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Faculty Working Papers
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A Detertainistic Theory of Individual Saving
and Port£oJLiD Composition
Robert E. Anderson
University of Illiiiois
#52
College of Commerce and Business Administration
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Faculty Working Papers
An Exploratory Investigation of
Achievement Motivation Effects on
Consumer Behavior
David II. Gardner
University of Illinois
#53
College of Commerce and Business Administration
University of Illinois at Urbona-Champaign
FACULTY WORKING PAPERS
College of Commerce and Business Administration
May 12, 1972
An Exploratory Investigation of
Achievement Motivation Effects on
Consumer Behavior
David II. Gardner
University of Illinois
#53
McClelland' 8 theory of achievement motivation suggests differing
preferences for products for persons possessing high or low levels of achieve-
ment motivation. This study suggests probability of success (Pg) and
incentive value (Ig) are so low that when combined multiplicatively with the
tendency to achieve (Mg) little difference in preference is noticeable.
"Outdoor sports" products are the major exception.
■ i-Jr.vi-J-
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Not too many years ago, "motivation research" was a widely used, term
and technique to explore certain aspects of consumer behavior. The term
and technique are no longer In vogue because many researchers feel that
the global claims of motivation research glossed over effects of many ex-
planatory variables. The term "motivation" Is now referred to by most
researchers as an Important construct In explaining consumer behavior, but
only one of several, I.e., attitudes, learning. But while many writers
recognize that theories of motivation can be used In the explanation of
consumer behavior, the literature is deficient In relating motivation
(especially learned motivation) variables to consumer behavior.
The purpose of the study reported In this paper Is to explore the
relationship of achievement motivation to the assortment of goods and ser-
vices, held and desired by consumers. Underlying this study Is the basic
question: Does need for achievement explain differences In purchasing be-
havior; and If so, does It deserve further research?
The study of motivation Is concerned with the needs, wants and fears of
man, and how he seeks to attain or avoid these things. Motivation Is the
study of activation and direction of behavior. The reason that there has
been little actual research or application of motivation to consumer be-
havior stems In part from tw^ problems. Motivation researchers are them-
selves divided on some basic issues. These differences are apt to be
amplified when adapted by another discipline. Secondly, learning theories
and motivational theories are highly intertwined with each other, which makes
it difficult for the outsider to use and understand them.
The study of motivation is complicated by the existence of two major
theories. The first is the well-known "Drive X Habit" theory, so often
associated with Hull (1, pv. ill). In this conception of motivation, drive
(a non-specific energizer) is said to combine with learned habits to acti-
vate behavior when associated with a relevant stimulus situation. Drive
is the product of some need, want, or fear, which results in the individual
being energized to satisfy that need, want, or fear. Drive combines with
habit strength, which is a product of the frequency of prior need reducing
states. Individuals develop habits which become associated with stimulus
situations. Drive is said to provide the activation in a stimulus situation,
habit the direction of behavior.
We can say then, that when faced with a stimulus situation, a person will
respond in a given manner, depending upon the habit associated with similar
prior circumstances and the amount of drive present in the system. Therefore,
a person presented with a well-prepared meal may not eat the meal, if his
drive level is low, as a result of having eaten a large meal. On the other
hand, if a person is almost completely satiated with foods, the habit strength
of some foods may be so strong so as to result in eating of those foods, even
though drive is quite low.
