EVERY BOY'S BOOK
A COMPLETE ENCYCLOPEDIA
SPORTS AND AMUSEMENTS.
EDITED BY
EDMUND ROUTLEDGE.
FROM ORIGINAL DESIGNS.
LONDON :
GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS,
THE BROADWAY, LUDGATE.
NEW YORK : 416, BROOME STREET.
1869.
A^
B. Clay, Son, and Taylor, Printers,
Bread Street Hill, Loncbn.
EDITOE'S PEEFACE.
The twelve years that have passed since the first edition of Every
Boy's Book was published, have brought so many changes in our
national sports and pastimes, and have seen the introduction of so
many new games, that it has been thought desirable to remodel tliis
work, in order to bring it down to the requirements of the present
time. In carrying out this plan effectually. Every Boy's Book has
been almost entirely rewritten ; and scarcely anything now remains
of the old work except the title.
All the articles that were in the former edition have been
thoroughly revised, and papers on Boxing, Canoeing, Croquet,
Eives, Golf, Rackets, Sliding, Billiards, Bagatelle, Dominoes, Spec-
trum Analysis, Canaries, Hedgehogs, Jackdaws, Jays, Magpies,
Owls, Parrots, Ravens, Boats, Cryptography, Deaf and Dumb
Alphabet, Dominoes, Mimicry and Ventriloquism, Shows, Stamp
Collecting, and TinseUing, appear now for the first time.
In carrying out this work much valuable assistance has been given
by Professor Pepper, the Rev. J. G. Wood, W. B. Tegetmeier,
Clement Scott, Sidney Daryl, J. T. Burgess. Dr. Viner, Thomas
Archer, "W. Robinson of the Field, Cholmondeley Pennell, and other
well-known writers on sports.
The articles at the end of this work on American Billiards,
Base Ball, and the Canadian sport of La Crosse, have been con-
tributed by Henry Chadwick, the leading authority on these games
in America.
Christmas, 1868,
PEEFACE TO THE ORIGmAL EDITIOK
It would be impossible for a single author to produce a book of
this description with a fair prospect of success, because it necessarily
treats of many subjects ; and a perfect acquaintance with some of
the more important would occupy a lifetime. The reading and re-
searches of one man would not be sufficiently extensive to embrace
the rich variety of the materials required. Being fully convinced of
this fact, the Publishers have endeavoured to obtain the aid of the
most distinguished writers in the various departments of knowledge
which the following pages are intended to illustrate. Thus each
contributor, in furnishing his quota of information for the work, has
been engaged in a congenial task, one best suited to his pecuHar turn
of mind, as well as to his individual acquirements, and one upon
which he could, therefore, with the greatest ease and accuracy dilate.
This brief explanation will show in what spirit the Pubhshers em-
barked in the undertaking ; and the accompanying list of the writers
may be received as a proof that they have succeeded in securing the
services of the most competent authorities. With that portion of
the book with which he was practically acquainted each of the
following gentlemen has dealt : W. Martin, Esq., C. Baker, Esq.,
E. B. Wormald, Esq., J. F. Wood, Esq., A. McLaren, Esq., Stone-
henge, author of " Eural Sports," and the Eev. J. G. Wood, author
of several works on Natural History, who also furnished some of the
designs. The remaining illustrations are by William Harvey and
Harrison Weir ; and the credit for the able manner in which they
have been engraved is due to the brothers Dalziel.
2, Farkingdon Stbeet,
February, 1856.
CONTENTS.
PAET I.
EASY GAMES WITHOUT TOYS.
OUTDOOR.
PAGE
Hop, Step, and Jump 1
Hopping on the Bottle 2
Hop-Scotch 2
French and English ...... 3
Drawing the Oven 4
I Spy 4
Pitch-Stone 3
Duck-Stone 5
Prisoner's Base, or Prison Bars . . 5
Fox 7
Baste the Bear 7
Leap-Frog 8
Fly the Garter 8
Spanish Fly 9
Touch 10
Touch- Wood and Touch-Iron . 10
Buck, Buck, how many Horns do I
holdup?
Warning 10
Follow my Leader 11
The Fugleman 11
Hare and Hounds 11
Steeple Chase 13
Duck and Drake 13
10
PAGE
Simon Says 14
King of the Castle 14
Battle for the Banner 14
Snow-Balls 15
Snow Castle 16
Snow Giant 17
Jack ! Jack ! show a Light 1 ... IS
Jingling 19
Jump little Nag-tail ! 19
Jumping Rope 20
My Grandmother's Clock .... 20
Rushing Bases 21
See-saw 21
Thread the Needle 22
Tom Tiddler's Ground 22
Two to One 22
Walk, Moon, Walk ! 22
Want a day's work ? 23
Will you 'List? 23
Whoop ! 24
High Barbaree ! 24
Bull in the Ring 24
Cock Fight 25
Dropping the Handkerchief ... 25
INDOOR.
Blind Man's Buff
Bob-Cherrj'
Buff
Concert
Consequences
Cross Questions & Crooked Answers
Dumb Motions
Family Coach
Frog in the Middle
The Four Elements
Hand
Hot Boiled Beans
Hot Cockles
How? Where? and When? . . .
Hunt the Slipper 33
Hunt the Ring 33
Hunt the Whistle 33
Magic Music 34
Post 34
Proverbs 35
Puss in the Corner 86
Red- Cap and Black-Cap .... 36
Shadow Buff 37
Slate Games 37
Trades 40
Trussed Fowls 40
The Two Hats 40
What id my Thought like ? ... 41
vm
CONTENTS.
EASY GAMES WITH TOYS.
OUTDOOR.
PAaE
BALLS 43
Catch Ball 43
Doutee-Stool 43
Egg-Hat 44
Feeder 44
Monday, Tuesday 45
Nine-Holes 46
Northern Spell 46
Rounders 46
Sevens 48
Stool-Ball 48
Trap, Bat, and Ball 48
HOOPS ■ . . 49
Encounters 50
Hoop Race 51
Posting 51
Tournament 52
Turnpike 52
KITES 53
How to make a Kite 53
Flying the Kite 54
Messengers 55
Calico Kites 65
Fancy Kites 55
MARBLES 67
Bounce Eye 58
Conqueror 68
Die Shot 58
Eggs in the Bush 59
Increase Pound 59
Knock out, or Lag out 59
Long Taw 60
Nine-Holes, or Bridge Board ... 60
PAGE
Odd or Even 61
Picking the Plums 61
The Pyramid 61
Ring Taw 61
Spans and Snops, and Boimce
Ahout 62
Teetotum Shot 62
Three-Holes 62
Tipshares, or Handers 63
TOPS 64
The Humming-top 64
Peg-top 65
Spanish Peg-top 65
The Whip-top 65
Chip-stone 66
Peg-in-the-Ring 66
MISCELLANEOUS TOTS ... 68
The Apple Mill 68
Aunt Sally 68
Baton 69
Cat 69
Cat and Mouse 70
Knock-'em-down 71
Pea-shooters 71
Quoits 71
Nine-pins 72
Skittles 72
Dutch-pins 73
Throwing the Hammer 73
The Boomerang 74
The Skip-jack, or Jump-jack ... 74
The Sling 74
Walking on Stilts 76
The Sucker 76
INDOOR.
Battledore and Shuttlecock ... 78
Bandilor 79
Cup and Ball 79
The Cutwater 79
Fox and Geese 80
Goose 81
Head, Body, and Legs 81
Knuckle-hones 82
MereUes, or Nine Men's Morris . . 83
Paper Dart 83
The Popgun 84
Push-pin 84
Schimmel 84
Spelicans 86
CONTENTS.
PAET 11.
ATHLETIC SPORTS AND MANLY EXERCISES.
PAGE
ANGLING 89
A Word about Fish 90
About the Rod 91
Choosing the Rod 91
Lines or Bottoms 92
Shotting the Line 93
The Float 93
Reels or Winches 91
Reel Lines 94
Hooks 94
How to bait a Hook 95
Baits 95
To Bait -with Greaves 97
To Scour and Preserve Worms . . 97
The Plummet 97
Plumbing the Depth 97
Landing-hook and Landing-net . . 98
Clearing Ring and Line .... 98
Drag-hook 98
Bank Runner 98
Live-bait Kettle 99
Disgorger 99
Angling Axioms 99
Salmon 100
Trout 100
Jack or Pike 101
Gudgeon 103
Roach 104
Dace 105
Perch 106
Grayling 107
Chub 108
Carp 109
Tench HO
Pope, or RuflF HO
Bream . . . . ' HI
Flounder HI
Eels ; H2
Stickleback and Minnow .... 113
Barbel 114
Natural Fly-fishing, or Dipping '. [ 115
Fly-fishing and Artificial Flies , . 115
Materials for making Flies . . .115
ARCHERY 121
The Long-bow 122
The Cross-bow 122
Feats of the Bow .....'"..' 123
Length of Bows and Arrows, and
how used in Ancient Times . . 124
Marks for Shooting at ... . 124
Equipment for Archery . . . .' 125
Ancient Directions for Archery . '. 125
Decline of Archery 125
PAGE
Modem Archery 126
The Bow 126
The String 126
Stringing the Bow 127
The Arrows 127
The Quiver 128
The Tassel, Brace, Belt, and Pouch 128
Shooting Glove, and Grease Pot . 129
The Target 129
Butts 130
How to draw the Bow 130
Flight Shooting 131
Clout Shooting 131
Roving 131
General Hints for Archers . . .132
BOXING 133
CANOES AND CANOEING . . 140
CRICKET 143
The Bat 145
The Ball 145
The Stumps 145
Pads or Guards .146
Batting Gloves 147
Wicket-keeping Gloves 148
The Laws of Cricket 148
Single Wicket 152
The Batsman.— Hints to Young
Players 153
Fielding 159
Bowling 162
The Wicket-keeper 165
Long-stop 166
Point 166
Short-slip 166
Cover-point 167
Long-slip 167
Long-on 167
Long-off 167
Leg 167
Mid-wicket on and off 167
Third Man up 167
Diagram I.— Fast Round-arm Bowl-
ing 168
Diagram II. — Medium Pace Round-
arm Bowling 169
Diagram III.— Slow Under-hand-
hand Bowling 169
CROQUET.— Materials of the Game 170
The Mallets 170
The Balls 171
CONTENTS.
PAGE
The Hoops 171
Tlie Posts 172
Clips 172
Marking Board 173
Tunnel 173
The Cage 173
A Croquet Stand 174
How the Game is played . . • .174
Diagram, No. 1 177
„ „ II 178
„ „ III 179
„ IV 180
Rules 181
Striking 181
Order of Playing 181
The Croquet 182
The Posts 185
The Rover 185
Hints to Young Players .... 186
DRIVING 192
Introduction 192
The Horse in Harness 193
The Horse 194
The Harness 194
The Carriage 195
The Britzschaka 195
New Brougham 196
The Family Coach 196
Putting to 196
Directions for Driving 196
FENCING 198
The Guard 199
Advance 200
Retreat 201
The Longe 201
The Recover 201
The Engage 202
Parades 202
Quarte 203
Tierce 203
Seconde 205
DemiCercle 205
Octave 206
Contre-Parades 206
Attacks £07
The Straight Thrust 207
The Disengagement 207
The One-Two 208
The Beat and Thrust 2! 8
The Beat and Disengagement . . 208
Cut over tlie Point 208
Cut over the Disengagement . . . 208
Double 209
All Feints 209
The Assault 209
General Advice 210
Broadswords 210
Positions 211
Target 212
Cuts and Guards 213
Cuts 213
Points 214
Guards 215
PAGB
Parry 215
Hanging Guard 216
Inside Guard 216
Outside Guard 217
Attack and Defence 217
Draw Swords .218
Recover Swords 219
Can-y Swords 219
Slope Swords 219
Return Swords 219
l^ractices 220
Second Practice 220
Third Practice 220
Fourth Practice 221
Fifth Practice 221
Fort and Feeble 222
Drawing Cut 222
General Advice 222
FIVES 223
FOOT-BALL 224
GOLFING 226
GYMNASTICS 228
Introduction 228
Historical Memoranda 229
Modern Gymnastics 230
Walking 230
The Tip-toe March 231
Running 232
Jumping 232
Leaping 233
To climb up a Board . . . . 234
Climbing the Pole 234
,, ,, Rope 235
„ Trees 235
The Giant Stride, or Flying Steps,
and its capabilities 235
Parallel Bars 241
The Horizontal Bar 243
The Horse 246
Tlie Swing 249
Throwing the Javelin 253
Tiie Tiapeze, Single and Double . 254
Tricks and Feats oT Gymnastics . 262
HOCKEY 265
RACKETS 268
RIDING 270
The Horse 271
The Marks of Age in the Horse . . 271
The Paces of the Horse . . . .272
Terms used by Horsemen. . . . 274
Form of the Horse 274
Varieties of the Horse suitable for
Boys 274
The Accoutrements and Aids . . 275
Mounting 277
Dismounting 278
The Management of the Reins . . 278
The Seat 279
CONTENTS.
XI
PAGE
Tlie Control of the Horse .... 280
Management of the Walk . . . . 2S0
The Trot and Canter 281
The Management of the Gallop . . 282
Leaping 282
Treatment of Vices 284
ROWING 288
Historical Memoranda 288
Construction of Ancient Ships and
Galleys 289
Roman Galleys, Ships, &c, . . . 290
Of Boats 291
The Component Parts of Boats . . 292
The Oars and Sculls 293
Sea Rowing 293
River Rowing 293
Management of the Oar .... 294
The Essential Points in Rowing . 205
Management of the Boat .... 295
Rowing together 296
Caution to Young Rowers . . . .296
SAILING 297
Characters of a Yacht 301
Various kinds of Yaelits .... 302
Description of tlie Cutter Yacht . 303
Construction of the Hull .... 303
Something about the Masts, Spars,
Ropes, &c 306
Sailing a Yacht 308
Bringing up 310
Making Snug 310
Going back 310
Jibing 310
Bringing up at Moorings .... 310
Of the Mariners' Compass, and
various Nautical Terms .... 311
Caiitions and Directions .... 312
Nautical Terms 312
SKATING 316
The Skate 317
Putting on the Skates 318
PAQB
How to start upon the Inside Edge 319
Movement on the Outside Edge. . 319
Forward Roll fiiO
The Dutch Roll 320
The Figure of Eight 321
The Figure of Three 321
The Back Roll 321
General Directions to be followed
by Persons learning to Skate . 322
SLIDING 323
SWIMMING 325
Places and Times for Bathing and
Swimming 327
Entering the Water 328
Aids to Swimming 328
Strikingoff and Swimming . . .329
How to manage the Legs .... 330
Plunging and Diving 330
Swimming under Water .... 331
Swimming on the Side . . . .332
Swiniming on the Back without em-
ploying the Feet 332
Floating 333
Treading Water 333
The Fling 333
Swimming on the Back .... 334
Thrusting 334
The Double Thrust 335
To Swim like a Dog 335
The Mill 335
The Wheel backwards and forwards 335
To Swim with one Hand .... 336
Hand over Hand Swimming . . . 336
Balancing 336
The Cramp 337
Saving from Danger 337
Sports and Feats in Swimming . . 838
Bemardi's system of Upright Swim-
ing 338
The Prussian System of Pfuel . . 339
TRAINING 342
PART III.
SCIENTIFIC PURSUITS.
ACOUSTICS 347
Difference between Sound and
Noise 347
Sounds, how propagated .... 347
To show how Sound travels through
a Solid 347
To show that Sound depends on
Vibration 347
Musical Figures resulting from
Sound 347
To make an ^olian Harp .... 348
The Invisible Girl 348
Ventriloquism 349
AERONAUTICS 350
Balloons 350
How to make an Air-balloon . . . 351
How to Fill a Balloon 352
To make Fire-Balloons .... 352
Parachutes 352
xu
CONTENTS.
PA.GE
CHEMISTRY 353
Gases 357
Oxygen Gas 358
Experiments 359
Nitrogen 360
Experiments 361
Atmospheric Air 362
Hydrogen 364
Experiments 364
Water 365
Experiment 366
Chlorine 367
Experiments 368
Muriatic Acid Gas, or Hydric
Chloride 369
Experiments 370
Iodine 371
Experiments 371
Bromine 371
Experiments 371
Fluorine 372
Experiment 372
Carbon 372
Experiments 373
Carbon and Hydrogen 374
Experiment 375
Coal Gas 376
Experiment 376
Phosphorus 377
Experiments 377
Sulphur 378
Metals 379
Potassium 381
Experiments .... 381, 382, 383
Crystallization of Metals .... 383
Experiment 383
To form a Solid from two Liquids . 384
To form a Liquid from two Solids . 384
Experiments 384
Changes of Colour produced by
Colourless Liquids 385
ELECTRICITY 386
Simple Means of producing Elec-
tricity 386
Attraction and Repulsion exhibited 387
How to make an Electrical Machine 388
The Conductor 389
The Plate Electrical Machine . . 389
How to draw Sparks from the tip of
the Nose 389
How to charge a Leyden Jar . . 390
The Electrical Battery 890
Dancing Balls and Dolls . . . .391
The Electrical Kiss 391
Ringing Bells 391
Working Power of Electricity^ . . 392
The Electrified Wig 392
Imitation Thunder Clouds .... 393
The Lightning Stroke imitated . . 393
The Sportsman 894
GALVANISM, or Voltaic Elec-
tricity ......... 395
Origin of Galvanism 395
PAGE
Simple Experiment to excite Gal-
vanic Action 396
With Metal Plates in Water . . .396
To make a Magnet by the Voltaic
Current 397
Effects of Galvanism on a Magnet . 397
Change of Colour by Galvanism . . 397
The Galvanic Shock 398
The Electrotype 398
How to make an Electrotype
Apparatus 398
To obtain the Copy of a Coin or
Medal 399
HEAT 399
Heat or Caloric 399
Expansion 402
HYDRAULICS 404
The Syphon 405
The Pump 405
The Hydraulic Dancer 406
The Water Snail or Archimedean
Screw .407
MAGNETISM 408
Relation of Magnetism to Electricity 408
To make Artificial Magnets . . . 409
How to Magnetise a Poker . . .409
To show Magnetic Repulsion and
Attraction 409
North and South Poles of the Magnet 410
Polarity of the Magnet 410
The Magnetic Fish 410
„ Swan 411
To suspend a Needle in the Air by
Magnetism 411
To make Artificial Magnets without
the aid either of Natural Load-
stones or Artificial Magnets . . 411
Horse-shoe Magnets 412
Experiment to show that soft Iron
possesses Magnetic Properties
while it remains in the vicinity of
a Magnet 412
Electro-Magnetism 413
Power of the Electro-Magnet . . .418
The Mariner's Compass, and Ex-
periments with a Pocket Compass 413
Variation of the Needle 414
Dip of the Needle 414
Useful Amusement with the Pocket
Compass 414
Interesting Paiiiculars concerning
the Magnet 415
MECHANICS 417
Experiment of the Law of Motion . 417
Balancing 418
The Prancing Horse 418
To construct a Figure, which being
placed upon a curved surface and
inclined in any position, shall,
when left to itself, return to its
fonner position 418
CONTENTS.
xm
PAGE
To make a Carriage run in an in-
verted position without falling . 418
To cause a Cylinder to roll by its
own weight up-hill 418
The Balanced Stick 419
The Chinese Mandarin 419
To make a Shilling turn on its edge
on the point of a Needle . . . 419
The Dancing Pea 420
Obliquity of Motion 420
The Bridge of Knives 421
The Toper's Tripod 421
THE MICEOSCOPE 422
The Compound Microscope . . . 432
OPTICS AND OPTICAL AMUSE-
MENTS 455
Light as an Efifect 455
Refraction 456
The Invisible Coin made Visible . 456
Tlie Multiplying Glass 457
Transparent Bodies 457
The Prism 457
Composition of Light 457
A Natural Camera Obscura . . . 458
Bullock's-eye Experiment .... 458
The Camera Obscura 458
The Camera Lucida 459
The Magic Lantern 460
Painting the Slides 460
To exhibit the Magic Lantern . . 461
Effects of the Magic Lantern . . . 461
Tempest at Sea 461
The Phantasmagoria 462
Dissolving Views 462
How to raise a Ghost 462
The Thaumatrope 463
The Bird in the Cage 463
Construction of the Phautasmacope 464
Curious Optical Illusions . . 464, 465
The Picture in the Air 465
PAGE
Breathing Light and Darkness . . 460
To show that Rays of Light do not
obstruct each other 466
Optics of a Soap-bubble .... 467
The Kaleidoscope 467
Simple Solar Microscope .... 468
Anamorphoses 468
The Cosmorama 470
Distorted Landscapes 470
PHOTOGRAPHY 472
How to make the Negative on Glass,
using Collodion bromoiodized for
Iron development 472
PNEUMATICS 477
Weight of the Air proved by a pair
of Bellows 477
The Pressure of the Air shown by a
Wine-glass 478
Another Experiment 478
Elasticity of the Air 478
Reason for this 479
The Air-Pump 479
To prove that Air has Weight . . 479
To prove Air elastic 480
Sovereign and Feather 480
Air in the Egg 480
The Descending Smoke 480
The Soundless BeU 481
The Floating Fish 481
The Diving Bell 482
Experiments .... 482, 484, 485
With Ice or Snow 485
Without Snow or Ice 485
SPECTRUM ANALYSIS .... 486
How to use the Spectroscope . . 488
To obtain the Bright Lines in the
Spectrum given by any substance 488
Professor Stokes' Absorption Bands 489
To Map out any Spectrum . . .489
PART IV.
BEES AND BEE-KEEPING . . 493
THE CANARY 497
DOGS 506
GOLD AND SILVER FISH . .516
517
Feeding 617
Diseases 517
THE GUINEA PIG 518
THE HEDGEHOG 620
DOMESTIC PETS.
THE JACKDAW 521
THE JAY 523
THE MAGPIE 524
OWLS 526
THE PARROT 532
PIGEONS 541
Varieties of Pigeons 545
Blue Rock Dove 545
The Antwerp, or Smerle .... 546
XIV
CONTENTS.
PAGE
The Pouter 547
The Carrier 548
The Diagon 549
The Tumbler 549
The Barb 550
The Owl 551
TheTurbit 551
The Fantail 551
The Trumpeter 552
The Jauobin 553
POULTRY 554
Fowls 554
Fattening 555
Laying 555
Hatching 555
Rearing of Chickens 556
PAOK
The Pintado, or Guinea Fowl . . 557
Ducks 558
THE RABBIT 560
THE RAVEN 570
SILKWORMS 574
Food of the Silkworm 576
Hatching, Feeding, and Temperature 576
Moultings 577
The Cocoon 577
TheAurelia 578
Winding the Silk 578
The Moth 578
General Remarks 579
THE SQUIRREL 580
WHITE MICE 587
PART V.
MISCELLANEOUS.
BAGATELLE 591
English Bagatelle 591
The French Game 591
Sans Egal 591
Tlie Caunon Game 592
Mississippi 592
BILLIARDS 59b
The Angles of the Table . . . . 597
The American Game 602
Pyramids, or Pyramid Pool . . . 602
Winning and Losing Carambole
Game 602
Pool 603
Italian Skittle Pool 604
BOAT-BUILDING 605
Cutter 606
Smack 607
Schooner 607
Lugger 608
CARPENTERING 609
The Shop and Bench 609
Of Planes 610
Saws 611
The Spoke Shave 61 ;
Stock and Bits 613
How to make a Wheelbarrow . . 613
The Way to make a Box . . . .615
To cut the Dovetails 615
The Bottom of the Box .... 616
THE GAME OF CHESS .... 617
The Laws of the Game 618
The King's Knight s opening . . . 6-20
Game I.— Philidor's Defence. . .621
„ IL— Petroff's „ . . 622
Variation A. on White's 5th Move . 622
Game III.— The Giuoco Piano . . 622
Variation A. on White's 6th Move . 622
Game IV.— The Evans' Gambit . . 623
Variation A. on White's 9th Move . 623
B. ,, „ „ . 624
„ A. on Black's 10th Move 624
The Gambit declined 625
Game V. — Ruy Lopez Knight's
Game 626
Variation B. on Black's 3rd Move . 627
C. ,, „ „ . 627
Game VI.— The Scotch Gambit . . 627
Variation A. on Black's 4th Move . 628
The King's Bishop's Opening . . 630
Game I. — I'he Lopez Gambit . . . 630
Variation A. on White's 4th Move . 631
Game II. -The Double Gambit . . 631
Game III 631
Variation A. on Black's 4th Move . 632
Tlie King's Gambit 632
Game 1 632
The Salvio Gambit 633
Variation A. on Black's 4th Move . 633
Game II. — The Muzio Gambit . . 633
Game I. - The Allgaier Gambit . . 635
Game II -635
Game I.— The Bishop's Gambit . . 636
Game II 636
I'he Gambit refused 638
Game 1 638
Game II 639
The Centre Gambit 639
Game I . .639
Variation A. on Black's 3rd Move . 640
Game II 640
The Queen's Gambit 641
Game 1 641
CONTENTS.
XV
PAGE
Variation A. on Black's 3rd Move . 041
Game II 642
THE YOUNG CONJURER ... 643
Sleight of Hand 645
The Flying Shilling 645
Another Method 646
The Beads and Strings 646
To gt't a Ring ont of a Handkerchief 647
To tie a Knot in a Handkerchief
which cannot be drawn tight . . 647
The Three Cups 648
To tie a Handkerchief round your
Leg, and get it off without untying
the Knot 64S
The Magic Bond 64')
The Old Man and his Chair ... 649
To tie a Knot on the Left Wrist
without letting the Right Hand
approach it 651
The Handcuffs 651
To pull a String through your
Button-hole 652
The Cut String restored .... 652
The Gordian Knot 653
The Knot loosened 653
To put Nuts into your Ear . . .654
To crack Walnuts on your Elbow . 654
To take Feathers out of an empty
Handkerchief 654
Tricks requiring Special Apparatus 654
The Die Trick 655
The Penetrative Pence 656
The Doll Trick 657
The Flving Coins 057
The Vanished Groat 658
The Restored Document .... 658
The Magic Rings 65S
The Fish and Ink Trick .... 059
The Cannon Balls 659
The Shilling in the Ball of Cotton . 660
The Egg and Bag Trick 660
The Dancing Egg 661
Bell and Shot 661
The Burned Handkerchief restored G02
The FireEater 002
Tricks with Cards 663
To make the Pass 063
To t:dl a Card by its Back .... 664
The C:ir(l named without beingSeen 664
The Card told by the Opera Glass . 664
The Four Kings 606
Aud icity 606
The Curd found at the Second Guess 000
The Canl found under the Hat . , 667
To c ill the Cards out of the Pack . 667
Hea is and Tails 667
The Surprise 668
The Revolution 608
The Slipped Card 008
The Nailed Card 608
To ascertain the Number of Points
on three Unseen Cards .... 669
To tell the Numbers on two Unseen
Cards 669
PAOB
The Pairs repaired 669
The Queen digging for Diamonds . 670
The Triple Deal 070
The Quadruple Deal 671
Tricks with Cards that require Ap-
paratus 671
The Cards in the Vase 671
The Metamorphosis 672
To change a Card in a Person's
Hand 673
CRYPTOGRAPHY 074
THE DEAF AND DUMB
ALPHABET 682
The Alphabet 682
The Numbers 685
DOMINOES 685
The ordinary Boy's Game .... 686
All Fives 687
The Matadore Game 687
All Threes 687
Tidley-Wink 688
The Fortress 688
Whist Dominoes 688
DRAUGHTS ........ 689
How lO jilay the Game 690
The Moves 090
Laws of the Game 090
Games for Practice 691
Game 1 691
Game II 692
FIREWORKS 693
Gunpowder 693
How to make Touch-paper . . . 694
Cases for Squibs, Flower-pots,
Rockets, Roman Candles, &c. . 694
To choke the Cases 094
Composition for Squibs, &c. . . 694
How to till the Cases 695
To make Crackers 695
Roman Candles and Stars .... 695
Rockets 090
Rains 096
Catherine Wheels 096
Various Coloured Fires .... 0;)6
Crimson Fire 696
Blue „ 697
Green „ 097
Purple „ 097
White „ 097
Spur „ 097
Blue Lights 697
Port or Wild Fires 697
Slow Fire for Wheels 697
Dead Fire for Wheels 697
Cautions 697
To make an Illuminated Spiral
Wheel 698
The Grand Volute 698
A brilliant Yew-tree ,699
XVI
CONTENTS.
PAGE
GARDENING 700
On Laying out a Small Garden . . 702
Planting the Ground with Trees,
Flowers, &c 703
The Noblest Kind of Gardening for
Boys 703
The Boy's Flower Garden .... 710
,, ,, Fruit Garden .... 717
Cropping the Ground 719
Digging 719
Hoeing 720
Raking 720
Weeding 720
Sowing Seeds 721
Transplanting 721
Watering 722
Various Modes of Propagation . . 723
Layers 723
Pipings 723
Grafting 724
Tongue-Grafting 724
Budding 725
Inarching 725
Grafting Clay 726
Pruning 726
Training 726
Insects and Depredators .... 727
Protection from Frost 727
The Young Gardener's Calendar for
the Work to be done in all the
Months of the Year 728
January 728
February 729
March 729
AprH ..729
May 730
June 730
July 731
August 731
September 731
October 732
November 732
December 732
MIMICRY AND VENTRILO-
QUISM 733
PUZZLES 756
The Divided Garden 736
The Vertical L'ue Puzzle .... 736
The Cardboard Puzzle 736
PAGE
The Button Puzzle 736
The Circle Puzzle 737
The Cross Puzzle 737
Three-Square Puzzle 737
Cylinder Puzzle 737
TheNims 738
The Dog Puzzle 738
Cutting out a Cross 738
Another Cross Puzzle 738
The Fountain Puzzle 738
The Cabinet-maker's Puzzle . . .739
The String and Balls Puzzle . . .739
The Double-headed Puzzle . . .739
The Row of Halfpence 740
Typographical Advice 740
The Landlord made to Pay . . .740
Father and Son 740
Answers to Puzzles 741
The Divided Garden . . . .741
Vertical Line Puzzle . . . .741
' Cut Card Puzzle 741
Button Puzzle 741
Circle Puzzle 741
The Cross Puzzle 742
Three-Square Puzzle .... 742
Cylinder Puzzle 742
The Nuns' Puzzle ..... 742
The Dog's Puzzle 742
Cutting out a Cross Puzzle . . 743
Another Cross Puzzle .... 743
The Fountain Puzzle 743
The Cabinet-maker's Puzzle . 743
String and Balls Puzzle . . .744
Double-Headed Puzzle . . . 744
Typographical Puzzle .... 745
The Landlord made to Pay . 745
Father and Son 745
SHOWS 746
Punch and Judy 746
Fantoccini 749
The Sailor 751
The Juggler 751
The Headless Man 751
The Milkwoman 751
POSTAGE-STAMP COLLECTING,
OR Philately 752
TINSELLING 768
THE AMERICAN GAME OF
BASE-BALL 769
American Billiards 797
La Crosse 812
!':ASY GAIIES WITHOUT TOYS
OUTDOOR.
HOP, STEP AND JUMP.
Make a mark on the ground at a place called tLe " strating point."
At ten yards' distance from this make another, called the " spring."
Then let the players arrange themselves at the start -ng point, and in
succession run to the second mark called the sprini^. Erom the
spring make first a ho-p on one leg, from this make a Jong 5/1?^, and
from the step a long Jump. Those who go over the greatest space
of ground are of course the victors.
/■:>
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
HOPPING ON THE BOTTLE.
Yarious games are in vogue among boys, in which hopping on one
foot is the principal object. Among these is one which not onlj
assists in strengthening the limbs, but also teaches the performers
the useful art of balancing themselves upon a movable substance.
A wooden bottle, a round wooden log, or something of that descrip-
tion, is laid upon the ground, a mark is made at a certain distance,
and the players have to hop from the mark upon the bottle, and
retain their possession while^ they count a number agreed upon. In
the olden times of Greece, this was considered an exercise of sufficient
importance to give it a place at the public games. The performer"
in this case had to hop upon inflated leather bags, carefully greased,
and of course, by their inevitable upsettings and floundering, caused
great amusement to the spectators. The sports took place on the
Dionysia, or festivals of Bacchus, when the vintage was gathered in,
and tne victor was appropriately rewarded with a cask of wine. The
rustics in many parts of England introduce a modification of this
game in their rural festivals. Two men place themselves opposite to
each other, the right knee of each bemg supported on a wooden
cvlinder, while the remaining foot is totally unsupported. When
they are fairly balanced, they grasp each other by the shoulders, and
endeavour to cast their opponent to the ground, while themselves
retain their position upon their fickle support.
HOP-SCOTCH.
This is a game played by hopping on one foot and kicking an
oyster-shell or piece of tile from one compartment to the other,
without halting the lifted foot, except in one case,
to the ground, and without suffering the shell or
tile to rest on any of the lines. A diagram is
first drawn similar to the subjoined. It consists
of twelve compartments, eacn being numbered,
and at its furtner end the pleasant and inviting
picture of a plum pudding with knife and fork
therein stuck. In commencing the game, the
players take their stand at the place marked by
a star, and "quoit" for innings. The object is,
that of doing what every boy is supposed to like
above aU things to do, i.e. "pitch mto the pud-
ding," and he who can do this, and go nearest to
the plum in the centre, plays first.
Method of Flaying. — The winner begins by throw-
ing his shell into No. 1; he then hops mto the
space, and kicks the tile out to the star *; he
next throws the tile into No. 2, kicks it from No. 2
to No. 1, and thence out. He then throws it into No. 3, kicks it
12
DRAWING THE OVEN
from 3 to 2, from 2 to 1, and out. He next tlirows it into No. 4,
kicks it from 4 to 3, from 3 to 2, from 2 to 1, and out ; and so lie pro-
ceeds till he has passed the cross and comes to No. 7, when he is
permitted to rest himself, by standing with one foot in No. 6 and
the other in No. 7; but he must resume hopping before he kicks the
tUe home. He then passes through the beds 8, 9, 10 and 11, as he
did those of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., and so on, till he gets to plum pud-
ding, when he may rest, and placing his tile on the plum, he is re-
quired, while standing on one foot, to kick it with such force as to
send it through all the other beds to * at one kick. If one player
throws his tile into the wrong compartment, or when he is kicking it
out, he loses his innings, as he does also if the tile or his foot at any
time rests on a line, or if he kicks his tUe out of the diagram.
rRENCH AND ENGLISH.
This is an old Greek game, and, like very many simple boys' games,
has retained its popularity to the present dav. Its Greek name was
rather a jaw-cracking one, but may be literally translated by "Pully-
hauUy."^ It consists of two parties of boys, who are chosen on dif-
ferent sides by lots. One party takes hold of one end of a strong
rope, and the other party of the other end. A mark being made
midway between the parties, each strives to pull the other over it,
and those who are so pulled over, lose the game.
In this game, two leaders should be appointed, who must calculate
the powers of their own side, and concert plans accordingly. The
leader of either side should have a code of signals, in order to com
municate vrith his own friends, that he may direat them when to
stop, when to slacken, or when to puU hard. So important is the
leader's office, that a side with a good leader will always vanquish
a much superior force which has no commander to guide it. For
example, when all the boys are pulling furiously at the rope, the
leader of one side sees that his opponents are leaning back too much,
depending on their weight more than on their strength. He imme-
diatelv gives the signal to slacken, when down go half the enemy on
their backs, and are run away with merrily by the successful party,
who drag them over the mark with the greatest ease. Or if the
enemy begins to be wearied with hard pulling, an unanimous tug will
often bring them upright, while they ^ are on their guard, and once
moved, the victory is easily gained. We have seen, assisted, and led
this game hundreds of times, and never failed to find it productive
of very great amusement. No knots are to be permitted on the
rope, nor is the game to be considered as won, unless the entire side
has been dragged over the line.
DKAWING THE OVEN.
This is a game not very dissimilar to the preceding, but not so
much to be recommended, as the clothes are very apt to be torn, and
b2
4- EVERY BOYS BOOK.
if the players engage too roughly, the wrists are not unfreqnentW
injured. The method of playing the game is as foUows : — Several
boys seat themselves in a row, clasping each other round the waist,
thus fantastically representing a batch of loaves. Two other players
then approach, representing the baker's men, who have to detach the
players from each other's hold. To attain this object, they grasp
the wrists of .the second boy, and endeavour to pnU him away from
the boy in front of him. If they succeed, they pass to the third,
and so on until they have drawn the entire batch. As sometimes an
obstinate loaf sticks so tight to its companion, that it is not torn
away without bringing with it a handful of jacket or other part of
the clothing, the game ought not to be played, by any but little boys.
I SPY.
This is a capital game for the summer months. The players divide
themselves into two parties, one party remaining at a spot called
" Bounds," and concealing their faces, while the other party goes out
and hides. After waiting for a few minutes, the home party shouts,
"Coming, coming, coming." After a short pause they repeat the
cry, and after another short interval they again shout, " Coming."
If any out-player is not concealed, he may cry, "No," and a few
minutes more are allowed. At the last shout, the home players,
leaving one to ^lard bounds, sally forth in search of their hidden
companions. Directly one of the seekers sees one of the hiders, he
shouts, " I Spy," and runs home as fast as he can, pursued by the
one he has found, who tries to touch him before he can reach bounds.
K he succeeds, the one so touched is considered taken, and stands
aside. If the hiding party can touch three, or more, if especially
a^eed upon, they get their hide over again. The object of the
hiders is to intercept the seekers, and prevent them from reaching
bounds without bemg touched. The worst player is left at the
bounds, in order to warn his companions, which he does by the word
" Home," as any hider may touch any seeker.
PITCH-STONE.
This game is played by two boys, each of whom takes a smooth
round pebble. One player then throws his pebble about twenty feet
before nim, and the next tries to strike it with his stone, each time
of striking counting as one. If the two pebbles are near enough for
the player to place one upon the other with his hand, he is at perfect
liberty to do so. It is easy enough to play at this game when the
pebbles are at some distance apart; but when they lie near each
other, it is very difficult to take a good aim, and yet send one's own
pebble beyond" the reach of the adversarVs aim. Two four-pound
cannon balls are the best objects to pitch, as thev roU evenly, and
do not split, as pebbles always do when they get a hard knock.
I
PBISONEKS BASIS.
DUCK-STONE.
\
This game may be played by any number of players. A large
stone is selected, and placed on a particular spot, and the players
first " Pink for Duck," that is, they each throw their stones up to
the mark, and the one who is farthest from it becomes " Duck," The
Duck places his stone on the other, while the rest of the players
return to the bounds, and in succession pitch their stones at ms with
the endeavour to knock it off. If this is accomplished, Duck must
immediately replace it, and the throwers must pick up their stones
and run to tne Dounds. As soon as Duck has replaced his stone, he
runs after any of the other players, and if he can succeed in catching
or merely touching any one of them, the player so touched becomes
Duck.
PKISONER's base, or miSON BAHS.
This is a most delightful game, and is a very great favouiite among
boys of all classes. It is commenced by choosmg Captains, which is
either done by lot or by the "sweet voices" of the jouths. If by
lot, a number of straws of different lengths are put m a bunch, anii
those who draw from one end, the other being hidden, the two longest
straws, are the two "Captains;" each of which has the privilege of
choosing his men: the drawer of the longest of the two straws has
the (irst choice. TMien this has been arranged each Captain selects,
alternately, a boy till the whole are drawn out.
This method >j, however, often attended with considerable incon-
venicuce, as it is not impossible that the lots may fall on the two
worst pl.iycrs. It is very much better to let the boys choose the twc
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
Captains, as the two best players will then assuredly be elected, and
most of the success of the game depends on the Captains.
The leaders being thus chosen, the next point is to mark out the
homes and prisons. First, two semicircles are drawn, large enough to
hold the two parties, the distance between the semicircles being about
twenty paces. These are the " homes,'* or " bounds." Twenty paces
in front of these, two other semicircles, of a rather larger size, are
marked out. These are the prisons; the prison of each party being
in a line with the enemy's home. These preKmruaries bemg settled,
the sides draw lots ; the side drawing the longest straw haviug to
commence the game. The Captain of side a orders ont one of his own
side, usually a poor player, who is bound to run at least beyond the
prisons before he returns. Directly he has started, the Captain of
side B sends out one of his men to pursue, and, if possible, to
touch him before he can regain his own home. If this is accom-
plished, the successful runner is permitted to return home scathless,
while the vanquished party must go to the prison belonging to his
side; from which he cannot stir, until some one from his own side re-
leases him, by touching him in spite of the enemy. This is not an easy
task; as, in order to reach the prison, the player must cross the
enemy's home. It is allowable for the prisoner to stretch his hand as
far towards his rescuer as possible, but he must keep some part of his
body within the bounds; and if several prisoners are taken, it is suffi-
cient for one to remain within the prison, while the rest, by joining
hands, make a chain towards the boy who is trying to release them.
WTien this is accomplished, both the prisoner and his rescuer return
home, no one being able to touch them until they have reached their
home and a^ain started off. But the game is not only restricted to
the two origmaUy sent out. Directly Captain a sees his man pressed
by his opponent, he sends out a third, who is in his turn pursued by
another from side b; each being able to touch any who have pre-
ceded, but none who have left their home after him. The game soon
becomes spirited; prisoners are made and released, the two Captains
watchimg the game, and rarely exposing themselves, except in cases
of emergency, but directing the whole proceedings. The ^ame is
considered won, when one party has succeeded in imprisoning the
whole of the other side. Much depends upon the Captains, who
sometimes, by a bold dash, rescue the most important .of their pri-
soners, and tnereby turn the fate of the battle; or, when the attention
of the opposite side is occupied by some hardly-contested struggle,
send some insignificant player to the rescue; who walks quietly up
to the prison, and unsuspectedly lets out the prisoners one by one.
No player is permitted to touch more than one person until he has
r etnrned to his home; when he can sally out agam armed with fresh
strength, like Antaeus of old, who could not be conquered at wrestling,
because whenever he touched the ground his strength was renewed
by his mother Earth.
I
BASTE THE BEAR.
POX.
This game was extensively played at the school where our boyhood
was passed; but we never saw it elsewhere. It used to afford us such
amusement in the long summer evenings, that it deserves a place in
this collection of sports. One player is termed Fox, and is furnished
with a den, where none of the players may molest him. The other
players arm themselves with twisted or knotted handkerchiefs, (one
end to be tied in knots of almost incredible hardness,) and range
themselves round the den waiting for the appearance of the Eox. He
being also armed with a knottea handkerchief, hops out of his den.
When he is fairly out, the other players attack him with their hand-
kerchiefs, while ne endeavours to strike one of them without putting
down his other foot. If he does so he has to run back as fast as he
can, without the power of striking the other players, who baste him
the whole way. If, however, he succeeds in striking one without
losing his balance, the one so struck becomes Fox ; and, as he has
both feet down, is accordingly basted to his den. The den is useful
as a resting-place for the Fox, who is often sorely wearied by futile
attempts to catch his foes.
BASTE THE BEAR.
This is a funny game. The players generally draw lots for the first
Bear, who selects his own Keeper. The Bear kneels on the ground,
and his Keeper holds him with a rope about four feet lon^, within a
circle of about five feet in diameter. The other players tie knots in
their handkerchiefs, and begin to strike or baste the Bear, by running
close to, or into the ring. Should the Keeper touch any of the bovs
^hile they are at this sport without dragging the Bear out of tar
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
ring, or should the Bear catch hold of any player's leg, so as to hold
bim fast, the player so touched or caught becomes Bear. The second
Bear may select his Keeper as before, and the play continues.
AN INSTBUMENT OF TOKTURE.
LEAP-mOG.
This IS an excellent game of agility, and very simple. It consists
of any number of players; but from six to eight is the most con-
venient number. Having by agreement or lots determined who shall
give the first "back," one plaver so selected places himself in posi-
tion, with his head inclined and his shoulders elevated, and his hands
resting on his knees, at ten yards' distance from the other players ;
one of whom immediately runs and leaps over him, — having made
his leap, he sets a back at the same distance forward from the boy
over whom he has just leaped. The third boy leaps over the first
and second boy, and sets a *'back" beyond the second; and the
fourth boy leaps over the first, second, and third, and sets a " back "
beyond the third, and so on till the players are out. The game may
continue for any length of time, ana generally lasts till the players
are tired ; but the proper rule should be, that all who do not go clean
over should be out. Those who '' make backs " should stand per-
fectly stiff and firm ; and those who " make leaps " should not rest
in their flight heavily upon the shoulders of their playmates, so as to
throw them down, which is not fair play.
FLY THE GARTER.
Chalk or make a line, or, as it is usually termed, " a garter," on
the ground ; on this line one of the players must place mmself and
bend down as in leap-frog;, while the other players in rotation leap
over him, the last one as he flies over calling out " Foot it." If he
should fail in giving this notice, he is out, and must take the other
boy's place at the garter. The boy, immediately the word is given,
rises, and places his right heel close to the middle of the left foot ; he
next moves the left forwards and places that heel close up to the
SPANISH I'LY. 9
toes of his right foot, and bends down as before. This movement is
called a "step," and is repeated three times. The other players
should fly from the garter each time a step is made, and the last
player must invariably call out " Foot it " as he leaps over. After
making the three " steps," the player giving the back takes a short
run, andj/ro^i the spot where he made his last step to, jumps as far
forwards as he possibly can, and bends down again ; the others jump
from the garter and then fly over. Should any of the players be
unable to jump easily over the one giving the back, but rather sHde
down upon, or ride on him, the player so miling must take the other's
place at the garter, and the game be begun again ; if, also, through the
impetus acquired in taking the jump from the garter, a player should
happen to place his hands on the back of the player bending down,
and then withdraw them ia order to take the spring over, he is out,
and must take his turn at the garter. It is usual, in some places,
for the boy giving the back to take a hop, step, and a jump after he
has footed it three times, the other players domg the same, and then
flying over.
SPANISH FLY.
This game is capable of being varied to any extent by an ingenious
boy, but it is generally played in the following way: — One boy,
selected by chance, sets a back, as in "fly the garter," and another
is chosen leader. The game is commenced by the leader leaping
over the one who gives the back, and the other players follow in
succession ; the leader then leaps back, and the others follow ; then
they all go over in a cross direction, and return, making, in all, four
different ways. The leader then takes his cap in both hands, and
leaves it on the boy's back while he is " overing," and his followers
perform the same trick ; in returning, the last man takes the lead,
and removes his cap without disturbing the others, and each boy
does the same : this trick is repeated in a cross direction. The next
trick is throwing up the cap just before overing, and catching it
before it falls ; the next, reversing the cap on the head, and so
balancing it while overing, without ever touching it with the hands ;
both tricks must be performed while leaping the four different ways.
The leader, ^vith his cap still balanced, now overs, and allows his cap
to drop on the opposite side ; the others do likewise, but they must
be careful not to let their caps touch the others, nor to let their feet
touch any of the caps in alighting ; the leader now stoops down,
picks up his cap with his teeth, and throws it over his head and the
iDoy's back ; he then leaps after his cap, but avoids touching it with
his feet. The other players follow him as before. The next
trick is "knuckling," — that is to say, overing with the hands
clenched ; the next, " slapping," which is performed by placing
one hand on the boy's back, and hitting him with the other,
while overing; the last, "spurring," or touching him up with
the heel. All these tricks must be performed in the four different
10 EVERY boy's book.
directions, and any boy failing to do thein properly goes down, and
<he game tegins afresh.
TOUCH.
This is a brisk game, and may be played by any number of boys.
One of the players being chosen as Touch, it is his business to run
about in all directions after the other players, till he can touch one,
who immediately becomes Touch in his turn. Sometimes when the
game is played it is held as a law that Touch shall have no power
over those boys who can touch iron and wood. The players then,
when out of breath, rush to the nearest iron or wood they can find,
to render themselves secure. Cross-touch is sometimes played, in
which, whenever another player runs between Touch and the pursued,
Touch must immediately leave the one he is after to follow him.
But this rather confuses, and spoils the gaiie.
TOUCH-WOOD AND TOUCH-LRON.
These games are founded on the above. When the boys pursued
by Touch can touch either wood or iron they are safe, the rule being
that he must touch them as they run from one piece of wood or iron
to another.
BUCK, BUCK, HOW MANY HORNS DO I HOLD UP ?
This is a very good game for three boys. The first is called the
Buck, the second the Frog, and the third the Umpire. The boy who
plays the Buck gives a back with his head down, and rests his hands
on some wall or paling in front of him. The Erog now leaps on his
back, and the Umpire stands by his side : the Prog now holds up
one, two, three, five, or any number of fingers, and cries, "Buck !
Buck ! how many horns do 1 hold up ? " The Buck then endeavours
to guess the right number ; if he succeeds, the Frog then becomes
Buck, and in turn jumps on his back. The Umpire determines
whether Buck has guessed the numbers rightly or not. In some
places it is the custom to blindfold the Buck, in order to prevent him
seeing. This plan, however, is scarcely necessary.
WARNING.
This is an excellent game for cold weather. It may be played by
any number of boys. In playing it " loose bounds " are made near a
wall or fence, about four feet wide and twelve long. One of the
boys is selected, who is called the Cock, who takes his place within
the bounds ; the other players are called the Chickens, who distribute
themselves in various parts of the playground. The Cock now clasps
his hands together, and cries, " Warning once, warniug twice, a
bushel of wheat, and a bushel of rye, when the Cock crows out jump
I." He then, keeping his hands still clasped before him, runs after
the other players ; when he touches one, he and the player so touched
HARE AND HOUNDS. 11
immediately make for the bounds; the other players immediately try
to capture them before they get there; if they succeed, they are
privileged to get upon their backs and ride them home. The Cock
and his Chick now come out of the bounds hand-in-handj and try tc
touch some other of the players; the moment they do this they
break hands, and they and the player now touched run to the bounds
as before, while the other players try to overtake them, so as to secure
the ride. The three now come from the bounds in the same manntr,
capture or touch a boy, and return. If, while trying to touch the
other boys, the players when sallying from the groilnds break hands
before they touch any one, they may immediately be ridden, if they
can be caught before they reach the bounds. Sometimes when three
players have been touched the Cock is allowed to join the out party,
out this is of no advantage in playing the game.
FOLLOW MY LEADER.
This may be played by any number of boys : one being selected as
the Leader, and the others are the EoUowers. The Followers arrange
themselves in a line behind the Leader, who immediately begins to
progress, and the others are bound to follow him. The fun of this
sport is in the Leader carrying his Followers into "uncouth places,"
over various "obstacles," such as hedges, stiles, gate-posts, &c.,
through "extraordinary difficulties," as ditches and quagmires, — •
every player being expected to perform his feats of agility; and those
who fail are obliged to go last, and bear the emphatic name of the
"Ass." The game lasts till the Leader gives up, or the boys are aU
tired out.
THE FUGLEMAN.
This is a game something Like the above. It consists of the
Fugleman and his Squad. The Fugleman places himself in a central
spot, and arranges nis Squad before him in a line. He then com-
mences with various odd gestures, which all the Squad are bound to
imitate. He moves his head, arms, legs, hands, feet, in various direc-
tions, sometimes sneezes, coughs, weeps, laughs, and bellows, all of
^vilicll the Squad are to imitate. Sometimes this is a most amusing
scene, and provokes great laughter. Those who are observed to
laugh, however, are immediately ordered to stand out of the line, and
when half the number of players are so put out, the others are
allowed to ride them three times round the playground, while the
Fugleman with a knotted handkerchief accelerates tneir motions.
HARE AND HOUNDS.
This is perhaps the very best game that can be introduced into a
school. The principle of it is very simple, that one boy represents
the Hare and runs away, while the others represent the Hounds and
oursue him. The proper management of the game, however, requires
12
EVERT BOY S BOOK.
some skill Wlien we were at scliool in the north, this game was ex-
tensively played ; and in more recent times, when we ourselves were
masters instead of scholars, we reduced the game to a complete
svstem. The first thing to be done is to choose a Hare, or if the
chase is to be a long one, two Hares are required. The Hare should
not be the best runner, but should be daring, and at the same time
prudent, or he may trespass into forbidden lands, and thereby cause
great mischief. A Huntsman and Whipper-in are then chosen. The
Huntsman should be the best player, and the Whipper-in seconii
best. Things having advanced so far, the whole party sally forth.
The Hare is furnished with a large bag of white paper torn into small
squares, which he scatters on the ground as he goes. An arrange-
ment is made that the Hare shall not cross his path, nor return home
until a certain time; in either of which cases he is considered caught.
The Hounds also are bound to follow the track or "scent" implicitly,
and not to make short cuts if they see the Hare. The Hare then
starts, and has about seven minutes* grace, at the expiration of which
time the Huntsman blows a horn with which he is furnished, and
sets off, the Hounds keeping nearly in Indian file, the Whipper-in
bringing up the rear. The Huntsman is also furnished with a white
flag, the Wliipper-in with a red one, the staves being pointed and
shod with metal. Off they go merrily enough, until at last the
Huntsman loses the scent. He immediately shouts "Lost!" on
which the Whipper-in sticks his flag in the ground where the scent
was last seen, and the entire line wSks or runs round it in a circle,
within which they axe tolerably sure to find the track. The Hunts-
man in the meanwhile has stuck his flag in the ground, and examines
the country to see in what direction the Hare is likely to have gone.
DUCK AND DRAKE. 13
When the track is foiuid, the player who discovers it shouts Tally ho !
the Huntsman takes up his nag, and ascertains whether it is really
the track or not. If so, he blows his horn again, the Hounds form in
line between the two flags, and off they go a^ain. It is incredible
how useful the two flags are. Many a Hare has been lost because
the Hounds forgot where the last track was seen, and wasted time in
searching for it again. Moreover, they seem to encourage the players
wonderfully. We used often to make our chases foui-teen or fifteen
miles in length ; but before such an undertaking is commenced, it is
necessary to prepare by a series of shorter chases, which should how-
ever be given in an opposite direction to the course fixed upon for the
Sand chase, as otherwise the tracks are apt to get mixed, and the
ounds are thrown out. The Hare should always carefully survey his
intended course a day or two previously, and then he vrill avoid
getting himself into quagmires, or imprisoned in the bend of a
river. A pocket compass is a most useful auxiliary, and prevents all
chance of losing the way, a misfortune which is not at all unlikely to
happen upon the Wiltshire downs or among the Derbyshire hills.
STEEPLE CHASE.
This is a trial of speed and agility, and may be played by any
number of boys. It consists in the boys agreeing upon some mstant
object for a mark, such as a conspicuous tree, or house, or steeple.
The players then start off in whatever direction they please, each one
being at liberty to choose his ovm course. In a long run of a mile or
so it very often happens that hedges, ditches, and other obstructions,
have to be got over, which adds great interest to the play, and the
best climbers and jumpers are the most likely to come in victors.
He who comes in first to the appointed object is called the King, the
second the Duke, the third the Marquis, the fourth the Viscount, the
fifth the Earl, the sixth the Knight. The last receives the dignified
appellation of the Snail, and the last but one the Tortoise.
At Oxford there were in our undergraduate days two clubs for the
purpose of Steeple-chasing, one named the Kangaroo Club, and the
other the Charitable Grinders, whose performances over hedges and
ditches were really astonishing. There was also a club which kept a
set of beagles, and used to hunt a red herring with intense per-
severance.
«
DUCK AND DRAKE.
This is a very simple sport, but necessarily restricted to those
spots where there is a river, or a pond of some magnitude. It con-
sists in throwing oyster-shells, flat stones, or broken tiles along the
water, so as to make them hop as often as possible. One hop is
called Dick, the second Duck, and the third Drake. The sea-shore
is a capital place for this sport, as, if the player can only succeed
in making the stone touch the top of a wave, it is tolerably certain
14 EVERY BOYS BOOK.
to make a succession of hops from wave to wave. If a rifle-bullet is
shot along the water, it will go a great distance, maldng very long
hops, and splashing up the water at every bound. In war, tnis methoa
of firing at an enemy that Hes low is extensively made use of, and is
called " ricochet practice." It is also much used in naval warfare.
SIMON SAYS.
This, if well managed, is a very comical game. The players are
arranged as ia Fugleman, the player who enacts Simon standing in
front. He and ail the other players clench their fists, keeping the
thumb pointed upwards. No player is to obey his commands imless
prefaced with the words, " Simon says." Simon is himself subjected
to the same rules. The game commences by Simon commandmg, —
" Simon says, turn down:^* on which he turns his thumbs downwards,
followed by the other players. He then says, " Simon says, turn up"
and brings his hands back again. When he has done so several times,
and thinks that the players are off their ^ard, he merely gives the
word, "Turn up," or "Turn down," without moving his hands.
Some one, if not aU, is sure to obey the command, and is subject to a
forfeit. Simon is also subject to a forfeit, if he tells his companions
to turn down while the thumbs are already down, or vice versa. With
a sharp player enacting Simon, the game is very spirited.
KENG OF THE CASTLE.
This is a very good game, and to play it properly there must be iu
the centre of the playground a small hill or hillock. One player,
selected bv choice or lot, ascends this hiU, and is called the King ;
and the object of the other players is to pull or push him from ms
elevation, while he uses his endeavours to Keep his "pride of place."
Fair puUs and fair pushes are only allowed at this game ; the players
must not take hold of any part of the clothes of the King, and must
confine their grasps to the hand, the leg, or the arm. if a player
\dolates these rules, he is to sit down upon the ground, and is cafled
" Dummy." The player who succeeds m dethroning the King, takes
his place, and is subjected to the like attacks.
BATTLE FOB 'IHE BANNER.
This game is to be played from a mound, the samb as the above,
and it may consist of any number of players. Each party selects a
Captain, and having done this, divide themselves into Attackers and
Defenders. The defending party provide themselves with a small flag,
which is fixed on a staff on the top of the mound, and then arrange
themselves on its side and at its oase, so as to defend it from the
attacks of ttieir opponents, who advance towards the hillock, and
endeavour to throw aown those that oppose them. Those that are so
'hrown on either side, are called " dead men," and must lie quiet till
SNOW BALLS.
16
the game is finished, which is concluded either when all the attacking
party are dead, or the banner is carried off by one of them. The
player who carries off the banner is called the K^night, and is chosec
Captain for the next game.
SNOW-BALLS.
Every boy has played at snow-balls, from the time that his little
fingers were first able to grasp and mould a handful of snow. Elderly
gentlemen know to their cost how apt the youthful friend is to hurl
very hard snow-balls, which appear to pick out the tenderest parts of
his person, generally contriving to lod^e just at the juncture of the
chin and the comforter, or coming with a deafening squash in the
very centre of his ear. Even the dread policeman does not always
escape ; and when he turns round, indignant at the temporary loss of
his shiny hat, he cannot recognise his assailant in the boy who is
calmly whistling the last new nigger-song, as he saunters along,
with both his hands in his pockets. The prudent schoolmaster will
also not venture too near the playground, unless he has provided
himself with an umbrella. It is rather a remarkable fact, that when-
ever a Grammar-school and a National-school are within a reasonable
distance of each other, they are always at deadly feud. So it was at
the school where our youthful days were passed. One winter's morn-
ing, just after school had opened, the door was flung violently open,
and a party of National-school boys hurled a voUey of snow-oalls at
the head-master. He, after the door had been secured, remarked in
a particularly mild voice, — "Now, boys, if /had been at school, and
16 EVERY boy's book.
my schoolmaster liad been assaulted by National-scnool doys, /should
have gone out and given them a thrashing. Remember, I do not at
all advise you to do so, but merely mention the course that I should
have adopted uiider such circumstances. We will resume lessons at
three." So saying, he took off his govra, put on his hat and gloves,
and walked out to see the fun. Now, the prospect of a momiag's
holiday would have made us attack a force of twenty times our
number, but as tbey only out-numbered us threefold, we commenced
a pursuit without hesitation. After a sbarp engagement, we drove
them back to their own schoolroom. Tbe cause of their yielding was,
that they threw at random among us, wbereas each of our balls was
aimed at the face of an opponent, and we very seldom missed. When
they had reached their school, they closed and barred their door ;
at which we made such a battering, that their master, a large negro,
rushed out upon us, vowing veneeance, and flourishing a great cane.
He was allowed to proceed a lew yards from the door, when one
snow-ball took off his hat, and two more lodged in his face. He
immediately went to the right-about, and made for the school, which
he reached under an avalanche of snow. We pursued, but he had
succeeded in fastening the door, and we could not open it for some
time. When we did, the school was deserted ; not a boy was to be
seen. There was no back entrance to account for their disappear-
ance, and we were completely puzzled. At last, when we had quieted
down a little, a murmuring was heard apparently below our feet, and
on examination we found that the entire school had taken shelter in
the coal-cellar. We made a dash at the door (a trap-door), and in
spite of the showers of coal that came from below, fastened and
padlocked the door, carefully throwing the key among a clump of fir-
trees, where it was not likely to be found. Having achieved this
nctory, we had a snow-baU match among ourselves, and then re-
turned to school. About five o'clock, in rushed the black school-
master, who had only just been liberated by the blacksmith, and who
3ame to complain of our conduct. So far, however, from obtaining any
satisfaction, ne was forced to apologise for the conduct of his boys.
SNOW CASTLE.
The object of this game is, that a castle of snow \a, built, which is
attacked oy one party and defended by the other. The method of
building the castle is as follows : — ^A square place is cleared in the
snow, the size of the projected castle. As many boys as possible
then go to some distance from the cleared square, and commence
making snow-balls, rolling them towards the castle. By the time
that they have reached it, each baU is large enough to form a foundar
tion-stone. By continuing this plan, the walls are built about five
feet six inches high, a raised step running round the interior, on
which the defenders stand while hurling the balls against their
opponents. In the centre are deposited innumerable snow-balls.
SNOW GIANT.
17
ready made; and a small bov is usually pressed into tlie service, to
make snow-balls as fast as they are wanted. If the weather is very
cold, some water slashed over the .castle hardens and strengthens it
considerably. The architect of the castle must not forget to leave
space for a door.
SNOW GIANT.
This is made in the same way as the snow castle, that is, by rolling
large snow-balls to the place where the giant is to be erected, and
then piled up and carved into form. He is not considered completed
untU two coals are inserted for eyes, and until he is further decorated
with a pipe and an old hat. When he is quite finished, the juvenile
sculptors retire to a distance, and with snow-balls endeavour to knock
down their giant, with as much zest as they exhibited in building
him. If a snow giant is weU made, he wiU last until the leaves are
out, the sun having but little power on so large a mass of hard snow.
There is a legend extant respecting the preservation of snow through
the warmer pai-ts of the year. A certain Scotch laird had for a
tenant a certain farmer. The laird had been requested by influential
personages to transfer the farm to another man directly the lease was
run out. The farmer's wife, hearing of this from some gossip of hers,
went to her landlord, and besought him to grant a renewal of the
lease. When she called, he was at dinner vnth a numerous party of
friends, and replied in a mocking tone, that the lease should be
renewed when sne brought him a snow-ball in July. She immediately
called upon the guests to bear witness to the offer, and went home.
13 EVERY boy's book.
In due time the winter came, and with it the snow. One day, her
husband, an excellent labourer, but not over bright, asked her why
she was wasting so much meal. At that time, she had taken a large
vessel of meal to a valley, and was pouring it into the space between
two great stones. Upon the meal she placed a large quantity of
snow, which she stamped down until it was hard. Upon this she
poured more meal, and placed upon the meal a layer of straw. The
\^hole affair was then thickly covered over with straw and reeds. To
her husband, who thought sne had fairly lost her senses, she deigned
no reply, except that the meal would repay itself. So affairs went on
until July, when the good dame, hearing that her landlord had invited
a large party to dine with him, many of whom had been at the partv
when the promise was made, proceeded to the store of snow, which
she found about half diminished. The remainder she kneaded hard,
and put it in a wheelbarrow, weU covered with straw, which she
rolled up to the laird's own house. When once there, she took out
her snow-ball, and presenting it to her landlord, before all his guests,
demanded the renewal of her lease. It may be satisfactory to know,
that the laird, struck with her ingenuity and perseverance, at once
granted her request.
JACK ! JACK ! SHOW A LIGHT !
This game can only be played in the dusk of evening, when all the
surrounding objects are lost in the deepening gloom. The players
divide into two parties, and toss up for innings, which being gained,
the winners start off to hide themselves, or get so far away that the
others cannot see them ; the losers remaining at the home. One of
the hiding party is provided with a flint and steel, which, as soon as
they are all ready, he strikes together ; the sparks emitted guide the
seekers as to what direction they must proceed in, and they must
endeavour to capture the others ere they reach home ; if they cannot
JUMP LITTLE NAG-TAIL.
19
touch more tlian two of the boys, the hiders resume their inniugs,
and the game continues as before. It is most usual, however, for
the boys at the home to call out, " Jack, Jack ! show a light ! " before
the possessor of the flint and steel does so. When one party is cap-
tured, the flint and steel must be given up to the captors, that they
may carry on the game as before.
JINGLING.
The jingling match is a common diversion at country wakes and
fairs, and is often played by schoolboys. The match should be played
on a soft grass-plot within a large circle, enclosed with ropes. The
players rarely exceed nine or ten. All of these, except one of the
most active, who is the " jingler," have their eyes blindfolded with
handkerchiefs. The jingler holds a small beU in his hand, which he
is obliged to keep ringing incessantly so long as the play continues,
which is commonly about twenty minutes. The business of the
jingler is to elude the pursuit of his blindfolded companions, who
follow him by the sound of the bell in all directions, and sometimes
oblige him to exert his utmost abilities to effect his escape, which
must be done within the boundaries of the rope, for the laws of the
sport forbid him to pass beyond it. If he be caught in the time
allotted for the continuance of the game, the person who caught him
wins the match ; if, on the contrary, they are not able to take him,
he is proclaimed the winner.
JUMP LITTLE nag-tail!
In this game, six or eight players on each side is the best number.
The two leaders should toss up for choice of partners, and after
selecting them, toss again for innings. The loser must then place
himself quite upright, with his face to a wall, against which he rests
his hands ; and one of his partners should next stoop down, and put
his head against his leader's skirts, as shown in the annexed illustra-
o2
20 EVERY boy's book.
tion ; another partner also bends, and places his head against the
skirts of the second player, and the rest of the partners must take
their places in the same manner, one behind the other : when thus
arranged, they are called " nags." One of the winning party next
takes a run, and placing his hands on the back of the last player or
" nag," endeavours to spring on to the back of the first, or at least to
clear as many " nags " as he possibly can, in order to allow room for
those following him to leap on the backs of the other " nags," which
they should do in succession, until they are all fairly astride. If any of
the " nags " sink under the weight, or in trying to support them-
selves touch the ground either with their hands or knees, or if the
riders can keep their seats without touching the ground, whilst their
leader counts twenty, or repeats the words, '^ Jump little nag-tail one,
two, three ! " three times, concluding with " off, off, off ! " the riders
resume their innings, and begin again ; on the contrary, should there
not be sufficient space for all to leap on, or they are ^ unable to keep
their seats on the backs of the " nags," they lose their innings, and
become ^' nags " in their turn. The " nags " must, while in the line,
hold either oy the trousers of the player before them, or else lean
their hands on their knees, or cross their arms on their breasts.
Each rider must call out " Warning " before he leaps on the back of
one of the " nags."
JUMPING ROPE.
Two players swing round a long rope, and when the revolutions
become tolerably regular, one, two, or even more boys step forwards,
and allowing it to swing over their heads, jump up as it descends, so
as to let it pass under their feet as in the case of the common skip-
ping-rope. The leapers must step forwards the moment the rope is
at its highest, in order to be ready to skip over as it swings close to
the ground ; and they should be careful to keep the same time with
the motions of the boys holding the rope, so as not to be struck by
it in its circuit. Another game may be played with a long skipping-
rope, by the player at one end holding the rope in his outside hand,
making a step or two towards the other player, and w\th his help
swinging it round, and then skipping over it.
MY GBANDMOTHER's CLOCK.
In this amusing sport the players join hands, and extend their
arms to their full extent. One of the outside players remains
stationary, and the others run round him as fast as they can, which
proceeding is called "winding the clock." In this manner the
straight line becomes a confused spiral, and all the players get
hud(fled together in a most laughable manner. The winding of the
clock usually leads to such disorder that it is next to impossible to
unwind it without breaking the line of boys.
BEE-SAW.
21
RUSHIXG BASES.
Two bases having been made, one at each end of the playground,
all the players take np their position in one of them, except one, who
is generally elected by counting out ; this player, who is called " the
King," stations himself midway between the bases, and endeavours
to catch the others as they rush through his territory from base to
base. Should the king succeed in catching one of the trespassers, he
raps him on the head, saying, " I crown thee king ! " and the one so
crowned joins the first king between the bases, and helps to catch
the other players. When the out-players considerably outnumber
those remaining in the bases, they may enter the bases, and, if they
are strong enough, pull the others out and crown them. In this
lively game the rule is, that a player must run to the opposite base
if he puts both feet outside his own. In some parts of England this
game is known by the name of " King Caesar."
SEE-SAW.
For this amusement a stout plank should be laid across a felled
tree or a low wall ; it must be very nicely balanced if the players are
of the same weight ; but if one is heavier than the other, the end
on which he intends to sit should be the shortest. Two players then
take their seats on the plank, one at each end, -whilst a third stations
himself on the middle of it, as represented in the illustration ; the
name of this player is in some places Jack o' both Sides, and in
others Pudding. As the players oy turns make slight springs from
their toes, they are each alternately elevated and depressed, and it is
the duty of Pudding to assist these movements by bearing all his
weight on the foot, on the highest end of the plank, beyond the
centre of the tree or wall on which it rests. This will be best under-
stood by referring to <he illustration : thus, a is the trunk of a tree ;
22 EVERY boy's book.
across it a plank is laid, on which two players, b, c, take their
seats ; d is " Pudding ; " it will be seen that his left foot is beyond
the centre of the trunk a, on the highest end of the board, and con-
sequently his weight being added to that of b will depress that end
of the plank, and the end on which c sits must, of course, rise ;
Pudding then bears on his right foot, and c in turn descends ; and
thus the ^ame continues during pleasure, Pudding bearing alternately
on each side.
TKREAD THE NEEDLE.
This game can be played by any number of boys, who must all
join hands ; the game is begun by the outside players at each end of
the line holding the following dialogue: "How many miles to
Babylon ? " " Threescore and ten." " Can I get there by candle-
light ? " " Yes, and back again." " Then open the gates without
more ado, and let the king and his men pass through." The player
and the one next to him at the end of the line opposite the last
speaker then elevate their joined hands as high as Ihey can, to allow
the speaker to run under, and the whole line follows him, still
holding hands. This should be done, if possible, without breaking
the line by letting the hands go, and is styled " threading the needle."
When all the boys have passed through, the same conversation begins
again, excepting that the respondent in his turn becomes the in-
quirer, and runs between the opposite players, the others following
as before.
TOM tiddler's ground.
This is a very favourite game with little boys, and majr be con-
sidered as a modification of rushing bases. A large base is formed
by drawing a line across the playground, and one boy, called " Tom
Tiddler," takes his station within it, while the others run in crying
out, "Here am I on Tom Tiddler's ground, picking up ^old and
silver." If Tom Tiddler can touch any boy while he is on his
ground, the boy so touched takes his place as the guardian of the
imaginary gold and silver.
two to one.
Two to one is a very capital exercise with a common skipping-rope.
It is done by skipping in the usual way for a short time, and then
increasing the rapidity of your movements, and leaping tolerably
high, endeavouring to swing the rope round so quickly that you can
pass it twice under your feet while you are taking the leap ; practise
this till you are quite proficient, and then try to pass the rope three
times under your foot instead of twice.
WALK, MOON, walk!
This may be played by any number of boys, who all tie large knots
in one corner of their pocket-handkerchiefs, and then toss up to see
WILL YOU LIST ? 23
who shall be " Moon ; " the loser is the one to whom the part falls,
and he miist be blindfolded. "Moon" now stands with his legs
stretched apart, while his playmates go behind him in succession, and
jerk their handkerchiefs between his legs, as far as they can and iu
whatsoever direction they please. When all the bojs have done this,
one of them cries " Walk, Moon, walk ! " which is a signal for the
blindfolded player to walk forwards until he treads upon one of the
handkerchiefs, when in an instant the other players pick up theii-
knotted handkerchiefs, with which they belabour the uiilucky owner
of the one trodden upon by Moon, as he runs to a distant base and
back; after which he becomes Moon, and the game continues as
before.
"WANT A day's WOEK?
This is a capital game when well played, and the antics and
gi'imaces of boys who are mimics cause great merriment. It
also gives a boy a good notion of how mechanical labour is done, as
no boy will ask for work unless he understands something of the
nature of the business he solicits to be employed upon. The game
bcffins thus, and it matters not how many boys are engaged in it : —
A line is drawn ; within that line is the shop, and when a bad work-
man is discharged he is pushed across the line. The employer, or
master, should oe a very sharp lad. A boy comes up, and the master
asks him if he wants a day's work ; the boy says he does. He is
then asked what trade he is ; if he says a tailor, a coat is supposed
to be given to him to make ; if a shoemaker, a pair of shoes ; if a
tinker, a saucepan to bottom; if a stonemason, a stone to cut or saw,
and every boy must imitate the actions of the tailor, shoemaker, &c.,
while at work, whatever the trades may be. Then the master looks
over the work, finds fault, gets in a rage, discharges the workman,
and, if he can, turns him out of the shop. But if in the struggle the
boy turns the employer out, he then becomes master, and the other
is set to work. So that, after a few good-natured trials of strength,
each boy in turn generally becomes master.
WTLL TOTJ LIST?
This is a very old game, and in some places is called " playing at
soldiers ; " the whole ceremony of enlisting is gone through, taking
the shilling and swearing to serve the Qaeen, &c. But there ought
to be two parties of boys, of not less than a dozen, witk a command-
ing officer on each side. After learning their exercise, such as
shouldering arms and marching, war breaks out ; then one party is
English and the other the enemy. Their weapons ought to be bul-
rusnes, or stout reeds, such as are used in building, or something
that will not do any injury when the charge commences. The side
that breaks or takes away the most weapons is the conqueror, and
much skill may be displayed in capturing the arms of others, and
24
EVERY boy's book.
retaining your own. If boys can get some old soldier to drill them
a few times, this may be made as good a game as they can play at.
We have too few military amusements in our English games.
WHOOP !
One player takes his station at a spot called the "home," while
the others go to seek out various hiding-places in which to ensconce
themselves ; when all are ready, one of them calls out " "\'\nioop ! "
on which the player at the " home" instantly goes in search of the
hiders, and endeavours to touch one of them as they run back to
"home;" if he can do so, the one caught taVes his place at the
*' home," while he joins the out players.
HIGH BAHBAREE!
In this game sides are chosen, and one party remains " at home,"
while the other hides. When the hiders are all ready, one of them
calls out " High Barbaree ! " upon which the seekers sally forth to
look for them, as in " Whoop ! " If the seekers can succeed in
touching a certain number of the hiders before they can get to
" honie," they take their turn at hiding. The number to be caught
must be agreed upon beforehand, and of course depends upon the
number of players. It is usual to mention this number in the cry —
thus, " High barbaree ! t/iree caught he 1 " — "fottr raught he ! " and
?o forth. As a general rule, the number to be caught should exceed
half the number of the hiders.
BULL IN THE EING.
This active, merry, noisy game can be played by aisy number of
boys, and commences by their joining hands and forming a ring.
DROPPING THE HANDKERCHIEF. 25
having enclosed some boy in the middle, who is the Bull. It is the
Bull's part to make a rush, break through the ring, and escape, and
the part of the boys who form the ring to hold their hands so fast
together that he cannot break their hold. Before making a rush the
Bull must cry " boo " to give warning, so that the boys may grasp
their hands more tightly. The whole ring generally replies to the
Bull's challenge by crying ** boo " all together, and a pretty noise
they make. When the Bull breaks through the ring he is pursued
until" captured, and the boy who seizes him first is " Bull when
they return. A good " Bull " will lead them a pretty dance, clearing
hedges and ditches; and if he gets hack and touches some mark
agreed upon, near to where he broke through the ring, he is " Bull "
again.
COCK FIGHT.
This humorous sport must not be confounded with the cruel battles
between game-cocks once so popular in England. Two boys repre-
sent the feathered combatants ; each hops upon one leg, with his arms
folded, and bumps against the other, endeavouring to compel him to
put both feet to the ground. The boy who keeps up longest wins
the game.
DROPPING THE HANDKERCHIEF.
A tolerably large ring should be formed by several boys standing
in a circle and joining hands ; another bov, who stands out, when atl
are ready walks round outside the ring, drops a handkerchief behind
one of the players, and immediately runs off ; he is instantly followed
by the one behind whom he dropped the handkerchief, and who must
track him in all his windings in and out under the arms of the boys
in the ring, who elevate them for the purpose, and indeed wherever
he runs to ; should the pursuer be able to touch the pursued, the
former takes the handkerchief in his turn, and the latter joins hands
in the circle. If the boy who dropped the handkerchief is enabled
to elude his follower by passing through and about the ring, he
walks again round and drops the handkerchief behind some other
player.
EASY GAMES WITHOUT TOYS
INDOOK.
J
BLIND man's buff
Consists in one person having a hand-
kerchief bound over his eves, so as to
completely blind him, and thus blind-
folded trymgto chase the other players,
either by the sound of their footsteps,
or their subdued merriment, as they
scramble away in all directions, en-
deavouring to avoid being caught
by him ; when he can manage to
catch one, the plaver caught must in
turn be blinded, and the game be begun
again. In some places it is customary
for one of the players to inquire of
Buff (before the game begins), " seeing's believing, '
" How many horses has your mther
got ? '* to which inquiry he responds, " Three." " What colours are
they?" "Black, white, and §rey." The questioner then desires
Buff to ''turn round three times, and catch whom you may,"
which request he complies with, and then tries to capture one of the
players. It is often played by merely turning the blindfold hero round
and round without questioning him, and then beginning. The hand-
kerchief must be tied on fairly, so as to allow no little holes for Buffy
to see through. Blind Man's Buff is a very ancient pastime, having
been known to the Grecian youths. In England it formerly went
oy the name of Hoodman Blind, because it was customary to blind
Buff with his hood.
BOB-CHEERY.
Attach a cherry to a piece of string, and then fasten it to a door,
sufficiently high to compel the player to jump a little in order to
I
BUFF — CONCERT. 27
I
catch the cherry in his mouth. The cherry is then set swinging ;
and the players, ranging themselves in line, jump at the cherry, one
after the other. This game is productive of much amusement, and
may be kept up for a long time.
BUFF.
In this game one of the players enters the room, armed with a
noker, with which he taps on the floor. "Where do you come
irom ? " inquires one of the company. " Alas ! from poor Buff, who
is full of grief." "And what did he say to you?" "He spoke
thus," is the reply —
" " BufT said ' Baff,'
And gave me this staff,
And bade me not laugh
Till I came to his house again."
aving thus spoken, the messenger leaves the room. While he has
been delivering his speech, the company, however, endeavour to
make him laugh, by asking him any aosurd questions that may pre-
sent themselves to their imagination. If they do not succeed in this,
the emissary of the great Buff delivers himself of a more lengthy
address : —
" Buff says ' Baff' to all his men.
And I say ' Baff' to you again ;
But he neither laughs nor smiles
In spite of all your cunning wiles,
But keeps his face with a very good grace,
And carries his staff to the very next
CONCERT.
A noisier game than this could scarcely be desired by the most
boisterous oi our young friends. The players having selected a
" conductor," seat themselves round him in a circle. The conductor
now assigns to each a musical instrument, and shows how it is to be
played. When all are provided with their imaginary instruments,
the conductor orders them to tune, and by so doing, he gives each
musician a capital opportunity for making all sorts of discordant
noises. When tlie different instruments have been tuned, the conductor
waves an unseen baton, and commences humming a lively air, in
which he is accompanied by the whole of his band, each player en-
deavouring to imitate with his hands the different movements made in
performing on a real instrument. Every now and then the conductor
pretends to play on a certain instrument, and the player to whom it
belongs must instantly alter his movements for those of the con-
ductor, and continue to wield the baton until the chief player
abandons his instrument. Should a player omit to take the con-
ductor's oflBce at the proper time, he jnust pay a forfeit. The fun of
this game greatly depends upon the humour of the conductor, and
the adroitness with which he relinquishes his baton and takes up the
instruments of the other players.
28 EVERT BOY^S BOOK.
CONSEQUENCES.
The first player writes an adjective on the upper part of a slip of
paper, and then folds the slip so that the written word cannot be
seen by the next player, who writes the name of a gentleman, real or
imaginary, on the paper, which he passes to another after having
folded it over again. The third player writes an adjective; the
fourth, a lady's name ; the fifth, tne name of a place ; the sixth,
what the gentleman said to the lady ; the seventh, the ladfs reply ;
the eighth, the consequences; and the ninth, what the world said
about the whole affair. One of the players now unfolds the slip and
reads what has been written by the different persons engaged in the
?jame, adding a few words to unite the disjointed members of the
ittle narrative. As a specimen of the ludicrous result which arises
from each player's ignorance of what has been written by his com-
panions, we give the following pathetic tale, in which the words and
phrases printed in italics represent those written on the slip of
paper: — "The ill favoured Peter Wilkins met the adorable Jenny
Jones in the silver mine of Potosi. He said to her, * JFill you love me
then as now ? ' and she replied, * When did I refuse you anything ? *
The consequences were, h^e drowned himself in the water-butt and she
married the baker, and the world said, * Served them right ! ' " When
there are only three or four plaj^^ers, the slip of paper is to be passed
round from one to another until it is filled up. When the players
are numerous, three or four slips may be commenced simultaneously
by different persons.
CROSS QUESTIONS AND CROOKED ANSWERS.
This game will be best described by a short dialogue.
Harry. — I am ^oing to put a question in a whisper to Tom, who
is seated on my right hand, to which he will replv in the same tone.
He will then put a question to his next neighbour, and receive
his answer. When the tour of the circle is made, I shall commence
by stating aloud the question put to me by my left-hand neighbour,
answering it bv the reply received in answer to my own from Tom.
He will then do the same, giving my question and his next neigh-
bour's reply. — (Whispers to Tom.) Of what use are the bellows I
Tom. — To blow up the fire. — (To Charles) Of what use is a fire-
engine ?
Charles. — To put out a fire.— (To John) Of what use is a plough ?
John. — To plough up the ground.— (To James) Of what use is a
cap?
. — To cover the head. — (To Edward) Of what use is a
shoe?
Edward. — To protect your foot.— (To William) Of what use is a
black pin ?
William. — To fasten your collar with. — (To Harry) Of what use is
a barometer ?
I
DUMB MOTIONS FAMILY COACH. 29
Harry. — To tell the weather. — (Aloud) William has iust asked
me the use of a barometer ? Tom replies, '' To blow up the fire ! "
Tom. — Harry has asked me the use of the bellows ; and Charles
replies, " To put out the fire ! "
Charles. — Tom wishes to know the use of the fire-engine, and
John tells him, " To plough up the ground," &c.
Any mistake is punished by a forfeit.
DUMB MOTIONS.
The players form sides, and decide who shall be masters and who
men. The principal aim of the men is to keep working as long as
possible, and to prevent the masters taking their places. The men
consult secretly among themselves, and decide upon some trade or
profession, the practice of which may be certain movements of the
arms, hands, or legs. They now range themselves opposite the
masters, and the foreman tells them the first and last letters of the
trade they are about to exercise ; as for example, C — r for carpenter,
D — t for druggist, B — h for blacksmith, and so on. The men now
set to work and express in dumb motions the various labours belong-
ing to the craft they have chosen. Let us suppose that they have
selected the trade of blacksmith : one of the players will appear to
be blowing the forge bellows, another will seem to be filing some-
thing in a vice, while others will be violently exerting themselves by
wielding imaginary sledge-hammers round an unseen anvil. If any
of the men speak at their work, or make use of inappropriate
gestures, the whole side is out. The masters are allowed one guess
each, and if none of fhem can hit upon the right trade, the men tell
them their occupation, and then fix upon another. If the masters
can guess the name of the trade, the men are out and become
masters. The men need not continue their labours until all the
masters have guessed, but may stop working, and demand their
wages, after having plied their craft for a reasonable time. When
the name of a trade consists of two words, the men must tell the
first and last letter of each word, as C — h B — r, for coach builder.
FAMILY COACH.
y ^ The chief player in this amusing game must possess the faculty of
inventing a long storv, as well as a tolerably good memory. This
plaver gives to each of the others the name oi some person or thing
to be mentioned in the story he is about to relate. For example, he
may call one "the coachman," another "the whip," another "the
inn," another the " old gentleman," another the " footman," another
" the luggage," and so on, until he has named all the persons en-
gaged in the game. The story-teller now takes his stand in the
centre of the room, and commences his narrative ; in the course of
which he takes care to mention all the names given to the players.
30 EVERY boy's book.
When the name of a player is mentioned, he must immediatdy rise
from his seat, turn round, and sit dovm again, or else pay a forfeit
for his inattention; and whenever " the family coach" is named, all
the players must rise simultaneously. In the following example of a
story, the names given to the different players are printed in itaHcs :
" An old gentleman, dreading an attack of the gout, resolved to pay a
visit to the hot wells of Batii j he therefore summoned his coachman,
and ordered him to prepare the family coach (all the players rise,
turn round, and sit down again). The coachman, not liking the pros-
pect of so long a journey, tried to persuade the old gentleman that
THE FAMILY COACH was out of repair, that the leader was almost
blind, and that he (the coachman) could not drive without a new
whip. The old gentleman stormed and swore upon hearing these
paltry excuses, and ordered the coachman out of the room, while the
little dog sprang from under his master's chair and flew at the calves
of the offender, who was forced to make a precipitate exit. Early
the next morning, the family coach belonging to the old gentleman
stopped at an inn on the Bath road, much to the surprise of the land'
lord, who had never seen such a lumbering conveyance before. The
FAMILY COACH Contained the old gentleman, the old lady (his wife),
and the little dog that had made such a furious attack on the poor
coachman's legs. The landlord called the landlady, who came
bustling out of the inn to welcome the old gentleman and old lady.
The footman jumped down from behind the family coach, and
helped the old gentleman and the old lady to alight, while the boots
and chambermaid belonging to the inn busied themselves with the
luggage. The little dog trotted after the old lady, but just as it was
going into the inn, the coachman gave it a cut with his whip. The
little dog howled, upon which the old gentleman turned round, and
seeing the coachman with his whip raised, he seized him by the
throat. The footman came to the assistance of his friend the coach-
man, and the ostler belonging to the inn took the side of the. old
gentleman. The landlord, landlady, chambermaid, boots, cook, stable-
boy, barmaid, and all the other inmates of the inn, rushed into the
road to see what was the matter, and their cries, joined to the yells
of the little dog and the screams of the old lady, so frightened the
leader, the white horse, and the brown mare, that they ran away with
THE family coach." Of coursc this tale might have been con-
tinued to any length, but the specimen we have given will be suffi-
cient to give the story-teller some idea of what is expected from him
to keep up the fun of the game.
FROG in the middle.
This is a highly amusing, though very simple game. One player
seated on the ground is surrounded by his comrades, who pull and
buffet him till he can catch one of them, when the person so caught
takes his place, and is buffeted in like manner. As the players sport
THE FOUR ELEMENTS — HAND. 31
round the Frog, they usually cry, " Frog in the middle — can't catch
me ! " but they frequently find that this is vain boasting, as Froggy
does catch them now and then.
THE FOUR ELEMENTS.
J/' The party being seated in a circle, the player who has been chosen
to commence the game takes a knotted handkerchief, and throws it
suddenly into another's lap, caUing out at the same time either
"Earth !" " Water !" " Air ! " or "Fire ! " If " Earth" be called out,
the player into whose lap the handkerchief has fallen must name some
quadruped before the other can count ten ; if " Water ! " he must
name a fish ; if " Air ! " a bird ; and if *' Fire ! " he must remain
silent. Should the player name a wrong animal, or speak when he
ought to be silent, he must pay a forfeit and take a turn at throwing
the handkerchief ; but should he perform his task properly, he must
throw the handkerchief back to the first player. Those who have
never joined in this simple game can have no idea of the absurd
errors into which the different flayers fall when summoned unawares
to name a particular kind of animal.
HAND.
The game of Hand is of great antiquity, and is common to almost
every nation, whether savage or civilized. In many of the rural dis-
tricts of England this universal pastime is known by the name of
" Coddem." To play at Hand, sides must be formed, and the
players of each side must seat themselves at a table opposite their
antagonists. Chance decides which of the sides shall first hide the
piece, which may be any small object that can be easily held in the
closed hand of one of the players. One of the fortunate players now
exhibits the piece to his opponents ; having done which, he cries out,
" Hands down ! " at which signal he and his comrades put their
hands out of sight, and in the language of the game, commence
" working the piece," which operation is performed by shifting the
piece from hand to hand, so as to deceive the opposite players as to
its whereabouts. When the piece has been properly worked, the
chief player calls out, " Hands up," and he and all his comrades
simultaneously place their closed fists on the table. The top player
on the opposite side has now to fix upon the hand in which the piece
is concealed. There are two ways of guessing, either of which he
may adopt ; the first is to point at once to the hand supposed to
contain the piece, and cry out, " Hand ! " the second mode of guess-
ing is to point to those hands which appear to be empty, saying with
each guess, " Take that hand away ! " and when most of the nands
have been removed from the table, to fix upon the most likely-looking
one among those that remain. If the guesser can find the piece
without making a mistake, he claims it for his party, and is entitled
to guess again when the opposite side regains it ; but if he makes a
32 EVERY boy's book.
mistake, either by ordering the hand that holds the piece to be
removed, or by "handing" an empty fist, his antagonists retain the
piece, and having concealed it, the second player attempts to discover
its whereabouts. From our description, the reader will probably
regard Hand as a mere frivolous ^ame of chance ; but we can assure
him that chance has little to do with the discovery of the piece. A
good Hand player watches the faces of his opponents while their
hands are engaged in working the piece under the table ; he scru-
tinises the different hands, and does not allow himself to be misled
by any of the cunning devices which the hiders employ to throw him
off the right scent ; again, when he has the piece in his possession,
he takes care not to let a tightly-clenched fist, a guUty smile, or an
anxious expression, betray the fact to his wary antagonist.
HOT BOILED BEANS.
In this game, one of the players is sent out of the room, while the
others hide a handkerchief or any small article that can be easily
secreted. When the article has been concealed, the door is opened,
and the seeker is invited to enter in these words : " Hot boiled beans
and butter ; walk in and find your supper." The seeker now sets to
work to look for the hidden article. When he approaches the place
of concealment, his playmates must give him notice of it, by telling
him that he is " rather warm," " verv hot," or, if he gets very near
it, that he " burns." When he wanders awav from the object of his
search, he is told that he is *' cold ; " and if he persists m his mis-
taken course, he is informed that he " freezes." Should the seeker
succeed in findinf^ the hidden article, another player goes out of the
room in his stead.
HOT COCKLES.
One player with his eyes bandaged lays his head on a chair, or in
another player's lap, while the otners strike him on his back with
their open hands. In this unenviable position he remains until he
can guess who strikes him, when the striker takes his place. The
poet Gay describes this pastime in the following lines : —
" As at Hot Cockles once I laid me down,
And felt the weighty hand of many a clown,
Buxoma gave a gentle tap, and I
Quick rose, and read soft mischief in her eye."
HOW? WHEB,E? AND WHEN?
One of the players is sent out of the room, while the others fix
upon a subject, which may be anything to which the three questions,
*' How do you like it ? " " Where do you like it ? " and " When do
you like it? " will apply. When the subject has been decided upon,
the out-player is summoned. He now puts the first question to the
nearest player, who returns him a puzzling answer ; he then passes
to the next, and repeats the same question ; then to the next, and
HUNT THE WHISTLE. 33
80 on, until he has made the round of the room. If none of the
answers enable him to guess the subject, he tries each player with
the second question, and if the answers to this leave him still in the
dark, he solicits a reply from each to the third and last Question.
Should the player fail to guess the subject after asking tne three
questions, he pays a forfeit and takes another turn outside; but
should he succeed in guessing it during his rounds, the player last
questioned must pay a' forfeit, and go out of the room in his place.
The in-players should always endeavour to hit upon some word that
has two or three meanings for a subject, as such a word renders the
answers extremely confusing. For instance, if Jack be the subject
decided on, one of the players may say, in answer to the first query,
that he likes it " fried," referring to fish called the Jack ; in answer
to the second, that he likes it " before the kitchen fire," referring
now to a roasting-jack ; and in answer to the third, that he likes it
when he is " dressing," now regarding the subject as a boot-jack.
HUNT THE SLIPPER,
This old-fashioned pastime is so generally known that it is scarcely
necessary to describe it; however, as it forms one of the merriest in-
door sports for the long winter evenings, it would be absurd to omit
it in this work. Several boys seat themselves in a circle on the
ground, and another, taking his place inside the ring, gives a slipper
to one of them, by whom it is immediately and secretly handed to
one of his neighbours ; it is now passed round from one sitter to
another, with as much dexterity as possible, so as to completely
perplex the " hunter " (or player standing in the middle) in his en-
deavours to " chase the slipper by its sound," and who must continue
his search until successful. The player in whose possession it is
found must in his turn " hunt the slipper," whilst the former hunter
joins the sitters.
HUNT THE KING.
A game almost similar to the former. A piece of tape, on which
a ring is fastened, is held by the players as they stand in a circle,
with one in the middle. The ring is passed from hand to hand, and
the hunter's business is to find out in whose hand the ring is.
HUNT THE "WHISTLE.
. A boy who has never seen the game placed is elected hunter ; the
others seat themselves on the ground, as m Hunt the Slipper. The
hunter, having been shown the whistle, kneels in the centre of the
circle, and lays his head in the lap of one of the players until the
whistle is concealed. While he is in this posture, the whistle is to
be secretly attached to the back part of his jacket or coat, by means
of a piece of string and a bent pin. One of the players now blows
the whistle and drops it, and the hunter, being released, is to". .; ;i;
D
34 EVERT boy's book.
find it ; but this is no easy task, as he carries the object of his search
about his own person. As the hunter kneels in the centre of the
group, the different players blow through the whistle and drop it, as
the opportunities occur. The puzzled hunter is sometimes fairly
tired out before he discovers the trick that is played upon him. We
need scarcely say that the whistle should be very small and light.
MAGIC MUSIC.
This is a very similar game to Hot Boiled Beans. One
player having been sent out of the room, the others arrange some
simple task for him to perform on his return. When this has
been done, he is summoned by the magic music, which is played by
one of his comrades, either by tapping a tea-tray with a key, or by
rattling the poker and tongs together. The boy who has been sent
out of the room must perform his appointed task under the guidance
of the musician, who so regulates his performance on the rude instru-
ments that the music gets loud and noisy when the puzzled player
does what he ought not to do, and grows soft and quiet when he
does anything towards the performance of his task. To render this
game more intelligible, we will suppose the task to be the removal
of a certain chair from one room to another. The player having
entered the room is saluted by the magic music, the unmeaning
clatter of which only confuses him at first. He walks towards the
side of the room where the chair is stationed, and as he approaches
it the clatter grows fainter ; this informs him that he is in the right
path. He touches the table, but removes his hand at the sound of
the music, which suddenly gets terribly noisy. He touches the
chair ; the music ceases. He now knows that he is expected to do
something with this particular chair, so he very naturally sits down
upon it ; but he jumps up directly he hears the " clatter, clatter,
clatter " of the music .^ He lifts the chair, and as he does so the
music grows soft again. He now turns the chair upside down ;
carries it into the middle of the room ; places it on the sofa ; but all
to no purpose, as he cannot stop the continual clatter of the magic
music. At last he carries the chair into the adjoining room; the
music ceases, and his troublesome task is accomplished. In this
noisy but amusing game the players go out of the room, and have
tasks set them in turns. The musician generally retains his office
throughout the game.
This exciting game may be played by an unlimited number, and is
particularly adapted for a large party. One of the players, called
"the postman," has his eyes bandaged as in Blind Man's Buff; another
volunteers to fill the office of " postmaster-general," and all the rest
seat themselves round the room. At the commencement of the
^ame the postmaster'assigns to each player the name of a town, and,
if the players are numerous, he writes the names given to them on a
PROVERBS — LIST OF PROVERBS. 35
slip of paper, in case his memory should fail him. These prelimina-
ries having been arranged, the blind postman is placed in the centre
of the room, and the postmaster-general retires to some snug comer,
whence he can overlook the other players. When this important
functionary calls out the names of two towns, — thus, "London to
Halifax,"— the players who bear these names must immediately change
seats, and as they run from one side of the room to another, the
postman tries to capture them. If the postman can succeed in
catching one of the plajers, or if he can manage to sit down on an
empty chair, the player that is caught, or excluded from his place,
becomes postman. The postmaster-general is not changed through-
out the game unless he gets tired of his office. When a player re-
mains seated after his name has been called he must pay a forfeit,
or if the game is played without forfeits he must go to the bottom of
the class, which is represented by a particular chair, and to make
room for him all the players who were formerly below him shift
their places.
PROVERBS.
One player leaves the room, and while he is absent the rest fix
upon some proverb. The words are then distributed among them,
and each player, in reply to a question asked by the guesser, has to
introduce his particular word. When all the words have been intro-
duced, the guesser has to guess the name of the proverb, and another
player takes his place. If, however, he cannot make it out, he has
to leave the room again.
LIST OF PROVERBS.
A false friend is worse than a bitter enemy.
A penny saved is a penny gained.
A man is known by the company he keeps.
A bad workman quarrels with his tools.
All is not gold that glitters.
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
A good name is better than wealth.
A good word costs nothing.
A little rain lays much dust.
A little spark makes a great flame.
A bird in hand is worth two in a bush.
Better late than never.
Barking dogs seldom bite.
Cut your coat according to your cloth.
Empty vessels make the most sound.
Example is better than precept.
Evil beginnings have bad endings.
Friends are plenty when the purse is lull
Good ware makes quick markets.
d2
36 EVERY boy's book.
Great cry and little wool.
Gather thistles, expect prickles.
Half a loaf is better than no bread.
Hear twice before you speak once.
In a calm- sea every man is a pilot.
Idle folks have the least leisure.
It's an ill wind that blows nobody good.
If a thin» is worth doing, it is worth doing well.
It's a sad heart that never rejoices
Least said is soonest mended.
Let them laugh that win.
Look before you leap.
Long looked for comes at last.
Make hay while the sun shines.
Many a slip between the cup and the lip.
Make the best of a bad bargain.
Marry in haste, repent at leisure.
Of two evils choose the least.
One good turn deserves another.
Opportunity makes the thief.
Out of sight out of mind.
Penny wise and pound foolish. ^
Prevention is befter than cure.
Pride will have a fall.
Short reckonings make long friends.
Strike while the iron's hot.
Still waters run deep.
Safe bind, safe find.
The best part of valour is discretion.
Waste not, want not.
Where there's a will there's always a way.
Wilful waste makes woful want.
PUSS IN THE CORNER.
Four players take their stations in the four corners of a room, and
a fifth, called " Puss," places himself in the middle of it ; the players
in the corners then change places by running to the opposite ends,
and Puss must endeavour to get into one of the vacant places before
the opposite player is able to reach it ; if he can do so, the player left
out becomes Puss.
RED-CAP AND BLACK-CAP.
The players sit round in a circle, each taking a colour. Thus one
is red-cap, another black-cap, and so on. One of them, who takes
the place of master, and has no colour, taking up a cap says : " Hullo,
heres a false stitch. Who made it, blue-cap?" Blue-cap then
answers, "Who, sir? I, sir?" "Yes, you, sir!" ''Not I, .sir."
SHADOW BUFF — SLATE GAMES. 37
" Who then, sir ? " " Yellow-cap, sir." Yellow-cap then starts up
and says, "Who, sir? I, sir?" and goes through the dialogues,
fiving another colour. The player who neglects to start up when
is colour is mentioned, or who does not repeat the question
correctly, pays a forfeit.
SHADOW BUFP.
Shadow Buff differs very materially from Blind Man's Buff, but it
is equally amusing. A large piece of white linen should be fastened
neatly up at one end of room, so that it hangs quite smooth ; Buff
(not blinded) seats himself on a low stool with his face to the linen,
and a table, on which is a lighted candle, should be placed about
four or five feet behind him, ana the rest of the lights in the room
extinguished, Buffy's playfellows next pass in succession, between
the candle and him, distorting their features in as grotesque a manner
as possible — hopping, limping, and performing various odd antics, so
as to make their shadows very unlike their usual looks. Buffy must
then try to guess to whom the shadows belong, and if he guesses
correctly, the player whose shadow he recognises takes his place.
Buff is allowea only one guess for each person, and must not turn
his head either to the right or left to see who passes.
SLATE GAMES.
Birds, Beasts, and Fishes. — " Now, Tom," said Harry, " get your
slate and pencil, and I'll show you such a jolly game. Well now,
look here, 1 have put down h X X X a. Now that stands for a
beast's name, the first and last letters of which are h and a, with three
letters between, represented by the crosses."
*' Let's see," replied Tom, scratching his head, " I know — Hare."
" You muff ! There are only four letters in * hare,' and five in my
word. Try again — mind you have only three guesses; so look out."
Tom wondered again for a minute, and then suddenly blurted out,
" I know — Horse."
"Wrong again,'* replied Harry; *'the last letter of Horse is e and
not a. Now be careful, Tom, for this is your last turn."
Again Tom scratched his head, bit his lingers, and after meditating
for at least two minutes and a half, shouted out in a moment of
inspiration — " Hyena ! "
As he was right, it now became his turn to put down a name. So
he wrote on the slate s X X X X X w, at the same time telling
Harry it was a bird ; fur according to the rules of this game you must
say whether this name represents a beast, a fish, a bird, an insect, or
a reptile.
Harry in a minute shouted " Sparrow ! " and so the game went
on ; and such a capital game did Tom and Harry have, that they sent
this account of it to us in the hope that we would make it known to
the world in "Every Boy's Book."
^° EVERY boy's book.
Trench and English. — On the slate should be dravm a plan some-
\^hat like the following. The dots represent soldiers, one side being
termed Trench and the other English. Each player is provided with
a sharply pointed pencil, and the game is played as follows :— English,
keeping the point of his pencil on a spot denoted by a cannon, draws
it quickly across the slate in the direction of the other army. The
pencil naturally leaves a line to mark his track, and if this mark
passes through any of the men belonging to the other side, they are
considered dead. The game is over as soon as all the men on one
side are dead. Each player has a certain space on the slate allotted
to him, and he may dispose his men in whatever part of it he pleases
SLATE GAMES. 39
The track of the pencil must be straight or curved ; any shot in which
there is an angle does not count. In p. 38 we give a battle-field where
the strife is ended. In this the English side has killed all the oppo-
site side in eight shots, while the French in eight have only been aole
to kill nine men.
Noughts and Crosses. — This is a capital game, and one which every
school-boy truly enjoys. A figure is drawn as follows, and the object
of the one player is to draw three crosses in a line before the other
can draw three noughts. Thus A begins by drawing a -f- in the
1
n
n
■
1
centre division; B follows with a nought in the top right-hand comer.
A then draws a + in the bottom right-hand comer, because by this
means he gets two crosses in a line, and spoils one of B's chances.
B in a hurry instantly places a in the top left-hand comer, and A
follows by placing his -f- Jpetween the two O's. B then, seeing that
in the centre line A already has two crosses, places a in the third
vacant space of the line ; while A, as a last resource, plants his + in
the second space of the left-hand line. Then when B puts a in the
o
+
o
+
+
+
o
+
centre space at the left-hand, A places a + iii the bottom left-hand
comer, and the game is drawn, the plan standing as above.
40 EVERY boy's book.
TRADES.
Every player, except one wlio holds the office of reader, selects a
trade or profession, which he must retain throughout the game. When
all have chosen their trades, the reader opens a book at random,
and reads a passage from it aloud ; but when he comes to any common
noun, he looks at one of the tradesmen, who must instantly name
some article that he is supposed to have for sale, or some implement
connected with the exercise of his craft. By this substitution of
one noun for another, the most pathetic passage is converted into
an indescribable jumble of absurdities. In the following burlesqued
extract from an Eastern tale, the words in italics are supposed to be
supplied by the different tradesmen, in place of the nouns omitted by
the reader : —
" One offered the prince a bucket of the most precious mutton chops
of Golconda ; another a curious piece of a Wellington boot, made by a
European artist ; another a piece of the richest plum-pudding from
the looms of China ; another a pridiron, said to be a sovereign remedy
;igainst all poisons and infectious diseases ; another a choice piece
of the most fragrant Turkey rhubarb, in a warming-'pan, inlaid with
(icid drops ; another a coffin full of genuine treacle ; another a rock-
ing-horse of the purest breed of Arabia ; and another a Flanders brick
of exquisite beauty. The whole court of the palace was overspread
with gingerbread-nuts ; and long rows of slaves were continually
passing loaded with corn-plasters, tenpenny -nails, bees^-wax^ and other
articles of high price."
TRUSSED FOWLS.
T<7'o boys having seated themselves on the floor, are trussed by their
playmates ; that is to say, each boy has his wrists tied together with
a handkerchief, and his legs secured iust above the ancles with
another ; his arms are then passed over "his knees, and a broomstick
is pushed over one arm, under both knees, and out again over the
other arm. The " trussed fowls " are now carried into the centre of
room and placed opposite each other, with their toes just touching.
The fun now begins ; as each fowl endeavours, with the aid of his
toes, to turn his antagonist over on his back or side, and the one who
can succeed in doing this wins the game. It frequently happens that
both players turn over together, to the great amusement of the
spectators. On board ship these comical encounters frequently take
})lace between the boys, who are trussed by their elder shipmates. ..
THE TWO HATS.
This game, although only two persons are engaged in it at a time,
furnishes much amusement, from the contradictory nature of its
vords and actions. The rules relative to it are as follow : — If three
mistakes are made by the person who responds to the inquiries of the
WHAT IS MY THOUGHT LIKE? 41
player who brings the hats round, and whom for distinction's sake
we will call the questioner, he must pay three forfeits, and is out of
the game ; when the questioner desires the respondent to be seated,
the latter must stand up ; when he begs him to put his hat on, he
must take it oif ; when he requests him to stand, he must sit ; and
in every point, the respondent must take special care to do always
the very reverse of what the questioner wishes him. The questioner
may sit down, stand up, put his hat on, or take it off, without
desiring the respondent to do so, or giving him the least intimation
of his mtention ; the latter must, therefore, be always on his guard,
so as to act in a contrary way in an instant, else he incurs a forfeit.
