8 I •
HOOVER STEEL BALL Co
ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN
MANUFACTURERS OF
B-A-L-L-S
STEEL, BRONZE, BRASS
COPPER, ALUMINUM
AND OTHER MATERIALS IN BOTH
HIGH AND COMMERCIAL GRADES
MADE IN AMERICA
TO THOSE WHO ARE INTERESTED IN OUR PRODUCT WE WILL,
UPON APPLICATION, GLADLY FORWARD OUR REGULAR CATALOG
AND PRICE LIST, GIVING THE TRADE NAME OF OUR DIFFERENT
GRADES OF BALLS, GUARANTEED ACCURACY AND QUALITY,
PRICES AND TERMS
TJ/07/
FOREWORD
WE TAKE PLEASURE IN PRESENTING
THIS TREATISE ON THE MANUFAC-
TURE OF STEEL BALLS AND WISH
TO THANK THOSE WHO HAVE SUPPORTED
US IN SUCCESSFULLY OVERCOMING THE
PREJUDICE AT ONE TIME EXISTING
AGAINST AMERICAN MADE BALLS.
THIS SUCCESS HAS BEEN DUE TO THE
QUALITY OF OUR PRODUCT COMBINED
WITH EXPERT KNOWLEDGE OF THE
REQUIREMENTS OF OUR CUSTOMERS.
IN THE FOLLOWING PAGES WE HAVE
ENDEAVORED TO SHOW STEP BY STEP
THE VARIOUS STAGES THROUGH WHICH
A BALL PASSES FROM THE ROUGH STEEL
BLANK TO THE MIRROR -LIKE FINISHED
SPHERE.
THE OBJECT OF THIS TREATISE IS TO
LAY BARE FACTS WHICH HAVE HITHERTO
BEEN GENERALLY UNKNOWN AND IF WE
SUCCEED IN STIMULATING FURTHER
INTEREST IN THE BALL INDUSTRY, THIS
WORK WILL NOT HAVE BEEN IN VAIN.
HOOVER STEEL BALL Co.
ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN
372827
L. J. HOOVER
PRESIDENT AND GENERAL MANAGER
COMMITTEE OF THREE HAVING ENTIRE CHARGE OF FACTORY
MANAGEMENT AND MANUFACTURING
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Manufacture of Steel Balls
DURING recent years the application of ball
bearings in machine design has increased rapidly,
and this type of bearing is now used in many
machines where plain bearings were formerly
considered good enough. Until German export
facilities were shut off by the war, the majority of the
steel balls used in these bearings were made by the Deutsche
Waffen und Munitions Fabriken of Berlin, Germany, and
the product of this firm has become so celebrated that many
persons think the steel ball industry was developed by the
Germans. As a matter of fact, the art of ball making goes back
to a very early date, and the development of original methods
for doing this work is attributed to the Chinese. To those who
have credited the Germans with the development of commercial
methods of ball manufacture, it will doubtless be of interest to
learn that the first commercial steel balls were made in this
country under basic patents granted to Richardson of the
Waltham Emery Wheel Co., Waltham, Mass., and that the
original ball making machinery for the plant of the Deutsche
Waffen und Munitions Fabriken was designed and built in the
United States and shipped to Germany ready for use. This
will be explained in detail in connection with the following
historical outline of important epochs in the steel ball industry.
HOW THE STEEL BALL INDUSTRY
CAME INTO EXISTENCE
IT HAS been stated that basic patents for dry grinders used
in roughing out ball blanks to a spherical form were granted
to Richardson of the Waltham Emery Wheel Co., in 1887.
These patent rights were subsequently sold to the Cleveland
Machine Screw Co., Cleveland, Ohio, which had control of
patents on ball making machinery taken out by John J. Grant.
One of the first firms to manufacture steel balls on a commer-
cial basis was the Simonds Rolling Machine Co., of Fitchburg,
Mass., and the Fitchburg Steel Ball Co. was subsquently formed
by employes who left the Simonds firm. After a brief career,
the latter firm was taken over by the Cleveland Machine Screw
Co., and with facilities acquired through its own development
work and purchase from other companies, it was in a position
to manufacture the majority of balls used in the bicycle trade.
In this connection it will be of interest to note that up to the
year 1899 balls one-half inch in diameter were the largest size
that were manufactured in quantities.
About 1890 the Cleveland Machine Screw Co. designed and
built for the Deutsche Waffen und Munitions Fabriken, of
Berlin, Germany, equipment used in its original steel ball plant
and this marked a most important step in the trade, owing
to the reputation for making high-grade balls that was later
acquired by this firm. The machines built and shipped to
Germany had no reference to American manufacturing rights,
and the Cleveland Machine Screw Co. continued to operate its
plant in the usual way.
In 1894 when a consolidation of bicycle manufacturers was
effected, the Cleveland Machine Screw Co. was sold to the Pope
Mfg. Co. of Hartford, Conn., which at that time started to
manufacture its own balls for use in bicycle bearings. The
requirements of balls for the bicycle trade were not nearly as
severe as the standards which must be met by balls used in
high-grade annular bearings at the present time. This was
largely due to the fact that the cup and cone form of races was
employed, allowing compensation to be made, and while this
form of race did not enable ball bearings to be operated under
the most efficient conditions, it was the means of overcoming
discrepancies due to inaccuracies in the size of the balls. Up
to this time there had been six or seven firms engaged in the
manufacture of steel balls, but with the decline of the bicycle
industry a number failed.
In 1901 the Standard Roller Bearing Co., Philadelphia,
Pa., acquired all obsolete and existing plants engaged in the
manufacture of steel balls. L. J. Hoover, who was formerly
in the employ of the Standard Roller Bearing Co., left that firm
in 1906 and formed the Grant & Hoover Co. at Merchantville,
N. J. The name of this firm was later changed to Atlas Ball
Co., and the plant transferred to Philadelphia, Pa., where it is
still in operation. On March 1, 1913, the Hoover Steel Ball Co.
of Ann Arbor, Mich., was organized by Mr. Hoover for the
10
purpose of engaging in the manufacture of high-grade steel balls
to take the place of those imported from Germany. When the
European war started in 1914, the blockade of German ports by
the British Navy shut off the supply of steel balls formerly
exported by that country to the United States, and the insistent
demand of consumers for balls made in this country imposed
a heavy strain upon the facilities of domestic producers. Some-
what similar conditions existed in all branches of the machinery
trade, making it difficult for the ball manufacturers to increase
the capacity of their plants ; but the management of the Hoover
Steel Ball Co. showed commendable initiative by contracting
for the entire output of machine building firms with which orders
were placed for special machinery required in ball manufacture;
and these firms were given financial assistance to enable them
to handle work with the greatest possible rapidity. As a result,
the Hoover Steel Ball Co. has greatly increased its capacity, the
growrth being well illustrated by Fig. 1 and the illustration in the
center of the book, that show, respectively, the original factory in
which the firm started manufacturing in March, 1913, and the plant
as it appears at present. An idea of the magnitude of the business
will be gathered from the fact that the consumption of steel
runs in excess of 500 tons a month, and calculated on the basis
of J^-inch balls, the daily production is between 25,000,000
and 30,000,000 balls per day.
Fig. 1. Original Plant in which Hoover Steel Ball Co. started Manufacturing
Operation in March, 1913.
11
RAW MATERIAL OF THE STEEL
BALL INDUSTRY
THE steel from which balls are made comes to the factory
in coils or straight rods, according to its size. Stock
less than 11/16 inch in diameter comes in coils and is
known as "wire," while all stock exceeding 5/g-inch in diameter
comes in straight bars. The size of the stock is referred to in
thousandths, i. e., stock ^g-inch in diameter is known as 0.375-
inch stock. The following is a specification of steel wire
used for making balls: carbon, 0.95 to 1.05 per cent; silicon,
0.20 to 0.35 per cent ; manganese, 0.30 to 0.45 per cent ; chromium,
0.35 to 0.45 per cent; sulphur and phosphorus, not to exceed
0.025 per cent. The following analysis is typical for the larger
sizes of stock which comes in straight bars: carbon, 1.02 per
cent; manganese, 0.40; silicon, 0.21; chromium, 0.65; sulphur,
0.026; and phosphorus, 0.014 per cent. A well equipped
laboratory is maintained in which chemical and physical tests
are conducted on each shipment of steel to determine its suit-
ability for manufacture into balls, and an unloading ticket must
be signed by the head of the laboratory before the steel is taken
from the cars into the plant. Some very interesting conditions
have been brought to light by the laboratory work, and a later
section of this article will be devoted to a discussion of tests
conducted on the raw material and product, data obtained from
these tests, and a description of methods and apparatus used
in the laboratory.
PRODUCTION OF BALL BLANKS
BY COLD-HEADING
BALL blanks made from stock ranging from 1/16 up to and
including j^-inch m diameter are formed on special
cold-headers designed for the production of ball blanks
by the E. J. .Manville Machine Co., Waterbury, Conn. A
battery of these machines is shown in operation in Fig. 2, and
in this connection it may be mentioned that the Hoover Steel
Ball Co. is equipped with machines of the following sizes: 00, 0,
1, 2, 3, and 5. Production of ball blanks by the cold-heading
process has several advantages in its favor. In the first place,
there is practically no waste, with the exception of about 0.040
Fig. 2. General View in Cold-header Department; Blanks for All Sizes of Balls
up to Y^-inch Diameter are made on Cold-Heading Machines.
inch of metal left on the blank to provide for finishing. Blanks
can be held to this close limit because the steel is worked
cold and there is no tendency for it to become decarbonized.
One man can look after three or four machines, so that the
cost of labor is almost negligible. Cold-headers used in the
production of ball blanks are of the type commonly known as
single-blow solid-die machines, and the way in which they
operate can best be explained in connection with Fig. 3. These
machines consist of a heavy framed which completely surrounds
the working parts of the machine, thus insuring a high degree
of rigidity. At one end of the machine there is a driving shaft
B ; and. at the opposite end of the frame is die-block C. Between
the sides of the frame is a movable ram D that actuates the heading
punch E. Wire F to be made into ball blanks enters the machine
through feed rolls G and then passes through cut-off quill H.
At the side of the machine is supported a bracket / in which
slide / may be reciprocated by a crank motion from the main
driving shaft. Slide J has a cam groove cut in it in which roll K
is fitted ; this roll is mounted on cross-slide L, so that a lateral
13
Fig 3. Plan View of Cold-header Mechanism Illustrating Method of Operation.
motion is imparted to cut-off knife M located on the end of
cutter-bar L.
A ratchet feed advances the wire through the cut-off quill
until it comes into contact with a stop, which is not shown
in the illustration. This stop checks forward motion of the stock
when a sufficient length has passed the cut-off knife to produce
a ball blank of the proper size. Cut-off knife M is advanced in
the manner just described, severing the wire, but retaining it on
the cut-off blade by means of a spring finger. Advance of the
cut-off knife and wire slug is continued until the slug reaches a
position directly in front of the opening in die TV. Here it is
held stationary long enough for punch E to begin to push the
slug of metal into the die, at which time cut-off knife M retreats
Table I. Capacities of Cold-headers in Ball Blanks per Hour
Size of
Cold-
header
Capacity for
Ball Blanks
Diameter in
Inches.
Max. Size.
Production
of Blanks
per Hour
Size of
Cold-header
Capacity for
Ball Blanks
Diameter in
Inches.
Max. Size.
Production
of Blanks
per Hour
00
3/16
7800
2
7/16
6300
0
9/32
7200
3
1/2
6000
1
3/8
6900
5
9/16
4800
Note — Due to time loss in setting up, trouble with stock and breakdowns, the actual
average rate of production is from 80% to 90% of above values.
Table II. Size of Stock Used for Making Balls on Cold-headers
Diameter of
Ball — Inches
Diameter of
Stock — Inches
Diameter of
Ball — Inches
Diameter of
Stock — Inches
1/8
.100
5/16
.235
5/32
.120
3/8
.275
3/16
.145
7/16
.320
7/32
.170
1/2
.365
1/4
.190
9/16
.395
9/32
.220
5/8
.440
and allows punch E to continue its work by pushing the blank
to the bottom of the die cavity. After the slug F has been
headed it is ejected by the knock-out pin O which is
advanced by the mechanism operated by lever P, which
also receives its motion from a crank at the side of the machine
connected to the main driving shaft. In this way the ball
blank is knocked out of the die and dropped through an opening
into a receptacle placed to receive it, this being clearly shown in
Fig. 2. Table II gives the diameter of stock used in making
blanks for several different sizes of balls, and is presented to
show the enlargement that takes place during the heading
operation. Various grades of steel* have been used for making
dies employed on the cold-headers, but the most satisfactory
results have been obtained with the following grades ^'Sander-
son" or "Viking Special" made by the Crucible Steel Co. of
America; "Intra" made by the Hermann Boker Co.; "Gyro"
made by Braeburn Steel Co.; and tool steel made by William
Jessop & Sons.
HOT-FORGING BALL
BLANKS
IT HAS previously been stated that blanks for balls exceeding
^g-inch in diameter are hot-forged from straight bars, and
in handling this work multiple dies are employed which
produce strings of balls containing up to ten balls, according
to the size. The stock is heated in "Frankfort" furnaces made
by the Strong, Carlisle & Hammond Co. of Cleveland, Ohio;
15
Fig. 4. View of Stock Racks in Hot-forging Department where Ball Blanks
exceeding Y^-inch diameter are made.
these are oil furnaces which are operated with oil at a pressure
of 8 pounds per square inch, and air at a pressure of 2 pounds
per square inch. Twelve bars are arranged in the furnace as
shown in Fig. 5. The hammer-man takes out the bar at the
left-hand side of the furnace, and after forging a string of balls
at the end of this bar and cutting it up into individual ball
blanks, returns the bar to the furnace at a point at the extreme
right. In this way, the bars are used in rotation, which prevents
any bar from becoming overheated. This is a matter of con-
siderable importance, because the furnaces are maintained at a
temperature somewhat in excess of 1800 degrees F. in order to
provide for heating the stock as rapidly as may be necessary;
but should it happen that steel was left in the furnace for an
undue length of time, there would be danger of burning the steel.
The multiple forging dies are shown in detail in Fig. 6,
in which it will be seen that each die opening is elliptical; the
purpose of this is to provide a clearance space at each side into
which excess metal will flow. It must be borne in mind however,
that while this illustration only shows four die openings, the
number of openings runs up to ten, according to the size of ball
blanks that are being forged. In the cross-sectional views,
the dimensions of the die are indicated by letters, and in Table
III are given diameter A of cherrying cutter, distanced between
16
Fig. 6. Type of Die used for Hot-forging Ball Blanks for Balls exceeding
%-inch Diameter.
Table HI. Dimensions of Hot- forging Dies for Ball Blanks
Diameter
of Ball,
Inch
Diameter
A of Die,
Inch
Distance
B between
Centers,
Inch
Depth C of
Die, Inch
Depth D, of
Bridge, Inch
Diameter E
of Stock,
Inch
3/4
0.775
0.910
0.387
0.065
0.625
7/8
0.905
1.060
0.452
0.065
0.729
1
1.035
1.210
0.517
0.075
0.823
centers, and depth C to which the cherrying cutter is sunk in
making the dies for three sizes of balls, and these data are
presented to indicate how dimensions of the dies vary for differ-
ent sizes of balls. The depth D of the gate between adjacent
diesis a matter of considerable importance, because, it determines
the size of the neck between adjacent balls, which is depended
upon to hold the string of balls together until they are sheared.
Also this depth must be regulated so that there is no tendency
to draw the stock adjacent to the neck and form a pipe in the
ball blank, which would have a highly detrimental effect on its
structure. A land of approximately one-third the diameter of
the ball is provided for clearance at the bottom of the die and
the upper die member. The dies are made from a special die
steel made by the Ludlum Steel Co. of Watervliet, N. Y., or from
17
Fig. 5. "Frankfort" Oil-heated Furnaces made by Strong, Carlisle &
Hammond Co., in which Bars are Heated for Hot-forging Operation.
