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IATERIALS
Tte PiianoiR8R8 and Theories of Exlosiosi
> THK
: , | -; - . ; ,'
;
..^a EditrSon, Revised aktt Knlarged
NEW TOEK
D, VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
; MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STIU
1907
from the French of A. Mallet. Second edition, revised
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EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS
The Phenomena and Theories of Explosion
AND THE CLASSIFICATION, CONSTITUTION
AND PREPARATION OF EXPLOSIVES
BY
COLONEL JOHN P. WISSEE
COAST ARTILLERY CORPS
Military Attache to the American Embassy in Berlin
Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged
NEW YORK
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
23 MUBBAY AND 27 WABBEN SlBEETS
1907
Copyright 1898, 1907,
BY
D. VAN NOSTBAND COMPANY
PREFACE.
THE first edition of this number of Van
Nostrand's Science Series having become
exhausted, it became necessary, in order
to keep the series complete, to issue a
new edition. But in the fifteen years
which have elapsed since the appearance
of the first edition, many changes have
taken place in the views regarding the
phenomena of explosions, and many new
explosives have attracted the world's at-
tention, particularly the important class
of smokeless powders. Therefore, since
the theory advanced by Berthelot no
longer accounts for all the known phe-
nomena, it was deemed best by the pub-
lishers to have the entire number re-
written.
The present volume is the result of this
decision. The subject-matter is based on
the original essay of Berthelot, and suck
360390
IV PREFACE.
matter has been added, as it is believed,
will render the little work more generally
useful.
We are indebted to Prof. J. P. Cooke
of Harvard University for the first clear
explanation of the action of explosive
compounds, and for directing attention to
the necessity for studying structural for-
ulse in this connection. The few pages
devoted to the subject of explosives in
the~new work of Professor Tillman of the
U. S. Military Academy, present the sub-
ject in simple language, but in a most
satisfactory way, especially as regards the
distinctions between the classes of explo-
sive compounds. But the greatest author-
ity on explosives in this country is prob-
ably Professor C. E. Munroe, formerly of
the U. S. Naval Torpedo Station, now of
Columbia University, Washington, D. C.
Traces of his work are evident in all the
later literature on the subject, and much
of the interest in the field of explosives in
this country was inspired by his labors.
Lieutenant Walke, in charge of the De-
partment of chemistry and explosives at
PREFACE. V
the U. S. Artillery School, has embodied
the gist of Professor Munroe's lectures in
the new edition of his work, which has,
besides, excellent descriptions of the latest
processes of manufacturing the principal
explosives. The dictionary of Lieutenant-
Colonel J. P. Cundill, R. A. (now in its
second edition) is, of course, invaluable in
the study of the latest forms of smokeless
and other powders, and we were fortunate,
too, in learning the views of Professor
Mendeleef on explosives, through the
Proceedings U. S. Naval Institute, Revise
d' Artillerie and Arms and Explosives.
The author, therefore, desires to express
his obligations to the following works,
besides the original volume (No. 70) of
this series.
The New Chemistry. Prof. J. P. Cooke, Jr.
D. Appleton & Co.
Descriptive General Chemistry. Prof. S. E.
Tillman, U. S. Military Academy.
Lectures on Chemistry and Explosives. Prof.
Charles E. Munroe, Naval Torpedo Station.
Lectures on Explosives. Lieut. W. Walke, U. S»
Artillery School. Wiley & Sons.
VI PREFACE.
Ordnance and Gunnery. Gapt. L. L. Bruff,
U. S. Military Academy. Wiley & Sons.
Dictionary of Explosives. Lieut. - Col. J. P.
Cundill, R. A. London : Eyre & Spottiswoode.
Militaer - Wochenblatt. Mittler u. Sohn, Berlin.
Proceedings U". S. Naval Institute. Annapolis,
Md.
Revue d* Artillerie. Paris, France.
Arms and Explosives. London, England.
J. P. W.
FORT MONROE, VA.,
March 8, 1898.
EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS.
An explosive, in the most general sense,
is a substance capable of a sudden and
considerable increase of volume.
This increase of volume may be the re-
sult of purely physical changes, or both
physical and chemical changes.
The expansion of gases by heat, the ex-
plosive action of which is exemplified in
the bursting of boilers ; the expansion of
gases by diminution of pressure in the
surrounding medium, illustrated in the
cyclone, when the low barometer area
passes over a closed house ; the bursting
of iron shells by the freezing of water
confined in them ; and many similar phe-
nomena are examples of explosive effects
purely physical in character.
The explosion of an explosive mixture
of gases is the simplest example of both
chemical and physical action, the gases
first combining chemically, then the heat
produced by this chemical action expand-
ing the resulting gas or gases physically.
The explosion of gunpowder, guncotton
or nitroglycerine involves, in addition, the
physical change of state from solid or
liquid to gas.
Explosive materials or Explosives, in a
restricted sense, are substances capable of
a sudden and great increase of volume,
due to a change of state from solid or
liquid to gas, accompanied by chemical
action resulting in the evolution of great
heat, the latter aiding in increasing the
original volume by expanding the gases
produced.
Explosive materials may be divided into
three classes :
I. Compounds.
II. Mixtures, containing nitro-com-
pounds or organic nitrates.
III. Mixtures, containing no nitro-com-
pounds nor organic nitrates.
Chemical action takes place only at in-
finitely short distances. Now, the chemi-
cal molecules of substances are infinitely
smaller than the smallest particles into
which substances can be mechanically
divided, and since, in the case of com-
pounds, reaction takes place between the
atoms of each molecule, we have the most
favorable conditions (in this respect) pos-
sible. In mechanical mixtures of any
kind, however finely divided the ingredi-
ents may be, their particles are still of ap-
preciable size, and very large as compared
with molecules. Now, in the case of
explosives of the second class the reac-
tions take place partly "between the atoms
of the same molecules, and partly between
the atoms of different molecules, in the
former the reacting atoms being at infin-
itely small distances apart, in the latter
all except those at and near the surfaces
of contact of the different particles being
at considerable distances apart; hence/
the conditions are less favorable than in
case of plain compounds. Finally, in the
case of explosives of the third class, the
essential reaction takes place entirely be-
tween elements of different substances;
hence, the conditions are the least favor-
able.
Explosives are also classified as liigli ex-
plosives and low explosives, the former in-
cluding those in which the chemical action
is rapid and energetic, the latter those in
which the action is relatively slow ; one
producing a crushing or shattering effect,
the other a propelling or pushing effect.
Technically, the high explosives comprise
the first two classes of explosive materials,
the low explosives the third class, but the
terms are merely relative, ordinarily, so
that the chlorate group of the third class
may be regarded as high when compared
with the nitrate group, whereas some of
the modern smokeless powders, since they
are fit for use in cannon and small-arms,
although containing high explosive in-
gredients, are themselves low explosives.
THE PHENOMENA OF EXPLOSION.
The various explosives differ greatly in
force of explosion, and even in the same
explosive the force is modified by the
physical condition of the explosive, the
external conditions surrounding the ex-
plosive, and the method of initial inflam-
mation.
In all cases where the chemical reac-
tions are accurately known, the following
data are required to define the action of
the explosive :
1. The cliemical composition of the ex-
plosive.
2. The chemical composition of the prod-
ucts of explosion at every step (includ-
ing dissociation).
3. The rapidity with which the action takes
place, comprising both the rapidity of
changes at the origin of the reactions
and the rapidity of propagation of the
reactions (including explosion by in-
fluence).
In all cases where the chemical reac-
tions are not accurately known, the fol-
lowing data are required to define the ac-
tion of the explosive :
1. The quantity of heat given off during
the reaction.
6
2. The volume of the gases formed (meas-
ured under normal pressure).
3. The rapidity with which the reaction
takes place, comprising both the rapid-
ity of changes at the origin of the
reactions, and the rapidity of propa-
gation of the reactions (including ex-
plosion by influence).
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF EXPLOSIVES.
The characteristic features common to
all explosives are their instability and
their capacity to form very rapidly a large
volume of gaseous products. Their in-
stability is due to the fact that the ele-
ments present are not combined with one
another according to their greatest affini-
ties, a condition which leads to their easy
and rapid decomposition with little loss of
heat, while their capacity to form rapidly a
a large volume of gaseous products de-
pends on their rapid decomposition, on the
fact that the elements tend to re-combine
according to their greatest affinities, there-
fore giving off great heat, and on the fact
that the products are gaseous, and are
expanded by the resultant heat.
In the case of explosive gases, or mix-
tures of gases, there is no change of state,
but in all ordinary explosives there is a
change of state from liquid or solid to
gas, which* still further increases the
effect.
All ordinary explosives, except a few of
the chlorate class of mixtures, contain ni-
trogen, an element of very feeble affini-
ties, and to it their instability is largely
due, but is also increased by the fact that
other elements present are not combined
according to their greatest affinities. In
the chlorates the weak element is the
chlorine, not because it is generally a
weak element for it is on the contrary
usually a very strong element, but be-
cause in these compounds it is united ac-
cording to its weakest affinity, that is with
oxygen.
The foregoing considerations are suffi-
cient to explain the explosion of the
binary nitrogen compounds.
But, all explosives, which have received
8
important practical application, have in
addition to the element of instability, ni-
trogen (or chlorine in the chlorates), the
oxidizable elements carbon and hydrogen
(or carbon alone) and oxygen. Explo-
sion in such cases is really a form of com-
bustion, the reaction being very energetic
and rapidly propagated. In explosive
compounds these elements are all present
in the molecule, but combined in a manner
not according to their greatest affinities,
and in order to understand the action in
their explosion it is necessary to study
their structural formulae.
Thus, the explosion of tetra - nitro -
naphthalene may be represented by the
following equation:
CIO H4 (N O2)4 = 2H20 + 6CO + 4CN,
but this reaction in itself does not explain
the production of heat, because true simple
decomposition (not complicated by further
recomposition) always absorbs heat, and if
the elements were combined, and their
affinities satisfied in the original compound
exactly as they are in the products then
cold would be the result of tlie change
and not heat.
The structural formula, however, makes
all this clear.
0=-N=0 0=N=O
-<
0=N=O O=N=O
The oxygen atoms are not united di-
rectly to either hydrogen or carbon atoms 5
indeed, they are removed as far as possible
from the hydrogen atoms (for which their
affinity in this molecule is greatest), and
are connected with the carbon atoms (their
next greatest affinity) only through an
atom of nitrogen (for which they have
the least affinity). When explosion takes
place the molecule is broken up, and
10
the oxygen atoms rush for the carbon
and hydrogen atoms, their energy being
made evident in the form of heat.
In mixtures the oxidizable substance is
usually one constituent and the necessary
oxygen is usually contained in another con-
stituent. The action in the case of mix-
tures is" not only less energetic on account
of the appreciable size of the minute par-
ticles of the constituents (as compared
with the molecules of compounds) and
the consequent greater distance between
reacting atoms, but is also slower because
the molecules (or atoms in them) of the
particles are removed from the surface of
the particles in succession, the latter
wearing away in successive layers as the
the action continues. Hence, true mix-
tures (those in which the principal reac-
tion is between atoms of different mole-
cules) are less energetic than true com-
pounds, or than those mixtures containing
nitrous or nitric derivatives, (in which the
principal reaction is between atoms of the
same molecule).
The practically useful explosives are in
11
the liquid or solid state, and this for two-
reasons, first, because they are easier to
transport and handle, secondly, because the
change of state to gas implies an increase
in the increase of volume. In the case of
true mixtures there is another advantage
in the fact that a large quantity of oxygen,,
available for the oxidation of the carbon
or hydrogen, is concentrated in a very
small volume (in the form of nitrates,,
chlorates, etc.), resulting in greatly in-
creased chemical activity when oxidation
once begins, and a higher temperature is
thus produced because the action takes
place in a small space, and the heat
evolved is better utilized in raising the
temperature of the products; moreover,
the oxygen atoms are probably separated
from these compounds in the nascent
state, that is, as separate atoms (O), with
high combining power, and not as mole-
cules (0=0), in which the affinity of the
atoms is satisfied (in a low degree) by
other atoms of the same kind, as it exists,
in gaseous oxygen or atmospheric air.
12
THE ORIGIN OF THE REACTIONS.
Every chemical compound is deter-
mined by the kind, the number, and the
arrangement of the atoms in its molecule.
The molecules of all substances are in
constant motion. Anything that increases
the amplitude of the vibrations beyond a
certain limit, breaks up the molecule.
Thus, heat (a form of molecular motion)
is one of the commonest agents used to
decompose compounds; light (another
form of molecular motion) decomposes
compounds in photography and in vege-
table life ; and finally, electricity (still
another form of molecular motion) causes
chemical decomposition in electrolysis.
The origin of the chemical transforma-
tion in explosion is always some force due
to matter in motion, either the motion of
the matter in mass, such as a shock, pres-
sure or friction, or the motion of the
molecules of bodies, such as heat, syn-
chronous vibration (sound waves,) or vor-
tex-ring motion. This motion, if motion
in mass, is communicated to the molecules
13
of the explosive, is transformed into heat,
and appears at the initial point as that
effect of heat called temperature, every
explosive having its particular temperature
of explosion, which, however, varies with-
in certain limits, depending on the rate at
which the heat is communicated, substan-
ces being able to exist at temperatures
above their temperature of decomposition,
but for a time which decreases as the tem-
perature rises.
If the motion be that of vibrations syn-
chronous with those which would result
from the explosion of the substance con-
sidered, the latter being in a state of high
chemical tension, it is communicated
through space, without appreciable change
of temperature at any particular point, to
the molecules of the explosive, and either
produces its explosion directly, or makes
it more sensitive to the effect of shock,
thus causing its explosion indirectly.
If vortex motion is set up by explosion
at one point, due to the fact that the sur-
faces surrounding the explosion gases are
more curved at some points than at
14
others, producing tlie greater strain at the
points of greater curvature, then at short
distances from the center of disturbance
greater effects are produced in some direc-
tions than in others, and these effects may
again lead to explosion ; at considerable
distances the effects tend to become uni-
form in all directions.
The last two actions explain sympa-
thetic explosions, or explosions by influ-
ence.
The physical condition of an explosive
has a great influence on the explosive re-
action : thus, frozen nitro-glycerine can be
fired only with great difficulty, and we$
guncotton requires a primer of dry gun-
cotton.
, THE RAPIDITY OF THE REACTIONS.
The rapidity of the chemical reaction in
explosion varies greatly in different ex-
plosives, and even in the same explosive
is much affected by various circumstances.
The rapidity of the reaction increases
with the temperature according to a very
rapid law; it also increases with the pres-
sure in the case of gaseous explosives;
and finally, it depends upon the relative
proportions of the components.
The presence of an inert body since it
absorbs heat and consequently lowers the
temperature, without exerting any influ-
ence to hasten the reaction, retards the
actions. In this way the character of an
explosive may be modified or entirely
changed.
When the speed of the reactions is not
great, a portion of the heat is dissipated,
and the rise of temperature soon ceases.
This limit is that at which the loss of heat
by radiation, conduction, etc. is equal to
the gain due to the internal reactions. In
this case the reaction takes place with a
nearly constant rapidity, and does not be-
come explosive, but produces what is
called deflagration.
Explosions resulting from simple spon-
taneous decomposition are explained in
the same way. A small mass of such a
substance would merely decompose, but a
large mass, since the heat produced inter-
16
nally might increase considerably while
the loss of heat externally might not
change materially, could have its temper-
ature raised so as to produce explosion in-
stead of simple decomposition.
THE PROPAGATION OF THE REACTIONS.
The explosive reactions in a homogene-
ous gaseous mixture, surrounded by con-
ditions of pressure and temperature iden-
tical in all its parts, should, apparently de-
velop instantaneously in all parts at once.
But, as a matter of fact a certain amount
of time is consumed in the process, and
this time varies in different bodies.
Now, in the ordinary case of explosives,
the different parts of which are exposed
to different conditions, such as those
which arise from being ignited at one
point or from a local shock, in order that
the transformation may be propagated
with explosive effect, it is necessary that
the same physical conditions of tempera-
ture, of pressure, etc. which prevail at the
initial point, should successively be pro-
17
duced and propagated, molecule by mole-
cule, through all portions of the mass.
The rapidity of combustion of explo-
sives depends to a great extent on the
pressure of the air or the surrounding
gases. Thus the velocity of the combus-
tion of gunpowder in the open air is about
10 to 13 mm. a second, whereas in the
bore of a gun it is about 230 mm. a sec-
ond (Piobert).' The rapidity of progres-
sive combustion of uncompressed guncot-
ton is about eight times that of gunpowder
(Piobert), therefore about 100 mm. a sec-
ond, while that of compressed and deto-
nated guncotton is about 5000 m. a second
(Dr. Rudolf Blochman).
In granulated mixtures, especially low
explosives, the size of the grain has a
great effect on the velocity with which
the reactions are propagated.
Finally, by varying the process used for
originating the reactions any effect from
quiet decomposition without flame to per-
fect detonation may be produced, even
in high explosives.
18
Generally, two kinds of explosion are
distinguished :
Explosions of the first order or detonation.
Explosions of the second order, or ordinary
explosion.
All explosions are brought about by
heat, synchronous vibrations or vortex
motion. Heat may be applied directly as
heat, or indirectly as a shock, which is
converted into heat. The order of explo-
sion if due to shock, depends on the in-
tensity of the original shock, therefore,
detonators consisting of small quantities of
some violent explosive, are used to pro-
duce explosions of the first order.
In case of detonation by shock the pres-
sures resulting from the shock are too rap-
id to become uniformly dispersed through-
out the entire mass, and the energy is
transformed into heat in the first layers
of the explosive ; these layers are deton-
ated and the resulting gases produce a
new shock on the next layer, raising its
temperature and detonating it in the same
way, and so on, the effect being thus prop-
agated with great rapidity by the alternate
19
conversion of energy into heat and heat
into energy. To produce detonation the
initial velocity of decomposition must rise
above a certain minimum value, and there
is therefore a critical velocity of initial de-
composition which determines the kind of
reaction that ultimately takes place ; and
there is a minimum temperature which
some part of the explosive must reach in
order to have detonation by heat or shock.
In detonation by influence the explosive
either takes up the vibrations of the deto-
nator throughout its mass and thus deto-
nates itself, or the vortex motion caused
by differences in the surfaces surrounding
the initial explosion, since its effects are
greater in certain directions than in others,
will detonate the explosive if it be in one
of these paths of greater effect.
Ordinary explosion results as follows:
the portion of the substance first heated
explodes, the gases by expansion are
cooled, but still heat a small portion of the
explosive to the temperature of explosion ;
this then explodes, cooling again takes
place, and so on.