These rules being settled, the game is simply this : one player places
a hat on his head, takes anotlier in his hand, and gives it to one of
the company; he then begins conversing with him, endeavouring
both by words and actions to puzzle him as much as he can, so as
to cause him to pay a forfeit. We will give a slight specimen of a
dialogue, describing the accompanying movements of the hats, in
which A is the questioner, B the respondent :
A. {taking his hat of.) A. very beautiful evening, sir.
B. {putting his hat on.) Yes, indeed, a most lovely one.
A. {putting his hat on, and sitting down, B. instantly taking his off
and getting up) Pray be seated, sir ; I really cannot think of sitting
while you stand {gets up, and B. sits down). Have you been out of
town this year ? {takes off his hat)
B. {putting his on) I have not yet, but I think I shall, before
(A. sits down, B. gets up) the beauty of the season has entirely passed
away, venture a few miles out of town.
A. {puttina his hat on) I beg ten thousand i)ardons, you are
standing while I am sitting ; pardon me, your hat is on — ^you must
pay a forfeit.
it generally happens, that before the dialogue has been carried
thus far the respondent has incurred three forfeits, and is, of course,
out ; the questioner then goes in succession to the others, and the
same scene is repeated by each : the conversation, it is almost need-
less to add, should be varied as much as possible, and the more non-
sensical it is the better.
WHAT TS MY THOUGHT LIKE?
The leader of the game commences it by asking each of his com-
panions in turn, " "What is my thought like ? " to which they reply
at hazard, by mentioning anything that first comes into their thoughts,
of course avoiding naming the same thing twice over, as that incurs
the penalty of a forfeit. The leader carefully notes down all the
answers he receives, and then revealing his thought, desires to know
what the thing thought of resembles in what it has been compared to.
John. — Charles, what is my thought like ?
Charles. — A young girl.
42 EVERY boy's book.
John. — James ?
James. — A queen.
John. — Now, Harry ?
Harry. — A lion.
/o^«.— Tom ?
Tom. — Beauty.
Jo^».— You, William ?
William. — An oak-tree.
John. — Alfred, it is vour turn.
Alfred. — A beautiful woman.
John. — Andrew P
Andrew. — Hope.
John. — Arthur ?
Arthur. — A hedgehog.
John. — Ben ?
Ben. — A rose.
John. — And you, Cecil ?
Cecil. — A vine.
John. — My thought was a rose ; so now, Charles, tell me why a
rose is like a young girl.
Charles. — Because it is loveliest when only half-blown.
John. — And why a queen ?
James. — Because the rose is the queen of all flowers.
John. — Harry, why is a rose like a lion ?
Harry. — Because it is one of the emblems of England.
John. — And why, Tom, is it like beauty ?
Tom. — Because it soon fades.
John. — ^William, whv is it like an oak ?
William, — Because both spring from the earth.
John. — And you, Alfred ; why is a rose like a beautiful woman ?
Alfred. — Because its fragrance often remains after the charms arc
faded.
John. — Andrew, why is a rose like hope ?
Andrew. — Because in returning sunshme it forgets the past storm.
John. — Arthur, why is a rose like a hedgehog ?
Arthur. — Because its thorns defend it from a rough grasp.
John. — You, Ben, having fixed upon the same thing as myself,
must pay a forfeit. Cecil, why is a rose like a vine ?
Cecil. — Because in old times they were both considered essential
to a banquet. I can think of nothing better.
•t'ASY GAMES WITH TOYS. OVTDOOR.
EASY GAMES WITH TOYS.
OUTDOOR.
CATCH BALL.
This is very simple play. The ball is thrown into the air by one
player, the others standing round him. He calls out the name of
the player, for whom the ball is thrown. If it be caught by the
player so called, before the ball reaches the ground twice, he scores
a point ; if any of the other players catch it, they score a point, and
"' e other loses one.
DOUTEE-STOOL.
This is a variety of the above game. A certain number of stools
re set up in a circular form, and at a distance from each other, and
very one is occupied by a single player ; when the ball is struck,
rhich is done, as oefore, by the hand, every one of them is obliged
D alter his situation, running in succession from stool to stool ; and
11 he who threw the ball can regain it in time to strike any of the
players before he reaches the stool to which he is running,' he-tfies
nis place, and the person touched must throw the ball, until he can
in like manner return to the circle.
44 EVERY boy's book.
EGG-HAT.
All the players engaged in this favourite pastime must place their
caps on the ground, close to the wall, in such a manner that a ball
may be easily pitched into them. A line being marked on the ground
about fifteen feet from the wall, one of the players takes his station
at it, and begins the game by throwing the ball into one of the caps ;
the moment this is done all the boys run away, excepting the one
into whose cap the ball is thrown, who immediately runs to take it
out, and endeavours to strike one of the fugitives by throwing the
ball at him ; if he can do so, the one struck has a small stone, called
" an egg," placed in his cap, and has to take his turn at pitching the
ball. Should the thrower fail to hit one of the boys as they are
running away, an " egg*' is put into his cap, and he has to pitch the
ball into the caps again. If a player fails to throw the ball into a
cap, he earns an "egg," but continues throwing until he succeeds,
when a player gets three "eggs" in his cap, he is out. When all
the players but one have been struck out, he is considered the
vrinner, and the punishment of the losers then commences ; one of
them standing near the wall bounces the ball at it with all his force,
and next stands with his back to the wall, stretching out his right
arm, and placing the back of his hand auite close to the wall, while
the winner, standing where the ball fell, takes aim, and throws the
ball at the said loser's hand three times : each of the losers likewise
receives the same punishment from him. In some places it is usual,
when one boy gets out, for him to bounce the ball against the wall,
and all the other players, standing at the spot where the ball first
touched the ground, to have their three balls at his
Cf-^ back, as he stands with his face to the wall. Should
I \ the ball in rebounding swerve either to the right or
left, a line must be drawn, from the spot where it
falls, to a place directly in a straight hue from the
boy at the wall ; thus, suppose A is the boy who
has just bounced the ball, which instead of going
direct to B, has deviated from the straight line
A B to C, a line should be drawn from C to B,
and the winner should stand at the latter.
FEEDER.
In this game four or five stones or marks must be placed on
the ground, as ia the annexed figure, A, B, C, D, E, about
twelve or fifteen yards asunder ; these marks are called
bases, and one of them, as A, is styled "home." The ^- P
players next toss up for the office of "feeder," who b. ^
takes his place about two yards in front of " home," ^ "
as at F, and the rest of the players stand at and "^
round the home. The feeder then calls out '* Play ! " and pitches
the ball to the first player, who endeavours to strike it ^ with
Ji
I
MONDAY, TUESDAY. 45
I
a bat, as far as he possibly can ; should he succeed in hitting
the ball, he immediately drops the bat, and runs to the first base on
his right hand, as E, while the feeder is going after the^ ball : but
if he can run all the bases and then home, before the ball is in hand,
so much the better. If, however, the feeder obtains the ball soon
enough to throw it at, and strike him with it as he is running from
base to base, the player is out ; he is also out if the feeder catches
the ball: in either case the player becomes feeder, and the latter
runs home to join his playmates. Should any of the other players
run home. If the first player could only reach the base E, after
striking the ball, he should, when the second player strikes it, run
to the base D, as it is not allowable for two persons to be at one base
at one and the same minute ; he proceeds in the same manner to the
third and fourth bases, until he arrives home again, thus enabling
the others to get to their bases and home in their respective turns.
The player with the bat is not obliged to take every ball the feeder
chooses to give him ; if he does not like a throw, he catches the
ball and throws it back again. He is not allowed to make more than
"offers" at the ball; if he does so he is out, and must be
der.
MONDAY, TUESDAY.
This game, which takes its title from the names assumed by the
yers, is played by seven boys, each of whom calls himself after
ne of the days of the week. To show the manner of playing
;he game, we will suppose that some boys are playing at it, and that
^ihe call is taken by "Wednesday;" he throws it up against a wall,
calling out at the same time the assumed name oi any one of the
ther players, who should be standing around — we will suppose, for
instance, " Friday ! " All the boys but Friday run away, and he
endeavours to catch it ere it falls to the ground ; if he can do so, he
throws it up again, calling out another boy's name — say " Sunday ! "
*"' ould the ball touch the ground before he can eaten it, he must
I
4:6 EVERY BOY*S BOOK.
pick it up and throw it at the retreating party ; and if he succeeds
m hitting one of them, the boy struck has to throw the ball up the
next time ; but if he cannot strike one he loses a point, as in Egg-
hat ; indeed, in the rules respecting the punishment of the losers,
and the number of points each player is restricted to, it resembles
that game.
NINE-HOLES.
Dig near a wall nine holes, of about six inches in diameter, and
three deep. Let each player have one of these, according to his
number, which must be determined by lot. At about six yards from
the holes draw a line, and from this, as a fielding place, one player
pitches the ball into one of the holes. The boy to whom this hole
IS assigned immediately runs to it, while all the other players run off
in different directions. The player snatches the ball from the hole,
and throws it at one of the ''runners;" if he hits him, the one so
hit becomes "pitcher," and the one that struck him marks one.
Should he not hit him, the player who throws the ball loses a point,
and bowls. The player who misses his aim at throwing the ball at
his partners a second time becomes a " Tenner." If he loses a third
hit, he is a " Fifteener ; " if the fourth, he stands out and can play
no more. When all the players are thus out, the last player remain-
ing in wins the game, and he can compel each of the losers to stand
with their hands open against the wall, for him to throw at, and give
what is called the " Brandy Ball." If the ball be a soft one, this
conclusion of the game is all very well ; but if a hard ball be used,
it ought to be omitted, or the " Brandy " may be too strong.
NORTHERN SPELL.
This game is played with a trap and ball, which is struck with a
bat or bludgeon at the pleasure of the players ; but the latter is most
commonly used. The performance of this game does not require the
attendance of either of the parties in the field to catch or stop the
ball, for the contest between them is simply who shall strike it the
greatest distance in a given number of strokes ; the length of each
stroke is measured before the ball is returned, by means of a cord
made fast at one end near the trap, the other being stretched into
the field by a person stationed there for that purpose, who adjusts it
to the ball, wherever it may be.
The cord is divided into yards, which are properly numbered upon
in it in succession, so that the person at the bottom of the ground
can easily ascertain the distance of each stroke by the number of the
yards, wnich he calls to the players to place to their account, and
the ball is thrown back.
BOUNDERS.
This is a most excellent game, and very popular in some of our
English counties. It is played with a moderate-sized ball and a
I
ROUNDERS. 47
■tak
m
^_tOU(
HlaU
pa
as
i
a1
ft:
hand-bat, i. e. a bat that can be held in one hand, and which is about
two feet in length, smooth, and round. Two parties play at the
game, and there ought not to be less than five on a side ; and the
first innings is decided by throwing up the ball, the party catching it
being allowed to go in first.
In playing the game, five stones, or stakes (called bases), or, if
these be not convenient, as many holes may be made, at about sixteen
yards apart, forming the five parts of a pentagon, as in the diagram.
At the centre of this figure is a station called the feeder's place,
being the spot at which one of the out party stands to give the
ball to the oatsman, or to " feed " him, as it is technically termed.
~he out party are distributed over the field, except the feeder, who
,kes his station at F to deliver the balls, while one of the in party
takes the bat and places himself at Eig. 1,
which is enclosed within a circle, and called
the Home, and where all the rest of the in
arty stand. . The feeder then says " Play," and
clivers his ball to the batsman, who imme-
diately strikes it as far as he can. As soon as
he has done so, he drops his bat, and runs to as
manv of the stations as he can; but he must
touch at all, or he will be out. If while he is
ning to the second, or between any of the bases, the returned
[ is sent up and strikes him, he is out, and the next of the in
party takes up the bat. If he is not struck while he runs, as soon
as he reaches one of the stations the next of the in party takes up
he bat, another ball is given by the feeder, and he runs to the first,
r as many other of the stations as he can ; the first batsman does
;he same, so as to go the whole round of the bases to the home at
K^o. 1. The in player is also out if he tips the ball behind him, or if
he misses striking it when delivered. The in players as they arrive
at home take the bat again, till they are got out, according to the
rules of the game just given. When it happens that all are out but
"wo, the best of the two may, with the consent of the other, call for
' three fair hits for the rounder." Standing at the home, the feeder
then gives him in succession three balls. He may decline as many
"balls as he pleases, if they do not suit him; but if he strikes at the
ball, he is only allowed to do so twice without running. On the
delivery of the third ball, he must run the entire course, touching
with his bat at every one of the five points. If, during his progress,
he be touched by the ball, or it be grounded at the home while he is
absent, he is declared out, and the opposite side ^o in and take their
places. If, on the contrary, he reaches home without being struck
or the ball grounded, his side go in again, and continue the game as
before. Should he miss the ball when striking at it the third time,
"he rounder is lost. In the play the feeder is allowed to make feint
r pretence of throwing the ball, in order to tempt a player to run
48 EVERY boy's book.
from his base, so as to get a chance of hitting him. It is usnal also
for the out party to place a player behind the home, so that when a
batsman makes a tip on the side of the home, he may seize the bail
and strike him out before he reaches the first base.
SEVENS.
This game is very Kke Catch-ball. The object is to catch a ball
seven times in a particular fashion; hence the name. The player
begins by throwing the ball in the air and catching it seven times
with both hands. Then he catches it seven times with the right
hand, next seven times with the left. Then he throws the ball up,
claps his hand while it is in the air, and catches it seven times with
botn hands, then with the right, and then with the left. The players
are allowed to make as many more variations as they please ; and he
who goes through the series first wins the game.
STOOL-BALL.
This is an old English sport, mentioned by Gower and Chaucer,
and was at one period common to women as well as men. In the
northern parts of England, particularly in Yorkshire, it is practised
in the follovring manner : — A stool being set upon the ground, one of
the players takes his place before it, while his antagonist, standing
at a distance, tosses a baU, with the intention of striking the stool.
It is the former player's business to prevent this, by breaking it away
with the hand, reckoning one to the game for every stroke of the ball ;
if, on the contrary, it should be missed by the hand, and touch the
stool, the players change places. The conqueror of the game is he
who strikes the ball most times before it touches the stool.
TRAP, BAT, AND BALL.
This game is so called from the trap used to elevate the ball when
it is to be struck by the batsman. It is one of the earliest games
played with the trap and ball, and we can trace it to the commence-
ment of the fourteenth century. The manner in which it was then
played was somewhat different to the style at the present day. As
now played, the-trap is no longer elevated, but set on the ground, and
is generally made in the form of a shoe, the heel pa^t being hollowed
HOOPS.
49
oat for the reception of the ball : but some boys, when they cannot
get a trap, make a hole in the ground, and having obtained the crochet
bone of an ox, place it in a slanting position, one end being in the
hole and the other out of it. The elevated end is then sharply struck
with the bat, which causes the ball to rise to a considerable height,
and then all the purposes of a trap are answered, especially if the
ground be hard and dry.
It is usual in the present game of Trap and Ball to place two
boundaries, at a given distance from the trap, between which it is
necessary for the ball to fall when struck by the batsman, for if it
falls outside of either, he gives up his bat and is out. He is also out
if he strikes the ball into the air, so that it is caught by an oppo-
site player ; and, again, if the ball when returned by an adversary
touches the trap, or rests within one bat's length of it. Every stroke
tells for one towards the striker's game.
There are some variations in the play of the game in different
counties. In Essex and Suffolk, for instance, the game is played
with a cudgel instead of a bat, which would seem to be a prefer-
able weapon, as those who strike with it rarely miss their blow,
but frequently send it to an astonishing distance, no boundaries
being set.
The ball being stopped by one of the opposing party, the striker
forms his judgment of the ability of the person who is to throw it
back, and calls in consequence for any number of scores towards the
^ame that he thinks proper. It is then returned, and if it appears to
his antagonist to rest at a sufficient distance to justify the striker's
call, he obtains his number ; but when a contrary opinion is held, a
measurement takes place, and if the scores demanded exceed in number
the length of the cudgel from the trap to the ball, he loses the whole,
and is out ; while, on the other hand, if the lengths of the bat are
more than the scores called for, the matter terminates in the striker's
favour, and they are set up to his account.
Trundling the hoop is a pastime of uncertain origin, but it has
long contributed to the health and amusement of the youth of Great
"Britain. Iron hoops have almost superseded the old-fashioned wooden
"les, and instead of being trundled with a stick, they are uaually
50 EVERT boy's book.
guided by an iron hook shaped like the annexed figure. On a cold
frosty mommg the hoop is an invaluable companion to a boy, as he
<S!! Si '>0
is enabled by its aid to defy tne weather, and dispense with overcoats,
comforters, and all such devices for keeping out the wintry wind.
Often have we envied our juvenile friends, as they have rushed past
us with their hoops, and lamented that custom should prevent
grown-up people indulging in the same healthful recreation.
THE HOOP.
The proper and legitimate hoop, however, should be made of a
stout ashen. iath, round on the outside and flat on the inside, and
should be well fastened at its point of juncture ; it should be in
height so as to reach .midway between the youngster's elbow and
shoulder, so that he may not have to stoop while striking it. The
stick should "be about sixteen inches long, and made of tough ash ;
and, in bowling the hoop, the bowler should strike it vigorously in
the centre, and in a direction horizontal with the ground. Such
hoop exercise is exceedingly good, and a good run with such a hoop
will warm the youth in the very coldest weather.
The games, properly so called, that can be played with the hoop
are very few, and not generally known.
ENCOUNTERS.
Two boys start at different ends of the playground with their
hoops, and, meeting in the middle, each endeavours to knock down
the hoop of his antagonist, while his own remains upright.
There is no small skill required in this game, for it is not always
easy to make the hoops toucn each other at all. Then a light hoop
has little chance against a heavy one, unless it can strike it side-
ways, for if- it were struck directly ia front, it would be certainly
Also, a ready hand at recovering a falling or tottering hoop wins
many a game that appears to be hopelessly lost.
Wooden hoops, also, give due exercise to the arm ; and there is
some tact required in knowing exactly where to strike a hoop, so as
to propel it with the greatest force.
This cannot well be done with iron hoops, and forms one of the
objections to them. Moreover, boys always complain that they soon
lose their round form, and are awkward to bowl. Still, there is
something cheering in the ringing sound of an iron hoop, as it rusles
HOOPS.
51
along under the pressure of the curved iron rod that is used instead
of alioop-stick ; and as long as boys don't drive thera against the legs
of unwary passengers, they are very well in their way.
HOOP 11A.CE.
Any number of boys can join in this exciting sport, but they ought
;\11 to be provided with hoops as nearly equal in size as possible. At
a given signal the players all start together, and each endeavours to
reach the winning post (which may be any distant object) before his
companions. He who arrives at the winning-post last is generally
received with groans, hisses, and other vocal signs of disapprobation.
POSTING.
Bases, called posting-stations, are formed at regular distances, in a
large circle or ellipse, and at each base a player is stationed. Every
player, except the hoop-driver, has charge of a base. Let us sup-
pose that there are seven players — A, B, C, D, E, F, and G, and
that the latter holds the hoop : the other six players having taken
possession of their stations, G now starts from the station belonging
to F, and drives the hoop towards A, who waits, with hoop-stick in
hand, ready to relieve G of his charge. G stops at the posting-
station, while A trundles the hoop to B, who takes charge of it, and
delivers it to C. C trundles the hoop to D ; P transfers it to E;
E delivers it to F ; and F conveys it in safety to the first player, G.
In this way the game continues, until all the players have worked
I round the circle nve or six times. It is considered very disgraceful
to touch the hoop vdth the hand, or to allow it to fall after it has
been started on its journey. The- game is rendered much more lively
by increasing the number of players, and having two or three hoop-
Jrivers to follow each other from base to base.
e2
52 EVERY boy's book.
I TOURNAMENT.
This game is almost tlie same as Encounters. Two boys drive their
hoops one against the other, and he whose hoop falls in the encounter
is conquered. With eight players this game may be rendered very
exciting. Four of the players stand in a row, about six feet apart,
and, at a considerable distance, the other four take their stand, facing
them. At a given signal each player dashes towards his opponent,
and strives to overturn his hoop. The four victors now pair off, and
charge two against two. The conquerors then urge their hoops one
against the other, and he who succeeds in overturning the hoop of
his antagonist wins the game. Wooden hoops are more suitable for
Tournament than iron ones, though the game is usually played with
the latter.
TUENPIKE.
Five or six boys can play at this game, though only one hoop is
required. Chance decides whicli of the players shall first take the
hoop. The other players become turnpike-keepers. Each turnpike
is formed of two bricks or stones, placed on the ground, and separated
by about three fingers' breadths. These turnpikes are fixed at regular
distances, and their number is regulated by the number of keepers.
When all is ready, the first player starts his hoop, and endeavours to
drive it through all the turnpikes ; should he succeed in this, he turns
the hoop, drives it back agam, and retains it until it touclies one of
the turnpikes, the keeper of which now becomes hoop-driver. When
a player toilches the hoop with his hand, or allows it to fall, he must
deliver it up to the nearest turnpike-keeper. Each keeper must stand
on that side of his turnpike which is towards the right hand of the
hoop-driver, and it therefore follows that he must alter his position
■when the hoop-driver returns. Should a keeper stand on his wrong
side, the driver need not send the hoop through his turnpike.
When the players are numerous, there may be two or more hoops
driven at once.
HOOP STICKa
p
The form of tlie kite and manner of flying it must be familiar to
all our readers. This favourite toy probably received its denomina-
tion from having originally been made in the shape of the bird called
the kite. The flying of paper kites is a favourite pastime among the
Chinese. On a certain day they hold a sort of kite festival, and then
people of all ages hasten to the hills to fly their kites, the fantastic
shapes and gaudy colours of which produce an extraordinary effect.
Philosophers have occasionally taken the kite out of the hands of the
schoolboy, and have applied it to useful and curious purposes. By
means of a kite formed of a silk handkerchief stretched over a wooden
frame, Dr. Franklin drew down lightning from the clouds, and
demonstrated its identity with electricity. Many years ago Mr.
Pocock, of Bristol, travelled on the road between Bath and London
in a carriage drawn by two paper kites, supported at a moderate ele-
vation, and impelled by the wind. The paper kite has also been
employed to convey a line over the capital of Pompey's Pillar. We
do not expect our readers to perform any electrical or locomotive
experiments with their kites ; but we are (juite sure that they may
derive great amusement from these little aerial machines, especially if
they manufacture them with their own hands. We know of no
pleasanter occupation for a summer's day than watching the graceful
flight of a well-made kite.
HOW TO MAKE A KITE.
For the upright get a good straight lath, as A B, in the annexed
figure, and next procure half of a thm hoop or cane for the bow C D,
and then tie the hoop to the upright at A, and take care to have as
much on one side of the upright as on the other ; otherwise your kite
^N/V£Bft/-rv \
54
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
will be sure to fall on one side when flying. Notcli the two ends of the
bow C D, and tie a long piece of string to D ; pass it round the upright
at E, and then fasten it at C ; next carry the strmg to
A, pass it down to D, and tie it there : ^from thence
it is to be continued to B, passed round a notch there,
and carried up again to C, then down the upright at
F, and up to D, where it is to be finally fastened off.
The skeleton being thus finished, the next thing to
be done is to paste several sheets of paper so as to
form a surface large enough to cover the kite and
allow of a little turn over to fasten the outer edges ;
after you have pasted the paper on to the skeleton,
you must make two holes, in the upright, as at G, G,
through which the belly-band is to be passed, knotting
the two ends of the string to keep it from shppii)&
through the holes. The wings are to oe made of several
sheets of paper, cut mto slips, rolled close up, so as to bear some
resemblance to a tassel, and tied to the sides of the kite at C, D. The
tail, which should be about fifteen times the length of the kite, is
made by folding a number of pieces of paper so as to be about an
inch in breadth, and four inches in length, and afterwards tying them
on a string at intervals of three inches, and is finished by affiSng to
the end of the string a large tassel made in the same manner as the
wings. Tie the string with which you intend to fly the kite to the
belly-band, and your kite is complete and ready for service.
FLYING THE KITE.
We need not enter very minutely into the rules to be observed in
flying a kite, as every boy is acquainted with them. Unless there be
a nice breeze stirring, the kite-flyer need not expect to have much
sport, as nothing can be more vexa-
tious than attempting to fly a kite
when there is not sufficient wind for
the purpose. To raise the kite in
the first instance, the flyer will re-
quire the aid of another boy. The
owner of the kite having unwound
a considerable length of string, now
turns his face towards the wind and
prepares for a run, while his assistant
holds the kite by its lower extremity
as high as he can from the grouna.
At a given signal the assistant lets
the kite go, and if all circumstances
be favourable it will soar upwards
with great rapidity. With a well-
constructed kite, in a good breeze'
KJTlitt.
55
the flyer need not trouble himself to run very fast nor very far, as his
kite will soon find its balance, and float quite steadily on the wind.
The kite-flyer should be careful not to let out string too fast. When
a kite pitches, it is a sign that it is built lop-side, or that its tail is not
long enough.
MESSENGERS.
Some boys amuse themselves by sending messengers up to their
kites when they have let out all their string. A messenger is formed
of a piece of paper three or four inches square, in the centre of which
a hole is made. The end of the string is passed through the hole,
and the wind quickly drives the messenger up to the kite. The kite-
flyer should be careful not to send up too many messengers, lest
they weigh down the kite.
CALICO KITES.
Calico has many advantages over paper as a covering for kites ; it
is not so liable to be torn, is not damaged by wet, and may be sewn
on the framework much more neatlv than paper can be pasted.
Being much heavier than paper, it is, liowever, only suited for large
kites. A portable calico kite may now be procured at most of the
toy-shops. The framework of this kite is formed of two slender
pieces of wood, which turn on a common centre in such a mannei
that they can either be shut up, so that one piece lies flat upon the
other, or opened out into the form of a cross. The calico covering is
attached to this cross by means of tapes. This portable kite can be
rolled up and carried to the field without inconvenience.
lANCy KITES.
Ingenioas boys now and then take a hnrt from the Chinese, and so
shape and paint their kites that they resemble different animate and
56
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
inanimate objects. The "officer kite," which has the figure of
a soldier painted on it, and the " hawk kite," which rudely repre-
sents a flying hawk, are common forms of fancy kites. A very funny
effect may be produced by painting a kite like a sailor, and attaching
moveable arms, instead of the ordinary tassel wings, to the shoulders.
We present our readers with a few suggestive forms, which are
quite novel. All fancy kites should be painted with the most
glaring colours, and the figures on them drawn as coarsely as possible,
as they are intended to be seen at a great distance.
A HIGH KLVi.U.
In ancient times, when we were boys, and indulged in the Ixumry
of marbles, they were very different from their present form. They
were made of stone, nicely polished, and some of them, called " aUevs,"
of the purest marble. Many of the stone marbles were beautirally
variegated, and now and then a fancy pet was treasured under the
name of " taw," which had somewhat the virtues of a talisman, for
to " lose it or to give it " were " such perdition," as Othello says, as
could never be exceeded. Of late years, marbles, like all other
matters, have undergone considerable change. Foreign marbles
have been introduced, prodigiously cheaper, it is true, than our old
English marbles, but infinitely worse ; and various kinds of "patent
marbles " have had their day. Some of these go by the name of
Dutchmen, others are caEed Frenchmen, and others again Chinamen,
while it is not quite impossible to procure some right old English
marbles, which, if they can be procured, are still the best. We
would advise all marble players to procure these, if they can, as
" marbles " is a royal game, and ought to be duly honoured.
Hoio to Shoot your Marble. — The art of holding a marble to shoot
it properly seems to be lost among our London boys, who are gene-
58
EVERY boy's book.
HOW TO HOLD
TOUR TAW.
rally content to throw one marble at another, or if
they shoot it to hold it in the turn of the fore-finger,
forcing it out by the thumb, which is placed behind
it. ThiSj in our boyish days, was held to be a very
illegitimate way of proceeding, derogatory to the true
marble-player, and bore the dishonourable appellation
of " fulking," and any one who made it his rule to
hold a marble in such a manner was looked upon as a
charlatan, or almost a cheat. The true way to hold
your taw is to place it between the point of the fore-
finger and the first joint of the thumb, and to propel
it from the nail of the thumb with strong muscular
force ; and so great was the skill attained by many
boys, that they would sometimes strike a marble at five yards' dis-
tance, and frequently shoot one to six or seven.
BOUNCE EYE.
This ^ame is played by several players, each of whom puts down a
marble in a small ring. One player then stands in a perpendicular
position over the cluster of maroles, and, taking his own bounce in
his hand, lets it fall from his eye on to the heap, and those forced
out of the ring by this method are considered won. If he does not
succeed in this, and his marble falls within the ring, it belongs to the
common stock, and is there impounded.
CONQUEROR.
There is a game called " Conqueror," which is extensively played
in some places. A piece of hard ground, and free from stones, is
chosen for the spot. The first player lays his marble on the ground,
and the second throws his own at it with all his force, and endeavours
to break it. If he succeeds, his marble counts one, and the van-
quished player lays down another marble. If two players have
marbles that have already vanquished others, the " Conqueror "
counts all the conquered of the other party in addition to his own.
jFor example, suppose A, being conqueror of twenty, breaks B, also
a conqueror of twenty, A counts forty-one, i.e. twenty of his own,
twenty for the vanquished belonging to B, and one for B itself.
Nuts, chestnuts, and other similar objects are also employed in
this game, only they are fastened to a string, and swung against the
opponent, instead of being thrown.
DIE SHOT.
This is a very good game, and requires both
skill and caution. It is played by elevating a die
upon a marble, whose sides are shghtly ground
down, so that it will stand firmly, and ming at it
from an oflBng, which is generally at a distance of
about four feet from it. The die-keeper under-
MARBLES. 59
fakes to pay to the shooter who knocks down the die the number
Avhich falls uppermost, receiving one marble from each player as he
shoots.
EGGS IN THE BUSH.
This game is a great improvement upon odd or even. Dick asks
Tom to guess the number of " eggs in the bush" — that is, the num-
ber of marbles in his closed hand. If Tom can guess the ri^ht
number, he takes all ; but if he is out in his reckoning, he pays Dick
as many marbles as will make up or leave the exact number. Suppose
Dick has six marbles in his hand ; now, if Tom should guess either
four or eight, he would have to forfeit two marbles to Dick, because
four is two less, and eight is two more, than the exact number. The
players hold the " eggs in the bush" alternately.
INCREASE POUND
In most respects resembles Ring taw, the variations being, that if
before a marble is shot out of the ring one player's taw is struck by
another's (excepting his partner's), or if his taw remains within the
ring, he puts a shot in the pound, continues in the game, and shoots
again from the offing before any of his companions. If his taw is
struck after one or more marbles have been driven out of the ring, if '
he has taken any shots himself, he gives them to the player who
struck him, puts a taw in the ring, and shoots from the offing, as
before. If, however, he has not won any marbles during the game,
before his taw is struck, he is " killed " and put out of the game ; he
is likewise out if, after any shots have been struck out, his taw gets
within the pound — if it remains on the line it is nothing. He then
puts the marbles (if he has won any) into the circle, adding one to
them for the taw struck, and shoots again from the offing. In case
he cannot gain any shots after his taw gets " fat," as remaining in
the ring is termed, he is killed, and out for the rest of the game.
When only one marble remains in the ring, the taw may continue
inside it without being " fat." Each player seldom puts more than
one marble in the ring at the beginning of a game.
KNOCK OUT, OR LAG OUT.
This game is played by knocking _,,,,;^,,,______3^____^^
marbles against a wall, or perpen- wall
dicular board set up for the purpose;
and the skill displayed in it depends
upon the player's attention to what is
called in mechanics the resolution of
■forces : for instance, if an object be
ktruck against the wall at A from the
mark at B, it wiU return again to B in
a straight line ; if it be sent from C to
A, it will, instead of returning to C,
60 EVERY BOY*S BOOK.
iorm the angle CAD; the angle of incidence being equal to the
angle of reflection.
The game is played by any number of players : the first player
throws his marble against the wall, so that it may rebound and fall
about a yard distant from it ; the other players then, in succession,
throw their marbles against the wall, in such a way as to cause them
to strike any of those already lagged out, and the marble struck is
considered won by the owner of the taw that strikes it, in addition
to which the winner has another throw. When only two boys play,
each successively throws out till one of the " laggers " is struck, and
he who strikes takes up all.
LONG TAW.
Long taw is played by two persons in the following manner. One
boy places his marble on the ground at A, the other at B ; then both
^ retire to the spot 0. The first boy now shoots at B from a
'**® line marked at C. If he strikes it, he takes it and shoots at
A ; if he strikes A, he then wins the game. If, however, he
misses B, the second boy then shoots at B ; if he strikes it,
he can then either shoot at the first boy's taw at the place at
which it Kes, or he can shoot at A. If he hits his opponent's
taw, he is said to kiU him, and wins the game, or if ne shoots
at A, and hits it. The boy who hits the last shot has the
*«^ privilege of shooting at the taw of the other, provided it has
not already been killed. If he hits it, the taw is taken, or
the owner must pay one, and the game ends; and if he
C misses it, the game is then at an end also. Long taw is a
"" game seldom played by London boys, but is very common in
the different Enghsh counties.
NINE-HOLES, OK BEIDGB BOARD.
This game is played by means of a piece of board cut into the form
of a bridge, having nine arches, and just large enough to let the
marbles pass through, as in the subjoined diagram. One of the
players undertakes to be " bridge-keeper," and the stipulation usually
made is, that he should receive one for every unsuccessful shot, and
pay to those who shoot their marbles through the arches the numbers
standing over them. The place from which the players shoot their
marbles is generally about four feet from the bridge.
MARBLES.
61
ODD OR EVEN.
One player extends Lis closed hand containing some marbles, and
asks his opponent to guess whether their number is odd or even.
Should he guess WTong, he forfeits a marble, and his questioner tries
him with another lot ; but should he guess right, the first player
must pay him a marble, and take a turn at guessing.
PICKING THE PLUMS.
This game consists in each player placing a marble on a line drawn
upon the ground thus, and the
wnole shooting at them in sue- --^--^:£I__
cession from a mark about four
feet off. The order of the
shots is determined beforehand,
by pitching at a marble from a
six-feet offing, those nearest
being first, second, third, and fourth in order, as the marbles lie.
The marbles knocked off the line are won by the respective shooters.
sJ^-^- ^ S> J> J> J J» ^
THE PYBAMID.
In this game a boy generally sits upon the ground, with his legs
open wide, and, making a small circle, places
in it three marbles at the three points of a tri-
angle, and the fourth on the top of them, so
as to form a small pyi-amid. A distance of
about four feet is then chosen as the point to
shoot from, and the other players shoot at the
pyramid. Those that stiike it have all the
marbles they knock out of the ring; but if
they miss, they lose their shots.
EING TAW.
Ring taw is a game requiring skill and judgment, and is a most
excellent game. It is played as follows. Two rings are drawn upon
the ground, a small one, six inches in
diameter, enclosed by a larger one, six
feet in diameter. Into the small ring
each player puts a marble, called "shot."
The plavers then proceed to any part
of the large ring, and from thence,
as an offing, shoot at the marbles in the
centre. If a player knocks a marble
out of the ring he wins it, and he is
entitled to shoot again before his com-
panions can have a shot. When all
the players have shot their marbles.
62 EVERY boy's book.
they shoot from the places at which their marbles rested at the last
shot. If the shooter's taw remain in the small circle, he is out, and
has to drop a marble in the ring, and he must put in besides all the
marbles he had previously won in that game. It is a rule, also, that
when one player shoots at and strikes another's taw, the taw so struck
is considered dead, and its owner must give up to the striker of the
taw all the marbles he may have previously won during the game.
The game is concluded when all the marbles are shot out of the ring,
or all the taws are killed.
SPANS AND SNOPS, AND BOUNCE ABOUT.
This consists of one boy laying down his taw, and, giving a dis-
tance, his antagonist shoots at it ; if he misses, the first boy shoots
at the taw of the second, till one is struck, which the striker claims.
Bounce About is the same game played by throwing large marbles
instead of shooting smaller ones, he who strikes the other's bounce
being the winner.
TEETOTUM SHOT.
This is played on the same conditions as Die Shot. A teetotum is
set spinning by the keeper, and, when in motion, any pla;^er is
allowed to shoot at it, upon the payment of one marble, receiving, if
he strikes, turns over, and stops the teetotum, as many marbles as
are indicated on the side that falls uppermost. This is a very skilful
game, and requires good shots.
THEEE-HOLES.
This game is played by making three holes in the ground, about a
yard and a half or two yards asunder. About two yards from the
first hole a line is drawn. The right to shoot first is decided hj
diance. The first shooter now knuckles down at the line, and
MARBLES.
6n
I endeavours to shoot into the first hole. If he does this he proceed.s
1 to the second, then to the third, and wins the game ; but this rarely
'occurs. If he misses the first hole, the other players
: shoot their taws, and if neither of them enter the hole, ^^^^^
1 the first shot immediately does so ; and then he has the -^^
[privilege either of proceeding to the second hole, or of .«.^^—
\ Killing the other men by shooting at and hitting them, -==Sizr
when they must either give up their taws or drop one. ^
Sometimes a player will kill all his antagonists in sue- "^^s^^zL.
cession without proceeding to any hole except the first, "X^
; and thus wins the game ; at other times the game may — ^
be won by any of the players killing their antagonists
during any period of the game. It is a rule that no one ';^^
can "kill a taw" till he has been in the first hole. z^h
TIPSHARES, OB, HANDERS.
This ^ame is played by two or more players. To play it, a hole.
of the diameter of three inches, is first made on a smooth or leve!
piece of ground, and a line is marked at about seven feet fi'om it
Each boy puts down two, three, or four marbles, as may be agreed
upon, and then the whole party bowl for their throws, by retiring to
three times the distance already marked fi-om the hole, and bowung
one marble to it ; the order of throws being determined by the near-
ness that each boy's marble approaches the hole. When this is
settled, the first thrower takes all the marbles in his hand, and
throws them in a cluster towards the hole. If an even number falls
in, such as 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, he wins all ; but if an odd number falls in,
he loses all.
"marbles are out "
The peg-top appears to be a modem invention, but tbe whip-top is
of great antiquity, it having been used in remote times by the Grecian
boys ; it was well known at Rome in the days of Virgil, and in Eng-
land as early at least as the fourteenth century, when its form was
the same as it is now. Strutt, in his " Sports and Pastimes of the
People of England," relates the following amusing anecdote of Prince
Henry, the eldest son of James I., which he met with in an old manu-
script at the British Museum : " The first time that the prince went
to the town of StirHng to meet the king, seeing a little without the
gate of the town a stack of com in proportion not imlike to a top
wherewith he used to play, he said to some that were with him, * Lo,
there is a goodly top ! Whereupon one of them saying, * Why do
you not play with it then ? ' he answered, * Set you it up for me and
I will play with it.' "
THE HUMMING-TOP.
These cannot easily be made, but can very easily be purchased by
those who are so lucky as to have the money. They are made hollow,
having at their crown a peg, round which is wound a string ; this,
bein^ pulled through a kmd of fork, gives motion to the top, and
sets it spinning — ^the fork and the string being left iu the spmner's
I
TOPS.
65
liand. In spinning the top, care should be taken to whid the string
firmly and evenly on the peg -,
and when it is pulled out, neither too
much nor too little force should be used, and a firm ar.d steady hand
should be employed, while the top should be held in a perpendicular
position. The string should be drawn with a steadily increasing force,
or the top will not hum properly.
PEG-TOP.
There are various kinds of Peg-tops, and
they also vary in shape, some being much
rounder than others. Those are the best
which are shaped like a pear. There is
also gi-eat variety as regards the shape and
size of the peg, which in some tops is
short and thick, in others long and tapering.
Again, tops are made of diilerent kinds of
wood, some being made of deal, others of
elm, some of yew-tree, and others of box-
wood. These last are tlie Boxers so highly prized. Some of the very
best tops are made of lignum vitse, with long, handsome pegs.
SPANISH PEG-TOP.
The Spanish peg-top is made of mahogany. It is shaped some-
what like a pear ; instead of a sharp iron peg, it has a
small rounded knob at the end. As it spins for a much
longer time than the English peg-top, and does not
require to be thrown with any degree of force in order
to set it up, it is extremely well adapted for playing on
llooring or pavement.
THE WHIP-TOP.
Whip-top is a capital sport when played by two persons ; and is
played oy first whirlmg the top into motion by turning it sharply with
GG EVERT boy's book.
both hands, and then by flogging it till its motion becomes very rapid.
When two persons play whip-top, the object should be for each to
whip his top to a certain goal, he who reaches it first being the
victor.
CHIP-STONE.
This game is played by two boys, in the following manner : Two
hnes, about six feet apart, are marked upon the ground, which ought
to be smooth and hard. Some small stones are then procured and
placed midway between the Knes ; they should not be larger than a
small bean, and the black and poHshed ones are the most sought after.
The tops are now set up spinning on the ground, and the players,
being each provided with a small wooden spoon, dexterously intro-
duce them under the pegs of the spinning tops, and then, with the
top still spinning in the spoon, throw the point of'the peg against the
stone, so as to chip it out of bounds ; he who does this the soonest
being the victor. While the top continues to spin, he may take it
up with the spoon as many times as he can, and when it spins out he
must again wind up, pursuing the same plan till he " chips out."
Directions. — In winding up the top do not wet the end of the line
too much, and take care to lay it closely and evenly within the
grooves. In throwing the top from you, the line must be pulled in
with a peculiar jerk of the hand, wliich practice alone can give. The
string button should be held close in the hand, between the last two
fingers of the hand. There is what is called an " underhand " way
of spinning a top, i.e. by holding it peg downwards, throwing it in a
straight line forward, and withdrawing the string ; but as we dislike
everything underhand, we shall not recommend this practice any
more than we shall the Spanish tops, which are spun after this
method.
1
PEG-IN-TIIE-RING.
This game may be played by any number of boys. A ring about
a yard in diameter is £u:st marked on the ground, and another ring
£j^LtfO
or J
TOPS.
67
surrounding the first, and at a yard's distance from it, is also marked.
The players must stand on this ring, and from it thro^v their tops.
One player begins by throwing his top spinning into the ring, and
while it is there spinning the other players are at liberty to peg at it
as quickly as they can. If none of them hit it while it is spinning,
and if it rolls out of the rhig, the owner is allowed to take it up, and
having wound it, to peg at the others which may be still spinning in
the circle. Should any of the tops, when they cease spinning, fall
within the ring, they are considered dead, and are placed iu the centre
of the circle for the others to peg at. The player who succeeds iu
striking any of the tops out of the circle claims those so struck out.
In some places each player may ransom his top with a marble.
Sleeping tops are exposed to much danger iu the play, for they
offer a fair mark to the " pegger," and often get split, when the
" peg " is taken by the splitter as his trophy. Long-pegged tops
are the best for the game, for they lie more upon their sides after
their fall, and, before the spinning entirely ceases, are the more likely
to spin out of the ring.
There is a way of making the top spring out of the ring directly it
has touched the ground. Only long-pegged tops wlU execute this
feat. It is done by drawing the hand sharply towards the body just
as the top leaves the string. When the manoeuvre is well executed,
the top will drive any opponent that it strikes entirely out of the
ring, while it does not remain within the dangerous circle itself for
more than a few seconds.
TOPS ARE IN.
? 2
08 EVER^: boy's book.
There are some out-door games played with toys which do not fall
under any of our previous headings. These games we now lay
before our reader, together with a description of the toys in common
use.
THE APPLE MILL.
The Apple Mill is made by boring a hole in a nut, iust large
enough to pass a thin skewer through ; the kernel should then be
extracted, and another hole bored in the side of the nut, as a in the
annexed figure. A skewer should next be cut or
thinned, leaving it large enough at the top to form a
head, as shown in the cut. A piece of string is then to
be tied to the skewer, and passed through the hole in
the side of the nut at A, and an apple stuck on the end
of the skewer. The mill being now complete in all its
works, it should be twirled round in the same manner
as the humming top to wind up the string, holding the
nut stationary between the forefinger and thumb of the
left hand ; when this is done, the string must be pulled out quickly,
and the mill will immediately spin round. When an apple cannot be
procured, a small potato will serve equally well.
AUNT SALLY.
This amusing game is of a very simple character, consisting essen-
tially in throwing at a small object. Aunt Sally herself is composed
of a head and bust cut out of a solid block of wood, and generally
carved with negro features, and painted black. In the middle of
her nose, or between her lips, a hole is bored, into which is stuck
a short pipe. To break it is the object of the game. An iron
CAT.
rod series to support the \vcoden figure at a proper elevation from
the ground; and when in gala costume, Aunt Sally is usually
arrayed in a mob cap and a petticoat. The
mode of playing the game is as follows : —
The iron rod is stuck in the ground, a
pipe put into the old lady's mouth, and a
line drawn upon the ground, at twelve, six-
teen, or more paces. At this line the
players stand, ana each is furnished with three
short cudgels, about eighteen inches in
length, which they hurl at Aunt Sally's
head, in hopes of hitting the pipe. The
best plan is to throw the cudgels under-
hand, giving them a rapid rotatory move-
ment at the same time. Some persons insert
an additional pipe into each ear; but this is
an innovation, and leads to careless throw-
ing. It is better to hang a sheet, net, or
large cloth behind Aunt Sally, in order to
catch the sticks, and save the trouble of con-
tinually fetching them from a distance. Within doors, the iron rod
is furnished with a loaded pedestal.
BATON,
Or, "Throwing Sticks." This very popular game among the Greets
was by them called Kyndalismos. It was played with short batons,
and required considerable strength and quickness of eye. With us
the game is played in much the same manner as the Greeks played
it. A stick is fixed in a kind of cup or hole, about six inches deep, in a
loose moist soil, and the players consist of the Keeper and Throwers.
The Keeper places on the top of the stick some article, such as an
apple or orange, and the Throwers endeavour to knock it off, by
throwing at it with short thick sticks, or batons ; whoever succeeds
in doing this claims the prize, whenever it falls without the hole.
The Thrower will soon find in his play, that to hit the stick is of
little importance, as from the perpendicular line of gravity wliich the
apple or orange will take in its descent, it is almost certain to fall
into the hole. The aim, therefore, should be to strike the object
from the stick. This game is very common at fairs and similar
places, and three sticks, with articles upon them, are usually set up,
but M-liich offer no advantage to the thi'owers.
CAT.
Tip Cat, although not altogether a nice pastime, ought to be
noticed here. It is a dangerous game, and should be played with
great caution on the part of the players. It is a rustic game, well
known, and generally goes by the name of Cat. It is played with a
70 EVERY boy's book.
cudgel or bludgeon, resembling that used for trap-ball. Its name is
derived from a piece of wood called a " Cat," of about six inches in
length, and an inch and half, or two, in diameter, diminished from
the middle to both the ends, being of the shape of a spindle or
double cone ; by this contrivance the places of the trap and ball are
at once supplied, for when the Cat is laid upon the ground, the
player with his stick tips it at one end by a smart stroke, which
causes it to rise in the air with a rotatory motion, high enough for
him to strike it as it faUs, in the same manner as he would a ball.
There are various methods of playing the game of Cat. The first
is exceedingly simple, and consists in making a large ring upon the
ground, in the middle of which the striker takes his station. His
business is to beat the Cat over the ring ; if he fails in so doing he
is out, and another player takes his place ; if he is successful, he
judges with his eye the distance the Cat is driven from the centre of
the ring, and calls for a number at pleasure to be scored for the
game : if the number demanded be found, upon measurement, to
exceed the same number of lengths of the bludgeon, he is out ; on
the contrary, if it does not, he obtains his call.
The second method of playing Cat is to make four, six, or eight
holes in the ground, in a cu*cular direction, and as nearly as possible
at equal distances from each other, and at every hole is placed a
player with his bludgeon. One of the opposite party who stands in
the field tosses the Cat to the batsman who is nearest him, and every
time the Cat is struck the players are obliged to change their situa-
tions, and run once from one hole to another in succession. If the
Cat be driven to any very great distance, they continue to run in the
same order, and claim a score of one towards the game every time
they quit one hole and run to another. But if the Cat be stopped
by their opponents, and thrown across between any two of the holes,
before the player, who has quitted one of them, can reach the other,
he is out.
CAT AND MOUSE.
This sport, which is of Erench origin, is for two players only.
Both being blindfolded, they are tied to the ends of a long string,
which is fastened by a loose knot in the middle to a post, and, as the
QUOITS.
71
knot is veiy slightly tied, the players are enabled to move about with
facility. The player who takes the part of the " mouse " scrapes
two pieces of wood together, so as to make a grating noise, and for
which purpose the edges of one of the pieces of wood are notched :
the sound attracts the other player, »vho represents the " cat," and
he immediately uses his utmost efforts to catch his prey, by following
the noise as well as he can, the "mouse" at the same time struggling
about, in order to escape being caught.
KNOCK-*EM-DOWN,
A similar game to Aunt SaUy, but a simpler one, is
made by scooping a hole in the ground, and placing
in it an upright stick ; on the top of it is placed a
stone, or similar substance. The player then retires
to a distance, and flings at the stone with cudgels
or balls, the latter being preferable. If the stone
falls into the hole, the player only counts one to-
wards the game ; but if it falls outside the hole, he
counts two. This is a capital game for the sea- ^
side, and can be played upon the sands. This game
is almost similar to Baton.
PEA-SHOOTERS.
The pea-shooter is a tube of metal, through which a pea may be
propelled with great force by a puff of air from the mouth. The
ordinary tin pea-shooters sold in the shops are comparatively worth-
less. We should advise the reader to procure a straight piece of
brass tube from two to four feet long, and get a brazier to tin one
end of it, so that the brass may not corrode when placed in the
mouth. With such a tube peas, pellets of clay, and other projectiles
may be shot with great precision to a considerable distance. The
game of puff and dart is played with a long brass tube, and a small
dart having a needle point. The dart is blown through the tube at
a target, on which there are divisions bearing different numbers.
QUOITS.
The game of Quoits is very excellent. It seems to have derived
its name from the ancient discus, and with us in the present day is a
circular plate of iron perforated in the middle,
not always of one size, but larger or smaller to
suit the strength or convenience of the several
candidates.
To play at Quoits an iron pin called a hob is
driven into the ground within a few inches of the
top, and at the distance of eighteen or twenty
yards, as may be agreed upon, a second pin of
iron is also fixed. The players are generally divided into parties, and
72 EVERY BOY S BOOK.
the players pitch the quoits from hob to hob ; those who pitch the
nearest reckoning towards the game. But the determination is
discriminately made ; for instance, if a quoit belonging to A.
lies nearest to the hob, and a quoit belonging to B the second,
A can claim but one towards the game, though aU his other
quoits be nearer to the hob than all the other quoits of B,
because one quoit of B being the second nearest to the hob,
cuts out, as it is called, all behind it. If no such quoit had
interfered, then A would have reckoned all his as one each.
Having all cast their quoits, the players walk to the opposite
side, and determine the state of the play. Then taking their
stand there, throw their quoits back again, and continue to
do so alternately, till the end of the game. A quoit that falls
with its flat side upward does not count.
NINE-PINS.
This game, as its name denotes, is played by means of nine pins,
which are set up in a regular order, the aim of the players being
to throw down as many as possible in the fewest attempts. Each
player is permitted to throw three times at the pins, and if he can
knock them all down in two throws, it is called a " single," and they
are again set up for his last throw ; or, if he can knock them down
in one throw, it is called a " double," and they are set up. A heavy
wooden ball, called a " bowl," is used to thi'ow at the pins.
SKITTLES.
Skittles is played in a manner somewhat similar to the preceding'
game, but the number of pins is only four. These are very large, and
THROWING TUE HAMMER. 73
are arranged on a square framework, so as to present one of the
angles to the player. The bowl used for playing this game is of the
shape of a cheese, and is usually made of hgnum vitse, as being very
heavy and hard wood. The game requires more bodily strength than
nine-pins, as the bowl must be thrown upon the skittles, and not
rollea up to them.
The best play is to throw the bowl with a round-handed swing of
the arm, so as to strike the nearest skittle at the right of its upper
third. The ball then springs to the second skittle, and from this
generally twists to the third, while the fourth skittle is sent down
by the roll of the one first struck. It is very difficult to make this
throw successfully, and many players prefer driving down the first
and third skittles with a straightforward shoot, and then making
their second ball spring across Irom the second to the fourth. This
latter stroke appears very difficult, but is soon learnt; the great
point being to throw the bowl high, so that it may drop as perpen-
dicularly as possible on the left of the upper third of the second
skittle. In the long run, the constant repetition of this practice will
overbalance occasional briihancy of play.
DUTCn-PIXS.
This game is nothing more than a modification of nine-pins ; the
pms being higher, and the centre one bearing the name of king, and
a crown upon its head. The great point in this game is to strike
the kmg out of the board without knocking down any of the subjects.
If this can be done, the game is won. In all other cases, the king
counts for no more than any of his subjects.
THROWIXG THE HAMMER.
Tliis is a good athletic sport, but the Hammer can scarcely be called
a toy. The hammer used by rustics is generally the sledge-hammer
of the blacksmith, with a liead weighing some twelve or fourteen
pounds. The players are all smgle and do not join in parties, and the
prize is given to him who makes the greatest number of long throws
m a dozen. It does not merely require strength to throw the sledge-
hammer, but a nice calculation of the area which the Hammer has to
pass over in its flight, combined with the strength of the thrower.
74 EVERY boy's' book.
THE BOOMEBANG.^
This instrument is a curved piece of wood, flat on one side, and
slightly rounded on the other. It is used by the natives of New
South Wales, who can throw it so
,-.^g:~^ dexterously as to kill a man behind
^^^ ^^^^^. ^ ^^^^' where he may have fled for
^^^^^ ^^ safety. It should be held hori-
zontally in throwing it, and cast by
bringing the arm backwards, and
after making a variety of curves it
will come back again to the person
who send it. If skilfully thrown, it may be made to go in almost
any direction the thrower pleases.
X
THE SKIP-JACK, OR JUMP-JACK.
The skip-jack is manufactured out of the merry-thought of a goose,
which must, of course, be well cleaned before it is used. A strong
doubled string must be tied at the two ends of the bone, and a piece
of wood about three inches long put between the
strings, as shown in the marginal illustration, and
twisted round until the string acquires the force of a
spring. A bit of shoemaker's wax should then be
put in the hollow of the bone at the spot where the end of the piece of
wood touches, and when the wood is pressed slightly on the wax
the jack is set ; it adheres but a very short time, and then springs
forcibly up. The skip-jack is placed on the ground with the wax
downwards, and in some parts of the country it is usual to caU out,
" Up, Jack ! " or " Jump, Jack ! " just before it springs.
THE SLING.
The art of slinging, or of casting stones with a sling, is of very
high antiquity. We see it represented on the Nimroud monuments,
and the feat of the divine youth, David, is familiar to every one. In
the earliest times there were bands of slingers, and probably whole
regiments of them, and there is little doubt that the art of slinging
preceded that of archery. The former seemed, however, to belong
to the Asiatic, as the latter did to the European nations. Our
Saxon ancestors, also, seem to have been skilful in their manner of
holding the sling. Its form is preserved in several of their paint-
ings, and the manner in which it was used by them, as far back as
the eighth century, may be seen in the annexed cut. We have also
sufficient testimony to prove, that men armed with slings formed part
of the Anglo-Norman soWiery.
(1) The instrament represented in the cut is the Australian boomerang. Thoso
used in England have a sharper curve.
SLINGS.
75
In country districts, slinging of stones is a common sport ; and the
sling so used consists simply of a piece of leather cut into the sub-
joined form, to which are afl^^ed two cords, one having a loop,
using it, leather is suiFered to hang from the strong downwards
shnger places his little finger in the loop, and
holds the other end in his hand, and then putting
the stone in the hole of the sling at a, which pre-
vents its falling, whirls the whole round for three
or four times, to obtain a strong centrifugal force,
and suddenly letting go of that part of the sling
held in his hand, the stone flies forward with in-
conceivable rapidity, making a twanging sound in
the ear as it flies. Slinging is a very good exercise
for imparting strength to the arm, but young
slingers should be very careful where they send
their stones, or they may do much damage.
If any of my readers may wish to construct a better kind of
they may do it in the following manner : — Get a currier
to cut a piece of very strong buckskin leather in this f^frr
shape, the centre being cut into bars. Two long strips Ij i: 11
of the same leather are then cut of this shape, °
In
; the
sling.
two cuts being made along them, so as to leave three leatner cords.
These are plaited together, and the flat ends firmly sewn to the
centrepiece. The shape will then be this :
76 EVERY boy's BOOK:
A sling made on this principle will carry a stone of a pound weight.
Tlie loop and point should be whipped with silk. The accuracy that
can be obtained with such a weapon is astonishing, only the missiles
should always be leaden bullets of the same weight — two or three
ounces being the best average weight. At the school where my boy-
hood was spent, we used to send such bullets just over the weather-
cock of one of the loftiest spires in England, and stripped a chestnut-
tree of its blossoms. One year there was a solitary blossom on the
top of the tree, which defied our efforts for many days. The blossoms
were soon knocked off. but the green stalk resisted the blows for a
long time. It was battered to pieces, but bent to the strokes, and
had to be knocked off in fragments. I mention this to sbow the
accuracy of aim that can be attained by practice.
WALKING ON STILTS.
Among the Swiss, and in several districts in
the South of France, walking on stilts is not only
an amusing, but a useful, practice, as by means
of these crane-like legs men and women trans-
form themselves into the order of " Waders,"
emulating the long-legged storks and herons, and
can cross over marshes and flooded grounds
without wetting their feet. Stilts are easily made,
being nothing but a pair of poles, with a wooden
step at the sides for the feet to stand on. The
poles are kept in their proper place by the hands.
A little practice will soon render a youth '' easy
on his stilts," and they may be made an amusing
and healthy exercise.
.^v^-S^k"
THE SL'CKER.
The sucker is a to^f of the simplest construction imaginable ; it is
made by merely cutting a circular piece out of some tolerably stout
leather, boring a hole hi its centre, and then passing a string through
the hole, taking the precaution to make a large knot at the end of
the string, to prevent its being drawn completely through the hole.
GAMES WITH TOYS. 77
Before using the sucker, it must be steeped in water untU it becomes
quite soft and pliable. If its smooth, moist surface be now pressed
so closely against the flat side of a stone or other body, that the air
caimot enter between them, the weight of the atmosphere pressing
on the upper surface of the leather will cause it to adhere so strongly,
that the stone, if its weight be proportioned to the extent of the disc
of leather, may be raised by lifting tbe string. If the sucker could
act with full effect, every square inch of its surface would support
about the weight of fourteen pounds. The feet of the common
house-fly are provided with minute natural suckers, by aid of which
the insect is enabled to run up a smooth pane of glass and walk
along the ceiling.
Our young readers will in all probability remark that we have laid
but little stress on games with toys, and that comparatively few toys
have been mentioned. We have done so intentionally, because the
book is written expressly for boys, and those, EngUsh boys. Now
an English boy always likes a toy that will do something. Eor
example, he cares not one farthing for all the elegant imitations of
guns in the world, as long as he can have his pea-shooter ; -and the
walnut stock, the glittering decorations, and the burnished but
useless barrel of the toy gun, are nothing in his eyes, when compared
with the plain tin barrel of his beloved pea-shooter, which will throw
a missile with rifle-Uke accuracy of aim.
Eor these reasons, we have mentioned but very few toys, looking
with contempt upon those innumerable fabrications that find their
place in the windows of toy- shops, and in ninety-nine cases out of a
hundred are only purchased for the immediate gratification of spoilt
children, who unconsciously illustrate the real objects of toys, by
pulling them to pieces, and converting the fragments to unexpected
uses.
5:r^
£ND OF TOTtt.
EASY GAMES WITH TOYS.
INDOOR.
There are many elaborate toys wliicli are not included under this
head, as they are always sold with printed directions for using them.
The games which follow are playea with toys of the simplest con-
struction, many of which may be easUy manufactured by the reader.
BATTLEDOBE AND SHUTTLECOCK.
This game is so well known as to require but little remark. The
Battledores may be purchased at the toy-shops, as may also be the
Cocks ; but many of our young friends who know anything about
carpentry may easily make both for themselves. The Battledores
can be cut out with a key-hole saw into the subjoined shape. They
should be about a quarter of an inch thick, the handles about six
inches long, and the " spades " of about five inches long, and five
broad. The Shuttlecock may be made by cutting a piece of cork
into the following form, and placing a small brass naU at its lower
end. The top should be plumed with five feathers standing outwards
from the rim, being fastened by a Httle gum into small
holes cut therein. The practice of the game is for two
players to beat the Cock backwards and forwards from
one to the other, and the one that lets it fall, by failing
to strike it with his bat, is to give to the other a pea,
bead, pin, or some other small article. Some foreigners,
particularly the Chinese, play at this game with the toes, liands,
elbows, and other parts of the body, and will keep the Cocks up in a
most amusing manner, in the midst of many grotesque gestures.
I
IHE CUTWATER.
BANDILOR.
This toy is simply a wheel or pulley of hard wood, having a veiy
deep groove, round, which a strong but fine cord is wound. The
player holds the free end of the cord between his finger and thumb,
gives a rapid rotatory motion to the bandilor, by allowing it to fall
towards the ground;" by a sudden jerk he now tightens the cord in
the groove, and the toy rises towards his hand. A Httle practice
will enable any one to keep the bandilor in motion for a considerable
time by causing it to rise and fall alternately.
CUP AND BALL.
A ball of ivory or hard wood is attached
to a stem of the same substance, having a
shallow cup at one end and a point at the
other. The player holds the stem in his
right hand, as shown in the figure ; and,
having caused the ball to revolve oy twirhng
it between the finger and thumb of his left,
he jerks it up and catches it either in the cup,
or upon the spike, to receive wliich a hole is
made in the ball. We need scarcely say that
the latter feat can only be performed by
a skilful player. Cup and Ball was the
favouiite pastime at the coui't of Henry HE.
of France.
THE CUTWATER.
The Cutwater is a circular piece of sheet lead, notched like a saw
round the edge, and having two holes pierced in it at some distance
from each other, through which is passed a piece of string, the two
ends being afterwards tied together. The annexed figure shows this
toy, and the way it is to be held by the player. To set the Cutwater
in action, the double string must be alternately pulled and slackened.
Every time the string is relaxed the disc revolves, in consequence of
the impetus it has acauired from the previous pull ; and every time
the string is tightened, it wliirls round in an opposite direction, as
the double string is then untwisted. If the edge of this toy be
dipped in water, it may be made to sprinkle the bystanders and tlie
player ; hence its title of " Cutwater."
80
EVERY boy's book.
rOX AND GEESE.
fifteen ordinary draughtsmen compose the flock of geese. The
fox may either be two draughtsmen placed one upon another, or any
small object which may be at hand. The
game is played on a board marked as
shown in the annexed engraving. The
fox is placed in the middle of the board,
and the geese on the points on one side
of it, as shown in the illustration. The
game is to confine the fox to some spot
on the board, so that there shall be
either the edge of the board or else two
rows of men round him. When the fox
cannot escape, the game is done, and the
player of the geese wins ; but when one
of the geese is left on a point next to
that occupied by the fox, and is not sup-
ported by another goose behind, or by the e^ge of the board, the fox
can take it, and by jumping over its head to the next space, he may,
perhaps, escape the persecutions of some of the others, as aU the geese
are compelled to move forwards towards the end of the board that was
unoccupied at the commencement of the game. The fox is allowed
to move either backwards or forwards. Neither fox nor goose must
be moved more than one space at a time. If the fox neglects to take
when he has a chance, he is huffed, and one of the captured geese is
restored to the back of the board. The fox should avoid getting
into the lower square of the board if possible, as he will find it diffi-
cult to extricate himself from a position which can be so easily
blockaded.
There is another method of playing fox and
geese on a chessboard; namely, with four white
men, representing the geese, and one black one,
representing the fox.
The geese are ranged on the four white squares
nearest one player, and the fox may be placed
where his owner pleases. The best place for
him is that marked in the diagram, as he can
manoeuvre in a very puzzling way.
The geese can only move forward, and the fox
moves either way. The object of the geese is to pen up the fox so
that he camiot move, and the fox has to break through.
If the game is properly played, the geese must win, the secret
being to keep them all in line as much as possible. The fox tries to
prevent this plan from being followed up ; and if he can succeed in
doubUng the geese, or getting one to stand before another, he is
nearly sure to pass through them.
■Villi
I
GOOSE— HEAD, BODY, AND LEGS. 81
GOOSE.
To play at Goose a board must be made containing sixty-three
circles, placed so as to form some resemblance to the shape of a
goose, and numbered consecutively. Two dice and a box, and as
many counters as there are players, are required. Each player in
turn throws the dice, and according to the number he throws, so he
reckons, counting from No. 1, and placing his counter on the number
he obtains. The player who first reaches sixty-three wins the game.
But mark; he must throw/ sixty-three exactly, or else he has to
count the surplus number back from sixty-three. For instance,
suppose when at sixty he throws eight, this makes sixty-eight, five
over sixty-three. The player must, therefore, take five back from
sixty-three, and leave his counter at fifty-eight. The game is called
Goose from the fact that a goose is usually drawn on every fourth
and fifth ring ; and the player who lands on one of these, scores
double the number he has just thrown. Several obstacles occur,
however, on the journey. On one ring is drawn a bridge, to pass
which a toll of one counter must be paid. A little farther on is an
inn, where the player halts for two turns and pays two to the pool ;
but if he fall into the pond, the unfortunate wight has to stay there
until another player tumbles in too, when he is allowed to proceed
on his journey. The last hindrance is a gloomy prison, in which the
same rule holds good, except that the relieving party, instead of
goin^ on as in the case of the pond, remains in durance vile until
somebody else enters the prison-house. Other obstacles may be in-
serted at the players' option.
I
HEAD, BODY, AND LEGS.
One player takes an oblong piece of paper, and having divided it
it into three equal parts by folding, he sketches a comic liead, either
with pen or pencil, in the upper space; he then doubles the paper
over, and hands it to another, who di-aws a body in the middle com-
partment, folds the paper over once more, and passes it to a third,
who completes the figure by drawing a pair of legs in the lower space.
The player who draws the head, must continue the neck a little way
into the middle space, and he who sketches the body must just com-
mence the legs in the lower compartment ; this arrangement insures
the connexion of head, body, and legs. Our first illustration shows
how the paper is to be folde"d over for drawing the different parts of
a figure. Each player should be provided with a pen or pencil, and
a few pieces of paper ; having drawn a head, he should fold his sketch
in a proper manner and pass it to his ri^ht-hand neighboui- ; in this
way a number of figures may be finished simultaneously. A know-
ledge of drawing is not expected of any plaver, as the crudest notion
of a head, a body, or a pan- of legs, will fully meet the requirements
82
EVBRr boy's book.
of the game. Thooe who have never played at Head, Body, and
Legs, can have no idea of the absurd combinations that spring from
the independent labours of the different players ; thus, a man's body
will sometimes get joined to a donkey's head, and be supported by
the legs of an ostrich.
KNTJCKXE-BONES.
This game is played with five little bones from a sheep's trotter.
One player tosses up the knuckle- bones, sometimes one at a time,
sometimes all together, and catches them either in the palm or on
the back of his hand, according to certain rules. Should he fail to
perform one of the tricks properly, he must hand the bones to his
opponent, who attempts to go through the same series of manoeuvres
with them. When tne &:st player regains the bones through the
unskilful play of his adversary, he once more attempts the feat he
failed to accomplish before, and if he succeeds he tries to pass
through the subsequent stages of the ^ame. The player who first
arrives at the end of the regulated senes of tricks wins the game.
It would be impossible to give the reader a clear idea of the manner
I
^;
71
.>v
IVJ
v.
^
MEilELLES — PArEli DAKT. 83
ol perfonning each trick without the aid of diagrams. In almost
every school may be found an experienced player at knuckle-bones,
whose directions will be of more value than any remarks we can
make, though we were to devote a couple of pages to this pastime.
In some parts of England a similar game, called " Jackstones," is
played with small round pebbles.
MERELLES, OR NINE MEN S MORRIS.
This is an ancient EngHsh game, and ought not to be laid aside;
so we resuscitate it for the benefit of young England. It used to be
played in England on the ground with stones, but may be played
best on a table indoors. The form of the merelle-table, and the lines
upon it, as it appeared in the fourteenth century,
are here represented. These lines are still the
same. The black spots at every angle and in-
tersection of the lines are the places for the men
to be laid upon. The men are different in form
and colour, for distinction sake. The manner of
playing is briefly thus : Two persons, having each
of them nine pieces, or men, lay them down alter-
nately, one by one, upon the spots ; and the busi-
ness of either party is to prevent his antagonist
from placing three of his pieces so as to form a row of three without
the intervention of an opposing piece. If a row be formed, he that
made it is at Hberty to take up one of his competitor's pieces from
any part he thinks most to his advantage ; excepting he has made a
row, which must not be touched if he have another piece upon the
board that is not a component part of that row. "When all the pieces
are laid down, they are played backwards and forwards in any direc-
tion that the lines run, but can only move from one spot to another
at one time. He that takes aU his antagonist's pieces, is the
conqueror.
PAPER DART.
To form this dart you must take an oblong piece
of paper, and fold it down the middle lengthwise ; then
double each of the lower comers up to the middle crease,
and fold the doubled paper over to the same mark ; you
must now turn each folded side outwards, and your
dart will resemble the annexed figure. The paper dart,
when thrown from the hand, rarely hits the object
aimed at, as it generally makes a graceful curve in
passing through the air. JBoys sometimes amuse them-
selves by fighting sham battles with these harmless
weapons.
84 EVERY boy's book.
THE POPGUN.
The best Popguns are made of a strong straight piece of elder-
tree, which ought to be cut from an inner branch, and should be
about six inches long. The pith of this should be pierced out by an
iron ramrod fitting the hole ; and when the inside Is made thoroughly
smooth by rubbing the rod up and down, it is ready for use. The
pellets are made with moistened tow — brown paper is a nasty thing
to put into the mouth, and we
shall never advise the use of it.
When the pellet is prepared, it
should be laid over the mouth of
the gun in such a quantity as to
require squeezing and plugging
in. The first pellet should be driven through the gun to its other end;
the second pellet is to be driven in, in a similar manner to the first,
and then it is forced through the gun : the air between the pellets being
incompressible beyond a certain point, forces out the lower pellet
with, a loud " pop ; " hence the the term " Popgun," which has been
applied to them. Popgun-playing is not a very healthy exercise, the
pressing of the rammer against the pit of the stomach frequently
leading to derangement of that organ. To prevent this, the lad
who plays at popgun should have a smaU round board slung over his
neck by a string, hanging as low as the pit of his stomach, like a
" conductor's ticket," against which he should press the handle of
his ramrod when he fires off his popgun.
PUSH-PIN.
This trifling game is usually played by two boys. Each player
places a pin on the table, and then endeavours to push one pin across
the other with his finger-nail ; should he succeed, both pins become
his property. At starting, the pins must be placed head to head,
and the players push alternately. Sometimes each player puts down
two, three, or even more pins.
SCHIMMEL.
To play this amusing game, which is of German origin, it is neces-
sary to be furnished with five cards, on which are painted the figures
of a white horse, an inn, a bell, a hammer, and a Dell and hammer ;
with eight little ivory cubes marked on one side only, six numbered
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and the other two marked, one with a bell and the
other with a hammer ; with a box for throwing the dice, a hammer
for disposing of the cards by auction, and a proportionate quantity of
counters for the players. The cards, dice-box, and auctioneer's
hammer, are shown in the annexed illustration. Any youth who can
draw may easily prepare the cards ; the cubes may be procured from
an ivory- worker's and may be marked with ink. The game can be
SCHIMMEL. 85
played by as many persons as are present. Tlie counters are to be
distributed by one of the players who holds the office of cashier,
their value having been previously determined upon by the players.
I
This being done, twelve are to be deposited by each player in the
f)ool. The cashier then disposes of the five cards separately to the
lighest bidders, the produce of which is also to be placed in the pool.
The white horse is by far the most valuable card, and therefore
fetches the highest price in counters. The inn ranks next, and is-
usually purchased by the most speculative player, as its value de-
pends upon circumstances. The bell and the hammer generally
fetch the same number of counters, these cards being equally valuable,,
and the card upon which both bell and hammer are painted fetches
about half the number that is given for one of the single figures. The
bidders are not bound to confine themselves to the number of
counters dealt out to them at the beginning of the game ; should
they exceed it, they may pay the remainder of the debt by instal-
ments out of their receipts in the course of the game.
Each person is at lioerty to purchase as many cards as he may
tliink proper.
Tlie dice are then to be thrown by the players alternately, begin-
ning with the holder of the white horse, any one being allowed ta
dispose of his throw to the highest bidder. When all blanks are
thrown, each of the players pays one to the holder of the white horse,
and he pavs one to the inn. If with the blanks the bell, or hammer,
or the bell and hammer together are thrown, the possessor of the
card so thrown pays one to the white horse.
When numbers accompany the bell, hammer, or bell and hammer,
the casliier is to pay the counters, to the amount of numbers thrown,
to the holder of such card, from the pool ; but if numbers are thrown
unaccompanied, the cashier then pays to the thrower.
"When the pool is nearly empty there arises an advantage to the
inn, for if a player throws a figure greater than the quantity contained
86
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
in the pool he pays the overplus to the inn ; thus : suppose 4 are in
the pool, if the players throws 10, he is to pay 6 to the inn ; and if 2
are thrown, those 2 are paid to him from the pool, and so on till a
figure is thrown which clears the pool, and so concludes the game.
If all blanks are thrown after the inn begins to receive, the players
pay nothing, but the owner of the white horse pays one to the inn ;
and should the bell, &c. be thrown with the blanks, the holder of
that card pays one to the inn ; and if numbers accompany the bell,
&c. the holder of that card must pay to the inn the number thrown
above those remaining in the pool. Nuts are sometimes used as
counters, and the players keep their winnings. Sometimes the
cashier receives a halfpenny or a penny a dozen for the counters, and
when the game is finished the receipts are divided among the players
according to their winnings. Those who do not hold cards frequently
find themselves richer at the close of the game than their speculative
companions, whose winnings do not always exceed the price paid for
their cards.
SP£LICANS.
Spelicans are made of thin pieces of ivory cut into different forms,
some being like spears, others saws, bearded hooks, &c. ; of some of
the patterns there are dupHcates, whilst of others only one. Each
pattern has a value assigned to it, the lowest being five, and the
highest forty; the numbers do not run in regular succession — as five,
six, seven, eight — but irregularly, as five, sixteen, twenty-five.
Hooks, made of bone, are used pointers.
The game is played as follows : — One player should take up all the
speKcans in a bundle, and holding them at a little height from the
table, let them fall down in a confused heap on it ; each player must
then try alternately to take away a spelican from the heap without
moving any of the others, and this it is generally very easy to accom-
plish at the first, for the top ones are mostly unconnected with the
rest, but as the players proceed it requires some tact to jerk them
out, with the help of the hook, made pointed for that purpose. The
player who, at the entire removal of the heap, has the greatest number
of speUcans, wins the game. Should any of the spehcans, while
being removed shake the others, they must be put back into the heap
again. It is usual in some places, instead of each player removing a
speHcan alternately, for one to continue lifting up the spehcans until
he happens to shake one, when another player takes his turn until he
in Hke manner fails, when another tries his fortune ; and so the game
continues, until aU the spehcans are withdrawn.
PART II.
^tjlttic Sports anb Panlj (^xtums:
INCLUDISG.
ANGLING,
FENCING,
RIDING,
ARCHERY,
FIVES,
ROWING,
BOXING,
FOOT-BALL,
SAILING,
CANOES AND
GOLF,
SKATING,
CANOEING,
GYMNASTICS,
SLIDING,
CRICKET,
HOCKEY,
SWIMMING
CROQUET,
RACKETS,
TR.MNING.
DRIVING,
ATIJLKTIC SPORTS.
ANGLING.
" vn\en I was a mere schoolboy.
Ere yet 1 learnt my book,
I felt an itch, for angling
In everj' little brook.
" An osier rod, some thread for line,
A crooked pin for hook ;
And, thus equipp'd, I angled
In every little brook.
" "Wliere sticklebacks and minnows
Each day I caught in store,
With stone-roaches and miller's thumbs :—
These brooks aflord no more.
" But I a little angler,
"Witli crooked pin for hook,
Would shun each noisy wrangler.
To fish the little brook."
What can be more deliglitful tliaii anglinj^ ? Not indeed so much
on account of the fish we may catch, but for the pleasantness of the
recreation itself, for the cool streams, the shady trees, the little sunny
nooks, the tiny or gigantic cascades, the meandering rills, the still
pools, "with sedges overhung;" the picturesque miU-wheels, the
deep mill-ponds, " smooth sheeted by the flood ; " and above all, for
90 EVERY boy's book.
the hair-breadth escapes, for the duckings, for the hazards, for the
triumphs. We do not wonder at boys being fond of angling, it is
ahnost an instinct with them, and has long been a favourite amuse-
ment with boys of all degrees, ages and constitutions. Therefore we
shall be somewhat comprehensive in our notices of this interesting
sport, that every boy who can bait a hook and hold a line may be an
angler if he will.
A WORD ABOUT FISH.
First, however, let us say a word about fish in general, before we
come to fish in particular. Fish or fishes are, to speak scientifically,
a class of vertebrated animals (having a backbone) inhabiting the
water ; which breathe through the medium of that fluid by means of
branchiae or gills, instead of lungs ; which swim by means of fins, and
are mostl;^ covered with scales. They are also generally furnished
with a white membraneous bag close to the backbone, called the air
bladder, by the dilatation or compression of which it is supposed they
can rise or sink in the water at pleasure. All parts of their bodies
seem to aid them in swimming in the water ; their fins, their tails,
and the undulation of their back-bones assist progression, and their
whole structure is as much adapted for swimming as that of a bird
is for flight.
The fins of fish consist of thin elastic membrane, supported by bony
rays, and are denominated according to their position — dorsal on the
back, pectoral on the breast, ventral near the vent, anal that between
the vent and the tail, and caudal the tail fins. The dorsal and
ventral fins appear to balance the fish, and the pectoral to push it
forward ; while the tail fins are the grand instruments of motion,
and enable the creature to dart forward almost as rapidly as the
bullet from a gun.
With regard to the senses of fishes, the eye holds the first place ;
but this is best adapted for seeing under water. Of the organ of
hearing there is no outward sign. The organ of taste is thought to
be very unsensitive, and the sense of touch but sHghtly_ developed.
To preserve their own existence, and to transmit it to their posterity,
seems to be their only enjoyment ; they move forward in pursuit of
whatever they can swallow, conquer, or enjoy, and their insatiable
appetite impels them to encounter every danger, whilst to their
rapacity there seems to be no bound. A single pike has been known
tc devour a hundred roach in three days. The fecundity of fish is
pxodigious. The number of eggs in the codfish often amounts to
more than three millions ; those of flounders are above a miUion, of
the mackarel 500,000, of the sole 100,000, and of the lobster 20,000 ;
but the sturgeon is far more productive than any of these, as it has
been known to have more than twenty millions of eggs !
Without saying any more about "Fish in the abstract," as the
angler called his " catch," when he returned without one, we must
/i^o to the art of " catching fish ; " and the first thing to be attended
ANGLING.
91
is the necessary fishing apparatus, which may be increased to any
Ltent ; but the young angler would be wise to limit his stock as
inch as possible. We have fished many a hundred miles of water, and
"led many a thousand of fish, with no better equipment than this : —
le rod of about fourteen feet long, with three tops, — one stiff top,
it bottom flashing and trolling, and two for fly-fishing. Two reels
winches, one holding a silk and hair line of thirty-five yards in
;th for fly-fishing, and the other holding a similar line of forty
Is, but much stronger, for bottom fishing, trolling, &c. One
loderate-sized creel or fishing basket. One tin bait-box for worms
gentles ; one tin live-bait can for carrying pike baits or minnows ;
and one strong oag lor carrymg ground-bait. A landing-net ; Rom<j
shoemaker's wax in a piece of soft leather; a large clasp-knife;
a pair of sharp-pointed scissors; a pocket-book, the centre filled
with leaves of flannel to hold flies, and the remainder fitted up with
gut, hooks, silk, baiting-needles, a pair of small pliers, split shot,
floats, &c.
ABOUT THE EOD.
The rod is a material article in the young angler's catalogue, and
much care should be taken to procure a good one. The fishing-
tackle shops keep a great variety, made of bamboo cane, hazel,
hickory, and other kinds of wooa. Rods are of diiferent lengths,
some fitted as walking-canes, and others made to pack in canvass
bags; the latter are preferred, because you may have them any
length, and they are more true. Those made of bamboo cane are the
best for general angling; but the rods made of the white cane
much superior for fine fishing, particularly for roach, being very light
in weight, but stifl'.
CHOOSING THE ROD.
In choosing a rod (not a school rod, for no one likes to choose
that), observe that it is perfectly straight, when all the joints are put
together and that it gradually tapers from the butt to the lop, and
is from twelve to sixteen feet long. A bad rod is likely to snap in
striking a heavy fish. Rods fitted with several tops are at once the
best and most convenient. Some anglers have one rod for trolling,
another for barbel, perch, or other heavy fish, as well as one foi
02 EVERT boy's book.
fly-fishing — wliicli boys may have when they become men— but a
thoroughly good rod will suit the juvenile for all purposes. We have
now one with which we can fish for anything, from a bleak to a pike,
by only changing the top and second joints.
A good troUing rod should be made of the choicest stout and well-
seasoned bamboo cane, from fourteen to sixteen feet in len^h.
"When trolling with the gorge, or live-bait fishing, a long roa is
necessary, to enable the angler to drop in his baited hook over high
sedges, rushes, &c. as also when the water is bright, for he should
then keep as far away from it as he can, which a long rod enables
him to do while dipping, casting, or spinning his bait. If either a
jack or pike see him, it is very rare indeed that he will take the
bait ; and again, with a long rod you will be able to drop your baited
hook in some very likely place for jack or pike, such as a small hole,
division, or clear place among a bed of weeds, in a river or any other
water where there are any weeds.
There is some difference of opinion among anglers about the num-
ber of rings necessary for trolling rods : those who have their Hue on
a thumb winder, or on a bank runner, seldom place more than two or
three rings on their rod, and others have only one large ring at the
top ; but if a winch is used, there should be a ring to every joint
including the butt; make each ring of double twist wire, fixed so as
always to stand out, and nearly large enough to admit the top of your
little finger ; the top joint should nave two rings, the top one nearly
three times the size of the others ; this prevents any obstruction of
the line running, which is of material consequence. When not in use,
rods should be kept nicely stowed in a moderately dry place, and they
ought to be well scraped and revamished every three years ; should
the joints become loose by shrinking, they should be slightly mois-
tened. Should any accident befall a rod while fishing, and you should
not have a spare top with you, your only remedy will be to sphce
your rod. To do this the ends of the broken pieces for about two
inches must be laid parallel to each other, and then tightly bound
together with waxed silk, or very strong yellow hempen twine.
LINES OR BOTTOMS.
Next to the rod the line is of the utmost importance. Good lines
should be well twisted. The twisted lines should be made wholly of
silk, or silk hair, but those made of gut are the strongest and best
for young anglers ; the twisted hair are the cheapest, and the single
horsehair the finest. The young angler will find a line of about four
yards in length the most useful. A single gut line, with a small
porcupine float, is commonly useful for general fishing ; the plaited
silk lines are the best for trolling, and are less inclined to break or
tangle than the twisted.
ANGLING.
93
SHOTTING THE LINE
The line must be shotted, that the float may partially sink in the
water ; and in putting on the shots, place them all together within
three inches of the bottom loop of the Une ; to which loop fix the
loop of the hair or gut to which the hook is tied. When you make
a Hue of silk, gut, or hair, remember it must be always finest at the
bottom, where the hook is fastened, very gradually increasing in
thickness to the top.
THE FLOAT.
There are various kinds of floats, each adapted for diff'erent kinds
of fishing. The principal are : 1. Tip-capped floats ; 2. Cork floats ;
3. Plugged floats. The tip-capped floats are made of several pieces
of quills, or of reed for the middle, and ivory or tortoisesheU for the
top and bottom, and narrow at each end, gradually increasing in cir-
cumference to the middle. They are superior to all others for anghng
in waters which are not very rapid, particularly in roach fishing, as
the least movement or fine bite sinks them below the water. The
tip-capped float is also best for pond fishing
for carp and tench, as it requires but few
shot to sink it, and consequently disturbs
the water but httle when cast. The young
angler should note that the caps which fix
the lines to the float are not rough at the
edge, as this roughness chafes and weakens
a fine line ; should this be the case, he should
smooth them before use. The best caps are
made of gutta-percha.
Cork Floats are generally made of quills at
the top, with a piece of cork, which is burned
or bored in the middle to admit the quill, and
then filed or ground down smooth and painted.
The bottom is plugged with wood, and has
a ring to let' the hue pass throngh. Cork
floats are well calculated to fish in heavy or
rapid streams, as they require a great many
shot to sink them, which weight of shot
prevents the baited hook from passing too rapidly over the bottom.
Cork floats are made of various sizes and forms ; instead of common
quills, some introduce the quills of the porcupine, which make an
excellent strong float. Except for live-bait fishing a tapering cork
float is preferable to a round one.
Plugged Floats. — These kind of floats are the cheapest, and made
of -indifferent quills, some of them of one goose quill with a wooden
plug at the bottom, from which they take their name : they are very
apt to loosen by the plug coming out. They are often used by the
94
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
young angler, because they are cheap ; but we may say in the words
of the ancient Roman, " Bad is thel)est."
KEELS OR WINCHES.
A reel or winch is a most necessary addition to the rod and Ime,
as it enables you to vary the length of your line at pleasure, and to
play your fish. The best winches are
those to fix in a groove on thcTod, and
are fastened with brass ferrules made
for the purpose on the butt, because
you can fasten such a winch to any
sized joint.
There are three kiads of winches,
check, multipHers, and plain: the mul-
tiplying winch is apt soon to get out
of order, unless carefully and constantly
oiled, and is otherwise the least efficient
and most expensive of the three. I
would recommend young anglers at first,
to purchase a plain and strong winch, which will answer every pur-
pose, and be much less expensive. A check winch is, however, the
best.
EEEL LINES
Are mostly made of silk and horsehair, twisted or plaited together,
but some are made entirely of silk. 1 prefer the latter, as it is less
likely to twist, runs more freely, and is less likely to rot. The length
of lines vary from fifteen to eighty yards; but for general purposes
thirty or five-and-thirty yards is quite long enough. The line should
always be unwound after a day's fishing, as, if it is allowed to remain
wet on the reel, it soon rots.
HOOKS.
Hooks are to be bought at the angling shops, of all sizes, and
suitable for the kind of fish to be caught. There are great contro-
versies among adept anglers about hooks, which are sometimes as
violent as those upon politics or religion. Some anglers prefer what
are called the Limerick hooks, some the Kendal ; while others again
prefer the Kirby or Sneckbend. We are hooked to the Kirby, as we
consider those to be by far the best for holding the fish — a most im-
portant particular. The hooks found most suitable for the following
fish are these : —
Barbel, 1, 7, 8, 9.
Bleak, 11, 12, 13.
Bream, 10.
Carp, 7, 8, 9.
Chub, 8, 9.
Dace, 10, 11, 12.
Eels, 8.
Flounders, 3.
Grayling, 10, 12.
Gudgeon, 9. 10.
Loaches, 13.
Miller's Thumb, 13.
Minnow, 13.
Perch, 7.
Roach, 10, 11, 12.
RUDD, 10.
Ruffe, 10.
Smelt, 9, 10.
Tench, 9, 10.
Trout, 6, 10.
ANGLING. 95
HOW TO BAIT A HOOK.
To bait a hook with a worm, use the following method : First enter
the point of the hook close to the top of the worm's head, and carry
it carefully down to within a quarter of an iach of its tail ; to do
which you must gently squeeze or work up the worm with your left
thumb and finger, while with your right you are gradually working
the hook downwards* The small lively piece of the worm at the
point of the hook moving about wiU entice the fish ; but, mind, if too
much of the worm hangs loose, thovgh it may entice fish to nibble,
yet they will seldom take the \vhole in their mouth, so as to enable
the angler to hook them ; on the contrary, he is frequently tantaHzed
with a bite, and, when he strikes, finds part of his worm gone, and
his fish too. Therefore, to bait a hook well with a worm is necessary
to ensure hooking a fish when you strike ; and it consists in drawing
the worm without injuring it (use him as you would a friend, Walton
says) quite over and up the shank of the hook, leaving only a small
lively part of the tail oelow. If you bait with half a worm, prefer
the tail end, and enter the point of the hook into the top part, and
bring it down nearly to the end of the tail, leaving only a very small
piece of it loose. If you bait with two worms on the same hook, draw
the first up above the shank, while you put the second on in the same
manner as directed with one worm, but enter the hook near the tail of
the second worm ; then draw the first one down on the second over
the shank of the hook, and aU will then be well covered, and the bait
will be a very bon-bon for perch, chub, carp, barbel, and all large fish ;
but when angling for gudgeon, and other small fish, half a red worm
is sufficient, and the tail end is best. If blood-worms are used, put
on two or three, in doing which be tender, or you will burst them.
Tho principal baits are —
1. Thk Lob-worm.
7.
Caterpillars.
13.
Grasshoppers
2. Thb Brandling.
8.
Cabbage-worms.
14.
Wasp-grtjb.
3. The Marsh-worm.
9.
Crab-tree-worms.
15.
Cockchafers.
4. The Tagtail.
10.
Gentlks.
16.
Bread Paste.
5. The Ash-grub.
11.
Cad-worms.
17.
Cheese Paste.
C. CowDUNO Bait.
12.
Flag-worms.
\. Lob-worms are found in gardens or churchyards, late in the
evening ; they have a red head, a streak down the back, and a broad
tail. This is a good worm for salmon, chub, trout, barbel, eels, and
large perch.
2. Brandling is found in old dunghills, rotten earth or cow-dung,
and the best in tanners' bark. It is a good bait for any kind of fish.
3, The Marsh-worm is found in marshy grounds, or on the banks oi
rivers; and is a good bait for trout, perch, gudgeon, grayling, and bream.
96
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
4. The Tagtaili^ found in marly lands or meadows, after a shower;
and is a goocl bait for trout when the water is muddy.
5. The Ash-grub is found in the bark of trees. It is a good bait
for grayling, dace, roach, or chub.
6. Cowdung Bait is found under cowdung, from May to Michael-
mas ; and is good bait for grayling, dace, roach, or chub.
7. Caterpillars can be found on almost every tree or plant.
Almost any small caterpillar will answer.
8. The Cabbage caterpillar is found on cabbages.
9. The Crabtree-worm can be taken by beating the branches of the
crab-apple.
10. Gentles. These are bred in putrid meat — ^liver producing the
best — or may generally be obtained from the butchers. They are an
excellent bait for mos^ kinds of fish.
THE CADDIS FLY.
11. Caddis is found in ditches, or on the sides of brooks. It is an
excellent bait for trout, grayling, roach, dace, or chub.
12. Flag-icorms are found among flags in old pits or ponds, and are
good bait for grayling, tench, bream, carp, roach, and dace.
13. Grasshoppers are found in sun-burnt grass, and are good bait
for chub, trout, and grayling.
14. Wasp-grubs are to be obtained from wasps' nests, and are a
good bait for most fish that will take gentles.^
15. Cockchafers are found humming round the bushes at about dusk
on a summer evening, and everywhere, and sometimes in cov/dung ;
are a capital bait for chub, though not for anything else.
16. White-bread Paste is prepared by dipping white bread in water
(soaking and squeezing it in the comer of a pocket-handkerchief is
(1) Wasp-giiibs will keep better, and be easier to fit on the hook, if they are baked
for"half-au-hoiir.
ANGLINGc 97
tlie best way), and then working it a little in the palm of the hand. It
is a good bait for carp, tench, chub, or roach. Some add a httle honey.
17. Cheese Paste is made with fresh cheese, worked up in the
hand. It is a good bait for chub.
18. Ground Bait should be used in the spot about to be fished, and,
if possible, the night before, and should be fresh. Tor carp, chub,
roach, or dace, use white bread soaked in water, and mixed with
bran, poUard, or meal. Por barbel, chandler's greaves, boiled and
worked up into a ball with clay. Gentles may also be used as
ground bait for any of the above.
TO BAIT WITH GREAVES.
jFirst select the whitest pieces from those you have soaked, and
put two or three of them upon your hook, or as much as will cover
it from the bend to and over the point ; these pieces should be put
on the hook separately, one after the other — not a large piece
doubled, as some slovenly boys will do, for then the hook is pre-
vented from entering firmly the fish you may strike. These httle
particulars of baiting are of considerable advantage to young anglers,
who ought to remember also that it is a bad practice to soat greaves
in hot water, for it makes them rotten, and they in consequence soon
faU off the hook.
TO SCOUR AND PRESERVE WORMS.
To do this, the young angler should provide himself with a
quantity of fresh moss. Wash out all the earth and s(^ueeze it, but
not too dry ; then put it into a jar and squeeze it hghtly down :
throw in the worms upon it. The jar should be kept in a cool place
in summer, and the moss changed once in three or four days. Gentles
should be thrown into a mixture of damp sand or bran to scour them,
and will be ready in two or three days.
THE PLUMMET.
Plummets are used by anglers for sounding the depth of a stream
or hole. They are of two kinds, either the folding plummet, or the
common plummet. The folding plummet, which is the better, is
made of a sHp of sheet lead, folded up ; and this the young angler
should never be without.
' PLUMBING THE DEPTH
Is performed in the following maimer : If a
folding plummet, unfold about two inches of
it, pass the hook over its side, and then fold
the plummet up again : your hook is now se-
curea from drawing away from the plummet.
As success depends much in anghng at a proper
depth, the young angler should take due pams,
and measure the depth accurately before he
begins fishing. When the plumb-lead touches
n
98 EVERY boy's book.
the bottom, and tlie top of the float is even with the surface of the
water, yon will have the true depth.
LANDING-HOOK AND LANDING-NET.
The landing-hook or gaff is a large hook, which is sometimes
barbed hke a fish-hook, and sometimes plain, fastened to one end of
a handle; this latter is occasionally composed of several pieces, which
ran one into another, like the slides of. a telescope. A landing-net is
a small net mounted on a iron ring, which is fastened, like the land-
ing-hook, to the end of a handle or pole.
CLEAHING BING AND LINE.
The clearing-line is made of several yards of strong small cord, to
the end of which is fastened a heavy ring of lead or brass. If the
hook should get fast in a heavy weed, post, or anything else, this
ring is put over the butt of the rod, and suffered to sHp down the
line to the hook. The rod should be held in the right hand, the top
pointing downwards, the clearing-line in the left, the ring falling on
the hook, from its weight, generally clears the hook from what it may
have struck against. If not, the angler should hold the rod firmly,
and draw the line sideways, and break away. In this case, the angler
seldom loses more than a hook, if he acts as above directed ; out
without the assistance of a clearing-line he frequently loses his float
as well as his hook and line, and sometimes breaks his top joint.
The brass clearing-rings are to be preferred, because they are jointed,
and in consequence can be used when the angler has a winch in his
rod, in which case the leaden ring could not be passed over the
winch.
DRAG-HOOK.
The drag is a piece of iron with three or four stout wire hooks
without barbs, placed back to back, fastened to a strong cord line,
and which is used to draw away weeds.
BANK BUNNEE. -
The bank-runner is mostly used in the day-time, when the angler
is fishing for roach, barbel, &c. It is stuck in the bank, the bottom
ANGLING. 99
being strong turned wood, sharpened for the purpose, with a •winder
at the top for the Hne, which should be from forty to sixty yards
long, made of silk, thin cord, or plaited Dutch twine. But there
should be a cork and bullet to the line, and the bait a dace or
gudgeon, which should swim about mid-water.
LIVE-BAIT KETTLE.
This should be of an oblong form, and not round ; bright inside,,
and brown out. In getting out the bait, never put your hand ints
the water, which frightens the fish, and, by heating the water, makes
them sickly and dull ; but make use of a small net, which is easily
carried in the fish-kettle, by having a piece of the lid cut away in one
comer.
DISGOKGEE.
This is an instrument with a forked top, about six inches long,
made of iron, brass, or bone. Its use is to get the hook from a fish
when swallowed ; and in using it, the forked end is thrust down upon
the swallowed hook with one hand, while the line is held tight with
the other : pressure disgorges the hook, and it is then easily drawn
out. In attempting to get a gorged hook from a fish without this
instrument, you run a hazard of breaking the hook and hurting your-
self. When the fish is hooked through the lip, the angler has only
to hold the fish steadily in one hand, while with the other he carefully
disengages the hook.
ANGLING AXIOMS.
1. Never fish any water without leave from the proprietor, unless
it be water that is free to all comers.
2. Never use unfair bait, or attempt to take fish in any but a fair
and sportsmanlike manner.
3. Never start on a day's fishing without first considering the
wind, weather, and water.
4. Never let your shadow fall on the water.
5. Use the finest tackle of which your fishing will admit.
8. Never begin bottom fishing without first plumbing the depth.
7. Never intrude upon another fisherman's water.
8. And always remember that nothing is lost by politeness.
100 EVEHY boy's book.
ACCOUNTS OF THE VARIOUS FRESH- WATER FISH,
WITH THEIR HABITS, HAUNTS, SEASONS, AND THE METHODS OF TAKING THEM.
THE SALMON.
The Salmon is tlie king of fresh-water fish. It is handsome in
form, its head is small, its nose pouited, its back and sides grey, its
belly silvery, and its flesh the well-known salmon colour. The male
may generally be distinguished by its having the lower jaw more
" hooked," or turned up at the point, than the female ; the head is
also generally somewhat longer, ui comparison to the rest of the
body.
Salmon bite best from six till eleven in the forenoon, and from
three in the afternoon until sunset, especially when there is a moderate
breeze upon the water. The cluef months to angle for them are
March, April, May, and June. They are to be fished for with lob-
worms, or in spinning with minnows, but a large artificial fly is the
most killing bait. The rod, for a boy, should not be less than fifteen
feet long, with a good running line, and the reel should contain at
least fourscore yards. The hook must be large and long in the shank.
Few of our young readers, however, will be able to go sahnon fishing
tin they have reached maturity, and, therefore, to give detailea
instrucnons as to the modes of capturing the fish would be super-
fluous.
THE TROUT. <
Thia beautiful fish is much prized. Jzaak Walton says of it, " It
is more sharp-sighted than any hawk, and more watchful and timorous
.\i^"-
ANGLING.
101
than your higli-mettled merlin is bold." In its habits it is a very
solitary and predacious fish.
The tront are fonnd in lakes and rivers and minor streams, and are
finest in appearance from the beginning of April to the end of July or
middle of August : their principal spawning time is from November
to January. The most DriUiant and beautiful trout are generally
found in streams that flow rapidly over rocky or chalky bottoms.
They feed upon worms, minnows, and other small fish, but their
favourite food consists of insects, flies, caterpillars, &c. npon which
they thrive and fatten prodigiously.
In angling for the trout we must have a stout rod and running
tackle. The principal baits for him are natural and artificial flies,
minnows, and worms. The minnow is, perhaps, the most taking bait
for large trout : it should be cast lightly on the water, and drawn
trippingly against the current so as to spin. The angler must strike
directly his bait is seized. The favourite haunts of the trout are
scours, miU tails, eddies, pools, the roots of overhanging trees, and
the " nethers " of bridges and weirs.
THE JACK OK PIKE.
The mighty luce or pike, says Walton, is taken to be the tyrant,
as the salmon is the king, of the fresh waters. His aspect is savage
but by no means repulsive, and when in fine condition a large pike is
altogether a grand-looking fish. His teeth are very sharp and very
numerous, being upwards of seven hundi-ed, and his voracious appe-
tite is such that nothing comes amiss to him. He has been known
to swallow the plummet, and the clay and bran balls of ground bait
of the angler, and he will prey upon "rats and mice and such small
deer," with ducks, geese, ana even swans, which he has been known
102
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
to pull under water. He often grows to au enormous size (no
wonder), and has been taken upwards of ninety pounds in weight.
Pike are fond of dull, shady, and unfrequented waters, with a
sandy, chalky, or clayey bottom, and are found among or near flags,
bubushes, or water docks. They seldom seek a very rapid stream,
although weirs and mill-pools are often their favourite retreat in the
early summer months — that is, in June and July, when they have
recently spawned. In winter they retire into the depths, eddie^^. and
;vaters little acted upon by the current.
The pike is in its prime during October and November, but is i^
season from June to Eebruary ; the baits used for it are gudgeon,
minnows, chub, and bleak, and should be about three or four inches
in length. The rod should be strong ; the line of dressed silk, at
least sixty yards long, wound upon the winch already described.
Hooks for troUing, cafled dead gorges, and other sorts for trolling,
snap, &c. and fishing needles, are to be bought at every shop where
fishing tackle is sold ; in the choice of the first, let them not be too
large, nor their temper injured by the lead on the shanks, nor the
points stand too proud ; and although usuall;^ sold on wire, it is re-
commended to cut off the wire about half an inch from the lead, and
with a double silk, well waxed, fasten about a foot of good gimp to
the wire, with a noose at the other end of the gimp large enough to
admit the bait to pass through to hang it upon the line._ ^ The best
baits are gudgeon and dace of a middling size ; put the baiting needle
in at the mouth and out at the middle of the tail, drawing the gimp
and hook after it, fixing the point of the hook near the eye of the
fish ; tie the tail to the gunp, which will not only keep it in a proper
position, but prevent the tail from catching against the weeds and
roots in the water. Thus baited, the hook is to be fastened to the
'^.
ANGLING.
103
e and dropped gently in the water near the sides of the river,
across the -water, or where it is likely pike resort ; keep the bait in
constant motion, sometimes letting it sink near the bottom and
gradually raising it. When the bait is taken, let the pike have what
nne he chooses. It will be soon known when he has reached his
hole, which he generally flies to, by his not drawing more. Allow
him ten minutes for gorging the bait, wind up the Kne gently till you
think it is nearly at its stretch, and then strike. Manage him with a
gentle hand, keeping him, however, from roots and stumps, which he
will try to fasten the line upon, till he is sufficiently tired, and a
landing net can be used; but by no means, however apparently
exhausted he may be, attempt to lift him out with the rod and
line only.
In trolling, the bait hook should never be thrown too far ; in small
rivers the opposite bank may be fished with ease, though the violence
of its falls upon the water in long throws soon spoils the bait by
rubbing off its scales. In angling for pike always prefer a rough
wind. If a pike goes slowly up a stream, after taking the bait, it is
said to be the sign of a good fish.
THE GUDGEON
Is one of the most dehcious fish for eating, although small in size.
It bites freelv from the latter end of spring until autumn, in gloomy
warm days, from an hour after sunrise to within the same space of
its setting ; and during the rest of the year, in the middle of the day,
when it is warmest.
In angling for gudgeon the tackle must be very fine, a single hair
or fine gut Hue, a hook No. 8 or 9, a short rod and line, and a small
tapering cork float. The gudgeon will take the small red-worm
greedily, and blood-worms— the first is perhaps the best. A rake or
the boat-hook should be kept frequently stirring the bottom. To the
spot so stirred gudgeon assemble in shoals, expecting food from the
discolouring of the water. They are apt to nibble at the bait ; the
Lngler ought not, therefore, to strike till the float goes weU down.
104 EVERY boy's book.
Should any young angler desire a good day's fisliing for gudgeon,
and a pleasant "wSk into the bargain, he should seek out some
sequestered gravelly stream, and providing himself with a rake with
a long handle, he may have sport till he is tired of it. He will find
GUDGEON AND BREAM.
the fish scattered up and down every river in the shallows during tSie
heat of summer, but in winter they get into deeper water. Gudgeon,
are to be fished for there with your hook always touching the ground.
THE EGACH.
The roach is a handsome fish either in or out of the water. It
inhabits many of our deep s,till rivers, dehghting most in quiet waters.
It is gregarious, keeping in large shoals. It dehghts in gravelly,
sandy, or a kind of slimy marl bottom, under a deep gentle running
stream ; in summer it often frequents shallows near the tails of fords,
or lies under banks among weeds, under the shades of boughs, and
at or opposite the mouth of a rivulet or brook, that empties itself
into a large river. In winter the roach like to get into clear, deep,
and still waters.
The tackle for roach must be fine and strong, a tT^elve-foot rod and
a five-foot Hne, a porcupine float, and hooks No. II or 12. The bait,
gentils, bread-paste, boiled wheat or red worms. The ground bait
should be damp meal or bran, mixed with soaked bread or clay (the
former best). In fishing for roach in ponds, chew and throw in white
bread. The hook should be No. 6, and the bait either touch the
bottom or he within one inch of it. As many gentils should be put
on the hook as will cover it, all but the barb. Strike directly the
float goes down.
The season for roach fishing in the Thames begms about the latter
ANGLING. 105
end of August and continues tlirough the mnter. To London Bridge
and among the shipping below it, numbers of roacn return in June
and July, after having been up the river to spawn, and many of them
are taken by means of a strong cord, to which is fastened a leaden
weight, more or less, according to the strength of the current ; a foot
above this lead a twine twelve feet long is joined to the cord, and to
this twine at convenient distances are tied a dozen hair links, with
roach hooks at the ends ; these are baited with white snails or peri-
winkles, the fisherman holds the cord in his hand, and easily feels the
biting of the fish, which is a signal to pull up, and frequently five or
six are taken at a haul.
ROACa AND DACE.
THE DACE.
Dace are gregarious — are great breeders — very lively — and during
summer fond of playing near the surface. Their haunts are deep
water, near the piles of bridges, where the stream is gentle, and has
a sandy or clayey bottom. They like deep holes that are shaded by
water-lily leaves, and under the foam caused by an eddy; in the
warm months they are to be found in shoals on the shallows and
gravels.