A major deficiency in the "Drive X Habit" theory is the lack of concern
with the consequence of an act. The individual's motivation is not tempered
or heightened by any type of expectations. The second major theory, "Expec-
tancy X Value," avoids this problem. This theory, no matter who the advocate,
suggests the "strength of the tendency to act in a certain way depends upon
the strength of expectancy that the act will be followed by a given conse-
quence (or goal), and the value of that consequence (or goal) to the indi-
vidual." (1, p. 274)
A specific formulation of the "Expectancy X Value" theory is that of
achievement motivation. This formulation suggests that: "strength of the
tendency to act in a certain x7ay to attain a particular goal in a particular
situation is influenced by a relatively non-specific variable called motive
(M) , which is tentatively assumed to be a relatively stable characteristic
of a person carried about from one lire situation to another, and two rela-
tively specific influences which refer to the particular act in question and
which are defined by cues in the immediate environment: the strength of
expectancy that the act will be followed by a particular consequence (E) and
the incentive value of that particular consequence (I). (1, p. 276)
More specifically, this theory suggests that people develop at an early
age (before the age of ten) a tendency to achieve. People with high levels
of this tendency (High n Achievement) have been shown to be concerned about
success, tend to engage in achievement -related activities, and to prefer tasks
of Intermediate difficulty. (1) People with low levels of this tendency (Low
n Achievement) have been shown to be concerned about failure, tend to avoid
achievement-related tasks, and prefer taaks which are too easy or too dif-
ficult in relation to the person 'a abilities. Atkinson (1, p. 242) has postu-
lated that this tendency no achieve (M.^} combine multiplicatively with situation
influences to produce a tendency to approach success. For Atkinson, the situ-
ational factors are: the strength of expectancy or probability of success
(P ) and the incentive value of success at a particular activity (I ). The
s
tendency to approach success (T^) or the strength of the motive to achieve is
represented by Atkinson as:
T„ = M„ X P„ X I^
s s s s
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-4-
"The first variable, M is a relatively general and stable characteristic of
s
the person which is present in any behavior situation. But, the values of
the other two variables, ? and I , depend upon the individual's past ex-
s s
perience in specific situations that are similar to the one he now confronts.
These variables change as the individual moves about from one life situation
to another and so are treated as characteristics of particular situations or
particular tasks." (1, p. 242)
RELATED RESEARCH
Since McClelland advanced the general theoiry of achievement motivation
and its measurement (11), a number of studies have been conducted to identify
the relationship between levels of n-achicvement and other psychological and
performance variables. While over one-hundred articles appear in the lit-
erature, several seem especially relevant as background for this study.
Atkinson suggests (4) that people with a high level of need for achieve-
ment desire to be in situations of moderate risk as opposed to situations of
either low or high risk preferred by people with low levels of need for
achievement. Littig (8) and Litwin (9) have demonstrated this preference,
using game situations. McClelland and Liberman found that high need achievers
recognized positive achievement words more quickly than middle and low need
achievement groups. (13)
Knapp has shown that people with high levels of need for achievement
prefer subdued bluish tartans, while a preference for red and bright tartan
plaids is exhibited by people with low levels of need for achievement (7).
Using the AO scale of the California Personality Inventory, Carney has shown
that achievement motivation and smoking are positively correlated. (5)
■5-
In addition to these studies, there are consistent findings that males
with high levels of need for achievement are more apt to come from the middle
class than from either the lower or upper classes, have better memory for
Incompleted tasks, are more apt to volunteer as subjects for psychological
experiments, are nlore active in college and community activities, choose
experts over friends as working partners, are more resistant to social pres-
sure and cannot give accurate .reports of what their "inner concern" with
achievement is. (11 and 2)
Finally, in a large cultural study, McClelland has found a strong re-
lationship between high levels of need for achievement and an interest in
enterjprise which requires moderate or calculated risks, rather than safe or
highly speculative undertakings; (10)
The implications of the theory of achievement motivation for the under-
i
standing of consumer behavior are great. Many aspects of purchase and con-
sumption behavior are carried out in a manner that should allow an individual
level of need for achievement tendency to operate as a determinate of behavio"
For example, it can be anticipated that there will be differential behavior
in the selection of style and color of clothing, the degree of participation
in a clothing fad, brand puichase behavior, and willingness to associate with
various store images.
For the consumer in the market place, it is reasonable to suggest that
not all purchase situations will be conducive to allowing n Achievement to
operate as a behavioral determinate. This is due to the belief that when
(P ) and (I ) are at relatively low levels and hence, when combined multi-
s s
plicatively with (M ) , result in low levels of the strength of the motive to
oi p
achieve (T ). However, at least two situations would seem to effect the
s
magnitude of (P ) and (I ) and hence, allow n Achievement (M ) to operate
s s s
as a behavioral determinate. These two situations (of which there may be
many more) are situations where reference group influence is operating and
situations where there are elements of social and physical risk. These
two situations would seem to allow n Achievement (M ) to operate as a be-
s
havioral determinate due to the fact that the individual should perceive
himself responsible for the outcome and there is some degree of risk con-
cerning the possibility of success.
