Exploring nature with your child; an introduction to the enjoyment and understanding of nature

AN INTRODUaiON TO THE ENJOYMENT AN
UNDERSTANDING OF NATURE FOR ALL

^^^^

orothy Edwards
Shuttlesworth

A delightful and fascinating guide to
Nature's ways and wonders, telling
you and your child what you should
know about flowers, trees, birds,
animals (wild and tame), insects,
reptiles, fish, the heavens and the
weather. With over 100 photographs
and drawings.

^^

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^ f *

Exploring Nature
With Your Child

By DOROTHY EDWARDS SHUTTLESWORTH

Founder, Junior Natural History Magazine
of the American Museum of Natural History

H

ERE IS a unique and fascinating guide to
Nature for parents and cfiildren. If you
have a child aged four to fourteen and want
to help him— or yourself— to understand and
enjoy the countless wonders of Nature all
about you, this exciting book will show you
the way quickly, easily, and delightfully. Over
100 true-to-life illustrations by outstanding
artists and photographers make Nature's story
doubly clear and dramatic throughout.

It doesn't matter what part of Nature ap-
peals to you most— this book takes you out
exploring them all, in the park, in the country,
at the zoo or museum, or simply by looking
at the weather or the skies. It tells you in
advance the questions a child will ask and
shows you how to answer them so they make
sense. It gives you ideas for trips and excur-
sions, rewarding nature hobbies you can share
with your child, and nature stories that chil-
dren love to hear, and in many other ways
furnishes inspiration and incentive for you to
form closer bonds with your child through
Nature, and enrich both your lives.

This book tells you and your child what
you should know about animals, tame and
wild. From the house cat to the camel, the
lamb to the lion, the canary to the eagle, the
animals that interest a child are described here
—how they behave, what they eat, and their
fascinating oddities. You are introduced to the
pleasurable hobby of bird watching and told
how to recognize birds by their appearance
and songs, and how to attract them to your
home. You are given interesting information
galore to answer such inevitable questions as
"How do birds fly?", "Can a squirrel ever find
the nuts it buries?", "Can animals talk?",
"What is the difference between a rabbit and
a hare?", and many, many more.

Snakes get their due here. In these pages
your child and vou will discover how a snake

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Exploring Nature
with Your Child

Exploring
Nature
with Your Child

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE
ENJOYMENT AND UNDERSTANDING
OF NATURE

BY

Dorothy Edwards Shuttlesworth

Contributing Editor, Junior Natural
History Magazine of The American
Museum of Natural History

GREYSTONE PRESS • HAWTHORN BOOKS

Copyright © 1952 by The Greystone Press, 100 Sixth Avenue, New
York City 13. All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce this
book or portions thereof in any form, except for the inclusion of brief
quotations in a review. This book was manufactured in the United
States of America and published simultaneously in Canada by
McClelland & Stewart, Ltd., 25 Hollinger Road, Toronto 16.

11698-6M

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writing of this book would have been quite impossible without
the wholehearted interest of my husband, Melvin Shuttlesworth. His
excellent advice and suggestions, as well as practical helps, have been
invaluable. I am grateful also to Frederick Drimmer, editor of The
Greystone Press, for his guidance and enthusiasm all along the way.
My deep appreciation goes also to C. M. Goethe of Sacramento,
California, who through a lifetime of nature exploring has caused
innumerable parents and children to follow his example, and whose
interest in my work over many years has been a constant inspiration.

It is impossible to express adequately my debt to the American
Museum of Natural History, where my work gives me the privilege of
discussing the various aspects of nature with brilliant scientists who
are devoting their lives to the study of some particular field of the
natural sciences. Particularly am I indebted to the following members
of the Scientific Staff who have read and helpfully criticized chapters
of this book: Dr. John T. Zimmer, Curator of Birds; T. Donald Carter,
Assistant Curator of Mammals; Francesca R. LaMonte, Associate Cura-
tor of Fishes; Bessie Matalas Hecht, Scientific Assistant, Amphibians
and Reptiles; John Pallister, Research Associate, Insects and Spiders;
Farida A. Wiley, Instructor, Department of Education; Dr. Henry K.
Svenson, Curator, Forestry and Botany; Robert R. Ccles, Chairman,
Astronomy and the Hayden Planetarium. Also my thanks to Dr. George
H. Childs for reading the section of seashore life, and to Dr. George G.
Goodwin, Associate Curator of Mammals for reading the section
on whales.

I am grateful for the kind permission of Dr. Arnold Gesell and of
Ginn and Company to include (in Chapter One) an excerpt from
The Normal Child and Primary Education, by Arnold and Beatrice
Chandler Gesell.

D. E. 8.

To Mel

and to our two young explorers,

Lee Ann and Gregory,
this book is affectionately dedicated

The Illustrators

Mammals, Reptiles, and Insects . .

Thomas Voter, Art Director

American Museum of Natural History

Fish ....

Lloyd Sandford, Staff Artist
New York Zoological Society

Birds

Robert F. Seibert, Formerly Staff Artist
"Audubon Magazine"

Flowers and Trees

Matthew Kalmenoff, Staff Artist

American Museum of Natural History

Contents

1. WHAT NATURE EXPLORING CAN DO FOR YOUR

CHILD »7

The best approach to exploring nature— we learn from nature-
overcoming fear— "the child is father of the man"— famous people
as nature lovers— why nature is important to your child.

2. HOW TO UNDERSTAND THE BIRDS ....

Feathers for clothes— why protective coloring is important— new
feathers for old— the versatile beak— feet are versatile, too— sharp
eyes and ears— how birds fly— flight techniques— the mystery of
migration— sky lanes of the birds— flying hours— how fast do birds
fly?_where birds migrate— how to keep a bird calendar— how to
be a good neighbor to the birds— feeding the birds in wintertime
—what birds feed on— identifying birds by their song— how to
record bird songs— how to make birds feel at home— the hobby
of nest collecting— baby birds— the chicken and the egg— how
many eggs are laid— the size of eggs— bringing up baby— how
bird babies are fed— getting ready to leave the nest.

3. THE DELIGHTFUL HOBBY OF BIRD WATCHING . 49

How to get the most out of bird walks— some bird neighbors-
robins mean spring is here— sparrows are pleasant neighbors— jays
—crows— cardinals for color— goldfinches: our wild canaries— chick-
adees—hummingbirds: smallest of the birds— meadow larks— Balti-
more orioles— cowbirds follow cattle— mockingbirds don't always
mock— whippoorwills: the invisible singers— owls: birds of the
night— hawks: more friends than foes— bald eagles— vultures: na-
ture's street cleaners— gulls: they roost on water.

8 ] Contents

4. BIRDS OF FARM AND ZOO 68

Turkeys: the Pilgrims' pride— the bronze turkey— how the turkey
got its name— the sun dance— ducks, tame and wild— the muscovy
duck— fresh-water and salt-water ducks— geese, and how to know
them — the Canada goose — the graceful swans — pigeons — their
courtship antics— the homing pigeon— at the zoo— ostriches: the
world's largest birds— the huge ostrich egg— the maligned ostrich-
peacocks: nature's gorgeous spectacle— penguins: birds that swim
but can't fly— laying eggs on ice— storks and more storks-
canaries: favorite pets— where canaries come from— singing and
sex differences— parrots: masters of mimicry— members of the
parrot family— how birds began— the flying reptiles— the earliest
known bird.

5. ANIMALS IN THE WILD 83

Many kinds of mammals— flesh eaters and plant eaters— "good"
and "bad" animals— hunting for animal tracks— how to identify
tracks— collecting tracks— how animals talk— cry danger!— how
mammals fight— special battle techniques— not-so-secret weapons
—keeping a mammal chart— motoring in search of mammals-
how mammals survive the winter— wild mammal neighbors— squir-
rels: nature's acrobats— rabbits— the house mouse— the harvest
mouse— other members of the mouse family— beavers: sociable
builders— muskrats are also builders— otters: shy but likable-
moles: nature's excavators— prairie dogs: master engineers— the
wary marmot— the striped gopher— raccoons: ingratiating and
inquisitive— skunks: friendlier than you think— other pets-
guinea pigs— hamsters— bears: noted gourmets— foxes and wolves-
lynxes and bobcats: more ballyhoo than ferocity— deer: appealing
creatures— adventures in park and zoo— monkeys: high-spirited
performers— gorillas: shy and retiring— chimpanzees: intelligent
and comical— orangutans: slow and deliberate— elephants: largest
land animals— hippos: "river horses"— the unpredictable rhino-
tigers— lions: not so lionhear ted— giraffes: walking skyscrapers—
camels— the Alaskan brown bear— the polar bear— the grizzly bear
—the giant panda: children's favorite— oddities from Australia—
the platypus: scrambled mammal— the kangaroo's built-in baby
carriage— the koala: nature's teddy bear— sea lions and seals:
nature's clowns— walruses: timid giants— bats and nature's radar
system— blood-sucking bats— mammals in maps, games, stamps,
and art— mammal maps— animal lotto— place cards for parties-
animals on stamps— animals in art.

Contents [ 9

6. ANIMAL FRIENDS AND HELPERS . . 137

Dogs— keen eyes and ears— dogs are good runners— how dogs talk
—when a child fears dogs— the wild strains in our dogs— the St.
Bernard— Seeing Eye dogs— the German shepherd— dogs in the
home— cats— seeing in the dark— sensitive feelers— the cat as a
hunter— cats are model mothers— children and cats— cat language
—where cats came from— Persian cats— Siamese cats— the Manx-
pet shows and pictures— horses— a horse's teeth tell its age— how
horses run— the horse's wild relatives— thoroughbreds and other
popular breeds— Arabian horses— the humble donkey and mule— _
cattle— how milk is produced— how cows eat— how cattle express
themselves— good hearers and smellers— tail switching— goats: they
don't eat cans— sheep: they came down from mountains— obedi-
ence saves the sheep— pigs: smarter than you think— pig talk.

7. FISH AND THEIR FABULOUS NEIGHBORS . . 164

How fish breathe— how the gills work— fascinating fins— moving
through the water— how the goldfish gets its color— fish use
camouflage too— how fish see and hear— fish scales— telling the age
of fish— "it was that big!"— fish migrate too— how to keep an
aquarium successfully— how long fish live— fishes in the brook-
how to plan a fishing trip— more fishing fun for children-
shiners and "pumpkin seeds"— the plucky sunfish- catching fish
with a net— keeping records of fish— visiting fish hatcheries-
family life in the fish world— fish that don't lay eggs— some famous
fish— trout— salmon— eels: versatile creatures— fish that are differ-
ent—the fish that walks— "flying" fish— sea horses: natiure's eccen-
trics—shocking fish— sharks: not so ferocious— whales: biggest
mammals of them all— whale "babies"— mermaids: glamour girls
of the sea— sponges— coral: semi-precious ornament— architect of
the seas— the bashful snails— how to take care of a pet snail— at
the seashore— stinging hydroids— flower-like sea anemones— shell-
fish: they aren't really fish— the clams' pearly lining— the self-
effacing crabs — the rock crab — the aggressive lobsters — shell
hobbies are fun— shell collecting— decorative uses for shells-
shell handicrafts.

8. SNAKES AND FROGS AND THEIR RELATIVES , . 195

Reptiles: past and present— the cold-blooded snakes— sleeping
through the winter— the snake's body: more than a tail— the
snake's hearing aid— molting: how snakes shed their skin— how

lo ] Contents

snakes move— snake tracks— how snakes breed— snake eggs— how
snakes kill— how poison fangs work— hearty eaters— the ways of a
rattler— the rattle rings— what the rattle is for— kinds of rattle-
snakes—the good-natured boa— pythons: the largest snakes— the
cobra's double personality— the garter snake— hognose snakes:
ham actors— the maligned milk snake— king snakes: harmless and
dangerous kinds— how to recognize a poisonous snake— when you
encounter a snake— snakes as pets— proper diet for a pet snake—
turtles— armor plate for defense— how to take care of turtle pets
—turtle ailments and remedies— chameleons and other lizards—
the secret of the chameleon's color changes— how to keep a
chameleon pet— lizards of the Southwest— alligators and crocodiles
—how alligators and crocodiles differ— frogs— the hobby of collect-
ing frogs' eggs— how a tadpole grows— biggest and smallest frogs—
toads— basis for the "wart" myth— how toads drink and breathe-
how toads defend themselves— where to find toads— salamanders
—the red eft— the care of amphibians— how to catch a frog— how
to feed an amphibian pet.

9. THE WONDERFUL WAYS OF INSECTS AND SPIDERS

What is an insect?— how insects are able to move— the lowly bug
—millions of kinds of insects— the magic of metamorphosis— eyes
with thousands of facets— the insect's detecting equipment— how
insects eat and breathe— the delicate structure of legs and wings
—butterflies: insects with glamour— the beautiful black swallowtail
—the migrating monarch butterfly— the hibernating mourning
cloak— moths: how they differ from butterflies- silk manufacturers
—the woolly bear caterpillar: weather prophet— caterpillars as a
hobby— the pleasures of cocoon collecting— how to collect butter-
flies and moths— how to handle the butterfly net— the best hunting
grounds— how to mount butterflies and moths— beetles: 23,000
species in North America— the firefly— the ladybug: pest exter-
minator—the ground beetle: nighttime hunter— beetles with gas
bombs— beetles near water— how to collect beetles— ants— inside
the ant colony— savage ant warriors— grasshoppers and their music
—katydids: fiddlers, not singers— crickets as weather forecasters-
cricket on the hearth— how to keep cricket pets— bees— the bee's
sting— very few kinds of bees store honey— the underground
bumblebee— playing bee detective— what goes on in a beehive-
wasps: clever papermakers— the wood-eating termites— flies— blood-
thirsty mosquitoes— crane flies— the dragonfly— beautiful, and use-
ful too— the damsel fly— insects that live in the water— the
whirligig: "lucky bug"— the speedy water strider- the upside-down

232

Contents [ n

bug— the caddis fly— how to keep water insects at home— insect
oddities— the galls: weird homemakers— remarkable types of galls
—the interestingly named ant lions— the doodlebug's ambush
technique— the strange praying mantis— walking sticks: masters
of camouflage— the misunderstood spiders— remote-control traps-
how the spider spins an orb web— how to watch spiders at work-
spider mothers are resourceful— cannibal spiders— "flying" spiders
—the spider's homemade parachute— daddy longlegs— "thousand-
leggers"— the lowly worms— how earthworms enrich the soil.

10. THE FASCINATION OF FLOWERS . . . T^ — r ^gg

Plants move too— how plants feed themselves— the leaf: nature's
great chemical laboratory— how chlorophyll makes food for plants
—plants turn toward the sun— some "dew" doesn't fall— what
flowers are for— the parts of a flower and what they do— how the
seed starts— nuts and tomatoes are "fruit"— how flowers attract
insects— how pollen is carried from plant to plant— breeding
flowers— how seeds are scattered— a garden of his own— trees,
shrubs, and herbs— favorite flowers— flowers for a beginner— plan
your color scheme— pansies: perfect for children— tulips: the
national passion of Holland— bachelor's buttons— garden gerani-
ums: butterflies' favorite— nasturtiums— petunias and their inter-
national background— poppies: they fascinate bees— irises: large
and showy— roses: the world's most popular flowers— roses and
strawberries are relatives— chrysanthemums: Japanese favorite-
dahlias: they grow even on ash heaps— indoor gardening-
narcissus bulbs are easy to grow— hyacinth, tulip, and crocus bulbs
—other easy indoor gardening techniques— how to propagate
plants — African violets — begonias and snake plants — growing
flowers indoors— vegetables: for decoration and food— sweet
potato— working with seeds— growing dandelion greens— growing
rhubarb— young dirt farmers— radishes: a fast crop— corn: a some-
what puzzling plant— pumpkins: source of delicious pies— weeds:
pests that may be beautiful— wildflowers to look for in springtime
— hepaticas close for the night— adder's tongues are lilies— violets:
not always shy— trillium for threefold— jack-in-the-pulpit— cactus:
not just a desert plant— dandelions— from "day's eye" to daisy—
buttercups— lucky clover— collecting clovers is fun— milkweed and
its strange secretion— murder by milkweed— Queen Anne's lace:
beautiful yet troublesome— goldenrod— asters— some sunflowers
are twelve feet high— wildflower bouquets and gardens— what
flowers to choose— growing a wildflower garden— how to press
and mount plants— some plants have no green parts— what fungi

12 ] Contents

feed on— fungi that prey on living things— precautions against
poisonous mushrooms— mosses favor moist places— the moss as a
compass— the best-known moss— ferns, fronds, and "fiddle heads"
—ferns for decoration— how to make fern prints.

11. TREES AND HOW TO KNOW THEM .... 339

Tree rings and what they tell us— watching a tree develop— buds:
new life for the tree— how to grow tree buds indoors— trees have
their own birthday candles— how trees are nourished— the most
famous tree food of all— why leaves change color and fall— how
knots and knotholes are formed— trees prune their own branches
—the underground life of trees— keeping a tree biography— how to
recognize the trees— the white oaks— the black oaks— oak buds-
sugar maples— red maples— Norway maples— sycamores: massive
shade trees— "the button-ball tree"— American elms: graceful and
tough— poplars: including the quaking aspen— the popular Cot-
tonwood—willows: generally found near water— the pussy willow:
children's favorite— beeches: handsome and practical— ash trees:
pliant but tough— the paper birch— the gray and yellow birches—
the cherry birch — horse-chestnuts: imported from abroad:
ginkgos: admirable for city streets— firs for Christmas— Canada
balsam— how to recognize a black spruce— the Norway spruce-
hemlocks: useful and ornamental— pines: majestic trees— needles:
the key to identification— pine cones— massive sequoias: thousands
of years old— the towering redwood— how to mount evergreen
specimens— some spring beauties— flowering dogwoods— magnolias
—apple blossoms— shrubs— witch hazel and its popgun seed-
lovely mountain laurel— staghorn sumac: brilliant scarlet— poison
sumac— poison ivy and poison oak— relief for poison ivy— making
leaf collections— how to make spatter prints— how to make prints
with printer's ink— growing trees at home.

12. OUR EARTH AND ITS FELLOW PLANETS . . 38O

Things are not what they seem— looking at the sky— galaxies and
more galaxies— what telescopes tell us— telescopes for everyday
use— choosing a telescope— how planets differ from stars— how to
locate the planets— why life is possible on our earth— Mars:
science-fiction favorite— Mars through the telescope— the "canals"
of Mars— life on Mars— Mars without a telescope— Martian inva-
sion—Mercury: submerged by the sun's brilliance— life is impos-
sible on Mercury— when Mercury is visible— Venus: most brilliant
of the planets— the atmosphere of Venus— earth: just another

Contents I *8

planet-night and day-sunrise, noon, and night-why the amount
of daylight varies— why we have changing seasons— Jupiter:
largest of the planets— an atmosphere thousands of miles deep-
Jupiter has moons-Saturn and its strange, gigantic rings-
Uranus and Neptune: distant planets— Pluto: most distant of
them all— the mysterious minor planets— the moon: our neighbor
in space— what makes "the man in the moon"— phases of the
moon and what produces them— what we will find on the moon-
how the moon was formed— why we have eclipses of the moon
—seeing the skies "indoors."

13. RECOGNIZING THE STARS 4O5

What sunspots are— tracing the influence of sunspots— eclipses of
the sun— how the sun is "blotted out"— atomic energy and the
sun— safety measures for sun observation— stars beyond the sun-
hundreds of thousands of light-years away— how stars seem to
move— Polaris, the North Star— constellations in the night sky—
the Great Bear and the Little Dipper— the Winding Dragon-
Cassiopeia and Cepheus—Camelopardalis— stars of the summer
night— winter stars are exceptionally brilliant— some wintertime
favorites— the signs of the Zodiac— discovering the constellations
—how astronomers study the stars— telescope and camera— the
versatile spectroscope— spectacular sights in the skies— the Milky
Way, forty billion stars— the Southern Cross— comets: millions of
miles long— what comets are made of— "shooting stars" are not
stars— meteors and "fireballs"— "meteor showers"— two thousand
meteors a day— "flying saucers": optical ghosts— "as real as rain-
bows"—what causes optical illusions.

14. UNDERSTANDING THE WEATHER .... 424

Rings around the moon— the rainbow has practical value— night
rains— when the sun "draws water"— unreliable predictions— the
winds are formed— why it rains— how air currents affect rain— sun
showers— billions of snowflakes, no two alike— snow and sleet-
snow is mostly air— frost on the windowpane— how to make frost
prints— hail: "hot-weather ice"— thunder and lightning— what
causes lightning— "lightning" in a storage battery— forked light-
ning and other kinds— when lightning is dangerous— how many
miles between you and lightning?— thunderstorms— heat thunder-
storms — "cold front" thunderstorms — winter thunderstorms —
storms of violence— tornadoes: several hundred miles an hour-
cyclones: a confusing term— hurricanes: several hundred miles

14 ] Contents

wide— forecasting the weather from the clouds— clouds and fog-
feathery and billowy clouds— spectacular cumulus clouds— cirrus
clouds: "mares' tails"— stratus clouds— other cloud forms— the
weatherman's tools— studying the upper atmosphere— weather
study as a hobby— estimating wind velocity— how to make a rain
gauge— studying the weather is more than fun.

COMPLETE READY-REFERENCE INDEX .... 44*

Exploring Nature
with Your Child

CHAP

TER II What Nature Exploring
Can Do for Your Child

HiLDREN are natural explorers. They have
the true explorer's interest in their im-
mediate surroundings as well as in faraway places, and they are
eager to know why things are as they are. If you are a wise parent,
you will look upon these qualities in your child as a sacred fire-
always to be fed, allowed to die out never. An inquiring mind and
zest for living are essential for a rich, interesting, and worth-while
life. Childhood is the time to nourish and strengthen these fine
qualities.

Just as your child is a natural explorer, you are a natural guide.
You help him find security and a sense of direction in the broad
and bewildering world that men have made; so, too, you can
guide him along nature's ways— and give him a happy outlet and
satisfaction for his natural curiosity and exuberance.

You can be a fellow explorer, too, enriching your own life as
well as your child's. As you look back on your own early years,
you may recall the first time you noticed a bud opening into a
flower, a bird building its nest, two colonies of ants battling each
other. You may remember that such intimate glimpses of nature
gave you a real thrill. Now, as a parent, you can find still more
pleasure in learning about the ways of animals and the wonders
of plants as you share your observing with your child. No need to
go on a safari through Central Africa— delightful discoveries await
you in your own back yard, in city parks and suburban gardens,
along forest trails where you may hike, and by the side of lakes
and streams or the ocean where you may vacation.

19

i8 ] What Nature Exploring Can Do for Your Child

There is no end to the wealth of experiences nature holds in
store for you and your child. In a park you can see squirrels bury-
ing nuts, providing for lean times in a season of plenty. You may
observe a flock of wild ducks landing on a park lake for a stop-
over in their long flight from summer to winter homes. Bees,
butterflies, and ants have strange and wonderful ways that you
and your child can watch with fascination for hours.

The diversion nature offers you is more exciting than any
invented by man, yet it is close at hand and costs you nothing.
In many suburbs you may look out of the window in the morning
and see a woodchuck nibbling its breakfast in a dewy field, or a
rabbit scampering across the lawn, purposefully headed for the
vegetable garden. You may watch spiders spinning silken traps,
or see an exciting tug-of-war between a robin and an earthworm.
In woodlands and meadows, in zoos and museums, there is even
more for you to observe. No television, radio, or motion picture
producer could invest in his productions the millions of years that
nature has spent in preparing these thrilling spectacles for you.

The Best Approach To Exploring Nature

What is the best method of exploring nature? The answer
depends on the individual child, for children vary in their
approach to nature's activities just as they differ in countless
other ways. One child is full of curiosity about plant and animal
life from the time he is an infant. Another is absorbed in fanciful
ideas, while still another has a mechanical bent, remaining oblivi-
ous of natural wonders until you bring them to his attention.

And so exploring nature is not always a simple matter: It is
not just "knowing all the answers" or pointing out each tree or
bird that you see. A background of information is invaluable, to
be sure, but you must pass it on in such a way that you do not
overwhelm the child's own modest discoveries. Awareness is essen-
tial, but it should not be carried to a point where your child
considers you slightly eccentric. On the whole, the successful
approach lies in encouraging his inquisitiveness and providing
opportunities for him to satisfy his curiosity.

What Nature Exploring Can Do for Your Child [ 19

We Learn from Nature

Children with a practical turn of mind particularly enjoy
hearing about ways in which man has put nature's "inventions"
to use. Outstanding among these devices is camouflage, applied
so effectively by many birds and other animals for their own
protection. This principle pointed the way for the change from
army uniforms that made soldiers conspicuous targets to the
deceptive, neutral earth and leaf tones used in battle nowadays.

Another debt we owe nature is the inspiration of bird flight,
which has been carefully studied in advancing our own conquest
of the air. Fish that swam in prehistoric seas, and many other
creatures, have benefited from streamlining— another principle
that we have put to use only recently. Wasps were adept at making
paper from wood fiber centuries before human beings learned the
technique. Our recent invention of radar is an old story to bats,
which have a somewhat comparable system for getting their bear-
ings as they fly sightless through treacherous passageways. These
are just a few of the lessons that the practical-minded child— or any
child— will enjoy having pointed out to him as he becomes ac-
quainted with nature's ways.

Overcoming Fear

Exploring nature teaches children to overcome many baseless
fears. Occasionally you find a boy or girl showing more timidity
than enjoyment in encounters with animals. The reason for this
may be difficult to trace, for a child sometimes has experiences
of which his parents are not aware. I saw a case in point one day
in a woodsy stretch of a large city park where children were play-
ing unsupervised. A big boy, hand outstretched, started to chase a
little fellow, and was fairly hissing with menace:

"Spider! Spider!"

The smaller child was screaming in fright. My curiosity aroused
as to the size of the creature inspiring his terror, I approached the
older boy and asked if I might see the spider. He gave me a de-
lighted conspiratorial smile and showed me what was in his hand:
a small flower!

20 ] What Nature Exploring Can Do for Your Child

"I just wanted to scare him," he explained. "He didn't come
close enough to see what I really had."

Meanwhile something remarkable had happened. The younger
boy had not only stopped crying, but was coming slowly toward
us. My interest in the "spider" had aroused his curiosity and was
giving him courage to at least see what the "dangerous" creature
looked like. It was strong evidence of the influence of older people
on a youngster— to his advantage or detriment.

As we spend time with children out-of-doors, we become familiar
with the fears they may have of little-known creatures. Once we
realize that these fears exist, it is usually not difficult to set at
rest any timidity that is really baseless. The remedy is simply to
give the youngster an understanding of the dreaded animal.

"The Child Is Father of the Man''

We contribute a great deal to a child's future happiness by
giving him a sympathetic acquaintance with as much wildlife as
possible. The point is brought home to us when we meet an
adult who is agitated by any number of groundless fears.

I remember, for example, a visit to our woodland cabin by a
woman whose usual haunts were in New York. All day long she
had been enjoying the trees and flowers, the river, and glimpses
of bird life; but in the evening a screech owl's tremulous wailing
whistle suddenly shattered the quiet. All our explanations about
its being "only an owl" proved futile. Our visitor had been quite
unnerved by the unearthly sound, and it was obvious she could
hardly wait to return to what to her was the calming environment
of the big city.

A few evenings later another visitor— this time a little boy of
no more than five— heard the wail of the screech owl.

"What was that?" he asked.

We told him, hastily thinking of interesting facts that might
dispel his fears. But we need not have bothered. As soon as he
heard it was an owl, he said wistfully:

"I wish he would come close so I could hold him and pat him."

It is pleasant to think how rich life will be for this child,

What Nature Exploring Can Do for Your Child [21

growing up with an acceptance of all the sounds and sights that
have a rightful place in nature's scheme. But he did not come
by this attitude through chance. His parents have been giving
him a knowledge and understanding of wildlife since he was
three. They have told him nature stories and taught him nature
lore and hobbies that have widened his world and made it more
enjoyable. All this will certainly contribute to a healthful serenity
in later years.

You will find it easy— and delightful— to do the same for ^^our
child or children. You are building for the future when you instil
in your child a true appreciation of nature and outdoor activities.
No one who has this heritage is likely to become a neurotic adult.
His conception of the universe and our own earth and the life
on it, including himself, is on too grand a scale to permit petty
man-made problems to shatter his nerves.

Famous People As Nature Lovers

It is true that some children show a deep interest in flowers and
birds and beasts without any special encouragement from adults;
but if they can share their interest with their parents, the whole
experience becomes more vital and the bonds of family affection
are strengthened. Many leading citizens, who are not only famous
but have also been successful in their personal lives, have happy
childhood memories of nature exploring with their parents.

Theodore Roosevelt's closely knit family had a wealth of such
shared interests, and when he was President of the United States
his letters to his children away at school were filled with nature
news. When spring came to Washington, he reported that "not
only are the song sparrows and robins singing, but white-throated
sparrows which will soon leave us for the North." The oncoming
of fall was noted with: "The Virginia creepers and some maple
and gum trees are scarlet and crimson. The oaks are deep, red
brown." He told of watching a mother bird bring worms to her
babies, of feeding elk at the zoo, and countless other incidents
about animals and plants.

Mary Mapes Dodge, who won world fame with Hans Brinker

22 ] What Nature Exploring Can Do for Your Child

and the Silver Skates and other writings, fondly recalled her
father as a companion on nature jaunts. One of her most vivid
recollections in adult years was of a trip with him to the Botanical
Gardens in New York where some plant experiments were ex-
plained. The next day, with her father's interested approval, Mary
started "a little botanical garden" at her bedroom window— a
sweet potato in a hanging vase, and seeds planted in old teacups
filled with different kinds of soil.

Herbert Hoover was an outstanding geologist and mining
engineer before he became President of the United States. He
was an "outdoor boy" from babyhood on, and only the worst sort
of weather could keep him in the house. His parents took him
often to his grandfather's farm where he could herd cattle, plant
corn, and tend chickens. Though his father died when the boy
was small, his mother found time in her busy life for picnics and
other outdoor excursions. It was on these outings that Herbert
started collecting rocks— the introduction to his absorbing lifelong
interest in geology. By the time he was seven he knew how to fish,
forecast storms, and track animals; he loved learning about the
ways of birds, snakes, and all other small creatures of the woods.

As a friend of the Hoover family puts it, "Bert read his fairy
tales in stones, the everlasting hills, the dawn of creation, the
fashioning of a universe." This heritage of nature appreciation
has been passed on to Herbert Hoover's sons and grandchildren.

In all countries, men and women have achieved eminence after
evincing an early and continuing interest in the world around
them, and particularly in nature's ways. Their awareness of nature
has brought greater contentment and happiness into their own
lives. Indeed, they have enriched the lives of all of us with those
achievements of the inquiring mind that has been trained by
close and habitual observation.

Wh^ Nature Is Important to Your Qiild

Modem schools have excellent programs of nature study; but
even the best programs cannot take the place of family participa-
tion in nature interests. On the other hand, any child whose parents

What Nature Exploring Can Do for Your Child [ 23

enjoy nature with him finds this of real help with his school work.
He will readily discuss ideas that are presented to him at school
when he knows his father and mother are interested.

Actually it is not always simple to keep up with the rapid strides
made by children. It seemed I had barely stopped smiling over my
three-year-old's comments, such as, "I know bees make honey,
but I don't see how they get it into jars," when he was coming
home from the first grade asking, "What is the difference between
rodents and other kinds of animals?" A year later he was likely to
interrupt lunch with such posers as: "If dinosaurs were so big and
powerful, why did they all die?" Suddenly we had arrived at ques-
tions that still puzzle many a scientist.

The important place that nature has in the life of a young child
has been sensitively analyzed by Arnold and Beatrice Chandler
Gesell. Here is what these eminent experts on child behavior say:

"There is nothing new under the sun, but to childhood all is
novelty. The most commonplace things teem with novelty.

"Children are in a stage of sense experience when this warm
glow of contact through eye and ear and touch may be trans-
mitted into the life of spirit; when light, shadow, sound, motion,
and touch weave a tangle of lovely associations around common-
place experiences and build up a deep appreciation of life and
things. Thus the truths of nature become unconsciously associated
with emotional response, which deepens and safeguards them.
The child learns more through unconscious absorption than
through didactic prescription, and in nature study daily contact
with the beauty, motive, and unceasing effort everywhere shown
by plant and animal gives an impulse to individual character and
sets standards of behavior.

"The child who stands on tiptoe to peep cautiously into the
new-found bird's nest, who feels the velvety softness of growing
things beneath his feet as he hunts out the tiny wild flowers in
the spring, who sows his own garden seed and waits to see the first
young green push its way through the dark, moist soil is building
up a reverence for life, a sense of kinship with it, which will
uphold him in his later and deeper understanding of its meaning."

CHAPTER^ How to Understand
the Birds

GST CHILDREN, as soon as they are old
enough to take an interest in their sur-
roundings, delight in birds. A bundle of feathers with bright
eyes and a perky air of self-confidence is an appealing figure
whether trilling on a summer day or seeking food in wintry gales.
As the child matures, he looks more inquiringly at the graceful
songster with which he has become familiar, and one day may
startle you with the question:

"What makes a bird a bird?"

Taken off guard you might answer: "A bird has feathers and
wings and is able to fly."

But there you stop in confusion. Some birds, such as the ostrich
and penguin, do not fly! A fuller explanation will take this into
account. Birds are warm-blooded, feathered, egg-laying animals
that have backbone and wings, although the wings do not neces-
sarily serve as flying aids. Naturally, you will have to expand
this description to make it clear to a child— but it will fit the tiny,
speedy hummingbird, the earth-bound ostrich, the majestic eagle,
the comical puffin. It will fit the feathered creatures of woodlands,
prairies, oceanic islands, high mountain slopes, lakes, deserts,
jungles and barnyards. It will stand up under such a challenge as
I had from a three-year-old:

"But, Mommy, you called the chicken a bird. It's a chickenF'

24

How to Understand the Birds [ 25

By strongly emphasizing feathers I finally persuaded her that
even the stalwart barnyard fowl deserves to be ranked with the
birds. Feathers are about the only feature which birds do not
share with any other kind of animal.

Feathers for Clothes

Bird plumage is often so beautiful that we are likely to over-
look its practical value. What clothes are to people, feathers are
to birds: undergarments, overcoat and raincoat all in one.

Watch a chicken caught in a rainstorm and you will have a
perfect illustration of the "raincoat." The chicken droops its wings
and tail, making the best possible use of the feathers— for rain
flows off them as it does from your slicker. Examine one of the
feathers and you will find it has three distinctive parts: the quill
(or central stem) ; the barbs attached to the major part of the
quill; and a soft fluff. This fluff, snuggling against the body at
the base of the quill, plays the part of warm underclothing.

Why Protective Coloring Is Important

Feathers often serve birds as camouflage. We quickly recognize
this in many wild birds. The value of protective coloring in
chickens is less obvious to us because we usually see them in a
barnyard. Were a hen living in a state of nature, wandering in
grassy fields with her chicks, her neutral color would blend with
her surroundings. It is the rooster who is decorative, having lovely
iridescent tail feathers and, sometimes, colorful neck plumage.

Wild birds offer many convincing examples of the safety value
of camouflage. The female Baltimore oriole, for example, is a
dull orange-yellow while her mate is a brilliant combination of
vivid orange, black, and white. Among the cardinals, the male
is a rich red; the female's plumage is light brown with only the
faintest tinge of red. The name "rose-breasted grosbeak" is appro-
priate for the male of this species, as he displays a deep rose patch
on his white breast; but his mottled yellow-brown and white mate
looks rather like an overgrown sparrow.

26 ] How to Understand the Birds

In each case we see the same principle at work: The mother
birds that must look after the eggs and babies do not attract
notice. Meanwhile the arrestingly colored males can remain at a
suitable distance from the nest, distracting the attention of
squirrels or other possible enemies.

You may notice an interesting phase of protective coloration
in birds that are "molting." When the males of certain species
lose their bright feathers after the mating season, they develop
new ones of somber hues. By fall the male scarlet tanager is the
same dull yellow green as his mate; both male and female bobolink
become sparrow-like in appearance; and the bright yellow body-
feathers of the goldfinch have given way to others of dull yellow
brown. So garbed, the male birds are fairly inconspicuous until
the time comes again for them to be gaily attractive to the females.

New Feathers for Old

If late summer happens to be the time that your boy or girl
starts to show a more than casual interest in birds, the subject
of molting makes the most dramatic theme to explore. Some
species lose their worn and faded feathers in August, and by
September have a completely new plumage. Among the excep-
tions to this schedule are waterfowl, which begin to molt in June.
By September they have passed through two molts, during which
they took on and discarded a dull plumage.

Unless there is a definite change in a bird's coloration during
molting, the process is not easy to observe, since the change is
gradual. Starting with one certain feather— usually this is the inner-
most primary wing feather— it continues over the wings until all
are replaced. The feathers of some kinds of birds develop all over
the body at the same time, while on others the development comes
in patches. Ducks, grebes, loons and other swimming birds which
do not depend on flight as their only means of locomotion, molt
all feathers at the ends of the wings (the primaries) within a
very short time.

Feathers do not grow haphazardly over a bird's body, but are
arranged in definite lines or patches (called "feather tracts")

How to Understand the Birds [ 27

between which there are bare areas. However, the overlapping
of feathers of the adjacent tracts keeps the skin completely covered
in healthy birds. You may see a chicken looking "half-naked" as
the result of arrested feather development. This never happens
to wild birds unless they are diseased.

Most birds molt only once a year, but the brilliantly colored
males that have dull winter coats must change again to regain
their beauty in the spring. Hence such birds as the scarlet tanager
and the goldfinch undergo a spring (prenuptial) as well as fall
(postnuptial) molt. The spring molt is usually not complete, how'
ever; the wing and tail feathers serve both plumages.

Some birds change appearance between winter and spring
without undergoing a second molt. They do so merely by "feather
wear"; that is, the feather tips which have given the general tone
to the winter plumage wear away and expose the bright colors of
the breeding plumage. The robin is a notable example. His breast
becomes redder as spring advances because the gray feather tips
are wearing off. In other birds yellow, brown, and gray most
frequently edge the feathers in winter plumage. As these colors
disappear, black, brown, or red is revealed.

Molting consumes energy. While it is growing a new set of
feathers, a bird neither sings nor fights, staying in seclusion except
when it must seek food. It is for this reason, rather than because
of an early departure for southern climes, that you see few birds
in late August and early September. As soon as the birds have
completed their molting they regain their vitality and are ready
to migrate or to face the rigors of a northern winter.

The Versatile Beak

The child who is always asking "Why?" will be fascinated by
the endless variety of bird beaks. In almost every case, beak
formation gives us the clue to a bird's eating habits, diet— and
even its surroundings. The duck, for example, has a wide, flat
bill that equips it for feeding on water insects and plants. After
seizing food in its beak, the duck holds the food until the water
strains out of the sievelike edges. Given the same conditions, the
sharp, horny beak of the hen woula be quite useless. The hen's

28 ] How to Understand the Birds

beak resembles a pick rather than a scoop, and it strikes efficiently
into the soil for insects or seeds.

Another bird with a sharp, seed-eating beak is the sparrow. As
for the woodpecker, its beak is virtually a chisel. You may spy
one of these birds drilling for insects, or come upon the evidence
where a woodpecker has left a series of holes in a tree trunk.

These are but a few examples of the close relationship between
the style of a bird's beak and the kind of food that it eats. Children
will get the point at once if you tell them the delightful Aesop
fable of the stork and the fox. The stork, having been served soup
in a shallow dish by his host, a fox, gets his revenge by inviting
the fox to dinner and serving it in a narrow-necked vessel down
which its own long bill fits perfectly.

Getting food for the adult and feeding the young are the
two basic uses of the beak. But it has other important functions:
It is a tool for gathering nesting material and digging nesting sites
and it often serves as a weapon of attack or defense. It also enables
many birds to do an effective job of preening and smoothing their
plumage and keeping it clean.

If the hen you watched during a storm could be observed after
the rain stopped, you might see her using her beak to oil her
feathers. There is an oil gland on her back, just at the base of
the tail feathers. She presses the gland with her beak to force out
oil; then she rubs the beak over the surface of her feathers and
passes it through them. Now her "oilskin slicker" is ready for the
next downpour. A number of other birds, including waterfowl,
use this same oiling method.

The parrot's curved bill is unique in construction and use, as
it is a first-class climbing aid. The upper mandible, or beak, is
movable, being connected to the bird's skull by a hinge. When
the parrot climbs, it uses this mandible as a hook to support its
body while its feet find a new resting place.

Feet Are Versatile Too

Versatile as the beak is, the bird's feet are equally valuable
tools. Wading birds, such as flamingoes and herons, have extremely

How to Understand the Birds

(29

THE FLAMINGO-LONG AND LUGUBRIOUS

''Long'' is the key word for the flamingo: long body, long bill, long neck, long
legs, long toes. Its weird habits include: sleeping in its famous one-legged stance,
eating with its head upside-down, and roosting on its foot-high cone-shaped nest.

long toes which distribute their weight and keep them from sink-
ing into soft mud. Short-tailed birds— the murres, for example-
use the feet as rudders during flight. Diving birds, such as grebes,
use their feet to propel them under water.

Whenever you see a bird scratching for food, you are noticing
another use for its feet. Birds of prey, such as eagles and hawks,
seize their victims in their long, powerful talons. Many birds use
their feet to gather and place nesting material; with other birds,
the feet are fighting weapons. The parrot uses a foot to grasp and
bring food to its mouth, much as we use a hand. So we see that a
bird's feet serve many purposes aside from the most obvious one
of supporting its body.

Sharp Eyes and Ears

Are the bright eyes of a bird as efficient as their alert and
shining appearance leads you to believe? They really are: Birds
are much more sharp-sighted than we are. Not only do birds

30 ] How to Understand the Birds

have keen vision, but some of them are remarkably well adapted
for seeing objects both far away and at close range. Thus a hawk
flying so high that it would appear as a mere speck to us, may
look down and see a rabbit or even a mouse on the ground! The
hawk has two centers of vision, and as it swoops down from the
heights, its vision shifts from one center to the other so that its
eyes are adjusted for short-range work when it seizes its prey.

Yet most birds, despite their sharp eyes, do not have bifocal
vision like the hawk. One consequence is that they do not detect
telephone and telegraph wires, and many birds are injured or
killed every year by collision with such obstacles.

Among birds there is quite a bit of variety in the color of the
iris; it may be brown, gray, blue, yellow, white, pink, purple,
green, and even red. The red-eyed vireo takes the first part of
its name from this striking feature. The hen, which is ideal for
bird study, has a yellow iris. It is equipped with an eyelid that
shuts out vision, coming up from the bottom of the eye, however,
rather than down from the top. It also has another kind of eyelid
—a film that moves across the eye from the inside corner to the
outer side.

You may escape questioning about a bird's hearing ability
because their ears are fairly well hidden. Then suddenly this
very fact may be the basis for a query from your young observer:

"How can that bird hear? I don't see any ears!"

Except for the owls, which have noticeable "ear tufts," the
ear of a bird is no more than a hole, rather well covered with
feathers, on the side of its head. Yet a bird's hearing is just as
remarkable as its sight— perhaps even more remarkable. Walking
in a field or forest you may notice how the snapping of a small
twig will startle and put to flight a bird that is a considerable
distance away. And when you see a robin cocking its head and
realize it is listening for an earthworm under the surface of the
ground, you develop a well-deserved respect for birds* hearing.

How Birds Fly

"How do birds fly?" is a question that most children ask at
some time. The child may accompany his query with a leap into

How to Understand the Birds [ ^i

the air, arms outstretched, and a faint hope that he too can "take
oflE."

Birds are Built for FucHt

It helps your inquisitive child to understand the mechanics
of flight if you point out that the bird's streamlined form is of
great advantage in flying. Besides this, it has an extremely light
structure: Its bones and the shafts of its feathers are hollow and,
as is easily seen, the size of its wing is greater in proportion to
its body than an arm is to the human body.

You can then go on to compare the child's framework to the
bone and feather structure of the bird, which has a bone corres-
ponding to his upper arm and another to the bone between his
elbow and wrist. Have the child extend his thumb upward, hold
his first and second fingers in a horizontal position, and fold the
other two into his palm— somewhat as he would do in making a
pretend-gun out of his hand. This will give him a rough com-
parison with the structure of a bird's wing.

The bird has a winglet corresponding to the child's thumb,
and a second and third digit similar to his extended fingers.
These are sometimes extended upright, but may also be held
horizontally. While the child's arm, hand, and fingers are covered
only with skin, the bird has flight feathers also— one sheath on
the "forearm," and another series on the "hand." The number
of feathers varies in different birds.

FuGHT Techniques

There are four types of bird flight: flapping, gliding, static
soaring, and dynamic soaring. In flapping flight the "arm" wings
help to lift most large wings into the air, while the "hand" wings
produce propulsion through the air. Speed or forward motion is
gained with each downward stroke of the wings; lift is obtained
on up-and-down strokes. In this up-and-down motion the wing
tips move through a much greater arc than the wrists would.
(In airplane flight lift and speed are produced by the propeller
and the wings.) In small birds, such as the finch, the whole wing

32 ] How to Understand the Bird^

flaps as a unit, producing speed and lift at the same time. During
the upstroke, the wing is folded.

When a bird glides, it loses altitude to keep its forward-pushing
motion. In static soaring, the bird takes advantage of up-air cur-
rents which offset the loss of altitude suffered during its gliding
flight. For dynamic soaring a bird such as the albatross will use
the force of the wind. Wind force increases with altitude; hence
the bird, after descending most of the way, levels off with the
slowing down of the wind near the surface of the water, and then
ascends again, once more making use of the air currents.

Birds use their wings differently depending on the kind of
flight, such as horizontal, soaring, descending, gliding, hovering,
taking off, and climbing. Various types of birds have wings of
different shapes and proportions, and each employs each wing in
the distinctive manner appropriate to it.

An important feature of the bird's flying mechanism is a sinew
with elastic qualities. On the downward thrust of the wing, the
sinew holds the feathers in a tight overlapping position. When
the wing comes up, the tension of the sinew relaxes and t^
feathers part and rotate. This allows air to flow between then^
as an aid in flight.

It gives us pleasure to understand how birds fly, but all the
analysis in the world cannot dim the initial thrill of seeing birds
in flight.

The Mystery of Migration

There is no more fascinating way of arousing interest in flight
than having your child catch a sight of migrating birds— perhaps
a flight of geese in military formation, or a close-massed flock of
grackles racing like a dark wind-blown cloud. Even after years of
research and experiment, scientists speak of the "mystery" of bird
migration, for they still do not completely understand it. Yet,
puzzling as this semiannual pilgrimage of countless birds is, it is
no more puzzling to me than the way in which my daughter took
note of it before she reached her second birthday. On three differ-
ent occasions we were having a late afternoon walk along streets

How to Understand the Birds [ 33

brightening with rows of electric lights and alive with home-
bound traffic, when the little girl in the stroller looked up and
pointed in great excitement:

"Look, birdies!"

And there they were— large flocks of them, high above the city's
hubbub, traveling in steady and sure flight toward their winter
destination. The wonderful instinct that keeps birds on their
course in long-distance travel has been called a "sixth sense," and
it seemed that a similar sense must have prompted this mite -to
take her eyes from the noise and excitement on the ground at
exactly the right time to catch the nature news high in the sky.
Now that she is older we have fun deliberately watching for the
"birdies."

Not all birds migrate. Some you will know as "permanent
residents" in your neighborhood. The migratory birds that arrive
in the spring and remain through the summer are "summer resi-
dents." Fall migrants that remain through the cold season are
"winter residents." Other birds you may see only briefly as they
pass through to nesting grounds or winter quarters. These you
know as "transients." Migratory birds thus are different things
to different people, for your summer residents are winter residents
in other regions and your transients somewhere become winter
and summer residents.

A confusing fact about migration is that certain well-known
migrators do not travel as far south, or north, as we think. Accord-
ing to popular belief, the robin, that noted herald of spring,
winters in the warm comfort of the South. It is a bit disconcerting
therefore, when taking a winter walk, to see a robin hunting
food amid frozen surroundings, especially if the boy or girl with
you asks:

"Don't robins go south in winter?"

The majority of them are reveling in southern sunshine. Many
are along the Gulf coast, some are in Mexico, and enormous flocks
are in Florida, feeding on holly and mistletoe berries. But a few
elect to remain in northern climes with only the friendly ever-
greens to shield them. You may also see occasional members of
other species, such as the bluebird, song sparrow, meadow lark,

34 ] How to Understand the Birds

redwinged blackbird, and cedar waxwing, braving the northern
winter.

Sky Lanes of the Birds

Because the expressions "traveling north" or "flying south"
are used repeatedly, children are apt to believe that the birds
migrate unfailingly in these directions. However, this is not an
accurate picture, as some fly southeast, others southwest. Certain
species have followed fixed travel routes until they have become
well-defined pathways, or sky lanes, for these birds. Some travel
north by one route and return south by another, perhaps leading
over an entirely different part of the country. Or else one route
may be over land and the return route over water. The golden
plover is an interesting example of these birds that have a "double
migration route." In the spring it travels from South America to
Labrador in as direct a line as possible, through the middle of
the North American continent. In the fall it goes eastward to the
Atlantic, and much of its return flight is over water. On this
longer course it must fly 2,400 miles.

Flying Hours

There are also variations in the time of day for migratory
flight. Some birds are on the wing by day, others by night, while
still others are active day and night. Warblers, thrushes, and wood-
cocks are among the night fliers; geese, crows, swallows, robins,
hummingbirds, blue jays, and bluebirds are a few of the daytime
travelers. As for ducks, you may see them on the wing day or night.

How Fast Do Birds Fly?

Long ago, birds were credited with a speed that approaches
the speed of a modern airplane. The theory was that most birds
performed the greater part of their journey in one night! In
recent times the speed of many birds has been "clocked" accurately
with the aid of airplanes and motorcars. We now know that a
hundred miles an hour is an exceptionally fast rate, achieved by
only a few birds, such as certain swifts.

In making their migratory flights most birds apparently move

How to Understand the Birds

[35

at a rate somewhere between twenty and fifty miles an hour. The
great journeys made by some species are accomplished by the
birds moving for long hours at a steady rate rather than by great
bursts of speed over short distances. When we compare the speed
of an individual bird with the time it takes a flock of that same
species to complete its migratory journey, we realize that the
birds do not fly continuously night after night or day after day.
They may pause for extended rests or for favorable weather
conditions.

Where Birds Migrate

In the autumn several familiar species of smaller birds go
as far as Central and South America. Bobolinks, for instance,
leave the fields and meadows of northern states traveling south-
ward in leisurely fashion through the West Indies and along

T><E BOBOLINK-MIGRATOR EXTRAORDINARY

Every winter the bobolink journeys some five thousand miles from its United States
haunts to Brazil or Argentina, v^here it relishes their summer weather in the winter
months. The bobolink is vrelcomed where it devours weed seeds, detested where
it destroys rice croj>s.

36 ] How to Understand the Birds

eastern Central America. Even when they reach the northern
parts of South America they are not satisfied but continue until
they come to the wide open plains and marshes of southern Brazil
and northern Argentine.

In contrast to these we have some birds that migrate for only
short distances. The chickadee is one; the crow is another. Such
birds may move southward from your community in the fall, only
to be replaced by other chickadees or crows moving down from
points farther north. Thus while you seem to have the same birds
the year round, they are actually different individuals.

We can sum up some of the puzzling aspects of bird migration
by saying that in its simplest form, migration is merely a journey
away from, and back to, a nesting ground, and apparently made
without any relation to temperature.

How TO Keep a Bird Calendar

If you live in a region where the four seasons are clearly
defined by sharp weather contrasts, the study of bird migrations
will provide you with an especially enjoyable hobby. By keeping
a bird calendar you can note the comings, the goings, and the
passings through of different species. Your calendar can be quite
simple: a large ruled sheet of paper, divided into four columns.
Head the first column "Date," the second "Bird's Name," the
third "Where Seen," the fourth "Time of Day." You may simply
fill in information about birds that come near your home, but
the record becomes far more lively when you widen the range of
observation by means of bird walks.

Some children enjoy such a project as an individual enterprise.
Others are more stimulated if the calendar is a family affair with
scope for friendly rivalry. Who will have the fun of recording
the first robin of spring? Who will see a bluebird this year? Who
will trace a song sparrow by its lilting melody or look for a hum-
mingbird near its nest? Interest becomes keener when you keep
calendars year after year, trying to better the record of observation
with each new calendar.

How to Understand the Birds I 37

How to Be a Good Neighbor to the Birds

There are a number of ways to bring wild birds close to yout
home where you may enjoy them and study them. One of the
most effective overtures of friendship is to provide a birdbath.
Songbirds as a rule seem to be attracted by water. Some of them
even relish taking a bath when it is raining; but during hot dry
spells when many natural sources of water dry up, your birdbath
will serve a really essential purpose.

There are also times when birds have trouble finding drinking
water. The simplest way to provide a bath and drinking fountain
is to set a shallow pan filled with water on the ground, on a post,
or on a ledge. In placing the pan, keep in mind the danger from
cats. These enemies must not have any nearby hiding place from
which to launch a surprise attack against the birds. A birdbath
of concrete comes near to being ideal because its dull surface
blends well with the browns, greens, and grays that surround it,
and its rough surface makes perching easy.

Feeding the Birds in Wintertime

You can also attract birds by building houses and shelters
for them. But probably the greatest service you can render is to
furnish winter food. Though completely self-reliant in warm
weather, the birds that remain north throughout the year are
often desperate for food during the winter months. Birds have
an exceptionally high body temperature, and so long as they have
sufficient food to keep this temperature normal they do not suffer
from the cold. But if a scarcity of food results in a lowering of
the body temperature, the birds suffer severely and may even
freeze to death.

You can provide food for them in a number of ways. If you
have a yard, simply trample down the snow at some suitable spot
and sprinkle crumbs and seeds. Or else you may tie pieces of suet
to trees or posts. A feeding tray fastened to a window makes a
good, safe feeding station and also gives you a wonderful oppor^
tunity to watch birds at close quarters. You can even photograph
them without much trouble. Cut a circular hole at the bottom of

58]

How to Understand the Birds

a board that fits into the window frame where your feeding tray
is placed. When you wish to take pictures you can raise the window,
insert the board barrier, and direct your camera through the hole.
Birds will partake of your food offering without the least alarm
as they let themselves be photographed.

Feeding trays, moreover, have their uses beyond country or
suburb. A businessman in Topeka, Kansas, who decided to put
a tray of sunflower seeds at his office window sill, reported that
the following day it was visited by a chickadee, a downy wood*
pecker, a junco, and a brown creeper.

One other excellent type of feeding station is a covered plat-
form attached to a post. The covering keeps the food dry and the
elevation protects the birds while they are eating. There are many
other efficient types of bird feeders that you can buy or make and
place on porch, window sill, or around the yard.

What Birds Feed On

Insect-eating birds, such as chickadees and woodpeckers,
welcome suet when their usual food is not available. Seed-eating
birds are not greatly tempted by fat, but they thrive on stale

,,ag^tf$if9 m4i^

)//^/'**'i'Mue;:M^

ren

THE GROUSE-SPORTSMAN'S FAVORITE

These handsome game birds are great favorites with hunters. Grouse are hardy
creatures, accustomed to living through the rigors of severe v/inter. When
their usual insect diet is not available, they get by on twigs and buds.

How to Understand the Birds i jg

bread, crackers and cake broken into crumbs, sunflower seeds,
squash, and cracked corn. Nuts are a special treat to many birds,
and a number of them are fond of peanut butter. It is worth while
to remember the ground birds, such as pheasant, grouse, and quail,
if they live near you. A spot by a hedge or a clump of trees makes
a good feeding place for them. During a winter of extreme snow
and sleet, you may help them to survive by supplying corn or other
grains in a simple lean-to shelter.

Birds as Songsters

Spring is the time to enjoy the singing of birds, for it is during
the nesting season that their choral symphony is in full swing.
Most of the singing is instinctive and probably an attempt on the
part of the male to intimidate other males. What makes this seem
likely is that the males of some species reach their nesting grounds
well ahead of their female audience. "Singing for fun" is charac-
teristic of certain caged birds whose only companionship is that
of human beings. Then there are species that have a second sing-
ing period after the postbreeding molt; but this lasts only a few
days.

A frequent question I have received in letters from children is:
"Do birds sing when they are flying?" Unfortunately it is not pos-
sible to give the eager correspondents a simple yes-or-no answer.
As a rule, singing usually takes a bird's undivided attention, but
some birds— the bobolink, for one— do sing while flying as well as
when perching. Other birds, besides singing from a perch, indulge
in occasional songs of "ecstasy" as they bound into the air and
seem about to burst with their hurried, twittering notes. The
meadow lark and goldfinch are just two of the species which carry
on in this delightful fashion.

Other Bird Sounds

Aside from its song a bird can produce several other kinds
of sounds. Some of these are very useful in the baby stage, as when
the young greet their parents from the nest with what is unmis'
takably a hunger call. Some babies can follow the parent around

4o]

How to Understand the Birds

THE GOLDFINCH-ECSTATIC SONGSTER

Like their famous relatives the canaries, goldfinches are inspired singers. They
sing while perching and sometimes bound into the air with an ecstatic outburst of
twittering notes. The goldfinch flies in graceful curves that are a pleasure to watch.

shortly after hatching; the youngsters of these species make a
peeping sound which prevents them from getting lost. As the bird
matures, it develops a "vocabulary" of some variety. It has a call,
especially useful during migration, which keeps it in touch with
the rest of the group. It can also give a call of alarm and one of
warning.

While some birds have won a reputation as excellent songsters,
others, such as the brown pelican, are noted for being virtually
silent. Then there are birds that make sounds which take the place
of song. An example is the rufiEed grouse with his drumming.

How to Understand the Birds [ 41

The male grouse produces his music by standing stiffly erect with
his tail down and fanning the air with his wings. He may select
a given location, say a log, for his performance, going to the same
spot and facing in the same direction every time he drums. This
habit reminds us of some songbirds that become greatly attached
to favorite perches from which they sing.

When you hear your child trilling happily at his play, you may
tell yourself with some satisfaction that he is "singing like a bird."
Strictly speaking, however, such a feat is impossible! The human
voice is produced in the larynx. A bird's voice comes from a dif-
ferent structure called the syrinx, located at the base of the wind-
pipe. (In Greek mythology, Syrinx was a nymph who was trans-
formed into a tuft of reeds from which the god Pan made his
pipes.)

Identifying Birds by Their Song

"What bird is that?" is a frequent question from youngsters
who are becoming interested in identification.

If you are able to recognize the songs of the birds, you are well
on the way to the right answer. Some songs are as characteristic as
the bird's physical appearance: The interested observer and lis^
tener soon recognizes such tunes as the conk-a-ree-e of the red-
winged blackbird and the rollicking medley of the bobolink. The
best time of the year to begin your study of bird songs is very early
in spring, before migrants arriving in large numbers create a con-
fusion of voices. The best time of day to listen is the morning or
late afternoon. Concentrate at first on the songs of the more com-
mon, hence more familiar, birds of your region. This will make it
easier for you to distinguish individual calls and melodies in the
chorus that arises later on when the season is at its height.

Certain birds make recognition quite simple for you by calling
their own names— for it was their calls that gave them their names
to begin with! Among the better known of these are the bobolink,
chickadee, phoebe, bobwhite, and whippoorwill.
How TO Record Bird Songs

While you may not be able to write out bird songs in musi-
cal notation, you should find it easy to jot down many songs in

42 ] How to Understand the Birds

words or syllables. This is instructive— and amusing too, for natur-
ally any two listeners may arrive at varying interpretations of the
same song. Here are three versions, for example, of the song of the
white-throated sparrow: Old Sam Peabody, Peahody, Peahody; or,
Sow wheat Peverly, Peverly, Peverly; or. Sweet Canada, Canada,
Canada,

Some interpretations have been published so often, however,
that we may now consider them as standard. Thus the scarlet
tanager is supposed to say chip-churr and the nuthatch ank, ank.
Though the robin has a variety of sweet songs, its apt early morn-
ing serenade is wake-up, cheer-up, cheerily-up, wake-up. A cardi-
nal may join in with a shrill whoit, whoit, whoit, whit, whit, whit,
whit. As for the song sparrow, it suggests in a lyrical mood: maids,
maids, put on your teakettle— ettle , ettle, ettle. Some songs are
longer and have more variations; we write their lyrics in couplets.
The interpretation of the brown thrasher's song is a good example:

Shuck it. Shuck it; sow it, sow it;
Plow it. Plow it; hoe it, hoe it!

On occasion birds may vary their phrasing just enough to con-
fuse us. However, an excellent way to become familiar with bird
songs is through recordings. In many stores— and libraries as well
—you can find such collections as "Bird Songs" and "More Bird
Songs," both recorded by Albert R. Brand.

To become a skillful imitator of songs and calls requires a great
deal of practice. The chickadee is a good bird to imitate, as it is
a particularly responsive bird. If you can get the chickadee to
answer your imitation of its call, you will be sure of a fascinated
and admiring audience in your child.

How to Make Birds Feel at Home

One of the most satisfying outlets for the energies of a young
carpenter is building a bird house. As he uses his tools he gets a
practical grasp of the essentials of construction work. Later on, if
he keeps an eye on the house after it is set up, he will learn a great
deal about the habits of birds and their likes and dislikes. As he

How to Understand the Birds { 43

sees them in and about "his" house, he will experience a feeling
of pride and protective tenderness.

But remember that birds are often very "choosy," inspecting
and passing up, or simply ignoring, an ideal-looking residence
designed for them and nesting nearby in a hollow stump, post, or
tree. To be a successful bird-house "proprietor" you need to be
familiar with the habits and wants of the birds you wish to attract,
and to make a building especially suitable for them. This cer-
tainly improves your prospects of attracting "tenants." You can
still expect surprises, for birds like to do things their own way.
One summer a neighbor of mine proudly drew my attention to
wrens settling in a home he had built for them. The following
year he sheepishly admitted that other wrens were using the house
as a foundation. They were nesting on the roof!

The Hobby of Nest Collecting

In doing their own nest building, birds choose from a wide vari-
ety of materials. The chipping sparrow goes exploring for fine
roots, the robin prefers mud and grass, the ovenbird fancies the
spore stems of mosses, while the Baltimore oriole favors milkweed,
bark, and long moss. If their favorite materials are not to be
found, birds are ever resourceful in finding substitutes. My son's
nature collection includes a chipping sparrow nest that is neatly
lined with pig bristles! Orioles are noted for their fondness for
yarn if any happens to be available. And there are many other
examples of the ingenuity which birds lavish on their nests.

Spring is the season for providing nesting places. To enjoy the
hobby of collecting nests, you ought to wait until fall; for in this
way you avoid removing a nest when there is still a chance that
the birds may have a further use for it.

Many birds are masters at the art of concealment, and you will
need all your powers as a "nature detective" to find nests before
most of the leaves have fallen. Some birds, such as the humming-
bird, use a camouflage technique to protect their nests. Another
favorite device, used by the warbler, for example, is to nest in
thick foliage. Still another precaution, favored by some owls, is
to build high in tall trees.

44 ] How to Understand the Birds

When your child collects deserted nests for a home exhibit, he
can give them quite an impressive setting with a few leafy twigs
and a background taken from the original location of the nest.
To complete the exhibit appropriately, add a label giving the
species, time, and place of the collection.

Baby Birds

The Chicken and the Egg

The best-known bird's t^^ by far is that of the chicken.
It is such a common sight on grocery shelf and breakfast table
that it really requires an effort of imagination on a child's part
to think of the egg in connection with bird life.

Yet if, in this day of incubators, children could watch a hen
with her brood, they would soon realize she is one of the best of
bird mothers. When she takes her chicks into tall grass she clucks
constantly so that they will not stray away from her. Finding a bit
of food, she calls them quickly and they understand just what she
means. Should a hawk appear overhead, she gives a warning cry
which sends the chicks scurrying for cover. If a rat or other enemy
threatens her brood, she will fight to the limit of her strength
to protect the chicks.

A newly hatched chick wears an odd little "bump" on the tip
of its upper mandible, or beak. This is the ''^gg tooth" that the
baby used as a pick to break its way through the eggshell. After
the egg tooth has served its purpose the chick has no further use
for it and it soon disappears.

How Many Eggs Are Laid

There is an almost endless variety in bird's eggs. There
are big eggs and little eggs; white, colored, and spotted eggs; eggs
that differ in shape and length of time required for incubation.
And so you need considerable information to answer the simple
question: "How many eggs does a bird lay?"

We have no unconditional reply to this question. Each species
has a mual number that makes up a full set; but differences will
still crop up. Northern thrushes, for example, normally lay four

How to Understand the Birds

[45

eggs, while tropical thrushes lay only two or three. If a nest is
robbed, the bird will often lay additional eggs to replace the
stolen ones. There is an historic case of a brown woodpecker-
known as the flicker— laying seventy-one eggs in seventy- three days!

Fantastic as this may sound, it points up the fact that constant
nest-robbing has virtually turned domestic fowls into egg-laying
machines. A domestic hen may lay more than two hundred eggs
a season if they are promptly taken away, thus assuring "continu-
ous performance." On the other hand, if the eggs are left in the
nest to be incubated, her production will stop after fifteen or
twenty eggs.

The best you can do, then, in giving actual numbers of eggs
that different birds have in a clutch, is to say that in a full set of
eggs there may be as many as twenty or as few as one.

THE AMAZING HUMMINGBIRD

The smallest of all birds, with the tiniest of eggs, the hummingbird has other
claims to fame. Aside from flying backward or remaining stationary in mid-air.
It can move its wings so rapidly that they become invisible. This incredibly
rapid motion produces the sound that gives the "hummer" its name.

46 ] How to Understand the Birds

The Size of Eggs

"Which bird lays the biggest eggs?" and "Which lays the
smallest?" are welcome questions because we have direct and
definite answers to them. The ostrich, largest of birds, lays the
largest eggs; the hummingbird, smallest of birds, lays the smallest

eggs.

However, it does not always follow that the larger bird lays
the larger ^^^. A bird whose chicks come forth in a well-developed
state, lays relatively larger eggs than a bird whose chicks are less
well developed.

Among the well-developed babies are those of our friend the
chicken, the grouse, and the spotted sandpiper. When they hatch
they are already covered with a soft down. Their eyes open imme-
diately and in no time at all they can toddle about and follow
their mother. Before long they learn to pick up and eat their own
food. We term this kind of bird "precocial," a word related to
"precocious." Birds that hatch in a more helpless state are naked
or at best have a scant covering of down. They are blind at first
and are dependent on their parents for at least a week— usually
much longer. Such birds are known as "altricial," from the Latin
word for "nourishers."

"Baby Sitters"

The length of time needed for incubation varies with dif-
ferent species. The English sparrow takes twelve or thirteen days;
the robin, thirteen or fourteen days; the fish hawk, about four
weeks. In some families the duty of sitting on the eggs is shared
by both parents; in others, it falls entirely to the lot of the mother.
There is one curious family in which the eggs, once they have
been laid by the female, become the sole responsibility of the
male. He incubates the eggs unaided, though the mother stays
nearby and shows continued interest in her family. These birds
are the phalaropes, found in many parts of North America.

Bringing Up Baby

Helpless baby birds require an extraordinary amount of
care, and perhaps because it helps to build in themselves a sense

How to Understand the Birds [ 47

of the security of parental care and affection, children greatly
enjoy hearing about the devoted family life of birds. How proud
the mother hen is of her chicks as she struts about the barnyard,
clucking loudly to call attention to her brood! In the wilds, where
danger constantly threatens, the mother bird's behavior may be
quite the opposite— she does everything possible to make her
brood inconspicuous. A grouse, sensing an intruder, will go to
the extreme of chirping pitifully while thrashing along the ground
as if hurt. This serves two purposes. Her cry warns the young to
remain quiet or escape from the danger, and her movements divert
attention from her little family.

How Bird Babies Are Fed

Bird babies have enormous appetites. Until they are able
to take care of themselves, their parents must find and bring them
food. The fledglings usually feed on insects, even though many of
them will grow up to be seed-eaters. In species where the young
are most helpless— the mourning dove, for example— the parent
first swallows the food and then feeds it to them in partly digested
form. That is why one of these birds, unlike so many other bird
parents, is never seen flying back to the nest with food in its bill.

Children occasionally have the good fortune to watch baby birds
being fed. More often the children see pictures of the birds at
feeding time, and they may notice that feeding techniques vary
with different birds. The most common method is for the parent
to push its bill down the baby's throat— a method that prevents
any live insect from escaping. With pelicans and certain other
species that regurgitate food, the process is reversed: The baby
puts its head in its mother's throat pouch or takes food from her
bill. The babies' need for water is satisfied by the moisture in their
solid food.

Parents often continue feeding the young after they have left
the nest; but at this point the feeding methods are no longer so
painstaking. The swallows are particularly interesting to observe
at this stage of development. While in the nest, the young bird
has food carefully placed down its throat. But once the fledgling
is able to hop away from the nest, it must be on the alert with

48 ] How to Understand the Birds

bill opened upward, for the parents merely drop food to it with-
out pausing in their flight. When the young swallows start to fly,
this catch-as-catch-can feeding continues while the parents and
the young birds as well are in full flight.

Proper manners, as taught to our children, are out of place as
far as baby birds are concerned. Usually the aggressive one that
stretches its neck farthest and cries the loudest is the one that
is fed— until another member of the family becomes more "grabby.**
However, the parent, with a kind of rough justice, usually looks
into the youngster's mouth after each feeding; if a morsel has not
been swallowed instantly, the older bird snatches it back and
turns its attention to another baby.

Getting Ready to Leave the Nest

Some babies— those of chickens, for example— are covered
with down and able to run about when newly hatched. The
parents may keep them under their wings, "brooding" them
over a period of five or six weeks. Other kinds of birds also "brood"
while the babies are in the nest, but never after they have started
to fly. Brooding protects the young ones from the cold— and from
excessive heat as well, as it prevents their being overheated in a
nest unprotected from the sun.

As the baby birds develop feathers, their responsibilities grow.
They preen their feathers and begin to exercise, concentrating on
stretching their wings. Often they practice "taking off" before
leaving the safety of the nest.

Though birds fly by instinct, the first flight generally requires
considerable parental coaxing. It may be no more than a flutter
to a nearby limb or it may be, as in the case of swallows, a sus-
tained and graceful performance. Song sparrows and others are
ready to try their wings only a week after hatching, while the
wandering albatross has to be forced out by its parents to make
room for a new brood— nearly a year later. But whatever the
amount of time involved, the youngsters have flourished on the
solicitous care of their parents, and are now ready to face life
on their own.

CHAPTE

K 3 The Delightful Hobby
of Bird Watching

ATCHiNG FOR BIRDS Can givc Sparkle to an
otherwise ordinary walk through a park-
it can offer an inducement for extensive hiking— and it can add
zest to your auto trips. If you do not try it, you will miss a world
of fun. For children, it is one of the most delightful of pastimes.

The best way for you to carry on bird watching depends largely
on the age of your children. Obviously you cannot expect a child
of kindergarten age to adapt himself to an excursion in the woods
where you hope to see the less common birds in their natural
surroundings; a young child is too restless to maintain the neces-
sary quiet. Also, since he is more interested in what birds do than
in what they are called, the most ordinary bird will appeal to
him just as strongly as a rare species. Thus you may find it best
to start your observations with the "everyday" birds around your
home.

A small child loves to answer easy questions. And questions
can provide the motivation here if the presence of birds on the
lawn or in the park is not motivation enough. You might start
with some of these queries, leaving out bird names unless the
child is ready for them: Do the birds walk (as blackbirds do),
run (like robins), or hop (like sparrows) ? Do they keep together
in flocks (like waxwings, for example) , or do they prefer to be
alone? Do they seem to talk to each other, or do they concentrate

49

5o]

The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching

on feeding? Do they hunt worms or look for seeds for their food?
You can proceed from these questions to others that will come
to you naturally enough as you read what this book has to say
about birds. All you need is a start. Your child's rich imagination
will carry you the rest of the way.

How TO Get the Most Out of Bird Walks

Once boys and girls have become interested in watching
birds at home, they are usually eager to go farther afield. Then you
will enjoy your trip a lot more if you are forearmed with some
general knowledge: What birds may be found where?

For example: In orchards and gardens you are likely to find
bluebirds, mockingbirds, screech owls, downy woodpeckers, chicka-

fHE BRILLIANT SCARLET TANAGER

Whh hl$ striking red body and black wings and tail, the male tanager Is on©
of the most brilliant birds of North America. The female, olive-colored, is not
nearly so pretty, but she's the one that gathers twigs and weeds to build the
nest in an oak or orchard tree. Here she lays three or four bluish-white eggs.

dees. In open meadows, look for bobolinks and crows; in damp
meadows, red-winged blackbirds. Along rivers and by lakes and
ponds you may find kingfishers, swallows, and phoebes. At woods'

The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching [ 51

edges there are white-throated sparrows, field sparrows, wood
pee wees, scarlet tanagers, and some owls; in deeper woods, barred
owls, ovenbirds, hermit thrush, ruffed grouse.

Swamps and marshes are the places for herons, bitterns and
rails, while near large ponds and lakes you may expect ducks,
fish hawks, and bald eagles. Seashore and mud flats are the setting
for sandpipers and avocets.

This greatly shortened list of birds and their customary home
grounds suggests how you may "line up" the birds of your locality
before starting on a bird walk. You will have an idea of where
to look for certain types of birds, so that you can map out a plan
of action.

The best time to go is early morning; soon after sunrise bird
activities slow down and do not resume until late afternoon. On
early-morning walks, avoid traveling east, as the low-lying sun
in your eyes makes it hard to see birds. Hawks, ducks, and water-
fowl are active throughout the day and you may often observe
them when other birds are quiet.

There is no special season for bird watching. The great attrac-
tion of spring is the birds migrating north; summer offers nesting
birds and the appearance of the young; fall is the time for the
flocks to wing south; winter is almost best of all with the hardy
birds showing themselves boldly as they seek food among snowy
surroundings.

An interested pair of eyes is the only essential equipment you
need for bird watching. But good field glasses or binoculars are
really valuable in identifying species and they greatly enhance
the pleasure of a trip for any child old enough to use them.

You can get more out of a bird walk, also, if you bring along
a pocket guide of birds for occasional reference and also a note-
book for making brief entries about birds that you cannot identify
on the spot. Thus you can note size (comparing your bird to a
robin or other familiar species) ; you can mention whether the
tail is outstandingly long or short; you can list the bird's color
and any conspicuous markings; you can describe its actions (walk-
ing, hopping, up-and-down or zigzag flight, posture on tree trunk) ,
and, of course, the kind of surroundings where you saw it. With

52 ] The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching

this information handy, you can consult reference books with
a good chance of identifying the unknown bird.

Some Bird Neighbors

Robins Mean SpRirjc is Here

If you have a birdbath, robins are very likely to be among
those patronizing it. They enjoy bathing and are friendly and
trusting. The robin is so well known that it is commonly used as
a basis for comparison with other birds that are described as
"larger than," "smaller than," or "about the size of," a robin.
Its length is about ten inches from the tip of its bill to the tip
of its tail.

In most of the United States (aside from the Gulf Coast), and
in Canada, robins are "summer residents"; their return to familiar
nesting sites is a sign of spring. You are likely to see them then,
hurrying about in search of building material. (Robins never
walk; they run.) They pick up coarse grasses, rootlets, and other
serviceable bits in their bills and fly to the home base. Here they
add their plunder to former collections. After putting it down
they hop on it and rapidly work it with their feet until it is
wedged tightly in place. Even as they do this, they turn their
bodies from side to side, squatting down against the nest. In this
way they form a depression that is really "made to measure."
Both male and female share in the construction work.

The female robin lays from three to five greenish blue eggs in
the compact little home. Mother and father take turns sitting
on the eggs to keep them warm day and night. When the young
robins appear in about two weeks the parents continue their
devoted care, feeding them insects and guarding them to the best
of their ability from such enemies as cats, squirrels, and snakes.
By late June the robin family may be really sizable, for there is
likely to be a second brood in the nest. The young of the first
brood now go each night with the adult male to some favorite
roosting place. The mother, busy caring for her second lot of
triplets or quadruplets, is not forgotten by her mate, who may
return each day to help her with her duties.

The Delightful Hobby oj Bird Watching f 53

If you glimpse a robin still dressed in "baby clothes" you will
notice that, unlike adults with their solid black-and-orange color-
ing, it has a spotted breast. Here you have a clue to the robin's
relationship to other birds. Many of us know that adult thrushes
have spotted breasts and we can correctly assume that robins and
thrushes belong to the same family. The bluebird is another
famous close relative.

Sparrows Are Pleasant Neighbors

The sparrow family has been discredited to some extent
in the United States and Canada by a species of weaver bird that
was imported a hundred years ago from England and became
generally known as the English, or house, sparrow. This * 'sparrow"
spread over the continent and in many places it drove away the
more attractive bluebirds and purple martins.

"Only a sparrow," may be your child's attitude toward this
bird family— it is easy for youngsters to acquire the general preju-
dice against these birds. As he becomes acquainted with sparrows,
however, he will find that some of them are surprisingly attractive
and that some sing sweet, melodious songs. The white-crowned
sparrow is probably the most handsome, with a striking black
and white crown, a gray breast with no throat markings, and an
erect posture. It is found all over North America but it is much
more common in the West than in the East.

The song sparrow is noted more for its song than for its apj>ear-
ance. Its cheerful Tea-tea-tea! Polly-put-the-kettle-on, heard
frequently in early spring, is most distinctive. The marking that
distinguishes it from other sparrows is a large brown spot centered
on a streaked breast. It has a long rounded tail which pumps up
and down as it flies.

You are most likely to see little "chippy," the chipping sparrow,
in suburban areas. It seems to prefer lawns or pasture lands to
wilder country and it often nests in dooryards, hedges, and shrub-
bery. It is among the smallest of sparrows (about half as long as
a robin), and its reddish crown, black bill, and white line over
the eye and a black one through the eye are its distinguishing
marks. Though this sparrow spends most of its time on the ground.

54 ] The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching

it often perches on some lofty spot to deliver its song— a rapid
succession of metallic-sounding chips.

Jays

If you travel from coast to coast, there are few places where
you will lose sight of the jay family. Of its various members the
blue jays are most common, most widespread and probably the
boldest. Their striking markings make them easy to recognize,
and anywhere from the Atlantic Coast to the Rocky Mountains
you may see them along highways and byways. In bright blue
plumage marked with stripes and patches of black and with clear
white, they fly with a regular series of wing flappings. Or else they
strut and swagger on the ground, scolding loudly at any bird,
man, or beast that seems likely to interfere with their activities.
Usually they have a raucous cry, but they can also produce flute-
like notes as well as a noise resembling the sound of nutcracking.
Sometimes they imitate the cry of the red-shouldered hawk.

In the West, the Steller jay is slightly larger than the blue jay, and
you can distinguish it by its black head, throat and breast and itf
long black crest. The "California" jay (also found in Florida) has a
blue cap, back, wings, and tail.

Crows

The chances are your child has been able to recognize a
crow for a long time, if only from seeing pictures of this black
bird in connection with scarecrows ever since he was of nursery
school age. The crow is also one of the easiest birds to "spot"
in fields and woods because of its large size and its intense black
coloring, identical in male and female. You are likely to see crows
near farms; unfortunately, their taste runs to such crops as corn
and wheat as well as fruit.

Crows are also fond of the eggs and fledglings of thrushes and
meadow larks, game birds, and even poultry. That is why the
crow is in great disfavor with farmers and with the champions
of songbirds. But *Teck*s bad boy" of the bird world though it
may be, the crow is a prime favorite with children. And we must
admit that with all the damage crows cause, they do make up

The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching

[65

for it by eating beetles, caterpillars, and slugs— all of them menaces
to gardens, orchards, and grainfields.

Cardinals for Color

You can recognize a male cardinal as easily as the crow,
for it is almost as intensely red (the color we associate with
cardinals of the Church) as the crow is black. There are very
few red birds in North America, and the cardinal is the only one
with a crest. Even its heavy bill is red, though around the base
there is a patch of black that extends back through its eyes and

%

THE COLORFUL CARDINAL

The male cardinal is an eye-filling red from bill to tati tip, with the exception of
a touch of black at his big, efficient-looking beak. His "windswept" crest mokes
him even more conspicuous. In wintertime he presents a colorful contrast to snowy
landscapes. But his musical coll mokes him a welcome visitor in any season.

56 ] The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching

down its throat. Though the female has the crest and red bill of
the male, her plumage is light brown.

Cardinals are not commonly seen in New England or on the
Pacific Coast, but in other sections of the United States you may
come on them anywhere— in suburbs, towns, or open country. As a
rule they are * 'permanent residents" of whatever area they live
in, and in the northern part of their range they endure many a
severe winter while creating scenes of striking beauty: crimson
feathers against a snowy-white background.

Goldfinches— Our Wild Canaries

You may call them ''wild canaries" as you see a group of
goldfinches chattering and twittering on a lawn. They suggest
these pet birds because of their yellow coloring, their small size,
and their pleasant song. Actually they are closely related to the
canary and also to native sparrows.

In flight goldfinches are recognizable by their long bounding
motion, which may remind a youngster of a roller-coaster ride.
At each dip they seem to call Per-chick-o-ree, per-chick-o-ree. They
travel around in small groups during breeding season. Goldfinches
may be found in fields and meadows throughout temperate North
America. Like the cardinals, they are usually permanent residents
of one region— although some goldfinches travel a bit south to
escape the most severe winter weather.

Chickadees

If you furnish a winter feeding station for birds, you are
quite likely to have chickadees among your patrons. The easiest
way to recognize this plump little black-and-white bird is by its
black cap and bib. In the South there is the Carolina chickadee,
only four and a half inches long; and in the West, a chestnut-
backed chickadee with a dull brown, rather than black, cap.

Chickadees are commonly found around farms and country
homes. In warm weather they seclude themselves in the woods,
nesting in holes in trees; in winter they are out scouting and
seem especially grateful for "handouts" from human friends.

The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching [ 57

Hummingbirds— Smallest of the Birds

Most children, loving tiny things as they do, are delighted
with hummingbirds, the smallest birds in the world. Those found
in the United States and Canada range from about three and a
half to four and a half inches in length.

West of the Mississippi the hummingbird may be lured near
homes by an abundance of flowers and any small stream of water.
On the west coast it nests in porch vines and is frequently satisfied
with birdbaths or lawn spiinklers for its water supply. The ruby-
throated hummingbird, the only one that frequents the East, is
not quite so sociable; but it may be attracted to a garden by
brightly colored tubes of sugar water. You can make a humming-
bird feeder with a medium-size vial. Wrap this with red ribbon
or crepe paper and fasten it with a thin wire to a twig in the garden.
Fill the vial with a mixture of one part sugar to two parts water.

Hummingbirds usually nest in fruit and shade trees, and their
well-camouflaged home is so small that it could easily be covered
by a fifty-cent piece. The female builds the deeply cupped nest by
herself. While she is busy molding and shaping it with her feet
and bill, her mate disappears from the scene.

Newly hatched hummers look more like black insects than
birds, and watching a mother feed them is quite an experience.
She gives them food in a series of stabbing motions as she jabs
her long beak, filled with nectar and insects, down their throats.
She not only feeds them well; she is ever ready to defend them
and will even attack an enemy as large as a hawk if it comes near.

Hummingbirds have exceptional flying powers. Some move
their wings so fast that it is quite impossible for the human eye
to see them. Hummers are among the very few birds that can
fly backwards (the phoebe and the oriental sunbird are the
others) , and they can "stand still'* in the air. They get their
name from the hum of their wings which can be heard during
their rapid darting flight as well as when they hover.

Meadow Larks

When you walk through meadows or marshes you may be
startled by a large brownish bird rising out of the grass in front

5«I

The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching

THE MEADOW LARK -AN AMERICAN SYMBOL

This large pudgy brownish bird has a lovely flutelike song and likes to nest in the
long grasses of meadowbanks along streams. A useful bird, it preys on great
quantities of pernicious insect pests. It is found in so many ports of our land
that it might well replace the eagle as an American symbol.

of you. If you notice a striped head and white outer tail feathers
as it flies away, the chances are you have flushed a meadow lark.
This bird seems to have great faith in long grasses for protection
(even nesting among them on the ground). You may walk up
to within a few feet of a meadow lark before it will take wing.
In the fall, meadow larks of the North gather in flocks and migrate
to southern swamps.

