifices which are often five 
or six stories high, and from 130 to 433 
yards long, with many rooms (53 to 
124) on each floor are commonly 
constructed of adobe or sun-dried 
brick ; the ground floor is invariably 
without doors or windows, entrance 
being effected by a ladder leading to 
the second story ; and indoors ladders 
take the place of staircases every- 
where. A somewhat pyramidal aspect 
is given to the whole building by each 
successive story receding a few feet 
from the line of that below it. Each 
family of the tribe has a separate 
apartment, and there are also large 
rooms for general council chambers and 
for tribal dances. In New Mexico 
there are 19 such villages, with over 
8,000 occupants, who are skillful agri- 
culturists, employing irrigation ditches 
extensively, and rearing horses, cattle, 
and sheep. Spinning and weaving and 
the manufacture of pottery also are 
carried on. The Moquis of Arizona 
are a related tribe, numbering about 
1,800, in seven villages built on the 
summit of isolated hills. The Pueblos 
are under Roman Catholic mission- 
aries, and are making steady progress 
in civilization and education, though 
on their Christianity they have grafted 
many of their old pagan beliefs and 
customs, to which they obstinately 
cling. They were first visited by the 
Spaniards about 1530, at which period 
their habits and their habitations were 
very much the same as today. It is 
evident, however, from the wide area 
over which the ruins of old pueblos 
and remains of ancient pottery have 
been found, that they were at one time 
very much more numerous than they 
are now. 

Puerto Cabello, a seaport of 
Venezuela, in the State of Carabobo, 
78 miles W. of Caracas. It stands on 
a long, low narrow peninsula on the 
Caribbean Sea, and has a safe, deep, 
and roomy harbor, defended by a fort 
and batteries. It is the port of Val- 
encia, which is 34 miles distant by 
rail. There is an active foreign trade, 
which averages $6,250,000 annually; 



Puffin 

the chief exports are coffee, cacao, in- 
digo, cinchona, cotton, sugar, divi-divi, 
and copper ore. Pop. about 11,000. It 
was bombarded by the Germans during 
the recent blockade of Venezuelan 
ports by Germans, British and Ital- 
ians. 

Puf endorf, or Puffendorf , Sam- 
uel, Baron von, a German writer on 
the law of nature and nations; born 
in 1632. He studied theology and law 
at Leipsic and Jena, and in 1660 ap- 
peared his " Elements of General Ju- 
risprudence." In 1661 he became Pro- 
fessor of the Law of Nature and of 
Nations at Heidelberg. In 1667 he 
published his work " The Common- 
wealth of Germany," which, from the 
boldness of its attacks on the consti- 
tution of the German empire, caused 
a profound sensation. In 1670 he 
went to Sweden, became Professor of 
Natural Law in the University of 
Lund, and brought out his chief work, 
" Natural Law and the Law of Na- 
tions," and in 1675 an abstract of 
it. In 1686 he received a summons to 
Berlin from Frederick William, Elect- 
or of Brandenburg, a history of whom 
Pufendorf wrote for the Elector's son, 
the first king of Prussia. In 1694 he 
was created a baron by the king of 
Sweden, and in the same year be died 
in Berlin. There are English transla- 
tions of his principal works. 

Puff Adder, one of the most ven- 
omous serpents of South Africa. In 
length, when full grown, it is from 
four to five feet, and is as thick as 
a man's arm. The head is very broad, 
the tail suddenly tapered ; prevailing 
color, brown, checkered with a darker 
shade and with white. It usually glides 
along partially buried in the sand, and, 
when disturbed, puffs out the upper 
part of its body, whence its popular 
name. The Bosjesmans smear their 
arrows with its venom. 

Puff Birds, a family resembling 
kingfishers in form, but living on in- 
sects like fly catchers ; they also re- 
semble the bee eaters, and are found 
only in South and Central America. 

Puffin, a common sea bird, with 
many popular names bottlenose, coul- 
terneb, pope, seaparrot and tammy 
norie, with others that are only locally 
known. By extension, the name is 
applied to other species of the genua. 



Pugilism 

The common puffin is rather larger 
than a pigeon; plumage glossy black 
above, under surface pure white ; feet 
orange-red; bill very deep, and flat- 
tened laterally, parti-colored red, 
yellow, and blue, and grooved during 
the breeding season, and undergoing a 
kind of moult at its close a peculiar- 
ity shared by other species. 

Pugilism, the practice of boxing or 
fighting with the fists. In the schools 
and by amateurs, it is practised with 
the gloves ; in the prize ring some- 
times with the naked fists. Man being 
instinctively a pugnacious animal, and 
the fist being the simplest and most 
natural weapon, it may be taken for 
granted that pugilism, as a mode of 
settling differences, is coeval with man 
himself. It formed one of the earliest 
of the athletic games of the Greeks ; 
and we find the Greek poets describ- 
ing their heroes and gods as excelling 
in the pugne. Boxing for men was in- 
troduced in the Olympic games in the 
23d Olympiad, and for boys in the 
37th Olympiad. With the exception 
of a girdle about the loins, the ancient 
pugilist fought nude. In the United 
States pugilism as an athletic exercise 
is permitted, but the brutal exhibitions 
of the prize ring are generally prohib- 
ited by law. 

Pnlaski, Count Casimir, a Po- 
lish patriot and military officer, who 
participated in the war of the Ameri- 
can Revolution ; born in 1747. His 
father, a Polish nobleman, was the or- 
ganizer of the celebrated Confedera- 
tion of Bar, in hostility to Russia, 
and for the liberation of his country, 
in which Casimir eagerly joined, carry- 
ing on a desultory warfare with varied 
success till the coalition of Russia, 
Austria, and Prussia completed the 
conquest of Poland. His father and 
brothers being killed, Casimir escaped 
with difficulty into Turkey, whence he 
proceeded by way of France to join 
the Americans, then fighting for inde- 
pendence, bearing recommendations 
from Franklin to Washington, whom 
he joined in 1777. Entering as a vol- 
unteer, he so distinguished himself at 
the battle of Brandywine as to be 
promoted by Congress to a cavalry 
command, with the rank of Brigadier- 
General, which command, however, he 
resigned five months after, in 1778. He 
afterward organized an independent 



Pulque 

corps of cavalry and light infantry, 
with which he rendered effectual serv- 
ice under General Lincoln, in South 
Carolina, in 1779, and in the siege of 
Savannah, Ga., where, in an assault 
on the latter place, he was mortally 
wounded. He died in 1779. 

Pulaski, Fort, a fortification at 
the mouth of the Savannah river. 
Seized by the Confederates, Jan. 3, 
1861, it was besieged and taken by the 
Union forces, April 12, 1862. 

Pulgar, Fernando de, a Spanish 
writer in the latter part of the fif- 
teenth century. He wrote a " Chron- 
icle " of the reign of Ferdinand and 
Isabella ; " Notable Men of Castile " ; 
a commentary on the ancient " Coup- 
lets of Mingo Revulgo." 

Pulitzer, Joseph, an American 
journalist ; born in Budapest, Hun- 
gary, April 10, 1847. W nen Quite 
young he came to the United States 
and served in the Civil War. In 1883 
he purchased the New York "World," 
then on the verge of failure, but he 
built it up till it became one of the 
most substantial papers in the city. 
In 1903 he donated two millions of 
dollars to Columbia University, New 
York city, to establish a " School of 
Journalism." 

Pullman, George Mortimer, an 
American inventor ; born in Chau- 
tauqua co., N. Y., March 3, 1831; 
learned the cabinetmaker's trade; set- 
tled in Chicago; studied for many 
years the problem of making journeys 
by rail more comfortable ; and as a 
result invented the Pullman palace car. 
In 1863 he started building these cars, 
and in 1SG7 'organized the Pullman 
Palace Car Company. He also, in- 
vented the vestibule train and founded 
the town of Pullman, 111., in 1880. He 
died in Chicago, Oct. 19, 1897. 

