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V    ) 


THE    EXPOSITOR. 

VOL.    IX. 


Ipist  of  CTontributors  to  ilolumc  IX. 


Rev.  Prof.  Joseph  Agar  Beet. 

Rev.  Prof.  A.  B.  Bruce,  D.D. 

Very  Rev.  G.  A.  Chadwick,  D.D. 

Rev.  F.  H.  Chase,  M.A. 

Rev.  Prof.  T.  K.  Cheyne,  D.D. 

Rev.  Prof.  S.  Ives  Curtiss,  D.D.,  Ph.D. 

Rev.  Prof.  A.  B.  Davidsoint,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Rev.  Prof.  Franz  Delitzsch,  D.D. 

Rev.  Marcus  Dods,  D.D. 

Rev.  Prop.  S.  R.  Driver,  D.D. 

Ven.  Archdeacon  F.  W.  Farrar,  D.D.,  F.R.S. 

Rev.  Prof.  G.  G.  Findlay,  B.A. 

Josiah  Gilbert. 

Rev.  Augustus  Jessopp,  D.D. 

Rev.  Ed.  G.  King,  D.D. 

Rev.  Prof.  J.  Rawson  Luwby,  D.D. 

Rev.  Prof.  W.  Milligan,  D.D. 

Joseph  John  Murphy. 

Rev.  W.  W.  Peyton. 

Prof.  W.  M.  Ramsay,  M.A. 

Rev.  F.  Rendall,  M.A. 

Rev.  T.  G.  Selby. 

Rev.  Prof.  George  T.  Stokes,  D.D. 

The  Editor. 


?i-intcd  VCKCKardon  Paris. 


THE 


EXPOSITOR. 


EDITED    BV    THE    REV. 


W.    ROBERTSON    NICOLL,   M.A. 


THIRD  SERIES. 


IDoIume  IX. 


WITH  ETCHED   PORTRAIT  OF  REV.    PROFESSOR    CHEYNE. 
BY  H.  MAN  ESSE. 


HODDER    AND    STOUGHTON, 

27,    PATERNOSTER   ROW. 

MDCCCLXXXIX. 

\_All  rights  reset' <ed.'\ 


Butler  &  Tanner, 

The  Selwood  Printing  Works, 

Frome,  and  London. 


THE  LAST  NINE  CHAPTERS  OF  EZEKIEL. 

In  many  respects  the  last  nine  chapters  of  Ezekiel  (xl.- 
xlviii.)  stand  alone  in  Scripture  for  their  striking  pecuHarity.^ 
Let  us  first  (1)  epitomise  their  contents,  and  then  touch  on 
the  two  chief  problems  which  they  suggest  ;  namely,  (2)  For 
what  object  were  they  written?  and  (3)  In  w4iat;  relation 
do  they  stand  to  the  whole  system  of  Levitical  legislation  ? 

I.  They  are  entirely  unlike  the  rest  of  the  prophet's  writ- 
ings. Those  writings,  which  w^ere  doubtless  edited  in  their 
complete  form  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  fall  into  four 
parts.  (1)  The  first  twenty-four  chapters,  after  describing 
the  call  and  commission  of  Ezekiel,  dwell  on  the  approach- 
ing ruin  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem,  as  a  consequence  of  the 
iniquities  of  the  people.  With  the  exception  of  the  judg- 
ment pronounced  upon  the  Ammonites  in  xxi.  28-32,  they 
describe  the  doom  which  hung  over  the  Israel  of  the  past, 
a  doom  which  approached  ever  nearer  and  nearer  as  the 
prophecies  advanced.  Jerusalem,  then  as  in  the  days  of 
Christ,  knew  not  the  day  of  her  visitation,  and  she  was 
overwhelmed  by  that  final  catastrophe  which  ended  for 
ever  a  great  epoch  of  Jewish  history.  (2)  Turning  from 
the  fortunes  of  Judah,  Ezekiel,  in  chapters  xxv.  to  xxxii., 
utters  a  series  of  prophecies  against  seven  surrounding 
heathen  nations.  (3)  The  next  seven  chapters  (xxxiii.- 
xxxix.)  deal  mainly  with  the  future  trium^Dh  and  restoration 
of  Israel  and  God's  judgment  upon  her  enemies.  That  this 
is   the  general   idea  of  the  whole  final  section  is  obvious, 

^  "  Occupatus  in  explanatione  Tenipli  EzecLielis  quod  opus  in  omuibus  Scrip- 
tuns  Sanctis  yel  difficillimum  est." — Jerome,  Ep.  cxxx.  2. 

VOL.    IX.  I 


2    THE  LAST  NINE   CHAPTERS   OF  EZEKIEL. 

but  (4)  in  the  last  nine  chapters  (xl.-xlviii.)  the  prediction 
takes  a  unique  form. 

II.  Those  nine  chapters  furnish  a  singularly  detailed 
picture  of  the  organization  which  is  to  follow  the  prophesied 
restoration  of  the  people,  and  they  were  evidently  intended 
by  Ezekiel  to  be  the  crown  and  copingstone  of  his  work. 
They  were  written  B.C.  572,  in  the  twenty-fifth  year  after 
Ezekiel  and  his  companions  had  been  carried  into  captivity 
with  Jehoiakin,  and  therefore  fourteen  years  after  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem.^  That  quarter  of  a  century  of  captivity  had 
produced  an  immense  change  in  the  character  of  the  Exiles. 
Jeremiah  (chap,  xxiv.)  had  already  indicated  the  marked  reli- 
gious superiority  of  the  banished  Jews,  had  compared  them 
to  very  good  figs,  and  had  announced  their  future  pro- 
sperity and  faithfulness ;  while  he  had  compared  Zedekiah 
and  the  remnant  of  "  the  poorest  of  the  people"  left  with 
him  in  Jerusalem  to  very  evil  figs,  and  had  prophesied 
their  total  ruin  and  rejection.  The  Exiles  indeed,  as  we 
learn  from  Ezekiel  himself,  had  been  far  from  perfect ;  but 
in  one  respect  they  rose  superior  to  their  predecessors. 
The  old  temptation  to  idolatry  was  now  practically  dead. 
The  high  places,  and  other  local  sanctuaries,  which  so  many 
of  the  kings  of  Judah  had  tolerated,  or  had  in  vain  endea- 
voured to  suppress,  were  felt  to  be  as  much  things  of  the 
past  as  the  Gilluhm  Matzeboth  and  Asheroth,  which  had 
been  such  immemorial  emblems  of  apostatising  worship. 
The  prophet  could  safely  regard  the  old  guilty  past  as  a 
tabula  rasa,  and  could  organize  the  theocratic  institutions 
of  a  new  and  better  future.  These  nine  chapters  are  the 
foil  and  counterpoise  to  chapters  viii.-xvi.  As  those  chap- 
ters had  drawn  the  gloomy  picture  of  a  desecrated  Temple, 
a  doomed  city,  an  insolent  and  corrupt  aristocracy,  lying 
prophets,  and  a  miserable  people,  so  these  set  forth  a  grand 

1  In  Ezek.   xxxiii.   21,  "eleventh"   not   "twelfth"  is   the  leaclmg   of   the 
Peshito  and  some  MSS.,  and  iis  accepted  by  the  best  modern  critics. 


THE  LAST  NINE   CHAPTERS   OF  EZEKIEL.  3 

and  richly  supported  Temple,  a  sacerdotal  government,  a 
God-fearing  nation.  The  increase  and  enlightenment  of  the 
restored  tribes  is  symbolized  by  the  vision  of  the  waters 
(xlvii.  1-12),  of  which  an  English  poet  has  rightly  seen  the 
significance. 

"  East  the  forefront  of  babitations  boly 

Gleamed  to  En-gedi,  shoue  to  Eueglaim ; 
Softly  tbereout  and  from  thereunder  slowlj' 
Wandered  the  waters,  and  delayed,  and  came. 

Even  with  so  soft  a  surge  and  an  increasing, 
Drunk  of  the  sand,  and  thwarted  of  the  sod, 

Stilled,  and  astir,  and  checked,  and  never-ceasing, 
Spreadeth  the  great  wave  of  the  grace  of  God." 

Of  these  remarkable  chapters — remarkable  even  in  their 
prosaic  minuteness  and  mathematical  regularity — the  first 
four  (xl.-xliii.)  furnish  the  architectural  design  and  measure- 
ments of  the  Temple,  its  gates,  porch,  chambers,  orna- 
ments, and  a  description  of  the  altar  with  its  ordinances. 
The  next  three  (xliv.-xlvi.)  describe  the  relations  of  the 
Prince,  the  Priests,  the  Levites,  and  the  people  to  the 
Temple  and  its  worship.  The  last  two  give  the  vision  of 
the  waters,  and  describe  the  position  of  the  Temple  and  the 
Temple  city,  and  the  distribution  of  the  land  among  the 
twelve  tribes,  with  the  portions  assigned  to  the  Prince, 
the  Priests,  the  Levites,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  sacred 
service. 

What  are  we  to  think  of  these  chapters,  which,  as  a 
whole,  are  less  read,  and,  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two 
paragraphs,  seem  less  obviously  profitable,  than  almost  any 
part  of  the  Bible  ?  ^ 

Are  they  literal  or  purely  ideal  ?  In  other  words,  did 
Ezekiel  really  intend  that  his  visionary  sketch   should  be 

'  The  difficulties  presented  by  these  chapters  are  by  no  means  modern. 
Jerome  says,  "  Princiijia  et  finem  (Ezechiel)  tantis  hahet  ohscuritatibus  involuta 
ut  apud  HebrEeos  istae  partes  ante  annos  triginta  non  legantur." — Ep,  Hii.  7. 


TJIE  LAST  NINE   CHAPTERS   OF  EZEKIEL. 


carried  out  ?  or  was  he  merely  throwing  certain  broad  con- 
ceptions into  a  concrete  and  symbolic  form  ? 

].  Kuenen,  among  many  more  "orthodox  "  critics,  still 
maintains  that  Ezekiel  was  intensely  in  earnest,  and  meant 
all  his  directions  to  be  literally  carried  out  by  the  Exiles 
on  their  return.^  .But  the  difficulties  in  this  view  are  in- 
superable. It  is  impossible  to  work  architecturally  from 
verbal  directions,  and  no  two  plans,  drawn  on  Ezekiel's 
rules,  are  alike.  His  plans  had  no  resemblance  to  Solo- 
mon's Temple,  and  quite  as  little  to  the  humble  structure 
of  Zerubbabel.  If  they  were  intended  to  be  followed  it  is 
hardly  reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  would  have  been  so 
absolutely  ignored ;  for  though  they  must  have  been  well 
known,  neither  Zerubbabel,  nor  Ezra,  nor  Nehemiah,  nor 
subsequently  the  Pharisees  and  Boethusim  m  the  days  of 
Herod  took  any  notice  of  them.  No  prophetic  instructions 
could  have  been  more  absolutely  disregarded.  They  were 
treated  as  a  dead  letter  from  the  first.  And  indeed  the 
entire  directions  about  the  division  of  the  land  among  the 
tribes,  if  literalhj  taken,  would  have  been  physically  impos- 
sible and  ludicrously  unjust.  The  strips  of  land  differ 
immensely  in  value,  and  some  of  them  are  hardly  habitable. 
The  twelve  tribes  did  not  return  at  all,  but  only  a  handful 
of  families,  mostly  from  Judah  and  Benjamin,  who  formed 
but  an  insignificant  fraction  of  the  entire  nation.  Further, 
some  of  the  tribes  had  for  long  years  practically  ceased  to 
exist  at  all.  Gad  and  Eeuben  and  Simeon  had  melted 
away,  long  before,  into  the  mass  of  surrounding  nomads,  and 

'  Compare  Wellbausen,  Prolegomena,  p.  60,  etc.  "  So  loug  as  the  sacrificial 
worship  remained  in  actual  use,  it  was  zealously  carried  on ;  but  people  did 
not  concern  themselves  with  it  theoretically,  and  had  not  the  least  occasion  for 
reducing  it  to  a  code.  But  once  the  Temple  was  in  ruins,  the  culture  at  an  end, 
its  personnel  out  of  employment,  it  is  easy  to  understand  how  the  sacred  places 
should  have  become  a  matter  of  theory  and  writing,  so  that  it  might  not 
altogether  perish,  and  how  an  exiled  priest  should  have  begun  to  paint  the 
picture  of  it  as  he  carried  it  in  his  memory,  and  to  publish  it  as  a  programme 
for  the  future  restoration  of  the  theocracy." 


THE  LAST  NINE   CHAPTERS   OF  EZEKIEL.  5 

Dan  only  survived  in  the  single  colony  which  it  had  sent  to 
the  north.  Ezekiel's  distribution  is  wholly  different  from 
that  of  Joshua,  and  contradicts  that  of  Obadiah.^  It 
simply  consists  of  drawing  horizontal  lines  with  a  ruler 
between  the  Jordan  and  the  Mediterranean.  With  total 
disregard  of  all  physical  features,  and  without  even  noticing 
the  territory  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  Ezekiel  partitions 
Western  Palestine  into  twelve  strips,  which  are  professedly 
equal,  but  which,  owing  to  the  greater  breadth  of  the  land 
southwards,  assign  three  times  more  territory  to  Issachar, 
Zebulun,  and  Gad,  than  to  Manasseh  or  Ephraim. 
Moreover  the  arrangement  of  the  Temple  "  oblation  "  is 
geographically  impossible,  as  it  would  have  had  to  en- 
croach far  beyond  the  Jordan,  which  is  excluded  by  the 
stated  boundaries.^  Ezekiel,  consciously  or  unconsciously, 
places  the  Temple  nine  miles  and  a  half  from  Jerusalem, 
and  fourteen  miles  and  a  quarter  from  its  centre.  He 
wholly  removes  it  from  Mount  Moriah,  and  brings  it  much 
nearer  to  Mount  Gerizim.  He  makes  its  precincts  a  mile 
square,  which  was  larger  than  the  whole  area  of  Jerusa- 
lem, and  yet  places  it  "upon  the  top  of  the  mountain."^ 
The  vision  of  the  waters  stands  by  itself  in  chapter  xlvii. 
There  is  no  very  high  mountain  (xl.  '2,  xliii.  12)  in  the 
position  described,  and  the  stream,  if  understood  literally, 
would  have  had  to  flow  uphill,  and  over  the  watershed. 
This  consideration  should  be  sufficient  to  show  that  we  are 
face  to  face  with  a  dream  or  vision,  representing  an  ideal 
picture.  Nor  is  the  particularity  and  tediousness  of  the 
detail  any  objection  to  this  view,  for  it  is  characteristic  of 
that  total  change  of  style  which  marks  the  epoch  in  which 


•  See  Obad.  19,  20.  "  Ezek.  xlvii.  15-21. 

^  Ezek.  xliii.  12.  In  these  measurements  the  "  cubit  "  is  taken  at  an  average 
of  twenty  inches,  but  the  general  facts  remain  unaltered  if  it  be  made  a  little 
more  or  a  little  less.     See  Prof.  Gardiner's   notes  and  introduction  in  Bishop 

Kllicott's  Coinmcntiin/, 


THE  LAST  NINE   CHAPTERS   OF  EZEKIEL. 


Ezekiel  wrote,  and  the  commencing  decadence  of  the  pro- 
phetic and  literary  spirit. 

■2.  The  wild  notion  that  the  sketch  is  all  "fufiLvist," 
i.e.  a  prophecy  which  still  awaits  its  literal  fulfilment, 
may  be  dismissed  without  further  notice.  It  would  involve 
a  retrogression  from  the  spiritual  to  the  material,  from 
Christianity  to  Judaism,  from  the  Cross  to  animal  sacri- 
fices, from  the  freedom  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ  to  the 
bondage  of  weak  and  beggarly  rudiments. 

H.  Are  these  chapters  then  allegorical  ?  Do  they  fore- 
shadow great  spiritual  lessons  derivable  from  the  attaching 
of  a  mystic  meaning  to  their  numberless  details  ?  If  so, 
never  did  any  allegory  more  absolutely  fail  of  its  purpose, 
and  fail  even  to  furnish  the  least  indication  that  it  is  meant 
to  be  allegorical  at  all.  That  view  may  be  therefore  set 
aside  as  a  chimera  which  no  one  now  pretends  to  maintain. 

4.  Are  they  then  symbolical  /  That  they  contain  certain 
general  symbolical  elements  seems  very  probable.  Sym- 
bolism was  undoubtedly  at  work  in  many  of  the  Levitical 
arrangements,  and  in  the  order,  regularity,  and  unity  of  the 
land  and  Temple,  as  Ezekiel  sketched  it,  there  was  a  visible 
picture,  to  teach 

'■  The  art  of  order  to  a  peopled  kingdom"  ' 

Ezekiel  probably  meant  his  rules  and  measurements  to  add, 
in  a  subsidiary  way,  to  the  vividness  of  the  intended  plan, 
just  as  Dante  did  when  he  tells  us  that  the  face  of  his 
Nimrod  was 

" lunga  e  grossa 

Come  la  piiia  di  San  Pietro  a  Eoma  "  ; 

and  that  three  Frieslanders,  standing  one  on  another, 
could  not  have  reached  from  his  middle  to  his  hair.  The 
detail  and  particularity  are  only  ornaments  of  the  general 

^  Compare  the  miuute  particularity  of  St.  John's  details  of  the  New  Jeru- 
salem (Eev.  xxi.  IC),  IS). 


THE  LAST  NINE    CHAFTERS    OF  EZEKIEL.  7 

conception.     They  belong  to  the  hterary  art  of  irph  oiijxdrwv 
TToielv. 

5.  But  it  would  perhaps  be  truer  to  say  that  Ezekiel's 
picture  is  ideal  than  that  it  is  symbolical.  It  is  the  fond 
dream  of  the  exile  respecting  principles  which  he  thought 
might  find  at  least  an  analogous  fulfilment,  even  if  they 
could  never  be  exactly  realized.  AVe  have  parallelograms 
everywhere,  which  faintly  indicate  the  righteousness  of 
Jehovah,  and  the  symmetry  and  proportion  of  all  that 
pertains  to  His  perfectness.  And  everything  is  so  arranged 
as  to  tend  to  the  unity  and  centralization  of  worship.  The 
Temple  is  to  be  magnificently  secluded  and  magnificently 
maintained.  "Holiness  to  the  Lord"  is  to  be  visibly 
stamped  upon  all  its  ceremonial  and  all  its  surroundings. 
Its  servitors  are  to  exercise  a  hierarchical  influence  over  the 
whole  nation,  and  to  hold  a  position  of  the  highest  dignity. 
Even  the  Messianic  King,  so  gloriously  heralded  by  more 
ancient  predictions,  vanishes  before  the  Priestly  Caste.  No 
longer  as  of  old  is  the  King  of  the  house  of  David  to  be, 
as  it  were,  the  vicegerent  of  Jehovah  and  the  priests  his 
servants.  There  is  to  be  no  prominent  High  Priest,  and 
no  powerful  King,  but  only  a  sacerdotal  order,  to  whom 
the  Prince  is  more  or  less  subordinate.  In  Ezekiel's  ideal 
the  nation  has  been  merged  into  the  Church  ;  the  Prophet 
recedes  and  vanishes  before  the  Priesthood ;  and  cere- 
monial takes  the  place  of  inspiration.  Jeremiah,  dissatisfied 
with  the  too  superficial  reformation  in  the  days  of  Josiah, 
had  looked  forward  to  an  evanescence  of  the  old  system, 
and  the  estg^blishment  of  a  new  covenant.  In  that  new 
covenant  there  were  to  be  no  priests,  and  no  Temple.  But 
the  time  for  it  had  not  arrived.  The  old  covenant  had 
not  yet  "waxed  old,"  nor  was  it  ready  to  vanish  away 
(Heb.  viii.  13).  Ezekiel  was  a  priest,  and  wrote  with  all  a 
priest's  sympathy  for  sacerdotalism  and  ritual.  He  estab- 
lishes the  foundations  of  the  new  covenant  as  it  is  given  to 


8    THE  LAST  NINE   CHAPTERS   OF  EZEKIEL. 


him  to  regard  it,  but  with  an  ideal  widely  different  from 
that  of  the  elder  prophet.  The  predominant  conception  of 
Jeremiah  is  that  of  moral  righteousness  and  individual 
fidelity  ;  ^  but  Ezeldel  can  only  conceive  of  these  blessings 
with  the  concomitants  of  an  established  Church,  an  in- 
violable sanctuary,  a  richly  endowed  order  of  ministers,  an 
elaborated  ceremonial  cultus,  a  hohness  largely  guaranteed 
by  outward  purifications  and  propitiatory  offerings.-  These 
he  sets  forth  with  all  the  laborious  minuteness  which  is  the 
characteristic  of  his  method.  And,  so  far  from  being  an 
idle  play  of  fancy,  his  scheme,  though  never  even  approxi- 
mately carried  out,  yet  produced  a  deep  impression  on  the 
minds  of  his  countrymen.  During  his  lifetime  he  had  to 
bear  the  martyrdom  of  hatred  which  awaits  all  precursors, 
but  he  illustrates  a  tendency  which  lay  deep  in  the  hearts 
of  some  of  his  contemporaries,  and  which,  more  than  a 
century  after  he  was  in  his  grave,  was  embodied  in  those 
formal  ordinances  which  are  the  essence  of  Judaism.  The 
impulse  which  he  began,  and  which  was  fixed  by  Ezra  and 
isehemiah,  preserved  the  nationality  of  the  Jewish  rem- 
nant, and  enabled  them  to  carry  out  the  work  for  which 
they  were  destined  in  the  great  Evangelic  Preparation  ;  but 
its  exaggerated  and  exclusive  development  ended  in  the 
Pharisaism  which  Paul  destroyed  by  the  power  of  his 
reasoning,  and  on  which  Christ  pronounced  His  sternest 
denunciations. 

It  will  be  seen  then  how  momentous  are  these  chapters, 
because  they  mark  the  transition  of  the  monarchy  into  the 
hierarchy ;  of  the  old  religion  of  the  Hebrews  into  Judaic 
formalism  ;  of  the  Prophet  into  the  Priest.  The  new  move- 
ment ended  in  the  supersession  of  Priests  themselves  by 


1  Jer.  vi.  H)-21  ;  vii.  21-2G, 

-  How  different  are  the  tone  and  attitude  of  Ezeldel  towards  sacrifices  from 
those  adopted  by  the  earlier  prophets!  (Amos  iv.  4,  5 ;  v.  21;  Mic.  vi.  6-8; 
Isa.  i.  11-14.  etc.) 


THE   LAST  NINE    CHAPTERS    OF  EZEKIEL. 


Rabbis  and  Scribes.  The  study  of  this  section  of  Ezekiel 
is  as  necessary  for  the  understanding  of  the  reformation 
wrought  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  as  the  study  of  those  books 
is  necessary  for  the  understanding  of  the  Oral  Tradition, 
the  ExternaHsm,  and  the  idolatry  of  the  letter,  which 
reached  their  zenith  in  Pharisaism,  and  which  were  finally 
crystallized  in  the  Talmudic  system. 

III.  But  even  now  we  have  not  exhausted  the  historic 
and  critical  importance  of  these  chapters,  nor  have  we  even 
touched  on  the  yet  more  curious  and  difficult  problems 
which  they  suggest. 

For  when  we  examine  more  closely  this  reconstruction  of 
Judaism  by  the  idealizing  imagination  of  an  exile  who  was 
unfettered  by  tradition  and  out  of  contact  with  realities,  it 
is  found  that  these  eight  chapters  abound  with  verbal  resem- 
blances and  coincidences  to  certain  chapters  of  Leviticus, 
so  close  and  so  numerous  that  only  the  blind  tenacity  of  a 
desperate  foregone  conclusion  can  still  pretend  to  maintain 
that  the  documents  are  entirely  independent  of  each  other. 
Even  those  who  still  think  it  necessary  to  argue  that  there 
is  nothing  but  fortuitous  resemblance  between  certain  parts 
of  2  Peter  and  certain  paragraphs  of  Josephus  w'ill  not  and 
cannot  attempt  to  deny  that  the  supposition  of  independent 
and  fortuitous  resemblance  between  Ezekiel  xl.-xlviii.  and 
Leviticus  xvii.-xxvi.  is  absurd.  This  section  of  Leviticus 
has  affinities  to  Deuteronomy ;  but  it  differs  from  that  book 
in  many  respects,  and  approaches  to  Ezekiel  both  in  its 
special  conception  of  "  holiness"  in  closest  connexion  with 
material  worship,  and  in  the  use  of  a  long  list  of  words, 
phrases,  and  sentences.^  A  number  of  writers — and  among 
others  Vatke,   George,  Hupfeld,   Knobel,   Reuss,   Lagarde, 

'  Wellhausen,  I.e.,  378.  Coleuso,  Pentateuch  and  Joshua  vi.  3-23.  Harst, 
Lev.  unci  Hezekiel,  pp.  72-77.  SmenJ,  Ezechiel  pp.  xxv.,  xxvi.  "  Diese  Ueberein- 
stimmung  ist  um  so  gewichtiger  als  sie  grossenthiels  eine  wortliche  ist,  und 
zwar  im  Worten  die  sich  zii  eiuem  grosseu  Theil  sonst  uirgends  in  A.T. 
linden."' 


10        TEE  LAST  NINE   GHAPTEBS   OF  EZEKIEL. 


Graf,  Wellhausen,  Colenso,  Kuenen,  Smend,  Horst,  Kobert- 
son  Smith— have  sifted  and  examined  these  coincident 
phrases,  and  have  formed  their  own  conclusions  respecting 
them ;  but  neither  they  nor  any  other  competent  and 
honest  critic  has  attempted  to  deny  their  existence.  Hence 
these  chapters  have  been  called  by  Orth  "the  key  to  the 
criticism  of  the  Old  Testament  "  ;  and  on  the  final  interpre- 
tation of  the  phenomena  which  they  present  must  depend 
in  some  measure  our  view  of  the  true  sequence  of  the 
religious  history  of  the  Jews.  There  have  been  various 
hypotheses  to  account  for  them,  and  for  the  peculiarities  of 
Ezekiel  in  general. 

An  English  writer  in  the  Montlilij  Magazine  of  May, 
1798,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  last  nine  chapters  of 
Ezekiel  are  spurious.  Zunz  ^  went  further,  and  doubted  the 
genuineness  of  the  entire  book,  which  he  considered  to  have 
been  written  B.C.  440-400.  He  argued  from  special  pre- 
dictions, from  the  allusions  to  Daniel,  from  the  mention  of 
the  wine  of  Halybon,"from  the  inconceivability  of  supposing 
that  Ezekiel,  in  B.C.  572,  could  have  ventured  to  propose 
a  new  Law  and  a  new  distribution  of  the  land,  and  from 
various  grammatical  and  linguistic  peculiarities.  He  was 
strengthened  in  his  view  by  the  facts  that  (1)  the  Talmud 
asserts  that  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue  ^^  wrote" 
Ezekiel,"  and  that  (2)  the  canonicity  of  the  book  was  still 
disputed  by  the  Jews  at  the  close  of  the  first  century  after 
Christ.^  It  is  needless  now  to  examine  this  hypothesis, 
because  it  breaks  down  under  overwhelming  proofs  of  the 
genuineness  of  the  book,  and  Zunz  has,  in  fact,  found  no 
followers. 

1  Gottcsd.  Von.,  157-1C2,  1S32.     Gcmmmelte  Schriften,  226-233,  1878. 

'  Ezek.  xxvii.  18,  "  The  wine  of  Chalybon  in  Syria  was  a  favourite  luxury  of 
the  Persian  kings."  a  Bava  Bathra,  15,  1. 

*  In  Shabbath,  f.  13.  2  we  are  told  that  the  Book  of  Ezekiel  would  have 
been  suppressed  for  its  contradictions  to  the  Law,  but  for  Hauaniah  ben  His- 
kiah,  who  after  long  lucubrations  reconciled  the  discrepancies. 


TEE  LAST  NINE   GEAPTEBS   OF  EZEKIEL.        11 


But  in  1866  Graf  called  closer  attention  to  the  simila- 
rities between  Ezekiel  and  Leviticus  xviii.-xxvi. ;  ^  and 
though  his  views  were  for  a  long  time  somewhat  superci- 
liously rejected  and  airily  condemned,  the  attention  of  later 
critics  was  called  to  the  phenomena  which  he  pointed  out, 
and  various  theories  have  been  suggested  to  account  for 
them. 

1.  Some  have  argued  that  Ezekiel  copied  from  Leviticus, 
and  this  will  probably  be  the  only  view  which  will  be 
accounted  "  orthodox."  To  this  view  we  will  return  later 
on,  only  remarking  that  God  knows  of  no  orthodoxy  except 
the  truth,  and  that  the  attempt  to  identify  orthodoxy,  with- 
out examination,  with  preconceived  and  purely  traditional 
opinions  is  rooted  in  cowardice,  and  has  been  prolific  of 
casuistry  and  disaster. 

2.  Graf  argued,  on  the  other  hand,  that  Ezekiel  was  the 
actual  author  of  that  part  of  the  "Priestly  Cod6x,"  which 
is  contained  in  those  chapters  of  Leviticus."  His  view  has 
been  ably  supported  with  some  modifications  in  the  mono- 
graph of  L.  Horst.'' 

In  forming  this  conclusion,  Graf  was  actuated  too  exclu- 
sively by  linguistic  considerations,  which  can  never  be  fully 
valid  apart  from  historic  examination.  For  if  there  are 
close  resemblances  of  style  between  these  sections  of  Levi- 
ticus and  Ezekiel,  there  are,  as  Kuenen  points  out,  remark- 


^  See  Wellliausen,  Prolegomena,  p.  11.  Eng.  traus. 

The  resemblances  are  most  numerous  between  Ezekiel  and  Lev.  xxvi. 
Colenso  (vi.  3  ff.)  counts  thirty  which  occur  nowhere  else  in  the  Bible,  and 
Smeud  says,  "  Lev.  xxvi.  ist  wesentlich  eine  Composition  aus  ezechielischen 
Eedensarten,"  p.  xxvi. 

-  The  name  of  "  The  Priestly  Codex  "  is  given  not  only  to  these  chapters  of 
Leviticus,  but  also  to  parts  of  the  Books  of  Exodus  and  Numbers  which  deal 
with  worship  and  priestly  functions  ;  but  it  is  fully  admitted  by  the  critics  that 
it  contains  elements  older  than  the  Exile.  It  is  obvious  at  once  that  Lev. 
xviii.-xxiii.  with  xxv.,  xxvi.,  differ  in  style  from  Lev.  i.-xvi.  and  xxvii.  See 
Kuenen,  Religion  of  Israel,  vol.  ii.,  p.  183. 

•'  On  Lev.  xvii.-xxvi.  and  Ezekiel  (Colmar,  1881). 


THE  LAST  NINE   CHAPTERS    OF  EZEKIEL. 


able  differences  of  legislation.^  Thus  the  Temple  of  Ezekiel 
has  only  doors,  while  that  of  Leviticus  has  a  curtain 
(Lev.  xxi.  23,  Ezek.  xli.  23).  Ezekiel  does  not  so  much  as 
mention  a  High  Priest  (Lev.  xxi.  10),  and  speaks  of  the 
sons  of  Zadok,  not  of  the  sons  of  Aaron  in  general.  Most 
strange  of  all,  Ezekiel  seems  deliberately  to  pass  over 
if  he  does  not  exclude  the  Day  of  Atonement  with  its  com- 
plex and  deeply  symbolic  ritual  (Lev.  xxvi.  23-32,  xxv. 
9).-  He  also  leaves  unnoticed  the  feast  of  Pentecost 
and  the  sheaf  of  the  firstfruits  (Lev.  xxiii.  10-14),  while  he 
prescribes  other  sacrifices  ;  nor  does  he  mention  the  use 
of  wine  at  the  sacrifices  (Lev.  xxiii.  13).  On  any  hypothesis 
Ezekiel  works  with  an  independence  truly  amazing,  if  he 
was  fully  aware  of  the  institutions  now  enshrined  in  the 
Pentateuch.  Thus,  he  not  only  ignores  the  High  Priest, 
but  represents  "the  prince"  as  performing  some  of  his 
functions,^  and  in  exalting  the  descendants  of  Zadok,  de- 
grades the  Levites  into  a  position  altogether  inferior.*  As 
though  their  general  inferiority  had  not  been  recognised 
in  the  Mosaic  legislation,  a  special  and  modern  reason  is 
assigned  for  their  future  subordination.  In  the  division  of 
the  land  not  a  syllable  is  said  about  their  forty-eight  cities, 
or  even  about  the  Eefuge  cities.  Ezekiel  sets  to  work  as 
though  Moses,  as  we  have  hitherto  regarded  his  institutions, 
had  never  existed.  It  is  strange  that  if  the  Pentateuch, 
or   even   considerable   portions  of  Exodus,   Numbers,   and 

'  See  Eeuss,  Gesch.  d.  Alten  Testaments,  p.  253.  Eashi  points  to  Ezek.  xliv. 
31,  xlv.  20,  as  contradictions  to  the  Law. 

-  It  has  been  argued  however,  that  the  language  of  xU.  3— where  the  angel 
only  enters  the  Holiest  Place— implies  Ezekiel's  recognition  of  a  chief  Priest 
and  his  entrance  into  it  once  a  year. 

3  Ezek.  xlvi. 

■*  Ezek.  xlviii.  11.  In  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy  the  name  of  Priests  is  ex- 
tended to  Levites,  and  the  right  of  sharing  in  the  sacrifices  is  conceded  (Deut. 
xviii.  G-8)  to  Levites  who  come  from  distant  places  ;  but  in  Ezekiel  a  sort  of 
compensation  is  given  them  for  the  loss  of  their  maintenance  and  of  sacrificial 
dues  (Ezek.  xliv.  10-10).  In  Deuteronomy  we  have  the  phrase,  "  the  priests 
the  Levites,"  but  in  the  Priestly  Codex  "  the  Priests  (ind  the  Levites," 


THE  LAST  NINTJ   CHAPTERS    OF  EZEKIEL.        13 

Leviticus  were  in  his  hands,  he  should  have  ventured  to 
prescribe  an  entirely  different  Temple,  an  entirely  different 
altar,  and  widely  different  feasts,  sacrifices,  and  priestly 
regulations.  His  views  are  all  in  the  direction  of  those 
expressed  in  the  Priestly  Codex,  but  the  differences  between 
them  are  too  great  to  admit  of  Graf's  supposition,  that  he 
was  the  author  of  the  section  of  Leviticus.^ 

3.  The  only  other  hypothesis  is,  that  these  chapters  of 
Leviticus  were  a  modification  of  the  ideal  of  Ezekiel  by 
some  priest  or  priests  working  in  his  spirit,  but  altering  his 
regulations  into  accordance  with  the  actual  condition  of  the 
exiles  after  their  return.  This  is  the  view  which  seems  to 
be  taken  by  the  majority  of  recent  scholars  who  have  inde- 
pendently examined  the  question.  They  think  that  the 
true  order  of  documents  in  the  Pentateuch  is  Jehovist, 
Deuteronomist,  Priestly  Codex  ;  and  that  the  latter  regu- 
lates the  actual  adoption  of  that  centralization  of  worship 
which  the  Deuteronomist  has  demanded.  The  time  has  not 
yet  come  to  decide  on  these  questions,  but  meanwhile  it 
is  remarkable  to  find  so  eminent  and  stanchly  orthodox  a 
scholar  as  the  veteran  Delitzsch  saying,  "  I  am  now  con- 
vinced that  the  processes  which  in  their  origin  and  progress 
have  resulted  in  the  final  form  of  the  Torah,  as  we  now 
possess  it,  continued  into  the  period  subsequent  to  the 
Exile."  ~ 

4.  Knobel,  Noldeke,  and  other  critics  agree  with  the 
ordinary  view  in  regarding  the  Priestly  Code  as  far  more 
ancient  than  the  Book  of  Ezekiel.  This  is  indeed  generally 
admitted,  as  regards  many  of  its  elements,  but  the  literary 
difficulties  are  still  unsolved.  How  comes  it  that  this 
section  of  Ezekiel  is  completely  saturated  with  the  language 

^  For  otlier  aud  verbal  differences  see  Smend,  p.  xxvii.  He  says,  "  Trotz 
dieser  grossen  Uebereinstimmung  von  Lev.  xvii.  li'.,  mit  der  Sprache  und  den 
Gedanken  Ez.'s  kann  dieser  docli  uniuo(jUch  fiir  den  Verfasser  jenes  Corpus 
getten." 

-  Zeitschr.  jiir  K.  Wissensch.,l%SQ. 


14        THE  LAST  NINE   GRAFTERS   OF  EZEKIEL. 


of  one  particular  section  of  Leviticus,  and  of  that  section 
only?  How  conies  it  that  the  prophet  legislates  for  the 
future  in  a  way  which  was  totally  disregarded,  and  which 
presents  so  many  divergences  from  all  other  parts  of  the 
Mosaic  legislation,  and  even  from  the  very  chapter  to  which 
he  presents  so  close  an  affinity?  Above  all,  what  is  the 
relation  of  Ezekiel  in  general  to  Leviticus  xxvi.,  in  which 
both  the  thoughts  and  the  language  are  so  remarkably 
akin?^  Is  it  possible  to  entertain  the  suggestion  that  the 
authors  of  both  sections  were  working  on  some  common 
and  older  document  ? 

I  do  not  think  that  the  time  is  at  all  ripe  for  any  final 
decision  of  the  questions  thus  raised  ;  but  few  of  those  who 
have  studied  the  results  of  modern  criticism,  and  who 
know  the  extent  to  which  they  are  being  adopted  by  some 
of  our  leading  English  scholars,  can  doubt  that  we  must 
be  prepared  for  considerable  modifications  of  the  traditional 
belief  as  to  the  unity  of  composition  of  the  Pentateuch. 
Let  me  only  remark  in  conclusion  that  such  questions  are 
in  no  sense  religious  questions.  They  do  not  touch  even 
the  outermost  hem  of  religion.  They  are  questions  which 
in  no  wise  infringe  upon  a  single  article  of  the  Christian 
faith.  Their  solution  can  never  be  influenced  by  a  'priori 
bias,  or  by  the  loud  assertion  and  thump  on  the  table  of 
ignorant  dogmatists,  accompanied  by  the  oracular  anathema 
that  any  one  who  thinks  differently  from  them  is  "a 
heretic."  The  ultimate  decision  rests  with  the  science  of 
criticism  alone.  The  great  eternal  conceptions  which  we 
derive  from  the  Scriptures,  and  which  make  them  more 
precious  than  all  other  literature,  are  entirely  untouched 
by  inquiries  as  to  the  age  and  authorship  of  certain  por- 
tions of  them.  The  eternal  supremacy  of  the  Bible  de- 
pends on  the  moral   and  spiritual  lessons  which  are  to  be 

^  Horsf  s  book  is  written  to  prove  that  tiie  chapters  iu  Ezekiel  are  a  redaction 
of  the  earlier  sketch  in  Leviticus,  which  he  also  assigns  to  Ezekiel's  authorship. 


THREE   PASSAGES   IN  ST.   PAUL'S  EPISTLES.     15 

derived  so  richly  and  to  so  unique  a  degree  from  all  its 
books.  Our  opinions  as  to  the  date  or  unity  of  these  books 
may  be  inevitably  changed  by  historical  discoveries  or  by 
critical  analysis,  but  as  long  as  man's  spirit  retains  the 
spiritual  gift  of  discriminating  the  transcendent,^  so  long 
will  the  Bible  continue  to  be  the  most  precious  treasure  of 
the  human  race,  because  in  it  we  hear — far  more  clearly 
than  either  in  the  inarticulate  speech  of  the  universe  or 
in  the  articulate  voices  of  other  men — the  intelligible  utter- 
ance of  the  Word  of  God. 

F.  W.  Farkae. 


NOTES  ON  THREE  PASSAGES  IN  ST.   PAUL'S 
EPISTLES. 

1  Corinthians  x.  4  :  "  For  they  drank  of  a  spiritual  rock 
that  followed  them  :  and  the  rock  was  Christ." 

It  has  often  been  remarked  that  St.  Paul's  phraseology 
is  here  probably  determined  by  a  Jewish  legend  respecting 
the  well  which  the  Israelites  are  related  in  Numbers  xxi. 
16  ff.  to  have  dug  upon  their  arrival  at  the  border  of  Moab. 
The  Targum  of  Onqelos  exhibits  to  us  this  legend  in  its 
genesis.  The  passage  referred  to  describes  how  the  Israel- 
ites, upon  reaching  a  place  called  Beer,  dug  a  well  there  to 
the  words  of  a  song,  which  is  quoted  ;  and  the  song  is 
followed,  somewhat  abruptly,  by  a  continuation  of  their 
itinerary,  the  names  in  which,  as  well  that  of  the  place 
Beer,  happen  to  be  significant  in  Hebrew :  thus,  "  (16)  And 
thence  (they  journeyed)  to  Beer  {luell)  :  that  is  the  well 
whereof  the  Lord  said  unto  Moses,  Gather  the  people 
together,  and  I  will  give  them  water.  (17)  Then  sang 
Israel  this  song : 

.*  Kai  SoKifJ-d^di  TO.  OMfpepoPTa. — ^Eoiii.  ii.  18. 


16         NOTES    ON  THREE  PASSAGES 


Spring  up,  O  well ;  sing  ye  to  it : 
(18)  The  well  which  the  princes  digged, 

AVhich  the  nobles  of  the  people  delved, 
AVith  the  sceptre,  and  with  their  staves. 

And  from  the  wilderness  to  Mattanah  (gift)  :  (19)  and  from 
Mattanah  to  Nahaliel  (torrent  of  God)  ;  and  from  Nahaliel 
to  Bamoth  {high-jjlaces)  ;  (20)  and  from  Bamoth  to  the 
ravine  that  is  in  the  field  of  Moab,  the  top  of  Pisgah,  which 
looketh  down  upon  the  desert,"  The  old  Jewish  interpre- 
tation of  the  passage,  as  found  in  the  Targum  of  Onqelos, 
connected  however  both  the  first  part  of  verse  16  and  the 
words  following  the  song,  not  with  the  movements  of  the 
Israelites,  but  with  the  ivell.  We  read  accordingly  in  the 
Targum  :  "  (16)  And  thence  the  well  2vas  given  unto  them  : 
that  is  the  well  of  which  the  Loed  said  unto  Moses,  Gather 
the  people  together,  and  I  will  give  them  water.  (17)  Then 
sang  Israel  this  song,  *  Spring  up,  0  well :  sing  ye  to  it :  (18) 
The  well  which  the  princes  digged,  which  the  heads  of  the 
people,  the  scribes,  delved  with  their  staves.'  And  from  the 
wilderness  it  was  given  to  them  ;  (19)  and  from  the  time 
that  it  was  given  to  them,  it  went  down  with  them  to  the 
torrents,  and  from  the  torrents  it  went  up  with  them  to 
the  high  places ;  and  from  the  high  places  to  the  valleys  in 
the  fields  of  Moab,"  etc.  Because  Mattanah  happens  to 
be  capable  of  an  interpretation  in  Hebrew,  it  was  referred 
to  the  well,  which  was  supposed  accordingly  to  have  accom- 
panied the  Israelites  up  hill  and  down  dale  in  their  subse- 
quent journeyings!  This  however  is  not 'all.  The  well  was 
further  imagined  to  have  been  with  them  previously,  and 
the  office  of  the  princes  on  such  an  occasion  as  Numbers 
XX.  17  was  merely  to  evoke  it  into  activity.  On  account, 
also,  partly  of  the  fact  that  immediately  after  the  death 
of  Miriam  it  is  said  (Num.  xx.  2)  that  the  people  had  no 
water,  and  partly  of  the  similarity  between  the  verse  Num- 


IN  ST.   PAUL'S  EPISTLES.  17 


bers  xxi.  17  "Then  sang  Israel  this  song,"  and  Exodus  xv. 
21  "And  Miriam  answered  and  said,  Sing  to  the  Lord," 
it  was  attributed  to  the  "merit"  of  Miriam  {'Q'^~\!2  JIIDQ). 
Thus  we  read  in  the  Midrash  Kabbah  (a  compilation  some 
centuries  later  than  the  Targum  of  Onqelos),  on  Numbers 
i.  1 :  "  They  had  the  well  through  the  merit  of  Miriam, 
as  it  is  written,  '  And  Miriam  died,  and  was  buried  there.' 
And  what  follows  immediately  after?  'And  the  congrega- 
tion had  no  ivater.'  And  how  was  the  well  formed?  It 
was  a  crag  (^/D)  like  a  bee-hive  (!),  and  it  used  to  roll  along 
{Pi7y?^Di2),  and  accompany  them  on  their  journeyings. 
And  when  the  standards  were  pitched,  and  the  tabernacle 
rested,  the  crag  came  and  settled  in  the  court  of  the  Tent 
of  Meeting,  and  the  princes  came  and  stood  beside  it,  and 
said,  '  Spring  up,  0  well,'  and  then  it  would  spring  up." 
There  are  allusions  to  the  same  fable — not  in  Onqelos,  but 
— in  the  fragmentary  Targum,  and  in  the  later  Targum  of 
"  Pseudo- Jonathan,"  on  Numbers  xii.  15  :  "  And  the  glory, 
and  the  tabernacle,  and  the  ivell,  did  not  move  or  journey 
until  Miriam  was  healed  of  her  leprosy  ;  and  after  that  the 
people  journeyed  from  Hazeroth,  and  pitched  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Paran  "  ;  and  on  xx.  2  :  "  And  because  through  the 
merit  of  Miriam  the  well  had  been  given,  when  she  died, 
the  well  was  taken  away." 

Further  developments  of  the  legend  may  be  seen  in  the 
two  last  named  Targums,  and  in  the  Midrash  Kabbah,  on 
Numbers  xxi.  16-20  ;^  but  they  are  not  worth  quoting.-  The 
entire  fable  is  of  the  most  puerile  order,  though  scarcely 
more  so  than  many  other  fables  related  in  the  pages  of 
the  Midrash.  There  is  no  reason  for  supposing,  even  if  in 
St.  Paul's  day  it  had  reached  the  extravagant  dimensions 

*  The  latter,  in  Wiinscbe's  German  translation,  p.  475  f. 

-  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  legend  is  based  entirely  upon  the  irell  of  Num. 
xxi.  17  f.,  and  is  unrelated  either  with  the  rock  ("11 V)  of  Exod.  xvii.  5  f.  or  with 
the  crag  (y^D)  of  Num.  xx.  7-11  (though  it  is  brought  into  connexion  with 
tlie  latter  by  some  later  writers,  e.g.  Rashi ;  comp.  xx.  1.3  in  Pseudo-Jon.). 


18  NOTES   ON   THREE  PASSAGES 


of  the  Midrash,  that  the  apostle  adopted  or  accepted  it 
himself:  though  he  does,  no  doubt,  occasionally  make  use 
of  a  rabbinical  interpretation,  the  adoption  of  such  an  in- 
credible legend  would  be  totally  out  of  harmony  with  the 
masculine  character  of  his  mind,  such  as  it  is  exhibited  in 
his  writings  generally.  St.  Paul  views  the  water  which 
the  Israelites  drank  in  the  wilderness  as  provided  for  them 
by  Christ,  in  His  pre-existent  Divine  nature,  who  attended 
and  watched  over  His  people,  and  whom  he  represents 
under  the  figure  of  a  rock,  accompanying  them  through 
their  journeyings.  The  particular  expression  chosen  by  the 
apostle  may  have  been  suggested  to  him  by  his  acquaintance 
with  the  legend  current  among  the  Jews  ;  but  it  is  evident 
that  he  gives  it  an  entirely  different  application,  and  that 
he  uses  it,  not  in  a  literal  sense,  but  figuratively. 

Galatians  iii.  IG  :  "  He  saith  not,  And  to  seeds,  as  of 
many ;  but  as  of  one.  And  to  thy  seed,  which  is  Christ." 

The  difficulty  of  this  passage  lies  in  the  fact  that  our 
experience  does  not  suggest  to  us  as  possible  a  case  in 
which  either  the  writer  of  Genesis  xxii.  18  or  the  apostle 
could  have  used  the  plural  seeds.  The  term  seed,  like 
airipfjia,  has  a  collective  signification,  and  thus  expresses  itself 
a  plurality ;  so  that  the  argument  founded  upon  it  appears 
to  be  nugatory.  It  is  the  merit  of  the  learned  Jewish 
scholar,  Abraham  Geiger,^  to  have  pointed  out  what  cer- 
tainly appears  to  be  the  true  origin  of  the — to  us — strange 
seeds,  and  to  have  shown  that  the  argument,  if  not  con- 
clusive as  to  the  meaning  of  the  passage  in  Genesis,  was  no 
far-fetched  conceit  on  the  part  of  St.  Paul,  but  appealed 
to  a  usage  with  which  both  he  himself  and  his  Jewish 
readers  would  be  perfectly  familiar.  Though  seeds  does  not 
occur  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,"  there  was  a  case  in  which  it 

1  In  the  Zeitnchvift  der  Deutschen  Morgenlilndischen  GeselhchaJ't,  1858,  pp 
307-309.  "  -  - 

-  Except  1  Sam.  viii.  15,  of  differeut  kinds  of  grain. 


IN  ST.   PAUL'S  EPISTLES.  19 

was  in  use  shortly  after  St.  Paul's  time,  in  a  connexion 
which  justifies  the  inference  that  it  was  in  use  also  among 
his  contemporaries.  In  the  treatise  of  the  Mishnah 
Sanliedrin  iv.  5  witnesses  in  a  court  of  justice  are  warned 
of  the  difference  between  civil  and  capital  cases  in  respect 
of  the  gravity  of  the  issue  :  "  Know  that  capital  cases  are 
not  like  cases  which  involve  merely  a  pecuniary  issue.  In 
cases  which  involve  a  pecuniary  issue,  a  man  j)^ys  a  sum 
of  money,  and  is  forgiven;  in  capital  cases,  his  own  blood, 
and  the  blood  of  his  seeds  (VJni''y")t)  to  the  end  of  the  world, 
depends  upon  the  evidence  of  the  witness  against  him. 
For  thus  we  read  in  the  case  of  Cain,  who  slew  his  brother, 
'  The  bloods  of  thy  brother  cry  unto  Me  from  the  ground.' 
The  text  does  not  say  blood,  but  bloods ;  i.e.  Abel's  own 
blood,  and  the  blood  of  his  seeds  (VJIVJ^IT)-"  In  Hebrew, 
blood  shed  is  commonly  denoted  by  a  plural  term,  lit. 
bloods ;  and  the  use  of  this  plural  in  Genesis  iv.  10  is  taken 
to  show  that  the  guilt,  not  of  Abel's  blood  alone,  but  of  that 
of  all  those  who,  had  he  lived,  might  have  been  descended 
from  him,  rested  upon  the  murderer.  Whatever  the  worth 
of  the  argument  in  itself,  the  passage  shows  incontrovertibly 
that  the  word  seeds  was  in  use  in  the  language  of  the 
schools  to  denote  a  series  of  generations  descended  from  a 
man.  It  is  true,  the  word  used  is  not  strictly  the  same  as 
the  Hebrew  ^"it,  but  it  is  such  an  immediate  derivative  of 
it,  that  it  would  naturally  be  represented  in  Greek  by  the 
same  wor'd  airep^a.  The  same  usage  occurs  in  Aramaic. 
In  the  Targum  of  Onqelos,  Genesis  iv.  10  is  explained  just 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  Mishnah:  "And  he  said, 
What  hast  thou  done  ?  (there  is)  the  voice  of  the  blood  of 
the  seeds  [VV"^})  which  were  destined  to  spring  forth  from 
thy  brother  crying  before  Me  from  the  ground."  ^     And  in 

^  Some  of  the  rabbis  explain  similarly  the  plural  bloods  in  '2  Kings  ix,  2G, 
2  Chrou.  xxiv.  25.  See  the  Midrash  Kabbah  on  Gen.  iv.  10  (in  Wiiusche's 
German  translation,  p.  104). 


20        NOTES   ON  TRBEE  PASSAGES 

Onqelos  the  same  derivative,  y"^}^,  'i^r\y^],  from  yy,  seed, 
occurs  repeatedly  for  the  Hebrew  T^Ht^lDui  family ;  e.g.  xii. 
8  all  the  seeds  or  families  of  the  earth. ^  It  is  natural  now 
to  suppose  that  Sfc.  Paul,  in  writing  Galatians  iv.  10,  had  in 
mind  the  use  of  JIV^IT  as  illustrated  by  the  passage  quoted 
above  from  Sanliedrin.  The  seeds  with  which  he  contrasted 
the  single  "seed"  of  Genesis  xxii.  18  are  not  contemporaneous 
generations,  but  successioe  ones.  The  use  of  the  singular  in 
a  passage  where,  according  to  the  usage  of  his  time,  the 
plural  might  have  been  employed,  appeared  to  him  to  show 
that  the  promised  blessing  was  not  to  flow  from  an  indefi- 
nite succession  of  the  generations  descended  from  Abraham, 
but  from  a,  particular  generation,  viz.  the  generation  summed 
up  in  Christ.  These  considerations  do  not  indeed  make 
his  argument  a  perfectly  valid  one  (for  they  do  not  show, 
nor  does  it  appear  probable,  that  at  the  time  when  Genesis 
xxii.  18  was  written,  the  plural  would  have  been  used  in 
the  manner  supposed)  ;  but  they  relieve  it  of  its  apparent 
arbitrariness,  and  show  that  the  apostle  was  simply  speaking 
in  language  which  to  his  contemporaries  would  seem  per- 
fectly natural  and  just.  And  of  course  the  remark  of  Bishop 
Lightfoot,  to  the  effect  that  the  original  w^ord  seed  lends 
itself  to  application  to  an  individual  as  a  word  of  plural 
form,  such  as  sons,  would  not  have  done,  retains  its  force.- 

Ephesians  iv.  8  :  "  Wherefore  he  saith,  When  he  ascended 
on  high,  he  led  captivity  captive,  and  gave  gifts  unto  men." 

The  passage  Psalms  Ixviii.  18  which  St.  Paul  here  quotes 

^  The  correspondinr;  word  in  the  phiral  (  orjiA   \"\)  '^  ^^^^^^  i"  ^'^^  Peshitto 

version  of  Ezra  ii.  59,  where  the  Hebrew  has  their  necJ,  aud  the   Septuagint 
(jirep/xa.  avTwv.     The  Greek  cnreppLaTa  appears  to  have  the  same  force  in  2  Mace, 
viii.  1  (quoted  by  Meyer,  from  Geiger),  w  tuv  'Appa/xaiuu  aTrep/xdTUf  diroyovoi 
iraldes  'laparjX'iTaL,  Treideade  t(^  vSpLq}  tovtoj. 

'  The  above  explanation  of  awkpfxaaLv  is  accepted  by  Delitzsch  in  the  ninth 
of  his  studies,  called  "  Horte  Hebraicas  et  Talmudica?,"  on  the  N.T.  in  the 
Lutherische  Zeitsclirift  for  1877,  p.  603  f.  In  this  country  it  has  been  noticed 
incidentally  by  Dr.  W.  E.  Smith,  in  the  Academy,  1877,  p.  299,  but  does  not 
appear  to  have  attracted  sufficiently  the  attention  of  commentators. 


IN  ST.   PAUL'S  EPISTLES.  2L 

has,  as  is  well  known,  "Thou  receivedst  gifts  among  men.''' 
The  Psalm,  as  may  fairly  be  inferred  from  ver.  4  "  Cast  up 
a  loay  for  him  that  rideth  through  the  deserts,"  was  written 
in   view   of    the    approaching   return    of    the   people   from 
Babylon  (comp.  Isa.  xl.  3  "  Make  straight  in  the  desert  (same 
word)  a  high  waij  for  our  God  "  ;  also  Ivii.  14,  Ixii.  10,  where 
the  same  phrase  cast  up  a  loay  is  used) ;   and  its  buoyant 
and  jubilant  tone   is    an   echo,  no   doubt,   of  the   feelings 
evoked    among   patriotic  Israelites    by  the  prospect  of  de- 
liverance.    In  vers.  7-10  the  Psalmist  reviews  the  glories 
of    the    past — the    progress    through    the   wilderness,    the 
triumphant  occupation  of  Canaan,  and  defeat  of  the  kings 
who  from  time  to  time  arose  to  contest  its  possession  with 
the  Israelites,  culminating   in   the    choice  of   Zion  as  the 
abode  of  Jehovah,  and  His    solemn    entry  into  it  :  for  in 
these    glories   he   sees    a  type  and  pledge  of  the   people's 
deliverance  now,  and  of  their  triumphant   n^- occupation  of 
their   ancient   capital   and    home.      In  ver.    18   Jehovah's 
entry  into  the  sanctuary  on  Zion  is  described  under  figures 
borrowed  from  the  triumph  of  an  earthly  conqueror :   like 
a  victor,  attended  by  trains  of  captives,^  and  receiving  gifts 
from  the  vanquished,"   or  others  who  come  forward  in  the 
hope  of  thus  securing  his   favour.  He  ascends  the    hill  of 
Zion  :  even  the  rebels,   the  Psalmist  adds,  are  now  ready 
with  their   homage,    "that   Jah   God   might  dwell  there" 
(R.V.  viarg.,   with   the  Geneva  version),    i.e.  might  dwell 
permanently  and  undisturbed  in  the  abode  which  He  has 
thus  chosen,  and,  as  it  were,  conquered  for  Himself.     But 
why  does   St.  Paul  change  "  received  gifts  among  men  " 

'  The  expression,  "led  (thy)  captivity  (i.e.  thy  captives)  captive,"'  is  to  be 
explained  from  the  Song  of  Deborah— which  is  the  clue  to  so  much  in  the  first 
part  of  the  Psalm — Jud.  v.  1'2  "  Arise,  Barak,  and  lead  tJuj  captivity  captive, 
thou  son  of  Abinoam." 

-  The  rendering  ''consisting  in  men"  (Ibn  Ezra,  Ewald,  Cornill)  is  also 
admissible  ;  the  reference  will  then  be  to  the  persons  of  the  surrendered  enemies 
themselves,  instead  of  to  their  offerings. 


22  NOTES   ON  TEBEE  PASSAGES 

into  "  gave  gifts  to  men  "  ?  The  same  variation  from  the 
Hebrew  is  found  in  two  of  the  ancient  versions,  the 
Peshitto  and  the  Targum.  In  the  Targum  the  verse  is 
referred,  fancifully  enough,  to  Moses,  and  his  ascent  to  Sinai 
to  receive  the  Tables  of  the  Law,  and  is  thus  rendered  : 
"Thou didst  ascend  to  the  firmament,  0  Moses  the  prophet; 
thou  didst  take  captivity  captive ;  thou  didst  teach  the 
words  of  the  Law ;  thou  didst  give  gifts  to  the  children  of 
men  :  but  the  rebellious  ones  who  become  proselytes,  and 
repent,  upon  them  resteth  the  Shekhinah  of  the  glory  of 
the  Lord  God."  In  the  Syriac  version  the  verse  is  ren- 
dered more  literally,  except  in  the  second  part,  the  sense  of 
which  is  altered  :  "  Thou  didst  ascend  on  high,  and  take 
captivity  captive  ;  and  thou  gavcst  gifts  to  men ;  and  also 
the  rebellious  shall  not  dwell  in  the  presence  of  God." 
Whether  the  rendering  of  the  Peshitto  is  due  to  Jewish  or 
Christian  influence  inay  be  uncertain,  though  the  former  is 
perhaps  the  more  probable  :  but  in  any  case,  the  Targum 
shows  that  gave  unto  men  was  an  old  Jewish  interpretation 
— or  rather,  as  it  cannot  by  any  means  be  elicited  from  the 
Hebrew,  an  old  Jewish  paraphrase — of  the  verse,  which, 
it  is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose,  may  have  existed  as  early 
as  the  time  of  St.  Paul.  Probably  this  will  account  for  the 
form  of  the  quotation  in  the  epistle.  The  connexion  in 
which  the  quotation  occurs  should  be  noticed.  St.  Paul  is 
not  arguing  on  the  subject  of  the  ascension  of  Christ,  or 
quoting  the  text  as  a  proof  of  it ;  he  is  speaking  of  the  gifts 
bestowed  by  Christ  upon  His  Church  :  "  But  unto  each  one 
of  us  was  the  grace  given  according  to  the  measure  of  the 
gift  of  Christ.  Wherefore  he  saith,  AVhen  he  ascended  on 
high,  he  led  captivity  captive,  and  gave  gifts  unto  men." 
The  text,  as  he  wrote,  probably  came  into  his  mind  as  a 
passage  which,  in  tlic  form  in  lohich  lie  was  familiar  loith 
it,  described  a  bestowal  of  gifts  upon  men ;  and  he  quotes 
it    accordingly,    without  stopping   to    inquire    whether    his 


IN  ST.  PAUL'S  EPISTLES.  23 


application  of  it  was  consistent  with  the  sense  strictly 
attaching  to  it  in  its  original  connexion.  He  quotes  it 
because  he  sees  in  it,  as  understood  by  the  Jews  of  his 
day,  an  anticipation  of  a  particular  truth  of  Christianity. 
The  68th  Psalm  was  not  understood  Messianically  by  the 
Jews,^  and  verse  18  relates  plainly  to  a  past  fact  :  at  the 
same  time,  the  ascent  of  the  ark  mto  Zion  might  not 
unnaturally  be  taken  as  ijrefigitrlng  the  ascension  of  Christ 
into  heaven,  and  the  captives  and  spoil,  presupposed  in  the 
very  fact  of  David's  conquest  of  the  stronghold  of  Zion, 
and  imagined  by  the  poet  to  form  part  of  the  procession, 
might  similarly  be  understood  to  ])refigure  the  evil  powers 
vanquished  by  Christ,  and,  as  it  were,  led  visibly  in  triumph 
by  Him  on  the  occasion  of  His  return  to  heaven.  But  if, 
following  the  same  principle  of  interpretation,  we  ask  what 
the  gifts  received  among  men  may  prefigure,  it  is  plain  that 
they  cannot,  without  great  artificiality,  be  taken  as  pre- 
figuring anything  except  the  tokens  of  horiiage  rendered  by 
men  ^to  their  ascended  Lord.  Here  then  St.  Paul,  as  he 
quotes  the  text,  substitutes  a  different  sense  altogether  :  for 
material  gifts  received  among  men,  he  substitutes  spiritual 
gifts  given  to  men.  On  the  ground  of  the  rendering  in  the 
Targum,  it  is,  however,  reasonable  to  suppose  that  in  doing 
this  he  is  following  a  current  interpretation  or  paraphase 
of  the  verse,  which  made, it  suitable  for  quotation  in  the 
context  in  which  he  uses  it. 

S.  E.  DmvEK. 

^  Except  ver.  31  (Heb.  o2),  which,  of  course,  from  its  very  form  looks  to  the 
future,  and  is  parallel  to  many  passages  in  the  prophets  {e.g.  Isa.  xviii.  7,  xix. 
18-25  ;  Zeph.  iii.  9). 


24 


THE  SCBIPTUEAL   IDEA    OF  PBIESTHOOD 
EMBODIED   IN  SUCCESSIVE   TYPES. 

The  institution  of  priesthood  is  not  peculiar  to  the  people 
of  God :  there  have  been  heathen  priests  in  all  ages,  as 
well  as  Israelite  or  Christian.  Kaces  and  nations,  who 
have  differed  most  widely  in  their  idea  of  God,  in  purity 
of  morals,  in  intellectual  culture,  and  in  social  and  political 
organization,  have  alike  placed  their  trust  in  the  inter- 
vention of  priests  for  the  worship  of  their  gods.  These 
heathen  priesthoods  varied  according  to  the  character  of 
the  religion  ;  for  while  some  forms  of  heathen  religion  tes- 
tified to  the  moral  sense  of  mankind  and  the  spiritual  aspi- 
rations of  man's  higher  nature,  others  expressed  the  abject 
terror  created  by  the  widespread  prevalence  of  evil  and  by 
the  mighty  powers  of  external  nature.  But  whether  the 
sense  of  unworthiness  or  of  helplessness  was  uppermost, 
the  impression  produced  upon  the  imagination  by  the  awful 
mystery  of  the  unseen  world  prompted  men  to  seek  relief 
in  the  intervention  of  human  mediators,  who  might  stand 
between  them  and  the  invisible  beings  whom  they  shrank 
from  approaching  in  their  own  persons.  They  cast  them- 
selves upon  the  superior  wisdom  or  holiness  of  fellow  men ; 
and  rested  with  an  instinctive,  sometimes  quite  a  pathetic, 
trust  on  the  mediation  of  human  priests,  who  could  under- 
stand their  hearts,  and  whose  language  they  could  un- 
derstand. Hence  the  fundamental  idea  of  a  priest,  as  a 
man  who  had  power  wnth  God,  and  was  willing  to  use  this 
power  on  behalf  of  others.  To  this  corresponds  the  scrip- 
tural definition  of  a  priest,  as  "  taken  from  among  men  and 
ordained  for  men  in  things  pertaining  to  God"  (Heb.  v.  1).^ 

'  I  am  sorry  to  tiucl  myself  at  issue  here  with  Professor  Milligan.  He  writes, 
ill  a  recent  number  of  The  Expositor,  that  "  the  fundamental  and  essential 
meaning  of  the  word  '  priest,'  as  used  in  Scripture,  is  that  of  one  who  has  the 
privilege  of  immediate  access  to  God,  and  is  able  to  take  advnutage  of  it  with 


TEE   SCRIPTURAL  IDEA    OF  PRIESTHOOD.         25 

Sacrifice  was  the  principal  fanction  of  the  ancient  priest ; 
for  no  other  form  of  worship  was  considered  in  early  times 
equally  expressive  of  man's  devotion,  or  so  acceptable  to 
God.  There  was  no  material  difference  in  this  respect 
between  the  Hebrew  and  heathen  types  of  priesthood ; 
material  offerings  and  animal  victims  at  a  visible  altar  filled 
as  prominent  a  place  in  the  ancient  worship  of  Jehovah 
as  in  tliat  of  heathen  gods ;  and  this  ritual  continued 
unaltered  as  long  as  the  Jewish  temple  was  in  existence. 
Protests  were  sometimes  made  against  this  sacrificial  system, 
like  those  of  Psalm  xl.,  "  Sacrifice  and  offering  Thou  didst 
not  desire,"  and  Psalm  1.,  "  AVill  I  eat  the  flesh  of  bulls,  or 
drink  the  blood  of  goats?"  Prophets  lifted  up  their  voice 
from  time  to  time  on  behalf  of  a  more  spiritual  service 
of  God.  But  the  Israelite  ritual  had  been  rigidly  fixed  by 
law  before  the  people  were  able  to  grasp  the  conception  of 
a  worship  rendered  in  spirit  and  in  truth ;  and  it  remained 
the  same  to  the  end. 

1.  The  Hebrew  Scriptures  recorded  however  the  existence 
of  an  earlier  form  of  priesthood  in  the  days  of  their  fathers, 
which  was  essentially  distinct  in  character  from  the  Levi- 
tical.  The  most  conspicuous  representatives  of  this  earlier 
or  patriarchal  priesthood  were  Noah,  Abraham,  and  Mel- 
chizedek.  The  personal  righteousness  of  Noah  combined 
with  his  position  as  a  father  to  establish  his  claim  to  rank 
as  priest ;  he  stood  before  God  in  a  double  capacity,  as  at 
once   the  most  righteous  man   of   his   generation,   and  as 

confidence  and  hope  "  ;  and  that  "  the  idea  of  mediation,  of  interposition  with 
God  on  behalf  of  others,  does  not  necessarily  belong  to  the  word."  I  take  an 
opposite  view,  that  the  double  relation,  to  God  and  man,  makes  the  essence  of 
priesthood.  Christ  Himself  needed  the  incarnation  to  qualify  Him  as  Priest 
for  man,  though  He  was  already  quahfied  by  His  eternal  Sonship  as  Priest  nnto 
God.  His  ofUce  was  to  make  propitiation  for  sins,  and  to  succour  the  tempted ; 
therefore  compassion  on  the  ignorant  and  those  that  are  out  of  the  way,  expe- 
rience of  suffering  and  temptation,  mercy  and  faithfulness  to  man  as  well  as 
God,  are  set  down  amongst  the  foremost  of  His  qualifications  for  priesthood 
(Heb.  ii.  17,  18;  v. '2). 


26         THE  SCRIPTURAL  IDEA   OF  PRIESTHOOD 

representative  of  his  children  and  his  children's  children ; 
after  the  deluge  he  offered  a  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving  on 
their  hehalf  as  well  as  his  own  for  life  delivered,  and  re- 
ceived from  God  in  response  a  covenant  of  blessing  for  his 
remote  descendants.  The  natural  development  of  this 
family  priesthood  is  perceptible  in  the  time  of  Abraham  and 
his  sons ;  as  a  body  of  dependants  gather  round  the  head 
of  the  ^family,  he  becomes  priest  to  his  household ;  as  the 
family  grows  in  numbers,  priesthood  becomes  the  birth- 
right of  the  eldest  son,  and  the  hereditary  dignity  passes  to 
the  firstborn  with  the  headship  of  the  family.  In  this  way 
the  priesthood  of  the  family  expanded  by  degrees  into  the 
priesthood  of  the  tribe.  In  Melchizedek  is  seen  its  highest 
dignity  and  most  extended  sphere,  for  he  was  at  once  king 
and  priest ;  and  his  priesthood  was  recognised  more  widely 
than  his  sovereignty :  for  Abraham,  who  owed  him  no 
allegiance  as  king,  acknowledged  his  priesthood  by  the  pay- 
ment of  tithes  and  acceptance  of  a  blessing  from  him. 

This  priesthood  had  none  of  the  definite  form  and 
systematic  organization  which  belonged  to  the  Levitical. 
Nor  does  the  Old  Testament  record  any  direct  interposition 
of  Divine  authority  l.)y  which  it  was  shaped  ;  but  presents 
it  as  a  spontaneous  growth  of  natural  religion,  developed 
out  of  the  relations  of  the  family.  Its  claims  to  the  respect 
of  men  rested  rather  on  their  willing  acquiescence  than  on 
any  exclusive  privileges.  Its  sacredness  was  not  maintained 
by  jealous  restrictions  upon  others'  right  to  sacrifice.  Cain 
and  Abel,  for  instance,  offered  sacrifice  each  for  himself; 
Abraham  did  not  cease  to  act  as  priest  to  his  own  house- 
hold, because  he  recognised  an  independent  and  superior 
priesthood  in  Melchizedek ;  nor  did  Jacob  hesitate  to  build 
altars  and  offer  sacrifice  in  the  lifetime  of  his  father  Isaac. 
Throughout  the  patriarchal  period  men  were  free  to  erect 
altars,  and  perform  sacrifices,  whenever  and  wherever  the 
spirit    of    devotion   prompted    them ;    though   certain    men 


EMBODIED   IN  SUCCESSIVE    TYPES.  27 

obtained  meanwhile,  by  reason  of  superior  dignity,  wisdom, 
or  holiness,  an  exceptional  position  and  title  as  priests. 

2.  The  Levitical  priesthood  was  very  different  in  type, 
for  the  legislation  of  Sinai  abruptly  terminated  natural 
freedom  and  power  of  growth  ;  the  priesthood  became  from 
that  time  a  national  institution,  bound  up  with  the  theo- 
cracy ;  the  forms  of  worship  were  stereotyped  by  rigid  rules 
of  law,  and  freedom  of  sacrifice  only  revived  on  exceptional 
occasions,  like  that  of  Elijah's  sacrifice,  when  the  national 
worship  of  Jehovah  had  fallen  into  disuse  or  been  abolished 
through  the  prevalence  of  idolatry.  For  the  central  idea 
of  the  Law  was  the  national  organization  of  Israel  under 
the  immediate  government  of  Jehovah :  and  His  actual 
presence  in  their  midst,  represented  by  a  material  sanctuary, 
formed  the  keystone  of  the  Mosaic  system.  Hence  the 
institution  of  a  strictly  national  priesthood  became  indis- 
pensable. For  this  visible  sanctuary  recjuired  a  permanent 
staff  of  ministers,  invested  with  special  authority  from  God 
as  keepers  of  His  house,  guardians  of  holy  things  and 
places,  conductors  or  assistants  at  the  religious  services 
there  held.  The  ritual  of  sacrifice  also,  which  was  pre- 
scribed in  harmony  with  the  religious  sentiment  of  those 
rude  times,  called  for  the  services  of  a  select  company  of 
priests  :  and  it  was  necessary  to  invest  them  with  peculiar 
sanctity  in  the  eyes  of  Israel,  because  the  worship  was 
designed  to  be  an  important  instrument  in  the  education 
of  the  national  conscience,  and  abounded  in  suggestions 
of  spiritual  truth.  It  was  their  office  to  pronounce  with 
authority  on  every  case  of  sin  and  uucleanness,  to  shut  out 
offenders  from  the  house  of  God,  to  prescribe  and  present 
sacrifices  for  atonement  and  purification,  to  grant  absolution 
in  His  name,  and  bring  to  Him  acceptable  offerings  of 
every  kind  from  His  faithful  servants.  In  order  to  satisfy 
these  necessary  requirements  a  priestly  caste  was  created 
by  the  adoption  of  the  hereditary  principle ;   one  tribe  was 


28         TEE   SCRIPTURAL  IDEA    OF  PRIESTHOOD 

selected  for  ministration,  and  one  family  of  that  tribe 
solemnly  consecrated  in  perpetuity  to  the  priesthood.  The 
permanent  separation  of  priests  and  people  was  thus  se- 
cured, and  their  consecration  for  life  hallowed  them  and 
their  office  in  the  sight  of  all  Israel.  This  exclusiveness 
was  a  new  principle  to  the  Israelites,  first  promulgated  in 
the  Law ;  and  the  revolt  of  Ivorah  evinces  the  strength  of 
the  resentment  felt  among  the  congregation  who  were  shut 
out  from  all  holy  offices,  and  the  Levites  who  were  denied 
admission  to  the  priesthood.  But  the  principle  served  the 
same  purpose  as  the  exclusion  of  the  people  from  the  holy 
chambers;  it  brought  home  to  their  minds  a  sense  of  their 
own  uncleanness  in  the  sight  of  Jehovah,  and  taught  them 
His  unapproachable  holiness.  The  particular  choice  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  and  the  house  of  Aaron  cannot  be  explained 
by  any  intrinsic  superiority  in  holiness  or  zeal  on  their 
part ;  for  Aaron  was  an  inferior  delegate  of  Moses,  destitute 
of  the  high  qualities  that  marked  bis  brother  for  command ; 
and  though  Phinehas  and  some  of  his  descendants  were 
bright  examples  of  zeal  and  faith,  others  were  equally  con- 
spicuous for  profaneness  and  ungodliness.  One  instance 
is  indeed  recorded  of  Levi's  zealous  championship  of  the 
cause  of  God ;  but  it  was  due  apparently  to  the  personal 
influence  of  Moses  and  Aaron  on  their  own  tribe,  and  was 
therefore  the  result,  rather  than  the  cause,  of  Divine  selec- 
tion. So  far  as  appears  from  their  history,  both  tribe  and 
family  were  chosen  in  pursuance  of  a  Divine  purpose,  without 
any  special  holiness  or  goodness  of  their  own  ;  as  other 
lamilies,  tribes,  and  nations  have  been  singled  out  from 
time  to  time  under  God's  providence  as  His  instruments 
for  some  special  work.  Future  generations  of  priests  and 
Levites  were  set  apart  before  their  birth  for  the  inheritance 
of  greater  privileges  and  responsibilities  than  other  Israel- 
ites ;  and  even  those  who  proved  most  unworthy  did  not 
thereby  forfeit  their  position,  for  the  holiness  with  which 


EMBODIED  IN  SUCCESSIVE   TYPES.  29 


they  were  invested  was  official  and  not  personal.  Mean- 
while no  personal  holiness  and  no  dignity  entitled  other 
Israelites  to  approach  the  altar,  or  enter  the  holy  place ; 
even  the  anointed  kings  of  the  house  of  David  shared  the 
exckision  of  the  people  from  priestly  ministrations,  and  one 
monarch  who  presumed  in  his  pride  of  power  to  intrude 
into  the  holy  place  was  smitten  with  leprosy  (2  Chron.  xxvi, 
16-21).^ 

The  most  cursory  examination  of  Scripture  discloses  the 
absolute  control  of  the  priesthood  over  public  worship. 
The  house  of  God  was  wholly  in  their  charge,  to  open  and 
to  shut  against  any  of  God's  people  ;  day  by  day  it  was 
their  office  to  cleanse,  light,  and  order  it,  with  the  aid  of 
subordinate  Levites.  It  was  they  who  kept  ever  burnin<^ 
the  flame  of  Israel's  sacrifice,  and  maintained  the  fire  on 
the  altar  of  incense.  The  congregation  could  not  offer  their 
morning  or  evening  prayers  with  acceptance,  unless  the 
priest  lighted  his  censer  at  the  altar,  that  the  smoke  might 
rise  up  before  the  mercy-seat,  and  mingle  with  their 
prayers.  All  who  were  defiled  by  uncleanness,  or  burdened 
with  sin,  must  needs  repair  to  him  for  purification  and 
atonement.  All  whose  hearts  were  stirred  with  the  spirit 
of  devotion  or  gratitude  to  God  appealed  to  him  for  his 
intervention  in  the  consummation  of  their  vows  and  pre- 
sentation of  their  thankofferings. 

And  yet  in  spite  of  this  Divine  appointment  and  these 
exclusive  privileges,  it  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  conclude 
that  the  Israelite  j)riests  played  a  chief  part  by  reason  of 
their  office  in  guiding  the  destinies  of  their  Church  and 
nation.      For  it  must   be   remembered   that  God  did   not 

^  Saul  at  Gilg.al,  aii'l  DaviJ  at  the  entrance  of  the  ark  into  Zion,  are  often 
supposed  to  have  offered  sacrifice  with  their  own  hands.  But  tire  history  ef 
the  priesthood  in  those  times,  and  the  circumstances  of  each  occasion,  render 
it  most  unlikely  that  they  dispensed  with  the  services  of  a  ^Driest  in  making 
their  offerings.  The  sin  of  Saul  lay  in  disobedience  to  God's  proj^het,  not  in 
intrusion  into  the  priestly  office. 


30         THE  SGRIPTUBAL  IDEA   OF  PRIESTHOOD 

constitute  them  either  rulers  or  guides  of  His  people ;  there 
were  beside  them  other  representatives  of  God  who  claimed 
an  equally  Divine  commission  from  on  high.  A  succession 
of  rulers  with  various  titles,  differing  according  to  the 
special  functions  entrusted  to  their  charge,  were  raised  up 
for  the  government  of  God's  people  in  their  early  struggles 
for  national  independence  and  unity,  such  as  Moses  the 
lawgiver,  Joshua  the  captain,  Gideon  the  judge,  Samuel 
the  prophet,  Saul  and  David  the  kings,  all  ruling  in  the 
Lord's  name  ;  while  after  David  followed  a  line  of  heredi- 
tary kings,  anointed  with  holy  oil  like  the  hereditary  priests. 
It  is  true  that  some  priests  were  also  numbered  among 
these  heaven-sent  rulers,  nor  were  there  any  stouter  cham- 
pions of  God's  cause  against  idolatry  than  the  priests 
Jehoiada,  Ezra,  and  the  Maccabees  ;  but  these  rose  to 
power  by  reason  of  their  personal  qualities  as  men  of  faith, 
and  not  in  virtue  of  their  priestly  oftice. 

Again,  priests  were  not,  as  such,  the  teachers  of  Israel. 
They  had  no  claim  as  a  body  to  the  inspiration  of  the 
prophets  or  the  learning  of  the  scribes.  For  prophets 
claimed  direct  inspiration  from  God  ;  they  were  listened  to 
as  bearers  of  God's  message,  aiul  authorized  interpreters  of 
His  will  to  their  own  as  well  as  succeeding  generations. 
The  Old  Testament  itself  was  the  fruit  of  their  labours,  and 
bears  witness  to  the  Spirit  of  God  that  was  in  them.  And 
when  in  later  days  the  spoken  word  gave  place  to  the 
written,  as  the  authoritative  exponent  of  the  mind  of  God, 
the  scribes  took  the  place  of  the  prophets  as  interpreters  of 
His  will,  and  became  in  their  turn  the  spiritual  and  religious 
guides  of  Israel.  Both  prophets  and  scribes  numbered 
priests  in  their  foremost  ranks  ;  for  Ezekiel  and  Jeremiah 
among  prophets,  Ezra  himself  the  first  and  greatest  of 
scribes,  combined  hereditary  priesthood  with  their  more 
important  offices  ;  but  as  priests  they  were  only  ministers 
of  the  ritual,  as  prophets  and  scribes  they  were  ministers 


EMBODIED   IN  SUGGESSIVE   TYPES.  31 

of  the  word  of  God.  Now  the  ministration  of  the  ritual 
became  from  the  nature  of  the  case  formal  and  mechanical, 
because  the  ritual  was  from  the  beginning  unalterably  fixed, 
without  power  of  growth  or  development,  from  the  time  of 
its  first  promulgation  in  the  Law.  The  priest  had  no  dis- 
cretion to  make  the  slightest  change  in  the  customs  once 
delivered  to  Moses ;  his  functions  were  purely  ministerial. 
The  result  was  that,  in  spite  of  the  respect  which  his  sacred 
calling  procured  for  every  priest  who  led  a  consistent  life, 
the  true  leaders,  reformers,  and  restorers  of  Israel,  who 
swayed  men's  lives,  and  acted  on  their  minds  and  con- 
sciences, were  rulers,  prophets,  and  scribes  alone.  Absolute 
as  the  Israelite  priest  was  within  his  own  particular  sphere, 
that  sphere  was  strictly  limited  to  formal  service  about  the 
house  of  God  ;  and  his  Divine  commission  was  constantl}^ 
overshadowed  by  higher  representatives  of  God,  who  either 
carried  on  the  government  in  His  name,  or  embodied  His 
Spirit  in  words  of  power. 

3.  The  New  Testament  reveals  a  far  higher  ideal  of 
priesthood  in  the  person  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  So 
distinct,  however,  is  the  priesthood  of  Christ  in  all  its  out- 
ward features  from  any  previous  type,  that  a  generation 
elapsed  after  His  death  before  His  work  of  redemption  was 
presented  under  that  aspect.  For  the  first  generation  of 
Christians  were  Israelites,  trained  under  the  Levitical 
system,  and  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures. Their  idea  of  priestly  functions  was  necessarily 
formed  from  the  ancient  ritual  of  their  fathers,  to  which 
the  hearts  of  Christian  Israel  clung  with  unabated  reverence 
and  affection ;  and  their  experience  of  priesthood  was 
limited  to  the  earthly,  priests,  with  whom  they  were  brought 
into  continual  contact  in  their  religious  life.  Until  there- 
fore they  beheld  altar  and  mercy-seat  visibly  doomed  to 
destruction,  and  the  impending  abolition  of  the  daily  sacri- 
fice and  the  yearly  atonement  forced  them  to  ask  in  dismay 


32         THE  SGBIPTUBAL  IDEA   OF  PRIESTHOOD 


what  was  to  take  their  place,  they  did  not  connect  the  idea 
of  priesthood  with  Christ,  though  they  knew  Him  as  their 
Prophet  and  their  King.  Then  at  last  God  revealed  to 
them  that  the  priesthood,  which  they  beheld  passing  away, 
was  but  a  shadow  of  the  real,  and  that  the  substance 
remained  unchanged  and  unchangeable  in  the  person  of 
their  Eternal  High  Priest,  enthroned  beside  His  Father  in 
heaven.^ 

It  was  impossible  to  arrive  at  this  doctrine  from  contem- 
plation of  the  earthly  life  of  Christ ;  for  this  was  not  priaet- 
like,  but  the  very  reverse.  He  was  born  a  king  of  the  royal 
tribe  of  Judah  and  house  of  David;  He  was,  and  He 
claimed  to  be,  the  true  King  of  Israel,  albeit  a  spiritual 
king.  Again,  He  came  as  a  prophet ;  even  Plis  enemies 
were  constrained  to  admit  His  wisdom  as  a  teacher  and 
bow  before  His  authority  as  a  prophet.  But  He  was  not 
born  a  priest  of  the  chosen  lineage  of  Aaron  ;  He  claimed 
no  special  privilege  of  access  to  God's  earthly  temple  ;  He 
performed  no  priestly  function  ;  He  neither  was,  nor  could 
be  mistaken  for,  a  priest  in  the  days  of  His  flesh.  The 
whole  Israelite  conception  of  a  priest  as  engaged  in  material 
sacrifices  at  a  visible  altar  in  a  local  temple  must  be  dis- 
missed from  the  mind  before  it  can  grasp  the  real  nature  of 
the  priesthood  of  Christ. 

For  that  priesthood  did  not  begin  on  earth.  His  earthly 
life  was  a  continual  preparation  for  it,  and  that  in  two 
ways  :  (1)  He  was  gaining  fellowship  with  man  as  His 
brother  in  the  flesh,  being  subject,  like  him,  to  weakness 
and  to  pain,  enduring  temptation,  wrestling  with  inward 
and  outward  evil,  helping  the  infirmities,  healing  the 
diseases,  and  forgiving  the  sins  of  men  ;  (2)  He  was  offering 

1  The  priesthood  of  Christ  is  developed  for  the  first  time  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews.  Many  considerations,  particularly  its  reference  to  the  impending 
judgments  of  God,  fix  its  date  as  written  on  the  eve  of  the  destruction  of 
Jeruf^alera. 


EMBODIED  IN  SUCCESSIVE   TYPES.  33 

Himself  as  a  perfect  sacrifice,  pure,  spotless,  undefiled,  for 
the  sins  of  the  world.  But  just  as  the  mediatorial  function 
of  the  Levitical  priest  began  after  the  victim  had  been  slain 
by  presenting  its  life-blood  and  burning  the  fat  or  flesh  on 
God's  altar,  so  also  Christ's  mediatorial  office  did  not  begin 
till  He  had  finally  completed  by  His  death  His  work  of 
self-sacrifice.^  "  If  He  were  on  earth  "  (it  is  written),  "  He 
would  not  be  a  priest";  for  God  had  appointed  other 
priests  to  present  the  life-blood  of  earthly  victims  before 
His  mercy-seat  on  earth.  Christ's  office  was  to  plead  in 
heaven  the  sacrifice  which  He  had  made  on  earth  of  His 
own  life  for  the  lives  of  His  human  brethren,  and  make 
this  a  basis  for  their  reconciliation  with  God. 

The  possession  of  immortal  life  was  an  essential  qualifi- 
cation for  this  priesthood  ;  for  man  is  himself  immortal, 
and  needs  therefore  an  everliving  priest,  not  of  this  world, 
to  satisfy  his  requirements  before  God.  An  unbroken  line 
of  mortal  priests  was  well  fitted  to  maintain  the  permanence 
of  ministration  through  successive  generations  at  an  earthly 
temple.  But  an  eternal  high  priest  for  man  needed  such  a 
power  of  indestructible  life  resident  for  ever  in  his  person, 
as  was  obscurely  typified  by  the  mysterious  personal  dignity 
of  Melchizedek.  Even  Christ  Himself  did  not  fulfil  that 
ideal  till  He  had  been  raised  above  mortal  weakness  and 
earthly  contact  with  sin.  As  the  Levitical  priest  went 
through  a  formal  death,  and  received  a  formal  gift  of  new 
life  from  God,  in  the  ceremonial  of  priestly  consecration, 

'  Under  the  Law  the  duties  of  presenting  the  victim,  laying  the  hand  upon  its 
head,  and  slaying  it,  devolved  upon  the  person  or  congregation  who  offered  the 
sacrifice,  and  were  performed  by  them  or  their  representatives  (Lev.  i.  iv.). 
On  the  day  of  atonement  and  similar  solemn  occasions  the  priest  performed 
these  duties  (Lev.  xvi.  15  ;  2  Chron.  xxix.  24).  He  acted  on  these  occasions  iu 
a  double  cai:)acity,  as  representative  of  his  jjeople,  and  as  mediator  for  them. 
But  the  two  functions  are  not  the  less  distinct  because  on  particular  occasions 
one  person  united  both.  Christ  in  the  days  of  His  flesh  offered  Himself  as 
representative  Son  of  man,  but  He  was  not  appointed  Mediator  between  God 
and  man  till  He  entered  into  heaven  itself. 

VOL.  IX.  3 


Si         THE  SCBIPTUBAL  IDEA   OF  PRIESTHOOD 


before  he  was  installed  in  bis  sacerdotal  office  (Lev.  viii.)  ; 
so  Christ  did  not  assume  His  priesthood  till  He  had 
through  death  triumphed  finally  over  every  weakness  of 
the  flesh,  and  put  on  His  immortality. 

Again,  the  priesthood  of  Christ  is  essentially  spiritual. 
God  is  a  Spirit,  and  spiritual  communion  between  God  and 
man  lies  at  the  bottom  of  all  true  worship.  Its  outward 
forms  may  vary  indefinitely,  but  there  must  be  some  real 
approach  of  man  to  God  in  spirit  and  in  truth,  or  else  there 
is  no  real  worship  ;  for  the  value  of  worship  depends  on  its 
powder  to  effect  communion  of  spirit  with  an  unseen  God. 
The  most  elementary  conception  of  a  priest  attributes  to 
him  the  power  to  bring  men  nearer  to  God  than  they  could 
come  without  his  aid.  When  once  therefore  the  true  nature 
of  God  is  apprehended,  it  becomes  obvious  that  no  formal 
approach  can  satisfy  the  ideal  of  priesthood,  and  that  the 
priest  who  does  not  achieve  spiritual  communion  between 
God  and  man  is  reaching  after  mere  shadows  of  worship, 
and  failing  to  secure  acceptance  in  the  sight  of  God.  Even 
the  Israelite  priest,  invested  as  he  was  with  a  Divine  com- 
mission, filled  nevertheless  a  subordinate  place  to  the 
prophet,  because  the  spiritual  intercourse  between  God  and 
His  people  fell  within  the  prophet's  sphere,  while  the  priest 
was  concerned  with  men's  outward  offerings,  and  had  no 
direct  cognisance  of  their  inner  lives. 

But  it  is  not  enough  to  recognise  the  priesthood  of  Christ 
as  spiritual ;  it  is  necessary  to  consider  further  what  kind 
of  spirit  animated  it.  For  each  successive  priesthood  has 
differed  in  spirit  according  to  the  different  conception  of 
God  which  it  expressed.  There  was  a  marked  difference 
between  the  patriarchal  and  Levitical  priesthoods ;  for 
though  God  was  from  the  beginning  regarded  as  the  creator 
and  invisible  ruler  of  the  world,  yet  in  the  earlier  period 
He  was  contemplated  as  the  friend  of  man,  readily  acces- 
sible to  human  gifts  and  intercourse,  and  at  times  Avalking 


EMBODIED   IN  SUCCESSIVE  TYPES.  35 

visibly  with  man  ;  the  growing  sense  of  sin  had  not  yet 
built  up  a  wall  of  separation  between  Him  and  His  crea- 
tures. The  revelation  of  Sinai  transformed  this  relation 
of  man  to  God.  It  created  multiplied  forms  of  uncleanness, 
it  deepened  the  sense  of  sin,  it  intensified  the  holiness  of 
the  God  of  Israel  as  unable  to  bear  the  sight  of  iniquity, 
and  limited  all  direct  intercourse  with  Him  to  a  few  chosen 
priests.  Atonement  for  sin  became  the  central  idea  of 
mediation,  and  almost  absorbed  every  other  conception  of 
priestly  functions ;  even  the  burnt  offering,  though  presented 
by  God's  own  people  and  most  faithful  servants,  was  viewed 
as  a  species  of  atonement.  The  sense  of  God's  love  was 
almost  lost  in  the  dread  of  His  holiness ;  for  atonement 
was  fixed  by  an  immutable  covenant,  and  forgiveness  of  sin 
came  no  longer  as  a  spontaneous  act  of  personal  mercy  and 
love,  but  was  claimed  as  the  legal  right  of  those  who 
adopted  the  prescribed  means  of  averting  the  wrath  of  God. 
Accordingly  the  dominant  spirit  of  the  Israelite  ritual  placed 
the  personal  initiative  of  worship  in  man,  seeking  by  the 
appointed  method  to  act  upon  the  mind  of  God,  to  win  His 
favour,  or  avert  His  anger. 

But  the  God,  whom  Christ  reveals,  is  not  an  impersonation 
of  holiness  and  justice  sitting  apart  in  His  majesty,  but 
a  heavenly  Father  of  infinite  love  even  to  those  who  have 
not  begun  to  love  Him,  whose  heart  goes  forth  to  meet  His 
wayward  children  when  they  are  yet  a  great  way  off,  who  is 
ever  waiting  to  forgive,  and  eager  to  bless.  The  initiative 
here  is  wholly  on  the  side  of  God.  Whereas  the  Israelite 
priesthood  provided  means  for  man  seeking  God,  Christ 
came  forth  from  God  to  win  back  fallen  man ;  and  no  idea 
can  be  formed  of  His  priesthood  without  taking  account  of 
this  radical  difference ;  for  it  involves  a  revolution  in  the 
idea  of  priesthood,  when  it  is  realized  that  the  barriers 
which  divide  God  and  man  lie  wholly  in  the  heart  of  man, 
and  that  the  work  of  reconciliation  has  to  be  carried  on 


36    THE   SCRIPTURAL   IDEA    OF  PRIESTHOOD 

entirely  there.  The  ideal  priest  under  the  gospel  must 
plead  with  men's  consciences,  reassure  their  doubts  and 
fears,  pave  the  way  for  their  return  to  God  by  the  removal 
of  every  obstacle  ;  he  must  win  his  way  into  men's  confi- 
dence as  the  authorized  messenger  of  God  and  the  friend 
of  man. 

The  perfect  fulfilment  of  such  a  task  demands  a  perfect 
insight  into  the  mind  of  God  and  undoubted  authority  from 
Him  ;  such  as  belongs  to  the  Son  of  God  alone,  who  is 
wholly  one  in  spirit  with  the  Father.  Therefore  the  priest- 
hood of  Christ  is  in  Scripture  based  upon  His  Sonship.  It 
is  said  that  the  address  of  the  second  Psalm,  "  Thou  art 
my  Son,"  conveys  to  Him  at  the  same  time  with  the 
position  of  a  son  priestly  rights  inherent  in  that  adoption 
(Heb.  V.  5)  ;  and  His  Divine  authority  as  the  ideal  high 
priest  for  man  is  made  to  rest  on  the  fact  that  He  is  the 
eternal  Son  of  God. 

Again  the  ideal  high  priest  for  man  must  also  possess 
perfect  insight  into  the  mind  of  man  and  entire  sympathy 
with  his  spirit.  Therefore  Christ's  assumption  of  the 
office  was  preceded  by  His  incarnation.  It  issued  out  of 
this  indeed  as  an  immediate  result.  For  when  He  became 
Son  of  man,  and  made  Himself  one  with  men  in  flesh  and 
blood.  He  recognised  their  birthright  as  sons  of  God  (how- 
ever much  God's  image  might  be  now  defaced  in  them) 
with  all  its  consequences ;  He  was  not  ashamed  to  call 
them  brethren  on  earth,  or  to  present  Himself  before  God 
in  heaven  as  firstborn  of  many  brethren.  He  reestablished 
for  mankind  all  their  rights,  as  members  of  the  spiritual 
family  of  God  ;  and  they  became  anew  sons  of  God  and 
brethren  of  Christ.  As  brethren  therefore  they  acquired 
a  claim  on  His  brotherly  love ;  and  His  priesthood  on 
their  behalf  followed  as  a  necessary  consequence  from  their 
brotherhood.  For  how  can  any  true  son  be  himself  one 
in  spirit  with  his  father,  and  yet  bear  to  see  his  brethren. 


EMBODIED  IN  SUCCESSIVE   TYPES.  37 

who  are  likewise  heirs  to  the  father's  love,  shut  out  from 
it !  He  must  perforce  set  himself  to  open  a  way  for  their 
return  home,  and  stretch  forth  his  hands  to  help  them 
onwards  on  their  way  to  the  father.  In  other  words, 
Christ  could  not  but  become  man's  priest  unto  God  by 
reason  of  the  greatness  of  His  love  for  man,  as  a  child  of 
God. 

This  change  in  the  nature  of  His  priesthood  involves 
a  corresponding  change  in  the  sacrifices  which  He  presents 
to  God,  A  spiritual  priest  must  offer  spiritual  sacrifices. 
The  sacrifices  of  the  old  covenant  have  each  their  Christian 
counterpart.  As  the  Mosaic  tabernacle  was  made  after 
the  pattern  of  a  heavenly  archetype  (Exod.  xxv.  40),  so  the 
ritual  was  typical  even  in  minute  details  of  a  spiritual 
system.  The  most  conspicuous  instance  of  this  was  found 
in  the  yearly  entrance  of  the  high  priest  alone  into  God's 
secret  chamber,  to  make  atonement  for  the  sins  of  his 
people ;  by  which  Israel  had  been  educated  to  trust  in  the 
mediation  of  the  one  spiritual  high  priest  who  was  to  enter 
alone  into  the  Father's  presence  on  behalf  of  all  His 
children.  But  now,  instead  of  the  yearly  atonement  and 
the  many  offerings  for  sin  and  uncleanness  prescribed  in 
the  Law,  the  gospel  pointed  to  Christ's  one  offering  of  Him- 
self as  an  all-sufficient  atonement.  It  left  no  room  for  any 
further  sin  offering  ;  for  it  revealed  most  fully  once  for  all, 
not  only  the  Son's  entire  forgiveness  of  the  sinners  for 
whom  He  gave  up  His  own  life,  but  the  love  of  the  Father 
also,  who  had  sent  Him  to  die  for  sinners  :  and  it  was 
impossible  to  add  anything  to  the  force  of  this  assurance. 
But  though  the  sacrifice  is  finished  and  complete,  the 
remembrance  of  it  must  be  kept  ever  fresh  in  the  minds 
of  men;  for  it  is  still  as  necessary  as  it  was  in  Israelite  days 
that  the  sinner  should  confess  his  sins  over  it,  declare  his 
own  unworthiness  to  stand  in  God's  sight,  and  send  up 
his  prayer  for  forgiveness  in  its   name.     The  enthronement 


38         THE  SCBIPTUBAL  IDEA   OF  PRIESTHOOD 


of  human  sympathy  in  the  Hving  person  of  a  heavenly 
mediator,  able  and  willing  to  stand  between  the  penitent 
and  the  just  consequences  of  his  misdeeds,  continues  there- 
fore a  vital  necessity  for  the  restoration  of  the  guilty. 
There  is  no  visible  cloud  of  incense  now  rising  up  before 
God's  mercy-seat,  and  mingling  with  the  prayers  of  God's 
faithful  people,  that  they  may  find  acceptance  with  Him  ; 
but  the  intercession  of  the  Spirit  is  needed  to  help  our 
infirmities,  and  our  High  Priest  must  quicken  us  with 
heavenly  fire,  that  we  may  pray  aright.  Moreover  Christ 
Himself,  when  He  replaced  burnt  offering  by  an  absolute 
surrender  of  Himself  to  do  God's  will,  gave  a  clear  example 
of  the  continual  burnt  offering  which  Christians  are  bound 
to  render  to  God  in  Him.  Christians  again  are  even  moi'e 
bound,  than  Israelites  were,  to  offer  to  God  the  fruit  of 
the  lips  giving  Him  thanks,  and  to  bring  out  of  the  means, 
with  which  He  has  blessed  them,  gifts  for  His  service,  for 
His  poor,  and  for  the  use  of  brethren  in  Christ ;  these  are 
the  Christian  thankofferings,  to  be  made  through  Christ, 
i.e.  with  humble  acknowledgment  of  their  own  un worthi- 
ness, and  thankful  remembrance  of  His  redemption. 

4.  The  New  Testament  presents  one  more  type  of  priest- 
hood, subordinate  to,  but  inseparable  from,  the  priesthood 
of  Christ ;  viz.  the  priesthood  of  Christian  men.  The  latter 
is  the  inevitable  result  of  the  former;  for  whatever  is  true 
of  Christ  as  a  man,  must  also  be  true  of  those  that  are 
Christ's.  He  undertakes  no  office  in  which  He  does  not 
make  His  brethren  sharers.  If  He  be  a  king,  they  are 
to  reign  with  Him  as  companions  of  His  throne  ;  if  judge, 
they  are  to  be  seated  as  His  assessors  beside  His  seat  of 
judgment  :  they  are  destined  partners  of  His  heavenly 
glory,  as  they  are  called  to  be  of  His  earthly  sufferings.  It 
would  be  alien  to  the  whole  spirit  of  Christianity  to  conceive 
Him  sitting  in  heaven  as  a  solitary  priest-king  like  Mel- 
chizedek.     Therefore  the  Epistle  to  the   Hebrews,  when  it 


EMBODIED  IN  SUCCESSIVE   TYPES.  39 

applies  to  Him  the  prophetic  language  of  Psalm  ex.,  "  Thou 
art  a  priest  for  ever  after  the  order  of  Melchizedek,"  alters 
the  words  so  far  as  to  entitle  Him,  not  priest,  but  high 
priest  (Heb.  v.  10).  The  risen  Lord  is  not  alone  in  His 
high  office,  but  firstborn  of  the  many  children  of  the 
resurrection,  and  leader  of  a  glorious  company  of  human 
brethren,  whom  He  has  made  kings  and  priests  unto 
His  God  and  Father.  The  inspired  author  of  that  epistle 
beheld  in  glorious  visions  the  great  host  of  the  faithful 
departed,  from  righteous  Abel  downwards,  first  awaiting  the 
death  of  Christ  for  consecration  to  a  heavenly  priesthood, 
then  gathered  as  consecrated  spirits  round  their  Lord  in 
heaven  (Heb.  xi.  40  ;    xii.  23).^ 

But  this  priesthood  is  not  limited  to  the  Church  trium- 
phant in  heaven  ;  it  belongs  equally  to  the  Church  militant 
on  earth.  It  is  not  a  future  dignity  reserved  for  saints  in 
heaven,  but  a  present  duty  and  existing  privilege  of  every 
true  member  of  Christ  on  earth.  St.  Peter,  and  St.  John 
in  the  Revelation,  are  both  explicit  on  this  head  :  "  Ye  are 
a  royal  priesthood";  "Christ  hath  made  us  kings  and 
priests  unto  His  God  and  Father."  Both  speak  of  priest- 
hood as  the  actual  and  undoubted  heritage  of  all  Christians. 
Moreover  the  language  of  St.  Peter  derives  additional  em- 
phasis from  its  original  application  in  the  Old  Testament ; 
for  the  words  are  not  the  Apostle's  own,  but  are  borrowed 
by  him  from  God's  address  to  Israel  at  the  time  when  He 
admitted  them  to  covenant  at  Sinai  as  a  "kingdom  of  priests 
and  a  holy  nation"  (Exod.  xix.  G).  He  then  declared  that  He 
had  chosen  the  whole  nation,  brought  them  nearer  to  Him- 
self than  any  other  men,  and  made  them  by  His  special 
favour  worshippers  in  His  courts,  and  keepers  of  His  sanc- 
tuary, that  they  might  become  priests  unto  the  Gentiles, 

'  In  both  these  passages  our  versiou  has  unfortunately  substituted  "perfect  " 
for  consecrate  :  the  latter  is  the  correct  rendering  of  reXetoOc  in  all  the  passages 
of  Scripture  which  refer  to  priesthoxl. 


40  TEE  SGRIPTUBAL  IDEA    OF  PRIESTHOOD 

and  that  the  world  might  learn  through  them  the  knowledge 
of  God  and  of  His  holiness.  I  know  no  other  passage  of 
the  Old  Testament  suggesting  a  priesthood  distinct  from 
the  priesthood  of  the  altar  and  the  sanctuary.  It  contains 
the  germ  of  a  noble  truth,  which  long  lay  half-buried  and 
forgotten — for  the  time  was  not  yet  ripe  for  the  compre- 
hension of  a  world-wide  spiritual  priesthood  —  but  bore 
fruit  at  last  when  the  Apostle  seized  on  it  to  remind  the 
Christian  Israel  that  they  have  succeeded  in  their  turn  to 
the  priestly  privileges  and  responsibilities  of  Israel ;  and 
that  God  has  now  chosen  them  out  of  the  world,  and 
revealed  Himself  to  them  in  the  face  of  Jesus  Christ,  that 
through  them  the  light  of  His  countenance  may  shine  upon 
all  who  are  now  walking  in  darkness ;  and  so  all  His 
children  of  every  nation  and  every  class  may  be  brought 
near  to  Him  in  faith  and  love,  and  enter  in  their  turn 
as  consecrated  priests  through  the  rent  veil  into  His  holy 
presence. 

The  truth  is,  that  the  great  heavenly  High  Priest  needs 
the  services  of  all  His  brethren  on  earth  for  carrying  on  His 
work  of  reconciliation.  His  plan  of  salvation  is  to  make 
man  the  instrument  of  man's  restoration.  Therefore,  as  we 
read  in  Hebrews  x.  14,  He  has  consecrated  for  ever  all 
those  that  are  or  shall  be  dedicated  to  the  service  of  God.^ 
He  gives  to  every  member  of  His  Church  grace  to  become 
His  under-priest.  He  has  indeed  other  means  of  bringing 
men  to  God  besides  the  cooperation  of  Christian  brethren, 
for  He  speaks  to  them  by  the  voice  of  His  Spirit,  and  the 
calls  of  His  providence  :  but  He  does  not  rely  on  spiritual 
influences  alone  ;  He  uses  largely  the  living  power  and 
love  of  human  priests,  to  reassure  the  guilty,  raise  up  the 
fallen,  and  strengthen   the   weak  ;  He  breathes  into   them 

1  Our  version  reads  here  agaiu  "^^cr/Vcfcrf  "  for  consecrated.  But  it  is  not 
true  that  Christians  are  yet  jierfeLsted  ;  tliey  are  ah-eady  consecrated,  i.e.  made 
priests  unto  God. 


EMBODIED   IN  SUCCESSIVE   TYPES.  41 

His  own  spirit  of  mingled  holiness  and  love,  and  strengthens 
them  that  they  may  impart  a  like  strength  to  others.^ 

I  find  therefore  in  the  doctrine  of  Christian  priesthood 
a  protest  against  the  narrow  view  of  religion  which  limits 
each  man's  duty  to  his  own  personal  salvation,  without 
regard  to  the  welfare  of  other  human  souls.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  reconcile  any  selfish  isolation  of  individual  Christians 
with  the  spirit  of  Christ ;  no  man  can  become  a  member 
of  Christ  without  other  men  acquiring  an  immediate  claim 
upon  him  in  Christ's  name  to  become  a  priest  unto  them, 
that  he  may  bring  them  if  possible  as  near  to  God  as  he 
stands  himself.  Christ  has  made  us  all  members  one  of 
another,  that  those  who  are  strong  may  strengthen  weaker 
brethren,  those  who  are  wise  may  teach  the  ignorant,  those 
who  have  come  near  to  God  may  draw  those  who  are  far 
oft".  It  is  the  law  of  His  kingdom  that  every  Christian 
should  become  by  the  aid  of  His  Spirit  a  fresh  centre  of 
religious  practice  and  Christian  worship.  He  bids  each  of 
His  disciples,  as  soon  as  he  has  grasped  the  hand  of  his 
heavenly  High  Priest,  stretch  forth  a  hand  in  his  turn  to 
forlorn  outcast  wanderers.  By  this  ministry  of  souls  He 
binds  high  and  low  together  in  the  common  service  of  their 
heavenly  Father,  weaving  chains  of  human  lovingkindness 
to  reach  down  from  His  Father's  throne  in  heaven  to  the 
lowest  depths  of  earthly  misery,  until  all  God's  children 
are  embraced  within  the  golden  network  of  Divine  love. 

F.  Kendall. 

1  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  in  dealing  with  Christian  priesthood  I  refer 
exclusively  to  the  scriptural  usage  of  the  term  "  priest."  The  same  word  is  also 
used  in  the  Prayer-book  and  Articles,  with  a  distinct  meaning  of  its  own. 
When  these,  retaining  the  language  of  more  ancient  liturgies,  speak  of  the 
three  orders  of  Bishops  Priests  and  Deacons,  they  obviously  employ  the  name 
to  describe  the  primitive  order  of  wpea^vrepoL,  designated  in  Scripture  as 
"  elders  ";  whereas  the  title  of  priest  is  in  the  Bible  reserved  exclusively  for  the 
translation  of  the  Greek  kpevs. 


42 


THE  DEEP    GULF  BETWEEN   THE    OLD 
THEOLOGY  AND  THE  NEW. 

A   LAST  CONFESSION   OF  FAITH. 
I. 

The  more  my  earthly  life  declines,  the  more  do  I  feel 
myself  compelled  to  concentrate  my  strength  and  time  on 
practical  aims  :  even  in  the  purely  scientific  work  which 
falls  to  me  in  my  calling  as  a  representative  of  biblical 
science,  it  is  a  practical  end  which  I  keep  in  view.  It  has 
been  my  privilege  to  live  contemporaneous  with  a  bright 
period  of  reawakening  in  Christian  faith  and  life,  which  has 
borne  fruit  in  a  splendid  rejuvenescence  of  Church  theology  ; 
and  now  I  have  been  reserved  with  a  few,  to  witness  with 
them  how  the  structure  of  half-a-century  is  being  rent,  and 
how  what  hitherto  stood  firm,  and  seemed  likely  to  endure, 
is  being  undermined  and  overthrown.  This  must  not 
astonish  us  overmuch.  Such  is  the  course  of  history,  sacred 
and  profane.  After  the  wave-mountain  comes  the  wave- 
valley  ;  and  when  anything  new  is  to  be  created,  the  form 
of  primordial  chaos  repeats  itself.  Heaven  and  earth  are 
fleeting,  for  they  shall  pass  away  ;  but  they  are  also  en- 
during, for  they  shall  come  forth  from  that  passing  away 
as  new  heaven  and  new  earth.  The  Church's  credo  is 
changeable,  for  the  knowledge  which  is  therein  expressed 
has  from  time  to  time  a  smelting  to  undergo ;  but  it  is  also 
unchangeable,  for  in  it  is  a  truth  which  outlives  the  fire, 
and  which,  through  all  changes  of  man's  cognition,  reveals 
itself  anew  in  ever  purer  and  intenser  brilliance.  For  just 
this  reason  however  has  the  Church  to  depend  for  her 
maintenance  and  progress  on  the  fulfilment  of  this  con- 
dition, that  she  make  herself  mistress  of  the  elements  of 
truth  implied  in  the  destruction  of  what  has  hitherto  been 
accepted,   and   that  she   melt  them  down  with   the  truth 


THE   OLD   THEOLOGY  AND   THE  NEW.  43 

sealed  to  her  by  a  higher  than  scientific  authority.  This 
is  the  practical  problem  towards  the  solution  of  which  I 
would  gladly  lend  my  aid. 

For  thankful  recognition  such  endeavour  must  look  to 
comparatively  few  among  contemporaries,  because  the 
majority  of  Christian  behevers  will  regard  as  invalid,  or 
certainly  as  doubtful,  the  supposition  from  which  it  starts ; 
though  now-a-days  scarcely  any  one  questions  that  even  the 
flood  of  rationalism  from  which  the  Church  emerged  vic- 
torious, left  her  fertihzed  by  a  sediment  of  knowledge. 
That,  by  such  endeavour,  one  should  earn  but  paltry  thanks 
in  the  camp  of  his  op;ponents,  lies  in  the  nature  of  the  case. 
If  we  seek  to  unite  what  in  the  accepted  view^s  of  modern 
criticism,  appears  to  demand  recognition,  with  that  which 
is  inalienable  in  our  faith,  we  incur  the  reproach  of  an 
inconsistency  which  stops  halfway,  and  are  likely  to  bear 
the  ridicule  cast  upon  old  clothes  adorned  with  new  patches. 
But  this  should  not  deter  nor  astonish  us.  Not  deter  :  for 
when  we  consider  how  Semler's  rationalism  and  Schleier- 
macher's  entire  reconstruction  of  theology  have  contributed 
to  the  advance  of  Church  theology,  we  may  find  therein 
a  guarantee  that  the  latter  will  also  be  able  gradually  to 
assimilate  the  elements  of  truth  contained  in  the  present 
chaos.  And  it  should  not  astonish  us  that  those  on  the 
other  side  look  down  on  us  in  their  superiority.  No  pro- 
cess of  assimilation  will  bring  us  materially  nearer  each 
other,  for  between  old  and  new  theology  lies  a  deep  gulf, 
which  the  former  must  cross  to  win  the  thanks  of  the 
latter ;  and  this  it  cannot  do,  without  approaching  that 
sin  for  which  there  is  no  forgiveness  in  this  world  or  the 
next. 

II. 

There  is  a  unifying  tendency  native  to  the  soul  of  man, 
by  which  his  thought,   speech,  and  effort  after  knowledge 


44  THE  DEEP   GULF  BETWEEN 

are  decided.  ThinkiDg  or  speaking,  he  arranges  things  in 
the  world  of  phenomena  according  to  common  features,  by 
which  he  classes  them  together  under  the  abstract  unities  of 
notions.  In  his  effort  after  knowledge  he  seeks  for  thesis 
and  antithesis,  and  synthesis,  which  is  the  blending  of  the 
proposition  and  its  opposite  in  a  real  and  higher  unity.  Or, 
again,  he  seeks  to  force  his  way  down  to  the  radical  unity, 
whence  contraries  branch  out  and  develop.  This  monistic 
tendency  is  in  its  final  ground  and  purpose  a  tendency 
toward  God,  the  alone  One.  Since  however  things  which 
have  their  common  origin  in  God  may  be  in  themselves 
dualistically  severed  and  in  principle  distinct,  the  monistic 
tendency  oversteps  the  line  drawn  for  it  when  it  reduces 
antitheses  that  defy  unification  to  different  sides  or  degrees 
of  an  imagined  unity.  Thus  God  and  world  are  antitheses 
which  must  stand ;  he  who  annuls  the  opposition  asserts 
either.  There  is  no  world  different  from  God,  or.  There  is 
no  God  diiferent  from  the  world.  Spirit  and  body  are 
antitheses,  which  must  likewise  remain  unreduced ;  other- 
wise spirit  is  identified  with  matter  itself,  developed  from 
below  upward  to  self-consciousness.  Man  is  a  duality  of 
spirit  and  body,  and  as  such  is  different  in  species  from 
the  beast ;  he  who  annuls  this  dualism  of  the  human  sub- 
stance places  man  on  a  level  with  the  highly  developed 
beast. 

In  such  fundamental  contraposition  stands  also  nature 
and  grace.  The  nature  of  a  thing  is  its  constitution  as 
fixed  by  creation  and  enduring  by  law  ;  the  nature  of  a 
man  is  his  essential  condition,  created  or  inborn,  and 
expressing  itself  in  this  way  or  that  by  morally  responsible 
activity.  Man's  nature  was  originally  good,  but  is  now, 
through  his  wilfal  alienation  from  God,  become  sinful, 
fallen  into  the  service  of  sin.  But  it  is  God's  merciful  will 
to  free  man  from  the  self-corruption  of  his  nature.  He  has 
appointed  Christ,  the  Son  of  God  and  man,  to  mediate  in 


THE   OLD    THEOLOGY  AND   THE  NEW.  45 

the  restoration  of  our  communion  with  God  ;    and   grace  is 
the  name  of  God's  action  for  us  and  to  us,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  free  us  from  the  consciousness  of  guilt  and  from 
the  ban  of  sin-service.     The  work  of  God's  grace  in  Christ, 
aiming  as  it  does  at  our  dehverance,  at  the  breaking  of  our 
bonds,   at  our  salvation,  is  a  supernatural  work ;    and  he 
who   submits   himself  to    this  can  in  his  own    experience 
distinguish   the   supernatural  workings   of   grace  from   the 
workings   of  his   natural   powers    and   impulses.      It   is   a 
very  important  matter,  says  Philip  Jacob  Spener,  in  begin- 
ning his  treatise  on  Nature  and  Grace  (1687),  which  he  as 
chief  court  preacher   in   Dresden    dedicated  to    the  clergy 
of  Saxony, — it  is  a  very  important  matter,  to  which  much 
pertains  for  the  exercise  of  true  Christianity  and  the  know- 
ledge  of   our   state,    that   we    should   know   well   how    to 
distinguish  what   is   nature  from  what  is   grace.     And  an 
appendix  to  this  work,  taken  from  Thomas  a  Kempis,  begins  : 
"  Son,  thou  must  dihgently  apprehend  the  motions  of  nature 
and  grace,  for  they  move  themselves  contrary,  and  scarce 
are  they  distinguished  unless  by  a  spiritual  and  inwardly 
enlightened  man."     In  fact,  without  these   antitheses  there 
is  no  Christian  life,   and  without    the  distinction  of  these 
antitheses   there   is   no    Christian  self-knowledge.     Nature 
and   grace  are   as   rootedly,    as   essentially   antithetical   as 
world   and   God.     But   it  is   a  fundamental   characteristic 
of  the  new  theology  that  it  so  softens  down  the  sharpness 
of   these    antitheses    as    to   make    the   distinction   vanish. 
Whether  it  admits  the  fact  or  not,  the  case  actually  stands 
thus  :  it  alters  the  essence  of  grace,  and  makes  everything 
nature.     This   is  the  deep  gulf  which  parts  the   old  from 
the  new  theology,  and  makes  intercourse  impossible. 

The  Christian,  as  such,  leads,  as  Paul  depicts  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  chapters  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Eomans, 
a  dual  life,  in  which  he  feels  himself  on  the  one  side  in 
servitude  and  misery,  on  the  other  free  and  blessed.     The 


46  THE  DEEP   GULF  BETWEEN 

carnal  life,  in  which  is  rooted  his  natural  existence,  still 
continues,  and  never  ceases  to  throw  evil  shadows  on  his 
spiritual  life ;  while  this  spiritual  life  is  a  planting  of  grace, 
which  has  removed  him  from  the  law  of  nature,  and  set 
him  in  a  sphere  of  life  exalted  above  it,  and  is  thus  a 
working  of  God  supra  naturam  because  contra  naturam. 
For,  as  the  apostle  says  in  chap.  viii.  2,  "  The  law  of  the 
Spirit,  which  quickens  us  in  Christ  Jesus,  hath  made  me 
free  from  the  law  of  sin  and  death."  "I  live,"  he  can  say 
in  Galatians  ii.  20  ;  "yet  not  I,  but  Christ  liveth  in  me." 
The  division  between  nature  and  grace  reaches  thus  to 
the  centre  of  his  being.  His  natural  I  is  enthralled  under 
the  curse  of  the  law  ;  but  Christ  is  his  righteousness,  in 
Him  he  has  obtained  a  new  I,  which  knows  itself  as  free 
from  the  law  and  just  before  God.  No  one  has  more 
profoundly  grasped  this  truth,  or  more  powerfully  attested 
it,  than  Luther  in  his  memorable  exposition  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Galatians.  There  is,  he  there  affirms,  a  righteousness 
which  belongs  to  the  earthly,  and  a  righteousness  which 
belongs  to  the  heavenly  world ;  a  righteousness  of  the 
law,  which  is  an  affair  of  earth  and  of  our  own  action, 
and  a  righteousness  which  we,  without  our  action,  must 
receive  from  heaven,  the  righteousness  of  Christ,  which  is 
ours  when  we  become  by  faith  so  united  to  Him,  that  He 
takes  upon  Himself  everything  condemnable  that  attaches 
to  us,  and  in  place  thereof  gives  us  Himself  with  His 
righteousness,  His  victory,  and  His  life  as  our  own.  Thus 
grace  works  into  the  natural  life  of  man  a  new  super- 
natural life,  which  differs  from  the  former  as  essentially 
as  the  future  world  of  glory  from  the  present  world  of  birth 
and  decay. 

ni. 

Or   are   those    extravagances    which    lift     Christian    ex- 
perience beyond  the  realm  of   actuality  into   that    of  the 


THE   OLD   THEOLOGY  AND   THE  NEW.  47 

imaginary  ?  The  new  theology  must  pronomice  such  a 
judgment.  We  however  rule  it  to  be  incompetent,  see- 
ing that  it  starts  from  preconceptions  which  render  it 
incapable  of  experiences  such  as  those  of  a  Paul  or  a 
Luther.  A  theologian  who  denies  that  sinfulness  is  the 
inheritance  of  man  from  his  birth,  that  man  by  nature 
is  a  child  of  wrath,  and  has  to  confess  himself  a  sinner 
worthy  of  condemnation ;  who  denies  that  Christ  by  sub- 
stitutionary work  and  suffering  has  satisfied  the  righteous- 
ness or  the  wrath  of  God,  and  made  for  the  love  of  God 
an  open  path  ;  who  denies  that  we  can  enter  into  a  direct 
real  relation  of  communion  with  God  and  the  risen  Christ, 
— such  a  theologian  has  by  these  preconceptions  rendered 
himself  from  the  outset  unable  to  experience  and  person- 
ally to  test  the  work  of  grace  in  his  soul. 

But  these  assertions — it  will  be  objected — are  in  truth  no 
preconceptions.  On  the  contrary,  they  are  conclusions  based 
on  observation  of  our  religious  life  and  experience.  So  then 
experience  stands  opposed  to  experience.  In  our  opinion, 
that  is  only  a  very  superficial  introspection  which  fails  to 
see  that  our  inborn  nature  is  one  sundered  from  God  and 
penetrated  to  its  most  secret  folds  with  defects  and  sinful 
impulses  ;  so  that  we  must  accuse  ourselves  before  a  holy 
God  as  having  earned  His  punishment  in  time  and  eternity, 
and  praise  with  thankfulness  that  decree  of  Divine  love, 
which  appointed  Christ  to  work  out  for  us  by  His  crucifixion 
and  ascension  the  forgiveness  of  sins  and  a  new  beginning 
of  life,  and  which  thus  made  it  possible  for  sinners  worthy 
of  condemnation  to  become  by  faith  the  beloved  of  God. 
With  regard  to  the  real  personal  intercourse  with  the  living 
God  and  the  revealed  Son  of  God  and  man,  the  new 
dogmatic  school  views  this  as  a  mystic  illusion  opposed  to 
experience ;  while  in  its  place  it  puts  a  mediate  relation- 
ship effected  through  the  Christian  community,  and  through 
what  God  in   Christ  has  become  to  this  community.     This 


48  TBE  DEEP   GULF  BETWEEN 

is  in  opposition  to  the  promise  of  the  Lord,  "  He  who 
loveth  Me  will  keep  My  word,  and  My  Father  will  love  him, 
and.  We  will  come  to  him  and  dwell  w4th  him  "  (John  xiv. 
23)  ;  in  opposition  to  the  testimony  of  believers  of  the  new 
covenant  since  the  time  of  the  apostles ;  in  opposition  also 
to  psalmists  and  prophets.  It  is  not  in  agreement  with 
historical  Christianity  to  refer  redemption  and  salvation 
directly  to  the  community  and  only  indirectly  to  the 
individual.  The  relations  are  ever  found  to  be  reversed. 
It  is  individuals  who,  with  a  sense  of  merited  condemnation, 
desire  to  be  made  whole,  and  who  grasp  with  faith  the 
offered  grace  of  God  in  Christ,  that  form  the  community  of 
the  saved — the  unseen  beginning  of  a  kingdom  of  God,  of 
a  commonwealth,  that  is,  heavenly  in  origin  and  nature, 
whose  essence  is  living  communion  with  God  in  Christ,  and 
which  starts  from  this  centre  in  its  work  of  subduing  the 
world  and  moulding  earth  after  the  likeness  of  heaven. 

There  is  no  biblical  conception  which,  as  treated  by  this 
new  theology,  does  not  lose  in  depth  and  in  fulness  of  con- 
tents. True,  the  kingdom  of  God  is  explained  to  be  super- 
natural and  supramundane  :  but  only  supernatural  in  so  far 
as  it  surpasses  the  natural  forms  of  society  (marriage,  social 
and  national  relationship)  ;  and  only  supramundane  in  so  far 
as  it  has  for  its  bond  of  union  the  working  of  the  invisible 
motive  love.  So  far  correct :  but  the  supernatural  and  the 
supramundane  character  of  the  kingdom  of  God  consists 
above  all  in  this,  that  its  foundation  in  the  human  soul  is  a 
work  of  supernatural  and  supramundane  influence  ;  a  work 
of  God.  according  to  the  overflowing  riches  of  His  grace  in 
Christ  Jesus,  as  the  Lord  Himself  said,  "  The  kingdom  of 
God  is  within  you  "  ;  and  as  His  apostle  said,  "  The  king- 
dom of  God  is  righteousness  and  peace  and  joy  in  the  Holy 
Ghost." 

He  who,  in  the  midst  of  his  estrangement  from  God  and 
degradation    in    sin,  has    experienced   this    spiritual    trans- 


TEE   OLD   THEOLOGY  AND   THE  NEW.  49 


formation  knows  that  he  owes  it  to  the  supernatural  inter- 
ference of  the  rescuing  hand  of  God,  and  feels  himself  placed 
in  a  new  world,  in  contrast  with  which  his  earlier  existence 
appears  like  the  groping  of  a  hlind  man  or  the  lethargy  of 
one  more  dead  than  alive.  This  new  birth,  which  is 
accomplished  within  the  realm  of  Divine  grace  by  way  of 
repentance  and  faith,  together  with  the  workings  of  grace 
by  which  it  is  brought  to  pass  and  maintained,  does  not  in 
the  new  theology  receive  its  due.  Even  as  the  closest  living 
union  with  God  and  the  risen  Saviour  is  rejected  as  mystical, 
this  process  of  conversion  is  considered  pietistic.  Though 
I  differed  on  many  points  with  the  late  Ferdinand  Walther, 
together  with  whom  I  passed  through  the  throes  and 
raptures  of  the  new  spiritual  birth,  on  one  point  we  remained 
ever  agreed — that  the  condition  of  the  true  Christian  is  a 
supernatural  one,  seeing  that  it  has  its  root  in  the  new 
birth  which  he  has  experienced.  This  condition  is  want- 
ing in  the  new  theology.  Apart  from  its  rejection  of  the 
so-called  metaphysical  element,  to  which  it  denies  any 
practical  significance,  the  new  school  speaks  with  regard  to 
the  actual  facts  of  experience  a  language  of  moral  shallow- 
ness foreign  to  the  Christian  and  the  theologian  of  the  old 
stock.  The  difference  between  nature  and  grace  is  here 
toned  down  and  washed  out,  and  that  makes  the  deep  gulf 
which  divides  us. 

IV. 

That  the  Christianity  of  the  new  theology  is  not  that 
recorded  in  history  is  further  evident  from  this,  that  in 
identifying  grace  with  nature,  it  at  the  same  time  denies 
the  reality  of  miracles.  For  miracle  has  grace  as  its 
ground,  purpose,  and  province.  The  supernatural  influ- 
ences of  God  on  man,  which  produce  in  him  the  new 
spiritual  life,  issue  from  the  decree  of  grace  which  aims  at 
man's  salvation  ;  and  the  supernatural  interference  of  God 

VOL.   IX.  4 


50  THE  DEEP   GULF  BETWEEN 


in  external  events  only  subserves  the  realization  of  this 
decree.  Between  those  redemptive  operations  of  grace  and 
these  historical  miracles  lie  the  miraculous  gifts  of  the 
Spirit,  especially  the  gift  of  prophecy,  which  lifts  the 
receiver  above  the  restrictions  of  nature.  In  every  such 
gift  is  manifest  the  free  activity  of  God,  which  breaks 
through  the  natural  chain  of  causation  to  fulfil  moral 
purposes  connected  with  the  decree  of  His  saving  grace. 
The  new  theology  however  recognises  no  interruption  of 
the  course  of  natural  law,  under  a  Divine  direction  indepen- 
dent of  nature.  It  reduces  the  miracle  to  nature ;  more 
specially  to  a  natural  phenomenon,  with  which,  according 
to  the  usual  definition,  there  is  connected  the  experience 
of  a  particularly  helpful  providence.  This  is  not  a  different 
gulf  from  that  already  mentioned  ;  but  how  deep  the  gulf 
is,  we  now  rightly  apprehend  for  the  first  time  ! 

For  here  it  is  plain,  that  the  difference  between  old  and 
new  theology  coincides  at  bottom  with  the  difference 
between  the  two  conceptions  of  the  world,  which  are  at 
present  more  harshly  opposed  than  ever  before.  The 
modern  view  of  the  world  declares  the  miracle  to  be  un- 
thinkable, and  thus  excluded  from  the  historical  mode  of 
treatment ;  for  there  is  only  the  one  world-system,  that 
of  natural  law,  with  whose  permanence  the  direct,  extra- 
ordinary interferences  of  God  are  irreconcilable.  The 
opposite  view,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  content  itself 
with  regarding  the  miracle  as  possible ;  it  regards  this  as 
absolutely  necessary,  for  it  distinguishes  two  world-systems, 
that  of  natural  law  and  that  of  morals,  both  of  which,  since 
there  are  men  and  so  history,  act  and  react  on  one  another ; 
inasmuch  as  the  relation  of  God  to  free  beings  brings  this 
in  its  train,  that  interferences  take  place  in  the  course  of 
nature  which  make  it  subserve  moral  ends.  This  is  the 
Christian,  the  biblical,  and,  as  we  may  venture  to  assert^ 
the  rehgious  conception  of  the  world,  for  it  is  the  presup- 


THE    OLD   THEOLOGY  AND   THE  NEIV.  T.l 

position  of  all  historical  religions  :  whereas  the  other  view 
is  a  doctrine  of  philosophy  and  natural  science,  which  would 
fain  be  recognised  as  a  practical  religion,  but  which  never 
will,  inasmuch  as  it  surrenders  inalienable  ground-principles 
of  religion  in  denying  living  intercourse  with  the  Godhead, 
and,  in  order  to  hold  intact  the  inviolability  of  the  chain  of 
causation  found  in  natural  law,  is  compelled  to  abandon 
the  freedom  both  of  man  and  of  God. 

The  restricting  of  God  to  the  course  of  nature  has  for 
its  result  that  we  must  deny  to  all  prayer,  alike  of  entreaty 
and  intercession,  any  effect  on  external  events  mediated  by 
response  to  prayer.  Heinrich  Lang,  in  a  work  with  the 
title,  BeUgio7i  in  the  Time  of  Darwin  (1874),  handles  this 
subject  in  a  way  to  make  one  shudder,  when  he  quotes 
Psalm  xci.,  and  then  says,  that  the  comfort  of  this  psalm  is 
due  to  a  way  of  thinking  which  has  been  discredited  ;  that 
no  prayer  or  blessing  which  accompanies  the  son  on  his 
way  to  battle  can  avail  to  check  or  turn  aside  the  fatal  ball. 
As  if  there  were  not  accredited  answers  to  prayer,  like  the 
intercession  of  Luther  for  Melanchthon  and  Myconius  !  And 
as  if  each  faithful  petitioner  could  not,  from  his  own  ex- 
perience, substantiate  the  psalmist's  words  (Ixvi.  3),  "Thou 
hearest  prayer,  therefore  cometh  all  flesh  to  Thee"!  All 
flesh — for  everywhere  in  the  world  of  men  where  prayer  is 
offered,  this  is  done  in  the  certainty  that  prayer  has  efi'ect 
on  God  and  can  call  forth  active  help  in  return.  There  is 
more  reason  in  the  consensus  gentium  than  in  the  doctrines 
of  isolated  thinkers,  even  be  they  so  great  as  Schleiermacher 
and  Ritschl.  We  can  refute  the  testimony  of  the  soul  on 
paper,  but  it  is  impossible  permanently  to  suppress  its 
reaction  in  our  inmost  nature. 

V. 

But  not  alone  do  the  life  of  prayer  and,  in  general,  th^ 
religious   life   receive  from   this  restricting  of  God  to   the 


52  THE   DEEP   GULF  BETWEEN 


course  of  nature  a  character  different  from  that  hitherto 
found  among  men.  Even  faith  in  the  Easter  message 
begins  to  waver.  Our  greeting  on  Easter  Day  loses  heart. 
The  "He  is  risen  !  "  which  rings  through  the  New  Testa- 
ment hke  the  blast  of  the  trumpet  of  victory,  becomes  less 
probable  than  the  allegation  of  the  Jews,  "  His  disciples 
stole  Him."  For  if  God  cannot  make  the  course  of  nature 
subservient  to  higher  ends,  and,  as  a  creator,  in  special 
circumstances  interfere  with  the  created  order  of  nature, 
then  is  the  re-awakenii]g  of  Christ  no  historical  fact  ;  His 
work  lacks  the  Divine  seal ;  and  Paul  himself  says,  in  1 
Corinthians  xv.  4,  that  if  the  resurrection  falls,  Christianity 
ceases  to  exist  as  a  religion  of  redemption,  and  can  no  more 
deliver  the  human  consciousness  and  life  from  the  ban  of 
sin  and  death.  The  disciples  of  the  new  theology  recognise 
the  resurrection  as  a  fact  in  the  consciousness  of  the  early 
Church,  but  towards  it  as  a  fact  of  history  they  remain 
cold  and  reserved.  In  their  system,  this  is  not  the  centre, 
but  merely  a  dim  point  in  the  periphery.  Logical  con- 
sistency on  their  part  would  cause  it  to  vanish  altogether. 

With  melancholy  frankness  did  Alexander  Schweizer, 
who  died  on  the  third  of  July  last,  put  this  question  in 
a  kindly  notice  of  my  Apologetics  which  appeared  in  the 
Protestant ische  Kirchenzeitiincj  for  1862:  "Are  we  then, 
by  assuming  this  one  event,  to  abandon  the  entire  modern 
view  of  the  world?  "  And  Heinrich  Lang  in  the  Zeltstim- 
men  for  18(31,  confesed  honourably:  "So  soon  as  I  can 
convince  myself  of  the  reality  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ, 
this  absolute  miracle,  as  Paul  seems  to  declare  it,  I  shatter 
the  modern  conception  of  the  world.  This  breach  in  the 
order  of  nature,  which  I  regard  as  inviolable,  would  be  an 
irreparable  breach  in  my  system,  in  my  whole  world  of 
thought."  In  fact,  he  who  in  principle  rejects  the  miracle 
must  also  reject  the  historical  nature  of  the  resurrection 
of  Christ  ;   but    he  who  acknowledges    as  history  this  one 


THE    OLD   THEOLOGY  AND   THE  NEW.  53 


miracle  will  also  find  it  not  improbable  that  this  is  the 
conclusion  of  miraculous  premisses  and  brings  miraculous 
results  in  its  train.  The  decree  of  grace  which  attains  in 
the  resurrection  of  Christ  the  centre  and  summit  of  its 
realization  fulfils  itself  in  miracles.  In  most  cases,  indeed, 
is  the  government  of  God  like  the  waters  of  Siloah,  that  go 
softly  ;  the  visible  miracles  of  history  are  only  those  flashes 
from  the  supernatural  activity  of  God  which  serve  rare  and 
exceptional  ends.  But  the  whole  work  of  grace,  whether 
in  the  experience  of  individuals  or  in  the  history  of  man- 
kind, even  where  it  is  hidden,  is  supernatural  and  therefore 
miraculous  ;  because,  in  the  midst  of  this  world  lying  under 
the  law  of  sin  and  death,  it  aims  at  establishing  a  world  of 
righteousness  and  glory. 

VI. 