Baltimore Orioles

The Baltimore oriole is a striking example of how our
familiar roles may be reversed in the bird world: The male is
noted for his beauty, the female for her skill in home construc-
tion. You can easily sight the brilliant orange and black plumage
of the male even when he flits among tree branches. His olive-

The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching [ 59

yellow mate looks confusingly like the female orchard oriole and
somewhat like the female scarlet tanager; the only time it is easy
to identify her is when she is with her handsome husband.

You may best appreciate the female's building prowess after
the family has migrated southward and you see the nest hold up
through wind, snow, and sleet. She works with such plant fibers
as the inner bark of milkweed, as well as string and other avail-
able materials, weaving them skillfully together. The nest, a large
one, is very unusual in being fastened to a branch at its rim, with
the bottom hanging free. Vireos are the only other birds that
build this type of nest, but theirs is less than two inches deep on
the inside— much smaller than an oriole structure.

CowBiRDs Follow Cattle

You can find cowbirds in pastures and woodlands. Often
small flocks of them follow cattle. They find good hunting by
catching insects that infest the big animals; the birds alight on
the cows* backs to obtain their prey. The cowbird, smallest of our
native blackbirds, is undistinguished in appearance. In a good
light you can see that the male's head is a rich brown rather than
black, while the female and young have gray-brown plumage.

Though ordinary enough in appearance, the cowbird has an
extraordinary— and most dishonest— way of providing for its young.
It does not build a nesti Instead, the female merely deposits an
€:^g in the home of a warbler, song sparrow, or other bird, biding
her time until the owner of the nest is away.

In due course the foster mother hatches the cowbird ^^^ with
her own eggs. The cowbird is invariably larger than its legitimate
nest-mates. It can therefore poke its head over theirs to be first
in line whenever the mother appears with food. The result is
that the intruder grows faster and often pushes the little ones
out of the nest to die of starvation. Occasionally a victimized bird
discovers the fraud in time and destroys the impostor ^g^y or else
abandons the nest to build a new one and lay a new clutch of eggs.

The yellow warbler has an ingenious way of dealing with the
cowbird's maneuvering. If she discovers a strange e^g, she simply
builds another nest over the first one. If still another cowbird

6o]

The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching

egg is "planted" in the second nest, she builds a third on top of
that. Warblers have been known to build up to five nests in
this way!

Mockingbirds Don't Always Mock

The name of this justly famous songbird is misleading in a
way. Individual birds may "mock" the notes of other birds and
even the bark of a dog or the meow of a cat; but occasionally the
birds stick to their own notes. Aside from its imitations, the
mockingbird has a lovely liquid song that deserves appreciative
recognition in its own right. Mockingbirds not only have song
fests by day; they are most eloquent on moonlit nights.

While the mockingbird is primarily a southerner, some birds
venture to feeding stations as far north as New England. The
mockingbird has an over-all grayish tone and in flight shows
flashes of black and white in its wings. The mockingbird is about
the size of a robin, though not so plump, and it has a long tail.

THE MOCKINGBIRD-EXPERT AT MIMICRY

Though moonlit nights inspire the mockingbird to a hountingiy beautiful song
with exquisite variations, it has a great gift for sardonic mimicry of other birds.
Its lifelike imitation of a hawk's shriek is as convincing as ''the real thing."

k

The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching [ 6l

Whippoorwills— The Invisible Singers

Like the mockingbird, the whippoorwill is noted above
all else for its voice. While you may frequently hear its call, you
will rarely see the bird itself. It usually lives in a river valley or
in a meadow if water is nearby, stays close to the ground, and
does not become active until the sun goes down. Then it starts to
feed on insects during low short flights, between which it gives
the oft repeated call whip-poor-WILL, whip-poor-WILL. The
bird's brownish plumage makes it practically invisible when it is
resting on dry leaves.

Woodpeckers— Good Creepers and Climbers
The name of the "redheaded" woodpecker appeals so
strongly to children that this bird almost seems to be the out-
standing member of the tribe. However, this woodpecker is only
one of many: There are at least 375 varieties. The woodpecker
is found in all parts of the world except the Australian region
and Madagascar. There are twenty-four species in North America.
The downy woodpecker which is at home in our woods and
parks is probably the most widespread and common. One of the
smallest of the family, it is a plain black and white except for the
red patch the male wears on the back of its head. It is also one of
the friendliest, and an eager visitor at winter feeding stations if
you provide suet for it.

Woodpeckers are well adapted for creeping and climbing, as
they have two toes directed forward and two backward to assist
them in clinging to an upright surface. The stifiE-pointed tail
feathers serve as a prop. Their other notable adaptation is the
strong sharp bill with which they can chisel away wood to expose
grubs. This bird's specialized tongue is also useful: it can be
extended some distance and has a horny spearlike tip on which
the food is impaled and then drawn into the woodpecker's bill.

Owls— Birds of the Night

Even before a child hears "The Owl and the Pussycat,"
his imagination may be captured by this dignified bird. Since
owls are creatures of the night they are seldom seen; but their
hoots, shrieks, and other distinctive calls often betray their pres-

62 ] The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching

ence in a neighborhocxi. Most owls are woodland birds, though
some make their homes in steeples, towers, bams, and other out-
buildings; some owls prefer marshes and plains.

Many people have mistaken ideas about owls. One of these
notions is that owls cannot see in the daytime. It is true that
their sight is keenest at night, when they do their hunting; but
they can use their big staring orbs from sunrise to dark if they
wish. These eyes are placed in their sockets in an odd manner,
being fixed in such a way that the bird cannot look from one
place to another by merely rolling its eyeballs. In order to see to
the side, it must turn its head in that direction. As a result, its
efforts to keep an object in view may make the owl seem to be
"unscrewing" its head.

Owls vary greatly in size according to species. Whereas the
screech owl is no more than ten inches long, the great homed owl
may reach a maximum of twenty-three inches. Both of these have
conspicuous ear tufts. The great horned owl seeks wild, heavily
forested regions. The screech owl frequently lives near dwellings,
in shade trees of village streets or suburban lots. On occasion it
will accept the hospitality of a bird-box home. Its plumage is
rather odd: its color— gray or reddish— offers no clue as to sex, age,
or season. Some owls simply have reddish-brown feathers while
others have grayish-brown ones.

Hawks— More Friends Than Foes

You can perhaps best recognize the large and varied hawk
family by actions and sounds. Hawks are solitary birds except
during the migration season. Ordinarily you may see one of them
soaring in wide circles high overhead, scanning the ground below
for a possible victim. When it spots a quarry it swoops down,
strikes the prey with its feet and tears it to pieces with its bill.
Its loud, startling cry seems very suitable to its fierce nature.

Because of the many similarities among different species, it is
not always simple to tell them apart. Sometimes you can identify
the red-tailed hawk by the feature which gives it its name, even
when it is flying quite high above you. Its tail is frequently slanted
in flight, and especially on a sunny day the red tones on the upper

The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching

res

THE RED-TAILED HAWK-BEHER THAN ITS REPUTATION

With their sharp eyes and ability to fly swiftly and tirelessly, the ropaclous
hawks are ideally adapted to be birds of prey. Though falsely accused of making
off with poultry— it is sometimes called "the chicken hawk"— the red-toiled
hawk specializes in mice and other creatures harmful to crops.

surface are surprisingly evident. The red-tailed hawk is of medium
size, its body length ranging from nineteen to twenty-five inches.
Its wing-spread may be fifty inches or more. The Cooper's hawk
is slightly smaller. It looks very much like the sharp-shinned
hawk, the adult males of both species having blue-gray plumage
above and whitish below with reddish-brown cross stripes.

Many hawks perform a valuable service in farm areas by eating
great numbers of mice and other destructive small mammals. In
spite of this, there is a popular notion that all hawks are the
farmer's enemies.

"But don't chicken hawks steal the farmer's hens?" your child
may ask.

64 ] The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching

Strangely enough, it is not the chicken hawks that do the steal-
ing. Or if they do, it is an exceptional case. The two kinds widely
known as chicken or hen hawks are the red-tailed hawk and the
red-shouldered hawk. Both of these eat mostly mice, gophers and
other mammals, insects, and reptiles. Only rarely do they attack
poultry.

The Cooper's hawk, however, is one that the farmer may
definitely class as bad from his point of view. The sharp-shinned
hawk also kills chickens as well as many wild birds. The chances
are that the larger and more strikingly marked red-shouldered
and red-tailed types attract the most attention, while the smaller
and less noticeable Cooper's and sharp-shinned hawks actually
carry out the sneak attacks on poultry yards. So, ironically enough,
birds that are really allies of the farmer are classed as foes.

Bald Eagles

"Is the bald eagle really bald?"

Inquisitive children ask this question so often that you ought
to have a ready answer handy. Actually this bird has a fine crop
of feathers on its head; but because they are white, in contrast to
most of its plumage, they do not show up when seen from a
distance.

Because of its strength and daring and its air of majestic dignity,
the Americans chose the bald eagle as their national emblem when
they first formed an independent nation. Some people find fault
with this selection on the ground that eagles often get their food
by snatching it from terrified smaller birds that have procured it
from river, lake, or ocean. This banditry charge is true, but it is
difficult to watch the enormous-winged creature soaring through
the air without thinking of it as a noble bird.

The golden eagle of the West is somewhat larger than the bald
one and has been known to grow as long as forty-three inches. It
has sometimes been accused of carrying off children in its enormous
claws. However, there is apparently no verified case of this haj>
pening, and experiment has shown that six pounds is about the
greatest weight the golden eagle can carry.

DUCKS ARE NATURAL
COMEDIANS

A duck's short legs are placed
tar apart, making i^ walk with
an amusing waddle, and its
voice is as comical as it is
raucous. No wonder that this
bird inspired the universally
popular cartoon character,
Donald Duck. Water, not
land, is the duck's proper
element, and in a pond it
swims and dives expertly.

Standard Oil (N. J.)

:?*^, » ■••^

H^ ^^

-^ X.^iJ^

ONE OF THE BEST OF BIRD MOTHERS

When the hen leads her brood through thick grass, she keeps up a steady cluck-cluck

L..." t.^J.ik

The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching [ 65

Vultures— Nature's Street Cleaners

These are the birds that actually merit the name "bald,"
as the head and neck of both black and turkey vultures are bare
of feathers. When you see one of these birds of prey, in the flesh
or in pictures, you are more likely to be repelled than attracted;
no one is apt to speak fondly of a vulture. Nevertheless it is
extremely valuable as a scavenger, and in certain towns of the
South, vultures form a dependable street-cleaning department.

Gulls— They Roost on Water

You are most likely to see gulls along the seashore and in
bays and harbors. But, as many of them nest on the islands of inland
lakes, it is not impossible to glimpse them in a wide variety of
places. The herring gull, abundant along the Atlantic Coast, is
one of the largest types and has a gray back and wings that are
tipped with black. The California gull closely resembles the
herring gull. Some kinds, such as the laughing gull of the East
and the Franklin gull of the West, have a black head.

Gulls are as buoyant as cork on the water and they often rest
and roost there. They are a valuable aid to sanitation along water
fronts, especially in harbors where garbage is dumped. They often
gather in tremendous numbers at such places and seize the refuse
as it is thrown off scows. It is exciting to watch them vie for offal
discarded from a returning fishing craft when the catch is being
cleaned. In addition they devour the bodies of dead creatures of
the sea which have floated to the surface.

Making Wild Birds Feel at Home

Rescuing a helpless animal is one of childhood's greatest thrills.
Most youngsters are thoroughly delighted at an opportunity to
care for an injured older bird— or a baby bird that has become
separated from its parents.

This is an endearing trait in children, but before you let them
make the attempt, you ought to know how hard it is to feed wild
birds— especially the young ones. Baby birds often starve to death
because people have no conception of the enormous quantities of
food the fledglings require. These figures tell the story: A house

66]

The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching

wren was seen feeding her three babies 1 1 1 spiders and insects
within four hours! Chipping sparrows brought their three young-
sters thirty-seven grasshoppers in an hour and a half. Most amazing
of all, a baby robin, just ready to leave its nest, was able to eat
the equivalent of fourteen feet of earthworms in a day!

Fortunately, you can supply substitutes for natural foods if a
young bird suddenly becomes your responsibility. Sparrows, rob-
ins, bluebirds, waxwings, and many others, will flourish on a
well-balanced diet of meal worms, hard-boiled egg yolk fully grated,
bread with milk, and berries.

Remember, before rashly adopting a bird "orphan," that young
ones sometimes become separated temporarily from their family
and cry loudly trying to attract their parents' attention. If you
find one of these lost youngsters on the ground, you do best to
place the bird gently on the branch of a tree rather than take it
home. If the hour is late, your wisest course may be to take the
baby home and wait until early next morning to return it to the
place where you found it.

THE RAVEN-FRIEND OR FOE?

These blackbirds, immortalized by Edgar Allan Poe in his famous poem, are twice
as big as crows. They are very intelligent and can be trained to talk and to
perform simple stunts. But out in the fields, ravens are a nuisance and their
raids are very costly to farmers. Their notes are loud and coarse.

The Delightful Hobby of Bird Watching [ 67

If you succeed in raising a young bird, you will want to give it
its liberty as soon as it is able to shift for itself. In fact, there are
many species which cannot be legally kept in captivity without a
permit. Crows are one of the exceptions to this ruling, and they
may become fascinating pets. If they are taken as young birds,
they attach themselves firmly to a household and shun the efforts
of other crows to draw them away. They enjoy the companionship
of humans and can learn to talk like parrots. Unfortunately, some
people mistakenly believe that splitting a crow's tongue helps it
talk. This is a cruel thing to do, and futile as well; the crow does
not use its tongue to produce sounds.

You will find tame crows at a number of zoos. The Philadelphia
Zoo used to keep one near the main entrance, where it would
greet arrivals with a cheery "Hello"; and there was another whose
favorite exclamation was, "Wowl Cold out!" even in midsummer.
A crow named Deacon was one of the first features of the Chil-
dren's Zoo at the Bronx Zoological Gardens in New York City.
Someone had found the bird, a forlorn little orphan, under a tree.
The crow repaid the good care he received from zoo officials by
playing the gracious host to countless boys and girls.

Like crows, some owls make fine pets. An elderly friend of
mine delights in reminiscing about a great horned owl he had
when he was a boy. He found it as a small ball of down under a
huge nest in the woods near his home and immediately became
the bird's foster father. He named it Jack and took full charge of
its diet of raw fish, flesh, and fowl, keeping it healthy and happy
until it was full-grown.

"Jack was an ajffectionate bird," he recalls. "Often he would
sit beside me and I would ruffle his feathers just behind his
head. He would bend forward, his eyes almost closed, and every
few minutes there would be a succession of deep baritone hoots."
Such gentle, trusting companionship can mean a great deal to a
child.

cHAPTER^Birds of Farm
and Zoo

osT CHILDREN who livc ill Tural areas are
accustomed to chickens, ducks, and other
domesticated birds as part of the daily scene. To city dwellers
these creatures may seem even more remote than the wild birds,
which at least make their home in parks of metropolitan areas.
But whether farm birds are intriguingly distant or familiar to the
point of being commonplace, they repay close observation.

We think of chickens as being very timid, in fact, "chicken-
hearted." Yet they become exciting personalities when two roosters
engage in a duel. The two antagonists face each other with lowered
heads, then each strikes out with his wing spurs, tears his opponent
with his leg spurs, and tries to seize him by the back of the neck
with his beak. Roosters are unbelievably tenacious fighters, going
after each other with brutal abandon. Though roosters fight it out
for barnyard supremacy, they display equal spirit against rats,
skunks, hawks, and other marauders.

Chickens have a varied and eloquent language all their own.
The rooster's crow is unmistakably boastful, challenging. When a
hen is setting, she sounds irritable; when her chicks have hatched,
her voice takes on a triumphant note. When she is enjoying the
sun in the company of other hens, she sounds pleasantly chatty;
when frightened, she squalls. Listening to these notes and others
as well, and interpreting them, is an interesting pastime for
youngsters.

68

Birds of Farm and Zoo [ 69

Turkeys— The Pilgrims' Pride

The turkey gobble is possibly the most famous of all bird
sounds. The tom "gobbles" aggressively as he struts and displays
his beauty to a flock of hens. He lifts his beautiful tail feathers
in a semicircular fan, sticks out his breast, and makes a handsome
ruff by raising the iridescent plumage about his neck.

The Bronze Turkey: There is a bronze breed of turkey that has a
very close resemblance to the North American wild turkey.

From its neck halfway to the middle of its back the plumage
is bronze, glittering with green and purple tones. Each feather
is tipped with a narrow black band. The breast plumage is the
same. As for the lower back, it is black except for a bronze edging
on each feather. The long quills on the wings are crossed with
black-and-white bands, and each feather of the fan-shaped tail is
banded with black and brown and at the end has a black bar
tipped with white.

The hen's plumage is similar in color— except that her breast,
neck, and wings are not so brilliant, being dimmed by a line of
white at the tip of each feather. The warty, wrinkled skin over
the head and neck of both sexes is colorful: bluish white on the
crown, grayish blue about the eyes, and the rest red. In the male
the colors are more vivid.

Turkey With Trimmings: Turkeys have several distinctive "trim-
mings." The wattle (as in chickens) is a hanging fold below the
throat. Above the beak is the "caruncle," a fleshy, pointed knob
which on the gobbler is long enough to fall over, and hang below,
the beak. When the bird is angry, both these parts swell and turn
a more brilliant red.

On all toms, and occasionally on a hen, you will see a "beard"— a
bunch of black bristles hanging from the center of the breast.
These hang limply when the birds are feeding, but when a gobbler
struts, he thrusts the beard forward.

How the Turkey Got Its Name: Despite the Thanksgiving lore
absorbed at school— or perhaps because of it— your youngster may
raise this point: "Did the Pilgrims have to go out and shoot

7© ] Birds of Farm and Zoo

turkeys? Didn't they raise them on their farms?"

The answer is rather complex. When the early Spanish explorers
came to Mexico they discovered a breed of turkeys with white-
tipped tail feathers and took some of them back to Europe. About
a century later, the Pilgrims brought domesticated descendants of
these turkeys to eastern North America. There, as well as farther
to the west, turkeys with brown- tipped feathers were to be found
in a wild state. Thus the Pilgrims had the white-tipped turkeys
in captivity, but they filled their larder by hunting brown-tipped
ones as well.

Apparently this Western bird was given an Oriental name in
the course of its travels from continent to continent. When it
first appeared in Europe it was confused there with the guinea
cock, an African bird that was imported by way of the Turkish
dominions. While the two kinds of birds were later distinguished
from each other, the name "turkey" was kept for the American
bird.

The Sun Dance: Turkeys, wild or domesticated, have a curious
custom— a "sun dance." While dawn is still faint in the sky, the
birds gather and begin high-stepping flip-flop motions. As they
jump up and down with wings lifted, the hens call quit, quit,
and the males accompany them with a high-keyed rattle. No
sooner does the sun show above the horizon than the dance ends
as abruptly as it began.

Ducks, Tame and Wild

In your study of wild bird life you may find that water
birds are on the whole less accessible than land birds. The duck
is an excellent representative of the water dwellers that you can
observe at close range by visiting a barnyard. When you see a
duck on shore you may have a good look at its legs, which partly
explain its prowess in the water. You will notice that the duck's
short legs are set wide apart and far back on its body. The three
front toes are joined by a tough skin or web. These admirably
adapted legs and feet make perfect paddles in the water.

Domesticated ducks have modest needs in the way of shelter;

Birds of Farm and Zoo [71

a low open shed to protect them from snow and driving rains is
sufficient. Their thick feathers and down form an almost weather-
proof coat which shields them from the foulest weather.

The Muscovy Duck: Ducks are raised more commonly for meat
than for their eggs, though some breeds are good egg producers.
There are ten outstanding varieties of ducks that are widely bred
for meat, eggs, or both. One of the most interesting to observe is
the "Muscovy" variety, which despite its name is native to Latin
America. It cannot quack in the familiar manner of most ducks.
Instead, it makes a hoarse, raucous hissing sound; and it has the
further peculiarity of wagging its tail from side to side like a dog.
The Muscovy duck is a better flier than other domestic ducks, and
it is not unusual to see one perched on top of a barn. Muscovys
are almost completely self-supporting. They make their own nests,
hatch their young, and raise them with no more than a feed of
corn once or twice a day.

Fresh-Water and Salt-Water Ducks: As the ancestors of our domes-
tic breeds, wild ducks are among the better known of bird families.
You may have some conflicting stories to straighten out abou*
them. Your boy may say:

"Ducks are good divers."

His pal contradicts: "I've watched them! They never do any-
thing more than stick their heads under water and raise their
tails. I don't call that diving."

Actually both boys may be right; there are two groups or sub-
families of ducks, each with different habits. One group lives in
rivers and ponds, the other in bays and the open sea. The pond and
river ducks do very little diving. They dabble along the shore
and probe down into the mud where the water is shallow. The
sea ducks, however, are expert divers. They may go under water
150 feet or more!

The canvasback is probably the most familiar of the sea ducks.
One of the best known of the river and pond group is the mallard.
Many varieties of domestic ducks are descended from this bird.

72 ] Birds of Farm and Zoo

Geese— And How to Know Them

"What's the difference between a duck and a goose?" is a
question that might readily occur to any boy or girl. There is
much about either animal that suggests the other, and it is true
that they both belong to the same bird family. Still, a duck is a
duck and a goose is a goose! The goose is more of a "landlubber"
than the duck and feeds more on land vegetation. Its beak is
harder, and less flat in appearance, than a duck's. The legs of the
goose are not placed so far back on its body, so that geese are
able to walk and run more freely than ducks.

While male and female ducks are easily distinguished by the
usual sex difference in coloration, geese are alike in color. (The
gander, however, is larger than his mate. He shares the responsi-
bility of incubating the eggs and helps to care for the goslings.)
Finally, geese usually have longer necks than ducks. All these
distinctions add up to a difference which your boy or girl will
easily notice.

Domestic geese have largely lost their power of flight, but in
other ways they suggest their wild relatives. They honk to each
other in expressive goose language. Mother and father bird are
devoted to each other and to their young. They proudly take their
goslings to the pond for the first swimming lesson and gently push
them in with their bills if they hesitate.

It is not uncommon for a wild goose that has been injured or
become overtired to join a domestic flock along the path of its
flight. But usually after a season "the call of the wild" is so strong
that it will join any flock that happens along— unless the farmer
has clipped its wings.

"Silly Goose!": Have you ever called your child a "silly goose"?
This widely used expression is strangely inappropriate, for geese
usually seem to know just what they want and how to go about
getting it. Some people contend that geese are among the smartest
of all animals.

A goose named Simon who lived on a farm I often visited well
deserved this reputation. He appointed himself guardian of the
small boy of the family, he v/ould take no nonsense from the dog,

Birds of Farm and Zoo

[73

and he "policed" the barnyard in such a way that we liked to
imagine him in a cap and badge. Even the adults of the family
hesitated to do anything out of the ordinary routine for fear of
provoking Simon's displeasure.

Geese react resourcefully under danger. A goose is quick to dive
under water if it is wounded. Then, with its body just below the
surface and only its bill exposed, it heads for shore where it tries
to hide among the brush and grass.

Both goose and gander will defy a suspected enemy by opening
the mouth and hissing violently. Nor is this loud "talk" a bluff.
A gander is able to seize many smaller adversaries in his strong
hard bill and beat them to death with his wings.

The Canada Goose: There are several species of wild geese on the
North American continent, but probably none are more widely
known than the Canada goose. At one season or another this bird

THE CANADA GOOSE-ANYTHING BUT SIUY

Most observers are agreed that the goose fs the most intelligent of all our domesti-
cated birds. The Canada goose is perhaps the most famous of all the wild varieties.
It is greatly admired for its fabulous long-distance migrations covering thousands
of miles. A large bird— about three feet long— it is noted for its loud honks.

74 ] Birds of Farm and Zoo

may be found from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, and from
the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic.

In the northern part of its range, when the days grow shorter
and a hint of frost warns that winter is approaching, the leaders of
the flocks spur their followers to action. These leaders are usually
old ganders that have trekked down the continent and back many
times.

The birds soar skyward. High above the ground they form two
lines which join to form a large V, with the lead-gander at the
forward point. His strength enables him to make the initial break
in the air mass. He starts off with spirited honks and is frequently
answered by the birds behind him as if by way of assurance that
"all's well!"

As a rule, migrating geese rest at night. As sundown approaches,
the leader looks for a suitable lake and glides down to it in a long
incline, followed by the flock. However, if no safe landing place
is found, a flock of Canada geese may stay in the air for more than
twenty-four hours. It has been calculated that they sometimes fly
a thousand miles without a stop!

The Graceful Swans

The swan belongs to the bird family that includes the duck
and the goose. Swans also favor the V formation in which migrating
flocks travel. Both the male and the female swan are noted for their
lovely white plumage and their tranquil grace in the water.

In olden times the striking beauty of the swan was a favorite
theme of many myths, legends, and fairly tales, and to this day
every child is familiar with the classic story of the Ugly Duckling.
Anyone who has ever seen a swan can understand its hold on the
imagination of noted composers and masters of the ballet. The
famous ballerina Pavlova, who scored her greatest successes in a
composition called The Swan, was very fond of swans and kept
them as pets for many years.

Pigeons

Their Courtship Antics: While watching pigeons, you have prob-
ably wondered at their occasionally odd antics. Sometimes you

Birds of Farm and Zoo [ 75

may see one pecking at another bird's head and pushing it around
for apparently no reason at all. But there is a reason, and a com-
pelling one: The "pusher" is a cock bird and the "pushed" is a
hen. The pecking and pushing are part of the cock's breeding
display. The cock coos much louder than the hen, and while he
is performing his courtship dances the hen usually feigns indif-
ference and walks away from the male who is striving so hard to
make an impression.

Where Pigeons Are Found: You may encounter pigeons on farms
or in city parks. They have adapted themselves so successfully to
city life that they are often a distinct nuisance in cluttering and
soiling buildings. And sometimes their cooing outside the windows
of a humdrum business office can take on a weird unearthly
quality! But children love these birds, and "feeding the pigeons"
has become almost a national sport.

There is nothing novel about this, for pigeons have been
popular domestic birds for many centuries: There were pigeon
fanciers in ancient Rome. All our present domestic varieties have
been developed from the rock pigeon, a wild species found in many
parts of Europe and Asia.

There are vast numbers of pigeons in America, but they also
dwell in all parts of the temperate and tropical regions of the
world, existing in the greatest quantity and variety in the Eastern
Hemisphere, particularly in the Australian and Malayan regions.

The Homing Pigeon: This remarkable variety was developed
during the Middle Ages, when there was a lack of dependable
means of communication. A warrior or traveler would take several
of these pigeons when setting out on a journey. After a few days'
travel, he would attach a letter to one of the birds, which on being
released would fly straight back to his family at home. Later
he would send back more letters with the other birds. Today,
champion homing pigeons can fly at the rate of almost a mile a
minute, keeping up that amazing pace for several hours!

76]

Birds of Farm and Zoo

THE OSTRICH-OUTRUNS A HORSE, BUT CANNOT FLY

A giant with small wings and long legs, the ostrich con dash off at sixty miles an
hour at the first sign of danger. Twenty-five miles an hour, though, is nearer to
its normal rote of speed. At bay, the ostrich lashes out with its legs with a force
that can break a man's leg.

At the Zoo

Ostriches— The World's Largest Birds

Even when birds are extremely rare, children may become
acquainted with them through pictures and stories or, better still,
see them in the flesh in some of our larger zoos. You may find the

Birds of Farm and Zoo [ 77

great bird of Africa, the ostrich, in many zoos— though not all of
them are able to accommodate very large or rare species.

The ostrich is the largest living bird: A full-grown male
measures about eight feet from its toes to the crown of its head.
Its wings are so small in relation to the size of its body that a child
readily realizes that the ostrich is a flightless bird. But nature
has compensated, as it so often does when an animal has some
lack or defect, by developing other traits which help in survival.
We see this compensation in the case of the small-winged ostrich;
it has tremendously powerful legs on which it can travel as much
as thirty miles an hour.

The Huge Ostrich Egg: In keeping with its size the ostrich lays
eggs that are about eighteen times larger than a chicken's egg.
A family group of ostriches is made up of a cock and several hens.
The hens all lay their eggs in one large depression scooped out
of the sand. One of the hens covers the eggs during the day, but
the father takes over the task at night.

The Maligned Ostrich: When you go to see the ostrich, your child
is almost certain to ask about the bird's reputation for stupidity.
The ostrich gets this reputation because of the widespread notion
that it believes itself hidden when it sticks its head in the sand.
Though this story is well entrenched in people's minds, it is
completely false. This fable is probably based on the fact that
when an ostrich chick is alarmed, it flops to the ground and extends
its long neck flat along the surface.

Peacocks— Nature's Gorgeous Spectaclk

Even when he is not "displaying," the peacock is a handsome
bird. But if you are lucky enough to catch him in the act of
courting, you can see one of the most beautiful sights of the bird
world.

The male and female may be walking quietly side by side when
suddenly there is a rattling of quills as the male shakes out the
feathers of his train. With a few stiff-legged steps he puts himself
ahead of his companion. Then, with a dramatic sweep of the long
feathers which trail behind him, he wheels in front of her, lifts

78 ] Birds of Farm and Zoo

and spreads his gorgeous fan. This fan is not made of his true tail
feathers, which are stiff and blackish and entirely concealed. The
true tail feathers support the fan when the long brilliant feathers
are held erect.

This unforgettable performance will bring home to your child
just what we mean when we say that somebody "struts like a
peacock." Incidentally, the other members of the pheasant family,
to which the peacock belongs, are also given to the display habit.
All the males are noted for their colorful plumage and dazzling
displays. A curious final detail: the voice of the peacock is not in
keeping with its appearance, being shrill and unpleasant.

Penguins— Birds That Swim But Can't Fly

The penguin is a prime favorite with children because of
its comical and ingratiating appearance. Penguins are paradoxical
creatures: though they cannot fly, they are accomplished swimmers 1
Aside from diving into the water to catch fish for food, they love
to swim for the fun of it.

Laying Eggs on Ice: The largest kind of penguin, the "emperor,"
has an average weight of seventy pounds. Unlike some other species,
it is a true antarctic bird. The female lays her egg on ice; then, to
prevent its freezing, she tucks it in a fold of skin between her legs
and crouches low over it. The male has a similar fold of skin, and
the parents take turns shielding the egg so that it never comes in
contact with the ice long enough to freeze.

Where Penguins Live: Most of us have the impression that all
penguins are native to the ice barriers along the coast of Antarctica.
There are sixteen or more species of penguins, and it is true that
most of them live in the frozen wastes of the far South. However,
some penguins live near the tropical belts, with one species actually
at the equator, on the Galdpagos Islands.

Storks and More Storks

You may see at the zoo a grotesque-looking bird which, accord-
ing to a sign, is a stork; but it appears quite different from the
storks that have been described in stories and fables you have read.

Birds of Farm and Zoo [ 79

A close look at the sign may then reveal you are looking at a jabiru
stork. This is one of twenty or more different kinds of stork. It
stands between four and five feet in height, and is striking in ap-
pearance because its white plumage forms a strong contrast to
its bare head and neck, which are black. Its homeland is South
America. To Africa belongs another type of stork— the "shoebill,"
with its bill as prominent as its name suggests. Exquisitely soft
''marabou'* feathers are taken from the marabou stork of Africa
and India. Oddly enough, it is among the ugliest of birds, with
its head bare of feathers and a large bare pouch hanging from its
throat. Also found in Africa and Asia, as well as in Europe, are
black storks, handsome birds with red legs and beak.

The "good luck" bird, the stork associated with children (Dutch
children for many generations have chanted a verse to this stork
asking for a little brother) is white. In Denmark, Germany, Hol-
land, and Turkey, where white storks breed, people eagerly at-
tempt to persuade them to settle on their housetops. It is an old
custom for the Dutch to erect large wooden boxes or platforms
above their chimneys as a nesting site. Once a nest has been used
by a pair of storks, they return to it year after year. They repair
it by adding sticks and reeds, and after a number of seasons, the
nest may be several feet high. During breeding season they make
a loud clapping noise with their beaks, but aside from this they
are silent. They display great affection for their babies; and the
Hebrew name, chasidah, given this stork, signifies * 'kindness"
or "mercy.**

Canaries— Favorite Pets

The companionship of one of these cheerful songsters has
been a boon to many otherwise lonely people. For several hundred
years canaries have been the most popular of all bird pets. Today
we have about fifty different domestic kinds, each with distinctive
coloring and markings. Aside from the familiar yellow canaries,
you may see others with blue-gray, white, cinnamon-brown, and
a number of other tones.

Keeping a caged pet makes it very convenient for you to observe

8o ] Birds of Farm and Zoo

at close range many phases which are common to both domesticated
and wild birds. A canary begins to molt about the middle of July
and continues to exchange old feathers for new until the end of
summer. If the bird starts losing its feathers after this normal molt,
the chances are that it is being subjected to cold drafts or to
extreme variations of heat and cold.

Where Canaries Come From: Originally canaries came from the
Canary Islands off the west coast of Africa. (The islands in turn
get their name from the Latin word can/5— "dog"— because of an
unusual breed of large dogs.) But the islands stopped exporting
the birds many years ago, and canaries are bred extensively in
America and Europe. The wild canary's upper plumage is olive
green; its breast is golden yellow. „.

Singing and Sex Differences: The canary's popularity is based on
song rather than looks. There are many variations in voice quality
and type of song, with the "roller" canary rated as the outstanding
songster of the canary family. A first-rate roller sings from ten to
fourteen different notes in connected or "rolling" phrases, per-
forming with his beak closed. The general style of singing is
inherited, but the breeder trains the young males to establish their
song properly by exposing them to the influence of a tutor bird
for about three months.

Male canaries are the leading singers; but this is not necessarily
a guide to the sex of an individual bird, as some females also sing.
An experienced breeder verifies a bird's sex by holding the canary
in his hand and gently feeling its abdomen. The casual observer
can be guided by these points: The male is usually slightly larger
than the female; its head is somewhat larger; the eye is not only
larger, but bolder as well; and the male's call is louder and more
musical.

Parrots— Masters of Mimicry

The parrot has a very special appeal for us because of its
talking ability, which bridges the gap in a way between "dumb"
animals and humans.

Children are often disappointed when they realize that instead

Birds of Farm and Zoo [Si

of conversing with them, the parrot is merely imitating sounds,
copying words or laughter as it might mimic a bird melody if it
were a song bird. But this disappointment may be softened by
the discovery that the parrot is exceptionally intelligent for an
animal. (Do you remember Long John Silver's parrot Captain
Flint in Treasure Island with his repeated cry of "Pieces of eightl
Pieces of eight!"?) A favorite method of teaching a parrot is to
hide from its view and repeat several words frequently, slowly,
and always in the same tone. -^ -

Members of the Parrot Family: Parakeets, which are related to the
parrots, vary in size— but most of them are small, some no larger
than a sparrow. Though parakeets can also learn to talk, it is not
so easy to understand them, for they speak very rapidly and in
high-pitched voices. Distinguishing between the parrots and the
parakeets is something of a problem, as there is no sharp dividing
line between the two groups. All of them are birds of the forest;
they are poor walkers but good fliers and climbers; all eat fruit
and seeds.

Other relatives are the macaws (largest and most brightly
colored of the family) , cockatoos, cockateels, lories, lorikeets,
conures, and the interestingly named lovebirds, noted for their
affectionate nature. The Amazon parrot is a popular cage bird,
es{>ecially the species with blue markings on its face. It is a very
efficient talker, though the African gray parrot is considered the
champion in this respect.

How Birds Began

Sometimes children are even more fascinated by the remote
and somewhat mysterious past than by the wonders they see
around them. So, do not be surprised if your air-minded son or
daughter turns to you with such questions as, "When did birds
start to fly?" and, "Why?"

The Flying Reptiles

Fortunately, and in a way that seems almost miraculous,
scientists have looked back over the ages and reconstructed an
understandable picture of life as it went on long before history

82 ] Birds of Farm and Zoo

was recorded. Let's pretend to look through their magic spyglass
at the world that existed about 150 million years ago. What do
we see?

Dinosaurs of many shapes and sizes are wandering over the
land, crocodiles are swarming in the rivers, and lizards are running
over dry, sandy stretches. In addition to these weird creatures on
the surface of the earth, we see others soaring overhead; but they
do not seem to be flying so much as gliding.

It does not take us long to realize that these air-borne animals
have a big advantage over the earth-bound monsters, for they can
swoop earthward, seize a victim, and then soar up to a perch and
devour their prey at leisure without danger of attack from enemies.
As we look closer, we see that these strange gliders are not birds:
They have no feathers. Aside from their flying powers, they are
not unlike the reptiles on the ground.

We look again. This time we see another flying creature. This
one has feathers! It is a bird.

The Earliest Known Bird

Most boys and girls take delight in impressive-sounding,
mouth-rolling words, and your child will enjoy learning the name
that has been given to this earliest known bird: Archaeopteryx
(arck-ee-op^-ter-ix) . This word combines two Greek terms meaning
"ancient wing."

Archaeopteryx had teeth in its upper and lower jaws and was
equipped with a long tail. It was its feathers that took it out of
the realm of reptiles. In time the teeth were to disappear and the
mouth formation was to change until it became a hard beak more
adapted to pecking than biting.

Very gradually, over a long period of time, the flying reptiles
disappeared while birds grew more numerous and varied. After
Archaeopteryx there is a lapse of millions of years in the known
history of birds. By the time their story is resumed by fossils of
a much later age, they had become specialized and diverse: They
were more akin to modern birds than to Archaeopteryx. Scientists
believe that some of the birds that enliven our earth today have
existed in their present form for over a million years.

CHAPTER OAnimals

in the Wild

A>

DVENTURous YOUNGSTERS are thrilled at the
/ ^ thought of stalking wild animals. It may
suggest to them mighty gorillas hidden in trackless jungles or
lions prowling over African plains— or perhaps a man-eating tiger
that is terrorizing a village in India. They may think of our own
North American deer and bears, or even the smaller foxes and
wildcats.

Though the animals that occur to them may be of many
different kinds, one thing is certain: Each will be four-legged and
have fur or hair. For most children— and many parents as well I—
only this type of beast is an "animal."

True, these beasts are animals, but they are only one type: the
mammals.

Aside from mammals, we find in the animal world many
creatures without four legs and fur. Among them are birds, fish,
snakes, frogs, spiders, and worms. In fact, all living things that have
feeling and the power of voluntary motion may properly be
termed animals.

"What is the difference, then," the inquiring young mind
wonders, "between mammals and other kinds of animals?"

To be considered a mammal, an animal must have three quali-
ties. It must be warm-blooded, which means that its blood remains
at nearly the same temperature no matter how hot or cold its
surroundings may be. It must have hair or fur on its body. And a

83

84 ] Animals in the Wild

baby mammal is always nourished by milk furnished by its mother.
Opportunities to observe wild mammal life at first hand are much
less common than those for bird study. At an early age children
become familiar, to be sure, with a variety of beasts in their story
books— the bears in ''Goldilocks,'* the wolf in ''Red Riding Hood,"
the fox in "Chicken Little"— but this acquaintance is based on
fantasy rather than facts. When the youngster begins to grow
away from his make-believe world and shows an interest in animals
as they really are, he has considerable misinformation to discard
as well as facts to learn.

Many Kinds of Mammals

A useful way to simplify the story of the mammals for an older
child is to group these animals into their main divisions.

One group consists of flesh-eating ("carnivorous") mammals,
such as wolves, foxes, lions, and tigers. A second group is made
up of rodents— mice, squirrels, beavers and others with long, sharp
front teeth. The third group, the hoofed animals, includes deer
and cattle.

Strange water mammals known as manatees and dugongs are
in a class by themselves— so are the flying mammals we call bats.
Whales are probably the best known of the group known as
"cetaceans."

All toothless mammals such as the anteater are included in one
group. Finally there are the marsupials, made up chiefly of
mammals with pouches in which to carry their babies. The
opossum is the one American representative of this group, but the
kangaroo of Australia is perhaps the most widely known of the
pouched animals.

Flesh Eaters and Plant Eaters

On the basis of their food habits mammals may be divided into
two general classes. There are plant eaters (herbivores) and flesh
eaters (carnivores) . In trying to distinguish one type from the
other, a child would pretty much take for granted that the flesh
eaters are larger and stronger. But that is not always the case.

Animals in the Wild

[85

Teeth and claws are a better basis for distinguishing between tne
two groups. You can point out that the flesh eater has sharp
enlarged canine teeth, shearing side teeth, and strong, sharp claws.

*'Good" and "Bad" Animals

Perhaps you have noticed a tendency on the part of a
young child to label certain animals "bad" and others "good." If
you query the child you are likely to find that the "bad" animals
are those which eat other animals. This habit may well be frighten-
ing to a child, who does not see the connection between his own
appetite for steak and the needs of a carnivorous animal devouring
prey in order to sustain life. It is a good idea to point out, at
some appropriate moment, that the food habits of both flesh eaters
and plant eaters are inborn and not a matter of choice, and that
moreover the flesh eaters seldom kill except when they are hungry
or defending themselves from attack.
Watch a dog gnaw a bone and you have an excellent illustration

THE TIGER-FEROCIOUS JUNGLE PROWLER

9n the zoo the tiger looks like an overgrown pussycat; in fungle regions !t is a
fierce beast of prey. When attacking, it may spring fifteen feet or more. Its stripes
♦^re a useful aid in stalking; the light-and-dark pattern blends with the alternation
ot sunlight and shadow in the jungle, concealing it from its victims.

86 ] Animals in the Wild

of a carnivorous mammal in action. Not only are his incisors sharp
and the canine teeth long and strong; the molars are especially
designed for cutting.

All members of the cat family are meat eaters. Jaguars and
pumas, the largest cat animals on the American continent, are a
menace to game and livestock in some areas. You can study their
hunting tactics at close range when you watch a house cat stalking
a bird. The cat does not run down its prey as a dog would;
instead it creeps along stealthily until it is within striking distance,
when it takes a final vicious leap. The hunting technique of the
big wild cats is exactly the same.

The weasel offers solid proof that you cannot judge an animal's
eating habits or its disposition by its size. Though small and
slender, the weasel is one of the most aggressive and ferocious
of flesh-eating animals. Completely fearless, it sometimes kills
animals several times larger than itself and may satisfy its appetite
merely by lapping up their blood.

Hunting for Animal Tracks

When your child becomes interested in the activities of wild
mammals, you can join him in a fascinating hobby: hunting for
footprints and identifying them. In bygone days the Indians were
expert trackers— but for them it was not a hobby. The game they
secured by their expert knowledge of tracking often meant the
difference between starving and having enough food.

Today a knowledge of animal tracks is no longer necessary for
survival, but it can help satisfy the child's desire to play nature
detective. What child is not thrilled at reviving this once-
important Indian activity— especially if he realizes the early signifi-
cance of tracking!

How TO Identify Tracks

You may start track-hunting by going to likely places such
as muddy stream banks and finding tracks there, identifying them
later— or you may first obtain a background for field study from
books and observations near home. In your own back yard you
may find the tracks of dogs, cats, and squirrels.

Animals in the Wild [ 87

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TRACKS NEAR HOME AND IN THE WILDS

The footprints of cots and dogs are excellent ''first studies" in tracking. At the left
are the tracks of a domestic cat; next to them are the tracks of a lynx— similar in
form but more than twice as large. The tracks at the far right of the drawing are
those of a dog; next to them are the footprints of a wolf. It is almost impossible
to distinguish one from the other, except for size. A wolf has a larger foot than a
dog of normal size (the wolf is five feet long, weighs one hundred pounds).

A dog's tracks practically duplicate those of a wolf or coyote
except that the wolf tracks are usually larger. The tracks of a cat
are similar to those of the wildcat and mountain lion except for
size. In these tracks only the pads and claws make an imprint.

88 ] Animals in the Wild

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FLAT-FOOTED ANIMALS MAKE THESE TRACKS

Tracks made by an animal that walks on its toes are quite different from these, all
of which show the soles of the feet. At the left is the track of a black bear. In the
center are footprints made by a running raccoon. At the right are tracks of a
running skunk. Skunk tracks are rare in winter— the animal hibernates then.

Bears, skunks, and raccoons make plantigrade tracks, which
means that they are practically fiat-footed, and the greater part of
the foot shows in the tracks. Deer, sheep, moose, and elk make
hoofed tracks.

Another clue for identification is that tree-climbing animals
normally place their front feet side by side when they jump,
whereas animals that stay on the ground rarely show the front
feet paired in this way. However, the hind feet of both tree-
climbing and ground-living animals are generally paired.

Raccoon tracks are particularly intriguing, for this animal's
hind foot is long with a well-marked heel and five comparatively
short toes that make an impression remarkably like that of a
small human foot.

Animals in the Wild [ 89

Collecting Tracks

Children are eager collectors. If they wish to carry their
interest in tracking still further, it is sometimes possible to bring
tracks home— in plaster. Making plaster casts of tracks is not a
difficult process. Pamphlets or books in your library should provide
detailed instructions for preparing such casts.

There are other ways to collect tracks— photographing them or
sketching them. Neither you nor your child need be an artist to
try this; a very simple sketch will picture a footprint quite
graphically.

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HOOFS ARE PLAINLY INDICATED IN THESE TRACKS

At the left are footprints of the whitetailed deer, such as you might discover in
summer along the edge of small ponds or lakes. At the right are moose tracks.
Those made by a full-grown moose are longer, larger and more pointed than those
of all other hoofed animals. Tracks of the moose are not uncommon in Maine.

spl

Animals in the Wild

FOOTPRINTS IN FIELDS AND NEAR STREAMS

Tracks are best seen after a light fall of snow, or on dry, flat ground if the animal's
feet were wet. At the far left of the drawing are footprints of a cottontail rabbit.
Nexi to them you see the imprint made by a bounding gray squirrel. Next is the
track of a field mouse, and at the for right is the trail left by a beaver. It Is dis-
tinguished by the webbed hind feet and the mark made by the broad dragging tail.

Tracks Tell a Story

Tracks can reveal exciting incidents, such as a fox over-
taking a rabbit, or a weasel pouncing on a squirrel—or they may

Animals in the Wild

[9»

depict peaceful animals wandering in search of shelter and food.
After a fresh snowfall tracks are particularly clear and easy to
follow.

Sooner or later tracks lead you to the haunts where mammal
parents bring up their young. Altogether, tracking helps furnish
an answer to your child's question: "What do mammals do?" It
becomes apparent that securing food and raising families are their
major concern. - -

How Mammals Talk

Most children get their first inklings of animal communication
when they become familiar with the sounds made by dogs or cats.
The dog barks and squeals with pleasure; he growls when he is
angry, whines when he is afraid, and howls for the sheer pleasure
of hearing his own voice.

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THE FEEBLE CAU OF THE MIGHTY BULL MOOSE

Standing about six feet high at the shoulder, the bull moose mokes a majestfc
appearance with its formidable antlers. (Some of nature's most fearsome duels
have been fought with these antlers.) Yet the bull moose cannot produce any-
thing more impressive in the way of sound than a subdued, coughing grunt.

92 ] Animals in the Wild

The cat mews in friendly conversational tones; it purrs with
contentment and yowls when it is hurt, it howls and screams in a
fight. Its love serenade is shrill and agonizing— to the human ear.

The mammals of our forests and plains come near to duplicating
some of these sounds, and they have other kinds of vocal expression
as well. Some mammals roar, some whistle, some scream, some yap,
some bleat, others are virtually silent.

One of the more unusual sounds is sufficiently well known so
that even children hear about it. This is the call of the moose.
Many hunters practice it diligently in the hope of luring one of
these massive creatures within gun range. The hunters learn to
imitate the female, whose call is like the bawl of a domestic cow.
The bull moose, for all his size and strength, usually emits nothing
more than a feeble, coughing grunt.

Cry Danger!

To a child it is especially touching to note that frequently
the calls and cries of wild animals serve to alert their family to
the approach of danger. When the marmot, standing like a sentinel
at a lookout post, gives his shrill warning whistle, not only the
marmots but mountain sheep and other creatures as well take
cover. A bear, a wolf— or a man!— may be approaching.

Shrill, also, is the whistle of the marmot's cousin, the woodchuck.
With more abandon than good sense, it whistles and grinds its
teeth while trying to escape from an enemy. Gray squirrels give
the alarm with a kind of flat rasping bark finally prolonged into
a whining snarl.

Even the customarily silent mammals find their voices when they
are wounded. The scream of a white-tailed deer struck by a bullet
can be heard half a mile away, and a rabbit often gives a piercing
squeal when hit. But mammals do not always depend on their
voices to express emotion. The cottontail rabbit thumps the
ground with a hind foot when he senses danger. The beaver slaps
the water with its tail. As for deer and sheep, they stamp with a
fore foot when they are frightened.

A museum staff guide has often proved to me that animal
sounds have a powerful appeal for children. As he takes visitors

Animals in the Wild [ 93

through mammal exhibition halls, he demonstrates the cries of
the appropriate creatures in a thoroughly uninhibited manner.
These calls are enjoyed not only by the group of visitors assigned
to him, but by fascinated children who seem to appear from
nowhere, all eager to hear what animals sound like.

How Mammals Fight

Warfare in the animal world is not limited to sporadic outbreaks
when some creature or other decides to attack its neighbors.
Instead, the warfare is constant and unceasing. The need for food
drives the meat eaters to prey on other animals, and there seem to
be a few that kill for the sake of killing. Among some groups, the
males fight it out to win a mate or establish themselves as leader
of a herd. Among the most dramatic of mammal battles are those
between animals that wear antlers or horns--such as moose, deer,
elk, and goats.

A Duel Between Moose

The instinct of boys for pounding and pummeling each
other seems mild indeed compared to a clash between two bull
moose. Hostilities may start with a moose striking its antlers
against small trees in a way that broadcasts his defiance to all
within hearing. Another male rushes out to accept the challenge—
and the battle is on! Heads lowered, the two giants rush at each
other. The impact of the collision may knock one down; if he
regains his footing, they charge again.

Each moose tries to stab his enemy with the sharp brow tines
that are the vicious part of the antler. The wide flattened areas
are useful for defense in warding off blows. Frequently it is a
fight to the death for one of the contenders. Sometimes the ending
is tragic for both: Their antlers may become so firmly locked
together that they are powerless to move, and death by starvation
is their fate.

Special Battle Techniques

Mountain lions, jaguars, and other members of the cat
family have four long pointed teeth (canines) as weapons, as well

94 ] Animals in the Wild

as sharp claws that can be withdrawn into the fleshy foot pads
when they are not needed. When your child sees a fight between
two tomcats he can feel that he has witnessed real jungle warfare;
they use their teeth and claws in the same way as the big cats.

Squirrels, woodchucks, rats, and other rodents have dependable
weapons in their chisel-like front teeth, though rabbits rely chiefly
on their strong hind legs with which they can kick savagely. When
rabbits fight, each one tries to leap on top of his opponent and
kick downward. A deer avoids trouble whenever possible, but if
it is cornered it defends itself by striking at the enemy with its
front hoofs. The bucks also fight with their antlers.

Horses, burros, and some other hoofed mammals are able to
kick with both front and back feet. The grizzly bear has strong,
sharp teeth, and its huge front paws can be deadly to an enemy.

Not-So-Secret Weapons

Some mammals have specialized defensive weapons. The
skunk can discharge a notoriously evil-smelling scent that over-
powers the enemy with nature's poison gas. Foxes, wolverines,
weasels, and some other animals have scent glands more or less
like the skunk's and use odor as a defense weapon. But none of
these scents is so potent as that of the black and white "wood
pussy."

Porcupines, like the skunk, are not aggressive; they are slow-
moving and stupid. Their quills, however, are splendid equipment
for defense. Trapped by an enemy. Porky contracts his skin
muscles, causing the quills to stand erect. Then he bunches himself
up, raises his tail, flails anything within reach, and drives many
of his barbs into the flesh of his opponents. Contrary to popular
belief, the porcupine never shoots or throws his quills.

Keeping a Mammal C3iart

Man has constantly expanded his knowledge of the world
around him by keeping records. You and your child will find
your interest in nature stimulated if you keep records of your
observations. A chart of personal findings on mammals has many

Animals in the Wild

[95

THE PORCUPINE'S REARGUARD AHACK

Muggish in its movements and reactions, the porcupine is nevertheless no easy
prey for other animals. It uses its quills only as a last resort and does not shoot
them, but attacks by a backward rush, driving them deep into its foe's
flesh. Estimated number of quills for an individual: 25,000!

attractive features. It is quite different from a bird calendar, as
the four-footed creatures are neither so numerous, so varied, nor
so easily seen as the birds.

You may arrange your chart by calendar months or by species
of mammals seen, but in either case you will want to record the
time and place of your observations. You can start it when you
take country walks with your son or daughter and continue it
through the years until the child is old enough to jot down later
discoveries.

Motoring in Search of Mammals

In many regions you can carry on your search for mammab
quite successfully by car. In fact, where small children are involved,
this method is far more practical than hiking. In some of the
national parks, or in places where roads run through field and
forest, you may observe a variety of mammals— especially if you
drive slowly and travel either in the morning or late afternoon.

96 ] Animals in the Wild

One of the greatest thrills my family had during a tour of the
United States came in Zion National Park in Utah when a bobcat
bounded across the highway. The animal was so close to our car
that only a quick use of brakes prevented our hitting it. Shortly
afterward we learned from a ranger-naturalist that though bobcats
were fairly numerous in the park, one of these animals is not
likely to be seen by visitors more than once in twenty years.

Vivid Details

You need not limit your record to animals actually seen;
you can also include evidences of them. Have you seen footprints
of deer? Have they led to trees scraped by antlers? Have you
found a woodchuck's hole, the burrowings of a mole, or the dug-up
turf and smooth incline at the water's edge which proclaims an
otter's playground? An account of your experiences may include
pictures, tracks, or tufts of hair— an endless variety depending on
your inclinations and opportunities. Whatever form your findings
take, they become a continuously enriched account of your aware-
ness of the world of nature.

How Mammals Survive the Winter

The rigors of cold weather and the scarcity of food create
hardships for mammals in wintertime. However, this is unlikely
to impress us as much as the plight of the birds, as mammals are
so little in evidence all year round.

One of the few mammals that we are likely to see during all
four seasons is the gray squirrel. On cold winter days children
can appreciate the practical value as well as the beauty of this
creature's fur coat. He may often be seen scampering over the
snow; only on the most frigid days does he curl up in his tree-
trunk nest and cover himself with his bushy tail. He has some
food tucked away and hunts industriously for more whenever
i4^eather permits.

Even hardier ihan the squirrel is the cottontail rabbit, which
has no cozy retreat. A pile of brush is usually the only protection
he seeks. When his favorite grass is no longer available, he nibbles

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HAMSTERS BELIEVE IN SAVING FOR A RAINY DAY

A pet hamster hoards just like a wild one. In its native Europe and Asia, the hamster
lives in a burrov/, complete v/ith a number of capacious storerooms crammed with
grain. These caches ore so large that people have been known to rob them.

Lilo Hess (Three Lion

A SHARED DELIGHT
Bunny's pleasure in receiving
a juicy carrot is equaled by
the child's joy in feeding it.
Children eager to keep their
pets happy and healthy must
treat them with consideration.
Though a rabbit's long ears
may have the appearance of
convenient handles, they
should not be used as such.
The rabbit should be picked
up by the nape of its neck
and its haunches at one time.

Eastman Kodak

A VERY TAME WILD ANIMAL
Because gray squirrels make
themselves at home in city or
suburb, they offer many
children a wonderful oppor-
tunity to observe the v/ays of
a wild mammal. Except for
their habit of begging, park
squirrels behave like their
relatives in forests, building
nests in treetops or in hollow
trunks. The squirrel's amazing
leaps among the branches are
possible only because of its
bushy tail, which aids it in
balancing and landing.

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Natural History

CAMOUFLAGE IN A DAISY FIELD

The spotted back of a fawn blends perfectly with these surroundings. Camouflage
is the young deer's best protection; and a mother deer teaches her youngsters to
stay quietly in one place so they'll be safe while she venture!: in search of food.

Animals in ihe Wild

[97

THE DEER-TIMJD CREATURE OF THE WILD

These shy, graceful, and swift-footed animals were hunted by the Indians long
before the white man's arrival on the shores of America. Despite centuries of
intensive hunting, deer are probably more numerous in this country than ever
before, thanks to the protection of our modern gome laws.

the tender bark of small trees and shrubs, dead leaves, weeds, and
flower stalks.

White-tailed deer also endure rugged times. Their winter home
is a reasonably sheltered area in a woods. A group of a dozen or
more band together and choose a suitable spot— called a "yard"—
for their headquarters. From this home they make paths to places
where they can find food: tender bark and shrubs, lichens, acorns,
and moss, for which they dig under the snow.

Wild Mammal Neighbors

Squirrels— Nature's Acrobats

Of all the wild four-footed animals, the gray squirrel is
probably the one most commonly observed by children. He dwells
in wooded regions, and also in city parks and suburban areas as

gS ] Animals in the Wild

well. In fact, these attractive rodents seem to prefer the hazards
of civilization to the dangers of the wilds, and their habits vary
little whether they live in town or country.

Young Squirrels: Watch for young squirrels about the middle of
May. A mother bears four to six infants during March, and she
may have a second litter during the summer. She gives her young
devoted care. They are born blind and hairless. When they are
about six weeks old they begin to climb around the tree branches
and nibble at buds and leaves. At eight or nine weeks they have
a full coat of fur and are about half grown.

In a year they have almost reached full growth and are able to
leap among the branches with astounding agility. The bushy tail
is a great help in balancing and making easy landings possible.
There is endless entertainment in watching the acrobatics of a
gray squirrel. I recall observing one of them leap from a branch of
a tree to a long attached wire, and then slide down the wire like
a fireman using his pole for speedy descent. The lure was a
well-stocked bird-feeding station at the end of the wire!

During cold weather squirrels generally live in a hollow tree,
but later in the year they find a suitable location, usually thirty
feet from the ground in the crotch of a tree, and there they
construct a nest of dead leaves and sticks. The shape of the nest is
a clue to the tenant's identity. A bird's nest is flattened at the top;
the squirrel's is rounded. Red squirrels also build nests— sprawling
but comfortable ones of bark, twigs, leaves or moss.

Squirrels and Food: As you watch a squirrel bury a nut in the
ground, you may well ask yourself: Will he ever find it again? It
would be a mistake to think that all the nuts that are buried get
dug up afterward. This is especially true in the wilds where food
is plentiful; and for this reason the squirrel makes a valuable
contribution to replanting the forests.

However, in regions where winter food is scarce the clever
little rodent recovers more of the stored nuts. It is believed that
the squirrel is guided to the right locality by memory, and to the
exact spot by a keen sense of smell which can penetrate through
several inches of snow

Animals in the Wild [ 99

Aside from nuts, squirrels enjoy the seeds from apples, pears,
and other fruit, mushrooms, corn, and wheat. Sometimes they
raid birds' nests for eggs or fledglings, though they are guilty of
such raids less often than red squirrels. An overabundance of
peanuts is unhealthy for squirrels, but a few added to tree nuts
or other foods are a nourishing addition to their diet.

Rabbits— Nature's Indestructibles

If you are familiar with the story of Peter Rabbit's adven-
tures in Mr. McGregor's garden you have an excellent basis for
understanding this rodent's fate in life. He is the Pursued; his
daily routine is one escape after another. In addition to being a
victim of almost every flesh-eating mammal and bird, he is also
a favorite target for sportsmen.

How Rabbits Survive: Yet although they are the prey of countless
enemies, rabbits are fast breeders and continue to exist in great
numbers. As we observe them we see two further features which
help account for their survival: the long ears that detect the
enemy's approach from a distance, and the long, muscular hind
legs which propel a rabbit away from danger with remarkable
speed.

A further aid to the rabbit's flair for self-preservation is its
extremely keen sense of smell: Its nostrils twitch constantly to
catch every scent in the air. The rabbit's whiskers serve as trusted
feelers, its eyes are large and bright. It has strong front cutting
teeth, and with its split upper lip makes most efficient use of them.

In summer, the rabbit's fondness for cabbage and lettuce makes
it the plague of gardeners. It also feeds on grass, clover, and other
herbs. During the winter, when green leaves are scarce, it gnaws
bark from trees and nibbles buds from shrubs.

There are many varieties of rabbits. Aside from those living in
the wild state, there are others raised by thousands of people
either for a hobby or for extra income. I once knew a rabbit that
began its career as an Easter pet. Later on its young owner kept
it at his family's store, where the rabbit was trained to snip with
its front teeth the cord used to tie packages. This novel perform-
ance stimulated business considerably!

lOO ]

Animals in the Wild

TWENTY FEET AT A BOUND

Jack rabbits are among the swiftest animals in creation. They may hit forty-five
miles an hour in escaping from attack, and single bounds of twenty feet are
not uncommon! The jock rabbit's long ears, reminding us of those of a jackass,
inspired its popular name. They ore capable of extraordinarily keen hearing.

Rabbits and Hares: It is sometimes confusing, especially to a child,
to hear a rabbit called a hare. Ostensibly "hare" is just another
word for "rabbit." Yet actually this is not the case. Rabbits
resemble hares in appearance, though they differ in some of their
habits. Hares are larger in size.

Rabbits are bom blind and hairless and completely dependent
on their mother's care. She pulls fur from her own body with her
teeth and paws to line the nest. When she goes foraging for food
she covers the young with fur and grass. This serves as a blanket
and also as camouflage. Our tame rabbits are all descendants of
wild rabbits of Europe.

The babies of the hare are born with their eyes open and are
able to take care of themselves in three weeks or less. The jack
rabbit is a hare, despite its common name, which is derived from
its long jackass-like ears. Its shoulder height is as much as twelve
inches and it can make leaps of from twelve to twenty feet with
its long powerful hind legs.

Animals in the Wild [ loi

Mice and Rats— Pets and Pests

Among parents and children there are two schools of
thought about mice. As far as the adult is concerned, these rodents
are pests to be exterminated whenever possible. As the child sees
it, mice are engaging, clever pets that can be kept without entailing
a great amount of work for their owner.

The House Mouse: The house mouse, originally a native o£ Asia,
is responsible for much of the dislike visited on the whole tribe.
Through its ability to stow away wherever food is kept, this
creature infiltrated into Europe and later on came to this country.
Although this mouse usually makes its home in houses or bams,
it sometimes nests under cornstalks or in grain fields.

Indoors it uses the space between plaster and outer walls for
runways, or else it travels between ceiling and floor. With its
strong gnawing teeth it can easily cut through wood, cardboard,
or almost any obstacle but metal. The mother mouse makes her
nest out of cloth, paper, or whatever pliable material she can find.

The Harvest Mouse: Wandering across country fields you may
catch sight of a mouse which resembles the house mouse so closely
that you might think it was the same creature. However, the
outdoor species is probably a harvest mouse, content to find its
food under natural conditions. It works the year round for its
living, seeking in summertime greens, fruits, berries, and a variety
of seeds. It stores some seeds in its nest or underground, and in
the winter it tunnels under the snow, if need be, to its hidden
supplies.

Other Members of the Mouse Family: If you part the grass in the
fields and find hard-packed little roadways about an inch wide,
you have probably come upon the meadow mouse's * 'communica-
tion system" between burrows. Again, in wintertime, the tiny
animal footprints you find in the snow often prove to be those of
the meadow mouse.

The most attractive and interesting of wild mice is the white-
footed or deer mouse. Look for it in the woods where a log, a
broken rock, or merely grass provides its shelter. It is an excellent

108]

Animals in the Wild

THE WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE

More attractive than many other members of its family, the white-footed mouse
is an appealing creature with a strong bump of curiosity. This mischievous little
mouse lives in the woods, and eats berries and nuts. It has a musical voice and
often chirps. It's a native animal, unlike the house mouse, which came to this
country at about the time of the American Revolution.

climber and occasionally makes its home in a bird's nest that
has been deserted.

Beavers— Sociable Builders

In many areas where it was once threatened with extinc-
tion the beaver, now protected by law, again enlivens the land-
scape. When you are in the vicinity of beaver homes you can play
a game that never fails to arouse youthful enthusiasm in nature
exploring:

"Who will find one first?"

Competition ends when you or your young companion catch
sight of a beaver home— a rounded mass of sticks and mud rising
like a miniature island out of a lake. This is where a beaver family
livesl

Animals in the Wild

[ 103

The Beaver's Home: You can see the exterior of a beaver lodge
and admire the structure of the dams they build to cause water
to flood around it; but you cannot investigate the interior.

If you could look inside you would see that the home is made
up of one large room or several smaller ones. In either case you
would notice openings in the floor. The beaver comes and goes
through these, reaching land by an underwater route. As the
areas in the lodge around the floor openings are wet and cold,
the main floor is slightly raised, somewhat like a step. The sleep-
ing quarters are snugly lined with wood fibers, chewed fine, or
with grass. In wintertime the mud plaster of the lodge freezes,
and the walls become so strong that even a bear cannot break
through.

The Beaver's Building Methods: A popular myth about the beaver's
building technique is that he uses his large flat-ribbed tail as a

THE EAGER BEAVER

Beavers' work is never done. They are forever gnawing trees into neat lengths,
building canals for floating their logs, assembling tons of material for constructing
dams, or else putting together one of their snug housing developments, complete
with a hole on top for ventilation. Mostly, beavers do their work at night.

104] Animals in the Wild

trowel to pat down mud. Actually he works with his fore feet— some-
times with the side of his head— to push and poke mud into place.
Another belief about beavers is that they use their tails as "trailers"
to convey grass, earth, and stones to the building site; but such
claims have always lacked proof.

We do know that beavers carry these materials in their front
paws or in the mouth. The tail does seem to be useful in helping
a beaver steer and propel its body in the water. Another use for
the tail, as we have learned, is that by slapping it against the
surface of the water the beaver is able to warn his companions
of approaching danger.

The Sociable Beaver: Beavers form sociable family circles. They
enjoy being together, and when a family outgrows its lodge they
may construct new homes along nearby shores until a large settle-
ment develops. If, on the other hand, overpopulation results in a
food shortage in the immediate neighborhood, the generation of
two-year-olds starts off in search of a building site for a new colony.
When young beavers are not occupied learning the serious busi-
ness of tree-cutting, engineering, and building, they like to play
and frolic, sometimes getting underfoot while the adults are at
work.

MusKRATS Are Also Builders

Muskrats also use mud in building their homes, but they
mix it with roots and stems of plants, for they live in marshes and
shallow water areas. Beginning the construction of a lodge in
shallow water, they pile layer upon layer of rushes and mud until
the heap is large and reaches a height of four or five feet above
the surface of the water. Then the muskrat, working under water,
chews and digs into this stack from the bottom, until he hollows
out a space above the water line large enough to house himself and
his family.

Near towns and villages you are much more likely to run across
muskrat homes rather than beaver lodges. Muskrats seem to be
undisturbed by the sights and sounds of civilization, whereas the
more retiring beaver prefers wilder regions. Muskrats make use
of swamps and streams as nature provides them, and they also take

Animals in the Wild [ 105

advantage of man-made ponds. Despite their ingenuity, however,
they have never learned to construct their own dams, as beavers do.

Otters— Shy But Likable

Few creatures are as wary of man as the otter. Even when
your nature trails extend far beyond cities and town, you may
fail to catch a glimpse of this attractive animal. But though otters
remain unseen, you can still find evidence of their whereabouts
by looking closely along the banks of streams and lakes. There
will be footprints in the mud that borders their favorite fishing
waters.

Otters Outswim Fish: Otters are remarkably swift and agile in
the water: They catch the fish they delight to eat, literally out-
swimming theml Yet young otters are anything but "born swim-
mers." They live quietly at first, feeding on their mother's milk.
When they are old enough she takes them for their first swimming
lesson. By way of encouraging a baby she has it climb on her
shoulders; then she dives into the water, often swimming with the
baby still clinging to her. Lessons may continue throughout the
summer until the young otters are as big as cats. Painstaking
practice finally turns the pupils into first-class swimmers.

The Otters' Playful Habits: An otter family keeps together for at
least a year, and all its members, parents as well as youngsters,
know how to have fun the way boys and girls do. A pastime the
otters favor, for example, is for two of them to pull at opposite
ends of a stick, tug-of-war fashion. They romp and roll like
puppies, clawing up the turf and throwing the clods about. Their
greatest fun comes from sliding. They love to chute-the-chute on
their stomachs down steep river banks into the water, and will
keep this up in one place until it becomes very slippery. In
wintertime they toboggan down snow-covered hills.

Moles— Nature's Excavators

You do not have to go far afield for evidence of moles. All
too often unsightly ridges appear in your garden or lawn which
proclaim that these strange, near-blind underground mammals

io6 ] Animals in the Wild

have been tunneling there. But though they live near human
dwellings, moles are seldom seen. This endows them with a rather
mysterious quality for a child, who quite naturally wonders how
an animal can dig up the ground while it is actually under it.

How the Mole Burrows: When the mole is digging, it braces
itself with one of its short powerful front paws while the other
pushes the soil upward— this is how the ridges that disfigure
your lawn are created. To make deeper tunnels, the mole scoops
the earth under its body and pushes it as far back as possible with
its back feet. Every now and then the mole turns a somersault and
then proceeds in the opposite direction, shoving the accumulated
pile of dirt along until it comes to a vertical tunnel excavated on a
previous occasion. Here the mole forces the dirt up into the open,
forming the proverbial "molehill."

The mole's nest, lined with grass and leaves, is some six to
twelve inches below the surface of the ground. A main passageway
leads from the nest to a series of tunnels extending in all direc-
tions. Most of these tunnels lead in turn to hunting grounds
where worms and grubs abound; but one tunnel is reserved for an
emergency exit when danger threatens.

Prairie Dogs— Master Engineers

The chubby rodents known as prairie dogs— they were mis-
named by early pioneers in the plains region— are also remarkable
excavators. We do not have a clear picture of just how they carry
out their elaborate digging operations, but we know that each
prairie dog family has a burrow of its own consisting of a main
shaft which goes straight down about fourteen feet. Horizontal
tunnels branch out from the shaft to the animals' sleeping quarters.
Other vertical shafts rise from some of the horizontal tunnels
and are probably used as safety zones in case the lower levels are
flooded. The burrows are grouped together in large colonies,
sometimes called "towns." There is reason to believe that some of
these towns once had a million or more inhabitants!

Tall Tales: Many fantastic stories have been told about a cozy
alliance between prairie dogs, burrowing owls, and rattlesnakes

Animals in the Wild [107

for sharing the same burrows in friendly fashion. It is true that
these mammals, birds, and reptiles do inhabit the same western
regions; but that is all there is to the alliance. The owls dig holes
for themselves— though they may put a prairie dog's burrow to
use under favorable circumstances; and a rattlesnake may occupy
the burrow of either animal. It is a most unwelcome intrusion,
however, probably resulting in the loss of the young of the rightful
home owners. —

The Wary Marmot

Prairie dogs are related to the golden-mantled marmots
which are so numerous in some of our western national parks—
where they have lost much of their fear of people. Even so, you
may see a group eating while one animal stands guard. Whenever
this lookout senses danger it gives a single sharp whistle and all
scurry for cover. Nevertheless, marmots combine some curiosity
with their caution, and if you are able to give a near-imitation of
their whistle, you can frequently get quite close to one for better
observation or for picture-taking.

The Striped Gopher

Still another prairie dweller that makes excellent burrows
is the striped gopher. Some, apparently used only for shelter, are
short. There are also longer burrows that end in nests where the
young are born. Adjoining rooms serve as storehouses for a large
supply of winter grain.

Prospectors prize the gopher and other burrowers as good
"pardners" because the dirt thrown up around the opening of a
tunnel by the animal provides them with underground soil
samples. The prospector pans such dumps for gold traces.

Raccoons— Ingratiating and iNQuisrrrvE

If you have a camper son or daughter you may be startled
one of these days by the introduction into your home of a bright-
eyed pointed-faced creature with long, bushy fur. This will be a
raccoon that your youngster has adopted during the summer and
could not bear to leave behind. Provided there is enough space

io8]

Animals in the Wild

for a roomy pen, it is possible to keep a raccoon in captivity success-
fully—though not all raccoons lend themselves to a domestic
routine.

Not a Finicky Eater: The raccoon relishes many different kinds of
food. It prowls the woods at night, raiding birds' and squirrels'
nests for babies, eggs, or even adults. The black markings across
the raccoon's face, suggestive of a bandit's mask, seem most appro-
priate for such nighttime excursions! The raccoon enjoys fish,
catching them by a nimble technique which involves lying in wait
at the edge of a stream and hooking out with its paw to seize
victims that swim within reach. It also pounces on bugs and
reptiles, and enjoys all kinds of fruits and vegetables.

Raccoons have a fascinating way of using their front paws as
hands. If a raccoon is allowed in a house it must be watched closely,
as it can open latches and will unhesitatingly try to climb on any-
thing at all. The curiosity of this animal is boundless.

'THE BUCKWAASKED IIHIE BEAR"

This is the name the American Indians gave the raccoon in their stories. Centuries
ago they learned to admire the raccoon's ingenuity, curiosity, and genial play-
fulness. The raccoon eats a large variety of animals, catching them with ap-
propriately versatile techniques. It is said to wash all food whenever possible.

Animals in the Wild

[ log

OFFENSIVENESS IS THE BEST DEFENSE

The skunk is a peaceable, friendly creature. When menaced, however, it resorts
to a nasty spray that can be smelled for half a mile— though only the equivalent
of tv/o or three drops is emitted! Skunk's fur, of excellent quality, is often
marketed under the tactful trade names of Alaska sable and black marten.

Skunks— Friendlier Than You Think

There is another wild mammal an enthusiastic young
camper may wish to bring home: the skunk. As it is best known
for the obnoxious odor it can give off, this animal is likely to meet
with a froscy reception. It may be, however, that the camp coun-
selors have already had the skunk's scent glands removed. Most
owners of skunks do have such an operation performed on their
pets, and this is best done while the creature is still quite young.
A skunk makes a friendly, easygoing pet. A small cage will do
for its headquarters; but if the cage is out-of-doors the sides must
be carried well below the surface of the ground. Skunks are expert
burrowers and can easily dig their way to freedom through an
ordinary earth floor. They can be housebroken, and they often
render excellent service in catching mice.

no] Animals in the Wild

Other Pets
Guinea Pigs: If you adopt a skunk, a raccoon, or a related wild
animal, you will have a lively hobby to share with your youngster.
That old-time favorite among mammal pets, the guinea pig, is
perhaps a more conservative choice. Given proper care, it is prac-
tically odorless, and easy to feed. However, its habit of breaking
out in a shrill whistling sound may be disconcerting if you live
in a city and must keep your pets in an apartment or a garage.

Hamsters: Hamsters are comparative newcomers to the ranks of
furry pets. These rodents look like fat-faced stubby-eared squirrels,
but are smaller. They have no specialized tastes in food and are
free from unpleasant odors. Friendly and winning in their ways,
hamsters retain some of the interesting habits of wild creatures-
such as hoarding food until they are ready to consume it. Many a
hamster has a routine of packing food into the cheek pouches that
extend over its shoulders. It carries the food to a hiding place and
tucks it away; then at night— for it tends to indulge in nighttime
activity— the hamster digs up the buried food and nibbles away
contentedly. It is not, by the way, a native American, but an
import from Eurasia.

Bears— Noted Gourmets

Nursery stories present such an appealing picture of Mother
Bear, Daddy Bear, and Baby Bear that a child is all too likely to
think of this closely knit family group as being true to life. Let's
look at the facts.

The mother-and-baby bear relationship does really exist in
nature, but as far as Daddy is concerned, we shall have to remove
him from the scene if we are to be faithful to the facts. He actually
goes off by himself, taking no responsibility for feeding, protecting,
or educating the young: The mother does it all. In this respect
bears differ from wolves, foxes, and coyotes— in each of those
families the father does his full share when it comes to bringing
up the children.

The Playful Bear Cub: Bear cubs are not handicapped by the
father's absence, as the mother takes care of their needs in the

Animals in the Wild

[111

THE BEAR'S ROUNDHOUSE PUNCH

Black bears are not large as bears go, ond their top weight is about three
hundred pounds. They are fond of berries and— of course— honey. Bears pack a
tremendous, often lethal, wallop in their forepaws; but the ''bear hug" is now
generally dismissed by scientists as a fable.

most competent fashion. At birth the twin cubs of a black bear
are blind, almost hairless and not much larger than rats. By the
time they leave the winter retreat where they were born, they
have become saucy, fun-loving creatures with fluffy hair and sharp
claws. They box and wrestle, play hide-and-seek, and try all sorts
of tricks on their mother.

Sometimes she loses patience with them and boxes their ears.
For all that, she guards them jealously and the only time she is
ever really dangerous to human beings is when her cubs are with
her.

You may see black bears in some of our national parks; their
desire for food from tourists has overcome their natural shyness.
One lesson they learn well in the wilderness is to be ever wary
of humans and other possible enemies. Mother bear teaches the
cubs to swim and to climb trees to escape danger. She shows them
how to tear apart rotted stumps and mop up swarming ants with
the tongue. She demonstrates how to catch mice, how to slap a

!i3l Animals in the Wild

frog out of water, and how to raid a tree in which bees have
stored honey.

The Bear's Sweet Tooth: Bears are noted for being gourmets.
Black bears live chiefly on vegetables, but they also dig for roots
and bugs and catch grasshoppers and crickets. They enjoy all
kinds of fruit, blueberries being their favorite; and like all bears,
they are so fond of honey that they will risk the vengeance of
furious swarms of bees to tear open and rob a bee tree.

Some black bears add meat to this diet, but it is said that when
other food is plentiful they will not show the slightest interest
in freshly killed deer or sheep. Grizzly bears are flesh eaters: They
hunt deer and wapiti (an especially large deer), and will even
attack cattle and horses. Small game is their usual prey, however,
and a grizzly will hunt mice tirelessly, digging them out of the
grass with his huge paws.

The Bear's Long Sleep: It is probable that ir prehistoric times
great cave bears, like the "cave men," made good use of dens and
caves for shelter and safety. Nowadays bears are chiefly interested
in dens as places to sleep in during the winter months.

A female bear chooses a particularly snug retreat, for it is
during the long, cold-weather rest period that her babies are born.
In the spring she leaves her winter headquarters, taking her cubs
with her. From then on, all outdoors is her home. Black bears
and grizzlies usually seek out a natural cave or partially uprooted
tree that will shelter them— but if need be, they dig a hole under
some steep embankment.

Foxes and Wolves

Unlike the bears, foxes remain together in family groups.
While the young are growing up, both parents take care of them
in their underground den. The red fox digs its own burrow,
often supplementing the living room with a pantry and then
building a tunnel to connect the food storage room with the main
burrow. Though a fox family leaves its cozy home during warm
weather, it may return to the same winter address year after year.

Animals in the Wild

[113

.1)1"

JUST AS FOXY AS HE LOOKS

Many are the centuries-old tales that center about the cunn!ng of the fox. Tha
red fox is perhaps the slyest of the tribe — the terror of the hen coops, but a model
husband and father. The beautiful silver fox fur is highly prized — a sad end for
Brer Fox. Besides man, his enemies ore the lynx, wolf, and fisher.

Gray foxes do not regularly dig homes; they dwell in natural
cavities in rocks or in hollow trees.

The Wolfs Home: The wolf is also partial to dens. Sometimes
a wolf digs a short burrow in the ground; a large hollow log or
an excavation under a tree stump will also serve his purpose, and
in rock-strewn regions he often adopts a natural cave.

Coyotes are more ambitious when it comes to constructing a
home. Not content with general living quarters among secluded
rocks or brush, the mother digs a nursery den, and she may also
have a separate resting den where she can retire to "get away
from it all." Not to be outdone, the male digs a den of his own
to use while his mate is caring for the young.

Lynxes and Bobcats— More Ballyhoo Than Ferocity
The oversized bobtailed cat known as the lynx is frequently
heard but rarely seen. This animal prefers night prowling to
daytime hunting and is therefore hardly ever seen by man; but

114] Animals in the Wila

its yowls are all too familiar to campers in northern regions and
visitors to some of the national parks who are trying to doze off
to sleep. Though its call sounds terrifying, the lynx usually seeks
no larger game than the hare or smaller rodents. On rare occasions
a lynx may leap from a tree branch or ledge to kill a deer or an
antelope.

Bobcats, unlike lynxes, are not confined to the North. Bobcat
trails may be seen in Arizona deserts or on Canadian snow-
covered plains. "Fighting like a wildcat" suggests the most vicious
kind of battle but, like the lynx, bobcats usually prey only on
rabbits, other small rodents, and ground-nesting birds.

Deer— Appealing Creatures

Thanks to the classic story of Bambi, many children take a
sympathetic interest in the white-tailed deer. The young deer,
or fawn, makes an interesting contrast with some other mammal
babies, such as the blind and helpless bear cubs. As infants, deer
are weak and wobbly, but they can see immediately and before
long they are anxious to explore their surroundings. The mother,
or doe, scolds them, warning against such activity; if necessary,
she bunts them on the head to make them stay put.

A fawn's spotted coat blends effectively with its surroundings.
This enables it to protect itself by merely lying still and relying
on camouflage. Once the mother has taught this lesson to her
fawns, she can leave to seek food; but she returns several times a
day to nurse them. If an enemy is nearby, she will deliberately
attract attention to herself to save the fawns.

The Buck's Antlers: The father of the deer family, the buck, is a
handsome, impressive animal. The buck's crowning glory, his
antlers, are shed every year, and he proceeds to grow a new pair.
Considering the thousands of antlers discarded every year, your
child might well expect the woods to be carpeted with them. Some
antlers are found, to be sure; but many are eaten by porcupines,
mice, and rabbits for their mineral content, while others dis-
integrate after sufficient weathering.

Animals in the Wild [115

Adventures In Park And Zoo

The mammals of American field and woodland have first claim
on our children's interest; these animals are part of the American
scene, and their colorful variety always suggests some fascinating
detail to absorb our attention. Yet, somehow, there is a greater
enchantment about the exotic animals of faraway places. Thrilling
as it is to see a shy, graceful creature like the deer in our native
woods, we often feel it would be a more exciting experience to
stalk elephants and other big game in Africa.

Such expeditions are out of the question for most of us. But
not altogether. There are little safaris we can make close to home.
A visit to the zoo is a delightful way to make the acquaintance of
strange animals from every part of the world. Throughout the
United States and Canada there are a number of fine zoos and
zoological parks where animals from Asia, Africa, Australia and
the other continents may be seen in the space of a single afternoon.

Showmen and Show-Offs

Every zoo has sights and sounds that take us completely
out of the daily round of humdrum living. But to get the most
fun out of a visit to the zoo, you must have one or more youngsters
along with you. You will enjoy their reactions, their curiosity,
dieir astonishment. For a visit to the zoo is /wn— as much fun as
the circus, and often very much like the circus if you see the
animals at feeding time, or in the spring when frisky babies en-
liven many cages.

Some animals, the natural showmen and show-offs, are enter-
taining at all times. The sea lions with their graceful diving, their
awkward waddling, their hoarse yawps, their bent for deadpan
horseplay, and their efficient if not elegant eating habits, are great
favorites. All children are delighted with the tail-swinging antics
of the monkeys and some of their droll attitudes which caricature
humans. The huge elephant with his fantastic trunk and his digni-
fied, patient look; the tigers and leopards with their air of sleek
power, and drowsy laziness; the giraffes with their incredibly long
necks and the camels with their bumpy backs— all these and many

ii6] Animals in the Wild

other inhabitants of the zoo are natural-born showmen and show-
offs that children love to watch.

Your child's enjoyment of a visit to the zoo stimulates him
to learn more about the animal world. Many exhibits have labels
or placards giving specific information about the animals. And
before going on a visit, you can prepare yourself at home with
some background reading— one of the purposes of this chapter is
to supply you with it. Thus you will be well equipped to furnish
details about the animals or offer interesting information at the
strategic moment.

Monkeys— High-Spirited Performers

It is a good idea to make the Monkey House the first stop
on your zoo tour: There is a special appeal in these volatile animals
and their endearing ways which often remind us of human beings
in miniature. The monkeys also show to good advantage because
cages are less confining for them than for the great apes such as
the gorilla and the orangutan.