20
The sensitiveness of an explosive is de-
pendent on the individual structure of the
explosive, on the conditions of heating,
and on the method of propagation of the
reactions j it is greatest for the same sub-
stance at temperatures nearest to that at
which the substance begins to decompose
spontaneously; it depends, in different
substances, on the cohesion of the sub-
stance which governs the transformation
of the shock into heat, on the temperature
of decomposition, and on the quantity of
heat set free by the decomposition.
Thus, mercury fulminate detonates at a
higher temperature than silver oxalate
and at a lower one than nitrogen sulphide,
yet it is much more sensitive to shock or
friction than either of these substances.
Celluloid, which does not detonate at or-
dinary temperatures, acquires that prop-
erty at a temperature approaching that at
which it decomposes. The temperature
of decomposition is lower for potassium
chlorate than for the nitrate, and the
former is the more sensitive.
21
THE PRODUCTS OF EXPLOSION.
Equations representing explosions (lik$
all other chemical reactions) are not de-
ductive, but are the result of observation
and experiment.
Nevertheless there are certain genera)
principles which enable us to write out
the equation that represents the principal
reaction in the explosion, when we know
the exact chemical composition of the
components.
In the explosion of compounds contain-
ing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitro-
gen, we know that the hydrogen first
takes all the oxygen it requires to oxidize
to water vapor. If there be any excess
of hydrogen it will combine with some of
the carbon and form marsh gas ; if there
be an excess of oxygen (above what is
required by the hydrogen) it will combine
with carbon and form carbon dioxide, if
there be enough oxygen, or carbon mon-
oxide, if there be no more oxygen than i&
required to convert the carbon to this
oxide, or both these oxides, if there be an
22
intermediate quantity o£ oxygen; if there
l>e an excess of oxygen above that required
by the hydrogen, but below that required
to convert all the carbon into carbon mon-
oxide, free carbon would be left, but this
combines with nitrogen to form cyanogen,
or with hydrogen to form marsh gas; if
there be an excess of oxygen above that
required to oxydise all the hydrogen to
water vapor and all the carbon to carbon
dioxide, it is given off in the free state;
nitrogen is generally given off in the free
state, but if there be an excess of carbon
it may appear in part as cyanogen.
Of course, some of the gaseous pro-
ducts undergo dissociation at the tempera-
tures produced by the explosions, but the
fact that a material slowly decomposed at
a given temperature is able to exist for a
short time at much higher temperatures,
prevents much dissociation from taking
place. The abruptness of cooling imme-
diately after explosion preserves these
compounds from destruction, because it
brings them to temperatures at which
they are stable.
23
These principles are the basis of the
preparation of certain of the explosive
mixtures. Compounds which have a defi-
ciency of oxygen are made more energetic
in their explosive action by mixing them
with some oxidizing agent; and com-
pounds with an excess of oxygen can be
advantageously mixed with those having
a deficiency, or with some oxidizable sub-
stance.
The total quantity of heat given out in
any chemical reaction is fixed, no matter
what its rate, but the temperature to
which the products are raised depends,
among other things, on the specific heat
of these products, hence, explosives whose
products have a low specific heat have an
advantage over those with a high one ;
and since dissocation tends to lower the
temperature, the more permanent the
gases in the products the better.
THE FORCE OF EXPLOSION.
The force of explosion may be measured
either by the pressure of the gases given
off, or by the work done.
The pressure of the gases depends upon
their nature, their volume and their tem-
perature.
The work done depends upon the quan-
tity of heat given off. The maximum work
which an explosive is capable of doing, or
its potential energy, is determined by multi-
plying the number of units of heat given
off by the mechanical equivalent of a unit
of heat ; but it must be remembered that
it is a limit which is never reached in
practice, because there is always loss of
Jieat as such, by conduction, radiation,
•etc., moreover, part of the work done is
not useful work and is therefore lost.
Pinally, much of the heat remains stored
Tip in the gases that escape.
To fully define the force of an explo-
sion, however, after we consider both the
pressures of the gases evolved and the
i\rork which the heat given off is capable
of doing, the following data are necessary ;
1. The chemical composition of the ex-
plosive.
25
2. The chemical composition of the
products of explosion at every step
(including dissociation).
3. The quantity of heat given off dur-
ing the reaction.
4. The volume of the gases formed
(measured under normal pressure).
5. The rapidity with which the reac-
tion takes place, comprising both the
rapidity of the changes at the origin
of the reactions, and the rapidity of
propagation of the reactions (includ-
ing explosion by influence).
Of course, if the chemical reactions are
positively known the third and fourth
may be deduced from the first and second.
The various kinds of explosives, based
on the force of their explosion, are used
for different purposes.
Strong and very rapid explosives. — Strong
and very rapid explosives are used when
it is desired to obtain principally breaking
effects. In their case the elasticity of the
mass acted upon has not time to come
into play and the material is broken into
small fragments. In their employment in
26
mining it is not necessary to tamp much
because the pressure is communicated to
the solid rock before the gases formed
have time to drive away the compressed
air.
Fulminate of mercury and the stronger
dynamites are the types of the strong and
very rapid explosives.
Strong and less rapid explosives. — If the
decomposition of strong and very rapid
explosives be retarded a little, the poten-
tial energy still remaining considerable,
there will be a tendency to produce a tear-
ing or shearing in the lines of least resist-
ance, and when the tenacity is not great
the result is dislocation without projection.
These explosives are used in quarrying
large blocks of rocks of great resistance.
The weaker dynamites are the types of
this class, but the stronger can also be
used in case the block is outlined by a
furrow with a central drill-hole, or by
making the effect of successive small ex-
plosions in the same chamber cumulative.
Strong and slow explosives. — Strong and
slow explosives 'are used when it is de-
27
sired to break the material into as large
pieces as possible, as in mining coal, or
merely into a comparatively small number
of pieces, as in the bursting of shell. The
gradual increase of pressure is of advan-
tage for some purposes, as in the displace-
ment of earth.
Ordinary gunpowder is the type of the
strong and slow powders, but the modern
mixtures containing high explosives are so
varied in their qualities that all shades of
effect can now be produced by them.
The order of the explosives according
to their respective strengths, or forces of
explosion, varies considerably according to
the instrument used in measuring them,
or the method employed, so that any order
must be regarded in a general sense, and
not as in any way absolutely accurate.
The following table condensed from a
more complete one in Lieutenant Walke's
Lectures on Explosives, gives the order of
the principal explosives according- to the
force of explosion, as determined by thp
Quinan pressure-gauge :
Explosive gelatine - 106.17
Helehoffite - - 106.17
Nitroglycerine - 100.00
Guncotton (U.S.N. Torpedo Station) 83.12
Dynamite, No. 1 - - 81.31
Emmensite - - 77.86
Tonite - - 68.24
Bellite - 65.70
Atlas Powder - - 64.43
Rackarock - - 61.71
Melinite - - 50.82
Mercury fulminate - - 49.91
Mortar Powder (Dupont) - 28.13
Professor Mendel6ef proposes, as the
most reliable way of comparing the ballis-
tic efficiencies of powders, the simple con-
sideration of the volumes of evolved gases,
without regard to conditions of tempera-
ture.
Thus, if the explosion of brown powder
be represented by :
4 K NO, + C6 H4 0 + S = K, S04 (solid)
+ K, CO, (solid) + 4 CO + 2 H, 0 + 2 Nt.
Mol. wt. = 4 x 101 + 80 + 32 = 516.
Vols. of gases =4x2 + 2x2
X 2 = 16.
We have, 516 : 16 :: 1000 : V10CO = 31.0.
That is, a thousand parts by weight of the
explosive furnish 31 volumes of gas (meas-
ured at a fixed temperature and pressure).
For pyrocollodion, V1000 = 81.5.
Hence, the relative energies of brown
powder and pyrocollodion for equal
weights are as 81.5 : 31.0, which is very
nearly what actual experiments show, viz.:
2.6:1.
Admitting the effect of temperature, he
holds that our methods of determining the
temperatures developed by explosives are
unreliable, and our assumptions in regard
to the specific heats of gases at high tem-
peratures may be wrong, hence, the vol-
umes of gases are our only safe means of
comparison.
THE SPRENGEL CLASS OF EXPLOSIVES.
The Sprengel safety mixtures are based
on the principle of keeping separate, for
safety in handling, transportation and stor-
age, the essential constituents of an ex-
plosive mixture (an oxidizable substance
30
and an oxidizing agent), and mixing them
only when required for use.
The separate constituents are, of course,
not explosive, and can be manipulated
with safety. The mixing of those which
have received practical approval can also
be effected with safety, but it is difficult
to secure uniformity in the resulting ex-
plosive without special mixing apparatus
worked by skilled workmen.
These explosives are all powerful, and
most of them are very stable, requiring
strong detonators to explode them per-
fectly. They possess another advantage
in that the power may be varied con-
siderably by simply varying the propor-
tions of the ingredients in mixing before
use. The principal disadvantages are that
they require workmen of more than ordin-
ary intelligence, that in mine galleries and
other confined localities it is inconvenient
and dangerous to mix those containing
essentially nitric acid or carbon bisulphide,
and finally, that it is necessary to protect
the copper capsule containing the detona-
tor from the action of the nitric acid in
31
those which contain this acid as an essen-
tial ingredient.
The principle explosives of this class
are:
Rack-a-Rock,
Hellhoffite,
Oxonite,
Panclastite, and
Romite.
SMOKELESS POWDERS.
The principle involved in the preparation
of smokeless powder is the production of an
explosive which shall have in its products
of explosion no gases readily condensible
into liquids or solids, and at the same time
give moderate pressures.
The demand for the smokeless powders
was created by the modern magazine small-
arms and the rapid-fire and machine gunsr
because the accumulation of smoke with
the old powders soon put a limit to the use
of these powerful engines. But these new
powders are rapidly finding application
not only in military arms but also in sport-
62
ing rifles and elsewhere, and are fast
Superseding the old ones.
The only class of smokeless powders
that has proven practically useful and re-
liable is that derived from guncotton or
its modifications (with or without nitro-
glycerine).
In stability and ballistic properties these
powders are generally superior to the old
powders. They are more difficult to ignite
than black powder and require stronger
caps j they are unaffected by water or air ;
they are not sensitive to shock and leave
no residue when burned j and they give
high velocities with comparatively low
pressures, and great uniformity of action.
The force of these powders is explained
by the fact that the potential energy is
high, since the quantity of heat evolved is
large, and that the total volume of gas
given off is very great. The low pres-
sures, on the other hand, are explained by
the fact that the rapidity of reaction in
these mixtures has been greatly decreased
below that of the high explosives entering
into their composition, by the admixed de-
33
torrents, and by the physical form given
them in practice, so that the gases are
given off comparatively slowly ; moreover,
the gases can expand into the entire space
behind the projectile, whereas in gunpow-
der over halfilDLQ space is occupied at the
moment of ^explosion by solid gunpowder,
and less than half is therefore available for
the gases to expand into ; while the high
velocities given to the projectile, with
such low pressures (which, as measured,
are not the average pressures while the
projectile is in the bore, but the maximum
pressures reached) are explained by the
fact that, although the initial pressure is
less, the total force exerted on the pro-
jectile while it is in the bore, due to the
great volume of gas and the high poten-
tial energy, is greater ; moreover, in these
smokeless powders none of the force is
wasted in throwing out the unconsumed
powder, as it is in the case of black, or
even brown, gunpowder. Finally, it is
probable that dissociation (the effect of
which is explained under Brown Powder)
comes into play. The low pressures also
34
account for the fact that these powders,
although they contain high explosive con-
stituents, do not detonate.
They are, in reality, strong and slow
powders, but in a special sense : strong,
as compared with gunpowder (not so
strong as guncotton or dynamite), and
slow, as compared with the high explo-
sives (but more rapid in reality than gun-
powder), with the effect of being less rapid
•even than gunpowder, on account of the
entire space behind the projectile being
available for the gases to expand into.
In an exhaustive study of the general
subject of smokeless powders, the Russian
chemist, Professor Mendel6ef, arrived at
the following conclusions in regard to the
kind of substances that promise to be
used in future in the manufacture of these
powders.
The conditions to be fulfilled by smoke-
less powders are :
1. That they shall leave no solid resi-
due after combustion, and that their gases
exercise no injurious effect upon the metal
of the gun.
2. That they undergo no change upon
keeping for long periods of time, and con-
tain no volatile ingredients.
3. That they may be readily prepared
in quantities sufficiently abundant for
practical needs.
The first condition limits the substances
suitable for conversion into powder, to
compounds of hydrogen and nitrogen with
oxygen and carbon. But in any powder
the energy is derived from the conversion
of the mass into gases, the transformation
being accompanied by great heat. The
greatest volume of gas (measured at a
fixed temperature and pressure) would be
obtainable from Hin in the solid or liquid
form (provided such a substance existed),
for we should then have :
Htn = wH,, orVl000 = 1000,
but no such substance is known, or ex-
pected.
The binary compounds, while giving
larger volumes of gas (V1000 = 133.3, 93.0T
etc.,) than any others, do not fulfill the
third condition, but even if they did, such
36
compounds do not decompose gradually
enough to be used in guns. The neces-
sary progressive combustion can take
place only in explosives containing carbon
and hydrogen, which are consumed by the
oxygen that is held in close proximity to
them, but which is not directly combined
with them.
I—COMPOUNDS.
. Explosive compounds may be divided
into five groups :
1. Nitrides.
2. Azo-Compounds.
3. Fulminates.
4. Nitro-Compounds.
5. Organic Nitrates.
There are a few compounds not included
in this classification, but they are of little
importance practically, and add nothing to
our understanding of the theory of ex-
plosives.
The explosive character of all these
compounds is due to three great causes :
first, they are comparatively unstable com-
3?
pounds, all of them containing nitrogen,
the most indifferent of all the elements so
far as chemical affinity is concerned, and
therefore their molecules are readily broken
up; secondly, the atoms in the molecule
are not combined according to their great-
est affinities, hence, little heat is absorbed
in decomposing the molecules, while great
heat is given out in the re-combination of
the atoms according to their higher affini-
ties, and the resultant heat, which is the
algebraic sum of the two, is therefore very
great; and thirdly, the products are all
gases at the temperature produced by the
explosion, and most of them permanent
gases. Hence, all the conditions for ex-
plosive action are present and in a high
degree, viz.: change of state from solid or
liquid to gas, rapid chemical change, evolu-
tion of great heat, and the production of a
large volume of gas; in other words, a small
volume of the explosive can suddenly pro-
duce a very large volume of gas.
I. — NITRIDES.
This group comprises the simplest of
38
the explosive compounds. Some may be
regarded as formed theoretically from
ammonia, N H3 , by replacing all ( or part )
of the hydrogen by another (metallic)
element, others from hydrazoic acid, H N3,
by replacing the hydrogen by a metallic
element, and are therefore all nitrides (or
hydro-nitrides):
CZgN(orNtHCZ8). S N. H N3.
Br3N. A?.N. (NH4)Nt.
I8N. C«/6Nt. A#N8.
F3N. H<76N,.
Nitrogen Chloride. — Nitrogen chloride, or
Chloramide, is formed by passing chlorine
gas into a warm solution of sal-ammoniac.
It is a heavy oily liquid. When heated to
93° C. it explodes violently, and its ex-
plosion is also caused by contact of
substances which have an affinity for
chlorine, such as phosphorus, arsenic, oils,
turpentine and alkalies.
Its exact chemical symbol has not been
determined, but it is usually regarded as
N C £3. Its structural formula will there-
fore be C I — N — C I and its explosion may
Gl
be represented by the equation
2NC/3 = N, + 3C7,,or f Gl - Cl
Cl — N — CZ = N = N + ICl — Gl
I ' (Cl — Gl
Gl
V,.00 = 37.56;
the evolution of heat in this case is ex-
plained by the fact that the heat required
to decompose the explosive molecule
(which involves only the overcoming the
affinity of nitrogen for chlorine, as seen
in the structural formula), is very small,
while that evolved in the union of the
nitrogen atoms to form the nitrogen
molecule, and of the chlorine atoms to
form the chlorine molecule, is very great,
the resultant effect being the evolution of
a large quantity of heat.
Nitrogen Iodide. — Nitrogen iodide, or
iodoamide, N I8, may be made by gently
triturating in a porcelain mortar finely
divided iodine with a large excess of
4:0
concentrated amonia water at 0° C. It is
a brownish-black powder, which may be
exploded when dry by the touch of a
feather, and under water by friction.
Nitrogen Bromide. — Nitrogen bromide,
or Bromamide, may be formed by decom-
posing nitrogen chloride with an aqueous
solution of potassium bromide. It is a
dense, blackish-red, volatile oil, which
may be exploded violently by contact
with phosphorus or arsenic, which have a
great affinity for bromine.
Nitrogen Fluoride. — Nitrogen floride, or
Fluoramide, may be formed by passing
an electric current through a concentrated
solution of ammonium fluoride. It is an
oily liquid, which may be exploded by
contact with glass, silica, or organic
matter (due to the affinity of fluorine for
silicon or hydrogen).
Nitrogen Sulphide. — Nitrogen sulphide, or
Sulphur nitride, N S, may be prepared by
passing dry ammonia gas through a solu-
tion of sulphur dichloride in ten or twelve
times its volume of carbon bisulphide,
filtering off the yellow liquid, allowing it to
41
crystallize by spontaneous evaporation, and
dissolving out the admixed sulphur by car-
bon bisulphide. It is a golden yellow,
crystaline solid, which can be exploded by
percussion.
Silver Amine. — Silver amine, or Silver
nitride, Ag3 N, may be prepared by acting
on silver oxide with ammonia. It is a
black powder, which is exploded by the
slightest shock.
Copper Amine. — Copper amine, C u9 N$f
is formed by passing dry ammonia gas
over finely powdered cupric oxide heated
to 250° C. It is a dark green powder, ex-
ploding at 310° C.
Mercury Amine. — Mercury amine, Hg9
Ns, may be prepared by passing dry am-
monia gas over dry mercuric oxide, and
then heating the resulting mass cautiously
at a temperature not exceeding 150° C.
It explodes by heat or percussion.
Nitrohydric Acid. — Nitrohydric acid, or
hydrazoic acid, N3 H, is very explosive it-
self and forms highly explosive salts. It
furnishes a remarkably great volume of
gas: 2 Ns H = H2 + 3 Nt, so that V1000 =
93.0.
Ammonium Hydrazoate. — Ammonium hy-
drazoate, N8 (NH4), is the ammonium
salt of hydrazoic acid, and is also explosive-:
N8 (NH4) = 2H, + 2Na, giving V1000 =
133.3.
Silver Hydraeoate. — Silver Hydrazoate,
N^
I N
N8 A#, or Ag — N / , is the silver salt,
and has been proposed as a substitute for
mercury fulminate.