"Firth-Sterling Special," made by the Firth-Sterling Steel Co.,
McKeesport, Pa. This is not an alloy steel, but a regular tool
steel adapted for making hot-forging dies. In order to produce
round balls in such dies, the bar is turned between each stroke
of the hammer, which results in bringing the balls to a close
approximation of the spherical form. Along one side of each
die is a pipe with a number of holes drilled in it through which
water flows onto the dies and work.
In purchasing stock for the production of ball blanks for
the hot-forging method, it is matter of considerable importance
to have all bars of the same length. This is due to the fact that
when there is considerable variation in length, some bars will
18
be used up before others, with the result that it is necessary to
finish up a number of short pieces in the furnace before putting
in an entire new charge. At the end of each bar there is left
what is known as a "short end," and experience has shown
that these short ends cannot be forged into ball blanks of the
regular size, as they fail to fill out the dies properly. On this
account, short ends are collected and forged into ball blanks of
the next smaller size. By ordering stock in bars of a specified
length, ' 'short-ends" are eliminated.
After being forged, the hot string of balls is taken to punch
presses made by the Ferracute Machine Co., Bridgeton, N. J.,
which are placed beside the Bradley helve hammers on which
the forging operation is performed, the arrangement being
clearly shown in Fig. 7. The punch presses are equipped with
multiple shearing dies, which consist of a lower die member
with holes of the same size as the balls and a multiple punch
carried in the ram, one punch being in line with each opening
in the die. The string of balls is dropped into place and the
Fig. 7.
C. C. Bradley Hammer and Ferracute Power Press in which a String of
Ball Blanks is Forged and Cut up into Individual Balls.
19
press tripped, resulting in pushing the balls through the holes
in the die and leaving the scrap metal which is brushed off
before the next operation is performed. The bar is then returned
to the right-hand side of the heating furnace, as previously
mentioned, and is moved to the left each time a heated bar is
removed, until it reaches the extreme left ready for another string
of balls to be forged from the heated metal at its end. Three
sizes of helve hammers made by C. C. Bradley & Son, Inc.,
Syracuse, N. Y., are used for forging ball blanks, which have
capacities for striking blows of 125, 150 and 300 pounds.
ELEVATION OF DIE AND PUNCHES
PUNCH. HOLDER
FLAN OF DIE
Figure 8. Type of Die used for Shearing String Forgings into Individual Ball Blanks.
Fig. 8. shows the construction of shearing punches used
for cutting up the string forgings into individual ball blanks.
At A is shown the form of punch-holder used, which will be seen
to consist of a cast-iron shoe with four set-screws for holding
the punches. These are secured in a clamp B which is made
by drilling holes of the proper size for the punch shanks in a
block of the desired form and then sawing this block in half;
the punches are then put in place and the entire clamp secured
in punch-holder A . The diameter C of these punches is usually
made about J^-inch less than the diameter of the balls in the
string forging that is to be cut up. A plan view of the die is
shown at D, and it will be evident that the spacing £ between
holes in this die is the same as the center distance between the
die cavities in the forging die. Also a bridge is provided in the
shearing die of sufficient depth to retain the neck left between
adjacent ball blanks on the string forging while the balls are
pushed through the die. After the shearing operation has been
completed, the scrap metal is brushed off the shearing die before
the next set of ball blanks is cut up.
In has been mentioned that balls ranging in size from ^-inch
up to about 2j^-inches in diameter are made by forging strings
of blanks according to the process which has just been described.
In the case of the larger sizes of balls — from &/% to 4 inches in
diameter — single blanks are usually forged under a steam
hammer, making one blank at a time at the end of the bar.
Slugs of the proper size are first cut off to the required length
and both ends chamfered, the length of stock being determined
by the weight of the finished balls after making a proper allow-
ance for the material removed in finishing. These blanks are
placed in the oil furnace and heated to a forging temperature;
and each time a blank is removed to be forged a new slug of
metal is put into the furnace in its place. Dies used for this
kind of forging are of an entirely different form from those used
in string forging; they are cupped out to the desired diameter,
but are only turned to a depth of one-quarter the diameter of
the ball to be forged and are not relieved. When the blank has
been heated, the hammer-man places it in the die and the hammer
is worked very slowly until the blank begins to take a spherical
shape, when quicker and heavier blows are struck. Owing to
the shallowness of the die, the operator has ample room to turn
the ball in all directions, and he can therefore produce an almost
perfect sphere. Blanks up to 8 inches in diameter are forged
without varying more than 0.005 inch from a true spherical form.
ROUGH DRY-GRINDING
THE method of making ball blanks varies according to their
size, small blanks being made on cold-headers and large
blanks forged from hot metal according to the methods
which have just been described. After this preliminary
work, all sizes of balls go through essentially the same treatment
certain minor modifications being made according to the quality
of the balls; and the method of treatment may also vary some-
what in the case of balls of extremely large size. These modifica-
tions from standard practice will be taken up in detail.
Blanks made by either the cold-heading or hot-forging
process are first sent to the dry-grinding room, where they
Fig. 9. Side View of Dry-grinder, showing wheel dropped away from work, a
Charge of Balls ready to be dropped into Grinding Position, and Ball
being measured for Size in Test Indicator.
22
are subjected to a rough-grinding operation § before going to
the heat-treating department. This rough-grinding results in
removing a considerable part of the surplus metal and bringing
each ball to a much closer approximation of a truly spherical
form than it is possible to obtain in forgings made by either of
the methods that have been described. In the case of hot-forged
Fig. 10. Front View of Grinding Machine, showing Grinding Wheel raised to
Operating Position and Tray of Ground Balls just removed from Machine;
Balls seen in Ring are not in Grinding Position
23
ball blanks, this rough-grinding also removes the decarbonized
steel from the surface of the blanks produced in forging.
An exception to the general method of procedure is made
in the case of balls from 1/16 to 3/16 inch in diameter. Such
balls are not dry-ground before being heat-treated, but they
get a rough and a finish dry-grinding after being hardened.
Figs. 9 to 11, inclusive, show the type of machine on which
the dry-grinding operation is performed, and the best idea
of its construction and method of operation will be obtained
by reference to the two views shown in Fig. 11. The main
Fig. 11.
Front and Side Views of Dry-grinding Machine, illustrating
Principle of Operation.
parts of this machine consist of a carborundum grinding wheel
A and an iron ring B which are driven in opposite directions.
Two rings C and D are supported by spiders in such a way
that there is a space between the beveled edges of the inner
and outer rings sufficient to allow ball blanks that are to be
ground to project through this space. In the side view of the
machine illustrated in Fig. 11, these rings are shown with the
wheel lowered, but when the machine is in operation the balls
held between rings C and D are in contact with grinding wheel
A ; and ring B presses down and holds them against the grinding
wheel. In order to provide for grinding the balls uniformly,
the spindles on which grinding wheel A and driving ring B are
carried are placed eccentric to each other, which results in giving
the balls an oscillating motion in addition to their motion of
rotation ; and as a result of this combined movement all surfaces
of the ball blanks are exposed to the action of the grinding wheel,
which results in bringing them to a close approximation of the
spherical form. The way in which the upper and lower spindles
of the machine are driven is best illustrated in Fig. 9, which
shows how open and crossed belts are brought to the machine
pulleys from an overhead countershaft.
Probably the best way to describe the operation of one of
these dry-grinders is to start at the point where a charge of
ball blanks has been ground down to the required size and is
to be removed from the machine. To provide for doing this,
the head which supports grinding wheel A is carried on a slide
on the base of the machine. Secured to the bottom of this slide
is a rack E that meshes with a pinion at the end of cross-shaft F.
Keyed to the opposite end of shaft F is a worm-wheel G that
meshes with a worm actuated by hand-wheel H that provides
fine adjustment. Secured to the bed of the machine is a disk /,
and in order to drop grinding wheel A out of contact with the
work held between rings C and D, the spring latch carried by
lever J is withdrawn from a notch in disk / and the lever is
moved to the left until the latch engages a stop notch in disk /,
which limits the downward motion of the grinding wheel. It
will be seen that sufficient clearance is, now provided between
grinding wheel A and rings C and D to enable tray K to be
swung into position to catch the balls when they are discharged
from the holding rings.
It will be seen that inner ring D is supported by a spider
secured to the lower end of rod L, and in order to discharge
the ground balls, ring D is dropped by pushing down lever M.
This drops the inner ring and allows the ground balls to fall into
tray K. When lever M is released, ring D is returned to its
original position by means of a compression spring N. During
the time that the charge of balls in the machine is being ground,
a fresh charge of blanks is placed in the space between driving
ring ,5 and outer ring C; a few of these balls will be seen in position
in Fig. 9. After the ground balls have been removed and inner
ring D has been returned to the position shown in Fig. 11, it is
necessary to place the charge of new blanks in position to be
ground. This is done by dropping both rings C and D sufficiently
so that the balls held between outer ring C and driving ring B
may drop into position, after which the two rings are returned
to the location shown in Fig. 11. This result is accomplished
by means of lever O that is carried at the end of a cross-shaft
which has a pinion at its right-hand end meshing with the rack
P cut in the sleeve that supports the spider on which outer
ring C is carried.
In order to drop a charge of balls into place, the spring
latch carried by lever 0 is released and this lever is pulled forward
which results in dropping both rings C and D, due to the fact
that rod Z/, supporting inner ring D, is pinned to the upper end
of sleeve P, to which the outer ring is connected by means of the
spider. When the balls have been dropped into position as
indicated, grinding wheel A is raised into contact with the work
Fig. 12. Special Grinding Machines for Grinding Rings shown at
C and D in Fig. 11.
by raising lever /. Rings C and D are ground to a smooth surface
and fine edge in order that the balls may run freely and reach
through the space to come into contact with the grinding wheel
A. This is done on special grinding machines, the method of
grinding the inner and outer rings being clearly illustrated in
Fig. 12. Lever Q at the front of the grinding machine operates
a clutch that provides for starting or stopping the machine.
It will be seen from Figs. 9 and 10 that the grinders are provided
with an exhaust system to carry away the dust of the wheel.
HEAT TREATMENT
DURING the process of making the steel for the balls and
in forging and rough-grinding the ball blanks made
from this steel, severe internal strains are likely to be
set up in the metal that would often be of sufficient magnitude
to cause the balls to be broken when subjected to only a small
Fig. 13. Charging End of American Rotary Gas Furnaces in which Balls
up to One Inch Diameter are Heat-treated.
part of their rated load carrying capacity. Trouble from this
source must be eliminated, and this is done by subjecting the
balls to a preliminary annealing operation in rotary gas furnaces
made by the American Gas Furnace Co. of Elizabethport, N. J.,
before the final hardening operation. The same type of furnace
Fig. 14. Discharge End of American Rotary Gas Furnaces, showing Quenching
Tanks and Deflector through which Balls are delivered to
Baskets at Bottom of Tanks.
is used for the annealing and hardening operations, but for the
former the delivery chute on the furnace is arranged to discharge
the balls into pans, as shown at A in Fig. 13, while for the latter
the balls are discharged into a quenching tank, as indicated in
Fig. 14. The form of retort used in these American gas furnaces
is shown in Fig. 15, and it will be seen to have a spiral path
Fig. 15. Cross-Sectional View of "Nichrome" Retort used in Rotary Gas Furnaces.
through which the balls pass as the retort is revolved. At the
loading end of each furnace there is a hopper that is kept filled
with ball blanks, and the retort draws blanks from this hopper
and passes them through the furnace at such a rate that the
steel is heated to the desired temperature when the balls are
discharged. For annealing, a temperature of 1300 degrees F.
is employed, and for hardening the balls are raised to a tempera-
ture of from 1425 to 1475 degrees F. according to the size and
the composition of the steel. Pyrometers made by the Hoskins
Mfg. Co. of Detroit, Mich., are used to determine the tempera-
ture of each furnace.
QUENCHING THE STEEL
BALLS
IT HAS been mentioned that the same type of furnace is
used for both the annealing and hardening operations, the
only change being to place the tube so that the ball blanks
are discharged into a pan in the case of annealing, and into
the quenching tank in the case of the hardening operation.
The retorts used in the furnaces were formerly made of cast
iron, and great trouble was experienced through their destruction
after they had been in service a short time. This trouble has
been over-come by substituting "Nichrome" in place of cast iron,
and retorts made of this material last indefinitely.
In hardening, there is a difference of practice according to
the size of the balls, those of 5/16-inch diameter and less being
quenched in oil while balls of larger size are quenched in water.
Balls made of some grades of steel are quenched in pure water
and others are quenched in brine. In all cases the quenching
tanks are provided with a device of the form shown in Fig. 14,
which consists of a series of conical sheet metal deflectors through
which the balls pass before reaching the wire mesh basket at
the bottom of the tank. The purpose of these sheet metal cones
is to deflect the course of the balls so that they follow a winding
path and are completely cooled before reaching the bottom of
the tank. One complete furnace charge can be run into one
of these wire baskets and when this is filled, the entire outfit
is lifted out of the tank by means of an electric hoist as shown,
and the balls are then removed from the basket. The depth of
Fig. 16. ''Frankfort" Oil Furnaces for use in Heat-treating Balls over One inch
Diameter, and Quenching Tank in which these Balls are Hardened. Note
Hoskins Pyrometer for showing Temperature of Furnaces.
30
the quenching tank is about 14 feet. Rotary furnaces are used
for annealing and hardening the smaller sizes of balls, and in
the case of balls one inch in diameter and over, ''Frankfort"
oil furnaces are employed, into which the balls are introduced
on trays as shown in Fig. 16. When the balls are heated to the
proper temperature, these trays are withdrawn and the balls
are dumped into the quenching tanks provided with the sheet
metal cones described. The reason for quenching small balls
in oil and large balls in water is that the oil does not absorb the
heat as rapidly as the water, and in the case of very small balls,
the shock of dropping them into water would result in strains
so great that many balls would either be cracked or broken, and
the strength of those balls in which there were no visible defects
would be seriously impaired. In the case of large balls, there
is sufficient heat to prevent trouble from this cause. From
time to time sample balls are tested by breaking them on an
anvil and examining the structure of the steel to make sure that
the heat-treatment is producing the desired results. Provision
must be made for preventing over-heating of the oil or water
in the quenching baths, and this is done by having a circulating
system through which the oil or water passes into a reservoir
outside the building and then through a coil in this reservoir
and back to the tank. In this way the contents of the quenching
tank are kept in continual circulation, preventing overheating.
SPECIAL TREATMENT TO RELIEVE
INTERNAL STRAINS
DURING the process of hardening, internal strains are
set up in the balls, and it is necessary, of course, to
relieve the strains without effecting the surface hard-
ness of the balls.
This is done by immersing the balls which are carried in
wire baskets, in a tank of boiling water for two hours. The
equipment used for this purpose is shown in Fig. 17.
This practice is only followed in the case of balls that are
hardened by quenching in water or brine.
Besides relieving the internal strains, the hot water prevents
the balls from rusting after their removal, as the hot balls dry
off very rapidly.
Fig. 17. Water Bath in which Severe Strains are Removed from Balls Quenched
in Water by subjecting them to Temperature of Boiling Water for Two Hours.
This Treatment also enables Balls to Dry Rapidly and Prevents Rusting.
FINISH
DRY-GRINDING
AFTER being hardened, the balls are sent back to the dry-
grinding room, where they are subjected to what is
known as a finish dry-grinding operation. This is the
same as the rough dry-grinding that the balls receive before harden-
ing, except that it is done with a finer wheel which results
in removing the scale produced in hardening and also
reducing their diameters a little closer to the finished size.