The Rhesus Monkey: As you watch a family of rhesus monkeys
chasing each other, chattering and occasionally screaming, it is
easy for you to picture them in their native jungles of India.
They behave there pretty much the same way, quarreling and
screeching at each other one moment, then suddenly quieting
down and grooming each other's fur. Thousands of rhesus monkeys
are brought to the United States each year to be placed in zoos
or to be used for medical research.

Swinging by the Tail: The woolly monkey is one of the largest
of the species native to South America. When you see one at the
zoo, it is interesting to contrast its antics with the gambols of
the rhesus. You can observe the woolly monkey swing daringly
from branches or bars by its tail. No matter how long you watch
the rhesus, it will never duplicate this feat. The point is that the
woolly monkey is one of the species that has a prehensile tail— a
"grasping" tail that functions in effect as a fifth limb or extra hand.
Only the monkeys of Central and South America have a pre^
hensile tail. The species with the longest tail of the monkey tribe

Animals in the Wild

[ 117

•"•^^

\-:s

RAUCOUS BUT AMIABLE
Tlhe well-named howler monkey, a talented climber and swinger, relies on its
prehensile tail, which in effect serves as a fifth paw, or hand. At the zoo, the
howler performs amazing acrobatic feats, every now and then pausing thoughtfully
TO pick tidbits out of a crony's hair.

live in India, and of course this tail is not prehensile. As for the
howler monkey, its prehensile tail is "different"— the fur is missing
from the inner portion near the tip.

It is curious that many of the larger monkeys are afraid of the
water; not so the rhesus, which is a good swimmer.

As for tastes in food, monkeys thrive on a leafy diet and on
such fruit as apples and bananas. Those living in the natural state
augment this diet in one way or another. The South American
squirrel monkey, for example, eats insects, and possibly young
birds.

Despite their general reputation for amiability, not all monkeys
are good pet or exhibition material. One of the most attractive
species, the lion-tailed monkey, is likely to turn savage if removed
from its native forests in western India. Even the Indians, who
have a way with animals, cannot keep the lion-tailed monkey in
captivity successfully.

ii8] Animals in the Wild

The Big Apes

Gorillas— Shy and Retiring: When you see the gorillas behind
the bars at the zoo, they impress you as fierce and vicious. Some-
times a gorilla acts that way as well— spitting at its admiring
audience and carrying on as if trying to pull the cage apart. In
their natural surroundings, however, the disposition of these ani-
mals is quite different. While they may occasionally attack men
or animals in self-defense, they are by nature shy and retiring
and prefer to stay clear of trouble whenever possible.

On their native grounds, gorillas roam about in small family
groups in search of the vegetables, roots and fruit on which they
feed. Though they can stand upright as humans do, and their
babies often walk that way, older gorillas always walk on all fours.

Their great strength notwithstanding, gorillas— like many wild
animals— have rather frail health. In the wild state they are dis-
tressed by jungle-bred worms which bring on intestinal troubles;
in captivity gorillas are very susceptible to colds and pneumonia.

Chimpanzees— Intelligent and Comical: The chimpanzee is as
widely known for its intelligence as for its comical antics. It can
be taught all sorts of tricks and— what is more impressive— it often
shows actual reasoning powers. Like the gorillas, chimpanzees
dwell in Africa and they also live on fruit and vegetables. They
are, however, much smaller than gorillas. An adult male rarely
attains more than 175 pounds, while a gorilla may reach six
hundred or more.

Chimps can walk upright but— again like the gorillas— they
usually travel on all fours with their hands curled into fists.
Though their hands resemble those of humans, chimpanzees lack
manipulative powers— particularly in the thumbs.

Orangutans—Slow and Deliberate: "Man of the Woods" and
"Wild Man" are alternative renderings for the orangutan's Malay
name. This big ape of Borneo and Sumatra lives almost entirely
among leafy branches and, despite its bulk, swings with great
agility from one tree to another. Though it is capable of moving
speedily, it is usually slow and deliberate. A big male orang weighs
two hundred pounds or more.

Animals in the Wild [119

Elephants—Largest Land Animals

Children love elephants. This animal is interesting to
observe for many reasons: its huge size, its amazing trunk, its
tusks from which ivory is obtained, its status as a living relic of
the great mammoths that roamed the earth many ages ago, and its
wise, benign expression that reminds us of some distinguished
elder statesman.

Having been told that the elephant is the largest land mammal,
a child may be puzzled by its tough, wrinkled skin.

"I thought all mammals had fur or hair,'* he may tell you.
"But the elephant's a mammal and look at him."

Indeed, this skeptical attitude is well taken, for adult elephants
are almost completely devoid of hair. You have to look closely to
see even a bit of it on their hide. A young elephant, however, is
covered with a fuzzy coat. Several other beasts, such as the adult
rhinoceros and hippopotamus, follow this pattern of being nearly
hairless.

The Elephant's Trunk: Elephants at the zoo are particularly
fascinating because we are allowed to feed them and thus see in
action the amazing "nose" which serves them as arm, hand, and
fingers. The size and muscular strength of an elephant's trunk
make it possible for him to carry heavy, bulky objects; the finger-
like tabs that project from the end of the trunk enable him to
pick up an object as small as a peanut and swing it through a great
arc into his mouth. At the end of an African elephant's trunk
there are two tabs of about equal length. An Indian elephant has
only one tab.

Elephants of Africa and India can also be distinguished by size.
As a rule the African species grow considerably larger than the
Indian variety and their ears are much larger. In the jungles of
west Africa, however, there are elephants that are an exception
to this rule. These elephants are often described as pygmies or
dwarfs, as they average considerablv less in size than most African
elephants.

120]

Animals in the Wild

A LOT OF ANIMAL

The African elephant, weighing five or six tons, is bigger than its Indian cousin—
in fact the largest of all land animals. It grows to a height of eleven or twelve
feet, and has two tusks that average about ten feet in length and 250 pounds
in weight. It has been claimed that the powerful but delicate trunk contains as
many as forty thousand muscles! Indian species has smaller, less fanlike ears.

Training an Elephant: You see the Indian elephants far more
frequently in zoos and circuses than the African species; the Indian
animals, aside from being smaller, are obtained more easily and
can be trained more rapidly. For thousands of years the natives
of eastern India have been skilled in the training of elephants,
and the knack has been handed down from father to son.

An important factor in their success lies in the use of the human
voice: The trainer first wins his charge's trust by softly chanting
an "elephant song," after which he bribes the beast with its
favorite foods. (Wild elephants eat leaves and grass—perhaps half

Animals in the Wild [121

a ton in a single day!— but they relish sweet fruits and other
dainties. In the zoo they are fed mostly on hay and grain.)

Besides drilling some elephants for circus performance, the
natives of India train others for use in hunting and for carrying
heavy materials— an important consideration in a land lacking
machinery. In ancient days elephants played an impressive role
in warfare as forerunners of the modern giant tank. The most
famous instance of their military use was in Hannibal's great
victory over the Romans at Cannae after he had brought these
huge creatures across a pass over the Alps. In time elephants fell
out of military favor because they were too easily terrified by the
noise and violence of battle.

Elephants have always excited a great deal of interest and many
curious beliefs have grown up about them. One of these is that
elephants are afraid of mice! There seems to be no scientific evi-
dence for this notion. Another fallacious idea is that elephants live
a century or more. Scientists believe that the life span of these
giant mammals is about the same as that of human beings— from
sixty to eighty years.

Hippos— "River Horses"

Next in size to the elephant is the grotesque African
hippopotamus, which may achieve a weight of four tons— or more!
It is perhaps this creature's very ugliness that makes it appealing
to children. Though the hippo performs no stunts, they watch it
with absorbed interest.

The Hippo in the Water: The hippopotamus spends a great deal
of time in the water, which must always be provided in its en-
closure. In the wild state the hippo seeks out the calm waters of a
tropical river where it browses on water plants as it swims or
floats. (The name hippopotamus means "river horse.") When
frightened, a hippo takes to flight by sinking to the river bot-
tom, where it can walk easily and quickly. Ten minutes is about
the longest it can stay under water, and when it comes to the
surface it usually spouts a column of air from its nostrils.

A mother hippo often rides her baby on her back in the water,
and the young one clings there even when they go below the

122]

Animals in the Wild

THE MONUMENTAL HIPPO

This four-ton river horse is anything but glamorous— yet, despite the hippo's
ugliness, children enjoy observing it, perhaps because of its great size and mild
manner. Its enormous mouth and tusklike teeth are exercised exclusively on
vegetation. The African natives hunt it for its flesh and its tusks.

surface I Once your child realizes the extent to which hippos are
water animals, he may see the advantage of their peculiarly placed
eyes, ears, and nose. All these features are at about the same level
on top of the animal's huge flat head. Thus the hippo need keep
only a small part of its head above water in order to see, hear,
and breathe at times when all the rest of its body is submerged.

The Unpredictable Rhino

Like the elephant, the rhinoceros is native to both Africa
and India. You can tell the African "black" rhino by its two
horns; the large Indian rhino has only one horn. Rhinos spend
much of their time sleeping and browsing on twigs. They have
remarkably keen senses of smell and hearing and they are quickly
alert to danger. They may charge an enemy with surprising
agility or do a right-about-face and gallop away. Poor eyesight
makes their actions especially unpredictable. They were once
much more plentiful than they are today, for hunters have greatly
reduced the numbers of these '*nose-homs" (the literal meaning
of "rhinoceros") .

Animals in the Wild [123

The Big Cats

Tigers and lions appeal strongly to the average child
because of his affection for pussy cats. A small cub appears as
gentle and playful as a kitten, and even an adult— particularly a
tiger— suggests a giant "tabby."

Lions and tigers are the two biggest members of the cat family.
Some kinds of tiger grow considerably larger than others. The
Bengal tiger, one of the best known, may be twelve feet long and
weigh more than five hundred pounds. The Siberian tiger, which
is even larger, also has longer, heavier hair to protect it in the
cold northern forests where it lives.

Tigers— "Ten Pounds of Meat a Day": A mother tiger has two to
four babies in a litter. In a zoo, tiger babies are sometimes raised
by human foster parents who feed them milk from nursing bottles.
In captivity they sleep, purr, play, and chase their tails like the
kittens that are so dear to the hearts of children. In the natural
state young tigers start killing small game by the time they are
seven months old. They stay with their family about two years.
The usual diet of a tiger is wild game, such as deer, but many
prey on sheep, cattle, and other domestic animals. Occasionally a
tiger turns man-eater and becomes a serious menace to the com-
munity. Well-fed tigers in a zoo are usually peaceable and con-
tented. It takes about ten pounds of meat a day to keep them
that way!

Lions— Not So Lionhearted

A lion may also become a man-killer, but it is more usual
for him to avoid humans whenever possible. By day, lions like to
rest quietly in shady places; at night, they are on the alert, seek-
ing such game as zebra and antelope. The cliches "king of beasts'*
and "brave as a lion" help keep alive the idea that lions are the
most daring and courageous of all the animals. But, though they
look the part, they do not really live up to it.

According to Frank Buck, the famous "Bring 'em Back Alive"
animal collector, a tiger is often self-confident enough to take on a
more powerful foe— a water buffalo, for example— but a lion rarely

124]

Animals in the Wild

LEO THE LION

Lions like each other's society more than tigers, and groups of ten or twenty
traveling together are often seen in African game reserves. There they look on
undisturbed when visitors' cars go by.

tries to overpower any animal that is a match for it. Mr. Buck
discovered, furthermore, that lion cubs are more tame than tiger
cubs, and that older lions are more amenable to the company of
humans than tigers are.

A male lion is far more handsome than his mate, because of
the great ruff around his neck. A lioness may have as many as six
cubs in one litter. They are completely helpless at first, as their
eyes do not open for about a week. Sometimes they suffer from
the once-common childhood ailment of rickets, and teething may
give them a great deal of trouble.

Giraffes— Walking SKYscaiAPERs

Children are naturally fascinated by the giraffe, the world's
tallest animal, because of its long neck. A youngster who already
knows something about anatomy may wonder whether this un^

Animals in the Wild

[ 125

THE TALLEST OF THEM AU

The giraffe has many interesting features aside from its long neck. It sleeps
standing, and it can go without formal drinking for weeks, getting enough
moisture from foliage. Its spotted coloring blends admirably with its surroundings,
and its fleet legs make a quick getaway possible when danger threatens.

gainly animal has more than the normal number of vertebrae
from head to shoulders. It does not, however. It has the usual
seven neck vertebrae— they are simply longer than those of other
mammals.

The long neck makes it possible for the giraffe to feed on the
leaves of trees. It can manage to reach its head down to a pool
for drinking water, but it depends for most of its liquid nourish-
ment on the moisture on leaves. As you may have guessed, the
giraffe can cover ground speedily with its long legs, and has been
known to go over thirty miles an hour! The giraffe reputedly is
silent, but at times it does produce a sound somewhat like a cow's
moo.

126]

Animals in the Wild

DESERT TRANSPORT WITH BUILT-IN COMMISSARY

The camel was domesticated thousands of years ago— it is pictured on ancient
pottery and Assyrian friezes. The hump is not part of the camel's backbone, but
a reserve supply of fat which is gradually absorbed as needed. The camel
olso keeps a water reservoir in its innards to provide for emergencies.

Camels— Avid Water Drinkers

The camel is another one of those animals that interest
children because of a physical peculiarity. At some zoos children
need not content themselves with looking at a camel; they may
ride on the animal as well. Thus they can come to know some-
thing of the sensation of a desert traveler as he progresses over
the sands on camel-back. Of course the youngsters do not have a
chance to appreciate how this useful animal weathers a sand-
storm in its natural surroundings. The camel can close its nostrils
against the flying sand, and in addition its double row of eye-
lashes offers excellent protection for its eyes. A one-humped drome-
dary in good form can travel nearly a hundred miles a day.

Animals in the Wild [127

Going Without Water: The accompiishment for which camels are
most noted— the ability to do without water— seems more improb-
able than ever if you see them drinking. When a supply is avail-
able, a camel will drink six or seven gallons of water a day! A camel
bearing a heavy load cannot go without drink for much more
than three days; but records show that some animals have survived
for several weeks without water. At such times the camel draws
upon moisture stored in its stomach walls and actually "drinks
from the inside." The one-humped camel is still a valued beast
of burden in Africa and the Arab lands.

The Two-humped Camel: The two-humped Bactrian camel grows
a far heavier coat than the dromedary. Its native land is Central
Asia, where many people depend on their camels not only for
transportation but also for food (they drink the milk and eat
the meat) and for clothing (made from the hair) . In the spring a
camel looks disreputable as its winter coat peels off in ragged
patches. Flabby humps are a sign of poor physical condition, as
the hump provides a storehouse of reserve nourishment which
the animal draws upon when food is scarce.

Zoo Bears— Surprisingly Timid

Children enjoy watching bears because they are reminded
of their beloved teddy bears. At the zoo, aside from the familiar
native North American black bear, you may also see several more
spectacular or unusual species.

The Alaskan Brown Bear: A large zoo may be able to exhibit the
biggest bears in the world— the Alaskan brown bear. Some of them
weigh fifteen hundred pounds or more. Despite their great power
and tremendous claws, they are timid rather than daring and
attack only when cornered or wounded. As in the case of other
bears, the cubs are amazingly tiny compared to the adults. A baby
bear weighs about a pound and a half at birth.

The Polar Bear: Some polar bears are as heavy as the Alaskan
brown bear, though the average male is not over nine hundred
pounds. This bear does not have the timidity of most species. It
is a hunter that preys upon fish, seals, walrus, and it will stalk a

128]

Animals in the Wild

THE POLAR BEAR DOES NOT SEEM TO MISS ITS ICE FLOES

At first thought it seems astonishing that this native of the Arctic regions can
thrive in temperate-zone zoos. Apparently the polar bear is not uncomfortable
so long as it has a chance to immerse itself in a refreshing pool. This animal
has a keen sense of smell in detecting food or enemies.

man in the same way that it pursues the large mammals. The
polar bear mother, like all bear mothers, is a conscientious guard-
ian and teacher of her cubs. She frequently offers them a unique
towing service in the water, allowing them to grip her tail with
their teeth!

The Grizzly Bear: You may look with some awe at the grizzlies,
as they have won a reputation as the most ferocious of all bears.
Books about the lives of the American pioneers and frontiersmen
contain many accounts of struggles with grizzlies. If wounded or
fearful for their cubs, they may kill a man— but they do not go out
of their way to hunt him. Grizzlies live chiefly on fruit, berries,
insects, fish, and small mammals.

The Giant Panda— Children's Favorite

Few zoos are in a position to exhibit so rare an animal as
the giant panda, but wherever it is shown, this strikingly marked
black and white mammal makes an immediate hit with children.
Not until 1937 was a giant panda captured alive. It was a baby,
and had many of the appealing ways of a human baby. It romped

THE HIPPO-FOUR TONS OF AFRICAN ANIMAL LIFE Three Lions

Never winner in a beauty contest, the hippopotamus can take a runner-up's award
for size. It weighs up to 8,000 pounds, is the second largest animal that lives on
land today (the elephant is first). A zoo must provide a hippo guest with an
enormous swimming pool, for It is most at home in water. It is a vegetarian.

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BEAR TWINS PLOT MISCHIEF
Black bear cubs are as full of
fun and ready for rough-and-
tumble play as small boys are.
They are born while the mother
is "denned up" and at first weigh
little more than half a pound.
By the time they leave the den
early in the spring, they are roly-
poly and ready not only for ploy
but for learning lessons as well.

STERN TEACHER
AND LOVING PARENT
Mother bear anxiously guards
her young, and painstakingly
teaches them the secrets of food-
hunting OS well as how to escape
from danger by climbing trees.
Even a heavy adult bear con run
swiftly and dash up a tree with
agility that is really amazing.

Animals in the Wild

I 129

"THE BLACK-AND-WHITE BEAR"

In its toddler stage the giant panda is playful and appealing— one of the 200'$
outstandingly popular performers. But the grown-up giant panda, which weighs
about three hundred pounds, does not relish captivity and is apt to be surly,
not to say downright bad-tempered.

in a play pen, took milk from a nursing bottle, and when it was
tired it whimpered like a human infant. It was named Su-Lin,
which has been translated as "a little bit of something mighty
cute."

Since the time of Su-Lin*s introduction into the United States,
more than a dozen giant pandas have been captured and brought
from their homes in western China to zoos in the United States
and Europe. An unfortunate aspect of the pandas' scarcity is that
when one of them dies, it is not easily replaced. Although this
animal's appearance reminds us of a bear, it is more closely related
to the raccoon. In the wild state the panda is believed to live on
bamboo leaves and stems; in a zoo corn-meal mush, nourishing
if less exotic, forms a large part of its diet.

Oddities from Australia

Among the most remarkable creatures in our zoos are
several near-extinct Australian animals. Even in Australia these
believe-it-or-not leftovers from prehistoric times can generally be
seen only in zoos.

^^o)

Animals in the Wild

The Platypus—Scrambled Mammal: The strangest of these
strange creatures is perhaps the platypus, which has a bill like a
duck's and grows to a length of about eighteen inches. It is con-
sidered a mammal because it feeds its young on its own milk,
and because it has hair and is warm-blooded. But the platypus
lays eggs, and the temperature of its blood changes to some extent,
depending on the weather. Most curious of all, the nursing tech-
nique of the mother platypus is highly unorthodox: Milk oozes
from special pores in her skin and clings to her fur, from which
the babies lap it up. The platypus is considered one of the most
primitive of mammals— in some ways it is very close to the reptiles.

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THE CURIOUS KANGAROO

As a reMc of prehistoric times, the kangaroo has traits that are ofF the beaten
track in our own prosaic era. Its offspring, only an inch long— or less!— at birth,
is not strong enough to suck milk. However, the milk is pumped automatically
%o the Infant. The largest kangaroos are about five feet high.

Animals in the Wild

[ 13^

The Kangaroo's Built-in Baby Carriage: Children have always
been intrigued by the kangaroo and its built-in baby-carriage
features. This animal is the largest and most spectacular of the
marsupials— a kind of mammal remarkable for having small, un-
developed babies that spend their first weeks—or months— in a
pouch on the mother's abdomen.

Usually a kangaroo mother has only one baby at a time and
the infant stays in the nursery pouch for five or six months. After
that the baby pokes its head out and often hops out to explore on
its own; when it gets tired or hungry, it quickly dives back again.

The kangaroo can jump over a five-foot fence with ease, and
may even leap more than twice that height. In Australia, the
animal has been trained to be a skillful boxer. It is a vegetarian,
and lives about ten or fifteen years. Smaller types of kangaroos
are known as wallabies.

THE AUSTRALIAN TEDDY BEAR

The koala fascinates children by its droll resemblance to a teddy bear as well
as by its gentle, wistful expression. On its native grounds the koala, a leaf-eater,
lives in tall trees and leaps sure-footedly from branch to branch, as far as five
feet at a time. Zoo keepers must feed it its natural diet of eucalyptus leaves.

132 ] Animals in the Wild

The Koala— Nature's Teddy Bear: The appeal of the koala is
much the same as that of the giant panda— it looks like the work
of a toy designer. In fact, some people believe that the koala
inspired the long-popular "teddy bear." (The "teddy" part of
the name is supposed to have been in honor of Theodore Roose-
velt.) Like the kangaroo, the koala is a marsupial. A newborn
baby is less than an inch long, and it stays in the mother's pouch
for about two months. After emerging, the baby clings to the fur
on the mother's back, riding there until it becomes quite a heavy
load.

SSA Lions and Seals— Nature's Clowns

It is the easily tamed and trained sea lions that you usually
see in zoo and circus. They are born show-offs. In the zoo
their feeding-time antics never fail to draw a large and admiring
crowd. Children and grown-ups alike chortle with delight at the
nonchalant way in which the sea lion holds his mouth wide open
and catches the fish thrown to him by the keeper across the length
of the pool. The sea lion is also an expert circus performer,
balancing a large ball on his nose, "answering" questions, and
"playing" musical instruments.

"What is the difference between a sea lion and a seal?" you
may wonder as you watch the frolicking acrobatic water mammals
at the zoo.

Though many people use the names interchangeably, sea lions
differ somewhat from true seals. To recognize a sea lion, look for
ears at the sides of his sleek head. They are small but distinguish-
able. True seals have no external ear structure. Sea lions are also
unique in their ability to turn their hind flippers forward and
under, making possible a fairly rapid if awkward progress over
land.

Under natural conditions sea lions spend considerable time
on shore, and there the babies are born. The mothers take them
to shallow water to teach them how to swim and catch fish. Sea
lions live only along the Pacific coast. The common seal is found
along the shores of both the North Atlantic and North Pacific
Oceans. The common seal (known also as the harbor seal) is

■^'^.

Animals in the Wild [ 13S

notably tame and friendly with humans, and has a strong sense
of curiosity.

Walruses— Timid Giants

Most children will look forward eagerly to seeing a walrus
in the flesh if they are familiar with Tweedledee's nonsensical
recitation about the Walrus and the Carpenter in Through the
Looking-Glass. Everyone knows the famous passage in which the
Walrus pompously declaims:

"The time has come** the Walrus said,

To talk of many things:
Of shoes— and ships— and sealing-wax-^

Of cabbages— and kings—
And why the sea is boiling hot—

And whether pigs have wings,"

The walrus is a mighty creature often weighing a ton or more
and reaching a length of about ten feet. Its name is derived from
the Scandinavian for "whale horse," an allusion to its size and
the fact that it lives both on the land and in the sea. The walrus
gives no lively performance as seals do; its appearance is a show
in itself. The bristly whiskers and the male's fantastically elongated
upper canine teeth— they sometimes reach a length of thirty
inches!— enhance the formidable impression made by the walrus.

For all their size and power, walruses are rather timid and try
to avoid trouble. They live in herds, and if one member is
attacked, all the rest rush to its defense. They can fight fiercely
if they have to, making good use of their tusks, and a mother never
hesitates to show fight if an enemy approaches her "baby." The
walrus has an unearthly bellow that is in keeping with its appear-
ance.

Bats and Nature's Radar System

Each season half a million people visit Carlsbad Caverns
in New Mexico. They are almost as interested in the bats they
may see there as in the cave itself. Each afternoon hordes of the
flying mammals come out, literally darkening the sky as they set
out in quest of food. It is estimated that there are millions of bats

134 ] Animals in the Wild

in this colony! They are the little brown bats, of which there are
more than two dozen kinds in the United States.

Bats are not good zoo exhibition subjects because they sleep in
the daytime. Aside from roosting at Carlsbad and other, smaller,
caves, the little brown bat takes refuge in hollow trees and under
the roofs or eaves of houses. Your child may shudder, as many
adults do, at the thought of a bat's approach. It is a pity that so
many superstitions have grown up about these creatures of dark-
ness. Despite their sinister appearance they are really useful
animals, as they eat large numbers of insects— catching them in
mid-flight.

Occasionally bats do become entangled in a human being's
hair. Such incidents are accidental— never intentional. As a matter
of fact the bat rarely flies into things, thanks to its own special
radar system. As it flies it emits high-pitched squeaks— far too
shrill to be caught by the human ear. The sound waves hit any
nearby solid objects and bounce back, a signal to the bat to
swerve aside.

A Four-foot Wingspread: The "flying fox," the world's largest
bat, lives in India and on tropical islands of the Pacific. Its wing-
spread measures more than four feet from tip to tip. The flying
foxes live on fruit and leave their tree roosts at night to fly to
orchards or wild fruit trees, often traveling many miles to their
goal. Because of their potential danger to fruit, none of these
bats may be brought into the United States, even for a zoo.

Blood-sucking Bats: The vampire bat is the one kind of bat that
really deserves a place in horror tales; it actually lives on the
blood of animals and humans. At dusk these vampire bats, which
dwell in Mexico and tropical South America, begin their hunt
for cattle, wild creatures, or human beings who are susceptible
to attack through living in unscreened homes.

A bite from the vampire bat's sharp teeth is not painful— nor
would it be harmful except that sometimes this bat is infected
with a disease that is transmitted to the victim and usually proves
fatal. The vamoire laps the blood as it flows from the wound.

Animals in the Wild [ 135

Mammals in Maps, Games, Stamps, and Art

Your visit to a zoo is an end in itself because of the pure pleasure
it yields in direct, enjoyable experience. Yet such visits can take
on lasting meaning in a child's life if you can unobtrusively asso-
ciate each animal with its natural home. In this way the child's
mind forms a clear idea of the wildlife of different countries and
continents. Some zoos group the animals in exhibits— such as the
Plains of Africa— where mammals that are natural neighbors are
seen together; but in many zoos it is necessary to point out these
associations yourself.

Of course, the how and the when of imparting such information
will depend on the child's age and interest and receptivity. The
best method is doubtless one that involves some active participa-
tion by the child. Keeping a scrapbook of animal pictures is fun
at almost any age, and it provides a good starting point for talking
and learning about animals.

Mammal Maps

Most children are fascinated by a map that pictures a con-
tinent in outline with its animals or plants shown in the approxi-
mate area where they are most commonly found. Elaborate maps
of this kind are available; but children will enjoy making simple
maps of their own— perhaps after an expedition to the zoo— which
will mean more to them because they have created the maps them-
selves.

Animal Lotto

One of the pleasantest ways for very young children to
become familiar with animals is to play games involving them,
such as Animal Lotto. In this game more than fifty mammals,
with identifying names, are pictured on master cards; the players
try to match them by drawing individual pictures of the animals
from the "stock pile."

Place Cards for Parties

For a four-year-old's birthday we used an idea for place
cards which enabled the youngsters to seat themselves without
assistance. From colored cardboard we cut silhouettes of elephants.

136 ] Animals in the Wild

kangaroos, giraffes, and other animals, in duplicate. Each child was
given one of these, and the duplicate was set as his place card on
the table. When refreshment time arrived, there was much excite-
ment over matching up the animals, and the children had a happy
sense of accomplishment in recognizing each silhouette.

Animals on Stamps

For older children a stamp collection helps create a link
with animals of the world; many countries depict their character-
istic and famous animals on stamps. The elephant, camel, leopard,
giraffe, horse, tiger and antelope are but a few of the animals
represented. A child's interest in animals may create a desire to
collect stamps, or, contrariwise, stamp collecting may develop a
desire on the child's part to know more about the animals.

Animals in Art

The limitless field of art suggests another way in which
two different interests may mutually stimulate one another. Almost
every youngster enjoys drawing familiar animals, and many chil-
dren favor some animal that they will draw tirelessly, again and
again. Aside from this, the great world of art opens up an
enormous field of animal drawings, pictures, and statues that will
delight children. Very often these works of art will impinge on
other interests of a child. Think of the rock paintings of pre-
historic man, Egyptian sculpture, Assyrian reliefs, Chinese jade
figures, the art of the North American Indians, the Aztecs, the
Negroes of Africa. All have used animals in their art. An interest
in art will intensify a youngster's interest in animals and give him
a source of lifelong pleasure.

chapterLJ' Animal Friends
and Helpers

OST CHILDREN look upon thciT cats and dogs
as affectionate companions, bound to them
by strong ties of love and loyalty. On a farm, they quickly take
full charge of colts, lambs, calves, and kids, giving them infinite
care and consideration. Young animals— or small ones— seem to<
be a child's natural playmates. It often comes as quite a surprise^
to a boy or girl to learn that these friendly, docile creatures are!
descended from wild beasts that once feared man or fought with
him.

The story of how animals were tamed has been an important
one to all mankind, not merely to children. No one knows when
the first wild animal was domesticated. Certainly it was long;,
long ago, before the building of the pyramids. It happened in
what we call prehistoric times.

In those times, our ancestors were mostly wanderers on the
face of the earth. Some had learned to garden and raise crops
but others had not. Famine was always at their heels. They had
to be constantly on the move in search of the wild beasts from
which they took their food and clothing. Stone-tipped spears,
bows and arrows, and crude axes were the weapons with which
they fought for their livelihood in the primeval forest.

Somehow, in some way, ancient man captured animals. Perhaps
he started with those that haunted the outskirts of his camp,
waiting to feed on his leavings. He tamed them, fed them and
bred them. Little by little, this new practice of his worked a
tremendous revolution in his way of life. Flocks and herds meant
a sure supply of flesh for food and pelts for clothing. With these

137

138 ] Animal Friends and Helpers

things and garden crops, he could settle down at last and make
permanent towns and villages. Civilization, long postponed by
the never-ending quest for enough to eat, could at last begin.

Man has not been satisfied merely to raise animals as he found
them in nature. He has carefully selected and mated stocks, de-
veloping in his animals the qualities that serve him best. He has
bred meat animals that give more meat, fur bearers that give
more fur. He has created different varieties of dogs— over three
hundred are known today— for practically every conceivable pur-
pose. Still, if he lets some of his animals go— cats, for example—
in a few generations they become wild creatures again.

There is plenty of food for thought and talk when you take
your children on a family excursion to a farm and see domestic
animals in their proper setting, or encounter a cat, a dog, or a
horse on city streets. Today they are our friends and helpers. We
take them completely for granted. But in a distant yesterday,
they were prowlers and fighters whose conquest was one of the
greatest victories of all time.

Dogs

Dogs are "sniffers." They depend on their sense of smell much
more than on the other senses, and with good reason. The soft
damp skin that covers the dog's nose carries all scents to the wide
nostrils, which can be lifted in any direction. The upper sides
are slitted. This enables the nostrils to quiver, making them even
more sensitive to odors.

You will notice that a dog investigates strangers by sniffing.
If the scent he detects has pleasant associations, he accepts the
stranger as a friend. On the other hand, the dog may immediately
turn hostile if the scent is distasteful— that is, if it suggests a person
who has been unkind, or perhaps the odor of another dog.

A dog will frequently rely on his nose where another creature
would use its eyes. If he loses something— a bone, say, or a toy-
he does not look for it; he sniffs until he locates it. A foxhound
stays on the trail of a fox for many miles, guided by a scent which
may be several hours old. This ability has been put to good use
in several breeds. An outstanding example is the bloodhound.

Animal Friends and Helpers [ 139

which does an extraordinary job of tracking down lost or straying
people when all other means have failed.

Your youngster will be better equipped to take care of his pet
if he is aware that the nose is an index of well-being. When the
nose of a dog— or of any other moist-nosed animal— becomes dry,
it is a sure indication of illness.

Keen Eyes and Ears

We admire a dog's eyes as "beautifully soft" or "soulful"
rather than "keen." The fact is, though, that dogs are sharp-
sighted, despite their reliance on their sense of smell when it comes
to locating misplaced articles. Dogs even see fairly well in the
dark, though probably inferior to cats in this respect. We have an
interesting contrast in breeds in the hunting dog, which stays on
an old or recent trail guided solely by scent, and the greyhound,
swiftest of all large dogs, which hunts by sight.

In most dogs the iris is a rich brown— though puppies usually
have blue eyes— and the pupil, as in human eyes, is round.

There is a considerable range of difference in the shape and
appearance of the outer ears of dogs. This might lead us to expect
a great deal of variation in hearing ability. Actually, however,
most breeds of dogs enjoy an acute sense of hearing. Whether the
animal has long or short earflaps, the act of "pricking up his
ears" is typical of an alert dog. As the hound lifts his long ears
they form tubes, thereby bringing sound more eflEectively to the
inner ear.

Dogs are Good Runners

Most dogs are strong runners, although running ability
varies quite a bit from one breed to another. Dogs have long
muscular legs and when they are running their lithe bodies
extend full length. The feet are adapted for running, as they are
protected by thick fleshy pads. Another aid in running is the fact
that the dog's claws do not draw in as the cat's do; this gives the
feet additional protection.

The legs and feet of dogs and cats have interestingly contrasted
qualities, for the cat is a jumper rather than a runner. The cat's
legs are delicate, but its hips are verv powerful. These factors.

140 ] Animal Friends and Helpers

plus the lightness of its foot pads, make it an admirable jumper.
But the cat's claws, excellent though they are for grasping and
fighting, are pulled in and thus afford no protection to running
feet.

Dogs Have Hearty Appetites

Nowadays we generally feed our dog pets daintily with bits
of food cut up in approved civilized fashion; but they are still
capable of gulping down large chunks. A friend of mine who takes
his dog with him on hunting trips has learned to be alert in
picking up a rabbit after the kill; on several occasions the hound
arrived first and swallowed the rabbit whole! Not only can dogs
swallow in bulk; they digest the food without any trouble.

Your child may point to the dog as an example of why he
need not chew his food. In that case you can explain the inter-
esting difference in the shape of the teeth which drastically alters
the case. Where we have molar teeth fitted for grinding (and
hence chewing), the dog has molars that are more suited for
cutting. Watch him work on a bone, gnawing first with the back
teeth on one side and then on the other. His canine teeth, like
those of the wolf, are his chief weapons.

How Dogs Talk

A dog has feelings of affection, anger, fear, jealousy, sor-
row, and joy; he can express all of them by his voice. He whines
when he is afraid, growls when angry, and sometimes yips for
sheer joy. His bark is expressive of defiance or excitement. He
has still another medium of expression in his tail: It wags when
he is happy and wants to express friendliness, stands stiff when
he is angry, and droops between his legs when he is dejected or
ashamed. Sometimes in the theater you see "talking dogs"— ani-
mals that have been taught to answer questions with barks that
approximate responses. Actually any intelligent dog needs little
training before you can say of him, "He all but talks."

When a Child Fears Dogs

Parents who are dog enthusiasts are often disconcerted to
find that their children fear these animals. Experiments tend to

Animal Friends and Helpers [141

prove that a child's timidity with animals is explained by some
prior unpleasant encounter, or by his associating an animal with
some frightening experience— possibly entirely unrelated to the
animal. At the same time I cannot help also crediting a very
simple theory— that the generally unpredictable actions of dogs
and their sudden movements are enough to make some young-
sters wary and hence distrustful of them. There is also the matter
of size: To a toddler, even a spaniel must appear as large as a
lion does to an adult.

As a very young explorer in the world my son had a caution
toward dogs and cats that might have been interpreted as fear.
We had no hint of any plausible reason for his attitude, but we
never ridiculed or lectured him about it. We did give him every
opportunity to see that we considered these animals good friends,
and by the time he was five he wanted nothing so much as a dog
of his own.

Some people believe that a dog, through its sense of smell, or
some instinct, knows whether a person is afraid of him; and that
the animal has one attitude toward a brave soul, another toward
a timid one. Presenting a bold front is undoubtedly the best
approach when dealing with a strange or unfriendly dog— all the
more so as there is evidence to indicate that an animal cannot
detect well-concealed fear.

A doctor of circus animals once confessed that throughout his
career he had to struggle with actual terror whenever called upon
to treat a sick tiger or leopard or other creature capable of great
violence. Luckily he was able to mask his fear by keeping his
voice stern and his actions incisive. In this way he remained master
of the situation. But, the doctor added, if animals had any way
of "sensing" fear in a human being, he would surely have been
found out, and his career ended before it had fairly started.

The Wild Strain in our Dogs

There Is a widespread belief that the wolf was the dog's
ancestor, but we now know that this theory is only partially cor-
rect. Dogs and wolves may have had a common ancestor some
fifteen million years ago, and scientists believe that the four
earliest breeds of dogs probably developed from this animal.

142 ] Animal Friends and Helpers

We can clearly trace some of the modern dog's outstanding
traits to its wild ancestors. When a dog gives chase, he usually
barks— a throwback to the wild pack that barked or bayed to
keep together while hunting. Similarly, the modern dog's habit
of turning around a number of times before lying down makes
no sense to us, but he owes this characteristic to his distant ances-
tors—it was the way they made themselves a comfortable place
for lying down in brush, grass, or reeds. Your dog gains nothing
by such actions in a modern home, but he repeats them instinc-
tively just the same. Sometimes when a dog is gazing at the moon
or when he hears music he will emit a series of mournful howls.
This too may be a reversion to the past— to the time when the
"pack** was called together, perhaps to hunt by moonlight.

How Man Tamed the Dog

The friendly association of human beings and dogs goes
back through countless ages. It must have started in some such
way as this: In the course of their hunting excursions the early
cave dwellers found litters of puppies and brought back the
appealing creatures to their primitive homes. The puppies did
not grow up wild like their parents—for they were fed and shel-
tered by people, and in return defended their cave from enemies.
The cave was their home, the humans were their masters.

Primitive man could not fail to appreciate the dog's keen
senses of smell and sight: He could take the animal on hunting
trips to uncover game where he himself might not suspect it
existed.

As the centuries passed, men gradually changed their way of
living. A crude cave was no longer a good home, and hunting was
no longer the only means of supplying food for the family. Yet
the desire to keep a dog in the household did not change. All
over the world they had become established as friends and help-
ers, and were bred for all sorts of special purposes.

The ancient Greeks bred dogs small enough to sit comfortably
in ladies' laps— with a view to keeping the owner's stomach warm!

In England there was a need for quite a different kind of dog.
Almost a thousand years ago a breed was developed there with a
retreating nose, an undershot jaw, and menacing teeth. It was

Animal Friends and Helpers [ 143

to become known as the bulldog, for its special purpose was to
fight bulls— a ferocious sport that enjoyed great popularity for
hundreds of years. The peculiar formation of the bulldog's snout
enabled him to breathe easily while biting and gripping a bull.

The Scottish terrier is another good example of special breed-
ing. Its shaggy eyebrows evolved from breeders' efforts to provide
these small hunting dogs with protection against dirt as they dug
into fox holes and carried out other hunting chores.

Even dog styles had a practical purpose at the time of their
origin. Poodles, used as retrievers, had wool left on their chest
to protect them against cold while the flanks were shaved to
streamline them for swimming. Ear-cropping became the fashion
in the eighteenth century to guard the floppy ears of hunting
dogs against being torn in the underbrush.

Today, in our highly mechanical age, dogs are still being bred
and trained for specific purposes, performing tasks which no
machines have been able to take over. One of the most interesting
ways to study the specialized dog breeds is to read stories about
dogs. Fortunately there is an abundance of them that you can
read together with your child, who will be delighted with them.
Aside from the ageless classics, good adventure tales about dogs
are constantly being written.

The St. Bernard

In his Book of Famous Dogs, Albert Payson Terhune gives
a touching description of Barry, a St. Bernard that rescued as
many as forty travelers from death in the snow during the first
ten years of his life.

Until a great tunnel was cut through the Alps in relatively
recent times, travelers had to make their way on foot over the
snow-clad mountain slopes. Frequently they lost their way or
were overtaken by a blizzard. The rescue of such unfortunates
presented a baffling problem, especially to the monks of the
monastery of St. Bernard situated at the crest of the mountain
pass. We can only guess at how much these good men of nearly a
thousand years ago understood of "natural history," but we do
know that they solved the problem effectively.

What they did was to secure strong, oversized yellowish dop^s

144 ] Animal Friends and Helpers

(whose ancestors may have come from Central Asia) , and to
breed them carefully for many generations. This resulted in the
breed we know as the St. Bernard. Not only are St. Bernards still
used in Europe to find people lost in the snow and bring them aid;
these dogs are beloved pets in many homes of our own country.
Their gentle and benign character makes them perfect com-
panions for children.

Seeing Eye Dogs

In almost any city or town in America you may chance to
see a remarkable man-and-dog-team walking along quickly and
confidently. Before you are fully aware of the implications, the
boy or girl with you may exclaim:

''There's a Seeing Eye dog!"

It seems incredible that up to the last few decades there were
no Seeing Eye dogs. And there might still be none if not for the
extraordinary pioneering work of Dorothy Eustis a generation
ago. Mrs. Eustis happened to own a particularly wise and faithful
German shepherd dog. The animal's joy in serving his mistress
started her on a long road of research, breeding, and training to
develop superservice dogs.

After establishing a school that graduated dogs thoroughly
trained to work with policemen, help patrol penitentiaries, and
aid in war maneuvers, Mrs. Eustis carried on a work that had
already been started in Germany— educating dogs to be the "eyes'*
of blind people. Her pioneering eventually led to the establish-
ment of The Seeing Eye organization.

The German Shepherd

The chances are that the Seeing Eye dog you will encounter
on your walk is a German shepherd. Your young companion is
likely to inquire, "Are shepherds always used for Seeing Eye
dogs?"

As a matter of fact they are not— though it is true that most of
the dogs graduated by The Seeing Eye are shepherds. The ability
not only to assimilate education but to use reasoning power as well
is inherent to some degree in most shepherds. Other breeds may
respond brilliantly to training, but there is a difference.

Animal Friends and Helpers [ 145

The French poodle, for example, one of the outstandingly in-
telligent dogs, has a keen memory and is remarkably quick. The
poodle could learn the routine of guiding a blind person in con-
siderably shorter time than it takes the German shepherd. But
the poodle would then probably carry out any command given
by his master, regardless of consequences. The shepherd, on the
other hand, makes his own decision— to hold back if a "forward"
command means trouble.

How Seeing Eye Dogs Are Trained: Another almost inevitable
question is, "How are the dogs taught to do their work?" This
query is constantly being put to the members of The Seeing Eye
staff. A complete answer would literally fill volumes, but we can
get some idea of the thoroughness of the program from a knowl-
edge of the work and study required to become a teacher in the
organization.

The apprenticeship is a lengthy one. First the newcomer must
spend several months working as a kennel assistant, feeding and
cleaning the dogs and turning them out to exercise. Only then
is he ready to start primary work in obedience training. He studies
voice culture in order to learn the best inflections to use in
speaking to the dogs; he learns hand and body movements that
supplement spoken commands in the early training stages.

Only after the student teacher has mastered the technique of
command does he start actual work with dogs— some of them
partly trained, others completely undisciplined. His next step is
to experience the actual sensations of a sightless person: For a
month he constantly wears a lightproof shield over his eyes. He
is then ready to work with human pupils.

A blind person who is eligible for a dog-guide must live at
the headquarters of The Seeing Eye in Morristown, New Jersey,
during the period of training with the dog that is to become his
guide.

As for the training of the dogs, members of The Seeing Eye
staff will tell you that their method stresses kindness. The prin-
ciple is sound for training any kind of dog; for kindness and
patience are the basic ingredients that spell success with a German
shepherd pup just as much as with your faithful old Rover.

146 ] Animal Friends and Helpers

Dogs in the Home

With more than a hundred breeds to choose from, the
wise parent will give careful consideration to the type that is
best for his household. In all fairness to yourself, your child, and
the pet, you want to select an animal that you can take care of
properly without overtaxing your time, purse, or housing accom-
modations.

Training a dog pet can be a fascinating project. There is much
in the training of dogs that duplicates the upbringing of a child!
Good health is important: A tired, nervous creature will not
respond to the best trainer. Patience, consistent rules and actions,
determination— all these are essential to successful training. Like
a child, the dog does his best for someone who understands him
and whom he likes.

The age of a dog is less important than we are led to believe
by the saying, "You can't teach an old dog new tricks." Nine-
year-old dogs have been taught tricks and even trained as depend-
able hunting companions. It is true, however, that the earlier
training is begun, the easier it is likely to be.

Cats

Most children love cats, and they recite the nursery rhyme "I
love little pussy" with genuine feeling. But as they grow older,
they find that their feline companions have many critics and
even enemies. Some people feel that cats should be done away
with because, given a chance, they kill birds. Others, who doubt-
less have in mind abandoned "strays" that try to make a living
from garbage cans, claim that cats are dirty animals. Another
charge is that cats are incapable of loyalty and affection.

But cats have their defenders as well— many people champion
them with fiery zeal. And, as they can prove, cats are devoted to
their masters if they are treated kindly. They also render valuable
service in preying on the rats and mice that must be kept in
check. And cats are wonderfully adaptable; if they have to, they
can live by their wits in the manner of jungle beasts, though
they can be kept happy and healthy in a city apartment.

Animal Friends and Helpers [ ^4)

Seeing in the Dark

The ability of cats to see well in the dark long ago gave
them a touch of the macabre: People came to associate them with
the nighttime activities of witches and hobgoblins, particularly
on Halloween. Because of this reputation, children are especially
interested to know just how cats' eyes function.

Back of the eye is a reflecting surface which catches and reflects
any available bit of light. The resulting glow enables the cat to
see in situations where our eyes are inadequate. The startling
green glare given off by a cat's eyes is due to this reflection, its
eye being almost completely covered by the pupil. During the
day the pupil is narrowed down to a mere slit. In adult cats the
iris is usually yellow; in kittens it may be blue or green.

Sensitive Feelers

Cats, like dogs, have moist noses, and their senses of smell
and hearing are keen. The hairs in a cat's ears, far from being
obstructions, are sensitive aids in catching sounds. Cats can de-
tect vibrations beyond the range of the human ear. They are
often critical of musical performances, removing themselves as
far as possible from shrill radio music or singing practice in the
home.

The hairs on a cat's face— its whiskers— are also valuable as
"feelers." A set of whiskers contains between twenty-five and
thirty hairs. If you look at them closely, you will note that they
are set in four lines above and at the sides of the mouth, where
they are connected to sensitive nerves. Feelers are useful to
hunters, especially night hunters, as Pussy is when in its natural
state; the hairs supply information about the underbrush or other
terrain through which the animal is moving.

The Cat as a Hunter

Stalking and pouncing on prey come as naturally to a cat
as breathing. Where the dog uses sheer power and speed, the cat
resorts to stealth and cunning. Having discovered the haunts of a
possible victim, the cat crouches motionless until the right instant
to spring. The weight of the marauder's body knocks down the

148 ] Animal Friends and Helpers

rabbit, mouse, or other victim— which the cat then seizes with
its sharp hooked claws and its strong canine teeth to make the kill.
If you look into Pussy's mouth you can see the equipment of a
real prowler of the jungle. There are two big sharp tushes in
each jaw. Its molars are sharp-edged wedges, perfectly adapted
for cutting up meat. Its tongue is so rough it can rasp juices from
meat.

Under the conditions of modern civilization cats are often
expected to be split personalities: alert hunters ready to pounce
on any rodent that shows itself, and at the same time restrained
and even friendly neighbors to all birds, tame or wild. Actually
cats are intelligent enough to refrain from molesting birds if
they are properly trained toward that end while still young. The
most successful training method seems to be that of association-
creating situations where the cat can observe its mistress or master
being friendly with birds and expecting the cat to help in pro-
tecting them. Punishment as a means of curing bird-hunting cats
is usually quite unsuccessful.

Cats are Model Mothers

It is a rare cat mother that shirks her responsibility to
her kittens. As a rule, even before they are born she shows her
solicitude by looking for a dark secluded spot for their entrance
into the world— just as in the primitive state a cat sought a dark
cave for the event. Though kittens are active almost immediately
after birth, they do not start to open their eyes until after five
days or so. Within ten days the eyes are fully open.

Meanwhile the mother nurses the kittens and industriously
washes them from nose-tip to tail with her rough tongue. She
allows them to romp and play boisterously— even to the extent of
frolicking over and around her; but if they go too far she will
box their ears soundly.

When they are older she gives them lessons in hunting, if
circumstances permit, showing all the tricks at her command for
catching mice and other prey. She will even instruct them in the
fine art of backing down a tree trunk— an important accomplish-
ment for a cat. Instinct prompts cats to climb, but many a cat that

Animal Friends and Helpers [ 149

has had no coaching may reach the top of a tree and then be too
terrified to descend. Often a fire company or the S.P.C.A. must
come to the rescue!

Children and Cats

When a cat— and this is even truer of a kitten— is brought
into the home, training is usually desirable in more than one
respect. Not only must we teach the little animal how to fit into
the family program; we also need to instruct the children of the
family how to handle and treat their pet.

A frightened cat or one that has been excited or angered by
teasing, may inflict serious scratches on a child. It is not difficult
to teach even a small child to pick up a cat properly— by approach-
ing it from the back or side and placing one arm under the cat's
forelegs and the other around its body underneath the abdomen.
The best way to pick up a little kitten is by placing your hand
under its body. Grasping the scruff of its neck will not hurt a cat,
but it is not a sensation that the animal enjoys; it is best to resort
to it only for disciplinary reasons.

Cat Language

Children will quickly learn something of the cat's own
language: the happy purr, the soft mew of contentment, the
begging meow of hunger, the frightened yowl, the shrill battle
cry when the cat is involved in a fight. The cat's body is just as
expressive as its voice. A lashing tail (in contrast to a dog's happy
wag) is a sign of angry excitement. At such times the cat's ears
lie back— and if it is badly frightened, its hair stands on end
over its entire body and tail.

Where Cats Came From

Though we can trace back the cat family millions of years
to prehistoric times, there is much about the ancestry of domestic
cats that remains a mystery. Many conflicting theories have been
advanced from time to time regarding their origin.

The striped tabby pattern is a strong indication that the fore-
bear of our pets of today was either the European wildcat or the
African wildcat, for both of these species have a striped pattern.

150 ] Animal Friends and Helpers

But which of the two was the original ancestor is a question that
has been hotly debated. The most generally held opinion favors
the African or Kaffir cat, which was tamed by the ancient Egyp-
tians. For centuries the domestic short-hair cats have mated
haphazardly, and as a result there is more variation in their size
and form than in any other breeds.

Persian Cats

The Persian, or long-hair, cat is generally believed to have
originated somewhere in East Asia. Though its long silky coat
and fluffy tail give the Persian infinite grace, it is not so lithe in
build as the short-hair cats. Its body and legs are both short and
compact. "Refined" seems the most suitable adjective for the
Persian. It is characteristically unaggressive, lofty in its bearing,
and has a soft, well-modulated voice.

Siamese Cats

The Siamese cat is a comparative newcomer to America,
the first of the breed having been imported from England little
more than fifty years ago. Only a few years before that a famous
pair named Pho and Mia were first brought to England from
Siam. The Siamese cat is distinguished by its form— its hind legs,
being longer than the front ones, give the body a slight tilt up-
ward from the shoulder to pelvis, and its head is long and wedge-
shaped with a flat forehead.

The Siamese cat also has a peculiar coloration, which varies
with three distinctive types. The seal point Siamese has cream or
fawn-colored body fur, with face, ears, legs, and tail a seal brown.
Its slanted eyes are a deep sapphire blue. In the blue point
Siamese, the body color may be cream or pale blue with the
points (or markings) a deeper blue. As for the chocolate Siamese,
it has a deeper body tone and rich brown markings.

The acrobatic ability of Siamese cats, combined with their
great mischievousness, gave rise to the legend that their ancestry
was part monkey. The legend is completely fanciful, but it is
amusing to recall it as you watch a Siamese climbing, leaping,
twisting its tail and in general performing "monkeyshines."

Animal Friends and Helpers [151

The Manx

One of the oddities of animal life is the Manx— a cat with-
out a tail! This breed, whose ancestors hailed from the Isle of
Man in the Irish Sea, has a particularly mild and trusting nature
and as a pet is especially easy to train and manage.

Pet Shows and Pictures

Once your children are interested in the different breeds T>f
cats and dogs, attending a pet show becomes a worthwhile family
excursion. At such an exhibit you can see fine specimens of many
breeds and observe the fascinating results of specialized training.
If you live in a neighborhood where a number of children own
dogs and cats, it is possible to stage a strictly home-style pet show
guaranteed to provide fun as well as an added incentive for the
young masters and mistresses to have their pets well groomed
and trained.

Making a cat or dog picture album is an activity anyone can
enjoy. It is fun to watch the magazines for suitable pictures, and
even the youngest member of the family can join in the game.
The resulting album can be either extremely simple or else
elaborate, depending on the amount of time you can give as
adviser to the "art and production department."

Horses

If there was ever the possibility of a waning of interest in horses
in this machine age of ours, that prospect vanished when television
brought Western movies with their hard-riding cowboys into
the home. Life on a ranch with horses became the dream of count-
less city-dwelling girls and boys, and children who had the oppor-
tunity to ride felt a new appreciation of that privilege.

Fortunately it is not necessary to live on a ranch to have a
personal acquaintance with horses. There are numerous farms
where we may see different breeds of horses, and rodeos and
horse shows are held throughout the country. In some cities
there are the magnificent steeds of mounted police, as well as
riding horses in the parks. In at least a few communities, the
plodding horse of the milkman still survives.

152 ] Animal Friends and Helpers

Horseback Riding

A resident of a large city had a young daughter who regu-
larly "galloped' rather than walked along the street. This was a
real worry to her parents, as the girl had a heart condition which
ruled out strenuous activity. After many attempts to dissuade her,
her mother happened to ask why she galloped. Her daughter's
answer was a matter-of-fact "I'm riding my horse." Mother and
doctor then got together on the happy solution of providing
limited riding lessons which actually benefited the girl's health.

When a boy or girl is given an opportunity to ride, an under-
standing of the background of the horse is genuinely valuable;
for some of the animal's qualities and reactions are easily trace-
able to its wild ancestors. When startled, a horse shies in the
way a wild horse would from a suddenly discovered enemy. The
wise rider, therefore, speaks in a confident and encouraging voice
to his shying horse instead of scolding or hitting him.

When a horse lays his ears flat back, it is a warning that he is
angry. The ears may also be an indication of a horse's character.
The horse with ears drooped or turned back is likely to be
treacherous, whereas quick-moving ears are a sign of a particu-
larly sensitive nature. A good horse has ears pointed upward or
forward. He also has a broad space between the eyes, and his
head is high between the ears.

A Horse's Teeth Tell Its Age

The child who feeds a horse discovers that it is wise to
offer lumps of sugar in an open palm rather than grasped in his
finger tips. A horse can crop grass even more closely than a cow,
thanks to his large incisor teeth. These teeth might easily nip
the fingers with the sugar.

It is by these incisors that an experienced horseman can esti-
mate the age of a horse. As the teeth develop, annual growth rings
are formed in them. (The effect is somewhat like that of growth
rings in a tree trunk.) As the teeth wear with age, these rings
become clearly visible. The time-honored warning not to look a
gift horse in the mouth is based on this revelation of the animal's
age by the state of its teeth.

Animal Friends and Helpers [ i53

Behind the incisors is a bare space which allows for the placing
of a bit, and behind this are six molars on each side of each jaw.
When a male horse is about three years old, canine teeth appear
behind the incisors— four in all. In a mare these canines are gen-
erally small or completely missing.

How Horses Run

Would-be cowboys and cowgirls thrill to the pounding of
hoofs as horses gallop across the plains. They may notice that
during a gallop the horse is completely off the ground for a
moment after each spring forward. The animal makes each spring
from one of his fore feet and lands on the hind foot of the oppo-
site side of his body. Just before this "pair" of feet touches the
earth the other two are coming up again, so that the body is in
the air with all legs bent beneath.

When a horse is walking, two or more of his feet are always
on the ground. The order of their progression is right hind foot,
right fore foot, left hind foot, left fore foot. In a canter the same
rotation of feet is used, but the motion is of course much more
rapid. When the horse trots, each diagonal pair of legs is alter-
nately raised and put forward.

The Horse's Wild Relatives

A well-groomed horse is sleek, glossy, and thoroughly
"civilized" in appearance, but an animal that has been running
in the pasture all winter long presents a very different picture.
Like all wild horses, which grow a thick covering of hair during
cold weather, he has a shaggy coat. They shed this hair in the
springtime.

Wild horses still exist in limited numbers. These include the
so-called tarpans of Mongolia and Central Asia, which, though
smaller than domesticated horses, are strong and of stocky build.

There are still herds of half-wild horses on our western prairies-
descendants from horses brought to Mexico by Cortez and to
Florida by De Soto. Some of these imports from Spain strayed
from their masters and roamed far and wide over the new con-
tinent. Eventually members of the two groups met and mated,
and before long thousands of unbridled horses added a colorful

154 ] Animal Friends and Helpers

note to the American scene. Comparatively few survive in the
wild state today; and of this remnant, many are captured by
ranch owners, branded, and then released. We generally speak
of these animals as "mustangs."

As for ''broncho," this is not a name for a special breed, but
rather a generic term applied to any wild American horse that
is captured and trained for man's use. Today's bronchos are
usually born of domesticated horses, then turned loose and
allowed to run wild until they reach the age of usefulness.

The African zebras, members of the horse family, have resisted
all attempts to domesticate them. By way of contrast Shetland
ponies, which still run wild on Shetland and other islands about a
hundred miles north of Scotland, are valuable pack animals and
trustworthy pets.

Where Horses Came From

The distribution of horses in the modern world follows a
long history of wanderings and migrations. The family started
in North America with the "Dawn Horse"—the original ancestor.
This was a creature about the size of a fox, with several toes on
each foot. Over a long period of time gradual changes took place
in later ancestral horses, notably in the lengthening of the legs
and the steady enlargement and greater specialization of the
middle toe. At the same time the other toes grew smaller and
smaller, finally vanishing and being replaced by the enormously
enlarged middle toe, which had taken on the proportions of the
hoof as we know it today.

Even before the Ice Age, some of the ancestral horses had been
leaving North America for other continents, and the true horse
of the Ice Age migrated also. Then, while the branches that had
gone to Asia, Europe and Africa flourished, the original North
American family died out. Thus there were no horses on the
North Amecian continent until the Spanish explorers brought
them back.

Thoroughbreds and Other Popular Breeds
Even when many groups of horses still lived in the wild
state, men in diverse lands were busy breeding the animals for

Animal Friends and Helpers [ i55

specialized uses. To these efforts we owe such breeds as the Ger-
man coach horse, the Belgian saddle horse, the American saddle
horse. Especially notable breeds were developed in England,
among them the thoroughbred, which became so famous as a
horse of high quality that people began to use the term incor-
rectly, saying "thoroughbred" when they meant "purebred." (A
purebred animal is one which has known and recorded ancestry
and represents but one breed.)

Thoroughbreds excel in running, and the finest race horses
are of this breed. All our thoroughbreds nowadays are descended
from three horses brought to England more than two hundred
years ago— two of them Arabian steeds, the remaining one
Turkish.

Arabian Horses: Originally Arabian horses were creatures of the
desert and, as such, needed little food and water. So great was
the dependence of the Arabs hundreds of year ago on their
horses that they bred the animals with great care, raised them
virtually as members of the family, and trained them like chil-
dren. The result after several generations was one of the most
remarkable triumphs of domestication— a truly great breed, out-
standing in appearance, intelligence and performance. Not the
least value of the Arabian horse lies in its contribution to new
breeds— the thoroughbred, for example.

The Humble Donkey and Mule

Children know donkeys as amusingly stubborn creatures.
Though these relatives of the horse often do display rather diffi-
cult temperament, they are valuable as beasts of burden in arid
regions, and for the breeding of mules (a mule being the off-
spring of a male donkey and a mare.) Donkeys are descended
from wild asses which were tamed and used in Egypt before the
horse became domesticated. In its size, short hair and other less
noticeable features, an ass bears a closer resemblance to the zebra
than to the horse. It even has a tendency to show stripes on the
legs.

Mules are larger than donkeys, and shaped more like horses.
Still, with their lon^ ears, small hoofs, and large heads, they rather

156] Animal Friends and Helpers

resemble donkeys. They are also considered valuable as pack
animals, being noted for their sureness of foot and their great
powers of endurance. As a rule, they cannot reproduce their kind.

Catde

About the first thing a toddler learns about cattle is that "cows
say moo," and that cows give milk. The cow thereupon becomes
an impressive figure, milk being the most important and most
frequent item in a child's diet. Even a child of five is more likely
than not to tell you gravely that "milk gives vitamins." His older
brother is interested in cows too— but mainly because they are
the pawns in our televised folklore of ranchers and rustlers.

Cows FOR Milk

Man has developed all the varieties of domesticated cattle
from wild species of Asia and Europe. It took many generations
of selective breeding to achieve such marvels as the Holstein cow,
which can produce its weight in milk in two weeks, and the
Jersey, which gives more than five thousand pounds of rich milk
in a year! Other noted dairy breeds are the Guernsey, Ayrshire,
and brown Swiss cows.

There are certain features by which you can recognize a good
milch cow. These include: the head high between the eyes, which
should be clear, large, and placid; a large mouth with a muscular
lower jaw; a deep wide chest, hips much broader than the
shoulders, and a large, well-supported abdomen. As you would
expect, the udder should be large and its four quarters of equal
size.

Cattle for Beef

Aside from the cattle bred for milk production there are
the breeds designed as beef factories. Among the best known of
these are the Hereford, Aberdeen- Angus, Galloway, and Short-
horn. You can see many contrasts between them and the milch
cows. The beef cattle are big and full across the back and have
thick, short necks. (You will notice that the milch cow has a
thin, fine neck.) The shape of the body is markedly different in

/inimal Friends and Helpers [ ^57

these groups: The milch cow's body is oval and the outline of
her body sags in front of the hips, whereas the meat animal tends
more to a square-shaped body and its back is straight from neck
to tail.

How Milk is Produced

Most city children do not get to see cows very often, so it
is not surprising that they develop some strange notions about
how cows give milk. For one thing, the supply of milk seems as
constant as water flowing from a tap. Another misconception has
turned up since the homogenizing process became widespread;
many children believe that milk is originally produced in that
state. And I am probably not the only one who has heard a small
child wondering what kind of cows give chocolate milkl

Despite the way in which man has disrupted the animal's natural
processes, a cow still produces milk as nourishment for her own
offspring. Her supply of milk is of course most abundant soon
after a calf is born. Under normal conditions she would go dry
as soon as the young one could turn to other feeds, but a domestic
cow that is milked continuously may give milk for almost a year.
The quantity decreases, however, after six to eight months, and
the cow must be bred again to renew the milk supply. A wise dairy-
man does not expect cows to produce constantly, and gives them
a rest of at least six weeks every year.

How Cows Eat

If your child watches a horse and cow grazing, he may ob-
serve as he looks on that the horse is pulling his head in whereas
the cow is pushing her head forward. These distinctive eating
habits are no accident; they are determined by each animal's
mouth and teeth formations.

A cow has eight front teeth on her lower jaw, with only a homy
pad above them. While grazing, she runs her tongue out, seizes
a clump of grass, and closes her upper lip tightly over it. A for-
ward thrust of her head then causes the teeth below to cut or
tear the grass from its roots. Thus she always eats "away from
herself."

The horse cannot gather grass with his tongue, but he can use

158 ] Animal Friends and Helpers

his flexible upper lip to grasp it. He has both upper and lower
teeth and, taking the grass between these two rows, he cuts it by
pulling his head back. Thus a horse always eats "toward himself."
There is another striking difference in the eating habits of
horses and cows. A horse chews as it grazes. The cow uses a dif-
ferent technique, due to the fact that instead of one stomach,
she has four! She swallows the grass exactly as it is cut, and the
unchewed food goes directly into her first stomach. Later the
food progresses to the second stomach, where it is formed into
cud balls in a convenient size for chewing. When the cow lies
down, this food is brought back to the mouth. She chews her cud
contentedly with her grinding teeth until it is ready to be swal-
lowed. It then passes to her third and fourth stomachs, where it
is digested.

Mammals equipped to eat in this fashion are known as "rumin-
ants." They include sheep, deer, antelope, and camels. In the
wild state, the ruminants' technique is a definite protection, for
they can graze rapidly in the open (where flesh-eating beasts might
prey upon them) , and then retire to a sheltered area to continue
their meal in comparative safety.

How Cattle Express Themselves

Though their domestication goes back through countless
generations, cattle still reveal traces of their wild ancestry. Their
vocal expressions are akin to those of cattle still living in the wild
state. The bull gives a sullen roar when he is angry. The cow moos
gently to her calf, and the lowing sound so characteristic of late
afternoon in dairy farm country is the call of the herd— the call
which kept members of a group together when they were in the
natural state.

Though the adult cow gives the impression of being the most
phlegmatic of creatures, few animals are more frolicsome than a
calf. Even cows sometimes forget their dignity, kicking up their
heels exuberantly as the tail is held aloft. In bulls the instinct for
battle is still strong. Those living in the wild state use their vicious
horns not so much against other animals as against rival bulls
that attempt to displace them as master of a harem.

Animal Friends and Helpers [ i59

Good Hearers and Smellers

Cattle have a keen sense of hearing, benefiting from the
fact that they can turn their ears in any direction. Their sense
of smell is also excellent: The moist, sensitive nose is equally well
adapted for picking up the scent of an enemy or deciding if food
is properly edible.

TAiL-SwrrcHiNG

As the cow is such an emphatic tail switcher, an observer
might read into the action those meanings which apply to the
tail movements of a dog or cat. However, the tail has nothing to
do with a cow's emotions; it is an efficient fly-brush and swatter,
and without it a cow would be miserably at the mercy of these
ubiquitous insects.

Goats— They Don't Eat Cans

Children are usually amused as well as impressed by the fact
that goats will eat anything, but one young girl I know was more
impressed than amused. Lying on the grass reading one fine after-
noon, she was so absorbed in her story that she paid no attention
to a gentle tugging at her braided hair. Suddenly she realized that
a goat was thoughtfully chewing one of the braids!

This seemingly fantastic willingness to "try anything once" in
the way of food begins to make more sense when a child realizes
that in the wild state goats must subsist on the most meager re-
sources. As moss, lichens, and bits of vegetation are the best fare
tc be found high on the rocky mountain slopes where goats live,
it is hardly surprising that they are not very "choosy" about what
they introduce to their digestive systems. There is a popular
fallacy that goats eat tin cans. What they really enjoy eating is
the glue from the paper labels on the cans.

Goats Are Useful Animals

By means of selective breeding, man has developed goats
to serve him in more ways than one. He uses the Angora and
Cashmere for their hair, which is woven into very fine fabrics.
Another type, the short-hair goat, yields a good meat supply, and
still another group is valued for its milk.

i6o] Animal Friends and Helpers

These three kinds of goats have served people all over the
world, and today milk goats are found in every part of the United
States. Many belong to commercial dairies, but probably half of
our goat population is made up of "back yard" residents. A great
point in their favor is that they can eke out an existence even
when the food supply is at its scantiest.

Goat milk is superior to cow's milk for two reasons: Goat milk
is digested more quickly and completely, and it is safe without
pasteurization. Its taste, slightly different from that of cow's milk,
is preferred by some people but is displeasing to others. Goats
do not get tuberculosis and they are as nearly disease-free as any
domestic animal.

A goat becomes an affectionate pet if it is well treated. When
a goat is angry, it shows its feelings by shaking its head. It defends
itself by butting with its head and striking an adversary with its
sharp horns.

Sheep— They Came Down from Mountains

Like goats, sheep are mountain animals. Even when they are
domesticated they thrive best in cool dry surroundings. In the
wild state they lived in less rugged localities than mountain goats
do, but on the other hand sheep were able to subsist on pasturage
that was too thin for cattle.

The sheep's great wool coat, originally developed as a protec-
tion against cold, has been particularly exploited in the Merino
breed of Spain which produces exceptionally fine wool. In Eng-
land, where mutton is a staple food, such breeds as the Dorset
and Shropshire are valued for their flesh, although their wool i?
also used to good advantage.

Obedience Saves the Sheep

Most children are familiar with the figure of speech that
puts people blindly following a leader on the same level with
*'a lot of sheep." This scornful phrase implies that the unques-
tioning obedience indicates a lack of intelligence; yet in the case
of sheep the instinct for following has often saved their lives.

i^n^.

MARY AND HER LAMB HAVE A BLEATING CONTEST
One delightful nature hobby that not enough people hove discovered is taking
out-of-door pictures. Animals and children are natural subjects. But so, too, are
trees and flowers in bloom, a winter landscape, or brooks breaking open in the spring.

Eastman Kodak

"SMILE INTO THE CAMERA, PLEASE"

Children can begin a fascinating lifetime hobby with a camera. A visit to a zoo
or a farm provides exciting opportunities for the young photographer. Later, birds
and other wildlife— in their natural haunts— are fine game for the picture hunter.

David W. Corson from A. Devaney, N.
PUPPY LOVE, STRICTLY SPEAKING

A cat and a dog can become fond of each other if they live together and neither
is made to feel the less favored. A cat can also be trained to treat birds as friends.

Animal Friends and Helpers [ i6l

When sheep lived in the wild state, they gathered habitually
in flocks to feed, with a sentinel always on guard. When this
leader spied an approaching enemy or picked up his scent, he
signaled with a bleat of alarm, then started off with the whole
flock immediately at his heels. Over difficult terrain, leaping from
precipices when necessary, leader and flock made their way until
they reached a safe retreat.

The bleating sound for which sheep are noted is their means
of keeping in touch with each other. In time of danger they are
silent; but they have a special bleat when they catch sight of an
enemy and another one when they come upon water.

Sheep have keen senses. Their large ears move alertly toward
the direction of any sound. They can pick up the faintest scent.
Their excellent eyes alter according to the light conditions. In
sunshine the eye is just a narrow slit, showing a yellowish or
brownish iris; in a dim light the pupil grows larger until it
absorbs practically the whole eye.

How Sheep Feed

The teeth of sheep and goats are alike. There are six rear
grinding teeth on each side of the upper and lower jaws, and
eight incisors on the lower but none on the upper. Thus equipped,
sheep can crop short grass close to its roots. Because the close
cropping by sheep may ruin pasture and because sheep droppings
render grass obnoxious to cattle, sheep herders and cattlemen
have had bitter conflicts. In any event, sheep and goats manage
to be well fed where cattle might starve. Man probably could not
invent a more efficient self-powered lawn mowerl

Pigs-Smarter Than You Think

**Dirty pig!" exclaims the tot just learning the names of animals.

It is a pity that pigs' habits are so generally misunderstood, for
actually they are rated with the most intelligent, valuable, and
interesting of domesticated mammals. The notion that they enjoy
filthy surroundings is largely the consequence of man's careless-
ness in keeping them.

The truth is that a pig will keep its own bed clean and neat

i62 ] Animal Friends and Helpers

under the most discouraging conditions. The wild hogs of India,
for example, make themselves quite respectable nests which
resemble grass huts—thatched on top and with openings at the
side.

The fact that pigs like to wallow in mud is advanced as further
evidence that they like dirt. The real reason for their wallowing
is that the pig, being only sparsely covered with hairs and bristles,
is a constant victim of flies and other insects. It has no tail, as a
cow has, to swish these tormentors off, and so its only hope of
cleaning itself free of pests is to take a mud bath.

Your child probably shares the general view that the pig's nose
is singularly ugly. Be that as it may, the nose has many uses and
is even comparable to the elephant's trunk in its value to its
owner. The fleshy covering of the nostrils is a sensitive-feeling
organ which, especially in the wilds, aids the pig to locate bulbs,
acorns, roots, and other foods. Besides guiding the pig to food,
the nose also serves as a digging tool. Bony plates under the flesh
give it remarkable strength.

*Tig eyes," small but gleaming, reflect a good brain, though
tame pigs rarely have a chance to show how intelligent they are.
Wild pigs have large open ears; those of tame breeds vary, some
being sharp and forward-opening, others lopped. The distinctive
feature of the male pig's teeth is the upward curve of its upper
canines. These tusks, especially in the wild boar, make formid-
able weapons.

Pig Talk

Though the squeals and grunts of a pig are anything but
musical, they are interestingly intelligible to the human ear. You
recognize the hunger squeal easily enough by its querulous tone,
and the terrified squeal of fright is equally unmistakable. It does
not take you long to distinguish between the grunt of well-fed
satisfaction and the habitual grunting that echoes wild animal
ways. Continuous grunting was once the means by which the
pig herd kept together.

Animal Friends and Helpers [163

Pics Are Big Eaters

Wild pigs eat almost constantly when food is available, stor-
ing up fat to sustain them during the winter months. Tame pigs,
too, will eat almost anything, and they are much more efficient
than other animals when it comes to converting plant food into
flesh. In our own country, meat-producing breeds have become
more popular than the lard hog breeds which inspired the old
rhyme beginning, "To market, to market, to buy a fat pig."~The
pure American breeds include the black and white Poland China
and the chestnut or reddish Duroc-Jersey.

C H A P T E

R / Fish and Their
Fabulous Neighbors

H

ow DO THEY Stay in the water?" "How do
they breathe?" "Can they hear?" "How
long can they live?"

These are but a few of the questions that will occur to your
child as he observes the goldfish or tropical fish in an aquarium
at home or elsewhere. For fish are interesting, question-provoking
creatures. Schools have recognized their popular appeal by mak-
ing aquariums classroom projects. Newspapers have daily col-
umns telling how to take care of tropical fish; whole magazines
deal with the subject; and shows displaying the most unusual
kinds of fish are attended by eager youngsters as well as grown-ups.

The common goldfish is the most popular among children,
and even a young child can be taught to care for a few of these
hardy, handsome creatures in an ordinary fish bowl before you
enlarge the collection with tropical specimens.

So attractive are goldfish and the colorful natives of tropical
waters, that interior decorators often plan space for aquariums
in formal settings as well as in recreation rooms. But beauty is
by no means the whole charm of these creatures. As we watch
the fish behind glass walls, so tranquil and completely undis-
turbed by captivity, we have an experience comparable to don-
ning a diving helmet and going into the sea to observe underwater
life. Much of what we see and learn applies as well to the life of
fish which cannot be observed so closely.

Now for some of the questions that a youngster, especially one
learning to swim, may ask about fish.

"How does it just stay there}" he may inquire when he sees a
fish motionless in the water. "Why doesn't it sink to the bottom
or come to the top?"

164

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors [ 165

The Swim Bladder

The ability of some fish to stay quietly in one place is due
to a unique organ known as the "swim bladder." It is in the
lOrward part of the body and is filled with gas— a mixture of
oxygen and nitrogen. Most fish (including the goldfish) that
have skeletons of true bone possess this organ; they need very
little fin movement to stay at a given depth. When they die, their
bodies rise to the surface.

Sharks and some other kinds of fish have skeletons of gristle.
They lack the swim bladder and consequently they can remain
suspended in one position only by continuous muscular eflEort.
When these fish die, their bodies sink instead of rising.

How Fish Breathe

A fish has very small nostrils which you can see if you look
closely on either side of its snout. The nostrils lead to a little
sac where the sense of smell is located—but they have no connec-
tion whatever with breathing. When you see a goldfish constantly
opening and closing its mouth, it is seeking air or oxygen and
not food. Though they live in water, fish need oxygen just as
people do; but they need it in a different form. Most fish "drown"
in the air just as a human being will under water if he is sub-
merged too long.

How THE Gills Work

Instead of breathing through nostrils and lungs, a fish is
equipped to breathe with gills. You can see its gill covers— flat,
bony flaps— just back of its head, one on each side. When the fish
opens its mouth, allowing water to flow in, the gill covers are
pressed against the body so that water will not enter from behind
them.

Then you see the gill covers move outward as the water is
forced out through the gill slits when the mouth closes. As the
water passes through, the oxygen that it contains is absorbed by
the tiny blood vessels making up the gills. (At the same time
these blood vessels give off carbon dioxide and other body wastes.)
The new oxygen thus obtained is then circulated through the
body.

i66 ] Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

What Fins Are For

As you watch your goldfish swimming you may get the idea
that its fins are an important element in its forward movement.
And you are right, though nowadays scientists do not attach as
much value to the locomotion value of fins as they once did.
Experiments have shown that a fish can navigate even without
its fins.

You will note seven fins on the common goldfish. Just behind
its gill covers it has a pair of fins called the pectorals. Farther back
is another pair called the ventrals— or, if quite far forward, called
the pelvics. On its back the fish has a dorsal fin, which it some-
times lifts and shuts down like a fan. On the underside, toward
the tail, is the anal fin. Finally, at the end of the tail is the caudal
fin; we often call it the tail fin.

How Fins Help Fish To Swim

How the different kinds of fins aid a fish's movement de-
pends on their shape and location. The caudal or tail fin helps
the fish propel itself as it presses its tail against the water first to
one side then to the other. The shape of this fin seems to be re-
lated to the swimming speed of different species. On swift swim-
mers, such as the trout, the caudal fin is strongly forked or
moon-shaped; on slow swimmers this tail fin is blunt or rounded.

The dorsal fin acts as a keel: It prevents rolling. The anal fin
serves the same purpose and in some species it is also used to give
the fish a powerful upward sweep.

Pectoral fins appear to serve chiefly as brakes for fish with bony
skeletons— this is particularly true of perch— and these fins also
have a slight balancing effect. In fish with other than bony
skeletons— and this makes an interesting contrast— the pectorals
have a powerful balancing action but are of little use as brakes.
Sharks, for example, are apparently unable to make a sudden
stop. As for the ventral fins, they contribute further to keeping
the fish evenly balanced.

The fins of the common goldfish are by no means standard
equipment. Many fishes do not have ventrals. Some, like the cod,
have three dorsal fins; others have two; others, one. Some have
two anal fins; others, one.

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors [ 167

Fascinating Fins: Certain kinds of fish have fascinatingly special-
ized uses for one or more of their fins. The front ray of the first
dorsal fin of the angler fish is perfectly adapted as a rod and lure
with which it fishes for smaller creatures to eat. A number of
fish have fins modified into sucking pads, and some use specially
adapted pectoral fins for walking on the bottom of the sea— or
even on land!

Moving Through the Water

The fish's mastery of motion in the water is wonderful to
behold. It can dart forward with tremendous speed, starting from
a complete "standstill"; it can progress a fraction of an inch with
scarcely a motion; it can move straight up or down or backward.
There are three types of swimming motions, and most fish use
all three. These are: a sinuous movement of the whole body, the
movements of the fins, and the propulsion resulting from water
being shot through the gill chambers.

THE COD-PROLIFIC, USEFUL, STREAMLINED

The codfish, which produces in the neighborhood of eight million eggs at a time,
is the most valuable of all fish, as far as man is concerned, because of its cod-liver
oiL The body of the cod, b/ the way, is admirably streamlined for speedy progress
through the water.

i68 ] Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

Swimming Speeds: When your child sees his goldfish cover the
length of its aquarium with one quick swish of its body in what
seems like no time at all, he may get the impression that fish
always move with notable speed. It is true that many species
are capable of extremely rapid bursts of speed, but over long
distances they average a much slower rate of speed. Salmon may
go at a rate of twenty-five miles an hour, whereas carp are not
known to exceed seven and a half.

How the Goldfish Gets Its Color

Goldfish owe much of their attractiveness to their golden sheen.
**Is there really any gold in a goldfish?" a youngster looking at
his aquarium may ask. The goldfish scales do resemble this pre-
cious metal, but of course there is no trace of gold in their shiny
covering. Color in fish is mainly the effect of pigments which for
the most part are scattered in the surface layers of the skin and
are visible through the scales.

The ancestors of goldfish were olive in color. They belonged
to the carp family and lived in the streams of China. Hundreds
of years ago some specimens were found with golden tones on
their sides, and breeding was started with these. The gold pre-
dominated in some of their offspring, and selective breeding
continued until fish completely golden in color were achieved.
About seventy-five years ago a sailor brought back goldfish to
America from the Orient. They have been popular pets here
ever since.

Varieties of Goldfish

Today we see many fancy varieties, such as fantail, fringe-
tail, telescope, and lion-head. The breeding of specially selected
fish produces these highly ornamental creatures, though great
numbers of "common" goldfish appear along with them. This
tyj>e characteristically has a long body, forked tail, and small
head. It may be all gold or marked with black and silver. It is
hardier than its ornamental relatives and if it is transferred to a
pond with ample food, it may grow to be a foot in length.

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors [ 169

Fish Use Camouflage Too

The color of fish is often a definite camouflage, comparable to
protective schemes on many birds and mammals. You may see
a hint of protective coloration in a goldfish, as the orange tones
of its back fade to pale lemon-yellow below. In general, fish are
darker-colored on the back than on the underside. As the darker
color blends with the river or pond bottom, fish tend to be less
noticeable to an observer from above. Yet when fish feed near
the surface their light underparts blend with the sky, so that
they are not too likely to be seen by enemies swimming below.

Perch, pike, and other species that live among weeds are pro-
tected by their vertical stripes. An extreme example of camouflage
is the "leaf fish" of the Amazon River which is colored like a
dead leaf and has a projection from its lower lip that resembles
a leaf stalk. Even its actions reinforce the illusion: In stalking its
prey it drifts along like a dead leaf.

How Fish See and Hear

"Goldie winked at me. I saw himl" my exuberant youngster
exclaimed one day during a close scrutiny of the aquarium.

He was disappointed when I pointed out that a fish has no
eyelids and therefore cannot wink. However, fish do have eye-
balls and when one of these is flicked downward you get the
impression of a wink. The lack of eyelids also means that whether
the fish is awake or asleep, its eyes are wide open.

Fish do not have keen sight. The part of the eye that takes in
light is round— whereas in land animals it is flattened. Fish are
near-sighted because of the shape of their eye lens.

"Can the fish hear us?" is another challenging thought to
children who enjoy talking to their charges at feeding time. It is
doubtful that they can, but they do seem to be awaie of hand
clapping or the sound of tapping on the aquarium walls.

The fish has no outside ear— or even openings where you would
expect to find ears. It does have other sense organs, however,
through which it can get some of the same impressions that we
receive through our ears. In fact goldfish, minnows and others
learn to react to whistles and certain other sounds at feeding cime.

1 70 ] Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

Fish Scales

The scales of a fish look a good deal like the shingles on a
roof. Each of the scales grows separately from the skin, but they
are set at an angle so that they overlap and form a complete cov-
ering for the body. Naturalists sometimes call this scaly covering
the "outside skeleton."

Some fish, the catfish for one, do not have scales. Among the
species that do have scales, a newly hatched fish of the bony group
lacks the protection of scales for its skin; but it does not take long
for them to develop. Some kinds of scales— those of the eel, for
example— are so tiny that you can hardly notice them. A curious
feature of some members of the tuna family is that they are only
partly scale-covered.

Telung the Age of Fish

As the fish grows, its scales grow too. You can tell the age
of many of the bony fish by the markings on their scales; by exam-
ining the rings you can tell how many birthdays they have passed.
Of course you will not want to do this with your goldfish pet:
Its scales should never be touched, let alone pulled out of the
skin. A protective slime covers the scales and if this is rubbed off
by dry hands or in any other way, death may result for the fish.
Children enjoy studying the scales cleaned from a fish destined
for the family dinner. Any youngster who knows how to count
will get a thrill looking at the scales through a magnifying glass,
checking the number and nature of the rings, and reporting the
age of the main course for dinner!

"It Was That Big!"

Among fish, size is not so standardized as among mammals.
The goldfish is an outstanding case in point. In an aquarium it
remains small, whereas, given the freedom of a pond, it increases
its size many times over. Such factors as the temperature and
acidity of the water and the type of food available limit the
length and weight a fish can attain.

Most of the really big fish are found in the ocean— though there
is a huge species, the arapaima, that lives in the rivers of Brazil

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors [171

and attains a weight of four hundred pounds. Among the giants
of the sea is that popular American food staple, the tuna. These
giants vary in size depending on the regions to which they are
native, but a weight of a thousand pounds is about the maximum.
Another big fish is the spectacular swordfish. Few sports are as
adventurous as deep-sea fishing, and many a boy or girl, thrilled
by pictures or films, looks forward to taking a marlin or sailfish
with rod and reel. ^

Fish Migrate Too

"What happened to the fish when the water froze?" children
often ask as they prepare to go skating over ice that was a rippling
lake or stream only a few weeks before.