None of these compounds have as yet
received any important practical applica-
tion, although silver amine is supposed to
have been the initial detonating agent in
the bomb that killed the Czar, and nitrogen
sulphide could be used as a substitute for
mercury fulminate; but they are interest-
ing in connection with the theory of ex-
plosives.
2. — Azo-COMPOUNDS.
The azo-compounds are derived theoret-
cally from the benzene series by substitu-
43
tion of 2 atoms of nitrogen for two atoms.
of hydrogen. Practically, they are pre-
pared by the action of reducing agents on.
the nitro-derivatives of the benzene series,
or by the oxidation of aniline (prepared
from nitro-benzene).
Thus^azo-benzene, C12H10Na, is formed
by the action of sodium-amalgam on nitro-
benzene. Its structural formula is :
'H c C — H H— (J ^C — BE
I II I
,C— H H-C ^,C_H
P. Griess, the great German investiga-
tor of the azo-compounds, isolated a num-
ber of explosive salts of this class, most of
which are crystalline. They are interest-
ing in the theoretical study of explosive
compounds, and may find some practical
application in the fniuee.-(Berichte Deutsche
Chem. GeseU.}
The more important are :
Paraditriazobenzene,
Metaditriazobenzoic acid, C7 H5 (N8)a 02.
Metamidotriazobenzoic acid, C6 Hg? COOH,
NH,,N,NC.H,, (NHJ,
Meta-amidodiazobenzoUmide, a yellow oil,
C6H6N4,or
C6
.N
'X
Para-amidodiazobenzoic acid, C7 H5 N8 Oa.
Triazo-A zobenzene,
\N
3. — FULMINATES.
The fulminates are intermediate in com-
position between the binary nitrogen com-
pounds and the nitrous derivatives of the
benzene group. They contain some oxygen,
but only enough to convert the carbon into
carbon monoxide. They are generally re-
garded as salts of fulmmic acid, C2 N2 O2 H2.
Their explosive action is explained by
the fact that in the molecule the atoms of
the elements are united in a manner which
is not according to their highest affinities^
and in the resultant gases they are so
united. The structural formula is probably
this:
N = C — O — M'
N = C — O — M'
in which part of the affinity of carbon i&
satisfied by that of other carbon, and an-
other part by that of nitrogen, only one-
fourth of its maximum affinity being satis-
fied by oxygen, whereas in the result,
M', C, N, 08 = M', + 2 C O + N8>
46
one-half the maximum affinity of carbon
is satisfied by oxygen.
Mercury Fulminate. — Mercury fulminate,
Jig C2 Nt O2, is manufactured by dissolving
in a carboy one part of mercury in one
part of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.4.), the liquid,
containing nitrous acid and solution of
mercuric nitrate being then poured into
another carboy containing ten parts of
alcohol (sp. gr. 0.83.), connected through
a series of Wolff's bottles placed in a
trough of water, with a condensing tower.
The condensed vapors are used again in-
stead of pure alcohol.
The fulminate is washed and dried till
it contains about fifteen per cent, of moist-
ure, and is then stored under water, OP
packed in papier mache boxes containing
about 8 grammes each.
It is a white or grayish crystalline sub-
stance, which explodes violently when
struck, or when heated to 195° C. Its
principal practical application is in the
manufacture of cap composition and
detonators.
Silver Fulminate. — Silver Fulminate, Ag%
47
C, N, O,, may be made by a process similar
to that for making the mercury salt. It
explodes much more violently than the
latter, and when dry the slightest touch
will set it off. It is used in minute quanti-
ties in detonating toys.
The other fulminates have received no
practical application, although they are all
explosive. The following are known to
chemistry :
Gold Fulminate.
Platinum Fulminate.
Zinc Fulminate.
Copper Fulminate.
Silver-Ammonium Fulminate.
Silver-Potassium Fulminate.
4. — NlTRO-COMPOUNDS.
The most important of the explosive
compounds are formed by the action of
nitric acid on organic substances containing
carbon and hydrogen, or carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen, and belong to the fourth and
fifth groups.
48
The nitro-compounds or nitro-substitu-
tion compounds, may be represented by
the general symbol
R — N02,
in which R is an organic radical; and they
are derived from hydrocarbon compounds,
or compounds of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, by the substitution of the acid
radical, N Og, for the hydrogen of the or-
ganic compound, the N O2 replacing, not
the hydrogen of hydroxyl as required in
forming oxysalts, but the hydrogen con-
nected directly to carbon atoms, that could
in a similar way be replaced by chlorine,
bromine, etc. Again, if we regard the
result as produced by substitution in the
acid symbol, then the organic radical re-
places, not the hydrogen of the acid, as in
true oxysalts, but the hydroxyl. Conse-
quently, these compounds are not salts,
but true substitution products.
They are generally more stable com-
pounds and less energetic in their action
than the organic nitrates, facts which may
.be explained by the position of the nitryl
49
molecule, N Os, determining as it does the
heat of formation (which is a measure of the
stability) and the distance the atoms have
to travel in recombining in explosion (a
measure of the intensity of action in ex-
plosion). One of the greatest affinities ni-
trogen shows is for carbon, as exemplified
in cyanogen, and in the molecules of the
compounds included in this group (since
the nitryl molecule is united directly to a
carbon atom) this strongest affinity is par-
tially satisfied, a fact which assists in ac-
counting for the comparitive stability of
these substances.
A.
Derivatives of the Benzene (or Aromatic) Series.
The compounds in this section are formed
by the action of nitric acid on the benzene
series of hydrocarbons (or on derivatives
of that series), resulting in the replace-
ment of one or more hydrogen atoms by
molecules of the radical nitryl, N O2.
The benzene series comprises the hy-
drocarbons of the general symbol Cn H2n_8
in which n is at least 6. The lowest mem-
50
ber of the series is C6 He, from which the
others are derived by replacing the hydro-
gen atoms by C H2 .
The structural formula for benzine is:
H-
and if one of the hydrogen atoms be
replaced by C H8 we have toluene, C7 H8 ;
but when more than one atom of hydro-
gen is replaced, the product, although its
chemical symbol remains the same, differs
according to the position of the hydrogen
atoms replaced, two adjacent ones forming
the ortho compounds, two alternate ones the
meta compounds, and two opposite ones the
para compounds ; such compounds, having
the same chemical formula but different
structural formulas are called isomeric
51
compounds. The position of the atom or
atoms replaced affects the stability of the
compound produced, the symmetrical be-
ing the more stable. This principle ap-
plies in a number of organic compounds.
This section of explosive compounds
may be divided into two sub-sections :
Derivates of Benzene.
Derivates of Toluene.
d. Derivatives of Benzene.
The members of this sub-section are :
The Nitrobenzenes.
The Picrates.
The Nitrobenzenes.
The nitrobenzenes are obtained by the
nitration of benzene, C6 H8. Three de-
grees of nitration have thus far been ef-
fected, resulting in the replacement of
one, two or three atoms of hydrogen by a
corresponding number of nitryl molecules.
Mono-nitrobenzene. — Mono-nitrobenzene,
C6 H5, N O2, is prepared by gradually add-
ing 1 part of pure benzene to a mixture
of 1.2 parts nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.4) and 1.8
parts sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1.84), cooling
by means of a current of water 5 the acids
are then removed by means of a siphon,
and the product is washed.
The reaction is thus represented :
C6 H. + H N 03 = C, H6 (NO,) + H2
O, and the structural formula of the com-
pound is :
H — C C — H
H_C C_H
^^
i
Mono-nitrobenzene is a colorless or red-
dish-orange oily liquid, capable of dissolv-
ing nitrocellulose in the cold. If thrown
upon an iron plate at a red heat it deto-
nates, but under ordinary circumstances
it is not an explosive.
The formula shows that there is not
53
enough oxygen present in tlia molecule to
oxidize even the hydrogen, and there is
a large excess of carbon, hence there can-
not be explosion. On the red hot iron
plate, on the contrary, this excess of carbon
is taken up, forming iron carbide on the
surface and liberating gases :
2 C6 H5 (N O2) + 44 F e = 11 Fe4 C +
4 H2 O + N2 + C H2.
It is used as an ingredient of explosive
mixtures, however, either as an essential
constituent or as a deterrent, to retard or
prevent explosion.
Di-nitrobenzene. — Di-nitrobenzene, C6 H4
(N Oa)2, is prepared by mixing 0.8 parts
nitric acid (sp. pr. 1.5) and 1.2 parts sul-
phuric acid (sp. gr. 1.845), and while the
mixture is still hot adding 1 part mono-
nitrobenzene. The result is generally a
mixture of the three isomeric compounds,
ortho-, meta-, and para-di-nitrobenzene.
It is a hard, crystalline yellow solid, not
in itself explosive, but forming strong
explosive mixtures with substances rich
in oxygen and giving it up readily.
54
Tri-nitrobenzene. — Tri-nitrobenzene, C6
H3 (N O2)8, may be prepared by treating
meta-di-nitrobenzene with a mixture of
concentrated nitric and Nordhause,n sul-
phuric acids. It has been proposed as a
substitute for picric acid in explosive
mixtures.
The Picrates.
The picrates are obtained by the
nitration of carbolic acid, or phenol,
C6 H6 O, which is a derivative of benzene
(one of the hydrogen atoms in the latter
being replaced by hydroxyl).
The structural formula of carbolic acid
is:
H
O
I
II I
H— C C — H
55
and that of the picrates :
H (or M)
O
I O
0=N — c C — N=aO
H — C C — H
O= N =O
The nitryl ( N 02 ) molecules are attached
directly to the carbon atoms, as in the
other true nitro-compounds.
Picric Acid. — Picric acid, or tri-nitro-
phenol, C6 H3 (N O2)3 O , is manufactured
by melting carbolic acid, mixing with
strong nitric acid, diluting with water,
and cooling; the picric acid crystallizes
out and is purified. The reactions are
somewhat complicated, but the nitric acid
has its usual action ia such cases, viz. : the
substitution of 3 molecules of N O3 for 3
atoms of hydrogen :
56
H.O.
It is a yellow crystilline solid, and in the
dry state may be detonated by means of a
fulminate detonator, or by detonating a
small quantity of picric acid near it, while
the wet picric acid may be detonated by
a primer of the dry acid; moreover, a thin
layer of it may be exploded by percussion^
the energy required diminishing as the
temperature of the explosive is raised.
Its explosion may be thus represented:
4 C6 H3 ( N 02 )8 O = 6 H2 O + 22 C O +
The supply of oxygen is sufficient only
for the partial oxidation of the carbon,
hence the use of this substance in explosive
mixtures with oxidizing agents.
The explosion is explained by the pre-
sence of nitrogen, rendering the compound
unstable, the fact that the elements are
combined in the molecule not according to
their greatest affinities, whereas in the
products they are so combined, resulting
in the production of great heat, and finally
the change of state from solid to gas.
57
Potassium Picrate. — Potassium picrate^
Ce H2 K ( N 02 )3 0, is made "by mixing
warm potassium carbonate with a boiling
solution of picric acid in water. It is a
yellow, crystalline solid, which explodes
by percussion or heat.
It is used in explosive mixtures with
oxidizing agents.
Ammonium Picrate. — Ammonium picrater
C6 H2 N H4 (N 02)3 O, is made by saturat-
ing warm picric acid with concentrated
ammonia water, or by treating picric acid
with ammonium carbonate. It is an orange^
or citron-yellow, crystalline solid, which
explodes when heated to 310° C, but is-
almost insensitive to blows or friction.
It is used in explosive mixtures with
oxidizing agents.
b. Derivatives of Toluene.
Toluene, C7 H8, is the second member of
the benzene series, and furnishes a series
of nitro-compounds similar to those ob-
tained from benzene.
Mono-nitrotoluene. — Mono-nitr otoluene,
G6 H4 (N O8) C H8, is formed when toluene
05
is acted upon by a mixture of nitric and
sulphuric acids, the ortho-nitrotoluene be-
ing commonly present when the mixture
is heated for some time.
Di-nitrotolmne. — Di-nitrotoluene, C^ H3
(N O2)2 C H3, is prepared by treating tolu-
ene with a mixture of the strongest nitric
and sulphuric acids. It is a colorless,
crystalline solid, not itself explosive, but
used in explosive mixtures.
Tri-nitrotoluene. — tf-Tri-nitrotoluene, C6
H2 (N O2)s C H3, (1:2:4: 6), is one of the
products of the continued boiling of tolu-
ene in a mixture of nitric and sulphuric
acids.
Tri-nitrocresol. — Cresol, C7 H8 O, is de-
rived theoretically from toluene, by replac-
ing one of the hydrogen atoms in the mole-
cule by hydroxyl, just as carbolic acid is de-
rived from benzene. Tri-nitrocresol, or
Cresilite, C7 H5 (N 02)3 O, is prepared by
treating cresol with strong nitric acid.
It is a yellow crystalline solid, not ex-
plosive itself, but used in explosive mix-
tures.
Ecrasite.— Ecrasite, C7 H4 N H4 (N O2)$
53
0, is made by neutralizing a boiling-hot
saturated solution of tri-nitrocresol by
means of ammonium hydrate. It is a
greasy yellow solid, unaffected by moisture,
heat, cold or concussion, which explodes
violently under the action of a fulminate
detonator. It is used in Austria for charg-
ing shells,, has been much experimented
with, and has attracted considerable atten-
tion quite recently. The shells charged
with this explosive are designed more par-
ticularly for the attack of fortifications.
B,
Derivatives of the Naphthalene Series.
The naphthaline series comprises hydro-
carbons of the general symbol
Cn H2n_12
in which n is at least 10.
Derivatives of Naphthalene.
Naphthalene, C10 H8, is the lowest mem-
ber of the naphthalene series, and fur-
nishes a series of nitro-compounds similar
to those obtained from benzene and tolu-
ene. Its structural formula is :
60
t r
'
i i
Four degrees of nitration have been ob-
tained.
Mono-nitronaphihalene. — Mono-nitronaph-
thalene, C10 H7 (N O2), may be prepared
by introducing finely pulverized naphtha-
lene into a mixture of four parts nitric
acid (sp. gr. 1.4) and five parts sulphuric
acid (sp. gr. 1.84), keeping the tempera-
ture above 160° F.
It is a yellow crystalline solid, which de-
composes when heated above 300° C. It
is not explosive, as may be inferred from
the small proportion of oxygen in the com-
pound, but is used in explosive mixtures.
Di-nitronaphthalene. — Di-n itronaphtha-
lene, C10 H6 (NO2)2, may by made by treat*
61
ing naphthalene at 70° C., with a mixture
of one part concentrated nitric acid and
two parts sulphuric acid.
It is a yellow, crystalline solid, which
deflagrates if heated suddenly.
Tri-nitro-naphtlialene. — Tri-nitro-naphtha-
lene, C10 H5 (N Oa)3, is made by boiling di-
nitro-naphthalene with fuming nitric acid-
It is a yellow crystalline solid, which
explodes when heated.
Tetra-nitro- naphthalene. — Tetra-nitro-
naphthalene, C,0 H4 (NO2)4? is made by
boiling di-nitro-naphthalene with fuming
nitric acid and continuing the action be-
yond that required to form the tri-com-
pound.
It is a yellow crystalline solid, which
explodes when heated.
All the nitro-naphthalenes are used in
explosive mixtures.
5.— ORGANIC NITRATES.
The organic nitrates may be represented
by the general symbol
R-0-N00,
62
in which R is an organic radical, and they
are derived from H — O — N Oa ( nitric acid)
by the substitution of a basic organic
radical (C3H5, etc.) for the hydrogen of
the acid, or by the substitution of the acid
radical, N O8, for the hydrogen of the hy-
droxyl of the organic compound, according
to the two general methods in which all
oxysalts may be conceived to be formed.
These compounds, being true nitrates,
are distinguished from the nitro-substitu-
tion compounds by the fact that the N O2
group in each is united to the carbon atom
of the organic radical not directly, but
through an atom of oxygen.
They may be divided into two sections :
Derivatives of the Benzene Series.
Derivatives of the Alcohol Series.
A.
Derivatives of the Benzene Series,
There is but one important compound
in this section of explosives.
Di-azobenzene Nitrate. — Di-azobenzene
nitrate, C6 H5 N2 N O3, is prepared by pas-
sing nitrous acid vapor into a flask con-
63
taining aniline nitrate moistened with a
small quantity of water, -and cooled with
ice 5 the resulting liquid is filtered, alcohol
and ether are added, and the diazobenzene
nitrate separates as a crystelline mass :
2H20.
Its structural formula is:
O=N=O
H 0 ^C — H
i i
H <T ^C — H
fa explodes violently -when heated (at
90° C.):
2 C4 H. N, Oa = 5 Ha O + CO + 6 C N
64
+ 5 C, and has been proposed for use as a
detonating primer.
This compound is the connecting link
between the nitro-compounds and the or-
ganic nitrates, although it is a true nitrate;
for we find here th& molecules of NO2 con-
nected, not as in the former, directly to a
carbon atom, but as in the latter, through
an atom of oxygen, with the modification
in this case, however, that two atoms of
nitrogen also intervene.
B.
Derivatives of the Alcohol Series,
The alcohols may be considered as
formed from water
H-(O-H),
in the molecule of which one of the hydro-
gen atoms has been replaced by a com-
pound radical, the alcohols being desig-
nated as monatomic, diatomic, triatomic,
tetratomic, pentatomic, hexatomic, etc.,
according as they are derived from one,
two, three, four, five, six, etc., molecules of
water :
05
H— (0 H). H3 C (O H).
H.-tOH),. H4C3(OH),.
H3-(0 HV H6 C3 (O H),
H4-(0 H)«.
H.-(0 H)..
H6-(0 H).. C12 H14 04 (0 H),
The alcohols may therefore be regarded as
compounds of organic radicals with hy-
droxyl ; in other words , as organic hydrox-
ides.
The nitric derivatives of the alcohol
series may be divided into two sub-sec-
tions :
Derivatives of Triatomic Alcohols .
Derivatives of Hexatomic Alcohols.
a. Derivatives of Triatomic Alcohols.
There is but one triatomic alcohol that
concerns us here, namely glycerine, C3 H8
O3, or C3H5 (0 H)3, and but one organic
nitrate derived from it, namely glyceryl
nitrate, or nitro-glycerine.
Nitroglycerine. — Nitroglycerine, C3 H5 O3
(N 02)3, is prepared by treating glycerine
with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric
66
acids, keeping the mixture cool during the
conversion :
C3 H6 (0 H), + 3 H (N Oi) = C3H5 (N O3)3
+ 3H30.
The purpose of the sulphuric acid is to
concentrate the nitric acid, by absorbing
the water which even the strongest com-
mercial nitric acid always has, and keeping
it concentrated by taking up the water
produced in the reaction.