The baits for dace are red-worms, gentles, and small flies, natural
or artificial, used as ia fly-fishing for trout. In angling for dace with
worms, maggots, &c. the tackle cannot be too fine, the float small,
the hook Ko. 9, the shot a foot from it ; by baiting the place with a
few maggots before fishing, the diversion will be increased. If you
angle in an eddy between two mill streams, and the water is only two
or three feet deep, there will be a greater chance of success than
where it is deeper ; bait and strike as in roach fishing. The ground-
bait may also be the same.
!Pish for dace within three inches of the ground, especially where
the ant fly is the bait under water. In fishing, take advantage if you
106
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
can of a still, warm, gloomy da^, or go in a summer*s evening to a
gravelly or sandy shallow, or tail end of a mill-stream, and as long as
the light continues the dace will yield diversion.
THE PEECH.
" Perch feed on perch," is an old maxim ; the perch being the only
one of all fresh-water fish that feeds on its own land. His excuse is
a prodigious appetite, like that of Saturn, who ate his own offspring.
Notwithstanding this wicked propensity, the perch is a beautiful fish,
the back and part of the sides being a deep green, marked with broad
black bars, pointing downwards ; the spaces between are golden, the
belly white, and the fins tinged with scarlet. They vary greatly in
size. The largest perch we ever caught weighed three pounds twelve
ounces, and was taken with a roach bait near Eicmnond. Their
general length is about ten or twelve inches.
Perch are found in ponds and in clear rivers with pebbly, clayey,
or sandy bottoms. They are fond of water moderately deep, and
frequent holes near to gentle streams where there is an edd^, the
hollows under banks, among weeds and roots of trees, piles of bridges,
or in ponds which are fed by a brook or rivulet. The perch is a bold
biter in the summer, but scarcely ever in (the winter. In the middle
of a warm sunshiny day, you are sure to have him with a proper
bait. In the winter he bites best in large quiet eddies, to wmch he
retreats after the first heavy flood.
The baits for perch are various, as well as the manner of using
them. Of worms, the best are brandlings, and red dunghill-worms,
well scoured. The hook may be varied from No. 2 to 6, being well
whipped to a strong silkworm gut, with a shot or two a foot from it.
Put the point of the hook in at the head of the worm, out again a
little lower than the middle, pushing it above the shank of the hook
upon the gut ; then put the point of the hook into the worm again
the reverse way, and draw the head part down so as to cover the
ANGLING. 107
Look entirely. Tliis is the most enticing method that can be adopted
in worm-fishing. Use a small cork float to keep the bait at six or
twelve inches from the bottom, or sometimes about mid-water.
In angling near the bottom, raise the bait very frequently from
thence almost to the surface, letting it gradually fall again. Should
a good shoal be met with, they are so greedy that sometimes they
may be all caught.
Other baits for perch are cadbait and gentles ; but the best and
most enticing bait is a live minnow. If you find the fish shy, try-
not long in one spot. In baiting your hook with the minnow, fix
your hook through his upper lip, and use a small reel with your rod.
Your hook should be No. 5, fastened to a link of gut.
THE GRAYLING.
The grayling is a fish of elegant form ; the back is of a dusky
purple, the sides of a fine silvery grey, with the scales in long parallel
rows or lines (from which the fisn derives its name), marked with
black spots, irregularly placed. It is rather a hog-backed fish ; and,
from the nose and belly touching the ground together, is supposed
to feed mostly at the bottom. In length it seldom exceeds sixteen
inches, but some have been caught upwards of five pounds in
weight.
The haunts of the grayling are in rapid, clear streams, particularly
such as flow through mountainous countries. They are usually taken
in the same manner as the trout, and with similar baits. They do not
bite freely till late in August, or early in September, and may be
found at the tails of sharp streams and in deep water. Thev rise
more boldly than the trout, and if missed several times will still
pursue the bait. They will bite during the whole of the cold cloudy
but the preferable time to look after them is between eight
108
EVERT BOY S BOOK.
and twelve o'clock in the morning, and from four in the afternoon
till after sunset. Grasshoppers, wasp -grubs, maggots, and the
artificial fly, are the most killing baits.
THE CHTJB.
This fish takes its name from the shape of the head, not onlv in
our own, but in other languages. The head and back are of a deep
dusky green, the sides silvery. The tail is forked, and very black at
the end, and altogether the chub is rather a handsome fish, although
its flesh is not much in esteem.
The haunts of the chub are in rivers whose bottoms are of sand
or clay, or which flow over a gravelly bottom, in deep holes, under
hollow banks ; in summer, particularly where shaded by trees, &c.
they frequently float on the surface, and are sometimes found in
streams and deep waters, where the currents are strong. In ponds
fed by a rivulet they grow to a large size.
To fish for chub at the bottom, you should have a stout long rod,
a strong liue (and if you use a reel, you will be the better able to
fish under bushes), with two yards or more of the best silkworm gut
at bottom; a hook proportionate to the bait used; a swan-quill
float ; and the line so shotted, eight or ten inches from the hook, as
to sink the float to a quarter of an inch above the surface. The same
groundbait is to be used as for carp. The best baits are greaves,
cheese paste, or the tail end of a well-scoured lob-worm. The cock-
chafer IS also a very tempting bait, especially towards dusk : no float
or shot are required for this.
After baiting your hook with a cockchafer, move it two or three
times near the surface, as in the act of flying ; then drop it in the
water, tapping the rod gently, which will cause the appearance of its
struggling to escape. This attracts the chub, who are so fond of this
bait, that they will rise two or three at a time to seize it. But mind
and be ready with your landing-net.
ANGLING. 109
The chub will take a grub, wasps, maggots, paste of fine new
bread worked in the hand, and tinned with vermilion, to make it
look like salmon-roe ; but the best bait for bottom or float-fishing
for the chub is new Cheshire cheese, worked with the crumb of a
new roll, or the pith from the backbone of an ox. In baiting with
the cheese, put a round lump the size of a cherry on a large hook,
so as to cover the bend, and some way up the shank ; fish six inches
from the bottom, or in cold weather the bait may lie on the ground.
When there is a bite, the float will be drawn under water : strike
immediately, and give him play, holding a tolerably tight Ime, to keep
the fish clear from weeds and stumps.
The best time for fishing for chub is chiefly before sunrise to nine
in the morning, and from four till after sunset in the summer ; but,
in winter, the middle of the day is best. In hot weather, the chub
is to be fished for at or near the top of the water, and not deeper
than midwater ; and in cold weather, close to or near the bottom ;
and the main point in taking the fish is for the angler to keep him-
self out of sight. A very deadly way of killing cnub, and certainly
the most artistic method, is with the artificial fly, used as in trout
fishing. FUes are made expressly for this purpose, and of these the
best are red and black palmers, and the Marlow buzz.
THE CAKP.
Carp are esteemed among the richest fresh-water fish we have in
the kingdom, and are as cunning as foxes. The angler, therefore.
must be " wide awake " to catch him, and also as patient as a saint.
He may, however, fish for him at any time in the day during warm
weather. The bait may be either worms or paste. Of worms, the
bluish marsh or meadow is the best ; but a red-worm, not too big,
will do : of paste, the best is made of bread and honey ; and the spot
intended should be well baited beforehand. In a large pond, to draw
110
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
them together, throw in either grains, or soaked bread worked up
with meal or bran ; follow this with a few of the small baits you
intend to angle with.
Whilst yon are fishing, chew a little bread, and throw it in about
the place where your float swims. In fishing for carp in ponds, the
bait and about half a foot of the gut nearest the hook should lie
on the bottom; otherwise the carp will continually suck the bait off.
When the carp has fairly taken the bait, you will perceive the float
move steadily away or under water, then strike, and not till then.
In this way, with due patience, you will prove a match for these
crafty fish.
THE TENCH.
The tench is one of our most useful fresh-water fishes, for the ease
with which it may be preserved, and the goodness of its flesh. It is
very usual to breed it in ponds, but naturally, like many others of
the carp tribe, it is generally found in lakes and still waters; its
favourite haunts are m places well shaded with bushes or rushes.
In standing waters, it lies under weeds, near sluices, and at pond-
heads.
The best baits for tench are bread paste and red worms, but he
usually prefers the latter. He feeds best in the three hot months. •
The worm should be put on the hook in the method directed for
perch, but the hook itself should be of a somewhat smaller size. '
Use a light float and strong gut Une, and let the bait swim within aa '
inch or two of the bottom.
THE POPE, OR KUFP, '
Is something like a perch in shape, but more bluff and bulky. He is
found principally in slow, deep, quiet rivers, which have a loamy
bottom. The spawning time is in April. The best baits for him are
red-worms and brandlings. The places where he is to be had are
ANGLING.
Ill
where the water is deep and still ; and these places should be baited
with some clay-balls, with which worms are mixed. Should the
water be muddy, worms wiU do alone ; but if clear, clay must be
used to render it opaque before you fish. The fish will bite at any
time of a warm summer's day, wlien the sky is cloudy. In angling,
use a No. 8 or 9 hook, with a quill float ; and the moment you see
the float disappear, strike.
THE BREAM.
The bream, at full growth, is a large and stately fish, and is often-
times as fat as a hog. He is principally found in large ponds or in
lakes, and in still rivers where the waters are deep and shaded by
weeds; and may be taken throughout the latter part of summer
and autumn.
The baits are many : paste made of white bread and honey, gentles,
wasp-grubs, and brandlmgs ; but much the best general bait is the
tail end of a lob-worm. Use lob-worms, cut in pieces, brewers'
grains, or greaves, as groundbaits in the places where you intend to
angle. Use a gut line, quill float, and hook the same as for perch.
Sound the bottom, which should be eight or ten feet deep, and stand
at least two yards from the bank from which you fish ; the bait
should just touch or trip along the bottom.
THE ELOUNDER.
The flounder is a well-known flat-fish very common aboat our owii
coasts ; and should any of our young friends be at the seaside, it is
well that they should know how to take flounder. They are also
found in rivers, at some distance from the sea. They may be taken
in May, July, and August, — not in June, as that is their spawning
112
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
time. The best baits are red-worms and marsb-worms, on a No. G
hook; and you should fish at the bottom.
THE J-LOUNJJER.
EELS.
Eels are denizens of the mud ; but they are fond of clean not foul
mud, and ought never to be sought after in filthy places. There are
many modes of taking them : by rod and line, by dead line, by snig-
gling, by bobbing, and by spearing. When a rod is used, you should
put a brandling or red-worm on a No. 8 hook ; the bait should touch
the bottom ; and, when you have a " bite," the float should be drawn
quite under water before you strike.
The dead hue is a line of whipcord, with hooks about two feet
asunder, baited with lob-worms or small fish, and having a weight at
the end. You should also have a bank-runner — a red on a pin or
stake . stuck iato the ground on the edge of the bank ; the line and
baits shoidd be thrown in, and left for the eels to amuse themselves
with, — looked to, and drawn up at your leisure.
ANGLING. 113
In sniggling, a lob-worm is put upon a stout worsted needle ; the
line is on a winder; and the fish will be found near flood-gates,
wharfings, bridges, piles, holes in the banks of rivers, ponds, and
canals. The bait should be put into the lurking-places of the eel, by-
means of a stick with a forked head ; and when the bait is taken,
which will easily be known by the pull of the string, strike.
Bobbing for eels. — In this process long red-worms are strung
on threads of worsted, until a bunch as large as the two fists is
formed around a piece of lead. The whole is sunk to the bottom,
or nearly so, then raised a little, then depressed, so as to induce
the eels to bite. When this occurs, heave up without hurry.
The number of eels taken in this way is often prodigious.
In spearing eels, the spearer usually goes into the mud in a.
pair of pants ©r mud pattens, pieces of square board fastened
mto the heel to prevent sinking. He takes an eel-spear in his
hand, something like Neptune's trident, and progs the mud all
over, and the eels are caught between the forked blades of the
spear. Great numbers of eels are taken in this way on the
muddy ooze of salt or fresh-water rivers.
I
THE STICKLEBACK AND MINNOW.
The stickleback is a dark-coloured little fish, found in ditches and"
ponds. They are best caught with a small hand-net, and are occa-
sionally used as bait for perch. The minnow is very beautiful in
appearance, being of a rose colour underneath , and may be taken
with a worm and a No. 13 hook at any time of day ; but more easily
with a small hand-net. They are commonly found in little rivulets,
rills, or small sandv streams, and are highly prized by the angler as
baits for many kinds of fish.
114 EVERY BOY'S BOOK.
THE BAHBEL.
The barbel is a bold, sturdy, handsome-looking fish, although its
fiesh is coarse to the eater ; but he is a rare fellow for sport, and
often affords great amusement as "well as chagrin to the angler by his
bolting off with the line by a " coup de barbel," and breaking it with
his tail. Izaak Walton says, that barbel "flock together like
sheep."
Barbel are to be found in the strongest runs of water. In summer,
they love the shallowest and sharpest streams, and will lurk under
weeds, and will root and dig in the sand like pigs. Sometimes he
(
BARBEL WITH GOLD CARP.
iccires to deep and swift bridges, or to flood-gates or weirs, and will
rest himself against piles or hollow places. In winter he gets into
deep water.
Li fishing for barbel in large streams, you should go out in a boat
provided with greaves, gentles, and red-worms; and, before you
begia fishing, you should throw in plenty of groundbait — such as
soaked greaves, bran and clay made into small balls, maggots, or lob-
worms. They may be angled for with a stout rod, strong running
line, cork float, and No. 7 or 8 hook, baited with marshworms or
greaves. The barbel being a sharp biter, strike the moment you feel
a nibble. He may be caught from May to October all day, but best
in the morning and evening. After he is struck he will frequently
make a run, but you must play him gently ; keep him clear of weeds,
and try to get him into deep water ; and when you have him, mind
he does not bounce out of your hand and drop down the strean-.
again.
■
I^H ANGLING. 115
V^m, NATURAL FLY-FISniNG, OB, DIPPING.
1^^ Pishing with a fly may be practised either with the natural fly,
usually called " dipping," or with the artificial fly ; in which latter
case the sport is callea " fly-fishing," or sometimes " whipping.**
Dipping requires a moderately long and stif rod, of about twelve or
thirteen feet. The line should not be above a yard in length from
the end of the rod, but the reel should contain sufficient to play
the fish if necessary. When the river is much overhung with buslies,
it is a good plan to wind the line round the end of the top joint,
leaving only a few inches dependent ; and then, having thrust the
rod through some small opening in the bushes, gradually to unwind
the line by turning the rod in the hand, so as to drop the fly on the
water in the most gentle manner. In this insidious way large fish
are often taken with any of the flies which are in season and found
at the time on the banks of the river which is fished, especially if
they are only just coming out, and the fish are not yet satiated with
them. It is quite needless to give a list of the natural flies which
are likely to prove serviceable to the fisherman, because he has only
to look for those which at the time are tempting the fish, and then
to endeavour to find them on the banks, and at once to try their
powers. In the case of chub, however, he will find grasshoppers
and humble-bees more useful than any of the flies, and yet thev are
neither of them often seen upon the waters, and may be consiaered
exceptional cases. The fish which will generally take the natural fly
are grayling, trout, chub, and dace.
TLY-PISHING AND ARTIPICIAL PLIES.
For this delightful sport, which captivates alike the sexagenarian
and the schoolboy, rods and tackle of the finest quality are required.
It is true, that a good workman will take fish even with a willow
wand, but still he would do far better with a rod turned out by a
good maker ; and few young hands will be able to do much without
a well-finished specimen of the art of rod-making. The rod should
be strong, yet fine, and either of dressed silk, or silk and hair mixed.
The lower portion, called tbe foot-length, is of gut, generally
occupying about five or six feet of it, to which one, two, or three
flies are attached, the one at tbe end being called a stretcher, and
the others droppers.
The fly-fisher should be able to make his own flies, as there is a
^eat advantage in being able to "do for oneself; " and it may some-
times happen that he may be out of a particular fly when far away
from "fly shops."
MATERIALS FOR MAKING FLIES.
Feathers of various kinds; hairs of various kinds; very fine sewing
8ilk ; gold and silver twist. OT the first, the young fly -fisher must
i2
116 EVERY BOY'S BOOK.
provide himself with the feathers of the duck, cock, grouse, snipe,
oittem, woodcock, partridge, landrail, starling, jay, golden plover,
and peacock. Of the second, the fur from Tommy's tail, from the
skins of squirrels, moles, and water rats, camel's hair, hare's ear, fur
from its neck, the yellow fur from the neck of the martin, mohairs of
different shades, camlets, black horsehair, hog's down dyed various
colours. And with these, gimps, silks, and tinsel, a good pair of
pliers, and a pair of fine-pointed scissors.
In making your fly, imitate as nearly as possible the natural fly
you wish to represent; to do this properly, it will be well to dissect a
natural fly, and to imitate its several parts, and then to reconstruct
it with a reference to the whole. With a hook of the proper size, and
a^feather of the right colour, the fly-maker may now commence. His
feather must be stripped down on each side, leaving just so much
as will do for the wings at the fine end ; a piece of fine gut, free from
imperfection, and properly tested as to its strength; dubbing or
hackle ; and a piece oi fine silk well waxed with shoemaker's wax.
Let the essay be now made. Hold your hook in the left hand, wrap
the silk round the bare hook two or three times, and put the finest
end of the gut on the under side of the hook. If you are working for
a tackle fly, begin at the band and work up to the head, after turning
three or four times round the hook and gut; fasten on the tackle, ana
continue the winding of the silk until it reaches the end of the hook,
then turn it back two or three times, to form the head. The dubbing
must now be twisted round the silk, and wrapped upon the hook for
nearly half the proposed length of the body ; fasten it there bv a
single loop, that Doth hands may be at liberty to manage the tackle.
When sufficient of the feather is wound upon the hook, the re-
mainder should be held under the thumb of the left hand, and the
entangled fibres picked out with a needle. The silk and dubbing
must now be twisted over the end of the tackle, until the body of the
fly is of the length required, and then fastened. If gold or silver
twist is used, the twist should be fastened to the lower end of the
body before the dubbing is applied to the silk.
To make a winged fiy, the same method must be observed in tying
on the hook ; then take the feather which is to form the wings, and
place it even on the upper side of the shank, with the roots pointing
towards the bend of the hook ; fasten the feathers, by winding the
silk over it, and cut the root end close with a pair of scissors, and
divide the wings as equally as possible with a needle, passing the silk
two or three times between them, to make them stand in a proper
position; brins the silk down the shank of the hook the proposed
length of thelbody, and fasten it, then apply the dubbing to the
silk, and twist it towards the wings ; fasten in the hackle for legs,
and wind it neatly under the wings, so as to hide the ends of the
cut fibres: the silk must be fastened above the wings — be careful
of this.
I
AXGLING.
117
It would be impossible for us, nor would it be very useful to
the younf^ fly-fisher, to give him directions for making every kind
of fly. We may, however, throw out a few hints concerning the
making of most of the flies in common use, and of the materials
employed.
1. The green drake or May fly . — This is one of the most killing
trout flies, but it is seldom in the water for a longer period than
three weeks. The time of its appearance varies in different rivers,
but it generally rises about the last week in May, and continues for
about three weeks. The wings are made of the light feathers of a
grey drake, dyed a pale yellow- green colcrj*, by being boiled for
a mmute or two in a decoction of green vitriol. The body is formed
of amber-coloured mohair or silk ribbon, with dark green silk ; the
head of peacock's harl, and the tail of three long hairs taken from a
sable muff.
2. The black gnat. — The body of this fly is made of black ostrich
harl, and the wings of a pale starling's feather ; it must be dressed
short and thick. It is in use from the end of April till the end
of May, and is a good killer when the water is low.
3. Harems ear. — The wings are made from the feather of a starling's
wing, the body from the fur of the hare's ear, the legs of a ginger
cock's hackle.
4. Cock tail. — Wings of the light feather from a snipe's wing, the
body of yellow mohair.
t5. Whirling dun. — ^Wings of a snipe's feather, body of blue fur
wrapped with yellow silk, and a blue cock's hackle for legs ; the tail
of two hairs from a coloured muff.
6. Grey drake. — Wings of a dark grey feather of the mallard, the
body of white silk, striped with dark silk, the head of a peacock's
harl, and the tail of three hairs from a sable muff.
118 EVEEY boy's book.
7. Cowdung fiy. — The wings of the feather of a landrail, the body
of yellow camlet, mixed with a little brown bear-fur, and a ginger
hackle for legs ; the wings should be dressed flat.
8. Bee fly. — The body of thread of various colours, arranged in
stripes of the following order:— black, white, light yellow, white,
black, white ; the legs of a black hackle ; the wings from the feathers
of a blue pigeon's wing : the body must be dressed thick.
9. Red palmer. — The body of dark-red mohair, ribbed with gold
twist, and wrapped with a red cock's hackle.
10. Feacock palmer. — The body of a peacock's harl, wrapped with
a dusky-red cock's hackle.
11. Kingdom fly. — Wings of a woodcock's feather, the body of
white silk, striped with green, and the legs of a red cock's hackle.
12. White gnat. — The wings of a small white feather, the body of
white silk, and the legs of a red cock's hackle.
13. Blue dun. — The wings of a starling's feather, the body of
blue fur from a water rat, mixed with a little lemon-colour mohair ;
the tail is forked, and should be made of two fibres from the feather
used for the wing.
14. Bed ant. — The wings of a light starlings feather, the body of
peacock's harl made thick at the tail, and a gmger hackle for legs.
15. Gold spinner. — ^Wings of a starling's feather, body of orange
silk, ribbed with gold twist, and the legs of a red hackle.
16. Great white moth. — Wings of a feather from the wing of a
white owl, the body of white cotton, and a white cock's nackle
wrapped round the body.
17. Governor. — ^Wings of a woodcock's feather, the body of a pea-
cock's harl, tied with orange silk.
18. March brown. — Wings of the dark mottled feather from the
tail of a partridge, the body of fur from a hare's ear, well mixed with
a little yellow worsted, and a grizzled cock's hackle for legs.
19. Stone fly. — ^Wings of a dusky-blue cock's hackle, or a mot-
tled feather from a hen pheasant, the body of dark-brown and yellow
camlet mixed, and a grizzled hackle for legs ; the wings should
be flat.
20. Blach silver palmer. — The body of black ostrich harl, ribbed
with silver twist, and wrapped with black cock's hackle.
21. Willow fly. — The wm^s of dark grizzled cock's hackle, the
body of blue squirrel's fur, mixed with yellow mohair.
22. Yellow palmer. — The wings of white hackle, dyed yellow, the
body of yellow silk.
23. Black palmer.— The body of black ostrich's harl, wrapped
with a black cock's hackle.
24. Black palmer ribbed with gold. — The body of peacock's harl,
wrapped with a black cock's hackle, and ribbed with gold twist.
25. Marlow Buzz or Coch-a-Boundhu. — This is one of the most
killing flies known, and should never be off the line during the trout
ANGLiNQ. 119
season. The body of peacock's harl, ribbed with gold twist, aud a
dark-red cock's hackle over all.
26. The Grouse Hackle. — This is also a very killing fly, especially
late in the evening, during June, July, and August. Body of brown
fur, ribbed with gold twist, and a grouse hackle over all; hook No. 10.
The foregoing list comprises twenty-six of the most killing flies ;
and the followmg are the months in which they will be found to
kill best.
February, red cowdung fly, blue dun ; March, brown ; A-pnl, black
gnat, stone fly, gravel or spider fly, the green tail, brown, blue
dun; May, green drake, grey drake, oak fly, hazel fly, little iron
blue and yeUow sally ; June, hare's ear, cock tail, whirling dun,
marlow buzz, bee fly, kingdom fly, white gnat, blue gnat, blue dun,
governor, fern fly ; gold spinner ; July, red ant, red spinner, yellow
un, coachman, fern fly; August, whirling blue, red spinner, pale
yellow dun ; September, willow fly, silver twisted blue, whirling blue.
It would of course be impossible, in a work of this description, to
give a list of all the artificial flies used by experienced fishermen, but
the above are a few of the most killing. Eor bleak, dace, roacb,
chub, &c. a piece of a maggot, or a small piece of white leather, should
be placed at the end of the hook.
Having thus given the " order of flies," natural and artificial, we
may imagine the young fly-fisher, w^ith rod in hand, proportionate to
his strength and the breadth of the stream, ready to throw his fly ;
but let his rod and running tackle be in good order, and the idea of
the coachman's whip out of his mind. He is not to flog the water,
but to tickle it. The novice should teach himself to handle the line,
by beginning with it alone, {i.e. without flies or hook,) trying a short
length first, and lengthening it graduall;^. In using the rod, it should
be drawn vigorously back, though without a jerk, and thrown
forward again when the line has reached its full extent behind. Take
care in doing this, that the fly be not whipped off. When tolerably
expert, put on one fly, and try awhile with that, adopting two or
three when able to use them properly.
In fly-fishing keep as far from the water as possible, especially
if fishing for trout. Let only the flies touch the water, and keep
moving them gently and slowly on the surface. When a fish rises,
let not a moment elapse before you strike, and do it sharply.
Wben you have two flies on your line, you must try to throw
your line so that the bottom fly shall reach the water first ; it must be
done always as lightly as possible, so that it may resemble a natural
fly settling upon the water. You must suffer the line to float gently
down the stream, at the same time working it towards you.
The best time for angling with the fly is when there is a gentle
breeze upon the water ; south and west winds are to be preierred,
when the water has been disturbed by heavy rains and is just resum-
ing its natural colour, or when the day is dull and cloudy. The best
120 EVERY boy's book.
time, morning and evening. In cold weather the fish bite deeper,
and you shoidd then let the fly sink a little. Take care to have the
wind in your back, and the sun in your face, if possible.
When you see a rise, throw your fly about half a yard above the
fish's nose, and let it fall down with the stream ; watch it narrowly,
and strike as the fish rises, giving him an " infinite little moment " to
taste. When you have hooked, play your fish carefully, keeping up
his head and running him down the stream, at the same time steer-
ing bim towards you. If you see a fish rise at a natural fly, throw
your bait a little before him, so that he may take it as " one of the
number."
To know what flies the fish are most likely to take, observe what
natural flies are about the water, or on the grass, trees, or bushes in
the vicinity of the river; and take that fly which is the most in
abundance, either natural or artificial at your discretion. ^
Such are a few practical particulars concerning angling and fly-
fishing, sufficient to enable any young angler to begm. For more
abundant information we refer him to Mr. Stoddart and Mr. Stewart,
for fly-fishing, Mr. Cholmondeley Pennell for pike-fishing, " Hewitt
Wheatley " for grayling fishing, and iMr. Francis Francis for the
various modes of bottom fishing.
AilCHERI.
*' And he was clad in coat and pode of grene^;
A shefe of pecocke arrows bryght and shen©
Under his belt he bare, ful.threftely.
Well coude he dresse his tackle yomanly.
His arrows drouped not with feathers lowe,
And in his hande he bare a myghty bowe."— Chauceii.
The skill of the English in archery was always Yerj great. Our
ancestors used the bow for a double purpose: in time of war, it was a
far more dreadful instrument of destruction than our present soldier's
musket; while in the "piping times of peace," it became an object of
amusement. The victories the English obtained over their enemies in
times of war were many, and what the world calls glorious; and they
SAXON BOW AND ARROW.
stand upon record in our history, where the young reader may peruse
them with interest and advantage.
The Anglo-Saxons and the Danes were certainly well acquainted
with the use of the bow, which they used, not so much for \jar pur-
122 EVERT boy's book.
poses, as in the sports of the field. But it is well known that the
Normans used the bow as a military weapon, and under their govern-
ment the practice of archery was not only much unproved, but gene-
rally diffused throughout the kingdom. The long-bow was an instru-
ment of Norman introduction, and there seems good reason to believe
that the arbalist, or cross-bow, was used by these sturdy invaders.
THE I.ONG-BOW.
The use of the English long-bow arrived
at the highest perfection in the reign of
Edward III.; and, notwithstanding the in-
troduction of fire-arms, continued for a long
time after to be successfully cultivated.
Cressy, Poictiers, A^court, and many other
victories, were obtamed by its u^e ; and Sir
John Fortescue writes, "That mighte of
•the realme of En^lande standyth upon her
archers,'* — as it \ml now upon our riflemen
or sharpshooters, when our army shall get
the right kind of gun.
THE CROSS-BOW.
, The cross-bow, or arbalist, was a popular weapon with the EtoKans,
and was introduced into England in the thirteenth century. The
arrows shot from it were caUed " guorrels." It was fastened upon
a stock, and discharged by means of a catch or trigger, which pro-
pably gave rise to the lock on the modem musket. One historian
HORMAN-BOW.
informs us, that Hichard the First was wounded by an arrow from a
bow of this kind; and also, that the EngHsh cross-bow was used
chiefly at sieges of fortified places, and on ship-board in battles upon
the sea. It was, however, used in recreation, and acquired great
reputation among the citizens of London, who had "butts" in various
places for the practice of this kind of archery; as at Newington Butts,
Brentford Butts, and other spots, which still retain the name of
Butts : and in the reign of Edward IT. an act passed, which directed
l
ARCHERY.
123
that butts should be in every township, where the inhabitants should
shoot on every feast-day, under a penalty of a halfpenny when they
shall omit the exercise.
TEATS or THE BOW.
Mr. Grose inlorms us that an archer could shoot sh. arrows in the
time necessary to charge and discharge a musket; and even in modem
days, a practised bowman has been known to shoot twelve arrows in
a minute into a circle not larger than the circumference of a man's
hat, at a distance of forty yards. Of the power of the bow, and of
the distance it will carry, some remarkable anecdotes are told. Xeno-
phon mentions an Arcadian, whose head was shot through by a
Carduchian archer. Stuart mentions a random shot of a Turk, which
he found to be 584 yards; and Mr. Strutt saw the Turkish ambas-
sador shoot 480 vards in the old archery-ground ia London. An old
author speaks of a Turkish bow, the arrow of which was known to
pierce a steel target two inches thick. In the journal of King
Edward YI., it is mentioned that 100 archers of the king's guarrt
shot at an inch board, and that some of the arrows passed through
this, and into another board behind it, although the wood was ex-
tremely solid and firm. William de Brensia relates that a Welshman
having directed an arrow at a horse-soldier of his, who was clad in
armour, and had his leathern coat under it, the arrow, beside piercing
the man through the hip, struck also through the saddle, and mortally
wounded the horse on which he sat. Another Welsh soldier having
shot an arrow at one of his horsemen, who was covered with strong
armour, the shaft penetrated through his thigh, and fixed in the
saddle ; but what is most remarkable is, that as the horseman drew
his bridle aside, in order to turn round, he received another arrow in
the opposite thigh, which passing through it, he was firmly fixed to
the saddle on both sides. Mr. Barrington, in the " Archaeologise,'* re-
lates a tradition that one Leigh, an attorney (it must have been
a barrister), shot an arrow a mile in three flights ; and Carew, speak-
124
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
ing of the Cornish archers two centuries back, says that the butts for
long shooting were placed 480 jards apart. Such, my good friends,
are the feats you may emulate with the bow.
LENGTH OF BOWS AND AMIOWS, AND HOW USED IN
ANCIENT TIMES.
The length of the bow varied, but was usually the height of the
bearer, as the Act of Edward IV. commands every man to have
a bow his own height. The arrows were of different weights and
sizes; the lighter sort, for long ranges,
about two feet three inches; while the
heavy were a cloth yard in length. The
heads had various shapes, among which the
broad arrow extended in width to nearly
four inches to the extremity of the wings.
Of these, 24 in a sheaf were put into a
quiver, and, in action, about 12 in the girdle.
Thev were trimmed with three goose-quill
■ feathers each, and when the archers shot
in voEey, the quantity of arrows in the air
was compared by Eroissart to a fall of snow.
The farthest range of arrows was estimated
at eleven score yards. The archers, in order
HOEMAN BOWMAN EQUIPPED of battlc, gcucrally carried, beside the bow,
FOR BATTLE. axc, aud target, a stake pointed at both
ends. They formed in open ranks, in mes eight deep. When on the
point of engaging, they advanced a few paces beyond the intended
line, and fixed their staes, inclined towards the enemy, in the ground.
They then stepped backward, and from behind these chevaux-de-frise
dealt forth their destructive arrows; and when the enemy were
thrown into confusion, they sallied, and with small battle-axes and
swords completed the defeat.
MARKS rOR SHOOTING AT.
The marks usually shot at by the archers for pastime were " butts,"
prickes/* and "rovers." The "butt" was a level mark, made by
placing a target on a slope of a
hill or bank of earth, andre(^uired
a strong arrow. The " prjcke"
was a " mark of compass," but
always of one distance, and had
some emblem on a pole for shoot-
ing at ; and to this mark strong
swift arrows of one flight, with
a middling size feather, were
8H00TXNO AT THE popiNJAT. bcst suitcd. Tho "rovcr" was
a mark of uncertain length, and often an arrow shot forthafrom
%^
AKCHEUr. 125
a bow. Other marks were used, as the standard, the target, hazel-
wands, rose-garlands, and the popinjay, which was an artificial parrot
or peacock, or sometimes the common cock, set upon a post or pol^
as seen in the engraving.
EQUIPMENT rOR ARCHERY.
Roger Ascham, who was well versed in the subject of archery, says
that it was necessary for the archer to have a bracer, or close sleeve,
to lace upon the left arm ; and to this was added a shooting-glove for
the protection of the fingers. The bow was to be made of ebn, ash,
or yew ; the bow-string to be composed of good hemp, flax, or silk ;
the arrows were to be made of oak, hornbeam, or birch. The feathers
from a goose, and especially of a grey goose, he thought preferable to
any for the pluming of an arrow.
ANCIENT DIRECTIONS POR ARCHERY.
Ascham says : " First take care of a graceful attitude." The archer
should stand fairlv and upright with his body, his left foot at a con-
venient distance from his right, holding the bow by its middle, with
Ids left arm stretched out, and with the first three fingers and the
thumb of his right hand on the lower part of the arrow affixed to the
string of the bow. The notch of the arrow to rest between the fore-
finger and the middle finger of the right hand. The arrow, in drawing
the bow, was to be elevated to the right ear. The shaft of the arrow
below the feathers to be rested on the knuckle of the fore-finger of the
left hand. The arrow was to be drawn to the head, and not held too
long in that situation, but neatly and smartly discharged. Among
the requisites necessary to constitute a good archer are, a clear sight
steadily directed to the mark, — a proper judgment of distances, to
determine the length of the ground. He ought also to know how to
take advantage of a side-wind, and to be well acquainted vdth what
compass his arrows would take in their flight. "Courage," he says also,
" is an indispensable requisite; as he who shoots with the least trepi-
dation is sure to shoot badly."
DECLINE OP ARCHERY.
Notwithstanding the great advantages of archerj in ancient days,
somehow or other it be^an to decline even at the tune of its zenith ;
so that, from time to tune, acts of parliament were made to compel
the citizens of London, and other towns, to practise it. Some of our
monarchs made siunptuous archery entertainments. In the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, a grand shooting-match was held in London of all
the archers in the surrounding districts ; and these meeting at the
appointed time, with their different companies, proceeded in a pompous
march from Merchant Tailors' HaU, numbering 3,000 archers, sump-
tuously apparelled, every man having a long-bow and four arrows ;
940 of 'them had ffold chains about their necks. This splendid com-
pany was attendea by 4,000 whifflers and bellmen. The queen met
126 EVEiiY boy's book.
them in Smithfield, and presided at their sports. But still the art
continued to decline, and, with the increase of other warlike weapons,
became at last almost extinct. Within these few years, however, it
has again become a somewhat favourite exercise, near London, and in
various parts of the country. In Scotland, the " Royal Company of
Archers" — the Queen's body-guard for Scotland — comprises many of
the Scottish nobility, and Aing George IV. recoOTiised it. It now
comprises about 500 members, who meet weekly, and at certain
seasons contend for several annual prizes.
Convinced as we are that the practice of archery possesses, in
point of health, all the advantages of field sports, without their
cruelty to animals, and demoralizing oppression to our fellow-crea-
tures, we strongly recommend it to our juvenile friends. It is an
exercise adapted to every age and every degree of strength; and
especially aoapted to young ladies, whose sedentary occupations, —
rendered still more injurious by the pestiferous Berlin wool, — disposes
them to disease and consumption. I do not wish to sing the praises
of the art to their full extent, but I wish to see it universally cultivated,
and should hail with pleasure the time when it can be again said, as
with Statins, " Pudor est nescere sagittas."
MODERN ABCHERT.
Proceeding now to the modem practice of the art, we must first
begin with
THE BOW.
The Bow may be made of the yew-tree, laburnum, thorn, or acacia,
and is generally formed of two pieces of wood joined together, the
back piece being of a different wood to the front, and the graia re-
versed. It is of great importance to secure a good bow. We would
not, therefore, advise the young archer to make one, but to buy one
at a good archery shop, where they may be had at all prices. Upon
making a purchase, he should examine the bow well, to observe
whether it be weU set in aU its parts, of an elegant cut or shape, and
free from flaws, knots, or cracks. He should look well at the ends,
and to those points on which the bow-string is fixed, which ought to
be tipped with horn. The proper length of a bow for a youth is
about five feet. The flat or outward psSt of a bow is called its back,
and the inward part its belly ; and in stringing it the young archei
should be particularly careful to keep the beUy inwards, or the bow
will break.
THE STRING.
The string of the bow should be made of hemp, and whipped with
sewmg silk at that part of it which receives the arrow, marked c
in the annexed plan. The thickness of the string should depend
upon the length of the bow, and should never be too tiiin for its
ARCHERY.
12;
powers, as the snapping of a string sometimes causes the snapping
of the bow. The young archer should never u^e a string in the least
out of order, and shoSd avoid cat-gut strings especiallj. A bow
five feet long, when bent, should have a string about five inches from
h
the centre. This will be a guide in stringing the bow. The young
archer should take great pride in the care of his bow, especially of
the string, and look carefully, after every day's shooting, at the
" whipping" of the string, and at the wearing points, repairing the
least defect. He ought also to place his bow in an oil-skin case,
lined with baize; and when put away for the season it shomd be well
rubbed with oil, and polished. He should also have always two or
three spare strings in readiness, in case the one in use may fly.
STRDfGING THE BOW.
The youn^ archer must be very careful in performing this feat, or
he will fail in the attempt ; to do so safely, he must take the bow in
his right hand by the handle, the flat part towards him ; then let his
arm rest against his side, then put the lower end of the bow against
the inside of the right foot, bnng his left foot forward, and place the
centre of the left wrist on the upper level of the bow below the loop
of the string, the fore-finger knuckle on one edge of the bow, and
the top of the thumb upon the other ; then up with the bow and
loop it. This feat, however, can be best learned by seeing another
expert person perform it. In unstringing the bow, the short horn
should be placed on the ^ound against the right foot, the middle of
the bow grasped in the right hand, and the left wrist placed on the
upper horn, so that the tore-finger may unloop the string when the
bow is brought down, as in the manner of stringing it.
THE AEROWS.
Arrows are generally made of some white wood, such as ash, deal,
or the wood of the orbele poplar, and are sometimes varnished. They
are both blunt and sharp. The sharp ones arc
for target shootuig, the blunt ones principally
for roving; they also vary as regards leiig;th,
some being lon^, and some short, in purchasing
them, the principal thing to be attended to is,
that they are perfectly straight, well made, and
that the plumes are securely fitted. There should
be three on each arrow; one, which is of a darker
colour than the rest, is called the cock plume,
and in shooting should be placed uppermost. The length and we^ht
of the arrows should be in proportion to the size of the bow. The
128
EVERY BOY*S BOOK.
nicks of arrows sliould be cased with liorn, and tliey should fit the
string exactly.
THE QUIVER.
The quiver is used to contain the arrows, and is
usually made of wood, or tin, or leather, those made
of the latter material being the most serviceable and
convenient to wear. It should be long enough to
contain the arrows up to the feather, without bruising
or crushing the plumes, which ought always to be
kept perfectly straight and unruffled. The quiver
ill shooting is not carried, but the arrows are placed
in a pouch attached to the belt.
THE TASSEL, BKACE, BELT ANB POUCH.
The Tassel is usually made of green worsted, and is used by the
archer for the purpose of cleansing the arrow from dirt after being
taken from the ground. It is usually suspended on the left side of
the archer.
The Brace is of leather, and is buckled on the arm to save it from
being hurt by the string upon the discharge of the arrow. It ought
THE BELT.
ARCHERY. 129
to be very smooth on its sikrface, so as to offer no impediment to the
bow-string.
The Belt is made of leather, and is buckled round the waist. It
has fastened to it a jtouch^ for the temporary reception of the arrows
in shooting.
SHOOTING GLOVE, AND GREASE POT.
The Shooting Glove is made of cow-hide, or horse ball leather. It
has places or stalls for three fingers only, with a wrist strap to fasten
it on. Its use is to protect the fingers from Jjie action of the string,
and in selecting it the young archer should be careful that the finger
stalls are neither too long nor too short for the hand.
THE GREASE Fi>T
THE GLOVE.
The Grease Box hangs usually by the side of the tassel, and con-
tains a small portion of grease composed of suet and bees-wax well
compounded. This is used for rubbing on the fingers of the shooting
glove, and is indispensable to the archer.
THE TARGET.
Targets are made with plaited straw bands, wound round a centre,
and sewn together. Over this body is placed a facing of canvass,
the ground of which is painted white ; upon
the white are painted four circles, and a gold
centre called the bull's eye. The first circle
close to the eye is red ; the next white, called
the inner white; the third black; and the
fourth white, called the outer white; while
the outside verge, called the petticoat of the
target, is painted ^een.
A certam value in shooting is given to each
circle of the target, which is thus computed :
Outer white 1; Black 3; Iimer white 5;
Red 7, and the Gold Eye 9.
There are usually two targets in an archery field, placed at certam
distances from each other, which shortens the labour of walking; for
130
EVERT BOY S BOOK.
if one target only be used, a great deal of time is lost in going from
the shooting mark to the target to fetch the arrows, and in returning
to the spot again.
The prizes usually shot for in archery matches are gold and silver
medals, silver cups, silver arrows, silver ^ilt bugles, prize bows and
arrows. There are generally two prizes given; the first for the shots
nearest the gold centre, the second for the number of shots put into
the target, according to their value.
A person is usually appointed to register the shots at the targets,
who has a card similar/to the form given below, by which he takes an
account of the hits as they are made.
NAMES
eOLD
REDlwNERWHml BLACK
mtKMHin
TOTAL
VALUE
Smith
2
3
7
J
//
i€
100
Jms.
/
e
s
8
7
27
107
Broum
5
4
9
7
/i
4/
i^y
The markings are usually made by the marker with a pin, holes being
less liable to obliteration than pencil marks.
BUTTS
Are usually made of pieces of turf piled
one upon another, ana laid one upon the
other m the following shape. They are
usually about six feet high and four feet
broad at the face, upon which a circular
piece of thin white pasteboard, about six
mches in diameter, is afl^ed with pegs.
Butts arc generally placed in the field in
sets of four, so as not to stand in the way
of each other. And when shot at, the arrows placed in the paste-
board mark are alone reckoned, and those who here place the greatest
number of shots are the winners of the prize.
HOW TO DEAW THE BOW.
The ancient directions for drawing the bow, or rather the arrow,
have been already given. The archer having placed himself opposite
to the target, with his face a little inclined to the right, should swing
himself sbghtly round, so that his eye and the target are in an exaoi
line. He ^ould stand quite upright, his left foot slightly in advance.
Holding the bow horizontally in his left hand, he should draw an
arrow from his pouch and carrv it under the string and over the left
side of the bow. The fore-finger of the left hand now holds the
arrow secure on the wooden part of the bow at its centre, while the
right hand fixes the nick of the arrow on the string, where it is held
fast between the first and second fingers, the cock feather being up-
permost. The fore-finger of the left hand may now be removed from
k
ARCHERY. 131
the arrow, and the centre of the bow grasped
tightly. The bow is now raised gradually by the
left hand, at the same time that the string is
pulled by the right; and when the arrow is drawn
about two-thirds of its length, the neck of it
should be brought close to the right ear and the
aim should be taken. The aim should be taken
quickly, and the string loosened freely from the
fingers with a peculiar touch, which no books can
teach, and which nothing but experience and skill
can give. In long shots the right hand must be
lowered, and the arrow sent so as to form a posiTioy in
greater curve in its flight. The archer should shooting.
look at his mark^ not at his shaft, and when he has shot should re-
treat to the leftward, and take his position behind the person with
whom he is shooting.
FLIGHT SHOOTING.
This is principally engaged ra for the purpose of ascertaining the
greatest distance to which the arrows can be sent by the respective
shooters. It requires no skill in aiming, but much care in drawing
the arrow, as nothing is more likely to fracture the bow than flight
shooting. The archer who sends his arrows to the greatest distance
is the winner.
CLOUT SHOOTING.
In clout shooting the target is only a small piece of white paste-
board attached to a stick about five feet from the ground, and placed
at a distance of from 120 to 150 yards. In it seven makes the game,
and aU arrows that fall within two bows* length of the foot of the
stick are marked in counting.
KOVING.
So caUed from the shooters roving from place to place, over field,
heath, moor, common, finding their marks m trees, posts, bushes, &c.
The distances constantly varying, give to young archers a great deal
of practice; besides which, the variety of the scenery, and the various
incidents that occur in a da/s roving, are often liigluy interesting and
exciting. By roving the eye gets a habit of measuring distances,
and the hand and arm strengtn Cor the bow. Blunt-headed arrows
are the best for roving, of which about a dozen ought to be carried
by each archer. Sharp arrows would imbed themselves too deeply in
trees to be easily extracted. In a roving party, arrows that reach
witliin five bows' len^h of the mark tell, and those which are nearest
cut the others out. Each archer measures with his own bow. The
number of the game is often nine, but generally twelve.
K 2
132
EVERY BOY'S BOOK.
GENERAL HINTS FOR ARCHERS.
1. In commencing archery never begin with a stiff bow, but select
one adapted to your strength, and change this for a stronger from
time to time.
2. Never shoot with another person's bow.
3. Never put an arrow in the string when any one stands between
you and the target, or you may shoot out an eye. _
4. Never talk, jibe, or jest at the time of snooting.
5. Always study to take a graceful attitude in shooting, or in
moving about the field.
6. Never draw a bow near another person ; as, should it snap, the
danger will be greater to him than yourself.
i. Never let your bow-string get untwisted or ravelled by neglect,
8. Never exhibit impatience at the tardy efforts of your compeers,
or chagrin at your own failures.
9. Never shoot alone if you can help it, as it leads to negligence
aod indifference.
BOXING.
We will first give briefly some of the reasons why we have deter-
mined to mention this branch of the manly exercises. Firstly, we
do so because we have a great personal esteem for the art, though
none can be more sternly opposed to its abuse. Secondly, because
it affords one of the finest exercises in the world, employhig every
limb and every muscle in the body, giving at the same time readi-
ness of hand and quickness of eye, while it tests and improves the
patience and endurance. And, thirdly, because every one likes to
know how to use the weapons which Nature has given him, and will
contrive to acquire the desired knowledge whenever he can find an
opportunity. All Englishmen, and therefore all English boys, are
proud of their natural weapon, and compare it with the knife, the
loaded stick, the knuckleduster, and the pistol of other nations. The
principle of fair play and justice is strongly developed in an English
oreast, and in nothing is the principle so thoroughly carried out as in
boxing. No unfair advantage is allowed to either side, no striking
upon the vital parts of the body is permitted, and the use of the foot,
tooth, or nail is forbidden under the severest penalties. Even in
the very prize ring, where men are trained for the express purpose
of hitting each other with the utmost force of which human arms are
capable, there is little harm done, and in a few days both combatants
look as if nothing had happened to them. It is not so even in a
wrestling county, or in some few parts of our own land where men
fight like brute beasts, and use their best endeavours to maim or
blind their adversaries for life. A well-known American writer has
expressed, in his own humorous language, the astonishment which
he felt at witnessing a short " turn up " at an English cattle-fair.
The grave propriety of the affair, and the admirable order in which
it was conducted, struck him with profound admiration, as contrasted
with the " inglorious and inevitable Yankee clinches, followed by a
gejieral melee,'^ which in popular language is termed a " free fight,"
and in which every one attacks every one else with any weapons and
in any manner.
Before proceeding to our genuine English Boxing, we must just
mention the French '^ savate" of which we have lieard so much
of late. "We have seen it practised and taught in the salles d^armes,
and for it, as a system for boxing, we have the profoundest con-
134 EVERY boy's book.
tempt ; as also for that execrable French custom of striking upwards
with the knee when at close qtiarters — an atrocity for which we
should like to see a man soundly horsewhipped on the spot.
Now, the savate simply consists in this. You make a feint, as if
to strike in the usual manner, and then, instead of striking with the
fist, you kick with the foot. Or, when your antagonist is pressing
you sharply, you send the point of your toe into his chest, and stop
him. Or, you retreat from him, suddenly turn round, and kick at
him backwards — of course being quite unable to tell where the blow
will alight, and possibly inflicting an injury the effects of which will
be felt for life.
Those who are practised in this manoeuvre will employ it with
wonderful skill. They will hit you on the nose or on the fore-
head without the least apparent effort, and with the greatest
certainty ; they will fling you back from your advance with stunning
force, and the effect of the lash-out is terrific. Indeed, if the object
of boxing be to use all means of offence and defence, the savate is
indispensable.
Having many opportunities of visiting several schools of arms, we
carefully considered this system, which was then totally unknown
to ds ; and after watching it well for some time, during our resi-
dence in Paris, we came to the conclusion that the saoate is useful
enough in case you are attacked by ruffianly fellows, whom you
must needs maim, lest they should maim you; and that by the
combined use of the savate and a stick, or even the fist, a man may
knock over a couple of assailants simultaneously and effectually.
And if a Frenchman who uses the savate were opposed to an
Englishman who never heard of it, the probability is that the former
vrould win, because the latter would lay himself open to a mode of
attack which he had always been taught to consider unfair and
unmanly. But we do not believe that it would be of the slightest
value against any one who knew that his antagonist would employ-
it, and think that the person attempting to use it would find himself
hurled to the ground, and probably discover that his leg was
violently sprained. So much tor the savate.
It is not easy to teach any branch of the science of arms in a
book, and boxing is perhaps as difficult to be learned from books as
fencing. Still, something can be done even through the medium of
ink and paper ; and the reader can, at all events, learn to avoid the
errors to which a total novice is subject.
The first and most important point is the position in which the
boxer stands.
This is not very dissimilar to that of a left-handed fencer, except
that the right arm, instead of being raised, is brought across the
body, so that it defends the pit of the stomach (technically called
the " mark "), and only leaves a verv small portion of the cl est open
to a blow. The left arm is rather higher than if it held a foil, and
BOXING. 135
the elbow is kept well to the side. This latter point is most
important, as it is in) possible to hit straight from the shoulder if
the elbow should project from the side.
The weight of the body rests mostly on the ri^ht leg, so that the
boxer can step backwards or forwards, while still keeping his side
to the adversary. If you stand opposite a good sparrer m boxing
attitude, you will be surprised to find how well guarded he is, and
how difficult it is to hit him, even if he neither moves nor attempts to
return the blow. His left hand keeps you well away from him, and
his right is ready either to stop or throw off your blow.
It will be seen from the foregoing description, as well as by-
reference to the illustration, that a right-handed boxer stands witn
his left side towards the opponent, uses his left hand for the chief
part of the hitting, and reserves the right for stopping, parrying, or
returning blows when at close quarters, or what is techmcally called
a "rally."
136
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
Practise this attitude before a glass. You will soon see if you lay
yourself open, and will learn to stand in a correct position. Advance
and retreat also before the glass, and so make sure that you do not
expose some weak point whUe so doing. I met a French gentleman
who had made himself really a creditable boxer, merely by practising
before his mirror ; and after a few days of practical work with the
gloves he became quite a formidable antagonist.
Another important point is the making up of the fist — not such
a simple matter as it seems. The fingers must be clenched tightly,
and the thumb doubled down outside them, so that when presented
towards your antagonist he can see no part of it projecting over the
fingers. This can also be practised at the glass. If the hand be
rightly held, it will be seen that the knuckles form a kind of arch,
of which the middle knuckle is the keystone. It is with this knuckle
that you strike ; and be sure to clench the hand with all your power
BOXING. 137
as vou deliver the stroke; otherwise you will run a sad risk of
dislocating eitlier a finger or a thumb.
The position of the head is of no small importance. On no account
bear forwards, as is the way of muffs, but keep it lightly thrown
back, and never take your eye off that of your opponent. Green-
horns always lower the head, and rush at their an^^^agonist with their
arms flying about like the sails of a windmill ; and the natural con-
sequence is, that their opponent quickly steps aside, lets them pass,
ana knocks them neatly over by a blow on the temple, which they
cannot possibly see or guard.
Having got our attitude and doubled our fist, we now leai-n to
strike. Deliver your blow straight and from the shoulder, not
merely with the arm. Put all your body into the stroke, and aid it
with the spring of the right foot against the ground. Thus you add
to the blow the force of a kick, and the stroke comes with such
terrific force that I have seen a tall man lifted fairly off the ground
and deposited on his back by a straight shoulder-hit, even though
the two were merely sparring with the gloves.
Never draw back your hand before you strike, as that tells your
opponent what you are contemplating. Your stroke should flash
out like the lightning, without warning and straight to the mark.
You cannot strike too rapidly, and you cannot recover yourself too
quickly. Practise this repeatedly before a glass, and note the length
of your reach, for in a knowledge of distance lies half the art of
boxing. As a general rule, if you can get your left toe on a level
with your antagonist's heel, you have your proper distance. This
rule, however, is necessarily variable, as in the case of the contest to
which allusion has just been made, where one party could reach
a full foot beyond the other, and had, in consequence, the advantage
of twelve inches of space at his disposal.
Kow that we have practised the left hand and arm, let us turn to
the right. Except when striking, you need not trouble yourself to
close the fist very tightly, but may let the hand lie in an easy
and unconstrained position across the chest, ready for use in any
direction that may be required.
The chief use of the right hand and arm are for parryii^ and
stopping, which are thus achieved : —
If your opponent delivers a blow at the face or upper part of the
chest, and you find yourself in a good position, do not retreat from
it, but fling your right arm sharply outwards and upwards, catching
the opponent's arm by the wrist, and throwing it out of the direction
in which it was aimed. The effect of the parry is very powerful, as
it mostly lays open the antagonist's head, and gives opportunity for
a smart return blow with the left hand ; it is then near the opponent's
head, and has only a short distance to traverse. This return blow
is technically called the "counter," and is usually very effective, as
* takes effect just at the moment when the antagonist is expecting
I
138 EVERY boy's book.
his own blow to strike, and turns the tables on him after a rather
discouraging fashion.
Practise this also before the glass, parrying an imaginary blow
from the opponent, and simultaneously shooting your own Idft hand
against the spot where your antagonist's head ought to be. I have
often found that a quick double blow when countering is very
embarrassing, and gives an opportunity of stepping in and planting
your right hand after your left with ^ormous effect.
Stopping is performed in another manner, and must often be used
where the parry is impracticable. For example, if your antagonist
strikes at the body the parry cannot be accomplished, and you must
either get away, stop, or take the blow in hopes of retaliation. In
stopping you receive the blow on your arm, and thereby break its
force, while, unless your opponent is possessed of herculean strength,
the arm scarcely feels the stroke, yielding before the assault and
acting like the cotton bales that have saved many a ship from the
enemy's cannon.
If you are fortunate enough to find a good boxer, get him to give
you a few lessons in the practical department of the art, and in all
cases be careful to keep your temper. I know that few things are
more annoying than when you have made a telling plan of attack,
and are just about to begin its execution, to be checked by a short
dab on the nose, which makes your eyes water and the lids bhnk,
and forces you to act on the defensive for the next few minutes, while
the tears are streaming down your cheeks, and you cannot use a
handkerchief by reason of the gloves.
Remember that there are two golden rules for a boxer, namely,
hit straight and keep your temper. Fail in either of these requisites,
and you will probably come off second best ; fail in both, and you
will certainly do so. Listen to an account of a battle where strength
and weight and anger were overmatched by skill and coolness : —
" As the assailant rushed in he ran a prominent feature of his face
against a fist which was travelhng in another direction, and imme-
diately after struck the knuckles of the young man's other fist a
severe blow with the part of his person known as the epigastrium
to one branch of science, and the bread-basket to another. Tliis
second round closed the battle."
So we say again, keep your temper and hit straight. You see a
circular blow takes more time to deliver than a straight one, and if
your opponent swings his arm round at you, while you dart out your
own fist at him, your blow will have taken effect long before his
clumsy circumgyratory attempt has completed its journey.
Let me here offer anolher piece of advice. Do not buy cheap
gloves. You may get them at a saving of half-a-crown or so, but
you will soon wish that you had expended the money in obtaining a
better pair. ^ Gloves require the oest horsehair, arranged after a
peculiar fashion, in order to give them the mixed softness and
BOXING. 139
elasticity wLicli they require. Inferior gloves soon become hard
and knotty, the stuffing gets thin in some places, especially just in
those very parts where it is most required. The consequence is,
that the gloves become practically useless, and the blows are nearly
as sevei-e as if struck with the bare hand.
Remember that, although we strongly approve of boxing, it is not
to be understood that we want every one to be fighting. We very
much approve of fencing and single-stick, but we certainly have no
wish that every one who learns to use the foil or the single-stick in
mimic combat should want to try his rapier or his broadsword in
deadly fight.
As a mere exercise it stands supreme ; but it is even something
beyond an exercise. It shows that superior strength and height
and weight are powerless before superior skill, and that a small boy
who knows how to box will certainly conquer a big one who is
ignorant of the art. We say again, we do not recommend fighting ;
but still it is good to know how to stand up in one's own defence,
and we heartily wish that when we went to school some kind friend
had taught us the rudiments of the art.
The brutal bully of a school never holds his own when he meets
with an antagonist who is skilful in the use of his hands, and is
forced to confess that his brute strength and cruel nature are useless
in such a contest. We once saw a school bully get his deserts in a
charming manner. He had fallen upon (of course) a much smaller
boy, and was chasing him down a passage between a double row of
forms. Suddenly his victim turned round, and delivered a right-and-
left blow on the chin of his tormentor, astonishing him in no slight
degree. The bully pressed on, thinking to annihilate his impertinent
antagonist, but could not do so on account of the narrowness of the
passage. As he pressed forward the bold little fellow retreated back-
wards, step by step, popping in his blows sharp and quick, and
j^tepping back just as those of his persecutor were delivered. The
bully never guarded a single blow or succeeded in hitting one, and
bv the time that they had made their way through the defile he was
obliged to confess himself beaten, and was deposed for ever from the
despotic throne which he had so long disgraced.
CANOES AND CANOEING.
Despite the assertion of even so great an authority as Mr. Mac-
gregor, whose name has now become a household word, canoeing is
an amusement that must necessarily involve a considerable amount
of danger, and ought to be indulged in by no one who has not,
according to the Eton phrase, passed in swimming. Whether or
not it is a very comfortable means of locomotion is purely a matter
of personal feeling ; but in face of the fact that the Canoe Club now
numbers upwards of a hundred members, and that the boat-builders
have had extensive orders for canoes, it is only fair to suppose that
those who venture enjoy the new mode of locomotion. There is one
circumstance that will, no doubt, obtain for canoes great favour,
especially with young people, and that is, their cheapness. Messts.
Searle at Lambeth, Simmons at Putney, or Wheeler at Richmond,
will build a good stout travelling canoe, after the fashion of the Roh
Jioy, for 15/. ; which price includes mast, sails, apron, paddles, and
all necessaries. Any respeetnble boatbullder would no doubt do the
same, when he is once provided with the necessary instructions,
which, I need scarcely add, it is essential should be carried out to
the letter, for the slightest deviation from the recognised standard
might cause the most disagreeable results. The following points are
the most important.
I
CANOES AND CANOEING. 141
In having a canoe built, it is a matter of considerable moment,
that in certain portions of its framework it should be constructed
for and peculiarly adapted to the particular person who is going to
use it. The length of the foot decides the heiglit the canoe should
be from keel to deck ; the length of the legs the space required for
the " well ; " while the weight, of course, decides the displacement
that is to be accounted for, and must be taken into consideration at
the same time as the amount of luggage that it is proposed to carry.
Oak is the best wood that can be used, with the top streak of
mahogany and the deck of fine cedar. These were the materials of
the Rob Roy, and as her weight with all her fittings was only 71 lbs.,
it would be unreasonable to want one lighter ; indeed, for anything
like knocking about flimsy canoes are utterly and entirely useless,
and onlv aggravate the labour of paddling. The length over all
should be 14 feet; beam, 26 inches; depth, from top of deck to
bottom of keel, 12 inches, though towards the gunwale this is re-
duced to 8^- inches. The well should be 32 inches long and 20 broad,
and protected by a combing of oak half an inch in height. If your
canoe is intended for travelling purposes, the beam should be 6 inches
abaft midships ; so that when stores, provisions, sails, and so on, are
stowed away forward, it brings the craft to very nearly an even keel.
Otherwise, it should only be 1 foot abaft midships. The boards that
compose the floor, and on which you have to sit, resting your back
against the backboard, are about two feet long, and are fitted so that
the knees just touch the combing, while the heels are against the
footboard on the keel, thus obviating the discomfort that would follow
on liaring to keep the legs stretched out straight at full length. As
I take it for granted that no one would think of going to the expense
of having a canoe built without securing the services of some one
who could supply him with the many minor details that it would be
impossible to give here, I shall not enter more minutely into any of
the less important matters, but would add, that a comfortable back-
board, after the following pattern, goes a long way to lightening
^he labour of paddling. It should be made ot two strips of oak,
^ ~ inches long, 2-^ inches wide, arched by two crosspieces, one of
^ich should he grooved, so as to rest on the combing, and work
ter the fashion of a hinge, it being fastened thereon by a stout
)rd. The result is that the muscles down the back are supported
id rested while the spine is left free. The greatest possible care
lould be taken in selecting the apron, which is too often left to
le last moment and chosen in a hurry. Being intended to prevent
ie water making its way over the deck into the well, and at the
ne time to avoid being fastened in any way likely to impede the
loeist in case of an upset, it may readily be understood that it
j[uires nice discrimination and handiwork. It should fit close to
jim — in short, he should be measured for it as for a coat. Mr.
'icgrcgor has invented a new apron, the receipt for which may
142 EVERY boy's book.
be easily obtained, as well as any other particulars, at Messrs. Searle's
at Lambeth.
I should recommend the novice in canoeing to rest content with
propelling himself by the aid of his paddle for a while — in fact, until
ne is thoroughly at home in his craft and the way to manoeuvre her.
Spruce-fir is the best wood of which to have it made, as it combines
lightness and durability, two qualities that can be readily appre-
ciated after a day's locomotion. The action, though it need not be
violent, except in currents and so on, is very fatiguing, owing to the
motion the body takes from side to side. At the same time, practice
will prove to the novice that he requires to move but very little from
one side to the other. There can of course be no harm in having a
mast fitted to your canoe, and as soon as you feel capable of the
risk, set it up, hoist your sail, and be prepared to capsize. This latter
alternative is only added by way of warning. With caution nothing
of the sort need happen, for the stiffness of canoes under sail in a
strong wind and heavy weather has been satisfactorily proved on
more than one occasion. Messrs. Silver and Co. of Bishopsgate Street,
make the sails according to a regulation pattern that has been sup-
plied them, while the boom, vard, and woven cord can best be
obtained at Mr. Farlow's, the fishing-tackle maker's, in the Strand.
I have thought it advisable to give these names, as they are recom-
mended by Mr. Macgregor himself, who speaks in their favour with
that best of all good reasons for doiu^ so, namely, that he has found
their wares satisfactory. In conclusion, I am bound to add that I
am under much obligation to him for the information he has afforded
me concerning this pleasant and novel form of aquatic amusement.
i VWlVKR8(Ty
CEICKET.
" Come on, lads ! oome on : come on, one and all :
Now shoulder the bat, and spin up the ball.
Take the field like v:>ung Trojans ; your prowess essay :
While the batsman cries, Ready, the bowler says, Play :
Then run like wild deer piu^ued by the hounds.
And ground your bat proudly just over the bounds."— Cunningham.
The game of cricket is the noblest of English pastimes. It com-
bines athletic power, grace, quickness of eye and of hand, nimbleness
of leg, and scientific skill. It is played by high and low, rich and
poor, man and boy; and there is no game/ either native or foreign,
can compete with it for manliness, fairness, and healthfulness. Every
one should learn to play it, and all should begin early. How it
originated, or who evolved its beautiful laws and regulations, it is
now difficult to discover. We have nothing like it among the sports
of the Greeks and Romans, and we can only trace it to an old English
pastime in the reign of Edward III., called "club-ball." Strutt,
m his "Pastimes of the People of England," gives the following
engravings, representing two specimens of club-ball : the first from
a MS. in the Bodleian Library, dated 1344, — and exhibits a female
figure in the act of throwing a ball to a man, who elevates his bat to
strike it. The next specimen of ball, taken from a drawing more
ancient than the former, i. e. a genealogical roll of kings of England
144
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
to the time of Henry III., in the Royal Library, presents two playeis
only ; and he who is possessed of the bat holds the ball also, which
he either threw into the air, and struck with his bat as it descended,
or cast forcibly upon the ground, and beat it away when it rebounded.
But we should be rather inclined to trace the game of cricket to
trap-ball, which was, no doubt, an improvement upon the earlv games
played with the bat and ball. This may be traced as far back as
the fourteenth century, and a curious specimen of the manner in
which it was then played is given in a beautiful MS. in the pos-
session of Erancis Douce, Esq. Here are only two players ; but the
game then consisted of six or eight of a side, and the size of the bat
indicates the holder to have possessed no great judgment in striking
the ball. There was another game, called '* stool-ball," from which
some have supposed cricket to have been derived ; but there is no
evidence in favour of this position, and it seems rather more reason-
able to look upon it as a modification of " trap-ball " than any other
game.
CRICKET.
145
THE BAT.
The regulation size of the bat, called by Felix the
..Ic^hty sceptre of delight, is 38 inches in length, of
which" 25 inches are taken up by the pod, or, accord-
ing to the more modern term, the blade, and 13 by
the handle.
No bats are made longer than this, although, of
coui'se, they are allowed to be of various smaller
proportions, in order to suite the height of the
player.
We must strongly impress on all young players
the great importance of using a bat in proportion to
their strength. If they use a very heavy bat, they
will not be able to move it quickly enough to play
the ball properly, and are apt, in consequence, to get
into a sluggish style of play, which is almost sure
to stick to them all their lives. A very light bat is
equally injurious : the batsman sees an easy ball
approach, plays hard at it, when, instead of going
right over the head of. long-on, it drops an easy
catch into mid-wicket's hands, in consequence of
there not being enough driving power in the bat to
-end it further.
THE BALL.
The present style of ball, with the exception of
ome very slight modifications, seems to have been
in use since cricket assumed anything
like its present form. According to
the rules of the present day, it must
not be more than 9 inches in circum-
ference, and must not weigh more than
5| or less than 5 j ounces. Match balls ||||l|ip|||
.1 c ill ways treble-seamed, and are sold at the average
price of Is. Qd. But for ordinary practice, a double-
'^eamed ball, at about 6*., will be found quite good
uough, and will answer just as well as the more expensive
THE STUMPS.
The stumps have undergone more change during the last hundred
and fifty years than any of the accessories to cricket.
At first they were two in number and only 12 inches high. A
hird stump, 2 feet in length, was laid across them, although, with the
t \ception of being knocked down by the bowler, it was similar in no
espect to the bails of the present day, as the wicket-keeper was
h
146
EVERY BOY 8 BOOK.
^^\k^
teQ5%
y^-^'^-h
,^AV
Mi
obliged, in order to stump a person^
to place the ball in a large hole dug
between the two stumps.
In the year 1780 the width between
the two stumps was decreased to 6
inches. It was also at this time that
a bail was introduced, for it is almost
impossible to dignify the transverse
stump, 2 feet long, which was in use
till this date, by that appellation. In
1781 a third stump was added, and
the height of the wickets increased to
22 inches. The addition of a stump
was mainly owing to the fact, that
Lumpy, a celebrated bowler of that
day, sent the ball almost three times
running between the two stumps.
This was thought so unfair for the
bowler, that it was resolved to increase
the number of stumps in order to give
him a better chance.
In 1814 we' find that the wickets
were increased in height to 26 inches,
and in width to 8 inches, and in 1817
another inch was added to their length.
This, with the exception of dividing
the bail into two equal parts, is the
last change that has taken place.
Af^//^
'" y y
PADS OR GUARDS.
Since the introduction of round-hand bowling, pads or guards have
come into vogue, and at the present time it is really a dangerous feat
to play without them. The first notion of a leg-guard was two thin
boards placed anglewise on the right shin. Since that time improve-
ments have been effected in them at various times, until they have
arrived at their present state of excellence.
The leg-guard itself is now so well-known as to render any
descri[)tion of it needless ; but as there are two or three fastenings in
use, it will perhaps be as well to state what they are, and also which
is the best. The first consists of three sets of tape, one round the
ancle and two round the knee. These naturally take a great deal of
time to fasten properly, and if one breaks, the pad is rendered useless
for some time, ihe next is three pieces of elastic, witli a catch
which fastens almost instantaneously ; but in course of time it loses
lib elasticity, and the pad dangles on one leg in a loose and awkward
ORTCKBT. X 17
manner. The third, and'Jin our opinion the best fastening, is two sets
of straps, with holes pierced at very slight intervals. The player
can then have his pad as tight as he pleases, without the chance of
the fastenings breaking or becoming loose, as in the case of the other
two. There are several other guards, such as elbow and private-
guards J but they are scarcely ever used.
I^ie
BATTING GLOVES.
These are now made with the palm cut clear away, thus enabling
batsman to hold the bat in a much firmer manner' than he could
.l2
us
EVERY boy's book.
were the palm of liis hand covered by the glove. As will be seen
by referring to the accompanying cut, the india-rubber is placed
differently on the two hands. This difference will be more particu-
larly noticed on the two thumbs. The left one, as it is always
behind the handle of the bat, requires no guard ; but the back of the
left hand being in front of the bowler, is covered with a semicircle
of india-rubber, while the strips of the india-rubber on the fingers
are much longer than those on the right hand. It may be urged by
those who object to the use of batting gloves, that the ball is likely
to fly off them and give a catch. This, although true, very rarely
happens, and besides, if the ball came with enough force to fly into
the air off the glove, is it not very probable that, without a glove
to shield them, the fingers would be broken by the same collision ?
WICKET-KEEPING GLOVES.
These might be more appropriately termed gauntlets, foi they are
much longer than the ordinary gloves, and entirely cover the wrist.
Thanks to the suggestions of the best wicket-keepers of the day,
they have now been greatly improved, and have padding only in
those parts where it can possibly be required. It is absurd to try
to keep wicket well without wearing these gauntlets ; therefore let
no young cricketer be fool-hardy enough to attempt the feat. As
the right and left hand gloves are precisely the same, the artist has
drawn one glove in two positions, in order to show the front and
back of it.
THE LAWS OF CRICKET.
The following are the laws which govern the game everywhere.
They have been recently revised by the Marylebone Club, usually
considered the highest authority in the game.
CRICKET. 149
1. The Ball must weigh not less thaa 5^ ounces, nor more than
5 1 ounces. It must measure not less than 9 inches, nor more than
9| inches, in circumference. At the beginning of each innings either
party may call for a new ball.
[It is, however, not customary to have a new ball at the begipuing of each
innings. One a matcli is usually considered sufficient.]
2. The Bat must not exceed 4| inches in the widest part ; it must
not be more than 38 inches in length.
3. The Stumps must be 3 in number, 27 inches out of the ground;
the bails 8 inches in lenj^th ; the stumps of equal and of sufficient
thickness to prevent the oall from passing througli.
4. The Bowl'mg Crease must be in a line with the stumps ; 6 feet
8 inches in length; the stumps in the centre; with a return crease
at each end towards the bowler, at right angles.
5. The Popping Crease must be 4 feet from the wicket, and
parallel to it, unlimited in length, but not shorter than the bowling
crease ; unlimited in length, so that the batsman may keep out of
the way of the ball when it is thrown in.
6. The wickets must be pitched opposite to each other by the
umpires, at the distance of 22 yards.
7. It shall not be lawful for either party during a match, without
the consent of the other, to alter the ground by rolling, watering,
covering, mowing, or beating, except at the commencement of each
innings, when the ground shall be swept and rolled, unless the side
next going in object to it. This rule is not meant to prevent the
striker from beating the ground with his bat near to the spot where
he stands during the innings, nor to prevent the bowler from filling
up holes with sawdust, &c. when the ground is wet.
8. After rain the wickets may be changed witli the consent of
both parties.
9. The Bowler shall deliver the ball with one foot on the ground
behind the bowling crease, and within the return crease, and shall
bowl four balls before he change wickets, wliich he shall be permitted
to do only once in the same innings.
[In a one day's match six balls are usually allowed as an over.]
KIO. The ball must be bowled ; if thrown or jerked, the umpire
allcall"noball.'\
11. He may require the striker at the wicket from which he is
wling to stand on that side of it which he may direct.
12. If the bowler shall toss the ball over the striker's head, or
wl it so wide that in the opinion of the umpire it shall not be
rly within the reach of the batsman, he shall adjudge one run to
Lue party receiving the innings without an appeal, which shall be put
down to the score of wide balls ; such balls shall not be reckoned as
one of the four or six balls : but if the batsman shall by any means
bring himself withm reach of the ball, the run shall not be scored.
150 EVERY boy's book. >
13. If the bowler deliver a " no ball " or a " wide ball," the
striker shall be allowed as many runs as he can get, and he shall not
be put out except by running out. In the event of no run being
obtained by any other means, then one run shall be added to the
score of "no balls" or " wide balls/' as the case may be. All runs
obtained for "wide balls" to be scored to "wide balls." If the
ball shall first touch any part of the striker's dress or person (except
his hands), the umpire shall call " leg bye."
[If, however, the batsman runs two byes from a wide or a no ball, they are
scored as two wides only. Many young players are in the habit of running a
single bye off a wide ball, without ever thinking that they endanger their wicket
without the slightest possible chance of advantage to themselves. ]
14. At the beginning of each innings the umpire shall call "play;"
from that time to the end of each innings no trial ball shall be allowed
to any bowler.
[This rule is very seldom enforced, as a new bowler is almost invariably
allowed a trial ball, though not on the wicket.]
15. The Striker is Out if either of the bails be struck off, or if a
stump be bowled out of the ground ;
16. Or, if the ball, from a stroke of the bat or hand, but not the
wrist, be held before it touches the ground, although it be hugged
to the body of the catcher ;
17. Or, if in striking, or at any other time while the ball shall be
in play, both his feet shall be over the poppin^-crease, and his wicket
put down, except his bat be grounded within it ;
18. Or, if in striking at the ball, he hit down his wicket ;
19. Or, if under pretence of running or otherwise, either of the
strikers prevent a ball from being caught, the striker of the ball
is out ;
20. Or, if the ball be struck, and he wilfully strike it again ;
[This does not prevent the batsman from hitting the ball off his wicket when
it glides in from not being blocked with sufficient force.]
21. Or, if in running the wicket be struck down by a throw, or
by the hand or arm (with ball in hand), before his bat (in hand) or
some part of his person be grounded over the popping-crease. But
if both the bails be off, a stump must be struck out of the ground ;
22. Or, if any part of the striker's dress knock down the wicket ;
23. Or, if the striker touch or take up the ball while at play,
unless at the request of the opposite party ;
24. Or, if witli any part of his person he stop the ball, which in
the opinion of the umpire at the bowler's wicket shall have been
pitched in a straight line from it to the striker's wicket, and would
nave hit it.
[On the 15th of April, 1863, the M. C. 0. altered this rule as follows :— " Or,
if the ball hit any part of his person which in the opinion of the umpire at
the bowler's wicket shall have been placed in a straight line from it to the
striker's wicket." But at their next raeetiup:, discovering that their formei
CRICKET. 151
proceedings were informal, they cancelled their new rule; so that the law
ren)ains as before.
It is almost impossible for a round-arm bowler, unless he bowl over the
wicket, to pitch the ball in a straight line. ]
25. If the players have crossed each other, he that runs for the
wicket which is pat down is out.
26. A ball being caught, no runs shall be reckoned.
27. A striker being run out, that run which he and his partner
were attempting shall not be reckoned.
28. If a lost ball be called, the striker shall be allowed six runs;
but if more than six shall have been run before "lost ball" shall
have been called, then the striker shall have all which have been run.
29. After the ball shall have been finally settled in the wicket-
keeper's or bowler's hand, it shall be considered dead; but when the
bowler is about to deliver the ball, if the striker at his wicket ^o
outside the popping-crease before such actual delivery, the said
bowler may put him out, unless (with reference to the 21st law) his
bat in hana, or some part of his person, be within the popping-
crease.
30. The striker shall not retire from his wicket and return to it to
complete his innings after another has been in, without the consent
of the opposite party.
31. No substitute shall in any case be allowed to stand out, or
run between wickets for another person, without the consent of the
opposite party ; and in case any person shall be allowed to run for
another, the striker shall be out, if either he or his substitute be off
the ground in manner mentioned in laws 17 and 21, while the ball is
in play
32. In all cases where a substitute shall be allowed, the consent
of the opposite party shall also be obt-ained as to the person to act
as substitute, and the place in the field which he shall take.
33. If any fieldsman stop the ball w'rth his bat, the ball shall be
considered dead, and the opposite party shall add five runs to their
score ; if any be run, they shall have five in all.
34. The ball having been hit, the striker may guard his wicket
with his bat, or with any part of his body except his hands ; that
the 23rd law may not be infringed.
35. The wicket-keeper shall not take the ball for the purpose of
stumping until it has passed the wicket ; he shall not move until the
ball be out of the bowler's hand ; he shall not by any noise incom-
mode the striker ; and if any part of his person be over or before
the wicket, although the ball hit it, the striker shall not be out.
36. The umpires are the sole judges of fair or unfair play ; and
all disputes shall be determined by them, each at his own wicket ;
but in case of a catch, which the umpire at the wicket bowled from
cannot see sufficiently to decide upon, he may apply to the other
umpire, vhose opinion shall be conclusive.
152 EVERY boy's book
37. The umpires in all matches shall pitch fair wickets ; and the
parties shall toss up for choice of innings. The umpii-es shall change
wickets after each party has had one innings.
38. They shall allow two minutes for each striker to come in, and
ten minutes between each innings. When the umpire shall call
" play/' the party refusing to play shall lose the match.
39. They are not to order a striker out unless appealed to by the
adversaries ;
40. But if one of the bowler's feet be not on the ground behind
the bowling-crease, and within the return-crease, wlien he shall
deliver the ball, the umpire at his wicket, unasked, must call " no
ball."
41. If €ither the strikers run a short run, the umpire must call
" one short."
[The run is of course not scored. ]
42. No umpire shall be allowed to bet.
43. No umpire is to be changed during a match, without the
consent of both parties, except in case of violation of the 42nd law ;
then either party may dismiss the transgressor.
44. After the delivery of four or six balls the umpire must call
" over," but not until the ball shall be finally settled in the wicket-
keeper's or bowler's hand ; the ball shall then be considered dead ;
nevertheless, if an idea be entertained that either of the strikers is
out, a question may be put previously to, but not after, the delivery
of the next ball.
45. The umpire must take especial care to call "no ball" instantly
upon delivery ; " wide ball " as soon as it shall pass the striker.
46. The plajers who go in second shall follow their innings, if
they have obtamed eighty runs less than their antagonists, except in
all matches limited to only one day's play, when the number shall be
limited to sixty instead ot eighty.
47. When one of the strikers shall have been put out, the use of
the bat shall not be allowed to any person until the next striker
shall come in.
Note. — The Committee of the Marylebone Club think it desirable that, previously
to the commencement of a match, one of each side should be declared the manager
of it ; and that the new laws with respect to substitutes may be carried out in a
spirit of fairness and mutual concession, it is their wish that such substitutes be
allowed in all reasonable cases, and that the umpire should inquire if it is done with
the consent of the manager of the opposite side.
Complaints having been made that it is the practice of some players when at the
wicket to niake holes in the ground for a footing, the Committee are of opinion that
the umpires should be empowered to prevent it.
THE LAWS OP SINGLE WICKET.
1. When there shall be less than five players on a side, bounds
shall be placed 22 yards each in a line from the off and leg-stump.
2. The ball must be hit before the bounds to entitle the striker to
a run, which run cannot be obtained unless he touch the bowling.
CRICKET. 153
stump or crease In a line with his bat, or some part of his person, or
fjo beyond them, returning to the popping-crease, as at double wicket,
iiccording to the 21st law.
3. When the striker shall hit the ball, one of his feet must be on
the ground, and behind the popping-crease, otherwise the umpire
shall call " no hit."
4. When there shall be less than five players on a side, neither
byes nor overthrows shall be allowed, nor shall the striker be caught
out behind the wicket, nor stumped out.
5. The fieldsman must return the ball so that it shall cross the
play between the wicket and the bowling-stump, or between the
l)owling-stump and the bounds ; the striker may run till the ball be
so returned.
6. After the striker shall have made one run, if he starts again he
must touch the bowling-stump, and turn before the ball cross the
play, to entitle him to another.
7. The striker shall be entitled to three runs for lost ball, and the
same number for ball stopped with bat, with reference to the 28th
and 33rd laws of double wicket.
8. When there shall be more than four players on a side, there
shall be no bounds. All hits, byes, and overthrows shall then be
allowed.
9. The bowler is subject to the same laws as at double wicket.-
10. Not more than one minute shall be allowed between each ball.
■ THE BATSMAN. — HINTS TO YOUNG PLAYERS.
The first point to be considered in batting is the sort of bat to be
used. Many young cricketers cramp their play by using a bat much
too heavy for them. Now, it stands to reason that one should be
able to have a complete mastery over the weapon one wields. A
bat weighing about two pounds will be found quite heavy enough for
most schoolboys. It may, however, be urged that the heaviest bats
drive the farthest, a>id that many of':'the old-fashioned players made
some of their famous hits with them ; but it must also be borne in
mind that those were the days of underhand bowling, and that at
the present time cutting and leg-hitting, in consequence of the swift
round-arm bowling, are infinitely more prevalent than forward diives,
and tliat in many cases the position of field-on is done away with
altogeiher. Therefore let us beg young players to use a light bat,
one that feels almost as a whip in their nands, and one with which
they can play back as quickly as is necessitated by the speed of the
bowling.
And now a few words with regard to guard. Of course, in many
instances, the distance from the wickets depends considerably upon
the pace and pitch of the bowling, but as a rule the safest guard is
about four inches from the popping-<jrease. This block not only
gives you a better chance of stopping shooters, but also enables you
154 EVERY boy's book.
to play forward better, since you can cover more ground than if your
block were nearer the wicket. A leg hit can also be made sooner,
and consequently squarer, and with a good long block there is less
chance of hitting your wicket in playing back, and more chance of
stopping a full-pitched ball before it touches the ground.
The left foot should be at right angle to the wickets, and the other
parallel with them. Free hitters keep their hands at the upper part
of the handle of the bat, whilst some players, who have a reputation
for steadiness, hold it with the hands three or four inches apart.
The former position enables a player to hit much sooner, and also to
have a much longer reach. The advantages of the position are
readily discovered when there is a chance of a cut or a leg-hit.
The batsman should stand quite erect, endeavouring to make the
most of his height. Before the ball is delivered, the bat should be
raised, with the full face presented to the bowler, and covering as
much of tlie wicket as possible.
The moment the bowler is about to deliver the ball, raise your
bat slightly from the block, keeping it almost straight to him. If
you hold it, as some players do, still on the block-hole until the ball
approaches, you are almost sure to be too late for the ball; and
although, if it be straight, you may keep it off your wicket, yet it is
a hundred chances to one that you will miss all the leg balls, or those
which come to the off-side.
Play, too, as low as possible. Tt is much better to hit a ball well
along the ground for two, than to send one high into the air, although
you get four or five for it. Sooner or later you will lose your wicket,
for the ball is sure at some time to be caught by long-on or long-off.
Assuming that the player has taken up his position at the wicket,
we must now fully impress upon him the importance of not being in a
hurry to score. In fact, nothing is so injurious as making runs in the
first over. The best maxim to be observed is, play steadily until you
can understand the bowling. It is astonishing how much confidence
you gain after you have played a dozen balls or so. Then, when you
Lave, as it were, taken the measure of your opponent, lunge out, as
soon as you get a chance, and show the field your favourite drive,
and prepare to make a score.
In writing the last sentence, we are reminded of the many mishaps
and even serious accidents that have occurred on the cricket-field in
consequence of the careless manner in which some players run.
They rush between the wickets, watching the course of the ball
rather than the wicket towards which they are going ; occasionally
they run too far and lose time, or else do not run far enough and
lose runs ; or, what is even worse, a collision takes place between the
two batsmen, and one is run out, if not seriously injured by the bat
or body of his comrade. The simplest plan, therefore, is always to
run on the right side, to keep the bat in the right hand, and to watch
the wicket towards which you are running.
CRICKET. 155
It has often been remarked that the most diflBcult balls to play are
snooters, and those that are well pitched up and just take the bail
off. Indeed, some shooters are almost sure to take a wicket ; the
moment, therefore, that a ball shoots, drop the bat back close to the
stumps, and chop down upon the ball. Stopping a shooter is always
a sign of good play, and often at Lord's produces more applause
than a hit M'hich scores two or three runs. Some players, like Parr
and Carpenter, can stop shooters so well, that although they only
chop down upon them, yet the force of the stroke often drives the
ball far enough to obtain a run.
How happens it that so many players miss the cut, although they
attempt this stroke at almost every oall that rises to the off? As a
rule, youDg players hit too soon, and if they touch the ball, in most
cases they give either point or cover-point an easy catch; others
hit in time, but play with a horizontal bat, the face of which is
presented to the bowler. The ball then rises in many instances
cither to slip or long-slij), with the usual result. In cutting, the
batsman should wait until the ball has almost passed the wicket,
and then drop down upon it, with the face of the oat almost towards
the ground. This keeps the ball down and drives it in the direc-
tion required. In cutting, the left foot acts as a pivot, and the
right foot is drawn back. The advantage of taking a long block
is here shown, as occasionally this leg knocks down the wicket ;
and if the block is near the stumps, they are easily struck by the
bat itself.
In leg-hitting, on the contrary, the right acts as a pivot, and the
left is thrown forwards. The sooner the hit is made the squarer the
ball goes, and, as a rule, the greater distance also. Since then, in
swift bowling, long-on is generally done away with, a leg ball that is
hit in front of long leg is safe to obtain more runs than if hit much
behind the wicket.
A very common habit among young players is to strike at wide
balls. Manv and many a time have we seen a batsman rush out to a
wide off-ball, and send it into point's or cover's hands, thus depriving
himself of his innings and his side of a run. Before we conclude this
somewhat desultory chapter, we must urge upon everybody the im-
portance of wearing both gloves and leg-guards when playing against
swift bowling. The many dangerous accidents that have happened
in consequence of the legs and hands having no protection, should
induce every person to guard himself as much as possible. One can
stand up to the wicket much better, and have far more confidence,
when one knows that a blow from the ball upon the legs is likely to
produce no ill effect. The absence of pads causes many players to
run away from the ball, and if the ball turns, the off-stump m most
cases will soon be prostrate.
Be careful, too, in running, that you ground your bat on the pop-
ping crease. Nothing is so tantalizing to a player as to lose a run
156
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
through the carelessness of his companion, who in his excitement
runs an inch or so short of the proper distance.
The moment the ball has left the bowler at your wicket, walk a
yard or two ; you may by this means steal many a run that it would
be impossible to obtain if you were at your own wicket when the
ball was hit.
Never, if you can possibly avoid it, hit a ball on the wrong side.
How disgusting it is to see a big awkward player swipe a ball ri^ht
round to the ofl-side which lie should have drawn or playe(3 to mid-
wicket on !
THE LEG HIT.
Do nol run away from the ball. If you do, you can never get a
good leg hit ; besides, you naturally expose your wicket, and if the
ball turns in (as it often will do), you will find it almost impossible
to be back in time to save your off-stump.
CRICKET. 157
As a rule, play forward whenever you can ; but be sure you don't
run out of your ground to hit unless you feel perfectly confident of
your success.
Waiting for the ball is always a dangerous experiment, and will
often result in your playing back so far that you upset your own
wickets when in the act of achieving a most scientific cut.
Be careful to keep one foot steadily planted within the popping,
crease ; it is sometimes impossible to help being bowled or caught,
but the worst player in the world can always prevent the wicket-
keeper stumping him.
Mind, too, that the bat ought to strike the ball, and not the ball
the bat.
Be always cautious of straight balls, however tempting they may
appear. Remember that if you miss them, you are safe to lose your
wicket; therefore always treat them with the respect that they
deserve.
Balls, too, that come about five inches above the bails should
generally be allowed to pass, for unless you are well skilled in the
art of hitting down, you are sure to give a catch.
And now a word or two with regard to the three leg hits — the
draw, the forward, and the backward leg hit.
When a ball seems pitched at the leg stump, hold your bat straight,
as it were, for a block ; but the moment the bat meets the ball, turn
the face of it a trifle round towards you, and the ball will then slip
off between your legs and the stumps. This is called the draw.
This play, however, requires a great deal of practice, and should
very rarely be attempted by inexperienced players.
The forward leg hit is made m the following manner : — When a
ball is pitched rather wide on the near side, advance the left foot in
front of the wicket, turn half round, and hit down upon the ball as
hard as you can.
When the ball is pitched inside the near stump, step back with
the right foot, and with an upright bat play it off the wicket. The
ball will fly rapidly along the ground, and usually between leg and
long-stop.
Recollect, the sooner you hit at a leg ball the squarer it goes.
The cut is the most difficult of all, and can only be accomplished
when the ball rises a little wide of the off-bail. Even then you are
very likely to play either too soon or too late at it, and it is very rare
indeed that a player makes a really good legitimate cut.
When you see the ball about to rise a foot away from off-bail,
draw the right leg backwards, and, with a horizontal bat, give the
ball something between a pat and a push, between point and short-
slip.
This is very far from being a scientific definition of this delightful
stroke ; but T think, from the plain manner in which I have stated it,
that it will be more likely to be understoMbnii j^^
* , D RATp
' Of TMt
INIYER8(TY
lo8
EVERY boy's book.
The technical names for the various balls the batsman is likely to
receive are — the full pitch, the tice, the hop, the half volley, the
ground ball, and the shooter.
Leg balls and balls to cut we have already explained.
At first sight, a full pitch would seem one of the easiest balls to
play ; but in reality it is not ; and many a good batsman, who could
play any number of well-pitched balls, has lost his wicket by playing
rashly or across a toss. Again, if hit carelessly, it is almost sure to
be caught by one of the long-fields ; and often, when the batsman
tries to play it down, it hits the top of his bat, and goes into long-
stop's hands. The best plan (if you are not very tall), when you
think it is too high to take your wicket, is to leave it alone altogether ;
but when you feel persuaded that if you miss the ball it will take
the stumps, either play it down, or else hit it where there is no field.
The tice is almost a full pitch. If you have a long reach, go in
and play it forward ; if not, however, keep your bat down and block
I
CRICKET. 159
it. Running in is generally a bad habit, as it is sure to engender a
loose style of play.
The long hop, if straight, should be played very carefully, and
with an upright bat. Those batsmen who have, as it is called, " got
their eye in," can usually strike at one with impunity ; but as the
ball is liable to twist every time it reaches the ground, the young
player should be very careful in striking at it.
A half volley is a ball which rises well from the pitch. Catches
are, however, often the result of hitting right at a half volley.
A ground ball is perhaps better known among our young friends
as a sneak. If played at with a high bat, the wicket is almost sure
to fall, 'i'he best plan is to keep the bat well down, and play forward
at it. If the bat is kept in a straight line with the ball, you cannot
miss it, and often by playing it forward you can send it past the
bowler.
A shooter is the most difficult ball to play, and if not treated with
proper respect, is sure to take the wicket. The moment the ball
shoots, play back, dropping the bat down on it within an inch of the
stumps. You are by this means very likely to keep it off your
wicket, but do not try to hit it. Left-hand bowling generally turns
in from the off; therefore play forward at it.
FIELDING.
Although not of so interesting a character as batting and bowHng,
yet fielding is in itself of too much importance to be overlooked, or
even carelessly practised, by anybody who desires to become a
cricketer. Many a match has been lost by loose fielding, and
instances without number have occurred of a man who, after being
missed before he has made a run, has sent his score up to fifty before
receiving his dismissal. It is astonishing how many runs may be
saved by careful fielding. Hits which at first seem good for four,
only obtain one through good fielding, and that even a sharp run.
Quick fielding should be practised by the tyro, before either of the
other two departments of the game. As soon as a boy gets a ball
in his hand, he tries to catch it, or to get a companion to throw it to
him ; and thus before he even knows how to handle a bat, many a
boy has in him the elements of a good field. As, however, the fasci-
nation of batting grows upon him, he cares less for the other parts of
the game ; and thus it happens that although we have many gentle-
men cricketers who bat just as well as professionals, yet the latter
obtain the mastery through their superior bowling and fielding, which
they are obliged to practise as often as batting, in order to obtain
the reputation of good players. I have, however, heard it stated
that no finer fielding can be seen than that shown in the University
match. This is generally admitted; but it must be borne in mind
that the University match is played by young men whose ages vary
from twenty to five-and-twenty, whereas most of the players ara
160 EVERY boy's book.
over thirty, and some rapidly approaching to forty, an age at which
the bones are not so lissom as those that have just arrived at man's
estate.
As a proof of this I may cite the Gentlemen and Players' match
at Lord's, a contest (if such it can be called) whicn is only worth
seeing on account of the excellent bowling and fielding of the pro-
fessional players. It is satisfactory to know that it is the oi)inion of
most judges of the game, that as long as the gentlemen persist in
practising batting only, they will scarcely have a chance against the
players.
No advice, however, will produce the same good upon a young
player in the matter of fieldmg as watching a match in which some
of the best players take part. ^ In this he should bear well in mind
the manner in which the ball is stopped and thrown to the wicket-
keeper.
Supposing that our cricketer can stop and catch a ball pretty well,
the next point for him to study is to throw it in carefully. How
many men that should have been run out save their wickets through
the bad throwing of a field, who, either through hurry or nervous-
ness, pitches the call over the wicket-keeper's head, or sends it in so
much along the ground as to render the picking up of it sharply by
the wicket-keeper a matter of impossibility ! The best plan is to
throw in a catch to the top of the bails. A long hop occasionally
meets with success; but if the ground is bumpy, and the ball is
thrown in from a distance, it is very possible that it will go over the
man's head.
One of the most prominent failings of a young eleven is the care-
less manner in which they back up. Overthrows in a professional
eleven are almost a matter of impossibility, for if the ball passes one
field there is almost sure to be another behind him to stay its pro-
gress ; whereas, in some" clubs, if there is one man to back up the
wicket-keeper, the ball is considered safe, and as he generally stands
within a few yards of the wicket, he usually misses the ball if it
passes the amateur Lockyer. If, however, it is expedient to throw
the ball to the bowler, and he does not wish to hurt his fingers, an
overthrow is sure to follow, for long-on or long-off scarcely ever
thinks it his duty to stand behind the bowler*s wicket when the ball
is thrown in. Overthrows in themselves are not only annoying,
because they are obtained through no merit of the batsman, but
because they always produce a merciless laugh from the spectators, and
occasionally epithets of a not very complimentary character. It is
therefore the captain's bounden duty to make his eleven back up
well, and not to consider the ball safe unless two or three people are
behind the wicket at which it is thrown.
One naturally imagines that the wicket-keeper's hands get occa-
sionally damaged from the sharp throwing to which he is subjected.
Whatever he would do without his thick gauntlets, it is unpleasant
CRICKET. 1 6 1
to imagine. Care should on all occasions, therefore, be taken to
save his hands, and when the batsmen are not running, there is no
need to throw the ball as hard as possible at him. The long-stop,
who returns the ball to the wicket-keeper oftener than any other
field, should send it in gently when there is no run, and the wicket-
keeper ought, in throwing it to the bowler, to toss it as quietly
as he can, in order not to deaden the fingers of that important
functionary.
Whilst writing about bowler and wicket-keeper, we cannot allow
the opportunity to pass of requesting all players to obey with the
utmost fidelity any order given to them in the field. The wicket-
keeper can, by raising his hand, change the positions of the field
unknown to the batsman, who, hitting a ball to a place which he
thinks is not covered, and finding it suddenly stopped, sees that he
must play more carefully in future.
Two of the most important positions in the field are the mid-
wickets and cover-point, and no player, unless he is a safe catch, and
can return the ball sharply, should ever be placed there. It has been
computed that mid-wicket runs more out than any other field. Any-
body who has seen R. Daft in this place will be surprised at the
rapidity with which he picks up the ball and sends it in. The space,
that a good cover-point can command is really astonishing. Players
seeing that the ball has passed point feel sure that it is safe for one,
whereas, if cover runs in and sends it in well to the wicket-keeper,
one of the batsmen will probably have " run out " to his name.
Long-stop should on no account be too close to the wicket. If
he takes a position where he feels sure he can stop one xun, he will
do much more service than nearer the stumps. Not only will he be
able to stop some balls which might have gone over his head, but he
may stay the progress of many leg-hits and slipped balls, besides
standing a better chance of a catch.
Catching comes so naturally that we need say little about it. The
chief point to be remembered is to keep the hands well together.
Occasionally one sees — in catching — the ball slip through a man's
hands altogether. At other times the ball lodges in the hands for
an instant, and then drops to the ground, because the arms were not
drawn back with the ball, but held out to meet it. In catching, the
arms should alwaj^s be drawn back as the ball comes, as this lessens
the force with which the ball strikes the hands. A good plan, but
one which, however, requires much practice, is to pat the ball up as
it comes, and then to catch it. It is evident that when the ball has
thus been sent up, it descends much more slowly than when it comes
direct from the bat.
Even, however, if, in spite of advice and practice, one of the field
is unfortunate enough to miss a catch, the captain should not allow
any unfeeling remarks to be made. The anguish of the unfortunate
player is quite deep enough without being aggravated by growls and
162 EVERT boy's book.
sneers from comrades who may perhaps do the same thing in a few-
minutes.
The captain should also do all he can to prevent talking in the
field. It is time to do that when a wicket falls, b it very unlike
a true cricketer to endeavour to attract the field's attention just as
the bowler is about to deliver the ball.
BOWLING.
We have read in a manual of Cricket that there are four styles of
bowling, and Felix, we believe, in his excellent work on the Bat, states
that there are five modes, all of which are in general use. For the
present purpose, however, we think it will be sufficient if we confine
our remarks to two styles, —
1. Round-arm Bowling.
2. "Underhand Bowling.
The former is an innovation upon the latter, and, like all improve-
ments, met with a great deal of opposition at first, since it was more
difficult to play, and made the innings shorter. Now, however, the
batting seems to have obtained as much mastery over the round-arm
bowling as before it had over the underhand, and it is even probable
that in a few years a new style will be introduced, in order to decrease
the inordinate length which innings assume now-a-days.
The following hints apply to the round-arm bowling : —
The ball should be held with the fingers across the scams, as this
occasionally makes the ball twist, and renders the defence of the
batsman a matter of more difficulty. Man^ bowlers, however, can
never get what is technically called "a twist on," whereas others,
after an hour's practice, can manage to make the ball twist in any
direction they please.
It is also important to take a run of a few yards, increasing the
distance in proportion to the pace. This allows the bowler to get
his arm into swing, and increases the impetus with which the ball is
delivered.
The bowler should always stand with his body well towards the
other wicket. We have seen a man run almost round the wicket and
deliver the ball without looking at the stumps he is supposed to aim
at. Long practice had enabled him to bowl pretty well, but the
absurdity ot his position was so apparent that it provoked a laugh
from all who saw it.
It must not be imagined, however, that a bowler should always
deliver the same style of ball. Many a wicket (paradoxical as it
may seem) falls from a ball that is not straight. A baisman who
has had a hit to leg for four, becomes at once anxious to get another.
Very often, if a bowler pitches the ball in a different iTianner, the
batsman endeavours to give another specimen of his favourite hit,
and equally often loses his wicket. Practise, therefore, change of
CRICKET. 165
pace and pitch, as catches are almost sure at some time to be the
result.
Nyren, one of the earliest writers on Cricket, speaks of this plan
in the following manner : —
" When it is difficult to part two batsmen, and either of them has
a favourite hit, I have often succeeded in getting him out by opening
the field where his hit is placed, at the same time hinting to the
bowler to give him a different style of ball. This, with the opening
of the field, has tempted him to plant his favourite hit, and in his
anxiety to do so he has not unfrequently committed an error fatal
to him."
In writing of round-arm bowling let us recommend young bowlers
to practise bowling over the wicket in preference to what is usually
termed round or outside it. The former plan is the only mode that
necessitates straight bowling, since, from the position of the arm,
the ball may be straight all the way, whereas, in the latter, the ball
must ccme in from the leg side. Again, it will be recollected that
in the late discussion about leg before wicket, many of the best
judges gave it as their opinion that the batsman could not be given
out i. b. w. unless the ball was delivered over the wicket. To these
advantages may be added the fact that a much better view of the
opponent's stumps can be obtained, and that the distance is also
shorter than from the outside of the wicket.
Among the most common faults of young placers may be cited a
habit of not pitching the ball far enough. This is mainly owing to
a want of power in the arms, but still a little careful practice will
considerably assist the player. Those nice specimens of bowling
known as bailers, when the bail is knocked off, can only be obtained
by a ball that is well pitched up. Shooters, also, are the result of
balls that touch the ground near the wicket. We may also add that
a ball that is pitched short is easy to play, since it can be seen well,
and its coming in contact with the ground deadens its force and
checks its speed.
Another practice which is often condemned is a habit of bowling
fast. Now, it is a great mistake to imagine that fast bowling is the
most difficult to play, as may be ascertained by the fact that our
fastest bowlers by no means take the most wickets, excepting Jack-
son, whose bowling, however, is not so successful now as it was at
one time. Fast bowling does not so readily allow accuracy of pitch
as a slower style ; besides, a fast bowler soon gets tired, then bowls
loosely, and then gets taken off. Those tips (for they are nothing
else; to the slips for four or five, are more the result of the bowler
than the batsman. Let us, therefore, earnestly recommend young
bowlers to begin bowling slowly, and to increase their pace as they
grow older and stronger. Many a promising bowler has been irre-
trievably spoilt by beginning to bowl too fast for his strength, and
finding in a short time that he has no style at all, and that the fruit
m2
164 EVERY boy's book.
of his labour is principally found in the number of byes scored off
him.
Particular care must also be taken to avoid bowling over the
shoulder. It is a pity that there is not some more strmgent rule
than at present exists with regard to law 10, although in such a
case the most successful bowlers would find their occupation gone ;
besides, as the no-balling of a bowler by an umpire usually causes the
greatest unpleasantness in a match, spoiling the amicable feeling
which almost invariably exists in the cricket-field, it is much better
to avoid the head and front of the offending, by practising the best
means to prevent the arm getting over the shoulder. We recollect at
school a big sturdy fellow, who, not content with bowling over his
shoulder, delivered the ball always as fast as he could. His bowling,
however, (as might be expected) was so loose that his services were
never called into requisition at a match ; but at practice he occasion-
ally handled the ball, much to the dread of the batsman he opposed.
One day he was bowling against the present writer in his usual
headstrong style, and actually sent a ball over the wicket-keeper's
head into long-stop's hands. This naturaUv frightened us, as we
thought it just possible that the next might hit us on the chest. A
narrow escape we had, for the very next was pitched so high, that,
had we not quickly dropped on the ground, it would have hit us ou
the head with such force as probably to stop cricket with us for
ever.
Our remarks on underhand bowling, or slows, must necessarily be
brief. That good slows are effective, particularly against county
twenty-twos, is proved by the analysis of E,. C. Tinley's bowling, and
the de'structive power of Mr. V. E. Walker's slows is well known to
most of those who have played against him.
It is often a good plan to begin with a fast bowler at one end and
slows at the other. The change of pace and delivery is very puzzling
to the batsman, who is compelled to play the two styles on a different
plan. If, however, a slow bowler is hit about much, he should be
changed at once, as the hits from slows generally add up quicker
than those from round-arm.
If change of pitch is advantageous in the swift bowling, it is the
very soul of slows. Full pitches, leg balls, off balls, shooters, all
styles and forms, should be allowed full play. The bowler, too, must
dodge about, and make himself an extra field, going wherever he
imagines the ball will be hit. In writing about slows we cannot pass
unmentioned the great advantage derived from making a ball twist
in from the leg. It is always understood that the leg stump is the
hardest to defend, and consequently the best to attack.
A slow ball is pitched a little wide of the leg, the batsman runs
away from his guard, and, in his imagination, sees the ball hit to
square leg for four. In reality, however, he finds his off-stump
knocked down by this same leg ball at which, in his ignorance, he
CRICKET.
165
struck too soon, and therefore saw it hit his stump before he could
be back to stop it.
The positions of the field may be varied according to the opinion
of the Dowler.
THE ^VlCKET-ELEliPEE.
The duties of the wicket-keeper are to stop the ballg when missed
by the striker, to stump him when off his ground, and to catch the
ball, and knock the wickets down before the striker, when running,
can ground his bat over the popping-crease. Since the introduction
of fast bowling this position has become the most dangerous in the
field, and a wicket-keeper seldom gets through a match without
receiving some bruises. He should always wear pads and gloves.
Some people recommend a guard for the abdomen, but this is scarcely
ever used.
The wicket-keeper should, if possible, be captain of his eleven.
As he is behind the striker, he can by a motion of his hand move
any of the field closer or further, unknown to the batsman. This
naturally requires great tact, and is often the means of saving many
a run, or of getting a wicket.
166 EVERY boy's book.
He should stand in a somewhat stooping position, his left leg well
forward and his hands close together, while his eyes should watch
every movement of the ball. He should be very cautious about
taking leg balls, as, if he gets too near, he is likely to receive a blow
from the batsman.
As soon as the ball is thrown to him from the long-stop, he ought
to advance two or three yards (provided, in the meantime, the bats-
men are not running), and send it gently into the bowler's hands.