There is more than one answer to this question. Some fish— the
common sucker, for example— burrow in the mud and may be
frozen and thawed without being any the worse! Others remain
active if the water under the ice is deep enough. As for carp and
some other species, they move en masse to deeper water at the
beginning of winter.

Children accept the seasonal travels of birds rather casually
because they can witness some phases of their migrations each
year; but they are likely to be surprised to find that many fish
migrate too. Even their parents often do not realize how wide-
spread the migration habit is among fish. Except for the fish living
in ponds, a great many may make migratory journeys in the course
of their lives. Sometimes the individuals in a traveling "school"
are counted by the million.

Spawning Migrations

Aside from the journeys of fish to deeper waters for the
winter, some species of fresh-water fish travel many miles in
search of food. There are also salt-water migrations by fish that
swim away from their feeding grounds to deposit their eggs. A
famous example is that of the North Sea herring migrating in
the autumn to coastal waters off France. There they spawn and
go northward again. When the young hatch they swim to the
surface to feed and are gradually swept north by the main currents

172 ] Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

until they reach the North Sea. There are still other migrations
that take fish from the salty ocean to fresh inland waters to de-
posit their eggs.

How to Keep an Aquarium Successfully

A home aquarium may be a simple matter of keeping one or
two goldfish or it may be a full-scale hobby involving a variety
of fishes. Tropical and toy fishes are more difficult to raise than
the goldfish, but even this hardy pet requires certain favorable
conditions in order to survive.

The goldfish needs adequate amounts of water— about a gallon
for every inch of fish in the tank. It must be given food in proper
amounts; overfeeding is a far more common trouble than insuffi-
cient food. The water must be kept clean— yet the fish must not
be subjected to a sudden change in temperature when fresh water
is provided. The tank must have the right amount of sunlight,
not too much, not too little. Several hours of hot summer sun
may kill the occupants of a small tank.

Plants are attractive in an aquarium and give the fish a sheltered
place to rest and possibly to lay eggs. Contrary to general opin-
ion, they are not essential, however, and too many plants are
harmful rather than beneficial.

The popularity of goldfish has put goldfish breeding on a
substantial commercial basis. A goldfish hatchery near Frederick,
Maryland, covers 150 acres and turns out about five million fish
a year!

How Long Fish Live

Properly cared for, the common goldfish may reach an
age of twenty-five or thirty years. Many species of fish have a long
life span, but in the natural state they are not likely to live to a
ripe old age: They have too many enemies, and some— such as
the Pacific coast salmon— die after spawning. However, records
of fish in ponds or aquariums tell us of catfish that lived sixty
years, halibut that rounded out thirty, and trout that flourished
for eighteen years.

%.<<)

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors [ 173

Fishes in the Brook

Not long after most children learn the "little fishes in the
brook" rhyme, they have a strong desire to join Daddy when he
goes to catch fish. There is something about dangling a hook in
water and wondering what it may bring up that has a universal
appeal for youngsters. If you have access to remote country
streams you have a perfect setting for introducing your child to
the sport of fishing.

But even without your efforts you may find him tying a bent
pin to a string, getting ready to try his luck at a pond in the park.
Though fishing may be inconvenient to supervise, it is a hobby
well worth encouraging. A five-year-old always seems to be letting
his cap fall into the pond, with himself on the verge of following
the cap. But give him a few more years and the wholesome out-
door sport of fishing is something you and he will be thankful for.

How To Plan A Fishing Trip

When you plan a fishing trip you can get helpful informa-
tion from several sources: a fishing-tackle dealer, your county
agent, a local game warden, or your state fish and game commis-
sion. You will want to know the lakes and streams where there
are fish, the open season for fishing, the minimum size at which
a caught fish may be kept, and whether you need to have a
license. Often a grown-up requires one but a child does not.

More Fishing Fun For Children

Children's needs have been recognized by an organization
known as Better Fishing, Inc., which has arranged for them to
have exclusive rights to certain lakes, ponds, and streams through-
out the United States. A sign, 'Tishing for Children Only,"
marks these spots which are reserved for fishermen under fishing
license age. Sportsmen in local communities stock the waters with
trout, catfish, bass, and pike; and many of these people teach
children how to fish and also encourage good sportsmanship and
conservation.

Better Fishing, Inc.* carries out a nation-wide program during

•Its headquarters are at 509 South Wabash Avenue, Chicago 5, 111.

174 ] P^^h ^^d Their Fabulous Neighbors

the summer school-vacation time. This is climaxed by a Boy
and Girl Better Fishing Rodeo Day, when prizes are awarded
to the boy and girl from each participating municipality who
bring in the heaviest fish. More than three million children have
thrills and fun in this contest every year.

Shiners and ^^Pumpkin Seeds"

A Common Catch

One fish that father and son are likely to encounter in any
country stream is the shiner; this is among the commonest of
little fish in the brooks of America. It belongs to the same family
as the minnow, and they look very much alike, wedge-shaped as
seen from above, rounded in front and tapering to a point in
back. However, shiners are lighter in tone than minnows. A
delicate olive-green covers the shiner's back, bordered at the
sides by a line of blue-purple, with a silvery sheen on the bottom
that seems to reflect the varied hues of a rainbow.

Because they are small, shiners are the prey of many kinds of
fish. Were it not for the countless eggs that this species lays, it
could never survive. Shiners live on water insects and the eggs
of larger fishes. You are rather likely to see them traveling in
schools— a large group of little fish swimming against the current.

The Plucky Sunfish

Another attractive little resident of brooks and ponds is
the sunfish — known also as "tobacco box," "pumpkin seed,"
"sunny," and a variety of other names. Pumpkin seed is a good
description of the fish's general form because, viewed from the
•side, its outlines strongly suggest the seeds you find when you
carve a Halloween jack-o'-lantern.

Sunfish are perhaps best known for their gameness: Though
small, they are fierce fighters. Not only do sunfish put up a real
battle when caught on a hook— the males fight each other to win
a desired mate. It is not a fight to the death, but each fish tries
to mutilate its rival's fins.

Fishing for "sunnies" with angleworms and any available equip

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors [ 175

ment has always been a popular sport for boys. Furthermore, as
summer approaches, sunfish eagerly take a dry fly; fathers find
fishing for "pumpkin seeds" an excellent way of introducing their
sons to the techniques of dry-fly fishing.

Catching Pish for Observation

It is satisfying to catch fish for food or for the sheer fun of it,
but taking them for observation makes an interesting hobby. You
need a bar bless hook for this purpose, and the simplest solution
is to file the barb off a regular or fly-tied hook. When you catch
a fish of the right size, remove it quickly with wet hands and drop
it into a wide-mouthed gallon jar of water. You can then study
the actions of this underwater creature at leisure.

Another method is to securely cover with wire mesh the top of
the jar in which the fish is captive, and place the jar on its side in
shallow water with about an inch of air between the water and
the top side. Then you can watch the fish for a day or more; if
your youngster enjoys drawing he may wish to sketch the captive.

Catching Fish With A Net

An old and widely used method is taking fish with a net,
which you can employ if it is not against the law in your locality.
A dark-colored net, deep and tapering toward a rounded bottom,
is best.

This is how to use the net: Walk into a shallow pond or stream
and hold the net as you would a hoe. Walk slowly, keeping your
shadow from falling in front of you and thus frightening the fish
away. When you see a fish, twirl the net rapidly in the air so that
the opening will cut the water first. Then, with a downward
swoop, cover the fish and drag the net briefly shoreward along
the bottom. As you lift the net from the water, twist it again so
that the opening faces upward; then immediately transfer your
catch into a jar or bucket of water.

Keeping Records of Fish

Keeping a chart of fish found in your region can be as
rewarding as a bird or mammal record. To prepare a chart devoted

176 ] Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

to fish, you can set up five columns with headings for name and
brief description, spawning grounds, feeding grounds, natural
food, and accepted bait. You may, if you wish, add columns for
the date and place of specimens caught, and another in which a
small sketch may be made. Such a chart is fun to keep up and in
time becomes a lively textbook for children in learning about
native fish.

Visiting Fish Hatcheries

A trip to a state or national fish hatchery is entertaining
and a child can learn a great deal from observing the fish in all
stages of development and discovering how streams and lakes are
stocked. Most hatcheries have regular visiting hours for the
public, and if none are located near your home, you may discover
one during a vacation trip. Signs along the highways will often
direct you to hatcheries, and a travel guidebook usually lists them
in the region it covers.

Family Life in the Fish World

Duels between rival males are not the only drama to be observed
in the lives of sunfish. They belong to the interesting group of
fish that make nests for their families.

The male sunfish selects a spot in shallow water close by the
shore and excavates mud and sand there to make a saucer-like
basin. He clears the place of pebbles by jerking them away with
his tail fin or by taking them in his mouth and carrying them
away. Measured across, the finished nest is about twice the length
of the fish.

The female sunny, recently won by right of conquest, deposits
her eggs in the nest and then takes leave of home and mate. But
the male does not share her irresponsibility. He stays close to
the nest and bravely defends it from enemies until the eggs hatch.
Then the male too resumes a carefree life so far as his family is
concerned. There are fish that carry parental duties still further.
The male bullhead, for example, continues to guard the baby
fish many days after they hatch.

tish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

I 17?

THE SUNFISH IS A SCRAPPER

Despite tfs maximum length of eight inches, the sunfish leads a full and adven-
turous life. Fierce and courageous, the moles fight duels during the courting period.
But they also hove their tender side, building nests and guarding the eggs after
their fickle motes depart. The sunfish has lovely shimmering colors and is an
exceptionally graceful swimmer.

Fish That Don't Lay Eggs

Not all fish lay eggs. Some species, ranging from the great
tiger shark to the tiny guppy, give birth to young that are in an
advanced state of development. A guppy produces at least twenty-
five and perhaps as many as fifty offspring at a time; but the parent
fish eat many of their young, and only a small proportion survives.

Some Famous Fish

Trout— Fisherman's Favorite

Trout live in cool mountain streams or lakes, where they
feed on a variety of insects that lay eggs on water; the trout also
greedily snatch the emerging insects as they hatch. These feeding
habits make fly-fishing for trout an exciting sport as the fisherman
lures his victim with imitations of its favorite food. In small

178 ] Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

streams trout rarely exceed half a pound; but in larger rivers
and lakes where food is abundant they often reach from five to
ten pounds.

How Trout Build Nests: One female trout lays hundreds of eggs.
For her nest she seeks water with a gravelly bottom, perhaps
where the brook she inhabits flows into a larger stream. There
the mother fish shapes a depression with her tail and carries away
larger stones in her mouth.

After she has laid her eggs in the nest and the male has fertilized
them, she moves a little upstream and repeats the whole process.
The gravel and sand she displaces are carried along by the current.
Most of the discarded material is conveniently deposited over the
first nest, protecting the eggs it contains. The mother trout makes
several nests and lays eggs in all of them before she is finished
with the job.

Legal Protection for the Trout: In spite of the enormous quan-
tities of eggs laid by trout, these fish were in serious danger of
extermination once motor highways began opening wilderness
country to ever-increasing numbers of fishermen. Aside from
being destroyed by their natural enemies, such as other fish that
eat the eggs and young, the trout were caught by these fishermen
who gave no thought to size or season or how many fish might
be left in a stream.

The passage of effective conservation laws prevented the dis-
appearance of trout from native waters by regulating the seasons
for trout fishing, the number a fisherman may catch and the size
a fish must be before it can be taken.

Salmon— They Leap Waterfalls

Many children have heard about the travels of the salmon,
for this fish has become a symbol of determination to reach a
goal. Pacific salmon swim hundreds of miles to their spawning
grounds in North American rivers; the Atlantic salmon go
hundreds of miles to reach theirs in rivers of Europe or of
America.

If you had the opportunity to be at a waterfall where salmon
were making their way upstream, you might see them putting

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors [ 179

their noses out of the swirling water as if "sizing up" the situation.
They turn their heads against the falling water and twist their
bodies like bows, then straighten out again. They bring every
muscle into play as they try to progress.

Sometimes they succeed by practically climbing the cascade,
at other times they top it with a single leap. No matter what their
method, they never give up. If need be, they wait for days— even
weeks!— until a change in the volume of water provides a bettei
opportunity to scale the barrier.

Pacific salmon rarely survive spawning to return to the sea.
Their usual fate is to die after breeding.

Eels— Versatile Creatures

"Is that a fish} Looks like a snake to me!"
With some reason the children are dubious when Daddy dis-
plays an eel as the morning's "catch." But despite its elongated,
snakelike form it is a true fish, having gills for breathing and
fins for swimming.

Eels and Snakes: The well-known figure of speech, "slippery as
an eel," makes a good point of contrast between this fish and the
snake. The skin of a snake is never slimy; that of an eel is always
slimy. The eel's skin is thick and flexible, with the scales lodged
in it instead of on the outside. Quantities of tiny glands in the
skin produce a sticky mucus. These factors, combined with the
creature's suppleness, give it the ability to slip through anyone's
fingers.

Eels Love Privacy: Eels live in all kinds of waters, in mountain
lakes and streams, in salt-water pools along the shore, and in
stagnant ponds. Clean water or foul— it makes no difference to
the welfare of these hardy fish. It might seem strange, therefore,
that we do not see them more frequently. The fact is, however,
that eels are secretive creatures, and much of the time they lie
buried in mud. If something seriously disturbs them in their
hiding place, they come out in swarms; they live in groups.

Vast Migrations: Like salmon, eels make astounding migratory
journeys— but they reverse the salmons' procedure. Instead of

i8o ] Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

leaving the ocean for fresh water, they travel JErom ponds and lakes
down rivers to the depths of the ocean— and there the females
eject their eggs.

The two species of eel—one European, the other American— that
spawn in the same area in the Atlantic, travel in opposite direc-
tions. The young whose parents come from American rivers take
about a year to travel from their ocean breeding place to this
continent; the oflEspring of European species take three years to
reach their destination in Europe.

In the course of its travels the eel has a notable advantage over
most fish. It has specialized gills that can store a certain amount
of water. This makes it possible for the eel to leave a stream or
pond and wriggle over land to another body of water some
distance away.

Fish That Are Different

The Fish That Walks

The fish family has its share of fantastic creatures. In some
ways their real-life qualities are more amazing than those of
mythological monsters of legend and myth. The climbing perch
is the commonest of these belie ve-it-or-not fish. It can survive
out of water for several days, and its pectoral fins are strong
enough to support its body by acting as legs! This perch may be
said to walk rather than wriggle, and it has been found on low
tree trunks.

"Flying" Fish

Perhaps more generally known than the walking fishes are
those that leave the water and glide above its surface. If you travel
in tropical waters, such as those around Bermuda or the West
Indies, you frequently see some of these gliders in action. Most
expert of the group, the "flying fish" travel through the air about
three feet above the water at forty miles an hour, and may go as
much as four hundred yards at a stretch. All the "flying fish"
—they glide rather than fly— live in the ocean, with the exception
of one little "butterfly" fish of Africa which makes brief excur-
sions over its fresh-water home.

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

[18]

A FISH OUT OF WATER

One of th« most remarkable oddities of the fish world is the climbing perch, which
can survive for several days out of water. Equipped with pectoral fins that are
sturdy enough to act as legs, the climbing perch "walks" on land and has even
been known to climb low tree trunks.

Sea Horses— Nature's Eccentrics

The sea horse, despite its name, is a fish, and strictly a
swimming fish at that; but its method of swimming is amusingly
different. Children delight in seeing a group of them in a public
aquarium, moving through the water with an appearance of great
dignity— head upright, fins at the back. Any onlooker is bound
to be convulsed with laughter when the sea horse rolls its eyes;
for a sea horse can look straight ahead with one eye and backward
with the other at the same time.

But these features by no means exhaust the eccentricities of
this odd little fish. (It averages about three inches in length.) The
eggs of the sea horse are incubated in a pouch that belongs to the
male— not the female. The mother sea horse transfers her eggs to
the pouch as soon as they are produced; and there they stay until
they hatch.

l82]

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

THE SEA HORSE-AS ODD AS ITS NAME

The ways of a sea horse are strange indeed. It is a fish— not a horse; but it has
a horse-shaped head and a tail that reminds us of a caterpillar's. It swims upright,
and its eyes move independently of each other. The eggs of the sea horse are
carried in a pouch— by the male! Bony plates cover the body of this fish.

The dried bodies of sea horses are prize discoveries for boys and
girls at a beach, where the animals are often stranded by the tide.

Shocking Fish

Another unusual fish you may encounter at the seashore
is the little electric star gazer, which spends much of its time
buried to its eyes in sand. Only if you happen to step on one is
its hiding place quickly revealed: Its power to give an electric
shock is its means of defense.

There are other fish, larger than the star gazer, that are also
equipped with "batteries," but they are not native to our country.
One of these is the electric catfish of Africa, another the electric
eel of South America which not only uses its powers of shock to
defend itself, but also as a weapon for securing food.

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

[183

/

EELS WITH BUILT-IN BAHERIES

The electric eel of South America carries a formidable electric charge with enough
current to light several bulbs. This creature, which may reach a length of as much
as seven feet when full grown, uses shock tactics to immobilize its prey, devouring
its victims at its convenience. It is toothless, so has to swallow them whole.

Just as ZOOS give you an opportunity to see strange mammals,
so public aquariums present some rare and exotic fishes. A trip
to one of these aquariums is the best substitute for a trip
underseas.

Sharks— Not So Ferocious

The "ferocious" shark, like the pirates of old who cap-
tured the imagination of adventure-loving children, represents a
terrible menace of the sea. Any story of shipwreck immediately
takes on an element of terror when "shark-infested waters" are
mentioned.

Yet it is claimed sometimes that sharks never attack humans
but eat only small forms of oceanic life. If you watch native boys
fearlessly diving after coins tossed by tourists in the harbor of
Nassau in the Bahamas, you may conclude that there is a sound
basis for this theory. Frequently the fins of sharks which abound
in nearby waters may be seen cutting the surface close by the
divers— yet the sharks never molest the boys. The probable ex-

184 ] Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

plana tion is that the noise and excitement and the evident vitality
of the divers discourage the sharks.

The "Man-Eater": Actually the biggest member of the shark
family, the whale shark, is quite harmless to humans, eating only
small fish, jellyfish, and shell creatures. By way of contrast, the
great white shark, which is found in all warm seas, comes legiti-
mately by its other name of "man-eater": It will devour almost
anything it can find, including humans as well as other sharks.
The victim need only be disabled or too small to defend itself.

Neighbors of the Fish

Whales— Biggest Mammals of Them All

Whales are the biggest animals in the world. Fully grown,
one of them may weigh ten times as much as an elephant! The
heroic whale-hunters in the palmy days of Nantucket and New
Bedford created one of the imperishable epics of American history
when they sailed the seven seas in search of this mighty prey.

The enormous size of the whale is bound to impress a child.
He is likely to be even more amazed when he learns that whales
are mammals— though they live in water, as fish do. "How come,
then, that they're mammals?" he will surely demand.

Whale "Babies": One proof that whales are mammals is the fact
that the babies are born alive and are nourished by their mother's
milk. Whale calves are undoubtedly the biggest babies produced
by any kind of animal, although their size depends on the size
and species of the parent. Occasionally it has been possible to
record birth weights, and we have a record of an eighty-foot blue
whale that bore a four-ton baby! The whale mother nurses her
calf by means of a special compressor muscle that injects into its
mouth milk which looks exactly like cow's milk.

Whales Have Hair: Like land-dwelling mammals, whales are
warm-blooded; this means that the blood remains at pretty much
the same temperature regardless of how warm or cold the animal's
surroundings may be. But how about the remaining test of a
mammal: Does the whale, with its bare skin, meet the mammal

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors [185

requirement for having fur or hair? Well, it does have some hairs
—just a few!— sprouting under its chin. Its ancestors of long ago
doubtless had a great deal more hair.

How Whales Breathe: But here is another unorthodox feature of
the whale. We know that mammals, unlike fish, do not have gills.
How, then, does the whale manage to breathe in its ocean home?
Like the land mammals, it must take oxygen into its lungs.

This mammal of the sea has nostrils at the top of its head,
making possible a quick intake of air when it comes to the surface.
When the whale is below the surface, special muscles close the
nostrils firmly against water. There is also a passageway at the
back of the mouth which directly connects the nose passage with
the windpipe. Thus water cannot reach the whale's lungs even
when its mouth is open. Ordinarily a whale comes up for air every
few minutes; but it can stay below the surface twenty minutes
or more by making use of oxygen stored in its blood.

"There She Blows!": During an ocean voyage you might see the
last phase of the whale's unique breathing operation. The excla-
mation "There she blows!" on shipboard calls attention to one
or two fine sprays, looking like steam erupting from the water.
They indicate the spot where a whale has just risen to the surface
and exhaled! The blast of air sent out of its nostrils is very warm
and saturated with water vapor. The blast condenses as it strikes
the colder air, forming the columns of spray that have led people
to insist— incorrectly— that whales spout water.

How Whales Swim: If you are looking at a picture of a whale
that shows its whole body, it will be interesting to see whether
your child can notice an important difference between the whale's
tail and the tail fin of a fish. The former flattens out into a broad
paddle, lying in a horizontal plane. This is just the opposite of
the fish's tail, which is always expanded vertical-wise. While the
fish helps move itself forward by lashing its tail to the right and
left, the whale propels itself forward with an up and down motion.

What Whales Eat: After learning the story of Jonah and the
whale, a child may ask, "Do whales really eat people?"

i86]

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

THE BREED OF MOBY DICK

The sperm whale, with a maximum length of sixty feet and a maximum weight of
sixty tons, is not among the largest whales! Its nose may yield as much as a ton
of spermacetti, an oil which has many uses. Its head is about one-third the length
of its whole body. Moby Dick (in Herman Melville's classic) was a sperm whale.

Strangely enough, this largest of creatures lives on very small
animals. Only one species— the sperm whale— is capable of swal-
lowing a man whole. Others would be apt to choke on any large
prey. The sperm whale's teeth are usually only on the lower jaw;
its diet consists chiefly of fish and squid.

Of course, the "killer" whales and the species known as por-
poises have teeth; but the largest whales are equipped, instead,
with enormous strainers. These are made of whalebone plates
which, despite their name, are not bone at all but material re-
sembling that of human fingernails. The whalebone plates,
bordered with a horsehair-like fringe, grow from the roof of the
mouth. When the whale swims with its mouth open, quantities
of shrimp and other small creatures are enmeshed; when the
whale closes its mouth, the water is forced out but the victims
cannot escape from the trap.

Mermaids— Glamour Girls of the Sea

Fairy tales, cartoons, and sometimes decorative motifs intro-
duce most children to the fantastic, lovely ladies known as mer-
maids. Many primitive peoples the world over have legends about

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors [187

mermaids. Babylonian art dating from about 1800 B.C. depicts
mermaids, and only a century ago Barnum featured a "stuffed
mermaid" in his side show! The inquiring mind of a child plays,
naturally enough, with the idea of mermaids— even if "no such
animal" is alive now, did it ever exist? If not, why were mermaids
"thought up"?

The sea cow, a creature which, like the whale, is a sea-dwelling
mammal, probably gave rise to the mermaid legend. The sea
cow's head is shaped much like that of the seal; its body is plump
but somewhat fishlike. Its startling feature is its face, which sug-
gests an oversize, ugly human. It is believed that when early
navigators saw sea cows raise their heads above water, they were
struck by the animals' part human, part fishlike appearance. As
they did not have binoculars to help them see more clearly, they
reported these creatures as glamorous mermaids I

Sponges

Boys and girls can learn something of life on the floor
of tropical seas by examining the natural (not synthetic) sponges.
The sponge, when it is alive and growing at the bottom of the
sea, looks more like a plant than an animal. There are many
varieties of sponges, but not all of them are used commercially as
some skeletons are too thin or scratchy or brittle. Sometimes the
skeletons become detached and float in on a beach. However, the
sponges destined for commercial use are obtained by divers or
by workers who pull them from the ocean floor with tongs fas-
tened to long poles.

Corals— Semi-Precious Ornaments

Another sea animal that children may know from its
skeleton is the coral. As in the case of sponges, there are many
varieties of corals. Aside from the type used for making necklaces
and ornaments, there are the reef-building, "stony" kind. These
are responsible for the well-known coral isles of the Pacific, as
well as the great coral reefs such as may be found near the
Bahamas and off the coast of Australia. The Great Barrier Reefs
off Australia are more than a thousand miles long and have
caused many a shipwreck.

i88 ] Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

Architect of the Seas: Any child's imagination is bound to be
stimulated by the amazing explanation of how the tiny soft-
bodied coral polyp produces these gigantic structures. A newborn
coral polyp is active at first and swims freely; but soon it fastens
itself to a rock or to the sea floor. Using carbonate of lime obtained
from food and water, it forms a little platform under its body
and a hard wall (called the skeleton) around itself.

What happens to most kinds of corals is that these new polyps
remain attached to the parent and in turn produce new buds.
As the older ones die, young polyps build on top of their skeletons
and thus the structure grows until an island or reef is formed.

The Bashful Snails

Observing a snail's daily activities need not be the only
pleasure your child derives from his unusual pet. He can also train
the animal to be less shy. I knew one friendly snail that would
come out of its shell when summoned by a sharp clicking sound,
and would proceed to eat from its owner's fingers.

When a snail has enough confidence to come out of its shell,
your child will be able to observe its eyes, which are located at
the ends of tentacles attached to its head; he can also study the
horny jaws that cut up the plant material it eats. If the snail learns
to eat from his finger, he can feel the tiny teeth on the tongue
which give it a sandpaper texture.

How to Take Care of a Pet Snail: A glass terrarium furnished with
moss and ferns makes an excellent home for a snail. You will
need a wire covering for the enclosure, as snails can crawl up any-
thing—even a slippery piece of glass. They owe this ability to a
substance they secrete as they travel. Snails require little food,
usually thriving on cabbage or lettuce leaves, carrot pulp and
the like.

At the Seashore

If you could take your child on an exploring trip around a
coral reef, you would find many fantastic forms of life such as the
giant plantlike sea anemones, and such shellfish as the bright
pink crab that camouflages itself with bits of sponge. Such an ex-

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors [189

pedition is out of the question for most of us, so it is fortunate
that a number of these tropical wonders can be seen much closer
to home— in tide pools along the shore, and on rocky coasts and
sandy beaches.

Looking for these creatures and learning something of their
way of life can become a delightful summer hobby. You will find
that a magnifying hand lens is a valuable piece of equipment to
help the youngster enjoy his discoveries to the fullest. Children
of six or over can use a microscope to good advantage.

Stinging Hydroids

You can often come across hydroids as you examine a tide
pool. These are tiny creatures that— like the giant sea anemones
of the coral reefs— resemble flowers. When they are magnified,
the hydroids are revealed as animals. Like the corals, they are
known as polyps. Each individual is attached to a delicate stalk,
and it has numerous threadlike tentacles that are equipped with
stinging cells. Small creatures that come close are paralyzed and
drawn into the opening that serves the hydroid as a mouth.
Many hydroids are quite transparent, and for this reason they
are especially interesting to observe.

Flower-like Sea Anemones

In the tide pools, too, you may find sea anemones, much
smaller than those of tropical seas yet larger than the hydroids.
When undisturbed, they expand into flower-like forms; but the)
can contract quickly into an unattractive jelly-like mass. When
they are in this form you will note their resemblance to jellyfish;
actually the two animals are closely related.

Shellfish-They Aren't Really Fish

A child running barefoot along the seashore is likely to have
an unpleasant encounter with these creatures, for their sharp
edges can inflict painful cuts. He soon learns to watch out for
mussels, clams, and all shellfish that are exposed to view during
low tide. He will surely wonder, too, how these animals can be
fish when they are so different from salmon, trout, or other
''regular" fish.

igo]

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

SEA ANEMONES-ANIMALS OR PLANTS?

These anemones are animals, though they look more like plants; their "petals"
are really tentacles encircling an odd sort of mouth. There are about one thousand
different kinds of sea anemones, some having as many as ninety-six tentacles, some
equipped for stinging. If menaced, these queer creatures contract into a jelly-like
mass. They have no skeletons, and are classed as polyps.

The fact is that the term ''shellfish," though constantly used,
is incorrect; the proper name for these animals is "mollusks."
Every kind of mollusk— there are something like eighty thousand
species!— has a soft body enveloped in a mantle which in most
cases manufactures or secretes a hard shell. There are two siphons
in the mantle; one of them brings water to the animal, the other
carries the water away after it has passed through the gills.

The mollusk's shell is sometimes described as a skeleton— a
skeleton without a backbone. Instead of being an internal struc-
ture, the skeleton is carried on the outside of the body.

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors [ 191

The Clam's Pearly Lining

One of the best-known mollusks, the clam, has a shelJ
made up of three layers— a thin one on the outside, a thick strong
middle layer, and a smooth pearly lining. When a bit of sand or
other foreign matter gets lodged within the shells, it becomes
coated like the lining and in time may become a true pearl.

Squatters' Rights

We find mollusks not only in the sea, but in fresh-water
lakes and streams and on land as well. Some of them— the peri-
winkle, for example— have a single shell; others, such as clams
and oysters, have two shells hinged along the back. Shellfish give
the deceptive appearance of leading a peaceful existence, though
the fact is that life is a constant struggle for them. They are de-
voured by a variety of animals, and they often vie with each other
for living space.

Oysters settle as a rule in fairly deep water, though sometimes a
colony is located on a mud flat that is exposed to the air during
low tide. In such a situation you may see an invasion take place.
Mussels, which multiply with a great rapidity, may move in and
smother the oysters out of existence by sheer weight of numbers.
But, once the mussel colony is established, it may in turn be
invaded by a host of barnacles which soon take over the territory
for their own.

One of the mollusks' worst enemies is an innocent-looking snail
with the sinister name of oyster drill. It plays great havoc in
oyster beds boring holes through the oyster shell and feeding
on the soft underlying flesh.

The Self-effacing Crabs

You have to keep a sharp lookout to catch a glimpse of
these notable creatures of the seashore. Some are expert at dis-
guising themselves by putting seaweed or bits of sponge on their
back; some hide themselves almost completely in the sand as they
lie in wait for prey; and some are very small.

The Rock Crab: It should not be too difficult to discover the
rock crab, which is common on most rocky shores. Full grown.

192 1

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

SEASHORE SCAVENGERS

Crabs are useful as scavengers. They have five pairs of legs, the front pair being
pinching claws for seizing food and fighting, the last pair fin-shoped for swimming,
and the legs in between adopted for walking. Their eyes ore on long stalks equipped
with antennae. Nature explorers young and old find crabs fun to watch.

it is a little over five inches wide, and is commonly reddish purple
in color. Like all crabs, the little fellow has five pairs of legs. The
first pair are adapted as pinching claws, and in some crabs the
last two pairs, shaped like fins, serve effectively as swimming aids.
It is amusing to watch crabs walk— they move sideways instead
of forward or backward. Shore crabs are rather slow in their
movements; the swimming crabs are considerably more active.

Spare Parts: If a crab accidentally loses a claw, it can grow a new
one. During its lifetime it also replaces its shell, not because of a
mishap, but because its body gradually grows too big for the
shell. When the original shell starts getting too snug, the animal
pulls itself free, and until it grows a new covering it is known
as a "soft-shell" crab.

Lilo Hess (Three Lions)
THIS ISN'T LOVE-IT'S WAR

Some kinds of fish have a strong feeling of possessiveness for a certain territory,
and will savagely fight an intruder. The beautiful Siamese fighting fish is a noted
example of this type. The two shown here have their jaws locked in combat. Little
sunfish, which you may commonly find in country streams, are also valiant fighters.

PORTRAIT OF A BUTTERFLY-IN-THE-MAKING

The two-inch caterpillar of the tiger swallowtail is particularly startling in appear-
ance because of two colorful spots on its head, which look like hypnotic eyes. Justi
back of its head it is equipped with a scent organ which it can thrust out to produce
a disagreeable odor that drives off birds that would otherwise make a meal of it.

New Yo
Zoological Socie

Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

[ 193

The Aggressive Lobsters

If you make a habit of observing the activity among the
seaweed in shallow waters, you may have an opportunity to see a
struggle between a lobster and a crab, although such encounters
are rather infrequent. The crab— even a large one— apparently has
little chance against his opponent: A lobster's claws are extremely
powerful. One of them is very broad and is used for crushing; the
narrower one cuts food to bits. Its mouth can crush as well as
bite. It is also probable that the lobster has an advantage over
the crab because its feelers, especially a second pair, are longer
than the crab's. With them the lobster can investigate holes and
crevices and is extra-sensitive to danger as well as possible prey.

THE LOBSTER IS HELPLESS WITHOUT ITS COAT OF ARMOR

Though the lobster has a great fighting asset in its brutal claws, its tough shell has
enormous defensive value. At the times when the lobster has to shed its shell for a
new one, it is helpless against the onslaught of its enemies. The lobster is valuable
as food, and our yearly catch is worth upwards of one million dollars.

194 ] Fish and Their Fabulous Neighbors

Shell Hobbies Are Fun

Shell Collecting

Sea shells delight children who live inland as well as those
who have the seashore close at hand. They may collect them as
stamps and coins are collected through purchase at stores, by order
from catalogues, and through trading with correspondents the
world over.

Shells have a multiple appeal. Some, such as the giant conch
shell, intensify the sounds they pick up in their spiral interior
and thus bring to a child's ear "the sound of the sea."

Decorative Uses for Shells

Shells have a further appeal because you can make art
objects with them. If your child is an enthusiastic collector, he
may call on you for ideas to put quantities of shells to use.

One project that serves the purpose is making shell book ends.
You start these with two triangular blocks of wood, each attached
to a heavy wood base about six inches square. Then you apply a
coat of ready-mixed putty, nearly a quarter of an inch thick, to
the outer surfaces that are to be decorated. While this is still
soft, press shells into it just far enough to be held firm. With
good cutting tools your wood blocks may take varied shapes,
while the shell groupings and designs are limitless and the wood
and putty may be painted as desired.

Shell Handicrafts

Some shells are suitable for making belts, necklaces, brace-
lets, and earrings. A small child needs help in making the holes
where stringing is necessary, for shells crack easily. The most
effective way to puncture them is with a fine-pointed electric
drill. You can buy shellcraft hobby packages in which the pre-
liminary work has been done; this greatly simplifies the assembling
of shell "jewelry."

A child who gathers sea shells takes a far livelier interest in his
collection if he thinks of a shell as a fortress created by a soft-
bodied creature. The shell served the mollusk as a protective
covering during its lifetime, and after death remained as a
memorial to the little creature that lived in it.

CHAPTER O Snakes and Frogs
and Their Relatives

HE CHANCES ARE that snakes either fascinate
you or arouse your intense dislike. Few
people are neutral, and children are quick to adopt their parents'
admiration or profound distaste for the crawling reptiles. How-
ever, some children are so fond of snakes that they will bring
them home for pets regardless of how their families receive the
creatures. Under such circumstances one conscientious mother
said to me:

''How can I make myself like snakes? They revolt me, but my
boys are always bringing them home and have so much fun with
them that I don't like to object."

My suggestion was not to try to force a liking for snakes— but
merely to try to understand them. Snakes are probably the victims
of more erroneous beliefs than any other group of animals. Some
popular misconceptions, and the true facts about them, are:

1. False: All kinds of snakes are venomous. True: Most snakes
are harmless.

2. False: A snake thrusts out its tongue as an act of hostility.
True: A snake uses its tongue as a sensory organ to explore its
surroundings.

3. False: Snakes have no fear of people and are constantly on
the lookout for victims. True: Most snakes do not display an
aggressive disposition toward people; if possible, they creep away
and hide at a human's approach.

4. False: Snakes can sting as well as bite. True: No f^^zLe can
inflict a sting.

5. False: Snakes have great hypnotic powers. True: Only the

195

196 ] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

snake's unblinking stare, caused by its lack of movable eyelids,
gives us the idea that it is trying to hypnotize its victim.

6. False: Snakes spring from the ground to attack a victim.
True: No snake jumps clear of the ground to strike.

7. False: Snakes are slimy. True: Snakes are completely covered
with dry scales.

8. False: Snakes have yellow blood or no blood at all. True:
Their blood is red and practically the same as that of a mammal.

When you get to know the truth about snakes, and understand
why they behave as they do, you may find yourself regarding them
with interest rather than horror.

Reptiles — Past and Present

Snakes are reptiles, a name scientists have given to a group of
animals that includes lizards, turtles, crocodiles, and alligators.
The name was suggested by the Latin word for * 'creeping."

Reptiles were the most important animals on earth millions of
years ago. Porpoise-like species lived in the ocean while batlike
reptiles flew in the air. The land was dominated by reptiles called
dinosaurs. At first they were no larger than rabbits; later they
developed species far bigger and heavier than the largest elephant.
We do not know for certain why these mighty creatures dis-
appeared—changes in the earth's climate may have been the cause.
Whatever the reason, the importance of reptiles dwindled and
warm-blooded mammals became the outstanding animals.

The Cold-blooded Snakes

All reptiles are alike in being covered with scales or bony
plates, and all are cold-blooded. (They derive their heat from
external sources, whereas warm-blooded animals derive theirs
from within their bodies.) We find, however, that reptiles var^'
greatly in the way they live and in the places they inhabit. Many
of them dwell only in regions where summer conditions prevail
all year; but there are some snakes that have to adjust to a climate
with extreme variations of heat and cold.

Sleeping Through the Winter: Though cold does not endanger a
snake's life until it reaches a few degrees below freezing, a lesser

SitJi

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives [ ^97

drop in temperature is enough to cause sluggishness; and a slug-
gish snake does not have the energy to procure food. The solution
in cold climates is to hibernate in a well-sheltered rocky crevice
or in the ground below the frost line. In this way the snake is
protected from a fall in body temperature that would be low
enough to cause death. The animal can survive hibernation
without eating, provided it is in a healthy and well-fattened
condition at the beginning of its long rest.

The Snake's Body—More than a Tail

Many children, and countless adults as well, think of a
snake as a long tail attached to a head. This is far from a true
picture— there is a very efficient body between head and tail!

This body contains a stomach capable of amazing distension
and digestive powers, a liver, kidneys, and other organs too. The
snake's heart differs from a mammal's in having only three
chambers. (A mammal's heart has four.) The right lung is quite
elongated, much more developed than the left.

The Snake's Tail

The length of the tail differs according to the species.
However, if you scrutinize a snake's underside, you will see that
the tail has a definite starting point. There a distinctly enlarged
scale— sometimes divided into two overlapping parts— covers the
orifice through which wastes pass. This marks the beginning of
the tail.

Another way of distinguishing the tail from the rest of the
body in most snakes is that the underside scales are large and
each of them extends across the whole undersurface of the body—
whereas the scales on the underside of the tail are almost always
arranged in two columns. A zoologist dissecting a snake observes a
still more obvious division of tail and body, for the long series
of ribs ends where the ribless tail begins.

The Snake's Head

There are two reasons for the snake's fixed gaze: It has
no movable eyelids, and its eyeballs are capable of only slight

igS ] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

motion. This results in its "stony stare" and the false belief that
snakes hypnotize their prey.

The Snake's Hearing Aid: Though snakes have no ears, they
might be said to have a sense of hearing as sounds are trans-
mitted to them through ground vibrations. Tests have been made
with cobras to illustrate this point. After the snakes' eyes had
been bound with adhesive tape, someone walked toward the
animals. Immediately they reared and faced in the direction from
which the footsteps were approaching. By way of contrast, the
noise made by blowing a bugle brought no response.

This inability to hear sounds carried through the air tends to
disprove the Hindu snake charmer's claim that music charms
serpents into dancing. The truth seems to be that the snakes
merely follow the continuous movement of the musician's arms
or knees as he plays his reed instrument.

You can quite easily see the snake's nostrils. There is one on
either side of the snout, and they function in the normal manner.

Molting— How Snakes Shed Their Skin

Your child may be thrilled by the discovery of a discarded
snakeskin in the course of his summer wanderings. If he visits
the zoo he may see just how this molting takes place. The snake
loses its lustrous appearance before shedding; its bright colors
are dimmed. Even the eyes become milky and the color of the
eyes is obscured.

This goes on for a week or two; then the snake's normal colora-
tion returns and it is ready to molt. It finds a rough, hard object
and rubs its nose and chin against it until its skin breaks. Once
the head is freed, the snake wriggles its body until the whole skin
peels off, inside out.

Why Shedding is Necessary: Molting is necessary because the skin
to which a snake's scales are attached, cannot grow. After the skin
has stretched as much as possible to accommodate the growing
snake, it must be discarded. Actually a new layer of skin forms
beneath the old one before molting takes place. There is no
regular interval for shedding: It depends to a great extent on
the age and vitality of the reptile. Young snakes shed more

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives [ ^99

frequently than adults, and healthy individuals more often than
those in poor condition.

How Snakes Move

If you discover a snake on hard, packed soil, you will notice
that it moves very slowly. But once it gets off this smooth surface
into long grass or on rough ground, it will whisk out of sight with
surprising swiftness.

Observe a captive snake and you will see the reason for this
change in pace. When it is placed on a large piece of glass, it
will slip and slide ineffectively; but if it is transferred to loose
sand, it is immediately able to make progress. This it does with
sideways movements, keeping the full length of its body against
the ground.

You will observe that the creature leaves in its wake a series of
slightly curved piles of sand; these prove to be pivots the reptile
has raised in pushing its body forward. Next watch a snake on
rough grass. Here it will travel with even greater ease— each blade
of grass serves as a pivot.

"Legs" Without Feet: To produce this undulating movement—
apparently its most usual method of traveling— the snake depends
largely on its muscles and ribs which, in effect, are footless legs.
The ribs are attached to the backbone and also to the muscles
and the slightly overlapping scales on the underpart of the body.
When the muscles are moved forward, the scales are carried
forward also. When the muscles are pulled back, the lower edges
of the scales press and catch against any roughness on the surface
over which the snake rests, and push it forward, using the rough
spot for leverage. The snake does not move muscles all along its
body at the same time; instead, it brings them forward gradually,
and the scales move in waves.

Side-winding: Another method snakes occasionally employ is to
curve the body into an S form and then straighten it out again,
pushing forward a little in the process. Some desert snakes have
developed a specialized method called "side-winding" which is
practically indescribable except that the body is thrown into great

200]

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

SIDEWINDING FOR DESERT TRAVEl

Most snakes move forward with the body flat against the ground. Not so this desert
rattler, which progresses in S-shoped loops— a motion known as sidewinding. This
is an effective technique for crawling on sand and it is used not only by the
American rattler, but by snakes in the deserts of Africa and Asia as well.

loops and seems to be flowing sidewise. Using these motions a snake
does not waste energy building pivots; yet it does not slip back-
ward.

Snake Tracks: Snakes leave trails in sand or dust that are just as
revealing in their way as mammal footprints. Experts not only
identify the kind of snake by its trail— they can tell the approxi-
mate rate of speed at which it was moving when the trail was made.

How Snakes Breed

It is often said that some snakes lay eggs while others bear
living young; yet actually all species reproduce by means of eggs.
The difference between egg-laying and "live-bearing" consists in
this: The live-bearing female retains the eggs in her oviduct
until the embryo is fully developed. When the offspring are
"born" they are covered by a thin membrane which soon bursts.
Only about one-fourth of the known species of snakes follow this
procedure.

Snake Eggs

When a female of the other species is ready to deposit her
eggs, she finds a sunny sandbank or rotting log in which to burrow
a hole. There she lays her eggs— the number, size, and shape

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives [ 201

depend on the species. Usually they are elliptical, with flattened
ends.. When first laid, the eggs are covered with a moist and sticky
skin which gradually becomes tough and leathery. They absorb
water and thus continue to grow after leaving the mother's body
until they have increased about one-third in size.

The Egg-tooth

Projecting from the middle of the upper jaw of the full-
grown embryo is an egg-tooth with which it slits the tough egg
skin when it is ready to emerge as a perfectly formed young snake.
If you rub your finger over the nose of a baby snake you may feel
this egg-tooth, which remains until the baby is about a week old.

How Snakes Kill

It may well be that the horror snakes arouse in many people
is evoked by their methods of killing. A tiger's prey is just as dead
as a snake's victim; but constriction and poison somehow seem
more sinister means of inflicting death than fang and claw.

Snakes get their food in three different ways. For the first and
most primitive, the reptile seizes its prey by throwing its coils
about a victim— without constriction— and then swallows it alive.
Constriction is a second method, suffocating the victim until its
heart and lungs can no longer function properly. At one time it
was believed that constrictors crushed the bones of any creature
within their grip; today we know this theory to be erroneous.

Poison is the third method of killing. There are several types
of poisonous snakes; those known as vipers and pit vipers have
the most effective poison apparatus. The group includes rattle-
snakes, copperheads, water moccasins, bushmasters, and the trop-
ical fer-de-lance.

How Poison Fangs Work

All these snakes have hollow fangs in the upper jaw,
firmly anchored to the bone above, which they can move to
thrust the fangs forward for a strike. When they are not in use,
the fangs can be folded back against the roof of the mouth.

As a child, you may have been told that the mere pressure of a
snake's fangs against a solid substance brought forth the venom.

202 ] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

It is not quite so simple as that. The snake has its poison supply
in two sacs— one in either cheek. Each sac is connected to the
fangs by a duct that runs under the eye and over the bone to
which the fangs are attached. When the viper strikes, muscles
that surround the poison sacs, contract and force the venom
through the ducts into the fangs, from which it flows to the
wound just made in the victim's flesh.

Hearty Eaters

The ability of snakes to swallow objects larger than them-
selves is one of their most spectacular traits. The larger snakes,
such as pythons or boas, sometimes devour a goat or small deer
whole. Such a feat would be impossible without a number of
special body features with which nature has provided them.

Let's look at their jaws, for example. An extra bone hinges
the upper jaw to the lower, allowing them to spread far apart.
Also, the lower jawbones are held together only by elastic liga-
ments and they can separate at the chin to further increase the
size of the mouth. The teeth point backward and thus present
no obstacle to objects taken into the mouth. Even the snake's sides
are adapted to the task— they have great elasticity and can stretch
to many times their normal dimensions!

The Movable Windpipe

Despite all these helps, you might still expect a snake to
choke to death swallowing anything large enough to force its
jawbones wide apart. The snake overcomes this difficulty by being
able to extend a portion of its windpipe forward— even a few
inches beyond its open mouth if need be! By this means it can
breathe during the long slow process of forcing down a meal
apparently far too big for its size.

Some species of snakes can live on three or four big meals a
year; others may eat a moderate meal every week or ten days.

The Ways of a Rattler

Children are understandably curious about the hows and whys
of a rattler's rattle. How does a tail tip turn into a rattle? Why
do some snakes have rattles? How does the rattle work?

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

[203

The rattle is made up of a series of horny sections or "buttons"
on the end of the spinal column. They are loosely interlocked,
and when the snake vibrates its tail they click against each other.
Many other kinds of snakes also vibrate their tails, and if they
happen to be lying among dead leaves the resulting rustle sounds
like a rattle. However, the rattlesnake's vibration is distinctive.
It is a half metallic, half insect-like sound, somewhat like the
dull buzz of the bumblebee.

The Rattle Rings

At birth a rattler has a bulbous swelling at the tip of its
tail. When the snake molts, the tip of its old skin cannot be
pulled over this enlargement, so it remains and forms the begin-
ning of a rattle. As successive molts take place, the tip of the
skin that cannot be shed forms an additional segment or ring.
The rings form around a bone known as the "shaker," made up
of the last seven or eight vertebrae which fuse together soon after
the snake is bom.

"^TA^i^V^

THE DANGEROUS DIAMOND-BACK RAHIER

The diamond-back, so called because of the distinctive diamond-shaped pattern on
its back, is one of the relatively few harmful snakes in the United States. Prac-
tically all the deaths by snake bite in this country (estimated at about a hundred a
year) are caused by diamond-back rattlers, prairie and timber rattlers, and water
moccasins. If proper treatment is given, their bites rarely prove fatal.

204 ] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

The old theory that a ring is added each year has been dis-
proved. Sometimes several molts take place in a year and rings
are added; it is also possible for the snake to molt without a
new ring being created. This irregularity, not to mention the
fact that rings are often broken from the end, makes it impos-
sible to reckon a snake's age by the size of its rattle. If a rattle
is unbroken, however, you may approximate the animal's age
by allowing one year for each two rings.

What the Rattle Is For

Many snakes have the habit of vibrating the tip of the
tail when they are excited, but the rattler is the only kind
equipped with a "noise-maker." We do not entirely understand
the purpose of the rattle. The once general belief that this reptile
always rattles before striking is no longer credited. Apparently
it does use its rattle, as a rule, to try to frighten enemies dangerous
to its own safety.

As for the theory of ''warning" prospective prey, some ob-
servers have decided that this snake sounds its rattle to startle
birds, rabbits, or other possible victims into momentary in-
activity, thus gaining time for a strike. Other people claim that it
never rattles before attacking. There are many reports of rattlers
that never rattled at any time, and habitually struck without
warning.

Kinds of Rattlesnakes

There are no less than fifteen different species of rattle-
snakes in the United States and they live in many localities. The
deadly diamond-back of the southeastern states frequents neigh-
borhoods where water is plentiful, the timber rattler lives in
woodland mountain regions, the prairie rattler haunts the Great
Plains of the West; another species is found in desert wastes.

Rattlers are among the more important kinds of snakes in
our country that bear live young. The mother gives her oflE-
spring no care— but none is necessary. They are able to fend for
themselves immediately, and have been seen eating ten minutes
after birth!

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives [ 305

Spectacular Deadly Snakes

A visit to the snake house at a zoo gives you a first-hand
acquaintance with species you would never welcome as house
pets, though they are well thought o£ by zoo keepers.

The Good-natured Boa

One of these deadly creatures is the boa constrictor— a
big reptile of South America that reaches a length of eighteen
feet. It is quite hardy in captivity, and many specimens are good-
natured and easily fed with birds and small mammals. Though
most South American Indians dread this boa and believe it to be
poisonous, it is not. As a rule this boa seems anxious to keep
away from humans, but it will occasionally appear in a native
village, apparently attracted by the domestic fowl.

Still greater in size than the boa constrictor is a water boa
known as the anaconda, native to the river valleys of nothern

THE ANACONDA - GIANT AMONG SNAKES

A huge boa fossil of about fifty million years ago, unearthed in Egypt, Is supposed
to hove been fifty feet long. Our modern anaconda (or water boa), the largest
of New World snakes, has a length of over twenty feet. It lives in South America
and though it spends much of its time in the water, it is also on expert tree climber.
The anaconda is not poisonous. It will seldom attack humans without provocation.

2o6 ] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

South America. Reliable records show that this species sometimes
attains a length of twenty-eight feet. The anaconda is the largest
snake in the New World.

Pythons— The Largest Snakes

Among the most fearsome-looking reptiles are the pythons,
which have been imported from Asia or Africa. There are giants
among them: a twenty-five-foot Indian python may weigh more
than two hundred pounds; the reticulated python, not quite so
thick in body, may be nearly thirty feet long. The large pythons
eat a variety of animals, but their taste runs to fairly large
mammals.

"Snake-charming" showmen frequently use relatively small speci-
mens of the rock python in their acts, as these snakes become
very docile in captivity. Nevertheless, there is always some danger.
If the snake accidentally throws a complete coil about the body
of the performer, it will begin to constrict and throw new coils.
The "charmer" must quickly straighten out the reptile or be in
real danger of strangulation. Anyone who closely watches a snake
charmer with a python or boa, will observe that every movement
of his hands and arms is made solely to prevent the snake from
forming a coil.

The Cobra's Double Personality

A child who has been reading colorful stories of the Orient
in which cobras play a sinister part, may well be disappointed
when he sees this snake in the zoo. When it is not excited, this
dangerously venomous reptile looks quite commonplace. Alarmed
or angry the cobra presents a far different picture, weaving its
raised head back and forth with its hood erect.

The Cobra's Terrifying Hood: The hood is actually only the
skin of the neck stretched taut. The cobra has a series of ribs on
the sides of the vertebrae of the neck, and when it is excited it
uses powerful muscles to draw these ribs forward, thus stretching
its skin and forcing the scales wide apart.

Seen from in back when its hood is spread, the Indian cobra
gives the impression of having eyes on top of its head. But what

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives [ 207

the observer sees are merely markings; the eyes are at the sides
of the head, little of which is visible when the hood is open. It
is a mistake to think that cobras can be identified by the erection
of the hood; other snakes—such as the harmless hognose snake-
possess the same ability.

While people most frequently think of India as the home of
cobras, these snakes also dwell in Africa. The king cobra, which
may grow as long as eighteen feet, is the largest venomous snake
known. It is very aggressive and its poison is deadly. The common
Indian cobra, which rarely attains a length of more than six feet,
also causes many deaths every year.

Some Common Harmless Snakes

The Garter Snake

We have many kinds of garter snakes in the United States
and they are well distributed all over the country. The "common"
variety (often called the garden snake) is found in the eastern
states up into Canada. You cannot be sure of recognizing it by
its color, which varies in different individuals.

The ground or major body color may be olive, brown, or
black. There is usually a stripe of yellow, green, or whitish hue
down the center of the back. Along each side is a similar stripe,
subdued in tone, which may be broken up into spots. The under-
side is greenish white or yellow. A full-grown specimen is about
thirty inches long.

Where Garter Snakes Are Found: You are most likely to come
upon garter snakes in summer along the banks and edges of
streams where their favorite foods— toads, frogs, earthworms, and
insects— are plentiful. In the fall they are likely to gather on
rocky ledges or stony hillsides. Here each finds a crevice or makes
a burrow, which may extend more than a yard underground,
where it sleeps through the cold weather.

Hognose Snakes— Ham Actors

The garter snake and the hognose snake both make excel-
lent pets— though the hognose variety has bluffed its way into a

2o8 ] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

bad reputation. When it is frightened, it immediately swells its
body, flattens its neck like a cobra, and hisses in a vicious manner.
These fearsome actions have earned it such names as "spreading
adder," "blowing viper," and "blow snake."

However, the hognose has no poisonous power whatever. If
it succeeds in bluffing its enemy, it quickly calms down and crawls
into seclusion. If the bluff fails, "hognose" plays dead, rolling
over on its back and becoming completely quiet!

How the Hognose Got Its Name: This snake has a remarkable
nose. It is equipped with a hard, trowel-shaped shield that plows
efficiently into loose soil and often roots out toads that are buried
near the surface. Its diet is made up exclusively of toads and frogs.

The Maligned Milk Snake

This snake is the subject of one of the most fantastic of
all snake myths. According to the fable, the milk snake milks
cows. Not only is this feat physically impossible, but no milk
snake in captivity could ever be persuaded to drink milk. This
snake's presence in barns and stables is explained by its liking
for mice and rats as food. Thus, instead of being a menace, the
milk snake is an ally of the farmer.

Though the milk snake's ground color is light gray, it is cov-
ered with so many brown or dark gray spots that either of these
may seem to be the predominating color. The underside is white
with square black spots and blotches. A fully grown specimen
ranges from thirty inches to three feet long.

King Snakes— Cannibals

The common king snake is an impressive-looking creature,
for it may attain a length of six feet. In the natural state it is a
cannibal; in fact it is noted for its attacks on other snakes— even
rattlers. It is black and decorated with yellow spots and bands.
Strangely enough, some king snakes in captivity show no interest
in snakes as food, while others will eat nothing else. King snakes
are nevertheless easy to feed as a rule, and are inclined to be
docile with their keepers. There are fourteen different kinds of

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives [ 209

king snakes, and they are found throughout most of the United
States.

Water Snakes— Harmless and Dangerous Kinds

Children who go fishing are very likely to encounter this
dingy brown reptile, which haunts dams, wharves, rocks and
bushes near water. Because of its protective color plan it may
escape notice until it moves suddenly. Like the hognose snake,
it puts on a great show when cornered, flattening out its body
and striking fiercely.

However, the water snake has no venom and its teeth can
inflict only harmless wounds. It makes a good pet. While it will
eat almost anything, it particularly likes fish. Its usual size is
from thirty inches to three feet. Water snakes are found over
almost all of eastern North America.

From southern Virginia to Florida and the Gulf states, you
must be extremely cautious about water snakes; for this section
is the home of the deadly water moccasin, which has a superficial
resemblance to the harmless water snake.

How to Recognize a Poisonous Snake

A child who is determined to be not only an observer of snakes
but also a collector of them, should be well coached in safety
rules. Of first importance is knowing the character of all snakes
in your locality. If there are poisonous species among them, it
is essential to distinguish them from the harmless ones. Collecting
poisonous species should be left to the experts!

The poisonous snakes of the United States fall into four groups:
rattlesnakes, which have been found in every state; copperheads,
which are distributed from New England to Texas and in all the
southern states; water moccasins, found chiefly in the southern
and southeastern states; and coral snakes, which live only in the
deep South, from North Carolina to Texas and parts of Arizona.
While this broad distribution sounds forbidding, there are many
areas within these regions where you will find only harmless
species.

2 lo ] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

What Poisonous Snakes Look Like
The rattlesnakes vary considerably in size and general
appearance, but all of them are identified by their "rattles." You
can distinguish copperheads by hourglass-shaped markings on the
back. Usually, but not always, the top of the head is bronze or
copper colored.

Water moccasins have markings resembling those of the copper-
head, but they are not noticeably copper colored. The inside of
the mouth has a whitish color. Unlike most snakes, which try a
hurried retreat at the approach of an enemy, water moccasins
stand their ground and fight any intruder in their territory.

Coral snakes are brightly colored, with red, yellow, and black
rings encircling the body. They closely resemble certain harmless
species, and considerable concentration is needed to distinguish
the harmless types from the deadly poisonous coral species.

When You Encounter a Snake

If you accidentally come upon a snake and are frightened,
just bear in mind that the snake is doubtless as anxious to get
away from you as you are to avoid it. Remember that it has no
"power of hypnotism." This has been proved many times by
experiments in which birds, guinea pigs, and other animals were
placed in cages with a snake and where they acted entirely un-
concerned about their reptile companion. If you can think of a
snake as "just another animal," it will be easy for you to remain
calm and move away from your unwelcome discovery.

If you are actively interested in snake collecting, you ought to
be thoroughly familiar with first-aid treatment for poisonous
snake bite and have a snake-bite kit along on all field trips if
there are poisonous species in the vicinity.

You will also want to have a "snake stick" for capturing live
specimens. A two-pronged metal fork attached to a pole, or a cut
stick with a forked end, may serve your purpose. You can pin down
the snake behind the head until you are ready to pick it up and
transfer it to a bag.

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives [ 2ii

Snakes As Pets

When a youngster has captured a harmless snake and is keeping
it as a pet, he may wish to build a cage especially for his prize.
However, an ordinary rectangular fish tank will serve the purpose
effectively for a small specimen such as a ribbon or garter snake.
To accommodate a king snake or one of the other big fellows, the
cage should be at least equal in length to the reptile's body. This
will make it possible for the snake to coil and uncoil and move
about comfortably.

A cage should have a water dish large enough for the snake to
crawl into. A big ash tray is convenient and large enough for a
garter snake. Cover the floor of the cage with moss, gravel, or
slightly moistened sand to make cleaning easier. The cage should
be wiped out regularly with warm water and soap, and the floor
covering changed. All waste matter and uneaten food must be
removed daily.

There is no harm in exposing a snake to direct sunlight pro-
vided that shade is available at all times. Sun that does not feel
excessively hot to your hand may be dangerously hot for a snake;
a reptile's body absorbs heat and becomes warmer and warmer,
as would a piece of iron lying in the sun. A rock or block of wood
placed in the cage helps furnish shade, and it is also useful to
the snake for rubbing against when it sheds its skin.

Proper Diet for a Pet Snake: A captive snake that has eaten well
from spring through fall may safely go through several winter
months without eating. But if you have a local specimen that
refuses food for nine or ten weeks during warm weather, it is
best to give it its freedom. Forcible feeding by an inexperienced
person is sure to be fatal to the snake.

Of course it is necessary to know which snakes will eat what.
Thus, garter snakes thrive on frogs, tadpoles, and earthworms;
larger species, including black racers and pilots, eat rats, mice,
rabbits, and gophers. King snakes may eat other snakes, as they
do in the natural state, or they may prefer rodents. Very small
species such as the green snake eat earthworms, grasshoppers, and
other insects. The insect-eating snakes need more frequent feed-
ings than those that feed on rodents.

212] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

You may be told that snakes will not touch dead animals, but
zoo keepers have found that these reptiles will consume dead
prey as readily as living victims. The keepers sometimes teach
them to eat raw meat by first serving it mixed with chopped earth-
worms, then gradually reducing the quantity of worms. When
dead food is used, it is moved right in front of the snake to attract
its attention.

Captive snakes are likely to be frightened by sudden move-
ments of your hand. "Slow and easy" is the best rule in dealing
with them. When you lift a snake, give its long, slender body
adequate support; the animal is not comfortable when it is
dangled by the head or the tail.

If snakes capture your family's imagination, a generally satis-
factory program is to try keeping one or two during the summer
and then to release them so that they may hibernate under natural
conditions in wintertime.

Turtles

Of all reptile pets, turtles are probably the most commonly
enjoyed. Your child is apt to bring home one of these creatures
from camp or from an outing to ponds or fields; or they may be
bought in pet or novelty stores.

Unfortunately thousands of turtles are entrusted to the care
of people who understand little about their way of life. If your
child has a turtle, you and he will certainly want to know more
about it. And even if you don't have a turtle pet, you will agree
that it is a fascinating animal to watch and study if you are at all
interested in nature's ways.

Armor Plate for Defense

At first glance a turtle may give the impression of an inani-
mate piece of armor; when it is uncertain of its surroundings, it cau-
tiously keeps every bit of its body under its hard shell. Once the
turtle feels safe, however, you will see the snakelike head project
from the front of its shell, the pointed tail poke out from the
rear, and two wide legs appear at each side. Then you will notice

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

[213

THE PAINTET* TURTLE AND ITS ATTRACTIVE SHELL

Encased In armor, turtles have sturdily maintained themselves against their enemies
for many millions of years. They ore wary and unsociable creatures— at least when
they suspect the presence of an enemy. The painted turtle, with a shell about six
inches long, has vivid markings of red and yellow on its blackish or olive upper
shell. It feeds on water plants and animals, eats them only under water.

that even the soft body is covered with rough, coarse skin and
often with many scales.

You can appreciate the effectiveness of this protective covering
when you realize that turtles have survived for many millions of
years with no means of fighting countless larger animals that
might attack them. Their success is strictly due to defense equip-
ment. (A noteworthy exception, of course, is the big snapper
with its vicious hooked beak.)

The Protective Shell: The upper shell (the "carapace") varies
in shape depending on the species of turtle. This shell grows
attached to the turtle's backbone; in a few species the carapace
is quite flat, in others it is rounded.

The lower shell (the "plastron") also varies in shape and size
and is attached to the breastbone. There is also a great deal of
variation from one species to one another as to size and color of
the turtle's body. Other oddities include the tail of the snapping

214] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

turtle, which bears a saw-toothed armor of plates, and the front
and rear "trap doors" which the box turtle can pull up against
the carapace to enclose the body completely!

A child may wonder how a creature encased so completely can
manage to breathe. The turtle's shoulder and hip bones do most
of the work in contracting and expanding the lungs. The con-
stant pulsation you can observe in the throat is caused by air
being swallowed.

Sight, Smell, and Teeth

Like snakes, turtles lack movable eyelids. However, turtles
have a protective membrane which comes up from the lower edge
to cover the eye. Some species have nostrils no larger than pin-
holes, and their poor sense of smell is not surprising. Others,
better equipped, have a keen sense of smell.

Though a turtle has no real teeth, its mouth has sawlike cutting
edges. It does not bother to chew food but simply tears it to pieces.

How TO Take Care of Turtle Pets

We naturally avoid the big snapping turtles, but the small
ones are good pet material because they are hardy and usually
easy to feed. (This is also true of musk turtles.) The kind you
are most likely to find in pet shops is the Troost's turtle, which
is green with yellow markings.

Keeping a Turtle Pet Comfortable: To keep water turtles healthy,
you must give them some means of getting out of water to dry
and sun themselves. If they are lodged in a tank or aquarium, a
stone island or floating piece of wood will answer the purpose.

Instead of an aquarium, you may use a dry cage or box to
advantage. In that case you must furnish it with a dish of water
deep enough to serve as a swimming pool, and so arranged that
the turtle will find it easily accessible. The rest of the floor of
the cage may be covered with stones, sand, gravel, or moss.

The water, especially in the aquarium-type housing, should
consistently be between 75 and 85 degrees. Chilling at night must
be avoided. (Most pet turtles come from southern states, and they
need a little extra warmth in order to thrive in northern regions.)

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives [215

While turtles should have an abundance of sunshine (or even
bask under a sun lamp) , they must also have a shady retreat.
Too much heat can kill them.

Menus for Turtle Pets: Most water turtles prefer to swallow their
food under water. Small bits put on a broom straw will often
arouse an indifferent pet. Raw, lean meat or fish scraped or
chopped fine is usually acceptable; but small worms, insects,
tadpoles and other little creatures are the natural food of young
turtles and are excellent if available.

A good way to supplement the home diet is to mix a bit of
bone meal and a drop of cod-liver oil frequently with meat. Let-
tuce and other greens or raw fruits and vegetables add variety to
the menu. Baby turtles may be fed as often and as much as they
will eat; but a good feeding about twice a week should be enough.
A straight diet of "ant eggs" or house flies is not satisfactory.

Turtle Ailments and Remedies: Turtles are often afflicted with
softening of the shell and swollen, closed eyes. Recommended
remedies are a warmer cage, more sunlight, and a more balanced
diet. Swollen eyes should be carefully wiped twice a day with
cotton dipped in warm boric-acid solution. When a turtle refuses
food for a long time, its appetite may improve if you give the
animal more warmth and sunlight. In winter there is a natural
tendency for turtles to eat less frequently and to be less active.

Some Common Turtles

Ponds are the most likely places to encounter turtles,
though aside from the species that frequent ponds there are also
sea turtles and those that live exclusively on land. "Tortoise" is a
general term that covers all types. "Turtle" is usually applied to
sea or fresh-water forms; "terrapin" is the name (of Indian origin)
for certain American fresh-water species.

You may find a wood tortoise in the damp woods, far away
from water. Its upper shell— one of its distinguishing features-
may reach a length of six and a half inches. It is made up of many
plates ornamented with concentric ridges. With the exception of
the top of the head and the limbs, all the fleshy parts of this
creature are brick-red. It thrives in captivity and will soon learn

2l6]

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

THE GIANT TORTOISES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS

In contrast to the six-inch painted turtle, the giant tortoise reaches a length of
four feet and weighs as much as five hundred pounds. It was once a favorite source
of meat for Pacific whalers that touched at the islands ofF Ecuador. Though these
giant tortoises may live to well over a hundred years in the natural state, they
have been subjected to relentless extermination by man.

to accept food from your fingers. Tender vegetables, berries,
insects, and chopped meat form an acceptable diet.

Another turtle that you can tame with very satisfactory results
is the spotted turtle, found in many ponds and marshy streams.
Its black upper shell is decorated with numerous spots, whence
its name. The spotted turtle enjoys perching on a log for long
stretches of time, but its feeding is done under water.

You may recognize another pond turtle— often called the painted
terrapin— by the red mottled border of its shell. This is a good
aquarium pet but it is much too aggressive to be kept with other
creatures.

Snapping turtles, so intriguing as babies, may attain a weight
of forty pounds as adults, with a shell fourteen inches long. Be
on the watch for them in slow-running streams, ponds, or marshes.

The "alligator snapper" of the South sometimes weighs a
hundred pounds.

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives [217

The mud turtle and the musk turtle are really water dwellers
to all intents and purposes; the only time they come to shore is
to deposit their eggs. They find their food in muddy bottoms of
ponds and streams, and eat only under water. The musk turtle,
which has two broad yellow stripes on either side of its head, gives
off a strong odor on being handled. The head of the mud turtle
is ornamented with greenish yellow spots.

The box turtle, unlike the mud and musk turtles, lives entirely-
on land. It is easy to recognize this species by the hinges on the
front and rear of the lower shell by which it can **box" itself
completely within its armor. This turtle grows to a length of
about five inches.

After the wintertime hibernation a turtle deposits her eggs in a
shallow hole in earth or sand. As a rule there are five or six eggs,
though some species lay more— the snapper, for example, usually
produces about two dozen.

Chameleons and Other Lizards

If you take a casual look at a lizard, it will remind you very
much of a snake. Outwardly there is not much difference between
them— except that most lizards have legs. Nevertheless, a legless
lizard is a lizard, not a snake.

One definite difference you can observe between the two groups
is in the structure of the lower jawbone. In all snakes the lower
jaw is made up of two bones joined at the chin by a more or less
flexible ligament. The lizard also has a lower jawbone on either
side, but these are attached firmly at the center of the chin.

Another visible difference is that lizards generally have movable
eyelids— something no snake possesses.

The Secret of the Chameleon's Color Changes

At a fair or circus, boys and girls frequently buy a souvenir
in the form of a little lizard which they are told is a chameleon. As
it happens, true chameleons are seldom seen in our country;
they are animals of the Old World, belonging especially to Africa.
But another kind of lizard, often called the "American chamele-
on," also has the ability of the true chameleons to change color

2 1 8 ] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

frequently. It is this American lizard that is usually peddled at
amusement places.

Most children are apt to overrate the chameleon's ability to
change color; they take the excessively simplified view that the
animal speedily alters to the color of whatever object it stands
upon. Chameleons do, to a great extent, harmonize with the
foliage on which they rest; but several other factors are involved.

Light and temperature are important influences in changing the
animal's color— and so are excitement and fright. Not only does
the tone of the body change, but strange patterns come and go on
the skin. How does this happen? To put it briefly: Beneath the
reptile's skin are a number of tiny branched cells containing
pigments of various colors. Whenever the chameleon contracts
or expands these branches, the position of the pigments is changed.
Those that travel to the surface of the skin are partly responsible
for the color the animal suggests.

All-around Eyes and a Quick Tongue

The true chameleon has a versatility that can be positively
startling. It can roll one eye upward while the other rolls down—
or turn one eye forward and the other backward! Its tongue is a
"secret weapon" that shoots forward to a distance of seven or
eight inches. On its sticky tip the chameleon snares insects that
apparently were well out of harm's way.

How TO Keep a Chameleon Pet

Old World chameleons rarely eat in captivity and seldom
live longer than five or six months when they are kept confined.
The so-called "American chameleon" is not so remarkable an
animal, but it does make a better pet.

The American species should be kept in a warm sunny place
and fed crickets, cockroaches, or live flies. If it loses interest in
eating, you may revive its appetite by moving food slowly in
front of it. Your chameleon needs water; but do not put it in a
pan or cup in the cage. Instead, sprinkle the water about the cage
so that the little creature can lap up the drops just as it drinks
dew from leaves in its natural state.

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives [219

Lizards of the Southwest

Children who live in the southwestern United States, and
others whose vacation travels take them over some of the arid
stretches of this region, may encounter a variety of lizards. There
is the whiptail or race runner, a striped species that is active all
day in open areas; the collared lizard, a scrappy fighter that has
been known to attack rattlesnakes; the big chuckwalla, which
may grow as long as sixteen inches; and the banded gecko, a
lizard active chiefly at night.

THE RESOURCEFUL FENCE LIZARD

This lizard, about six inches long, has a very lengthy tail. If a pursuer grasps the
tail the lizard is able to shed it, later growing a new one to replace the one it
lost. In some lizards the tail is four or five times the length of the rest of the bodyi

The only poisonous lizard found in the United States is the
Gila monster— a colorful figure strongly marbled with coal black
and some other marking, often pink, yellow, or white. Its stout
body may grow to a length of twenty inches, although eighteen
inches is pretty much the average. Its bite can quickly kill a
small mammal and seriously affect a human being.

Lizards are able to grow a new tail when they have lost the

220]

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

THE ONLY POISONOUS LIZARD OF THE UNITED STATES

The attractively colored Gila monster is large for a lizard— about twenty inches
long or so. It lives in our southwestern desert lands, and has the useful trait of
being able to store food in its tail! The Gila monster moves sluggishly as a rule,
but strikes quickly when injecting its venom. It rarely bites, and its poison is not
fatal to humans. It lays its eggs in the sand, where the sun hatches them.

original one through some mishap. The true chameleon, however,
lacks this regrowing ability.

Alligators and Crocodiles

A child is likely to see these giant reptiles only in zoos, for
their natural range in the United States is limited to the swamps
and lagoons of the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida west to Texas.
If he (or his parent) looks at these animals only casually, he is
sure to ask this natural question:

"What's the difference between an alligator and a crocodile?"

How Alligators and Crocodiles Differ: If you look closely, you
will quickly perceive a decided difference in the shape of the
snout. You will see that the alligator's snout is wide and more
rounded than that of the crocodile.

There is also a difference in the teeth. In the case of the croco-
dile, the fourth tooth on either side of its lower jaw fits into
notches on the outside of the upper jaw— so that even when its

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

[ 221

mouth is closed, the vicious fangs show. The usual effect is to
give the crocodile a fiercer and more belligerent appearance than
the alligator. Nor are looks deceiving here, for on the whole
alligators are timid and try to escape any encounter with human
beings, whereas crocodiles are sulky and ferocious by turns.

In the zoo a keeper will often step among and over alligators
while cleaning their swimming pool— but he does not take such
chances with his crocodile charges. At the circus you may see-the
"strong man" wrestle with the lazy and slow-moving alligator—
never with the quick and active crocodile.

Both alligators and crocodiles spend much of their time in
water. Their nostrils, located on top of little bumps at the end
of the snout, take in air as the animals float just under the surface
of the water. They can even feed under water by shutting off
the food tube from the tube that leads to the lungs.

Unlike most reptiles, alligators and crocodiles are able to make
noises with their mouths. The young produce a curious grunting
sound, while the bellowing of the old bulls may be heard a mile
away.

AlUOATORS lOVE SUNSHINE

Alligators love to bosk in the sun, reserving most of their feeding activities for night-
time. They favor temperatures of between 75° and 85" Fahrenheit; a temperature
over 100° would be fatal to them. An alligator occasionally uses its powerful tail
to knock down its prey. As a rule, it tries to keep away from humcn baing*.

SJ22 ] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

Alligators in the Home: An alligator is an unlikely but not im-
possible pet. It is not suited to captivity and seldom lives more
than a couple of years away from its natural surroundings. How-
ever, it is occasionally possible to obtain young 'gators and—
judging from inquiries to zoos and museums about their care— a
number of people do cope with the problem of keeping an alli-
gator in the home.

A little alligator, like other reptile pets, must be kept in a
consistently warm temperature with plenty of sunshine, and with
shade always available. Its cage must be kept dry and clean and
furnished with a pan of water. Feeding it once or twice a week
is enough. Raw fish or bits of meat should be offered on a moving
stick, preferably to one side of the 'gator's head.

Frogs

Naturalists call the frog an "amphibian"— a creature that lives
a double life. This is a good name for the frog, as it divides its
time between land and water. It has characteristics in common
with fish: It is cold-blooded, and it lays its eggs in the water. In other
respects it is akin to reptiles, which are also cold-blooded but
are able to live on dry land. Thus the frog, along with the toad,
newt, salamander, and other amphibians, is a "connecting link"
between the two great cold-blooded groups— fish and reptiles.

The Hobby of Collecting Frogs* Eggs

For generations children have sought frogs' eggs, and suc-
cessful hunters still bring them home to observe their development
in an aquarium. Collecting eggs should not be encouraged, as it
makes inroads on the frog population. However, the ability to
i-ecognize eggs adds interest to a springtime expedition to a pond
or quiet stream.

If a child is serious about exploring nature and particularly
anxious to watch tadpole development, it is important to know
what species he is collecting; the time required for development
of the eggs varies widely according to the species of the parent
frogs. Wood frogs take on adult form the same season the eggs
are laid; green frog tadpoles usually do not grow into frogs until

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives [223

the following summer; bullfrogs may remain in a tadpole state
for two or three years I

How THE Eggs Develop

We find frog eggs laid in a transparent protective jelly.
The shape of the jelly mass is one clue to the species; the date
it is discovered is another. The eggs of leopard or wood frogs,
for example, may be found by the first of April; those of the
green frog do not appear until a bit later, and the bullfrog may
not lay before July. The leopard frog's egg masses are in the form
of a flattened sphere; those of the wood frog are round masses.

In the earliest stages, as the original single cell gradually divides
into many, you can follow the egg's development only with the
aid of a magnifying glass. It is only when the embryo begins to
lengthen that it can be easily seen with the naked eye. After five
or six days the embryo has a tadpole form, but it is still inside
the jelly mass. About the ninth day the tadpole breaks loose from
its protective covering.

How A Tadpole Grows

The Development of the Head: At first the tadpole is so shapeless
that the only way to know head from tail is to observe the direc-
tion in which it swims— the head naturally goes first. But soon
the head grows larger. Instead of a mouth the tadpole has a V-
shaped raised sucker by which it attaches itself to water weeds.
Later this gives way to a small round mouth provided with horny
jaws. As the tadpole grows, the mouth gets wider and larger.

How the Tadpole Breathes: When you observe the tadpole you
see little tassel-like gills appear on either side of the throat.
Blood passing through the gills is purified by coming in contact
with the oxygen in the water. Later the feathery gills disappear
as a membrane grows down over them, and they function inside
the body instead of externally. Water taken in through the nostrils
passes through an opening in the throat, on over the gills, and
out through a little opening, or breathing pore, at the left side
of the body. This breathing pore may easily be seen in larger
tadpoles.

224 ] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

The Legs and Tail Develop: A tadpole's flat tail, bordered by a
fin, is a valuable swimming aid. But in a matter of weeks—the
time depends on the species— the first sign of legs foreshadows the
decline of the tail's usefulness. The hind legs appear first as mere
bumps but soon push out completely with five webbed toes.

Meanwhile the front legs show just in back of the head, the
left one pushing out through the breathing pore. The front feet
have only four toes apiece and are not webbed; they are used for
balancing, whereas the back feet serve for thrusting forward.
While these changes are taking place, the tail is becoming
absorbed by the body.

First Amphibian Landing: Young frogs do not always wait for
the completion of their adult form before venturing on land. In
late spring or early summer you may see one hopping about, still
wearing its stumpy little tail. From then on the frog is primarily
a land animal, though the members of most species stay near
water, ready to jump in at a sign of danger or simply to refresh
themselves.

The frog puts its tongue to good use. Hinged to the front of
the lower jaw, the tongue can be thrust far out of the mouth to
capture insects on its sticky surface.

Biggest and Smallest Frogs

The bullfrog is the giant among North American frogs.
Eight inches is about its maximum length. Its head is usually a
bright green, the upper part of its body green also but shading
to gray and brown, and its underside is yellowish.

Other identifying features are its large eardrums and the con-
spicuous folds of skin which run from behind the eyes around
the eardrums to the front legs. The bullfrog's deep voice is prob-
ably better known than its appearance. You may hear its sonorous
jug-o'-rum repeatedly near lakes and ponds on summer evenings.

Just as the bullfrog is a typical "voice of summer," the little
tree frog, commonly known as the peeper, might be called the
"voice of spring." The spring peeper— or, more prosaically, Pick-
ering's hyla— is one of the tiniest of froglets. Fully grown, it is about
an inch longi

^

^.^

Harold K. Whitfora

THE BULLFROG-OGRE OF THE LILY POND

This largest of American frogs is a menace to practically every creature that shares
its pond home. It eats smaller frogs of all kinds, fish, the nymphs of dragonflies,
other water insects, worms, and practically anything that fits in its huge mouth

0 TTess (Three Lions)

THE "REAL THING" IN CHAMELEONS

Although certain American lizards are popularly known as chameleons, the true
chameleon, pictured above, is a native of Africa. One of the most fantastic of
animals, it has a long, grasping tail, strangely shaped limbs, eyes that move inde-
pendently of each other, a head ornamented like some huge prehistoric dinosaur's,
plus the ability to change color from moment to moment, to match its background.

1^

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

[225

f' (.

TWENTY THOUSAND EGGS AT A TIME

The bullfrog gets its name from Its sonorous call. Though the female lays as many
as twenty thousand eggs at one time, the tadpole takes quite long (three years)
to develop into an adult. Protective coloration and unusual jumping ability safe-
guard the frog against most enemies; but the demand for frogs' legs as a delicacy
has made inroads on our frog population.

Under the throat of the male is a thin membrane that swells
to surprising proportions as he blows air into it, then closes the
openings to his nose and forces the air up and down his gullet.
As early as March you may hear the din raised by a number of
peepers going through their vocal gymnastics.

There are several reasons why the spring peeper is able to elude
most observers. Aside from its tiny size, it changes color to blend
with its background. In less than half an hour the dark cross on
its back can alter to a mottled effect, and its body tone can change
from a pale yellowish brown to leaf-green, earth-brown, or even
the brighter tones of flower petals!

Another point is that the spring peeper spends a great deal of
time in trees, which it can climb easily because of its marvelously
adapted toes. Each toe ends in a rounded disk that secretes a sticky
substance so effective that a peeper can walk up a vertical pane
of glass.

226 ] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

Toads

Though most children delight in catching frogs, many hesitate to
touch a toad. They have heard the old myth that a toad is sure
to produce warts on the hand that touches it. While this much-
maligned amphibian does have warts on its back, it has no power
to transfer them.

Basis for the "Warf' Myth: The so-called warts are really glands
which secrete a disagreeable-tasting substance. The elongated
swollen glands above and just back of the ears exude a milky
poisonous substance when the toad is seized by a hungry enemy.
This protective feature is entirely successful in some cases, but
many toads become victims of snakes and other animals.
The Toad Eats Its Skin

Unlike the slippery, slimy frog, the toad has a perfectly
dry skin. It is cold to the touch because toads, like all amphibians,
are cold-blooded. Though the toad sheds its skin periodically,
you will never find one of these skins as you may a snake's skin.
The skin is promptly swallowed by the toad that sheds it!

How Toads Drink and Breathe

The toad has a very absorbent skin. When it is thirsty it
never drinks by mouth; instead, it stretches out in shallow water
and absorbs moisture through its skin. Consequently, if pools are
not available and if the atmosphere is dry, the toad will die in a
short time.

The toad's breathing technique is also curious. You may notice
a steady pulsation in a toad's throat that results from its swallow-
ing air. Lacking ribs, it cannot inflate its chest to draw air into its
lungs as we do.

How Toads Defend Themselves

The toad is a favorite prey of many larger animals. It
cannot fight back, but it is resourceful in trying to save itself.
Toads and frogs use the same means of defense: Both are jumpers
capable of making long rapid jumps. The popular game "leap-
frog" is a tribute to the extraordinary jumping ability of the frog,
which has larger and more muscular hind legs.

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

[287

TRUTH AND FICTION ABOUT TOADS

There is no truth in the quaint superstition that "ft rains toads" and that "toads
cause warts/' The truth about toads is interesting enough — for example, a toad
eats its skin after shedding it; it "drinks" by absorbing moisture through its skin;
and it digs holes with its hind feet, retreating into one of these hideouts on the
approach of enemies. It stays in concealment by day, becomes active at night.

With both of these amphibians protective coloration is special-
ized to the point of transforming color tone to blend with the
background. A toad also has a clever way of disappearing. Instead
of squatting where it can easily be seen, it kicks backward until
its body is covered with earth. At the approach of an enemy, the
U)ad quickly jerks its head back letting earth tumble over its
head as well.

The toad also knows how to become inconspicuous by flatten-
ing out its body and, when actually trapped, it will **play dead."

228] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

Finally, if all these ruses fail and it is seized by an enemy, it
emits a terrified noise.

Where to Find Toads

These amphibians are rarely out in the open during the
daytime, and a child's best chance to observe their habits is to
keep one as a pet. They go abroad mostly at nighttime, hunting
for slugs, worms, and insects; most of the day they remain in
hiding.

Toads frequent cool damp places; in suburban areas you may
discover one under a porch or dug in under a sidewalk. In the
fall they burrow deep into the ground to hibernate. When they
awaken in the spring they make their way to a pond to breed
and lay their eggs.

How Toads* Eggs Develop

The eggs of the toad, like frogs' eggs, are laid in a trans-
parent jelly-like substance, but they can be identified by their
form. The toad's eggs are laid in long strings, instead of in masses
like the frog's eggs. Changes in toads' eggs take place rapidly.
Tadpoles may emerge only four days after the eggs are laid; only
a few weeks later the tadpoles have developed into adults.