This absorption of water, (as well as
the other chemical actions in the process)
is attended by the production of heat, and
at 30° C. there is danger of explosion,
hence the necessity for keeping the mix-
ture cool.
In the manufacture of nitroglycerine
the purest and most concentrated materials
(acids and glycerine) are used. The pro-
portions used are about 1 part glycerine to
8 parts of a mixture of 3 parts nitric and
5 parts sulphuric acid.
The acids, if obtained separately, are
run into a cast-iron mixing tank, mixed by
means of compressed air, and allowed to
cool for twelve or twenty-four hours.
67
The cooled acid mixture (which may be
purchased already mixed,) is run into the
acid tank, also of cast-iron, and the neces-
sary amount of glycerine is introduced in-
to the glycerine tank; the mixed acids are
then run into the converter, a cast-iron ves-
sel surrounded by a water-jacket and con-
taining leaden worms in which water cir-
culates, with a shaft running through the
centre, on which blades are arranged to
form a helical agitator ; water is made to
circulate through the water-jacket and the
cooling- worms, and the agitator is started;
the glycerine is then run into the conver-
ter, either in fine streams through a pipe
perforated with small holes, or as a spray
by means of compressed air.
During the conversion the temperature
is carefully watched, and as it approaches
30° C. the flow of glycerine is stopped;
should the temperature continue to rise the
contents are emptied into the discharge
tanks, which are lead-lined wooden tanks
of large capacity, kept half filled with
water.
When all the glycerine has been run in,
68
and the nitration is complete, the liquid is
run into the first separator, a large vessel of
sheet lead, with a conical bottom, termi-
nated by a seperatory funnel (connected
for safety with the discharge tanks). The
nitro-glycerine, being somewhat lighter
than the excess of acids, collects on the
surface and is run off by a stop-cock
placed at the proper level, to the first
washing-vat, while the waste acids are run
out to a second separator of similar action,
the separatory funnel separating a little
more of the nitro-glycerine, which is added
to that already in the first washing-vat.
In the first washing-vat (a lead-lined
wooden vessel, with an inclined bot-
tom through which passes a leaden
pipe with a rosette head for admitting
compressed air), the nitro-glycerine is
covered with a large volume of water,
while it is being agitated by means of
compressed air admitted below ; the water
is changed four or five times, a stop-cock
being placed at the proper level to run it
off; the washing at this stage is then com-
pleted by using a 2% per cent, solution of
69
sodium carbonate 5 the nitroglycerine is
finally run off, by a tap at the bottom of
the vat, to the second washing-vat, similar
to the first, but fitted with an agitator,
where the washing is completed.
If the nitro-glycerine is to be used for
making dynamite, it is run directly to the
mixing house, but if it is not to be used
immediately it is stored in lead-lined
wooden tanks.
If the nitro-glycerine is to be used in
making explosive gelatine or smokeless
powder, it is usually run from the second
washing- vat to the filter, a lead-lined wood-
en vat, the top of which is fitted with a
copper or lead cylinder, containing first a
wire-gauze disk, over which is placed a
second disk of felt, and upon this a com-
pact layer of common salt, about five
inches thick, covered with another felt
disk and a second wire-gauze disk. The
bottom of the vat is inclined and has a tap
for running off the filtered nitro-glycerine
at its lowest level.
Nitro-glycerine is a heavy, oily liquid,
(sp. gr. 1.6), generally opaque and creamy
70
white, or clear and transparent, sometimes
yellowish. It is slightly soluble in warm
water, but is unaffected by cold water ; it
is soluble in methyl, ethyl, or amyl alco-
hol, in benzene, carbon disulphide, ether,
chloroform, glacial acetic acid and phenol,
and also sparingly in glycerine. It is de-
composed by dilute sulphuric acid (hence
the necessity for such careful washing in
its manufacture), by ammonia, and by alka-
line carbonates and sulphides.
It freezes to a white crystalline mass
(the opaque variety at 20° C., the trans-
parent at -f- 3° C ), and is then less sensi-
tive to concussion. Frozen nitro-glycerine
is thawed by placing it in a room where
the temperature does not exceed 50° C.,
or in the field or in mines by means of the
water-bath devised for the purpose.
It explodes by percussion, or when
heated to 180° C., but the best effects are
produced by means of detonators of mer-
cury fulminate :
2C,HB0,(NO,), = 5H10 + 6C01 +
3N. + 0.
From the reaction it is seen that this
explosive contains more oxygen than is
necessary for the complete oxidation o£
both the hydrogen and the carbon.
The structural formula is:
•? ? H
H-< -- C — C-H
O 6
s ^ ^ ^ ^ \
.0 00 000
and the energy of explosion is again ex-
plained by the fact that the elements of
highest affinity, hydrogen and oxygen, are
held apart in the molecule, whereas in the
products they are united, and the affinity
of the carbon atoms for oxygen is only
partially satisfied in the molecule, whereas
in the products it is completely satisfied.
Nitro-glycerine, at ordinary tempera-
tures, and in the dark, is quite stable, but
a temperature of over 50° C. slowly de-
composes it, and the direct rays of the sun
have the same effect. When in a state of
decomposition, due to physical or chemi-
cal causes, it becomes much more sensi-
tive to various causes of explosion.
72
Comparing the structural formulae of
glycerine and nitro-glycerine it is evident
that the latter is a £n'-nitrate, and it is
supposed that it is possible to obtain a
mono-nitrate and a di-nitrate, although
they have not as yet been isolated. One
of the causes of explosion in improperly
prepared nitro-glycerine is supposed to be
the presence of one or both of these lower
products of nitration.
6. Derivatives of Hexatomic Alcohols.
The following hexatomic alcohols have
furnished explosive nitrates:
Mannite,C6 Hu O6, or C6 H8 (O H)6 and
Cellulose, C12 H20 O10, or C12 H14 O4
(OH)6,
but the following derivatives of mannite
( all of them carbo-hydrates ) have also
furnished such nitrates :
Glucose, C6 H12 06, an aldehyde of man-
nite, obtained by oxidising and re-
moving from the molecule of the latter
two atoms of hydrogen.
Starch, C]2 H20 O10, an anhydride of glu-
73
cose, obtained by removing a molecule
of water from the molecule of the
latter.
Saccharose, CJ2 H22 On, an anhydride of
glucose, obtained by removing a mole-
cule of water from two molecules of
the latter.
Lactose, Cia H22 On, H, O, derived in the
same way, but taking up a molecule
of water of crystallization.
Only a few of these nitrates have proven
of practical value.
Nitro-mannite. — Nitro-mannite, C6 H8
(NO3)6 is prepared by adding powdered
mannite to a mixture of equal parts by
volume of the strongest nitric and sul-
phuric acids j the result is washed with a
large volume of water, -and crystallized
from boiling alcohol.
It explodes violently by percussion.
Nitro-siarch. — Nitro-starch, Cia H14 O4
(N O8)6, is prepared by dissolving starch
in the strongest nitric acid, and then add-
ing the solution, when cool, to a mixture
of nitric and sulphuric acids.
74
It is very hygroscopic and liable to
undergo spontaneous decomposition; it is
insoluble in water, but soluble in nitrogly-
cerine, in acetic ether, and in a mixture of
ether and alcohol.
Two other nitrates, besides the hexani-
trate, namely, the tetranitrate (formerly
called xyloidine] and the pentanitrate, have
been obtained.
Nitro- Cellulose. — The most reliable in-
vestigations on the constitution of cellulose
and its nitrates indicate that the former is
a hexatomic alcohol,
C13 H14 04 (0 H).,
and its structural formula may be :
- • ? n
HOOP 0—0
H H H H H H
H i
-??*
H H H
t I I
HT
7o
Whether the above be the true symbol
for cellulose, or the latter be some higher
multiple of C6 H10 05, the structural for-
mula will probably still contain in each
link of the chain of atoms an arrangement
of atoms something like the above, because
it is fairly well established that in each such
link three of the hydrogen atoms are con-
nected to carbon atoms through an atom of
oxygen, and not more than three.
Accepting the above as the true formula
it is evident that the following nitrates
may be formed, by substitution of one or
more molecules of NO3 for one or more
molecules of hydroxyl :
C,.H1404(NO,UOH)..
C12H1404(N03UOH)4.
CltHI404(NO.).(OH),
C,,H1404(N03)4(OH), '
C12H1404(N08)6(OH)).
C12H1404(N08)..
The lower nitrates are designated by
the general terms soluble nitro-cotton or col-
lodion gun-cotton, and are soluble in a mix
ture of alcohol and ether j the pentanitrate
76
is one of the forms of nitro-cotton em-
ployed for smokeless powders ; and the
hexa-iiitrate is guiicotton, which is insol-
uble in a mixture of alcohol and ether.
As in the preparation of other com-
pounds of this kind, the degree of nitration
depends upon the strength of the acids
used, and on other precautions taken in the
manufacture. For the highest degree the
purest materials and the strongest acids
are required.
Pyrocollodion. — Pyrocollodion, 4 [C12 Hu
04 (N 0.). (O H)] + 1 [Clf Hlt 04 (N 08)4
(O H)2], or (if it be a true compound), C80
H38 O13 ( N O3 )12, is the new Russian
smokeless powder of Professor 1). Mende-
leef. The exact mode of preparation is
still a secret, but it is formed according to
the reaction :
5 [Clt HM 04 (O H)J + 24 H N 03 = 2
[C30 H8i 013 (N 0,)u] + 24 H2 0, or, if the
result be a mixture of tetra and penta ni-
trates, in constant proportion, instead of a
simple compound:
= 4 [C12 HI4 04 (N 03)5 (0 H)!] + 1 [C»
HM 0« (N 08)4 (0 H),] + 24 H, O.
77
This explosive is insoluble in ether or
alcohol, bub wholly soluble in a mixture of
these substances, and gelatinises when
the quantity of the solvent is small. It
can be converted into ribbons or plates,
which, when dried, have the appearance
of celluloid. It keeps well, and can be
heated to 65. °5 C. for hours without un-
dergoing any change.
But the great advantages claimed for it
are:
1. Homogeneity of composition, which
determines directly the uniformity of the
ballistic results obtained.
2. The development of a greater volume
of gases (measured at a given temperature
and pressure) than is developed by black
or brown powder, by nitro-glycerine pow-
ders, or even by the more highly nitrated
forms of nitro cellulose.
The homogeneity remains the same
whether it be a single compound or a mix-
ture of two compounds, provided this mix-
ture is always fixed and definite, and
formed, not by mechanically mixing two
separately prepared compounds, but by a
78
single chemical reaction. The other
forms of nitro-cellulose almost always
contain more or less of the less highly
nitrated products, and all mechanical mix-
tures are, of course, much less homogenous
in a chemical sense, while the nitro-glycerine
powders, consisting of nitro-cellulose dis-
solved in nitro-glycerine, though apparent-
ly as homogeneous as solutions can be by
their action nevertheless leave room for
believing that in their explosion the nitro-
glycerine is decomposed first, the nitro-
cellulose portion burning subsequently.
The results of the published experiments
are greatly in favor of pyrocollodion, both
as regards progressiveness and uniformity
of action.
The explosion of pyrocollodion may be
represented by the reaction:
4 [C12HM 04 (N 03)5 (O H)J + 1 [Cia Hu
O4(NO3)4 (OH),] = 60 C O + 38H, O+12
Nr
The volume of gas (measured at a fixed
temperature and pressure) from 1,000
parts by weight of the explosive is 81.5,
79
whereas that from the same weight of
brown powder is about 34, from nitro-
glycerine 52.7, and from the hexanitrate
(guncotton) 74.1.
The experiments with the 3 pounder
(47 mm.) rapid fire gun show that with a
pressure of 2079 atmospheres an initial
velocity of 699m. (2293') was attained. In
the 6 pounder, (projectile weighing about
40kg.) an initial velocity of 878 m. (2880/5)
was obtained, although the average for
this gun was about 792 m. (2598').
Guncotton* — Guncotton, Cia Hu O4
(N Os )6, is the nitric ether of cellulose,
the latter being regarded as a hexatomic
alcohol, Cia JIl4 O4 (O H)6. It is prepared
by treating cellulose with a mixture of
nitric and sulphuric acids:
C,,H1404(OH).
0,(N03)6 + 6H,0.
The sulphuric acid serves the same pur-
purpose in this case as in the manufacture
of nitro-glycerine.
* See Number 89, Van Nostrantfs Science Series.
80
The principles upon which its manufac-
ture depends are: (1) the thorough cleans-
ing of the cotton ; (2) its thorough drying,
(less than 0.5 per cent, of moisture being
permissible); (3) the cooling of the cotton;
(4) the use of the strongest acids obtain-
able in commerce ; (5) the continuance of
the steeping for at least 12 hours; (6) the
thorough purification of the guncotton
from every trace of free acid.
The process of manufacture, as conduc-
ted at the U. S. Naval Torpedo Station, is
as follows:
The principles upon which its manufac-
ture depends are:
1. The thorough cleansing of the cot-
ton.
2. Its thorough drying.
3. Tlie cooling of the clean dry cotton.
4. The use of the strongest acids ob-
tainable in commerce.
5. The continuance of the steeping for
at least twelve hours.
6. The thorough purification of the
guneotton from every trace of free acid.
The process of manufacture, as conduc-
81
ted at the U. S. Naval Torpedo Station is
as follows :*
The cotton clippings from the spinning-
room are first sorted by hand, and then
pass to the first boiling tub, where 200
pounds are boiled in caustic soda solution
for about 8 hours; after the first boiling
the liquid is run off, clear water is added,
and the boiling continued for 8 hours more.
The wet cotton is then taken to the first
centrifugai washer (making about 1400
revolutions a minute), in which about 6
pounds of the cotton at a time are washed
in a stream of water, each charge requir-
about 8 minutes, and the entire mass
about 2 hours.
The washed cotton is then placed in the
drying room, on shelves of galvanized iron
wire netting, and dried by hot air, the
temperature being kept at about 187° F.;
this takes about 4 days. The dried cot-
ton is then placed in the picker, (like that
used in cotton mills), where it is loosened
* For full and clear description of the process see
Lectures on Explosives, WALKE.
82
and untangled, and is then further dried
by hot air at 225° F., in galvanized iron
drawers with wire-netting bottoms, in the
drying closet. It is packed while still
hot into service powder-tanks, the covers
screwed on, and the cotton allowed to
cool.
When cool it is ready for dipping, which
takes place in the dipping- troughs, of which
there are five, each holding about 150
pounds of mixed acids : they are made of
cast-iron, and set in an iron trough where
they are kept below 70° F. by circulating
water. The acids are obtained ready
mixed, one part by weight of pure nitric
acid (sp. gr. 1.5) to three parts by weight
of sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1.845), and are
transported in wrought-iron cylindrical
drums, each holding about 1200 pounds,
and pumped into stoneware reservoirs,
where they are led to the dipping troughs.
The first of the troughs is used as a res-
ervoir for the acid to be immediately used,
the other four for dipping.
The cotton is weighed out in one-pound
lots, and each lot is divided into three
83
equal parts, each part being worked into
the acid in turn by means of a steel fork,
and stirred about. As soon as the fourth
trough has its charge the cotton is taken
out in the same order and placed on the
grating above each trough, where it is
squeezed by means of a lever-press and is
then placed in the digestion-pots (two-gal-
lon stone- ware crocks) the covers of which
are put on; finally, the pots are placed in
water in a cooling-trough and left over
night.
The digestion-pots are drained and dried
externally, and two pots full of guncotton
at a time are partially freed from acid
in a centrifugal acid- wringer ; after which
the guncotton is fed, little by little, into
the immersion-tub, of 800 gallons capacity,
through which water flows at a rapid rate,
the guncotton being carried quickly under
water by a cylindrical wooden drum rota-
ting on a horizontal axis. Fifty crocks
are thus emptied into the tub. The gun-
cotton is then placed on a wooden rack to
drain.
After draining, the entire mass is placed
84
in the second boiling-tub (of 300 gallons
capacity), which is heated by a steam-coil
placed under a false bottom in the tub,
and boiled for eight hours in water con-
taining 10 pounds of sodium carbonate j it
is then allowed to drain overnight, washed
with fresh water in a centrifugal wringer,
again boiled in the boiling-tub, drained,
and washed as before.
The guncotton is next fed into the pul-
per, the ordinary rag engine of the paper-
mills, where it is cut to the fineness of
corn meal. The pulp is then run into the
poacher, a large wooden tub, in which a
cylinder armed with wooden feathers ro-
tates the mass and keeps the guncotton in
suspension in the water, the guncotton
being allowed to settle and drain every
hour, fresh water added, and the operation
repeated and continued for about two
days. When the washing is completed
(which is determined by a test) there is
added 3 pounds of precipitated chalk, 3
pounds of caustic soda, 300 gallons of
lime water, and water enough to bring the
entire mass to 800 gallons ; and by means
85.
of a vacuum-pump this is raised into the
stuff-chest, a cylindrical iron tank, through
the center of which passes a vertical shaft,
with feathers, geared to a horizontal shaft,
serving as a stirrer to keep the contents
uniformly mixed. The pulp is transferred
to the wagon, a cylindrical copper vessel,
holding 25 gallons, in which a stirrer is
also kept going, while it moves on rails
from the stuff-chest to the moulding-press,
in which the guncotton is pressed into
blocks, 2.9 inches square and two inches
high, which are finally completed in the
final-press.
These guncotton blocks contain about
14 per cent, of moisture ; and before being
sent out into service they are placed in
troughs of water till they cease to absorb
any more, when they contain about 35 per
cent.
Guncotton in the fibrous state is very
like the cotton from which it is made, in
appearance, but feels harsher and less
flexible. It is insoluble in water, hot or
cold, or in a mixture of alcohol and ether,
but soluble in ethyl acetate, in acetone,
86
and in a mixture of ether and ammonia
When dissolved in caustic alkali solutions
the cellulose may be precipitated in a floc-
culent form by neutralizing the alkali. In
the fibrous or flocculent state its density
is not over 0.3, but by pressure it may be
increased to 1.5. Air-dried guncotton
contains about 2 per cent, of moisture.
It explodes at about 182° C. The im-
purities in the cotton fibre, under the
'action of nitric acid, give rise to the nitro-
genized substances which cause the de-
composition of guncotton by first forming
free acid : the effect of this action is
neutralized by mixing with the guncotton
a small percentage of sodium carbonate.
Wet guncotton is perfectly safe, and can
only be exploded by means of a primer of
dry guncotton while the best effects of
dry guncotton are obtained by a detonator
of mercury fulminate.