The moment a hit is made, he should stand on that side of the
wicket farthest from the ball, and wait quietly till it is thrown in.
The ball should be thrown in by one pitch, and not in long hops, as
is often the case among bad players. Above all, he should knock
the wicket down as seldom as possible, but content himself with
striking a bail off when he thinks the batsman is out of his ground.
LONG-STOP
Stands behind the wicket-keener, in order to prevent byes.
He must be careful not to be too far away from the wicket, or else
clever players are apt to steal a bye before the ball has reached him.
The moment he gets the ball, he should return it sharply into the
wicket-keeper's hands, and scarcely ever throw it over to the bowler.
He should assist in backing up short slip, and also endeavour to save
runs on the leg side. When slows are put on in a match, the long-
stop is usually changed to a position about twelve yards behind the
bowler's head.
POINT
stands in a direct line with the popping-crease, at a distance of
about twelve yards on the off-side, for fast bowling. The faster
the bowling, the sharper he should stand. He should commence
at first at the distance we have just mentioned, and approach when
he sees the player about to strike. A sharp point mav often stop a
hard hit to cover-point. This position is, however, rather dangerous
in fast bowling, and, at the same time, one of the most important.
Tor slow bowling, he should come in to about five yards, and stand
at a more acute angle than when the delivery is very swift.
SHORT-SLIP
Stands a few yards behind the wicket on the off-side. As this
position does not entail much running, it is usually alloted to the
bowlers. The balls come in very sharply when the bowling is swift,
and the person occupying this position has to watch the ball very
attentively, or he stands a very good chance of receiving it in his
face. It is also his duty to back up the wicket-keeper, and to take
his place at the wicket when that functionary runs after the ball.
CRICKET. 167
COVER-POINT
Stands some distance behind point, to prevent a second run. The
sharper the bowling is, the squarer he should stand. He must also
be particular in backing up, as he can prevent many an overthrow.
LONG-SLIP
Performs the same duties, and occupies the same position, with regard
to slip as the last-mentioned field does to point. He should, when
he can, back up long-stop and save a second run.
LONG-ON.
Stands deep on the on-side. When the bowling is very swift, he
can take the place of mid-wicket on, as a ball in such a case is
seldom hit fair, either on the on or off side. He must be a good
catch, a good thrower, and very swift on his legs.
LONG-OrF
Occupies the same position as long-on at the other side of the
wicket.
LEG
Stands about the same distance behind the wicket on the on-side as
long-on does before it. He must possess a quick eye and great
agility. Leg-hits, after touching the ground, usually turn off in
quite a different direction from what one would expect. Leg should
therefore try to get them before they pitch, or else be careful in
running to meet them.
MID-WICKET ON AND OFP
Stand halfway between the long-fields and the striker's wicket. As
many catches come to these parts of the field, they should be very
sharp and active, and try to prevent the ball going past them.
THIE.D MAN TIP.
In very swift bowling the long-on often takes this position. He
stands between point and short-slip, in a direct line with the bowling-
crease, at a distance of about twelve yards.
And now, having given the functions of the fieldsmen, we propose
to show, by diagrams, their positions with 'regard to fast and slow
bowling.
168 EVERT boy's book.
Diagram I. — ^Fast Round-aem Bowlino.
10....
'"-7
V ±
S. striker; 1. The Bowler; 2. Wicket- Keeper; 3. Long-Stop; 4. Short-Slip;
5. Point; 6. Long-Slip; 7. Mid-Wicket on ; 8. Long-oflF; 9. Cover-Point; 10. Third
Man up ; 11. Long-IiCg ; U. Umpire.
DiAGEAM n. — Medium Pace Round-arm Bowling.
\
\.
X
2
'-^ 5? • — '
s' — -y v..
/
/
/
^
,-^iiiEx
IT
..jIL
"-^lO
\
S. striker ; 1. Bowler ; 2. Wicket-Keeper ; 3. Long-Stop ; 4. Shori^-Slip ; 5. Point;
6. Long-Slip; 7. Long-on ; 8. Long-oflf ; 9. Cover-Point ; 10. Mid-Wicket on ; 11. Leg;
U. Umpirei,
CRICKET.
169
Diagram lil.— Slow Underhand Bowling.
4..
2
"•'•• s
/
IT 11
6
..Z
ir
\ 'JO
\
'••7
1. Bowler; 2. Wicket-Keeper ; 3. Leg; 4. Short-Slip. 5. Point; 6. Extra Long-on ;
7. Long-on ; 8. Long-off; 9. Mid-Wicket off ; 10. Mid-Wicket on ; 11. Square-Leg ;
S. Striker. U. Umpire.
As in very swift bowling tlie ball is often bit to tbe off, it will be
seen that in Diagram I. We have placed no less than six out of the
eleven on that side. Mid-wicket on and long-off should be a little
nearer the bowler, and long-slip nearer the long-stop, than represented
in the' illustration.
In Diagram II. third man up is made mid-wicket on, while cover-
point comes in nearer than when the bowling was very fast.
In Diagram III., as the bowling is slow, no long-stop is required ;
he is therefore sent as an additional field behind the bowler. Short-
slip stands in very close to the wickets.
CEOQUET.
MATERIALS OF THE GAME.
I
THE MALLETS.
The mallet, of wliich in a Croquet set there
are eiglit, varies in length from 32 to 39 inches.
The liandle is thin and round, and is fastened
into the head somewhat in the manner of an
ordinary mallet used for knocking in tent pegs.
The liead slightly resembles in shape a dice-box,
inasmuch as it is narrower in the centre than at
the ends. The mallet is the active agent in the
game, just as the bat is at cricket ; and as the
mallet is always in the hands of the striker,
care should be taken that it is well planed.
Towards the top of the handle a few circular
lines may be cut with advantage, as they give
a firmer hold to the hand. At the bottom of
the handle is usually painted a colour, or a
number of lines, corresponding to the marks
on one of the balls. Such an arrangement,
although not absolutely necessary — since a
player can use any mallet without interfering
with the game — is of advantage in according
to each player the same coloured mallet as his
ball ; and were the mallets uncoloured, disputes
would probably arise about one which was a
greater favourite than the others. Some people
prefer to have the colour of all the balls painted
on their mallets. This is a very good plan if
one is in the habit of playing with inattentive
people, who will not recollect when it is their
turn to play. As the hard surface of the end
of the maliet-head coming sharply in contact
^
CROQUET.
171
with a ball often cracks, chips, or breaks it in two pieces, it has been
suggested that a piece of wash-leather should be let in at each end
of the head, in order to deaden the force of the stroke. We do not,
however, recommend the adoption of this plan, as it is very expen-
sive, and the wash-leather is not only likely to be soon torn, but in
the course of the game may come out altogether; besides, a
Croquet-ball can always be replaced for a trifling sum, and, if played
with carefully, ought to last twelve months at least.
THE BALLS.
The balls are eight in number, and are generally painted different
colours — blue, pinic, black, yellow, brown, orange, red, green. The
size varies from 3 inclies to '6^ inches in diameter. The balls of some
of the better Croquet games are not entirely covered with paint, but
adorned simply by a band of paint, about half an inch in width, or
with lines of blue and red, varying from one to four in number, as in
the illustration. Balls coloured thus are, however, not so easily
distinguishable as those which are painted all over.
I
THE HOOPS.
The hoops, ten in number, are made of iron. Tney are about 16
inclies higli, and 12 inclies wide; although these dimensions are not of
much importance. In some
games the hoops are of bronze,
or else are painted a goldtn
colour. Usually, however, they
are of a black, iron tint. The
set with which we generally
play is painted white. This
plan is in many respects ad-
vantageous, for as the shades
of evening close round the
players the contrast between
the grass and the hoops be-
comes less vivid, and conse-
quently in the excitement of
the game a player occasionally
tumbles over a hoop, ancl
probably hurts his legs ; when,
however, the hoops are pamted
172
EVERT BOY S BOOK.
white, the play can be continued to a late hour without the chance
of such a casualty as the breaking of one's shins against the iron
hoops.
THE POSTS.
The posts, two in number, should be from 24 to 36 inches high.
One end must be sharpened into a point, in order to allow it to stick
well in the ground. One is called the starting, the other the turning
post. The top half is, in the cheaper sets, divided into eight divi-
sions, each of which is painted according to the colours of
the ball. Thus, beginning from the top, we trace the
divisions into the following order : —
fjl 1. Blue.
5. Brown.
i 2. Pink.
6. Orange
rS 3. Black.
7. Green.
i| 4. YeUow.
8. Red.
The order of the colours acts as a guide to the players ;
and since those on each side play autemately, it follows
that in a game of eight, the dark balls — blue, black, brown,
and green — are matched against the light balls — pink,
yellow, orange, and red. The advantage of this arrange-
ment is plainly manifest, since, during the game, the
players, without referring to the peg, will know that the
light colours play alternately with the dark. We admit,
however, that opinion may oe divided about the lightness
of red as a colour ; and we therefore hope that the Croquet-
makers will change it into white, which is not likely to be
confounded with the yellow, for the latter, in consequence
of being in more frequent use, is sure to become dark in
much shorter time than the former. Some, however, as in
the illustration, have red and blue divisions, marked from
one to four, to correspond with the number of rings painted
on the balls.
CLIPS.
A set of Croquet-clips — ^little pieces
of tin, coloured according to the colours
of the balls, in order to slip over the
hoops, and thus show the hoop through
which the player has next to pass — ^has
been lately introduced. We do not,
however, recommend the use of them,
as they are liable to cause much confu-
sion, and certainly give a great deal of
trouble to those players who adopt them.
CROQUET.
MAEKING BOARD.
A gentleman lias inTented a marking-board, on wliicli is placed the
position of each player after his stroke is made ; but as this requires
an umpire to mark the positions of the balls, we do not think the
plan worth adoption.
TUNNEL.
In some games a very narrow hoop — scarcely wide enough for the
ball to pass through — has been introduced under the name of tunnel.
It certainly adds to the complication of the game.
THE CAGE
Is anotlier novelty, formed by placing two hoops across each other,
and fastening a bell at the point of intersection, which has to be
struck by the ball passing through.
174
EVETIT BOY S BOOK.
A CROQUET STAND
Is one of the best of the recent inventions in Croquet, and is to be
recommended as a great improvement over the unwieldy box, which
contains usually a Croquet set, and which is generally so badly
arranged that a quarter of an hour is occupied in taking out the
Croquet implements, and about double that time in replacing them
after the game is over.
HOW THE GAME IS PLAYED.
Sides are chosen in the usual manner, the captain of one side
taking the first ball and the captain of the other the second ; while
the remaining balls are given to the other players in the order in which
they are chosen. Eight persons can play at this game, but any
smaller number will do equally well. If only six or four play, the
same number of balls must be used ; but if two play, the game is im-
proved by each player taking two balls and playing them alternately
as usual. If there be an odd number of players — either three, five,
or seven — the players play against each other, or else one person takes
CROQUET. 175
two balls and plays for each side. It has been suggested that to
amuse a large party two games should go on at once, through the
same hoops, one side to begin at the starting-post and the other at
the turning-post. The confusion, however, caused by the balls
getting in each other's way would quite spoil all chance of good play.
Assuming that each player has a ball and a mallet, that tlie hoops
are arranged in either of the three positions given on pages 177, 178,
179, 180, we now come to the mode of playing the game. The object
is to drive the balls through all the hoops, in the direction indicated
by the dotted lines on the diagrams, and to strike the two posts.
The side all of whose members succeed in performing this feat first
wins the game.
Now, although this is the chief object of the game, yet the act
from which it derives its title, to wit " Croquet," is of much greater
importance than would at first be imagined. If a player hit with his
ball any of the others, he is allowed to place his own against the baU
he has struck, and setting his foot upon his own ball, he hits it with
the mallet, and the force of the blow drives the opponent's ball a
considerable distance in the direction towards which the mallet is
directed. As the player is allowed to croquet either friend or foe, it
is evident that he can do a great deal of damage or service, according
to his incUnation, since he is at liberty to drive the ball in any direction
he pleases. {See Rules of the Croquet, page 182.) It must, however,
be borne in mind that no player can croquet or be croqued until he
has been through the first hoop.
The liolder of the first ball, placing his ball a mallet's length in any
direction from the starting-post, endeavours by striking it with the
end of his mallet to drive it through the first hoop. If he succeeds,
he continues his turn, and attempts to send the ball through the
second hoop, and then through the third ; for driving the ball through
a lioop or croquing anotlier ball imparts the privilege of an additional
stroke. When he has finished, the second goes on, and the other
players follow in the order in which the balls are marked upon the
post. Till a player has gone through the first hoop he is not allowed
to have an extra turn, if his ball hit that of another. In a short;
time is palpably shown the great advantage of the croquet. Ofteii
when a player has his ball in a good position in front of a hoop,
another will hit it and drive it to the other end of the croquet-ground,
compelling the croqued ball to take two or three turns before it can
regain its former position. Occasionally two or three balls lie close
to each other, and one is struck by a ball which was some distance off.
The striker is now allowed to place his ball by the side of Ibe one he
has struck, and then, after croquing it, is almost sure of hitting the
two others, since his last stroke has brought him very near to them.
The player who reaches the turning-post first has great advantages
for a time, for as soon as he touches it he commences his return
journey, and meeting the other players on their road to the farthest
176 EVERY boy's book.
point of tlieir voyage, he is able to croquet tliem and considerably
impede their progress. While writing about the turning-post, we can-
not refrain from calling attention to a strange rule which appears in a
recently-issued manual of Croquet. In this work it is stated that on
touching the post the striker discontinues playing, and is not allowed
for the act the same privilege that he obtains for passing through a
hoop. This regulation is, we think, so unfair that we cannot allow
this work to go to press without taking the opportunity of record-
ing our protest against the adoption of the rule in question. It
must be evident to anybody who knows anything about the game
that it is a more difficult task to strike the post than to pass through
a hoop. Now, touching the post is a point in the game, for it is one
of the stations that everybody must pass on the journey ; and as for
each other point, such as passing a hoop or croquing, the player is
allowed an additional turn, surely it stands to reason that the same
advantage should be accorded to a player who performs the feat of
striking the turning-post. Captain Mayne Reid and all the other
writers on Croquet (with one exception) agree with us in the view
we have taken on this subject, to which we have at some length drawn
attention, in the hope that the author of the obnoxious rule wiU think
fit to make the necessary alteration.
When a player has passed through all the hoops, he becomes what
is called in the technical language of Croquet a Kover, and is privi-
leged to rove about over the ground croquing his friends and foes
{see page 185). It is therefore obvious that a good player can prove,
when thus situated, of immense advantage to his side, and should on
no account hit the starting or winning post till all on his side have
passed through the last hoop (see page 191). Good players, however,
generally content themselves with passing through all the hoops but
two, as it often happens that if a Kover is tiresome his adversaries
unite in their efforts to drive his baU against the starting-post, and
thus kill him. This, of course, they cannot do until he has passed
through aU the hoops. The excitement towards the end of the game
is almost inconceivable ; each stroke is watched with the keenest
interest. Gradually one by one the players hit the post, until perhaps
only two remain, and now occurs an opportunity for skiKul play. If
the two opponents are good players, they afford a rare treat to the
bystanders. The object of each is first to hit the post, and, failing in
that, to keep as far off his adversary as he can. Both endeavour, at
the same time drawing nearer to the great object in view, to keep the
post between their own and the other ball. At length one plays at
the post, misses it, and sends his ball near his adversary, who first
hits it, next croquets it away, and then strikes the post, while all his
?ide wave their mallets aloft, and loudly shout " Victory ! "
CROQUET.
177
Diagram No. 1.— This position, which is the simplest of those we have drawn, ia
the one which we recommend all young players to adopt. The space between the
hoops and between the hoops and the posts should be about six feet, although it
can be varied in proportion to the capabilities of the different players. The course
of the ball is indicated by the dotted lines, and the arrows show the direction in
which at starting the ball should travel. Although it may appear rather a simple
matter to go through the two first hoops by one straight stroke, yet the unfortunate
player will soon find out his mistake by experience, and that, in attempting to pass
through the hoops, "Slow and sure " is the best maxim to adopt.
N
178
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
TURNING- POST.
STARTING POST.
Diagram No. 2.— In tliis, the second, diagram it will be seen that the two centre
Bide hoops are done away with, and that one is placed in the centre of the gam«
instead; but although in the play we now require one hoop less than in the former
diagram, yet the player will have to pass through the same number of hoops as
before, since he travels twice through the hoop in the centre— once on his way to
the turning-post, and once on his return. This position is necessarily not so simple
as the last one, Vov now all chance of going through the three side hoops in one tiu:n
is done away with, and few players will be able to make the passage in less than
three turns.
OBOQUET.
179
TURNIN& POST.
Diagram No. 3.— In this the same nnmher of hoops is nsed as in the first diagram,
but the hoops numbered respectively 4 and 9, instead of being placed ])arallel to the
others, are now at rijiht-angles to them : thus, in playing from 3 to 4, one has to
keep to the right of the second ring, and then to pass through it from the outside of
the game — a much more ditficult arrangement than cither of the other positions we
have described. As the playei-'s knowledge of Croquet increases, many other posi-
tions will suggest themselves ; but those we have printed are the simplest, and are
the diagrams in general use at the present time.
n2
180
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
TURNINC ^ POST
i
ffX
Q:
^t---'
(1
1
STARTIUCg^^POST
Diagram No. 4— In this diagram the cage is introduced; otherwise it is nearly
the same a« Piagram No. 2.
CBOQUET. 181
The reader is now requested to give liis attention to tlie following
Rules, wMcli we believe will be found to meet all the requisites of
the game.
RULES.
STKIKING.
1. At the commencement of the game the ball is to be placed a
mallet's length from the starting-post in any direction, and the player
endeavours to drive it through the first hoop.
[As the distance between the first post and the first hoop depends
so much upon the size of the Croquet-ground, the first rule may be
altered to suit the convenience of the players ; but if the length is
less than a mallet, the player will probably stnke the post with his
own mallet.]
2. In striking' the ball, the player must stand on one side of the
ball, and not behind it.
3. In striking, the maUet must be about an inch from the ground,
and must not be pushed along it when the stroke is made, except
when the distance between the oall and some other object is too small
to admit the mallet lengthwise.
[Some players wish only one hand to be used in striking. Most of
the large sets, however, are too heavy to allow this rule to be gene-
rally carried out.]
4. The ball must be struck with an end of the mallet, and not by
the side.
ORDER OF PLAYING.
5. The balls are to be played in the order in which they are marked
upon the post.
6. If any player play out of his turn, he finishes the stroke ; but
for the violation of the last rule he is deprived of the next turn.
[It may perhaps be suggested that a player, seeing a good oppor-
tunity for some effective stroke, would purposely play out of his turn.
This we doubt ; for not only would the deprivation of his next turn
do him a great deal of damage, but the chances are that one of the
other players would stop him before he had commenced the stroke.]
7. If a player play with a wrong ball, he has to replace the ball
and lose his next turn.
[This penalty is not enforced against a player if the error be not
discovered before the arrival of his second turn.]
8. If a player by a stroke of his maUet drives his ball through. the
next hoop in the order of his course, he is allowed to continue his
stroke.
182 EVERY boy's book.
9. A player may in one stroke drive liis ball tlirongli more than one
hoop.
10. If a baU, in going througli a hoop, strike another ball, the
player can either continue his stroke at tlie next hoop, or else croquet
the ball that is struck ; but he is not allowed two turns for passing
through a hoop, and then hitting a ball.
11. If a ball strike another ball, and then pass through a hoop,
the player can either croquet or continue his stroke, and has not to
pass through the same hoop again.
[Erom this rule the reader may infer, that if a ball ^o through its-
hoop either by striking another ball or by hittmg the sides of the hoop,
it is considered to have passed the hoop.
It has been suggested that a ball is dead directly it croquets another,
and that therefore any stroke it makes after that is of no avail ; but
as this not only does away with Rule 11, but prevents any player
croquing two balls in one stroke, we cannot adopt it.]
12. If a ball, instead of playing at its hoop, play al a ball on the
other side of the hoop, and consequently have to be moved by the
hand through its own hoop in order to croquet, it is not considered to
have gone through the hoop, but must return- to the proper side of
the hoop in the ordinary manner.
13. A ball is not through a hoop if the handle of the mallet when
laid across the two sides of the hoop from whence the bail came
touches the ball without moving the hoop.
14. If a player strike a ball which he cannot croquet, and by that
stroke go through a hoop, the last stroke holds good, and lie has
another turn.
15. If a ball, when croqued through its hoop in a wrong direction,
roll back through the hoop, it has not to- pass through the same hoop
in the same direction again.
THE CROQUET.
[When the game of Croquet first came into fashion, there was only
one mode of the croquet, which was that usually known as the tight
croquet. Suice then other forms, known as the loose and shppmg
croquet, have come into fashion, and have met with so much favour
that it is impossible to deny their claims to our attention. In the
tight croquet the player must keep liis foot upon his own ball, and is
not allowed to move it while he makes the stroke ; but in the loose
croquet he need not even put his foot on his own ball at all, and is
able consequently to drive not only his adversary's ball, but also his
own, in any direction he pleases. The adoption of tliis plan, even
although it lengthens and complicates the game, affords so much
pleasure to the players themselves, that it is becoming universally
adopted. Some writers, however, insist that to rovers only should
the privilege of the loose croquet be accorded ; whilst others, on the
other hand, would allow the privilege only to those who are not rovers.
OHOQUET. 183
In fact, so mucli is to be said on each side, that the better plan is
to allow the players to choose which of these courses they think fit to
adopt. Li some places, in addition to the loose croquet, a practice
prevails which is usually known by the term " taking two off." Thus
if a player croquet a ball, he is allowed to drive his own ball in any
dii-ection he pleases, without touching the croqued ball. After this
he has another stroke, so that he is enabled to get close to any ball
on the ground. This plan seems to us so higlily objectionable, and
so thoroughly subversive of all good play, that we must decline to
recommend it. It should also be known that many of our corres-
pondents object to loose croquet altogether, on the ground that it
tends greatly to prolong the turns, and thus spoils the game, as people,
grown tu-ed of waiting, lose all interest in it, and forget when their
turn comes to play. What expressions more common on the ground
than " "Whose turn is it now ? "]
16. A player is allowed the privilege of croquing whenever his ball
strikes another, except when by doing so he makes the ball that is
struck hit the winning-post, if it have passed through the hoops.
17. In the tight croquet the player must keep his foot firmly upon
his own ball, and if the stroke move it the ball must afterwards be
brought back to the position it occupied before it was struck.
[Some writers insist that if the croqueur's ball slip, he loses his
turn. This arrangement is too absurd to be tolerated for an instant.]
18. No ball can croquet, or be croqued, until it has passed througfi
the first hoop.
[It has been the custom to allow a player to take up his ball, and
play, when his turn comes, from the starting-post again, if he misses
the first hoop. This plan, however, has nothing to recommend it.
It would enable a player who wished to play last to do so at ease by
intentionally missing the hoop, and is obviously so unfair that we
have no wish to adopt it.]
19. No ball (except a rover) can croquet the same ball twice, until
it (the croqueur) has passed through a hoop or touched the post since
its first croquet.
[If, however, the croqueur be a rover, he cannot croquet the same
ball twice in one turn. In either case, however, he is at Hberty to
strike the same ball twice, but this act does not allow him the
privilege of a fresh stroke.]
20. A croquet need not necessarily be a distinct stroke. If the
striking ball in its passage hit either a post or a hoop, and then
cannon upon a ball, the privilege holds good ; and if, also, one ball
strike two or more others, each of these is croqued in the order
in which they were struck ; but the striker has only one additional
stroke when he has croqued the lot, and not one for each ball he
has struck.
21. As the moving of the croquing ball in the ti^ht croquet is of
itself illegal, it stands to reason that if tliis ball during the stroke
184
EVERY boy's book.
slip and toucli another ball, the player has not the right to claim the
privilege of the croquet.
fEn the loose croquet a player may by his croquing stroke drive his
own ball through a hoop.]
THE TIGHT CROyVJ
22. A player, after striking a ball, is not necessarily compelled to
croquet it, but is allowed to play in any direction he pleases.
[It must, however, be understood that he must play from the place
where his ball is, and not, since he abnegates the privilege of it, as
after a croquet, from a position touching the ball he has struck.]
23. If a player hit a rover, and by the blow force the other ball
against the winning-post, he cannot croquet the b^, as it is plahilv
CROQUET. 185
dead ; lie however retains the privilege of another turn. As the ball
is dead, it must be moved at once.
24. If a player in the act of croquing do not move the croqued
ball at least 6 inches, he is at Hberty to take the stroke over again.
[Of course the croqued ball must be placed in the position it
occupied before it was struck.]
25. If a ball go through a hoop and then croquet a ball, both
strokes count.
26. If a player croquet a ball illegally, both balls must be restored
to their former positions.
27. If a ball hit two or more balls by one stroke, and croquet one,
it is forced to croquet all it has struck, and is not allowed to croquet
one and leave the others alone.
THE POSTS.
Some writers give certain privileges for passing two hoops at a
time, and for striking the posts — such as placing the ball a mallet's
length in any direction from its original position. This plan, however,
is very irregular, and affords too great an advantage to one player to
be adopted.
28. Striking the posts enables the player to have a fresh turn, and
is in all respects equivalent to passing a hoop.
29. A player who, having gone through all the hoops, strikes the
winning-post, is dead ; and being out of the game, is not allowed to
have a fresh turn.
30. If either of the posts be struck by a ball that is driven thither
by a croquing or croqued ball, or in passing through the next hoop
to it in the right direction, the stroke holds good.
31. If a ball be moved by a player when it should not have been
touched, it must be restored to its former position, even if the stroke
have sent it against a post or through a hoop.
32. If any oall (or oalls) be struck by the ball moved, as in the last
rule, it must be at once replaced in its former position.
33. If a ball, in the tight croquet, shp from under the feet and
strike the turning-post, the stroke does not count.
[By the same rule, if a player in croquing strike the winning-post,
the stroke does not count.]
34. If a ball be hit off the ground on a gravel- walk or a flower-bed,
it is to be placed at once 12 inches at right-angles from the limit of
the boundary.
THE ROVER.
35. As a rover has passed through all the hoops, he is not allowed
to croquet the same ball twice in one turn.
36. A rover has only the right to play a second time when he
croquets another ball.
37. A ball is dead as soon as it has passed through all the hoops
and struck the two posts.
186 EVERY BOY*S BOOK.
38. A rover who liits another ball, and then the post, is dead, and
cannot take another turn.
[A rover who croquets another ball against the post is according to
Rule 23 allowed another turn ; but if a rover, in croquing a ball, lets
his ball slip against the post, he is dead according to the principles of
loose croquet.]
39. The game is finished when all the players on one side have
gone through all the lioops and struck the two posts.
40. A match is the best of three games.
41. A tournament is the best of three- matches.
HINTS TO YOUNG PLAYEES.
It is almost impossible (as the reader will already have perceived)
to overestimate the great importance that " the croquet " bears upon
the game. A player who devotes all his efforts to pass through the
hoops will find himself soon left behind by those who look upon that
department of the game as merely subservient to the more fascinating
task of driving away a foe, or of helpmg a friend ; and this fact
becomes more and more patent when the number of players is six or
eight. True, when only two play, if one gets a good start, it is a
somewhat difficult matter for the other player to stay liis progress ;
and as this inevitably takes away half the interest of the game, we
recommend a pair of players to use a couple of balls, since by so
doing one can assist the other, and develop the croquet to great
advantage ; but then, again, it is not expedient to devote the whole
of one's energies to produce a collision between two balls. The
player's first rule should be to pass through a hoop ; if, however, he
sees an equal chance of passing through it after he has gone out of
his route to drive an adverse player away, he should at all times
make use of the croquet ; for it must be remembered that keeping
an enemy back is almost equivalent to making progress, and that the
game cannot be lost as long as a foe's ball is oehind one's own. The
art of the tight croquet consists in placing the striking ball in juxta-
position to that ball which has been croqued, and then, setting the
left foot upon his own ball, the striker hits it sharply with his inallet,
and consequently the other ball is driven by the power of the stroke
to a distance in proportion to the force with which the ball was
struck. Ill the loose croquet, however, the player need not place his
foot upon the ball at all, but by adopting the following stroke can
drive the two balls forward in the same direction, or by hittmg his
own ball with a slanting mallet can drive the balls away at an angle
to each other. The purpose of tliis feat is eitlier to aid a friend or
to do damage to an enemy. A friend can by croquing send a partner
through the hoop he wishes to pass, or else drive an enemy — who
CROQUET
187
has obtained a good position^ arml who feels certain of going, througli
a hoop at his next turn — exactly in the opposite direction to that in
which he wishes to travel. In order, however, to make this stroke
very efi'cctive, great care must be taken with regard to the way in
which the ball is driven. Many thoughtless players think nothing
of driving a foe close to a friend, or, in the hopes of assisting their
side, send a friend in the immediate neighbourhood of a foe — thus
improving the position of the adverse side, and damaging that of
their own. The difference that a few thoughtful players make to a
side is wonderful. Whilst others hit their balls about without ever
thinking that at his next turn a foe will probably croquet them, the
careful players, anticipating the positions of the other bails, place
themselves in a position from which, when their next turn comes,
tliey can either go through a hoop, or croquet the ball of a more
careless player. Thus, if foe B is behind a hoop through which A
c.
\
\
V
\
\
\
03
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
S
\
J>
has to pass, but requires two turns for the passage, it would be very
absurd if A were to place himself close to B, in the hope of passing
through next time, since B would be sure to croquet him, and place
him in even a worse position than he occupies in the illustration. A
should content hhnself by playing to C, for B would not go so far
out of his way to croquet him, and then A could go through the
ring the next time he plavs.
If A is at the side of a hoop through which he cannot possibly
188 EVERY boy's book.
Siss in one turn, he should play behind the ring to the spot marked
, and not in a line marked A C, or else he would probably go either
too far or not far enough, and be forced to accomphsh in three turns
what, if he had gone to B, he could probably have done in two.
CROQUET.
189
Suppose B to be placed in front of the fourth hoop {see Positions
of Hoops, Diagram No. 2), and A, whose turn it is, to be behind
No. 2 ; — many players would just go through No. 2, and then quietly
drop down to No. 3, in the hope of passing through at the next turn.
A thoughtful player, however, would, by driving his ball sharply
through hoop No. 2, obtain a position close to B, and next, taking a
second turn for going through the hoop, would be able to croquet B,
and drive him a long way off his hoop, and then return to a good
position behind No. 3.
The following position will show one of the advantages of the loose
croquet. It is the turn of the ball C to play, and he has to go
through the hoop e in the direction e A. In his present position it
is impossible for him to go through the hoop at one turn. If, how-
ever, he croquets D, and then indulges in the loose croquet, he can
drive his own ball to B, and send the other to A. He can then pass
through the hoop, and can croquet D again at the spot A.
We have mentioned this problem more as an example for young
players than because it is a recognised rule. Many such plans,
equally advantageous to follow, will readily present themselves to
players in the course of the game, and in no more forcible manner
can they show their good play than by disregarding the passage of a
hoop in order to croquet a foe and thus spoil his position. It can
be easily understood that a player who, by passing through aU the
hoops, obtains the title of " Rover," and may therefore rove wherever
he pleases, has far more power than one whose flight is fettered by
being compelled to pass through the little iron hoops that dot the
Croquet-ground. He can either keep close to a laggard friend, and
aid him by the croquet, or he can take up a position a little in advance
190
EVERT BOY S BOOK.
of a forward foe, and delay "his progress in a very unpleasant manner
Suppose that A has just passed tlirough the last hoop but two, and
that B, a rover, has taken up a position close to the hoop, in such a
manner that a portion of it intervenes between him and A. If, then.
TURNINO 1 POST.
3> \
^••■•■•■■■"
/TV
•a
CROQUET. 191
tlie latter play near the hoop, B is sure to croquet him and drive him
away. He is therefore compelled to keep some distance off the hoop
until a friend comes to aid him, unless a change in his position allows
him to croquet B, which, if the latter is a good player, is not likely
to occur. Now, having shown how a rover can worry a foe, let us
demonstrate how he can aid a friend. A is close to the hoop through
which he has to pass, and B, a rover of his own side, is in a line
with him. If B hit A, he will probably drive him off his hoop and
spoil his turn ; but if B play to C, a spot halfway between the two
hoops, A can go through his lioop, oroquet B at C, drive him to D,
and then go through the next hoop, croquet B at D (for he has been
through a hoop since he last croqued him), drive him to the other
side of the next hoop, and so on. A rover playing with another ball
can be of more help to him than hindrance to a foe ; and as it is
more important to get the balls of one's own side forward than to
delay those of a foe, the former plan should, when feasible, be adopted.
Thus it will be seen that a good rover is of the greatest service to
the side, and that the sooner he is placed hors de combat the better
for the opposite side. Tlie rovers on the other side should t.ierefore
do all they can to make the rover's ball hit the post by croquing it
against ii, if possible ; for although if all on his side hit the post
before those on the other side the game is won, yet when the best
player, being dead, is able to render no further assistance, the game
often goes against that side. This plan, however, must be adopted
with the greatest precaution and care, and on no account whatever
should a bad player be thus disposed of, since the mere fact of keep-
ing him in the game is of the highest importance, as his services are
of httle avail to his own side, who cannot win as long as one of their
party remains in the game. With these few desultory hints we
conclude this article, which all beginners should study caiefoll}', and
(we hope) with advantage.
DRIVING.
The rash boy Phaeton his proud chariot drove
Till he was smitten by almighty Jove :
Take heed, younpr driver, while you like him boast,
You are not ' spilled ' against an ugly post." — Swift.
INTRODUCTION.
Our young friends ought to know, not only how to ride, but also
how to drive. From the very earliest times, horse and chariot races
were considered the noblest of sports, and Apollo is represented as
driving the chariot of the sun. The four horses were typical of the
four seasons of the year. Four horses driven abreast was common
also to the Olympic games, and the Hippodrome was the scene of
chariot races in which even a greater number was sometimes used.
It was, indeed, an imposing sight to so? the Hippodromic course
at the time of one of these chariot festivals. The place set apart for
the contest was about a mile in length. Over a bar that ran across
the entrance of the lists was placed a brazen dolphin, and upon an
altar in the middle of the barrier stood an eagle of the same metal.
By means of a machine, put in motion by the president of the games,
the eagle suddenly sprang up into the air with its wings extended,
so as to be seen by all spectators ; and at the same moment the
dolphin sank to the ground, which was a sisraal for the cars to
arrange themselves in order for the race. Besides the statue of Hip
podamia, and the table on which were placed the crowns and palm-
branches, there were several images and altars in the course, particu-
JDRIVING. 193
larly that of the genius Taraxippus, who, as his name imports, was
said to inspire the horses with a secret terror, which was increased
by the shrill clangour of the trumpets placed near the boundary, and
toe deafeniag shouts and outcries of the multitude.
While the chariots were ranged in line ready to start, the horses,
whose ardour it was difficult to restrain, attracted all eyes by their
beauty, as well as for the victories which some of them had abready
gained. Piadar speaks of no less than forty chariots engaged at one
and the same time. If we recollect that they had to run twelve
times the length of the Hippodrome, in going and returning, and to
steer round a piUar or goal erected near each extremity, we may
imagine what confusion must have ensued when, upon the signal
trumpet being sounded, they si;irted amid a cloud of dust, crossing
and jostHng each other, and rushing forward with such rapidity that
the eye could scarcely follow them. At one of the boundaries a
narrow pass was left only for the chariots, which often baffled the
skill of the expertest driver; and there were upwards of twenty
turmngs to make round the two pillars; so that at almost every
moment some accident happened, calculated to excite the pity or
insulting laughter of the assembly. In such a number of chariots at
full speed, pushing for precedence in turning round the columns, on
which victory often depended, some were sure to be dashed to pieces,
covering the course with their fragments, and adding to the dangers
of the race. As it was, moreover, exceedingly difficult for the cha-
rioteer, in his unsteady two-wheeled car, to retain his standing
attitude, many were thrown out, when the masterless horses plunged
wildly about the Hippodrome, overturning others who had, perhaps,
previously escaped every danger, and thought themselves sure of
winning. To increase the confusion, and thereby afford better oppor-
tunities for the display of skill and courage, there was reason to
beHeve that some artifice was employed for the express purpose of
frightening the horses when they reached the statue of Taraxippus.
So great sometimes was their consternation, that, no longer regarding
the rein, the whip, or the voice of their master, they broke loose, or
overturned the chariot, and wounded the driver.
Such is the ancient description given by a Greek writer of the
chariot races of the Hippodrome. We have no coach racing now-a-
days, except omnibiis racing in the streets : not a great deal of
"coaching." Now and then, indeed, we see the "Brighton four-
horse," and start with wonder at the sight. But stUl there are
necessities for private driving, more important at the present than at
any former period ; and we hold driving to be not only a necessary,
but an indispensable accomplishment to every young gentleman.
THE HOESE IN HAHNESS.
A horse fully equipped in harness, attached to a dennet or
stanhope, is one of the most beautiful things to look at in the world;
o
194 EVERY boy's book.
few boys are trusted to drive a pair; nor have they physical power
for the task. We will therefore confine our attention chiefly to
single harness, adding only a short description of the various kinds
of carriages in common use. If, however, the youthful charioteer
can drive a single horse well, he will find no difficulty in controlling
a pair, provide their mouths are sufficiently tender for his strength
to manage. The horse is here represented harnessed to a light dennet-
gig.
THE HOESE
May be either a full-sized harness horse, or a ^oway, or a pony;
the two last being the best fitted for juvenile driving.
THE HAKNESS,
In every case, is composed of the same parts, which consist of
three essential divisions : 1st, the di-iviug, or guiding part ; 2d, the
drawing part ; and 3d, that for holding up the shafts. The driving
part comprises the bridle and reins. The bridle is made up of a
front piece (1), a head piece (2), two cheek pieces and winkers (3),
a nose band (4), and a throat lash (5). The cheek pieces are buckled
to the bit (6) by means of leather loops, called billets, as also are the
driving-reins (7), and the bearing-rein, which is attached to a sepa-
rate bit called the bridoon (a plain snaffle), and then is hooked to the
pad-hook. This is now very generally dispensed with, as shown in
the cut at the head of this article ; but for young drivers it is often
desirable when they have not strength to check the fall of a horse.
The drawing parts consist of a padded oval ring fitted to the
shoulder-s, and called the collar (10), sometimes replaced by a padded
strap across the chest called the breast-strap. On the collar are
fastened two iron bars called hames (12), by means of a strap at
the top and bottom (8—11), and these hames have a ring in the
DRIVING.
195
upper part for the reins to pass through, called the hame terret (9) ;
and nearer the lower part, a strong arm of iron covered with a coating
of brass, silver, or leather, which receives in its eye the tuff of the
trace (13.) The trace (17) is a long and strong strap of double
leather, stitched, which runs from the collar to the drawmg bar, and
may be lengthened or shortened by a buckle. The part for holding
the gig up consists of a pad or saddle, which is buckled on to the
horse oy the belly-band Q6), and from which the shaft is sus-
pended by the back-bana and shaft-tug.^ It is prevented from
slipping forward by the crupper, which is slippea over the tail.
Besides these parts, some horses have in addition a oreechen (18 — 19)
which holds the shafts back in going down hiU ; and when they at
addicted to kicking, a strap is buckled over their hips to the shaft
which is called a Hcking-strap.
THE CARRIAGE.
The Dennet-gig, as represented in the last page, is the most
common form for a two-wheeled carriage; but tliere are also the
Stanhope, the Cabriolet, as here shown, the Tilbury, and the Dog-
cart. The various open four-wheeled carriages are the Britzschka,
THE BRITZSCHKA.
196 EVERY boy's book.
Barouche, and Phaeton ; and of closed fonr-wheeled carriages there
HEVr BROUOHAU.
are the Brougham and Clarence on eUiptic springs, and the chariot
and family coach with c springs. When these two last are made
to open, tney are called the Landaulet and Landau.
THE FAMILY COACH.
PUTTING TO.
Before driving, it is necessary that the horse or pony should be
"put to," which is effected as follows: 1st, slip the shms through
the tugs, or, if there are hooks, drop them down into them ; 2d, put
the traces on to the drawing-bar, either hooking them on, or else
slipping them on to the eyes, and being careful to place the leather
stops m these, to prevent the trace coming off; 3d, buckle the
belly-band sufficiently tight ; and 4th, buckle the kicking-strap, or
breechen, if either is used. After this, the reins are taken ttom
the terrets, where they were previously placed, and the horse is ready.
DntBCTIONS EOR DEmNG.
In driving, the reins are held differently from the mode already
described as used in riding, the fore-finger being first placed between
DRIVING. 197
them, and then both the reins are grasped by all the other fin^rs, and
fte near-side rein is also held firmly against the fore-£jiger by means
of the thmnb. In this way, on an emergency, the near or left rein
may be pulled by itself, bj holding it firmly with the thumb, and
Bnnering the other, or off rein, to slip throuffh the finders, or vice
versa. The most usual way is to pull the left rein with the left
hand, and the ri^ht with the right nand, by hooking one or two
finders over it while held firmly in the left. In this manner, with the
whip also held in the right hand, the horse is guided or stopped. The
young driver should take care and keep his feet well before him, with
his knees as straight and firm as possible, so that in case of a fall of
the horse he may not be thrown forwards out of the vehicle he is
driving. He should also sit square to his work, with his elbow
held easily to his side, and his left thumb pointing to his horse's
head, by which, as in riding, his elbow is pretty sure to be properly
placed. The bit should not be too firmly pulled against, but a light
and "^ve and take" kind of handling is the best, bjr which the
horse is allowed freedom of action, and yet is checked if he makes
a mistake. In meeting other vehicles, the rule is to keep to your
left, and in passing them, to leave them also on your left. This
should be rigidly amiered to for fear of the accidents which would
otherwise constantly happen.
Jn reference to driving in America, nothing better can be given
than the rules of the English school for driving. In America the
rule governing the side to pass another rider on is the reverse of
the English rule. In America the law is " drive to the right." In
England it is to the left. The former anoears to us to be the
"right" one.
J^ENCING.
Fenciisg is the art of using the small-sword or rapier. The small-
sword has a straight blade, about thirty-two inches in length, outside
the guard, and is fashioned for thrusting only. Although it is an art
of the greatest antiquity, very great improvements have been made
in it during the last half-century, chiefly bv French masters, who
excel those of all other countries. Tlus has been attributed to
various causes ; by some to the agility and acknowledged power of
rapid physical action possessed by tlus nation; by others, to their
natural vivacity and mental quiclmess. In my opinion, however, a
more direct and powerful cause may be traced in the great encourage-
ment and universal patronage which it has ever received from eveay
grade of a chivalrous and military people. Every regiment has its
maitre d'armes, and every barrack its fencing-school. Indeed, in so
importaiit a light was the proper teaching of this art held, that one
of the French kings (Louis XIV.) granted letters-patent to twenty
eminent masters, who alone were permitted to teach in Paris. When
a vacancy occurred, no^ interest and no favour could enable a candi-
date to obtain this privilege : he had to fence in public with six of
these chosen masters ; and if by any of them he was beaten by two
distinct hits, he was considered unqualified to teach in the capital
FENCING. 199
Independent of its value as the scientific use of the sword, — the
gentleman's weapon of defence, par excellence^ — fencing stands un-
rivalled as an exercise ; and it is in this sense that it will now be
treated. The most eminent physicians which this country have pro-
duced have all, in the most earnest manner, recommended it to the
attention of the young. Thus, Dr. Clive says : —
" Muscular exertion is essential in perfecting the form of the body,
and those exercises which require the exercise oi the ^eatest number
of muscles are the most conducive to this end. Eencmg causes more
muscles to act at the same time than most other exercises. It pro-
motes the expansion of the chest, and improves respiration, whereby
the functions of the most important organs of the body are more per-
fectly performed."
Sir Anthony Carlisle uses similar language : —
" According to my judgment, the exercise of fencing tends to pro-
mote bodily health, and the development of athletic powers. It is
likewise apparent, that the attitudes and exertions of fencing are con-
ducive to the manly forms and muscular energies of the human
figure."
Again, Sir Everard Home, in still stronger terms : —
" Of all the different modes in which the body can be exercised,
there is none, in my judgment, that is capable of giving strength and
velocity, as well as precision, to the action of aU the voluntary
muscles of the body in an equal degree as the practice of fencing, and
none more conducive to bodily hemh."
I shall give one more extract from another physician of equal
eminence. Dr. Babbington : —
" I am of opinion that, in addition to the amusement which this
exercise (fencmg) affords, it is particularly calculated to excite in
young persons a greater degree of energy and circumspection than
they might otherwise possess ; and it is obvious that, m respect of
health, that mode of exertion is superior to all others, which, while it
gives motion and activity^ to every part of the body, produces at the
same time corresponding interest m the mind."
Sir John Sinclaii', Dr. Pemberton, &c., speak in terms equally
recommendatory.
To avoid all danger in the lessons and practice, foils are sub-
stituted for real swords. Strong wire masks are worn on the face, a
well-padded glove on the hand, and the upper part of the body, at
which alone the thrusts are aimed, is protected by a strong jacket, the
right side and collar of which should be of leather.
The first movement a beginner has to learn is the manner of
placing himself in the position called
THE GUAED.
It is from this position that all movements are made, whether
offensive or defensive. Let the beginner be placed vjith his knees
200 EVERY boy's EOOK.
straight, his feet at right angles, heel to heel ; the right foot, right
side, and face directed to the master. The body must be held
upright and firm, the arms hanging down by the side, but easily and
without constraint; the left hand holding the foU a few inches
beneath its guard. Next let him bring the right hand across the
body, and seize the foil-handle; by a second movement, bring the
foil above the head, the hands separating as they ascend, until both
arms be nearly extended upwards and outwards. Here pause. This
may be called i]iQ first position of the Guard.
These movements should be frequently practised, as thejr accustom
the arms to move independently ot the body, flatten the joints of the
shoulders, and give prominence to the chest.
'^^--(^
To arrive at the second position of the Guard, the right arm, with
the foil, is brought down to the front, until the right elbow is a little
above and in advance of the waist ; the fore-arm and foil sloping
upwards ; the point of the foil being the height of the upper part of
the face ; then, by a second movement, the learner must sink down,
separating the knees, and stepping forward with the right foot four-
teen or sixteen inches; for, of course, the guard of a tall man will be
wider than that of a short one. However, his own comfort in the
position win direct him as to the distance ; and the general rule is, that
the knee of the left leg will jut over the toes of the left foot, and the
right leg from ankle to knee be perpendicular. It is in this position
that he will receive all attacks from an adversary, and from this
position will all his own attacks be made. Also in this position
will he
ADVANCE
upon an adversary, when beyond hittmg distance. The step in the
aavanoe is usually about that of the width of the Guard, although of
FENCING. 201
course this would vary with circumstances. The step ls made by
advancing the right foot the distance I have named; and on its
reaching the ground, the left foot is brought up, and takes its
place. To
BETREAT,
the reverse of the above movement is made. The left foot takes the
lead, stepping to the rear about as far as the right had stepped to the
front; the right occupying its place on its taking up its new position.
The next movement,
THE LONGE,
is a very important movement, and is rather difficult to make pro-
perly, and mtiguing to practise. Indeed, the first movements in
fencing are the most trying to the learner ; and he must not be dis-
couraged if he fails to do them correctly at first — practice only will
give him this power. The Longe is that extension of body which
accompanies every attack, and is thus made: The right arm is
extended straight from the shoulder, the arm and blade being on the
;ame level ; by a second movement, the right foot is raised from the
,'round, and a step made forward, about eighteen inclies in length,
while the left remains finnly planted in its place. At the instant
that this step is made, tlie left hand is allowed to fall within a few
inches of the left thi^h, and the left knee is stiffened back until the
leg is perfectly straight.
The thigh of the right leg wiU now be in a position nearly horizon-
tal; from the knee downwards, perpendicular. Having executed the
Longe, the next movement to be made is
THE RECOVER;
that is, to return from the position of the Longe to that of the Guard,
202
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
and is thus effected : The left arm is nimbly thrown up to its place,
the right arm drawn in, and the left knee re-bent. These movements
must DC made at the same time, as it is their united action that
enables a person to recover from so extended a position as the Longe
quick enough to avoid a thrust if his own attack has failed.
These movements must be frequently practised before any others
are attempted — the Guard, the Advance, the Retreat, the Longe, and
the Recover ; and when the learner has attained some proficiency in
them, he may begin the more delicate movements of attack and
defence. Of these I will now speak.
THE ENGAGE.
It is customary for adversaries, on coming to the Guard, to "Engage^
or to join blades, on what is called the inside^ that is, the right side ;
although there are occasions on which it is advisable to engage on the
outside, or on the left ; otherwise called the Quarte or Tierce sides.
Two men thus opposed to each other will at once perceive that
there are two lines of attack open to them, /. e. the line inside and
the line outside the blade — these, and no more. But these may be,
and in fencing are, subdivided into inside above the hand, and inside
under the hand, and the same subdivision for outside. This gives
four lines of attack — or, to speak more simply, gives four openings
through which an adversary may be assailed. Now, to protect each
of these assailable points, are four defensive movements, called
PARADES.
Each opening has its own parade or defence, and each parade will
guard its own opening, and, strictlv speaking, no other. Tlie opening
mside above the hand is defended by two parades.
Ab its name imports, the first and most natural parade is that of
FENCING. 203
rrime. The action of drawing the sword from its sheath is almoat
exactly the movement made use of in the parade of Prime.
In this parade, the hand is raised as high as the forehead, so that
the fencer can see his opponent's face under his wrist. The blade of
the foil is almost horizontal, but the point is rather lowered towards
the ground. As this parade will throw the right side of the body
open to the adversary's sword, it is good play to disengage from left
to right, and deliver a rapid thrust at the adversary, m order to
anticipate him before he can bring his own sword round for another
thrust. His point will be thrown far out of line, so that he is behind-
hand m point of time.
This IS a very useful parade for fencers of short stature, as they
can sometimes get in their blade under their adversary's arm, after
th^ have parried his thrust.
The other parade is that of
QUAHTE.
It is thus formed. On tlie approach of the point of an adver-
sary's blade (and how these approaches are made I will presently
explain), the right hand is moved a few inches — three or four will be
enough — across the body on the inside; the hand being neither
depressed nor raised, and the foil being kept on the same slope as in
the Guai-d. This guards the body on the mside above the hand, but
(and here comes an important law in fencing) the very movement
which has guarded the body on one side has exposed it on the other:
this is the case with all the simple parades.
Suppose, now, that the exposed part outside above the hand were
assailed, then the defence for it is the parade of
TIERCE.
It is formed by turning the hand Avith the nails downwards, and
204
EVERY boy's book.
csrossing to the opposite side some six or eight inches ; the hand and
point at the same elevation as before : this will guard this opening.
opening.
If, however, the attack had been made under instead of over the
hand, then the proper parade would have been Seconde.
There is another method of parrying, called Quarte^ over the arm,
which is executed by making almost the same parade as in~Tierce,
with this exception — ^first, the hand is retained in its original posi-
tion, with the^nails upwards ; and, secondly, the point is not raised
above the eye of the adversary.
It is ratner more delicate than tierce, but wants its power and
The Ripostes, or reply thrusts, are made, as they would
eners
have been had the parade been that of Tierce.
FENCING. 205
SECONDE
is formed by turmng the hand in the same position in which it was
tnmed for Tierce, but the point of the foil slopes as much downwards
as in Tierce it did upwards ; the direction and distance for the hand
to traverse being the same. Again, had the attack been delivered at
none of these, but at the inside under the hand, then the proper
parade would have been
DEMI-CEECLE,
which, as its name expresses, is a half-circle, described by a sweep of
the blade traversing the under line. Next comes the parade of
206
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
OCTAVE,
In this parade the hand is held as in Quarte ; the hilt of the foil is
kept lower than that of the opponent; the blade is ahnost horizontal,,
the point being only slightly lower than the hUt, and directed towards
the body of the adversary.
Octave is extremely useful when the fencer misses his parade of
Demi-cercle, as there is but a short distance for the point to traverse,
and it generally meets the blade of the adversary before the point
can be properlv fixed. Moreover, it brings the point so near the
adversary s body, that he will not venture to make another thrust
until he has removed the foil.
Thus I have enumerated, and partlv explained, the forms and uses
of these four parades : they are called Simple Parades, to distinguish
them from another set of defensive movements, called
CONTRE-PAHADES.
I have said and shown that a man standing foil in hand, in the
Eosition of the guard, is exposed in four distinct places to thrusts
•om an adversary within longing distance. I have also shown that
he has a defence for each of these exposed places ; but if a man has
but one defence for each assailable part, then his adversary, knowing
beforehand what the defence must be, would be prepared beforehand
to deceive him. But if he has a reserve — if he nas a second defence
for each part, then the adversary camiot tell what the defence will be,
until his attack, false or real, is begun.
To meet this contingency, a second series of defences have been
devised, which are of an entirely different nature from the SimpU
Parades.
FENCING. 207
A^am, as each of the simple parades is framed to guard only one
opening, it was found desirable that the contre-parades should be of
a more comprehensive character. They are therefore devised so that
each is capable of protecting the entire front. It is evident that this
object could not oe attained without the sacrifice of quickness,
because a larger space must be traversed, and therefore more time is
occupied with a contre than a simple parade.
To know one contre-parade is virtually to know all, as they are all
formed on the same plan. They are all full circles in the position of
hand and direction of foil of the different simple parades ; or more
clearly speaking, each simple parade has a contre-parade ; there are,
therefore, four simple ana four contre-parades, wnich may be thus
arranged : —
Quarte Contre de Quarte.
Tierce Contre de "Kerce.
Seconde Contre de Seconde.
Demi-cercle Contre de Cercle.
I have said that a contre-parade is a full circle in the position ol
hand and direction of blade of its simple ; thus, contre de quarte is
made by retaining the hand in the position of quarte, whUe the foil
describes a circle descending on the inside, and returning by the
outside to the place of its departure. So with all the others, the
foil following the direction of the simple parade, of wliich it is the
contre. These complete the entire system of defences,
I now come to movements of an opposite nature, namely, the
ATTACKS,
and shall begin with the most simple of them. I will again suppose
two adversaries standing, en guard, within longing distance of each
other : now the most simple movement that the attacking party
could make would be,
THE STRAIGHT THRUST
to the outside or inside, according to his line of engagement. I have,
in describing the longe, in effect described the straight thrust ; it is
but a longe m a straight line, taking care, however, to feel firmly the
adversary's blade, but taking care also not to press or leau on it
during the delivering of the thiTist.
.Next in character comes
THE DISENGAGEMENT.
This attack is made by dropping the point of the foil beneath the
adversary's blade, and raising it on the opposite side, at the same
time, rismg with the arm fully extended; on the completion of the
extension the longe is made and the thrust delivered.
20S EVERY boy's book.
THE ONE-TWO
is but a double disengagement, the first being but a femt or faise
attack, to induce the adversary to form a parade to cover the part
threatened, for the covering of one part of the body exposes the
opposite : the second disengagement is made to take advantage ol
tms exposure. The arm is extended haKway on the first, and then
wholly on the second, to be immediately followed by the longe.
THE BEAT AND THRUST.
This is another variety of attack. Supposing the adversary's blade
to be firmly joined to yours, when you wished to deliver a straight
thrust^ there would then be danger of your falling upon his pomt.
Tiis danger is avoided by giving a slight beat on, his blade the instant
preceding your extension of arm, of course to be followed en suite by
the longe.
The companion attack to this attack is
THE BEAT AND DISENGAGEMENT.
The-^<?«^ here takes the character of the first disengagement in
one-twOy i.e. becomes 2^ feint, and is intended to induce the adversary
to return to the place he occupied when the beat was made. You
then immediately pass to the opposite side of his blade in the manner
described in the disengagement.
It wiU be seen that all these movements pass under the adversary's
blade. However, there are certain situations in the assault, as a
fencing bout is called, when an adversary is more assailable over the
point man under the blade ; for this purpose there is what the French
call the coupe sur peint, or
CUT OVER THE POINT.
It is thus made : By the action of the hand, and without drawing
it back at all, the foil is raised and brought down on the opposite side
of the adversaries blade, the arm being extended during its fall to the
horizontal position, on attaining which the longe is dekvered.
CUT OVER AND DISENGAGEMENT
is on the same principle as the one-two and the beat and disengage-
ment. On the adversary opposing the first movement (the cut) with
a parade, the second movement (the disengagement) is made to the
opposite side, to be followed of course by the longe; the extension of
the arm being divided between the two movements.
These attacks are called simple attacks, because they may be
parried by one or more simple parades, according to the number of
movements in the attack, in fact, every attack can be parried, and
every parade can be deceived: it is the additional movement last
made which hits or guards.
FENCING. 209
Thus, you threaten by a disengagement to the outside; your
adversary bars your way effectually by the parade of tierce; you
make a second disengagement to the inside, which is now exposed
from the very fact of the outside being guarded (for both lines of
attack cannot be guardedat the same time), thus converting your
attack into one-two; but if your adversary parries quarte on your
second movement, your attack would be warded off. This can be
carried much further, but the above will, I think, be sufficient to
explain the nature of simple parades and attacks.
To deceive a co^^re-parade, a separate movement, called a double^
or
DOITBLE,
has been invented; it is very simple in principle, and admirably
answers the purpose. For instance, if you were to threaten your
adversary by a disengagement to the outside, and if, instead of tierce,
he parried centre de quarte, the double is then made by vour making
a second disengagement to the same side as the first, lor it will be
found that his contre de quarte has replaced the blades in the positions
they occupied previous to your disengagement. You will tnen have
an opening, ana may finish the attack by the longe.
As all the contre-parades are on the same plan and principle, so are
all the doubles. Oi course, it is understood that you will make all
the movements of the double en suite, and without allowing your
adversary's blade to overtake yours.
ALL TEINTS.
The foregoing movements having been well practised in the lesson,
the next step is that of all feints and all parades, and may be prac-
tised either with a master or fellow-pupil. The practice consists of
one pupil standing on the defensive entirely, while another assumes
the offensive, and attacks him with all the feints of which he is
master, the other, of course, defending with all his parades. It is
excellent practice, as it accustoms the pupil to think for himself gra-
dually, he having thus but one set of movements to think about. He
is therefore enabled to make them boldly, without having to encounter
unknown movements from his adversary.
It also enables him to see the extent of his resources, both for
attack and defence. When he can both attack and defend with some
presence of mind, he may then begin
THE assault;
that is, he may encounter an adversary, to attack or defend as occa-
sion presents. He is then left to his own resources entirely. Th&
following
310 EVERY BOY'S BOOK.
GENERAL ADVICE,
""iven by a very eminent fencer and excellent teacher, cannot fail to
be of use : —
" Do not put yourself on the position of the guard within the
reach of your adversary's thrust, especially at the time of drawing
your sword.
" If you are much inferior make no long assaults.
"Do nothing that is useless; every movement should tend to yoxir
advantage.
"Let your movements be made as much within the line of your
adversary's body as possible.
"Endeavour both to discover your adversary's designs, and to
conceal your own.
"Two skilful men, acting together, fight more with their heads
than their hands.
" The smaller you can make the movements with yoor foil, the
quicker will your poiut arrive at your adversary's body.
"Do not endeavour to give many thrusts on the longe, thus
running the risk of receiving one in the interim.
" If your adversary drops his foil by accident, or m consequence of
a smart parade of yours, you should immediately pick it up, and pre-
sent it to him politely.
" Alwajs join blades (if possible) previously to another attack, after
a hit is given.'*
BROADSWORD.
The principal distinction between the broadsword and the rapier
is, that the latter is formed only for thrusting, while the former is
adapted for cutting also. Indeed, those who use the broadsword are,
in my opinion, too apt to neglect the use of the point, and to give
their attention almost exclusively to the cuts.
The first lesson in the sword exercise is necessarily to know how to
stand. The learner should be instructed to perform the different
movements by word of command, remembering to consider the first
parts of the word as a caution, and not to stir until the last syllable is
uttered. At the last syllable, the movement should be performed
smartly. In giving the word, the instructor always makes a slight
§ause, in order to give his pupils time to remember what they must
0, For example, the words Draw Swords, is given thus. Draw
Swords — the word swords being spoken smartly, in order that the
movement may correspond.
iiUOADSWOKU.
211
POSITIONS.
First Position. — Make the target^ about fourteen inches in diameter,
and place it on the wall, having its centre about four feet from the
ground. Draw a perpendicular line from the spot at the bottom of
the target to the ground, and continue it on tne floor, in order to
ensure the proper position of the heels. The learner stands perfectly
upright opposite the target, with his right side towards it, his heels
close together, his right toe pointing to the target, and his left foot
at right angles with the left. His arms must be clasped behind his
back, _ his right palm supporting the left elbow, ana his left hand
grasping the right arm just above the elbow. In this position, he
must bend both knees and sink down as far as possible. This will
not be ver^ far at first, but he will soon siok down quite easily. See
accompanying figure (1).
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Second Position. — ^This is accomplished by placing the right foot
smartly in front, about sixteen or fourteen inches before the left.
See (2). He must accustom himself to balance himself so perfectly
on his left foot, that he can place the right either before or behind it,
without losing his balance.
Third Position. — The third position must then be learned. This
consists in stepping well forward with the right foot, until the left
knee is quite straight, and the right knee exactly perpendicularly
placed over the right foot. Great care must be taken to keep the
heels exactly in tne same line, and the body perfectly upright. See
Figure (3).
(1) For target, see next page.
212
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
Fig. 8.
These preliminaries having been settled, the learner stands upright
before the target, as in (1). A sword is then put into his hand, and
the target is explained as follows : —
TAEGET.
The interior lines represent the cnts. Cut one being directed from
No. 1 diagonally through the target, coming out at 4. Cut two is the
same, only from left to right. Three is made upwards diagonally, and
four is the same, only in the opposite direction. Gut five is horizon-
tally through the target, from right to left, and six from left to right.
BROADSWORD.
213
Care must be takem that
Cut seven is perpendicularly downwards,
the cuts are fairly given with the edge.
The swords orawn on the target represent the guards. The
seventh guard ou^ht, however, not to be made directly across, but
must have the pomt directly rather forwards and downwards, as a
cut 7 glides oiBf the blade, and can be instantly answered either by a
thrust or by cut 1.
The two dark circles represent the places where the thrusts take
effect.
The learner begins by taking the sword in his right hand, having
its edge toward the target and its back resting on his shoulder. His
right arm is bent at right angles, and the elbow against his side. The
left hand must rest upon the hip, the thumb being to the rear. At
the word —
CUTS AND GUARDS.
CUTS.
Cut 1. — The young swordsman extends his right arm, and makes
the cut clear through the target. Wlien the point has cleared the
target, continue the sweep of the sword, and by a turn of the wrist
bring it with its hack on the left shoulder, its edge towards the left.
The arm is then ready for
Cut 2. — ^Bring the sword from 2 to 3, continue the movement of
the sword, and turn the wrist so that the point is below the right hip
and the edge towards the ground.
Cut 3. — Cut through the target diagonally, bringing the^ sword
from No. 3 to No. 2, and bring the sword onwards, so that it rests
with the edge downwards, and point below the left hip. At _
Cut 4. — Cut from 4 to 1, and bring the sword round until its point
is over the right shoulder, and its ea^e well to the right.
2li
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
Cut 5. — ^At the word Five, make a horizontal cut from 5 to 6, and
sweep the sword round until it rests on the left shoulder, with its
edge to the left, and its point well over the shoulder.
Cat 6. — Cut horizontally through the target, from 6 to 5, and bring
the sword over the head, with its edge upwards, and its point hanging
over the back. From this position, —
Czit 7. — Make a downward stroke until the sword reaches the
centre of the target. Arrest it there, and remain with the arm
extended, waitiug for the word
POINTS.
First Point. — ^Draw back the sword, until the right wrist is against
the right temple, the edge of the sword being upwards. Make a
slight pause, and then thrust smartly forward towards the centre of
the target, raising the right wrist as high as No. 1, and pressing the
left shoulder well back.
FIRST lOINT.
SECOND POINT.
Seco)id Point. — Tui'n the wrist round to the left, so that the edge
comes upwards, draw the hand back until it rests on the breast, and
give the point forwards, to the centre of the target, raising the hand
as before.
Third Point. — Give the handle of the sword a slight twist in the
hand to the right, so that the edge again comes uppermost, and the
guard rests against the back of the hand. Draw back the hand
until it rests against the right hip, and deliver it forwards towards
the spot at the bottom of the target, raising the wrist as high as the
spot m the centre. The object in raising the wrist is to deceive the
eye of the opponent, who wiU be more likely to notice the position of
your wrist than of your point. In all the thrusts, the left shoulder
BliOAl>SWORD. 215
THIRD POIKT.
slioiild be rather brought forward before the poiiit is given, and
pressed well back while it is being deKvered.
GUAUDS.
Wait after the third point has been delivered for the word
Defend. — At this word draw up the hand smartly, and form the
first guard. Make the other guards in succession as they are named,
while the instructor proves their accuracy by giving the correspond-
ing cuts. The guards must be learned from the target, by placiQg the
sword in exactly the same position as those delineated. The guards
are these : —
A First guard. E Fifth.
B Second. F Sixth.
C Third. G Seventh.
D Fourth.
The two spots h and i mark the places towards which the points
are made, H for the first and second point, i for the third.
PAHET.
The parry or parade of a thrust is executed with the back of the
sword. The firmest way of parrying is to hold the sword perpen-
dicular, with its edge to the right and its hilt about the height of and
close to the right shoulder; then, by sweeping the sword round
from left to right, any thrust within its sweep is throvm wide of the
bcdv.
The parry is executed with the wrist and not with the arm, which
must not move.
216 EVERY BOY'S BOOK.
HAIIGING GTJAHD.
When the pupil is acquainted with both cuts and guards, he should
leam the hanging guard, a most useful position, as it keeps the body
well hidden under the sword, and at the same time leaves the sword
in a ^ood position to strike or thrust.
It IS accomplished in the following way. Step out to the second
position, as in Figure 2, raise the arm until the hand is just over the
right foot, and as high as the head. The edge of the sword is up-
wards, and the point is directed downwards and towards the left.
The left shoulder is pressed rather forward, and the neck and chest
drawn inward.
In this position, the swordsman is in a position to receive or make
an attack as he may think fit. It is rather fatiguing at first, owing to
the unaccustomed position of the arm and head, but the fatigue is
soon overcome, and then it will be found that there is no attitude
which gives equal advantages.
HANGING GUARD.
There are two other modes of standiag on guard, each possessing
their^ peculiar advantages. These are, the inside and outside gaaiK.
The inside guard is made as foUows : —
INSIDE GUABD.
stand in the second position, having the wrist of the right hand
nearly as low as the waist, the hand being exactly over the right foot.
The point of the sword is raised as high as the eyes, and the edge is
turned inwards, as will be seen from the accompanying engraving.
BllOADSWOi.D.
217
INSIDE GUARD.
OUTSIDE GUABJ).
The outside ^uard is formed in the same manner as the inside, -with
tho exception tnat the edge of the sword is turned well outwards.
OUTSIDE GUARD.
To get to the hanging ffuard, the words are given as follows ; —
inside guard — outside guard — guard.
A.TTACK AND DEFENCE.
The swordsman having learned thus far, is taught to combine the
218
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
three movements of striking, thrusting, and guarding, by the follow-
ing exercise : —
1. Inside Guard.
2. Outside Guard.
3. Guard.
4. Cut One.
5. First Guard.
6. Cut Two.
7. Second Guard.
8. Cut Three.
9. Third Guard.
10. Cut Four.
11. Fourth Guard.
12. Cut Five.
13. Fifth Guard.
14. Cut Six.
15. Sixth Guard.
16. Cut Seven.
17. Seventh Guard.
18. First Point. [Prepare
for the point in First Posi-
tion . ] T wo [Thr u St in Third
Position.]
19. Second Point. [Pre-
pare for it in First Position.]
Two. [Thrust in Third Posi-
tion.]
20. Third Point. [Pre-
pare.] Two. [Thrust.]
21. Parry. [Prepare to parry
in First Position.] Two.
[Parry.]
22. Guard.
Tlie young swordsman must remember that in this, as in all the
exercises, the cuts and points must be given in the third position, as
in the accompanying illustration, which shows the swordsman just as
he has delivered the seventh cut, and is waiting for the next word
before he resumes the first position.
"'^^==^m
SEVENTH CUT.
The guards, on the contrary, are given in the first position, as is
len in the figure on p. 605, which illustrates the seventh guard.
These exercises are always learned with the single-stick, or basket-
hilted cudgel, in order to avoid the dangers which would be inevitable
if the sword were used. But as the single-stick is only an imitation
of the sword, I will ^ve the method of getting the sword out of the
sheath into any position required.
DRAW SWORDS.
The first word of command is dra?/^ swords. At the word drato^
seize the sheath just below the hilt, with the left hand, and raise the
hilt as high as the hip, at the same time grasping the hilt with the
right hand, turning the edge of the sword to the rear, and drawing it
partially from the sheath, to ensure its easy removal.
BROADSWORD.
219
SETENTH GUARD.
At the word swoids, draw the blade smartly out of the scabbard,
throwing the pomt upwards, at the full extent of the arm, the edgt
being stiJl to the rear.
RECOVER SWORDS.
" The wrist is now smartly lowered until it is
level with the chin, the blade upright, and the
edge to the left. This is the position of recover
swords. The elbow must be kept close to the
body, as in the cut.
CAURT SWORDS.
The wrist is now sharply lowered until the
arm hangs at its full length, the wrist being in
the line with the hip, the edge of the sword to
the front, and its back resting in the hollow of
the shoulder, the fingers lightfy holding the hilt.
The left hand hangs at the side until the word
inside guards when it is placed on the left hip.
SLOPE SWORDS. i
At the word swords, raise the right hand ^
smartly, until it forms a right angle at the ^
elbow.
RETURN SWORDS.
KECOVER BWOKDS.
At the word, raise the blade until it is perpendicular, move the hilt
to the hollow of the left shoulder, drop the pomt of the sword into the
scabbard, (which has been grasped by the left hand and slightly raased,)
220
EVERT BOY S BOOK.
at the same time turning the edge to the rear. Pause an instant, and
send the sword smartly into the sheath, removing both hands as the
hilt strikes against the mouth of the scabbard : drop them to the side,
with the palms outwards, and stand in the first position.
PEACTICES.
There are many exercises with the broadsword, called Practices.
I have ^ven one of them, which is to be practised alone ; but when
the pupil has attained some confidence in the use of his weapon, he
must be placed opposite another pupil, and they must go through
them, each taking the attack and defence in turn.
The young swordsman must be provided with a very stout wire
mask, which defends the face and part of the neck, and which should
be worked in a kind of helmet above, to guard against the disastrous
consequences of receiving the seventh guard. No practices, loose or
otherwise, should be permitted without the masks, as neither party
would be able to cut or thrust with proper confidence.
SECOND PRACTICE.
This is very useful in teaching the point and parry, as well as giving
steadiness on the feet. Two boys are placed opposite each other, at
just such a distance, that when perfectly erect the^ can touch the
nilt of their adversary's sword with the point of their own.
The one who gives the first point is called Front Rank, (there may
be a dozen in each rank, each having tried the distance to his right
by extending his sword,) and the one who gives first parry is called
Rear Rank.
WORD OF COMMAND.
Guard.
Third Poiut.
Point. I
FBONT RAKK.
REAR RANK.
Hanging Guard. Hanging Guard.
Prepare to give Third Point. Prepare to Parry.
Give Third Point, and when^
parried spring back to First I Parry Third Point, and pre-
position, and prepare to | pare to give Third Point.
V parry. )
p . . (Parry Third Point, and pre-\ Give Third Point, and pre-
I pare for Third Point. j pare to Parry.
Point, &c. &c.
This should be continued until both are weary. Both swordsmen
should learn to do it more rapidly every time they practise. Next
time of going through it, front rank and rear rank change places, as
they must do in all the practices.
THIRD PRACTICE.
WORD OP COMMAND.
FRONT RANK.
REAR RANK.
Guard.
Hanging Guard.
Hanging Guard.
Leg.
Cut Four.
Cut Seven.
Inside Guard.
Inside Guard.
Inside Guard.
Leg.
Cut Six [at Leg].
Cut Six [at Neck].
Outside Guard.
Outside Guard.
Outside Guard.
Leg.
Cut Five [at Leg].
Cut Five [at Neck].
Guard.
Hanging Guard.
Hanging Guard.
Slope Swords.
SJope Swords.
Slope Swords.
In this and the other practices, the cuts must be delivered in the
/ERSITY )
Of ^ /
BROADSWORD.
221
third position, and the guards in the first. In the third and fourth
practices, the cuts must be given lightly, as many of them are not
mtended to be guarded, but merely to show the powers of the sword
in various positions.
FOUUTn PRACTICE.
■WORD OF COMMAND. FRONT RANK. REAR RANK.
Guard. Hanging Guard. Hanging Guard.
Head. Seventh Cut. Seventh Guard.
Head. Seventh Guard. Cut Seven.
Leg. Fourth Cut. Seventh Guard.
Leg. Seventh Guard. Fourth Cut.
Head. Seventh Cut. Seventh Guard.
Head. Seventh Guard. Seventh Cut.
Guard. Hanging Guard. Hanging Guard.
Slope Swords. Slope Swords. Slope Swords.
In this and the preceding exercise, the power of shifting the leg is
shown. If two swordsmen attack each other, and No. 1 strikes at
the leg of No. 2, it will be better for No. 2 not to oppose the cut by
the third or fourth guard, but to draw back the leg smartly, and cut
six or seven at the adversary's head or neck.
In loose play, as it is called, i.e. when two parties engage with
swords without following any word of command, but strike and guard
as they can, both players stand in the second position, because they
can either advance or retreat as they choose, and can longe out to the
third position for a thrust or a cut, or spring up to the first position
for a guard with equal ease.
It is often a kina of trap, to put the right leg more forward than
usual, in order to induce the adversary to make a cut at it. When he
does so, the leg is drawn back, the stroke passes harmless, and the de-
ceived striker gets the stick of his opponent on his head or shoulders.
We now come to a very complicated exercise, called the
FIFTH PRACTICE.
FRONT RANK.
Draw Swords.
Inside Guard.
Outside Guard.
Hanging Guard.
Seventh Cut.
Seventh Guard.
Second Cut [at Arm].
Seventh Guard.
Seventh Cut.
Second Guard.
Seventh Cut.
Seventh Guard.
Sixth Cut.
Seventh Guard.
Seventh Cut
Sixth Guard.
Hanging Guard.
This practice is capital exercise, and looks very imposing. All
these practices ought to be so familiar, that the words of command
are not needed, the only word required being First, Second, or Third
Practices, as the case may be.
WORD OF COMMAND.
Draw Swords.
Inside Guard.
Outside Guard.
Guard.
Head. ;
Head.
Arm.
Head.
Head.
Arm.
Head.-
Head.
Right Side.
Head.
Head.
Right Side.
Guard.
REAR RANK.
Draw Swords.
Inside Guard.
Outside Guard.
Hanging Guard.
Seventh Guard,
Seventh Cut.
Second Guard.
Seventh Cut.
Seventh Guard.
Second Cut [at Arm].
Seventh Guard.
Seventh Cut.
Sixth Guard.
Seventh Cut.
Seventh Guard.
Sixth Cut.
Hanging Guard.
222 EVERY boy's book.
I remember once, that two of my pupils had attained such a mastery
of their weapons, that we used often to go through the practices with
real swords. On one occasion, we were acting a charade, and my
eldest pupil and myself were enacting the part of two distinguished
foreigners (country unknown) who were to get up a fight. So we
began by a little quarrel, and finally drew our swords and set hard to
work at the fifth practice, which we could do with extreme rapidity,
and without the use of words of command. The spectators were
horrified, and the ladies greatly alarmed; for there seems to be no
particular order in that practice, and an inexperienced eye would
certainly fancy that the combatants were in earnest.
rORT AND TEEBLE.
The half of the sword blade next the hilt is called the "fort,"
because it is the strongest place on which the cut of an adversary can
be received. Always parry and guard with the fort of your sword, as,
if you try to guard a cut with the " feeble," which is the remaining
haft of the blade, your guard will be forced, and the cut take effect.
DBAWTNG CUT.
The drawing cut'^is made best with a curved sword, and is_ exe-
cuted by placing the edge of the sword on the object, and drawing it
over it until it is severed. A good large mangel worzel is capital
practice- Place the root loose on a table, stand at arm's length from it,
lay the edge of the sword lightly on it, and slice the root by repeatedly
drawing the sword over it. This is very difficult, although it looks
easy enough, and is sure to jar the arm from the wrist to the shoulder
the first time or two, while the sword glides off as if the root were cased
in polished steel. However, a little practice will soon overcome the
difQculty. This cut is much in use among the Sikhs.
GENERAL ADVICE.
Never look at your own sword, but watch the eye and sword wrist
of your opponent.
Remember that the great point in this exercise, as in fencing, is to
gain time. Endeavour, therefore, to advance your point nearer your
adversary than his is to you.
Begin the assault out of distance, so that neither party can com-
plain of being taken by surprise.
If the two parties exchange a cut or a thrust at the same moment,
the one who gave his cut or thrust in the third position is victorious.
When a cut or thrust is made, the one who receives it passes his
sword, i.e. stick, into his left hand, and his opponent comes to inside
guard. ^
Always spring back to the second position after delivering a cut
or thrust.
Keep the line of direction carefully, or you will leave an open space
for the adversary to get his sword into.
Last and most important, Don't lose your temper.
Tr-T
FIVES.
It is impossible to play at this excellent game unless there be a high
wall, free from abutments, and a smooth, dry, paved ground before
it. When this can be procured, a liae is drawn on the wall, about
38 inches from the ground ; another Ime is drawn on the ground,
about 10 feet from the wall, a ; and two others are drawn on each
side as boundaries, b c. The instruments used in the play are a ball
of tightly-sewn leather and a fives-bat. It has a long handle, and
an oval bowl of wood. The ball is hard, rebounding, small, and
white. The game may be played by two or four people ; in the last
case, two on each side. The method of play is as follows : — The
game may be played either single-handed or with partners. When
it is played with partners, the players toss up for innings. The first
player takes the ball, and strikes it against the wall with his bat
above the line on the wall, and so that it may fall without the line on
the ground. The other then strikes it, and the players continue to
hit it against the wall, either before it comes to the ground or at the
first bounce, until one of them missing it, or driving it out of bounds,
or beneath the wall-line, loses or goes out. Of course the ball may
fall anywhere within the side boundaries, after being once struck up
by the player who is in. The game is usually fifteen, but is some-
times extended to twenty-five. The game above described is that
known as bat-fives, and difi'ers little from the game of rackets, except
that it may be played in any open court, and that a differently-shaped
bat and a larger ball are employed. Eives was originally played with
the hand, instead of a racket, and in the fourteenth century was
called Hand Tennis in England, and in Erance, Palm Play. It is
said to have obtained the name of Pives, from ten of the Earl of
Hertford's servants having played before Queen Elizabeth, five of a
224 EVERY boy's. BOOK.
side ; but more probably on account of the five fingers of the hand.
This game of " hand-fives " is the one ordinarily played by boys, and
known technically as *' fives." The ball is hit against the wall
entirely by the hand, and no bat of any description is used. The
fame may be played by two or more people, and is usually fifteen,
layers with tender hands usually play with an ordinary kid or padded
glove, either of which is quite admissible. There are variations of
the game at different schools, owing to peculiarities in the shape of
the courts. At Eton, for instance, a buttress of the chapel abuts
into the court, and the Eton courts at Oxford are made on a similar
plan. But the game as ordinarily played is that as described above.
rOOT-BALL.
Uncertain as to the date of its origin, there is no English game
which is at once so popular and about which so much difi'erence of
opinion exists. All agree as to its manly character, its capabiHties
for endurance, activity, hardihood, and strategical skill, but there
are very few who agree entirely as to the rules by which the game
should be played.
In ancient records there is no mention of the game before the
reign of Edward III. ; and at that period it seems to have been so
popular that by royal edict it was put down, as being antagonistic
to the royal amusement of archery. But that it flourished, and
flourished considerably, beyond that date, there is no doubt. In
many market-towns of England and Scotland, and notably in that of
Kingston-on-Thames, all business is suspended on Shrove Tuesday,
and a great game of foot-ball is played in the market-place. All is
oflaciaUy conducted, and the mayor is honoured with the privilege of
"kick-off."
It would seem a pity at first sight that there is no authority like
that of the Marylebone Club to revise the laws of foot-baJl and
insist upon their being observed in all places where the game is
played. Eoot-ball as now constituted is not, and cannot be, a national
game. There are hardly two schools in England that a^ee in its
first principles, and that are not continually wrangling and disputing
as to how the game should be played. To touch the ball with the
hands is in some eyes a heresy, and in others an uncommon virtue.
Some schools advocate running with the ball, while others consider
such licence as antagonistic to the proper principles and well-being
of the game. And, indeed, looking round at the various head-
quarters of foot-ball in England, it reaUy does seem a difficult matter
to reconcile the games as now played so as to suit all tastes. Rugby
and Eton foot-b^ can hardly be looked upon as the same game.
FOOT-BALL. 225
We have one set of people advocating the employment of only
eleven^ or at most twenty, players on a side, and another maintaining
that a hundred or so on a side matters Httle. We have one school
playing the game against a brick wall, another nsiDg boundaries of
canvas, another dashing the ball about in narrow cloisters, and
another marshalling a little army of players, with regularly organized
back and forward players, reserve forces, vanguard, scouts, runners,
all of whom have their direct influence on the fate and fortunes of
the game.
The great essentials for foot-ball are pluck, endurance, and good
temper. Half the disputes at foot-ball which are ascribed to " hack-
ing" and "shimiing" would not have occurred had good temper
been observed. No one "hacks" or "shias" wilfully, except he
loses his temper ; and a player in foot-ball, as in other games, who
cannot keep his temper is unfit in every way to enjoy the game. As
a match at foot-ball is now made, two parties, containing any number
of competitors, take the field, and, having tossed up for sides, stand
between two goals, placed at a distance of some eightj yards apart.
The party that loses the toss has the privilege of " kick-off." The
goal is marked by two upright poles, driven into the ground about
ten yards apart. The ball, which used formerly to be made of a
blown bladder, is now made of an inflated vulcanized india-rubber
case, inclosed again in a case of laced and well-sewn leather. The
object of each party is to drive the ball through the goal of their
antagonists. The skill of the players is best employed in attacking
and defending the goals.
In the game of football the fewer the rules, and the simpler those
rules are, the better. The great " bone of contention " with lovers
of the game is, as to whether players should be allowed to touch tlie
ball with their hands or not. Eton and Westminster players will be
arguing for ever that the game is foot-ball, and not hand-hail; while
Rugbseans, on the other hand, will contend that without the use of
the hands as well as the feet the game is robbed of one of its prin-
cipal charms. _ In the following rules a medium course is advocated,
as, while nothing looks so bad as to see a lazy or inactive player, who
does not care to follow the ball, playing fives with it whenever it
comes within his reach, it would be equally absurd to stop a player
who catches the ball fairly either on the full or first bound from
running a yard or sowith it in his hands, in order to allow him to
get up the necessary impetus for a strong drop-kick. With regard
also to " off-side," [at is essentially necessary that some clear and
definite rules should be laid down. What can possibly look worse
than to see a player, again one of those who are too iadolent to
" follow ui) " the ball, coolly stand in the middle of the course, or,
worse still, at the very door of his neighbour's goal, waiting until
the ball is kicked up to him, in order that he, fresh and full of
wmd as he is, may follow it in to the goal ? It is hoped that the
Q
226 EVERT boy's book.
following rules may give general satisfaction, and prevent disputes
and obstacles : —
1. A goal may be obtained by a fair fuU kick or drop-kick off tbe
hand, provided the ball goes over the bar which runs between the
goal-posts ; or a goal may be obtained by a fair foot-ball " bulley,"
which sends the ball through aU obstacles anywhere between the posts.
2. The foot-baU course must be marked by side boundaries. When
the ball is kicked outside these boundaries, a player of either side
may kick it into the course again in a straight line from where it
went out.
3. A player who shall not have been behind the last player on his
own side who kicked the ball shall be considered " off his side."
4. No player who shall be " off his side " shall be allowed to kick
the baU until it shall have touched one of the opposite side, when
he becomes on his side again, and may join in the game.
5. A player who obtains a fair catch of the ball, either fuU or on
the first bound, may take a short run, in order to obtain a " drop-
kick," or may kick it at once full off his hands.
6. Any player of the opposite side may use his best endeavours
to prevent a drop or full kick after a fair catch.
7. No " holding " must be allowed at any period of the game.
8. No "shinning" or "hacking" is to be allowed.
9. At the commencement of the game the captains of each side
shall determine mutually how long the game is to last.
10. At the end of the time, no matter in what position the game
is, one of the captains shall cry "no game," and the game shall
immediately cease.
GOLFING.
Golfing is played with a club and ball. The club is from three tc
four feet long, according to the height and length of arm of the
player. It is curved and massive towards the end, to give strength
and weight. This knob is formed for strength from some very tough
wood, as beech, and as it curves and proceeds upwards is planed off,
so as to adapt itself to the handle, to which it is partly glued and
tightly corded dovm. A want of due attention to these particulars
in the making of it will render the head Hable to spht and fly off by
either a very hard or indirect stroke. The face of the club is further
secured by a piece of hard bone, and occasionally of ivory, at least
haK an inch thick. It is also loaded with from four to six ounces of
lead, according to the wiU of the player. The handle is usually
bound with cord, Hst, or velvet, at the pleasure of the owner. It is,
however, to be remembered, that the form of the club, the material?
of which it is made, and the numbers taken to the golfing ground,
vary considerably, according to the circumstances and habits of the
GOLFING. 227
players, the attendant cad or caddie having usually many varieties,
to suit every peculiarity under which the ball may
be placed ; for in many clubs it can never be I
touched by the hand until holed. 1
The golf ball is about the size of an egg, and is I
made very hard. It is composed of stout leather, ||
which, having been previously soaked in boiling
water, allows of its being first very firmly sewed,
and then turned inside out, leaving a small opening
only, by which it is very forcibly stuff'ed with feathers.
The leather being yet wet, it contracts into a ball of
the dimensions stated, but never gets circular, as that
used in the game of cricket. It is afterwards painted
over with several coats of white paint; in doing
which it is requisite that the lead used should be
very pure and exceedingly well ground down, as
well as that each coat laid on should be perfectly
dry and hard before another is apphed.
The game is played by two or more persons,
so that there be an equal number on each side ;
but only two balls are used, one belonging to each
party, each party also striking in turn : but if the last striker does
not drive his ball as far as that of his opponent, one of his party
must then strike one, or perhaps two more, and the game is thus
marked by calling out one, two, or three more, as the case may be.
If more than two are playing, the same person does not strike twice
in succession : a miss is considered one. The party who puts the
ball into the hole in the fewest strokes wins the game.
The grounds used for this sport vary in different parts of Scotland.
Some are nearly square, in which case a hole is made in eacTi corner;
but if it be irregidar in figure, it is not uncommon to place one at
each angle, so that the party shall traverse the whole surface, and
finish at the spot from whence he started ; a quarter of a mile being
usually allowed between each hole. Besides the stick, or club,
already described,, there are others, usually carried by an attendant
for each party. These are called, by way of distinction, putters — of
which, however, there are several sorts, one being short, stiff, and
heavy, similar in figure, but longer on the head, for making a steady
and direct stroke when near the hole. Another, formed of iron,
instead of wood, is used for making a hit at a ball when very
unfavourably placed, as in a rut, where the common club would be in
danger of breaking. When a ball falls into a hole or rut, from which
it is impossible to strike it out, the party is allowed, by a special
agreement, in some clubs, to take it out with his hand, and throw it
up in a line with the spot, which is accounted as one, and he then
strikes from where it chgaices to rest; but, as already observed, this
indulgence does not extend to every Golfing Society.
0.2
GYMNASTICS.
INTRODUCTION.
The study of Gymnastics is of the utmost impoi-tance to young
persons, as its object is to call into exercise, and to train to perfec-
tion, all the corporeal or bodily powers. It is the education of the
limbs, joints, and muscles ; and includes not only the systematic
training of these, but also assists the sciences of riding, driving,
wrestling, rowing, sailing, skating, swimming, &c.
In the following gymnastic exercises we have determined to intro-
duce only those more simple and useful feats which may be said to
make up the " Alphabet of the Science," and aU the individual and
progressive exercises are susceptible of being everywhere introduced.
They may be j)erformed in very small spaces, and require no par-
ticular preparation, expense, or place. By attention to the directions
any pupil between the ages of twelve and sixteen may train and exer-
cise himself, and a number of other children younger than liimself ;
and this excellent study may thus become, a source of amusement
and delight.
GYMNASTICS.
HISTORICAL MEMORANDA.
The first gymnasium is said to have been estabKslied at Sparta,
and some years afterwards at Athens. In the former city the exer-
cises partook of a rude military character; but among the Athenians,
who were always disposed to mingle the elements of the beautiful in
whatever they undertook, gymnastics were refined, and the Gymnasia
became temples of the Graces. In each there was a place called
Palaestra, in which wrestling, boxing, running, leaping, throwing the
discus, and other exercises of the kind were taught. Gymnastics
were afterwards divided into two principal branches — the Falastra.y
taking its name from the PaJsestra, and the Orchestra. The former
embraced the whole class of athletic exercises; the latter dancing,
and the art of gesticulation and declamation.
The Gymnasia were spacious edifices, surrounded by gardens and
a sacred grove. Their principal parts were : 1. The Portices, fur-
nished with seats and side buildings, where the youths met to con-
verse. 2. The Ephebeion, that part of the edifice where the youth
alone exercised. 3. The Apodyterion, or undressing room to the
Conisterium, or small court in which was kept the yellow kind
of sand sprinkled by the wrestlers over their bodies after being
anointed with the aroma, or oil tempered with wax. 5. The Palaes-
tra properly was the place for wrestling. 6. Tho Sphaeristerium,
where the game of ball was played. 7. Aliterium, where the
wrestlers anointed themselves with oil. 8. The Area or great court,
where running, leaping, and pitching the quoit were performed.
9. The Xysta, open walks in which the youths exercised themselves
in running. 10. The Balanea, or baths. Behind the Xysta lay
the Stadium, which, as its name imports, was the eighth of a mile in
length; and in this were performed all sorts of exercises, in the
presence of large numbers of persons and the chiefs of the state.
To all these branches of gymnastics the Grecian youth applied
themselves with peculiar eagerness, and on quitting the schools
devoted to them a particular portion of their time, since they regarded
them as a preparation for victory in the Olympic and other games,
and as the best possible means for promoting health and ripening the
physical powers ; nor could anything be better adapted for those
wliose heroism was liberty, and whose first great aims were to be
good citizens and the defenders of their country.
The Romans never made gymnastics a national matter, but con-
sidered them merely as preparatory to the mihtary service; and, though
forming a part of the exhibitions at festivals, th^y were practised
only by a particular class trained for brutal entertainments, at which
large bets were laid by the spectators, as is still the custom on our
own racecourse : but when all the acquisitions of the human intellect
were lost in the utter corruption of the Roman empire and the
irruptions of wandering nations, the gymnastic art perished.
230 EVERY boy's book.
MODERN GYMNASTICS.
The commencement of tournaments during the Dark Ages in some
degree revived athletic exercises ; but the invention of gunpowder,
the use of the small sword, the rifle, and scientific tactics, by which
battles were gained more by skill than force, kept down the training
of the body for athletic feats. But in the last century, when men
broke loose from the yoke of authority, and education began to be
studied, it was found that physical education had been forgotten.
Salzmann, a German clergyman, invented a system of physical exer-
cises, principally confined to running, leaping, swimming, climbing,
and balancing ; and at the commencement of the present century a
German of the name of Volker estabHshed the first gymnasium in
London, while Captain Clias, a Swiss, estabhshed one in the Royal
MiKtary Asylum; and since then many of the best schools and
colleges have a gymnasium attached to their estabHshments.
It generally happens that the pupils of a gymnasium, after a time,
lose their interest in the exercises. The reason of this appears to be
that little or no difierence is made in the exercises of different ages,
and it is natural that an exercise repeated for years should become
wearisome. Gymnastics, therefore, when they are taught, should be
divided into two courses. In the fii'st course we would include
walking and pedestrian excursions, elementary exercises of various
tests, running, leaping in height, in length, in depth, leaping with a
pole (in length and height), vaulting, balancing, exercises on the
single and parallel bars, climbing, throwing, dragging, pushing, lift-
ing, carrying, wrestUng, jumping (1. with the hoop; 2. with the
rope), exercises with the dumb bells, various gymnastic feats or
games ; and, lastly, swimming, skating, fencing, riding on horseback,
rowing, &c.
Gymnastic exercises may be begun by a boy of about eight years
of age, or may be commenced at any age ; but in all cases he should
begin gently, and proceed gradually, without any abnipt transitions.
They should be commenced before breakfast in the morning, or
before dinner or supper ; but never immediately after meals : and
the pupil should be very careful, after becoming heated by exercises,
of draughts or cold, and especially refrain from lying on the damp
ground, or from standing without his coat or other garments ; and
rigidly guard against the dangerous practice of drinking cold water,
which, in many instances, has been known to produce immediate
death.
WALKING.
In all gymnastic exercises walking, running, and jumping deserve
the preference, because they are the most natural movements of man,
and those which he has most frequent occasion to use. This exercise,
within the reach of everybody, ought to be placed among the number
GYMNASTICS. 231
of tliose which are direct conservators of health, and which have the
most important beneficial effects upon our mental and moral economy.
Walking provokes appetite, assists digestion, accelerates the circula-
tion, brings the fluids to the skin, strengthens the memory, and gives
cheerfulness to the mind, and in fatiguing the limbs gives repose to
the senses and the brain.
It might be supposed that every one knows how to walk : not so,
however : some persons crawl, some hobble, some shuffle along. Pew
have the graceful noble movement that ought to belong to progression,
or, however well formed, preserve a really erect position and an air
of becoming confidence and dignity. To teach walking — that is to
say, to teach young persons to walk properly — we should advise
a class of them to unite, that they may be able to teach them-
selves, which they may readily do if they follow the instructions
given below.
A company of boys being formed, the eldest, or the one best adapted
to the task, should act as captain, and at the word of command,
" Fall in," all the boys are to advance on the same line, preserving
between each the distance of about an arm's length. At the word
" Dress " each boy places his right hand on the left shoulder of the
next, extending his arm at full length, and turning his head to the
right. At the word " Attention " the arms fall down by the side,
and the head returns to the first position. The captain should now
place his little regiment in the following manner : — 1. The head up.
2. The shoulders back. 3. The body erect. 4. The stomach in.
5. The knees straight, the heels on the same line. 6. The toes
turned very slightly outwards. The captain now stands before his
men, and advancing his left foot, his knee straight, and his toe
inclined towards the ground, he counts one, two, placing his boot on
the ground, the toe before the heel ; he then directs his pupils to
obey him, and to follow his motions, and says, " March," when each
foot is advanced simultaneously, till he gives the word " Halt." He
then makes them advance, wheel to the right and left, in slow time,
quick time, always observing the position of the body, and requiring
that they move all together.
THE TIP-TOE MARCH.
This movement is preparatory to ruiming and jumping. The
boys being in line, the word " On tip-toes " is given : each boy
places his hands on his sides, and waits for the word, " Rise ; "
when they all gently raise themselves on their toes, joining their
heels together, and keeping the knees straight, remain in this position
till the word " Rest " is given, when they fall back slightly on their
heels, their hands at the same time falling down by their sides. Pro-
ceeding in this manner through a few courses, with such changes as
may present themselves, the pupils will soon acquire a habit of
232 EVERY boy's book.
graceful walking, of the highest importance to every one who studies
a gentlemanly bearing.
EUNNING.
Running is both useful and natural ; it favours the development of
the chest, dilates the lungs, and, when moderate, is a highly salutary
exercise. To run fast and gracefully one should as it were graze
the ground with the feet, by keeping the legs as straight as possible
whilst moving them forwara. During the course the upper part of
the body is inclined a little forward, the arms are as it were glued
to the sides, and turned in at the point of the hips, the hands shut,
and the nails turned inwards. The faults in running are swinging
the arms, raising the legs too high behind, taking too large strides,
bending the knees too much, and in not properly managing their
wind. In all running exercises the young should begin gradually,
and never run themselves out of breath at any time. Bv careful
practice a boy may soon acquire the power of running a mile in ten
minutes ; this is called moderate running : in what is called prompt
running a thousand yards in two minutes is thought very good work,
and in quick running 600 yards in a minute is considered good. The
first distance that children, from eight to ten years of age, may be
made to run is about 200 yards ; the second, for those more advanced,
300 yards ; and the third, for adults, 400 yards. It is however most
essential, that in running boys should not over-tax their strength or
<' wind." We are not all constituted alike, and a boy who could last
for 200 yards or so might injure himself considerably by racing for
a mile.
JUMPING.
Of all the corporeal exercises jumping is one of the most useful ;
and during our lives very many instances occur of a good jump having
done us essential service. To jump with grace and assurance one
should always fall on the toes, takmg care especially to bend the
knees on the hips : the upper part of the body should be inclined
forwards, and the arms extended towards the ground. The hands
should serve to break the fall when jumping from a great height.
In jumping we should hold the breath and never alight on the heels.
Boys should exercise themselves in jumping, by jumping in length,
and jumping from a height, with attention to the above cautions.
They may make progressive exercises in lenath by varying the
distance from time to time, and in height by jumping from a
flight of stairs or steps, increasing a step at a time: they will
soon be able to jump in length three yards, and from a height
six feet, without injury.
GYMNASTICS. 233
Leaping is somewhat different to what is called jumping, as the
object is to pass over an obstacle ; and, as in jumping, it is of great
importance to draw in the breath, while the hands should be shut,
the arms pendent, to operate after the manner of a fly-wheel or pen-
dulum. It may be practised by a leaping stand, which can be easily
made of two sticks or stakes sunk in the ground, in which little
catches are made at various distances, on which an even piece may
be laid, that may readily be knocked over, so as to offer no resistance
to the jumper, and injure him by an ugly fall.
The principal exercises in leaping are: — 1. The high leap without a
run. 2. The high leap with a run. 3. The long leap without a run.
4. And the long leap with a run. In the first of these the legs and
feet are closed, the knees are bent tiU the calves nearly touch the
thighs, and the arms are thrown in the direction of the leap, which
increases the impulse. This leap may be practised at the following
progressive heights, — eighteen inches, twenty-four inches, thirty-two
inches, forty-eight inches, which last is perhaps what few lads would
attain.
The high leap with a run. — The run should never exceed twelve
paces, the distance between the point of springing and the obstacle
to leap over to be about three-fifths the height of the obstacle from
the ground; and in making it the leaner should go fairly and straightly
over without veering to the side, and descend on the ball of the foot
just beyond the toes. The heights that may be cleared by the run-
ning leap vary from three to six feet. A good leaper of sixteen years
old ought to leap four feet six inches, and an extraordinarily good
leaper five feet. Adults well trained will leap six, and some have
been known to leap seven feet.
The long leap without a run. — The long leap may be marked out
from four to eight feet, according to the agilitv and strength of the
leaper ; and the object to be cleared, a small block of wood, which
should in this kind of leap be never more than six inches high, placed
midway. In leaping the body is bent forward, the feet are closed,
the arms first sway forwards, then backwards, and then forwards at
the moment of taking the leap. In this kind of leap ten or twelve
feet is considered good work.
The long leap with a run. — The run should be on firm level ground.
The body should be inclined forward, and the run consist of about
twelve paces, a small block of wood, as before, being placed mid dis-
tance in the leap. The spring should be principa.lly on the right foot,
and the arms should be thrown forwards at the time of the leap. In
descending, if the leap be a very long one, the leaper should descend
principally upon his toes ; if the leap be iiot very long, he may descend
on the balls of the toes. The leap is considered good if fifteen feet
be cleared, but twenty may be done by a good leaper, and one or two
individuals have fairly reached twenty-three feet.
234 EVEEY boy's book.
Vaulting. — Yaulting is performed by springing over some stationary
body, such as a gate or bar, by the aid of the hands, which bear upon
it. To perform it, the vaulter may approach the bar \^ith a sUght
run, and placing his hands upon it, heave himself up and throw his
legs obliquely over it. The legs should be kept close together : while
the body is in suspension over the bar, the right hand supports and
guides it, while the left is free. The vaulter may commence this
exercise with a bar or a stile three feet high, and extend it gradually
to six feet.
Leapmg with a Pole. — A great variety of leaps may be practised
with a pole, which should be of a sufficient length, and shod at one
end with iron, so as to take hold of the ground. The leaper should
grasp with his right hand that part of the pole a little below the
level of his head, and with his left that part of it just below the
level of his hips ; he should then make a slight run, and, placing the
pole on the ground, take a spring forward, and swing himself shghtly
round, so that when he alights the fall may be brought towards the
place from which he rose.
The pole is also employed in both long and deep leaps. In both
of these the mode of holding the pole is similar ; but in leaping from
a height the pole should be grasped at the level of the knee, and
then the leaper, with a shght circular swing, should descend on the
baJls of his toes.
TO CLIMB UP A BOAM).
This should be firmly fixed at an angle of thirty degrees. The
climber should seize both sides with Ids hands, and place his feet in
the middle on the soles. This ^ill teach him to hold firm by his
hands, and to cling with his feet. As the climber gets used to this
exercise, the angle of the board majjr be increased. The young
gymnast can ascend when the plank is perfectly perpendicular. A
pole may be mounted in the same manner.
CLIMBING THE POLE.
The pole should be about nine inches in diameter, and firmly fixed
in the ground in a perpendicular position. In mounting, the pole is
to be grasped firmly with both hands, the right above the left. The
legs are alternately to grasp the pole in the ascent by means of the
great toe, which is turned towards the pole. In descending, the
friction is to be thrown on the inner part of the thighs, and the hands
are left comparatively free.
Climbing the mast is shmlar to cHmbing the pole ; but in this
exercise the climber is unable to grasp it with his hands, but
holds it in his arms : the position of the legs is the same as for the
pole.
GYMNASTICS. 235
CLIMBING THE EOPE.
In climbing the rope, it is firmly grasped by the hands, which are
placed one above the other, and so moved alternately. The heels are
crossed over the rope, which is held fast by their pressure, the body
being supported principally by them. In the sailor's method the
rope passes from the hands round the inside of the thigh, under the
knee-joint, over the outside of the leg, and across the instep. But
the enterprising gymnast will not be satisfied until he can climb the
rope by his hands only, allowing the rest of his body to hang freely
suspended.
CLIMBING TREES.
In cUmbing trees the hands, and feet, and knees, are all to be
used ; but the climber should never forget that it is to the hands that
he has to trust. He should carefully look upwards and select the
branches for his hands, and the knobs and other excrescences of the
trees for his feet. He should also mark the best openings for the
advance of his body. He should also be particularly cautious in
laying hold of withered branches, or those that have suffered decay
at their junction with the body of the tree, in consequence of the
growth of moss, or through the effects of wet. In descending, he
should be more cautious than in ascending, and hold fast by his
hands. He should rarely slide down by a branch to the ground, as
distances are very ill-calculated from the branches of a tree.
THE GIANT STRIDE, OR FLYING STEPS, AND ITS CAPABILITIES.
The valuable and invigorating apparatus which is called the Giant
Stride in some places, and the Flying Steps in others, is to be found
in many schools where an inclosed open-air playground can be
secured. Excepting on a few occasions, or when the charm of
novelty induces the boys to exercise, it is seldom in much favour,
and is usually seen idle, with the ironwork rusting, the beam
rotting, and the ropes yielding to exposure.
In fact, it really seems as if the masters and teachers were doing
their best to weaken their apparatus, and to cause a severe accident
whenever it breaks down, as such is always the case, sooner or later.
The rusty iron gives way to a harder pull than usual, the ropes snap,
or the upright post breaks off level with the ground, and falls with
dreadful force. We knew of a boy being killed by such an accident,
and in consequence the parents of the other pupils laid the blame on
the Giant Stride itself, instead of on those who allowed it to get into
such a state of decay.
Boys, too, soon get tired of it ; they take hold of the ropes, run
round a few times, and then leave it, naturally, seeing no interest
in such a proceeding. But in reality the Giant Stride is a most
236 EVERY boy's book.
useful article in the muscular education, as it exercises at the same
time the arms and legs, is capital for the lungs, and strengthens
those invaluable muscles about the loins which we so sadly neglect,
and by reason of whose weakness many dangerous injuries occur to
young and old.
There is something most fascinating in the exercises that can be
achieved on this apparatus; the gymnast seems to be almost endowed
with wings, and in his aerial course hardly touches the ground with
his toes, flying, like feathered Mercury, through the air, and hterally
basking in the pure element. The common posture of holding the
bars close to the breast, and then running round the post, is radically
false, and deprives the Giant Stride of aU its use, and the greater
part of its pleasure. Being ourselves ardent advocates of this instru-
ment as affording an amount of healthy exercise not to be obtained
by any other means, we gladly take this opportunity of describing the
manufacture and capabilities of the Giant Stride.
Having fixed upon a suitable spot of level ground, well laid with
gravel, and carefully drained, dig a hole at least seven feet in depth,
and fill about eighteen inches with stones about the size of the
fist, or, to use a homely but expressive simile, as if a sack of
potatoes had been emptied into it. Pound and press the stones
well down, and then pour rough gravel upon them until you
have made the surface tolerably level. The object of these stones
is to prevent the water from accumdatmg round the post and
rotting it.
Now for the post. This should be at least twenty feet long, so as
to leave about fifteen feet projecting when set upright in the hole.
The butt should be left very large, as is done with ordinary wooden
gate-posts, and the whole affair ought to be made of thoroughly
seasoned wood. Unless this is the case, it is sure to rot, and then
down it comes some day, when least expected. Triangular steps
should be nailed upon opposite sides, like those on railway signal-
posts, as otherwise the daily task of removing and replacing the
ropes will be very irksome.