When  the  one  conception  of  the  world  is  thus  presented 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  other,  the  mode  of  statement 
unavoidably  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  polemic.  The 
special  purpose  however  with  which  I  entered  on  my 
subject  was  not  polemical.  I  wished  to  exhibit  as  objec- 
tively as  possible  the  deep  gap  which  divides  the  theologians 
of  to-day,  especially  the  thoughtful  minds  who  have  come 
into  contact  with  philosophy  and  natural  science,  into  two 
camps.  An  accommodation  of  this  antagonism  is  impossible. 
We  must  belong  to  the  one  camp  or  the  other.  We  may, 
it  is  true,  inside  the  negative  camp,  tone  down  our  negation 
to  the  very  border  of  affirmation,  and,  inside  the  positive 
camp,  we  may  weaken  our  affirmation  so  as  almost  to 
change  it  to  negation  :  the  representation  by  individuals  of 
the  one  standpoint  or  the  other  leaves  room  for  a  multitude 
of  gradations  and  shades.  But  to  the  fundamental  question. 
Is  there  a  supernatural  realm  of  grace,  and  within  it  a 
miraculous  interference  of  God  in  the  world  of  nature,  an 
interference  displaying  itself  most  centrally  and  decisively 


54  THE  OLD   THEOLOGY  AND   THE  NEW. 

ill  the  raising  of  the  Kedeemer  from  the  dead  ? — to  this 
fandamental  question,  however  we  may  seek  to  evade  it, 
the  answer  can  only  be  yes  or  no.  The  deep  gulf  remains  ; 
it  will  remain  to  the  end  of  time.  No  effort  of  thought  can 
fill  it  up.  There  is  no  synthesis  to  bridge  this  thesis  and 
antithesis.  Never  shall  we  be  able,  by  means  of  reason's 
evidence  or  the  witness  of  history,  to  convince  those  who 
reject  this  truth.  But  this  do  we  claim  for  ourselves,  that 
prophets  and  apostles  and  the  Lord  Himself  stand  upon  our 
side  ;  this  we  claim,  that  while  the  others  use  the  treasures 
of  God's  word  eclectically,  we  take  our  stand  upon  the 
whole,  undivided  truth. 

True,  there  is  a  zone  to  a  certain  extent  neutral,  that, 
namely,  of  historico-critical  and  particularly  of  literary- 
critical  investigation  ;  but  here  also  the  distinction  of  stand- 
point manifests  itself  in  estimating  tradition,  weighing 
evidences,  and  measuring  degrees  of  certainty.  And  it  is 
a  most  disheartening  sign  of  the  times,  that  even  such  as 
in  theory  acknowledge  the  miracle,  in  practice  really  reckon 
on  naturalistic  assumptions.  The  theologia  glorlce,  which 
prides  itself  on  being  its  own  highest  authority,  bewitches 
even  those  who  appeared  proof  against  its  enchantments  ; 
and  the  theologia  critcis,  which  holds  Divine  folly  to  be  wiser 
than  men,  is  regarded  as  an  unscientific  lagging  behind  the 
steps  of  progress.  But  the  subjectivity  of  science  finds  a 
wholesome  check  in  the  office  of  preacher  and  guardian  of 
souls.  Only  those  of  little  faith  can  fancy  that  such  science 
as  this,  which,  with  its  fruitless  knowledge  and  washed  out 
credo,  must  be  dumb  beside  the  bed  of  death,  menaces 
the  existence  of  the  Church.  In  the  Muldenthal  I  was, 
as  a  young  man,  a  witness  of  soul-struggles  and  spiritual 
victories,  which  rendered  distasteful  to  me  for  ever  the 
over-estimation  of  science.  Still  does  my  spiritual  life  find 
its  root  in  the  miraculous  soil  of  that  first  love  which  I 
experienced   with   Lehmann,  Zopffel,  Ferdinand  Walther, 


PBOFESSOB   CHEYNE.  55 

and  Biirger  ;  still  to  me  is  the  reality  of  miracles  sealed 
by  the  miracles  of  grace  which  I  saw  with  my  own  eyes 
in  the  congregations  of  this  blessed  valley.  And  the 
faith  which  I  professed  in  my  first  sermons,  which  I  could 
maintain  in  Niederfrohna  and  Lunzenau,  remains  mine 
to-day,  undiminished  in  strength,  and  immeasurably  higher 
than  all  earthly  knowledge.  Even  if  in  many  biblical 
questions  I  have  to  oppose  the  traditional  opinion,  certainly 
my  opposition  remains  on  this  side  of  the  gulf,  on  the  side 
of  the  theology  of  the  Cross,  of  grace,  of  miracles,  in  har- 
mony with  the  good  confession  of  our  Lutheran  Church. 
By  this  banner  let  us  stand  ;  folding  ourselves  in  it,  let 
us  die. 

Fea^^z  Delitzsch. 


PBOFESSOB   CHEYNE. 


The  writer  of  this  brief  article  must  at  the  outset  distinctly 
disclaim  all  title  to  criticise  Dr.  Cheyne's  books,  and  he 
has  not  sought  to  inform  himself  of  any  facts  in  his  life  that 
are  not  matter  of  common  knowledge.  His  object  is  simply 
to  illustrate  the  nature  of  Professor  Cheyne's  work  for 
sound  biblical  study  in  this  generation  by  a  sketch  of  the 
attitude  which  the  Church  of  England,  as  represented  b}' 
her  authorized  teachers,  has  assumed  towards  the  question 
of  inspiration  and  the  criticism  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
statement  is  intended  to  be  purely  historical. 

The  importance  and  significance  of  German  criticism  was 
first  clearly  recognised  in  the  Church  of  England  by  Hugh 
James  Eose,  whom  Dean  Burgon  has  described  as  "  the 
Restorer  of  the  Old  Path."  Eose,  after  spending  some  time 
in  Germany,  in  1S24,  returned'  home  alarmed  and  shocked. 
In  May,  1825,  he  was  select  preacher  at  Cambridge,   and 


56  PBOFESSOn   GEEYNE. 


delivered  discourses  on  the  state  of  the  Protestant  Religion 
in  Germany,  which  were  heard  and  read  with  interest  and 
concern.  Strangely  enough,  Dr.  Pusey  replied  on  behalf  of 
Germany.  The  matter  is  so  important,  and  it  has  been  so 
slurred  over  and  misrepresented  by  Dean  Burgon  in  his 
Tuives  of  Twelve  Good  Men,^  that  it  must  be  treated  with 
some  fulness. 

Dr.  Pusey's  Historical  Inquiry  into  the  probable  Causes  of 
the  Bationalist  Character  lately  Predominant  in  the  Theology 
of  Germany  appeared  before  his  appointment  to  the  pro- 
fessorship of  Hebrew  in  Oxford.  The  drift  of  the  book  is 
that  rationalism  is  due  to  the  absurdly  excessive  claims  of 
orthodoxy.  To  quote  :  "  False  ideas  of  inspiration,  intro- 
duced b)^  the  imaginary  necessities  of  the  argument  with  the 
Romanists,  contributed  to  the  same  result.  From  the  first 
assumption,  that  the  whole  of  Scripture  was  immediately 
dictated  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  was  derived  a  second,  that  all 
must  be  of  equal  value ;  to  prove  this  it  was  supposed  that 
the  same  doctrines,  the  same  fundamental  truths  in  Chris- 
tianity, must  be  not  implied  but  expressed  by  all,  a  theory 
which  must  of  necessity  do  much  violence  to  the  sacred  text, 
while  it  overlooked  the  beautiful  arrangement,  according  to 
which  the  different  doctrines  of  revelation  are  each  promi- 
nently conveyed  by  that  mind  which  was  most  adapted  to 
its  reception  (love  by  St.  John ;  faith  by  St.  Paul ;  hope  by 
St.  Peter  ;  faith  developed  in  works  by  St.  James),  and  thus 
the  highest  illuminations  of  inspired  minds,  each  in  the 
fullest  degree  of  which  it  was  capable,  are  combined  to  con- 
vey to  us  the  vast  complex  of  Scripture  truth.     Yet  greater 

1  Vol.  i.,  p.  134. — Experience  has  shown  the  writer  that  in  reading  Dean 
Burgou's  biographies  it  is  especially  necessary  to  "  verify  your  references." 
After  the  testimonies  borne  to  Dean  Burgou  by  those  who  knew  him,  it  is 
impossible  to  doubt  his  good  faith ;  nevertheless  his  statements  are  to  be 
received  with  the  utmost  caution.  The  fact  that  the  history  of  the  Oxford 
movement  has  been  as  yet  written  only  by  men  who  were  more  or  less  parti- 
sans, makes  it  imperative  for  those  who  wish  to  understand  it  to  go  back  to  the 
pamphlets  and  magazines  of  the  time. 


PROFESSOR   CHEYNE.  57 

confusion  must  obviously  be  the  result  of  the  same  theory 
when  applied  to  the  Old  Testament.  The  difference  of  the 
Law  and  the  Gospel,  which  hitherto  had  been  so  vividly  seen, 
was  obstructed,  the  shadow  identified  v/ith  the  substance, 
the  preparatory  system  with  the  perfect  disclosure.  Xot 
content  with  finding  the  germs  of  Christian  doctrine  in  the 
Old  Testament,  or  those  dawning  rays  which  were  to  pre- 
pare the  mental  eye  for  the  gradual  reception  of  fuller  light, 
but  whose  entire  character  could  only  be  understood  by  those 
whose  approach  they  announced,  they  not  only  considered 
prophecy  as  being  throughout  inverted  history,  but  held 
that  all  the  distinguishing  doctrines  of  Christianity  were 
even  to  the  Jews  as  much  revealed  in  the  Old  Testament 
as  in  the  New,  and  that  the  knowledge  of  the  doctrines 
was  as  necessary  to  their  salvation  as  to  ours.  .  .  . 
Less  important,  lastly,  though  perhaps  in  its  effects  more 
immediately  dangerous,  was  the  corollary  to  the  same  theory 
of  inspiration,  that  even  historical  passages  were  equally 
inspired  with  the  rest,  and  consequently  that  no  error, 
however  minute,  could  even  here  be  admitted.  Yet  the 
imparting  of  religious  truth  being  the  object  of  revelation, 
any  further  extension  of  inspiration  would  appear  as  an  un- 
necessary miracle,  as  indeed  it  is  one  nowhere  claimed  by 
the  readers  of  the  New  Testament."  Pusey  goes  on  to  say 
that  this  "palpable  perversion  of  the  doctrine  of  inspiration" 
prepared  the  way  for  the  indiscriminate  rejection  of  the 
doctrine  itself,  and  that  Scripture  as  a  result  of  it  was 
not  expounded  even  in  the  divinity  schools. 

Eose  replied  in  1829.  His  answer  took  the  form  of  a 
letter  to  the  Bishop  of  London.  It  is  more  effectively 
written  than  Pusey's  book,  but  shows  much  keenness  of 
feeling,  and  in  parts  obviously  misrepresents  Pusey.  For 
one  thing,  he  does  not  squarely  meet  Pusey's  position  on 
inspiration,  but  rides  off'  with  an  impassioned  affirmation 
of   the  inspiration   of   the   gospels.      More  effective  is  the 


58  PBOFUSSOB   CHEYNE. 

charge  against  Pasey  of  having  borrowed  the  substance  of 
his  book  from  Thokick's  lectures.^ 

Dr.  Pusey  was  now  Piegius  Professor  of  Hebrew,  and 
took  time  over  his  reply,  which  appeared  in  1830.  He 
writes  with  much  cahiiness  of  manner;  and  while  admitting 
crudities,  stands  by  his  main  position.  He  had  previously 
replied  very  coolly  to  the  charge  of  plagiarism  from  Tho- 
luck  by  pointing  out  that  large  passages  of  the  book  were 
not  from  Tholuck ;  that  Tholuck  had  given  him  permission 
to  use  his  lectures,  but  not  to  publish  his  name  ;  and  that 
he  had  made  an  acknowledgment  sufficient  to  cover  his 
debt.  But  he  adheres  strongly  to  his  rejection  of  a  doctrine 
of  inspiration  condemned  by  Seeker,  Lowth,  Tillotson,  Van 
Mildert,  and  Blomfield,  but  aflirmed  by  the  eminent  Scotch 
theologian,  Dr.  Dick,  in  these  terms :  "  A  contradiction 
which  was  fairly  chargeable  to  the  sacred  writers  themselves 
would  completely  disprove  their  inspiration."  Against  this 
Pusey  says  that  the  question  of  credibility  must  be  settled 
before  that  of  inspiration  can  be  discussed,  and  that 
the  old  theory  had  shown  a  tendency  to  produce  among 
laymen  one  precisely  opposite,  one  which  falls  as  far  below 
as  the  former  far  exceeded  what  may  be  collected  from 
Scripture." 

Whether  Dr.  Pusey  anywhere  repudiates  the  chief 
doctrines   of  his   early    volumes   I   cannot    tell.      But    his 

1  Mr.  de  Soyres,  in  an  able  article  on  Tholuck,  recently  published  in  tJie 
Guardian,  hardly  does  justice  to  Pusey  on  this  point. 

-  Dean  Burgon,  in  his  Life  of  Eose  (p.  134)  has  the  following  very  loose  sen- 
tence: "  Pusey's  religious  views  underwent  a  very  serious  change  about  the  same 
time ;  and  shortly  after  his  two  learned  and  interesting  voliimes  were  by  him- 
self withdrawn  from  circulation."  I  do  not  know  what  evidence  there  is  of  a 
change  of  religious  views  on  the  part  of  Pusey  ;  but  that  there  was  no  change 
in  his  attitude  to  biblical  criticism  is  clearly  shown  from  the  preface  to  his  book 
on  Daniel,  where  he  declares  that  forty  years  before  he  had  satisfied  himself 
of  the  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch,  which  he  indeed  formerly  accepted  on  the 
authority  of  our  Lord.  He  admits  that  his  early  books  were  crude,  but  speaks 
of  them  as  withdrawn  thirty  years  before— much  later  than  Dean  Burgon 
suggests. 


PROFESSOR   CREYNE.  59 

labours  as  a  professor  were  simply  to  establish  the  Jewish 
and  early  Christian  tradition  in  biblical  criticism.  His 
activities  in  various  directions  were  incessant,  but  not  "  of 
a  nature  to  enhance  the  reputation  of  a  Hebrew  professor." 
The  controversies  about  the  Bible  died  down.  Those  who 
had  been  troubled  by  them  were  reassured  by  translations 
from  Hengstenberg,  Keil,  and  other  German  writers  of 
approved  orthodoxy.  Very  little  genuine  study  of  the 
Old  Testament  was  carried  on  in  the  Church  of  England. 
The  atmosphere  was  however  disturbed  by  the  appearance 
oiEsmijs  and  Beviews,  of  Bishop  Colenso,  and,  may  I  add? 
of  the  Academy. 

Essays  and  Bevleios  is  now  forgotten,  but  it  did  some- 
thing, and  a  chapter  on  its  history  need  not  be  uninteresting. 
It  raised  the  whole  question  of  inspiration  and  tlie  Old 
Testament,  not  perhaps  wisely,  but  distinctly.  Dr.  Eowland 
Williams,  the  brilliant  and  fiery  Welshman,  who  wrote  one 
of  tlie  most  obnoxious  essays,  was  not  a  sound  pliilologist, 
and  his  books  are  almost  obsolete.  But  his  whereabouts 
is  shown  in  that  very  remarkable  and  little-known  volume. 
Defence  of  tlie  Bev.  Boiuland  Williams,  D.D.,  by  James 
Fitzjames  Stephen,  of  the  Inner  Temple,^  one  of  the 
ablest  treatises  on  inspiration  in  the  English  language. 
The  eloquent  advocate  says,  referring  to  the  enemies  of 
biblical  criticism,  "If  they  could  catch  but  one  glimpse 
of  the  nature  of  the  book  they  so  ignorantly  defend, 
instead  of  attempting  to  proscribe  science  and  criticism, 
they  would  welcome  them  as  the  ministers  of  God  for  the 
good  of  their  souls,  as  the  appointed  means  of  displaying 
to  mankind  in  their  full  glory  the  power  of  the  Bible  and  of 
religion  to  bless  mankind  here  and  to  save  them  hereafter." 
Williams  was  victorious  ;  the  clamour  soon  declined.  The 
real  worth  of  Essays  and  Beviews,  looking  back  upon  it  now, 
is  not  great ;  and  Diestel's  severe  criticism  in  the  Jahrhi'icher 

1  Smith,  Elder  &  Co.,  18G2. 


60  PROFESSOR    GHEYNE. 


fiir  deiitsche  Thcologie  is  still  the  best.  But  the  alarm  it 
produced  was  increased  by  the  publication  of  Colenso's 
books  on  the  Pentateuch,  the  earlier  parts  of  which  ob- 
tained a  wide  circulation.  As  time  passed  on  this  declined  ; 
and  although  Bishop  Colenso  gradually  acquired  a  mastery 
of  Hebrew  and  of  German  criticism,  yet  in  the  judgment  of 
such  men  as  Kuenen  and  Wellhausen,  the  earlier  parts  of 
his  work  are  the  most  important,  as  the  author  brought  a 
fresh  arithmetical  eye  to  the  early  records,  and  produced 
his  results  with  sharpness  and  reality,  while  he  had  not  the 
faculties  of  a  great  critic  even  when  learning  came  to  him. 
Colenso  was  replied  to  on  every  hand,  and  that  generally 
with  contumely.  It  was  felt  however  that  hard  words  were 
not  sufficient,  and  the  Speaker  s  Commentary  was  arranged 
for,  while  Dr.  Pusey  undertook  the  defence  of  the  Book  of 
Daniel.  This  was  considered  satisfactory  :  the  orthodox 
school  of  Germans,  including  Delitzsch  and  all  the  writers 
accessible  to  the  English  public,  was  with  the  English 
conservatives  ;  few  young  Hebraists  of  real  power  were 
appearing  in  England  ;  and  the  offence  of  heterodoxy  seemed 
to  have  ceased. 

In  these  circumstances  Dr.  Cheyne's  life-work  was  begun. 
He  had  with  prescient  eye  resolved  to  devote  himself  to 
Hebrew  literature,  and  had  received  undying  impulses  from 
Ewald  as  well  as  much  instruction  from  others  in  Germany. 
He  returned  to  Oxford,  and  began  immediately  to  produce 
original  work,  which  called  forth  high  encomiums  from  the 
foremost  Germans.  His  powerful  influence  on  the  general 
public  was  exerted  through  the  Academy,  a  journal  started  by 
Dr.  C.  E.  Appleton,  one  of  the  truest  benefactors  to  English 
literature  in  our  time.  Appleton,  who  had  been  much  in 
Germany,  was  impressed  with  the  insularity  and  poverty 
of  English  culture,  and  set  himself,  with  heroic  confidence 
in  a  people  yet  unawakened,  to  provide  an  organ  of  criticism. 


PROFESSOR   GREYNE.  61 


planned  on  the  lines  oi  the  LiterarlscJies  Centralblatt.  Dr. 
Cheyne  became  one  of  his  closest  helpers,  and  organized  the 
theological  department  into  thorough  efficiency  ;  secm'ing  as 
contributors,  not  only  such  men  as  Lightfoot  and  Westcott 
in  this  country,  but  all  the  leading  theological  writers  on 
the  Continent,  including  Diestel,  Lipsius,  and  many  more. 
Not  a  few  who  began  to  study  theology  about  twenty  years 
ago  will  never  forget  the  impulse  given  them  by  the  Aca- 
deniij,  and  most  of  all  by  the  fresh,  fearless,  and  brilliant 
criticisms  of  Dr.  CUieyne  himself.  I  do  not  wish  to  "  resur- 
rect "  articles  wliich  the  learned  author  may  be  inclined 
to  regard  as  freaks  of  youthful  audacity.  But  we  learned 
from  him  that  the  Speakers  Commentary  was  not  a  satis- 
factory reply  to  Colenso  ;  that  Dr.  Pusey  was  hardly  level 
with  Keil,  while  a  comparison  with  Delitzsch  was  out  of 
the  question  ;  that  even  English  heresiarchs  were  of  as 
little  account  as  the  most  orthodox.  He  was  the  first  to 
expound  the  Grafian  theory  of  the  Pentateuch,  which  has 
engaged  scholars  so  much  of  late  years  and  almost  broke 
up  a  Scotch  Church,  stating  the  case  for  and  against  with 
a  clearness  never  surpassed.  Meanwhile  he  was  working 
at  his  Book  of  Isaiah  Chronolog icallij  Arranged  (1871), 
which  led  no  less  a  man  than  Diestel  to  pronounce  him 
"  a  master  of  scientific  exegesis." 

For  years  after  he  pursued  a  course  of  unslackening 
industry,  producing  along  with  Dr.  Driver  an  edition  of 
the  A.Y.  with  various  renderings  and  readings  from  the 
best  authorities,  one  of  the  best  aids  existing  to  biblical 
exposition.  But  a  revolution  was  taking  place  in  his 
ideas.  The  critical  movement  had  met  with  a  serious 
check,  as  it  appeared,  first,  that  it  involved  literary  pre^ 
tensions  which  could  not  be  allowed  to  any  critics,  and 
especially  to  critics  of  an  unspiritual  and  unimaginative 
type.  Matthew  Arnold  did  good  service  in  dwelling  on 
the   value  of   internal  evidence    on    questions    of   disputed 


62  PROFESSOB   CHEYNE. 

authorship ;  and  in  insisting  that  on  the  hterary  and 
moral  value  of  the  biblical  writings  Hebrew  and  Greek 
learning  gave  no  necessary  right  to  speak.  It  was  obvious 
further  that  the  deductions  drawn  from  the  results  of  criti- 
cism were  such  usually  as  to  destroy  the  whole  foundation 
of  supernatural  religion,  as  in  the  case  of  Bishop  Colenso. 
Passing  through  a  period  of  deep  religious  feeling,  Dr. 
Cheyne  gave  full  weight  to  considerations  such  as  these, 
and  produced  (1880-1884)  his  great  book  on  Isaiah,  which 
is  perhaps  thus  far  his  highest  achievement,  and  in  which 
he  strove  to  speak  "  a  piercing  and  reconciling  word." 
This  book  was  warmly  welcomed  by  Franz  Delitzsch  and 
others,  and  was  thought  by  many  to  signify  a  much  more 
radical  change  of  critical  position  than  it  really  did. 

After  some  years  of  ministry  in  Tendring,  where  he  was 
busy  in  all  his  spheres,  Dr.  Cheyne  returned  to  Oxford  as 
Oriel  Professor  of  the  Interpretation  of  Holy  Scripture  ; 
and  has  published  his  books  on  Job  and  Solomon  and  the 
Psalms,  which  have  already  taken  their  place  among  the 
classics  of  exegesis.  He  is  for  three  months  of  every  year 
in  residence  at  Rochester  as  one  of  the  canons,  and  has 
gained  great  popularity  as  a  preacher  in  the  cathedral 
pulpit.  He  has  been  able  to  reconcile  with  marvellous 
felicity  the  two  great  aims  of  his  life :  to  advance  biblical 
knowledge,  and  to  teach  it  to  his  countrymen  as  they  are 
able  to  bear  it.  This  very  specially  appears  in  his  last 
volume,  The  HaUoivuir/  of  Criticism,  which  contains  some 
fresh  and  bright  cathedral  sermons  on  Elijah,  and  a  paper 
read  at  the  Church  Congress  which  these  illustrate. 

I  have  been  obliged  to  omit  many  names,  such  as  those 
of  Dean  Stanley,  Dean  Perowne,  the  Nestor  of  English 
Hebraists,  Dr.  Quarry,  and  others,  which  would  have  been 
placed  in  this  sketch  had  more  space  been  attainable. 
The  prejudice  against  biblical  criticism  has  practically  dis- 
appeared in  the  Church  of  England,  as  is  shown  by  the  recent 


PROFESS  OB   GHEYNE.  68 

remarkable  discussion  at  the  Church  Congress,  notably  the 
speech  of  the  Bishop  of  Manchester.  Men  like  Dr.  Driver, 
Dr.  Cheyne,  Dean  Perowne  are  at  one  in  their  view  of 
criticism  with  New  Testament  scholars  like  Bishop  Light- 
foot,  Canon  Westcott,  Archdeacon  Farrar,  and  Dr.  Sanday. 
All  are  profound  believers  in  supernatural  Christianity. 
Perhaps  it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  largely  through  Dr. 
Cheyne's  influence  scholars  are  now  working  at  the  Old 
Testament  in  firm  confidence  of  bringing  out  results  at 
once  reconcilable  with  the  attitude  of  Jesus  to  the  Old 
Covenant,  with  the  faith  of  the  Church  in  Divine  reve- 
lation, and  with  the  surest  conclusions  of  scholarship  and 
science. 

Editor. 


64 


EPAPHRODITUS  AND  THE  GIFT  FBOM  PHILIPPI. 

In  this  paper  I  shall  endeavour,  by  expounding  a  few  verses 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  to  reproduce  a  most 
interesting  and  instructive  episode  in  the  Church  life  of  the 
first  century,  and  to  pay  a  deserved  tribute  of  honour  to  a 
little-known  but  very  admirable  contemporary  and  friend 
of  the  Apostle  Paul. 

The  letter  bears  marks  of  the  prison  in  which  it  v/as 
written  (Phil,  i,  7,  13).  That  St.  Paul  refers  twice  to  his 
builds,  that  he  does  not  tell  his  readers  that  he  is  in  prison, 
but  assumes  that  they  know  it  and  speaks  only  of  the 
results  of  his  imprisonment,  suggests  that  it  was  no  pass- 
ing incident,  but  had  lasted  for  some  time.  That  in  vers. 
20-26  he  lingers  over  the  alternative  of  life  or  deatli,  sug- 
gests that  his  life  then  hung  in  the  balance.  Yer.  26  re- 
veals a  good  hope  of  release.  And  chapter  ii.  23,  So  suoii 
as  I  shall  see  how  it  will  go  with  vie,  suggests  that  a  crisis 
was  at  hand. 

The  implied  length  of  the  imprisonment  compels  us  to 
suppose  that  the  letter  was  written  not  later  than  St.  Paul's 
arrest  at  Jerusalem.  For  we  have  no  hint  of  any  long 
imprisonment  earlier  than  that  event.  The  probable 
reference  in  chapter  i.  13  to  the  Prcctoriaii  Guard,  and 
the  mention  in  chapter  iv.  22  of  CcBsars  household,  support 
strongly  the  universal  tradition  that  the  Epistle  was  written 
from  Eome. 

We  shall  find  that  not  only  had  news  of  St.  Paul's 
imprisonment  reached  Philippi,  but  that  after  some  delay  a 
contribution  for  him  had  been  made  and  sent  to  Rome;  that 
the  messenger  had  been  seriously  ill ;  that  the  Philippian 
Christians  had  heard  this ;  and  that  he  knew  that  they 
had  heard  it,  and  was  therefore  anxious  to  return.  All 
this   implies    a  lapse  of  at   least    several  months  between 


EPAPHBODITUS  AND  TEE  GIFT  FROM  PEILIPPL  65 

the   Apostle's   arrival   at   Eome   and  the  writing    of    this 
Epistle. 

That  the  Epistle  was  an  acknowledgment  of  a  gift  sent 
from  Philippi  to  St.  Paul  at  Eome  by  the  hand  of  Epa- 
phroditus  is  placed  beyond  doubt  by  chapter  iv.  10,  14  ; 
and  especially  by  ver.  18,  Having  received  from  Epaphro- 
ditus  the  things  from  you.  News  of  the  Apostle's  arrival 
as  a  prisoner  at  Eome  would  easily  and  quickly  reach 
Philippi.  For  between  Eome  and  this  Eoman  colony 
there  was  good  communication  along  the  Appian  Way  and 
Trajan's  Way  to  Brundusium,  across  the  narrow  straits, 
and  then  along  the  Egnatian  Way  ;  and  travellers  on  this 
familiar  route  were  many.  The  words  now  at  length  in 
chapter  iv.  10  imply  delay.  But  the  delay  was  by  no 
means  the  fault  of  the  Philippian  Christians  :  Ye  did  take 
thought,  hut  ye  lacked  opportunity.  The  lack  of  opportunity 
reminds  us  of  the  difficulty  of  sending  money  in  ancient 
days.  From  St.  Paul's  words  we  learn  that  the  news  of 
his  imprisonment  and  want  at  once  filled  the  Christians 
at  Philippi  with  solicitude  on  his  behalf,  and  with  an  eager 
desire  to  help,  but  that  difficulty  of  communication  pre- 
vented for  a  time  this  desire  from  taking  practical  form. 
This  mental  activity  on  his  behalf  is  accurately  described 
by  the  Greek  word  (ppovelv,  a  favourite  with  the  Apostle, 
and  in  the  New  Testament  with  him  only,  and  a  note  of 
the  genuineness  of  this  Epistle.  (See  Eom.  viii.  5  ;  xi.  20  ; 
xii.  3  twice,  16  twice  ;  xiv.  6  twice  ;  xv.  5,  etc.) 

At  length  an  opportunity  of  sending  help  occurs.  A  good 
Christian  man,  whose  name  we  never  meet  except  in  this 
Epistle,  is  going  to  Eome.  Whether  he  undertook  this 
journey  simply  in  order  to  carry  the  gift  his  brethren  had 
long  and  vainly  wished  to  send,  or  whether  other  business 
led  him  to  the  metropolis,  we  have  no  means  of  knowing. 
In  any  case,  Epaphroditus  is  going  to  Eome.  And  the 
Christians  at  Philippi  resolve  to  send  by  him  help  for  the 

VOL.    IX.  5 


66  UPAPHBODITUS  AND  THE  GIFT  FROM  PHILIP  PI. 

great  teacher  to  whom  they  owed  so  much.  From  chapter 
iv.  18  we  infer  that  the  gift  was  large  :  I  have  all  things, 
and  abound:  I  am  filled,  having  received  from  Epaphroditus 
the  things  from  you.  Certainly  it  was  as  large  as  St.  Paul 
needed.  If,  as  is  probable,  the  Christians  at  Philippi  were 
as  poor  as  the  others  in  the  province  of  Macedonia,  and  if 
these  were  as  poor  at  this  time  as,  in  2  Corinthians  viii. 
2,  St.  Paul  says  they  were  a  few  years  earlier,  their  deej) 
povertij  would  immensely  increase  the  significance  and 
worth  of  this  abundant  gift.  We  may  suppose  that  the 
contribution  was  quickly  made,  and  that  Epaphroditus  was 
soon  on  his  way  with  it  to  the  prisoner  at  Rome. 

The  gift  filled  St.  Paul  with  joy :  I  rejoiced  greatly, 
(Phil.  iv.  10).  And  his  joy  was  in  the  Lord;  i.e.  it  was 
no  ordinary  human  gladness,  such  as  that  caused  by  supply 
of  bodily  need,  but  a  joy  which  had  direct  relation  to  the 
Master  whom  he  served,  the  Master's  personality  being,  as 
it  were,  the  surrounding  element  of  the  servant's  joy.  The 
money  sent  from  Philippi  revealed  the  genuineness  and 
strength  of  the  Christian  life  of  St.  Paul's  converts  there, 
the  power  of  Christ  to  change  the  hearts  of  men,  and  the 
truth  of  the  Gospel  which  St.  Paul  preached.  It  thus  gave 
to  him  a  firmer  confidence  and  richer  joy  in  Christ. 

Similarly,  as  he  tells  us  in  chapter  i,  14,  St.  Paul's 
imprisonment  gave  to  the  more  part  of  the  Christians  at 
Home  a  fuller  confidence  in  Christ ;  they  were  trusting  in 
the  Lord  through  my  bonds.  For  so  close  is  the  relation 
between  Christ  and  His  servants,  that  whatever  they  do  or 
suffer  in  obedience  to  Him  reveals  to  themselves  and  to 
others  His  presence  and  glory. 

It  has  often  been  noticed  that  among  all  the  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul  that  to  the  Philippians  is  pre-eminently  marked 
by  joy.  Although  written  in  the  gloom  of  a  dungeon, 
and  under  shadow  of  the  gallows,  it  is  at  many  points 
irradiated  by  a  brightness  Divine.     So  chapter  i.  4,  18,  25  ; 


EPAPHBODITUS  AND  THE  GIFT  FROM  PEILIPPL  67 

ii.  2,  17,  18,  28,  29  ;  iii.  1  ;  iv.  1,  4  twice,  10.  And  we  can 
well  conceive  that  this  vein  of  gladness  was  prompted 
chiefly  by  the  evidence  afforded  in  the  money  brought  by 
Epaphroditus  of  the  spiritual  power  of  the  Gospel,  and  of 
the  success  of  St.  Paul's  work.  So  rich  a  harvest  from 
seed  sown  in  tears  might  well  fill  the  sower's  heart  with 
joy.  We  wonder  not  that  in  chapter  iv.  1  he  speaks  of 
these  loving  children  in  the  faith  as  his  joy  and  crown,  and 
that  his  letter  to  them  overflows  with  joy  on  their  behalf. 

Inasmuch  as  the  gift  from  Philippi  was  a  natural  out- 
working of  the  Christian  life  operating  according  to  its  own 
organic  laws,  the  Apostle  describes  it  in  a  metaphor  taken 
from  vegetable  growth  :  Ye  have  revived,  or  caused  to  sprout, 
your  tJiought  on  my  behalf.  For  a  time  want  of  opportunity 
prevented  this  manifestation  of  the  Christian  life.  But  the 
life  was  there.  And  when  the  hindrance  was  removed,  like 
the  torpor  of  winter  retiring  at  the  approach  of  spring,  the 
old  stock  burst  forth  into  new  foliage  and  fruit.  Another 
form  of  the  same  metaphor  meets  us  in  ver.  17  :  I  seek  for 
the  fruit  ivhich  increaseth  to  your  account. 

By  making  this  contribution,  the  Christians  at  Philippi, 
as  we  read  in  ver.  14,  had  felloiosliip  with  St.  Paul's 
affliction.  For  by  submitting  to  the  self-denial  involved 
in  their  gift  to  him  they  placed  themselves  to  this  extent 
under  the  burden  of  imprisonment  and  want  which  was 
pressing  upon  him,  and  thus  helped  him  to  bear  it. 

Their  gift  is  called  in  ver.  18  an  acceptable  sacrifice,  well- 
pleasing  to  God.  For  Christ  had  already  said,  as  recorded 
in  Matthew  xxv.  40,  Inasmuch  as  ye  did  it  to  one  of  these 
My  brethren,  ye  did  it  to  Me.  And  whatever  is  done  for 
Christ  is  an  offering  laid  upon  the  altar  of  God.  The 
phrase,  odour  of  siveet  smell,  recalls  at  once  the  same  words 
as  a  sort  of  refrain  at  the  close  of  the  prescription  for  each 
of  three  kinds  of  sacrifice  in  Leviticus  i.  9,  13,  17,  and  else- 
where.    And  certainly  the   gracefulness    of   the  gift    from 


68  EPAPHR0DITU8  AND  THE  GIFT  FROM  PHILIPPI. 

Philippi,  pleasant  to  God  and  to  man,  was  a  perfume  more 
fragrant  than  all  the  Levitical  ritual. 

The  Apostle  reminds  his  readers  that  the  gift  for  which 
he  now  thanks  them  was  not  their  first  gift  to  him.  Long 
ago,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Gospel,  when  St.  Paul  first 
preached  at  Philippi  and  Thessalonica  and  then  went  forth 
from  Macedonia  to  Athens  and  Corinth,  the  Philippian 
Christians  sent  a  contribution  for  his  support  while  preach- 
ing the  Gospel  in  another  province.  This  is  a  most  inte- 
resting coincidence  with  2  Corinthians  xi.  9,  When  I  ivas 
present  loith  you,  and  was  in  want,  .  .  .  the  brethren, 
ivhen  they  came  from  Macedonia,  supplied  the  measure  of 
my  want.  From  the  Epistle  before  us  we  learn  that  this 
Macedonian  liberality  was  entirely  from  Philippi :  No 
Church  except  ye  only.  Even  this  was  not  their  first  gift. 
St.  Paul  reminds  them  that  before  he  left  Macedonia  they 
sent  a  gift  to  him  at  Thessalonica.  More  even  than  this. 
During  his  short  stay  there  they  sent  tioice  to  supply  his 
7ieed. 

The  above  casual  and  evidently  undesigned  coincidences 
between  this  Epistle  and  the  second  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians and  the  Book  of  Acts  strongly  confirm  our  other 
abundant  proof  of  the  genuineness  of  these  Epistles  and  of 
the  historic  truthfulness  of  the  Book  of  Acts. 

Once  more.  In  2  Corinthians  viii.  1,  2,  St.  Paul  speaks 
in  glowing  terms  about  the  liberality  of  the  Macedonian 
Christians  in  the  great  contribution  he  was  then  organizing 
among  the  Gentiles  for  the  poor  of  the  Christians  at  Jeru- 
salem, holding  them  up  as  an  example  to  the  Christians  at 
Corinth.  We  have  here  no  mention  of  Philippi.  But  the 
earlier  and  later  gifts  of  the  Christians  there  suggest  irre- 
sistibly that  also  in  this  contribution  they  took  a  leading 
part.  If  so,  we  have  five  distinct  gifts  from  Philippi :  two 
to  St.  Paul  at  Thessalonica,  one  to  him  at  Corinth,  one  for 
the  Christians  at  Jerusalem,  and  one  for  St.  Paul  at  Kome. 


EPAPHBODITUS  AND  THE  GIFT  FROM  PHILIPPI.  69 

These  incidents  taken  together  are  full  of  significance, 
and  present  to  us  a  raost  beautiful  and  instructive  picture 
of  early  Christian  generosity.  The  Christians  at  Philippi 
did  a  good  work,  which  no  one  around  them  had  done 
before.  They  made  a  contribution  to  enable  one  who  had 
taught  them  to  teach  others  at  a  distance  from  themselves. 
And  by  so  doing  they  gained  the  high  honour  of  opening  up 
a  new  path  of  Christian  well-doing.  Moreover  their  libe- 
rality was  no  passing  emotion.  Long  years  afterwards,  and 
when  St.  Paul  was  so  far  away  that  they  could  not  render 
him  practical  aid,  they  were  eager  to  do  so ;  and  did  so  at 
the  first  opportunity.  Their  thoughtful  care  for  the  Apostle 
not  only  sprang  up  and  bore  fruit  at  once,  but  its  fruitful- 
ness  continued  undiminished  after  the  lapse  of  many  years. 
Once  more.  The  generosity  of  the  Philippian  Christians 
was  not  limited  to  kindness  towards  St.  Paul.  They  who 
so  readily  contributed  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  great 
Apostle,  to  whom  they  owed  so  much,  contributed  also  to 
supply  the  needs  of  men  to  whom  they  owed  nothing 
whatever,  whom  they  had  never  seen,  and  whose  attitude 
towards  themselves  had  been  rather  hostile  than  friendly. 
For  their  liberality  was  prompted,  not  by  human  grati- 
tude, but  by  love  to  Christ  and  to  those  for  whom  Christ 
had  died. 

It  has  often  been  noticed  that  among  the  Churches  ad- 
dressed by  St.  Paul,  the  Christians  at  Philippi  occupy  the 
highest  place.  Except  a  passing  reference  to  a  misunder- 
standing between  two  persons  whom  otherwise  he  com- 
mends, his  letter  to  the  Philippians  contains  no  word  of 
reproof  and  not  many  words  of  warning — a  conspicuous 
contrast  to  most  of  his  letters  to  Churches.  He  tells  them, 
in  chapter  i.  3-5,  that  his  every  prayer  for  them  is  made 
with  joy ;  the  reason  of  his  joy  being  their  spirit  of  brother- 
hood for  the  spread  of  the  Gospel,  a  brotherliness  which 
began  with  the  beginning  of  their  Christian  life  and  con- 


70  EPAPEBODITUS  AND  THE  GIFT  FROM  PHILIPPL 

tinues  to  the  present  hour.  "We  notice  here  on  a  wider 
scale  the  early  development  and  the  constancy  already 
noticed  in  the  one  detail  of  gen-erosity.  The  coincidence 
is  not  accidental.  Gold  perishes.  But  gold  represents 
material  good.  Consequently  a  man's  dealings  with 
money  reveal  his  conception  of  material  good,  and  thus 
reveal  his  inmost  character.  The  gifts  of  the  Christians  at 
Philippi  were  prompted  by  genuine  and  intelligent  love, 
the  central  virtue  of  the  Christian  life.  And  the  love 
which  prompted  them  bore  fruit  also  in  all  other  directions ; 
or,  rather,  it  wrought  in  them  a  rich  and  full  development 
of  Christian  excellence.  Thus  the  spiritual  pre-eminence  of 
the  Church  at  Philippi  reveals  the  sacredness  of  Christian 
giving.  This  does  not  imply  any  unfair  advantage  to  the 
rich.  For  the  spiritual  worth  of  giving  is  in  inverse  pro- 
portion to  the  wealth  of  the  giver.  The  liberal  givers  in 
this  case  were  probably  poor.  But  it  points  out  to  the  rich, 
and  to  all  men,  a  pathway  they  must  tread  if  they  are  to 
climb  the  heights  of  real  Christian  excellence. 

The  spiritual  importance  of  generosity  St.  Paul  knew 
well.  Hence  his  joy  at  the  gift  from  Philippi.  For  he 
tells  us  in  chapter  iv.  17  that  in  his  joy  he  is  thinking,  not 
about  the  supply  of  his  own  temporal  need,  but  of  the 
harvest  of  spiritual  blessing  which  the  gift  is  working  out 
for  the  givers. 

We  now  return  to  Epaphroditus,  the  bearer  of  the  gift 
from  Philippi.  St.  Paul  speaks  of  him  in  chapter  ii.  25  as 
you?'  apostle.  This  designation  sheds  light  upon  the  title 
given  by  Christ,  as  recorded  in  Luke  vi.  13,  to  the  highest 
rank  (1  Cor.  xii.  28)  of  His  servants.  Just  as  they  were 
commissioned  by  Him  to  bear  to  all  men  everywhere 
the  good  news  of  life,  so  Epaphroditus  was  commissioned 
by  the  Christians  at  Philippi  to  carry  their  gift  to  St.  Paul. 
A  similar  use  of  the  same  word  is  found  in  2  Corinthians 
viii.  23  :  apostles  of  Churches. 


EPAPEBOBITUS  AND  THE  GIFT  FROM  PHILIPPl.  71 

Another  title  of  honour  is  given  to  Epaphroditus.  St. 
Paul  calls  him  your  minister  of  my  need.  The  Greek  word 
here  used,  Xei,Tovpy6<i,  and  a  cognate  word  with  the  same  re- 
ference in  ver.  30,  are  different  from,  and  stronger  than,  the 
word  commonly  in  the  New  Testament  translated  minister  ; 
and  denote  a  public  officer,  or  some  one  who  renders  service 
to  the  State.  The  same  word  is  regularly  used  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  e.g.  Exodus  xxviii.  35,  43,  etc.,  as  the  title  of  the 
priests,  the  public  and  official  servants  of  Grod  in  the  ritual 
of  the  Old  Covenant.  A  similar,  but  proportionately 
greater,  honour  St.  Paul  claims  for  himself  in  Romans  xv. 
16,  where,  using  the  same  word,  he  calls  himself  a  puhlic- 
minister  of  Jesus  Christ ;  and  explains  this  title  by  saying 
that  to  proclaim  the  Gospel  of  God  is  his  public  and  sacred 
and  priestly  work,  and  that  the  offering  he  desires  to  present 
to  God  is  nothing  less  than  the  Gentiles  consecrated  to  His 
service. 

A  similar  title  of  honour  St.  Paul  now  gives  to  Epaphro- 
ditus. By  so  doing  he  reminds  his  readers,  that  in  bringing 
their  gift  to  Rome  he  was  performing  on  their  behalf  a 
public  and  sacred  work,  viz.  the  supply  of  St.  Paul's  need. 
This  work  the  Christians  at  Philippi  would  themselves 
have  performed  by  personal  attention  to  St.  Paul.  But 
this  personal  help,  distance  prevented  them  from  ren- 
dering. The  lack  (ver.  30)  of  it  Epaphroditus  supplied  by 
bringing  their  money  to  the  imprisoned  Apostle.  Doubt- 
less this  word  was  chosen  in  order  to  emphasise  the  impor- 
tance and  dignity  and  sacredness  of  the  work  committed  to 
Epaphroditus. 

In  discharging  the  duty  laid  upon  him  by  the  Church  at 
Philippi,  the  messenger  fell  seriously  ill :  He  icas  sick  nigh 
to  death;  .  .  .  he  came  near  to  death,  hazarding  his  life 
in  order  to  make  up  for  the  absence  of  your  ministry  toioards 
me.  The  details  of  this  illness  are  unknown  to  us.  Pos- 
sibly, in  his  haste  to  reach  and  relieve  the  prisoner,  Epa- 


72  EPAPHRODITUS  AND  THE  GIFT  FROM  PHILIPPI. 

phroditus  exposed  himself  to  inclement  weather  on  the 
journey.  Or  perhaps,  in  his  attention  to  St.  Paul  at  Eome, 
he  exposed  himself  to  infection.  In  any  case  the  risk  was 
knowingly  encountered,  with  the  express  purpose  of  ren- 
dering to  the  Apostle  the  service  which  distance  prevented 
the  Christians  at  Philippi  from  rendering.  Well  might  St. 
Paul  speak  in  ver.  30  of  such  risk  as  encountered  because 
of  the  ivorh  of  Christ.  For  that  which  is  done  and  suffered 
to  aid  the  workers  is  done  for  the  Master. 

The  news  of  the  illness  of  Epaphroditus  had  reached 
Philippi :  and  he  knew  this.  An  ordinary  man  would  have 
been  glad  that  they  who  sent  him  knew  at  how  great  risk 
and  cost  he  had  discharged  their  mission.  But  Epaphro- 
ditus was  filled  with  sorrow.  This  sorrow  reveals  an 
exceedingly  noble  character.  It  was  a  mark  of  genuine 
unselfishness.  He  who  has  risked  his  life  to  help  the  great 
Apostle  is  troubled  that  his  sickness  has  caused  trouble  to 
others.  He  would  have  preferred  to  suffer  alone.  And, 
since  his  friends  at  home  are  already  troubled  on  his 
account,  his  care  for  them  makes  him  wishful,  now  that 
apparently  he  is  again  well,  to  return  and  by  his  own 
presence  to  dispel  their  fears  on  his  behalf.  This  wish  to 
return  was  prompted  by  a  sentiment  so  noble,  that  St.  Paul 
felt  that  he  had  no  choice  but  to  comply :  Necessary  I 
deemed  it  to  send  Epaphroditus. 

The  recovery  of  the  sick  man,  St.  Paul  attributes,  in 
ver.  27,  to  the  mercy  of  God  towards  the  sufferer  and 
towards  himself.  This  reveals  his  faith  that  even  the 
uncertainties  of  human  life  are  under  the  control  of  God. 
So  does  his  request  in  2  Thessalonians  iii.  1,  2  for  his 
readers'  prayer  that  he  may  be  preserved  from  bodily 
danger.  We  cannot  infer  from  the  above  that  St.  Paul 
knew  of  the  illness  while  Epaphroditus  was  in  danger,  and 
prayed  for  his  recovery  ;  although  this  is  quite  possible,  and 
not  unlikely.     For  in  any  case,  whether  or  not  the  danger 


EPAPHBODITUS  AND   TEE   GIFT  FROM  PHILIPPL  73 

was  known  to  the  Apostle,  the  recovery  of  the  sick  man 
was  an  act  of  Divine  mercy  both  to  him  and  to  St.  Paul. 

That  Epaphroditus  is  called  3bfelloic-ivorker,  we  can  easily 
understand  ;  for  St.  Paul  was  essentially  a  worker,  and  all 
his  companions  shared  his  toil.  But  the  precise  reference 
of  fellow-soldier  is  not  quite  clear.  The  same  title  is  in 
Philemon  2  given  to  Archippus.  Doubtless  Epaphroditus 
would  bravely  stand  beside  the  prisoner  at  Eome,  and  en- 
counter cheerfully  whatever  risk  or  hardship  this  involved. 
Therefore,  naturally,  in  the  conflict  of  the  Christian  life,  the 
Apostle  calls  him  a  companion  in  arms. 

Notice  that  St.  Paul  recognises,  and  bids  his  readers 
recognise,  the  work  done  and  spirit  shown  by  this  brave 
fellow-soldier  :  Hold  such  in  honour.  That  honour  will  be 
paid  while  the  world  lasts. 

Put  together  now  the  whole  story  of  the  gift  from 
Philippi  and  the  journey  of  Epaphroditus,  and  we  have  an 
incident  of  surpassing  beauty  from  the  life  of  the  early 
Church.  At  Philippi  we  find  corporate  church  life  of  the 
highest  excellence  ;  and  in  Epaphroditus  we  have  a  private 
member  worthy  of  the  noble  Church  he  represented. 

We  go  in  thought,  perhaps  about  the  close  of  the  year 
in  which  St.  Paul  arrived  a  prisoner  at  Eome,  to  Philippi. 
Less  then  eleven  years  ago  three  Jewish  strangers  visited 
this  Eoman  colony.  They  remained  a  few  weeks,  until  the 
scourging  and  imprisonment  of  two  of  them  made  their 
departure  expedient.  But  the  seed  sown  during  that  short 
sojourn  had  taken  deep  root.  Loving  and  liberal  hearts 
followed  the  strangers  to  other  cities  of  Macedonia,  and 
even  beyond  the  limits  of  that  province.  Some  six  years 
later  St.  Paul  again  visited  Philippi,  and  was  overjoyed  at 
the  eagerness  there  manifested  to  support  his  great  project 
of  a  contribution  for  the  poor  among  the  Christians  at 
Jerusalem.  The  next  year,  as  we  learn  from  Acts  xx.  6, 
on  his  way  to  Jerusalem   with   the  completed  collection, 


74  EPAPHRODITUS  AND  THE   GIFT  FROM  PHILIPPI. 

St.  Paul  spent  Easter  in  the  bosom  of  the  same  beloved 
Church.  Doubtless  there,  as  at  Miletus,^  he  spoke  of  the 
fears  with  which  he  looked  forward  to  his  arrival  in  the 
city  which  had  now  become  the  citadel  of  his  foes.  His 
subsequent  arrest  at  Jerusalem  must  have  come  to  the  ears 
of  his  friends  at  Philippi.  And  lately  they  have  heard  that 
he  is  a  prisoner  at  Rome  and  in  want. 

The  Church  is  eager  to  send  help.  But  no  one  is  able  to 
go  to  Rome.  And  none  but  a  personal  messenger  can  carry 
money  safely. 

Thus  passed,  in  vain  solicitude,  some  months.  At  last  a 
messenger  is  found.  Epaphroditus  is  going,  or  is  able  and 
willing  to  go,  to  Rome,  and  offers  to  carry  help  to  the 
prisoner.  A  large  gift  is  soon  collected ;  and  amid  the 
blessings  of  the  Church,  and  doubtless  with  many  greetings 
for  the  Apostle,  Epaphroditus  starts  along  the  great 
Roman  road  towards  Rome  ;  but  either  before  or  after  his 
arrival  there,  and  in  consequence  of  his  loyalty  to  his  trust, 
the  messenger  is  overtaken  by  serious  illness,  and  his  life  is 
in  danger.  But  his  charge  is  performed.  The  contribution 
is  duly  given  to  the  prisoner. 

This  unexpected  mark  of  Christian  sympathy  fills  the 
Apostle  with  joy.  He  longs  to  thank  his  benefactors. 
Moreover  Epaphroditus  is  now  well,  and  is  troubled  to 
hear  that  tidings  of  his  illness  have  reached  his  friends  at 
Philippi.  How  great  will  be  their  loving  anxiety  on  his 
behalf,  he  knows  well.  He  is  therefore  eager  to  dispel  their 
fears  by  his  personal  presence  among  them  again.  This 
desire  St.  Paul  approves.  The  opportunity  thus  afforded,  he 
also  resolves  to  use  by  sending  to  his  friends  at  Philippi  a 
worthy  acknowledgment  of  their  kindness  to  him.  With 
this  reply,  a  gift  infinitely  more  precious  than  that  which  he 
brought  from  Philippi,  Epaphroditus  starts  on  his  home- 
ward journey.     The  joy   caused   by   his   return,    and   the 

1  Acts  XX.  23. 


REGENT   ENGLISH   LITEEATUBE.  75 

effect  of  this  wonderful  letter  when  first  read  in  the  Church 
at  Philippi,  are  hidden  from  us.  And  we  maj^  almost  say- 
that  with  this  letter  the  Church  itself  passes  from  our'  view. 
To-day,  in  silent  meadows  quiet  cattle  browse  among  the 
few  ruins  which  mark  the  site  of  what  w^as  once  the 
flourishing  Roman  colony  of  Philippi,  the  home  of  the 
most  attractive  Church  of  the  apostolic  age.  But  the 
name  and  fame  and  spiritual  influence  of  that  Church  will 
never  pass.  To  myriads  of  men  and  women  in  every  age 
and  nation,  the  letter  written  in  a  dungeon  at  Eome  and 
carried  along  the  Egnatian  Way  by  an  obscure  Christian 
messenger,  has  been  a  light  Divine,  and  a  cheerful  guide 
along  the  most  rugged  paths  in  life.  As  I  watch,  and 
myself  rejoice  in,  the  brightness  of  that  far-shining  light, 
and  glance  at  those  silent  ruins,  I  see  fulfilled  an  ancient 
prophecy  :  The  grass.  iDithereth,  the  fioiver  fadeth  :  but  the 
word  of  our  God  shall  stand  for  ever. 

Joseph  Agae  Beet. 


BECENT  ENGLISH  LITEEATUBE  ON  THE   NEW 
TESTAMENT. 

Patristic  Texts. — Tlie  Cambridge  University  press  has  issued  for 
Prof.  Rendel  Harris  and  tlie  Johns  Hopkins  University  a  very 
complete  and  beautiful  edition  of  The  Teaching  of  the  Apostles. 
This  edition  indeed  may  be  said  to'  take  rank  as  the  editio  j^rinceps 
of  this  important  relic  of  primitive  Christianity ;  for  not  only  does 
it  present  a  carefully  edited  text,  but  it  gives  photographs  of  the 
entire  MS.,  so  that  any  one  can, satisfy  himself  as  to  the  correct- 
ness of  the  text.  These  photographs  are  beautifully  executed,  and 
will  do  something  towards  inducing  curators  of  MSS.  to  follow 
Prof.  Harris'  advice,  and  insure  by  photography  that,  if  important 
historical  monuments  disappear  by  fire  or  otherwise,  we  shall 
have  guaranteed  duplicates  to  refer  to.  l^ot  only  does  Prof. 
Harris  give  us  in  this  volume  an  assured  text,  but  the  notes  he 


76  RECENT  ENGLISH  LITERATUBE 

has  appended  to  this  text  are  of  very  great  value.  Indeed  among- 
the  many  excellent  editions  of  the  Teaching  which  have  been 
produced,  none  gives  a  more  truly  illustrative  book  of  notes.  The 
chapter  on  the  Hebraisms  of  the  Teaching  is  especially  interesting 
and  valuable,  adding,  as  it  does,  to  the  information  already  fur- 
nished by  Dr.  Taylor.  The  volume  does  credit  to  all  concerned 
in  its  production. 

From  the  same  press  has  been  issued  A  Collation  of  the  Athos 
Codex  of  The  Shepherd  of  Hernias  by  Spyr.  P.  Lambros,  Ph.D., 
Prof.  Univ.  Athens,  translated  and  edited  by  J.  Armitage  Robin- 
son, M.A.  Until  1855  the  text  of  the  Shepherd  was  merely 
guessed  at  through  a  Latin  version.  In  that  year  the  notorious 
Constantino  Simonides  sold  to  the  University  of  Leipsic  what  he 
affirmed  was  the  original  Greek  text  of  the  Shepherd.  This  was 
in  the  form  of  three  leaves  of  a  fourteenth  century  MS.,  and  a 
copy  of  six  other  leaves  of  the  same  MS.  which  he  had  not  been 
able  to  bring  away.  In  consequence  of  the  literary  frauds  he  was 
found  to  be  perpetrating,  the  gravest  suspicions  were  thrown  upon 
this  pretended  copy.  But  Dr.  Lambros,  in  cataloguing  the  MSS. 
of  the  Athos  libraries,  came  upon  one  which  he  believes  to  be  "  the 
much-desired  original  of  the  apographon  of  Simonides."  It  is  a 
collation  of  this  MS.  that  is  now  published,  and  it  must  of  course 
be  the  chief  authority  for  the  text  of  Hernias. 

Introduction. — To  this  department  of  N'ew  Testament  literature 
Dr.  Paton  J.  Gloag  has  made  a  contribution  of  great  value  in 
his  Introduction  to  the  Catholic  Epistles  (T.  &  T.  Clark).  In  this 
volume  every  question  which  has  arisen  regarding  these  epistles 
is  fully  and  candidly  discussed.  Nothing  escapes  Dr.  Gloag's 
research.  With  the  whole  field  of  modern  criticism  he  is  familiar; 
and  he  puts  his  reader  in  possession  of  an  amount  of  information 
which  very  few  men  have  time  to  acquire  for  themselves.  This 
research  and  learning  Dr.  Gloag  uses  with  great  good  sense  and 
judgment.  His  conclusions  are  at  all  times  reasonable,  and  there 
are  few  critics  Avith  whom  a  majority  of  unbiassed  minds  will 
more  frequently  be  found  in  agreement.  To  discuss  those  points 
on  which  we  might  be  disposed  to  disagree  with  Dr.  Gloag  is  here 
impossible.  It  is  from  his  own  book  any  who  disagree  with  him 
are  likely  to  find  weapons  wherewith  to  encounter  him,  for  it  is  a 
vast  repertory  of  opinions  and  suggestions  on  all  questions  of  date, 
authorship,  and  contents  of    the    catholic    epistles.      It  does  not 


ON   THE   NEW  TESTAMENT. 


broach  any  new  theories,  and  it  is  none  the  worse  on  that  account. 
But  while  it  defends  traditional  conclusions,  it  does  so  with  full 
and  candid  consideration  of  all  that  has  been  urged  against  them. 
Dr.  Gloag  maintains  the  authenticity  of  2  Peter,  although  he  feels 
himself  unable  to  determine  whether  that  epistle  or  Jude  has  the 
better  claim  to  priority,  and  on  other  points  he  is  equally  conser- 
vative. We  may  reasonably  desire  the  more  piercing  light  and 
the  more  original  criticism  which  genius  can  bring,  but  we  need 
not  look  for  a  more  complete  digest  of  opinions  than  this  accep- 
table volume  gives  us. 

In  Mr.  Nicoll's  "  Theological  Educator,"  An  Introduction  to  the 
New  Testament  has  been  furnished  by  Dr.  Marcus  Dods.  This 
does  not  profess  to  be  more  than  a  compilation  for  the  use  of 
those  who  are  beginning  this  study.  It  is  hoped  that  it  may  find 
its  way  where  larger  books  cannot  find  access. 

An  introduction  to  the  fourth  Gospel  has  been  written  by 
Mr.  Howard  Heber  Evans  under  the  title,  St.  John  the  Author  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel  (Messrs.  James  Nisbet  &  Co.).  This  is  an  attempt 
to  prove  the  Johannine  authorship,  chiefly  by  an  examination  of 
the  phraseology  and  style  of  the  Gospel.  It  turns  the  tables  on 
those  who  declare  it  to  be  a  psychological  impossibility  that  the 
Apocalypse  and  the  Gospel  proceeded  from  one  mind.  Mr.  Evans, 
by  a  careful  analysis  of  the  language  of  both  writings,  shows  it  to 
be  a  psychological  impossibility  that  those  two  documents  could 
have  been  other  than  the  work  of  one  and  the  same  hand.  The 
case  he  presents  is  a  very  strong  one,  and  he  presents  it  in  a  simple 
and  lucid  form,  and  even  such  critics  as  may  repudiate  his  conclu- 
sion must  at  least  be  thankful  for  the  useful  tables  of  parallel 
phrases  and  ideas  he  has  furnished.  This  is  the  best  piece  of 
criticism  Mr.  Evans  has  yet  given  us,  and  is  indeed  a  solid  and 
important  contribution  to  the  criticism  of  the  fourth  Gospel. 

Exposition. — To  Mr.  Nicoll's  "  Expositor's  Bible  "  (Hodder  and 
Stoughton)  two  volumes  of  uncommon  merit  have  been  added, 
the  one  by  Prof.  Findlay  on  The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  the  other 
by  Principal  Edwards  on  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebreivs.  Readers  of 
this  magazine  have  learned  to  expect  thorough  work  from  Prof. 
Findlay.  In  his  New  Testament  studies  he  has  always  shown 
independence  and  originality,  combined  with  an  accurate  appre- 
hension of  what  other  scholars  have  ascertained.  The  same 
qualities  are  visible  in  his  present  volume ;  and  it  may  safely  be 


RECENT  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


said  that  no  other  commentary  enables  the  reader  to  apprehend 
so  readily  and  so  accurately  the  meaning  of  this  great  epistle. 
To  ascertain  and  expound,  the  apostle's  gospel  as  exhibited  in 
Galatians  calls  for  a  theologian  as  well  as  a  scholar.  The  ex- 
positor must  be  able  to  lift  the  mind  from  the  exact  analysis  of 
words  and  phrases  to  those  great  ideas  which  make  this  epistle 
one  of  the  foundation-stones  of  Christian  doctrine.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  Prof.  Findlay.  He  writes  with  the  accuracy  of  one 
who  has  long  pondei^ed  his  theme,  and  with  the  vigour  and  spirit 
of  a  full  and  eager  mind. 

Principal  Edwards  may  also  be  congratulated  on  successfully 
achieving  the  difficult  task  of  unfolding  the  meaning  of  The 
Epistle  to  the  Hehreivs.  In  this  volume  every  page  shows  traces 
of  careful  and  capable  study.  The  epistle  bristles  with  crucial 
passages  for  a  commentator,  and  none  but  a  veteran  need  attempt 
to  find  his  way  through  these  and  to  keep  a  firm  hold  on  the 
thread  that  guides.  However  any  critic  may  dilfer  from  Principal 
Edwards'  interpretation  of  this  or  that  passage,  it  will  be  owned 
that  he  deals  with  every  difficulty  in  a  straightforward  and  scho- 
larly manner.  It  would  very  greatly  have  aided  the  reader  if 
a  brief  introduction,  indicating  the  scope  and  course  of  the 
epistle,  had  been  prefixed  to  the  exposition.  But  when  one  gets 
fairly  launched  in  the  book  the  stream  of  strong  and  consecutive 
thought  carries  one  on.  Brilliant  and  weighty  passages  relieve  the 
strain  of  following  the  argument  and  quicken  the  attention.  And 
it  will  be  the  opinion  of  every  reader  that  Principal  Edwards  has  pro- 
duced a  volume  full  of  substance  and  worthy  of  its  great  theme. 

Another  admirable  guide  to  the  meaning  of  this  epistle  is  fur- 
nished to  English  readers  in  Mr.  Frederic  Rendall's  The  Epistle 
to  the  Hehreivs  (Macmillan  &  Co.).  The  same  author  had  pre- 
viously published  a  thoughtful  and  original  introduction  to  this 
epistle,  as  well  as  critical  and  explanatory  notes  on  the  Greek 
text.  He  has  now  republished  the  introduction  along  with  a 
translation  of  the  Greek  text  and  copious  notes.  These  notes  are 
free  from  everything  that  might  stagger  the  English  reader.  No 
Greek  w^ords  occur,  no  names  of  commentators  or  books  of  refe- 
rence load  the  page.  But  beneath  this  unscholastic  surface  lie 
a  scholarship  as  severe  and  a  criticism  as  penetrating  and  exact 
as  are  to  be  found  in  the  most  learned  of  German  commentaries. 
The  reader  at  once  finds  himself  under  the  guidance  of  a  serious 


ON  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  79 

and  candid  mind.  New  meaning  is  assigned  to  several  words,  and 
a  new  turn  given  to  some  phrases  and  passages ;  and  although 
these  will  not  always  be  approved,  they  are  all  recommended  by 
considerations  that  are  both  interesting  and  weight3^  We  have 
few  expositions  of  Scripture  which  will  be  found  more  incentive 
to  thought,  and  certainly  no  one  who  wishes  to  understand  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  should  neglect  Mr.  Kendall's  volume. 

The  Gospel  of  St.  John  still  attracts  expositors.     Not  only  has 
the  second  volume  of  The  Pulpit  Commentary  on  the  fom^th  Gospel 
been  published,  completing  a  very  full  and  instructive  book,  but 
Dr.  Thomas  Whitelaw  has  issued  with  Messrs.  Maclehose  an  ex- 
position of  the   same  Gospel  for  the  use  of  clergymen,  students, 
and  teachers.     It  is  named  Tlie  Gospel  of  St.  John  :  an  Exposition 
Exegetical  and  Homiletical.      The  homiletical  part,  in  our  opinion, 
does  injustice  to  the  exegetical ;  and  is  besides  incongi'uous,  for 
those  who  relish  the  exegesis  will  not  consult  the  homiletics.     The 
exegetical  part  is  decidedly  good  of  its  kind.     It  gathers  all  the 
interpretations    of  each   phrase,  and   classifies    them,  so   that  the 
reader  can  choose  for  himself.     The  volume  therefore  represents, 
and  will  save,  a  vast  amount  of  labour.     Sometimes  the  reader 
desiderates  a  little  more  dogmatism  on  the  part  of  Dr.  Whitelaw, 
and  a  little  less  of  the  mosaic  of  other  men's  opinions ;  but  for 
practical    purposes,    probably   Dr.   Whitelaw's    method    is    best. 
And  we  cannot  too  highly  respect  the  painstaking  diligence  which 
every  page  of  his  work  evinces.     The  introduction  to  the  Gospel 
is  a  most  satisfactory  piece  of  work,  full,  strong,  and  conclusive. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  furnish  in  the  same  space  a  more  effective 
defence  of    the  authorship  of    this  much-debated  Gospel.     Alto- 
gether the  book  will  fulfil   its  author's  design,  and  be  useful  to 
clergymen,  stiidents,  and  teachers. 

In  mentioning  Dr.  Thomas  Richey's  The  Parables  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  according  to  St.  Mattheic,  we  travel  beyond  our  pro\ance,  as 
the  volume  is  published  in  New  York.  Mr.  Higham,  the  English 
publisher,  has  however  sent  us  a  copy ;  and  while  we  leave  the 
criticism  of  it  to  Professor  Warfield,  we  think  it  right  meanwhile 
to  recommend  it  to  all  who  wish  to  see  the  parables  treated  in  a 
more  scientific  manner  than  that  which  is  sometimes  adopted.  It 
is  a  book  which  repays  study. 

Dr.  Robert  Johnstone,  Professor  of  New  Testament  Literature 
in   the  United   Presbyterian   College,  Edinburgh,  has  issued  two 


80  REGENT  ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

books  during  the  past  half  year.  One  of  these  is  published  by 
Messrs.  Clark,  and  is  on  The  First  Epistle  of  Peter.  It  is  intended 
to  aid  students  of  the  Greek  text,  and  is  perhaps  even  too  full  in 
its  grammatical  and  texical  explanations.  This  however  is  a  vice 
that  leans  to  virtue's  side  ;  and  no  one  will  question  the  con- 
scientious and  painstaking  diligence  with  which  Dr.  Johnstone 
has  applied  himself  to  the  accurate  ascertainment  of  his  author's 
meaning.  Turning  to  one  of  the  crucial  passages  of  the  epistle, 
Ave  find  that  Dr.  Johnstone  understands  that  Christ's  preaching  to 
the  spirits  in  prison  was  accomplished  during  the  lifetime  and 
through  the  agency  of  Noah.  This  interpretation  is  scarcely  com- 
patible with  the  clause,  tois  iv  (fjvXaKy  Trvevfiacn  Tropevdea  ;  and 
although  Dr.  Johnstone  endeavours  to  show  that  Tropeu^ets  is  ad- 
missible on  his  interpretation,  we  find  in  the  numerous  pages 
devoted  to  the  passage  no  explanation  of  the  phrase,  "  the  spirits 
in  prison,"  although  it  may  be  gathered  from  what  is  said  that 
the  imprisonment  referred  to  is  their  condition  after  death.  Dr. 
Johnstone's  explanation  of  the  references  which  the  apostles  made 
to  the  expected  coming  of  Christ  is  not  satisfactory.  "  Whether 
the  apostles  themselves,  pondering  the  data  which  God  had  made 
known  to  them,  thought  it  likely  that  '  the  end  of  all  things ' 
would  come  during  their  own  generation,  is  a  question  to  which 
we  are  not  in  a  position  to  give  an  answer."  This  assertion  seems 
at  all  events  a  little  out  of  place  in  a  commentary  on  the  words, 
"  the  end  of  all  things  is  at  hand."  In  the  main  however 
Dr.  Johnstone's  determination  of  the  meaning  of  his  author  can 
be  accepted,  and  as  a  whole  the  commentary  is  full  of  the  fruits  of 
sound  and  exact  scholarship,  and  of  serious  thought.  It  is  the  best 
available  aid  to  the  study  of  the  epistle  with  which  it  deals. 

The  other  volume,  issued  for  Dr.  Johnstone  by  Messrs.  Oliphant, 
Anderson  &  Ferrier,  is  a  second  edition  of  his  Lectures  on  the 
Epistle  of  James.  These  are  popular,  and  are  yet  based  on  a 
careful  examination  of  the  text.  They  were  delivered  from  the 
pulpit  to  an  ordinary  congregation,  and  are  admirably  adapted  for 
preaching  purposes.  They  give  a  lucid  explanation  of  every  verse, 
and  carry  out  its  meaning  into  suitable  applications  to  life  and 
character.  Preachers  will  derive  valuable  assistance  from  the 
volume. 

Marcus  Dods. 


THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBREWS. 

VI.  The  Way  of  Salvation  (Chap.  ii.  11-18). 

This  section  contains  a  further  elucidation  of  the  way  or 
method  of  salvation  in  its  bearing  on  the  personal  expe- 
riences of  the  Saviour.  It  may  be  analysed  into  these 
three  parts  :  First,  the  statement  of  a  principle  on  which 
the  argument  proceeds  (ver.  11)  ;  second,  illustrations  of 
the  principle  by  citations  from  the  Old  Testament  (vers. 
12,  13)  ;  third,  applications  of  the  principle  to  particular 
facts  in  the  history  of  Jesus  (vers.  14-18). 

The  writer  at  this  point  seems  at  first  sight  to  be  making 
a  new  start,  looking  forward  rather  than  backward,  and 
with  the  priesthood  of  Christ,  of  which  express  mention  is 
made  in  ver.  17,  specially  in  his  eye.  Further  reflection 
however  satisfies  us  that,  as  the  "for"  at  the  commence- 
ment of  ver.  11  suggests,  he  looks  backward  as  well  as 
forward,  and  that  the  new  truth  therein  enunciated  has  its 
root  in  the  statement  contained  in  ver.  10.  The  assertion 
that  the  Sanctifier  and  the  sanctified  are  all  of  one  may  be 
conceived  of  as  answering  two  questions  naturally  arising 
out  of  ver.  10,  to  which  it  furnishes  no  explicit  answer. 
First,  Christ  is  called  the  Captain  or  Leader  of  salvation  : 
how  does  He  contribute  to  salvation  ?  Is  He  simply  the 
first  of  a  series  who  pass  through  suffering  to  glory?  or  does 
He  influence  all  the  sons  whom  God  brings  to  glory  so 
as  to  contribute  very  materially  to  the  great  end  in  view, 
their  reaching  the  promised  land?  Second,  what  is  the 
condition  of  His  influence  ?  what  is.  the  nexus  between  Him 

VOL.  ix.  ^'^  6 


82  TEE   EPISTLE   TO   TEE  EEBBEWS. 


and  them,  the  Leader  and  the  led,  that  enables  Him  to  exert 
over  them  this  power  ?  The  answer  to  the  former  question 
is,  Christ  saves  by  scDictifying ;  the  answer  to  the  latter, 
that  He  and  the  sanctified  are  one.  The  answer  in  the  first 
case  is  given  indirectly  by  the  substitution  of  one  title 
for  another,  the  "Leader  of  salvation  "  being  replaced  by 
the  "Sanctifier";  the  answer  in  the  second  case  is  given 
directly,  and  forms  the  doctrine  of  the  text :  the  Sanctifier 
and  the  sanctified  are  all  of  one. 

The  new  designation  for  Christ  is  presumably  selected 
because  it  fits  in  both  to  that  view  of  His  function  sug- 
gested by  the  title  Leader,  and  to  that  implied  in  the  title 
High  Priest,  introduced  in  the  sequel.  No  good  reason 
can  be  given  for  limiting  the  reference  to  the  latter.  The 
probability  is  that  the  writer  meant  to  imply  that  Christ 
sanctifies  both  as  a  Captain  and  as  a  Priest,  as  the  Moses 
and  as  the  Aaron  of  the  great  salvation.  It  is  probable  that 
he  introduces  the  title  "the  Sanctifier"  to  adjust  the  idea  of 
salvation  to  the  Saviour's  priestly  office,  but  it  is  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  he  does  this  without  any  breach  in  the 
continuity  of  thought. 

These  are  simple  observations,  but  they  involve  a  very 
important  question;  vix.  in  what  sense  are  the  terms  "sanc- 
tifier" and  "sanctified"  used  in  this  place?  and,  generally, 
what  conception  of  sanctincation  pervades  the  epistle?  In 
the  ordinary  theological  dialect  "  sanctification  "  bears  an 
ethical  meaning,  denoting  the  gradual  renewal  of  his  nature 
experienced  by  a  believing  man.  The  usage  can  be  justified 
by  New  Testament  texts  in  Paul's  epistles,  and  as  I  believe 
also  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews ;  but  the  notion  of  holi- 
ness thus  reached  is  secondary  and  derivative.  In  the  Old 
Testament  holiness  is  a  religious  rather  than  an  ethical 
idea,  and  belongs  properly  to  the  sphere  of  worship.  The 
people  of  Israel  were  holy  in  the  sense  of  being  consecrated 
for  the  service  of  God,  the  consecration  being  effected  by 


THE    WAY  OF  SALVATION.  83 

sacrifice,  which  purged  the  worshippers  from  the  defilement 
of  sin.  It  was  to  be  expected  that  the  ritual  or  theocratic 
idea  of  holiness  should  reappear  in  the  New  Testament, 
especially  in  an  epistle  like  that  to  the  Hebrews,  in  which 
Christian  truth  is  largely  stated  in  terms  suggested  by 
Levitical  analogies.  Accordingly  we  do  find  the  word 
"  sanctify  "  employed  in  the  epistle  in  the  Old  Testament 
sense,  in  connexion  with  the  priestly  office  of  Christ,  as  in 
chapter  x.  lU:  "sanctified  through  the  offering  of  the  body  of 
Jesus  Christ  once  for  all."  In  such  texts  sanctification  has 
more  affinity  with  "justification"  in  the  Pauline  system  of 
thought,  than  with  the  sanctification  of  dogmatic  theology. 
But  it  might  also  be  anticipated  that  the  conception  of 
holiness  would  undergo  transformation  under  Christian  in- 
fluences, passing  from  the  ritual  to  the  ethical  sphere.  The 
source  of  transforming  power  lay  in  the  nature  of  the  Chris- 
tian service.  The  sacrifices  of  the  new  era  are  spiritual : 
thankfulness,  beneficent  deeds,  pure  conduct.  A  good  life 
is  the  Christian's  service  to  God.  Thus  while  formally  con- 
sidered sanctification  might  continue  to  mean  consecration 
to  God's  service,  materially  it  came  to  mean  the  process 
by  which  a  man  was  enabled  to  live  soberly,  righteously, 
godly.  Traces  of  this  transformed  meaning  are  to  be 
found  throughout  the  New  Testament.  The  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  is  no  exception  to  this  statement.  The  term 
"  holiness  "  {dyia(rjj,6<i)  is  used  in  an  ethical  sense  twice  in 
the  twelfth  chapter.  In  ver.  10  it  is  stated  that  God's  end 
in  subjecting  His  children  to  paternal  discipline  is  to  make 
them  partakers  of  His  own  holiness  ;  in  ver.  14,  Christians 
are  exhorted  to  follow  peace  with  all  men  and  holiness — 
holiness  being  prescribed  as  a  moral  task,  and  as  an  end  to 
be  reached  gradually.  In  the  one  case,  God  is  the  Sanctifier 
through  the  discipline  of  life ;  in  the  other.  Christians  are 
summoned  to  sanctify  themselves  by  a  process  of  moral 
effort.     In  another  class  of  texts  Christ  appears  as  a  foun- 


84  TEE  EPISTLE   TO   TEE  EEBBEWS.' 

tain  of  sanctifying  influence.  The  word  is  not  used,  but  the 
thing,  help  to  godly  hving,  is  there.  "Looking  unto  Jesus" 
the  Leader  in  faith  is  commended  as  a  source  of  moral 
strength  and  stedfastness  (xii.  2).  Even  in  His  priestly 
character  He  is  set  forth  as  a  source  of  moral  inspira- 
tion. Through  Him,  the  great  High  Priest,  we  receive 
"grace  for  seasonable  succour"  (iv.  16);  from  Him,  the 
tempte'd  one,  emanates  aid  to  the  tempted  (ii.  18).  God's 
paternal  discipline,  our  own  self-effort,  Christ's  example, 
priestly  influence,  and  sympathy,  all  contribute  to  the  same 
end,  persistency  and  progress  in  the  Christian  life.  In 
connexion  with  the  first,  we  may  say  God  sanctifies  ;  in 
connexion  with  the  second,  we  may  say  we  sanctify  our- 
selves ;  why  may  we  not,  in  connexion  with  the  third,  call 
Christ  the  Sanctifier? 

It  thus  appears  that  sanctification  is  spoken  of  in  the 
epistle  both  in  a  ritual  and  in  an  ethical  sense,  and  that 
Christ  is  represented,  in  effect  if  not  in  express  terms,  as 
performing  the  part  of  a  sanctifier,  not  merely  by  conse- 
crating us  once  for  all  to  God  by  the  sacrifice  of  Himself, 
but  likewise  by  being  to  us  in  various  ways  a  source  of 
gracious  help.  This  double  sense  of  the  word  sanctify  is 
analogous  to  the  double  sense  of  the  word  "  righteousness  "  in 
the  Pauline  literature.  In  stating  his  doctrine  of  salvation, 
Paul  uses  the  word  in  an  objective  sense.  The  righteous- 
ness of  God  is  an  objective  righteousness,  given  to  us  for 
Christ's  sake.  But  in  the  Pauline  apologetic,  in  which  the 
apostle  seeks  to  reconcile  his  doctrine  with  apparently  con- 
flicting interests,  such  as  the  claims  of  the  law,  the  prero- 
gatives of  Israel,  and  the  demands  of  morality,  we  find  the 
word  used  in  a  subjective  sense — to  denote  a  righteousness 
within  us.  Repelling  the  insinuation  that  we  may  continue 
in  sin  that  grace  may  abound,  he  strives  to  show  how  every 
believer  in  Christ  becomes  a  servant  of  righteousness.  Even 
so   in  the  Epistle  to  the    Hebrews  we  find  sanctification 


THE    WAY  OF  SALVATION.  85 


used  in  a  double  sense,  a  ritual  and  an  ethical.  But  there 
is  a  failure  in  the  parallelism  between  the  two  writers  in 
this  respect,  that  whereas  in  Paul  what  one  might  call  the 
artificial  or  technical  sense  of  righteousness  appears  in  his 
doctrinal  statement,  and  the  ethical  sense  in  his  apologetic, 
in  the  author  of  our  epistle  the  ritual  sense  of  sanctifi- 
cation  appears  in  those  parts  of  his  writing  which  are 
dominated  by  his  apologetic  aim,  and  the  ethical  chiefly  in 
the  practical  or  hortatory  passages,  where  he  is  set  free  from 
the  trammels  of  his  apologetic  argument.^ 

If  it  be  indeed  true  that  Christ  appears  in  the  epistle  as  a 
sanctifier  in  a  twofold  sense,- -in  a  specific  sense  as  a  priest, 
in  a  general  as  a  fountain  of  grace,  then  it  is  natural  to 
suppose  that  in  introducing  the  title  "  the  Sanctifier,"  for 
the  first  time  the  writer  would  employ  it  in  a  compre- 
hensive sense,  covering  the  whole  extent  of  Christ's  sanc- 
tifying influence.  This  comprehensive  sense,  as  we  have 
seen,  suits  the  connexion  of  thought,  the  text  standing 
midw^ay  between  two  views  of  Christ's  function  as  Saviour, 
— that  suggested  by  the  title  Captain  of  salvation,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  that  suggested  by  the  title  High  Priest,  on  the 
other — looking  back  to  the  one  and  forward  to  the  other, 
I  feel  justified  therefore  in  putting  upon  the  designation 
"  the  Sanctifier  "  this  pregnani  construction,  and  shall  now 
proceed  to  consider  the  affirmation  in  ver.  11,  that  the 
Sanctifier  and  the  sanctified  are  all  of  one.^ 

This  statement,  as  indicated  at  the  outset,  I  regard  as 
the    enunciation  of   a   principle ;  by  which  is    meant  that 

'  Another  point  will  come  up  for  comparison  in  due  course.  Paul  discovers 
in  the  very  heart  of  his  system  a  nexus  between  objective  and  subjective  right- 
eousness. Does  the  system  of  thought  in  this  epistle  provide  for  the  union  of 
the  two  kinds  of  sanctification  ?  or  do  they  stand  side  by  side,  external  to  each 
other?  Are  religious  and  ethical  interests  reconciled  by  a  principle  inherent  in 
the  system  ? 

-  The  present  participle,  oi  ayia^ofievoi,  fits  into  the  view  that  an  ethical  j^ro- 
gressive  sanctification  is  included,  but  it  does  not  prove  it,  for  the  participles 
may  be  timeless  designations  of  the  parties. 


8G  TEE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 


the  unity  asserted  is  involved  in  the  relation  of  Sanctifier 
to  sanctified.  Whether  there  be  only  one  or  many  exem- 
plifications of  the  relation  is  immaterial.  Though  only  one 
Sanctifier  were  in  view  or  possible,  the  proposition  would 
still  continue  to  be  of  the  nature  of  a  principle.  The  point 
is,  that  Christ,  as  Sanctifier,  must  be  one  with  those  whom 
He  sanctifies,  could  not  otherwise  perform  for  them  that 
function.  Some,  as  if  bent  on  reducing  the  significance  of 
the  statement  to  a  minimum,  take  it  as  the  mere  assertion 
of  a  fact  :  that  this  Sanctifier,  Jesus  Christ,  and  those  whom 
He  sanctifies  are  all  of  one  God,  that  is,  are  all  the  chil- 
dren of  God,  the  purpose  of  the  statement  being  to  justify 
the  use  of  the  title  "  sons  "  in  the  previous  verse,  or  to 
repeat  the  truth  implied  in  it.  But  that  title,  as  we  have 
seen,  rests  on  its  own  foundation,  the  lordship  of  men,  and 
needs  neither  justification  nor  repetition.  Viewed  as  the 
statement  of  a  fact,  the  first  member  of  verse  11  becomes 
almost  purposeless  and  superfluous.  Viewed  as  the  state- 
ment of  a  principle,  on  the  other  hand,  it  becomes  a  very 
necessary  and  fruitful  proposition.  The  relative  terms  Sanc- 
tifier and  sanctified  imply  one  very  obvious  and  wide  dif- 
ference between  the  parties.  The  Sanctifier  is  holy,  the 
sanctified  when  He  takes  them  in  hand  are  unholy.  That 
being  so,  it  needs  to  be  said  that,  notwithstanding  the 
separation  between  the  parties,  there  is  a  unity  between 
them  surmounting  the  difference.  And  that  can  be  said 
with  truth,  for  otherwise  the  two  parties  could  not  stand 
in  the  relation  of  Sanctifier  to  sanctified  ;  they  could  only 
stand  permanently  apart  as  holy  and  unholy.  Unity  is 
involved  in  the  nature  of  the  case.  That  is  precisely  what 
the  writer  means  to  sa3^  He  states  the  truth  as  an  axiom, 
which  he  expects  even  his  dull-minded  readers  to  accept 
immediately  as  true  ;  and  he  means  to  use  it  as  a  key  to 
the  cardinal  facts  of  Christ's  human  experience. 

Unity  to  some  extent  or  in  some  sense  is  involved,  that 


THE   WAY  OF  SALVATION.  87 


is  clear.  But  in  what  sense,  to  what  extent?  Tliis  is  not 
plainly  indicated.  The  expression  is  e'^  e»/6?  Travre^,  "  of  or 
from  one  all."  The  style  at  this  point  becomes  noticeably 
laconic ;  the  sentence  lacks  a  verb,  and  is  worn  down  to 
the  fewest  words  possible,  after  the  manner  of  a  proverb, 
"  For  the  Sanctifier  and  the  sanctified  of  one  all."  The 
commentators  have  been  very  much  exercised  over  this 
elliptical  utterance,  and  have  made  innumerable  sugges- 
tions as  to  the  noun  to  be  supplied  after  "  one."  One  seed, 
blood,  mass,  nature  ;  or  one  Adam,  Abraham,  God.  The 
consensus  is  in  favour  of  the  last.  But  it  occurs  to  one  to 
ask,  Why,  if  he  had  a  particular  noun  in  his  mind,  did  the 
writer  not  insert  it,  and  so  put  an  end  to  all  doubt?  Does 
it  not  look  as  if  his  purpose  were  to  lay  stress,  not  on 
descent  from  one  God,  one  Divine  Father,  but  rather  on 
the  result,  the  brotherhood  or  comradeship  existing  between 
the  two  parties  ?  Is  not  his  idea  that  Sanctifier  and  sanc- 
tified are  all  "  of  one  piece,  one  whole,"  ^  two  parties  welded 
into  one,  having  ever3'thing  in  common  except  character  ? 
The  expression  e^  evo?  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  he 
is  thinking  of  descent  or  origin.  In  the  saying  of  our 
Lord,  "  Every  one  that  is  of  the  truth  heareth  My  voice," 
the  expression  €k  t?}?  ak7}9e[a<i  means  true,  in  sympathy 
with  truth;  so  here  e^  ev6<i  may  mean  "one,"  one  as  a 
family  are  one,  having  a  common  interest  and  a  com- 
mon lot.  The  use  of  the  connecting  particle  re  (o  re  ^yap 
dyid^cov)  is  in  consonance  with  this  view.  It  binds  the 
two  parties  closely  together  as  forming  a  single  idea  or  cate- 
gory :   Sanctifier  and  sanctified,  all  one. 

We  can  now  answer  the  question,  To  what  extent  one  ? 

'  Professor  Davidson  in  a  note,  p.  66,  says,  "  The  words  all  of  one  might  mean 
all  of  one  piece,  one  whole."  But  he  adds,  "  If  this  were  the  meaning,  the  point 
of  nnity  would  still  lie  in  their  common  relation  to  God,  and  the  unity,  though 
wider  than  sonship,  would  embrace  sonship  as  its  chief  element."  He  reasons, 
"  One  whole,  because  xons,  the  main  point."  I  argue  inverselj-,  "  sons,  therefore 
one  irJiole,  one  family  with  a  common  interest,  the  main  point." 


88  THE  JEJPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 


As  far  as  possible;  the  more  complete  the  unity  of  Sanctifier 
with  the  sanctified,  the  greater  His  power  to  sanctify.  The 
nature  of  the  relation  is  such  as  to  crave  unity  in  every- 
thing but  the  one  ineffaceable  distinction  of  character. 
From  whatever  point  of  view,  the  ritual  or  the  ethical,  we 
regard  the  Sanctifier's  function,  this  becomes  apparent  on 
reflection.  Conceive  Christ  first  as  Sanctifier  in  the  ethical 
sense,  as  Captain  or  Leader  of  salvation  ;  it  is  evident  that 
in  that  capacity  it  behoved  Him  to  be  in  all  possible  re- 
spects one  with  those  He  took  in  hand  to  sanctify.  For 
in  this  case  the  sanctifying  power  of  Jesus  lies  in  His 
example,  His  character.  His  history  as  a  man.  He  makes 
men  believing  in  Him  holy  by  reproducing  in  His  own  life 
the  lost  ideal  of  human  character,  and  bringing  that  ideal 
to  bear  on  their  minds  ;  by  living  a  true,  godly  life  amid  the 
same  conditions  of  trial  as  those  by  which  they  are  sur- 
rounded, and  helping  them  to  be  faithful  by  inspiration  and 
sympathy.  The  more  genuinely  human  He  is,  and  the 
more  closely  the  conditions  of  His  human  life  resemble  ours, 
the  greater  His  influence  over  us.  His  power  to  sanctify 
depends  on  likeness  in  nature,  position,  and  experience. 

Conceive  Christ  next  as  Sanctifier  in  the  ritual  sense, 
as  a  priest,  consecrating  us  for  the  service  of  God  by  the 
sacrifice  of  Himself ;  and  the  same  need  for  a  pervading, 
many-sided  unity  is  apparent.  The  priest  must  be  one 
with  his  clients  in  God's  sight,  their  accepted  represen- 
tative ;  so  that  what  He  does  is  done  in  their  name  and 
avails  for  their  benefit.  He  must  be  one  with  them  in  death, 
for  it  is  by  His  death  in  sacrifice  that  He  makes  propitia- 
tion for  their  sins.  He  must  be  one  with  them  in  the 
possession  of  humanity,  for  unless  He  become  partaker  of 
human  nature  He  cannot  die.  Finally,  He  must  be  one 
with  them  in  experience  of  trial  and  temptation,  for  there- 
by is  demonstrated  the  sympathy  which  wins  trust,  and 
unless  the  priest  be  trusted  it  is  in  vain  that  He  transacts. 


THE   WAY  OF   SALVATION.  S9 


All  these  unities  except  the  first  are  unfolded  in  the  sequel 
of  the  second  chapter,  and  are  common  to  the  two  aspects 
of  Christ's  function  as  the  Sanctifier.  The  first  unity,  that 
before  God,  is  pecuhar  to  the  priestly  office,  and  is  reserved 
for  mention  at  a  later  stage,  when  the  priesthood  of  Christ 
becomes  the  subject  of  formal  consideration. ^ 

Having  enunciated  this  great  principle  of  unity,  the 
writer  next  proceeds  to  show  that  it  has  its  root  in  Old 
Testament  Scripture.  The  manner  in  which  he  does  this 
is  very  lively  and  impressive.  In  abstract  language  the  im- 
port is  this  :  "  The  unity  asserted  implies  a  brotherly  rela- 
tion between  Sanctifier  and  sanctified.  But  traces  of  such 
a  brotherhood  are  discernible  in  the  Old  Testament,  as  in 
the  following  passages,  where  Messiah  appears  saying,  '  I 
will  declare  Thy  name  unto  My  brethren  '  ;  '  I  will  put  My 
trust  in  Him '  ;  *  Behold,  I  and  the  children  which  God 
hath  given  Me.'  "  But  the  writer  does  not  put  the  matter 
in  this  cold,  colourless  way.  He  introduces  his  quotations 
in  an  animated,  rhetorical  manner  with  the  spirit-stirring 
sentiment,  "  for  which  cause  He  is  not  ashamed  to  call 
them  brethren."  Observing  that  the  quoted  passages  are 
all  of  the  nature  of  personal  declarations  or  exclamations, 
observing  also  that  they  are  all  utterances  of  an  impassioned 
character,  he  strives  to  reflect  the  spirit  of  the  original  texts 
in  his  own  language.  Therefore  he  says  not,  Messiah  is 
represented  as  the  brother  of  men,  but  He  calls  Himself 
their  brother  ;  and  not  content  with  that,  he  introduces 
another  word  to  bring  out  the  fact  that  Messiah  does  not 
barely  admit  or  reluctantly  acknowledge  the  brotherhood, 
but  proclaims  it  with  ardour  and  enthusiasm,  rejoicing, 
glorying  therein.  "  He  is  not  ashamed  to  call  them 
brethren.  On  the  contrary.  He  calls  them  brethren  with 
all  His  heart,  with  the  fervour  of  love,  with  the  eloquence 
of  earnest    conviction."      The    reference    to    shame  points 

^  I'hlc  chapter  v.  1. 


90  THE  EFISTLFj    TO   THE  HEBREWS. 


signiUcantly  to  the  one  cardinal  difference,  sin,  which  con- 
stitutes the  temptation  to  the  Holy  One  to  be  ashamed. 

The  quotations  so  spiritedly  introduced  are  well  selected 
for  the  purpose  in  hand.  In  all  brotherhood  is  expressed 
or  clearly  implied.  In  the  first,  the  speaker,  primarily  the 
psalmist,^  represents  himself  as  a  member  of  a  congrega- 
tion of  worshippers  whom  he  calls  his  brethren  ;  in  the 
second,  the  speaker,  primarily  the  prophet  Isaiah,^  declares 
his  purpose  to  trust  God,  implying  that  he  is  in  a  situa- 
tion of  trial  in  which  trust  is  necessary  ;  in  the  third, 
taken  from  the  same  place,^  he  associates  himself  with  the 
children  God  has  given  him,  as  of  the  same  family  and 
sharing  the  same  prophetic  vocation.  The  utterances  put 
into  the  mouth  of  Messiah  imply  brotherhood  in  worship 
and  in  trying  experience,  and  even  the  closer  kind  of 
brotherhood  involved  in  family  connexions  and  a  common 
calling. 

AVe  now  come  to  the  applications  of  the  principle  enun- 
ciated in  verse  11.  They  are  three  in  number,  together 
covering  the  whole  earthly  history  of  Christ,  beginning  with 
His  birth,  and  ending  with  His  death.  Incarnation,  sor- 
rowful experience,  death,  such  are  the  three  grand  exem- 
plifications of  the  brotherly  unity  of  the  Sanctifier  with  the 
sanctified ;  not  arranged  however  in  this  order,  the  second 
changing  places  with  the  third,  because  the  incarnation  is 
exhibited  in  subordination  to  the  death  as  a  means  to  an 
end  :  Christ  took  flesh  that  Pie  might  die.  The  applications 
are  as  obvious  as  they  are  important.  If  the  principle  has 
validity  and  value,  it  must  and  will  prove  true  in  those 
particulars.  A^hat  we  have  to  do  therefore  is  not  to  jus- 
tify   these    deductions,    but  to    study    the    terms    in  which 


1  r.-5.  xxii.  28. 

-  Isa.  viii.  17,  as  in  Seplnagint.     Tlie  reudeiiug  in  the  English  version  is, 
I  will  look  for  Him." 
^  Isa.  viii.  18. 


THE    WAY  OF  SAJjVATION.  91 

they  are  expressed,  which  are  in  many  respects  curious  and 
instructive. 

First  comes  the  incarnation  (ver.  14).  The  sanctified  are 
here  referred  to  in  terms  borrowed  from  the  last  of  the 
three  quotations,  "the  children."  The  use  of  this  desig- 
nation is  not  only  rhetorically  graceful  but  logically  apt, 
as  suggesting  the  idea  of  an  existence  derived  from  birth. 
Children  is  an  appropriate  name  for  men  as  born  of  blood, 
and  therefore  possessing  blood  and  flesh.  These  terms, 
"blood  and  flesh,"  in  their  turn  are  employed  to  denote 
human  nature  as  mortal,  as  it  exists  under  the  conditions 
of  this  earthly  life ;  for  flesh  and  blood  have  no  place  in  the 
eternal  life.  Of  man's  mortal  nature,  as  thus  designated, 
Christ  is  said  to  have  taken  part  irapairXija-co)^,  "  likewise," 
similarly.  The  scope  of  the  whole  passage  requires  that 
this  word  be  emphasised,  so  that  the  similarity  may  be  as 
great  as  possible.  Therefore  not  merely  is  participation  in 
man's  mortal  flesh  implied,  but  entrance  into  human  nature 
by  the  same  door  as  other  men — -by  birth.  We  may  not, 
with  Irving  and  the  Adoptianists,  include  sinfulness  in  the 
likeness,  for  the  application  of  the  principle  of  unity  is 
necessarily  limited  by  the  personal  holiness  of  the  Sanctifier. 
The  rule  is.  Like  in  all  things,  sin  excepted. 

The  second  application  of  the  principle  is  to  the  death 
of  Christ,  which,  as  already  indicated,  is  next  mentioned 
because  it  supplies  the  rationale  of  the  incarnation  (vers. 
14b,  15).  As  a  mere  corollary  to  the  principle  it  would 
have  been  enough  to  have  said.  Because  the  brethren  die. 
He  too  died.  But  the  objection  might  be  raised.  Why  should 
the  sinless  One  die,  if,  as  we  have  been  taught,  death  be  the 
penalty  of  sin  ?  Therefore  the  application  of  the  principle 
to  the  death  of  Christ  is  so  stated  as  to  bring  out  at  the 
same  time  the  service  He  thereby  rendered  to  His  brethren. 
This  is  done  however  in  a  very  peculiar  way,  which  has 
greatly  perplexed  commentators.      The  difficulty  arises  in 


02  THE   EPISTLE   TO    THE   HEBREWS. 

part  from  our  trying  to  put  too  much  theology  into  the 
passage,  and  to  bring  its  teaching  into  hne  with  other  more 
famihar  modes  of  exhibiting  the  significance  of  Christ's 
death.  It  must  be  recognised  once  for  all  that  the  writer 
has  various  ways  of  showing  that  it  behoved  Christ  to  die, 
and  that  he  gladly  avails  himself  of  any  way  that  tends  to 
throw  light  on  a  subject  ill-understood  by  his  readers.  This 
is  one  of  the  ways,  and  although  from  its  isolation  in  the 
epistle  it  looks  obscure  and  forbidding,  the  text  yields  a 
good,  clear,  intelligible  sense,  if  we  will  be  content  not  to 
find  in  it  the  whole  mystery  and  theory  of  the  atonement. 
For  the  materials  of  explanation  we  do  not  need  to  go  outside 
the  Bible  :  they  are  evidently  to  be  found  in  the  account  of 
the  fall  in  the  third  chapter  of  Genesis.  According  to  that 
account  death  came  into  the  world  because  Adam  sinned, 
tempted  by  the  serpent.  The  text  before  us  is  a  free 
paraphrase  of  that  account.  The  serpent  is  identified  with 
the  devil,  death  is  represented  as  a  source  of  slavish  fear, 
embittering  human  life,  because  it  is  the  penalty  of  sin  ; 
the  power  of  death  is  ascribed  to  the  devil,  because  he 
is  the  tempter  to  sin  which  brought  death  into  the  world, 
and  the  accuser  of  those  who  sin,  so  that  they,  having  sin 
brought  to  mind,  fear  to  die.  Christ  destroys  the  devil  by 
destroying  his  power,  and  He  destroys  his  power  by  freeing 
mortal  men  from  the  cruel  bondage  of  the  fear  of  death. 

All  this  is  plain  enough.  But  the  question  now  arises, 
How  did  Christ  through  death  free  from  the  fear  of  death  ? 
We,  steeped  in  theology,  would  naturally  reply.  By  offering 
Himself  an  atoning  sacrifice  for  sin.  But  that  is  certainly 
not  the  writer's  thought  here.  He  reserves  the  great 
thought  of  Christ's  priestly  self-sacrifice  for  a  more  ad- 
vanced stage  in  the  development  of  his  doctrine.  What 
then  is  his  thought?  Simply  this.  Christ  delivers  from  the 
fear  of  death  by  dying  as  a  suiless  one.  Death  and  sin  are 
connected  verj^  intimately  in  our  minds,  hence  fear.     But 


THE    WAY  OF  SALVATION.  93 


lo,  here  is  one  who  knows  no  sin  dying.  Tlie  bare  fact 
breaks  the  association  between  sin  and  death.  But  more 
than  that :  He  who  dies  is  our  brother,  has  entered  into  our 
mortal  state  in  a  fraternal  spirit  for  the  very  purpose  of 
lending  us  a  helping  hand.  We  may  not  fully  know  how 
His  death  avails  to  help  us.  But  we  know  that  the  Sanc- 
tifier  in  a  spirit  of  brotherhood  became  one  with  us,  even 
in  death ;  and  the  knowledge  enables  us  to  realize  our 
unity  with  Him  in  death,  and  so  emancipates  us  from  fear, 
"  Sinners  may  die,  for  the  Sinless  has  died."  The  benefit 
thus  derived  from  the  death  of  the  sinless  One  is  but  the 
other  side  of  the  great  principle,  Sanctifier  and  sanctified 
all  one.  For  it  has  two  sides,  it  applies  both  ways.  The 
Sanctifier  becomes  one  with  the  sanctified  in  brotherly  love; 
the  sanctified  become  one  with  the  Sanctifier  in  privilege. 
They  are  mutually  one  in  both  directions  in  God's  sight ; 
they  are  mutually  one  in  both  directions  for  the  spiritual 
instincts  of  the  believer,  even  before  he  knows  what  the 
twofold  validity  for  God  means.  In  proportion  as  we 
realize  the  one  aspect  of  the  principle,  the  Sanctifier  one 
with  us,  we  are  enabled  to  realize  and  get  benefit  from  the 
other.  "While  the  Holy  One  stands  apart  from  us  in  the 
isolation  of  His  sinlessness,  we,  sinners,  fear  to  die  ;  when 
we  see  Him  by  our  side,  even  in  death,  which  we  have  been 
accustomed  to  regard  as  the  penalty  of  sin,  death  ceases  to 
appear  as  penalty,  and  becomes  the  gate  of  heaven.^ 

'  So  in  effect  Professor  Davidson,  p.  70.  llcndall,  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
1888,  renders  tlie  last  clause  of  ver.  1-4,  "  tliat  tbrough  His  death  He  might  bring 
to  nought  him  that  had.  the  power  of  that  death,"  limiting  the  devil's  power  to 
the  death  of  Christ.  He  takes  the  article  too  before  Oavdrov  as  referring  to  a 
particular  instance  of  death.  But  it  is  rather  a  case  of  the  article  prefixed 
to  abstracts.  '0  davaros  is  simply  death  as  a  familiar  human  experience.  The 
omission  of  the  article  in  ver.  15  makes  no  difference,  it  is  still  the  abstract  idea 
of  death.  The  use  of  the  article  with  abstracts,  though  usual,  is  not  necessary. 
Having  referred  to  this  writer,  I  take  occasion  to  remark  that  he  must  be  added 
to  the  number  of  those  who  regard  the  reference  of  the  crowning  in  ver.  9  to  the 
state  of  exaltation  as  inadmissible.  He  however  relegates  it,  not  to  the  earthly, 
but  to  the  pre-incarnate  state. 


94  THE   EPISTLE   TO    THE   HEBREWS. 

Thus  with  consummate  tact  does  the  writer  turn  the  one 
thing  that  divides  Christ  from  ordinary  men,  and  seems  to 
disable  Him  for  helping  them,  into  a  source  of  consolation. 
Sanctifier,  that  presupposes  sinlessness ;  sanctified,  that 
presupposes  sin ;  and  being  sinners  we  fear  to  die.  Yes ; 
but  the  sinless  One  died,  and  we  feeling  our  unity  with 
Him  cease  to  fear.  He  cannot  be  one  with  us  in  sin,  but 
He  is  one  with  us  in  that  which  comes  nearest  to  sin,  and 
derives  all  its  terror  from  sin. 

Before  passing  to  the  third  application  of  the  principle, 
the  writer  throws  in  a  truism  to  relieve  the  argument  and 
make  it  more  intelligible  to  persons  to  whom  the  train 
of  thought  is  new  and  strange  (ver.  10).  Simply  rendered, 
what  the  verse  states  is  this:  "For,  as  you  know,  it  is 
not  of  angels  that  He  taketh  hold  (to  be  their  Helper), 
but  He  taketh  hold  of  the  seed  of  Abraham."  The  ren- 
dering of  the  Authorized  Version  (an  inheritance  from 
patristic  times)  is  due  apparently  to  inability  to  conceive 
of  the  writer  penning  so  self-evident  a  truth  as  that  Christ 
did  not  undertake  to  save  angels.  That  inability  again 
is  due  to  failure  to  gauge  the  spiritual  ignorance  of  his 
Hebrew  readers.  To  the  same  cause  it  is  due  that  some 
recent  commentators  have  not  been  content  to  regard  ver.  16 
as  the  statement  of  a  truism,  but  have  laboured  hard  to 
assign  to  it  an  important  place  in  the  chain  of  argument. 
To  me  this  text  is  one  of  the  most  significant  indications 
of  the  dark  condition  of  the  Hebrew  Christians  in  reference 
to  the  nature  of  Christianity.  They  were  so  little  at  home, 
it  appears,  in  Christian  truth,  that  nothing  could  be  taken 
for  granted,  and  they  had  to  be  coaxed  like  children  to 
engage  in  the  most  elementary  process  of  thought  on  the 
subject.  Such  coaxing  I  find  here.  The  writer  stops  short 
in  his  argument,  and  says  in  effect:  "Please  to  remember 
that  Christ  is  not  the  Saviour  of  the  angels  of  whom  I 
have  lately  been  speaking,  but  of  men,  and  reflect  on  what 


THE    WAY  OF   SALVATION.  95 


that  implies,  and  ifc  will  help  you  to  go  along  with  me 
in  this  train  of  thought."  But  we  observe  that  he  does 
not  say,  Christ  taketh  hold  of  ])ie)i,  but,  "of  the  seed  of 
Abraham."  We  must  beware  of  attachmg  too  much  im- 
portance to  this,  as  if  the  reference  implied  that  the  Chris- 
tian salvation  concerned  only  the  people  of  Israel.  Here 
again  the  apologetic  exigences  and  aim  are  our  best  guide. 
-The  writer  is  not  enunciating  a  theological  proposition, 
but  having  recourse  to  an  oratorical  device  to  bring  home 
his  teaching  to  the  hearts  of  his  readers.  He  means  to 
say,  "Christ  took  in  hand  to  save,  not  angels,  but  your- 
selves, my  Hebrew  brethren."  His  argument  up  to  this 
point  has  been  stated  in  terms  applicable  to  all  mankind ; 
to  charge  it  with  a  warmer  tone  and  an  intenser  interest 
he  gives  it  now  a  homeward-bound  turn.  To  infer  from 
this,  that  he  considered  the  gospel  the  affair  of  the  Jews,  is 
to  sink  to  the  rabbinical  level  in  exposition.  At  the  same 
time  it  may  be  noted,  that  the  introduction  of  a  reference 
to  Israel  at  this  point  is  convenient,  as  from  this  point 
onwards  the  writer  is  to  speak  of  things  in  which  persons 
belonging  to  the  chosen  people  were  specially  interested. 

The  writer  now  resumes  and  completes  his  application 
of  the  principle  enunciated  in  verse  11,  giving  prominence 
in  the  final  instance  to  Christ's  experience  of  temptation 
(vers.  17,  18).  In  doing  so  he  takes  occasion  from  the 
parenthetical  remark  about  the  subjects  of  Christ's  saving 
work  (ver.  IG)  to  make  a  new  start,  and  go  over  the  ground 
again  with  variations.  The  thoughts  contained  in  these 
closing  sentences  are  similar  to  those  expressed  in  verses 
11,  15.  Here,  as  there,  it  is  inferred  from  the  fact  that 
the  subjects  of  Christ's  work  are  men,  that  He  must  have 
a  human  nature  and  experience  likewise.  Here  also,  as 
there,  the  ends  served  by  the  assumption  of  human  nature 
and  endurance  of  a  human  experience  are  set  forth.  But 
neither  in   statiny  the  fact  of  the  incarnation    nor  in   ex- 


96  THE  EPISTLE   TO    THE  HEBREWS. 

plaining  its  end  does  the  writer  repeat  himself.  He  varies 
not  only  the  forms  of  expression,  but  also  the  aspects 
mider  which  he  presents  the  truth,  so  as  to  give  to  his 
unfolding  of  the  doctrine  variety,  richness,  and  fulness. 
While  before  he  said  that  because  the  children  were  par- 
takers of  blood  and  flesh  Christ  also  took  part  of  the 
same,  here  he  says  that  for  the  same  reason  it  behoved 
Christ  in  all  things  to  be  made  like  unto  His  brethren. 
And  whereas  in  the  former  place  he  set  it  forth  as  the  end 
of  the  incarnation  to  deprive  the  devil  of  his  power  over 
man  through  death,  and  to  rob  death  itself  of  its  terrors, 
in  this  concluding  passage  he  represents  the  human  ex- 
perience of  Jesus  as  serving  these  two  ends :  first,  the 
fitting  of  Him  to  transact  as  a  priest  for  men  towards 
God ;  and  second,  the  qualifying  of  Him  for  being  a  sym- 
pathetic friend  in  need  to  all  the  tempted. 

To  be  noted  specially  are  the  terms  in  which  the  unity 
between  the  Sanctifier  and  the  sanctified  is  stated  here.  It 
behoved  Him  to  be  i/i  all  respects  (Kara  Trdvra)  made  like 
unto  His  brethren.  Likeness  is  asserted  without  qualifi- 
cation, and  yet  there  are  limits  arising  out  of  the  nature 
of  the  case.  One  limit  of  course  is  that  there  can  be  no 
likeness  in  moral  character.  This  limit  is  implied  in  the 
very  titles  applied  to  the  two  parties,  Sanctifier  and  sancti- 
fied, and  it  is  expressly  stated  in  the  place  where  Christ 
is  represented  as  "tempted  in  all  respects  similarly,  apart 
from  sin"  (iv.  15).  Another  limit,  nowhere  referred  to  in 
words,  but  tacitly  assumed  is,  that  the  likeness  is  in  those 
respects  only  in  which  our  life  on  earth  is  affected  by  the 
curse  pronounced  on  man  for  sin.  Overlooking  this  prin- 
ciple, we  might  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  likeness  of 
Jesus  to  other  men  in  His  experience ;  we  might  even  be 
impressed  with  a  sense  of  unlikeness.  There  are  respects 
in  which  Christ's  life  was  unlike  the  common  life  of  men. 
He  was  a  celibate;   He  died  young,  and  had  no  experience 


TEE    WAY  OF  SALVATION.  97 

of  the  temptations  of  middle  life,  or  the  infirmities  of  old 
age;  in  outward  lot  fie  was  the  brother  of  the  poor,  and 
was  well  acquainted  with  their  griefs,  but  of  the  joys  and 
temptations  of  wealth  He  had  no  experience.  But  these 
features  of  difference  do  not  fall  under  the  category  of  the 
curse.  Family  ties  date  from  before  the  fall.  The  doom 
pronounced  on  man  was  death  immediate,  and  prolonged 
life  is  a  mitigation  of  the  curse.  Wealth  too  is  a  miti- 
gating feature,  another  evidence  that  the  curse  has  not 
been  executed  in  rigoar,  but  has  remained  to  a  consider- 
able extent  an  unrealized  ideal,  because  counteracted  by 
an  underlying  redemptive  economy.  It  will  be  found  that 
Christ's  likeness  to  His  brethren  is  closest  just  where  the 
traces  of  the  curse  are  most  apparent :  in  so  far  as  this 
life  is  (1)  afflicted  with  poverty,  (2)  exposed  to  temptations 
to  ungodliness,  (3)  subject  to  death  under  its  more  mani- 
festly penal  forms,  as  when  it  comes  as  a  blight  in  early 
life,  or  as  the  judicial  penalty  of  crime.  Jesus  was  like  His 
brethren  in  proportion  as  they  need  His  sympathy  and 
succour,  like  the  poor,  the  tempted,  the  criminal. 

This  likeness  had  for  its  final  cause  that  the  Sanctifier 
might  become  an  effective  helper  of  those  to  whom  He  was 
thus  made  like. 

"That  He  might  he  a  merciful  and  trusty  High  Priest  in 
things  2Jertaining  to  God,  to  make  propitiation  for  the  sins  of 
the  people."  These  weighty  words  form  an  important  land- 
mark in  the  epistle,  as  containing  the  first  express  mention 
of  a  topic  which  the  writer  has  had  in  view  from  the  outset, 
and  on  which  he  will  have  much  to  say  in  the  sequel ;  viz. 
the  Priesthood  of  Christ.  He  has  now  arrived  at  a  point  in 
his  argument  at  which  he  can  introduce  the  great  thought 
with  some  chance  of  being  understood  ;  though  how  well 
aware  he  is  of  the  difficulty  likely  to  be  felt  by  his  readers 
in  taking  it  in  appears  from  the  fact  that,  immediately  after 
announcing   the  new  theme,  he  invites  them    to  consider 


OS  THE  EPISTLE   TO    THE  HE B HEWS. 

carefully  the  Apostle  and  High  Priest  of  their  confession 
(iii.  1).  In  effect  he  says:  "Now  this  is  a  great  and  glorious 
hut  for  you  difficult  topic  :  give  your  minds  to  it ;  come, 
study  it  with  me,  it  will  well  repay  your  pains."  Here  he 
does  little  more  than  introduce  the  subject.  The  priestly 
function  of  Christ  he  describes  in  general  terms  as  exercised 
towards  God  and  as  consisting  in  the  expiation  of  sin.  No 
mention  as  yet  of  the  means  of  propitiation,  "  gifts  and 
sacrifices  "  (v.  1)  ;  still  less  of  the  fact  that  Christ  accom- 
plishes the  result  by  the  sacrifice  of  Himself.  He  will  take 
care  not  to  introduce  that  master-thought  till  he  can  do  so 
with  effect.  Here  on  the  threshold  of  the  subject  he  gives 
prominence  rather  to  the  moral  qualities  of  a  well  equipped 
High  Priest,  mercifulness  and  trustworthiness  ;  moved 
partly  by  a  regard  to  the  connexion  of  thought,  and  partly 
by  a  desire  to  present  Christ  as  Priest  in  a  winsome  light. 
The  stress  laid  on  these  attributes  is  one  of  the  originalities 
of  the  epistle,  whether  we  have  regard  to  the  legal  require- 
ments for  the  priestly  office  as  specified  in  the  Pentateuch, 
or  to  the  view  of  Christ's  atoning  work  presented  by  other 
New  Testament  writers.  It  is  one  of  the  writer's  favourite 
themes. 

Of  the  two  attributes  the  former  is  the  chief,  for  he  who  is 
merciful,  compassionate,  will  be  faithful.  It  is  want  of  sym- 
pathy that  makes  officials  perfunctory.  Hence  we  might 
read  "  a  merciful  and  therefore  a  faithful,  trustworthy  High 
Priest."  So  reading  we  see  the  close  connexion  between 
the  experiences  of  Christ  and  His  fitness  for  the  priestly 
office.  For  all  can  understand  how  an  experience  of  trial 
and  temptation  might  help  to  make  Christ  compassionate, 
while  it  is  not  so  easy  to  see  why  it  behoved  Him  to  suffer 
all  He  suffered  in  order  to  perform  the  essential  duty  of  a 
Priest — that  of  atoning  for  sin.  One  might  think  that  for 
the  latter  purpose  it  were  enough  to  die  ;  but  to  insure  that 
a  Hi^h  Priest  should  be  heart  and  soul  interested  in  His 


TEE   WAY  OF  SALVATION.  99 


constituents,  it  behoved  Him  to  be  made  in  all  respects  like 
unto  His  brethren. 

The  other  end  served  by  Jesus  being  made  in  all  things 
like  His  brethren  is  thus  stated  :  "  For  having  Himself  been 
tempted  in,  that  ivhich  He  suffered,  He  is  able  to  succour  those 
irlio  are  being  teinjjted."  This  rendering  of  verse  18  is  one 
of  several  possible  ones  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  enu- 
merate or  discuss,  as  the  general  sense  is  plain  ;  viz.  that 
Christ  having  experienced  temptation  to  be  unfaithful  to 
His  vocation  in  connexion  with  the  sufferings  arising  out  of 
it,  previously  alluded  to  as  a  source  of  perfecting,  is  able 
to  succour  those  who,  like  the  Hebrew  Christians,  were 
tempted  in  similar  ways  to  be  unfaithful  to  their  Christian 
calling.  The  words  show  us,  not  so  much  a  different  part 
of  Christ's  ministry  as  Priest,  as  a  different  aspect  of  it.  In 
the  previous  verse  His  work  is  looked  at  in  relation  to 
sinners  for  whose  sins  He  makes  propitiation.  In  this 
verse,  on  the  other  hand,  that  work  is  looked  at  in  relation 
to  believers  needing  daily  succour  amid  the  temptations  to 
which  they  are  exposed.  Both  aspects  are  combined  when, 
farther  on,  mercy  and  grace  for  seasonable  succour  are 
named  as  the  things  to  be  sought  in  our  petitions  at  the 
throne  of  grace  (iv.  IG). 

A.  B.  Bruce. 


100 


THE  GROUP  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 


The  scriptural  accounts  of  the  Apostles  are  both  interesting 
and  important,  even  if  we  only  regard  them  as  pieces  of 
character-painting  by  the  same  artists  who  liave  drawn  for 
us  the  amazing  figure  of  Jesus. 

For  the  character  of  our  Lord  is  an  evidence,  now 
thoroughly  recognised  and  established.  It  is  not  only  by 
His  spiritual  pre-eminence  that  the  student  is  impressed, 
but  also  by  the  verisimilitude  of  various  and  minute  details, 
related  by  four  writers  of  widely  different  style,  tempera- 
ment, and  tastes.  All  of  them  show  us  the  same  dexterity 
in  debate,  in  teaching  the  same  sweetness  and  love  of  illus- 
trations, the  same  resort  for  these  to  the  homely  and  every- 
day side  of  nature  and  human  life,  the  same  penetrating 
gaze,  the  same  gentle  helpfulness,  the  same  indignation 
moved  by  certain  respectable  vices,  and  the  same  astonish- 
ing tolerance  when  sinners  against  whom  society  cries  out 
appeal  to  Him.  We  feel  that  such  harmony  could  never 
have  been  preserved  by  a  series  of  deifying  myths  of  a  later 
period,  and  therefore  that  the  narratives  which  sceptical 
criticism  admits  authenticate  the  rest.  And  this  portrait, 
so  impressive  and  sharply  cut,  exists  in  defiance  of  all  the 
laws  of  dramatic  characterization.  Shakespeare  created  no 
faultless  man.  The  blameless  king  of  Tennyson  is  but  a 
shadow.  Milton  and  Eenan,  and  hundreds  more,  with  the 
model  before  them,  have  failed  to  reproduce  a  "  Christ  in 
white  marble,  .  .  .  without  sin  .  .  .  simple  and  pure  as 
the  sentiment  which  creates  it."^  Only  four  contemporaries 
ever  described  a  perfect  yet  lifelike  character;  and  these  were 
an  exciseman,  a  physician,  and  two  fishers,  since  we  must 

'  Tie  de  Je.iis  Top.  '21)lh  ed.,  p.  v. 


TRE   GROUP    OF   THE  APOSTLES.  101 

recognise  the  hand  of  Peter  in  the  second  gospel.  These 
only  have  succeeded  in  painting  a  face  without  shadows ; 
and  the  natural  explanation  of  their  success  is  that  they 
actually  beheld  the  countenance  which  is,  in  the  moral 
heaven,  as  the  sun  shineth  in  his  strength. 

No  belief  which  men  allow  themselves  to  reject  offhand 
because  it  is  "  contrary  to  experience  "  can  be  more  so  than 
their  achievement.  It  is  miraculous,  according  to  the 
boldest  definition  of  a  miracle,  unless  we  are  to  ignore 
the  existence  of  laws  of  literature  and  of  mind.  And  it 
continues  to  be  miraculous,  even  when  the  sceptic  sub- 
stitutes his  own  theory  of  the  authorship  of  the  gospels. 

"Whatever  reinforcement  this  argument  needs  it  inay 
draw  from  the  treatment  of  the  twelve  Apostles  in  the  same 
documents.  They  too  are  persons  with  whom  legend  and 
myth  might  well  busy  themselves,  foundation  stones  of  the 
celestial  city,  throned  assessors  in  the  final  judgment  of 
mankind.  How  then  are  they  represented  by  the  evan- 
gelists ?  Are  they  glorious  and  blameless,  betraying  the 
untrustworthy  nature  of  the  romances  which  delight  us  ? 
Sceptical  theories  would  lead  us  to  expect  this,  but  it  is 
not  what  we  find  in  the  Bible.  Let  any  one  compare  the 
Gospels  with  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  and  he  will  know  all 
the  difference  between  history  and  legend.  If  there  is 
nothing  to  be  recorded  about  them  which  helps  the  central 
narrative  they  are  left  in  perfect  obscurity,  such  as  conceals 
Bartholomew.  Whatever  is  related  is  homely,  substantial, 
and  matter  of  fact.  We  see  them  quarrelling  about  the 
mastery,  and  whispering  among  themselves  when  they 
have  no  bread,  and  the  words  of  the  Master  perplex  them. 
We  see  the  fisherman  girding  on  his  coat,  the  troubled 
group  asleep  for  sorrow,  and  again  incredulous  for  joy,  the 
nervous  blow  that  misses  the  skull  and  only  cuts  off  the 
ear,  the  utterly  disheartened  love  which  reckons  up  the 
five  deadly  wounds,  and  wrongly  thinks  that  belief  in  the 


102       TEE   GROUP    OF  TEE  APOSTLES. 


resurrection  will  be  impossible  until  it  has  verified  them  all. 
In  all  this  we  find  the  best  of  evidence  that  no  mythical 
tendency  created  the  strange  and  majestic  Figure  in  the 
midst,  so  unlike  these  or  any  other  men  ;  yet  no  blurred 
outline,  fuller  of  humanity  than  the  most  human,  at  once 
the  most  manlike  and  the  most  unearthly. 

In  studying  the  Apostles,  several  lines  of  thought  may 
be  kept  in  view.  "What  has  just  been  indicated  may  be 
observed  in  detail,  the  homely  verisimilitude  of  the  narra- 
tives, quite  free  from  any  tendency  to  apotheosis  or  even 
canonization.  We  may  take  notice  that  the  part  assigned 
to  them  in  the  fourth  Gospel  is  exactly  and  minutely  similar 
to  that  which  they  hold  in  the  other  three. 

Or  we  may  inquire  what  it  was  that  recommended  these 
plain  men  for  the  supreme  rank  among  mankind.  The 
answer  will  not  be  found  in  the  possession  of  qualities  then 
reckoned  admirable,  the  wisdom  or  learning  or  nobility  of 
the  Greek  world.  They  were  all  to  come  to  nought,  as  a 
needful  step  in  the  development  of  that  regenerate  man- 
hood which  would  find  its  true  nobility  only  by  despising 
them.  Attainments  were  not  rejected,  or  Saul  of  Tarsus 
would  not  have  been  a  chosen  vessel ;  yet  they  took  a  very 
secondary  place  among  the  qualifications  for  that  first  and 
grandest  crusade,  wherein  the  heroes  who  went  forth  con- 
quering and  to  conquer  were  sheep  in  the  midst  of  wolves, 
Jews  among  the  Greeks  and  Galileans  among  the  Jews. 

Nor  is  there  a  trace  of  the  still  poorer  wisdom  of  the 
modern  world,  the  cleverness  by  which  fortunes  are  made 
or  competing  politicians  "  dished,"  what  our  American 
friends  call  smartness.  They  are  only  worldly  wise  in  so 
far  as  they  are  falling  from  grace. 

But  there  is  a  very  great  deal  of  what  is  far  more  precious 
(and  often  wins  a  more  enduring  fame  even  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  Church),  the  unaffected  human  nature  which 


TEE  GROUP   OF  THE  APOSTLES.  103 

Christ  redeemed ;  the  simple,  rich,  primitive  instincts  which 
do  not  belong  to  man  as  a  cultivated  nor  yet  as  a  fallen 
being,  but  as  man,  the  creature  whom  God  made  and 
Christ  redeemed.  They  are  persons  in  whom  Shakespeare 
would  have  taken  a  much  greater  interest  than  Pope. 

Yet  another  point  has  to  be  borne  in  mind  which  is  too 
much  forgotten.  Except  by  glimpses  in  the  Acts,  we  see 
clisciples  rather  than  Apostles,  recruits  in  training  for  the 
great  war,  not  veterans  justifying  their  commission.  We 
know  not  how  Andrew  bore  himself  in  Scythia,  nor  Thomas 
in  India  ;  we  are  not  even  assured  of  the  places  where  they 
really  fulfilled  their  ministry.  The  criticisms,  far  too  free 
and  slighting,  which  assail  them  lose  much  of  their  force 
when  we  remember  that  almost  all  the  services  they  ren- 
dered are  unrecorded  save  in  the  book  of  life,  human  fame 
being  nothing  accounted  of  by  these  followers  of  the  Lamb. 

The  present  paper  is  an  endeavour  to  collect  some  of  the 
indications  by  which  we  may  form  a  notion  of  the  apostolic 
group.  What  is  individual,  personal,  characteristic  of  the 
fire  of  Peter  or  the  gloom  of  Thomas  will  be  treated  here- 
after. Meantime  it  is  hoped  that  a  comparison  of  the 
scattered  notes  which  concern  the  Twelve,  or  "  the 
disciples"  (as  far  as  that  title  obviously  includes  them, 
with  whom,  or  even  a  section  of  them,  it  is  at  times 
synonymous)  ^  may  not  be  without  interest. 

1.  The  painters  represent  our  Saviour  moving  along  the 
country  in  the  centre  of  a  group  of  comrades  who  gather 
about  Him  as  they  please.  But  it  is  much  more  probable 
that  they  travelled  in  three  ranks,  following  their  Master. 
At  first  sight  there  is  little  or  no  agreement  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  four  lists  given  to  us  in  the  synoptical  Gospels 
and  the  Acts  (Matt.  x.  2,  Mark  iii.  16,  Luke  vi.  14,  Acts 
i.  13).  But  we  soon  discover  that  the  twelve  names  may 
be   subdivided  into  three  groups  of  four,  and  none  is  ever 

^  Cf.  Luke  xvii.  ver.  1  witli  vev.  5  ;  Matt.  xxiv.  3  with  Mark  xiii.  3. 


104  TEE   GROUP   OF  TEH   APOSTLES. 

found  in  any  subdivision  except  his  own,  while  the  names 
of  Peter,  Phihp,  and  the  second  James  are  always  at  the 
head  of  their  group,  and  the  first  rank  is  composed  of  the 
mighty  brothers,  the  sons  of  Jonas  and  of  Zebedee.  All 
this  is  best  accounted  for  by  supposing  that  the  groups  were 
actually  thus  arranged,  and  that  each  had  a  sort  of  captain 
at  its  head. 

On  the  last  journey  to  Jerusalem,  it  is  explicitly  stated 
that  Jesus  went  before,  and  as  they  followed  they  were 
afraid  (Mark  x.  32).  Now  this,  if  it  stood  alone,  might  only 
express  the  holy  earnestness  with  which  He  then  especially 
came  to  do  the  will  of  God.  His  rapt  devotion  is  evidently 
the  cause  of  their  awe.  But  their  order  in  going  harmonizes 
with  the  call,  "  Come  ye  after  INIe,"  with  the  warning, 
"  AVhosoever  doth  not  .  .  .  follow  Me  cannot  be  My 
disciple,"  and  with  the  going  of  the  Good  Shepherd  before 
the  sheep  (Matt.  iv.  19,  x.  38;  John  x.  4).  So  too  when 
Peter  pressed  upon  Him  with  a  too  carnal  sympathy,  Jesus 
first  turned  about,  and  then,  seeing  His  disciples,  rebuked 
him  (Mark  viii.  33;  cf.  also  Matt.  viii.  19,  '23,  and  many 
other  places). 

2.  Since  they  were  chiefly  men  of  outdoor,  hardy  avoca- 
tions, one  might  fairly  expect  them  to  be  capable  of  more 
physical  exertion  than  their  Master,  whose  lifelong  occupa- 
tion had  been  more  sedentary,  and  upon  whom  an  unpre- 
cedented burden  always  pressed.  Accordingly,  we  find  them 
permitted  to  go  forward  to  Sychar  for  provisions,  while  their 
Lord  sat  beside  the  well  in  an  attitude  which  expressed  His 
weariness.  And  they  could  row  hard  across  the  lake,  while 
Jesus  had  sunk  into  deep  slumber  upon  the  helmsman's 
cushion  in  the  stern  (John  iv.  0,  Mark.  iv.  38). 

3.  The  manner  in  which  they  are  helpful  to  Him  is  very 
natural.  As  Paul  was  not  sent  to  baptize,  so  Jesus  Him- 
self baptized  not,  but  from  the  first  entrusted  to  them  a 
duty  which  made  no  premature  demand  upon  their  spiritual 


TEE   GROUP   OF   THE   APOSTLES.  105 

insight  (John  iv.  1).  And  when  they  were  first  sent  out  to 
preach,  their  teaching  was  but  rudimentary  :  the  near  ap- 
proach of  the  kingdom,  rather  than  any  statement  of  its 
nature  ;  the  signs  which  were  evidence  of  their  commission  ; 
the  goodwill  expressed  in  their  greeting ;  and  the  confidence 
which  threw  itself  upon  their  hearers  for  supplies,  and 
lacked  nothing, — these,  and  an  indignant  protest  against 
such  as  rejected  them,  served  to  prepare  the  villagers  for 
His  coming,  and  to  develop  their  own  faith,  while  not  over- 
straining it  (Matt.  X.  5).  But  this  is  scarcely  the  gospel 
which  a  later  age  would  have  entrusted  to  them. 

Elsewhere  their  duties  are  sufiiciently  humble.  They  buy 
bread  at  Sychar,  they  find  what  provision  is  among  the 
hungry  crowds,  they  sever  the  multitudes  into  less  un- 
wieldy groups,  they  bring  the  colt  and  prepare  the  pass- 
over  (John  iv.  8;  Mark  vi.  38-43  ;  Matt.  xxi.  2,  xxvi.  17). 
It  is  at  the  end  of  His  ministry  that  the  Master  who 
has.  He  reminds  them,  already  called  them  friends,  calls 
them  no  longer  bondservants  (John  xv.  15). 

4.  There  is  help  which  might  have  been  expected,  but 
which  they  fail  to  render.  They  neither  interpose  when 
He  is  in  danger  at  Nazareth,  nor  again  when  He  conveyed 
Himself  away  from  the  Pool  of  Bethesda,  and  the  Jews 
sought  to  kill  Him  (Luke  iv.  30;  John  v.  13,18).  This 
absence  of  heroism,  wliile  yet  their  training  is  immature, 
appears  also  in  another  way.  It  is  a  curious  indication  of 
the  awe  which  Jesus  inspired,  that  His  opponents,  espe- 
cially in  the  earlier  controversies,  impugned  His  doings,  not 
to  His  face,  but  in  murmurs  among  themselves  or  else  to 
His  followers,  while  they  often  ventured  to  question  Him 
about  the  strange  doings  of  His  disciples. 

Of  Him  they  ask,  "  Why  do  they  on  the  Sabbath  day 
that  which  is  not  lawful  ?  "  "  Why  walk  not  Thy  disciples 
according  to  the  tradition,  .  .  .  but  eat  with  unwashen 
hands?"     "  Why  do  Thy  disciples  fast  not  ?  "     "Master, 


106  THE   GROUP    OF  THE  APOSTLES. 

rebuke  Thy  disciples  "  (Mark  ii.  24,  vii.  5  ;  Matt.  ix.  14  ; 
Luke  xix.  39). 

It  is  to  them  that  they  say,  "  Why  eateth  your  Master 
with  pubhcans  and  sinners?"  "Doth  not  your  Master 
pay  tribute?"  (Matt.  ix.  11,  xviii.  24.) 

Now  St.  John  tells  us  that  this  very  fear  of  coming  to 
close  quarters  with  Jesus  suggested  grave  inferences  to  some 
shrewd  bystanders,  who  asked,  "  Is  not  this  He  whom  they 
seek  to  kill  ?  ^  But,  lo,  He  speaketh  openly,  and  they  say 
nothing  unto  Him  "  (John  vii.  25,  2G).  But  whether  He  is 
questioned  or  they,  it  is  always  He  who  interposes  with  a 
reply  :  on  their  part  is  the  same  helplessness  as  when  the 
danger  was  physical,  the  same  which  in  the  garden  con- 
trasted so  sharply  with.  His  self-possession,  when  by  His 
surrender  He  secured  their  liberty  to  "go  their  way." 

No  sooner  do  they  hear  of  the  murder  of  the  Baptist 
than  their  first  missionary  circuit  closes  at  once,  and  they 
hasten  back  to  their  Protector  (Mark  vi.  29,  30). 

So  true  are  the  words  of  the  great  prayer,  "  While  I  was 
with  them,  I  kept  them  :  .  .  .  and  I  guarded  them.  .  .  . 
But  now  I  come  to  Thee.  ...  I  pray  .  .  .  that 
Thou  shouldest  keep  them  from  the  evil  one  "  (John  xvii. 
12-15). 

5.  Their  subordination  is  the  least  part  of  what  we  learn 
from  the  memorable  fact  that  Jesus  never  invites  them  to 
join  with  Him  in  prayer,  nor  solicits  their  prayers  for  Him. 
The  disciples  are  to  pray  the  Lord  of  the  harvest  that  He 
would  send  forth  labourers,  but  He  does  not  propose  to  lead 
them  in  this  prayer ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  at  this  very  time 
that  He  continues  all  night  in  prayer  alone  (cf.  Matt.  ix. 
38,  X.  1;  Luke  vi.  12). 

Again,  when  they  saw  Him  praying  they  seem  to  have 

^  Observe  the  further  coincidence  that  the  people,  gathered  from  all  parts  to 
the  feast,  said,  "  Thou  hast  a  devil,  who  goeth  about  to  kill  Thee  ?  "  But 
"  some  of  them  of  Jerusalem  "  kuow  hotter  (vers.  20,  2")). 


THE   GROUP   OF  THE  APOSTLES.  107 

felt  their  exclusion,  and  asked  to  be  taught  to  pray,  as  John 
had  taught  his  disciples  ;  and  as  if  to  rebuke  them  for  being 
dissatisfied  with  the  brief  prayer  He  had  already  given  to 
all,  they  received  it  again  in  a  form  still  terser  and  more 
concentrated  (Luke  xi.  1).  Sleep  weighed  upon  them  in 
the  mount  of  transfiguration,  while  He  prayed.  In  the 
garden  they  are  bidden  to  watch  with  Him,  and  again  to 
watch  and  pray,  but  not  to  pray  with  Him  (Luke  ix.  29-32 ; 
Matt.  xxvi.  36-41).  On  the  contrary,  they  must  tarry  while 
He  goes  farther  to  pray.  To  St.  Paul,  the  intercessions  of 
his  followers  were  priceless  ;  and  they  who  deny  that  the 
synoptical  gospels  reveal  a  union  between  Christ  and  the 
Father  wholly  different  from  ours  have  to  explain  this  re- 
markable 'divorce  between  the  prayers  of  Jesus  and  of  the 
Twelve. 

6.  This  task  will  not  be  lightened  for  them  by  observing 
that  in  other  respects  there  exists  a  homely  kind  of  intimacy, 
such  as  prays  Him,  saying,  "  Kabbi,  eat,"  and  with  deeper 
solicitude  inquires,  "Lord,  the  Jews  of  late  sought  to  stone 
Thee,  and  goest  Thou  thither  again?  "  The  remonstrance, 
"How  sayest  Thou,  Who  touched  Me?"  is  akin  with  that 
in  St.  John,  "Lord,  if  he  is  fallen  asleep  he  will  recover." 
With  like  freedom  they  interrupt  His  prayerful  retirement, 
because  "all  men  seek  Thee,"  and  they  ask,  "' Knowest 
Thou  that  the  Pharisees  were  offended  at  this  saying?" 
They  desired  Him  to  send  away  the  multitudes  because  the 
place  was  desert  and  the  day  far  spent ;  and  the  woman  of 
Canaan,  because  her  outcry  drew  attention  to  them  when  it 
was  desirable  that  they  should  be  hid  (John  iv.  31,  xi.  8  ; 
Luke  viii.  45  ;  John  xi.  12  ;  Luke  ix.  12 ;  Matt.  xv.  23). 