The explosion of guncotton is practical-
ly represented by the equation :
C,,HM04 (NO,). = 7^0 + 300,+
9 C O + 3 N,.
87
594 parts by weight = 7x2 + 3x2 +
9x2 + 3x2 = 44 volumes.
594 : 1000 :: 44 : V1000 = 74.1 volumes.
The reaction shows that guncotton is
deficient in oxygen, since only part of the
carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide, a
large proportion remaining as carbon
monoxide.
Nitro-Hydrocdhtlose. — Nitro-Hydrocellu-
lose is a guncotton prepared by steeping cot-
ton for a few minutes in an acid mixture of
3 parts sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1.84) or 3 parts
hydro-chloric acid (sp. gr. 1.20) to 97 parts
water, washing and drying. The pulveru-
lent hydro-cellulose is then nitrated in the
usual way. The nitro-hydrocellulose is
used for making primers for blasting gela-
tine.
II. MIXTURES.
CONTAINING NITRO-COMPOUNDS OR
ORGANIC NITRATES.
The principles on which mixtures of this
class are based are :
1. Some of the nitre-compounds or or-
ganic nitrates have in themselves an in-
sufficient supply of oxygen for complete
oxidation, hence the advantage of mixing
oxidizing agents with them.
2. Some of the nitro-compounds or or-
ganic nitrates have in themselves an in-
sufficient supply of oxygen for complete
oxydation, while others have an excess,
hence the advantage of mixing them in
proper proportions.
3. Some of the nitro-compounds or or-
ganic nitrates are liquid, which is a dis-
advantage in many ways, hence they are
mixed with solids, which absorbs the li-
quid, and convert the whole into a solid
mass. The solids used may be ( a ) inert
bodies, which merely act like a sponge
and render the explosive less sensitive
but also less powerful ; (&) low explosives,
which permit a lower percentage of the
liquid explosives being used than the inert
bodies j ( c ) high explosives, which, of
course, increase the effect of explosion.
4. Some of the nitro-compounds ( as
well as other substances ) act as deterrents,
89
and are therefore added to high explosives
when a comparatively slow action is re-
quired.
5. Some of the mtro-compounds (as
well as other substances) lower the freez-
ing point of the liquid organic nitrates, and
are added to prevent the freezing of the
latter.
6. Some of the liquid nitro-compounds
or organic nitrates gelatinize solid organic
nitrates, and thus place them in a physical
condition by which the rate of conbustion
may be regulated and controlled.
7. In coal mines a special quality is?
desirable in the explosive to be used, name
ly, that it shall not readily fire the mine.
The ordinary gunpowders, as well a&
nitroglycerine, dynamite, etc., as usually
prepared, are found to cause explosions of
mines by setting fire to the explosive
mixture of marsh gas and atmospheric
air often present, or to the finely divided
coal dust very commonly disseminated
through the air of such a mine. Now, it
has been found that explosive mixtures
(blasting powders) do this in varying de-
90
grees, much greater weights of some than
of others being required for the purpose.
The explanation of this action is not far
to seek. It is well known that to explode
a mixture of marsh gas and air requires a
high temperature ( that corresponding to the
white heat of solids ), consequently it must
be in contact with flame for a certain time
in order to have its temperature raised to
the point of ignition.
Now, in the case of ordinary gunpowder
and the low explosives generally, the tem-
perature of explosion, although not very
high, is yet high enough, and the slowness
of the action gives the necessary time for
the explosion of the gaseous mixture.
Again, in the case of the ordinary high
explosives, the temperature of explosion
is so high that little time is required, and
the same effect is produced, whereas, in
the case of certain mixtures ( safety blast-
ing powders), which have thus far been
determined only by experiment, the tem-
perature is kept down, but the quickness
of action is not interfered with, so that,
at the temperature of explosion (of the
91
blasting powder) reached, firing of the
mine does not take place. Of -course the
sudden rapid motion of the air, conse-
quent on the explosion of the blasting
powder, also prevents the temperature of
any particular portion rising to the point
of ignition.
1. — NITROBENZENE MIXTURES.
Containing no other nitro-compound and no
organic nitrate.
The nitrobenzene mixtures are all based
on the fact that the nitrobenzenes are
deficient in oxygen, and are consequently
made more efficient as explosives by the
addition of oxidising agents.
Bellite. — Bellite is a Swedish powder
made by fusing together dinitrobenzene
and ammonium nitrate, pressing and gran-
ulating the fused mass. It is plastic and
can be pressed into cartridges ; it is some-
what hygroscopic. It is safe against fric-
tion, heat, or the explosion of gunpowder,
and can be exploded only by detonators.
The explosion is accompanied by very
little flame, and for the older proportions
o£ 1 part meta-dinitrobenzene and 5 parts
ammonium nitrate may be represented by:
C6H4(N02)2 + 10[(NH4)N03] = 22
H20 + 6C02 + 11N2.
For the best blasting powders the pro-
portions are:
Bellite No. 1. — 82 ammonium nitrate 18
dinitrobenzene.
Bellite No. 3. — 95 ammonium nitrate 5
dinitrobenzene.
Securite. — Securite is composed of 26
parts of meta-dinitrobenzene and 74 parts
of ammonium nitrate, although later varie-
ties contain the trinitrobenzene as well, and
Flameless Securite contains an addition of
ammonium oxalate. It is a bright yellow
granular solid, not hygroscopic, and high
in explosive force. Its explosion is repre-
sented by :
C6H4(N01), + 6[(NH4)NO,]= 14
Eack-a-Eock. — Rack-a-Rock is an explo-
sive of the Sprengel Class, the separately
transported constituents being mononitro-
93
benzene (21 parts) and potassium chlorate
(79 parts). In preparing the explosive
the chlorate cartridges are placed in cells
in a pan, and the proper amount of the
liquid is poured over each. When ready
for use it is still quite safe to handle, since
ordinary friction has little tendency to
explode it.
The reaction of its explosion is approxi-
mately:
2C6H5(N02) + 8KCZ03 = SKGI +
This is the explosive which was used in
the removal of Flood Rock.
Hettkoffite. — Hellhoffite is another explo-
sive of the Sprengel Class, the constituents
being meta-dinitrobenzene (47 parts) and
nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.50, 53 parts).
It is a powerful explosive, but the nitric
acid is difficult to transport and to store.
If water be added to the mixture it becomes
nonexplosive, which is an advantage in
general, but, of course, prevents its use
under water.
94
Edburite. — Roburite, a blasting powder,
is made in several grades:
No. 1. No. 3.
Ammonium nitrate, - 87.7 87.5
Dinitrobenzene, - - - 7.2 7.0
Potassium permanganate, 5.1 0.5
Ammonium sulphate, 5.0
Some varieties contain about 2 per cent,
of chloronaphthaline.
2. — PICRATE MIXTURES.
Containing no other nitro-compotmd and no
organic nitrate.
The principle of these mixtures is that
the picrates have not sufficient oxygen,
and can therefore be made efficient as ex-
plosives by adding oxidizing agents.
Oxonite. — Oxonite, an explosive of the
Sprengel Class, consists of picric acid
packed in a calico cartridge, in which is
placed a hermetically sealed glass tube
containing nitric acid: the tube is broken
by a blow before inserting the cartridge.
It resembles hellhoffite, but is not so pow-
95
erful, and requires a very powerful deto-
nator.
C6H2(N 02)90 H+3 HN03= 3 H2 0 +
Designollds Powder. — Designolle's pow-
der, manufactured at Le Bouchet, France,
consists of potassium picrate, potassium
nitrate and charcoal, prepared like ordi-
nary gunpowder. The proportions for
small arms are 28.6, 65.0, and 6.4 5 for
heavy guns 9, 80, 11; for torpedos and
shells, 55, 45, 0.
Emmensite. — Emmensite is made by fus-
ing very pure picric acid, and dissolving
in it sodium nitrate and ammonia nitrate.
It has been used in mining with excellent
results.
Several other powders of this group have
been proposed (Abel's, Brug&re's, Fon-
taine's, Borlinetto's) but none of them has
proven of practical value.
96
3. — NITRON APHTHALENE MIXTURES.
Containing no other nitre-compound and no
organic nitrate.
All the nitronaphthalenes form explo-
sives when mixed with oxydising agents.
Volney Powders. — Volney powders are
mixtures o£ nitronaphthalene with potas-
sium nitrate and sulphur, prepared like
ordinary gunpowder. The two principal
varieties are:
No. 1. No. 2.
Mononitronaphthalene, 1 part.
Tetranitronapthalene, - 2.18 parts.
Potassium nitrate, 3.30 " 0.19 "
Sulphur,- - - 0.51 " 0.16 "
They are insensitive to friction or heat,
and require a powerful detonator.
Favier Powders. — Favier Powders, Am-
monites or Nitramites, are mixtures of ni-
tronaphthalenes, with ammonium nitrate,
and are manufactured at Saint-Denis,
France. The ammonium nitrate is first
dried by passing it on an archimedes screw
through a trough warmed by steam; it is
then pressed, and sprinkled with melted ni-
97
tronaphthalene, and the roll thus formed is
granulated, the coarser grains being mould-
ed warm into hollow cartridges and covered
with paraffin, while the smaller are packed
in the core; the detonator is then insert-
ed and the whole covered with paraffin
paper. The principal objection to these
powders is the hygroscopic character of
the ammonium nitrate.
The best variety consists of 87.5 parts
ammonium nitrate and 12.5 parts dinitro-
naphthalene.
Grisoutine Eoche. — Grisoutine Roche, one
of the four mixtures now principally em-
ployed in mining operations in France,
contains dinitronaphthalene ( 9.5 parts )
and ammonium nitrate (90.5 parts).
4. — NITROGLYCERINE MIXTURES.
Containing no nitro-compound and no other
organic nitrate,
DYNAMITES.
The object in view in making nitro-
glycerine mixtures is to overcome the dis-
98
advantages of the liquid state of this ex-
plosive compound, and to utilize the excess
of oxygen it contains. They are called
Dynamites as a class, and the base (or por-
ous solids for absorbing the liquid) may be
either inert or active.
An inert base acts purely mechanically,
absorbing the liquid nitroglycerine and
converting it into a solid mass, whereas
an active base takes part chemically in
the explosion, besides acting as a mechan-
ical absorbent. The effect of the inert
base is to render the nitroglycerine less
sensitive, but it also diminishes its ex-
plosive force. Advantage is taken of this
latter fact to make dynamites of various
grades, by varying the amount of nitrogly-
cerine.
However, there is a minimum limit to
this, for a dynamite with an inert base
cannot be exploded when the percentage
of nitroglycerine falls below 30. In order
to make dynamites of lower grade, a low
explosive mixture is used as the absorb-
ent, in which case the percentage of nitro-
glycerine may be brought as low as 5.
99
To utilize the excess of oxygen present,
some oxidizable substance ( usually a form
of carbon ) is added.
Finally, to convert the liquid explosive
into a solid mass, and at the same time in-
crease its explosive power above that of
dynamite with an inert base, a low explo-
sive base is used; and to increase its
explosive power above that of nitroglycerine
itself, a high explosive base is used : in the
former the detonation of the nitroglycerine
causes the* detonation of the low explosive
mixture with increased effect, and in the
latter the high explosive is, of course,
detonated, and thus causes the great power
of such a mixture. The members of this
last group are not usually called dynamites,
and are here placed in separate classes
depending on the high explosive used as a
base.
Dynamite No. 1. — Dynamite No. 1, a
dynamite with an inert base, consists of a
mixture of 25 parts of Kieselguhr, (a sil-
iceous earth, composed mainly of the
shells of diatoms) and 75 parts of nitro-
glycerine.
100
The Kieselguhr is first calcined in a re-
verberatory furnace, then crushed between
rollers, passed through fine seives, dried,
packed in bags and stored in a dry place;
when required for use it is weighed out
in proper quantity, placed in lead-lined
tanks, and the proper amount of nitro-
glycerine poured over it; the ingredients
are thoroughly mixed by hand, the mass
being finally rubbed through sieves.
For blasting, the dynamite is made into
cylindrical cartridges, % to 1 inch in di-
ameter, 2 to 8 inches long, in a press, and
these cartridges are wrapped in paraffined
paper or in parchment paper. For mili-
tary purposes, dynamite is packed in
water-proof metallic cases, or in rubber
bags.
Dynamite is a granular, plastic sub-
stance, which may explode at 180° C.; it
freezes at 4° C., and can then be detona-
ted only with great difficulty. When
heated, or when in a state of decomposi-
tion, it becomes very sensitive to shock,
although generally quite stable and less
sensitive than nitroglycerine.
101
Dynamite No. 1 is used for charging
torpedoes and for blasting. It is the stand-
ard high explosive used by the U. S.
Engineers.
Giant Powder No. 1. — Giant Powder No 1,
another dynamite with an inert base, but
with a small quantity of deterrent added,
is composed of 75 parts nitroglycerine,
24.5 Kieselguhr, 0.5 sodium carbonate.
Wetter dynam ite. — Wetterdynamite, simi-
lar in character, but with a much larger
quantity of deterrent, is an explosive
which has been found by recent ex-
periments in Austria to be very safe for
use in coal mines, as it is little apt to fire
either the explosive mixture of marsh gas
and air, or the finely divided coal dust dis-
seminated through the air in the mine.
The best composition is :
. Nitroglycerine - 52 parts.
Kieselguhr, - 14 "
Sodium carbonate crystals, 34 "
Grisoutine. — Grisoutine, one of the mix-
tures now chiefly employed in mining
operations in France, contains ammonium
102
nitrate (60 parts) and dynamite No. 1 (40
parts).
Nobel Ardeer Powder. — Nobel Ardeer
Powder consists of 32 parts of nitroglycer-
ine, 13 parts of Kieselguhr, 49 of magne-
sium sulphate, 5 parts of potassium nitrate,
0.5 parts of ammonium carbonate, and 0.5
parts calcium carbonate.
Carbodynamite. — Carbodynamite, a dyna-
mite with an active base that is merely
oxydisible, with a view to utilizing the
axcess of oxygen in the nitroglycerine,
consists of nitroglycerine (90 parts) and
carbonized cork (10 parts), with 1.5 per
cent, of ammonium carbonate added to
the mixture. It is a black, friable solid,
which, when used under water does not
permit the nitroglycerine to exude. Its
explosion is thus represented:
2 C3H8 03 (NOi), + C = 5HtO + 6
C 02 + C O + 3 N2.
Dynamite No. 2. — Dynamite No. 2, a dy-
namite with a low explosive mixture as a
base, consists of nitroglycerine (18 parts),
potassium nitrate (71 parts), charcoal (10
103
parts) and paraffin (1 part). It is a much
milder dynamite than No. 1.
Dualin. — Dualin, another dynamite with
a low explosive base, is composed of nitro-
glycerine, potassium nitrate and sawdust
(50 : 20 : 30).
Giant Powder No. 2. — Giant powder No.
2, of similar character, contains :
Nitroglycerine, 40 parts. Sodium nitrate
40 parts. Kieselguhr, 8 parts. Sulphur,
6 parts. « Resin, 6 parts.
Vulcan Powder. — Vulcan powder is al-
so a dynamite of low explosive base:
nitroglycerine 30 parts, sodium nitrate
52.5 parts, charcoal 10.5 parts, sulphur 7
parts.
Atlas A Powder. — Atlas A Powder is
composed of nitroglycerine (75 parts), so-
dium nitrate (2 parts), magnesium car-
bonate (2 parts) and wood-fibre (21 parts).
Carbonite. — Carbonite, or Kohlencarbo-
nit, for colliery purposes, is composed of :
Nitroglycerine, 25.0.
Potassium nitrate, 34.0.
Rye flour, 38.5.
Barium nitrate, 1.0.
104
Oak bark powder , 1.0.
Sodium carbonate, 0.5.
In England it has been found relatively
one of the safest explosives for use in coal
mines: 900 grams was the maximum
charge required to explode a test mixture
of marsh gas and air, while gelatine dyna-
mite required only 30, and Cologne-Rott-
weiler 500. Its force, compared with gela-
tine dynamite, is 0.405 : 1.
Vigorite. — -Vigorite, manufactured by
the California Vigorite Powder Company,
is a dynamite with a low explosive (chlor-
ate mixture) base, of the following com-
position :
Nitroglycerine, 30.
Potassium chlorate, 49.
Magnesium carbonate, 5.
Potassium nitrate, 7.
Wood pulp, 9.
Hercules Powder. — Hercules powder is
very similar:
Nitroglycerine, 40.
Potassium chlorate, 3.34.
Magnesium carbonate, 10.
Potassium nitrate, 31.
105
Sugar, 15.66.
Other powders of this section are Aetnar
Atlas, Judson, Rendrock, American Safety,
Stonite, Horsley, Hecla, etc.
5. — NITROGLYCERINE AND NITROBENZENE
MIXTURES.
Containing no other nitro-compound or organic
nitrate.
There is but one mixture belonging to
this section that has attained any impor-
tance, and the principle involved in its
preparation is that nitrobenzene lowers-
the freezing point of nitroglycerine, and
acts as a deterrent, retarding explosion.
Castellanos Powder. — Castellanos Pow-
der, in one of its forms, consists of nitro-
glycerine with nitrobenzene (to render it-
less liable to freeze and slower in explo-
sion), fibrous material, and pulverized
Kieselguhr.
106
6. — NITROGLYCERINE AND PICRATE
MIXTURES.
Containing no other nitro-compound or organic
nitrate.
The principle involved in such mixtures
is merely that o£ dynamites with high ex-
plosive base.
Castellanos Powder. — Castellanos Powder
in one of its forms consists of:
Nitroglycerine, 40 Sodium nitrate, 25
Picrate, - - 10 Sulphur, - 5
Insoluble salt, 10 Carbon, - - 10
The insoluble salt may be an insoluble
silicate, carbonate or oxalate, etc., or gener-
ally one which does not undergo energetic
chemical reaction with nitroglycerine or
carbon, its purpose being to render the ex-
plosive safer.
7. — GUNCOTTON MIXTURES.
Containing no other organic nitrate and no
nitro-compound.
The principles involved in these mix-
tures are:
107
( 1 ) Certain substances ( urea, resin,
paraffin, aurine, humus, etc. ) diminish the
sensibility to shock and retard the rate of
combustion.
( 2 ) Since the supply of oxygen is de-
ficient, the addition of nitrates is advan-
tageous.
Maxim -Schupphaus Powder. — Maxim -
Schiipphaus Smokeless Powder, in one of
its forms, consists of guncotton, 80 parts j
soluble nitrocotton (gelatine pyroxylin),
19.5 parts ; urea, 0.5 parts. It is manufac-
tured by E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co.,
Wilmington, Delaware.