Get a blacksmith to make a stout iron pin, such as is shown at «,
„ ^ having a projecting shoulder,
to prevent it from entering too
far into the wood. He should
also make a strong iron collar
to put over the top of the pole,
as is seen at b, where the pin
is also shown fixed. The last
piece of blacksmith's work is
an iron disc, having a cap or
thimble in the middle, which
is intended to receive the iron
pin, aiid to enable the disc to spin round freely. Tour holes are
GYMNASTICS. 237
nored throngli the edge of the disc, as seen at c. Purchase four
iron S hooks, and the same number of swivels, and good store of
well-made half-inch rope, and the machine may then be set up.
rirst char carefully the whole of the butt that is to enter the
ground, and for about six inches above, in order to prevent the wood
from being injured by wet. Place it upright in the hole, testing it
by a plumb-hne tied to the top, and fill in the hole with earth, pound-
ing it down firmly with a heavy rammer. You cannot be too careful
about this process, and the apparatus should not be used until the
earth has had time to settle. While waiting for this operation, cut
the rope into appropriate lengths, and fasten one end of each rope
to a s^vivel, and the other to the centre of a stout baton of elm or
oak wood, about eighteen inches leng. Unless you are very sure of
your powers of sphcing ropes and making " eyes," let the ropemaker
do this for you, as it is a most important operation, and involves
the security of the gymnast in no shght degree. It is necessary
to have swivels, as the ropes would otherwise become so twisted
as to lose their freedom of play, or even to weaken their struc-
ture. These preparations being completed, mount the post by the
steps, taking the cap with you, gi'ease the pin well with an end of
tallow-candle, and slip the cap upon it, taking care to spin it well in
order to assure yourself that all is right. Hang the swivels to the
circular plate by means of the S hooks, one curve of which passes
through the hole in the plate, and the other through the loop in
the swivel.
The ropes should be just so long that when they hang loosely
along the pole the cross-bar should be two feet from the ground.
As, however, new ropes stretch in a wonderful manner, it is needful
to allow considerably for this property.
One tlwng more is needed, and then the whole apparatus will
be complete.
Measure the greatest distance which can be reached by the feet
of any one swinging round by the ropes, and about one yard
beyond that line erect a slender pole nearly as high as the central
post, having pegs driven at intervals of four inches. This is
mtended to aid the learner in leaping, and the mode by which this
object is accomplished is seen in fig. 1.
Having now everything ready, we first look to all the fastenings,
a precaution which must never be neglected ; see that the pin and
swivels are well greased, take the cross-bar of one rope in both
hands, and retire from the post as far as the outstretched arms will
permit. Of course, if there are four performers, each takes his stand
exactly opposite his neighbour. It is better not to exercise alone,
on account of the unequal strain on the post ; and it is evident tliat
the opposite players should be as nearly as possible of similar
weights, so as to balance each other in their course. It may easily
be imagined that the strain upon the base of the post is enormous,
238
EVERY boy's book.
there being a leverage of fifteen feet, and tliat some precautions are
necessary to prevent injury.
Keej)ing our right sides to the post, and the rope tightly stretched,
we begin to run, throwing as much weight as possible on the rope,
and as little as possible on the feet. As the pace increases, the feet
are taken off the ground, and touch it at longer intervals, until,
when at fuU speed, they only come to the ground occasionally, just
sufficient to maintain the impetus.
Having kept up this speed as long as is agreeable, we slacken the
pace gradually, and stop. Next time we take care to run the con-
trary way, keeping the left side towards the pole. This is done U-
Via. 1.
exercise equally the muscular system on both sides of the body;
and to save time and space, we wiU say, once for all, that when any
feat is described, it must be accomphshed in either direction with
equal ease.
We will now explain the method of leaping, one of the most exciting
of all these exercises.
Set the string to quite a low elevation, — say two feet from the
ground, — stand with your back to it, the cross-bar in your hands,
and run quickly round. When you come about one quarter of the
distance, try to fling yourself into the air, not by jumping with the
legs, but by letting the whole weight depend on the rope, so that
GYMNASTICS.
239
the centrifugal force takes you off your feet. As you touch
the ground, take about three long steps, and at the third step
hurl yourself again off the ground, with the body straight, ana
the feet extended well behind, and the impetus wiU carry you
over the string, and land you neatly on the other side. You
will soon learn to increase the height of the jump, untU you
can ^ass over the string at an elevation of ten feet with perfect
certainty.
Another very pretty, though not so dashing, a feat is to spin
round on your own axis as you run round the course. At first it is
needful to manage this cautiously, as a sUp of the foot is sure to
disturb your balance, and send you ignominiously scraping your way
over the gravel in a derogatory and rather painful position. When,
however, you have mastered this art, you can go round revolving
the whole time, keeping your legs straight, feet together, and toes
pointed.
There are many modifications of these exercises which I should
right weU like to describe ; but as our space is limited, we must
content ourselves with two more. At the same time I may say,
that if any of the readers of this
book succeed in achieving them,
they wiU bid fair to attain no
mean position in the gymnastic
art.
In the first of these exercises
the performer never moves hand
or foot, but holds himself straight,
stiff, and immovable as an Egyp-
tian statue, and in the course of
his progress round the central post
his feet describe a series of circles,
or rather spirals, while his hands
merely move in a circle, and serve
as the axis on which the body
revolves. This feat is not very
easily made intelligible, but with
the help of two diagrams we hope that our readers will comprehend
it. rig. 2 shows the method of commencing it. The performer grasps
the cross-bar in both hands at the full stretch of his arms, holds
himself quite straight and stiff, points his toes, and then falls for-
ward, as shown in the engraving. If he has the strength and nerve
to hold himself quite stiff, though his face comes rather near the
ground, the whole body swings off the ground, the hands being the
pivot, and the feet take the course denoted by the dotted line, the
hands retaining their position. It is possible, by dint of practice, to
manage so as to make the entire circuit of the pole in four such
revolutions, and the course of the performer is shown by the accr>m-
FiG. 2.
240
EVERT BOY S BOOK.
pauyiiig diagram (fig. 3), where tlie dark circle in the centre repre-
sents the pole, the dotted line is the course taken by the hands, and
the continuous line the course of the feet.
This is a most elegant and graceful performance, and never fails to
elicit the admiration and applause of the bystanders. There seem to
be no means of propulsion, and the performer appears, to an uninitiated
spectator, to be impelled by a simple act of volition.
The last is the most daring and difficult of all the feats, being
nothing less than passing over the string with the head downwards
and the feet in the air. This need not oe attempted by any but a
tolerable gymnast, and is achieved by running at the string in the
manner already described, and just as the body is rising in the swing
drawing the hands smartly to the breast, throwing the feet into the
air, and clasping the rope between them. It is a most dashing feat,
and generally takes spectators entirely by surprise.
We should well have Hked a longer disquisition on a favourite sub-
ject, but must now take our leave, merely assuring the reader that
the few exercises which we have described are the keys to the thorough
mastery of the Giant Stride.
Fig. 3.
As a last caution, let us recommend that the ropes should be
taken down every evening and put in a dr;5r spot, as they are liable
to-be much weakened if permitted to hang in the open air. In wet
weather the same precaution should be t&n.
PARALLEL BARS.
241
PARALLEL BARS.
These are two pieces of wood, from six to eight feet in length, and
about four inches square, the edges rounded. For lads, they are fixed
at about eighteen inches apart, and supported by two round stand
ards, firmly fixed in the ground, from three to four feet high, accord-
ing to the stature of the boys.
Balancing. — ^Being placed between the bars and in the centre, put
your hands right and left on the bars at the same time. After a little
jump upwards, preserve
your equilibrium on both
wrists, the legs close; this
is called the first position.
Then communicate to your
body a gentle movement of
balancing from behind, forwards, and continue this for several times,
the body moving as it were upon a pivot. This should be practised
until the body swings freely backwards and forwards.
To bring both legs over. — From the first posi-
tion, after a Kttle movement of balancing, bring
both legs, close and at once, over one of the
bars forwards, without touching it or moving
your hands from the place. The same ought
to be made backwards, from right to left.
To jump out. — After having communicated to
the body a movement of balance, the moment
at which the legs are raised over the bars, f/ 'I
jump backwards over the right without touching it with the feet oi
waist; then perform the same jump forwards. By the vaulting jump
vou maj easily come between the bars, and also bring your body over
both without touching them otherwise than with your hands.
To rise and sink down. — Being in equi-
librium in the middle of the bars, place
the legs backwards, the heels close to
the upper part of the thigh. From this
position, come gently down, till the elbows
nearly meet behind the back, then rise up
gently without any impulse or touching
the ground with your feet.
To kiss the bar behind the hands. — In
the same position as before, brinff the body gently down between the
bars without touching the ground, with your knees; kiss the bar behind
each hand alternately, and then rise up in the first position.
Jumping on the Bars. — Keep the knees straight and jump along the
bars backward and forward. Afterwards, do the same with the
fingers turned inside. These will be learned easier, if the young
gymnast tries them first with bent knees.
242
EVERY boy's book
Walking on the ^atr^.— Walk on the hands to the end and back
again. In walking backwards, take care to keep the elbows straight,
or you will come down. When this is done with ease, do the same,
only keep your fingers inside the bars.
VTAIKIKO ON TH£ BARS.
L. — Sit on the ground between the bars; take hold of the bars
with your hands and raise your body stiU in the sitting position, and
stay there as long as you can. When that is learned, jump along the
l3ars in the same attitude. Keep your knees straight, and don't mind
if your limbs ache a little.
The Arm Swing. — ^Rest the fore arms
on the bars, and swing. When tired
of swinging, let the body hang straight,
and then rise on the hands. Not easy
at first, but soon done with practice.
The Roll. — Rest on the fore arms, swing backward, and turn com-
pletely over, catching the bars under the arms. It looks difficult, but
is easy enough, only wanting a little nerve.
The Janus. — Sit astride the bars, having your hands rather behind.
Now raise the feet, swing through the bars, and come up astride on
the other side. Your arms will then be twisted, and your face will
be looking in the opposite direction. S\ving boldly, or the shins will
be knocked against the bars.
The Sausage.—^Kneel on the bars. Stretch the hands as far forward
_ as possible, and hitch the toes over the
" bars behind, at the same time stretching
them backwards as far as possible. Now
let the body sink between the bars,
being supported by the hands and in-
Now rise again. Difficult, but soon learnt.
To stand on a bar. — Sit
astride one of the bars.
Place the heel of the ri^ht
foot on the bar, hitching
the left instep under it.
Draw yourself up by m.ean^
THE HORIZONTAL BAR.
243
of the left instep. Take care of your balance. Tliis is a very use-
ful accomplishment, and may possibly stand the gymnast in good
stead.
The Drop. — Stand on the bars \nth each foot over one of the posts.
Spring slightly, into the air, put the feet together, and come down
stiff, catching yourself by your hands. This should be done over the
posts, as the bars might oe broken, were the weight of the faller to
come in the middle.
-^^
The Spring. — Swing at one end, and with a sudden impulse leap to
the other on your hands. Take care of the balance of the body, or
you will come on your back betwee-n the bars.
The Barber's Curl. — Hang on one end of the bars as in the L.
Keep the knees straight, and turn over slowly, not letting the feet
come to the ground. Stay there while you count ten, and conae back
the same way.
THE HORIZONTAL BAR.
Let two strong upright posts be firmly fastened into the ground,
about six feet apart, and let a wooden bar be strongly mortised into
their tops. The bar should be made of wliite deal, about two inches
and a half in diameter. The bar must have no knot in it, or it wiU
break. It should be so high from the gi'ound that a spring is required
to reach it with the hands. The surface of the bar should be free
from all roughnesses, but not polished.
TheGra&p. — The fingers should be hooked over the pole, keeping
the thumb on the same side as the fingers. Hang as long as possible,
first with both hands, then with each hand by turns. — See p. 244
The Walk. — Hang by the hands, and walk by them from one end
of the pole to the other, backwards and forwards. Do not slip. Do
it first with both hands on the same side of the pole, afterwards with
a h£«jid at each side. — See p. 244.
r2
244
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
<^)
1
M
J
,f1
11
!
1
uU
THX GRASP.
THE WALK.
BREASTING THE BAR.
Breasting the Bar. — Hang by the hands, and draw up the body
slowly untu the chest touches the bar. Practise this as often aa
possible — ^knees straight.
Kicking the Bar. — Hang by the hands
and draw up the feet very slowly until the
instep touches the pole. Do it several
times. Difficult at first, but soon learned.
Do not kick about, or jerk yourself up-
ward, or you may strain yourself.
Swinging. — Hang by the hands and
swing backwards and forwards. Practise
this until your heels are considerably
above your head each way. After a while, let go of the pole as
you swing back, and catch it again as you come down. An inch or
two at first is enough, but do not be satisfied until the hands can
have a space of eight or ten inches between themselves and the bar.
To sit on the Bar. — ^Hang by the hands, and pass one of your feet
tbrough them, hitching your knee over the bar. Then give a good
THE HORIZONTAL BAR. 245
swing backwai-ds, and come up sitting on the bar with one leg. Noat
draw the other leg over, and do not tumble off.
Circling the Bar. — Hang by the hands, and curl the body gently
over the bar. If it is too difficult, stop for a minute or two, try some-
thing else, and after an inteiTal try it again. It will be soon learned.
T/ie true Lover's Knot. — Grasp the bar ; pass the left knee through
the right arm, so as to let the knee rest in the elbow; pass the right
knee over the instep of the left foot ; let go with the left hand, and
with it grasp the right foot. You will now be suspended by thc
right hand, and will be packed up in a remarkably small space. Take
cai'C of the right wi'ist, or you will spin round and twist off.
TRUE LOVER'S KNOT.
CIRCLING THE BAR.
PASSING THROUGH THE AHMS.
Passing through the Arms. — Hang by the hands, and bring the feet
between them, permitting them to pass through until they can nearly
touch the ^ound ; now return in the same way. This cannot be done
properly without practising, as the muscles of the shoulder blades
must be capable of great relaxation, together with great power.
THE GRASSHOPPER.
HAV6ING BT THE LEGS.
The Grasshopper. — Sit on the pole, grasping it with the fingers to
the front. Slide gradually off, until the small of the back rests
against the pole, while the arms are elevated at the elbows like a
grasshopper's legs. Now draw yourself up again.
Hanging by t-he legs. — This is easy enough, and a capital preservb-
246
EVERr BOY S BOOK.
rUE ARM-CHAIR.
tiye against determination of the blood to the brain. First practise it
with both legs over the pole; then take off the left leg and hitch it
over the right instep; then learn to hang by one leg omy, while you
try to caiTy a weight in your hands. When you are perfect and con-
fident, sit on the pole, and drop off backwards,
catching yourseKby the legs. This must be
done with a fall like a plummet, or the body will
swing, and probably unhitch the legs from the
pole.
The Arm chair. — Hang on the bar by the
arms just below the elbows, keeping the elbows
firmly pressed to the side. The hands should
be lower than the bar, to counteract the swing
of the body.
Hanging bv the feet. — ^Hang by the hands,
and curl up the boay, until the msteps are well
hitched over the bar. Let go the nands cr-u-
tiously, and permit the body to hang at fidl
length. The oest way to reach the bar again is
to seize one of your legs, and pull yourself up
by it.
To leave the Bar. — ^Never get on the bar or
leave it in a clumsy manner; there should be
art about everything. To leave the bar effec-
tively is weU worth practising. Here are six
modes : —
1. Sit on the bar; drop and hang by the
legs, at the same time giving the body a swing
forwards which will loosen the hold of the legs.
Alight on the hands, and ^et gently on the feet. This is rather a
briUiant finish, and not so difficult as it appears.
2. Sit on the bar, place both hands on one side, and vault over.
3. Sit astride, place both hands on the bar in front, bring up
both feet, at the same time springing upright; run along the bar
and jump off the end, or slide down the post if it is too high to
jump.
4. Hang by the hands, draw up the body until the chest touches
the bar ; spring off backwai'ds by the force of the arms.
5. Hang by the hands, and swing completely round once, letting
the impetus hurl you forward. Take care to cross the feet and come
down on the toes.
6. If you are tired and cannot perform any of these things, merely
hang by the hands, and come round through them, but never merely
loose the pole.
THE HORSE.
There is not a more graceful or more interesting series of exercises
than those performed on the Wooden Horse. Tney are very useful
HANGING BY THE FEET.
THE HORSE.
2.47
also, as they give exceeding pliancy to ^he limbs, and teach the gym-
nast how to take advantage of the weight of each member. They
have also the advantage of requiring some daring, and a spirited
lad will always surpass at these exercises.
The horse is made of a great cylinder of wood monnted on four
legs, which are firmly fastened into the ground — ^their ends should be
charred as was directed for the Giant Stride.
Nearer one end than the other a piece of stout rough leather is
firmly nailed, to represent the saddle, and two curved pieces of wood
bound the saddle and represent the pommels. The hind pommel
should be nearly half an mch higher than the other. They may be
covered with leather also.
On the off side of the horse a pit about a foot deep and four feet
square should be dug and filled with sawdust, while on the near side
the paving should be either very fine gravel, or, if possible, sand.
Tnere should be several horses, adapted to the different sizes of
boys who are to practise on them. When a boy can place his chm on
a level with the saddle, he should change to a higher horse, as the top
of the saddle ought to be on a level with the nose of the gymnast
Mounting. — Stand by the horse, place one hand
on each pommel, spring up, so that the body is
supported by the hands, while the legs rest hgntly
against the horse. Keep the body upright and
knees straight. Down and up again several
times. Always come down on the toes.
Now do the same thing ; but, in springiag up,
throw out the right leg until it is nearly at right
angles with the body, then the left. Afterwards
spread both legs as widely as possible.
When this can be done with ease, spring up
as before, rest a moment, then throw the right leg easily over the
saddle, removing the right hand, and there you are.
. — ^Put the left hand on the fore pom-
mel, right hand on the saddle, spring off and oome to
the ground, keeping your right hand still on the
saddle. Be sure in all these exercises to come
down on the toes.
Sustai7iing tJie body. — 1. Spring up as in mount-
ing, and throw the body away from the horse,
brmging it back again without coming to the
ground.
2. Mount, and putting both hands on the front
pommel, raise the body as high as you can. Don't
be afraid of going too high.
3. Do the same, but swing the body backwards and forwards.
Hard work, but capital exercise.
4-. Do the same, and slap tlie soles of your shoes together.
248
EVERT BOY S BOOK-
Knee practice. — 1. Put your hands on the pommels, spring up, and
lodge your right knee on the Saddle- Down, and then the left knee.
Then both knees. Practise these well.
2. Hands on pommels, leap up and touch the saddle with both toes,
JUMPING OFF.
KKEE PRACTICE.
TOUCH SADDLE.
3. Kneel on the saddle with both knees; now lean well forward
and jump off. Very easy, but requires confidence.
Swinging practice. — 1. Sit behmd the saddle, put the left hand on
the front pommel, and the right hand on the other, liaise the body
and swing round the horse, seating yourself on his neck, before the
saddle. Change hands, and swing round until you regain youi
former position.
2. Put both hands on the front pommel, raise the body, and sud-
denly swing boldly upwards, turning round and crossing the legs, so
that you wiU sit on the saddle with your
face to the tail. Keep the hands in
their places, and swing back again in
the same manner.
Miscellaneous Exercises. — ^Hands on
rMmmmsn^Mm P'^^^^^s, spring up and put the riffht
^...^......^.^.mmmmm^sm j^^ through the arms, letting the left
^ 11 hang straight. Withdraw the ri^ht leg,
j'^ and spring up again, using the left
leg, and letting the right hang down.
Hands on pommels, spring up, and seat yourself like a lady behind
the saddle; spring down to ihe ground, ana seat yourself in a similar
manner before the saddle.
THE SWING.
249
Hands on pommels, spring up, cross your feet, pass them tlirougb
the hands, and come to the ground on the opposite side.
Take a short run, place the hands on the pommels, and vault com*
pletely over the horse, keeping the knees
straigiit.
Sit behind the saddle, put both hands
on the hind pommel, and throw yourself
off over the horse's tail.
Hands on pommels, spring up, make
the body into an L, let the feet pass
through the hands and rest suspended
without touching the saddle. Knees
quite straight.
A good one for a finish. — Take a run,
put both hands on the very top of the
pommels, and throw yourself over in a
regular somerset. That is not bad,
but you can do better after the somerset
has been well learned.
Throw the somerset as before, only do not let go the hands. You
will now be standing with your back to the horse,
the spine considerabl^rbent, and your arms thrown
over your head. Wait so for a few seconds, and
then with a powerful effort thi'ow yourself back
a^ain, so as to come on the ground on the same
side of the horse fi-om which you started. This
is really difficult, as it requires practice, strength,
and confidence, but it looks so well that it is
worth learning. The writer of these few in-
structions has often astonished the natives with
it, and has lately repeated it after two years'
absence from any gymnasium.
THE SWING.
Let hd one despise this exercise. It is worth learning, if only as a
preservation against sea sickness. If any one can stand a twenty-
250
EVERT BOY S BOOK.
Fig. 1.
feet swing for IiaJf-an-liour, the sea may toss its worst, for he will
come off unscathed. Now, I do not mean to say that merely sitting
on a board and getting swung by some one else is any great object :
iir from it. But there are some very graceful exercises to be managed
on the swing. Here are some: —
1. The way to get into the swing is as follows : — Take one rope m
each hand, just above the seat ; walk backwards
untn the ropes are freely stretched. Now run
sharply forwards, letting the hands glide up the
ropes as far as possible, and the mstant that
you feel a check, grasp the rope tightly, and
spring into the seat standing. When there,
work easily up by alternately bending and
straightening the knees. (See 1.)
2. When m good swing, slip the feet off the
seat (which should not be more than four inches
wide); let the hands slide down the ropes, and
come down sitting. To recover the standji^
position, reach upwards with the hands as hi^
as possible, and draw yourself upwards as the s^ving is going for-
wards, when the seat will place itself exactly under your feet.
3. Now for some feats.
Let the swing go very gently. Place both
hands at the level of the shoulders, and sud-
denly extend them, keeping the arms straight.
Take care, as there wHl be a violent vibration,
and you wiQ be shot out of the swing before
you know where you are. Practise it first
while the swing is stiU, but do not be satisfied
until you can do it while in strong swing, and
without closing the hands, merely letting the
pahns rest against the ropes. (See 2.)
Swing still. Stand up on the seat, and grasp
2^1^.2. the rope with the hands as low as possible,
without bending the body or the knees. Now lean forward, making
your hands the pivot, and do not be asto-
nished at finding your heels in the air, and
your head downward. To recover yourself,
the bodv must be bent a little. (See 3.)
Stand sideways on the seat, grasp one
rope with both hands leaning your back
against the other, taking care to have the
^^9- 3. rope well between the shoulder blades. Put
the inner centre of the left foot against the opposite rope, and fix the
right foot in the same manner against the left heel. Now let go both
hands, and lean well backwards, when you will be exactly balanced.
When you are secure with a quiet swing, practise it while the swing
THE SWING.
251
is Jttoving, until you can lie securely against the rope while you are
moving freely. The balance is entirely kept hj the shoulder blades
against the rope, and the arms must be folded in order to throw the
shoulder blades well back. If the gymnast gets sJarmed, and puts
his hands out to save himself, the rope slips oif his back, and out he
goes. (See 4.)
While the saving is working, suddenly hang out at one side, sup-
porting yourself by one hand on the rope, and one foot on the seat.
Practise this on both sides. (See 5.)
Fiff. 4.
Fig. 5,
Fig. 6
Seize the left rope with both hands, press the feet lii-mly against
the ropes where they join the seat, and fall out forwards. The ropes
will now cross, and when the swing is in fult operation, the curves
described are most elegant. To recover the ordinary position, wait
until the swing is going backwards, and a powerful twist of the body
will uncross the ropes, when the right hand should take hold of the
right rope and steady the swing. (See 6.)
When the swing is in motion, ^asp the ropes as tight as possible,
and raise the feet until they are high in air between the ropes. Take
care of the balance in the back swing, as, if the body^ is suffered to
bend backwards, the hands will hardly bear the strain. Now slide
slowly and carefully dovra the ropes until the head rests on the foot-
board.
To make a telling exit from the swing,
two ways may be adopted. First way : —
Get the swin^ into a firm, steadv movement,
sit down, and bring both hands inside the
ropes; and just as the swing has passed
its centre, strike the seat away with the
hands and you wiU shoot forward several
yards. Take care to come down on the
toes, and to lean well backwards as you
leave the swing, as the impetus will bring
you upright as you touch the ground. (See
252 EVERY boy's book.
Tlie second metliod is, to seat yourself iii the same maimer, and as
the swing crosses its centre backwards, lean weU forwards and strike
y yy away the seat. Yon wiU then be hurled back-
^ — wards, and if your balance is ^ood, wiU come to
the ground in a very elegant attitude. Be sure to
lean well forward, cross the feet, clasp the hands,
and come down on the toes. (See 8.)
Great care must be taken to lean well backwards
if you shoot out forwards, and well forwards as you
shoot backwards, or in the one case you wiU come
with your nose on the ground, and in the other
'^' ^' you wiU find the back of your head rather damaged.
So practise with gentle swings at fiirst, and then increase. I have
often done it with the swing at full speed, and in one instance in a
public g^ymnasium, I shot so far forward that the spot was marked by
a row ol ii'on nails driven into the floor.
In a volume of this nature, it is impossible to give more than a
comparatively sh^ht sketch of any subject. I am sure, however,
that if the reader will master even these short instructions in
gymnastic exercises, he will be able to realize that great blessing,
the sound body, in which only a sound mind can reside. His trained
eye wiU be accustomed to measure instinctively any obstacle in his
way, and the training of his body wiU enable him to put forth the
full power of his muscles to overcome the obstacle. Danger will
lose half its perils to him who thus knows how to meet it. A strong
rope will be as safe as a staircase to him; it will be perfectly indit-
ferent to him whether his head or his heels be uppermost, and he wiU
be enabled by the presence of mind which such studies engender to
think out calmly modes of escape from danger which would in-
stantly overwhehn those whose bodies are uninstructed.
But even to pass by the question of utihty, it is a duty of man to
preserve his body in health, and to develop its powers. Every man
would think liimseK wron^ to neglect the mind; surely then, every
man ought no less to think it wrong to neglect the body, which is made
by the same mighty Hand that implanted the mind within it. Indeed,
the neglected body is sure to injure the mind, and therefore those who
improve their bodies are at the same time improving their minds.
I know one young man, who owes aU his nealth, and probably his
life, to gymnastic exercise. From his earliest childhood he was always
aihng, and through the whole of his childhood was never suffered to
sleep unwatched. When he entered upon manhood, the childish
Ulness changed into annual fevers, which held their sway until he had
been for some time at one of the Universities.
His medical attendant advised him to take regular exercise, and
recommended the study of gymnastics. He rapidly improved in health
and strength, his fever has not attacked him for eight or nine years,
and he actually led the gymnasium for a whole year.
THROWING THE JAVELIN. 253
Were I to have the charge of a school, I should consider the
gymnasium as part of the regular school discipline, and take care
that the boys were exercised as carefully in their bodily as their
mental powers.
TIEROWrNG THE JAVELIN.
This play is very interesting, and gives strength to the arm, and
exactness to the eye. In playing it, a square target must be procured,
made of thick wood, about four feet in diameter,
and on which should be marked concentral
circles, the same as those of a target in archery.
This should be well supported behind by two
stout back pieces, restmg in the ground, so as
to prevent the target from being easily over-
turned. The circles may be several in number;
the centre should be black, and about sis inches
in diameter, and count ten; the second circle
should be red, and should count j&ve; and the
third should be Hght blue, and count three.
The other parts of the target to count as may be
agreed. The javelins should consist of poles of ash or fir, about an inch
and half in diameter, and should be five feet six inches in length.
They should have a spike in one end, which should be surrounded
with a rim of iron ; the spike should be about two inches long, thick,
and strong, so as to enable it to become fixed in the target without
splitting it. The game may be played by any number of Doys, and is
commenced as follows : —
One player takes a javelin in his right hand, and waUdng to a distance
from the target, previously agreed upon by the players, he poises his
javelin, by holding it in the hoUow of
nis hand, between the ball of the thumb
and the fleshy part at the side, and his
elbow is at the same time bent, and his
arm elevated so that his hand is a little
above his ear, the javelin being at the
same time nicely balanced with the
smaller fingers, touching it so as to
direct its course; it is then launched
forward at the target, and, if properly poised, directed and thrown,
will go to it in a direct Hue. The point at which it strikes
the target is then marked, and then the other players follow in the
same way for twelve times in succession : the person who scores the
most marks being the victor.
The javeHn wifi fly better and straighter if a rotatory movement is
communicated to it by a slight pull of^the little finger as it leaves the
hand. When some skill has been obtained in darting, blunt javelins
with padded ends should be procured, and the players should accustom
254 EVERY boy's book.
themselves to avoid, parry, or catcli a javelin thrown at them. Wher
ihey can do so with certainty, they may storm a fort. The best fort
IS a hedge with gaps. The players divide into two parties, one de-
fending and the other attacldng. Each player should be furnished
with three javelins at least, wefl padded and nicely balanced. The
art of catching and returning a javelin is exceedingly useful in this
game. We weU remember an occasion when, on storming a fort, one
of our opponents, whose frame was larger than his soul, had prudently
retired mto the background until all our spears were exhausted, but,
on seeing us weaponless, he with great courage ran up_ to the hedge
and hurled his spear, as we were running forward to pick up a fallen
lance. The moment he had thrown the javelin he ran away as fast as
he could, but was overtaken by his own weapon, which took him in
the rear, and toppled him over in beautiful style. We have only
known one accident at this game, and that was caused by the impetu-
osity of one of the garrison, who on seeing an enemy crawlii^ up
through the gap, and finding himself without a sj)ear, snatched up a
bow that was lying near, and made a thrust at him, which sent the
sharp horn tip of the bow through his under lip.
THE TIU.PEZE : SINGLE AND DOUBLE.
Should the intending gymnast possess a strongly-built bam or
outhouse, wliich is large enough to permit the trapeze to have fair
play, and strong enough to endure the stress of the swinging weight,
the ropes can he suspended from a beam, either belonging to the
building or inserted for the express purpose, and resting at each end
on strong brackets. _ But as such buildings are very seldom to be
obtained, we here give a sketch of a plan invented, we beheve, by-
Messrs. Snoxell, the well-known furnishers of gymnasia. Although
its structure may appear to be light and flimsy, it is in reality pos-
sessed of strength which renders a fracture impossible, and is indeed
far more fitted to resist the enormous strain which is laid upon it,
than if it were made of massive beams morticed.
In the fiirst place the upright poles {a) do not pass into the ground,
but are supported upon stone slabs, so there is no fear of that terrible
enemy of the gymnasium — rotting wood, which silently decays and
suddenly snaps off level with the surface of the grouni The cross
piece {b) is affixed to the uprights by a simple cap, bent at right
angles, as is seen at/ The cross piece is permanently secured into
the cap, but the uprights can be shpped in and out without difficulty.
At c may be seen four slender wire ropes, the upper ends of which
are fastened to the uprights, and the lower ends are furnished with
hooks. These hooks are intended to be shpped into the staples {e),
wliich are fn-mly secured into the ground, just as the old buU-]-ings
were fixed. At d are seen the tightening screws, which are simply
turned by hand, and shorten the wire ropes just as the connecting
screws of a railway train draw the carriages together.
GYMNASTICS.
255
The apparatus is so perfectly simple that it can be set up or taken
down by two boys in five minutes, or by one boy in rather a longer
period. The process is as follows : —
The uprights are shpped into the caps, and the hooks at the ends
of the wire ropes or stays are hitched into the staples of one side,
say at e. The uprights are then reared^ and their bases set on the
stones. The hooks of the opposite stays are then hitched into the
staples at e e, and the screws at d turned until the stays are quite
tight and the uprights are perfectly perpendicular.
It seems rather a compUcated process to read about, but it is
remarkably simple when reduced to action.^ We have mounted and
dismounted one of thece ingenious contrivances in a wonderfully
short space of time, and without any assistance.
Tor practising the feat of passing through the air from one trapeze
to another a double set of apparatus is required ; but for most useful
purposes one set is sufficient. The ropes by which the bar is sus-
pended must be thoroughly stretched before they are attached to the
bar, or there will be no certainty in the swing. Eew persons who
have not had practical experience on this subject would imagine how
256 EVERY boy's book.
greatly the length of a rope is increased by the process of stretching,
and how absolutely necessary is this precaution.
The ropes are passed at each end over an iron eye, the upper one
of which is hitched over a hook on the cross bar, and the other
receives the hook which suspends the bar. On looking at the illus-
tration the reader will notice these hooks just above the bar. They
are useful, because, when nee'ded, a pair of rings can be substituted
for the bar, and permit certain variations in the performances. Still,
their presence or absence is quite optional, and the only remark that
need be made is, that they should be furnished with springs Hke the
fastening of a breenet chain, so as to guard against the possibility
of sUpping. ThelDar itself must be very heavy, or otherwise it will
not have suflBcient weight to keep the cords at fuU stretch, and in
consequence will not swing trulv. Those which were employed by
Leotard were iron, with a mere shell of wood, so as to give a pleasant
hold for the hands, and we have seen them made of iron, coated with
leather. The last point that needs notice ia the perch or stand from
which the performer launches himself. This may be fixed at any
convenient elevation, and its centre should exactly coincide with the
centre of the bar. Having now the apparatus reaay, let us commence
the performance.
Set the bar swinging boldly ; ascend the perch quickly, and seize
the bar in both hands. Wait for a moment, until the ropes are fully
stretched, and then launch yourself for a swing. Now there are
two ways of doing everything — a right and a wrong way ; and the
present instance affords no exception to the rule. The wrong way —
and the usual way — is to fall forwards from the perch. Now this
is quite wrong ; and if you act in such a manner you wiU bungle
your sway, and will not retain sufficient impetus to enable you to
return to the perch.
The right mode of starting is as follows : Stand as seen in the
accompanying illustration — the spine well bent backwards, the body
tolerabljr stiff, and leaning T^^ll against the heavy bar. Now draw
yourselt up gently by the arms, as if you were trying to lift your
chin above the bar, and you will find yourself started without any
trouble. Keep the back still bent, and as you descend allow the
arms gradually to assume a perfectly straight position. You wiU
then swing out fairly and boldly, and by the least possible sway at
the end of the swing will retain sufficient impetus to enable you to
resume your stand on the perch.
Even in this there is an art. If you merely allow yourself to
swing back as you swing forward, you 'will be disagreeably reminded
of your error, by hitting the back of the leg smartly against the
edge of the perch. In order to avoid this misfortune, draw up the
legs sharply just before you reach the end of the return swing, and
you will find them come down on the perch with perfect ease.
If you are using the rings instead of the bar, you can vary this
GYMNASTICS. 257
part of the performance by turning round in the air, and crossing
the ropes so that you alight on the perch with your back towards the
trapeze, though it is necessary to give a sharp twist as your foot
touches the perch, and so to turn in the direction in w^hich you
started.
Take notice that the arms are always at foil length during the
swing, and that the illustrations which represent the performer
swinging with bent arms are entirely erroneous. There is another
fault into which the artists mostly fall. Thinking that they are obtain-
ing pictorial effect, they represent the ropes which sustain the bar as
forming an angle with the arms of the performer, whereas the arms,
body, and ropes are, or ought to be, all in the same Une.
The real attitude in the trapeze is given in the accompanying
illustration, wherein it will be seen that the ropes, the arms, and the
body are all in the same line ; and, indeed, a little reflection will
prove that they must be so. Note the position and action, or rather
258
EVERY boy's book.
the non-action of the body, and be careful to imitate it. During the
swing, let the body and Umbs hang at full length, and be sure to
keep the feet nearly together, and the toes pointed. The illustrations
are all WTong in this respect. They always will show the performer
in an attitude which the di-aughtsman is pleaded to think a graceful
one ; but it is inexpressibly graceless and ridiculous in the eyes of a
gymnast.
"When you. have accompUshed the swing and return satisfactorily,
you may advance another step. Swing off as usual ; and, when you
have reached the extremity of the swing, you will find yourseK
balanced for a moment motionless, the attraction of gravitation
being balanced by the impetus of the swing. Just at this important
point, shift your hold on the bar, and change sides, as you would do
if the bar were hanging quietly.
You will then face the spot whence you started, and in landing on
the peich you must be careful to give yourself a twist as you place
^our feet on the perch, and with a slight exertion of the arms you
will draw yourseK upright without difficulty, and without running
GYMNASTICS. 259
the risk of falliiig off the perch again^a frequent and ignominious
misfortune.
It wiU now be time to practise the descent from the swinging
trapeze to the ground. Begin by sitting on the bar, graspmg it
with the hands, and faUing off backwards, taking care to come to
the ground with pointed toes and crossed feet. The reason of this
precaution is that, if the feet are crossed, the knees are separated,
and that when the body yields — as it must do when it touches the
earth— there is no danger of hitting the chin against the knee, and
thereby receiving a momentary shock to the brain by the teeth
striking together.
When you can manage the " fall-back," as it is called, with
tolerable ease and certainty, seize the bar with the hands, set it
swinging, keeping your face to the perch, and whe^ you are nearly
at the full extent of the swing loosen your hold, and allow yourself
to come to the ground. Be very careful to point the toes, as has
already been described, and continue the practice untU you can stand
on the perch, launch yourself backwards, and fly off at the highest
point of the swing.
Always leave the bar while you are swinging backwards^ because
the attitude of the body is then such as to insure your coming to
the ground in the correct position ; whereas, if you do so while
swinging forward, you are nearly certain to overbalance yourself,
and either fall on your nose, or go staggering along in a very
ignominious style.
The next process is to start as usual, raise yourself in a sitting
position on the bar, and ask some one to remove the perch. Pdl
back as before, only, instead of coming on the ground, hang by the
legs, and accustom yourself to swing in this attitude. When you
can aecompHsh that feat without difficulty, and feel no nervousness
at your strange position, remove one leg from the bar and hang by
the other. Practise this with both feet. It is not nearly so difficult
as it looks, and is an important feat to perform, because it gives such
perfect presence of mind.
The next feat looks positively awfiil, but, as usual in gymnastic
performances, is perfectly easy, requiring no skill at all and only a
little courage. Sit on the bar when it is still, and do the " fall-back."
But, instead of allowing the feet to pass between the ropes, spread
the legs as far apart as possible, and bend up the feet rigidly. The
consequence is, that the insteps hitch in the ropes, slide down them,
and the body becomes suspended by the feet, which are finnly
hitched between the ropes and the bar, as seen in the accompanying
illustration.
If you possess a second trapeze, you, may now proceed to the
beautiful series of performances which are achieved upon them.
Let them at first be set moderately near each other, so that when
\ he bar of the first trapeze is at full swing, it passes within a yard or
s2
260 EVERY boy's book.
four feet of tiie second. Start off as usual, and just as you are well
on the rise, after passing through the upright, loose your hold of the
bar, and you will pass through the air towards the second bar which
you catch rapidly.
K you perform the feat nicely, you will have so much impetus to
spare that you will be carried along on the second bar, and may
either attempt to return or quietly drop to the ground at the end of
the swing. If you prefer the latter course, be sure to turn through
your arms and come down on your toes.
lou will find that the return to the perch, simple as it looks, is by
far tlie most difficult feat that has yet been mentioned. Make but
the least mistake and failure is certain. If you do not catch the bar
exactly at the right moment, you lose your impetus, and if you do not
seize it exactly in the right place you ao not swing truly between the
uprights, and consequently cannot land on the spot at which
you aim.
The method of performing this feat is as follows : Swing off the
perch, pass to the second bar, and while at the fall extent of the
GYMNASTICS. 261
swing, change sides, and give yourseK a slight impulse with the feet.
You wUl now meet the first bar swinging towards you, and if you
can seize it just at the right moment, you wiU find yourself with
sufficient impetus to reach the perch. If not, swing once more, give
yourself a hearty impulse with the legs and try it again. Failure
IS certain at first, but after a little practice the feat becomes easy.
Here we must protest against the totally erroneous ideas of artists
respecting the attitude of the body while the performer passes from
one bar to another. We think that without an exception they all
represent him as shooting horizontally through the air, with his
hands stretched out, and with one leg bent and the other straight.
Kow, if any one will watch a performer on the trapeze, he will see
that the attitude is nearly perpendicular, and that auy other position
is really absurd and impracticable.
In the accompanying illustration, we have given a sketch of the
real attitude of the performer, vviierein it will be seen that the body
is nearly perpendicular, and that the arms are kept bent, with the
hands close to the shoulders, ready to be darted out in a moment
when the trapeze swings within distance.
2G2 EVERY boy's book.
"We are the more particular in giving these illustrations, because
they are needed in order to correct the very false notions which are
prevalent respecting this beautiful exercise. Parents especially are
apt to form their judgments from the illustrations which are seen
upon advertising bills and in illustrated journals, and thinking that
the exercise must be attended with great danger, do not like to give
their permission for their sons to learn it.
Let our readers be assured that there is no more danger in this
beautiful exercise than in jumping over a chair — perhaps not quite
so much— while the manner in which it develops the muscular
powers of the arms, shoulders, and loins, is unapproachable by any
other system.
One caution is, however, needful. Take care that every loop and
splice "be perfectly secure, look over the whole of the apparatus daily,
and never venture upon the trapeze until you have ascertained that
nothing is likely to give way. If you perceive the slightest feeling
of insecurity, the whole enjoyment of the exercise is lost, and no
benefit can be expected from it.
TRICKS AND FEATS OF GYMNASTICS.
The book. — Fix a book between the toes of the feet, and, by a jerk,
throw it over the head.
The chalk line. — Draw a line with chalk on the floor ; against this
place the toes of both feet; then kneel down, and rise up again
without leaving the line, or using the hands.
Stepping through. — Take a small piece of cane about a foot long,
and holding it between the hands, leap through it. Afterwards take
a tobacco-pipe, and perform the same feat without breaking ; after
this, join the hands together, and leap through them, which is not
very difficult of accomplishment.
Armless. — Lyin» upon the back with the arms across the chest,
the attempt must oe made to rise on the feet again.
Hop against the wall. — Stand with one toe close against the wall,
about two feet from the ground, and turn the other over it, without
removing the toe from the wall.'
Stoop if you can. — One boy having placed his heels against the
wall, another must place near his toes a sliilling, and tell him he may
have it if he can pick it up. This he will find to be impossible for
him to do while his heels touch the wall, as there is no room for his
back to balance the other parts of his body.
The spring from the wall. — Placing yourself at a proper distance
from the wall with your face opposite to it, throw yourself forward
until you support yourself by one hand. Then spring back into your
former position. Begin this feat at a short distance from the wall,
and increase the distance by degrees. The " athlete " will, in a short
time, be able to stand at nearlv the length of his body from the wall.
This feat is sometimes called the palm spring, but the palm has really
GYMNASnCS.
263
nothing tc do with it. The thumb spring is similar, but dangerous,
and many have sprained their thumbs in attempting it.
The lonq reach. — This is a somewhat difficult feat, and requires
great caution in its performance. A line is chalked on the floor, at
which the toes must be placed, and
from which they are not to remove.
The left hand is then to be thrown
forward in a long reach until the body
descends upon it, without any part
touching the floor in its descent; the
right hand is now to be stretched out as
far forward as possible, and with a piece
of chalk, a mark is made on the floor
at its fullest extent, the body being sustained by the left hand during
the operation. The boy should now recover the upright position
on his le^s, by springing back from the left hand without touching
the floor in any way. The length reached, and the perfection with
which the body recovers itself,, distinguishes the winner of the
game.
The stooping stretch. — In this feat a line is drawn on the floor, at
which the outer edge of the left foot is
placed, and behind this, at a short distance,
the right heel. Taking a piece of chalk in
the left hand, the youngster passes it be-
tween the legs, and under the bend of the
left knee, chalking the floor with it as far
forward as he can. He then recovers his
Eosition without moving his feet from the
ne at which they had been fixed.
The chair feat. — Place three chairs in the situation indicated in the
cut (p. 264), and lay down upon them, the head resting on one, the heels
upon another, and the lower part of the body on the third or middle
chair, which should be much lighter than the others. Then, by
stiffening the body and limbs, and throwing up the chest into a state
264
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
of rigidity, it will not be difficult for a boy to remove the middle
chair, and to pass it quite over on the other side of him.
The 'poker feat. — Take a common poker and hold it the lower end
downwards, in the manner shown in the cut, i.e. by the fiuffers,
thumb, and ball of the palm. Then, by the mere motion of the
fingers and thumb, and the fulcrum of the palm,
ft work the poker upwards till you raise it through
\ AT^"^ ^he whole length to that part of it which goes
into the fire. This trick depends mainly upon
f^ ^> '|J the strength of the muscles of the hand and
yi^J^^K^ fingers, combined with a certain knack to be
acquired by practice.
The stick feat, or from hand to mouth. — Take
a piece of stick of the length of the fore arm,
measuring from the elbow to the end of the
middle finger. Hold it in the hand horizontally
before you, the knuckles being down and the
nails upwards, and the elbow being on a line
with the hand. Then raise the left end of the stick from the breast
to the mouth, without any other movement of the hand than the
arm at the wrist This is a difficult feat, but may be easily acquired
by practice.
Walking on stilts. — Atnong the Svriss, and in several districts in
!:Qe South of France, walking on stilts is not only an amusing, but a
HOCKEY.
265
useful practice, as by means of these crane-like legs men and women
transform themselves into the order of "Waders," emulating the
long-legged storks and herons, and can cross over marshes and
flooded grounds without wetting their feet. Stilts are easilv made,
being nothing but a pair of poles, with a wooden step at the sides
for the feet to stand on. The poles are kept in their proper place by
the hands. A little practice will soon render a youth " easj on his
stilts," and they may be made an amusing and healthy exercise.
HOCKEY.
In all the general principles, hockey bears a great resemblance to
foot-ball, the game consisting in driving a ball through a goal. The
ball, however, is of much smaller dimensions, even where a ball, and
not a bung, is used ; and it is impelled, not by the foot, but by certain
sticks, or clubs, called hockeys, or hookeys, because the end with
which the ball is struck is more or less hooked.
The shape and dimensions of the hockey-stick are entirely arbi-
trary, being left to the peculiar taste of the owners. Some like
their hockeys to be sharply hooked, while others prefer them merely
bent over at the end. Some players like a very thick, heavy stick,
which can be put down in front of the ball in order to neutralize the
blows of the opposite side, while others i. ^ 3 Ji
can play best with a sUght and springy
weapon, that can be used with one hand,
and is employed to tap the ball away
just as an opponent is about to strike,
and to coax it, as it were, towards the
goal through the mass of adverse sticks.
The four sticks shown in the engraving
are very ^ood samples of the forms best
adapted for use. Fig. 1 is much in
favour with some players, and is there-
fore given; but for our own part we
never could play to our satisfaction with
it, the large and deep curve deceiving
the eye and causing the player to let
the ball pass through the hook, besides
running the risk of entanglement in the
opponent's stick.
Fig. 2 is usually a favourite, but the angle of the hea'd with the
handle is arranged according to the fancy of the player. Some like
the head to be made of horn, backed with lead like a golf-stick; but
this formation is hardly necessary, costing a rather large sum, and
not conveying correspondent advantages.
Fig. 3 is a queer and eccentric form, which is not suitable to every
^U^'k
"5^
266 EVERY boy's book.
player on account of its weight and generally large proportions. We
nave, however, seen it employed with extraordinary effect by a player
who was accustomed to drive his opponents into a state of consider-
able excitement by his faculty of stopping the ball with this over-
grown weapon, and then planting it so firmly that all the opposing
sticks could not get at the ball in spite of their battering. In this
way he would save manv a game that had well-nigh been given up as
hopeless, and by thus checking the ball on its way to the goal, would
eive time for his own side to come up and turn the tables. The great
hooked end of this club was bound with very strong iron wire.
The same player was equally successful with a stick the exact
reverse of the preceding, and represented as fig. 4. This was a very
slight ashen stick, with a small, but rather heavy head, so that when
shaken it would bend and spring like whalebone. This little stick
was used for darting among the struggles and clatter of contending
weapons, and giving the ball just a wee pat now and then at critical
moments, so as to edge it a little nearer the goal, and at the same
time to knock it away just as the blow of the opponent descended.
The ball used for this game is sometimes an ordinary cask bung.
As this would speedily be knocked to pieces, it is generally quilted
with string, as shown in the illustration, for the
better preserving its integrity. Sooner or later,
however, it goes to pieces, for the string is sure to
be cut or worn through, and the cork soon gives
way. Balls, too, are apt to ^et their jackets knocked
off, and if struck hard will sometimes fiy in the
face of a player, who cannot avoid it at so short a
distance, and do no small damage. A hollow india-
rubber ball is very good ; but the best that we have yet seen, was a
common globular mdia-rubber bottle, such as can be procured at any
stationer's, with the neck cut off, and partly filled up by leaving a
strip of the neck and securing it by the proper varnish.
It made a capital ball. Nothing could hurt it, and it could hurt
no one. We have had it driven into our face at two yards' distance,
and felt little the worse for it five minutes afterwards. It would not
roll very far by itself, but required to be edged carefully by the
sticks ; it never could get cut against flints, or spoiled by thorns or
splinters ; it was big enough to be easily seen if knocked into a ditch
or over a hedge, and if struck into water it would 3?.ot sink but come
to the surface at once, bobbing about as if to draw attention to its
f)resence. It remained in constant action for two years to our know-
edge, had been employed for several seasons before we made its ac-
quaintance, and for aught we know may be in use now. In fact, if it
were only kept out of the way of a fire or an ostrich, we know nothing
that would hurt the ball except burning or swallowing. Even in
the latter case we fancy that the ostrich would be the sufferer rather
than the ball.
HOCKEY. 267
Having now described the instruments, we will proceed to the
method of playing the game.
As has already been mentioned, this game is in principle similar to
foot-ball. Two goals are set up, at a convenient distance from and
exactly opposite to each other, as in foot-ball. The same goals indeed
will answer as for that game, only the cross pole should be lashed to
the uprights at a much lower elevation, say three feet six inches or
four feet from the ground, and the uprights should be within six feet
of each other. Very good and simple goals can be made by taking
long osiers, willow branches or brambles, pointing the two ends,
bending them over and sticking the pointed extremities into the
earth, so as to make an arch. A peg is driven exactly half-way be-
tween the goals, goal-lines are drawn as at foot-ball, and the ground
is til en laid out.
The players, having previously chosen their sides, arrange them-
selves between the goals, facing each other, and always having their
left sides towards the enemy's goal and their right towards their
own. The ball is then thrown in the air, so as to fall on or near
the wooden peg, and each party try with their sticks to drive it
through the goal of the enemy.
The rules of this fine game are few and simple.
1. The game is won by the ball passing through the enemy's goal.
2. The ball must be struck through the goal with the stick, not
thrown or kicked.
3. Each player shall strike from right to left, and any player in-
fringing this rule is liable to the penalty of a blow on the shins from
any of the opposite side.
4. Each player shall remain on his own side, and if he crosses to
that of the opponents is liable to the same penalty.
5. No player sliall raise the head of his stick higher than his
shoulder, on pain of the same penalty.
6. The ball may be stopped witii the stick, or with any part of the
person, provided that the intervening player is on his own side.
7. If the ball be kicked or thrown through the goal, or if struck
beyond the goal-lines, it is to be fetched by the junior player of the
siae who struck the last blow, and gently thrown towards the centre
8. Any player wilfully striking another, except when inflicting the
penaltv contained in rules 3, 4, and 5, is immediately to be excluded
from tlie game.
By means of these rules, the game of hockey is shorn of the danger
consequent on the loose and unrestrained play that is sometimes
seen, the sticks brandished in all directions, and the two sides so
intermixed that it is hardly possible to discriminate between them.
Many a person has been seriously damaged by such undisciplined
play, and teeth have been struck out, or even eyes lost in the contest.
By strict adherence, however, to the above rules, there is no fear of
268 EVERT boy's book.
incurring any injuries, and this really fine game is rendered as safe
as it is exciting.
As a general rule, a good 'Dlayer seldom if ever strikes the ball
with any violence, but keeps it well in hand, trundling it along rather
than knocking it forcibly, and endeavouring, if he finds it likely to
pass out of hit control, to strike it gently towards another of his
own side, who may keep it in its course towards the enemy's goal.
A bad player, on the contrary, rushes about without any definite
purpose, shouts continually at the top of his voice, brandishes his
stick to the danger of other persons' eyes and the detriment of his
own hands, which are sure to be painfully blistered in half an hour,
and exhausts his strength and breath so early in the game, that he
fails just at the critical moment, and sees the ball driven past him
without being able to check it.
As a parting word of advice, let us recommend to our readers to
play this game as quietly as they can contrive to do, and as a golden
rule, always to keep the heaa of the hockey-stick close to the
ground.
Above all, keep your temper intact, and don't lose it even if one
of your own side snould make some stupid mistake, and lose you a
winning game. Take especial care to keep strictly to the rules, and
if your opponent should break them and render himself liable to the
penalty, be merciful to his shins, and inflict the punishment as a
warning to deter from future transgression, and not as a spiteful
opportunity for giving a blow which cannot be returned.
EACKETS.
This game is not easily played without what is called a racket
ground, which consists of a large space of ground, a parallelogram,
ot not less than fifty yards long, by twenty-five broad. Where such
an advantage presents itself, the game may be easil;^ attempted.
Sometimes the high dead wall of a garden may be made into a racket
wall, by fixing up some boards and net-work along the top, supposii^
there is space enough below, when the game may oe played in a small
way. The wall should be painted black, and tlie ground be divided
into four equal divisions, which should be distinctly marked either
by chipping a groove in it by a spade, or by chalk. It is very
qgsential, however, that the flooring of the court should be paved.
These dinsions are, two close to the waU, as A and B, and two in
front of them, as C and D, which divisions are occupied by those
who play the game. The wall should be marked by a broad line of
white payit at fort;y-two inches from the ground, and above this line
everj' ball must strike. The ball is, according to law, only to weigh
RACKETS. 269
one ounce, and is either white, or made so from time to time by
clipping into a bag of chalk, that it may be the better seen against
the black wall by the players. The
ball is made of pure white and tightly- — ^ < A
sewn leather. The bat used to propel *";=cii-'^
the ball is of a legal make, and its lower ^ 2~^
end of a spoon form, over which is ~-,^^"^
placed a strong net-work of silk-wire, """
or catgut. The bat is called a racket. \ ,,.
How the game is played. — Rackets is ^ f t ^ '
a very simple game, and may be played ill'* **
either by two or more players. When
it is played by four persons, one stands ""
in each of the compartments. A, B, C, D ; ^
those near the wall being called in-
hand, and those furthest from it out-
hand players. When two play, each player takes two of the divisions,
and the one vvho takes the A first from the wall is called in-hand
player, and the other out-hand player. Having determined by lot
who is to begin the game, the in-hand player nearest the wall strikes
his ball against it ; if it strikes under the line, goes over the wall,
does not rebound into the out-hand spaces, or goes beyond the racket
ground, the striker is out, and the out-hand player takes his place ;
but if the player is more successful, and the ball rebounds into the
out-hand spaces, and hopping from the ground is sent back to the
wall again, to rebound into one of the in spaces, the game goes on.
In a close-court game the " server " who serves the ball properly
above the line but not accurately into his adversary's court is allowed
three trials before his "hand" is out. The play of the game is, that
the in-player should send the ball in such a manner against the wall
that, on its rebound, the opposite party, or player, shall be able to
pick it up or hit it. Whenever this happens, he who struck the ball
counts one point, or an ace, and the play is continued until one
player or party scores eleven, or, as is sometimes and now more fre-
quently played, fifteen.
This capital game, so conducive to health and affording such
excellent exercise, may be played either in an open court — that is, a
court with only one wall, against which the game is played — or in a
closed court which is surrounded by four walls. Sometimes a com-
promise is made by the employment of the ordinary high front wall,
and a smaller back wall, omitting the side walls altogether. The
closed court game is the best and far the most scientific, but the
great expense necessary for erecting a proper court compels many to
content themselves with an ordinary old-fashioned open court game,,
for there seems little doubt that the open court game is the oldest
and the one which in old days was held in highest favour.
EIDING.
" Fleet as the wind, he shoots along the plain.
And knows no check, nor heeds the curbing rein ;
His tiery eyeballs, formidably bright.
Dart a fierce glory, and a glowing light ;
Proud with excess of life he paws the ground.
Tears up the turf, and spurns the sand around."— BlacfctocJt.
A BOY on horseback is a king on his throne ; he feels more than
" boy " the moment he gets astride of anything in the shape of a nag.
Boys have an instinct for riding, an impulse they cannot resist, like
the instinct for eating, breathing or moving. In his earhest days,
in the very "boyhood of being," "Eide a-cock horse to Banbury
Cross" is a ditty of infinite delight, and long before the days of cor-
deroys the equestrian exercise of " Grandfather's Stick " aifords him
"joy ineffable." Then comes the noble game of Hippas, or the
wooden "Bucephalus," on which he feels greater than Alexander ;
and last, though very little, yet still not least, the " pet Shetland,"
which adds to the bHss of being mounted, a positive progressive
locomotion, and the " greater than Alexander " is made greater still.
Considering, therefore, that all boys love riding, it is for us to tell
them how they may "mount the fiery Pegasus," and ride with
elegance and safety,
" To witch the world with noble horsei
a
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RIDING. 271
THE nOKSE.
The horse is one of the most beautiful and graceful animals in
nature, and perhaps the most useful to man, though in this respect
it would be difficult to say which of the four or live domesticated
quadrupeds bears the palm. During life, the horse and the dog
would each contest the point; while in relative value after death,
the bullock, sheep, and swine, are fairly entitled to an equal share
with them. But there is something very captivating in the appear-
ance of the horse, whether used for the purposes of war, or for
racing, or for hunting, or road- work; and in all these several
capacities the readers of this book may possibly admire him, though
it is chiefly as the riding-horse, or hack, that he usually attracts
their notice.
In the animal kingdom, the horse belongs to the division Verte-
BRATA, and class JSIammalia, he having a back-bone composed of
vertebrae, and his young being suckled. His broad and undivided
^oof places him among the ungulata ; and lastly, his teeth are as
follows, viz. six front teeth, above and below, called " nippers ; " two
canine in each jaw, called " tusks ; " and the remainder, consisting
of grinders, having flat surfaces opposed to each other, with rough
ridges on them, by which the grass, hay, and com are rubbed- or
ground down to a fine pulp, adapted to the stomach. These teeth
are moved or rolled on each other by a peculiar action of the muscles
of the jaw, so as to aid the process.
THE MARKS OF AGE IN THE HORSE.
By means of the gradual wearing down of the front teeth, or
nippers, the age of the horse may be known. Each of the nippers
has a hoUow in its upper surface, which is very deep and black when
the tooth first rises above the gum, and is gradually effaced by the
friction caused by the cropping of the grass, or by biting at the
manger, or other kinds of rubbing ; but as these vary a good deal
according to circumstances, so the precise degree of wearing away
will also be liable to fluctuations ; and the rules laid down only
approximate to the truth, without positive accuracy as to a few
months. There are also two sets of teeth ; a milk set, which first
rise, beginning at once after birth, and a permanent set, which
replace the milk-teeth as they fall out. The milk-teeth come up
two at a time, but all are up by the end of the first year. The
permanent teeth, also, make their appearance by twos, the first pair
showing themselves in the place of the two middle milk-teeth in the
third year, and being generally level with the other milk-teeth by
the end of the fourth year, by which time the next pair have fallen
out, and the permanent teeth have shown themselves in their places.
At five yeai-s of age the horse has lost aU his nippers, and his corner
permanent teeth have nearly completed their growth. The tusks
272
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
are also above the gums. The centre nippers are now much worn,
and the next are becoming sHghtly so. At six years old the " mark '*
in the centre nippers is quite gone ; at seven years of age this dis-
appears from the next pair, and at eight from the corner nippers ;
after which, none but a professed judge is Hkely to make out the
age of the horse by an inspection of his mouth ; and, indeed, at all
times the tyro is liable to be deceived by the frauds of the low
horse-dealer, who cuts off the top of the teeth, and then scoops out a
hollow with a gouge ; after which a hot iron gives the black surface
which in the natural state is presented to t^e eye. This trick is
called " bishopiiig."
THE PACES OP THE HOKSE.
The natural paces of the horse are the walk, trot, and the gallop ;
to them are added by man the canter, and sometimes the amble and
the run. In the walk, each leg is taken up and put down separately.
one after the other, the print of the hind foot in good walkers
generally extending a few inches beyond that of the fore foot. The
order in which the feet touch the ground is as follows : 1st, the off
fore foot; 2d, the near hind foot; 3d, the near fore foot; and 4th,
the off hind foot.
The gallop consists of a succession of leaps, during a great part
of which all the feet are off the ground. As the feet come to the
ground they strike it in regular succession ; but the exact order will
depend upon the lead, which may be either with the off or near fore
leg. When in action and the horse is leading with the off fore foot
BIDING.
273
(which if well broken he would do), the off hind and near fore feet
touch the ground simultaneously next the near hind foot, and lastly, the
off fore foot which he leads with. In the trot, the two legs of opposite
iies are moved exactly together, and touch the ground at the same
oment ; whilst in the amble the two legs of each side move
igether, and the horse is supported for the instant upon the half of
s usual and regular foundation. To counteract this deficiency
I
274 EVERY boy's book.
in the centre of gravity, the body is balanced from side to side in a
waddhng manner.
TERMS USED BY HORSEMEN.
The left side is called the " near side," the right the " off." Four
inches make " a hand." The upper part of the horse's neck is called
his " crest ; " the bony ridge in front of the saddle the " withers , "
the part between the saddle and the tail the " croup ; " the bony
points, one on each side the bosom, the " shoulder points ; " and the
line between these and the back of the withers, corresponding with
the shoulder blade, is the "line of the shoulder." The body between
the hip and shoulder line is called the ** middle piece." In the fore
legs, the two divisions are called the " arm " and " cannon ; " above
which is the "elbow-joint," and between them the "knee-joint."
In the hind leg, the two parts are called the "thigh" and "cannon ;"
tod the joints are the "stifle" and "hock." Below these, in both
the hind and fore legs, are the upper and lower "pasterns," then the
" coronet," or ring between the leg and foot, and lastly, " the hoof."
FORM OP THE HORSE.
% is a common observation of the horseman that the horse can go
in all forms ; and this is borne out by the fact, that he does occa-
sionally do so ; but nevertheless, it is well known, that among a large
number it will be found that those whose form is most in accordance
with the shape considered the best by good judges, will turn out the
best movers. In technical language, the horse whose " points " are
the best will be the best horse. These points are considered to be :
a neat head well set on a lean wiry neck, the latter with a very
gentle curve, whose convexity looks upwards (the opposite form to
this makes the " ewe neck ") ; moderately high withers ; a sloping
shoulder, wide in th6 blade, which should be well furnished with
muscles : strong muscular loins ; a croup not too straight nor too
drooping, with the tail set on with an elegant sweep; ribs well
rounded, and carried back near to the hips, so as to make the horse
what is called "well ribbed;" circumference or girth of good dimen-
sions, indicating plenty of " bellows' room ; " thighs and arms
muscular ; hocks and knees bony and large, without being diseased ;
cannon bones large and flat, with the suspensory ligament and
tendon large, strong, and clearly defined ; fetlock joints strong, but
not round and /nflamed. The eye should be full, clear, and free
from specks; and the ears should be moderately small and erect;
the feet should be round, and not contracted at the heels, with a
well-formed frog.
VARIETIES OF THE HORSE SUITABLE FOR BOYS.
Besides the several kinds of horses suitable for grown people,
those for boys are the galloway, the cob, and the pony. The first of
RIDING. ^'"J jlLlFORii^l:^ ''' 275
these may be considered either a small horse or a large pony, and is
usually about fourteen hands high ; and though strong and capable
of carrying weight, yet of a moderately light and active make. He
is so called from the district where he was originally bred in large
numbers. The cob is a thick and very strong pony, or galloway,
frequently made to look still more so by cutting his tail and mane
short, called " hogging " them^ thus —
Correctly speaking, a pony is understood to be under thirteen hands
in height, a galloway between tliirteen and fourteen and a half, any-
thing over that a horse.
Many ponies are now bred almost of pure Arabian blood, and they
are well suited for lads who have mastered the early difficulties con-
nected with keeping the seat under all ordinary circumstances ; but
as they are generally very high-spirited, they are scarcely suited for
the beginner, and he had better content himself with an animal of
more plebeian pedigree and sluggish temperament.
THE ACCOTJTBJEMENTS AND AIDS
Required by the young amateur, are either a pad or saddle, according
to his age, together with a bridle and a whip or stick. Spurs are
seldom desirable for any but the accomplishea rider, as they are apt
to irritate the pony if not used with discretion, and it is rather diffi-
cult to put an old head upon young shoulders. If the learner is
very young, a pad which is made without any tree affords a better
hold for the knees than a regular saddle, and will also enable him
to ride without stirrups, which feat he will hardly manage on an
ordinary smooth saddle. The stirrups are of the following form, but
are often, for boys, made much lighter. They ought always to be
t2
276
EVERT B0T*8 BOOK.
used with strong stirrup leathers, and these should be attached to
the saddle by spring-bars, which release the stirrups in case of the
leg being entangled in them after a fall. The groom should always
remove the leathers after the
ride, and replace them on the
opj)osite side of the saddle, by
which means their tendency to
hang as shown at («), is recti-
fied, and they assume the posi-
tion indicated by the one marked
(A), both representing the left,
or near, side.
The bridle is either a single
or a double-reined one, accord-
ing to the mouth of the pony
ridden. A single-reined bridle
is usually a snaffle, it being very
improper to allow any one to
ride with a curb alone, unless
he has very steady and Hght
hands. The snaffle bit is merely
a jointed bar of iron (5 5) in
the accompanying sketch, but
when used alone it has a H^ht
cross-bar as well as the ring
there shown, in order to prevent
the bit being pulled through the
mouth. TMs, however, in the
double-reined bridle is omitted,
since it would interfere with
the action of the curb. Snaffles
are either smooth or twisted,
and are made of all sizes, the
smallest being only adapted for occasional use, and not for the
hands of tlie learner, who should have a large smooth one. The
curb-bit consists of three parts ; th'e mouthpiece (1), which usually
has a bend in it called the port, for the purpose of pressing against
the roof of the mouth ; secondly, of the cheek-piece (2), which has
a ring (3) at the lower end for the attachment of the rein, and
another at the upper end for the head-piece of the bridle; and thirdly,
the curb-chain (4). This chain is pressed against the outside of
the lower jaw, by the upper arm of the curb used as a levei, and it
should be hooked up sufficiently tight to act upon it by pulling the
rein, whilst at the same time it should be loose enough to prevent
its fretting the jaw. This dehcacy of adjustment requires some
little practice, and the young rider should always ask his teacher to
show him the proper mode of applying the curb-chain. Sometimes
RIDING. 277
a martingale is needed, in order to keep the pony's head down, but
generally the young rider is better without it, if he will keep his
hands well down, and avoid all jerking of the mouth.
MOUNTING.
The rider, even at the earliest age, should first examine the girths
and the bridle, and see if they are properly adjusted; for though
when leaving home he may be able to depend upon a steady and
experienced groom, yet, after putting up at strange stables, he is
liable to be led into an accident by careless servants, and therefore it
is better to get into the habit of always inspecting these essentials to
safety and comfort. If there is an attendant groom, he should hold
the rein with his right hand, standing by the off shoulder of the
horse, so as with his left hand to hold the stirrup iron for the rider's
right foot as he throws it over the horse's back. The next thing to
be done is for the rider to stand at the shoulder of the pony with his
left side towards that part. He then lays hold of the reins with his
left hand, drawing them up so short as to feel the mouth, and at the
same time twisting a lock of the mane in his fingers so as to steady
the hand. Next, the left foot is placed in the stirrup when the
accompanying attitude is presented, exactly as here shown. At this
moment a spring is given from the right foot, the right hand reaches
the cantle of the saddle, and the body is raised till the right leg is
brought up to the level of the left," when the slightest imaginable
pause is made, and then the right leg is thrown over the back of the
pony, keeping the toe down and heel elevated, or with the spur on
mischief may happen, while the right hand leaves its hold, and the
body falls into its position in the centre of the saddle ; after which,
the right foot has only to be placed in the stirrup to complete the
act of mounting.
278
EVERY boy's book.
DISMOUNTING
Is exactly the reverse of the last process, and requires, first, the reins
to be shortened and held in the left hand with a lock of the mane ;
secondly, the right leg is taken out of the stirrup, and is thrown
over the back of the horse until it is brought down to the level of
the other leg. After this, if the pony is of a small size, suitable to
that of the rider, the body is gently lowered to the ground, and the
left leg is liberated from the stirrup ; but if the horse is too high for
this, the foot is taken out of the stirrup by raising the body by means
of the hands on the pommel and cantle of the saddle, and then the
body is lowered to the ground by their assistance.
THE MANAGEMENT OF THE REINS
Is of great importance to the comfort of the rider, and also to his
appearance, for unless they are held properly, the body is sure to be
RIDING. 279
awkwai'dly balanced. When the single rein is used, the best position
is to place the middle, ring, and little fingers between the two reins,
and then to turn both over the Jore-finger, where they are tightly
held by the thumb. In all cases the thumb ought to point towards
the horse's ears, by which the elbow is sure to be kept in its place
close to the side, and a good command of the reins is insured. If
a double-reined bridle is employed, the middle finger separates the
two snaffle reins, and the httle one those attached to the curb, all
being turned over the fore-finger, and firmly held by the thumb
In both cases the ends of the reins are turned over the left, or near,
side of the pony's shoulder. When it is intended to turn the horse
to /the left, it is only necessary to raise the thumb towards the chest
of the rider ; and on the contrary, when the desire is to turn him to
the right, the little finger is turned downwards and backwards towards
the fork. In many well-broken ponies the mere moving of the whole
hand to the right or left is sufficient, which, by pressing the reins
against the neck, indicates the wish of the rider, and is promptly
responded to by the handy pony. This action, however, is objected
to by some good horsemen, though, in my opinion, most erroneously,
as it is capable of being made highly eifective in practice.
THE SEAT
Should always be square to the front, without either shoulder being
in advance ; the loins moderately arched inwards without stiff'ness ;
the elbows close to the side, but held easUy ; the knees placed upon
the padded part of the flat i7i front of the stirrup-leathers ; toes
turned very sHghtly outwards, and the foot resting on the stirrup,
the inside of which should be opposite the ball of the great toe, and
the outside corresponding with the httle toe. In hunting, however,
it may be placed " home," that is, with the stirrup close to the
instep. The heel should be well lowered as far as possible beneath
the level of the toe, which gives a firm seat. But the great point is
to obtain a good grasp of the saddle by the knees, which should be
always ready to lay hold Hke a vice, without however constantly
tiring the muscles by such an eiTort. The left hand is now to be
280 EVERY boy's book.
held very slightly above the pommel of the saddle, and the right
easily by the side of it, -with the whip held in a slanting position, as
at page 273, in which however both hands are much too high above
the withers. In order to show the effect of an incorrect mode of
holding the reins, the rider has only to place his hands with the
knucifles in a horizontal position, and the elbow is sure to be turned
out in a most awkward manner.
THE CONTROL OP THE HORSE
Is effected by the reins, heels, voice, and whip, variously used
according to his disj)osition and temper. Some require only the
most gentle usage, which in fact is almost always the most efficacious,
especially by young people, for whom the horse and dog seem to
have an especial affection, and to be always more ready to obey
them than might be expected, when their want of strength to enforce
their wishes is considered. The young rider will therefore generally
find it to his own interest, as well as that of the noble animal he
bestrides, to use his whip and heel as little as possible, and to effect
his object solely by his voice and the gentlest pressure of the bit.
In this way the most high-couraged horses are kept in order by
young lads in the racing stables, and the amateur will do well to
follow their example. It is astonishing how fond horses and dogs
are of being talked to by their juvenile masters, and it is right to
gratify their love of society by so doing on all occasions. The reins
serve, as already explained, to turn to tlie right or left, or by drawing
tight to stop the horse, and on the contrary, by relaxing them to
cause him to proceed, aided if necessary by the voice, heel, or whip.
When it is desired that the right leg should lead in the canter or
gallop, the left rein is pulled and the left leg pressed against the
flank, by which means the body of the pony is made to present the
right siae obliquely forwards, and by consequence the right leg leads
off. On the other hand, if it is wished to lead with the left leg, or
to change from the right, the right rein is pulled, the right leg
pressed to the side, and then the left shoulder looks forwards and the
left leg leads off. «
MANAGEMENT OF THE WALK.
When it is wished to make the pony walk, be must be quieted
down by soothing him with the voice if he has been excited by the
gallop or trot ; and then, by sitting very quietly in the saddle, and
loosing the reins as much as will allow the head to nod in unison
with the action of the body and legs, the walk is generally at once
fallen into, and there is no farther difficulty except to, prevent a
stumble. A tight rein is not desirable in this pace, since it prevents
that liberty of action which is required, and leads to a short walk, or
very often a jog-trot ; and yet there should be such a gentle hold, or
i
_ RIDING. 281
'preparation for a hold ratlier, as will suffice to check the mouth in
case of a mistake. This is a very difficult art to acquire, and is only
leanit by long practice ; but as few ponies fall at this pace, great
liberty may generally be allowed to their mouths. Besides this,
little is necessary, more than to sit steadily, but not stiffiy, in the
saddle, and not to sway about more than is sufficient to avoid the
appearance of having swallowed a poker.
TBE TROT AND CANTER
Are effected by rather different methods, but both require a very
steady hand, and a quiet treatment. In order to cause the pony to
trot, the reins are taken rather short in the hand, and the mouth is
held somewhat firmly, but taking great care not to jerk it. The
animal is then slightly stimulated by the voice, and the body, if
uecessaiy, rises from the saddle, as in the trot, so as to indicate what
is wanted. This seldom fails to effect the purpose, and the horse at
once breaks into a trot ; or, if very irritable, he may be compelled to
do so by laying hold of an ear and twisting it, to avoid which he
drops his head, and trots g^s a natural consequence. The canter
is also an acquired pace, and for its due performance a curb-bridle is
required. In order to make the pony begin this pace, the left rein
is pulled, and the rider's left leg pressed against the side, by which
the horse's right leg is made to lead off, this being the most usual,
and certainly the most comfortable " lead " for the rider. The hands
must make a very gentle and steady pull on the curb-rein, and the
body generally must be very quiet in the saddle, whilst, at the same
282 EVERY boy's book
time, a very gentle stimulus is given by the voice, which must be
repeated at short intervals, or the canter will be changed to a trot,
or walk, both of which are preferred to it by most ponies and horses.
Young riders should avoid cantering long upon one leg, as it leads to
inflammation of the joints, and they should either change the lead or
alter the pace to a trot or walk.
THE MANAGEMENT OF THE OALLOP
Requires little instruction, practice being the main agent in effecting
a good seat during this pace. The seat is either close to the saddle,
with the body inchning backwards (p. 275), or standing in the stirrups,
in which position the knees and calves only touch the saddle, and the
body is bent forwards over the withers (p. 273). It should be the
endeavour of the rider, while he bends his shoulders forwards, to
throw his loins well back, so as to avoid straining the horse's fore-
quarters, by bearing too much weight upon them. This is done by the
hold of the knees on the saddle, and by keeping the feet back, also
by rounding the loins backwards, and thus throwing the centre of
gravity as far as possible behind the stirrup leathers. The object of
standing in the stirrups is to save the horse when at his full gallop,
as in racing, or in hunting, when he is going over ploughed ground
or up hill. In either of these cases, this attitude allows the horse
to exert hImseK without feehng the weight of the rider impede his
movements more than can be avoided.
LEAPING
Is only an extra exertion added to the ordinary swing of the gallop,
the attitude being exactly the same. It is best learnt by beginning
with small ditches, which the rider is soon able to clear without
difficulty. He may next try sheep-hurdles, or very low stiles ; but the
latter being strong and firmly fixed, are dangerous to the rider, unless
the pony is very sure of clearing them. A leaping-bar, if procurable,
should always be adopted in preference to either, as a fall over it is not
attended with any bad consequences. The groom should place it at
the lowest notch, and the pony then may be suffered to clear it at a
moderate gallop ; after which, if the young rider is able to sit pretty
closely, he may be indulged with a higher notch, and gradually it
may be raised until the Hmits of the pony's powers are reached. In
riding at a bar, the learner should lay hold of a snaffle-rein in each
hand, taking care to keep them close together, by the right rein being
held also in the left hand. The pony is then to be urged to a smart
canter or hand gallop, and held straight to the bar in this way, so
that he is obUged to leap ; or if dishking the act, being urged by the
whip down the shoulder, or the spur, or the groom's voice and whip
behind. Young riders, however, should never be put upon a bad or
reluctant leaper, but should be taught upon one which is fond of the
amusement. At the moment of rising into the air for the leap the
RIDING.
283
reins are relaxed, but should not be left quite loose ; while the
pony is in the air the body becomes upright, and as he descends
it leans well back, until, after a high leap, it almost touches the croup.
During this period the reins should be suffered to remain nearly loose,
the hand barely feeling the mouth ; but as the pony reaches the
ground a stronger hold is taken, in order to guard against a mistake,
which might require the aid of the rider to prevent a fail. It is not
that he can keep the animal up, but that he checks him, and makes
him exert himself in a double degree. There are various kinds of
leaping ; as the flying leap, the standing leap, the leap in hand, &c.
The flying leap is merely one taken at a fast pace, and when the ridei
can maintain a good seat in the gallop, it is the easiest of all to sit.
The standing leap is effected from a state of quiescence, and is much
more difficult to sit, because the horse rises and falls more suddenly
and abruptly. Between the two is the slow or steady leap, which is
only effected safely by the clever hunter or well-broken pony ; but
when perfect it is almost as smooth as a rocking-horse. This is the
mode in which the young rider should be taught to leap. Leaping
m hand is necessary for most p ^nies in the huntiug field, which would
otherwise never be able to compete with full-sized hunters in the way
they do. The young hunter, when he meets with a gate or other
strong fence, which he knows is too much for the powers of his pony,
at once gets off and leads him over by the rein ; and when well taught,
these little creatures will often tilt themselves over high timber, &c.
in a marvellouslv clever marner, so that I have known them in this
284 EVERY boy's book.
way obtain a good place in long and severe runs. If, therefore, my
readers are allowed to partake in this exciting sport during their
Christmas holidays, they should teach their ponies to leap in hand,
or they will be sure to be thrown out.
TEEATMENT OF VICES.
The chief vices which are met with among ponies are — 1st, Obsti-
nate Stopping; 2d, Stumbhng from Carelessness; 3d, Rearing; 4th,
Kicking • 6th, Shying ; and 6th, Running Away.
Obstinate Stopping, which in its worst forms is called "jibbing," is
a very troublesome vice, and even in the saddle is sometimes attended
with danger, whilst in driving it is so to a dreadful degree.
The rider should never attempt to force his pony forward with the
whip or spur, which only aggravates the baa-tempered brute ; but
should patiently sit quiet in the saddle, and keep his temper, until the
pony chooses to move forward again. In this way sometiroejs very
vicious animals are cured when they find that their stable is not the
sooner reached by their device ; on the other hand, if the whip is used,
the pony, especially if of Welsh breed, is very apt to lie down and roll
his rider in the dirt, or even sometimes to bolt into a river, or pond,
and leave him in danger of his life. My young friends will therefore
remember my advice when being mounted upon an obstinate pony,
and having lost their tempers, the^ have proceeded to use their whips,
and are bemired or half drowned m consequence.
Stumbling is more a defect of conformation than a vice ; but never-
theless, it greatly depends upon a want of spirit to keep up a steady
action of the fore legs. It often happens that a pony trots along for
RIDING. 285
a mile or two safely enough ; but after going that distance he becomes
lazy and careless, and trips with one foot and then with the other, a
sure prelude to such a fall as the following, which would be a very
bad one, and sufficient to cut both knees to the bone, and to cause
serious damage to the rider. The only way to avoid such accidents
is to keep the pony at a steady pace, fast enough to keep him alive,
but not enough so to tire him. Loose stones and broken ground
should be avoided, and a careful hold should be kept upon the mouth,
without being so tight as to gag it. When a stumble actually takes
place, the body should be well thrown back and the mouth forcibly
jerked, so as to make the pony exert himself to keep his legs. An
unsafe animal of this kind is, however, wholly unfit for young riders,
and they should never be allowed to ride one.
Rearing is a very dangerous vice, and not very common among
ponies after they are once broken in. If the rider should, however,
be placed upon a rearer, he should be careful to avoid hanging upon
the bit when he rises in the air, but on the contrary should loose the
reins entirely, and clasp the neck, if the pony should rise very high
in the air. The accompanying sketch shows this vice in a very
trifling degree, and in such a case the seat thus represented is
sufficiently forward to prevent accidents.
The rider will, however, observe that the reins are quite loose. It
often happens that this vice is produced by too tight and severe a
curb in a tender mouth, and that upon changing the bit, or letting
out the curb chain, the tendency to rise is entirely gone. " Wlienever,
therefore, the young rider finds his pony inclined to rear, let him look
286
EVERY boy's book.
well to his bit, and at once drop the curb rein if he has one. If,
however, he has only a snaffle, he may rest assured that it is a regular
habit, and at once make up his mind either to battle with it or to
change his pony.
Kicking is much more common among ponies than rearirg, and
very many of these little animals are given to practise it. It is
RIDING. 287
perhaps partly owing to the teasing of their young masters that it is
80 common ; but whatever the cause, there can be no doubt that it is
too prevalent among them. Sometimes it exists as a regular attempt
to unhorse the rider, which is a very troublesome habit, and one very
difficult to break, because it so often succeeds that the pony is
tempted to try again. When this vice is met with, the rider should
do all in his power to keep his pony's head up, by jerkihg the bit,
and at the same time he should sit well back, with his feet well
forwards, with heels down, and trust to his knees in holding on.
When kickiug is only the result of high spirits and " freshness," the
best remedy is a smart gallop, which soon stops all these pranks, and
makes the most riotous animal quiet.
Shying is also very common among ponies, and in them is often the
result of cunning, which leads them to pretend a greater degree of
shyness than they really possess. The best mode of treatment is to
take as little notice as possible of the shying, but carefully to make
the pony pass the object at which he is looking, without regarding
how this is effected. The whip should seldom be used at all, and
never after the object is passed.
Bolting^ or Running Away, is often the result of want of exercise.,
but sometimes it is a systematic vice. A powerful bit and a steady
seat, with good hands, are the best means of grappling with this habit,
which is sometimes a very dangerous one. If the pony really runs away,
the rider should not pull dead at his mouth, but should relax his hold
for a short time, and then take a sharp pull, which is often effectual.
A good gallop until he is tired will often cure a runaway for the
rest of his life. There are a variety of -bits intended expressly to
counteract this vice, such as the Hanoverian Pelham, the curb with
a high port, &c. ; but nothing is perfectly effectual where there is a
determination to run away. A nose-band has lately been invented
for the purpose, which answers better than anything hitherto
brought out ; it consists of a long nose-band which crosses behind
the jaw and then hooks on to the bit in the same way as the ordinary
curb-chain. When the rein is pulled hard, this nose-band is drawn
tight round the jaw, by which the mouth is closed, and the port is
pressed strongly against the roof of the mouth, causing a great
degree of pain, sufficient to stop most horses. This powerful remedy,
which has been named the Bucephalus nose-band, should not lightly
be used ; but in the case of a runaway horse, or pony, it is the only
really efficacious one.
ROWING.
• A "boat, a boat, is the toy for me.
To rollic about in on river and sea;
To be a child of the breeze and the gale,
And like a wild bird on the deep to sail,
This is the life for me ! " — Procter.
HISTORICAL MEMORANDA.
The sea service is the gloiy of Old England, notwithstanding all
the glorious land service of ancient and modern days. A country
having nearly ten thousand miles of searcoast, with numerous ports,
harbours, estuaries, river mouths, and capacious bays, must ever be
a maritime nation, and look for its supremacy to the sea — to her
sons being amphibious ; and nothing is better calculated to develop
the inherent instinct for sea duties than the amusements of boating,
of rowing, of sailing, and other aquatic sports. Every young gen-
tleman in England should know how to manage a boat, and to sail
a cutter ; and it will be our duty to initiate him into the methods of
doing so.
The origin of ships must be traced to the ark of Noah ; but this
was not a sailing or a rowing vessel, but simply a large floating house
or receptacle for Noali and his family, and ^Ae various types ol
animated nature. The first navigators were the Phoeuiciana, who
ROTTINO. 289
sailed in vanous seas. Tliey were succeeded by the ships of Carthaee,
Effypt, Venice, Genoa, Holland, and Portugal. The Saxons under
Allred, and the Danes under Canute, had formidable navies. AKred,
who ascended the throne in 872, commenced the first English fleet
in person, and is said to have suggested a variety of improvements
in the structure, as well as greatly to have increased the size of the
vessels, some of the largest of which carried sixty oars. After the
death of Alfred, the naval power of England seems to have lain
dormant ; and tliis, no doubt, tempted the Norman invasion in 1066,
under William the Bastard, who sailed for the coast of England with
a fleet of 900 vessels ; and so sensible was he of the importance of
the naval service, that he gave certain privileges to certam towns on
the sea-coast, winch were from their number called the Cinque Ports.
Richard I. fitted out large fleets ; and his successor, John, asserted the
exclusive right of the English nation to the dominion of the seas. The
reign of Edward I. was ^o distinguished for successes at sea. Henry
VII., on gaining the throne, in 1485, put the navy into a respectable
condition ; and a large ship, called the " Great Harry," which may
properly be termed the first ship of the British navv, was built at a
cost of 14,000/. The discovery of America, about tne period of the
accession of Henry VIII., gave a new stimulus to our navy, and
many ships were then bmlt of large tonnage, some of a thousand
tons. But Queen Elizabeth, deeply impressed with the maxim, that
" whosoever commands the sea, commands the trade of the world,"
and that " whosoever commands the trade, commands the riches of
the world," and consequently the world itself, so encouraged and
restored the marine, that she may be called the "Restorer of the
naval power of England ;" and, in a few years after, the invasion of
the Spanish Armada put our naval power to the proof. Charles I.,
the great and courageous Cromwell, and even the pleasure-loving
Charles II., were all impressed with the great advantages of a for-
midable navy ; and in the reign of Anne, fifty-two Erencn ships, con-
taining more than 3,000 guns, were captured. And dunn^ the
reign of George III. the naval superiority was placed by a series of
glorious successes beyond all dispute ; and it is to be hoped that the
reign of our beloved Queen Victoria, who is herself a sailor, and full
of every generous aspiration that belongs to a British Tar, will, not-
withstanding the " mistakes of the Admiralty," prove that England
still retaius the sovereignty of the ocean, and on that element she
will defy the world.
CONSXRXICTION OF AUCIENT SHIPS AND GALLEYS.
The Egyptian vessels are the earliest of which any weU-authen-
ticated graphic illustration has been preserved. We here ffive a vie>f
of one of their earliest sailing vessels. The celebrated Egyptiaii
vessel called the "Isis" is said to have been in length 180 feet, in
u
'J90
EVERY BOY'S BOOK.
breadth 45 feet, and in height, from the upper ed^e of the deck to th«
bottom of the well, 43 feet. The well-known ship of Hiero, king o!
Syracuse, was nearly 400 tons burden.
EOMAN GALLEYS, SHIPS, ETC.
They were In length about 125 feet, and in breadth 10 feet. Their
first requisite was swiftness, and no part of the side was left vacant
where an oar could be put out ; hence they had often three banks of
oai's, one above the other. In most ancient ships, there was placed at
the prow an image called " the sign." The part of the vessel that cut
tne water was called the " goose." At the stem, which generally re-
sembled a shield, was set or some way delineated a representation of
the deity to whose tutelary favour the ship was committed, and to
which daily prayer and sacrifice were offerei War ships were chiefly
rowed with oars, that they might be able to tack about. The first
long ships were rowed with fifty oars, but afterwards a larger number
was used. In the more penect condition of ancient navigation, there
were some ships that had as many as five tiers of oars, and three
hundred rowers. Two large holes at the prow of the vessel, occa-
sionalljr used for oars, were called the ship's " eyes ;" and a wooden
projection at the prow, covered with brass, was called a " beak;" and
pieces of wood placed on each side of the prow of a vessel, to ward
off the force of the enemy's beak, were called the ship's "ears."
Over these vessels were certain raised platforms, and on the J- fore-
castles were towers on which the soldiers stood, wiiose shields were
ROWING. 291
osuallj hung upon the railings which begirt the ship. The sides ol
the prow were called " cheeks.'* The anchors at first used were
often large stones, or even bags of sand; afterwards, however,
the ancient ships carried anchors with one, two, and four flukes. The
larger anchor was called the " sacred anchor," and reserved for the
most trying occasions. Among the ancients, ships were usually termed
" horses," which explains many ancient fables. The elder Pliny, for
instance, tells us of a boy who was carried by water some nules every
day on the back of a dolphin to school; the vessel, in all probability,
having a dolphin at the prow. Arion, the famous musician of Lesbos,
having made great wealth in foreign parts by his profession, was
returning home by ship, when the sailors resolved to kill him, and
seize upon his riches. Playing once again, at his last request, a
favourite tune, he leaped into the sea. A dolphin, attracted by his
melody, received him safely on its back, and carried him again to the
coast where Periander lived. Arion, doubtless, escaped by a boat,
the fore-part of which consisted of a dolphin.
Having thus given the young reader a notion of ancient boats and
ships, we shall now proceed to make him acquainted with the modem
practices of rowing, Doating, sailing, &c.
OP BOATS.
A Boat is properly a vessel propelled by oars. In a more extensive
sense the word is applied to other small vessels, which differ in
construction and name, according to the services in which they are
employed. Thus they are light or strong, sharp or flat-bottomed,
open or decked, according as they ai'e mtended for swiftness or
burden, deep or shallow water, &c.
The Barye is a long, light, narrow boat, employed in hatboiurs, and
unfit for sea. The Long Boat is the largest boat belonging to a ship,
generally furnished with two sails, and is employed for cruising short
distances, brin^g the cargo and bales on board, &c.
The Launch is more flat-bottomed than the long boat, which it has
generally superseded. The Pi7inace resembles the barge, but is
smaller. The Cutters of a ship are broader and deeper than the barge
or pinnace, and are employed in carrying light articles, single passen-
gers, &c. on board.
Yawls are used for similar purposes to the bar^e and pinnace. A
Gig is a long, narrow boat, used for expedition, and rowed with six or
eight oars. The Jolly Boat is smaller than a yawl, and is used for
going on shore. A merchant ship seldom has more than two boats, —
a long boat and a yawl.
A Wherry is a light, sharp boat, used in a river or harbour for
transporting passengers. A Bunt is a flat-bottomed boat, chiefly used
for fishing on a fresh water river. A Skiff is a small sharp-nosed
boat, used in rivers. A Bi7igy is a very small stiff boat used by
yachts. A Yacht is a pleasure sailing-boat. A Lugger is a boai
292 EVERY boy's book.
which is furnished with sails of a peculiar cut. A Funny is a small
liight boat used in river rowing, and made with her bow and stem
aearly alike.
THE COMPONENT PAHTS OP BOA.TS.
Bowing boats consist of the bows (1); the stem, or entrance (2);
the stem (8), where are the rudder and the lines for steering ; the
rowlocks (3), for giving purchase to the oars ; and the thwarts, or
«eats (4). At the bottom are the foot-boards (5), which are easily
removed, in or4er to bail out any water which may leak into the
boat. Besides these parts there is a board placed across the boat for
the feet of the rower, called a stretcher. The whole boat is com-
posed of one or more planks, called streaks, nailed upon a light oak
framework, called the timbers, or ribs ; and the upper streak, upon
which the rowlocks are placed, is called the wale-streak. Boats
with two rowlocks opposite each other are called sculling boats, and
are propeOed by a pa ir of light oars called scull?, the art being
called " sculling," When a boat is fitted with a pair of rowlocks not
opposite each other, it is called a pair-oared boat. If with two in
tne middle opposite each other, and two others, one before and the
other beliina, but not opposite each other, it is called a randan.
When a boat has four rowlocks, none of which are opposite one
another, it is called a four-oared boat, and so on up to ten oars,
which is the utmost limit in common use for any kind of boat but
the pleasure barge, which sometimes has twenty-four oars, as in the
City barges of London. The rowlock nearest the bow is called the
bow rowlock, or No. 1 ; the next No. 2, and so on ; and the oars
used iu them receive the same number, the one nearest the stern
being called the " stroke oar.'* The rowlocks in river and sea boats
are somewhat different in shape though identical in principle, both
consisting of a square space oi about the breadth of a man's hand,
and both lying on the wale-streak ; but in river boats being generally
bounded before and behind by a fl^at piece of oak or ash called, re-
spectively, the thowl-pin and stopper ; whilst in sea boats they are
merely common round wooden pins dropped into holes made in the
wale-streak, but still receiving the same names. The thowl-pin is for
the pui-pose of pulling the oar against, whilst the stopper prevents
the oar from sbpping forwards when the rower is pushing it in that
drcction after the stroke.
ROWING. 293
THE OARS AND SCTTLLS.
A scull is a small oar used with one hand, and requiring a pair, as
in the case of oars, one being placed in the rowlock on each side the
boat, and the pair being used by one person with his right and left
hands. Oars are used by both hands, and a pair-oared ooat conse-
quently requires two oarsmen ; a four-oared l)oat four, and so on.
Both sculls and oars consist of the same parts, except that the handle
of the oar is made long enough for both hands, as at {})). In every case
there is a rounded handle [a b), a loom, square in form, and extending
from the handle to the button, or about
one-third of the length of the oar ; and
beyond the button is the blade, which
is first nearly round, and then gradually
^ - . 1 widens, until it assumes the form best
^ adapted for laying hold of the water,
which is now found to be broad rather
than long, as was formerly thought to be desirable. The button is
a piece of leather nailed on to prevent the oar from slipping through
the rowlock, but only used m river rowing, as it is not adapted
for the rough work which is often met with in sea rowing.
SEA ROWING.
This is necessarily less elegant than river rowing, because of the
rough nature of the element on which the exercise is pursued. The
oar must be held firmly in the hands, the inside hand being placed
at {b), and the outside at («), and both hands grasping the oar
between the thumbs and fingers. The whole art consists in the
crew moving backwards and forwards together, called " swinging,"
and laying bold of the water as well as they can, taking care to
avoid pulung in the air with great force when there is a trough or
interval between two waves, and on the other hand equally avoiding
a heavy wave, which has a tendency to dash the oar out of the
hand. All this reaiures practice in the rowers, and also in the
steersman, called tne coxswain, who should watch for the high
waves, and warn his men when a heavy one is coming. He should
also take care to cross the roll of the sea as much as possible, so as to
avoid being struck on the side of the boat called " the counter,"
which would either swamp her, or else knock the oars out of the
rowlocks. In this kind of rowing, the " feathering " of the oar, to
be presently described, is not attempted, on account of the rouglmess
of tne water, but it merely is pulled steadily, but strongly, backwarda,
and is then poshed forwards in the rowlocks.
ErrER ROWING.
Tlie art of river rowing is capable of a high degree of elegance,
and few sights are more pleasing to a lover of graceful forms than
" Of THC
l/klfV/C-BA
294
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
that of a crew of fine lads, or young men, rowing well together and
in good style. To do this requires great practice, and attention to
a few essential points, which I will here endeavour to describe.
MANAGEMENT OP THE OA^.
^ The rower should, as far as possible, take some good oarsman for
his model, and endeavour to imitate him in every respect, which is
the only mode of acquiring a good style. Description is useful in
putting the learner in the way of acquiring what is to be taught, but
it is not aU-sufficient for the purpose. In the first place, the learner
should place himseK square on tlie seat, with his feet straight before
him, and the toes sHghtly turned out. The knees may either be
kept together, in the Newcastle or Clasper style, or separated con-
siderably, as practised generally in England, the latter being in my
opinion the better mode, as it allows the body to come more forward
over the knees. The feet are to be placed firmly against the stretcher,
which is to be let out or shortened, to suit the len^h of the indi-
vidual ; and one foot may be placed in the strap which is generally
attached to the stretcher m modem boats. The oar is then taken in
hand, raising it by the handle, and then either at once placing it
in the rowlock, or else first dropping it flat on the water, and then
raising the handle it may gently be lowered to its place. The outside
hand is placed upon the handle at (a), with the thumb as well as the
fingers above it, while the other hand firmly grasps it lower down at
(b), keeping the nut towards the person. The arms are now quickly
thrust forward till they are quite straight at the elbows, after which
the back foUows them by oending forward at the hips, carefully
avoiding any roundness of the shoulders. When the hands have
reached their full stretch they are raised, and the blade quietly and
neatly dropped into the water; immediately after which, and with
the water just covering the blade, the boay is brought back with
a graceful yet powerful action, tiU it reaches a part a little behind
the perpendicular of the back of the seat, -when the hands are
brought back to the ribs, the elbows gliding close by the hips ; and
at the last moment, as the hand touches the rib, tne wrist of the
inside hand is depressed, the knuckles being at the same time brought
against^ the chest, and the oar is made to rotate in the rowlock,
which is called " feathering " it, and by which it is brought cleanly
out of the water. The next action is to push the oar rapidly forwarS
again, first however restoring it to its original position in the rowlock,
wmch is effected by raising the wrist, and then dartiog the arms
forward till the elbows are quite straight, which brings the rower
to where we started from in the description. In. " backing water "
the reverse of these actions takes place. The oar is first reversed
in the rowlock, and then it is pushed through the water with as
much power as is needed, and pulled through the air. When the
oars on one side are puUed, and those on the other are backed.
ROWING. 295
the boat is made to turn on its own water. " Holding water " is
effected by the oars being held in the position of backing without
moving them.
THE ESSENTIAL POINTS IN KOAyiNG.
1st. To straighten the arms before bending the body forward ; 2d,
to drop the oar cleanly into the water; 3d, to draw it straight
throi^h at the same depth; 4th, to feather neatly, and without
bring] Tig the oar out before doing so; 5th, to use the back and
shoulders freely, keeping the arms as straight as possible ; and 6th,
to keep the eyes fixed upon the rower before them, avoiding looking
out of the boat, by which means the body is almost sure to swing
backwards and forwards in a straight line.
MANAGEMENT OF THE BOAT.
Every boat without a rudder is manoeuvred in the water, either by
pulling both sides aKke, in which case it progresses in a straight
line, or bv reversing the action of the oars, equally on both sides,
pushing tnem through the water instead of pulling them, and called
nacking water, when the boat recedes ; or by pullmg one side only,
on which the boat describes a segment of a circle, which is made
smaller by pulling one oar, and backing the other. By means of
a rudder the boat is made to take a certain course, independent of
the rowers, called "steering," the chief art in which consists in
keeping the rudder as stiU as possible, by holding the lines " taut,"
and avoiding pulling them from one side to the other more than is
absolutely necessary. Some steersmen think it necessary to swing
backwards and forwards with a great effort, but this is quite useless,
and the more stiU they keep the better. Every coxswain should know
the course of the stream or tide ; and when meeting other boats he
should, if he is going down stream, give them the side nearest the
shore, so as to allow them the advantage of the slack water, which is
quite prejudicial to him. When a crew are steered by a competent
coxswain, they ought to be perfectly obedient to his commands,
rowing exactly as he teUs them. His orders are communicated by the
following words, viz. when desiring his crew to row he says, " Pull
aU;" or if wishing any one oar to be pulled, he says "PuU bow,"
or "PuU, No. 3," or 4, &c. as the case may be. If they are to stop
rowing, he says "Easy fJ'," or for any one oar, " Easy bow," or No. 2.
The same kind of order is conveyed when "backing" or "holding
water "is desired; the only variation, as before, being between con-
fining his order to any one or more oars, or extending it to aU. In this
way all. the evolutions practicable on the water are managed, and
the coxswain has complete control over the boat, being able to cause
her to be rowed slowly or quickly, or to be stopped, backed^ ot
turned on her own centre.
296 EVERY boy's book.
ROWING TOGETHEB,
Is of the utmost importance to the success of a boat when she is
manned by a crew; and they should all endeavour to attain the
same style as the " stroke-oar," who should be the best in the boat, and
as free from faults as possible. In a four or eight-oared boat, every
one of the crew would do well to imitate his stroke by rowing with him
occasionally in a pair-oared boat, or else, if this is not practicable,
by pulling behind a waterman who rows in the same style as the stroke-
oar. In this way an uniform kind of rowing is attained, and the
boat is propelled equally by all at the same time. The great
object is for all to lay hold of the water at the same moment, and
pull their oars through it and out with the same power and at the
same time ; this is called " keeping stroke." " Keeping time "
means, all " feathering " the oar together, by which the peculiar cHck
of the oars in the rowlocks is made exactly at the same instant.
When this is not done precisely together, the " time " is defective,
and the ear at once detects the error ; but even when the " time " is
ever so good, the want of keeping stroke is fatal to the speed of any
boat, however good the indiviauafe may be.
CAUTIONS TO YOUNG BOWEKS.
Do not be over anxious to avoid " catching crabs," which is an
event likely to occur in early practice ; and should it happen, throw
the oar quickly upwards out of the rowlock, and no mischief will
ensue. The young rower should be at once shown how to free his
oar in this way, and then he may pull with that freedom from
restraint which is necessary to produce a good style. Do not stand
on the seats, or lean out of the boat, and neve/ attempt any practical
jokes on the water, as it is a dangerous element to trifle with.
SAILING.
" The tar's a jolly tar, that can hand, reef and steer,
That can nimbly cast-off and belay;
Who in darkest of nights finds each halliard and gear,
And dead reckoning knows well, and leeway:
But the tar to please me must more jolly be,
He must laugh at the waves as they roar." — Dibdin.
It would be very difficult to trace to its origin the art of sailiiig.
Perhaps the curled leaf passing over the water, with one end erect,
might have given to observant man the first notion of a sail. It has
been supposed that the Nautila^ Argonatit, or sailor-fish, was sug-
gestive of the first sailing-vessel ; but long before the Argonaut had
been noticed, sails of some kind or other had no doubt been common.
A man could not stand in the simplest boat without perceiving that
the wind exerted a power upon him and his boat ; and therefore the
idea of a sail must have been identical with the first launching of the
rudest boat. l!\ie science of sailing, however, has grown up gradually
through a succession of a^es, and has now reached a perfection of
which the ancients had no idea.
We will first speak of the various kinds of vessels, which are dis-
tinguished principally by the number ol' masts, ari.l the number and
shape of their sails.
A Sloop is properly a vessel with one mast, having her sails, with
the exception of ner topsails, set in the plane of her length, which is
techricaUy called " set fore and aft." Her topsail is a square sail.
298
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
ri^ed at right angles to the plane of her length. The bowsprit is
generally elevated trom the bovs, inclining slightly to the deck. TJje
term "sloop" is now usually applied to a man-of-war, ship-rigged, and
carrying less than 18 guns.
A Gutter differs from a sloop in being without a square sail, and in
having her bowsprit horizontal; her mast at the same time "raking"
aft. Her topsail is fore and aft, and triangular in shape.
A Brig is a square-rigged vessel, with two masts.
BAILING.
299
A Schooner is a two-masted vessel, with fore and aft topsails, \»'liicb
are called gaff-topsails. Sometimes she has a square fore-topsaU and
top-gallantsail.
A Brigantine is something between a schooner and a brig, and is
rorked either with oars (called sweeps) or sails.
DUTCH VilMtOT.
300
EVERY boy's book.
A Dutch Oalleot is riffged like a schooner, but of a broader and
more Chinese build, her bottom bein^ nearly flat.
A Billy-hoi/ is rigged sometimes like a sloop, and sometimes like a
schooner; but her bottom is nearly flat, and she draws but little
water.
A Smack is a small vessel with one mast like a cutter, used prin-
cipally for fishing.
A Canoe is a ooat used by savages, usually made of a trunk of
a tree, hoUowed.
A Felucca has two triangular sails, is used in the Mediterranean,
and is particularly swift. It can also use oars in calm weather.
A Junk Is a Chinese vessel, used either for war 6f merchanflisr
is built very heavily.
SAILING.
301
A Proa is used by the natives of the Ladrone Tslands, p"<^ is remark-
able for its swiftness and sailing close to the wind. The I ide is quite
straight, and the weather-side is convex, like a common uoat. Both
head and stem are equally sharp; and in working her there is no
necessity to tack or turn at any tune. Besides this peculiarity of con-
sti-uction, the proa has on her lee-side what is caUed an " out-rigger,**
which is made of two poles, extending about 10 feet from her side,
having at their extremity a piece of solid wood. This prevents her
from having any lee-way. She will sail with a good wind twenty
miles an hour.
The natives of the Society Islands use a canoe, averaging in length
from ten to forty feet. It is made of a trunk of a tree, holiowed out ;
and is just wide enough for a person to sit down. It wiU carry from
one to as many as thirty persons. It also has an outrigger, like
a proa. When a native leaves one island to go to another, ne joins
two large canoes together, and builds on them a small hut, which will
hold aU his family. This is the most convenient way to travel in
a canoe, for it is difficult to see anytliing but one's knees when sitting
down in the ordinary manner. These canoes carry a square sail in
the fore-part.
We will now speak of the vessels we have most to do with-^
viz. yachts.
CHARACTEHg OF 4 YACHT.
Speed, safety, and accommodation are the three first qualities of
a yacht. She ought to be pleasing to the eye when afloat, of such JV
breadth as to carry her canvass with ease, and at the same time so
302
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
Sharp in her bow and well-shapen astern as to displace her weight of
water smoothly and gradually, while she leaves it in the same way.
VAEIOUS KINDS OF YACHTS.
Yachts are of various kinds, according to their size. If more than
eighty tons burden, the schooner is most suitable ; for, as the spars are
more numerous, they are proportionably lighter. The schooner, as
iias been before observed, has two masts — the foremast and mainmast;
the one bearing the sail called the boom-foresail, and the other a
mainsail. She has two or more headsails, called staysail, fore-staysail,
and jib. Her topsails are either square or fore and aft.