Pulpit, a raised place or desk in 
a church, from which the preacher de- 
livers his sermon. They are now gen- 
erally made of wood, but were former- 
ly also made of stone, richly carved 
and ornamented. Hence, used figura- 
tively, for preachers generally or 
preaching; the teaching of preachers. 

Pulque, a vinous beverage, made in 
Mexico, by fermenting the juice of 
the various species of the agave. It 
resembles cider, but has a disagreeable 
odor, like that of putrid meat. 



Pulse 

Pulse, in physiology, the beat or 
shock felt in any artery when slight 
pressure is made on it, caused by the 
systole of the heart. At birth the num- 
ber of beats is about 140, at the end 
of the first year 120, at the end of the 
second 110 ; during middle life between 
70 and 80, and in old age usually a 
little more. It is slower in man than 
in woman, and is also affected by the 
position of the body. 

Pulse, a general name for legumi- 
nous plants or their seeds ; such as 
beans, peas, etc. 

Pulsometer, a form of pump for 
raising water, by the condensation of 
steam, in a vessel situated at such 
elevation above the water supply that 
the atmospheric pressure will raise the 
water to the chamber and operate the 
valves. Its most common use is to 
(fill steam boilers. 

Puma, the cougar of the French, the 
leon of the South Americans, and 
the panther or " painter " of the trap- 
pers. It is the largest feline of the 
New World, measuring 40 inches from 
the nose to root of tail, which is about 
20 inches more ; the head is small, 
mane absent ; general color of upper 
surface tawny yellowish-brown, vary- 
ing in intensity in different individ- 
uals ; lower parts of the body and in- 
ner surface of limbs dirty white. The 
young, when born, are spotted with 
brown, and the tail is ringed. The 
puma is destructive, and slays far 
more than it can eat. but rarely, if 
ever, attacks man, and may be tamed 
with little difficulty. Edmund Kean 
had one which followed him about like 
a dog. It ranges from Canada to Pata- 
gonia, being most numerous in the for- 
est districts of Central America. 

Pumice, a very porous, or cellular, 
froth-like rock, of extreme lightness, 
floating on water. Structure, web-like, 
consisting of vitreous threads either in- 
timately interwoven or parallel. Like 
the more compact forms of vitreous 
lavas, it varies much in chemical com- 
position, which, however, is mostly 
that of trachytic rocks. It owes its 
cellular structure to the enormous ex- 
pansion of aqueous vapor consequent 
on the relief from pressure during the 
extrusion of vitreous lavas at the 
earth's surface. In commerce, pumice 
stone. It is imported from the Lipari 
Isles, and is used for polishing metals 



Pumpelly 

and marble, and smoothing the surface 
of wood and pasteboard. It is said to 
be a good glaze for pottery. 

Pump, a machine, engine, or device, 
consisting of an arrangement of a 
piston, cylinder, and valves, for raising 
water or other liquid to a higher level, 
or for compressing or exhausting air 
and other gases. There are numerous 
varieties of pumps differing more or 
less in construction, according to the 
purposes for which each is intended, 
but the most important are the suc- 
tion pump, the lifting or lift pump, 
the force pump, and the centrifugal or 
rotary pump. 




CHAIN PUMP. 

Pumpelly, Raphael, an Ameri- 
can geologist : born in Oswego, N. Y., 
Sept. 8, 1837. In his early life he 
conducted explorations for the govern- 
ments of Japan and China ; was pro- 
fessor at Harvard for several years ; 
and from 1879 to 1892 geologist in 
charge of the Archaean division of the 
United States Geological Survey. His 
chief works are : " Geological Re- 
searches in China, Mongolia, and Jap- 
an " " Across America and Asia," 
" Mining Industries of the United 
States," etc. 



Pumpkin 

Pumpkin, a climbing plant and its 
fruit, originally from Astrachan, but 
widely cultivated in America. It has 
rough leaves, the flowers large, soli- 
tary. It is caised.in the open air. The 
pumpkin, cooked in various forms, is 
a favorite dish in America, and es- 
pecially in the Northeastern States 
of the Union, where the pumpkin pie 
is almost indispensable at the Yankee 
housewife's table. Boiled and mashed 
it is an excellent side dish. 

Pun, a play on words, the wit of 
which depends on a resemblance in 
sound between two words of different 
and perhaps contrary meanings, or on 
the use of the same word in different 
senses, etc. 

Punch, with his wife Judy and dog 
Toby, the chief characters in a popular 
comic puppet show, of Italian origin, 
the name being a contraction of Pun- 
chinello, for Pulcinello, the droll clown 
in Neapolitan comedy. The exhibition 
soon found its way to other countries. 

Punch, or the London Chari- 
vari, the chief of English comic 
journals, a weekly magazine of wit, 
humor, and satire in prose and verse, 
illustrated by sketches, caricatures, 
and emblematic devices. It was found- 
ed in 1841, the first number appear- 
ing July 17 of that year, and, under 
the jojnt editorship of Henry Mayhew 
and Mark Lemon, soon became a 
household word, while ere long its sa- 
tirical cuts and witty rhymes were ad- 
mitted a power in the land. " Punch " 
is recognized as an English institution. 

Punctuation, the act, art, or 
method of punctuating or pointing a 
writing or discourse; the act, art, or 
method of dividing a discourse into 
sentences, clauses, etc., by means of 
points or stops. Punctuation is per- 
formed with four points or marks, viz., 
the period (.) , the colon ( :) , the semi- 
colon (;), and the comma (,). The 
other points used in composition are 
the note of interrogation or inquiry 
( ?) , and of exclamation, astonishment, 
or admiration (!). The first printed 
books had only arbitrary marks here 
and there, and it was not till the 16th 
century that an approach was made 
to the present system by the Manutii 
of Venice. 

Punic, the language of the Cartha- 
ginians. It was an offshoot of Phce- 



Fnpa 

nician, belonging to the Canaanitish 
branch of the Semitic tongues. 

Punic Wars, three great wars be- 
tween the Romans and the Carthagin- 
ians. The first (264-241 B. c.) was 
for the possession of Sicily, and ended 
by the Carthaginians having to with- 
draw from the island. The second 
(218-202 B. c.), the war in which 
Hannibal gained his great victories in 
Italy, was a death struggle between the 
two rival powers ; it ended with de- 
cisive victory to the Romans. The 
third (140-146 B. c.) was a wanton 
one for the destruction of Carthage, 
which was effected in the last-named 
year. 

Punishment, a penalty inflicted on 
a person for a crime or offense, by the 
authority to which the offender is sub- 
ject ; a penalty imposed in the enforce- 
ment or application of law. The pun- 
ishments usual for criminal offenses 
in the United States are death _ by 
hanging or electricity, or by shooting, 
imprisonment with and without hard 
labor, solitary confinement, detention 
in a reformatory school, subjection to 
police supervision, imposition of fines, 
and putting under recognizance. In 
New York, Ohio and Massachusetts 
the death penalty is inflicted by elec- 
trocution, and in Delaware whipping 
is resorted to as a punishment for cer- 
tain offenses. 

Punjab, an extensive territory in 
the N. \V. of India, most of it under 
direct Anglo-Indian authority, and 
ruled by a lieutenant-governor, a large 
portion of the remainder constituting 
the protected state of Kashmir. 

Punt, a large, square-built, flat- 
bottorned vessel, without masts, used 
as a lighter for conveying goods, etc., 
and propelled by poles. Also, a small, 
flat-bottomed boat, with square ends, 
used in fishing, and propelled by poles. 

Pnnta Arenas. The chief port on 
the Pacific of the Central American 
republic of Costa Rica. 

Pupa, or Pupe, in entomology, the 
third stage in the development of an 
insect. On reaching its full growth 
the larva ceases to eat, and some time 
later becomes encased in a closed shell 
or case, whence after a certain length- 
ened period, which typically is one 
of repose, it emerges as a perfect in-- 
sect. 