There  is  something  homely  and  interesting  in  their 
pointing  His  attention  to  the  size  of  the  Temple  stones,  just 
two  days  after  He  had  predicted  that  one  stone  should  not 
be  left  upon  another.  And  it  marks  the  difference  between 
the  region   of  His  thought   and   theirs,   that    the  day  and 


108  THE    GROUP    OF  THE   APOSTLES. 

almost  the  hour  should  be  the  same  when  He  called  the 
disciples  unto  Him  to  point  out  a  generous  widow,  and 
when  they  came  to  Him  for  to  show  Him  the  buildings  of 
the  Temple.  In  the  same  familiar  way  they  remarked  to 
Him  the  speedy  ruin  of  the  fig  tree  which  He  had  cursed 
(Mark  xii.  43  ;  Matt.  xxiv.  1,  xxi.  20). 

The  same  absence  of  restraint  appears  in  the  questions 
which  they  ask  of  Him,  sometimes  little  more  than  curious, 
even  when  they  relate  to  spiritual  concerns.  "Are  there 
few  that  be  saved?"  "Dost  Thou  at  this  time  restore 
again  the  kingdom  to  Israel?  "  "  Who  did  sin,  this  man,  or 
his  parents,  that  he  was  born  blind?"  "  Speakest  Thou 
these  things  unto  us,  or  unto  all?"  (Luke  xiii.  28  ;  Acts 
i.  6  ;  John  ix.  2  ;  Luke  xii.  41.) 

A  graver  note  was  struck  when  they  asked,  "  AVho  then 
can  be  saved?"  "Why  could  we  not  cast  it  out?" 
"  W^hy  speakest  Thou  unto  them  in  parables  ?  "  "  Declare 
unto  us  the  parable  of  the  tares."  "  Who  is  greatest 
in  the  kingdom  of  heaven?"  Thus  too  they  reopened 
privately  the  subject  of  divorce,  and  inferred  that  it  was  not 
good  for  a  man  to  marry  (Matt.  xix.  25,  xvii.  19,  xiii.  10, 
36,  xviii.  1 ;  Mark  x.  10 ;  Matt.  xix.  10). 

7.  These  questions  prove  that  it  was  no  servile  dread  of 
being  repulsed,  but  awe,  as  in  the  presence  of  a  Being  from 
another  sphere,  which  so  often  hushed  their  perplexities 
into  silence.  This  silence  moreover  is  most  frequent  when 
the  rapt  self-devotion  of  their  Lord  is  most  apparent.  "  They 
marvelled  that  He  spake  with  a  woman,"  yet  none  asked  for 
an  explanation,  and  it  was  among  themselves  that  they 
inquired,  "Hath  any  man  brought  Him  aught  to  eat?" 
At  His  first  cleansing  'of  the  Temple,  they  silently  recalled 
to  mind  that  it  was  written,  "  The  zeal  of  Thine  house 
hath  even  eaten  Me."  Jesus  knew  that  they  were  desirous 
to  ask  Him,  "  What  is  this  that  He  saith,  A  little  while  ?  " 
(John  iv.  27,  33  ;  ii.  17 ;  xvi.  19.) 


THE   GROUP    OF  THE  APOSTLES.  109 

All  these  examples  are  from  the  fourth  gospel,  but  they 
are  exactly  similar  to  what  we  read  elsewhere  about  their 
perplexity  when  warned  against  the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees. 
When  He  cursed  the  fig  tree,  we  read  that  the  disciples 
heard  it,  evidently  in  silence.  And  at  three  several  times, 
when  warned  of  His  approaching  passion,  they  could  not 
understand,  yet  feared  to  ask  Him  (Mark  viii.  15  ;  xi.  14  ; 
ix.  10,  32;  X.  32). 

All  this  coherence  in  statement,  equally  between  the 
synoptics  and  John,  and  between  miraculous  events  and 
those  which  are  admitted  practically  by  all  sides  in  the 
great  controversy,  is  valuable  evidence.  It  carries  the  same 
conviction  which  a  jury  feels  when  a  witness  bears  the  test 
of  cross-examination  well,  a  test  which  is  all  the  more  valu- 
able when  it  deals  v/ith  unstudied  and  minute  events. 

We  now  turn  to  the  concerns  of  their  spiritual  life. 

8.  The  effect  of  Christ's  protest  against  formalism,  and 
His  miracles  upon  the  Sabbath,  appears  most  naturally  in 
their  plucking  the  corn  in  the  wheatfield  and  eating  bread 
with  unwashen  hands,  contrary  to  the  tradition  of  "  all  the 
Jews  "  (Mark  ii.  23,  vii.  2).  It  was  not  unnatural  that 
they  should  hold  their  new  freedom  w'ith  an  unsteady  hand. 
Yet  it  was  strangely  soon  after  Jesus  had  vindicated  their 
liberty,  and  offended  the  Pharisees  by  declaring  that  man 
is  not  defiled  by  food  which  enters  the  mouth,  but  by  evil 
words  which  issue  thence,  that  they  misunderstood  His 
warning  against  the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees,  and  suspected 
some  new  ceremonialism  of  His  institution.  Their  previous 
experience  was  what  entitled  Him  to  ask,  "  Do  ye  not  yet 
perceive,  neither  understand  ?  "  and  again,  "  Do  ye  not  yet 
understand?  "  (Mark  vii.  15,  viii.  18,  21.) 

In  fact,  at  this  point  our  Lord  addressed  to  them  the 
keenest  and  longest  remonstrance  they  had  yet  incurred. 
For  so  distinct  a  relapse  into  formalism  from  liberty  indi- 
cated the  earliest  peril  of  the  Church,  and  foreshadowed  the 


110  THE    GROUP    OF  THE  APOSTLES. 


movement  which  evoked,  a  few  years  later,  the  passionate 
remonstrances  addressed  by  St.  Paul  to  Corinth  and  Galatia. 
How  many  later  movements  also,  wherein  the  wilful  human 
heart,  ever  the  same  amid  its  inconsistencies,  has  preferred 
the  letter  to  the  spirit,  were  due  to  the  very  principle  which 
underlay  the  first  heresy  of  the  chosen  ones  of  Christ ! 

9.  The  gradual  progress  of  their  enlightenment  is  not 
only  indicated  by  the  mention  of  things  which  they  cannot 
bear  j'et,  and  of  actions  which  they  know  not  now,  but 
shall  know  hereafter  (John  xvi.  12,  xiii.  7),  but  by  the 
process  of  the  narrative. 

When  the  miracle  of  Cana  manifested  forth  His  glory, 
His  disciples  believed  on  Him.  Yet,  when  He  presently 
spake  of  the  Temple  of  His  Body,  we  read  that  after  He 
was  raised  from  the  dead  His  disciples  remembered  that 
He  spake  this ;  and  believed  the  Scripture,  and  the  words 
that  Jesus  had  said.  They  had  not  been  hitherto  incredu- 
lous of  either,  but  now  their  belief  attained  its  intelligent, 
perfect  form.  And  at  many  intervening  experiences  they 
adored  Him,  "  saying,  Of  a  truth  Thou  art  the  Son  of  God," 
and,  "Now  are  we  sure  ;  ...  by  this  we  know  that  Thou 
camest  forth  from  G-od  "  (John  ii.  11,  22;  Matt.  xiv.  33; 
John  xvi.  29,  30). 

And  this  explains  how  the  confession  of  Nathanael,  lightly 
spoken  at  the  opening  of  the  work,  became  no  less  than  a 
decisive  revelation  from  the  Father  when  renewed  by  Peter, 
in  the  days  of  bitter  opposition  and  desertion.  ''  Thou  art 
the  Son  of  God;  Thou  art  King  of  Israel,"  is  not  other- 
wise behind  the  great  confession,  "  Thou  art  the  Christ, 
the  Son  of  the  living  God"  (John  i.  49;  Matt.  xvi.  10). 
But  Nathanael  only  repeated,  amid  favourable  circum- 
stances, the  witness  of  the  Baptist  (ver.  34),  while  Peter 
testified  from  a  divinely  illumined  faith  what  "flesh  and 
blood"  had  ceased  to  confess,  now  thinking  Him  no  more 
than  one  of  the  prophets. 


THE   GROUP   OF  THE  APOSTLES.  Ill 

10.  This  gradual  falling  away  of  others  was  itself  a  part 
of  their  training.  Merely  to  stand  firm  was  to  be  confirmed, 
as  the  tree  which  has  borne  the  storm  has  become  more 
deeply  rooted.  And  if  there  is  an  evident  mixtm'e  of  self- 
interest  with  their  devotion,  if  Peter  is  the  mouthpiece 
of  all  when  he  demands,  "What  shall  we  have  therefore?" 
(Luke  xviii.  28)  he  also  speaks  for  all,  when  Jesus  gives 
them  the  opportunity  of  retreat  by  asking,  "Would  ye  also 
go  away?"  and  he  replies,  "Lord,  to  whom  should  we  go? 
Thou  hast  words  of  eternal  life.  And  we,  we  have  believed 
and  know  that  Thou  art  the  Holy  One  of  God"  (John  vi. 
67-69).  In  this  fine  answer  we  discover  the  sacred  hunger 
which  shall  be  filled.  To  return  to  the  lake  and  the  net 
is  not  even  considered.  Thej^  must  have  a  leader  now, 
and  there  is  no  leader  except  One  :  "  Lord,  to  WHo:\r  should 
we  go  ?  " 

Their  fidelity  amid  extreme  discouragement  (a  grace 
which  is  not  inconsistent  with  panic  in  the  hour  of  the 
foe  and  the  power  of  darkness)  is  evidently  their  greatest 
merit.  "  Ye  are  they  which  have  continued  with  Me  in  My 
temptations."  "They  have  kept  My  word."  "I  guarded 
them,  and  not  one  of  them  perished."  "  These  knew  that 
Thou  hast  sent  Me"  (Luke  xxii.  28;  John  xvii.  6,  12,  25). 
Even  the  blow  which  shattered  their  hopes  did  not  pre- 
vent them  from  being  a  united  band ;  and  if  they  believe 
not,  it  is  for  joy  (Luke  xxiv.  33,  41). 

11.  Their  failures  are  those  of  weakness,  not  ot  ungra- 
cious hearts.  Perplexity  when  they  have  no  bread,  drowsi- 
ness in  the  mount,  and  sleep  "for  sorrow"  in  the  garden, 
natural  dread  in  the  two  storms  and  upon  the  arrest  of 
Jesus,  failure  to  cast  out  a  devil  when  both  He  and  the 
foremost  of  their  company  are  absent,  these  represent  one 
aspect  of  human  frailty,  and  are  all  exceedingly  consistent 
(Mark  viii.  16  ;  Luke  ix.  32,  xxii.  45  ;  Matt.  viii.  25,  xiv.  26  ; 
Luke  ix.  40). 


112  TniU   GROUP    OF   THE   APOSTLES. 

Another  aspect  of  it  is  betraj^ed  in  their  frequent  contests 
for  mastery,  their  indignation  when  the  sons  of  Salome 
covertly  intrigue  for  the  chief  places,  their  forbidding  the 
labours  of  one  who  followed  not  "us"  (they  say  not,  Thee), 
in  their  inquiry  whether  words  of  especial  privilege  were 
spoken  to  themselves  alone,  in  their  repeated  failure  to 
value  children  aright,^  and  in  that  reluctance  to  wash  the 
feet  of  the  brethren  which  left  that  lowly  task  for  their 
Master  to  perform  for  all  of  them  (Luke  ix.  46,  xxii.  24 ; 
Matt.  XX.  24  ;  Mark  ix.  38 ;  Luke  xii.  41 ;  John  xiii.  4, 14). 

What  kind  of  frailty  was  that  which  forsook  Him  in  the 
garden  ?  Cruel  things  are  spoken  by  flippant  orators  (who 
have  perhaps  never  in  all  their  lives  known  real  danger, 
and  yet  have  sometimes  been  afraid)  concerning  the 
"cowardice"  of  the  men  whom  Christ  chose  out  of  all 
the  world.  But  the  narrative  tells  us  that  Jesus  declared 
the  spirit  to  be  willing,  though  the  flesh  was  weak.  Al- 
though suddenly  aroused  from  slumber,  and  apparently 
weighed  upon  by  the  same  supernatural  pressure  against 
which  Christ  wrestled,  and  of  which  He  warned  them,^  yet 
they  boldly  confronted  the  great  multitude  of  armed  men, 
and  "when  they  saw  what  w^ould  follow"  proposed  to 
"smite  with  the  sword"  (Matt.  xxvi.  41;  Luke  xxii.  49). 
In  danger  they  bore  themselves  gallantly,  it  was  the  sur- 
render that  appalled  them.  Now  the  sternest  nerve  has 
often  failed  in  strange  and  unexpected  peril,  and  the  bravest 
troops  have  given  way  to  panic.  We  forfeit  the  instruction 
of  their  overthrow  when  we  speak  of  them  as  dastards.  It 
is  by  remembering  all  that  they  afterwards  dared,  and  all 
that   they  were    even    then  willing  to  hazard,   as  long  as 

1  "  Take  heed  that  ye  despise  not "  ;  "  The  disciples  rebuked  those  that 
brought  them"  (Matt,  xviii.  10,  xix.  13). 

-  Cf.  the  injunctiou  when  He  was  at  the  place  to  "pray  lest  ye  enter  into 
temptation,"  and  again,  later,  "  Watch  and  pray,  lest  ye  enter  into  temptation," 
with  His  mysterious  and  emphatic  words  when  arrested,  "  This  is  .  .  .  the 
power  of  darkness,''  ?;  e^ovjia  tov  (tkotovs  (Luke  xxii.  40,  46,  ■'>?>). 


THE   GROUP   OF  THE  APOSTLES.  113 

danger  confronted  them  in  its  expected  forms,  that  we 
measure  the  warning  given  ns  by  their  example,  which  is 
that  no  arm  or  heart  of  flesh  is  to  be  trusted  in  the  battles 
of  the  soul. 

12.  With  their  frailty  there  was  at  least  a  touching 
consciousness  of  it. 

Though  far  from  wealthy,  when  the  danger  of  riches  was 
announced  they  felt  the  peril  within  their  own  hearts,  and 
asked,  "  Who  then  can  be  saved?"  Again  they  appealed  to 
Him,  "Lord,  increase  our  faith"  (Matt.  xix.  25;  Luke  xvii.  5). 
The  exaggeration  of  their  "cowardice"  by  pulpit  rhetoric 
is  scarcely  less  flagrant  than  that  of  their  "  self-confidence" 
at  the  Last  Supper.  Yet  the  conscious  superiority  with 
which  we  read  their  protests  that  they  never  would  forsake 
their  Lord  should  at  least  be  mitigated  by  the  recollection 
that  they  had  just  looked  one  upon  another  in  fear,  had 
shown  an  artless  and  amiable  ignorance  of  the  real  traitor, 
and  had  asked,  in  words  of  which  the  very  order  betrays 
their  breathless  eagerness,  "Is  it  I,  Lord?"^  (Matt.  xxvi.  22.) 
Their  contradiction  of  His  warning  is  presumptuous ;  but 
let  us  at  least  remember  that  it  is  the  presumption  of 
hearts  reassured  after  an  intolerable  dread,  and  after  the 
bitterly  humiliating  sense  that  something  treacherous  might 
be  detected  in  them  every  one ;  of  hearts  moreover  glowing 
with  loyalty  to  One  who  had  few  friends  left,  who  had  just 
washed  their  feet,  and  who  was  pouring  out  for  them  at 
that  wondrous  feast  a  flood  of  tender,  sympathising  affec- 
tion such  as  never  was  known  before. 

Is  there  any  narrative  in  the  world,  historical  or  dramatic, 
of  the  same  bulk,  in  which  a  greater  number  of  minute 
touches,  which  concern  the  minor  characters  and  not  the 
central  figure,  will  bear  comparison  as  well?  But  these 
are  not  collected  from  one  narrative,  they  are  from  four 

'  Contrast  the  cold  and  formal  interrogation  wrung  at  last  from  Jnclas, 
"Piabbi,  is  it  I?"   (ver.  25.) 

VOL.    TV.  O 


lU       TUE   GROUP   OF  THE   APOSTLES. 

pamphlets ;  not  the  production  of  hterary  artists,  but  of 
(xaHleans  of  the  first  century,  working  moreover  in  the 
harsh  material  of  a  language  not  their  own.  They  have 
not  to  do  with  the  idiosyncracies  of  one  individual  or 
another  (these  have  yet  to  be  added  to  the  demonstration), 
but  with  the  behaviour  of  a  group  of  peasants,  natural, 
generous,  affectionate,  willing  in  spirit  yet  weak  in  flesh, 
dull  in  their  unconsciousness  of  the  wondrous  plan  which 
they  are  helping  to  develop.  The  miraculous  incidents 
agree  in  character  with  those  which  scepticism  permits  us 
to  believe,  and  the  story  in  the  fourth  Gospel  teems  with 
resemblances  to  the  other  three.  Above  all,  there  is  no 
trace  Avhatever  of  the  glorifying  influence  of  legend  or 
myth.  No  sunny  haze  of  sanctified  imagination  has  at 
once  magnified  and  obscured  their  figures ;  no  blending  of 
romantic  fancy  with  tender  memory  has  wrapped  them  in 
a  silvery  mist  of  beauty,  effacing  the  vulgar  tints  of  earth,- 
and  revealing  only  a  pearl-white  outline,  beautiful  but 
dreamlike.  It  is  only  by  the  interposition  of.  such  a 
medium  that  men  would  fain  explain  away  the  marvellous 
-Tesus,  standing  luminous  in  the  midst  of  them.  But  all 
around  is  solid,  matter-of-fact,  visible  in  the  light  of  day. 
What  is  written  about  the  Apostles  authenticates  what  we 
read  of  Christ. 

G.  A.  Chadwick. 


115 


''CROWNED    WITH   GLORY  AND   HONOURS 

(Heb.  II.  9.) 

Professor  Bruce's  able  and  interesting  exposition  of  this 
difficult  passage  deserves  the  most  respectful  consideration. 
His  view  is  that  Christ  was  crowned  by  the  Father  with 
glory  and  honour  in  His  earthly  life.  This  honour  and 
glory  was  just  in  a  word  His  position  as  one  appointed  to 
die  in  behalf  of  others.  For  God  to  appoint  "  Him  to  an 
office  in  which  He  will  have  an  opportunity''  of  doing  a 
signal  service  to  men  at  a  great  cost  of  suffering  to  Him- 
self" is  to  crown  Him  with  glory  and  honour,  and  to 
confer  a  "grace"  upon  Him,  as  it  is  said,  "That  by  the 
grace  of  Clod  (to  Him)  He  might  taste  of  death  for  every 
man."  I  am  taken  to  task  because  in  a  footnote  I  made 
the  offhand  remark  that  this  theory  "  contained  a  fine 
modern  idea,  but  one  to  which  Scripture  has  hardly  yet 
advanced,"  and  that  "  Scripture  did  not  seem  to  have  per- 
mitted to  itself  the  paradox  of  calling  Christ's  death  a 
'glory.'" 

Is  the  above  "fine  idea"  anywhere  found  in  Scripture? 
The  question  has  some  exegetical  interest. 

I.  Certainly  one's  first  feeling  is,  that  the  idea  that 
Christ's  appointment  to  die  for  men  was  a  glory  and 
honour  conferred  on  Him  and  a  grace  bestowed  on  Him  is 
an  idea  altogether  out  of  harmony  with  the  general  tone  of 
Scripture  when  referring  to  His  sufferings  and  death.  The 
tone  of  Scripture  is  represented  by  St.  Paul  (Phil.  ii.  6), 
"Being  in  the  form  of  God,  He  emptied  Himself,  being 
made  in  the  likeness  of  men ;  and  being  found  in  fashion  as 
a  man  He  humbled  Himself,  becoming  obedient  even  unto 
death,  yea,  the  death  of  the  cross  "  (E.'V.),  And  to  this 
give  all  the  Scriptures  witness.  This  theor}^  speaks  of 
Christ's  appointment  to  die  for  men  as  a  glory  and  grace 


116       ''CROWNED    WITH  GLORY  AND  HONOUR." 

conferred  on  Him ;  Scripture  says,  "  God  spared  not  His 
Son."  The  present  epistle  speaks  of  His  enduring  the 
cross,  despising  the  "  shame  "  ;  this  theory  speaks  of  God 
conferring  glory  upon  Him  by  giving  Him  an  "  opportunity  " 
of  undergoing  the  shame.  If  this  is  not  a  "  modern  "  idea, 
one  would  like  to  be  told  where  to  look  for  one.  There 
is  a  multitude  of  passages  which  speak  of  the  "  grace  of 
God  "to  us  in  appointing  His  Son  to  die,  let  one  unequi- 
vocal one  be  produced  which  speaks  of  His  "grace"  to 
Christ  in  giving  Him  such  an  appointment.  He  was  made 
a  "  curse  "  for  us,  being  hanged  upon  a  gibbet. 

II.  A  number  of  passages  however  are  cited,  which  are 
said  to  be  "kindred  in  idea."  The  relevancy  of  these 
passages  is  not  quite  apparent. 

"  Blessed  are  they  that  have  been  persecuted  for  righteous- 
ness' sake."  Surely  their  blessedness  did  not  lie  in  being 
persecuted  (which  the  analogy  seems  to  require),  nor  were 
they  yet  in  possession  of  their  blessedness  when  persecuted, 
for  blessedness  here  is  not  a  state  of  mind.  The  whole 
sentence  must  be  read  :  "  for  theirs  is  the  kingdom  of 
heaven,"  a  kingdom  yet  "  to  come."  The  sense  of  such 
passages  is  best  seen  from  one  of  an  opposite  tendency  : 
"  AVoe  unto  you  that  laugh  now  !  for  ye  shall  mourn  and 
weep." 

Again,  the  fact  is  referred  to  that  Christ  conjoins  His 
glorification  with  His  passion.  There  may  be  danger  of 
missing  the  full  meaning  of  these  profound  references.  It 
would  not  occur  however  to  a  plain  reader  that  Christ's 
glory  lay  in  His  passion,  nor  that  He  yet  had  His  glory  (for 
which  He  prays)  when  undergoing  His  passion.  The  corn 
of  wheat,  to  use  His  own  symbol,  is  not  glorious  in  its 
death,  but  only  when  through  death  it  rises  up  a  new  full 
corn  in  the  ear.  '  But  as  this  glory  will  certainly  be  the 
issue  of  its  death,  so  Christ's  glory  arises  with  certainty  out 
of  His  dying ;   and  therefore  on  the  eve  of  His  passion  He 


'•CROWNED   WITH  GLORY  AND  HONOUR."       117 

can  say,  "  The  hour  is  come  that  the  Son  of  man  should  be 
glorified."  The  term  "  glorify  "  may  in  some  passages  be 
used  proleptically,  but  other  passages  explain  the  meaning. 

Further,  Philippians  i.  29  is  adduced  as  in  point  :  "  Unto 
you  it  is  given  as  a  favour,  in  the  behalf  of  Christ,  not  only 
to  believe  on  Him,  but  also  to  suffer  for  His  sake."  Such  is 
the  dignity  of  Christ  and  such  are  the  things  He  has  done 
for  us,  that  it  is  a  grace  or  privilege  to  us  to  be  permitted 
even  to  suffer  for  His  sake,  as  the  early  disciples  rejoiced 
that  they  "  v^ere  counted  worthy  to  suffer  dishonour  for  His 
name  "  (Acts  v.  41),  and  as  Moses  counted  His  reproach 
greater  riches  than  the  treasures  of  Egypt.  But  it  would 
be  strange  oblivion  of  the  tone  of  Scripture  to  attempt  to 
turn  such  passages  round,  and  infer  that  it  will  in  like 
manner  be  a  "  grace  "  to  Christ  to  permit  or  appoint  Him 
to  suffer  for  us.  To  throw  Christ  into  the  scale  along  with 
other  moral  beings,  and  to  pass  a  general  moral  judgment 
on  His  giving  Himself  to  death  as  the  act  of  a  moral  being 
among  other  moral  beings,  no  respect  being  had  to  His 
Person,  is  to  take  a  position  "  to  which  Scripture  has  hardly 
yet  advanced." 

The  passage  2  Peter  i.  1(3  certainly  contains  the  expression 
"honour  and  glory."  To  a  plain  reader  ver.  17  seems  to 
say  that  God  bestowed  honour  and  glory  (a  common  phrase) 
on  Christ  by  proclaiming  with  a  voice  from  heaven,  "This 
is  My  beloved  Son."  This  acknowledgment  of  His  relation 
to  Him  was  a  glory.  The  apostle  says  also  that  he  was  an 
eyewitness  of  His  majesty,  referring  to  the  transfiguration. 
It  may  be  uncertain  whether  he  regarded  the  transfiguration 
as  a  momentary  manifestation  of  Christ's  inherent  glory  as 
Son  of  God  (John  i.  14),  or  as  a  prelusion  of  His  glory  as 
now  exalted.  The  former  is  perhaps  more  natural,  but 
either  sense  suits  the  connexion,  which  refers  to  the  second 
coming,  "the  power  and  parousia"  of  Christ.  The  "honour 
and  glory"  spoken  of  by  the  apostle  here  belongs  in  his  mind 


118       ''CROWNED   WITH  GLORY  AND   HONOUR" 


to  the  same  category  as  "  majestj^"  and  he  refers  to  it  to 
sustain  the  expectation  of  the  jJower  of  Christ's  appearing  ; 
hut  what  connexion  has  such  honour  and  glory  with  that 
supposed  to  he  conferred  by  God  on  Christ  in  appointing 
"Him  to  an  oftice  in  which  He  will  have  an  opportunity," 
etc.  ? 

These  are  the  passages  that  are  cited'  to  show  "  that  the 
crowning  (as  this  theory  conceives  it)  is  an  idea  familiar 
to  the  New  Testament  writers."  They  do  not  appear  to  go 
very  far  in  that  direction. 

III.  Dr.  Bruce' s  eminence  in  New  Testament  exegesis 
is  so  well  known^  that  one  can  differ  from  him  only  with 
great  hesitation.  His  exposition  however  of  /3paxv  rt, 
which  when  said  of  mankind  he  understands  of  "  degree," 
and  when  said  of  Christ  of  "degree"  and  "time,"  cannot 
by  any  stretch  of  courtesy  be  called  simple  or  perspicuous. 
For  my  part,  I  cannot  conceive  a  writer  in  one  place  saying 
of  men  that  "  through  fear  of  death  they  were  all  their  life- 
time subject  to  bondage"  (ii.  15),  and  in  another  place 
saying  of  them  that  they  are  "made  a  little  (in  degree) 
lower  than  the  angels,"  and  therefore  I  have  no  doubt  that 
the  apostle  used  the  phrase  "  a  little "  always  in  the 
temporal  sense.  More  important  however  is  the  following 
point.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  apostle  refers  to  two 
conditions  of  mankind — their  present  condition,  and  their 
future  one,  when  over  the  world  to  come ;  and  to  two  con- 
ditions of  Christ — His  earthly  life,  and  His  state  of  exalta- 
tion ;  and  that  he  draws  a  parallel  between  the  two  pairs, 
the  parts  of  which  correspond  to  one  another,  because  it 
was  necessary  for  Christ  to  go  through  the  life  and  destiny 
of  man  along  its  whole  line,  to  enable  man  to  reach 
that  which  was  destined  for  him.  Now  it  is  certain  that 
"  crowned  with  glory  and  honour,"  when  spoken  of  man- 
kind, refers  to  their  future  place  in  the  world  to  come ;  but 
according  to  this  theory,  when  spoken  of  Christ  it  refers  to 


''CROWNED    WITH  GLORY  AND  HONOUR."       119 

His  life  in  this  world.  There  is  no  parallel  between  Him 
and  us ;  what  is  predicated  of  us  in  our  condition  of  perfec- 
tion is  predicated  of  Him  in  His  condition  of  abasement.  It 
is  no  answer  to  this  to  say  that  the  "  glory  and  honour  "  of 
Christ  on  earth  is  of  course  prolonged  into  His  exalted  state 
and  intensified.  The  point  is,  that  by  bringing  His  "  glory  " 
forward  into  His  earthly  life,  the  parallel  between  it  and 
our  earthly  life  is  dissolved.  There  is  no  longer  a  parallel, 
but  a  contrast. 

IV.  The  distinction  between  the  scriptural  conception 
and  the  conception  of  this  theory  is  quite  plain.  The 
Scripture  writers  fasten  their  attention  on  the  plain 
historical  facts  connected  with  Christ  as  these  appeared  in 
their  natural  meaning  to  the  ordinary  judgment  of  men  — 
on  His  exalted  dignity  from  which  He  descended,  on  His 
abasement,  the  contradiction  of  sinners,  the  pains  of  death. 
This  was  in  their  view  "shame,"  "weakness,"  a  "hum- 
bling "  of  Himself.  With  the  realistic  concrete  judgment 
natural  to  them  they  consider  all  this  the  deepest  abase- 
ment, and  they  set  it  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  "  glory  "  to 
which  He  was  exalted,  which  they  conceive  in  a  manner 
equally  realistic.  In  neither  case  is  their  language  in  the 
least  figurative,  but  always  literal.  It  would  have  seemed 
to  them  an  absurdity  to  call  Christ's  humiliation  a  "  glory," 
when  in  tlie  natural  judgment  of  all  men  it  was  a  "  shame." 
The  "  glory"  was  the  reward  that  followed  it,  ''because  of 
the  suffering  of  death,  crowned  with  glory,"  "  ivherefore 
also  God  has  greatly  exalted  Him."  To  them  as  well  as  to 
their  adversaries  the  cross  was  an  ignominy  and  a  "  scandal," 
and  they  obviated  the  feeling,  not  by  the  ingenious  sug- 
gestion that  the  shame  was  in  another  view  a  "  glory,"  but 
by  showing  that  the  prophets  had  foretold  it,  and  that  the 
counsel  of  God  had  accomplished  it,  and  that  the  temporary 
shame  was  swallowed  up  in  the  real  glory  of  Christ  exalted, 
a  glory  in  which  He  would  speedily  reappear  to  the  eyes 


120       ''CROWNED   WITH  GLOBY  AND  RONOUE:' 

of  the  world.  They,  as  well  as  the  modern  mind,  pass  a 
moral  verdict  on  Christ's  act,  or,  rather,  on  Christ  Himself, 
but  they  do  not  use  the  word  "glory"  in  regard  to  it. 
They  say,  "Worthy  is  the  Lamb!"  and  He  is  worthy 
because  that  to  which  He  subjected  Himself  was  and 
remained  "shame." 

This  modern  theory  moves  on  different  lines.  Its  origin 
is  probably  this.  First,  a  moral  judgment  is  passed  on 
Christ's  act  in  giving  Himself  for  others,  and  expressed  in 
figurative  language.  In  the  ethical  sphere,  in  the  judgment 
of  all  moral  beings,  His  act  (to  use  figurative  language)  was 
a  thing  most  glorious.  Then  the  fact  is  reflected  upon  that 
it  was  God  who  put  Him  in  the  place  where  He  performed 
this  act ;  and  the  inference  is  drawn  that  God  crowned  Him 
with  glory  by  appointing  "  Him  to  an  oftice  in  which  He 
will  have  an  opportunity  of  doing  a  signal  service  to  men  at 
a  great  cost  of  suffering  to  Himself"  ;  i.e.  an  act  which 
(figuratively)  is  so  glorious.  Is  there  any  evidence  that  any 
Scripture  writer  ever  pursued  this  peculiar  line  of  reflection  ? 
The  reflection  is  suggested  at  once  to  the  modern  mind 
by  the  figurative  language  in  which  it  expresses  its  moral 
verdict  on  Christ's  act  in  our  redemption. 

That  this  is  the  line  of  thought  that  led  to  the  curious 
speculation  appears  from  the  formula  enunciated  by  Dr. 
Bruce,  that  "exalted  because  of"  implies  "exalted  in." 
The  formula  is  a  mere  heap  of  heterogeneous  words. 
"Exalted  in"  belongs  to  the  sphere  of  moral  judgment,  or 
moral  worth,  and  modern  figurative  language ;  "  exalted 
because  of"  belongs  to  the  sphere  of  historical  events  and 
Scripture  literal  language.  If  Scripture  language  be  adhered 
to,  the  formula  is  so  far  from  being  true,  that  it  is  the 
opposite  of  the  truth — He  humbled  Himself,  wherefore  also 
God  greatly  exalted  Him.  Is  there  any  evidence  that  any 
Scripture  writer  ever  used  the  words  "  glory  "  or  "  exalted  " 
of  Christ  in  His  act  of  giving  His  life  for  men,  or  that  any 


TEE  HALLEL.  121 


Scripture  writer  ever  expressed  his  own  sense  of  the  moral 
worthiness  of  this  act  by  such  terms  as  "glorious"  or 
"exalted"? 

The  only  question  that  could  arise  is,  whether  the  writer 
to  the  Hebrews  agrees  in  his  phraseology  with  the  other 
writers.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  he  differs. 
When  he  says  of  Christ  that  "He  hath  been  counted 
worthy  of  more  glory  than  Moses  "  (iii.  3),  he  refers  to  His 
glory  in  heaven.  So  (I  believe)  he  does  when  he  says  that 
"He  glorified  not  Himself  to  be  made  a  high  priest" 
(v.  5).  He  does  not  speak  of  the  high-priestly  office  in  the 
abstract,  nor  as  exercised  on  earth  ;  he  speaks  of  it  under 
the  complexion  which  it  has  as  exercised  in  heaven.  In 
other  words,  he  agrees  with  all  the  New  Testament  writers 
in  regarding  Christ's  Messianic  office  (or,  high  priesthood) 
as  beginning  to  be  exercised  in  its  proper  and  full  sense 
only  on  His  ascension  (Acts  ii.  36).  But  even  if  the  second 
passage  referred  to  the  office  in  itself,  that  would  be  far 
from  implying  that  the  apostle  was  thinking  of  the  office  as 
it  involved  death,  for  the  oiffce  of  Aaron,  with  whom  com- 
parison is  made  in  the  passage,  did  not  involve  death. 

A.  B.  Davidson. 


THE    HALLEL. 

(Pss.   CXIII.-CXVIII.) 

The  Psalms  of  the  Hallel  have  a  special  interest  from  the 
fact  that  they  were  sung  by  the  Jewish  Church  at  her  three 
great  Feasts,  and  may  thus  be  taken  as  representing  her  in- 
most thought  in  those  hours  in  which  she  held  closest  com- 
munion with  her  God.  But  to  us  they  have  a  still  deeper 
solemnity,  from  the  fact  that  they  were  sung  by  our  Lord 
with  His  disciples  at  the  Last  Supper  (Matt.  xxvi.  27). 


122  TEI]  EALLEL. 


It  is  from  these  two  points  of  view  that  I  propose  to 
regard  them  :  first,  as  the  words  of  Israel ;  secondly,  as  the 
words  of  Christ.  These  two  points  of  view  are  indeed 
closely  connected.  God  says  of  Israel  (Exod.  iv.  22), 
"Israel  is  My  son.  My  first-horn."  It  is  true  that  in 
Isaiah  Israel  is  called  "the  servant  of  the  Lord" 
(xli.  8,  xlii.  1,  etc.),  but  the  Septuagint  never  allows  us  to 
forget  that  the  "servant"  (12)?)  is  a  "son"  (7rat9,  cf. 
xlii.  1  with  Matt.  xii.  18  ff ;  see  also  Acts  iv.  27,  30,  where 
St.  Peter  and  St.  John  apply  this  word  to  Christ). 

Israel  is  God's  son,  inasmuch  as  he  manifests  God's 
name  to  the  world  (Isa.  xlix.  3-0).  He  has  thus  a  relation, 
not  only  of  elder  brother  to  the  Gentiles,  but  also  to  all 
nature,  to  the  whole  creation.  He  is  not  only  a  "  first- 
born among  many  brethren,"  but  also  "  a  first-born  of  all 
creation  "   (Col.  i.  15). 

These  two  thoughts  may  be  taken  as  representing  God's 
ideal  for  Israel,  an  ideal  which  was  ever  with  Him  in  the 
Person  of  His  Son,  and  which  in  the  fulness  of  time 
blossomed  on  earth  in  the  Person  of  Christ.  These  two 
thoughts,  the  ingathering  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  up- 
lifting^ of  all  nature  into  "  the  liberty  of  the  glory  of  the 
children  of  God,"  were  the  central  thoughts  in  Israel's 
three  great  Feasts. 

We  speak  of  the  tJiree  Feasts,  but  it  is  necessary  to  bear 
in  mind  that  in  Leviticus  xxiii.  the  Feasts  are  not  three, 
but  seven.  This  ch^-pter  should  be  carefully  studied  by  all 
who  would  understand  the  Hallel. 

The  following  Table  will  be  seen  to  represent  the  Jewish 
Feasts  as  given  in  Leviticus  xxiii.  : 


^  Bom.  viii.  '11.     Compare  the  thoiiglit  of  the  hcave-uffcriiiu  ciiid  the  wave- 
offering. 


THE  HALLEL. 


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124  THU  HALLEL. 


The  connexion  of  the  Psahns  of  the  Hallel  with  the 
Feasts  will  best  be  seen  by  reading  them  in  their  entirety  ; 
for  this  purpose  I  offer  the  following  translation,  merely 
giving  such  notes  as  are  necessary  to  draw  out  the  leading 
thought  of  each  Psalm  in  its  connexion  with  the  corre- 
sponding Feast  in  the  above  Table. 

The  most  holy  Name  I  have  represented  by  the  symbol 
Axi  which  gives  the  sound  of  the  Hebrew  rTTTJ^.  "I  AM." 
I  have  not  space  to  give  my  reasons^  for  using  this  symbol ; 
suffice  it  to  say,  that  I  regard  the  modern  JaJive  as  a 
complete  mistake,  while  every  scholar  feels  that  the  word 
Lord  falls  very  short  of  the  Hebrew  ^\^T]''^ 


Hallel,  Part  I.  (Pss.  cxiii.,  cxiv.),  as  sung  by  the  Jews 
OVER  THE  Second  Cup. 

(Cf.  Lightfoot,  Ho)\  Heb.  on  Matt.  xxvi.  27.) 

Ps.  cxni. 
Zion's  Magnificat,  or  Zioii's  mother-joy  on  the  birth  of  her  Geutile 
children.     Tiiis  Psahn  corresponds  with  the  Passover  (see  Table),  and 
is  full  of  the  thought  of  the  First-born.     An  Easter  Psalm. 

1  Praise  ye  A^ah  ! 

Praise,  0  ye  servants  of  AA, 

Praise  ye  the  Name"  of  A  A. 
f  2  May  the  Name  of  AA  be  blessed 
(.      From  henceforth  for  ever  and  ever. 
[  3  From  the  rising  of  the  sun  to  his  setting 
\      May  the  Name  of  AA  be  praised. 

4  High  is  AA  o'er  all  Nations  ! 
His  Glory  above  the  heavens  ! 

5  Who  is  as  AA  our  God  ? 

That  mounteth  so  high  to  be  throned  ! 


in  Time. 


'  I    have    fully    discussei'l    this    (iiiestion    in    my   Names   of   God    aud    in 
Akkadian  Genesis.     (Deighton  &  Co.,  Cambridge.) 
-  I.-;,  the  manifestation. 


THE  BALLEL.  125 


The  Incarna-  6  That  sinketb  so  low  to  be  seen  ! 
tio"-  In  the  Heavens  ! 

In  the  Earth  ! 
Cf.  Ifagni-     7  That  raiseth  the  weak  fi-oin  the  dust, 
ficaf.  That  uphfteth  the  poor  from  the  dunghill, 

8  To  throne  them  along  with  princes, 

E'en  with  His  princely  People  ! 
0  That  throneth  the  barren  one'  in  the  home; 
As  a  joyous  Mother  of  children. 
Praise  ye  Yah  ! 

Note. — Yer.  3.  The  thought  is  identical  witli  tliat  o{  Mai.  i.  11  :  "  For  from 
the  rising  of  the  sun  to  his  setting  great  is  My  Name  among  the  Gentiles,  and 
in  every  place  incense  is  offered  to  My  Name,  and  a  pure  offering."  JMust  not 
this  prophecy  have  .been  in  our  Lord's  mind  as  He  sang  this  birthday  Psalm 
of  "  a  people  that  should  be  born  "  from  His  own  sufferings  ?     Cf.  Isa.  xlix.  5,  G. 

Note. — Vers.  7-9.  These  verses  I  would  call  Christ's  Magnificnt.  In  a  cer- 
tain sense  they  applj'to  Israel  in  so  far  as  Israel  is  God's  son  {ttuTs),  who  by 
liis  sufferings  brings  the  Gentile-world  to  its  birth.  Thus  according  to  Isa. 
liv.  1-5,  the  Jewish  Church  'is  herself  "  the  Barren  one,"  until  in  pain  she 
brings  forth  the  Gentiles  as  her  first-born.  "  Sing,  0  Barren  one  that  hast  not 
borne  ;  break  forth  into  singing,  and  cry  aloud,  thou  that  hast  not  travailed  :  for 
more  are  the  children  of  the  desolate  one  than  the  children  of  the  married  one, 
saith  the  Lord,  etc.  :  .  .  .  the  God  of  the  whole  earth  He  shall  be  called." 
The  entire  passage  should  be  read  and  compared  with  St.  Paul's  argument  in 
(lal.  iv.  2G  ff.  "Life  from  [life  "  is  the  leading  tliought  of  the  Spring  Feasts, 
and  this  means  life  from  pain, 

Ps.   CXIV, 

As  the  previous  Psalm  gave  the  birth-pangs  of  a  new  People,  so  this 
gives  the  birth-pangs  of  a  new  Creation,  and  tlius  answers  exactly  to 
Feasts  ii.,  iii.,  and  iv,  (see  Table).  When  of  old  God's  People  came  out 
of  Egypt  (a  Paschal  thoiight).  His  holiness  was  represented  by  Judah, 
which  led  the  van  (Num.  ii.  3,  9),  His  strength  by  Israel.  Even  then 
all  nature  was  moved  (vers.  3-7) ;  how  much  more  when  God  Himself 
comes  in  His  own  Person  (vers.  7,  8)  ?     Cf.  Hab.  iii. 

1  When  Israel  came  forth  from  Egypt, 

The  House  of  Jacob  from  among  the  Barbarians, 

2  His  {i.e.  God's)  holiness  then  was  Judah, 
His  power  was  shown  in  Israel. 

1  Cf.  Isa.  liv.  with  Gal.  iv.  27. 


126  THE  HALLEL. 


3  The  sea  saw — then  it  tied  ! 
Jordan  rolled  himself  back  ! 

4  The  mountains  skipped  like  rams, 
The  hills  like  the  yomig  of  the  flock  ! 

5  What  ailed  thee,  0  sea,  that  thou  fleddest  ? 
Thou  Jordan,  that  thou  shouldest  roll  back  ? 

n  Ye  mountains,  why  skip  ye  like  rams  ? 

Ye  hills,  like  the  young  of  the  flock  ? 

HowrauHi  7  At  the  presence  of  AA  travail,  thou  Earth  ! 

^^''^^   ,     At  the  presence  of  Jacob's  God, 
when  (iod  ^ 

comes   in^  Who  turneth  the  rock  into  pools, 
Person  ?       The  flint  into  fountains  of  water  ! 

Note. — Botli  this  Psalm  aud  the  preceilins  one  are  appointeil  liv  tlio  Cliurel'i 
for  Easter  Day.  The  LXX.  in  ver.  1  read  iv  e'toSy  'l(jpai)\.  .  .  .  Cf.  Lnlce 
ix.  81,  tV  '4^obov  avTov,  "His  departure  (E.V.  margin),  whicli  He  was  about 
to  accomplish  at  Jerusalem"  (Neale). 

The  question  in  vers.  5  and  6  is  not  answered.  The  thought  is  as  follows  ; 
If  at  the  first  Exodus  (Passover),  when  God  was  revealed  only  in  the  Pillar  and 
Cloud,  all  nature  was  moved,  how  much  more  when  at  the  second  Exodus 
(Passover)  God  Himself  leads  His  people  in  person  as  He  promised  (Mic.  ii.  13)! 

In  the  preceding  Psalm  we  saw  the  Presence  (and  therefore  the  sufferings) 
of  the  Son  of  God  as  giving  birth  to  the  Nations ;  so  in  this  Psalm  we  see  that 
same  Presence  uplifting  Nature.  This  latter  thought  was  symbolized  by  the 
Wave  sheaf  of  Passover  and  the  Wave  loaves  of  Pentecost  (see  Table).  I 
therefore  conclude  that  these  two  Psahns,  which  compose  th'e  first  part  of  the 
Hallel,  were  written  with  special  reference  to  the  Spring  Feasts. 

Hallel,  Part  II.  (Pss.  cxv.-cxviii.),  as  sung  by  the 
Jews  oyer  the  Fourth  Cup. 

(Cf.  vfxv)]aavTe^,  Matt.  xxvi.  30),    answering  to  the   Feasts 
of  the  Seventh  Month,  which  all  speak  of  death. ^ 

Ps.  (\V. 

The  connexion  of  this  Psalm  with  the  Feast  of  Trumpets  is  not 
obvious  at  first  sight ;  a  Vv'ord  of  explanation  must  therefore  be  given. 
An  inscription  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (quoted  hj  Sayce,  Hih.  Led.,  p.  94-) 

^  The  connexion  between  the  seventh  month  and  the  Sabbath  of  death  was 
far  older  even  than  the  times  of  Abraham,  as  I  have  shown  in  my  Ahl;adian 
Genesis. 


THE  HALLE L.  127 


tells  us  that  "  on  the  G-reat  Festival  at  the  beginnuig  of  the  year  (i.p. 
in  the  seventh  month),  on  the  eighth  and  eleventh  days  of  the  month,  the 
divine  king  the  god  of  heaven  and  earth,  the  lord  of  heaven,  descends, 
while  the  gods  in  heaven  and  earth,  listening  to  him  -with  reverential 
p.AVo,  and  standing  hnmljly  Ijefore  him,  determine  therein  a  destiny  of 
long-ending  days."  This  thought  finds  its  countei-part  in  the  Psalms,  c.r/. 
Ps.  Ixxxii.  1,  "  God  hath  taken- His  place  in  the  assemljly  of  the  mighty 
ones  ("px)'  Amongst  the  gods  (o'Tlbx)  He  is  judging."  I  may  have 
occasion  to  speak  of  this  Psalm  in  a  future  paper ;  meanwhile  I  would 
remark  that  the  blowing  of  Trumpets  on  '"  New  Year"  was  as  it  were 
an  a])peal  to  Israel's  God  to  take  His  place  in  Judgment  on  the  gods 
of  tlie  heathen.  Compare  the  tal-cing  of  .Jericho,  also  Numbers  x.  !'. 
"  Ye  shall  blow  an  alarm  with  the  trumpets,  and  ye  shall  be  remem- 
bered before  the  Lord  your  God,  and  shall  be  saved  from  your  enemies." 
The  '•  Day  of  Trumpets  "  or  the  day  of  "The  Memorial  of  the  Trumpet " 
(nr-llj"^  P"'?0  ■^'^'^^  to  Israel  what  the  '*  Bow  in  the  Cloud  "  was  to  Xoah, 
it  was  the  outward  visible  sign  of  Mercy  and  Ti'Uth  meeting  together 
in  Eedemption;  therefoi'e  in  Ps.  Ixxxix.  14,  Lj,  we  read,  "  Eighteons- 
ness  and  justice  are  the  base  of  Thy  throne,  Mercy  and  Truth  go  befoi-o 
Tiiy  face.  Happy  is  the  people  that  know  the  Trumpet-sound  ('"'^■''''^).*' 
So  in  our  present  Psalm  the  "  memorial  "  goes  np  to  God  "  because  of 
Thy  merc3%  because  of  Thy  truth  "  (ver.  1).  God  answers  this  appeal 
(vers.  12-1.'>),  Avith  plenteous  Eedemption.  The  Psalm  may  be  trans- 
lated as  follows  : 


!\rercy     and 


1  Not  for  our  sake,  A  A,  not  for  our  sake, 
But  for  the  sake  of  Thy  Name  grant  glory, 

Truth  meet.     Because  of  Thy  Mercy,  because  of  Thy  Trutli. 

2  Wherefore  should  the  heathen  say, 
"  Where  now  is  their  God  ? "' 

Ps.  cxxxv.  (k  ?)  Yet  our  God  is  in  Heaven  ; 
All  that  He  willeth  is  done. 
Ps.  cxxxv.      4  Their  idols  are  silver  and  gold, 
ir.-20.  rjA|-^g  ^York  of  the  hands  of  man : 

,5  A  mouth  they  have,  but  cannot  speak; 
Eyes  they  have,  but  cannot  see  ; 

6  Ears  they  have,  but  cannot  hear ; 

A  nose  they  have,  but  cannot  smell ; 

7  Hands,  yet  cannot  feel  ; 


128  TEE  EALLEL. 


Feet,  yet  cannot  walk ; 

Nor  can  they  utter  from  their  throat. 

8  They  that  make  them  shall  become  as  they, 
Even  every  one  that  putteth  his  trust  in  them. 

9  0  Israel,  trust  in  AA. : 

He  is  their  help  and  their  shield. 

10  0  house  of  Aaron,  trust  in  A  A  : 

He  is  their  help  and  their  shield. 

11  Ye  fearers  of  AA,  trust  in  AA : 

He  is  their  help  and  their  shield. 

God  lias  fnl-12  AA  has  become  mindful  of  us.    He  will  bless, 

He  will  bless  the  house  of  Israel, 
pi'omise  ot 

Num.  X.  9        He  will  bless  the  house  of  Aaron,     . 

13  He  will  bless  the  fearers  of  AA, 
The  least  along  with  the  greatest. 

14  May  A  A  add  unto  you. 

Unto  you  and  unto  your  children.^ 

15  Blessed  be  ye  of  A  A, 

The  Maker  of  heaven  and  earth.- 
IG  The  heavens  are  the  heavens  of  AA, 

And  the  earth  He  gave  for  the  children  of  men. 

17  It  is  not  the  dead  that  praise  Yah, 
Not  they  all  that  go  down  into  silence, 

18  But  we, — we  will  praise  Yah, 
From  henceforth,  for  ever  and  ever. 

Praise  ye  Yah  ! 

Note. — The  Day  of  Trumpets  is  the  pledge  of  the  final  Day  of  Atonement. 
Israel  sounds  with  the  Trumpet,  and  God  is  "mindful"  of  him,  and  deliver 
him  (cf.  Ps.  xlvii.  fi);  but  Zechariah  says  that,  in  the  time  to  come,  "the  Lord 
God  shall  sound  with  the  Trumpet"  (Zech.  ix.  14).  The  Jews  themselves  have 
interpreted  this  to  signify  that  the  former  deliverances  were  not  final,  but  that 
in  the  days  of  the  Messiah  "I  am  going  to  redeem  you  by  Myself,  and  then 
shall  ye  never  more  be  brought  in  bondage."  (See  the  whole  context  in  my 
translation  of  the  Yalkut  on  Zechariah,  pp.  .53,  r>4.)  ''  On  New  Year  men  are 
redeemed  from  the  Angel  of  death"  (Yalkut,  I.e.);  this  explains  vers.  17  and 

'  Cf.  Deut.  i.  11,  Moses'  blessing. 

-  Cf.  Gen.  xiv.  I'.l,  Melcliizedeli's  lilcssing. 


THE  SALLE L.  129 


IH  of  our  Psalm.  According  to  a  Jewish  tradition,  the  Hallel  was  not  used  on 
the  Day  of  Atonement,  because  of  the  deep  solemnity  of  the  day  ;  neither  was  it 
used  on  the  Feast  of  Trumpets,  because  then  "  the  King  sits  upon  His  throne, 
and  the  books  of  Life  and  the  books  of  Death  are  opened"  (Mischna,  Roxlt, 
HcisL-liaiui,  vii.  4).  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  thoughts  of  the  Feast  of  Trumpets 
and  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  are  certainly  represented  in  the  Psalms  of  the 
Hallel. 

Ps.  cxvi.  (cf.  Day  of  Atonement  in  Table). 

Israel,  though  a  son,  leai'us  obedience  (i.e.  lave,  ver.  1,  iiud  faith, 
ver.  10)  by  the  things  tliat  lie  suffers.  The  very  darkness  is  onh* 
backgrouud  for  tlie  rainbow.     Cf.  Heb.  v.  7. 

1  I  love — for  A  A  hears 
My  supplicating  voice, 

2  For  to  me  He  liath  lent  an  ear ; 
So  I  call  (to  Him)  all  my  days. 

3  Pangs  of  Death  enveloped  me, 
Straits^  of  Hell  gat  hold  upon  nie  : 

4  Anguish  and  grief  (alone)  I  find. 
Then  I  call  on  the  Name  of  AA, 
"  Oh  now,  AA,  deliver  my  soul." 

[Cf,  "  0  My  Father,  if  it  be  possible,  let  this  cup  pass 
away  from  Me  :  nevertheless,  not  as  I  will,  but 
as  Thou  wilt"  (Matt.  xxvi.  89).] 

5  Gracious  is  AA,  and  liighteous  : 
Yea,  our  God  is  Merciful. 

G  AA  is  the  Guardian  of  simple  folk  : 
I  am  weak,  but  He  is  mine  to  save  me. 

7  lieturn,  0  my  soul,  to  thy  haven  of  rest ; 
For  AA  hath  wrought  kindness  upon  thee. 

8  For  Thou  hast  delivered  my  soul  from  death,  mine 

eyes  from  tears,  my  feet  from  falling. 

9  I  shall  walk  before  A  A  in  the  Lands  ^  of  the  Living. 

(N.B. — According  to  the  Sept.  the  Psalm  ends  here,  a  new  Psalm 
commencing  at  ver.  10.  There  is  indeed  a  very  real  division  of 
thought,  ver.  10  answering  exactly  to  ver.  1.     See  Notes.) 

^  This  word  occurs  again  in  Ps.  cxviii.  -5 ;  elsewhere  it  is  only  found  in 
Lam.  i.  o.        -  The  plural  reminds  us  of  the  "many  mansions."' 

VOL.  IX.  9 


130  TEE  EALLEL. 


10  I  believe — for  I  can  say, 

"As  for  me,  I  was  greatly  afflicted  ; 

11  As  for  me,  I  thought  in  my  panic, 
'  All  man's  estate  is  a  lie.'  " 

12  What  return  can  I  make  to  AA 

For  all  His  kindness  He  hath  wrought  i  upon  me? 

13  The  Cup  of  Salvations  ^  I  lift. 
And  I  call  on  the  Name  of  A  A. 

14  My  vows  to  A  A  I  canjjai/, 

In  tlie  presence  of  all  His  people. 

[Cf.  "  0  My  Father,  if  this  cannot  pass  away,  except  I 
drink  it,  Thy  will  be  done  "  (Matt.  xxvi.  42). j 

15  Bight  dear  in  the  sight  of  KK  is  the  death  of  His 

saints, 

16  Oh  now  AA  !  surely  I  am  Thy  Servant, 

I  am  Thy  Servant,  the  son  of  Thine  handmaid  ; 
Thou  hast  undone  my  fetters. 

17  The  sacrihce  of  thanksgiving  I  sacrifice  to  Thee, 
And  I  call  on  the  Name  of  A  A. 

18  My  vows  to  A  A  I  can  pay, 

In  the  presence  of  all  His  people  ; 

[Cf.  "  A  third   time,   saying  the    same  words"  (Matt, 
xxvi.  44). I 

19  In  the  Courts  of  the  House  of  AA, 
In  the  midst  of  thee,  O  Jerusalem. 

T'raise  ye  Yah ! 

l^'ote. — Ver.  1.  Wbetlier  these  words  be  tlio  wortls  of  Israel  or  of  Christ,  the 
love  is  founded  upon  the  Rock  of  an  inner  experience  which  no  terrors  of  death 
or  desertion  can  shake.  "Father,  I  thank  Tliee  that  Thou  licardest  Me.  And 
I  knew  that  Thou  hearest  Me  always"  (St.  John  xi.  41,  42,  E.V.).  "Having 
loved  His  own  which  were  in  the  world,  He  loved  them  to  the  iitteriuost '' 

1  Cf.  ver.  7.  '■  I-e.  the  final  yalvaticn,  which  iuehide«  all  othfers. 


THE  HALLEL.  131 


(St.  John  xiii.  1,  K.Y.,  marg.).  This  verse  of  the  Psahn  should  be  carefully 
compared  with  the  10th  verse ;  see  below. 

Note.— The  three  times  repeated  refrain  (vers.  4,  lo,  17)  proves  the  Psalm  to 
be  a  whole.  The  three  "  cries  "  may  be  compared  with  tlie  thrice  repeated  cry 
of  Gethsemane  (Matt.  xxvi.  39-44).     The  first  is  the  saddest,  as  in  the  Gospel. 

It  is  impossible  to  read  vers.  3  and  4  of  our  Psalm  without  being  remiude  1 
of  Him  "  who  in  the  days  of  His  flesh,  having  offered  up  prayers  and  supplica- 
tions with  stroiig  crying  and  tears  unto  Him  that  was  able  to  save  Him  out  of 
death,  and  having  been  heard  for  His  godly  fear,  though  he  was  a  Son,  yet 
learned  obedience  by  the  things  which  He  suffered"  (Heb.  v.  7,  8).  The  two 
last  "cries"  (vers.  13,  17)  come  after  the  full  acceptance  of  "the  Cup  of 
Salvations"  (ver.  13)  ;  the  reader  will  observe  that  the  refrain  has  now  become 
a  joy,  just  as  the  prayer  does  in  Gethsemane. 

But  though  the  Psalm  is  a  whole,  the  break  before  ver.  10  is  most  impor- 
tant to  be  observed.  The  words  "  I  believe  "  (ver.  10)  exactly  answer  to  "  I 
love  "  (ver.  1).  The  tenses  would,  in  Greek,  have  been  jJ^ ''fee ts.  In  both  cases 
the  love  and  the  faith  are  the  very  outcome  of  the  suffering  ;  compare  St. 
Paul's  quotation  of  ver.  10  in  2  Cor.  iv.  13  with  context. 

If,  as  I  believe,  the  whole  Psalm  was  written  for  the  Day  of  Atonement,  we 
might  well  suppose  Part  I.  (/.e.  vers.  l-'J)  to  have  been  sung  before  the  High 
Priest  entered  the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  Part  II.  {i.e.  vers.  10  to  end)  to  have 
welcomed  his  reappearance  "  apart  from  sin,  unto  salvation  "  (Heb.  ix.  28). 


Ps.    (XVII. 

A  prophecy  of  the  coiivevsiou  of  the  Gentiles  in  the  times  of  the 
Messiah.  So  Kimchi  and  St.  Paul  (Rom.  xv.  1*-11).  Sec  Xeale's 
Commentary.  The  birth  of  the  Gentiles  resiilt«  from  tlie  "  ixmgs  of 
Messiah."     This  Psalm  is  to  the  Autumn  Feasts  what  Ps.  cxiii.  is  to 

the  Spring  Feasts. 

1  Praise  AA,  all  ye  Gentiles  ; 
Extol  Him,  all  ye  Peoples. 

2  For  His  Mercy  hath  prevailed  over  us  ; 
And  the  Truth  of  A  A  is  eternal. 

Praise  ye  Yah  ! 

Nate. — Ver.  2.  Neale  well  quotes  Gen.  vii.  18-20,  where  the  same  \Vord  is 
twice  used  of  the  waters  of  the  I'lood  prccailivg.  So  now  there  shall  be  a  flood 
of  Mercy. 

The  Gentiles  who  were  '  once  far  oh  are  made  nigh  in  the  blood  cf  Christ ' 
(Eph.  ii.  13,  see  context). 


l'i-2  THE   HALLEL. 


Vn;  cxvin. 


Chorus. 


A  Psalm  of  Tabernacles  (see  Table).  The  suffering  Son  of  God  is 
victorious  over  Death  and  Hell,  and  enters  on  the  Fruits  of  Victory, 
being  acknowledged  as  King  by  all  Creation.     An  Easter  Psalm. 

^1  Give  thanks  unto  AA  ;  for  (He)  is  good  ;  for 

His  mercy  is  eternal, 
'2  Let  now  Israel  say, 

"for  His  mercy  is  eternal." 

3  Let  now  the  House  of  Aaron  say, 
"for  His  mercy  is  eternal." 

4  Let  the  fearers  of  AA  say, 
"  for  His  mercy  is  eternal." 

The      Sou  5  In  straits  I  called  upon  Yah, 
Christ)         Ii^  largeness  Yah  gave  me  His  answer, 
speaks.     (3  ^A  is  mine  ;  I  will  not  fear  : 
"What  can  man  do  unto  me  ? 
7  AA  is  mine  !  among  my  helpers  ! 
Then  as  for  me  I'll  look  upon  my  foes. 


Chorus. 


8  Better  it  is  to  shelter  in  AA 
Than  to  put  confidence  in  man. 

9  Better  it  is  to  shelter  in  AA 
Than  to  put  confidence  in  princes. 


The    Sou  10  All  nations  encompassed  me  round, 
(jlji.'ii^^j  'Tis  in  AA's  Name  that  I  foiP  them. 

speaks.  Yl  They  compassed,  yea,  compassed  me  round  : 
'Tis  in  AA's  name  that  I  foil  ^  them. 
12  They  compassed  me  round  like  plagues/ 
They  flared  like  a  lire  of  thorns  : 

'.Tis  in  AA's  name  that  I  foil  them. 
13  Thou  didst  thrust  me  well  nigh  unto  falling 
But  A  A  hath  helped  me. 

*  Beading  uncertain. 


TEE   HALLEL. 


133 


Cliorns. 


Tlie  Son 
(Israel, 
Christ) 
speaks. 


Chorus. 


14  My  strength  and  my  song  is  Yah  ; 
And  He  hath  become  my  Salvation. 

/15  A  shout  of  joy  and  Salvation 

Rings  through  the  tents  of  the  righteous  : 
'        The  right  hand  of  AA  hath  wrought  might ! 

16  The  right  hand  of  AA  hath  been  raised  ! 
The  right  hand  of  AA  hath  wrought  might ! 

17  I  shall  not  die,  but  shall  live, 

And  shall  tell  out  the  works  of  Yah. 

18  Yah  did  indeed  chasten  me  sore  : 
But  not  unto  death  did  He  give  me. 

19  Open  for  me  the  gates  of  Eighteousness  :  ^ 

I  will  enter  by  them,  I  will  give  thanks  to  Yah. 

(  20  Tliis  is  the  Gate— that  belongs  to  AA ; 
i        The  righteous  may  enter  thereby. 


ThcSon(Ts-21  I  thank  Thee,  for  that  Thou  hast  heard  me, 

lae  ,     a  lb  ;        ^^^^  j^^^^  become  mine  for  salvation, 
speaks. 

^22  A  stone  that  the  builders  rejected 

Hath  become  the  chief-stone  of  the  corner  ! 

23  From  AA  (Himself)  hath  this  come  to  pass  ; 
And  it  is  wondrous  in  our  eyes. 

24  This  is  the  Day  that  AA  hath  made  ; 
Let  us  joy  and  rejoice  therein. 

Chorus.     (  25  Ana,~  AA,  Hoshiana, 

Ana,  A  A,  Hatzlicha?ia. 

26  Blessed  is  the  Coming  One  in  the  Name  of  AA: 
We  bless  you  from  out  of  the  House  of  AA. 

27  AA  is  God,  and  gives  us  light. 
Proclaim  ^  the  Feast  with  the  Branches, 

\       Even  up  to  the  horns  of  the  Altar. 

1  In  late  Hebrew  p"l^*  is  used  almost  in  the  sense  of  "  victory.'' 
'  A  mystical  name  of  God,  the  origin  of  which  I  have  shown  in  my  Ahkadian 
Genesis.  •*  Vulpr.  "  Constituitc  diem  solemnem."' 


13  i  THE  HALLE L. 


IheSon    ro.s  My    God    (EI),    Thoii    art,    and    I    thank 

(Israel,     ) 

Christ)    ")  Thee: 

siieaks.    C       My  God  (Elohim),  I  extol  Thee. 
("horns.       29  Give  thankis  unto  AA;    for  (He)   is  good:    for 
His  mercy  is  eternal. 

Xote. — Ver.  12.  The  present  text  reads  D''"13^,  "bees"  ;  for  which  I  suggest 
D^"lZl"\F,  as  in  Hos.  xiii.  14,  "  I  wih  be  tliy  pLagues,  0  Death."" 

Intheplague-legeudsof  Chaldea,  Deix?}-,  "the plague,"  is  often  personified,  and 
is  usually  connected  with  "  the  Burner."  There  are  traces  of  this  thought  in 
the  Old  Testament,  e.rj.  Hab.  iii.  5,  "Before  Him  went  the  plague  (Deber), 
and  the  Burner  (^t^'1)  went  forth  at  His  feet  "  (see  Versions).  In  our  present 
Psalm  the  contest  has  been,  not  with  bees,  but  with  Death.  It  is  indeed  the 
fulfilment  of  Hosea  xiii.  14. 

Note. — Ver.  20.  This  Terse  is,  I  think,  best  explained  by  E/.ek.  xliv.  1-1. 
"  And  lie  brought  me  back  toward  the  gate  of  the  Sanctuary  outside,  which  faces 
east ;  and  it  was  shut.  And  AA  said  unto  me.  This  gate  shall  be  shut,  not 
opened,  and  none  shall  enter  by  it,  because  AA,  the  God  of  Israel,  hath  entered 
by  it :  and  thus  it  hath  become  closed.  The  Prince  however,  inasmuch  as  he 
is  a  Prince  [and  therefore  a  type  of  Messiah],  he  shall  sit  therein  to  eat  bread 
before  AA."  Compare  also  xlvi.  1-3  and  xliii.  4.  Tliis  Gate  is  "  the  new 
and  living  way"  (Heb.  x.  19).  But  after  Messiah  (the  Prince)  has  entered 
thereby  He  can  say,  "  Open  ye  the  gates,  that  the  righteous  nation  which  keepeth 
the  truth  may  enter  in  "  (Isa.  xxvi.  2). 

Xotes. — This  Psalm  is  generally  admitted  to  have  been  written  for  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles.  That  great  feast  gathered  in  all  the  thoughts  of  the  great  Sabbath - 
month.  The  seventh  month  (Autumnal  Equinox)  spoke,  even  to  the  Baby- 
lonians, of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  the  year.  The  branches  (cf.  ver.  27) 
carried  at  this  Feast  were  a  memorial  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and  especially 
the  vintage,  now  gathered  in.  These  branches  were  chosen  from  water-loving 
trees.     Thus,  in  the  Order  of  the  Hoftannah  Bnbba,  the  .Tews  still  pray, 

"  Answer  those  that  cry  with  the  four  water  trees." 

(D^o  ''bi^'n  rmn  n-'huvc^  njyno 

I.e.  the  Palm,  Citron,  Myrtle,  and  Willow. 

The  reason  for  this  choice  was,  I  think,  because  one  of  the  leading  thoughts  of 
the  Feast  was  Prayer  for  Eain,  upon  which  the  fruits  of  the  opening  year 
depended.  But  tlte  tree  which  represented  the  mystical  Israel  was  especially 
"the  Vine  of  David."  Tbe  earliest  passage  is  Isa.  v.  1:  "Love  (HH)  had  a 
vineyard,"  etc.,  wdiere  Vulgate  reads  vinen.  Again,  Ps.  Ixxx.  (Ixxix.)  «  ff 
• '  Thou  didst  bring  a  "\'ine  out  of  Egypt.  .  .  .  The  mountains  were  covered 
with  its  shadow.  .  .  .  Look  from  heaven,  behold,  and  visit  this  Vine,  and 
the  Branch  that  Thy  right  hand  hath  planted  and  the  Scion  (p)  which  Thou 
hast  made  strong  for  Thyself."'  Here  again  the  Vulgate  uses  vinea  for  J3il.  just 
as  for  D"I5  in  Isa.  v.  1.  In  the  Order  of  the  Hosannahs  the  following  passage 
occurs,  which  clearly  proves  that  Isa.  v.  1  ff  was  regarded  as  a  mystical  allusion 
to  the  Vine  of  David.     "  As  Thou  didst  save  the  Wine-press  of  Thy  hewing. 


MY  HEBREW  NEW  TESTAMENT.  135 


(1''3VnO  3p\  cf.  2Vn  2p_^,,  Isa.  v.  2),  so  now  save  us  who  encompass  (the  altar) 
with  green  branches  surging,  Ana  Ya  Ho  Hoshiana"  (cf.  v.  25).  The  trans- 
ference of  this  thought  to  the  Eucharist  may  be  seen  in  the  Teachiiifi  of  the 
Tivclve  AjMxtles,  chap.  ix.  (see  Taylor's  edition,  p.  68  ff).  "And  as  touching 
the  Eucharist,  thus  give  ye  thanks.  First,  concerning  the  cup  :  We  thank  Thee, 
0  our  Father,  for  Thy  holy  vine  of  David  Thy  child,  which  Tliou  hast  made 
known  to  us  in  Thy  Child  (ira'ts)  Jesus.    .    .     ." 

The  Psalms  of  the  Hallel  thus  gather  into  one  Thanksgiving  all  the  thoughts 
of  all  the  whole  year's  Feasts,  a  fitting  Service  for  that  great  night  when  all  was 
fulfilled  in  the  one  "  Pure  Offering"  "for  the  life  of  the  world." 

It  may  be  interesting  to  observe  that,  of  the  Hallel  Psalms,  our  Church 
appoints  Psalms  cxiii.,  exiv.,  and  cxviii.  for  Easter  Day;  now  Psalm  cxiii.  is  a 
Fasaover  Psalm,  cxiv.  a  Pentecost  Psalm,  and  cxviii.  a  Psalm  of  Tabernacle.'^. 
Thus  the  "Queen  of  Festivals"  gathers  in  all  that  was  foreshadowed  by  the 
three  great  Jewish  Feasts. 

Ed.  G.  King. 


IN  SELF-DEFENCE :  CBITICAL  OBSERVATIONS 
ON  MY  HEBREW  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

I. 

The  late  Isaac  Salkinson,  missionary  of  the  British  Society, 
whose  Hehrew  translation  of  the  New  Testament  has  now 
appeared  in  its  second  edition,  and  is  circulated  amono-  the 
Jews  with  extraordinary  zeal,  was  personally  well  known 
to  me,  was  indeed  an  intimate  friend.  We  became  ac- 
quainted with  one  another  in  1870,  when  we  met  at  a 
conference  of  missionaries  and  friends  of  the  Jewish  Mission, 
and  were  at  once  attracted  toward  each  other.  Salkinson 
had  then  completed  the  translation  of  Milton's  Paradise 
Lost,  but  had  not  discovered  a  Hebrew  equivalent  for  the 
English  title.  He  did  not  at  that  time  venture  upon  any 
suggestion,  but  subsequently  he  determined  to  entitle  his 
rendering,  p^^"]-"!^  li'll)''!,  "  He  sent  forth  from  the  garden 
of  Eden."  In  fact  "  Paradise  Lost,"  in  the  sense  in  which 
it  was  used  as  the  title  of  the  English  poem,  could  not  be 
reproduced  in    Hebrew.      This  must   have   been   specially 


136  MY  HEBREW  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

difficult  for   Salkinson,  who  would  eschew  the  phrase  pi^"P 
12i|^^  as  non-biblical. 

In  April,  1855,  an  attempt  had  already  been  made  by 
Salkinson  to  produce  a  new  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. A  specimen  of  such  a  rendering  was  published 
under  the  title,  The  Ejjistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the 
BoDians  translated  into  Hehrew.  I  gave  expression  to  my 
opinion  of  it  in  my  monograph  of  1870,  entitled,  Pauliis 
des  Apostels  Brief  an  die  Bonier  in  das  Hehrdische  nehersetzt 
nnd  aus  Talmud  inid  Midrasch,  erldutert.  In  that  paper  I 
heartily  admitted  the  masterly  style  of  this  Hebraist,  but 
took  exception  to  his  method  of  translation  in  aiming  too 
much  at  a  biblical  elegance  and  classical  diction,  and  so 
leading  to  the  use  of  phrases  that  did  not  literally  repre- 
sent the  text.  And  there  too  I  laid  down  the  principle  that 
the  translation  should  not  avoid  rabbinical  expressions,  if 
they  supply  the  words  and  formulas  in  which,  without  undue 
straining,  the  New  Testament  Greek  can  be  made  intelli- 
gible to  those  who  employ  the  post-biblical  literature. 

My  own  work  upon  a  new  Hebrew  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  had  been  completed  and  all  my  prepara- 
tions for  publication  had  been  made  as  early  as  the  year 
1870,  but  the  actual  issuing  of  the  book  was  delayed  till  the 
spring  of  1877.  During  all  these  years  I  was  anxiously 
seeking  for  a  publisher  who  should  undertake  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  whole  work,  and  then  at  last  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  stretched  out  to  me  its  helpful  hand. 
By  this  time  Salkinson  also  had  again  taken  up  the  work 
of  translation.  I  doubt  not  that  my  own  rendering  would 
have  gained  considerably  had  we  carried  on  this  common 
work  together,  although  after  a  careful  survey  and  examina- 
tion of  all  doubtful  passages  my  judgment  still  remains  un- 
altered. I  look  upon  it  now  as  quite  natural  that  the  man 
who  had  won  great  applause  by  his  translations  of  the 
Urania  of  Tiedge,  the  Paradise  Lost  of  Milton,  and  some 


MY  HEBREW  NEW  TESTAMENT.  1?7 


plays  of  Shakespeare  would  not  be  able  easily  to  bring  him- 
self to  take  the  place  of  a  worker  under  me.  I  have  the 
letter  which  he  then  wrote  me,  inclosing  a  new  translation 
of  the  first  chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Komans,  which  has 
not  before  been  published,  although  the  reckless  way  in 
which  this  "  beautiful  Hebrew  New  Testament"  has  been 
eulogised  might  have  tempted  me  to  make  it  known.  An 
article  in  the  January  number  of  the  Quarterly  Becord  of 
the  Trinitarian  Bible  Society  for  1886  quoted  a  Jewish 
opinion,  according  to  which  "  the  work  of  Delitzsch,  in  com- 
parison with  the  work  of  Salkinson,  is  like  a  miserable  tent 
compared  with  the  palaces  of  kings  "  ! 

Quite  another  spirit  was  shown  by  Salkinson  in  his  criti- 
cism of  my  work.  He  admitted  the  force  and  importance 
of  the  principles  on  which  I  proceeded,  and  claimed  onl}'' 
recognition  of  the  relative  value  of  his  own  divergent  views 
upon  the  question.  The  letter  will  be  thoroughly  satis- 
factory and  conclusive  with  all  who  are  really  acquainted 
with  the  subject,  as  showing  clearly  the  special  character- 
istics of  the  two  translations  and  affording  ample  materials 
for  forming  a  judgment.  I  give  it  here  without  alteration 
or  abridgment. 

"  ?:t,,  "Reivxek  St.,  Laxdstrasse,  Vikxna, 
J7ine  11th,  1877. 
"  Mv  DEAR  Sir, — 

'•  I  was  on  the  point  of  answering  yonr  kind  letter,  besides  giving  an 
explanation  in  anticipation  of  your  question  on  the  card,  and  waited  only 
for  the  inclosed  specimen,  which  I  got  just  now.  With  regard  to  your 
fjueiy,  you  will  remember,  after  your  publication  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  that  1  offered  you  my  co-operation  in  continuing  and  carrying 
out  the  version;  but  you  then  informed  me  that  you  had  the  materials 
of  the  whole  book  already,  which  required  only  correction  and  revision. 
Accordingly,  out  of  the  high  respect  and  true  Christian  affection  which 
I  cherish  for  you,  I  made  a  self-denying  resolution,  and  determined  to 
let  you  have  the  whole  field  free.  AVlien  I  recently  saw  a  statement  to 
the  effect  that  your  work  is  accomplished  and  is  being  published  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  I  was  very  glad  for  your  sake  and 
for  the  sake  of  your  great  work  and  thought.     And  now  has  my  time 


138  MY  HEBREW  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

come  to  gratify  my  old  desire.  It  so  happened  tliat  just  tlien  a  friend 
of  the  committee  of  tlie  British  Society  proposed  that  I  shouhl  be 
employed  in  writing  a  Tahnudic  Christology.  I  answered  that  I 
would  prefer  first  to  make  a  new  HebreAV  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. To  this  the  committee  agreed,  and  I  now  commenced  my  task 
with  the  epistles.  My  plan  is  to  take  a  good  share  of  liljerty  in  regard 
to  words  and  jihrases,  and  to  Ije  faithful  only  to  the  sense  and  spirit  of 
tlie  test,  which  must  neither  be  added  to  nor  taken  from  in  anything. 
Its  principle  is  that  of  the  maxim,  '  The  letter  killeth,  but  the  spirit 
giveth  life,'  and  so  I  hope  to  be  able  to  make  a  tolerably  pure  Hebrew 
version.  There  will  of  course  be  a  few  excejjtions,  like  the  abstract 
noun  Xninp, 'which  you  find  in  the'siDecimen,  and  other  words  of  a  like 
nature  ;  but  they  will  not  affect  the  whole. 

"  You  are  j^erfectly  correct  in  saying  that  when  the  ISTew  Testament 
writeTs  wrote  their  Greek  they  had  still  the  Hebrew  of  their  day  in 
mind ;  but  then  I  want  to  translate  the  sense  and  not  to  use  the  words : 
and  so,  when  I  find  tlie  apostles  writing  arro  Krlcrecos  Koa-fiov,  I  render  it 
by  the  idiomatic  phrase  D!'?t?*1  \t^^  XIB'QDI*.  Now  the  apostle  him- 
self can  have  no  objection  to  see  his  idea  expressed  in  good  old 
Hebrew. 

"I  confess  to  you  too,  that  the  man  to  whom  the  gos])el  has  i)ecome 
the  power  of  salvation  will  prefer  a  literal  translation,  just  as  he  would 
pi'efer  that  a  love-letter  sent  to  him  in  an  unknown  tongue  should  be 
rendei'ed  to  him  verhciHm.  But  we  must  rememl^er  that  our  ISTew 
Testament  is  intended  chiefly  for  our  unconverted  brethren.  There- 
fore it  may  be  of  some  service  to  have  it  in  a  style  which  the  .lews 
liave  not  yet  forgotten  to  appreciate,  that  is,  the  Inblical  Hebrew. 

"  In  the  inclosed  specimen  you  will  see  at  a  glance  Avhat  kind  of 
liberty  I  take  :  n^Tl-ISXp^D  for  apostleship.  0-13X70  is  the  literal  ren- 
dering, but  in  the  absolute  state  it  does  not  occur.  Hence  it  does  not 
sound  ])rctty,  and  I  therefore  added  an  intensive  particle  r]^  as  in 
n^*n5D?t",  which  makes  no  difference  in  the  real  sense.  If  the  reader 
translates  n''"n'l3N?D  'Divine  apostleship,'  he  will  not  err,  since  tlie 
apostle  himself  tells  us  that  this  office  he  got  from  God.  In  ver.  9 
I  added  ^L"2J1  to  the  word  '•H-n^,  because  tlie  idiom  recpiii'es  tliat  "TlTin 
in  the  construction  of  the  verse  should  not  stand  alone.  Hence  the 
synonymous  ''C'Di  is  added,  which  makes  no  alteration  in  the  meaning. 
Now  all  the  liberties  in  this  chapter  could  be  avoided,  Ijut  as  there 
will  be  places  where  such  liberties,  and  even  more,  will  be  absolutely 
necessary,  I  therefore  put  forward  this  chapter  as  a  specimen,  and 
would  be  glad  to  have  your  opinion,  whether  I  have  not  overstepped 
the  limits  of  the  boundary. 

"  Now  I  hoi^e,  as  I  have  sympathised  and  do  symjiathise  with  your 
work,  so  will  you  witli  mine,  and  even  encourage  it  if  possible  ;  thus 


31 Y  HEBREW  NEW   TESTAMENT.  139 


making  it  manifest  that  wo  have  learned  of  the  evangelists,  who  each 
wrote  the  same  story,  not  in  rivalry  bnt  to  serve  the  same  common 
Master.     I  wonld  like  to  say  a  great  many  things,  bnt  time  forbids. 

"I.  E.  Salkixsox." 

After  Salkinson  had  wellnigb  concluded  bis  labours  as  a 
translator  of  tbe  New  Testament,  and  bad  prepared  tbe 
first  draiigbt  of  it — only  tbe  Acts  of  tbe  Apostles  bad  not 
been"  completed — bis  unexpected  deatb  brougbt  sore  be- 
reavement on  bis  family,  and  put  a  sudden  stop  to  tbe  work 
tbat  bad  been  so  dear  to  bim.  I  hastened  to  express  my 
warm  sympathy  for  tbe  sorrowing  widow,  Mrs.  Henrietta 
Salkinson,  and  I  made  offer  to  her  of  my  assistance.  In 
reply  she  wrote  me  on  June  14th,  1^^'A,  when  amongst 
other  things  she  said  :  "  I  do  assure  you  tliat  never  in  my 
dear  husband's  mind  was  there  the  least  desire  tbat  bis 
work  should  be  made  a  rival  of  yours,  but  he  regarded  this 
work  as  the  task  of  bis  life.  I  have  heard  bim  repeatedly 
say,  '  God  has  given  me  talent  for  translating,  and  I  must 
use  it  for  His  glory.'  And  there  are  indeed  in  almost  every 
laiiguage  several  translations  of  tbe  New  Testament,  and  so 
too  in  tbe  Hebrew  language  there  may  surely  be  diffei'ent 
translations  existing  alongside  of  one  another,  from  which 
every  one  may  choose  tbe  version  that  most  perfectly 
satisfies  bis  tastes  and  bis  needs." 

These  are  golden  words,  which  I  should  like  myself  to 
take  to  heart,  and  shall  be  greatly  delighted  if  Salkinson' s 
translation  should  obtain  numerous  Jewish  readers  and 
should  be  tbe  means  of  leading  many  to  tbe  conviction  tbat 
Jesus  Christ  is  Israel's  noblest  son,  the  holiest  and  divinest 
Man  and  tbe  Servant  of  tbe  Lord,  who  has  offered  Himself 
up  for  His  people  and  for  the  whole  world  of  sinners  ;  and 
I  consider  it  a  providential  circumstance,  a  gracious  dis- 
pensation of  my  God,  that  the  new  translation  has  appeared 
before  my  departure.  I  have  received  from  it  a  new 
impulse  in  the  revision   of    my   own  work,    and    I  openly 


140  MY  HEBREW  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


acknowledge  that  the  discovery  of  the  imperfections  of  my 
own  work  has  been  greatly  increased  since  the  year  1885. 
Yet  at  the  same  time  I  am  still  thoroughly  convinced  of 
the  somidness  of  the  principle  which  I  followed  in  my 
translation  of  rendering  the  New  Testament  into  Hebrew 
of  such  a  kind  as  the  sacred  writers  would  themselves  have 
employed  had  they  thought  and  written  in  Hebrew.  There 
are  several  passages,  though  the  number  is  by  no  means 
great,  in  which  Salkinson  has  made  in  his  version  what  we 
might  style  a  more  happy  hit.  Nevertheless  continued 
study  of  the  New  Testament  and  of  biblical  and  post-biblical 
Hebrew,  especially  of  the  Hebrew  syntax,  and  the  careful 
consideration  of  critical  reviews  which  in  rich  abundance  lie 
before  me,  have  led  me  ever  more  and  more  to  the  humbling 
conclusion  that  I  am  still  very  far  short  of  reaching  the  ideal 
of  a  Hebrew  counterpart  of  the  Greek  New  Testament. 

A  new  reprint  of  the  32mo  edition  of  my  work  has  just 
now  appeared.  Although  the  edition  has  been  electrotyped, 
I  have  been  able  to  make  various  improvements  in  it  by 
having  some  plates  recast  and  occasional  corrections  made 
in  some  of  the  other  plates.  Including  the  octavo  edition, 
which  appeared  in  the  year  1885,  this  new  32mo  edition 
may  be  reckoned  the  ninth.  The  octavo  edition  has  not 
been  electrotyped,  and  it  is  to  be  followed  by  a  tenth  edition, 
for  which  Hebrew  types  more  in  accordance  with  the  national 
pattern  than  those  previously  employed  will  be  provided. 
It  is  my  earnest  prayer  that  God  may  preserve  my  life  so 
long  that  I  may  be  able  to  give  expression  to  my  most  mature 
convictions  in  this  tenth  edition.  It  will  be  not  merely  a 
revision  of  my  translation,  but  a  new  translation. 

And  now  I  shall  point  out  a  few  instances  to  show  how 
much  still  remains  to  be  done  in  order  to  the  perfect  per- 
formance of  the  task,  and  only  as  a  preliminary  example  I 
give  what  follows.  The  imperial  name  Kalaap  occurs  in 
the  New  Testament  no  less  than  twenty-eight  times.     My 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS  IN  PHRYGIA.   341 

translation  as  well  as  that  of  Salkinson's,  with  two  striking 
exceptions,  in  Luke  iii.  5,  Philippians  iv.  22,  renders  this 
Kaiaap  by  "19''|i'.ri.  But  as  in  the  New  Testament  Greek 
this  word  Kalaap  is  always  found  without  the  article,  and  is 
therefore  treated  as  a  self-determining  proper  name,  so  it 
would  seem  that  the  Hebrew  ~lD"'p  in  the  Talmud  and 
Midrasch  is  also  always  employed  without  the  article.  In 
every  case  then  the  article  should  be  removed.  But  how  will 
this  principle  affect  such  a  phrase  as  WDV  r\')^^D  ?  In  the 
case  of  these  two  words  we  find  that  in  the  oldest  synagogal 
literature  Wf^U  has  not  the  article,  whereas  in  my  trans- 
lation, as  well  as  in  Salkinson's,  the  phrase  is  throughout 
written  D^'2Ii^^  r)^D7!2.  Is  the  article  also  in  this  instance 
to   be  dispensed    with  ?      We  shall   seek    to    answer    this 

question  in  our  next  paper. 

Feanz  Delitzsch. 


EABLY  CHBISTIAN   MONUMENTS  IN  PHBYGIA. 

A  STUDY  IN  THE  EABLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

III. 

The  inscriptions  which  constitute  the  foundation  of  this 
study  belong  to  what  is,  as  a  general  rule,  the  least  interest- 
ing and  the  least  important  class  of  ancient  epigraphic  re- 
mains— the  commonplace  epitaph.  In  the  epitaphs  of  Asia 
Minor  especially  a  dreary  monotony  is  the  rule.  A  number 
of  formulas  are  stereotyped,  and  long  series  of  inscriptions 
repeat  one  or  other  of  them  with  very  little  variety  beyond 
that  of  names  and  dates.  During  my  first  journeys  in  Asia 
Minor  these  wearisome  epitaphs  were  a  severe  trial  to  my 
patience,  and  it  seemed  almost  useless  to  take  the  trouble 
of  copying  them.  Time  was  precious,  and  work  was  press- 
ing, and  it  was  hard  to  waste  minutes  or  hours  in  getting 
access   to    and   copying   such   uninteresting   and    valueless 


142     EAIiLT  CHRISTIAN  MONmiENTS   IN  PHRYOIA: 

epitaphs.  Frequently  when  an  inscription  was  reported, 
I  got  its  appearance  described,  and  if  the  description 
showed  that  it  was  an  epitaph  dechned  to  waste  time  in 
hunting  it  up,  a  process  which  sometimes  involves  the 
expenditure  of  considerable  diplomacy,  time,  and  money. 
In  many  of  the  Christian  epitaphs,  the  fact  that  they  are 
Christian  constitutes  tlie  sole  interest.  Otherwise  they 
hardly  differ  except  in  the  personal  names  from  dozens  of 
their  neighbours.  But  I  trust  to  have  shown  by  the 
examples  already  quoted  that  even  from  this  most  despised 
class  of  documents  intelligent  study  may  derive  some  im- 
portant historical  conclusions.  Varieties  of  style  and  for- 
mula have  been  shown  to  spring  from  difference  in  religious 
training  and  in  social  circumstances,  and  two  distinct  tides 
of  Christianizing  influence,  differing  in  character,  have- 
been  traced.  AVhen  Christianity  became  supreme  these 
provincial  differences  v/ere  proscribed  and  rapidly  dis- 
appeared, but  it  is  a  distinct  gain  to  know  that  they  ever 
existed.  The  Church  of  north-western  Phrygia  has  been 
traced,  by  a  hypothesis  which  has  in  its  favour  antecedent 
probability  and  a  certain  amount  of  positive  indications, 
to  a  Bithynian  origin,  and  it  has  been  shown  that  the 
Bithynian  ^  tradition  assigned  the  beginning  of  Christianity 
in  that  country  to  the  visit  paid  by  Paul  and  Silas  to  the 
Troad.'     The  origin  of  the  other  stream  of  Christianizing 

^  I  have  assumed  the  Henuineiiess  of  the  famous  disputed  letter  of  Trajan 
about  the  Bithynian  Christians  :  it  apjjears  to  me  that  the  criticism  directed 
upon  it  has  only  proved  more  conclusively  that  it  must  be  genuine.  It  forms 
no  part  of  my  task  to  discuss  such  points,  and  the  same  remark  which  has  been 
made  about  Trajan's  letter  may  be  applied  to  some  other  documents,  which  I 
have  already  cjuoted  or  may  quote  below. 

-  Without  contending  that  the  tradition,  mentioned  already  (Tut  ExrosixoL, 
October,  188H,  p.  2G-1),  of  the  visit  paid  by  Paul  dnd  Silas  to  the  country 
between  Cyzicus  and  the  Rbyndacus  is  really  very  ancient  in  origin,  I  may 
mention  that  the  natural  way  for  them  to  go  from  Phrygia  and  Galatia  to  tbe 
Troad  (Acts  xvi.  6-8)  would  be  through  this  district,  and  that  the  tradition 
also  agrees  with  the  recorded  history  in  not  making  them  appear  east  of  the 
Pihyudacus  in  the  Itoman  [iroviuce  of  Bitliynia; 


A  STUDY  IN  TEE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  TEE  GEURGE.  143 


influence  in  central  and  southern  Phrygia  cannot  be  doubt- 
ful. Antecedent  probability  is  that  this  influence  proceeds 
from  the  valley  where  Laodiceia,  Colossse,  and  Hierapolis 
lie  ;  and  the  documentary  evidence  is  most  abundant  and 
characteristic  in  the  districts  which  lie  immediately  east 
and  north-east  of  that  valley,  and  grows  less  distinctive 
and  approximates  more  and  more  to  the  general  type  of 
Christian  documents,  as  we  go  farther  away.  Thus  the 
second  and  chief  stream  of  Christianizing  influence  also  is 
traced  back  to  St.  Paul,  from  whom  the  Churches  of 
Laodiceia  and  CoIossib  derived  their  origin. 

It  will  be  best  to  devote  one  of  these  articles  to  a 
description  of  the  local  limits  and  of  the  characteristics 
of  the  Church  of  central  and  southern  Phrygia.  But  before 
essaying  this  task,  it  is  necessary  to  discuss  one  pre- 
liminary point,  which  is  both  of  the  first  importance  and  of 
the  greatest  difficulty — I  mean  the  influence  and  authority 
exercised  by  powerful  individuals  in  founding  and  consoli- 
dating the  Church  in  Phrygia.  This  subject  leads  us  on 
to  difficult  and  dangerous  ground,  a  battlefield  where  con- 
troversy has  raged  without  having  yet  reached  a  conclusion. 
I  must  therefore  repeat  my  warning  as  to  the  scope  of 
these  Studies.  I  do  not  and  cannot  speak  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  Church  historian.  My  purpose  is  only  to 
show  that  a  great  amount  of  neglected  evidence  bearing 
on  this  important  period  of  history  is  in  existence,  and  is 
perishing  year  by  year.  But  the  duty  of  the  archa3ologist 
is  not  completed  by  the  mere  collection  and  cataloguing 
of  raw  material,  or  by  the  publication  of  the  bare  text  of 
new  documents,  however  important  and  in  many  cases 
difficult  this  too  thankless  task  is.  The  due  interpretation 
of  the  natural  sense  of  the  documents  equally  belongs  to  his 
province.  Pie  is  bound  to  study  them  from  his  own  point 
of  view,  and  his  point  of  xiew  is  totally  different  from  that 
of  the  historian,  to  whom  these  documents  come  as  mere 


lU    EABLY  GliBiSTIAN  MONUMENT'S  IN  PEBYGIA  : 


small  parts  of  a  great  mass  of  evidence,  which  he  looks  at 
with  eyes  already  habituated  to  a  certain  view  of  the  sub- 
ject. The  archaeologist,  on  the  other  hand,  is  penetrated 
with  the  belief  that  each  new  document  is  an  end  in  itself. 
He  has  the  conviction  that  all  of  them  are  redolent  of 
the  soil  and  atmosphere  where  they  were  produced.  He 
familiarizes  himself  with  the  tone  and  colour  and  spirit  of 
the  country,  brings  himself  as  much  as  possible  under  the 
influence  of  its  scenery  and  atmosphere,  and  tries  to  realize 
in  full  vividness  the  surroundings  in  which  and  the  feelings 
with  which  the  documents  that  he  has  to  interpret  were 
composed  and  engraved.  I  believe  that  one  can  hardly 
insist  too  strongly  on  the  influence  of  nature  over  the 
human  spirit  in  Phrygia.  There  is  no  country  where  the 
character  of  the  land  has  more  thoroughly  impressed  itself 
on  the  people,  producing  a  remarkable  uniformity  of  type 
in  the  many  races  which  have  contributed  to  form  its  popu- 
lation. A  tone  of  melancholy,  often  of  monotony,  in  the 
landscape,  combined  with  the  conditions  of  agriculture, 
whose  success  or  failure  seems  to  depend  very  much  on 
the  heavens  and  very  little  on  human  labour,  produced  a 
subdued  and  resigned  tone  in  its  inhabitants,  a  sense  of 
the  overpowering  might  of  nature,  and  a  strong  belief  in 
and  receptivity  of  the  Divine  influence.  The  archseologist 
who  would  understand  or  interpret  the  unused  historical 
material  in  Asia  Minor  must  saturate  himself  with  the 
spirit  and  atmosphere  of  the  country ;  and  though  I  feel 
how  far  short  I  fall  of  the  ideal,  yet  this  is  the  spirit  in 
which  I  should  wish  to  write.  It  must  be  remembered 
that,  in  thus  studying  a  single  group  of  documents  apart 
from  the  general  evidence  bearing  on  the  subject,  there  is 
always  a  danger  of  straining  their  interpretation,  and  I 
cannot  hope  to  have  wholly  escaped  this  danger. 

The  obscure  and  ill-composed  epitaph  which  was  pub- 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  145 

lisbed  above  as  No.  12,^  appears  to  me,  with  all  its  miserable 
Greek,  to  be  one  of  the  most  instructive  of  the  Phrygian 
documents  in  regard  to  the  tone  of  the  early  Christians  to 
their  leaders,  and  I  have  therefore  added  the  Greek  text 
in  a  footnote,  inasmuch  as  no  translation  can  ever  fairly 
represent  an  ancient  document.  The  writer  of  this  epitaph 
was  full  of  the  same  feeling  which  led  the  Phrygians  of 
the  Pentapolis  to  style  their  hero  of  the  second  century 
"  the  equal  of  the  apostles."  The  leaders  and  preachers 
of  Phrygia  were  felt  by  their  converts  and  disciples  to  be 
really  the  successors  of  the  apostles,  and  their  people 
entertained  for  them  all  the  respect  and  veneration  (and  we 
may  be  sure  paid  them  the  unhesitating  obedience)  which 
breathes  through  the  title  and  the  epitaph  which  have  just 
been  quoted.  Under  what  actual  name  these  great  leaders 
exercised  their  authority,  I  cannot  presume  to  decide :  this 
is  a  point  which  must  be  determined  by  the  Church  his- 
torians ;  but,  as  I  said  above,  the  scanty  evidence  seems 
to  me  to  point  to  the  conclusion  that  the  title  "  bishop  " 
was  not  in  ordinary  use  in  the  early  Phrygian  Church.  So 
far  as  I  can  presume  to  hold  an  opinion  the  leader  and 
"  equal  of  the  apostles "  exercised  his  supreme  and  im- 
plicitly accepted  authority  under  the  humble  title  of  pres- 
byter :  he  was  one  among  a  number,  and  the  wide  authority 
which  he  exercised  depended  on  personal  ascendency,  and 
was  not  accompanied  by  any  distinguishing  official  name 
and  express  rank.  The  two  typical  cases  in  the  second 
century  are  Avircius  and  Montanus.  The  former  is  in  later 
history  called  Bishop  of  Hierapolis,  and  it  is  quite  clear 

1    AkvKixv  Kadopxs  [KaJrexCet,  s]f'''[e]i  oDtos  6  rvfx'^os 
ov  9eov  avyiXoii  re  woOrjrov, 
Aaov  Trpoffrdfievoi' ,  vo/JLip  T[a]   diKea  (fipovQiV 
"RpOe  [i.i'.rjXdi]  5^  d^fJLa  Oeov  /X€[y]as  Tai.fj.aLS  [t]  dvawava-ii'. 
Ill  line  3  (ppovSiu  has  been  substituted  for  (ppovovvra,  which  would  give  better 
syntax  and  better  metre,  and  perhaps  efd'  was  intended  instead  of  |eVe.    raifials 
apparently  for  rc/xals :  fxeras  engraved  for  fxeyas.     The  rest  of  the  epitaph  does 
not  bear  on  our  subject. 

VOL.   IX.  10 


M6    EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS   IN  PURYGIA: 

that  he  exercised  a  personal  ascendency  which  perhaps 
surpassed  that  of  the  later  bishops  ;  but  the  natural  con- 
clusion from  the  only  reference  to  him  in  literature,  vis. 
the  dedication  of  the  tractate  against  Montanism  by  his 
fellow  presbyter,^  is  that  he  was  usually  styled  presbyter. 
More  is  known  about  Montanus,  but  the  evidence  is  dis- 
torted by  the  prejudice  and  hatred  cherished  against  a 
leader,  who  was  held  to  have  betrayed  the  cause  and  to 
have  become  an  apostle  of  evil.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  Montanus  considered  himself  to  be  the  apostle  of 
light,  and  that  his  character,  position,  and  influence  were 
analogous  to  those  of  the  other  leaders  who  made  the 
Church  of  Phrygia,  and  whose  memory  has  not  been  kept 
alive  by  the  brand  of  heresy.  There  is  not  the  slightest 
evidence  or  even  probability  that  Montanus  was  ever 
styled  bishop.  The  opinion  is  now  general  that  Montanus 
represented  the  old  school  of  Phrygian  Christianity,  as 
opposed  to  the  organized  and  regulated  hierarchical  Church 
which  was  making  Christianity  a  power  in  the  world,  and 
that  "the  chief  opponents  of  the  Montanists  were  the 
bishops."-  The  very  name  Kataphryges,  which  was  given 
to  his  followers,  shows  that  he  was  considered  to  be  a 
representative  of  the  old  Phrygian  spirit  and  custom. 

The  bishops  however  won  the  day ;  Phrygian  custom 
and  the  individuality  of  the  Phrygian  Church  were  sacrificed 
to  the  uniformity  of  the  Church  Catholic.  Everything 
known  about  the  later  organization  of  the  Phrygian  Church 

*  The  anonymous  author  speaks  of  "  our  fellow  presbyter,  Zoticus  of  Otrous." 
Otrous  was  a  town  about  three  miles  west  of  Hierapolis,  where  Avircius  lived. 
It  seems  to  me  that  only  prepossession  can  make  such  a  writer  as  Bonwetseh, 
after  quoting  this  jjassage,  use  it  as  an  argument  that  Avircius  was  actually 
called  bishop.  The  author  also  addresses  him  by  the  respectful  phrase  w  /xaKapie. 
The  interpretation  advocated  above,  that  Avircius  had  the  authority  and  per- 
sonal influence  of  an  "  equal  of  the  apostles,"  but  only  the  title  of  presbyter, 
seems  to  exi^lain  the  evidence  of  this  tractate,  and  to  show  why  a  man  who 
exercised  even  greater  authority  than  the  later  bishops  received  in  later  docu- 
ments the  title  bishoi). 

-  Comj)are  Bonwetseh,  Gesclnclite  des  Montanismiis,  jip.  11,  12,  and  jMssiin. 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  147 

shows  that  it  was  framed  according  to  the  civil  organization  : 
every  city  had  its  bishop,  and  the  bishop  of  each  provincial 
metropolis  exercised  a  certain  authority  over  the  bishops  of 
the  cities  in  his  province.  No  other  crisis  in  the  Phrygian 
Church  is  known  when  this  organization  is  likely  to  have 
been  substituted  for  the  old,  looser  system  of  personal 
authority  and  influence.  One  who  approaches  the  subject 
of  Church  organization  after  studying  the  civil  organization 
of  the  Anatolian  provinces,  and  who  sees  the  two  coinciding 
with  each  other  as  far  back  as  the  records  reach,  is  forced 
to  the  conclusion  that  it  originated  when  the  Phrygian 
Church  was  brought  into  conformity  and  closer  union  with 
the  Church  in  general,  i.e.  at  the  Montanist  controversy 
following  after  a.d.  IGO. 

The  bishops  indeed  won  the  day,  but  they  did  not  succeed 
in  making  Phrygia  thoroughly  orthodox,  or  in  putting  their 
system  into  the  hearts  of  the  whole  people.  AVe  should 
be  glad  to  find  some  traces  of  the  true  character  and  tone 
of  Montanism,  as  described  by  those  who  came  under  its 
influence.  If  something  was  gained  in  power  and  unifor- 
mity, something  also  was  lost  in  fervour,  by  the  proscribing 
of  Montanism  as  a  heresy ;  and  the  Church  in  Phr3^gia 
certainly  ceased  to  be  the  Church  of  Phrygia.  Complaints 
of  the  heterodoxy  and  abominable  heresies  of  Phrygia  are 
common  in  later  times.  In  the  scanty  records  of  its  history 
frequently  some  slight  detail  suggests  that  underneath  the 
orthodox  hierarchy  of  bishops  another  religious  system, 
which  lies  deeper,  gives  an  occasional  sign  of  its  existence. 
But  it  eludes  our  search  ;  the  sign,  too  unsubstantial  a 
ground  for  argument,  melts  away  as  it  is  examined.^ 

'■  I  will  go  forward,  sayest  thou, 
I  shall  not  fail  to  find  her  now. 
Look  ni3,  the  fold  is  on  her  brow." 

1  Montanism  is  a  subject  which  has  long  had  a  special  interest  for  me,  and 
on  which  I  have  been  most  eacer  to  discover  some  evidence. 


148     EAELY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS   IN  PEE7GIA: 

Montanus  was  no  bishop,  but  he  exercised  a  practically 
boundless  influence  over  his  followers,  and  he  preserves  to 
us  the  earlier  character  of  the  Phrygian  Church.  The 
name  however  under  which  authority  is  exercised  is  imma- 
terial ;  the  important  fact  is  that  widespreading  authority 
and  influence  of  individual  teachers  is  the  character  of  the 
early  Phrygian  Church.  The  Phrygian  Church  gradually 
organized  itself  on  the  model  of  the  civil  organization ;  but 
on  the  whole  the  change  is  in  the  direction  of  breaking 
up  the  more  wide-reaching  ascendency  of  the  old  leaders. 
The  tendency  of  the  early  Byzantine  policy  in  central  Asia 
Minor  was  to  break  up  the  wide  territories  of  the  great  cities 
by  raising  villages  or  small  subject  towns  to  the  dignity 
of  independent  cities,  and  the  principle  was  expressly 
laid  down  that  every  city  should  have  its  own  bishop,  an 
exception  being  made  by  Justinian  in  the  case  of  Isauro- 
polis,  which,  probably  on  account  of  its  proximity,  was  to 
remain  under  the  authority  of  the  Bishop  of  Leontopolis.^ 
In  some  cases  the  Church  resisted  the  principle  that  civil 
division  should  cause  ecclesiastical  division  also,  but  as  a 
general  rule  the  former  was  followed  as  a  matter  of  course 
by  the  latter.  After  much  examination  and  many  various 
attempts,  I  have  at  last  been  driven  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  only  way  of  explaining  various  discrepancies  between 
the  civil  boundaries  of  certain  provinces  in  Asia  Minor 
and  the  ecclesiastical  lists  is  due  to  old  religious  con- 
nexions or  to  the  personal  ascendency  of  great  religious 
leaders.  To  discuss  this  as  fully  as  the  material  extends 
would  require  an  article  to  itself,  but  one  or  two  examples 
which  bear  specially  on  our  immediate  purpose  may  be  here 
quoted. 

^  I  regret  to  have  lost  the  precise  reference,  and  my  memory  jjerhaps  deceives 
me  as  to  the  exact  details,  especially  as  to  the  name  Leontopolis.  I  read  the 
sentence  in  an  old  collection  of  extracts  from  Greek  ecclesiastical  law  in  the 
Bodleian  Library,  and  thought  I  had  also  seen  it  in  the  Cor])us  Juris  Civilis, 
but  have  recently  been  unable  to  find  it. 


A  STUDY  m  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  149 

I  have  frequently  mentioned  the  north-western  Phrygian 
Church  as  being  originally  distinct  in  character  from  and 
unconnected  with  the  rest  of  Phrygia.  No  one  who  reads 
over  the  first  of  these  articles,  and  notes  the  connexion 
there  described  between  Kotiaion  and  the  country  of  the 
Prepenisseis,  can  fail  to  be  struck  when  the  fact  comes 
before  him  that  in  many  ecclesiastical  lists  Kotiaion  and  the 
country  of  the  Prepenisseis  are  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  province,  and  the  bishops  of  the  district  placed  under 
the  authority  of  a  separate  archbishop.^  I  have  also  argued 
elsewhere  that  the  omission  of  Kotiaion  from  the  list  of 
Hierocles  is  to  be  explained  because  he  was  greatly  under 
the  influence  of  the  ecclesiastical  lists,  which  did  not 
class  Kotiaion  under  Phrygia,  but  reckoned  it  as  auto- 
kephalous  and  subordinate  only  to  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople and  not  to  the  metropolitan  of  the  province. 
The  only  addition  which  I  have  now  to  make  to  the 
reasoning  given  in  the  Cities  and  Bishoprics  of  Phrygia,'^ 
is  to  connect  this  independence  of  the  Bishop  of  Kotiaion 
with  the  old  religious  separation  between  this  part  of 
Phrygia  and  the  rest  of  the  province.  A  parallel  case  may 
be  found  in  Pontus.     Euchaita  does  not  occur  in  Hierocles, 

1  In  Notifies  Ejnscopatimm  iii.,  x.,  xiii.,  the  Metropolitan  of  Kotiaion  has 
subject  to  him  the  bishops  of  Spore,  Kone,  aud  Gaiou  Kome.  In  my  Citieii 
and  Bishoprics,  §  xc.  to  xcv.,  I  have  shown  (long  before  the  point  which  I  am 
now  explaining  occurred  to  me)  that  these  three  bishoprics  lie  on  the  roads 
south-east  of  Kotiaion,  the  first  and  third  being  in  the  territory  of  the  tribe 
Prepenisseis,  the  third  being  on  its  border  and  perhaps  partly  in  it  also. 

2  A  writer  in  the  Church  Qitarterlij  for  July,  1888  (p.  309),  whose  generous 
praise  of  my  work  has  been  a  full  reward  to  me  for  much  toil,  of  a  kind  which 
I  should  not  have  voluntarily  chosen,  presses  further  than  I  intended  my  words, 
"  the  list  of  Hierocles  is  the  list  of  the  bishops  of  his  time,"  when  he  under- 
stands them  (and  dissents  rightly  from  them)  as  meaning  "  the  synecdfinns 
itself  is  ecclesiastical."  My  rather  carelessly  expressed  sentence  was  not 
intended  to  imply  more  than  that  a  list  of  cities  is  ipso  facto  a  list  of  bishoprics, 
and  vice  versa  ;  I  did  not  mean  that  Hierocles  arranges  his  list  as  a  list  of 
bishopries  would  be  arranged.  Further  study  however  has  shown  me  that  the 
case  is  more  complicated,  aud  that  while  in  most  provinces  his  lists  are  identical 
with  the  ecclesiastical  lists,  in  some  (e.g.  Hellespontus)  he  has  used  a  different 
authority.     He  arranges  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor  always  in  a  geographical  order. 


150    EABLY  CHBTSTIAN  MONUMENTS   IN  PEBYGIA  : 

though  it  is  an  important  town  often  mentioned  in  history. 
The  probable  reason  is  that  it  was  autokephalous,  and 
therefore  not  mentioned  in  ecclesiastical  lists  in  the 
province  of  Pontus.  This  honorary  position  was  probably 
due,  at  least  in  part,  to  the  respect  paid  to  St.  Theodore  of 
Euchaita. 

Of  the  apostles  and  martyrs  of  the  Phrygian  Church  very 
little  is  recorded,  and  that  little  is  transmitted  to  us  in  such 
suspicious  authorities  and  with  such  impossible  surround- 
ings, that  it  is  very  doubtful  how  far  the  personages  described 
can  be  accepted  as  historical  characters.  I  propose  here 
to  examine  the  evidence  about  two  of  these  personages,  to 
endeavour  to  separate  the  legendary  from  the  historical 
element  in  their  personality,  and  to  trace  how  the  latter 
has  been  preserved  in  memory  and  how  the  former  has 
grown  around  it.  The  first  case  is  that  of  St.  Artemon, 
whose  story,  connected  partly  with  Laodiceia  and  partly 
with  Diocsesareia  (a  town  on  the  southern  frontier  of 
Phrygia),  abounds  in  such  absurd  and  puerile  miraculous 
details  that  the  Bollandists  themselves  entitle  it  "  elogium 
fabulosum."  Unfortunately  no  complete  biography  of  him 
is  known  to  have  been  preserved,  but  several  brief  accounts 
of  his  martyrdom  may  be  found  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum, 
October  8th,  p.  41  £f.  He  was  a  presbyter  of  Laodiceia  in 
the  time  of  Diocletian.  In  company  with  Sisinnius,  bishop 
of  Laodiceia,  he  destroyed  the  images  in  a  temple,  which  in 
one  of  the  accounts  is  called  the  temple  of  Artemis,  while 
in  another  the  deity  to  whom  it  was  dedicated  is  ZEsculapius. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  such  vagueness  is  always  a  bad  sign 
of  the  character  of  these  documents.  Moreover  such  con- 
duct is  contrary  to  all  that  we  know  about  the  Christians  of 
Asia  Minor,  who  were  advised  not  to  voluntarily  give  them- 
selves up,  much  less  to  wantonly  attack  the  shrines  and  the 
holy  things  of  their  neighbours.  Such  an  account  arose 
during  the  period  when  pagan  temples  were  really  being 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CnUECE.  151 

destroyed  by  the  victorious  Christians,  and  when  deeds 
similar  to  those  of  the  present  were  attributed  to  the  heroes 
of  the  past.  He  was  arrested  on  the  road  from  Laodiceia 
to  Diocsesareia,^  and  a  hind  brought  news  of  his  arrest 
to  the  Bishop  Sisinnius.  The  javehns  which  the  governor 
ordered  to  be  hurled  at  Artemon  slew  one  of  his  own 
assessors.  A  pool,  probably  the  actual  lake  of  Diocaesareia, 
was  produced  at  the  prayers  of  the  saint.  Other  details  are 
really  too  grotesque  and  puerile  for  repetition. 

As  the  Bollandists  have  already  labelled  it,  this  account 
obviously  belongs  to  the  sphere  of  legend,  not  of  history. 
At  one  time  this  admission  would  have  been  considered  a 
sufficient  reason  for  relegating  the  document  to  the  limbo 
of  oblivion.  In  recent  time  however  the  study  of  legend 
and  mythology  has  become  a  science.  The  mere  rationali- 
zation of  legend  by  omitting  the  marvellous  and  leaving 
a  residue  of  physical  possibility  is  of  course  an  utterly 
unjustifiable  and  unscientific  process  ;  the  residue  which 
is  thus  obtained  is  not  one  whit  more  historical  than  the 
whole  legend  to  which  it  belongs.  Some  definite  objective 
evidence,  outside  of  the  legend,  unconnected  with  it,  and 
of  independent  certainty,  must  be  obtained  ;  and  the  legend 
tested  thereby  sometimes  yields  real  information  of  a  very 
different  kind  from  that  which  it  professes  to  give.  It  is 
now  an  accepted  principle  that  even  the  genesis  of  legend 
is  an  historical  process,  which  may  throw  light  at  least  on 
the  character  of  the  age  when  the  legend  grew,  if  not  on 
the  age  to  which  it  professes  to  belong. 

The  problem  now  is  to  find  some  external  evidence  which 
shall  furnish  a  criterion  in  this  particular  case.  The  pre- 
ceding statement  has  exhibited  the  relation  of  the  details 


^  The  authorities  all  say  Cffisareia  ;  hut  DiocEesareia  was  not  very  far  from 
Laodiceia,  and  was  in  the  Eoman  conventus  whose  administrative  centre  was  at 
Laodiceia,  whereas  no  city  Ciesareia  existed  in  Phrygia.  On  this  point  I  shall 
have  more  to  say  below. 


152    EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS  IN  PHRYGIA : 

to  actual  localities  in  a  way  which  was  impossible  until  the 
general  survey  of  Phrygia  was  organized  by  the  Asia 
Minor  Exploration  Committee.  We  may  now  say  confi- 
dently, that  the  local  surroundings  are  not  fictitious,  but 
real.  The  legend  of  the  origin  of  the  lake  of  Diocsesareia 
must  have  arisen  at  a  time  when  there  was  a  tendency  to 
connect  natural  phenomena  with  the  history  of  Christian 
saints,  and  when  therefore  the  veneration  of  saints 
possessed  a  strong  hold  on  the  popular  mind.  In  the  old 
pagan  time  the  reason  for  such  phenomena  of  nature  was 
found  in  the  action  of  the  deities,  action  of  a  capricious 
kind,  and  not  in  accordance  with  general  principle.  The 
Christians  of  Phrygia  supplied  the  place  of  the  old  anthropo- 
morphic deities  by  the  saints,  who  had  been  the  champions 
of  their  faith.  This  same  process  is  a  familiar  one  in  the  his- 
tory of  religion.  Among  the  Teutonic  races  we  find  stories, 
whose  details  are  among  the  earliest  heirlooms  of  the  Indo- 
European  races,  and  which  were  once  told  about  pagan 
deities,  related  with  only  the  changed  personality  of  Christ 
and  the  apostles.  But  it  must  be  observed  that  this 
explanation  presupposes  the  existence  of  a  widespread 
respect  for  the  saint ;  he  must  have  been  already  venerated 
before  the  legend  could  arise.  If  we  can  fix  a  date  for  the 
growth  of  the  legend,  we  can  then  say  that  St.  Artemon 
was  then  and  for  some  time  before  that  date  an  object 
of  general  veneration  in  southern  Phrygia  and  the  heir  to 
the  legendary  heritage  of  the  pagan  deities. 

Fidelity  of  local  detail  is  one  of  the  most  important 
characteristics  of  the  class  of  tales  which  is  here  described. 
This  class  of  tales  has  grown  up  among  the  people  of  a 
district,  and  has  the  character  of  popular  legend ;  it  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  another  class  which  seems  to  be 
purely  invented  and  to  have  no  roots  in  popular  belief  and 
no  clear  local  indications.  I  have  here  assumed  the  truth 
of  the  discussion  of  the  localities  which  is  given  in  full  else- 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EABLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  153 

where  :  ^  the  precise  amount  of  evidence  in  every  detail  need 
not  be  repeated  here,  but  should  be  carefully  scrutinised  by 
those  who  wish  to  reach  the  truth. 

In  the  details  of  the  legend  of  Artemon  no  sufficient  clue 
is  furnished  as  to  the  date  of  its  composition.  The  trans- 
mitted form  of  one  of  the  versions  is  later  than  a.d.  536, 
for  it  mentions  the  governor  stationed  at  Laodiceia  under 
the  title  comes,  and  Justinian  in  that  year  made  a  new 
arrangement  of  the  provincial  governments,  and  for  the 
first  time  placed  at  Laodiceia  a  comes  as  governor  of 
Phrygia  Pacatiana.^  But  briefer  accounts  quoted  by  the 
Bollandists  from  Greek  Menasa  preserve  different  forms  of 
the  tale ;  and  one  which  speaks  of  the  temple  of  iEscu- 
lapius,  and  of  the  two  serpents  which  lived  in  it,  seems  to 
be  of  better  character,  and  to  show  some  real  knowledge 
of  the  time  when  paganism  was  still  existent,  though  the 
length  of  the  serpents  is  exaggerated  to  eighty  cubits. 

Some  importance  is  to  be  attached  to  the  name  CoBsareia. 
The  native  name  of  Diocaesareia  was  Keretapa.  Under 
the  influence  of  the  Grceco-Roman  civilization,  which  was 
diffused  in  a  very  superficial  way  over  the  central  provinces 
of  Asia  Minor,  the  Roman  name  Diocaesareia  was  sub- 
stituted for  the  vulgar  Phrygian  name.  But  this  official 
term  never  became  thoroughly  popular,  and  after  a  time, 
probably  as  early  as  the  fourth  century,  it  passed  out  of 
use,  and  the  native  name  came  once  more  into  general 
employment.  The  tale  of  Artemon  preserves  the  recollec- 
tion of  the  time  when  Dioceesareia  was  the  name  of  the 
city.     But  in  the  later  versions  of  the  tale,  which  alone  are 

^  See  my  papers  on  "Antiquities  of  Southern  Phrygia  and  the  Border 
Lands"  in  American  Journal  of  Archaoloyy ,  1887-88,  section  on  Diocssareia 
Keretapa. 

-  The  same  feature  also  proves  that  this  version  is  not  later  than  the  century 
immediately  following  Justinian.  The  government  of  Phrygia  was  entirely 
remodelled  in  the  following  century,  when  the  Themes  were  instituted,  and 
probably  Laodiceia  ceased  then  to  be  a  seat  of  government,  while  the  impreg- 
nable fortress  of  Chonai  took  its  place. 


154    EABLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS  IN  PHRYGIA: 

preserved,  the  writer,  having  no  knowledge  of  the  locahties, 
does  not  understand  the  now  disused  name,  and  substitutes 
for  it  the  commoner  form  Cassareia.  This  shght  detail 
furnishes  a  valuable  proof  of  the  antiquity  of  the  story. 
It  takes  us  back  to  a  fourth  century  version,  possibly 
only  an  oral  version,  in  which  St.  Artemon  was  connected 
both  with  the  small  country  town  of  Diocresareia  and 
with  the  seat  of  the  Boman  officials  at  Laodiceia,  and 
in  which  fidelity  of  local  details  was  a  characteristic. 
The  trial  of  a  townsman  of  Dioceesareia  for  an  offence 
against  Roman  law  would  necessarily  be  held  at  the  govern- 
ment centre  Laodiceia,  the  seat  of  the  conveiitus.  In  all 
probability  this  is  the  only  historical  part  now  recoverable 
from  the  legend.  The  rest  consists  of  floating  popular  tales, 
which  gathered  round  the  person  of  the  popular  Christian 
hero  as  a  fixed  point. 

The  tale  of  Artemon  is  one  of  many  which  grew  in  the 
popular  mind  during  the  fourth  century,  and  many  of 
which  assumed  literary  form  during  the  fifth  century.  The 
form  in  which  many  of  them  are  written  down  exhibits 
to  us  the  historical  circumstances  which  obtained  about 
400-450  A.D.^  The  Eoman  officials  mentioned  bear  the 
titles  and  perform  the  functions  which  belonged  to  officials 
of  the  early  Byzantine  empire,  and  which  were  unknown 
under  the  Eoman  empire.  The  tales  may  be  taken  as 
evidence  of  the  state  of  society  and  belief  during  the 
period  when  they  were  written.  The  leading  incidents 
were  not  invented  by  the  person  who  gave  literary  form 
to  the  tales.  They  have  the  character  of  popular  spon- 
taneous legend,  arising  among  a  people  not  highly 
educated,  about  personages  whose  memory  was  preserved 
by  religious  veneration  and  by  actual  Church  ceremonial. 
This  point  is    the    key-stone  of   the  view  which    is    here 

^  Perhaps  some  other  version  of  the  Artemon-legend  ruay  yet  be  found  in 
MS.,  earlier  and  more  detailed  than  those  which  are  iDublished. 


A  STUDY  IN  TEE  EARLY  HISTOEY  OF  THE  CEUUGE.  155 

expressed.  The  permanence  and  unalterableness  of  re- 
ligious ritual,  as  distinguished  from  the  fluctuation  of 
mere  oral  tradition  and  popular  legend,  make  it  the  one 
sure  guide  in  the  study  of  mythology.  If  memorial  cere- 
monies kept  alive  the  recollection  of  the  more  distinguished 
martyrs,  the  popular  imagination  was  kept  right  in  some 
main  details,  while  the  importance  thus  given  to  their 
personality  made  them  fixed  centres  round  which  floating 
details  and  vague  beliefs  gathered.  It  is,  I  believe,  a  fact 
that  such  memorial  services  were  performed  in  honour  of 
the  great  saints  of  the  early  Church,  and  that  at  these  ser- 
vices such  discourses  as  that  of  Gregory  Nyssenus  on  the 
Forty  Martyrs  were  delivered ;  though  on  such  a  point  I 
speak  with  all  diffidence.  Such  was  the  way  in  which  the 
memory  of  St.  Artemon  was  kept  fresh  by  thoroughly 
trustworthy  evidence  as  to  some  of  the  main  facts,  and  yet 
his  personality  became  a  centre  of  mere  popular  tales. 

I  do  not  of  course  maintain  that  all  tales  of  Asian  saints 
rank  in  the  class.  Each  one  must  be  examined  separately, 
and  vividness  of  local  detail  is  one  of  the  chief  criteria  for 
admitting  any  tale  into  this  class.  My  purpose  is  only  to 
show  that  some  tales  do  belong  to  this  class  ;  but  several 
examples  might  be  given  of  tales,  which  have  not  the 
slightest  trace  of  local  colouring  or  reality  about  them. 

While  the  general  facts  were  given  by  popular  legend, 
the  literary  form  is  due  to  the  genius,  or  want  of  genius, 
of  the  writer.  How  much  should  be  attributed  to  the 
former  cause,  and  how  much  to  the  latter,  it  is  not  possible 
to  determine  absolutely,  though  an  approximation  may  be 
made  in  each  case,  and  something  may  be  learned  about  the 
ability  and  character  of  the  writer  in  the  cases  where  a 
longer  biography  is  preserved.  It  is  not  certain  whether 
the  hand  of  a  single  writer  is  to  be  traced  throughout,  or 
whether  there  was  a  general  wave  of  hagiography  over 
Asia  Minor.     Probably  such  a  general  tendency  did  charac- 


156    EABLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS  IN  PHBYGIA: 

terize  the  fifth  century,  but  at  the  same  time  it  may  be 
possible  to  trace  the  work  of  the  same  writer  in  several 
biographies.  The  whole  subject  however  requires  patient 
investigation,  and  I  cannot  hope  to  have  hit  the  truth 
entirely,  much  less  to  have  exhausted  what  might  be 
learned,  in  these  remarks,  which  are  founded  only  on  a 
hasty  perusal  of  part  of  the  material,  undertaken  at  first  for 
purposes  of  topography,  and  made  in  the  intervals  of  a  busy 
life  devoted  chiefly  to  other  pursuits.  I  shall  be  entirely 
satisfied  if  I  succeed  in  drawing  more  attention  to  the  Chris- 
tian antiquities  of  Asia  Minor,  and  in  arousing  others  to 
correct  me  and  to  do  better  what  I  here  do  imperfectly. 

It  is  possible  that  the  foregoing  remarks  may  be  held 
extravagant,  but  I  think  it  best  to  draw  with  rigorous  logic 
the  conclusions  that  seem  to  follow  from  the  principles  enun- 
ciated ;  and  those  who  consider  that  the  conclusions  involve 
too  great  a  strain  on  their  credulity  will  scrutinize  with 
proper  severity  the  premises  from  which  they  are  deduced. 

It  has  fortunately  happened  that  in  the  explorations  car- 
ried out  in  connexion  with  the  Asia  Minor  Exploration 
Fund  indubitable  evidence  was  discovered  of  the  historical 
character  of  another  Phrygian  saint,  in  whom  the  legendary 
and  fantastic  and  marvellous  element  is  almost  as  strongly 
marked  as  in  the  tale  of  Artemon.  Here  we  have  a  case 
where  it  is  possible  to  compare  the  legend  with  the  histori- 
cal facts,  to  trace  the  origin  of  the  legendary  details,  and 
to  show  the  real  facts  out  of  which  some  of  them  grew. 
The  whole  circumstances  furnish  a  striking  example  of 
the  way  in  which  archaeological  evidence  may  be  used  to 
estimate  and  establish  the  authority  of  semi-historical 
documents.  Assuming  all  that  has  been  said  by  the  Bishop 
of  Durham  in  this  magazine,  January,  1885,  p.  3ff.,  on  the 
special  legend  which  I  have  to  discuss,  I  shall,  in  the  first 
place,  enumerate  the  main  points  in  the  tale,  so  as  to  bring 
out  both  the  purely  fictitious  character  and  the  probable 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EABLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  157 

origin  of  many  of  them,  and  also  to  show  something  of  the 
character  of  the  writer  who  first  put  the  tale  in  literary- 
form.  My  view  is  that  he  wrote  about  890-410  a.d.,  that 
he  was  a  man  of  fair  education  and  knowledge,  and  that 
many  details  are  not  of  such  a  character  as  he  would  be 
likely  to  invent,  but  bear  all  the  marks  of  free  creative 
popular  mythology. 

It  is  possible  that  the  tale  has  passed  through  subsequent 
editions  ;  but  on  this  point  I  express  no  opinion.  In  the 
main,  I  hold  that  it  may  be  considered  as  a  document  of 
400  A.D.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  this  date  was  proposed 
by  me  in  1883.  M.  I'Abbe  Duchesne  argued  against  my 
reasons  and  advocated  a  sixth  century  date.  I  have  replied 
to  his  arguments  in  a  later  paper,  and  I  am  glad  to  find  my 
opinion  corroborated  by  such  an  authority  as  the  Bishop  of 
Durham.^ 

When  Marcus  Antoninus  and  Lucius  Yerus  were  em- 
perors, there  went  forth  a  decree  that  all  should  sacrifice  to 
the  gods.  Publius,  who  was  governor  of  Lesser  Phrygia, 
carried  out  the  command  in  his  own  province,  and  in  par- 
ticular the  senate  and  people  of  Hierapolis,  clad  in  white 
apparel,  offered  solemn  sacrifice.  Aberkios,"  who  was 
Bishop  of  Hierapolis,  seeing  what  was  being  done,  prayed 
in  anguish  of  spirit  for  great  part  of  a  day,  and  then  falling 
asleep,  beheld  in  a  dream  a  young  man  of  noble  aspect,  who 
put  a  staff  in  his  hand  and  bade  him  destroy  therewith  the 

1  "  The  Tale  of  St.  Abercius  "  in  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies  in  1882,  p.  339  ff. ; 
L.  Duchesne  in  Revue  des  Questions  Historiques,  July,  1883,  p.  1  ff. ;  Cities  and 
Bishoprics,  part  ii.,  §  xxviii.,  1887 ;  Lightfoot,  Ignatius  and  Polycarp,  vol.  i., 
p.  483.  A  difficulty  which  I  found  in  my  own  view  [Cit.  and  Bish.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
425),  and  which  is  cleared  away  by  Bishop  Lightfoot,  is  now  disposed  of  by 
other  reasons  on  a  more  careful  examination  of  the  stone. 

-  I  use  here  the  spelling  of  the  biography  (see  Acta  Sanctorum,  October  22nd). 
A  few  pages  previously  I  used  the  second  century  spelling  Avircius,  which 
occurs  in  the  anonymous  treatise  against  Moutanistn.  During  the  third  cen- 
tury it  became  customary  to  use  /3  where  older  documents  use  ov  to  express  the 
sound  of  our  v  or  to.  I  call  Aberkios  the  hero  of  the  legend,  Avircius  the 
historical  character. 


158     EABLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS  IN  PHB7GIA: 

false  gods.  Awakening  full  of  zeal,  Aberkios  took  a  large 
piece  of  wood,  and  going  about  the  ninth  hour  to  the 
temple  of  Apollo,  which  was  the  chief  sanctuary  of  the  city, 
he  forced  open  the  doors,  and  rushing  in  overthrew  and 
broke  in  pieces  the  statue  of  the  god.  Thereafter  he  broke 
in  succession  the  statues  of  all  the  other  gods  which  were 
in  the  temple.  Neither  did  the  gods  themselves  inter- 
fere to  save  themselves,  proving  thus  by  their  inaction  the 
folly  of  men  in  worshipping  and  calling  gods  mere  stocks 
and  stones,  nor  did  the  ministers  of  the  temple,  who  were 
struck  with  astonishment,  raise  a  hand  against  him  in  de- 
fence of  their  deities  :  and  Aberkios,  after  pointing  the 
moral  to  be  drawn  from  the  helplessness  of  the  deities  whose 
sacred  images  he  had  broken,  retired  to  his  own  home  like 
a  victor  from  battle.  Towards  evening  the  ministers  of 
the  temple  recovered  from  their  astonishment,  and  formally 
accused  Aberkios  before  the  municipal  senate.  In  the 
morning  a  meeting  of  the  people  was  held  in  the  temple  to 
deliberate.  The  mob  were  eager  to  burn  the  house  of 
Aberkios  over  his  head ;  but  the  senate,  fearing  that  the 
conflagration  might  spread,  and  that  they  might  be  involved 
in  trouble  with  the  governor  of  the  province,  resolved  to 
arrest  Aberkios  and  any  associates  whom  he  might  have, 
and  send  all  for  trial  before  the  governor.^  During  the 
delay  caused  by  the  difference  of  opinion  in  the  public 
meeting  certain  of  the  Christians  came  to  warn  Aberkios  of 
the  design  against  him,  and  found  him  engaged  in  instruct- 
ing the  crowds  who  resorted  to  him.  His  fi'iends  advised 
him  to  retire  for  a  short  time  from  the  city  ;  but  he  declined 
to  do  so,  and  going  forth  into  the  marketplace  he  began 
to  teach  in  public. 


^  In  that  case  they  would  liave  been  sent  to  Synnada,  the  seat  of  the  con- 
ventus  (assuming  for  the  moment  the  historical  character  of  the  incident),  just 
as  it  was  shown  above  that  Artemon  must  have  been  sent  from  Diocjesareia  to 
Laodiceia  for  trial. 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EAELY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHUBGH.  159 

The  multitude  were  now  roused  to  greater  fury  when 
news  was  brought  into  the  temple  of  this  open  defiance. 
The  senators  could  no  longer  restrain  them,  and  they 
rushed  to  the  marketplace  to  kill  the  saint.  As  they 
approached  him,  three  young  men  possessed  by  demons, 
hurried  forth  in  front  of  them,  with  foaming  mouths  and 
squinting  eyes,  biting  their  own  hands,  and  calling  out, 
"  We  adjure  thee  by  the  true  and  only  God,  whom  thou 
preachest,  not  to  torment  us  before  our  time."  All  stood 
still,  and  gazed  on  the  saint,  who,  after  praying  aloud, 
touched  the  young  men  with  the  staff  which  he  car- 
ried, and  ordered  the  evil  spirits  to  come  out  of  them. 
They  were  healed  forthwith,  and  from  henceforth  would 
never  leave  the  side  of  Aberkios.  The  multitude,  to  a  man, 
renounced  idolatry  and  were  converted  on  the  spot.  As  it 
was  too  late  to  baptize  them  that  day,  the  ceremony  was 
postponed  till  the  morrow,  and  many  of  the  new  converts 
spent  the  whole  night  in  the  open  marketplace.  On  the 
next  day  five  hundred  persons  were  baptized. 

Such  is  the  scene  with  which  the  biography  of  Aberkios 
opens.  Its  utterly  fabulous  character  is  plain.  Examining 
it  a  little  more  closely,  we  can  see  that  it  could  not  arise 
until  long  after  the  events  which  it  relates.  I  have  in  the 
preceding  paper  described  the  true  character  of  the  struggle 
which  took  place  in  the  second  and  third  centuries.  It  was 
not  a  struggle  between  the  religion  of  Christ  and  the  religion 
of  Apollo  or  Jupiter  ;  it  was  a  struggle  between  the  supreme 
State  religion,  the  worship  of  the  emperors,  and  the  religion 
which  claimed  to  be  sole  and  universal.  In  this  tale  there 
is  not  a  word  about  such  an  aspect  of  the  religious  question  ; 
and  it  cannot  therefore  have  arisen  so  long  as  such  a  question 
was  placed  alone  before  the  world.  But  in  the  attempted 
revival  of  paganism  by  the  Emperor  Julian,  in  361-363  a.d., 
the  question  was  different.  The  attempt  was  then  actually 
made  to  restore  the  worship  of  the  old  gods,  Apollo  and 


160     EARLY  CHRTSTTAN  MONUMENTS  IN  PERYGTA. 

Jupiter  and  the  rest ;  and  the  tale,  which  could  not  have 
arisen  before  this  time,  might  very  naturally  come  into 
existence  after  it. 

It  is  probable  that  the  name  Apollo  is  true  to  nature.  I 
need  not  here  enter  on  the  point,  but  it  can  be  shown  that 
the  god  of  Hierapolis  was  identified  with  the  Greek  Apollo, 
and  was  frequently  called  by  that  name  by  Greek  speakers. 
In  reality  he  was  a  purely  Phrygian  deity,  a  sun-god,  who 
in  some  respects,  and  especially  as  a  god  of  prophecy  and  as 
a  solar  deity,  approximated  to  the  character  of  the  Greek 
Apollo.  Remains,  which  I  take  to  be  those  of  the  temple  of 
Hierapolis,  can  still  be  traced  just  appearing  above  the  soil 
at  a  wretched  village  called  Kotch  Hissar  ;  they  are  of  great 
extent,  and  are  built  of  unusually  large  blocks  of  stone,  in  a 
style  which  seems  to  be  older  than  the  Roman  domination. 
The  tale  arose  before  recollection  had  ceased  of  the  time 
when  a  temple  of  Apollo  at  Hierapolis  had  been  the  chief 
sanctuary  of  the  whole  Pentapolis.^  The  picture  of  the 
senate  and  people  clad  in  white  is  true  to  Roman  custom  : 
the  touch  is  due  to  the  writer,  and  implies  that  either  he 
had  actually  seen  such  a  ceremony  in  the  time  of  Julian,  or 
that  he  had  learned  it  by  reading  Roman  authors.  Most 
of  the  opening  scene  probably  is  due  to  the  writer's  free 
invention.  It  has  not  the  character  of  popular  legend,  but 
appears  to  be  written  in  free  imitation  and  exaggeration 
of  passages  in  the  New  Testament  by  a  person  who  had 
actually  seen  or  heard  from  eye-witnesses  about  ceremonies 
held  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Hierapolis. 