For the rough-grinding operation, wheels of No. 40 grit are
employed. On the finish-grinding, the grit of the wheel varies
according to the size of the balls. Wheels of No. 60 grit are
used for all balls exceeding 5/16-inch in diameter, while for
smaller balls wheels of 90 or 100 grit are employed. In all cases
the machines are driven at the required number of revolutions
per minute to give a surface speed of 4500 to 5000 feet per minute
at the point where the ring wheel engages the balls.
A VISITOR who is conducted through the plant of the
Hoover Steel Ball Co. finds it exceptionally easy to
become acquainted with what is going on in each shop,
because, although the plant is large, it is engaged in
making a single product, manufacturing operations on different
sizes of balls being conducted in essentially the same way through
out. This condition stands out in marked contrast to that found-
in plants engaged in the production of a variety of different
parts, as the manufacturing operations necessarily vary, making
it more difficult to see just what is being done.
c • oce *Dm ©E© c>Fo
Fig. 18. (A) String of Hot- forged Bail Blanks. (B}Ball Blanks made by Cold-
heading Process. (C) Rough Dry-ground Balls. (D) Rough Dry-ground Balls after
Hardening. (E) Finish Dry-ground Balls. (F) Oil-rolled Balls. (G) Oil-ground
Balls. (H) Polished Balls ready for Inspection.
Fig. 18 shows the condition of the product at each step in
the process of manufacture, and it will be of interest to study
this illustration carefully, as it shows just what is done to the
balls by each operation through which they pass before comple-
tion. At A is shown a string of hot-forged ball blanks before
they have been sheared apart, and at B are illustrated two ball
blanks made by the cold-heading process. Blanks produced
by either of these methods are first subjected to a rough dry-
grinding operation which reduces them to an approximately
spherical form, as shown at C, although the surface is covered
with a multitude of small flats and scratches left by the grinding
wheel. At D are shown two rough-ground blanks after they
have been subjected to the process of heat-treatment, and it
will be noticed that their appearance is essentially the same as
that of the rough-ground blanks shown at C except that the
surface is darkened as a result of the heat treatment. Two
blanks are shown at E, which have received the finish dry-
grinding after being hardened, and it will be noticed that the
appearance of these blanks is the same as that of the rough-
33
ground blanks C except that the flats and scratches are not so
pronounced. At F and G are shown two blanks that have gone
through a process known as ' 'oil-rolling" and two blanks that
have been through the oil-grinding process. The appearance of
both these balls is practically the' same except that the oilground
balls have been reduced to exactly the desired size. At H are
shown two finished balls after being polished, ready to be sent
on to the inspection department, where they will be subjected
to a series of rigid tests.
OIL-ROLLING BALLS IN
TUMBLING BARRELS
AFTER receiving the finish dry-grinding, the balls are of
approximately spherical form, but the surface is covered
with flat spots and scratches left by the grinding wheel
and there is still a considerable amount of excess metal on the
balls to be removed. The first step is to subject them to a process
known as oil-rolling which consists of tumbling a charge of balls
in an iron barrel containing oil and abrasive. This oil and
abrasive is refuse from machines on which a subsequent opera-
tion known as "oil-grinding" is performed; this operation will be
Fig. 19. View in Oil-rolling Department, showing Special Tumbling Barrels
of Large Capacity.
34
described in detail later, and the nature of the abrasive will be
explained at that time. Most of the tumbling barrels used in
this department have capacity for a charge of 1500 pounds of
balls, and these were built especially for the Hoover Steel Ball
Co. ; but some 800-pound barrels made by the Baird Machine Co.
of Bridgeport, Conn., are also employed. Some of these barrels
are shown in operation in Fig. 19. The purpose of oil-rolling
is to smooth off the flats and scratches left by the dry-grinders
and to remove excess stock, about 0.004 inch being allowed
for removal in the oil-grinding operation. Balls up to 1^2-inch
in diameter are given this oil-rolling treatment.
It is necessary to leave the balls in these tumbling barrels
from twenty to thirty-six hours, according to the amount of
stock that must be removed, and as each ball rotates in such a
way that its entire surface is uniformly exposed to the action
Fig. 20. Oil-grinding Machine on which Final Grinding Operation is performed
— Attention is called to Dials showing Approximate Time when Grinding
will be Finished, and Indicator for Testing Size of Balls.
35
of the abrasive and of the balls adjacent to it, this treatment
results in the production of perfect spheres. When the time has
almost arrived at which the balls should be removed, a
number are selected at random from the contents of
each barrel, taken out and measured with a micrometer
in order to see how closely they approach the required size.
The oil-rolling is then continued with successive gaugings until
the balls have been reduced to the required dimension plus 0,004
inch, after which they are removed from the barrels, cleaned,
and then taken to the oil-grinding department. In reducing
balls by the process of oil-rolling, it occasionally becomes neces-
sary to add more abrasive to the supply of oil and abrasive ob-
tained from the oil-grinders. When this is done, No. 36 carborun-
dum is used, as this coarse-grain abrasive increases the speed at
which the balls are reduced to the required size.
HOW THE PROCESS OF OIL-GRINDING
IS CONDUCTED
THERE are two main grades of balls made in the Hoover
factory, known as "Micro-chrome" and "Commercial"
balls, the former being the better quality. Both grades are
reduced to the final size by the process known as "oil-grinding"
that is conducted on machines of the form shown in Figs. 20
Fig. 21.
Side and Front Views of Oil-Grinding Machine,
Illustrating Method of Operation.
36
and 21. The construction and operation of the oil-grinding
machines will be best understood from Fig. 21, which shows
details of its construction. These machines are provided with
two iron rings A and J3, each of which has an annular groove cut in
it of a suitable size to accommodate the balls C to be ground.
It will be noted that there is a small groove at the bottom of the
annular groove in the lower ring A , which provides for holding a
supply of oil and abrasive. Ring A has the annular groove for the
balls cut at the bottom of a larger groove, and ring 5 has a flange
in which the ball groove is cut that drops into this large groove
in ring A ; the arrangement will be readily understood from the
illustration. It will, of course, be understood that the grinding
ring is rilled with balls, the number that constitutes a complete
charge varying according to the size of balls that are being
ground.
To provide for loading and unloading the machine, lower
ring A is drawn out onto a table D which is provided for that
purpose, and after a fresh charge of balls has been put in place
this ring is pushed back into position under the upper ring B
that is secured to the spindle of the machine. A sheet metal
shield is then pushed into place in front of the rings in order to
prevent splashing of the oil. Ring A is located in approximately
the desired position by means of a hole in the machine bed
into which an extension on the under side of ring A drops, but
the extension on this ring is a loose fit in the hole to allow ring
A to align itself properly with ring B.
The upper ring is secured to the spindle, and in order to
start the grinding operation it must be lowered into contact
with the balls carried in the annular groove of ring A. This is
accomplished by a rack on the spindle sleeve that meshes with
pinion E secured to lever F.
In order to raise ring B out of contact with the work so that
ring A may be drawn out onto turntable D, lever F is pulled down
into the horizontal position shown in the illustration. In this
position spring latch G drops into a notch on ring H that is
secured to the frame of the machine, thus holding ring B in the
suspended position. After the machine has been reloaded and
it is desired to drop ring B into contact with the work preparatory
to starting the grinding operation, spring latch G is withdrawn
from the notch in ring H by pulling back grip / that is connected
to the end of the rod on which latch G is carried. Then the wheel
is lowered by gravity, care being taken to hold tight to the
crank at the end of lever F so that it is slowly raised to a vertical
position instead of flying up and allowing ring B to drop heavily
onto the balls carried in the lower ring.
It will be seen that there are three grinding heads provided
on each machine, and these are furnished with independent
tight and loose pulley drives, so that any head may be stopped
without interfering with the operation of the other two. This
is done by throwing the belt from the tight to the loose pulley
by means of lever /, which actuates the belt shifter. The oil-
grinders are provided with a dial similar to that of a clock,
so that the time for grinding can be observed; the grinding
operation usually takes from twenty to forty-five minutes, ac-
cording to the size of the balls and the amount of stock that
must be removed. When the machine is set up ready to start
the grinding operation, this dial is set to the approximate time at
which the grinding operation will be completed, and a little while
before this time is reached several balls are selected at random
from different points around the ring, and are measured with an
indicator to see how near they come to the required size. The
dials on the machine and the test indicator are shown in Fig. 20.
Fig. 22. Small Tumbling Barrels for Cleaning Balls in Sawdust, and Riddles foi
Separating Sawdust from Balls.
38
CLEANING AND POLISHING
OIL-GROUND BALLS
AS SOON as the balls have been ground down to the desired
diameter, they are removed from the machine and taken
to tumbling barrels containing hardwood sawdust, in
which they are rolled for a sufficient length of time to clean off
all oil and abrasive. The charge in each tumbling barrel is then
taken out and put into riddles through which the sawdust is
sifted, as shown in Fig. 22, to separate it from the balls; the
balls next go to the tumbling barrels containing a mixture of oil
Fig. 23. Kegs in which Balls are Polished by Rolling in Leather.
39
and Vienna lime. They are rolled in this mixture for a sufficient
length of time to give them a preliminary polish, after which
they are removed and again cleaned in tumbling barrels filled
with hardwood sawdust. The sawdust is sifted from the balls
in riddles, after which they are rolled for from twenty to twenty five-
minutes in kegs containing strips of kid similar to that from which
gloves are made, the arrangement of this polishing equipment
being shown in Fig. 23. Rolling the balls in this way gives them
a high polish, which is the final step in the process ; and the finished
balls are then ready to be taken to the inspection department.
The following data concerning conditions under which
oil-grinders are operated and abrasives and oils used on these
machines will prove of interest. It has been mentioned that
two main grades of balls are made, which are known as ' 'Micro-
chrome" and ' 'Commercial" the former being the better quality.
On the "Micro-chrome" balls the grinders are run at 195 revolutions
per minute and the abrasive used is a mixture of No. 3-F car-
borundum and "Atlantic Red" machine oil made by the Standard
Oil Co. On "Commercial" balls, the grinders are run at a speed of
325 revolutions per minute and the abrasive is an equal mixture
of Nos. 180 and 150 carborundum to which No. 4 "Road Oil"
is added, this oil also being the product of the Standard Oil Co.
Used oil and abrasive from the grinding machines is collected
and used in the tumbling barrels.
SPECIAL TREATMENT FOR
LARGE BALLS
CERTAIN variations from the practice described in the
preceding paragraphs are necessary in the case of large
sized balls which would be too heavy to handle in tumbling
barrels. For instance, "Commercial" balls over 1^-inch in diameter
and "Micro-chrome" balls over 5/g-inch in diameter are burnished
on oil-grinders running at high speed and in which very fine
abrasive and light oil are used instead of being subjected to a
tumbling operation in barrels containing a mixture of oil and
lime, as previously described. If large balls of this kind were
put in a tumbling barrel, there would be too much shock from
the balls striking one another; hence the variation in practice.
40
PRODUCTION OF OIL-
ROLLED BALLS
IT HAS been explained that in the regular process of manu-
facture the balls go from the tumbling barrels to the oil-
grinders on which they are reduced to the required size
ready for polishing. There are some cheaper grades of balls,
however, that do not go to the oil-grinders; these balls are reduced
to size by oil-rolling in the tumbling barrels, after which they
are polished and sent to the inspection department. The method
of polishing is the same as that to which the better grades are
subjected, which was previously described. In oil-rolling the
balls, a mixture of No. 36 carborundum and No. 4 "Road Oil"
is used in the tumbling barrels.
MANUFACTURE OF BRASS, BRONZE
AND COPPER BALLS
IN ADDITION to its regular product, the Hoover Steel Ball
Co. does quite an extensive business in the manufacture of
brass, bronze and copper balls of various sizes. One important
use of these balls is for various forms of valves, although they find
a number of other applications. The general features of the
methods used in producing these balls are the same as those
employed in making steel balls, but there are certain modifications
which will prove of interest. Brass, bronze and copper ball blanks
up to 1 ^-inch in diameter are produced on Manville cold-headers,
and blanks for balls exceeding this size are cast. In the case
of very large balls the practice is often adopted of making the
blanks hollow, which is done by casting them with a sand core
that is subsequently removed. Then in order to prepare the
blank for finishing, the holes left by the core prints are drilled,
reamed and tapped so that threaded plugs may be screwed in.
These hollow ball blanks are then subjected to the regular process
of manufacture, and it is a difficult matter to detect the place
where the plugs have been screwed in.
As in the case of steel balls, these blanks are first subjected
to a process of dry-grinding to make them approximately spheri-
cal. Brass, bronze and copper balls are too soft to stand treatment
in tumbling barrels, as they would be covered with bruises from
impact with each other. After being dry-ground, they receive
41
the regular process of oil-grinding and are then polished in
machines of the same design as those used for oil-grinding; but
in polishing, the balls are rolled in oil without any abrasive,
which results in giving them quite a high polish, although the
surface produced is not as highly finished as in the case of steel
balls which are subjected to burnishing and polishing operations
after being oil-ground. In treating brass, bronze and copper balls
in the oil-grinding machine, care must be taken not to subject
them to too great pressure, and in order to guard against this
the rings on the machine are filled with brass and steel balls
arranged alternately; the steel balls support the pressure of the
upper ring and the head on which it is carried, and allow the
balls to be ground and polished without being subjected to
sufficient pressure to flatten them.
INSPECTION OF FINISHED
BALLS
AFTER each step in the process of manufacture, the balls
receive a general inspection to make sure that nothing
is wrong with the adjustment of the machines or with the
material from which the balls are made that will prevent the
production of balls that come up to the standard. After receiv-
ing their final polish, the finished balls go to the inspection
department, where they are subjected to a number of searching
tests in order that all defective balls may be eliminated and
that those balls which pass inspection may be divided into
various grades according to the accuracy of their dimensions.
The first step is to clean the balls thoroughly, which is done
by placing them in metal baskets provided with long handles
so that the load of balls may be dipped into gasoline to remove
grease and particles of leather carried over from the polishing
department. After this washing, the balls are put into canvas
bags and rolled on a table so that the bags will absorb the
gasoline and wipe off the dirt. The balls are given a preliminary
wiping in one of these bags, after which they are placed in a
second bag that is cleaner and insures the removal of the last
traces of gasoline and dirt.
MAKING PLATE
INSPECTION
AFTER cleaning, the first actual examination is conducted
on what are known as "inspection plates, "one of which is
shown in Fig. 24. These plates are used on benches that
run all the way around the two inspection rooms, so that ad-
vantage may be taken of the liberal amount of daylight provided
by the windows which extend from below the bench up to the
ceiling. The plates are made of glass and painted black. A
reflector is set up at the back of each inspection plate which
throws light on the balls; and a strip of thin flexible cardboard is
drawn back and forth beneath the balls to rotate them and
bring all surfaces into view. Several times while making this
inspection all the balls on the plate are rubbed with a cloth
to change their axes of rotation and insure exposing the whole
surface. The first step is to pick out balls having cracks, flats,
etc., and these are sold as seconds or scraps.
Fig. 24. Type of Glass Plate on which Preliminary Inspection is Conducted.
43
During the next step in the process of inspection, attention
is paid to a white spot on each ball that is thrown from the
reflector at the back of the inspection plate. As previously
mentioned, a card is drawn back and forth under the plates
to make them revolve, and the inspectors first pick out what
are known as "wigglers," which is the name given to balls
that are out of round and go through a series of contortions
while being rolled. After this has been done, the balls on the
plate are gone over carefully and all those that show any defect
are picked out. During this process of inspection, the balls
are sorted into eight grades, as follows: (1) "Cracked," balls
that have received their cracks from any cause, (2) "Junk,"
balls which have flats, holes, etc.; (3) "Rubbish," same
defects as (2) but not so bad; (4) "Dead soft," balls that
are covered with small pits caused by impact with hard balls
during the process of tumbling; (5) "Out of round," balls known
as "wigglers" by the inspectors; (6) "Fifth grade," balls with
small cuts and scratches on them; (7) "Fourth grade," balls
showing same defects as "Fifth grade," but not of so serious a
character; (8) Balls having no defects sufficiently serious to
be visible to the eye. The inspectors engaged in making the
plate inspection are provided with small magnets somewhat the
shape of a pencil with which they handle the balls with amazing
dexterity.