These two situations served as the basis for the questions to be
explored in this study and the methodology.
The following questions are concerned with exploring the relationship
between achievement motivation and the assortments of goods and services
held and desired by consumers.
1. Do high need achievers, because of their preference for situations
of moderate risk, prefer to shop for clothing in specialty storet
and department stares as opposed to chain and "discount" storer'
2. Do hi^h need achievers, because of high risk avoidance, tend to
avoid products that would identify them with small, venturesome
segments of the population?
3. Are high need achievers more apt to smoke cigarettes than people
with lower levels of need for achievement as reported in earlier
research?
-7-
4. In general, are brand names more Imporcant to high need
achievers than for people with lower levels of need for
achievement?
RESEARCH DESIGN
The sample for this study consisted of 100 male juniors and seniors
enrolled in an introductory marketing course at the University of Illinois,
Urbana. Females were excluded because of repeated and consistent reports
of Instability of standard measures for assessing need for achievement levels
for females. (2) The data from thirteen subjects were incomplete leaving the
actual sample of 87 subjects.
The first step in this study was the administration of a Consumer Pref-
erence Questionnaire. This questionnaire was developed especially for this
study and was designed to reveal qualitative distinctions in the goods and
services owned and desired by respondents. Questions were directed towards
identifying types of goods owned, where purchased, and types of goods and
services desired. For a question to be included in the questionnaire, it had
to be related to a situation where reference group influence could operate
or where varying levels of perceived risk could operate. The questionnaire
was validated by extensive post-questionnaire interviews with individual re-
spondents to ascertain that answers to individual questions were an accurate
reflection of actual behavior. In its final form, the Consumer Preference
Questionnaire was administered in a classroom situation.
The second step was to expose the same subjects used in the first step
to a set of four TAT stimuli. The same four pictures have been used in many
of McClelland 's validation studies. This is also the most widely used set
■8-
of stimuli in studies of college groups. The procedure for administration
was Identical to that recommended by Atkinson (2, Appendix III). The second
step was also administered in a classroom situation approximately two weeLd
after the administration of step one.
The protocols elicited by the use of the TAT stimuli were scored for
achievement motivation using the manual developed by McClelland and others
(2, Chapter IV). The scoring judge was trained by using the self-administered
training procedure developed by Smith and Feld (14) . Attempts to find anothf-r
trained judge failed. However, the same judge had a scoring reliability of
.85 when approximately ten percent of the protocols were rescored one month
later.
The Consumer Preference Questionnaire was scored for individual responses
These responses were then paired with the same individual's level of need for
achievement as measured in step two.
RESULTS
In analyzing the results of this study, consistent patterns of behav" -
were looked for rather than statistical differences between groups for one
product or situation. As more is learned about the need for achievement as
it relates to goods and services, studies with very specific hypotheses
lending themselves to statistical analysis will be more useful.
For ease of interpretation, the data is reported in nine categories.
Each category is designed to give understanding to the influence of varying
levels of need for achievement on purchase behavior. Only data for subject?
with the highest and lowest levels of need for achievement is used in the
following comparisons. If any differences do exist, this procedure should
allow the differences to emerge. From the total distribution of need for
achievement scores, the top seventeen percent are compared with the lowest
eighteen percent. These percents were chosen because of natural breaks in
scores on n Achievement. The middle sixty-five percent of distribution is
not used in the comparisons unless specifically noted.
Ownership of a Broad Range of Products
Ownership was established by asking if the product was already owned. If
the product was not presently a part of the person's assortment of goods, he
was asked to estimate how likely it was that he would own such a good if he
could afford it. He could respond, "Very Likely," "Maybe," "Not at all
Likely," or "Undecided."