Swiss Normal Powder. — Swiss Normal
Powder, the smokeless powder which has
been adopted by the Swiss army, is manu-
factured in Sweden, and consists of 96.21
parts guncotton, 1.80 soluble nitrocellulose,
1.99 resin. It is light yellow in color, very
stable, unaffected by moisture, insenitive
to shock and without injurious effect on
the gun.
Poudre B. — Poudre B, or Vielle's Pow-
der, is the smokeless powder used in the
French Lebel rifle, and consists of 68.21
108
parts guncotton, 29.79 parts soluble nitro-
cellulose, and 2 parts paraffin, the mix-
ture being rolled into sheets, which are
cut into little squares. It has the consis-
tency of rubber, is pale yellow in color
and translucent, and gives a high initial
Telocity with a low pressure.
Potentite. — Potentite consists of a mix-
ture of guncotton ( 59.5 parts ), and potas-
sium nitrate (41.5 parts). Explosion re-
action :
C12H1404(N03)6 + 4KN03 = 7H2
O + 10 C 02 + 5 N2 + 2 K2 C 03 + O.
Sevran lAvry Explosive. — Sevran Livry
Explosive contains tetranitrocellulose (15
parts ) and ammonium nitrate ( 85 parts ).
It is one of the four mixtures now main-
ly employed in mining operations in
France.
Tonite. — Tonite, or Cotton Powder No. 1,
an explosive manufactured by the Tonite
Powder Company of San Francisco, Cali-
fornia, consists of 52.5 parts pulverulent
guncotton and 47.5 parts barium nitrate.
It is a white, dense solid, not sensitive
109
to shock, and requiring an exceptionally
strong detonator.
C12 H14 0, (N 03). + 2 Ba (N03)a =
7 H2 O + 10 C O2 + O + 2 B a C O3 +
5N2.
Cotton Pcnvder No. 2. — Cotton Powder
No. 2 is composed of guncotton, a nitrate
or mixture of nitrates, and charcoal.
Troisdorf Powder. — Troisdorf Powder,
the smokeless powder adopted by the Ger-
man army, is composed of gelatinized
nitrocellulose and metallic nitrates, the
mixture being rolled into sheets and then
granulated.
U. S. Naval Smokeless Powder. — The
smokeless powder adopted by the U. S.
Navy consists of 80 parts soluble and in-
soluble nitrocellulose (average 12.75 per
cent, nitrogen), 15 parts barium nitrate, 4
parts potassium nitrate, 1 part calcium ni-
trate. The solvent used in making the
powder is composed of 2 parts ethylic ether
( sp. gr. 0.72 ) and 1 part ethyl alcohol ( 95
per cent).
The soluble and the insoluble nitrocellu-
110
loses ( dried separately and sifted ) are
mixed with the calcium carbonate ( also
dried ), and this mixture is added ( with
constant stirring) to the solution of the
nitrates in hot water. The pasty mass is
dried at not over 48° C., and placed in the
kneading-machine, where the ether and
alcohol mixture is added, and the whole
kneaded j after which it is pressed, first
into cylinders, then into ribbons, which, are
cut into short lengths, the dimensions of
the leaflets varying with the caliber of the
gun in which they are to be used, and
carefully dried.
Poudre B N. — Poudre B N is a modifica-
tion of Poudre B, and consists . of 29.13
parts insoluble nitrocellulose, 41.31 parts
soluble nitrocellulose, 19 parts barium ni-
trate, 8 parts potassium nitrate and 2 parts
sodium carbonate.
Schultze Powder. — Schultze Powder, the
type of the smokeless sporting powders,
is composed (according to the analyses
made by Professor -Munroe) of insoluble ni-
trocellulose (32.66 parts), solluble nitrocel-
lulose (27.71 parts), cellulose (1.63 parts),
barium nitrate (27.62 parts ), sodium ni-
trate (2.47 parts), paraffin (4.20 parts).
8. — GUNCOTTON AND AZO-COMPOUND
MIXTURES.
The principle involved in these mixtures
is merely the deterrent effect of the azo-
compound, combined with the physical
form given to the resulting explosive.
Rifleite. — Rifleite is a smokeless powder,
made by the Smokeless Powder Company,
Barwick, Herts, England, for use in the
small caliber Lee-Metford Rifle. It is
composed of 74.6 parts guncotton, 22.48
parts soluble nitrocellulose, and 2.52 parts
phenyl amidoazobenzene,
C6H5-N = N-C6H4(NH,).
It is a yellowish colored flake powder.
9. — GUNCOTTON AND NITROBENZENE
MIXTURES.
Containing no other organic nitrate or nitro-
compound.
The principle involved in these mixtures
is the gelatinizing of the guncotton by
112
means of the nitrobenzene, and thus put-
ting it in a physical state which enables
us to control its rate of combustion.
Indurite. — Indurite, a smokeless powder
invented by Professor C. E. Munroe, is
prepared by colloidizing guncotton (free
from soluble nitrocellulose) by means of
nitrobenzene : one part of guncotton is
dissolved in 1 to 2 parts of nitrobenzene;
the paste resulting is run through rollers
and granulated, or passed through dies
and made into threads, and the powder is
then subjected to the action of steam,
which hardens it.
Cotton Powder No. 3. — Cotton Powder
No. 3 is made by the Tonite Powder
Company of San Francisco, and consists of
purified metadinitrobenzeiie, purified gun-
cotton, and one or more of the following :
nitrate of potassium, sodium or barium,
and chalk.
113
10.— GUNCOTTON AND PlCRATE MIXTURES.
Containing no other organic nitrate or nitro-
compound.
The principle involved in these mixtures
is not evident, since both ingredients are
deficient in oxygen. However, from pro-
fessor Mendel6ef s point of view the ad-
vantage is with the mixture, as may be
seen by comparing the volumes of gases
(measured at any fixed temperature and
pressure) -from 1000 parts by weight of
the explosive:
Guncotton, - - 74.1
Picric acid, - - 76.4
Melinite, 77.0
Moreover, the fact that the ingredients
are mixed in solution insures a separation
of the molecules of the same substances to
a distance greater than the normal, which
may be sufficient, perhaps, to account for
their not exploding in the gun when used
for charging shells.
Melinite. — Melinite, the great French ex-
plosive, was originally made by dissolving
30 parts of guncotton in 45 parts acetone
114
(or a mixture of ether and alcohol 2:1),
adding 70 parts of fused and pulverized
picric acid, and allowing the solvent to
evaporate. Its explosion would be rep-
resented by the reaction :
C11H1404(NO,)6 + 6[OiH1(NOf)>0]
= 16 H20 + 48 C 0 +12 N9.
V =77 0
* i nnn * I • W«
1000
Its present composition is not known.
It is a yellow crystalline solid, and when
used in shells about two-thirds of the
space is first filled with cresilite, the re-
maining third being then packed with
melinite.
Lyddite. — Lyddite, the great English
explosive, is probably similar to the origi-
nal melinite. It is used in shells, aud is
considered a safe and reliable explosive.
A powder fuse will not detonate it, but
many metallic oxides and nitrates, when
brought in contact with it at a high tem-
perature will, and the fuse in the English
service probably utilizes this principle.
115
11.— GUNCOTTON AND NITROTOLUENE
MIXTURES.
Containing no other organic nitrate or nitro-
compound.
The principle of these mixtures is that
the nitrotoluene acts as a deterrent, and
also so modifies the physical state of the
guncotton as to enable us to regulate and
control its rate of explosion.
Plastomenite. — The only nitrotoluene
mixture of any importance is the new
smokeless* powder, called Toluol Powder,
or Plastomenite.
It has been greatly improved in the past
two years, and as manufactured at the
Guttler Factory in Reichenstein, Germany,
contains, according to the analysis of Doc-
tor Gottig, Professor at the Eoyal Artillery
and Engineer School :
Nitrated -Toluene, ^-trinitrotoluene (1 :
2 : 4 : 6), C6 H, (N Ot)f C H3, and ortho-
nitrotoluene, C6 H* (N 02) C H8 22.06
Nitrocellulose (partly soluble, 12.33 %
nitrogen), C,,HM(N03)904, - 67.48
Barium nitrate, ... 9.76
116
Moisture, - - 0.90
The reaction for its explosion at high
pressure is, according to Professor Gott'g,
as follows :
C H3 + 4 B a (N 03)3 = 4 B a C O3 + 67
H2 O + 73 C O3 + 101 C 0 + 52 Nt + 15
CH4 + 9C + 5H1.
As regards residue and freedom from
smoke the new powder meets all require-
ments 5 the weight and volume of the
charge required is still an objection, but
this is more than counterbalanced by the
advantageous properties of the explosive,
namely, its strength, stability at high tem-
peratures, and resistance to the action of
atmospheric moisture, safety in prepara-
tion and handling, and easy inflammability
in the gun.
12.— GUNCOTTON AND NITROGLYCERINE
MIXTURES.
The guncotton and nitroglycerine mix-
tures are among the most important and
energetic of the explosives.
117
The principles involved in their manu-
facture are:
1. Guncotton has a deficiency of oxy-
gen and nitroglycerine a slight excess, so
that a proper mixture would appear to be
advantageous.
2. Guncotton is solid and porous, and
nitroglycerine is liquid, so that a solid mass
results from their mixture, which is more
convenient to handle than the liquid nitro-
glycerine.
3. The addition of camphor, resin, and
similar substances causes a change in the
cohesion of the mass, increasing its solidity
and elasticity, so that a much larger mass
takes up the initial shock in explosion,
hence there is less danger of a local sudden
rise of temperature (which is essential for
detonation), and the explosive is therefore
less sensitive.
4. Certain substances (low explosive
mixtures, etc.,) moderate the force of ex-
plosion of these high explosives, and their
admixture, consequently, enables us to
make explosives of various grades from
the same ingredients.
118
Explosive Gelatine. — Explosive Gelatine,
or Blasting Gelatine, is composed of nitro-
cotton (with not over 11 per cent, of nitro-
gen), carefully dried, mixed with nitro-
glycerine, also carefully dried, the amount
of nitrocotton varying from 4 to 8 per cent. ;
after kneading, the mixture is made into
cartridges by a special machine, which
forces it out- in the form of a long cylinder,
the latter being then cut into proper
lengths, and each cartridge wrapped with
paraffined paper or parchment paper.
It is a yellow, translucent, elastic solid,
practically unaffected by water, which
when not confined burns but does not ex-
plode, but when confined explodes at about
204° C. It is less liable to freeze than dy-
namite, but when frozen is more sensitive.
Military Gelatine. — Military Gelatine is
an explosive gelatine with a small per
centage of camphor added.
There are several varities :
Austrian. Italian.
Nitroglycerine, - CO 92
Soluble guncotton, - - 10 8
Camphor (added), 4$ 5$
119
The reactions for explosion (assuming
the tetraiiitrate) are :
C12H1404(N03)4(HO), + 18C3 H5
(N O3)s = 53 H8 O + 61 C Oa + 5 C O +
29 Nf, and
Oi>H^Qft(N.O.)i(HO)l + 22C3H5
(N 03)s = 63 Ht O + 75 C O, + 3 C O +
35 N2.
Evidently, the oxidation in the second
case is a little more complete than in the
first.
Military gelatine resembles explosive
gelatine in appearance and properties, but
is much less sensitive.
Cordite. — Cordite, the British smokeless
powder, is composed of 58 parts nitrogly-
cerine, 37 parts guncotton and 5 parts
vaseline.
The nitroglycerine is poured over the
guncotton, and the two are mixed by hand;
the resulting mass, which looks like moist
sugar, is placed in the kneading machines
with the proper amount of acetone and
incorporated; the vaseline is added and the
incorporation continued; the cordite is first
pressed, and is then squeezed through
120
dies, and issued in the form of cords of
various sizes, which are cut into proper
lengths.
It is a horny substance, which cannot
be heated for any length of time above
100° F. The vaseline acts merely to re-
strain the violence of the explosion, and
serves to produce a little smoke, which acts
as a lubricant in the bore of the gun.
The cords burn progressively from sur-
face to center, so that the rate of combus-
tion can be regulated by the size of the
cord.
Explosion reaction:
4C12HU04(N08)6 + 14C3H5(N03)3
= 63 H2 O + 61 C O2 + 29 C O + 33 N2.
W.-A. Powder. — W.-A. Powder is one of
the smokeless powders, and is made by the
American Smokeless Powder Company ; it
<xmsists of the highest grade of guncotton
mixed with purified nitroglycerine (the
latter dissolved in acetone before being
added to the guncotton), to which nitrates
and an organic deterrent are added j it is
pressed into cords similar to cordite.
Ballistite. — Ballistite, or Filite, the Ital
121
ian service smokeless powder, is made by
dissolving diphenylamine, N H (C6 H3)2, in
nitroglycerine, and mixing the liquid with
soluble guncotton (in a vessel containing
hot water) by means of compressed air;
then removing the water by centrifugal
machines and absorbents, and passing the
mixture repeatedly between heated rollers;
it is either pressed into cords, or granulated
in cubes/
Equal parts of guncotton and nitrogly-
cerine are used, and about one per cent, of
diphenylamine.
Maxim -Schitpphaus Powder. — Maxim -
Schiipphaus smokeless powder, in one of
its forms, consists of:
Mixed nitrocottons, - 90 parts.
Nitroglycerine, - 9 "
Urea, ' 1 "
It is made by mixing in a kneading ma-
chine at about 120° F., 80 Ibs. of insoluble
guncotton (with 13.3 per cent, nitrogen), 8
Ibs. of soluble guncotton (gelatin-pyroxy-
lin, with 12 per cent, nitrogen, soluble in
nitroglycerine below 180° F.), 12 Ibs. ni-
troglycerine, 35 Ibs. acetone, and 1 Ib.
122
urea (dissolved in methyl alcohol). The
mealy mass is then rolled into sheets,
pressed out in the form of multi-perfor-
ated cylinders, and dried in a vacuum.
Peyton Powder. — Peyton Powder is a
smokeless powder, manufactured by the
California Powder Works, and consists of
a gelatinized mixture of nitroglycerine (38
per cent.), and guncotton (40 per cent.),
using acetone as the solvent for incorpora-
tion, with other substances added.
Forcite. — Forcite, or Gelatine Dynamite,
is composed of blasting gelatine (98 parts
nitroglycerine to 2 parts nitrocotton) and
a low explosive base (sodium nitrate 76,
sulphur 3, wood-tar 20, wood pulp 1).
Ecrasite. — Ecrasite is an explosive man-
ufactured at the Sierseh dynamite factory
in Pressburg, Austria, and used in charg-
ing shells. It is composed essentially of
blasting gelatine and ammonium picrate.
There are many other smokeless pow-
ders included in this section, such as the
Belgian Wetteren Powder and the American
Leonard Powder, but they illustrate no new
principles.
123
III. MIXTURES.
CONTAINING NO NITRO-COMPOUNDS OR
ORGANIC NITRATES.
This class of explosives, the earliest
known, and the simplest from a mechanical
point of view, are yet the most complex
from a chemical point of view. It was
very natural, in the early state of chemical
knowledge, to mix together mechanically
the commonest combustibles, charcoal and
sulphur, with the best known solid oxidiser,
nitre, to obtain the first explosive ; but it
required a knowledge of structural form-
ulae to understand how to obtain the atoms
of combustibles and those of oxygen ready
mixed in the molecule, as in our later ex-
plosives.
In all mixtures of this class one of the
ingredients is a combustible substance, and
another contains the requisite oxygen for
this combustion and gives it up readily.
This class comprises the following
groups :
Nitrogen Oxide Group.
124
Nitrate Group.
Chlorate Group.
Fulminate Group.
1. — NITROGEN OXIDE GROUP.
This, the simplest group of this class
of mixtures, in which nitrogen oxide is
the oxidising ingredient, comprises but
one explosive of any importance.
Panclastite. — Panclastite, one of the
Sprengel class of explosives, is made by
mixing ,3 volumes of liquid nitrogen te-
troxide with 2 volumes of liquid carbon
disulphide. It merely burns when ignited
but may be exploded by means of a deto-
nator.
3 N, 04 + 2 C S2 = 2 C 02 + 4 S 0,
+ 3N2.
Other proportions are used for obtaining
different effects, and other combustibles
may be subtituted for the carbon disul-
phide.
2.— NITRATE GROUP.
The nitrate group includes all those
125
mixtures in which the constituent to be
oxidised is some form of carbon, and the
oxidising constituent is a nitrate.
In all the nitrates used in these mix-
tures five-sixths only of the oxygen present
is available for combustion.
Black Gunpowder. — Black Gunpowder,
the oldest of all our explosives, probably
originated in the far East, found its way
to Constantinople, where it become known
as Greek fire, and was introduced, about
1353, in Augsburg, the metropolis then of
the Alemannic countries in Germany,
where it was improved to the present form
of gunpowder, and whence a knowledge
of its composition rapidly spread over
Europe.
Black gunpowder is a mixture of 75
parts of potassium nitrate, 15 parts of
charcoal and 10 pounds of sulphur. Re-
garding the charcoal as pure carbon (which
is, of course, not strictly true, since char-
coal always has a considerable percentage
of hydrogen and oxygen), this composition
would be represented by the formula:
19 K NO8 +32C + 8S.
126
But, if the amount of carbon actually
present in the charcoal be taken ( omitting
the hydrogen and oxygen), its composi-
tion is :
560KNO8 + 742C + 231S.
The purpose of the charcoal is to fur-
nish the combustible, mainly carbon, and
by oxidation to produce a gas and evolve
heat; the nitre furnishes the oxygen for
the oxidation of the carbon and part of
the sulphur, and at the same time adds to
the heat by furnishing a base ( K2 O ) for
part of the carbon dioxide and sulphur
trioxide to combine with, resulting, how-
ever, in a loss of gas; the object of adding
sulphur is to lower the temperature of
ignition of the mixture and to accelerate
the combustion, but it also incidentally
raises the temperature by combination
with potassium and oxygen, and increases
the volume of gas indirectly by combining
with a part of the potassium, which would
otherwise combine with carbon dioxide
and thereby diminish the volume of gas.
For the manufacture of gunpowder the
nitre is carefully refined by solution, filtra-
127
tion, crystallization and washing ; the sul-
phur is purified by distillation, distilled sul-
phur, the electronegative variety, being
the only kind suitable for making gun-
powder ; the charcoal is obtained from
selected willow, alder or black dogwood
by distillation at temperatures between
360° and 520° C.
The ingredients, in proper proportions,
are placed in the mixing machine, where
they are mixed by means of a revolving
drum with fork-shaped arms over its sur-
face ; and the mixture is passed through a
sieve into a hopper, and collected in bags.