Disposal of the defective balls varies somewhat according to
their size. Many of the small balls with defects of the kind
referred to are sold to various manufacturers, according to the
class of service required of them. For instance, very poor balls
are sold to novelty makers. Other balls that are not good enough
for use in high-grade ball bearings are plenty good enough for
the use of certain manufacturers of hardware specialties, such
as roller bearing castors for furniture, roller bearing roller skates,
etc. Large balls that are found defective are returned to the
manufacturing department, where they are ground down to a
smaller size in order to remove the defects from the surface of
the metal ; and these balls are again carried through the regular
process of manufacture.
44
GAUGING BALLS FOR
SIZE
BALLS that are used in annular bearings must be of abso-
lutely the same size in order to give satisfactory results.
If this is not the case, the large balls will support all the
load, and the undue amount of service to which they will be
subjected will cause them to be destroyed more rapidly than
would otherwise be the case. In order to fit properly in" the
races, it is desirable for the balls to be of exactly the specified
size, but provided all the balls are of the same size, they are
capable of giving very satisfactory results even though they
are either slightly over or under the specified size. In the
final process of inspection, the balls are gauged and sorted out
into different grades, according to whether they are of exactly
the specified size or somewhat under or over this size. Attention
is called to the fact that this variation in high-grade steel balls
does not exceed- a few ten- thousandths inch. As balls of the
different grades are all of the same size, they are capable of
giving perfectly satisfactory results. Some users of balls gauge
them at their own plants and make this sub-division, while others
buy gauged balls ready for assembly.
In gauging those balls which show no defects in conducting
the plate inspection, practice varies according to the size of
the balls, but in all cases the object is the same, namely, to
sort the balls out into those which are of absolutely the desired
size and those which vary by different degrees either above or
below the standard. Balls up to and including ^-inch in diameter
are gauged on automatic machines which sort them into seven
different grades, as follows: balls exceeding 0.0002 inch over size;
balls 0.0002 inch over size; balls 0.0001 inch over size; balls of the
specified size; balls 0.0001 inch under size; balls, 0.0002 inch
under size; and balls more than 0.0002 inch under size. Auto-
matic gauging machines are used for this grading, two batteries
of such machines being shown in Figs. 25 and 26. The balls
are placed in hoppers A, at the bottom of each of which there
is a plate in which a number of holes are drilled in a ring, these
holes being of slightly larger size than the balls to be gauged.
The plates are revolved, and as each hole comes into line with
the delivery tube, the ball carried in this hole drops into the
45
Fig. 25. Close View of Battery of Automatic Gauging Machines
with Inclined Blades.
tube and runs down over gauge blades B which are set at a slight
angle to each other so that balls of the different sizes referred to
will drop between the gauge blades and enter tubes that carry
them to the proper drawers in the cabinets beneath.
It will be seen that two types of machines are shown in
Figs.. 25 and 26. In Fig. 25 the gauge blades are placed on an
incline so that the balls run over them by gravity, and as the
balls are always in contact with the gauge blades, the tubes lead-
ing to the drawers of the cabinet can be placed much closer
together than on the type of machine shown in Fig. 26, where
46
Fig. 26. Close View of Battery of Automatic Gauging Machines
with Horizontal Blades.
the gauging blades are in a horizontal position. On the latter
type of machine an agitator is necessary to keep the balls moving
over the gauge blades. This agitator consists of a crank C and
connecting-rod D that actuates a link mechanism which causes
a horizontal bar to rise in the space between the gauging blades.
This bar rises slightly and then moves forward, carrying the
balls with it, after which the agitator bar slowly drops and
leaves the balls once more supported on the gauging blades. In
47
this way the balls are moved along over successive tubes and
finally drop through between the gauging blades — the position
being determined by the size of the balls — so that different sizes
of balls are sorted out as previously described. A stop checks
the progress of the ball as it passes onto the gauging blades, and
prevents it from rolling too fast. The gauging blades are set by
master balls, in order to have the desired angle between them;
and before the balls are packed, the accuracy of the blade setting
is tested.
SPECIAL INDICATOR FOR
TESTING BALLS
FOR gauging balls larger than 5/s-inch in diameter use is
made of. an instrument of the form shown in Fig. 27.
This will be seen to consist of an ordinary Brown &
Sharpe dial test indicator accurate to 0.0001 inch, that is set
Fig. 27.
Dial Indicator with 10 to 1 Leverage Ratio, for Testing
Accuracy of Balls to 0.0001 Inch.
48
up on the table on which is also carried a holder for the ball to
be tested. Connection between the ball and the dial test indicator
is made by a lever, the fulcrum of which is so placed as to give
a ratio of 1 to 10, and in this way readings obtained are accurate
to 0.0001 inch. The girls who conduct this inspection handle
the balls very rapidly and sort them out into different sizes
according to the amount of deviation from the normal size.
COUNTING AND PACKING
BALLS
IT IS necessary to use great care in handling finished balls to
prevent them from becoming rusty. On this account it
would not do to have the balls touched by the fingers.
For these reasons, several methods of mechanical counting have
been developed which give extremely satisfactory results. The
apparatus used for this mechanical counting is shown in
Fig. 28. The balls are placed in hopper A and dropped
down in holes in sliding plate B, which is pushed forward
so that the holes are under the hopper during the "loading"
Fig. 28. Methods used for Counting Balls Preparatory to Packing.
49
period. The plate is then drawn forward to allow the balls to
drop out into a box placed to receive them. Each stroke of the
plate counts out one hundred balls, and plates for counting balls
of various sizes are made interchangeable so that all of them
may be used on a given machine. Balls up to J^-inch in diameter
are counted by the machine, and balls from 9/16 to J/g-inch in
diameter are counted mechanically by means of board C, into
the grooves of which the balls are loaded up to an index line.
Plates of this kind are made for various sizes of balls, and each
plate holds 500 balls. Large balls are counted by hand, care
being taken not to touch the balls with the bare fingers. After
counting, the balls are packed in cartons lined with waxed paper,
and these are packed in substantial wooden boxes for shipment.
RESEARCH
DEPARTMENT
IT IS obvious that in the tonnage manufacture of a product
that must meet such exact requirements as balls for use
in high-grade annular bearings, the greatest care must be
taken in the selection of raw material and in conducting each
step in the process of manufacture in order to produce balls
that will pass the inspection department. In addition to the
requirements of high-grade balls that were referred to in the
description of various examinations that are conducted by the
inspectors, it is absolutely necessary for the balls to be of uniform
hardness and strength because this is the only way of being
sure that all balls will possess the necessary durability and
elasticity.
Assurance must be obtained that the steel received at the
factory is of a suitable grade to produce balls that will fulfill
the specifications before manufacturing operations are started,
because if the balls were finished before it was found that they
were defective, the raw material and the labor involved in
converting this material into finished balls would be lost. Data
showing that the steel fulfills these specifications 'are obtained
from the results of tests conducted in the testing department
which is equipped with all the necessary apparatus for making
physical and chemical tests upon the raw material. In addition,
this department is referred to by heads of the various manufac-
50
turing departments when any case of trouble arises, such as failure
of the balls to harden properly, the production of more than the
usual number of balls with cracks, and other troubles of this
kind. Some exceptionally interesting facts have been brought to
light as the result of work conducted in the metallurgical
department and chemical laboratory.
TESTING
RAW MATERIAL
THERE are sidings from the Ann Arbor Railroad entering
the plant so that cars may be run directly to the building
in which the raw material is received and to the building
where the finished balls are packed for shipment. The method
of procedure in testing raw material is the same for both bar
stock and coil, and consists of taking at random a number
of each kind in proportion to the quantity received and from
the end of each of which is cut a sample. One end of this
sample is etched in dilute hydrochloric acid for fifteen minutes.
After this has been done, the surface of the metal is carefully
examined to see that it is free from seams. The acid tends to
accentuate any surface defects that may be present, so that
those that might be invisible in the bar as it comes to the
plant can be quite easily seen after the treatment. In ball
manufacture it is highly important for the stock to have a
flawless surface, because any slight defects are carried right
through the process of manufacture and are likely to become
accentuated, with the result that balls produced from this stock
will be rejected by the inspectors.
The regular routine tests of the raw material inspected in
the laboratory also include a Brinell hardness test. This is
especially important in the case of "wire" under 11/16 inch in
diameter that is converted into ball blanks by the cold-heading
process, because excessive hardness of this material is likely
to give trouble through the breakage of the cut-off knives or
the dies used on the cold-headers. In order to give the best
possible results, stock for the cold-heading machine should have
a Brinell hardness of not over 170. A sufficient number of
samples to represent the average uniformity of the shipment
are examined for pipes, segration or decarbonization, and when
51
necessary microphotographs are made, which together with
their accompaning reports, put definitely on record the condi-
tion of each shipment. Samples are also taken for chemical
analysis from each shipment and the percentage of the most
important elements determined, this being influenced by the
kind of material received and the effect of these elements on the
finished product. In cases where laboratory tests do not show
that the stock is defective, an "unloading ticket" is made out
and sent to the stock- room, authorizing the material to be
taken from the cars and placed in storage, ready to be drawn
out on requisition by the manufacturing department.
On the following pages are given our specifications for
coil and bar stock, and a consideration of these will show the
care taken in the selection of raw material used in the manu-
facture of Hoover steel balls.
HOOVER STEEL BALL CO.
SPECIFICATION NO. 1.
Chrome-Carbon Steel Wire — Cold Drawn.
ANNULMENTS:
1. This specification supercedes all previous specifications, or letters of instruction,
covering this material.
MANUFACTURE:
2. The material must be made by the Electric or Crucible process.
QUALITY:
3. The material must be of highest quality in every respect, of uniform composition,
and free from slag or other segregation.
The wire must be free from imperfections, such as pipes, seams, checks or lamina-
tions either on the surface or in the section of the wire.
WORKMANSHIP AND FINISH:
4. The wire must be of good workmanship, must have a good surface finish, and
must be true to diameter ordered within the limits of plus .002" and minus .002".
If the wire is out-of-round, the mean of the largest and smallest measured diameter
must be equal to the size ordered, but in no case can they exceed the limits of
plus .002" and minus .002".
COMPOSITION:
5. Upon receipt of the material at destination, drilling may be taken from the
several coils, selected at random, for analysis, and must show the composition
of the material to be uniform and within the following requirements.
Carbon .95 % to 1.05 %
Chromium .35% to .45%
Manganese .80% to .45%
Silicon .20% to .35%
Phosphorus under .025 %
Sulphur under .025%
CONDITIONS:
6. The material must be thoroughly and uniformly annealed and the fracture
must be close grained.
The Brinnell hardness (5 m/m Ball under 1000 Kg. pressure) must not exceed
170 at any point in the length or any point in the cross section of the wire, so
that when blanks made therefrom are cold upset into the form of a Ball, no
defects will open up in the outside surface of the Ball.
The wire must be free from any decarbonized surface and after hardening must
show a close grained velvety fracture.
COIL SIZE, WEIGHT AND CONDITION:
7. Coils must be reeled uniformly and the layers must be bound together securely
with separate tie wires to keep them in good shape during transportation so that
they can be unwound properly without tangling. If the ends of the coil are
tapered down or imperfect in any way, they must be "cropped" off.
Coils may be covered with a coating of oil or grease to protect them from excessive
rusting during transportation, but the coils must be free from any hard or gritty
foreign matter that would interfere with their proper operation in the heading
machine.
The coils must not be less than 18" inside diameter or greater than 34" outside
diameter. Wire of heavy cross section should be wound in as large a coil as
possible, but within the outside diameter limit given above.
The coils should weigh not less than 90 pounds or more than 110 pounds for wire
above .235" diameter. Coils of wire below .235" diameter may weigh as low as
70 pounds.
REMARKS:
8. Material which fails to meet the above requirements will be rejected and returned.
The manufacturers must pay all transportation charges on rejected material.
Ann Arbor, Mich., January 1st, 1917.
53
HOOVER STEEL BALL CO.
SPECIFICATION NO. 5.
Chrome-Carbon Steel Bars— Hot Rolled.
ANNULMENTS:
1 This specification supercedes all previous specifications or letters of instruction
covering this material.
MANUFACTURE:
2. The material must be made by the Electric or Crucible process.
QUALITY:
3. The material must be of highest quality in every respect, of uniform composition,
and free from slag or other segregation.
The bars must be free from imperfections such as pipes, seams, checks or lamina-
tions either on the surface or in the section of the bar.
WORKMANSHIP AND FINISH:
4. The bars must have as good a surface finish as is consistent with good hot rolling
practice. They must be free from excessive scale, and must be true to diameter
ordered within the following limits.
Minus 0 and plus .005" for sizes under 13/16" diameter.
Minus 0 and plus .010" for sizes over 13/16" diameter.
If the bar is slightly out-of-round, the mean of the largest and smallest measured
diameter must be within the minus and plus limits given above.
Appended to this specification is a table giving the prevailing sizes (diameter)
of stock which we use, and the corresponding decimal sizes. We reserve the
right to change this list from time to time when necessary but the order or contract
calling for the material will specify the size wanted.
As an example, if our order calls for 13/16" plus .010" (Decimal .823"), the
manufacturer may supply this as large as .833" diameter but no smaller than
.823" Diameter.
COMPOSITION:
5. Upon the receipt of material at destination, drillings may be taken from the
several bars, selected at random for analysis, and must show the composition
of the material to be uniform and within the following requirements.
Carbon .90% to 1.00%
Chromium .60% to .70%
Manganese .30 % to .45 %
Silicon .20% to .35%
Phosphorus under .025 %
Sulphur under .025 %
CONDITIONS:
6. The material must be thoroughly hotvworked to produce a fine grain and must
not, subsequent to this hot working, be subjected to a high temperature such
as would produce a coarse grain.
The surface of the bars must be free from decarbonization to the extent that upon
removing .005" from the diameter of the bar, the remaining section will retain
its full quota of carbon as called for under composition.
The bars must be cut to uniform lengths as ordered. A preferred length will be
specified on the order, also a minimum length and a maximum length, but in no
case may intermediate lengths be supplied. For example, a 13/16" plus .010"
diameter bar will be ordered cut to lengths 64", 73" and 82" with 73" as the
preferred length.
SHIPPING:
7. When two or more different sizes are shipped together in the same car, they must
be so arranged and located in the car that they will not become mixed during
transportation .
REMARKS:
8. Material which fails to meet the above requirements will be rejected and returned.
The manufacturers must pay all transportation charges on rejected material.
Ann Arbor, Mich., January 1st, 1917.
54
TESTS OF SEAMY COLD-
DRAWN WIRE
IN DESCRIBING the inspecting of balls, reference was made
to the rejection of those in which cracks are found.
These exist almost entirely in balls up to and including
5/8-inch in diameter, the blanks for which are made by the cold-
heading process; it seldom happens that cracked balls are
found in sizes over j^-inch, blanks for which are made by the
process of hot-forging. A study of this subject reveals the
fact that after cold-heading, ball blanks very often had some
sort of crack, and in a great many cases these were quite
deep. At first it was thought that this was due to faulty
annealing or to some element in the steel, which had a tendency
to make the metal brittle, but subsequent investigation showed
that this was not the case.
STUDY OF SEAMS IN STEEL
BARS AND WIRE
DEFECTS revealed by etching the metal in dilute hydro-
chloric acid run lengthwise of the bar; sometimes these
extend for the entire length of the coil, while in other cases
only one end is found to be defective. For want of a better
name, the laboratory has called these defects ' 'seams," and it
has been proved that wire with seams will in all cases be split
to some extent during the process of cold-heading, while that
without seams will produce perfect balls in the cold-heading
machines. In some cases the cracks opened up in the balls while
cold-heading are not so deep that they cannot be eliminated dur-
ing the subsequent treatment to which the blanks are subjected ;
but in other cases it may happen that these splits in the blanks
are so deep that they reach below the surface of the finished
balls, in which case the balls will be rejected by the inspectors.