Fupin 

Fupin, Micliael Idvorsky, an 
American scientist; born in Idvar, 
Hungary, Oct. 4, 1858 ; was graduated 
at Columbia University in 1883 ; stud- 
ied at the University of Berlin; and 
was appointed Adjunct Professor of 
Mechanics at Columbia University in 
1889. In 1901 he announced the dis- 
covery of a new method of ocean 
telephony. He was a member of the 
American Mathematical Society, Amer- 
ican Philosophical Society, etc. He 
wrote " Propagation of Long Electrical 
Waves " ; " Wave Propagation Over 
Non-Uniform Conductors " ; etc. 

Purana, the last great division of 
Hindu sacred literature. 

Purcell, Henry, an English com- 
poser; born in 1658. In 1680, prob- 
ably, he composed for a private semi- 
nary " Dido and Eneas," which has 
been called the first genuine English 
opera, but has never been produced on 
the public stage. For some years after 
he became organist of Westminster 
Abbey he composed mainly anthems 
and sacred music, all of great excel- 
lence. In 1690 he wrote the music for 
Dryden's version of " The Tempest." 
In 1691 he produced the music to Dry- 
den's "King Arthur," _ which, though 
considered his dramatic masterpiece, 
was not published till 1843. In 1694 
he wrote, for St. Cecilia's Day. his 
" The Jubilate " and " Te Deum,'' and 
in 1695 the music to " Bpnduca," in 
which was " Britons, Strike "Home." 
Purcell was equally great in church 
music, chamber music, and music for 
the theater. He died in 1695, and was 
buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Purchase, in law, the suing out 
and obtaining a writ; the obtaining 
or acquiring the title of lands and tene- 
ments by money, deed, gift, or any 
means except descent. In mechanics, 
a means of increasing applied power ; 
any mechanical hold, advantage, 
power, or force applied to the raising 
or removing of heavy bodies; mechan- 
ical advantage gained by the applica- 
tion of any, power. 

Purdue TTniyersity, a coeduca- 
tional non-sectarian institution in La- 
fayette, Ind. ; founded in 1874. 

Purgatory, in Roman theology, a 
place in which souls who depart this 
life in the grace of God suffer for a 
time, because they still need to be 



Purse Crafc 

cleansed from venial, or have still to 
pay the temporal punishment due to 
.mortal sins, the guilt and eternal pun- 
ishment of which have been remitted. 

Purification, a'Jewfsh rite. It 
was mainly the one through the per- 
formance of which an Israelite was 
readmitted to the privilege of religious 
communion, lost through uncleanness. 
The chief varieties of such uncleanness, 
and the methods of purification from 
it required* are detailed in Lev. xii., 
xiv., xv., and Numb. xix. 

Purint, the Festival of Lots, whicb 
was instituted by Mordecai and is cele- 
brated to this day by the Jews on the 
14th and 15th of the month Adar 
(March), in commemoration of their 
wonderful deliverance from the de- 
struction with which they were threat- 
ened by Haman. On these festive 
days the book of Esther is read, pres- 
ents are interchanged, and gifts are 
sent to the poor. 

Puritan, the name given, at first 
perhaps in contempt, to those clergy- 
men and others in the reign of the 
English Queen Elizabeth, who desired 
a simpler, and what they considered 
to be a purer, form of worship than 
the civil and ecclesiastical authorities 
sanctioned. New England was settled 
very largely by the Puritans. Also, 
one who has severely strict notions as 
to what is proper or who is strict in 
his religious duties. 

Purple, a secondary color, com- 
pounded by the union of the primaries 
blue and red. 

Purples, Ear Cockle, or Pep- 
percorn, a disease affecting the ears 
of wheat. Infected grains assume 
a dark-green color, which soon deepens 
to a black, and become rounded like 
small peppercorns. The husks open, 
and the diseased grains are found to 
contain no flour, but a moist sub- 
stance. 

Purse Crab, a name for decapod 
crustaceans allied to the hermit crabs. 
A species, the robber crab, found in 
the Mauritius and the more E. islands 
of the Indian Ocean, is one of the 
largest crustaceans, being sometimes 
two to three feet in length. It resides 
on land, while paying a nightly visit 
to the sea, often burrowing under the 
roots of trees, lining its hole with the 
fibers of the cocoanut husk and living" 



Purser 

on the nuts, which (according to some 
writers) it climbs the trees to pro- 
cure, and the shells of which it cer- 
tainly breaks with great ingenuity. 

Purser, on shipboard, the officer 
whose duty is to keep the accounts of 
the ship to which he is attached. In 
mining, the paymaster or cashier of a 
mine, and the official to whom notices 
of transfer are sent for registration in 
the cost-book. 

Purslane, a plant, with fleshy suc- 
culent leaves, naturalized throughout 
the warmer parts of the world. Purs- 
lane was formerly more used than at 
present in salads as a pot herb, in 
pickles, and for garnishing. It has 
anti-scorbutic properties. 

Purves, George T., an American 
clergyman; born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
Sept. 27, 1852 ; was graduated at the 
University of Pennsylvania in 1872 
and at the Princeton Theological 
Seminary in 1876; was Professor of 
New Testament literature and Exege- 
sis at the Princeton Theological Sem- 
inaiy in 1892-1900, when he accepted 
a call to the Fifth Avenue Presbyter- 
ian Church, New York city. He wrote 
" The Apostolic Age " ; etc. He died 
(n New York city, Sept. 24, 1901. 

Pus, in physiology and pathology, 
the product of suppuration, a thick, 
dscid, yellow fluid, consisting of 
liquor puris, pus corpuscles, and other 
histological particles. 

Pusey, Caleb, an American Quaker 
colonist ; born in Berkshire, England, 
about 1650. He came with Penn's 
company to America in 1682, erected 
the first mills in the province, held 
many high places in civil affairs, and 
was a noted controversialist writer of 
his day. He published a great num- 
ber of pamphlets and articles in de- 
fense of his creed. He died in Ches- 
ter co., Pa., Feb. 25, 1727. 

Pusey, Edward Bouverie, an 
English theological writer, a leader of 
the Anglo-Catholic (Tractarian) 
party in the Established Church; born 
near Oxford in 1800. He published : 
" The Holy Eucharist a Comfort to 
the Penitent," a sermon which re- 
sulted in his suspension for three 
years ; two sermons on " The Entire 
Absolution of the Penitent," equally 
revolutionary. Of his larger works 
the most important are : " The Doc- 



Putnam 

trine of the Real Presence " ; and 
" The Real Presence of the Body and 
Blood of Christ the Doctrine of the 
English Church." Died Sept. 16. 1882. 

Pushkin, Alexander Sergeye- 
vitich, Count, the master poet of 
Russia ; born at St. Petersburg in 
1799; died 1837. He was govern- 
ment official, and in 1825 was appoint- 
ed Imperial historiographer. His 
works embrace poems, dramas, novels, 
and histories. 

Putnam, Frederick Ward, an 
American scientist ; born in Salem, 
Mass., April 16, 1839; was graduated 
at Harvard University in 1862; be- 
came chief of the Department of Eth- 
nology at the World's Columbian Ex- 
position in Chicago in 1893. He is 
a member of numerous American and 
foreign scientific societies. The French 
government gave him the Cross of the 
Legion of Honor. 

Putnam, George Haven, an 
American publisher and author, son 
of George P. ; born in London, Eng- 
land, April 2, 1844. He entered the 
publishing business in 1866, and be- 
came the head of the firm of G. P. 
Putnam's Sons, New York. His 
works include : " International Copy- 
right " (1879); "Books and their 
Makers during the Middle Ages " 
(1896), etc. 

Putnam, George Palmer, an 
American publisher and author ; born 
in Brunswick, Me., Feb. 7, 1814. In 
1848 he established the publishing 
house now conducted under the name 
of G. P. Putnam's Sons; and also 
founded " Putnam's Magazine," which 
was subsequently merged with " Scrib- 
ner's Monthly." His works include : 
" The Tourist in Europe " ; " The 
World's Progress" (1850); "Ten 
Years of the World's Progress " ; etc. 
He died in New York, Dec. 20, 1872. 