The Cutter has one mast and four sails — ^viz. mainsail, maiutopsail,
foresail, and jib. Some smaller craft have larger jibs, and no foresaiL
The Dandy-rigged Yacht differs from a cutter, in having no boom for
her mainsail, which can consequently be brailed up by a rope passing
roun4 it. She has a mizen-mast standing in the stem, which sets
a sail caJled a mizen, and which is stretched on a horizontal spar,
projecting over the stem. This style of rig is more safe for a yacht,
as the boom in ordmary cutters is uable to sweep persons overboard ;
and the sail can be taken in quicker by brailing it up than by lowering
it down.
The Uatteener has only two sails, a fore and a main sail, of a
triangular shape. Each has a spar standing from the deck to the peak
of the sail, and a boom at the bottom, like a cutter. This rig, trom
setting more canvass abaft, is well adapted for narrow waters.
One of the most handy rigs for a yo^mg sailor is a triangular main-
SAILING.
303
sail and foresail rig, on a good-sized open boat.' She should be at
least twenty feet long, and five feet on her beam. The foresail is
carried over the stem for about a foot, by means of an iron
bowspiit, which ships and unships on the nose of the boat. Her
mainsail has a spar reaching from the lower part of the mast to the
upper corner of tne sail ; a rope is fastened in the middle of this spar,
r —v and passes through a block on the mast, by which
IH- — ~~''" the sail is hoisted. The advantages of this rig are,
that it can be easily managed, while under it the boat is much safer
than under most other kinds of rig; for, should a squaU arise, the
yachtsman has only to let fly his foresheet and put tiis hekn alee,
and the boat will right immediately. With this rig, a boat stands
very well to windward, and may be easily brought about.
DESCEIPTION OF THE CUITEE YACHT.
But the vessel with which we have most to do in our directions for
sailirg- is the Cutter Yacht, which stands closer to the wind than any
other kind of European boat ; and of which we propose, in the first
instance, to give a general description.
CONSTRUCTION OP THE HULL.
The first step in the construction of the hull is laymg down the
keel or backbone of the vessel ; which is done by fixing a strong piece
of wood, generally oak, upon blocks, that the rest of the timber may
be securely addea ; the stem is then joined to the fore-post, nearly at
right angles, slanting a little forward as it ascenas ; and the stern-poat
to its after or hinder part, sloping upwards and backwards. The
b04
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
timbers and ribs are next cut out of solid wood, and placed trans-
versely on the keel, their width varying according to the lines ol
a plan previously dra^vn out, — being, of coui'se, farthest apart at the
beam ; these, as weU as the planks of larger craft, are made to bend
into the required shape by being steamed and bolted in while hot.
The skeleton being completed, her planks are then secured by copper
or iron nails to the timbers, and riveted. The deck is made of narrow
planks, running fore and aft. From the level of the deck, her sides
are raised by upright timbers, called " stancheons," cased over by the
bulwarks, and sui-mounted by a rail caUed the "gunwale," Some
yachts are only half-decked, the after-part being left open and fitted
with seats ; but, in order to prevent the water from getting in, a por-
tion of deck, called water-ways, is left at each side ; which opposes a
further barrier by its terminating on the inner edge in a high crest oi
combing. The stepping the mast requires great care, since the good
or bad sailing of the boat depends very greatly upon it. K we divide
the length of a good yacht into three pai'ts, the point at which the
foremost part joins the middle part will oe the widest part, and there
will be nearly the place for the cutter's mast. But the American
builders have departed from this rule in the construction of their
celebrated yacht, " The America," whose model, after all the stud^
and ingenuity that hayc been applied to yacht -building, seems to
resemble the simple yet beautiful model which nature has given us ii^
the duck. The bow of this vessel rises very gradually for some dis-
tance along the keel, like the breast of the duck ; and, further imi
tating the same model, her beam or widest part is abaft, or further
back than the ceaitrp. This superior vessel will sail nearly four point?
SAILING.
305
off the wind, and will probably work an entire change in the present
style of yacht-building. We have now glanced at all the principal
parts of the hull, except that all-important part, the rudder ; which
iwings by a hinge from the stem-post, and is moved by a handle fixed
to its upper part, bearing the name of " a tiUer," and which is used to'
steer the boat. Before proceeding with our instructions for sailing
a yacht, it will be necessary to describe the action of the rudder ; as
the art of steering is the nicest and most important branch ot
seamanship.
The rudder is a flat board, with a pole rising up on the side, which
is fastened to the vessel ; on the top of which is fixed the tiller. In
large vessels, there are two ropes
fastened to the tiUer, which are car-
ried through blocks on each side of the
vessel; then brought back through
blocks fastened on the mizenmast, and
passed round a wheel, by which means
a greater command is obtained over
the rudder. When the tiller is moved
to the right (starboard), the rudder,
of course, is forced in the water to the
left (port). As the vessel moves on,
the water presses against the rudder
on the port side, and thus forces her
stem to the starboard side, and her bow to the port. When the
tUler is moved to the left, it of course produces a contrary effect.
If the ship is moving backwards, then, by moving the tiller to
the right, the bow is also turned to the right ; for the water presses
against the rudder beliind it on the left side, and thus pushes the
stem to the left. In steering, care must be taken not to steer too
much, — that is, not to move the rudder too violently or more than is
necessary, — as this materially stops her way.
We here present the young yachtsman with a cutter at anchor,
mth her ropes and spars numbered ; and which ought to be thoroughly
known, as well as the uses to which they are applied in sailing
a yacht ; — *
1. stem.
Vane and Spindle.
21.
Forestay.
2. Stern.
Cross-trees.
22.
Topping Lift.
, Tiller.
Trussle-tiuei.
23.
Lift Blocks.
Anchor.
Gaff.
24.
Mainsheet.
Cable.
Boom.
25.
Peak Halliards.
Bowsprit.
Topmast-shroud.
28.
Foresheet.
, Bobstay.
Topmast-backstay.
29.
Si^'nal Halliardc
, Mast.
Topmast-stay.
30.
Companion.
Topmast.
Runner and Tackle.
31.
Forecastle
Truck.
20.
Traveller for Jib.
X
32.
Rudder.
S06
EVEJIY boy's book.
CUTTER AT AMCBOR.
SOMETHING ABOUT THE MASTS, SPABS, KOPES, ETC.
The Mast (8) is a spar set nearly upright, inclining a little aft, to
support yards and sails. In a yacht, it is kept in its place by two
shrouds on each side, made of strong rope, and fastened to the sides
of the vessel.
The Bowsprit (6) is a spar carried out from the forepart of a yacht,
secured at its inner end between two strong posts piercing the deck,
called "the bitts." It is kept in its place by the bobstay (7), which
is fastened to the stem, and by a shroud on each side secured
to the bow.
The £oom (15) is that spar which sets out the mainsail below, and
is attached at one end to the mast by a swivel cable, called the
*' goose-neck," and is eased oif or hauled in at the other by the main-
sheet (24), which is a rope passing from the end of the boom through
a block on the side of the vessel.
The Gaf (14) sets out the mainsail above, and slides up and down
(he mast by means of a crescent end, which embraces it. The sides
of this curve are called "horns."
The Topmast (9) stands above the mast, and is made to slide up
and down. Ou it a topsail {i. e. a gaff-topsail) is set in light winds ;
but both sail and mast are generally lowered in squally weather. It
SAILING.
3or
is kept steady by a backstay (17) on each side of the foretopmast-
stay. The latter is brought down to the bowsprit "
Rones. — '
CUTTXa BEFORE THB ITIKD.
There ore various ropes to hoist and lower sails, called
haulyards (pronounced halliards).
There are also other ropes of great
importance, especially those called
the sheets, which are to haul in the
sails, and make them stand to the
wind. In a yacht, the mainsail has
sometimes a sheet each side ; and
sometimes only one sheet reeved
through double blocks, which travel
on an iron rod, called " a horse," from
side to side. The jib has two sheets,
the starboard and port (right and
left). The foresail has the same,
except in some instances,^ when it
has but one sheet worlapg on a
traveller, like the mainsail. _ ITie
topsail has only one, which is rove
through a sheave at the end of the
gaff and a block at the throat of the
gaff, and then down to a cleat or
fastening place on the deck. Signal
TOPMAST AND FORETOPMAST STAY.
208 EVERY boy's book,
haulyards are for hauling up the colours, and pass throi^h a small
sheave in the truck (10), at the end of the topmast. The ensign
haulyards are reeved through a small block at the peak end, and lead
down to the boom. The other ropes on board a jacht are for the
support of the spars, and are called " standing riggmg," while those
used for the sails are called " running rigging.'*
SAILING A YACHT.
If the reader has paid attention to our instructions, he ought now
to be pretty well conversant with build, rigging, spars, and sails of
a yaclit ; the next thing, therefore, is to explain the actual practical
sailing of a yacht. The number of hands must depend on the tonnage
of the boat and the number of sails. It is best to have a steersman,
and one hand for each sail. Our yacht is now lying at anchor, or
moorings, which consists of a chain and buoy, fastened to a heavy
anchor sunk in the bed of the river. Having got on board, by means
of the little boat called a "dingy," we first unloose the fore and
mainsail, and forestaysail ; haul out the jib on the bowsprit, ready for
hoisting; hoist the colours, with the name of the yacnt or club to
whicii she belongs, to the gaff-end ; and stand by to hoist the canvass.
We win suppose it just past high water, the yacht swinging ebb, and
the wind up stream ; we shall, therefore, have tide witn us, and the
wind against us. We now hoist the throat and peak halliards, till the
former is well up block to block; then, by hauling at the peak-
halliards till the after part of the sail is taut (tight), the mainsail is
set, and she swings head to wind. The next tiling is to hoist the
forestaysail and the iib, which must be well purchased up, and the
sheet well hauled in, before we can get her on the wind, i. e. sail close
up to the wind. The ropes must now be coiled up, and hung on the
cleat belonging to each. Our canvass being now up, we may cast off,
slack out the mainsail, haul in jibsheet on the contrary tack to which
we intend to sail, and we are undw* weigh.
We have already told the reader that " starboard" means right, and
"port" means left. Formerly, the word "larboard" was used for leftj
but, owing to the similarity between the two words starboard an/!
larboard, tue word port was substituted for the latter. A boat is said
to be on the starboard tack, when the wind is blowing from the star-
board side ; the port side is then called the lee side, and the starboai-d
the weather side. She is on the port tack when the wind blows from
the port side, which is then called the weather side, and the starboard
the lee side. When in steering she is brought nearer the wind, she
is said to "luff;" and when fui-ther from it, to "bear away." When
the helm is put so as to cause the boat to luff, the helm is "put up j"
when it causes the boat to. bear away, it is "put down," or alee.
Proceeding to our cruise, we must haul the jib-sheet well in, put
tJie liolm up, and sail close to the wind; as, the wind being against
us, we shall have to " beat up," that is, saU in a zigzag direction. In
SAILING. 309
sailing close to the wind, we must always take care not to sail too close,
but always keep the canvass quite full. Upon the skill of the steers-
man, mainly depend the motions of the boat ; he must endeavour to
attain the happy medimn of keeping the boat close to the wind, and
yet not allowuig the canvass to shake. The practised yachtsman fecla
with his helm every variation of the wind, and meets it with a turn to
port or starboard ; but the yoimg sailor would do well to watch the
colour at the masthead, and, by keeping it in a line with the gaif, he
will not steer very ^vildly. We are now getting near tlie oppo.site
bank from whence ^ye started, and must therefore tack. If the boat
is quick in stays (/". e. will go round quickly), and the bottom is not
muddy, and is deep enough for the boat, we may go pretty close to
the bank before we tack ; but if she is a slow tub, we must begin in
good time. First, we must see that all the canvass is quite full ; then
the mainsail must be hauled to the middle of the boat, or amidsliips,
and the helm put gradually down. When she is head to wind, let fly
the jibsheet ; if she is on the starboard tack, haul in the port fore-
sheet taut, which is called backing the foresail ; the wind, by blowing
on the foresail, assists the boat round. When she begins to fill on the
other tack, cast off the port (now the weather) foresheet, and haid in
the leesheet and also the jibsheet, and trim the mainsail {i.e. let go,
or haul in, the mainsheet), according to the direction of the wind. If
when tlie boat is in stays, or head to wind, she moves neither way,
put the hehn amidsliips ; if she moves back, put the helm the contrary
way to what you had it before, resuming its former position when she
moves on again. When the wind gets more on our beam {i. e. blows
directly across us), we may slack out the canvass a little ; the more
aft it blows, so much more we must square our sails. There is a
heavy cloud in the wind's eye, that admonishes us that a squall is
brewing, and the dark ripple of the water to windward tells us that it
will soon be here. Keep her well full, that as the squall strikes her
she may have good way on ; and luff into the wind as soon as the
squall bec^lns : and if she does not right at once, let go jib and fore-
sheets ; if that fails, cast off the mainsheet, and send a hand to stand
by tne fore and jib halliards, which must be let go when the squall
becomes violent. We must now reef the mainsail; to effect this,
allow plenty of room for driving to leeward ; set taut the " topping-
fift," a rope which hoists up the end of the boom ; lower the halliards ;
hook at the end of the boom an earring which is higher up in the sail,
and tie up the reef-poiuts ; then, having set up our mainsail, hoisted
a smaller jib, and drawn in the foresheet, we arc under sail again.
We must take care always to observe the lules of sailing, when
meeting with another yacht Whichever boat is running free must
make way for one close hauled ; for a boat when close hauled cannot
conveniently alter her course, but when she is running free she is
id ways able to move to which side she pleases. As we get into %vider
water, we shall find more swell, that impedes the boat to windward •
310 EVERT boy's book.
but, if the waves be long enough, there is a way of easing her over
them, by putting down the helm slightly, iust before the highest of
them strikes her bow ; thus, by stopping the boat's way, she strikes
the sea with less violence.
BUINGING IIP.
Our destination outward bound being in sight, we must prepare to
bring up. The anchor must be got on cleck; the cable passed through
the Eawsehole, and shackled or fastened to the anchor, with its stock
made ready and secured ; then suspended over the bowsprit shrouds,
and made ready to let go. Lower the head-sails, put down the helm
till she is head to wind, and when she is fairly stopped we may drop
the anchor.
MAKING SNUG.
The mainsail may now be triced up, with the peak lowered, and
with the hehn to one quarter or the otner, according as the tide sets;
we may then hope to he securely as long as we choose.
GOING BACK.
In getting under weigh once more, first haul the cable short ; get all
the canvass ready to set up ; wei^h anchor, and, as the wind is fair,
set the head sails first and the mamsail afterwards ; the peak should
not be two high in running, nor the back of the mainsail fast, but
raised slightly to let the vrind into the head sails. The tide is now
against us ; we must, therefore, keep out of the strength of it as much
as possible.
JIBING.
In rounding the next point we shall jib, or jibe, one of the most
difficult manoeuvres in sailmg; for in doing so there is danger of broach-
ing-to, so as to run on shore; of being swept overboard by the boom
as it passes from side to side; and of carrymg away or snapping the
boom itself. To avoid these mischances, give the shore a wiae berth;
take in the mainsheet, keeping its coils clear for running out ; trice
up the tack of the mainsail, and if the breeze is strong, lower the
peak ; you may then put your helm to the opposite side to which the
boom swings, ^md, on the instant the mainsail has traversed to the
other side, change your hehn to the reverse and meet her ; — ^this pre-
vents the broacmng-to which would otherwise occur.
BBINGING UP AT MOORINGS.
We are stiU against the tide, and our moorings are in sight. To
bring her up handsomely calls for more skill than even handling her
well. Our object now must be to lay her still at the moorings from
whence we started, and at the same time to have enough way to reach
them. In our present case it will be best to round ner to about ai>
SAILING.
311
hundred yards short of the moorings, and, when head to wind, lower
the mainsail, leaving the head sails standing — this with putting up the
helm will bring her head round again — ^thentake in the jib, and, if she
has way enougn, the foresail also ; and with the opposing tide we may
steer our craft so steadily to the buoy as to take it on board with
ease.
Having informed the young sailor of what is necessary to be done
on board, we will now impress on his mind a few useful nautical
terms and maxims, which may lead to the preservation of life and limb.
Of THE MAEINERS* COMPASS, AND VAUIOTJS NAUTICAL TERMS.
The ancients, whose only guides over the trackless waters were the
heavenly bodies, so often obscured by clouds, could not venture far
from shore. It is the compass which has enabled us to steer
boldly across the deep. The directive power of the loadstone has been
long known to the Chmese, and it was brought over to Europe about the
year 1260. The communication of the magnetic power to steel and
suspending it on a pivot, is undoubtedly an European invention. The
compass is composed of a magnetic needle suspended freely on a pivot,
and supporting a card marked with the thirty-two points of direction
into which the horizon is divided, and which are thence called the
points of the compass. The needle always points nearly north, and
the direction of the boat may be easily seen by looking at the card.
The whole apparatus on board a ship is enclosed in a box with a glass
cover, to allow the card to be seen without being disturbed by the
wind. This box is also sometimes suspended, to prevent the needle
being affected by the motion of the vessel. The whole is then placed
at the binnacle, in sight of the helmsman. In the inside of that part
of the compass-box which is directly in a hne with the bow, is a cleay
312 EVERY boy's book.
black stroke, cabled the lubber Une, which the helmsman uses to keep
his course; that is, he must always keep the point of the card which
indicates her course pointing at the lubber line. Every young yachts-
man must learn to box the compass ; that is, to repeat all its points
in order.
CAUTIONS AND DIRECTIONS.
1. Never leave anytliing in the gang^vay, and keep the decks clear.
2. Coil up all ropes ; and have a place fo? everything, and every-
thing in its place.
3. Take care that in tacking or jibing the boom does not knock you
overboard.
4. Stand clear of ropes' ends and blocks flying about, when you are
tacking, and the sails shaking.
5. Keep a good look out ahead, and also for squalls, which may
generally oe observed to windward.
6. Always obey the orders of the steersman promptly.
7. Keep all your standing rig^in^ taut.
8. When the boat is on tiie winc^ sit on the weather side.
9. Sliould the boat capsize, keep yourself clear of the rigging, and
swim ashore.
The young yachtsman sliould on no account attempt to take com-
mand of a boat till he is thoroughly experienced, and should never go
in one without having at least one experienced hand on board ; he
should also always have his eyes open to what is going on, and be
ever ready to lend assistance with the greatest promptitude. Quick-
ness and agility are the characteristics of a saUor ; without these, nu-
merous would be the losses at sea. Tlie casting off or belaying a rope
quickly, is often attended with the most important consequences, m
which the losing or saving of life may be concerned ; and we would
therefore advise all who are emulous of being sailors, to be attentive
to their duties, quick in their evolutions, and steady in all their doings.
NAUTICAL TERMS.
Aback, the situation of the sails when the wind presses their surfaces
against the mast.
Abaft, towards the stem; e.g., abaft the mainmast, behind the
mainmast.
About, on the other tack; going about, tacking.
Abreast, alongside of.
Adrift, broken from moorings.
Afloat, on the surface of the water.
Ahead, in the dii'cction of the vessel's head.
Amidships, in the middle of the vessel.
Apeak, when the cable is hove taut, so as to bring the vessel nearly
over the anchor.
Astern, in the direction of her stem.
Avast, an order to stop.
SAILING. 313
Athwart, across — as " thwart hawse,"
Bachtaysy ropes riuming from topmast and top-gallantmast to her
iides.
Ballast, heavy materials placed in the bottom of the boat, to bring
her low in the water.
Beacoyi, a post or buoy placed over a shallow bank, to wani vessels.
Bearings, the widest part of the vessel below the upper deck. The
bearings of an object is its direction according to the points of the
coo-pass.
Belay, to; to make a rope fast.
Bend, to; is to make a sail fast to the yard, or a cable to the anchor.
Berth, the place where the vessel lies ; a man's sleeping place on
board.
Bulwarks, the woodworks of a vessel above deck; also the wooden
partition between cabins.
Bunting, the woollen stuff of which sliips' colours are made.
Buoy, a floating cask or piece of wood.
Cabin, the after part of the vessel in which the officers Kve.
Capstan, a machine ?placed perpendicularly on deck, roimd which
the cable is passed, in order to hoist the anchor. It is moved round
with bars of wood stuck into it, which are called handspikes or cap-
stanbars.
Cathead, large pieces of wood over the bow, having sheaves within
them, by which the anchor is hoisted or lowered.
Cleat, pieces of wood on which ropes are belayed.
Combings, raised woodwork round the hatches, to prevent the water
going down to the hold.
Companion, ladder leading down to the state cabins.
Davits, rods of timber or iron, with sheaves or blocks at their ends,
projecting over a vessel's side or stem, to hoist boats up to.
hraught, the depth of water which a vessel requires to float her.
Feather, to; to m't the blade of the oar horizontally as it comes out
of the water.
Fenders, pieces of wood or rope hanging over the side of a boat, to
keep it from chafing.
Fathom, six. feet.
Flat, a sheet is said to be hauled flat, when it is hauled down close.
Fore and Aft, lengthwise with the vessel.
Forecastle, the part of the vessel before the foremast.
Foul Anchor, when the cable has a turn round the anchor.
Gaff, a spar to which the head of a fore and aft sail is bent.
Gage, depth of water m a vessel — this water is called " bilge water."
Gangway, that part of a vessel's side through which people pass in
and out of the vessel.
Gaskets, pieces of rope or plaited stuff, used to fasten the sail to
the yard when it is furled.
Qiv9 toayy to j to row more forcibly.
314 EVERY boy's book.
Graptiely a small auclior with several claws, generally four, iised to
secure boats.
Gunwale, (pron. Gur^el^ the upper rail of a boat or vessel.
Gybe, or Jibe, to ; to shift over the boom of a fore-and-aft sail.
Halliards, ropes used for hoisting or lowering yards and sails.
Hatchway, an opening of the deck.
Hatches, the coverings of hatchways.
Hawser, a large rope.
Helm, the steering apparatus.
Hold water, to; to stop the progress of a boat, by keeping the oars in
the water.
Jib, a triangular headsail. .
Jib-boom, a spar rigged out beyond the bowsprit.
Jurymast, a temporary mast rigged in the place of a lost one.
Lee Board, a board fitted to the lee side of flat-bottomed boats, to
prevent their diifting to leeward.
Log, a journal of the proceedings of a vessel; also a line with a
triangular piece of board, called the log ship, which is cast overboard
to ascertain the ship's rate of sailing.
Luff, to ; to steer the boat nearer the wind.
Lurch, the sudden rolling of a vessel to one side.
Marling-spike, an u'on pin sharpened at one end, to separate the
strands oi a rope.
Martingale, or Bolphin-striker^ a short perpendicular spar under the
bowsprit's end.
Miss stays, to fail going about.
Oakum, pieces of yam picked to pieces, used for caulking.
Overhaul, to; when a rope is passed through two blocks, m order to
make a tackle, the rope wMch is hauled on is called the fall; if one of
the blocks gets loose, the act of hauling on the rope between the
blocks, in order to separate them, is called overhauling.
Fainter, a rope attached to the bow of a boat.
Petidant, a long narrow flag at the mast-head.
Quarter, that part of the vessel between the stem and the main
chains.
Ratlines (pron. Uaflin*s,) ropes fastened across the shrouds, like the
steps of a ladder.
Scud, to; to drive along before a gale with no sail, or only enough
to keep her ahead of the sea. Also, low thin clouds flying swiftly
before the wind.
Spanker, or Driver, the after sail of a ship or bark. It is fore and
aft sail set with a boom and gaff.
Splice, to; to join two ropes together by entwining their strands;
a rope is generally formed of three strands twisted together.
Spring, to; to split a mast.
Stays, large ropes leading from the masthead forward.
Staysail, a sail hoisted on a stay.
SAILING.
315
Steerage, the part of the between decks just before the aftei
cabin.
Stretcher^ pieces of wood placed across a boat's bottom for the
rowers to put their feet against.
Surge, large swelling waves breaking over rocks.
Taut, tight.
Throat, the inner edge of the gaff which embraces the mast.
Unbetid, to; to untie.
Unmoor, to; tc heave up one anchor, or to unfasten the ship from
her moorings.
Fane, a piece of bunting flying at the masthead to show th(
direction of the wind.
JFaist, the pai't of the upper deck between the quarterdeck anc
forecastle.
Wake, the path that a ship leaves behind her in the water.
Wear, to; to come round on the other side of the wind without
backin":.
Let A B be the vessel, g the direction of the wind ; a b is sailing
In the direction b c, and wants to change her course to a d ; if she
tacks, she traverses the dii-ection c n d ; if she wears, she goes ofl
from the wind in the direction e e d.
SKATING.
Skatikg is one of the finest ^mnastic exercises, by which man,
as Klopstock says, "like the Homeric gods, strides with wmged
feet over the sea transmuted into solid ground," It is one of the
healtliiest exercises, bringing fhe body into action by a ^reat variety
of motions. The art is mentioned in the Edda, written eight hundred
vcars ago, in which the god Uller is represented as distinguished by
teauty, arrows, and skates.
It is not known at what period skating was introduced into
England, but there are indications of it in the thirteenth century, for
iltz Stephen, in his History of London, says, that it was in that
time customary, when the ice was sufficiently strong, for the yoimp
citizens of London to fasten the leg-bones of animcUs und(;r thf
s k \ '[• I V (
or
ci'
O,*^
SKATING.
317
soles of the feet by tyinff tliem roniid the ancles, and then taking a
pole shod with iron into their hands, they pushed themselves forw ard
by striking it against the ice, and moved with a celerity equal to a
bnd flying through the air or an arrow from a cross-bow.
Fitz Stephen describes another kind of diversion on the ice in these
words, wliich may be acceptable to the young reader. He says :
"Others make a seat of ice as large as a millstone, and having placed
one of their companions on it, they draw him along, when it sometimes
happens that moving in slippery places they all fall down together,
which is rare sport, provided no harm be engendered.'* Ibral men-
tions, that in his time it was customary to use sledges, which being
extended from the centre by means of a strong rope, those who are
seated on them are moved round with great rapidity.
The use of the modem skate is supposed to have been brought
from Holland, and for many years skating has been exercised with
much elegance in England and in Scotland. Somehow or other, we
do not of late years have those severe frosts which enable the skater
to practise Ids art with vigour; but there is now a skatmg club in
London who anticipate tri{)s to HoUand dui-in^ the winter months,
where the art may be practised iti all its perfection.
In early days we were "prodigiously," as Dominie Sampson would
say, fond of the sport. Our first attempts were made during the
great frost in 1813-14, wliich lasted eleven weeks, and during which
time there was a fair on the Thames, and skating was practised in a
most delightful manner. One of the finest and most beautiful skaters
of that period was Robert Fergusson, a Scotchman, who had been a
" gentleman of means," in the early part of his life, but having shot,
horsed, tandem'd, dog'd, and skated away his substance, was so re-
duced as to become a teacher of his favourite art, and near the water
works of old London Bridge, on the west side, he pitched his tent
dui-ing the frost, inviting "gentlemen," who could aiford a " crown *
to become his pupils in the art of " Land flying," as he termed it.
He boasted of havuig taught the Prince of Wales, and he sported the
three ostrich feathers and " Icb Hieii" over his canvas. To him in
joutliful ardour we repaired, and the substance of his teachings we
subjoin for the special otncfit of our young friends.
The first maxnn of Fergusson to his pupils was, "Throw fear to
the dogs;" the next, "Put on youi- skates sccuiely;" and the third,
"Keep your balance:" and preniising this as a "start," I shall now
describe the various kinds of skates, and the methods of using them.
THE SKATE.
There are various kinds of skates. Some, such as the Dutch skates,
are very large and soiuewhat cumbersome, but very safe for tiiose
who skate with heavy U)ads on their shoulders, as tliey do m Holland,
Pennuirk, Kud Russia. In these the iron often projects above six
inches from the wood, and cui'Ls up towards the shin-bone above
318 EVERT boy's book.
a foot, that the skater may glide the more easily over the hillocks of
snow common to large expanses of ice.
Some skates are what are called fluted, that is, they have a groove
running along the centre of the iron, which are the best for begmners,
is they take a better hold of the ice. The plain skates have no such
^oove, and are better adapted for those who have partially acquired
[h? art, as with them the utmost velocity and elegance of movement
nay be performed.^
The iron of the skate, which lies under the foot, is called its blade;
this varies iu different kinds of skates, and the practised professor of
skating will choose a high or a low bladed skate, according to the
nature of the ice; but the beginner should never use a skate whose
blade is more than three quarters of an inch ia depth and a quarter
of an inch in breadth, for when the blades are deeper than this, the
balance of the body is not so easily preserved, and the ancles are
liable to be sprained or twisted.
PUTTING ON THE SKATES.
In putting on the skate, the "youngster" should kneel on one
kuee and fasten the skate on the foot of the other leg. If he should
liave a high laced boot, called in the eastern counties a "high-low,"
he will find such an excellent support to the whole machinery. Or
if he can provide himself with a " skate boot," in which the skate
and shoe are all of a piece, he wiU do better. Such skates were in-
vented in the great frost about seven years ago, but just as they were
coming in the frost went out; but they can stiU be procured. At
all events, the skater should bear in mind that the skate must be
fastened securely and firmly to the foot, by being well fastened to the
heel and sole of the boot by means of the screw and points, and well,
but not clumsily, strapped round the ancle, exactly so tight as to con-
fine the foot without nurtirig it or impeding the motions of the ancle
joints. There is a new skate now in use by the London Skating Club,
(1) Fluted skates, however, are dangerous for any but those of light weight, aa
the cut ice is apt to " ball " in the groove- and so to throw the wearer, if he lean«
on one side.
SKATING. 319
called the elastic skate, or spring skate, in whick a spring is introduced
at the bottom of the foot, which keeps it fast in every part. Skates
are also now made of gutta percha, and these are well worthy the
notice of the young skater.
HOW TO START UPON THE INSIDE EDGE.
Having risen to the perpendicular, the learner should first ascertain,
by moving his feet about on the ice, whether the skates are firmly
and comfortably fixed on his feet. He should
then walk a Little on them, supporting him-
self by a light pole about six teet in length,
having an iron spike at its end. Having in
this manner got a little used to the feel of
the skate on his foot, he should then en-
deavour to throw away all fear and strike
out slowly with the right foot, leaning on
the inside edge of the skate, and making the
pressure greatest at that part of the skate
opposite the ball of the great toe, at the
same time bending slightly forward. When
the skate has moved about a yard forward in tms manner, the left
foot should be brought to the ice in precisely similar manner.
The figure represents the skater starting and proceeding on the
inside edge.
MOVEMENT ON THE OUTSIDE EDGE.
Having practised on the inside edge for some days, to get used to
the skates, the learner may afterwards attempt the " outside edge,"
which is nothing more than throwing themselves upon the outer edge
of the skate, and making the balance of the body bend to that side
which wiU necessaiily enable them to form a semicircle. In this
much assistance wiU be derived by placing a bag of lead shot in the
pocket next to the foot employed m making the outside stroke, which
vnll produce an artificial poise of the body at first very useful. At
the commencement of the outside stroke the knee of the employed
leg should be a little bent, and gradually brought to a rectilineal
position when the stroke is completed. The best method of getting
to the "outside edge" is to form the circle inwards — say with the
right foot and with considerable force; in the course of this, place the
left foot down in front of the right, and lean powerfully on the outside
of the left heel. A little practice and confidence in his balance will
enable the student to lift his right foot, and hang it behind while he
proceeds to cut outside with his k/i foot. Let him then stop, and
Degin the inward circle with the left foot, and slip down the outer
edge of the right heel in the same way.
The young skater has now learned to balance himself, and can
venture to strike out at once to the right, on the heel of the right
320 EVERY bot's book.
foot, keeping the left suspended behind, with its toe closely pointed
to the heel of the right. As he advances, the left must be brought
past the inside of the ri^ht with a slight jerk ; this sHght jerk pro-
duces an opposing balancing motion of the "body; the right foot tlien
quickly poises, first on the outside of the heel, and then on the inside
of its toe, and by placing the left foot down before it, and striking
outside to the left, giving at the same time a slight push with, the
inside of. the right toe, he passes from right to left. Having learned
this much, the skater wiU proceed to change from left to right, and
then from right to left again, without any trouble. To skate " out-
side edge" properly, the toe of the suspended foot must be pointed
close to the ice beliind the other, ana kept there until the foot be
regained, when it must be brought sharply round to the change. The
skater must keep himself erect, leamng most on the heel.
This mode of skating having been acquired, an endless variety of
figures, devices, and modes of movement may be practised ; such as
"the roll," the figure of 3, of 6, or of 8, "the spread-ea^le," "the
mercurj;," "the backward outside edge," "the circle," "the waltz,*
" the minuet," " the pirouette," " the quadrille," &c.
The first step towards figure skating is the
FORWARD ROLL,
which is performed in the maimer already prescribed in the directions
on the " outside edge." To perform it gracefully, the skater should
bring his left shou-lder forward, throw his right arm back, look over
that shoulder, and boldly incline his body to that side, proceeding
alternately, with ease, grace, and deUberation. When he wishes to
stop, he should bring both his feet together, and stop gradually ; or
he may stop suddenly, by pressing on the heels of his skates, taking
care not to throw his toes up too much, or he will cut " all-fours."
THE DUTCH ROLL
is so called from the motion being used in HoUand by the traveUing
and trading classes in their conmion avocation. The figures it pre-
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Bents on the ice are small segments of very large circles; which
enables the skater to diverge but very slightly from the right line of
'!us course, and consequently accelerates his progress.
SKATING. 331
THE FIGURE OF EIGHT.
This is composed by merely fimshing the great
cii'cles, of which the above segments form a part.
To produce it, when the skater comes to the finish
of tlie stroke on the right foot, he should throw
the left quite across it, which will make him bear
hard on the outside of the right skate, from
which he must immediately strike. By com-
pleting the cu'cle in this manner on each leg, the
figure subjoined is performed.
THE FIGURE OF THREE.
This is performed principally on the inside edge backwards. The
head of the 3 is formed of half a small circle on the heel of the
outside edge; but when the circle is nearly
completed, the skater leans suddenly forward,
and rests on the same toe inside, and a back-
ward motion is produced, which develops the
tail of the 3. The right legged figure is that of
the 3 in its natural position, and the figure
made by the left leg is the same figure reversed;
as per example. In these evolutions, the motion
is not, strictly speaking, backwards, but rather sideways, as his face
and body are always in the direction of his motions.
THii BACK ROLL.
By the " back roll," as it is termed, the skater moves from one foot
to the other alternately. His face is turned towards the left shoulder.
The inside of the left skate bears_ on the ice, and the skater imme-
diately strikes from it to the outside back of the other, by pressing
it into the ice as forcibly as he can at the toe. The " back cross
roll " is performed in a similar manner, the stroke being from the
outside, instead of the inside of the skate.
The above motions combine the elements of skating, and having
acquired these, the learner may perform an infinite variety of move-
ments, such as "the cornua ammonis," "the Dutch maze," "the
fish," "the kite," "the true lovers' knot," &c.; with any other devices
his ima^fination may suggest. He may also engage in the quadrille
Y
322 EVERT boy's book.
or waltz, and exhibit his person in every variety of graceful form, a<
the same time that he exercises every muscle of the body.
GENEBAL DIEECTIGNS TO BE rOLLOWED BY PEKSONS
LEARNING TO SKATE.
1. Let your dress fit closely, but at the same time be of sufficient
ease to ensure freedom of motion. Neither skirts to coats nor full
trowsers should be worn.
2. Let flannel be worn next the skin by the delicate, and an extra
under-garment by the robust. Let the chest be well defended against
the cold. A piece of brown paper laid between the waistcoat and
shirt is one of the best chest protectors.
3. Be careful in venturing upon the ice, unless it be sufficiently
strong to bear the weight of the number that flock to it ; and watch
for the increase of numbers, that you may retire before danger
ensues.
4. Avoid rough and very smooth ice, and look carefully out for
obstructions thereon ; such as small twigs of trees, stones, or " hob-
bles ;" as well as for rotten ice, cracks wnere the ice has risen higher
on one side than the other, or holes. Should you suddenly come
upon rotten ice, do not stop, but pass over it as rapidly as possible*
Should you fall down upon it, roll lengthwise towards the firmer
part, without attempting to stand or walx upon it.
5. Should the skater faU into a hole, he should extend his pole or
stick across it, and hold on to it till assistance arrives: should he
have no stick, he may extend his arms horizontally across the edges
of the ice, tiU a rope can be thrown to him.
6. After an unlucky immersion in the water, the unfortunate skater
shoidd immediately take off his skates, and, if able, run home as
quickly as he can. He should then puU off all his wet clothes, take
a tablespoonful of brandy in a glass of hot water, rub himself
thoroughly with dry towels, and go to bed.
SLIDINa
"What can be jollier or more enjoyable than sliding for an hour
upon a crisp wintry morning, when the snow is lying three inches
deep on the ground? You may say what you please about the
pleasures of skating, but if you talk for an hour you'll never convince
us that there's more fun in it than in sliding. We confess we gaze
with admiration at a man twisting about on the ice like a teetotum on
a ricketty tea-tray, and that when, hke a crab, he goes backwards or
waltzes round on one foot, while the other is gracefully poised in the
air, we feel a pleasure in looking at him ; but then, after watching a
party of skaters for a short time, we begin to wonder how it is that
they all look so solemn, as if each man were engaged on such an im-
portant task that he could not speak a word to his neighbour, and
then we come to the conclusion that there is more display than real
jolly pleasure in skating, and that the highly-trained skater goes
through his evolutions rather in the hope of affording satisfaction to
the spectators than of deriving enjoyment himself, for we defy any
jolly-tempered fellow to feel jovial on a winter morning in company
without laughing and shouting with glee at any person he comes
across.
Therefore, when on turning from the mystic movements of a troup
of skaters to a party of sliders, we hear them laugh and shout at each
other, "now, then, keep the pot boiling," and other choice sentences,
and when we see a broad grin of pleasure plainly depicted on their
rosy faces, we cannot but think that the enjoyment of sliding shows
itself in a far more demonstrative manner than skating, and that
more pleasure is derived from looking at a crowd of merry U3 chins
going gaily down a sUde than in seeing quadrilles danced, or )iames
cut on the ice, by a band of skilled pdtineurs.
We also like sHding on account of its simplicity. All that its de-
votees require is a good sharp frost. What care they for ice ? The
hobnails in London boys' boots soon produce a shiny slippery sur-
face, and in a short time a respectable sHde is made out of the
drippings from a water-can, which a servant may have filled at the
pump the day before.
There are, we are sure, few English lads who do not know how to
slide. It seems to come as a matter of course to most boys ; but
still, lest there be some benighted youth to wliom the pleasures of the
sUde are still unknown, we must insert a few hints on the subject.
t2
324 EVERY boy's book.
*
Take a sliarp run of about ten yards, and as soon as you feel that
you are upon the slide, push the sole of the left foot as far along as
you can, making the weight of the body rest almost upon it. You
will then sHde away, the right foot following without any effort on
your part. We say advisedly do not push your foot untU you feel weU
upon the slide, for if you are not very careful about this point you
will endeavour to shde on that part of the earth which is not shppery,
and although the momentum may impel you as far as the shppery
portion, yet your progress will not be very great, as the force which
was required to carry you along the whole length of the slide is
partly wasted by the resistance which, at the start-off, the hard earth
offers to your foot. Then, we have seen many boys in their first
attempts to shde, place the heel upon the sUde before the toe. The
consequence is that they either fall over, or else only shp along a few
yards, for a moment's reflection will show that much greater force
can be exerted by pushing the sole along than is exerted when the
heel takes its place, and in the latter case, instead of the weight of
the body assisting one's progress, it probably causes the youthful
tyro to fall backwards upon Mother Earth, and to wonder how it
happens that he does not get on so well at first as other boys.
And now surmising that the slider is proficient in the first rudi-
ments of the art, let us enumerate a few of the feats which a sHder
may perform while on the glassy track.
Foremost amongst these stands the postman's knock, in which a
boy shdes upon one foot only, while with the other he gives double
taps quickly upon the ice, in imitation of the noise made by the red-
cotited messenger at our street doors. This, however, should not be
attempted untU the performer is weU on the shde, or the result will
probably be that he'll measure his length upon the ground. This is
also known as " knocking at the cobbler's ooor."
Then comes the " carambole," which consists in the slider smking
down two or three times during his journey, and rising as he reaches
its termination; unless, however, he is very careful the weight of his
body will drag him down altogether, and he wiU continue his journey
on another portion of his frame, rather than on his feet. But the best
accompUshment to be performed on a slide is the game known as
" turnpikes." Two stones or bricks are placed on the shde, with
sufiicient distance between them for a boy's foot to pass through.
The turnpike, thus roughly made, is to be kept by one of the party.
Off start the shders, taking care to pass through the pike, without
displacing or even touching its walls. Woe betide the unlucky wight
whose foot infringes this rule ! He is instantly turned off the shde,
and has to wait until some other incautious player commits a Hke
offence, and is thus compelled to take his place.
Such are a few of the feats performed by adepts in this graceful
art. Most lads, however, will be able to invent many more for
themselves, and numerous are the sports that can be indulged in.
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SWIMMING
Swimming is the most useful of all athletic accomplishments, as
by it human life is frequently saved which might have been sacri-
ficed. It is also useful in the development of muscular strength, as
well as highly beneficial to the nervous svstem, and repairs the vital
functions when falling into decline. In places near the sea or rivers,
to know how to swim is an iudispensable accompHshment. The
ancients, particularly the Greeks, held the art in such high estimation
as to bestow rewarcls upon the most perfect swimmers.
From the little familiarity with mmaersion in water which the
inhabitants of our over-grown towns and cities possess, a very great
proportion of the English population are but little acquainted with
the art of swimming, and witn the mode in which they should con-
duct themselves when risk of drowning presents itself. The English,
above all other persons, should be good swimmers, exposed as they
are by their insular situation, and commercial pursuits, and disposition
to visit other lands, so frequently^ to perils by sea ; yet, while most
towns on the Continent abound in baths and swimming-schools, in
British towns they are still few in number.
Most animals nave a natural aptitude for swimming, not found in
man ; for they will at once swim when even first tmrown into the
326 EVERY boy's book.
water; but it must be noticed that the motions they then employ
much more resemble their ordinary movements of progression than
those made use of by men under similar circumstances.
The children of many uncivilized nations, especially in warm cli-
mates, frequent the water from an early age, and seem almost to
swim by instinct. The remarkable powers of endurance, agility, and
strengtn manifested while in the water by many individuals of savage
tribes are well known, — powers which often enable them to come off
victorious in struggles with some of the fiercest inhabitants of those
rivers and coasts.
The art of swimming is by no means difficult of attainment, and
several authors have supplied directions to facOitate its acquisition.
Above all things, self-conlidence (not rashness leading into danger) is
required ; and, when this is possessed, all difficulty soon ceases. Dr.
Eranklia, himself an expert swimmer, recommends that at first a
famiharity with the buoyant power of water should be ^aiued; and to
acquire this, he directs the learner, after advancing mto the water
breast high, to turn round, so as to bring his face to the shore : he is
then to let an egg faU in the water, which, being white, will be seen
at the bottom. His object must now be, by diving down with his
eyes open, to reach and bring up the egg. He wm easily perceive
that there is no danger in this experiment, as the water gets shallower,
of course, towards the shore, and because whenever he likes, by
depressing nis feet, he can raise his head again above water.
The thmg that will most strike beginners will be the great difficulty
they experience in forcing themselves through the water to reach the
egg-, in consequence of the great resistance the water itself offers to
their progress : and this is indeed the practical lesson derivable from
the experiment ; for the learner becomes aware of the very great
sustaimng or supporting power of water, and hence has coimdence.
This sustaining jpower of water is shown under many circumstances :
thus, a stone which on land requires two men to remove it, might in
water be easily carried by one. A man might walk without harm on
broken glass m deep water, because his weight is supported by the
water. This knowledge of fluid support constitutes the groundwork
of all efforts in swimmm^, or in sell-preservation from drowning.
Should a person accidentally fall into the water, provided he
retained his presence of mind, a knowledge of the above facts would
save him probably from a " watery grave." The body being but very
slightly heavier than the volume of water it displaces, will, vritn
a very slight motion of the hands under water, float. When the chest
is thoroughly inflated with air, it is lighter than water, and floats
naturally, having half the head above water; so that the person
exposed to danger has only to turn upon his back, in order that that
half, consisting of his face, with the mouth and nostrils, be above the
water line.
But to float thus upon the water, the greatest care must be taken
SWIMMING. 327
not to elevate the arms or other parts above its surface ; and it is in
rememberiag this caution, that presence of miad in the time of
dangers confers so much benefit; lor, in the moment of terror, a per-
son thrown into the water almost instiuctively stretches out his
hands aloft to grasp at some object, thereby depriving himself of
a means of proceeding which would frequently keep him afloat until
succour arrived. By elevating any part of the body iu this way, we
remove it from the support afforaed by the water, and thus render
sinking inevitable.
Dr. Arnot, m allusion to this subject, says that many persons
are drowned who might be saved, for the following reasons : —
1. From their believing that their constant exertions are necessary
to preserve the body from sinking, and their hence assuming the posi-
tion of a swimmer, with the face downwards, in which the whole head
must be kept out of the water, in order to enable them to breathe ;
whereas, wnen lying on the back, only the face need be above
the water.
2. Erom the groundless fear that water entering by the ears may
di'own as if it entered by the mouth or nose, and their employing
exertions to prevent this.
3. The keeping of the hands above water, already alluded to.
4. Neglecting to take the opportunity of the intervals of the
waves passing over the head, to renew the air in their chest by an
inspiration.
5. Their not knowing the importance of keeping the chest as full
of .air as possible, which has nearly the same effect as tying a bladder
full of air around the neck would have.
But although floating in water is sufficient to preserve from imme-
diate danger, this will not alone enable us to swim. To swim, does
not mean simply to float, but to progress ; and progression by this
means depends, Kke the flight of birds, upon the law in Mechanics of
every action being followed by a corresponding reaction, but in an
opposite direction ; and thus, as the reaction of the air compressed by
the downward action of the bird's wing, causes it to mount aloft in
proportion to the force it communicates by that motion; so the
backward stioke communicated by the simultaneous movement of the
hands and feet of the swimmer, causes his forward progress in the
water. When once familiarised with the support derived from the
water itself, he soon learns to make the stroke con-ectly, especially if
aided and supported by some more experienced friend, — a far better
assistant than corks and bladders.
PLACES AND TIMES lOR BATHING AND SWIMMING.
It is presumed that most young lads who go to bathe will take the
opportunity of learning to swim. In crowded cities there are but
few places in which the youngster can leai-n the art; but in the
328 EVERY boy's book.
country there are many rivers, ponds, canals, or lakes, where botli
bathing and swimming may be indulged in without annoyance. The
best kmd of place for bathing is on a shelving gravelly shore, on which
the water gradually deepens, and where no awkward sweep of current
may take the bather oft his legs. The spot should also be free from
noles, weeds, and hard stones ; and a muddy bottom is to be avoided
by all means. Should the banks of such a spot be shaded by a few
trees, and should there be close by an open space for a run on the
grass after the bathe, so much the better; and the young learner will
then have the chief inducement to venture the sudden dip or head-
long plunge.
The best time of the day for bathing or svdmming is either before
breakfast, between the hours of six and eight in the summer-time, or
between eleven and twelve o'clock in the forenoon. Delicate persons
should not bathe early in the morning ; and it would be always well
to munch a biscuit before early bathing at aU times. No one should
ever think of entering the water on a full stomach, or immediately
after dinner, and never when over-heated and exhausted by fatigue.
He should also avoid entering it when cold, or with a headache.
Before bathing, it is best to take a moderate walk of about a mile,
and, while the svstem is in a glow, to undress quickly and plunge in.
It is bad to walk till you get hot, then to sit down and cool, and
afterwards to enter the water ; many have lost their Hves by this. It
is also very wroi^g to enter the water during rain, as the clothes are
often wetted or damp, which gives the bather cold.
ENTERING THE WATER.
Having stripped the body, the bather should select the best place
on the bank for going down to the stream; and then, proceeding
cautiously but quickly, wade u^ to his breasts, turn his head to the
shore, and dip. He then techmcaUy, as the boys say, gets his pinch
over. Should he not be man enough to proceed in this way, he
should, as soon as he gets his feet wet, splash some water over his
head, and go into the water more gradually, and try the rapid rush
and dip when he gets bolder. He must not attempt to swim or strike
out till he can master the feat of going into the water up to his arm-
pits, and till he feels himself confident and void of timidity.
AIDS TO SWIMMING.
Many aids have been used for the benefit of young swimmers:
corks and bladders fastened under the arms are the common ones ;
but they offer dangerous temptations for bathers to go out of their
depth, and then should cramp, cold, or any other accident occur, the
event may be fatal. Besides, these aids often slip about from one
place to the other. We remember, in our younger days, of the
" corks" slipping to the hips, and of seeing a young friend, now an
old man, suspended in the water with his head downwards ; while
BWIMMINQ. 320
collapsing of bladders and of air-jackets is by no means uncommon.
The best aid to a young swimmer is a judicious friend, himself a good
swimmer, who win hold up his head, when he strikes off, by the " tip
of the finger to the tip of the cliin," and who at the same tune will
show him now to strike off, and how to manage his hands and feet
It is not a bad plan to put out a spar from a boat, to which a rope ia
attached, which the young learner may make use of by affixing it to
a belt round his body un^er his arms, which wUl afford him support
while he learns to strike his legs m the water. The rope may also be
held in the hand of a friend, by the side of the boat, and the learner
may strike off hands and feet as the boat proceeds. The plank is
a dangerous aid, from its tendency to slip about, and to take the
swimmer out of his depth; and, although it has many advantages, is
very unsafe. The safest plan of all is, as we have before stated, for
the learner to advance gradually up to his arm-pits in the water, and
then, turning about, to strike slowly out towards the shore, taking
care to keep his legs well up from the bottom. Rigid perseverance in
this course will in a very short time enable the youngster to feel
himseK afloat, and moving at " all fours," — a delight equal to that
experienced by the child who first feels that he can walk from chair
to chair.
STRIKING OFP AND SWIMMING.
In striking off, the learner, having turned himself to the shore, as
before recommended, should fall towards the water gently, keeping
his head and neck perfectly upright, his breast advancing forward^ his
chest inflated; then, withdrawing the legs from_ the bottom, and
stretching them out, strike the arms forward in unison with the legs.
The back can scarcely be too much hollowed, or the head too much.
thrown back, as those who do otherwise will swim with their feet too
near the surface, instead of allowing them to be about a foot-and-half
j deep in the water. The hands should be placed just in front of the
330
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
thumbs to the edge of the fore-fingers: the hands must be made
rather concave on the inside, though not so much as to diminish the
size. In the stroke of the hands, they should be carried forward to
the utmost extent, taking care that they dc not touch the surface ol
the water ; they should next be swept to the side, at a distance from,
but as low as, the hips ; and should then be drawn up again, by bring-
ing the arms towards the side, bending the elbows upwards and the
wrists downwards, so as to let the hands hang down while the anna
are raising them to the first attitude.
HOW TO MANAGE THE LEGS.
The legs, which should be moved alternately with the hands, must
be drawn up with the knees iuwards, and the soles of the feet iacliaed
outwards ; and they should then be thrown backwards, as widely apart
from each other as possible. These motions of the hands and legs
may be practised out of the water; and whilst exercising the legs,
which can only be done one at a time, the learner may rest one hand
on the back of a chair to steady himself, while he moves the opjposite
leg. "When in the water, the learner must take care to draw m his
breath at the instant that his hands, descending to his hips, cause his
head to rise above the surface of the water ; and he should exhale
his breath at the moment his body is propelled forward through the
action of the legs If he does not attend precisely to these rules, he
must invariably have a downward motion, and, as the boys say, swim
furthest where it is deepest.
PLUNGING AND DIVING.
There are two kinds of plunging ; that belonging to shallow, and
that belonging to deep water. In shallow-water plunging, the learner
should fling himself as far forward as possible into the stream at
a very oblique an^le; and when he touches the water, he should raise
his head, keep his back hollow, and stretch his hands forward. In
the deep-water plunge, his body is to descend at a greater angle ; his
SWIMMING. 331
arms axe to be stretched out, his hands closed and pointed, and his
body bent, so that his nose almost touches his toes.
Diving is one of the greatest amusements connected with swim-
ming. There are many kmds; the two most common and easiest and
necessary modes of gomg below the surface, are —
1. The feet-foremost jump.
2. The head-foremost jump.
In the first, the legs, arms, and head are to be kept perfectly rigid
and stiff. The pupu must not allow fear, or the strange sensation
felt in the bowels in leaping from considerable heights, to induce him
to spread the arms or legs, or to bend his body.
In the second mode, or head-foremost plunge, — ^which is the
safest mode for persons who are ^eavily built about the chest and
shoulders, if they have to enter the water from heights, — the head is
drawn dovm upon the chest, the arms stretched forward, and hands
closed to a point ; and as soon as the swimmer feels that he has left
the bank, lus knees, which till then were bent, are to be stiffened.
The diver must avoid striking on the beUy — the general consequence
of fear; and turning over so as to come down on his back or side — the
consequence of pushing with the feet. When he has gone as deep as
he wishes, the arms are to be raised and pressed downwards.
SWIMMING UNDER WATER.
When under the water, the swimmer may either move in the usual
way, or keep his hands stretched before him, which will enable him
to cut the water more easily, and greatly relieve his chest. If he
observes that he approaches too near the surface of the water, he
must press the palms of his hands upwards. If he wishes to dive to
the bottom, he must turn the pahns of his hands upwards, striking
with them repeatedly and rapidly whUst the feet are reposing ; and
when he has obtained a perpendicular position, he should stretch out
lis hands like feelers, and make the usual movement with his feet,
332
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
then he will descend with great rapidity to the bottom. It is well to
accustom the eyes to open themselves under the water, at least in
those beds of water that admit the light, as it will enable the swimmei
to ascertain the depth of water he is in.
SWIMMING ON THE SIDE.
In this, the body is turned either on the left or right side, while
the feet perform their usual motions. The arm from under the
shoulder stretches itself out quickly, at the same tune that the feet
are striking. The other arm strikes at the same time with the impel-
ling of the feet. The hand of the latter arm begins its stroke on
a level with the head. While the hand is again brought forward in a
flat position, and the feet are contracted, the stretched-out hand is,
while working, drawn back towards the breast, but not so much
impelling as sustaining. As swimming on the side presents to the
water a smaller surface than on the waist, when rapidity is required,
the former is often preferable to the latter.
SWIMMING ON THE BACK WITHOUT EMPLOYING THE FEET.
This is twofold: 1. In the direction of the feet. The body is placed
in a horizontal position, the feet are stretched out stiffly, and the
heels and toes are kept in contact ; then the body is to be somewhat
curved at the seat, the hands are to be stretched flatly forward over
the body, and, slowly striking in small circles, the loins are somewhat
drawn up at each stroke. 2. In the direction of the head. The body
b placed horizontally, but somewhat curved in the seat, the head in
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its natural position, the arms are kept close to the body, with the
elbows inclined inwards, and the hands describe small circles from
the back to the front, at about a foot-and-half from the hips. These
modes serve to exercise and strengthen the arms in an extraordinary
degree without in the least fatiguing the breast.
SWIMMING.
333
FLOATING.
The body is laid horizontally on the back, the head is bent back -
wards as much as possible, the arms are stretched out over the head
in the direction of the body, the feet are left to their natural position;
if they sink, the loins must be kept as low as possible. In this
position, the person, who is specifically lighter than water, remains,
and may float at pleasure. The lungs should be kept inflated, that
the breast may oe distended and the circumference of the body
augmented. In order not to sink while in the act of taking breath,
which the greater specific weight of the body would effect, the breath
must be quickly expelled, and as quickly drawn in again, and then
retained as long as possible ; for, as the back is in a flat position, the
sinking, on account of the resistance of the water, does not take
place so rapidly but the quick respiration will restore the equilibrium
Defore the water reaches the nose.
TKEADING WATER.
This is a perpendicular position of the swimmer, and is of great
use to enable him to save a person from drowning. It is in general
thought to be extremely difficult, but it is very easy. There are two
ways of performiQg the action : in the first the hands are compressed
agaiast the hips, and the feet describe their usual circle ; the other
mode consists in not contracting both legs at the same time, but
one after the other, so that while the one remains contracted the
other describes a circle. In this mode, however, the legs must not
be stretched out, but the thighs are placed in a distended position,
and curved as if in a half-sitting posture.
THE FLING.
The swimmer lays himself flat upon his waist, draws his feet as
close as possible under the body, stretches his hands forwards, and.
"^^^^^^WHr ^ S
=.=-
m
with both feet and hands beating the water violently at the same time,
raises himself out of the water. In this manner one may succeed in
334 EVERY boy's book.
throwing oneself ont of the water as high as the hips. This exer-
cise is very useful, for saving oneself by catching a rope or any
other object that han^s from above the surface of the water, or from
any perpendicular height.
SWIMMING ON THE BACK.
In this the swimmer turns upon his back in the water by the com
bined motion of the arm and leg, and extending his body, his head
being in a line with it, so that the back and upper part, of the head
may be immersed, while the face and breast are out of the water.
The hands should be placed on the thighs straight down, and the legs
moved as in forward swimming, taking care that the knees do not
rise above the surface in strikmg them out. Sometimes the hands
are used after the motion of a win^ or fan, by which a slight pro-
gression is also made at the same tmie that the surface of the body
is well lifted out of the water.
THRUSTING.
In the thrust the swimmer lies horizontally upon his waist, and
makes the common motions in swimming. lie then simply stretches
one arm forwards, as in swimming on the side, but remains lying upon
the waist, and, in a widely described circle, he carries the other hand,
which is working under the breast, towards the hip. As soon as the
arm has completed this motion, it is lifted from the water in a
stretched position, and thrown forward in the greatest horizontal
level, and is then sunk with the hand flat into the water ; while the
swimmer thus stretches forth the arm, he, with the other hand
stretched as wide as possible, describes a small circle in order to sus-
tain the body; after this he brings his hand in a largely described
circle rapidly to the hip, lifts the arm out of the water, and thrusts it
forward. During the describing of the larger circle the feet make
their movements. To make the thrust beautifully, a considerable
degree of practice is required. This mode of swimming is useful
where a great degree of rapidity is required for a short distance.
EWIMMINQ.
335
THE DOUBLE THRUST.
In the performance of this the arm is thrust forwards, backwards,
and again forwards without di^piog into the water ; in the meantime
the stretched-forth arm describes two circles before it begins the
larger one.
TO SWIM LIKE A DOG.
In this motion each hand and foot is used alternately as a dog uses
them when swimming, as the term implies. The hands are alternately
drawn towards the chin ia a compressed form, and then expanded
and slightly hollowed, with fingers close, and as they strike the water
the feet are likewise drawn towards the belly, and struck backwards
with a kind of kick. This mode of swimming is of use to relieve
the swimmer from time to time when going a distance.
THE MILL.
The swimmer lays himself on his back and contracts himself so
that the knees are brought abnost to the chin, and while one of the
hands keeps the equilibrium by describing circles, the other continues
working. Thus the body is kept turning round more or less rapidly.
THE WHEEL BACKWARDS AND EORWARDS.
In the fonmrd wheel the hands are put as far backwards as
possible, and so pressed against the water that the head is impelled
under the surface, and the feet, by a pressure of the hands in a con-
trary direction, are rapidly flung above the head, which in this manner
is rapidly brought again to the surface.
In the backward wheel the swimmer lies upon his back, he con-
tracts himself, the hands, stretched forward as far as possible, describe
rapidly small cu'cles, the feet rise, and as the point of equilibrium
has been brought as near as possible to the feet, the head sinks and
the feet are thrown over.
i
336
EVERY boy's book.
TO SWIM WITH ONE HAND.
The learner to do this swims on one side, keeps his feet somewhat
deeply sunk, while the arm which in the meantime ought to work is
kept quiet-— and might even be taken out of the water. It is a good
practice of strength to carry, first under and then over the water, a
weight of four or eight pounds.
HAND OVER HAND SWIMMING.
In this process, the right hand is lifted out of the water from be-
hind, swung forwards through the air with a kind of circular sweep
to the extent of it^ reach forward, then dropped into the water edge-
ways, and immediately turned, with the
paun a little hollowed, downwards, the
body being at the same time thrown a
little on one side, and the right leg
struck out backwards to its full extent.
The hand descends towards the thigh,
and then passes upwards through the
water in a kind oi curve towards the
surface. The left hand and leg perform
a similar movement alternately with the
right, and the measure of progression
attaiued by these combined similar move-
ments is very considerable.
BALANCING.
When the swimmer has obtained ease
and confidence in the water, he wiU
find many tilings easy which before he
deemed impossible. Balancing is one of
these. To perform it he has only, when
out of his depth, to fall gently back with
his chin devated to a line passing exactly
SWIMMING 337
through the centre of his body from the chin to the toes, then,
folding his arms and remaining perfectly motionless, he may suspend
himseu perpendicnlaxly; but it he should exten(\ his arms backwards,
and pass them gradually beyond his head, his toes, tips of his knees,
abdomen, and part of his chest, with the whole of his face will appear,
: and he wdl be balanced and float horizontally without the slightest
motion.
THE CRAMP.
The cramp generally proceeds from acidity of the bowels, arising
from a bad state of the stomach, or from the effects of the cold water
on the muscular system. Some persons are very subject to it on
slight occasions, and such persons will do well never to go out of
their depth. But should a tolerable swimmer be seized with the
cramp, he should not be frightened, but the moment the cramp is felt
ia the foot or leg, strike out that foot or leg with the heel elongated,
and the toes drawn upwards towards the shin-bone, never minding any
little pain it may occasion, as he need nof- fear breaking a bone, muscle,
or tendon. Should this not succeed, he should throw himself on his
back, and float quietly, and paddle himself gently to the shore. He
may also swim with his hands like a dog, and practise any of the
motions of the upper part of the body for keepmg his head above
water till assistance amves.
I SAVING FROM DANGER.
Above all things the good swimmer should be anxious to save hfe,
and to rescue those who are in danger, without himself becoming
the victim, as it ofteti happens. The following rules are highly^ impor-
tant to be observed. The swimmer must avoid approaching the
h
:
drowning person in front, in order that he may not be grasped by
him ; for whatever a drowning person seizes, he holds with convulsive
force, and it is no easy matter to get disentangled from his ^asp ;
therefore he should seize him from behind, and let go of him unine-
338 EVERY boy's book.
diately if the other turns towards him. His best -way is to impel him
before him to the shore, or to draw him behind ; if the space to be
passed be too great, he should seize him by the foot and dmg him,
turning him on his back. If the drowning person should seize him,
there is no alternative for the swimmer than to drop him at once to
the bottom of the water, and there to wrestle with his antagonist; the
drowning man, by a kind of instinct to regain the surface, when
drawn down to the bottom, usually quits his prey, particularly if the
diver attacks him there with all his power.
For two swimmers the labour is easier, because they can mutually
relieve each other. If the drovniin^ person has still some presence
of mind remaining, they wiU then seize him one under one arm, and the
other under the other, and without any great effort in treading water,
bring him along with his head above water, while they enjoia him to
keep himself stretched out and as much as possible without motion,
SPOBTS AND FEATS IN SWIMMING.
1. The Float. — In this sport one swimmer lavs himself horizontally
on the back, with the feet stretched out, the hands pressed close to
the body, and the head raised forward. The other swimmer takes
hold of him by the extremity of the feet, and, swimming with one
hand, impels him forward. The first remains motionless.
2. The Plank. — One swimmer lays himself horizontally as before,
another lays hold of him with both his hands, immediately above the
ancle, and puUs him obliquely into the water, while he extends himself
and impels himself forwaid; thus both the swimmers drop rapidly
the one over the other.
3. The Pickaback Spring. — One swimmer treads the water, the
other swims near him behind, places his hands upon the shoulders of
the first, and presses him down. He then leaves his hold, and puts
his feet upon his shoulders, and, flinging himself out of the water,
pushes the first towards the bottom. Now he treads water, and the
first performs the part of the second, and so on.
4. The Shove. — Two swimmers place themselves horizontally on
their backs, the legs are strongly extended, and the soles of the feet
bear against each other; each impels forward with all his power, and
he who succeeds m pushing back the other is the conqueror.
5. The Wrestle. — Two swimmers place themselves opposite to each
other, tread water and hold their right hands in the aii'; the question
is, who shall first force his opponent under the water by pressure.
Only the head of the adversary is to be touched, and that only by
pressure.
BEENABDl'S SYSTEM OF UPRIGHT SWIMMING.
This system has been introduced iato many of the naval and
military colleges on the Continent, and has for its distinguishing
characteristic the swinmiing in an uprighi; position. The first object
SWIMMING. 339
is to teach the pupil how to float in an upright posture. He is taught
the use of his legs and arms for balancing the body in water, and
then to imitate as much as possible the movement of the limbs upon
land. He then pays great attention to the movements of the head,
the smallest inclination of which on either side instantly operates on
the whole body. He next learns the method of using his arms and
legs ; and for this purpose is directed to stretch his arms laterally on
each side, and then, by placing one foot forward and the other back-
ward, he is enabled to float easily and progress slowly. The same
circular sweep of the hands and the action of the legs are next prac.
tised, and the feet should be struck downwards and a little foi-wards,
when the movement of the arms is the reverse of the old methods
of swimming. The young swimmer who has gone through the
various courses laid down by us, will easiljr comprehend the principle
of Bernardi's system, and as easily carry it out if he will take the
trouble. It is much less fatiguing than the old plan, and can be
carried on for a longer period, and is of invaluable service to troops
who may have to cross rivers or dykes, and to aU who may be ex-
posed to the various accidents of flood and field.
THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM OF PFUEL.
The best of all methods for teaching swimming is that originally
introduced by General Pfuel into the Prussian swimming-schools. By
this method a person may be made a very good swimmer in a very
short time. The apparatus for teaching consists of a hempen girdle
five inches in width, of a rope from five to six fathoms in length, of
a pole eight feet long, and a horizontal rail fixed about three-and-a-
half feet above the platfonn, on which the teacher stands, to rest the
pole on.
The depth of the water in the place chosen for svdmming should, if
possible, be not less than eight feet, and the clearest and calmest
water should be selected. The pupil wears drawers, fastened by
a band above the hips and covering about half the thighs. He ii now
placed near the horizontal rail, ms hands resting upon it, while the
teacher shows him the motion which he wiU have to make with his
legs in the water. This he does by guiding the motion of one leg
while the pupil resti. on the other. This motion we shall explain
presently.
The*iswimming girdle, about five inches wide, is now placed round'
the pupil's breast, so that its upper edge rests on the chest, without
gettmg tight. The teacher takes the rope, which is fastened to the
ring of the girdle, in his hand, and directs the pupU to leap into the
water, keeping the legs straight and close togetner, and the arms
close to the body, and, what is very important, to breathe out through
the nose as soon as his head rises above the water, instead of breath-
ing in fii'st, as every man naturally does after a suspension of breath.
The object of this is to prevent the water from gcttmg into the throat,
z2
340 EVERY boy's book.
which produces an unpleasant feeling of choking and headache. This
expiration soon becomes perfectly natural to the swimmers.
The pupil is next invited to leap. He is drawn up immediately by
the rope, pulled to the ladder, and allowed to gain confidence
gradually. The rope is now fastened by a noose to the end of the pole,
the other end of it being kept in the hand of the teacher; the pole is
rested on the horizontal rail, and the pupil stretches himself horizon-
tally on the water, where he remains, supported by the pole. Next
the arms are extended stiffly forward, the hands clasped, the chin
touches the water; the legs are also stiffly stretched out, the heels
being together, the feet turned out, and the toes drawn up. This
horizontal position is important, and must be executed correctly. No
Umb is permitted to be relaxed.
The movement of the Kmbs is now taught; that of the legs is
taught first. The teacher first says, loudly and slowly, " One;" when
the legs are slowly drawn under the body; at the same time the knees
are separated to the greatest possible distance, the spine is bent
downwards, and the toe . kept outwards. The teacher then says
briskly, " Two ;" upon which the legs are stifily stretched out with a
moderate degree of quickness, while the heels are separated, and the
legs describe the widest possible angle, the toes being contracted and
kept outwards. The teacher then says quickly^, "Three;" upon which
the legs, with the knees held stiffljr, are quickly brought together,
and thus the original position is agam obtained.
The point at which the motions " two" and " three" join are the
most important, because it is the object to receive as large and com-
{)act a wedge of water between the legs as possible; so that when the
egs are brought together their action upon this wedge may urge the
body forward. In ordinary cases of swimming, the hands are not used
to propel, but merely to assist in keeping on the surface. By degrees,
therefore, " two" and " three" are counted in quick succession, and
the pupil is taught to extend the legs as widely as possible. After
some tune, what was done under the heads " two" and " three" is
done when "two" is called out. When the teacher sees that the
pupil is able to propel himself with ease, which he frequently acquires
the power of doing in the first lesson, and that he penorms the
motions already mentioned with regularity, he teaches the motions of
the hands, which must not be allowed to sink, as they are m^ph dis-
posed to do while the motion of the legs is practised.
The motion of the hands consists of two parts. Wben the teacher
says " One," the hands, which were held with the pahns together, are
opened, laid horizontally an inch or two under water, and the arms are
extended tiU they form an angle of 90° ; then the elbow is bent, and
the hands are brought up to the chin, having described an arch down-
ward and upward ; the lower part of the thumb touches the chin, the
palms being together. Wben the teacher says " Two," the arms are
quickly stretched forward, and thus the original horizontal position is
SWIMMING. 341
regained. The legs remain stiffly extended during the motion ol the
hands. If the motion of the hands is carefully and correctly per-
formed, the legs and arms are moved together ; so that while the
teacher says " One," the pupil performs the first motion of the hands
and legs ; when he says " Two," the second and third motions of the
feet, and the second of the hands.
As soon as the teacher perceives that the pupil begins to support
himself, he slackens the rope a little, and instantly straightens it if
the pupil is about to sink. When the pupil can swim about ten
strokes in succession, he is released from the pole, but not from the
rope. When he can swim about fifty strokes, fie is released from the
rope too ; but the teacher remains near him with a long pole until he
can swim 150 strokes in succession, so that, should he smk, the pole
is immediately held out to him. After this he may swim in the area
of the school, under the superintendence of the teacher, until he
E roves that he can swim half-an-hour in succession, so that, should
e sink, the pole is immediately held out to him; he is then con-
sidered fit to be left to himself.
Such are the outUnes of the German plan of swimming; and, much
as we dislike the German educational quackery, we are still obliged to
confess that schools for swimming might be, and ought to be, esta-
blished in this country in unison with the above system. No well-
conducted boarding-school ought to be without a swimming-school;
and the hints above given will be exceedingly useful to the swimmer
who has to teach himself, as well as to the gymnastic tutor who has
to teach others the art; and we conclude by earnestly recommending
the accomplishment of swimming to our young readers.
TRAINING.
It is impossible that any one can indulge to any extent either in
pedestrianism or rowing without going into some sort of training,
nowever slight it may be. Before either can be thoroughly enjoyed,
it is essential that the body should be brought into condition, and
the constitution prepared for the severe tests to which it is sure to
be put. Until this has been satisfactorily accomplished (and it
cannot be done without much perseverance and self-denial) success
at regattas or in athletic sports is quite out of the question, and the
most serious results will attend any attempt to take part in such
proceedings. Courage and determination to win a race, whether on
land or water, are qualities very much to be admired, yet they are
entirely after considerations; the first and chief endeavour must be.
to reduce the superfluous fat without weakening the system, to
secure soundness m wind and limb — in short, thoroughly to prepare
the body, so that it may be equal to the emergencies that may here-
after present themselves.
Training should not, however, be begun hastily. Before it is com-
menced, care should be taken to get the stomacn into condition for
the dieting it will have to undergo. These preliminary proceedings
will be more or less prolonged, according to the habits of life of the
patient. If a boy has been given to drinking large quantities of '
Deer, eating indigestible things, or smoking, he does not commence
under such favourable circumstances as those who have not so in-
dulged themselves. Probably he has injured his digestion and inter-
fered, however slightly, with his liver ; a state of things that he can
readily appreciate by the restlessness of his night's rest, and a furred
tongue, and unpleasant taste in his mouth in the morning. The first
thing he must do is gradually to lessen his quantity of beer daily,
till he can leave it off altogether if necessary, to eschew the pastry-
cook's and fruiterer's, and consign his pipe to the dust-hole. When
once he has made up his mind to go in for a system of training, he
should commence by taking a mild aperient dose, such as some salts
and senna, or a rhubarb pill, the latter followed in the morning, if
necessary, by a black dose. He must avoid going to the extreme,
and purging himself too violently — the medicine is solely intended
to clear the stomach preparatory to its new treatment— and having
gone thus far he may, vrithout any fear, put himself upon the diet
which shall presently be set out. He who has been wise enough
to satisfy himself with very little beer, and still less of raspberry
TRAINING. 343
puff or unripe greengages, and has refrained altogether froL
tobacco, which to young people is simply poison, may, unless oi
weak or sickly constitution, begin to train without any preliminary
preparations. If his heart and soul are reaUy in the contest for
which he desires to get himself into condition, and he possesses a
small amount of strength of mind, he will soon become accustomed
to the daily routine of food and exercise. It is no' use beginning,
and then yielding to the temptation for this or that nice thing ; when
once the ordeal has been commenced, it must be carried out strictly
and accurately, or it may as well be abandoned altogether. Eor the
desired state of body can only be arrived at by one means, namely, a
large amount of self-denial and close adherence to the prescribed diet.
There is of course some shght difference in the systems of training
to be pursued for rowing and pedestrianism ; at the same time, in the
chief and important points precisely the same course has to be taken.
If a boy has a walking or running race in view, he must remember
this, that he has to suit his daily exercise according to the distance
of the competition in which he is going to take part. For short
races he need do Httle more than keep his digestion and wind in
good order, taking care to have say a couple of hours' good exercise
in the course of the day. We would here venture to correct a grave
mistake made very often by young runners, who think that by con-
tinual practising and " spurting " they learn to improve their pace.
They can adopt no better means for defeating their own end than this,
as it will tend far more to diminish their pace than to improve it.
On the other hand, if they have a long course of several miles to get
over, speed is not so much a matter of importance as endurance, and
this latter quality can only be obtained by accustoming the body to
long and severe exercise. For young persons, however, it is extremely
injudicious to attempt too great distances, and we would advise that
two miles, and no more, be made the outside limit. Longer spins
than this are seldom, if ever, tried in ordinary amateur races.
Accordingly as the match that is to be contested is in running or
walking, so must the day's exercise be regulated. Avoid, if for the
former, taking too much running practice, and that never for a
greater distance than that of the race in which you are to take part.
Good sharp, brisk walking is more serviceable than anything else in
getting the body into order. And now, presuming that a boy is in
sound health, with good lungs and no unpleasant thumpings about
his heart, let us see how he should regulate his training. Six o'clock
to get out of bed and commence the day. No one who intends to
tram himself really seriously will wish to lie longer. Then a cold
tub with a big sponge and lots of water, followed by a severe rub-
bing with a rough Turkish towel, that leaves you all a-glow. Dress
as quickly as you can, and go out for half an hour's walk, or run, as
you feel inclined. Be sure, however, not to fatigue yourself, and
see that you come in to breakfast, say at half-past seven, with a good
344 EVERY boy's book.
appetite. Those who can eat porridge will find it a capital thing to
commence breakfast with, followed by the lean portion of a broiled
chop or steak, with bread at least two days old. Tea we believe to be
undesirable, and a pint of really sound bitter beer will be found to
agree much better.
There is no need to bind yourself down to a stipulated quantity
of food ; eat what you feel to require, and no more. After breakfast
get as much rest as you can, say for a couple of hours ; then take
yourself off for a couple of hours' walking or running, getting back
to dinner by about two o'clock. The pro^amme for this meal is
simple enough : a joint of roast meat, either mutton or beef, a
potato, and sometimes a little cauliflower, or brocoli, just to make a
change, bread as before, and another pint of bitter beer. The
liquids are the things in which the strictest care must be taken, and
the dailv quantity regulated. Poultry is sometimes introduced, but
we hardly think it good — in fact, as far as you can, stick to the good
plain joint, or chop, or steak, with bread and beer, and you wifl be
astonished how you will find your condition improved. After dinner
rest again for two or three hours, and then about six o'clock take
yourself off for another hour's exercise, on your return from which
you will no doubt be fuUv prepared with an appetite for supper.
This meal should always he a light one, as it is bad at all times,
and especially in training, to go to bed on a full stomach. Unless
you feel you absolutely require it, do not take aa"- meat ; otherwise,
a chop is the least objectionable, and a half-pint of beer. Never,
under any circumstances, exceed three pints of beer a day. Butter,
spices, peppers, and sauces should on no account be taken, and, as we
said before, so we again repeat, smoking must be abjured. If the
directions given are followed out, defeat will not be occasioned
through any error in the system of Dreparation.
PART III.
Stinitifit Pursuits:
IKCXiODINO
ACOUSTICS.
AERONAUTICS.
CHEMISTRY.
ELECTRICITY.
GALVANISM.
HEAT.
HYDRAULICS.
MAGNETISM.
MECHANICS.
MICROSCOPE.
OPTICS AND OPTICAL
ILLUSIONS.
PHOTOGRAPHY.
PNEUMATICS.
SPECTRUM.
ACOUSTICS.
Acoustics is the science relating to sound and hearing. Sound is
heard when any shock or impulse is given to the air, or to any other
body which is in contact directly or indirectly with the ear.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOUND AND NOISE.
Noises are made by the cracks of whips, the beating of hammers,
the creak of a file or saw, or the hubbub of a multitude. But when
a bell is struck, the bow of a violin drawn across the strings, or the
wetted finger turned round a musical glass, we have what are pro-
perly called sounds.
SOUNDS, HOW PROPAGATED.
Sounds are propagated on all bodies much after the manner that
waves are in water, with a velocity of 1,142 feet in a second.
Sounds in liquids and in solids are more rapid than in air. Two
stones rubbed together may be heard in water at half a mile ; solid
bodies convey sounds to great distances, and pipes may be made to
convey the voice over every part of the house.
TO SHOW HOW SOUND TRAVELS THROUGH A SOLID.
Take a long piece of wood, such as the handle of a hair broom, and
placing a watch at one end, apply your ear to the other, and the
tickings will be distinctly heard.
TO SHOW THAT SOUND DEPENDS ON VIBRATION.
Touch a bell when it is sounding, and the noise ceases ; the same
may be done to a musical string with the same results. Hold a
musical pitch-fork to the lips, when it is made to sound, and a quiver-
ing motion will be felt from its vibrations. These experiments show
that sound is produced by the quick motions and vibrations of dif-
ferent bodies.
MUSICAL FIGURES RESULTING FROM SOUND.
Cover the mouth of a wine glass, having a foot-stalk, with a thin
sheet of membrane, over which scatter a layer of fine sand. The
vibrations excited in the air by the sound of a musical instrument,
held within a few inches of the membrane, will cause the sand on
its surface to form regular lines and figures with astonishing celerity,
which vary with the sound produced.
348
EVERY boy's book.
TO MAKE A^ iEOLIAN HARP.
This instniment consists of a long narrow box of very thin deal,
about six inches deep, with a circle in the middle of the upper side
of an inch and a half in diameter, in which are to be drilled small holes.
On this side seven, ten, or more strings of very fine catgut are
stretched over bridges at each end like the bridges of a fiddle, and
screwed up or relaxed with screw pins. The strings must all be
tuned to one and the same note,^ and the instrument should be
placed "in a window partly open, in which the width is exactly equal
to the length of the harp, with the sash just raised to give the air
admission. When the air blows upon these strings with different
degrees of force, it will excite different tones of sound. Sometimes
the blast brings out all the tones in fuU concert, and sometimes it
sinks them to the softest murmurs.
A colossal imitation of the instrument just described was invented
at Milan in 1786, by the Abbate Gattoni. He stretched seven strong
iron wires, tuned to the notes of the gamut, from the top of a tower
sixty feet high, to the house of a Signor Moscate, who was interested
in. the success of the experiment; and this apparatus, called the
"giant's harp," in blowmg weather yielded lengthened peals of
harmonious music. In a storm this music was heard at a greater
distance.
THE INVTSIBLB GIRL.
The facility with which the voice circulates through tubes was
known to the ancients, and no doubt has afforded the priests of all
religions means of deception to the ignorant and credulous. But of
late days the light of science dispels all such wicked deceptions. A
very clever machine was produced at Paris several years ago, and
afterwards exhibited in London
, under the name of the " Invisible
Ni ^_ ^_^ ^^ Girl," since the apparatus was so
l^'^^^S^^S — ^^^^^ss^ constructed that tlie voice of a
I fM I " 7]| female ?it a distance was heard as
mmKa I if it originated from a hollow globe,
/V^MH I not more than a foot in diameter.
^" &• . A ""It consisted of a wooden frame
something like a tent bedstead,
formed by four pillars a a a Uy
connected by upper cross rails b b,
and similar rails below, while it
terminated above in four bent wires c c, proceeding at right angles
of the frame, and meeting in a central point. The hollow copper ball
(1) D is a good note for it. The upper string may be tuned to the upper D,
and the two lower to the lower D and D D. The "harmonics " are the sounds
produced.
ACOUSTICS. 349
d, with four trumpets 1 1, crossing from it at right angles, hung in
the centre of the frame, being connected vdth the wires alone by
four narrow ribbons r r. The questions were proposed close to the
open mouth of one of these trumpets, and the reply was returned
from the same orifice. The means used in the deception were as
foUow : a pipe or tube was attached to one of the hollow piUars, and
carried into another apartment, in which a female was placed ; and
this tube having been carried up the leg or pillar of the instrument
to the cross-rails, had an aperture exactly opposite two of the
trumpet mouths ; so that what was spoken was immediately answered
through a very simple mode of communication.
VENTEILOQUISM.
This is an art by no means very difficult of acquirement, if the
young reader will take the pains. It is produced by a reflection of
sound within the mouth, the voice being brought to the lowest pos-
sible place in the larynx. When the art is acquired by practice, the
voice may be made to appear as if coming from any part of a room,
from up a chimney, or from the depths of a cellar. The celebrated
Dr. Wolcott, better known as Peter Pindar, used to amuse his
friends in a remarkable manner with this art. He would represent
his landlady as demanding payment of her rent, and hold a coUoquy
with her, which would at last rise to terms of reproach and fury, and
end bv a noise as if the landlady had been kicked down stairs. The
marvellous powers of Matthews, Le Lagg, Alexander, and, lastly,
Mr. Love, are familiar to most persons. To ]oarn the art, the young
practitioner must have the power of enunciating well, and that with-
out motion of the lips, — of disguising the voice, so as to imitate
other sounds, — and of adapting the degree to the apparent source of
the sound. By practice this art is attainable by any person whose
organs of speech are completely and fully developed.
AEEONAUTICS.
BALLOONS.
The art of sailing or navigating a body through the air is called
aeronautics. In remote ages, Icarus is said to have risen so high
in the air that the sun melted his wings, and he fell into the ^Egean
sea, and was drowned; and there is leason to beheve, from some
figures that have recently been discovered on Egyptian and Assyrian
monuments, that the ancients possessed means of rising in the air
vrith which we are not now acquainted.
AERONAUTICS.
351
The air-balloon, as now constructed, is a bag of silk of large
dimensions, usually cut in gores, and is, when expanded bv gas, of
a pear-shape. It ascends in the atmosphere because its whole bulk is
much lighter than the air would be in the space it occupies. It is,
in fact, a vessel filled with a fluid which will float on another fluid
lighter than itself.
HOW TO TWATrn AN AIR-BALLOON.
The best shape for an air-baUoon, or rather a gas-balloon, is that of
a pegtop. And in preparing the gores proceed as follows : Get some
close texture silk, ana cut it into a form resembling a narrow pear
with a very, thin stalk. Fourteen of these pieces will be found to be
the best number ; and, of course, the breaoths of each piece must be
measured accordingly. When sewing them together, it will be of
advantage to coat the parts that overlap with a layer of varnish, as
this will save much trouble afterwards, and hold the sUk firmer in its
place during the stitching. The threads must be placed very regu-
larly, or the balloon will be drawn out of shape, and it wiU be found
useiul if the gores are covered with a interior coating of varnish before
they are finally sewn together. Take care not to have the varnish too
thick. To the upper part of the balloon there should be a valve
opening inwards, to which a string should be fastened, passing through
a hole made in a small piece of wood fixed in the lower part of the
balloon, so that the aeronaut may open the valve when he wishes
to descend ; and this should be imitated on a small scale, so thai
the youn^ aeronaut may be per-
fectly famdiar with the construction
of a balloon. The gores are to be
covered with a varnish of India-rubber
dissolved in a imxture of turpen-
tine and naphtha. Over the wnole
of the upper part should be a net-
work, which should come down to
the middle with various cords, pro-
ceeding from it to the circumfe-
rence of a circle about two feet
below the balloon. The circle may be
made of wood, or of several pieces
of slender cane bound together. The
meshes should be small at top,
against which part of the balloon tne
inflammable air exerts the greatest
force, and increase in size as they
recede from the top.
The car is made of wicker-work;
it is usually covered with leather, and is well varnished or painted. It
is suspended by ropes proceeding from the net which goes over tht
352
EVERY BOY'S BOOK.
balloon. Balloons of this kind cannot be made smaller tlian six feet
in diameter, of oUed silk, as the weight of the material is too great
for the air to buoy it up. They may be made smaller of thin slips
of bladder, or otner membrane glued together, or of thin gutta-
percha cloth, which is now extensively used for this purpose ; with
this they may be made a foot in diameter, and will rise beautifully
HOW TO FILL A BALLOON.
Procure a large stone bottle which will hold a gallon of water, into
this put a pouud of iron filings, or granulated zinc, with two quarts of
water, and add to this by degrees one pint of sulphuric acid. Then take
a tube, either of glass or metal, and introduce one end of it through a
cork, which place in the bottle, then put the other end. into the neck
of the balloon, and the gas will rise into the body of it. When quite
full withdraw the tube, and tie the neck of the balloon with strong
cord very tightly. If freed it will now rise in the air.
TO MAKE riEE-BALLOONS.
Cut the gores, according to the forms abeady given, from well-
woven tissue paper, paste the gores nicely together, and look weU
over the surface of the paper for any small hole
or slit, over which paste a piece of paper, and
let it dry. Pass a wire round the neck of the
balloon, and have two cross pieces at its diameter
a little bent, so that a piece of soft cotton dipped
in spirits of wine may be laid on them. When
all is prepared let some one hold the balloon from its top by means
of a stick, while you dip the cotton in spirits of wine till it is
thoroughly saturated, place it under the balloon and set fire to it,
but be very careful you do not set fire to the balloon. When the
air is sufficiently heated within, the balloon
will indicate a desire to rise, and when it
puUs very hard, let it go, and it wall ascend
to a great height in tlie air, and at night
present a very beautiful appearance.
PABACmiTES.
These are easily made by cutting a piece
of paper in a circular form, and placing
threads round the edges, which may be made
to converge to a point, at which a cork may
be placed as a balance. They ascend by the
air getting under them, and are fcequently
blown to a great distance.
or THE ^
SCIENTIFIC PURSDITS,
OHEMISTKY.
In the eleventh century, and during the reign of King Henry the
Eirst, surnamed Beauclerk, or the fine scholar, tnere appeared for the
first time in certain books, professing to teach the art making of gold,
the words chemistry, chemist, derived from the Greek XVH-^^^- Seven
hundred years and more have passed away, and that which was only
the pursuit of a shadow called alchemy, has resulted in the acquisition
of a great and noble science, now and again called chemistry. When
we go to the French Exposition, we shall doubtless pass by much
that is worthy of notice, and bring away with us only a general im-
pression of the wonders it contains. So it is with the great edffice
Chemistry ; we may, in these brief pages, peep in at the open door,
but should we desire to go beyond the threshold, there are numerous
guides, such as lloscoe, Wilson, and Fownes, who will conduct us
through the mazes of the interior, and explain in elementary language
the beautiful processes which have become so useful to mankind.
A A
354 EVERY BOYS BOOK.
Chemistry is one of the most comprehensive of all the sciences,
and at the same time one which comes home to us in the most
ordinary of our daily avocations. Most of the arts of life are indebted
to it for their very existence, and nearly all have been, from time to
time, improved by the application of its principles.
Chemistry is, in fact, the science which treats of the composition
of all material bodies, and of the means of forming them into new
combinations, and reducing them to their ultimate elements^ as they
are termed, that is, bodies which we are unable to split up, as it
were, or separate into other bodies. To take a common suDstance
as an illustration; water, by a great number of processes, can be
separated into two other substances, called oxygen and hydrogen, in
the proportion by weight of 8 parts of the first to 1 of the second ;
but no power that we at present possess can separate the oxygen and
hvdrogen into any other bodies ; they are therefore called ultimate
elements, or undecomposable bodies.
Again, sulphate of magnesia (eommon Epsom salts) can be very
easily separated into two other substances, — sulphuric acid and mag-
nesia ; and in this instance, both these substances can again be sub-
divided — the acid into sulphur and oxygen, and the magnesia into a
metallic body called magnesium and oxygen ; but sulphur, oxygen,
and magnesium are incapable of further division, and are therefore
called ultimate elements.
These ultimate elements amount to 64 in number, according to
the present state of our knowledge, and may be arranged in various
ways ; the simplest plan, perhaps, is dividing them into Non-metallic
and Metallic elements.
The Non-metallic elements are: — I. Oxygen. 2. Hydrogen.
3. Nitrogen. 4. Chlorine. 5. Iodine. 6. Bromine. 7. Tluorine.
8. Carbon. 9. Sulphur. 10. Selenium. 11. Tellurium. 12. Silicon.
13. Boron. 14. Phosphorus. The last-named element is the con-
necting link with the metals through arsenic, which phosphorus
clbsely resembles in its chemical properties.
The Metallic elements mav be sub-divided into the metals of the
alkalies, the metals of the alkaline earths, the metals of the earths,
and the other metals sometimes called metals proper.
1st. The metallic bases of the alkalies : — potassium, sodium,
lithium, ammonium, caesium, rubidium.
2d. The metallic bases of the alkaline earths : — calcium, strontium j
barium.
3d. The metallic bases of the earths : — aluminium, glucinum, zirco-
nium, thorium, yttrium, erbium, cerium, lanthanum, didymium.
4th. The metals proper, the most important of which are : — pla-
tinum, gold, silver, mercury, copper, iron, tin, lead, nickel, zinc,
bismuth, antimony, manganese, cobalt, arsenic.
Now, from these elementary bodies, united together in various
proportions, is formed the infinite variety of substances around us,
CHEMISTRY. 355
whether animal, vegetable, or mineral ; in fact, a few only are gene-
rally employed ; — in the case of animals and vegetables, oxygen,
hyckogen, carbon, nitrogen, with occasionally some sulphur, calcium,
phosphorus, and silicon, suffice for building up the beautiful forms
of animated nature ; while the fabric of our globe itself consists for
the most part of the earths ; silex, i. e. flint or crystal ; lime, in the
shape of chalk, marble, or limestone, such as our flagstones are com-
posed of; slate and granite, which are compounds of alumuiium,
silica, and small quantities of oxide of iron, and sometimes a little
potash, &c. ; and through their masses are projected irregular
streams — veins as they are termed — of the metals, either in a pure
state, as is the case sometimes with gold, silver, platinum, mercury,
and perhaps one or two others ; or combined with one of the non-
metallic elements, or wdth one another.
Late calculations have determined the composition of the earth's
solid crust in 100 parts by weight to be
Oxygen 440 to 48-7
Silicon 22-8 „ 362
Aluminium 99 ,. 61
Iron 9'9 „ 24
Calcium 66 „ 09
Magnesium 2'V „ 1
Sodium 2-4 „ 2*5
Potassium 1'7 „ 3*1
100- 100-
All these combinations are effected by certain powers, termed
forces ; those which cause the union of the elements are called the
forces of attraction; those causing their separation, the forces of
repulsion.
The force of attraction when exerted between masses of matter,
is termed gravitation ; when it unites particles of matter of a similar
kind and produces masses, it is called the attraction of cohesion ;
when the particles united are of a dissimilar character, it is then
termed chemical or elective affinity. For example, the crystals of
Epsom salts are formed from minute particles of the salt, united into
a larger or smaller mass by the attraction of cohesion, wliile the
elements of which each particle consists, namely, the sulphur,
oxygen, and magnesium, are united by the attraction of chemical
affinity.
Cohesion thus unites particles of a similar kind ; chemical affinity,
of a dissimilar nature. It is to cohesion that the existence of masses
of matter is owing, and its power increases as the squares of the
distances diminish, in an inverse ratio to the squares of the distances
of the particles on which it acts.
The power exerted by cohesion may be exhibited iu vanous ways.
aa2
356 EVERY boy's book.
This is one ; Procure two discs of glass about three inches in
diameter, their surfaces being ground extremely smooth; fix each
into a square piece of wood, taking care that they are placed accu-
rately in the centre ; then put them together, by sliding their edges
very carefully over each other, so as to avoid any air getting between
them, and you will find a great force necessary to separate them. A
hook should be fixed into the centre of each piece of wood, so that
they may be suspended, and a weight hung to the lower one. It is
almost impossible for any one to separate them by merely pulling
tiiem with both hands ; a weight of many pounds is required for that
purpose. In like manner two freshly-cut surfaces of caoutchouc
will, on being squeezed together, conere so perfectly, that it is
difficult to tear them asunder, and it is in this way that tubes
of caoutchouc may be rapidly prepared for experiments, where little
or no pressure is exerted.
Chemical affinity is sometimes called electine, or the efi'ect of
choice, as if one substance exerted a kind of preference for another,
and chose to be united to it rather than to that with which it was
previously combined ; thus, if you pour some vinegar, which is a
weak acetic acid, upon some pearlash (a combination of potash and
carbonic acid), or some carbonate of soda (a combination of the same
acid with soda), a violent effervescence will take place, occasioned by
the escape of the carbonic acid, displaced in consequence of the
potash or soda preferring the acetic acid, and forming a compound
called an acetate. Then, if some sulphuric acid be poured on this
new compound, the acetic acid will in its turn be displaced by the
greater attachment of either of the bases, as they are termed, for the
sulphuric acid. Again, if into a solulion of blue vitriol (a combina-
tion of sulphuric acid with oxide of copper) the bright blade of a
knife be introducea, the knife wdl speedily be
covered with a coat of copper, deposited in
consequence of the acid preferring the iron, of
which the knife is made, a quantity of it being
dissolved in exact proportion to the quantity of
copper deposited.
It is on the same principle that a very beau-
tiful preparation, called a silver-tree, or a lead-
tree, may be formed thus : — Fill a wide bottle,
capable of holding from half a pint to a pint,
with a tolerably strong solution of nitrate of
silver (lunar caustic), or acetate of lead, in pure
distilled water; then attach a small piece of
zinc by a string to the cork or stopper of the
bottle, so that the zinc shall hang about the
middle of the bottle, and set it by where it may be quite undisturbed;
in a short time, brilliant plates of silver or lead, as the case may be,
will be seen to collect around the piece of zinc, assuming more or
CHEMISTRY. 357
less of the crystalline form. This at first is a case of elective
affinity; the acid with which the silver or lead was united prefers the
zinc to either of those metals and in consequence discards them in
order to attach the zinc to itself, subsequently a voltaic current is set
up between the two metals, and the process will continue until almost
the whole of the zinc is taken up, or nearly the whole of the silver
or lead deposited.
Again, many animal and vegetable substances consist for the most
part of carbon or charcoal, united with oxygen and hydrogen in the
proportion which forms water. Now oil of vitriol (strong sulphuric
acid) has so powerful an affinity, or so great a thirst for water, that
it will abstract it from almost any body in which it exists ; if you
then pour some of this acid on a lump of sugar, or place a chip of
wood in it, the sugar or wood will speedily become quite black, or be
charred, as it is called, in consequence of the oxygen and hydrogen
being removed by the sulphuric acid, and only the carbon, or charcoal,
left.
When Cleopatra dissolved pearls of wondrous value in vinegar,
she was exhibiting unwittingly an instance of chemical elective
affinity ; the pearl being simply carbonate of lime, which was decom-
posed by the greater affinity or fondness of lime for its new ac-
quaintance (the acetic acid of the vinegar) than for the carbonic
acid, with which it had been united all its life, — an example of
inconstancy in strong contrast with the conduct of its owner, who
chose death rather than become the mistress of her lover's
conqueror.
GASES.
The three permanent gaseous elements are oxygen, hydrogen,
and nitrogen.
The compound gases are very numerous, some being combustible,
and others supporters of combustion.
Gases are for the most part transparent and colourless, with a few
exceptions, and of course, like the air of the atmosphere, invisible.
They are little affected by the attraction of cohesion, but rather, on
the contrary, the particles composing them have a constant tendency
to separate from each other, so that their force of expansion is only
limited by the pressure under which they may be kept, and the tem-
perature they may be exposed to. They have a tendency to penetrate
each other, as it were ; for instance, if you take a jar of heavy gas,
such as carbonic gas, set it with its mouth upwards, then invert over
it another jar containing hydrogen, a gas nearly twenty-two times
lighter; in a very short time the two gases will have become
thoroughly mixed, the heavy carbonic acid having risen, and the light
hydrogen fallen, until the gases are thoroughly mixed, each jar
containing an equal quantity of each gas.
358 EVERY boy's book.
OXYGEN GAS.
This gas, so named from two Greek words signifying the maker of
acid, was discovered by Dr. Priestly in 1774. He obtained it by
heating the red oxide of mercury in a glass retort, when the gas
escaped in considerable quantities. In the ensuing year Scheele
obtamed it by a variety of methods, and a few years afterwards
Lavoisier discovered that it was contained in atmospheric air, where
it exists in the proportion of about one-fifth, the remaining four-fifths
being almost entirely nitrogen.
Oxygen gas may be obtained for^he purpose of experiment, by
heating to redness the black oxide of manganese in an iron bottle, to
the mouth of which a flexible tube is attached to convey away the
gas as fast as it is liberated from the manganese. The first portions
should be allowed to escape, being mixed with the air in the tubes
and bottle, and the remainder may be collected in a gasometer, or in
glass jars inverted over water.
Another method to obtain the gas, and one to be used only in the
absence of other ingredients, is to mix in a retort some of this same
oxide of manganese with about half its weight of strong sulphuric
acid, and apply heat to the retort, when the gas will come over in
considerable quantities ; the first portions must be allowed to escape
as before.^ If the gas is required very pure, a small quantity of the
salt called chlorate of potassa may be heated in a retort, and oxygen
gas will be evolved, and may be collected as before. If you have an
iron bottle, the first mode is by far the cheapest, as the heat of a
bright fire is sufficient for tlie operation, and a large quantity of gas
is obtained in a short time from a very inexpensive material. The
most rapid and convenient process of all is to heat a mixture of two
parts chlorate of potash, and one of powdered black oxide of manga-
nese, in a common clean oil fiask, to which a cork and bent tube has
been adapted. Care must be taken not to mistake sulphide of anti-
mony for black oxide of manganese, as very serious accidents have
arisen from this cause.
Oxygen is largely distributed over our globe, both in its uncom-
bined state, and in union with other substances. Besides forming
one-fifth of the atmosphere, it forms eight-ninths by weight of aU the
water in the ocean, rivers, and springs on the face of the whole
earth. It also, in combination with various metals, forms the various
earths and minerals of which the crust of the earth consists, so that
it is the most abundant and widely distributed substance in nature,
and in combination with other elements, forms nearly half the weight
of the sohd earth.
In its uncombined state it is a colourless gas, somewhat heavier
(1) Some boiling water should be added to the mass left in the retort directly the
gas has ceased to come away, or it will adhere to the glass so flrmly, that the retoi-t
will certainly be spoilt.
CHEMISTRY. 359
than atmospheric air, without taste or smell. Is is a powerful sup-
porter of combustion, and is absolutely necessary for the support of
animal life, which camiot exist for any time without a free supply of
this gas, which is constantly consumed in the act of breathing, and
is replaced by an equivalent portion of carbonic acid gas. The want
of oxygen'is partly the cause of the oppression felt in crowded rooms,
where the air cannot be renewed so fast as is required for the miraber
of persons who are constantly consuming the oxygen; and if an
animal be confined under a glass jar inverted over water, it wiU
presently die, just for the same reason that burning tapers are
extinguished under similar circumstances.
If a jet of this gas be thrown upon a piece of charcoal, sulphur, or
almost any combustible body in a state of ignition, it will make it
burn with great vividness and rapidity. For a complete series of
experiments with oxygen see " The Boy's Play-book of Science."
EXPERIMENT.
But by far the most intense heat, and most
brilHant light, may be produced by introducing
a piece of phosphorus into a jar of oxygen.
The phosphorus may be placed in a small
copper cup, with a long handle of thick wire
passing through a hole in a cork that fits the
jar. The phosphorus must first be ignited; and,
as soon as it is introduced into the oxygen, it
gives out a light so brilliant that no eye can
bear it, and the whole jar appears filled with an
intensely luminous atmosphere. It is well to
dilute the oxygen with about one-fourth part
of common air to moderate the intense heat
which is nearly certain to break the jar if pure
oxygen is used.
EXPERIMENT.
If a piece of charcoal, which is pure carbon or nearly so, be
ignited, and introduced into a jar containing oxygen or common
atmospheric air, the product will be carbonic gas only, of which
we shall speak presently. As most combustible bodies contain both
carbon and hydrogen, the result of their combination is carbonic
ac.d and water. This is the case with the gas used for illumination;
and in order to prevent the water so produced from spoiling goods
in shops, various plans have been devised for carrying off the water
wh n in the state of steam. This is generally accomplished by
suspending over the burners glass bells, communicating with tubes
opening into the chimney, or passing outside the house.
To show that oxygen, or some equivalent, is necessary for the sup-
L
360
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
port of combustion, fix two or three pieces of wax-taper on flat pieces
of cork, and set them floating on water in a soup-plate, light them,
and invert over them a glass jar ; as they burn, the heat produced
may perhaps at first expand the air so as to force a small quantity
out of the jar, but the water will soon rise in the jar, and continue
to do so until the tapers expire, when you will find that a consider-
able portion of the air has disappeared, and what remains will no
longer support flame ; that is, the oxygen has been converted partly
into water, and partly into carbonic acid gas, by uniting with the
carbon and hydrogen, of which the taper consists, and the remaining
air is principally nitrogen, with some carbonic acid ; the presence of
the latter may be proved by decanting some of the remaming air into
a bottle, and then shaking some lime-water with it, which will absorb
the carbonic acid and form chalk, rendering the water quite turbid.
NITEOGEN.
This gas is, as its name implies, the producer of nitre, or at least
forms a portion of the nitric acid contained in nitre. It is rather
lighter than atmospheric air, colourless, transparent, incapable of
supporting animal life, on which account it is sometimes called azote —
an objectionable name, as it is not a poison like many other gases,
but destroys life only in the absence of oxygen. This gas extinguishes
all burning bodies plunged into it, and does not itself burn. It
exists largely in nature, for four-fifths of the atmosphere consists of
nitrogen gas. It is also an important constituent of animal bodies,
and is found in the vegetable world.
Nitrogen may be most easily obtained for experiment by setting
fire to some phosphorus contained in a porcelain or metallic cup,
placed under a gas jar full of air, and resting on the shelf of the
pneumatic trough, or in a soup-plate filled with water.
Nitrogen combines in five different pro-
portions with oxygen, producing five distmct
chemical compounds, named respectively
nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, nitric tri-oxide,
nitric tetr-oxide, nitric pent-oxide, which
last, united with water, forms nitric acid,
now called hydric nitrate, as nitrous acid
is termed hydric nitrite.
Nitrous oxide gas is generally known by
the name of "laughing gas," from the jolly
sensations experienced on inhaling it. It
may be procured by distilling in a glass
retort a salt called nitrate of ammonia,
which yields the gas in considerable quan-
tities, and it should be kept standing in
jars over water for some hours before it
is used. It should be transferred into a
CHEMISTRY. 361
silk air-tight bag, furnished with a stopcock and mouthpiece, from
which the gas may be breathed; a little practice is required to do this
easily, and more resolution to desist when the gas begins to produce
its effects, as it appears to fascinate the experimenter, and actual
force is often necessary to remove the bag from the mouth. The
effects produced vary according to the temperament of the person
inhaling it ; they are, however, always of a highly pleasurable nature,
muscular action being generally greatly exalted, compelling the indi-
vidual to race round the apartment and execute leaps and pirouettes
perfectly astounding. Some persons shout and sing, and I have seen
one expend his superfluous animation in twisting his features into
such ludicrous grimaces as would be the envy of the candidates at
a grinning match, and beat them all out of the field. Sir H. Davy was
the discoverer of this gas, and of its peculiar effects on the nervous
system, and a full account of it may oe found in his " llesearches
on Nitrous Oxide Gas."
This gas is heavier than air, and supports combustion nearly as
energetically as oxygen, as may be shown by introducing a piece of
ignited phosphorus into ajar of this gas. It will not, however, sup-
port the life of small animals, such as mice, which introduced into it
die very quickly.
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PLAN OF PNEUMATIC TROUGH.
SECTION OF PNEUMATIC TROUGH
The next compound of nitrogen with oxygen, when one proportion
of nitrogen unites with two of oxygen, is termed nitr^i? oxide gas.
It may be easily procured by heating in a retort some copper turnmgs
in dilute nitric acid. It is colourless and transparent, and has the
property of combining with oxygen to form other compounds.
EXPERIMENT.
Into a jar of this gas standing over water pass some oxygen gas.
The jar will be filled with red fumes, which will be rapidly absorbed
b^ the water. If atmospheric air be used instead of oxygen, there
will remain in the jar the nitrogen of the air, amounting to four-
fifths of the air employed.
362 EVERT boy's book.
This gas is destructive to animal life, in consequence of its property
of uniting with the oxygen in the lungs, and producing the highly
corrosive nitrous acid gas. It will, however, support the combustion
of a few substances, phosphorus for instance, provided it is sufficiently
heated before being plunged into the gas.