W.  M.  Rams  A  r. 

(To  he  continued.) 


1  I  have  treated  this  point  in  a  paper  "  Trois  Villas  Phrygieunes,"  in  the 
Bulletin  dc  Curres^ondance  Helleiiique,  1882. 


THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBBEWS. 

VII.  Christ  and  Moses  (Chap.  hi.). 

The  remarkable  statement  concerning  the  nature  and  way 
of  salvation  contained  in  the  section  which  we  have  been 
considering  in  the  three  last  papers  supplies  ample  material 
for  a  new  exhortation.  The  writer  has  shown  that  the 
Christian  salvation  consists  in  nothing  less  than  lordship  in 
the  world  to  come.  He  has  set  forth  Christ  as  the  Captain 
of  this  salvation,  and  the  High  Priest  of  the  new  people  of 
God,  the  Moses  and  the  Aaron  of  Christendom,  and  in  both 
capacities  as  the  Sanctifier  of  the  sons  of  God  whom  He 
leads  to  glory,  and,  in  order  to  the  efficient  discharge  of  that 
function,  one  with  His  brethren  in  nature  and  experience. 
The  immense  supply  of  motive  power  stored  up  in  this 
densely  packed  group  of  thoughts  he  now  brings  to  bear 
on  the  tempted  Hebrew  Christians  as  an  inducement  to 
stedfastness  :  "  Wherefore,  holy  brethren,  partakers  of  a 
heavenly  calling,  consider  the  Apostle  and  High  Priest  of 
our  confession,  Jesus." 

Every  word  here  is  an  echo  of  something  going  before, 
and  is  instinct  with  persuasive  virtue.  "Brethren"  of 
Him  who  in  a  fraternal  spirit  identified  Himself  with  the 
unholy,  and  for  their  sakes  took  flesh  and  tasted  death. 
"  Holy,"  at  least  in  standing,  in  virtue  of  the  priestly  action 
of  the  Sanctifier;  and  because  holy  in  this  sense,  under 
obligation  to  make  their  consecration  to  God  a  reality  by 
living  a  truly  Christian  life.  "  Partakers  of  a  heavenly  call- 
ing " — thus  described,  at  once  with  truth  and  with  rhetorical 
skill,  with  a  backward  glance  at  the  greatness  of  the  Chris- 

VOL.    IX.  l''^  II 


162  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

tian's  hope  as  the  destined  lord  of  the  future  world,  and  with 
a  mental  reference  to  the  contrast  between  that  glorious 
prospect  and  the  present  state  of  believers  as  partakers  of 
flesh  and  blood,  and  subject  to  death  and  the  fear  thereof; 
reminding  them  at  the  same  time  of  the  blessed  truth  that 
as  Christ  became  partaker  of  their  present  lot,  so  they  were 
destined  to  be  partakers  of  His  glorious  inheritance,  the 
unity  and  fellowship  between  Him  and  His  people  being  on 
both  sides  perfect  and  complete.  The  epithet  "heavenly" 
gracefully  varies  the  point  of  view  from  which  the  inheri- 
tance is  contemplated.  The  world  to  come  becomes  now  a 
world  above,  a  celestial  country.  The  change  in  the  mode 
of  expression  is  an  oratorical  variation,  but  it  is  more,  even  a 
contribution  to  the  parenetic  force  of  the  sentence,  for  the 
heavenly  in  the  thought  of  the  writer  here  and  throughout 
the  epistle  is  the  real,  the  abiding.  Heaven  is  the  place 
of  realities,  as  this  material  world  is  the  place  of  shadows. 
Such  is  our  author's  philosophic  view-point,  if  we  may 
ascribe  such  a  thing  to  him,  his  way  of  contemplating  the 
universe,  supposed  by  some  to  be  borrowed  from  Philo  and 
the  Alexandrine  school  of  philosophy ;  certainly  a  marked 
peculiarity,  whencesoever  derived.  With  the  heavenly 
world  Christianity  is  identified,  and  thereby  its  absolute  and 
abiding  nature  is  strongly  asserted,  as  against  Judaism, 
which  as  belonging  to  the  visible  world  is  necessarily 
doomed  to  pass  away.  This  contrast  indeed  does  not  find 
open  expression  here,  but  that  it  is  in  the  writer's  mind 
the  sequel  abundantly  shows.  He  uses  his  philosophy  for 
his  apologetic  purpose,  employing  it  as  a  vehicle  for  ex- 
pressing and  defending  the  thesis :  Judaism  transient, 
Christianity  for  aye.^ 

The  titles  here  ascribed   to  Jesus  also  arise  out  of  the 
previous   context,  and    are   fall  of   significance.     Specially 

"'  On  this  point  vide  Pfleidever's  PaiiUnismus,  p.  326. 


CHRIST  AND  MOSES.  163 

noteworthy  is  the  former  of  the  two,  "Apostle,"  here  only 
applied  to  Christ.  The  use  of  this  epithet  in  reference  to 
our  Lord  is  one  of  many  indications  of  the  fresh  creative 
genius  of  the  writer,  and  of  the  unconventional  nature  of 
his  style.  When  he  calls  Christ  an  apostle  he  is  not  think- 
ing of  the  twelve  apostles,  or  of  Christ's  prophetic  office. 
Christ's  claim  to  attention  as  one  through  whom  God  has 
spoken  His  last  word  to  men  he  has  sufficiently  recognised 
and  insisted  on  in  the  first  exhortation  (ii.  1-4).  He  is 
thinking  rather  of  the  apostleship  of  Moses.  The  basis 
for  the  title  is  such  a  text  as  Exodus  iii.  10  :  "  Come  now 
therefore,  and  I  v;ill  send  thee  (dTroareiXco,  Sept.)  unto 
Pharaoh,  that  thou  mayest  bring  forth  My  people  the 
children  of  Israel  out  of  Egypt."  Moses  was  an  apostle, 
as  one  sent  by  God  on  the  important  mission  of  leading  the 
enslaved  race  of  Israel  out  of  Egypt  into  Canaan.  Christ 
was  our  Apostle,  as  one  sent  by  God  to  be  the  Leader  in  the 
greater  salvation.  The  Apostle  of  our  Christian  confession 
and  the  "  Captain  of  salvation  "  are  synonymous  designa- 
tions. Something  indeed  might  be  said  for  taking  it  as  a 
generic  title,  including  all  Christ's  functions.  In  that  case 
it  might  have  stood  alone,  though  even  then  special  men- 
tion of  the  priestly  office  would  have  been  appropriate,  as 
having  been  previously  named,  and  as  a  source  of  peculiar 
comfort  and  inspiration,  and  also  because  it  is  in  the  sequel 
the  subject  of  a  lengthened  consideration.  As  applied  to 
it  the  exhortation  to  consider  has  a  somewhat  different 
meaning  from  that  which  it  bears  in  reference  to  the  title 
Apostle.  "Consider  the  Apostle"  means,  consider  for 
practical  purposes  a  subject  already  sufficiently  understood  ; 
"consider  the  High  Priest"  means,  consider  the  doctrine 
of  Christ's  priesthood,  that  ye  may  first  understand  it,  and 
then  prove  its  practical  value. 

Christ  the  Apostle  is  the  immediate  subject  of  contempla- 
tion.     That   aspect  is  in  view  throughout  the  third    and 


164  THE   EPISTLE  TO   TEE  BEBREWS. 

fourth  chapters,  the  priestly  aspect  being  presented  at  the 
close  of  the  latter,  as  an  introduction  to  the  long  discussion 
which  commences  with  the  fifth  chapter  and  extends  to 
the  tenth.  "Consider  the  Apostle  of  our  confession  "  is  the 
rubric  of  this  new  section. 

To  guide  consideration,  a  point  of  view  is  suggested  con- 
gruous to  the  practical  aim.  The  aim  being  to  promote 
steadfastness  in  the  Christian  faith  and  life,  the  selected 
point  of  view  is  the  fidelity  of  Jesus  our  Apostle.  "Who 
was  faithful  to  Him  that  made  Him,"  In  other  words, 
"faithful  to  His  vocation."  God  made  Jesus,  as  in  1  Samuel 
xii.  6  He  is  said  to  have  made  Moses  and  Aaron.  The 
underlying  idea  is,  that  it  is  God  in  His  providence  who 
raises  up  all  great  actors  in  human  affairs  and  prepares 
them  for  their  position  as  public  men.  God  made  Jesus 
by  giving  Him  His  unique  place  in  the  world's  history,  as 
the  chief  agent  in  the  work  of  redemption.  And  Jesus 
was  faithful  to  God  by  discharging  faithfully  the  high  duties 
entrusted  to  Him.  What  the  Hebrews  are  invited  to  do 
therefore,  is  to  consider  Jesus  as  the  faithful  Captain  of 
salvation,  who  never  betrayed  His  trust,  shirked  His  re- 
sponsibilities, or  neglected  duty  to  escape  personal  suffering, 
and  who  at  the  last  great  crisis  said,  "  Not  My  will,  but 
Thine  be  done."  For  of  course  the  theatre  in  which 
Christ's  fidelity  was  displayed  was  His  earthly  life  of  trial 
and  temptation.  True,  it  is  present  fidelity  that  is  asserted 
{'TTiaTov  ovTo),  nevertheless  the  rendering  "  who  was  faith- 
ful "  is  practically  correct.  What  is  meant  is,  that  Jesus 
is  one  who  by  His  past  career  has  earned  the  character  of 
the  Faithful  One  ;  that  is  the  honourable  title  to  which  in 
virtue  of  a  spotless  record  He  is  fully  entitled.  The  field 
of  observation  is  His  public  ministry  on  earth,  assumed 
to  be  familiar  to  readers  of  the  epistle,  either  through  our 
written  gospels,  or  through  the  unwritten  evangelical 
tradition.     AVhat    end   could   be    served    by  pointing  to  a 


CHRIST  AND   MOSES.  1G5 


fidelity  displayed  in  heaven  ?  Fidelity  there  costs  no  effort ; 
but  fidelity  maintained  amid  constant  temptation  to  un- 
faithfulness is  worth  remarking  on,  and  may  fitly  be  com- 
mended to  the  admiring  contemplation  of  the  tempted. 
Then  how  inappropriate  the  comparison  between  Christ 
and  Moses,  if  the  fidelity  ascribed  to  the  former  were  that 
exercised  in  the  heavenly  state  !  The  faithfulness  of  Moses, 
which  drew  forth  the  Divine  commendation,  was  certainly 
exercised  on  earth,  and  could  fitly  be  compared  to  that 
of  Jesus  only  if  the  virtue  were  in  both  cases  practised 
under  similar  conditions.  This  then  is  what  the  writer 
holds  up  to  the  view  of  his  readers  as  an  example  and 
source  of  inspiration — -the  faithfulness  of  Jesus  to  God  in 
the  fulfilment  of  His  vocation  during  His  earthly  life.  He 
has  already  held  up  Jesus  as  Priest,  as  one  who  is  faithful 
to  the  interests  of  those  for  whom  He  transacts  before 
God,  and  therefore  entitled  to  their  confidence.  The  two 
views  supplement  each  other,  and  complete  the  picture  of 
the  Faithful  One.  Faithful  as  Priest  to  men  in  virtue  of 
sympathies  learned  on  earth,  faithful  as  Apostle  to  God  in 
the  execution  of  the  arduous  mission  on  which  He  was  sent 
to  the  world ;  in  the  one  aspect  inspiring  trust,  in  the  other 
exciting  admiration  and  inciting  to  imitation. 

The  following  comparison  between  Christ  and  Moses  at 
once  serves  the  general  end  of  the  epistle  by  contributing  to 
the  proof  of  the  superiority  of  Christianity  to  Judaism,  and 
the  special  end  of  the  present  exhortation  by  affording  the 
opportunity  of  extracting  wholesome  lessons  from  the  fate 
of  the  people  whom  Moses  led  out  of  Egypt.  The  task  of 
exalting  Christ  above  Moses  was  a  delicate  one,  requiring 
careful  handling  ;  but  the  tact  of  the  writer  does  not  desert 
him  here.  With  rhetorical  skill  he  first  places  the  lesser 
apostle  beside  the  greater  One,  as  one  who  like  Him  had 
been  faithful  to  his  commission.  In  doing  this,  he  simply 
does  justice  to  the  familiar  historical  record  of  the  Jewish 


166  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 


hero's  life,  and  to  God's  own  testimony  borne  on  a  memor- 
able occasion,  the  substance  of  which  he  repeats  in  the 
words,  "  as  also  Moses  (was  faithful)  in  his  house."  "My 
servant  Moses,  faithful  in  all  My  house,  he,"^  God  had  said 
emphatically,  to  silence  murmuring  against  him  on  the  part 
of  his  brother  Aaron  and  his  sister  Miriam.  In  presence 
of  such  strong  commendation  proceeding  from  the  Divine 
lips,  our  author,  writing  to  Hebrews  proud  of  their  great 
legislator,  might  well  have  been  afraid  to  say  anything 
which  even  seemed  to  disparage  him,  and  one  wonders 
what  words  he  will  find  wherewith  to  praise  Christ  and  set 
Him  above  Moses,  without  appearing  to  set  aside  the  testi- 
mony of  Jehovah  to  the  worth  of  His  servant.  But  the 
gifted  Christian  doctor  knows  how  to  manage  this  part, 
as  well  as  all  other  parts  of  his  argument.  He  lays  hold 
of  the  suggestive  words  "house"  and  "servant"  and 
turns  them  to  account  for  his  purpose,  saying  in  effect, 
"  Moses  was  as  faithful  as  any  servant  in  a  house  can  be  : 
still  he  was  only  a  servant,  while  He  of  whom  I  now  speak 
was  not  a  mere  servant  in  the  house,  but  a  son ;  and  that 
makes  all  the  difference." 

Verses  3  to  6a  are  substantially  just  the  working  out  of 
this  thought.  So  much  in  general  is  clear  ;  but  when  we 
look  closely  into  these  sentences,  we  find  them  a  little  hard 
to  interpret,  owing  to  an  apparent  confusion  of  thought. 
There  seem  to  be  two  builders  of  the  house  :  Christ  (ver.  3), 
it  being  natural  to  assume  that  he  who  hath  builded  the 
house  is  the  same  with  him  who  is  said  to  have  more  glory 
than  Moses,  and  God  (ver.  4),  the  builder  of  all  things. 
Then  the  same  man  Moses  figures  in  two  characters  :  first, 
as  the  house  (ver.  3),  then  as  a  servant  in  the  house  (ver.  5). 
The  former  of  these  puzzles  is  disposed  of  in  various  ways 
by  the  commentators.     Some  say  there  are  two  houses  and 

^  Num.  xii.  7. 


CHRIST  AND  MOSES.  167 

two  builders :  the  Old  Testament  house,  whereof  God  was 
builder ;  and  the  New  Testament  house,  whereof  Christ  was 
the  builder.  Others  say,  there  is  one  house  and  one 
builder :  the  one  house  being  God's  supremely,  Christ's 
subordinately,  and  the  builder  God  as  the  first  great  cause, 
using  His  Son  as  His  agent  in  building  the  spiritual  house 
as  well  as  in  making  the  worlds.  A  third  class  agreeing 
that  there  is  but  one  house  and  one  builder,  make  the 
builder  Christ,  and  render  the  last  clause  of  ver.  4,  "  He 
that  buildeth  all  things  is  Divine,"  taking  ^eo?  without  the 
article  as  a  predicate,  and  finding  in  it  an  argument  for 
Christ's  divinity.  The  truth  doubtless  is,  that  the  house 
is  one,  even  God's,  in  which  Moses  was  servant,  in  which 
Christ  is  the  Son,  that  house  being  the  Church  essentially 
one  and  the  same,  though  varying  in  form  under  the  earlier 
and  the  later  dispensations  ;  whereof  the  builder  and  maker 
is  He  that  made  all  things,  building  it  through  His  Son. 
The  other  difficulty  regarding  the  double  character  of  Moses 
disappears  when  it  is  explained  that  the  word  ot/co?  is  used 
in  a  comprehensive  sense,  as  signifying  not  merely  the  stone 
and  lime,  so  to  speak,  or  even  the  furniture,  but  likewise 
the  household,  or  establishment  of  servants.  In  this  sense 
Moses,  being  a  servant  in  the  house  of  God,  was  a  part  of 
the  house,  and  therefore  inferior  to  the  builder ;  for  if  he 
who  builds  a  house  hath  more  honour  than  the  whole  house, 
a  fortiori  he  hath  more  honour  than  any  part  of  it. 

Jesus  is  a  Son,  Moses  was  a  servant ;  such,  apart  from  all 
minute  questions  of  interpretation,  is  the  ground  on  which 
the  greater  glory  is  claimed  for  the  former.  But  it  may 
be  asked,  the  subject  of  comparison  being  the  respective 
fidelities  of  the  two  apostles,  is  not  a  reference  to  their 
positions  irrelevant  ?  What  does  it  matter  whether  Moses 
was  son  or  servant,  if  he  was  faithful  in  all  God's  house, 
in  all  parts  of  his  work  as  the  leader  of  Israel?  If  one 
were  comparing  two  commanders  in  respect  of  bravery  and 


168  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

military  genius,  would  it  not  be  an  irrelevance  to  say  of  one 
of  them,  he  was  the  better  man,  for  he  was  the  king's  son  ? 
The  question  is  pertinent,  but  it  admits  of  a  satisfactory 
answer,  Keference  to  the  superior  dignity  of  Christ  is 
relevant,  if  His  position  as  Son  tended  to  enhance  His 
fidehty.  That  it  did  the  writer  doubtless  meant  to  suggest. 
Farther  on  we  find  him  saying,  "  Though  He  was  a  Son,  yet 
learned  He  obedience."  Similarly  he  says  here  in  effect : 
"  Christ,  though  a  Son,  was  faithful  to  His  vocation  amid 
trial."  It  is  a  just  thought.  Beyond  doubt  we  have  in 
Christ  as  Son  a  more  sublime  moral  spectacle  of  fidelity 
than  in  any  ordinary  man  called  to  play  a  great  and 
responsible  part  in  history.  To  the  fidelities  which  He  has 
in  common  with  other  men,  the  Son  adds  this  other : 
resolute  resistance  to  the  temptation  to  use  His  sonship  as 
an  excuse  for  declining  arduous  heroic  tasks.  "  If  Thou  be 
the  Son  of  God,  use  Thy  privilege  for  Thine  own  advantage," 
said  the  tempter  in  the  wilderness,  and  all  through  life. 
"  Get  thee  behind  Me,  Satan,"  was  the  Son's  constant 
reply,  giving  to  His  faithfulness  to  God  and  duty  a  unique 
quality  and  value. 

But  there  is  more  than  this  to  be  said.  The  reference  to 
the  dignity  of  Christ  looks  beyond  the  immediate  parenetic 
purpose  to  the  ultimate  aim  of  the  whole  epistle.  It  is 
designed  to  insinuate  the  great  truth  that  Christianity  is 
the  absolute,  eternal  religion.  For  there  is  more  in  this 
statement  concerning  Christ  and  Moses  than  meets  the  ear, 
thoughts  suggested,  though  not  plainly  expressed.  One 
great  idea  never  absent  from  the  writer's  mind  is  here 
quietly  insinuated  by  aptly  chosen  phrases  and  pregnant 
hints — the  transient  nature  of  the  old  dispensation  in  con- 
trast to  the  abiding  nature  of  the  new.  This  idea  casts  its 
shadow  on  the  page  at  three  different  points  : 

1.  In  the  contrast  between  Moses  and  Jesus  as  respectively 
servant  and  Son. 


CHRIST  AND  MOSES.  169 


2.  In  the  representation  of  the  ministry  of  Moses  as 
being  for  a  testimony  of  things  to  be  spoken  afterwards, 
ver.  5  :   et9  fjuapTuptov  twv  XakrjOricroixivmv. 

3.  In  the  representation  of  Christians  as  pre-eminently 
though  not  exclusively  God's,  Christ's,  house  :  ov  oltc6<i  eap,ev 
rjfieU,  ver.  (5. 

In  the  first,  because,  as  Christ  Himself  once  said,  "  The 
servant  abideth  not  in  the  house  for  ever :  but  the  Son 
abideth  ever."  And  with  the  servant  the  service  also  must 
pass  away.  In  the  second  also,  in  spite  of  the  difficulties 
which  have  been  raised  by  Bleek  and  others,  who  hold  that 
the  things  to  be  spoken  of  were  the  things  spoken  by  Moses 
himself  to  the  people  of  Israel,  and  the  idea  intended,  that 
the  fidelity  he  had  hitherto  exhibited  ought  to  secure  respect 
for  all  he  might  say  in  future,  and  protect  him  from  such 
assaults  as  were  made  upon  him  by  his  brother  and  sister. 
Bleek  thinks  that,  had  a  reference  to  Christ  been  meant, 
the  writer  would  have  written,  "to  be  spoken  in  the  end  of 
the  days,"  or  "by  the  Son."  But  over  against  the  verbal 
difficulty  arising  out  of  the  use  of  \aX.r]6r]ao/ji6VQ}v  without 
qualifying  phrase  is  to  be  set  the  far  greater  difficulty  of 
believing  that  the  writer  meant  to  utter  in  such  a  connexion 
so  paltry  a  thought  as  the  one  above  indicated.  How  much 
more  congenial  to  the  whole  style  of  the  epistle  to  find  here 
a  hint  of  the  truth  that  Moses  in  his  whole  ministry  was 
but  a  testimony  to  things  to  be  spoken  in  the  future  by 
another  greater  Apostle  ! 

The  transient  nature  of  the  Mosaic  ministry  as  sub- 
servient to  the  enduring  ministry  of  the  Son  is  a  third  time 
hinted  at  in  the  words,  tvJwse  house  are  lue.  This  is  not 
a  claim  of  monopoly  of  family  privileges  for  Christians,  but 
it  is  an  assertion  that  the  Christian  community  is  in  an 
emphatic  sense  the  house  of  God.  The  assertion  mani- 
festly implies  the  transiency  of  the  Mosaic  system.  It 
suggests   the    thought    that    the   house  as  it  stood   in    the 


170  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

times  of  Moses  was  but  a  rude,  temporary  model  of  the  true, 
eternal  house  of  God  ;  good  enough  to  furnish  shelter  from 
the  elements,  so  to  speak,  but  unfit  to  be  the  everlasting 
dwelling  place  of  the  children  of  the  Most  High,  therefore 
destined  to  be  superseded  by  a  more  glorious  structure, 
having  the  Spirit  of  God  for  its  architect,  which  should 
be  to  the  old  fabric  as  was  the  "  magnifical "  temple  of 
Solomon  to  the  puny  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness. 

At  ver.  66  transition  is  naturally  made  from  Moses  to 
the  lessons  of  the  wilderness  life  of  Israel.  The  writer  is 
haunted  by  the  fear  lest  the  tragic  fate  of  the  generation 
of  the  exodus  should  be  repeated  in  the  experience  of  the 
Hebrew  Christians.  He  hopes  that  the  powerful  motives 
arising  out  of  the  truths  he  has  stated  may  bring  about  a 
better  result.  But  he  cannot  hide  from  himself  that  another 
issue  is  possible.  For  the  future  fortunes  of  Christianity  he 
has  no  anxiety ;  he  is  firmly  persuaded  that  it  will  prosper, 
though  the  Hebrew  Church,  or  even  the  whole  Hebrew 
nation,  should  perish.  That  fatal  catastrophe  he  dreads  ; 
therefore  with  great  solemnity  he  proceeds  to  represent 
retention  of  their  position  in  the  house  of  God  as  con- 
ditional :  Whose  Jiouse  are  we,  if  we  hold  fast  the  confidence 
and  the  boasting  of  the  liope.  He  does  not  express  himself 
so  strongly  here  as  in  ver.  14,  where  the  thought  is  repeated 
by  way  of  applying  the  lesson  taught  in  the  quotation  from 
the  Psalter  concerning  the  conduct  of  Israel  in  the  wilder- 
ness.^ He  is  content  for  the  present  simply  to  indicate 
that  there  is  room  for  doubt  or  fear.  By  the  use  of  the 
qualifying  words  Trapprjalav  and  kuuxvH''^  he  teaches  by 
implication  that  the  Christian  hojpe  is  worth  holding  fast. 
It  must  be  a  sure  and  glorious  hope  which  inspires  in  those 
who  cherish  it  confidence  and  exultation. 

1  idu  strengtlienecl  by  the  particle  irep,  which  inteusifies  the  doubt,  aud  the 
words  "to  the  end"  (/xexp'  reXovs)  added:  "We  are  made  partakers  of  Christ 
if,  that  is  to  sav,  we  hold  fast  the  beginniug  of  our  confidence  firm  to  tlte  end." 


GHBIST  AND   MOSES.  171 

In  the  sequel  the  grounds  both  of  the  hope  and  of  the 
fear  are  set  forth.  Of  the  fear  first,  the  material  for  the 
demonstration  being  drawn  from  the  wilderness  history  of 
Israel,  as  referred  to  in  a  quotation  from  the  ninety-fifth 
Psalm,  First  comes  the  quotation  itself,  in  vers.  7-11, 
connected  with  what  goes  before  by  8t6,  and  introduced 
as  an  utterance  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  quotation  keeps 
pretty  close  to  the  Septuagint,  materially  diverging  only  at 
ver.  9,  where  "forty  years"  is  connected  with  the  clause 
"  they  saw  My  works,"  instead  of  with  "  I  was  grieved  with 
this  generation,"  as  in  the  Hebrew  and  the  Septuagint. 
This  change  led  to  another,  the  insertion  of  cl6  at  the 
commencement  of  ver.  10.  This  divergence  is  intentional, 
as  we  see  from  ver.  12,  where  the  writer  reverts  to  the 
original  connexion,  which  there  suits  his  purpose,  asking, 
"But  with  whom  was  He  grieved  for  forty  years  ?  "  He 
prefers  here  to  represent  the  people  of  Israel  as  seeing  God's 
works  forty  years,  rather  than  to  speak  of  God  as  grieved 
with  them  for  the  same  space — both  being  equally  true, 
— because  he  is  anxious  to  make  the  case  of  the  ancient 
Israel  as  closely  parallel  as  possible  to  that  of  the  Hebrew 
Christians,  with  a  view  to  enhanced  impressiveness.  For 
both  parties  were  very  similarly  situated  in  this  very  respect 
of  seeing  God's  works  for  forty  years.  From  the  time 
when  Jesus  began  His  public  ministry,  to  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  an  event  very  nigh  at  hand  when  the  epistle 
was  written,  was,  as  near  as  can  be  calculated,  forty  years. 
What  a  significant,  solemn  hint  to  beware  is  contained  for 
the  Christian  Hebrews  in  this  statement  concerning  their 
forefathers.  And  saio  My  worlds  forty  years  !^  It  says  more 
powerfully  than  express  words  could  :  "  You  too  have  seen 


1  The  liberty  taken  with  the  words  of  the  Psalra  in  altering  the  connexion 
might  be  adduced  as  a  fact  helping  to  fix  the  date  of  the  epistle.  The  mani- 
pulation of  the  forty  years  may  reasonably  he  regarded  as  evidence  that  such 
a  period  of  time  had  elapsed  since  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Church. 


1/^2  TEE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

the  works  of  the  Lord,  greater  works  than  the  ancient  ones 
wrought  by  the  hand  of  Moses,  for  the  very  same  space  of 
time.  Take  care  that  ye  see  them  to  better  purpose,  lest 
their  doom,  or  a  worse,  overtake  you."  ^ 

Next  follows  the  application  of  the  quotation  to  the 
case  of  the  Hebrew  Christians  (vers.  12-14).  Take  heed, 
hrethren,  lest  liaply  there  shall  he  in  any  one  of  yon  an  evil 
heart  of  unbelief  in  departing  from  the  living  God.  But  ex- 
hort each  other  every  day,  while  tlie  word  "  to-day  "  is  named, 
lest  any  one  of  you  be  hardened  by  the  deceit  of  sin.  For  lue 
are  become  partakers  of  Christ,  if  we  hold  the  beginning  of  our 
confidence  firm  to  the  end.  The  Sto  of  ver.  7  is  to  be  taken 
along  with  ^Xeirere,  all  that  lies  between  being  regarded  as 
a  parenthesis.  "  Wherefore — beware,"  the  beware  being 
charged  with  solemn  significance  by  the  intervening  quota- 
tion, conceived  by  the  writer  as  spoken  by  the  Holy  Ghost 
directly  to  the  Christian  Church  living  in  the  era  of  the 
final  revelation.  The  earnest  exhortation  follows  closely 
the  sense  of  the  passage  quoted  from  the  Psalter.  Eirst,  the 
brethren  are  warned  against  an  unbelieving  heart  revealing 
its  wickedness  in  apostasy  from  the  living  God,  in  allusion 
to  the  hardness  of  heart  charged  against  Israel,  and  spoken 
of  as  the  source  of  their  unbelief  and  misbehaviour. 
Then  homiletic  use  is  made  of  the  hortatory  word  :  To-day 
if  ye  will  hear  His  voice.  "  Exhort  each  other  daily  while 
to-day  is  named,  while  there  is  a  to-day  to  speak  of,  while 

1  One  other  point  in  the  quotation  umv  be  noticed.  The  psahuist,  in  using 
the  wilderness  history  for  the  instruction  of  his  own  generation,  aUudes  to  two 
instances  in  which  God  was  tempted;  viz.  at  Massah,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
forty  years,  and  at  Meribah,  towards  their  close.  This  point  is  obscure  in  the 
tSeptuagint,  which  takes  the  names  as  abstract  nouns,  in  which  it  is  followed 
by  our  author.  The  psalmist  selects  the  incidents  at  the  beginning  and  the 
end  of  the  wilderness  history  as  examples  of  the  conduct  of  Israel  throughout 
the  whole  period  of  the  wandering.  "  From  these  two  learn  all,"  he  would  say; 
the  behaviour  of  Israel  being  such  that  God  might  justly  complain,  "Forty 
years  was  I  grieved  with  this  generation,"  the  very  similarity  of  the  events 
serving  to  show  how  incorrigible  a  generation  it  was,  given  to  repeating  its 
offences,  learning  nothing  from  experience. 


CHRIST  AND  MOSES.  173 

the  day  of  grace  lasts.  Let  each  cry  in  the  ear  of  a  brother 
neghgent  or  slothful,  To-day,  brother,  to-day  hear  His  voice, 
lest  your  heart  become  hardened  by  the  deceit  of  sin,  every 
to-morrov\r  making  repentance  and  faith  more  difficult." 
The  solemn  character  of  the  admonition  is  excused  by  the 
remark,  "for  we  are  become  partakers  of  Christ^  if  we  hold 
the  beginning  of  our  confidence  steadfast  unto  the  end."  This 
is  the  sentiment  of  ver.  6  expanded,  with  marked  emphasis 
on  the  words  apxv  and  reXo?.  The  writer  wishes  to  impress 
on  his  readers  that  it  is  not  enough  to  have  begun,  not 
enough  to  have  once  known  the  confidence  and  joy  of  the 
Christian  hope,  that  all  turns  on  persevering  to  the  end. 
And  he  would  have  them  further  understand  that  persever- 
ance is  not  a  matter  of  course,  that  there  is  a  real  risk  of  an 
ill  ending  where  there  has  been  a  fair  beginning.  For  this 
purpose  he  again  falls  back  on  his  quotation,  to  show  that  a 
disastrous  end  after  a  fair  beginning  is  not  an  imaginary 
evil  (vers.  15-19). 

In  ver.  15  we  have  the  formula  by  which  the  writer 
makes  reference  to  the  previously  given  quotation.  It  is 
loose  and  vague,  and  has  given  rise  to  much  difference  of 
opinion.  Literally  rendered  it  is,  "  In  its  being  said.  To- 
day if  ye  will  hear  His  voice  harden  not  your  hearts,  as  in 
the  provocation";  and  the  question  is,  What  does  the  phrase 
"in  its  being  said"  mean?  My  own  idea  is,  that  its  sole 
object  is  to  recall  attention  to  the  quotation  with  a  view 
to  some  further  reflections  on  it  intended  to  substantiate 
the  statement  made  in  ver.  14.  The  writer,  as  it  were, 
says  to  his  readers,  "  Look  at  that  Scripture  again,  my 
brethren,  and  after  you  have  carefully  reperused  it  let  me 
ask  you  a  series  of  questions  on  it."  He  means  them  to 
read  or  recall  to  mind  the  whole  passage,  though  he  quotes 
only  the  first  verse ;  for  the  questions  which  follow  go  over 

'  On  the  expression  /.Utoxol  tov  Xpiarov,  ride  the  end  of  this  paper. 


174  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 


the  whole  ground,  and  bring  to  bear  the  whole  teaching  of 
the  extract  for  the  purpose  he  has  in  view. 

The  first  verse  of  the  quotation  having  been  repeated 
with  an  "  etc."  attached,  the  series  of  questions  follows,  the 
first,  founded  on  the  verse  quoted,  being  put  in  ver.  16. 
For  it  is  now  universally  admitted  that  this  verse  in  both 
its  members  is  to  be  rendered  interrogatively,  not  as  in  the 
Authorized  English  Version,  which  makes  sad  havoc  of  the 
sense  in  rendering,  "  Some  when  they  had  heard  did  pro- 
voke :  howbeit  not  all  that  came  out  of  Egypt  by  Moses." 
In  this  version  our  translators  were  but  following  the 
unanimous  exegetical  tradition  of  previous  ages,  and  till 
the  time  of  Bengel  it  occurred  to  no  one  that  the  rtye?  at 
the  beginning  of  the  verse  was  the  interrogative  rtVe?,  not 
the  indefinite  pronoun  Tive^.  The  fact  that  for  ages  men 
could  be  content  with  so  unmeaning  an  interpretation  as 
the  latter  yields  is  an  extreme  illustration  of  the  sequacious 
habits  of  commentators.  It  requires  courage  to  forsake 
fashion  in  exegesis  no  less  than  in  other  things. 

"  Who,"  asks  the  writer,  "  having  heard  provoked  ?  Was 
it  not  all  they  who  came  out  of  Egypt  by  Moses  ?  "  Thus 
rendered,  the  words  manifestly  bear  very  directly  on  the 
purpose  in  hand,  which  is  to  impress  on  the  Hebrews  that 
a  warning  against  apostasy  is  not  superfluous  or  impertinent 
as  addressed  to  persons  who  have  believed  in  Jesus.  The 
questions  asked  remind  them  that  the  men  who  provoked 
God  in  the  desert  were  all  of  them  persons  that  had  started 
on  the  journey  from  the  land  of  bondage  to  the  land  of 
promise.  The  second  of  the  two  questions,  which  answers 
the  first,  reminds  the  Hebrews  of  the  notorious  fact  that 
the  persons  who  were  guilty  of  the  sin  of  provoking  God 
were  so  numerous,  and  the  exceptions  so  few,  that  they 
might  be  represented  as  co-extensive  with  the  whole  gene- 
ration that  came  out  of  Egypt. 

The  following  verse  (17)  contains  a  second  couple  of  ques- 


CHRIST  AND  MOSES.  175 


tions  based  on  the  statement,  "  Wherefore  I  was  grieved 
with  this  generation."  "  And  with  whom  was  He  grieved 
forty  years  ?  Was  it  not  with  them  that  sinned,  whose 
carcases  fell  in  the  wilderness  '?  "  In  other  words,  the  men 
who  grieved  God  for  forty  years  were  men  who  for  their 
sins  were  not  permitted  to  enter  Canaan,  though  they  left 
Egypt  in  that  hope  and  expectation,  but  were  doomed  to 
die  in  the  desert,  leaving  their  flesh  to  feed  the  vultures  and 
their  bones  to  bleach  on  the  burning  sands.  A  fact  surely 
full  of  warning  to  those  who  had  set  out  with  high  hopes  on 
the  way  to  the  heavenly  country  to  beware  of  coming  short 
through  unbelief  and  ungodliness. 

Verse  18  contains  a  third  pair  of  questions  based  on  the 
last  sentence  of  the  quotation  :  "  So  I  sware  in  My  wrath, 
They  shall  not  enter  into  My  rest."  "  And  to  whom  sware 
He  that  they  should  not  enter  into  His  rest  ?  Was  it  not 
to  them  that  were  disobedient  ?  "  The  aim  here  is  to  point 
out  the  cause  of  failure  in  the  case  of  ancient  Israel,  viz. 
disobedience,  having  its  root  in  unbelief,  to  give  weight  to 
the  warning  addressed  to  the  Hebrew  Christians.  To  make 
the  meaning  if  possible  still  more  plain  and  emphatic  there 
is  appended  to  the  series  of  questions  the  final  reflection : 
"So  we  see  that  they  could  not  enter  in  because  of  un- 
belief." 

Summing  up  the  import  of  these  questions,  the  first 
pair  shows  that  it  is  not  enough  to  begin  the  life  of  faith, 
that  it  is  necessary  to  hold  fast  the  beginning  of  our  con- 
fidence firm  unto  the  end.  The  second  shows  that  a  good 
beginning  does  not  of  itself  insure  a  good  ending,  that  many 
begin  well  who  end  ill.  The  third  points  out  the  cause 
of  such  disastrous  failures — unbelief  in  the  heart,  manifest- 
ing itself  in  disobedience  and  apostasy  in  the  outward  life. 
The  drift  of  the  whole  is  the  same  as  that  of  1  Corinthians 
X.,  in  which,  after  reminding  the  Corinthians  how  many 
of  the  Israelites  perished  in  the  wilderness  for  their  sins. 


176  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

though  they  had  been  baptized  into  Moses  in  the  cloud  and 
in  the  sea,  and  had  eaten  of  the  mystic  bread  and  drunk 
of  the  water  that  sprang  out  of  the  smitten  rock,  the  apostle 
goes  on  to  say,  "  Now  all  these  things  happened  unto  them 
for  ensamples,  and  they  are  written  for  our  admonition, 
upon  whom  the  ends  of  the  world  are  come.  Wherefore 
let  him  that  thinketh  he  standeth  take  heed  lest  he 
fall." 

I  must  now  go  back  on  an  expression  occurring  in  this 
chapter  which  has  not  yet  been  specially  considered  :  "  par- 
takers of  Christ"  {fieT0')(^0L  tov  XpiaTov),  ver.  14.  AVhat 
does  this  mean?  The  first  idea  that  suggests  itself  is  that 
"  Christ  "  stands  as  a  synonym  and  compendium  of  salva- 
tion, just  as  "  Moses  "  in  the  above-quoted  words  of  Paul 
is  a  synonym  for  the  redemption  he  was  God's  instrument 
in  achieving.  An  alternative  course  is  open  to  the  inter- 
preter :  to  render,  "partakers  loith  Christ,"  and  to  find  in 
the  words  the  thought  that  only  such  as  persevere  in  faith 
share  in  the  glory  and  the  joy  conferred  on  Him  at  the 
close  of  His  earthly  career  as  God's  faithful  Apostle.  This 
view  however,  though  true  in  itself,  attains  to  its  full  rights 
only  when  we  adopt  a  bolder  course,  and  take  fieroxoi  as 
meaning  here,  as  in  i.  9,  "  companions  "  or  "  fellows."  We 
then  get  the  striking  thought  that  by  persistent  loyalty  to 
the  Christian  vocation  we  become  fellows  of  Jesus.  It  is  in- 
trinsically likely  that  the  passage  about  the  Messiah  quoted 
from  the  forty-fifth  Psalm  in  the  first  chapter  was  present 
to  the  writer's  mind  at  this  point.  It  speaks  of  Messiah  as 
anointed  with  the  oil  of  gladness  above  His  fellows,  imply- 
ing that  they  too,  in  their  measure,  have  a  full  cup  of  joy. 
In  the  present  connexion  of  thought  mention  is  made  of 
a  "boasting  of  hope,"  a  hope  rising  into  exultation,  imply- 
ing a  still  higher  measure  of  triumphant  joy  when  hope 
reaches  its  consummation.  The  idea,  "  the  faithful  the 
fellows  of  Christ,"  is  also  in  full  sympathy  with  the  thought 


CHRIST  AND  MOSES.  177 


expressed  in  ver.  6,  "  whose  house  are  we."  The  faithful 
are  God's  house,  at  the  head  of  which  is  Christ,  God's  Son. 
They  are  God's  house  not,  as  Moses  was,  as  servants,  but 
as  sons,  therefore  the  brethren  of  Christ.  But  brother- 
hood is  a  thing  of  degrees.  There  is  an  initial  brotherhood, 
in  which,  as  Paul  says,  a  son  differs  nothing  from  a  ser- 
vant ;  and  there  is  a  brotherhood,  the  result  of  a  normal 
moral  development,  in  which  a  younger  son,  at  length 
arrived  at  maturity,  becomes  the  companion  of  the  elder 
brother.  AVe  are  brethren  to  begin  with,  but  if  we  are 
faithful  we  shall  end  in  becoming  fellows.  And  so  our 
author,  having  already  said  of  those  who  persevere  that 
they  are  the  house  of  God,  now  takes  a  step  in  advance,  and 
in  renewing  his  exhortation  to  steadfastness  says,  "The 
faithful  are  not  only  the  house  of  God  and  the  brethren  of 
Christ,  they  are  His  fellows,  sharing  His  joy  and  having 
perfect  communion  with  Him  in  spirit." 

We  now  know  who  are  the  fjueTo-^ot,  of  Messiah  alluded 
to  in  i.  9.  They  are  not  the  angels,  as  we  might  have 
supposed,  and  as  some  commentators  have  said ;  ^  they  are 
men,  men  who  have  passed  bravely  through  the  tribula- 
tions of  life,  and  been  faithful  even  to  death.  We  have 
in  the  text  before  us  a  complementary  truth  to  that  stated 
in  ii.  16.  Christ  took  not  hold  of  angels,  it  is  said  there  ; 
Christ's  fellows  are  not  angels,  but  faithful  men,  it  is  said 
here  in  effect.  It  is  nowise  improbable  that  such  a  thought 
should  be  found  in  our  epistle.  It  is  just  such  a  thought 
as  we  should  expect  to  find  in  a  writing  from  the  pen  of 
one  who  grasped  the  signification  of  the  great  principle — 
Sanctifier  and  sanctified  of  one  all.  It  is  but  the  other 
side  of  that  grand  truth.  The  first  side  exhibited  is 
Christ's  unity  with  those  He  undertakes  to  sanctify,  and  His 

'  "  If  any  special  fores  be  attached  to  the  exjaression  here,  it  no  donbt  means 
the  angels,  as  dwellers  in  the  city  of  God,  and  thus  the  fellows  of  the  Son  " 
(Davidson,  on  i.  0). 

VOL.   IX.  12 


178  THE  EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

willing  acceptance  of  all  the  conditions  necessary  to  His 
complete  identification  with  them.  The  other  side  is  the 
unity  of  the  sanctified  with  Christ,  complete  equality  with 
Him  in  privilege.  In  crediting  the  writer  with  the  senti- 
ment, "  faithful  men  the  fellows  of  Christ,"  we  merely 
assume  that  he  understands  his  own  system  of  thought ;  and 
I  may  add  that  he  is  familiar  with  the  teaching  of  Christ, 
and  with  the  conception  of  the  relation  between  Christ 
and  His  people  that  pervades  the  entire  New  Testament. 
For  the  sentiment  in  question  is  no  "  fine  modern  idea," 
but  one  which  we  find  again  and  again  stated  in  bold, 
inspiring  terms.  "Ye  are  they  which  have  continued  with 
Me  in  My  temptations.  And  I  appoint  unto  you  a  king- 
dom, as  My  Father  hath  appointed  unto  Me ;  that  ye  may 
eat  and  drink  at  My  table  in  My  kingdom."  "  Well  done, 
good  and  faithful  servant :  enter  thou  into  the  joy  of  thy 
Lord."  "  If  children,  then  heirs  ;  heirs  of  God,  and  joint- 
heirs  with  Christ ;  if  so  be  that  we  suffer  with  Him,  that 
we  may  be  also  glorified  together."  "Blessed  is  the  man 
that  endureth  temptation  :  for  when  he  is  tried,  he  shall 
receive  the  crown  of  life."  "To  him  that  overcometh  will 
I  grant  to  sit  with  Me  in  My  throne,  even  as  I  also  over- 
came, and  am  set  down  with  My  Father  in  His  throne." 
Christ,  Paul,  James,  John,  all  say  the  same  thing.  Is  it 
strange  to  find  a  thought  common  to  them,  and  familiar 
to  the  minds  of  all  heroic  men  in  the  ages  of  fiery  trial, 
getting  recognition  also  in  this  epistle  ? 

On  all  these  grounds  I  conclude  that  the  true  rendering 
of  this  text  is,  "  We  are  become  companions,  partners,  or 
fellows  of  Christ,  if  we  hold  the  beginning  of  our  confidence 
steadfast  unto  the  end."  Its  aim  is  to  proclaim  the  fulness 
of  joy  awaiting  those  who  play  the  hero's  part,  not  to  assert 
the  total  forfeiture  of  salvation,  of  even  a  minimum  share 
in  the  blessing  of  Christ,  by  those  who  sink  below  the 
heroic  level.     It  presents  the  motives  to  steadfastness  under 


CHRISTIAN  INTERPOLATIONS.  17^ 

the  most  attractive  and  stimulating  form ;  for  what  can 
be  conceived  more  desirable  than  comradeship  with  the 
Faithful  One  in  the  "  land  of  the  leal  "  ?  ^ 

A.  B.  Beuce. 


CHRISTIAN  INTEBPOLATIONS   IN  JEWISH 
WHITINGS. 

The  hypothesis  of  Vischerir  in  regard  to  the  Apocalypse, 
for  which  Harnack  became  sponsor,  has  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  students  of  the  New  Testament.  Briefly  stated  it 
is  this.  The  kernel  of  the  book  of  the  Revelation  is  a 
Jewish  Apocalypse.  A  Christian  writer  translated  this  from 
an  Aramaic  original,  adding  a  Christian  introduction  (i.-iii.), 
and  a  Christian  ending  (xxii.  (3-21),  and  interspersing 
Christian  interpolations,  notably  the  passages  in  which  the 
Lamb  is  mentioned,  interpolations  however  which  can  be 
easily  distinguished,  and  whose  removal  admits  the  light 
into  dark  places.  Thus  according  to  A^ischer  chapter  xii., 
"  the  touchstone  by  which  it  must  be  proved  of  what  spirit 
the  seer  is,"  describes  the  birth  and  the  assumption  of  a 
purely  Jewish  Messiah. 

In  order  to  test  this  method  of  criticism,  which  Vischer 

'  Delitzsch,  among  recent  connnentatois,  holds  the  view  atlvocated  above, 
taking  fxiroxoL  as  =.soch',  "partners."  So  also  Kendall,  The  Epistle  to  tlur 
Hebrews.  The  chief  argument  against  this  view  is  drawn  from  the  fact  that 
the  noun  and  the  corresponding  verb  are  used  in  the  epistle  mainly  in  reference 
to  things  as  expressing  participation  in  them  (ii.  14,  iii.  1,  v.  13,  vii.  13, 
xii.  8;  the  things  participated  in  being  "flesh  and  blood,"  a  "  heavenly  call- 
ing," "milk,"  "another  tribe,"  "chastisement").  Chap.  vi.  4  is  hardly  an 
exception,  as  the  "  Holy  Spirit  "  is  referred  to  impersonally  as  an  influence. 
Biit  the  fact  remains  that  in  iii.  14  we  have  an  exception  of  the  same  kind  as 
in  i.  Ij,  and  referring  to  the  same  subject,  the  Messiah,  and  it  is  natural  to  deal 
with  both  in  the  same  way.  That  i.  9  is  a  quotation  is  immaterial,  except 
indeed  as  creating  a  desire  to  know  who  in  the  view  of  the  writer  the  fj-iroxot. 
of  Messiah  referred  to  in  the  rpiotation  arc. 

-  Texte  uiid  Untersucliunrjcn,  ii.  Band,  Heft  3.  Die  offenharnnr}  Joliaiuus  cine 
Jiidische  Apocalypse  in  Christlicher  Bcarbcituug  von  E."\fischer.  188().  The  theory 
was  discussed  by  Mr.  Simcox  in  The  Expositor,  3rd  series,  vol.  v.,  p.  425  f. 


180  CHRISTIAN  INTERPOLATIONS 

has  thus  used  in  reference  to  what  has  been  commonly 
considered  the  earhest  of  St.  John's  writings,  I  have  ven- 
tured to  apply  it  to  the  earliest  of  St.  Paul's  epistles,  and 
to  follow  as  far  as  possible  the  lines  of  his  dissertation.  It 
seems  best,  in  assuming  the  character  of  a  destructive 
critic,  to  write  with  as  much  force  and  directness  as  possible. 
I  have  not  hesitated  therefore,  with  such  an  end  before  me, 
to  employ  arguments  and  to  use  expressions  for  which  I 
desire  to  offer  beforehand  this  brief  explanation  and  apology. 

I.  An  investigation  into  the  origin  of  the  Thessalonian 
epistles  must  start  with  the  apocalyptic  passage  in  2  Thessa- 
lonians  ii.  1-12.  This  touchstone  will  reveal  the  real  spirit 
of  the  writer  (comp.  Vischer,  p.  19). 

The  greatness  of  the  difficulties  which  have  to  be  met  by 
those  who  accept  the  common  view  becomes  sufficiently 
clear  (comp.  Vischer,  p.  22  f),  when  we  compare  the  view  of 
Bishop  Lightfoot  with  that  of  Prof.  Warfield  (Expositoe, 
ord  series,  vol.  iv.,  p.  40).  The  former  (Smith's  Dictiunarij  uf 
the  Bible,  Art.,  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians)  asserts 
"  that  it  is  on  the  whole  probable  that  the  antichrist  is  re- 
presented especially  by  Judaism.  .  .  .  Corresponding  to 
this  view  of  the  antichrist,  we  shall  probably  be  correct  in  re- 
garding the  Koman  empire  as  the  restraining  power."  With 
the  latter  scholar  this  interpretation  is  exactly  reversed. 
"We  cannot  go  far  wrong,  "writes  Professor  Warfield,  "  in 
identifying  him  [^the  Man  of  Sin]  with  the  Eoman  emperor. 
The  restraining  power,  on  this  hypothesis,  appears 
to  be  the  Jewish  state."  In  such  a  quagmire  of  contradic- 
tions does  the  conservative  school  find  itself. 

But  if  we  suppose  the  writer  to  be  a  Jew  at  Jerusalem, 
the  perplexities  vanish. 

There  are  but  two  interpolated  Christian  phrases  which 
must  be  removed ;  viz.  y/jicov  'Ii](tov  Xpia-rov,  in  ver.  1,  and 
the  doubtful  'Irjaovs  of  ver.  8. 


IN  JEWISH   WRITINGS.  ISl 


The  main  thought  therefore  of  the  passage  seems  to  he 
this  :  the  day  of  the  Lord — an  Old  Testament  phrase — 
will  come,  when  once  the  new  heresy  of  Christianity  has 
reached  its  head  ;  then  it  will  be  completely  swept  away  by 
Jehovah's  mere  Presence.  The  following  points  demand 
notice  :  (1)  v  diroaTacria  (ver.  3).  Christianity  would  appear 
to  a  Jew  at  Jerusalem  simply  as  a  defection  from  the 
national  faith  ;  aTroaraaiav  SiSacr/cet?  utto  Mu;vaeco^  (Acts 
xxi.  21)  was  the  charge  brought  against  St.  Paul.  (2) 
6  dvdpa)7ro<?  ri}?  dvo/jiLa<i  (ver.  3),  to  fivaT)']piov  t/}^  dvo/J,ia<; 
(ver.  7),  6  avo/xo<i  (ver.  8).  The  emphatic  repetition  of  the 
idea  of  lawlessness  will  be  noticed.  Treachery  towards  tlie 
law  was  the  great  accusation  urged  against  the  earliest 
Christians  by  the  Jews  (comp.  Acts  vi,  13,  xxi.  28).  The 
conjecture  might  be  hazarded  that  in  the  phrase  6  aVo/xo? 
the  Jewish  writer  confuses  the  Divine  Author  of  Christianity 
Himself  with  St.  Paul,  its  chief  missionary. 

"  One  called  Paulus ;   we  have  heard  his  fame. 
Indeed,  it'  Christus  be  not  one  with  him — 
I  know  not,  nor  am  troubled  much  to  know." 

(3)  Ver.  4  may,  on  this  hypothesis,  be  considered  to  point 
to  the  Divine  honours  paid  by  the  Christians  to  our  Lord. 
With  the  reference  to  the  Holy  Place  compare  Matthew 
xxvi.  61  ;  Acts  vi.  13,  xxi.  28.  (4)  In  ver.  9  there  is  a 
distinct  reference  to  the  miracles  which  accompanied  the 
earliest  preaching  of  the  Gospel.  Further,  in  kut  evep'yeuiv 
Tov  Saravd  the  old  charge  is  revived,  "  By  Beelzebub  the 
prince  of  the  devils  casteth  He  out  devils"  (Luke  xi.  15). 
(5)  The  writer  of  the  letter  had  explained  to  his  friends 
when  with  them  (ver.  5)  the  nature  of  the  Koman  tyranny. 
This  foreign  oppression  {to  KaTe-^ov)  in  the  person  of  the 
Roman  governor  at  Jerusalem  (6  KaTe^^^^)  held  down  the 
natural  tendencies  of  Jews  and  Christians  alike.  But  the 
writer  as  a  loyal  Jew  looks  forward  with  confident  hope 


182  CHRISTIAN  INTEBFOLATIONS 

to  the  time  when  this  alien  yoke  shall  be  removed,  though 
naturally  he  uses  cautious  language  (ea)';  etc  fieaov  jevTjrai) 
to  express  his  expectation.  Then  at  last  Christianity  will 
be  seen  in  its  true  light.  The  final  conflict  between  Chris- 
tianity and  Judaism  will  be  fought  out,  and  the  coming 
of  the  Lord  will  quickly  annihilate  these  new  pretenders. 

Such  an  interpretation  of  the  cardinal  passage  of  the 
Thessalonian  epistles  seems  clear,  self-consistent,  and  free 
from  the  difficulties  which  beset  any  interpretation  sug- 
gested by  those  who  uphold  the  Christian  authorship  of 
the  whole  of  these  epistles. 

II.  We  next  attempt  to  separate  the  interpolations  of 
the  Christian  Uberarbelter  (comp.  Vischer,  pp.  33-76). 
These  are  of  three  kinds. 

1.  The  name  Jesus  Christ,  or  its  equivalent,  is  inserted 
in  addition  to,  or  in  place  of,  the  name  of  God. 

The  phrase  Hin^  ''^37  is  one  of  very  constant  occurrence 
in  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  natural  that  a  Jewish  writer 
should  dwell  on  the  thought,  and  our  author  recurs  to  it 
four  times  in  the  first  epistle  (i.  3;  ii.  19;  iii.  9,  13).  In 
the  second  of  these  passages,  the  Christian  interpolator 
has  added  the  words  printed  within  brackets  :  efiTrpoaOev 
Tov  Kvpiov  \J]iio)v  'Irjaov].  In  the  remaining  three  places 
he  has  allowed  the  reference  to  God  the  Father  to  remain 
undisturbed  (comp.  Vischer,  p.  00  f.).  Comp.  1  Thessa- 
lonians  ii.  6,  10. 

The  presumption  that  the  name  of  Christ  is  added  in 
these  passages  by  a  later  hand  is  strangely  confirmed  when 
we  compare  the  two  passages  which  follow,  where  the 
interpolator,  after  inserting  the  name  of  the  Lord,  has  for- 
gotten to  alter  the  singular  verb.  The  interpolated  words 
are  printed  in  brackets. 

1  Thessalonians  iii.  11,  12:    AvTo<i  he  u  Qeo'i  koI.  waTyp- 
t'lfifov     fcal  6  Kvpio<i  y/iMU    Iijaov'i   ,  KaTevdvvai   rijy  uoov  t'jfMcov 
7rp6<i  v/xd<i'   Uyua9  Be   6  K.vpio<;  irXeovdaai,  k.t.X. 


IN  JEWISH   WBITINGS.  183 


2  Thessalonians  ii.  16  :  AvTo<i  Se  [6  KvpLo<i  i^fxoiv  'h-jaov^ 
Xpi(7T6<;,  Kal]  6  0eo?  6  iraTyp  r]/u.o)v,  .  .  .  irapaKaXeaav  vficov 
ra?  KapSia<i  koI  crrrjpl^ai  fc.T.\. 

The  interpolator,  it  will  be  noticed,  has  manipulated  the 
two  passages  in  different  ways.  Both  sentences  however, 
when  the  interpolated  words  have  been  eliminated,  are  seen 
to  be  formed  on  the  same  model ;  and  this  t3'pe  of  sen- 
tence is  proved  to  be  characteristic  of  the  original  writer 
when  the  following  passages  are  compared  :  1  Thessalonians 
V.  2o,  AvTo^  8e  6  0609  rfy?  elp/]V7]q  dytdaai  vp,d^  :  2  Thessa- 
lonians iii.  5,  O  Se  KvpLo<i  KaTevdvvai  vjjlojv  rd^  Kapoia<i : 
iii.  16,  AuTo<;  Be  6  KvpLo^  t?}?  elpi]vi]^  So^rj  vpuv  r)]v  elprjvtjv 
(comp,  Vischer,  pp.  18,  37,  42). 

Some  of  the  other  interpolated  words  which  come  under 
this  head  must  be  briefly  mentioned.  Thus  in  the  first 
epistle  (a)  i.  3,  omit  rod  Kvplov  i)pi6iv  'Ir/aov  XpLarov.  The 
strain  of  the  piled  up  genitives  is  thus  relieved,  (h)  i.  10, 
viov  may  have  been  substituted  for  Xpiarop,  and  the  words 
ov  yyeipev  .  .  .  'Irjaovu  were  inserted,  (c)  iv.  14  should 
be  omitted.  Thus  the  awkwardness  of  two  consecutive 
clauses  beginniiig  with  yap  is  avoided,  (d)  iv.  16  :  if  iv 
Xptarco  be  omitted,  the  antithesis  between  ol  veKpol  and  ol 
^o)VTe<i  is  clearly  maintained,  {e)  Further,  it  is  remarkable 
that  in  one  passage  (2  Thess.  ii.  8)  the  critical  attestation 
seems  to  betray  a  sense  of  the  precariousness  of  the  insertion. 

2.  The  salutations  and  personal  allusions  are  obviously 
the  additions  of  a  later  hand,  if  this  hypothesis  be  accepted 
on  other  grounds,  and  can  easily  be  removed.  How  far  how- 
ever there  may  be  incorporated  in  these  passages  fragments 
of  the  original,  it  is  impossible  now  to  form  an  opinion 
(comp.  Vischer,  p.  34).  Thus  in  1  Thessalonians  ii.  14,  it  is 
probable  enough  that  the  original  Jewish  writer  drew  a  par- 
allel between  the  sufferings  of  his  friends  in  Thessalonica 
(if  we  assume  that  this  was  the  destination  of  tlie  letters 
in  their    original   (Jewish)    form),   and  those    of  his   fellow 


184  CHRISTIAN  INTERPOLATIONS 


countrymen  in  Judaea.  Both  were  the  victims  of  the  Gen- 
tiles, on  whom  the  Divine  vengeance  would  shortly  fall. 

3.  Certain  Christian,  and  especially  Pauline,  phrases  and 
words  may  be  eliminated,  and  the  context  remain  unharmed, 
if  it  be  not  improved  (comp.  Vischer,  pp.  36,  68). 

The  interpolator,  for  example,  wishes  to  give  a  Pauline 
tinge  to  the  epistles  by  inserting  references  to  TriVrt?,  eA,7riV, 
djaTTT],  though  it  was  not  till  a  period  later  than  the  sup- 
posed date  of  these  epistles  that  St.  Paul  formulated  the 
great  triad  of  Christian  graces.  Thus  in  1  Thessalonians 
i.  3,  the  Pauline  graces  must  needs  have  a  conspicuous 
position  given  them  in  the  forefront  of  the  epistle.  If  they 
are  eliminated  from  the  passage,  it  gains  clearly  in  simplicity 
of  construction  and  in  point  (comp.  1  Thess.  ii.  0,  rov  kqttov 

A  still  clearer  case  is  1  Thessalonians  v.  8.  The  passage 
is  in  fact  a  quotation  from  Isaiah  lix.  17.  In  the  second  of 
the  two  clauses,  if  eXTrtSa  be  omitted,  the  exact  phrase  of 
the  LXX.  (except  for  the  insignificant  alteration  of  o-oorrjplov 
into  awrripia^i)  is  given.  But  eXirU  having  been  inserted, 
it  became  necessary  to  find  a  place  for  Trta-Td  and  dyaTTT]. 
The  breastplate  therefore,  which  in  Isaiah  answers  to 
''  righteousness,"  is  incorrectly  described  as  made  up  of  two 
materials,  and  the  metaphor  becomes  confused. 

Again,  it  is  clear  from  their  position  that  the  words  kuI 
TOV  Kvpiov  in  1  Thessalonians  i.  6  are  an  addition.  Thej- 
do  not  harmonize  with  the  defining  words  which  follow, 
Be^dfievoi,  tov  XoyoiJ  k.t.\. 

The  excision  of  other  phrases  as  Christian  will  readily 
suggest  itself.     I  have  only  dwelt  on  two  typical  cases. 

III.  It  remains  to  show  the  Jewish  character  of  what 
is  left  when  the  interpolations  have  been  removed  (comp. 
Vischer,  pp.  76-91). 

1.  We  notice  how  in  the  original  portion  the  writer 
speaks  of  God  the  Father,  when  a  Christian  would  naturally 


IN  JEWISH   WRITINGS.  185 

have  referred  to  Christ.  Thus  it  is  not  6  ^070?  6  toO 
aravpou  (1  Cor.  i.  IS)  which  is  gaining  gi'ound,  but  6  X6709 
Tou  Kvplov,  TO  evayyiXtov  rov  0eou,  X070?  aKo?]<i  rou  Qeov. 
Again,  it  is  not  to  a  behef  in  a  Eedeemer  that  the  heathen 
have  turned,  but  Trpo?  rov  &eov,  .  .  .  ZovXeveiv  Qew  ^mvti 
Koi  dXrjOivM  (comp.  Vischer,  pp.  72,  86). 

2.  The  sternness  of  some  passages  is  very  remarkable. 
Not  the  salvation,  but  the  punishment,  of  those  who  stand 
outside  the  circle  of  safety  is  the  object  of  deep  desire. 
What  words  could  be  fuller  of  a  passionate  craving  for 
vengeance  than  2  Thessalonians  i.  6-10  and  ii.  1-12  (comp. 
Vischer,  pp.  55,  82)  ? 

3.  The  advice  of  St.  Paul  to  an  inquiring  heathen,  as 
recorded  in  the  Acts  (xvi.  31)  was,  "Believe  on  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  and  thou  shalt  be  saved."  Here  however  all 
stress  is  laid  on  such  moral  duties  as  occupied  the  thoughts 
of  Old  Testament  prophets.  The  will  of  God  is  described 
as  being  chiefly  abstinence  from  fornication  and  from 
meddling  in  magic  (2  Thess.  iii.  11  Trepiepya^ofiivovi :  comp. 
Acts  xix.  13,  19  TMv  irepLep'X^o/jbevcop  'louSaicov  i^opKiaTMV  .  .  . 
TMv  ra  ireplepya  irpa^avrcav),  kindliness  of  man  to  man,  and 
honest  labour. 

4.  No  reader  of  the  Gospels  can  forget  the  strength  of 
the  Lord's  denunciation  of  those  who  "  held  fast  the  tradi- 
tion of  men  "  (Mark  vii.  8).  It  is  echoed  by  St.  Paul  at 
two  different  periods  of  his  life  (Gal.  i.  14,  Col.  ii.  8).  If  the 
writer  had  been  a  Christian,  would  he  twice  over  have 
spoken  of  "  the  keeping  the  traditions  "  as  the  main  guarantee 
for  stabiHty  in  right  living  (2  Thess.  ii.  15,  iii.  6)  ? 

Thus  I  have  stated  an  hypothesis  in  regard  to  the  two 
epistles  which  form  the  earliest  group  of  St.  Paul's  writings, 
and  I  have  supported  it  with  arguments  of  considerable 
weight,  I  believe,  from  a  critical  point  of  view. 

I  do  not  accept  the  theory  myself,  nor  have  I  the  slightest 


186  CHRISTIAN  INTERPOLATIONS. 


fear  lest  any  one  else  should  become  enamoured  with  it. 
But  I  do  not  think  that  its  discussion  is  purposeless. 
Vischer's  theory  in  regard  to  the  composition  of  the 
Apocalypse  is  wonderfully  ingenious,  and  seems  to  offer 
the  explanation  of  many  difficulties.  I  do  not  pretend  to 
have  dealt  with  it  as  a  whole.  I  cannot  however  but  think 
that  the  application  of  the  same  critical  method  to  another 
portion  of  the  New  Testament  brings  to  light  several  impor- 
tant points. 

1.  If  such  an  hypothesis  can  be  maintained  with  any 
show  of  reason  in  regard  to  a  letter,  which,  from  its  nature, 
vividly  reflects  the  mind  of  its  writer,  and  is  one  of  a  large 
collection  of  his  letters,,  we  need  not  be  surprised  that  a 
similar  theory  can  be  made  very  plausible  in  the  case  of 
the  Apocalypse,  a  much  more  artificial  work,  if  the  word 
may  be  allowed,  and  one  which  is  largely  founded  in  regard 
of  both  its  imagery  and  its  language  on  the  Old  Testament. 

G.  "  Knowledge  grows  from  more  to  more."  The  asso- 
ciations of  Judaism  may  perhaps  have  clung  more  than  we 
commonly  suppose  even  to  tlie  Apostles,  and  especially  in 
their  earliest  works  may  have  influenced  their  concep- 
tions and  their  phraseology.  If  this  was  the  case  with  the 
"  fusile  Apostle,"  "the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,"  how 
much  more  should  we  expect  it  to  be  so  with  St.  John, 
one  of  "the  Three,"  who  deliberately  chose  "  the  circum- 
cision "  as  the  sphere  of  his  work  (Gal.  ii.  9)  ? 

3.  Parallels  to  some  of  the  more  striking  phenomena  in 
the  Apocalypse  pointed  out  by  Vischer  have  been  adduced. 

4.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  adoption  of  such  a  theory 
may  happen  to  have  the  appearance  of  throwing  an  alto- 
gether unexpected  light  on  a  passage,  the  interpretation  of 
which  has  always  presented  most  difficult  problems  to 
Cliristian  scholars. 

Fred.  H.  Chase. 


187 


THE  GBOUP  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 

II.  Petee. 

We  have  seen  how  consistent  and  hfehke  are  the  various 
incidents  recorded  of  the  group  of  the  apostles,  and  how 
matter  of  fact  and  unideahzed  is  the  conception  of  them. 
And  since  the  story  of  our  Lord  is  supported  by  exactly  the 
same  evidence,  we  have  concluded  that  what  verifies  the 
former  is  a  testimony  to  the  latter  as  well. 

We  now  turn  to  those  individuals  among  the  Twelve 
concerning  whom  enough  is  recorded  to  give  them  shape 
and  colour;  and  we  ask  how  it  stands  with  them.  Are 
they  real  persons,  or  demigods,  or  shadows  ?  And  where 
we  can  find  incidents  related  of  them  by  more  than  one 
evangelist,  do  these  incidents  harmonize  ? 

For  it  is  quite  certain  that  if  the  historians  have  given 
any  rein  whatever  to  their  fancy,  they  will  have  been  carried 
in  very  different  directions.  The  Socrates  of  Plato  and  of 
Xenophon,  the  Cyrus  of  three  narrators,  the  CEesar  of 
Plutarch  and  of  Shakespeare,  are  sufficiently  unlike  to 
establish  this  proposition.  Where  a  real  life  is  honestlj'' 
and  accurately  depicted  there  will  yet  be  variety,  because 
each  author  will  be  impressed  by  traits  congenial  to  his 
own  character ;  and  this  is  the  reason  why  our  idea  of  Jesus 
is  formed  of  contributions  from  four  sources.  But  these 
varieties  will  blend,  like  the  colours  in  a  beam  of  light,  into 
one  harmonious  effect. 

Foremost  of  the  Twelve,  not  only  in  station  but  also  in 
force  and  vigour  of  delineation,  is  Simon  the  son  of  Jonas, 
to  whose  whole  life  that  may  be  applied  which  is  written  of 
the  sins  of  some,  that  it  goes  before  him  unto  judgment,  so 
clear  and  transparent  is  the  import  of  all  the  record,  so 
unequivocal  for  good  or  evil. 


168  TEE  GROUP   OF  TEE  APOSTLES. 

What  image  does  our  mind  call  up  at  the  name  of  the 
greatest  of  the  apostles  ?  AVe  think  of  a  man  in  middle  life, 
of  whom  it  may  be  said  equally,  "  When  thou  wast  young  " 
and  "  when  thou  shalt  be  old,"  and  whose  wife's  mother 
retains  sufficient  vigour,  when  relieved  from  illness,  to  arise 
and  minister  to  his  guests  (John  xxi.  18  ;  Matt.  viii.  15). 
A  weatherbeaten  man,  not  unused  to  whole  nights  of  toil 
and  to  wrestling  with  the  whirlwinds  that  rage  upon  the 
Lake  of  Galilee  (Luke  v.  5  ;  John  vi.  18).  A  hasty  man,  who 
first  quits  the  ship  and  then  observes  how  wild  the  waves 
are,  who  rashly  answers  for  the  payment  of  tribute  by  his 
master,  who  strikes  with  the  sword  while  others  crave 
directions,^  and  who  plunges  into  the  waters  rather  than 
await  the  slow  movement  of  a  ship  which  drags  a  heavy 
net  (Matt.  xiv.  30,  xvii.  24  ;  Luke  xxii.  49 ;  Matt.  xxvi.  51 ; 
John  xxi.  7).  A  helpful  man,  the  one  who  draws  that  same 
net  ashore  when  all  are  bidden  to  bring  of  the  fish  which 
they  have  caught,  and  whose  ship,  rather  than  another, 
Jesus  will  choose  to  enter  when  He  would  fain  be  removed 
a  little  from  the  throng  (John  xxi.  11 ;  Luke  v.  3).  By  no 
means  a  penniless  labourer  for  hire,  but  one  of  a  company 
who  possessed  two  ships,"  and,  besides  the  five  partners, 
employed  hired  servants  enough  to  carry  on  the  trade 
when  four  of  its  members  were  withdrawn  (Luke  v.  1-11  ; 
Mark  i.  20).  An  unlearned  and  ignorant  man,  according  to 
the  standard  of  technical  acquirement  at  Jerusalem ;  yet 
not  unable  to  address  Cornelius  in  Greek,  and  (unless  he 
employed  a  secretary)  to  correspond  with  his  Churches  in 
epistles  very  fairly  worded  (Acts  iv.  13,  x.).  An  affectionate 
man,  sharing  his  house,  although  married,  with  his  brother 
Andrew,  and  also  with  his  wife's  mother,  for  whom  not 


^  Lange  has  missed  a  point  for  once,  by  making  it  Peter  who  asks  for  orders. 
Life  of  Clirhft,  Clarke's  translation,  iii.  220. 

-  Probably  not  more,  since  their  partners  were  summoned  to  help  from  "  tlie 
other  ship,"  not  merely  from  another. 


FETER.  189 

only  be  but  all  the  group  besougbt  Jesus ;  one  whose  wife 
was  content,  a  little  later,  to  go  v/ith  him  in  the  labours  of 
his  apostolic  wanderings ;  who  could  make  to  bis  Master 
the  pathetic  appeal,  "  Lord,  Thou  knowest  all  things;  Thou 
knowest  that  I  love  Thee  "  (Mark  i.  29  ;  Luke  iv.  38  ;  1  Cor. 
ix.  5  ;  John  xxi.  17).  For,  in  truth,  a  reproachful  glance 
from  that  beloved  One  had  almost  broken  his  heart.  A 
genial,  simple,  and  unsuspecting  nature,  outspoken  rather 
than  profound,  the  first  to  be  led  to  Jesus  by  a  disciple 
already  won,  and  the  easiest  to  bring  ;  capable  of  a  great 
fall,  but  quick  to  obtain  the  relief  of  tears,  and  already  sufti- 
ciently  recovered  to  hasten  to  the  sepulchre  upon  the  tirst 
tidings  of  a  further  change  (John  i.  41 ;  Matt.  xxvi.  75  ;  John 
XX.  3).  A  rough  man,  betraying  his  province  by  his  dialect, 
and  liable  to  relapse,  in  a  moment  of  great  pressure  and 
peril,  into  the  coarse  language  of  the  market  (Matt.  xxvi. 
74).  A  man  who  was  quickly  rather  than  delicately  sen- 
sitive ;  for  when  John  would  not  intrude  upon  his  Master, 
then  troubled  in  spirit,  by  searching  out  the  traitor,  Peter 
had  no  sympathy  with  such  a  fine  reserve,  but  beckoned  to 
him  to  ask  the  question  ;  whereupon  it  was  the  immediate 
task  of  the  Divine  tact  of  Jesus  to  remove  Judas  from  the 
room  (John  xiii.  24).  Peter  himself  was  quite  ready  to 
repay  in  kind  the  service  thus  rendered  him  by  John ;  for 
the  fourth  gospel  pointedly  connects  this  incident  with  the 
fact  that  Peter,  when  his  risen  Master  had  drawn  him 
aside,  seeing  John  modestly  and  unobtrusively  following, 
called  attention  to  the  silent  one  by  asking,  "Lord,  and 
what  shall  this  man  do  ?  "  (John  xxi.  20,  21.)  Perhaps 
there  is  not  in  the  gospels  a  more  characteristic  phrase,  so 
generous  in  its  desire  to  introduce  the  wistful  brother  into 
the  discourse,  so  wilful  in  its  assumption  that  Jesus  was 
overlooking  "  this  man,"  so  prosaic,  even  to  shallowness, 
in  its  failure  to  be  duly  impressed  and  solemnized  by  the 
withdrawal  of  the   veil  from    his   own  future   and   by   the 


190       TEE  GROUP   OF  TEE  APOSTLES. 

stern  prospect  revealed.  Is  it  conceivable  that  St.  John 
should  have  made  such  an  answer  to  such  a  warning,  or 
even  that  he  should  have  "turned  about"  at  all  to  see 
who  followed  ?  This  was  the  point  of  our  Lord's  rebuke 
in  answer  :  Peter  had  nothing  at  such  a  time  to  do  with 
others ;  let  him  see  that  his  own  heart  was  strong.  Once 
he  had  asked,  "  AVhy  cannot  I  follow  Thee  now?"  and 
had  since  found  by  sore  experience  that  he  was  still  un- 
ready to  follow  Jesus.  Now  he  is  reminded  that  the  same 
task  still  lies  before  him,  and  should  have  the  first  place 
in  his  mind.  The  days  are  past  when  he  might  go  whither 
he  would :  henceforth  he  is  in  the  hands  of  stronger 
and  overmastering  forces  ;  and  yet  he  may  be  free  in  the 
midst  of  coercions,  if  only  it  is  his  will  to  follow  Jesus,  the 
Cross-bearer. 

Such  was  he  to  whom  the  keys  were  given,  and  to  whom 
Jesus  especially  committed  the  task  of  strengthening  his 
brethren.  Yet  one  can  easily  conceive  a  more  elevated 
character  than  his.  St.  John  was  probably  a  greater  man, 
assuredly  a  greater  thinker,  his  insight  more  penetrating, 
his  mental  grasp  more  powerful.  But  the  greatness  of  the 
sage,  and  even  of  the  man,  is  one  thing,  and  the  special 
greatness  of  the  apostle  is  quite  another  thing.  The 
question  was  not  of  inventing  a  religion,  like  Mohammad  or 
the  Buddha ;  nor  of  elaborating  a  theology,  like  Calvin  or 
Augustine ;  nor  even  of  working  out,  like  St.  Paul,  the 
problem  of  its  relations  to  the  Gentile  world.  What  is  re- 
quired is  a  mind  upon  which  a  few  great  conceptions  could 
be  strongly  stamped,  a  heart  which  would  respond  with 
ardour  to  the  appeal  of  love  and  loveliness  in  wholly  novel 
manifestations,  and  a  life  which  might  often  err,  it  is  true, 
but  was  capable  of  a  great  surrender  and  a  genuine  loyalty, 
and  frank,  warm,  and  outspoken  enough  to  convey  its 
emotions  vigorously  to  other  men.     The  world  would  not 


PETER.  191 

be  converted  (though  the  Church  once  founded  might  be 
edified  exceedingly)  by  deep  and  silent  reveries  and  profound 
views  of  truth.  Not  a  sage  but  an  interpreter  was  needed. 
And  it  will  appear  that  while  Peter  and  John  were  con- 
stantly together,  in  every  case  the  initiative  was  taken  by 
the  first. 

Let  us  now  see  how  this  conception  of  a  simple  and  loyal 
soul,  easily  impressed,  ready  to  express  itself,  and  well 
fitted  to  spread  the  contagion  of  its  ardour,  is  worked  out 
by  the  different  evangelists  in  detail. 

"When  first  we  come  upon  him,  he  is  one  of  a  circle  in 
which  the  Baptist  has  inspired  the  highest  hope,  and 
Andrew  needs  only  to  tell  him,  "  We  have  found  the  Mes- 
siah," in  order  to  bring  him  to  Jesus.  With  him  the 
Divine  wisdom  at  once  takes  the  initiative,  and  reading 
his  character  announces  that  "  thou  shalt  be  called  Cephas, 
which  is  by  interpretation  a  stone,"  a  mass  from  the 
living  Eock.  What  is  said  of  him  is  not,  as  presently 
of  Nathanael,  what  he  already  was  ;  on  the  contrary,  Jesus 
(who  is  now  acting,  for  the  first  time,  as  only  Jehovah  does 
in  the  Old  Testament)  bestows  a  new  name  which  will  best 
express  the  especial  blessing  in  store  for  the  want  of  Simon. 
And  he  gives  Peter  no  opportunity  for  a  rash  utterance, 
but  looks  him  through  and  promptly  speaks  a  strong  word, 
fitted  to  burn  deep  into  a  sensitive  heart  (John  i.  42). 

His  quick  impressibility  appeared,  in  difierent  ways,  at  the 
first  miraculous  draught  of  fish,  when  he  prostrated  himself, 
and  cried  "  Depart  from  me,"  and  when,  with  a  shudder,  he 
said,  "This  shall  never  be  unto  Thee,"  "minding"  things 
in  their  earthly  aspect,  but  with  only  too  vivid  apprehension 
(Luke  V.  8;  Matt.  xvi.  22).  So,  too,  the  waves,  in  his 
strange  position  as  he  walked  on  them  to  Jesus,  and  our 
Lord's  surrender  to  His  foes,  and  the  hostile  crowd  in  the 
palace,  and  long  afterwards  the  frown  of  his  compatriots 


192  THE    QEOJJP   OF  THE  APOSTLES. 

from  Jerusalem,  whose  displeasure  while  distant  he  had 
defied,  all  came  home  to  his  keen  susceptibilities  with  peri- 
lous and  misleading  power  (Matt.  xiv.  30  ;  Luke  xxii.  53 ; 
Mark  xiv.  66  ;  Gal.  ii.  12). 

Closer  observation  will  detect,  beside  this  well  known 
impetuosity  in  action,  a  restless  craving  to  act,  an  inability 
to  "  be  still  and  see  salvation,"  in  every  crisis  a  feeling  that 
he  must  do  something,  even  if  he  can  discover  no  deed 
litting  the  occasion.  There  was  in  him  a  certain  absence 
of  repose,  which  involved  him  in  many  of  his  troubles,  yet 
indicated  zeal  and  self-reliance. 

Upon  the  Mount  of  Transfiguration  we  are  surprised  to 
learn  what  followed  because  he  knew  not  what  to  say. 
Silence  one  would  expect,  but  it  is  not  so  ;  it  is  the  strange 
proposal  to  build  three  booths  in  which  the  transfigured 
Lord  and  His  visitants  from  another  world  may  enjoy 
separate  accommodation  and  shelter  from  the  night  air, 
since  it  was  good  to  be  there.^  In  answer  to  this  bewildered 
proposal,  which  sets  the  three  upon  a  level,  the  voice  from 
heaven  bids  them  continue  to  hear  Jesus,  as  they  have  done 
for  years,  and  He  alone  is  left  with  them  (Mark  ix.  5). 

But  this,  though  an  extreme  example,  is  not  at  all  a 
solitary  one.  It  is  not  enough  to  await  Jesus  in  the  ship ; 
he  desires  to  meet  Him  half-way,  upon  the  water ;  he  must 
remonstrate  if  Christ's  forebodings  appear  too  gloomy ;  he 
wants  to  know,  "  Why  cannot  I  follow  Thee  now  ?  "  he  must 
needs  smite  unbidden  ;  and  while  awaiting  new  revelations 
he  will  go  a-fishing  (Matt.  xiv.  28  ;  Mark  viii.  32 ;  John 
xiii.  37,  xviii.  10,  xxi.  3). 

There  is  always  a  similar  plunge,  one  might  say,  into 
the  water,  into  unweighed  words,  into  conflict,  and  into 
the  stronghold  of  his  foes.  And  in  every  case  he  is  quite 
willing  to  act  alone.     This  is  the  peculiarity  which  Jesus 

'  In  several  mauusciipts  Peter  proposes  that  be   sliould  himself  build  all 
three  tabernacles. 


FETEE.  103 

indicated,  with  a'  wonderfully  accurate  and  delicate  touch, 
in  the  words.  When  thou  wast  young,  thou  didst  go, 
with  loins  girt,  in  the  ways  of  thine  own  will  (John  xxi. 
18). 

Such  quick  feelings  and  impulsive  ardour  are  the  natural 
companions  of  a  quality,  dangerous  enough,  but  absolutely 
necessary  for  his  high  calling,  the  great  readiness  of  speech, 
of  which  several  examples  have  been  already  quoted.  His 
impulsive  utterances  did  often  outrun  his  judgment  and 
become  blameworthy,  but  they  were  almost  always  high- 
toned  and  lovable. 

It  is  worth  notice,  that  while  he  is  so  commonly  the 
speaker  for  the  group,  we  do  not  once  read  of  his  being  so 
for  evil.  The  rebuke  of  those  who  sought  to  have  their 
children  blessed,  and  of  one  who  cast  out  devils  without 
following  the  apostles,  the  imputing  of  sin  to  "  this  man  or 
his  parents,"  the  impatience  excited  by  the  clamour  of  the 
woman  of  Canaan,  the  intrigue  for  the  right-hand  and  left- 
hand  places  in  the  kingdom,  the  proposal  to  call  down  fire 
on  the  Samaritans,  and  the  complaint  of  the  waste  of  oint- 
ment, in  no  gospel  is  one  of  these  ascribed  to  Peter  (Mark 
X.  13  ;  Luke  ix.  49  ;  John  ix.  2  ;  Matt.  xv.  23 ;  Mark  x.  37  ; 
Luke  ix.  54  ;  Matt.  xxvi.  8). 

And  if  we  reckon  up  the  various  occasions  of  his  stum- 
bling, none  of  them  will  be  traced  to  meanness  or  self-in- 
dulgence at  the  root.  If  he  left  the  ship,  it  was  to  go  to 
Jesus  ;  if  he  dared  to  rebuke  the  Lord,  it  was  because  the 
prospect  of  His  suffering  shocked  him  ;  he  would  vouch  for 
the  payment  by  his  Master  of  any  claim  which  he  deemed 
just ;  if  his  estimate  of  the  duty  of  forgiveness  fell  short  of 
the  New  Testament  standard,  it  excelled  that  of  his  nation  ; 
he  would  not  suffer  his  Lord  to  perform  for  him  a  menial 
office,  but  when  he  discerned  its  deeper  meaning,  he  asked 
too  much,  forgetting  that  he  was  "bathed"  already;  he 
could  not  believe  that  any  form  of  peril  would  shake  his 
VOL.  IX.  13 


194    .  TEE   GROUP   OF   THE  APOSTLES. 


fidelity  to  Christ,  for  whom  he  was  indeed  prepared  to 
fight,  whose  surrender  only  he  failed  to  share  ;  if  he  slept 
in  the  garden,  it  was  "for  sorrow  "  ;  and  if  in  the  palace 
he  was  finally  overcome,  it  was  because,  with  nerves 
unstrung,  he  yet  ventured  farther  than  any,  except  one 
who  had  interest  in  the  place  (Matt.  xiv.  29,  xvi.  22,  xvii. 
24,  xviii.  21  ;  John  xiii.  8  ;  Mark  xiv.  81  ;  Luke  xxii.  45  ; 
John  xviii.  16). 

We  come  nearer  to  the  secret  oi  his  greatness  when  we 
observe  that  his  sensibilities  were  not  more  alive  to  any- 
thing than  to  spiritual  impressions.  It  was  he  who  "  called 
to  mind  "  that  the  blighted  fig  tree  was  that  which  the 
Master  cursed  (Mark  xi.  21).  When  his  nets  broke,  he  felt 
neither  that  a  great  spoil  was  given  to  him,  nor  yet  that  the 
marvel  of  the  giving  was  greater  than  the  gift ;  all  thought  of 
wonder  and  of  gain  was  lost  in  the  overwhelming  sense  of 
his  own  unworthiness  of  such  a  presence  :  and  although  it 
was  not  for  him  to  shake  off  the  mighty  influence  which 
had  come  into  his  life,  yet  he  dared  not  accept  it  without 
the  confession,  the  almost  protest,  "  ]J)epart  from  me  ;  for  I 
am  a  sinful  man,  O  Lord." 

Thus  Job,  when  he  saw  God,  abhorred  himself  and  re- 
pented ;  and  thus  Isaiah  cried  out,  "Woe  is  me,  for  I  am 
undone."  Self-abasement,  not  presumptuous  confidence, 
restored  the  patriarch,  and  gave  Isaiah  and  Peter  their  com- 
mission (Luke  V.  8;  Job  xlii.  6  ;  Isa.  vi.  5). 

When  Jesus  asked  the  Twelve,  "  Will  ye  also  go  away  ?  " 
it  was  Peter  who  answered,  acting,  perhaps  for  the  first 
time,  as  the  authorized  spokesman  of  all  the  company.  He 
did  not  speak  of  the  marvellous  miracle  they  had  witnessed  ; 
rather  was  his  heart  still  vibrating  with  the  great  utterance 
which  had  offended  many,  and  therefore  he  said,  "  Thou 
hast  the  words  of  eternal  life,  and  we  have  believed  and 
know  that  Thou  art  the  Holy  One  of  God."  And  since  men 
who  had  learned  the  message  of  eternity  could  not  return 


PETEB.  195 

to  their  nets,  nor  choose  but  follow  some  spiritual  chief,  he 
asked,  "  Lord,  to  whom  should  we  go  ?  "  (John  vi.  68.) 

Again,  when  Jesus  asked,  "  Who  say  men  that  I  am?" 
all  were  ready  to  declare  how  some  said  with  Herod  that 
He  was  the  Baptist,  some  Elias  the  forerunner,  some 
(because  Jesus  had  now  begun  to  foretell  a  new  ruin  of 
Jerusalem)  the  melancholy  Jeremiah,  and  others  vaguely  one 
of  the  old  prophets.  But  when  Jesus  again  asked,  "  Who 
say  ye  that  I  am  ?  "  Peter  alone  gave  the  clear  and  decisive 
answer ;  not,  as  with  the  qualifying  preface  used  of  the 
guesses  of  the  people,  "  we  say,"  but  confidently,  as  one 
might  hail  his  king,  "  Thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the 
living  God"  (Matt.  xvi.  13-17). 

Blessed  in  that  hour  was  Simon  Bar-Jonas,  and  now 
Christ  declared  to  him  that  he  was  actually  Peter  ;  because 
this  truth  was  not  revealed  to  him  by  flesh  and  blood,  not 
even  by  the  lips  of  Jesus,  but  by  the  voice  of  the  Father, 
heard  in  the  silence  of  a  consecrp.ted  heart.  Not  that  he  was 
himself  the  rock,  for  against  his  gratified  self-confidence  the 
gates  of  hell  too  quickly  began  to  prevail,  and  the  words 
which  he  next  pronounced  fell  upon  the  Saviour's  ear  as 
the  very  utterance  of  the  evil  one.  But  the  great  confes- 
sion he  had  made  was  the  foundation  and  basis  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  ;  and  therefore  it  was  given  to  him  to  open  the 
gates  of  the  spiritual  kingdom,  alike  to  Jews  upon  the  day 
of  Pentecost,  and  to  Gentiles  by  the  baptism  of  Cornelius. 

It  is  entirely  in  accordance  with  all  the  character  we  have 
been  examining,  that  an  appealing  glance,  and  the  occur- 
rence of  a  trivial  but  predicted  event  should  suffice  to  arrest 
his  fall,  and  from  wild  and  recreant  oaths  convert  him  to 
the  weeping  of  bitter  tears  (Luke  xxii.  60,  61). 

And  it  is  to  be  observed  that,  while  the  Searcher  of  hearts 
knew  the  special  danger  of  censoriousness  and  uncharity 
in  the  hour  of  one's  own  pardon,  and  expressed  it  in  the 
parable  of  a  debtor,  forgiven  much,  who  straightway,  be- 


196  TEE   GROUP   OF  THE   APOSTLES. 


ginning  to  economise,  took  by  the  throat  his  own  debtor 
of  a  hundred  pence,  yet  He  had  no  fears  of  this  kind  for 
Peter,  but  looked  to  him,  when  restored,  to  restore  the  rest, 
who  should  also  have  forsaken  their  Lord  and  fled.  Such 
is  the  only  sufHcient  meaning  of  the  words  which  warn 
Peter,  calling  him  for  his  greater  admonition  by  the  old 
name  of  his  secular  life,  "  Simon,  Simon,  Satan  asked  to 
have  you  (all),  that  he  might  sift  you  as  wheat ;  but  I  made 
prayer  for  thee  {in  ijartimilar) ,  that  thy  faith  fail  not  :  and 
do  thou,  when  once  thou  hast  turned  again,  stablish  thy 
brethren  "  (Luke  xxii.  31,  32). 

This  was  his  especial  function.  And  yet  John  was  more 
faithful ;  he  did  not  deny  Christ  in  the  judgment  hall,  he 
watched  by  Him  at  the  cross.  But  John's  nature  was  pen- 
sive, retiring,  passive,  better  suited  to  fathom  the  mystery 
of  the  eternal  Word,  than  to  take  the  helm  in  a  tempest. 

This  leads  us  to  consider  the  remarkable  relation  which 
exists  between  the  silent  disciple,  who  received  the  tender 
charge  of  Mary,  and  him  whose  sinewy  hands  were  fitter 
to  grasp  the  ponderous  keys  of  the  kingdom  than  to  wipe 
a  woman's  tears. 

It  is  not  very  hazardous  to  infer  that  Peter  and  John  were 
linked  when  Jesus  sent  forth  His  apostles  two  by  two. 

"We  have  already  seen  that  each  sub-division  of  four 
apostles  is  the  same  in  every  list  of  the  Twelve ;  and  this 
represents,  almost  certainly,  a  fixed  arrangement.  In  that 
case  we  may  safely  assert  that  each  group  contained  two 
of  those  couples  whom  our  Lord  saw  fit  to  join  together  ; 
for  the  same  reasons,  whether  of  mutual  attraction  or  of 
character  which  once  yoked  them  together,  would  oppose 
the  rupture  of  the  tie.  It  follows  that  the  colleague  of 
Peter  was  either  Andrew  or  else  James  or  John.  But  his 
brother  Andrew  seems  most  unlikely,  because  there  would 
be  less  of  stimulus  in  the  presence  of  a  member  of  his  own 
family,  and  less  reinforcement  for  his  weakness  in  one  whose 


PETEE.  197 

character,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter,  is  curiously  similar 
to  his  own,  though  less  vigorously  developed.  What  is 
desirable  in  such  a  case  is  the  alliance  of  natures,  not  indeed 
antagonistic,  but  supplementary,  so  that,  as  Lord  Tennyson 
sings  of  a  still  closer  tie,  each  may  subserve  defect  in  each. 
It  was  thus  with  the  friendship  which  that  great  poet  has 
immortalized  ;  and  he  has  written  : 

"  '  More  than  my  brothers  are  to  me  ' — 
Let  this  not  vex  thee,  noble  heart ! 
I  know  thee  of  what  force  thou  art 
To  hold  the  costliest  love  in  fee. 

But  thou  and  I  are  one  in  kind, 
As  moulded  like  in  nature's  mint ; 
And  hill  and  wood  and  field  did  print 

The  saiue  sweet  forms  on  either  mind. 


And  so  my  wealth  resembles  thine, 
Ent  he  was  rich  when  I  was  [xmr, 
And  he  supplied  my  want  the  more 

As  his  unlikeness  fitted  mine." 

It  will  appear  in  a  future  paper  that  the  wealth  of  Andrew 
too  much  resembled  Peter's  own  to  be  chosen  to  supply  his 
want. 

With  James  Peter  is  never  found  co-operating  in  any 
special  effort,  although  both  are  included  with  John  in  the 
inner  circle,  the  elect  of  the  election  among  the  Twelve. 
But  Peter  and  John  were  as  admirably  adapted  to  help 
each  other  as  the  two  great  heroes  of  the  Reformation, 
whom  they  so  much  resembled  in  other  ways,  Luther  and 
Melanchthon. 

It  will  therefore  be  a  striking  coincidence,  and  a  fine 
example  of  the  minute  harmonies  which  close  examination 
reveals  throughout  all  the  narratives,  if  these  a  priori  con- 
siderations of  probability  coincide  with  a  number  of  recorded 
facts. 


198  THE   GROUP   OF  TEE  APOSTLES. 

Now  Peter  and  John  were  sent  together  to  find  the  man 
bearing  a  pitcher  of  water ;  Peter  beckoned  to  John  to  ask 
who  was  the  traitor ;  it  was  John  who  brought  Peter  into 
the  palace  of  the  high  priest ;  Mary  Magdalene,  when  sent 
to  "  tell  Peter,"  found  him  and  John  together,  and  they  ran 
both  to  the  sepulchre ;  it  was  to  Peter  in  the  fishing  boat 
that  John  whispered  his  recognition  of  the  mysterious 
stranger  on  the  shore;  and  Peter  asked  concerning  John, 
"  "What  shall  this  man  do  ?  "  together  they  went  to  the 
temple  when  the  lame  man  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  received 
their  wondrous  alms ;  they  subsequently  stood  forward 
together  when  Peter  made  his  bold  defence ;  and  they  two 
were  sent  together  by  the  apostles  at  Jerusalem  to  confirm 
the  disciples  at  Samaria  ^  (Luke  xxii.-  8 ;  John  xiii.  24, 
xviii.  16,  XX.  'i,  xxi.  7,  21 ;  Acts  iii.  1,  iv.  18,  V.) ;  viii.  14). 

Nothing  can  be  more  consistent  than  all  the  incidents 
and  traits  which  we  have  now  compared.  A  glance  at  the 
references  will  show  that  they  are  drawn  impartially  from 
all  four  gospels  and  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  They 
are  not  a  few  convenient  facts  selected  from  a  great  many, 
for  there  is  scarcely  an  incident  recorded  of  him,  and  cer- 
tainly not  one  characteristic  or  important  incident,  which 
has  not  found  its  place  in  the  accumulative  demonstration. 

The  most  homely  events  and  the  most  astounding 
miracles  are  equally  stamped  with  this  verifying  impress — 
the  manner  of  Simon  Bar-Jonas,  as  unmistakable  as  the 
impatient  style  of  C'arlyle,  or  the  bold  touch  of  Michael 
An  gel  0. 

And  yet  this  rich,  exuberant,  and  strongly  drawn  cha- 
racter is  over-mastered  at  every  point  by  that  of  Jesus, 
before  Whom  he  does  well  to  prostrate  himself. 

1  It  will  be  observed  tbat  this  duty  is  imposed  upon  him  after  lie  has  entered 
npoii  wliatever  authority  may  be  supposed  to  accompany  the  keys.  A  modern 
Komanist  is  therefore  bound  to  ask  whether  his  bishoj^s  are  in  a  position  to 
order  a  pope  upon  a  journey.  The  surprise  with  which  he  would  receive  such 
a  commission  is  the  measure  of  his  usurpation. 


rETEU.  IPO 

Moreover,  we  have  primitive  authority  for  heheving  that 
St.  Peter  contributed  the  materials  at  least  for  the  second 
gospel,  which  is  full  of  just  such  incidents  as  would  de- 
light his  vehement  spirit.  Its  very  keynote  is  the  word 
"straightway,"  and  everything  in  it  breathes  of  the  energy, 
penetration,  decision,  and  fire  which  took  the  heart  of  Peter 
by  storm. 

But  here,  as  elsewhere,  we  never  once  find  the  Master 
overstepping  those  limits  of  prudence  and  fine  feeling  which 
the  disciple  transgressed  so  often.  It  is  indeed  on  this 
account,  and  by  reason  of  the  exquisite  balance  of  all  great 
qualities  in  the  Messiah,  that  so  many  are  surprised  when 
bidden  to  observe  the  strength  and  even  intensity  of  will 
and  action  of  the 

'■Gentle  .Tosns,  mock  niul  iiiiM." 

AVe  do  not  recognise  the  l)urniiig  will,  the  zeal  which 
"  devoured,"  when  we  find  them  mellowed  and  sweetened 
by  the  softer  graces,  only  not  predominant  when  it  is  a 
duty  to  set  them  aside. 

As  an  admirably  proportioned  man  does  not  appear  so 
large  as  another  of  equal  stature,  so  the  powers  of  Christ 
are  less  discerned  by  reason  of  their  harmony.  And  there- 
fore it  is  well  that,  like  St.  Margaret's  Church  beside  West- 
minster Abbey,  the  impetuous  fervour  of  Peter  should  serve 
as  a  scale  by  which  the  imagination  can  measure  the 
redeeming  energies  which  inspired,  rebuked,  and  converted 
him,  which  faltered  not  when  he  fled,  and  having  con- 
quered the  grave,  restored  to  him  his  forfeited  commission. 

The  Christian  is  at  least  entitled  to  ask  the  unbelieving 
critic  :  How  can  the  authenticity  of  this  strong  and  graphic 
conception  be  denied?  yet  how  can  it  be  accepted  v/ithout 
conceding  the  miraculous  narrative  and  all  the  claims  of 
Christ  ? 

G.    A.    CilADWICK. 


200 


THE  PRIESTHOOD  AND  PRIESTLY  SERVICE  OF 
THE   CHURCH. 

From  the  Head  of  the  Church  we  turn  to  the  Church  her- 
self. The  living  Lord  is  now  a  Priest  in  heaven.  How 
far  is  His  Church  on  earth  priestly  ?  and,  if  she  is  so, 
what  are  the  functions  in  which  her  priestliness  is  fulfilled  ? 
The  inquiry  must  relate  in  the  first  instance  to  the  Church 
as  a  whole,  and  not  to  any  particular  class  within  her. 
Upon  the  propriety  of  keeping  this  in  view,  it  is  un- 
necessary to  say  more  than  has  been  said  already. 

There  can  be  no  hesitation  then  in  asserting  that,  in  the 
strictest  and  fullest  meaning  of  the  words,  the  Church  of 
Christ  is  a  sacerdotal  or  priestly  institution.  Sacerdotalism, 
priestliness,  is  the  prime  element  of  her  being  ;  and  it  is  so 
because  it  is  the  prime  element  in  the  being  of  her  exalted 
and  glorified  Head.  The  general  principle  from  which  we 
must  start  in  all  inquiries  of  this  kind  is,  that  whatever 
function  Christ  discharges  in  heaven  must  also  be  dis- 
charged, according  to  her  capabilities  and  opportunities,  by 
His  Church  on  earth.  This  principle  is  the  simple  corol- 
lary to  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  Church's  existence 
as  a  spiritual  body,  that  she  is  the  Body  of  Christ,  and  that 
the  Body  lives  in  such  close  communion  with  the  Head, 
that  whatever  the  latter  is  or  does  the  former  must  in 
measure  be  or  do.  "  I  am  the  Vine,  ye  are  the  branches  " 
(John  XV.  5)  ;  such  is  the  declaration  by  her  Lord  of  the 
Church's  privilege  and  standing  among  men.  "  Abide  in 
Me,  and  I  in  you  "  (John  xv.  4)  is  His  authoritative  com- 
mand. The  true  idea  of  the  Church  on  earth  is  not  that  she 
consists  of  a  vast  multitude  of  men,  individually  following  in 
the  footsteps  of  their  Master,  and  looking  for  ever-increas- 
ing measures  of  the  Spirit  dispensed  by  Him  from  heaven. 
Nor  is   it   even    that  of  a  Body  starting  from  earth,  and 


PBIESTHOOD  AND  FIUE8TLY  SERVICE.         201 


reaching  onwards  to  a  heavenly  condition,  only  perfectly 
attained  when  our  present  mortal  pilgrimage  is  over.  It 
is  rather  the  idea  of  a  Body  starting  from  heaven,  and 
exhibiting  the  graces  and  privileges  already  ideally  be- 
stowed upon  it  in  such  a  manner  as  may  lead  the  world 
either  to  come  to  the  light,  or  to  condemn  itself 
because  it  loves  darkness  rather  than  light,  its  deeds  being 
evil.  The  visibility  of  the  Body  is  one  of  the  essential 
notes  of  its  existence.  The  Father  of  the  spirits  of  all 
flesh  desires  to  make  Himself  known  for  the  salvation  of 
the  world.  Before  this  can  be  effectually  dojie.  He  must, 
according  to  the  constitution  of  our  nature,  be  seen 
in  what  He  is.  Therefore,  because  no  man  hath  seen  or 
can  see  God  at  any  time,  the  Only  Begotten,  which  was 
in  the  bosom  of  the  Father,  hath  "  declared  "  Him  (John 
i.  18).  This  "declaration,"  however,  could  be  made  by 
Christ  Himself  to  none  but  the  men  of  His  own  generation. 
A  record  of  it  might  be  preserved ;  books  might  be  written 
regarding  it ;  a  full  and  detailed  description  of  what  Jesus 
was  while  upon  earth  might  be  given  to  mankind.  But 
not  in  books  alone  could  all  that  is  involved  in  communion 
with  the  Father  be  so  presented  to  the  world  as  to  attract 
it  also  into  that  blessed  fellowship.  The  world  needed  to 
see  what  such  fellowship  implied,  how  it  elevated  and 
consecrated  and  beautified  human  life^  and,  in  the  only 
sense  in  which  the  word  ought  to  be  used,  brought 
"  salvation  "  to  man.  Hence,  accordingly,  the  words  of  our 
Lord  Himself,  "  As  Thou  didst  send  Me  into  the  world, 
even  so  sent  I  them  into  the  world  "  ;  "  And  the  glory 
which  Thou  gavest  Me  I  have  given  unto  them  ;  that  they 
may  be  one  even  as  We  are  one  ;  I  in  them,  and  Thou  in 
Me,  that  they  may  be  perfected  into  one  ;  that  the  world 
may  know  that  Thou  didst  send  Me,  and  lovedst  them,  even 
as  Thou  lovedst  Me  "  (John  xvii.  18,  22,  23).  Hence,  the 
words  of  "  the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved,"  "  If  we  walk  in 


202  THE  PBIESTEOOD   AND 

the  light  as  He  is  in  the  hght,  we  have  fellowship  one  with 
another,  and  the  hlood  of  Jesus  His  Son  cleanseth  ns  from 
all  sin"  (1  John  i.  7).  And  hence,  even  more  particularly, 
those  words  of  the  same  apostle  which  hardly  appear  as 
yet  to  have  received  the  due  consideration  of  the  Church, 
"As  He  is,  even  so  are  we  in  this  world"  (1  John  iv.  17). 
Further,  it  would  seem  to  he  a  principle  involved  in  the 
revelation  of  the  New  Testament,  and  confirmed  by  the 
analogy  of  nature,  that  the  Head  of  the  Church  acts  only 
through  the  Body  ;  and  that,  if  the  world  is  to  he  made 
partaker  of  the  influences  of  His  Spirit,  that  Spirit  shall  he 
conferred  through  the  instrumentality  of  men,  through  the 
instrumentality  of  those  of  whom,  it  may  be  said  that, 
when  the  world  receives  them,  it  receives  Christ  Himself 
and  Him  that  sent  Him  (John  xiii.  20). 

It  follows  from  all  this,  that  whatever  Christ  is  or  does 
in  heaven  must  be  represented  or  done  by  the  Church  on 
earth.  No  doubt  it  will  be  done  imperfectly.  The  Church 
has  not  yet  realized  the  ideal  perfection  which  belongs  to 
her.  Sin  too  often  prevails  where  there  ought  to  be  no 
sin  ;  there  is  disunion  vvhere  there  ought  to  be  unity ;  there 
is  weakness  where  there  ought  to  bo  strength  ;  and,  how- 
ever high  their  spiritual  life,  the  members  of  the  Church 
must  always  be  clothed  with  their  body  of  humiliation,  with 
their  body  of  flesh,  until  He  who  is  now  waited  for  comes 
again  and  fashions  it  anew,  that  it  may  be  conformed  to 
the  body  of  His  glory,  according  to  the  working  whereby 
He  is  able  even  to  subject  all  things  unto  Himself  (Phil.  iii. 
20,  21). 

Notwithstanding  this,  the  Church's  ideal  state  supplies 
even  now  the  standard  of  her  duty  ;  it  is  the  manifestation 
of  that  state  which  she  is  to  have  ever  before  her  eyes  ;  and 
to  draw  nearer  and  nearer  to  it  is  to  be  her  constant 
effort.  From  Him  in  whom  her  ideal  is  already  actually 
realized  she  draws  her  measure  of  that  state  to  the  extent 


PBIESTLT  SERVICE   OF  THE   GHURGE.  203 

to  which  she  is  able  to  receive  it.  The  stream  of  which 
she  is  to  drink,  and  which  she  is  to  convey  to  others, 
does  not  show  sim^Dly  the  amount  of  water  stored  in  any 
small  spring  opened  on  the  mountain  side,  but  rather 
the  abounding  fulness  of  that  great  gathering  of  waters 
above  the  firmament,  upon  which  more  truly  than  upon 
the  ocean  the  words  may  be  written,  "  dread,  fathom- 
less, alone."  These  waters  the  Church,  with  her  varied 
ordinances  of  grace,  is  to  transmit,  as  she  passes  onwards  to 
the  future,  in  ever-increasing  volume  for  the  fertilization  of 
widening  lands  and  the  refreshment  of  multiplying  peoples. 
The  true  conception  of  the  Church,  in  short,  is  that  she 
l)egins  in  heaven  and  descends  with  all  her  powers  to  earth  : 
she  does  not  begin  on  earth  and  work  her  way  to  heaven. 

Whatever  function  then  is  discharged  by  C^hrist  in 
heaven  must  also  be  discharged  by  His  Church  on  earth. 
Is  the  glorified  Kedeemer  a  Prophet? — the  prophetical 
office  must  belong  to  her.  It  may  be  in  a  form  distributed 
through  appropriate  members ;  but  primarily  it  belongs  to 
her  as  a  whole,  the  life  of  Christ  in  His  prophetical  office 
being  first  her  life,  and  then  her  life  pervading  and  ani- 
mating any  particular  persons  through  whom  the  functions 
of  the  prophetical  life  are  discharged.  In  like  manner,  is 
the  glorified  Eedeemer  a  King  (into  the  special  nature  of. 
this  kingship  we  cannot  inquire  at  present)  ? — the  kingly 
office  must  also  belong  to  her;  and,  if  it  again  is  to  be 
represented  in  any  particular  members  rather  than  in  the 
Body  as  a  whole,  her  life  must  penetrate  and  pervade  these 
members  so  that  they  may  be  kingly.  If  it  be  so  with 
Christ's  offices  as  Prophet  and  King,  it  cannot  be  less  so 
with  that  priestly  office  which  is  the  culminating  part  of  all 
His  work,  the  foundation  upon  which  the  others  rest,  and 
the  fountain  out  of  which  they  flow. 

Nothing   accordingly   can    be    more    distinct    than    the 
manner  in  which  this  priestly  character  of  the   Church  is 


20 i  THiJ  PlilESTHOOJ)   AND 

set  before  us  in  Scripture.  We  have  already  had  occasion 
to  speak  of  the  priestly  character  of  Israel ;  and  we  have 
seen  that,  if  that  central  aspect  of  the  people  of  God  under 
the  Old  Testament  dispensation  is  to  be  fulfilled  under  the 
New  Testament,  it  must,  after  the  analogy  of  all  else,  be 
fulfilled  in  Christ,  and  then  in  His  Church.  We  have 
referred  also  to  the  plain  statement  of  the  Apostle  Peter  on 
the  point.  Yet  it  may  be  worth  while  to  note  the  same 
fact  in  connexion  with  that  Melchizedek  aspect  of  our 
Lord's  priesthood  which  especially  distinguishes  it  in 
heaven.  Wherever  the  priestly  character  of  the  Church's 
Head  in  heaven  is  treated  of,  there  the  priestly  character  of 
His  people  upon  earth  appears.  Thus  in  Psalm  ex.,  where 
the  coming  Eedeemer  is  saluted  as  "  a  Priest  for  ever  after 
the  order  of  Melchizedek,"  those  that  stand  by  Him  in 
the  war  are  described  as  offering  themselves  willingly  "  in 
the  beauties  of  holiness,"  or  "in  holy  attire."  "  The  holy 
garments  are  priestly  garments.  They  who  wear  them  are 
priestly  warriors  in  the  train  of  a  priestly  leader."  ^ 

In  the  EiDistle  to  the  Hebrews,  again,  the  sacred  writer 
has  no  sooner  set  forth  the  glory  of  the  Melchizedek  priest- 
hood, and  of  Jesus  as  a  High  Priest  after  that  order,  than 
he  makes  the  practical  application :  "  Having  therefore, 
brethren,  boldness  to  enter  into  the  holy  place  in  the 
blood  of  Jesus,  by  the  way  which  He  dedicated  for  us, 
a  new  and  living  way,  through  the  veil,  that  is  to  say, 
His  flesh  ;  and  having  a  great  Priest  over  the  house  of 
God ;  let  us  draw  near  with  a  true  heart,  in  fulness  of 
faith,  having  our  hearts  sprinkled  from  an  evil  conscience, 
and  our  body  washed  with  pure  water"  (chap.  x.  19-22). 
The  entering  "  into  the  holy  place,"  spoken  of  in  these 
words,  at  once  suggests  the  light  under  which  Christians 
are  there  thought  of,  for  into  it,  under  the  Old  Testament 
economy,  priests  alone  could   enter ;    and  this  conclusion 

^  Perowiie,  In  luc. 


PRIESTLY  SERVICE    OF  THE   CHURCH.  205 

is  strengthened  by  the  fact,  that  the  two  participial  sen- 
tences, marking  out  the  mode  in  which  we  are  to  draw 
near,  are  grounded,  the  one  on  the  sprinkhng  of  blood 
which  accompanied  the  consecration  of  Aaron  and  his 
sons  to  the  priesthood  (Exod.  xxix.  21) ;  the  other  on 
the  command  that  when  they  entered  into  the  tabernacle 
of  the  congregation  they  should  wash  with  water,  that 
they  died  not  (Exod.  xxx.  20).  It  is  as  priests  then  that 
members  of  the  Christian  Church  enjoy  their  privilege  of 
immediate  access  to  the  presence  of  God.  Because  they 
have  a  High  Priest  over  the  house  of  God,  they  are  priests 
in  Him. 

The  same  thing  appears  once  more  in  the  Revelation  of 
St.  John.  That  in  the  visions  of  that  apostle,  Christ  exalted 
in  glory  is  the  High  Priest  of  His  Church,  no  one  can  for 
a  moment  doubt.  It  is  the  truth  embodied  in  the  funda- 
mental vision  of  the  book,  that  of  one  "  like  unto  a  Son  of 
man "  in  chap.  i.  In  that  vision  Jesus  may  also  be  a 
King,  but  He  is  certainly  first  a  Priest,  in  priestly  garments 
worn  as  these  were  worn  by  the  priests  of  Israel  when 
engaged  in  active  work.  With  equal  clearness  does  St. 
John  teach  us  in  the  same  book  that  in  the  risen  and 
glorified  High  Priest  all  His  people  are  also  priests.  They 
have  been  made  "  to  be  a  kingdom,  to  be  priests  unto  His 
God  and  Father"  (chap.  i.  6)  ;  and  the  white  robes  which 
they  wear  on  all  occasions  throughout  the  book  are  robes 
of  priests. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enlarge  upon  this  point;  for,  the 
Head  being  a  priest,  the  mystical  union  between  it  and  the 
members  involves  in  their  case  the  same  idea.  Few  indeed 
deny  what  is  here  contended  for.  What  is  needed  is  not 
so  much  a  wider  acceptance  of  the  truth,  as  a  deeper  and 
livelier  appreciation  of  its  power  and  consequences.  AYe 
may  start  with  this  as  an  indisputable  fact,  that  the  chief 
characteristic  of  the  glorified  Redeemer  being  His  heavenly 


206  THE  PBIESTHOOD  AND 


priesthood,  a  priesthood  moulded  upon  His,  and  exhibiting 
it  to  the  world,  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  His  Church. 
What,  we  have  rather  to  ask,  is  in  this  respect  the  Church's 
commission  in  the  world  ?  It  must  correspond  to  that  of 
the  Head. 

I.  The  Church  has  an  offering  to  present  to  God.  After 
what  has  been  said  of  the  offering  of  oar  Lord,  we  can 
have  little  difficulty  in  determining  what  this  offering  is. 
AVe  have  seen  that  the  offering  of  our  Lord  is  not  a  mere 
memorial  of  His  death,  but  that  it  is  rather  His  life,  won 
through  that  death,  in  a  full,  one,  everlasting,  and  never 
to  be  repeated  sacrifice  and  offering  to  the  Father.  The 
Church  again  is  in  Him,  and  He  is  in  her ;  and  what 
therefore  she  presents  is  her  life  in  His  life,  obediently  and 
submissively  devoted  in  perpetual  service  to  the  will  of  His 
Father  and  her  Father,  of  His  God,  and  her  God.  Con- 
strained by  the  mercies  of  God,  she  is  to  present  herself, 
in  body  as  well  as  spirit,  a  living  sacrifice,  holy  and  ac- 
ceptable to  God,  which  is  her  reasonable  or  spiritual 
service  (Kom.  xii.  1).  In  the  joyful  confidence  of  love  she 
is  to  draw  near  continually,  with  full  assurance  of  faith, 
into  the  inmost  sanctuary  of  the  Divine  presence,  and 
there  to  obtain  fresh  quickening  for  the  duties  that  would 
otherwise  be  too  difficult  for  her,  and  for  the  temptations 
that  she  would  be  otherwise  unable  to  overcome.  The 
life  of  the  Church,  even  in  this  world,  ought  to  be  at  once 
a  life  of  consecration  and  of  jo}^  Thus  it  was  that  our 
Lord  spoke  of  it  as  the  great  end  of  His  own  consecra- 
tion, that  His  Church  "might  be  consecrated  in  truth" 
(John  xvii.  19)  ;  that  is,  in  a  manner  real,  spiritual, 
everlasting,  the  counterpart  of  that  in  which  He  is  con- 
secrated. And  thus  it  was  that  He  prayed  that  His  people 
might  have  His  "joy  fulfilled  in  themselves"  (John  xvii. 
13),— His  own  deep,  abiding  joy,  because  He  stood  in  the 
Father's  name ;  because  His  work,  amidst  all  its  sorrows, 


PRIESTLY  SERVICE   OF  TEE   GHURCR.  207 

was  ill  them  and  through  them  a  joj^ful  work ;  and  because 
He  was  the  constant  recipient  of  the  Father's  joy.  It  is 
because  she  is  priestly  that  the  offering  by  the  Church  of 
herself  to  God  is  so  unconstrained  and  free.  Why  is  "  the 
spirit  of  bondage  again  unto  fear"  so  common  among  us, 
instead  of  the  "spirit  of  adoption,  whereby  we  cry  Abba, 
Father"?  Why  do  so  many  fail  to  say,  "  His  command- 
ments are  not  grievous,"  "  His  yoke  is  easy,  and  His 
burden  is  light  ?  "  It  is  because  they  do  not  sufficiently 
recognise  the  fact  that,  in  their  great  High  Priest  sitting  on 
or  standing  by  the  throne,  they  are  priests.  Did  they  feel 
that  they  were  so,  they  would  see  that  it  was  the  very 
essence  of  their  position  to  draw  near  to  God  with  con- 
fidence, and  to  lay  their  bodies,  souls,  and  spirits  upon  His 
altar,  assured  that  they  were  an  acceptable  offering  to  Him. 

So  far  as  w^e  have  come  no  objection  will  probably  be 
taken  to  anything  that  has  been  said.  But  a  most  im- 
portant point  now  meets  us,  on  which  there  may  be  more 
difference  of  opinion.  The  point  seems  to  have  been 
hardly  enough  discussed  in  the  Church  ;  and  what  is  to 
be  said  ought  to  be  regarded  as  rather  suggesting  inquiry, 
than  as  indicating  positive  or  dogmatic  conclusions. 

The  principle  upon  which  we  have  been  proceeding,  it 
will  be  remembered,  is,  that  the  offering  of  the  Church  on 
earth  is  the  counterpart  of  her  Lord's  offering  of  Himself 
in  heaven.  In  this  offering,  however,  our  Lord  does  not 
simply  surrender  Himself  to  God  in  a  life,  if  we  may  so 
speak,  of  individual  freedom  and  joy.  He  surrenders  Him- 
self for  others.  He  does  not  stand  alone  ;  and  the  question 
thus  forces  itself  upon  us,  Is  there  anything  in  the  offering 
made  on  the  part  of  the  Church  on  earth  in  her  priestly 
functions  that  corresponds  to  this  '? 

Let  us  glance  again  for  a  moment  at  our  Lord's  heavenly 
offering,  in  the  light  in  which  we  have  been  led  mainly  to 
consider  it.     In  heaven  He  always  presents  Himself  to  the 


208  TEE  PRIESTHOOD  AND 

Father  in  His  perfect,  one,  and  everlasting  offering  for  the 
redemption  of  the  world.  There  He  also  presents  in 
Himself,  as  an  acceptable  offering  or  sacrifice  to  God,  all 
who  in  the  exercise  of  appropriating  faith  are  enabled  by 
Divine  grace  to  make  themselves  one  with  Him.  In  other 
words,  our  Lord  being  now  in  heaven,  and  being  there  not 
less  truly  human  than  Divine,  carries  out  in  its  complete 
perfection  the  life  of  God  in  human  nature  ;  while  at  the 
same  time,  taking  His  people  into  union  with  Himself, 
He  makes  those  who  from  the  first  moment  of  faith  are 
ideally  His  to  be  more  and  more  actually  His,  so  that  the 
Father  may  behold  in  them  what  He  beholds  in  Him. 
It  is  impossible  however  that  this  should  be  accom- 
plished by  a  merely  legal  act.  Christ's  people  must  be 
offered,  and  they  must  freely  offer  themselves  in  Him, 
with  a  true,  personal  appropriation  on  their  part  of  such 
a  sacrifice  as  He  made,  of  such  labours  and  sufferings  as 
He  endured,  of  such  a  death  as  that  through  which  He 
passed.  Now  of  this  sacrifice,  of  these  labours  and  suffer- 
ings, of  this  death  on  our  Lord's  part,  the  idea  of  enduring 
them  for  others  is  an  essential  element ;  and  there  must 
therefore  be  some  sense  in  which  a  similar  thought  has  a 
place  assigned  to  it  in  our  conception  of  offering  on  the 
Church's  part.  Without  this,  indeed,  offering  would  fail 
to  accomplish  its  great  end,  alike  as  regards  Christians 
themselves,  and  as  regards  the  world  around  them. 

It  would  fail  as  regards  themselves  ;  for  suffering  on  be- 
half of  others,  self-sacrifice  for  the  good  of  others,  is  essential 
to  that  perfecting  of  the  character,  to  that  bringing  it  into 
likeness  or  conformity  to  the  character  of  Christ,  which 
is  "  salvation."  Did  that  word  mean  in  itself  only  the 
bestowal  of  pardon  and  everlasting  happiness,  or  were  it 
possible  to  think  of  the  bestowal  of  a  completed  moral  and 
religious  life  without  disciplinary  experience,  it  might  not  be 
so.     But  "  salvation  "  always  implies  in  Scripture  delivering 


PRIESTLY  SERVICE   OF  THE   GHURCE.  209 

ITS  from  the  power  of  evil,  "  loosing  us  from  our  sins,"  and 
a  re-creation  within  us  of  that  Divine  image  which  we 
had  lost.  And  this  again,  according  to  the  nature  of  man, 
cannot  be  imparted  without  our  passing  experimentally 
through  that  process  in  which  we  die  unto  sin  and  live  unto 
righteousness,  in  which  we  die  to  self  and  rise  into  the 
life  of  God. 

Now  the  essence  of  the  Divine  life  is  love.  "  God  is 
love."  Love  is  the  fundamental  conception  of  His  being. 
It  is  that  boundless  crystal  sea  which  contains  within  it 
all  existence  and  which  would  communicate  its  own  blessed- 
ness to  every  creature.  Love  moreover  cannot  be  con- 
ceived of  v^ithout  the  thought  of  others  to  share  what  it  has 
to  bestow.  We  must  therefore  love  others  if  w^e  are  to 
know  what  "  salvation  "  means ;  and,  in  the  growing  and 
perfecting  of  our  love  to  others,  our  salvation  grows  and  is 
perfected.  Further,  when  they  to  whom  our  love  must  flow 
forth,  if  we  have  love  at  all,  are  sinful  and  rebellious  against 
the  only  true  good ;  when  they  are  ignorant  of  what  their 
real  welfare  is  ;  or  when,  so  far  as  they  are  dimly  conscious 
of  it,  they  are  inclined  to  resist  and  to  reject  it ;  w'hen  they 
are  involved  in  misery  that  shocks  our  sensibilities,  grieves 
our  hearts,  and  threatens  to  baffle  all  our  efforts  for  its  cure ; 
when  their  condition,  in  short,  needs  rectifying,  and  when 
it  cannot  be  rectified  without  pain,  then  love  must  assume 
the  form  of  self-sacrifice.  Without  this  it  may  be  a  genuine 
pity  or  an  empty  sentimentalism,  but  it  is  not  that  power- 
ful, vigorous  passion  which  is  "  strong  as  death,"  and  which 
"many  waters  cannot  quench."  To  suffer  for  others  is 
thus  not  a  mere  burden  laid  in  an  arbitrary  way  upon  the 
followers  of  Christ.  It  is  not  a  mere  test  of  their  fidelity  to 
their  Lord.  Nor  is  it  only  a  severe  probation  through 
which  they  must  pass,  that  their  affections  may  be  weaned 
from  the  present  and  directed  to  the  future.  It  is  not  even 
a  mere  duty  imposed  upon  us  by  the  remembrance  of  Him 

VOL.  IX.  14 


210  TBI':   PRIESTHOOD  AND 

who  gave  Himself  for  us,  the  just  for  the  unjust.  That 
we  shall  suffer  for  others  is  implied  in  the  very  nature  of 
a  salvation  adapted  to  man's  condition.  It  is  part  of  the 
process.  It  is  that  experience  in  which  our  salvation  is 
wrought  out,  that  in  which  we  are  brought  nearest  to  the 
mind  of  God  and  Christ,  so  that  we  may  say  with  one  who 
has  recently  written  with  great  thoughtfulness  upon  pain 
and  self-sacrifice,  "  If  God  would  give  us  the  best  and 
greatest  gift,  that  which  above  all  others  we  might  long  for 
and  aspire  after,  even  though  in  despair,  it  is  this  that  He 
must  give  us,  the  privilege  He  gave  His  Son,  to  be  used  and 
sacrificed  for  the  best  and  greatest  end."  ^ 

''Tlic  joy  that  comes  iu  sorrow's  guise, 
Tlie  sweet  j^ains  of  self-sacrifice, 
J  would  not  have  them  otherwise.*' 

While  suffering  for  others  is  thus  needed  on  the  part  of 
Christians,  in  order  that  they  may  themselves  be  perfected, 
it  is  not  less  needed  in  order  that  they  may  exert  influence 
on  the  world.  Men  must  see  suffering  endured  for  them 
and  for  their  sakes  if  they  are  to  acknowledge  any  power 
on  the  part  of  those  who  profess  a  desire  to  do  them  good. 
The  spectacle  of  patient  Christian  suffering  under  ills  directly 
inflicted  by  the  hand  of  God  may  be  a  precious  lesson  to 
persons  already,  or  almost  wholly,  within  the  pale  of  the 
Christian  faith.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  it  has  much 
influence  on  the  world.  The  world  does  not  understand  it. 
It  may  wonder,  perhaps  admire.  Most  probably  it  will 
treat  the  exhibition  of  such  patience  as  something  inex- 
plicable, or  as  curiously  illustrative  of  the  delusions  which 
men  practise  on  themselves.  If  it  is  to  own  a  right  in  the 
sufferers  to  speak  to  it,  to  warn  it  of  error,  or  to  demand  its 
submission  to  views  and  ways  different  from  those  it  has 
chosen,  it  must  see  more.     Sacrifice  of  ourselves  for  others, 

'  Hiiitoii,  Miistcrij  af  Fnin,  p.  17. 


PRIESTLY  SERVICE   OF  THE   CHURCH.  211 

bearing  for  their  sakes  toil  or  want  or  privation,  is,  according 
to  the  laws  of  human  nature,  the  necessary  condition  of 
winning  them  to  our  side. 

The  point  now  contended  for  is  taught  in  important 
passages  of  Scripture.  How  otherwise,  for  example,  shall 
we  explain  the  remarkable  scene  of  the  footwashing  in 
John  xiii.  ?  After  that  scene  our  Lord  said  to  the  disciples, 
"  Know  ye  what  I  have  done  to  you?  Ye  call  Me,  Master, 
and.  Lord  :  and  ye  say  well ;  for  so  I  am.  If  I  then,  the 
Lord  and  the  Master,  have  washed  your  feet,  ye  also  ought 
to  wash  one  another's  feet.  For  I  have  given  you  an  ex- 
ample, that  ye  also  should  do  as  I  have  done  to  you"  (vers. 
12-15).  No  one  who  has  entered  into  the  spirit  of  the 
fourth  gospel  will  for  an  instant  suppose  that  we  are  here 
taught  nothing  more  than  a  lesson  of  humility  and  kindness. 
What  had  our  Lord  done  to  the  disciples  whom  He  is  ad- 
dressing? He  had  "bathed"  them  in  His  blood.  He  had 
taken  them  up  into  His  own  holy  and  blessed  life.  They 
were  in  Him  ;  in  Him  their  sins  had  been  covered ;  they 
were  united  to  Him,  and  in  Him  to  God  ;  they  were  "  clean." 
But  clean  though  they  were,  they  could  not  live  in  this  world 
without  soihng  their  feet.  Sins  and  shortcomings  would 
mark  them  every  da}^  not  indeed  of  so  serious  a  character 
as  to  destroy  their  interest  in  Christ,  but  enough  to  show 
that  they  stood  in  need  of  daily  cleansing  and  of  daily 
renewal  of  their  consecration.  In  this  sphere  they  were 
to  offer  for  one  another.  In  suffering  and  self-sacrifice  they 
w^ere  to  be  victims  for  one  another.  The  man  strong  to-day 
was  to  take  up  his  weaker  brother  into  his  life,  and  to 
strengthen  him.  Weak  himself  to-morrow,  he  was  to  be 
taken  up  into  the  life  of  the  man  whom  he  had  strengthened 
yesterday,  and  in  him  to  obtain  strength  ;  until  all,  thus 
revived  and  completed  in  the  communication  of  their 
brother's  strength  to  make  them  strong,  and  of  his  Hfe  to 
make   them  live,  were    to  be   "  clean  every   whit."      This 


212  THE  FRIESTHOOB   AND 

cleansing  then,  not  the  ideal  but  the  experimental  cleans- 
ing— for  Jesus  said  to  them,  "Ye  are  clean"  (ver.  10) — 
was  to  be  reached  by  offering,  by  self-sacrifice,  by  suffering 
for  each  other.  Then  the  power  of  that  sympathy  and 
love,  which  were  really  Christ's  Divine  life  flowing  througli 
them  all,  would  change  each  other's  sin  into  sinlessness, 
each  other's  imperfection  into  perfection,  and  each  other's 
weakness  into  strength. 

To  a  similar  effect  is  the  language  of  St.  Paul  in  Colossians 
i.  24:  "Now  I  rejoice  in  my  sufferings  for  your  sake,  and 
fill  up  on  my  part  that  which  is  lacking  of  the  afflictions 
of  Christ  in  my  flesh  for  His  body's  sake,  which  is  the 
Church."  It  is  impossible  to  accept  as  satisfactory  the 
explanations  usually  given  of  these  words,  for  all  of  them 
are  marked  by  the  effort  to  distinguish  between  the  suffer- 
ings of  Christ  and  those  of  His  people,  whereas  the  obvious 
intention  of  the  apostle  is,  in  one  way  or  another,  to 
identify  them.  St.  Paul  indeed  would  never  have  allowed 
that  the  sufferings  of  Christ  lacked  anything  necessary  to 
the  full  accomplishing  of  the  purpose  they  were  intended 
to  effect.  But  that  very  purpose  lay  in  this, — that,  as 
Christ  Himself  was  perfected  through  suffering,  so  the 
members  of  His  Bodj^  might  in  Him  be  perfected,  and 
might  reach  this  perfection  througli  suffering  for  their 
brethren's  good.  To  introduce  into  the  words  of  the 
apostle  a  distinction  between  the  sufferings  of  Christ  as 
satifif actor  ice  and  in  that  sense  complete,  and  as  mdificatorice 
and  in  that  sense  incomplete  and  needing  to  be  supple- 
mented,^ is  to  introduce  a  thought  which  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  in  the  apostle's  mind,  and  which  is  incon- 
sistent with  his  desire  to  bring  out  a  similarity  between 
Christ's  sufferings  and  the  sufferings  of  His  people.  In  a 
certain  sense  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  even  when  viewed  as 
satisfactoricE,  may  be  spoken  of  as  incomplete  without  the 

'  Comp.  Liglitfoot  on  Col.  i.  '24. 


PlilESTLY  SERVICE   OF  THE   CRURGE.  213 

thought  of  His  people ;  for  when  He  offered  Himself  they 
were  in  Him,  and  without  this  His  offering  would  have 
possessed  only  that  character  of  a  legal  work,  of  a  work 
to  be  imputed  externally  to  man,  which  falls  short  of  the 
teaching  of  Scripture  upon  the  point.  If  therefore  we 
would  understand  the  language  of  the  apostle,  we  must 
think  of  it  as  proceeding  from  the  feeling,  that  just  as 
Christ  suffered  for  others,  so  the  members  of  His  Body 
suffer  for  others.  To  teach  His  people  thus  to  suffer, 
to  redeem  them  from  the  power  of  selfishness,  and  to 
impart  to  them  the  life  and  joy  of  love,  was  the  aim  of 
the  Kedeemer  in  what  He  did  and  suffered  on  our  behalf. 
So  long  therefore  as  there  is  sin  or  weakness  for  which 
to  suffer,  sin  or  weakness  which  ^cannot  be  healed  except 
through  the  sufferings  of  those  who  show  that  they  have 
the  spirit  of  their  Master  by  trying  to  heal  it,  the  offering 
of  Christ  is  not  "filled  up."  Its  final  result  is  not 
attained;  nor  will  it  be  attained  until,  there  being  no  more 
room  for  suffering  on  behalf  of  others,  both  the  Head  and 
the  members,  penetrated  by  the  same  life,  shall  be  presented 
to  the  Father  in  one  fulness  of  joy. 

Taking  these  considerations  into  account,  we  seem  to 
be  justified  in  asking  whether  the  Church  has  not  been 
too  chary  of  allowing  the  idea  of  offering  for  others  to  be 
connected  with  her  position  and  life.  It  is  surely  without 
sufficient  cause  that  she  has  been  afraid  of  encroaching 
upon  the  one  sacrifice  of  Christ,  or  of  attributing  to  sinful 
men  the  possibility  of  making  satisfaction  for  the  sins  of 
others.  No  one  awakened  to  a  sense  of  sin,  and  that  is 
the  condition  of  all  believers,  could  for  an  instant  entertain 
such  a  thought.  So  long  as  the  Church  feels — what  ceasing 
to  feel  she  ceases  to  be  the  Church — that  in  Christ  alone 
is  she  accepted  and  complete,  that  her  life  is  wholly  in 
His  life,  and  that  her  work  is  wholly  done  in  the  grace 
which  He  supplies,  the  thought  of  her  making  satisfaction 


214  TEE   PRTESTnOOD   AND 

for  others  must  in  the  nature  of  the  case  be  entirely  put 
aside.  For  the  same  reason,  any  idea  of  merit  upon  her 
part  must  be  equally  foreign  to  her  thoughts.  There  can 
be  no  merit  where  all  that  is  done  by  her  is  not  merely 
at  first  bestowed  upon  her  from  without,  but  is  at  each 
moment  maintained  in  her  by  influences  flowing  from  the 
same  source.  Nay,  more  ;  the  most  powerful  argument  to 
expel,  rather  than  foster,  a  sense  of  merit  on  the  Church's 
part  is  to  be  found  in  the  considerations  now  adduced.  To 
produce  humility  there  is  certainly  force  in  telling  her  that, 
as  she  suffers  in  following  Christ,  she  is  either  undergoing 
a  necessary  discipline,  or  that  she  is  only  making  a  suitable 
return  for  the  blessings  which  she  has  received.  Yet  there 
is  far  more  force  in  reminding  her  that  her  sufferings  have 
a  deeper  root,  that  they  are  an  integral  and  indispensable 
part  of  her  experience  of  redemption,  and  that  in  the 
very  act  of  recognising  that  she  owes  all  to  Christ  she 
must  include  her  suffering  for  others  as  a  part  of  her 
obHgation  and  her  debt. 

Before  passing  on  it  may  be  well  to  add  that  the  view 
now  taken  of  the  Church's  priestly  offering  on  earth  ap- 
pears to  bring  with  it  most  momentous  practical  conse- 
quences. Of  one  only  of  these  is  it  possible  to_  speak  at 
present,  but  it  is  too  important  to  be  omitted. 

It  will  place  the  Church  before  the  world  in  the  true 
and  proper  relation  in  which  she  ought  to  stand  to  it.  At 
the  Pan-Presbyterian  Council  held  in  London  last  July  a 
paper  (since  published  in  The  Expositor  of  the  following 
October)^  was  read  which,  in  spite  of  the  objections  made 
to  it  at  the  time,  cannot  be  regarded  otherwise  than  as 
one  of  interest  and  value.     Dr.  Dods  said : 

"It  cannot,  1  think,  1)1'  donhtod,  tliat  tlie  C'liurch  niig-lit  hii\-e  given 
a  more  distinct  idea  of  Christianity  and  of  wliat  the  trne  C'liristian  is. 

'  Page  297. 