Putnam, Herbert, an American 
librarian ; born in New York city, 
Sept. 20, 1861; was graduated at 
Harvard in 1883 ; studied at the Co- 
lumbian Law School; was admitted 
to the Minnesota bar in 1886; li- 
brarian of the Boston Public Library 
in 1887-1891 ; and was appointed li- 
brarian of Congress in 1899. 

Putnam, Israel, an American 
general in the Revolutionary War ; 
born in Danvers (then part of 



Putnam 

Salem), Mass., in 1718. He was des- 
tined to the occupation of a farmer, 
and continued in that vocation till 
the French and Indian war broke out, 
when, at the age of 36, he took serv- 
ice in the English army, and from his 
known courage and energy, received 
the command of a company of light 
troops, or " rangers." When the dis- 
pute between this country and Eng- 
land commenced, he was following 
the quiet life of a farmer and tavern 
keeper ; but the first blood that was 
shed aroused all his energy. He was 
created Major-General by Congress, 
and at Bunker Hill, New York, and 
during Washington's retreat through 
New Jersey, he showed himself one 
of the bravest and most devoted of 
the patriot leaders. But in 1779 he 
was stricken with paralysis, and was 
prevented from participating in the 
final triumphs of the national cause. 
His character is well depicted by the 
inscription on his tomb : " He dared 
to lead where any dared to follow." 
He died in 1790. 

Putnam, Mrs. Mary (Lowell), 
an American historical writer, sister 
of James Russell Lowell; born in 
Boston, Mass., Dec. 3, 1810. In 1832 
she married Samuel R. Putnam, a 
merchant of Boston. Besides a trans- 
lation from the Swedish, and numer- 
ous magazine articles, she published : 
" History of the Constitution of Hun- 
gary " ; and two dramatic poems on 
the subject of slavery. She died in 
Boston in June, 1898. 

Putnam, M-s. Sarah A. Brock, 
an American novelist and writer ; born 
in Madison Courthouse, Va., about 
1845. In 1883 she married the Rev. 
Richard Putnam, of New York. Her 
works include : " Richmond during 
the War"; "The Southern Ama- 
ranth " ; etc. 

Putnam, William Lc Baron, an 
American jurist ; born in Bath, Me., 
May 12, 1835 ; was graduated at Bow- 
doin College in 1855 and admitted to 
the bar in 1858 ; practised in Port- 
land, Me., till 1892 ; was a member 
of a commission to arrange with the 
British government the rights of 
American fishermen in Canadian 
waters in 1887; served also as a com- 
missioner under the treaty of Feb. 6, 
2896, between the United States and 
Great Britain; and was appointed a 



Pycnogonnm 

judge of the United States Circuit 
Court in 1892. 

Putnam, Fort, the principal de- 
fense of West Point during the Revo- 
lution. Now in ruins. 

Putrefaction, the apparently spon- 
taneous decomposition of organic sub- 
stances, especially those rich in nitro- 
gen. It differs from fermentation in 
being accompanied by the evolution of 
fetid and noxious gases. In the proc- 
ess of putrefaction, organic bodies of 
a higher order are changed, sometimes 
into lower organic compounds, some- 
times into inorganic compounds, as 
ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, etc., 
and sometimes into simple substances, 
as hydrogen and nitrogen. 

Puts and Calls, terms used in 
American stock dealings. The trade 
in privileges is something which is 
scarcely understood outside of Board 
of Trade and Stock Exchange circles. 
For $1 per 1,000 bushels a trader can 
purchase the privilege to " put " 
(sell) or "call" (buy) from the sell- 
er of the privilege at a stipulated price 
and within a stipulated time. The 
ordinary privileges are sold one day to 
be good to the close of the next ses- 
sion. In inactive markets the "put" 
and " call " prices may be close to- 
gether and close to the market price 
of the property. They are counte- 
nanced by the State of New York and 
are a regular feature in the New 
York Stock Exchange. In Illinois 
they are specifically classed as gam- 
bling operations. The theory of 
" privileges " is that they are a spe- 
cies of insurance by which an opera- 
tor can protect himself against mar- 
ket fluctuations. A trader who is 
" short" in the market can protect his 
position to a certain degree by buying 

calls " ; a " long " can prevent 
losses in the same degree by buying 
" puts." The insurance proposition 
is a theory, however, as " privileges " 
more often serve to originate new 
trades than to serve as an insurance 
on existing business conditions. 

Pyaemia, or Pyemia, a diseased 
condition in which the blood is poi- 
soned by pus or by some of its con- 
stituents; blood poisoning; septicae- 
mia. 

Pycnogonnm, a genus of Arachni- 
da, the sea spiders. Some species are 



Pygmalion 

parasitic upon fishes and other marine 
animals, but the common species is 
free when adult, and does not appear 
to be parasitic during any period of 
its existence. One species attaches 
itself parasitically to the whale. 

Pygmalion, in Greek mythology, 
grandson of Agenqr, King of Cyprus. 
He fell in love with an ivory statue 
of a young maiden he himself had 
made, and prayed to Aphrodite to give 
it life. His prayer was granted, on 
which he married the maiden. 

Pygmy, or Pigmy, in classical 
mythology, one of a fabulous nation 
of dwarfs dwelling somewhere near 
the shores of the ocean, and maintain- 
ing perpetual wars with the cranes. 
Ctesias represented a nation of them 
as inhabiting India. Other ancient 
writers believed them to inhabit the 
Indian islands : Aristotle places them 
in Ethiopia, Pliny in Transgangetic 
India. A race of pygmies has been 
discovered in Central Africa. 

Pyle, Howard, an American illus- 
trator and author ; born in Wilming- 
ton, Del., March 5, 1853. He was 
an illustrator for periodicals, and has 
become popular also as a writer, 
chiefly of juvenile literature. His 
works include : " Buccaneers and 
Marooners of America" (1891) ; etc. 

Pylorus, the small and contracted 
end of the stomach leading into the 
small intestines. 

Pym, John, an English statesman 
and leader of the popular party dur- 
ing the reigns of James I. and Charles 
I. ; born in Somersetshire, England, 
in 1584. He studied at Oxford and 
became famous as a lawyer. He en- 
tered Parliament in 1G14, and during 
the reign of James he attained great 
influence by his opposition to the ar- 
bitrary measures of the king. In 
1626 he took part in the impeachment 
of Buckingham and was imprisoned. 
In the Short Parliament of 1640 Pym 
and Hainpden were exceedingly active 
as leaders of the popular party, and 
in 1641 Pym was offered the chancel- 
lorship of the exchequer. He im- 
peached Strafford, and at his trial ap- 
peared as accuser. He was the main 
author of the Grand Remonstrance, 
the final appeal presented in 1641, 
and one of the five members to arrest 
whom the king went to the House of 