The investigation conducted in the laboratory relative to
troubles resulting from stock having seams or scratches have
developed the following information: (1) Cold-drawn wire
on which the surface is apparently quite smooth, and on which
no seams are visible, is found in many cases to possess minute
laps or seams which are made visible by etching with dilute
55
hydrochloric acid. (2) Although these seams may not be deep
on the original wire, they are accentuated by the stretch which
the surface of the wire undergoes during the cold-heading
operation. (3) Such cracks are likely to be still further ac-
centuated in hardening, and in many cases they will cause the
ball to split in half.
In making a study of the effect of seams on the steel,
it is the practice, as previously mentioned, to etch the stock
with dilute hydrochloric acid for fifteen minutes.
The action of the acid first lays open any surface defects
which may be closed so tightly by the pressure of the cold-
drawing operation that they will be invisible to the eye
unless subjected to the acid treatment. The acid also makes
the cracks black, and subsequent grinding exposes the white
surface of the adjacent metal so that the crack is brought into
as great prominence as possible.
TESTING FOR SEAMS IN STOCK BY
APPLICATION OF PRESSURE
RECENTLY another test for revealing these seams has
been developed, which consists of upsetting short blanks
cut from the bars. These test blanks for wire having a
diameter of .275", are 7/16-inch high and are ordinarily
B
Fig. 33. (A) Samples cut from Steel with Seam in Surface, and Same Samples
partially and fully upset, indicating how Seam opens up through Application
of Pressure; (B) Similar Samples from Steel without Seam, which
show No Tendency to Split.
56
subjected to a pressure of 20,000 pounds, which results in
flattening them out to a height of 3/16-inch, or to a
pressure of 50,000 pounds, which flattens them out to a
height of 3/32-inch. In all cases where there are seams in the
wire, these test samples are split open by this pressure, while a
perfect wire without any seams is not damaged by the treat-
ment. At A in Fig. 33 is shown a sample cut from wire con-
taining a seam and the same blank partially and fully upset;
it will be noticed that, although the seam in the wire is small,
it has been widened out considerably by the upsetting. At B
in the same illustration is shown a similar set from perfect wire,
comprising a blank and partially and fully upset samples, and
it will be seen that the upset sample does not show any tendency
to split.
In order to give some idea of the extent to which the seam
at A was deepened by the upsetting treatment, section a-b
through the blank and section c-d through the flat disk were
polished, and photomicrographs of these are shown in Fig. 34.
At A in Fig. 34 the seam in the original wire was about 0.010
inch in depth, while at B the depth of the seam after the blank
has been upset has been increased to approximately 0.050 inch.
From this it will be apparent that seams in the wire that do
not appear to be of sufficient depth to give trouble may become
very objectionable because of the tendency to deepen during
the conversion of the stock into ball blanks. Upset disk B
is of about the same diameter as a ball blank made from this
wire by the cold-heading process, so that it has been subjected
to about the same amount of stretch in upsetting that would
ordinarily take place in making a ball blank by the cold-heading
process. To show how trouble may develop in this way, a
ball 0.375-inch in diameter is produced from a blank 0.400
inch in diameter, so that the blank is reduced 0.025-inch on
the diameter, or approximately 0.013-inch on the radius. This
leaves 0.050 minus 0.013, or 0.037-inch of the split extending
below the surface of the finished ball, which will certainly lead
to its rejection by the inspectors.
It appears that hardness of the wire does not cause splitting
of the upset blank. Tests conducted with a view to establish-
ing this fact have shown that blanks made from seamless steel
57
Fig. 34. Photomicrographs of Sections on Lines a-b and c-d in Fig. 33,
indicating Increase in Size of Seam through stretching of
Metal Surface in Upsetting.
with a high Brinell hardness number did not split under the
most severe conditions of upsetting, while blanks of metal
with a low Brinell hardness number, but with seams on their
surfaces, were frequently split during the process of cold-heading.
Specifications under which steel is purchased for the production
of ball blanks in cold-heading machines call for metal with
a hardness number not exceeding 170 as determined by the
Brinell method, but slightly harder stock is capable of being
worked with fairly satisfactory results.
HOW SEAMY STOCK ACTS IN
COLD-HEADING MACHINE
IN ORDER to confirm the accuracy of the conclusions reached
in regard to the action of seamy stock when worked up into
ball blanks in the cold-heading machines, tests were
conducted by placing coils that had bad seams in them on the
cold-headers and observing the kind of ball blanks that were
produced. In every case it was found that the blanks produced
from such stock showed bad cracks, as shown at A in Fig. 35.
In the inspection department, cracks found in finished balls
were at one time commonly referred to as "fire cracks" on the
assumption that they were developed during the process of heat-
treatment, but they are now designated as ' 'header cracks." In
58
this illustration attention is called to the fact that at the top
and bottom of each ball blank there is a small projection formed
by pressing the metal into the knock-out pin hole in the header
dies. These have been termed ' "poles," and it will be noted
that the poles lie on the axis of the wire. Midway between
the two poles there is a band or "fin" caused by the metal being
forced out between the two header dies; and this fin has been
termed the "equator" of the ball.
Fig. 35. (A) Cold- header Ball Blanks, showing Splits running from Pole
to Pole, (B) Finished Balls produced from Blanks Split during
Cold- heading Operation.
It will be noted at A in Fig. 35 that the header cracks run
from pole to pole. At B in the same illustration are shown
some finished balls with the same kind of cracks, and it has
always been found that cracks in the finished balls have been
lengthened to a considerable extent, the ends of these cracks
terminating in very fine lines. This can be readily understood
when we consider that a small crack or fine sharp tool mark on a
piece to be hardened causes a weak spot which in many cases
will result in splitting the piece during the process of heat-
treatment. At A in Fig. 36 are shown some balls that were
picked out in the inspection department because they had fire
cracks; these were sent to the laboratory and fractured to
reveal the grain of the metal. It will be noticed — particularly
in the third ball of the third line — that at the extreme left of
the fracture there is a dark spot near the surface, which is
59
the mark left by the original crack produced during the cold-
heading operation. Then to the extreme right there is a
fresh fracture which represents all the metal that the ball had
to hold it together after being hardened.
Attention is called to the fact that the middle of the ball is
black and oily; this is the hardening crack into which the oil
and abrasive have found their way during the oil-rolling and
rveo
Fig. 36. (A) Fractures of Balls shown at (B) in Fig. 35, showing Original
Header Crack, Fire Crack and Fracture of Uncracked Metal, (B) Etched
Balls, showing Crack from Pole to Pole and Crack on Equator.
grinding operations. The crack produced in cold-heading was
the cause of a further cracking of the ball during the process
of heat-treatment. At B in Fig. 36 are shown some finished
balls that were rejected by the inspectors because of cracks.
Before being photographed these balls were etched with dilute
hydrochloric acid, and it will be noticed that the cracks run
from pole to pole, and in some cases there are also secondary
cracks following the line of the equator. The way in which
these equatorial cracks are produced can best be explained by
reference to Fig. 37. At A is shown a longitudinal section of
the wire which has been etched with hydrochloric acid to
reveal the structure of the metal. Attention is called to the
lamellar structure, which is characteristic of any steel and is no
reflection upon its quality. These laminations run lengthwise of
the coil. At B is shown a section of a headed ball blank made
from a piece of this wire and etched with acid to bring up the
60
Fig. 37. (A) Section of Steel Stock, showing Lamellar Structure; (B) Cross-
section of Cold-header Ball Blank, showing Distortion of Steel Structure; (C)
Cross-section of Header Cracked Ball Blank; (D) Ball Blank shown in Cross-
Section at (C); (E) Cold-header Ball Blank with Large Fin; (F) Perfect Cold-
header Ball Blank; (G) Etched Ball, showing End Grain of Steel at Equator;
(H) Etched Ball, showing End Grain of Steel at Pole.
structure of the metal. Here it will be seen that the lamina-
tions have arranged themselves in a manner similar to magnetic
lines of force running from pole to pole.
At D and E are shown header-cracked ball blanks, and it
will be noticed that blank E shows an unusually large fin on
one side. Blank D shows the split on one side and also a por-
tion of the split extending into the fin. Blank F is properly
headed and shows no crack or excessively large fins. Referring
to the view shown at C, which is a cross-section of blank D,
it will be seen that the split extends into the fin, and it will
also be noted that the crack extends below the surface of the ball,
although it comes to the surface at each end at points near
the poles. This is due to the fact that the split does not penetrate
the ball at right angles to the surface, but runs on a slant. Instead
of compressing and filling up the open space in the ball, material
has been pressed outward and made a large fin; when this fin
61
is ground away, the crack is quite evident. At G and H are
shown finished balls that have been etched with acid to show the
grain at the equator and at the poles, respectively.
HEADED BLANK
FINISHED BALL
Fig. 38. Diagram illustrating Distortion of Steel Structure in Cold-header
Ball Blank similar to that shown at (B) in Fig. 37.
Referring again to the sectional view of the wire shown
at A in Fig. 37, and also to the cross-section of a ball blank
made from this wire shown at B, it will be seen that the structure
of the steel has been greatly disturbed during the process of
cold-heading to produce the ball blank. In Fig. 38 is shown
diagrammatically the way in which this disturbance takes
place. It will be seen that the ends of the fibers come to the
surface at the poles and at both sides of the equatorial fin;
and when the ball is etched the steel is attacked more rapidly
at these points. The peculiar marks shown at G and H in Fig. 37
are the result of this disturbance of structure. The conclusion has
been reached that when a ball with so-called ' 'header cracks" is
etched with acid and shows two end poles and two equatorial marks
with a wide crack running from pole to pole or possibly a secondary
crack running between the two equators, this crack is a header
crack which is caused by a seam or lap in the steel from which
the ball was made. The internal stress due to the structural
distortion illustrated in Fig. 38 is completely normalized by the
annealing treatment to which all Hoover balls are subjected.
A number of these headed balls with header cracks were
heated in an electric furnace in the laboratory and quenched
in water at 1500 degrees F. ; every ball was further cracked by
this treatment, and several of them fell in half or were easily
broken by a light hammer blow. Another lot of headed balls
with no header cracks was heated in the electric furnace and
quenched in water at 1600 degrees F., and not a ball was cracked
in hardening. Balls quenched in water at 1500 degrees F. that
broke during the process of heat-treatment are shown at A in Fig.
39, while the balls quenched in water at 1600 degrees F., without
damage are shown at B in the same illustration. At this excessive
temperature the grain of the metal was coarsened, but no hard-
ening cracks were produced and it required considerable force
to break the balls. Several finished balls were next selected
in the inspection department that showed very slight header
cracks. These balls were hardened at 1500 degrees F. and cracked
in the process of hardening exactly as before. The characteristic
black mark left by the original header crack is shown at one side
of the balls at C in Fig. 39. Another lot of finished balls showing
no header cracks was hardened at 1600 degrees F. and none
of the balls was cracked, views of the fractured surfaces of these
balls being shown at D in Fig. 39. This confirmed the accuracy
of previous tests, and from these data the following conclusions
were drawn: (1) The header crack forms a weak spot, so that
when the ball is hardened, even at the proper temperature,
••••
?•• • ••
•••
Fig. 39. (A) Fractures of Header Cracked Balls that Split when re-heat-treated
in Laboratory at 1500 Degrees F., (B) Fractures of Perfect Balls that did not
Split when re-heat-treated at 1600 Degrees F.; (C) Fractures of Balls with
Slight Cracks which broke when re- heat-treated at 1500 Degrees F., (D)
Fractures of Perfect Balls that did not break when re- heat-treated at 1600
Degrees F.
63
what the inspectors call a "fire crack" is likely to be produced.
(2) A ball with no header cracks can be hardened at an excessively
high temperature without producing a fire crack.
Another hardening test was made with four samples of wire,
two pieces of which showed seams, and two pieces that did not.
The seamy pieces of wire were quenched at a temperature of
about 1500 degrees F. in water and hardening cracks developed
along the seams. The two pieces without seams were quenched
in water at a temperature of 1600 degrees F. and no cracks
developed. All these tests show that with small blanks with-
out any header cracks, it is practically impossible to produce
fire cracks in the automatic hardening furnaces; when cracks
are produced they are started in cold-heading and not through
the process of heat-treatment. The shape of the ball is in its
favor, as it insures uniform quenching and a minimum of internal
strain. Application of too high a temperature would tend to
increase the size of the grain in the steel and make it brittle
and unfit for use, but it would not produce hardening cracks.
EFFECT OF HARDNESS
OF WIRE
WHEN the wire used in making ball blanks on cold-headers
is too hard, there is a tendency for it to break off instead
of shearing as it should. When trouble of this sort is
encountered, it is likely to be accentuated by the fact that the
blank is often carried to the heading die in a sidewise position,
which results in the development of abnormal pressure in the
die. Working hard stock of this kind results in breaking the
cut-off knife or the dies on the cold-heading machine. This
condition of excessive hardness does not usually exist for
the entire length of the coil ; wire may shear off and head nicely
for some time, when suddenly a hard spot will be reached and
then the dies or the cut-off knife is likely to suffer. After this
hard spot has been passed, the wire may be all right for another
period of considerable duration. With the view of showing
the relative condition of hard and soft spots in the wire, slugs
of metal were selected at a point where trouble was encountered
from this cause, and again at a point where the operation of
the cold-header was entirely satisfactory. These were tested
64
Fig. 40. (A) Fracture of Hard Metal Slug; (B) Fracture of Normal Metal Slug;
(C) Etched Surface of Hard Steel magnified 5.25 Diameters— Attention is
called to Decarbonization at Circumference; (D) Etched Surface of Normal
Steel with No Decarbonization at Circumference.
by the Brinell method and it was found that the hard slugs
had a Brinell hardness number of 215, while the soft slugs only
showed a Brinell hardness number of 190. The latter is really
higher than it should be, as 170 is specified for steel to be used in
cold-heading machines.
"Fig. 41. (A) Decarbonized Surface shown at (C) in Fig. 40 magnified to Sixty-
two Diameters; (B) Same Magnification as at (A), showing Condition of
Practically No Decarbonization.
65
At A in Fig. 40 is shown the fresh fracture of a slug of hard
metal and attention is called to the coarse grain as compared
with the finer grain of the normal steel shown at B. The hard
specimen was very brittle and easy to break, while the normal
steel was tough and capable of bending considerably before
being broken. Specimens of these two steels were next polished
and etched, with the result shown at C and D, respectively.
These are transverse sections cut through the wire, and attention
is called to the coarse grain of the steel shown at C\ the ring at the
surface is a band of decarbonized steel apparently produced by
the application of too high an annealing temperature. The
normal steel shown at D has a fine grain and there is no
indication of decarbonization.
At A in Fig. 41 is shown the decarbonized band of steel sur-
rounding section C in Fig. 40, which is magnified to 62 diameters,
instead of 5.25 diameters, as in the case of the previous illustra-
tion. It will be noted that the extreme edge of this photomicro-
graph is somewhat indistinct, owing to the slightly rounded
edge formed while polishing the specimen. The decarbonized
surface of this stock would not be entirely removed in the process
of grinding, and would result 'in the production of either soft
balls or balls with soft spots. AtB, Fig. 41, we have the condition
where there is practically no loss of carbon at the surface.
At A and B in Fig. 42 is seen a decided contrast between the
Fig. 42. (A) Pronounced Pearlitic Structure with large cells and Boundaries
of excess Cementite, indicating Application of too High an Annealing Temper-
ature; (B) Fine-grained Structure, showing Condition obtained with Proper
Annealing Temperature. Both Samples magnified to 225 Diameters.