PRIESTLY  SERVICE   OF  THE   CHURGH.  215 


It  must  fi-equentl}'  have  been  matter  of  astonishment,  and  even  of 
something  like  dismay,  to  every  reader  to  find  liow  completely  even 
the  best  educated  assailants  of  Christianity  misunderstand  ^Yhat  it  is. 
Not  only  in  the  lower  class  of  freethinkiug  journals,  but  in  -writers 
of  the  culture  and  knowledge  of  the  late  Cotter  Morison,  there  is 
exhibited  an  almost  unaccountable  ignorance  of  the  spirit  and  aims  of 
Cliristianity.  The  Christian  is  represented  as  an  obscurantist,  afraid  of 
light,  and  capable  of  swallowing  the  grossest  absurdities  ;  as  a  selfish, 
small-souled  creature,  whose  object  it  is  to  save  his  own  soul, and  whose 
idea  of  saving  his  soul  is  escaping  from  punishment  in  a  f utui'e  life. 

"  For  such  misrepresentations  the  Church  is  responsible,  in  so  far  as 
it  has  not  produced  a  type  of  Christianity  which  would  make  these 
conceptions  impossible;  and  in  so  far  as  it  has  allowed  faith  in  Christ 
to  become  identified  in  the  popular  mind  Avith  faith  in  a  number  of 
doctrines  regarding  Christ,  and  has  thus  made  faith  needlessl}'  diffi- 
cult, and  to  many  minds  repellent  and  impossible."  ' 

The  words  thus  (|noted  are  as  unquestionably  as  they  are 
painfully  true.  It  is  not  indeed  necessary  to  suppose  that 
the  writer  undervalues,  when  they  are  kept  in  their  proper 
place,  the  "doctrines"  of  which  he  speaks;  nor  does  he 
probably  fail  to  see  as  well  as  others  that  the  interpyctation 
of  a  revelation  given  in  a  person  must  be  doctrinal.  The 
main  point  of  his  contention  is,  that  the  Church  is  respon- 
sible for  having  so  lived  and  acted,  as  to  permit  the  world 
to  suppose  that  the  reception  of  any  tenets,  however  Divine, 
constituted  Christianity.  Such  a  supposition  is  of  course 
entirely  erroneous,  and  the  Church  is  bound  to  correct  it. 
How  is  she  to  do  so  ?  Not  by  merely  shortening  her  creeds, 
or  by  modifying  the  relations  of  her  ministers  and  members 
to  them.  That  procedure  may  be  on  other  grounds  wise. 
We  have  nothing  to  do  with  it  just  now.  Enough  that  it 
will  not  correct  the  fatal  misapprehension  with  which  we 
are  dealing.  We  have  had  in  recent  years  a  good  deal  of 
it,  both  in  England  and  Scotland.  Terms  of  subscription 
have  been  shortened  ;  explanations  have  been  added,  till 
the  explanation  threatens  to  become  as  troublesome  as  the 

1  The  Expositor  for  October,  188S,  pp.  299,  300. 


216  THE   PBIESTHOOD  AND 

creed  ;  the  idea  that  creeds  are  loose  where  men  thought 
them  definite,  and  that  they  possess  a  richly  expansive, 
instead  of  a  narrowly  binding  nature,  has  seized  with  suffi- 
cient firmness  many  a  mind.  Yet  we  do  not  see  in  the 
attitude  of  the  Church  to  -the  world  anything  that  gives 
more  promise  of  convincing  the  world  that  the  Church  is 
Divine,  than  in  days  when  men  held  by  every  iota  of  a  creed 
as  if  it  were  the  middle  pillar  of  the  house  that  upheld  the 
house.  It  was  in  the  midst  of  these  later  phenomena  on 
which  we  have  touched  that  Cotter  Morison's  book  ap- 
peared. That  book  ought  not  to  have  been  written,  and 
it  would  not  have  been  written  had  the  Church  been  true 
to  her  commission,  or  had  she  presented  Christianity  to  the 
world  as  her  Lord,  if  He  had  been  in  our  days  upon  the 
earth,  would  have  presented  it.  In  this  last  case  we  should 
have  seen  in  Him— as  things  are,  we  ought  to  see  in  her — 
what  is  the  real  "  service  of  man."  Noble  words  !  The 
very  utterance  of  them,  like  the  utterance  of  those  other 
words,  "the  enthusiasm  of  humanity,"  elevates  us.  May 
it  not  be  a  matter  of  regret  that  both  expressions  should 
have  come,  not  from  the  Church,  but  from  those  who  either 
scorn  her,  or  have  little  sympathy  with  her  ? 

To  return  to  the  point  before  us.  What  the  Church 
needs  is  revival  in  life  and  spirit,  a  keener  appreciation  of 
the  fact  that  she  is  divinely  called  to  occupy  in  the  world 
her  Lord's  position,  to  take  up  there  His  work  of  doing 
good  to  man.  Instead  of  declaiming  against  sacerdotalism 
and  priesthood,  she  ought  to  see  more  clearly  that  her  own 
highest  destination  is  to  be  sacerdotal,  is  to  be  priestly. 
She  has  an  offering,  a  sacrifice,  to  make  ;  and  it  is  the  very 
essence  of  her  condition  to  make  it.  That  offering,  that 
sacrifice,  is  herself;  a  sacrifice  for  the  poor,  the  ignorant, 
the  wretched,  and  the  criminal,  that  she  may  win  them  into 
her  own  life,  and  in  that  life  present  them  as  an  offering  to 
the  Father  of  the  spirits  of  all  flesh  in  the  life,  the  offering, 


PRIESTLY  SERVICE    OF  THE    CHURCH.  217 

of  her  High  Priest  in  heaven.  When  she  does  this,  she  will 
find  that  she  has  attained  a  greater  element  of  power  than 
she  will  ever  acquire  by  thanking  Heaven  that  she  is  not 
priestly. 

We  have  spent  so  much  time  upon  this  first  part  of  the 
Church's  priesthood,  that  little  space  is  left  for  its  two  other 
parts.     A  brief  notice  of  them  must  suffice. 

II.  As  in  her  priestly  capacity  the  Church  has  an  offering 
to  make,  so  also,  like  her  glorified  Lord,  she  is  an  intercessor 
with  the  Father.  And  what  is  this  intercession?  We  have 
already  seen  that  it  is  not  prayer  alone,  but  the  diligent 
performance  of  every  office  and  every  act  by  which  the 
persons  for  whom  she  prays  may  be  built  up  into  the  com- 
pleteness, strength,  and  beauty  of  the  Divine  life  in  man. 
She  has  to  form  those  who  are  as  yet  babes  in  Christ  into 
perfect  manhood,  to  give  courage  to  the  faint,  to  restore  the 
fallen,  to  speak  peace  to  the  sensitive  conscience,  to  lift  up 
to  higher  notes  of  praise  those  who  are  already  singing 
the  Lord's  song  in  a  strange  land.  Of  this  "  intercession," 
indeed,  prayer  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  essential 
parts.  Not  only  the  prayers  of  individuals,  but  the  prayers 
of  the  Church  as  a  whole,  ought  to  ascend  continually  to 
Him  who  says,  "  Put  Me  in  remembrance  ;  let  us  plead 
together  ;  set  forth  thy  cause,  that  thou  mayest  be  justified" 
(Isa.  xliii.  26).  The  world  ought  to  know  that,  apart  from 
the  struggles  in  which  it  is  engaged,  from  the  distraction 
of  thought  from  which  it  suffers,  from  the  materialising 
tendencies  of  life, 

"  There  are  in  this  loud  stunning  tide 
Of  human  care  and  crime, 
With  whom  the  melodies  abide 
Of  the  everlasting  chime  "  ; 

and  who,  within  such  veils  as  earth  supplies,  are   sending 
up  their  unceasing  prayers  to  Heaven  on  its  behalf.     Nor 


218  THE  PRIESTEOOB  AND 


would  this  only  teach  dependence  upon  others,  and  the 
superstitious  feehng  that  without  working  out  our  own 
salvation  we  may  he  saved  hy  the  pious  exertions  on  our 
behalf  of  those  who  love  us.  That  may  be  the  danger,  but 
there  is  no  good  which  has  not  its  attendant  danger ;  and 
surely  it  is  better  to  think  of  salvation  gained  in  some  way 
than  not  to  think  of  it  at  all.  How  often  have  a  parent's, 
or  a  friend's,  or  a  minister's  prayers,  accidentally  overheard 
by  their  object,  touched  the  heart  of  one  wandering  in  sin, 
and  done  far  more  to  reclaim  him  than  words  of  direct 
remonstrance  or  reproof!  How  often  has  even  the  per- 
suasion that  Christian  friends  were  praying  for  us  lent  us 
courage  and  hope  in  the  hour  of  need  !  Let  the  Church 
"  pray  without  ceasing "  for  her  own  members  ;  let  her 
"  pray  without  ceasing"  that  through  her  the  world  may 
be  made  in  truth  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  she  will  only 
be  acting  a  part  for  which  even  nature  pleads,  and  which 
is  sanctified  by  grace.  She  cannot  make  a  real  offering, 
either  of  herself  or  for  others,  without  occupying  the  posi- 
tion of  her  heavenly  High  Priest,  and  presenting  her 
prayers,  the  prayers  of  all  saints,  as  much  incense,  before 
the  tlirone  of  the  Majesty  on  high. 

III.  In  fulfilling  her  priestly  function  the  Church,  like 
her  Lord  in  heaven,  dispenses  blessings.  The  point  thus 
touched  on  cannot  be  discussed  at  present.  It  would  re- 
quire separate  treatment ;  for  it  opens  up  the  whole  question 
of  the  bestowal,  not  directlj^  but  through  the  Church,  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  upon  men.  Yet,  without  entering  upon  this 
wide  and  in  some  respects  difficult  subject,  it  may  surely 
be  said  that  through  the  Church  there  is,  according  to  the 
teaching  of  Scripture,  the  direct  impartation  of  strengthen- 
ing grace  to  those  who  do  not  close  their  hearts  against  it. 
Benediction,  blessing,  cannot  be  a  mere  form  of  words. 
There  must  be  some  reality  beneath  it.  Nor  can  it  be  only 
prayer,  or  wh}"  does  it  not  take  the  form  of  prayer  alone? 


PRIESTLY  SERVICE   OF  THE   CHURCE.  219 


When  the  apostles  baptized  the  early  converts  to  the  faith 
they  laid  their  hands  upon  them,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  was 
given  in  their  act  of  doing  so.  In  Acts  xiii.  3  it  would  even 
appear  that,  when  Barnabas  and  Saul  were  separated  for 
the  particular  work  for  which  they  are  there  described  as 
called,  the  whole  Church  at  Antioch  took  part  in  fitting 
them  for  the  execution  of  their  task.  "  Then,  when  they 
had  fasted  and  prayed  and  laid  their  hands  on  them,  they 
sent  them  away." 

We  cannot  suppose  that  the  Church  of  Christ  now^  has 
less  at  her  command  than  she  had  in  the  apostolic  age,  that 
Divine  grace  is  less  at  her  disposal  now  than  it  was  then,  or 
that  there  is  anything  in  the  Divine  arrangements  made  for 
her  in  her  later  histoiy  by  which  the  efficacy  of  her  early 
influence  is  limited  and  restrained.  When,  accordingly,  we 
read  so  often  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  of  the  bestowal 
of  the  Spirit  as  of  something  distinct  from  prayer,  we  are 
entitled  to  infer  that  there  is  blessing  of  a  similar  kind  still 
bestowed  through  the  action  of  the  Church  in  word  and 
sacrament.  Not  that  the  Church  is  the  source  of  blessing, 
any  more  than  she  is  the  source  of  offering.  Eather  may 
it  be  said  that,  as  she  carries  out  and  applies  the  offering 
wherewith  Christ  offers  Himself  to  the  Father,  so  she 
carries  out  and  applies  the  blessing  wherewith  He  blesses. 
But  that  blessing  is  real.  Under  all  circumstances  it  comes 
forth  from  Him  who  has  in  Himself  the  "fulness  "  of  grace  ; 
and,  when  it  is  not  accepted  by  the  world,  it  returns  to 
His  people  for  their  own  increase  in  holiness  and  comfort. 
Pentecostal  seasons  did  not  close  wdth  the  day  of  Pentecost. 
He  who  then  came  down  in  tongues  of  flame  is  not  confined 
to  an  upper  room  in  Jerusalem,  nor  is  the  fire  of  His  in- 
fluence less  potent  at  the  present  day  than  it  was  then.  It 
may  appear  in  different  forms  ;  but  it  appeared  in  different 
forms  even  in  the  apostolic  Church.  Let  it  be  enough  for 
us  to  know  that,  amidst  constantly  changuig  circumstances 


220  THE  PRIESTHOOL   AXD 


and  conditions  of  life,  the  Spirit  of  God  is  still  given  with 
a  power  not  less  intimately  adapted  to  them,  and  not  less 
capable  of  producing  the  same  heavenly  life  in  the  earthly 
homes  and  haunts  of  men. 

Such  then  is  the  priesthood  of  the  Church  ;  and  it  will  be 
observed  that  it  includes  far  more  important  functions  than 
those  generally  spoken  of  by  writers  on  tlie  universal  Chris- 
tian priesthood,  or  the  present  priesthood  of  believers.  It 
is  not  enough  to  say  with  Bishop  Moberly  that  the  Chris- 
tian, in  the  power  of  his  personal  priesthood,  may  cultivate 
a  true  and  perfect  faith  ;  that  he  has  a  right  to  the  Holy 
Scriptures  ;  that  he  has  a  title  to  the  sacred  doctrine  of 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit ;  that  he  may  go  before  God 
in  repentance  and  confession  of  sin  ;  and  that  he  may  pray.^ 
These  privileges  belong  to  man  as  man,  and  they  fail  to 
express  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  priestly 
position  of  the  members  of  the  Body  of  Christ.  That  posi- 
tion involves  far  more,  for  it  involves  the  privilege  of  con- 
stantly drawing  near  to  God  in  Christ,  and  in  full  assurance 
of  faith.  It  involves  an  immediate  and  full  participation  in 
the  Divine  love,  so  that  that  love  shall  flow  in  rich  abun- 
dance through  all  the  members  of  the  Body,  and  shall 
animate  each  to  the  oftice  for  which  it  possesses  "  natural 
ability."  It  involves  the  right,  not  merely  the  power  (John 
i.  12),  of  each  to  make  first  an  offering  of  himself  to  God, 
and  then  of  himself  for  others,  so  that  we  may  share  the 
mind  of  Him  who  loved  us  and  gave  Himself  for  us.  It 
involves  the  privilege  of  so  helping  weak  Christian  brethren 
as  to  convey  to  them  the  sense  of  G-od's  pardoning  mercy 
and  the  assurance  of  strength  that  is  perfected  in  weakness. 
And,  finally,  it  involves  the  right  to  confer  that  Spirit  of  the 
Head  at  once  Divine  and  human  which  fills  and  satisfies 
every  want  of  our  nature  as  the  rising  tide  runs  up  and  fills 
every  ripple  of  sand  upon  the  beach. 

^   Admuiistnition  i>J  the  IIoUj  Spirit,  p.  252. 


PRIESTLY  SERVICE   OF   THE   CHURCH.  221 

At  this  moment  nothing  is  more  imperatively  demanded 
of  the  Church  than  a  revival  of  that  idea  of  her  priestliness 
which  flows  directly  from  the  fact  that  she  lives  in  Him 
who  is  our  High  Priest  in  heaven.  The  idea  has  been  left 
too  long  associated  with  periods  of  unscriptural  domination 
on  the  part  of  the  clergy,  and  of  ignorance  and  superstition 
on  the  part  of  the  laity.  In  spite  of  this,  it  is  alike  true  and 
fundamental.  A  clear  perception  and  a  bold  enunciation  of 
the  Church's  priestly  character  lies  at  the  very  root  of  all 
that  is  most  distinctive,  most  real,  most  forcible,  and  most 
valuable  in  her  work.  The  duty  of  the  Church  is  not  to 
abandon  a  position  to  which  she  has  been  divinely  called, 
because  it  has  been  abused,  and  may  be  abused  again.  It 
is,  rather,  so  to  occupy  it  that  the  fears  of  timorous  friends 
may  be  dispelled,  and  the  reproaches  of  opponents  silenced. 
The  aim  of  true  priesthood  is  not  wealth  or  station  or 
power.  It  is  love,  work,  self-sacrifice  !  The  anointing  in 
Bethany  was  accepted  by  the  Kedeemer  as  His  consecration, 
not  to  worldly  honours,  but  to  His  "  burying  ";  and  to  such  a 
burying,  not  to  ease  and  the  high  places  of  the  earth,  is  the 
Church  in  her  turn  consecrated.  She  has  not  gained  much 
by  casting  the  thought  of  her  priestliness  aside.  Let  her 
again  proclaim  it,  not  so  much  in  word  as  in  deed ;  and  it 
may  be  that  men  will  be  more  ready  to  listen  to  her  message, 
and  that  the  house  will  once  more  be  filled  with  the  odour 
of  the  ointment. 

W.    MiLLIGAN. 


9-">9 


JESUS   CROWNED   FOB,   DEATH. 

Hebrews  ii.  5-9. 

It  is  almost  presumptuous  for  any  third  party  to  interpose 
in  a  discussion  between  scholars  so  eminent  and  honoured 
as  Drs,  Bruce  and  Davidson,  and  upon  a  subject  of  such 
difficulty  and  such  importance  as  the  interpretation  of 
Hebrews  ii.  0. 

"  Xon  nostrum  inter  vo.s  tantas  componore  lites." 

The  writer's  apology  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  passage  in 
question  is  one  that  needs  to  be  examined  from  different 
points  of  view ;  and  that  it  has  possessed  for  himself,  ever 
since  he  began  to  study  the  Greek  Testament,  a  peculiar 
fascination.  He  has  long  been  convinced  that  the  tradi- 
tional construction  of  this  verse  is  on  grammatical  grounds 
quite  untenable  ;  and  has  been  led,  independently,  to  a  line 
of  interpretation  looking  in  the  same  direction  as  that  so 
ably  developed  by  Drs.  Bruce  and  Matheson,  though  not 
altogether  coincident  with  it.  Hofmann,^  to  his  thinking, 
throws  a  more  searching  light  upon  this  subtle  and  profound 
text  than  any  other  modern  exegete. 

Let  us  however,  with  Dr.  Davidson,  dismiss  all  "  fine 
modern  ideas,"  and  at  the  same  time  those  "scriptural 
conceptions  "  which  are  sometimes  but  another  name  for 
theological  prejudgments,  and  an  innocent  cover  for  attempts 
to  force  the  language  of  one  inspired  writer  into  the  mould 
taken   by  the  mind   of  another.      We   are  dealing  in  this 

'  J.  C.  K.  von  Hofiuaiin:  Die  Iwilige  Sclirij't  nciien  Testamentex  {fiiiiftcr  Theil ; 
Hehrrierhrief).  Hofmann's  exegesis  is  marred  too  often  by  the  caprice  and 
strained  ingenuity  which  Meyer  exposes  so  unspariuglj'.  He  is  nevertheless  an 
expositor  of  profound  learning  and  brilliant  originality.  His  method  is  most 
instructive  and  stimirlating ;  and  his  work  teems  with  keen  criticisms  and 
luminous  aperrus.  One  learns  almost  as  much  when  differing  from  him  as 
when  agreeing  with  him. 


JESUS   CROWNED   FOB  DEATH.  223 


great  epistle  with  a  truly  Pauline  man,  but  an  independent 
thinker,  and  one  who  has  good  right  to  be  heard  on  his 
own  account.  The  irdXvixepm  koI  TroXvTpoTroi^  with  which 
he  begins  is  an  advertisement  to  this  effect.  Let  us  watch 
him  as  he  pens  these  solemn  and  inspiring  words,  with  the 
Old  Testament  open  by  his  side,  and  the  life  and  death  of 
Jesus  spread  like  a  living  picture  before  his  memory,  writ- 
ing to  his  Hebrew  Christian  brethren  on  the  eve  of  the  fall 
of  their  national  Judaism,  and  striving  to  assure  them  of 
the  stability  of  the  "  new  and  better  covenant,"  and  the 
completeness  of  the  salvation  which  it  brings,  and,  above  all, 
to  raise  them  to  a  worthier  conception  of  the  glory  and 
perfectness  of  their  High  Priest  and  Mediator. 

The  starting-point  of  the  writer's  thought  in  chap.  ii.  5 
we  find  in  the  last  words  of  chap.  i.  The  angels,  he  says, 
'*  are  ministering  spirits,  sent  forth  to  do  service  for  the  sake 
of  the  destined  heirs  of  salvation."  The  interjected  homily 
imports  no  new  thought,  but  simply  enforces  what  has 
been  already  said,  the  apostle  at  the  end  of  it  resuming  the 
thread  of  his  previous  exposition.  Kow  what  is  the  idea 
suggested  by  the  animated  question  of  chap.  i.  14?  It  is 
surely  that  of  the  nobiliti/  of  man,  the  honour  put  upon 
"  the  heirs  of  salvation"  and  the  glory  of  their  calling,  in 
whose  interest  the  angels  are  engaged,  those  flaming  mes- 
sengers of  the  heavenly  court,  worshippers  and  servants  of 
the  Son  "in  whom"  God  thought  fit  to  "speak  to  us." 
If  the  greatness  of  the  Son  of  God,  as  author  of  the  new 
revelation,  is  the  reflection  uppermost  in  the  writer's  mind, 
the  dignity  of  those  to  whom  He  thus  speaks,  the  impor- 
tance of  their  position  and  the  grave  responsibility  it  brings 
upon  them,  are  no  less  present  to  his  thoughts.  It  is  this 
consideration  that  gives  its  peculiar  urgency  to  the  appeal, 
"  How  shall  2ve  escape,  if  we  neglect  so  great  salvation?" 
This  underlying  sense  of  the  unparalleled  distinction  accru- 
ing to  the  status  of  Christian  believers  comes  out  again  and 


224  JESUS   CROWNED   FOB  DEATH. 


again  in  the  course  of  the  epistle.  "  Holy  brethren,  par- 
takers of  a  heavenly  calling,"  who  may  "  enter  boldly  into 
the  holy  place,"  for  whom  "  God  provided  a  better  thing" 
than  for  the  greatest  of  His  ancient  saints,  "  receiving  the 
promise  of  an  eternal  inheritance"  and  "  a  kingdom  that 
cannot  be  shaken  "  :  in  such  terms  the  apostle  exhorts  the 
desponding  Hebrews,  rousing  them  to  a  higher  sense  of  the 
grandeur  of  their  vocation  and  destiny  as  redeemed  men, 
while  he  sets  before  them  the  supreme  greatness,  at  once 
Divine  and  human,  of  their  Redeemer. 

To  "those  who  shall  be  heirs  of  salvation "  therefore, 
"  not  to  angels,"  belongs  "  the  world  ^  that  shall  be."  "We 
catch  in  the  emphatic  ri]v  fieWovaav  of  this  verse  a  clear 
echo  of  the  triumphant  hia  rou?  ixeXkovTa^i  kXt] povo fie ti' 
awTTfpiav  of  chap.  i.  14.  Not  to  angels,  but  to  men,  heirs 
of  God's  promise,  is  the  glorious  world  to  be  subject  which 
prophecy  describes,  and  of  which  the  Christian  teacher  has 
to  speak  (ver.  5).  Man  is  to  be  lord  in  maiis  world.  While 
the  angels  in  the  kingdom  of  God's  Son  play  a  subsidiary 
but  most  willing  part,  to  mankind  He  holds  a  more  inti- 
mate relation.  "Partakers  of  Christ,"  who  is  "Son  over 
His  house,"  the  heirs  of  salvation  "  receive  a  kingdom  "  in 
which,  as  it  is  promised  in  the  Apocalypse,  they  shall  at 
last  "  sit  down  with  Him  in  His  throne."  Such  is  the 
goal  of  the  Christian  salvation,  the  inheritance  that 
Christ  confers  on  His  true  brethren.  The  path  of  suffering 
by  which  it  is  attained,  the  way  in  which  Christ  has  identi- 
fied Himself  with  men  and  linked  their  destiny  to  His  own, 
the  sequel  has  to  show. 

It  is  primarily  to  support  the  assertion  of  man's  promised 
greatness  that   the  eighth  Psalm  is  put  in  evidence  (vers. 


ri]v  oiKov^UvTjv,  the  Inhabited  world,  the  u-orld  as  the  home  of  man,  into  which 
"the  First-born"  will  be  "brought  again"  (chap.  i.  6).  It  is  in  this  con- 
nexion— not  as  the  metaphysical  Universe — that  the  Trdfra  and  rd  wavra  of 
Ps.  viii.  and  of  this  context  must  be  understood.     Comp.  Wisdom  i.  7. 


JESUS   CROWNED  FOB  DEATH.  225 

6-8).  What  is  earth-born  man?  Poor  insignificance!  he 
stands  looking  up  to  the  splendour  and  majesty  of  God's 
eternal  heavens  !  Strange  that  the  Maker  of  those  gleam- 
ing, unnumbered  worlds  should  have  regard  to  him  !  And 
yet  God  has  stamped  on  man  His  image,  setting  him  not 
far  below  His  angels/  crowning  him  with  glory  and  honour, 
and  making  the  world  a  realm  for  him  to  rule.  Such  is 
the  ideal  view  of  man's  relation  to  his  own  world.  It  is 
upon  this  pattern  that  his  renewal  is  to  be  effected,  as 
St.  Paul  has  already  taught  us,  "  after  the  image  of  Him 
that  created  him"  (Col.  iii.  10).  Man's  salvation  cannot  stop 
short  of  the  recovery  of  this  lapsed  dominion.  And  our 
teacher  will  not  have  this  heritage  diminished,  nor  the  ideal 
of  human  dignity  and  power  lowered  in  any  wise  to  the 
level  of  the  humiliating  fact  :  "  For  in  subjecting  all  things 
to  man,  there  is  nothing  that  He  left  unsubjected  to  him." 
So  far,  let  us  observe,  the  apostle's  question  is  simply  that  of 
the  psalmist,  "  What  is  man  ?  or  man's  son  (Adam's  race)  ?" 
— a  phrase  that  we  have  no  business  to  turn  into  "  the  Son 
of  man,"  as  though  it  were  a  designation  of  Christ  alone. 
We  rob  ourselves  of  the  precious  import  of  the  Psalm  when 
we  force  it,  unwarrantably,  into  the  Messianic  grooves. 
The  New  Testament  writers  do  not  use  the  older  Scriptures 
in  such  fanciful  and  arbitrary  fashion  as  seems  to  be  often 
assumed.  It  is  man's  estate,  designed  for  him  from  crea- 
tion, that  is  held  out  to  the  view  of  Christian  faith ;  and 
we  are  assured  that  no  jot  or  tittle  of  the  promise  shall 
be  allowed  to  fail. 

Turn  now  from  this  ideal  to  the  melancholy  fact.  "  But 
now  we  see  not  yet  all  things  made  subject  to  him." 
There  is  a  tragic  litotes  here :  the  stress  of   the  sentence 


^  Here  Shakespeare  is  no  bad  commentator.  "  What  a  piece  of  work  is  a  man  ! 
how  noble  in  reason  !  how  infinite  in  faculty  !  in  form  and  moving  how  ex- 
press and  admirable  !  in  action  how  like  an  angel !  in  apprehension  how  like 
a  god!"  (Hamlet.) 


VOL.    IX. 


15 


226  JESUS  CROWNED  FOR  DEATH. 

rests  on  the  words  made  subject  {avTM  ra  Trdvra  v-rroTeray- 
ixeva),  indicating  that  the  very  opposite  is  the  case  ;  as  when 
St.  Paul  writes  in  1  Corinthians  xi.  22,  "  I  praise  you  not," 
to  express  the  severest  blame. ^  Instead  of  being  master  of 
the  world  over  which  God  set  him,  man  is  like  a  guilty, 
cowering  slave,  "  all  his  lifetime  subject  to  bondage  through 
fear  of  death"  (ver.  15).  Death  has  reversed  our  lordship 
over  nature,  and  changed  it  to  servitude.  At  this  point 
it  is  enough  simply  to  state  the  negative  fact.  As  things 
are,  man's  royalty  is  forfeited,  his  crown  is  in  the  dust ; 
and  the  apostle,  looking  out  on  the  world  around  him, 
says  with  a  sigh,  "  We  see  not  yet  all  things  subjected  to 
him,"  Clearly  this  supremacy,  if  it  is  ever  to  be  attained 
and  the  Psalm  is  anything  more  than  a  poet's  dream,  be- 
longs to  some  future  world,  to  a  state  of  things  far  different 
from  the  present,  and  can  only  be  brought  about  by  a  great 
salvation. 

But  is  this  all  we  descry  on  the  horizon  ?  Is  the  world 
nothing  for  man  but  a  scene  of  failure  and  discomfiture  ? 
Not  so.  The  vision  of  the  psalmist  indeed  "  we  see  not 
yet  "  ;  it  is  prophecy.  But  there  is  something  we  do  see 
that  lifts  our  hopes  to  the  highest  pitch.  There  is  One  to 
whom  the  prophetic  words  apply  as  to  no  other  son  of  man, 
in  whom  we  have  the  earnest  of  their  full  accomplishment : 
"  Him  that  hath  been  in  some  little  set  below  the  angels, 
even  Jesus." 

It  is  Jesus,  Son  of  Mary,  Child  of  man,  whose  appearance 
we  hail ;  not  now,  as  in  chap,  i.,  the  Son  of  God,  resplen- 
dent in  His  Father's  glory  with  His  holy  angels,  sustaining 
creation  by  His  word.  The  writer  is  approaching  the  Re- 
deemer's person  from  the  opposite  side,  and  adopting  quite 
a  different  line  of  reflection  from  that  with  which  the  epistle 
commenced.     He  will  afterwards  unite  both  conceptions  in 

^  Similarly,  in  ver.  11  below,  Christ  "is  not  ashamed  to  call  tliem  brethren," 
— rejoicing,  glorying  therein  (Bruce). 


JESUS   CROWNED  FOR  DEATH.  227 

his  definition  of  "  our  great  High  Priest,  Jesus  the  Son  of 
God."  We  must  allow  him  to  work  out  his  argument  in 
his  own  way. 

Here  is  a  Man  then  in  whom  humanity  is  lifted  from  the 
dust,  and  once  more  grows  conscious  of  its  primal  dignity. 
The  advent  of  Jesus  raises  immeasurably  our  conception  of 
the  possibilities  of  human  nature,  and  supplies  a  new  and 
magnificent  answer  to  the  old  question,  "  What  is  man  ?  " 
Prophecy  is  outdone  by  what  we  see  in  Jesus  of  man's 
greatness  as  the  object  of  the  Divine  regard.  And  this 
Leader  of  our  salvation  is  "forerunner"  of  His  brethren's 
exaltation,  both  in  earth  and  heaven. 

On  every  ground  we  find  ourselves  compelled  to  refer 
the  predicate  "  crowned  with  glory  and  honour,"  in  ver.  9, 
to  the  earthly  life  and  human  relationship  of  our  Saviour. 
Surely  it  is  in  this  environment  that  we  see  Jesus  {/SXe-n-ofiev 
'Ir]<Tovv).  It  is  amazing  that  exegetes  like  Kurtz  and  Liine- 
mann  should  render  ^Xeirofiev  "  see  with  the  eyes  of  faith," 
or,  "  the  eyes  of  the  spirit,"  and  refer  to  chap.  iii.  19  in 
proof!  If  there  is  a  word  in  the  New  Testament  that  de- 
notes sigJit  as  opposed  to  faith,  it  is  just  this  verb  ^Xe-jrco. 
"Faith,"  in  chap.  xi.  1,  is  a  "proof  of  things  not  seen" 
(oj)  /SXeTTOfievcov) ;  similarly  in  2  Corinthians  iv.  18,  "  the 
things  seen  (r.  ^XcTrofieva)  are  temporal ;  but  the  things  not 
seen  (t.  fii]  ^XeTTo/jLcva),  eternal."  ^  What  "  we  see  "  in  chap, 
iii.  19  belongs  not  to  the  region  of  spiritual  truth,  but  of 
historical  fact.  That  their  unbelief  drove  the  Israelites 
back  to  the  wilderness  is  a  certainty  to  the  Hebrew  reader, 
"gross  as  a  mountain,  open,  palpable."  History  verifies 
the  teaching  of  faith.  To  misread  ^Xeirofiev  is  to  miss  an 
essential  point  in  the  warning  example  given  in  chap.  iii. 

^  Comp.  also  Heb.  xi.  7,Eotu.  viii.  25,  John  ix.  7,  etc.,  for  the  matter-of-fact 
character  of  the  seeinr/  denoted  by  /SX^ttw.  The  verb  appears  to  be  chosen  here 
for  this  reason,  in  distinction  from  the  more  general  opui/xev  which  precedes. 
"  We  do  see,"  in  contrast  with  "  see,"  may  serve  to  indicate  this  difference. 


228  JESUS  CROWNED  FOR  DEATH. 

And  what  "  we  see  "  in  the  passage  before  us  is  to  be  found 
not  in  the  supernal  regions  of  Christ's  heavenly  reign,  but  in 
the  familiar  scenes  of  His  blessed  life  on  earth,  in  "  the 
things  which,"  as  St.  John  says,  "  we  have  seen  with  our 
eyes,  and  our  hands  have  handled,  concerning  the  Word  of 
life."  We  to-day  "  see  Jesus  "  in  the  story  of  the  Four, 
as  the  readers  of  this  letter  saw  Him  in  the  living  words 
of  His  eye-witnesses  and  ministers. 

And  "  we  see  Him  for  ^  the  suffering  of  death  crowned 
with  glory  and  honour."  No  words  could  more  fitly  ex- 
press the  strange  blending  of  glory  and  suffering  visible 
throughout  the  earthly  course  of  Jesus, — glory  ever  leading 
on  to  suffering,  and  finding  in  death  its  climax  and  hidden 
purpose.  If  man's  ideal  greatness  is  the  starting-point  of 
the  writer's  thought,  the  death  of  the  cross  is  always  its 
centre.  The  former,  for  sinful  (chap.  i.  3)  and  death-bound 
man,  can  only  win  its  realisation  through  the  latter.  Jesus 
is  crowned  for  death.  Willingly  would  Israel  have  given 
Him  in  life  the  Messiah's  crown.  They  could  not  under- 
stand why  One  so  high  in  the  grace  of  God,  so  rich  in 
kingly  qualities  and  powers,  did  not  take  the  last  remaining 
step  and  mount  to  David's  throne.  Their  fury  against  Him 
at  the  last  was,  in  the  breasts  of  many  who  cried,  "  Away 
with  Him  !"  the  rage  of  a  bitter  disappointment.  They  did 
not  see  that  the  higher  He  was  raised  in  favour  with  God 
and  men,  the  nearer  and  the  more  needful  became  His 
death.  If  this  is  a  "  fine  modern  idea,"  then  also  is  that 
of  "  the  corn  of  wheat "  that  "  falls  into  the  ground  to  die," 
and  indeed  the  whole  teaching  of  John  xii.  12-33  comes 
under  the  same  designation.     It  is  enough  to  refer  to  the 

1  5ia,  on  our  view  of  the  text,  is  almost  eqiiivalent  to  ei's,  and  looks  forward  to 
the  Sttojs  yevarjTai,  k.t.X.,  much  as  in  chap.  ix.  15.  1  Tim.  i.  16,  2  Tim.  ii.  10. 
It  signifies,  as  always  with  the  accusative,  the  ground  or  reason  of  the  event 
specified ;  only  in  this  case  the  reason  lies  in  a  subsequent,  not,  as  commonly, 
a  precedent  event.  There  is  the  same  prospective  5ia  in  Horn.  iv.  256,  on  the 
usual  interpretation.     See  Lidd.  and  Scott,  5id,  B.  iii.  2. 


JESUS   CROWNED  FOB  DEATH.  229 


scene  of  the  transfiguration/  and  of  the  royal  entry  into 
Jerusalem,  to  show  the  profound  connection  which  existed, 
alike  in  the  mind  of  Jesus,  in  the  purpose  of  God,  and  in 
the  sequence  of  history,  between  Christ's  human  glorifica- 
tion and  His  sacrificial  death. 

Two  important  grammatical  considerations  remain  to  be 
noticed,  which  will  serve  further  to  elucidate,  and,  as  we 
think,  verify  our  construction  of  the  text.  The  object  of 
the  verb  "  see,"  in  ver.  9,  according  to  the  Greek  order, 
is  not  "Jesus"  in  the  first  instance,  but  "Him  that  is 
made  some  little  lower  than  angels,""  who  is  at  once 
identified  with  "Jesus,"  for  of  Him  this  was  manifestly 
and  eminently  true.  Then  follows  the  predicate,  "for  the 
suffering,"  etc.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  participles  "made 
lower"  and  "crowned"  are  in  precisely  the  same  tense 
and  grammatical  form  (rjXaTrco/xivoi/,  €a-T€(f>avo>/jievov  :  per- 
fects passive).  The  presumption  is  that  they  denote 
contemporary ,  rather  than  successive  states,  just  as  it  is 
with  the  corresponding  verbs  in  the  language  of  the  Psalm. 
Had  the  apostle  intended  to  distinguish  by  these  expres- 
sions an  antecedent  and  consequent  condition,  how  easy 
for  this  master  of  Greek  idiom — and  how  necessary  with 
the  parallelism  of  the  psalmist  leading  the  reader  the  other 
way — to  have   made  the   transition  clear  by  a  change  of 

1  The  words  of  2  Pet.  i.  16,  17,  which  we  confidently  claim  as  apostolic  tradi- 
tion, agree  closely  with  those  of  the  text :  "  We  made  known  nnto  you  the 
power  and  coming  of  om-  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  being  eye-witnesses  of  His  majesty. 
For  He  received  from  God  the  Father  honour  and  glory,  when  there  came  such 
a  voice  to  Him  from  the  excellent  glory  ...  in  the  holy  mount."  Perhaps 
the  writer  of  the  Hebrews  had  this  scene  specifically  before  his  mind.  We  note 
as  at  least  a  singular  coincidence  that  the  phi'ase  taste  of  death  occurs  also  in 
this  context  in  the  synoptic  tradition  (Matt.  xvi.  28,  Mark  ix.  1,  Luke  ix.  27) ; 
it  is  used  but  once  besides  in  the  N.T. 

^  This  is  no  term  of  disparagement  in  the  Psalm,  nor  need  it  be  here  as 
applied  to  the  earthly  humanity  of  Jesus.  It  does  not  describe  the  e.riiianitloii 
of  Philippiaus  ii.  6,  but  refers  to  the  contemporary  states  of  different  persons 
(men,  Jesns,  and  angels),  ra.ther  than  the  successive  states  of  the  same  person 
(the  pi-e- incarnate  and  incarnate  Son  of  God). 


230  JESUS  CROWNED  FOB  DEATH. 

tense  (r.  iXXaTTcoOevTa),  or  by  some  distinctive  adverb,  as, 
for  example,  in  our  own  couplet : 

"  High  o'er  the  angeh'c  bands  He  rears 
His  once  dishonoured  head  "  ! 

But  he  does  nothing  of  the  kind,  for  he  means  nothing 
of  the  kind.  While  in  His  human  guise  Jesus  was  in  some 
sort  lower  than  the  angels,  at  the  same  time,  and  not- 
withstanding, He  was  crowned  with  glory.  Through  all 
that  is  best  in  human  life  there  runs  the  same  mixture 
of  honour  and  humbleness,  of  greatness  crossed  by  the 
shadow  of  death. 

But  the  oTTw?  of  the  last  clause  is  the  crux  of  the  com- 
mon interpretation.  When  it  is  said,  "crowned  in  order 
that  He  might  taste  death,"  to  make  the  "  crowning " 
subsequent  to  the  "  death  "  is  literally  preposterous.  The 
connexion  is  just  as  obvious  and  straightforward  in  the 
Greek  as  in  the  English.  None  of  the  many  ingenious 
attempts  that  have  been  made  to  escape  this  inference,  and 
to  turn  purpose  into  consequence — by  shifting  the  order 
of  the  words,  or  by  evading  the  force  of  the  conjunction — 
is  in  the  least  satisfactory.^  Surely  the  apostle  must  be 
allowed  to  have  his  own  mind,  and  to  be  capable  of  ex- 
pressing himself  with  reasonable  plainness.  No  Greek 
reader,  we  venture  to  afhrm,  coming  upon  these  words 
for  the  first  time,  and  without  theological  prejudice,  could 
have  guessed  that  they  meant  anything  else  than  that 
Jesus  was  crowned  with  the  purpose  that  He  might  offer 
for  all  men  the  sacrifice  of  His  death. 

St.  Paul's  teaching  in  Philippians  ii.  5-11  has,  it  seems 
to  us,  dominated  the  exegesis  of  this  text  greatly  to  its 

1  This  apphes,  we  say  it  with  profound  respect,  to  Dr.  Edwards'  rendering  : 
"  That  He  may  have  tasted  death  for  every  man  "  (Expositor's  Bible :  "  Hebrews," 
p.  37),  which  seems  to  us  to  be  neither  good  grammar  nor  clear  sense.  If  the 
apostle  meant,  "  that  His  tasting  of  death  mijht  avail  for  every  man,"  he  knew 
how  to  say  it. 


JESUS   CROWNED  FOB  DEATH.  231 

injury.  Sublime  and  precious  as  tlie  doctrine  of  that 
passage  is,  it  does  not  contain  the  whole  of  Cbristology. 
The  view  it  presents  of  Christ's  earthly  life  as  a  state  of 
exinanition  and  humiliation  is  that  of  a  man  in  whose 
memory  everything  else  paled  before  the  vision  of  the 
celestial  Jesus  he  had  seen  on  the  way  to  Damascus.  But 
our  author  looks  with  different  eyes ;  and  he  teaches  us 
a  truth  only  less  important,  and  complementary  to  that 
enforced  by  the  Apostle  Paul.  The  life  of  Jesus  was  far 
other  than  one  of  mere  ignominy  and  obscuration.  From 
the  Divine  and  heavenly  side  it  was  indeed  a  dark  eclipse ; 
but  from  the  earthward  side  it  was  a  splendid  revelation. 
As  His  disciples  looked  upon  His  face,  and  watched  His 
miracles,  and  listened  to  His  words,  "  such  as  never  man 
spake,"  and  felt  the  spell  of  the  moral  majesty  that  clothed 
His  person,  the  saying  of  the  eighth  Psalm  must  often,  one 
thinks,  have  come  to  their  minds.  Seeing  Jesus  in  the 
gospel  story,  we  ourselves  "  glory  in  the  Lord,"  and  exult 
to  think  that  He  hath  so  regarded  our  low  estate  ;  we 
exult  to  think  that  humanity  is  thus  ennobled,  and  that 
"  He  is  not  ashamed  to  call  us  brethren." 

G.    G.    FiNDLAY. 


232 


FABBAR'S   "LIVES   OF  THE  FATHEBS."'^ 

The  full  title  of  Archdeacon  Farrar's  new  work  accurately  de- 
scribes it:  Lives  of  the  Fathers:  Sketches  of  Church  Hidory  in 
Bingraphy  ;  and  the  idea  he  has  had  in  writing  it  may  be  gathered 
from  the  motto  which  he  derives  from  Bishop  Wordsworth  and 
places  on  his  title-page,  "  The  history  of  the  Church  is  repre- 
sented in  certain  respects  by  the  history  of  her  great  men."  He 
has  no  intention  of  rivalling  Bishop  Lightfoot's  Apostolic  Fathers, 
or  of  earning  so  i*are  an  encomium  as  was  pronounced  on  that 
masterpiece  by  the  most  competent  judge,  Prof.  Hai-nack,  when 
he  declared  it  to  be  "  the  most  leamied  and  careful  patristic 
m.onograph  which  has  appeared  in  the  nineteenth  century."  His 
intention  has  been  to  "  connect  the  history  of  the  Church  during 
the  first  four  centuries  with  the  lives  of  her  principal  Fathei-s 
and  teachers."  This  has  been  admirably  done  by  B5hringer  in 
his  Kirche7igeschichte  in  Biographieen,  a  book  which  deserves  to 
be  translated  and  which  is  written  in  a  style  rarely  attained  by 
German  theological  writers.  But  Dr.  Farrar  has  judged  it  expe- 
dient to  give  less  attention  to  questions  of  absti^act  theology  than 
Bohringer.  This  will  be  regretted  by  some  readers,  but  unques- 
tionably it  will  win  for  his  book  a  wider  popularity. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  there  was  room  for  such  a  book 
as  Dr.  Farrar  has  given  us.  The  Fathers  have  always  attracted 
the  learned  labour  of  scholars,  but  in  no  age  has  so  much  been 
done  as  in  our  ov.'n  to  illuminate  the  first  four  centuries.  The 
results  of  research  and  criticism  lie  scattered  in  monographs,  in 
contributions  to  dictionaries,  in  the  hints  and  papers  of  specialists. 
These  results  Dr.  Farrar  has  brought  together,  has  revised  and 
analysed  them,  and  uniting  them  with  much  research  of  his  own, 
has  presented  them  in  an  accessible  and  admirable  form.  Special- 
ists may  find  that  Dr.  Farrar's  omnivorous  reading  has  not  in- 
cluded some  article  or  paper  on  a  pet  subject  of  their  own ;  but 
undoubtedly  the  best  literature,  including  the  works  of  the  Fathers 
themselves  and  the  original  material  for  their  biography,  has  been 
not  only  under  his  eye,  but  has  been  well  digested.  His  most 
remarkable  omission  suggests  that  other  patristic  students  may 

1  Lives  of  the  Fathers :  Sketches  of  Chnrcli  History  in  Biorrraphtj.  By 
Frederic  W.  Farrar,  D.D.,  F.E.S.     2  vols.     (Adam  &  Charles  Black.) 


FAREARS   ''LIVES   OF  THE  FATHERS:'  233 

also  need  to  be  informed  that  Mr.  Ernest  C.  Richardson,  librarian 
of  Hartford  Theological  Seminary,  has  issued  a  Bibliographical 
Synopsis  which  is  virtually  a  perfect  guide  to  the  bibliography 
of  the  ante-nicene  Fathers.  It  is  needless  to  say,  for  it  has  been 
manifest  in  all  Dr.  Fari'ar's  writings,  that  he  breathes  easily  and 
moves  freely  and  gracefully  under  a  ponderous  mass  of  learning 
which  would  crush  a  less  powerful  man.  How  proud  we  all  are 
to  find  him  napping  !  It  is  a  feather  in  the  critic's  cap  to  point 
out  one  mistake  among  a  thousand  facts  which  he  reads  for  the 
first  time.  Unfortunately  in  this  work  Dr,  Farrar  gives  the  critic 
occasion.  It  was  to  be  expected  that  Avhere  so  much  Greek  is 
quoted,  misprints  should  occur.  The  expectation  is  realized.  The 
employment  of  a  careful  reviser  would  have  prevented  this,  and 
would  also  have  altered  pnticoli  into  puticuU,  and  saved  Dr.  Farrar 
from  introducing  three  innovations  into  two  lines  from  Milton. 
Disregard  for  trifles  is  an  estimable  featnre  in  a  man  and  in  an 
author,  and  it  is  really  of  absolutely  no  consequence  to  Dr.  Farrar's 
argument  whether  the  Marsian  war  belongs  to  B.C.  40  or  B.C. 
90 ;  but  there  ai'e  not  wanting  persons  who  will  say  that  if  he 
is  incorrect  in  this,  he  will  be  incorrect  in  other  .statements.  Into 
other  mistakes  of  a  similar  kind  he  has  been  led  by  his  authorities. 
Thus  he  says  :  "  The  bodies  were  largely  taken  from  [the  cata- 
combs] by  Pope  Paul  I.  in  a.d.  751,  to  save  them  from  the  relic- 
stealing  propensities  of  Astaulph,  king  of  the  Goths."  In  fact, 
the  ransacking  of  the  toml>s  by  Astaulph  occurred  in  752,  and 
Paul  did  not  attain  the  Papal  dignity  till  757,  when  Astaulph  had 
ali'eady  been  dead  for  some  years. 

Sometimes  Dr.  Farrar's  mistakes  are  moi^e  serious.  The  account 
he  gives  of  the  Ignaiian  Epistles  is  misleading.  "  The  longer 
Greek  recension  consisted  of  fifteen  letters,  of  which  the  Latin 
text  was  published  in  1495  and  in  1498,  and  th-e  Greek  text  by 
Hartung  in  1557.  Three  of  these  professed  to  be  the  corre- 
spondence of  Ignatius  with  St.  Johia  and  the  Virgin,  with  her 
answer.  They  are  stupid  forgeries.  There  were,  besides,  Greek 
letters  to  Mary  of  Cassobola,  the  Tarsians,  Philippians,  the  Antio- 
chenes,  and  his  successor  Hero."  These  with  the  seven  genuine 
epistles  make  up  the  fifteen.  Now  from  this  statement  the 
uninitiated  reader  could  certainly  not  gather  the  facts  of  the 
case,  which  are,  that  the  Latin  text  of  1495  and  1498  contained 
respectively  three  and  eleven  letters,  not  fifteen  ;  that  the  edition 


234  FABBARS   ''LIVES    OF  THE  FATHERS.'' 

published  by  Hartung  in  1557  contained,  the  Greek  text  of  onlj 
twelve  epistles ;  and  that  what  is  known  as  the  longer  Greek 
recension  really  contains  thirteen  letters.  It  may  also  be  re- 
marked that  the  editor  here  named  Hartung  is  more  commonly 
known  as  Paceus,  his  full  name  being  Valentinus  Hartung  Frid, 
which  in  the  customary  way  he  Latinized  into  Paceus.  By  a 
misprint  on  the  following  page  the  edition  of  Voss  is  represented 
as  published  in  the  same  year  as  Ussher's,  whereas  it  appeared 
two  years  later. 

But  enough  of  such  picking  of  holes.  These  little  flaws  do 
not  enter  into  the  substance  of  the  work,  which  is  throughout 
solid  and  well-wrought.  It  is  freely  and  vividly  written,  and 
those  who  are  best  acquainted  with  the  Fathers  and  their  writings 
will  know  how  much  is  implied  when  it  is  said  that  from  the 
first  page  to  the  last  Dr.  Farrar's  work  is  intensely  interesting. 
He  has  entered  with  the  fullest  intelligence  and  with  sensitive 
human  sympathy  into  those  early  times,  and  has  vitalized  them. 
He  has  taken  the  Fathers  out  of  the  hands  of  scholars  and  theo- 
logians, and  made  them  common  property  and  companionable 
figures.  Dr.  Farrar  has  never  used  his  great  gifts  and  acquire- 
ments to  better  purpose  than  in  dissipating  the  dreariness  of 
that  remote  period  of  Church  history,  and  in  dispelling  the  mists 
in  which  a  false  and  narrow  ecclesiasticism  has  enveloped  the 
Fathers.  And  it  is  matter  of  congratulation  that  this  book,  which 
most  successfully  popularizes  their  teaching,  at  the  same  time 
exposes  the  childishness  of  many  views  and  usages  which,  because 
primitive,  have  gained  currency.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
Dr.  Farrar's  volumes  will  find  a  response  in  many  a  candid  mind. 
He  has  produced  a  book  which  will  long  be  a  standard  work.  It 
fills,  and  fills  excellently,  a  serious  gap  in  our  literature.  It  will 
be  widely  read,  and  wherever  it  is  read,  it  will  not  only  give 
pleasure  by  its  graphic  pictures  and  eloquent  passages,  but  will 
convey  important  information  which  it  is  most  desirable  that  the 
public  should  know. 

Marcus  Dods. 


235 


BECENT  OLD  TESTAMENT  LITEBATUBE  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Hebrew  Grammars. — Two  important  works  on  Hebrew  grammar 
have  appeared  from  leading  Old  Testament  scliolars,  one  bj  Dr. 
Green,  of  Princeton,  the  other  bj  Dr.  Harper,  of  Yale. 

The  work  ^  by  Dr.  Green  is  a  new  edition  of  his  grammar  pub- 
lished twentj-seven  years  ago,  with  which  American  and  English 
scholars  are  well  acquainted.  While  it  bears  marks  of  careful 
revision  throughout,  the  syntax  has  been  recast,  and  has  been 
enlarged  from  forty-seven  pages  in  the  old  edition  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  in  the  new.  Dr.  Green's  grammar  is  the  mo.st 
complete  treatise  that  we  possess  on  the  Hebrew  language  in 
English,  and  it  does  not  suffer  in  comparison  with  the  best  Hebrew 
grammars  in  German.  Taking  into  account  its  exhaustive  indices, 
it  possesses  incomparable  advantages  over  mere  translations  of 
German  Hebrew  grammars. 

The  most  serious  blemish  in  this  treatise,  as  we  think,  is  the 
retention  of  the  old  terminology,  preterite  and  future,  not  because 
it  is  old,  but  because  it  seems  to  be  pretty  well  established  that 
the  Hebrew  verb  does  not  exhibit  distinctions  of  time,  but  rather 
of  action  or  state,  as  complete  or  incomplete.  Indeed  this  dis- 
tinction seems  to  be  characteristic  of  all  Semitic  languages.  Even 
the  Assyrian,  as  Sayce  has  shown,  in  its  original  chai-acter,  does 
not  furnish  an  exception.  Nevertheless  no  English  or  American 
Old  Testament  scholar  who  cannot  use  German  readily,  and  who 
wishes  to  secure  a  masteicy  of  the  language,  can  afford  to  be  with- 
out this  grammar. 

Dr.  Harper  has  done  more,  we  think,  to  popularize  the  study  of 
Hebrew  than  any  man  who  has  ever  lived.  The  great  revival 
of  interest  in  Hebrew  learning  in  America  is  largely  due  to  this 
Hebrew  evangelist.  He  has  instructed  hundreds,  if  not  thousands, 
by  correspondence,  and  in  the  Hebrew  s-ummer  schools,  of  which 
he  is  the  inspiration.  Possessed  of  unusual  enthusiasm,  and 
executive  ability,  and  of  an  iron  industry,  he  has  thrown  his  whole 
being  into  the  promotion  of  Semitic  studies. 

^  A  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Lamjuagc.  New  Edition,  carefully  Eevised 
throughout  and  the  Syntax  greatly  Enlarged.     (John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York, 

1888.) 


236         REGENT   OLD    TESTAMENT  LITERATURE 

We  have  reason  then  to  he  interested  in  all  his  hooks,  as  instru- 
ments already  tested  by  one  of  the  most  successful  teachers  who 
has  ever  appeared  in  the  New  World. 

All  his  text-hooks,  of  which  he  has  now  published  three,  are 
arranged  on  the  inductive  method.  The  first  takes  the  student 
by  the  hand,  pointing  out  the  facts  of  the  Hebrew  language,  and 
then  gradually  constructs  his  system.  His  Elevients  of  Hehreio 
Syntax,^  is  arranged  on  the  same  plan.  He  does  not  claim  ori- 
ginality of  scholarship,  but  simply  a  practical  adaptation  of  means 
to  an  end.  His  method  may  be  illustrated  by  the  first  paragraph 
under  the  noun,  which  is  entitled  "  The  Noun,  used  Collectively." 
Under  this  heading  he  gives  fifteen  Hebrew  words,  with  their 
meanings  and  references  to  the  passag-es  wliere  they  occur,  under 
four  classes  of  examples.  Then  follows  a  general  statement  as 
to  collective  nouns,  and  four  definitions.  Below  these  are  four 
remarks,  and  then  twenty  Scripture  references  for  study. 

America  thus  sends  her  challenge  to  Prof.  A.  B.  Davidson,  of 
Edinbui'gh,  to  whom  we  have  long  looked  for  a  complete  and 
scientific  statement  of  the  principles  of  Hebrew  syntax.  There  is 
certainly  room  for  such  a  book,  and  Prof.  Davidson  is  the  man  to 
prepare  it. 

Pentateuch  Criticism. — Twelve  of  our  Old  Testament  scholars 
have  combined  to  erect  a  bulwark  against  the  modern  critical 
school  as  represented  by  Graf,  Kuenen,  and  Wellhausen,  by  means 
of  a  little  volume  entitled,  Essays  on  Peutateuchal  Criticism.  By 
Various  Writers-^  The  object  of  the  Essays  is  to  establish  the 
evidences  of  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch.  All  the 
writers  occupy  substantially  the  same  standpoint,  although  Dr. 
Schodde  approaches  somewhat  the  princijjles  of  criticism  held  by 
such  scholars  as  the  elder-  Delitzsch,  Strack,  Cheyne,  and  Driver. 
Chambers  gives  a  brief  historical  introduction.  Gardiner  dis- 
cusses the  question,  "Was  the  religion  of  Israel  a  revelation  or  a 
merely  human  development  ?  "  Bissell,  who  is  well  known  through 
his  volume  on  The  Pentateuch,  its  Origin  and  Structure,  seeks  to 
show  that  there  is  no  confliat  in  the  precepts  of  the  Pentateuch 
codes.  Green  subjects  the  analysis  of  the  critics  in  the  first 
eleven  chapters  of  Exodus  to  an  acute  examination,  and  concludes 
that  "  the  critical  hypothesis  is  beset  by  insuperable  difficulties." 

'  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  1888. 
'  Fimk  &  Wagnalls,  New  York,  1888. 


IN  THE   UNITED   STATES.  237 

Schodde,  while  admitting  that  the  Pentateuch  does  not  furnish  any 
direct  testimony  to  prove  "  that  Moses  himself  Avrote  or  caused 
to  be  written  the  whole  of  the  five  books,"  finds  strong  indirect 
testimony,  which  is  sustained  by  the  New  Testament.  Nevertheless 
he  says  the  Pentateuch  is  not  Mosaic  "  in  the  sense  that  every 
word  of  it  was  written  by  the  lawgiver,  but  in  the  sense  that  the 
laws  were  promulgated  through  him."  Beecher  adduces  the  testi- 
mony of  the  historical  books,  save  Chronicles,  to  the  authorship  of 
the  Pentateuch ;  Terry  that  of  Chronicles  ;  and  Harmon  of  the 
prophetic  and  poetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  Dwinell  treats 
in  a  dogmatic  tone  of  "  the  higher  criticism  and  a  spent  Bible." 
Streibert  presents  the  difficulties  of  the  new  hypothesis,  and 
Hemphill  emphasises  the  validity  and  bearing  of  the  testimony  of 
Christ  and  His  apostles.  Osgood  directs  especial  attention  to  the 
peoples  among  whom  the  children  of  Israel  originated  and  attained 
their  majority, — Assyria,  Egypt,  and  ancient  Syria, — and  argues 
against  the  assumption  of  those  critics  who  believe  them  to  have 
been  an  ignorant  horde  of  barbarians,  and  entirely  destitute  of  the 
first  pre-requisites  of  a  literature  in  the  time  of  Moses. 

Exegesis. — The  year  has  not  been  fruitful  in  commentaries.  A 
little  pamphlet  (50  pp.)  by  Rev.  William  C.  Daland,  on  the  Song 
of  Songs,  is  worthy  of  mention.  He  considers  the  Song  of  Songs 
a  drama  in  five  acts,  a  product  of  the  wisdom  literature  of  the 
time  of  Solomon,  and  that  the  object  of  it  is  to  set  forth  the  tri- 
umph of  woman's  virtue  over  the  powerful  seductions  of  Solomon. 
He  finds  in  it  a  companion  piece  to  the  book  .of  Job.  The  trans- 
lation is  beautiful,  and  the  notes  are  brief  and  pertinent. 

Antiquities. — A  book  especially  adapted  for  the  wants  of  Sunday- 
school  teachers  on  Biblical  Antiquities}  has  been  prepared  by 
Dr.  Bissell,  whose  name  has  been  already  mentioned.  It  is 
divided  into  three  parts  :  "  Domestic  Antiquities,"  "  Civil  Anti- 
quities," and  "  Sacred  Antiquities."  Dr.  Bissell's  previous  studies 
have  fitted  him  pre-eminently  for  the  preparation  of  such  a  work. 
It  indicates  industry  and  research,  but  does  not  enter  into  the 
discussion  of  critical  questions. 

Samuel  Ives  Curtiss. 

»  The  American  Sunday-school  Union,  Philadelphia,  1888. 


238 


B  RE  VIA. 

La  Langue  parlee  par  N.  S.  Jesus-Christ  sur  la  Terre.^ 

— The  Syrian  Archbishop  of  Damascus,  in  communion  with  the  see 
of  Rome,  has  published  in  the  Revue  illustree  de  la  Terre  Sainte  et 
de  I'Orient  cathoUque,  a  very  lucid,  fact-full,  and  cogent  discussion 
of  the  question  indicated  in  the  above  title.  As  the  most  reverend 
author  states,  and  as  I  was  assured  myself  at  Damascus,  that  once 
learned  city  is  now  more  destitute  than  ever  of  the  varied  critical 
apparatus  necessary  for  the  researches  of  the  scholar.  This  essay 
is  therefore  not  to  be  compared  with  the  article,  from  a  biblio- 
graphical point  of  view  especially,  so  exhaustive  of  Dr.  Neubauer,^ 
who  so  thoroughly  disproves  the  theory  of  Mark  Pattison,  that 
a  good  librarian  cannot  also  be  erudite.  This  is  what  the  arch- 
bishop claims  to  have  shown  :  that  the  Jews  of  Palestine,  in  the 
time  of  Jesus  Christ,  wrote  in  "  Chaldee  "  and  rarely  in  Hebrew  ; 
that  the  proper  names  of  persons  and  places  used  by  them  were 
often  "  Chaldee  "  ;  that  the  words  pronounced  by  our  Lord,  accord- 
ing to  the  New  Testament,  and  those  addressed  to  Him,  prove 
that  the  language  then  prevalent  in  Palestine  was  "  Chaldee  " ; 
that  the  name  of  Greeks  was  often  given  then  to  other  nations, 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  Jews,  who  consequently  were  not 
Greeks  by  language  ;  that  there  were  at  Jerusalem,  and  in  other 
cities  of  Palestine,  Jews  distinguished  from  others  by  their  use  of 
Greek  (which  they  had  learned  in  foreign  countries)  ;  that  for  the 
Jews  of  Palestine  the  Bible  had  to  be  translated  into  "  Chaldee," 
and  not  into  Greek ;  that  the  use  of  "  Chaldee,"  at  least  in 
literature,  continued  among  the  Christians  of  Palestine  down  to 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  even  later,  and  ^mong  the  Jews  even 
to  our  own  time ;  lastly,  that  Greek  only  became  predominant  at 
Jerusalem  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  century.  The  most 
interesting  part  of  the  essay  begins  at  section  7,  which  treats 
of  the  vicissitudes  of  the  Syro-Palestinian  dialect.  The  student 
would  do  well  to  read  first  the  column  relative  to  the  subject  in 
Noldeke's  article, "  Semitic  Languages,"  in  Encyclojpoedia  Britannica ; 
he  will  then  have  a  framewoi-k  into  which  he  can  set  the  facts 
put  together  by  ArchbishoiJ  David.     The  chain  of  facts  is  indeed 

1  Paris,  aux  bureaux  de  I'oeuvre  des  ecoles  d'Orient,  1889. 

2  Studia  Biblica,  vol.  i.,  pp.  39-74. 


BBEVIA.  239 

complete.  Even  after  the  Jevvisli  Aramaic  ceased  to  be  spoken, 
through  the  invasion  of  the  Arabs  and  their  tongue,  the  Melchite 
Church  (comp.  Tozer,  The  Church  and  the  Eastern  Empire,  p.  74) 
continued  to  use  Sjro-Palestinian  as  its  sacred  tongue,  and  since 
the  end  of  the  last  century  manuscript  records  of  this  dialect 
have  been  gradually  collected.  Even  now,  at  no  great  distance 
from  Damascus,  there  are  three  villages,  the  chief  of  which  is 
called  Ma'lula,  in  which  the  language  of  Jesus  Christ,  or  a  dialect 
differing  little  from  it,  is  spoken. 

In  sections  8  and  9  the  archbishop  examines  the  difficulties 
connected  with  the  Septuagint  version.  Perhaps  he  exaggerates 
the  degree  of  hostility  to  Greek  among  the  Jews  of  Palestine  in 
the  time  of  the  Ptolemies,  but  it  was  an  easy  task  to  refute  the 
argument  which  the  opposite  side  had  set  up.  In  fact,  altoo-ether 
one  may  value  this  essay  more  for  its  facts  than  for  its  argument 
— lucid  as  this  may  be, — and  most  of  all  perhaps  as  a  specimen  of 
the  critical  insight  of  the  learned  Syrian.  The  author  does  not 
absolutely  reject  the  opinion  that  our  Lord  and  the  apostles  read 
the  Scriptui'es  in  Hebrew,  but  thinks  it  much  more  probable  that 
they  used  an  Aramaic  version.  In  a  footnote  he  justifies  the 
former  view  by  Jerome's  notice,  in  his  thirty-sixth  letter  to  Pope 
Damasus,  that  he  employed  for  his  own  Latin  translation  the 
Hebrew  Bible  used  in  the  synagogue  of  Bethlehem. 

liot  the  least  interesting  passage  in  the  essay  is  an  expression 
of  patriotic  opinion  which  "  a  learned  Oratorian  of  London," 
Father  Philpin  de  Riviere,  criticises  in  a  letter  to  the  same  review 
in  which  the  archbishop's  paper  was  printed.  "  Always,"  says  the 
archbishop,  "  it  will  remain  a  most  memorable  and  surprising  fact, 
that  Hebrew  was  so  lightly  esteemed  in  the  early  Christian 
Church ;  that  the  original  Bible,  written  in  that  tongue,  was  only 
admitted  at  a  much  later  time ;  and  that  no  part  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  written,  or  at  least  preserved,  in  Hebrew ;  that  no  one 
thought  of  giving  to  Jewish  converts  the  New  Testament  trans- 
lated into  Hebrew ;  that,  while  the  unconverted  Jews  employed 
the  Hebrew  tongue  in  their  writings,  nothing  was  written,  or  at 
least  preserved,  in  the  Christian  Church  in  the  language  in  which 
God  had  spoken  to  the  patriarch  and  the  prophets.  First  Greek, 
then  Latin  and  Syriac,  in  which  the  first  monuments  of  the  church 
were  written,  have  not  allowed  Hebrew  to  say  even  a  word."  This, 
he  says,  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  New  Testament,  as  well  as 


240  BEEVIA. 

the  "  Deutero-canonical "  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  all  the 
Apocryphal  books  having  i^elation  to  the  Holy  Scripture,  have 
come  down  to  us  only  in  Greek.  But,  he  adds,  we  must  not  infer 
from  this  that  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament  was  written  in 
Greek  ;  and  not  only  the  first  gospel,  but  the  "  Epistle  of  St.  Paul 
to  the  Hebrews,"  was  written  in  Hebrew  or  (rather)  in  Syro- 
Palestinian. 

In  the  appendix,  Archbishop  David  makes  modest  and  graceful 
recognition  of  Dr.  Neubauer's  valuable  work,  and  expresses  a 
difference  of  opinion  on  some  points  of  detail.  Like  that  "  learned 
academician  "  (is  there  any  subtle  irony  ?)  however,  he  accedes  to 
the  new  view  of  M.  Halevy,  that  St.  Paul's  Aramaic  phrase  in 
1  Corinthians  xvi.  22  should  be  read  "  Marana  tha,"  i.e.  "  Our 
Lord,  come."  He  also  touches  on  the  further  question,  "Did 
our  Lord  ever  speak  Greek  ?  "  After  examining  the  passages  of 
the  gospels  relative  to  non-Jewish  persons  who  came  into  contact 
with  our  Lord,  his  answer  is  the  negative.  Similarly  for  the  first 
disciples  ;  but  he  makes  an  exception  for  the  great  discourse  of 
Stephen  in  Acts  vii.,  inasmuch  as  the  assembly  which  he  addressed 
seems  to  have  consisted  exclusively  of  Hellenists  (Acts  vi.  9).  Is 
there  any  Semitic  scholar  of  eminence,  or  any  one  well  versed  in 
later  Jewish  history  and  literature,  who  holds  a  different  opinion 
on  this  whole  controversy  from  Archbishop  David  and  Dr.  ISTeu- 
bauer  ?  Here  and  there  an  argument  may  be  forced,  but  the 
general  position  is,  from  a  philological  and  historical  point  of 
view,  unassailable. 

T.  K.  Cheyne. 


ST.  JAMES  THE  APOSTLE. 

When  we  come  to  inquire  closely  about  the  Apostles,  and 
when  we  consider  the  acknowledged  part  played  by  them 
in  an  event  so  stupendous  as  the  spread  of  Christianity,  we 
may  well  be  astonished  to  find  how  very  little  we  know 
about  any  of  them,  except  two  or  three.  How  immense  was 
the  dignity  assigned  to  them  is  shown  by  the  promise  of 
Christ,  "  When  the  Son  of  man  shall  sit  on  the  throne  of 
His  glory,  ye  also  shall  sit  upon  twelve  thrones,  judging 
the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel."  And  how  rapidly  the  grandeur 
of  their  position  was  acknowledged,  even  among  the  earliest 
groups  of  Gentile  converts,  we  see  from  St.  Paul's  allusion 
to  "  the  Twelve  "  as  a  recognised  designation,  and  from 
the  fact  that  St.  John,  as  far  back  as  the  days  in  which 
he  wrote  the  Apocalypse,  sees  the  names  of  "  the  Twelve 
Apostles  "  graven  on  the  twelve  precious  stones  which  are 
the  foundations  of  the  City  of  God.  And  yet,  from  this 
little  body  of  the  first  Preachers  and  Witnesses  of  the 
Gospel,  who  had  been  with  Jesus  from  the  beginning,  two 
only — St.  Peter  and  St.  John — are  really  well  known  to  us. 
There  are  three  of  "  the  glorious  company  of  the  Apostles  " 
— James  the  Little,^  Jude  the  son  of  James,  and  Simon  the 
Cananaean  or  Zealot — of  whom  we  cannot  be  said  to  know 
anything  whatever,  though  St.  John  does  record  a  single 
question  of  "Judas,  not  Iscariot."-  Of  Matthew  nothing  is 
recorded  except  his  call  and  his  farewell  feast ;  of  Bartho- 
lomew absolutely  nothing,  unless  we  regard  as  certain  the 
conjecture  which  identifies  him  with  Nathanael ;  of  Thomas 

'  6  fMiKpos.     He  is  never  called  "  the  Less."     The  word  probably  describes  his 
stature.  ^  John  xiv.  22. 

VOL.    IX.  2*1  l6 


242  ST.   JAMES   THE  APOSTLE. 


and  Philip  and  Andrew  only  two  or  three  incidents  are 
narrated,  some  of  which  have  little  bearing  on  their  history 
or  character.  We  are  enabled  indeed  to  see  deep  into  the 
hearts  of  Simon  Peter  and  of  Judas  Iscariot,  and  the  figure 
of  John  stands  out  clear  to  us,  not  only  in  the  Gospel  story, 
but  in  his  own  writings,  and  in  the  subsequent  history  and 
tradition  of  the  Church.  But  of  James  the  son  of  Zebedee 
we  have  little  told  us,  except  that,  with  Peter  and  John 
— and  to  a  lesser  degree  Andrew — he  belonged  to  the 
innermost  circle,  the  itcXeKTOiv  iKXeKTorepoi,  of  our  Lord's 
disciples.  In  this  capacity  the  first  three  alone  were  ad- 
mitted into  His  immediate  presence  at  the  raising  of  the 
daughter  of  Jairus,  at  the  Transfiguration,  and  in  the  Gar- 
den of  Gethsemane.  But  in  the  three  special  incidents 
with  which  St.  James  is  connected  in  the  Gospels,  he  is 
associated  with  his  brother  John.  John  was  the  younger 
brother,  yet  greater  prominence  is  accorded  to  him  as  being 
especially  "  the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved,"  and  as  having 
been  marked  out  earlier  for  the  ranks  of  the  Apostolate.  It 
is  a  remarkable  fact  that  in  his  own  Gospel  he  never  men- 
tions his  elder  brother  by  name ;  though  this  may  be  due 
to  the  same  sublime  reticence  which  made  him  pass  over 
the  name  of  his  mother,^  and  only  speak  of  himself  by  peri- 
phrasis and  in  the  third  person. 

It  would  be  very  interesting  to  know  the  extent  to  which 
the  Apostles  were  drawn  from  the  immediate  families  of 
Christ's  own  relatives,  but  unfortunately  we  are  left  to  con- 
jecture. The  early  tradition  of  the  Christian  Church  was 
to  a  great  extent  fragmentary  and  anecdotical,  and  we  are 
only  able  to  arrive  at  possible  or  probable  hypotheses  on 
many  subjects  of  which  we  would  fain  have  known  more. 
Our  difUculties  are  further  increased  by  the  astonishing 
paucity  of  names  among  the  Jews  of  the  poorer  classes  at 
this  epoch.     There  seem  to  have  been  only  a  few  dozen 

*  John  xix.  25,  compared  with  Mark  xv,  40,  xvi.  1 ;  Matt,  xxvii.  56. 


ST.   JAMES   TEE  APOSTLE.  243 

names  in  common  use,  and  those  who  bore  them  had  to  be 
distinguished  from  each  other  by  patronymics  or  descriptive 
adjectives.  Even  in  the  httle  group  of  Twelve  Apostles 
there  were  two  Simons,  and  two  Judes,  and  two  Jameses  ; 
and  besides  these  there  was  another  James,  another  Simon, 
another  Jude  among  "  the  brethren  of  the  Lord."  ^  In  the 
same  narrow  circle  there  were  also  three  Maries,  and  three 
or  four  who  bore  the  name  of  Joseph  and  Joses.  Perhaps 
however  it  was  by  the  express  purpose  of  Providence  that 
we  were  left  in  ignorance  about  the  mere  personal  biogra- 
phies of  the  earliest  followers  of  our  Lord.  We  were  meant 
to  draw  the  lesson  that  they  were  less  than  nothing  in  com- 
parison with  Him.  What,  after  all,  are  the  saints  ?  They 
are  still  but  mortal  men,  "  inspirati  a  Deo,  sed  tamen 
homines."  "  They  are,"  said  Luther,  "  but  sparkling  drops 
of  the  nightdew  on  the  head  of  the  Bridegroom,  scattered 
about  His  hair."  Even  the  deep  silence  of  the  Gospels 
concerning  them  has  not  prevented  them  from  being  ele- 
vated into  objects  of  adoration  throughout  a  great  part  of 
Christendom.  How  much  would  the  danger  have  been 
increased  if  they  had  been  permitted  to  occupy  a  larger 
space  in  the  Gospel  record  ! 

The  notion  that  "  brethre)i"  mea.ns"  cousins,"  and  that 
the  word  "  brethren  "  is  misleadingly  and  invariably  used 
when  "  cousins  "  might  have  been  used  with  equal  ease 
and  greater  accuracy,  may  now  be  regarded  as  an  exploded 
fiction,  invented  mainly  by  the  casuistry  of  St.  Jerome  with 
the  aid  of  an  apocryphal  gospel,  and  practically  abandoned 
even  by  its  inventor  as  soon  as  it  had  served  its  immediate 
controversial  purpose.  Whatever  "  the  brethren  of  the 
Lord  "  may  have  been,  it  is  superfluously  clear  from  the 
Gospels  themselves  that  they  were  not  among  the  number 
of  the  Apostles."    On  the  other  hand,  James  and  John  were, 

'  Matt.  xiii.  55. 

-  Matt.  xii.  4(i ;  Mark  iii.  31  ;  Luke  viii.  lU.  To  an  uuprejudiced  mind,  which 


244  ST.    JAMES   THE   APOSTLE. 

almost  beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt,  the  first  cousins  of 
the  Lord,  since  Salome  was  the  sister  of  the  Virgin  Mary.^ 
Nor  is  it  impossible  that  four  of  the  remaining  ten  stood  in 
the  same  or  a  similar  relation  to  Him.  For  tradition — in 
spite  of  the  difficulty  that  two  sisters  will  then  have  borne 
the  same  name" — persistently  holds  that  Mary  the  wife  of 
Klopas  was  another  sister  of  the  Virgin  ;  that  though  Cleo- 
pas  is  a  shortened  form  of  Cleopater,''  it  was  yet  used  as  a 
Greek  synonym  for  Chalpai,  Clopas,  or  Alphseus  ;  and  that 
Alphseus  was  a  brother  of  Joseph.  If  that  tradition  be 
correct,  Matthew  and  his  twin  brother  Thomas  and  James 
the  Little,  being  sons  of  Mary  and  Alphaeus,  were  also  first 
cousins  of  Jesus ;  and  Jude  the  son  of  James  (unless  this 
be  another  James,  which  does  not  seem  likely)  was  His 
first  cousin  once  removed.*  The  previous  relationship  in 
which  these  Galilsean  youths  stood  to  our  Lord,  the  fact 
that  they  must  thus  have  known  or  heard  of  Him  in  earlier 
years,  throws  light  on  the  instantaneous  enthusiasm  with 
which  some  of  them  were  ready  to  accept  His  call. 

James  does  not  seem  to  have  been  among  the  multitudes 
who  streamed  to  the  preaching  of  the  Baptist ;  or,  if  he  did, 
his  presence  on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan  is  not  mentioned 
in  any  of  the  records.  It  is  probable  that  the  necessities 
of  earning  his  bread,  and  of  aiding  his  father  Zebedee  in  his 

refuses  to  be  misled  by  the  fatal  facility  of  ecclesiastical  casuistry,  John  vii.  5 
is  decisive  on  this  question. 

'  Four  women,  not  three,  are  mentioned  in  John  xix.  25.  The  Peshito  even 
inserts  "  and"  before  "  Mary  the  wife  of  Klopas." 

-  This  difficulty  would  not  be  in  any  case  insuperable,  as  there  are  certainly 
historic  instances  of  the  same  thing ;  and  it  would  be  all  the  more  likely  to 
occur  in  a  country  which  laboured  under  such  a  sparseness  of  appellatives. 

^  Luke  xxiv.  18. 

*  See  Matt.  x.  3  ;  Mark  ii.  14,  iii.  18  ;  Luke  vi.  15  ;  Acts  i.  13.  But  who  was 
Joses  ■?  Mary  is  not  only  called  "  the  mother  of  James  and  Joses"  (Mark  xv. 
40),  and  "  the  mother  of  James  "  (Luke  xxiv.  10),  but  simj^ly  "  the  mother  of 
Joses  "  (Mark  xv.  47).  Joses  therefore  must  have  been  exceedingly  well  known 
in  the  group  of  early  disciples.  It  is  a  painful  illustration  of  the  extreme 
fragmeutariness  of  our  record  that  we  know  absolutely  nothing  about  him. 
He  is  not  even  mentioned  in  Christian  traditions. 


ST.   JAMES    THE  APOSTLE.  245 


precarious  trade  of  a  fisherman  at  Capernaum,  may  have 
detained  him  in  GaHlee.  It  is  known  from  the  Talmud 
that  there  was  a  regular  sale  at  Jerusalem  for  the  fish 
caught  in  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  and  this  may  have  necessi- 
tated the  occasional  residence  of  the  younger  brother  at  the 
Holy  City,  where  we  are  told  that  he — alone  of  the  Apostles 
— had  a  house  or  lodging,  and  where  he  was  known  to  the 
servants  of  the  High  Priest.^ 

Zebedee,  Zabadja  or  Zabdia,  since  he  had  a  boat  of  his 
own  and  hired  servants,  seems  to  have  been  in  more  pro- 
sperous circumstances  than  his  partners  Simon  and  Andrew. - 
But  when  Jesus  called  the  sons  of  Zebedee  to  leave  all  and 
follow  Him,  without  a  moment's  hesitation  they  left  the 
boat,  and  the  nets,  and  the  hired  servants,  and  their 
father,  to  become  the  close  and  constant  attendants  on  the 
ministry  of  Jesus.  AVith  Him  they  stood  the  storm,  and  the 
sultry  heat  of  the  Plain  of  Gennesareth,  and  the  homeless- 
ness,  and  the  days  and  nights  of  incessant  labour  and 
anxiety,  and  the  taunts,  and  the  pressing  crowds,  and  after- 
wards the  wanderings  in  heathen  lands,  the  flight,  the  con- 
cealments, the  anathemas  of  Pharisees  and  Priests.  Such 
self-sacrifice  shows  their  heroic  faith ;  but  their  instant 
obedience  would  have  been  unnatural  and  unaccountable  if 
St.  John  had  not  already  heard  the  witness  of  the  Baptist, 
and  been  present  at  the  miracle  of  Cana,  and  perhaps  in 
the  early  scenes  at  Jerusalem.  James  had  doubtless  also 
known  something  of  that  sinless  childhood  at  Nazareth 
which  was  "  like  the  flower  of  roses  in  the  spring  of  the 
year,  and  lilies  by  the  watercourses,"  and  had  heard  much 
from  his  younger  brother  of  "the  Lamb  of  God  that  taketh 

'  John  xix.  27,  xviii.  15.  This  not  improbable  conjecture  has  been  face- 
tiously characterized  by  flippant  critics  as  a  suggestion  that  St.  John  was  "a 
fishmonger."  The  supposed  irreverence  lies  only  in  the  insincerity  and  hope- 
less conventionality  of  those  who  are  incapable  of  seeing  that  there  is  nothing 
more  incongruous  in  the  notion  that  an  Apostle  sold  fish  at  Jerusalem  than  that 
an  Apostle  caught  fish  at  (iennesareth.  -  Mark  i.  20. 


246  ST.   JAMES    THE  APOSTLE. 

away  the  sin  of  the  world."  His  heart  had  been  already 
prepared,  both  by  spiritual  influences  and  by  the  leadings 
of  providential  circumstance,  to  obey  the  call  which  trans- 
formed him  from  a  young  fisherman  of  the  inland  lake  to 
be  a  leader  among  the  Apostles,  to  have  Churches  dedicated 
to  his  honour  in  barbarous  islands  of  northern  seas  of 
which  he  had  never  so  much  as  heard  the  name,  and  to 
become  the  patron-saint  of  a  chivalrous  nation  by  the 
Pillars  of  the  West.^  Strange  life,  strange  death,  strange 
glory — glory  greater  than  that  of  earth's  kings  and  con- 
querors— for  the  poor  Galilsean  boy  who  had  once  played  on 
the  bright  sands  of  Bethsaida,  thinking  to  live  a  life  of  safe 
and  happy  obscurity  "  beneath  the  Syrian  blue,"  dreaming 
in  no  wise  of  the  destinies  to  come  !  In  the  miraculous 
draught  of  fishes  after  the  night  spent  in  fruitless  toil  he 
saw  the  proof  that  the  hour  had  come  in  which  Jesus 
should  manifest  Himself  to  the  world  - ;  and  losing  his  life 
that  he  might  find  it,  he  left  the  little  boat  in  which  he  had 
so  often  drawn  out  the  fish  from  life  to  death  to  enter  into 
that  other  little  boat  of  Christ's  infant  Church,  wherein, 
amid  the  tossing  of  far  fiercer  storms,  he  was  to  be  a  fisher 
of  men. 

His  task  began  at  once.  Very  soon  after  the  first  year 
— the  bright  Galilsean  spring  and  dawn  of  Christ's  ministry 
— St.  James  must  have  become  well  aware  that  the  call  of 
Christ  meant  a  lifelong  sacrifice  ;  that  it  involved  poverty 
and  hatred ;  that  he  would  often  be  obliged  to  face  peril  and 
malediction,  and  perhaps  to  die  at  last,  not  happy  with 
children's  faces  round  his  bed,  but  amid  the  execration  of 
the  religious  authorities  of  his  day,  by  the  hand  of  the 
executioner,  as  a  man  charged  with  sedition,  heresy,  and 
crime.  And  yet  how  infinitely  was  he  the  gainer  !  Who 
would  change  the  lot  of  the  Apostles,  with  its  persecutions 

'  St.  -Tago  of  Compostella. 

-  Luke  V.  1-11  ;  comp.  Mark  i.  16--2(J,  Matt.  iv.  18-22. 


ST.   JAMES   THE   APOSTLE.  247 


and  its  hundredfold  reward,  for  that  of  the  rich  young  ruler 
who  made  "  the  great  refusal  "  ? 

"  The  worst  of  miseries 
Is  when  a  nature  framed  for  noblest  things 
Condemns  itself  in  youth  to  petty  joys, 
And  sore  athirst  for  air  breathes  scanty  life, 
Gasping  from  out  the  shallows.     The  life  they  chose 
Breathed  high,  and  saw  a  full-arched  firmament." 

Yet  it  may  save  us  from  many  a  priori  hypotheses  and 
errors  if  we  observe  the  curious  and  significant  fact,  that — 
apart  from  the  incidental  mention  of  his  name  as  having 
been  present  on  certain  solemn  occasions — in  each  of  the 
three  events  in  which  St.  James  becomes  for  a  moment 
prominent  together  with  his  brother,  his  conduct  is  marked 
by  reprehension  rather  than  approval.  The  blame  was  in- 
finitely tender,  yet  it  was  distinctly  blame.  A  man^s  good- 
ness, a  man's  self-sacrifice,  does  not  make  him  in  the  smallest 
degree  infallible.  It  gives  him  no  immunity  from  error, 
either  in  opinion  or  in  practice.  Because  the  Gospels  are 
true  and  faithful,  therefore  the  Apostles  are  not  represented 
to  us  as  faultless,  nor  is  the  language  used  respecting  them 
like  that  of  modern  biographies,  the  language  of  unbroken 
eulogy.  In  all  the  stately  and  splendid  picture  gallery  of 
saintly  lives  which  Scripture  presents  to  us  we  find  that  One 
was  sinless,  and  One  alone.  The  Apostles  were  holy  and 
noble  men ;  but  they  set  themselves  forth  to  us  as  often  dull 
of  understanding,  jealous,  narrow,  impatient,  lacking  (as 
we  all  are)  in  perfect  charity.  Peter  denies  his  Lord,  and 
Thomas  doubts,  and,  in  the  hour  of  His  deepest  need,  all 
the  disciples — even  James,  even  the  disciple  whom  Jesus 
loved — forsook  Him  and  fled.  Great  was  their  work,  eter- 
nal their  reward,  beautiful  even  their  stormy  impetuosity 
as  "  Sons  of  Thunder,"  in  that  cluster  of  young  life  which 
Jesus  gathered  round  Him.  Yet  their  life  too  was  only  a 
beginning  and  a  setting  forth,  not  a  finishing. 


248  ST.   JAMES   THE  APOSTLE. 


Let  us  take  the  three  sentences  addressed  to  these  two 
brothers  by  their  Lord. 

Luke  ix,  55  :  "Ye  knoiv  not  loliat  manner  of  spirit  ye 
are  of." 

Matthew  xx.  22  :  "  Ye  know  not  what  ye  ask." 

Mark  xiv.  41 :  "  Sleep  on  noiv,  and  take  your  rest." 

We  see  at  once  that  the  three  sentences,  deep  as  was  their 
gentleness,  were  three  reproofs. 

I.  James  and  John  had  to  unlearn  the  spirit  of  intoler- 
ance. Intolerance  is  sometimes  represented  as  a  virtue,  and 
as  a  beautiful  proof  of  flaming  zeal ;  while  tolerance,  and 
comprehensiveness,  and  the  readiness  to  make  allowance 
are  often  condemned,  especially  by  priests  and  the  sup- 
porters of  party  religionism,  as  proofs  of  indifference  and 
coldness.  The  lesson  which  Christ  taught  was  invariably 
the  reverse  of  this ;  only,  in  most  ages  of  the  Church, 
unhappily,  many  have  not  guided  themselves  by  the  words 
and  example  of  Christ,  but  by  their  own  party  interests, 
perverted  texts,  and  fierce  traditions. 

The  rude  and  fanatical  people  of  the  frontier  village  of 
Engannim  had  refused >  to  receive  our  Lord,  because  they 
were  Samaritans,  and  His  face  was  as  though  He  would  go 
to  Jerusalem.  This  inhospitable  rejection  involved  direct 
insult,  as  well  as  painful  discomfort ;  and  in  that  very 
country  Elijah  was  recorded  to  have  twice  called  down  fire 
from  heaven  to  avenge  an  insult  far  more  excusable.  Im- 
mediately the  Sons  of  Thunder  ask  Christ  if  they  may  call 
down  fire  from  heaven  to  punish  these  insolent  villagers, 
even  as  Elijah  did.  They  want  to  perform,  in  their  own 
persons,  a  violent  and  exterminating  miracle.  It  is  the 
voice  of  the  inquisitor,  the  voice  of  the  partisan,  the  voice 
of  religious  hatred.  It  was  the  voice  of  Torquemada ;  the 
voice  of  Innocent  III.  and  Arnold  of  Citeaux ;  the  voice  of 
Calvin  ;  the  voice  of  John  Knox  ;  the  voice  of  Gardiner 
and  Bonner ;  the  voice  of  Philip  11.  and  Alva ;  the  voice  of 


ST.   JAMES    THE  APOSTLE.  249 

sects  and  partisans — not  the  voice  of  Christ.  Two  words 
for  themselves  ;  one  for  Christ ;  none  at  all  for  the  poor 
wretches,  innocent  and  guilty  alike,  whom,  for  God's  glory 
and  their  own,  they  want  to  consume.  "  Eve7i  as  Elias 
did."  There  we  see  a  little  touch  of  shame  as  to  their 
request.  Merciless  anger  and  personal  indignation  justify 
themselves,  as  usual  in  such  cases,  with  a  real  or  supposed 
Scripture  precedent.^  There  have  always  been  adepts  in 
the  art  of  murdering  the  spirit  of  Scripture  by  its  own 
dead  letter.  Popes  quoted  Scripture  when  they  wanted  to 
exterminate  the  opponents  whom  they  called  heretics ; 
and  Crusaders,  when  they  waded  bridle-deep  in  blood  ;  and 
Romanists,  when  they  burnt  Protestants  ;  and  Jesuits,  when 
they  plotted  to  get  kings  assassinated  ;  and  the  clergy,  when 
they  preached  the  Divine  rights  of  despotism ;  and  slave- 
owners, when,  with  the  approval  of  countless  clerical  biblio- 
laters, they  stole  men  from  Africa,  and  kept  them  in  bitter 
bondage.  But  Christ,  with  Divine  wisdom,  set  aside  their 
Scripture  precedent  as  worse  than  valueless,  as  a  pernicious 
anachronism.  He  tells  them  that  the  Elijah-spirit  is  not 
the  Christ-spirit.  The  fire  of  wrath  and  destruction  is  in 
God's  hands,  not  in  the  polluted  hands  of  erring  and  feeble 
men.  Fire  is  the  only  element  in  which  Christ  wrought  no 
miracle.  It  is  the  brambles  and  bramble-men  whose  voices 
are  most  full  of  it,  and  they  have  used  it  chiefly  against 
the  cedars  of  Lebanon.  But  Jesus  rebuked  the  two  err- 
ing and  vehement  brothers,  and  said,  "Ye  know  not  of 
what  spirit  ye  are.  For  the  Son  of  man  is  not  come  " — 
as  the  representatives  of  the  Church  have  so  often  and  so 
fatally  supposed — "to  destroy  men's  lives,  but  to  save."  ~ 

^  It  is  clear  that  the  passage  has  been  tampered  with,  probably  in  more  than 
one  direction,  by  ecclesiastical  bias.  These  words  are  omitted  in  N  B,  L,  3, 
etc. 

-  This  glorious  utterance  is  omitted  in  N,  A,  B,  C.  There  were  scribes  so 
ignorant  and  so  steeped  in  the  Elijah-spirit  of  persecution  as  to  regard  it  as 
"  dangerous." 


250  ST.   JAMES   THE  APOSTLE. 

II.  Nor  was  the  lesson  of  intolerance  the  only  lesson 
which  these  two  great  Apostles  had  to  unlearn.  They  had 
also  to  be  purged  from  the  secret  religious  selfishness  from 
which  all  intolerance  springs. 

The  incident  occurred  at  a  later  stage  of  the  great  journey, 
after  Jesus  had  taken  refuge  for  a  time  from  the  ban  of  His 
enemies  at  the  little  village  Ephraim.  He  only  left  it  when, 
from  its  conical  hill,  he  saw  the  Galilaean  pilgrims  beginning 
to  stream  down  the  Jordan  valley  towards  Jerusalem.  He 
had  been  walking  in  front  of  His  disciples  in  the  transfigura- 
tion of  majestic  sorrow,  when  He  beckoned  them  to  Him, 
and  for  the  first  time  revealed  to  them  the  awful  fact  that 
He  should  be,  not  only  mocked  and  scourged,  but — the 
crowning  horror — that  He  should  be  crucified.  It  was  at 
that  most  inopportunate  moment  that,  instigated  by  her 
sons,  the  fond  mother  Salome  mysteriously  came  to  Him 
with  them,  and  asks  as  a  favour  that  they  may  sit  at  His  right 
hand  and  His  left  in  His  kingdom.  Jesus  gently  bore  with 
the  error  and  ambitious  selfishness  of  the  young  men  whom 
He  loved,  knowing  that  in  their  blindness  they  had  asked 
for  that  position  which,  five  days  afterwards,  should  be 
occupied  in  shame  and  anguish  by  the  two  crucified  robbers. 
"  Ye  hnoiu  not  what  ye  ask,"  He  said.  Heaven  is  not  a 
heaven  of  the  selfish,  ambitious,  exclusive  sort.  There  are 
no  beggings  and  schemings  there,  no  selfish  jostliugs  and 
elbowings  in  the  press,  no  competitive  comparisons  of  which 
has  done  the  maximum  of  service  on  the  minimum  of  grace. 
There  no  one  wonders  why  this  man  succeeds,  or  envies 
because  another  has  been  rewarded.  There  the  highest  and 
the  lowest  are  all  equally  happy,  because  all  are  in  full 
accord  with  the  will  of  God. 


Frate,  la  nostra  volonta  quieta 

La  Virtu  di  Carita,  che  fa  volerne 

Sol  quel  ch'  avenno,  e  d'  altro  uon  chi  asseta. 


ST.   JAMES    TEE   APOSTLE.  251 

Se  desiassimo  esser  piu  superne 
Forau  dLscordi  gli  nostri  disii'i 
Dal  voler  di  colui  che  qui  ne  cerue. 

Chiaro  mi  fu  allor,  com'  ogni  dove 
In  cielo  e  Pai-adisq,  e  si  la  grazia 
Del  sommo  ben  d'  un  modo  non  vi  piove."  ' 

The  ten,  when  they  heard  the  request  of  the  two  brothers, 
had  great  indignation  among  themselves.  They  too  wanted 
their  thrones  and  places  of  distinction.  But  Jesus,  who  was 
patient  because  eternal,  only  taught  the  two  poor  disciples 
that  His  cup  and  His  baptism  were  far  different  from 
what  they  supposed.  And  they,  rising  in  their  fall,  showed 
themselves  no  less  ready  to  taste  His  cup  of  bitterness 
and  to  partake  of  His  baptism  of  fire.  But  the  painful 
discipline  did  not  come  till  they  had  been  more  trained  to 
bear  it. 

in.  St.  James  was  indeed  the  first  martyr  of  the  Apostles, 
as  St.  John  was  their  last  survivor.  We  catch  the  last 
glimpse  of  him  in  the  Gospels  first  sleeping  and  sharing  in 
the  gentle  rebuke,  "What,  could  ye  not  watch  one  hour?" 
then,  with  the  rest,  flying  from  his  forsaken  Lord. 

'"What  should  wring  this  from  thee?'  ye  laiigh  and  ask. 
What  wrung  it  ?     Even  a  torchlight  and  a  noise, 
The  sudden  Roman  faces,  violent  hands, 
And  fear  of  what  the  Jews  might  do  !     Just  that, 
And  it  is  written,  '  I  forsook  and  fled '  : 
There  was  my  trial,  and  it  ended  thus. 
Ay,  but  my  soul  had  gained  its  truth,  could  grow  : 
Another  year  or  two — what  little  child. 
What  tender  woman  that  had  seen  no  least 
Of  all  my  sights,  but  bai'ely  heard  them  told, 

1  Dante,  Paradiso  iii.  70,  seq.  "  Brother,  a  virtue  of  Charity  sets  at  rest  our 
will,  which  makes  us  wish  that  only  which  we  have,  and  lets  us  not  thirst  for 
aught  else.  If  we  desired  to  be  more  on  high,  our  desires  would  be  out  of  har- 
mony with  the  will  of  Him  who  distributes  us  here.  ...  It  was  clear  to  me 
then  how  everywhere  in  Heaven  is  Paradise,  even  if  the  grace  of  the  highest 
Good  falls  not  there  in  one  fashion  "  (A.  J.  Butler's  translation). 


252  ST.   JAMES   TEE   APOSTLE. 

Who  did  not  grasp  the  cross  with  a  glad  laugh, 
Or  wrap  the  burning  robe  round,  thanking  God?" 

But  this  was  his  last  recorded  imperfection.  In  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  we  find  James  named  first,  before  even  Peter 
and  John,  though  he  afterwards  became  less  prominent  in 
the  popular  recollection  than  the  Apostle  of  Love,  for  he  is 
described  later  on  as  "James  the  brother  of  John."  We 
read  no  more  of  him  till  fourteen  years  later,  and  then  we 
see  nothing  but  the  flash  of  a  sword.  Herod  Agrippa,  being 
but  an  alien  usurper,  supported  mainly  by  the  swords  of 
Rome,  is  anxious  to  please  the  Jews.  He  knows  that  he 
cannot  do  so  more  effectually  than  by  putting  to  death  a 
leading  Christian.  And  so  "  he  slew  James  the  brother  of 
John  with  the  sword."  'AvelXe  /xa^atpa — just  two  words, 
and  no  more,  sufiice  to  narrate  the  martyrdom  of  the  first 
of  the  Apostles,  and,  what  is  very  remarkable,  of  the  07ily 
Apostle  whose  death  is  recorded.  How  St.  Peter  died,  how 
St.  Paul  died,  how  St.  John  died,  how  any  one  of  the  rest 
of  the  Twelve  died,  we  simply  do  not  know.  We  do  not 
know  how  they  were  martyred,  nor  even — except  by  vague 
and  late  tradition — whether  any  of  them,  except  the  Apostles 
of  the  Circumcision  and  of  the  Uncircumcision,  were  mar- 
tyred at  all.  St.  James  has  the  signal  honour  of  being 
the  only  Apostle  whose  martyrdom  is  recorded  in  the 
Sacred  Book. 

But  what  "Acts  of  Martyrdom"  are  these!  How  brief, 
how  quiet  in  their  solemnity,  how  entirely  unsurrounded  by 
any  blaze  of  miracles  or  of  superhuman  sanctity  in  the 
sufferer !  The  story  of  tradition,  recorded  by  Clement  of 
Alexandria  and  preserved  in  Eusebius,  may  or  may  not  be 
true — that,  on  his  way  to  execution,  he  forgave  and  con- 
verted his  accuser,  and  that  when  this  man  desired  to  die 
with  James,  the  Apostle  looked  at  him  for  a  little  time,  then 
kissed  him,  and  said,  "  Peace  to  thee,  my  brother."  But  if 
the  story  be  true,  Scripture,  at  any  rate,  does  not  narrate  it. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS   IN  PHRYGIA.   253 

Scripture  differs  greatly  from  common  biographies.  It  is 
indifferent  to  earthly  glories  and  death-bed  scenes.  It 
wo  aid  seem  to  say  to  us — 

"■  Why  do  ye  toil  to  register  your  names 
On  icy  pillars  which  soon  melt  away  ? 
True  honour  is  not  here." 

There  is,  as  I  have  said  elsewhere,  a  spiritual  fitness  in  the 

lonely,  slightly  recorded  death- scene  of  the  Son  of  Thunder. 

There  is  a  deep  lesson  in  the  fact  that,  meekly  and  silently, 

in  utter  self-renouncement,  with  no  visible  consolation,  with 

no  elaborate  eulogy,  amid  no  pomp  of  circumstance,  with 

not  even  a  recorded  burial,  he  should  perish,  first  of  the 

faithful  few  to  whom,  in  answer  to  his  request  to  sit  at 

his  Lord's  right  hand,  had  been  uttered  that  warning  and 

tender  prophecy,  that  he  should  drink  of  the  cup  and  be 

baptized  with  the  baptism  of  his  Saviour.     Nor  was  the  day 

far  distant  when  the  Herods  and   High  Priests  would  be 

forced  to  say  of  him:  "  We  fools  accounted  his  life  madness, 

and  his  end  to  be  without  honour.     How  is  he  numbered 

among   the   children   of   God,    and   his   lot   is    among   the 

saints  !  " 

F.  W.  Farrar. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS  IN  PHRYGIA: 
A   STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF   THE   CHURCH. 

IV. 

Multitudes  flocked  to  listen  to  the  ministrations  of  Aber- 
kios  from  the  neighbouring  provinces.  Greater  Phrygia, 
Asia,  Lydia,  and  Caria.  He  restored  sight  to  a  noble  lady 
named  Phrygella,  and  afterwards  to  three  old  women  of 
the  country.  Observing  that  the  country  stood  in  need  of 
medicinal  baths,  to  which  invalids  might  resort  for  the  cure 
of  their  ailments,  he  fell  on  his  knees  beside  a  river  near  the 


254    EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS   IN  PHBYGIA  : 


city,  and  prayed  :  immediately  a  peal  of  thunder  was  heard 
from  a  clear  sky,  and  fountains  of  hot  water  sprang  from 
the  earth.  The  form  in  which  this  tale  is  told  owes  its 
origin  probably  to  a  reader  of  the  Odes  of  Horace,  or  of  the 
Greek  original  which  Horace  has  imitated  in  the  34th  Ode 
of  the  First  Book,  where  the  sceptic,  who  maintained  the 
scientific  explanation  of  thunder  as  due  to  mere  physical 
action  among  the  clouds,  is  converted  to  believe  that  it 
is  due  to  the  direct  action  of  Jupiter,  by  the  occurrence 
of  thunder  and  lightning  in  a  clear  sky.  Such  a  touch, 
like  the  white  garments  of  the  worshippers  in  the  opening 
scene,  seems  to  betray  some  familiarity  with  ancient  lite- 
rature ;  and  incidentally  it  illustrates  what  I  have  said  in 
a  preceding  article  as  to  the  educating  influence  of  the 
earlier  form  of  Christianity  in  Phrygia.  Also  the  multi- 
tudes from  the  provinces  point  perhaps  to  a  reader  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  chap.  ii. 

Strong  belief  in  the  curative  and  prophylactic  properties 
of  mineral  springs  seems  in  all  ages  to  have  characterized, 
and  still  continues  to  characterize,  the  natives  of  Asia 
Minor.  All  summer  these  baths  of  Hierapolis  are  still 
thronged  by  visitors,  many  coming  from  a  great  distance, 
some  to  be  cured  of  ailments,  others  hoping  to  prevent 
them  by  timely  use  of  the  medicinal  waters.  Two  of  the 
provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  derived  their 
distinctive  title  Salutaris  from  the  number  of  hot  salutary 
springs  within  their  bounds.  The  origin  of  these  healing 
fountains  was  naturally  attributed  to  some  beneficent  di- 
vinity by  the  pagans,  and  by  the  Christians  to  the  great 
saint  of  the  district,  just  as  the  origin  of  the  lake  of 
Diocassareia  was  in  the  legend  just  quoted  ascribed  to  the 
prayers  of  St.  Artemon.  Before  the  true  site  of  Hiera- 
polis ^  had  been  discovered,  the  Berlin  geographer,  Professor 

'  Different  from  the  i^'reater  Hieraiiolis,  described  above,  beside  Laodiceia. 
There  are  hot  springs  at  both  Phrygian  cities  of  the  name. 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  GHURGH.  255 

Kiepert,  argued  from  its  name  that  it  must  be  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  some  hot  spring.  HierapoHs,  "the  Holy 
City,"  is  from  its  very  name  a  city  of  rehgious  sanctity, 
and  all  the  great  pagan  sanctuaries  of  Asia  Minor  were 
situated  in  places  where  some  striking  natural  phenomenon 
revealed  the  immediate  power  and  presence  of  the  deity, 
who  ruled  and  through  his  prophets  advised  his  people. 

The  father  of  deceit,  the  devil  himself,  now  sought  in  the 
form  of  a  woman  to  get  a  blessing  from  the  saint ;  but 
the  latter  knew  him,  and  turning  hastily  away,  bruised  his 
ankle  against  a  stone,  and  gave  cause  of  boasting  to  the 
evil  one,  who  delights  only  in  doing  injury.  The  devil  then 
leaped  upon  a  youth  of  the  company,  and  handled  him  in 
miserable  wise,  till  Aberkios  pitied  him ;  whereupon  the 
devil  left  him,  threatening  that  he  would  make  the  saint 
go  to  Eome.  This  most  puerile  incident  is  introduced  to 
lead  up  to  the  central  event  in  the  life  of  the  Phrygian 
saint,  his  visit  to  Eome.  The  fact  was  known,  and  some 
motive  had  to  be  found  for  it  consistent  with  the  childish 
fancy  of  a  miracle-mongering  age.  The  real  reason  which 
led  to  the  wide  travels  of  Aberkios  is  unknown  to  us ;  it  is 
probable  that  it  was  simply  the  desire  to  visit  the  central 
Church  of  the  Eoman  and  the  Christian  world  in  Eome, 
and  the  earliest  seats  of  the  Church  in  Syria,  and  thus  to 
strengthen  the  connexion  between  the  provincial  Church 
of  Phrygia  and  the  Church  Catholic. 

I  have  here  anticipated  slightly  in  assuming  the  historical 
character  of  the  travels  of  Aberkios :  the  reasons  which 
prove  that  he  did  visit  Eome  and  Syria  for  religious  pur- 
poses will  be  given  below.  I  anticipate  in  order  to  bring 
out  more  clearly  at  this  point  the  way  in  which  the  legend 
grows  out  of  the  real  facts.  The  fact  that  Aberkios  went 
to  Eome  and  to  Syria  was  recorded  and  remembered. 
Popular  tradition  demanded  a  reason  why  a  man  from  the 
interior  of  Phrygia  undertook  such  journeys  ;    and  in   ac- 


256    EARLY   GHBI8TIAN  MONUMENTS   IN   PHRYGIA  : 

cordance  with  the  character  of  popular  legend  the  reason 
must  be  supernatural.  The  devil  forced  him  to  go  to  Eome, 
but  his  success  only  produced  a  more  signal  manifestation 
of  the  saint's  miraculous  power.  When  we  remember  the 
character  of  the  Montanist  movement — Montanus  the  re- 
presentative of  the  old  native  spirit  in  religion  and  in 
Church  government ;  his  opponents,  among  whom  Aberkios 
was  one  of  the  earliest  leaders,  bent  on  consolidating  and 
organizing  the  Church,  and  on  converting  the  former  merely 
personal  ascendency  and  authority  of  Church  leaders  and  apo- 
stles into  the  titled  and  regulated  authority  of  the  officials  of 
a  hierarchical  system — we  shall  see  that  the  journeys  of  the 
saint  must  have  played  an  important  part  in  forming  his 
policy  and  in  making  him  the  champion  of  organization 
and  the  Church  Catholic  against  the  distinctively  national 
Phrygian  and  separatist  tendency  of  Montanism. 

The  devil  then  went  to  Rome,  and  took  possession  of  the 
Princess  Lucilla,  daughter  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  betrothed 
to  the  younger  emperor  Verus.  Verus  had  gone  to  the 
East  to  conduct  a  war  against  the  Parthian  king  Vologeses, 
and  it  had  been  arranged  that  on  his  return  Aurelius  should 
meet  him  at  Ephesus,  and  the  marriage  should  be  cele- 
brated there  in  the  temple  of  Artemis.  This  last  detail 
is  suggested  by  the  Christian  ceremonial  of  marrying  in 
church,  and  is  entirely  out  of  harmony  with  pagan  mar- 
riage customs.  In  the  whole  of  this  part  of  the  story 
there  is  a  distinct  effort  made  to  accommodate  the  incidents 
to  actual  history.  The  writer  was  fairly  well  read  in 
the  history  of  the  second  century,  but  not  sufficiently 
master  of  the  subject  to  avoid  various  inconsistencies  and 
chronological  contradictions,  which  need  not  be  here  par- 
ticularized. But  even  where  he  is  most  successful  in  paint- 
ing the  historical  background,  he  introduces  occasional 
details,  like  the  marriage  in  a  temple,  which  betray  the 
habits  of  a  later  age.     Most  of  this  episode  gives  the  im- 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  257 


pression  of  learned  invention  by  the  composer  of  the 
biography,  and  not  of  free  popular  mythology.  Probably 
the  only  point  which  belongs  to  popular  tradition  is  that 
the  saint  was  made  to  go  to  Eome  by  the  wiles  of  the 
devil,  and  there  cured  the  princess.  The  introduction  of 
the  princess  is  due  to  a  misunderstanding  of  the  real  re-  _ 
corded  facts  that  underlie  the  myth  ;  for  the  Church  is 
called  in  the  record  "  the  Princess." 

Every  means  was  tried  to  cure  the  princess.  The  priests 
of  Rome  and  Italy,  the  diviners  of  Etruria,  could  not  exor- 
cise the  demon.  We  note  that  the  author  was  educated 
enough  to  know  the  fame  of  the  Etruscans  in  divination  : 
another  detail  to  mark  his  character.  The  devil  declared 
openly  that  he  would  not  come  out  unless  Aberkios,  bishop 
of  the  city  of  the  Hierapolitans  in  Lesser  Phrygia,  came  to 
him.  The  emperor  at  last  sent  two  messengers  to  fetch 
Aberkios.  The  letter  which  he  sent  by  their  hands,  ad- 
dressed to  Euxenianus  Poplio,  governor  of  Lesser  Phrygia, 
contains  one  more  touch  of  the  inaccurate  learning  of  the 
author  of  the  biography.  It  refers  to  the  terrible  earth- 
quake at  Smyrna,  and  to  the  relief  which  the  emperor  had 
given  to  the  sufferers.  The  words  are  probably  written  by 
some  person  who  had  read  the  petition  of  Aristides  to  the 
two  emperors  on  behalf  of  Smyrna,  and  his  panegyric  after 
the  relief  was  bestowed,  but  who  was  ignorant  that  the 
earthquake  took  place  in  a.d.  180,  only  a  few  months 
before  the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  Aristides  refers  to 
the  two  emperors  who  relieved  Smyrna,  viz.  Marcus  and 
Commodus ;  the  author  of  the  biography  apparently  under- 
stood them  to  be  Marcus  and  Verus.^ 

The   messengers  set  out  with   all  speed,   and  made  the 

'  The  inference  which  I  once  drew  ("  The  Tale  of  St.  Abercius,"  Journal  of 
Hellenic  Studieit,  1882,  p.  347)  from  the  fact  that  Euxenianus  was  also  in 
authority  in  Smyrna,  cannot  be  sustained,  and  is  rightly  rejected  by  Bishop 
Lightfoot,  Ifinatiiis  and  Pnlycarp,  i.,  p.  484. 

VOL.    IX  17 


258     EARLY  CHBTSTIAN  MONUMENTS   IN  PHBYGIA: 

journey  from  Rome  to  Brindisi,  about  400  miles,  in  two 
days !  *  The  writer  was  learned  enough  to  know  that 
Brindisi  was  the  usual  harbour  on  the  route  from  Rome  to 
the  East,  but  not  learned  enough  to  be  aware  of  the  dis- 
tance. Hence  they  took  ship,  and  on  the  seventh  day 
reached  the  Peloponnesus,  whence  they  travelled  with  the 
imperial  post  horses  to  Byzantium.  The  writer  knows  that 
Byzantium  was  the  old  name  of  Constantinople,  but  does 
not  know  the  road  from  Brindisi  to  Constantinople  :  im- 
perial messengers  would  have  crossed  in  one  day  from 
Brindisi  to  Dyrrhacchium,  and  then  ridden  post  along  the 
Egnatian  Way  by  Salonica,  a  very  much  shorter  land 
journey.  But  any  reader  who  knows  the  geography  of  the 
Mediterranean  lands,  or  who  looks  at  a  map,  will  ask  why, 
if  the  messengers  are  in  a  hurry,  they  should  go  round  by 
Constantinople.  Had  the  writer  lived  before  the  time  of 
Diocletian,  he  would  have  made  his  messengers  follow  the 
usual  Roman  route,  across  the  ^gean  Sea  to  Ephesus,  and 
thence  along  the  great  eastern  highway  by  Laodiceia  and 
Apameia.  But  he  lived  at  a  time  when  all  roads  in  the 
East  led  to  Constantinople,  and  all  imperial  messengers 
travelled  to  and  from  Constantinople ;  and  he  makes  the 
characters  of  his  story  travel  accordingly.  From  Constan- 
tinople onwards  he  knows  his  ground,  and  describes  it 
accurately ;  the  messengers  go  along  the  imperial  road 
by  Nicomedeia  to  Synnada,  the  capital  of  the  province. 
Arrived  at  Synnada,  they  have  to  leave  the  main  route 
and  take  a  cross-country  path,  over  a  lofty,  precipitous 
ridge  of  volcanic  rock,  by  which  they  require  guides  to  con- 
duct them.  About  the  ninth  hour  they  reached  Hierapolis 
and  met  Aberkios  as  they  were  entering  the  city.  The 
writer  throughout  shows  a  great  liking  for  the  ninth  hour, 

1  Clodius  boasted  of  his  speed  in  coming  from  the  Straits  of  Messina  to  Rome 
in  seven  days,  Cato  from  Hydruntum  to  Rome  in  five  days ;  the  distance  is  a 
httle  more  than  that  to  Brindisi. 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  259 

and  makes  several  of  the  important  incidents  of  the  tale 
take  place  then.  At  that  hour  Aberkios  was  wont,  after 
spending  the  day  in  preaching  and  teaching,  to  return  home 
to  pray.  The  messengers  asked  the  way,  and  Aberkios 
replied  by  asking  what  was  their  business.  One  of  the 
messengers,  angry  at  his  presumption  in  questioning  a  royal 
official,  lifted  his  hand  to  strike  the  saint  with  his  riding 
whip,  but  the  hand  remained  outstretched  and  paralysed, 
until  Aberkios,  with  his  wonted  compassion,  restored  it  to 
health.  Aberkios  promised  to  meet  the  messengers  after 
forty  days  at  the  harbour  of  Rome,  and  they  returned  alone, 
while  he  took  a  carriage,  and  drove  down  to  the  harbour 
of  Attaleia,  on  the  southern  coast,  where  he  took  ship  for 
Rome.  The  miraculous  way  in  which  he  provisioned  him- 
self and  in  which  his  servant  was  obliged  against  his  own 
will  to  behave  honestly,  is  too  puerile  for  repetition  :  it  is 
obviously  due  to  vulgar  popular  mythology.  The  road 
which  the  saint  took  is  exactly  the  one  which  would 
recommend  itself  to  a  native.  Three  days  after  Aberkios 
the  messengers  reached  the  port  of  Rome,  which  the  writer 
understands  to  be  actually  beside  the  city  :  the  saint  was 
awaiting  them  as  they  landed.  They  land  at  a  harbour, 
though  it  is  implied  that  they  returned  by  the  road  along 
which  they  had  previously  travelled.  The  emperor  was 
absent  from  Rome,  on  an  expedition  against  the  barbarians, 
who  had  crossed  the  Rhine  (here  we  again  note  the  writer's 
historical  knowledge),  and  Aberkios  was  brought  into  the 
presence  of  the  Empress  Faustina.  He  had  the  princess 
brought  into  the  Hippodrome,  by  which  the  writer  perhaps 
means  the  Circus  Maximus,  but  more  probably  he  knew 
Constantinople  and  its  Hippodrome,  and  transferred  the 
detail  to  Rome.  Here  he  ordered  the  devil  who  possessed 
her  to  leave  her,  and  to  take  up  an  altar  which  stood  in  the 
Hippodrome  and  set  it  down  beside  the  southern  gate  of 
Hierapolis.     This  same  altar  was  afterwards  used  as    the 


260     EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS   IN  PHRYGIA: 

tombstone  of  the  saint,  and  we  may  gather  from  this  story 
that  the  saint  was  buried  by  the  side  of  the  road  which 
issued  through  the  southern  gate  of  the  city.  The  form  of 
an  altar  is,  as  I  mentioned  in  a  preceding  article,  very  com- 
mon among  the  Phrygian  gravestones,  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  whole  story  about  conveying  the  altar  from 
the  Eoman  Hippodrome  is  suggested  by  the  monument, 
in  the  shape  of  an  altar,  which  stood  above  the  grave  of 
the  saint.  I  shall  below  mention  the  exact  dimensions  and 
shape  of  the  gravestone,  a  considerable  fragment  of  which 
is  lying  before  me  as  I  write. 

Aberkios  refused  to  accept  for  himself  any  recompense 
from  the  grateful  empress,  but  asked  her  to  build  a  bathing- 
house  over  the  hot  springs  beside  his  native  city,  and  to 
bestow  a  yearly  largess  of  3,000  bushels  of  corn  on  its 
inhabitants.  This  largess  continued  to  be  given  until  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Julian,  by  whom  it  was  abrogated. 
If  I  am  correct  in  my  view  as  to  the  date  when  the 
biography  was  composed,  it  is  most  probable  that  some 
public  benefaction  to  the  people  of  Hierapolis  did  really 
exist  in  the  fourth  century,  and  was  really  confiscated  by 
the  Emperor  Juhan  (a.d.  361-63).  A  writer  about  a.d.  400 
could  hardly  invent  entirely  without  foundation  an  incident 
which  belonged  to  a  period  well  within  the  memory  of  his 
contemporaries.  I  believe  therefore  that  the  existence  of 
a  benefaction  to  the  Christians  of  a  Phrygian  city,  which 
had  lasted  some  considerable  time  before  a.d.  363,  is  proved 
by  this  biography.  In  inscriptions  13  and  20  examples  of 
such  benefactions  on  a  small  scale  were  given. 

After  remaining  some  time  in  Rome,  Aberkios  was 
ordered  by  God  to  visit  Syria,  and  the  Empress  Faustina, 
yielding  to  his  request,  ordered  a  ship  to  be  prepared  for 
him.  A  voyage  of  seven  days  brought  him  from  the  port 
of  Rome  to  Syria :  this  impossible  statement,  compared 
with  the   statement  quoted  above  as   to  the  length  of  the 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  261 

voyage  from  Brindisi  to  the  Peloponnesus,  illustrates  the 
writer's  utter  ignorance  of  geography  beyond  the  bounds 
of  Asia  Minor.     The  saint  visited  Antioch  and  Apameia, 
and  crossing  the  Euphrates  made  a  round  of  the  Churches 
near  Nisibis  and  through  the  whole  of  Mesopotamia.    Large 
sums  of  money  were  pressed  on  him  by  the  Syrian  Chris- 
tians, but  were  persistently  declined  by  him.     At  last,  on 
the  proposal  of  a   rich  and  noble  Syrian,    named  Barcha- 
sanes,   the    title  of  Isapostolos,  "  Equal  of  the  Apostles," 
was  formally  bestowed  on  him.     He  then  returned  through 
the   two  provinces  Cilicia   and   Lycaonia   and   Pisidia^  to 
Synnada,  and  thence  to  his  own  home.     On  the  toilsome 
road  between   Synnada  and  Hierapolis  he  sat  down  on  a 
stone  to  rest  during   the   heat  of  a  summer   day.     Some 
rustics  near  him  were  winnowing  their  corn  in  the  same 
way  as  is  still  customary  in  the  country,  throwing  it  up  in 
the  air  and  allowing  the  breeze  to  carry  away  the  chaff. 
The   brisk   northerly  wind,  which    blows    on    the   plateau 
almost  every  day  for  great  part  of  the  summer,  enables  this 
to  be  easily  done.     The  chaff  was  borne  by  the  wind  into 
the  face  of  the  saint,  who,  instead  of  changing  his  position, 
asked  the  labourers  to  stop  their  work,   and  when  they, 
naturally  enough,  refused  to  do  so,  lulled  the  breeze  and 
thus  compelled  them  to  stop.     The  rustics  employed  their 
enforced    leisure   in  making  a   meal.      Aberkios  begged   of 
them  a  little  water,  but  they  refused  it  with  rustic  jeers, 
which  after  his  conduct  seem  to  us  not  wholly  inexcusable. 
Aberkios  then  afflicted  them  with  insatiable  appetite,  which 
continues  to  be  the  case  until  the  present  day.     The  writer 
does  not  clearly  explain  his  meaning  ;  but  probably  some 
rustic  joke  about  the  enormous  appetite  of  the  inhabitants 

'  The  details  are  accurate.  There  were  two  provinces  of  Cilicia,  Prima 
(capital  Tarsus)  and  Secunda  (capital  Anazarbus).  Lycaonia  was  separated 
from  Pisidia  about  372.  Aberkios  would,  by  the  usual  route,  traverse  these 
provinces  and  no  others. 


262     EARLY  GHBI8TIAN  MONUMENTS   IN  PHBYGIA: 

of  some  village  between  Synnada  and  Hierapolis  has  given 
rise  to  the  legend.  The  picture  of  the  saint  sitting  on  the 
stone  and  jeered  by  the  rustics  is  so  obviously  modelled 
on  that  of  Demeter  sitting  on  the  Agelastos  Petra,  "  the 
Stone  of  Mourning,"  and  ridiculed  by  the  people  of  Eleusis, 
that  we  may  probably  infer  that  the  same  tale  was  related 
about  the  Cybele  of  Hierapolis  as  about  the  Demeter  of 
Eleusis,  and  that  Aberkios  has  inherited  the  local  legend. 
But  how  utterly  vulgarised  is  that  pathetic  legend  in  its 
new  form  ! 

The  only  other  incident  which  is  recorded  about  Aberkios 
is  his  production  of  a  spring  of  drinking  water  on  the  top  of 
a  high  mountain.  It  must  be  possible  to  find  whether  this 
fountain  exists.  I  think  that  a  search  might  discover  it, 
and  prove  in  one  further  instance  that  real  natural  pheno- 
mena were  popularly  accounted  for  by  the  prayers  of  the 
local  saint.  Then  his  approaching  death  was  announced 
to  him  in  a  dream,  and  he  prepared  his  tomb,  engraving 
his  epitaph  on  the  altar  which  the  devil  had  brought  from 
the  Hippodrome  in  Rome. 

The  mere  recital  of  the  useless,  meaningless,  and  often 
absurd  miracles,  and  of  the  historical,  chronological,  and 
geographical  impossibilities  in  this  legend,  is  sufiacient  to 
show  the  utterly  unhistorical  character  of  the  biography. 
There  is  a  tone  of  vulgarity  and  rusticity  about  it  which 
gives  it  a  rather  low  place  in  the  class  of  religious  romances 
to  which  it  belongs.  It  might  fairly  be  discarded  as  an 
unprofitable  fabrication,  as  Tillemont  has  done.  But  the 
epitaph  which  is  given,  in  a  very  bad  text,  at  the  end  of  the 
legend  is  a  remarkable  document.  Several  authorities,  such 
as  Bishop  Lightfoot  and  Cardinal  Pitra,  caught  the  ring  of 
a  genuine  second  century  Christian  document  in  it,  and 
through    their  remarks  ^  it  began  to   attract   some  notice. 

'  Lightfoot,  Coloasians,  p.  54 ;  Pitra,  Sjncileijium  Solesnieiise,  iii.,  p.  553  ; 
Duchesne,  Revue  des  Questions  Historiqnes,  -July,  1883,  p.  1 ;  Di  Eossi  most 
recently  and  elaborately  in  Inscript.  Christ.  Urbis  Ronicc,  ii.,  p.  15. 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  263 

But  it  was  in  very  suspicious  company.  Few  spend  suffi- 
cient time  in  so  habituating  their  ear  to  the  tone  of  second 
century  work,  as  to  be  able  to  appreciate  the  ring  of  truth 
in  it,  and  probably  the  majority  would  have  declined  to 
accept  as  historical  a  document  which  was  enshrined  in 
such  an  obviously  unhistorical  and  late  biography.  More- 
over Aberkios  is  said  to  be  Bishop  of  Hierapolis.  Now 
precisely  at  the  time  when  the  biography  declares  him  to 
have  been  Bishop  of  Hierapolis,  we  know  on  certain  au- 
thority that  Papias  and  Apollinaris  successively  were  bishops. 
The  legend  makes  the  imperial  messengers  go  from  Synnada 
to  Hierapolis  in  one  day,  but  Synnada  is  several  long  days' 
journey  from  Hierapolis,  and  the  principle  has  been  laid 
down  above  that  fidelity  in  local  features  is  one  of  the  tests 
of  the  better  class  of  religious  legend.  Attempts  which 
were  made  to  evade  these  difficulties  proved  vain,  and  mere 
faith  in  the  genuineness  of  the  epitaph  would  not  have  con- 
vinced the  world.  But  when  part  of  the  very  altar  on 
which  the  epitaph  was  engraved  is  now  in  Aberdeen,  where 
it  can  be  examined  by  all,  and  when  it  is  found  to  be 
unmistakably  a  second  century  monument,  and  finally  when 
the  letters  on  the  stone  give  the  true  text,  which  had  been 
corrupted  beyond  the  reach  of  emendation  in  all  manu- 
scripts of  the  biography,  doubt  is  at  an  end. 

The  biography  states  that  the  altar  was  equal  in  length 
and  breadth.  It  can  now  from  actual  measurement  be  said 
that  the  altar  was  one  foot  nine  inches  in  length  and  the 
same  in  breadth.  The  total  height  cannot  be  determined, 
but  if,  as  is  common,  the  lower  mouldings  were  exactly  of 
the  same  dimensions  as  the  upper,  the  altar  must  have  been 
two  feet  eight  inches  high.  The  inscription  was  engraved 
on  three  sides  of  the  monument ;  on  the  fourth  side  was  a 
crown,  just  as  on  the  monument  of  Aristeas  at  Acmonia, 
which  was  described  in  a  preceding  article.  No.  13.  The 
first   six  lines  of  the  epitaph  were    engraved    on   the    side 


264    EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS   IN  PHBYGIA : 


opposite  to  that  which  bears  the  crown,  the  next  eleven 
Hnes  were  engraved  on  the  left  side,  and  the  remaining  five 
lines  on  the  right  side.  There  is  room  in  the  panel  on  each 
side  for  eleven  lines,  and  the  reason  why  so  little  was 
engraved  on  the  first  and  most  important  side,  which  is 
now  entirely  lost,  must  have  been  that  symbols  or  sculpture 
of  some  kind  occupied  part  of  the  available  space. 

In  addition  to  discovering  the  original  epitaph,  which 
mentions  the  chief  facts  in  the  life  of  the  saint,  the 
systematic  exploration  conducted  by  the  Exploration  Fund 
has  also  removed  the  historical  and  geographical  difticul- 
ties  which  were  stated  on  the  preceding  page.  It  has 
shown  that  there  were  two  cities  named  Hierapolis,  one 
the  more  famous  city  of  the  Lycus  valley,  where  Apolli- 
naris  was  bishop  in  the  time  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  the 
other  in  the  Phrygian  Pentapolis,  a  few  miles  west  of 
Synnada,  but  separated  from  that  city  by  a  lofty  range  of 
rugged  mountains,  so  that  it  is  a  good  day's  journey  of 
eight  or  nine  hours  from  the  one  city  to  the  other.  About 
two  or  three  miles  south  of  this  latter  city  is  a  fine  series 
of  hot  sulphurous  springs,  on  the  bank  of  a  small  river,  a 
tributary  of  the  Mseander.  The  springs  rise  within  fifty 
yards  of  the  bank  of  the  stream.  Part  of  the  gravestone  of 
Aberkios  is  still  built  into  the  wall  of  one  of  the  bathing 
houses,  while  a  smaller  part  has  been  brought  to  this 
country  during  the  last  expedition  organized  by  the  Fund. 
It  has  been  stated  above  that  according  to  the  biography 
the  grave  was  outside  of  the  southern  gate  of  Hierapolis. 
This  description  of  the  locality  shows  how  natural  it  was 
that  monuments  from  the  southern  road  should  be  carried 
to  build  the  baths. 

The  epitaph  of  Avircius  may  be  thus  translated,  correcting 
the  text  given  in  the  biography  by  the  epigraphic  evidence  : 

29.  "'  Citizen  of  the  select  city,  I  have,  while  still  livvmj,  made  this  {tomb), 
that  I  iiiaij  have  here  before  the  eyes  of  7iien  a  place  where  to  lay  my  body. 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  265 

— I,  who  am  named  Avircius,  a  disciple  of  the  spotless  Shepherd,  who  on 
the  mountains  feedeth  the  flocks  of  His  sheep  and  on  the  plains,  who  hath 
large  eyes  that  see  all  things.  For  He  was  my  teacher,  teaching  me  the 
faithful  writings, — He  who  sent  me  to  Borne  to  behold  the  King,  and  to 
see  the  Queen  ('  Princess  ')  that  wears  golden  rohes  and  golden  shoes. 
And  I  saw  there  a  people  marked  with  a  shining  seal.  And  Syria's 
plain  I  saw  and  all  its  cities,  even  Nisibis,  ci'osslng  the  Eiiphrates;  and 
everywhere  I  found  fellow-worshippers.  Holding  Paul  in  my  hands  I  fol- 
lowed, while  Faith  everywhere  went  in  front,  and  everywhere  set  before  me, 
as  food,  the  Fish  from  the  fountain,  mighty,  pure,  which  a  spotless  Virgin 
graspedj.  And  this  she  (i.e.  Faith)  gave  to  the  friends  to  eat  at  all  times, 
having  excellent  wine,  giving  the  inixed  cup  with  bread.  These  words, 
I  Avircius,  standing  by,  ordered  to  be  loritten :  I  ivas  of  a  truth  in  my 
seventy -second  year.  When  he  sees  this,  let  every  one  pray  for  him  (i.e. 
Avircius)  who  thinks  with  him.^  But  no  one  shall  place  another  in  my 
grave ;  and,  if  he  do,  he  shall  pay  2,000  gold  pieces  to  the  Bomans,  and 
1,000  gold  pieces  to  my  excellent  fatherland  Hierapolis."^ 

The  importance  of  this  document  as  a  summary  of  faith 
and  ritual  in  the  second  century  has  been  shown  briefly  by 

1  I.e.  who  believes  in  the  One  Church,  and  abhors  Montanus. 
^  eKKeKrrjs  iroXews  6  TroXeirrj^  tovt^  iTrolyjcra 

oiivo/x'  'AovepKLOS  wv,  6  fiad-qTr]?  Jloi/nevo^  ayvov, 
oi^pecnv  8s  ^6(TKei  wpajSaTuv  0,7^X05  Treoiois  re, 

5  6(pda\fJ.ovs  6s  ^X"  f^^yoi^ovs  Kal  wdvO'  bpouivrav 
ovTos  yap  fx    edida^e,    [oiddaKiop]    ypd/JLfiara  iriffTd, 
ets    Pw/xriv  OS   'iireixxj/ev  e/j.ev  jiaaiXTJav  ddprjaat. 
Kal  (iaaikLaaav  idelv  xP^''^o(xt6\ov  xP'^'''''"'"^^'^'"'' 
Xabv  5'   etSov  e/cei  Xafiirpdv  crtppaye'idav   exovra' 

10  /cat   '^Zupirji  iriSov  el5a  Kal  acrea  irdvTa,   "Sicn^iv, 
tjV(ppdT7]v  5ta/3ds,   Tvavr-q  5'  ^crxof  crvuofxrjdeis' 
\lav\ov  ix'^^  €w6pi-t)v,  YliaTLS  iravT-q  de  vporjye 
Kal  irapedriKe  Tpo(pr]v  wdvT-q  'Ix^iV  dirb  TvrjyrjS, 
iravixeyidrj,  Kadapbv,  ov  edpd^aro  llapdivos  ayvrj, 

15  Kal  TOVTOV  iwidwKe  ^iXois  kcrdeiv  dia  TravTos, 

olvov  XPW'''^^  ^X"""''*'  KipacTfia  Si^ovaa  fier    dpTov. 
ravra  wapeJTihs  elwov  ' AovipKios  wSe  ypa(f>rjvai' 
€^Sop.T}KocrTOV  eros  Kal  detjrepov  rjyov  dXij^ws. 
Tavd'  opotav  ev^aid'   VTrip  avrov  ttcLs  6  avvipSos. 

20  ov  fxivTOi  Tiifx^tp  rts  ijJ.<^  'irepov  riva  drjasi, 
ei  5'  oOv,  'Poj/xaiois  6-qcrei  StcrxeiXta  xpv'^^-' 
Kal  XRVCTji  "farpldi    lepdwoXi.  x^'Xta  XP^'^^- 

I  am  obliged  to  differ  in  a  number  of  points  from  the  text  as  given  by 
Lightfoot  and  Di  Eossi  (who  differ  from  each  other  also  in  various  details).  The 
chief  variations  are  mentioned  below. 


266     EARLY  GHBI8T1AN  MONUMENTS  IN  PHRYGIA: 

Bishop  Lightfoot  in  The  Expositor,  January,  1885,  p.  1  ff., 
and  very  elaborately  by  Coram,  di  Eossi  in  the  preface  to 
vol.  ii.  of  his  Inscriptiones  Christ.  Urbis  Bomcs.  We  have  in 
it  the  writings  of  faith,  the  Church  as  queen  in  her  golden 
attire,  the  central  importance  of  the  Roman  Church,  the 
seal  of  baptism,  the  Church  of  Syria,  the  intercommunion 
of  the  members  of  different  Churches  in  different  lands — all 
are  associates  of  one  Church  and  practise  the  same  ritual — 
the  importance  of  St.  Paul's  writings,  faith  as  the  guide  of 
life,  the  holy  sacrament  of  bread  and  wine  as  the  body  of 
Christ,  Christ  conceived  by  the  spotless  Virgin,  Christ  born 
afresh  in  the  fountain  of  baptism,^  and  the  name  applied  to 
Christ  is  the  symbolical  fish,  the  well-known  anagram  (of 
which  this  is  one  of  the  earliest  known  examples)  of  the 
initial  letters,  'Irjcroui;  Xpio-ro?  ©eov  'TLo<i  ^(OTi'jp.  The  docu- 
ment is  also  interesting  as  an  example  of  the  sacred  poetry 
of  the  second  century,  and  it  has  been  compared  with  the 
famous  inscription  of  Autun,  which  was  discovered  in  1839. 
The  latter  is  a  much  later  document,-  but  the  first  six  lines 
clearly  belong  to  an  early  period  (probably  the  same  period 
as  the  epitaph  of  Avircius),  and  are  merely  reproduced  by 
the  composer  of  the  epitaph  proper.  The  remarkable 
similarity  of  tone  and  spirit  in  the  two  documents  furnishes 
one  further  proof  of  the  close  relations  between  the  Church 
of  southern  Phrygia  and  the  Church  of  Gaul,  to  be  placed 
alongside  of  the  epistle  of  the  Churches  of  Lyon  and  Vienne 
to  the  Churches  of  Asia  and  Phrygia,  the  Lyonnese  martyr 
Alexander  the  Phrygian,  etc. 