Pyramid 

Commons in January, 1642. When 
civil war became inevitable Pym was 
appointed one of the committee of 
safety, and while he lived was active 
in resisting the negotiations of any 
peace with the king which did not se- 
ure the liberties of the subject and 
the supremacy of Parliament. It was 
mainly his financial skill that enabled 
the parliamentary army to keep the 
field. In November, 1643, he was 
made lieutenant-general of ordnance, 
and in the following month he died, 
and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
Pyramid in Egyptian antiquities, a 
solid structure substantially invariable 
in form, viz., a simple mass resting on 
a square or sometimes approximately 
square base, with the sides facing 
with slight deviations toward the four 
principal winds, and tapering off grad- 
ually toward the top to a point or to 
a flat surface, as a substitute for an 
apex. The proportion of the base to 
the height is not always the same, 
nor is the angle of inclination uni- 
form. The pyramids were construct- 
ed in platforms, and then reveted or 
coated with blocks or slabs of granite, 
as may still be observed in incomplete 
pyramids. Recently the theory has 
been maintained that in the case of 
the largest pyramids, a smaller one 
was erected as a nucleus, arid subse- 
quently enveloped by another layer. 
The interior of these massive struc- 
tures contains narrow passages, and 
some totally dark halls or chambers, 
and probably served as the burial 
places of the kings who had caused 
them to be constructed. The entrance 
to these buildings is raised consider- 
ably above the level of the base, and 
was blocked up by a portcullis of 
granite, so as to be on ordinary oc- 
casions inaccessible. In the pyramid 
of Cheops, the entrance is raised about 
47 feet, 6 inches above the base. The 
pyramids of Egypt begin immediately 
S. of Cairo, and continue S. at vary- 
ing intervals for nearly 70 miles. The 
largest is that of Cheops, at Ghizeh, 
standing on a base each side of which 
was originally 764 feet long, but ow- 
ing to the removal of the coating is 
now only 746 feet. Its perpendicular 
height, according to Wilkinson, was 
originally 480 feet, 9 inches, present 
height, 460 feet. The principal cham- 
ber, the so-called Crowning Hall or 



Pyrenees 

King's Chamber, is 34 feet, 3 inches 
long, and 17 feet, 1 inch wide. Its 
roof is formed of massive blocks of 
granite, over which, with a view to 
support the weight, other blocks are 
laid, with clear intervals between. 
According to Herodotus, the erection 
of this pyramid employed 100,000 men 
for 20 years. 

In Mexican antiquities, the Teocal- 
lis, or Houses of the Gods, which have 
come down from Aztec times, are four- 
sided pyramids rising by terraces to a 
considerable height. A notable group of 
such erections still exist at Teotihua- 
can, about 20 miles N. E. of the City 
of Mexico. There are two large pyr- 
amids, -with some hundred smaller 
ones. The base of the largest is 900 
feet long, its height 160 feet; the 
height of the second is 130 feet. One 
is dedicated to the sun, the other to 
the moon. A yet larger one is at 
Cholula ; its base is 1,488 feet long, 
its height 178 feet. All the Mexican 
pyramids face the cardinal points. 
Hence, applied to any mass or heap 
more or less resembling a pyramid in 
form. 

Pyrenees, an extensive mountain 
range in the S. of Europe, dividing 
France from Spain, and extending 
almost in a straight line from St. Se- 
bastian, on the Bay of Biscay, to 
Cape Creux, on the Mediterranean. 
Length 270 miles, with a breadth from 
50 to 100 miles. 

Pyrites, an isometric mineral oc- 
curring frequently crystallized, also 
massive, iu mammillary forms with 
fibrous structure, and stalactitic with 
crystalline surface. Luster, metallic, 
splendent ; color, pale, brass-yellow ; 
streak, greenish-black ; opaque ; frac- 
ture conchoidal uneven ; brittle ; 
strikes fire when struck with a ham- 
mer. Composed of sulphur and iron. 
It is distributed in rocks of all ages, 
either as crystals, crystal-grains, or 
nodules, also in metalliferous veins. 

Pyrrhic, a species of warlike dance, 
which is said to have been invented 
by Pyrrhus to grace the funeral of 
his father Achilles. It consisted 
chiefly in such an adroit 'and nimble 
turning of the body as represented an 
attempt to avoid the strokes of an en- 
emy in battle, and the motions neces- 
sary to perform it were looked on as 
a kind of training for actual warfare. 



Pythagoras 

This dance is supposed to be described 
by Homer as engraved on the shield 
of Achilles. It was danced by boys 
in armor, accompanied by the lute or 
lyre. Also a metrical foot consisting 
of two short syllables. 

Pyrrh-us, King of Epirus, being 
obliged, on the murder of his father, to 
seek safety by flight, found a home, 
parent, and tutor in Glaucus, King of 
Illyria, where he remained for several 
years, till old enough to maintain his 
own right, and ascended his father's 
throne, 295 B. C. In 281 B. C., he 
made war on the Romans, having been 
called to the assistance of the Sam- 
nites, and, in a desperate battle fought 
on the banks of the Syris, in Calabria, 
totally defeated the Roman army ; 
yet, so dearly was this glory bought, 
that Pyrrhus exclaimed " Another 
such victory will ruin me." After 
several signal advantages, the Ro- 
mans at length triumphed, and Pyr- 
rhus, sustaining many disasters, re- 
turned to Greece, and, in a subsequent 
war with the Argives, was killed, by a 
tile thrown on his head from the roof 
of a house, as he entered Argos, 273 

B. C. 

Pythagoras, the celebrated Greek 
philosopher, was born in Samos, prob- 
ably about 580-570 B. C. He was the 
son of Mnesarchus, and, perhaps, a 
disciple of Pherecydes. He is said 
to have traveled extensively, especial- 
ly in Egypt, and to have been initiat- 
ed in the most ancient Greek myste- 
ries. He attached great importance 
to mathematical studies, and is be- 
lieved to have made several impor- 
tant discoveries in geometry, music, 
and astronomy. He ultimately set- 
tled, between 540-530 B. C. at Cro- 
tona, one of the Greek cities of South- 
ern Italy. There he set himself to 
carry out the purpose of instituting 
a society through which he might ex- 
ert an influence on political affairs, 
and especially in opposition to demo- 
cratic and revolutionary movements. 
His teachings relating to these sub- 
jects became at length the occasion of 
a popular rising against the Pytha- 
goreans at Crotooa, 504 B. C. the 
house in which they were assembled 
was burned, many perished and the 
rest were exiled. Similar tumults 
with similar results, took place in 
other cities and Pythagoras himself is 



Pytheas 

believed to have died soon after, at 
Metapontum. Among the doctrines 
of Pythagoras are the following : 
that numbers are the principles of all 
things ; that the universe is a har- 
monious whole (kosmos), the heaven- 
ly bodies by their motion causing 
sounds (music of the spheres) ; that 
the soul is immortal, and passes suc- 
cessively into many bodies (metem- 
psychosis) ; and that the highest aim 
and blessedness of man is likeness to 
the Deity. He left no written ac- 
count of his doctrines ; they were first 
committed to writing by Philolaus. 
Pythagoras is said to have been the 
first who took the title of philosopher, 
and the first who applied the term 
kosmos to the universe. He shares 
with Thales and Xenophanes the high 
distinction of starting the problem of 
physical science. He died in Meta- 
pontum, Magna Grsecia, about 500 

B. C. 

Pytheas, a famous navigator of the 
Greek colony of Massilia, now Mar- 
seilles ; supposed to have lived about 
the time of Alexander the Great (say 
330 B. c.). He is reputed to have 
sailed along the west coast of Europe, 
entered the English Channel, and trav- 
eled some distance in Britain, then, 
continuing his journey northward, to 
have arrived at Thule (supposed to be 
Iceland). In a second voyage he en- 
tered the Baltic, where he proceeded 
as far as a river which he called 
Tanais, and on the banks of which 
amber was found. He is mentioned 
by. Strabo, Pliny, and others. 

Pythian Games, one of the four 
great national festivals of the Greeks, 
held in the Crissaean plain, near Del- 
phi (anciently called Pytho), said to 
have been instituted by Apollo after 
vanquishing the snaky monster, 
Python, and celebrated in his honor 
every four years. 

Pythias, Knights of, a benevolent 
and friendly order, founded during 
the Civil War, and now flourishing in 
various parts of the world. The or- 
der is very strong in the United 
States. Justus H. Rathbone founded 
Washington lodge No. 1 in Washing- 
ton, in December, 1864. On Jan. 1, 



Python 

1900, the total membership of the or- 
der was 492,506. Membership of the 
Uniform Rank (military branch), 
45,590. Membership of the Endow- 
ment Rank (life insurance branch), 
57,401, representing an endowment of 
113,840,000. Total paid benefici- 
aries to July 1, 1900, $14,865,883. 