No noticeable differences in ownership or anticipated ownership appeared
for the following goods and services:
Color television
Model train set
Scotch whiskey
Subscription to the Wall Street Journal
The purchase of a new long play popular
record
Services of an interior decorator
Bridge lessons
Electric carving knife
Flower garden book
However, for a category of goods referred to as "outdoor sports," notice-
able differences appear. Relationships seem to be suggested between the pro-
ducts listed in Table 1 and levels of need for achievement.
Except for the last two products, the products can be classified as "out-
door sports." For these five "outdoor sports" products, there is a tendency
for the person with High n Achievement to express higher levels of purchase
intentions. The same is also true for the product category - "camping equipment."
•10-
The reverse is found for the category - "mod clothing." Subjects with
High n Achievement expressed considerably less likelihood for the purchase
of such clothing.
Clothing Brands and Place of Purchase
This category of information was obtained by asking questions designed
to identify the last brand of clothing purchased and shopping patterns for
clothing.
Subjects with High n Achievement expressed only a very slight difference
from subjects with Low n Achievement in their dress shirt preferences. Van
Heusen dress shirts were slightly more preferred by subjects with High n
Achievement. No noticeable differences were observed for purchases of Arrow,
Manhattan, J. C. Penney, Gant and Hathaway shirts.
There is a noticeable difference, however, between purchases of men's
suits, depending on the level of n Achievement. The data reported in Table II
Indicate that subjects with High n Achievement have a clear preference for
quality men's store brands which far exceeds that of subjects with low levels
of need for achievement. There does not appear to be any indication of a clear
preference for subjects with Low n Achievement.
There is a similar, but less ciear-cut tendency in the reported purchase
of the last sport coat. The data reported in Table II indicates that, while
differences between subjects with High and Low n Achievement exist, these dif-
ferences are not as pronounced as those differences reported for suit purchases.
When asked to describe how much money is spent on a suit, in relation to
resources, no differences in behavior were noted. However, there was a slight
tendency for subjects with High n Achievement to indicate that they preferred
■11-
to find a store they like and to go to it for all clothing accessory pur-
chases, as opposed to subjects with Low n Achievement who expressed a higher
tendency to compare between several stores for each purchase. No differences
were noted in the type of service preferred when shopping for clothing, both
groups preferring to have assistance available if needed. None of the subjects
with Low n Achievement stated that their present best clothing was "old, but
adequate." However, three out of fifteen subjects with High n Achievement did
describe their best clothing this way.
Toothpaste Preferences
Toothpaste preferences were obtained by asking subjects which brand of
toothpaste they purchased most often. Responses to this question are pre-
sented in Table III.
The data reported in Table III suggest that there is a very slight
relative preference for Crest toothpaste for subjects with Low n Achievement,
and a very slight relative preference for McLeans toothpaste for subjects with
High n Achievement.
Cola and Beer Preferences
By asking what brand is preferred when drinking cola and drinking beer,
no noticeable differences between subjects with High and Low n Achievement
were noted. Their preferences were both distributed in approximately the
same proportions.
Willingness to Try New Products
Subjects were asked to check a statement that beat described their wil-
lingness to try entirely new products and then that statement which best
described their willingness to try a new brand of an established product.
■12-
Subjects with High n Achievement were only slightly more willing to try
entirely new products and no differences were noted for willingness to try
a new brand of an established product between subjects with High and Low
n Achievement.
"Myself As A Customer"
A picture of the subject as a shopper was constructed by having subjects
select descriptions of themselves in several different contexts. Nine out of
fifteen subjects with High n Achievement described themselves as "rational,"
while only four out of fifteen with Low n Achievement described themselves as
"rational." However, nine out of fifteen subjects with Low n Achievement
described themselves as "conservative," while only three out of fifteen sub-
jects with High n Achievement described themselves as "conservative."
One-half of the subjects with Low n Achievement believed that "you get
exactly what you pay for," while only one subject with High n Achievement
believed that statement. However, fourteen out of the fifteen subjects with
High n Achievement believed "the relationship between price and quality is
often misleading." Only one-half of the subjects with Low n Achievement be-
lieved that statement.