The toads are still very small, however, and continue to grow
as adults— in contrast to frogs, which attain much of their adult
size while still in the tadpole stage. The final size achieved by a
toad varies with the species. One kind, native to the Southwest,
sometimes measures six and a half inches in length; a little green
toad that lives on the grassy flatlands of the Southwest is no more
than an inch and a half long.

Salamanders

A most likely time to make the acquaintance of the little
amphibians known variously as salamanders, newts, or efts, is
shortly after a spring or summer rain. If you are walking along a
country road or woodland path, you may not even have to look
for them: They are out in the open enjoying the newly fallen
moisture.

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives [229

At other times you may find them under stones or rotting logs,
in wet crevices along a brook, and even in the water. All sala-
manders must stay in places where their skin will not become
too dry— though some prefer more water than others do.

Frequently when a child discovers a salamander he calls it a
lizard; and it does strongly suggest the small reptile. However,
there are several distinguishing features. The salamander's skin
may be moist, slimy, or even dry and rough; but it is never covered
with scales, as is the skin of a lizard. No salamander has claws,
whereas you will find these on the toes of a lizard.

The Red Eft

There is quite a bit of variety in the appearance of sala-
manders and in the pattern of their lives. The red-backed species

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THE ELUSIVE TIGER SALAMANDER

This salamander gets its name from its colors (yellow splotches cover its brown body),
and reaches a length of ten inches. Like most of its kind, it is an elusive creature,
burrowing by day, and coming out at night to forage for food. All salamanders
have smooth skins, in contrast to the scaly bodies of lizards.

230 ] Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives

does not even conform to the usual amphibian program of a land-
and-water existence and spends its entire life on land.

One of the most commonly seen salamanders is the red eft. It
begins its adventurous existence in a pond or stream, where it
hatches from an egg laid on a water plant. The next few months
it dwells in the water; it is an expert swimmer, has gills, and
breathes like a fish. By the middle of August the eft has lost its
gills, developed legs, and in all respects is ready for life ashore.
About this time it takes on a bright orange hue.

For the next two and a half years the red eft lives on land,
usually frequenting damp, shady places and hiding under leaves
or moss. Then, though it may have wandered far away from water,
it starts traveling purposefully until it reaches a pond or stream.

After returning to its native element the eft undergoes more
changes: Its color becomes olive-green above and buff below,
while its tail develops a keel that extends along its back. Only
now does it seek a mate, and its remaining years are spent as a
water animal. In this final water stage the red eft is frequently
called a newt— a common name for this type of salamander.

The Care of Amphibians

Collecting frogs or other amphibians and keeping them for a
while is a fine seasonal hobby for children. However, it is impor-
tant to first inquire of the conservation department of your state
for regulations about which kinds of frogs may be collected and
when.

How TO Catch a Frog

A stout collecting net is a useful aid in catching the elusive
frog which you are most likely to find in a swamp or shallow pond.
Extend the net slowly and quietly toward and under a pros
pective captive. With a quick upward and outward movement
you may succeed in snaring the frog. It should then be trans-
ferred to a suitable container, such as a wet burlap bag, for
carrying home.

Snakes and Frogs and Their Relatives [ 231

Living Quarters for the Amphibian

You can turn an aquarium into a satisfactory home for
small specimens of frogs, toads, or salamanders. A screen top made
secure around the edges will prevent their escape. For frogs and
salamanders the aquarium should be about one-third full of
water, with stones piled high at one end to give the amphibians a
place to land. Toads need far less water; for them, the bulk of the
cage should be dry.

It is important to bring home some water from the pond where
the frogs are caught, using it for them while they are in your
care. Tap water is often purified with chemicals that are fatal
to these animals. The water in the amphibian's quarters must be
changed often and kept perfectly clean; uneaten food particles
should be removed daily.

How TO Feed an Amphibian Pet

Live insects— such as flies or bugs— and earthworms are a
good diet for most amphibians. Sometimes a captive will nibble
at small bits of food, and you can experiment to find the diet that
appeals most to it. If it does not respond to your attempts, it
should be given its freedom near the locality where it was found.

Sometimes it may prove practical to grow your own insects;
this is what a boy of my acquaintance did who was keeping a
dozen salamanders in a large terrarium. In it he placed a bottle
containing a few pieces of banana. Fruit flies bred rapidly there,
and as they started to fly out they were snapped into the ready
mouths of the salamanders.

Frogs and salamanders should always be picked up by placing
your hand under their body. They are then less apt to get away,
and such handling is far less injurious than encircling them with
warm, dry skin. The heat of the human hand can kill a very small
amphibian. Thus we see that even in the case of seemingly petty
details we have to bear in mind the basic physical make-up of
the amphibian, and the possible consequences of not heeding its
requirements-

CHAPTE

R 9 The Wonderful Ways
of Insects and Spiders

T

II ««

o MOST PEOPLE 3 fly is Something to be
swatted; mosquitoes often take the joy out
of country life; and ants call to mind all the troublesome aspects
of a picnic I Altogether there is plenty of reason for children— and
parents as well— to feel that insects are above all else a terrific
nuisance.

There is another way of looking at them, though. The lives
of some species are as fanciful as fairy stories, and those "curiosi-
ties" of nature which so delight all of us are found in striking
abundance among the insects.

Some of them are skillful engineers and manufacturers. Bees
and ants live in societies complex enough to rival those of man-
kind. One insect, the doodlebug, always walks backward! The
queen of a tropical species of termites may produce ten million
offspring in her lifetime. There are wasps that keep their food
fresh over a period of time— just as successfully as we keep ours
in a refrigerator— by injecting a fluid which paralyzes the nerves
of their victims without producing death. Then the wasps store
the bodies until they are needed as food.

Many of our common, everyday insects become objects of
wonder if we examine their way of life; and, as they live in city,
town, and country, we can enjoy hours of fascinating observation
without troubling to go far afield.

232

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [233

What is An Insect?

People have a habit of referring to every small, creeping animal
as an insect. However, many creatures that are so called do not
belong to the classification of insects. Spiders are not insects— nor
are worms and centipedes. How, then, do we really determine
what is or isn't an insect?

An insect in the adult stage has three pairs of legs— no more,
no less. It also has three distinct parts to its body— the head, the
thorax, and the abdomen. And all insects have a shell-like covering
to protect their bodies.

How Insects Are Able To Move

Insects have no inside bone structure to help them move
as our bones help us; but movement is possible for them because
each end of their muscles is attached to the hard outer covering
that serves as an "outside skeleton." A muscle, for example, which
acts to move a leg forward has one end attached to the hard cover-
ing of the leg and the other end attached to the covering of the
thorax in front of the legs. When this muscle contracts, it pulls
the two solid attachments closer together— and the leg moves for-
ward.

It might seem impossible for a creature encased in a rigid cov-
ering to bend. However, the insect has joints in places where the
body wall is flexible. That is why the creature can bend, some-
what as a knight of old could bend because his suit of heavy armor
was jointed.

The Lowly Bug

Frequently the term "bug" is mistakenly used for "insect."
Though all bugs are insects, in the scientific sense, not all insects
are bugs. Bugs belong to a specific group that varies within itself
in many respects; but all bugs are alike in having piercing, suck-
ing mouth parts. The group includes the giant water bugs (also
known as electric-light bugs because the adults often fly about
electric lights) , squash bugs and bedbugs.

234 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

Millions of Kinds of Insects

The creatures that rightly bear the name "insects" are
included in an astoundingly huge number of species. We already
know of hundreds of thousands of different kinds, and scientists
believe that the total number of kinds will eventually be reckoned
in the millions! There are more species of insects than all other
species of animals added together. More than any other kind of
creature, insects may he regarded as man's competitor for mastery
of the earth.

The destruction of farm crops, stored products, and wooden
buildings by insects, and their injury to the health of human
beings by spreading disease, is beyond calculating. However,
millions of dollars are being spent every year on research, quaran-
tine and control: The menace of insects is far less frightening

HUGE HORNET COLONIES

As many as fifteen thousand hornets may live in a single paper-covered nest. They
have sentinels posted at the door to warn of the approach of intruders. Hornets
are irritated by the presence of marauders and all too ready to sting near their
nest. However, they are much less likely to sting when away from it.

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders » [ 235

to us than it was to our parents. Despite all the havoc that insects
wreak, they are actually of enormous value to us in some ways.
Insects play a vital role by pollinizing many plants on which
we depend for food for ourselves and our domesticated animals;
and many birds as well as fish would disappear if they were de-
prived of insect food.

How Insects Develop ^^

The Magic of Metamorphosis

The child who observes a crawling caterpillar change into
a winged butterfly is enthralled by a mystery which seems one of
nature's greatest wonders. This is, however, only one of several
patterns of growth that we find among insects. It involves four
different forms. Butterflies, moths and others that grow this way
are said to have a "complete metamorphosis." (The word is from
the Greek and means "change of form.")

The first form is the e^^', the next is the larva. Then comes the
pupal stage, a period of relatively quiet resting. Finally the pupa
develops into the adult. The larva of a butterfly we commonly
call a caterpillar; the term for the pupa is "chrysalis." The larva
of a fly, you may know as a "maggot"; that of a bee or a beetle,
as a "grub."

Incomplete Metamorphosis

Another type of insect growth is called an "incomplete
metamorphosis" because the insects do not go through any strik-
ing change in form during their growth after the egg stage. They
do, however, gradually change their proportions. The young of
this group, known as "nymphs," are like adults in most respects.
They eat the same food and are much the same in appearance
and behavior. The grasshopper is a well-known member of this
group.

In the case of some water-dwelling nymphs, such as the young
of the dragonfly, we see a great change when the gilled nymph
becomes an adult; but the metamorphosis is still considered
"incomplete."

236 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

The silverfish illustrates still another type of growth. It has no
metamorphosis; the general body form does not change notice-
ably from the time it leaves the egg until it is fully grown.

All insects shed their skeletal coverings a number of times
while they are still growing.

How Insects See, Hear, and Feel

Eyes With Thousands of Facets

Occasionally among published photographs you may see
a strange-looking object suggesting a mosaic of diamonds. It
proves to be the compound eye, greatly magnified, of an insect.
The photograph makes a curiously intricate pattern of what are,
in eflEect, many tiny eyes set close together, somewhat like the
cells of a honeycomb. An adult insect has one of these compound
eyes on each side of its head.

The six-sided areas into which the eyes are divided are known
as "facets." The compound eyes of ants and other insects that
live on the ground have only a few facets, and their vision is not
sharp. The eyes of dragonflies and other keen-eyed species may
have thousands of facets!

There are also many species with simple eyes— three of them—
situated between the compound eyes. The simple eyes are so
tiny, however, that you will need a magnifying lens to find them.

Insects can perceive mass and motion, light and darkness and,
to a certain extent, they can distinguish colors.

Ears Anywhere and Everywhere

Whenever hearing equipment has been discovered in cer-
tain kinds of insects, it has been found on rather unconventional
parts of the body. The grasshopper, for example, has an oval
membrane sensitive to sound, and it is located on the side of the
first abdominal segment. Crickets, ants, and katydids have hearing
organs on their front legs, and the male mosquito hears through
its antennae, or ''feelers."

The Wonder Jul Ways of Insects and Spiders [237

The Insect's Detecting Equipment

The antennae vary in shape and degree of complexity
according to species. The segments which make up the antennae
vary in number— and in form as well. The grasshopper's antennae
may have more than twenty segments, whereas the common
housefly has only three stubby segments. An insect uses its an-
tennae to investigate its surroundings, and in many species these
feelers are related in some degree to the sense of smell. The
antennae are attached to the head— in front of, or between, the
eyes.

How Insects Eat and Breathe

When we learn about the mouth parts of insects we realize
that there is no more dramatic example of the way nature varies
the forms of its creatures to suit special needs.

Crushing and Sucking: The sharp strong jaws of the ground
beetle are excellently adapted to crush and eat caterpillars. The
big brown squash bug and others use a sucking tube to take
juice from plants; bedbugs have a similar mechanism for taking
blood from animals. As for butterflies and other insects that
extract nectar from flowers, they use a long tube, or tongue, which
at other times is tightly coiled beneath the head.

Grasshoppers Bite Their Food: The grasshoppers and other biting
insects have an upper lip and an underlip, with two pairs of
jaws between them. If you look at a grasshopper through a
magnifying lens you will see that the upper pair of jaws (the
mandibles) are somewhat heavier than the lower pair (the
maxillae).

On these lower jaws and on the lower lip there are feelers
or tasters called "palpi." The taste buds— comparable to our
own— on the tips of the palpi enable the grasshopper to taste its
food before biting it. Though mandibles function somewhat
as human jaws do, they work from side to side instead of up
and down.

238 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

Breathing Without Lungs: Insects do not breathe the way we do.
If you examine almost any insect closely, you will discover a
series of tiny openings along the sides of the body. These are the
"spiracles" or breathing holes through which air passes into the
insect's body.

The spiracles lead into a system of thin-walled tubes which
distribute the air throughout the body. As the insect's blood
comes into contact with these tubes, it becomes purified as your
blood does when it bathes the air tubes of your lungs. In the case
of grasshoppers and a number of other insects naturalists have
discovered that some of the spiracles are used exclusively for
inhaling, the others only for exhaling.

The Delicate Structures of Legs and Wings

We have already learned that an insect's body has three main
parts: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. Each of these three
parts is made up of ringlike segments that have grown together.
The thorax, or middle region, is made up of three segments, each
bearing a pair of legs. (You will recall that all insects have three
pairs of legs.)

The insect's front legs are attached to the first segment. The
front wings— if there are any— and the middle legs are attached to
the second segment. The hind legs— and the hind wings, if they
are present— are attached to the third segment.

If you spread apart a grasshopper's four wings, you will find
that the upper ones are long and narrow, while the broad lower
wings rest, folded like fans, beneath them. If you feel their tex-
ture you will discover that the lower pair are far more delicate
than the upper wings which protect them.

Once insects acquire wings they stop growing. You may see
little flies and big flies, but they belong to different species; the
little ones are never going to "catch up" and be big ones.

The legs of all insects are jointed and made up of about ten
segments— though the number and size vary with different kinds
of insects. On many insects the last segment bears one or two claws.

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 239

Some Popular Insects

Butterflies— Insects with Glamour

These lovely winged creatures seem a special gift of nature
to children. Many a boy who has been oblivious to outdoor beauty
is captivated by the sight of a colorful butterfly perched on a
bright flower. Some children go further than merely admiring
the appearance of butterflies; they become absorbed in the hobby
of collecting them. Taken in the caterpillar stage, these insects
may be observed through their metamorphosis into winged adults.
Later on the adult insects, captured and mounted, make home
exhibits that are a delight to the eye.

The collector must handle his delicate captives with care.
(There will be more about this later on.) Even with careful
handling, some fine colored dust comes off the butterflies onto
his fingers. If he could examine this dust under a powerful
microscope, he would see that it is made up of tiny scales. These
cover the insect's wings, overlapping like shingles, and they are
often responsible for the striking pattern and brilliant coloring.

There is wide variety in the size, shape, and habits of different
kinds of butterflies. The caterpillars are equally varied: They may
be hairy, naked, or covered with spines. Most caterpillars eat their
own special choice of leaves and will starve to death if they are
given the wrong kind.

The Beautiful Black Swallowtail: This swallowtail is one of the
loveliest butterflies you are likely to find. It lives in almost all
parts of the United States and frequents gardens, sipping nectar
from the blossoms. In meadows it is most likely to be seen on
thistles or the orange-flowered milkweed. Two projections from
the margins of its hind wings, which are responsible for its popular
name, make it easy to identify. Its color is velvety black, with
rows of yellow spots; the hind wings have metallic blue splashes.
The female is larger than her mate, and though she has more
blue on her wings, the yellow markings on his hind wings are
more vivid.

24o]

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

COLLECTOR'S PRIZE

The tiger swallowtail butterfly has wings that are beautifully striped in black and
yellow. It gets its name from the tail-like extensions of its hind wings. While it
visits many flowers, it is partial to thistle and milkweed. The caterpillar of this
butterfly is famous for a repulsive stench it produces to discourage enemies, par-
ticularly hungry birds. It is also noted for two large eyespots at front end.

From Egg to Caterpillar: A black swallowtail deposits her eggs on
the leaves of carrots, parsnips, or parsley. Each tgg looks like a
tiny drop of honey. By the end of ten days, the honey-colored
eggs have turned almost coal black, and spiny little caterpillars
make their appearance. Each caterpillar at once eats the shell of
the ^gg from which it hatched, then continues feeding on the leaf
where it was originally placed.

As the caterpillar grows it sheds its skin from time to time,
and with each molt it changes its size and coloring until it has
become a "carrot worm." Now it is about two inches long and
strikingly colored in green, black, and yellow. If you poke a
finger at one of these creatures, it will thrust out brilliant orange
horns that give off a disagreeable smell. This odor proves a most
effective defense against birds.

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 241

The Chrysalis Emerges from the Silken Halter: If you bring one
of these caterpillars indoors or manage to keep it under close
observation in some other way, you will in due course see one of
those wonders of nature that never seem commonplace no matter
how often you may observe them. One day you will see the cater-
pillar spin a button of silk against a solid support. (Out-of-doors,
the lower edge of a fence rail is a favorite place.)

The caterpillar grasps this button firmly with its hind prop-leg.
Then it spins a strong loop of silk, fastening both ends to the
same support, and finally it thrusts its head inside the silken
halter. Thus supported, it starts to shed its last caterpillar skin,
and we see a soft pale-green pupa, or chrysalis, beginning to
emerge.

Now comes a moment crucial for its survival: The chrysalis
releases its hold on the little silk button, relying completely on
the halter for support while it pushes off its shrunken skin and
inserts its hooks into the button. Sometimes the chrysalis falls to
the ground during this delicate maneuvering— with fatal results.
The possibility of sudden death adds a poignant touch to the
mystery of metamorphosis.

The Butterfly Lives on Nectar: The successful chrysalis gradually
hardens and alters its colors, usually turning grayish, dark green,
or tan. Within its shell the elements that made up the caterpillar
are taking on the shape of a butterfly. Then one day, after some
weeks of waiting, you will see the upper end break open and a
crumpled mass of damp "velvet" come forth. This clings to a
support while its wings unfold, dry, and harden. In about half an
hour the newcomer is ready for flight. As an adult, it lives entirely
on nectar (how fitting!) and acts as an efficient messenger carry-
ing pollen from one blossom to another.

The Migrating Monarch Butterfly: A common species that chil-
dren can easily learn to recognize is the monarch or milkweed
butterfly. With its brilliant copper-red color and vivid black
markings it is quite conspicuous. You can distinguish a similarly
colored though somewhat smaller species, known as the viceroy,
by a black band across the middle of the hind wing.

242 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

Monarchs are noted for their migrations. They often gather
in large flocks in late summer and then move southward. You may
some day discover one of these beautiful butterflies with an
identification tag and number in its wing. Many persons in the
United States and Canada have for several years been marking
and releasing monarchs in an effort to increase the store of
scientific knowledge about them. The tag tells where to send the
information on your find, and you may thus help scientists learn
the full story of this remarkable traveler.

The Hibernating Mourning Cloak: The habits of the mourning
cloak— a brownish and yellow butterfly, ornamented with blue
spots— are in marked contrast to those of the monarch. The mourn-
ing cloak sleeps in hollow trees or crannies during cold weather
and is one of the few insects that hibernate in the adult stage.

Flying Fighters: For all their ethereal appearance, you may dis-
cover by watching butterflies that they are not at all averse to
some very down-to-earth fighting. The males of many species will
try to drive away any others that encroach on territory they con-
sider their own. As a result, duels take place, with the contenders
darting and dashing at each other, sometimes buffeting their
wings to shreds. The red admiral and the buckeye are particularly
noted as scrappers.

Moths— How They Differ From Butterflies

Children are much more likely to become acquainted with
the caterpillars of moths than with the moths themselves, as these
winged insects (with few exceptions) sleep by day and fly only at
dusk or after dark. This nighttime schedule of activity helps us
to distinguish moths from butterflies, as butterflies are abroad
during the day.

There are several other features which, as a rule, guide us in
telling a moth from a butterfly. When at rest, butterflies hold
their wings vertically above their bodies while moths extend
theirs— horizontally, or tentlike over their bodies. A moth's body
is thicker and more wedge-shaped, and its antennae are feathery
or finely tapered. A butterfly's antennae, though smooth, end in
knobs or thickenings.

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 243

Silk Manufacturers: A moth's life pattern is much like that of a
butterfly, except that the caterpillars of certain moths weave about
themselves a covering of silk which we call a "cocoon." Most
species of moth caterpillars, however, dispense with the cocoon.
When the "tomato worm" and the caterpillar of the sphinx moth,
for example, are fully grown, they burrow in the earth and there
become pupae. If you are digging around the base of a tree in the
late fall, you may discover such caterpillars.

By way of contrast, there are moth caterpillars that may be
termed "American silkworms": They produce strong lustrous
silk rivaling the product of the Chinese silkworms. The American
silk never became a commercial success because these creatures
proved too difficult to breed in large numbers; in addition, the
labor involved in processing their silk was very costly.

The native silkworms are the caterpillars of cecropia, pro-
methea, polyphemus, and luna moths. Even sharp-eyed explorers
are not likely to find these insects that have a knack of blending
perfectly with the leaves on which they rest and feed.

The Woolly Bear Caterpillar— Weather Prophet: Sooner or later
nearly every child in country surroundings encounters the woolly
bear caterpillar, which is conspicuous because of its thick coat
of hair.

There are many kinds of woolly bears. One species is black
at the ends with a middle band of brown. According to popular
belief, you can forecast the weather by the size of this band. With
the arrival of the fall, if the band is wide— that is, if it measures
half the body length or more— on many woolly bears, a mild
winter is predicted. By the same token, if most woolly bears have
narrow bands, we are told that the coming season will be severe.
Scientists have not yet said the last word on the reliability of this
belief.

You may often discover woolly bears along the roadside in the
bright fall sunshine. If you pick one up, it has the defensive
resource of rolling itself into a ball— a trick that it also uses to
make itself less attractive to a hungry bird.

244 ] ^^^ Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

Woolly Bears As Pets: If your child brings home a woolly bear for
a pet, it must be kept out-of-doors in a sheltering wooden box at
ordinary temperatures. Keeping the creature in a warm room is
likely to prove fatal to it. During late summer it feeds on grass,
clover, and other leaves; with the onset of fall it has reached its
full growth and requires little in the way of food.

After sleeping the winter away, the woolly bear rouses in the
spring, eats a little grass, and then starts to spin its cocoon, weav-
ing into it the hairs from its "fur coat." The finished cocoon
gives the appearance of being made of felt. About the end of
May an Isabella tiger moth appears. As the moth flies only at
night, you are less likely to become familiar with it than with
the woolly bear. It is a dull gray and tawny moth with a few black
dots on its wings.

Caterpillars As A Hobby

Where To Look For Caterpillars: The woolly bear is not the only
caterpillar that makes an interesting captive. Other larvae of
moths that you are likely to find are the leaf-colored polyphemus
(often on oak and birch trees), and the colorful cecropia cater-
pillar, green with bluish tint and marked with yellow, blue, and
red.

Collecting butterfly caterpillars is simple if you know the right
hunting grounds. Tiger swallowtail caterpillars are most com-
monly found on wild cherry trees; cabbage butterfly caterpillars
on cabbage; monarchs on milkweed plants; and viceroys on poplar
and willow trees. In hunting caterpillars it is not only helpful
to know the plants on which they feed; it is also advisable to take
some of the leaves to feed your captives their favorite food.

Providing Living Quarters: You can make a home for caterpillars
from a shoe box or a small wooden box or any other kind of box
of convenient size. If any of your captives are the kind that change
into a chrysalis in the earth rather than on foliage, it would be
wise to put a pot of dirt in the box.

You can keep leafy twigs fresh by placing them in water in
the box, but you need a cloth or some other covering over the
top of the water container—otherwise the caterpillars might crawl

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 245

into it and be drowned. The box-cage should be covered securely
with mosquito netting or fine wire screening, and kept where the
caterpillars will have some sunlight.

The Pleasures of Cocoon Collecting

In the country you may find the cocoons of some of the
large silk moths, such as the polyphemus, cecropia, and luna. (The
beautiful luna moth usually spins its cocoon between leaves on
the ground.) After the leaves have fallen in autumn, it is quite
easy to see the brownish wrappings which hold a pupa as it hangs
from twigs of bushes and trees.

Children enjoy seeing the cecropia's hammock-shaped product
because of its popular name, "cradle cocoon." It has two walls
of silk. The inner wall is thin and firm; the outer wall— the one
you look for when you go cocoon hunting— is thick and paper-like.
Between the two walls there is a mat of loose silk.

Cocoons in the Home: When you collect a hanging cocoon, cut
a piece of the twig to which it is attached. Later on, this twig will
make the best possible perch for the moth as it emerges and waits
for its wings to harden.

If you keep cocoons in your house, they must be left in a place
that is not well heated. (An attic or cellar is fine for a cocoon.)
If the place is warm, the cocoons will hatch out before spring.
They should be sprinkled lightly with water about once a week
to keep them from getting dried out by indoor air.

From the first of April or thereabouts, and for the following
two months, you can have an exciting time watching for the
beautiful winged insects to emerge. Sometimes you are given
advance notice of the event when the end of a cocoon grows damp
—the effect of an acid fluid the insect discharges to dissolve the
silk. Thereafter the moth has no trouble pushing its way through
the end of the cocoon.

How TO Collect Butterfues and Moths

Collecting insects is a wonderful hobby for children. The
boy or girl who is absorbed in this pastime derives ever-increasing
pleasure from collecting. Often this interest continues into adult

246 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

hood, to be keenly enjoyed for a whole lifetime. An outstanding
example of how the passion for collecting may develop, is seen
in the case of a Pennsylvania youngster who began modestly with
the common monarchs, swallowtails, and cabbage butterflies that
frequented his back yard. As the years passed, his collection ex-
panded to such proportions that eventually a museum bought it
for $20,000!

THE POLYPHEMUS, GIANT OF THE MOTH WORLD

The yellowish or brownish polyphemus moth is one of our largest moths, having
a wingspread of six inches. Its name (remember one-eyed Polyphemus — the Cyclops
— and how Ulysses escaped from him?) is probably due to the peculiar eye-like
spot it has on each wing. At rest, it holds its wings over its back.

How to Handle the Butterfly Net: Butterfly collecting is an ideal
hobby to enjoy with your children, sharing the excitement of
stalking prey that is elusive without being dangerous. If your child
starts collecting at an early age, though, he is likely to be too
impetuous for success. Teach him the value of patience and care
at the start. A slow and cautious approach to a butterfly is the
right one— despite the popular misconception that pictures collec-

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 247

tors leaping with abandon and spasmodically lashing out with
their nets.

Certain precautions are indispensable to capturing your butter-
fly, such as avoiding having the sun at your back— otherwise you
cast a shadow, alarming the butterfly. You must coach your young-
ster in acquiring the knack of giving a quick sidewise swoop with
the net; then, with the butterfly trapped inside, he must twist
his wrist sharply so that the bag folds over the hoop.

Usually this is a good method of attack, but some species have
reactions that call for special strategy. For example: A monarch
trying to escape, flies straight up in the air, whereas a royal fritil-
lary drops down directly into the grass and weeds. To snare either
of these creatures, you must swing your net to cut off escape.

The Best Hunting Grounds: Clear, bright, windless days are most
favorable for butterfly hunting. The best hunting grounds are
meadows dotted with milkweed, thistles and orange butterfly
weed, clover fields, or weed-covered fields near a wooded tract.
The best time to trap a butterfly is when it is feeding. Occasionally
you will find one so absorbed in sucking nectar from a flower
that you can catch your prey between your thumb and forefinger.

Baiting the Trap for Moths: Night-flying moths can often be
secured as they cluster about electric lights. However, a more
adventurous way to collect them is by "sugaring" tree trunks.
For this you prepare bait in the form of mashed, fermented
peaches mixed with sugar. (Any similar preparation will also do
the trick.)

At dusk your Expedition for Moths takes a generous supply
of bait and paints long streaks of it with a stiff brush on the trunks
of several trees, making sure to choose the sides sheltered from
the wind. A little after dark you again visit the trees— this time
armed with flashlight and net. Often you will discover many
different species enjoying the bait.

Painless Killing: On any collecting expedition you must have a
"killing jar" to quiet your captives quickly, painlessly, and with-
out injuring their delicate wings. You can fashion a homemade
container by placing cotton batting soaked with carbona in the

248 ] 1 he Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

bottom of a wide-mouthed pint jar. Over the cotton, place a piece
of wire screening to prevent the moisture of the carbona from
touching the insect. Keep the jar tightly covered.

When you remove the specimens, it is best to use tweezers rather
than your fingers; but if tweezers are not available, pick up the
insects by their legs or antennae and not by their wings. Then
you may place them temporarily in triangular-shaped holders
made of rather stiff paper.

How to Mount Butterflies and Moths: Mounting butterflies and
moths for permanent exhibit is not too difficult for children if
they have the patience and are guided by expert advice. If the
specimens have been kept for a while and have stiffened, you must
soften them. You can accomplish this by placing them in a metal
box with a tight-fitting cover and a layer of wet sand on the
bottom. (Add a few drops of carbolic acid to the water which
wets the sand to prevent any mold from forming.)

After twenty-four hours in the sealed box, the specimens are
ready for the setting board. This is simply two pieces of soft wood
set side by side with a narrow channel between them. At the
bottom of the channel there is a piece of cork or balsa wood.

Carefully take the softened butterfly— handling it with tweezers
is best; stick a long, fine pin through its thorax and set the body
in the channel with the pin pushed down into the cork or balsa
wood. Spread the four wings outward on the wooden sides until
the wings are in a good position. Do not put pins in the wings,
but keep them from moving by pinning narrow strips of cloth
across them, placing the pins outside the wings.

The Storage Box: Several days on the setting board are needed
before the wings are thoroughly dried out. Now they are ready
to be stored in real exhibition fashion. Storage boxes should be
shallow and may be made of any of several materials— but some are
decidedly wrong for the purpose. In a red cedar box, resin may
ooze out and make your exhibits greasy. Cardboard boxes absorb
moisture from the air and this will cause the specimens to get
moldy. White pine is one of the best woods.

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 249

When your box is ready the bottom should be lined with cork,
into which you can stick your mounting pins. Two sheets of
corrugated cardboard, one placed on top of the other with the
corrugations of one running at right angles to those of the other,
may be substituted for cork. A few flakes of the chemical dichlor-
benzol sprinkled under the cork will prevent tiny beetles from
turning the specimens into a fine brown dust.

You can then pin butterflies and moths in rows and columns^
The ambitious collector can add a further refinement by organ-
izing the specimens, putting insects of the same family in the
same box and placing a male and female of a species side by side.

Many museums gladly furnish more detailed instructions to
amateurs, and research in most libraries will yield excellent infor-
mation about arranging and mounting specimens. The Naturalists'
Directory published by the Cassino Press of Salem, Mass., in-
cludes the names of places where equipment needed for insect
collecting and preserving may be purchased.

Beetles--23,ooo Species in North America

Beetles Get Around: Probably the easiest of all insects to collect
or to become acquainted with in the flesh are the beetles. Not only
can they be found in innumerable places out-of-doors— they ap-
pear, unbidden and unwelcome, in city apartments.

Carpet beetles sometimes appear as if by magic in the wool of
rugs and upholstery and in stored cheese and cereals. Equally tiny
beetles turn up in dried fruits and cereal products. We have
already seen that if your family has been collecting butterflies
and you begin to notice fine brown dust falling from your speci-
mens, you can be sure that beetles are working on them.

Differences and Resemblances Among Beetles: Once you start
looking at beetles with some care, you will appreciate the amaz-
ing degree of variation among them; the result is an enormous
number of species. Beetles vary in size from minute specimens
to some, found in the tropics, that are larger than a mouse. There
are at least twenty- three thousand species on the North American
continent alone. Varied as the members of this insect tribe are in

250 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

appearance, nearly all the adults are easy to identify by the hard,
veinless forewings that meet in a straight line over the abdomen.
In flight these forewings serve much the same purpose as the
wings of an airplane, providing elevation, while the beetle is
actually propelled by the hind wings. The forewings also serve as
protective coverings for the hind wings, which are folded beneath
them. If you could see some of the tropical giants, you would be
quick to notice their huge mandibles, or upper jaws; but most of
the smaller species also have well-developed mouth parts, as all
beetles bite rather than suck.

The Firefly— Childhood Delight: The firefly is a member of the
beetle family. Children are always intrigued by the way the insect
* 'lights up" as it flits through the night, and they are forever
catching and imprisoning "lightning bugs" in the hope of dis-
covering their secret. In brief, this is the explanation: The firefly
produces a substance called luciferin, which glows when it comes
in contact with air. Underneath the light-producing area of the
body there is a reflecting surface which serves to strengthen the
glow.

In some species the females and the larvae have no wings and
are therefore limited to ground travel. Both groups are also light-
producers— our common glowworms.

Eating Too Much or Too Little: Fireflies are valuable to man
because their larvae feed on slugs and snails, which sometimes
do damage to cultivated plants. Mysteriously enough, most of the
adults, as far as we can observe, do not eat at alll We still have a
great deal to learn about the habits of this fascinating beetle.

The Ladybug—Pest Exterminator: Another beetle dear to the
hearts of little children is the ladybug or ladybird beetle— which
they admonish to fly away home to its burning house. These small,
hemispherically shaped insects are also dear to the hearts of fruit-
growers—but not for any sentimental reasons. The ladybug preys
on great numbers of such destructive fruit pests as aphids and soft
scale citrus mealy bugs.

If you happen to be exploring the countryside in the fall you
may come on a great assemblage of lady beetles; they congregate

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 251

in large numbers before going into hibernation under rocks and
forest litter and inside hollow trees.

The Ground Beetle^Nighttime Hunter: If you turn over a stone,
log, or board lying on the ground— especially damp ground— you
are likely to discover a beetle hideout. The ''ground beetle"
family has many different members, and most of them remain
under cover during the day. Usually a ground beetle is plain
black or brown and its long, flattened body is carried rapidly
over the ground on its slender legs— as you will observe if you
disturb one; it runs away as rapidly as possible when it is dis-
covered.

Ground beetles feed mostly by night, looking for food under
rocks and refuse or in the soil. Several species are famous for their
caterpillar-hunting; the larvae as well as the adults climb up tree
trunks searching for caterpillar prey.

Beetles with Gas Bombs: The "bombardier" beetles are among
the strangest members of the family. At the first sign of danger
these creatures eject a drop of liquid that quickly changes to a
tiny cloud of evil-smelling vapor. The source of the liquid is a
gland at the tip of the abdomen, and four or five discharges can
be made before the liquid "bomb" supply is exhausted.

This unpleasant counterattack will often discourage a bird or
other aggressor— at least long enough for the beetle to scurry to
safety. Many members of the ground beetle family have this
power, but one species makes its discharge with a distinct "pop."
This is the true bombardier. It has a yellowish head and a bluish
body.

Beetles Near Water: You may find the tiger beetle along the shores
of streams, lakes, or the ocean, and also on woodland trails. About
half an inch long and often brilliantly colored with metallic greens
and purples, this handsome beetle is a prize for any young col-
lector; but, being a swift runner and quick to take flight, it is
not easily trapped by a novice.

Sometimes, as you look down at fresh-water ponds or streams,
you may see black, oval whirligig beetles cruising around tire-

«52]

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

"TIGER" ANIMALS HAVE STRIKING COLORS

Animals named after the tiger, such as the tiger salamander, tiger swallowtail
butterfly, and tiger beetle, are noted for their brilliant coloring. The tiger beetle
at the left is purple, the one at the right belongs to the six-spotted species. It is
active in the daytime, and found most frequently on woodland paths.

lessly in circles— or dark, shiny diving beetles that stay suspended,
head downward, in the water.

How to Collect Beetles: If your child is serious about beetle col-
lecting, he can go about it in a number of ways. Flat rocks and
boards on moist earth have been mentioned as good hunting
grounds. When he finds beetles on a small tree or bush, he can
hold an opened umbrella upside down under it and then hit
the branches above, The insects fall into the outspread trap.

An excellent method of snapping up beetles is to use a small,
circular pill box in which the cover fits over the bottom portion.
If you wish, you can attach the two halves of the box with adhesive
iape to the thumb and the index or middle finger. It is possible to

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 253

find some beetles on sandy shores by pulling up bunches of grass
and examining the roots; or moss from stream banks may be
shaken over a piece of paper for possible insect finds.

There are several ways of setting traps; one method is to set a
tin can or narrow jar into the ground, the open top flush with
the surface, and with a bit of meat or fish at the bottom. Also,
after spring floods you are likely to find numerous specimens
along streams and creeks where they have been drowned and their
bodies left stranded.

Carbona or ethyl acetate is the recommended poison to use in
a killing jar for beetles. Like butterflies and moths they can be
mounted for attractive exhibition in boxes. The mounting pins
should go through the right wing-cover.

Ants— Colonists, Workers, and Warriors

Ants, like beetles, are almost easier to find than to elude.
You see ants on lawns, roadways, and city pavements; in gardens,
forests, and pastures. These extraordinary insects vary in size and
color from the big carpenter ant to the little brown species that
is the most common of all in North America. There are many
localities where you may find this brown ant; but because it has
been studied chiefly in cornfields, it is widely known as the
"cornfield ant/'

Ant Colonies: The cornfield ant, like all members of the ant
family, lives in colonies. Each colony is made up of three prin-
cipal types of ants: the queen (or fertile female) ; the short-lived
males that die soon after the mating flight; and the infertile
females. These last, the great majority, are the ordinary hard-
working citizens of the ant world. They are divided into workers,
soldiers, or other specialized castes. The workers have larger heads
and part of their front legs is slightly thicker than in other adults
of this species.

If you come upon a mound of earth about which ants are
hustling, your youngster may exclaim, "There's an anthill!" And
if he is of an adventurous turn of mind, he may want to dig into
it to see just what an ant colony is like. But in order to examine

254 ] 7*^^ Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

a nest successfully, you have to dig down with great skill— else
you may merely ruin it.

Inside the Ant Colony: Observe the nests of cornfield ants closely
and you will realize that these nests vary greatly in size. The
mound of a long-established colony covers a much larger area
than that of a new one. As a rule, the underground rooms are
only a few inches below the surface. But after a long dry spell,
or if the nest is located in sandy soil, the rooms are deeper in the
earth; for soil that is very dry becomes too crumbly for excavation.
In the winter you would find the apartments occupied only by
inactive adults and larvae. In midsummer the rooms bulge with
eggs, larvae, pupae, workers, males and females. (The eggs are
tiny specks.) The larvae are white maggot-like creatures, and the
pupae are enclosed in whitish cocoons about an eighth of an inch
long. Often mistakenly called "ant eggs," the pupae are collected
in large numbers and sold as fish and bird food.

How Ant Life is Organized: If you were to discover an ant nest
on a fine afternoon in August or early September, you might
find the occupants swarming excitedly about the entrance; you
might also notice that many of them have wings. Every few
minutes a winged form takes to the air. Some of these are males,
some females. (Apparently their mating takes place in the air.)

When the female returns to the ground she breaks off her wings,
then burrows a few inches into the earth or finds an opening
beneath a log or stone. Here she forms a small cell. She may then
immediately start to lay her eggs— or she may wait until the follow-
ing spring. As time goes on she eats some of the eggs— they are the
only food she has— and continues to lay more. About two months
after she begins to raise her young she may have one or two
workers.

During the first year, if she does well, her colony increases to
about twenty-five adult workers. Their duty is to search far and
wide for her food. They feed her and the larvae as well, also
helping the larvae to spin their cocoons and in time assisting the
new adults as they escape from these cocoons. Their mandibles
and forelegs make excellent tools. With these, too, they dig out

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 255

new tunnels and rooms; and as they dig and bring soil up to the
surface of the ground, the "anthill" grows larger. When the soil
becomes cold, they close the entrance to the nest and rest quietly
in the rooms until the next spring.

Savage Ant Warriors: Not all ants are as settled in their ways as
the cornfield ant. There are some that do not bother to build
homes at all: They are almost constantly on the move, wandering
from place to place in search of food. Among these nomads are
the "driver" ants of Africa and tropical America. They march in
close formation, in columns an inch or two wide and sometimes a
mile long! Even animals as large as a deer will flee in terror from
such an army.

Many species of ants are savage fighters. Sometimes battles are
fought by two colonies of the same species but more often there
is a struggle of one species against another. The fighting may
occur between two large groups or even between individuals.

If you stop to watch a lively group of ants on the ground or
sidewalk, you may find it is divided into two factions struggling
over a bit of food— or you may not even discover the cause of the
conflict. I have heard of a sidewalk ant battle that raged for more
than five hours, until each colony was reduced to a few battered
members.

You may wonder how the ants in such a struggle know friend
from foe. Members of different colonies look exactly alike, yet
you see individuals meet and at once pass on to another warrior
or start fighting. Apparently an ant's antennae help it distinguish
its own team mates from the opposition— for as two fighters meet,
the antennae of each touch the head of the other. There is also a
theory that ants have a characteristic odor that varies with each
colony and may thus be an aid to solving the "friend-or-foe"
puzzle.

Ant Hangers-on: As you observe some ant colonies you may be
puzzled by the presence of other insects that act as though they
belong there. If you were able to study ant nests all over the
ivorld, you would find there are actually several thousand differ-
-ent kinds of insects that make their home with ants. Some of

256 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

these— certain kinds of beetles, for example— the ants use to obtain
savory secretions. Others are hangers-on, scavengers, thieves, or
enemies. Some of them to all outward appearances are ants.

Among the best known are aphids— tiny insects that feed on
the juices of plants and give off from their bodies droplets of
honeydew. Some aphids are popularly known as "ant cows." The
ants protect them and even carry them from one food plant to
another, "milking" them by stroking their back with their anten-
nae. The milk is the sweet, colorless fluid that we call "honeydew."

Observing Ants Indoors

A child can get a great deal of pleasure by watching ants,
and he can learn a great deal about their habits, if you keep some
in your home— provided the ants are there through your choice
and not their own, and you supply suitable living quarters for
them. One type of house that is easy to make might be described
as a glass sandwich.

Use two pieces of window glass about ten or twelve inches
square. One will serve as the base, the other as the top. Around
the edges of the base, glue quarter-inch strips of wood that fit
snugly at the corners. Leave two openings in one strip that you
will use later— one for food, the other for water. Inside the water
opening you keep a sponge that can be kept moist with a medicine
dropper. When you are not feeding the tenants, you can keep
these two openings plugged with cotton.

How to Collect Ants: You are now ready to collect your ants.
Dig around a nest carefully with a small shovel or trowel, lift the
dirt with the insects into a carton and close it tightly to carry
home. Transfer both dirt and insects to the glass that you have
rimmed with strips. At this point you need to work quickly to
glue the other square of glass to this base and finally seal all
edges with adhesive tape.

Place a piece of cardboard of equal size on top— ants need dark-
ness most of the time. You can use two strips of adhesive as hinges
to attach this cover to one side, lifting the cardboard whenever
you wish to watch your insects at work.

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 257

You may see them constructing a central hall, excavating a
system of tunnels, cleaning themselves with tongue and front
legs— they do this repeatedly— and sometimes lying down to sleep,
their legs pulled close to the body. It is important to have a queen
in your colony— otherwise the activities of the captives will show a
far from complete story of life in an anthill.

How to Take Care of Captive Ants: The care of ants is rather
simple. The soil should be kept moist by inserting water through
the opening at least once a week; the insects' home should not be
left in bright sunlight or near a radiator. A drawer or closet is a
good place to keep them when you are not watching them. A
drop of honey should be supplied every few days, as well as a little
solid food, such as tiny morsels of mashed walnuts, apples, bananas,
and bits of dead insects.

Grasshoppers and Their Music

Katydids— Fiddlers, Not Singers: Katydids have become so closely
identified with this name because of their insistent refrain Katy
did, no she didn't, that people sometimes forget these insects are
also grasshoppers. The grasshoppers are divided into two groups:
the short- and long-horned families. The "horns" (really the
antennae) are considered long if they are nearly as long as, or
longer than, the insect's body. Katydids belong to the long-horned
group.

A child hearing them on a summer night may refer to their
"singing," but "fiddling" is a better word for their kind of music.
A male katydid— the females only listen— rubs its left wing over
the right wing. The left wing has a file-like row of ridges, while
the right wing has a hard little scraper just behind the shoulder
where the wings overlap; the rubbing of the wings produces the
fiddling sound.

Fiddlers All: It is the broad-winged or leaf-winged katydid that
plays its name with insistent repetition. The large oblong-winged
tree katydid has a refrain of Zzzzzz-Ipswich; the fork-tailed bush
katydid plays a slow zeep-zeep-zeep now and then; and the com-
mon meadow katydid fiddles several soft zees in a row, each faster
than the one before, and then hits and holds a high zeee.

258]

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"KATf DID — NO SHE DIDNT"

Yhe katydids are long-horned grasshoppers noted for their fondness for fiddling.
The sound is produced by rubbing the left wing over the right wing. The males
do all the playing, while the females are apparently content to listen. The katydid
has hearing organs on its front legs.

A short-horned grasshopper has a different fiddling technique.
Its long hind leg forms the bow, and a coarse outer wing the
fiddle. It may play one leg and wing at a time or both sides
together— a "one-man duet." However, little actual music is
created by these efforts; you can hear the resulting rasps for only
a few feet.

Both males and females have large hearing organs. You can see
what looks like an oval window on each side of the first abdominal
segment under the wings. What you see is the outer part of the
grasshopper's "ears."

Grasshoppers blend so successfully with their surroundings
that it is not easy to spot them during the day except when they
take wing. Some of the smaller katydids are easily startled into
flight from tall weeds and grasses where they spend much of
their time. In the country you can have a lively evening tracking
down the little insect fiddlers; take a flashlight along and let
yourself be guided by their sounds.

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 259

Crickets Join the Insect Serenade: The chirpy, cheerful cricket
produces music with its wings in the same way as the katydid,
but usually with its right wing over the left— whereas the katydid,
as we have seen, rubs its left wing over the right. To a listening
youngster it may seem that the katydids dominate the insect
serenade; but crickets contribute their share of the melodious
performance. The tune of the common snowy tree cricket begins
as a musical waa-waa-waa, played by individuals, each "on- his
own." But soon they join forces and play as if they were following
a conductor's baton.

Crickets As Weather Forecasters: The performance of the snowy
tree cricket is directly related to the temperature. By counting
the number of notes it produces each minute, you can roughly
gauge what your thermometer registers. Thus, a hundred chirps
to the minute indicate a temperature of 63 degrees. Increasing its
tempo as the temperature rises, this cricket slows down when it
gets cooler.

The common black crickets, with their clear chirp, are the first
musicians you will hear in summer. You may often discover them,
by late August, if you turn over an old board or stone. They
run fast but despite their muscular-looking legs they do not
imitate the grasshopper's high-jumping tactics.

Cricket on the Hearth: The cricket that may serenade you from
indoors after cool weather begins is not necessarily the same kind
about which Dickens wrote so appealingly in England; but the
American field cricket is also a cheery visitor to have on the
hearth. The European cricket is now quite well established in
the eastern United States and is a persistent fiddler. Unfortunately,
once these musicians are indoors they do not limit their activities
to music but may get into food and eat holes in everything made
of cloth.

Hoxv To Keep Cricket Pets: In the natural state, not many crickets
survive the coming of frost. However, if they are adopted as pets,
they will often live through the winter with every appearance of
enjoying themselves. You can make a cage for a cricket very
simply with a flowerpot full of earth and a kerosene lamp chimney.

26o ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

Sink the chimney into the earth to a depth of two inches and
cover the top with a piece of mosquito netting held in place by
a rubber band. You can make a similar cage with a large jar, or
an aquarium also covered with mosquito netting, and with soil
and plants set on the bottom.

Once you have obtained a few crickets, place them inside the
cage with a cabbage leaf or other greens and fasten the mosquito
netting top. Aside from providing their leafy food, it is a good
idea to occasionally drop a little corn meal saturated with water
into the glass cage— it will furnish moisture as well as food.
Periodically, too, the inside quarters should be sprinkled with
water to keep the atmosphere moist.

You may conclude from sad experience that it is not practicable
to keep more than one cricket in the cage; they frequently start
fighting with fatal results.

Bees— Honey-Makers, Pollinizers, and Stingers

What probably impresses children above all about bees
is their stinging ability. "Is it true that a bee dies after it stings
you? Can only females sting? Don't bees sting when they are
swarming?" I have heard youngsters put these queries incessantly
before the topic of honey-making ever came up.

The Bee's Sting: Tormenting humans is far from the primary use
of stingers. When the first queen hatches in a hive, she imme-
diately rips open other queen cells— unless she is restrained by
the workers— and stings the inmates to death, thereby removing
all possible rivals. Queens have the ability to sting over and
over again— but they use their sting only on other queens.

It is a worker bee that will sting you, and it commits suicide
by doing so. Stinging brings twenty- two muscles into play; when
the stinger is torn out of the worker's body, death results.

The order of insects to which bees— and wasps and ants— belong
is the only one in which genuine stingers are found. The stinger
is the modified ovipositor (or egg-laying organ) of the female
worker, so obviously the males or "drones" possess no stings. In
early summer, when a mass of bees leave their hive with a queen

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 261

to found a new home, they seem especially tolerant of bystanders
and almost never sting during this swarming.

Very Few Kinds of Bees Store Honey: Many children and even
some grownups have a mistaken idea that all bees store honey.
Actually this is true of only a few of the thousands of kinds of
bees known to exist. Most of them eat nectar as they take it from
the flowers, instead of using it for honey.

The true honeybees, so valuable in fertilizing such plants as
clover and fruit trees, are native to Europe; they were introduced
to North America by colonists in the seventeenth century. If you
find any of these in hollow trees in the woods, they are swarms
that have escaped from man-made hives— or descendants of such
bees.

The Underground Bumblebee: The large, hairy bumblebee, with
its black coat marked with yellow, orange, or red, is probably
more quickly recognized by children than most species. This
honey manufacturer is native to America. Bumblebees live in
large colonies underground, where they construct many-celled
combs. In the cells they lay eggs, store pollen and nectar, and
make honey.

Playing Bee Detective: Country youngsters have long delighted in
tracking down honeybees that have ''gone native," and finding
their store of honey. The bee detective's equipment is a small box
with either honey or sugar water and an opening large enough to
enable the bees to get to it. The same purpose is achieved by
using one of those frames in which honey is bought in the comb.
Putting some flour or cornstarch in the receptacle will give the
bees a touch of white as they take the bait. Thus they will be
more conspicuous at a distance, making it possible to follow the
direction of their flight.

Your bee detective places the box on a stump or post in a
neighborhood where bees are working. By moving the box at
intervals in the direction of their flight, the youthful hunter
gradually narrows down the distance to the bees' storehouse.

The first customers will usually bring other workers with them.
Individual bees can be identified after a while, and the lessening

262 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

time required to complete the round trip will indicate how much
the distance to the hive is decreasing. Although the youngster will
be overjoyed when he finally locates the store of honey, it is a
wise precaution to have him call on adult help in removing the
honey from the hollow-tree storehouse.

How Bees Use "Glue": When you see a bee purposefully visiting
tree after tree, it may be gathering water from the buds. The other
object of its quest may be a brown resinous material— called
"propolis" or "bee glue"— that these insects use for smoothing
rough places in the hive. This assignment is given to young bees
on their first flights.

Pollination by Messenger Service: Later on, the bees set about
collecting pollen and finally nectar. They knead the pollen into
a little ball and tuck it into a cavity on the hind leg; they obtain
nectar by extending their tongue into a flower and sucking the
fluid. There are some species of clovers and other plants with
long-tubed corollas that depend completely on bumblebees and
other long-tongued species of bees for pollination.

Western fruitgrowers keep colonies of bees in the great orch-
ards for fertilizing the fruit-tree blooms. (Some owners rent the
bees for this purpose.) Honeybees are more valuable to man in
this way than they are as producers of honey and beeswax.

What Goes On In A Beehive: Many children are familiar with
the beehives provided by people to keep bee colonies and to take
advantage of the bees' honey production. This kind of hive
usually has one lower story, in which the frames are used both
for the brood and for storing honey which the bees use in winter.
There are one or more upper stories with additional frames for
storing honey.

As they would do in a natural hive, the bees house their brood
in the lower section, then work hard filling the top part with
honey. Beekeepers remove the upper frames as they are filled.
Small sections of each frame, containing about a pound of honey,
are taken out in the form you buy them in at the store. The
honey is removed from the larger frames and sold in liquid form.

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 263

How Bees Make Honeycombs: To store honey, honeybees man-
ufacture cells from wax produced by certain glands in their
bodies. (Bumblebees do this also. Many species make their cells
of wood, leaves, or earth.)

The making of a honeybee comb is an amazing example of
co-operative effort. A group of bees begin by forming a living
curtain of their bodies, each one holding on with its forefeet
to the hind feet of the bee above. After they have remained in
that position for some time, little plates of wax appear on each
insect's abdomen. They then chew the wax and form it into a
comb.

The Bee's "Honey Stomach": The nectar that the bees take from
flowers becomes honey in the insects' "honey stomach." This
organ is not involved in ordinary digestion; the nectar is mixed
in the honey stomach with secretions from glands that cause
chemical changes. The cane sugar of nectar, for example, turns
into the fruit sugar of honey— a form that we can digest more
readily.

Money From Honey: Keeping honeybees is a hobby that may
be made to pay dividends. Some people are successful at housing
them in relatively small back yards, so long as there are nearby
meadows to which the insects can fly. Bees need comparatively
little care, but before you purchase a swarm or hive, you will
do well to seek advice either directly from an expert or from
literature on the subject.

Some Unpopular Insects

Wasps— Clever Papermakers

Proud indeed is the young nature collector who can add
a hornet's nest to his home exhibits. It is a real showpiece— an
impressive example of the skill of the insects often claimed to be
the cleverest of the entire six-footed tribe.

The bald-faced hornet is one of several wasps that manufacture
paper by chewing bits of wood to a pulp and use it to construct
nests sometimes massive in size. Some wasps— like the hornet-
suspend the nest from a branch of a tree or bush, while others

264]

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

attach their homes to eaves or barn roofs— or locate them in
cavities in the ground or in tree trunks.

How the Wasp Builds Its Paper Nest: If you observe these wasps
when they are busy with their home construction, you will see
them flying off in search of weathered wood or cut wood fibers
in a post, an unpainted old building, or a piece of a dead tree
trunk. From something of this sort, a wasp builder bites and
tears the fiber with its mandibles, taking enough to form a pellet
about an eighth of an inch across the middle. It tucks the pellet
under its chin and chews until the wood is sufficiently turned into
a mass of doughy pulp.

STYLES IN WASP ARCHITECTURE

When wasps are mentioned, most of us immediately think of their stinging habits.
Actually, their abilities as builders are far more remarkable. The ''paper" wasp
(upper left) chews wood into paper pulp for its nest. The mud-dauber wasps
(right) mix mud and saliva to mortar their nests.

The insect now returns to the nest and, alighting astride an
unfinished layer of paper, presses down the new ball of pulp,
biting it to fasten it in place. Then the wasp walks slowly back-

The Wonder Jul Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 265

ward, unraveling the ball and fastening it to the layer of paper
below. When the new pulp is all laid out, the wasp runs forward,
then once more backs up, biting the pulp all along the way to
flatten it. While the moisture is drying out, the wasp is off collecb
ing more fiber. As these fibers are collected from a variety of
sources, the color of the paper may vary in different parts of
the nest!

It is usually safe to watch bald-faced hornets or yellow jackets
—which are also papermakers— at work as long as you do not
disturb them. But if you poke into their nest or meddle with
their activities, you will quickly discover the origin of the phrase,
"mad as a hornet."

Wasp Homes of Mud: Paper nests are not the only kind built by
wasps. Your observant youngster may come across cartridge-shaped
cells made of mud and attached to the walls of garages, barns, or
other buildings— as well as many out-of-the-way "unlikely" places.
Such cells are constructed by mud-dauber wasps.

At first there is only one cell, about an inch long; but soon an-
other is added next to it, and before the builder is finished there
may be half a dozen more. On a hot summer day you may catch
sight of these wasps collecting little balls of mud at the side of
a puddle of water. You can even set up an observation post by
forming a mud puddle there.

The Wood-Eating Termites

Most children know about these notorious insects, and
the damage they do to wooden structures; but few people get to
see these creatures. Termites live in the dark seclusion of tunnels,
and the first intimation of their presence may come when a fence
falls down or a wooden step gives way. (They have also been
known to eat through table tops and window frames!)

The one time you are likely to see them in the light of day
is on the occasion of the marriage flight of a colony. Then swarms
of these insects— the male and female winged forms— may emerge
from walls, porch supports, or anywhere near the wood founda-
tions of a house.

266 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

Though termites are often called "white ants," they belong to
an entirely different order of insects. It is easy to recognize them
by their shape; termites are broad where the thorax and abdomen
join. They do not have the indentation or * 'waist" that all ants
have. The worker and soldier termites are almost colorless and
blind. The winged females and males, the future queens and
kings of new colonies, are dark-colored and have eyes. Actually
termites are more closely related to roaches than to ants.

How Termites Digest Wood: Nearly any child can tell you that
termites "eat wood," but few of us are aware of the strange alli-
ance that makes it possible for them to live on this "food." Each
termite harbors numerous tiny one-celled animals that break
down the cellulose content of wood into digestible substances.
If you were to place a termite in a temperature high enough to
kill its minute parasites, it might continue to eat wood but would
derive no nourishment; before long it would die of starvation!

Flies— Carriers of Disease

We all dislike and mistrust flies. They are generally targets
for destruction rather than objects of study. But despite all our
efforts to wipe them out, they are so extraordinarily successful
in surviving that they become objects of interest for that very
reason. There are many species of flies, but probably the most
familiar— perhaps the most familiar of all insects— is the common
housefly.

A Generation A Month: The difficulty of keeping houseflies in
check is easy to understand once we are aware of the rate at
which they produce their young. The female lays a mass of from
twenty-five to about a hundred eggs at a time. In less than a day
these hatch into tiny white maggots about as large as the point
of a pin. The maggots— actually larvae— mature in four or five
days, then enter the pupa stage which lasts another five days or
so. The full-grown fly now appears.

Shortly after, the mother of this brood may lay another mass
of eggs; and the new generation begins producing young of
its own within a few days after becoming adults. As long as warm

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 267

weather lasts, generations follow each other from within two
weeks to a month.

The arrival of cold weather destroys the adult flies, eggs, and
larvae. The pupae in their protective shells survive, remaining
inactive during the winter. With the onset of warm weather they
quickly complete their development, and the same process begins
all over again. The average life of an adult is from two to three
weeks; some live considerably longer.

The Fly's Cleaning Routine: If you have ever watched a fly clean-
ing itself, you must have wondered at its reputation for filthiness.
Its grooming is remarkably thorough. First it rubs its front feet
together briskly so that the hairs on one leg act as a brush for the
other leg; then the fly nibbles at the front feet with the rasping
disk it has in lieu of teeth.

Next the creature gives its whole head an energetic scrubbing
with its clean front feet. It pulls forward its middle pair of legs,
one at a time, and brushes and nibbles them. Finally its hind feet
are used to clean each other and to brush its wings and most of
its body.

All this careful grooming is deceptive, however, as far as pro-
tecting our health is concerned. Flies breed in manure and the
odors of fermented or decayed plants and animals have a special
attraction for them. Harmful germs cling to their feet and are
deposited in food on which they may alight. Typhoid fever and
amebic dysentery are among the many diseases they are known to
spread. It is true that many kinds of flies render important service
as scavengers and exterminators of other objectionable insects;
but credit is given them grudgingly, if it is given at all, because
their relatives are so unpopular. \

The Fly's Wing Structure: Flies differ from most other adult
insects in having a single pair of wings^instead of two pairs.
(Dragonflies, mayflies and others with four wings are not really
flies.) Nevertheless they seem able to keep flying indefinitely, as
you will notice when you chase one with a swatter. Hind wings
are replaced by short stalks, or knobs, which are important in
balancing them as they fly.

268 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

How Flies Walk Upside Down: You can observe, too, how a fly
crawls up walls, windows, and across a ceiling as easily as it walks
across the floor. Two tiny claws on the last segment of each foot
aid it in walking on rough surfaces. It also has on each foot two
small flat pads covered on the lower side with tiny hairs. These
hairs give out a sticky fluid which effectively holds the insect on
slippery surfaces and upside-down positions. It is these hairs
that retain the great number of germs carried by flies.

Bloodthirsty Mosquitoes

As in the case of the bee's sting, the feature of the mosquito
that chiefly interests children is this insect's bite. But while many
bees are highly useful to man, little but trouble can be expected
from mosquitoes. In the humid tropics they are the dreaded
carriers of such diseases as malaria and yellow fever. The relatively
harmless and very abundant salt-marsh mosquitoes of the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts inflict painful bites but do not transmit disease.
The female mosquitoes, like the female bees, are the trouble-
makers; the female of most species has piercing-sucking mouth
parts and its thirst for blood makes it a great pest for man and
beast. Some males have an elongated "beak," but it is not suited
for piercing skin. They live on the juices of fruits and plants.
It is the females, too, that "sing" by vibrating thin hard projec-
tions that lie across their breathing pores.

How Mosquito Eggs Develop: Mosquito eggs can hatch only in
water. Even small puddles are good breeding grounds. Where
eggs have been laid on dry land, a hard rain may provide sufficient
moisture for them to develop. The water must remain standing
long enough— from two to three weeks— for egg, larva, and pupa
stages to be completed if an adult is to emerge. If a puddle dries
up in less time, the insects die.

A female mosquito lays a mass of from fifty to several hundred
eggs. The larvae that develop from these eggs are aptly known
as "wrigglers." The pupae, or "tumblers," are also lively in the
water and move about lashing their tail-like abdomens. Though
they require no food, they must have air, and frequently come

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 269

to the surface of the water to inhale through their short breathing
tubes.

Crane Flies: Often a child believes that he has discovered a giant
mosquito when he sees a long-legged, gangling creature awkwardly
drifting through the air. The chances are it is a crane fly— an
absolutely harmless insect. In spring and autumn you may see
large swarms of crane flies dancing a few feet above the ground
or water.

The Dragonfly— Beautiful, and Useful Too

"Devil's Darning Needle" and Other Nicknames

Though the dragonfly is one of the most beautiful of all
insects, and harmless as well, it may terrify a small child who has
heard some of its nicknames and the old fables in which they
originated. "Devil's darning needle" recalls the old superstition
that this insect can sew up children's ears; "mule-killer" reminds
us that the dragonfly was once believed to kill livestock. The
name "snake-doctor" was inspired by the weird notion that it
brought dead water snakes to life.

An Underlip With Claws: However, "mosquito hawk" is a well-
deserved title, for dragonflies in their nymphal stage (spent in
water) eat quantities of mosquito larvae. As an adult, a dragonfly
catches all sorts of insects on the wing— flies, honeybees, butter-
flies, and sometimes other dragonflies smaller than itself. The
nymph has a long underlip that folds back between its front
legs. When it approaches a victim this lower lip shoots out
rapidly and grasps the prey with two claws that form a pair of
pincers at its end. Though it is a serious threat to mosquitoes
and other insects, the dragonfly neither stings nor bites people.

The Metamorphosis of the Dragonfly: If yours is a family of early
risers, you may some day thrill to the memorable sight of a
dragonfly emerging from its nymph. You would have to go
exploring along the edge of a pond about six o'clock of a summer
morning and watch carefully for one of the grotesque nymphs

270 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

crawling out of the water, up a tree trunk, water plant, or other
support.

Sure of its support, it now strains at its armor-like covering until
the skin of its back splits along its length; then very carefully
it begins to pull its soft body from the shell. When this has been
accomplished, the two pairs of transparent, glistening wings
expand and harden. Sometimes these wings are beautifully tinted
in 'blue and brown. The insect has an elongated body, and its
great, compound eyes cover almost the entire surface of its head.

The Damsel Fly: It is quite a puzzle to distinguish the dragonfly
from its close relative the damsel fly. They are alike in many
ways, but the dragonflies have larger bodies and are stronger fliers.
Also, the dragonfly always holds its wings outstretched when rest-
ing, whereas a damsel fly holds its wings together over its back.

Insects that Live in the Water

The Whirligig— "Lucky Bug"

Summer outings are a lot more fun for your children if
they can make the acquaintance of some of the odd little creatures
found in ponds and streams. One of the most easily observed is
the whirligig, a dark, small beetle. You may see the whirligig
spinning or skating in circles on the surface of the water. It is
known by such charming nicknames as "lucky bug," "submarine
chaser," and "write-my-name."

Usually you find whirligigs in groups, sometimes made up of
hundreds of individuals. If they are alarmed, they make a sudden
dive to the bottom. They prefer shade to bright sunshine and
may sometimes be found out of water, resting on sticks or rocks.

The whirligig's eyes are worth special notice; each is divided
so that the upper half looks into the air while the lower part
looks down into the water! Its legs are also specialized, the middle
and hind ones being broad and oarlike, while the front pair are
long and slender. Another strange feature of the whirligig is that
if you hold one in your hand for a time, you will find it gives off
a white milky fluid with a smell recalling that of ripe apples.

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [271

This accounts for such local names as "apple bug" and "vanilla
bug."

The Speedy Water Strider

Water striders, usually found in fresh or brackish water,
have very long slender middle and hind legs. It is difficult to
capture them, as they skate away with great speed. The middle
pair of legs propel this bug over the water while the hind pair
steer. Its color is a dull dark brown above, with a silvery-white
underside.

The Upside-Down Bug

Another water insect, the back swimmer, is named for
its habit of swimming on its back, which is shaped like the bottom
of a canoe. You may first notice it as it hangs head downward in
the water; but when it is alarmed, it propels itself swiftly away
—bottom side up!— pushing with its hind legs.

The more common species are about half an inch long, and
have enormous compound eyes. The back, which you do not
see when they are swimming, is pearly-colored; the underside,
which you do see, is darker. The back swimmer is easily con-
fused with the water boatman, which is quite similar in appear-
ance; but the boatman is smaller and never swims on its back.
All these bugs, with the exception of some wingless water striders,
fly at night and are strongly attracted to lights.

The Caddis Fly and Its PROTEcrrvE Covering

Among the fascinating population of ponds and streams
there are some creatures which, like the dragonfly, spend their
early life in the water and then, as adults, proceed to live on land
and in the air. Look in shallow pools for one of the most interest-
ing of these. At first you may see what appears to be a stick, one
or two inches long and half an inch around. If it starts to move
itself along the bottom or up the stem of a plant, you know it is
"animal" rather than "vegetable."

This is the larva of a small mothlike insect called the caddis
fly. Many caddis fly larvae make cases of pebbles, sticks, or other

272 ]

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

materials, as a protective covering for their caterpillar-like bodies.
Those that use sticks are said to construct "log cabins." More
commonly they use sand or bits of vegetable matter which adhere
to their bodies with silk produced by certain glands.

THE CADDIS FLY -NATURE'S MASTER BUILDER

In the larval stage this small mothlike insect, living at the bottom of a pond or
stream, builds a case about itself from bits of plants or pebbles. (Both types are
pictured underwater.) The cases, held together with gluelike silk provided by the
creature's secretions, are remarkable for their skillful construction.

Still another interesting product of some caddis worms is a
silken net. The insect anchors this so that the cup-shaped interior
faces upstream. Thus the net serves both as protection against the
current and as a food trap for the caddis worm that fashioned it.

The caddis fly emerges from its pupal form in a manner differ-
ent from that of most water insects. The usual way is for them
to leave the water before they attain adult form; but the caddis
fly emerges at the bottom of the stream and swims to the surface.

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 273

There it usually grasps some object, climbs on it and waits for
its wings to dry.

The Fisherman's Friend: A knowledge of these interesting insects
is of practical value to the child or grown-up who wishes to do
"fly-fishing" in ponds and streams. As part of this fascinating
sport the fisherman uses nymphs, "wet flies," and "dry flies" to
duplicate the caddis fly in all its stages. He may make these with
such materials as bits of feather and hair; but even if he buys
them commercially, he ought to have a knowledge of the fly and
its habits in order to make the best use of his bait.

How to Keep Water Insects at Home

Housing the Captives

One of the most enjoyable ways for a child to observe the
activities and development of water insects is to have an insect
aquarium. You can keep a few specimens in jars or buckets; but
a rectangular glass aquarium, which is available at a pet store,
makes a much better home because you can reproduce the crea-
tures* natural surroundings in miniature.

Cover the bottom with a layer of sand about an inch and a
half thick, first taking the precaution of baking it to kill any
bacteria. Next, fill the aquarium about two-thirds full with water;
then plant water cress, eel grass, chara, or other green plants, an-
choring them securely in the sand. If you expect to house nymphs,
you will want to have sticks fastened at the bottom of the aquarium
and extending a few inches over the surface of the water; when the
nymphs are ready to be transformed into winged adults, they can
crawl on the sticks.

Capturing Water Insects: To collect specimens, use a large kitchen
strainer or a net smaller than the type employed for collecting
insects in the air. At a shallow edge of a pond, where the reeds
are plentiful, sweep the net a few inches above the muddy bottom.
Examine your catch and drop interesting-looking specimens into
various jars, adding some of the pond water. Try to keep different
kinds separate as a precaution against any flesh-eating species
devouring their fellow captives on the way home.

274 ] ^^^ Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

How to Feed Water Insects: When you collect your specimens, it
is wise to take extra insects to serve as food. You can also obtain
food by sweeping an insect net through weeds and tall grass.
Often the flesh-eating nymphs will eat tiny bits of meat. This
should be tied to a string and pulled out again if it has not been
eaten by the next day. If you wish to keep both flesh-eating and
plant-eating species, you will need more than one aquarium.

An insect aquarium should be located in a bright spot, but
not directly in the sunlight. Keep the inner sides of the glass
cleaned with a piece of flannel wrapped about a stick. This will
give you good "observation windows" through which to see a
caddis worm building, a dragonfly nymph snatching at prey with
its long, hinged lip, or the tiny larva of a whirligig creeping
stealthily over the bottom as it looks for other larvae to eat. And
if you successfully keep them to maturity, you will have the added
thrill of observing them transformed from underwater "per-
sonalities" to winged creatures of the air.

Insect Oddities

The Gauls— Weird Homemakers

Insects provide many of nature's most remarkable oddities.
You have discovered one of them when you observe a curious
"bump" or ball on a plant stem or flower, reminding you of a
large nut growing on a tree branch or leaf. It may be greenish,
brown, pink, or red. If you were to cut open one of these bumps,
you would discover an insect larva at its center. This identifies
it as a **gall," the home of a growing creature that will develop
into a small wasp, fly, or moth.

The young nature observer is likely to be puzzled by the im-
prisoned larva. "How does it get in there? I don't see any opening
from the outside."

How a Gall Insect Develops: Actually, the larva doesn't "get in";
its home grows about it! Let us follow the life cycle of one of the
common gall insects— a very small wasp responsible for the "oak
apple." In early spring we see it deposit its eggs on the leaf of a
scarlet oak. When one of these eggs develops into a legless and

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 275

almost colorless larva, we note an immediate change in the leaf.
Vegetable fibers start to grow, radiating out from the little grub.
As this process goes on, a thin smooth crust forms around the
outer edges.

Now the "oak apple" is formed, and the insect larva is com-
pletely surrounded by food and protected by its globular house.
Here it eats, completes its growth, changes to a pupa, and at last
emerges as a wasp, no more than a quarter-inch in length.

Remarkable Types of Galls: The "apple oak" is but one of the
many kinds of galls. Thus, you may frequently see two different
types on goldenrod stems. One of them, made by a grub that
becomes a fly, is spherical in shape; the other, which is spindle-
shaped, develops into a tiny moth.

Then there are the willow cone galls, produced by a little
gnat. It lays its eggs on the tip of the bud of a twig. This stops
the further growth of the twig, stunting the leaves into small scales
which overlap in rows around the larva. The very pretty galls
which you may find on wild rosebushes somewhat resemble small
chestnut burs but are pink and green when young. Later they
turn brown.

Collecting Galls: In wintertime, collecting galls makes a fine out-
door activity. Many of them are dead and deserted by then, to be
sure; but in some the grubs are still resting and waiting for the
onset of warm weather. The collector will find it rewarding to
compare styles. A gall may be large or small, globular or spindle-
shaped; its covering may be smooth, shingled, or spiny. You can
succeed in identifying the insect builder once you become familiar
with these variations and the kinds of plants that each insect
characteristically chooses.

The Interestingly Named Ant Lions

The larva of the ant lion, one of nature's most remarkable
oddities, catches its prey in a trap. It is fairly easy to find the
traps it builds, for ant lions live on sandy stretches over most o£

276 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

the United States and southern Canada. As in the case of the gall
insects, the adult forms are undistinguished; it is the larvae,
often called doodlebugs, that attract our attention.

The Doodlebug's Ambush Technique: The doodlebug, plump-
bodied and hairy, is less than an inch long. Its head is small in
proportion to its body— but its jaws are enormous in relation to
the size of its head! It digs a pit in sandy or powdery soil by
shoveling the earth on its head and then with a sharp jerk, throw-
ing it a considerable distance. As it digs, it walks around and
around, always backwards, in ever-widening circles.

Finally a tiny crater is formed, an inch and a half across or
smaller, with the doodlebug buried at the bottom. With only
its head and powerful jaws exposed, it waits for an ant or some
other insect to slip over the edge and slide down. Then it seizes
the victim, makes it helpless by injecting a paralyzing secretion
into it, sucks the juice from its body, and flips the lifeless remains
out of the pit by an upward jerk of its long jaws.

How to Find Doodlebugs: You may be interested in observing
this extraordinary example of how a * 'lowly" creature can capture
its prey by an ingenious trapping technique. You can catch a
doodlebug by finding its crater and scooping your hand under to
bring the insect-excavator to the surface. Place it in a box of
sandy soil and you will quickly see it set to work. If you wish
to see the final act of the drama, you must place ants or other
insects in the box so the doodlebug will not vainly lie in wait.

The Strange Praying MANxros

I know of one little girl to whom the praying mantis will
always seem curious if only because of the way she first became
acquainted with this insect. On an August evening a mantis
alighted on a window sill of her New York apartment! It would
be hard to imagine a more unlikely intruder in such a place than
this queer green creature with its pointed, elfin face and big
round eyes.

The little girl managed to get it into a box and took it to the
American Museum of Natural History in New York in the belief

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

[277

that she had something on the order of a visitor from Mars. There
she learned the true nature of her captive, and also that it was
quite possible to keep a mantis as a pet.

The Preying Habits of the Praying Mantis: In natural surround-
ings mantids are great hunters, capturing by stealth such lively
insects as butterflies, mosquitoes, grasshoppers, beetles, and flies.
The mantis lies in wait with its front legs upraised in a prayerful
pose, and when its prey comes near, it snatches at the victim with
lightning speed. The prey has slight chance of escaping the rows
of sharp spines on the second and third joints of the mantis'
forelegs.

"MUIE-KILLERS" AND ''DEVIL'S HORSES"

These are some of the epithets that have been applied to the praying mantis,
though its forelegs seem to be raised in a devout attitude, the mantis is actually
poised to pounce on its prey. Then, holding its victim in a grip of steel, it devours
it at its leisure. Green or brown in color, this insect is about two inches long.

278 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

How to Feed a Praying Mantis: In captivity a mantis will usually
accept bits of hamburger and other meat as substitutes for living
prey. Mantids vary quite a bit in their eating habits; some are
known to drink milk while others refuse it. They should be
watered every day, and you can do this by sprinkling water on
leaves in their cage. In time they may become tame enough to
drink the water off a spoon.

During the winter, mantids' brownish egg cases, about the size
of walnuts, may be collected from weeds and bushes. In the spring
at least a couple of hundred babies will emerge from one of them.

The Mantis as a Pest Exterminator: The mantids of our southern
states are native to this country, but one species found commonly
in the more northerly regions originally came from China and
Japan, while another is an import from Europe. Both were in-
troduced here by accident; later more were imported for their
supposed value in destroying insect pests. In China they are
sometimes tied by a silk thread near a bedroom window where
they trap flies and mosquitoes.

Walking Sticks— Masters of Camouflage
A youngster must be really sharp-eyed to discover one of
these remarkably camouflaged insects. Aside from the fact that its
coloring blends with the tree bark on which it so often rests, the
ivalking stick has much the same shape as a slender twig. Unless
it moves, you can scarcely tell it is an animal! In North America
you will never see one flying, as all our species are wingless; but
some of the tropical kinds have wings.

When a walking stick is detected and picked up, it is quite
capable of playing dead— sometimes for several hours at a stretch.
Though the largest American species is about six inches long,
including the antennae, some found in India are known to reach
a length of fifteen inches. Some walking sticks are able to grow
a new leg, at least partially, to replace one lost through a mishap.

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

[879

WHICH IS THE WALKING STICK, WHICH IS THE TWIG?

This aptly named insect is one of nature's most amazing examples of camouflage.
Its color follows the seasons: green in springtime, brown in autumn to blend with
the changing hues of the leaves. The walking stick can also play dead for several
hours, if need be. It feeds on leaves, and is active mostly at night.

The Misunderstood Spiders

Most of us think of the classic struggle between the spider and
the fly as a war between two kinds of insects. But the spider is not
an insect at all! Your youngster can discover this for himself if
he watches one closely and counts its legs. The spider has eight
legs— two more than an adult insect. Another distinction is that
a spider has only two major body divisions— the head and thorax
merged into one unit, and the abdomen— whereas an insect has
three. Still another difference is that a spider, unlike an insect,
has no antennae.

The Spider's Poisonous Bite

Spiders are widely misunderstood, much as snakes are.
Many people believe that all spiders should be avoided or killed,
that a spider bite is often fatal. In the United States we must
beware of iust two kinds: the tarantula and the black widow. Even

28o ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

in the case of these two species, the deadliness of the bite has been
greatly exaggerated. If victims are properly treated, they recover
promptly.

It used to be thought that black widows were found only in
the South, but they are constantly being discovered— and always
with great surprise— in New York, Connecticut, and other north-
ern states. The large, hairy tarantula (the banana spider) also
occasionally appears up north, after traveling as a stowaway in a
bunch of bananas. In the tropics tarantulas are constantly on the
prowl among this fruit for roaches and other insect food; so,
chances are strong that a certain number will be moved aboard
ship.

The bite of ordinary spiders is poisonous— that is the way they
kill for food. Some bites cause swelling and irritation, possibly
to the extent produced by a wasp's sting. However, the poison is
usually administered in minute quantities; and few spiders are
strong enough to be able to bite through a human skin even if
they tried.

Styles in Spider Traps

Spiders are past masters at keeping out of sight, but we
have little trouble finding the silken traps they weave. Thus we
rarely see the little house spider that prefers life indoors; still,
we know it has been about when we discover cobwebs in dark
and undisturbed corners. The funnel-shaped webs you may see
spread over the fields if you go for an early-morning walk are the
work of grass spiders.

A close relative of this species frequents cellars, so it is not
surprising to find the same kind of funnel-shaped webs in your
cellar. The most exquisite of all webs are those constructed by the
orb builders, which often do their weaving in gardens or on
porches.

Remote-control Traps: Sometimes you may find an orb weaver
stationed at the center of its web, waiting for its prey; some species
make a habit of this. Others, however, keep themselves hidden
nearby. A spider that remains away from its web rests one of its

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [281

claws on a trap line stretched from the hub of the web. When an
insect enters the trap, the resulting vibration is carried to the
spider, which rushes onto the web and envelops its victim in a
band of silk. It bites the insect either before or after wrapping it,
but usually does not eat it at once unless it is hungry.

How the Spider Ingeniously Avoids its Own Trap: A child may
wonder, even if he has the opportunity to watch this drama being
enacted, why the spider does not become entangled in its own
web. He will understand why, if he knows that a web is made of
two kinds of silk. One kind is inelastic and does not stick to objects
that touch it; the other is very elastic and sticky.

The spokes of the web, the framework, and the guy-lines that
fasten it to surrounding objects, are all of the inelastic silk. How-
ever, the continuous spiral lines connecting the spokes are very
elastic and adhere to anything that touches them. The spider
cleverly runs along the spokes and thereby avoids being tangled
in its own web.

How the Spider Spins an Orb Web: If the spider is unlucky its
web may be destroyed many times during a season. At times the
little weaver may have to construct one every twenty-four hours.
It begins its work on a well-elevated position by spinning a thread
of silk which is soon caught in a passing breeze; the free end is
carried along until it reaches an object to which it adheres. The
spider then draws in the slack, making the line taut. It fastens the
second end and walks across it, doubling its strength with another
line of silk.

The spokes are constructed next, extending outward from a
central point on this bridge line. Now the spider makes a spiral
line a short distance out from the hub of these spokes and attached
to each of them, holding them firm. The spider pulls this line
tight, then continues weaving spiral lines until it reaches what
will be the outer edge of the orb.

Up to this point all the silk has been smooth, tough, and not
sticky. Now elastic, adhesive silk is manufactured as the spider
makes a second series of spirals, this time working from the outer
edge of the web down to the hub. During this process the spider

282 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

cuts the first spirals with its jaws so that these lines fall away from
the web. They have served their purpose as a mere scaffold! If
you look very closely at a web, you may possibly see bits of the
temporary spiral clinging to the spokes.

Built-in Silk Spinner: What the spider succeeds in spinning is so
extraordinary that the result is quite certain to cause an observant
child to wonder just how the silk is produced. This is the explana-
tion: A spider has special spinning organs located near the top
of its abdomen (in contrast to a caterpillar, which has its near the
lower lip) . There are two or three of these finger-like spinnerets,
tipped with many small tubes. The silk is spun from them as a
fluid but it hardens immediately upon coming in contact with the
air.

Spiders in Ambush: Not all spiders construct webs; some kinds
merely lie in wait for their prey. You may find white crab spiders
doing this, though it is not easy to detect one of them. They are
great artists at camouflage, taking on the color of the various
flowers they hide in. Another spider that dispenses with a web
is the trap-door spider, which makes a silk-lined home in the
earth from which to stalk victims.

How to Watch Spiders at Work: You may occasionally succeed
in moving an orb web with its weaver to your home, if it happens
to be attached to a branch that you can break off conveniently.
If you set it on a porch or some other likely place, you can then
observe it at your convenience. However, it is more adventurous
to watch spider traps being prepared in their natural setting.

You may have a chance to do this while you take an evening
walk with your child; late in the day is the spider's usual time
for spinning. You can even plot to have a web built as you look
on. If you find one during the day with its builder lying in wait
nearby, break it quietly and gently so as not to frighten the spider
into running away. Then return to the scene during "building
hours" and you should see a new web under construction.

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 283

Spider Mothers Are Resourceful

Spiders have still another use for their silk. Eggs laid in
the autumn to hatch in the spring need protection from weather
as well as from hungry creatures. Many spiders solve this problem
by spinning elaborate silken sacs for their eggs. Those that make
cobwebs often suspend the sac from the web— or they may place
the sac in a more sheltered spot. Others make nests for their eggs
in folded leaves, or in the crevices of rocks and boards. Another
custom is to nest on stones and cover the nest and eggs with a
smooth, waterproof silken coat.

You may frequently see these little silvery disks as you walk
through the fields in autumn. The large running spiders that you
are most likely to find under stones not only make egg sacs— the
mother attaches the sac to her spinnerets and carries it everywhere.
When the young hatch, they climb on her back and stay with her
for some time.

Cannibal Spiders: Even a mother's care cannot prevent her off«
spring from devouring each other. One of the common orb
weavers, the orange garden spider, makes a very fine sac, about
as large as a hickory nut, in which she may lay five hundred eggs
or more. These hatch early in the winter but the young remain
within the protective walls of the sac. By spring, when the sac
breaks open, only a dozen or so young may emerge. They are
the strong ones that have survived by consuming the rest of the
once-large family.

"Flying" Spiders

Possibly you have had the disconcerting experience of hav-
ing a very tiny spider "fly" in your face on occasion. Particularly
in the spring and autumn great numbers of these eight-legged
creatures sail through the air and, especially to a youngster, it
may seem they are actually flying.

However, if you look closely, you will see that the spiderling
is attached to a long thread— still one more use for silk! Aided by
the thread, it makes use of rising air currents to float from its
hatching place to new territory, well apart from its numerous
and hungry brothers and sisters.