Python, in Greek mythology, a 
celebrated serpent which destroyed 
the people and cattle about Delphi, 
and was slain by Apollo. In zoology, 
a genus and family of serpents allied 
to the family Boidae or Boas. They 
are not venomous, but kill their prey 
by compression. The pythons are of 
enormous size, sometimes attaining a 
length of 30 feet. They are found in 
India and in the islands of the East- 
ern Archipelago, in Africa and in Aus- 
tralia. A rudimentary pelvis and 
traces of hinder limbs exist in the 
pythons, these structures terminating 
externally in a kind of a hooked claw. 
The head exceeds the neck in thick- 




PYTHON: MOLUEUS. 



ness, and the mouth is extremely large. 
Aided by their prehensile tails and 
rudimentary hinder limbs, the pythons 
suspend themselves from the branches 
of trees and lie in wait near water 
for animals which come to drink. The 
genus Python contains various species, 
the best known of which is the West 
African python (P. sebae). common in 
menageries. The female python hatch- 
es her eggs by the heat of her body. 





q, the 17th letter and the 
13th consonant of the 
English alphabet, a con- 
sonant having only one 
sound, that of k or c. It 
is always followed by u, and as this 
combination can be represented by kw 
(or k when u is silent), q is a super- 
fluous letter. 

Qnackenbos, George Payn, an 
American educator ; born in New 
York city, Sept. 4, 1826; was grad- 
uated at Columbia College in 1843 and 
for many years conducted a large col- 
legiate school in his native city. He 
was author of " First Lessons in Com- 
position " ; " Advanced Course of 
Rhetoric and Composition " ; etc. He 
died in New London, N. H., July 24, 
1881. 

Qnackenbos, John Duncan, an 
American physician ; born in New 
York, N. Y., April 22, 1848; was 
graduated at Columbia College in 
18G6 and at the College of Physicians 
and Surgeons in 1871 ; began practice 
in New York ; became Adjunct Pro- 
fessor of the English Language and 
Literature at Columbia College in 
1884 ; Professor of Rhetoric in Bar- 
nard College in 1891-1893. He then 
became a specialist in mental diseases 
and lectured extensively on scientific 
and literary topics. 

Quackenbnsh, Stephen Platt, 
an American naval officer ; born in 
Albany, N. Y., Jan. 23, 1823; joined 
the navy in 1840 ; promoted lieuten- 
ant-commander in 1862; had charge 
of various vessels in blockading fleets 
during the Civil War ; participated in 
the action at Elizabeth City and New- 
bern, N. C., captured the " Princess 
Royal " containing a cargo of ma- 
chinery for making projectiles, quinine 
and engines for an iron-clad in course 



of construction in Richmond ; and won 
distinction in other operations. He 
was retired with the rank of rear-ad- 
miral hi 1885. He died in Washing- 
ton, D. C., Feb. 4, 1890. 

Quadrangle, a square or four- 
sided court or space surrounded by . 
buildings, as often seen in the build- 
ings of a college, school, etc. In geom- 
etry, a figure having four angles, and 
consequently four sides. 

Quadrant, in architecture, the 
same as quadrangle. In geometry, 
the fourth part of a circle ; the arc of 
a circle containing 90 ; the space in- 
cluded between such arc and two radii 
drawn from the center to the extrem- 
ities of the arc. Nautically, an in- 
strument for making angular meas- 
urements. So called from its em- 
bracing an arc of 90 or somewhat 
more. Formerly much employed in 
making astronomical observations. It 
is now superseded by the sextant. 

Quadrature, the state of being 
quadrate or square ; a square space. 
In astronomy, the position of one 
heavenly body with respect to another 
90 distant, as the moon when midway 
between the points of opposition and 
conjunction. In geometry, the act of 
squaring ; the reducing of a figure to 
a square. 

Quadrilateral, the name given in 
history to the four fortresses of North 
Italy Mantua, Verona, Peschiera, 
and Legnago which form a sort of 
outwork to the bastion of the moun- 
tains of the Tyrol, and divide the N. 
plain of the Po into two sections by a 
most powerful barrier. 

Quadrille, a dance consisting of 
ive figures or movements, executed by 
! pur sets of couples, each forming the 
side of a square. Also, the music 



Quadroon 

composed for such a dance ; and, a 
game of cards played by four persons 
with 40 cards. 

Quadroon, or Quarteron, a per- 
son who is one-quarter negro end 
three-quarters white ; that is, one of 
whose grandparents was white and the 
other negro ; and one of whose imme- 
dite parents was white and the other 
mulatto. 

Quadrumana, in zoology, an order 
of Mammalia, founded by Cuvier, and 
containing the monkeys, apes, bab- 
oons, and lemurs. The earliest known 
remains are those of Lemuravus, from 
the Eocene of New Mexico. 

Quadruped, the name popularly 
applied to those higher vertebrate ani- 
mals which possess four developed 
limbs. The name is usually re- 
stricted to four-footed mammals. 

Quadruple Alliance, an alliance, 
BO called from the number of the con- 
tracting parties, concluded in 1718 
between Great Britain, France, and 
Austria, and acceded to by Holland 
in 1719, for the maintenance of the 
peace of Utrecht. The occasion of the 
alliance was the seizure by Spain of 
Sardinia in 1717, and Sicily in 1718, 
both of which she was forced to give 
up. Another quadruple alliance was 
that of Austria, Russia, Great Brit- 
ain, and ^Prussia, in 1814, originating 
in the coalition which had effected the 
dissolution of the French empire. 

Quaestor, in Roman history, two 
quaestores parricidii, who acted as 
public prosecutors in cases of murder, 
or any capital offense, existed in 
Rome during the period of the kings. 
Two quaestores classici, who had 
charge of the public money, were first 
appointed about 485 B. G. They also 
had charge of the funds of the army, 
to which they were paymasters. The 
number of quaestors was increased to 
eight, 265 B. c. Sylla raised the num- 
ber to 20, and .Julius Caesar to 40. 
During the time of the emperors their 
number varied ; and from the reign of 
Claudius I. (41-54) it became cus- 
tomary for quaestors, on entering of- 
fice, to give gladiatorial spectacles to 
the people; so that none but the 
wealthiest Romans could aspire to the 
office. 

Quagga, a striped wild horse of 
South Africa, now nearly, if not en- 
tirely extinct. 



Quaker City 

Quail, a small game bird ; the Vir- 
ginia species is common in North Amer- 
ica, and so far south as Honduras. 
It is larger than the European quail, 
and is better eating. The California 
crested quail is another American spe- 
cies. The quail, genus Coturnix, is 
widely distributed over the Eastern 
Hemisphere, visiting Europe in early 
summer and returning 3. in the au- 




QTTAIL : LOPHORTTX CALIFOBNICTTS. 

tumn, when immense numbers are 
caught and fattened for the market. 
Length about seven inches, general 
color reddish-brown, with buff streaks 
on the upper surface ; throat rufous ; 
head, dark brown above, striped with 
ocherous white, sides reddish-brown, 
lower parts pale buff, fading into white 
on belly. Color less bright in the hen 
bird, and the rufous tinge absent from 
the throat. They nest on the ground, 
laying from 9 to 15 pyriform, yellow- 
ish-white eggs, blotdhed with dark- 
i brown. The males are polygamous 
and extremely pugnacious. 

Quaker City, Philadelphia, which 
was planned and colonized by William 
Penn and other members of the So- 
ciety of Friends. 



Quakers 

Quakers. See Friends, Society of. 

Qua mash, the North American 
name of a plant of the lily family with 
an edible bulb. These bulbs are 
much eaten by the Indians, and are 
prepared by baking in a hole dug in 
the ground, then pounding and drying 
them into cakes for future use. 

Quantity, in grammar and pros- 
ody, the measure of a syllable or the 
time in which it is pronounced ; the 
metrical value of syllables as regards 
length or weight in their pronuncia- 
tion. In logic, the extent to which 
the predicate in a proposition is as- 
serted of the subject. 