66
structure of the slug of hard metal and that taken from the
normal wire. At A there is a pronounced pearlitic structure
with large cells and distinct boundaries of excess cementite,
which also indicates the application of too high an annealing
temperature. At B the structure is fine grained, which is the
condition produced by employing the proper annealing
temperature. Where lack of uniformity is discovered in
the hardness of the wire, it is probably due to application of too
high an annealing temperature.
CAUSE OF SOFT SPOTS
ON BALLS
SOME valuable discoveries have been made in the laboratory
as a result of work that was started with some other object
in view. For instance, an investigation that was started
with the view of determining the effect of slight seams found in
a certain shipment of steel at the time of the preliminary tests.
These seams were not considered serious enough to justify rejec-
tion of the steel, but after the first lot of blanks had been finish
dry ground, tests were made. This was done by etching a number
of balls in dilute hydrochloric acid, to see if the seams had been
removed in grinding. The balls were immersed in the solution,
and after being etched for fifteen or twenty minutes they were
removed, and cleaned.
When treated in this way, the balls are usually a light gray
color over their entire surface, but the particular lot of balls
referred to could not be uniformly etched. At first it was thought
that a film of grease or some other foreign matter was interfering
with the action of the acid, but a second trial resulted in the
same mottled appearance of the etched balls. Part of the surface
was light gray, while other parts were dark gray and almost black.
Balls with these spots are shown in Fig. 43 and no matter how
often they were re-etched, the same spots always appeared and
they were of the same outline as those developed by the pre-
vious etching. Some of the unetched samples were examined,
and it was found that a considerable quantity of black scale
was left on the balls, i. e., the forging had not been cleaned
up properly after the finish dry-grinding. At this stage the ball
67
Fig. 43. Finish Dry-ground Balls after being etched with Hydrochloric Acid,
showing Mottled Appearance due to Soft Spots produced by Decarbonization
of Steel.
consistently measured 1.135 inch, i. e., within 0.010 inch of the
finished size — -\Y% inch.
Thus far results seemed to indicate that the forging blanks
were under size, so five samples were selected at random and
measured. The measurements of these five blanks are given
in Table 4, reference to which will show that dimensions A across
the poles and dimension B near the poles were of ample size;
and the surfaces at or close to the poles were also smooth and
well filled out. However, these conditions did not exist around
the equator, where it will be seen that dimension C was scant
in many balls, and additional trouble was caused by the fact
that the surface was very rough and covered with "hills" and
' Valleys." In making these equatorial measurements with a
micrometer, the distance is taken across the tops of the ' 'hills,"
while the dimensions in the 'Valleys" will obviously be consider-
ably less. It is doubtful, therefore, whether three out of five of
68
these samples would clean up in the rough dry-grinding. A
re-examination of the etched dry-ground balls showed that the
peculiar black spots did not appear at the poles as frequently
as they did at the equator; and when a new file was applied to
the black spots shown in Fig. 43, it was found that they were
dead soft, while the light gray spots were very hard. The
sclerescope hardness of ten of these balls was taken and averaged
as follows: black spots, 48; gray spots, 70.
Table IV. Measurements of Balls across Poles, near
Poles and at Equator.
1.168
1.169
1.170
1.166
1.161
1.151
1.175
1.152
1.161
1.167
1.145
1.172
1.170
1.160
1.163
1.145
1.170
1.158
1.166
.162
.150
.159
.167
The reason for these spots will be understood from the
photomicrographs presented at A and B in Fig. 44, which are
taken from polished surfaces at the extreme outer surface of
the black and white spots on the balls. These surfaces were
prepared and photographed in exactly the same way; instead
of polishing a flat on the ball, the spherical surface was polished,
because a flat surface having any width whatever would also
be at a considerable depth below the surface of the ball, and
would not reveal conditions that it was desired to investigate.
Difficulty was experienced in polishing this spherical surface,
and so the photographs reproduced in Fig. 44 show polish marks
rather too distinctly, but these have no bearing upon the accuracy
of the results obtained in the investigation. At A is shown a
large percentage of free ferrite, indicating a hypo-eutectoid
structure of about 0.30 to 0.40 per cent carbon; in other words,
the metal is similar to a mild steel. On the other hand, the
condition revealed at B is practically a pure eutectoid structure
of pearlite, this steel having from 0.85 to 0.90 per cent carbon.
Specifications under which the steel is purchased call for from
0.95 to 1.05 per cent of carbon, so that in this regard it fulfills
requirements.
69
Fig. 44. (A) Photomicrograph of Black Soft Spots on Balls shown in Fig. 43,
showing Large Percentage of Free Ferrite or Hypo-eutectoid Structure; (B)
Photomicrograph of Hard White Spots on Balls shown in Fig, 43, indicating
the Desired Eutectoid Structure.
A further test was conducted by preparing flat surfaces of
considerable depth on the balls and examining these under the
microscope; and in both cases it was found that photomicro-
graphs obtained in this way indicated metal containing its full
percentage of carbon. Hardness tests show that the metal
directly under the decarbonized spot is soft and indicate
not only that the decarbonized surface fails to harden, but that
it also forms a sort of insulator and retards the proper
hardening of the eutectoid steel beneath it. Therefore, the
decarbonization plus its effects means a soft area of decided
depth, so deep, in fact, that when the ball is finished the
soft spot still appears. Having reached this conclusion, specimens
of the raw material were prepared by cutting sections trans-
versely from the bar, and these were prepared and photographed
Fig. 45 illustrating the conditions that were revealed in this way.
It will be noted that the steel shown at A is decarbonized to a
depth of 0.010 inch — 0.020 inch on the diameter of the ball-
while in the sample shown at B there is no decarbonization. It
was this steel with the decarbonized surface that produced balls
showing soft spots in the tests.
Fifty of these balls showing soft spots were taken to the
laboratory, where they were again heat-treated, and the result
was that the balls came out hard. It was not considered, how-
ever, that this indicated defective heat-treatment in the process
70
Fig. 45. (A) Photomicrograph of Transverse Section of Decarbonized Edge of
Steel — Magnification, 125 Diameters; (B) Photomicrograph of Transverse
Section of Steel showing No Decarbonization — Magnification, 125 Diameters.
of manufacture, because it might have happened that the
operation of finish dry-grinding removed enough metal from
the surface so that the balls would harden properly, although
they were prevented from doing so at the time of the original
treatment by the decarbonized steel that covered the surface
of the balls. Because of the oval shape of the forgings, the depth
of decarbonization varies at different spots on the rough-ground
surface of the balls; for example, at the poles there is little or no
decarbonization, while around the equator the decarbonization
is quite deep. When a ball is reduced to the finished size, the
following conditions will be found : (1) decarbonized areas where
the original decarbonization on the rough ball was deep; (2)
soft areas where the original decarbonization on the rough ball
was shallow; (3) hard areas where there was little or no de-
carbonization on the rough ball. In cases (2) and (3) the steel
has its full percentage of carbon, and when the balls are rehard-
ened some of the soft spots disappear, while the spots devoid
of carbon still remain soft. It would be possible to reduce these
balls to a smaller size and reclaim them by rehardening, but this
subsequent heat-treatment has a tendency to roughen their
surface slightly, which necessitates subsequent grinding opera-
tions jhat would probably reduce the diameter from 0.015
to 0.020 inch, so that allowance must be made for this
reduction in size.
71
To overcome trouble from the use of stock that is decarbon-
ized at the surface, special forging dies were made which produce
oversize ball blanks, so that the diameter at the equator measures
from 0.060 to 0.080 inch more than that of the standard finished
balls. The same stock forged in a regular die would make a
blank 0.025 inch to 0.035 inch larger than the finished size. In
the present case it is found that these would not clean up, but
left soft and decarbonized spots on the surface of the finished
ball. For this reason, the special forging dies were produced.
This practice was adopted because, owing to the slow deliveries
made by the steel mills, it was desired not to reject any steel of
this size that could possibly be used.
DEVELOPMENT OF A DEVICE FOR
SEPARATING HARD AND SOFT BALLS
OWING to shipment to the factory of a large quantity of
low carbon steel through an error made at the steel mills,
and which escaped the rigid sampling to which every
car of steel received at the Hoover plant is subject, about
seven tons of this material was converted into ball blanks
before it was attempted to harden them. This was due to
the fact that a large supply of blanks of the same sizes
had accumulated, and these were naturally sent through the
heat-treating department ahead of blanks made from this
shipment of steel. When the blanks had been heat-treated, they
were tested in order to determine the nature of the results
obtained, and while a number of balls broke with a fine-grained
fracture and showed a hardness that was all that could be desired,
almost 10 per cent of the balls were found to be dead soft. When
these balls were subjected to pressure they flattened out instead
of breaking in the usual way. A peculiar mottled effect was
noted on the balls found to be file hard, while the soft balls
were a dull black color ; but this difference in appearance was not
sufficiently marked to enable the balls to be separated, and even
had this been possible, the length of time required to eliminate
defective balls by this method would have been prohibitive.
With a view to overcoming this difficulty, a device was de-
veloped which is shown in diagrammatic form in Fig. 46. Its
principle of operation is based on the fact that when balls are
dropped on a hardened steel anvil there is considerable difference
in the height of the rebound of hard and soft balls. The balls
to be tested roll down an incline plane and drop upon a hardened
steel block, from which they rebound; the hard balls rise high
enough to pass over a "hurdle" into a box, while the soft balls
do not reach this height and are deposited in a second box. To
test the efficiency of this device, 119 balls taken from one of the
tote pans in the shop were run through the drop test; 79 dropped
into the "hard bin" and 40 into the "soft bin." These balls were
once more thoroughly mixed and again run through the ap-
paratus with the same result as in the previous case. Additional
trials confirmed the accuracy of the apparatus. This method of
separation proved so satisfactory that a regular equipment
has been built for use in the dry-grinding room, where it is
used for separating hard and soft balls.
/ !
1
HARD O
BALLS ,f:
"ji^lr
ZT\ 47" i—
_,__47 .4 >,
-t— -„ \
i S& / <**'
3lW x \ t
SOFT-
BALLS
\\ /
X
y§n&sj
HARD
A ANVIL" |
Fig. 46. Diagram illustrating Principle of Apparatus developed for
Automatic Separation of %-inch Hard and Soft Balls.
CONCLUSION
MANY of the cases of trouble to which reference has been
made are of rare occurrence, but it is obvious that they
exert a powerful influence on the quality of the product
turned out in the factory. Also, the conditions brought to light
by these investigations are exceptionally interesting. It was on
73
this account that they were selected for discussion in the present
treatise, in connection with the regular work of the laboratory,
and not because they really belong to a description of routine
work of testing the raw material and product of a factory en-
gaged in the manufacture of steel balls.
CRUSHING AND DEFORMATION
TESTS
THE old method of determining the crushing load of a
ball was to test a single ball between two hardened steel
plates. It is obvious that if the plates were not of uniform
hardness the crushing loads would also lack uniformity, because
the plates would be indented during the test and the softer plate,
being indented the greater, would present more supporting area
to the ball, and thereby increase its resistance to crushing.
Inability to produce plates of absolute uniformity puts this
method out of the question as a standard test.
The Hoover Steel Ball Co. has developed the Three-Ball
test as a standard. Three balls super-imposed, as shown in
the illustration, are subjected to a gradually increasing pressure
until rupture occurs, and the amount of pressure is recorded at
this point.
We wish to emphasize that testing by the Three-Ball method
will yield results somewhat lower than by the plate test by
reason of the fact that the contact points are very minute and
therefore the pressure per unit of area is tremendous.
The plate test is very often used by some ball manufacturers
to deceive the buyer by making him believe he is getting a better
ball by reason of the high crushing load.
Believing that a table of crushing loads would be of very
little value to our customers, as a guide to determine the safe
working load of the ball, and that such a table might be mislead-
ing, we refrain from publishing same.
It is evident that the safe working load that a ball will
carry depends not only upon the quality of the ball, but also
upon the type of bearing in which it is to run, the shape, material
and finish of the ball race, etc.
74
We stand ready at all times, however, to give our customers
information as to crushing strength and elastic strength, and
to give our opinion as to the most suitable size and type of
ball for any particular work, after we have received full particulars
of the bearing and the nature of the work for which it is required,
load, speed, etc.
Ball Crushing Apparatus
75
76
I
I
I*
Is
Cft;
Sfe
ii
77
78
Fracture of a hard surface tough center ball. Note the flattening and cone of rupture at the points
of contact, formed when the balls were crushed.
HOOVER STEEL BALLS HAVE A HARD
SURFACE AND A TOUGH CENTRE
CO-OPERATION with our customers and extensive service
tests of our balls have developed a method of heat
treatment which while simple in its theory is difficult of
practical control, and this control is only made possible by
automatic hardening machines which eliminate the personal
element.
It is not a difficult matter to harden a ball clear through
to the centre, as it is merely a question of quenching at a tempera-
ture sufficiently high to harden the interior, but this method is
without due regard to the exterior. Hardening a ball under
these conditions produces an over-heated exterior which is
necessarily brittle, and strength cannot be restored by tempering.
Hoover balls are heat-treated to produce a sufficiently
hard exterior and a tough semi-hard interior, producing the
qualities most needed in ball bearings. The surface is sufficiently
hard to withstand wear, without being so brittle as to flake or
peel. The interior is sufficiently tough and elastic to stand the
strain of heavy loads.
This type of ball must not be confused with a low grade
steel ball "case hardened" on the surface and with a soft core.
When we speak of hard surface and tough centre we refer
to a high grade alloy steel in which there is a gradual merging
of hardness at the surface to semi-hardness at the core, without
a distinct line of demarkation as in the "case hardened" ball.
The above photograph shows the fracture of a hard surface*
tough centre ball, of which the Hoover Steel Ball Co. is the
exponent.
SMOOTH AND MIRROR-LIKE surface finish must be maintained in every ball
leaving our plant and to this end extensive microscopic examinations are regularly
made. The constancy and effect of the many abrasive materials used are kept under
rigid control.
Microphotographs 1, 2, 3 and 4 show the highly magnified surfaces of several
makes of balls for comparison.
No. 1 shows the Hoover standard.
At the top of this page is shown the apparatus on which microscopic examinations
and photographs are made.
80
CHEMICAL
LABORATORY
WE HAVE an up-to-date Chemical Laboratory which co-
operates with the Metallurgical Department in the
control of the raw material which is used in the pro-
duction of the Hoover Steel Balls, as well as the solution of the
different problems which are constantly arising in a plant that is
aiming to produce a product as near perfect as scientific methods
and human efficiency can make it.
Drillings, and in some cases millings, are taken from the
samples which are brought to the Metallurgical Department
from each shipment of steel which is received at the plant,
whether for the production of balls or to be used for the produc-
tion of machine parts that may be required in the plant. These
drillings, or millings, as the case may be, are analyzed in the
Laboratory. The percentage of carbon, manganese, phosphorus,
sulphur and chromium is determined in all steel used for the
production of balls. In the case of Header Die Steel, which is
used to make the dies that forge the balls, the percentage of
carbon is determined on each bar, and if it should be an alloy
steel other elements are determined, and a complete analysis
is made on one sample taken from the shipment.
Samples are also taken from each shipment of Brass and
Bronze Wire or Rod, which is received at the plant, and from
which are made our Brass and Bronze Balls. These are analyzed
to determine the quantities of tin, lead, copper, iron, zinc, and
also any elements that might have an injurious effect on the
service rendered by the finished balls. As the composition in
a great measure controls the hardness, resistance to abrasion,
resistance to corrosion, and therefore the life of the finished balls,
it can be seen how very important it is that a careful analysis
should be made of all raw material from which these balls are
produced.