284 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

The Spider's Homemade Parachute: To start its journey, the
young spider climbs up a tall blade of grass or a larger plant.
There it spins a silken thread and sends it out on the air. When
it is long enough, the friction of air currents on it buoys it up-
ward, and the spider, letting go its hold, is off on its journey to
an unknown destination. Usually the flight is ended by the spider's
bumping against an elevated object, but sometimes it helps decide
its own fate by pulling in the streamer till all buoyancy is lost.
'Tlying" spiders have been discovered in mid-ocean!

Flying or ballooning is not the habit of just a few kinds of
spiders. Most species use this means of getting from one area to
another.

Daddy Longlegs

If you observe the habits of this creature which, like the
spider, is almost "all legs," you will find that it does not have
the spider's ways. It does not spin silk, and it lays its eggs under
stones or in crevices but gives them no other protection. Though
it has eight legs and in many other ways resembles spiders, it is
in an animal division of its own. We recognize it quite easily by
its hairlike and remarkably long legs. If our legs were as long in
proportion to our bodies as "daddy's" are to his, we would stand
something like forty feet off the ground!

''Tell Me Where the Cows Are": Some children still learn the
strange old custom of grasping a "daddy" and saying, "Tell me
where the cows are, or I'll kill you." Its waving legs, as the little
creature struggles to get away, are directed to all points of the
compass, so that if there are some cows about, they are sure to
be indicated. To a very young naturalist, this seems a satisfying
experiment! But later he can learn facts about daddy longlegs
that are much more interesting than this fanciful idea.

How "Daddy" Uses His Long Legs: This creature has the power
of regrowing legs if they are broken off. The several pairs are of
varying lengths: The first pair is usually the shortest, the second
pair the longest and the fourth pair next in length. When you
watch "daddy" running you can see that the second pair of legs

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 285

are spread wide apart and keep in rapid motion. Their sensitive
tips serve as feelers and relay information about the nature of
the animal's surroundings. If they pause over something that sug-
gests food, "daddy" stops running to investigate further with the
little feelers (palpi) under its head.

Observing Daddy Longlegs: A daddy longlegs makes a most re-
warding little captive. You can keep one for a while by simply
putting a large glass tumbler over it. Place a few drops of sweet-
ened water within convenient reach of the legs. It is amusing to
watch this odd creature pull one leg at a time slowly through its
jaws, nibbling it clean. A child can also see a little black dot on
top of its body, located between the second pair of legs, which is
apparently an eye! However, by examining it under a magnifying
lens, he will discover that this is a raised knob, with a tiny shining
black eye on either side of it!

''Thousand-Leggers"

Children often call these creatures "bugs"— but they are
neither bugs nor insects of any kind. They are in the same major
grouping of the animal kingdom as insects, but each is recognized
as a separate class in this division. This is quickly indicated by
the fact that centipedes and millipedes have many pairs of legs—
in contrast to the insects, which have three pairs of legs.

More About ''Thousand-Leggers" : Centipedes and millipedes have
two main parts to their body structure: head and body. The
millipede has two pairs of walking legs to each body segment,
whereas the centipede has one pair to a segment. Their size and
number of legs vary according to species, but all species of milli-
pedes have so many legs that we frequently hear them called
' ' thousand-leggers. ' '

We usually find millipedes in damp places, though they may
appear almost anywhere in a garden. They feed on vegetable
matter and they do not bite. If they are disturbed, they roll up
into a spiral.

The centipedes are not so harmless. They have a pair of poison
fangs on the first segment of the flattened body. In northern

286 ] • The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

regions centipedes are small and generally use their poison for
killing insect prey. In tropical regions there are larger species of
centipedes; their bite may have serious consequences for human
victims.

The Lowly Worms

Many a child who digs earthworms for fishing bait thinks he
is collecting "insects." This idea is indeed very far from the truth.
Worms are not closely related to any other creature; in the animal
kingdom they occupy their own major niche, just as distinct as
the division of "vertebrates" to which man belongs.

Scientists have classified the many kinds of worms in three
main groups, and each of these forms one of the eleven major
divisions of the animal kingdom. Some of our most troublesome
parasites, such as tapeworms and hookworms, belong to two of
these divisions— "roundworms" and "flatworms."

How Earthworms Enrich the Soil

In the third group ("segmented worms") we find our friend
the earthworm. "Friend" it is indeed, for earthworms are of im-
mense value to man in growing food. As they move through the
ground they do not push the earth around their bodies as a mole
does; they actually swallow it! Before they expel the earth again,
it is ground fine in the gizzard and lime is added to it in the
stomach.

Earthworms usually plow a foot or more beneath the surface
of the earth, and are constantly bringing subsoil upward. They
also carry down with them from the surface bits of dead leaves,
flowers, and twigs, which enrich the soil as they decay. Charles
Darwin estimated that an acre of garden land in England held
more than fifty thousand earthworms, and that eighteen tons of
vegetable mold passed through each earthworm's body every year!

Tug-of-War: If a child watches a bird tugging at an earthworm,
he may wonder what enables the worm to "hold on." The holding
is done with strong muscles aided by tiny stiff bristles that cling
to the earth. There are four pairs of bristles on each segment

The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders [ 287

(or ring) of the worm's body, except for the first three segments
and the last one. The bristles are aids in crawling as well as
holding.

The Earthworm's Eggs: In the giant earthworms of the tropics
which may grow to a length of six feet, it is easy to see how the
body is composed of segments— one behind the other. On the
common earthworm an extra, saclike ring is formed about the
body toward its tail-end. The worm lays its eggs in this ring, and
then works it forward and over its head. Cast off, the ring becomes
a football-shaped capsule of yellowish brown, no larger than a
grain of wheat. You may sometimes come across such a capsule
in the fields, under stones or sticks, in May or June, before baby
earthworms have hatched from the egg.

Earthworms Are Profitable: With the value of the earthworm
fully recognized, raising worms has become a successful business
enterprise. The earthworms are sold as fish bait to sportsmen
throughout the United States and Canada— and, more important,
they are supplied commercially to farmers who appreciate their
ability to increase the fertility of the soil.

The Insect World— Tiny or Immense

We have come to the end of our exploration of the enchanting
world of insects, spiders, and other small creatures. It is a world
tiny in scale but brimming over with fantastic, "wonder-full"
things to observe: How insects see with their curious compound
eyes, how they walk upside-down, walk backward, swim on their
back, whirl in circles, make music, and change into gorgeous crea-
tures through the magic of metamorphosis; how they make paper,
produce honey, and weave silk; how they kill by piercing, suck-
ing, trapping, entangling, or injecting nerve-killing fluid; how
they build nests, combs, webs— or house themselves by fashioning
a case over their bodies; how they live in huge colonies and fight
in vast armies commanded by queens and served by slaves.

Once you turn from man-made structures of wood, concrete,
and steel, and allow your eyes to dwell on nature and its creatures,
you can never know a boring, empty moment. There is so much

288 ] The Wonderful Ways of Insects and Spiders

to see, so much to be inquired into and understood. Exploring
nature, I have said earlier, is a natural and rewarding outlet for
our children's energy and our own. It opens windows on the world,
through which the tensions produced in all of us by modern liv-
ing may escape. That is what George Orwell, the noted British
novelist and critic, meant when he declared: "I think that by
retaining one's childhood love of such things as trees, fishes,
butterflies and . . . toads, one makes a peaceful and decent future
a little more probable."

CHAPTER

UThe Fascination
of Flowers

G

HiLDREN LOVE things that grow. That is
probably why few toys can ever hold their
attention as long as a garden will. Everything about a garden ap-
peals to them. Planting a seed is a privilege they are ready to fight
for, and day after day they will come back to see if it has begun
to sprout. Watching a bud unfold is another experience that fills
them with wonderment. It is no exaggeration to say that the young-
ster who does not have his own garden or flower box, or just a
single flowerpot, is being deprived of one of childhood's most
treasured possessions.

A child's interest in the plant world is by no means limited to
flowers. Vegetables and flowerless plants, or even grass, will absorb
his attention, too, and he will give them devoted care. What
attracts him to plants is that they are living things, growing, ex-
panding, changing.

Once your youngster becomes fully aware that plants have
life just as animals do, a number of questions are bound to arise
in his mind if he takes nature exploring seriously. Not so easy
to answer as it is to ask is this one: "What's the difference between
plants and animals?"

Plants Move Too: The younger child may be satisfied with the
popular answer— quite oversimplified— that animals are capable of
motion, moving from place to place by their own efforts— whereas

289

290 1 The Fascination of Flowers

plants cannot move. Often this answer will not do for an older
child. As he thinks it over, he may realize that plants do move in
certain ways.

For example: They move upward and outward as part of the
growing process. Some develop runners that creep over the ground.
Violets— and others— shoot their seeds; the dandelion is one of
many plants that parachute seeds to new growing grounds, while
portions of the stems of Florida moss break off and are blown
about by the wind until they alight and start to grow. The water
lily, like numerous other species, closes its petals each night and
opens them again in the morning. (What probably impresses chil-
dren even more is that the water lily floats.)

So we see there is plenty of motion on the part of plants. The
older child will conclude that many characteristics observed in
animals are also present in plants. Both plants and animals move;
both are made up of living cells, are born, breathe, feed, grow,
and reproduce themselves.

How Plants Feed Themselves: There is one vital difference be-
tween plants and animals, however, and that is in the way they
feed themselves. A plant is in effect a factory which produces its
own food by turning nonliving matter into living matter. This
process, one of nature's wonders, is made possible by the green
substance known as chlorophyll.

We often call chlorophyll "leaf-green," as it is found chiefly
in leaves. When this leaf-green is worked on by the action of light
from the sun, chemical changes occur which transform lifeless

(inorganic) matter into life-giving and life-sustaining matter.

(Animals do not have chlorophyll, but we now find it used in all
kinds of products, from toothpaste to dog food, mainly for the
purpose of killing odors.)

The Leaf— Nature's Great Chemical Laboratory

If you examine leaves, you will notice that as a rule they are
a darker green on the upper side than on the underside. The
chlorophyll-bearing cells on the top surface are packed more
closely to catch as much sunlight as possible. (As we have seen.

The Fascination of Flowers [ 29 1

sunlight is one of the "raw materials" needed for making living
matter.)

The "manufacturing" cells are protected on top and bottom
surfaces by a skin, or epidermis, which is perforated with innumer-
able tiny holes. Each hole is surrounded by two guard-cells— the
only surface cells that contain chlorophyll. Through the little
holes the leaf constantly takes in and gives off oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and other gases as well as water vapor. - -

How Chlorophyll Makes Food for Plants

Before the leaf "factory" can operate, it requires one more
item. This is a watery solution, containing many substances, that
originates in the soil, enters the plant roots, works its way up the
stem and at last into the leaf.

Within each leaf, carbon dioxide— much of it comes from the
air we exhale— is separated into carbon and oxygen. In the same
way, water is broken down into oxygen and hydrogen. The leaf
cells combine the carbon with the hydrogen and oxygen into a
form of sugar that will nourish the plant. It is the chlorophyll
that accomplishes this remarkable feat— but it can be done only
when sunlight, or artificial light equal to sunlight, is shining on
the plant.

In the daytime plants are our benefactors by releasing oxygen,
which purifies the air we breathe. At night, though, they give
off carbon dioxide, a gas which is poisonous when it is present
in considerable quantity. (This explains why a room with many
large house plants should be well aired at night.)

A scientist has estimated that during the course of a summer
a single leaf, suitably exposed to sunlight, manufactures enough
sugar to cover itself with a solid layer about one twenty-fifth of
an inch thick— and this is aside from protein and other food
elements!

Plants Turn Toward the Sun: Your house plants will give you a
fine opportunity to observe how leaves are affected by the need
for sunlight, in order to continue feeding the plants. Even a small
child can observe how the location of the leaves at or near the ends
of branches helps expose their surfaces to a maximum of light.

292 ] The Fascination of Flowers

The youngster can also notice the way the plants sometimes
change their position according to the direction of the source of
light— and how, when a new length of stem grows, its young leaf
bends and turns its stalk to escape, as much as possible, the shade
of surrounding leaves. The leaves of nasturtiums, begonias, and
others, are noticeably adept at keeping in a favorable light.

Out-of-doors there are some plants, such as one of the wild
lettuces, which fix their leaves so consistently in a north-south
plane that they are known as "compass plants."

Some "Dew'* Doesn't Fall: Going out-of-doors in the early morn-
ing, a child always notices the dew, with some such exclamation
as, "Look how much dew has fallen!" But like as not the drops
of moisture he calls dew, did not "fall"; they are probably water
that passed out of the grass and leaves as water vapor and con-
densed into drops as it emerged. If the night was humid and cool,
the vapor could not become part of the air as rapidly as it came
out of the leaves.

What Flowers Are For

There is much that a child can learn from house plants, but
the real fun of studying flowers is mostly found outdoors. There
he can watch insects traveling from one bloom to another in quest
of nectar. As he observes flowers in numbers, he will see countless
interesting variations in the shapes and colors of petals and in
the forms of complete flowers. But there is a purpose in flowers
beyond mere looks, beautiful though they are.

A child may be old enough to understand that what flowers
are really for is to continue the life of the plants that bear them;
yet, looking at a blooming garden and with real curiosity in his
voice, he will ask, "How do they?"

How Flowers Develop Seeds

A brief answer is that flowers produce seeds. But before
a flower can produce seeds, it must receive grains of pollen that
will fertilize it. What is involved in the fertilization of a flower?
To answer this question, we must be familiar with the different
parts that make up a flower.

The Fascination of Flowers

[293

(port of corollo)

{portof colyx)

^1
STIGMA r

•STYLE I

_|J istll
{y rith
o rory,

ANTHER "I

(containing >

pollen) I

FILAMENT

stoi nen

A SEED-PRODUCING FACTORY

All seeds are produced by flowers, but there is considerable variation in the forms
of flowers. Not all types have both male parts (stamens) and female (pistil)
within one blossom. Those that do are termed "perfect" flowers. This diagram of a
lily (shown with transparent petals and sepals) illustrates one of them.

Here a difficulty arises: Not all flowers conform to the same
pattern. Suppose, then, we consider the simplest types. One of
these is the "perfect" flower— such as the lily— which has a pollen-
bearing stamen and an ovary in which seeds develop.

The other simple type is a plant which bears two different
types of flowers— the pussy willow is an example; one flower bears
only the pollen-laden stamens while the other flower bears the
ovary. In this case, we might call the flower with the stamens

294]

The Fascination of Flowers

the "male" flower^ while the flower with the ovary is the "female"
flower.

The Parts of a Flower and What They Do: It is a great help, in
understanding how a flower functions, for a child to look at a
diagram in which flower parts are pointed out. If he has a diagram
illustrating a perfect flower (as shown here), he will find:

The ovary— 3. well-protected structure in the center of the
flower. In it are

The ovules— which contain egg cells, destined to become seeds.
(Some ovaries contain a single ovule; others have many ovules.)
The ovary has a rather slender stalk, extending upward, and
known as

The style. At its top, the style expands into a broadened tip with
a sticky surface— a perfect trap for pollen. This expanded tip
we call

PETALS ARE A FLOWER'S CROWNING GLORY

The corolla (meaning ''crown") of a flower may vary in countless ways. It Is made
up of petals, and these have numerous colors and shapes. Sometimes, too, each
petal is separate (as in the lily, left); sometimes they are joined and show
only as separate points (as in the squash flower, center); and sometimes (as in
the petunia, right) there is no separation whatever.

The Fascination of Flowers [ 295

The stigma. The combined stigma, style, and ovary form a
complete pistil.

Also within the flower are

The stamens. A stamen consists of

The filament. This is a slender stalk, on the top of which rests

The anther J which encloses a powder (nearly always yellow)
that we know as

The pollen. The pollen grains are formed by the division of
cells within the anther. In our typical flower the pistil and the
stamens are surrounded by

The corolla, composed of petals. This word, meaning "crown,"
IS well chosen, for the corolla is the most beautiful part of the
flower. In many flowers it is made up of separate petals; in other
flowers— the squash flower, for one— the petals are joined together
and show only as separate points. Then there are still other
flowers— the petunia and morning-glory are among them— which
have a corolla all in one piece, without any separation of the
petals. In any event, the petals are encircled by

The sepals. All together, the sepals make up

The calyx, which serves to protect the flower, especially in its
budding stage. The sepals, which are really specialized leaves,
vary in size, shape, and number in different kinds of flowers.
Often the sepals are green, as on the rose; but sometimes— as in
the case of the tulip— you find them the same color as the petals.
On some kinds of plants sepals fall off as soon as the flower opens;
on many others— roses and apple blossoms, for example— these
leaves remain even after the seeds have ripened.

How THE Seed Starts

The first step in the development of a seed is for pollen
to reach the flower's stigma. The pollen may be blown into the
stigma from the anther of some flower. What happens more
commonly is that an insect, going from one flower to another in
search of nectar, gets pollen on its body and the grains later rub
off on a stigma.

Once a pollen grain has become attached to the sticky surface
of the stigma, it quickly forms a tiny tube much like a root hair.

296 ] The Fascination of Flowers

This tube forces its way down the style to reach an ^gg cell in the
ovule. As soon as the tube makes its connection with the ^^g cell,
the life-germ in the pollen slips through the tube to combine with
the life-germ in the c^g cell. Thus the seed starts, developing on
food furnished by the plant and on warmth given by the sun.

How THE Seed Is Nourished and Protected

A fully developed seed is the embryo of a new plant, with
food stored around it in a form that can be used whenever new
growth begins. One of the amazing things about seeds is that
the stored food remains usable even though new growth does not
start for weeks, months, or even years! (This dormant period
varies, of course, with different kinds of seeds.) The embryo and
the food supply are protected by one or more layers of the ovule.

Nuts and Tomatoes Are "Fruit": In some seeds, such as peas and
beans, the food supply is stored within certain parts of the embryo
itself. In other plants, corn and wheat for example, the food is
stored around, rather than in, the embryo. And still other plants
develop elaborate structures about their seeds. These structures
are called "fruit"— apples and pears are familiar examples. When
a scientist speaks of a "fruit," he may be referring to the ripened
ovary of any kind of plant, be it the pod of a pea, a hard nut, 01
a juicy tomato.

There are many opportunities for examining seeds— for example,
when you are preparing dinner. To a hungry diner, peas, beans,
and corn are food; to a nature explorer, they are seeds! A child
is thrilled to see the first sprouting of the plant embryo after he
plants a few seeds in a glass with moist soil. If the seeds are placed
just inside the glass, they can be seen sprouting.

How Flowers Attract Insects

When a child learns that pollen is transferred from one
plant to another by messenger insects, he may wonder what at-
tracts an insect to flowers— is it their sweet scent or the color of
their petals? This is the kind of problem that scientists still ponder
and sometimes debate about. For many years it was a generally

The Fascination of Flowers [ 297

accepted "fact" that the chief value of color in flowers was to
attract insects.

Scent Is the Attraction: Along came a scientist who had made a
study of the insects' pollinizing role. He pointed out that bees
and other flower-visiting insects have poor vision but a well-
developed sense of smell. He also demonstrated that in addition
to the colors that we can see, some flowers emit ultraviolet rays.
Though these rays are not visible to our eyes, insects can see
the rays as well as, or even better than, the colors which our eyes
perceive. His over-all conclusion was that color is, at most, only
incidentally responsible for bringing insects to flowers.

Since that time, countless observations and experiments have
shown that insects are attracted by the scent of flowers. In the
course of one of his famous experiments, for example, Luther
Burbank worked patiently to develop a petunia that would have
fragrance. He knew that he had succeeded at last when he saw
several bees hovering over one of the plants in a large bed of his
experimental petunias. He quickly verified the fact that this
particular plant's flowers were perfumed.

How Pollen Is Carried from Plant to Plant

It is vital for insects to visit flowers for, as we have seen,
they carry pollen from plant to plant and thus help bring about
the fertilization of flowers. Corn and all other plants known as
"grasses," and most cone-bearing plants— such as pine trees-
depend on the wind to convey their pollen.

Breeding Flowers: But sometimes man takes a hand in pollinating
plants, especially when he wishes to create a hybrid, for a variety
of reasons, by "crossing" the pollen of two different species in the
same family. This may be done to increase the hardiness of a
beautiful but fragile plant, or to make the colors of flowers more
vivid.

Crossing different kinds of plants calls to mind the name of
Luther Burbank. He will undoubtedly be remembered for all
time as the great genius among plant breeders; it was he who made
the science of "training plants to work for man" really practical.

2g8 ] The Fascination of Flowers

He made countless improvements in vegetables as well as
in flowers; bigger and better potatoes, sweet corn that matures
early in the season, luscious blackberries on thornless bushes, and
freestone plums of excellent flavor and texture, are just a few of
them. There is no secret about the methods he used to bring about
his "miracles" with plants. These methods have often been de-
scribed, and a book by Mr. Burbank (Partner of Nature) telling
about his work is exciting reading.

How Seeds Are Scattered

One of the most intriguing aspects of the flower story in-
volves the ways in which seeds are scattered. Many children get
their first notion of seed dispersal when they blow at a dandelion
"gone to seed." Each seed, attached to a filmy parachute, flies away.

Other times, say after a country hike, a youngster may find his
clothes (or his dog's fur coat) covered with sticktights or cockle-
burs seeking transportation with their sharp little hooks. If he
realizes these "burs" are seeds, unconsciously trying to use him
or the dog as a means of reaching new growing grounds, he may
find the job of prying them loose less tedious.

Other Ways That Seeds Travel: Although the seeds that are dis-
persed by the wind are the most conspicuous ones, we can observe
other ways they travel. Some plants, including violets, pansies, and
touch-me-nots, shoot their seeds. Water lilies and several other
water plants bear seeds that manage to float to some desirable
growing spot without becoming water-soaked.

180.000 Seeds from a Plant: Countless seeds are unsuccessful, as a
youngster may realize when he throws the burs into a scrapbasket;
but this is of little importance as the number of seeds borne by
each plant is incredibly large. Charles Darwin reported counting
the seeds of an orchid; he found more than six thousand in a pod.
As there were thirty pods on the plant, the total number of pros-
pective seedlings from this parent would be something like

180.000 1

The Fascination of Flowers [ 299

A Garden of His Own

The modest blooms children raise themselves will easily thrill
them as much as, if not more than, the most spectacular plants to
be seen at a flower show. Window boxes and other indoor planting
can give city youngsters some of the joy of raising plants; but
families with land at their disposal have endless opportunity
for engaging in one of the most solidly satisfying of all occupa-
tions—working in a garden.

An important point for you to bear in mind is that a youngster
may be only casually interested in a family project— whereas if
he is given a small plot of his own, the chances are that he will
tend it with conscientious zeal. He enjoys having the power to
decide what is to grow in that special piece of earth, he finds new
delight in poring over seed packets and catalogues, and he is
stimulated by the challenge of trying to bring his plans to a
successful conclusion. He is not likely to ask for advice or help but
he will probably welcome a little of each if it is offered tactfully.

Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials
In planning his garden, a youngster will find annuals,
biennials, and perennials from which to choose. Most plants that
flower the same season they are sown are usually included with
the annuals in flower books. However, the true annual is a plant
that not only flowers the first season, but, if left to itself, dies in
the fall.

Biennial plants may flower during their first season, but more
often do so the next year. Unless they are given special treatment
by the gardener during their first season, biennials die after their
second season.

Perennials— with the exception of woody types— die down to the
ground in the fall. But the roots continue to live, and new branches
and flower stems are thrown up for years.

Trees, Shrubs, and Herbs

Another interesting point for the young gardener is that
most flowering plants belong to one of three general forms: trees,
which have large, erect stems; shrubs, with stems that are smaller

300 ] The Fascination of Flowers

and bushy; and herbs, with stems that are more or less soft, and
with little woody tissue. We most commonly use the term "herb" to
describe plants valuable for medicinal purposes or for their
flavor or sweet scent. Nevertheless, the majority of flowers (domes-
ticated as well as wild), grasses, and weeds are herbs.

Favorite Flowers

Flowers for A Beginner

If you are a beginner, there are several points you will
want to bear in mind. It is important to have plants that will
thrive with the amount of sun that reaches the plot you are using.
It is fun to have at least a few showy flowers— such as hollyhocks
or salvia— as well as flowers good for cutting. Phlox, dianthus
(pinks) , zinnias, and asters are a few of the many that provide
generous floral decoration for your home. Plants should be ar-
ranged so that those which grow tall will be at the back of the
garden; the lowest ones should be in front, or else grown to form
a border.

Plan Your Color Scheme: Your child can begin to enjoy his garden
well ahead of the planting season if he works out a "theme" for
his plot. It may be an all-yellow color scheme (marigolds, Cali-
fornia poppies, nasturtiums, calliopsis) ; or purple and white
(petunias, asters, baby's breath, hollyhocks) ; or red (salvia),
white (petunia), and blue (ageratum) . These flowers are a few
of the many annuals from which a child should choose to obtain
an abundance of blooms.

Protect the Seeds: If seeds are put in the earth too early they
may freeze or rot. It is therefore advisable to start some annuals—
pansies, for example— indoors or in a protected seed bed, and then
move the young plants to the garden when the weather is suitable.
Many flower enthusiasts eliminate this step by purchasing plants
from commercial growers. Pansy plants produced from seeds
planted outdoors do not bloom until the end of summer.

The Fascination of Flowers [301

Pansies— Perfect for Children

Youthful gardeners can ask for no more delightful flower
than the pansy. Its coloring is beautiful and its markings often
give it an appealing face. The dark spots at the bases of the side
petals and the lines radiating from them suggest eyes and eye-
lashes, the opening of the nectar tube makes a nose, and the
spot near the base of the lower petal will pass for a mouth.

Many varieties of pansies may be easily raised from seed sown
in the spring or early summer, and seedlings may be set out in
the garden in early spring. They do better in shady areas than in
full sunshine.

Pansies Are Ideal for Picking: Children love to pick flowers.
This makes the pansy an ideal plant for a child, as the flowers
should be picked as soon as they open, or shortly afterward. If
the pansy's seeds are allowed to ripen, the plant will bloom for
only a short time, its life purpose having been accomplished.
Persistent picking of the blooms, on the other hand, constantly
produces new buds.

How Bees Help Fertilize the Pansy: The nectar sought by bees
in the pansy is contained in the spur formed by the lower petal
extending behind the flower. As the insect probes the nectar well
with its tongue, pollen from a flower previously visited brushes
off against the stigma. At the same time the bee receives a fresh
coating of pollen dust. Shortly after a pansy has been fertilized,
you can notice the ribbed seed pod becoming prominent. Finally
this opens in three valves, and the seeds are scattered as the edges
of each valve curl inward.

Tulips—The National Passion of Holland

This famous flower was introduced into Europe from the
East in the sixteenth century, and about a hundred years later
became the national passion of Holland. The Dutch growers
speculated in outstandingly beautiful varieties of the tulip as
some people speculate in stocks! Anyone who is familiar with
these lovely flowers will understand the hold they took on Dutch
tulip-fanciers.

502 ] The Fascination of Flowers

Tulips Are Planted in the Fall: Tulips are excellent material
for youngsters who enjoy gardening in every season of the year.
They may be put in the earth during September or October.
Each bulb is formed of several layers of leaves, all of which may
open above ground if the planting is done properly— with the
tip of the bulb pointed upward. The leaf layers are fleshy, for
they contain the food that was stored up during the previous
season. This food nourishes the flower bud in the heart of each
bulb and the other growing parts. The roots, forming a thick
white tassel below the bud, bring minerals and water up from
the soil.

The Tulip's Spring Buds: In the spring, the anxious gardener
first sees his tulip buds appear, protected by three sepals. As
the bud stretches upward and becomes larger, the green of the
sepals changes to the color of the petals. When the flower finally
opens there is no very noticeable difference between petal and
sepal. The sepals are below the petals and stand out around them,
giving the flower a triangular shape. When the sun is not bright,
the sepals partially close about the flower.

Bachelor's-Buttons— Composite Flowers

Most children love this hardy and beautiful plant, often
called the cornflower. It may have special interest for them, too,
if they realize it is one of the "composite" plants— a group in
which different kinds of flowers are attached to one head. Those at
the center of this compound flower head work for the production
of seeds, while the flowers surrounding the center serve merely to
attract insects.

The bachelor's-button usually has from seven to fourteen mar-
ginal flowers and they may be white, pink, blue, or purple. Each
of the center flowers has a white corolla tube, enlarged toward
the upper end to a purple bulb, and a purplish anther tube which
is bent far over so that its tip opens toward the middle of the
flower head.

The Fascination of Flowers [ 303

Garden Geraniums—Butterflies' Favorite

On no other flower will you see a more obvious nectar well;
that of the geranium extends almost the whole length of the
flower stalk. The long narrow nectar tube explains why you often
see butterflies on geraniums; this shape is especially suitable for
the long-tongued insects.

Some of these plants are called "horseshoe" geraniums because
of the horseshoe pattern on many of the leaves. Botanically they
are not true geraniums, being the descendants of the pelargonium
—a plant that was brought to England from South Africa more
than two hundred years ago. These African plants were the ances-
tors of many of our popular garden geraniums. Other varieties
have been bred; Luther Burbank, for example, created the now
popular crinkled-leaf species from a single wild geranium plant
that did not have the customary smooth-edged leaves.

Seeds Spread by Explosion: Some geraniums have depended for
so long on man for planting that they have almost lost the
power of producing seed. However, in the single blossoms you may
sometimes discover the ovary changed into a long beaklike seed
pod— a feature that reveals its relationship to the wild geranium.
The seeds are dispersed by an explosive action of the pod.

How Geraniums Open: It is interesting to watch geranium flow-
ers opening. Several buds are grouped together in a nest of spe-
cialized leaves known as "bracts." Besides having this protection,
each bud is individually guarded by its own sepals. As the flower
stalk grows longer and droops from the weight of the buds, the
bracts often fall off. In each mass of drooping buds, the ones in
the center open first. It sometimes happens that by the time
those on the outside are in bloom the center flowers have begun
to wither.

Nasturtiums and Their Remarkable Method
OF Pollination

The most remarkable aspect of the nasturtium is its special
method of pollination. The five beautiful petals are set around
the mouth of the long tube leading to the nectar well. The two

304 ] T^he Fascination of Flowers

upper petals are erect, suggesting colorful display signs. They are
marked with lines that point toward the opening of the nectar
tubes. The lower petals stand out to form a landing platform for
visiting insects.

Despite this, the flower is not actually designed for hospitality;
it can accommodate only big insects such as sizable bees or butter-
flies for its pollination work, and it is able to thwart smaller, use-
less creatures that might creep into its treasure house of nectar.
Each of the lower ''landing" petals narrows to a fine strip at its
inner end, making it in effect a footbridge to the nectar tube.
These bridges are covered with projecting fringes and numerous
little spikes that prove an effective barrier to any small creeping
visitors.

Mechanized Pollination: When a nasturtium first opens, its several
stamens are all bent downward. But when the pollen-containing
anthers— located at the end of each slender stalk of a stamen
—are ready to function, the stalk lifts up so that it is directly
in the path of the nectar store. When a bee or butterfly, or oc-
casionally a hummingbird, touches the stamens, it is sometimes
bombarded with pollen. Equally remarkable is the action of the
anther: No sooner has it discharged its pollen than it shrivels,
making way for a new anther.

While all this is going on, the flower's three-lobed stigma lies
quietly below and behind the anthers. (The stigma is located
on the prolongation of the ovary known as the style.) But, once
all the pollen has been shed, the stigma rises up and opens. Now
the stigma operates like a three-pronged fork, and as more insects
come in quest of nectar, it rakes pollen from them. Thus the
ovary is fertilized and the seeds are ready to develop.

Petunias and Their International Background

Profusely blooming petunias are so much a part of our
American garden scene that it comes as a surprise to us to learn
that they have an international background. They are the result
of a cross between two species of plants from different parts of
South America. The first of these, with long-tubed white flowers,
was brought to Europe a little more than a hundred years ago.

The Fascination of Flowers [ 305

Shortly afterward seeds of the second species, having small, broad-
tubed, red-purple flowers, were sent to the Glasgow Botanical
Gardens where the two species were brought together. Today we
find petunias of many colors, but red-purple and white still pre-
dominate.

Pollen for Petunias: The petunia's wonderful arrangement for
pollination is one of the marvels of nature. Near the bottom of
the long tube lies the stigma, with two well-developed anthers
in front of it and two more— not quite so advanced— behind it.
The stalks that support the front anthers are longer than those
of the second pair. There is still another anther— a fifth— on a
stalk shorter than all the others. This is apparently a little pollen
supply held in reserve by the flower.

For about half its length, each stamen is attached to the base
of the flower's tube. The rest of the stamen curves abruptly in-
ward. This makes it snuggle up to the pistil, the base of which
is set in the nectar well at the bottom of the flower. When an in-
sect pays a visit, its tongue reaches along the flower tube toward
the nectar and it presses against the stamens at the point where
they curve. This causes the anthers to move about, and as they
move their pollen is shaken off on the insect!

In an older petunia the stigma, standing above the empty
anthers, opens into two lobes and is ready to receive pollen from
other flowers.

The Petunia and the Hummingbird Moth: The most notable in-
sect partners of petunias are the sphinx or hummingbird moths,
which can often be seen hovering over these flowers in the early
evening. Petunias are members of the "nightshade" family, which
also includes the tomato, the potato, and tobacco. Hummingbird
moths are distinctly partial to all these plants.

Poppies—They Fascinate Bees

The poppy is distinctly a bee's flower. The insects ap-
parently delight in wallowing in the pollen that lies along the
ridges of the flower's pistil.

This pistil resembles a tiny vase with a circular cover. After

3o6 ] The Fascination of Flowers

a poppy has been fertilized, the circular cover develops a scalloped
edge. Sharp ridges run from the center of each scallop down the
length of the vaselike pistil. These ridges are the outer edges of
partitions. Countless seeds develop inside these partitions and,
when ripe, they fall into the hollow capsule which forms the
center of the pistil.

The Poppy's Seed-Shaker: An observant child is charmed to see
how poppy seeds make their way in the world. As each segment
of the capsule loosens at the top and curls back from the circular
cover, openings are formed. The upshot is that the *Vase" has
been made into a perfect seed-shaker. When the wind blows on
it, or when it is brushed by any passing creature, the contents—
the seeds— are sprinkled a little at a time in all directions.

There are a great many varieties of poppies, but only four
species are commonly cultivated: the corn poppy and the opium
(both of them annuals); the arctic and the oriental (both
perennials) .

The California poppy in its native setting blooms abundantly
from February to April in the desert and the foothills. In gardens
in the East you can see the shining orange flowers from mid-
summer until frost arrives.

Irises— Large and Showy

The large, showy iris, also called "blue flag," is another
plant favored by bees. It has an interesting shape because of its
unique style, which is divided into three branches so large and
broad that they appear to be petals. These branches combined
with the sepals form a tunnel through which bees pass. Between
the sepals and the style are the true petals, marked with decora-
tive purple lines.

How the Bee Maneuvers on the Iris: The bee uses the lip of a
sepal for its landing platform, then pushes forward through the
tunnel to the nectar well. As the insect moves, pollen that it has
collected from another flower is rubbed off against the stigma,
which hangs like a tent flap above the nectar well. The stigma is
so fashioned that it gathers pollen from an incoming insect but
turns a blank side to the departing visitor.

The Fascination of Flowers [ 307

The small solitary bees are persistent callers; so are bumblebees
and honeybees, though they seem to prefer different varieties of the
iris.

Roses—The World's Most Popular Flowers

It has been said that children see so many roses that they
take them for granted. I doubt that this is really their attitude,
as so many of them choose roses when asked to write aboutjJifiir
favorite nature subject. Certainly the rose appears to be the
world's most popular flower. It is grown wherever gardening
is practiced, in all temperate climates and in some tropical regions
as well. It is also believed to be the oldest of cultivated flowers.

Though no flower is more readily identified, many people are
perplexed by the question, "What is a rose?" Looking for an
answer, we may be inclined to find more sense than nonsense
in Gertrude Stein's famous statement, "A rose is a rose is 9
rose"; for the rose has endless varieties and it is neither an ordinary
seed plant nor a tree. There are single blooms, having only one
row of showy petals, and double blooms with their rows of petals
arranged in regular sequence or in loose informal patterns.

Five Thousand Varieties of Roses: The roses* bright colors cover
a wide range from white, through delicate pink, yellow to rich
tones of red. As to size, they vary from dime-small miniatures to
exhibition blooms seven inches and more across. Believe it or
not, in the United States alone there are more than five thousand
varieties, each differing in some detail. The plant is a woody
shrub which may stand erect or climb on supports. It has an
extensive root system that sometimes goes as deep as twenty feet
into the ground.

Roses and Strawberries Are Relatives: Aside from the innumer-
able kinds of roses produced in gardens, there is the simple but
very beautiful wild rose with its broad blossoms that display
five pink petals. On a wild rose or a full-blown garden rose you
can easily see the great number of stamens, about twenty, as a
rule, a characteristic feature of the whole family. Usually there
are a great many pistils also.

3o8 ] The Fascination of Flowers

Many of our common fruits belong to the rose family; the
plants include the creeping strawberry as well as the sturdy black-
berry bush and apple tree. Though these plants differ considerably
in size and general appearance, their blossoms have a great
similarity to the rose.

Chrysanthemums—Japanese Favorite

The chrysanthemum has a double flower head, numerous
petals, and lovely coloring (generally red, yellow, and white) .
It gets wide publicity every fall as the star attraction of countless
flower shows. But it is not only the spectacular prize-winning
varieties that merit popularity. There are many kinds that will
flourish without highly skilled care, bringing fresh beauty to our
gardens in the fall when most flowers are dying.

Until fairly recently "mums" could be grown in northern
climates only inside a greenhouse; but now we have hardy types
that bloom out-of-doors through light frost. These perennials
usually survive the winter, and each spring you can separate the
new growths and replant them. Thus your chrysanthemum dis-
play can expand considerably from a very few plants.

Two Thousand Years of Chrysanthemums: Two thousand years
ago, a chrysanthemum much like a colored daisy was a popular
garden flower in Japan. (A figure of a sixteen-petaled chrysanthe-
mum is used as the crest of the Japanese imperial family.) Early in
the eighteenth century some of these flowers were brought to
England, and China and India contributed other species. English
gardeners and plant breeders went to work with them and in less
than a hundred years produced new varieties bearing flowers
three times as large as any of the originals.

Dahlias— They Grow Even on Ash Heaps

The dahlia, a reddish flower that originated in Mexico
and Central America, is a popular show flower. Because of their
size and beauty, you might suspect that dahlias are difficult to raise.
The fact is, though, that dahlias are adaptable to almost any kind
of soil, if it has been properly prepared.

The Fascination of Flowers [ 309

Clayey soil may be lightened with coal ashes or sand, plus
vegetable matter and manure. A light sandy loam will produce
healthy plants and exquisite blooms; gravelly fields have been
known to support fine dahlia beds; and a plant may even be
found growing in an ash heap where a tuber (the underground
stem) has been discarded.

How to Protect Dahlia Seeds: You can raise dahlias from stem
cuttings as well as from tubers. For a real gardening adventure,
your youngster may enjoy trying to develop new dahlias from
seeds. The project begins at the height of the blooming season,
when he must be on the lookout for any particularly large, rich-
colored flower. This should be tagged 'Tor Seed," so that it will
not be picked.

The chosen flower must now remain in the garden until insects
have carried pollen to it and it "goes to seed." When the flower
shrivels and turns brown, you tie a small paper bag over it so that
you can save the seeds if the seed pod bursts.

How to Plant Dahlia Seeds: Late fall is the time for you to gather
the. seeds, drying them and storing them in an airtight bottle.
Early in May you plant them in a box with one part soil to two
parts sand mixture. When seedlings appear about two weeks
later, transplant them to a sunny spot in the garden.

Until the buds finally open, the young gardener will go through
the suspense of wondering whether they will be double or single
flowers and what their color will be. It all depends on what pollen
was carried to his flowers during the previous season.

Indoor Gardening

If you live in an apartment and cannot have a garden
outdoors, you and your child can share the rich pleasures of
starting a garden indoors. Bulbs are especially suitable. (Bulbs
are buds made up of a stem surrounded by leaves.) You can buy
them inexpensively at many department stores, hardware stores,
or florist shops.

Narcissus Bulbs Are Easy to Grow: The narcissus, a popular favor-
ite with yellow or white varieties, need only, be supported in a

g lo ] The Fascination of Flowers

shallow dish with pebbles or bits of broken shell, and given just
enough water to show through the pebbles.

Unaided, a youngster can easily prepare a dish for a narcissus
bulb, and will be thrilled at having something his very own. To
enhance his enjoyment, a narcissus grows rapidly and thus re-
wards daily watching. Care should be taken when watering that
water does not leak in where old leaves have broken off, as this
causes a bulb to rot.

.. When it is first planted, the bulb should be kept in a dark
cool place until its roots have formed. Outdoors this would take
from eight to twelve weeks, but indoors only a few weeks are
required. The plant should then be brought into sunlight gradual-
ly, being kept away from drafts. Two or three weeks will elapse
before a flower appears.

Hyacinth, Tulip, and Crocus Bulbs: Such bulbs as hyacinths and
tulips do better in soil. As bulbs have a built-in food supply, the
soil need not be rich. Sandy garden soil well mixed with {>eat
moss is excellent. A hyacinth bulb should be placed so that its
top projects over the top of the pot; a tulip bulb should have
its top level with the top of the soil. As for crocus and other small
bulbs, they should be covered with an inch of soil.

If you keep the bulbs in a cool dark place for several weeks,
the roots will be well developed before the leaf stalks begin to
grow. When the roots press against the sides of the pot or show
at the bottom opening, you know that the plants are ready
for a sunny window.

Other Easy Indoor Gardening Techniques
You need not limit your indoor gardening to bulbs. You
have the choice of plants growing directly from roots, such as the
sweet potato; from stem cuttings— begonia, geranium, or cactus,
among others; and from certain fleshy leaves, such as those of
the African violet. Also, many seeds thrive when they are planted
indoors.

A wooden cigar box will do to give stem cuttings or leaves
their start. Bore holes in the bottom and spread pebbles or chips
from broken flowerpots. Then fill the box with clean sand to with-

The Fascination of Flowers [311

in half an inch of the top. Moisten the sand and press it down
firmly. Make a hole in this soil for each stem cutting you wish
to plant. (A pencil is a very good tool for this purpose.)

Now place a freshly cut stem in each hole, making sure that in
every case you have buried at least two ''nodes" — juncture points
for leaves that have been removed. Keep the little garden moist, in
a cool place, and before long, roots should form at each node.

How to Propagate Plants

African Violets

You can work out an excellent arrangement for propagat-
ing African violets from leaves by using two flowerpots— one an
eight-inch size and shallow, the other a three-inch pot. Cover the
hole of the larger pot with a piece of crockery and partly fill the
pot with sand. Close the hole of the smaller pot with a cork, and
place this pot inside the larger one, filling the space between the
two pots with more sand. If you keep the small flowerpot filled
with water, the sand will be moist at all times. Set the base ol
the violet leaves in the moistened sand.

Begonias and Snake Plants

Begonia leaves may simply be pegged down with toothpicks
on moist sand and slit across the main veins. Small plants will
develop at the wounds. The ever-popular snake plant, or Sanse-
vieria, may be propagated by cutting leaves into sections an inch
or more in length and pegging them into moist earth. The leaves
of this white or yellowish plant take root easily but grow slowly.
Any plant you are raising from leaves or stems should be
covered by a glass jar or globe until it has become well rooted.
The covering keeps the air immediately surrounding the plants
moist; an excessively dry atmosphere would soon kill them.

Growing Flowers Indoors

If flowers interest you more, you will find that marigolds,
petunias, and other plants will flourish in your window boxes.
Smaller seeds should be planted about a quarter of an inch deep.

gig] The Fascination of Flowers

and larger ones slightly deeper; allow at least an inch between
seeds. When your seedlings are large enough to handle, transplant
them to window boxes or flowerpots. An excellent mixture in
which to plant them at this time combines two parts garden soil,
one part sand, and one part leaf mold.

Vegetables— for Decoration and Food

Sweet Potatoes

Of all the plants that can be raised from roots, the sweet
potato is probably the most satisfying. It needs nothing but water.
A sweet potato should be placed in a glass or bowl so that about
one-third of it is in water. If necessary, you can push three tooth-
picks into the plant to support it on the rim of the bowl or
glass. Although this will not yield a vegetable harvest, the leaves
produced are extremely decorative.

Working with Seeds

If you wish to work with seeds, you will need a shallow
tray with holes in the bottom (for drainage) to start your garden-
ing. Place small stones or pieces of broken flowerpots over the
holes; then sift soil into the box and press down firmly until the
soil is within an inch of the top. If you want to try a miniature
vegetable garden, you can plant such seeds as peas, beans, and
radishes.

Growing Dandelion Greens

A child who shows real enthusiasm for gardening may
derive great pleasure from growing a few indoor "crops" during
the winter which may be used on family menus. However, a warm
cellar is usually essential for such activity. There are several
plants that will flourish in a box of earth set beside a furnace.
Dandelion greens, which are a tasty substitute for lettuce, are
among the easiest to obtain and raise.

Dig up the plants, including roots, before the ground freezes,
and cut off a good two inches of the leafy top. Then set the
roots in a box of good garden soil, and keep them in a constantly

The Fascination of Flowers [313

warm location— if possible, near a furnace. They require some
watering but need no light.

Growing Rhubarb

Rhubarb will thrive under cooler conditions. A tempera-
ture of about 50 degrees is best; but the atmosphere should be
moist and the plants should not be in a draft. To provide an oc-
casional winter pie or breakfast fruit, dig up clumps of rhubarb
root in November; you can allow them to freeze under natural
conditions or in a freezer. Then store them in a cool place
and plant portions from time to time in a box of earth or sand.
Tender young shoots will grow from the nourishment stored up
in the roots.

Young Dirt Farmers

There is something about working with earth that is deeply
satisfying to boys and girls— and out-of-door vegetable gardening
provides a splendid combination of physical exercise plus the
challenge of producing food from the soil.

When space is limited, we sometimes feel it is best to "bother"
only with flowers. However, a small corner devoted to vegetables
can give youngsters a wonderful sense of accomplishment. I know
of two ten-year-old boys who raised radishes, lettuce, corn, string
beans, tomatoes, beets, and carrots in one plot just six by ten
feet. They were able to make substantial contributions to the table,
and the only help their parents gave was in the spading.

Radishes— A Fast Crop

Radishes are a special boon to young gardeners— particu-
larly those with limited planting space. Some radish seeds may be
mixed in with seeds of other vegetables, perhaps beets and carrots,
for they pop up above ground in a few days. Thus the planted
rows are almost immediately marked, and weeds cropping up be-
tween them can be dealt with promptly. Another good point
about radishes is that they mature in a month or so and can
then be pulled out and eaten— while the slower-growing vegetables
continue to develop and occupy space vacated by the radishes.

314 ] The fascination of Flowers

Corn— A Somewhat Puzzling Plant

Even children who do not aspire to raise their own
vegetables are likely to be interested in growing corn. Corn is
a universal food favorite. Not only that— it is something of a
symbol of our American heritage— of lessons learned from the
Indians and the bountiful harvest that inspired our traditional
Thanksgiving.

Corn is in a class by itself and something of a puzzle. What is
the silk tassel comparable to on other plants? Are those green
husks that encase each ear regular leaves? How do the green
husks differ from the long narrow leaves that hang loosely from
the stalk? Is each kernel of corn a seed, or is the whole cob a seed?
And why do we sometimes find tiny, undeveloped kernels among
others that are fully ripe?

Early Development of the Corn Plant: If a child could observe
the progress of a corn plant, he would see that when it first ap-
pears above the ground, its leaves are wrapped in a colorless sheath
in a pointed roll. These leaves soon spread apart. Growth is slow;
but presently the main stalk becomes visible— and once above the
ground, it stretches up rapidly.

The main stalk develops more leaves and also ears which are
located at the leaf joints, or nodes, where the stalk is hollowed out
in order to hold the ear more snugly. The ear is actually on a
branch stalk, and the leaves of this stalk are those that are
wrapped around the portion we call the "cob." It is on the cob
that the seeds, or kernels, will develop.

Flowers— the kind bearing pistils— now appear in pairs along
the sides of the cob, and the corn "silk" develops. Each strand of
silk is really a pistil, with the stigma at the upper end of a very
long style (the prolongation of the ovary) . In order to secure
pollen, this silk, or pistil, must extend from each flower to the
tip of the cob, and beyond the leaf wrapping.

How the Corn Plant Is Fertilized: Meanwhile brown tassels have
appeared at the top of the main stalk. These are the plant's flowers
which bear stamens and produce pollen. The tassel is made up
of many florets, each having two anthers hanging from it; half

The Fascination of Flowers [315

of each anther is a little bag of pollen grains. When the pollen
is ripe, this bag opens and the grains fall on the silk below. The
ends of the silk are now branched and covered with fine hairs, to
catch the pollen.

After "landing," a pollen grain goes on a remarkable journey-
through the entire length of the corn silk until it reaches the
ovule. Now that the ovule is fertilized, it will develop into a kernel
or seed. If a strand of silk from one of the flowers does not receive
a pollen grain, no kernel will develop. An ear with some of these
undeveloped kernels is called "imperfect." If pollen from another
variety of corn reaches the stigmas of the silk, the ear shows a
mixture of the two kinds of kernels.

Self-Preservation in the Corn Plant: Corn stalks are so tall and
slender that heavy winds can damage them seriously. Yet the struc-
ture of the plant provides some defense against wind. The cylinder-
like stalk with its pithy center is sturdier towards the base, as the
hard nodes, or joints, occur closer together there. Towards the
top the nodes are farther apart, allowing the stalk to bend with
the wind and recover.

The leaf structure also affords protection against the wind. The
true roots go deep into the soil, but even so they are inadequate
for holding a tall heavy plant upright in a windstorm. However,
aside from these roots the corn has other roots about the base of
the plant— they suggest a tentlike frame— which hold the stalk
erect.

Pumpkins— Source of Delicious Pies

Every year harvest pictures remind us that corn and
pumpkin are constant garden companions. A child may guess
that these two vegetables are planted together because one grows
high while the other barely rises above the ground. The real
reason, however, is found in the nature of the respective roots:
The pumpkin is a shallow-rooted plant, whereas the true roots
of corn go deep into the earth. The consequence is that the two
plants do not fight each other for minerals and water.

The Classic Beauty of the Pumpkin: The fruit of the pumpkin
plant, being the source of jack-o'-lanterns and delicious pies, rather

3 1 6 ] The Fascination of Flowers

overshadows its flower and foliage. The rugged, broad-based leaves,
with their three to five lobes, form a decorative design of classic
beauty. The delicately curved tendril on the pumpkin vine is
worth observing. Possibly the tendrils are a holdover from a remote
past when pumpkin vines lifted themselves oflE the ground, as
certain gourd vines do today. Occasionally you may notice a
pumpkin vine reaching out as it climbs on the edge of a field,
over mounds of earth or fences as if it were actually a climb-
ing plant.

Pumpkin Seeds: At first a young pumpkin is held up by a stiflE
stem, but as it grows heavier it rests on the ground. If you cut
across a green pumpkin, you will notice that instead of a cavity
inside, there are a number of partitions within which seeds are
borne. (A cucumber has much the same arrangement.) As the
pumpkin ripens, the partitions around the seeds become stringy—
a very different texture from the "meat" that forms a thick solid
layer between the skin and the inner chamber.

The pumpkin is a plant that requires no aid from man aside
from planting. Another favorable trait is that it helps to check
obnoxious weeds.

Weeds Are the Farmer's Enemy

The child who has a chance to work in a garden develops a
new respect for nature— the greatest farmer of them all. As he
comes to realize what labor and skill go into producing plants,
he looks appreciatively at natural "crops" that no man has aided.
He concludes that although these plants which cover the country-
side may be attractive and have certain uses, they are nothing
but weeds if they spring up where they are not wanted.

Weeds— Pests That May Be Beautiful

Children are sometimes perplexed about weeds. We usually
speak of them with disdain or annoyance, yet the flowers that
some produce are as lovely as those we carefully tend in a garden.
It is not the looks of the weeds that disturb us; their ability to

The Fascination of Flowers [317

produce fantastic numbers of seeds makes them a nuisance in
little gardens, and a serious problem to farmers.

Members of the composite family, which includes daisies and
goldenrod, are among the chief offenders; bindweed (a morning-
glory) , devil's paintbrush, and others swell the ranks. Because of
their attractive flowers, many types of weeds were intentionally
brought to America from Europe, where they had been kept in
check by the nature of their surroundings— farms, forests, and
cities. In the great open spaces of America they ran wild, and
today they are more of a pest than a pleasure.

Wildflowers to Look for in Springtime

People in the tropics are fortunate in having flowering plants
throughout the year, but few northerners would exchange the
joy of hunting the first spring flowers for all the luxury of endless
blossoms.

As you search for the elusive hepatica, trillium, and other
flowers that appear soon after the last snows have melted, you
may wonder how it is that these flowers are on hand in so short a
time after the end of cold weather. After all, daisies, irises, and
many others will not bloom until summer, and still others— such
as asters and chrysanthemums— wait almost until fall.

Is it only the warm weather that brings forth flowers? If so, why
do plants have such varying timetables? Here is the answer: Tests
have shown that plants react differently to the amount of daylight
they receive. Some are stimulated to bloom by short days and
long nights.

At first it sounds contradictory to say that hepaticas and other
early spring flowers are "short-day" blossoms— they make their
appearance as days are growing longer! However, they have actu-
ally been formed the previous year. Formation takes place under-
ground; when the temperature becomes favorable, these flowers
rise up into the light and air.

On a quest for early spring flowers, you are likely to observe
that many of them are white. Later in the season you will find more
color. There is a definite reason for this. Flowers formed under

3 1 8 ] The Fascination of Flowers

ground are white to start with because no pigment has been
developed. When they are exposed to light, many of these flowers
take on various hues, among them blue, red, or yellow.

Hepaticas Close for the Night

One of the earliest flowers of spring, the hepatica must be
hunted among the decaying foliage of the previous fall. As its
blossoms grow they rise about three inches above the brownish
leaves of the year before, and the new leaves may appear very
soon after. The petal-like sepals are white, pink, or bluish-
lavender. Young blossoms close during the night and on dark
days; older ones remain open all the time.

You are most likely to find the wood anemone, a member of
the same family as the hepatica, along the borders of woodlands.
The anemone is an inch or more taller than the hepatica; its
flowers are white or delicate purple.

Adder's Tongues Are LiLres

Yellow adder's tongue favors moist woods and brook sides,
though it sometimes grows in open fields in the East. White
adder's tongue is common in the West and South. The small bell-
shaped flowers appear in early spring, but the leaves, pale green
mottled with brownish purple, are found carpeting large irregular
areas long after the blossoms have gone. The yellow adder's
tongue, though a member of the lily family, is often called "dog-
tooth violet."

Violets— Not Always Shy

In the true violet family there is a "dog" violet found
especially in the sandy soils of the Northwest. This is a low,
creeping species with light purple flowers. Fairly widespread also
is the downy yellow violet which blooms almost anywhere in low
ground. It is tall in comparison to most violets— sometimes as
high as seventeen inches.

As for the common violet, you may find it almost anywhere in
low ground. As a rule, the deep green heart-shaped leaves usually
grow a little taller than the flowers. In marshes, however, the

The Fascination of Flowers

[319

flower stalks are longer than the leaf stalks and the flowers are
exceptionally large. The flowers of the common violet range from
rich purple to light violet. There is also a rare variety which is
white with purple veins.

[A] THE WOOD ANEMONE -Sometimes it is called "windflower" because of
the woy it sways in spring breezes.

[ B ] THE YELLOW ADDER'S TONGUE _|t is known by several names; "trout lily"
properly identifies it, for it is a member of the lily family.
[ C ] THE HEPATICA —Each flower is covered with a soft, hairy coat.
[ D ] THE COMMON BLUE YIOLET -Besides the lovely spring flowers, in summer
it bears small greenish flowers beneath its leaves.

^20 ] The Fascination of Flowers

Trillium for Threefold

The season for trillium begins in April with the poetically
named wake-robin, a species that produces purple, red, and some-
times purplish flowers. There are other species, but it will be
June before you find the white large-flowering trillium. It is this
handsome kind that flower-fanciers often cultivate.

The trilliums grow mostly in damp, rich wood soils. You can
help children in identifying these flowers if you explain the mean-
ing of "trillium," which comes from the word triplum^ meaning
"threefold." These flowers always have three petals and the plants
have three leaves and three sepals.

Jack-in-the-Pulpit— Miniature Preacher

No plant is easier to remember and recognize than jack-
in-the-pulpit, for to an imaginative child the club-shaped flower
head does represent a miniature preacher, while the spathe (a
bract or modified leaf) forms his pulpit.

Moist woods are the best place for locating this plant. When it
first pushes through the earth it looks like a pointed peg. Inside
the p>ointed and mottled sheath are the leaves, rolled lengthwise
and forming the point. The club-shaped spathe is at the center.

As the leaves grow and open, flowers develop at the base of the
spathe. There are two different kinds; greenish, round pistillate
flowers, packed like berries on the stalk; and tiny, almost white
flowers, which bear the pollen. The two kinds grow on separate
plants. You may sometimes find both types on the same plant,
with the pollen-bearing kind set above the others. In such a case
only the pollen-bearers function.

By the time summer comes around, the "pulpit" falls away from
Jack, revealing shining green berries formed from the pistillate
flowers. In August, when the leaves may have also disappeared,
you will find that the berries have turned a brilliant scarlet.

The Fascination of Flowers

[321

[A] JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT -Its flowers are well hidden in the depths of the
"pulpit." This plant is related to the skunk cabbage.

[B] THE WHITE TRILLIUM ^Though this charming member ot the lily family
belongs to woodlands, it is also a successful garden flower.

fC] THE DANDELION -At the left of the drawing is a flower head at its height
of blooming. At the right is a flower head gone to seed.

Cactus— Not Just a Desert Plant

We usually associate cactus plants with the desert. Some
cacti, though, thrive in such contrasting localities as the high
South American Andes and the Pine Barrens of New Jersey.

Many varieties of this hardy, spiny plant have been adapted
for indoor gardens, so you don't have to be anywhere near a desert

322 ] The Fascination of Flowers

to enjoy the flowers of a cactus. (This ought to interest television-
minded children, accustomed to viewing hard-riding cowboys
among desert scenes!) Cacti may bloom in your home any time
during the year— not just in the spring as the desert plants do.

It is in the springtime that we see desert plants at their best. Out-
standing are the pink, yellow, and rose blooms of the prickly pear,
the white flowers of the giant sahuaro, and the yellow blossoms
that form a ring about each round column of the barrel cactus.

Storehouses of Water: Most children are fascinated by the curious
forms that cacti take. They can see some of these plants in the
hothouses of botanical gardens, and they are very likely to wonder
about their lack of leaves. Actually the cacti do very well without
leaves.

"Leaf-green" in their thick fleshy stems takes care of manufac-
turing their food, and the absence of leaves prevents the water
inside the plants from evaporating. They store water in the stems
to such an extent that they can survive periods of drought for an
amazingly long time. Many people lost in the desert owe their
lives to these natural water tanks.

Plant Survival in the Desert: In humid regions plant species are
largely assured of survival by their great numbers. In deserts,
where plants are comparatively sparse, they have evolved a number
of defenses to keep humans and animals from preying on them.
Notable are the spines, thorns, and toughness of the cactus. Other
plants depend on bitterness or unpleasant odors, a few on poison.
Aside from cacti, the desert offers many other colorful floral
displays. Visitors from near and far are attracted every year to
desert areas— the vicinity of Baker sfield in California, for example
—to see lilies, poppies, violets, primroses, and verbenas blooming
in a riotous profusion of brilliant colors.

The Charm of Sninmer Blossoms

Dandelions— Persistent Weeds

This golden-headed flower, one of the mast persistent of
all weeds, is occasionally a source of income to youngsters, who

The Fascination of Flowers [323

earn money by helping rid lawns of dandelions. In early summer
dandelions can provide a lot of fun for children. The youngsters
can whistle through the hollow stems, or make dandelion curls of
them; they may even pretend to tell time by the number of puffs
required to blow away all the seeds on a ripened stem.

The Adaptable Dandelion: Children have done such things to
dandelions for ages, man has tried his best to exterminate them,
animals have grazed on them, other plants have attempted to
crowd them out— all in vain. The dandelion has had extraordinary
success in surviving. One of the many reasons for its survival is its
adaptability to circumstances. For example: In a meadow of tall
grasses the plant sometimes reaches a height of two feet— and more;
but on a lawn the flower stem may be less than two inches tall,
saving the flower head from the blades of the lawn mower!

The Dandelion is a Composite Flower: The dandelion belongs to
the great family group that we call "composites"— a word that
comes from the Latin and means "made up of parts." Aside from
the dandelions, the composites include asters, thistles, and a great
many other kinds of flowers. All have compound flower heads (the
term "head" is commonly used for a cluster of flowers) .

Petals and Buds in the Composites: Some of the composites have a
disk in the middle of the flower head. This disk is made up of tiny
tubular florets, and around it are brightly colored ray flowers, or
petals.

The dandelion belongs to another type of composite which has
a petal-like part on each flower. In a just-opened dandelion you
can see the buds at the middle all curving slightly toward the
center. They are also shorter and a darker yellow than the outer
florets, for they are younger. The flower head is well protected
by long bracts; shorter bracts near the stem curl back, forming a
frill.

How the Dandelion Opens and Closes: Dandelions close on dark
days and at night. It is often eight o'clock before they begin to
wake up, and it may take a full hour for the golden head to be

324 ] ^^^ Fascination of Flowers

completely opened. When all the florets on a head have blos'
somed, the dandelion closes for good until its seeds are formed.
Each seed is equipped with a fluffy, parachute-like head. When
this head is dry it can "parachute" the seed to new growing
ground.

How the Dandelion Got Its Name: You need a good imagination
to see that the notched edges of dandelion leaves resemble lions'
teeth; but that is what they looked like to someone in France who
named the plant dent-de-lion ^ whence we get our name for it.

From "Day's Eye" to Daisy

This flower, which has much in common with the dande-
lion, is a great favorite with children. Like the dandelion, it is
an amazingly persistent weed; and it is also a composite. At its
center we find numerous short, yellow, tubular disk flowers.

These are surrounded by twenty or more ray flowers— "petals"
to children, who love to pull them off one by one with "he loves
me, he loves me not." If you look closely at these ray flowers you
will see that each has a pistil which shows a two-part stigma at
its base. The flowers ripen many seeds but they lack the traveling
equipment of the dandelion.

In the yellow daisy, commonly called "black-eyed Susan," the
purple-brown disk flowers form a conical, button-like center for
the orange ray flowers. Still more color is added to the flower
when brilliant orange pollen appears.

Like the dandelion, the daisy opens in the morning. It owes its
name to this trait— people in Old England called it "day's eye,"
which finally became our "daisy."

Buttercups— Sometimes Three Feet High

Growing as they do in the same fields, buttercups and
daisies are commonly associated in children's minds. There is an
essential difference, however; whereas the daisy is a composite,
the buttercup is a single flower. The five (and sometimes more)
wedge-shaped petals are slightly curved, giving the flower its cup-
like form.

The Fascination of Flowers [ 325

*'Do You Like Butter?": The bright yellow color of the buttercup
gives it a shiny finish which in bright sunlight quite easily reflects
on another surface. That is why the answer is nearly always posi-
tive when a child follows the old custom of holding a buttercup
under a playmate's chin to see if he "likes butter." (If yellow is
reflected on the chin, the answer is "yes.") Outside the reflecting
petals are five sepals, about half the length of the petals and pale
yellow with brownish tips. — ~

There are many different kinds of buttercups; the common one
of fields and meadows is properly called the tall buttercup. It may
grow as tall as three feet! Though you are likely to find buttercups
as early as May, they bloom through August and sometimes until
frost appears.

Lucky Clover

Among our most popular superstitions is the one that
promises good luck to the finder of a four-leaf clover. It is a fact,
however, that the clover plant is good fortune for all of us.

25,000 to the Inch: In addition to being a valuable food crop for
horses and cattle, clover has an almost magical way of bringing
fertility to the soil. The secret of this power lies in the little
swellings— sometimes called root tubercles or nodules— that you
will find on the rootlets. Each swelling is occupied by bacteria,
so many that 25,000 of them, lined up, would cover only an inch
of space.

These bacteria extract nitrogen, a valuable chemical fertilizer,
from the soil and change its form so that clover can absorb it.
When a crop of clover is harvested, the roots remain in the ground
with their precious supply of fertilizer. This is one reason why
farmers, in rotating their crops, plant clover every few years.

Collecting Clovers is Fun: It is fun for a child to make a collection
of clovers, for there are many attractive species, including crimson,
red, white, rabbit-foot, buffalo, and yellow. Both leaves and blos-
soms can be kept for several years when pressed between pieces
of wax paper or cellophane. It is even possible to become an
expert at finding the rare four-leaf clover to add to one's collec-

326]

The Fascination of Flowers

[ A ] THE WHITE DAISY^One of the best-known wild flowers of America, this
plant originally was an immigrant, coming from Europe with early colonists.

[ B ] THE BUTTERCUP-M-lt is sometimes called "crow's-foot" because the shape of
its leaf suggests a bird's claws.

[ C J RED CLOVER-«-|t has an unusually long period of blooming. Flowers may
be found from April until November.

[ D ] COAAMON MILKWEED^It, small, purplish-brown clustered flowers, rich in
nectar, are especially attractive to insects.

tion. These leaves turn up here and there in the midst of stalks
with three leaflets.

The three-leaved grouping is the customary one and has given
the plant its scientific name, trifolium ("three-leaved") . To find

The Fascination of Flowers [327

the out-of-the-ordinary stalk with four leaflets, you need to practice
looking for a square pattern in a carpet of triangles. Stand erect
and scan the clover design; where one four-leaf specimen is found
there are apt to be more.

Milkweed and its Strain ge Secretion

This plant has two products that fascinate children: its
milky juice of rubber-like composition and its skeins of shining
silk. To see the "milk," all they need do is break the stem of the
plant or cut across a leaf.

The "milk" is a special secretion— not the sap of the plant. If
you cut across the stem and then blot the end so that you can see
the details clearly, you will find that the liquid oozes from a dark
green ring around the hollow stem. On a plant that is only par-
tially broken or gashed, the "milk" soon heals the wound.

Murder by Milkweed: The extremely complex flowers growing at
the junction of the milkweed's leaf stem and plant stem are
fertilized mostly by bees. Every once in a while one of these insects
loses its life on the flowers! It is actually trapped by the anther,
and this is how: Instead of being free, the pollen is held in paired
sacs that are joined in a V-shape. The bee, busy collecting nectar,
may stand in the V, and the little sacs of pollen-producing anthers
may close on its legs. If the grip is too tight, the insect cannot
free itself.

Milkweed for Life Jackets and Aviators: Once the milkweed
flower has been fertilized, the seed pod begins to grow. The fully
developed pod bursts apart at the seam, and you can see the
brown, overlapping seeds inside with exquisite silk attached to
one end of each seed. When the silk is dry, each fluffy mass of
threads parachutes off in the breeze carrying a seed with it— in
some cases for a very long distance.

Milkweed floss has been used commercially to stuff life jackets-
it is more buoyant than cork— and to line aviators' uniforms, as it
is six times lighter than wool, and just as warm.

328 ] The Fascination of Flowers

Queen Anne's Lace— Beautiful Yet Troublesome
This plant is very beautiful, as its name suggests, but it is
also a very troublesome weed. You are likely to find it in waste
places and fields almost anywhere. It is also called the wild carrot,
and it is really closely related to the garden carrot. On a fully
grown plant, the yellowish root is six inches long or more; but it
isn't good to eat.

The Flower Cluster: Each large flat flower cluster, with its radiat-
ing pattern as fine as lace, is made up of many small flower
clusters, each in turn with a stalk of proper length to fit into just
the right place in the medallion pattern. These small flower
clusters each have twenty or thirty tiny white blossoms in a
rosette design.

If you look down at one of the large flower clusters, you will
notice that the outside blossoms have small bracts— the special
leaves which, in this case, resemble the petals. These are larger
than the petals and create a pleasing border effect for the complete
cluster. Often you will find a single wine-colored floret in the
center on its own stalk.

When Queen Anne's lace begins to wither, each of the small
clusters curves inward until the whole unit suggest a tiny bird's
nest. Thousands of seeds develop on each plant, and many live to
germinate.

GoLDENROD— Another Composite Flower

From early summer to late fall you can see these bright
yellow flowers on dry, sandy roadsides, along moist riverbanks and
seashores, at the edges of woods, in sunny meadows, in moun-
tainous regions, and on flat barren plains. In all these localities
there are many kinds of goldenrod— more than fifty all told.

The goldenrod is another interesting example of a composite
flower. Each flower head is very small, but the plant makes a
bright showing because the florets are set close together. On each
delicate branch there is a procession of ray flowers with short but
brilliant banners, and a few tubular disk flowers that open out

The Fascination oj Flowers [329

like bells. Look at the disk flowers closely and you will see in
them the pollen tubes or yellow two-part stigmas.

Insects of many shapes and sizes carry the goldenrod's pollen
far and wide for it.

Asters— ATTRAcrrvE to Beks

Like goldenrod, asters are to be found in all sorts of places,
and there are numerous species. They too are composites, but
the flower heads are different in form from the goldenrod. At the
center of their circular flower heads there are yellow disk flowers
that turn a dull purplish color as they age.

These disk flowers yield an abundance of nectar, and you
frequently see bees, small butterflies, and beelike flies visiting
them. One of the most beautiful and best known is the New Eng-
land aster; it is widespread throughout the eastern United States
and is frequently cultivated. Its numerous flowers, blooming from
August to October, vary in hue from pale violet to deep purple.

Some Sunflowers are Twelve Feet High

Because of its size, this giant plant serves best of all to
show us the make-up of a composite flower. One wild species—
the "tall sunflower"— is common to swamps and the borders of
wet meadows. It grows as high as twelve feet and has a flower
head about two inches across. On the common garden sunflower
the flower head may have a width of ten inches.

First to unfold are the wide, flaring ray flowers that are largely
responsible for the sunflower's spectacular appearance. There
may be two or three rows of these. When they are a few days old,
you can see inside them a circle of florets from which ripened
pollen and stigmas have already disappeared. Below the florets
fertilized seeds are now developing.

Inside this circle is another composed of florets where coiled-
back stigma lobes protrude from the anther tubes. Next, moving
toward the center of the flower head, you may see several rows of
florets in which pollen is just being pushed out; and within this
ring may be florets with the anther tubes still closed. At the center

33o]

The Fascination of Flowers

[A] QUEEN ANNE'S LACE— These flowers, grouped in lacy, geometric designs,

seem especially suited for decorations in "modern'' settings.

[ B ] GOLDENROD-^The different kinds of goldenrod vary somewhat in form,

but oH are easily recognized by their masses of small golden flowers.

[CI WILD ASTERS^This beautiful fall flower is sometimes called "Michaelmas

daisy" because it blooms near Michaelmas Day.

[ D ] SWAMP SUN FLOW ER—Becouse its leaves were once used for making snuff,

this plant is known also as "sneezeweed.''

are buds with the inmost few still covered with the green spear
points of their bracts, or specialized leaves.

Sunflower Myths: Children who have not had a chance to observe
sunflowers may be interested to know if it is true that these blos-
soms twist on their stems in order to face the sun all day. This

The Fascination of Flowers L 33 i

widely circulated story is charming but not particularly accurate.
Some of these giant flowers have been observed turning with the
sun to a certain extent when they first unfold— but not after they
grow heavy with seeds.

Another published observation is that many turn for their last
few weeks of bloom to the east and remain that way. Watching
those that grow in my neighbor's garden— they are planted, by
the way, to raise seeds for her winter bird-feeding station— I have
not seen any evidence of the flower heads following the sun. The
direction they usually face is south.

Wildflower Bouquets and Gardens

Part of the joy of flowers comes from picking them and arrang-
ing them in enchanting bouquets. Unfortunately, we are limited
for the most part to garden plants. Many wild species have become
so rare that they are protected by law; others, such as wild roses
and asters, though plentiful, wilt quickly after they are plucked.

What Flowers to Choose

Despite these limitations, we still have some excellent
material for wildflower bouquets. The common blue violet is one
of the very few spring flowers not on the "protected" list of most
states, and in summer, buttercups, daisies, black-eyed Susans, gold-
enrod, and Queen Anne's lace lend themselves to charming floral
decorations.

When you have a chance to pick wildflowers, it is best to cut
them with scissors or regular garden clippers. Later, the stems
should be cut on a slant with a sharp knife. Then, if they are left
in a pail of water for a few hours or overnight, they may regain
much of their freshness.

Growing a Wildflower Garden

Few hobbies are more delightful than a wildflower garden.
With very little trouble you can transplant daisies, black-eyed
Susans, and certain other hardy species, making them thrive close
to your home. You can usually move even the rarer plants, such

^^2 ] ^^^ Fascination of Flowers

as red milium, violet, and wild geranium, if you take along a
generous amount of earth. As a matter of fact, many commercial
growers specialize in quite rare plants; you can obtain the wild-
flowers in this way when it is not feasible to take them from their
native growing places.

How to Press and Mount Plants

Pressing wildfiowers is still another way in which children can
get pleasure from them. They can also have a world of fun arrang-
ing the flowers in attractive groupings and framing them as wall
pictures. You will again want to stress to youngsters, before they
do any picking, that only plants that are plentiful should be taken.
It is well for children to make a habit of asking their parents about
protected wildfiowers before doing any picking. The parents can
then check conservation laws with local authorities.

Techniques for Pressing Flowers: When you collect plants for
pressing, keep them damp until you are ready to place them under
pressure. You can manage this by taking a few damp newspapers
on a collecting trip and carrying the plants between the pages.
For ease of handling, you can roll up the papers— not too tightly,
however, or the leaves may crack.

When you are ready for pressing, place a piece of newspaper
about twelve by eighteen inches on the floor, and lay plants or
flowers on top of it. As you may want to frame them later on,
take care to arrange petals, and leaves in natural positions. A
violet, for example, usually looks more natural if pressed in pro-
file. A few buds with the full-bloom flower and some leaves make a
complete story and an interesting composition. Make sure that no
plants overlap during the pressing.

How to Dry Out Plant Moisture: Now that you have laid out the
plants on newspaper, cover this arrangement with a layer of news-
paper equal in thickness to the thickest part of the plant or plants
below. Add layers of plants and paper until your entire collection
is taken care of. Over this pile, place a board or other flat object
equal in size to the newspaper, and on top of this put weights

The Fascination of Flowers [333

such as books, rocks, or other heavy things. If the weight is not
heavy enough, the plants will wrinkle.

Change the paper or move the plants to a dry location every
day for at least four days— then less often, for about ten days. The
more rapidly the plant loses its moisture, the better its delicate
colors will be preserved.

How to Mount Plants: To mount a plant you need a piece of
glass as large as the specimen you are preparing. Cover the glass
with a thin coating of glue diluted a bit with a drop or two of
vinegar. Place the dried plant on the glue (to get the glue on
one side) , then quickly transfer the plant to a piece of mounting
paper. Now you are ready for framing. If a plant is too delicate
for this treatment— it may curl when it is picked up from the
glue— you can mount it by placing thin strips of gummed paper
at intervals across the stem.

Some Plants Have No Green Parts

Knowing as we do how vital "leaf-green" is to the growth of
plants, the mushroom and other fungi that develop without a
trace of green seem rather mysterious to us. No wonder that
generations ago, when not too much was known about plant life,
people stood in superstitious awe of the magic "toadstools," which
seemed to spring out of nowhere and were sometimes good food
and sometimes poisonous. When you are on a woodlands hike
with your youngster, especially in late summer or early fall, you
can get a lot more out of your trip if you watch for members of
this fungus family growing wild.

What Fungi Feed On

Lacking leaf-green, mushrooms are unable to manufacture
starch, sugar, and other elements, and must absorb them from
dead wood, withered leaves, or soils enriched by remains of plants.
They are the kind of fungi we know as "saprophytes" (living on
dead or decaying matter) , and they are valuable plants because
they prevent forests from becoming choked with dead wood. As

^^^ ] The Fascination of Flowers

mushrooms and other fungi absorb tissue from stumps and old
logs, the wood softens and falls apart.

Fungi That Prey on Living Things

The other kinds of fungi, the "parasites," take their food
from the cells of living things. These fungi are often dangerous
enemies to the plants and animals on which they grow. It is a
parasitic fungus that causes "potato blight"; another is responsible
for the costly disease known as "wheat rust." The simplest forms
of parasitic fungi that take their nourishment from animals are
the bacteria that cause diphtheria, typhoid fever and other serious
diseases.

Mushroom Spores Instead of Seeds

As mushrooms have no flowers, a child may wonder what
they do about seeds. Flowerless plants have their own special kind
of "seed." Microscopic in size, it is called a "spore." After landing
in a favorable growing place, the spore of a mushroom develops
rapidly into a threadlike form. From this a whole mass of threads
grow out for weeks or even months, until there is enough tissue
to produce a fruiting body— then, with startling suddenness, the
mushroom appears!

Precautions Against Poisonous Mushrooms

Mushrooms are usually abundant in damp, wooded spots,
as they do not need sunshine. If we happen to be in one of these
localities, we may be tempted to find some mushrooms suitable
for eating. It is a temptation best denied. Unfortunately some
people rely on tests that are supposed to indicate when a species
is poisonous— they believe such mushrooms turn a silver spoon
black or change color when bruised. None of these tests are of
the slightest value. A number of characteristics do help to dis-
tinguish the poisonous from the nonpoisonous species, but only
an expert should attempt to draw the distinction for eating
purposes.

The Fascination of Flowers [ 335

Mosses Favor Moist Places

There is a shrub known as the "flowering moss," but you can
be sure it is not really moss— no moss bears flowers. The so-called
flowering moss merely suggests moss in a superficial way because
of its appearance.

Mosses, like mushrooms, produce spores. The moss spore grows
a branched green thread on which leafy buds soon appear. They
develop further into leafy stems which in turn produce rootlike
projections— not true roots. Some of the plants bear eggs at their
leaf tips while others produce sperms. Wind, or films of water
supplied by rain or dew, may bring sperm and egg together. After
fertilization they develop delicate upright stalks on which spore
cases full of green-colored spores will form.

The Moss as a Compass

In June you can generally see mosses in all stages of devel-
opment. Usually you find moss only in rather moist places, on
woodland floors and on rocks and tree trunks where strong sun-
light does not penetrate. The American Indians commonly used
this bit of nature lore to determine their direction— moss usually
grows on the northern side of tree trunks where there is least
exposure to sunlight.

The Best-known Moss

What is probably the best-known moss has several names:
common hair-cap, bird wheat, or pigeon wheat moss. It grows not
only in woods but in open fields and meadows as well as in all
parts of North America; it is found also in Europe and Asia. It
is rather a large moss with stems a foot long, and in fall or winter
you will see it as a greenish-brown mass of bristling stems.

By the arrival of summer the new growth tips these with vivid
green. During dry spells the small leaves shut lengthwise into
mere threads and huddle against the stem to prevent their
moisture from evaporating. After a rain they open up again. In
Europe this moss is used for making small brooms and for
mattresses.

336 ] The Fascination of Flowers

Ferns, Fronds, and ^Tiddle Heads''

Mosl children love ferns as much as they do flowers. Ferns
lack colored petals, but by way of compensation they have grace-
fully shaped fronds, or leaves, that are a delight to the eye from
the time they come through the ground and uncoil like a watch
spring until the divided leaves are fully developed. While the
leaves are still partly coiled they are called "fiddle heads," as
their shape resembles the top of a violin.

Fbrns for Decoration

Ferns are frequently cultivated and used for decoration;
consequently a fernery makes a very rewarding project. To begin
with, the ground for a fern garden should be dug up and treated
with well-rotted leaves and humus. When you transplant speci-
mens from the woods, take a large ball of earth with each plant,
and water the ferns well for several days after each planting. Give
the ferns the same conditions of shade and sunshine, as far as
possible, as they had in the natural state.

Among the most attractive species are the Christmas fern of
the East and its close relative, the sword fern of the West. They
are very similar in appearance— except that the sword fern grows
much larger.

Ferns and their Spores

Ferns, like the mosses and mushrooms, produce spores.
Some ferns also have a creeping underground stem, called a "root-
stock," which pushes forward and sends up new fronds each year.
One species is known as the "walking fern" because new growth
is started where the tips of the fronds come in contact with ground
or rocks. Look closely at a Christmas fern in early spring and
you will notice on the underside of some of the leaflets a double
row of circular, raised fruit dots, looking like pale blisters.

Later on these "dots" turn brown, and by the middle of June
masses of pinpoint-size globules push out from under them. Each
globule is a case packed with spores so tiny that even under a
magnifying glass thev look like yellowish powder. By July the

The Fascination of Flowers [ 337

brown covers have shriveled into irregular scrolls but still cling
to the ferns.

Fronds and Frondlike Foliage: Not all fronds are fertile. The in-
fertile ones— those without the fruit dots— are much prettier.
Coming back to the fertile fronds, the brown spots are not always
recognized as being covers of spore cases; many people take them
for fungus growths. Another cause for confusion is that Queen
Anne's lace and other plants with frondlike foliage look enough
like ferns to be mistaken for them. A good test in case of doubt is
to examine the center of the plant to see if the leaves are rolled
into a coil. If they are, you are almost certainly looking at a fern.

How to Make Fern Printa

You can press fern fronds by using the methods described for
flowering plants (page 332) . A child will also enjoy making blue
prints of fronds, and here is how it is done:

You can buy sheets of blueprint paper in any store which sells
artists' supplies. Keep the paper in the dark at all times; the
safest course is to keep it rolled and wrapped up in other paper.
You will also need a picture frame with a glass and tight-fitting
cardboard back. Then you can cut the blueprint paper into
sheets the size of the picture frame— always being careful to avoid
exposing the blueprint paper to light.

Finally, take two shallow pans, each somewhat larger than your
sheets of blueprint paper, fill them half full with cool water,
and add a teaspoon of hydrogen peroxide to one of the pans of
water. Now your equipment is complete.

Printing the Fronds

A bright sunny day is best— but not essential— for your
blueprinting operations. Working in a dimly lighted room, place
the picture frame, glass down, on a table and remove the card-
board back. Place the ferns on the glass, and lay over them a sheet
of blueprint paper with its greenish-blue side down, against the
ferns. (Fronds that have been pressed for a day or two may give
better prints than those freshly picked.)

338 ] The Fascination of Flowers

Now replace the cardboard and fasten it firmly. The frame is
ready to be exposed to sunlight at a window or outdoors— from
two to five minutes depending on the intensity of the sunlight.
After exposure, remove the blueprint paper from the frame and
let it soak in the pan of clear water. In a few minutes, after the
background of the fern has turned white, transfer the paper to
the other pan of water to which the peroxide has been added. In
this second bath— which fixes the print— the background will turn
a deep blue and the outline of the frond will appear in white.

You can now remove the paper, wash it again in the clear
water, and dry it. Dry the print between blotting paper or paper
towels and leave it for several hours pressed between books or
other heavy objects until it is completely flat and dry. This project
can be managed even by a fairly young child, and the process can
be used not only for ferns but for a collection of all kinds of
leaves as well.

Nature's Fern Prints

Countless ages ago nature made fern prints of a somewhat
different sort. Today workers in coal mines frequently find these
"prints"— for they are a part of the great coal deposits in Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and other regions. When our earth was several hun-
dred million years younger, ferns and their relatives were the
principal land plants. The massive but weak fern trees crashed
down and gradually filled swamps and marshes.

Later the pressure of overlying sand and mud that drifted and
oozed over these regions turned the fern masses into peat and
finally into coal. As this was happening the outline of an occa-
sional fern frond was imprinted in the slate or rock which formed
from the muddy deposits as it pressed against the vegetation which
was changing into coal. These ancient prints reveal that the
appearance of ferns has not changed much in all these millions
of years.

CHAPTER

I Trees and How
to Know Them

OST ADULTS sccm to take trees for granted,
but in the child's world they loom large.
They are natural play equipment, to be climbed for fruit or for
fun. City children are doubly grateful for them in summertime,
when the hot sun blisters the pavements and the only comfortable
place to play is under widespread, sheltering leaves.