The  phrase  in  the  second  line,  "before  the  eyes  of  men  " 
{(f}avepM^),  shows  the  intention  of  the  writer.  The  epitaph 
was   intended    to    be   the    imperishable   record,    amid  the 


'  Di  Rossi  aptly  quotes  a  Byzautine    hymn,  Tlijyr]  liSaTos  irriyriv    irvevfiaros 

-  Di  Rossi  however  seeius  to  me  to  be  quite  right  in  arguing  tlrat  it  is  in  the 
style  of  A.D.  300,  rather  than  of  the  fifth  century. 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  GHURGH.  267 

most  solemn  and  impressive  surroundings,  of  the  testimony 
of  Avircius  in  favour  of  the  one  and  indivisible  Church 
catholic,  and  against  the  separatism  and  the  nationalism 
of  Montanus.  During  his  life  Avircius  took  care  that  he 
should  continue  after  his  death  to  preach  the  doctrine  of 
unity,  and  to  protest  against  the  Montanists,  even  to  the 
extent  of  refusing  their  prayers  on  his  behalf:  let  them 
only  w^ho  think  v^^ith  him  pray  for  him.^  This  important 
word  is  preserved  to  us  by  the  contemporary  epigraphic 
evidence ;  and  it  is  very  unlucky  that  Di  Bossi  and  Light- 
foot  have  preferred  the  feeble  reading  of  the  MSS.  to  the 
decisive  testimony  of  an  inscription  which  will  be  quoted 
below.  The  phrase  "  in  due  time  "  (/catpw),  loses  all  the 
individuality  that  suits  the  situation,  and  substitutes  a 
commonplace  platitude.  The  epitaph,  as  it  has  now"  been 
interpreted,  belongs  to  the  height  of  the  Montanist  con- 
troversy, and  can  hardly  be  dated  later  than  A.D.  192, 
when  the  treatise  against  Montanism  was  dedicated  to 
Avircius  by  one  of  his  neighbours  and  friends.  In  respect 
of  the  date,  I  am  glad  to  agree  absolutely  with  the  two 
high  authorities  whom  I  have  just  quoted,  against  Duchesne 
and  Bonwetsch,  who  prefer  a  date  about  a.d.  215.  The 
latest  date  then  that  can  be  assigned  for  the  birth  of 
Avircius  is  a.d.  120. 

Before  attempting  to  draw  the  conclusions  that  suggest 
themselves  from  the  new  evidence  about  the  position  and 
policy  of  Avircius,  I  shall  put  together  here  some  remarks 
on  the  text  of  the  document  which  is  our  chief  authority. 

Since  the  complete  text  of  the  epitaph  of  Avircius  was 
published  by  me  {Academy,  Mar.  8th,  1884),  other  versions  by 
Bishop  Lightfoot  and  Comm.  di  Kossi  have  been  pubhshed 


'  This  bitter  iutolerance  is  paralleled  by  the  treatise  dedicated  in  192  to 
Avircius,  in  wbich  the  anonymous  anthor,  a  neighbouring  ijresbyter,  praises 
certain  orthodox  martyrs  who  refused,  even  in  the  immediate  prospect  of  death, 
to  have  any  communion  with  their  Montanist  fellow  martyrs. 


268     EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS   IN  PHRYGIA: 

(The  Expositoe,  1885,  p.  11;  Ig7iat.  Pol,  i.,  p.  480;  Inscr. 
Christ.  Urb.  Bom.,  ii.,  preface).  I  regret  to  be  unable  to 
agree  with  the  text  as  restored  variously  by  these  scholars, 
and  in  most  points  the  text  given  in  the  Academy  (in  which 
I  had  the  help  of  Mr.  Bywater  and  Prof.  Sanday)  is  I 
believe  preferable.  The  recent  texts  proceed,  if  I  may  say 
so,  on  an  uncritical  principle  ;  no  attempt  is  in  them  made  to 
explain  the  errors  of  text  in  the  manuscripts,  whereas  the 
text  as  reconstituted  must  explain  the  origin  of  the  errors. 
These  errors  are,  I  think,  due  partly  to  actual  false  readings 
of  the  monument  (which  the  biographer  acknowledges  to 
have  found  difficulty  in  reading),  and  partly  to  attempts  to 
explain  and  modernize  the  text,  which  caused  the  substitu- 
tion of  common  forms  for  dialectic  and  poetic  forms,  and  of 
marginal  explanatory  glosses  for  unusual  expressions  in  the 
text.  The  rule  then  should  be,  that  where  any  manuscript 
authority  exists  for  a  dialectic  variety  or  unusual  form,  the 
presumption  is  that  it  was  written  by  Avircius. 

In  the  first  place,  as  to  the  spelling  of  the  name,  all  the 
three  versions  agree  in  accepting  the  authority  of  the  MSS., 
and  reading  ji^ipKi,o<i.  The  name  however  is  Italian,  as 
will  be  proved  below.  The  Latin  Avircius  or  Avercius 
was  transliterated  in  Greek  during  the  second  century  in 
accordance  with  universal  practice  'AovipKco^  or  'AovepKio<i. 
During  the  third  century,  Greek  ^  began  to  represent 
Latin  v,  and  the  two  inscriptions  300-400  a.d.  have 
A/BlpKLO'i.  The  saint  must  have  written  either  AovepKio^; 
or  AovipKLo<i,  and  as  all  MSS.  of  the  biography  and  all 
the  Mensea,  etc.,  quoted  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum  (Oct.  '22nd, 
p.  485  ff.),  have  A^epKio^,  the  biographer  probably  saw 
AovepKco'i  on  the  monument.  I  have  however  written 
Avircius  on  the  authority  of  the  treatise  quoted  by  Eusebius, 
and  of  inscriptions  31,  32. 

The  chief  variations  which  I  think  are  needed  from  the 
text  as  constituted  by  Bishop  Lightfoot  are  the  following  : 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  269 

Line  2.  Katpu)  of  the  MSS.  is  falsely  read  from  the  stone  ; 
the  epitaph  of  Alexander  gives  (f^avep  [w?J ,  which  as  I  have 
rendered  seems  to  give  also  a  better  though  less  obvious 
sense.     Kepai  is  an  easy  error  for  [0a]vepw[9] , 

3.  For  el/jbi  I  read  wv,  6  :  the  MSS.  have  6  cov,  a  trans- 
position of  some  scribe ;  el/jbc  is  a  purely  modern  alteration. 

4.  Ovpecrc,  MSS.  ;  Lightfoot  corrects  to  opeaiv  metri  causa. 
But  the  ordinary  form  opeaiv  would  never  have  been 
altered  to  the  unusual  and  unmetrical  ovpeai.  Avircius 
wrote  ovpecriv  at  the  beginning  of  the  line,  in  an  order  which 
was  a  favourite  device  with  him  (cf.  5,  7).  A  scribe  restored 
the  prose  order  of  words,  destroying  the  metre,  and  the 
modern  editor  eliminated  the  poetic  form  and  restored  the 
common  form  opeaiv  for  the  sake  of  the  metre. 

5.  Kadop6o3vra<i,  MSS.  Avircius  wrote  koI  irdvra  opoayvTa'i ] 
a  scribe,  omitting  kuL  accidentally,  inserted  it  above  the 
line,  a  most  fruitful  source  of  error  in  ancient  MSS.  It 
was  then  misplaced  by  the  next  copyist,  and  written  Kado- 
pocovTWi.  Finally  metre  was  restored  by  reading  irdvTT),  which 
is  twice  used  by  Avircius.     Lightfoot  prefers  Ka6opa)VTa<i. 

6.  There  is  a  gap  in  this  line  :  Cardinal  Pitra  restores  rd 
^wri<i,  which  gives  an  admirable  sense,  "  the  faithful  writings 
of  life  "  ;  but  it  is  perhaps  too  bold  to  introduce  without 
any  authority  such  an  idea  into  the  text.  And  how  should 
such  a  reading  have  disappeared  without  leaving  a  trace  ? 
I  insert  hihdaKwv,  which  completes  the  sense,  adds  no  new 
idea,  and  explains  the  omission,  for  the  word  is  readily 
dropped  by  a  scribe  after  iSiSa^e. 

7.  BaalXrjav,  as  Lightfoot  rightly  shows,  was  understood 
by  the  biographer,  when  he  transcribed  the  epitaph,  as  a 
feminine  in  the  sense  of  empress.  Lightfoot  also  rightly 
maintains  that  a  mystic  and  figurative  sense  for  the  passage 
was  intended  by  Avircius.  In  both  these  points  I  was 
wrong  in  my  first  interpretation.  But  I  still  hold  that  such 
a   writer  as  Avircius  could  not  have  written  /SaaiXrjav  for 


270    EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS   IN  PHRYGIA : 

^aaiXeiav,  and  repeated  ^aaiXia-a-av  in  the  next  line  in  the 
sense  of  "  queen."  Moreover  the  rhythm,  ^ao-tXrjav  d6pi]aai 
KOi  ^aaiXcaaav  IBelv,  clearly  demands  that  the  two  clauses 
shall  exactly  balance  each  other.  BaaiXrjav  then  I  still 
maintain  to  be  a  correct  poetic  variety  of  the  accusative  of 
^aaiXev^,  to  which  many  parallels  can  be  quoted.  What 
the  mystic  sense  is  (such  as  Lightfoot  rightly  requires)  that 
lies  in  "  the  King"  and  "  the  Queen  "  whom  Avircius  went 
to  Rome  to  see,  I  must  leave  to  others  to  determine  ;  but 
I  may  add  that  Lightfoot's  text  also  fails  to  give  a  mystic 
sense  to  /SaalXrjav. 

11.  The  correct  text  is  suggested  by  Lightfoot  in  a 
note,  but  not  given  in  his  text.  It  is  avvofitjOet';.  The 
word  must  have  been  misread  on  the  stone.  My  original 
suggestion  is  wrong. 

12.^  My  restoration  evro  [yu,?;!/]  is  disliked  by  both  Lightfoot 
and  Di  Rossi,  but  they  confess  themselves  unable  to  dis- 
cover anything  better.  They  seem  to  understand  TIavXov 
e%a)y  as  "  with  Paul  as  my  comrade,"  whereas  I  translate  it 
"  holding  (the  writings  of)  Paul  in  my  hands,"  and  thus  I 
think  the  line  has  an  unexceptionable  sense.  The  anti- 
thesis €7r6fn]v  in  penthemimeral  caesura  and  7rpo7]ry€  at  the 
end  of  the  line  is  such  a  common  device  in  hexameters  as 
to  justify  itself  in  this  case  forthwith. 

14.  I  cannot  agree  with  Lightfoot  in  doubting  the  refe- 
rence to  the  Virgin  Mary. 

18.  e^SofM)]fcoa-rov,  with  its  scansion  as  a  four-syllable 
word,  is  necessitated,  and  may  be  palliated  by  the  slurring 
of  the  second  syllable. 

19.  6  voMv  followed  by  6  avvwho<i  seems  to  be  too  awk- 
ward for  the  style  of  Avircius.  I  think  the  biographer 
falsely  read  JV  for  P,  and  that  the  true  text  is,  as  I  have 
given,  opocov.  The  phrase  is  then  more  characteristic  of 
epitaphs,  more  vigorous  in  sense,  and  more  on  a  level  with 
the  grammar  of  Avircius.     6  avvcpB6<i  Lightfoot  takes  in  the 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  ETSTOBY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  271 

sense    of  Christian:    this  seems   weak.     It   means    "  anti- 
montanist." 

19.  ev^acTo  virep  'A/SepKLov,  MSS.  The  epitaph  wrote,  in 
accordance  with  a  most  frequent  usage  in  these  documents, 
vTrep  avTov  ;  this  was  explained  by  a  gloss  'A/3epKLov,  which 
crept  into  the  text  and  supplanted  the  pronoun,  virep  /.lov, 
as  given  by  Lightfoot,  is  naturally  and  readily  intelligible, 
and  would  not  have  led  to  any  marginal  explanation. 

20.  Lightfoot  deserts  the  inscription  of  Alexander  com- 
pletely. Di  Kossi,  on  the  other  hand,  inflicts  on  Avircius  a 
seven-foot  line.  It  is  to  me  inconceivable  how  the  latter 
can  attribute  such  a  line  to  a  writer  capable  of  composing 
this  fine  epitaph.  Alexander  certainly  gives  a  seven-foot 
line,  but  he  was  a  half-educated  native  Phrygian  :  he  found 
a  somewhat  poetic  phrase  'Ptw/iatot?  in  the  text  which  he 
was  copying,  and  substituted  for  it  the  regular  technical 
phrase  ^Poifiatoiv  Ta^eiw. 

22.  I  refuse  to  attribute  to  the  composer  of  this  epitaph 
such  a  metrical  enormity  as  ^lepoiroXei  x^^^''^-  I  have 
for  years  insisted  on  and  quoted  examples  to  prove  the 
principle  that  'lepoiroXfi  is  the  native  Phrygian,  Cappa- 
docian,  and  Syrian  name,  but  that  wherever  Greek  education 
spread  the  true  Greek  form  'lepa  JIoA-t?  takes  its  place. 
Thus  Hierapolis  is  the  invariable  form  in  the  Lycus  valley,^ 
which  was  thoroughly  Graecised,  and  the  city  of  Avircius 
always  becomes  Hierapolis  in  ecclesiastical  documents. 
Avircius,  a  well  educated  man,  used  the  Greek  form,  and  in 
verse  considered  himself  justified  in  forming  a  dative  ttoXi, 
or  perhaps  in  using  a  vocative.  He  probably  intended  the 
single  word  'lepdiroXi,  and  not  the  two  words  'lepa  JJoki. 
Alexander  substituted  the  local  name  'lepoTroXet. 

Di  Rossi  thinks  that  the  biographer  omitted  the  con- 
clusion of  the  epitaph,  containing  the  date  and  a  salutation 

'  Except  in  one  or  two  of  the  earliest  coins,  before  it  was  completely  pene- 
trated by  Greek  education. 


272  THE  EPISTLE   TO    THE   HEBREWS. 

to  the  passers  by.  This  is  not  probable.  The  date  is 
suppHed  by  the  age  of  the  writer,  and  the  usual  salutation 
is  represented  by  the  request  for  the  prayers  of  the  orthodox, 
which  shows  that  opowv  is  required  in  order  to  correspond 
to  the  ordinary  phraseology  of  epitaphs:  "Let  every  ortho- 
dox person  who  sees  this  prove  his  orthodoxy  by  praying 
for  him  that  is  buried  here."  ^ 

W.  M.  Kamsay. 


THE    EPISTLE    TO    THE   HEBREWS. 

VIII.  The  Gospel  of  Kest  (Chap.'  iv.). 

The  interest  of  an  ordinary  reader  of  our  epistle  is  apt  to 
flag  at  this  point,  in  consequence  of  the  obscurity  over- 
hanging the  train  of  thought,  and  the  aim  of  the  whole 
passage  relating  to  a  "  rest  that  remaineth."  It  helps  to 
rescue  the  section  from  listless  perusal  to  fix  our  atten- 
tion on  this  one  thought,  that  the  Christian  salvation  is 
here  presented  under  a  third  aspect  as  a  rest,  a  sabbatism, 
a  participation  in  the  rest  of  God ;  the  new  view,  like 
the  two  preceding,  in  which  the  great  salvation  was  identi- 
fied with  lordship  in  the  world  to  come  and  with  deliverance 
from  the  power  of  the  devil  and  the  fear  of  death,  being 
taken  from  the  beginning  of  human  history  as  narrated  in 
the  early  chapters  of  Genesis. 

One  aim  of  the  writer  of  the  epistle  in  this  part  of  his 
work  was  doubtless  to  enunciate  this  thought,  and  so  to 
identify  the  gospel  of  Christ  with  the  Old  Testament 
gospel  of  rest.      But   bis  aim  is  not  purely  didactic,  but 

1  The  interpretation  of  Geraios  suggested  in  the  second  of  these  papers  must 
be  abandoned,  and  the  more  obvious  interpretation  as  member  of  GerouRia  is 
to  be  preferred.  The  title  occurs  a  third  time  in  a  Phrygian  inscription  at 
Hierapolis. 


TEE   GOSPEL   OF  REST.  273 

partly  also,  and  even  chiefly,  parenetic.  Doctrine  rises  out 
of  and  serves  the  purpose  of  exhortation.  The  obscurity 
of  the  passage  springs  from  the  interblending  of  the  two 
aims,  the  theoretical  and  the  practical ;  vs^hich  makes  it 
difficult  to  decide  whether  the  object  of  the  writer  is  to 
prove  that  a  rest  really  remains  over  for  Christians,  or  to 
exhort  them  to  be  careful  not  to  lose  a  rest,  whose  availa- 
bility for  them  is  regarded  as  beyond  dispute.  In  the 
latter  case  one  is  apt  to  think  it  might  have  been  better 
to  have  omitted  vers.  2-10  and  to  have  passed  at  once  to 
ver.  12,  where  comes  in  the  solemn  statement  concerning 
the  word  of  God.  As  in  the  previous  chapter  he  had 
asserted  without  proof,  "whose  house  are  we,"  why  could 
our  author  not  here  also  have  contented  himself  with 
asserting,  "  which  rest  is  ours,  if  we  lose  it  not  by  unbelief, 
as  did  Israel  of  old,"  and  adding,  "  let  us  therefore,  one 
and  all  of  us,  be  on  our  guard  against  such  a  calamity"? 
Would  his  exhortation  not  have  gained  in  strength  by 
being  put  in  this  brief,  authoritative  form,  instead  of  being 
made  to  rest  on  an  intricate  process  of  reasoning  ? 

As  proof  offered  naturally  implies  doubt  of  the  thing 
proved,  it  is  a  ready  inference  that  the  Hebrew  Christians 
required  to  be  assured  that  they  had  not  come  too  late  for 
participation  in  the  rest  promised  to  their  fathers.  Evi- 
dence of  this  has  been  found  in  the  word  Sokjj  (ver.  1) 
rendered  not  "  seem,"  as  in  the  Authorized  Version,  but 
"  think  "  :  "  lest  any  of  you  imagine  he  hath  failed  of  it  by 
coming  too  late  in  the  day."^  The  exhortation  to  fear  how- 
ever does  not  suit  such  a  state  of  mind.  It  is  more  likely 
that  the  writer  was  led  to  argue  the  point,  that  the  promised 
rest  was  still  left  over,  simply  because  there  were  Old  Tes- 
tament materials  available  for  the  purpose.  He  chose  to 
present  the  truth  as  mediated  through  Old  Testament  texts 

'  So  a  number  of  the  older  commentators,  and  most  recently  Kendall,  who 
says  the  rendering  "  seem  "  conveys  no  meaning  to  his  mind. 

VOL.  IX.  I  8 


TEE   EPISTLE    TO   THE  HEBREWS. 


fitted  to  stimulate  both  hope  and  fear :  hope  of  gaining  the 
rest,  fear  of  losing  it. 

In  so  far  as  the  section,  vers.  1-10,  has  a  didactic  drift, 
its  object  is  to  confirm  the  hope ;  in  so  far  as  it  is  hortatory, 
its  leading  purpose  is  to  enforce  the  warning,  "  let  us  fear." 

The  parenetic  interest  predominates  at  the  commence- 
ment, vers.  1,  2,  v^hich  may  be  thus  paraphrased  :  "  Now 
with  reference  to  this  rest  I  have  been  speaking  of  (iii.  18, 
19),  let  us  fear  lest  we  miss  it.  For  it  is  in  our  power  to 
gain  it,  seeing  the  promise  still  remains  over  unfulfilled  or 
but  partially  fulfilled.  Let  us  fear,  I  say  ;  for  if  we  have  a 
share  in  the  promise,  we  have  also  in  the  threat  of  for- 
feiture :  it  too  stands  over.  We  certainly  have  a  share  in 
the  promise ;  we  have  been  evangelized,  not  merely  in 
general,  but  with  the  specific  gospel  of  rest.  But  those 
who  first  heard  this  gospel  of  rest  failed  through  unbelief. 
So  may  we:  therefore  let  us  fear."  When  we  thus  view 
the  connexion  of  thought  in  these  two  verses,  we  have  no 
difficulty  in  understanding  the  omission  of  the  pronoun 
(r/fj-eis:)  in  the  first  clause  of  ver.  2,  which  might  surprise 
one.  As  in  the  previous  chapter  (ver.  6)  the  writer  had 
said,  "whose  house  Sbve  loe,"  so  we  expect  him  here  to  say 
"  ive  not  less  than  they  have  received  the  good  tidings  of 
rest."  But  his  point  at  this  stage  is  not  that  2oe  have  been 
evangelized — that  is,  that  the  ancient  gospel  of  rest  concerns 
us  as  well  as  our  forefathers, — but  that  we  have  been  evan- 
gelized, and  therefore  are  concerned  in  the  threatening  as 
well  as  in  the  promise. 

To  be  noted  is  the  freedom  with  which,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  word  "  apostle  "  (iii.  1),  the  writer  uses  the  term  61)77776- 
Xiafiivoi,  which  might  have  been  supposed  to  have  borne  in 
his  time  a  stereotyped^meaning.  Any  promise  of  God,  any 
announcement  of  good  tidings,  is  for  him  a  gospel.  Doubt- 
less all  God's  promises  are  associated  in  his  mind  with  the 
great  final  salvation,  nevertheless  they  are  formally  distinct 


THE   GOSPEL   OF  BEST.  275 

from  the  historical  Christian  gospel.  The  gospel  he  has 
in  view  is  not  that  which  "  began  to  be  spoken  by  the 
Lord,"  but  that  spoken  by  the  psalmist  when  he  said, 
"  To-day  if  ye  will  hear  His  voice,  harden  not  your  hearts." 
Only  when  this  is  lost  sight  of  can  it  create  surprise  that 
the  statement  in  the  text  runs,  "  We  have  had  a  gospel 
preached  unto  us  as  well  as  they,"  instead  of,  "  They  had 
a  gospel  preached  unto  them  as  well  as  we." 

Not  less  noteworthy  is  the  way  in  which  the  abortive 
result  of  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  of  rest  to  the  fathers 
is  accounted  for.  "  The  v.'ord  preached  did  not  profit  them, 
not  being  mixed  with  faith  in  them  that  heard  it."  The 
remarkable  point  is  the  idea  of  mixing,  instead  of  which 
one  might  have  expected  the  introduction  of  some  simple 
commonplace  word  such  as  "  received  "  :  "  The  word  did 
not  profit,  not  being  received  in  faith."  Had  this  form  of 
language  been  employed,  we  should  probably  have  been 
spared  the  trouble  of  deciding  between  various  readings. 
The  penalty  of  originality  in  speaker  or  writer  is  miscon- 
ception by  reporters,  copyists,  and  printers.  Uncertain 
how  the  idea  of  mixing  was  to  be  taken  the  copyists  would 
try  their  hand  at  conjectural  emendation,  changing  cruy/ceKe- 
paa/j.evo'i  into  auyKeKepaa/juivov;,  or  vice  vei'sd.  In  this  way 
corruption  may  have  crept  in  very  early,  and  it  is  quite 
possible  that  none  of  the  extant  readings  is  the  true  one.^ 
Of  the  two  most  important  variants  given  above,  the 
second,  according  to  which  the  participle  has  the  accusative 
plural  ending,  and  is  in  agreement  with  e/ceiVou?,  is  the  best 
attested,  but  it  does  not  give  the  most  probable  sense  : 
"The  word  did  not  profit  them,  because  they  were  not  , 
mixed  by  faith  with  the  (true)  hearers."     On  this  reading!' 

*  Bleek  conjectures  tbat  instead  of  aKovaaat  may  have  stood  originally  a.Ko6<x- 
fxaaL.  Among  the  various  readings  are  several  varieties  of  spelling  and  form  in 
the  participle  <xvyKeK€paaiJ.evos,  of  no  importance  to  the  sense,  but  showing  an 
unu.-Aud  amount  of  uncertainty  as  to  the  original  text. 


276  THE  EPISTLE   TO    THE  HEBBEWS. 

the  word  "  mixed "  receives  the  intelhgible  sense  of 
"  associated  with,"  but  it  is  open  to  the  serious  objection 
that  the  writer  has  assumed  in  the  previous  chapter  that 
there  were  no  true  hearers,  or  so  few  that  they  might  be 
left  out  of  account  (iii.  16).  Assuming  that  the  other  read- 
ing is  to  be  preferred,  according  to  which  the  participle  is 
in  agreement  with  \6709,  it  is  difQcult  to  decide  how  the 
mixing  is  to  be  conceived  of.  Is  the  word  mixed  with  faith 
in  the  hearer,  or  by  faith  with  the  hearer?  and  what  natural 
analogy  is  suggested  in  either  case  ?  Obviously  this  reading 
points  to  a  more  intimate  and  vital  union  than  that  of 
association  suggested  by  the  other ;  such  a  union  as  takes 
place  when  food  is  assimilated  by  digestion  and  made  part 
of  the  bodily  organization.  But  how  the  matter  presented 
itself  to  the  writer's  mind  we  can  only  conjecture.  The 
one  thing  certain  is,  that  he  deemed  faith  indispensable  to 
profitable  hearing :  a  truth,  happily,  taught  with  equal 
clearness  in  the  text,  whatever  reading  we  adopt. 

At  ver.  3  the  didactic  interest  comes  to  the  front.  The 
new  thought  grafted  into  ver.  1  by  the  parenthetical  clause, 
"  a  promise  being  still  left,"  now  becomes  the  leading 
affirmation.  The  assertion  of  ver.  2,  "we  have  been  evan- 
gelized," is  repeated,  with  the  emphasis  this  time  on  the 
"  we  "  ;  for  though  the  pronoun  is  not  used,  ol  incTTevaavreq 
stands  in  its  stead.  "  We  do  enter  into  rest,  we  helievers  in 
Christ.''  More  is  meant  than  that  the  rest  belongs  only  to 
such  as  believe.  It  is  a  statement  of  historical  fact,  similar 
to  "whose  house  are  we" — Christians.  Only  there  is  this 
difference  between  the  two  affirmations,  that  whereas  in  the 
earlier  it  is  claimed  for  Christians  that  they  are  God's 
house  principally,  if  not  exclusively,  here  the  more  modest 
claim  is  advanced  in  their  behalf  that  they  share  in,  are 
not  excluded  from,  the  rest.  The  writer  indeed  believes 
that  the  promise  in  its  high  ideal  sense  concerns  Christians 
chiefly,  if  not  alone ;  that  thought  is  the  tacit  assumption 


TEE   GOSPEL   OF  BEST.  277 

underlying  his  argument.  But  the  position  formally  main- 
tained is  not,  We  Christians  have  a  monopoly  of  the  rest, 
but,  "We  have  a  share  in  it,  it  belongs  to  us  also.  A  rest  is 
left  over  for  the  New  Testament  ]Deople  of  God. 

The  sequel  as  far  as  ver.  10  contains  the  proof  of  this 
thesis.  The  salient  points  are  these  two  :  First,  God  spoke 
of  a  rest  to  Israel  by  Moses,  though  He  Himself  rested  from 
His  works  when  the  creation  of  the  world  was  finished ; 
therefore  the  creation-xe^t  does  not  exhaust  the  idea  and 
promise  of  rest.  Second,  the  rest  of  Israel  in  Canaan  under 
Joshua  did  not  realize  the  Divine  idea  of  rest,  any  more 
than  did  the  personal  rest  of  God  at  the  creation,  for  we 
find  the  rest  spoken  of  again  in  the  Psalter  as  still  remain- 
ing to  be  entered  upon,  which  implies  that  the  Canaan-vest 
was  an  inadequate  fulfilment:  "For  if  Joshua  had  given 
them  rest  " — i.e.  given  rest  adequately,  perfectly — "  then 
would  He  (God  or  the  Holy  Spirit)  not  afterward  have 
spoken  of  another  day."  The  former  of  these  two  points 
contains  the  substance  of  what  is  said  in  vers.  3-5,  the 
latter  gives  the  gist  of  vers.  7,  8;  whereupon  follows  the 
inference  in  ver.  9,  a  rest  is  left  over.  A  third  step  in  the 
argument  by  which  the  inference  is  justified  is  passed  over 
in  silence.  It  is,  that  neither  in  the  psalmist's  day  nor  at 
any  subsequent  period  in  Israel's  history  had  the  promise 
of  rest  been  adequately  fulfilled,  any  more  than  at  the 
creation  or  in  the  days  of  Joshua.  Had  the  writer  chosen 
he  might  have  shown  this  in  detail,  pointing  out  that  even 
Solomon's  reign  did  not  bring  complete  rest ;  the  Solo- 
monic rest  containing  within  its  bosom  the  seeds  of  future 
disturbance,  division,  and  warfare,  and  proving  to  be  but  a 
halcyon  period,  followed  by  wintry  storms,  bringing  desola- 
tion and  ruin  on  a  once  happy  land.  As  for  the  rest  after 
the  return  from  Babylon,  the  only  other  point  in  Jewish 
history  at  which  the  promise  could  find  a  place  whereon 
to  set  its  foot,  he  would  have  no  difficulty  in  showing  what 


278  THE  EPISTLE   TO   TEE   HEBREWS. 

a  poor,  imperfect,  disappointing  fulfilment  it  brought. 
Who  that  reads  the  sad,  chequered  tale  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  would  say  that  it  realizes  all  the  meaning  of 
the  twice-spoken  oracle  of  Jeremiah  :  "  Therefore  fear  thou 
not,  0  My  servant  Jacob  ;  neither  be  dismayed,  O  Israel : 
for,  lo,  I  will  save  thee  from  afar,  and  thy  seed  from  the 
land  of  their  captivity ;  and  Jacob  shall  return,  and  shall 
be  in  rest,  and  none  shall  make  him  afraid."  ^ 

Our  author  takes  the  oracle  in  the  Psalter  as  the  final 
word  of  the  Old  Testament  on  the  subject  of  rest,  and 
therefore  as  a  word  which  concerns  the  New  Testament 
people  of  God.  God  spake  of  rest  through  David,  implying 
that  up  till  that  time  the  long  promised  rest  had  not  come, 
at  least,  in  satisfying  measure.  Therefore  a  rest  remains 
for  Christians.  Is  the  inference  cogent '?  Because  a 
certain  promised  good  had  not  come  up  to  a  certain  date, 
must  it  come  now  ?  Let  us  review  the  situation.  The 
ancient  Scriptures  speak  of  a  Divine  rest  which  God 
enjoyed  at  the  beginning  of  the  world's  history,  and  in 
which  man  seemed  destined  to  share.  But  man's  portion 
in  this  rest  has  never  yet  come  in  any  satisfying  degree. 
It  came  not  at  the  creation,  for  after  that  came  all  too  soon 
the  fall ;  it  came  not  at  the  entrance  into  Canaan,  for  the 
people  of  Israel  had  to  take  possession  sword  in  hand,  and 
long  after  their  settlement  they  continued  exposed  to  annoy- 
ance from  the  Canaanitish  tribes ;  it  came  not  from  Joshua 
till  David,  for  even  in  his  late  time  the  Holy  Spirit  still 
spoke  of  another  day.  Extending  our  view,  we  observe  that 
it  came  not  under  Solomon,  for  after  him  came  Eehoboam 
and  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  ;  it  came  not  with  the  return 
of  the  tribes  from  Babylon,  for  envious  neighbours  kept 
them  in  a  continual  state  of  anxiety  and  fear,  and  they 
rebuilt  their  temple  and  the  city  walls  in  troublous  times. 

^  Jer.  XXX.  10,  xlvi.  27.  The  idea  of  rest  is  iu  tliese  texts,  but  it  is  not  ren- 
dered by  KaTaTravcj  in  tlie  Septuagiut. 


tHE   GOSPEL   OF' BEST.  270 

Is  not  the  natural  inference  from  all  this  that  the  rest  will 
never  come,  all  actual  rests  being  but  imperfect  approxi- 
mations to  the  ideal?  So  reasons  unbelief,  which  treats  the 
summiim  honum  in  every  form  as  a  mere  ideal,  a  beautiful 
dream,  a  pleasure  of  hope,  like  that  of  the  maniac,  to  whom 

"Mercy  gave,  to  charm  the  sense  of  woe, 
Ideal  bliss  that  truth  could  never  know." 

Far  otherwise  thought  the  writer  of  our  epistle.  He 
believed  that  all  Divine  promises,  that  the  promise  of  rest 
in  particular,  shall  be  fulfilled  with  ideal  completeness. 
"Some  must  enter  in";  and  as  none  have  yet  entered  in 
perfectly,  this  bliss  must  be  reserved  for  those  on  whom 
the  ends  of  the  world  are  come,  even  those  who  believe  in 
Jesus.  "  There  remaineth  therefore  a  rest  for  the  people 
of  God." 

A  sahhatism  our  author  calls  the  rest,  so  at  the  conclusion 
of  his  argument  introducing  a  new  name  for  it,  after  using 
another  all  through.  It  is  one  of  the  significant  thought- 
suggesting  words  which  abound  in  the  epistle.  It  is  not, 
we  may  be  sure,  employed  merely  for  literary  reasons,  as  if 
to  vary  the  phraseology  and  avoid  too  frequent  repetition 
of  the  word  KaTdiravaL^;.  Neither  is  it  enough  to  say  that 
the  term  was  suggested  by  the  fact  that  God  rested  on  the 
seventh  day.  It  embodies  an  idea.  It  felicitously  connects 
the  end  of  the  world  with  the  beginning,  the  consummation 
of  all  things  with  the  primal  state  of  the  creation.  It 
denotes  the  ideal  rest,  and  so  teaches  by  implication  that 
Christians,  not  only  have  an  interest  in  the  gospel  of  rest, 
but  for  the  first  time  enter  into  a  rest  which  is  worthy  of 
the  name,  a  rest  corresponding  to  and  fully  realizing  the 
Divine  idea.  This  final  name  for  the  rest  thus  supplements 
the  defect  of  the  preceding  argument,  which  understates  the 
case  for  Christians.  It  further  hints,  though  only  hints, 
the  nature  of  the  ideal  rest.    It  teaches  that  it  is  not  merely 


280  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

a  rest  which  God  gives,  but  the  rest  which  God  Himself 
enjoys.  It  is  God's  own  rest  for  God's  own  true  people, 
an  ideal  rest  for  an  ideal  community,  embracing  all  believers, 
all  believing  Israelites  of  all  ages,  and  many  more;  for  God's 
rest  began  long  before  there  was  an  Israel,  and  the  gospel 
in  the  early  chapters  of  Genesis  is  a  gospel  for  man,  as  the 
writer  of  our  epistle  well  knows,  though  he  does  not  plainly 
say  it.  Into  this  sabbatic  rest  cessation  from  work  enters 
as  an  essential  element;  for  it  is  written  that  God  "rested 
on  the  seventh  day  from  all  His  work  which  He  had  made." 
That  this  is  the  thought  which  our  author  chiefly  associates 
with  the  term  aa^^aTia^jbo'^  appears  from  ver.  10,  which 
may  be  thus  paraphrased  :  "  One  who  enters  into  rest  ceases, 
like  God,  from  work,  and  therefore  may  be  said  to  enjoy  a 
sabbatism."  But  this  yields  only  a  negative  idea  of  the 
rest,  and  the  summum  bonum  can  hardly  be  a  pure  negation. 
The  rabbinical  conception  of  the  Sabbath  was  purely 
negative.  The  rabbis  made  a  fetish  of  abstinence  from  what- 
ever bore  the  semblance  of  work,  however  insignificant 
in  amount,  and  whatever  its  nature  and  intention.  Christ 
discarded  this  rabbinized  Sabbath,  and  put  in  its  place 
a  humanized  Sabbath,  making  man's  good  the  law  of 
observance,  declaring  that  it  was  always  lawful  to  do  well, 
and  justifying  beneficent  activity  by  representing  Divine 
activity  as  incessant,  and  Divine  rest  therefore  as  only 
relative,  a  change  in  the  manifested  form  of  an  eternal 
energy.  We  do  not  know  how  far  our  author  was  acquainted 
with  the  sabbatic  controversies  of  the  gospels,  but  we 
cannot  doubt  on  which  side  his  sympathies  would  be.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  he  coined  a  name  for  the  rest  that 
remains,  containing  an  allusion  to  the  seventh  day  rest,  that 
he  might  wean  the  Hebrews  from  its  external  observance 
by  pointing  out  its  spiritual  end.i  This  view  rests  on  no 
positive  evidence,  but  it  is  far  more  credible  than  that  the 

*  So  Calvin, 


THE   GOSPEL   OF  BEST.  281 

bliss  of  the  future  world  meant  for  him  the  eternal  prolonga- 
tion of  a  rabbinical  Sabbath,  as  it  meant  for  the  Talmudist 
who  wrote  :  "  The  Israelites  said,  Lord  of  all  the  world, 
show  us  a  type  of  the  world  to  come.  God  answered  them. 
That  type  is  the  Sabbath."  He  took  his  ideas  of  the  perfect 
rest,  not  from  the  degenerate  traditions  of  the  rabbis,  but 
from  the  book  of  Origins.  That  being  the  fountain  of  his 
inspiration,  it  is  probable  that  he  conceived  of  the  ideal  rest, 
not  as  cessation  from  work  absolutely,  but  only  from  the 
weariness  and  pain  which  often  accompany  it.  There  was 
work  for  man  in  paradise.  God  placed  him  in  the  garden  of 
Eden  to  work  it  ^  and  to  keep  it ;  and  the  whole  description 
of  the  curse  implies  that  it  is  the  sorrow  of  labour,  and 
not  labour  itself,  that  is  the  unblessed  element.  The  epya 
which  pass  away  when  the  ideal  rest  comes  are  the  kottoc — 
the  irksome  toil  and  worry — of  which  John  speaks  in  the 
book  of  Eevelation:  "  They  shall  rest  from  their  labours," 
and  "  pain  shall  be  no  more."  ~ 

We  have  seen  that  our  author  borrows  three  distinct 
conceptions  of  the  great  salvation  from  the  primitive 
history  of  man.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  were 
all  connected  together  in  his  mind,  and  formed  one  picture 
of  the  highest  good.  They  suggest  the  idea  of  paradise 
restored  :  the  Divine  ideal  of  man  and  the  world  and  their 
mutual  relations  realized  in  perpetuity ;  man  made  veritably 
lord  of  creation,  delivered  from  the  fear  of  death,  nay, 
death  itself  for  ever  left  behind,  and  no  longer  subject  to 
servile  tasks,  but  occupied  only  with  work  worthy  of  a 
king  and  a  son  of  God,  and  compatible  with  perfect  repose 
and  undisturbed  enjoyment.  It  is  an  apocalyptic  vision  : 
fruition  lies  in  the  beyond.     The  dominion  and  deathless- 


^  ipyd^e(r9at  in  Septuagint. 

"  Bev.  xiv.  13,  xxi.  4.  Very  significant  for  tlie  sense  of  kotos  are  tlie  texts 
Lulie  xi.  7,  xviii.  5  ;  Gal.  vi.  17.  Worry,  annoyance,  enter  into  its  meaning  in 
all  three  places. 


282  TEE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

ness  and   sabbatism  are   reserved  for  the  world  to   come, 
objects  of  hope  for  those  who  beheve. 

The  perfect  rest  will  come,  and  a  people  of  God  will  enter 
into  it,  of  these  things  our  author  is  well  assured  ;  but  he 
fears  lest  the  Hebrew  Christians  should  forfeit  their  share 
in  the  felicity  of  that  people  :  therefore  he  ends  his  discourse 
on  the  gospel  of  rest  as  he  began,  with  solemn  admonition. 
"  Let  us  fear  lest  we  enter  not  in,"  he  said  at  the  beginning; 
"  let  us  give  diligence  to  enter  in,"  he  says  now  at  the 
close.  Then  to  enforce  the  exhortation  he  appends  two 
words  of  a  practical  character,  one  fitted  to  inspire  awe,  the 
other  to  cheer  Christians  of  desponding  temper. 

The  former  of  these  passages  (vers.  12,  13)  describes  the 
attributes  of  the  Divine  word,  the  general  import  of  the 
statement  being  that  the  word  of  God,  like  God  Himself, 
is  not  to  be  trifled  with ;  the  word  referred  to  being,  in  the 
first  place,  the  word  of  threatening  which  doomed  un- 
believing, disobedient  Israelites  to  perish  in  the  wilderness, 
and,  by  implication,  every  word  of  God.  The  account  given 
of  the  Divine  word  is  impressive,  almost  appalling.  It  is 
endowed  in  succession  with  the  qualities  of  the  lightning, 
which  moves  with  incredible  swiftness  like  a  living  spirit, 
and  hath  force  enough  to  shiver  to  atoms  the  forest  trees ; 
of  a  two-edged  sword,  whose  keen,  glancing  blade  cuts 
clean  through  everything,  flesh,  bone,  sinew  ;  of  the  sun  in 
the  firmament,  from  whose  great  piercing  eye,  as  he  circles 
round  the  globe,  nothing  on  earth  is  hid.  "  Living  is  the 
word  of  God  and  energetic,  and  more  cutting  than  every 
two-edged  sword,  penetrating  even  to  the  dividing  of  soul 
and  spirit,  of  joints  and  marrow,  and  discerning  and  judging 
the  affections  and  thoughts  of  the  heart.  And  there  is  not 
a  creature  invisible  before  it,  but  all  things  are  bare  and  ex- 
posed to  the  eyes  of  Him  with  whom  we  have  to  reckon." 

The  description  falls  into  four  parts.  First,  "  living  and 
forceful  is  the  word."       I  have  suggested  a  comparison  to 


THE   GOSPEL   OF  BEST.  283 

the  lightning  as  interpretative  of  the  epithet  "  hving." 
Possibly  the  allusion  is  to  a  seed,  in  which  life  and  force 
lie  dormant  together,  capable  of  development  mider  fitting 
conditions.  The  blade  of  grain  is  the  witness  both  of  the 
life  and  of  the  power  latent  in  the  seed  from  which  it 
springs.  Or  perhaps  the  thought  intended  is  that  the  word 
of  threatening,  though  spoken  long  ago,  is  not  dead,  but 
living  still,  instinct  with  the  eternal  life  and  energy  of  God 
who  spake  it,  a  word  for  to-day,  as  well  as  for  bygone  ages. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  determining  to  what  the  Divine 
word  is  likened  in  the  next  member  of  the  sentence,  for  it 
is  expressly  compared  to  a  sword.  The  only  difficulty  lies 
in  the  construction  and  interpretation  of  the  words  descrip- 
tive of  its  achievements  in  this  capacity.  Does  the  word 
divide  soul  from  spirit,  or  both  soul  and  spirit,  not  only 
soul,  but  even  spirit?  And  what  are  we  to  make  of  the 
mention  of  joints  and  marrow,  after  soul  and  spirit  ?  Have 
we  here  a  mingling  of  metaphor  and  literal  truth,  and  an 
accumulation  of  phrase  in  order  to  heighten  the  impression? 
or  is  it  meant  that  "joints  and  marrow"  are  the  subject 
of  a  distinct  action  of  the  word  ?  Believing  that  we  have 
to  do  here  with  rhetoric  and  poetry,  rather  than  with  dog- 
matic theology,  I  prefer  a  free,  broad  interpretation  of  the 
words  to  that  which  finds  in  them  a  contribution  to  bib- 
lical psychology  and  a  support  for  the  doctrine  of  the  tri- 
chotomy of  human  nature,  which,  with  all  respect  for  its 
patrons,  savoars  in  my  opinion  of  pedantry.  The  simple 
meaning  of  the  passage  is  this  :  The  word  of  God  divides 
the  soul,  yea,  the  very  spirit  of  man,  even  to  its  joints 
and  marrow.  It  is  a  strong,  poetical  way  of  saying  that  the 
word  penetrates  into  the  inmost  recesses  of  our  spiritual 
being,  to  the  thoughts,  emotions,  and  hidden  motives,  whence 
outward  actions  flow,  as  easily  and  as  surely  as  a  sword  of 
steel  cuts  through  the  joints  and  marrows  of  the  physical 
frame.     Thus  understood,  the  second  part  of  the  description 


284  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

leads  naturally  up  to  the  third,  which  speaks  of  the  critical 
function  of  the  word,  in  virtue  of  which  it  is  "the  candle 
of  the  Lord  searching  all  the  inward  parts." 

In  the  concluding  part  of  the  eloquent  panegyric  on  the 
word,  it  is  spoken  of  in  a  way  which  suggests  the  idea,  not 
of  a  candle,  but  of  the  sun,  which  beholdeth  all  things ; 
and  in  the  final  clause,  it  is  said  of  God  Himself,  that 
all  things  are  naked  and  exposed  to  His  eyes.  The  word 
which  I  have  rendered  exposed  is  one  of  uncertain  meaning, 
and  untranslatable  except  by  periphrasis.  When  a  Greek 
writer  used  it  he  had  a  picture  in  his  mind  which  charged 
it  with  a  significance  and  force  no  English  word  can  repro- 
duce ;  but  what  the  picture  was  it  is  not  easy  to  determine. 
The  most  probable  opinion  is  that  Tpaxn^i'^o),  not  found 
in  classical  Greek  authors,  was  a  coinage  of  the  wrestling 
school,  to  express  the  act  of  a  wrestler  who  overmastered 
his  antagonist  by  seizing  him  by  the  neck.  Hence  the 
participle  TeTpaxv^''(^i^evo<i  might  come  to  mean  one  over- 
powered, as  by  calamity,  or  by  passion.  The  verb  and  its 
compound  eKTpa')(riKlt,w  occur  frequently  in  Philo,  in  this 
tropical  sense.  In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  the  mean- 
ing must  be  more  specific,  involving  a  reference  to  the 
effect  of  the  grip  of  the  wrestler  on  the  head  of  his  anta- 
gonist, which  might  be  either  to  force  it  downwards,  or  to 
throw  it  backwards,  according  as  he  was  seized  behind  or 
before.  In  the  one  case,  we  should  render  "downcast,"^  in 
the  other,  "  exposed  "  ;  the  one  epithet  suggesting  the  desire 
of  the  guilty  one  to  hide  his  face  from  the  searching  eye 
of  God,  the  other  implying  that  no  one,  however  desirous, 
can  so  hide  himself  from  the  Divine  gaze.^ 

'  So  llendall,  whose  note  on  the  passage  is  well  worth  cousulting. 

^  The  reference  to  Philo  reminds  me  that  another  word  in  this  eulogy  on  the 
word  of  God  recalls  him  to  the  thoughts  of  one  familiar  with  his  writings.  I 
refer  to  the  epithet  ToiJ.uTepos,  which  sounds  like  an  echo  of  Philo's  doctrine  con- 
cerning the  cutting  or  dividing  function  of  the  Logos  in  the  universe,  set  forth 
at  length  in  the  book  Qiiis  div.  rcr.  heres.    Indeed  one  bent  on  establishing  a 


THE   GOSPEL   OF  BEST.  285 

In  the  closing  sentences  of  the  chapter  the  writer  winds 
up  the  long  exhortation  to  steadfastness  by  an  inspiring 
allusion  to  the  sympathy  of  the  great  High  Priest,  who  has 
passed  out  of  this  time- world,  through  the  veil  of  the  visible 
heavens,  into  the  celestial  world ;  taking  care  that  his  last 
word  shall  be  of  a  cheering  character,  and  also  so  managing 
that  the  conclusion  of  this  hortatory  section  shall  form  a 
suitable  introduction  to  the  next  part  of  his  discourse.  On 
this  account  vers.  14-16  might  have  been  reserved  for  con- 
sideration in  a  future  paper,  but  I  prefer  to  notice  them 
here,  following  the  traditional  division  of  the  chapters. 
How  truly  they  form  a  part  of  the  exhortation  which  began 
at  chap.  iii.  1  appears  from  the  repetition  of  phrases.  "  Con- 
sider the  High  Priest  of  our  confession,"  the  writer  had  said 
there;  "having  a  High  Priest,  let  us  hold  fast  our  confession," 
he  says  here.  But  it  is  to  be  noted  that  he  does  not  simply 
repeat  himself.  The  movement  of  his  thought  is  like  that 
of  the  flowing  tide,  which  falls  back  upon  itself,  yet  in  each 
successive  wave  advances  to  a  point  beyond  that  reached  by 
any  previous  one.     Here  for  the  third  time  Christ  is  desig- 

close  connexion  between  our  author  and  Philo  might  find  a  copious  supply  of 
plausible  material  in  this  part  of  the  epistle.  Besides  these  two  words,  there 
are  the  epithet  "  great  high  priest,"  and  the  attribute  of  siulessness,  ajsplied  here 
to  Christ,  and  to  the  Logos  by  Philo,  and  in  the  next  chapter  the  unusual  word 
fxerpLowaOe'iv,  also  occurring  in  Philo.  Then  does  not  the  expression  6  X670S  roO 
Qeou  seem  like  an  allusion  to  the  mystic  personified  Logos  of  whom  one  reads 
everywhere  in  Philo  ?  and  is  not  this  fervent  eulogy  on  the  word  almost  like  an 
extract  from  the  praises  of  the  Logos  unweariedly  sung  by  the  philosophic  Jew 
of  Alexandria  ?  The  resemblance  in  style  is  certainly  striking,  yet  I  concur  in 
the  judgment  of  Principal  Drummond,  that  "there  is  nothing  to  prove  conscious 
borrowing,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  resemblances  are  due  to  the  general 
condition  of  religious  culture  among  the  Jews"  {Philo  Judceus,  vol.  i.,  "Introduc- 
tion," p.  12).  In  any  case,  whatever  is  to  be  said  of  the  style,  it  is  certain  that 
our  epistle  is  independent  of  Philo  in  thought  and  spirit.  The  word  of  God 
here  is  not  Philo's  Logos,  nor  is  his  cutting  function  the  same.  Philo  calls 
the  Logos  the  "cutter"  (6  rofxevs),  as  cutting  chaos  into  distinct  things,  and  so 
creating  a  kosmos.  The  cutting  function  of  the  word  in  our  epistle  is  wholly 
ethical.  The  originality  of  the  epistle  in  thought  is  all  the  more  remarkable  if 
the  writer  was  acquainted  with  Philo's  writings,  so  that  there  is  no  cause  for 
jealous  denial  of  such  acquaintance.     It  is  a  mere  question  of  fact. 


286  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

nated  a  High  Priest,  and  attributes  are  ascribed  to  Him  as 
such  which  are  to  form  the  theme  of  the  next  great  division 
of  the  epistle,  wherein  the  priestly  office  of  Christ  is  ela- 
borately discussed.  The  writer  re-invites  the  attention  of 
his  readers  to  the  High  Priest  of  their  confession,  and 
in  doing  so  uses  words  every  one  of  which  contains  an 
assertion  which  he  means  to  prove  or  illustrate,  and  which 
being  proved  will  serve  the  great  end  of  the  whole  epistle, 
the  instruction  and  confirmation  of  the  ignorant  and 
tempted. 

The  first  important  word  is  the  epithet  "  great "  prefixed 
to  the  title  High  Priest.  It  is  introduced  to  make  the 
priestly  office  of  Christ  assume  due  importance  in  the  minds 
of  the  Hebrews.  It  serves  the  same  purpose  as  if  the  title 
High  Priest  had  been  written  in  large  capitals,  and  asserts 
by  implication,  not  merely  the  reality  of  Christ's  priestly 
office,  but  the  superiority  of  Christ  as  the  High  Priest  of 
humanity  over  all  the  high  priests  of  Israel,  Aaron  not 
excepted.  As  an  author  writing  a  treatise  on  an  important 
theme,  writes  the  title  of  the  theme  in  letters  fitted  to  attract 
notice,  so  the  writer  of  our  epistle  places  at  the  head  of 
the  ensuing  portion  this  title,  Jesus  the  Son  of  God  the 
Great  High  Priest,  insinuating  thereby  that  He  of  whom 
he  speaks  is  the  greatest  of  all  priests,  the  only  real  priest, 
the  very  Ideal  of  priesthood  realized. 

The  expression  "passed  through  the  heavens"  is  also 
very  suggestive.  It  hints  at  the  right  construction  to  be 
put  upon  Christ's  departure  from  the  earth.  There  is  an 
obvious  allusion  to  the  entering  of  the  high  priest  of  Israel 
within  the  veil  on  the  great  day  of  atonement;  and  the  idea 
suggested  is,  that  the  ascension  of  Christ  was  the  passing 
of  the  great  High  Priest  through  the  veil  into  the  celestial 
sanctuary,  as  our  representative  and  in  our  interest. 

The  name  given  to  the  great  High  Priest,  "  Jesus  the 
Son  of  God,"   contributes  to  the  argument.     Jesus  is  the 


THE   GOSPEL   OF  REST.  287 

historical  person,  the  tempted  Man  ;  and  this  part  of  the 
name  lays  the  foundation  for  what  is  to  be  said  in  the 
following  sentence  concerning  His  power  to  sympathise. 
The  title  "  Son  of  God,"  on  the  other  hand,  justifies  what 
has  been  already  said  of  the  High  Priest  of  our  confession. 
If  our  High  Priest  be  the  Son  of  God,  he  may  well  be  called 
the  Great,  and  moreover  there  can  be  no  doubt  whither  He 
has  gone.  Whither  but  to  His  native  abode,  His  Father's 
house? 

Having  thus  by  brief,  pregnant  phrase  hinted  the  thoughts 
he  means  to  prove,  our  author  proceeds  to  address  to  his 
readers  an  exhortation,  which  is  repeated  at  the  close  of 
the  long  discussion  on  the  priesthood  of  Christ  to  which 
these  sentences  are  the  prelude.^  In  doing  so  he  gives 
prominence  to  that  feature  of  Christ's  priestly  character  of 
which  alone  he  has  as  yet  spoken  explicitly  :  His  power 
to  sympathise,  acquired  and  guaranteed  by  His  experience 
of  temptation.-  He  presents  Christ  to  view  as  the  Sym- 
pathetic One  in  golden  words  which  may  be  regarded  as 
an  inscription  on  the  breastplate  of  the  High  Priest  of 
humanity  :  "  We  have  not  a  High  Priest  who  cannot  be 
touched  with  the  feeling  of  our  infirmities;  but  one  that 
hath  been  tempted  in  all  points  like  ourselves,  without 
sin." 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  doctrine  of  Christ's  sympathy  is 
here  stated  in  a  defensive,  apologetic  manner,  "We  have 
not  a  High  Priest  who  cannot  be  touched,"  as  if  there  were 
some  one  maintaining  the  contrary.  This  defensive  attitude 
may  be  conceived  of  as  assumed  over  against  two  possible 
objections  to  the  reality  of  Christ's  sympathy,  one  drawn 
from  His  dignity  as  the  Son  of  God,  the  other  from  His 
sinlessness.  Both  objections  are  dealt  with  in  the  only  way 
open  to  one  who  addresses  weak  faith  ;  viz.  not  by  ela- 
borate or  philosophical  argument,  but  by  strong  assertion. 

'  Chap.  X.  19-23.  -  Chap.  ii.  17,  IS. 


288  TEE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

As  the  psalmist  said  to  the  desponding,  "  Wait,  I  say,  on 
the  Lord,"  and  as  Jesus  said  to  disciples  doubting  the 
utility  of  prayer,  "I  say  unto  you,  Ask, and  ye  shall  receive," 
so  our  author  says  to  dispirited  Christians,  "  We  have  not 
a  High  Priest  v^ho  cannot  be  touched  with  sympathy" 
— this  part  of  his  assertion  disposing  of  doubt  engendered 
by  Christ's  dignity — "  but  one  who  has  been  tempted  in  all 
respects  as  we  are,  apart  from  sin  " — this  part  of  the  asser- 
tion meeting  doubt  based  on  Christ's  sinlessness.  How  this 
can  be  is  a  question  theologians  may  discuss,  but  which 
our  author  passes  over  in  silence.^ 

To  this  strong  assertion  of  Christ's  power  to  sympathise 
is  fitly  appended  the  final  exhortation  :  "  Let  us  therefore 
draw  near  with  boldness  unto  the  throne  of  grace,  that 
we  may  receive  mercy  and  grace  for  seasonable  succour." 
Specially  noteworthy  are  the  words  Trpoaepxio/xeda  /jueTa 
'7rappi]aia<;,  Let  us  approach  confidenthj .  They  have  more 
than  practical  import  :  they  are  of  theoretic  significance ; 
they  strike  the  doctrinal  keynote  of  the  epistle :  Chris- 
tianity the  religion  of  free  access.  In  the  opening  paper  I 
said  that  this  great  thought  first  finds  distinct,  clear  utter- 
ance in  chap.  vi.  20,  where  Christ  is  called  owe  forerunner. 
But  it  is  hinted,  though  not  so  plainly,  here,  it  being  implied 
that  the  priesthood  of  Christ,  in  virtue  of  His  sympathy, 
and  of  other  properties  remaining  to  be  mentioned,  for  the 
first  time  makes  free,  fearless,  close  approach  to  God  pos- 
sible. There  is  a  latent  contrast  between  Christianity  and 
Leviticalism,  as  in  a  corresponding  passage  in  Paul's  epistles 
there  is  an  expressed  contrast  between  Christianity  and 
Mosaism.  "Having  therefore,"  writes  the  apostle,  "such 
a  hope,  we  use  great  boldness  (of  speech,  Trapprjala),  and  are 
not  as  Moses,  who  put  a  veil  upon  his  face  "  ; "  the  contrast 

1  The  sinlessness  of  Christ  here  asserted  means,  in  the  first  place,  that  He 
never  yielded  to  temptation,  but  that  implies  as  its  source  absolute  sinlessness. 
-  2  Cor.  iii,  12,  13, 


THE   GOSPEL   OF  BEST.  289 

being  between  the  free,  frank,  unreserved  speech  of  the 
minister  of  a  rehgion  of  hfe,  righteousness,  and  good  hope, 
and  the  mystery  observed  by  the  minister  of  a  rehgion  of 
condemnation,  death,  and  despair.  The  one  cannot  be  too 
plain  spoken,  because  he  has  good  news  to  tell ;  the  other 
has  to  practise  reserve,  to  keep  up  respect  for  a  rude,  imper- 
fect cultus  which  cannot  afford  to  have  the  whole  truth 
told.  Paul's  contrast  relates  to  a  diversity  in  the  attitude 
assumed  by  the  ministers  of  the  two  religions  towards  men. 
That  latent  in  the  text  before  us,  on  the  other  hand,  relates 
to  diversity  of  attitude  towards  God :  the  Christian  has 
courage  to  draw  near  to  God,  while  the  votary  of  the  old 
religion  lacks  courage.  But  the  reason  of  the  contrast  is 
the  same  in  both  cases  ;  viz.  because  Christianity  is  the 
religion  of  good  hope.  "  Having  such  hope  (as  is  inspired 
by  the  nature  of  Christianity),  we  are  outspoken,"  says 
Paul;  "  having  the  better  hope  based  on  the  priesthood  of 
Christ,  we  draw  nigh  to  God  confidently,"  says  the  author 
of  our  epistle. 

The  contrast  is  none  the  less  real  that  the  expression 
"  to  draw  near  "  was  applied  to  acts  of  worship  under  the 
Levitical  system.  Every  act  of  worship  in  any  religion 
whatever  may  be  called  an  approach  to  Deity.  Nevertheless 
religions  may  be  wide  apart  as  the  poles  in  respect  to  the 
measure  in  which  they  draw  near  to  God.  In  one  religion 
the  approach  may  be  ceremonial  only,  while  the  spirit  stands 
afar  off  in  fear.  In  another,  the  approach  may  be  spiritual, 
with  mind  and  heart,  in  intelligence,  trust,  and  love,  and 
with  the  confidence  which  these  inspire.  Such  an  approach 
alone  is  real,  and  deserves  to  be  called  a  drawing  near  to 
God.  Such  an  approach  was  first  made  possible  by  Christ, 
and  on  this  account  it  is  that  the  religion  which  bears  His 
name  is  the  perfect,  final,  perennial  religion. 

A.  B.  Beuce. 

VOL.  IX.  19 


290 


TWO   PABABLES. 

THE  PRODIGAL  SON  (Luke  xv.  11-32). 
THE  LABOURERS  IN  THE  VINEYARD  {Matt.  xix.  27;  xx.  16). 

There  is  very  little  resemblance  between  the  external  form 
and  imagery  of  these  two  parables,  except  that  both  are 
taken  from  the  relations  of  men  in  common  life  ;  and  they 
were  spoken  on  very  different  occasions.  The  earlier  of 
the  two,  that  of  the  Prodigal,  was  mainly  addressed  to  the 
Pharisees,  in  reply  to  their  complaint  against  Jesus  that 
"this  Man  receiveth  sinners  and  eateth  with  them  ";  though 
it  was  spoken  to  a  mixed  audience,  consisting  both  of 
Pharisees  and  of  those  whom  they  denounced  as  sinners. 
The  later  of  the  two  parables,  that  of  the  Labourers  in 
the  Vineyard,  was  spoken  to  the  disciples  alone,  in  answer 
to  Peter's  question,  when,  referring  to  the  young  ruler 
who  had  refused  to  give  up  all  for  Christ,  he  said,  on 
behalf  of  the  rest  of  the  Twelve  as  well  as  himself,  "  Lo, 
we  have  forsaken  all  and  followed  Thee  ;  what  shall  we 
have  therefore '?  " 

There  is  also  this  contrast,  that  while  the  parable  of 
the  Prodigal  has  probably  impressed  men  more  than  any- 
thing else  in  Christ's  teaching,  and  in  its  most  impressive 
point  seems,  and  is,  perfectly  clear,  the  parable  of  the 
Labourers  has  impressed  mankind  comparatively  little, 
■and  is  regarded  by  most  readers  as  a  perplexing  parable. 
Nevertheless,  we  think  it  can  be  shown  that  the  teaching 
•of  the  two  is  closely  similar. 

The  lesson  of  both  is  double.  In  the  latter  there  are 
the  cases  of  the  first  hired  and  the  last  hired  labourers, 
in  the  former  those  of  the  two  sons ;  and  in  each  parable 
there  is  equal  emphasis  laid  on  the  two  cases.  It  is  indeed 
perhaps  to  be  regretted  that  the  former  is  universally 
called  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  ;  because  the  lesson  which 


1 


TWO   PARABLES.  291 


Christ  means  to  teach  through  the  elder  brother  is  as 
important  as  that  taught  through  the  younger,  though 
much  less  obvious.  It  would  be  better  to  call  this  the 
parable  of  the  Two  Sons,  were  not  this  title  already 
appropriated  to  another  and  later  parable,  also  spoken  to 
the  Pharisees  and  rulers  (Matt.  xxi.  28,  32). 

The  three  parables  in  Luke  xv.,  the  Lost  Sheep,  the  Lost 
Piece  of  Money,  and  the  Lost  Son,  were  evidently  spoken 
about  the  same  time,  and  form  a  series.  But  the  words, 
"  and  He  said,"  at  the  commencement  of  the  third,  indicate 
a  transition  of  some  kind ;  and  it  may  be  that  our  Lord, 
at  this  point  of  His  discourse,  meant,  and  was  understood 
by  His  audience  to  mean,  "  I  have  till  now  been  address- 
ing the  Pharisees  in  defence  of  My  action  in  receiving 
sinners  and  eating  with  them.  I  have  yet  more  to  say  on 
the  subject ;  and  to  this  I  ask  the  attention  of  the  publicans 
and  sinners  also.  I  have  been  speaking  of  the  action  of 
God  and  His  Son  in  seeking  and  saving  the  lost ;  I  have 
now  to  speak,  not  only  to  those  who  think  they  are 
righteous,  but  at  the  same  time  to  those  who  know  they 
are  lost." 

This  lesson,  that  God  will  receive  repentant  sinners,  and 
that  man  ought  to  receive  them,  is  the  most  prominent 
lesson  of  the  parable,  and  for  most  readers  it  appears  to 
be  the  only  one.  Most  readers  probably  think  that  the 
conversation  where  the  Father  justifies  Himself  to  His  elder 
sou  for  receiving  the  returned  prodigal  with  rejoicing, 
is  only  meant  to  heighten  the  effect  of  the  whole.  To 
which  view  we  think  it  may  be  replied,  that,  on  a  first 
reading  at  least,  it  does  not  heighten  the  effect ;  and  we 
suspect  that  those  who  think  thus  would,  if  they  were  to 
speak  their  real  minds,  like  the  parable  better  if  it  had 
ended  with  the  reception  of  the  prodigal  by  his  Father, 
But  if  we  understand  the  elder  son  to  be  a  mere  Pharisee, 
and,    as  our  Lord    tells  us  the  Pharisees  generally  were, 


292  TWO  PARABLES. 


a  hypocrite,  we  shall  lose  half  the  worth  of  the  parable. 
Such  a  view  of  his  character  is  refuted  by  the  clear  state- 
ments of  the  parable  itself.  He  said  to  his  Father,  "  Lo, 
these  many  years  do  I  serve  thee,  and  I  never  transgressed 
a  commandment  of  Thine  "  ;  and  so  far  was  his  Father 
from  contradicting  this,  or  treating  it  as  mere  pharisaic 
self-righteousness,  that  he  replied,  "  Son,  thou  art  ever 
with  Me,  and  all  that  is  Mine  is  thine."  Compare  with 
■this  St.  Paul's  assertion  of  the  blessedness  of  God's  chil- 
dren :  "If  children,  then  heirs;  heirs  of  God,  and  joint- 
heirs  with  Christ  "  (Eom.  viii.  17).  "  Whether  the  world, 
or  life,  or  death,  or  things  present,  or  things  to  come ;  all 
are  yours"  (1  Cor.  iii.  22).  If  Stier  is  right,  that  this 
reply  of  the  Father  is  only  ironical,  God's  most  gracious 
promise  may  be  without  meaning ; 

''  And  if  this  fail, 
The  pillared  firmament  is  rottenness." 

Who  then  are  they  that  are  represented  by  the  elder 
son  ?  and  what  is  the  teaching  of  that  part  of  the  parable  '? 
We  reply,  that  the  elder  son,  who  had  served  his  Father 
all  his  life,  is  nearly  identical  with  the  labourers  that  had 
toiled  in  the  vineyard  from  early  morning  ;  and  the  mur- 
muring of  the  elder  brother  at  seeing  the  prodigal  received 
with  festivity,  and  restored,  without  a  word  of  reproach, 
to  a  son's  place  in  the  Father's  house  and  the  Father's 
love,  is  parallel  to  the  murmuring  of  the  labourers  who 
had  borne  the  burden  of  the  day  and  the  scorching  heat, 
when  they  saw  those  who  had  worked  but  one  hour,  and 
that  in  the  evening,  paid  as  much  as  themselves.  And  the 
answer  to  both  is  the  same.  God's  service  differs  from 
man's  in  this,  that  mere  length  of  service  does  not  count 
in  the  apportioning  of  reward.  When  the  repentance  of 
the  returning  prodigal  is  sincere,  he  is  restored  at  once 
to  the   place  which  his  sins  had  forfeited  ;  and  when  the 


TWO  PARABLES.  293 


service  of  the  late  engaged  labourer  is  honest,  be  receives 
an  equal  reward  with  those  w^bo  have  toiled  all  day.  "God 
giveth  (and  forgiveth)  liberally,  and  upbraideth  not  "  (Jas. 
i.  5).^  We  are  accepted,  not  according  to  what  we  have 
done,  but  according  to  what  we  are. 

Though  the  imagery  of  these  two  parables  is  taken  from 
the  relations  of  ordinary  human  life,  yet  the  lesson  is  drawn 
by  representing  men  as  acting  as  they  do  not  act  in  ordinary 
life.  It  never  was  the  custom  of  any  country  to  pay  a 
day's  wages  for  an  hour's  work;  nor  to  let  a  young  man 
take  his  inheritance  before  his  father's  death,  and  then  go 
away  and  waste  it.  And  though  the  Father's  action  in 
welcoming  the  returned  prodigal  does  not  seem  so  strange 
to  us  who  have  been  taught  by  Christ,  it  probably  appeared 
strange,  and  almost  monstrous,  to  the  Pharisees  who 
heard  it. 

Among  careless  readers,  the  impression  left  by  the  par- 
able of  the  Labourers  is,  that  it  is  possible  to  enter  the 
service  of  God  at  any  time  of  life,  and  at  the  end  receive 
an  equal  reward  with  those  who  have  served  Him  all  their 
lives.  This  view  however  is  contradicted  by  the  parable 
itself.  To  the  question,  "  Why  stand  ye  here  all  the  day 
idle?"  the  answer  was,  "Because  no  man  hath  hired  us." 
But  if  any  of  the  labourers  had,  in  the  middle  of  the  day, 
or  even  early  in  the  morning,  refused  the  offer  of  work 
in  mere  idleness  and  in  reliance  on  the  kindness  of  the 
owner  of  the  vineyard,  we  cannot  think  he  would  have 
permitted  them  to  come  in  at  the  eleventh  hour  at  all ;  or 
if  he  had,  he  would  not  have  paid  them  a  day's  wages  for 
an  hour's  work.  From  the  language  and  imagery  of  this 
parable  alone,  it  would  be  much  more  reasonable  to  infer 
that  God's  call  to  work  in  His  vineyard,  if  once  disregarded, 
will  never  be  renewed.     But  no  parable  is  meant  to  provide 

1  The  Epistle  of  James  contains  so  many  allusions  to  Christ's  recorded 
teaching,  that  it  is  probable  this  may  be  one  of  His  unrecorded  sayings. 


294  TWO   PARABLES. 


for  all  cases.  The  case  of  those  who  disregard  God's  call 
and  their  own  privileges  is  not  touched  on  in  this  parable, 
but  that  of  the  Prodigal  reveals  a  degree  of  longsuffering 
of  God  with  sinners  which  man  could  not  have  dared  to 
hope  for.  And  such  an  inference  as  that  God's  call,  if  dis- 
regarded once,  is  necessarily  withdrawn  for  ever,  would  also 
be  contrary  to  our  Lord's  express  teaching  in  the  parable 
of  the  Two  Sons  (Matt.  xxi.  28),  where  a  son  who  at  first 
refused  to  work  in  his  father's  vineyard  afterwards  changed 
his  mind,  and  was  permitted  to  go  to  work. 

The  doctrine  of  the  equality  of  all  rewards  also  is  doubly 
contradicted,  both  in  the  parable  of  the  Labourers  in  the 
Vineyard  itself,  and  in  the  conversation  that  led  to  it.     In 
answer  to  Peter's  question,  "What  shall  we  have  there- 
fore?"   (Matt.  xix.  27)  Christ  replied,  "Verily  I  say  unto 
you,  That  ye  which  have  followed  Me,  in  the  regeneration 
(or  restoration  of  all  things :  cf.  Acts  iii.  21)  when  the  Son 
of  man  shall  sit  in  the  throne  of  His  glory,  ye  also  shall 
sit  upon  twelve  thrones,  judging  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel." 
We    cannot    tell    the   exact   meaning   of  these    mysterious 
words,  but  they  evidently  point  to  some  high  and  peculiar 
honour  which  in  the  future  world  will  belong  to  those  who 
in   this  world   have   been    first   in    the    service    of  Christ's 
kingdom  ;  and  if  to  the  Twelve,  then  also  to  St.  Paul  and 
all  others  who  have   done  the  most  in  His  service.     The 
same  truth  is  clearly  hinted  at  in  the  parable  of  the  Pounds 
(Luke  xix.  12-27),  where  one  servant  of  a  nobleman  who 
had  been  made  a  king  is  rewarded  with  the  government  of 
ten   cities   for   the   service   of  earning  ten   pounds  for  his 
master,  and  another  servant  with  five  cities  for  earning  five 
pounds.      But  having  promised  this   reward — the   highest 
which  the  imagination  of  an  Israelite  could    conceive— of 
being  viceroys  over  Israel  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah, 
the  Lord  changes  His  tone,  and  warns  His  disciples  that 
the  expectation  of  such  glory  has  its  own  temptations,  and 


TWO  PARABLES.  295 


must   not  be    too  highly  esteemed.      In  nearly    the    same 
spirit,  He  said  on   another  occasion,  "  In  this  rejoice  not, 
that  the  spirits  are  subject  unto  you  ;  but  rejoice  that  your 
names  are  written  in  heaven"    (Luke  x.    20).     And   in  a 
similar  spirit,  when  speaking  of  the  signs  and  wonders  that 
were  to  be  wrought  in  answer  to  the  prayer  of  faith.  He 
adds  the  caution,  apparently  without  anything  to  suggest  it 
except  the  necessity  for  it,  "  Whensoever  ye  stand  praying, 
forgive,  if  ye  have  aught  against  any  one  ;  that  your  Father 
also  which  is  in  heaven  may  forgive  you  your  trespasses  " 
(Mark  xi.  2.5).     In  the  passage  before  us  He  illustrates  His 
meaning  by  the  parable  of  the  Labourers  in  the  Vineyard, 
and  both  introduces  and  sums   up   His   parable   with   the 
warning,  "  Many  shall  be  last  that  are  first,  and  first  that 
are  last  "  (Matt.  xix.  30,  xx.  IG)  :  showing  that  the  highest 
rewards — including  in   the   reward   the  Master's   approval 
— do   not  necessarily  belong  either   to  the  longest    service 
or  to   the  greatest  quantity  of  work,  or  even  to  the  most 
steadfast  endurance  of   the    "scorching  heat"  of  persecu- 
tion ;   and  in  the  parable  itself  He  implies  that  the  highest 
place  in  His  kingdom  can  only  be  given  to  those  who  show 
an   unselfish,    ungrudging,   and  unmurmuring   spirit.     The 
same  words — "  the  last  shall  be  first  and  the  first  last " — 
might  have  occurred  at  the  end  of  the  parable  of  the  Prodi- 
gal ;  the  elder  son  was  first,  but  with  his  unloving,  pharisaic 
spirit  he  was  in  danger  of  becoming  last.     It  is  the  same 
teaching  as  that  of  St.  Paul,  in  a  passage  which  is  perhaps 
seldom  thought  of  in  connexion  with  this  parable:  "Though 
I  bestow  all  my  goods  to  feed  the  poor,  and  though  I  give 
my  body  to  be  burned  (a  harder  thing  than  to  toil  under 
the  scorching  noonday  heat  of  a  Syrian  summer)  and  have 
not  the  charity  which  envieth  not,  seeketh  not  its  own,  is 
not  easily  provoked,  and  thinketh  no  evil,  it  profiteth  me 
nothing"  (1  Cor.  xiii.). 


296  TWO  PARABLES. 


It  is  now  time  to  consider  the  question,  bow  we  are 
meant  by  our  Lord  to  understand  the  position  of  tbe  elder 
brother  of  the  Prodigal,  and  of  the  earliest  hired  labourers ; 
and  it  is  our  opinion  that  whatever  difficulties  belong  to 
these  questions  are  produced  by  the  attempt  to  read  mean- 
ings into  these  parables  which  do  not  properly  belong  to 
our  Lord's  words,  and  are  inconsistent  with  them. 

First,  as  to  the  elder  son.  There  is,  at  first  sight,  a  real 
difficulty  in  the  case.  He  is  introduced  solely  for  the  pur- 
pose of  rebuke  and  warning;  and  yet  his  Father's  saying, 
"  Son,  thou  art  ever  with  Me,  and  all  that  is  Mine  is  thine," 
briefly  and  simply  describes  a  state  of  privilege  and  blessing 
equal  to  the  highest  which  man  or  angel  can  ever  hope  to 
attain.  How  is  this  apparent  inconsistency  to  be  recon- 
ciled ?  Very  simply,  as  it  seems  to  us.  Our  Lord  was 
addressing  the  Pharisees  in  reply  to  their  objection  to  His 
receiving  sinners.  He  might  have  replied  by  denouncing 
their  own  sins  ;  but  on  this  occasion  He  preferred,  for  the 
sake  of  argument  and  illustration,  to  take  them  at  their 
best,  and  to  describe  a  man  who  had  attained  to  their  own 
ideal ;  one  who,  like  St.  Paul  before  his  conversion,  was 
"as  touching  the  righteousness  which  is  in  the  law  found 
blameless"  (Phil.  iii.  6).  This,  it  is  true,  was  not  and 
could  not  be  the  Christian  ideal,  for  "  the  law  was  given  by 
Moses,  but  grace  and  truth  came  by  Jesus  Christ  "  (John 
i.  17) ;  but  it  was  the  ideal  of  righteousness  held  up  before 
ancient  Israel ; — and  He  so  framed  the  parable  as  to  show 
them  the  special  errors  and  temptations  of  such  a  char- 
acter :  ignorance  of  the  gracious  purposes  of  God  towards 
sinners,  and  ignorance  of  the  root  of  sin  contained  in  that 
desire  for  some  degree  of  independence  of  the  Father  which 
prompted  the  complaint,  "  Thou  never  gavest  me  (even)  a 
kid  that  I  might  make  merry  with  my  friends."  In  modern 
language,  we  may  imagine  the  Father  answering  :  "  You 
are  most  unreasonable.     You  serve  Me  these  many  years  I 


TWO  PARABLES.  297 


No  doubt ;  you  are  My  heir,  and  in  serving  Me  you  best 
serve  yourself.  You  never  transgressed  a  commandment  of 
Mine  !  No  doubt ;  and  are  My  commandments  grievous  ? 
I  never  gave  you  a  kid  wherein  to  feast  with  your  friends  ! 
You  have  always  been  at  liberty  to  invite  them  to  My  table; 
and  if  they  do  not  like  to  dine  with  Me,  they  are  no  fit 
company  for  My  son."  Such  a  reply  would  have  been 
deserved  ;  bat  the  Father  made  the  gentle  and  gracious 
answer,  "  Son,  thou  art  ever  with  Me,  and  all  that  is  Mine 
is  thine  "  ;  which,  if  the  son  had  ears  to  hear,  was  a  keener 
rebuke.  In  his  desire  to  feast  sometimes  with  his  own 
friends,  apart  from  his  Father,  was  contained  the  germ  of 
that  love  of  independence  which,  in  its  full  development, 
brought  his  brother  to  riotous  and  wasteful  living  (probably, 
though  not  certainly,  with  harlots),  and  afterwards  to  the 
service  of  the  stranger  and  the  herding  of  swine.  This  root 
of  sin  is  in  us  all ;  but  in  him  it  was  not  so  full  grown  as  to 
bring  forth  death  (Jas.  i.  15).  The  purpose  and  meaning 
of  this  conversation  between  the  Father  and  the  elder  son 
is  to  show  what  are  the  special  dangers  and  temptation  of 
those  who,  like  that  son,  live  all  their  lives  in  the  habitual 
observance  of  the  commandments  of  God  ;  and,  further, 
to  show  the  safeguard  against  these  dangers  :  namely,  to 
appreciate  as  they  deserve  the  privileges  and  blessings  of 
such  a  life.  The  Father's  answer,  "  Son,  thou  art  ever 
with  Me,  and  all  that  is  Mine  is  thine,"  was  no  new  reve- 
lation ;  it  might  have  been  introduced  with  "  remember  "  : 
and  had  he  rightly  remembered  it,  he  would  not  have 
wished  to  feast  with  his  own  friends  apart  from  his  Father, 
and  would  have  loved  the  Prodigal  for  the  Father's  sake,  if 
not  for  his  own. 

But  neither  here,  nor  in  the  very  similar  conversation 
between  the  Owner  of  the  vineyard  and  the  first  hired 
labourers,  is  there  the  slightest  hint  at  final  or  eternal 
condemnation ;    except    only   the    hint    addressed    to    the 


298  TWO   PARABLES. 


Pharisees  in  the  words,  "  And  the  elder  son  was   angry, 
and  would  not  go  in,"  intimating  that  if  they  persisted  in 
their  rejection  of  Christ's   teaching,    they    would   be    self- 
excluded  from  the  marriage  supper  of  the  Lamb.     I  do  not 
mean  to  deny  that  there  have  been,  and  may  be  still,  many 
who  regard  themselves  as  careful  observers  of  all  Christ's 
commandments,  and  yet  are  the  spiritual  children  of  those 
who  slew  the  prophets  and  crucified  the  Christ.     And  it  is 
also  true,  and  it  is  the  chief  lesson  of  the  parable  of  the  Ten 
Virgins,  spoken  by  our  Lord  not  long  after  to  the  disciples 
alone  (Matt.  xxv.  1),  that  profession  of  Christianity  before 
the  world,  symbolized  by  the  lamps,  and  legal  purity  of  life, 
symbolized  by  virginity,  will  not  avail  to  save  without  the 
true  spirit  of  religion  in  the  heart ; — without  which  what 
was  meant  to  be  the  light,  not  only  of  the  Church,  but  of 
the  world,   inay  "  burn  dim  like  a  lamp  with  oil  unfed," 
and  what  was  meant  to  be  the  salt  of  the  earth  may  lose 
its  savour  (Matt.  v.  13,  14).     But  no   one  parable,  and  no 
one  discourse,   can  teach  all  truth ;  and  our  Lord  in  the 
two  parables  now  before  us  is  not  speaking  of  such  cases. 
The  words,   "  many  are  called  but  few  chosen,"    are  now 
admitted  to  be  spurious,  where  the  old  text  has  them  at 
the  end  of  the  parable  of  the  Labourers ;  and  it  is  not  in 
the  least  like  the  teaching  of  Christ  to  hold  that  those  who 
habitually  keep  all  God's  commandments,  like  the  elder  son, 
or  spend  a  long  life  in  the  honest  and  unbroken  service  of 
God,  like  the  earliest  hired  labourers,  are  in  danger  of  losing 
their  eternal  reward  for  a  fit  of  anger  or  sullenness,  caused 
by  misunderstanding  a  manifestation  of  Divine  grace  which 
they  had  not  been  taught  to  understand;  for  they  had  re- 
ceived their  training  under  not  the  Gospel  but  the  Law. 
Such  dissatisfaction  was,  no  doubt,  of  the  nature  of  sin  even 
in  them,  and  in  men  trained  by  Christ's  teaching  it  would 
be  decidedly  sinful ;  but  "  there  is  a  sin  not  unto  death  " 
(1  John  V.  17).     The  penny — the  day's  wages  in  the  latter 


TWO  P ARABLES.  299 


parable — is  eternal  life,  the  reward  of  a  lifetime  spent  in 
the  service  of  God  ;  and  the  saying  of  the  Householder  to 
the  murmuring  labourer,  "  Take  up  that  which  is  thine, 
and  go  thy  way,"  has  nothing  to  do  with  "  Depart,  ye 
cursed,"^  but  only  means,  "Cease  this  useless  disputing, 
and  go  home  to  supper  with  thy  well  earned  wages." 
There  was  no  harshness  in  bidding  him  go  away  when  he 
could  gain  nothing  by  remaining,  for  the  imagery  of  this 
parable  does  not  include  any  invitation  to  a  dinner  or 
supper.  It  is  true  that  Judas,  who,  being  one  of  the  twelve, 
was  among  the  first,  fell  away  altogether ;  but  there  is  no 
allusion  in  this  parable  to  such  a  case.  The  crime  by  which 
Judas  fell  was  not  a  deficiency  in  the  charity  taught  by 
Christ,  but  a  treason  which  would  have  been  judged  worthy 
of  death  by  a  merely  human  and  worldly  tribunal.  In 
giving  the  warning,  "  Many  that  are  first  shall  be  last, 
and  the  last  first,"  Christ  had  not  in  His  thought  any- 
thing like,  "  Have  not  I  chosen  you  Twelve,  and  one  of  you 
is  a  devil  ?  "  (John  vi.  70.)  He  rather  meant  the  same 
as  when,  on  an  earlier  occasion,  the  disciples,  in  the  same 
spirit  as  Peter  when  he  inquired,  "  What  shall  we  have 
therefore?"  asked  who — meaning  which  of  the  Twelve — was 
to  be  greatest  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven  ;  and  He  replied, 
"  Whosoever  shall  humble  himself  as  this  little  child,  the 
same  is  the  greatest  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven  "  (Matt. 
xviii.  1,  4).  And  when  the  two  sons  of  Zebedee  asked  for 
the  chief  place  in  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  He  told  the 
disciples,  "Whosoever  would  be  first  among  you  shall  be 
(that  is  to  say,  let  him  be)  your  servant  "  (Matt.  xx.  20,  28). 


To  sum  up  our  conclusions.     In  each  of  the  two  parables 
before   us    there    are    two    distinct    lessons :    one    of  them 

'  The  saying  which  Stier  quotes  with  apisroval  from  Luther,  "  They  take 
their  penny  and  are  damned,"  seems  to  us  perversely  wrong. 


300  TWO  PABABLES. 


primary,    simple,  and   obvious ;  the   other   secondary,    and 
more  recondite  and  hidden. 

In  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal,  the  primary  lesson  is 
that  God  is  willing  to  welcome  repentant  prodigals,  and 
that  men  ought  to  welcome  them; — that  God  forgives  freely 
and  without  upbraiding,  so  that  when  repentance  is  sincere 
restoration  is  complete.  In  that  of  the  Labourers,  the 
primary  lesson  is  the  kindred  one,  that  those  who  enter  the 
service  of  God  late  in  life  shall  notwithstanding,  if  their 
service  is  sincere,  be  placed  on  an  equality,  in  the  final 
distribution  of  rewards,  with  those  who  have  served  God 
all  their  lives ; — that  mere  length  of  service  does  not  count 
at  all  in  the  apportioning  of  heavenly  rewards. 

The  secondary  lesson  of  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  is  a 
warning  against  the  special  dangers  of  a  life  spent,  from  its 
beginning,  in  the  habitual  service  of  God  ; — the  danger  of 
trusting  in  one's  own  righteousness  rather  than  in  the  grace 
of  God,  and  of  permitting  the  beginning  of  an  alienation  of 
the  heart  from  God  to  go  on,  unchecked  because  unnoticed. 
And  the  secondary  lesson  of  the  parable  of  the  Labourers 
is  the  kindred  one,  that  those  who  have  served  God  all 
their  lives,  or  in  any  eminent  way,  are  in  danger  of  trusting 
in  their  own  services  rather  than  in  the  grace  of  God,  and 
regarding  with  jealousy  those  who  are  placed  on  an  equality 
with  them  after  a  shorter  period  of  service,  or  after  services 
which  from  a  human  point  of  view  appear  but  small.  These 
two  errors  are  the  same  in  kind,  and  the  proper  counter- 
active of  both  is  the  same  ;  namely,  a  truer  appreciation  of 
the  privileges  and  blessings  which  are  theirs  as  God's  chil- 
dren, by  His  grace : — not  on  condition  of  works,  but  of  faith. 
The  elder  son  is  told  by  his  Father,  "  Thoa  art  ever  with 
Me,  and  all  that  is  Mine  is  thine  "  ;  the  first  hired  labourers 
go  home  to  their  eternal  rest  with  the  well-earned  wages 
of  a  lifetime  of  toil  and  endurance  in  the  Master's  service. 
No  further  blessing  is  needed,  or  possible,  except  a  right 


TWO   P ARABLES.  301 


appreciation  of  that  which  they  ah'eady  enjoy,  and  more 
love  and  confidence  towards  their  heavenly  Father  and 
Master.  Although  in  the  heavenly  kingdom  the  principle 
of  reward  is  recognised,  and  eminent  services  shall  he  emi- 
nently honoured,  yet  even  in  the  apportionment  of  reward 
there  is  no  place  for  boasting :  we  "  are  not  under  law,  but 
under  grace  "  (Kom.  vi.  14)  ;  and  the  Lord  looks  chiefly, 
not  to  the  service  done,  but  to  the  spirit  in  which  it  is 
done.  If  they  learn  rightly  to  understand  this,  their  trust 
and  love  towards  their  Master  and  Father  will  make  it 
impossible  to  have  any  feeling  of  jealousy  towards  those 
whom  He  has  set  on  an  equality  with  them.  But  if  such 
feelings,  natural  as  they  are,  are  not  overcome,  those  who 
are  the  first  in  length  or  amount  of  service  may  be  the  last 
in  their  Lord's  favour  ; — not  excluded  from  the  kingdom, 
but  last  and  least  in  it. 

But  are  patient  toil  and  endurance  in  the  Master's  service 
to  have  no  reward  of  their  own?  are  they  to  be,  in  the 
eternal  kingdom,  as  though  they  had  never  been?  It  can- 
not be  so.  There  will  be  no  comparing  and  balancing  of 
claims  ; — 

"  Heaven  rejects  the  lore 
Of  uicely  calculated  less  or  more  "  ;  * 

but  God  will  turn  all  to  good  in  His  own  way,  which  is 
not  ours. 

In  conclusion,  we  must  consider  some  objections  which 
may  be  made  to  the  ideas  here  expressed  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  character  indicated  by  the  elder  brother  and  the  first 
hired  labourers.  Their  view  of  things  is  certainly  natural ; 
so  natural  that,  notwithstanding  our  Lord's  teaching  in 
these  two  parables,  it  is  still  a  common,  and  perhaps  we 
may  even  say  the  preponderant,  view  among  His  followers ; 

'   Wordsworth's  Sonnet  on  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge. 


302  TWO  PARABLES. 


and  it  will  perhaps  be  said  by  some  of  our  readers  that  we 
are  arguing  in  its  favour. 

We  certainly  do  not  mean  to  take  the  part  of  the  elder 
brother  against  the  prodigal,  and  of  the  first  hired  labourers 
against  the  last.  This  would  be  to  take  their  part  against 
the  Teacher  who  spoke  these  parables  in  order  to  refute 
their  errors.  But  we  think  that  readers  of  the  gospels — 
perhaps  even  some  who  themselves  fall  into  the  same  errors 
when  occasion  arises — are  generally  too  hard  on  them.  It 
seems  to  us  a  total  misunderstanding  of  Christ's  words  to 
say  that  the  elder  son  and  the  first  hired  labourers  are 
for  their  murmuring  excluded  from  the  kingdom,  and  have 
their  portion  among  the  unfaithful  and  the  hypocrites.  This 
is  contradicted  in  the  case  of  the  elder  son  by  the  words 
of  his  conversation  with  the  Father  ;  and  in  the  case  of  the 
first  hired  labourers  by  the  fact  that  the  parable  was  spoken 
to  the  Twelve,  immediately  after  the  promise  of  the  highest 
honour  in  the  Messiah's  kingdom  which  an  Israelite  could 
imagine.  The  purpose  of  these  parables  is  not  to  threaten 
condemnation,  but  to  warn  the  hearers  against  the  errors 
to  which  those  are  specially  liable  who  spend  their  lives 
in  the  service  of  God.  But  so  far  from  agreeing  with  the 
notion  that  the  elder  son,  who  has  never  transgressed  his 
Father's  commandments,  is  rather  worse  than  a  prodigal ; 
or  that  the  labourers  "  take  their  penny  and  are  damned  " 
for  their  displeasure  with  an  action  on  their  Master's  part 
which  would  displease  any  man  who  had  never  heard  of  the 
like,  it  is  our  belief  that  the  faults  of  temper  displayed  by 
them,  and  by  very  many  disciples  of  Christ  since  then,  are 
not  by  any  means  faults  of  wickedness,  but  are  chiefly  due 
to  deficiency  of  imagination.  These  persons  are  typical 
men  of  the  old  moral  world.  Christ  has  introduced  new 
and  higher  principles  of  thought  and  action,  but  the  Gospel 
must  be  based  on  the  Law.  Such  men  are  certainly  not 
typical  Christians,  but  neither  are  the  labourers  who  were 


PROF.  HUXLEY  AND  THE  SWINE  OF  GADABA.     303 

hired  at  the  eleventh  hour,  and  still  less  the  returned 
prodigal ; — the  typical  Christian  is  the  elder  brother  when 
he  is  reconciled  to  the  returned  prodigal,  and  the  labourer 
who,  after  bearing  the  burden  of  the  day  and  the  scorching 
heat,  learns  graciously  to  acquiesce  in  his  Master's  action 
in  placing  on  an  equality  with  him  the  labourer  who  entered 
at  the  eleventh  hour. 

Joseph  John  Muephy. 


PBOFESSOB   HUXLEY  AND   THE  SWINE   OF 
GADABA. 

Professor  Huxley's  article  on  Agnosticism  in  the  February 
number  of  the  Nineteentli  Gentury  is  one  of  uncommon 
interest.  The  bits  of  mental  autobiography  with  which  he 
favours  us  are  both  instructive  and  captivating.  He  cham- 
pions moreover  the  position  of  a  much-read  novel,  and 
assumes  that  belief  in  Christianity  is  entirely  a  question  of 
the  worth  of  a  group  of  historical  records  that  have  hitherto 
been  supposed  to  reflect  its  origins.  He  also  restates  some 
of  the  old  difficulties  arising  out  of  the  triple  narrative  of 
the  Gadarene  demoniac,  and  ventures  to  stake  the  credibility 
or  otherwise  of  the  gospel  traditions  upon  the  truth  or 
falseness  of  the  psychology  that  underlies  the  narrative. 
In  conclusion,  he  tells  us  that  "  the  choice  then  lies  between 
discrediting  those  who  compiled  the  gospel  biographies  and 
disbelieving  the  Master  whom  they  thought  to  honour  by 
preserving  such  traditions  of  the  exercise  of  His  authority 
over  Satan's  invisible  world." 

AVithout  word- wasting  preamble  the  professor  throws 
down  the  gage  before  the  theologians  in  the  following  clear 
and  candid  terms  : 


804  PBOFESSOB  EUXLEY 

"  I  fiud  in  the  second  gospel  a  statement,  to  all  appearance  intended 
to  have  the  same  evidential  value  as  any  other  contained  in  that  history. 
It  is  the  well-known  story  of  the  devils  who  were  cast  out  of  a  man,  and 
ordered  or  permitted  to  enter  into  a  herd  of  swine,  to  the  great  loss  or 
damage  of  the  innocent  Gerasene  or  Gadarene  pig  owners.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  narrator  intends  to  convey  to  his  readers  his  own 
conviction  that  this  casting  out  and  entering  in  were  effected  by  the 
agency  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  that  by  speech  and  action  Jesus  enforced 
this  conviction  ;  nor  does  any  inkling  of  the  legal  and  moral  difficulties 
of  the  case  manifest  itself. 

"  On  the  other  hand,  everything  tliat  I  know  of  physiological  and 
pathological  science  leads  me  to  entertain  a  very  strong  conviction  that 
the  phenomena  ascribed  to  possession  are  as  purely  natural  as  those 
which  constitute  sraall-pox :  everything  that  I  know  of  anthropology 
leads  me  to  think  that  the  belief  in  demons  and  demoniacal  possession 
is  the  mere  survival  of  a  once  universal  superstition,  and  that  its  per- 
sistence at  the  present  time  is  pretty  much  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the 
general  instruction,  intelligence,  and  sound  judgment  of  the  popula- 
tion among  whom  it  jarevails.  Everything  that  I  know  of  law  and 
justice  convinces  me  that  the  wanton  destruction  of  other  people's 
property  is  a  misdemeanour  of  evil  examjole.  Again,  the  study  of 
history,  and  especially  that  of  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  leaves  no  shadow  of  doubt  on  my  mind  that  the  belief  in  the 
reality  of  possession  and  witchcraft,  justly  based,  alike  by  Catholics  and 
Protestants,  upon  this  and  innumerable  other  passages  in  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  gave  rise,  through  the  special  influence  of  Christian 
ecclesiastics,  to  the  most  horrible  persecutions  and  judicial  murders  of 
thousands  upon  thousands  of  innocent  men,  women,  and  children." 

It  is  an  assumption  at  once  audacious  and  ambiguous 
that  the  phenomena  ascribed  to  possession  are  "  as  purely 
natural  as  those  which  constitute  small-pox."  Possibly  the 
professor  may  leave  the  door  ajar  for  his  escape  from  all 
the  issues  of  the  statement  by  making  the  word  "natural  " 
embrace  both  the  known  and  unknown  laws  and  the  seen 
and  unseen  factors  in  human  mind  and  life.  This  critical 
scientist  would  perhaps  scarcely  venture  to  say  that  these 
phenomena  admit  of  a  purely  physical  explanation,  as  any 
such  assertion  might  leave  out  of  account  some  of  the  facts  of 
recent  psychological  research.  Once  allow  that  the  energy 
of   evil  may  gather  itself  up  into  unseen  personal  centres, 


AND   TEE   SWINE   OF  GAD  ABA.  305 

and  the  narratives  of  demoniacal  possession  perhaps  make 
a  less  violent  demand  upon  our  credulity  than  some  of  the 
strange  things  that  have  been  sifted  again  and  again  by 
members  of  the  Psychic  Research  Society  and  set  forth  in 
their  reports.  Not  a  little  has  been  done  to  explain  the 
mental  conditions  under  which  possession  is  conceivable, 
and  the  narratives  read  less  like  myths  than  they  might 
have  done  fifty  years  ago. 

The  mental  condition  that  made  the  spiritual  maladies 
described  in  the  New  Testament  possible  was  probably 
analogous  to  that  induced  upon  his  subject  by  the  mes- 
merist. The  will  and  the  higher  mental  and  spiritual 
faculties  were  put  to  sleep  and  paralysed,  and  the  realm  of 
the  emotions  and  sensibilities  came  under  the  control  of 
an  alien  will.  To  all  intents  and  purposes  a  mesmerised 
subject  is  ''possessed"  for  the  time,  but  by  the  personality 
of  the  human  agent  to  whom  he  has  submitted  himself. 
The  process  may  be  repeated  till  the  will  of  the  subject 
is  broken  down,  and  his  higher  faculties  weakened,  and  all 
the  depths  of  a  humiliating  inanity  are  touched.  Readers 
of  David  Elginhrod  will  remember  the  story  of  the  German 
mesmerist,  and  of  the  influence  he  acquired  over  a  young 
lady  who  figures  in  the  story.  The  young  lady  had  become 
a  mental  paralytic  in  his  presence,  and  was  conscious  of  his 
approach  when  he  was  a  considerable  distance  from  the  house 
in  which  she  was  living.  The  incident  is  not  a  simple 
creation  of  the  writer's  fancy.  There  are  verified  instances 
in  which  the  unscrupulous  mesmerist  has  carried  his  power 
to  a  criminal  extent.  Here  you  have  all  the  pathological 
conditions  required  for  the  New  Testament  incidents. 
Possibly  the  paralysing  influence  that  prepared  the  mind 
for  these  dark  and  distressing  dominations  was  the  shadow 
of  Paganism,  for  nearly  all  the  cases  of  possession  are  cases 
that  occur  where  Pagan  superstition  was  rampant,  rather 
than   in   the   purer   centres   of  Jewish    thought   and   life. 

VOL.    IX.  20 


306  PB0FE8S0B  HUXLEY 

Amongst  heathen  people  I  have  met  cases  of  derangement 
that  have  seemed  to  come  very  near  to  those  of  the  New 
Testament  type.  The  fataHstic  tone  of  heathen  thought 
may  favour  this  condition  of  mental  helplessness  and  auto- 
matism. Under  the  influence  of  the  Christian  faith,  the 
will  may  be  so  strengthened  and  the  mind  so  replenished 
with  light  and  knowledge,  that  the  prostration  is  scarcely 
possible  that  leaves  the  soul  helpless  in  the  presence  of  the 
mysterious  forces  of  darkness  that  prey  upon  it.  Admit 
that  malign  and  disturbing  influences  from  the  unseen  may 
act  upon  the  human  soul,  and  these  abnormal  phenomena 
will  be  sure  to  appear  where  the  will  is  terrorised  into 
helplessness,  and  the  defences  of  man's  higher  faculties  dis- 
mantled by  degrading  forms  of  idolatry. 

Some  of  the  curious  instances  in  which  impressions  have 
been  transmitted  from  brain  to  brain  without  any  of  the 
ordinary  processes  of  contact  suggest  the  existence  of  occult 
laws  of  influence  by  which  all  the  phenomena  of  possession 
might  be  brought  about.  Not  a  few  marvellous  illustra- 
tions of  what  has  been  called  "telepathy"  were  brought 
together  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  several  years  ago,  and 
the  names  connected  with  the  incidents  put  them  beyond 
all  possibility  of  question.  The  Eev.  J.  M.  Wilson,  head- 
master of  the  Clifton  College,  Bristol,  describes  the  strange 
impression  that  overpowered  him  when  a  student  at  Cam- 
bridge. One  night  a  terrifying  chill  came  over  him.  He 
seemed  to  have  all  the  sensations  of  death.  A  fellow 
student  endeavoured  to  cheer  him.  The  strange  feeling 
continued  for  some  hours.  The  next  day  he  heard  that  a 
twin  brother  in  Leicestershire  had  died  at  the  very  time 
when  he  had  these  sensations  of  death.  Mr.  A.  Severn, 
the  artist,  was  staying  at  Brantwood,  Coniston.  He  went 
for  a  sail  on  the  lake  before  breakfast.  A  sudden  change  in 
the  wind  caused  the  tiller  to  swing  round  and  strike  him 
violently  in  the  face.     At  the  very  hour  his  wife,  who  was 


AND   THE   SWINE   OF  GAD  ABA.  307 

in  bed,  seemed  to  have  received  a  blow,  and  actually  put  up 
a  handkerchief  to  her  lips.  A  workman  in  London  felt 
an  irresistible  call  to  return  home.  On  his  arrival  he  found 
his  wife  had  been  run  over  by  a  cab,  and  had  been  crying 
out  for  him  ever  since.  A  Congregational  minister  of 
Woolwich  had  an  impression  of  his  brother's  death  in 
America  at  the  time  it  was  taking  place,  and  also  of  his 
brother's  wife's  death  ;  and  crossed  the  Atlantic  upon  the 
strength  of  the  second  impression  to  take  charge  of  the 
orphan  children.  In  these  cases,  by  some  occult  process  of 
influence,  one  mind  seemed  to  come  for  the  time  being: 
under  the  dominion  of  a  distant  mind.  The  cases  were 
those  of  momentary  possession.  If  our  conception  of  the 
freedom  of  spirits  be  correct,  it  will  certainly  be  less 
credible  that  one  human  being  should  thus  transfer  his 
thoughts  and  sensibilities  to  another  human  being,  and 
make  them  dominant  for  the  time,  than  that  a  spirit  should 
be  able  to  rule  over  the  sensibilities  and  nervous  life  and 
impulse  of  some  poor  wretch  whose  higher  nature  has 
become  hypnotized. 

The  transfer  of  the  man's  madness,  with  the  mysterious 
agents  of  it,  to  the  swine,  however  strange,  involves  no 
impossibility,  as  Professor  Huxley  seems  to  admit.  There 
is  good  reason  for  supposing  that  some  dogs  are  thought- 
readers.  An  English  sportsman  in  Norway  says  a  Norsk 
dog  obeyed  all  his  orders,  although  it  had  not  heard  English 
spoken  before,  and-  the  orders  were  not  enforced  by  the 
least  amount  of  pantomime.  Domesticated  animals  will 
sometimes  .catch  a  man's  moods  of  terror  or  depression. 
And  it  is  more  than  suspected  that  groups  of  beasts  have 
gone  mad  in  the  mass.  The  lower  nature  of  the  beast, 
without  will  or  intelligence,  nnless  of  a  very  rudimentary 
order,  would  seem  to  make  it  a  fit  subject  for  the  curious 
phenomena  of  possession.  Professor  Huxley,  whilst  claim- 
ing  that   the   transfer   of  the  demons  to    the  swine   con- 


308  PROFESSOR  EUXLEY 

travenes  probability,  admits  that  he  has  "  no  a  pi-iori 
objection  to  offer."  "  There  are  physical  things  which 
can  be  transferred  from  men  to  pigs,  and  vice  versa,  which 
do  undoubtedly  produce  most  diabolical  and  deadly  effects 
on  both.  For  anything  I  can  absolutely  prove  to  the 
contrary,  there  may  be  spiritual  things  capable  of  the  same 
transmigration  with  like  effect." 

The  insinuation  that  in  this  destruction  of  property  there 
was  a  misdemeanour  of  evil  example  is  too  trivial  from  a 
serious  and  fair-minded  man.  Jesus  regarded  himself  as  a 
Jew,  and  if  the  Jewish  law  were  binding  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  lake,  the  act  of  permission  which  issued  in  the 
destruction  of  the  swine  was  perfectly  justifiable.  I  have  no 
doubt  a  Jew  could  have  argued  as  forcibly  against  a  hog- 
ranche  as  the  professor  himself  would  argue  against  a 
market  for  the  sale  of  diseased  meat.  He  ought  surely  to 
do  Christ  as  much  justice  as  he  would  a  sanitary  inspector 
who  disregards  the  rights  of  property  by  laying  hands  on 
the  horseflesh  that  is  on  its  way  to  the  shambles,  or  the 
revenue  officer  who  seizes  contraband  tobacco  or  brandy. 
The  passing  of  this  mysterious  power  of  derangement  into 
the  swine  may  have  been  necessary,  as  some  one  has 
pointed  out,  to  the  mental  healing  and  assurance  of  the 
man.  Looked  at  from  that  standpoint,  all  who  are  not 
Buddhists  must  surely  refrain  from  any  impeachment  of 
an  act  that  issued  in  the  destruction  of  the  swine.  Man  is 
paramount  over  both  sheep  and  swine. 

To  affirm  that  the  burning  of  witches  in  the  Middle 
Ages  was  encouraged  by  these  narratives  of  demoniacal 
possession  is  to  wander  very  far  afield  indeed.  Christ  and 
His  apostles  treated  all  these  cases  as  cases  of  suffering 
rather  than  transgression.  The  fact  that  they  are  repre- 
sented as  healed,  and  not  hunted  or  baited  or  burned, 
ought  to  show  both  to  the  professor  and  to  the  Christian 
ecclesiastics  who  may  have  based  their  views  of  witchcraft 


AND   THE  SWINE   OF  GAD  ABA.  309 

on  such  passages,  that  the  things  have  nothing  in  common. 
The  behef  in  witchcraft  is  independent  of  Bible  teaching, 
and  pagan  rulers  have  often  found  that  the  peace  of 
the  State  could  only  be  maintained  by  its  suppression. 
The  fact  of  it  is,  that  assassination  rings,  and  secret 
murder  societies,  and  poison  leagues  work,  and  have  ever 
worked,  under  the  cover  of  necromancy  and  divination.  In 
savage  countries  the  political  parties  divide  themselves  into 
government  and  opposition.  The  witches  form  the  one 
and  the  witch-hunters  the  other,  and  the  war  between  the 
inns  and  outs  is  war  to  the  death.  The  professional 
sorcerer  is  quite  distinct  from  the  quasi-victim  of  de- 
moniacal possession,  as  well  as  from  the  attendant  in  the 
temple  who  is  visited  by  the  spirit  of  the  idol  and  made 
to  utter  trance  oracles.  Crime  against  life  often  hides 
itself  under  professional  witchery  and  wizardry,  and  I  dare- 
say mediaeval  rulers  punished  the  innocent  in  hunting  out 
that  crime  as  the  innocent  have  been  punished  in  all  ages 
of  the  world  and  for  every  kind  of  supposed  offence. 

In  some  of  these  miracles  it  was  necessary  that  Christ 
should  dramatize  the  process  to  lay  in  the  hearts  of  the 
healed  and  the  saved  the  foundations  of  a  sound  faith  in  His 
own  spiritual  sovereignty.  These  cases  of  possession  occur 
at  the  meeting  places  of  Jewish  and  heathen  religions. 
Faith  in  the  supremacy  of  God  over  evil  had  been  lost  or 
compromised.  If  the  ignorant  sufferer  was  to  be  delivered 
from  every  form  of  Manicheeism  or  degraded  and  terror- 
stricken  Fetich-worship,  he  must  be  assured  of  his  Healer's 
sovereignty  over  the  evil  powers  that  have  harrassed  him 
in  the  past.  Some  of  the  details  of  these  incidents  that 
affront  the  scientific  reason  were  necessary  to  complete 
that  assurance. 

T.  G.  Selby. 


310 


CRITICAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  MY  HEBREW 
NEW  TESTAMENT. 

II. 

PeofessorE.  Schuerer  in  an  article  on  "  The  Idea  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Heaven  as  set  forth  in  Jewish  Writings/'  in 
the  Jahrhiicher  filr  protes^tantische  Theologie  for  1876,  has 
endeavoured  to  show  that  D''i2^  D^^bo  in  post-bibHcal  Jewish 
Hterature  is  quite  the  same  as  DTT^hiil  Pt'lDpD,  kingdom  of 
God.  In  his  Histonj  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of 
Jesus  Christ,  second  edition,  voh  ii.,  p.  171,  he  repeats  his 
statement  and  confirms  the  result  of  his  careful  inquiry. 
One  of  his  chief  arguments  is  this,  that  as  D'^QIi^H  n")D7Q 
never  occurs,  but  in  every  case  simply  D^Dti'  without  the 
article,  it  is  like  a  proper  name  which  is  determinate  in 
itself.  With  the  exception  of  KIH  -|m  I^^HpH,  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  He,  there  is  no  name  of  God  more  commonly 
used  than  D\'2!i^.  Everywhere  in  the  two  Talmuds  and  in 
the  Midrashim  we  meet  with  phrases  like  the  following: 
n'r2^  i^l\  fem-ing  God;  U'D^  TM^I^  or  D^!2^  ^<1^D,  the  fear 
of  God;  Wui^  U1^,  the  name  of  God,  etc.  What  Josephus 
says  about  the  Pharisees'  doctrine  of  predetermination  and 
liberty  is  confirmed  by  the  Talmudic  maxim,  "  All  is  in  the 
hands  of  Heaven  save  the  fear  of  Heaven  "  ;  that  is,  piety 
or  impiety  depends  upon  man's  own  will.  This  reads  in 
Hebrew:  D^Qtt^  Ili^l'D  \)n  D'DV  H^l  b^H  {Berachoth,  336). 
And  what  in  this  utterance  is  called  □''Qti^  Di^l"^  is  else- 
where more  exactly  defined  as  D\"2ti^  mD7,':D  72p,  reception 
of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  ;  or  DVJIi^  noS':^  b^)J  b2\),  taking 
2ip  of  the  yoke  of  the  kijigdom  of  heaven.  Everywhere  from 
the  Mishna  down  to  the  Jewish  Siddur  or  Prayerbook 
W72t!  jnD7D  is  quite  a  common  phrase,  whereas  D\!2'ii^n  mDz^ 
never  once  occurs. 

It    cannot    indeed   be   proved   that    in    biblical    Hebrew 


OBSERVATIONS   ON  MY  HEBREW  TESTAMENT.  311 

heaven  is  ever  used  as  the  name  of  God.  But  in  the 
book  of  Daniel  we  seem  to  have  something  hke  the  transi- 
tion to  this  use  of  the  word.  There  in  the  interpretation 
of  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  in  chap,  iv.,  in  one  sentence, 
vers.  23,  29,  we  have  the  phrase,  "  the  Most  High  ruleth," 
followed  by  the  equivalent  phrase,  "  the  Heavens  do  rule," 
where  K\'!3li'  with  indifferent  article  is  used.  And  if  we  turn 
our  attention  to  the  term  "  kingdom  of  heaven,"  we  shall 
find  that  there  is  only  one  passage  in  the  New  Testament  ^ 
in  which  *'  heaven "  is  employed  as  an  equivalent  of 
"  God  "  ;  viz.  in  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son  in  Luke 
XV.,  where  the  penitent  says  to  his  father,  Uurep,  i^ixapTou 
e/?  Tov  ovpavov  kol  evwiriov  aov,  Father,  I  have  sumed  agaiiist 
heaven,  and  in  tliij  sight.  Evidently  he  intended  to  say, 
to  express  ourselves  talmudically  according  to  Sanhedrin, 
Tia,  that  he  had  been  mm'?  ;m  U'r^vb  ;?-),  that  is,  had 
toivard  God  and  toivard  men.  The  Hebrew  equivalent  here 
is  T^iib'i  D'r2^b.  The  fact  that  the  Greek  text  has  ek  r6v 
oupavov  and  not  eU  rov^  ovpavoix;  might  have  afforded  a 
valuable  hint  as  to  the  correct  rendering  of  the  phrase. 
Nevertheless  both  in  Salkinson's  Hebrew  New  Testament 
and  in  my  own  it  has  been  rendered  by  Wt^'^b  with  the 
article.     This  is  an  error  that  requires  correction. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
phrase  /SaacXela  tcov  ovpavoov,  though  peculiar  to  the  Hebrew- 
Christian  gospel  of  Matthew,  and  never  interchanged  with 
/SaaiXeLa  tov  oupavov,  by  the  Hebrew  phrase  D"'Dli'rT  nOt'LD 
is  perfectly  correct  and  quite  irreprehensible,  because  ?} 
^acriXela  tcov  oupai'cov  is  really,  though  not  logically,  the 
same  as  ?;  (^aaikela  tov  Qeov  of  the  other  evangelists,  and 
is  by  no  means  identical  with  Wt2^  niD^'O  of  the  synagogue. 
I   refer    my   readers    to   the    article   in   Cremer's    Bihlico- 

^  For  Luke  xviii.  13  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  case  in  point.  There  d$  rbf 
oiipavov  signifies  "  (yj  to  heaven,''''  and  is  rendered  in  my  version  DV^'i*?,  and 
by  Salkinson  DTl'S?, 


312  CRITICAL   OBSERVATIONS 


Theological  Lexicon  of  New  Testament  Greek,  especially  to 
the  fifth  edition  of  that  work  in  the  German,  published 
in  1888.  The  evangelical  notion  is  fuller  and  deeper  and 
wider.  The  Jdngclom  of  heaven  (heavens)  is  the  new 
system  of  the  world,  appointed  and  governed  by  God  in 
His  Christ,  a  new  system  of  heavenly  origin,  of  heavenly 
nature  and  universal  extent,  comprehending  as  well  the 
heavenly  as  the  earthly  world,  and  some  way  transforming 
the  earth  into  heaven  as  the  fulfilment  of  the  prayer,  "  Thy 
will  be  done  on  earth  as  in  heaven." 

In  the  translation  of  ^aatXela  twv  ovpavcov  however,  we 
are  presented  with  a  case  altogether  different  from  the  ques- 
tion of  the  translation  of  Kalaap.  The  Hebrew  rendering 
'^D"'p,  must  be  given,  just  like  the  Greek  rendering  Kalaap, 
in  every  case  without  the  article.  I  know  of  only  a  single 
instance  in  the  Talmud  in  which  ID^p  has  the  post-positive 
Aramaic  article;  namely,  in  the  Ahoda  zara  10&,  where  the 
question  is  raised,  mni  J^^D^p  ^^^^m  ^IH  ^K/t3,  What  is  the 
matter  with  that  emperor  lulio  was,  etc.?  But  even  in  this 
case  there  are  certain  manuscripts,  such  as  that  of  Munich, 
which  give  '^D''p,  and  that  too  is  the  rendering  of  the  cele- 
brated extract  of  the  Talmudic  Haggadoth  {Stories  and 
Sentences)  entitled  "  En- Jacob." 

As  the  emperor  is  always  rendered  "1D''p,  not  ID'pn,  and 
God  always  WiyD,  not  D''/;3Ii'n,  so  we  may  conclude  that  the 
Hebrew  equivalent  for  ^wj;  aluyvio^  is  not  D7l^n  ""H,  but 
zb^)^  ''Tr,  This  too  is  another  point  in  which  my  translation 
is  in  need  of  improvement.  Salkinson  has  quite  correctly 
used  vh^^  ■'TF  without  the  article.  The  question,  however, 
now  presents  itself  as  to  whether  this  rendering  is  sufficient 
as  an  equivalent  for  the  determinate  phrase  ?;  aloovco'?  ^wr] 
or  '))  i^wi)  7]  alcovLo^.  The  discussion  of  this  point  must  be 
reserved  for  our  third  paper. 


ON  MY  HEBREW  NEW  TESTAMENT.  313 


III. 

In  the  biblical  Hebrew,  and  likewise  in  the  biblical  Ara- 
maic, the  noun  u?^y,  of  the  same  form  as  DmH,  a  signet 
ring,  means  in  every  case  a  period  of  long  endurance  {aldnv), 
and  in  no  case  the  temporal  world  {Koafio^;).  There  is  only 
one  passage,  and  that  in  Ecclesiastes  iii.  11,  a  book  belong- 
ing to  the  very  latest  age  of  biblical  Hebrew,  in  which  with 
any  show  of  plausibility  "  the  world  "  might  be  given  as  the 
equivalent  of  D/li^Il.  But  even  there  the  rendering  of  the 
margin  of  the  Revised  Version,  "  Also  He  hath  set  eternity 
in  their  heart,"  is  preferable  to  that  of  the  text.  The  idea 
of  the  writer  is  :  The  thought  of  eternity,  the  yearning  after 
infinity,  is  implanted  in  the  human  soul. 

The  biblical  usage  allows  us  without  the  slightest  risk 
of  ambiguity  to  say  not  only  D/l^ITI^  WT^  (Ps.  cxxxiii. 
3),  but  also  rh^V^  '^n,  as  well  as  d"?!;;  ''n  (Daniel  xii.  2). 
Indeed  in  the  seventh  verse  of  this  same  chapter  of 
Daniel  God  is  called  D7"li?n  TF,  He  who  liveth  for  ever,  or 
eternally. 

On  the  contrary,  in  the  post-biblical  Hebrew,  both  as 
spoken  and  written,  a  clear  and  well-defined  distinction 
was  made  between  dS^^H  "'"TT,  life  of  the  world,  and  U7^'^  ''Tr, 
eternal  Ufe.  When  used  to  denote  eternity,  D71i^  never  has 
the  article.  The  Hebrew  translator  of  the  New  Testament 
cannot  forbear  using  Q7")^  as  a  homonym  for  alcov  and 
Kocr/xo';,  and  must,  for  that  very  reason,  the  more  carefully 
observe  that  difference  in  usage  just  indicated  between 
D^li^n,  the  icorld,  and  D7l^,  eternity.  It  is  quite  right  to 
translate  virep  t^?  rov  koct/jlov  t,coi]<i  (John  vi.  51)  by  "'"TT  "Ti-O 
D/I^il,  as  is  done  in  Salkinson's  version  and  my  own ; 
TTvev/jLa  Tov  koct/jlov  (1  Cor.  ii.  12)  by  D/li^n  m"),  as  is  also 
done  in  both  ;  tov  ^lov  tov  Koajxav  (1  John  iii.  17)  by  ''DD2 
071^11  (where  Salkinson  more  biblically,  as  he  thinks,  but 
not  so  properl}^,  renders  V''^^  P"^)  ;    and  in  Christ's  inter- 


B14  CRITICAL   OBSERVATIONS 

cessory  prayer,  i'yoi  ou/c  €ljjll  i/c  tou  Koa/xov  (John  xvii.  16), 
by  D':'1^n~"j::D  ''jyi^,  as  is  done  in  both.  But  the  equivalent  for 
alcovi,o<;  ^o)?;  is  D7l^  "''TT.  This  is  the  rendering  given  to  the 
phrase  in  my  translation  of  Matthew  xxv.  46,  Luke  x.  25, 
John  xii.  50  ;  but  I  confess  ingenuously  that  my  lamented 
friend  has  been  more  consistent  than  I  have  been  in  the 
regular  omission  of  the  article  in  such  cases. 

There  are  several  passages  however  in  which  the 
Greek  text  has  7)  alcovio^i  ^(O)],  or  j)  ^cor]  alooi'Lo<i,  or  /;  ^mt] 
1)  alcovio^.  Now  in  such  instances,  where  the  notion  of 
eternal  life  is  conceived  of  in  so  determinate  a  way,  it 
is  quite  necessary  that  the  grammatical  form  of  expression 
should  be  correspondingly  determinate.  The  translator 
may  indeed  seek  to  get  over  the  difficulty  by  using  Pf^'J]  '^"'H 
or  1^  ''^rr,  because  TTA^  and  fj^,  in  the  sense  of  "  the  ever- 
lasting," "  the  eternal,"  never  take  the  article,  but  without 
it  have  the  idea  of  determinateness  in  themselves.  But 
this  device  is,  after  all,  only  a  half  measure,  which  does 
not  succeed  in  removing  altogether  the  ambiguity.  We 
have  a  better  expedient,  of  which  Salkinson  has  not  made 
any  use ;  while  I  myself  have  made  a  very  liberal  use  of 
it,  but,  unfortunately,  very  seldom  in  the  proper  place.  In 
John  xvii.  3  we  read,  auTy  Be  eariv  ?}  alojvto'^  ^w?;.  For 
this  distinctly  assertory  form  of  the  original  Salkinson 
substitutes  the  interrogatory  phrase,  D/l^^  ■T?  HI^D*),  and 
what  is  eternal  life  ?  In  my  translation,  on  the  other  hand, 
D';!D':'13,*n  "•TT  DH  xh'^'s  is  not  only  literal,  but,  as  I  am  about 
to  show,  unquestionabl}^  idiomatical. 

The  benediction,  rTDIl,  which  ought  to  be  repeated  by 
any  one  who  undertakes  to  read  the  book  of  the  Thorah, 
has  in  Massecheth  Thorah  xiii.  8  the  following  ancient  form : 
"Blessed  be  Thou,  0  Lord,  who  hast  given  us  a  law  from 
the  heavens,"  D^Onr^D  D^^sbu^H  ^^H,  "  the  eternal  life  from 
the  heights."  When  closing  the  book  he  says,  "Blessed 
be  the   Lord,  who  has  given  us    a   law  of   truth,  and  has 


ON  MY  HEBREW  NEW  TESTAMENT.  315 

implanted  in  us  D7l^  ''"'n,"  or,  according  to  another  reading, 

The  same  tendency  to  vacillate  between  u?^)?  '''TT  and 
D^'27^^^  ''TT  is  to  be  found  at  the  close  of  the  treatise  of 
the  Mishna  entitled  Tamid,  which  deals  with  the  daily 
morning  and  evening  sacrifices.  There  the  inscription  of 
the  ninety-second  Psalm,  "  A  Song  for  the  Sabbath  Day," 
is  interpreted,  "for  the  day  toliich  is  entire  Sabbath  and 
rest  for  eternal  life."     The  text  of  the  Mishna  here  varies 

between  u'r:h^y  ^'rh  nm:^i  and  D\::':'u^n  ^'^rh  nmjDi.    The 

Mishna  on  which  the  Palestinian  Talmud  rests,  edited  by 
W.  H.  Lowe  from  the  unique  Cambridge  manuscript  (1883), 
has  D\"DS^il  '^^rh  nmjD;  and  in  this  form  the  phrase  is 
received  into  the  blessing  used  at  the  table  (see  Baer, 
Abodath  Israel,  Siddur  with  Commentary,  p.  5G1).  Yet, 
even  in  this  case,  the  reading  fluctuates,  and  an  old  text 
issued  at  Treves  in  a.d.  1525  gives  D^'!27^^  ''Tf,  without  the 
article. 

The  result  of  the  investigation  is,  that  ■>)  aloovLo<;  ^(o/j, 
wherever  it  is  necessary  to  express  distinctly  the  determi- 
nateness  of  the  phrase,  can  be  idiomatically  rendered  by 
D^Q'^li^n  ''Tr,  and  that  ^w?)  alwvio'i  can  be  rendered  either 
by  Ub^y  >^n  or  D't2b^);  >^n;  but  that  ub^yr^  >^rr  for  "eternal 
life  "  is  equivocal,  or  not  agreeable  to  the  usage  of  post- 
biblical  Hebrew,  nor  even,  it  appears  from  Daniel  xii.  2,  to 
that  of  biblical  Hebrew. 

Franz  Delitzsch. 


116 


BE  CENT  ENGLISH  LITEBATUBE  ON  THE  NEW 
TESTAMENT. 

In  184;9  Dr.  James  Morison  delivered  and  published  a  course  of 
lectures  On  the  Ninth  Chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Eomans.  These 
lectures  lie  has  frequently  been  asked  to  reprint.  Instead  of  doing 
so  he  has  remodelled  and  rewritten  them,  and  now  publishes  an 
Exposition  of  the  same  chapter.  Dr.  Morison's  learning,  industry, 
and  fairness  have  won  for  him  a  large  audience,  and  his  present 
volume  will  quite  sustain  his  reputation.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  in  this  exposition  his  impartiality  as  an  expositor  contending 
with  his  theological  presuppositions.  Sometimes  he  seems,  uncon- 
sciously to  himself,  to  make  admissions  which  open  the  gate  to  full- 
blown Calvinism ;  at  other  times  he  strains  his  text  to  make  Paul 
speak  the  language  of  Arminius.  The  unprejudiced  reader  will 
still  find  Calvinism  in  this  chapter  ;  and,  able  as  Dr.  Moinson  is, 
he  will  scarcely  persuade  his  readers  that  Paul  was  not  a  believer 
in  absolute  predestination. — The  same  chapter  is  handled  with 
similar  result  in  Mr.  Sadler's  Epistle  to  the  Bomans,  with  Notes 
Critical  and  Practical  (George  Bell  &  Sons).  Mr.  Sadler's  commen- 
taries are  always  welcome.  They  are  written  in  a  devout  spirit 
and  with  care.  Tainted  a  little  his  exposition  is  with  extreme 
sacramentarian  views,  but  the  error  is  easily  eliminated,  and  the 
residuum  is  eminently  edifying.  Even  those  who  totally  diifer 
from  Prebendary  Sadler  in  his  interpretation  of  crucial  passages 
will  allow  that  he  defends  his  views  with  vigour.  For  English 
readers  this  commentary  furnishes  in  a  readable  form  the  results 
of  much  reading  and  thought. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  remind  our  readers  that  a  work 
of  great  and  permanent  value  has  been  produced  by  Dr.  James 
Drummond,  to  whom  already  the  theological  world  owes  so  much. 
His  present  w^ork,  though  not  bearing  so  directly  on  exjoosition  as 
The  Jeivish  Messiah,  has  yet  very  obvious  relation  to  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  I^ew  Testament  writings.  It  is  entitled  Philo-Judceits ; 
or,  The  Jewish- Alexandrian  Philosophy  in  its  Pevelopment  and  Com- 
pletion, and  is  pubUshed  by  Messrs.  Williams  &  Norgate.  There 
has  hitherto  been  a  very  manifest  gap  in  English  theological  and 
philosophical  literature,  which  Dr.  Drummond's  volumes  now 
adequately  fill.  The  task  of  reading  Philo  is  a  hard  one ;  to 
frame  a  coherent  jjhilosophy  out  of  his  allegorising  interpretations 


B BE  VIA.  317 

of  Scripture  and  eclectic  speculation,  is  still  harder ;  and  perhaps 
hardest  of  all  is  to  assign  him  his  due  place  historically.  To 
these  tasks  Dr.  Drummond  has  set  himself  with  true  scholarly 
zeal,  and  has  fought  his  Avay  through  the  difficulties  with  admir- 
able success.  The  blending  of  Hellenism  and  Judaism  which 
prepared  the  way  for  Philo  is  expounded  at  length,  and  with  much 
independence.  Here  Dr.  Drummond  is  on  familiar  ground,  and 
maiiy  of  Gfrorer's  opinions  are  contested  with  reason  and  force. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Logos  is  dealt  with  at  great  length,  and  with 
eminent  fairness.  The  whole  work  is  a  credit  to  English  learning, 
and  should  stimulate  philosophical  studies. 

Marcus  Dods. 


B  BE  VIA. 

Second  Twilights  and  Old  Testament  Mira- 
cles.— A  committee  of  the  Royal  Society  was  appointed  some 
time  ago  to  collect  all  accessible  information  upon  the  subject  of 
the  volcanic  eruptions  which  took  place  on  the  island  of  Krakatoa 
in  August,  1883.  The  report  of  that  commission  has  just  been 
issued,  and  a  most  instructive  and  fascinating  volume  it  is.  The 
various  data  are  illustrated  by  maps,  drawings,  and  diagrams,  and 
six  water-colour  sketches  of  the  wonderful  skies  seen  in  England 
shortly  after  the  eruption. 

The  remarkable  glows  of  colour  seen  in  the  late  autumn  of 
1883,  long  after  sunset,  will  be  fresh  in  the  recollection  of  most 
students  of  nature.  Within  a  few  days  or  weeks  of  the  eruptions 
this  phenomenon  attracted  attention  in  Australia,  Honolulu, 
China,  Japan,  and  in  almost  every  part  of  Europe.  After  sunset, 
a  first  flush  of  colour  appeared,  lasting  fifty  minutes,  followed 
after  a  while  by  a  second,  lasting  in  many  instances  nearly  an 
hour  and  a  half.  The  sunset  scale  of  colour  w^as  inverted,  the 
glow  of  singular  brilliance  and  its  continuance  into  the  far  night 
almost  unexampled.  In  tropical  latitudes,  the  skj'-effect  was 
sometimes  mistaken  by  the  sailors  for  the  northern  lights. 

The  evidence  brought  together  tends  to  show  that  these  highly 
tinted  clouds  were  formed  by  extremely  minute  particles  of  vit- 
reous pumice-dust  held  in  suspension  in  the  upper  region  of  the 
atmosphere.     For  hundreds  of  miles  along  the  coasts  of  Java  and 


818  BUEYIA. 

Sumatra  dust  fell,  the  analysis  of  whicli  justified  tliis  conclusion. 
It  was  probably  formed  by  the  expansion  of  gases  or  steam  at  the 
time  of  the  explosion  and  ground  into  these  microscopic  fragments 
by  the  eruptive  force  of  the  volcano.  The  particles,  it  has  been 
calculated,  were  between  one  twenty-five-thousandth  and  one  two- 
Imndred-thousandth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  the  stratum  they 
formed  extended  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  sea.  As  windows  burn  with  the 
ruddy  reflections  of  the  setting  sun,  these  glass-like  particles  of 
pumice-dust,  held  in  suspension  at  a  height  within  reach  of  the 
sun's  rays  after  he  had  passed  the  horizon,  are  supposed  to  have 
returned  his  illumination  to  the  darkening  earth. 

The  rej)ort  contains  an  interesting  list  of  past  eruptions  which 
have  been  followed  by  similar  spectacles.  1831  was  a  year  of 
marked  volcanic  activity.  Eruptions  are  recorded  of  Etna,  Vesu- 
vius, and  some  of  the  Central  American  volcanoes.  "  The  extra- 
oi'dinary  diy  fog  of  that  year  was  observed  in  the  four  quarters 
of  the  world.  The  sky  was  never  dark  at  midnight,  and  even 
in  August  small  print  could  be  read  in  Siberia,  at  Berlin,  and 
Genoa.  On  August  3rd,  at  Berlin,  the  sun  must  have  been  nine- 
teen degrees  below  the  horizon  when  small  print  was  legible  at 
midnight." 

On  September  2nd,  1845,  Hecla  was  in  eruption.  "  ISTear 
London,  on  September  6th,  1845,  at  6  p.m.,  there  was  a  brilliant 
orano-e-coloured  sky  and  brilliant  and  clear  sunset.  The  sun's 
disk  was  silvery  white  as  it  touched  the  hoi'izon.  The  solar  rays 
were  visible  at  10  p.m.,  downwards  and  upwards." 

Eruption  of  Hecla,  1846.  "  From  the  middle  of  April  to  the 
end  of  May  there  was  an  extraordinary  after-glow  in  Switzerland. 
It  lasted  one  hour  thirty  minutes  on  May  21st,  one  hour  twenty 
minutes  May  23i"d,  one  hour  twenty-five  minutes  May  28th,  and 
forty-five  minutes  May  31st.  It  had  the  appearance  of  a  column 
or  pillar  of  red  light,  and  was  at  one  place  attributed  to  a  sup- 
posed conflagration." 

It  is  perhaps  a  far  cry  from  Krakatoa  to  Beth-horon.  If  the 
stoi'y  of  these  marvellous  phenomena  had  been  found  in  the  Bible, 
what  scepticism  we  should  have  shown  in  accepting  it !  Had  we 
read  in  the  book  of  Joshua  or  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  that  a 
month  and  a  half  after  Midsummer  Day  small  print  was  read  at 
midnio-ht  in  one  of  the  capitals  of  Europe  without  the  aid  of  lamp 


BEE  VIA.  319 

or  candle,  the  less  reverent  of  the  unbelievers  ^•ould  liave  found 
in  the  bai'e  statement  a  fund  of  amusement  that  would  have 
lasted  their  saccessive  generations  of  disciples  for  centuries.  And 
jet,  however  little  science  the  Bible  historians  may  have  had, 
they  have  every  claim  to  be  regarded  as  trustworthy  witnesses  of 
the  facts  they  record.  We  speak  sometimes  as  if  the  capacity  for 
accurate  observation  had  sprung  up  within  the  last  thirty  years. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  through  tlie  division  of  labour  in  our  over- 
crowded civilizations,  the  capacity  for  direct  observation  tends  to 
decline,  if  not  to  quite  die  out.  What  has  gi'own  is  the  scientific 
aptitude  to  explain  and  classify  facts,  not  the  trustworthy  eye  to 
note  them.  The  Israelites,  fresh  fi'om  the  vigils  of  the  wilderness, 
their  lusty  descendants  in  the  times  of  Hezelciah,  were  just  as 
competent  to  observe  all  tlie  facts  that  address  the  eye  as  are  any 
of  us.  Our  superiority  consists  rather  in  finding  the  right  place 
for  our  facts  iii  the  complex  system  of  nature. 

Is  it  not  possible  to  explain  the  prolongation  of  the  light  on  the 
evening  of  the  battle  of  Beth-horon,  poetically  described  as  "  the 
standing  still  of  the  sun,"  by  one  of  these  after-glows  to  which  the 
attention  of  the  scientific  world  has  been  recently  directed  ?  Mav 
not  the  stones  rained  down  from  heaven  upon  the  kings  in  their 
flight  have  been  volcanic  ash  and  pumice  ?  The  battlefield  was  not 
many  miles  away  from  an  age-long  centre  of  volcanic  disturbance. 
In  the  eruption  of  1883  ash  and  pumice-stone  were  candied  in- 
credible distances,  and  burnt  the  clothes  and  skin  of  those  upon 
whom  they  fell.  Possibly  some  who  cboose  to  regard  the  after- 
glows of  1883  as  meteoric  in  tlieir  origin  naay  think  that  the  late 
Dean  Stanley  has  dismissed  too  lightly  the  idea  that  the  stones 
which  fell  upon  the  kings  in  their  flight  were  meteoric.  Would  not 
the  meteoric,  no  less  than  the  volcanic,  theory  explain  both  the 
stones  from  heaven  and  the  protraction  of  the  twilight  for  the 
last  crowning  act  of  the  wonderful  battle  ? 

May  not  the  going  back  of  the  sun  ten  degrees  on  the  dial  of 
Ahaz,  as  the  sign  of  Hezekiah's  recovery,  be  also  explained  by 
one  of  these  marvellous  second  twilights  ?  Some  observers  of  the 
recent  after-glows  describe  their  position  as  twelve  or  fifteen 
degrees  above  the  horizon.  Is  there  not  something  in  this  rough 
coincidence  of  measurement  ?  It  may  be  said  Isaiah  gave  the 
king  his  choice  of  a  sign,  for  he  promised  that  the  shadow  should 
go  either  backwards  or  forwards.     The  objection  is  perhaps  not 


320  BBEVIA. 

forniidablfe,  for  at  the  time  of  the  Java  eruptions  there  were  fore- 
glows  before  snnrise  darkening  back  again  for  a  time  into  night, 
as  well  as  after-glows  ensuing  upon  the  sunsets.  If  these  records 
had  been  found  anywhere  else  than  in  a  sacred  book,  they  would 
probably  have  long  since  been  accepted  as  hints  of  some  genuine 
optical  phenomenon  unknown  as  yet  to  modern  science. 