It is then transferred to the incorporating
mill in 50 pound charges, spread evenly
over the bed with a wooden rake, and about
2 pints of water are added (from time to
time more water is added) ; the ingredients
are thoroughly incorporated here by means
of two cylindrical edge-runners. The mill
cake thus formed is broken up by passing
it in succession between two pairs of rol-
lers, one above the other, through which
it falls into boxes, and is conveyed thence
to the press, where it is pressed into sheets.
128
These sheets are taken to the granulating
machine, which has several pairs of rollers
(placed obliquely one above the other),
fitted with teeth of varying sizes and sep-
arated by screens ; the press-cake passes
through the first pair of rollers to the first
screen, the finer material passing through
and being sifted by the finer screens be-
low, the coarser material passing to the
next set of rollers, and so on. The differ-
ent sizes of grain are thus collected sepa-
rately below.
The granulated powder is next passed
through the dusting reels, where it is re-
volved in horizontal or slightly inclined
cylindrical drums of dusting cloth (18 to
56 meshes to the inch). The clean powder
is then glazed (with or without the addition
of a little graphite) in horizontal revolving
glazing barrels, after which it is again
dusted. The powder is then dried on
trays or frames with canvas bottoms,
placed on racks in a room kept at 120°
to 145° F., and is finished by running it
again in a dusting reel.
.Common gunpowder is of uniform dark
129
gray color, and when granulated its grains
are hard and angular, do not soil the fin-
gers, and are free from dust. Its density
varies from 1.50 to 1.85. When exposed
to moist air it absorbs considerable moist-
ure, which not only interferes directly with
its ballistic qualities, but also causes the
gunpowder to deteriorate by dissolving a
portion of the nitre, the latter recrystalliz-
ing on the grains and being thus removed
from intimate mixture with sulphur and
charcoal. Immersion in water dissolves
the nitre and destroys the powder.
Since, in all explosive mixtures which
are aggregated into grains, the combustion
takes place in successive layers over the
surface (provided the density be sufficient
to prevent the grains from being disinte-
grated), the rate of combustion of a given
charge can be regulated by varying the
size of the grain, the powders of larger
grain being the slower in burning. More-
over, increase of density will also diminish
rate of burning, since the heated gases-
which ignite the successive layers pene-
trate less easily. When a charge of fine
130
grain powder is ignited, the time of com-
bustion from surface to center of each
grain is very short, so that most of the
gas is given off at once, resulting in great
initial pressure 5 but, when coarse grain
powder is ignited, a longer time is required
for the combustion of each grain, and the
gases are given off more gradually, result-
ing in a more moderate initial pressure.
On this principle the various large grained
powders, mammoth, hexagonal and pebble,
were prepared.
But, since the surface of the grain is
gradually diminished during this combus-
tion, the quantity of gas given off in a
given time grows smaller and smaller, al-
though (in a gun) the space in which it
expands grows larger and larger as the
projectile moves out, and therefore the
pressure on the latter is diminishing all
the time it is in the bore. Now, by perfor-
ating the powder grains with cylindrical
channels, so that on ignition the grain is
consumed inside and out at the same time,
the surface of combustion gradually in-
creases, hence, the volume of gases given
131
off increases, and therefore (without ex-
ceeding the maximum pressure at the
beginning) the pressure is kept up well
during the entire time the projectile is in
the bore. This is the principle on which
the perforated prismatic and other perfor-
ated powders are made.
Gunpowder explodes at 316° C., and
can be exploded by percussion. When
mixed with high explosives it can also be
detonated.
In its explosion there are two stages :
First Stage. — Military gunpowder (ne-
glecting the hydrogen and oxygen of the
charcoal ) may be represented by the for-
mula :
560KNO3 + 742C + 231S.
The first stage in its explosion is thus
represented:
560 K N O3 + 455 C + 175 S = 105 Kt
C O3 + 175 K2 S O4 + 315 C O, + 35 C O
In this first stage all the nitre, part of
the carbon and part of the sulphur react,
producing, besides the gases, potassium
sulphate and potassium carbonate. The
132
relative amounts of heat produced by the
formation of the potassium carbon ate, the
potassium sulphate, and the carbon dioxide
present, respectively, are 1 : 2 : 1. All the
oxygen of the charcoal and part of the hy-
drogen are given off in the form of water ;
the rest of the hydrogen is given off free,
or unites with carbon, sulphur and nitro-
gen, respectively, producing marsh gas,
sulphuretted hydrogen, and ammonia, but
these secondary products do not amount
to 2 per cent, of the total products.
Second Stage. — The remainder of the
carbon of the gunpowder (742 — 455 =
287 C) reacts on a part of the potassium
sulphate formed in the first stage :
287 C + 164 K2 S 04 = 82 K, C O8 +
82 K2 S2 + 205 C 02 ; and the remainder
of the sulphur of the powder (231 — 175
= 56 S) reacts on a part of the potassium
carbonate formed in the first stage:
56 S + 32 Ka C O3 = 8 K2 S O4 + 24
K2 Sa + 32 C Or
In this second stage the volume of gas
formed during the first stage is increased,
but the temperature is lowered, because
133
heat is absorbed. A portion of the car-
bon monoxide in the products is formed
during this stage by the action of free
carbon or potassium disulphide on carbon
dioxide.
The following reaction shows the rela-
tion between the original powder and the
final products :
560 K N O3 + 742 C + 231 S = (105
— 32 + 82) K2 C 03 + (175 — 164 -f 8)
K8 S 04 + (82 + 24) K2 S2 + (315 + 205
+ 32) C Ot + 35 C O + 280 N2 = 155 K,
C O3 -f 19 K2 S O4 + 106 K2 S, + 552 C
0, + 35 C 0 + 280 Ns.
V1000 = 23.78.
Broicn Powder. — Brown or Cocoa Pow-
der is composed of 79 parts of nitre, 18
parts of charcoal and 3 parts of sulphur.
The charcoal is prepared from straw car-
bonized in a special manner, so that its
composition by analysis differs consider-
ably from that used in black gunpowder :
Charcoal for
134
Brown Powder. Black Powder.
Professor Munroe. Professor Bloxam.
Carbon - 48.33 85.80
Hydrogen- 5.57 3.13
Oxygen 44.77 9.47
Ash - 1.33 1.60
The finished powder is in hexagonal
prisms perforated axially.
It is remarkable for giving high veloci-
ties with low pressures. The explanation
of this is the low percentage of sulphur,
the easy inflammability of the charcoal,
the great heat evolved, and dissociation.
In form, size and density of grain it does
not differ materially from the best forms
of black powder. The low percentage of
sulphur raises its igniting point (as com-
pared with black powder), so that the
action is comparatively slow at first, each
particle requiring a slightly higher tem-
perature for ignition than in case of black
powder ; when the temperature, however,
reaches a certain point, and the powder
begins to burn well, the easy inflamma-
bility of the charcoal comes into play (es-
pecially as the grains become broken up),
135
and gas is given off more rapidly than in
case of black powder, but by this time it
has also more space to expand into, so that
the pressure on the walls of the gun is not
too great ; the greater heat evolved (which
comes into play about the same time that
the rapid combustion does, of course) ex-
pands the gases more and so tends to give
greater pressure when the latter is most
needed, i. e., as the projectile moves along
the bore' and the space behind it becomes
greater ; finally, underburnt charcoal (and
therefore the powder made from it) con-
tains carbohydrates, and these are known
to undergo dissociation very readily, so
that as the temperature rises decomposi-
tion goes on, with liberation of gas, until
the pressure reaches a certain point for the
then temperature, when it will cease; now,
if the pressure goes on increasing, due to
the continued rapid liberation of gases,
while the temperature does not increase
sufficiently to prevent it, recombination
will take place, with diminution of gaseous
matter, thus preventing a too rapid rise
of pressure ; as the temperature continues
136
to rise, however, decomposition again com-
mences and continues until the pressure
of the liberated gas reaches another point
(corresponding to this higher temperature),
when it will again cease, and so on. Dis-
sociation, therefore, acts like an automatic
pressure regulator : when the pressure
tends to get great recombination begins
diminishing the gases, and preventing a
great increase of pressure j when the pres-
sure tends to fall decomposition goes on,
increasing the gases, and thus increasing
the pressure again.
The dissociation of water vapor into
hydrogen and oxygen probably plays no
part whatever in these reactions, since
there are so many other substances present
that are decomposed so much more easily
than this very stable and strong compound,
and whose action would come into play
long before the water vapor could possibly
be affected; moreover, these more easily
decomposable substances (carbohydrates,
etc.) require no assumptions (as does the
dissociation of water vapor) as to the actual
temperature of the gases in the bore of the
137
gun, or the dissociation temperature of
water vapor under the pressure existing,
both of which are still matters of more or
less doubt.
Du Pont Brown Powder. — Du Pont Brown
Powder is composed of:
Nitre, 78 parts.
Sulphur, - 3 "
Carbohydrates, 4 "
Baked Wood, 12 "
In this powder the charcoal is specially
prepared so as to have the proper chemical
composition and the proper physical text-
ure, and carbohydrates are specially added.
The explanation of the action of this pow-
der is exactly the same as in case of or-
dinary brown powder.
Amide Powder. — Amide powder consists
of potassium nitrate (101 parts) ammonium
nitrate (80 parts) and charcoal (40 parts).
Its composition and explosion may be
represented by the following reaction:
CO3 + 12H2O + 2CN+15CO + 8N,
Viooo = 55.8.
Powders containing ammonium nitrate
138
are usually safer for use in coal mines than
ordinary powder or the usual high explo-
sives, as they do not fire the mine so readily,
but some of the more recent mixtures
containing high explosives are found in
practice to be much more reliable.
WestpJialite. — Westphalite, a blasting
powder used in coal mines, is composed of
ammonium nitrate (91 parts), nitre (41
parts) and resin (5 parts).
Cologne -Eottweiler Safety Powtkr. — Co-
logne-Rottweiler Safety Powder, another
blasting powder, contains ammonium ni-
trate ( 92.3 parts ), barium nitrate ( 0.3
parts) and oil of sulphur (6.4 parts).
Petroclastite. — Petroclastite or Haloclas-
tite, is composed of :
Sodium nitrate - 69 parts.
Potassium nitrate - 5 "
Sulphur - 10 "
Coal tar 15 "
Potassium bichromate - 1
It absorbs less moisture than ordinary
black powder, and is less readily affected
by moisture ; it ignites only at 350° C.. and
burns with a quiet flame without sparks ;
139
its gases are not so injurious to breathe^
and the smoke rapidly settles ; it can be
detonated by an ordinary fuse, and its.
force of explosion is somewhat greater
than that of ordinary gunpowder.
It is particularly useful in mining soft
material like rock-salt.
There are many other mixtures of this
kind used in blasting, but they illustrate
no new principles.
3. — THE CHLORATE GROUP.
The chlorate group includes all those
mixtures in which the constituent to be
oxidised is some form of carbon, and the
oxidising constituent is a chlorate. In the
chlorates used in these mixtures all the
oxygen is available for combustion, never-
theless, weight for weight, potassium ni-
trate gives more available oxygen thart
potassium chlorate :
4 K N O8 = 2 K8 O + 2 N2 + 5 Or
404.4 : 160 :: 1000 : V1COO = 39.56.
2 K C Z O3 = 2 K C I 4- 3 Os.
245.2 : 96 :: 1000 : V1000 = 39.15.
140
Chlorate powders are all liable to be ex-
ploded by friction or percussion, and even .
spontaneously, especially when long kept.
Chlorate powders, o£ composition ex-
actly similar to nitrate powders, are more
energetic than the latter for three reasons:
1. The atoms of potassium chlorate are
held together by so feeble an attraction
that when the molecule decomposes ( as
above ) the heat of combination in forming
K C I and O2 is greater than the loss of heat
due to the decomposition of the original
molecule, so that in the chlorates heat is
evolved, whereas in the nitrates heat is
absorbed, in this part of the process of
explosion; this heat adds its effects, of
course, to the heat of explosion proper.
2. The greater instability of the chlo-
rates (in presence of oxidisable substances)
causes greater rapidity in the chemical
reactions .
3. Dissociation is more apt to have an
effect in moderating the rate of decomposi-
tion in a confined space (as explained
under Brown Powder] in the case of the
nitrate powders, where more complex
141
(ternary) compounds, such as potassium
sulphate and potassium carbonate, are
produced, than in the case of the chlorate
powders (made just like the nitrate pow-
ders), where the products are all simpler
(binary) and more stable compounds:
2 K CZ 03 + 3 C + S = 2 K Cl + C 08
+ 2 C 0 + S Oa.
No chlorate powder of composition sim-
ilar to ordinary gunpowder is in use as
a powder. In all the mixtures used or
proposed the sensitiveness is reduced by
various expedients : either by replacing
part of the chlorate by a nitrate (or other
less energetic oxidiser), or by adding com-
plex compounds so as to dilute the chlorate
and at the same time have the moderating
advantages of dissociation.
In fuse compositions and priming pow-
ders, of course, the suddenness of the
explosion is not only not an objection,
but is in fact the very quality desired.
Aside from fuse compositions and prim-
ing materials, there are but two chlorate
powders of any interest or importance.
Asplmline. — Asphaline is composed o£
142
potassium chlorate (54 parts), bran (42
parts ), potassium nitrate and patassium
sulphate (4 parts).
White Powder. — White powder, German
powder, American powder, or Augendre's
powder, consists of potassium chlorate (50
parts), potassium ferrocyanide (25 parts),
cane sugar (25 parts).
This mixture (besides being an explo-
sive in the ordinary sense ) can be readily
exploded by contact with strong sulphuric
acid.
Harvey Fuse Composition. — Harvey fuse
composition consists of a mixture of po-
tassium chlorate ( 17.0 parts ), cane sugar
(4.5 parts) and nut-galls (1.5 parts). It
is ignited by means of sulphuric acid.
U. S. Naval Friction Fuse Composition. —
U. S. Naval friction fuse composition is
made by pulverizing and mixing, under
alcohol, potassium chlorate (45 parts), anti-
mony sulphide (20.75 parts), amorphous
phosphorus (5.75 parts) and carbon (28.50
parts). It is used (while wet) for explod-
ing torpedoes by frictional electricity.
English Priming Material. — English prim-
143
ing material consists of copper subsulphide,
copper subphosphide, and potassium chlor-
ate in various proportions, the ingredients
being mixed under alcohol.
Austrian Priming Material. — Austrian
priming material is composed of equal
parts of potassium chlorate and antimony
sulphide, with a trace of plumbago.
-4.— FULMINATE GROUP.
The fulminate group is based on the prin-
ciple that the addition of a chlorate to the
fulminate renders the oxidation of the
carbon more complete, and at the same
time the addition of some inert solid
serves to regulate its action somewhat;
or on the fact that sulphur has a low ig-
niting point and burns with great energy
and a flame not readily extinguished, qual-
ities which make it useful for insuring the
communication of flame.
The mixtures of this group are used
mainly in cap and fuse compositions and
in detonators.
Cap Composition. — Cap composition con-
144
«ists, for gunpowder caps, of 37.5 parts
mercury fulminate, 37.5 parts potassium
chlorate and 25 parts antimony sulphide j
for blasting caps, of 75 parts mercury ful-
minate and 25 parts potassium chlorate.
A little ground glass is usually added, as
well as a solution of gum.
The explosion of these compositions may
be represented thus :
#2 C2 N2 O2 + 4 K C I O3 + S &2 S8 =
O4 ; and 3 Hg2 C2 N2 O2 + 4 K C I O3
60,
Electric Fuse Composition. — The fuses to
"be fired by electricity contain at one end
a mixture similar to cap composition, at
the other a mixture of sulphur and ground
glass, with a thin layer of guncotton be-
tween, surrounding the wire whose fusion
is to ignite the fuse.
Detonators. — Detonators contain mercury
fulminate in one end, a mixture of sulphur
and ground glass in the other, with a layer
<of guncotton between.
Single detonators contain three grains of
145
mercury fulminate, and others are rated
as double, treble, etc., according to the
weight of fulminate (compared with single
ones) which they contain.
146
RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN SMOKE-
LESS POWDERS.
There are two kinds of smokeless pow-
der in use by the world's armies and navies
to-day :
1. Pure nitrocellulose powders.
2. Nitrocellulose powders, containing
also nitroglycerine, usually referred to as
"Nitroglycerine powders.*'
The former are gradually gaining ground
over the latter, principally because of the
more rapid erosion of the rifling of musket
and cannon bores due to the nitroglycerine.
The improvements in smokeless powders
have been very great in recent years, but
each nation endeavors to keep the special
processes of manufacture employed as se-
cret as possible.
Some of the main features in these' im-
provements can be outlined, however.
By simply reducing the weight of the
small-arm projectile it was found that no
considerable increase in muzzle velocity
took place (with the older form of powder),
14?
and an increase in the charge gave too
high pressures.
Consequently a powder more progressive
in its action was required. This has been
obtained partly by making a denser mate-
rial and partly by giving it a more favor-
able/or//?, the combustion being regulated
so that the pressure of the gases, after
reaching its maximum, remains practically
constant*
The muzzle velocity has thus been great-
ly increased, without raising the pressure
very much, and yet the space occupied by
the charge is the same as in the older car-
tridge. A denser and finer-grained pow-
der has permitted of increasing the weight
of the charge without increasing its vol-
ume, and the more progressive combustion
of the powder keeps the pressure down,
and yet gives greater muzzle velocity, be-
cause the full pressure once attained acts
till the projectile leaves the bore.
The processes of making nitrocellulose
powders have also been greatly improved
of late years.
148
The Cologne-Rottweil Powder Works,
for example, wash the guncotton in closed
kettles with stearn under a pressure of
three to five atmospheres, at 135° to 150°C.
This reduces the amount of water required
so much that only from %o to %o of that
used in the old process is needed, and much
time is saved, as only from two to five hours
are required. The result is purer guncot-
ton than that which had been washed for
100 hours by the older process.
Moreover, the fibers of the guncotton
are thereby changed to a fine dust, which
is better for the subsequent treatment.
The solvent used to gelatinize the pow-
dered nitrocellulose has been acetic ether or
acetone until quite recently. Now, ether-
alcohol (a mixture of sulphuric ether and
ethyl alcohol) is very generally used.
The powder, after gelatinization, is
pressed through kneading machines into
cords of various thickness, from thin
threads to tubes of half an inch or more in
diameter. The finer threads are solid and
are used as such in small-caliber fire-arms.
149
The tubes for larger caliber guns are hol-
low (like macaroni), so that combustion
takes place at the same time on the inner
surface as well as the outer.
To make the Leaflet Powder the gela-
tine mass is pressed into sheets, cut into
strips, and the strips chopped off into
small flat leaflets, those of the German
army powder, for example, having the fol-
lowing dimensions :
Side of square surface 0.06 in.
Thickness 0.008 io,
The finer cannon powder:
Side of square surface 0.1 in.