We pass over the third and fourth compounds of nitrogen with
oxygen, as they are not calculated for amusing experiments. Nitric
acid is easily prepared on the small scale, by gradually heating equal
parts by weight of nitric and sulphuric acid in a retort to which a
receiver has been adapted. The receiver, which may be a clean oil
flask, should be kept cool with wetted blotting paper.
Nitrogen combines with chlorine and iodine, forming detonating
compounds, the former being so extremely dangerous that it will be
better to pass it by.
The compound with iodine, called iodide of nitrogen, may very
easily be made by pouring strong solution of ammonia (a compound
of nitrogen and hydrogen) upon some iodine in a phial, shaking them
well together, and after letting them stand for a few hours, pouring
off the fluid; the black powder remaining in the phial is the explosive
compound, the iodide of nitrogen. When dry, it is very apt to de-
tonate spontaneously; it should therefore be shaken out of the phial
while wet, and spread in very small quantities on separate pieces of
blotting paper, which should be kept apart from eacn other. When
thoroughly dry, the slightest touch with the point of a feather,
shaking the paper on which it rests, or even opening too rapidly the
door of a closet where it has been put to dry, will cause it to explode,
producing a quantity of violet- coloured fumes. The explosion is
somewhat violent, producing a sharp cracking noise ; and the greatest
care should be taken in experimenting with it.
ATMOSPHERIC AIK,
As has been already mentioned, nitrogen is the principal constituent
of the air of the atmosphere which surrounds our globe, extending
to a height of about forty-five miles above it, and playing a most
important part in the economy of nature, inorganic as well as
organic.
This atmospheric air consists by volume of nearly four-fifths of
nitrogen, and rather more than one-fifth of oxygen, viz. seventy-nine
of the former to twenty-one of the latter, or twenty-three parts by
weight of oxygen and seventy-seven of nitrogen ; it generally con-
tains also a variable proportion of the vapour of water, and a very
small quantity of carbonic acid gas, being only about four volumes to
10,000 of air. Its constituent parts are easily separated, as it is a
mechanical mixture and not a chemical compound, though the mixture
by diffusion is so complete that chemists have not been able to
ascertain any difference in the composition of air taken from all parts
CHEMISTRY. 3C3
of the world, and from different heights, up to the highest point
which has to this time been attained.
The atmosphere presses on the surface of the globe, and every
being on it, with a force of about fifteen pounds to every square inch
of surface, but as it presses equally in all directions, upwards as well
as downwards, its weight cannot be perceived unless the pressure be
removed from one surface by some artificial means.
Atmospheric air contains, besides the oxygen and nitrogen, its
principal constituents, a small proportion of carbonic acid gas, as has
teen mentioned, and this may be shown by filling a tube about half
full of -lime- water, and shaking it with the air contained in the other
half, when it will become slightly turbid from the insoluble carbonate
of lime formed.
When we consider that every living animal is constantly consuming
oxygen, and replacing it by carbonic acid gas, and that all burning
bodies, fires in our dwellings, furnaces, artificial lights of all kinds,
act in the same way in abstracting the oxygen from the air, and re-
placing it by immense quantities of carbonic acid gas, which is a
poison to all animals who breathe, or attempt to breathe it, we must
wonder what becomes of this irrespirable gas, as it is found to exist
in the air in quantities so miuute, and by what means the oxygen is
restored, and the air again made fit for respiration. This is effected
by one of those laws which the wisdom of the Creator has impressed
upon matter, by which one part of creation as it were balances
another, and all proceeds in an endless cii'cle of change. This car-
bonic acid, which is so poisonous to animal life, is the food of the
vegetable world, plants havin* the power of taking up the carbonic
acid into their pores ; convertmg the carbon into their own substance,
and rejecting the oxygen, which is again respired by animals, &c. In
the same way, all animal refuse is tlie food of vegetables, and is used
under the name of manures.
The atmosphere contains also a variable quantity of vapour of
water, invisible as long as it is in the state of vapour, but it may be
rendered obvious by bringing any very cold body into warm air,
when the vapour will condense on the cold body in the form of small
drops of water. A tumbler of fresh-pumped water brought into a
crowded room, is almost immediately covered with moisture, and it
may also be seen on bottles of wine which have been put into ice
before coming to table. Eogs are occasioned by the condensation of
vapour produced by mixing a current of warm air with a colder air.
The banks of Newfoundland are notorious for dense fogs, occasioned
by the warm air brought from the south by the great Gulf stream,
mixing with the cold air from the Arctic regions, and thus preci-
pitating the vapour in a visible form, rendering everything but itself
mvisible. The famous London fogs depend upon the same preci-
pit-ution of the vapour of water, with the addition of the smoke from
orrnt '^
364 EVERY boy's book.
the numerous sea-coal fires, wliich give it that interesting yellow
tinge for which it is so remarkable.
Aqueous vapour appears to impart a transparency to air, and
permits objects to be seen more distinctly in proportion to its
quantity ; hence, when distant hills appear nearer, and objects upon
them more distinct than usual, rain may be expected, the air being
fully charged with vapour ready to be deposited on the shghtest
cause.
HYDKOGEN.
Hydrogen gas is the lightest substance knovra, being fifteen times
lighter than atmospheric air. It is colourless and transparent, inca-
pable of supporting combustion or respiration, but is itself com-
bustible. Hydrogen, as its name implies (being derived from two
Greek words, signifying the generator of water), is a constituent of
water in the proportion of one-ninth by weight, and is always ob-
tained by decomposing that fluid, by presenting to it some body to
take up its other ingredient, oxygen, and so
set the hydrogen at liberty. If the steam of
water be passed through a red-hot gun barrel,
containing iron fihngs, the water is decom-
posed, the iron taking the oxygen, and the
hydrogen comes over in torrents ; but as every
one has not a gun barrel and furnace to heat
it, the usual mode is to employ dilute sulphuric
{icid, and iron filings, or zinc, in small pieces,
and it may be collected over water by means
of a bent tube issuing from the bottle in which
it is formed. It is so light that it was used to
fill balloons before coal gas was to be had, and if you procure a Hght
air-tight bag of silk, or thin membrane such as a turkey's crop, and
fill it with the gas, it will ascend rapidly, and dance about the ceihng
of a room.
EXPEKIMENTS.
1. Attach a tobacco-pipe to a bladder filled with this gas, and blow
some soap-bubbles with it; they will rise very rapidly, and if a
lighted taper be apphed to them they burn.
If you mix in a soda water bottle one-tliird of oxygen with two-
thirds of hydrogen, and apply flame, the mixture will explode with a
sharp report. Great care must be taken in aU experiments with the
mixed gases. To avoid danger the gases are placed in separate
india-rubber bags, and are only brought together at the jet. This ia
CHEMISTRY.
365
an expensive apparatus, and should only be used by experienced
persons.
2. If a jar of tins gas be held with its mouth d^^onwards^ and a
lighted taper passed up well into the jar, the taper will be ex-
tinguished, and the gas take fire, and burn quietly at the mouth of
the'jar ; if mixed with oxygen or atmospheric air, it will explode.
Hold over the jet of hydrogen issuing from a small tube, hollow
c^^linders of glass or earthenware, Florence flasks, or hollow glass
balls, and musical sounds will be produced, which were supposed to
depend on some pecuhar property of hydrogen gas, until Mr. Faraday
tried flame from coal gas, olefiant gas, and even the vapour of ether,
when the sounds were still produced, and he attributed them to a
continuous explosion, or series of explosions, produced by the union
of oxygen with the hydrogen of the flames.
WATEE.
With oxygen, hydrogen unites to form the important compound
water, which exists not only in the obvious form of oceans, rivers,
lakes, rains, dews, &c. &c. but is found intimately combined with
many substances, giving them some of their peculiar properties.
Many crystals have a definite proportion of water combined with
them, and on losing this water they lose their crystalline form.
Many acids also cannot exist as acids without water. The slaking
of lime depends npon the union of water with the lime, the dry
powder resulting from the process being a hydrate of lime, the water
having become solidified^ and in passing from the fluid to the solid
state gives out its latent caloric, producing the heat observed duiing
366 EVERY boy's book.
the process. When a large quantity of lime, a barge-load for instance,
has got wetted by accident, the heat evolved has been sufficient to
set fire to the ^rge.
At the temperature of 32° of Tahrenheit's thermometer, water
loses its fluid form, and becomes ice. As it solidifies, it starts into
beautiful crystals, which unite and cross each other at determinate
angles. Ice is hghter than the water on which it floats, forming a
protection to the water beneath, and preventing it from being frozen
so rapidly ; else, if the ice were heavier than water, and consequently
sank as soon as formed, each portion of water would be frozen in its
turn, untU rivers became soHd throughout, and every Uving creature
in them must be destroyed. Now, the temperature of the water
under the ice is seldom much below 40°, and if care be taken to
break holes at intervals to allow access to the air, the fish and other
aquatic animals seldom suffer even in our coldest winters.
Although it is impossible to raise ice even one degree above 32°
without thawing, it is not difficult to reduce water many degrees
below that point without freezing it.
In order to obtain both the constituents of water in a separate
state, it must be decomposed by galvanism, each pole of a battery
terminating in a separate tube
ecntaining water, when the result
will be that at the positive pole
oxygen gas will be evolved, and
hydrogen at the negative, the
latter being double the quantity
of the former. Now, if vou mix
the gases thus obtained, intro-
duce them into a vessel called a
" Eudiometer," and pass an elec-
tric spark through them from a
Leyden phial, a sudden flash will
be seen, and the gases will entirely disappear, being again converted
into water. If you have a mercurial trough, and perform this experi-
ment over mercury, the inside of the eudiometer will exhibit minute
drops of water. Thus you have proved both by analysis and synthesis,
that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportion of one
volume of the former to two of the latter.
EXPERIMENT.
Take some perfectly pure distUled water, filter it, surround it with
a mixture of light snow, or powdered ice, and salt, taking care to
keep it perfectly still, a thermometer having been previously placed
in it. The mercury wiU gradually sink many degrees below the
freezing point 32° (it has been reduced as low as 4°), the watei still
remaming fluid ; when all at once, either from shaking the table, or
CHEMISTRY. 367
simply because the reduction can be carried no further, ifc suddenly
starts into ice, and the thermometer jumps up at once to 32°, where
it remains until the whole is frozen, when the temperature gradually
sinks to that of the surroundmg medium.
Now if you remove the glass of ice from the freezing mixture into
the apartment, and watch the thermometer, you will find it gradually
rise to 32°, and there remain untH aU the ice is melted, when it will
gradually acquire the temperature of the room. The reason of this
is, that the water in passing from the solid to the fluid form absorbs,
and in passing from the fluid to the soHd form gives out caloric, so
maintaining the temperature at 32°, the point at which the change of
form takes place, until it is completed.
Between the temperature of 32° and 212°, water exists in a fluid
form, under ordinair circumstances ; but at the latter point it
assumes the form of vapour or steam, and acquires many of the
properties of gases, being indefinitely expansible by heat, the force
increasing as the temperature is raised, provided the steam be con-
fined, until it becomes irresistible, — witness the frequent explosions
of steam-engines even in this country ; and in America, where the
engines are worked at a high pressure, accidents are of daily
occurrence.
The temperature at which water boils is modified by the pressure
applied to it. Thus, as you ascend a mountain, and so pass through
a portion of the atmosphere, water boQs at a lower temperature,
until at great heights it boils at so low a heat, that good tea cannot
be made because it is impossible to heat the water sufficiently.
Under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump, water boils at about
140^
CHLORINE.
Another gaseous element, sometimes called a supporter of com-
bustion, is named chlorine, from a Greek word signifying yellowish
green.
This gas was formerly called " oxymuriatic acid," being supposed
to be a compound of oxygen and muriatic acid gases, until Sir H.
Davy, in a series of masterly experiments carried on during the years
1808-9-10 and 11, proved that it contained no oxygen or muriatic
acid, and that it was in fact a simple or undecompounded substance,
and changed its name to chlorine, which name was, after some dis-
cussion, accepted by the scientific world, and is stiU in use.
Tliis gas may be obtained for experiment, by gently heating in a
retort a mixture of muriatic or hydrochloric acid, hydrochloride, as
it is now called, with some black oxide of manganese : the muriatic
acid, a compound of chlorine and hydrogen, is decomposed, and so is
the oxide of manganese, giving out some of its oxygen, which takes
the hydrogen from the muriatic acid to form water, while the chlorine
368
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
gas, with which the liydrogen had been united, is set at liberty, and
may be collected in jars over water.
Chlorine gas is transparent, of a greenish yellow colour, has a
pecuUar disagreeable taste and smell, and if breathed even in small
quantities, occasions a sensation of suffocation, of tightness in the
chest, and violent coughing, attended with great prostration. I have
been compelled to retire to bed from having upset a bottle containing
some of this gas. It destroys most vegetable colours when moist,
and is in fact the agent now universally employed for bleaching
purposes.
It has also the power of combining with and destroying all noxious
smells, and is invaluable as a purifier of foul rooms, and destroyer of
infection. For these latter purposes it is used in combination with
lime, either in substance or solution, under the name of " Chloride
of Lime."
Sir W. Burnett has lately discovered that the chloride of zinc
answers the same purposes as the chloride of lime, and has the
advantage of being itself destitute of smell, and his fluid is frequently
substituted for the other.
Chlorine gas is a powerful supporter of combustion, many of the
metals taking fire spontaneously when introduced in a fine state of
division into the gas.
EXPERIMENTS.
1. Into a jar of chlorine gas introduce a few sheets of copper leaf,
sold under the name of Dutch foil, when it will burn with a dull red
light.
2. If some metallic antimony in a state of powder be poured into
a iar of this gas, it will take fire as it fails, and bum with a bright
white light.
3. A small piece of the metal potassium may be introduced, and
will also take fire.
4. A piece of phosphorus will also generally take fire spontaneouslv
CHEMISTRY. 369
when introduced into this gas. In all these cases direct compounds
of the substances with chlorine are produced, called chlorides.
5. If a lighted taper be plunged quickly into the gas, it will con-
tinue to burn with a dull light, giving off a very large quantity of
smoke, being in fact the carbon of the wax taper, with which the
chlorine does not unite ; while the other constituent of the taper, the
hydrogen, forms muriatic acid by union with the chlorine.
6. This substance has the property of destroying most vegetable
colours, and is used in large quantities for bleaching calico, linen, and
the rags of which paper is made. Jt is a curious fact that it shows
this property only when water is present, for if a piece of coloured
cloth is introduced dry into a jar of the gas, also dry, no effect will
be produced — wet the cloth, and reintroduce it, and in a very short
time its colour will be discharged.
7. Introduce a quantity of the infusion of the common red cabbage,
which is of a beautiful blue colour, into a jar of this gas, and it will
instantly become nearlv as pale as water, retaining a slight tinge of
yellow. A solution ot sulphate of indigo can alwaj's be obtained,
and answers well for this experiment.
MURIATIC ACID GAS, OR HYDRIC CHLORIDE.
With chlorine, hydrogen forms a compound called muriatic, or
hydrochloric acid gas. It cannot easily be formed by the direct
union of its elements, but is procured from some compound in which
it exists ready formed. Common salt (chloride of sodium) is gene-
rally employed ; and when acted on by strong sulphuric acid (or oil
of vitriol), the gas is disengaged in abundance. It must be collected
over mercury, for water absorbs it, forming the liquid muriatic, or
hydrochloric acid.
' A lighted taper plunged into this gas is instantly extinguished.
It is very dangerous to animal life if respired. It has the property
of destroying animal effluvia, and was once employed to purify the
cathedral of Dijon, which was so filled with putrid emanations from
the bodies buried in it, that it had been closed for some time. It
perfectly succeeded, but it is so destructive to all metallic substances
that it is not used now, for the chlorides of lime and zinc have since
been discovered to act more effectually than the muriatic acid gas,
without its inconvenience.
The compounds of hvdrogen with iodine are passed over.
iWith nitroiicn, hydrogen unites and forms one of the most extra-
ordinary compounds in the whole range of chemistry, — the gas called
ammonia. This is the only gas possessing what are called alkaline
properties; i.e. it changes the blue colour of certain vegetables to
green, yellow to deep brown, and unites with the acids to form
neutral compounds, just as the other alkalies, potash and soda, which
are oxides of metals. It may be procured in abundance by heating
the hydrocllorate of ammonia, or sal ammoniac, as it is usually
B B
370 EVERY BOY'S BOOK.
called, with quick -lime, which takes the hydrochloric acid, and sets
free this remarkable gas. It must be received over mercury, as it is
absorbed to almost any extent by water, forming the fluid sold as
" spirits of hartshorn " in the shops.
This gas is colourless and transparent, lighter than atmospheric
air, and will not support combustion ; it has a very pungent but not
disagreeable smell. Under certain circumstances it is combustible.
EXPEKIMENTS.
1. Take a bottle containing chlorine gas, and invert over its mouth
another filled with amraoniacal gas ; then if the bottles be held in
the hand (guarded by a pair of gloves), and suddenly turned, so that
the chlorine be uppermost, the two gases will unite so rapidly that a
white flame fills the bottles for an instant.
2. Substitute for the chlorine of the last experiment a bottle of
carbonic or hydrochloric acid gas ; in either case the gases disappear,
and a light white powder settles on the sides of the bottles, being
the carbonate or hydrochlorate of ammonia, accordmg to the acid
used.
Carbonate of ammonia is the substance sold for " smelling salts ; "
and the hydrochlorate, or muriate of ammonia, is the salt called
"sal ammoniac," whence the alkahne gas was first obtained, and
from which it got its name of ammonia. The salt itself was so called,
because it was formerly brought from the deserts near the ruins of
the temple of Jupiter Ammon.
This salt is, as has been shown, a compound of muriatic acid gas
and ammoniacal gas, containing therefore only three simple elements
— hydrogen, chlorine, and nitrogen, all gases, and known only in the
gaseous state, its symbol being NH^Cg'; yet they by union form a
solid body, resembling in all essential qualities the salts of potash
and soda, which are oxides of known metals. Moreover, if some
mercury be placed in a solution of this salt, and subjected to the
action of galvanism, the negative pole being applied to the mercury,
and the positive to the sal ammoniac, the mercury presently loses its
fluidity, increases greatly in size, and in fact presents the same ap-
pearance as when it is mixed with some metal, forming what is called
an " amalgam." When the battery ceases to act, a succession of
white films forms on the surface of the amalgam, and the mercury
soon returns to its original state. How is this to be explained ?
Some chemists have supposed that there must be a base united to
the mercury, and have named this hypothetical substance " ammo-
nium," to correspond to potassium and sodium, the bases of potash
and soda, which resemble ammonia in so many properties. But what
is this ammonium? and how is it formed? for hydrogen and nitrogen
are simple elementary bodies. Are all metals compounds of gases ?
and are there but a few elements instead of the 64 now enumerated ?
This, however, is a difl&cult question, not fitted for discussion here.
CHEMISTRY 371
Carbonate of ammonia may be obtained by mixing together pow
dered chalk (which is a carbonate of lime) and muriate of ammonia,
and heating the mixture in close vessels, when the salt in question
will rise in fumes, and be condensed in a mass in the upper part of
the vessel. It is, however, so largely produced in other manufactures,
particularly in gas-works, that there is no necessity to resort to the
more expensive and direct method. It is the well-known " smelling
salts."
The only other salt of ammonia worth our notice here is the nitrate,
from the destructive distillation of which is obtained the nitrous
oxide, or laughing gas, already mentioned.
IODINE — BROMINE — FLTJOillNE.
On the coasts of certain islands belonging to the Duke of Argyll,
vast quantities of sea-weed are occasionally torn up from their ocean
beds and deposited on the shores. This weed, after being partially
dried by exposure to the sun and air, is burnt in a shallow pit ; the
ashes are then collected, and form the commercial raw material called
kelp, from which iodine is procured by a gradual series of processes.
EXPERIMENTS.
Iodine has a beautiful metalHc lustre, with a bluish black colour,
aiid should be kept in a well-stoppered bottle. A small quantity
placed in a clear flask and heated, affords a magnificent violet vapour,
which may be poured from the flask into another glass vessel, when
it condenses again into crystalline plates. The colour of the vapour
originates the name of this element, so called from the Greek ImdrjSj
violet-coloured. If a little iodine be placed in contact with a thin
slice of phosphorus, the latter takes fire ahnost immediately.
BROMINE,
So called from the Greek /3po/xos, a bad odour, is most intimately
allied with chlorine and iodine ; hke these elements it belongs to the
sea, and is a constituent of sea-water. Bromine is a very heavy
fluid, and should be preserved by keeping it covered with water in a
stoppered -bottle.
Experiments with liquid bromine are not recommended, as aU the
most interesting ones can be performed with the vapour, which is
easily procured by letting fall a few drops of bromine into a warm
dry bottle.
EXPERIMENTS.
t Pounded antimony sprinkled into the vapour takes fire immediately,
A thin slice of phosphorus placed in a deflagrating ladle and placed
into the vapour of bromine ignites very quickly.
A solution of sulphate of indigo, or an infusion of red cabbage,
are easily bleached by being shaken violently with the vapour of
bromine.
...
372 EVERY boy's book.
FLIJOIIINE.
In many parts of England, especially in Devonshire, Cornwall, and
above all in Derbyshire, is founa a very beautiful mineral, known by
the name of Eluor Spar, Derbyshire Spar, and called by the miners
Blue John, to distinguish it from another mineral found in the same
locality, called Black Jack. It occurs in very regular and frequently
large crystals in the form of cubes, and occasionally in octoedra. It
is a compound of calcium with fluorine, and is very abundant in
certain fossil bones. This element, in combination with hydrogen
and called hydrofluoric acid, acts so energetically upon all substances
containing siUca, that it cannot be preserved in vessels of glass or
f)orcelain — very few of the metals are capable of resisting its action,
ead being nearly the only common metal possessed of this power.
Gutta percha may also be emplojred for vessels to hold it.
This property of dissolving siUca, has caused this acid to be used
for engraving on glass.
EXPERIMENT.
Mix one part of powdered fluor-spar, quite pure, with two parts
of oil of vitriol, in a saucer, and apply a gentle heat, when the acid
will be disengaged in the form of vapour. Prepare a piece of glass
after the manner of engraving on copper, by coating it with a thin
covering of wax, placing a paper over the wax, and then drawing
any design with a sharp-pointed instrument, when, on removing the
paper, the wax-coating will be found to be removed wherever the
mstrument has passed over it. Now invert this glass over the fumes
of the acid for half an hour or so, and then heat the glass so as to
soften the coating, and wipe it off; the design will then appear
" bitten in " as the term is, that is, the acid will have dissolved the
glass wherever it was not protected by the wax, and will exhibit the
design indelibly fixed on the glass.
This acid requires the greatest care in handling, for it is extremely
corrosive, producing very troublesome ulcers if it comes in contact
with the skin ; even the fumes will produce smarting if the skin is
long exposed to them.
CABBON.
The next substance in our list of elementary bodies is named
carbon.
The purest form of carbon is the precious stone called diamond,
which consists entirely of carbon in a crystalhzed form. The Erench
chemist Lavoisier was the first who proved the combustibility of
the diamond ; and Sir H. Davy found that when once set on fire it
would continue to burn in oxygen gas air, and that the product of
the combustion was carbonic acid gas, exactly equal in quantity to
the gas produced by burning an equal weight of pure charcoal, the
most common form of carbon.
CHEMISTRY. 373
Plumbago, or " black-lead," as it is very improperly called, is also
nearly pure carbon^ a very small quantity of iron being united
with it.
By far tlie greater part of all vegetable, and a very large portion
of animal bodies consists of carbon ; and in the state of carbonic acid
in combination with Ume and some other earths, it forms nearly the
half of all the chalk, marble, and limestone of our hills ; so that it is,
in one shape or other, one of the most widely diffused bodies in
nature.
Carbon forms two gaseous compounds with oxygen ; the first, called
carbonic oxide, is easily obtained by boiling ox ahc acid with its own
bulk of sulphuric acid, in a flask to which a cork and bent tube is
^attached. The gas comes over in large quantities, and must be
collected in a gas jar, or the pneumatic trough. It is inflammable,
and bums with a lambent blue flame.
The other compound, carbonic acid, is transparent, colourless,
much heavier than atmospheric air, has an agreeable taste, has the
power of irritating the mucous membrane of the nose, (as any one
can tell who has drunk soda-water), without possessing any particular
odour, is absorbed by water, does not support respiration, and extin-
guishes flame.
Carbonic acid gas may be obtained with the greatest facility by
pouring some muriatic or sulphuric acid, diluted with about six parts
of water, upon some pieces of marble or hmestone in a bottle with a
tube attached, when the gas comes over in torrents. It may be
collected over water.
EXPERIMENTS.
1. To show the great comparative weight of this gas, place a
lighted taper at the bottom of a tall glass jar, then take a jar full of
carbonic acid gas, and pour it as you would pour water into the jar
containing the hghted taper ; you will soon find the taper will be
extinguished as effectually as if you had poured water on it, and the
smoke of the taper will float on the surface of the gas in very beau-
tiful wavy forms.
2. Heat a piece of the metal potassium in a metal
spoon (platinum is best), and if introduced in a
state of ignition into the gas, it will continue burn-
ing brilliantly, producing a quantity of dense smoke,
which is the carbon from the carbonic acid, the
potassium having seized the oxygen and being con-
verted by it into potash.
3. If a mouse, bird, or other small animal, be
placed in a jar of this gas, it becomes insensible
almost immediately, but if speedily removed it will stoppered bottle
occasionally recover. _ for holding gas.
4. Shake up some water with some of this gas in
a bottle ; the greater part of the gas will be absorbed by the wtjtr.r.
374 EVERY boy's book.
which acquires a sparkling appearance and a pleasant sharp taste ;
with the addition of a little soda this becomes the well-known
beverage called soda-water, so famous for removing the morning
headaches caused by " that salmon " having disagreed at yesterday's
dinner.
It is the presence of this gas which renders it so dangerous to
descend into deep wells, for by its great weight it collects at the
bottom, and instantly suffocates any unfortunate person who incau-
tiously subjects himself to it. Hence it is prudent always to let
dawn a Hghted candle before any one descends into a well, or other
deep excavation, and if the candle is extinguished, it is necessary to
throw down several pails of water, Hme-water if possible, and again
to try the candle, wmch must burn freely before it is safe for any one ^
to descend.
It is this same gas under the name of "choke-damp," which
proves so dangerous to miners, particularly after an explosion ot
" fire-damp," for it is the principal product of the explosion, and it is
by no means an easy matter to dislodge it.
Carbonic acid gas has been condensed into the fluid form by
causing it to be disengaged under great pressure ; the fluid acid has
the appearance of water. When the pressure is removed, as by
allowing some of the fluid acid to escape from the vessel in which it
has been condensed, it instantly reassumes the gaseous form, and in
so doing absorbs so much latent caloric that a portion of the acid is
actually solidified, and appears in the shape of mow, which may be
collected and preserved for a short time. After a lecture by Mr.
Addams before the Ashmolean Society of Oxford, I carried a kind of
snowball of carbonic acid for a distance of 500 or 600 yards, and
placed it in a saucer in a room. It evaporated very rapidly, and left
no residue, not even a mark where it had lain. It was too cold to be
touched by the naked hand without pain.
Carbonic acid and lime are mutually tests for each other. If a jar
containing a little lime-water be put into a jar of this gas, it speedily
becomes turbid, the gas uniting with the lime, and producing chalk
(the carbonate of lime), which is insoluble in water.
This gas is produced in large quantities by the respiration of
animals, as may be proved by respiring through a tube immersed in
hme-water, when the water will be instantly rendered turbid from
the formation of chalk.
CARBON KSD HYDROGEN.
To the combination of these elements in various proportions, and
with the occasional addition of other substances, we are indebted for
all, or nearly all, our means of obtaining hght and heat. Coal, wood,
spirit, oil, and all the varieties of fats, are composed principally of
carbon and hydrogen, and may easily be converted into the gas with
CHEMISTRY. 375
which our houses and streets are lighted, which is nearly pure
carburetted hydrogen.
The two chief definite gaseous compounds of these two elements
ai'e the light carburetted hydrogen, and the heavy carburetted
hydrogen, or olefiant gas. The first is easily procured by stirring the
bottom of stagnant water on a hot summer's day, and collecting the
bubbles in a bottle filled with water and inverted over the place
where the bubbles rise. This gas bums with a yellowish flame, and
when mixed with a certain proportion of air, or oxygen gas, explodes
with great violence on the application of a flame. It is the much
dreaded fire-damp generated so profusely in some coal-mines, and
causing such fearful destruction to life and property when accidentally
iiiflamed.
The other compound, the heavy carburetted hydrogen, forms part
of the gas used for illumination ; and, in fact, whatever substance is
employed for artificial Hght, whether oil, tallow, wax, &c. &c. it is
converted into this gas by heat, and then furnishes the light by its
own combustion.
This gas has some very curious properties, and may be obtained
nearly pure by mixing in a retort, very carefully, one part of spirits
of wine and four of sulphuric acid. A lamp must be placed under
tlie retort, when the gas will be speedilv disengaged, and come over
in great abundance ; it may be collected over water.
This gas is transparent,' colourless, will not support combustion,
but is itself inflammable, burning with a brilliant white ligh.t, and
being converted into carbonic acid and water. If mixed with three
or four times its bulk of oxygen, or with common atmospheric air in
much larger proportions, it explodes with,
great violence.
This gas is sometimes called "olefiant
gas," from the property it has of forming an
oily substance when mixed with chlorine.
\
EXPERIMENT.
Into a jar standing over water half full
of this gas, pass an equal quantity of chlo-
rine gas. The gases will speedily unite
and form an oily-looking liquid, which may
be collected from the sides of the jar as it
trickles down. JBy continually supplying
the jar with the two gases as they com- ^.^ ^^„ ^^TT^nT^txr^ "*ct^«
, . J . , 11 ^ ... « ,1^ 1 JAR FOR COLLECTI>G GASES.
bme, a considerable quantity of this sub-
stance may be collected. Care should be taken that the olefiant gas
is rather in excess.
The substance produced is insoluble in water, with which it should
be washed by shaking them together in a tube, and has a pleasant
sweetish taste and aromatic smell, somewhat resembling ether.
376 EVERY boy's book.
COAL GAS.
The ^as so universally employed for the purposes of illumination
is a mixture of the carburetted and the bi-carburetted hydrogen,
with minute portions of other gases scarcely worth mentioning. It
is procured by submitting coals to a red heat in iron retorts, having
a tube passing from one end, along which passes all the fluid and
gaseous matter separated from the coal, namely, gas tar, ammoniacal
liquor, and various gases, carburetted hydrogen, carbonic acid, sul-
phuretted hydrogen, &c. &c. The tar and ammoniacal liquor remain
in the vessel in which the tubes from the retorts terminate, and the
gaseous productions are conveyed through watfer and lime to separate
the impurities; the remaining gas, now fit for use, passes into lar^e
iron vessels, called gasometers, inverted over water (like the jars in
a pneumatic trough), whence it is sent through pipes and distributed
where required. What remains in the retorts is called coke. It
consists principally of charcoal, mixed with the earthy and metallic
particles contained in the coal.
EXPERIMENT.
If you possess an iron bottle, fill it with powdered coal, and attach
a flexible tube to it, and put it in the fire : as soon as it becomes red
hot, large quantities of smoke will escape from the end of the tube,
being the gas mixed with all its impurities. By passing it through
water (if mixed with lime it will be better), the gas may be collected
in jars standing over water, and submitted to experiment. If you
do not possess a bottle, take a tobacco-pipe with a large bowl, (a
" churchwarden " for example) ; fill the Dowl with small coal, cover
it with clay or putty, and when dry put it into the fire, and the gas
will soon appear at the other end of the pipe, when it may be lighted,
or the ^as may be collected over water, as in the former experiment.
The Tight carburetted hydrogen contained in this gas is given off
pic "
spontaneously in some coal-mines, and as it forms explosive mixtures
with atmospheric air, the mines where it abounds could not be worked
except at tlie greatest risk until about the beginning of the present
century, when Sir H. Davy, while piosecuting some researches on
the nature of flame, found that flame would not pass through metallic
tubes, and he gradually reduced the leugth of the tubes, until he
found fine iron wire gauze formed an effectual barrier against the
})assage of flame. He then thought that if the light in a lantern
were surrounded with this gauze, it might safely be used in an in-
flammable atmosphere, where a naked light would instantly cause an
explosion. Upon submitting the lamp to experiment, he found that
by passing coal gas by degrees into a vessel in which one of his
lamps was suspended, the flame first became much larger, and then
was extinguished, the cylinder of gauze being filled with a pale flame,
and though the gauze sometimes became red-hot, it did not ignite
CHEMISTRY. 377
the gas outside. As the supply of coal gas was diminished, the wick
of the lamp was rekindled, and all went on as at first. A coil of
platinum wire was afterwards suspended in the lamps, which becomes
intensely heated by the burning gas, and gives out sufiicient light to
enable the miner to see to work. As long as the gauze is perfect it
is almost impossible for the external air to be kindled by the wick of
the lamp, but the miners are so careless that they will often remove
the gauze to get a better light, to look for a tool, or some cause
equally trivial, and many lives have been lost in consequence of such
carelessness.
The effect of fine wire gauze in preventing the passage of flame
may be shown by bringing a piece of the gauze gradually over the
flame of a spirit-lamp, until it nearly touches the wick, when the
flame will be nearly extinguished, but the vapour of the spirit passes
through, and may be lighted on the upper side of the gauze, which
will thus have a flame on either side, though totally unconnected
with each other. The flame from a gas-burner will answer as well
as the spirit-lamp.
Nearly all the fluids, and solids also, used for procuring artificial
light, such as naphtha, various oils, tallovr, wax, spermaceti, spirits
of wine, ether, &c. &c. are compounds of carbon and hydrogen in
different proportions, with the occasional addition of some other
elements, especially oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportions to form
water ; as a general rule, those oodies containing the greatest pro-
portion of carbon give the moat light, though not necessarily the
most heat.
PHOSPHORUS.
The next body we' have to notice is phosphorus, a most remarkable
substance, procured from the earthy part of bones by a process not
worth detailing here. It should be always kept under water, and the
naked finders should not be allowed even to touch it, for the smallest
piece getting under the nail will inflame the first time the hand comes
near the fire, and produce a sore very painful and difiicult to heal.
It should be cut under water by a 'knife or scissors, and removed
with a pair of forceps. Its combustible properties have been fre-
quently mentioned. It has also the property of shining in the dark,
so that if you write on a wall with a solution of phosphorus in oil,
the letters will appear luminous in the dark — there is no danger,
excepting from the greasiness of the oil.
Of the compounds of phosphorus with oxygen we have nothing to
do here, but it forms with hydrogen a very curious gaseous compound,
which takes fire spontaneously on the contact of air, or almost any
gjs containing oxygen.
EXPERIMENTS.
It may be procured in either of two ways, according to the purpose
for which it is wanted. The simplest way is to put a lump or two
378 EVERY boy's book.
of phosphuret of lime into a saucer, about two inches in depth, con-
taining some very diluted hydrochloric acid; bubbles of gas will
speedily arise, and bursting on the surface of the fluid will bum with
a slight explosion, and a circular wreath of smoke will rise into the
atmosphere, enlarging as it rises, and wreathing itself round and
round in the most elegant forms. Care must be taken that the
phosphuret is fresh, and has been kept in a well-closed bottle, or the
experiment will fail. The apartment must be free from draughts.
If you desire to collect the gas, another method must be employed.
Fill a small retort quite full, neck and all, of a solution of caustic
potash, drop five or six pieces of phosphorus into it, place the finger
on the end of the retort, and immerse it in a basin also containing a
hot solution of potash, remove the finger, and on applying the heat
of a lamp to the retort, the gas will soon be disengaged rapidly, and
drive out the fluid in the retort ; it then escapes into the air, when it
inflames with the same appearances as before described. Or it maybe
collected in gas jars filled with the potash solution, and held over the
mouth of the retort. The object in using hot solution of potash in
the basin is, that when the gas ceases to be given off, and the heat
of the lamp is withdrawn, the hot fluid may gradually fill the vacuum
which wiU form in the retort, and so prevent its being broken.
This gas is transparent and invisible, like most other gases. It is
very poisonous if inhaled. K kept for any time, it loses its property
of spontaneous inflammation, and must therefore be made at the time
it is required.
SULPmJB..
Sulphur, or brimstone, as it is frequently called, is sold in the form
of sticks, or roll brimstone, or in fine powder called flowers of brim-
stone.
It is capable of showing electric phenomena when rubbed, giving
out slight sparks, and first attracting and then repelling light bodies,
such as small pieces of paper, &c. It is so bad a conductor of heat,
that if grasped suddenly in a hot hand, it will crack and split into
pieces just as glass does when suddenly heated or cooled — of course
I am speaking of the roll brimstone. Water has no effect on it, as
maj be seen in the pans placed for pet dogs to drink out of, where
CHEMISTRY. 379
the same piece of brimstone lies for years entirely unaltered, tliongh
it is supposed to prevent the dogs from having the mange !
Sulphur is largely used in the arts, principally in the manufacture
of gunpowder, and fireworks of various kinds.
It combines with hydrogen, and forms a gaseous compound called
sulphuretted hydrogen, which is almost the most poisonous of all the
gases. It fortunately has so abominable smell, that due notice is
given of its presence. Rotten eggs, a dirty gun-barrel, cabbage
water, putrid animal and vegetable matter, fee. are mdebted to this
gas for their inviting odour; and it is found in certain mineral
springs, as at Harrogate, where the water contains a considerable
quantity of this gas, and is found useful in many diseases of the skin.
It is also given off in a gaseous form by some volcanoes.
This gas may be obtained by pouring dilute hydrochloric acid upon
a metallic sulphuret, such as that called crude antimony, being a
native sulphuret of that metal. The gas may be kept for a short
time over water. It is colourless and transparent, inflammable, but
quite irrespirable, a small bird dying instantly when placed in air
containing only i-gVjyth of this gas. Its most remarkable property
perhaps is the effect it has on certain metallic oxides, and other
metallic salts, blackening them instantly. Wliite paint is easUy
stained by this gas, and it wiU darken the colour of a metal in a
solution, especially of lead, even when diluted with 20,000 times its
weight of water. By way of experiment, slips of riband, silk, or even
paper, may be wetted with various metallic solutions, such as silver,
mercury, lead, &c. or words may be written with the solutions, and
on holding them over a stream of this gas they will be instantly
darkened.
If this gas be collected in the pneumatic trough, w^hich is usually
painted white, you will have the pleasure of seeing the colour changed
to a very dark brown, when your experiments are finished. With
this very limited description of some of the non-metallic elements
and their combinations, we must, for want of space, take leave of
this division of chemistry ; " the beginning of which is pleasure, its
progress knowledge, its objects truth and utility." — ifiavy.)
METALS.
We have a few words to say about a class of bodies called metals,
which are of the utmost importance to mankind, and indeed without
some of them, especially iron, few of the arts of civilized life could
exist.
Fifty substances are now included in the list of metals ; some of
them, however, are only supposed to exist, such as ammonium^ the
supposed base of ammonia ; and very many are to be viewed rather
in the Hght of chemical curiosities, as from their great rarity they
are too expensive for use, even if possessed of valuable properties of
which others might be destitute.
ubU EVERl BOY S BOOK.
Several metals have been, known from the earHest period of which
we have any record; such were iron, gold, silver, copper, lead, tin,
mercury, and probably zinc, or at least its ores ; for brass, which is
an alloy of copper and zinc, is frequently mentioned in the early part
of the Old Testament. In the sixteenth century others were discovered,
such as antimony and bismuth. In the last century, cobalt, arsenic,
platinum, nickel, manganese, and chromium, together with several
unimportant metals, were discovered by various philosophers ; while
in the present century. Dr. Wollaston discovered rhodium, the
hardest and nearly the most indestructible of all the metals ; and a
few years later, Sir Humphry Davy found that the alkalies, potash,
and soda, with many of the earths as they were called, had each a
metal for its base, to which he gave the Latin name of the alkali or
earth, with the termination um, as potassi«»«, the base of potassa,
sodiiJ^OT of soda, calci^-r/;^ of calx (lime), &c.
Until Sir H. Davy's discovery of the metals of the alkalies, great
specific gravity was regarded as one of the most striking character-
istics of a metal, the lightest of them being much heavier than the
heaviest earth ; but potassium is very much lighter than water, and
not much heavier than spirits of wine. The other metals vary from
a specific gravity of nearly twenty-one — or twenty-one times heavier
tlian an equal bulk of water — that of platinum, to somewhat less than
seven, which is the specific gravity of antimony.
Wlien pure, they all have a lustre, differing indeed among them-
selves, but so peculiar that it is called the metallic lustre, for
instance, gold and copper are vellow and red — nearly all the others
white, but of a different shade; still there is no mistaking their
metallic character, no other substances at all equalling them in this
respect. They are also opaque, although some, Hke gold, when re-
duced to thin films, allow light to pass through them. They are all
good conductors of heat and electricity, though some possess that
property to a greater extent than others.
Many of them are what is called malleable, that is, may be ex-
tended or spread out by rolling, or beating them with a hammer ;
and ductile, or have the property of being drawn out into wire.
Gold, silver, copper, and iron, are the most remarkable in this-
respect.
AH the metals are fusible, but some require very different degrees
of heat to render them fluid, — platinum requiring the heat of the
oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, while tin melts in the flame of a candle, and
mercury is fluid at all temperatures in this climate, but becomes solid
at 40^ Eahr. below 0, — a temperature occasionally experienced in the
Arctic regions, where the mercurial thermometer is useless, the
mercury becoming sohd.
They are all excellent conductors of heat and electricity, and have
the property of reflecting Ught and forming mirrors ; for looking-
glasses owe their power of reflecting objects principally to what is
CHEMISTRY. 381
called the " silvering ; " that is, a mixture of mercury and tin spread
over the back of the glass, which being transparent, allows the image
reflected from the metal to pass through it.
The following classification is most instructive, because it suggests
to the young student that there must be identical properties in the
metals thus placed together : —
Class 1. Ammonium, caesium, lithium, potassium, sodium.
Class 2. Calcium, barium, strontium.
Class 3. Aluminium, cerium, didymium, erbium, glucinium,
lanthanum, thorium, yttrium, zirconium.
Class 4. Zinc class : cadmium, magnesium, zinc.
Class 5. Iron class : cobalt, chromium, indium, iron, manganese,
liickel, uranium.
Class 6. Tin class : niobium, tantalum, tin, titanium.
Class 7. Tungsten class : molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium.
Class 8. Arsenic class : antimony, arsenic, bismuth.
Class 9. Lead class : lead, thallium.
Class 10. Silver class : copper, mercury, silver.
Class 11. Gold class : gold, iridium, osmium, palladium, platinum,
rhodium, ruthenium.
POTASSIUM.
Potassium was discovered by Sir H. Davy in the beginning of the
present century, while acting upon potash with the enormous gal-
vanic battery of the Royal Institution, consisting of 2,000 pairs of
4-inch plates. It is a brilliant white metal, so soft as to be easily
cut vrith a penknife, and so light as to swim upon water, on which it
acts with great energy, uniting with the oxygen, and liberating the
hydrogen, which takes fire as it escapes.
EXPEEIMENT.
Trace some continuous lines on paper with a camel's^hair brush
dipped in water, and place a piece of potassium about the size of a
pea on one of the lines, and it will follow the course of the pencil,
taking fire as it runs, and burning with a purpHsh light. The paper
will be found covered with a solution of ordinary potash. If turmeric
paper be used, the course of the potassium will be marked with a
deep brown colour. — Corollary. Hence, if you touch potassium with
wet fingers you will burn them !
If a small piece of the metal be placed on a piece of ice, it will
instantly take fire, and form a deep hole, which will be found to con-
tain a solution of potash.
In consequence of its great aflinity for oxygen, potassium must be
kept in some fluid destitute of that element, such as naphtha.
Caution ! — As the globules of potassium after conversion into
potash, when thrown on ice or water burst, strewing small particles
of caustic hot potash in every direction, the greatest care should be
382 EVERY boy's book.
taken to keep at a sufficient distance wMlst performing the above
experiment.
Saltpetre, or nitre, is a compound of this metal (or rather its
oxide) with nitric acid. It is one of the ingredients of gunpowder,
and has the property of quickening the combustion of all combustible
bodies.
Mix some chlorate of potash with lump sugar, both being powdered,
and drop on the mixture a little strong sulphuric acid, and it will
instantly burst into flame. This experiment also requires caution.
Want of space precludes us from considering the individual metals
and their compounds in detail; it must suffice to describe some
experiments showing some of their properties.
The different affinities of the metals for oxygen may be exhibited
in various ways. The silver or zinc tree has already been described,
page 357.
EXPERIMENTS.
1. Into a solution of nitrate of silver in distilled water immerse a
clean plate or slip of copper. The solution, which was colourless, will
soon begin to assume a greenish tint, and the piece of copper will be
covered with a coating of a light grey colour, which is the silver
formerly united to the nitric acid, which has been displaced by the
greater affinity or liking of the oxygen and acid for the copper.
2. When the copper is no longer coated, but remains clean and
bright when immersed in the fluid, all the silver has been deposited,
and the glass now contains a solution of copper.
Place a piece of clean iron in the solution, and it will almost
instantly be coated with a film of copper, and this will continue until
the whole of that metal is removed, and its place filled by an equiva-
lent quantity of iron, so that nitrate of iron is found in the hquid.
The oxygen and nitric acid remain unaltered in quantity or quality
during these changes, being merely transferred from one metal to
another.
A piece of zinc will displace the iron in like manner, leaving a
solution of nitrate of zinc.
Nearly all the colours used in the arts are produced by metals and
their combinations ; indeed, one is named chromium, from a Greek
word signifying colour, on account of the beautiful tints obtained
from its various combinations with oxygen and the other metals. All
the various tints of green, orange, yellow, and red, are obtained from
this metal.
Solutions of most of the metalhc salts give precipitates with solu-
tions of alkalies and their salts, as well as with many other substances,
such as what are usually called prussiate of potash, hydro-sulphuret
of ammonia, &c. ; and the colours differ according to the metal em-
ployed, and so small a quantity is required to produce the colour
that the solutions before mixing may be nearly colourless.
CHEMISTRY, 383
EXPERIMENTS.
1. To a solution of sulphate of iron add a drop or two of a solu-
tion of prussiate of potash, and a blue colour will be produced.
2. Substitute sulphate of copper for iron, and the colour will be
a rich brown.
3. Another blue, of quite a different tint, may be produced by
letting a few drops of a solution of ammonia fall into one of sulphate
of copper — a precipitate of a light blue falls down, which is dissolved
by an additional quantity of the ammonia, and forms a transparent
solution of the most splendid rich blue colour.
4. Into a solution of sulphate of iron let fall a few drops of a strong
infusion of galls, and the colour will become a bluish-blacjc — in fact,
ink. A little tea will answer as well as the infusion of galls. This
is the reason why certain stuffs formerly in general use for dressing
gowns for gentlemen were so objectionable; for as they were indebted
to a salt of iron for their colour, buff as it was called, a drop of tea
accidentally spilt produced all the effect of a drop of ink.
5. Put into a largish test tube two or three small pieces of
granulated zinc, fill it about one-third full of water, put in a few grains
of iodine and boil the water, which will at first acquire a dark purple
colour, gradually fading as the iodine combines with the zinc. Add
a little more iodine from time to time, until the zinc is nearly all dis-
solved. If a few drops of this solution be added to an equally
colourless solution of corrosive sublimate (a salt of mercury) a pre-
cipitate will take place of a splendid scarlet colour, brighter if possible
than vermilion, which is also a preparation of mercury.
CRYSTALLIZATION OF METALS.
Some of the metals assume certain definite forms in returning
from the fluid to the solid state. Bismuth shows this property more
readily than most others.
EXPERIMENT.
Melt a pound or two of bismuth in an iron ladle over the fire ;
remove it as soon as the whole is fluid ; and when the surface has
become sohd break a hole in it, and pour out the still fluid metal
from the interior; what remains will exhibit beautifully formed
crystals of a cubic shape.
Sulphur may be crystalhzed in the same manner, but its fumes
when heated are so very unpleasant that few would wish to encounter
them.
One of the most remarkable facts in chemistry, a science abounding
in wonders, is the circumstance, that the mere contact of hydrogen,
the lightsd body known, with the metal platinum, the heaviest,
when in a state of minute division, called spongy platinum, produces
an intense heat, sufficient to inflame the hydrogen: of course this
384 EVEllY BOY'S BOOK.
experiment must be made in the presence of atmospheric air or
oxygen.
Time and space (or rather the want of them) compel us to con-
clude with a few experiments of a miscellaneous character.
TO FORM A SOLID FROM TWO LIQUIDS.^
Prepare separately, saturated solutions of sulphate of magnesia
(Epsom salts) and carbonate of potash. On mixing them the result
will be nearly solid.
Solutions of muriate of lime and carbonate of potash will answer
as well.
TO FORM A LIQUID FROM TWO SOLIDS.
Rub together in a Wedgewood mortar a small quantity of sulphate
of soda and acetate of lead, and as they mix they will become Hquid.
Carbonate of ammonia and sulphate of copper, previously reduced
to powder separately, will also, when mixed, become liquid, and
acquire a most splendid blue colour.
The greater number of salts have a tendency to assume regular
forms, or become crystallised, when passing from the fluid to the
sohd state ; and the size and regularity of the crystals depends in a
great measure on the slow or rapid escape of the fluid in which they
were dissolved. Sugar is a capital example of this property; the
ordinary loaf-sugar being rapidly boiled down, as it is called : while
to make sugar-candy, which is nothing but sugar in a crystaUized
form, the solution is allowed to evaporate slowly, and as it cools it
forms into those beautiful crystals termed sugar-candy. The threads
found in the centre of some of the crystals are merely placed for the
purpose of hastening the formation of the crystals.
EXPERIMENTS.
1. Make a strong solution of alum, or of sulphate of copper, or blue
vitriol, and place in them rough and irregular pieces of clinker from
stoves, or wire-baskets, and set them by in a cool place, where they
will be free from dust, and in a few days crystals of the several salts
will deposit themselves on the baskets, &c.; they should then be
taken out of the solutions, and dried, when they form very pretty
ornaments for a room.
2. Fill a Florence flask up to the neck with a strong solution of sul-
phate of soda, or Glauber's salt, boil it, and tie the mouth over with
a piece of moistened bladder while boiling, and set it by in a place
where it caijnot be disturbed. After twenty-four hours it will pro-
bably still remain fluid. Pierce the bladder covering with a penknife,
and the entrance of the air will cause the whole mass instantly to
a) Saturated solutions are made ly adding the salt to toiling water until it will
take ui> no more, letting it stand till cold and then pouring off the liquidL
CHEMISTRY. 385
crystallize, and the flask will become quite warm from the latent
caloric, of which we have spoken before, given out by the salt in
passing from the fluid to the solid state. It is better to prepare
two or three flasks at the same time, to provide against accidents,
for the least shake will often cause crystallization to take place before
the proper time.
CHANGES OF COLOUR PRODUCED BY COLOURLESS LIQUIDS.
Make a strong infusion of the leaves of the red cabbage, which will
be of a beautiful blue colour ; drop into it a few drops of dilute
sulphuric acid, and the colour will change to a bright red ; add some
solution of carbonate of potash, or soda, and the red colour will
gradually give way to the original blue ; continue adding the alkaline
solution, and the fluid will assume a bright green colour. Now
resume the acid, and as it is dropped in, the colour will again change
from ^reen to blue, and from blue to red. Now this simple experi-
ment illustrates three points : first, that acids change the colour of
most vegetable blues and greens to red ; second, that alkalies change
most blues and reds to green; and third, that when the acid and
alkali are united together, they both lose their property of changing
colour, and become what is called a neutral salt, i.e. a compound
possessing the properties of neither of its constituents.
C
ELECTKICITY.
No branch of science is more capable of affording amusement,
combined with instruction, than electricity, and there are few sciences
in which the experiments are more easily performed. We woaid
therefore especially recommend it to our youug friends.
The term electricity is derived from the Greek word electron, signi-
fying amber, because electrical attraction was first discovered from
its being noticed that when amber was rubbed into a certain degree
of warmth, it had the power of attracting small bodies to itself.
Electricity therefore primarily treats of the phenomena and effects
produced by the friction or rubbing together of certain bodies called
electrics. These consist of glass, amber, resinous matters, silks,
hair, wool, feathers, various vegetable substances, and atmospheric
air, and the electricity so obtained is usually called Frictional Elec-
tricity, to distinguish it from that produced by chemical action, and
called Yoltaic Electricity.
SIMPLE MEANS Or PKGDTJCING ELECTRICITY.
To show the nature of electrical action, rub a piece of sealing-wax
or amber upon the coat-sleeve, and it will attract light bodies, such as
ELECTRICITY.
387
straws or small pieces of paper. If a clean glass tube be rubbed several
times through a silken or leather cloth, and-
presented to any small substances, it will
immediately attract and then repel them;
and if a poker suspended by a dry silk'
string be presented to its upper end, then
the lower end of the poker will exhibit the
same phenomena as the tube itself, which
shows that the opposite electrical condition
may be induced upon other bodies bv the
mere neighbourhood and approach of
another electrified body, and the effect so
produced is called induced electricity.
When an electrified conductor is sup-
ported by non-conductors, so that the
electric fluid cannot pass from the con-
ductor to the earth, it is said to be
insulated : thus the human body is a con-
ductor of electricity — but if a person
standing on a glass stool (as represented
in the drawing) be charged with elec-
tricity, the electric fluid cannot pass from
him to the earth, and he is said to be
insulated; and if he be touched by another
person standing on the ground, sparks
will be exhibited at the point of contact,
where also the person touching will feel a
pricking sensation.
*c
ATTRACTION AND REPULSION EXHIBITED.
In order to illustrate certain remarkable facts
in this science of an amusing character, attention
must be directed to the figure a b, which is a
metal stand ; c is a small piece of cork or pith,
which is suspended from the hook by a dry silken
thread. Having rubbed an elect no, as a dry rod
of glass, and presented it to c, the ball will be
instantaneously attracted to the glass and will
adhere to it. ^ After they remain in contact for a
few seconds, if the glass be withdrawn without
being touched by the fingers, and again presented
to the ball, the latter will be repelled instead of
attracted, as in the first instance. By being touched with the finger,
the ball can be deprived of its electricity, and if after this has been
done we present a piece of sealing-wax in the place of the glass
formerly employed, the very same phenomena will take place. On
oo2
388
EVERT BUY S BOOK.
the first application the ball will be attracted^ and on the second
repelled?-
JSefore the young reader can perform any very important experi-
ments with electricity, he must become possessed of an electb-ical
MACHINE, which is an instrument contrived for the purpose of rubbing
together the surfaces of glass and leather. They generally consist
of a cylinder, or plate of glass, and a piece of silk or leather for it to
rub against, covered with an amalgam, the method of preparing
which we shall hereafter describe.
HOW TO MAKE AN ELECTRICAL MACHINE.
It is very easy to make a glass machine of the cylindrical form, if
the maker cannot afford to buy one, First procure a common wine
Dottle of good dimensions, and thickish glass. Drill a hole through
its bottom, with a file moistened with dilute sulphuric acid. A
blacksmith, if supplied with the acid, would undertake to do this part
of the work. Through this hole and the mouth pass a spindle, as
represented in the cut. The end of b should be squared to fix a
handle on, and the spindle should be fixed firmly in the bottle. The
bottle is then to be fixed in a frame in the following manner : the
end of the spindle c passes through a hole at b ; and the other end
at c has the handle for turning the machine.
Next make a cushion of wash-leather stuffed with wool, and
fastened to the top of a frame of the following figure. This frame is
to be of such a height that the cushion shall press against the sides
of the bottle, and a piece of black silk is sewn on to the top of the
cushion, and hangs over the bottle d. The cushion should be
(1) For a more complete account of this interesting science we would refer the
young reader to " The Boy's Play book on Science," or, if more advanced, to " Noad's
Manual of Electricity."
BLECTRICITT.
389
smeared with an amalgam, formed by melting
together in the bowl of a tobacco-pipe one part of
tin with two of zinc ; to which, while fluid, should
be added six parts of mercury. These should be
stirred about till quite cold, and then reduced to a
fine powder in a mortar, and mixed with a suflBcient
quantity of lard to form a thickish paste. When
all is done, the machine is complete.
M
THE CONDUCTOR.
The electricity being generated by the friction produced between
the rubber and the bottle from the motion imparted by the handle, it
is necessary to draw it off for usa This is performed by what is
called a conductor. This is made by covering a cylinder of turned
wood six inches long and two and a half inches in diameter, and nicely
rounded at the ends, with tinfoil, which is then mounted on a stand
on a glass rod. When used, it is to be placed in the direction of the
length. In it some pins are inserted, with the points outside, in
a hue even with, and about half an inch from, the bottle, and it
should be of such a height as to come just below the silk apron.
When it is wished to charge a Leyden jar, it is to be placed at the
round end of the conductor. By these simple means a great variety
of pleasing experiments may be performed ; but to show the various
phenomena connected with this interesting study, we shall now
describe an electrical machine of the newest construction, and
perform our experiments with it.
THE PLATE ELECTRICAL MACHINE.
Formerly the electrical machine was
made in the form of a cylinder, but now
it consists of a plate a, as seen in the
engraving. The plate is turned by the
handle f through the rubber b b, which
diffuses the excitement over the glass.
The points or balls at each side of the
plate carry off a constant stream of
positive electricity to the prime conductor
c. Negative electricity is generated by
insulating the conductor to which the
cushion is attached, and continuing the
prime conductor with the ground, so as
to carry off the fluid collected from the
plate.
HOW TO DRAW SPARKS PROM THE TIP OP THE NOSE.
If the person who works the machine be supported on a stool
having glass legs, and connected with the conductor by means of a
390
EVERY BOY 8 BOOK.
glass rod, the electricity will pass from the conductor to him, and as
it cannot get away, owing to the glass on which he stands being a
non-conductor, any person on touching him can draw the electricity
from him, which will exhibit itself in small sparks as it passes to the
person who touches him. If touched on the nose, sparks of fire will
issue from it.
HOW TO CHARGE A LEYDEN JAR.
A most useful piece of electrical apparatus is called the Leyden
jar, here represented. It is employed for
the purpose of obtainuig a quantity of elec-
tricity, wliich may be applied to any sub-
stance. It consists of a glass jar, coated
both inside and without, four-fifths of the
way up, with tinfoil. A knob rises through
a wooden top communicating with the m-
side of the jar. When it is wished to charge
the jar, this knob is applied to the prime
conductor of the electrical machine when
in action, and a quantity of electricity being
given off, the jar will remain charged with
it till a connexion is made, by some good
conductor of electricity, between the knob
and the outside tinfoil. A piece of brass chain must hang from the
item that carries the knob, and connect it with the interior of the jar.
THE ELECTRICAL BATTERY.
If several of these jars be united,
a large quantity of electricity
can be collected ; but, in arrang-
ing them, all the interior coatings
Biust be made to communicate by
metallic rods, and a similar union
must be effected among the ex-
terior coatings. When thus ar-
ranged, the whole series may be
charged as if they formed but one
jar.
For the purpose of making a
direct communication between the
inner or outer coatings of a jar or
battery, by which a discharge is
effected, an instrument called a
dischargmg rod is employed. It
consists of two bent metallic rods,
terminating at one end by brass
balls, and connected at another by
a joint which is fixed to the end of
ELECTRICITY. 391
a glass handle, and which, acting like a pair of compasses, allows of
the balls being separated at certain distances. When opened to the
proper degree, one of the balls is made to touch the exterior coating,
and the other ball is then brought into contact with the knob of tlte
jar, when a discharge is effected ; whUe the glass handle secures the
person holding it from the effects of the shock.
DANCING BALLS AND DOLLS.
Get two round pieces of wood, a b, and coat them with tinfoil ; dt
two pieces of metal plate ; attach one of them to the prime conductor
by a chain, and let it hang about two or three inches from the knob.
Place some pith-balls upon the bottom piece of wood b, and bring it
under the other. Immediately this is done, and the upper piece is
charged with electricity from the machine, the pith-balls will jump up
and down, and from one to the other with great rapidity. If some
of the pith be formed into little figures, they will also dance and leap
about in the most grotesque manner. The same may be made to
dance by merely holding the inside of a dry glass tumbler to the
prime conductor for a few minutes, while the machine is in action,
and then if this be placed over them they will jump about, to the
astonishment of the spectators, as the cause of their motions is not
quite so apparent.
THE ELECTRICAL KISS.
This amusing experiment is performed by means of the electrical
stool. Let any lady challenge a gentleman not acquainted with the
experiment to favour her with a salute. The lady thereupon mounts
the glass stool, and takes hold of a chain connected with the prime
conductor. The machine being then put in motion the gentleman
approaches the lady, and immediately he attempts to imprint the
seal of soft affection upon her coral lips, a spark wdl fly in his face,
which generally deters him from his rash and wicked intention.
RINGING BELLS.
Bells may be made to ring by electricity in the following manner.
Let tliree small bells be suspended from a brass wire, d d, and
392
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
supported by a glass pillar a, passing through bell b to the bell e.
The electrical apparatus being attached to the knob e, the electricity-
passes down the wires d d to the
bells, which are then positively
electrified and attract the clappers
c c, that are negatively so, in
consequence of being insulated by
the silken strings, which are not
conductors. The bells therefore
attract the clappers till they are
charged, when they strike against
the centre bell to discharge them-
selves, and thus a peal is rung on
the bells until the electricity is
driven off.
WORKING POWER OP ELECTRICITY.
This maj be shown in a variety of ways. The subjoined machine
win exhibit the principle upon which many ingenious toys may be
made bv the young philosoplier.
In the figure a is a wooden board
or stand, b b b b, four pillars of
lass, gutta-percha, or sealing-wax,
aving fine wires, c c, stretched
above. On these rest the rotatory
wire or wheel F, having its points turned the reverse ways. By
means of a chain attached to the conductor, and to the instrument
at B, the electricity passes over the pillar b, up the wire c into the
wheel, and off at the points, which causes it to be turned round on
an inclined plane till it reaches the top.
THE ELECTRIFIED WIG.
While a person is on the electrical
stool, if he be charged with much
electricity,
" Each hair will stand on end.
Like quills upon the fretful porcupine."
A wooden head — ^not your own, but a
real wooden head — with a wig of stream-
ing hair, and a handsome face to cor-
respond, may be made in the following
form, with a wire in the neck to sup-
port it by, and fixed in the conductor
of an electrical machine. When this is
put in motion the hair wiQ rise up, as
in the figure, in a manner to astonish even the '* big-wigs."
ELECTRICITY.
393
IMITATION THUNDERCLOUDS.
To sliow the manner in whicli thunderclouds perform their opera-
tions in the air, a a is a wooden stand, on which are erected two
uprights, B B ; c are two small pulleys, over which a silken cord
can pull easily ; e is another silken line stretched across from one
upright to another ; on these silken cords two pieces of thin card-
board covered with tinfoil, and cut so as to represent clouds, are to
be fixed horizontally, and made to communicate, by means of tliin
wires p and g, one with the inside, and the other with the outside,
of a charged jar, d. Now, by pulling the loop of the silk line, the
clouds wlS be brought near the cloud 2 ; continue this slowly, until
the clouds (which are furnished with two small brass balls) are
within an inch of each other, when a beautiful flash, strongly resem-
bling Ughtning in miniature, will pass from one cloud to the other,
restoring electrical equilibrium.
THE LIGHTNING STROKE IMITATED.
If the jar D be put behind the stand, and the cloud 2 removed, a
vessel communicating by means of a wire with the outside of the jar
may be swum in water under the remaining cloud ; the mast being
made of two pieces, and but sHghtly joined, together, with a hollow
space in one half of the mast, into which the ends of the conductor
pass, but do not touch, leaving an interval of about a quarter of an
394 EVERY boy's book.
ineli between them. The hollow is then filled with gun-cotton, and
closed with cork. When the cloud is passed over the vessel, tlie
mast will be struck and shattered to pieces. A strip of tinfoil,
arranged with pins over the hollow part of the mast, will show how
a continuous conductor will convey the discharge safely away.
THE SPORTSMAN.
This apparatus is capable of affording much amusement, a is a
stand of wood, b is a common Leyden jar, out of which proceed the
wires h h — one terminating in ball F, the other in the ball d — to which
are attached a number of pith birds by silken strings ; E is a shelf for
the birds to rest upon ; c is the sportsman; g his gun.
To put this operation in motion the Leyden jar is to be charged with
electricity by amxin^ a chain to the bottom part of it, and connect-
ing it with an electrical machine in the usual manner, or by applying
it to a prime conductor, when the birds wiU fly off the knob to which
they are fixed in consequence of their being repelled. If the sports-
man and gun be then turned, so that the end of his gun shall touch
the knob f, an electric spark will pass from one to the other, a report
will be heard, and the birds will fall down as if shot, in consequence
of the electricity having been taken from the Leyden jar. There
should be a communication between the sportsman and the jar
formed of tinfoil, or some metal, as shown by the dotted hue on the
stand.
Such are a few of many numerous experiments which may be
made by the young experimenter, who is fond of science and has any
ingenuity ; but should he hke to amuse himself with an electrifying
machine of little cost, he may warm a sheet of brown paper, ana
then rub it briskly on a teatray with india-rubber ; on raising the
paper in a dark room, he will see many pretty electrical sparks.
The back of a black tom cat is sometimes recommended as a cheap
electrical machine; but as the wishes of the animal have to be
consulted, perhaps it is wiser to leave the cat alone.
v
or
'Of<H\K
GALVANISM, OE VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
" To play with fire
They say is dangerous ; what is it then
To shake hands with the lightning, and to sport
With thunder?"— Tyleb.
Galvanism, or electricity of quantity, in contradistinction to
frictional electricity, called electricity of intensity, owes its name to
the experiments on animal irritability made in 1790 by M. Galvani,
a professor of anatomy at Eologna, These experiments were sug-
gested by the following circumstances.
ORIGIN OF GALVANISM.
It happened that the wife of Galvani, who was consumptive, was
advised to take as an article of food some soup made of the flesh of
frogs. Several of these creatures were killed and skinned, and were
lying on the table in the laboratory close to an electrical machine,
with which a pupil of the professor was making experiments. While
the macliine was in action, he chanced to touch the bare nerve of
396 EVERY boy's book
the leg of one of the frogs with the blade of the knife that he had in
his hand, when suddenly the whole limb was thrown into violent
convulsions. Galvani was not present when this occurred ; but beirig
informed of it, he immediately set himself to investigate the cause.
He found that it was only when a spark was drawn from the prime
conductor, and when the knife or- any other good conductor was in
contact with the nerve, that the contracting took place ; and after a
time he discovered that the effect was independent of the electrical
machine, and might be equally well produced by making a metallic
communication between the outside muscle and tne crural nerve.
SIMPLE EXPERIMENT TO EXCITE GALVANIC ACTION.
If the young experimenter will obtain a piece of zinc of the size of
Lalf a CTOwn and place it on the top of his tongue, and place a half-
crown underneath it, and bring the edges of the half-crowTi and zinc
in contact in front of his tongue, he wiU notice a peculiar sensation
in the nerves of this organ, and some taste will be imparted to his
mouth at the moment of contact.
WITH METAL PLATES IN WATEiEU
If we take two plates of different kinds of metal, platinum (or
copper) and zinc, for example, and immerse them in pure water,
having wires attached to them above,
then if the wire of each is brought into
contact in another vessel of water, a gal-
vanic circle wiU be formed, the water will
be slowly decomposed, its oxygen will be
fixed on the zmc wire, and. at the same
time a current of electricity will be trans-
mitted through the liquid to the platina or
copper wire, on the end of which the other
element of water, namely, the hydrogen,
will make its appearance in the form of
minute gas bubbles. The electrical cur-
rent passes back again into the zinc at the points of its contact with
the platina, and thus a continued current is kept up, and hence it is
called a galvanic circle. The moment the circuit is broken by
separating the wires the current ceases, but is again renewed by
making them touch either in or out of the water. If a small quantity
of sulphuric acid be added to the water, the phenomenon will be
more apparent. The end of the wire attached to the piece of platinum
or copper is called the positive pole of the battery, and that of the
wire attached to the zinc the negative pole.
Tlie current of electricity here generated will be extremely feeble ;
Dirt this can be easily increased by multiplying the glasses and the
GALVANISM. 397
number of the pieces of metal. If we take six such glasses instead
of one, partially fill them with dilute sulphuric acid, and put a piece
of zinc and copper into each, connecting them by means of copper
wire from glass to glass through the whole series, a stronger current
of electricity will be the result. The experimenter must be careful
not to let the wire and zinc touch each other at the bottom of the
tumblers, and must also remember that the copper of glass 1 is
connected with the zinc of glass 2, and so on.
TO MAKE A MAGNET BY THE VOLTAIC CURKENT.
To effect this, make a connexion between the poles of the above
or any excited battery with the two ends of a wire formed into a
spiral coil, by bending common bonnet- wire closely round a cylin-
der, or tube, of about an inch in diameter ; into this coil introduce a
needle or piece of steel wire, laying it lengthways down the circles
of the coil. In a few minutes after the electric fluid has passed
through the spiral wire, and consequently round the needle or wire,
the latter will be found to be strongly magnetized, and to possess alj
the properties of a magnet.
EFFECTS OF GALVANISM ON A MAGNET.
If a galvanic cunent, or any electric current, be made to pass
along a wire under which, and in a line with it, a compass is placed, it
will be found that the needle will no longer point north and south,
but will take a direction nearly across the current, and point almost
east and west.
CHANGE OF COLOUR BY GALVANISM.
Put a teaspoonful of sulphate of soda into a cup, and dissolve it
in hot water ; pour a little cabbage blue into the solution, and put a
portion into two glasses, connecting them by a piece of linen or cotton
cloth previously moistened in the same solution. On putting one of
the wires of the galvanic pole into each glass, the acid accumulates
in the one, turning the blue to a red, and the alkali in the other, ren-
dering it green. If the wires be now reversed, the acid accumulates
eventually in the glass where the alkali appeared, while the alkali
passes to the glass where the acid was.
398 EVERY boy's book.
THE GALVANIC SHOCK.
If the ends of the wires of a small sralvanic battery are connected
with a proper electro-magnetic coil, which may now be purchased at
a very cheap rate, and the wires from the coil be placed in separate
basins of water, then, on dipping the fingers of each hand in the basin,
a smart shock will be felt, with a particular aching accompanied with
trembling. "With a strong battery and larger coil this effect is felt
as high as the shoulders. The shock will also be felt by simply
holding the wires of a powerful galvanic battery, one in each hana,
provided the hands be moistened with salt and water. Several
persons may receive the shock from the battery and coil together by
joining hands.
THE ELECTROTYPE.
The electro-galvanic current has in no case been more interestingly
employed than in the process of electrotyping. It consists of a
mode of obtaining the copy of coins, medals, engraved plates, and
other objects, which may be easily illustrated.
HOW TO MAKE AN ELECTROTYPE APPARATUS.
• Take an earthen jar and a porous tube fill the tube ; with ten parts
of water and one of sidphuric acid; put it into
\ the jar, into which pour as much of a solution
^l of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) as will fill
^MB^ three parts of it; place in the tube a piece
fl9R of zinc, to which a copper wire is soldered
^H| and bent round, so that one end be immersed
^H in the sulphate of copper ; and a deposit of the
IHMi'l hR ^°PP^^ ^i^ ^^ immediately formed upon the
Pw w'^:fff''l wire. If there be plenty of acid and water,
p- 9 ' ^«J i>^i ^^ ^^ *^ allow of the action enduring for a
'^^^^''Btn^uZi ^' ^^^S ^i°^6j ^^^is process will go on till it has
deposited all the copper. This is the principle
upon which electrotyping proceeds, — a principle referable to electro-
chemical decomposition.
The diagram represents an outer vessel of wood, glass, or earthen-
ware, capable of holding a pint of liquid, within which there is sus-
pended a short lamp-glass a, the one end being open, and the other,
B, closed with a diaphragm of plaster of Paris ; c is a small bag of
crystals of sulphate of copper, to keep up the strength of the solution;
z IS the zinc, and m the metal.
i
HEAT. 399
TO OBTAIN THE COPY OP A COIN OR MEDAL.
Never place the original medal in the apparatus, or the deposited
copper may adhere so tightly to it that the removal destroys the beauty
of the medal. Having taken an impression in sealing-wax, cover the
latter with black-lead, and attach a wire so that it is in contact with
the black-lead. To the wire and cast thus arranged a piece of sheet or
cast zinc, amalgamated with mercury, must be attached, and we are at
once furnished with the materials for the battery, as the object to be
copied supplies the place of the copper. The medal must always be
placed horizontally. Now let the apparatus be charged with the
solution, by pouring ilito~the outer vessel a portion of the coppery
solution, so that it will stand about an inch above the medal ; then
pour in the glass the dilute acid to the same height as the former ;
now introduce the zinc into the acid, and the object to be copied
into the solution of copper, which will immediately be deposited on
the medal, and when of a sufficient thickness may be taken off.
HEAT.
HEAT, OR CALORIC.
The chief agent in causing the repulsion or separation of thfl
particles of bodies from each other is heat, or more correctly caloric^
by which is understood the unknown cause of the effect called heat.
Philosophers are not agreed upon the nature of this wonderful agent.
It pervades all nature, is the cause of nearly all the changes that
take place both in organic and inorganic matter, and has great
influence in the meteorological phenomena which we observe in the
atmosphere that surrounds our planet. It appears to be intimately
connected with light, electricity, and magnetism, — subjects which the
genius of Paraday and others have investigated, and by their discoveries
brought us nearer to the knowledge of the real nature of these most
wonderful forces.
Caloric, then, exists in all bodies, and has a constant tendency' to
equalize itself, as far at least as its outward manifestation, called tem.
400 EVERY boy's book.
peratiire, is concerned; for if a hot body be brought near colder ones^
it will give up heat to them, until by its loss and their gain they all
become of the same temperature ; and this proceeds more or hjss
rapidly, according as the original difference of temperature was
greater or less. Some other circumstances also influence this equali-
zation. The converse will take place on introducing a cold body
among warmer ones, when heat will be abstracted from all the bodies
within reach of its influence, until it has absorbed sufficient caloric
to bring its own temperature to an equality with theirs. This is
the true explanation of the apparent production of cold. When, for
instance, an iceberg comes across a ship's course, it appears to give
out cold, whereas, it has abstracted the heat from the air and sea in
its neighbourhood, and they in turn act upon the ship and everything
in it, until one common temperature is produced in all the neigh-
bouring bodies.
It does not follow that the bodies thus equalized in temperature
contain equal quantities of caloric ; far from it. Each body requires
a particular quantity of caloric to raise its temperature through
a certain number of degrees ; and such quantity is called its speafic
caloric. A pound of water, for instance, wiU take just twice as
much caloric as a pound of olive oil, to raise its temperature through
the same number of degrees ; the specific caloric of water is there-
fore double that of oiL Mix any quantity of oil at 60° of tempera-
ture with an equal weight of water at 90°, and you will find the
temperature of the mixture to be nearly 80°, instead of only 74° or
75°, showing that while the water has lost only 10° of caloric, the
mixture has risen 20°. If the oil be at 90°, and the water at 60°,
the resulting temperatiire will be only 70°, or thereabouts, instead of
75°, the mean; thus, here the hot oil has lost 20°, while the mixture
has risen only 10°; the water, then, contains at the same temperature
twice as much caloric as the oil ; its specific caloric is double that of
the oil. This mean temperature does result when equal weights of
the same body at different temperatures are mixed together.
The sensations called heat and cold are by no means accurate
measures of the real temperature of any substances, for many causes
influence these sensations, some belonging to the substances them-
selves, others to the state of our organs at the tune. Every one has
remarked that inetals in a warm room feel warmer, and in a cold room
colder than wooden articles, and these again than wooUen or cotton
articles of dress or furniture ; this arises from metals being what is
termed better conductors of heat than wood, and this better than
wool, &c., that is, they give out or absorb caloric more rapidly than
these last. Some philosophers, wishing to ascertain how much heat
the human body could endure, had a room heated with stoves, every
crevice being carefully stopped, until the temperature rose so high
that a beefsteak placed on the table was sufficiently cooked to be
eaten. They were dressed in flannel, and could with impunity touch
HEAT. 401
the carpets, curtains, &c., in the room ; but the iron handles, fire-irons,
and all metaUic substances, burnt their fingers ; and one who wore
silver spectacles was obliged to remove them to save his nose. The
fallacy of our sensations may be easily shown by taking two basins,
placing in one some water at 100°, in another some water at
as low a temperature as can easily be procured — hold the ri^ht hand
in one, the left in the other, for a few minutes, and then nux them,
and place both hands in the mixture ; it will feel quite cold to the
hand that had been in the hotter water, and hot to the other.
In order to arrive at a correct estimate of the temperature of
bodies, instruments are made use of called thermometers, or measurers
of heat, which show increase or diminution of temperature by the
rising or falling of a column of some fiuid in a tube of glass, one end
of wmch is expanded into a bulb, and the other hermetically sealed.
This effect is produced by the expansion or swelling of the fluid
as caloric is added to, and its contraction when caloric is abstracted
from it. Coloured spirits of wine, or quicksilver, are the most
usual thermometric fluids, and the tube containing them is fixed
to a wooden or metallic frame, on which certain divisions are marked,
called degrees.
That in general use in England is called Fahrenheit's, from the
name of the person who first introduced that particular scale. In
this thermometer, the point at which the mercury in the tube stands
when plunged into melting ice, is marked 32°, and the distance
between that point, and the point to which the mercury rises in
boiling water, is divided into 180 equal parts, called degrees ; so that
water is said to boil at 212° =180° + 32°. There are two other
scales of temperature used in different parts of the world, but it is not
worth while to notice them here.
Not only do different bodies at the same degree of temperature
contain very different quantities of caloric, but this also is the case
with the same body in different forms. Ice, water, and steam, are
three forms of the same body, but ice at 32° contains much less
caloric than water at the same temperature, and water at 212° con-
tains much less caloric than steam (or water in a state of vapour) at
that temperature.
Place in a jar any given quantity of snow, or small pieces of ice, at
32°, and in another the same weight of water at 32°, pour on each an
equal weight of water at 172°, and you wiU find that m the first case
the ice will be melted, but the temperature will remain at 32° or
thereabouts, wliile the temperature of the water in the other vessel
will have risen to 100° or tnereabouts, beinff as near as possible the
half of the excess of the temperature of the hot water, 140* over that
of the cold, namely 70° added to 32°, the original temperature. Now,
what has become of the heat which was added to the ice, and is
apparently lost ? — it is absorbed by the ice in its passage to the fluid
itate; so that water may be said to be a compouna of ice and caloric.
402 EVERY boy's book.
Again, take 10 ounces of water at about 50^, and add 1 oz. of
water at 212°, and the temperature of the mixture will be about 66° ;
then condense some steam at 212°, into another 10 oz. of water until
it has become 11 oz., and you will find the temperature will be nearly
212'^. Why does the ounce of steam at 212^^ raise the temperature
of the water so much higher than the ounce of water at the same
temperature ? Obviously because it contains hidden in its substance
a vast quantity of caloric, not to be detected bv the thennouieter ; in
fact, that steam is a compound of water and caloric, as water is a com-
pound of ice and caloric ; and this caloric which exists, more or less,
in all bodies without producing any obvious effect, is called latent
caloric, from the Latin verb lateo, to lie hid. The quantity of caloric
thus absorbed as it were by various bodies, differs for each body, and
for the same body in different forms, as mentioned above.
EXP Alf SIGN.
As a general rule, all bodies, whether solid, Kquid, or gaseous, are
expanded by caloric. This may be shown by experiments in each
form of matter.
Have a small iron rod made, which when cold just passes through
a hole in a plate of metal ; heat it, and it wiH no longer pass ; after a
time the rod will return to its former temperature, and then will go
through the hole as before. The rod increases in length as well as
width ; if you have a gauge divided into -^ of an inch, and place the
rod in it when cold, noting its position, on heating it wiU extend to a
greater length in the gauge, returning to its former place when cooL
The effect of caloric in causing fluic£ to expand is actually employed
as a measure of quantity in the thermometer, the rise of the fluia in
the tube when heated depending on the increased bulk of the fluid
occasioned by the addition of caloric. The same fact is to be noticed
every day when the cook fills the kettle, and places it on the fire. As
the water becomes warmer it expands, that is, takes up more room
than it did before, and the water escapes by slow degrees, mcreasing as
the heat increases, up to the poiut of boiling, when a sudden conmiotion
takes place from the condensation of a portion of the water into steam.
But it is in the form of vapour or gas, (which by the bye is not the
same thing,') that the expansive force of caloric is most obvious. The
gigantic powers of the steam-engine depend entirely on the tendency
of vapour to expand on the addition of caloric; and this force of
(1) It may be well to state here, that by vapour is generally understood the aerial
form of a substance usually existing in a solid or fluid form at ordinary temperatures ;
as the vapour of iodine, a solid; of mercury, water, spirits, and other fluids: while
the term gas is applied to those bodies usually known in the aerial state; thus
oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, hydrogen, &c. &c., are called gases. It is, however,
but an arbitrary distinction ; for many of these gases have, by the combined influence
of cold and powerful pressure, been converted into fluids, and even solids — carbonia
acid gas for instance I
HEAT. 403
sxpansion appears to have no limit ; boilers made of iron plates an incc
or even more in thickness, and the buildings or ships containing
them, having been torn to pieces and scattered in all directions by
the expansive power of steam. Take a bladder, and fill it about
half full of air, and tie the neck secm-ely; upon holding it to the
fire it will swell out, and become quite tense from the expansion of
the contained air.
The principal source of caloric is the sun, whose beams, diffused
through all nature by the refractive property of the atmosphere, are
the source of vitality both to vegetables and animals, and when concen-
trated by a large convex lens, produce the most intense heat, sufficient
to light a piece of diamond, and melt platinum. Caloric is also pro-
duced or evolved by combustion, by friction, percussion, chemical
combination, electricity, and galvanism.
The evolution of heat by friction may be witnessed daily in a thou-
sand instances. Lucifer matches are lighted by rubbing the highly
inflammable substances with wliich they are tipped against a piece of
sand-paper. Nearly all savage people procure m-e by rubbing
a piece of hard wood violently against a softer piece. The axle-trees
of steam-engines, and even of carriages, have been known to be so
heated by friction as to endanger burning the carriage; and it is very
usual to "be obhged to pour a quantity of cold water on the iron axle
of the carriages of an express train after an hour of constant and
rapid work. If you merely rub the blade of a knife rapidly on a
piece of wood, it will become hot enough to bum ^our hand.
Percussion is merely a more energetic kind of friction, and is often
resorted to by the blacksmith to light his furnace. He places a nail
or other piece of soft iron on his anvil, and beats it rapidly with the
hammer, when it becomes actually red hot. The production of sparks
by striking flint against steel, or two pieces of flint one against the
other, are familiar instances of heat produced by percussion.
One of the most powerful means of producing heat is the process
of combustion.
Combustion, as the word imports, is the burtihig together of two or
more substances, a chemical union of oxygen generally with carbon
and hydrogen in some shape or other. In our ordinary fires we bum
coal, a hydro-carbon as it is called; and the ^as which is now so
universally used for the purpose of iHumiuation, is a compound of the
same bodies — so wax, tallow, oil of various kinds, both of animal and
vegetable origin, are all hydro-carbons.
On the application of a sufficient heat, and a free access of atmo
spheric air, or of some other gas containing oxygen in a certain state
of combination, these bodies take fire, and continue to bum either
with flame, or a red or even white heat without flame, until they are
consumed ; that is, until they have entered into new combinations
with the oxygen, and are converted iuto carbonic acid and water, the
2u:bon forming the fii'st product, the hydrogen the othei.
DD 2
404 EVERY boy's book.
^ The following experiment shows the production of heat by chemi-
cal acti9n alone. Bruise some fresh prepared crystals of nitrate of
copper, spread them over a piece of tin-foil, sprinkle them with a
little water ; then fold up the foil tightly as rapidly as possible, and
in a minute or two it will become red-hot, the tin apparently burning
away. This heat is produced by the energetic action of the tm on
the nitrate of copper, taking away its oxygen in order to unite with
the nitric acid, for which, as well as for the oxygen, the tin has
a much greater affinity than the copper has.
Combustion without flame m&j oe shown in a very elegant and
agreeable manner, by making a coil of platinum wire by twisting it
round the stem of a tobacco-pipe, or any cylindrical body, for a
dozen times or so, leaving about an inch straight, which should be
inserted into the wick of a spirit-lamn ; light the lamp, and after
it has burnt for a minute or two extmguish the
flame quickly; the wire will soon become red
hot, and, if kept from draughts of air, wiU con-
tinue to burn until all the spirit is consumed.
Spongy platinum, as it is called, answers rather
better than wire, and has been employed in the
formation of fumigators for the drawing-room, in
which, instead of pure spirit, some perfume, such
as lavender water, is used ; by its combustion an
agreeable odour is diffused through the apartment. These little
lamps were much in vogue a few years ago, but are now nearly out
of fashion.
Expeiiments on combustion mi^ht be multiplied almost to any
amount, but the above will be suflicient for the present. When we
come to treat of the properties of the gases and some other sub-
stances, we shall have occasion to recur to this subject.
The production of caloric by chemical combination may be exhi-
bited by mixing carefully one part of oil of vitriol with two of water,
when sufficient heat will be produced to boil some water in a thin
and narrow tube, which may be used as a rod to stir the mixture.
The production of heat by electric and galvanic agency belongs to
another subject. I will content myself with saying here, that these
forces afford the most powerful aid in decomposing and uniting
various bodies, and that it was by the immense power of a battery of
2,000 pairs of plates, belonging to the Ex)yal Institution in Lonaon,
that Sir H. Davy disooverea the metallic bases of the alkalies and
earths.
HYDEAULICS.
The science of Hydraulics comprehends the laws which regulate
non-elastic fluids in motion, and especially water, &c.
Water can only be set ia motion by two causes — the pressure of
HYDRAULICS.
405
the atmosphere, or its own gravity. The principal law concerning
fluids is, that they always preserve their own level. Hence water can
bp distributed over a town from any reservoir that is hiffher than the
houses to be supplied ; and the same principle will enable us to form
fountains in a garden, or other place. Should any of our young
friends wish to form a fountain, or jet-d' eau, they may, by bringing
a pipe from t, a water-tank, which should be at the upper part w
the house, convey the water down to the garden. Then bv leading it
through the earth, underneath the path or grass-plot, and turning it
to a perpendicular position, the water vrill spring out, and rise nearly
as hij'h as the level of that in the tank. The part of the pipe at b
should have a turnkey, so that the water may be let on or shut off at
pleasure.
THE SYPHON.
The syphon u is a bent tube, having one leg shorter than the
other. It acts by the pressure of the
atmosphere. In order to make a syphon
act, it is necessary first to fill both legs
i quite full of the fluid ; and then the
shorter leg must be placed in the vessel
to be emptied. Immediately upon with-
drawing the finger from the longer leg,
the liquor wiU flow. Any young
person may form a syphon by a
small piece of leaden pipe, bent into
the form above.
THE PUMP.
;^ The action of the common pump is as follows : When the handle a
is raised, the piston-rod b descends, and brings the piston-valve,
called the sucker, or bucket, to another valve, c, which is fixed, and
406 EVERY boy's book.
opens inwards cowards the piston. When the handle is drawn down,
the piston is raised, and, as it is air-tight, a vacuum is produced
between the two valves ; the air in the barrel of the pump, betwixt
the lower valve and the water, then forces open the lower valve, and
rushes through to fiU up this vacuum ; and the air in the pump being
less dense than the external atmosphere, the water is forced a short
way up the barrel. When the piston again de-
scends to the lower valve, the an- between them
is again forced out by forcing open the upper
valve ; and when the piston is raised, a vacuum is
again produced, and the air below the lower valve
rushes up, and the water in consequence is again
raised a little further. This operation continues
until the water rises above the lower valve ; at
every stroke afterwards, the water passes through
the valve of the descending piston, and is raised By
it, on its ascent, until it issues out of the spout.
THE HYDRAULIC DANCER.
Make a little figure of cork, in the shape of a
dancing mountebank, sailor, &c. In this figure
place a small hollow cone, made of thin leaf brass.
When this figure is placed upon any jet-d'-eau,
such as that of the fountain recommended to be
constructed, it will be suspended on the top of
the water, and perform a ffreat varietur of amusing
motions. If a hollow ball of very tlun copper, of
an inch in diameter, be placed on a similar jet, ii
Ka
HYDRAULICS.
407
remain suspended, turning round and spreading the water all
about it.
THE WATER SNAIL, OR ARCHIMEDEAN SCREW,
may easily be constructed. Purchase a yard of small leaden pipe, and
twist it round a pole, as in the following figure, a ; place a handle at
its upper end, b, and let its lower end rest in the water. Between the
last turn of the pipe and the orifice place a paddle-wheel, c. Now,
should the water be that of a running stream, the force of the stream
will turn the pipe, and the water will rise in it till it empties itseli
into the trough at d. Should the water have no motion, the turning oi
the handle at b will elevate the water from the lower to the highei
level.
MAGNETISM.
The attractive power of the loadstone has been known from a very
remote period. Tlie natural magnet appears native in a grey iron
ore in octahedral crystals, composed oi 168 parts of iron, and 64
parts of oxygen, Fe^O*. Its properties seem to have been studied
m Europe during the dark ages, and a directive power is alluded to
bv Cardinal James de Vitri, who flourished about the year 1200, who
observed, that it was indispensable to those who travel much by sea.
In modern times, the history 'as well as the nature of the magnet
has engaged remarkable attention; and it has been determined beyond
all dispute that the magnet was used by the Chinese under the name
of the tche-chy (directing-stone) about 2604 years before Christ. It
passed from them to the Arabs, and was first used in Europe after
the Crusades ; and Ludi Vestomanus asserts, that about the year
1500 he saw a pilot in the East Indies direct his course by a mag-
netic needle like those now in use.
EELATION OF MAGNETISM TO ELECTRICITY.
The most remarkable theories have been invented to account for
the phenomena of magnetism. Halley imagined magnetic globes to
be moving to and fro in the interior of the earth. Barlow's theory.
MAGNETISM. 409
which refers the whole to electrical currents, is the most rational.
Dr. l^araday, for whose kindness to us in early days we always feel
grateful, in a series of very curious experiments, has succeeded ' in
identifying magnetism with galvanism, by directing galvanic currents
at right angles to the direction of powerful magnets. And its con-
nexion with this and the common species of electricity has deprived
it of all its conjuring powers, and reduced it to the well-defined
action of electrical bodies.
It is not for us to wTite either a history of this interesting subject,
or to treat it as a science to be acquired ; but as it embodies a great
number of most instructive and amusing experiments, we think it
proper to introduce it here.
TO MAKE ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS.
This may be done by stroking a piece of hard steel with a natural
or artificial magnet. Take a common sewing-needle and pass the
north pole of a magnet from the eye to the point, pressing it gently
in so doing. After reaching the end of the needle the magnet must
not be passed back again towards the eye, but must be lifted up and
applied again to that end, the friction being always in the same
direction. After repeating this for a few times the needle will become
magnetised, and attract iron filings, &c.
HOW TO MAGNETISE A POKER.
Hold it in the left hand in a position slightly inclined from the
perpendicular, the lower end pointing to the north, and then strike
it smartly several times with a large iron hammer, and it will be
found to possess the powers of a magnet, although but slightly.
TO SHOW MAGNETIC REPULSION AND ATTRACTION.
Suspend two short pieces of iron wire, n s, n s, so that they will
hang in contact in a vertical position. If the north pole of a magnet
N be now brought to a moderate distance between the wires, they
will recede from each other, as in figure 1.
The ends s s being made south poles by induction from the north
410
EVERY boy's book.
pole N, will repel each other, and so will the north poles n n. This
reparation of tlie wires will increase as the magnet approaches them,
but there will be a particular distance at which the attractive force
of N overcomes the repulsive force of the poles s s, and causes the
wires to converge, as in figure 2 ; the north poles n n still exhibiting
their mutual repulsion.
NORTH AND SOUTH POLES OF THE MAGNET.
Each magnet has its poles, north and south — the
north or south poles of one magnet, repel the north and
south pole of another. If a magnet, as in the fol-
lowing figure, be dipped in some iron filings, they wiU
be immediately attracted to one end. Supposing this
to be the north pole, each of the ends of the filings,
not "in contact with the magnet, will become north
poles, while the ends in contact will by induction be-
come south poles. Both will have a tendency to
repel each other, and the filings will stand on the
magnet as in the figure.
POLARITY OP THE MAGNET.
The best method of proving this is to take a magnet or a piece of
steel rendered magnetic, and to place it on a piece of cork by laying
it in a groove cut to receive it. If the
cork be placed in the centre of a basin
of water, and allowed to swim freely
on its surface, so that it is not attracted
by the sides of the basin, it will be
found to turn its north pole to the
nortn, and its south pole to the south,
the same as the manner's compass. If
you fix two ma^ets in two pieces of
cork, and j)lace them also in a basin of water, and they are in a parallel
position with the same poles together, that is, north to north, and
south to south, they will mutually repel each other; but if the con-
trary poles point to one another, as north to south, they will be
attracted.
THE MAGNETIC PISH.
Fish are to be purchased at the toy-
shops, by which the young " magnetique "
may perform this experiment; they are
made hoUow, and will float on the water.
In the mouth of each should be inserted a
piece of magnetic wire. The angling rod
IS like any other rod, and has a silken
thread for a line, and an iron hook also
To catch the fish it is only necessary to put
itrongly magnetised.
MAGNETISM. 411
the hook in contact with the noses of the fish, and thej wiU be
talcen without any of the baits mentioned in the former p^ of this
work.
THE MAGNETIC SWAN.
The figure of a swan should be cut in cork, and within its beak a
small strongly magnetised piece of steel should be placed. The swan
should then be covered with a coating of white wax, and fashioned
further into the shape of a swan, and glass beads may be placed in its
head for eves. This should be placed in a small tub or large basin_ of
water, and to make it swim about, you should place in a white stick
about nine inches long a magnetic bar, on which the north and south
poles are marked. If you wish to bring the swan towards you.
present to him the north pole of the wand, if you wish it to retire,
present the south pole, and thus you may direct the swan to any part
you desire.
TO SUSPEND A NEEDLE IN THE AIR BY MAGNETISM.
Place a magnet on a stand to raise it a little above the table ; then
bring a small sewing-needle containing a thread, within a little of the
magnet, keeping hold of the thread to prevent the needle from
attaching itself to the magnet. The needle in endeavouring to fly to
the magnet, and being prevented by the thread, will remain curiously
suspended in the air, reminding us of the fable of Mahomed's cojfin.
TO MAKE ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS WITHOUT THE AID EITHER OF
NATURAL LOADSTONES OR ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS.
Take an iron poker and tongs, or two bars of iron, the larger and
the older the better, and fixing the poker upright, hold to it with the
left hand near the top p by a silk thread, a bar of soft steel about
three inches long, one fourth of an inch broad, and one twentieth
tliick ; mark one end, and let this end be downwards. Then grasping
the tongs T with the right hand a little below the middle, and keeping
them nearly in a vertical line, let the bar b be rubbed with the lower
end L of the tongs, from the marked end of the bar to its upper end
about ten times of each side of it. By this means the bar b will
412
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
receive as much magnetism as will enable it to lift a small key at the
marked end; and this end of the bar being
suspended by its middle, or made to rest on
a joint, will turn to the north, and is called
its north pole, the unmarked end being the
south pole. This is the method recom-
mended by Mr. Caxton, in his process,
which he regarded superior to those in former
use, and of which a more detailed account
will be found in his interesting volume.
HOESE-SHOE MAGNETS.
The form of a horse -shoe is generally
given to magnetised bars, when both poles are
wanted to act together, which frequently
happens in various experiments, such as for
lifting weights by the force of magnetic attrac-
tion, and for magnetising steel bars by the
process of double touch, for which they are
exceedingiv convenient. The following is
the method of making a powerful magnetic battery of the horse-
shoe form. Twelve bars or plates of steel are to be taken, and having
been previously bent to the required form, that is,
the horse-shoe shape, they are then bound toge-
ther by means of rivets at their ends ; before being
finally fastened thev are each separately magnetisec^
and afterwards finally united.
Horse-shoe magnets should have a short bar of
soft iron adapted to connect the two poles, and
should never oe laid by without such a piece of iron
adhering to them. Bar magnets should be kept in
pairs vnth their poles turned in contrary directions,
and they should be Kept from rust. Both kinds oi magnets have their
power not only preserved but increased, by keeping them surrounded
with a mass of dry filings of soft iron, each particle of which will
re-act by its induced ma^etism upon the pomt of the magnet to
which it adheres, and mamtain in that point its primitive magnetic
state.
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT SOFT IRON POSSESSES MAGNETIC
PROPERTIES WHILE IT REMAINS IN THE VICINITY OF A MAGNET.
Let M be a magnet and k a key, held horizontally near one of its
poles, or near its lower edge. Then if another piece of iron, such as
a small nail, be applied to the other end of the key, the nail wiU hang
from the key, and will continue to do so while the magnet is slowly
withdrawn ; but when it has been removed beyond a certain distance,
the nail wiU drop from the key, because the magnetism induced in
MAGXETISM.
413
tne key becomes at that distance too
weak to support the weight of the
nail. That this is the real cause of
its faUiag off may be proved by
taking a stiU lighter fragment of iron,
such as a piece of very slender wire,
and applymg it to the key. The
msignetism of the key will still be
sufficiently strong to support the
wire, though it cannot the nail, and
it will continue to support it even
when the magnet is yet further re-
moved; at lengtn, nowever, it drops oft.
S
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
The identity of magnetism with electricity alluded to in a former
paragraph, has led to the formation of a new science under the above
name, and to some of the interesting experiments connected with it,
we shall briefly allude for the amusement of the young reader.
POWER OP THE ELECTB/)-MAftNET.
The same influence which affects the mag-
netic needle already described, wUl also com-
municate magnetism to soft iron. If a bar of
that metal bent, as in the drawing, be sur-
rounded with a common bonnet wire, or a cop-
per wire prevented from touching the iron by a
winding of cotton or thread, and then if a current
of voltaic electricity be sent through the wire,
the bar becomes a powerful magnet, and will
continue so as long as the connexion with the
battery is preserved. On breaking the contact,
the magnetism disappears. This experiment may
be easily made by the young reader with a horse-
shoe magnet, surrounded by several coils of wire,
p is the positive, and n the negative pole.
TRE MARINERS COMPASS AND EXPERIMENTS WITH A POCKET
COMPASS.
The mariner's compass is an artificial magnet fitted in a proper
box, and consists of three parts — 1, the box ; 2, the card or fly ; and
3, the needle. The box is suspended in a square wooden case, by
means of two concentric brass circles called gimbals, so fixed by brazen
axes to the two boxes, that the inner one, or compass-box, retains a
horizontal position in all motions of the ship. The card is a circular
piece of paper which is fastened upon the needle, and moves with it.
414
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
The outer edge of the card is divided into thirty-two points, as shown
m the engraving, called points of the compass. The needle is a
slender bar of hardened steel, having a hollow a^ate cup in the centre,
which moves upon the point of a pivot made ot brass.
VARIATION OP THE NEEDLE.
The magnetic needle does not point exactly north and south, but
the north pole of the needle takes a direction to the west of the true
north. It is constantly changing, and varies at different parts of the
earth, and at different times of the day.
DIP OP THE NEEDLE.
Another remarkable and evident manifestation of the influence of
the magnetism of the earth upon the needle is the inclination or dip
of the latter, which is a deviation from its horizontal place in a down-
ward direction in northern regions of its north, and in southern
regions of its south pole. In balancing the needle on the card, on
account of this dipping, a small weight or moveable piece of brass is
placed on one end ot the needle, oy the shifting of which either
nearer to or further from the centre, the needle wiJl always be
balajiced.
USEFUL AMUSEMENT WITH THE POCKET COMPASS.
Pocket compasses are to be bought for five or six shillings, and may
be used in many ways. In travelling over mountains or a wide ex-
tended moor, tney are indispensably necessary ; and no one should go
a tour into Wales, Scotland, or the lakes without such a companion,
and it will be a very useful and amusing exercise for any young per-
son to take the bearings of his own or some particular locality, and
make out what may be called a bearing card. This he may easily do
in the following manner. Supposing he vnshes, for instance, to take
the bearings of his own house, ne has nothing to do but to set his
pocket compass upon a map of the district, — a county map will do very
i
MAGNETISM 415
«rell, unless his house stands on the verge of a county, then two
county maps will he necessary. He must make the north of the map
exactly coincide with the north, as^ indicated bv his compass, and
having fixed his map in this situation, he should take a ruler and
piece of paper, and dot down the exact bearings of each important
town, or place, or village, around him. Let him suppose himself, for
instance, in the town of Cambridge, and laying down iiis map as indi-
cated by the compass, north to north and south to south, he will
WENTVVORTH
WILBERTON N
DU^FORDOg
CHESTERFIELD,
fino the following places due north, Wilberton, Wentworth ; Little
WUbraham, Teversnam. due east ; Duxford and Chesterfield, south ;
Coton and St. Neots in Huntingdonshire, west. The other points of
the compass may be filled up in the same manner. Should therefore
our young friend be upon any elevated situation near his own dweU-
iug, or upon any other elevated spot from which the beariags have
been taken, he will be able to inform his youn^ friends that such and
such a place lies in such a direction, that this place lies due north, the
other north-west, a thii'd south-east, the fourth south-west, &c. &c. ;
INTERESTING PABTICULABS CONCERNING THE MAGNET.
Fire-irons which have rested in an upright position in a room
during the summer months are often highly magnetic.
Iron bars standing erect, such as the gratings of a prison cell, or
the iron railings before houses, are often magnetic.
The great iron-clad ships, which have now replaced the wooden
walls of Old England, are powerfully magnetic, and therefore afi'ect
the compass by which the vessel is steered ; ingenious arrangements
are therefore made to correct the effect of the loc^ attraction, so
that the man-of-war may be steered correctly.
416 EVERY boy's book.
Magnetism may be made to pass through a deal board ; to exhibit
which, lay a needle on the smooth part above, and run a magnet along
the under side, and the needle will be found to follow the course of
the ma^et. A magnet dipped into boiling water loses part of its
magnetism, which however returns upon its cooling.
A sudden blow given to a magnet often destroys its magnetic
power.
MECHANICS.
"Ihese are machinations comical." — Ford.
There is no subject of such importance as Mechanics, as its prin-
ciples are founded upon the properties of matter and the laws oi
motion; and in knowing something of these, the tyro will lay the
foundation of all substantial knowledge.
The properties of matter are the following : Solidity (or Imj)ene-
trabib'iy). Divisibility, Mobility, Elasticity, Brittleness, Malleability,
Ductility, and Tenacity.
The laws of motion are as follow : —
1. Every body continues in a state of rest or of uniform rectilineal
motion, unless affected by some extraneous force.
2. The change of motion is always proportionate to the impelling
force.
3. Action and reaction are always equal and contrary.
EXPEKIMENT OF THE LAW OF MOTION.
i' In shooting at "taw," if the marble be struck "plump," as it is called,
it moves forward exactly in the same Hue of direction ; but if struck
sideways, it will move m an oblique direction, and its course wiU be
in a Hne situated between the direction of its former motion and that
of the force impressed. This is called the resolution of forces.
E E
IIS
EVERY boy's book.
BALANCING.
The centre of gravity in a body is that part about which all the
other parts equally balance each other. In balancing a stick upon
the finger, or upon the chin, it is necessary only to keep the chin or
finger exactly under the point which is called the centre of gravity.
THE PRANCING HORSE.
Cut out the figure of a horse, and hav-
ing fixed a curved iron we to the under
part of its body, place a small ball of lead
upon it. Place the hind legs of the horse
on the table, and it will rock to and fro.
If the ball be removed, the horse would
immediately tumble, because unsupported,
the centre of gravity being in the front of
the prop; but upon the ball being re-
placed, the centre of gravity immediately
changes its position, and is brought under
the prop, and the horse is again in equi-
hbrio.
TO CONSTRUCT A FIGURE, WHICH, BEING PLACED UPON A CURVED
SURFACE, AND INCLINED IN ANY POSITION, SHALL, WHEN LEFT
TO ITSELF, RETURN TO ITS FORMER POSITION.
The feet of the figure rest on a curved pivot, which is sustained
by two loaded balls below; for the weight of these balls being much
greater than that of the figure, their effect is to bring the centre of
gravitv of the whole beneath the point on which it rests; conse-
quently the equihbrium wiU resist any slight force to disturb it.
TO MAKE A CARRIAGE RUN IN AN INVERTED POSITION
WITHOUT FALLING.
It is pretty well known to most boys, that if a tumbler of water be
placed within a broad wooden hoop, the
whole may be whirled round without
falling, owing to the centrifugal force.
On the same principle, if a small car-
riage be placed on an iron band or rail,
it will ascend the curve, become in-
verted, and descend again, without fall-
ing.
^X>^
TO CAUSE A CYLINDER TO ROLL BY ITS OWN WEIGHT UP-HILL.
Procure a coffee-canister, and loading it at f with a piece of lead,
which may be fixed in with solder, the position of the centre of
pravity is thus altered. If a cylinder so constructed be placed on an
MECHANIOS.
419
inclined plane, and the loaded part above, it will roll up-hill without
assistance.
THE BALANCED STICK.
Procure a piece of wood, about nine inches in length and about
half an inch in thickness, and thrust into its upper end the blades of
two penknives, on either side one. _ Place the other end upon the tip
of the fore-finger^ and it will keep its place without falling.
h
THE CHINESE MANDARIN.
Construct out of the pith of the elder a little mandarigi ; then pro-
vide a base for it to sit in, like a kettle-drum. Into this put some
heavy substance, such as half a leaden bullet ; fasten the figure to
this, and in whatever position it may be placed, it will, when left to
itself, immediately return to its upright position.
TO MAKE A SHILLING TURN ON ITS EDGE ON THE POINT
OF A NEEDLE.