Upon  either  of  these  theories  the  miracles  of  course  remain  the 
same,  although  the  clumsy  expedient  described  as  "  a  suspension 
of  the  laws  of  nature"  is  no  longer  necessary  for  their  explanation. 
I  am  afraid  some  Christians  revel  in  the  grotesquely  miraculous. 
There  is  a  touch  of  ostentatious  pharisaism  in  their  faith,  and 
to  illustrate  the  superiority  of  their  faith  to  that  of  the  more 
rational  people,  who  cannot  accept  a  miracle  if  it  involve  what 
seems  an  impossible  method,  they  delight  to  make  the  miraculous 
elements  of  the  Bible  history  as  bizarre  as  joossible.  The  more 
portentous  the  wonder  they  can  digest,  the  grander,  it  is  as- 
sumed, the  spiritual  health  of  which  they  are  the  show  specimens. 
Such  persons  will  probably  still  delight  to  think  of  the  earth  as 
though  it  were  a  racing  man's  stop-watch,  and  could  be  pulled  up 
at  a  moment  without  disaster,  and  after  an  interval  started  again. 
If  these  signs  over  Gribeon  and  on  the  sun-dial  of  Ahaz  be  explicable 
by  after-glows,  difficulties  may  be  removed  from  the  path  of  many 
to  whom  the  old  conception  of  the  method  of  the  miracles  has 
been  a  stumbling-block.  And  yet  at  the  same  time  the  providential 
chai-acter  of  the  narratives  is  not  destroyed.  The  coincidence  of 
these  after-glows  with  the  necessities  of  Joshua's  campaign  against 
the  kings  and  with  the  recovery  of  Hezekiah  from  his  sickness, 
and  the  prediction  of  these  coincidences  by  Joshua  and  Isaiah,  will 
sufficiently  vindicate  the  supernatural  providence  of  these  events. 
The  miracles  will  assume  a  prophetic  rather  than  a  thaumaturgic 
tvpe.  The  Bible  wi-iters  record  what  was  seen,  and  never  commit 
themselves  to  theories  of  the  processes  by  which  the  wonders 
they  relate  were  effected.  If  we  hesitate  to  commit  ourselves  to 
this  hypothesis  of  the  miracles,  the  curious  information  brought 
too-ether  in  the  report  refei-red  to  will  at  least  serve  to  show  how 
much  remains  to  be  learned  in  the  domain  of  natural  law,  and 
should  warn  us  against  an  attitude  of  contempt  towards  the  mira- 
culous elements  in  the  Old  Testament  histories. 

T.  G.  Selby. 


THE  DOUBLE   TEXT   OF  JEBEMIAH. 

In  the  Book  of  Jeremiah,  the  text  of  the  Septuagint,  as  is 
well  known,  differs  more  widely  from  the  Hebrew  than 
is  ordinarily  the  case  in  the  Old  Testament.  In  the  other 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  variations  are,  perhaps,  the 
most  marked  and  important  in  the  cases  of  1  and  2  Samuel 
and  Ezekiel ;  but  in  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  they  are 
more  considerable  still.  In  the  text  of  the  Septuagint, 
as  compared  with  the  Hebrew,  there  are  very  numerous 
omissions,  sometimes  of  single  words,  sometimes  of  par- 
ticular clauses  or  passages,  there  are  occasionally  additions, 
there  are  variations  of  expression,  there  are,  lastly,  trans- 
positions. The  number  of  words  in  the  Hebrew  text  which 
are  not  represented  in  the  Septuagint  has  been  calculated 
at  2,700,  or  one-eighth  of  the  entire  Book.  It  must  not, 
however,  be  concluded  from  these  figures  that  the  substance 
of  the  prophecies  is  proportionately  diminished,  for  many 
of  the  omissions  consist  of  words  which  have  no  appreciable 
bearing  upon  the  sense,  such  as  the  title  the  i^rophet  at- 
tached to  the  name  "Jeremiah,"  or  the  parenthetic  "  saith 
the  Lord"  (where  the  fact  itself  is  plain  from  the  context), 
or  the  substitution  of  "the  Lord"  by  itself  for  the  fuller  title 
"the  Lord  of  hosts,  the  God  of  Israel,"  or  other  similarly 
abbreviated  forms  of  expression.  Other  omissions  are,  of 
course,  more  important,  as  10,  6-8.  10.  11,  7-8  (except  the 
last  words  "and  they  did  them  not").  29,  14  (except  "And  I 
will  be  found  of  you").  16-20.  33,  14-26 ;  and  several  times 
(but  not  always)  where  the  words,  as  read  in  the  existing 
Hebrew  text,  appear  elseiuliere  in  the  Book,  8,  10^-12  (see 
6,  13-15).  17,  1-4  (with  3^  4*^  comp.  15,  13-14).  30,  10-11 

VOL.    IX.  ^-^  21 


322  TEE  DOUBLE  TEXT  OF  JEBEMIAH. 

(see  46,  27-28).  30,  4-13  (4-10  in  the  Hebrew  text  abridged  i 
from  52,  7-16).  48,  40\  41'^  (see  49,  22).  The  additions  in 
the  Septiiagint  are  unimportant,  and  need  not  detain  us. 
Ilhistrations  of  variations  of  expression  will  be  referred  to 
subsequently.  The  transpositions,  so  far  as  they  concern 
words  or  clauses  {e.g.  "  prophet  and  priest  "  for  "  priest  and 
prophet,"  or  the  altered  position  of  "  saith  the  Lord"  in 
1,  19.  3,  16  and  elsewhere),  though  there  are  many  such 
instances  in  the  course  of  the  Book,  are  also  of  subordinate 
importance.  The  really  important  difference  of  order  be- 
tween the  Septuagint  and  Hebrew  text  is  in  the  position 
assigned  to  the  prophecies  on  foreign  nations,  ch?43ters  46- 
51.  These,  which  in  the  Hebrew  text  are  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  entire  Book  (being  only  followed  by  the  histo- 
rical chapter  52  (  =  2  Kings  24,  18-25,  30,  usually  in  a  purer 
text),  which  the  note  at  the  end  of  51,  64  shows  was  not 
regarded  by  the  compiler  as  Jeremiah's  work),  are  arranged 
in  the  Septuagint  so  as  to  follow  25,  13 — the  second  part 
of  this  verse,  in  the  form  The  things  ivhich  Jeremiah  pro- 
Ijhesied  concerning  the  nations,  forming  a  superscription  to 
them,  ver.  14  being  omitted,  and  the  entire  group  being 
followed  by  vers.  15-38  (ver.  15  beginning  Thus  said  the  Lord 
the  God  of  Israel),  which  afford  indeed  an  excellent  and 
appropriate  sequel  to  them.  The  order  of  the  nine  prophe- 
cies composing  the  group  is  also  different  in  the  Septuagint, 
as  well  as  the  position  occupied  by  the  group  as  a  whole. 

These  variations  between  the  two  texts  of  Jeremiah  have 
for  long  been  noticed  by  commentators  and  critics,  and 
many  hypotheses  have  been  proposed  for  the  purpose  of 
accounting  for  them.  By  some,  the  variations  have  been 
attributed  to  the  carelessness  of  copyists  in  transcribing 
the  version  of  the  Septuagint ;  ~  by  others,  to  the  incom- 

'  Comp.  especially  ver.  8  with  52,  12-14. 

"  Jerome,  Prologue  to  Commentary  oa  Jeremiah  ("  librariorum  errore  cou 
fusuiii  ").     This  explanation  is  certainly  insufficieut. 


TEE  DOUBLE  TEXT  OF  JEBEMIAE.  323 


petence  and  arbitrariness  of  the  LXX  translators  them- 
selves ;  ^  others  have  thrown  the  source  of  the  variations 
farther  back,  supposing  them  to  arise  from  the  fact  that 
the  existing  Hebrew  text,  and  the  text  from  which  the 
LXX  translation  was  made,  exhibit  tico  different  recensions 
of  Jeremiah's  writings,  and  regarding  (as  the  case  may  be) 
the  one  or  the  other  of  these  as  representing  more  faithfully 
the  prophet's  own  words."  It  is  evident  that  the  problem 
which  the  double  text  presents  can  never  be  solved  by  the 
a  priori  method  of  starting  with  a  fixed  conviction  as  to 
the  necessary  or  inherent  superiority  of  one  of  the  two 
texts  above  the  other  :  the  only  method  by  which  its 
solution  can  be  successfully  attempted  is  by  a  systematic 
investigation  of  the  differences  which  the  two  texts  present, 
and  a  careful  comparison  of  individual  cases  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  on  which  side  the  superiority  lies.  And  by 
several  of  the  writers  named  this  has  been  done,  with  more 
or  less  completeness,  though  the  conclusions  to  which  they 
have  been  led  have  not  always  been  the  same.  The  case  is 
one,  no  doubt,  in  which  it  is  difficult  to  establish  a  perfectly 
objective  standard  ;  and  hence  different  critics  obtain  different 
results.  An  impartial  and  judicious  estimate  of  the  claims 
that  have  been  advanced  on  both  sides  is  given  by  Kuenen.-'^ 

1  So  De  Wetto  (originally),  Wichelliaus,  Niigelsbach,  Graf,  Keil  (though  ad- 
mitting that  in  particular  cases  better  readings  have  been  preserved  in  LXX). 

"  So,  but  differing  widely  in  their  estimate  of  the  fidelity  with  which  the 
LXX  translators  reproduced  the  text  of  their  recension,  J.  D.  Michaelis, 
Movers,  De  Wette  (later,  following  Movers),  Ewald  {Prophets,  iii.  91  f.  Engl,  tr.), 
Bleek  {IntnuJnction  to  the  O.T.  §§  214-218  [in  Wellhausen's  edition,  1878, 
J;§  191-195]),  Kuenen,  Hitzig  (Commentary,  ed.  2,  1866,  pp.  xv-xviii),  the  Dean 
of  Canterbury  (in  the  Sjjeakefs  Commentary,  p.  321  f.),  Scholz  [Der  Mussoretisclte 
Text  unci  die  LXX-Uebernetzuny  des  Baches  Jeremias,  1875).  These  scholars, 
however,  mostly  prefer  themselves  the  text  of  LXX  only  with  reserve,  and 
admit,  especially  Ewald  (who  indeed  practically  follows  the  LXX  hardly  more 
than  Graf),  that  the  translators  performed  their  work  with  more  or  less  arbitrari- 
ness and  neglect.  The  Dean  of  Canterbury,  however,  absolves  the  translators 
from  these  faults,  but  thinks  that  the  MS.  used  by  them  was  one  that  had 
been  transcribed  in  haste. 

^  Hi^toriscli-l-ritiscli  Omlerzoch,  etc.  (18G3),  ii.  pp.  210-219. 


324  TEE  DOUBLE   TEXT   OF  JEBEMIAH. 

The  foregoing  remarks  have  been  suggested  by  a  work  in 
which  the  entire  subject  has  been  taken  up  afresh,  pubhshed 
recently  by  an  American  professor,  the  Eev.  E.  C.  Work- 
man.^ Prof.  Workman  has  devoted  much  independent 
study  to  the  comparison  of  the  two  texts  ;  and  the  task 
has  evidently  been  with  him  a  labour  of  love.  The  con- 
tents of  the  volume,  stated  briefly,  are  as  follows.  After 
some  preliminary  remarks  on  the  general  relation  subsist- 
ing between  the  existing  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  the  Septuagint  translation.  Prof.  Workman  in  his  first 
chapter  surveys  the  different  explanations  which  have  been 
offered  of  the  variations  occurring  in  the  Book  of  Jeremiah, 
and  states  the  method  which  he  proposes  to  follow  himself. 
The  five  following  chapters  are  devoted  to  a  discussion 
of  these  variations,  which  are  classified  in  order  ;  viz.  the 
omissions,  additions,  transpositions,  alterations,  substitu- 
tions. Chap.  vii.  is  an  examination  of  the  causes  to  which 
the  variations  may  be  due ;  chap.  viii.  consists  of  an  estimate 
of  the  value  of  the  LXX  translation  ;  chap.  ix.  sums  up  the 
results  of  the  entire  investigation.  Chap,  x.,  however,  will 
be  to  many  the  most  attractive  part  of  the  work.  This  is 
headed,  "  The  Conspectus  of  the  Variations,"  and  contains 
in  two  parallel  columns,  occupying  116  pages,  all  the  pas- 
sages in  which  the  two  texts  differ,  the  Hebrew  word  (or 
words)  being  transcribed  in  one  column,  and  the  other 
column  exhibiting  the  reading  underlying  the  LXX  trans- 
lation, as  restored  by  Prof.  Workman.  For  this,  the  most 
novel  part  of  his  work,  Prof.  Workman  states  in  his  preface 
that  he  has  had  the  assistance  of  a  Jewish  scholar.  Dr.  S. 
Mandelkern  ;  and  we  may  say  at  once  that,  judged  merely 
as'  a  piece  of  Hebrew  translation,   it    is  excellently  done. 

1  The  Text  of  Jeremiah ;  or,  a  Critical  Investigation  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew, 
with  the  variations  in  the  LXX,  retranslated  into  the  Orifiinal  and  Explained. 
By  theKev.  E.  C.  Workman,  M. A.,  Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis  and 
Literature  in  Victoria  University, Cobourg,  Ont. ,  Canada.  With  an  Introductory 
Notice  by  Prof.  Franz  Delitzscb,  D.D.      (Edinburgh  :  T.  &  T.  Clark.  1889.) 


TEE  DOUBLE  TEXT  OF  JEBEMIAH.  325 

There  are  occasional  oversights,  though  seldom  serious 
ones  ;  ^  and  the  Hebrew,  as  a  rule  (judged  apart  from  the 
context  to  which  it  is  presumed  to  belong),  is  bright  and 
idiomatic. 

We  turn,  however,  to  the  wider  and  more  important 
question.  Has  Prof.  Workman  advanced  the  subject  with 
which  he  deals  ?  From  what  we  had  heard,  we  had 
cherished  great  expectations  as  to  what  Prof.  Workman's 
book  would  accomplish  ;  and  we  perused  it,  when  it 
appeared,  with  great  interest :  we  regret  therefore  the 
more  to  find  ourselves  compelled  to  answer  this  question 
in  the  negative.  We  are  very  far  from  desiring  to  dis- 
parage Prof.  Workman's  labours.  His  honesty,  his  in- 
dustry, his  singlemindedness  are  conspicuous  upon  every 
page ;  but  we  are  bound  to  say  that  the  viethods  by  which 
he  has  carried  on  iiis  work  appear  to  us  to  be  radically 
unsound.  He  starts  with  the  assumption  of  principles 
which  really  have  first  to  be  proved.  He  is  a  warm  advo- 
cate of  the  claims  of  the  Septuagint  version ;  and  in  his 
reaction  against  the  depreciation  with  which  it  has  been 
viewed  in  some  quarters,  in  particular  by  Graf,  he  invests 
its  translators  with  ideal  excellences,  and  can  discover  in 
their  work  hardly  any  blemishes.  He  thinks  indeed,  that 
unless  the  translator  possessed  the  fullest  qualifications 
which  the  learning  and  training  of  the  Alexandrian  schools 
of  the  time  could  confer,  he  would  not  have  been  selected 

»  Thus  3,  3  JiXO   will  not  construe;  6,  8  "IDID   should   be  2  fern.;   6,  12 

nnTTlC'JI  is  a  strange  error  for  Un^'^)  ;  9,  15  read  Dnib  (so  49,  37) ;  10,  23 
^b':  ior'^hy,  12,  16  n;331  ;   15,  18  n3S0  is  an  impossible  form;  18,  21  DSpXni 

do.  ;  22,  27  hnh  is  not  biblical ;  23,  31  the  inf.  abs.  should  be  DIJ  ;  25,  15 
ipnn  may  have  been  read  by  the  LXX  translators,  but  cannot  have  been 
written  by  Jeremiah  ;  25,  29  1"J'S2  the  syntax  is  incorrect ;  28,  1.  '"IpE^TI  X''23n 
do.    (also    6,    16)  ;     29,   11  I'i^'nH)   should  be  nCnXI.    (or    '•natJ'rTl);  32,   44 

th^)-)^  2^2D2)  is  not  correct;  41,  5  D''t^0^5  D''JDC>  do.;  49,  25  read  Mnii  -^ 
51,  20.  21.  22  "Tl^'Sni  is  an  error  for  ^n'^'DHI  ;  51,  27  -"IJS'in  for  -llOnn  (dpare)  ; 
51,  39  -ID-nT.  for  -lOnT. 


326  TEE  DOUBLE   TEXT   OF  JEBEMIAE. 

for  such  an  arduous  and  important  task  (p.  7  f.).  He 
believes  (pp.  217,  281)  that  the  book  was  translated  with 
the  utmost  carefulness,  "  as  literally  as  the  genius  of  the 
flexible  Greek  language  would  allow,  the  translator  or  trans- 
lators having  in  no  way  arbitrarily  changed  the  original 
Hebrew  text,  and  having  in  no  instance  been  influenced 
either  by  personal  scruple,  theological  bias,  or  religious 
tendency," 

These  contentions,  however,  are  based,  in  fact,  on  a 
■priori  considerations.  There  is  no  more  sufficient  reason 
for  supposing  that  the  translator  of  Jeremiah  was  selected 
on  the  ground  of  his  special  qualifications,  than  for  supposing 
that  the  translator  of  the  Minor  Prophets  was  so  selected ; 
and  if  so,  we  fancy  that  Prof,  Workman  will  admit  either 
that  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Minor  Prophets  used  by  the 
translator  was  often  in  a  singularly  deffective  state,  or  that 
Hebrew  scholarship  at  Alexandria  must  have  been  at  a  low 
ebb.  Whichever  alternative  be  accepted,  the  conclusion  is 
not  favourable  to  the  unconditional  and  necessary  superiority 
claimed  on  behalf  of  the  LXX  version  of  Jeremiah.  This 
parallel  is,  however,  only  adduced  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
the  fallacy  of  the  a  priori  argument  :  the  question  of  the 
actual  comparative  value  of  the  Hebrew  and  LXX  remains 
as  before  ;  and  the  only  method  by  which  this  can  be 
ascertained  is  by  comparing  the  two  together,  and  where 
they  differ  by  considering  which  is  better  in  accord,  {a)  with 
the  general  standard  of  well-established  Hebrew  usage, 
(b)  with  the  standard  supplied  in  ]3articular  by  the  parts  of 
Jeremiah  where  the  two  texts  agree.  When  this  has  been 
done,  we  believe  that  it  will  appear  that  the  translators 
have  by  no  means  proceeded  with  the  scrupulousness  and 
precision  which  Prof,  Workman  attributes  to  them.  They 
have  permitted  themselves,  in  one  word,  like  most  other 
ancient  translators,  to  paraphrase,  to  make  additions,  altera- 
tions, and  omissions,  especially  slight  ones,  to  a  far  greater 


TEE  DOUBLE  TEXT  OF  JEBEMIAE.  327 

extent  than  Prof.  Workman  allows  for.  Hence  his  restora- 
tion of  the  presumed  Hebrew  original  upon  which  their 
translation  was  based  rests  in  large  measure  upon  illusion; 
the  variations  which  he  and  Dr.  Mandelkern  so  patiently 
reproduce  in  Hebrew  are,  in  very  many  cases,  simply  more 
or  less  paraphrastic  renderings  of  the  same  Hebrew  text 
which  we  possess  ourselves  !  We  entirely  agree  with  Prof. 
Workman  that  much  has  been  laid  to  the  charge  of  the 
translators  (especially  by  Graf  and  Keil)  of  which  they 
are  guiltless  :  in  other  words,  we  accept  cordially  the  main 
principle  for  which  he  contends,  viz.  that  the  deviations,  in 
a  large  number  of  cases,  were  already  present  in  the  MS. 
used  by  them,  i.e.  that  they  were  recensional ;  and  our 
agreement  with  him  in  his  main  thesis  causes  us  to  regret 
the  more  that  he  has  shown  so  little  power  of  discriminating 
between  real  and  9nly  apparent  recensional  variations,  and 
has  in  consequence  failed  in  the  main  object  which  he  set 
himself,  viz.  to  exhibit,  in  a  perspicuous  and  convenient 
form,  the  approximate  text  of  the  recension  lohich  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Greek  translators. 

We  proceed  to  offer  specimens  of  Prof.  Workman's 
method,  which  we  hope  may  be  regarded  as  sufficient  to 
substantiate  what  we  have  alleged.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  there  are  throughout  two  questions,  which  are  distinct 
from  one  another  :  1.  What  is  the  Hebrew  text  underlying 
the  LXX  translation?  2.  Is  this  text  preferable  to  the 
existing  Hebrew  text?  Prof.  Workman's  answer  to  the 
first  question  is  stated  very  fully  and  clearly ;  it  occupies 
the  whole  of  the  long  chapter  headed  "  The  Conspectus  of 
the  Variations."  The  second  question  he  does  not  answer 
systematically,  but  he  gives  the  reader  to  understand  that 
though  he  does  not  suppose  the  text  represented  by  LXX 
to  be  entirely  free  from  error,  he  is  very  generally  disposed 
to  prefer  it  to  the  Hebrew  text  which  we  at  present 
possess. 


'^28  THS  i)OtfBLlb}  TEXT  OP  JUBEMIAS. 

The  Hebrew  word  jm^-iti^  firmness,  in  a  bad  sense, 
obstinacy,  occurs  in  Jeremiah  eight  times  ;  as  the  LXX, 
however,  express  it  by  a  word  of  a  different  meaning, 
it  is  inferred  by  Prof.  Workman  that  they  had  a  different 
text  before  them,  which  is  restored  by  him  accordingly. 
Thus  3,  17  evOv^fMara,  W.  r]'\^pt2  ;  9,  13.  16,  12.  18,  12 

Td  apea-rd,  w.  n^^<r) ;  23,  17  irXavT],  w.  r]^^r} :   in  11,  8 

and  13,  10  the  word  is  not  represented  in  LXX  ;  perhaps 
also  not  in  7,  24,  though  it  seems  to  us  that  Jlliii^l!^!  is 
the  word  which  is  here  not  represented,  and  that  DTlHiy 
is  expressed,  as  in  3,  17,  by  ipdv/xy/xaTa.  There  is  not  the 
smallest  basis  for  any  one  of  these  supposed  restorations. 
Prof.  Workman  has  overlooked  the  fact  that  in  the  two 
other  places  where  the  word  occurs  in  the  Old  Testament, 
Deuteronomy  29,  18.  Ps.  81,  13,  it  is  represented  in  LXX 
by  d7T07r\dvr]at'i  (as  by  ifKavq  in  Jeremiah  23,  17)  and 
iTTLTTjBeu/xara :  if  these  do  not  satisfy  him  that  the  LXX  in 
all  cases  read  the  same  word  which  we  now  have  (though, 
not  miderstanding  it  etymologically,^  they  rendered  it  by 
words  more  or  less  suggested  by  the  context),  then,  as  it 
is  not  to  be  supposed  (upon  his  principles)  that  the  trans- 
lators of  Deuteronomy  and  the  Psalms  were  less  trust- 
worthy than  the  translator  of  Jeremiah,  he  is  landed  in 
one  of  these  extraordinary  conclusions,  either,  viz.  that 
JTl"l''1ti^,  an  actual  Hebrew  word,  was  seven  (or  eight)  dif- 
ferent times  expunged  from  the  MSS.  used  by  the  LXX, 
or  that  three  distinct  words,  standing  originally  in  the  seven 
(or  eight)  passages,  were  changed  in  the  Massoretic  text 
to  a  word  not  otherwise  occurring  in  Hebrew  at  all  !  We 
venture  to  think  that  every  reasonable  critic  will  admit  that 
the  "restorations"  in  the  cases  referred  to  are  one  and  all 

1  As  the  other  ancient  translators  did  not  understand  it,  and  hence  render 
differently:  thus  Pesh.  always —ilJiO ,  w'/s/;es;  Targum  "l"l^"l^'^  imagination; 
Aquila  <tko\i.6t7]s,  whence  no  doubt  Jerome's  inavitas ;  Symmachus  apecrKela 
(see  the  Hexapla  on  Ps.  81,  13)  ;  Saadyah  in  Deut.  (^hSi  desire. 


THE  DOUBLE   TEXT  OF  JEREMIAE.  329 

imaginary,  and  that  the  LXX  in  each  passage  read  precisely 
the  same  consonantal  text  ^  which  we  read  now. 

We  proceed  to  consider  some  passages  taken  at  random. 
7,  26  DH)")^  Di^  Wp''')  LXX  eaK\i]pvvav  rov  Tpdx7]\ov  avrojv. 
Tpd')(7]\o<;,  however,  happens  sometimes  to  express  "IJ^lii ; 
and  hence  Prof.  Workman  forthwith  restores  this  word  as 
the  reading  of  LXX  here.  In  doing  this  he  neglects  three 
facts :  (1)  that  rpdxv^o'i  also  represents  ^1)^  (as  Deutero- 
nomy 10,  16.  31,  27  and  elsewhere,  in  the  same  phrase) ;  (2) 
that  "li<i1ii  iltDptl  is  an  unidiomatic  combination  (unless,  to 
be  sure,  it  can  be  proved  that  wherever  hardness  of  neck  is 
spoken  of  in  the  Hebrew  Bible — some  seventeen  times — ^")^ 
is  always  an  error  for  "IJ^Ili  !)  ;  (3)  that  he  has  himself  left 
^'■))J  r\^\)r^  without  any  alteration  in  17,  23  and  19,  15  !— 
14,  7  our  iniquities  testify  against  us  LXX  avTearrjaav, 
whence  W.  V2ip  for  IJ^,  producing  a  most  improbable 
figure  in  this  connexion  (Job  16,  8  is  different),  and  not 
noticing  that  HJ^  is  rendered  by  exactly  the  same  verb  in 
LXX  Deuteronomy  19,  18.  Isaiah  3,  8,  and  especially  in 
the  very  similar  passage  Isaiah  59,  12. — 11,  14.  14,  12  HJl 
LXX  Ber]aL<i,  W.  T^^Hn  and  T^b^Jl,  overlooking  the  fact  that 
njl,  the  cry  of  prayer,  is  constantly  expressed  by  8er](Tt<;  in 
the  Psalms. — 15,  21  D"'2in^  oppressors  LXX  Xoificov,  W. 
strangely  D'^hivriD  {sicknesses !)  But  \oip,o<i  expresses  the 
same  Hebrew  word  X'l);  in  Ezek.  28,  7.  30,  11.  31,  12.  13. 
— 18,  10  have  done  evil  in  my  sight  {"^2^2)  LXX  evavrlov 
fiov,  W.  ■'JE)'?  before  me.  But  see  7,  28.  40,  4  where  Prof. 
Workman  himself  does  not  suggest  that  the  LXX  had  any 
reading  differing  from  ours. — 17,  27  palaces  of  Jerusalem, 
LXX  d/j^cfioSa,  W.  m^irr ;  but  49,  26  no  change  !  6,  5  the 
same  word  is  rendered  ^e/xeXta ;  which  of  course  suggests 
to  Prof.  Workman  the  reading  nmD\  But  m^^DIl^  is  re- 
presented six  times  in  Amos  1-2,  as  well  as  elsewhere,  by 
0efi,i\ia ;  and  it  is  certain  that  it  is  one  of  the  many  words 
^  It  may  be  admitted  that  they  may  have  vocalized  as  a  plur.  (JTIIC). 


330  THE  DOUBLE   TEXT  OF  JEBEMIAH. 

the  meaning  of  which  was  unknown  to  some  of  the  LXX 
translators. — 19,  5  nor  did  it  come  up  upon  my  heart  (a 
Hebrew  idiom  =  nor  did  it  enter  into  my  mind:  see  Acts 
7,  23),  LXX  ovSe  8L6VOJ]9r}v  iv  rfj  KapBla  fiov,  W.  "'il^ti/n  ii7) 
'^y?^.  It  is  true,  LXX  render  the  idiom  hterally  in  3,  16. 
32,  35.  44,  21 ;  but  it  is  far  more  probable  that  they  were 
not  perfectly  uniform,  than  that  such  a  weak  expression 
should  have  been  used  as  Prof.  Workman  restores  (espe- 
cially when  it  is  remembered  that  the  passage  is  parallel 
in  thought  to  7,  31.  32,  35) ;  moreover,  in  7,  31,  where  their 
rendering  is  exactly  the  same,  he  makes  no  change  I — 24,  8 
and  25,  19  Vlti^  LXX  ixe^LaTave<i,  whence  W.  concludes  that 
they  read  V?')!^.  Yet  /jLeyiardve^  corresponds  to  W^l^  in  34, 
10.  49,  38.  50,  35  (which  he  leaves  unaltered  !)  and  thrice 
in  other  books. — 25,  30  the  Lord  shall  roar  .  .  .  shall 
mightily  roar  against  his  fold,  LXX  xPVf^"'^^^^  •  •  •  ^070^ 
;)^/07;^aTiet  ;  W.  111^  .  .  .  121'^  ")I11  ivill  speaJc  .  .  . 
will  speak  a  loord.  There  is  no  doubt  that  Prof.  Work- 
man and  his  coadjutor  can  write  excellent  Hebrew  prose ; 
but  do  they  seriously  ask  us  to  believe  that  the  LXX  read 
this  prose  in  their  MS.  ?  Have  they  both  forgotten  Amos 
1,  2,  where  LXX  similarly  paraphrase  the  figure  by  e(p6iy- 
^aro?  Is  the  entire  Old  Testament  to  be  reconstituted 
upon  the  basis  of  a  literal  retranslation  of  the  Septuagint 
Version  ?  In  the  same  verse,  for  his  fold  LXX  have  roirov 
auTov,  W.  accordingly  )'D)pt2  his  place.  But  (1)  LXX  para- 
phrase mj  similarly  in  Psalm  79,  7  :  and  (2)  where  the 
same  rendering  occurs  in  49,  19,  no  different  reading  is 
postulated  by  Prof.  Workman  himself  ! — ^32,  35  to  pass 
through  (the  fire)  to  Moloch,  LXX  ava^epeiv  to  offer,  W. 
mpn'?.  But  Exodus  13,  12  acfjeXel^,  Ezek.  16,  21  aTrorpo- 
TTid^eaOai  for  the  same  Hebrew  word,  show  that  the  trans- 
lators simply  paraphrase :  "to  p>ass  throng  Jo  (the  fire)  to 
Moloch"  is  a  standing  expression  in  Hebrew,  "to  offer  to 
Moloch"    is    never   found. — 49,  18  like   the   overthrow  of 


TSE  DOUBLE   TEXT  OF  JEBEMtAH.  331 


Sodom  and  Gomorrha,  '^T  'D  -nDS)rT?DD  LXX  wairep  Kare- 
<TTpd(l)7]  5*.  Kal  r.,  W.  y^  'D  nDSrr:!  It^i^D  (a  similar  change 
in  50,  40).  The  LXX  render  hkewise  by  a  verbal  form 
Deuteronomy  29,  2'2 ;  Isaiah  13,  19 ;  Amos  4,  11.  But 
surely,  because  Greek  idiom  will  not  admit  of  the  peculiar 
Hebrew  construction  being  rendered  literally,  Prof.  Work- 
man does  not  propose  to  eliminate  this  classical  expression 
from  the  pages  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  ?  or  even  to  suggest 
that,  by  some  extraordinary  freak  of  transmission,  it  was 
already,  in^i^e  different  i^laces,  corrupted  into  the  inelegant 
form  which  he  "  restores,"  before  the  time  when  the  LXX 
translation  was  made? — 50,  11  "lli'lSn  LXX  iaKipraTe,  W 
Tlbri  (Gen..  49,  24),  truly  a  case  of  "  fumum  ex  fulgore." 
The  LXX  read  exactly  what  we  read,  as  is  clear  from  their 
rendering  of  Malachi  3,  20.— 50,  45  ]i^:in  ny)i,  LXX  ra 
apvla  TMP  irpo^drwv  aiiroiv,  W.  D2i«iiJ  ''T'Sii  {goats  of  their 
flock!).  But  is  not  apvia  as  venial  a  paraphrase  of  ''I'^i^U 
little  ones,  as  it  is  of  ''J31  ijoung  ones  in  Ps.  114,  4  ? 

The  use  of  the  infinitive,  in  lieu  of  the  finite  verb,  in 
certain  circumstances,  is  a  familiar  and  well  substantiated 
Hebrew  idiom,  though  one  which  it  is  naturally  difficult, 
and  even  impossible,  to  reproduce  in  another  language.  It 
occurs  several  times  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  Jeremiah,  some- 
times (as  7,  9)  with  great  force  (Ewald,  Heh.  Syntax,  § 
328^),  and  always  in  entire  accordance  with  idiom.  Because 
however  LXX  render,  as  they  could  not  help  rendering, 
by  a  finite  verb,  they  are  supposed  to  have  had  a  finite 
verb  in  their  text,  which  is  everywhere  restored  —  or 
rather  corrupted — accordingly  (3,  1.  7,  9.  18.  8, 15.  14,  5.  19. 
22,  14.  23,  14.  32,  33.  36,  23.  37,  21).  Because  the  ex- 
pression D^ti^T)''  ■'Uti'V  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  is  some- 
times rendered  in  LXX  ol  Ka-roiKovvre'^  ev  'lep.,  they  are 
supposed  in  such  cases  to  have  had  in  their  MS.  D''2ti^Vn 
Dbt:ri10  (8,  1.  11,  2.  9.  17,  25.  19,  3  etc.),  an  expression 
never  found    in    the  Old   Testament.      Innumerable   cases 


332  THE  DOUBLE   TEXT  OF  JEREMIAH. 

also  occur  in  which  shght  differences  of  tense,  or  number, 
or  person,  or  construction  (e.g.  5,  14  ;  but  contrast  7,  13. 
18.  23,  38  etc.),  or  the  substitution  of  a  pronoun  for  an 
article,  or  the  addition  or  absence  of  a  small  particle, 
etc.,  are  supposed  to  point  to  different  readings  in  the  MS. 
used  by  the  LXX, — as  a  rule,  quite  needlessly. 

It  is  a  peculiarity  of  Hebrew  to  employ  a  singular,  in 
many  cases,  where  a  western  language  would  use  a  plural. 
Thus  Hebrew  writers  say  often  "your  heart"  instead  of 
"  your  hearts  " ;  and  in  general  are  apt  to  use  collective 
terms  in  preference  to  true  plurals,  as  tear  for  tears,  chariot 
(or  chariotry)  for  chariots,  sometimes  even  man  for  men. 
Naturally  in  such  cases,  where  the  Hebrew  has  a  singular 
term,  the  LXX  have  used  a  plural  in  accordance  with  the 
prevalent  usage  of  the  Greek  language.  Prof.  Workman, 
however,  believes  that  in  all  such  cases — all,  at  least,  which 
he  has  not  overlooked — the  LXX  actually  had  plurals  in 
the  text  which  they  used  ;  and  the  plural  for  the  singular 
figures  in  his  "  Conspectus  of  Variations"  accordingly!  Ex- 
amples  :  2,  22.  3,  2.  5,  7.  7,  22.  11,  20.  12,  9.  13, 17.  14,  20. 16, 
18.  18,  23.  23, 14.  31,  33.  34.  32,  23.  36,  3.  47,  2.  48,  35.  On 
account  of  the  Greek  SuKpva,  the  unnatural  Jll^/^T  for  n^^Ql 
is  restored  in  8,  23.  9,  17.  13,  17.  14,  17.  31, 16.  Where  the 
Greek  has  apixara,  □''1D~I  (which  occurs  once  only  in  the 
Old  Testament,  Cant.  1,  9)  or  miD")?2  is  supposed  always 
to  have  been  read  by  the  translators  :  17,  25.  22,  4.  46,  9. 
47,  3  (here  in  an  impossible  form  V^DI),  50  37.  51  21.  In 
11,  11  Behold,  I  bring  evil  upon  them,  the  LXX  have 
KUKa  :  accordingly  m^"l  is  declared  to  have  been  their  read- 
ing ;  yet,  by  another  of  the  inconsistencies  which  are  so 
conspicuous  in  Prof.  Workman's  book,^  in  6,  19.  19,  3.  35, 

'  See  besides  those  which  have  been  noticed,  6,  22  compared  with  25,  32.  31, 
8.  50,  41 ;  6,  21  (where  mPV^  Dv^PI  is  contrary  to  usage)  compared  with  50, 
43  ;  11,  22  with  29,  32 ;  14,  1  with  7,  22 ;  42,  20  with  42,  2.  7,  16.  11,  14.  14, 
11  etc. 


THE  DOUBLE  TEXT  OF  JEREMIAH.  333 

17.  45,  5,  where  the  same  phrase  occurs,  no  change  is  con- 
sidered necessary.  Hebrew  writers  speak  uniformly  of 
dehvering  into  the  Jiand  (not  hands)  of  so  and  so — whether 
a  singular  or  plural  follows  :  LXX  usually  have  eU  x^lpa^, 
and  ''T'l  is  duly  recorded  as  having  been  their  reading  (20, 
4.  5.  21,  7.  10.  22,  25.  26,  24  ondi  passim) .  On  this  we  would 
observe  that  the  standing  usage  of  the  Old  Testament  is 
'^"'1  not  no :  which  supposition  then  is  the  more  probable  ? 
that  the  LXX  simply  wrote  "into  the  hands"  for  "into 
the  hand  "  ;  or — for  these  are  the  alternatives — either  that 
the  Hebrew  text  of  the  entire  Old  Testament  is  so  corrupt 
that  we  do  not  know  what  was  idiomatic  in  Hebrew  and 
what  was  not,  or  that  Jeremiah  himself  deserted  the  idiom 
of  his  own  language,  or  that  a  scribe,  who  of  course  must 
also  have  been  conversant  with  Hebrew,  introduced  tlirough- 
out  the  Book  this  un-Hebrew  expression? 

Hitherto  we  have  confined  ourselves  to  the  first  of  the 
questions  stated  above,  and  have  endeavoured  to  show  cause 
why  we  cannot  accept  Prof.  Workman's  restoration,  as  a 
genuine  representation  of  the  Hebrew  text  used  by  the 
LXX.  Let  us  next  approach  his  restoration  from  a  dif- 
ferent point  of  view,  and  (accepting  it,  provisionally,  in  the 
form  in  which  he  sets  it  before  us)  inquire  how  far  it  can 
claim  superiority  to  the  existing  Hebrew  text.  We  must 
be  brief;  and  our  opinion  will  perhaps  be  sufiiciently  indi- 
cated if  we  take  two  or  three  chapters  and  compare  the 
two  texts.  In  chap.  ii.  the  conspectus  exhibits  seventy-five 
variations  (or  groups  of  variations)  between  the  Hebrew 
and  the  presumed  original  of  the  LXX,  Of  these  we  should 
say  that  about  twelve  are,  or  might  plausibly  be  argued  to 
be,  better  than  the  corresponding  readings  in  the  Hebrew,^ 

1  2,  6  nD:J>  {see  51,  43) ;  12  ;  20  >rn3t^'  and  '•npnJ,  and  DIVH  (as  the  Kt.) 
21  (though  not  as  Prof.  Workman  restores,  but  as  is  suggested  by  Graf,  viz, 
ni'np'?  for  n  mo  •'b,  cf.  Deut.  32,  S2-=TrLKpla)  ;  27  ^JFl"!^'' ;    30  3in,  DDHd'?, 

aud'''DnN-i^  x"?! ;  31  iro:;' ;  33  x?3o'?  nyin  n>i!  qj  ;  34  '•dt  ;  53  n^x-bs-'?!;. 


334  THE  DOUBLE   TEXT  OF  JEBEMIAE. 

about  twenty-four  are  neutral — the  sense  differing  so 
slightly,  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  that  either  is  superior 
to  the  other, — and  about  thirty-nine  are  decidedly  worse,  con- 
sisting often  of  phrases  which  Jeremiah  himself  could  not 
possibly  have  written.  We  have  no  space  here  to  examine 
the  passages  in  detail ;  but  we  can  assure  our  readers  that 
we  have  considered  them  carefully,  and  without  the  smallest 
bias  against  the  LXX.  In  chap,  vii.,  out  of  some  fifty-six 
variations  (disregarding  the  two  long  omissions  in  vers.  1-2, 
27),  only  one  appears  to  us  to  offer  a  reading  preferable  to 
the  Hebrew,  viis.  the  omission  in  ver.  24  of  (not  Jm")"lti^Il,  but) 
Jlliij^lDl,  "in  counsels  "  (which  from  its  imperfect  construc- 
tion may  not  imj^robably  be  a  gloss)  ;  of  the  remaining 
fifty-five,  about  twenty-six  appear  to  us  to  be  neutral,  and 
about  twenty-nine  inferior  to  the  present  Hebrew.  AVe 
cannot  however  conceal  our  persuasion  that  the  majority 
of  these  variations  are  not  "  recensional  "  at  all,  but  are 
simply  due  to  a  slight  freedom  in  rendering  on  the  part  of 
the  translators,  or  (in  some  cases)  to  their  having  misread 
or  misunderstood  their  Hebrew  text.  In  point  of  fact,  out 
of  the  fifty-six  variations  noted  by  Prof.  Workman  in  chap, 
vii.,  we  should  say  that  about  tiuenty^  might  fairly  be  treated 
as  "  recensional,"  though  whether  they  are  all  actually  so 
is  more  than  we  can  take  upon  ourselves  to  say, — probably 
not ;  the  rest  we  should  attribute,  without  the  smallest 
hesitation,  to  one  or  other  of  the  causes  just  indicated. 
Mutatis  mutandis,  our  judgment  would  not  be  substantially 

In  his  view  of  131"!  ver.  31  (p.  237),  Prof.  Workman  has  gone  entirely  astray.  We 
cannot  admit  that  the  LXX  translation  proves  11"!  to  mean  "  be  lord,"  but, 
allowing  that  it  does,  ov  KvpievOrjaoneda.  would  express  not  IJl"!  NTTI  (p.  286), 
but  "n~i;j  N^.  And  on  p.  270,  the  originality  of  the  inversion  which  he  seeks 
to  disj)ute,  is  surely  confirmed  by  the  usage  of  the  cofinate  languages. 

1  Viz.  the  omissions  in  vers.  1-2,  3,  4  end,  10,  13  his,  20,  21,  24  (niVJ?1?;Dn), 
26  end,  27,  28  his;  the  addition  in  ver.  28"  (which  agrees  with  the  omission  of  ver. 
27);  and  ver.  7  pNIl,  22  im'pyn  ;  31  T\)22.;  32  DJinri:  34  jbt' and  Dn?X'. 
We  have  endeavoured  to  be  liberal  to  Prof.  Workman  ;  for  it  is  not  possible  to 
be  confident  rosjiecting  some  of  these. 


THE  DOUBLE   TEXT   OF  JEREMIAH.  331 


dissimilar  in  other  parts  of  the  book.  We  base  this  opinion 
largely  upon  general  views.  Though  it  is  undoubted  that 
the  Septuagint  preserves  in  many  cases — perhaps  indeed  in 
more  cases  than  is  generally  supposed — readings  superior 
to  those  of  the  existing  Hebrew  text,  it  is  also  undoubted 
that  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  its  readings  are  greatly 
inferior ;  so  soon  as  it  deviates  from  the  Hebrew,  a  deterio- 
ration in  force,  and  terseness,  and  idiomatic  freshness  at 
once,  as  a  rule,  begins  to  show  itself.  Can  any  qualified 
Hebrew  scholar  doubt  that  chaps,  ii.  and  vii.,  read  in  the 
form  in  which  Prof.  Workman  exhibits  them,  are  inferior, 
both  in  intelligibility  and  force,  to  the  form  in  which  the}^ 
appear  in  the  Massoretic  text  ?  Upon  grounds,  not  based 
(as  we  hope)  upon  an  unreasoning  prejudice,  but  of  our 
appreciation  of  Hehreio  idiom,  we  are  thus  compelled  to 
conclude  that,  on  the  whole,  the  Massoretic  text  exhibits 
the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  in  their  more  original  form  ; 
and  this  being  so,  it  appears  to  us  incredible  that  the  vast 
amount  of  change,  including  many  of  the  most  violent  and 
extravagant  character — witness  the  stylistic  toiu's  de  fgrce 
in  2,  23-4.  25.  7,  16 — could  have  been  introduced  into  the 
text  by  any  scribe,  or  series  of  scribes,  or  at  any  time.  For 
the  variations  being  mostly  significant,  they  must  have  been 
due  to  design,  and  yet  they  are  of  a  nature  which  it  is  im- 
possible even  to  imagine  any  scribe  as  designedly  making.^ 
The  alternative  supposition,  that,  to  a  certain  extent,  more 
than  is  conceded  by  Graf  and  Keil,  but  considerably  less 
than  is  contended  for  by  Prof.  Workman,  the  variations  of 
LXX  are  recensional,  but  that,  beyond  this,  they  are  due, 
partly  to  the  MS.  (or  MSS.)  used  being  in  places  imper- 
fectly legible,  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  translators  either 
misunderstood  the  Hebrew,  or  permitted  themselves  some 

1  It  is  probably  in  its  greater  conchoiess  of  e.r2»-es>iion  that  the  text  of  LXX 
is  most  frequently  superior  in  origiualiiy  to  the  existing  Hebrew  text.  But  this 
seldom  affects  stijle. 


336  THE  DOUBLE   TEXT  OF  JE  BE  MI  AH. 

freedom  in  rendering  it,  is  surely  both  far  more  intelligible 
in  itself,  and  altogether  more  in  accordance  with  probability 
and  analogy.^ 

It  is  with  sincere  regret  that  we  have  found  ourselves 
compelled  to  pass  this  unfavourable  judgment  upon  Prof. 
AVorkman's  volume.  But  truth  obliges  us  to  own  that  he 
is  not  equal  to  the  task  which  he  has  undertaken.  His 
judgments  are  crude,  superficial,  and  inconsistent ;  and  he 
is  greatly  deficient  in  the  faculty  of  discrimination.  In  par- 
ticular, he  has  not  learnt  the  lesson  of  Wellhausen's  mono- 
graph, On  the  Text  of  the  Books  of  Samuel,  in  which  the 
distinction  between  variations  due  only  to  the  translators, 
and  variations  having  their  source  in  the  MS.  or  MSS. 
used  by  them,  which  alone,  as  is  obvious,  possess  any  value 
for  the  textual  critic,  is  repeatedly  illustrated  and  enforced. 
Hence  his  volume  to  the  textual  critic  is  a  disappointing 
one.  He  does  not  find  in  it  what  he  expects  to  find,  viz. 
a  clear  and  well  considered  estimate,  based  on  long  and 
discriminating  study  of  the  book,  of  what  are  recensional 
variations  ;  and  he  finds  in  it  a  great  deal  which  is  of  no 
interest  or  importance  to  him  whatever.  Had  Prof.  AVork- 
man  considered  the  variants  individually,  and  eliminated 
from  his  Conspectus  all  those  which  may  fairly  be  re- 
garded as  due  solely  to  the  translators,  he  would  have  pro- 
duced a  handbook  which  would  have  been  of  real  service 
to  the  student  of  Jeremiah  ;  as  it  is,  his  Conspectus  be- 
wilders by  the  mass  of  irrelevant  and  worthless  material 
which  it  contains,  and,  to  all  but  the  trained  scholar,  is 
simply  misleading.  For  the  present,  we  hope  that  all  who 
are  interested  in  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  will  provide 
themselves  with  Prof.   Workman's   volume ;  but  we  hope 

1  The  Targum,  to  which  Prof.  Workman   often  appeals  in  support   of  his 

restorations,  of  course  paraphrased  likewise.     It  would  be  easy  to  show  also 

that  its  evidence  is  often  on  other  grounds  inconclusive.  Thus  it  regularly 

renders  ^Tl  by  the  plural  jv3n  ;  how  then  does  its  use  of  this  word  in  6,  24 
show  that  it  read  □''7311  rather  than  PTI  ? 


OLD   TESTAMENT  CRITICISM.  337 

also  that  they  will  follow  it  with  the  utmost  possible  dis- 
crimination. And  for  the  future  we  earnestly  trust  that 
Prof.  Workman  may  be  induced  to  reconsider  the  plan 
upon  which  he  has  pursued  his  investigations ;  and  in  a 
future  edition  will  not  shrink  from  cutting  down  his  Con- 
spectus to  one-third  or  one -fourth — the  more,  the  better — 
of  its  present  dimensions. 

S.    K.    DiMVER. 


OLD  TESTAMENT  CBITICISM  IN  THE  LIGHT 
OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  QUOTATIONS. 

DuEiNG  the  past  half-century  the  attention  of  Hebrew 
scholars  has  been  directed,  perhaps  more  than  at  any  former 
period,  to  the  consideration  of  the  text,  and  the  structure 
of  the  books,  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  impulse  to  such 
studies  had  its  rise  a  century  earlier,  but  it  was  only  here 
and  there  that  a  solitary  student  gave  himself  to  the  work. 
In  our  days  the  labourers  have  happily  become  more 
numerous.  Their  work  too  has  been  fruitful  in  results, 
and  when  what  is  certain  in  these  inquiries  becomes  as- 
sured to  the  Church  at  large,  we  shall  find  that  we  have 
advanced  greatly  in  our  knowledge  of  these  sacred  books, 
and  have  gained  clearer  insight  into  the  manner  of  God's 
revelation.  But  that  time,  though  it  be  steadily  approach- 
ing, has  not  yet  arrived.  Meanwhile  the  minds  of  many, 
who  cannot  examine  the  originals  for  themselves,  grow 
sorely  troubled  by  the  questionings  that  are  current,  and 
not  always  couched  in  a  reverent  form,  about  matters  which 
they  have  hitherto  deemed  unquestionable. 

For  much  of  this  trouble  no  doubt  the  Churches  themselves 
must  be  held  responsible.  All  study  and  instruction  con- 
cerning the  origin  and  history  of  the  Old  Testament  writings 

VOL.  IX.  22 


338  OLD   TESTAMENT  CRITICISM  IN  TEE 


has  either  been  omitted  by  those  who  were  responsible  for 
imparting  it,  or  else  has  been  thrust  very  much  into  the 
background.  It  was  no  unnatural  result  of  the  Beformation 
that  the  authority  of  Scripture  should  be  magnified.  The 
reverence  then  generated  grew  in  time  to  be  somewhat 
superstitious.  The  instrument  by  which  God  had  revealed 
Himself  to  His  ancient  people  became  regarded  as  partaking 
of  the  Divine  perfection.  The  climax  of  letter-worship 
was  reached  when  the  reformed  Churches  of  Switzerland,  in 
1675,  declared  that  "the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament, 
as  we  have  received  it  from  the  Jews,  is,  as  well  in  con- 
sonants as  in  vowels  and  other  points,  and  in  matter  as 
well  as  in  words,  divinely  inspired ;  and  by  it  all  versions, 
eastern  or  western,  are  to  be  examined,  and  where  they 
vary,  are  to  be  conformed  to  it."  ^ 

Such  opinions  were  not  confined  to  Switzerland,  and  of 
them  we  now  reap  the  fruits.  Being  trained  on  such  ideas, 
there  are  many  devout  minds  which  receive  a  severe  shock 
if  it  be  suggested  that  Moses  may  not  have  been  the  author 
of  the  Pentateuch  ;  that  Genesis  bears  evidence  of  being 
a  compilation  from  various  independent  documents;  that 
other  books  of  the  Old  Testament  are  of  a  composite 
character ;  that  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  and  Zechariah  are 
not  the  work  of  one  author  throughout ;  that  the  whole 
of  the  Old  Testament  may  have  been  brought  into  its  pre- 
sent form  in  the  days  of  Ezra,  or  even  later,  and  that  in 
the  course  of  many  transcriptions  some  errors  of  the  scribes 
may  have  found  their  way  into  the  text. 

In  our  days  criticism  has  pronounced  these  and  similar 
judgements,  and  many  of  them  are  receiving  constant  con- 
firmation. And  they  are  seized  upon  by  some,  who  have 
no  love  for  revelation,  and  are  glad  of  any  means  to  disquiet 
the  minds  of  the  faithful,  and  are  put  forward  in  crude 
and  exaggerated  forma  as  helps  toward  undermining  the 
*  See  Formula  Concensus  Helvetica  (Canon  ii.),  Niemeyer,  p.  731. 


LIGET  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  QUOTATIONS.      339 

authority  of  the  sacred  Scriptures.  Devout  criticism,  and 
it  abounds,  has  no  such  aim ;  and  those  who  have  given 
most  earnest  labour  to  these  investigations  feel  more  than 
others  for  the  pain  which  godly  people  may  suffer  from  the 
unwarranted  representations  which  are  sometimes  made 
concerning  the  results  of  critical  inquiry  into  the  origin  of 
the  Old  Testament.  Hence  they  wax  more  earnest  in  their 
work,  assured  that  the  light  will  spread,  and  that  a  better 
understanding  of  what  is,  and  what  is  not,  at  stake  in  these 
investigations  will  sooner  or  later  dispel  this  alarm. 

For  it  was  not  always  thus.  Devout  men  in  former 
times  accepted  a  great  part  of  what  is  put  forward  by 
modern  critics,  and  found  the  authority  of  the  Bible  in 
nowise  impaired  thereby.  None  will  accuse  Calvin  of 
undervaluing  the  Scriptures,  yet  now4iere  can  one  find  more 
of  what  is  now  called  "  free  handling  "  than  in  his  com- 
mentaries. Examples,  both  in  our  own  country  and  abroad, 
could  easily  be  multiphed.  One  will  serve  the  purpose. 
Dr.  Whitaker,  who  was  Kegius  Professor  of  Divinity  in  the 
University  of  Cambridge  from  1580  to  1596,  and  who  was 
largely  engaged  in  controversy  with  the  Romanists  on  the 
authority  of  the  Scriptures,  writes  :  "  It  is  very  possible 
that  the  books  [of  the  Old  Testament],  which  may  have 
been  previously  in  some  disorder,  were  corrected  by  Ezra, 
restored  to  their  proper  places,  and  disposed  according  to 
some  fixed  plan,  as  Hilary,  in  his  prologue,  affirms  par- 
ticularly of  the  Psalms."  ^ 

The  over-great  superstition  with  respect  to  the  sacred  text 
had  not  arisen  in  the  days  of  Calvin  and  AVhitaker,  and 
there  was  more  widely  diffused  than  at  present  a  knowledge 
of  its  history.  This  enabled  men  to  keep  firm  hold  upon 
that  which  constitutes  the  true  value  of  the  Scriptures,  to 
distinguish  between  the  Divine  purpose  of  revelation  and 
the  fallible  human  agency  which  God  has  employed  for  its 

'  See  Whitaker's  Disputation  on  Scripture,  p.  116.     (Parker  Society.) 


340  OLD   TESTAMENT  CRITICISM  IN  TBE 

publication.  It  is  with  this  latter  that  criticism  of  words 
and  language  deals,  and  clear  knowledge  on  this  point  is 
all  that  is  needed  to  allay  any  anxieties  which  are  now 
raised  by  discussions  concerning  text  and  authorship. 

The  Old  Testament  bears  witness  unto  Christ.  He 
Himself  has  told  us  so.  And  His  apostles  teach  us  that 
it  is  able  to  make  men  wise  unto  salvation;  that  it  is 
profitable  for  teaching,  for  reproof,  for  correction,  for  in- 
struction which  is  in  righteousness.  To  serve  these 
objects  it  was  given,  and  we  cannot  possibly  turn  to  better 
authority  than  our  Lord  and  His  apostles  for  the  way  in 
which  it  may  be  employed  to  do  so.  They  constantly 
appeal  to  the  writings  of  the  older  covenant,  but  from  the 
way  they  do  this  we  have  clear  evidence  that  textual 
criticism  would  have  given  them  no  alarm ;  that  their 
concern  was  not  with  the  verbal  exactness  of  the  vehicle, 
not  with  niceties  of  text  or  with  unity  of  authorship,  but 
with  that  instruction  which  is  in  righteousness  and  which 
is  conveyed  to  men  in  the  sacred  record. 

The  New  Testament,  written  in  Greek,  represents  our 
Lord  and  His  apostles  as  employing,  not  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  but  a  Greek  version  of  them,  the  Septuagint, 
which  had  been  made  at  various  times  between  the  close 
of  the  Hebrew  canon  and  the  first  or  second  century 
before  Christ.  The  Greek  version,  though  giving  the 
general  sense  of  the  Hebrew  fairly  well,  is  by  no  means  an 
exact  translation ;  yet  in  it  Jesus  found  that  testimony  and 
those  lessons  after  which  He  earnestly  exhorted  men  to 
seek  as  the  way  to  life  eternal. 

One  or  two  examples  will  make  plain  both  what  has  been 
said  about  the  character  of  the  Septuagint  version,  and  also 
show  the  way  in  which  our  Lord  and  His  apostles  made 
use  of  it.  And  first  of  Christ  Himself.  In  St.  Matthew 
xxi.  16  we  find  Him  replying  to  the  murmurings  of  the 
chief  priests  and  scribes,  who  were  offended  at  the  hosannas 


LIGET  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  QUOTATIONS.      34-1 


of  the  attendant  children.  Jesus  says,  "Have  ye  never 
read,  Out  of  the  mouths  of  babes  and  sucklings  Thou  hast 
perfected  praise.^"  Here  He  is  quoting  from  the  Septua- 
gint  of  Psalm  viii.  2.  But  that  passage  in  the  Hebrew, 
which  is  strictly  represented  by  our  English  translations, 
ends  with  "  Thou  hast  ordained  [E.V.,  established]  strength." 
And  this  rendering  is  in  entire  harmony  with  the  context 
of  the  psalm,  which  speaks  of  stilhng  the  enemy  and  the 
avenger.  For  such  a  work  strength  and  not  praise  would 
be  needed.  It  in  no  way  concerns  us  to  inquire  how  the 
Septuagint  rendering  of  this  verse  arose.  It  suliices  that 
Jesus  has  accepted  it  as  giving  the  spirit  of  David's  psalm. 
He  had  enemies  around  Him  of  a  different  character  from 
those  contemplated  by  the  psalmist.  But  the  Divine  eco- 
nomy is  manifested  in  many  ways,  and  it  is  part  of  that 
economy  to  use  the  weak  things  of  the  world  to  confound 
the  things  that  are  mighty ;  and  it  is  suitably  represented, 
whether  the  faithful  lips  of  children  be  described  as  a  bul- 
wark against  the  folly  of  the  adversaries,  or  their  youthful 
praises  as  a  confusion  to  the  malice  of  opposing  priests  and 
scribes. 

The  same  psalm  supplies  us  with  an  example  of  the  way 
in  which,  out  of  a  somewhat  inexact  rendering  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint, the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  were  able  to 
derive  needful  lessons  of  Divine  truth,  and  made  no  scruple 
about  verbal  preciseness.  The  psalmist  is  speaking  of  the 
dignity  which  God  bestowed  upon  man  at  the  creation. 
"  Thou  hast  made  him  but  little  lower  than  God,  and 
crownest  him  with  glory  and  honour ;  Thou  madest  him 
to  have  dominion  over  the  works  of  Thy  hands.  Thou  hast 
put  all  things  under  his  feet."  In  the  Septuagint,  the  first 
clause  of  this  passage  is  rendered,  "  Thou  hast  made  him 
a  little  lower  than  the  angels^  And  this  translation  was 
accepted,  and  made  the  basis  of  an  argument,  by  the  writer 
of  the  Epistle   to   the   Hebrews ;    and   in  consequence  of 


342  OLD   TESTAMENT  CRITICISM  IN   THE 

that  acceptance,  the  translators  of  the  Authorized  Version 
followed  in  the  psalm  the  Septuagint  rather  than  the 
Hebrew.  The  Revised  Version  has  given  the  correct  trans- 
lation, and  has  made  the  passage  refer,  as  it  was  meant  to 
dOj  to  the  creation  of  the  first  Adam  in  God's  image  and 
after  God's  likeness. 

Yet  see  how  the  apostles  accept  the  rendering  of  the 
Seventy,  and  draw  from  it  true  instruction  !  St.  Paul's 
lesson  is  found  in  1  Corinthians  xv.  27,  where  he  uses  the 
psalm  as  witness  that  in  the  first  Adam  there  was  a  pro- 
mise of  the  second.  He  quotes  the  words,  "  God  hath  put 
all  things  under  his  feet,"  and  refers  them  not  to  Adam, 
but  to  Jesus  Christ. 

The  other  apostle  (Heb.  ii.  3-9),  if  indeed  it  be  not  St. 
Paul  here  also,  is  comparing  the  word  that  was  of  old  time 
spoken  by  angels  with  that  gospel  which  began  from  Christ 
and  was  continued  by  His  disciples.  The  latter,  he  shows, 
was  incomparably  the  grander  message.  The  angels  pro- 
claimed the  law,  but  since  the  incarnation  men  have  been 
made  fellow  workers  with  the  Lord  of  glory  in  publishing 
the  message  which  speaks  of  life  and  immortality.  This 
is  the  honour  which  God  has  bestowed  upon  man  in  the 
second  Adam.  By  humiliated  human  nature,  after  its 
assumption  by  Christ,  God  has  now  manifested  His  glory, 
as  it  had  never  been  manifested  among,  or  by,  the  angels. 
The  psalmist  had  celebrated  the  subjection  of  all  nature  to 
the  first  Adam.  The  apostle  testifies  that  a  greater  exal- 
tation than  this  shall  be  realized.  To  Christ,  our  Lord,  the 
Son  of  man,  in  a  far  higher  sense,  all  things  shall  be  made 
subject.  "We  see  not  indeed  as  yet  all  things  put  under 
Him.  All  the  exaltation  of  which  man  is  made  capable 
through  the  incarnation  has  not  yet  been  made  manifest. 
But  a  foretaste  of  it  there  has  been.  We  see  Jesus  the 
God-Man,  who  was  made  a  little  lower  than  the  angels  for 
the  suffering  of  death,  crowned  with  glory  and  honour. 


LIGHT  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   QUOTATIONS.      343 

In  this  way  the  comparison  with  the  angels  serves  the 
apostle's  purpose.  The  words  of  the  psalm  could  most 
fitly  be  apphed  to  Him,  the  Son  of  man,  who  was  also  the 
Son  of  God  ;  and  His  humiliation  was  followed  by  an  exal- 
tation, which  is  a  pledge  of  the  future  crowning  of  those 
whom  He  has  not  been  ashamed  to  call  His  brethren, 
though  now  they  may  here  be  suffering,  as  He  did  that 
He  might  be  made  a  perfect  Mediator. 

It  may  have  been  a  feeling  of  reverence  which  led  the 
Septuagint  translators  to  render  by  "  angels  "  the  word 
which  is  properly  the  name  of  God  Himself.  For  the 
representatives  and  ministers  of  God  are  sometimes,  in  the 
Old  Testament,  called  by  this  name  Elohim.  Thus  the 
judges  are  so  designated  in  Exodus  xxi.  6,  xxii.  8,  where 
however  the  Eevised  Version  has  placed  "  God  "  in  the 
text,  and  "  the  judges  "  on  the  margin.  But  satisfied  with 
the  version  of  the  Seventy  as  conveying  the  Spirit  of  God's 
teaching,  the  apostles  adopt  it  and  expound  it,  to  the  great 
comfort  of  multitudes  of  godly  souls  in  the  generations  that 
have  come  after  them.  And  we  may  rest  assured  that 
those  who  did  so  would  have  paid  little  regard  to  the  sort 
of  questions  which  verbal  criticism  must  raise,  and  which 
are  of  importance  in  their  degree,  but  mainly  for  tracing 
out  the  various  stages  of  the  history  of  the  sacred  text. 

The  next  example  is  different  in  character,  and  even  more 
striking.  In  the  council  which  (Acts  xv.)  was  held  at 
Jerusalem,  about  the  terms  of  admission  of  the  Gentiles 
into  the  Christian  Church,  we  find  St.  James,  after  he  has 
alluded  to  St.  Peter's  visit  to  Cornelius,  whereby  the  door 
of  the  Church  was  opened  to  the  Gentile  world,  continuing 
his  remarks  thus  :  "  To  this  agree  the  words  of  the  prophets, 
as  it  is  written  : 

After  tliis  I  will  return, 

And  I  will  build  again  the  tabernacle  of  David,  whicli  is  fallen  ; 

And  I  will  build  again  tlie  ruins  tliereof, 


344  OLD   TESTAMENT  CRITICISM  IN  THE 

And  I  will  set  it  up  : 

That  the  residue  of  men  may  seek  aftei*  the  Lord, 
And  all  the  Gentiles,  upon  -whom  My  name  is  called, 
Saith  the  Lord,  who  maketh  these  things  known  from  the  beginning 
of  tlie  world." 

The  quotation  is  made  by  St.  James  from  the  Septuagint 
translation  of  Amos  ix.  11,  12.  But  instead  of  "  that  the 
residue  of  men  may  seek  after  the  Lord,"  the  Hebrew  has, 
"  that  they  {i.e.  Israel)  may  possess  the  remnant  of  Edom." 
Now  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  Seventy  took  the  word 
Dnh?  =  Edom,  as  if  it  were  D"Fh{  =  man.  Thus  "the  rem- 
nant of  Edom  "  would  at  once  become  "  the  residue  of 
men,"  They  must  also  have  regarded  this  as  the  subject, 
and  not  the  object,  in  the  sentence,  and  read  the  verb 
1i:^~)''''  =  <' they  may  inherit,"  or  "possess,"  as  if  it  were 
lIiti"T'  =  "  they  may  seek."  Thus  the  change  of  the  render- 
ing in  the  Septuagint  may  be  in  some  degree  explained. 
But  over  this  verbal  change  the  apostle  stumbles  not.  He 
feels  that  the  later  expression  includes  the  earlier,  that 
when  the  residue  of  men  and  all  the  Gentiles  seek  the 
Lord,  the  faith  of  Israel  will  have  prevailed  among  the 
remnant  of  Edom,  For  the  purpose  of  his  argument  he 
can,  without  demur,  accept  the  language  of  the  version ; 
for  in  it  is  contained  the  same,  yea,  even  fuller,  testimony 
to  the  Divine  scheme  of  salvation.  The  true  up-building 
of  the  house  of  David  shall  be  the  up-building  of  all  man- 
kind beside. 

Almost  every  book  of  the  New  Testament  yields  a  supply 
of  similar  examples.  Those  which  have  been  given  are 
enough  to  show  that,  though  the  Septuagint  varies  from 
the  Hebrew,  now  in  its  way  of  expressing  the  precise  form 
of  thought,  now  by  a  changed  rendering  of  single  words, 
and  at  times  in  the  larger  difference  of  a  whole  modified 
sentence,  the  speakers  and  writers  in  the  New  Testament 
did  not  regard  this  as  a  bar  to  its  use,  but  accepted  it  as 


LIGHT  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  QUOTATIONS.      345 


expressing  the  substance  of  God's  revealed  word,  and  found 
in  it  what  they  knew  the  Old  Testament  writings  were 
intended  to  teach. 

Nor  was  it  that  they  were  ignorant  of  the  existence  of 
such  difference  from  the  original  as  we  have  been  noting. 
When  it  is  necessary,  they  can  leave  the  Septuagint,  and 
render  the  Hebrew  closely  for  themselves.  Perhaps  one 
of  the  most  interesting  instances  in  proof  of  this  is  found 
in  St.  John  xix.  37  :  "  They  shall  look  on  Him  whom  they 
have  pierced."  In  this  quotation  from  Zechariah  xii.  10, 
the  Septuagint  renders,  "  They  have  danced  over  in 
triumph,"  instead  of  "  they  have  pierced."  They  appear  to 
have  read  Ipl  —  to  dance,  instead  of  "Ipl  =  to  wound  ;  but 
the  evangelist  gives  the  correct  translation  of  the  Hebrew. 

Similarly  in  1  Corinthians  iii.  19,  St.  Paul  leaves  the  Sep- 
tuagint, to  which  in  most  cases  he  adheres  faithfully.  He  is 
quoting  from  Job  v.  13,  "  He  taketh  the  wise  in  their  own 
craftiness,"  and  his  words  are,  6  hpa<Ta6ixevo<i  rov<i  ao^ov<; 
ev  TTJ  'jravovpyla  avrcov.  Instead  of  this,  the  Septuagint  has 
6  KaraXafi^dvoiv  (ro(f)ov<i  ev  rfj  <^povy]aet.  Everywhere  else 
but  in  this  passage  the  Seventy  translate  HDI^  hyiravovpyia; 
and  the  apostle  takes  that  word  as  the  true  sense  here 
also,  while  for  the  verb  he  employs  Spdaaofiai,,  which  they 
never  use  for  this  Hebrew  word. 

Instances  of  this  kind  are  not  numerous,  for,  as  has  been 
already  said,  the  New  Testament  writers,  as  a  rule,  follow 
the  Septuagint,  but  they  are  enough  to  show  us  that  this 
following  did  not  come  about  because  these  writers  were 
unable  to  go  to  the  original  for  themselves,  if  they  found 
it  best  to  do  so  ;  and  their  practice  makes  it  quite  manifest, 
that  what  they  sought  and  found  in  the  writings  of  the 
older  covenant  was  something  with  which  verbal  and  literal 
criticism  does  not  and  cannot  interfere. 

We  may  gather  also  that  they  would  have  been  undis- 
turbed by  questions  such  as  are  now  discussed  concerning 


346  OLD   TESTAMENT  CBITIGI8M  IN  THE 

the  diversity  of  authorship  in  any  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. To  them  the  whole  volume  was  one,  and  all  its 
parts  of  co-ordinate  authority.  Hence  St.  Matthew  (chap, 
xii.),  writing  about  our  Lord's  reproof  to  the  Pharisees  on 
the  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  represents  Jesus  as  citing 
from  1  Samuel  the  example  of  David,  and  immediately 
afterwards  quoting  the  book  of  Numbers  in  support  of  His 
position,  and  completing  His  rebuke  by  pointing  out  the 
true  principle  of  religious  observance  as  set  forth  by  Hosea, 
"I  will  have  mercy,  and  not  sacrifice."  Each  quotation 
is  put  forward  as  of  equal  authority,  and  as  part  of  one 
and  the  same  Divine  revelation.  To  Christ  it  signified 
not  whether  for  His  purpose  God  has  made  use  of  three 
writers  or  one.  In  the  same  way,  and  in  the  same  chapter, 
Jesus  couples  together  the  books  of  Jonah  and  of  the  Kings, 
in  His  witness  against  the  evil  generation  who  would  see 
a  sign.  The  men  of  Nineveh  and  the  queen  of  the  south 
shall  each  rise  up  in  the  judgment  and  condemn  them. 

And  our  Lord's  manner  in  thus  using  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  illustrated  amply  in  ^  the  other  synoptists.  St 
John  does  not  record  many  details  of  Christ's  conversations 
with  other  persons  than  His  disciples,  and  to  them  He 
does  not  quote  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures.  But  where 
the  evangelist  himself  has  occasion  to  make  use  of  Old 
Testament  illustration,  we  find  his  practice  exactly  the 
same.  The  whole  volume  is  but  one  Divine  record.  Thus, 
in  chapter  xii.,  he  quotes  from  Zechariah,  and  twice  over 

1  Modern  investigation  concerning  the  text  of  the  New  Testament  sup^jhes  us 
with  an  interesting  example  in  Mark  i.  2.  The  textus  receptus  was  correctly 
rendered  in  the  A.V.  "  As  it  is  written  in  the  prophets."  The  quotations  which 
follow  are  from  Malachi  and  from  Isaiah.  But,  as  is  now  established,  the 
earliest  and  best  supjaorted  text  would  be  rendered  (as  in  E.V.)  "  As  it  is  written 
in  Isaiah  the  prophet."  The  evangelist,  though  citing  Malachi  first,  speaks  of 
the  whole  as  "  written  in  Isaiah."  So  entirely  of  one  piece  to  his  mind  was 
the  whole  cycle  of  the  Old  Testament  prophecy.  Some  later  hand,  finding  two 
different  i^rophets  quoted,  noted  the  fact,  most  probably  on  his  margin,  and  in 
time  the  marginal  note  was  substituted  for  the  primitive  text. 


LIGHT  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  QUOTATIONS.      347 

from  Isaiah,  as  if  they  were  all  of  one  authority  ;  while 
in  chapter  xix.  he  places  side  by  side  extracts  from  the 
Psalms,  from  Exodus,  and  from  Zechariah  :  thus  employ- 
ing, in  one  single  chapter,  words  from  each  part  of  the 
Old  Testament  as  divided  by  the  Jews,  from  the  law,  the 
prophets,  and  the  Psalms. 

The  same  use  is  found  in  St.  Paul's  epistles,  and  in  other 
epistles  also.  He  discusses,  in  chapters  ix.-xi.  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Komans,  the  rejection  of  the  Jews  and  the 
calling  of  the  Gentiles  ;  and  in  the  midst  of  an  argument 
where  almost  every  sentence  contains  some  allusion  to  the 
Old  Testament  records,  the  apostle  quotes  directly  from 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  Deuteronomy,  several  times  over  from 
the  Psalms  and  from  Isaiah,  and  from  Nahum ;  and  he 
uses  the  language  of  these  various  writers  as  though  it  were 
all  of  co-ordinate  value  and  importance,  all  alike  bearing 
evidence  to  the  same  revealed  truth. 

In  the  same  way  St.  James  in  one  chapter  (ii.)  employs 
for  his  argument  the  words  of  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
Deuteronomy,  Joshua,  and  Job,  and  treats  them  all  as  of 
the  same  cogency. 

In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  as  might  be  expected, 
quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  are  very  numerous. 
Quite  two-thirds  of  the  books  are  either  directly  quoted 
or  indirectly  alluded  to.  Yet  there  is  not  a  trace  that  one  • 
portion  of  the  volume  was  of  more  esteem  than  another 
for  that  instruction  in  righteousness  for  which  the  whole 
was  given. 

We  may  be  well  assured,  then,  that  our  Lord  and  His 
apostles  would  have  heard  without  concern  the  conclusions 
at  which  modern  criticism  has  arrived,  or  is  likely  to  arrive, 
concerning  the  mixed  authorship  of  any  or  of  all  the  Old 
Testament  books.  Familiar  with  the  Septuagint,  as  we  see 
they  were,  they  must  have  known  the  tradition,  which  is 
recorded  in  2  Esdras  xiv.,  of  Ezra's  prayer  that  he  might 


348  OLD   TESTAMENT  GBITIGISM  IN  THE 

receive  the  Holy  Spirit  in  such  measure  as  to  enable  him 
to  rewrite  the  law  which  had  been  lost,  and  how  tradition 
said  the  prayer  was  granted.     They  must  have  been  ac- 
quainted with  the  more  matter  of  fact  statement  made  in 
2  Maccabees  ii.  13-15  about  the  gathering  by  Nehemiah  of 
the  acts  of  the  kings,  and  the  prophets,  and  of  David,  and 
about   a   similar   collection   made   in   later  days  by  Judas 
Maccabasus.     In  times  when  such  traditions  were  current, 
no  such  worship  of  the  letter  of  the  Old  Testament  could 
have   prevailed   as    would   check  the   use   of    reason   and 
observation  upon  the  documents  as  they  stood,  nor  would 
there   have   been   any  hesitation  in  admitting   that   these 
sacred  books  had  undergone  some  important  revision  in  the 
days  which   succeeded  the  captivity.     But  the  faithful  in 
those  times  believed  that  the  same  Divine  Spirit  was  guid- 
ing Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Haggai  which  had  guided  Moses 
and  Joshua  and  David  :  and  so  believing  they  were  at  peace 
in  their  minds,  assured  that  the  truths  of  revelation  had 
been  ever  preserved,  though  the  channels  which  conveyed 
had  been  changed ;  assured  that  it  was  as  ever  the  word  of 
Him  who  testifies,  "  I  am  Jehovah,  I  change  not."     And 
like  assurance  would  come,  nay,  will  come,  now  of  clearer 
knowledge.     It  is  but  the  long  silence  on  such  topics  which 
makes  men  think  them  perilous  to  be  discussed  ;  whereas 
in  truth  the  discussions,  now  happily  growing  to  be  more 
widely  appreciated,   deal  only  with   the  external  present- 
ment, with  the  casket  in  which  God's  truth  is  contained, 
seeking  to  find  any  indication  of  how  the  various  pieces 
thereof  were  brought  to  form  a  part  of  the  admirable  work. 
From  such  a  study  reverently  conducted  we  cannot  but  be 
gainers  in  the  end,  cannot  but  grow  in  admiration  of  the 
Wisdom  which  has  preserved  for  the  world  this  knowledge 
which  by  its  own  wisdom  the  world  had  never  found. 

In  connexion  with  this  absence^  of  concern  about  pre- 

*  It  may  be  noted  as  au  iustauce  of  disregard  of  verbal  precision,  thongh  in 


LIGET  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   QUOTATIONS.      349 

ciseness  of  text  in  the  New  Testament  writers,  there  is 
another  feature  which  deserves  to  be  noted.  Not  only  do 
the  apostles  quote  from  the  Septuagint  where  it  varies  from 
the  Hebrew,  but  they  also  not  unfrequently  allow  them- 
selves to  make  some  alteration,  to  give  some  slight  turn  to 
the  Greek  which  shall  make  it  more  completely  suit  their 
argument.  Thus  in  1  Corinthians  iii.,  St.  Paul  is  speaking 
against  the  wisdom  of  this  world  as  being  foolishness  with 
God,  and  he  continues,  "For  it  is  written.  The  Lord 
knoweth  the  thoughts  of  the  wise  that  they  are  vain."  The 
Old  Testament  passage  to  which  he  refers  is  Psalm  xciv.  11. 
But  there  the  words  are,  "  The  Lord  knoweth  the  thoughts 
of  men  that  they  are  vain."  The  original  verse  has  reference 
to  the  whole  human  race,  but  the  apostle  does  not  hesitate 
to  modify  it,  that  it  may  the  better  j5t  into  his  argument. 
The  modification  impairs  no  whit  the  truth  of  what  is  said. 
If  God  has  given  sentence  on  all  men's  hearts,  the  hearts 
of  the  wise  are  included  in  the  verdict.  St.  Paul's  limited 
application  does  not  exclude  the  wider  truth  of  the  psalm. 

Once  more,  in  Ephesians  iv.  8,  the  apostle,  speaking  of 
the  gifts  which  Christ  since  His  ascension  has  bestowed 
through  the  Spirit,  quotes  thus :  "  Wherefore  he  saith, 
When  He  ascended  up  on  high,  He  led  captivity  captive, 
and  gave  gifts  unto  men."  In  the  psalm  (Ixviii.  18)  the  last' 
phrase  of  this  passage  is,  "  Thou  hast  received  gifts  for 
(R.V.,  among)  7ne7i."  The  language  there  is  a  description 
of  the  glorious  ascent  of  the  ark  into  Mount  Zion,  and  in 
prophetic  vision  the  psalmist  sees,  and  tells,  how  the  long 
train  of  Jehovah's  willing  captives  shall  come  thither  to 
follow  the  ark,  for  God's  might  shall  prevail  and  win  sub- 
mission among  all  men.     The  apostle  applies  the  words  to 

quite  another  kind,  that  while  all  the  four  evangelists  give  an  account  of  the 
inscription  above  Christ's  cross,  the  words,  in  the  original,  are  slightly  different 
in  each  gospel  (of.  Matt,  xxvii.  37,  Mark  xv.  26,  Luke  xxiii.  38,  John  xix.  19). 
Had  the  gospels  been  merely  a  work  of  man's  device,  this  discordance  would 
have  been  removed. 


350  OLD   TESTAMENT  GBITIGISM. 

Christ.  He  has  ascended  into  heaven,  of  which  Zion  was 
but  a  poor  figure.  He  has  led  and  is  leading  His  conquered 
ones  into  His  blessed  bondage.  At  this  point  St.  Paul 
turns  aside  to  illustrate  some  previous  words,  in  which  he 
had  been  speaking  of  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
knowing  that  what  Christ  has  won  (according  to  the 
psalmist's  words)  among  men  by  His  incarnation,  He  has 
won  only  to  shed  back  upon  men  again  in  blessed  showers, 
he  is  bold  to  modify  the  psalmist's  expression,  while  re- 
taining its  substance  and  force ;  and  so  he  says  of  Christ 
that  He  gave  gifts  unto  men. 

Of  this  kind  these  examples  will  suffice.  They  also 
show  us  that  the  New  Testament  writers  were  not  careful 
about  verbal  preciseness,  if  only  they  could  convey  the  full 
force  of  what  they  felt  to  be  the  true  lessons  of  the  older 
covenant.  Niceties  of  language  which  come  properly  under 
the  notice  of  the  students  of  the  sacred  text  would  have 
seemed  of  little  importance  to  St.  Paul  or  St.  James.  They 
are  of  interest,  but  their  interest  is  historic,  not  doctrinal. 
And  there  has  never  before  been  a  time  when  an  exami- 
nation of  such  questions  could  be  thoroughly  undertaken. 
The  opportunities  and  studies  of  the  present  time  all  tend 
to  direct  inquiry  toward  such  points.  The  wider  and  more 
'constant  intercourse  among  nations,  the  discovery  of  new 
MSS.,  the  comparison  of  texts,  must  raise  questionings. 
But  "  search  the  Scriptures,"  ^  was  meant  for  this  phase  of 
inquiry  also,  and  zealous  labour  in  this  newly  opened  field 
will  yield  good  fruit.  The  ultimate  result  of  searching  may 
be  to  make  men  modify  some  opinions  which  they  have 
long  entertained   about   the  structure  and  history  of  the 

1  For  our  argument  it  does  not  matter  whether  the  verb  in  this  verse  (John 
V.  39)  be  taken  as  imperative  or  indicative.  The  Scriptures  testify  of  Christ, 
and  a  rebuke  of  tlie  devotion  to  a  study  of  the  boolc  rather  than  of  tlie  life 
which  it  contains  (which  wouki  be  the  force  of  the  indicative)  does  not  make 
less  important  or  less  needful  the  rightly  directed  search  to  find  out  Christ  in 
His  revelation. 


THE  EPISTLE   TO   TEE  HEBREWS.  351 

Old  Testament  books.  But  if  there  be  no  good  grounds  for 
holding  them,  if  they  have  grown  up  from  want  of  light,  if 
different  opinions  can  be  supported  by  trustworthy  evidence, 
then  it  is  well  that,  though  hallowed  by  age,  mistakes  should 
be  cleared  out  of  the  way.  If  we  will  but  show  our  faith 
in  Christ  by  obeying  His  command.  He  who  bade  us  search 
will  send  us  light,  and  make  ever  clearer  His  own  saying, 
which  is  what  gives  their  value  to  the  Old  Testament 
records,  that  they  bear  witness  unto  Him. 

J.  Eawson  Lumby. 


THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBBEWS. 

IX.  Christ  not  a  Self-elected,  but  a  GoD-ArroiNTED 

Priest  (Chap.  v.  1-10). 

At  length  the  priesthood  of  Christ,  already  three  times 
alluded  to,  is  taken  up  in  earnest,  and  made  the  subject  of 
an  elaborate  discussion,  extending  from  this  point  to  chapter 

X.  18.  The  writer  begins  at  the  beginning,  setting  forth 
first  of  all  that  Christ  is  a  legitimate  priest,  not  a  usurper  : 
one  solemnly  called  to  the  office  by  God,  not  self-elected. 
For  this  is  the  leading  thought  in  this  introductory  state- 
ment. It  seems  indeed  to  be  only  one  of  two.  Prima  facie 
one  gets  the  impression  that  the  writer's  object  is  to  specify, 
as  of  equal  and  co-ordinate  importance,  two  fundamental 
qualifications  for  the  office  of  a  high  priest,  and  then  to 
show  that  these  were  both  possessed  in  a  signal  manner 
by  Jesus.  Every  perfectly  qualified  high  priest,  he  appears 
to  say,  must  both  sympathise  with  men,  and  have  a  call 
from  God :  accordingly  Jesus  had  such  a  call,  and  was  also 
eminently  sympathetic.  And  he  evidently  does  regard 
sympathy  as,  not  less  than  a  Divine  call,  indispensable,  the 
terms  in  which  he  speaks  of  it  being  quite  remarkable  for 
emphasis  and  vividness.     Nevertheless  he  does  not  put  the 


352  TEE  EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBREWS. 


two  on  the  same  footing.  The  chief  thing  in  his  mind  here 
is  the  call  or  appointment ;  the  sympathy  is  referred  to,  in 
connexion  with  its  source,  personal  infirmity,  as  explaining 
the  need  for  a  call,  so  as  to  suggest  the  question,  Who, 
conscious  of  the  infirmity  which  is  the  secret  of  sacerdotal 
mildness,  would  dream  of  undertaking  such  an  office  with- 
out a  Divine  call  ?  Hence  in  the  application  of  the  general 
principles  enunciated  regarding  the  high-priestly  ofiice 
(vers.  1-4)  to  the  case  of  Christ  (vers.  5-10)  no  reference 
is  made  to  His  sympathy,  but  only  to  His  call,  and  to 
experiences  in  His  earthly  life  which  showed  how  far  He 
was  from  arrogating  to  Himself  the  priestly  office.  These 
experiences  were  indeed  a  discipline  in  sympathy,  but  that 
aspect  is  not  spoken  of. 

If  sympathy  is  not  co-ordinate  with  the  call  in  the 
writer's  mind,  still  less  is  it  his  main  theme.  Yet  it  is 
apt  to  be  regarded  as  such  by  those  who  assume  that 
the  Hebrew  Christians  were  familiar  with  the  doctrine  of 
Christ's  priesthood,  and  stood  in  no  need  of  its  heing  proved 
to  them,  or  even  elaborately  expounded,  but  only  of  its 
being  used  for  their  encouragement  under  trial.  To  such 
chapter  v.  1-10  will  naturally  appear  a  pendant  to  the 
statement  in  the  close  of  last  chapter  concerning  the 
sympathy  of  Christ  as  the  great  High  Priest,  containing 
some  such  line  of  thought  as  this  :  Compassion  may  be 
counted  on  in  every  high  priest,  for  he  is  conscious  of  his 
own  infirmity,  and  moreover  he  is  called  to  office  by  God, 
who  knows  whom  to  call,  and  takes  care  to  call  only  such 
as  are  humane  in  spirit.  On  both  grounds  you  may  rest 
assured  of  the  sympathy  of  Jesus. ^  As  I  understand  the 
passage,  its  drift  is  rather  this  :  Sympathy  is  congruous  to 
the  high-priestly  office  in  general.  It  arises  out  of  the 
sense  of  personal  infirmity  ;  whence  also  it  comes  that  no 
right-minded    man  would   undertake  the    office   except   as 

1  So  Professor  Davidson. 


CHRIST  A   GOD-APPOINTED  PRIEST.  353 

called  of  God.  Jesus  assuredly  undertook  the  office  only  as 
called  of  God.  He  was  called  to  the  priesthood  before  His 
incarnation.  He  came  to  the  world  under  a  Divine  call. 
And  during  the  days  of  His  earthly  life  His  behaviour  was 
such  as  utterly  to  exclude  the  idea  of  His  being  a  usurper 
of  sacerdotal  honours.  All  through  His  incarnate  expe- 
riences, and  especially  in  those  of  the  closing  scene,  He  was 
simply  submitting  to  God's  will  that  He  should  be  a  priest. 
And  when  He  returned  to  heaven  He  was  saluted  High 
Priest  in  recognition  of  His  loyalty.  Thus  from  first  to 
last  He  was  emphatically  One  called  of  God.  Thus  viewed, 
the  passage  before  us  is  obviously  the  proper  logical  com- 
mencement of  a  discourse  on  the  priesthood  of  Christ,  in- 
tended to  instruct  readers  who  had  next  to  no  idea  of  the 
doctrine,  and  needed  to  be  taught  the  very  rudiments  thereof. 
Was  this  their  position,  or  was  it  not  ?  It  is  a  question  on 
which  it  is  very  necessary  to  make  up  our  minds,  as  the 
view  we  take  of  it  must  seriously  influence  our  interpre- 
tation of  the  lengthy  section  of  the  epistle  of  which  the 
passage  now  under  consideration  forms  the  introduction.^ 

What  is  said  of  the  sympathy  that  becomes  a  high  priest, 
though  subordinate  to  the  statement  concerning  his  call, 
is  important  and  interesting.  First,  a  description  is  given 
of  the  office  which  in  every  clause  suggests  the  reflection. 
How  congruous  sympathy  to  the  sacerdotal  character !  The 
high  priest  is  described  as  taken  from  among  men,  and  the 
suggestion  is  that,  being  a  man  of  like  nature  with  those 
for  whom  he  transacts,  he  may  be  expected  to  have  fellow- 
feeling  with  them.    Then  he  is  further  described  as  ordained 

^  The  views  of  recent  expositors  on  this  important  subject  are  widely  diver- 
gent. Tlius  Mr.  Eendall  in  The  Expositok  for  January,  1889,  p.  32,  says  that 
the  Hebrew  Christians  "  did  not  connect  the  idea  of  priesthood  with  Christ, 
though  they  knew  Him  as  their  Prophet  and  their  King."  Professor  Davidson, 
on  the  other  hand,  says,  "  The  fact  that  the  Son  is  a  High  Priest  is  a  common- 
place to  his  readers  "  {The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  p.  106).  1  have  expressed  my 
own  view,  to  the  same  effect  as  Mr.  Eendall,  iu  the  introductory  paper  in  The 
Expositor  for  March,  1888. 

VOL.   IX.  23 


354  TEE  EPISTLE   TO   TEE  EEBBEWS. 

for  men  in  things  pertaining  to  God,  the  impHed  thought 
being  that  he  cannot  acquit  himself  satisfactorily  in  that 
capacity  unless  he  sympathise  with  those  whom  he  repre- 
sents before  God.  Lastly,  it  is  declared  to  be  his  special 
duty  to  offer  sacrifices  of  various  sorts /or  sm,  the  latent  idea 
being  that  it  is  impossible  for  any  one  to  perform  that  duty 
with  any  earnestness  or  efficiency,  who  has  not  genuine 
compassion  for  the  sinful. 

What  is  implied  in  ver.  1  is  plainly  stated  in  ver.  2, 
though  in  participial  form,  in  accordance  with  the  subor- 
dinate position  assigned  to  the  requirement  of  sympathy  in 
relation  to  the  Divine  call.  "Being  able  to  have  compas- 
sion on  the  ignorant  and  erring." 

Very  remarkable  is  the  word  employed  to  describe  priestly 
compassion,  ixerpLoiraddv.  It  does  not,  like  (TvixTraOrja-ai  in 
iv.  15,  signify  to  feel  with  another,  but  rather  to  abstain 
from  feeling  against  him  ;  to  be  able  to  restrain  antipathy. 
It  was  used  by  Philo  to  describe  Abraham's  sober  grief 
on  the  loss  of  Sarah  and  Jacob's  patience  under  affliction. 
Here  it  seems  to  be  employed  to  denote  a  state  of  feeling 
towards  the  ignorant  and  erring  balanced  between  severity 
and  undue  leniency.  It  is  carefully  selected  to  represent 
the  spirit  which  becomes  a  high  priest  as  a  mean  between 
two  extremes.  On  the  one  hand,  he  should  be  able  to 
control  the  passions  provoked  by  error  and  ignorance,  anger, 
impatience,  disgust,  contempt.  On  the  other  hand,  he  must 
not  be  so  amiable  as  not  even  to  be  tempted  to  give  way 
to  these  passions.  Ignorance  and  misconduct  he  must  not 
regard  with  unruffled  equanimity.  It  is  plainly  implied 
that  it  is  possible  to  be  too  sympathetic,  and  so  to  become 
the  slave  or  tool  of  men's  ignorance  or  prejudices,  and 
even  partaker  of  their  sins ;  a  possibility  illustrated  by 
the  histories  of  Aaron  and  of  Eli,  two  high  priests  of  Israel. 
The  model  high  priest  is  not  like  either.  He  hates  igno- 
rance and  sin,  but  he  pities  the  ignorant  and  sinful.     He  is 


CHRIST  A    GOD-APPOINTED   PRIEST.  356 

free  alike  from  the  inhuman  severity  of  the  pharisee,  who 
thinks  he  has  done  his  duty  towards  all  misconduct  when 
he  has  expressed  himself  in  terms  of  unmeasured  con- 
demnation regarding  it,  and  from  the  selfish  apathy  of  the 
world,  which  simply  does  not  trouble  itself  about  the  failings 
of  the  weak.  He  feels  resentment,  but  it  is  in  moderation ; 
disgust,  but  it  is  under  control ;  impatience,  but  not  such  as 
finds  vent  in  ebullitions  of  temper,  but  such  rather  as  takes 
the  form  of  determined  effort  to  remove  evils  with  which 
it  cannot  live  on  friendly  terms.  All  this  of  course  implies 
a  loving,  kind  heart.  The  negative  virtue  of  patience  implies 
the  positive  virtue  of  sympathy.  The  model  high  priest 
is  one  in  whose  heart  the  law  of  charity  reigns,  and  who 
regards  the  people  for  whom  he  acts  in  holy  things  as  his 
children.  The  ignorant  for  him  are  persons  to  be  taught, 
the  erring  sheep  to  be  brought  back  to  the  fold.  He  re- 
members that  sin  is  not  only  an  evil  thing  in  God's  sight, 
but  also  a  bitter  thing  for  the  offender ;  realizes  the  misery 
of  an  accusing  conscience,  the  shame  and  fear  which  are  the 
ghostly  shadows  of  guilt.  All  this  is  hinted  at  in  the  word 
fierpiOTTaOeiu,  whereby  at  a  single  stroke  the  writer  _;j7i0^o- 
graphs  the  character  of  the  model  high  priest. 

The  character  thus  drawn  is  obviously  congenial  to  the 
priestly  office.  The  priest's  duty  is  to  offer  gifts  and  sacri- 
fices for  sin.  The  performance  of  this  duty  habituates  the 
priestly  mind  to  a  certain  way  of  viewing  sin  :  as  an  offence 
deserving  punishment,  yet  pardonable  on  the  presentation 
of  the  appropriate  offering.  The  priest's  relation  to  the 
offender  is  also  such  as  demands  a  sympathetic  spirit.  He  is 
not  a  legislator,  enacting  laws  with  rigid  penalties  attached. 
Neither  is  he  a  judge,  but  rather  an  advocate  pleading  for 
his  client  at  the  bar.  Neither  is  he  a  prophet,  giving  utter- 
ances in  vehement  language  to  the  Divine  displeasure  against 
transgression,  but  rather  an  intercessor  imploring  mercy, 
appeasing  anger,  striving  to  awaken  Divine  pity. 


356  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

But  the  special  source  to  which  sacerdotal  sympathy  is 
traced  is  the  consciousness  of  personal  infirmity.  "  For 
that  he  himself  also  is  compassed  with  infirmity."  The 
explanation  seems  to  labour  under  the  defect  of  too  great 
generality.  A  high  priest  is  no  more  human  in  his  nature 
and  experience  than  other  men,  why  then  should  he  be 
exceptionally  humane?     Two  reasons  suggest  themselves. 

The  high  priest  was  officially  a  very  holy  person,  begirt 
on  all  sides  with  the  emblems  of  holiness,  copiously  anointed 
with  oil,  whose  exquisite  aroma  typified  the  odour  of  sanc- 
tity, arrayed  in  gorgeous  robes,  significant  of  the  beauty  of 
holiness,  required  to  be  so  devoted  to  his  sacred  calling  and 
so  dead  to  the  world  that  he  might  not  mourn  for  the  death 
of  his  nearest  kin.  How  oppressive  the  burden  of  this 
official  sanctity  must  have  been  to  a  thoughtful,  humble 
man,  conscious  of  personal  infirmity,  and  knowing  himselt 
to  be  of  like  passions  and  sinful  tendencies  with  his  fellow 
worshippers  !  How  the  very  sanctity  of  his  office  would 
force  on  the  attention  of  one  who  was  not  a  mere  puppet 
priest  the  contrast  between  his  official  and  his  personal 
character,  as  a  subject  of  solemn  reflection.  And  what 
would  the  result  of  such  reflection  be  but  a  deepened  self- 
knowledge,  a  sense  of  unworthiness  for  his  sacred  vocation, 
which  would  seek  relief  in  cherishing  a  meek  and  humble 
spirit,  and  in  manifesting  a  gracious  sympathy  towards 
his  brethren,  considering  himself  as  one  also  tempted  ;  and 
would  gladly  hail  the  return  of  that  solemn  season — the 
great  day  of  atonement — when  the  high  priest  of  Israel 
offered  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  first  for  his  own  sins,  and 
then  for  the  people's. 

Another  source  of  priestly  benignity  was,  I  imagine, 
habitual  converse  in  the  discharge  of  duty  with  the  erring 
and  the  ignorant.  The  high  priest  had  officially  much  to 
do  with  men,  and  that  not  with  picked  samples,  but  with 
men   in   the   mass ;    the   greater    number   probably   being 


CHRIST  A    GOB- APPOINTED  PRIEST.  357 

inferior  specimens  of  humanity,  and  all  presenting  to  his 
view  their  weak  side.  He  learned  in  the  discharge  of  his 
functions  to  take  a  kindly  interest  in  all  sorts  of  people, 
even  the  most  erratic,  and  to  bear  with  inconsistency  even 
in  the  best.  The  poet  or  philosopher,  conversant  chiefly 
with  ideal  men,  heroes  invested  with  all  imaginary 
excellences,  is  prone  to  feel  disgust  towards  real  common 
men,  sadly  unheroic  and  unromantic  in  character.  The 
high  priest  had  abundant  opportunities  for  learning  that 
the  characters  even  of  the  good  and  devout  are  very  de- 
fective, and  he  was  thankful  to  find  that  their  hearts  were 
right  with  God,  and  that  when  they  erred  they  were 
desirous  to  confess  their  error  and  make  atonement.  He 
looked  not  for  sinless,  perfect  beings,  but  at  most  only  for 
men  broken-hearted  for  their  sins,  and  bringing  their  tres- 
pass offering  to  the  altar  of  the  Lord. 

The  account  given  of  priestly  sympathy  prepares  us  for 
appreciating  the  statement  which  follows  concerning  the 
need  for  a  Divine  call  to  the  priestly  office.  "  And  no  one 
taketh  the  honour  to  himself,  but  only  when  called  by  God, 
as  indeed  was  Aaron  "  (ver.  4). 

No  one,  duly  impressed  with  his  own  infirmities,  would 
ever  think  of  taking  unto  himself  so  sacred  an  office.  A 
need  for  a  Divine  call  is  felt  by  all  devout  men  in  connexion 
with  all  sacred  offices  involving  a  ministry  on  men's  behalf 
in  things  pertaining  to  God.  The  tendency  is  to  shrink 
from  such  offices,  rather  than  to  covet  and  ambitiously 
appropriate  them.  The  sentiment,  7iolo  episcopari,  which 
has  ever  been  common  in  the  best  days  of  the  Church,  is 
not  an  affectation  of  modesty,  but  the  expression  of  a 
deep  reluctance  to  undertake  the  onerous  responsibilities 
of  a  representative  man  in  religion  by  all  who  know  them- 
selves, and  who  realize  the  momentous  nature  of  religious 
interests.  The  sentiment  is  deepened  by  the  reflection  that 
the  office  is  honourable   as   well  as  sacred.      For  it  is  a 


358  TEE  EPISTLE   TO   TEE  EEBEEW8. 


maxim  which  calls' forth  a  response  from  every  healthy  con- 
science, that  men  should  not  seek  honours,  but  be  sought 
for  them,  it  being  but  an  application  of  the  proverb,  "  Let 
another  man  praise  thee,  and  not  thine  own  mouth." 

Having  stated  the  general  principle  that  a  Divine  call 
is  necessary  as  an  inducement  to  the  assumption  of  the 
priestly  office,  the  writer  passes  to  the  case  of  Jesus  Christ, 
whom  he  emphatically  declares  to  have  been  utterly  free 
from  the  spirit  of  ambition,  and  to  have  been  made  a  high 
priest,  not  by  self-election,  but  by  Divine  appointment.  Of 
the  two  texts  quoted  in  proof  of  the  assertion,  the  second, 
taken  from  Psalm  ex.,  naturally  appears  the  more  im- 
portant, as  containing  an  express  reference  to  Messiah's 
priesthood.  This  oracle,  the  key  to  the  whole  doctrine  of 
the  epistle  on  the  subject  in  question,  is  introduced  here 
for  the  first  time,  very  quietly,  as  if  by  the  way,  and  in 
subordination  to  the  more  familiar  text  already  quoted  from 
the  second  Psalm  bearing  on  Messiah's  sonship.  Here 
once  more  we  have  occasion  to  admire  the  oratorical  tact 
of  the  writer,  who,  having  in  mind  to  present  to  his  readers 
a  difficult  thought,  first  puts  it  forth  in  a  stealthy,  tentative 
way,  as  if  hoping  that  it  may  thus  catch  the  attention 
better  than  if  more  obtrusively  presented  ;  just  as  one  can 
see  a  star  in  the  evening  twilight  more  distinctly  by  looking 
a  little  to  one  side  of  it,  than  by  gazing  directly  at  it. 

It  is  difficult  to  understand,  at  first,  why  the  text  from 
the  second  Psalm,  "  My  Son  art  Thou,"  is  introduced  here 
at  all,  the  thing  to  be  proved  being,  not  that  Messiah  was 
made  by  God  a  Son,  but  that  He  was  made  a  Priest.  But 
on  reflection  we  perceive  that  it  is  a  preliminary  hint  as  to 
what  sort  of  priesthood  is  signified  by  the  order  of  Melchi- 
sedec,  a  first  attempt  to  insinuate  into  the  minds  of  readers 
the  idea  of  a  priesthood  belonging  to  Christ  altogether 
distinct  in  character  from  the  Levitical,  yet  the  highest 
possible,  that  of  one  at  once  a  Divine    Son   and  a  Divine 


CHRIST  A   GOD-APPOINTED   PRIEST.  359 

King.  On  further  consideration  it  dawns  on  us  that  a  still 
deeper  truth  is  meant  to  be  taught;  that  Christ's  priesthood 
is  co-seval  with  His  sonship  and  inherent  in  it.  Only  when 
we  find  this  idea  in  it  do  we  feel  the  relevancy  of  the  first 
citation  to  be  fully  justified.  So  interpreted  it  contains 
a  reference  to  an  eternal  Divine  call  to  the  priesthood,  in 
consonance  with  the  order  of  Melchisedec,  which  is  de- 
scribed farther  on  as  "  having  neither  beginning  of  days 
nor  end  of  life  " — eternal  a  parte  ante,  as  well  as  a  parte 
post.  Thus  viewed,  Christ's  priestly  vocation  ceases  to  be 
a  mere  accident  in  His  history,  and  becomes  an  essential 
characteristic  of  His  position  as  Son :  sonship,  Christhood, 
priestliness,  inseparably  interwoven. 

From  the  pre-incarnate  state,  to  which  the  quotations 
from  the  Psalter  refer,  the  writer  proceeds  to  speak  of 
Christ's  earthly  history:  "  Who,  in  the  days  of  His  flesh." 
He  here  conceives,  as  in  a  later  part  of  the  epistle  He 
expressly  represents  ^  the  Christ  as  coming  into  the  world 
under  a  Divine  call  to  be  a  Priest,  and  conscious  of  His 
vocation.  He  represents  Christ  as  under  training  for  the 
priesthood,  but  training  implies  previous  destination ;  as 
an  obedient  learner,  but  obedience  implies  consciousness 
of  His  calling.  In  the  verses  which  follow  (7,  8)  his  pur- 
pose is  to  exhibit  the  behaviour  of  Jesus  during  His  life 
on  earth  in  such  a  light  that  the  idea  of  usurpation  shall 
appear  an  absurdity.  The  general  import  is  :  "  Jesus  ever 
loyal,  but  never  ambitious  ;  so  far  from  arrogating,  rather 
shrinking  from  priestly  office,  at  most  simply  submitting 
to  God's  will,  and  enabled  to  do  that  by  special  grace  in 
answer  to  prayer."  It  is  implied  that  this  is  a  true  account 
of  Christ's  whole  behaviour  on  earth ;  but  the  special 
features  of  the  picture  are  taken  from  the  prelude  to  the 
passion,  the  agony  in  the  garden,  where  the  truth  of  the 
representation  becomes  startlingly  conspicuous. 

'  Chapter  x.  5. 


360  THT]  EPISTLE   TO   THE  EEBBEWS. 


In  the  description  of  the  tragic  experiences  of  that  crisis, 
we  note  the  pains  taken  to  lay  bare  the  infirmity  of  Jesus, 
the  object  being  to  show  the  extreme  improbabihty  of  one 
who  so  behaved  assuming  the  priestly  office  without  a 
Divine  call.  The  familiar  fact  that  Jesus  prayed  that  the 
cup  might  pass  from  Him  is  stated  in  the  strongest  terms  : 
"When  He  had  offered  prayers  and  supplications  with 
strong  crying";  and  a  particular  is  mentioned  not  other- 
wise known,  that  the  prayers  were  accompanied  with 
"tears."  Jesus  is  thus  made  to  appear  manifesting,  con- 
fessing His  weakness,  frankly  and  unreservedly  ;  even  as  the 
high  priest  of  Israel  confessed  his  weakness  when  he  offered 
a  sacrifice  for  himself  before  he  presented  an  offering  for  the 
people.  Whether  the  writer  had  in  his  view  a  parallel 
between  Christ's  agony  in  the  garden  and  the  high  priest's 
offering  for  himself  it  is  impossible  to  decide,  although 
several  things  give  plausibility  to  the  suggestion,  such  as 
the  use  of  the  sacrificial  term  irpoaever^Kw^  in  reference  to 
Christ's  prayer  in  the  garden.^  What  is  certain  is  that  he 
is  careful  to  point  out  that  Christ  was  compassed  with 
infirmity  not  less  real,  though  sinless,  than  that  which  in 
the  case  of  the  Jewish  high  priest  made  it  necessary  that 
he  should  offer  a  sacrifice  for  himself  before  offering  for  the 
people ;  the  moral  being,  how  unlikely  that  one  who  so 
shrank  from  the  cup  of  death  should  be  the  usurper  of  an 
office  which  involved  the  drinking  of  that  cup  ! 

The  hearing  of  Christ's  prayer  referred  to  in  the  last 
clause  of  ver.  7  belongs  to  the  description  of  His  sinless 
infirmity.  Whether  we  render,  "  And  being  heard  for  His 
piety,"  or  "and  being  heard  (and  delivered)  from  the  fear" 
(of  death  as  distinct  from  death  itself),  is  immaterial;-  in 

1  Hoffmann,  Schriftbeiceis,  ii.  399,  earnestly  contends  that  such  a  parallel  is 
intended.  Vide  Tlie  Humiliation  of  Christ,  p.  277,  where  I  have  stated  and 
adopted  his  view.  I  still  feel  its  attraction,  but  I  am  not  so  sure  that  the 
alleged  parallel  was  present  to  the  writer's  mind. 

^  Opinion  is  very  much  divided  as  between  these  two  renderings  of  the  words 


GHBIST  A   GOD- APPOINTED  PRIEST.  361 

any  case  the  answer  consisted  in  deliverance  from  that  fear, 
in  courage  given  to  face  death.  Some  have  supposed  that 
the  reference  is  to  the  resurrection  and  ascension.  But  it  is 
not  permissible  to  read  into  the  passage  a  hidden  allusion 
to  events  of  such  importance.  Moreover  the  reference  is 
excluded  by  the  consideration  that  all  that  is  spoken  of  in 
ver.  7  leads  up  to  the  main  affirmation  in  ver.  8,  and 
must  be  included  under  the  category  of  learning  obedience. 
The  last  clause  of  ver.  7  describes  the  attitude  of  one  who 
shrank  from  death,  and  who  was  at  length  enabled  to  face 
death  by  special  aid  in  answer  to  prayer  delivering  him 
from  fear ;  that  is  to  say,  of  one  who  in  all  that  related  to 
the  passion  was  only  learning  obedience.  The  point  to  be 
emphasised  is,  not  so  much  that  the  prayer  of  Jesus  was 
heard,  as  that  it  needed  to  be  heard ;  that  He  needed 
heavenly  aid  to  drink  the  appointed  cup. 

To  perform,  or  even  to  attempt,  such  a  task  without  a 
conscious  Divine  call  was  impossible.  Even  with  a  clear 
consciousness  of  such  a  call  it  was  difficult.  That  is  the 
truth  stated  in  ver.  8,  in  these  terms  :  "  Though  He  was  a 
Son,  yet  learned  He  obedience  from  the  things  which  He 
suffered."  Freely  paraphrased  these  words  mean  :  In  His 
earthly  experience  Christ  was  so  far  from  playing  the  part 
of  one  who  was  taking  to  Himself  the  honour  of  the  priest- 
hood, that  He  was  simply  throughout  submitting  to  God's 
purpose  to  make  Him  a  Priest ;  and  the  circumstances 
were  such  as  made  obedience  to  the  Divine  will  anything 
but  easy,  rather  a  painful  process  of  learning.  Reference 
is  made  to  Christ's  sonship  to  enhance  the  impression  of 
difficulty.  Though  He.  was  a  son  full  of  love  and  devotion 
to  His  Father,  intensely,  enthusiastically  loyal  to  the  Divine 

elaaKovaOels  aTrb  ttjs  evXa^elas,  many  weighty  names  being  on  either  side. 
Bleek  supports  the  first  view,  Bengel  the  second.  On  the  whole,  the  weight  of 
authority  and  of  argument  inclines  to  the  rendering,  "  being  heard  for  His 
piety,  or  His  godly  fear." 


362  THE  EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

interest,  ever  accounting  it  His  meat  and  drink  to  do  His 
Father's  will,  yet  even  for  Him  so  minded  it  was  a  matter 
of  arduous  learning  to  comply  with  the  Father's  will  m 
connexion  with  His  priestly  vocation.  For  it  must  be 
understood  that  the  obedience  here  spoken  of  has  that 
specific  reference.  The  aim  is  not  to  state  didactically  that 
in  His  earthly  life  Jesus  was  a  learner  in  the  virtue  of 
obedience  all  round,  but  especially  to  predicate  of  Him 
learning  obedience  in  connexion  with  His  priestly  calling 
— obedience  to  God's  will  that  He  should  be  a  Priest. 

But  why  should  obedience  be  so  difficult  in  this  con- 
nexion ?  The  full  answer  comes  later  on,  but  it  is  hinted 
at  even  here.  It  is  because  priesthood  involves  for  the 
Priest  death  (ver.  7),  mortal  suffering  (ver.  8)  ;  because  the 
Priest  is  at  the  same  time  victim.  And  it  is  in  the  light  of 
this  fact  that  we  clearly  see  how  impossible  it  was  that  the 
spirit  of  ambition  should  come  into  play  with  reference  to 
the  priestly  office  in  the  case  of  Christ.  Self-glorification 
was  excluded  by  the  nature  of  the  service.  One  might  be 
tempted  to  take  unto  himself  the  honour  of  the  Aaronic 
priesthood,  though  even  with  reference  to  it  one  who  fully 
realized  its  responsibilities  would  be  disposed  to  exclaim, 
"  Nolo  pontifex  fieri."  A  vain,  thoughtless,  or  ambitious 
man  might  covet  the  office  of  Aaron,  because  of  the  honour 
and  power  which  it  conferred.  In  point  of  fact,  there  were 
many  ambitious  high  priests  in  Israel's  last,  degenerate 
days,  as  there  have  been  many  ambitious  ecclesiastics.  But 
there  was  no  risk  of  a  self-seeker  coveting  the  priestly 
office  of  Christ,  because  in  that  office  the  Priest  had,  not 
only  to  offer,  but  Himself  to  be  the  sacrifice.  With  refe- 
rence to  such  a  priesthood,  a  self-seeker  would  be  sure  to 
say,  "  I  do  not  wish  it  ;  I  have  no  taste  for  such  an 
honour."  Yea,  even  one  who  was  no  self-seeker  might  say, 
"If  it  be  possible,  let  me  escape  the  dread  vocation";  and  he 
would  accept  its  responsibilities  only  after  a  sore  struggle 


GHBIST  A   GOD.APPOINTED  PRIEST.  363 

with  the  reluctance  of  sentient  nature,  such  as  martyrs  have 
experienced  before  appearing  with  serene  countenance  at 
the  stake.  The  holy,  sinless  Jesus  did  indeed  say  "  no  " 
for  a  moment  in  reference  to  this  unique  sort  of  priesthood. 
His  agony  in  Gethsemane,  so  touchingly  alluded  to  in  our 
epistle,  was  an  emphatic  "  no,"  which  proved  that,  far 
from  proudly  aspiring,  He  found  it  hard  even  to  humbly 
submit  to  be  made  a  priest.^ 

The  verses  which  follow  (9,  10)  show  the  other  side  oi 
the  picture  :  how  He  who  glorified  not  Himself  to  be  made 
a  priest  was  glorified  by  God ;  became  a  priest  indeed, 
efficient  in  the  highest  degree,  acknowledged  as  such  by 
His  Father,  whose  will  He  had  loyally  obeyed.  "  And  being 
perfected  became  to  all  who  obey  Him  author  of  eternal 
salvation,  saluted  by  God  '  High  Priest  after  the  order 
of  Melchisedec'  "  A  weighty,  pregnant  sentence,  setting 
forth  the  result  of  Christ's  earthly  experience  in  terms 
suitable  to  the  initial  stage  of  the  discussion  concerning 
His  priestly  office,  implying  much  that  is  not  expressly 
stated,  and  suggesting  questions  that  are  not  answered,  and 
therefore  liable  to  diverse  interpretation. 

"Being  perfected,"  how?  In  obedience,  and  by  obedi- 
ence even  unto  death,  perfected  for  the  office  of  priest, 
death  being  the  final  stage  in  His  training,  through  which 
He  became  a  Pontifex  consummakis.  Some  think  the 
reference  is  to  the  resurrection  and  ascension.  So,  e.g., 
Pfleiderer,  who  thus  argues  :  "  reXeiw^e/?  is  not  the  moral 
perfecting  in  the  learning  of  obedience  through  suffering, 
but  a  new  moment,  the  last  result  of  that  learning,  through 
which  Christ  was  placed  in  a  position  to  become  the  cause 

1  Keferring  to  the  agony  in  the  garden,  I  have  said  in  The  Humiliation  oj 
Clirist,  "  That  agony  was  an  awfully  earnest,  utterly  sincere,  while  perfectly 
sinless,  nolo  Pontifex  fieri,  on  the  part  of  One  who  realized  the  tremendous 
responsibilities  of  the  post  to  which  He  was  summoned,  and  who  was  unable 
for  the  moment  to  find  any  comfort  in  the  thought  of  its  honours  and  pro- 
spective joys  "   (p.  276). 


364  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBREWS. 

of  blessedness.  What  that  condition  is  we  gather  partly 
from  the  connexion,  partly  from  ver.  7.  There  it  is  said 
that  Christ  prayed  to  His  Father  to  save  Him  from  death, 
and  was  heard  for  His  piety.  This  piety  is  then  described 
in  ver.  8 ;  whereupon  ver.  9,  with  reXetw^et"?  takes  up  the 
elaaKovaOek  of  ver.  7,  and  so  says  that  He  was  saved  from 
death,  which  of  course  in  this  case  is  to  be  referred  to  the 
exaltation  following  on  the  resurrection."^  It  is  a  plausible 
and  tempting  line  of  thought,  but  I  cannot  help  feeling  that 
the  writer  of  our  epistle  has  studiously  avoided  such  specific 
references,  and  expressed  himself  in  general  terms  fitted 
to  convey  the  moral  truths  involved  independently  of  time 
and  place.  I  therefore  see  no  reason  for  assigning  uv. 
reXeiw^et?  a  different  meaning  from  that  which  seemed  to 
be  the  most  appropriate  in  chapter  ii.  10. 

Being  made  perfect  in  and  through  death,  Jesus  became 
ipso  facto  author  of  eternal  salvation,  the  final  experience 
of  suffering,  by  which  His  training  for  the  priestly  office 
was  completed,  being  at  the  same  time  His  great  priestly 
achievement.  Such  I  take  to  be  the  writer's  meaning. 
This  interpretation  implies  that  in  his  view  the  death  of 
Christ  was  a  priestly  act,  not  merely  a  preparation  for  a 
priesthood  to  be  exercised  afterwards,  in  heaven.  Nay,  not 
merely  a  priestly  act,  but  the  great  priestly  act,  the  fact- 
basis  of  the  whole  doctrine  of  Christ's  priesthood.  I  have 
no  doubt  that  such  is  the  case.  It  is  noteworthy,  in  this 
connexion,  that  the  first  and  the  last  times  the  writer 
refers  to  the  subject  of  Christ's  priestly  work,  chapter  ii.  9 
and  chapter  x.  10,  it  is  to  His  death  that  he  gives  pro- 
minence :   "that  He  should  taste  death  for  every  man"; 

*  Paulinismus,  p.  344.  Pfieiderer  finds  a  reference  to  the  heavenly  state  in 
all  the  texts  which  speak  of  the  perfecting  of  Christ.  He  holds  moreover  that 
where  the  word  is  nsed  in  reference  to  men,  it  includes  in  its  meaning  the  idea 
of  glorification,  combining  the  Pauline  diKaiovv  with  the  Pauline  Sot^d^eiv  ;  the 
combination  illustrating  the  characteristic  ambiguity  of  the  epistle  in  regarding 
the  Christian  salvation  as  at  once  a  present  and  a  future  good. 


CEEIST  A   GOD-APPOINTED  PRIEST.  365 

"  we  are  sanctified  through  the  offering  of  the  body  of  Jesus 
Christ."  That  Christ's  priestly  ministry  is  placed  in  the 
heavenly  sanctuary  is  not  less  certain,  and  the  two  views 
seem  to  be  in  flat  contradiction  to  each  other.  Whether 
they  can  be  reconciled  and  how  are  questions  which  may 
come  up  for  discussion  hereafter  ;  meantime  let  us  be  content 
to  leave  the  two  views  side  by  side,  an  unresolved  antinomy, 
not  seeking  escape  from  difficulty  by  denying  either. 

The  statement  that  through  death  Jesus  became  ipso 
facto  author  of  salvation  is  not  falsified  by  the  fact  that 
the  essential  point  in  a  sacrifice  was  its  presentation  before 
God  in  the  sanctuary,  which  in  the  Levitical  system  took 
place  subsequently  to  the  slaughtering  of  the  victim,  when 
the  priest  took  the  blood  within  the  tabernacle  and  sprinkled 
it  on  the  altar  of  incense  or  on  the  mercy-seat.  The  death 
of  our  High  Priest  is  to  be  conceived  of  as  including  all 
the  steps  of  the  sacrificial  process  within  itself.  Lapse  of 
time  or  change  of  place  is  not  necessary  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  work.  The  death  of  the  victim,  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  sacrificial  blood — all  was  performed  when  Christ 
cried  Terekearai} 

It  is  not  the  writer's  object  in  this  place  to  indicate  the 
nature  of  "  salvation," — that  is,  the  precise  benefit  procured 
for  men  by  Christ  as  Priest, — but  simply  to  indicate  the  fact 
that  He  attained  to  the  high  honour  of  being  the  source  or 
author  of  salvation.  Two  facts  however  be  notifies  respect- 
ing the  salvation  of  which  Christ  is  the  author :  that  it  is 
eternal,  and  that  it  is  available  for  those  who  oheij  Him. 
The  epithet  alcovco^,  here  used  for  the  first  time,  frequently 
recurs  in  the  sequel.     It  is  one  of  the  great,  characteristic 

*  Some  theologians,  such  as  Professor  Smeaton,  contend  for  an  entrance 
"  within  the  veil  "  by  Christ,  with  His  blood,  in  His  disembodied  state,  imme- 
diately after  His  death  on  the  cross.  The  feeling  which  dictates  this  view  is 
right,  but  the  view  itself  takes  too  literally  and  prosaically  the  parallel  between 
Christ  and  the  Jewish  high  priest.  For  Professor  Smeaton's  view  vide  The 
Apostles^  Doctrine  of  tlie  Atonement,  p.  -±8. 


366  THE   EPISTLE   TO   TEE  HEBREWS. 

watchwords  of  the  epistle,  intended  to  proclaim  the  abso- 
lute final  nature  of  Christianity,  in  contrast  to  the  transient 
nature  of  the  Levitical  religion.  Possibly  it  is  meant  here 
to  suggest  a  contrast  between  the  eternal  salvation  procured 
by  Christ  and  the  annual  salvation  effected  by  the  cere- 
monial of  the  great  day  of  atonement.  More  probably 
its  introduction  at  this  place  is  due  to  the  desire  to  make 
the  salvation  correspond  in  character  to  the  Melchisedec 
type  of  priesthood,  whose  leading  feature  is  perpetuity  : 
"  Thou  art  a  Priest  for  ever."  To  the  same  sense  of  con- 
gruity  it  is  due  that  obedience  to  Christ  is  accentuated 
as  the  condition  of  salvation.  Christ  became  a  Saviour 
through  obedience  to  the  will  of  His  Father,  and  it  is  meet 
that  He  in  turn  should  be  obeyed  by  those  who  are  to 
receive  the  benefit  of  His  arduous  service.  It  is  a  thought 
kindred  to  that  expressed  by  Christ  Himself  when  He  spake 
of  the  Son  of  man  laying  down  His  life  for  the  many  as 
the  way  He  took  to  become  the  greatest,  and  to  be  minis- 
tered unto  by  willing  subjects. 

The  Divine  acknowledgment  of  Christ's  priestly  dignity, 
referred  to  in  ver.  10,  is  not  to  be  prosaically  interpreted 
as  a  formal  appointment ;  whether  a  first  appointment,  as 
some  think,  to  an  official  position  now  commencing  in  the 
state  of  exaltation,  or  a  second  confirming  a  first  made 
long  before,  alluded  to  in  the  Messianic  oracle  quoted  in 
ver.  6  from  Psalm  cx.^  It  is  rather  the  animated  recog- 
nition of  an  already  existing  fact.     Christ,  called   from  of 

1  Mr.  Reudall  takes  this  view.  He  says  :  "  The  language  of  this  verse  and 
the  context  alike  point  to  a  new  appointment  quite  distinct  from  that  recorded 
in  the  Psalms,  though  both  refer  to  the  same  Melchisedec  priesthood.  Psalm  ex. 
has  been  cited  as  evidence  of  the  earlier  appointment  of  God's  Anointed  by 
prophetic  anticipation  to  a  priesthood.  This  verse  declares  the  formal  recog- 
nition of  His  hicjh  priesthood  by  a  Divine  salutation  addressed  personally  to 
Jesus"  (The  Epistle  to  the  Hebreivs,  ■p.  45).  I  agree  with  him  so  far  as  to 
recognise  the  distinction  between  the  two  appointments,  only  I  cannot  regard 
the  expression  "formal  recognition  "  as  true  to  the  spirit  of  the  passage  com- 
mented on. 


CHRIST  A   GOD.APPOINTED  PRIEST.  367 

old  to  be  a  priest  in  virtue  of  His  sonship,  and  made  a 
priest  indeed  by  His  arduous  training  on  earth,  is  cordially 
owned  to  be  a  priest  when  the  death  which  completed  His 
training,  and  constituted  Him  a  priest,  had  been  endured — 
whether  immediately  after  the  passion  or  after  the  ascension 
must  be  left  undetermined.  The  style  is  dramatic,  and  the 
language  emotional.  God  is  moved  by  the  spectacle  of  His 
Son's  self-sacrifice,  as  of  old  He  had  been  moved  by  the 
readiness  of  Abraham  to  sacrifice  Isaac,  and  exclaims, 
"  Thou  art  a  Priest  indeed !  "  That  the  writer  is  not 
thinking  of  a  formal  appointment,  which  creates  a  position 
previously  non-existent,  appears  from  the  liberties  he  takes 
with  the  words  of  the  oracle  which  contains  the  evidence 
that  Christ  was  a  God-called  Priest :  "  high  priest  "  substi- 
tuted for  "  priest,"  and  "  for  ever  "  omitted.  The  former  of 
these  changes  is  specially  noteworthy.  It  is  not  accidental 
and  trivial,  but  intended  and  significant.  The  alteration  is 
made  to  suit  the  situation  :  Christ,  already  a  High  Priest  in 
virtue  of  functions  analogous  to  those  of  Aaron,  and  now 
and  henceforth  a  priest  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec.  The 
oracle,  as  adjusted,  combines  the  past  with  the  future,  the 
earthly  with  the  heavenly,  the  temporal  with  the  eternal. 

Translated  into  abstract  language,  ver.  10  supplies  the 
rationale  of  the  fact  stated  in  verse  9.  Its  effect  is  to  tell 
us  that  Christ  became  author  of  eternal  salvation  because 
He  was  a  true  High  Priest  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec  : 
author  of  salvation  in  virtue  of  His  being  a  priest,  author 
of  eternal  salvation,  because  His  priesthood  was  of  the 
Melchisedec  type — never  ending. 

The  words  put  into  the  mouth  of  God  serve  yet  another 
purpose  :  to  indicate  the  lines  along  which  the  writer  in- 
tends to  develop  the  subject  of  Christ's  priesthood.  His 
plan  is  to  employ  two  types  of  priesthood  to  exhibit  the 
nature  of  the  perfect  priesthood  of  the  absolute  final  re- 
ligion—the order  of  Aaron,  and  the  order  of  Melchisedec. 


368  THE  EPISTLE   TO   TEE  HEBREWS. 

I  say  not  that  he  means  to  teach  that  Christ  occupied 
successively  two  priestly  offices,  one  like  that  of  Aaron,  the 
other  like  that  of  Melchisedec,  the  former  on  earth,  the 
latter  in  heaven.  That  is  too  crude  a  view  of  the  matter. 
His  plan  rather  is  to  utilize  the  Aaronic  priesthood  to  set 
forth  the  nature  of  Christ's  priestly  functions,  and  the 
Melchisedec  priesthood  to  set  forth  their  ideal  worth  and 
eternal  validity ;  and  he  here  as  it  were  lets  us  into  the 
secret.  The  plan  in  both  its  parts  is  based  on  Scripture 
warrant,  to  be  produced  at  the  proper  place.  This  view  of 
the  writer's  method  is  not  to  be  summarily  set  aside  by  the 
assertions  that  priest  and  high  priest  are  synonymous  terms, 
and  that  the  functions  of  all  orders  of  priesthood  are  the 
same.  As  to  the  one  point,  it  is  enough  to  say  that  the 
writer  uses  the  two  words  with  discrimination:  "priest" 
when  likening  Christ  to  Melchisedec,  "high  priest"  when 
comparing  Him  with  Aaron.  As  to  the  other,  it  is  to  be 
remarked  that  no  mention  is  made  of  sacrificial  functions  in 
connexion  with  Melchisedec's  history  as  given  in  Genesis, 
and  that  the  writer  evidently  does  not  choose  to  ascribe  to 
him  functions  not  spoken  of  in  the  record.  Arguing  from 
his  way  of  drawing  inferences  from  the  silences  of  history, 
one  might  rather  conclude  that  because  he  found  no  sacri- 
ficial functions  mentioned  in  the  story,  he  therefore  assumed 
that  such  duties  as  were  performed  by  Aaron  about  the 
tabernacle  did  not  enter  into  the  idea  of  the  Melchisedec 
priesthood. 

The  words,  "  high  priest  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec," 
containing  the  programme  of  the  discussion  about  to  be 
entered  on,  we  expect  to  find  the  two  topics  suggested 
'  taken  up  in  this  order  :  first,  Christ  as  High  Priest ;  next, 
Christ  as  Priest  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec.  In  point 
of  fact,  they  are  taken  up  in  the  inverse  order.  Why,  we 
may  be  able  to  discover  in  a  future  paper. 

A.  B.  Bruce. 


369 


THE  BBEAD  PBOBLEM  OF  THE    WOBLD, 

OUR  LORD'S  FIRST  TEMPTATION. 

Cheist  comes  to  the  baptism,  finding  in  that  ritual  the 
expression  of  thoughts  with  which  He  is  labouring.  These 
thoughts,  emphasized  by  the  ritual,  find  their  antitheses 
in  the  temptation.  A  ritual  nourishes  the  roots  of  the 
thoughts  it  expresses.  He  is  on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan 
in  a  human  society  which  shades  down  from  John  to  the 
basest  of  men.  Whatever  men  may  be,  the  law  of  humanity 
remains,  "  Thus  it  becometh  us  to  fulfil  all  righteousness." 
To  be  human,  in  the  ideal  of  humanity,  is  all  righteousness. 
Christ,  in  baptism,  accepts  this  humanity. 

After  the  ritual,  our  Lord  hurries  into  a  wild,  weird, 
lone  waste,  carrying  a  flood  of  great  thoughts,  to  inspect 
the  elements  of  the  situation.  The  creation  of  a  spiritual 
humanity  of  a  superior  order  is  the  gravity  upon  His  mind. 
He  is  with  Himself  in  this  wilderness,  engaged  upon  the 
plan  of  His  own  being  and  the  specifications  of  the  archi- 
tecture before  Him.  He  who  creates  must  have  a  plan. 
He  chooses  His  methods,  and  finds  definitions  for  Himself. 
He  looks  to  His  destination,  and  settles  Himself  into  its 
terms  and  limits.  The  temptations,  what  we  call  the 
temptations,  are  surveys  of  the  situation  ;  and  from  them 
came  the  battle  of  alternatives,  competitions  of  methods, 
divergences  from  the  predestined  ideals,  which  lend  them- 
selves as  oppositions  in  the  scheme  of  things. 

In  this  collision  of  procedure  He  encounters  the  Bread 
Problem  of  the  world.  The  problem  of  food  lies  in  the  very 
core  of  humanity,  inheres  in  its  very  structure.  In  the 
earliest  look  we  give  to  our  being,  as  we  front  the  adventure 
of  it,  we  find  that  our  food  is  big  in  the  schedule.  He  who 
wishes  to  teach  men  how  to  live,  he  who  would  pre- 
scribe methods  of  life,  he  who  would  be   a  regenerator  of 

TOL.  IT.  24 


370    THE   BREAD   PROBLEM   OF  THE    WORLD. 

faculty  and  feeling,  must  adjust  himself  to  this  question. 
Christ  had  a  Bread  Problem  for  Himself  and  us  to  solve. 
It  will  be  my  aim  to  argue  that  the  Food  Problem,  which 
is  the  physical  basis  of  man,  suggests  to  our  Lord  certain 
modifications  of  the  Divine  programme  He  holds. 

Three  introductory  explanations  are  necessary  before  we 
can  reach  the  heart  of  our  subject,  to  clear  the  ground  of 
the  argument,  and  they  apply  to  the  three  temptations. 

First,  that  these  temptations  must  be  strictly  regarded 
as  visions  and  debates  of  the  mind.  The  arena  on  which 
the  battle  of  alternatives  and  competitions  is  fought  is  the 
spirit.  It  is  possible  for  the  devil  to  carry  Christ  on  his 
shoulders,  and  actually  place  him  on  one  of  the  spikes  or 
finials  of  the  Temple  towers,  though  to  many  minds  it  must 
appear  a  clumsy  procedure  for  the  sublime  purpose  of  a 
temptation.  But  it  is  not  possible  for  the  devil  to  place 
Christ  on  any  mountain  in  Palestine  or  elsewhere  where 
He  could  literally  see  the  kingdoms  of  the  world.  To  see 
with  the  eye  the  kingdoms  of  the  world  means  seeing 
Babylon,  Ephesus,  Athens,  Corinth,  Rome  ;  the  legions  of 
Home  in  their  military  accoutrement,  and  flush  of  victory ; 
the  commerce  of  Corinth  carried  in  its  ships  and  stored  in 
its  warehouses  ;  the  philosophy  of  Athens  in  the  manu- 
scripts of  Euripides  and  Plato ;  the  literature  of  the  classic 
age  in  the  library  of  Alexandria.  This  is  a  sheer  visual 
impossibility.  The  spectacle  of  the  kingdoms  is  mental.  If 
the  literal  and  physical  break  down  in  the  third  temptation, 
they  fail  equally  with  the  first  and  second.  The  tempta- 
tions are  thoughts,  looks  of  the  mind,  inspections  of  the 
situation,  repulsions  and  attractions  in  the  scheme  of  life 
appointed  to  Him.  A  temptation  is  a  superior  plan  of 
action  struggling  with  the  inferior,  the  will  with  its  deter- 
minations facing  the  Divine  predestinations. 

The  subjectivity  of  the  temptations  is  further  confirmed 


OUB   LORD'S  FIB8T  TEMPTATION.  371 

by  the  order  preserved  in  Luke's  narrative.  He  makes 
Matthew's  third  temptation  to  be  the  second.  Canon 
Farrar  in  his  classic  Life  of  Christ,  adopting  the  traditional 
view  that  the  first  temptation  was  addressed  to  the  hunger 
of  Christ,  and  the  second  to  a  fall  from  a  giddy  height,  very 
properly  adds,  "  both  orders  cannot  be  right,"  and  then 
makes  an  apology  for  inspiration.  But  both  orders  are 
right,  if  the  temptations  are  in  the  realm  of  the  subjective. 
The  thoughts  crossed  and  recrossed  each  other,  occurred 
and  recurred,  and  the  record  is  simply  a  classified  summary 
of  forty  days'  reflections  and  examinations.  Any  order  now 
becomes  right. 

A  second  explanation  respects  the  nature  of  the  literature 
before  us,  which  is  poetic.  The  historians  got  their  report 
of  the  thought  of  the  forty  days  from  Christ  Himself,  and 
He  is  the  Master  of  parables.  A  diary  of  forty  days'  intense 
studies  and  rapt  surveys,  of  the  mental  absorption  which 
had  suspended  the  functions  of  the  body,  cannot  be  com- 
pressed in  ten  lines  of  print.  The  journal  is  turned  into  a 
poem  ;  the  report  is  partly  dramatic,  partly  epic  in  form, 
a  kind  of  literature  not  known  in  the  modern  world,  and 
belongs  to  the  genius  of  the  Hebrew  nation.  In  the  first 
chapter  of  Genesis  we  have  the  history  of  tens  of  thousands 
of  years,  the  chemistry  and  physiology,  the  flora  and  fauna, 
the  geology  and  biology,  of  millenniums  of  time  condensed 
into  one  page.  Here  we  have  wide  ranges  of  visions  ex- 
tracted into  ten  lines.  This  manner  of  literature  is  only 
possible  to  the  poetic  faculty,  and  probably  to  the  Shemitic 
species  of  poetry.  We  see  the  artist,  who  can  make  a 
picture  of  leagues  of  cloud  and  miles  of  mountain  by  the 
mixture  of  a  few  colours,  by  a  few  strokes  of  the  brush,  on 
a  canvas  a  foot  square.  The  poet  can  idealize  the  infinite 
in  a  few  similitudes.  The  register  of  these  forty  days  is 
the  painting  of  an  artist  with  a  creative  mind.  The  litera- 
ture is  not  historical  writing  ;  it  is  not  a  chronicle.     It  is 


372    THE  BREAD  PROBLEM  OF  TEE   WORLD. 

history  sublimed,  facts  idealized,  details  generalized,  and  a 
poem  got.  It  sums  up  as  on  painted  canvas,  on  statued 
marble,  in  statuesque,  the  history  of  an  unique  situation. 
Poetry  is  often  superior  to  history,  always  nearest  to  the 
human  understanding. 

The  three  temptations  are  a  poem,  in  which  the  Divine 
theory  of  Christ's  situation  is  pictured,  in  which  human 
life  appears  in  its  laws,  limitations,  first  principles,  inner 
meanings.  There  is  a  glow  and  thrill  in  the  story  which 
only  poetry  could  import  into  it.  It  is  curious  to  note  that 
Milton's  Paradise  Begained  is  wholly  these  temptations  in 
a  modern  epic  garb,  as  if  the  poet's  genius  had  perceived 
that  Christ's  entire  mission  was  mirrored  in  them. 