There are other reasons for appreciating trees— because they give
homes to the birds and squirrels, and yield to man the wood that
he uses in so many ways. Even a young child cannot remain un-
moved by the beauty of the trees: the majesty of their boughs and
rugged bark, the changing colors of their leaves, the splendid
bounty of their fruit, blossoms, and cones. No wonder that most
children love the trees and delight in telling the seasons by these
living calendars.

Tree Rings and What They Tell Us: You can find the record of a
tree's growth in the trunk or a branch that has been cut across.
There, in the wood, are the rings that mark each year of its life.
In adding to its girth the tree depends on a layer of cells called
"cambium," which lies just inside the protective bark. Each year
the cambium builds a layer of bark on its outer side and a layer of
wood on the inner side.

During spring and early summer, when conditions for growth
are most favorable, wood cells develop. During late summer and

339

340 ] Trees and How to Know Them

early fall, new though somewhat smaller wood cells are still pro-
duced. During the winter, growth stops entirely. When it resumes
once more with "spring wood" next to "fall wood," the contrast
between the two kinds of wood produces a line around the trunk.
This line we know as the "annual ring."

How Trees Record Their Autobiographies: In a sense the annual
rings are the biography of the tree— wide spaces between rings
indicate good growing years, whereas narrow spaces tell of seasons
of drought or other climatic conditions unfavorable to growth.
A series of rings with little space between them at the center of
the trunk, changing to wider-spaced rings toward the bark, might
also be a clue to improved growing conditions. The thinning out
of surrounding trees, for example, would provide more sunlight
and the roots would have less competition for the water and
minerals of the soil.

Annual growth rings are common to most of the trees that
grow in North America. But in some regions, such as the rainy
tropics, there is no distinct growing season. There tree growth is
constant, and the wood has a more uniform structure instead of
annual rings. When these trees are sawed into boards they do not
show the intricate grain that our trees do; what we call the "grain"
is simply the annual growth rings sawed lengthwise.

Watching a Tree Develop

In attaining its height, a tree does not merely stretch up-
ward. If you observe one from the time it is a sapling until it is a
mature tree, you will see that the height of the lowest limb always
stays at exactly the same distance from the ground. It gains height
as a result of "leaders" at the top of the tree.

Buds— New Life for the Tree: If you open a bud from the tip end
of a branch in wintertime, you will find tiny but perfectly formed
stems, leaves, and perhaps clusters of flowers. Many of our familiar
trees produce all these in the same bud; others, like the American
elm, have twigs and leaves in one type of bud, flowers in another.
The buds, folded neatly and tightly, are protected by scales that
overlap like shingles on a roof.

Trees and How to Know Them [341

In the spring you can see the buds open when the scales are
cast off and the new twigs lengthen and form new side branches.
On most trees the new twigs are only a few inches long, but on
some the growth is more noticeable.

How to Grow Tree Buds Indoors: Children can observe this un-
folding at close range by putting a few twigs of different kinds of
trees into vases partly filled with water. Collect the twigs in the
fall after the leaves have been shed, and cut them carefully with a
sharp knife. Through the winter, change the water each week and
rinse the twigs in cool water to keep the bud scales fresh and
clean— a task performed out-of-doors by winter rains and snow.

If you keep the twigs in a warm, fairly dark place, the buds
will enlarge ahead of those on the trees outdoors. When the buds
seem almost ready to burst, they should be moved to a sunny
window.

Trees Have Their Own Birthday Candles: Trunks are not the
only parts of trees that have growth marks. Branches and twigs
have them too, and you don't have to cut down a tree to see them.
Every year a bud leaves a little circle of scars as it casts off its
scales. Consequently the distance between every two circles of
scars on the branch shows the growth achieved in a year's time.
An imaginative child will enjoy likening the bud scars to birth-
day candles— by counting them he finds the age of any twig.

Bursting at the Seams: The child who makes a habit of observing
some of the details of tree structure will soon notice that while
young trees have smooth bark, that of older trees is furrowed and
frequently sheds untidily. This also is caused by growth; as the
girth of the trunk increases, the constant pressure causes the bark
to split. A special layer of cells in the bark forms new corky layers
that patch the damaged parts but do not smooth the "wrinkles"
that have formed. Trees, like people, often look their age.

How Trees Are Nourished

Though we cannot see a tree obtain its food the way we can
watch an animal feed, we can observe to some extent how the leaf

342 ] Trees and How to Know Them

"factories" secure the materials with which they work. Put a leafy
twig into ink and you will see how the color is carried up through
the wood into the leaves. The minerals and water taken from the
earth by the rootlets are carried in much the same way up the
larger roots, on up into the sapwood of the trunk, and out through
the branches and twigs to the leaves.

When you look carefully at the leaves you can see many veins
that serve as channels for spreading water and minerals. From
these raw materials, and with the help of sunlight, the leaves
produce a sugary liquid that travels back to the trunk and through
the fibers of the innermost layer of bark to all parts of the tree
to nourish it.

The work of making food and distributing it, goes on through-
out the spring and early summer. By midsummer the tree has
achieved most of its growth for the year and it can begin to store
extra food in its trunk, branches, twigs, and roots. During the
winter the tree rests; the following spring the reserve food is avail-
able to help buds open and new leaves can begin to grow.

The Most Famous Tree Food of All: At this point maple sugar
and maple syrup come into our story. Everyone knows they are
processed from the sap of the maple tree— but what makes that
sap so deliciously sweet? As it surges through the maple trees in
springtime, the sap dissolves the sugar they have stored up. Thus
sugar and sap flow out together into containers the canny Ver-
monters have mounted under holes they make in the trunks.
Boiling does the rest.

Why Leaves Change Color and What Makes Them Fall

As children first notice the reds and yellows about the time of
the first cold snap, they often conclude that frost causes the leaves
to change from green to bright fall coloring. As it happens, frost
is not the cause, though lower temperatures do have some bearing
on the change. With the coming of colder weather the earth starts
to harden and the trees are no longer able to draw much water
from it.

Trees and How to Know Them [ 343

Lacking water, the green pigment of the leaves begins to fade
and is gradually replaced by yellow and orange pigments that have
been present all along but in smaller quantities than the green.
Red coloring has a different origin: It is formed in the cell sap
by the same sort of "dye" that colors red cabbage and beets. You
can look for lovely red displays on sugar maples, white oaks, and
sumac.

Poplar, hickory, and linden are some of the trees that Have
golden-yellow fall coloring. The green pigment of evergreens is
so hardy that— as we might guess from the name of this tree— it is
not affected by winter conditions.

How Leaves Die and Drop Off: While the leaves are changing
color, a thin corklike layer of cells develops between the leaf stems
and the twigs to which they are fastened. This layer of weak tissue
reduces or shuts off completely the flow of sap to the leaf. This not
only contributes to the death of the leaf— it also weakens its attach-
ment so that it falls at a slight breeze or even from its own weight.

How Knots and Knotholes Are Formed

Trees Prune Their Own Branches: Children often have the
opportunity to watch trees being pruned in city parks or on
suburban lawns. But they are surprised to learn that trees growing
under natural conditions are also pruned. The trees do this
pruning themselves! One process, called natural pruning, works
like this: Lower branches become undernourished because exces-
sive shade prevents their leaves from manufacturing food, with
the result that these branches die and drop off.

In willows, poplars, and other trees, layers of weak tissue,
similar to those that cause leaves to fall, form somewhere along
certain branches— sometimes at the base. After a while the
branches break off, even though many fresh leaves may still be
attached to them. This process is known as self-pruning.

Knotholes and Peepholes: When a branch is lost to a tree by
pruning, the remaining short stump of branch eventually becomes
overgrown by the trunk. If the tree is felled and cut for lumber,

344 ] Trees and How to Know Them

the end of the branch shows up as a knot. In cases where the
branch was quite dead when it dropped from the tree, the knot
is a dead one and falls out readily, leaving a knothole— a boon to
many a child who wishes to peep through a board fence.

The Underground Life of Trees

Trees vary in many respects, but all kinds are alike in being
made up of two main parts. Every tree has a trunk and a crown—
or head— which is made up of branches and spray (the term used
for its great mass of twigs) . We can easily see this part of the tree,
but there is another big section which is concealed.

Below the Surface: The root system of a tree is often so extensive
that its size would equal that of the crown if this upper part were
somewhat compressed. The roots of some species grow almost
straight down; other species have roots extending outward close
to the surface of the ground. Certain oak trees have been found
with roots two or three times as widespread as their branches!

Sometimes roots that have pushed partly above the surface help
a child to picture the extent of a root system— or he may come
upon an uprooted stump to which roots are still attached. City
youngsters occasionally see work being done on pavements or
watch the installation of pipes under sidewalks which uncovers
or cuts into the roots of shade trees. They may well be impressed
by the amount of abuse the trees will take, yet there are limits to
the damage that a tree can stand.

Repairing Injured Roots: Often the injured roots require treat-
ment. Sometimes it is enough to trim away the ragged edges; in
other cases the broken sections should be removed completely. If
any considerable amount of root material is taken away when a
tree is transplanted, the crown should also be trimmed. This re-
duces the needs of the foliage for food and water at a time when
the root system can no longer do its full part in providing them.

Trees and How to Know Them [ 345

Keeping a Tree Biography

Once a child has a general understanding of tree growth, he
will very likely enjoy keeping a record of one particular specimen.
Choose a tree fairly near home so that he can observe it often:
about once a week in spring and fall and every two weeks in
summer and winter. If he looks at it closely for just a few minutes
at a time, he will see whatever developments there are: buds notice-
ably larger, buds opening, flowers blossoming, fruits forming, and
so on through changing leaf colors to bare branches.

Insects found on the tree, birds nesting in it, or squirrels using
it for their home— these are all part of the story. Such a record
kept in a notebook may be illustrated with a few sketches of the
tree's changing silhouette, its leaves, flowers, or fruit. At the end
of the year the youngster is quite sure to have felt something of
the fascination of first-hand observation, and to have an increased
interest in all trees.

How to Recognize the Trees

Certain trees have something so special about them that chil-
dren have no trouble remembering them. The drooping form of
the weeping willow, the bark of the slender white birch— these are
quite unforgettable. However, you will find dozens of trees in
your own neighborhood that look more or less like many others.
It would be rash to conclude that it is quite impossible to recog-
nize them all; there are numerous ways in which each reveals its
name to us.

Oaks— Grandeur, Strength, Endurance

If there are oak trees in your neighborhood, you might
begin with this group. So impressive are the grandeur, strength,
and endurance of the oak that it is frequently used as a symbol of
these qualities in literature and art. The oak group has many
different members. It is not always easy to identify each of its
species; there are numerous kinds that vary in size, type of leaf,
and other features.

346]

Trees and How to Know Them

Usually, though, an oak is ponderous, with scaly or furrowed
bark. The leaves are marked by prominent branching veins and
the winter buds are clustered at the ends of the twigs. These buds
are covered with chestnut-brown scales which leave a ringlike
mark on the twig when they fall. All oaks are alike in producing
those delightfully sculptured seed containers, the acorns.

The White Oaks: All oaks are divided into two classes: white oaks
and black oaks. In identifying a member of the white group—

"GREAT OAKS FROM UHLE ACORNS GROW

The mighty white oak, with branches that may extend fifty feet or more, develops
from a seed that may be only three-quarters of an inch long. Its wood is a great
favorite where durability is needed; it is used in shipbuilding, for railroad ties
and cars, flooring, agricultural implements.

Trees and How to Know Them [ 347

which includes the white oak proper, the bur, post, and Cali-
fornia white oak— it helps to examine the leaves. They have
characteristically rounded lobes (segments) , though the chestnut
oak is a well-known exception with its long narrow leaves. Usually
they are light-colored on the underside.

Another characteristic of these trees is the grayish or light-
brown bark which you may often notice breaking off in loose,
flaky scales. (This, again, is not true of the chestnut oak.) Acorns
of the white oaks mature in one year; you will never see acorns
of old and new crops on a tree at the same time.

The Black Oaks: The black oak group, by contrast, has leaves
with angular lobes, ending in sharp points. Members of this
group, including the black, pin, red, scarlet, Spanish, and willow
oaks, require two years to mature their acorns; so you may observe
fully grown acorns started the previous year and the new crop
clinging to the branches at the same time.

As for differentiating oak species, you will find such distinc>
tions as the pin oak's horizontal, slender branches that arch out
gracefully and on the lower part of the tree droop and spread out
into fine branchlets most unusual for an oak. The willow oak is
distinctive in that its slender leaves have no lobes. The black oak
has rough, dark bark growing in ridges; the bark of the scarlet
oak is even rougher. The red oak's acorns are large and set in
broad, shallow cups especially adaptable for the toy cups and
saucers that children enjoy fashioning from them.

Many oaks do not begin to produce acorns until they are about
twenty years old. Oaks are comparatively slow-growing and long-
lived; you may find some that have apparently been growing for
several centuries.

Oak Buds: There are noticeable differences in the shapes of oak
buds. On most of the white oaks they are blunt; on black oaks
they are large and sharp-pointed. They also differ in color. All
oaks do have a family resemblance, however, in the way several
buds, all fairly equal in size, cluster at the tip of a branch or twig.
(Other trees may have only one bud at, or near, the tip of the

^^8 ] Trees and How to Know Them

branch. Still others may also have several placed like the buds
of the oaks; but in such cases the buds are very unequal in size.)

The Sturdy Oak: The sturdy wood of the oak has played a great
role in our history. Pioneers built blockhouses, log cabins, bridges,
and bams of oak. Gun deck, keel, and other parts of the frigate
Constitution were made of white oak, and all-oak ships were built
for years. Today oak is still a wood of great importance. It is used
especially for flooring and furniture and serves the United States
Navy in mine sweepers and patrol boats.

Maples

Sugar Maples: The form of the sugar maple is determined by the
conditions under which it grows. When there is plenty of room
the tree has a short trunk and an oval head; in a forest its granite-
gray trunk in search of sunlight may reach a height of a hundred
feet while its leaves and branches blend with the surrounding
foliage to form the forest's green canopy. The glossy leaves, dark
green above and pale beneath, have five main lobes between the
edges marked with a few large teeth.

When the leaves fall, you see a silhouette with many branches—
these divide into fine spray— set close at sharp angles to the trunk.
You can notice, too, a fine graduation in color as the dark gray of
the trunk shades to lighter tones on the branches. The spray is
purplish— the color of the long sharp-pointed winter buds. In late
winter the bud scales become downy and turn almost golden.
Soon afterward you see them pushed off by the yellowish, downy
leaves. Greenish-yellow flowers appear at the same time, grouped
in tassel-like clusters.

The sugar (or rock) maple's hard, close-grained wood is used
in much of our high-quality furniture.

Red Maples: Other species of maple native to America can also
be distinguished quite readily. The red maple gets its name from
usually having something red about it. It has red buds in winter
and early spring; in late spring the flowers are most frequently

Trees and How to Know Them

[349

THE VERSATILE SUGAR A\APLE

In early spring this maple yields delicious sweet sap. During the summer its leaves
provide glorious shady shelter. With the coming of autumn the crimson, orange,
and yellow coloring of the leaves makes the tree a work of art. In winter, with
the leaves gone, we can appreciate the fine tracery of the sugar maple's branches
and twigs. This hardy tree may live as long as three hundred years.

red (though sometimes yellow) ; the leaf stalks in summer are
noticeably red; and in fall the leaves are a lovely crimson or
wine-red.

Silver Maples: These maples turn a pale yellow in the fall. In
summer you can appreciate their interestingly two- toned leaves:
bright pale green above and silvery white below. Whenever the

350 ] Trees and How to Know Them

wind ruffles this foliage, a silver maple may seem to change before
your eyes from an ordinary green hue to silver. This tree is the
fastest growing of all our maples and attains a good size.

Bigleaf Maples: The bigleaf maples, found along the Pacific coast
from Alaska to southern California, have the largest leaves of
any native maple. They may be as long as twelve inches, and their
width is slightly greaterl

Norway Maples: The Norway maple is one of several species in-
troduced to America for ornamental planting. Its leaves are very
much like those of the sugar maple, but they are broader than they
are long. If you break one of the leaf stalks, a milky juice will
ooze forth. The bark of the Norway maple is dark gray and fairly
smooth; its twigs are about twice as thick as those of a sugar maple.

Seeds with Wings: What acorns are to the oaks, the paired, winged
seeds are to the maples. Any time after the first of June you may
look for maple seeds on the sidewalks, roads, and woods. In the
case of the sugar maple, though, the seeds do not fly until the fall.
Sometimes maple seeds have two wings attached, other times a
wing is broken off. Though they have the appearance of two sepa-
rate seeds joined together, usually only one seed of the pair is
developed.

The twin green wings do a good job of carrying seeds to
new growing grounds. Children are quick to appreciate their
efficiency and similarity to man-made gliders.

Sycamores— Massive Shade Trees

You will easily recognize this massive tree in winter as well
as summer by its mottled whitish bark, its thick trunk, and its
broad oval crown. However, the bark takes on a variety of forms
and colors according to the sycamore's age and the conditions
under which it is growing. Until it is moderately old, large thin
plates of bark peel off, exposing areas of whitish, yellowish, or
greenish inner bark— probably the result of the outer bark's in-
ability to expand.

Trees and How to Know Them

[351

THE UNPREDICTABLE SYCAMORE

Young sycamores ore generally flat at the bottom and round at the top, but as
they age their forms show interesting individuality. The branches spread and twist
at every angle, and their leaves, broader than long, provide heavy foliage. Some
sycamores grow tall straight trunks, others have trunks dividing close to the ground.

In older trees, the bark is two or three inches thick and broken
by numerous shallow fissures. This results in a scaly appearance,
and the light-colored mottled look is replaced by dark gray or
reddish brown.

"The Button-Ball Tree": The inconspicuous flowers of the syca-
more blossom when the leaves unfold early in May. By October,
the fruit that develops from them provides an excellent "trade-

252 ] Trees and How to Know Them

mark." It is a dense ball about an inch thick which is green at
first but later turns brown.

Because of this button-like fruit, the sycamore is sometimes
called the button-ball tree or buttonwood. A "button" dangles
from a long slender stem throughout the winter. When spring
arrives, the button breaks up into many hairy nutlets.

Sycamores are chiefly useful as shade trees, but their wood is of
some value for musical instruments.

American Elms— Graceful and Tough

In summertime this tree, when it is growing in the open,
is likely to remind you of a huge vase filled with foliage. From its
rounded wide-spreading top it tapers downward in the manner of
many graceful flower-holders. After it sheds its first foliage, you
will notice how the trunk divides gradually at ten to twenty feet
above the ground into two or more stout branches. The gray bark
is furrowed in perpendicular flat-topped ridges.

The Elm's Purplish Haze: In early spring you may wonder
whether your eyes are deceiving you, or if there really is a purple
glow over that elm tree a short distance ahead of you. Your eyes
are not playing tricks: The purple haze is produced by clusters
of light-green blossoms with red stamens, all over the tree. Seeds
develop from them even before the leaves are fully open in May
or June; they are flat and surrounded by a broad papery wing.
When the seeds are planted, some may germinate within a few
days; many, however, remain dormant until the next spring.

Lopsided Leaves: The leaves of this elm have the peculiarity of
being lopsided; one side of each leaf is larger than the other.
Their parallel veins are evenly spaced and go directly from the
midrib to the sawtooth edges. The upper surface is somewhat
rough and the undersurface softly hairy.

What Elm Wood Is Used For: The wood of this tree is so hard
as to make it impractical for many uses; yet the very hardness of
elm wood makes it ideal for such purposes as the hubs of heavy

Trees and How to Know Them

[353

THE AMERICAN ELM - GRACEFUL SHADE TREE

Many trees derive their graceful charm from their foliage, but the American elm is
lovely for its shape as well. Its lower branches sweep upward and bend at the ends;
the higher branches form a rounded top with a multitude of slender twigs. This
arrangement gives the elm an attractive vaselike outline.

wagons, floors that must take considerable punishment, and chop
ping boards and bowls. The more this wood is scrubbed, the more
it shines.

Some Other Elms: The American elm, sometimes also called the
white elm, grows naturally on low, fertile hills and river bottom
lands. Of the other species of elm native to America, the slippery
elm is next in importance. It rather resembles its larger relative
but lacks its graceful symmetry. The whitish inner bark of the

354]

Trees and How to Know Them

slippery elm is very gummy (though quite tasteless) , and chewing
it is fun for children.

Poplars— Including the Quaking Aspen

Of the eleven different members of the poplar group that
we find in North America, the quaking aspen (or aspen poplar)
carries to the furthest extreme the family characteristic of having
foliage that trembles with the breeze. The small broad leaves of
this poplar quiver almost incessantly even when the air is calm.

THE RESTLESS FOLIAGE OF THE QUAKING ASPEN

The slightest breeze sets in motion the foliage of this poplar. Its dark green leaves,
which turn clear gold in autumn, are attached by long ribbon-like stems. Its twigs
and bark of blotched white keep many a rabbit alive in winter, and its bitter inner
bark is a favorite food of beavers. It is also known as the trembling aspen.

Trees and How to Know Them [ 355

The Quaking Aspen: The quaking aspen's leaves are shiny green
above and pale dull green below; in the fall they turn golden
yellow some time before they are shed. In spring the quaking
aspen flowers appear in the form of drooping catkins— a compact
spike of flowers from an inch and a half to two and a half inches
long.

Young trees have yellowish-green or nearly white powdery bark
which is marked with horizontal creases and scars. On old trees
the bark near the base is almost black, and roughened by bands
of wartlike growths. For years the wood was considered quite
worthless. Today it has a very real value as a source of paper,
especially magazine stock.

The Popular Cottonwood: Another widespread and well-known
poplar is the cottonwood. You are likely to encounter it on dry
western plains where other trees cannot gain a foothold— or in a
large city where its shiny, leathery leaves successfully shed smoke
and dirt. However, many cities prohibit the planting of the cotton-
wood because its extensive shallow root system often breaks up
sidewalks and its tiny rootlets, in their quest for water, fill drain-
pipes.

Cottonwoods Grow Fast: Children who are impatient for things
to grow up can enjoy watching cottonwoods develop. These trees
have been observed adding four or five feet to their height in a
year; some have grown a hundred feet in fifteen years. This is
rather more than average height for a cottonwood, yet you may
find one growing as tall as 150 feet, given favorable conditions.
It develops a massive trunk that divides near the ground.

Willows— Generally Found Near Water
Children are quickly attracted to some of the willows. One
introduction is all they are likely to need to the huge but ex-
tremely graceful willow, with its long, narrow, pointed leaves,
some of which droop to the ground. A boy with his first jackknife
loves the willow because the bark is easily removed in whole sec-

356 ] Trees and How to Know Them

tions from branches or twigs and can be used to fashion a variety
of whistles.

The wood of the willows has a few practical uses but most mem-
bers of this group, especially the weeping willow (an import from
Asia), are mostly valued for their grace and beauty.

The Pussy Willow— Children's Favorite: The pussy willow, a great
joy to children, is related to the weeping willow though they differ
considerably in size. The pussy willow rarely reaches a height of
twenty feet. Its prominent soft pussies are welcomed as one of the
first promises of spring and enjoyed for their silky "fur" as much in
florists' shops as in their natural setting.

Willow Seeds and Pollen: There are quite a few other species of
varying sizes and characteristics, but they all have the distinctive
elongated catkins (scaly spikes), and our American willows bear
long narrow leaves that turn yellow in the fall. In each species the
seed-bearing flowers and the pollen-bearing flowers are produced
on separate trees.

The showy pussies are pollen-bearing flowers. In winter they
are covered by a shiny brown tentlike bract. When these open you
can see two stamens and anthers (the pollen bearers) underneath
each fur-bordered scale. But you will find no pistils.

On another tree, however, you may discover greenish-gray cat-
kins, similar to the ones just described, but not so soft and furry.
In these, each fringed scale has a pistil at its base, and projecting
from it is a Y-shaped stigma that is fertilized by the pollen and
produces the seed. You can observe the process closely by keeping
a few in water until the catkins open.

At the base of both kinds of flowers are small glands of nectar.
Bees make their way to these, and as they do they carry pollen to
the pistils. Wind also plays a role in the pollination project. When
the willow seeds ripen in June, you find the catkins made up of
tiny pods. When the seeds pop open, they are equipped with fuzz
and fly away, balloon-fashion. A frequent comment is, "The
willows are shedding cotton."

Trees and How to Know Them

[357

WHY WILLOWS ARE FOUND AT WATERSIDES

We are so accustomed to seeing willows at the edges of streams, that these trees
have come to seem most "at home" there. As a matter of fact, the planting of
willows near stream bonks has practical value; their roots, powerful and extensive,
hove a restraining effect on the soil and help hold it in place in case of a flood.

Willows and Their Roots: Willows are most likely to be found
near water, and they are valuable in controlling watercourses in
floodtime because of their extensive roots. By placing willow twigs
in water you can demonstrate how easily they form rootlets. A
twig lying on moist soil will develop them in the same way along
its entire underside as shoots appear from the buds on the upper
side.

358 ] Trees and How to Know Them

Beeches— Handsome and Practical

If there are beech trees in your neighborhood, your chil-
dren are likely to be familiar with the nuts even though they pay
scant attention to the rest of the tree. By early fall they are ripe
and edible— two or three small triangular, highly polished nuts
enclosed in a small prickly bur. Another distinctive characteristic
of the beech is its smooth, blue-gray, skinlike bark which hugs
trunk and branches, even on old trees.

THE HARDY AND LONG-LIVED AMERICAN BEECH

The American beech, a relative of the oaks, has striking beauty of form, foliage
and bark. This hardy and long-lived tree is easy to recognize by its smooth gray
bark. The family name of the beech, Fagus, comes from a Greek word meaning
to "eat"— perhaps a reference to the tasty beech nut, which makes good eating.

Trees and How to Know Them [ 359

From Beech to Book: This bark offers youngsters a tempting
opfK>rtunity to carve their initials on its smooth surface. The idea
of using it as a slate is far from new! It is said that centuries ago
in Europe some of the first writing was done on beech-bark strips,
and there is an interesting connection between the words beech
and hook. Beech comes from the Anglo-Saxon heeche, to which
our word hook is closely related.

What Beech Wood is Used For: Though unsuitable for important
building, beech has a number of practical uses, serving for such
humble articles as boxes, crates, barrels, and clothespins. Seeing
one of these handsome trees with its many long, wide-spreading
branches, you are hardly likely to associate it with such lowly
though essential products.

The glossy, dark blue-green leaves of the beech are between
three and five inches long, and each vein ends in a small sharp
tooth. The leaves sometimes cling stubbornly to the branches
throughout the winter.

Ash Trees— Pliant But Tough

Of the eighteen different species of ash growing in the
United States, the white ash is the largest and handsomest. You
may discover it on a variety of soils— most often on well-drained
fertile sites along streams and on north or east slopes. Its compact,
oval head is a rich green that derives from the dark tone of the
lancelike leaflets. These are the compounded type of leaf; from
five to nine short-stalked blades are attached to each leaf stem.

Possibly the ash got its name from its dark ashy gray bark. In
any event the color of the bark serves as a reminder of the tree's
name. The bark is cut by deep diamond-shaped fissures with broad
flattened ridges between them. The seeds are equipped for flight,
each being enclosed in a single wing.

Ash for Baseball Bats: There are not many purposes for which the
white ash is esteemed, but some of the special uses to which it is
put provide a lot of fun for boys and girls. White ash is the only
wood used for making good baseball bats, and it is excellent for

36o]

Trees and How to Know Them

BATS. PADDLES, SKIS, HOCKEY STICKS

The wood of the white ash is ideal for many kinds of sports equipment, including
baseball bats, canoe paddles (this goes back to Indian times), frames for tennis
racquets, skis, polo and hockey sticks. Incidentally, the tree of the universe in
Norse mythology (Igdrasil) was a white ash.

tennis racquet frames, hockey sticks, skis, and other sports equip-
ment. What makes it peculiarly suitable for these purposes is that
it is pliant yet tough. It can be bent into the required shapes,
but it is durable enough to stand up under strenuous use.

Black ash wood also serves specialized purposes: It splits easily
into very thin, yet tough pieces, and as a result makes ideal barrel
hoops and woven chair bottoms.

Trees and How to Know Them

[361

Birches— From Canoes to Furniture

The Paper Birch: It is a pity that the bark of this graceful tree
appeals so much to children; the temptation to peel strips from
the trunk is usually irresistible, with the result that countless trees
are disfigured or fatally injured. Some children may have the good
fortune to fashion some article or other from a birch that must be
felled; but as a rule parents need to admonish them against mis-
treating standing trees. We have to hoard our natural resources

BIRCH BARK FOR CANOES

Long before the arrival of the white man in America, the Indians were using the
bark of the paper birch for their canoes. Though the paper birch varies in form
all the way from a bushy and rather dwarfish tree to one that reaches a straight,
sturdy sixty feet, it can always be recognized by its white bark, which peels into
thin, papery layers. This may be worked into fancy objects, such as baskets.

^^2 ] Trees and How to Know Them

nowadays, unlike the Indians and early American settlers, who
used birch bark freely to make canoes and a variety of receptacles.

In the young birches the bark is smooth and peels easily. As the
tree ages, the outer bark rolls back in irregular, frayed sheets, and
the black lower trunk develops deep fissures. Aside from the
characteristic bark, the paper birch is distinguished by its slender
trunk and an open crown with small branches and a quantity of
flexible twigs.

In April or May you may find it interesting to watch for brown,
slender tassel ends on the twigs. (These are the male flowers.) A
short distance back from them are the short, greenish female
cones. By fall these have become loose, conelike fruit. You will
usually find the paper birch growing among white or red pine,
spruce, and aspen.

The Gray and Yellow Birches: Gray birch is much like paper
birch, as it also has chalky white bark; but it does not peel off
readily, and it has short thick horizontal lines. You can easily
recognize the yellow birch by the lustrous silvery yellow bark on
young trunks and on the limbs. Bark on older trees peels into thin
papery strips. Yellow birch is usually associated with maple,
beech, ash, and red and white pine.

The Cherry Birch: The cherry birch (also called black birch)
provides furniture manufacturers with an excellent wood just as
nard as mahogany. Before the days of synthetics, an oil was ex-
tracted from it that was widely used to flavor candy and medicines.
Though this oil is rarely used nowadays, children still love to
chew the bark of tender young branches and twigs. Another
product of the cherry birch in bygone days was birch beer, made
from the tree's sap.

Horse-Chestn UTS— Imported from Abroad

It is almost impossible to find an American chestnut tree,

for it has been practically wiped out by the chestnut blight— a

parasitic fungus that lives on its bark. Throughout our country

this tree has virtually been replaced by a popular ornamental

Trees and How to Know Them

[363

species imported from Europe and Asia, known as the horse-
chestnut. Because of the similarity in names, many people connect
this tree with the vanishing chestnut. However, the two are not
related. The nuts of the horse-chestnut, far from being deliciously
sweet, are so bitter that even squirrels shun them.

It is claimed that the seeds of the horse-chestnut were used long
ago as medicine for horses— hence the tree's name. When the
green prickly balls encasing the fruit open in the fall, the highly

THE LUXURIANT FOLIAGE OF THE HORSE-CHESTNUT

This favorite shade tree carries a suggestion of tropical growth In the size and
profusion of its leaves and its showy flower clusters. Now a favorite American
tree, it was originally found in Balkan countries and introduced int« England
before reaching our shores. Though inedible and despised even by squirrels, this
tree's shiny rich brown nuts are prized by children.

364 ] Trees and How to Know Them

polished reddish-brown nuts become the prized treasures of chil-
dren. Designs can be carved on these nuts, and if they are hol-
lowed out they can be turned into pipes, baskets, and other toys.
Even when they are put to no use whatever, they have a tremen-
dous appeal and are hoarded by boys and girls as if they were
precious, hard-earned legal tender.

In June and July you find the horse-chestnut tree at its loveliest;
showy white flower clusters from six to twelve inches high appear
then and the leaves are fully developed. Its leaves suggest tropical
foliage in their size and luxuriance, for leaflets from five to seven
inches long are grouped together like a palm with six or seven
fingers. Its bark is dark brown, with deep furrows and scaly ridges.

Another imported tree furnishes many of the chestnuts that we
now buy at the market. It is the Japanese chestnut, a rather
dwarfed and compact tree that stays free of blight and is excellent
for orchard growth.

Ginkgos— Admirable for City Streets

City streets are the place to find ginkgos, or maidenhair,
trees. This species, imported from Japan and China as a shade
tree, is excellent for city use because it thrives on poor soil and is
not harmed by heat reflected from pavements.

The name "maidenhair" was suggested by the fanlike leaves
which are shaped like the leaflets of the maidenhair fern. They
are deep green and turn a brilliant yellow. The tree is naturally
cone-shaped, but as it responds so well to pruning you may see it
rounded or otherwise trimmed to a form suitable to narrow city
streets. The bark of the short trunk is grayish brown with shallow
furrows.

The Cone-Bearing Evergreens

Firs for Christmas

The firs are so closely associated with the delights of Christ-
mas that children are likely to be particularly interested in these
trees. We cannot help admiring the symmetrical form and rich

Trees and How to Know Them [ 365

green of the persistently clinging needles which make the balsam
fir the ideal evergreen for Christmas decorating.

This tree retains its beauty even when it is quite dried out after
many days indoors. Not so all evergreens— the spruce, for example,
begins to shed its needles fairly soon after being cut, as each needle
is attached to the twig by a small joint. Boys and girls love the
evergreens for the happiness they bring at Christmas; and while
grown-ups feel the same way, they may also appreciate them as
our major source of paper and lumber.

The Fir's Fragrant Aroma: People living close to balsam firs
become so accustomed to their fragrant aroma that they are no
longer aware of it. But city children and their parents delight in
the lovely "Christmasy" smell and sometimes enjoy it the whole
year round by using cushions stuffed with the fir needles.

Canada Balsam: These firs yield another useful product: Canada
balsam, used in making turpentine. The balsam comes from resin
blisters under the thick, rich brown bark which are a great fire
hazard for the trees. In case of fire, the resin quickly turns the
whole tree into a torch.

Spruces— Once Used for Chewing Gum

Our native black spruce has a wide natural range in North
America— from coast to coast, as far south as West Virginia and as
far north as Labrador and Alaska. Young spruces are often used
as Christmas trees, despite the fact that they shed their needles
early in a warm house; but you do not often see them adorning
landscapes. As cultivated trees they are relatively short-lived and
their dead branches give them an uneven appearance.

Children are usually intrigued to know that spruce resin was
once an important source of chewing gum— now replaced by
chicle from the tropics. The Indians used spruce gum to water-
proof their canoes.

How to Recognize a Black Spruce: Among the distinctive features
of the black spruce are its bluish-green, blunt-tipped needles

366]

Trees and How to Know Them

(Left) THE BALSAM FIR MEANS CHRISTMAS

To children the beautiful and fragrant balsam tree means Christmas. Outdoors,
the fir, with its straight trunk and graceful, symmetrical branches, adorns many a
landscape of Canada and the northern United States. The balsam fir is particularly
attractive in wintry surroundings, when it is effectively outlined against a snowy
background. It is not a long-lived tree; it seldom survives ninety years.

(Right) THE SPRUCE AND ITS VARIED FORMS

There are many kinds of spruce trees. The block spruce, pictured above, varies its
shape according to the natural forces with which it has to contend. On lov/lands
the spruce grows narrow and toll, on mountains you may see dwarfed firs no more
than five feet tall. The cones of this spruce may remain on the tree for decades.

averaging half an inch in length and growing in spirals along the
twigs. New twigs are yellowish brown and covered with short
reddish-brown hairs. Tiny flowers appear near the top of the
branches in May or June. Small, clustered grayish-brown cones

Trees and How to Know Them [ 367

mature in August, but they may remain on the trees as long as
twenty or thirty years!

You will find the oldest cones at the base of the branches,
nearest the trunk. The straight mastlike trunks of spruces are
covered with bark of grayish brown or reddish brown tinged with
gray. The bark is scaly rather than furrowed.

The Norway Spruce: While we have other important native
spruces, it is the one imported from Norway that you are most
likely to enjoy. The Norway spruce has been planted for forests,
as an ornamental tree, and for farm windbreaks in both the
northern and western states. The dark shiny needles, each with
tiny white lines, point upward and forward, but their bases
entirely surround the twig. They remain on the twig for six or
seven years.

Hemlocks— Useful and Ornamental

While we enjoy this magnificent tree for its appearance, it
is more than merely ornamental as far as many animals are con-
cerned. Its dense foliage furnishes valuable shelter for birds in
winter, and branches of young hemlocks drooping to the ground
form cozy hideouts for mice, rabbits, and other small creatures
during severe weather. And sometimes you may catch sight of
squirrels feasting on the seeds that develop in the cones.

Though hemlocks grow to massive proportions, the cones of
the eastern hemlocks are among the smallest of all tree cones.
The largest are about three-quarters of an inch long. They mature
in one year and normally fall in the spring. The cones of the
western hemlocks are nearly twice the size of the eastern species.

Three Centuries to Mature: When you look up at the foliage of a
hemlock, it appears whitish because the needles are light under-
neath. On top they are a rich dark green. Hemlock branches are
seldom broken by snow— they droop to let it slide away. These
slow-growing trees require nearly three hundred years to reach
maturity, and often live more than twice that long. Countless
seeds are formed each year and sail away on tiny transparent

368 2 Trees and How to Know Them

wings, but they reproduce poorly. Those that find moist, shady
conditions have the best chance of survival.

Useful Hemlock Bark: The thin brownish-red to purplish rough
bark of the eastern hemlock is rich in tannin. Long ago the
Indians used this as a curative for sores and burns. For many years
it was the basis of our tanning industry and in some places tannin
is still used for this purpose. It not only preserves the leather but
gives it an attractive reddish tone. Hemlock wood is used chiefly
in making pulp for wrapping paper and newsprint. Hemlock
poison, notorious in ancient times, is not derived from this tree
but from herbs.

Pines— Majestic Trees

Some pine trees reach a height of two hundred feet— and
even more. An age of two hundred years is not unusual, and the
sturdiness of pine wood makes it particularly suitable for the
masts of ships. And pines are handsome too. Branches of the white
pine make especially graceful decorations. If you look at them
closely you will see that this graceful quality derives from their
length and also from the way that the needles are attached to the
branches in bundles.

Needles— The Key to Identification: The pines can generally be
distinguished from other evergreens by their longer needles. The
grouping of the needles provides a key to the various species
because the number varies from one type of pine to another. For
example, on all true white pines there are five needles to a
bundle; the pitch, red, and ponder osa pines generally have three;
and the pifion and lodgepole pines have needles grouped in pairs.
White pine needles are long, soft and pliable; those of the pitch
pine are stiff and coarse.

The shape of pine needles is such that the wind blowing
through them makes the soft sighing sound that we like to fancy
as whispering. The "whispering pines" and other cone-bearing
evergreens were growing on earth long before the more modem
type of tree— the deciduous or "leaf-dropping" kind, which sheds

Trees and How to Know Them

[369

(UU) THE STUBBORN HEMLOCK

The needles of the eastern (or Canadian) hemlock, pictured here, are flat, but the
needles of some hemlocks are angular. This tree likes mountains and the shady
north sides of hills. The great rocks that may abound in such locations are no
handicap; the hemlock's roots straddle them when necessary, and in time crack them
apart! This pyramid-shaped tree may grow to a height of one hundred feet.

(Right) THE MAJESTIC WHITE PINE

This magnificent tree sometimes reaches a height of two hundred feet and may
live two hundred years or more. It is very easy to identify by its needles, which
are bluish green, from three to five inches long, and grow in groups of five. The
cones ore from four to eight inches long and droop gracefully.

its foliage each year— and they have clung to their ancient custom
of retaining their needle-like leaves all year round.

Pine Cones: Boys and girls enjoy gathering the cones of ever-
greens. Some of these cones are splendid collector's pieces. Small

g^o ] Trees and How to Know Them

ones may be painted or used in natural color for Christmas trim-
mings; larger cones, such as those of the western sugar pine, which
weigh a pound or more, are spectacular items for nature collec-
tions.

Pine cones, which develop from small pistillate flowers, require
two years to mature. In May and June you can see the bright
pink flowers of white pine growing near the tips of new twigs.
On the new shoots of lower branches, yellow staminate conelike
blossoms appear and produce quantities of pollen. Soon after
this pollen has been carried off by the wind, these blossoms wither
and fall; but meanwhile the pistillate flowers, which have been
pollinated, are turning into cones.

By the end of a season's growth the cones are about an inch
long, green and upright. By the second season they are longer and
turn downward. By August they have turned brown and are from
Rye to eleven inches in length. If you look at them carefully at
this time, you will find two little winged seeds beneath each scale.
In September the cone scales open out and the wind carries the
seeds away— perhaps as far as a quarter of a mile.

Massive Sequoias— 1'housands of Years Old
The likeliest place to find these huge trees is in the national
parks of California, though giant sequoias have been successfully
planted in other parts of California and occasionally in parts of
the eastern United States and Europe.

The sequoia is the most massive, as well as the oldest, of all
living things. Some of the very trees that stand majestically today
on the high slopes of the Sierras were growing in the time of
Christ— roughly two thousand years ago. Some sequoias are more
than three hundred feet high! These magnificent trees were named
in honor of Sequoyah, a gifted Indian chief who invented an
alphabet over a hundred years ago for his people of the Cherokee
tribe.

The Sequoia's Foliage and Bark: The rich evergreen foliage is in
the form of scalelike sharp-pointed needles that overlap closely
on the branches. You can see the tiny flowers in February or

Trees and How to Know Them [371

March. From the seed-producing flowers there develop yellowish-
brown, egg-shaped cones between two and three inches long.
These mature in two years and the seeds are blown away, but the
empty cones often remain on the tree. Sequoias are better able to
resist fire than other trees because their spongy red-brown bark
is at least twelve inches thick— sometimes as much as twenty-four—
on mature trees.

The Towering Redwood: The giant sequoia has a cousin, the
towering redwood, which grows to an even greater height— though
its girth is less than that of the sequoia. The redwood gets its
name from the straight-grained red wood which varies in tone
from light cherry to dark mahogany. It is a popular wood for
building. As in the case of the sequoia, the thick, fibrous bark
is exceptionally fire-resistant. It is reddish gray with fissures
running up and down the trunk, giving it a fluted appearance.

The Redwood Grows Readily: Sometimes one finds old stumps or
roots of redwood from which vigorous sprouts are growing into
sizable new trees. In this respect they differ from the giant
sequoias, which grow only from seeds. The redwood cones also
produce many seeds that may germinate and become young trees.
The tree's readiness to sprout is emphasized by redwood burls, the
large knots that grow on the trunks. If you place a burl in water,
it quickly produces sprouts to form an attractive "redwood plant."

How to Mount Evergreen Specimens

Youngsters can make attractive exhibits of evergreens with
little or no aid. You start by finding a shallow cardboard box
and cutting a square out of the lid, leaving a half-inch margin
around the edge. Fill the box with cotton, right up to the top.
Place the evergreen spray on this, removing just enough of the
cotton under the stem so that the spray will lie flat.

Now place a piece of glass over the square opening in the
lid and fasten it neatly with a tape binding. Put the lid on the
box and fasten it by inserting pins on all four sides. You can of

372 ] Trees and How to Know Them

course decorate or paint the box in advance, and the tape may be
colored to provide an even more handsome setting.

Some Spring Beauties

When we look forward to flowers that bloom in the spring,
we usually have in mind the small, shy blossoms of woodlands
and meadows. However, certain trees make a gorgeous if brief
display with their flowers. If any of these are within reasonable
traveling distance of your home, you will be well rewarded if
you keep track of the best time to see them. There is a great
delight in viewing the massed array of their colors.

Flowering Dogwoods

The flowering dogwood with its beautiful mass of showy
white flowers is among the loveliest of all trees. It blooms from
late April to early June, depending on the locality. The spec-
tacular part of its display is not actually the flower, but four white
or pink bracts— specialized leaves that look like large petals.

Your first chance to see these bracts comes in wintertime when,
as purplish-brown scales, they are wrapped snugly about the flower
buds. In early spring these scales grow rapidly and spread out.
The artistic notch on the tip of each bract is telltale evidence of
its winter form. The true flowers, which are yellow green and
inconspicuous, cluster at the base of the four bracts. Such a cluster
consists of about twenty bracts.

Magnolias

The display put on by tulip trees (members of the mag-
nolia family) is another sight to reward a journey to the country,
though you may also find them on lawns or along city streets.
The large greenish-yellow and orange tulip-like flowers that give
the tree its name show themselves among the glossy leaves of late
spring and early summer.

We find the magnolia tree beautifying many a park and lawn
with its striking pink and white flowers. Scattered over forest
areas are seven other species of magnolia, all of tree size. One of

Trees and How to Know Them [ 373

these is the hardy cucumber tree, which produces bell-shaped pale
yellow or green flowers from April to June. You must look closely
to see them— their coloring is so much like that of the spring
foliage of the tree.

Apple Blossoms

The blossoms of apple and other fruit trees make a lovely
floral display. Children can appreciate the individual beauty of
an apple tree in bloom, if they examine the cluster of blossoms
that grows at the tip of each twig. With soft green leaves surround-
ing each cluster, the effect is that of a conventional bouquet. By
contrast, peach and cherry blossoms grow along the sides of the
branches.

Though we find five, six, or even more blossoms in a cluster
of apple blossoms, only one or two of each tend to develop into
fruit. It is interesting to examine an apple and a blossom together,
observing the parts of the flower that may still be seen in the fruit.
The five scales at the bottom of the apple are the remains of the
calyx lobes that originally enclosed the blossom; and within them
are the dried and shrunken stamens and styles.

You will find many buds on an apple tree branch that produce
only leaves; whereas at the side and below the spur (where the
apple develops) , there is a bud that will continue the growth of
the branch. The following year the blossom buds will appear on
this new growth.

Shrubs— Mostly Decorative, Occasionally Hanufiil

How TO Tell a Shrub from a Tree

It is not easy to be exact enough to satisfy a boy or girl
who wants to know the difference between a shrub and a tree.
Both shrubs and trees are woody, perennial plants. Trees are
generally much larger— but you may find some shrubs, such as the
witch hazel, almost rivaling a small dogwood tree in size. There
is a definite line of cleavage, however, in that trees have a single
trunk, whereas shrubs are divided into many primary stems at the
ground, or near it.

374 ] Trees and How to Know Them

Witch Hazel and its Popgun Seed

You can look for witch hazel blossoms long after those of
other plants have disappeared. Sometimes the witch hazel blossoms
open in late September, but more often it is October or November
before the yellow, starlike flowers open. As most flowers have
fallen by that time, the long-petaled flowers are particularly effec-
tive in enhancing the landscape. If you keep watching a bush,
you will see that once the flower petals fall, the calyx forms a little
urn in which a nut will develop.

At first the small nut is green, but later it turns brown. It re-
quires a year to mature. Then, if you take it indoors, the heat
will soon cause the edges of the seed cup to curl inward, shooting
the seeds out as it does so. When this shooting device functions
out-of-doors, the seeds are propelled many feet from the parent
bush to new growing grounds.

Lovely Mountain Laurel

By fall the flowers of mountain laurel have long since
died away, but you still find this lovely shrub a beautiful part of
the landscape. The lustrous leaves do not die with the onset of
cold weather but remain green throughout the winter. With the
coming of spring, leaves grow on the new wood, arranged below
the clusters of flowers in formal bouquet design. You can easily
recognize the new wood: It is greenish and rough while the older
wood is brownish red. Mountain laurel is a woodland shrub,
with a special adaptation for rocky mountain sides and sandy soil.

Staghorn Sumac— Brilliant Scarlet

In open fields and on hillsides you are likely to come upon
staghorn sumac. This is how you can recognize it: In early fall
the leaves are usually the most brilliant scarlet of any on the
landscape. These leaves are of the kind that has a number of
separate blades attached to both sides of the long leaf stalks,
though they are not always set exactly opposite each other. The
number of these blades varies from eleven to thirty-one.

Trees and How to Know Them i 375

After the leaves have fallen, you can realize why this sumac i?
named **staghorn" when you see the upper branches widely spread
in the form of a stag's antlers. In the spring the new growths of
wood and leaf stems are covered with fine hairs, giving them a
velvety feel— again suggestive of a stag's antlers "in velvet."

By the time summer has arrived, the sumacs resemble giant
ferns with their long narrow leaf blades drooping somewhat from
the mid-rib. In June a shrub shows two different kinds of blos-
soms: one, a whitish form that bears the pollen; the other, a
reddish pistillate flower that later develops into the dark red
seed on the upright fruit cluster.

Poison Sumac

One of the hazards of nature exploring is the "poison
sumac," which, when handled, sometimes causes painful itching
and swelling. You may recognize this species partly by its location
(swamps rather than sunny fields); by its smooth-edged leaves
(staghorn sumac has sharp-toothed leaves) ; and by its fruit (a
drooping arrangement of white berries). Any sumac with a red
fruit cluster is harmless.

Poison Ivy and Poison OmL

Other oflEenders that may give us discomfort in the course
of outdoor exploring are poison ivy and poison oak, which belong
to the same family as the sumacs. As in the case of the poison
sumac, their foliage contains an oil that poisons the skin of many
people who come in contact with it. You will find poison ivy
climbing up trees and over walls and fences. It does so by means
of rootlets— not by tendrils such as vines use. The poison oak, on
the other hand, is shrubby in form.

Harmless vines— this is especially true of the Virginia creeper-
are often mistaken for poison ivy although there are several ways
to distinguish the nonpoisonous from the poisonous plants. Poison
ivy is best identified by its leaflets which are shiny and arranged
in groups of three. The Virginia creeper leaves are grouped in
fives and are dull rather than shiny. When berries develop, those
of poison ivy are white while the Virginia creeper's are dark blue.

376 ] Trees and How to Know Them

Relief for Poison Ivy: A thorough washing with heavy suds
(preferably yellow soap) is an old precaution if you suspect that
you have been exposed to these plants. Several preparations are
available in drugstores to treat cases of poison ivy, in which red-
ness and burning of the skin is followed by the appearance of
small white blisters. When commercial preparations were not at
hand, I have used a mixture of half a cup of vinegar and a tea-
spoon of salt with success. Dabbed on frequently, this relieves the
itch and tends to dry up the blisters.

Making Leaf Collections

Children, as we know, are avid collectors; and collecting leaves
often provides a completely satisfying outlet for this instinct. They
can obtain foliage of many kinds of trees in late summer and early
fall by simply picking the leaves off the ground. To preserve them,
place each leaf between sheets of newspaper, with several sheets
above and more below, and with a heavy weight on top of the pile.
In a few days the leaf will be dried out and flattened so that it can
be fastened in a scrapbook with narrow strips of cellophane tape.

How TO Make Spatter Prints

Older boys and girls may enjoy the more elaborate process
of making leaf prints. There are several methods. One of them
is the "blueprint" made like the fern prints described on page
337. Possibly the simplest method is the spatter print, which re-
quires the use of ink, a toothbrush, a small piece of wire screen-
ing (or a thin stick) , sheets of paper, and fresh— not dried— leaves.
First place the leaf on a sheet of paper and pin it down abso-
lutely flat. Then dip the toothbrush into the ink, remove it and
allow the surplus to drain back into the bottle. Now, working
from side to side and from top to bottom of the paper, hold the
brush a few inches above it and rub the bristles against the wire
screening (or stick) to spatter the ink. Scrape the bristles toward
you as this throws the ink in the opposite direction. (It may be a
good idea to have the youngster practice this stroke several times
before trying it with ink.)

Trees and How to Know Them

[377

INK SPAHERING

BLUEPRINT

PRINTER'S INK PRINT

When the whole surface of the paper is covered, you can finally
remove the leaf— and what remains is a perfect outline of the leaf,
surrounded by hundreds of little spatters of ink. You can get inter-
esting effects by varying the combination of ink and paper colors.

How TO Make Prints with Printer's Ink

Leaf prints made with printer's ink have the advantage
over spatter prints that they show not only the outline of the leaf
but also many of its veins. The materials you need for this third
process are: a tube of printer's ink (any color) , a sheet of window
glass slightly larger than the leaves, a rubber roller, and several
sheets of paper.

Roll out a thin film of ink on the surface of the glass. Next
place the leaf, with its underside down, on this inked surface.
Put a piece of paper over the leaf and work the roller over it
several times. Now you can discard the paper and lift the leaf
from the ink.

To make your print, place the leaf, with the inked side down,
on a sheet of clean paper. Place another sheet of paper over it and
work the roller back and forth directly over the paper-covered
leaf. Now remove the top paper and leaf and allow the finished
print to dry.

When the youngster has made a series of leaf prints or mounted
the actual leaves, his collection will mean a great deal more to

378 ] Trees and How to Know Them

him if he labels each leaf with the name and a few short notes
about the characteristics of the tree on which it grew.

Growing Trees At Home

Aside from the pleasure of observing trees in their natural
environment and in decorative landscapes, it is also fun to watch
them start growing from seed. It is far more difficult to get tree
seeds to grow than flower seeds; even under natural conditions
only one out of thousands may develop into a tree. But if you
keep certain facts in mind, you should have a rewarding measure
of success.

Among the better seeds to try your green thumb with are
acorns, horse-chestnuts, sycamore, and beech seeds. They germi-
nate quickly and, if successful, they put forth their first leaves
the spring after they are planted. You can prepare ground in
flowerpots or flat, lightweight wooden boxes such as the ones
used for packing certain kinds of cheese. If you use the box, make
several drainage holes in the bottom and cover them with broken
bits of pottery, rounded sides up, so that the holes will not become
clogged.

Now put a layer of pebbles over the bottom of the box or pot,
followed by garden soil or sand, mixed half and half, until the box
is filled to within half an inch from the top— and press down
firmly. Plant the seeds, place a light covering of soil over them,
and press the soil down again. (Such seeds as acorns and chestnuts
should be soaked in water for two days before planting.)

Keep your "tree garden" very close to a window which admits
plenty of sunshine. The soil, which should be kept moist but
never wet, is best watered with a bulb spray or sprinkler. Until
the seeds sprout, it is helpful to cover the top with a pane of glass,
thus preventing the surface from drying out.

You can keep small trees in pots for years. They remain dwarfed
and do not flower, but otherwise they are as interesting as forest
trees. If you have land with space for more trees, it is naturally a
thrilling experience for a child to transplant one of the seedlings

Trees and How to Know Them [ 379

in its second year to the out-of-doors, where it may soon out-
distance him in growth!

Seeds of fruit trees are almost always available. Those of the
orange, lemon, and grapefruit may be planted thickly in shallow
flowerpots. They need little attention and will grow slowly all
winter, producing attractive green decorations. Apple, peach,
cherry, and plum seeds should be mixed with dampened peat
moss, placed in a jar and put in the refrigerator for some seven
or eight weeks. Once a week thereafter, look at the seeds and
turn them a little in their mossy bed. As soon as they start to
sprout, take them out and plant them as you would other tree
seeds.

CHAPTER

2 Our Earth and Its
Fellow Planets

E HAVE NOTHING ON EARTH SO SublimC aS the

star-filled night sky. We gaze in wonder-
ment at this vast and mysteriously ordered universe where a
million miles is a short distance and where each of the countless
stars moves in its own sphere without disturbing other heavenly
bodies. Who, looking heavenward, can fail to feel trivial by
comparison?

A small child may not share all our adult feelings about this
miracle of the skies. Yet even to him the night sky has an irresis-
tible fascination. When a child recites * 'Twinkle, twinkle, little
star, how I wonder what you are," he is unwittingly giving expres-
sion to mankind's old curiosity about what a star is, and why it
behaves as it does. But the child can ask more questions about
stars than does the poem. Why do stars disappear in the daytime?
What makes stars twinkle? Why can't we fly to them in an air-
plane? Don't they ever bump into each other? These are questions
that many a child has asked me.

Some of them are quite easy to answer. We cannot see stars in
the daytime because the brilliant light of the sun blots them out.
A youngster can understand this more easily when he looks at
the night sky from a brightly lit city and finds how dim the stars
seem— and then sees their brightness from dark country fields.

380

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets [ 381

When the sun is overhead, every bit of air and dust catches its
light and scatters it. Thus in the daytime the air is brighter than
the starlight and prevents it from shining through to us.

Stars appear to twinkle because we see their light through an
unsteady atmosphere. The fact that there are no collisions of
heavenly bodies is explained by the force of gravitation, which
makes the stars, planets, and moons move around each other in
fixed paths, or "orbits." They pull and tug at their neighbors, but
the net effect is to hold all in place rather than pull them off
course.

We cannot fly to the stars— though we sometimes feel we can
reach up and almost touch them— because they are really millions
of miles away. Up to now no one has penetrated beyond the mere
six miles of air that surround our earth.

Things Are Not What They Seem

The youngster who observes the heavens appears to be
easily learning a number of facts. He watches the sun rise in the
east and move across the sky until it sinks in the west. He sees
the moon gradually disappear each month, then gradually return
to view. When he can see it, he knows it rises and sets, as the sun
does. He may notice that the stars, too, seem to travel from east
to west across the sky.

But these are apparent happenings. Our children have the
benefit of centuries of study by people who questioned what their
eyes perceived; and before a child is ten, he usually begins to
learn at school some of the facts discovered by the astronomers.
He is taught that much of what appears to be the behavior of the
heavenly bodies is actually the result of our earth turning on its
axis and revolving around the sun; and that the moon is a sphere
that reflects the light of the sun and revolves around the earth in a
period of about twenty-nine days.

Yet, even while they are learning, today's children are being
exposed to a new type of fantasy that is likely to become confusing
even to parents. Science fiction and television depict people racing
in rocketships from one planet to another; they describe distant

382 ] Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

planets inhabited by humans, and present "new" planets to
explore.

The imaginative child who accepts and thrills to this fantasy is
reassured to learn that at least some of it may become reality. For,
since scientists have learned how to use the energy inside the
atom, they seriously predict that atomic-energy-propelled rocket-
ships may in due course be sent to the moon. So, what only a few
years ago would have been regarded as completely fantastic is
today given serious consideration.

Yet these fanciful facts are so intermingled with out-and-out
fantasy in young minds that we are actually bringing our children
down to earth— in more than one sense!— when we tell them the
truth, as we know it today, about planets and stars.

Looking at the Sky

Though the people of long ago watched the skies closely
and made keen observations, they could not understand many
things because they assumed that the earth stood still while the
planets and stars moved around it. Only about 350 years ago the
great Polish astronomer. Copernicus announced his startling hypo-
thesis: The movements of the planets became understandable if
the earth was a planet and if all the planets revolved about the
sun. Copernicus added that the earth also turns on its axis once a
day. Thus, while we are apparently watching heavenly bodies
move from east to west, we are instead seeing the effects of the
earth whirling eastward on its axis.

Galaxies and More Galaxies: We call the earth and its eight fellow
planets that travel around the sun, the "solar system." Beyond
our solar system— a seemingly endless distance beyond it— there are
billions of stars I All these heavenly bodies are a part of our
universe, or galaxy. At one time, universe (meaning "everything
there is, combined into one") seemed a suitable word to use for
our galaxy; but, as exploration of the heavens continued, astrono-
mers found that our universe was not "everything." Many other
galaxies of stars are scattered throughout the endless space that
surrounds our own galaxy!

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

[383

What Telescopes Tell Us: Powerful modern telescopes reach out
across hundreds of millions of light-years to penetrate some of
these distant galaxies. (A light-year represents the distance that
can be covered by light in a year's time: 6,000,000,000,000 miles!)
But even the comparatively "close" stars of our own universe are
so far away that they appear as mere points of light. Our most
powerful telescopes make these stars appear brighter, but with no
more defined form than when we observed them with the naked
eye.

• •

MARS
MOON
EARTH
VENUS
MERCURY

JUPITER

URANUS

NEPTUNE
SATURN PLUTO

(Courtesy A.M.N.H.)
OUR PLANET NEIGHBORS VARY GREATLY IN SIZE

The earth is neither the largest nor the smallest of the planets. From Jupiter,
the largest, with a diameter of eighty-seven thousand miles, to Mercury with o
diameter of only three thousand miles, there are remarkable differences among
the members of the sun's family. However, all move around the sun in the same
direction. A year on any planet is the time it takes that planet to moke a complete
revolution around the sun. The planets are dwarfs, compared to the sun, with its
864,000-mile diameter. The sun, a ball of flaming gas, is not a planet but a star.

On the other hand, when we look at any of the planets (except
Pluto, the most distant one) through a large telescope, they appear
as round disks, similar to our moon. Jupiter, largest of the planets,
which is hundreds of millions of miles distant from the earth,
needs to be magnified only fifty times to appear as large as the
moon.

384 1 Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

Telescopes for Everyday Use

If your family becomes seriously interested in stargazing, you
may consider a telescope of your own a worth-while investment.
Either of the two types that are used by the great observatories
devoted to astronomy, can be obtained in vastly reduced size.

Refractor Telescopes

The kind that looks as you might expect it to— that is,
resembling a long spyglass— is known as a refractor, or lens, tele-
scope. It is called a "refractor" because starlight, as it passes
through the lens, is bent or refracted by the curved surface of the
glass, then brought together at the focus.

Reflector Telescopes

The other type is a "reflector" or mirror telescope. It brings
the light from the stars to a focus by reflection from a mirror,
which is not flat like an ordinary mirror but slopes gradually
towards its center. The world-famous telescope on Mt. Palomar
in California is a reflector.

Each type, refractor and reflector, has its advantages for the
professional astronomer, but on the whole the refractor seems
best for a child. It is less subject to damage from inexperienced
handling and as a rule the stars are seen more sharply through it.

Choosing a Telescope: If you are buying a telescope, it is wise to
choose a small one with a good lens and a tripod (mounting) ,
rather than a large one without these assets. A mounting that is
not firm will show you "dancing stars" as you look through it.
Equipment of this kind may require an investment of more than a
hundred dollars; however, you may find satisfactory an extension
type of telescope that is held to the eye. The cost of such an instru-
ment is less than half that of a mounted telescope.

In many towns and cities groups of young people interested in
the stars have astronomy clubs. Belonging to such an organization
often gives a child the opportunity to use a telescope regularly,
thus saving his family the expense of investing in one. The club

PARASOL ANT-
SCIENTIFIC GARDENER
This ant bearing a piece of leaf,
parasol-fashion, is not shading
itself from the sun but is carrying
out an important part of its farm
program. Parasol ant workers cut
leaves underground and on them
plant fungus spores which pro-
duce food for the colony. In
dense tropical forests a proces-
sion of these large ants may
extend a good part of a mile.

Neu^ York Zoological Society

THE BEAUTIFUL, USEFUL, AND ALARMING DRAGONFLY

Many people regard this handsome insect (note i's exquisite tiansparent wings) with
almost superstitious fear. But not only is it harmless to man— it helps to keep
mosquito pesti in check. Dragonfly eggs ore often laid right in the water.

Harold K. Whi

American Museum of Natural H.
A MONARCH BUTTERFLY IS BORN

Behind the creation of every butterfly is a fanciful story. The ugly cater-
pillar turns into a chrysalis of rare beauty. The monarch chrysalis, shown
first at the upper left, is a jewel of gold and green, hanging from o
leaf or fence. It gets darker; after twelve days the butterfly emerges.

A MONARCH ON ITS
FAVORITE PERCH
When the butterfly emerges
from the chrysalis, its wings
are damp and limp, but soon
they harden and the insect
becomes a sturdy flier. The
monarch can sail in strong
breezes or light rainstorms,
and is notable for its long-
distance migrations. The fe-
males, as they travel north
in the spring, lay eggs on
milkweed plants like this.

American Museum

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

[385

has the additional excellent feature of giving youngsters an oppor-
tunity to compare notes with other stargazers of their own age
level.

The Planets

"Is there much difiEerence between stars and planets?" your sky-
minded youngster may ask.

(Courtesy A.M.N.H.)
THE PLANETS TRAVEL ABOUT THE SUN -OUR DAYTIME STAR

Two planets are closer to the sun than is our earth; six others are farther away,
rhe drawing shows the planets in the order of their distance from this great
blazing mass. It may be that beyond our solar system, there are other planets
revolving about stars which furnish them light and warmth as our sun does for us.

386 ] Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

There is, indeed. Stars are blazing masses of glowing gas, like
our sun. We are told that something like two or three billion
years ago a great piece of our sun was drawn away from the main
body and separated into nine parts. The generally held theory is
that the gravitational attraction of a passing star pulled away a
portion of the sun's mass, which later broke up into separate drops.
Some of these went much further away from the sun than others,
but all cooled into solid balls, and all— controlled by the sun's pull
or force of gravitation— proceeded to revolve about the sun. These
are the planets.

From planet Earth we can see five of the others— Mercury, Mars,
Venus, Saturn, and Jupiter— without using a telescope. The re-
maining three— Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto— are too faint to be
seen with the naked eye.

How Planets Differ from Stars

It will help you to distinguish planets from stars if you
keep several points in mind. Planets shine steadily— they do not
twinkle as stars always appear to do. This difference comes about
because the beam of light that radiates from a planet is wider than
that from a more distant star, and is therefore less influenced by
our atmosphere. Also, the way the planets move about the sky is
different from the movement of the innumerable stars that sur-
round them.

Like stars, the planets appear first in the east and seem to travel
westward; but you will notice that the position of the stars with
relation to one another remains constant. The position of the
planets among the stars, however, is variable.

If you start to keep track of a planet, you will see it change its
heavenly neighbors week after week. More than two thousand
years ago, the Greeks noticed these "stars" that behaved differently
from the rest, and named them planets— in Greek this means
"wanderers."

How TO Locate the Planets

The night sky may well bewilder parent and child as they
first try to distinguish planets from stars, and one star group from

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets [ 387

another. Charts which indicate the positions of these heavenly
bodies will help you to recognize them and also indicate where to
look for them as their positions change. You can find sky charts
in many newspapers and in publications devoted to astronomy.

When your child has looked carefully at timely charts, he will
be thrilled as he traces with you the paths of the planets. Over a
period of time he will have the exciting experience of seeing them
travel along with the stars, then seemingly move backward—then
soon turn again and go forward in their original direction.

Why the Earth is "Different"

It is quite natural for a child to suppose that since our
earth is one of a group of planets, the others are worlds just like
our own. When he learns that this is not so, he will surely be
intensely curious about the difference between the earth and the
other planets.

Is it because the other planets are too far away from the sun—
or too near it— that he could not live on them? Some planets are
larger than the earth (which has a diameter of nearly eight thou-
sand miles) and others are smaller. Is the size of a planet important
in regulating the possibility of life on it?

Why Life is Possible on our Earth: Most scientists agree that p
combination of favorable factors makes our form of life possible
on earth.

Among these are the size and weight of the materials of which
the earth is made. They are just right to produce the gravity that
is needed— not too great to crush us by our own weight, and yet
great enough for the earth to hold sufficient atmosphere to sustain
life.

Another condition is that we are neither too close to, nor too
far away from, the sun; and the length of our seasons is apparently
stimulating to organic life. Not only are these particular condi-
tions missing on other planets, but they have other conditions
definitely unfavorable to our form of life.

388 ] Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

As we look at the other planets, it appears that if there is life
in these other worlds, it must be of a kind that is beyond our
experience and understanding.

Mars— Science-Fiction Favorite

Of all the planets, Mars is the one most often used by science-
fiction writers as the home of a race of people similar to ourselves.
They choose Mars because they have more information on which
to base their stories than they have about the other planets. It is
one of our closest planetary neighbors, and while many of the
other planets are hidden behind dense clouds, the atmosphere of
Mars is so thin that we can see through it clearly.

Mars Through the Telescope: If you look at Mars through a tele-
scope it appears mostly orange in color; but patches of other colors
show, too. At the top, or at the bottom, of the disk (and some-
times at both locations at once) , there is a great patch of white.
These patches are apparently fields of snow and ice which we call
polar caps. When the northern half of the planet's axis begins to
tilt toward the sun, the northern polar cap begins to grow smaller,
while the southern polar cap shows a gradual increase in size.

The diameter of Mars is about 4,200 miles— only about half of
our earth's.

The **Canals" on Mars

The discovery of "canals" on Mars about seventy-five years
ago quickly gave rise to the exciting idea that people like our-
selves live on that planet. But actually the canal theory started
from a misunderstanding! When an Italian astronomer, Giovanni
Schiaparelli, was observing Mars through his small telescope, he
saw on its surface what looked like a network of fine lines. He
noted them as canali, an Italian word meaning "channels." English
translations immediately turned this into "canals"— a word we use
for artificial waterways made by human beings.

Ever since that time the canals have been a subject for debate;
the astronomers have not been able to agree on their description
of the "canals," and some even refuse to recognize anything that

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets [ 389

even resembles channels. Some scientists believe they are volcanic
cracks; others say they are watercourses; still others hold they are
formed by vegetation.

Life on Mars: Today the idea that there is human life on Mars
is generally discredited but we are fairly sure that plant life, at
least, does exist there. An analysis of the planet's atmosphere
reveals similarities to our own— including free oxygen. This indi-
cates that plant life is possible, and looking through a telescope
we see greenish markings (probably caused by vegetation) that
appear to move across the face of Mars.

The motion that we see is due to the fact that Mars is turning
on its axis— just as the earth does. And because the axis of Mars
is tilted just about as much as ours, we conclude that Mars must
have seasons like our own. But it takes Mars nearly two years to
complete a journey around the sun; its seasons are therefore much
longer than ours, and its "year" is nearly twice as long as one of
our years.

Mars WrrHour a Telescope

When you look at the sky unaided by a telescope, Mars
appears reddish— in contrast to the blue of other planets and stars.
It was this reddish tinge that led the ancients to associate the
planet with their god of war. Sometimes Mars is brilliant, at other
times dim. The variation is caused by its changing distance from
the earth and by its distance from the sun; Mars shines by reflected
sunlight.

Sometimes Mars is 250 million miles away from the earth, and
sometimes as close as thirty-six million miles. When the earth is
between Mars and the sun. Mars is at its brightest as viewed from
the earth. When Mars is on the opposite side of the sun from us.
Mars is very dim.

Martian Invasion

Many years ago H. G. Wells wrote a work called The War
of the Worlds, in which he described with great imaginative skill
a Martian invasion of our planet. When a dramatized version of

390 ] Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

this story was broadcast on a Sunday evening in 1938, the narra-
tion was so "realistic" that great numbers of people were caught
in the unreasoning grip of hysteria. The popular reaction to this
broadcast is the most convincing proof that scientific knowledge
of the planets is not very widespread. Their distance is so great,
of course, that no object could proceed from them toward our
planet without its movements being noticed long in advance of its
arrival.

Mercury— Submerged by the Sun's Brilliance

Though Mars is probably our most frequently discussed planet
neighbor, Venus and Mercury are also reasonably close— close, that
is, in comparison to the other five remaining planets. Together
with Earth and Mars, they are sometimes called the "terrestrial
planets." All are made up of solid, fairly heavy material. All are
roughly comparable in size, and all rotate on their axis at moderate
or slow speed.

Life is Impossible on Mercury

The smallest member of the sun*s "family," Mercury is also
closest to the sun. Because of its small size and slight mass (it is
only three thousand miles in diameter and the earth has twenty-
five times as much mass) , the attraction of gravity on its surface
is not enough to retain an atmosphere. And because of its nearness
to the sun. Mercury's surface is hot. The heat and lack of atmos-
phere make life impossible.

When Mercury is Visible

Submerged by the sun's brilliance. Mercury is generally
invisible to us. During the year there are only six periods of two
weeks' duration when we can see it clearly, shining with a white
light. These are the times when it is farthest, east or west, from
the sun as seen from the earth. When it is far to the east of the
sun. Mercury sets soon after the sun. We then see it in the west,
and know it as the "evening star." About two months later, when
Mercury is farthest to the west of the sun, it rises in the east a

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets [391

while before the sun, and we know it as the "morning star."
Mercury requires eighty-eight days to complete its trip around
the sun.

Venus— Most Brilliant of the Planets

This planet, named by the ancients for their goddess of beauty,
is also close to the sun, but it shines with remarkable brilliance. In
fact, aside from the moon, Venus is the brightest object in the
night sky. It is invisible for certain periods, like Mercury; but
these periods of invisibility are far less frequent than Mercury's.
We can hope to see Venus about sunset or dawn, and occasionally
we can see it, with the naked eye, in broad daylight.

The Atmosphere of Venus

Venus has an atmosphere, and in fact it is completely
covered by dense white clouds— one reason for its brilliance, as
the clouds reflect light. Unfortunately the clouds hide all fixed
points on the planet, so we do not know what its surface is like.
Astronomers have not detected oxygen and water vapor in the
upper atmosphere of Venus— a fact which leads us to conclude
that life does not exist there. However, we do not know what
conditions exist below the heavy surrounding curtain of clouds.
With a small telescope you can watch Venus go through phases
similar to those of the moon. When it is nearest to the earth it
appears as a crescent; when the planet is farthest from the earth
it is "full."

Earth— Just Another Planet

With solid ground under his feet, and firmly rooted trees,
solidly constructed buildings, and many other stationary objects
all about him, a child finds it difficult to think of our earth as a
heavenly body moving freely through space, just like the other
planets. Probably the most convincing evidence you can offer the
youngster to show that we do live on a moving planet is to cite
our change of seasons and alternating periods of light and
darkness.

392]

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

That the sun stands still (aside from rotating on its axis) has
been known since the time of the astronomer Copernicus. Con-
sequently the earth must be moving, or we would have no change
from winter to summer or from day to night. The earth and all
the other planets travel around the sun and, at the same time,
turn, or spin, on an axis (the imaginary line that connects the
North Pole with the South Pole, in the case of the earth) .

Night and Day

A good way to give a child a clear picture of some of the
causes and effects of the earth's motions is to have a lamp represent
the sun. An inexpensive globe may be bought at many five-and-
ten-cent stores, and as you rotate the globe and make it revolve
around the lamp, the youngster can see how light from the sun
varies at different parts of the earth.

As the Earth Whirls Through Space: If we could stand out in
space to watch our earth, as we can observe the lamp and globe in
our room, we would see that the earth makes one complete turn
on its axis every twenty-four hours. This may seem very slow, but
at its widest part— around the equator— it is whirling at a rate of

DAY CHANGES TO NIGHT AS THE EARTH TURNS ON ITS AXIS
As the earth rotates, some of it always faces the sun and has daylight. As rotation
continues, this portion is gradually turned away from the sun and night descends
there. All the planets rotate in this manner, and the length of a day on each
depends on the time it takes to moke one complete turn on its axis. A day on Mars
is thirty-seven minutes longer than our twenty-four-hour day. Jupiter's day is
less than ten hours, while one day on Mercury equals eighty-eight of our days!

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets [ 393

more than a thousand miles an hourl At places north and south
of the equator the rate is not quite so fast. The rotating speed at
San Francisco, Chicago, and New York is 750 miles an hour.

Sunrise, Noon, and Night: Just as our lamp illumines only half
the globe at a time, so the light of the sun shines on only half the
earth at a time. This is what gives us our alternation of night and
day. As the earth turns so that we can see the sun from our particu-
lar spot on earth, we say that "the sun is rising."

The earth continues to turn eastward and the sun appears to
rise higher and higher in the sky. When the sun is as high as it
"can go," we have "noon." After that the sun seems to sink lower
and lower until the earth has turned so far that we can no longer
see the sun from our particular spot on earth. We say that "the
sun has set." It is now night on our side of the earth— but on the
other side of the earth, day is beginning.

Why the Amount of Daylight Varies: The path that the sun
appears to follow in the sky varies according to our location on
the earth. If we were at the equator, we would find night and day
of equal length throughout the year. But the farther north we are
from the equator, the farther around to north does the sun rise
and set in summer (making for long days and short nights) .

Thus if we travel far to the north in summertime, we find the
days still longer than they are in the United States. When we get
as far north as the capital of Sweden, for example, a summer day
is nearly nineteen hours long. Still farther north, beyond the
Arctic Circle, there is a time in midsummer when we would find
the sun shining continuously for forty-eight hours!

In wintertime, however, the farther north we are from the
equator, the farther to the south does the sun rise and set. This
produces short days and long nights.

What causes these changing lengths of night and days? The
earth's axis is tilted and always pointed in the same direction—
with the North Pole toward the north pole of the sky. There is a
certain stage in the journey of the earth around the sun when our
North Pole is tipped farthest toward the sun. One result is that

394]

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

sunshine goes far beyond the Pole, making long days (summer)
on the northern half of the earth. When the earth reaches a differ-
ent stage in its journey around the sun so that the North Pole-
always pointing in the same direction— begins to tip further and
further away from the sun, daytime on the northern half of the
earth grows shorter: Winter is approaching.

If the earth's axis were not tilted— if the axis were straight up
and down in relation to its path around the sun, the sun would
always appear directly over our equator, and throughout the earth
the days and nights would be of equal length.

Why We Have Changing Seasons

The slant of the sun's rays affects the earth's seasons. In
the United States the rays are most nearly vertical— coming almost

SEASONS CHANGE AS THE EARTH TRAVELS AROUND THE SUN
The variation in the way the sun's rays reach us causes the seasons of spring,
summer, autumn and winter; and the variation results because the earth's axis is
not exactly perpendicular to its path around the sun, but is tipped toward the
north. The axis always points in the same direction, but the fact that it is tipped
causes the North Pofe to point away f'rom the sun during our winter and toward
the sun in summer. We receive only one two-billionth of the sun's energy.

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets [ 395

straight down— on June 21 (beginning of summer). On December
2 1 (beginning of winter) they come to us on more of a slant than
at any other time.

We notice, however, that we have our hottest weather in July
and August, and our coldest in January and February. This lag is
explained by the fact that the earth takes time to grow warm
again after the cold of winter, and to become fully cooled oflE
after the accumulation of summer heat.

Winter in June: On the day that summer begins in the Northern
Hemisphere, winter begins in the Southern Hemisphere; at the
stage of the earth's journey around the sun where the North Pole
is tipped farthest toward the sun, the South Pole is tipped farthest
away from the sun. Thus we see that the seasons in the Southern
Hemisphere are the reverse of those in the Northern Hemisphere
at the very same time. This shows that winter and summer are not
caused by the earth being farther away from, or nearer to, the sun.
It is the tilting of the axis that produces the changes of the seasons.

Jupiter— Largest of tbe Planets

This planet is often one of the brightest objects in our night
sky, and this may give us the impression that it is at least as close
to the earth as Mars. The fact is that Jupiter is hundreds of mil-
lions of miles further away from us than Mars is; however, the
tremendous size of Jupiter enables us to see it clearly. It is the
largest of all the planets (perhaps that is why the ancients named
it for the king of their gods) , with a diameter about eleven times
that of the earth.

An Atmosphere Thousands of Miles Deep

With only a small telescope you can get a closer view of
Jupiter, making out soft shades of red, yellow, tan, and brown
that form bands across the distant white planet, parallel to its
equator. These bands are actually clouds, composed in the main
of two poisonous gases— ammonia and methane. Their presence
rules out any possibility of life as we know it on earth. Scientists

2g6 ] Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

believe that the atmosphere of Jupiter is thousands of miles deep
and that the solid core of the planet is comparatively small.

Jupiter Has Moons

What is possibly the most interesting feature of Jupiter,
the procession of moons that circle about the planet, cannot be
seen with the naked eye. There are twelve of these moons— four of
them visible through powerful field glasses. Looking at these four
through a small telescope, you may see them circling around
Jupiter, first in front of, then vanishing behind, the giant planet.
It was about 350 years ago that the great Galileo discovered these
four moons, which are about the size of our own moon. They
were the first moons ever seen that belonged to any other planet
than the earth. The development of more powerful telescopes led
to the discovery of eight smaller moons around Jupiter, the most
recent one coming in 1951.

Saturn and Its Strange, Gigantic Rings

This planet, too, has moons, but it has an even more fascinating
feature. Saturn is encircled by three strange, gigantic rings that
whirl around it continually. These rings are one of the unsolved
mysteries of astronomy. Why should Saturn— but no other planet-
have rings?

The rings of Saturn are not solid— they are apparently made up
of innumerable tiny particles, perhaps no larger than grains of
dust. These great rings are probably not more than ten miles
thick— which is paper-thin in relation to its enormous diameter.

Looking at Saturn's Rings

If we view Saturn through a small telescope, we see the
rings as a single flattened object. However, a more powerful instru-
ment reveals all three of them, one inside the other. The inner-
most ring is very faint; the middle one is the brightest. They are
inclined at an angle that is unchanging, but, as the planet moves
around the sun we see them at varying angles according to Saturn's
position with respect to the earth.

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets [ 397

Saturn takes twenty-nine and a half of our years to revolve about
the sun. Twice during that period the rings are so tilted that only
a narrow edge faces the earth. At that stage we cannot see the
rings at all through a small telescope; we succeed with a powerful
instrument only because of sunlight shining through the rings.
When they appear upward or downward, the three rings are
distinct.

It is fascinating to observe the changing aspects of the rings as
the shadow of Saturn is thrown on them, and again as the shadow
of the rings appears on the planet as a dark, sharply outlined band.
They move around the planet at varying speeds— the ring nearest
Saturn is the fastest; the outer ring, the slowest.

Saturn is the last of the planets that we can see with the naked
eye. It is another of the "giants," second only to Jupiter in size.
As in the case of Jupiter, clouds of poisonous gases form bands
across the surface of Saturn, but they are much fainter than
Jupiter's bands. Despite its great size, Saturn does not appear
nearly so brilliant to the naked eye as Jupiter does. Saturn is
millions of miles farther away from us.

Uranus and Neptune— Distant Planets

These planets are so far away from us that only a person with
exceptional eyesight can possibly see Uranus without the aid of a
telescope, while Neptune is always invisible to the naked eye.
Both of these planets resemble Jupiter and Saturn in having
clouds of ammonia and methane in their atmosphere. And though
they are smaller than Jupiter and Saturn, they are nevertheless
classed as giants.

Uranus is about thirty-two thousand miles in diameter and takes
eighty-four of our years to complete its revolution around the sun.
Even through a telescope there is little to look for on Uranus. It
appears as a small greenish disk with vague belts across the surface.
It has four satellites.

Neptune, as we have seen, is completely invisible except with
the aid of a fairly powerful telescope. Still, it has a diameter of
about thirty-three thousand miles, and its period of revolving

^g8 ] Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

about the sun requires almost 165 of our years. It has one satellite
and, like Uranus, is greenish in color.

How Uranus and Neptune Were Discovered

It is interesting to realize that Uranus was discovered purely
by accident in 1781— thousands of years after people first began to
watch the heavens and firmly concluded there were no planets
beyond Saturn. The discoverer of Uranus was Sir William
Herschel, a great British astonomer, whose name is sometimes
given to it.

Neptune was found independently in 1846 by two different
astronomers— each unknown to the other I They noticed that
Uranus did not always follow its exj>ected course, and they specu-
lated that this might be due to the influence of another, hitherto
unknown, planet. After several years of study and calculations,
each man in his own way located the "new" planet, which was
named Neptune. Science had rung up another curtain, revealed
another secret of the mysterious universe that is our home.

Pluto— Most Distant of Them All

The most recently discovered planet (it was first seen in 1930) ,
Pluto is completely beyond the range of a small telescope. Small
wonder— Pluto is almost four billion miles away from us! It is the
planet most distant from the sun, and requires nearly 250 of our
years to complete one trip around it.

Pluto does not compare in size to the giant planets, and is prob-
ably somewhat smaller than the earth. One interesting theory
about the origin of Pluto is that it may have started as an escaped
satellite of its nearest planetary neighbor, Neptune. Scientists
believe that Pluto has little or no atmosphere, as it reflects light
very poorly. Pluto is yellowish in color.

Though this planet was named for the god of the underworld,
the first two letters PL are used for its symbol, and these are the
initials of a great astronomer, Percival Lowell. It was Dr. Lowell
who calculated how a planet in the realm of Pluto must move.

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets [ 399

However, Pluto was not discovered until twenty-five years after
his death I

The Mysterious Minor Planets

With a telescope you may make the acquaintance of another
group of heavenly bodies that are not stars— for they are within
our solar system— and yet lack the full status of planets. These are
the asteroids (from the Greek word aster, meaning "star") . They
are found in the great gulf of space between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter.

Even through the telescope the asteroids show up only as points
of light (like the stars), though they have the solid mass of planets.
This is explained by the far smaller size of the asteroids as com-
pared to the full planets; the largest asteroid is less than five
hundred miles across and the smallest, only five or ten miles.