Given a choice of purchasing a RCA, 19 inch, black and white, portable
television set from a well-known department store at $139.95 or the same set
from the local "discount" store at $126.37, subjects with Low n Achievement
expressed a very slight preference for making the purchase from the department
store at $139.95.
Importance of Brand Names
The importance of brand names was ascertained by first asking subjects to
-13-
choose a statement that indicated their feelings about the importance of
brand names and then to indicate whether a brand name is important in the
purchase of eighteen products.
Seven of the sixteen subjects with Low n Achievement felt that "brand
names were very important to insure that they were buying the right product."
Only three of the fifteen subjects with High n Achievement felt brand names
were that important.
Out of the eighteen products that were especially chosen with respect to
the potential usefulness of brand names in purchase decisions, only four pro-
ducts show even the slightest difference between subjects with High and Low
n Achievement. Three of the sixteen subjects with Low n Achievement felt that
brand name was important in the purchase of aspirin. However, no subject with
High n Achievement felt that brand name was important in the purchase of aspirin.
In the purchase of casual slacks, nine of the sixteen subjects with Low
n Achievement felt that brand name was important, while four of the fifteen
subjects with High n Achievement felt that way.
Limited differences are seen also in paint for a room and a coffee pot.
For both products, two of the sixteen subjects with Low n Achievement felt
that brand name was important. However, we find contrary to slacks and aspirin,
six of the fifteen subjects with High n Achievement feeling that brand name
was important in the purchase of paint for a room and a coffee pot.
Automobile Preferences
When asked to rank order preferences for different types of automobiles,
some differences were evident. The values in Table IV represent the mean rank
value for each automobile.
-14-
Subjects with High n Achievement differed from subjects with Low n
Achievement on automobile preferences in two instances. Luxury automobiles
were ranked 7th by subjects with High n Achievement but 3rd by subjects with
Low n Achievement. A somewhat less dramatic difference is noted for Inter-
mediate size automobiles with subjects with High n Achievement ranking them
2nd while subjects with Low n Achievement ranking them 5th.
Smoking Behavior
The smoking behavior of subjects with the very highest n Achievement and
the very lowest n Achievement is almost identical. About one-third of each
group reported that they regularly smoked cigarettes. However, when comparing
two groups obtained by drawing a line at the median need achievement score, a
different result is obtained. Forty percent (17/43) of subjects in the top
fifty percent of n Achievement distribution reported that they regularly smoked
cigarettes while only 16 percent (7/37) of subjects in the bottom fifty percent
reported the regular smoking of cigarettes. The distribution of smokers is
somewhat skewed with the greatest concentration falling between the upper 20
and 50 percent limits of the need for achievement distribution. The same type
of distribution was also found for pipe smoking, although on a much more re-
duced scale.
DISCUSSION
The results of this study suggest that there is a relationship bet;ween
levels of need for achievement and consumer behavior. This difference shows
up as generally positive and consistent answers to three of the four questions
posed earlier.
■15-
The first question dealt with the preference for shopping in specialty
and department stores for clothing for subjects with High n Achievement.
There is a consistent and strong pattern to indicate that subjects with
High n Achievement have a preference for purchasing suits ans sport coats
from specialty clothing stores. No such clear-cut preference was noted
for the purchase of dress shirts. It appears that suits and sport coats
purchased from a "quality" men's store represent a moderate amount of risk
for subjects High n Achievement. This may be a localized phenomenon but
is certainly consistent with the previous research of Atkinson reported
earlier in this paper.
The second question suggested that subjects with High n Achievement
would avoid products that identified them with small, venturesome segments
of the population. The main question dealing with this issue was the
ownership of "Mod" clothing. However, possibly because of high levels of
perceived risk, subjects with Low n Achievement were much more apt to own
or intend to purchase such clothing. !
Closely related to this question is the finding that subjects with
High n Achievement expressed a preference for ownership of goods that can
be characterized as "active outdoor sports or recreation." Based on pre-
vious research, it appears that active outdoor sports are perceived as
being of moderate risk. Subjects with Low n Achievement may perceive low
probability of success and low incentive to succeed in such activities, and
hence, be more apt to avoid them.