A great many oils and greases are used in the plant for
various purposes, and these must be all carefully tested and
graded. For instance, the finished balls are packed in a mixture
of an oil and a grease and it is very important that these should
be absolutely free from any element such as acids, sulphides or
water, as any of these would etch and oxidize the surface of the
81
balls in a short time so that they would be rendered useless for
our customers. The same thing applies to the paper used in
lining the boxes in which the balls are packed for shipment. The
leather used to put the final polish on the balls must also be free
from acid and moisture, or they would be rejected by the Inspec-
tion Department on account of rust spots. A surface so highly
finished is very sensitive and must be carefully protected not
only during production but in the packing, and this is the reason
the surface of the balls is so carefully covered with oil to prevent
even the atmospheric moisture affecting them.
Fuels in the form of coal, oil and gas are also graded and
combustion problems investigated in this department. The effect
on the finished product of the different modes of handling the
balls during production must be considered, and even the humi-
dity of the room in which they are inspected has to be reckoned
with. It can, therefore, be seen that besides the routine control
of raw material, etc., a number of interesting questions arise
from time to time which the Chemical Laboratory must assist
in solving.
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TUMBLING BARREL ROOM— This room is equipped with a variety
of tumbling barrels, cleaning barrels and rotary kegs, all of which serve some
special purpose, depending upon the size of ball or the grade of finish desired.
94
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109
WEIGHTS OF STEEL BALLS
Diameter of Decimal
Ball (Inches) (Inches)
WEIGHT PER BALL
Grammes
(Metric)
Ounces
(Avoir)
Pounds
(Avoir)
1-16 .0625
.0166
.00096
.00006
3-32 .09375
.0547
.00193
.00012
1-8 .125
.1302
.00457
.00029
5-32
.15625
.2552
.00898
.00056
3-16 .1875 .4408
.01552
.00097
7-32 .21875
.6993
.02461
.00154
1-4 .25
1.0463
.03680
.00230
9-32 .28125
1.4865
.05231
.00327
5-16 .3125
2.0415
.07184
.00449
11-32 .34375 2.7141
.09550
.00597
3-8
.375 3.5226
.12400
.00775
7-16
.4375 5.5871
.19722
.01229
1-2
.50 8.3498
.29392
.01837
9-16 .5625
11.8923
.41856
.02616
5-8 . 625
16.2947
.57520
.03585
11-16 .6875
21.6873
.76336
.04771
3-4 . 75
28.1872
.99200
.06200
13-16 .8125
35.7585
1.25872
.07867
7-8
.875
44.7872
1.57648
.09853
15-16
.9375 55.0169
1.93664
.12104
66.8257
2.35232
.14702
-1/16
.0625 80.1379
2.8199
.17626
-1/8
.125
95.1271
3.3473
.20923
-3/16
.1875
111.8809
3.9369
.24608
-1/4
.25
130.4965
4.5919
.28702
-5/16
.3125 151.0656
5.3157
.33226
-3/8
.375
173.6764
6.1113
.38199
-7/16
.4375
198.4563
6.9833
.43649
-1/2
.50
225.4820
7.9343
.49594
-9/16
.5625
254.8682
8.9683
.56057
-5/8
.625
286.6917
10.0881
.63056
-11/16 .6875
321.0544
11.2973
.70614
-3/4 .75
358.0711
12.5998
.78756
-13/16 .8125
397.8185
13.9985
.87498
-7/8 .875
440.398
15.4968
.96864
1-15/16 .9375
485.939
17.0993
.06880
2
2.
534.491
18.8077
.17559
2-1/8
2.125
641.101
22.5591
.41007
2-1/4
2.25
761.019
26.7788
.67382
2-3/8
2.375
895.037
31.4947
.96859
2-1/2
2.50
1043.924
36.7340
2.29608
2-5/8
2.625
1208.474
42.5239
2.65798
2-3/4
2.75 •• «'
1389.436
48.8916
3.05600
2-7/8
2.875
1587.727
55.8691
3.49213
3
3.
1803.881
63.4751
3.96755
3-1/8
3.125
2038.920
71.7457
4.48451
3-1/4
3.25
2293.482
80.7033
5.04440
3-3/8
3.375
2568.460
90.3792
5.64920
3-1/2
3.50
2864.492
100.7960
6.30031
3-5/8
3.625
3183.875
112.0345
6.99997
3-3/4
3.75
3523.164
123.9734
7.74903
3-7/8
3.875
3887.462
136.7923
8.55028
4
4.
4275.876
150.4599
9.40458
4-U4
4.25
5128.882
180.4756
11.28073
4-1/2
4.50
6088.179
214.2314
13.39065
4-3/4
4.75
7160.402
251.9608
15.74896
S
5.
8351.420
253.4605
18.36854
C = Contents in Cubic Inches.
= 4/3 TT R3 = 4.1888 R3 = .5236 D3
W = Weight of Steel Balls in pounds.
= R3 (.28065 X 4.1888) = 1.17558 R3 = .14695 D
110
FORMULA FOR DETERMINING PITCH DIA.
OF BALL CIRCLE AND CLEARANCE
BETWEEN BALLS
Notation:
Di = Pitch Dia. of Ball Circle.
D2 = Dia. of Circumscribed Circle.
Ds = Dia. of Inscribed Circle.
d = Dia. of Balls.
N = Number of Balls in the Ring.
S = Clearance Between Each Pair of Balls.
Di = (d+S)XCSC.
180 °\
N /
/ISO
)3 = Di-d
/180
= DiXSIN. f
180 °\
IT)-'
The following table gives the value of the CSC. and SIN. for "N" Balls.
No. of Balls
"N"
Angle a
180°
CSC.
180°
SIN.
180°
N
N
N
6
30°
2.00000
.50000
7
25°— 42'— 51.43"
2.30476
.43388
8
22°— 30'
2.61313
.38268
9
20°
2.92381
.34202
10
18°
3.23607
. 30902
11
16°— 21'— 49.09"
3.54947
.28173
12
15°
3.86370
.25882
13
13°— 50'— 46.16"
4.17858
.23932
14 12° — 51'— 25.72"
4.49396
.22252
15 12°
4.80973
.20791
16
11°— 15'
5.12583
. 19509
17 10°— 35'— 17.65"
5.44219
. 18375
18 10°
5.75877
. 17365
19 9°— 28'— 25.26"
6.07554
. 16459
20 9°
6.39247
.15643
21 8°— 34'— 17.14"
6.70950
. 14904
22 8° — 10' — 54.55"
7.02667
.14231
23 7° — 49' — 33.91"
7.34394
.13617
24 7°— 30'
7.66130
.13053
25 7°— 12'
7.97873
.12533
26
6°— 55'— 23.08"
8.29623
.12054
27
6°— 40'
8.61380
.11609
28
6°— 25'— 42.86"
8.93140
.11196
29
6°— 12'— 24.82"
9.24907
.10812
30
6°
9.56677
. 10453
111
THE CIRCLE
d = Diameter of Circle.
C = Circumference of Circle.
C=7rd =3.141593 d
A = Area of Plane Surface.
7r = 3.141593
Trd2
A = = .785398 d2
4
Areas of Circles are to Each other as the Squares of their Diameters.
THE SPHERE
V = Volume of Sphere.
d = Diameter of Sphere.
S = Area of Convex Surface.
d2
V
.523599 d3
Surfaces of Spheres are to each other as the Squires of their Diameters.
The Volume of a Shpere = 2/3 the Volume of its Circumscribing Cylinder.
Volumes of Spheres are to each other as the Cubes of their Diameters.
BALL DIA.
IN INCHES
C RCUM.
N INCHES
AREA
VOLUME
CU.- INCHES
SECTION
SQ. INCHES
CONVEX SURFACE
SQ. INCHES
/SZ
.09818
.00077
.00307
.00002
/16
. 19635
.00307
.01227
.00013
/SZ
.29452
.00690
.02761
. 00043
/8
. 39270
01227
.04909
.00102
/SZ
.49087
.01917
. 07670
.00200
/16
. 58905
.02761
.11045
.00345
/32
.68722
. 03758
. 15033
. 00548
/4
.78540
.04909
.19635
.00818
/32
.88357
.06213
.24851
.01165
16
.98175
.07670
. 30680
.01598
11 32
1.0799
.09281
.37123
.02127
3 8
.1781
.11045
.44179
. 02761
IS SZ
.2763
. 12962
.51848
.03511
7 16
.3744
.15033
.60132
.04385
15 32
.4726
. 17257
. 05393
1 Z
.5708
.19635
.78540
. 06545
9 16
.7671
.24850
. 99403
.09319
5 8
.9635
.30680
.2272
.12783
11 16
.1598
37122
.4849
.17014
S 4
.3562
.44179
.7671
. 22089
.5525
.51849
.0739
. 28084
7/8
.7489
.60132
.4053
.35077
15/16
.9452
.69029
.7611
.43143
1.
.1416
.7854
.1416
.52360
1/16
.3379
.8866
.5466
. 62804
1/8
.5343
.9940
.9761
.74551
3/16
.7306
.107J
.4301
.87681
I/*
,-
.9270
.2272
.9088
.0227
.1233
.3530
.4119
.1839
3/8
.3197
.4849
.9396
.3611
7/16
.5160
.6230
.4919
.5553
1/Z
.7124
.7671
.0686
.7671
/16.
.9087
.9175
.6699
.9974
/8
.1051
.0739
.2957
.2468
1 /16
.3014
.2365
.9461
/4
.4978
.4053
.6211
.8062
1 /16
.6941
.5802
1
.321
.1177
/8
.8905
.7612
.044
.4514
1 /16
.0868
.9483
1
.793
.8083
2.
.2832
.1416
1
.566
.1888
/16
.4795
.3410
1
.364
.5939
.6759
.5466
.186
.0243
/16
.8722
7583
1
.033
.4809
/4
.0686
.9761
.904
.9641
/16
.2649
.2000
1
.800
.4751
n
.4613
.4301
.7Z1
.0144
/16
.6576
.6664
1
.666
.5829
/Z
.8540
.9087
1
.635
.1813
/16
.0503
.1572
20 629
.8103
/8
.2467
.4119 21.648
.4708
1 /16
.4430
.6727 22.691
1
.164
It
.6394
.9396
23.758
1
.889
I /16
.8357
.2126
24.850
1
.649
/8
.0321
.4918
25.967
1
.443
1 /16
.2484
.7771
27.109
1
.272
3
.4248
.0686
28.274
|
.137
1/16
6211
3662
29.465
1
1/8
.8175
.6699
30.680
I
'979
3/16
.014
.9798
31.919
.957
1/4
.210
.2958
33.183
]
974
i/l«
.407
.6179
34.472
I
.031
S/8
.60S
.9462
35.784
20.129
7/16
.799
.2806
37.122
21 . 268
1/Z
.996
.6211
38.484
22.449
.192
.9678
S9.872
23.674
.388
.321
41.283
24.942
11/16
.585
.680
42.719
26.254
3/4
.781
44.179
27.611
13/16
977
.tit
45 . 664
29.016
7/8
174
.798
47.173
SO 466
15/16
.370
48.708
3 .965
4.
12.566
12 566
50.465
33.510
112
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF FRACTIONS
OF AN INCH
Fract.
Dec.
Fract.
Dec.
Fract.
Dec.
Fract.
Dec.
1
17
33
49
—
.015625
—
. 265625
—
.515625
—
.765625
64
64
64
64
I
9
17
25
—
.03125
—
.28125
—
.53125
—
.78125
32
32
32
32
3
19
35
51
—
.046875
—
.296875
—
.546875
—
.796875
64
64
64
64
1
5
9
13
_
.0625
__
.3125
_
.5625 —
.8125
16
16
16
16
5
21
1 37
i 53
mm
.078125
_
.328125 —
.578125 ! —
.828125
64
64
! 64
! 64
3
11
19
27
__
.09375
•H
.34375
.59375 —
.84375
32
32
.
32
32
7
23
39
55
—
. 109575
—
.359375
.609375
—
.859375
64
64
64
64
1
3
5
7
.125
.375
.625
.875
8
8
.•
8
8
9
25
41
57
_
. 140625
_
. 390625
.640625
_
.890625
64
64
64
64
5
13
21
29
__
. 15625
_
.40625
_
.65625
__
. 90625
32
32
32
32
11
27
43
59
—
.171875
—
421875
.671875
—
.921875
64
64
64
64
3
7
11
15
—
.1875
—
.4375
.6875
—
.9375
16
16
16
16
13
29
45
61
_
.203125
__
.453125
__
.703125
_
.953125
64
64
64
64
7
15
23
31
__
.21875
_
.46875
_
.71875
_
.96875
32
32
32
32
15
31
47
63
—
.234375
_
.484375
_
.734375
_
.984375
64
64
64
64
1
1
3
—
.25
5
.75
1
4
2
4
TABLE OF DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF MILLI-
METERS AND FRACTIONS OF MILLIMETERS
1/100 mm. = .0003937".
mm. Inches mm. Inches mm. Inches | mm. Inches mm. Inches
1/50 = .00079
"/50 = .00866
21/50= .01654
31/50= .02441
41/50= .03228
2/50= .00157
i«/50 = .00945
22/50 =.01732
3*/50 = . 02520
42/50 =.03307
3/50= .00236
13/50 =.01024
23/50=. 01811
33/so =.02598
43/50 = . 03386
4/50 =.003 15
14/50 = .01102
24/5o= .01890
34/50 = . 02677
44/so = . 03465
5/50=. 00394
15/50=. 01181
25/50= .01969
35/50 = . 02756
45/50= .03543
6/50 =.00472
16/50 = .01260
26/50= .02047
36/50 =.02835
46/5o =.03622
, 7/50= . 00551
17/50= .01339
27/50= .02126
37/50= .02913
47/50= .03701
8/50 = . 00630
18/50 =.01417
28/50 = . 02205
38/M>=. 02992
48/so =.03780
9/50= .00709
19/50= .01496
29/50= .02283
29/50= .03071
49/50 = . 03858
I0/5o= .00787
S°/50= .01575
so/so =.02362
40/50= .03150
10 mm. = l Centimeter = 0.3937 inches
10 cm. =1 Decimeter = 3.937 inches
10 dm. =1 Meter =39.37 inches
25. 4 mm. = 1 English Inch.
113
CONVERSION TABLE
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF MILLIMETERS IN INCHES
1 m/m to 500 m/m.
1 m/m = .03937027"
nun.
Inches
m.m.
Inches
m.m.
Inches
m.m
Inches
m.m
Inches
man
Inches
m.m
Inches
]
.03937027
7ft
2.87402971
145
5.70868915
eii
8.50397832
287
11 .29926749
358
14.09455666
429
16.88954583
2
.07874054
74
2.91339998
14(i
5.74805942
217
8.54334859
•288
11 .33863776
359
14.13392693
430
16.92921610
3
.11811081
7*
2.95277025
147
5.78742969
-218
8.58271886
289
11 37800803
300
14.17329720
431
16.96858637
.15748108
7(i
2.99214052
14S
5.82679996
-219
8.62208913
291
11 41737830
301
14.21266747
432
17 00795664
.19685135
77
3 03151079
149
5.86617023
221
8.66145940
-291
11.45674857
302
14.25203774
433
17.04732691
.23622162
78
3.07088106
150
5.90554050
-2-21
8 70082967
292
11.49611884
563
14 29140801
434
17.08669718
.27559189
79
3.11025133
151
5.94491077
•2-2-2
8.74019994
•2!)3
11 53548911
304
14.33077828
435
17 12606745
.31496216
80
3.14962160
152
5.98428104
•2-23
8.77957021
•2!) 4
1 1 . 57485938
505
14.37014855
430
17.16543772
.35433243
81
3 18899187
153
6.02365131
-2-24
8.81894048
•2!)5
11 61422965
500
14 40951882
437
17 20480799
10
.39370270
82
3 22836214
154
6.06302158
-2-2.-,
8 85831075
296
1 1 65359992
507
14.44888909
438
17.24417826
11
. 43307297
88
3.26773241
1 55
6 10239185
22 (i
8.89768102
•297
11.69297019
568
14.48825936
439
17.28354853
18
.47244324
84
3.307102C8
156
6.14176212
-227
8 93705129
298
11 73234046
309
14.52762963
440
17.32291880
19
.51181351
85
3.34647295
157
0.18113239
•2-2S
8.97642156
2!)!)