Solving the Puzzle of the Minor Planets
The answer to the puzzle of why several thousand of these
minor planets (or asteroids) exist in an area where one single
planet might be expected, may lie in the theory that once a single
planet did move along this path. This unknown planet may have
broken into the thousands of fragments that now continue to move
in the same path. Meteorites that strike our earth are also believed
to be the remains of this vanished planet.

The Moon— Our Neighbor in Space

To young children, the moon is probably the most interesting
object in the sky. It is by far the brightest of the night sky; and
though the sun is overwhelmingly brighter, it does not have the
moon's rather mysterious appeal. The moon's gradual disappear-
ance and equally gradual return to view each month may seem very
odd, to say the least, until a child understands the cause.

A child may take in all seriousness talk about "the man in the
moon," and by the time he realizes that this is merely an imagina-
tive phrase, he may have begun to wonder about such terms as
the "craters" and the dark plains (often called seas or "maria")

^oo ] Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

of the moon— terms concerned with facts rather than fancy. As he
grows older he may have the exciting dream of going to the moon
by rocketship; being the nearest of the heavenly bodies, the moon
is the first that scientists hope to reach.

What Makes "The Man in the Moon"

A powerful telescope gives spectacular results when it is
trained on the moon, but we can still learn many things about its
surface by observing it with field glasses or a small telescope. Con-
spicuous even to an unaided eye are the large dark spots we like
to associate with a man's face, a rabbit, and other fancies.

Through a telescope we can see these spots better. They are
craters— great circular depressions. Some are fifty miles or more in
diameter, with walls thousands of feet high; others are small pits
without walls. Many astronomers believe the craters were formed
by volcanoes, but others suggest that large meteors falling upon
the moon created them.

Phases of the Moon

The dark spots give further emphasis to the fact that the
moon (like the planets) has no light of its own; the brilliance of
the moon is all reflected light. And because it borrows its light
from the sun, the moon has * 'phases" that range from crescent to
"first quarter" to "full" to "last quarter" to crescent again. With
light of its own the moon would not be so changeable.

What Produces the Phases: To understand the phases, we must
keep in mind several facts: The sun is ninety-three million miles
from our earth. The moon is a mere 240,000 miles from us. The
moon revolves around the earth, as the earth revolves around the
sun. But whereas the earth takes a year to make its revolution the
moon requires only a month for its journey. (The word "month"
is derived from "moon.")

We cannot see the moon at all when it comes between us and
the sun, for the side of the moon that faces the earth then reflects
no light. When we are able to see a thin sliver of light on its edge,
which now faces the sun, we call it the crescent or "new" moon.

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets [ 401

About a week later, when the moon has moved a quarter of the
way around its orbit, we can see half of its bright side (first
quarter) .

In another week the moon is opposite the sun, and appears full,
for we can see all of its bright side. (During this period the moon
rises about sunset and remains in the sky all night.) Still another
week brings the moon three-quarters of the distance of its orbit
and we again see half of the bright side (third quarter). The moon
goes through all these phases each month.

It happens that the moon rotates on its axis in just the same
time that it revolves about the earth, with the result that the same
face is always turned towards usi No one has ever seen the other
side— the intriguing "hidden side" of the moon.

What We Will Find on the Moon

If the time comes when we can shoot in a rocketship to the
moon, we shall have to take oxygen tanks along; there is no air on
this planet-like heavenly body. The territory to be explored will
be far less than on the earth, for the moon's diameter is only 2,160
miles— in contrast to the earth's 7,918-mile diameter.

We probably would not regret the small size, for there is a
terrible sameness about the moon's landscape. Rocks, rocky plains,
and rocky mountains are on all sides of us. No trees, flowers, or
even grass break the monotony and no birds or other animals give
life to the scene. If we clap our hands to break the eerie quiet, we
still hear nothing!— without air there can be no sound waves.

Knowing as we do that the force of gravitation on the moon is
low compared with that of our earth, we check our weight.
Whereas on earth we weighed 120 pounds, we are now just twenty
pounds— only a sixth of our accustomed weight! In this feather-
weight condition we find that we can get around with great strides.
So we climb easily over the moutains, dome-shaped hills, and
mountain-ringed plains. We have no worries about weather for
the moon, being without moisture, has no clouds, rain, snow, or
wind.

402 ] Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

These things we know about the moon, but many others we do
not. Its first explorers will doubtless find out much we on earth
cannot possibly discover even with our wonderful scientific instru-
ments.

How THE Moon Was Formed

Satellites are generally very tiny in relation to the size of
the parent bodies around which they revolve. The other planets,
for example, have several hundred thousand times the mass of
their satellites. But the moon is an exception: Our earth has only
eighty-one times the mass of the moon. One explanation of this is
found in the theory that our moon separated from the earth at a
comparatively late stage of the earth's development, when it had
cooled to a liquid form.

At this point, so runs the theory, gravitational forces from the
sun acted to form a bulge on our earth. In time this bulge sepa-
rated as a giant teardrop and moved out into space to occupy its
present orbit encircling the earth. Held in its orbit by the con-
tinual pulling force of the sun as well as by that of the earth, the
moon exerts its own pull on the earth. (This pull of the moon is
reflected in our tides. The highest tides each month come with the
full moon and the new moon.)

To support this interesting theory the astronomers have brought
geology to their aid by suggesting that the moon's tearing away
from the earth left a visible scar on our planet. The fact that the
entire Pacific Ocean basin has a different surface rock structure-
basalt rather than the granite common to other areas— has led some
scientists to accept this area as the region where the moon carried
away a large portion of our forming earth.

WH'i' We Have Eclipses of the Moon

Every once in a while the moon stages a show that fascinates
children as well as adults. This happens at the times when the
moon goes into the shadow of the earth, and we say there has been
an eclipse of the moon.

Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

SUN'S RAYS

[403

THE MOON IS ECLIPSED WHEN COVERED BY THE EARTH'S SHADOW

An eclipse of the moon does not occur each time the moon mokes its circle around
the earth; usually the sun passes above or below the earth's tapering shadow,
which is nearly a million miles long! But when sun, earth, and moon ore in line,
the earth blots out the sun's rays. However, some of these rays are bent in passing
through the earth's atmosphere— enough to make the moon faintly visible, with
a coppery tint. Astronomers predict these eclipses with extraordinary precision.

In its journey around the earth, the moon usually passes once a
month either below or above the shadow cast from the darkened
side of the earth. But sometimes the moon passes through this
earth shadow and then becomes nearly invisible— eclipsed. A whole
year may go by without a lunar eclipse; in another year there may
be as many as three eclipses.

On some of these occasions the moon passes through the edge of
the shadow and only part of it is darkened; at other times it is
completely in the shadow. But even during a total eclipse the
moon does not entirely disappear from view— it only dims and
changes color. The point is that it does not completely lose all
sunlight. Some of that light is refracted (bent) by the earth's
atmosphere; and because red, orange, and yellow pass most easily
through the atmosphere, the moon appears a deep copper color
when it is eclipsed.

Astronomers can predict eclipses. Newspapers and almanacs tell
when they will occur, and from what places they may be seen.

404 ] Our Earth and Its Fellow Planets

Seeing the Skies "Indoors"

If it is at all possible, you will not want to miss the experience
of visiting one of the great planetariums. It is the best way for a
child to get a good basic understanding of our solar system and
the stars that surround it. There are six planetariums in the
United States— in Los Angeles, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia,
New York, and Chapel Hill, North Carolina.

When you enter a planetarium, your child will be curious about
the weird-looking instrument that stands on a platform in the
center of the domed room. This is the projector— rather like a
motion-picture projector but far more complicated. The "show"
begins, the room is plunged into darkness, and the projector
throws on the rounded ceiling images of the stars and planets. As
these bodies move about in "the heavens," the speaker explains
their movements; inside an hour you may watch them go through
motions that would normally take days, months, or years.

The sky may be pictured as it was at the birth of Christ or when
Columbus arrived in America; or it may be shown as it should
appear hundreds of years from now. As he looks on, the child
can feel a thrilling closeness to the distant past when intrepid
explorers guided their ships by the stars and peaceful shepherds
used the stars to tell time. He can feel, too, a comforting confidence
in the future as it becomes evident that though stars, moon, and
planets disappear from view, each in its own proper time will be
back again.

CHAPTER

O Recognizing
the Stars

HE

]lth(

HE SUN is of course the most familiar of all
the stars— and yet not everyone realizes that
it is a star! It appears large and red, instead of small and cool like
other stars, because it is closer to us. The sun is more important
to us than any other body in the heavens. Without it, the scientists
tell us, life could not have begun on our planet; and if the sun
were to vanish, life would be hard put to survive.

We can see all about us the results of the energy that the sun
gives to the earth. We owe almost all our heat and light as well as
energy, to the influence of this great ball of fiery gas. Plants cannot
grow without its beneficent rays, and the animals in turn draw
life-sustaining energy from the plants. It is not surprising that
ancient peoples worshiped the sun as their supreme god, and
that to us the word "sunshine" means "happiness."

The sun is blazing hot— hot beyond belief. It helps us to get
some idea of the sun's temperature when we consider how hot it
is in midsummer despite the fact that the nearest we ever come to
the sun is well over ninety million miles! The surface temperature
of the sun is about 5,800° centigrade. Inside its burning body the
temperature may be millions of degrees higher.

The sun gives the illusion of varying in brightness and also in
size. Late in the day, as the sun sinks toward the western horizon,

405

4o6 ] Recognizing the Stars

its glare is reduced so that you can watch it briefly without ill
effect. At this time it appears to grow larger; but if you roll a
sheet of paper into a tube and look through it, the sun will resume
its usual size. The "change" of size is one of nature's interesting
illusions.

Spots on the Sun

If you look at the sun through a telescope equipped with a
specially darkened filter, you may observe some dark spots on its
bright yellow surface, possibly grouped in pairs or clusters. You
would see them apparently moving across the disk a short distance
each day as the sun turns on its axis.

These "sunspots" would appear very tiny in your telescope, but
in reality each one of them might be as large as our earth— or
larger. The earth is a mere speck compared to the sun, which
requires twenty-five of our days to complete a turn on its axis and
has a mass 332,000 times greater than that of the earth!

What Sunspots Are: A sunspot is believed to begin in a column
of gas that rises from far below the surface of the sun. This column
is pushed upward to the surface by energy supplied by its own
heat. This expended energy results in a shallow layer of gas at the
top of the column. The top layer is cooler than its surroundings
and therefore appears darker.

The number and frequency of sunspots vary, but they have a
way of increasing and gathering in larger groups for several years,
then becoming less and less frequent until the sun is quite clear of
them. On the average, about eleven years elapse between one
period of great spottedness to the next.

Tracing the Influence of Sunspots: There has naturally been a
great deal of speculation about the possible effects of sunspots on
our earth. Occasionally scientists have thought they could trace a
connection between "storms" on the sun and stormy weather on
the earth. However, observers in the United States Weather
Bureau have not yet succeeded in tracing any direct influence of
sunspots on our storms.

Recognizing the Stars [ 407

However, these observers feel more certain about a connection
between sunspots and the northern lights (aurora borealis) often
seen from Alaska, Canada, and northern Europe, and also between
sunspots and the so-called magnetic storms that sometimes inter-
fere with radio reception. These storms and the northern lights
have never been traced to any particular sunspots, but they have
been most numerous during years when the sun was heavily
"spotted."

"Granules" Hundreds of Miles Across: You would need to use
a large telescope to discover that the sun's surface is not smooth,
but apparently made up of countless grains (usually called "gran-
ules") that are believed to be rising streams of hot gases. Though
they look small to us, they have been estimated as anywhere from
about four hundred to a thousand miles across! The sun probably
contains the same chemical elements as its daughter, the earth,
but these remain in the form of gas because of the intense heat.

Eclipses of the Sun

When the moon is in a direct line between the earth and
the sun, we have a total eclipse of the sun. This kind of eclipse
does not happen often; hundreds of years may pass between total
eclipses in any one part of the earth. Sunlight is so taken for
granted that even the prospect of an eclipse is of wide interest
and appeals not only to scientists, but to all people, young and old.
We can see an eclipse of the sun from only a small area— for a
total eclipse the area is about sixty miles wide— while an eclipse

EARTH

SUN'S RAYS

THE MOON, BETWEEN SUN AND EARTH, MAKES A SOLAR ECLIPSE

When the moon passes between the earth and sun, the sun is eclipsed. However,
we see a tofal eclipse of the sun from no more than a small portion of the earth —
that area on which the tapering shadow of the moon falls. From a much wider
area the sun is only partly hidden and here observers see a partial eclipse.

4o8 ] Recognizing the Stars

of the moon can be seen anywhere on the side of the earth where
it is night. This is explained by the fact that the earth's shadow
is large enough to cover the whole moon (during a lunar eclipse) ,
whereas the moon's shadow is small and covers only a small part
of the earth.

How the Sun is "Blotted Out'*: "How can the moon ever 'blot out'
the entire sun, if the sun is so much bigger?" a child may wonder.
If he holds a dime at arm's length he will find that the small
coin seems to more than cover the moon. This same principle
operates when we see the nearby moon between us and the distant
sun. While the sun's diameter is four hundred times larger than
that of the moon, the sun is also four hundred times farther away,
and the two disks seem of equal size.

Atomic Energy and the Sun

Children take a lively interest in the information that the
sun's energy is atomic, and that this giant heavenly body was
producing atomic energy before the earth began. Long ago people
believed that the sun was merely a great burning mass; but if this
had been true, it would have burned itself out in less than two
thousand years. When scientists realized that this idea must be
wrong, they were puzzled about the secret of the sun's energy—
until they discovered, quite recently, that an atom could be split,
releasing an enormous amount of energy. This solved the puzzle
of the sun's energy 1

The term "atom" (taken from a Greek word meaning "indiv-
isible") had been chosen for what was believed to be the tiniest
possible unit of matter. We now know that these units are made
of still smaller particles that are in motion— and are constantly
changing into new forms. The change may be sudden and violent,
as in an atomic bomb, or slow and gradual.

In the case of the sun, hydrogen atoms are changing into helium
atoms. To be specific, four hydrogen atoms are changed into one
helium atom, and one per cent of their weight is converted into
atomic energy. This means that the sun, with its countless active
atoms, is constantly growing smaller, or losing weight; but it is so

Recognizing the Stars [ 409

enormous that it can continue to shrink at its present rate for
billions of years without affecting the earth!

Safety Measures for Sun Observation

If you are interested in sun-watching, you must always
keep in mind how dangerous it is to look directly at it, even for
a moment. To impress this on your child, you can hold a reading
glass in the sunlight so that it will focus the rays on a piece of
paper. Before long a hole will burn in the paper— a dramatic il-
lustration of the power of the sun.

As for using an instrument, anyone looking at the sun through
a telescope not equipped with a darkened lens, would be blinded.
Observing the sun is safe only with a proper telescope, or heavily
smoked glass, or several thicknesses of photographic film.

For interesting and easily managed sun observations, you can
note and record the time of sunset and sunrise over a period of
several months and also the points on the horizon at which the
sun rises and sets during the same period. In this way you have
first-hand information about its gradual shift northward (as seen
from northern latitudes) from December 2 1 to June 2 1 ; you can
then chart its reverse trip southward from June 2 1 to December 2 1 .

Stars Beyond the Sun

The sun is four hundred times farther away from us than is the
moon. Yet the sun, in comparison to the other stars, is a nearby
star!— that is why it appears large and red. This fact will give a
youngster some notion of the incredibly vast distances between us
and the other stars.

The average size of a star is about equal to the size of the sun.
Many stars that we can see with unaided eye are much larger than
the sun; on the other hand, countless stars that can be seen only
through telescopes are smaller than the average size.

Hundreds of Thousands of Light-Years Away

The real stars (as distinguished from the wandering plan-
ets) we know as "fixed" stars. Scientists have reckoned that light.

^lo ] Recognizing the Stars

moving at a rate of 186,000 miles a second, takes four years to
travel from the nearest fixed star— other than the sun— to our
earth. This impressive figure is a useful one to remember, for it
involves the "light-year" previously mentioned, which is used as a
unit of measurement in astronomy. (A light-year is the distance
light travels in one year.)

Looking at the night sky, we have the illusion that all the
stars are the same distance from us, with some larger than others.
However, their apparent size is partly dependent on their location.
Some of these stars are hundreds of thousands of light-years awayl

How Stars Seem to Move

When we talk about "fixed" stars, it is a good idea to
remind a child that the earth rotates on its axis. It is this real
motion of the earth that explains the apparent motion of the stars.
The youngster should also bear in mind that the axis of the earth,
if it could be extended, would pierce the northern sky a short
distance from the North Star, or polestar, known also as Polaris.

Polaris, the North Star: Polaris is the only star in the sky that never
seems to move. While it remains nearly stationary, the other
constellations seem to move around it. If we look for Polaris from
a position just north of the equator, we will locate it barely above
the horizon. As we travel northward, it seems to be higher and
higher in the sky. If we went as far as the North Pole, we would
find Polaris directly overhead.

The North Star has guided sailors for centuries in determining
their position at sea. In the southern sky, where the earth's axis
would touch if extended, there is no star bright enough to serve
as a comparable guide to seamen.

The heavens look different depending on what part of the earth
you view them from. Thus, from the United States and Canada
we cannot see the stars that circle the South Pole; and the people
who live in Australia, southern Africa, or South America, cannot
see the stars around the North Pole. It is only from locations along
the equator that all the stars can be seen.

Recognizing the Stars [411

Constellations in the Night Sky

With their vivid imagination and quick flair for fanciful pat-
terns, children seize eagerly on the constellations, those pictorial
star-groups that hark back to the childhood of civilization. At the
time of Christ, more than forty of these sky pictures had become
generally accepted; over the succeeding centuries more were
worked out, and today astronomers officially recognize eighty-eight
constellations. (The word "constellation" is taken from two Latin
words meaning "stars together.")

The stars in a constellation may differ in brightness, distance
from us, and in size; their only relationship is created as our eyes
move from one to another and we draw our imaginary picture
bringing a group into focus. Some constellations, such as Sagitta
(the Arrow) , have few bright stars and the area they cover is
small. Ursa Major (the Great Bear), Hydra (the Water Monster)
and Hercules are among the very large constellations.

The constellations near the North Star go around the pole (in
terms of apparent motion) every twenty-four hours and are visible
throughout the year. How many constellations you can see con-
stantly, depends on your location between the pole and the
equator. From the greater part of the United States we can ob-
serve six that never set: the Great Bear, the Little Bear, the Dragon,
Cepheus (se fus) , Cassiopeia (kas io-pe yah) , and Camelopardalis
(kah-mel o-par-dah-lis). From Canada and the northernmost
United States about ten others can be seen, wholly or in part,
through all seasons.

The Great Bear and the Big Dipper

The Great Bear is usually the first constellation with which
children become familiar. "Great Bear" is the translation of the
Latin name Ursa Major; in the United States a part of the constel-
lation is famous as the Big Dipper. This is the most easily recog-
nized of constellations, and of further importance as the guidepost
to the North Star.

If you imagine a line joining the two stars that form the side
of the Dipper's bowl farthest from the handle, and then extend

412]

Recognizing the Stars

USE THIS STAR AUP TO FIND THE CONSTELLATIONS
IN THE NORTHERN SKY, AT ANY TIME OF YEAR

Inside the circle, you see the star groups around Polaris. You can always find them
on any clear night in the year, for they never go below the horizon. If you'd like
to locate some of these northern star groups tonight, here is what you do:

Find the name of the present month on the circle, and turn the book so that this
name comes at the top. Then look on the map for the Big Dipper (Ursa Major).

If the month on top of the circle is February, you will find the bowl of the
Dipper at the right of the polestar. If May is on top, the bowl will be high above
the pole. If it is August, the bowl will be at the left; and in November the Dipper
will be directly below the polestar. The sky turns a quarter way round every three
months; one-twelfth of the circle each month.

This map shows the positions of the Dipper (and the other star groups) at about
eight o'clock in the evening. If you look for them two hours later, you will find them
advanced (in a counterclockwise direction) another twelfth of the way round the
circle. Each twelfth is two hours; each twenty-fourth is one hour.

Recognizing the Stars [413

this line through the top of the Dipper for five times that length,
it will end at the North Star. For this reason, the two stars at the
Dipper's bowl are often called the "pointers."

All four stars that form the bowl of the Dipper and the three
that make the handle are of about the same degree of brightness,
making the form of a dipper especially clear. If you keep tiack
of the Dipper for three or four hours, you will see that it is moving
like a giant clock hand— "counterclockwise," however— around
Polaris. Unless you look carefully you may not see the stars con-
tained within the bowl of the Dipper; but with close observation
on a clear night, you should be able to distinguish ten or twelve
faint stars.

The Little Bear and the Little Dipper

You will not find the Little Bear so easily as the Big Bear,
for many of its stars are dim and may be overlooked in moonlight
or haze. Seven of its stars form the Little Dipper, with the bright
North Star forming the free end of the handle. The two stars that
correspond to the pointers in the Big Dipper (farthest from the
handle) are also bright. These two stars are known as "the
guardians of the pole" because they circle closer to it and to Polaris
than do any other bright stars.

The Winding Dragon

Winding about the Dippers is Draco, the Dragon. To locate
it, you must look for a stream of stars that starts near the pointers
in the Big Dipper. From there the dragon makes a semicircle
around the guardians of the pole, then turns sharply back for
some distance; the dragon's head lies between a very bright star,
Vega, and the guardians.

Cassiopeia and Cepheus

Cassiopeia is nearly directly opposite the Big Dipper, on
the other side of the pole. Hence, when one of these constellations
is not in a good position for observation, the other is. Five of the
brighter stars of Cassiopeia form a giant irregular W (or M, de-

414 ] Recognizing the Stars

pending on your location). One less bright star is sometimes in-
cluded in the group, and when it is, the constellation may be
fancied as a broken-backed chair, sometimes called Cassiopeia's
chair.

In Greek mythology Cassiopeia was a queen, and Cepheus was
her king. In the heavens, Cepheus is located next to Cassiopeia.
Cepheus contains no very bright stars, but you can locate it by
looking along an imaginary line from the pointers of the Big
Dipper through the North Star, and then continuing on for about
the same distance again. Some of its stars form a crude square and
others make a triangle resting on the square. The Milky Way
runs through Cepheus.

Camelopardaus

When you go sky-exploring in quest of Camelopardalis
you will want to choose a clear moonless night; this constellation
is made up of nothing but faint stars. Though its name suggests
a camel, the constellation is actually supposed to represent a
giraffe. It lies quite close to the North Star. Astronomers worked
out Camelopardalis to fill in a large area of the sky that the
ancient constellations did not include.

Stars of the Summer Night

Just as we can learn to tell time by the position of the Big
Dipper constellation, we can follow the seasons by tracing certain
stars. In the summertime, if you look to the east and slightly
north, you will see three exceptionally bright stars, located so as
to form a gigantic triangle. The Milky Way, passing through it,
may help you to discover this triangle. The stars that form it are
Vega, Altair, and Deneb.

Vega, a brilliant bluish-white, is the brightest star in the summer
sky. Arcturus, orange in tone, is second brightest. You may notice
these two stars as darkness falls (Arcturus to the southwest) , for
they are the first to appear. The three "summer triangle" stars
are not a constellation; in fact each belongs to a different star
group. Vega is in a constellation known as the Lyre. Altair is part
of Aquila the Eagle, and Deneb belongs to Cygnus the Swan.

Recognizing the Stars [415

Another brilliant star you will find in the southern sky of
summer is Antares, of rosy hue in contrast to Vega's bluish-white.
It is a part of the constellation Scorpio. These and many other
stars and constellations will become sky friends to look for, year
after year, once you have made their acquaintance.

Winter Stars are Exceptionally Brilliant

On winter evenings the stars are exceptionally brilliant-
brighter than any "sky pictures of summertime." In guessing at
the explanation, a youngster may give all the credit to the clear,
cold atmosphere. True, this clarity is a help, but it is a fact that
many of the most brilliant and striking star groups come into
view only in winter.

Some Wintertime Favorites: It is in the winter that we see the
supergiant star, Betelgeuse (bet el gooz) . Early in the winter two
bright stars. Castor and Pollux, may be located by extending the
line of the Big Dipper's handle through its bowl. Then, through
the season we have an animal parade of star groups with the Little
Dog (Canis Minor) and Big Dog (Canis Major) , and Leo, the
Lion. Many of the stars that form these "animal" outlines are of
exceptional brilliance, including the Dog Star (Sirius) situated
in the Big Dog, and Regulus, which marks Leo's heart.

You may be interested to know that Sirius is twenty-five times
as bright as our sun— though most of the effect is lost on us as
Sirius is fifty trillion miles away from our earth!

If the clearness of the winter atmosphere does not account for
the variations in the brilliance of stars, what then is the explana-
tion? The distance of a star from the earth is part of the story;
but if all stars were equally distant from us they would still not
be equally bright. Some stars are larger than others, some have
a higher temperature than others. All these factors affect the
degree of brilliance associated with a given star.

The Zodiac

Millions of children undoubtedly met this ancient word
for the first time through a sinister television villain known as

41 6] Recognizing the Stars

Doctor Zodiac. Their parents generally had a vague notion that
the zodiac was concerned with the heavenly bodies, though many
were unable to say just what it was.

The zodiac is an imaginary wide zone in the sky, within which
the sun, moon, and planets move. In addition, twelve constellations
are considered part of the zodiac, although their boundaries may
extend beyond it, and other constellations have at least a few of
their stars within it.

The Signs of the Zodiac: The twelve zodiacal constellations are
divided into six northern signs and six southern signs. Here they
are, with their Latin names and English translations:

Northern signs for spring: Aries (the ram), Taurus (the bull) ,
Gemini (the twins); northern signs for summer: Cancer (the
crab) , Leo (the lion) , Virgo (the virgin) ; southern signs for fall:
Libra (the balance) , Scorpio (the scorpion), Sagittarius (the
archer); southern signs for winter: Capricornus (the goat) , Aqua-
rius (the water-bearer) , and Pisces (the fishes) .

The astronomers of ancient times divided the zodiac into twelve
equal parts, and we know these sections as "the signs of the
zodiac," with the same names as the twelve constellations of the
zodiac.

Discovering the Constellations

Although our modem observatories have to be equipped with
all the latest refinements in the way of observing, recording, and
calculating, you can have the fun of looking for the constellations
without resorting to a telescope.

At the start it is helpful to obtain sky maps or charts giving
the positions of the stars for the season in which you are in-
terested. You can avoid discouragement if you are aware that
even the ever-present constellations are not always in a good posi-
tion for study. (When they are near the horizon, some of their
stars are too faint for you to see.)

A youngster will get the best results, and hence the most fun,
seeking constellations that are high in the sky. Help him recognize

THE HEAD OF A COMET MAY BE LARGER THAN THE EARTH

Yerkes Observatory— University of Chicago P

A comet is a rare and unforgettable sight, with its bright, starlike head and long,
Khny tail. The head probably consists of countless small meteorites, and the tail
of a rarefied gas. In its travels around the sun the same comet may become visible
from the earth a number of times, but centuries may elapse betv/een these appear-
ances in some cases. The photograph above is of Daniel's Comet, sighted in 1907.

"""^^t

'^^K

^^m'

;

American Museum
of Natural History

THE TELESCOPE REVEALS EXCITING FACTS ABOUT MARS

Mars is one of our closest planetary neighbors, and astronomers can see c'eai
through its thin atmosphere. On the model shown above are lines indicating t
long-disputed "canals" of this planet. Also prominent is a "polar-cap," apparen
a field of snow which varies in size with the seasons. Although it is believed th
people do not inhabit Mars, many scientists claim that plant life flourishes thei

Recognizing the Stars [417

the Big Dipper first; after that it is not too difficult, with the aid
3f a sky map, to find other nearby groups. The best sky-exploring
is done away from the bright lights of a big city, and an excellent
position from which to do it is flat on your back. It is important
not to rush matters by trying to discover or recognize too many
:onstellations or stars in a short time. Become really acquainted
ivith one or two before going on to others. -

low Astronomers Study the Stars

As you explain facts about the stars to a child, he may very
well be puzzled. Some of these facts are so fantastic of themselves,
►ome go counter to "common sense," some contradict what a child
nay have taken for granted. How can he be sure that the informa-
tion given him is accurate— especially as he learns that early
studies of the stars led to many incorrect conclusions?

Telescope and Camera

It was the telescope that gave tremendous impetus to manS
exploration of the stars. But his observations were still limited
jntil the camera came along and considerably enhanced the value
:>f the telescope. A camera can be fastened to the viewing end of
I telescope, doing the observer's work more efficiently in some
respects.

The combination of telescope and camera is particularly effective
kvhen a driving clock is attached causing the instrument to turn
ibout an axis parallel to the axis around which the earth turns.
The instrument moves at the same speed but in the opposite
iirection. Thus a photographic plate may be exposed for several
lours, and stars too faint to be seen through the telescope, will
register dots on the plate.

The Versatile Spectroscope

Even before the camera was being used by astronomers,
iie spectroscope had been invented. To understand how this
instrument works requires a knowledge of physics, but even the
layman can appreciate the immense usefulness of this instrument.

^j8] Recognizing the Stars

The spectroscope analyzes the light of the stars and reveals what
chemical elements go into their make-up. On the basis of this
analysis the spectroscope estimates the rate at which the stars are
moving, and the direction of their motion toward the earth or
away from it.

The spectroscope does more— it reveals the age of the stars
through their size, color, and composition. The younger ones are
giant size and are composed of thin gases that shine with a rosy
hue. An older star is more condensed and shines yellow. In the
next age cycle it would shine white and blue; after that it is really
an old star and begins to cool.

Through all its stages a star condenses and contracts. After its
old age, a star shines white, then yellow, then red— at last becoming
cold and dead. Although a new star and a very old one both shine
red, their age can be distinguished by their size: A giant red star
is young, a small red star is old.

The Interferometer and Other Aids

Another invention that has proved of great value to astron-
omers is the interferometer, a remarkable instrument that can be
attached to a telescope to measure the size of certain stars. There
are still other instruments that help us to know the stars. Scientists
use these instruments to measure the intensity of light and heat
on these far-distant heavenly bodies. Whatever instrument is used,
mathematical techniques are the key to success. Geometry, trig-
onometry, and the calculations they involve, originated with the
measurement of land on the surface of the earth, but they ended
up by leading us to the stars.

Spectacular Sights in the Skies

The Milky Way— Forty Biluon Stars

On a clear night, in open country, even a child will be able
to find the Milky Way without having it pointed out to him— the
band it forms in the sky actually does have a milky-white appear-
ance. This cloudy band of light is made up of an enormous number
of stars— an estimated forty billionl— one of which is our sun. Many

Recognizing the Stars [419

of these stars are too dim to stand out separately, but their light
adds to the glow of the star-band. A number of important con-
stellations, such as Sagittarius and Cassiopeia, are included in it.
If you were to take a trip around the world you would find
that the Milky Way (also called the Galaxy) forms a nearly con-
tinuous belt about the heavens. At home you can, at best, see
half of this starry band crossing the sky from horizon to horizon.
When it lies near the horizon, it can be observed only with some
difficulty, and on cloudy nights, not at all.

The Southern Cross

South of the equator, the Milky Way includes the famous
constellation that we call the Southern Cross (Crux). To the
people who live in the far south it is what the Great Bear is to
those in the north, for it lies closer to the South Pole than does
any other outstanding constellation. While the Southern Cross
is sometimes seen from the farthest southerly parts of the United
States, most of us know it from reading or from pictures.

However, a picture of the Southern Cross may be disappointing
to a child; the bright, reddish star (Gamma) at the top of the
cross does not photograph well on ordinary plates because of its
color. The outline of the Southern Cross is formed by four stars
of almost equal brightness. In the northern skies we have a group
of stars, also lying within the Milky Way, which form a cross and
are often called the Northern Cross— though the official name for
the group is Cygnus, meaning "swan."

Comets— Millions of Miles Long

Children are naturally interested in learning more about
this amazing spectacle of the skies. Whenever a comet is bright
enough to be seen with the unaided eye, newspapers make a big
story out of its appearance, and give the position in which the
comet will be found. Though astronomers watching the sky with
telescopes can see possibly six or more comets every year, on the
average not more than two or three a century will be large enough
to attract wide attention.

^20 ] Recognizing the Stars

What Comets are Made of: A comet has a bright starlike head and
a long filmy tail. We know that it is made partly of solid matter
(as it reflects sunlight) and partly of gas; but the solid matter
does not form one great solid body like the earth. It is made of
many solid pieces of greatly varying sizes with gases between them.

Millions of Miles, Thousands of Years: The tremendous distance
that separates us from the comets makes them appear small. Ac-
tually the head of a comet may be as big as the earth, if not much
larger, and the tail is millions of miles long! The apparent motion
of comets through space is affected, too, by this distance. They
seem to move slowly because they are millions of miles away, but
they are really speeding through space. In the course of their
travels— which take them around the sun in elongated ellipses—
they may return a number of times within sight from the earth,
but hundreds or thousands of years may pass between the suc-
cessive appearances of any one comet.

While the actions of most comets are unpredictable, the famous
"Halley's comet"— a bright one that can easily be seen without a
telescope— has been observed at intervals of about seventy-seven
years. It was last seen in 1910 and is predicted to return about
1987.

A comet may be seen with the naked eye or with a telescope for
a number of nights, perhaps running into weeks. Each night its
position is somewhat changed as it progresses through the heavens.

"Shooting Stars" are not Stars

The term "shooting star" is a very natural one for a bright
spot streaking across the sky. Astronomers avoid the term, how-
ever, as the objects that look like shooting stars are not stars at
all. The proper name for them is meteors.

Meteors and "Fireballs": Meteors are made up of solid material
that suggests stone or iron. We do not know whether meteors are
fragments left over from the forming of our planets or matter
that entered our solar system from the outside; but we do know
that comets sometimes break up into meteors.

Recognizing the Stars [ 42 1

As it shoots through the sky, a meteor may give off sparks or
appear to have a bright train; and it may travel in a straight or
wavy line. You are most likely to see one that appears white or
yellow; but there are also very bright ones, red or green, and these
are called "fireballs."

The light given off by meteors is produced by the terrific speed
at which they race through the atmosphere, and the resulting
friction. Their average speed is anywhere from seven to nearly
fifty miles a second!

"Meteor Showers'*: At certain times of the year meteors appear in
such numbers that we talk of "meteor showers." You can look for
a shower about the tenth of December in the eastern sky; another,
about the sixteenth of November. There are others in August and
October, but as they do not occur until after midnight, it is not
practical to keep young children up to watch for them.

Two Thousand Meteors a Day: Some meteors are no larger than
a small pea; others may weigh thirty tons or more. The small
ones bum themselves out by the friction they create, but many
of the larger ones land on earth. About two thousand meteors
hit the earth every day! After landing they are called meteorites.
About fifteen hundred of them have been found (the biggest
weighs fifty tons) , and a number of them are on exhibition in
museums throughout the country.

When a big meteor strikes the earth it may smash a gaping hole,
or crater, in it. The largest meteor-made crater in the United
States, known as El Diablo (the Devil) , is in Arizona. It is more
than four thousand feet across, and 575 feet deep. For years pro-
spectors have hunted in vain for the meteorite that created El
Diablo. Despite all the evidence of huge meteorites and the
discovery of some big ones, it does not seem that anyone has ever
been injured by a meteor.

"Flying Saucers"— Optical Ghosts

The baffling challenge of unsolved mystery confronts us in
the provocative reports of these strange objects which are supposed
to have been seen from time to time in the sky. The first accounts

422 ] Recognizing the Stars

in 1947 of disks hurtling through space aroused more amusement
than serious attention. It was recalled that fifty years earlier,
glimpses of unaccountable "objects" in the skies were exciting
people, first in California and later as far east as Chicago. The
verdict on the flying saucers was that they were not material
objects, but lights and reflections.

''As Real as Rainbows": Then came a new series of flying saucer
episodes. The first reports spoke of round objects— hence the name
"saucer"— but later saucers were described as cone-shaped and
even rocket-like in form. Several observers, including an authority
on meteors, reported globes of green fire rushing through the night
sky which did not seem to be ordinary fireballs.

These accounts— and others like them— started some astronomers
and the United States Air Force on exhaustive investigations. Dr.
Donald Menzel, an astronomer and expert on radar, summed up
his researches with the statement: "Flying saucers are as real as
rainbows."

What Causes Optical Illusions: Behind this apparently simple
remark are many complicated facts concerned with warm and cool
air currents, and lights from cars, airplanes, and other sources,
that make us see things when there are none. Even children may
be familiar with some simple optical illusions. A common one is
to "see" water shining on a road that is actually dry. The effect is
caused by a thin layer of warm air above sun-heated pavements.
The layer of hot air and another, colder and more dense, above
it, together refract (bend) upward the light that comes to them
from the sky; and it is this that gives the illusion of a wet
pavement.

Other, less common, types of mirages may explain the majority
of flying saucers. In the Southwest, where most of them are re-
ported, atmospheric conditions are especially favorable for mir-
ages, or "optical ghosts." In some instances, weather balloons or
other objects have been mistaken for flying saucers.

Seeing is not always believing. Our eyes and nature itself often
conspire to deceive us. Someday genuine flying saucers, intelli-

Recognizing the Stars [423

gently directed, may scoot across our skies. I expect then that we
shall be able to find, without much difficulty, unmistakable, veri-
fiable, and abundant proof that they are real. Until evidence of a
reputable kind is forthcoming, we must consider the saucers a
popular fantasy, like the Loch Ness monster, but still not close
our minds to unexpected possibilities.

CHAPTER

Understanding
the Weather

p

EOPLE ARE ALWAYS talking about the
" weather, and with good reason. The
weather has a vital bearing on our plans, our work, our leisure,
and even on our dispositions. Weather is important in great
and small things— all the way from planning a picnic to growing
successful crops and keeping our nation and the world well fed.

Children are even more dependent than grown-ups on the state
of the weather. Clear, sunshiny days mean happy play out-of-doors;
rain often means the opposite, to many a mother's despair; an
abundance of snow promises endless hours of merriment on a
strange and wondrously transformed landscape. So, be it fair or
foul, weather is always a meaningful and absorbing topic to ex-
plore with children. They are keenly interested in it even before
they can talk, and words like "rain" and "sun" are often among
the first they learn.

Later on, as the children grow older, flashes of lightning, claps
of thunder, blizzards, wind, rain and ice storms give rise to a
never-ending series of whys and hows. They discover a fascinating
fellow called the weatherman; the younger ones may be under the
impression that he "makes" the weather, but the older ones sagely
pooh-pooh this juvenile belief and ask to know something of the
secrets of weather forecasting.

424

Understanding the Weather [ 425

In our grandparents' time people relied on various signs for
hints of coming weather. Some of these signs we still believe in—
on the whole, with good reason, as they often have scientific back-
ing. Others are wholly unreliable and have no such backing;
where they "work," the effect is wholly coincidental and cannot
serve as a basis for further prediction.

Ring Around the Moon

Perhaps you have heard that "a ring around the moon
means rain." This old belief is accurate enough— rain often follows
the appearance of a moon halo. The big question— and it is sure
to come— is why. The ring indicates that the moonlight is re-
fracted (bent) by ice particles in clouds that are miles overhead.
Those ice particles warn us of a change of temperature, and thus
of a probable change in weather.

The Rainbow Has Practical Value

"Rainbow at night, sailors' delight; rainbow in the morn-
ing, sailors take warning," is another fairly accurate saying. Rain-
bows are formed when raindrops in the air break up the sunlight
into distinct colors. This takes place in the part of the sky opposite
the sun. When you see a rainbow in the late afternoon sky, you
know that the moisture causing it is to the east. Why? Because the
rainbow must be opposite the sun, which is now in the west.

Now add to this the pertinent bit of information that our
storms usually move from west to east; you can see that the mois-
ture (a potential storm) , being already in the east, has passed us.
But, by the same reasoning, a morning rainbow (in the west while
the sun is in the east) means that there is a large amount of
moisture in the west. As this comes toward us, it is likely to arrive
as a storm.

Night Rains

"Rain before seven, shine before eleven," is likely to prove
a dependable forecast if the rain is light or moderate. Rain usually
lasts only a few hours; and when it starts in the cooler hours of

^26 ] Understanding the Weather

the night, the morning sun often evaporates the clouds and stops
the rain. However, the proverb does not apply to heavy storms
that are often connected with northeast or southerly winds.

When the Sun *'Draws Watier"

Still another weather prediction we can depend on to a
certain extent is that rain is on the way if we see "the sun drawing
water." This expression, which is used to describe light rays
streaming toward the setting sun, is inaccurate.

Actually the rays are formed by sunlight streaming through
openings in the clouds and shining on vapor. However, as the
rays appear when there is an exceptional amount of moisture in
the air and when the sun is hidden behind a cloud, it often hap-
pens that they precede rainy weather. But often, of course, they
do not.

Unreliable Predictions

Among the many false notions is the one that we can tell
how many days will pass before it rains by counting the number
of bright stars within a ring that may be around the moon. An-
other entirely incorrect idea is that whenever the moon goes into
a new phase, the weather changes.

If all these old tales were true, the weatherman could close up
shop. As it is, he has to stay on the job twenty-four hours a day,
using the most modern equipment devised by scientists; and at
that he cannot be as certain as he would like to be! But more of
this later.

The Wind and Its Ways

We can blame most of our severe storms on the wind. Rain is
not unpleasant unless it is lashed by strong winds. Snow usually
seems very beautiful— unless wind turns it into a blizzard. Wind-
storms, unaccompanied by rain or snow, often do fearful damage,
especially in the form of tornadoes and hurricanes.

The air that is all about us is made up of a number of gases—
chiefly oxygen and nitrogen. Although we cannot see these gases.

Understanding the Weather [ 427

they have mass, and gravitation pulls them downward, giving them
weight. As a rule you do not think of the pressure of air against
your body; but when you drive from mountain heights to a lower
level the change to "heavier air" is very noticeable— especially on
your eardrums.

How Winds are Formed

For a number of reasons we have high-pressure areas, in
which the air is cooler and therefore more compact, and low-
pressure areas, in which the air is warm and expanded. (One
reason for this is that different portions of the surface of the earth
heat up or cool off at unequal rates.) Wind is air moving from
high-pressure areas to areas of low pressure— nature's effort to
equalize pressure differences in the atmosphere.

A high or low-pressure area may range from a few hundred to
a thousand miles in diameter. In a "high," the pressure increases
steadily toward its center, and in a "low" it gradually decreases.
The speed of a wind depends on the degree of pressure differ-
ence between a low-pressure area and the high-pressure area next
to it. When we have stormy weather these variations show up
sharply on the weather map in your daily newspaper; this is an
especially good time to study the weather map with your child.

Why It Rains

"Look at the size of those raindrops!" is an exclamation that may
start a child wondering about why we have raindrops at all, and
why they are of varying sizes.

The "makings" of rain are around us all the time— tiny droplets
of water that we know as vapor and bits of water-attracting dust.
These dust particles— two important kinds are salt from the sea,
and smoke— become the center of the droplets when the vapor in
the air takes the form of moisture. Air can hold only a certain
amount of vapor (warm air can hold more than cold air) , and
when there is too much vapor, the droplets of water join together
and form raindrops.

^28 ] Understanding the Weather

How Air Currents Affect Rain: When the raindrops are formed in
gently rising air, the condensation takes place very slowly and quite
small drops may fall in a drizzle. But when the drops are formed
in powerful upward currents, the drops may be held aloft until
they are very large (to a fifth of an inch in diameter). This kind
may fall with great splashes— the kind you often see just before
a thunderstorm downpour. At times the larger raindrops flatten
out and split up as they fall.

Sun Showers: Occasionally we have the odd effect of rain falling
from a clear sky overhead. This may be due to the drops being
delayed in their fall by rising air currents or by friction with the
air. Thus before the drops reach us the clouds from which they
started have blown away or evaporated.

Another curious sight is rain falling on one side of a street
while the other remains dry. This is simply caused by small clouds
meeting with a cold air current that turns their vapor into rain-
drops which fall only over the area the clouds had covered.

A child may think of rain as blowing to his neighborhood from
great distances— possible from over the ocean. This is never the
case: Rain falls where it forms. The moisture may have been ab-
sorbed into the air many miles away, but it is never blown to us as
"ready-made" rain.

Billions of Snowflakes, No Two Alike

Probably no other event in nature is so thrilling to children in
our latitudes as the first snowfall of the season. It is as if snow were
a substance designed to turn the humdrum world into a dazzling
fairyland. Observation only strengthens the fairyland illusion, for
if a youngster studies a flake through a magnifying lens, he notes
that each snow crystal has a lovely, delicate design, as if woven
on a fairy loom.

Though billions of snowflakes may fall, no two are exactly alike
in design, except that each one is six-sided. Some flakes, as you
can see with a magnifying glass, are more solid than others. They
are formed in clouds very high above the earth. The most beauti-

Understanding the Weather [ 429

ful flakes, of lacelike design, usually form in warmer air currents,
close to the earth.

Snow and Sleet

"Aren't snowflakes frozen water?" your alert child may
wonder. "What makes them soft and white? Why aren't they little
pieces of ice— like sleet?"

Good questions, these. Snowflakes are frozen moisture, like ice,
but they are formed when the moisture in the air condenses
(changes from vapor to liquid form) at a point below freezing.
If, on the other hand, the moisture condenses into rain first and
then freezes, sleet results. The time when the freezing takes place
accounts for the difference.

Snow is Mostly Air

As the crystal particles of the snowflake take shape, many
tiny reflecting surfaces are formed with air spaces between them.
It is these air spaces that make snow soft and dazzling white as
it reflects the light of sun and moon. Also, it is odd but true that
the fluffy, new-fallen snow forms an effective blanket, protecting
whatever it covers from freezing. (Air is one of the best insulators
against heat and cold.) Newly fallen snow usually contains only
one part of ice to ten or twelve parts of air; and even an old snow
is at least half air.

The popular theory that the temperature may be "too cold for
snow" is definitely wrong. The extreme dryness of very cold air
does make heavy snow unlikely, but even then a warm wind may
move into the upper atmosphere bringing moisture with it and
thus resulting in snowfall.

Frost on the Windowpane

The appearance of frost on windowpanes is nature's artistic
announcement of the arrival of winter. In many modern homes,
where storm windows are used, this lovely effect is not so common;
but sooner or later most children have an opportunity to see these
exquisite icy window decorations. It is pleasant to credit them to

^go ] Understanding the Weather

the magical hand of Jack Frost, but they are of course the result
of low temperatures outside, cold enough to chill the indoor air
which touches the windowpane. (Storm windows protect the pane
and prevent frost from forming on windows.)

If the chill is sufficient to cause the moisture to condense on the
inner surface, frost begins to form. Usually crystals first appear
around some tiny irregularity in the glass surface or around a bit
of dirt. Often these first crystals continue to grow, and as some
of the smaller ones evaporate, their moisture condenses again on
the larger crystals. Thus spectacular designs, numerous and in-
terestingly varied, are created.

How TO Make Frost Prints

As window frost rarely lingers more than a brief time,
children may get a great deal of pleasure from making prints of
some of its lovely designs. This may be done with blueprint paper.
Sheets of this paper, about twelve inches square, should be kept
in a dark place until ready for use. Some morning when the sun
is shining brightly though frost prints have not yet melted from
the window, take a piece of blueprint paper and quickly attach
it with scotch tape to the pane. Press the sensitive side directly
against the frost design for two or more minutes.

The sunlight turns parts of the paper light blue but leaves the
pattern of the frost in white. Remove the sheet of paper and im-
mediately immerse it in a pan of clear water for a few minutes.
Then transfer it to another pan of water to which a tablespoon of
peroxide has been added. When the blue part has turned an at-
tractive shade, rinse the paper in dear water, then spread it flat
to dry. It will make an attractive decoration for any child's room.

Hail-*^Hot-Weather Ice"

To some people, hail is "hot-weather ice," as it is usually seen
during violent summer thunderstorms; it is quite rare in winter-
time. Hailstones are formed when raindrops are caught in swiftly
uprushing air and are carried high into the cloud tops where they
may meet snow crystals. Mixing with the crystals, the raindrops

Understanding the Weather [ 43 1

become globules of cloudy ice. These globules may fall, on descend-
ing air currents, into warmer rain levels of air and take on a layer
of ice from contact with rising drops. Again the growing ice pellets
may be tossed far up, and again a layer of snowy ice will be added
to them.

This up-and-down movement may continue until the ice pellets
have a dozen or more layers. Records show that hailstones having
twenty-five layers, and as big as baseballs, once fell at Annapolis,
Maryland!

Thunder and Lightning

Many children are frightened by thunder and lightning. Their
timidity usually fades in the course of time if they see that grown-
ups are undisturbed by storms, and if they can understand just
what takes place during a storm. This last, unfortunately, is easier
said than done.

It is easy for a child to believe that there is such a thing as air
all about him, for he can often feel it blow. It is more difficult
for him to understand that electricity is always there as well.
Nevertheless, every bit of dust and droplet of moisture has its
charge— a fact closely connected with lightning flashes. It may
be enough to explain to a young child that lightning is electricity—
the same force that furnishes our modern lighting— but on a grand
scale. Older children may be eager for more details.

What Causes Lightning

About the time a thunderstorm breaks, you may notice a
wind spring up as though from nowhere and blow toward the
storm. Scientists believe such currents of air may be part of a chain
of events somewhat on this order: As the wind blasts its way up-
ward, it cools and the vapor in it is changed to liquid form. The
speed of the rising current tears apart the drops of water that
form. The fine drops are carried to the top of the storm cloud
while the larger drops fall to lower levels.

Now, it seems that the fine drops have a negative charge, while
the large drops are positively charged. When the electrical pres-

A 92] Understanding the Weather

sure between these two parts of the cloud becomes powerful
enough to break through the air so they can join each other, a
tremendous spark— lightning— is created.

"Lightning" In a Storage Battery

If you are interested in things electrical, and have some
simple equipment, you probably know how to give your child a
dramatic illustration of how lightning is formed— and thunder
too. All you need do is connect the positive and negative poles of
a storage battery with a piece of wire. As the youngster looks on,
he will see how quickly a spark is created there, caused by the
negative particles (electrons) leaping toward the positive pole.
He will hear, too, a crackling sound accompanying the spark.

In just the same way the giant sparks that flash across the sky
produce a crackling sound of tremendous volume. We call it
thunder.

Forked Lightning and Other Kinds

Lightning comes in different forms. The most common type
is forked lightning with a brilliant zigzag flash, as the electrical dis-
charge takes the path of least resistance— an irregular one— through
the air. A second kind, "sheet" lightning, is caused by a flash
hidden in the clouds which brightly but briefly lights up a whole
cloud or a sheet of rain.

Finally, there is "heat" lightning— a description we often give
to a sudden lighting of the atmosphere that appears near the hori-
zon though no thunderclouds are in sight. Heat lightning is usual-
ly explained as the reflection of lightning flashes below the horizon
by the hazy air within our range of vision. It is appropriately
named "heat lightning," as we encounter it during hot, muggy
weather.

When Lightning is Dangerous

Though we want to reassure a child on the subject of
lightning, we must not fail to let him know the circumstances
under which it can be a real danger. Most flashes are from one

Understanding the Weather [ 433

cloud to another; very few come down to earth, and only when
the negative charges in a cloud are attracted to positive charges
on the ground.

Probably the safest place to be is indoors when there is a storm
in your neighborhood. If you happen to be outdoors and without
available shelter, be sure to avoid high ground, trees standing
alone, the edges of woods, and wire fences. In case the lightning
is unusually severe and directly overhead, your safest course is to
lie or sit in a ditch.

How Many Miles Between You and Lightning?

Most children enjoy being able to reckon how far lightning
is from them; and knowing how to do this is especially comforting
to the nervous child who imagines that every flash is directly over
his head. The calculation is based on the lapse of time between
a flash and the moment the resulting thunder is heard. So quickly
does light travel that the lightning is seen almost the instant it
flashes. Therefore, if you count the number of seconds that elapse
between the flash and the thunder, you know, roughly, the distance
between you and the storm center.

You can train yourself to count seconds without a timepiece
by repeating some such phrase as "storm in the sky," which takes
a second to say. A lapse of fifty seconds means the lightning is
about ten miles away (a mile distant for each five seconds) . You
cannot hear thunder from a greater distance than ten miles, except
under unusually favorable circumstances.

Thunderstorms

You have probably noticed that there are different kinds of
thunderstorms and that they have different effects on the atmo-
sphere. Moreover— contrary to popular belief— they may even oc-
cur in winter. The two kinds that most often visit us in summer
are the local or "heat" thunderstorm and the "cold front" type.

Heat Thunderstorms: The heat thunderstorm is generally a small-
scale affair leaving the atmosphere as oppressive as before it broke.
This kind is most common in the late afternoon or early evening

^g^ ] Understanding the Weather

following an extremely hot day. The overheating of the surface
air when the atmosphere is fairly quiet brings about an unstable
condition, and the storm is the outcome.

"Cold Front*' Thunderstorms: The "cold front" thunderstorm is
frequently more severe. It may form a nearly continuous line
hundreds of miles long where cool air from the west or north meets
hot, moist currents. As a result, the vapor in the air turns rapidly
into water, and with the heavy downpour of rain great electrical
disturbances take place. Such a storm is often accompanied by
Wind squalls and hail. Though it may break at any time of day
or night, the most likely time is in the afternoon.

l^hter Thunderstorms: Winter thunderstorms, which usually
.'(p?»he at night, almost always announce the arrival of a sharp
change in the weather. Toward the close of a cold spell, when a
warm wind blows over a region, thunderstorms may occur when-
ever there is a great contrast between the cold and warm air masses.
Or again, where warm air currents are being displaced by cold air,
thunderstorms may give warning of the coming cold wave.

Storms of Violence

Tornadoes—Several Hundred Miles an Hour

The thunderstorm is a relative of the dreaded tornado and
often accompanies it. The tornado has a distinctive feature: It
always includes a funnel-shaped whirling cloud. This terrifying
spiral, green gray to yellowish black, moves at a rate of thirty to
fifty miles an hour, and within the tornado itself the wind moves
at more than a hundred miles an hour I

In fact, the speed of a tornado has been estimated up to several
hundred miles an hour; but since recording instruments are
destroyed in such a storm, no exact records are available. Fortu-
nately, tornadoes do not occur everywhere, and even in regions
where they are apt to strike they are infrequent.

Understanding the Weather [ 435

Cyclones—A Confusing Term

Many people use the term "cyclone" for these violent
storms. In fact, the "cyclone cellar" is the common description of
an underground retreat used for escaping tornadoes. The word is
rather confusing, for to weathermen a cyclone is a low-pressure
area which is not violent and may extend over thousands of square
miles. These cyclones pass over us every few days and generally
cause no more of a change than increased cloudiness.

However, it became customary to apply the term "cyclone' to
a certain type of storm that developed about low-pressure centers
in the Indian Ocean. From this the usage of the term broadened
until it became identified with tornadoes.

Hurricanes— Several Hundred Miles Wide: A hurricane is not
accompanied by a funnel-shaped cloud; but its speed may reach
1 50 miles an hour and the width of its path is far greater than that
of a tornado. This width is generally several hundred miles. Hurri-
canes always start on the ocean.

Forecasting the Weather from the Clouds

Clouds and Fog

The best way for a youngster to "get the feel" of a cloud
is simply to walk through fog— for fog is nothing more than a
cloud in contact with the ground or a body of water. Once a child
knows that cloud and fog are the same, his logical question then
is, "What keeps some clouds up in the sky?" and, "Why don't they
fall down to earth like this one?"

Feathery and Billowy Clouds

These questions are fairly easy to answer if we can forget
that constantly repeated phrase, "floating clouds." Clouds really
do not float; they tend to fall earthward. However, certain forces
act to prevent their falling. For example, the great billowy white
mounds that we call cumulus clouds are supported by the strength
of ascending air currents. In the more feathery ("cirrus") type of
cloud formation we may see some of its moisture fall as snow or

^o5 ] Understanding the Weather

rain; yet the cloud stays aloft if conditions favor condensation,
and if the particles it has lost are replaced.

Most clouds are formed by rising, warm, moist air that becomes
visible as billowy masses of moisture when it comes in contact
with the cold upper atmosphere; and generally this same process
which produces clouds counteracts their natural tendency to fall
earthward.

We get fog when warm, humid air meets a cool surface such
as that of a lake or sea, or ground which has rapidly lost the heat
it absorbed during the day. As in the case of clouds, the vapor
in the warm air then condenses and becomes visible.

How TO Read the Clouds

Anyone, young or old, enjoys playing the role of weather
prophet. While many factors enter into the predictions made by
the weatherman, you can nevertheless have the fun of making rea-
sonably accurate forecasts just from clouds. And because you are
concerned only with your immediate vicinity, your prediction may
be more successful than that of the professional forecaster!

As far as a youngster is concerned, the simplest indications for
clear weather are high, white clouds, while dark, heavy, low
clouds point to bad weather. Long before people knew much about
clouds, this much was about all that anyone looked for in them.
Today, however, we have the benefit of years of study of the clouds,
and we know that scientists have divided them into three general
classes. Each class has its own story to tell about conditions high
above the earth.

Spectacular Cumulus Clouds

The spectacular cumulus is the kind of cloud that children
are likely to notice first. Its name, taken from the Latin word for
"heap," is a good description; these clouds are heaps upon heaps
of billowy mounds that may reach a height of several miles! The
name becomes easy to remember when you associate it with
"accumulated."

Understanding the Weather [ 437

When cumulus clouds are glistening white they are an indica-
tion of good weather; but on a summer afternoon they may grad-
ually darken and become an unmistakable threat of a storm-
often accompanied by thunder and lightning.

Artists are fond of ornamenting their landscapes with cumulus
clouds, but the cloud "portraits" they produce are often decidedly
incorrect. They show the clouds as rounded masses at both top and
bottom— whereas the base of a cumulus cloud is always flattened.
The base forms at the level where rising warm air cools enough
to cause its water vapor to condense. Then, if the current of rising
air is strong, the cloud grows upward with its rounded head mark-
ing the top of the rising air column.

Cirrus Clouds— "Mares' Tails"

The white feathery wisps that you are likely to see on a fine
summer day belong to a second cloud group. These are cirrus
clouds (from the Latin word meaning "curl") . "Cirrus" sounds a
little like "icy," and this helps us remember that cirrus clouds are
made up of tiny particles of ice— not merely moisture. They are
the highest of all clouds, and may range from two to seven miles
aloft. As cirrus clouds suggest long wisps of hair, they are often
called "mares' tails."

If cirrus clouds are moving from the southwest, the temperature
is apt to fall. If they are coming from the north, it is probably
going to be fair and warm.

Stratus Clouds

Thin flat clouds make up the third group, well named
"stratus," for this is the Latin word for "spreading out." Stratus
clouds do spread out across the sky, sometimes as far as we can see.
To remember this name, think of the similarity of "stratus" and
"straight." Most often the stratus clouds appear as low, gray sheets.
They may merge with rain clouds and precede a storm, or they
may clear away like lifting fog.

^^8 ] Understanding the Weather

Other Cloud Forms

''Nimbus'* is one of the descriptive words that are fre-
quently combined with the three cloud forms when dark, heavy
portions build up in them. For example, a cumulus that grows
black and threatening is a cumulus-nimbus, and a nimbo-stratus
is a rain sheet.

"Alto" ("high") is also combined with cloud names, and
"fracto" ("broken") is another element of cloud descriptions.
Add these terms to combinations of main cloud forms like cirro-
cumulus and cirro-stratus and you have a descriptive name for all
the many cloud formations that decorate the sky. Cirro-cumulus
clouds are small and fleecy, arranged in even rows high overhead
and producing what we often call a "mackerel sky"— a sign of
coming rain.

How the Weatherman Operates

Young children sometimes look upon "the weatherman" as a
very definite person— either a hero or a villain, depending on how
well the weather fits in with their plans. Of course it does not take
long before they realize that this somewhat mysterious figure has
nothing to do with producing rain, snow, or sunshine— he only
predicts them. In the next stage they begin to wonder why, when
predictions prove wrong for several days, we show any further
interest in them.

Forecasting the Weather

We can understand why some predictions fail to materialize
when we have a clear picture of the complex factors that enter
into weather forecasting. Our United States Weather Bureau has
more than five hundred observers stationed throughout the entire
country. Every morning each observer reports by teletype to head-
quarters in Washington, D. C. all the weather facts in his region
as recorded on sensitive instruments. These facts are all immedi-
ately recorded on a map by symbols.

The Chief Forecaster studies this map, compares it with the
weather map of the previous day, and prepares his predictions for

Understanding the Weather [ 439

Washington. Similar forecasts are made for other sections of the
country and a radio station in the Weather Bureau broadcasts
them, while teletype sends them to airports, newspapers, and com-
mercial organizations. A daily weather map is also printed and
widely distributed.

Yet, despite all the skill and care of the experts in reading signs,
it is not always possible to be certain about the coming weather.
An unexpected shift of winds may blow storm clouds from an area
that was prepared for rain, and drench another where sunshine
was expected!

The Weatherman's Tools: The observers who report to the
Weather Bureau depend on a variety of instruments. The weather
vane, which indicates wind direction, is the one with which most
children are familiar. More complicated are the barograph which
writes down the pressure of the air, the anemometer which mea-
sures the speed of wind, thermometers (of course!), a very precise
barometer, an instrument to measure moisture, and another to
record sunshine. These tools, and many others, help the observers
to prepare their account of weather conditions close to earth.

Studying the Upper Atmosphere: Besides assembling this informa-
tion, weathermen have become increasingly interested in ascertain-
ing the condition of the upper atmosphere. To obtain this data
the Weather Bureau sends aloft equipment attached to a large
balloon. A radio device called a radiosonde is attached to a para-
chute carried in the balloon. This instrument is a small radio
station in effect, telling, as it rises, about the temperature, winds,
and other conditions.

The information supplied by the radiosonde is recorded on a
complicated receiver at the Weather Bureau. The parachute car-
ries a small balloon which both prevents the larger one from going
up too fast and also helps to steady it. When they reach fifteen
hundred feet, the smaller balloon bursts, causing the remaining
balloon to rise faster— which it does for about thirteen miles. Then
the larger balloon bursts— the parachute opens— and the radicK
sonde descends safely.

^40 ] Understanding the Weather

Weather Study as a Hobby

Weather forecasting provides many hobbies for older children.
They can construct instruments for a weather station of their own,
keep records of their observations, and study the weather maps in
the daily newspaper.

Estimating Wind VELOcrrv

Besides learning to know the clouds, boys and girls of even
first and second grade can have fun with weather in other ways.
While they may not be able to construct a wind vane, they can
learn to describe the direction of the wind by observing where the
narrow, weighted part of the vane points.

They can also learn to judge the speed of wind fairly accurately
without an instrument. For example: If smoke is seen rising
straight up, the wind is moving less than a mile an hour. If the
smoke drifts in the wind— though wind vanes are not turning— its
rate is from one to three miles an hour.

When wind keeps leaves and small twigs in motion, it is de-
scribed as "gentle" and is traveling from eight to twelve miles an
hour. When it raises dust and papers and keeps small branches
moving, it is "moderate"— from thirteen to eighteen miles an hour.

If you have trouble walking against the wind and it is bending
trees, it is "strong"— more than thirty miles an hour. Wind that
does such damage as the uprooting of trees is a gale, and may move
up to seventy-five miles an hour. A wind in excess of this is a
hurricane.

How to Make a Rain Gauge

A small child who enjoys making things can construct a measur-
ing instrument for rain and snow— a rain gauge. The weatherman
uses a gauge to measure periodic rainfall in an area, or the depth
of water that would lie on the ground if the rain had not escaped.

All your child needs in order to make his own gauge is a large
watertight can— eight inches across is close to the size used by the
United States Weather Bureau. You can also make a measuring
glass by pouring water to the depth of one inch in the can; then

Understanding the Weather [441

pour it into a tall thin jar (such as an olive jar) about a third as
big around as the can. Mark the level to which it comes, using
permanent paint, and divide the space between this level and the
bottom of the jar into ten equal parts.

Place the can with its top removed on a stand so that the top is
level and about two and a half feet from the ground. After a rain,
pour the water that has accumulated in the can into your measur-
ing jar. In this way you can easily measure even as little rainfall
as a tenth of an inch. By keeping a chart for recording the results
of each storm, a youngster has the added fun of weather recording.

Studying the Weather Is More Than Fun

There is a real need among weather scientists for greater knowl-
edge of local weather variations. Your child might even succeed in
making a useful contribution to this field; and, no matter what
occupation or profession he follows in later life, his interest in
the weather will never leave him. If his activity is connected with
aviation or related sciences, weather study may be of great im-
portance to him. Or— at the other end of the scale— he may merely
want to know whether he can expect clear weather for taking his
family on an outing.

Whatever your child grows up to be, his first experiences as a
weather recorder or prophet will be prized memories. Indeed, all
his happy associations with the out-of-doors— his enjoyment of ani-
mals and his appreciation of trees and flowers— will be greatly en-
riched if he has pleasant memories of a childhood in which he
explored the surprises and delights of nature with his parents.

Index

ACORN, 346, 347

Adder's tongues, 318

African violets, how to grow, 311

Alligators, 220

Altair. 414

Anaconda, 205

Anemone, 318

Animal lotto, 135

Animal stamps, 136

Animal tracks

collecting, 89

identifying, 86-88
Ant cows, 256
Ant lion, 275
Antares, 415

Antennae of the insect, 237
Ants

care of, 257

collecting, 256

colonies, 253

warriors, 255
Apes, 118
Aphids, 256
Apple trees, 373
Aquarium

for amphibians, 231

for water insects, 273

how to keep, 172
Aquarius, 416
Arcturus, 414
Aries, 416
Ash trees, 359, 360
Asteroids, 399
Asters, 329
Atomic energy and the sun, 408

BABY BIRDS, 46^8

hummingbirds, 57

orphan, how to care for, 65, 66

robins, 52
Bachelor's-buttons, 302
Back swimmer, 271

Bald eagles, 64
Baltimore orioles, 58
Bats, 133

Beaks of birds, 27, 28
Bears, 110-112

in the zoo, 127
Beavers, 102-104
Beech trees, 358, 359
Beehive, life in, 262
Bees, 260-263
Beetles, 249-253
Begonias, how to grow, 311
Betelgeuse, 415
Big Dipper, 411, 413
Big Dog stars, 415
Birch trees, 361, 362
Bird bath, 37

Bird calendar, how to keep, 36
Bird calls, 39-41

chickens, 68

goldfinches, 56

jays, 54

turkeys, 69
Bird house, 42, 43
Bird walks, 50-52
Bird watching, 49
Birds as pets, 67
Black widow spider, 280
Black-eyed Susan, 324
Boa constrictor, 205
Bobcats, 114
Broncho, 154
Buds of the tree, 340
Bugs, 233

Bulbs, how to grow, 309, 310
Bullfrog, 224
Bumblebee, 261
Buttercups, 324
Butterflies, 239-242

collecting of, 245

how to catch, 247

mounting, 248
Butterfly net, 246
Button-ball tree, 351

44«

Index

[443

CACTUS, 321, 322

Caddis fly, 271
Camelopardalis, 414
Camels, 126
Canaries, 79

Cancer, constellation, 416
Capricornus, 416
Cardinals, 55
Cassiopeia, 413
Castor, 415
Caterpillars, 240, 243

as a hobby, 244

woolly bear, 243
Cats, 146-151
Cattle, 156-159
Centipedes, 285
Cepheus, 414
Chameleons, 217, 218
Chart for fish, 175

Chart of mammals, how to keep, 94-96
Chestnut trees, 362-364
Chickadees, 56
Chickens, 24-28, 44, 47, 68
Chimpanzees, 118
Chlorophyll, function of, 290, 291
Chrysanthemums, 308
Clams, 191
Clouds, 435-438
Clover, 325-327
Cobra, 206

Cocoon collecting, 245
Collecting as a hobby

animal tracks, 89

ants, 256

beetles, 252

butterflies, 245

caterpillars, 244

cocoons, 245

crickets, 259

frogs, 230

frogs' eggs, 222

galls, 275

leaves, 376

moths, 247

nests, 43

pictures of animals, 136, 151

shells, 194

water insects, 273
Comets, 419

Communication of animals, 91-93
Constellations, 41 1 , 412

Big Dipper, 41 1,413

Camelopardalis, 414

Cassiopeia, 413

Cepheus, 414

Great Bear, 411

Little Bear, 413

Little Dipper, 413

Southern Cross, 419

Winding Dragon, 413

Zodiacal, 416
Copperhead snake, 210
Coral snake, 210
Corals, 187

Corn in the garden, 314
Cottonwood tree, 355
Cowbirds, 59
Cows, 156-159
Crabs, 191
Crickets, 259, 260
Crocodiles, 220, 221
Crows, 54

as pets, 67
Crux, 419
Cyclones, 435

DADDY LONGLEGS. 284

Dahlias, 308

Daisy, 324

Damsel fly, 270

Dandelion greens in the garden, 812

Dandelions, 322-324

Danger cries of mammals, 92

Day on the earth, 392, 393

Deer, 114

Deneb, 414

Desert flowers, 322

Dew, 292

Dogs, 138-146

Dogtooth violet, 318

Dogwood trees, 372

Domestic animals, history of, 1S7

Donkeys, 155

Doodlebug, 276

Draco, the Dragon, 418

Dragonfly, 269

Ducks, 70-71

EAGLES, 64
Ears

of birds, 30

of dogs, 139

of fish, 169

of insects, 236

of snakes, 198
Earth as a planet, 387, 391
Earthworms, 286, 287
Eclipses of the moon, 402
Eclipses of the sun, 407
Eels, 179
Egg tooth, 44

snake's, 201

444]

Index

ants, 254

birds, 44-46

butterflies, 240

cowbirds, 59

earthworms, 287

flies, 266

frogs, 222

mosquitoes, 268

ostriches, 77

penguins, 78

robins, 52

toads, 228
Elephants, 119-121
Elm trees, 352-354
Evergreen trees, 364-371
Eyes

of birds, 29, 30

of cats, 147

of chameleons, 21 8

of dogs, 139

of fish, 169

of insects, 236

of owls, 62

of snakes, 197

of whirligigs,.270

FEATHERS OF BIRDS, 25-27
Feeders for birds, 37

hummingbird, 57
Feeding birds

baby birds, 47

hummingbirds, 57

in winter, 37-39

orphans, 65

robins, 52
^eet of birds, 28, 29
Fern prints

how to make, 337

made by nature, 338
Ferns, 336
"Fiddle heads," 336
Fighting among mammals, 93, 94
Fins, 166
Fir trees, 364
Fireballs, 421
Firefly, 250
Fish, study of, 164
Fish hatcheries, 176
Fish scales, 170
Fishing for fun, 173
Fishing for observation, 175
Flies, 266-268
Flight process of birds, 30-32

hummingbirds, 57
Flowering trees, 372, 373
Flowers, study of, 292

Flying fish, 180
Flying hours of birds, 34
Flying saucers, 421
Flying spiders, 283
Fog, 435

Food. See individual animals,
birds, 38
frogs, 231
mammals
apes, 118
bears, 112
elephants, 120
in wintertime, 96, 97
mice, 101
monkeys, 117
rabbits, 99
raccoons, 108
squirrels, 98
tigers, 123
praying mantis, 278
snakes, 211
turtles, 215
water insects, 274
whales, 186
Foxes, 112
Frogs, 222-225
as pets, 230
Fronds, 337
Frost, 429
Fruit, 296

GALAXIES, 382

Gall insect, 274

Garden for the child, 299

flowers, 300

indoors, 309-312

trees, 378

vegetables, 312-316
Garter snake, 207
Geese, 72-74
Gemini, 416
Geraniums, 303
German shepherd, 144
Gills of fish, 165
Ginkgo trees, 364
Giraffes, 124
Goats, 159, 160
Goldenrod, 328
Goldfinches, 40, 56
Goldfish, 164-172
Gophers, 107
Gorillas, 118
Grasshoppers, 257, 258
Great Bear constellation, 411
Guinea pigs, 110
Gulls, 65

Index

[445

HAIL, 430
Halley's comet, 420
Hamsters, 110
Hares, 100
Hawks, 62-64
Hemlock trees, 367
Hepaticas, 318
Hibernation

bears, 112

butterflies, 242

ladybugs, 251

snakes, 196

turtles, 217
Hippopotamus, 121
Hognose snake, 207
Homing pigeon, 75
Honeycombs, how made, 263
Horse-chesnut trees, 362-364
Horses, 151-155
Hummingbird, 45, 57
Hummingbird moth, 305
Hurricanes, 435
Hydroids. 189

INSECTS, POLLINATION BY. 296

Insects, study of, 233-238
Interferometer, 418
Irises, 306

JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT, 320

Jays, 54
Jupiter, 395

KANGAROO, 131

Katydids, 257

Kingsnake, 208

Knots and knotholes, formation of, 343

Koala, 132

LADYBUG, 250

Leaf prints, how to make, 376, 377

Leaves of the tree, 342, 343

Leaving the nest, 48

Leo, the Lion, constellation, 415, 416

Libra, 416

Lightning, 431-433

Lions, 123

Little Bear constellation, 413

Little Dipper, 413

Little Dog constellation, 415

Lizards, 219

Lobsters, 193
Lynxes, 113

MAGNOLIA TREES, 372
Maidenhair trees, 364
Mammal maps, 135
Mammals, 83-86

chart of, how to keep, 94-96
winter living, 96, 97
Man in the moon, 400
Manx, 151

Maple trees, 348-350
Marmot, 107
Mars, 388-390
Meadow larks, 57
Mercury, 390
Mermaids, 186
Metamorphosis of the insect, 235

dragonfly, 269
Meteors, 420
Mice, 101
Migration
birds, 32-36
butterflies, 242
eels, 179
fish, 171
geese, 74
swans, 74
Milk

cows', how produced, 157
goats', 160
Milk snake, 208
Milkweed, 327
Milky Way, 418, 419
Millipedes, 285
Mirages, 422
Mockingbirds, 60
Moles, 105, 106
Mollusks, 190-193
Molting process
birds, 26, 27
snakes^ 198
Monkeys, 116-117
Moon, 399-403

rings, 425
Moons on Jupiter, 396
Mosquitoes, 268, 269
Mosses, 335
Moths, 242
collecting, 245
how to catch, 247
mounting, 248
Mountain laurel, 374
Mounting plants, 333
Mules, 155
Mushrooms, 333
Muskrats, 104

446]

NASTURTIUMS. SOS

Neptune, 397
Nest collecting, 43
Nests

ants, 254

Baltimore oriole, 59

gophers, 107

hummingbirds, 57

mice, 101

moles, 106

robins, 52

squirrels, 98

trout, 178

wasps, 263
Night on the earth, 392, 393
Night rains, 425
North Star. 410

OAK TREES, 345-348
Optical illusions, 422
Orangutans, 118

Orphan bird, how to care for, 65, 66
Ostriches, 76, 77
Otters, 105
Owls, 61
as pets, 67

PANDA, 128
Pansies, 301
Parakeets, 81
Parrots, 80
Peacocks, 77
Penguins, 78
Persian cats, 150
Pet shows, 151
Pets, how to care for

caterpillars, 244

cats, 149

chameleons, 218

crickets, 259

crows, 67

dogs, 146

frogs, 231

guinea pigs, 110

hamsters, 110

owls, 67

raccoon, 108

skunk, 109

snails, 188

snakes, 21 1

turtles, 214

woolly bears, 244
Petunias, 304, 305
Phases of the Moon, 400
Picture album of pets, 151

Index

Pigeons, 74, 75
Pigs, 161-163
Pine cones, 370
Pine trees, 368-370
Pisces, 416
Planetariums, 404
Planets, 383

asteroids, 399

differing from stars, 386

earth, 387, 391

how to locate, 386

Jupiter, 395

Mars, 388-390

Mercury, 390

Neptune, 397

Pluto, 398

Saturn, 396

Uranus, 397

Venus, 391
Plants, developing interest in, 289
Platypus, 130
Pluto, 398
Poison fangs, 201
Poison ivy, 375
Poison oak, 375
Poison spiders, 279
Poison sumac, 375
Poisonous mushrooms, 334
Poisonous snake, how to recognize, 209

210
Polaris, 410
Pollination, 295-298

com, 314

geraniums, 303

irises, 306

nasturtiums, 304

pansy, 301

petunias, 305

poppies, 306
Pollination by bees, 262
Pollux, 415
Poplar trees, 354, 355
Poppies, 305, 306
Prairie dogs, 106
Praying mantis, 276
Pressing flowers, 332
Prints, how to make

fern, 337

frost, 430

leaf, 376-378
Pumpkins, 315
Pussy willow, 356
Pythons, 206

QUAKING ASPEN TREE, 354
Queen Anne's lace. 328

Index

U47

RABBITS, 99

Raccoons, 107

Radishes in the garden, 313

Rain, 425, 427

Rain gauge, how to make, 440

Rainbow, 425

Rattlesnakes, 202-205

Ravens, 66

Red eft, 229

Redwood tree, 371

Reptiles, 196

Rhinoceros, 122

Rhubarb in the garden, 313

Ring around the moon, 425

Robins, 52

Root-system of the tree, 344

willows, 357
Roses, 307
Ruminants, 158

SAGITTARIUS, 416

St. Bernard, 143

Salamanders, 228

Salmon, 178

Saturn, 396

Scorpio, 416

Sea anemones, 189

Sea cow, 187

Sea lions, 132

Seahorses, 181

Seals, 132

Seasons, change of, 394, 395

Seeds

flowers, how they start, 295, 296

how scattered, 298

maple trees, 350

poppies, 306

trees, planting of, 378

willow trees, 356
Seeing Eye dogs, 144
Sequoia trees, 370
Sharks, 183
Sheep, 160
Shellfish, 189
Shells as a hobby, 194
Shelters for birds, 37
Shiner, 174
Shocking fish, 182
Shooting stars, 420
Shrubs, 373
Siamese cat, 150
Silkworms, 243
Sirius, 415
Sitting on eggs, 46

robins, 52
Skunks. 109
Sky, observing of, 382

Sleet. 429

Snails, 188

Snake collecting, 210

Snake plants, how to grow, 311

Snakes, 195

as pets, 211
Snow, 428
Solar system, 382
Songs of birds, 39-42 _^ _

canary, 80 ^^

mockingbird, 60

sparrow, 53

whippoorwill, 61
Southern Cross, 419
Sparrows, 53
Spatter prints, 376
Spawning migrations, 171
Spectroscope, 417
Speed of birds in migration, 34
Spiders, 279-285
Sponges, 187
Spring peepen, 224, 225
Spruce trees, 365-367
Squirrels, 97-99
Staghom sumac, 374
Star gazer fish, 182
Stars, 380

constellations, 411-414

differing from planets, 386

fixed, 409

Milky Way, 418

North Star, 410

summer stars, 414

sun, 405-409

studying of, 417

winter stars, 415
Sting of the bee, 260
Storks, 78
Sumac, 374, 375
Summer stars, 414
Sun, 405-409

drawing water, 426
Sun dance of the turkey, 70
Sun showers, 428
Sun-watching, 409
Sunfish,174, 177
Sunflowers, 329-331
Sunspots, 406
Swans, 74

Sweet potatoes as plants, 312
Swimming process of fish, 166-168
Sycamore trees, 350-352

TADPOLE, growth of, 223
Talking sounds of mammals, 91- 93

cats, 149

cattle, 158

448]

Index

Talking— Continued

dogs, 140

pigs. 162

sheep, 161
Taming the dog, history of, 142
Tarantula, 280
Taurus, 416

Telescopes, 383-385, 417
Termites, 265, 266
Thousand-leggers, 285
Thunderstorms, 433
Tides, 402
Tiger, 85, 123
Toads, 226-228
Tornadoes, 434
Tracks, identification of

animals, 86-91

snakes, 200
Tree biography, how to keep, 345
Tree garden, how to grow, 378
Tree rings, 339

Trees, how to recognize, 345-371
Trillium, 320
Trout, 177, 178
Tulips, 301, 302
Turkeys, 69, 70
Turtles, 212-217

URANUS, 397

VAMPIRE BAT, 134

Vega. 414

Vegetables in the child's garden, 312-316

Venus, 391

Violets, 318

Virginia creeper, 375

Virgo, 416

Vultures, 65

WALKING FISH, 180

Walking stick insect, 278

Walruses, 133

Warfare among mammals, 93, 94

Wasps, 263-265

Water boa, 205

Water insects, 270-274

aquarium for, 273

feeding of, 274
Water moccasin, 210
Water snakes, 209
Weather forecasting, 424, 438-441

crickets, 259

woolly bears, 243
Weatherman, operations of, 438
Webs, spider, 280-282
Weeds, 316, 317
Whales, 184-186
Whippoorwills, 61
Whirligig, 270
Wild canaries, 56
Wild horses, 153
Wildflowers, 317

bouquets and gardens, 331
Willow trees, 355-357
Wind, 426, 427

estimating velocity, 440
Winding Dragon constellation, 41 1
Window box flowers, 311
Winter stars, 415
Wintertime

birds, feeding in, 37-39

mammals in, 96
Witch hazel shrub, 374
Woodpeckers, 61
Woolly bear caterpillar, 243

as a pet, 244
Worms, 286, 287

ZODIAC. 415, 416
Zoos, 115

(Continued on back flap)

really gets about, how a rattlesna
and the true facts behind snake ch;
well as other colorful snake lore
frogs, salamanders, chameleons, alli^
crocodiles — sea-dwellers and shor
from the clam and lobster to the i
the shark and the whale — these
curious ways are all explained vi
entertainingly.

With this book to guide you, you
endless hours observing the marvi
insect world — and really underst;
perhaps for the first time. The li^
bees, the grasshoppers, the crickets,
the butterflies— these are only a f(
things the author tells you about,
why the spider is not an insect ai
weaves its web.

If you love plants, flowers, and
will appreciate the helpful words an
that show you how to recognize
understand their changes from seas
son. The author tells you how the
feed, grow and multiply, and even
can get your child off to a good
gardener indoors or out.

The wonder of the night sky is
with great simplicity to help you e:
heavens as well as the earth. Moor
stars and planets, constellations am
all grow more meaningful as you r
them here. You learn the scientific f
the canals on Mars, why stars twi
we have day and night, changing se
eclipses. You and your child are told
should know about weather cond]
how to predict them; why it rai
sleets, or hails; and why we have
lightning, and rainbows, etc.

As an illustrated out-of-doors nal
—as a reading or reference book oi
insects, plants, trees, astronomy, an
—as an activity and hobby book—
Nature with Your Child is incomj
is packed with advice on scores of
things you and your child can do,
how to keep a successful aquariur
make leaf collections and leaf prin
start children fishing, and how to c
terflies and preserve them.

6REYST0NE PRESS

HAWTHOI

Printed in United States of America (3^

Exploring Nature
With Your Child

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ENJOYMENT
AND UNDERSTANDING OF NATURE FOR ALL

Gives Clear, Interesting
Answers to Thousands of
Questions Like:

How does a bird fly?

Are birds good fathers?

What are the ABC's of bird
watching?

Can animals sense fear in a
human being?

Do squirrels dig up all the
nuts they bury?

What is a platypus?

How big is an elephant?

Do porcupines shoot quills?

What animal flies by radar?

Do goats eat tin cans?

How do fishes breathe?

Why are goldfish golden?

What is the best way to
keep an aquarium?

How does the chameleon
change color?

Which snakes are deadly?

What is life like in an ant
colony? a beehive?

How can I start a butterfly
collection?

Do bees die after they
sting?

Are spiders good mothers?

What is a larva? a pupa?

What is chlorophyll?

What plants are easiest for
a child to grow?

How can I recognize the
wildflowers and trees?

Why do leaves change color
and fall?

What are the oldest trees
on earth?

What makes stars twinkle?

Is there life on Mars?

What causes night and day?

Why do we have seasons?

What causes eclipses?

How hot is the sun?

Are flying saucers real?

What causes wind— rain-
sleet— hail— snow— thun-
der—lightning?

How can we predict the
weather?

GREYSTONE PRESS

I he author, Dorothy Edwards Shut-
tlesworth (pictured with her son and
daughter), has a brilliant back-
ground for taking you adventuring
through Nature with your child. She
was the founder, and editor for
19 years, of the highly successful
Junior Natural H'isfory Magazine,
published by New York City's
world-famous American Museum of
Natural History. Still a contributing
editor of the magazine, she has
been corresponding with children all
over the country, and has acquired
a keen insight into their interests
and needs concerning Nature.

HAWTHORN BOOKS

i