That subjects with High n Achievement almost uniformly put the lowest
possible ranking on luxury cars is hard to explain. They may be seen as a
high risk item or that luxury cars are not needed to prove something.
!>fi/ '
-16-
The third question suggested that subjects with High n Achievement won"
be more apt to smoke cigarettes. It is difficult to explain why the second
quartlle (subjects with moderately high n Achievement) should contain such a
high number of cigarette smokers. While the evidence of this study supports
the earlier work of Carney (5) , the explanation must lie in the interaction
between moderately High n Achievement and the perceived risk of smoking.
There is little evidence to support the suggestions of the fourth ques-
tion that brand names would be more important to subjects with High n Achieve-
ment. No difference was noted between subjects with either High or Low n
Achievement. If subjects with High n Achievement are more rational, this alone
should cause more or less reliance on brand names. It appears, however, that
brand names do not influence the amount of perceived risk and/or are not
subject to reference group influence. Hence, n Achievement does not enter
in as a behavioral determinate in this situation.
Related to the above questions is the finding that subjects with High
n Achievement consider themselves as "rational" shoppers. In addition, sub-
jects with High n Achievement appear to prefer to find a single store for
all purchases rather than shopping around for each purchase. One of the more
interesting findings of this study was the preference of subjects with Low
n Achievement for purchasing a television set from a well-known department
store, rather than for less money at a discount store.
Relating the evidence of this study to the formulation of Atkinson (1,
p. 242), it appears that, for many of the products and situations, (P ) and
s
(I ) are at low levels. Hence, when combined with (M ) , no matter what its
s s
magnitude, results in finding no noticeable differences between groups with
■17-
High and Low n Achievement. However, the combination of (P ) and (I )
S 3
do appear to be at moderate levels for "active outdoor sports" products.
In addition, it appears as if certain clothing stores are selected and
certain shopping patterns followed because the combination of (P ) and (I )
s s
associated with these stores and shopping patterns is moderate. Therefore,
in these two later cases, when combined with High levels of (M ) , a dif-
ferential tendency to approach success is noted.
IMPLICATIONS
While not explaining a large portion of consumer behavior, the theoi^r of
achievement motivation does appear to have the potential for accounting for
behavior in some situations. With the limited amount of evidence reported
here, it would be appropriate for more studies to be conducted so that stores
and manufacturers may better tailor their appeals, stores, and products to a
specific group of customers.
Based on this study, the main group of stores who could profit from
recognizing the existence of a group of customers with High n Achievement are
men's clothing and the clothing departments of department stores. Based on
what we know about people with High r Achievement, people with High n Achieve-
ment may be more apt to patronize an institution that uses appeals of excel-
lence, just exciting enough to generate moderate amounts of perceived risk,
liberal use of positive achievement words, and appropriate shades of color in
stores and merchandise.
■18-
The main group of manufacturers who could profit are those making the
active outdoor sports equipment. They are most likely to satisfy this group
by generating just the right level of perceived risk, neither too high or
too low. There is enough evidence in this study to suggest that a very large
portion of people engaged in outdoor, active sports may be high in need for
achievement. If so, this could seriously alter the promotion and distribu-
tion of these products.
While this study should be replicated on other groups and additional
studies should be conducted on a variety of relationships between n Achieve-
ment and consumer behavior, it is unlikely that this area of interest will be
heavily researched. The reason for this lack of research is the difficulty
of administering and scoring projective tests. Unfortunately, there is no
objective measure at present that has an acceptable correlation with the vali-
dated method reported and used in this study.