Thickness 0.016-0.020 in.
The coarser cannon powder:
Side of square surface 0.2 in.
Thickness 0.028 in.
The powders in use by the principal
nations of the world are as follows :
GERMANY.
The German army uses pure nitrocellu-
lose powder almost entirely, while the navy
150
uses nitroglycerine powder in all its guns
except the 8 mm. machine guns.
FRANCE.
The French use exclusively nitrocellu-
lose powders, designated as B (Boulenger)
Powders, the latest being B K (Boulenger
nouvelle), gelatinized by means of ether-
alcohol, and B M (Boulenger marine), the
powder for the navy.
Other forms are: B G C (for coast
guns), B S P (for siege and fortification
guns), B C (for field guns) and B F (for
muskets).
ITALY.
In Italy, Ballistite is still used, in various
forms. It is prepared, however, by add-
ing from 0.5 to 1.0 per cent of aniline
(instead of diphenylamine) to a mixture
of equal parts of guncotton and nitrogly-
cerine. It is in granular form.
The field guns use it in the form of long
threads (hence called Filite), varying in
diameter for different calibers from 0.01
to 0.02 inch in diameter.
In 1896 Solenite, consisting of about 66
151
per cent, guncotton, 33 per cent, nitrogly-
cerine and 1.1 per cent, vaseline, was defi-
nitely adopted for the infantry rifle and
provisionally for field guns.
ENGLAND.
The form and composition of the English
Cordite have been considerably changed.
The new powder is called Cordite M D
(modified cordite), and is similar to the
original cordite, but the percentage of ni-
trocellulose (or guncotton) has been raised
to 65 per cent., while that of the nitrogly-
cerine has been reduced to 30 per cent.
More acetone is also used in gelatinizing.
This new form has less effect on the
rifling, and fire-arms last longer in conse-
quence.
For small arms it is made in the form
of long thin strips, which are bundled to-
gether for the charge of a musket, the
strips being the full length of the charge.
AUSTRO-HUNGARY.
In Austro-Hungary a pure nitrocellulose
powder is used, in various forms:
152
For muskets, in the form of very small
discs; for field guns in cylinders, for siege
guns in square leaflets, for rapid-fire guns
in strips, and for guns of heavy caliber in
the form of hollow tubes.
EUSSIA.
Russia uses the pyrocollodion powder
both in the navy and the army, and gener-
ally in the form of leaflets or flat squares
of various sizes and thickness.
These are the principal powders in use
by the world's armies and navies at the
present time, but changes are very rapid
nowadays and all nations are striving to
surpass one another in the ballistic quali-
ties of their fire-arms, hence also in their
powders.
Improvements are being constantly
made, 'but as the processes are kept secret,
they are slow to become generally known
to the world at large.
INDEX.
Page-
Abel's Powder, .... 95
Aetna Powder, .... 105
Alcohols, ..... 64
Alcohol Series, . . . .65
Alcohol Series, Derivatives of . .64
Alcohols, Jlexatomic, Derivatives of . 72
' ' Triatomic, Derivatives of . . 65
American Powder, .... 142
American Safety Powder, . . . 105
Amide Powder, . . . .137
Ammonites, . . . . .96
Ammonium Hydrazoate, . . ,42
Ammonium Picrate, . . . .57
Ardeer Powder, Nobel . . .102
Arms and Explosives, . . .V, VI
Aromative Series, Derivatives of . . 49, 62
AspLaline, . . . . .141
Atlas Fowder, . . . 28, 105
Atlas A Powder, . . . .103
Augendre's Powder, .... 142
Austrian Priming Material, . . . 143
Azo-benzene, . . . .43
Azo- compounds, . . . .42
Ballistite, . 120
Bellite, 28, 91
Page.
Benzene, . . . . .50
Benzene, Derivatives of . .51
Benzene Series, . . . .49
Benzene Series, Derivatives of . 49, 51, 62
Berthelot, . . . . .Ill
B N, Poudre . . . .110
Borlinetto's Powder, . . .95
B, Poudre . . . . .107
Bromamide, . . . . .40
Brown Powder, Common . . 28, 133
" DuPont . . 28, 137
Bruff, Captain L. L. . . .VI
Bruguere's Powder, . . . .95
Cap Composition, .... 143
Carbodynamite, . . . .102
Carbolic Acid, . . . .54
Carbonite, . . . . .103
Castellanos Powder, . . . 105, 106
Cellulose, ..... 72
Chemical Action in Explosive Compounds, . 3
" " 'l Mixtures, . 3
4 ' Composition of Explosives, . 6
Chemistry and Explosives, Lectures on,
Munroe . . . . IV, V
Chemistry, Descriptive General, Tillman . IV, V
" The New, Cooke, . .V
Chloramide, ..... 38
Chlorate Group of Explosive Mixtures, . 139
Classes of Explosive Materials, . . 2
Collodion Guncotton, . . .75
IKDEX.
Page.
Cologne-Rottweiler Safety Powder,
Composition, Cap
Fuse . .142
Priming . . 142, 143
Compounds, . . .36
Cooke, Prof. J. P. . . - IV, V
Copper Amine, . . . .41
" Fulminate, .... 47
Cordite, . • U9
Cotton Powder, No. 1 . . 108
No. 2 . . . 109
No. 3 . . . 112
Cresol, ..... 58
Critical Velocity of Initial Decomposition, . 19
Cundill, Lieutenant- Colonel J. P. . . V
Deflagration, . . . 15
Derivatives of Benzene, . . 51
" Naphthalene, . . 59
" Hexatomic Alcohols, . . 72
the Alcohol Series, . . 64
11 the Benzene Series, . . 49, 62
" the Naphthalene Series, . 59
11 Toluene, ... 57
" Triatomic Alcohols, . . 65
Descriptive General Chemistry, Tillman . V
Designolle's Powder, . . .95
Detonation by Shock,
" by Influence, . . .19
Detonators, .... 18, 144
Diazobenzene Nitrate, . . .62
Page.
Dictionary of Explosives, Cundill . . V, VI
Dinitrobenzene, . . . .53
Dinitronapthalene, . . . .60
Dinitrotoluene . . . .58
Dissociation, . . . .33, 135, 140
Dualin, . . . . .103
Du Pont Brown Powder, . . 28, 137
Dynamite, No. 1 . . . . 28, 99
" No. 2 . . . 102
Dynamites, . . . . .97
Ecrasite, .... 58, 122
Efficiencies of Powders Compared, . 28, 29, 34
Electric Fuse Composition, . . . 144
Emmensite, . . . . . 28, 95
English Priming Material, . . , 142
Explosion by Influence, . . .19
Explosions, Orders of . . .18
Explosion, The Force of . .23
" The Phenomena of . . 4
il The Products of . . . 21
Explosive, An .... 1
Explosive Compounds, Groups of . .36
Explosive Gelatine, ... 28, 118
Explosive Materials, .... 1
Explosive Materials, Classes of .2
Explosives, ..... 2
Explosives, Chemical Composition of . 6
Explosives, Dictionary of, Cundill . . V, VI
Explosive, Sevran Livry . . .108
Explosives, High .... 4
INDEX. 5
Page.
Explosives, Low .... 4
Explosives, Lectures on Chemistry and,
Munroe . . . . IV, V
Explosives, Lectures on, Walke . . IV, V
Favier Powders, . . . .96
Filite, . . . . .120
Flameless Securite, . . . .92
Fluoramide, ..... 40
Fontaine's Powder, . . . .95
Force of Explosion. . . . .23
Forcite, . . . . .122
Friction Fuse Composition, U. S. Naval . 142
Fulminate Group of Explosive Mixtures, . 143
Fulminate, Copper . . . .47
" Gold .... 47
" Mercury . . . . 28, 46
" Platinum. ... 47
" Silver .... 46
Silver Ammonium . . 47
Silver Potassium . . 47
" Zinc .... 47
Fulminates, . . . . .45
Fuse Composition, Electric . . . 144
" Harvey . . .142
U. S. Naval Friction . 142
Gelatine Dynamite, . . . .122
Gelatine, Explosive ... 28, 118
Military . . . .118
German Powder, .... 142
Page.
Giant Powder, No. 1 . . .101
Giant Powder, No. 2 . . .103
Glucose, ..... 72
Glycerine, . . . . .65
Gold Fulminate, . . . .47
Griess, P. . . . . .43
Grisoutine, . . . . .101
Grisoutine Roche, . . . .97
Guncotton, . . . . . 28, 79
Guncotton and Azo-compound Mixtures, . Ill
" " Nitrobenzene Mixtures, . Ill
" Nitroglycerine Mixtures, . 116
" " Nitrotoluene Mixtures, . 115
" '• Picrate Mixtures, . . 113
Guncotton Mixtures, . . . 106
gunpowder, Black ... 28, 125
" Brown . . . .133
" Du Pont Brown . . 137
Haloclastite, . . . . .138
Harvey Fuse Composition, . . 142
Hecla Powder, . . . .105
Hellhoffite, .... 28, 31, 93.
Hercules Powder, . . . .104
Hexatomic Alcohols, Derivatives of . • 72
High Explosives, .... 4
Horsley Powder, . . . .105
Hydrazoic Acid, . . . .41
Indurite, 112
lodoamide, . . . • .39
INDEX. 7
Page.
Judson Powder, . . . .105
Kohlencarbonit, . . . . 103
Lactose, ..... 73
Leonard Powder, . 122
Low Explosives, .... 4
Lyddite, 114
Mannite, ..... 72
Material, Priming, Austrian. . .143
English . . .142
Maxim-Schupphaus Powder, . 107, 121
Melinite, . . . . 28, 113
Mendeleef, Professor . . .28, 34
Mercury Amine, . . . .41
Mercury Fulminate. . . . . 28, 46
Meta-amidodiazobenzolimide, . . 44
Jfifti-compounds, . . . .50
Met a ditriazobenzoic Acid, . . .44
Metamidotriazobenzoic Acid, . .44
Militaer Wochenblatt, . . .VI
Military Gelatine, . . . .118
Mixtures, Chlorate Group . . .139
" Containing Nitre-compounds or
Organic Nitrates , . .87
" Containing no Nitro-compounds
or Organic Nitrates . "* . 123
" Fulminate Group . . .143
" Guncotton . . .106
" Guncotton and Azo -compound . Ill
Page.
Mixtures, Guncotton and Nitrobenzene . Ill
" " Nitroglycerine . 116
Nitrotoluene . 115
'' " Picrate . . 113
4< Nitrate Group . . . 124
" Nitrobenzene . . .91
" Nitrogen Oxide Group . . 124
" Nitroglycerine . . .97
" Nitroglycerine and Nitrobenzene . 105
" " Picrate . 106
" Nitronaphthalene, . . 96
" Picrate . . . .94
Mononitrobenzene, . . . .51
Mononitronaphthalene, . . .60
Mononitrctoluene, . . . .57
Mortar Powder, . . . .28
Munroe, Prof. C. E. . . . IV, V
Naphthalene, . . . .59
Naphthalene, Derivatives of 59
Naphthalene Series, Derivatives of . . 59
Naval Institute, Proceedings of . V, VI
Naval, U. S. , Friction Fuse Composition . 142
u 4< Smokeless Powder . .109
Nitramites, . . . . .96
Nitrate Group of Explosive Compounds, . 124
Nitrates, Organic . . . .61
Nitrides, ..... 37
Nitrobenzene Mixtures, . . .91
Nitrobenzene Mixtures, Guncotton and . Ill
Nitrobenzenes, . . 51
INDEX. 9
Page
Nitrocellulose, . . . .74
Nitrocresol, . . . . .58
Nitro-compounds, . . . .47
Nitrocotton, Soluble . . .75
Nitrogen Bromide, . . . .40
" Chloride, .... 38
" Fluoride, .... 40
" Iodide, . . . .-30
" Oxide Group of Explosive Mixtures, 1:24
" Sulphide, . .40
Nitroglycerine, . . . . 28, 65
Nitroglycerine and Nitrobenzene Mixtures, . 105
"* Picrate Mixtures, . 106
Nitroglycerine Mixtures, . . .07
Nitroglycerine Mixtures, Guncotton and . 116
Nitrohydric Acid, . . . .41
Nitrohydrocellulose, . . . .87
Nitromannite, . . . .73
Nitronaphthalene . . . 8, 61
Nitronaphthalene Mixtures, . . 96
Nitro Starch, .... 73
Nitrosubstitution Compounds, . . 48
Nitrotoluene, . . . .58
Nitrotoluene Mixtures, Guncotton and . 115
Nobel Ardeer Powder, . . .102
Normal Powder, Swiss . * . 107
Orders of Explosion, . . .18
Ordnance and Gunnery, Bruff . . VI
Organic Nitrates, . ... 61
Origin of the Reactions in Explosion, . 12
10 INDEX.
Page.
Ortho Compounds, . . * . .50
Oxonite, . . . . . 31, 94
Panclastite, .... 31, 124
Para amidodiazobenzoic Acid, . . 44
Para Compounds, . . . .50
Para-ditriazobenzene, . . .44
Petroclastite, . . . .138
Peyton Powder, . . . .122
Phenol, ..... 54
Phenomena of Explosion, ... 4
Picrate Mixtures, . . . .94
" Guncotton and . . 113
4 * Nitroglycerine and . 106
Picrates, ... . .54
Picric Acid, . . . . .54
Plastomenite, . . . .115
Platinum Fulminate, . 42
Potassium Picrate, . . . .57
Potentite, . . . . .108
PoudreB, 107
Poudre B N, . . . . .110
Powder, Abel's . . . .95
" Aetna . ... .105
" American . . . .142
" American Safety . . .105
" Amide . . . .137
" Ardeer (Nobel) . . ,102
" Atlas . . . 28, 105
" Atlas A . . . .103
" Augendre's . . . .142
B 107
INDEX. 1 1
Pa ,'e.
Powder, B N . . . .110
Black ... 28, 125
Borlinetto's ... 95
" Brown, Common . . 28, 133
" " DuPont . . 28, 137
" Bruguere's . . . .95
" CasteUanos . . . 105, 106
" Cologne-Rottweiler Safety . . 138
Cotton No. 1 . . . 108
2 109
3 ... 112
" Designolle's . . . .95
" 4 Du Pont Brown Powder . 28, 137
" *Favier . . . .96
" Fontaine's . . . .95
11 German . . . .142
" Giant No. 1, ... 101
" " 2, 103
Hecla . . . .105
" Hercules .... 104
Horsley . . . .105
" Judson . . . .105
" Leonard . . . .122
" Maxim-Schupphaus . . 107
" Mortar . . . .28
" Naval Smokeless (U. S.) . . 109
" Nobel Ardeer . . .102
Normal (Swiss) . . .107
Peyton . . . .122
Safety . . 89, 97, 101, 104, 138
" Safety (Cologne-Rottweiler) . 138
Page.
Powder, Schultze . . . .40
" Smokeless . . . .31
" Swiss Normal . . . 107
" Toluol . . . .115
" Troisdorf . . . .109
" U. S. Naval Smokeless . . 109
Vielle's .... 107
" Volney .... 96
" Vulcan . . . .103
" W.-A. . . . . 120
" Wetteren . . . .122
" White . . . .142
Powders, Efficiencies of, Compared 28, 29, 34
'" Strong and Kapid . . . 25
" Strong and Slow . 26
Priming Material, Austrian . . . 143
" English . . .142
Proceedings U. 8. Naval Institute, . . V, VI
Products of Explosion, . . .21
Propagations of the Reactions in Explosion, 16
Pyrocollodion, . . . . 29, 76
Qninan Pressure-gauge, . . 28
Rack-a-Rock, . . .28, 31, 92
Rapidity of Reactions in Explosion, . 14
Reactions, Origin of the . . .12
Propagation of the . . 16
" Rapidity of the ... 14
Rendrock, . . . . .105
ftevue d> Artillerie, . . . .VI
INDEX. 13
Page.
Rifleite, . . . . .111
Roburite, . . . « .94
Romite, ..... 31
Saccharose, . . . . .73
Safety Powder, . . 89, 97, 101, 104, 138
" Cologne-Rottweiler. . 138
Schultze Powder, . . - .40
Securite, ..... 92
Sensitiveness of an Explosive, . . 20
Sevran Livry Explosive, . . .108
Silver Amine, .... 41
Silver-ammonium Fulminate, . . 47
Silver Fulminate, . . . .46
Silver Hydrazoate, . . . .42
Silver Nitride, .... 41
Silver-potassium Fulminate, . . 47
Smokeless Powder, . . . .31
11 Ballistite . . 120
" Cordite . . .119
" Filite . . .120
" Indurite. . . 112
" Leonard. . . 122
" Maxim-Schiipphaus 107, 121
" Peyton . . .122
" Plastomenite . .115
" PoudreB . . 107
" PoudreB N . . 110
" PyrocoUodion . . 29, 76
1 Eifleite . . .111
44 Schultze 40
14: INDEX.
Page.
Smokeless Powder, Swiss Normal . . 107
Troisdorf . . 109
IT. S. Naval . . 109
" W.-A. . . . 120
" Wetteren . . 122
Soluble Nitrocotton, . . . .75
Spontaneous Decomposition Causing Explosion, 15
Sprengel Class of Explosives, . 29
" " Rack-a-Rock 28, 31, 92
Hellhoffite 28, 31, 93
" " Oxonite . 31, 94
" " Panclastite 31, 124
" " Komite . . 31
Starch, ..... 72
Stonite, . . . • .105
Strength of Explosives, . . ^ .28
Sulphur Nitride, . . . .41
Swiss Normal Powder, . . . 107
Synchronous Vibrations in Explosion by In-
fluence, . . . .13
Tetranitronaphthalene, . . .61
Tillman, S. E., Professor . . . . IV
Toluene, . . . . .57
Toluene, Derivatives of . .57
Toluol Powder, . . . .115
Tonite, .... 28, 108
Triatomic Alcohols, Derivatives of . . 65
Triazo-Azobenzene, . . . .44
Trinitrobenzene, . . . .54
Trinitrocresol, . , . .58
\
INDEX. 1 5
Page.
Trinitronaphthalene, . • .61
Trinitrotoluene, . . . .58
Troisdorf Powder, . . . .109
U. S. Naval Friction Fuse Composition, . 142
* * Smokeless Powder, . . 109
VieUe's Powder, . . . .107
Vigorite, . . . . .104
Volney Powders, . . . .96
Vortex Motion in Explosion by Influence, . 13
Vulcan Powder, .... 103
Walke, lieut. W. . . . . IV, V
W.-A. Powder, . . . .120
Westphalite, . . . . .138
Wetterdynamite, • . 101
Wetteren Powder, . . . .122
White Powder, .... 142
Xyloidine, . . . „ . , 74
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