11 77171073
370
14.56699990
441
7.36228907
14
.55118378
86
3.38584322
15S
6.22050266
22!)
9.01579183
Kin
11.81108100
571
14.60637017
44-2
17 40165934
1.5
.59055405
87
3 42521349
159
6.25987293
230
9.05516210
301
11 85045127
37-2
14.64574044
443
7.44102961
10
. 62992432
88
3.46458376
160
6.29924320
-231
9 09453237
i()-2
11.88982154
373
14.68511071
444
17.48039988
17
.66929459
89
3.50395403
K.I
6 33861347
-2:! 2
9.13390264
503
11 92919181
574
14.72448098
145
17.51977015
IS
.70866486
90
.54332430
162
6.37798374
2:!:!
9 17327291
504
1 1 . 96856208
575
14.76385125
440
7.55914042
1!)
.74803513
91
.58269457
1 63
6 41735401
234
9 21264318
505
12.00793235
570
14.80322152
447
7.59851069
20
.78740540
98
. C2206484
K!4
6.45672428
235
9 25201345
500
12.04730262
377
14.84259179
44S
7.63788096
21
.82677567
93
.66143511
Ki5
6.49609455
230
9.29138372
507
12.08667289
!78
14.88196206
149
7.67725123
2-2
.86614594
94
. 70080538
100
6.53546482
-237
9 . 33075399
ios
12 12604316
379
14.92133233
150
7.71662150
*S
.90551621
95
.74017565
107
6.57483509
238
9 37012426
!()!)
12 16541343
580
14.96070200
451
7.75599177
•24
.94488648
!>o
. 77954592
168
6.61420536
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9 40949453
510
12.20478370
581
15.00007287
452
7.79536204
«5
.98425675
97
.81891619
169
6 65357563
240
9.44886480
ill
12.24415397
iS -2
15.03944314
153
7.83473231
20
.02362702
98
. 85828646
170
6 69294590
241
9 . 48823507
312
12 28352424
383
15.07881341
454
7.87410258
87
. 06299729
!»!»
.89765673
171
6 73231617
21-2
9 52760534
313[12 32289451
384
15.11818368
155
7.91347285
88
. 10236756
100
93702700
17-2
6.77168644
243
9.56697561
314 12.36226478
585
15.15755398
450
7.95284312
*9
.14173783
101
.97639727
173
6 81105671
244
9 . 60634588
3 la! 12 40163505
580
15.19692422
457
7.99221339
SO
.18110810
102
01576754
174
6 85042698
245| 9.64571615
316|l2. 44100532
387
15.23629449
158
8 03158366
:u
.22047837
103
05513781
175
6.88979725
246
9.68508642
517 12.48037559
5S8
15.27566476
15!)
8.07095393
3-2
.25984864
104
. 09450808
176
6.92916752
247
9.72445669
31812.51974586
18!)
15 31503503
400
8.11032420
33
.29921891
10.-,
.13387835
177
6 96853779
248
9.76382696
319 12.55911613
.390
15.35440530
401
8.14969447
34
.33858918
100
.17324862
17S
7 00790806
249
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320 12.59848640
5!)!
15.39377557
40-2
8.18906474
85
.37795945
107
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7.04727833
250
9.84256750
321 12.63785067
392
15.43314584
403
8.22843501
30
.41732972
108
.25198916
ISO
7 . 08664860
251
9.88193777
322
12.67722694
393J 15. 4725 1611
404
8 . 26780528
SI
. 45669999
109
29135943
181
7.12601887
252
9 92130804
i23
12 71659721
39415.51188638
165
8 30717555
98
. 49607026
110
.33072970
18-2
7.16538914
253i 9.96067831
i-24
12 75596748
595
15.55125665
400
8.34654582
39
.53544053
111
. 37009997
183
7.20475941
254'lO. 00004858
525
12 79533775
590
15.59062692
407
8 38591609
40
.57481080
11-2
40947024
184
7.24412968
255
10.03941885
520
12.83470802
597
15.62999719
108
8 42528636
41
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11.'!
44884051
185
7 . 28349995
256
10.07878912
i-27
12 87407829
598
15.66936746
469
8.46465663
4-2
.65355134
114
.48821078
186
7.32287022
-257
10.11815939
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12 91344856
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15 70873773
470
18 50402690
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115
52758105
187
7.36224049
258
10 15752966
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12.95281883
400
15 74810800
471
18.54339717
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7.44098103
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10 23627020
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13 03155937
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15.82684854
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18.62213771
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7.48035130
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10 27564047
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15.86621881
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10 31501074
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13.11029991
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15.90558908
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120
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7.55909184
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10.35438101
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13 14967018
105
15 94495935
470
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10 39375128
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13 18904045
13.22841072
407
15 98432962
16.02369989
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7 67720265
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10.47249182
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16. 10244043
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13.34652153
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8.03153508
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10.82682425
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13 62211342
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9 21269176
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9 29143230
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31498645
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8 14964589
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10.94493506
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13 74022423
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16 53551340
491
19 33080257
04
.51969728
136
35435672 208
8.18901616
279
10.98430533
550
13 77959450
421 16 57488367
492
19.37017^54
65
55906755
137
.39372699209
8.22838643
•280
11.02367560
351
13.81896477
422 16 61425394
493
19 40954311
6(i
.59843782
138
43309726 210
8.26775670
281
11.06304587
552
13.85833504
42316.65362421
494
19.44891338
67
68
.63780809 139
.67717836:140
47246753211
.51183780212
8.30712697
8.34649724
•282
2 S3
11 10241614
11 14178641
553
•554
13 89770531
13 93707558
424'ie. 69299448
425 16 73236475
495
496
19 48828365
19.52765392
69
71654863!l41
.55120807213
8 38586751,284
11.18115668
555
13 97644585
426
16.77173502
497
19.56702419
70
.75591890142
59057834214
8.42523778 285
11.22052695
550
14.01581612
4-27
16.81110529
498
19 60639446
71
79528917 143
62994861
•215
8.46460805286
11.25989722
357
14 05518639
428
16.85047556
491)
19.64576473
72
.83465914 144
66931888
500
19.68513500
114
CONVERSION TABLE
MILLIMETER EQUIVALENTS OF FRACTIONAL INCHES
& inch to 12% Inches
1*
2*
3'
4*
5"
6" 7'
8'
9*
10' 11'
12'
1
25 3995
50.7990
76.1986
101.598
126.998
152.397ll77.797
203.196
228.596
253.995279.394
304.794
1/64 0.3968
25.7964
51 1959
76.5954
101.995
127.394
152.794178.193
203.593
228.992
254.392279.791
305.191
1/32 0.7937
26.1932
51.5928
76.9923
102.391
127.791
153.190178.590
203.990
229.389
254. 7891280.188
305.588
3/64J .1906
26 5901
51.9896
77.3892
102.788
128.188
153.588178.987
204.386
229 . 786
255s 1861280. 585
306.985
1/161 .5874
26 9870
52.3865
77.7860
103.185
128.585
153.984J179.384
204 . 783
230.183
255. 5821280. 982
306.381
5/64 .9843
27 3838
52.7834
78.1829
103.582
128.982
154.381179.781
205.180
230.580
255. 9791281. 379
306.778
3/32' 3812
27.7807
53 1802
78.5798
103.979
129.378
154.778180.177
205.577
230.977
256.376^281.776
307.175
7 /64 7780
28.1776
53.5771
78.9766
104.376
129.775
155.175180.574
205.974
231.373
256.773i282.173
307.572
1/8 .1749
28.5744
53.9740
79.3735
104.773
130.172
155.572 180.971
206.370
231.770
257.170;282.569
307.969
9/64 .5718
28 9713
54.3708
79.7704
105.169
130.569
155.969181.368
206.768
232.167
257.567,282.966
308.366
5/32 9686
29 3682
54.7677
80.1672
105.566
130.966
156. 365181. 765
207.164
232.564
257. 964(283. 363
308.763
11/64 .3655
29.7650
55.1646
80.5641
105.963
131.363
156. 762182. 162
207.561
232.961
258. 360^283. 760
309.160
3/16 .7624
30.1619
55.5614
80.9610
106.360
131.760
157.159 182.559
207.958
233.358
258.757J284.157
309.556
13/64 1592
30.5588
55.9583
81.3579
106.757
132.156
157.556182.956
208.355
233.755
259. 154(284. 554
309.953
7/32 .5561
15/64 .9530
1/4 ! .3498
17/64 .7467
30.9556
31.3525
31.7494
32.1462
56.3552
56.7520
57.1489
57.5458
81.7547
82.1516
82.5485
82.9453
107.154
107.551
107.948
108.344
132.553
182.950
133.347
133.744
157. 953 183. 3521208. 752
158. 350183. 749 209. 149
158.747184.146209.546
159.143 184.543209.943
234.152259.551284.951
234. 5481259. 948'285. 347
234. 9451260. 3451285. 744
235 . 342!260 . 742 286 . 141
310.350
310.747
311.144
311.541
9/32J .1436
32.5431
57.9426
83.3422
108.741
134.141
159. 540(184. 940
210.339
235.739
261.139:286.538
311.938
19/64 .5404
32 9400
58.3395
83.7391
109.138
134.538
159.937185.337
210.736
236.136
261.535'286.935
312.334
5/16 7.9373
33.3368
58.7364
84.1359
109.535
134.935
160.334 185.734
211.133
236.532
261.9321287.332
312.731
21/641 8 3342
33.7337
59.1333
84.5328
109.932
135.331
160.731 186.131
211.530
236.930
262.329287.729
313.128
11/32; 8.7310
34.1306
59.5301
84.9297
110.329
135.728
161.128186.527
211.927
237.326
262.726!288.126
313.525
23/64- 9. 1279
34 . 5274
59.9270
85.3265
110.726
136.125
161.525186.924
212.324
237.723
263. 123^288. 522
313.922
3/8 9 5248
34 9243
60 3239
85.7234
111.122
136.522
161.922187.321
212.721
238.120
263.520288.919
314.319
25/641 9.9216
13/3210 3185
35.3212
35.7180
60.7207
61.1176
86.1203
86.5171
111.529
111.916
136.919
137.316
162.318 187.718213.118
162.715188.115|213.514
238.517263.9171289.316
238. 914 264. 3131289. 713
314.716
315.113
27/6410.7154
36.1149
61.5145
86.9140
112.313
137.713
163.112;188.512
213.911
239.311
264.710290.110
315.509
7/1611.1122
36.5118
61.9113
87.3109
112.710
138.109
163.509188.909
214.308
239.708
265.107290.507
315.906
29/6411.5091
36.9087
62.3082
87.7077
113.107
138.506
163.906189.305
214.705
240.105
265.504'290.903
316.303
15/32H1.9060
37.3055
62.7051
88.1046
113.504
138.903
164.303189.702
215.102
240.501
265. 901 j29 1.300
316.700
31/6412.3029
37.7024
63.1019
88.5015
113.901
139.300
164.700190.099
215.499
240.898
266.298i291.697
317.097
1/2 12.6997
38.0993
63.4988
88.8983
114.297
139.697
165.097190.496
215.896
241.295
266.695,292.094
317.494
33/6413.0966
38.4551
63.8957
89.2952
114.694
140.094
165.493190.893
216.292
241.692
267.092292.491
317.891
17/3213.4934
38.8930
64.2925
89.6921
115.091
140.491
165.890191.290
216.689
242.089
267.488j292.888
318.287
35/6413.8903
39.2899
64.6894
90.0989
115.489
140.888
166.287191.687
217.086
242.486
267.885293.285
318.684
9/1614.2872
39.6867
65.0863
90.4858
115.885
141.284
166.684192.084
217.483
2-I2.SS3
268. 282:293. 682
319.081
37/6414.6841
40.0836
65.4831
90.8827
116.282
141.681
167.081192.480
217.880
243.279
268.679294.079
319.478
19/3215.0809
40.4805
65 . 8800
91.2795
116.679
142.078
167.478192.877
218.277
243.676
269.076294.475
319.875
39/6415.4778
40.8773
66.2769
91.6764
117.075
142.475
167.875il93.274
218.674
244.073
269.473,294.872
320.272
5/8 115.8747
41.2742
66.6737
92.0733
117.472
142.872
168.271193.671
219.071
244.470
269.870295.269
320.669
41/6416.2715
41.6711
• 17.070(1
92.4701
117.869
143.269
168.668194.068
219.467
244.867
270.266295.666
321.066
21/3216.6684
42.0679
67.4675
92.8670
118.266
143.666
169.065194.465
219.864
245.263
270.663296.063
321.462
43/6417.0653
42.4648
67.8643
93.2639
118.663
144.063
169.462194.862
220.261
245.661
271.060|296.460
321.859
11/1617.4621
42.8617
68.2612
93.6608
119.060
144.459
169.859195.258
220.658
246.058
271.457'296.857
322.256
45/6417.8590
43.2585
68.6581
94.0576
119.457
144.856
170. 256I195. 655
221.055
246.454
271. 8541297. 253
322.653
23/32 18. 2559
43.6554
69.0549
94.4545
119.854
145.253
170.653196.052
221.452
246.851
272.251297.650
323 . 050
47/6418.6527
44.0523
69.4518
94.8513
120.250
145.650
171.050196.449
221.849
247.248
272.648298.047
323.447
3/4 19.0496
44.4491
69.8487
95.2482
120.647
146.047
171.446196.846
222.245
247.645
273. 0451298.444
323.844
49/6419.4465
44 . 8460
70.2455
95.6451
121.044
146.444
171.843197.243
222.642
248.042
273.441:298.841
324.241
25/3219.8433
45.2429
70.6424
96.0419
121.441
146.841
172.240197.640
223.039
248.439
273. 8381299. 238
324.638
.51/5420.2402
45.6397
71.0393
96.4398
121.838
147.237
172.637198.037
223.436
248.836
274.235i299.635
325.035
13/1620.6371
46.0366
71.4362
96.8357
122.235
147.634
173.034198.433
223.883
249.232
274.632300.032
325.431
53/64 21.0339
46.4335
71.8330
97.2326
122.632
148.031
173.431 198.830
224.230
249.629
275.029300.428
325.828
27/3221.4308
55/6421.8277
7/8 22.2245
46.8303
47.2272
47.6241
72.2299
72.6267
73.0236
97.6294
98.0263
98.4232
123.029
123.425
123.822
148.428
148.825
149.222
173 . 828 199 . 227 224 . 627
174. 224 199. 624i225. 024
174. 6211200. 021 225. 420
250:026!275.426;366.825
250.423,275.823,301.222
250.820276.220:301.619
326.225
326.622
327.019
57/6422.6214
29/3223.0183
48.0209
48.4178
73.4205
73.8173
98.8200
99.2169
124.219
124.616
149.619
150.016
175. 0181200. 418J225. 817
175. 415200. 815!226. 214
251 .217)276 . 616;302 . 016
251. 614 277.013;302. 413
327.415
327.812
59/6423.4151
48.8147
74.2142
99.6137
125.013
150.412
175.8121201.211
226.611
252.011
277.410!302.810
328.209
lD/16'23.8120
49.2116
74.6111
100.011
125.410
150.809
176.209201.608
227.008
252.407
277.807i303.207
328.606
61/6424.2089
49 . 6084
75.0080
100.408
125.807
151.206
176.606202.005
227.405
252.804
278.204303.603
329.003
31/3224.6057
50 . 0053
75.4048
100.804
126.203
151.603
177.003202.402
227.802
253.201
278.601304.000
329.400
63/6425.0026
50.4021
75.8017
101.201
126.600
152.000
177.399202.799
228.198
253.598,278.998304.397
329.797
115
DICKINSON BROS GRAND
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
BERKELEY
Return to desk from which borrowed.
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.
3 1972*
00
LD 21-100m-9,'48(B399sl6)476
72 -1 PM 4