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33
TABLE II
Place of Purchase of Last
Suit and Sport Coat
Hart-Schaf fner & Marx
Botany 500
A quality men's store branji 13
A low- prices men's store
brand
J. C. Penney , or Sears,
Roebuck
Department Store Brand
Robert- Hall
Other
NA = not applicable
Suit
Sport
Coat
High
n-ach
Low
n-ach
High Low
n-ach n-ach
0
4
NA NA
1
2
NA NA
i 13
3
11 7
1
3
1 2
0
1
2 2
0
0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0
1
0 1
TABLE III
Toothpaste Brand Preferences
Colgate
Ultra-Bright
Crest
McLeans
Other
High
Low
n-ach
n-ach
3
1
2
3 ■
4
9
5
2
1
r-l
Table IV
AUTOMOBILE RA.NK ORDER PREFERENCES
(High n Achievement)
Mean
Rank
Value*
Automobile Types
2.2
3.2
3.2
3.9
4.1
5.8
5.9
Small domestic sports (Mustang, Gamero, Javlin, etc.)
Intermediate (Chevelle, Fairlane, Belveder, etc.)
Full Size - Big 3 (Chevrolet, Ford, Plymouth)
Imports (all)
Full Size (Buick, Chrysler, Mercury, Oldsmobile, Pontiac)
Compact (Valiant, Chevy II, etc.)
Luxury (Cadillac, Lincoln, Imperial, Thunderbird)
AUTOMOBILE RANK ORDER PREFERENCES
Mean
Rank
Value
(Low n Achievement)
Automobile Types
2.6
3.3
3.5
4.1
4.3
4.5
6.5
Small domestic sports (Mustang, Camero, Javlin, etc.)
Full Sise (Buick, Chrysler, Mercury, Oldsmobile, Pontiac)
Luxury (Cadillac, Lincoln, Imperial, Thunderbird)
Full Size - Big 3 (Chevrolet, Ford, Plymouth)
Interniediate (Chevelle, Fairlane, Belveder, etc.)
Imports (all)
Compact (Valiant, Chevy II, etc.)
1 = most preferred
7 = least preferred
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Atkinson, J. W. , An Introduction to Motivation, New York: American
Book- Van Nostrand-Reinhold, 1964.
2. Atkinson, John W. (ed.). Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society,
Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1958.
3. Atkinson, J. W. and Feather, N. T. (eds.), A Theory of Achievement
Motivation, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1966.
4. Atkinson, John W. , "Motivational Determinants of Risk-Taking Behavior,"
Psychological Review, 1957, ^, 359-372.
5. Carney, Richard E. , "Sex Chromatin, Body Masculinity, Achievement
Motivation and Smoking Behavior," Psychological Reports, 1967, 20
(3, pt. 1), 859-866.
6. Costello, C. G., "Two Scales to Measure Achievement Motivation," Journal of
Psychology, 1967, 66 (2), 231-235.
7. Knapp, Robert H. , "n Achievement and Aesthetic Preference," in Atkinson,
John W. (ed.). Motives in Fantasy. Action and Society, Princeton: D.
Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1958, 367-372.
8. Littig, L. W. , "The Effect of Motivation on Probability Preferences and
Subjective Probability," Unpublished doctoral thesis, 1959, University
of Michigan.
9. Litwin, G. H. , "Motives and Expectancies As Determinants of Preference
for Degrees of Risk," Unpublished honors thesis, 1958, University of
Michigan.
10. McClelland, D. C, The Achieving Society, Princeton: D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., 1961.
11. McClelland, D. C. , Atkinson, J. W. , Clark, R. A., and Lov/ell, E. L.,
The Achievement Motive. New York: Appleton-Century-Crof ts, 1953.
12. McClelland, D. C. , Clarh, R. A., Roby, T., and Atkinson, J. W. , The
Projective Expression of Needs: IV. The Effect of the Need for
Achievement on Thematic Apperception," Journal of Experimental
Psychology , 1949, 39, 242-251.
13. McClelland, D. C. and Liberman, A. M. , "The Effect of Need for
Achievement on Recognition of Need-related Words," Journal of Personality,
1949, 18, 236-251.
14. Smith, Charles P. and Feld, Sheila, "How to Learn the Method of Content
Analysis for n Achievement, n Alliliation and n Power," in Atkinson, J. W.
(ed.), Motives in Fantasy. Action and Society, Princeton: D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., 1958, Appendix I.
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