In mathematics, anything that can 
be increased, diminished, and measur- 
ed. Thus, number is a quantity ; 
time, space, weight, etc., are also 
quantities. In mathematics, quanti- 
ties are represented by symbols, and 
for convenience these symbols them- 
selves are called quantities. In al- 
gebra, quantities are distinguished as 
known and unknown, real and imag- 
inary, constant and variable, rational 
and irrational. Real quantities are 
those which do not involve any opera- 
tion impossible to perform ; variable 
qualities are those which admit of an 
infinite number of values in the same 
expression ; rational quantities are 
those which do not involve any radi- 
cals. 

Quarantine, the period (originally 
40 days) during which a ship coming 
from a port suspected of contagion, 
or having a contagious sickness on 
board, is forbidden intercourse with 
the place at which she arrives. Quar- 
antine was first introduced at Venice 
in the 14th century. It is now re- 
quired to be performed in almost every 
important country except Great Brit- 
ain. By act of the United States 
Congress passed in 1879 national 
quarantine stations were established; 
and it is made a misdemeanor pun- 
ishable by fine or imprisonment, or 
both, for the master, pilot, or owner 
of any vessel entering a port of the 
United States in violation of the act, 
or regulations framed under it. Dur- 
ing the period of quarantine, all the 
goods, clothing, etc., that might be 
supposed capable of retaining infec- 
tion, are subjected to a process of dis- 
infection, which is a most important 
part of the quarantine system. 



Qnartley 

Quarry, a place, pit, or mine where 
stones are dug out of the earth, or are 
separated from the mass of rock by 
blasting. The term mine is generally 
confined to pits or places whence coal 
or metals are taken ; quarry to those 
from which stones for building, etc., 
as marble, slate, etc., are taken. A 
mine is subterranean, and reached by 
a shaft ; in a quarry the overlying 
soil is simply removed. 

Quart, the fourth part of a gallon ; 
two pints ; the United States dry 
quart contains 67.20 cubic inches, the 
fluid quart 57.75 cubic inches; the 
English quart contains 69.3185 cubic 
inches. 

Quarter, a measure of weight, 
equal to the fourth part of a hundred- 
weight i. e., to 28 pounds avoirdu- 
pois. As a measure of capacity, for 
measuring grain, etc., a quarter con- 
tains eight bushels. The common 
American term for twenty-five cents, 
being a quarter of a dollar. 

Quarter Deck, in nautical lan- 
guage, a deck raised above the waist 
and extending from the stern to the 
mainmast. It is especially a priv- 
ileged portion of the deck, being the 
promenade of the superior officers or 
of the cabin passengers. The wind- 
ward side is the place of honor. 

Quartermaster, in military af- 
fairs, an officer who superintends the 
issue of stores, food, and clothing, and 
arranges transportation for a regi- 
ment when necessary. In nautical 
affairs, a petty officer, who, besides 
having charge of the stowage of bal- 
last and provisions, coiling of ropes, 
etc., attends to the steering of the 
ship. He is appointed by the captain. 

Quartermaster-general, in the 
United States a staff-officer with rank 
of Brigadier-General. He is chief 
officer in the quartermaster's depart- 
ment. 

Quartermaster-sergeant, in the 
United States, one whose duty it is 
to assist the quartermaster. 

Quartet, a piece of music arranged 
for four voices or instruments, in 
which all the parts are obligati ; i. e., 
no one can be omitted without injur- 
ing the proper effect of the composi- 
tion. 

Qnartley, Arthur, an American 
artist; born in Paris, May 24, 1839. 



Qnartb 

He came to the United States when a 
boy, and gained a reputation as a 
decorator, but it was not till after 1875 
that he became known as an artist 
of merit. His first picture which 
brought him into notice was very 
large, showing a waste of water beat- 
ing against a rock. It was exhibited 
at the Academy of Design, and belongs 
to Wellesley College. He had a fond- 
ness for wild marine and coast scenes. 
He was elected a National Acade- 
mician in 1886, and died in New York, 
May 24 of that year. 




QUASSIA : BITTEBWOOD. 
a, Fruit. 

Quarto, name of the size of a book 
in which a sheet makes four leaves. 
Frequently abbreviated to 4to. Also 
a book formed by folding a sheet 
twice, making fou T eight 

pages. The term, ^.> usage, 

refers to a book of nearly square 
form. The proportions vary accord- 
ing to the size of the sheets. 

Quartz, in mineralogy, a rhombo- 
hedral or hexagonal mineral, crystal- 
lizing mostly in hexagonal prisms 
with pyramidal terminations. Found 
also massive, and of varying texture. 
Quartz is abundantly distributed, is 



Quay 

an essential constituent of many 
rocks, notably granite, gneiss, various 
schists, and constitutes the larger part 
of mineral veins. Many of its varie- 
ties are largely employed in jewelry. 

Quass, or Qnas, a thin, sour, fer- 
mented liquor, made by pouring warm 
water on rye or barley meal, and 
drunk by the peasants of Russia. 

Quassia, a tree cultivated in the 
West Indies and the parts adjacent. 
It has terminal clusters of large, red 
flowers, and unequally pinnate leaves. 
It comes to this country in logs or 
billets, and is retained as chips or 
raspings. It is given as an extract, 
an infusion, or a tincture. An infu- 
sion of it is used to poison flies. 

Quaternary, or Post-Tertiary, 
the fourth great division of the fossil- 
iferous strata, which embraces the 
Pleistocene or Glacial and Post-glacial 
and Recent systems. 

Qnatref oil, in architecture, a 
piercing or panel divided by cusps or 
foliations into four leaves, or more 
correctly the leaf-shaped figure form- 
ed by the cusps. The name is also 
given to flowers and leaves of a simi- 
lar form carved as ornaments on mold- 
ings, etc. It differs from the cinque- 
foil only in the number of cusps. 
In heraldry, four-leaved grass ; a fre- 
quent bearing in coat-armor; 

Quay, a landing place; a wharf 
projecting into a stream, harbor, or 
basin, to which vessels are moored 
for the purpose of receiving and deliv- 
ering freight. 





QUATREFOIL 
IN ARCHITECTURE 



QUATREFOIL 
IN HERALDRY. 



Quay, Matthew Stanley, an 

American legislator ; born in Dills- 
burg, Pa., Sept. 30, 1833; was grad- 
uated at Jefferson College in 1850, 
and admitted to the bar in 1854; en- 
tered the Union army in 1861 and 
won distinction ; was promoted lieu- 



Quebec 

tenant-colonel and assistant commis- 
sary general ; received a congressional 
medal of honor for exceptional serv- 
ice; became State treasurer of Penn- 
pylvania in 1885 ; and was a United 
States Senator in 1887-1899. Early 
in the latter year he was placed on 
trial on charges of misappropriation 
of public funds, and on April 21 was 
acquitted. Governor Stone appointed 
him United States Senator ad interim 
on the same day, and in January, 
1901, he was reelected to the United 
States Senate to fill out the vacant 
term caused by the failure of the Leg- 
islature to elect a Senator in January, 
1899. He died May 28, 1904. 

Quebec, a province of the Dominion 
of Canada, formerly called Canada 
East; bounded on the N. by Labra- 
dor and Hudson Bay; on the E. by 
Labrador and the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence ; on the S. by New Brunswick, 
Chaleurs Bay, Maine, New Hamp- 
shire, Vermont, and New York ; on 
the S. W. and W. by the province of 
Ontario; gross area, 347,350 square 
miles; pop. (1910) 2,124,834; capital, 
.(Quebec. The surface of the prov- 
ince is varied, being diversified by 
mountains, rivers, lakes, and exten- 
sive forests. The chief river is the 
St. Lawrence, which flows through 
the entire length of the province. The 
climate is variable, though salubrious, 
the temperature ranging from 20 be- 
low zero in winter to 90 in summer. 