Take a bottle, with a cork in its neck, and
place in it, La a perpendicular position, a middle-
sized needle. 1 ix a shilling into another cork,
by cutting a nick in it; and stick into the
same cork two small table-forks, opposite each
other, with the handles inclining outwards and
downwards. If the rim of the shilling be now
poised on the point of the needle, it may easily
be made to spm round witht)ut falling, as the
centre of gravity is below the centre of sus-
pension.
E E 2
420
EVERT boy's book.
THE DANCING PEA.
If you stick through a pea, or small ball of pith, two pias at right
angles, and defend the points with pieces of sealingwax, it may be
kept in eqmlibrio at a short distance from the end of a straight tube,
by means of a current of breath from the mouth, which imparts a
rotatory motion to the pea. *
OBLIQUITY OP MOTION.
Cut a piece of pasteboard into the following shape, and describe
(I) The pins are only used to hold the pea steady before it is bloinrii from the pipo^
tt the pea alone will dance quite as well.
MECHANICS.
421
on it a spiral line ; cut tliis out witli u penknife, and then suspend
it on a large skewer or pin, as seen in tne engraving. If the whole
be now placed on a warm stove, or over the flame of a candle or
lamp, it wiU revolve with considerable velocity. The card, after
being cut into the spiral, may be laade to represent a snake or
dragon, and when in motion will prod ace a very pleasing effect,
THE BRIDGE 07 KNITES.
Place three glasses, a a a, in the form of a triangle, and arrange
three knives upon them, as shown in. the figure, — the blade of No. 1
over tliat of No. 2, and that over No. 3, which rests on No. 1.
bridge so made will be self-supported.
The
THE TOPER S TRIPOD.
Place three tobacco-pipes in the posi-
tion shown in the engraving, the mouth of
the bowls downwards, and the lower end
of the stems upon the stem just by the
bowls. This tripod, if carefully put to-
gether, win support considerably more than
a pot of "Lockwood's home-brewed,"
equally celebrated with the trick.
THE MICROSCOPE.
At any time of the year or hour of the day there are few pursuits
more interesting, and at the same time instructive, than the study of
Nature by means of the microscope.
This instrument has revolutionized science, solved many problems
that had wearied the souls of older naturalists, and even in its simplest
form is beyond all value to those who love Nature and the objects
which they see abound them. The microscope opens a new world to
us. When the first telescope was directed to the heavens, and
unlocked the mysteries of the skies, when it crumbled into dust all
the theories of the past centuries, and told mankind that the planets
were not merely instruments of fortune-telling, whose voices were
inteUigible to a chosen few, but orbs far vaster than our own;
even tnen the new world of thought into which man entered was no
wider than that which is displayed by the poorest lens that possesses
the power of magnifying.
All of us must admire the more than awful grandeur of that
universe whereof we form so infinitesimal a part, wherein the stars
are scattered as the sand on the sea-shore, and every star a sun, the
centre of a system of orbs too distant for the eye of man' to perceive.
Looking at our nearest planet, and observing on her face vast
mountain-chains, ravines into which the light of the sun can never
penetrate, and volcanoes whose craters are so wide that they would
take in the whole of London, the whole of Birmingham, and all the
country between them, we can judge by analogy of the unseen
wonders which must exist ia the world beyond our ken.
But to him who cai^ read Nature rightly, the microscope is a
teacher as grand as its sister instrument, and the awful magnificence
of Nature is as evident in a midge's wing as in the more patent
glories of the sun, moon, and stars. In the following pages we hope
to put the readers of this book in the way to read their micro-
scope rightly — possibly to make it — and to show that much can be
done with small means when "there's a will," and to indicate
to them that objects of no small interest can be found without
stirring from the room in which we sit, or even from the table on
which our microscope is placed.
Some of our readers may say, when they read the heading of this
paper, that they should hke a microscope very much, but that they
have no money to buy it, and that their parents cannot afford one.
THE MICROSCOPE. 423
This is just the feeling which we used to have when a boy, for in
those days microscopes were microscopes indeed, and you had your
clioice between a little instrument, with a seiies of brass cups, having
glasses in them, which magnified sKghtly but defined clearly, or a
great composition of brass and iron, looking hke a rocket-tube, with an
eye-piece at one end and a glass shot at the other. Iv was very costly,
very imposing, and magnified very higlily ; but it strained the eyes
painfully, had no defining capacities, and made all the objects look
as if they were seen through a thick fog. Practically, therefore, the
former was the only instrument that was available.
A still more useful instrument, however, was that which can
always be obtained for a few shiUings, and which is now made
wonderfully cheap and wonderfully good ; we mean the double or
treble pocket-lens. So we say, if you cannot afford a really good
microscope, do not waste your money upon inferior and pretentious
instruments, but get a sound pocket-lens.
It has a thousand advantages. It is portable, and is even more
useful in the fields than in the house. It defiiies very clearly, and
needs little trouble in manipulation. We need not say how difficult is
the task of getting a complicated instrument to define properly, how
impossible with a bad one. The object and the glass can be held in
any hght, — a matter of no small consideration when examining any-
thing new, and trying to make out its structure. It is not easily
put out of order, and if treated with the most ordinary care, will last
for a lifetime.
You can push it under water, and it will magnify as well as in the
air ; and if you are wandeiing on the river-side, you can lie down on
the bank, dip the upper part of your head into the water, together
with the glass, and watch carefully the subaquatic objects without
removing them. The water will not hurt the eye in the least, though
a non- swimmer may perhaps find a httle difficulty in his first attempt.
It makes a good burnhig-glass, should fire be needed, and no other
means of procuring a spark be at hand. It can be used so as to
show the principle of a camera obscura, and to illustrate the manner
in which photographic portraits are taken. It can be made into an
admirable dissecting microscope, and needs scarcely any practice in
the manipulation. These are some of its advantages, and there are
many others which need not be mentioned.
Even if jou should be able to procure a good microscope, get a
pocket-lens as well, for you will want them both, and we may say that
the most practised microscopists, and those who are possessors of
the most elaborate instruments, are the very men who are most cer-
tain to have a pocket-lens about them, and to use it most frequently.
Practise well with the pocket-lens before you meddle with the com-
pound microscope. You will waste no time, but will rather gain by
it ; for you will be learning the rudiments of a new science, and lay-
' )g a solid foundation on which to build. Whenever we see a lad take
424 EVERY boy's book.
out his pocket-lens in a business-like way, use it skilfully, and put it
back with a mechanical facility that tells of constant practice, we know
that there is a lad wh'> has learned the chief lesson of a naturalist, —
namely, the art of observing. "We speak highly of the pocket-lens,
because we think highly of it and owe much to it.
One or two practical remarks on the proper handling of the pocket-
lens may be of use. Do not always employ the same eye in lookiug
through the lens, but use the eyes alternately. There is always a
temptation to employ the same eye, which thus receives a kind of
training in vision; but it is a temptation always to be resisted. With
some persons the right eye is most in favour, and with others the
left ; and when the favourite e^e gets all the work, it too frequently
suffers. Whether you look with the right or the left eye, kee'p both
eyes open.
It is a pitiful sight to see a human face all screv^ed up into a
corner, the lids of the unused eye convulsively squeezed together,
and the mouth slanting upwards, as if in sympathy with the eye.
Not only does the human face become repulsively mean and por-
tentously ugly by such action, but the sight of the eye is seriously
strained, and sometimes impaired for life. At first the beginner will
find a Httle difficulty in restricting his vision to one eye while the
other remains open, just as a beginner on the pianoforte feels himself
puzzled when he tries to make his ri^ht hand ^o one way and his left
Land another ; but in either case a little practice and plenty of per-
severance are sure to overcome all obstacles, and in a wonderfully short
time the difficulty will not only be overcome, but forgotten.
We speak here with some feeling, because, while engaged on a
work on the microscope, we were necessarily obliged to work much
at night, and inadvertently employed the left eye more than the
right; the consequence of which imprudence was that we have
been obliged ever since that time to give the left eye perfect rest, as
far as artificial vision goes, and, except when looking through a
binocular instrument, we have not ventured to use it either to a micro-
scope or telescope. The vision accommodates itself to circumstances
witli wonderful ease, and the observer learns the curious art of cut-
ting off all communication between the unused eye and the brain ;
so that, although the objects around may imprint themselves upon
the retina, the mind is as totally unconscious of them as if they had
no existence.
If possible, always examine an object without removing it^ as
thereby you see it as it is, without altering any of the conditions
\vith which it is surrounded. Should this not be practicable, take
the object to be viewed in the left hand and the lens in the right.
Place the wrists of the two hands together, and then you will find
that one supports the other, and that the lens can be held in the
proper focus without the least difficulty. After you have used the
lens for some little time, you will learn to liit upon the right focus
THE MICROSCOPE. 425
almost to a hair's breadth, — so as to lose no time, a matter of some
importance when a hving creature is to be exammed, especially if it
be in motion.
As to the selection of objects, none is necessary. Look at every-
thing ; and the uglier and more unpromising it is, let it be the closer
examined. We do not merely use our aids to vision for the sake
of seeing beautiful things, tliough the microscopist sees more beauty
in a day than others will see in a year. We want to see how the
world and its constituent parts are made ; and though admiration
will not be wanting, yet it aoes not, or ought not, to hold the first
place. Always have a motive for looking at every object, and if you
have none, try to make one. One of our friends, known by name
at least to most of my readers, struck out, some years ago, a most
curious train of thought while looking at an object which is seen
daily by thousands of human beings, and will probably soon give the
public the benefit of it. We have seen the object hundreds of times,
but the ideas which it suggested did not happen to occur to us.
We are now about to suggest a verv
simple piece of mechanism, by whicn
the pocket-lens can be converted into
a microscope that will serve for dis-
section and many other purposes. The
accompanying sketch is taken from an
instrument of our own manufacture.
It is of very rough make, and by an
old Indian officer would be contemp-
tuously termed "cutcha." Measured,
however, by its performance, it is quite
as satisfactory as those instruments
which are made by professed opticians,
and which the same old Indian would class under the honoured title
of " pucka."
Melt three or four pounds of lead in an iron ladle, and make a
mould, consisting of a hollow hemisphere of paper or cardboard,
through the centre of which an iron rod has been passed. The
hollow of the paper should resemble an ordinary saucer. Pour the
lead into the saucer, and let it cool. The paper mould will be
scorched by the heat and rendered useless, but an outer coating of
lead will be cool and hard before the paper is quite destroyed. The
rod and leaden stand will now appear as in the illustration. Next
take a piece of stout brass wire and a wine-cork ; twist the wire
round tne cork several times ; cut off one end close to the cork ;
sharpen the other, and turn it up as seen in the engraving.
Bore a hole through the cork, just large enough to allow the
upright rod to slip through it, and there is the "stand" of your
K' roscope. Now take your pocket-lens, and get an optician to
426 • EVERY boy's book.
upturned end of the wire ; slip the lens on the wire, and the micro-
scope is complete.
The cork, though grasping the upright stem with tolerable firm-
ness, can be slid up and down so as to insure the correct focus, and
can be pushed aside whenever the object has to be viewed with the
naked eye and must not be removed from its place. This instrument
is a capital one for dissecting purposes, and will answer quite as well
as those expensive affairs that are to be purchased in the shops. If,
however, our readers would like to possess a real and well-made
instrument, he cannot do better than get one of Ross's Dissecting
Microscopes, which are very steady, and, as may be seen, can be
adjusted to almost any position. A rack-and-pinion movement for
elevating or lowering the sliding pillar would be useful.
I 8 DISSECTINQ MICROSCOPE.
If the object be transparent, and requires to be seen by transmitted
light, the following plan will answer : — Take a thin piece of wood,
cut or punch a rouna hole out of the middle, and support it on four
legs. Wires or wooden pegs fixed in corks will answer the purpose
well, and if the corks be glued to the corners of the board, the legs
can be inserted or removed at pleasure. The wood of which cigar-
boxes are made will answer the purpose very well. Its dimensions
should be about three inches in length by two in width. Now buy
one of the doll's looking-glasses that are sold for a penny, and put it
under the stand. Lay a flat piece of glass over the hole, place the
object upon it, and direct the light through it by means of the mirror
below. If such a mirror cannot be obtained, it is easy enough to
make one, by mounting a piece of looking-glass in a cork frame, and
making it swing on pivots, like the glasses of our dressing-rooms.
The young microscopist must remember that when he is examining
THE MICROSCOPE. 427
any object by transmitted ligbt, he must arrange it as flatly as
possible on the glass. In many cases, a still neater manipulation is
required, — as, for example, when the petals of flowers arc under
examination. Thin glass is to be purchased at any optician's, and if
cut in squares, instead of circles, is very much cheaper, and quite as
useful for all practical purposes. Lay the petal on the glass plate,
place a piece of the thin glass upon it, and press it gently while
examining it. If it still remains thick and dull, put a drop of pure
water on the petal, and replace the thin glass, when the structure
will almost invariab]^ be detected.
Everything depends on the proper management of the object and
the arrangement of the hght. Some opaque objects can be seen
best by direct light, and others by transmitted light. If a leaf be
examined, particularly if it be a thick and heavy one, like that of
the ivy, the upper and lower membranes must be stripped apart, — a
task which is easily performed by tearing a small sht, and then rip-
ping it smartly across. A pair of forceps will be required for this
and other delicate work, and may be obtained at a cheap rate. Care
must be taken to keep the points exactly even, and if at any time
one of them appears to be shorter than the other, they should be
rubbed on a hone until they are brought perfectly level.
These should be made of steel ; but the young microscopist will
find that ^ second pair made of brass, and much rougher in finish,
are invaluable aids as he takes his walks into the country. By their
aid he can pick up minute objects, draw insects out of crevices with-
out damaging them, and pluck the tiniest flowers without harming
their petals. They can be carried in the waistcoat pocket, and the
cost is sixpence. Any lad who knows how to handle solder can make
a pair for himself in a few minutes.
A penknife with one blade kept scrupulously sharp is essential,
and we have found an old lancet of the greatest service. Lancets
have gone so much out of fashion, that the second-hand instrument
shops abound with them. We did not allow our own lancet to be shut
up, but removed the blade from the tortoise-shell handle, and fixed
it upon a wooden handle, about four inches in length, so that it
looked verj clumsy, but was extremely useful.
Two pairs of scissors are needful, — one very fine, and the other
moderately strong. Both pairs, however, must Gave very short blades
and verj' long handles, and the scissors such as ladies use are of very
little use, the short handles causing the fingers of the right hand to
shade the object. As to the fine'pair, it is hardly possible to have
J / or THE
I I lIMIl/e-n
428
EVERY boy's book.
—m^'
r
o-
•om
<"!!£
the handles too long or the blades too short ; for if the points can
be separated a quarter of an inch, nothing more is needed. If a
pair of bent scissors can also be obtained, they are extremely pleasant
to work with, and save much trouble.
I'or arranging the objects under the microscope, there are no
instruments equal to those which are here
engraved. They are nothing more than
ordinary needles stuck into the handles of
camel's-hair brushes. , The uppermost is
made of the largest'ized darning-needle,
and is useful for making little holes, and
similar purposes. The two next instru-
ments are the most generally useful, and
several of each should be always at hand.
Nos. 4 and 5 are for special purposes ; the
former for holding tissues aside, and the
latter for lifting them up. The needles
must not be longer than those in the illustratiou, as they would
otherwise be too springy, and apt to tear tbe object instead of
pulling or pusliing it.
The bending is readily done in the flame of a spirit-lamp, or even
of a common candle; but in the latter case the needle is always
covered with soot, which must be wiped off before its shape can be
seen. The elasticity of the needles is lost by the operation, but is
easily restored by heating them red-hot, and plunging them imme-
diately into cold water. The end of the handle should be wrapped
with thread, in order to prevent it from splitting.
Pill-boxes of various sizes are of very great service
fto the microscopist. We always have them Arranged in
" nests," i.e. six or seven inside each other, so that
space is greatly economized, as long as they are not in
absolute use. All delicate objects should be placed in
separa'e boxes, and the predaceous insects must be
treated in the same manner, or they will certainly
destroy one another, or, at all events, inflict such injuries
as will make them useless for microscopic purposes.
When the insects are to be killed on the spot, we
employ another and a very simple plan.
We take one of the old-fashioned wooden lucifer-match
boxes, bore a hole in the lid, and push through the hole
a swan-quill or the barrel of one of the swan-quill steel
pens. A glass tube is still better, but is too fragile.
Beeswax is tightly worked into the junction of the
tube with the wood, so as to make it as nearly air-tight
as possible. A cork stopper is then cut to fit the tube.
The accompanying illustration will show the box com-
When this is finished, we take the smallest-sized pill-box,
pleted.
THE MICROSCOPE. 429
bore a number of holes in it with a red-hot needle, place a little
piece of solid ammonia within it, and inclose it in the lucifer-box.
Its effects are almost instantaneous; for scarcely has the insect
touched the bottom of the box before it is helpless, and in a very
few moments it is quite dead, so powerful is ammonia towards insects.
The reader will of course understand that the pill-boxes must never
have been used for pills, and that the match-box must be carefully
cleaned before employing it in the microscopic service. Moreover,
any boxes that have been used for lepidopterous insects become use-
less, inasmuch as the scales always fall from the wings, and cling to
the sides of the box, so as to mix with succeeding objects, and verv
much puzzle the observer.
Aquatic and marine objects require bottles, and, as a general rule,
these bottles ought always to have wide mouths. Indeed, if there
be no shoulder at all, their purpose will be better served, as a small
object is very apt to be caught under the shoulder, and to give much
trouble before it can be removed without injury. Wide and short
test-tubes answer admirably for collecting; and it will always be
advisable to have a few small test-tubes ready fitted with corks, for
the purpose of isolating those specimens which might receive or
cause injury by being mixed with others.
To remove minute objects from one vessel into another is a very
easy process. Take a glass tube, mark off a portion about eight
inches in length, cut a little notch with a file, and bend it smartly,
when it will break neatly across, without leaving points or having
the regularity of its ends injured by gaps. Turn each end round ana
round in the flame of the spirit-lamp, and you have an ordinary
" pipette." The object of placing the ends of the tube in thu flame
is to render the edges quite smooth and rounded.
Now mark off the same length of tube, and place the marked
portion in the flame, taking care to warm it well first, lest the
sudden heat should crack the glass. Keep it continually turning
between the fingers, and when it is quite soft, and of a fine red heat,
draw the hands smartly apart, and you will produce a couple of tubes
tapering to very fine points. Break off the tapering portions at any
convenient point, round the edges as before, and you will then have
pipettes suitable for small objects. As there are many specimens,
especially the smaller animalculse, which have a habit of retiring into
the remotest comer, it is necessary to bend another pipette, so as to
follow them. For our own part, we prefer the pipette to be bent
nearly to a right angle.
The mode of using these simple instruments is as follows : — Place
the forefinger or thumb firmly on the large end, and push the point
under water. When the opening is close to the sough t-for object,
lift the finger suddenly, and admit the air into the tube. The Vv^ater
will immediately rush in at the lower end, and if the orifice has been
properly directed, will carry the object into the tube. The finger is
430
EVERY boy's book.
again applied to tlie mouth of the tube, and the object can be tber
carried off.
As with the pocket-lens almost every object is to be viewed by
means of direct light, the young observer will find himself much
aided by a suitable background. Any small object, such as a minute
insect, a seed, or a hair, becomes very indistinct if held up against
the light, or even when viewed against a broken background of trees,
houses, or herbage. The simplest plan of securing a proper background
is to take a disc of ivory, bone, or even of white cardboard, and to
blacken one side of it. The black paint which is used for this purpose
must be without gloss, and have what is called a " dead " surface.
Ink answers very well for the purpose, and so does ivory-black ; but
Indian ink is too glossy to be serviceable.
To procure specimens from the water is a matter of some difficulty
if managed badly, but easy enough when the collector knows his
business. It is of course needful to attach the collecting vessel to
the end of a rod, and to plunge it into the spots which look most
favourable. Now even so simple a matter as this requires some
little care, if the young microscopist really wishes to obtain the best
specimens. A common walking-stick will answer most purposes;
but the most efficient rod for the purpose is one of the common
waiking-stick fishing-rods without the top joint, as it can be carried
without attracting attention, and can be lengthened at will by adding
the different joints.
Many methods have been proposed by which the vessel is to be
attached to the rod ; but that which I am about to describe is
certainly the simplest and most effective that I have tried. Get a
piece of gutta-percha tubing, just large enough to be shpped on the
end of the rod or stick ; mark off an inch or so, and cut the tube
THE MICROSCOPE. 431
nearly through, as at « in Fig. 1. Now cut it away longitudinally,
so that a long tongue of gutta-percha is left, as at 6, and the instru-
ment is completed.
Its apphcation is as simple as its structure. Bend the tongue
over, so as to form a loop, and push the end through the short tube.
Shp the neck of the bottle into the loop, and draw the tongue until
it IS tolerably tight. Push the end of the stick into the tube, taking
care to hold the tongue firmly in its place, and the vessel will then
be fastened at right angles to the stick.
The whole arrangement can be seen in Pig. 2, where a represents
the gutta-percha tube, h the tongue, c the stick, and d the vessel.
The method of collecting by means of this instrument is as
follows : — Immerse the vessel iji the water, with the mouth down-
wards, so that no water may enter. Push it gently towards the spot
which is to be investigated, move it about a httle, so as to cause a
disturbance, and then turn the vessel with its mouth upwards.
Water will instantly rush in, carrying with it the objects which are
to be examined. The contents of the vessel may then be transferred
to the large bottle, and another dip made. Confervoid growths,
especially those which accumulate in a kind of scum on the surface,
should be obtained very quietly, without previous disturbance of the
water.
After the pond or stream or ditch has been well searched, the
bottle should be roughly examined, by means of a pocket-lens, and the
contents sorted into the smaller tubes, as has already been mentioned.
This precaution is especiaDy needful when any of the minute Crustacea
caUed Entomostraca are captured, as they are most voracious beings,
and will make sad havoc among other specimens, unless they are
placed in separate bottles. They are mostly large enough to be
detected with the naked eye, and look something like little fleas, as
they move along.
As the Entomostraca cast their shells repeatedly during their lives,
some species performing this operation every two days, a beautiful
series of objects can be obtained by gathering the cast shells, and
preparing them for the microscope, according to the directions that will
be found in the following pages. These shells are peculiarly valuable,
as they retain the chief external characteristics of the creature to
which they belonged, the limbs, plumes, and even the dehcate bristles
being preserved entu-e. It is in the power of the microscopist to
retard or hasten the change of shell, heat and Hght aiding develop-
ment, and cold and darkness retarding it. The remarkable '' ephip-
Sium," or saddle, which is found on the backs of the Daphnia, the
loina, and other Entomostraca, and which is used as a receptacle
for eggs, should be searched for and preserved.
A very thin and very flat bottle is a most useful assistance in
detecting the character of any unknown object, especially if it be
living. Such a bottle may easily be made by heating one of the
432 EVERY boy's book.
small test-tttbes in the spirit-lamp until it is of a glowing red heat,
and then pressing the sides together. Some little neatness is required
in this process, as an unskilful operator is apt to press the sides
unequally, and to leave a bulging projection at the end.
Should a higher power be required than is furnished by the pocket-
lens, a " Coddington " lens is the very best that can be obtained.
In general shape it resembles the well-known " Stanhope " lens ; but
the latter is so very inferior an article, that it ought never to be pur-
chased. The two glasses can easUy be distinguished by the shape of
the ends ; those of the Coddington being aUke, while in the Stanhope
one is much more convex than the other.
At first the young observer generally finds some difficulty in
arranging this lens, so as to bit off the focus exactly; but if he
adopts the following plan, he will soon handle a Coddington as easily
as an ordinary pocket-lens. The object should be held in the left
liand and the glass in the right. Let the wrists be placed firmly
against each other, and the lens brought as close as possible to the
object, without quite touching it. Now bring the eye to the lens,
taking care not to disturb the arrangement, and then gradually draw
the object away from the lens. The moment that the proper focus
is obtained the object will be seen with beautiful clearness, and by
drawing the object from the lens, instead of approaching the lens to
the object, there is no danger of injuring the one or the other by
ccntact.
The great advantages of the Coddington are the exceeding clear-
ness with which it shows the object, the perfect definition of every
line its achromatic character, and its freeaom from colours, and the
flatness of the " field ; " so that the circumference is defined as per-
fectly as the centre. It can now be obtained very cheaply at any of
our microscopical opticians, and should always be mounted on a
tolerably long handle.
THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE.
We have already described the simpler forms of magnifymg
instruments, together with the best method of using them. We
now purpose to describe the more complicated instrument called the
compound microscope, and hini s will be given as to the best method
of making preparations for it.
The great distinction between the simple and compound microscope
is, that whereas the former instrument magnifies the object, the latter
magnifies the magnified image of the object. In the least elaborate
form of this instrument there are two glasses, one at each end of a
tube, the small glass magnifying the object, and being therefore called
the " object glass," while the other, which magnifies the image of the
object, is placed next to the eye, and is therelore termed the " eye-
gkss." In practice, however, this arrangement is found to be so
THE MICROSCOPE.
433
extremely defective, that the instrument was quite useless, except as
an experimental toy ; for the two enemies of the optician, chromatic
and spherical aberration, prevailed so exceedingly, that every object
appeared as if surrounded with prismatic colours, and every line was
blurred and indistinct.
In this uncertain state the compound microscope remained for
many years, its superb capabilities being scarcely recognised. The^
chief fault was thought to be in the material of which the object-
glass was made, and for a long series of years all experiments were
conducted with a view to an improvement in this respect. When,
however, the diamond had been employed as an object-glass, and had
failed equally with those of less costly material, attention was directed
to the right point — namely, the arrangement of the different glasses,
— and at length opticians succeeded in. obtaining a pitch of excellence
wliich can be almost termed perfection. It would be impossible
to describe the method which is employed for this purpose, and
it must suffice to say that the principle is that of playing off one
defect against another, and so making them mutually correct their
errors.
The magiiifying powers of the compound microscope can be very
great, and it is therefore necessary that extreme care should be taken
in its manipulation. It will be possible for a clumsy person to do
more damage to a good instrument in three minutes than can be
repaired in as many weeks.
Before proceeding to the management of the microscope and the
construction of the " slides," we will briefly describe one or two chief
forms of the compound microscope.
The accompanying illmstration represents the simplest form of the
compound microscope as at present made. It
consists of a stand and a sliding tube, in which
are set the glasses which magnify the object
and its image. At the top is the tube, which
is capable of being slid up and down in the
shoulder of the stand, so as to obtain the proper
focus. Above is seen the eye-glass ; and the
object-glass is shown at the bottom of the tube.
Below the object-glass is the " stage " on
which the object to be magnified is laid ; and
lowest of all is a mirror, which serves to reflect
the light upwards through the object, and
which can be turned by means of the knobs
at the sides. The object-glass is composed of
two pieces, which can readily be separated. If
both are used, sufficient magnifying power is
gained to show the scales on a butterfly's wing
and similar minute objects ; while, if one is re-
moved, the object is not magnified to so great an extent, but a larger
434
EVERY BOY'S BOOK.
portion can be seen, and the definition is clearer. The cost of this
instrument, together with a few accessories, is half-a-guinea.
There is another microscope constructed on the same principle,
which is a very superior instrument, though it does not at first sight
present any remarkable difference. It possesses, however, four times
the magnifying power of that which has just been mentioned. In-
stead of two magnifiers, there are four, and several subsidiary articles
lire sent with it, — such as a condenser, a live box, an aquatic box,
and half a dozen shdes ready prepared. This instrument costs one
sovereign.
But if the reader can by any possibility afford it, let us advise
him in the strongest terms to devote three guineas to the purpose,
and get a really good instrument. For this small sum a microscope
may now be obtained which could not have been purchased for
twenty times three guineas only a few years ago. One of these
beautiful instruments is seen in the accompanying illustration; in
which may be seen the tube,
with its eye-piece and object-
glass, and the stand, containing
the stage and the mirror. The
arrangement, however, is very
different; for the focus is not
obtained by shding the tube up
and down, but by turning the
large milled heads which we see
on a level with the stage, and
which raise or depress the tube
by means of a rack and pinion.
A^ an extremely high power can
be used with this instrument, a
still finer adjustment is required,
so as to obtain a very accurate
foous. This is seen on the front
of the tube. The reader will
notice that the microscope can
be inclined backwards, for it is
so made that it can be set to
any angle which may best suit
the observer. The value of this
arrangement is very great, as it
permits the observer to sit at
his ease in a chair, without
being forced to crane his neck
over the microscope, and look perpendicularly down. Another ad-
vantage attending this arrangement is that the secretions which
lubricate the eye do not interrupt the vision, as is apt to be the
case when lookmg directly downwards.
THE MICROSCOPE. 435
The mirror, too, can be turned in any direction, and its distance
from the stage lessened or increased by means of a draw-tube. Three
different powers are supplied with this microscope, together with a
live-box, dissecting and stage forceps, &c. ; and the whole is made
so as to admit of additional apparatus. The microscope fits into a
neat square box, in which is plenty of room for various articles
which will presently be described. These three microscopes can be
obtained from Messrs. Baker, 244, High Holbom ; and we mention
them, not because we wish to make any invidious distinctions between
the many excellent opticians who now make microscopes, but because
we happen to have used Messrs. Baker's instruments foi: some years^
and can bear practical testimony to their performance.
Another three-guinea microscope ought, however, to be mentioned.
It is the Society of Arts microscope, wnich is made by Messrs. Eield,
opticians, of Birmingham. In form it closely resembles the instru-
ment which has just been mentioned, but differs in some of the
details, as it possesses a " diaphragm-plate " under the stage for
regulating the admission of light, and, instead of three object-glasses
and one eye-piece, has two object-glasses and two eye-pieces. Dr.
Carpenter mentions that, up to 1861, no less than eighteen hundred
of these microscopes had been sold. To this instrument the medal
of the Society of Arts was awarded.
Either of these microscopes affords aU that an ordinary observer
is likely to need ; and if he adds a few articles of supplementary
apparatus, he will find himself possessed of a microscope that will
serve all purposes except scientific controversy.
Presuming that the reader has supplied himself with one or other
of the compound microscopes, we wiU proceed to show the method of
using them.
The manipulation of a compound microscope is not so easy as it
looks. The possessor of a really good instrument may fail hope-
lessly in his attempts to see a single object. Now, there are three
essential points which a microscopist must attend to, — namely, the
correct focus, the proper hght, and the preparation of the object.
Of these the focus is of course the most important, and can be best
obtained as follows : —
Lay the object on the stage of the microscope, so as to get its
centre exactly under the centre of the object-glass, and illuminate it
as you best can. Put on the lowest power, and, without looking
through the tube, lower the object-glass until it nearly touches the
object. Now look through the tube, and raise the object-glass gradually
from the object, until the right focus is obtained. The reason for
taking these precautions is, that if you look through the tube and
lower it upon the object, you will in all probability push the glass
against the object, and damage either the one or the other. When
you have thus learned the focus of the lowest power, add another,
and repeat the process ; and so on until you have made out the focua
F F 2
436
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
of each object-glass. If you have more t'han one eye-piece, try them
both with each object-glass.
The proper Ught is our next point, and upon it rests the chief
beauty of the effect. The Ught which will suit one object will not
suit another, and even the same object should be examined under
every variety of Hght. Some objects are best shown when the Ught
is thrown n'pon them from above, and others when it is thrown
through them from below. Again, the direction of the light is of
vast importance ; for it wiU easily be seen that an obUque light wiU
exhibit minute projections by throwing a shadow on one side and
briUiancy on the other, whue a vertical iUumiaation would fail to
show them. On the same principle, one object wiU be shown better
with the Ught in front, and another when it is on one side.
One of the most effective means
of attaining this object is by using
the " bull's-eye condenser," which
is sometimes fixed to the stage,
but is usuaUy detached, as repre-
sented in the iUustration. As the
upright stem is telescopic, the glass
can be raised to a considerable
height, while the joint and slidiiig-
rod permit the lens to be appUed
at any angle which promises the
most brilUant light.
As for the kind of Ught that is
employed, there is nothing which
equals that of a white cloud ; but
as such clouds are rare, and are
at the best extremely transient,
and can only be seen by day,
various artificial methods of iUu-
mination have been invented.
Novices generaUy think that
when the sky is bright and blue
they wiU be very successful in
their illumiLation, and feel griev-
ously disappointed at finding that
they obtained much more Ught
'rom the clouds, whose disappear-
ance they had anxiously been
watching. Finding that the blue
sky gives scarcely any light at aU, they rush to the other extreme,
turn the mirror towards the sun, and pour such a blaze of light
upon the object, that the eye is blinded by the scintillating reful-
gence, and the object is often injured, because the mirror is capable
of reflecting heat as weU as Ught.
THE MICROSCOPE. 437
In the daytime there is nothing better than the "white-cloud illu-
minator," which is made easily enough by means of plaster of
Paris. A sheet of thin white paper fastened against a window-pane
is also useful ; and the simple plan of dabbing the glass with putty
will have a beneficial effect in softening the light, when the window
lias a southern aspect. In default of these conveniences, it will be
often sufficient to fix a piece of white letter-paper over the mirror, or
even to dull its surface with wax. At all events, he who aspires to
be a true microscopist muso be ready with expedients, and if he
finds himself in a difficulty, he must summarily invent a method of
obviating it.
At night a lamp is necessary ; candles are useless, because they
have two faults — they flicker, and they become lower as they bum.
The latter defect can be cured by usmg a candle-lamp, but no
arrangement will cure the flame of flickering ; it is pecuHarly trying
to the eyes, and destructive of accurate definition. An ordinary
moderator lamp answers pretty well, and a small one is even better
for the microscopist than one of large dimensions. The chief draw-
back to the moderator lamp is, that the flame cannot be elevated or
lowered, so that the only way to procure a light at a higher elevation,
is t€ stand the lamp on a block of wood or a book. Small lamps are,
however, made expressly for the microscope, and, if possible, should
be procured, and used for no other purpose, and intrusted to no
other hands.
If you want a really brilliant, clear, white light, you must trim the
lamp yourself A small piece of pale blue or neutral- tint glass, inter-
posed between the lamp and tne microscope, has a wonderful effect
in diminishing the yellow hue which belongs more or less to aU arti-
ficial lights which are produced by
the combustion of oil or fat. We
have no doubt but that in a few
years we shall be rid of the clumsy
and dirty machines that we call
lamps, and have substituted for
them the pure brilliancy of the
electric light.
Whatever lamp you use, a shade
is absolutely necessary, in order
to defend the eyes. Let me here
warn my young readers, that they
cannot be too careful of their eyes.
In the exuberance of youthful
strength and health we are too apt to treat our eyes as uncere-
moniously as our digestion, and in later years we awake to unavailing
repentance.
Many shades can be purchased ; but it is far better to make your
own after the shape here exhibited. They are not pretty to look
438 EVERY boy's book.
at, but they save the eyes better than any other form, and whether
for reading, writing, or microscopic work, you should use no other.
The pecuhar merit of them consists in the fact that the Kght is
thrown on the spot where it is wanted, and is cut off from everything
except that spot.
Another point which calls for extreme attention is the perfect
cleanliness of the glasses. It is astonishing how a tiny dust-mote,
or the least condensation of damp, will diminish the powers of the
microscope, and how often the instrument is blamed for indistinctness,
when the real fault lies in the carelessness of the operator. Even
when the greatest care is taken, dust is sure to settle on the glasses,
especially on the eye-piece, and before using the microscope the
glasses ought to be carefully examined. Never wipe them with an
ordinary handkerchief, but get a piece of new wash-leather ; beat it
well until no dust issues from it, and then put it into a box, with a
tightly-fitting cover. Use this, and notliing else, for cleaning the
glasses, and you will avoid those horrid scratches with which the
eye-glass and object-glass of careless operators are always disfigured.
Moisture is very apt to condense on the glasses and to ruin their
clearness. If the microscope be brought from a cold into a warm
room, the glasses will be instantly covered with moisture, just astthe
outside of a tumbler of cold water is always covered with fine dew
when brought into a warm room. The microscope should therefore
be kept at least an hour in the room wherein it is to be used, so that
the instrument and the atmosphere may be of the same temperature.
You should make the microscope a trifle warmer than the surround-
ing atmosphere, and so avoid all danger of condensation. When
changing tlie object-glass or eye-piece, always keep the hand as far
&wsQf from the glass as possible, and manipulate with the tip of the
forefinger and thumb. The human skin always gives out so much
exhalation, that even when the hand is cold the glasses will be
dimmed ; and it is a pecuHarity of such moisture, that it adheres to
the glasses with great pertinacity, and does not evaporate like the
dew which is condensed from the atmosphere.
In order to insure perfect success in this important particular, the
young microscopist will do well to get the optician from whom he
purchased his instrument to explain ^ts construction, and to give him
a lesson or two in the art of taking it to pieces and putting it toge-
ther again; for unless each glass can be separately cleaned, no one
can be quite sure that the instrument will perform as it ought to do.
The best method of ascertaining whether it is quite clean is to throw
the light upwards by means of the mirror, and then to turn the eye-
piece slowly round. If any dust or moisture has collected either
upon the eye-glass or the " field-glass," which forms the second lens
ol the eye-piece, it will be immediately detected. Turning the object-
glass will in a similar manner detect impurities upon its surface.
We will now proceed to the manner in which objects are examined.
THE MICROSCOPE. 439
Suppose, for example, that we take a buttercup-leaf, because it can
be found at almost any time of the year. Place a piece of glass on
the stage, lay the leaf ou it, put on the lowest power, set tlie focus,
and then look at the leaf. You will probably be disappointed, and
see nothing but a confused mass of undulating dark green, like a
green carpet thrown carelessly on the ground, and seen in the dim
twOight.
Two points are now needed ; the first being to get the leaf flat, so
as to avoid the undulation, and the second being to throw a proper
light upon it.
Take out the leaf, and, instead of laying it entire under the micro-
scope, select the flattest part, and cut it out with scissors. A piece
the size of a silver penny will be amply large enough. Lay this
piece on the glass, get the focus afresh, and then look through the
microscope. The leaf wHl now appear much more regular, and will
be seen as a rough surface, mottled with white and traversed by pink
and green ridges, which are the large and small nervures. By means
of a mirror or the condenser throw a brighter light upon it, and it
will be seen to be covered with a slight roughness, the nature of
which cannot be clearly ascertained; then add the next highest
power, and try if the structure of that roughness can be made out.
Curiously enough, although the magnifying power has been more
than doubled, the roughness has much the same appearance as before ;
so that we must try another plan, and look at the leaf edgeways.
Take the piece of leaf in the stage-forceps, but do not touch it with
your hand ; fix the forceps on the stage and turn the leaf so that it
<T°^
presents its edge to the object glass. Get your focus, and you will
now see the cut edge of the leaf, and will at once distinguish its
structure. On either side may be seen the upper and lower cuticle,
and in the centre the soft green substance, or " parenchyma," as it
is called. Prom the cuticle project a number of short hairs, and
when the focus is accurately obtained, the cause of the roughness
^will be seen in a vast number of minute projections, which are,
lin fact, identical in structure with the hairs, though not so weU
developed. The under-cuticle of the leaf is much more interesting
than the upper.
Now change the illumination, and, instead of throwing the light
upon the object from above, turn the mirror so as to direct it through
the object from below. No apparent result will follow, because the
leaf is so thick and opaque that the light cannot pass through it.
440
EVERY BOYS BOOK.
Hold the leaf horizontally, and, by means of the stage-forceps, rip it
smartly across, and if you do this rightly, you will find that the two
cuticles are partly separated, so as to allow either to be examined
separately. At first the leaf will most probably be torn along one
of the lar^e nervures, so that the cuticles are not perfectly separated.
Never mind failure, but try again; and you are sure, after a few'
efforts, to hit upon the right method of tearing the leaf.
3^^!^.
One of the most useful capabilities of the "live-box" is now
shown. As may be seen by the figure and section, it consists of aa
inner tube with a thick glass, ana an outer tube with a thin ^lass.
The outer tube can be taken off, water or any other substance laid on
the thick glass, and then the outer tube or cover is slid down upon
it until the object is pressed flatly between the two glasses. When
you have succeeded in getting a convenient slip of the leaf, lay it on
the thick glass of the inner tube, and put a
drop of water on it. Put on the cover, and
push it down until the piece of leaf is pressed
flat, without being squeezed. Now look
through the microscope, and you will see a
beautiful sight, showing how much there is
in a despised leaf, which we daily tread
under foot.
The cells of which the cuticle is chiefly
composed are seen in many a waving out-
line, while at their points of junction are
placed the remarkable contrivances called " stomata," or mouths,
which are the apertures through which the atmosphere is enabled to
penetrate into the interior of the leaf. The two semilunar cells at
the sides of the opening may be considered as lips, which open and
close according as the plant needs the air or not. The numerous
dots which are seen upon the leaf are of a vivid green colour, and it
is to their presence that the leaf owes its hue.
We have given these details because they are applicable to the
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THE MICROSCOPE.
441
examiuation of all leaves and petals, and show the young observer
the method which is to be adopted when looking for the first time at
a strange object.
If the microscopist should follow up his work properly, and make
sketches of every object which he places under the microscope, he
cannot do better than use
the camera-lucida, a neat
little instrument, which is
fitted into the eye-piece
of the microscope. Dr.
Beale's neutral glass is
as efficacious in careful
hands, and only costs a
fourth of the sum. This
instrument cannot be
apphed to the ten and
twenty shilhng micro-
scopes, as it requires that
the tube should be per-
fectly horizontal. The
method of using it is
simple enough.
After fixing the object
and getting the right focus,
set the instrument hori-
zontally, and arrange the
hght so that the object is
well illuminated, and its
lines quite clear and well
defined. Now remove the
cap of the eye-piece, and
fix the camera-lucida in
its stead. Lay a drawing-
pad on the table under
the camera-lucida, look through the square opening (or, if you use
Mr. Beale's glass, look through the neutral glass), and you will sec
the object apparently projected on the paper. We say apparently,
because in reality the image is not thrown on the paper at all, but on
the camera, and the eye refers it to the paper, as being the neaisst
object. In fact, the principle on which this camera-lucida is arranged
is exactly that of the Polytechnic ghost, which appears to be in one,
place, whereas it is in another.
Now take a pencil, cut it to a very fine point, and trace the out-
line of the objeciron the paper. At first you will think this to be an
impracticable task, for the point of the pencil will totally vanish.
Soon, however, the eye will so adjust itsell as to see the pencil and
442
tlie object perfectly well, and by a little practice tbe observer wiU
be able to sketch every object as rapidly and firmly as if lie were
copying a drawing, by means of tracing-paper. The neutral glass
is perhaps to be preferred to the camera-lucida, as it is learned more
easily, and gives less trouble than that instrument. Its cost is five
shillings.
After you have practised yourself well in the handling of the
microscope, your ambition will take another step, and lead you to
the preparation of permanent objects. In order to set yourself up
with the needful apparatus, you will have to disburse about five
shillings. A small spirit-lamp will cost eighteenpence, and a small
bottle of Canada balsam, another of asphalte varnish, and another
of Dean's gelatine, will make about eighteenpence or two shillings
more. A few pence will purchase a sheet or two of ornamental
paper, and a few more a flat plate of brass or copper, about five
mches by three. The rest of the five shillings may be expended in
" slides and thin glass, cut sauare.
Slides are merely slips of glass, three inches in length by one in
width, and the thin glass is used for laying upon the objects and
defending them from dust. We advise the square glass, because it
scarcely costs one quarter as much as the round glass, and is equally
effective when properly managed. There are several methods of
"putting up" preparations — namely, dry, in Canada balsam, in
gelatine, and in cells. We will take them in their order.
The simplest plan is, of course, the 'dry " mode. Suppose that you
want to preserve a tiny piece of down, or the scales from a butterfly's
wing. First wash all the slides and glasses well, by dipping them
into a strong solution of soda, and then into hot water, in order to
fet rid rid of grease, taking care never to touch them with the hand,
ut to take them out of the water with the forceps. This can be
done at any time, and the glasses carefully wrapped up and placed in
a box ready for use.
You now select one of the shdes, and lay the object exactly in its
centre. If very minute objects are used, they must be examined
in order to see whether they are properly disposed. The next
Erocess is, to take one of the thin glasses with the microscope, and
ly it very carefully over the object. Then cut a piece of ornamental
paper, about two inches long and seven-eighths of an inch in width ;
cut or punch a circular piece out of its centre, damp it well, and
cover the wrong side slightly, but completely, with paste. Lay it on
the slide, so that the centre of the hole shall coincide with that of
the object, work it down neatly with the fingers, and it will hold the
square piece of thin gJass, which is technically called the " cover,"
in its place. Watch it occasionally as it dries, and43e ready to press
down any part of the paper that may start up. Write, with ink, the
name of the object on the end of the slide.
When you have made a dozen or two of these preparations, it will
THE MICROSCOPE. 443
be time to letter and index them. On eacli slide paste a slip of white
paper, and on the paper wiite a brief notice of the object, thus —
SCALES.
D. HEAD MOTH.
Then scratch with a bit of flint, or with a writing-diamond, if you
have one, a number on the end of the slide, and have a note-book
with a corresponding number opposite to which you enter the descrip-
tion at a fuller length, thus : —
18 — Scales of Death's Head Moth {Acherontia Atropos), from centre of
under-surface of right fore wing. Dry. June 4, 1864. +
ITie cross signifies that you prepared the object yourself, and the
reason for adding the date is, that in after years you will have a
valuable guide as to the durability of your preparations. If the
specimen has been purchased or presented, always add the name of
the seller or donor, as well as the date. These precautions may seem
to be needlessly minute, but we have so often seen whole sets of
valuable preparations rendered useless for want of ticketing, that we
cannot too strongly impress on our readers the necessity for the note-
book as well as the label, the one acting as a check upon the other.
When the label has been afi&xed, and the details transferred to the
note-book, tlie ink may be washed off the end of the slide.
There is another convenient method of putting up the elytra of
beetles, parts of various insects, mosses, minute shells, and similar
objects. Tale a common pill-box of the smallest size, and cut a
little cylinder of cork, that will nearly, but not quite, equal the height
of the box, and fasten one end to the bottom of the box with glue.
Now blacken the interior of the box and the cork cylinder. Put a
little drop of Canada balsam, Arabian cement, or gum Arabic on the
top of the cylinder ; put the object on it, press it into its place, and,
when the cement is hard, the preparation is complete. The cover of
the box serves to keep the object from dust.
Now we come to the Canada balsam, a substance which pro-
duces beautiful effects when rightly handled, but is most aggravating
to the learner, causing alternate irascibility and depression of spirits.
Many objects, such as the antennae and feet of insects, will not
show their fuU beauty unless they are mounted in Canada balsam.
The method of doing so is as follows : — A week or two beforehand
put the objects into ether or spirits of turpentine, and allow them to
remain there until wanted. Pile up some old books, or take a
couple of convenient wooden blocks; lay your brass plate upon
them ; light the spirit-lamp, and put it under the plate so as to heat
it. Lay two or three slides on the plate, and all then can be heated
at the same time.
444 EVERr boy's book.
Warm the bottle of Canada balsam, and with a glass rod take out
a very little drop, and put it exactly in the middle of the slide. In
order to insure this point, I always put a dot of ink on the wrong
side of the slide. Stir it about with one of the needles mentioned
on page 428, and if any bubbles rise, break them. When the
balsam is quite soft and liquid, take one of the objects out of the
bottle and put it into the balsam, exactly over the black dot. Now
add a little more balsam, so as to cover it, and let it lie for a few
moments. Take one of the glass covers, put a very little balsam on
its centre, and lay it neatly over the object, pressing it down
gradually and equally. Unless this be done, the object will not
remain in the centre, but will shoot out on one side, and the whole
operation must be begun de novo. Remove it from the hot plate and
lay it on a cool surface, still continuing the pressure until the balsam
has begun to harden. Lay a Httle leaden weight — a pistol-bullet
partly flattened is excellent for the purpose — and on the cover write
the name of the object, as already mentioned, and then proceed to
prepare another slide.
Twenty such slides may be prepared in the course of a morning,
and when they are finished they should be laid carefully in a cold
place, where they will be free from dust. In a week or so the
Dalsam will be quite hard, and then the slide may be completed.
Take an old knife, which should be kept for this special purpose ;
heat the blade in the spirit-lamp, and then run it along the edges of
the slide, so as to take off the superfluous balsam which has escaped
from beneath the cover. This must be done very qui'^kly, or the
balsam inside the cover will be heated by the knife, and che prepara-
tion spoiled. When this is done, cut the ornamental paper, as already
descrioed, number and label the slide, wash off the ink, and then the
preparation is complete. Some objects are very troublesome to pre-
pare, and require to be soaked in turpentine and boiled repeatedly in
the balsam before they are completely penetrated with it.
Objects which are put up in beane's gelatme are managed after a
similar fashion, save that the gelatine is to be heated by placing the
bottle in hot water, and that the turpentine is not needed. Vegetable
structures show beautifully when thus prepared. To remove the
superfluous gelatine use a wet and not a hot knife.
Cells are very difficult to manage, and the novice had better not
attempt to make them, but is hereby advised to purchase them ready
made. Suppose that the young microscopist has dissected the diges-
tive organs of a bee, and wishes to preserve it in spirit ; his best
plan will be to use a cell for the purpose. Let him bu;^ a cell of
sufficient depth, float the preparation into it, fill it up with spirit,
put the cover loosely on, and leave it for a week, occasionally raising
the cover and stirring the preparation with a needle, in order to
get rid of any air-bubbles that may have been entangled in the
tissues.
THE MICROSCOPE. 445
Then let him wipe tlie edges of the cell very dry, put on a slight
layer of gold-size or asphalte varnish — the former is preferable— fill
up the cell a "bumper," and lay the cover very gently upon it,
beginning at one end and gently lowering it. With blotting-paper
the liquid that escapes must be removed, the edges dried afresh, a
flattened bullet placed on the cover, and with a very small camel's-
hair brush the slightest possible coating of size painted round the
edge of the cell. When it has hardened another may be given, and
so on, until a thick hard wall of size has been built up round the
edges and made the cover completely air-tight.
We presume that the reader does not intend to use his microscope
merely as a toy, but that he desires to gain some insight into the
works of Nature, and is therefore willing to set to work in a
systematic manner.
It is now known that both animal and vegetable structures are
built up by means of certain minute particles, technically called cells,
and that in every part of a plant or of an animal can be recognised
the constituents of which it is formed. We will, therefore, begin
with the vegetables.
Some of the lowest plants, such as the minute algae that inhabit
the water, afford excellent examples of the simple vegetable cell ; but
as these plants are not readily procured by a beginner, we wiU select
some familiar object wherein the cells may be found. If any soft and
pulpy fruit be taken when it is quite ripe, and submitted to the
microscope, the vegetable cell wiU be seen in a tolerably perfect form.
The three rounded objects shown in the accompany-
ing illustration are cells from the strawberry, speci-
mens of which can easily be seen, if a very thin slice
be cut with a razor or lancet, the latter being the
preferable instrument. Be careful to dip the blade
m water before cutting the fruit, and to float the
slice from the blade to the glass slide by placing
them both under water. Unless this precaution be
taken, the section will not be flat, but will be ^^^^> strawberry.
crumpled up, and the cells will not be properly seen.
Within each of these cells may be seen a small rounded object,
which is technicaDy called the " nucleus ; " and in some cases a
smaller nucleus, called the "nucleolus/' may be observed within the
nucleus itself. The increase of cells mostly takes place by a pro-
cess of division. A line passes across the nucleus, which presently
separates into two distinct parts, each of which recedes from the other,
causing the cell to enlarge and alter its shape. Presently a line is
seen across the cell itself, and in due time the cell is also divided into
two parts, each having its own nucleus.
In the present instance the cell is totally spherical, because the fniit
from which it was taken was soft, and allowed the constituent cells
to expand. When, however, the vegetable substance becomes haid.
446
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
CELL, POTATO.
the cells are pressed closely together, and their shapes are very much
altered. Sometimes, when the cells are of nearly the same size, and
the pressure is equal on every side, the cells form regular twelve-sided
figures, called " dodecahedra," which, when that occurs, show a six-
sided outline. A ve^y thin shce of raw potato
will show the twelve-sided cells beautifully,
and has the further advantage of exhibiting
the starch globules with which the ceDs are
filled. Here is a figure of a potato cell, which
presents a six-sided outline, just hke that of a
bee's waxen dweUing, and which is crowded
with the beautiful globules of starch. If the
reader likes to make a few dozen balls of clay,
and to squeeze them together in a mass, he
will find that the central balls will have lost
their globular shape, and assumed a more or
less regular twelve-sided form, very much like
that of the potato cells.
Sometimes the cells run out longitudinally into cylinders, and
attain the really enonnous length of three inches ; sometimes they
become flattened, as the skin or epidermis of many plants ; and often-
times they push out their sides into arms
or rays, like stars, and form the tissue
^1 ^^^—-t^^^" ^^ich is technically called "stellate."
j^^'^^^\''^^^^^l'jr Here is a specimen of stellate tissue taken
from the pith of the common rush, wherein
the rays are seen to be very regular:
generally, however, the rays are extremely
irregular, and require some little practice
to detect them. Stellate tissue may be
seen in the white portion of orange-peel, in
the thick fleshy substance of many aquatic
plants, in certain leaf-stalks, and in many similar objects.
We will now see how the soft cells which form the pulpy fruit of
the strawberry can be changed into the hard timber of the oak or
iron- wood tree.
Wherever a cell is destined to form part of a per-
manent tissue, it is strengthened by receiving certain
additions to its walls. These additions are technically
known as "secondary deposit," and are made in various
ways. Sometimes they extend in a thin layer over
the whole cell-wall, leaving a number of httle holes,
which are called " pits," and earning the name of
" pitted structures." Very frequently the secondary
deposit is arranged in a series of rin^s, an example of
which is given in the accompanying illustration. This object is taken
from the mistletoe. Good examples of the ringed Btructures may
STELLATE TISSUE.
THE MICROSCOPE.
447
be seen in the anthers of many plants, and in the leaf-stem of the
common rhubarb, an example of which is shown in the next illustra-
tion. Another very common form of secondary deposit is the spiral,
which is generally used where strength and elasticity are united.
Two examples of the spiral form are given in the illustration ; the
first taken from the lily, and the second from the "rhizome," or
subterranean stem of the water-lily.
Another beautiful form of secondary deposit is seen in the fern root.
If the root be cut longitudinally, and the dark hard fibre dissolved
carefully out with nitric acid, the deposit will seem to have assumed
the shape of a winding staircase, and is then called " scalariform,"
or ladder-shaped. Similar structures may be found in asparagus.
RINGED AND SPIRAL STRUCTURES.
The reader will see that the hardness of the structure depends
entirely on the amount of secondary deposit, and we accordingly find
that when the wood is hard and fit to be worked with tools the cells
are almost wholly filled with the secondary deposit. In this state
they are called " wood-cells." Examples of these cells may be seen
in. the accompanying illustration. In the first example, which is
mn^^^m^^^m^
WOOD-CJbljLS.
taken from the elder-tree, four cells are shown in order to display the
manner in which their pointed ends are arranged. (The reader must
remember that in all wood-cells the ends are pointed.) In the
next example, which is taken from the chrysanthemum, the pitted
structure is still retained; but in the last figure, which is drawn
448 EVERY boy's book.
from the lime-tree, tlie entire cell is filled with secondary structure.
The reader must understand that we can only give the veriest outline
of the subject, and profess to do nothing more than indicate the
method of observation, leaving the pupil to work out the details by
himself.
Another curious development of the plant-cells is the formation of
HAIRS. These objects alone afford an inexhaustible field for the
Microscopist, and any one who chooses to work out the subject will
find himself repaid if he makes a good series of preparations. In
their primary forms the hairs are seen merely as little projections on
the epidermis, whether of the stem, leaf, or petal, and by degrees
assume their varied and beautiful forms. In order to show the
singular forms wtiich hairs sometimes assume, an illustration is here
HAIR OF IJ^VENDER.
given of the hairs of the lavender leaf. This is one of the hairs that
give the leaf its silvery gloss. It consists of an upright stem, from
the top of which a number of forked branches shoot out horizontally,
much like a open um.brella held upright. The object of this remark-
able form is, that the delicate vessels in which the perfume is held
should escape injury. If the reader will refer to the second figure,
which represents a much magnified view of the edge of the leaf, he
vidll see the globular perfume-gland standing under the shelter of the
branching hairs.
The following plants afibrd valuable examples of hair: — Arabis,
marvel of Peru, sowthistle, tobacco, southernwood, hollyhock, snap-
dragon, pansy (in throat of flower), deutzia (under-side of leaf),
verbena, alyssum, tradescantia, borage, cowhage, and many others.
The beautiful effect produced by the petals of flowers is caused by
the imperfect hairs with which their surfaces are studded.
The POLLEN of plants is always worth observing, and some speci-
mens are of remarkably beautiful shapes. Take that of althaea,
crocus, cactus, heath, violet, daisy, lily, snowdrop, wallflower, willow-
lierb (a very beautiful form), hollyhock, periwinkle, primrose, &c.
Put some up in Deane's gelatine, and dry some, besides examining
them all when fresh.
The microscopist ought to examme the structures of "wood by
making sections in the directions transverse and longitudinal. A
razor will answer very well for the purpose, and the wood should
THE MICROSCOPE. 449
always be soaked inside, and the razor wetted before tlie section is
made. It is often useful to make diagonal sections of several woods,
especially those of the pine and juniper. All the forest trees should
be examined, and their roots and bark should not be omitted. Cut
sections of coconut-shell, vegetable ivory, sugar-cane (a most beau-
tiful object when mounted opaque), bamooo, butcher's broom, &c.
Mosses are beautiful objects, and can always be found. Examine
particularly the fruit or seed-vessel, and note the structure of its
cliifereut parts. Put these on a slide, and breathe on them, noting
at the same time any change which may take place.
The SPORE CASES of ferns are extremely beautiful, and should be
carefully examined. The little brown dots or streaks that are seen
on the under surface of the fronds are called " sori," and contain a
large but variable number of the spcranges. These consist of stalked
sacs or cases, and differ much in shape, according to the species of
fern. If the fern be fresh from which the sorus is taken, the
sporanges may be seen writhing and twisting like so many serpents,
and sometimes it happens that one of the sporanges bursts, and
suddenly covers the field of the microscope with minute black dots.
These dots are the spores or seeds of the fern, and when magnified with
a very high power, they are seen to be variously shaped. One of the
most remarkable spores is that of the equisetum, or mare's tail of
the water. This spore looks like a ball with something coiled round
it. As soon as the spore is discharged from its case, four threads
are seen to uncoil themselves from around it, and by their elasticity
to cause the spore to jump about as if alive. These fibres are
technically named elasters, and are prolongations of the outer coat of
the spore.
Fungi of all kinds should be examined. There is never any diffi-
culty in finding fungi, though the autumn is the best time of year for
this purpose. " Mould," as it is popularly called, is a form assumed
by many species of fungus, which, though objectionable to the careful
liousewife, are full of interest to the microscopist. The well-known
mushroom and toadstools are the highest of the fungi. The black
spots on leaves are fungi, mostly belonging to the genus puccinia,
and the best specimens are generally found on the wild rose or
bramble. The black " smut " of wheat is another fungus, very pretty
under the microscope, but very obnoxious to the farmer ; and the
" bunt '* also belongs to the same vast tribe of plants, four thousand
species of which are now known to exist.
The young observer should also look for the beautiful crystals
which exist in many vegetable cells. The raphides, as these
crystals are called, are of various forms, mostly shaped like curved
needles, but often assuming very pretty and regular outlines.
Raphides are plentifully found in the bulb of the onion, in the
rhubarb, the lily, the iris, &c. They are best mounted as opaque
objects and, if the reader can procure a binocular microscope, he
GG
450
EVERY boy's book.
will see the form of the raphides better than with the single-tube
instrument.
Seeds of different plants should be carefully examined, especially
those of small dimensions, which often exhibit some wonderful
beauties of structure. The winged seed of various plants, such as
the thistle, the dandelion, the valerian, and the wiUow-lierb, are
extremely interesting objects ; while those of the yellow snapdragon,
the mullein, the Robin Hood, and the bur-seed, are remarkably
beautiful in form, though they have no parachute, as the feathery
appendage is called.
Leaving dry land, we will devote a short time to the water. Let
the reader take with him the simple collecting apparatus mentioned
on page 430, and secure specimens of the water from different
ponds, ditches, and streams. Por collecting the larger objects a
little net, which can be purchased cheap, is of very great use. It
is easily made by any tinman, and if the young microscopist knows
tiie use of solder, as all experimental philosophers ought to do, he
can put it together in a few minutes. It is formed of a strip of zinc
bent into the requisite form, and with a socket, to which a handle can
be attached. A piece of coarse muslin, or, rather, fine "net," is
then stretched over the bottom, and the apparatus is complete.
In the water is sure to be found one of the lowest forms of vege-
table life — namely, the " confervoid algse.*' Look for these in bright,
clear pools, placing the collecting bottle near any greenish film
collected around the stems of plants, or spread over the stones on the
bed of the pool. K this film oe very carefully taken up, it will pro-
duce many interesting forms
of vegetable life. One of the
most remarkable of these
vegetables is that which is
called "volvox globator," a
figure of which is here
given.
This wonderful object is
about as large as the head
of a ver^ small pin, so that
it is visible to the naked
eye, and looks like a tiny
globule passing through the
water. When it is placed
under a lens of moderate
power, say of an inch focus,
it exhibits some very strange
peculiarities. It continually
•"evolves, and by its revolution is able to enjoy a moderate degree of
locomotion, though without any apparent object. Small dark spots
are also seen upon it.
THE MICROSCOPE. 451
If a half-inch lens be now used, the structure of the volvox begins
to be exhibited. The whole surface is covered with a network of
very fine fibres, having a spot at the intersection of each mesh. On
applying a still higher power, say the four-tenths of an inch, the
structure is further elucidated, and the dots on the surface are seen
to consist of greenish bodies, each furnished with a pair of delicate
fibres, technically named cilia, which are constantly vibrating, and
cause the revolution of the general mass. The dark spots
are now seen to be the young plants in different stages
of progress. From six to ten of these are inclosed
within the parent, and when the latter has reached its
fall age, the membrane bursts asunder, and the little
rolvoces are liberated.
Another interesting form is the closterium, a genus
which is sure to produce several good examples. We
may mention that the ponds in Blackheath are very rich
in these curious vegetables, and a very considerable series
of confervoids may be obtained from them. The closteria
are easily recognised by their resemblance to the Austra-
lian " boomerang."
As our space is rapidly waning, we must leave the
vegetable, and proceed to the animal kingdom.
As is the case with vegetables, the animal structure ^^°^^^^^u*'-
is composed of cells, though they cannot be so easily traced as in the
examples which we have already noticed. The young observer may
readily perceive the animal cell, in its largest and simplest form, by
placing a little of the yolk of egg under the microscope. Cartilage,
or gristle, is easily seen to be composed of cells. The nails of the
fingers afford good objects for the microscopist in search of animal
cells. If a thin section be placed under the microscope, none but an
experienced observer will be able to make out the presence of cells
at all; but if the section be soaked in "hquor potassse," the cells
imnjediately swell up, and their shape is at once
made plain. Take the bone of a young chicken or
rabbit, and make a thin section that embraces both
the bone and cartilage, and there will then be a
beautiful object for the microscopist, showing how
the cartilage is changed by degrees into bone.
Sections of bone should also be made, both trans-
verse and longitudinal. ^ bone, tkansvrrse.
The BLOOD is another object which must be care-
fully examined. The " corpuscles " which give the colouring matter
to the blood are cells of different size, according to the creature from
which they are taken. The dimensions of the animal exercise no
apparent influence on the corpuscles, for those of " proteus anguinus,"
a little creature not larger than a lamprey, are many times larger than
^hose of the ox. In the accompanying illustration is shown a series
gg2
452
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
BLOOD 0ORPUSCLE3.
of specimens, in order to show the great difference in their shape
and size, all being drawn to scale and magnified by the same lens.
The circular corpuscles in the left-
hand upper corner are those of
man; immediately below is a
single corpuscle from the pigeon.
The great central corpuscle is
taken from the proteus ; the two
in the lower right-hand comer
are from the frog, one of these
being viewed edgeways; and of
the remaining two, that on the left hand belongs to the tortoise, and
that on the right to a fish.
The insect tribes are an inexhaustible source of objects for the
microscopist, who may find that even a single fly will give him
employment for many months. The scales from the butterfly's wing,
the wonderful compound eyes with which insects are gifted, the
structure of their feet, and their entire anatomy, are always at the
service of any microscopist who really cares for liis work. It would,
of course, be impossible to give even a list of the interesting
portions of the different insects; so one or two examples must
suffice us.
Take the antennjs of the insect tribes, and see how beautifully
they are formed, how graceful is
the shape, and how elaborate the
structure. A low power will be
useful for exhibiting their general
shape and outline, but it is not
untn we know how to use the
higher powers that the real beauty
of these curious organs is seen.
In the accompanying illustration
is given part of an antenna of the common blue-bottle fly, in order
to show tne remarkable cavities which exist within the antennae, and
which are thought by
some anatomists to be
organs of hearing, and
by others to be organs
of smell.
The WINGS of insects
are also most remarkable,
and possess many pecu-
liarities of structure which
cannot be detected with-
out the aid of a micro-
scope. Take, for example,
WINGS OF BEE. thc wiugs of any hyme-
ANTBNN^ OF KLY.
THE MICROSCOPE. 453
nopterons insect, say those of a humble-bee, and see how beautiful is
the structure which causes the four wings to be united into two
when the insect is about to fly. In the illustration may be seen a
pair of these wings, together with the row of hooks which bind them
together. A still more magnified representatation of the hooks is
placed near the wings.
It is now ascertained that the wings of insects are connected with
the breathing apparatus, and that the respiration of the insect
extends even to the very tips of these singular organs, which are
not modifications of existing Umbs, as in the birds, but additional
structures. The circulation of insects may often be seen by placing
a portion of a transparent wing under a moderately high power. We
have often seen it in the wing of the great water-beetle. A series of
very beautiful preparations may be made in order to show the dis-
tinction between the wings of different insects ; and as the orders of
insects are founded upon their wings, there ought to be at least one
example of each order. The proboscis of
insects is always worthy of careful exami-
nation.
As to the breathing apparatus itself, the
best mode of examining it is to open a cater-
pillar, remove a part of the large breathing
tube which runs along each side, and place
it under the microscope. It should always
be taken so as to include one of the spiracles,
or breathing-holes. An example of a breath-
ing-tube, taken from a silk-worm, is given
in the iUustration. '''Tlkworm '*'^'
Hairs of animals are very curious and
interesting objects. They should be mounted in three modes —
namely, dry transparent, dry opaque, and in Canada balsam, trans-
parent. Be sure to procure some hair of the bat, the sheep, the
mouse, the deer, the mole, and any of the weasel tribe. Many
insects have very beautiful hair, but the most lovely hair in the
animal kingdom is that which is obtained from the sea-mouse. Pish
scales should also be procured, and specimens should be taken from
the lateral line.
Molluscs of all kinds afford many beautiful objects, and the
observer should be very careful to examine the wonderful tongue-
ribbon of the snaO, the slug, the periwinkle, the whelk, and other
similar moUuscs. If meant to be examined by polarized hght, the
tongue-ribbon should be mounted in Canada balsam.
Crystals should always form part of a collection. Take those of
common salt, nitre, sugar, chlorate of potash, salicine, &c. ; indeed,
anything that will crystallize should be prepared and mounted,
as such objects will often be most useful when examining :mknowu
substances.
454
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
Zoophytes must of course find a place in tte cabinet, and the
young microscopist ought to put up a few specimcDS of the " bird's-
liead " processes wjjich are found in the bugularia and other inhabi-
tants of the sea. The pretty noctiluca, to which is mostly owing the
bird's-head process.
NOCTILUCA.
PEDICILLAKUt;.
phosphorescence of the sea, should be preserved, and the extraor-
dinary appendages to the skin of certain star-fish and sea urchins
should be examined. These are called pedicillarise, and a sketch of
them is given in the illustration.
OPTICS AND OPTICAL AMUSEMENTS.
" ' Seeing is believing,' so the sages say,
To prove this false, hear me, my friends, I pray,
And very soon you all will be agreeing,
That nought is so deceptive as our seeing."— Ma-Rtiv.
Optics is the science of li^ht and vision. Concerning the nature
of light, two theories are at present very ably maintained by their
respective advocates. One is tenned the Newtonian theory, and the
other the Huygenean. The Newtonian theory considers light to con-
sist of inconceivably small bodies emanating from the sun, or any
other luminous bodv. The Huygenean conceives it to consist in the
undulations of a highly elastic and subtle fluid, propagated round
luminous centres in spherical waves, like those arising in a placid
hike when a stone is dropped into the water.
LIGHT AS AN EFFECT.
Light follows the same laws as gravity, and its intensity or degree
decreases as the square of the distance from the lunimous body
increases. Thus, at the distance of two yards from a candle we shall
456
EVERY BOY S BOOK.
have four times less light than we should have, were it only one yard
from it, and so on in tne same proportion.
EEPRACTION.
Bodies which suffer the rays of light to pass through them, such
as air, water, or glass, are called refracting media. When rays o{
light enter these, they do not proceed in
straight lines, but are said to be refracted,
or bent out of their course, as seen in the
drawing. The ray of light proceeding
from B through the glass l g is bent from
the point c, instead of passing in the
direction of the dotted line. But if the
ray F c falls perpendicularly on the glass,
there is no refraction, and it proceeds in
a direct line to k ; hence refraction only
takes place when rays fall obliquely or
aslant on the media.
THE INVISIBLB COIN MADE VISIBLE.
If a coin be placed in a basin, so that on standing at a certain dis-
tance it be just hid from the eye of an observer by the rim or edge
of the basin, and then water be poured in by a second person, the
irst keeping his position ; as the water rises the coin will become
Tisible, and will appear to have moved from the side to the middle of
the basin.
OPTICS AND OPTICAL AMUSEMENTS.
46(
P J ID
THE MULTIPLYING GLASS.
The multiplying glass is a semicircular piece of glass cut into
facets or distinct surfaces; and in
looking through it we have an illu-
stration of the laws of refraction,
for if a small object, such as a fly,
be placed at d, an eye at e will see
as many flies as there are surfaces
or facets on the glass.
TEANSPARENT BODIES.
Transparent bodies, such as glass, may be made of such form as to
cause aU the lays which pass through
them from any given point to meet
in any other given point beyond them,
or which will disperse them from the
given point. These are called lenses,
and have different names according
to their form. 1. Is called the plano-
convex lens. 2. Plano-concave. 3.
Double convex. 4. Double concave. 5. A meniscus, so called from
its resembling the crescent moon.
xHE PRISM.
The prism is a triangular solid of glass, and by it the youn^ optician
may decompose a ray of light into its primitive and supplementary
coloors, for a ray of light is of a com-
pound nature. By the prism the ray
A is divided iato its three primitive
colours, blue, red, and yellow; and
their four supplementary ones, violet,
indigo, green, and orange. The best
way to perform this experiment is to
cut a small slit in a wmdow-shutter,
on which the sun shines at some period
of the day, and dii-ectly opposite the
hole place a prism p; a beam of
liglit m passing through it will then be decomposed, and if let fall
upon a sheet of white paper, or against a white wall, the seven colours
01 the rainbow will be observed.
COMPOSITION OF LIGHT.
The beam of light passing through the prism is decomposed, and
the spaces occupied by the colours are in the foUowiug proportions : —
red, 6 ; orange, 4 ; yellow, 7 ; green, 8 ; blue, 8 ; mdigo, 6 ; violet,
11. New, it you paste a sheet of white paper on a circular piece ol
\ 8 R A /Ty*
OF THE
UMfVCDQ
458
EVERY BOY'S BOOK.
board about six inches in diameter, and
divide it with a pencil into fifty parts,
and paint colours int^em in the propor-
tions given above, painting them dark
in the centre parts, and gradually fainter
at the edges, till they blend with the one
adjoining. If the board be then fixed
to an axle, and made to revolve quickly,
the colours wiU no longer appear sepa-
rate and distinct, but becoming graau-
aUy less visible they wiU ultimately
appear white, giving this appearance to
the whole surface of the paper.
A NATURAL CAMERA OBSCTJRA.
The nrnnan eye is a camera obscura, for on the back of it on the
retina every object in a landscape is beautifully depicted in miniature.
This may be proved by the
bullock's eye EXPERIMENT.
Procure a fresh bullock's eye from the butcher, and carefully
thin the outer coat of it behmd: take care not to cut it, for if
this should be done the vitreous humour will escape, and the ex-
periment cannot be performed. Having so prepared the eye, if the
pupil of it be directed to any bright objects, thej will appear
distinctly delineated on the back part precisely as obiects appear in
the instrument we are about to describe. The effect will be heightened
if the eye is viewed in a dark room with a small hole in the shutter,
but in every case the appearance will be very striking.
THE CAMERA OBSCURA.
This is a very pleasing and instructive optical apparatus, and may
be purchased for four or five shillings. But it may be easily made by
the young optician. Procure an ob-
long box, about two feet long, twelve
inches wide, and eight high. In one
end of this a tube must be fitted con-
taining a lens, and be made to slide
backwards and forwards so as to suit
the focas. Within the box should
be a plain mirror reclining backwards
from the tube at an angle of forty-five
degrees. At the top of the box is a square of unpolished glass, upon
wiuch from beneath the picture will be thrown, and may be seen by
raising the lid a. To use the camera place the tube with the lens on
it opposite to the object, and having adjusted the focus, the image
OPTICS AND OPTICAL AMUSEMENTS.
459
will be thrown upon the ground-glass as above stated, where it may
be easily copied by a pencil or in colours.
The form of a camera obscura used in a public exhibition is as fol-
lows : — ^D D is a large wooden box stained black in the inside, and
capable of containing from one to eight persons, a b is a sliding
piece, having a sloping mirror c, and a double convex lens f, whicn
may with the mirror c be slid up or down so as to accommodate tiie
lens to near and distant objects. When
the rays proceeding fi-om an object with- _
out fall upon the mirror, they are re-
flected upon the lens r, and brought to
fall on the bottom of the box, or upon
a table placed horizontally to receive them,
which may be seen by the spectator whose
eye is at e.
THE CAMERA LUCIDA.
This instrument consists of a glass prism,
c, D, D, E, haying four sides covered. The
sides c, D, being exposed to the object to be
delineated, rays j^ass through the glass and faU
on the sloping side d, e ; from this they are
reflected to the top, and finally pass out
of the prism to the eye;^ now from the
direction at which the rajs enter the eye,
it receives them as if conung from an image
at A, B, and if a sheet of paper be placed
below the instrument, a perfect delineation
of the object may be traced with a pencil.
This is a very useful instrument to young
draughtsmen.
(1) The eye is to be applied to the little circular hole se2n on the upper surface
460
EVERT BOY S BOOK.
THE MAGIC LANTERN.
This is one of the most pleasing of all optical instruments, and it
is used to produce enlarged pictures of objects, which being painted
on a glass in various colours are thrown upon a screen or white sheet
placed against the wall of a large room. It consists of a sort of
tin-box, within which is a lamp, the light of which (strongly reflected
by the reflector t,) passes through a great plano-convex lens e fixed in
the front. This strongly illuminates the objects which are painted on
the sHdes or slips of glass, and placed before the lens in an inverted
position, and the rays passing through them and the lens f, fall on
a sheet, or other white surface, placed to receive the image. The
glasses on which the figures are drawn are inverted, in order that the
images of them may be erect.
PAINTING THE SLIDES.
The slides containing the objects usually snown m a magic
lantern, are to be bought at onticians with the lantern, and can be
procured cneaper and better in this way than by any attempt at
manufacturing them. Should, however, the young optician wish to
make a few slides of objects of particular interest to himself, he may
proceed as follows : —
Draw first on paper the figures you wish to paint, lay it on the table, and
cover it over with a piece of glass of the above shape ; now draw the
outlines with a fine camel's hair pencil in black paint mixed with varnish,
and when this is dry, fill up the other parts with the proper colours,
shading with bistre also mixed with varnish. The transparent colours
are alone to be used in this kind of painting.
OPTICS AND OPTICAL AMUSEMENTS.
461
TO EXHIBIT THE MAGIC LANTERN.
The room for the exhibition ought to be large, and of an oblon"-
shape. At one end of it suspend a large sheet so as to cover the
whole of ^ the wall. The company being all seated, darken the room,
and placing the lantern with its tube in the direction of the sheet,
introduce one of the slides into the slit, taking care to invert the
figures ; then adjust the focus of the glasses in the tube by drawing
it in or out as required, and a perfect representation of the object
will appear.
EFFECTS OF THE MAGIC LANTERN.
Most extraordinary effects may be produced by means of the magic
lantern ; one of the most effective of which is a
TEMPEST AT SEA.
This is effected by having two slides painted, one with the tempest
as approaching on one side, and continuing in intensity till it reaches
the other. Another sHde has ships painted on it, and while the
lantern is in use, that containing the ships is dexterously drawn
before the other, and represents ships in the storm.
The, effects of suniise, moonlight, starlight, &c., may be imitated, also
by means of double slides, and figures may
be introduced sometimes of fearful pro-
portions.
Heads may be made to nod, faces to laugh ;
eyes may be made to roll, teeth to gnash;
crocodiles may be made to swallow tigers ;
combats may be represented ; but one of the
most instructive uses of the slides is to make
them illustrative of astronomy, and to show
the rotation of the seasons, the cause of
eclipses, the mountains in the moon, spots
on the sun, and the various motions of
the planetary bodies, and their satellites.
462 EVERY boy's book.
THE PHANTASMAGORIA.
Between the phantasmagoria and the magic lantern there is this
difference; in common magic lanterns the figures are painted on
transparent glass, consequently the image on the screen is a circle of
light naving figures upon it ; but in the phantasmagoria all the glass
is made opaque, -except the figures, which, being painted in trans-
parent colours, the light shines through them, and no light can come
upon the screen except that which passes through the figure, as is
here represented.
There is no sheet to receive the picture, but the representation is
thrown on a thin screen of silk or muslin placed between the spec-
tators and the lantern. The images are made to appear approaching
and receding by removing it furtner from the screen, or bringing it
nearer to it. This is a great advantage over the ordinary arrange-
ments of the magic lantern, and by it the most astonishing effects
axe often produced.
DISSOLVDJG VIJBWS.
The dissolving views, by which one landscape or scene appears to
pass into the other while the scene is changing, are produced by
using two magic lanterns placed side by side, and that can be a little
inclined towards each other when necessary, so as to mix together the
rays of light proceeding from the lenses of each, which produces that
confusion of images, in which one view melts as it were into the other,
which gradually becomes clear and distinct ; the principle being the
gradual extinction of one picture, and the production of another
HOW TO EAISE A GHOST.
The magic lantern, or phantasmagoria, may be used in a number
of marvellous ways, but in none more striking than in raising an
apparent spectre. Let an open box, a b, about three feet lon^, a
foot and a half broad, and two feet high, be prepared. At one end of
this place a small swing dressing-glass, and at the other let a magic
lantern be fixed with its lenses in a direction towards the glass. A
glass should now be made to slide up and down in the groove c d, to
which a cord and pulley should be attached, the end of the cord
coming to the part of the box marked a. On this glass the most
OPTICS AND OPTICAL AMUSEMENTS.
463
hideous spectre that cau be imagined may be painted, but iii a squat
or contracted position, and when all is done, the lid of the box must
be prepared by raising a kind of gable at the end of the box b, and in
its lower part at E an oval hole should be cut sufficiently large to
Slitter the rays of light reflected from the glass to pass through them.
On the top of the box at f place a chafing-dish, upon which put some
burning charcoal. Now light the lamp g in the lantern, sprinkle
some powdered camphor or white incense on the charcoal, adjust the
shde on which the spectre is painted, and the image tviU be thrown
upon the smoke. In performing this feat the room must be darkened,
and the box should be placed on a high table, that the hole through
which the light comes may not be noticed.
THE THAUMATROPE.
This word is derived from two Greek words, one of which signifies
wonder y and the other to turn. It is a very pretty philosophical toy,
and is founded upon the principle in optics, that an impression made
upon the retina of the eye lasts for a short interval after the object
w'hich produced it has been withdi-awn. The impression which the
mind receives lasts for about the eighth part of a second, as may be
easily shown by whirling round a Hghted stick, which if made to com-
plete the circle within that period, will exhibit not a fiery point, but
a fiery circle in the air.
THE BIHD IS THE CAGE.
Cut a piece of cardboard of the size of a penny piece, and paint on
one side a bird, and on the other a cage ; fasten two pieces of thread
one on each side at opposite points of the card, so that the card can
be made to revolve by twirling the threads with the finger and thumb:
while the toy is in its revolution, the bird wiU be seen within the
A bat may in the same manner be painted on one side of the
464 3YERY boy's BOOK.
card, and a cricketer upon the other, which will exhibit the same
phenomenon, arising from the same principle.
CONSTRUCTION OP THE PHANTASMASCOPE.
■ The above-named figure is a Thaumatrope, as much as the one we
are about to describe, although the term Phantasmascope is generally
applied to the latter instrument; which consists of a disc of darkened
tm-plate, with a slit or narrow opening in it, about two inches in
length. It is fixed upon a stand, and the sHt placed upwards, so
that it may easily be looked through. Another disc of pasteboard,
about a foot in diameter, is now prepared and fixed on a similar
stand, but with this difference, that it is made to revolve round an
axis in the centre. On this pasteboard disc, paint in colours a num-
ber of frogs in relative and progressive positions of leaping ; make
between each figure a slit of about a quarter of an inch deep : and
when tliis second disc is made to revolve at a foot distance oehind
the first, and the eye is placed near the slit, the whole of the figures,
instead of appearing to revolve with the disc, will all appear m the
attitudes of leaping up and down, increasing in agility as the velocity
of the motion is increased. It is necessary, when trying the effect of
this instrument, to stand before a looking-glass, and to present the
painted face of the machine towards the glass.
A very great number of figures may be prepared to produce similar
effects — horses with riders in various attitudes of leaping, toads
crawling, snakes twisting and writhing, faces laughing ana crying,
men dancing, jugglers throwing up balls, &c.; all of which, by the
peculiar arrangement above detailed, will seem to be in motion. A
little ingenuity displayed in the construction and painting of the
figures upon the pasteboard disc will afford a great fund of amuse-
ment.
CURIOUS OPTICAL ILLUSIONS.
One of the most curious facts relating to the science of vision is
the absolute insensibility of a certain portion of the retina to the
impression of li^ht, so that the image of any object falling on that'
pomt would be invisible. When we look with the right eye, this
point will be about fifteen degrees to the right of the object observed,
or to the right of the axis of the eye, or the point of most distinct
vision. When looking with the left eye, the point will be as far to
OPTICS, AND OPTICAL AMUSEMENTS. 465
the left. The point in question is the basis of the optic nerve, and
its insensibilitv to light was first observed by the Erench philosopher.
Mariotte. This remarkable phenomenon may be experimentally
proved in the following maimer : —
Place on a sheet of writing-paper, at the distance of abont three
inches apart, two coloured wafers ; then, on looking at the left-hand
wafer with the right eye, at the distance of about a foot, keeping the
eye straight above the wafer, and both eyes parallel with the line
which forms the wafers, the left eye being closed, the right-hand
wafer will become invisible ; and a shmlar effect will take place if
we close the right eye, and look with the left.
ANOTHER.
Cut a circular piece of white paper, about two inclies in diameter,
and affix it to a dark wall. At the distance of two feet on each side,
but a little lower, make two marks; then place yourself directly
opposite the paper, and hold the end of your finger before your face,
so that when the right eye is open it shall conceal the mark on your
left, and when the left eye is open the mark on your right. If you
then look with both eyes at the end of your finger, the paper disc
will be invisible.
ANOTHER.
Fix a similar disc of paper, two inches in diameter, at the height
of your eye on a dark wail ; a little lower than this, at the distance
of two feet on the right hand, fix another of about three inches in
diameter ; now place yourseK opposite the first sheet of paper, and,
shutting the left eye, keep the right eye still fixed on the first object,
and when at the distance of about ten feet, the second piece of paper
vrill be invisible.
THE PICTTIRE IN THE AIR.
One of the numerous optical illusions which have from time to
time been evolved by scientific minds, is that of making an image or
picture appear in the air. This is produced by means of a mirror,
and an object in relief, upon which a strong light is thrown, — the
mirror being set at such an angle as to throw up the reflection of the
image to a certain point in the view of the spectator. This illusion
is produced as follows : Let a screen be constructed in which is an
arched aperture, the centre of which may be five feet from the
fioor : behind the screen is placed a large mirror of an elliptical form.
An object is now placed behind the screen, upon which the light
of a strong lamp is thrown from a point above the mirror, and is
received by the mirror and reflected to the centre of the arched cavity
in the screen, where it will appear to the spectator. Care should be
taken to place tne image m an inverted position, and the light, whicli
must be very powerful, should be so placed that none of it may reach
the opening.
H n
466
EVERY BOY'S HOOK.
BREATHING LIGHT AND DAEKNESS.
The following experiment, if performed with care, is exceedingly
striking. Let & oe a candle, whose light falls at an angle of 56^ 45'
upon two plate glasses, a b, placed close to each other ; and let the
reflected rays, a c, b d, fall at the same angle upon two similar plates,
c D, but so placed that the plane
of reflection from the latter is at
right angles to the plane of reflec-
tion from the former. An eye placed
at E, and looking at the same time on
the two plates, c and d, wiU see very
faint images of the candle, 8; whicn
by a slight adjustment of the plates, may be made to disappear almost
wholly, aUowmg the plate c to remain wnere it is. Change the position
of D, till its inclination to the ray, b d, is diminished about 3^, or made
nearly 53^ 11'. The distance may be easily found by a little practice.
When this is done, the image that had disappeared on looking into d
will be restored, so that the spectator at e, upon looking into the two
mirrors, c d, will see no light in c, because, the candle has nearly dis-
appeared, while the candle is distinctly seen in d. If, while, the
spectator is looking iuto these two mirrors, either he or another
person breathes u^on them gently and quickly, the breath will revive
the extinguished image in c, and will extinguish the visible image
in D.^
TO SHOW THAT RAYS OF LIGHT DO NOT OBSTRUCT EACH OTHER.
Make a small hole in a sheet of pasteboard, a, and placing it
upright before three candles, b,
})laced closelv together, it will be
bund that the images of all the
candle flames will be formed sepa-
rately on a piece of paper, c, laid on
the table to receive them. This
proves that the rays of light do not
obstruct each other in their progress,
although all cross in passing through
ihe hole.
(1) Explanation.— The light a, c, b, d is polarized by reflection from the plates
A B, because it is incident at the polarizing angle 56^ 45' for glass. When we
breathe upon the plates c d, we form upon their surface a thin film of water, whose
polarizing angle is 53" 11', so that if the polarized rays a, c, b, d fall upon the plates
c, D, at an angle of 53'' 11', the candle from which they proceeded would not be
visible, or they would not suffer reflection from the plates c d. At all the* other
angles the light would be reflected, and the candle visible. Now the plate d is
placed at an angle of 53® 11', and c at an angle of 56" 45', so that when a film of
water is breathed upon them, the light will be reflected from the lattei, and none
from the former; that is, the act of breathing upon the glass plates will restore the
iBTitible, and extinguish the visible image.
OPTICS AND OPTICAL AMUSEMENTS.
OPTICS OF A SOAP-BUBBLE.
467
If a soap-bubble be bloAvn up, and set under
a glass, so that the motion of air may not
affect it, as the water glides down the sides
and the top grows thinner, several colours will
successively appear at the top, and spread
themselves from thence dowrf the sides of the
bubble, till they vanish in the same order in
which they appeared. At length, a black spot
appears at the top, and spreads till the bubole
bursts.^
THE KALEIDOSCOPE.
If any object be placed between two plane mirrors, inclined towards
each other at an an^le of thirty degrees, three several images will be
perceived in the cu-cumference of a circle. On this principle is
formed the kaleidoscope, invented by Sir David Brewster, and by
means of which the reflected images viewed from a particular point
exhibit symmetrical figures, under an infinite arrangement of beau-
tiful forms and colours. The kaleido-
scope may be bought at any toy-shop,
but it is requisite that every young person
should be able to construct one for him-
self. He must, therefore, procure a tube
of tin or paper, of about ten inches in
length, and two and a half or three
inches in diameter. One end of this
should be stopped up with tin or paper,
securely fastened, in which is to be made
a hole, about the size of a small pea, for
the eye to look through. Two pieces of
well-Slivered looking-glass, b b, are now to be procured ; they must
be not quite so long as the tube, and they should be placed in it
lengthways, at an angle of 60 degrees, meeting toge-
ther in a point at a, and separatmg to the points
c c, the poUshed surfaces looking inwards. A cir-
cular piece of the glass is now to be laid on the
top of the edges of the reflectors, b b ; which, by
their not being (juite so lon^ as the tube, will allow
room for its fallmg in, and it will be supported by
the edges of the tube, which may be slightly bent
over, to prevent the glass from falling out. This having been done, now
(1) The thinnest substance ever observed is the aqueous film of the soap bubble
previous to bursting; yet it is capable of reflecting a faint image of a candle, or the
sun. Hence its thickness must correspond with what Sir Isaac Newton calls the be-
Rummg of black, which appears in water at the thickness of the seven hundred aud
fifty thousandth part of an inch.
n H 2
468 EVERT boy's book.
proceed to make the " cap" of the instrument. A rim of tin or paste-
board must be cut, so as to fit over the glass end of the tube ; and
in this, on the outer side, a piece of around glass must be fastened,
so that the whole may fit on the tube like thelid of a piU-box. Then,
before putting it on, obtain some smaU pieces of broken glass of
farious colours, beads, little strips of wire, or any other object, and
place them in the cap ; and hj passing it over the end, so that the
broken glass, &c. has free motion, the instrument is complete. To
use it, apply the eye to the small hole, and, on turning it, the most
beautiful forms will appear, in the most wonderful combinations.
The following curious calculation has been made of the number
of changes this instrument will admit of. Supposing it to contain
20 smafl pieces of glass, and that you make IQ changes in a minute,
it will take an inconceivable space of time, i.e. 462,880,899,576
years, and 360 days, to go through the immense number of changes
of which it is capable.
SIMPLE SOLAK MICROSCOPE.
Having made a circular hole in a window-shutter, about three
inches in diameter, place in it a glass lens of about twelve inches
focal distance. To the inside of the hole adapt a tube, having at
a small distance from the lens a slit, capable of receiving one or two
very thin plates of glass, to which the object to be viewed must be
alfixed by means of a little gum-water exceedingly transparent. Into
this tube fit another, furnished at its extremity with a lens half-an-
inch focal distance. Place a mirror before the hole of the window-
shutter on the outside, in such a manner as to throw the light of the
sun into the tube, and you will have a solar magic lanthom.
The method of employing this arrangement of lenses for micro-
scopic purposes is as follows : — Having darkened the room, and by
means of the mirror reflected the sun's rays on the glasses in a direc-
tion parallel to the axis, place some small object oetween the two
moveable plates of glass, or affix it to one of them with very transpa-
rent gum- water, and bring it exactly into the axis of the tube ; if
the moveable tube be then pushed out or drawn in, till the obiect be
a little beyond the focus, it wOl be seen painted very distinctly on a
card, or piece of white paper, held at a proper distance, and wiU
appear to be greatly magnified. A small insect will appear as a large
ammal, a hair as big as a walking-stick, and the almost invisible eels
in paste or vinegar as large as common eels.
AITAMORPHOSES.
This is a very curious optical effect, producing a distorted and
grotesque figure from a regular one. The term is derived from two
Greek words, signifying a distortion of fi^e, and by its means many
optical puzzles may be produced geometrically.
Take any subject, such as the portrait of a head; divide it ver-
I
OPTICS, AND OPTICAL AMUSEMENTS.
469
tically and horizontallv "wdth parallel lines, of whicli the outer sides
shall form the boundary, a, b, c, d, and the whole shall be equi-
distant. Then, on a separate piece of paper, or cardboard, prepare
a drawing similar to Fig. 2 by the followmg means :—
1. Draw a hoiizontd^ line, a b, equal to a b, and divide it into as
many equal parts as the latter is divided.
2. Let fall a perpendicular line, e ^7, from the middle of a b, and
then draw s v parallel to a b.
3. Both e V and s v may be any length at pleasure, but the longer
the first is, and the shorter the other, so will the anamorphoses be
more and more deformed. The proportions in our figures are suffi-
ciently different.
4. After having drawn from the point v right lines, v\v2, o 3,
V 4, to the divisions of a b, draw the line s 3, and through each point
where s b intersects the divergent lines draw other horizontal lines
parallel to a b. We now have a trapezium^ abed divided into as
many cells as the square in Fig. 1.
A
R
'^
4r
1
y
c
^
_
P
cil 2 e 3 41
Ft^.L
nj.2.
The next step is to fill up all the cells of Fig. 2 with portions of
the device, proportionate to their position in Fig. 1. For instance,
in Fig. 1 the nose is in the second vertical division from the left, and
in the third and fourth horizontal divisions from the top, and that
» portion of the face must accordingly be placed in a corresponding
BpartofFig. 2.
■L By these means we procure the anamorphosis seen in Fig. 2, which
Hphen viewed from a particular position, wiU lose aU its distortion,
P«nd assume an appearance resembling that in Fig. 1. This position
lies immediately over the point v, and at a height above it equal to
the length of the line sv; and the means of determining it are as
follows.
470
EVERY boy's book.
Place the drawing horizontally before a window ; take a slip of
card, and rest its lower edge on the Ibe s v, the card being accurately
vertical ; pierce a small hole in the card vertically over the point v,
and at a height from it equal to the length of the line s v, then with
the eye placed immediately behind the card, look through the orifice
at the anamorphosis, and it will be found that as soon as it has
become accustomed to the novelty of the experiment, the anamor-
phosis wiu lose its (fistortion, and appear almost exactly like the
symmetrical figure.
It would be very difficult, and would require geometrical reasoning
of a lengthened kmd, to show why this particular form of construc-
tion should lead to such results.
THE COSMORAMA.
The principle upon which the cosmorama is formed is so simple, that
any person may easily fit up one in a small srnnmer house, &c.
Nothing more is necessary than to fix in a hole a double convex lens of
about three feet focus, a, and at rather less than tliis distance a picture.
B, is to be hung. To absorb all the rays of light but those neccssaiy tor
seeing the picture, a squared frame of wood blackened on the inside
is placed between the lens and the picture. The picture may be
hung in a large box having a li^ht coining in upon it from above, or
in a small closet illuminated m the same manner. Should it be
wisned to snow it by candie-light, a lamp, c, may be placed on the
the top of the wooden frame, and if the light of this De converged
by a lens to a moderate radius, it will be more effective.
DISTORTED LANDSCAPES.
Landscapes or other matters may be drawn so as to produce
curious optical illusions by the followmg method. Take a piece of
smooth wliite pasteboard and sketch the design upon it. Prick the
outlines in every part with a fine pin or needle, then place the pricked
OPTICS AND OPTICAL AMUSEMENTS.
471
di-awing in a perpendicular position, and put a lighted candle behind
it. Place before it another piece of pasteboard, and follow with
a pencil the lines given by the light, and you have produced a dis-
torted landscane. Now take away the candle and the pricked
drawing, and place your eye where the light was, and the (fcawing
will assume the regular form. To get your eye in the proper position,
it will be advisable to cut out a piece of card according to the ac-
companying pattern, and raising it on its base, b, look through the
hole at A, when the object will appear in its proper proportions.
PHOTOGRAPHY.
'Come like shade wr, but not so depart."— Shakspeabe.
Associated with the use of iodine and bromine is an art which
every intelligent boy may practise, if he will attend to the following
precise details kindly furnished by Mr. Richard Thomas, of 10, Pall
Mall, who has devoted many years to the careful study of aU the
processes connected with it, and from whom all the best apparatus
and purest chemicals required may be obtained.
HOW TO MAKE THE NEGATIVE ON GLASS, USING COLLODION BROMO-
lODIZED FOR IRON DEVELOPMENT.
1. The edges of the glass should be ground all round, also slightly
on the surface of the edges. This prevents contraction of the film,
enabling it to resist the action of a heavy stream of water. Mark one
side in the comer with a diamond, and upon tliis side bestow the
greatest care.
2. To clean the glass, if new. — Make a mixture of spirits of wine
and solution of ammonia, equal parts ; render it as thick as cream
with tripoli ; with a piece of cotton-wool kept for this purpose rub a
small quantity over that side marked as described, wash well under a
tap of water, and wipe dry with a piece of old linen, washed without
»oap, and kept scrupulously clean for this purpose. Plates should
not, however, be cleaned in the operating room with the above
PHOTOGRAPHY. 473
mixture; the vapour of ammonia might prove injui'ious to the
chemicals.
3. Now polish -with an old white silk handkerchief. If this latter
precaution oe not taken, smaU particles of linen will be left upon the
plate : these are perhaps only seen when draining off the collodion ;
they form nuclei and eddies, checking the coUodion in its course.
Some of these minute fibres are washed off, and contaminate the next
picture. To all lovers of clean pictures our advice therefore is,
having well dried the plate with old hnen, lay it, clean side upwards,
upon a few sheets of common glazed demy paper (not blotting), and
rub it hard with the silk until sensibly warm : this has the double
advantage of dispersing fibres and moisture, for aU glass plates are
shghtly in a hygrometric condition. Double the silk rubber up to
form a pad, and with this the glass must be firmly dusted down
just before pom-ing on the collodion, which will then run most
evenly : if the coated plate is now viewed by transmitted Hght, not a
speck or blemish will be seen upon it. When a plate cleaned as
above described is breathed upon, the moisture does not evaporate
slowly, but flies of. Do not be afraid of putting the glass into an
electrical condition with the silk rubber : on this account objections
have been raised to the use of sOk : practically, however, I find it a
most valuable auxiliary in this starting-point of the process, the
perfect manipulation of which makes an important difference in the
value of the finished picture. What can be more inartistic and
annoying to an educated eye than spots, patches, stars, and sky
rockets, the forms and shapes of which rival, in numberless variety,
a display of fireworks ? Let us not, therefore, be contented with
pictures, however good in other respects, presenting these deformities
— so many blots on the photographic escutcheon.
To clean a glass after having used it, when not varnished. — Wash
off the collodion film with water, then clean the marked side with
plain tripoK and water, and dry as above.
To coat the plate. — Eirst remove all the particles of dried collodion
from the mouth of the bottle. Now pour upon the centre of the
cleaned glass as much collodion as it will hold. Do not perform this
operation hurriedly, take time, and systematically incluie the plate in
such a manner that the collodion may run into each corner in suc-
cession ; when perfectly covered, pour off gently the excess into the
bottle at one of the comers nearest to you : with observation and
practice dexterity is easily acquired. There are many ways of coat-
ing the plate ; each person will adopt that which practice teaches
him is best. The pneumatic plate-holder is a convenient Uttle instru-
ment to use for holding the plate whilst pouring on the collodion : it
may be used for both small and large plates.
Acep the corner of the glass plate in contact with the neck of the
bottle whilst pouring off the collodion; otherwise the film wiU be
wavy in places.
474 EVERY boy's book.
4. As soon as the collodion ceases to run, plunge the prepared
glass gently, without stopping, into the nitrate of silver bath, which
is prepared as follows. Into a 20-oz. stoppered bottle put nitrate
of silver, 1-| ozs. ; distilled water, 4 ozs. : dissolve. To this solution
add iodide of potassium, 4 grs., dissolved in 1 drachm of distilled
water. Mix these two solutions : the precipitate (iodide of silver)
thus formed is by shaking entirely dissolved. Add 16 ozs. of dis-
tilled water, when the excess of iodide of silver is again thrown
down, but in such a finely divided state as to render the saturation of
the bath with iodide of silver perfect. Now drop in sufficient of the
oxide of silver to turn the turbid yellow solution a dirty brown colour ;
so long as this effect is produced'*the quantity of oxide of silver, how-
ever much in excess, is of no consequence ; shake the bottle well for
ten minutes or so at intervals ; then add alcohol, 30 minims, and filter ;
to the filtered solution add dilute nitric acid of the strength stated, 5
minims. The bath is now ready for use, and should be quite neutral.
5. Allow the prepared glass to remain in this bath from five to ten
minutes, accordmg to the temperature. Move it up and down three
or four times whilst in the bath, in order to get rid of the greasy
appearance on the surface : drain it, but not too closely. When in
the frame, place upon the back a piece of common blotting-paper, to
absorb moisture, and the two lower silver wires should also be
covered with slips of blotting-paper ; after which the sooner it is
placed in the camera the better.
6. The time of exposure can only be ascertained by practice — no
rules can be laid down ; and I am unacquainted with any royal road,
but that of experience, leading to constant success in this most
important point.
7. The plate having been taken from the camera, and placed upon
a levelled stand, or held in the hand, develop immediately the latent
image with the following solution : —
Iron developing solution. — Protosulphate of iron, ^ oz. ; glacial
acetic acid, \ oz. ; spirits of wine, 4 oz. ; distilled water, 8 ozs. : mix.
Pour on of this solution only enough to cover the plate easily, com-
mencing at that edge of the negative which stood uppermost
in the camera ; move the solution to and fro until it has become inti-
mately mixed with the silver on the plate ; then pour off into the
developing ^lass, and at once return it on to the plate. When as
much intensity has been obtained as possible with the iron developer,
it should be thoroughly removed by washing with water. Any
intensity may be obtained afterwards by using either of the following
solutions : —
8. Intensifying solution. — Pyrogallic acid, 6.grs. ; glacial acetic
acid, \ oz. ; distilled water, 6 ozs. : mix. A few drops of a 30-gr.
solution of nitrate of silver, the quantity to be regulated according to
the intensity required, to be added, at the moment of using, to as
much of the pyrogallic solution as may be necessary.
PHOTOGRAPHY 475
Intensifying solution (anotlier form). — 1. Pyrogallic acid, 8 grs. ;
citric acid, 20 grs. ; distilled water, 2 ozs. 2. Nitrate of silver, 8 'grs. ;
distilled water, 2 ozs. Mix small quantities of the solutions 1 and 2,
in equal portions, the moment before using.
The pyrogalHc solution, made with good acetic acid, may be kept
for a month or more in a cool place. Nevertheless, if the conditions
of light and situation are unfavourable, I should prefer this solution
just made. The iron solutions act best when freshly prepared.
It is supposed by some that a prolonged action of the iron developer
produces fogginess. This may be the case when impure or improperly
prepared collodion is used, but certainly not when the preparation
is pure and of the proper quaHty.
When the image is sufficiently intense, wash freely with common
filtered water ; then pour on a saturated solution of hyposulphate of
soda, which should immediately remove the iodide of silver : wash
again well with water ; allow as much as the plate will hold to soak
in for at least a quarter of an hour, changing the water occasionally,
to remove all traces of hyposulphate ; lastly, wash the plate with a
little distilled water, stand up to dry, and, if required, varnish either
with spirit or amber varnish.
The following solution is also very commonly used for fixing the
negative : — Cyanide of potassium, \ oz. ; water, 12 ozs.
Attention to the following rules and cautions will assist the
operator in the production of perfect pictures : —
1. Do not disturb the deposit which will occasionally be found at
the bottom of the bottle containing the collodion.
2. Remove all particles of dried film from the neck of the bottle
before pouring the collodion on the plate.
3. Never use damp cloths, leathers, or buffs, for giving the final
polish to the plate. Negatives with an indistinct and muddy surface
are frequently produced from this cause.
4. Let the film set properly before immersion in the nitrate of
silver bath : its condition can be ascertained by gently touching the
lower part of the coated plate with the end of the finger.
5. Never omit to pass a broad camel-hair brush over the plate just
before pouring on the collodion.
6. Bear in mind that, as hght is the producing agent, so will it proTe
a destructive one : not less than four folds of yellow calico should be
used to obstruct white light ; and in that case the aperture covered
should be no larger than is necessary to admit sufficient Hght for
working by. Examine occasionally the yellow calico : when this
material is used to exclude white light, it becomes bleached by con-
stant exposure. Do not trust alone to any coloured glass ; no glass
yet made is anti-actinic under all aspects of hght and conditions of
exposure.
7. When the negative requires intensifying, carefully wash off all
traces of the fii-st developing solution before proceeding to intensify.
476 EVERT boy's book.
This operation may be performed either before or after the iodide is
removed by fixing, •*
8. Glass baths are preferable to porcelain, ebonite, or gutta-percha
baths for solution of nitrate of silver.
9. In using either spirit or amber varnish, before pourmg it off,
keep the plate horizontal a few seconds. This gives time for soaking
in, and prevents the formation of a dull surface arising from too thin
a coating.
10. Rub the lenses occasionally with a soft and clean wash-leather .
the rapidity of action is much influenced by the brightness of the
lenses : their surfaces are constantly affected by moisture in the
atmosphere, which condensing, destroys the brilliancy of the image,
11. The white blotting-paper used for some photographic purposes
is not suitable for filtering solutions ; that only should be employed
which is made for this purpose, and is sold under the name of
filtering-paper.
12. Hy^osulpliate of soda. — A great deal of rubbish is sold under
the name of this salt. As a test of its quality, 1-^ drachms should
entirely dissolve in 1 drachm of water, and this solution should
dissolve rather more than 4^ grains of iodide of sUver.
13. Chemicals. — The purity of photographic chemicals cannot be
too strongly urged ; the cheapest are not always the most econo-
mical. The commercial preparations are generally not to be depended
upon, as these, though perhaps unadulterated, are, strictly speaking,
not chemically pure. It is best to procure them from well-known
chemists, who understand the purpose for which they are intended,
and make the preparation of these substances pecuharly a branch of
their business.
14. Never leave chemical solutions exposed in dishes : when done
with, pour them back into glass-stoppered bottles, and decant for use
from any deposit, or filter if necessary.
15. In all photographic processes it is absolutely necessary to be
chemically clean ; and this sometimes is not easy. As a rule, never
be satisfied with cleanly appearances only, but take such measures as
shall insure the absence of all extraneous matter in preparing the
solutions, cleaning the glasses, dishes, &c,
16. All stains on the hands, linen, &c. may be removed by means
of cyanogen soap or cyanide of potassium, which should be apphed
without water at first, then thorough 