The mineral wealth is undeveloped, 
but is said to be invaluable. Copper 
is mined in Brome and Megantic coun- 
ties; gold in Beauce; iron ore in St. 
Maurice; and nickel in Pontiac. The 
other mineral productions include as- 
bestos, apatite, plumbago, mica, slate- 
stone, etc. 

The soil is generally fertile and is 
chiefly cultivated near the rivers. 
About half of the population of Que- 
bec is engaged in agriculture. The 
chief products include maize, buck- 
wheat, tobacco, peas, turnips, barley, 
wheat, oats, potatoes, and hay. But 
little of the forest wealth, whioh is 
considerable, has been developed. 
Spruce and pine are exported and the 
other forest products include ash, 
cedar, cherry, oak, elm, maple, birch, 
and beech. Cattle, horses, swine, and 
Sheep are the principal domestic ani- 
mals. The fisheries are extensive. 



Queen 

The affairs of the province are ad- 
ministered by a Lieutenant-Governor, 
appointed by the Governor-General of 
Canada, assisted by a responsible ex- 
ecutive council. There are two 
Chambers, the Legislative Council, 
composed of 24 members who hold 
their appointments for life, and a 
Legislative Assembly, which has 74 
members, elected by the people foi 
five years. The city of Quebec was 
founded by Champlain in 1608, who 
later established trading stations and 
torts at various places. The French 
governed Quebec till 1759, when 
General Wolfe won the battles of the 
Plains of Abraham, and the English 
gained control. Prior to 1841 Quebec 
was called Lower Canada, but in 
that year it was united to Upper 
Canada. It was made a province of 
the Dominion of Canada in 1867 by 
the Act of Confederation. 

Quebec, city and capital of Que- 
bec county and of the Province of 
Quebec, Canada; on the St. Law- 
rence river and several trunk line 
railroads; 180 miles N. E. of Mon- 
treal; is the third city in size and 
importance in the Dominion; is a 
port of entry, with an extensive com- 
merce, especially in lumber; has 
large shipyards and many manufac- 
tories; and is particularly rich in his- 
torical associations and features. The 
city has a picturesqe site, 'on a high 
tableland; is in a highly productive 
farming section; and is a strongly- 
fortified military post. There are 
Anglican and Roman Catholic cathe- 
drals, Laval University, the Church 
of Notre Dame des Victoires (1688), 
Champlain Marktt, large drill hall, 
Auditorium, Seminary of Quebec, 
.Morrin College, Grey Nunnery, Can- 
adian Institute, General and Joffery 
Hale hospitals, and many charitable 
and benevolent institutions. The 
New Park, on the Plains of Abra- 
ham, contains a monument to Gen- 
eral Wolfe; Victoria Park has a 
monument to the late Queen; and the 
Esplanade has a monument to the 
soldiors who fell in the South Afri- 
can War. 

Queen, a female who is chief or 
preeminent among others; one who 
presides; as, the queen of beauty, the 
queen of love, etc. In cards, a card 
on which a queen is depicted. In 



Queen Anne's Bounty 



Qnesada 



chess, the most powerful and, after 
the king, the most important of all 
the pieces in a set of chessmen. 

Queen Anne's Bounty, the name 
given to a fund appropriated to in- 
crease the income of the poorer 
clergy of England, created out of the 
first fruits and tenths. 

Queen Bee, in entomology, a fully 
developed female bee in a hive or nest. 
She lays 2,000 or 3,000 eggs daily 
during the height of summer, or more 
than 1,000,000 during her lifetime, 
which is about five years. When a 
young queen comes forth, the old one 
becomes agitated with jealousy, and 
ultimately quits the hive, surrounded 
by a great multitude of workers, who 
found a new colony, leaving the old 
hive to the possession of the youthful 
rival. Two days to a week after 
coming to maturity, the young queen 
temporarily flies forth, and is fertil- 
ized in the air. See BEE. 

Queen Charlotte's Islands, a 
group to the N. of Vancouver Island, 
off the coast of British Columbia ; 
area, 5,100 square miles. The two 
principal islands, Graham and Mores- 
by, have a length of 160 and a great- 
est breadth of nearly 70 miles. The 
climate is healthy, but very rainy. 
Anthracite coal, copper and iron ore, 
and gold bearing quartz have been 
found, and forests abound. The in- 
habitants are about 2,000 Indians, 
who engage in fishing. Queen Char- 
lotte's Sound is a strait separating 
Vancouver Island on the N. from the 
mainland. 

Queen's College, for women, was 
established in London, in 1848, and 
incorporated by royal charter in 1833. 
Its aim is to provide for the higher 
education of women, in the first place 
by a liberal school training, and sub- 
sequently by a six years' course of 
college education. 

Queensland, an Australian state, 
comprising the whole N. E. portion of 
Australia N. of New South Wales 
and E. of South Australia and its 
Northern Territory, being elsewhere 
bounded by the Gulf of Carpentaria, 
Torres Strait, and the Pacific. A 
considerable portion is thus within 
the tropics, the extreme N. part form- 
ing a sort of peninsula, known as 
York Peninsula. It has an area of 



about 668,497 square miles; pop. 
(1910) 592,000; and is divided into 
12 large districts. 

There are many kinds of valuable 
timber trees, and a rare thing in Aus- 
tralia, a few good indigenous fruits. 
Sheep farming is the chief industry, 
but agriculture (including sugar- 
growing), cattle rearing, and mining 
are also important. The soil and cli- 
mate are well suited for the produc- 
tion of all the ordinary cereals, as 
well as maize, tobacco, coffee, sugar, 
cotton, etc. The chief products are 
sugar, maize, Irish and sweet pota- 
toes, arrow root, and semi-tropical 
fruits. Sugar growing is becoming a 
very important industry. Gold, tin, 
lead, and copper are the principal min- 
erals. The gold fields extend over an 
area of 15,000 square miles, and em- 
ploy about 9,500 miners. 

The first settlement of Queensland 
took place in 1825, when the territory 
was used as a place of transportation 
for convicts, who continued to be sent 
there till 1839. In 1842 the country 
was opened to free settlers. It was 
originally a part of New South Wales, 
and was organized as a separate col- 
ony in 1859, The government of the 
state is vested in a governor, who is 
the crown's representative, and a Par- 
liament of two houses, the legislative 
council and the 'legislative assembly. 
The council consists of 39 members 
appointed by the crown for life, and 
the assembly of 72 members elected by 
the people for five years, and repre- 
senting GO electoral districts. The 
capital of the state is Brisbane. In 
January, 1896, a disastrous flood 
caused great loss of life and property 
in Brisbane and Northern Queens- 
land. 

Quelpart, an island 60 miles off 
the S. coast of Korea ; about 40 miles 
long by 17 broad. It is rock-bound 
and mountainous, the volcanic Mount 
Auckland being 6,500 feet high. It 
has fertile soil and good timber, and 
is populous. 

Qnesada, Gonzalo de, a Cuban 
patriot and diplomatist ; born in Ha- 
vana, Cuba, Dec. 15, 1868; was grad- 
uated at the College of the City of 
New York in 1888; was secretary of 
the Cuban revolutionary party and 
associated with Jose Marti in the 
struggle for Cuban independence. In 



Quesiiay 

1900 he was the special commissioner 
of Cuba to the United States, and also 
to the Paris Exposition ; in 1901 was 
a member of the Cuban Constitutional 
Convention and in the same year was 
appointed a chevalier of the Legion of 
Honor of France. He " published 
" Patriotism " ; " History of Free 
Cuba " ; etc. He is now Cuban Min- 
ister to the United States. 

Quesnay, Francois, a French phy- 
sician and economist ; born near 
Paris, France, June 4, 1694. He was 
the founder of the school of econo- 
mists called Physiocrats, and very in- 
fluential on Adam Smith and all mod- 
ern political economy. He published 
several medical works, in addition to 
his more famous ones on political 
economy. He died Dec. 16, 1774. 

Que