Third.  The  literal  history  is  made  altogether  improbable, 
and  the  exclusive  mental  sphere  of  the  temptations  made 
certain,  by  the  fact  reported  by  Mark  and  Luke,  that  the 
temptations  were  distributed  over  the  whole  of  the  forty 
days,  and  are  not  concentrated  into  three  intense  activities 
at  the  end  of  them,  which  last  is  the  reading  uniformly 
given  by  interpreters.  It  is  said,  "  And  Jesus  being  full  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  returned  from  Jordan,  and  was  led  by  the 
Spirit  into  the  wilderness,  being  forty  days  tempted  of  the 
devil."  This  diffusion  of  the  temptations  requires  that  we 
separate  the  hunger  of  Christ  from  the  incitement  to  turn 
stones  into  bread.  It  requires  us  to  take  the  first  two  verses 
of  Matthew's  and  Luke's  narrative  as  the  historical  intro- 
duction not  to  the  first  temptation  only,  but  to  all  three. 
We  confuse  history  with  poetry,  and  the  historic  intro- 
duction with  the  ideal  story,  when  we  connect  the  hunger 
with  the  first  temptation.  The  order  in  which  the  tempta- 
tions are  given  depends  upon  the  standpoint  of  the  narrator. 
The  Bread  Problem  was  probably  first  in  time,  occurring 
however  again  during  the  forty  days.  The  World  Temp- 
tation is  however  the  first  in  order  of  rank,  recurring 
also  all  through  the  forty  days.     Luke  may  as  well  have 


OUB   LORD'S  FIRST  TEMPTATION.  373 

put  Matthew's  third  as  first,   as  he  has  Matthew's  third 
as  second. 

Our  Lord's  hunger  has  no  more  to  do  with  the  first 
temptation  than  with  the  second.  We  must  separate  with 
an  accentuated  clearness  the  hunger  at  the  end  of  the  forty 
days  from  the  proposal  to  convert  stones  into  bread.  Our 
Lord  became  hungry  after  the  temptations  were  past. 
When  the  ecstasy  of  thought,  the  mental  abstraction  is 
over,  the  temptations  are  over.  When  the  tension  of 
thought  and  temptation  is  past,  the  body  remembers  itself, 
and  recovers  its  suspended  functions.  When  Moses  is 
engrossed  giving  a  constitution  to  Israel,  he  neither  eats 
nor  drinks.  When  Christ  is  thinking  out  a  constitution  for 
the  kingdom  of  the  soul,  He  neither  eats  nor  drinks.  The 
hunger  comes  when  distinctions  are  got  and  decisions 
taken,  and.  the  victory  is  obtained.  The  conversion  of 
stones  into  bread  was  not  the  trial  of  a  hungry  man.  The 
hunger  is  felt  after  the  abstraction  and  thought  subside, 
and  the  temptations  belong  to  the  period  of  abstraction, 
and  depart  with  it.     The  hunger  is  outside  the  temptation. 

The  temptations  are  prefaced  by  three  facts  :  the  locality 
of  the  wilderness,  the  mental  entrancement  of  forty  days, 
the  hunger  which  follows  the  cessation  of  the  entrancement. 
There  history  ends.  Then  the  details  of  the  temptations 
are  reported  as  idealities,  pictured  in  the  form  of  proposals 
to  convert  stones  into  bread,  to  take  a  leap  down  from  the 
finial  of  the  Temple  tower,  to  accept  the  offer  of  the  king- 
doms of  the  world.  The  poetic  form  of  the  literature,  the 
thought-sphere  of  the  temptation,  the  separation  of  the 
hunger  from  the  proposal  to  convert  stones  into  bread, 
reveal  the  grandeur  of  the  occasion.  If  the  trial  consisted 
in  the  pang  of  hunger,  and  this  as  an  introductory  taste  of 
hardship  and  a  suggested  dislike  to  a  mission  involving 
pain,  it  is  poor  enough.  But  the  address  is  made  to  the 
deepest  that  is  in  Christ,  to  the  philanthropy  of  His  soul 


374    THE  BREAD  PROBLEM  OF  THE    WORLD. 

and  the  pain  of  philanthropy,  and  to  His  mission  as  the 
Creator  of  a  new  quality  of  the  human  soul.  It  is  not  mere 
endurance,  physical  and  moral,  that  is  tested  here,  but  it  is 
a  vision  of  the  structure  of  human  nature  which  is  given  to 
Christ,  and  the  problem  is  handed  to  Him  to  develop  a  new 
quality  in  it.  This  is  not  an  address  to  the  luxurious  use  of 
power,  nor  is  it  intended  to  rouse  a  disappointment  with 
His  situation  because  He  was  hungry.  Every  temptation  is 
a  revelation,  and  this  is  a  revelation  of  the  forces  needed  to 
make  men  Christian.  The  temptation  to  convert  stones 
into  bread  is  a  temptation  to  the  use  of  inferior  forces, 
which  will  be  short  and  transient  methods  with  human 
nature.  It  is  a  modification  of  the  original  plan  in  the 
interests  of  philanthropy.     It  is  a  subtle  seduction. 

The  natural  basis  of  this  subtle  seduction  is  the  Bread 
Problem  of  our  world,  and  its  relations  both  to  the  comfort 
of  men  and  to  the  spiritualities  which  Christ  has  come 
to  introduce.  Our  Lord  has  just  come  from  the  artisan 
life  in  Nazareth.  Nazareth  is  a  town  notorious  for  its 
poverty  and  ill  conditions  of  human  nature.  In  village 
huts  He  had  seen  and  felt  how  hard  it  is  for  men  to  make 
their  daily  bread,  and  what  bread  is  made  is  mostly  coarse, 
scanty,  hard  fare,  unworthy  of  us.  The  normal  condition 
is  one  of  bare  subsistence  ;  chronic  poverty  is  man's  out- 
ward estate.  The  comfortable  classes  make  a  limited  upper 
ten  thousand.  The  masses  and  the  millions  live  on  the 
edge  of  famine,  with  just  enough  to  pay  rent  and  taxes, 
make  ends  meet,  and  life  passable.  We  begin  at  the  point 
of  nothing,  and  continue  to  the  end  apprentices  to  labour, 
clerks  to  industry,  and  masters  only  of  want.  The  harvest 
of  the  year  is  always  trembling  in  an  uncertain  balance  ; 
sunshine  and  rain  seem  to  be  badly  proportioned,  frost  and 
heat  are  untimely,  we  look  ever  with  anxiety  to  the  autumn 
fates.     This  universal,  abnormal  destitution  of  the  human 


OUB  LORD'S  FIRST  TEMPTATION.  375 

race  engages  the  earliest  thought  of  Him  who  accepts  the 
position  of  its  chief  and  Eedeemer.  How  want  pressed  on 
every  side  of  us,  what  a  hand  to  mouth  struggle  it  was,  and 
without  dignity,  how  the  earth  refuses  to  give  us  more  than 
dry  crusts, — these  facts,  these  humiliations,  are  a  vision  to 
the  Head  of  the  race  who  is  considering  His  plans  for  the 
spiritual  republic.  He  naturally  encounters  on  the  threshold 
this  primeval,  cleaving  circumstance,  environing  human 
nature  as  a  curse,  and  apparently  degrading  it. 

To  reduce  the  pressure  of  this  controlling  force,  to  make 
the  terms  of  natural  existence  easier,  to  call  up  a  new 
history  of  humanity  by  removing  this  Bread  Problem,  to 
get  this  relief  as  the  dominant  feature  of  His  work,  is  the 
insidious  thought  which  receives  the  drapery  and  dramatic 
force  of  the  words,  "  Command  that  these  stones  be  made 
bread." 

The  instigation  to  this  thought  is  in  the  possession  of 
power.  "  If  Thou  art  the  Son  of  God,  and  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  power  by  Thy  recent  baptism,  as  solar  worlds  and 
planetary  conjunctions,  light  and  heat,  are  at  Thy  bidding, 
grow  heavier  harvests,  make  Thyself  monarch  of  plenty, 
make  men  comfortable,  save  them  by  first  mitigating  their 
hard  outward  lot.  An  acre  produces  twenty-eight  bushels 
of  wheat,  cause  it  to  produce  one  hundred  bushels,  and  the 
lot  is  mended,  and  they  will  be  set  free  to  more  elevating 
occupations."  The  income  per  head  in  Britain  is  £30,  in 
France  £20,  in  Turkey  M,  in  India  £2.  Men  are  underfed, 
underclothed,  underhoused.  Baise  this  income  to  ±'300  a 
year,  and  the  human  conditions  will  be  dignified  and 
sweetened.  This  is  the  idea  which  the  allegory  of  the 
temptation  literature  expresses.  Wheat  is  a  grass,  a  wild 
grass  specialized  by  cultivation.  The  discovery  of  another 
wild  grass,  capable  of  an  edible  variation,  hardy,  enduring 
opposite  climates  of  heat  and  cold,  dampness  and  dryness, 
holding  a  heavier  head  of  grain,  richer  in  gluten  and  starch, 


376         THE  BREAD  PROBLEM   OF  TEE    WORLD. 

which  is  within  the  capabiHties  of  our  wild  grasses,  would 
materially  alter  the  condition  of  man's  life  on  earth.  This 
gift  of  comfort  will  be  a  fine  foundation  on  which  to  rest 
the  spiritualities  of  the  kingdoms.  This  new  enactment  by 
Him  who  is  the  Lawgiver  of  the  race  would  be  the  best 
inauguration  of  the  new  society  to  be  established.  This  is 
a  plausible  method  of  procedure,  and  the  devil  of  a  modified 
programme  which  appeals  to  Him, 

The  address  is  made  to  the  best  in  Christ,  to  the  sympathy 
of  the  heart.  Who  that  has  thought  to  any  purpose,  and 
who  carries  a  feeling  in  the  soul  for  his  race,  has  not  felt 
the  sharpest  pang  of  being  that  so  many  of  his  kind,  with 
noblest  possibilities,  are  badly  housed,  coarsely  fed,  rudely 
dressed?  Who  that  has  seen  the  beauty  of  the  human  face, 
of  man  and  maiden  in  their  prime,  and  loves  a  human  face 
by  innate  attractions  within  him,  and  thinks  of  the  poverty, 
the  incapacity,  the  want  of  opportunity  which  are  the  lot 
of  men,  has  not  felt  that  the  plan  of  being  is  too  severe, 
and  soothed  his  pain  with  the  indispensable  future  which 
is  to  compensate  humanity  for  its  present  suppressions  ? 
Patience  alone  quiets  our  pain,  and  in  impatience  we  wait. 
"  Command  that  these  stones  be  made  bread,"  is  the  sum- 
mary of  a  wish  for  a  swift,  short,  but  unsafe  expedient  for 
the  elevation  of  the  race.     It  is  philanthropy  in  a  hurry. 

The  pathos  of  the  soul,  the  movement  of  families,  the 
migration  of  races,  the  fortunes  of  nations,  and  the  history 
of  the  world,  have  been  inspired  by  the  price  of  bread. 

One  of  the  earliest  records  of  a  human  sigh  expresses  the 
hope  of  relief  from  the  unending  strife  of  finding  bread. 
In  the  traditions  of  the  Shemitic  race,  Lamech  is  known  to 
have  said  on  the  birth  of  a  child,  "  This  same  shall  comfort 
us  concerning  the  .  .  .  toil  of  our  hands,  because  of  the 
ground  which  the  Lord  hath  cursed."  Hebrew  nationality 
has  its  sources  in  a  famine.  The  family  of  Jacob  go  to 
Egypt  in  a  dearth  of  food,  and  find  Joseph  superintending  a 


OUB  LORD'S  FIRST  TEMPTATION.  377 

dearth-oppressed  nation.  There  they  remain,  and  abandon 
those  nomadic  habits  indigenous  to  the  Shemite,  and  a 
national  cohesion  begins.  There  the  family  becomes  the 
nation,  and  develops  its  own  pecuhar  genius  of  religion 
under  the  stimulating  influences  of  the  wisdom  of  Egypt. 
Their  last  education  into  nationality  was  in  the  want  of  the 
wilderness,  which  left  traces  in  them  which  were  never  lost, 
and  to  which  they  turn  as  unforgotten  history.  Ruth  falls 
into  the  royal  line  of  David  in  the  progress  of  a  famine. 
The  Greeks  and  the  Hindus  started  from  the  uplands  of 
the  Caucasus  in  search  of  new  lands,  when  their  own  native 
highlands  could  no  longer  support  the  growing  population. 
The  fortunes  of  East  and  West  took  colour  from  the  bread 
migrations  of  this  vigorous  Aryan  race.  That  the  Greek 
and  Sanscrit  languages  are  varieties  of  the  same  language 
once  spoken  by  the  same  race  is  one  of  the  central  discoveries 
of  our  day. 

Plato  is  writing  philosophy  when  he  says,  "  The  body  is  a 
source  of  endless  trouble  to  us  by  reason  of  the  mere  require- 
ment of  food."  ^  Tacitus  says  that  Augustus  Csesar  was 
able  to  turn  Rome  into  an  imperial  state  by  supplying 
cheap  corn  to  its  starving  multitudes. =^  That  vilest  of  men 
and  most  wicked  of  princes,  the  Emperor  Nero,  who  was  a 
punishment  to  his  age,  had  a  hold  on  the  affections  of  Rome 
by  keeping  granaries  of  corn  ever  ready  to  feed  its  popula- 
tion: In  the  century  of  our  Lord,  Jerusalem  had  suffered 
much  from  scarcities.  The  messianic  hope  became  corn 
romances,  which  pictured  the  Messiah  as  standing  on  the 
shores  of  Joppa,  the  Mediterranean  wafting  pearls  at  His 
feet,  and  He  distributing  bread  to  the  people,  and  want  and 
toil  becoming  memories  of  the  past.  The  only  occasion 
when  the  popular  enthusiasm  ran  so  high  on  the  side  of 
Christ  that  the  people  would  have  made  Him  a  king,  was 

1  Jowett's  Plato,  "  Phasdo,"  vol.  i.,  p.  439. 

2  Annals,  book  i.  2. 


378    THE  BREAD   PROBLEM   OF  THE    WORLD. 

after  He  had  fed  the  five  thousand.  There  is  a  Gaehc 
proverb  which  says,  "Hunger  is  a  violent  companion"; 
and  its  violences  are  determining  impulses,  vs^hich  direct 
the  careers  of  men,  of  tribes,  of  nations. 

Modern  history  has  large  epochs  inspired  by  this  bread 
impulse.  A  German  philosopher  has  wittily  and 
pathetically  said,  "  Luther  shook  all  Germany  to  its  foun- 
dations, but  Francis  Drake  pacified  it  again ;  he  gave  us 
the  potato."  ^  The  deeper  hunger  which  Luther  stirred 
demanded  a  higher  mode  of  living,  and  the  potato  supplied 
the  richer  starch  which  the  body  needed  to  be  parallel  with 
the  spirit,  justified  by  faith.  To  this  day  the  potato  con- 
tinues its  reign.  In  France  the  dry  summer  of  1788  was 
followed  by  a  winter  below  the  freezing  point.  1789  was  a 
famine  unmanageable  by  Church  and  State.  Barley  bread, 
soaked  bran,  mouldy  rye,  were  the  food  of  the  people. 
On  July  14th  the  Bastille  fell,  which  has  changed  the 
face  of  Europe  to  this  day.  Had  Louis  XVI.,  like  Nero, 
kept  granaries  to  feed  the  people,  Europe  had  never  seen 
a  Napoleon.  That  Revolution,  the  product  of  hunger, 
originated  ideas  of  franchises  which  still  rule  Europe. 
"Fancy,  then,  some  Five  full  grown  Millions  of  such  gaunt 
figures,  with  their  haggard  faces  (figures  haves) ;  in  woollen 
jupes,  with  copper-studded  leather  girths,  and  high  sabots, 
starting  up  to  ask,  as  in  forest-roarings,  their  washed  Upper 
Classes,  after  long  unreviewed  centuries,  virtually  this 
question  :  How  have  ye  treated  us ;  how  taught  us,  fed  us, 
led  us,  while  we  toiled  for  you  ?  The  answer  can  be  read  in 
flames,  on  the  nightly  summer-sky :  .  .  .  Emptiness, — 
of  pocket,  of  stomach,  of  head  and  of  heart.  Behold  there 
is  nothing  in  us ;  nothing  but  what  Nature  gives  her  wild 
children  of  the  desert :  Ferocity  and  Appetite ;  Strength 
grounded  on  Hunger.     Did  ye  mark  among  your  Rights  of 

^  Heine's  Wit,  Wisdom,  and  Pathos,  p.  289.    By  Suodgrass. 


OUB  LORD'S  FIRST  TEMPTATION.  379 

Man,  that  man  was  not  to  die  of  starvation,  while  there  was 
bread  reaped  by  him?     It  is  among  the  Mights  of  Man."  ^ 

"We  are  the  wealthiest  country  in  Europe.  In  1847, 
within  living  memory,  half  a  million  of  men  perished  in  the 
Irish  famine  by  the  failure  of  Drake's  potato  and  Heine's 
specific.  Thousands  died  with  the  spade  in  the  hand  ;  the 
dying  were  not  fed  ;  the  dead  were  not  buried.  The  whole 
social  system  of  Ireland  depended  upon  the  potato.  Two 
millions  emigrated  to  America,  to  give  a  Celtic  human  floor 
to  the  new  world  as  the  old  world  had  the  same,  making 
perhaps  the  greatest  human  exodus  known  in  modern 
history.  It  was  in  the  struggle  of  the  corn  laws  that 
Cobden  and  Bright  received  the  ingrained  conviction  that 
we  should  not  be  a  happy  nation  till  our  representative 
institutions  were  perfected,  an  idea  which  has  influenced 
the  course  of  politics  ever  since,  and  its  issues  will  colour 
our  history  to  the  very  end.  During  the  last  ten  years 
we  have  heard  the  howl  of  hunger  in  Ireland,  and  seen  the 
madness  of  it ;  and  in  Scotland  the  crofter  cry  for  more 
bread  and  better  bread  is  making  a  patient  people  rebel- 
lious. In  thirty  years  famines  have  carried  off  twelve  mil- 
lions of  people  in  India  and  cost  the  Government  twenty 
millions  of  money. 

In  the  forefront  of  the  speech  which  Mr.  Parnell  de- 
livered on  receiving  the  great  Irish  testimonial  to  his 
services  is  his  sympathy  with  human  want,  which  was  his 
power  and  his  opportunit^^ 

"  I  looked  round,  and  saw  artisans  in  the  towns  struggling  for  a 
precarious  existence  with  a  torpid  trade  and  with  everything  against 
them.  I  saw  also  the  tenant  farmer  trembling  before  the  eje  of  the 
landlord,  with  the  knowledge  that  in  that  landlord's  power  rested  the 
whole  future  of  himself  and  his  family ;  that  his  position  was  literally 
no  better,  physically  not  so  good,  as  the  lot  of  the  South  African 
negro;    .     .    .   that  his  life  was  a  constant  struggle  to  keep  a  roof  over 

1  Carlyle,  French  Revolution,  vol.  i.,  book  vi.,  "  General  Overturn,"  p.  179. 


380    THE  BREAD  PROBLEM  OF  THE    WORLD. 

his  head  and  over  the  heads  of  his  family,  ...  I  saw  the  Irish 
labourer,  the  lowest  of  the  low,  the  slave  of  the  slave,  with  not  even  a 
dry  roof  over  his  head,  with  the  rain  from  heaven  dropping  on  the 
couch  on  which  he  was  forced  to  lie,  dressed  in  rags,  subsisting  on 
the  meanest  food.  .  .  .  Here  was  a  nation  carrying  on  its  life, 
striving  for  existence,  striving  for  nationhood,  under  such  difficulties 
as  had  never  beset  any  other  people  on  the  face  of  the  globe." — 
Times,  Dec.  I2th,  1883. 

A  Kegenerator,  a  Eedeemer,  a  Power,  who  is  going  to 
make  history,  must  take  this  economic  problem  as  an 
important  factor  in  His  calculations.  When  our  Lord 
retired  for  thought,  we  find  our  Lord  doing  just  what  we 
should  have  expected  Him  to  do  :  to  begin  His  inspection 
of  human  laws  and  forces  where  man's  life  begins,  and  to 
adjust  Himself  to  the  external,  natural,  and  physical  life  of 
man,  as  it  stands  related  to  the  inner,  psychic,  and  spiritual 
life.  The  sensuousness  of  man  has  always  to  be  reckoned 
with  in  treating  him.  The  sensuousness  has  to  be  re- 
spected and  harmonized.  Merely  to  live  is  the  first  prize  of 
our  being ;  and  yet  to  keep  ourselves  alive,  to  keep  this  prize, 
is  a  grim  effort  all  our  days.  The  heavy  price  we  pay  for 
this  prize  is  the  struggle  to  keep  ourselves  living,  and  there 
is  even  a  pleasure  in  the  struggle  ;  it  is  so  central  to  live. 
We  will  not  resign  life,  spite  of  the  fierce  battle.  Suicide  is 
the  last  insanity  of  our  nature. 

This  line  of  thought  gives  a  natural  basis  to  that  con- 
ference with  Himself  which  Christ  holds  in  the  wilderness, 
out  of  which  comes  the  tempting  wish,  which  calls  the 
power  of  divinity  to  its  aid.  The  poor  shall  never  cease  out 
of  the  land.  The  struggle  for  bread  is  always  to  be  there. 
By  this  economic  law  spiritual  eminences  will  be  obtained, 
nourished  in  the  soil  of  want  and  carrying  a  moral  chemistry 
from  it,  and  the  higher  kingdoms  will  be  found.  "  Blessed 
are  the  poor  in  spirit :  for  theirs  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven." 

I  shall  verify  the  conclusion  at  which  we  have  arrived 
by  the  equations  we  obtain  from  it  to  our  own  situation. 


OUB  LORD'S  FIRST  TEMPTATION.  381 

1.  In  the  refusal  to  be  a  corngrower  and  the  discoverer  of 
a  cereal  of  a  richer  potency,  Christ  reveals  the  ground-plan 
of  our  being.  "  Man  doth  not  live  by  bread  alone,  but  by 
every  word  that  proceedeth  out  of  the  mouth  of  God." 
This  is  quoted  from  an  ancient  document.  It  is  history 
that  God  is  the  basis  of  human  nature,  religion  the  archaean 
gneiss  and  fundamental  floor,  in  which  all  the  stratifications 
of  human  thought  and  activity  are  deposited.  Man  lives 
by  revelations  of  God  and  commandments  of  God.  The 
primitive  and  primary  element  in  man  is  his  sense  of  God, 
and  his  responsiveness  to  far  off  connexions,  and  to  the  tide 
of  the  infinite  playing  on  his  faculties.  The  mind  ingre- 
dient in  the  protoplasm  of  us  distances  us  from  nature, 
though  we  are  a  constituent  part  of  it ;  and  the  nature  of 
mind  is  seen  in  its  opening  correspondences  with  God.  He 
who  would  redeem  man  or  renovate  him.  He  who  would 
elevate  the  type  of  him,  and  initiate  an  epoch  in  his  history, 
must  make  this  structure  the  stress  of  his  central  thoughts. 
Religion  gives  to  man  his  centralness,  and  to  give  him  a 
new  direction  or  development  you  must  touch  the  vital 
centralness. 

This  sense  of  God,  this  divineness,  becomes  conspicuous 
in  the  thoughts  of  these  days.  Abraham  began  his  career 
in  the  youthful  antiquity  of  our  world  by  a  new  conception 
of  God  and  a  new  sensitiveness  to  Him.  The  cohesion  of 
the  Hebrew  nationality  was  got  from  a  finer  responsiveness 
which  Moses  has  found  and  which  is  expressed  by  the  name 
Jehovah.  The  epoch  of  modern  history  takes  its  mark  from 
Christ.  The  last  turn  which  Europe  took,  and  on  the  lines 
of  which  it  is  still  moving,  was  obtained  through  Luther 
and  a  religious  revolution.  Grote  has  said  of  Greece, 
"  Grecian  antiquity  cannot  be  at  all  understood  except  in 
connexion  with  Grecian  religion."^  Gibbon  has  said  of 
Rome,  "  The  innumerable  deities  and  rites  of  polytheism 

'  History  of  Greece,  vol.  i.,  p.  400.     Library  edition. 


382    THE   BREAD  PROBLEM  OF  THE   WORLD. 

were  closely  interwoven  with  every  circumstance  of  public 
and  private  life."  ^  Renouf  says  of  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
"  Religion  in  some  form  or  other  was  dominant  in  every 
relation  of  their  lives."  " 

Religion  as    the    uniform   expression  of   man's   deepest 
thought,  and  as  a  continuous  factor  in  history,  ever  present, 
I  must  pronounce  as  the  marvel  of  our  world.     We  are  so 
familiar  with  it,  that  the  marvel  is  lost  upon  us.     Our  Lord 
explains    the  portentous  phenomenon  which    Gibbon  and 
Grote  and  Renouf  have  registered,   by  the  principle  that 
man's  structure  is  such  that  he  must  be  a  Divine  feeder. 
The   nutriment   indexes  the    nature,  and   the   nature    the 
nutriment.     His  constitution  requires  Divine  revelations  ; 
he  can  live  only  by  the  natural  operation  of  his  faculties 
upon  God,  in  congenialities  and  correspondences.     There  is 
a  hunger  in  him  which  no  harvest  by  sea  or  land  can  still. 
He  looks  upward  to  God.     He  sees  God  ;  he  worships  a 
Father  ;  he  sacrifices  to  Powers  that  rule  him  from  above. 
To  keep    right  with   the  august  Being    that   invests  him 
round  is  the  high   struggle  which  shows  his  high  quality, 
and  to   inspire  him  in  this  struggle  is  the   main  business 
of  redemption  ;    all    other    things  shall  be    added  to  this. 
Primitive  man,  when  the  world  was  young,  saw  a  shell  on 
the  seashore,  felt  its  pearly  lustre  and  its  spiral  lines  and 
fiutings  ;  perhaps  putting  it  to  his  ear,  he  heard  the  roar  of 
the  sea  in  the  imprisoned  vibrations  within  its  chambers, 
like  the  phonograph  that  keeps  the  sound  that  once  was 
started  in  it  :  and   he  startles  with  a  vision  of  the  infinite 
Hand  that  carved  those  lines  and  set  those  colours.     In  the 
dreams  which  love  reflected  in  its  contest  with  death,  the 
dreamer  saw  his  lost  friend  in  other  fields  and  other  shores, 
and  a  vision  of  the  Otherwhere  haunts  him  and  becomes  a 
guidance.     In  the  purple  line  of  the  hills  against  the  blue 

^  Decline  and  Fall,  vol  ii.,  p.  48.     Bohn's  edition. 
2  Hibhert  Lectures,  p.  26. 


OUB   LORD'S   FIRST  TEMPTATION.  383 

sky,  in  the  cuttlefish  and  in  the  palm  tree,  he  sees  a  beauty 
and  a  majesty  in  which  is  revealed  the  Power  which  is  felt 
in  his  consciousness  as  over  him,  and  of  relations  outside  of 
this  world,  of  situations  that  begin  where  lands  and  oceans 
end.  Homer  says,  "  All  men  everywhere  open  wide  their 
mouth  for  the  gods,  as  the  fledgling  does  for  food."  Before 
the  Greek  Attic  and  its  cousin  the  Hindu  Sanscrit  were 
spoken,  when  that  Aryan  language  was  spoken  of  which 
Greek  and  Sanscrit  began  as  dialects,  a  future  life  was  sung 
in  hymns.  In  the  hymns  of  the  Vedas,  which  Professor 
Max  Miiller  has  unearthed  and  deciphered  for  us,  the  fresh- 
ness of  the  early  dawn  was  the  picture  which  pictured  the 
boundless  One,  the  infinite  God.  Before  the  era  of  Moses, 
in  a  temple  in  Egypt  sacred  to  Isis  stood  the  inscription, 
"  I  am  all  that  was  and  is  and  shall  be,  nor  my  veil  has  it 
been  withdrawn  by  mortals."  In  the  139th  Psalm,  which 
is  a  Hebrew  lyric  of  man's  structure,  the  emotion  is  got 
from  the  marvel  that  man  is  ever  in  the  presence  of  an 
Invisible  Spirit.  "  Thou  knowest  my  downsitting  and 
mine  uprising,  Thou  understandest  my  thought  afar  off. 
Whither  shall  I  go  from  Thy  spirit  ?  or  whither  shall  I  flee 
from  Thy  presence?"  He  is  overpowered  with  this  occult 
investment,  and  becomes  lyrical,  "  I  will  praise  Thee,  for 
I  am  fearfully  and  wonderfully  made."  It  is  this  historic 
fact  and  psychologic  structure  with  which  Christ  meets  the 
kindly  feeling  to  make  men  comfortable  in  outward  circum- 
stances. It  is  written  in  an  old  book,  and  is  the  conclusion 
of  history  and  psychology,  "  Man  doth  not  live  by  bread 
alone,  but  by  the  word  of  the  mouth  of  God."  It  will 
not  touch  his  central  need  to  make  him  more  comfortable. 
It  may  injure  that  centralness.  His  work  must  begin  at 
another  point. 

In  the  anatomy  of  this  temptation,  in  the  earliest 
thoughts  that  occupy  the  Eedeemer  of  men,  we  see  laid 
bare  the  constitution  of  our  being,  its  regnant  forces,  and 


384    THE  BBEAD  PROBLEM  OF  THE   WORLD. 

the  methods  of  the  Divine  government  over  us.  To  know 
God,  to  be  in  response  to  Him,  to  answer  His  will  by  a 
corresponding  conduct,  this  alone  finds  the  seats  and 
centres  of  us.  This  is  the  word  of  God,  the  manifestations, 
by  which  he  lives.  We  touch  our  summits  when  we  want 
God.  We  see  the  redemption  we  need  when  these  are  the 
summits  to  which  we  have  to  be  raised.  The  religious  idea 
is  a  ruling  force ;  the  religious  sentiment  guides  and  has 
guided  the  eventful  career  of  man.  To  provide  a  finer 
medium  for  the  visions  of  this  idea,  to  make  more  forceful 
this  sentiment,  is  the  primal  want  of  this  world  of  ours. 
And  here  Christ  sees  the  stress  of  His  work  must  be  laid. 

2.  The  commandment  or  word  which  Christ  receives  and 
obeys  is  to  restrain  His  benevolence  and  let  the  natural  law 
of  poverty  alone  and  to  introduce  other  laws.  The  stress 
or  sting  of  the  temptation  is  in  the  words,  "If  Thou  be  the 
Son  of  God" — as  and  since  Thou  art  the  Son  of  God.  The 
consciousness  of  power  and  of  a  good  intention  is  in  the 
higher  and  more  subtle  kinds  of  temptation.  Is  it  neces- 
sary to  keep  within  the  old  lines,  to  let  misery  alone  and 
to  continue  the  former  history,  when  other  methods  are 
at  hand  and  history  might  proceed  on  other  lines?  Is  it 
necessary  that  He  should  hold  in  abeyance  the  power  He 
possesses  and  withhold  Himself?  Very  few  men  can  have 
power  and  waive  its  use.  He  has  the  power  to  convert 
stones  into  bread,  to  be  the  King  of  plenty ;  He  has  the 
power  to  redeem  men  from  the  struggle  with  want.  But 
He  and  His  work  are  under  limitations ;  His  divinity  works 
by  law,  and  His  love  includes  law  ;  and  law  restrains  the 
freedom  of  love  and  divinity. 

The  work  of  Christ  is  within  the  old  laws  and  the  struc- 
ture of  human  nature.  It  is  not  miraculous.  He  continues 
nature,  and  He  carries  the  religions  of  nature  with  Him. 
He  inserts  no  new  elements  into  nature ;  the  supernatural 
is,  after  all,  a  prolongation  of  the  lines  of  the  natural.  Christ 


OUR   LOEB'S  FIRST  TEMPTATION.  385 


is  to  work  on  the  basis  of  nature,  and  the  moral  revolution 
which  He  is  to  effect  will  proceed  on  the  lines  of  nature  as 
it  has  been  from  the  beginning.  Christ  is  to  work  along 
with  the  struggle  for  bread,  and  the  Bread  Problem  to 
remain  where  it  ever  was,  even  though  the  new  worker  be 
the  Son  of  God.  Man  has  always  lived  in  God  when  he 
has  followed  the  higher  impulse,  and  not  fallen  back  upon 
the  animal,  and  Christ  has  come  to  give  a  fine  and  fresh 
potency  to  this  life  in  God  and  to  create  a  new  t5'pe  of  it. 
The  Christian  life  is  not  obtained  by  a  miracle.  It  is  the 
most  natural  thing  for  us.  It  is  a  higher  nature  to  us  ;  its 
germs  are  innate  in  us.  Be  true  to  your  constitution,  and 
you  will  develop  into  a  Christian.  The  Spirit  of  Christ  is 
where  truth  is  ;  He  leads  into  all  truth.  The  Christian 
life  is  the  finer  life  of  God  in  us,  which  is  our  natural  life. 

There  is  a  certain  independence  gifted  to  our  freewill, 
but  our  freewill  has  to  suppress  and  subordinate  it.  Mind 
is  a  miracle  in  the  midst  of  matter,  which  is  a  mere 
mechanism.  We  are  at  liberty,  and  yet  we  are  bounded  ; 
and  the  will  finds  its  freedom  in  recognising  the  suppression 
and  the  limitation.  The  reason  for  our  limitations  is  that 
we  gain  a  future  and  more  permanent  good  by  refusing 
the  temporary  good.  From  our  secular  limitations  come 
spiritual  enlargements.  Keep  within  the  routines  and 
traditions  of  your  country,  and  then  conventionalisms 
break  up  and  you  become  original.  Christ  keeps  within 
the  rules  of  humanity,  and  very  soon  He  does  the  most 
original  work  ever  done  in  our  world,  which  was  foolish- 
ness to  the  Greek  and  an  offence  to  the  Jew ;  and  He  has 
created  the  highest  races  by  the  originality  of  the  cruci- 
fixion. Begin  with  the  creeds,  and  then  you  will  not  want 
creeds.  You  will  leave  the  road  of  the  creeds  and  roam 
over  the  hills  and  valleys  of  the  Bible.  Keep  within  the 
limitations  appointed  to  you,  and  then  limits  dissolve  away, 
and   the   Unhmited   will  guide  you.     Time  is  on  the  side 

VOL.  IX.  2$ 


386         THE  BREAD  PROBLEM   OF  TEE    WORLD. 

of  every  man  who  surrenders  himself  to  law  and  limit, 
who  prefers  future  good  to  immediate  advantage,  who  post- 
pones the  showy  for  the  solid,  and  waits.  "  If  thou  he 
so  and  so,  do  this  ;  as  thou  hast  so  and  so,  go  there,"  are 
siren  notes,  and  we  must  rule  even  a  legitimate  power  and 
restrain  even  a  benevolent  liberty. 

There  are  no  straight  lines  in  nature,  except  in  crystal 
forms.  Look  at  a  coast-line,  at  a  mountain-line,  at  the 
clouds,  at  the  rocks.  The  lines  curve  in  and  out,  w'ind  up 
and  down.  The  curve  is  the  line  of  beauty.  Eules  take 
us  in  straight  lines,  bounded  on  each  side  ;  and  as  you  keep 
straight  the  rules  go  out  of  sight  and  you  get  into  the 
curves  of  love.  Law  is  lost  in  love ;  but  there  is  a  stage 
at  which  love  and  law  are  quarrelsome,  and  there  is 
temptation  in  that  stage.  Limitation  purchases  for  us  the 
illimitable.     Love  is  impatient  with  law. 

3.  The  unmended  struggle  for  bread  is  to  be  continued 
by  the  Founder  of  the  new  society  as  a  spiritual  agency. 
Christ  leaves  alone  the  struggle  for  bread,  leaves  it  just 
where  it  has  always  been,  and,  as  always,  it  will  be  utilized 
for  moral  purposes.  AVe  are  not  to  be  made  comfortable 
outwardly ;  with  the  sweat  of  our  brow  and  brain  we 
are  to  earn  our  living.  In  this  effort,  in  this  medium, 
we  shall  hear  more  correct  reports  of  the  soul,  and  learn 
the  more  intimate  decrees  of  Heaven.  Christ  refuses  to 
mitigate  the  harsh  conditions  of  being,  but  He  will  furnish 
lights  by  which  we  shall  get  more  heart  for  the  battle 
appointed  to  us.  To  be  is  a  privilege  ;  and  we  get  the 
privilege  of  being,  on  the  sovereign  condition  that  we  work 
out  of  the  lower  into  the  higher.  There  is  a  lower  and 
there  is  a  higher  ;  and  the  law  of  ascension  is  that  we 
crucify  the  lower ;  and  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  is  a  new 
leverage  for  this  lift.  If  the  religion  of  Christ  had  made  us 
more  easy  than  we  were  before,  it  would  lose  half  its  value. 
It  rather  reveals  a  pain  deep  in  the  heart  of  the  universe 


OUB   LORD'S  FIRST  TEMPTATION.  3S7 

by  His  crucifixion.  If  a  religion  were  introduced  which 
brought  comfort  to  men  as  one  of  its  great  factors,  we 
should  become  religious  for  the  sake  of  the  comfort,  and 
we  should  become  rich,  comfortable  saints,  which  means  a 
pauper  population  of  religious  men  at  best ;  but  worse,  we 
are  likely  to  become  a  society  of  hypocrites,  becoming 
Christians  for  the  sake  of  the  comfort.  The  blessing  of  ease 
is  refused  in  this  temptation  to  the  race  of  men  and  the 
religion  of  Jesus.  The  blessing  of  rest  is  to  be  given  ;  and 
rest  is  the  equilibrium  of  struggling  forces.  Ease  is  the 
negation  of  force  and  the  decomposition  of  structure. 

The  appointment  is  continued,  unmodified,  that  we  begin 
life  at  the  point  of  nothing,  with  a  bare  body,  and  to  keep 
life  by  labour ;  to  find  the  living  for  life  by  signing  articles 
of  industry.  Labour  may  pass  a  point  and  become  struggle, 
and  struggle  may  pass  a  point  and  become  agony.  Labour, 
struggle,  agony,  are  the  lines  on  which  we  are  moving,  and 
in  this  campaign  there  will  be  Sabbath  armistices,  when  we 
will  hear  the  higher  word  of  God  and  get  deeper  insights  of 
the  mystery  which  encompasses  us  round.  Being  is  made 
dear  to  us  in  both  senses  of  the  word.  It  is  dear,  and  we 
will  not  part  with  it,  and  the  price  we  pay  for  keeping  it  is 
dear.  The  young  man  who  refuses  to  take  the  bit  in  his 
mouth  and  yoke  to  labour  finds  a  freedom  to  waste  himself 
and  decompose  at  leisure.  America  and  Australia  are  new 
continents  made  by  the  youth  of  the  overcrowded  old  con- 
tinents from  compulsions  of  bread.  We  have  to  follow 
right  loyally  the  directions  which  these  compulsions  impose 
upon  us. 

The  margin  is  always  the  narrowest  between  bread  and 
famine,  and  one  of  the  early  temptations  which  emerges  for 
us  all  is  to  chafe  with  the  difficulties,  to  take  it  easy  or 
overstep  the  limitations.  To  hear  the  rumble  of  discontent, 
to  be  irritated  with  the  conditions,  to  revolt  from  them  ; 
and   it   makes   the    sad  breakdown  of  a  heavy  percentage 


338    TEE  BREAD  PROBLEM  OF  THE    WORLD. 

of  human  souls.  Two  temptations  will  emerge  :  to  do  as 
little  as  possible,  or  to  do  too  much  in  the  haste  to  be  rich. 
Ambition,  on  the  one  hand,  and  indolence,  on  the  other, 
pride  or  ease,  will  shape  themselves  into  temptations. 
These  temptations  manfully  overcome  b_y  a  righteous  labour 
will  bring  a  sense  of  God,  a  vividness  of  conscience,  and  a 
vision  of  principles.  We  are  potential  with  good,  and  the 
struggle  to  begin  right  will  bring  out  the  best.  Life  is  a 
battle  of  alternatives  ;  and  the  left-hand  alternative,  met  by 
the  loyalist  that  is  in  us,  will  summon  the  finer  powers 
into  government,  and  illuminate  the  fields  around  us,  and 
give  us  our  right  hand.  The  irrigation  of  human  nature  is 
got  through  religious  ideas  ;  and  we  shall  get  them  as  we 
see  the  plan  of  God,  that  man  lives  by  bread  from  heaven. 
When  life  is  a  story  of  poverty  or  of  mere  competence, 
when  we  prefer  labour  to  a  counterfeit  comfort,  when  we 
eat  the  bread  of  sorrow  according  to  the  will  of  God,  then 
we  see  that  the  lines  of  this  world  are  produced  to  another. 
We  discern  an  essence  in  duty  and  drudgery  for  functions 
elsewhere.  The  junction  of  time  and  timelessness  is  seen, 
and  the  heat  of  the  junction  felt.  The  anomaly  between 
our  proud  faculties  and  penurious  surroundings  grates  on 
us,  and  the  friction  flashes  on  us  the  central,  commanding, 
immortal  structure  of  our  being.  If  we  had  all  that  we 
want  for  the  body,  we  should  feel  that  we  were  spent 
and  finished  here — and  there  is  nothing  more  for  us.  Dis- 
content with  the  outward  discovers  the  finer  contents  of 
our  being.  Herodotus  says  that  the  gods  envy  men  their 
happiness,^  and  we  now  know  the  reason,  that  holiness  may 
be  emphasized  as  the  master-idea  of  being.  Christ  leaves 
unmitigated  this  struggle  for  bread,  leaves  the  law  of 
harvests  where  it  has  ever  been,  and  uses  the  scanty 
food-supply  as  an  instrument  for  the  spiritualities  of  His 
kingdom.      "  Labour  not  for  the  meat  which  perisheth  " 

'  Book  vii.  46. 


OUR  LORD'S  FIRST  TEMPTATION.  389 

has  been  accented  as  never  before.  The  discourse  on  the 
heavenly  bread  is  Christ's  exposition  of  this  temptation. 

4.  The  special  element  which  Christ  supplies  for  re- 
demptive purposes  becomes  visible.  That  element  is  the 
crucifixion.  In  this  temptation  the  Cross  is  before  Him. 
The  bread  He  has  to  furnish  is  His  dead  body.  It  is 
divinity  and  death  that  are  mingled  in  His  great  work. 
By  divinity  alone  He  can  supply  the  famine  of  the  world. 
He  feels  this  power,  and  the  feeling  gives  force  to  the 
temptation,  "  If  Thou  be  the  Son  of  God,  command  that 
these  stones  be  made  bread."  But  it  is  divinity  and  death 
that  are  the  true  bread,  which  are  the  true  need  of  man. 
This  truth,  accented  by  the  temptation,  is  the  basis  of  the 
great  sacrament.  "  Take,  eat ;  this  is  My  body,  broken  for 
you.  My  flesh  is  meat  indeed,  and  My  blood  is  drink 
indeed."  In  the  foreground  revelations  of  this  hour  is  the 
Cross.     Temptations  are  revelations. 

When  our  Lord  was  approaching  the  realities  of  the 
crucifixion,  and  the  shadow  became  a  pain,  His  mind 
reverts  to  the  baptism  in  which  the  shadow  also  was.  The 
crucifixion  is  the  fulfilment  of  it.  In  the  baptism,  the 
mission  of  death  was  first  made  vivid.  "  I  have  a  baptism 
to  be  baptized  with,  and  how  am  I  straitened  till  it  be 
accomplished  !  "  The  stress  of  the  crucifixion  was  felt  in 
the  visions  of  the  water  sacrament,  and  hence  the  point 
of  the  figure  and  the  prefiguration.  The  temptations  were 
holding  Him  from  the  prophetic  pain,  trying  to  soften  the 
forecast  of  it  by  suggesting  possible  methods  which  would 
avoid  or  postpone  it. 

"  Seek  ye  first  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  all  other  things 
shall  be  added."  Christ  emphasized  this  order  for  Him- 
self and  for  us,  that  we  are  to  begin  at  this  beginning.  We 
are  to  begin  with  the  soul  when  we  begin  this  life.  When 
God  is  King  of  the  soul,  and  Christ  is  Lord  of  the  heart ; 
when  we  are  living  by  the  best  and  truest  in  us  ;  when  we 


390         TEE  BREAD  PROBLEM  OF  THE    WORLD. 

have  found  the  primary  affections,  and  our  feet  are  on  the 
original  basements  of  things — then  we  are  in  the  kingdom 
of  God.  Every  idea  of  happiness  v^ithout  hohness,  every 
thought  of  success  without  obedience,  every  scheme  for 
bettering  ourselves  without  bettering  our  inward  nature,  is 
a  fatuousness.  And  this  is  the  beginning  :  "If  any  man 
will  come  after  Me,  let  him  deny  himself,  and  take  up  his 
cross,  and  follow  Me ;  for  whosoever  will  save  his  life  shall 
lose  it :  and  whosoever  will  lose  his  life  for  My  sake  shall 
find  it.  For  what  is  a  man  profited,  if  he  shall  gain  the 
whole  world,  and  lose  his  own  soul?  " 

Christ  furnishes  for  us  the  forces  of  the  crucifixion,  and 
the  crucifixion  is  the  law  of  the  beginning.  We  speak  in 
science  of  a  magnetic  field.  Place  a  magnet  on  a  table,  and 
cover  the  table  with  iron  filings.  The  filings  will  arrange 
themselves  round  the  magnet  with  greater  or  less  intense- 
ness.  The  nearest  will  stick  to  it,  the  farther  will  turn 
sharply  towards  it,  and  the  farthest  will  feel  that  there  is  a 
force  near  to  commund  them.  Within  a  certain  radius  they 
will  group  themselves  in  relation  to  the  attractions  of  the 
magnet.  The  magnetic  condition  of  the  soul  is  got  by  the 
poles  of  the  crucifixion ;  and  when  that  is  got  the  externals 
of  life  will  be  under  government.  Circumstance  will  be  in 
rough  or  kindly  attendance.  "All  other  things  shall  be 
added."  Christ  makes  bare  the  basement  of  us,  by  His 
crucifixion,  when  in  our  name  He  says,  "  Man  doth  not 
live  by  bread  alone."     Bread  is  circumstance  after  all. 

5.  The  message  to  the  Church  from  this  vanquished  temp- 
tation is,  that  her  radical  work  is  missions,  not  charities. 
She  first  builds  churches,  then  schools  and  hospitals.  She 
says  no  word  about  literature  and  science,  because  these 
are  involved  in  the  larger.  Her  message  is  religion,  not 
civilization ;  grace,  not  culture ;  salvation,  not  charities. 
Civilization  comes  by  getting  that  which  is  fairer  and 
better  than  civilization.    The  Greeks  cultivated  philosophy  : 


OUR  LORD'S  FIRST  TE2IPTATI0N.  391 

ceasing  to  be  philosophers,  in  the  later  decay,  they  became 
great  merchants.  The  Hebrews  cultivated  righteousness : 
ceasing  to  be  prophets,  they  ended  by  becoming  great 
financiers.  Greek  and  Hebrew  dropped  on  the  lower  plat- 
form, through  which  they  had  unconsciously  passed  on 
their  way  to  the  higher.  Phoenician  traders  were  once  the 
honourable  of  the  earth  ;  but  they  began  with  the  lower, 
and  perfected  themselves  in  it.  They  found  the  lowermost. 
Their  mere  memory  is  with  us,  but  they  have  left  not  a 
scrap  of  literature  nor  an  inspiring  character  for  the  good 
of  the  race.  The  Greeks  have  bequeathed  a  philosophy, 
and  the  Hebrews  the  Old  Testament. 

The  unsafe  value  we  attach  to  the  lower  is  illuminated 
by  this  temptation,  and  is  a  beacon  to  us.  The  substance 
of  a  man  is  the  Worship  in  him.  The  deeps  of  our  man- 
hood are  not  opened  till  we  receive  and  obey  Divine  reve- 
lations. Christ  shows  us  the  substance  by  His  death. 
Take  a  good  grasp  of  the  governing  law,  that  the  more  we 
make  of  this  world  the  less  we  get  out  of  it,  that  the  less 
we  make  of  it  the  more  we  get  out  of  it.  To  know  God 
as  our  Father  and  Christ  as  our  Saviour,  to  see  our  home 
elsewhere  as  a  fact,  to  be  good  and  to  find  pleasure  in  right 
doing,  to  be  holy  and  cultivate  the  beauty  of  character, 
this  is  got  from  the  true  bread.  When  we  have  found 
this  true  bread  other  and  lower  kinds  of  bread  will  be  seen 
involved  in  it,  and  issue  out  of  it.  Charities,  parochial 
organizations,  school  boards,  parliamentary  franchises,  philo- 
sophies, art,  will  come  from  enthusiasms  born  of  faith  and 
love  and  worship. 

W.  W.  Peyton. 


392 


EABLY  CHBISTIAN  MONUMENTS  IN  PHBYGIA  : 
A   STUDY  IN  THE  EABLY  HISTOEY  OF  THE   CHURCH. 

V. 

But  our  immediate  interest  in  the  epitaph  is  the  h'ght  it 
throws  on  the  legendary  biography  of  Avircius.  It  shows 
us  the  foundation  in  historical  fact,  and  enables  us  to  trace, 
at  least  in  outline,  the  process  by  which  the  legend  was 
formed.  The  memory  of  the  historical  Avircius  was  kept 
alive,  not  only  by  tradition,  but  also  by  religious  ritual  on 
the  twenty-second  of  October,  the  anniversary  of  his  death. 
In  the  various  Men^a,^  brief  notes  of  different  tenor  are 
attached  to  his  name:  the  titles  "Equal  of  the  Apostles" 
and  "Miracle-worker"  occur  in  some  cases;  in  others  an 
outline  of  his  life  is  given  in  prose  or  metre.  In  one  in- 
stance two  obscure  iambic  lines  are  given  :  "  Aberkios, 
rendering  earth  to  earth,  according  to  the  law  of  mortals, 
accedes  a  God  by  adoption  to  Him  who  is  God  by  nature." 
Keferences  which  occur  on  other  days  to  an  "  Aberkios, 
bishop  and  martyr,"  seem  to  be  due  to  some  confusion  of 
names. 

Hound  this  nucleus  of  fact  gathered  a  mass  of  popular 
legend.  The  remarkable  natural  features  of  the  district 
were  attributed  to  the  miraculous  power  of  the  saint ;  he 
became  the  hero  in  popular  witticisms  and  in  tales  that  had 
once  been  told  of  the  pagan  deities.  But  through  all  this 
accretion  the  main  facts  of  the  period  when  he  lived  and  his 
wide  travels  and  great  influence  at  home  shone  forth.  The 
writer  of  the  biography,  a  man  possessing  a  fair  amount  of 
education,  set  to  work  about  a.d.  400  to  give  literary  form 
to  the  legend.     The  epitaph  was  still  before  his  eyes,  and 

1  The  Meuaea  are  iudeed  all  later  than  the  biography,  but  they  may  be  taken 
as  an  indication  of  the  amount  of  information  preserved  by  the  Church  ritual 
about  him. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS  IN  PHRYGIA.    393 

he  copied  it,  complaining  of  the  faintness  of  the  letters/ 
though  at  the  present  day  they  are  clearer  than  three- 
fourths  of  the  local  inscriptions.  He  expanded  and  filled 
up  the  outlines  of  the  popular  legend,  using  his  rather 
inaccurate  historical  knowledge  for  the  purpose.  He  shows 
himself  well  acquainted  with  the  geography  of  Phrygia,  but 
absolutely  ignorant  of  that  of  the  world  beyond  iisia  Minor, 
and  is  thus  proved  to  be  a  native  of  the  country. 

To  illustrate  the  gradual  progress  of  investigation,  it  is 
not  without  importance  to  describe  the  way  in  which  the 
evidence  bearing  on  the  epitaph  of  Avircius  was  accumu- 
lated. In  October,  1881,  when  wandering  among  the 
villages  of  a  wide  and  fertile  plain  in  central  Phrygia,  we 
observed  the  following  inscription  on  a  stone  at  the  door  of 
a  mosque.  The  inscribed  side  was  towards  the  wall,  and 
so  close  to  it  that  it  was  very  hard  to  read  it  by  sidelong 
glances.  The  surface  is  mutilated,  and  the  following  text 
is  completed  by  the  aid  of  the  biography.  When  I  pub- 
lished the  text  in  1882  I  was  ignorant  even  of  the  name  of 
that  Phrygian  saint. 

30.  "  Citizen  of  the  i<elect  city,  I  luave,  luhile  still  liolng,  made  this 
(tomb),  that  I  may  have  here  before  the  eyes  of  men  a  ylace  ivhere  to  lay 
my  body ;  I,  who  am  na.med  Alexander,  son  of  Antuniits,  a  disciple  of  the 
spotless  Shepherd.  No  one  shall  place  another  in  my  tomb:  and  if  he  do, 
he  shall  2~)ay  2,000  gold  pieces  to  the  treasury  of  the  Romans,  and  1,000  to 
our  excellent  fatherland  Hierapolis. 

"It  ivas  tvritten  in  the  year  300  (a.d.  216)  daring  my  lifetime.  Peace  to 
them  that  pass  by  and  think  of  me.'" 

This  epitaph  alone  would  furnish  indubitable  evidence  as 
to  the  epitaph  of  Avircius,  from  which  it  quotes  five  lines, 
spoiling  the  metre  by  substituting  for  the  name  Avircius 
"Alexander  son  of  Antonius."  It  also  proves  that  the 
original  is  earlier  than  a.d.  216.  These  inferences  were 
drawn  by  Di  Kossi  and  Duchesne  immediately  on  the  pub- 

'  Hence  are  to  be  explained  perhaps  some  variations  such  as  Kaipo:  for 
(pavipQs  in  line  2. 


394    EARLY  GHBISTIAN  MONUMENTS  IN  PHBYGIA: 

lication  of  the  epitaph  of  Alexander.  In  June,  1883,  I  again 
found  time  to  visit  the  valley,  accompanied  by  an  American 
friend,  Mr.  Sterrett ;  and  again  in  October,  1883,  I  made 
another  visit  alone  to  clear  up  some  further  difficulties.  The 
result  was  the  complete  proof  that  the  valley  bore  in  ancient 
time  the  name  Pentapolis,^  from  the  five  cities  which  it 
contained,  Eucarpia,  Hierapolis  or  Hieropolis,  Otrous, 
Brouzos,  and  Stectorion,  and  the  discovery  of  part  of  the 
actual  tombstone  of  the  saint,  which  has  since  been  brought 
home  to  this  country  as  a  precious  historical  document. 

Literature  has  not  utterly  lost  trace  of  the  Phrygian  saint. 
From  the  tract  against  Montanism,  written  by  a  presbyter 
of  the  Pentapolis,  and  addressed  to  the  saint,  in  the  year 
192,  we  learn  that  his  name  was  Avircius  Marcellus,  and 
we  gather  an  idea  of  the  respect  in  which  he  was  held,  as 
well  as  of  the  position  he  took  up  on  the  great  ecclesiastical 
question  of  the  day.  Even  the  form  of  the  name  is  impor- 
tant. The  later  form  Aberkios  produces  a  false  impression 
about  it.  Every  element  of  Avircius  is  Italic,  and  we  are  not 
surprised  to  find  Avircius  and  Avircia  occurring  several  times 
in  the  inscriptions  of  Kome  and  of  Gaul.^  On  the  other 
hand,  it  has  none  of  the  Anatolian  character  about  it,  and 
the  few  examples  of  it  that  are  known  in  Asia  Minor  are 
due  solely  to  the  influence  and  fame  of  the  saint.  Now 
Boman  names  are,  it  is  true,  not  very  rare  in  Phrygia  ;  but 
the  great  majority  are  names  of  emperors ;  and  of  the 
remainder  some  few  are  due  perhaps  to  the  popularity  of 
provincial  governors,  one  or  two  such  as  Gaius  and  Quintus 
are  taken  as  typical  Roman  names  (if  they  do  not  really 
belong  to  the  imperial  class),  and  the  others  come  from 
Italian  settlers  in  the  great  cities.  Such  a  distinctively 
Italian  name  as  Avircius  Marcellus,  belonging  to  a  Phrygian 

1  This  name  is  preserved  to  us  only  in  one  authority;  viz.  the  signature  of 
a  bishop  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon. 

'^  Corjnis  Inscr.  Lat.,  vi.  12,923-5  (Avircius),  xii.  1,052  (Avercius). 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  ETSTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  395 

boi^n  about  120-130  a.d.,  appears  to  any  one  that  studies 
the  character  of  Phrygian  names  to  be  expHcable  only  on 
the  supposition  that  the  bearer  belongs  to  an  Italian  family 
settled  in  Phrygia.  The  noble  name  Marcellus  might  be 
adopted  in  a  purely  Phrygian  family ;  but  not  such  a  plebeian 
and  almost  unknown  name  as  Avircius.  This  Phrygian 
saint  then  is  an  instance  of  the  return  influence  exerted 
by  the  West  on  the  East ;  and  may  be  set  against  the  more 
usual  influence  of  the  East  upon  the  West. 

The  name  Avircius  lasted  in  central  Phrygian  nomen- 
clature. The  Bishop  of  Hierapolis  who  was  present  at  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  in  451  a.d.  signs  himself  Aberldos 
(with  the  later  Greek  spelling),  a  clear  proof  that  the  saint 
was  still  remembered  in  the  district ;  and  according  to  the 
interpretation  given  above,  the  biography  shows  that  he 
was  remembered  about  400.  Inscriptions  support  the  same 
conclusion.  The  first  which  I  have  to  quote  belongs  to 
Prymnessos,  a  city  and  bishopric  distant  about  twenty-seven 
miles  by  a  very  circuitous  road  from  Hierapolis. 

31.  "  Aurdlns  Dorotheos,  son  of  Ahirkios,  constructed  the  lieroon  for 
himself  and  for  my  mother  Marcellina,  and  for  my  own  children  and  for 
my  cousins.     Fare  ye  ivell  ivlio  pass  by." 

Above  the  inscription  are  the  Christian  symbols  A  P  /2. 

In  this  inscription  the  general  form,  the  pagan  word 
heroon,  and  still  more  the  salutation  at  the  end  are  char- 
acteristic of  the  third  century,  while  the  symbols  might 
incline  us  rather  to  a  fourth  century  date.  The  monument 
may  probably  be  dated  about  or  soon  after  300.  Ahirkios 
was  married  to  Marcellina  ;^  the  conjecture  suggests  itself 
that  Marcellina  belongs  to  the  family  of  Avircius  Marcellus, 
and  that  the  cousins  who  are  included  in  this  almost  unique 
fashion  belonged  to  the  same  family. 

I  have  already  alluded  to  the  possibility  that  Marcella, 

1  Bishop  Lightfoot,  who  quotes  this  text  in  his  Ignatitis  and  Polycarp,  i., 
p.  4:85,  by  a  slip  spealcs  of  Marcellina  as  mother,  instead  of  wife,  of  Ahirkios. 


896    EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS  IN  PHRYGIA : 

the  "  highly  respected  and  beloved  "  wife  of  Aurelius  Euty- 
ches  Hehx,  senator  of  Eumeneia,  may  have  belonged  to  the 
same  family.^ 

The  next  inscription  v^hich  I  have  to  quote  belongs  also 
to  Prymnessos.  As  it  mentions  a  deacon,  it  must  be  later 
than  the  time  of  Constantine  ;  but  the  style  of  art  in  the 
relief  that  accompanies  the  inscription  seems  to  be  not  later 
than  the  fourth  century,  so  that  the  date  of  the  monument 
is  about  320-400  a.d. 

r2.  "  Ahirhios,  son  of  Porphnrios,  deacon,  constritded  the  memorion  to 
himself  and  my  lofe  Theuprepia  and  the  children." 

The  word  memorion  in  the  sense  of  tomb  and  the  form 
StaKoyp  for  SiciKovo^  are  both  marks  of  lateness,  so  that  a 
date  near  400  may  be  considered  probable.  A  later  date 
seems  to  me  unlikely  on  account  of  the  style  of  art  in 
the  relief,  which  is  carved  beneath  the  inscription.  In  the 
centre  is  a  standing  figure,  slightly  turned  to  the  right, 
dressed  in  a  mantle,  and  holding  the  right  hand  in  front  of 
the  breast  in  the  attitude  of  warning  or  admonition,  thumb 
and  first  two  fingers  extended,  and  third  and  fourth  fingers 
closed.^  The  figure  is  rather  awkwardly  shortened.  The 
face,  seen  in  profile,  is  youthful,  beardless,  and  of  a  con- 
ventional Greek  type.  Eight  and  left  are  busts,  on  a  rather 
larger  scale,  both  shown  in  profile.  That  on  the  right  is 
female,  in  remarkably  good  style,  obviously  a  portrait  of  a 
matron  of  middle  age  and  decided  beauty,  with  slight  indi- 
cation of  a  double  chin.  The  bust  on  the  left  is  made 
in  the  same  conventional  Greek  style  as  the  head  of  the 
central  figure.  The  two  faces  look  towards  the  central 
figure.  The  intention  of  the  artist  seems  to  be  to  show  the 
Saviour  admonishing  Abirkios  and  Theuprepia.  On  early 
Italian  Christian  sarcophagi  the  Saviour  is  represented  as 

1  The  Expositor,  Dec,  1888,  p.  422  :  the  epitaph  contains  a  veiled  remini- 
scence of  a  phrase  in  the  opening  line  of  Avircius's  epitaph. 

-  The  same  position  of  the  hand  which  is  employed  in  benediction. 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  EISTOEY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  397 

a  young  and  beardless  man  very  similarly  to  this  relief. 
This  monument  is,  I  think,  the  only  early  representation 
of  its  kind  left  us  by  the  Eastern  Church. 

In  one  of  the  letters  of  Basil  of  Cfesareia,  a  person  named 
Abourgios  is  mentioned.  It  is  not  improbable  that  this  is 
a  Cappadocian  corruption  of  the  same  name,  in  which  case 
we  have  a  proof  that  the  fame  of  the  Phrj^gian  saint  ex- 
tended far  to  the  east.  I  have  observed  no  other  example 
of  the  name,  but  the  three  instances  from  the  fourth 
century,  and  one  from  the  fifth,  of  such  a  peculiar  name, 
show  the  persistence  of  his  fame  at  the  very  time  when  I 
have  argued  that  his  biography  was  written. 

One  point  more  remains.  Is  it  possible  to  recover  a 
clearer  idea  of  the  position  and  influence  of  this  Phrygian, 
who,  after  having  been  forgotten  for  many  centuries,  has 
recently  risen  to  fresh  reputation  ?  If  the  cause  of  which 
he  was  the  champion  had  been  thoroughly  popular  in 
Phrygia,  it  is  probable  that  his  name  would  have  occurred 
more  frequently,  and  his  fame  would  have  remained  in  the 
popular  memory  much  longer.  But  it  has  been  stated 
already  (The  Expositor,  Feb.,  p.  147)  that  the  orthodox 
party  was  undoubtedly  the  weaker  si^e  in  the  Phrygian 
Church,  being  kept  in  power  by  the  pressure  from  the 
Church  in  general,  and  at' a  later  time  by  the  power  of  the 
State.  Thus  it  has  happened  that  the  fame  of  Avircius  has 
not  been  proportionate  to  the  glowing  account  given  in  his 
biography.  He  was  the  champion  of  a  minority  in  Phrygia, 
and  while  "  they  who  thought  with  him "  cherished  his 
name  and  exaggerated  his  actions,  the  world,  which  is  rarely 
deceived  by  the  passionate  admiration  of  a  minority,  prac- 
tically forgot  him.  But,  while  we  must  reduce  his  per- 
sonality to  its  true  dimensions,  which  fall  far  short  of  the 
pretensions  of  his  biographer,  he  remains  none  the  less  a 
most  interesting  chajracter,  and  his  epitaph  a  document 
of  real  importance. 


398    EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS   IN  PHRYGIA  : 

We  have  seen  the  probahihty  that  Avhxius  belonged  to 
a  foreign  family  from  the  West  settled  in  Phrygia.  The 
district  where  he  lived  is  in  the  basin  of  the  Mseander,  the 
part  of  Phrygia  which  was  most  open  to  external  influence 
and  most  closely  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  world.  His 
wide  travels  further  brought  home  to  his  mind  the  power 
and  extent  of  the  Church,  and  his  epitaph  shows  what  an 
impression  was  made  on  him  by  the  fact  that  everywhere 
he  found  the  Christians  united  in  the  same  belief  and 
practice  with  himself.  His  whole  experience  conspired  to 
make  him  the  champion  of  the  Church  Catholic  against  the 
individualizing  tendency  of  Montanism.  A  less  bigoted 
and  more  tolerant  spirit  might  perhaps  have  avoided  the 
dissension  that  occurred,  as  was  the  case  at  a  later  date  in 
Cappadocia,^  and  might  have  retained  within  the  Church 
the  national  tone  and  fervour  of  the  Montanists. 

Montanus,  on  the  other  hand,  belonged  by  birth  to  north- 
western Phrygia.  He  was  a  convert,  first  heard  of  at  a 
village  Ardabau,  on  the  frontier  between  Mysia  and  Phrygia, 
a  description  which  points  to  the  same  neighbourhood 
where  we  have  found  clear  traces  of  the  north-western 
Phrygian  Church.  Does  Montanus  represent  the  tone  of 
that  Church ;  and  does  the  beginning  of  the  Montanist  con- 
troversy correspond  to  the  time*  when  the  christianizing 
influence  spreading  from  the  north-west  met  that  which 
was  penetrating  from  the  south-w^est  ?  If  we  can  see  any 
reason  to  answer  this  question  afiirmatively,  our  investiga- 
tion will  have  gradually  led  us  to  something  like  a  distinct 
view  of  the  general  character  of  that  north-western  Phry- 
gian Church  which  was  detected  and  described  in  the  first 
of  these  papers.  The  following  arguments  show  that  the 
answer  in  all  probability  must  be  affirmative. 

1  I  hope  to  describe  the  episode  at  some  later  time  :  it  has  remained 
practically  unnoticed  by  any  modern  writer,  as  topographical  accuracy  is 
necessary  for  the  understanding  of  the  few  recorded  details. 


A  STUDY  IN  THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  399 

The  Church  of  south-western  and  central  Phrj^gia,  con- 
nected closely  with  Laodiceia  and  the  Lycus  valley,  and 
originally  founded  therefrom,  is  naturally  more  catholic 
and  less  Phrygian  in  tone  ;  whereas  everything  that  we 
can  learn  of  northern  Phrygia  shows  it  to  have  been  the 
special  stronghold  of  heresy  and  of  the  specially  Phrygian 
type  of  rehgion.  In  the  fourth  century,  Cotiaion  was  the 
chief  centre  of  Novatianism  in  Phrygia  :  now  Novatianism 
revives  one  of  the  tenets  of  Montanism, 

" — that  iinpitying  Phrygian  sect  which  cried, 
Him  can  no  fount  of  fresh  forgiveness  lave, 
Who  sins,  once  washed  by  the  baptismal  wave." 

Under  the  Arian  Valens  and  the  tolerant  Valentinian 
Phrygian  heresy  flourished  free,  but  in  the  beginning  of 
the  following  century,  mider  Theodosius  II.  and  his  sister 
Pulcheria,  a  determined  effort  seems  to  have  been  made  to 
force  Cotiaion  into  orthodoxy.  Four  bishops  in  succession 
were  murdered  by  the  people,  and  we  may  gather  that  they 
were  bishops  of  the  orthodox  faith,  imposed  by  the  party  in 
power  on  an  unwilling  people,  and  that  the  resistance  of 
the  latter  was  carried  to  bloodshed.  At  last  Cyrus,  a  man 
trained  in  civil  government  and  administration,  was  made 
a  priest  and  sent  to  rule  the  Church  of  Cotiaion ;  and  by  a 
dexterous  address  he  gained  a  footing  in  the  city.  Again 
at  Pazos,  near  the  source  of  the  Sangarius,  a  Novatian 
synod  was  held ;  and  Amorion  is  always  famous  as  a 
heretical  centre.  Now  I  have  already  shown  that  Cotiaion 
was  the  centre  during  the  third  century  of  the  north 
Phrygian  style  of  Christianity,  and  that  in  later  time  it 
preserved  its  separation  from  the  rest  of  Phrygia  as 
metropolis  of  the  surrounding  district.  The  district  was 
remote  from  intercourse  with  external  civilization,  and 
infinitely  less  exposed  to  influence  from  contact  with  the 
Church  in  general  than  the  basin  of  the  Mfeander.  It  is 
by  later   ecclesiastical  writers    spoken   of   sometimes  with 


400    EAFLT  CHRISTIAN  MONUMENTS  IN  PEBTGIA'. 

contempt  for  its  ignorance,  sometimes  with  hatred  for  its 
heresy.  Attempts  to  force  it  into  orthodoxy  result  even  in 
bloodshed.  The  conclusion  seems  necessary  that  the  same 
characteristic  and  exclusive  Phrygian  tone  characterized  it 
from  the  beginning,  and  that  Montanus,  born  in  the  midst 
of  it,  represents  its  tendencies  in  conflict  with  the  Catho- 
licism of  the  south  Phrygian  Church. 

This  investigation  has  given  a  very  different  view  of  the 
position  and  action  of  Avircius  from  the  biography.  In  the 
latter  he  is  the  apostle  of  Christianity  in  a  pagan  land  ;  he 
is  adored  by  his  people,  and  no  hint  is  dropped  of  dissension 
or  controversy  among  them.  The  epitaph,  whose  real 
meaning  has  been  obscured  to  modern  scholars  by  the 
tone  of  the  biography,  has  now  been  interpreted  to  show 
Avircius,  not  as  the  missionary  of  a  new  religion,  but  as 
the  leader  of  a  party  in  a  Church  already  well  established, 
and  now  divided  against  itself.  His  party  was  victorious, 
after  a  keen  and  bitter  contest,  in  his  own  neighbourhood, 
but  in  the  greater  part  of  Phrygia  the  opposite  sect  was 
far  stronger.^  The  Phrygian  heretical  tendency,  vouched 
for  by  the  hatred  of  the  orthodox  historians  in  later  times, 
has  now  been  traced  back,  through  the  inscriptions  of  the 
third  century  (Nos.  1  to  12),  to  its  origin  in  an  isolated 
current  of  christianizing  influence ;  and  has  been  shown  to 
be  a  vigorous  form  of  religion,  redolent  of  the  soil  where  it 
was  rooted,  spreading  unchecked  towards  the  south  till  it 
met  the  Catholic  Church.  The  first  passages  in  the  long 
struggle  between  nationalism  and  universalism  in  Phrygia 
are  connected  with  the  respective  leaders,  Montanus  and 
Avircius.  To  the  fact  that  controversy  divided  those  who 
ought  to  have  felt  that  they  were  really  of  one  mind  must 
be  attributed  the  extirpation  of  Christianity  in  Phrygia. 

W.   M.   E  AM  SAY. 
^  This  is  exactly  the  tone  of  the  account  given  by  Eusebius. 


PRIMITIVE  LITURGIES  AND   CONFESSIONS 
OF  FAITH. 

I. 

The  evangelist  St.  Luke,  in  the  preface  to  his  gospel,  has 
seen  fit  to  lay  before  us  his  reasons  for  publishing  a  new 
record  of  the  Lord  Jesus'  life.  There  were  already  many 
8Lr)yi]aei<;  of  doubtful  authority,  but  he  would  now  so  write 
that  his  friend  Theophilus  might  be  furnished  with  facts 
upon  which  he  could  implicitly  rely,  and  hence  arrive  at  a 
fuller  assurance  regarding  those  Xoyot  ^  in  which  he  had  been 
systematically  instructed. 

2.  Again,  in  his  Book  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  when 
the  same  evangehst  introduces  Apollos  to  the  notice  of  his 
readers,  he  describes  him  as  "  mighty  in  the  Scriptures," 
and  as  one  who  had  been  "  systematically  instructed"  in 
"  THE  WAT  "  of  the  Lord.^ 

3.  Once  more,  we  read  that  when  Sergius  Paulus,  the 
proconsul  at  Cyprus,  was  impressed  by  the  Apostles'  preach- 
ing, and  gave  in  his  adherence  to  the  truths  proclaimed,  he 
believed,  startled  by  the  SiSaxv  of  the  Lord.^ 

4.  Lastly,  when  Elymas  strove  to  hinder  the  work  begun, 
and  to  weaken  the  impression  that  had  been  made,  we  are 
told  "he  sought  to  turn  away  the  procurator  from  the 
faith"  {d-rrb  t?)?  Tr/orreo)?) ;  and  when  in  the  sixth  chapter 
we  hear  of  a  great  multitude  of  priests  being  convinced,  it 
is  said  of  them  vtt/jkovov  tt}  TriaTei. 

^  tva  iwiyuipi  vepl  uv  Karyjxvdv^  A67WI'  rrjv  dacpaXeiav. 

"  oStos  '7jv  KaT-qxvfJi-^vos  rriv  odbv  rod  Kvplov  (Acts  xviii.  25).     Ci.  1  Cor.  iv.  17. 

^  €KTr\riaa6fiepos  eVt  rrj  dLdaxfi  '''ov  Kvpiov  (Acts  xiii.  12). 

401  of\ 

vnr.     TV  ■^vJ 


402  PRIMITIVE  LITURGIES 

A  careful  comparison  of  the  passages  referred  to,  with 
many  others  that  will  come  under  review  in  the  following 
pages,  forces  upon  us  the  conviction  that  the  four  terms 
here  employed,  6  \6ryo<;,  97  StSa;)^^,  ?;  6S09,  and  rj  Trtarci,  all 
refer  substantially  to  the  same  thing.  Viewed  with  reference 
to  the  speaker  who  by  word  of  mouth  rendered  an  account 
of  what  was  to  be  believed,  it  was  6  X6709;  viewed  with 
reference  to  the  teacher  who  instructed,  or  the  neophyte 
who  received  instruction,  it  was  r]  Bihaxv ',  while  as  it  was  a 
summary  of  those  things  which  were  most  surely  believed, 
it  was  Tj  7riarc<; ;  and  as  the  Ime  along  ivhich  all  dogmatic 
exposition  was  to  travel,  it  was  17  6S69. 

It  would  happen  in  the  natural  course,  that  as  one  term 
became  (so  to  speak)  the  favourite,  this  term  would  tend 
to  thrust  the  others  out  of  use  ;  and  accordingly  it  appears 
that  one  of  these  terms,  rj  686<i,  did  actually  cease  to  be 
employed  very  early ;  but  there  is  abundant  evidence  of  the 
fact,  that,  while  the  organization  of  the  infant  Church  was 
still  imperfect,  these  four  terms  were  used  as  practically 
convertible. 

Thus  the  BiSaxv  tov  Kvptov  of  the  12th  verse  of  Acts  xiii. 
is  plainly  the  A-6709  tov  Kvplov  of  the  48th  and  49th  verses, 
and  as  plainly  the  0809  tov  Kvplov  of  Acts  xviii.  25,  and  the 
iri(TTL^  TOV  Kvpiov  of  St.  James  ii.  1. 

Again  the  6809  (TcoTr]pLa<;  of  Acts  xvi.  17  is  clearly  the 
\6709  crQ)r7]pia<i  of  Acts  xiii.  26,  and  probably  the  KOLvrj 
acoTTjpla  of  St.  Jude  (Jude  3),  while  the  6S09,  which  St.  Paul 
declares  he  once  persecuted,  and  of  which  (Acts  xix.  9)  we 
hear  certain  men  spake  evil  before  the  people,  can  be  no 
other  than  the  irlarL'i  in  which  Paul  and  Barnabas  besought 
the  men  of  Pisidia  to  abide, ^  in  which  the  Churches  were 
confirmed  as  they  increased  in  number  daily,^  the  iricyTa 
which  St.  Paul  when  he  had  finished  his  course  glories  in 

'  TrapaKaXovuTes  e/Mtxtvetv  rrj  Triarei  (Acts  xiv.  22). 

"  at  fi.(v  o^v  tKKKrjcriai,  karepeovvTO  rrj  Triarei,  k.t.X.  (Acts  xvi.  5). 


AND   CONFESSIONS   OF  FAITH.  403 

having  kept/  and  that  which  in  its  later  and  more  expanded 
form  he  refers  to  again  and  again  under  the  designations  of 
rj  KoXr]  irapaOrjKrj,  6  ttlctto^;  Xoyo'i,  rj  vyiaiVovaa  hihaaKoKla, 
and  other  names,  with  which  we  shall  attempt  in  the  sequel 
to  deal  in  fuller  detail. 

That  these  four  terms  refer  to  a  Formulated  Summary  of 
Primitive  Christian  Doctrine  is  the  first  position  which  this 
article  attempts  to  support. 

Such  a  summary  would  of  course  serve  more  than  a 
single  purpose.  To  the  preacher  of  the  Redeemer's  truth 
it  was  a  guide  and  safeguard,  keeping  him  from  license  in 
speculation  and  rashness  in  assertion.  To  the  anxious 
inquirer,  desirous  to  enter  the  Church,  it  was  a  simple 
elementary  instruction  in  the  primary  essentials  of  the 
Christian  faith.  To  the  newly  baptized  believer  it  was  a 
blessed  memento  of  the  solemn  profession  he  had  made  at 
the  laver  of  regeneration,  when  he  had  "  passed  from  death 
unto  life,  and  from  the  power  of  Satan  unto  God." 

Hence  it  is  only  what  we  should  expect  if  the  writers  of 
the  several  epistles  appeal  to  and  allude  to  this  summary 
of  Christian  truth  as  to  a  palladium  which  each  Christian 
would  naturally  hold  very  dear.  Renegades  who  had  left 
the  Church  under  the  pressure  of  persecution  are  called 
dSoKi/jboc  irepl  rrjv  iria-Tiv  (2  Tim.  iii.  8),  or  are  said  apvovadai, 
TTjv  iricTTLvr'  Timothy  is  exhorted  afymvl^ov  rov  koXov  aiySiva 
TYj^  7rL(TT€a)(;  (1  Tim.  vi.  12 ;  2  Tim.  iv.  7),  and  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse the  aytoi  are  described  as  those  oi  rrjpovvre'i  ra?  ivroXaq 
Tov  Qeov  ical  rrjv  irLariv  ^Irjaov  (Apoc.  xiv.  12). 

That  something  like  a  dogmatic  Confession  of  Faith  was 
drawn  up  very  soon  after  the  ascension  of  our  Lord  appears 
from   the   nature   of  the   case   more  than  probable.     It  is 

1  r^j/  irldTi.v  TeT-qprjKa  (2  Tim.  iv.  7). 

^  .     .     .     TTjj'  TTiffTLv  ijpvriTai  Kal  ^(jTLv  aTricTTOv  xf^pwj'  (1  Tim.  V.  8).     Compare 
Apoc.  ii.  13,  ovK  dpvTjaoj  Tr\v  wlaTiv  /xov. 


404  PRIMITIVE  LITURGIES 


scarcely  conceivable  that  the  new  society,  by  no  means 
blind  to  the  immense  destiny  which  was  before  it,  and  the 
mighty  work  it  was  to  carry  out,  should  have  remained  long 
without  some  organized  machinery  for  proselytizing,  and 
some  discipline  for  the  regulation  of  its  inner  life  and  the 
display  of  its  necessary  activity. 

Accordingly,  no  sooner  do  we  read  that  three  thousand 
were  added  to  the  Church  in  a  single  day,  than  we  are 
assured  that  these  same  new  converts  continued  stead- 
fastly attending  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Apostles,  and  to  the 
common  contribution,  and  to  the  breaking  of  bread,  and 
to  the  prayers.^  The  force  of  the  article  in  these  passages 
can  by  no  means  be  passed  over.  In  every  single  instance 
the  term  employed  is  a  technical  term,  which  subsequently 
attained  an  important  signil&cance,  and  if  "  the  breaking  of 
bread  "  must  be  taken  to  refer  to  a  religious  rite,  and  the 
Koivcovia  must  as  certainly  be  assumed  to  point  to  a  general 
contribution  to  a  common  fund — such  as  Macedonia  and 
Achaia  afterwards  made  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  saints  at 
Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.  26),  which  the  Hebrew  Christians  were 
specially  admonished  not  to  neglect  (Heb.  xiii.  16),  and 
which  the  Corinthians  are  commended  for  having  carried 
out  with  simple  liberality  (2  Cor.  ix.  13) — not  less  certainly 
must  the  SiSa^xv  be  understood  to  refer  to  an  authoritative 
and  dogmatic  exposition  of  the  fundamental  verities  of  the 
Christian  faith ;  while  by  the  'Kpoaev^al  are  meant  simple 
forms  of  prayer,  which  would  be  among  the  very  first 
necessities  of  the  multitudes  whose  awakened  consciences 
and  whose  excited  feelings  would  require  that  the  outpour- 
ings of  their  emotions  should  be  guided,  instructed,  and 
controlled,  and  the  worshipper  preserved  from  spasmodical 
utterances  apt  to  run  riot  into  wildness  and  extravagance. 

Nor  are  allusions  to  such  forms  of  prayer  wanting.    When 

^  Acts  ii.  42 :  ijffav  di  TrpoaKapTepovvres  ry  5i5axij  tQv  airocrToXuv  koI  ttj  Koivwviq., 
TTJ  KXdaei  Tov  dprov  kuI  to7s  irpoa(vxo-^s.     Cf.  Ephesians  vi.  18. 


AND   CONFESSIONS   OF  FAITH.  405 

the  continued  growth  of  the  Church  had  brought  with  it 
an  increase  in  the  number  of  those  distracting  engagements 
which  constitute  the  most  serious  interruptions  to  the  work 
of  an  evangehst,  then  it  was  seen  that  the  governing  body 
of  the  Church  needed  to  be  reheved  in  some  way  from 
the  immense  pressure  of  mere  business  which  threatened 
to  embarrass  and  overwhelm  the  apostoHc  college.  The 
diaconate  was  accordingly  instituted.  To  the  deacons  was 
committed  the  administration  of  the  Koivcovla,  "  but,"  said 
the  Twelve,  "  loe  will  give  our  attention  to  the  prayers  and 
to  the  ministry  of  the  X6709."  ^ 

But  in  truth  nothing  is  more  remarkable  in  the  history  of 
the  Church  than  the  promptness  with  which  the  Apostles 
set  themselves  to  legislate  for  special  occasions,  and  the 
wisdom  they  exhibit  in  dealing  with  difficulties  as  they 
arise.  I  have  already  alluded  to  the  institution  of  the 
order  of  deacons  ;  no  less  striking  is  the  ordaining  of  Bar- 
nabas and  Saul  (Acts  xiii.)  for  the  extraordinary  mission 
at  Antioch  ;  the  provision  for  allaying  the  prejudice  against 
St.  Paul  on  his  last  recorded  return  to  Jerusalem ;  and, 
above  all,  the  publication  of  the  SoyuaTa  on  the  question  of 
admitting  Gentiles  into  the  fold  of  Christ. 

On  this  occasion  (Acts  xv.  6  and  seq.)  we  find  that  the 
apostolic  college,  seeing  the  gravity  of  the  point  at  issue, 
and  that  a  crisis  in  the  history  of  the  Church  had  come, 
hesitated  to  put  forth  any  canons  on  their  own  authority 
solely,  but  calling  a  council  of  the  whole  Church  at  Jeru- 
salem, they  solemnly  deliberated  upon  the  course  to  be 
adopted,  and  only  after  long  discussion  and  devout  inquiry 
did  they  finally  agree  upon  the  important  point  that  was 
raised.  But  the  BojfiaTa  once  having  been  passed,  no  time 
was  lost  in  giving  them  publicity  (Acts  xv.  22).  A  formal 
copy  of  the  resolution  passed  at  the  meeting  of  the  council 

1  Tj/xeh  Se  ry  irpocevxv  Ka.1  rg  diaKovla  tov  \6yov  irpoanapTep-qaoiJ.ev  (Acts  vi.  4). 
Compare  here  the  use  of  Oia/cow'a  (Kom.  xii.  7). 


406  PRIMITIVE  LITURGIES 

was  committed  to  Paul,  Barnabas,  and  Silas,  and  these 
distinguished  servants  of  the  Church  were  at  once  sent  forth 
to  promulgate  the  canon.  In  this  case  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  we  have  the  actual  words  of  the  letter  with 
which  the  commissioners  were  furnished.  We  are  expressly 
told  that  the  decree  was  disseminated  as  widely  as  possible, 
and  that  it  was  imposed  upon  the  several  Churches  as  an 
ordinance  binding  upon  all  who  were  baptized  in  the  name 
of  Christ.  It  is  moreover  observable  that  these  ordinances 
were  not  promulgated  once,  and  once  only,  and  that  when 
the  special  occasion  had  passed  they  were  forgotten ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  Bory/jbaTa  of  the  council  at  Jerusalem  were 
evidently  imposed  as  fundamental  conditions  of  union  upon 
every  new  Christian  community  which  was  afterwards 
admitted  into  Church  membership,  and  more  than  once  we 
meet  with  allusions  to  these  decrees  in  epistles  to  Churches 
ivhich  loere  not  founded  for  some  years  after  the  council  was 
held.  Thus  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  the  TrapayyeXiaL 
which  St.  Paul  speaks  of  having  given  to  the  Thessalonians 
(1  Thess.  iv.  2),  regarding  fornication,  refer  to  these  early 
Soyfiara,  for  so  only  can  we  explain  the  full  force  of  his 
language,  where  he  says  that  they  had  been  given  Sia  rov 
Kvpiov  Irjaov,  i.e.  by  the  instrumentality  of  the  Lord  Jesus ; 
and  a  large  portion  of  the  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthian 
Church  appears  actually  taken  up  with  explaining  and 
enforcing  .those  very  decrees  on  the  subject  of  fornication 
and  things  offered  to  idols,  as  against  those  who  assumed 
that  the  Soyfiara  were  only  meant  for  such  as  were  "  babes 
in  Christ,"  but  no  longer  binding  upon  advanced  Christians 
who  had  risen  to  the  apprehension  of  an  esoteric  yvcbcn<;. 

How  then  can  it  be  conceived  that  any  time  should  have 
been  lost  in  drawing  up  a  confession  of  faith  for  the 
guidance  of  the  teacher  and  the  support  of  the  taught  ? 
especially  when  it  is  remembered  that  all  this  wonderful 
progress — all  this  Divine  awakening  of  men's  minds,  and 


AND   CONFESSIONS  OF  FAITS.  4>01 

this  eager  acceptance  of  Christ — was  going  on  for  years 
before  the  earhest  of  our  gospels  was  composed,  nay, 
probably  before  two  of  our  evangelists  were  converted  to 
the  faith  at  all.  For  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that  the 
growth  of  the  Church  was  not  due  to  the  gospels,  but  that 
the  gospels  sprang  into  being  from  the  needs  of  the  Church. 
Hence  it  appears  not  so  very  improbable  that  the  ancient 
tradition  of  the  Apostles'  Creed  being  actually  composed  by 
the  Twelve  may  have  some  basis  of  truth  to  repose  on.  I 
have  already  pointed  out  that  the  expression  SiSaxv  tov 
Kvplou  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  equivalent  of  the  68d<;  rov 
Kvplov  :  but  in  the  second  chapter  of  the  Acts,  ver.  42,  we 
find  this  term  in  another  form ;  it  is  there  called  StSaxv  "^^v 
diroaroXcou,  as  though  the  very  first  work  which  the  Apostles 
had  set  themselves  to  labour  at  (possibly  in  that  awful  time 
of  suspense  and  anxious  expectation  which  preceded  the 
day  of  Pentecost)  had  been  the  drawing  up  of  some  short 
summary  of  doctrine  in  conformity  with  which  all  the 
teaching  of  the  future  should  be  carried  on.  And  one  very 
striking  passage  in  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians, 
which  it  appears  to  me  commentators  so  far  have  misunder- 
stood, affords  a  remarkable  confirmation  of  this  view.  In 
the  eleventh  chapter  of  the  epistle  and  the  sixth  verse, 
St.  Paul  is  contrasting  his  own  claims  to  be  listened  to  with 
those  put  forth  by  the  false  teachers  at  Corinth.^  "For," 
says  he,  "  I  reckon  myself  in  no  respect  to  have  fallen 
short  of  the  chiefest  Apostles  "  ;  for  although  an  unofficial 
person  in  regard  to  the  X6709,  I  am  not  so  in  regard  of  the 
yvo!)<Tt<; :  i.e.  in  the  drawing  up  of  the  first  elementary 
summary  of  Christian  doctrine  I  took  no  part,  for  I  was 
no  Apostle  then,  yet  in  the  fuller  and  more  developed  ex- 


'  \oy[^ofj.aL  yap  imtjScv  vffTeprjKivai  tQv  vvep  \iav  aTroarbXwv.  el  Sk  Kal  idiCoTTjs  ry 
X67y,  dXX'  ov  Trj  yvw(T€i:d.\}^  iv  Travrl  (papepwaavres  ev  wdcni'  els  vfids.  Taking  this 
view  of  the  passage,  it  appears  to  me  that  the  reading  (papepdxravres  becomes  the 
only  intelligible  one  ;  the  diplomatic  evidence  in  its  favour  is  overwhelming. 


408  PRIMITIVE   LITURGIES 


position  of  the  faith — the  7Vft)o-t9 — I  did  take  my  part,  and 
my  apostleship  was  acknowledged. 

This  is  that  A.6709  which  he  subsequently  commands 
Timothy  to  proclaim  (2  Tim.  iv.  2) — KTjpv^ov  rov  Xoryov — 
and  to  persist  in  with  all  patience  in  teaching,  "  because," 
he  adds,  *'  the  time  will  come  when  people  will  not  endure 
the  wholesome  doctrine,  but  will  choose  teachers  according 
to  their  own  fancies."  This  is  that  X6'yo<i  dKorj^;  which  the 
Thessalonians  (1  Thess.  ii.  13)  are  said  to  have  received  not 
as  a  human,  but  as  a  Divine  X0709,  as  in  truth  it  was.  This 
is  that  X6709  Tov  06OU  which  the  Corinthians  (1  Cor.  xiv.  36) 
are  reminded  did  not  go  out  from  them,  but  came  to  them. 
This  is  that  X0709  tov  Kvplov  of  which,  in  writing  to  the 
Thessalonians,  the  Apostle  prays  that  it  may  have  free 
course  and  be  glorified.  Lastly,  it  is  that  ryvro?  Si.Saxv'^  to 
which  at  their  baptism  the  Eoman  Christians  were  handed 
over,  and  by  virtue  of  the  reception  of  which  they  were 
freed  from  the  bondage  of  sin  and  bound  by  a  new  bond  to 
righteousness  (Eom.  vi.  17). 

But  this  passage  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  which 
puts  in  such  marked  contrast  the  A.6709  (or  primary  and 
elementary  summary  of  the  faith)  and  the  jvcoaL'i  (or  esoteric 
doctrine  to  which  probably  the  Christian  was  introduced 
only  after  his  baptism),  brings  us  to  a  further  examination 
of  those  passages  where  the  <yvMai'i  is  alluded  to. 

It  must  be  conceded  that,  as  a  technical  term,  77  <yvo!)ac<i 
appears  much  more  frequently  in  the  epistles  to  the 
Corinthians  than  anywhere  else  in  the  New  Testament ; 
but,  though  this  might  suggest  the  hypothesis  that  the 
origin  of  the  term  is  to  be  traced  to  the  Corinthian  Church 
in  the  first  instance,  we  do  meet  with  it  in  its  technical 
sense  in  other  apostolic  writings. 

In  the  epistles  to  the  Corinthians  however  the  passage 
referred  to  above  by  no  means  stands  alone.  A  plain 
allusion   to   this   distinction   between    the   iriaTCi   and    the 


AND   CONFESSIONS   OF  FAITH.  409 

yvcocri^;  is  to  be  met  with  in  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  the 
first  epistle,  where  the  commentators,  as  far  as  my 
observation  goes,  have  failed  to  point  out  the  right  explana- 
tion of  the  acknowledged  difficulty.  The  second  verse 
stands  thus :  kuI  iav  e%a)  7rpocf)r]TeLav  (observe,  no  definite 
article)  kuI  elSco  ra  fjbvaTrjpca  iravra  koI  iracrav  rrjv  jvcbacv, 
Koi  iav  e'^co  Trdaav  rrjv  irlaTLV  (aare  oprj  fieOiaTavetv,  dyaTrrjv 
8e  (again  no  definite  article)  firj  ex,(o,  ovOev  elfii.  The  passage 
should,  I  believe,  be  thus  translated  :  "  And  if  I  have  a 
gift  of  prophecy,  and  know  all  the  mysteries  and  the  ivhole 
jva)ai,<; ;  and  if  I  hold  the  whole  7rt(7Tt9  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  remove  mountains,  yet  have  not  love,  I  am  nothing." 
The  elBevai  to.  ixvaTrjpia  is  illustrated  by  another  passage  in 
the  eighth  chapter,  which  will  be  discussed  hereafter  ;  but 
the  distinction  between  j-tiv  iriartv  and  T'qv  yvcoaiv  appears 
obvious. 

In  the  first  chapter  of  this  epistle  a  no  less  evident 
and  significant  allusion  is  to  be  found.  At  the  fifth  verse 
the  Apostle  gives  thanks  to  God  6tl  iv  iravrl  e'ir\ovTLa-dr]re 
ev  avra>,  iv  ttuvtI  X6<y(p  koI  irdcrrj  lyvcoaet,,  KaOco'i  to  fiapTvpcov 
Tov  XptaTov  i^e^atcody]  iv  vfilv ;  i.e.  Because  ye  were  en- 
riched by  Him  ^  in  every  way,  to  wit,  eV  Travrl  X6y(p  kol 
irdar]  ryv(ocr€i.  That  these  words  are  extremely  difficult  of 
translation  is  certain ;  yet  I  feel  no  doubt  that  the  true 
key  to  the  meaning  of  the  expression  is  to  be  sought  in 
that  marked  distinction  between  the  two  terms  which  has 
been  pointed  out  before.^ 

^  I  regard  the  first  iv  wavTl  as  equivalent  to  an  adverb  of  manner ;  the  second 
Trai/Tt  is  in  close  concord  with  \6yu},  and  only  affected  by  the  preposition  in  so 
far  as  it  agrees  with  its  noun ;  ev  avrQ  is  here  instrumental,  as  in  Eom.  v.  9,  10, 
and,  as  I  believe,  much  more  frequently  in  St.  Paul  than  is  usually  supposed. 
See  Ellicott  on  Eph.  ii.  13. 

Cf.  Eur.  Ion.  1071 :  ov  yap  .  .  .  ^Coaa  ttot'  dfj./j.dTiov  ev  rpaevvah  dvixo^'^^  «" 
a!)7ars,  K.T.\. ;  i.e.  she  will  never,  if  she  lives,  endure  ivith  her  bright  eyes,  etc., 
etc. 

-  It  is  quite  possible  that  allusion  is  made  to  the  existence  of  distinctive 
\6yoL  or  yvuaeis  among  the  conflicting  Church  parties  at  Corinth. 


410  PBIMITIVE  LITURGIES 

A  similar  allusion  to  this  esoteric  yva)ai<i  is  observable  in 
the  second  chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  St.  Paul 
is  there  insisting  that  Jew  and  Gentile  are  equally  liable 
to  the  righteous  judgment  of  God.  He  puts  the  case  thus 
(Eom.  ii.  17)  :  "  But  you  call  yourself  a  Jew,  and  rest  upon 
the  law,  and  boast  yourself  in  God,  and  know  His  will,  and 
are  examining  points  of  difference,  having  had  your  cate- 
chising out  of  the  laiv,  and  believe  yourself  to  be  a  leader  of 
the  blind,  a  light  to  those  in  darkness,  an  instructor  of  the 
simple,  a  teacher  of  babes,  having  yom'  form  of  the  •yvMo-i'i 
and  of  the  truth  in  the  law.  .  .  ."  ^  Whatever  else  the 
word  <yvo)(rt^  may  mean,  it  certainly  is  not  adequately 
represented  by  the  English  word  "  knowledge."  Here,  as 
elsewhere,  the  significance  of  the  definite  article  can  by 
no  means  be  passed  over ;  and  if  the  aX7]deia  here  be  the 
Xo'yo'i  TTj^  aXrjOeia'i  of  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy  and 
elsewhere,  the  7naTb<;  \6jo'i,  the  Xoyo^i  (T(i)Tr}p[a<;,  called  in 
the  Acts  (ii.  42)  the  ScSa')(^r]  twv  airoaToXmv,  then  the  yv(t)cn<i 
here,  as  in  the  former  passage  to  which  attention  has 
been  drawn,  can  be  no  other  than  the  fuller  and  more 
expanded  summary  of  the  faith  which  received  this  technical 
name. 

One  more  passage  must  be  noticed  in  which  the  same 
allusion  is  to  be  found.  I  refer  to  the  fervent  and  sublime 
prayer  for  the  Ephesian  converts.  Here  again  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  definite  article  is  to  be  insisted  on,  and  the 


^  Et  5^  (TV  'Ioi;5a?os  eirovofid^rj  Kal  eTravawavr]  vo/j-q),  /cat  Kavxaaai.  ev  GeclT,  Kcd 
yiyviI}<XK€LS  TO  6e\r]/jia,  /cat  doKi/xd^eis  rd  diacp^povra,  KaTTjxovfxevos  e'/c  rod  vofxov 
.  .  .  Anything  like  a  discussion  of  the  syntactical  difficulties  of  this  passage 
would  be  beyond  my  province  here ;  but  I  feel  no  doubt,  (1)  that  the  verbs 
ewovofid^rj,  e-rravaTra^rj,  and  /cauxacrat  are  all  to  be  taken  as  middle  verbs ; 
(2)  that  ooKifxdi'eis  is  to  be  taken  in  the  sense  of  "  testing  "  or  "  examining  "  (see 
Bp.  EUicott  on  Eph.  v.  10) ;  (3)  that  rd  Siatpipovra,  whatever  else  it  may  mean 
(and  how  widely  different  the  meanings  given  to  it  have  been  may  be  seen  in 
Ellicott,  Phil.  i.  10),  cannot  liere  mean  "  things  which  transcend,"  even  though 
so  profound  a  scholar  as  Bishop  Lightfoot  has  so  rendered  the  phrase  in  the 
parallel  passage. 


AND   CONFESSIONS   OF  FAITH.  411 


distinction  between  7riaTc<;  and  jvojaa  to  be  carefully 
observed  ;  and  here  too,  I  believe,  as  elsewhere,  that  the 
key  to  the  obscurity  of  the  eighteenth  verse  is  to  be  found 
in  looking  upon  it  as  containing  allusions  to  the  mystical 
phraseology  of  the  theosophic  forimdce  with  which  the  half- 
instructed  converts  of  Ephesus  (as  of  Corinth,  Colossse,  and 
elsewhere)  would  be  acquainted,  and  from  which  deliverance 
was  to  be  sought  by  giving  greater  prominence  to  the 
ethical  element  in  Christianity.  The  Apostle  thus  begins  : 
" .  .  .  I  bow  my  knees  to  the  Father,  .  .  .  that 
He  may  grant  you,  according  to  the  riches  of  His  glory,  to 
receive  strength  with  power  by  means  of  His  Spirit  into 
the  inner  man ;  so  as  for  Christ  to  take  up  His  abode  in 
your  hearts,  by  means  of  the  faith — being  rooted  in  love  as 
ye  are,  and  having  had  your  foundation  laid — in  order  that 
ye  may  be  thoroughly  able  to  comprehend  with  all  the 
saints  what  is  [the  true  significance  of]  the  breadth,  and 
length,  and  depth,  and  height,  and  [be  able]  to  know 
Christ's  love,  which  transcends  the  'yvoicn<i,  in  order  that 
[as  the  final  result]  ye  may  be  filled  to  all  the  fulness  of 
God."  ^     A  beginning  might  be  made  when  the  TTicrrt?  was 

'  .  .  .  /cd/XTTTW  TO.  yovaTo,  fxov  wpbs  tov  Warepa,  .  .  ,  iVa  5a>  v^lv  Kara,  to 
ttXovtos  TTJs  S6^r]s  avTov  SvvdfMei  KparaLwdrjvai  Si.a  tov  irveijfj.aTos  avrou  et's  top  etrw 
dvdpWTrov,  KaToiKTJcrai  tov  Xptcrroj'  5ta  ttjs  TrtVrews  ev  Ta7s  /capSt'ats  vfiuu,  ev  dydirri 
ippi('iI)fj.€voL  Kal  TedefxeKiufievoi,  'iva  i^iaxvcfriTe  /caraXa/Setr^at  avv  irdaiv  rots  dyiois  tL 
TO  wXaTOi  Kal  fJirJKOs  Kal  vipos  Kal  ^ddos,  yvCovai  re  ttjc  inrep^dWovaav  ttjs  yvu}(T€WS 
dydiniv  tov  XpiaTou,  'iva  irXripudiiTe  els  irdv  t6  irK-qpufxa  tov  Qeov  (Eph.  iii.  14-19). 
With  regard  to  the  grammar  of  this  passage,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  note — 
(1)  that  KpaTaLudijvat  5id  tov  irve^uaTos  and  KaTOLKrjaaL  t6v  "KpiaTov  Sid  ttjs  TriaTews 
must  necessarily  be  taken  as  expressing  instrumentality :  the  irvev/xa  is  the 
instrument  in  one  case,  the  TriVns  in  the  other  ;  (2)  that  KaToiKTJarai  is  consecutive 
upon  KpaTaiudrjvaL ;  (3)  that  'iva  €^Laxvffy]Te  expresses  the  primary  purpose,  or 
result  that  the  prayer  has  in  view ;  (4)  that  'iva  irX-qpuiOrjTe  marks  the  iiltimate 
purpose,  KaTokafiiadai  indicates  intellectual  apprehension,  yvQvai.  experimental 
fruition. 

What  St.  Paul  prays  for  is,  that  the  Ephesians  may  receive  Christ  into  their 
"heart  of  hearts";  they  had  accepted  "the  faith,"  and  the  beginnings 
of  a  sanctifying  emotion  had  become  manifest,  but  growth  in  Christian 
experience  was  extremely  desirable,  and  this  he  prays  they  may  attain. 
Why  that  growth  was  so  desirable  he  explains  : 


412  PRIMITIVE  LITURGIES 

accepted,  when  the  neophyte  put  on  Christ,  and  through 
the  ^voicn<;  he  might  make  a  step  in  advance  ;  but  real 
progress  was  first  made  when  Christ  was  accepted  with 
the  heart,  and  when  the  mere  intellectual  yvojaa  was 
supplemented  by  love — the  soil  in  which  the  Christian 
could  alone  hope  to  grow  and  bring  forth  fruit  to  the 
end. 

But  as  in  the  case  of  what  I  have  called  the  primary  or 
elementary  summary  of  Christian  doctrine,  we  find  that  in 
the  as  yet  unsettled  condition  of  Church  government  that 
summary  is  called  by  different  names, — sometimes  it  is  6S09, 
sometimes  \0709,  sometimes  irlaTL^, — so  is  it  probable  that 
this  esoteric  yvwai'i  was  designated  by  other  equivalent 
terms.  We  need  not  go  beyond  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians  itself  to  be  convinced  that  the  term  fivaTrjpcov 
was  used  as  an  equivalent  of  the  other  term  ^vwai^ :  ^  while 
from  1  Corinthians  xv.  51,  it  would  almost  seem  that  any 
advanced  statement  was  called  a  fivaTrjpiov,  any  truth,  i.e., 
for  which  the  babe  in  Christ  might  not  be  prepared,  though 
it  was  meet  and  right  that  the  more  advanced  Christian 
should  be  instructed  in  it.  Thus  in  writing  on  the  subject 
of  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  St.  Paul  draws  attention 
to  what  he  is  about  to  say  on  the  subject  by  calling  it 
fivarripiov ;  ^  in  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy  iii.  9,  he 
orders  that  the  deacons  must  be  those  exovTWi  rb  fivarrjpiov 
tt}?  7ricrTe&)9 ;  a  few  verses  later  he  speaks  of  ro  pbvarijpLov 
Tri<i  evcr€^eLa<i :  and  taking  these  passages  in  connexion  with 

(1)  Because  it  would  biiug  profounder  insight  into  the  infinite  depths  of  the 
Divine  mysteries,  with  which,  if  the  yvibaeis  professed  to  deal,  they  would  but 
deal,  at  best,  inadequately. 

(2)  Because  it  would  bring  more  intimate  personal  union  with  Christ  on  the 
emotional  side,  with  which  the  yvthueis  did  not  even  pretend  to  deal. 

(3)  Because  the  final  grand  result  would  be  that  the  convert  would  attain,  at 
least  in  idea,  to  the  fulness  of  the  Divine  perfection. 

1  Eph,  iii.  4.     I  cannot  accept  Meyer's  view  of  this  expression,  adopted  by 
Alford  and  Bishop  Ellicott.     See  infra. 
■^  Ibov  fivarripiov  vfuv  Xeyw  (1  Cor.  xv.  51'!. 


AND   CONFESSIONS   OF  FAITH.  418 

others  in  the  apostolic  writings,  nor  losing  sight  of  the  fact 
that  the  expression  to,  /jbvaTrjpta  t^?  ^acn\ela<i  is  more  than 
once  used  by  our  Lord — in  a  sense  which  certainly  supports 
the  view  advocated — bearing  in  mind  too  that  the  use  of 
the  term  in  the  Apocalypse  can  bear  this  interpretation  only 
— I  am  irresistibly  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  term 
fivcTT^jpiov  is  in  many  passages  of  St.  Paul  a  technical  term 
(if  the  expression  may  be  allowed),  the  equivalent  of  what  is 
elsewhere  called  'yvMai<i ;  and  that  both  refer  to  the  advanced 
summaries  of  Christian  instruction  to  which,  as  will  appear 
in  the  sequel,  such  frequent  allusion  is  made. 

But  having  arrived  at  this  point,  it  will  be  well  if  I  simply 
recapitulate  what  has  been  said. 

I.  I  have  pointed  out,  that  at  the  very  beginning  of  the 
history  of  the  Christian  Church  we  find  a  formal  summary 
of  Christian  doctrine  referred  to  under  four  different  terms  : 
r]  65o9,  r]  SiSa)(^r],  6  Xoyot;,  rj  TrtcrTt?. 

II.  That  such  a  summary  would  be  felt  as  a  necessity 
when  no  written  record  of  our  Lord's  life  existed,  and 
the  Christian  Church  was  increasing  enormously  day  by 
day. 

III.  That  in  the  general  organization  of  the  Church 
conspicuous  wisdom  and  foresight  w^ere  exhibited  when 
emergencies  arose,  and  that  it  was  unlikely  so  primary  a 
need  as  this  should  be  left  for  long  unsupplied. 

Lastly,  assuming  that  such  a  summary  of  fundamental 
Christian  truth  was  drawn  up  thus  early,  that  this  X6709 
or  Bi,8axr]  was  but  a  brief  summary  of  primary  Christian 
doctrine,  possibly  drawn  up  by  the  Twelve  themselves ; 
that  the  acceptance  of  this  elementary  creed  was  a  con- 
dition of  baptism ;  but  that  supplementary  to  this  primary 
summary  there  appear  to  have  been  expanded  statements 
of  more  advanced  or  esoteric  doctrine — possibly  less  gene- 
rally accepted,  probably  less  widely  diffused,  and  certainly 
less  generally  imposed ;  and  that  such  an  expanded  state- 


414  PRIMITIVE  LITURGIES. 

ment  was  called  jv(oaL<;  or  fjivar/jpiov,  and  perhaps  was  known 
by  other  designations  also. 

It  remains  to  consider  what  fragments  of  these  original 
formularies  of  the  faith  are  embedded,  and  may  still  be 
traced,  in  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament. 

Augustus  Jessopp. 


415 


THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

X.  The  Teachee's  Complaint  (Chaps,  v.  11-14,  vi.  1-8). 

"  Of  whom,"  i.e.  Melchisedec,  continues  the  writer,  taking 
up  the  second  part  of  his  programme  first,  "  we  have  many 
things  to  say."  Yet  he  does  not  say  these  things ;  he 
refrains  from  entering  on  ample  discourse  (ttoXu?  X070?)  on 
the  Melchisedec  priesthood,  because  his  spirit  is  disturbed 
by  the  recollection  that  he  writes  to  persons  dull  of  appre- 
hension, at  once  ignorant,  indolent,  and  prejudiced,  unable 
and  unwilling  to  take  in  new  ideas,  and,  like  horses  with 
blinders  on,  capable  of  seeing  only  straight  before  them 
in  the  direction  of  use  and  wont,  and  therefore  certain  to 
find  the  thoughts  he  is  about  to  express  hard  to  understand. 
The  haunting  consciousness  of  this  painful  fact  obscures 
the  subject  of  discourse  as  a  cloud  hides  the  glory  of  the 
sun  on  an  April  day ;  and  even  as  our  Lord  was  not  able 
to  proceed  with  His  farewell  address  to  His  disciples  till 
He  had  rid  Himself  of  the  presence  of  the  traitor,  so  this 
man  of  philosophic  mind  and  eloquent  pen  cannot  proceed 
with  his  argument  till  he  has  given  expression  to  the  vexa- 
tion and  disappointment  caused  by  the  inaptitude  of  his 
scholars.  This  he  does  with  very  great  plainness  of  speech, 
for  which  all  Christian  teachers  have  reason  to  thank  him ; 
for  what  he  has  written  may  be  regarded  as  an  assertion 
of  the  right  of  the  Church  to  be  something  more  than  an 
infant  school,  and  a  defence  of  the  liberty  of  prophesying 
on  all  themes  pertaining  to  Christ  as  their  centre  against 
the  intolerance  always  manifested  by  ignorance,  stupidity, 
indolence,  and  prejudice  towards  everything  that  is  not 
old,  familiar,  and  perfectly  elementary. 

The   teacher's   complaint   is   severe — too    severe,   if    the 


416  TEE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

things  to  be  said  concerned  some  curious  point  in  theology 
on  which  the  complainer  had  some  pet  notions.  A  man 
may  be  a  good  Christian,  and  yet  be  ignorant  or  indifferent 
in  reference  to  the  mysteries  of  predestination  and  free 
will  and  their  reconciliation.  Might  not  the  Hebrews  be 
sufficiently  good  Christians,  and  yet  remain  ignorant  of,  or 
incapable  of  understanding,  the  transcendental  doctrine  of 
the  Melchisedec  priesthood  ?  No ;  because  the  question 
at  issue  is  not  a  mere  curious  point  in  theology.  It  is 
rather  the  fundamental  question  whether  Christ  was  really 
a  priest.  The  priesthood  of  Christ  in  its  reality  and  ideal 
worth  is  not  understood,  unless  it  is  seen  to  be  of  the 
Melchisedec  type.  Therefore  the  incapacity  complained  of, 
if  not  fatal,  is  at  least  serious. 

The  account  given  of  the  spiritual  state  of  the  Hebrew 
Christians  is  not  flattering.  In  effect,  they  are  represented 
as  in  their  dotage.  They  have  become  dull  of  hearing,  have 
become  children  having  need  of  milk,  and  not  able  to  receive 
the  solid  food  of  full  grown  men.  They  are  not  merely 
children,  but  in  their  second  childhood ;  in  which  respect 
it  is  interesting  to  compare  the  Hebrew  Church  with  the 
Corinthian  as  described  in  Paul's  first  epistle.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  Corinthian  Church  were  in  their  first  childhood 
spiritually ;  hence  they  were  unruly,  quarrelsome,  and  had 
an  indiscriminate  appetite  for  all  sorts  of  food,  without 
possessing  the  capacity  to  discern  between  what  was 
wholesome  and  what  unwholesome,  or  the  self-control  to 
choose  the  good  and  reject  the  evil.  The  members  of  the 
Hebrew  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  were  in  that  state  of 
dotage  so  affectingly  described  by  Barzillai  with  reference 
to  the  physical  powers  :  "I  am  this  day  fourscore  years  old ; 
and  can  I  discern  between  good  and  evil  ?  can  thy  servant 
taste  what  I  eat  or  what  I  drink  ?  can  I  hear  any  more  the 
voice  of  singing  men  and  singing  women  ?  wherefore  then 
should   thy   servant   be   yet   a   burden   unto   my   lord   the 


THE  TEACHER'S   COMPLAINT.  417 

king?"  The  Hebrew  Christians  had  once  had  a  certain 
capacity  of  discernment,  but  they  had  lost  it.  Their  senses 
had  become  blunted  by  the  hebetude  of  old  age :  they  had, 
so  to  say,  no  teeth  to  eat  solid  food,  no  taste  to  discern  the 
excellency  of  new,  strong  meat,  but  simply  enough  taste  to 
detect  that  the  meat  was  new ;  no  ear  to  appreciate  the 
new  songs  of  the  Christian  era,  but  just  enough  hearing  left 
to  tell  them  that  the  sounds  they  heard  dimly  were  strange, 
not  the  familiar  melodies  of  the  synagogue ;  no  eyes  to 
see  the  glory  of  Christ's  self-sacrifice,  but  simply  vision 
enough  to  perceive  as  through  a  haze  the  gorgeous  robes 
of  the  high  priest  as  he  moved  about  the  temple  precincts 
performing  his  sacerdotal  duties.  All  the  symptoms  of 
senility  were  upon  them  as  described  by  the  preacher; 
decay  was  present  and  death  near.  Melancholy  end  of  a 
Christian  profession  that  had  lasted  some  forty  years  ! 
Dotage  at  an  advanced  age,  in  the  physical  sphere,  is  natu- 
ral and  blameless,  exciting  only  tender  pity ;  in  the  spiritual 
sphere  it  is  unnatural  and  blameworthy.  What  ought  to 
be  is  steady  progress  towards  moral  and  religious  maturity 
{TeXetorrira),  characterized  by  practised  skill  to  discern 
between  good  and  evil,  and  settled  preference  for  the  good, 
a  wise,  enlightened  mind,  and  a  sanctified  will.^  That  so 
few  reach  the  goal,  that  healthy  growth  in  the  spiritual 
life  is  so  rare,  is  for  all  earnest  souls  a  wonder  and  a  deep 
disappointment. 

Having  uttered  these  sharp  words  of  reproof,  the  writer 
proceeds  (vi.  1)  to  exhort  his  readers  to  aspire  to  that  state 

'  The  words  rfKeLos  and  reXetor???  (v.  14,  vi.  1)  are  used  here  in  a  sense  distinct 
from  that  in  which  Christ  is  said  to  have  been  perfected  by  suffering,  and  from 
that  in  which  men  are  said  to  have  been  perfected  by  His  one  offering  of 
Himself.  To  be  perfect  is  always  to  be  in  the  position  of  having  reached  the 
end ;  but  the  end  in  the  present  instance  is  not  training  for  an  office,  or  purga- 
tion of  the  conscience  from  the  guilt  of  sin,  but  the  attainment  of  manhood, 
with  the  characteristics  named  above.  Of  the  two  characteristics  only  the  wise 
mind,  or  experienced  judgment,  is  referred  to,  because  defective  spiritual 
intelligence  is  the  thing  complained  of. 

VOL.   IX.  27 


418  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

of  Christian  maturity  which  is  capable  of  digesting  solid 
food,  and  not  to  remain  always  at  the  beginnings  of  the 
Christian  life.  Perhaps  we  should  rather  say,  that  the 
writer  intimates  his  own  purpose  to  go  on  in  his  discourse 
from  the  milk  of  elementary  truth  that  suits  babes  to  the 
solid  food  of  advanced  doctrine  that  suits  men.  The  com- 
mentators are  divided  in  opinion  as  to  which  of  these  two 
interpretations  is  the  more  correct ;  but  it  is  scarcely  worth 
while  to  discuss  the  question,  as  the  one  view  implies  the 
other.  The  writer  does  not  wish  merely  to  express  his  own 
thoughts  concerning  Christ's  priestly  office,  but  to  com- 
municate them  to  others.  He  desires  to  teach;  but  he  can 
teach  only  in  so  far  as  there  is  receptivity  in  his  scholars. 
Teaching  and  learning  are  correlative,  and  teacher  and 
scholar  must  keep  pace  with  each  other.  No  man  can 
teach  unless  his  pupils  let  him.  Therefore  this  Christian 
doctor,  minded  to  discourse  not  of  the  principia  of  Chris- 
tianity— "  the  beginning  of  Christ  " — but  of  its  higher 
truths,  appropriately  says,  "Let  us  go  on,"  expressing  at 
once  a  purpose  and  an  exhortation. 

In  declining  to  make  the  Christian  elements  bis  exclusive 
theme,  the  writer  takes  occasion  to  indicate  what  these 
were.  We  scan  with  eager  interest  the  list  of  fundamentals 
setting  forth  what,  in  the  view  of  our  author,  and  we  may 
assume  also  of  the  Church  in  his  time,  a  man  was  required 
to  do  and  believe  when  he  became  a  Christian.  What  first 
strikes  one  in  this  primitive  "sum  of  saving  knowledge"  is 
how  little  that  is  specifically  Christian  it  contains.  There 
is  no  express  reference  to  Christ,  not  even  in  connexion 
with  faith,  where  it  might  have  been  expected.  In  his 
address  to  the  elders  at  Miletus,  Paul  claimed  to  have  tes- 
tified to  Jews  and  Greeks  "repentance  towards  God,  and 
faith  towards  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  Here,  on  the  other 
hand,  mention  is  made  of  "repentance  from  dead  works,  and 
faith  towards  God,"  as  if  it  were  a  question  of  theism  as 


THE   TEAGHEKS   COMPLAINT.  419 

against  polytheism,  rather  than  of  Christian  beHef.^  It  is 
superjfluous  to  remark  that  the  priesthood  of  Christ  finds 
no  place  in  the  list ;  that  topic  evidently  is  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  advanced  doctrine.  To  us,  who  have  been 
accustomed  to  regard  faith  in  the  atoning  death  of  Christ, 
and  even  in  a  particular  theory  of  the  atonement,  as  essen- 
tial to  salvation,  all  this  must  appear  surprising.  Yet  the 
meagre  account  here  given  of  the  catechumen's  creed  is  no 
isolated  phenomenon  in  the  New  Testament.  It  is  in  entire 
accord  with  what  we  learn  from  Paul's  First  Epistle  to  the 
Thessalonians,  which  may  be  said  to  show  the  style  of  his 
instructions  to  young  converts  during  the  period  of  mis- 
sionary activity  antecedent  to  the  rise  of  the  great  contro- 
versy concerning  the  law.  Paul's  purpose  in  that  epistle 
seems  to  be  to  remind  the  Thessalonian  Christians,  for 
their  encouragement  and  strengthening,  of  the  things  he 
had  taught  them  at  the  time  of  their  conversion,  such 
phrases  as  "ye  remember,"  "ye  know,"  being  of  frequent 
occurrence.  Yet  throughout  the  epistle  we  can  find  no 
trace  of  the  doctrine  of  justification  in  the  specifically 
Pauhne  sense,  or  of  the  doctrine  of  Christ's  atoning  death. 
Christ's  death  is  indeed  referred  to,  but  in  such  a  way  as  to 
suggest  that  the  fact  of  vital  importance  to  faith  was  not 
that  He  died,  but  that  He  rose  again.  "  If  we  believe  that 
Jesus  died  and  rose  again,  even  so  them  also  which  sleep  in 
Jesus  will  God  bring  with  Him."  ^ 

The  apparently  non-Christian  character  of  the  Christian 
principia  is  not  the  only  perplexing  feature  in  the  list  or 
fundamentals.  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  how  the  various 
matters  mentioned  are  related  to  each  other.  Judging  from 
the  rhythmical  structure  of  the  sentence,  one's  first  thought 

^  A  few  commentators  have  actually  maintained  that  the  reference  is  not  to 
the  Christian  elements  but  to  the  leading  points  in  the  Old  Testament  religion, 
faith  in  the  true  God,  and  the  rites  of  purification  and  laying  on  of  hands  on 
the  sacrificial  victims,  of  typical  significance  for  the  Christian  religion. 

2  1  Thess.  iv.  14. 


420  TEE  EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

is  that  the  Hst  contains  six  co-ordinate  articles,  grouped  in 
pairs :  first,  repentance  and  faith  ;  second,  the  doctrines  of 
baptism  and  laying  on  of  hands ;  third,  the  doctrines  of 
resurrection  and  eternal  judgment ;  the  members  of  each 
pair  being  of  kindred  nature,  and  the  whole  six  forming 
together  the  foundation  of  the  Christian  religion.  But 
doubt  arises  when  it  is  observed  that  in  this  view  things 
are  mixed  together  which  belong  to  different  categories ; 
repentance  and  faith,  which  are  spiritual  states,  with 
doctrines  about  other  matters  of  greater  or  less  importance. 
If  there  are  six  articles  in  the  list  of  fundamentals,  why  not 
say,  "  Not  laying  again  a  foundation  in  doctrine  concerning 
repentance,  faith,  baptisms,"  etc.  ?  And  so  we  are  tempted 
to  take  up  with  another  hypothesis ;  viz.  that  the  last  four 
are  to  be  regarded  as  the  foundation  of  the  first  two,  con- 
ceived not  as  belonging  to  the  foundation,  but  rather  as  the 
superstructure.  On  this  view  we  should  have  to  render, 
"  Not  laying  again  a  foundation  for  repentance  and  faith, 
consisting  in  instruction  concerning  baptisms,  laying  on  of 
hands,  resurrection,  and  judgment."  In  favour  of  this  con- 
struction is  the  reading  BcBa^vv  (ver.  2,  clause  1)  found  in 
B,  and  adopted  by  Westcott  and  Hort,  which  being  in  appo- 
sition with  dejjLeXtov  (ver.  1)  suggests  that  the  four  things 
following  form  the  foundation  of  repentance  and  faith. 

It  is  possible  that  the  mixing  up  of  states  and  doctrines 
in  the  list  is  due  to  the  double  attitude  of  the  writer, 
as  partly  exhorting  his  readers,  partly  expressing  his  own 
purpose.  "  Not  laying  again  a  foundation,  you  by  re- 
newed repentance  and  faith,  by  repetition  of  elementary 
instructions."  But  I  cannot  help  thinking  that  there  is 
discernible  in  this  passage,  notwithstanding  its  graceful 
rhythmical  structure,  on  which  Bengel  and  others  have 
remarked,  a  slight  touch  of  that  rhetorical  carelessness 
which  recurs  in  much  more  pronounced  form  in  chapter  ix. 
10,  where  the  writer,  referring  to  the  ineffectual  ordinances 


THE   TEACHERS  COMPLAINT.  421 

of  Levitical  worship,  characterizes  them  in  language  diffi- 
cult to  construe  as  "  only,  with  their  meats  and  drinks  and 
diverse  washings,  ordinances  of  the  flesh  imposed  until  a 
time  of  reformation."  In  that  place  the  loose  construction 
of  the  sentence  is  an  oratorical  device  to  express  a  feeling 
of  impatience  with  the  bare  idea  that  Levitical  rites  could 
possibly  cleanse  the  consciences  of  worshippers.  Of  course 
the  writer  has  no  thought  of  putting  the  elementary  truths 
of  Christianity  on  a  level  with  these  rites.  But  the  feeling 
of  impatience  with  never  getting  beyond  the  elements 
seems  to  influence  his  manner  of  referring  to  them,  giving 
rise  to  an  elliptical  abruptness  of  style  which  leaves  room 
for  many  questions  as  to  the  construction  that  cannot  with 
certainty  be  answered. 

On  the  whole,  our  first  thought  as  to  the  connexion  is 
probably  the  correct  one,  according  to  which  the  passage 
is  to  be  paraphrased  thus  :  "  Leaving  discourse  on  the 
beginning  of  Christ,  let  us  go  on  unto  maturity,  and  unto 
the  doctrine  that  suits  it,  not  laying  again  a  foundation  in 
reiterated  exhortations  to  repentance  and  faith,  and  in 
instructions  about  such  matters  as  baptisms,  laying  on  of 
hands,  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  eternal  judgment." 

The  only  points  calling  for  explanation  in  this  summary 
of  elements  are  those  included  in  the  middle  pair.  Re- 
pentance and  faith,  the  resurrection  and  the  judgment,  are 
obviously  suitable  subjects  of  instruction  for  persons  begin- 
ning the  Christian  life.  Repentance  and  faith  are  the 
cardinal  conditions  of  entrance  into  the  kingdom  of  God,^ 

1  Mark  i.  15  :  "  The  time  is  fulfilled,  and  the  kingdom  of  God  is  at  hand; 
repent  ye,  and  believe  the  gospel."  I  reserve  for  consideration  in  another 
place  (chap.  ix.  14)  the  meaning  of  the  words  dirb  veKpQv  epyuv  attached  to 
fieravoias.  I  will  merely  say  here,  that  it  is  by  no  means  so  clear  as  most  com- 
mentators assume  it  to  be  that  "  dead  works  "  are  synonymous  with  "  sinful 
works,"  and  that  there  is  no  reference  to  the  religious  works  of  an  artificial 
legalism,  which  first  our  Lord  and  then  Paul  declared  to  be  worthless  and  per- 
nicious. Of  such  works,  in  a  transition  time,  when  an  old  religion  is  dying 
and  a  new  religion  is  coming  in,  there  are  always  plenty ;  and  converts  from 


422  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 


and  though  resurrection  and  judgment,  as  events,  come  at 
the  end  of  the  Christian's  career,  the  doctrine  concerning 
them  comes  appropriately  at  the  beginning,  as  fitted  to 
inspire  an  awe  and  a  hope  which  are  most  powerful  motives 
to  holiness. 

But  what  is  the  doctrine  of  baptisms  ?  If  instruction 
as  to  Christian  baptism  be  mainly  referred  to,  its  appro- 
priateness at  the  commencement  is  beyond  question.  But 
why  baptisms  and  not  baptism  ?  Commentators  generally 
concur  in  replying,  because  the  writer  has  in  view,  not 
merely  Christian  baptism,  but  all  the  baptisms  or  washings 
with  which  Jewish  converts  were  familiar.  Where  symbolic 
use  of  water  in  various  forms  was  known,  comparison  would 
be  natural,  and  might  be  useful  as  a  means  of  conveying 
instruction  as  to  the  distinctive  significance  of  Christian 
baptism.  Against  the  reference  to  baptism  in  the  specifi- 
cally Christian  sense  it  has  been  urged  that  it  is  never,  in 
the  New  Testament,  denoted  by  /SaTTTto-yao?,  the  word  used 
here,  but  always  by  ^dirTia/jLa.  To  this  however  it  seems 
a  sufficient  answer  that  the  former  word  is  employed 
because  Christian  baptism  is  included  in  a  more  compre- 
hensive category  along  with  Levitical  purifications. 

The  "  laying  on  of  hands  "  is  to  be  understood  in  the 
light  of  the  apostolic  practice  of  imposing  hands  on  the 
heads  of  baptized  persons,  as  a  sign  of  the  communica- 
tion of  the  Holy  Ghost.  This  symbolic  action  was  often 
followed  by  the  bestowal  of  miraculous  gifts.  The  doctrine 
probably  consisted  largely  in  explanations  concerning  these 


the  old  to  the  new  feel  that  they  are  what  most  need  to  be  repented  of,  and 
that  in  deliverance  from  them  Christ's  redemptive  power  is  most  signally 
displayed.  They  constitute  the  "  vain  conversation  received  by  tradition  from 
the  fathers  "  of  which  St.  Peter  speaks.  The  phrase  "  dead  works  "  as  used  by 
our  author  seems  to  be  a  current  expression  rather  than  a  coinage  of  his  own, 
and  we  can  easily  imagine  its  origin  in  circles  familiar  with  Christ's  moral 
criticism  of  Pharisaism.  Bleek  is  of  opinion  that  "  dead  works"  mean  legal 
religious  works. 


THE   TEACHER'S   COMPLAINT.  423 

gifts — tongues,  prophesyings,  etc. — just  such  instruction  as 
we  find  in  Paul's  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  on  the 
subject  of  spiritual  gifts.  The  doctrine  of  the  laying  on 
of  hands  has  ceased  to  hold  a  place  among  the  Christian 
principia,  because  miraculous  charisms  have  passed  away. 

Such  are  the  fundamentals.^  What  now  is  meant  by 
leaving  them  ?  Not  of  course  ceasing  to  believe  in  them, 
or  to  think  and  speak  of  them,  or  to  set  importance  on 
them  ;  for  the  things  enumerated,  though  elementary,  are 
fundamental,  as  the  term  deixekiov  implies.  They  are  to  be 
left  in  the  sense  in  which  a  builder  leaves  the  foundation  of 
a  house,  by  erecting  an  edifice  thereon.  They  are  not  to 
be  treated  as  if  they  were  everything,  building  as  well  as 
foundation  ;  as  if  all  were  done  when  the  foundation  was 
laid,  and  the  builder  might  then  fold  his  hands.  Yet  there 
has  always  been  a  Christianity  of  this  sort,  stationary, 
unprogressive,  never  getting  beyond  the  initial  stage,  always 
concerned  about  repentance,  pardon,  peace,  justification. 
With  reference  to  Christian  teachers  the  meaning  is,  that 
they  are  not  to  confine  themselves  to  the  elementary  truths 
of  the  faith,  but  to  go  on  to  higher  doctrine,  teaching  wisdom 
to  the  "perfect,"  the  mature  in  spiritual  understanding, 
not  forgetful  of  their  peculiar  needs,  though  the  number  of 
them  in  the  Church   be  small.     Even  for  the  sake  of  the 


'  In  an  interesting  article  in  The  Expositor  for  December,  1888,  by  Eev. 
R.  G.  Balfour,  M.A.,  a  third  way  of  connecting  the  six  articles  is  proposed  : 
that  the  second  pair  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  parenthetical  remark  concerning  the 
first,  to  the  effect  that  repentance  was  symbolically  taught  by  washings,  i.e. 
Levitical  purifications,  and  faith  by  the  laying  on  of  hands  (on  the  head  of  the 
victim  in  the  great  day  of  atonement).  Mr.  Balfour  renders,  "  Not  laying  again 
the  foundation  of  repentance  from  dead  works  and  faith  exercised  upon  God 
(the  things  taught  by  washings,  also  by  laying  on  of  hands),  also,  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead  and  eternal  judgment."  Readers  are  referred  to  the  article 
for  his  argument  ;  but  I  may  notice  here  his  contention  that  ^avTia/xQv  dcdaxfis 
can  only  mean  the  doctrine  which  washings  teach,  and  that  had  the  writer 
meant  the  doctrine  concerning  washings  he  would  have  written  irepl  /3.5.  But 
the  genitive  ^airTKJixQv  may  be  either  subjective  or  objective.  For  instances  of 
the  objective  genitive  see  Winer's  Grammar  of  New  Testament  Greek. 


424  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

immature  it  is  well  not  to  tarry  too  long  by  the  elements, 
lest  they  imagine  they  have  nothing  more  to  learn,  when  in 
truth  they  are  in  the  state  of  the  disciples  to  whom  Jesus 
said,  "  I  have  yet  many  things  to  say  to  you,  but  ye  cannot 
bear  them  now." 

What  he  has  just  declared  to  be  desirable  the  writer 
intimates  his  own  purpose  to  do,  cherishing  the  desire,  if 
not  the  hope,  that  he  may  carry  his  readers  along  with  him. 
"And  this  will  we  do,"  you  and  I,  "if,  that  is,^  God 
permit."  This  "  if  God  permit  "  is  an  ominous  hint  at  the 
more  than  possibility  of  the  Hebrews  having  become  so 
spiritually  hidebound  that  they  will  prove  totally  incapable 
of  receiving  new  truth.  And  so  it  forms  a  suitable  intro- 
duction to  the  solemn  passage  which  follows.  And  yet, 
though  when  a  grave,  earnest  man  makes  reference  to  God's 
sovereign  will,  we  feel  that  he  must  have  some  serious 
thought  in  his  mind,  we  are  hardly  prepared  for  the  very 
sombre  picture  of  the  apostate  which  this  passage  contains. 
Nor  is  it  quite  easy  to  see  how  it  is  connected  with  what 
goes  before.  Does  the  writer  mean,  "It  is  useless  to  keep 
insisting  on  foundation  truths  relating  to  repentance,  faith, 
and  the  like  topics  ;  for  if  any  one  have  fallen  away  you 
cannot  bring  him  to  repentance  by  any  amount  of  preach- 
ing on  the  old  trite  themes  "  ?  or  is  his  meaning  rather, 
"  I  do  trust  you  and  I  will  go  on  together  to  manhood  and 
its  proper  food,  though  I  have  my  fears  concerning  you, 
fears  lest  you  be  in  the  position  of  men  who  have  lapsed 
from  a  bright  initial  experience,  whose  outlook  for  the 
future  is  necessarily  very  gloomy  "?  Possibly  both  of  those 
thoughts  were  passing  through  his  mind  when  he  wrote. 

In  these  verses  (4-6)  there  is  a  vivid  description  of  a 
happy  past,  a  supposition  made  regarding  those  whose  past 
experience  is  pourtrayed,  and  a  strong  assertion  hazarded 
regarding  any  in  whom  that  supposition  is  realized. 

^  idvrep,  the  irep  iDtensifying  the  force  of  the  idv. 


THE   TEACHER'S   COMPLAINT.  425 

The  description  of  initial  Christian  experience  is  a  com- 
panion picture  to  the  preceding  account  of  initial  Christian 
instruction.  It  points  to  an  intense  religious  life,  full  of 
enthusiasm,  joy,  and  spiritual  elevation,  not  however  to  be 
regarded  as  the  exceptional  privilege  of  the  few,  but  rather 
as  the  common  inheritance  of  the  Church  in  the  apostolic 
age.  The  picture  is  painted  in  high  colours,  but  the  outlines 
are  not  very  distinct ;  and  the  spectator,  while  powerfully 
impressed,  fails  to  carry  away  a  clear  idea  of  the  scene. 
The  writer's  purpose  is  not  to  give  information  to  us,  but 
to  awaken  in  the  breasts  of  his  first  readers  sacred  memo- 
ries, and  breed  godly  sorrow  over  a  dead  past.  Hence  he 
expresses  himself  in  emotional  terms  such  as  might  be 
used  by  recent  converts  rather  than  in  the  colder  but  more 
exact  style  of  the  historian.  "The  heavenly  gift " — precious 
doubtless,  but  what  is  it?  "The  good  word  of  God" — 
ineffably  sweet,  but  what  precise  word  gave  such  rare  en- 
joyment? Five  distinct  elements  in  the  initial  Christian 
experience  of  converts  seem  to  be  specified,  yet  on  further 
analysis  they  appear  to  be  reducible  to  three :  the  illu- 
mination conveyed  by  elementary  Christian  instruction 
{<pcoTia6evTa<;),  the  enjoijment  connected  with  that  illumina- 
tion {yevaa/jiivov<i,  ver.  4,  repeated  in  ver.  5);^  and  the  spiritual 
vower  communicated  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  manifesting 
itself  in  the  miraculous  charisms  whereof  we  read  in  Acts 
and  in  Paul's  First   Epistle  to  the  Corinthians   {Svvd/jL€i<i 

1  The  repetition  of  yevaafxivovs  suggests  that  the  clause  in  which  the  participle 
occurs  for  the  second  time  may  be  explanatory  of  that  in  which  it  occurs  for 
the  first  time.  In  that  case  the  "  heavenly  gift "  would  be  practically  identical 
with  the  "  word  of  God,"  which  the  convert  finds  good  to  his  taste  =  the  gospel 
of  grace;  and  the  "Holy  Spirit"  in  which  the  convert  participates  would  be 
synonymous  with  the  "  powers  of  the  world  to  come."  That  is  to  say,  the  Holy 
Spirit  would  be  referred  to,  not  as  the  indwelling  source  of  Christian  sanctity, 
but  as  the  source  of  spiritual  gifts  or  miraculous  charisms.  The  change  in  the 
construction  (the  genitive  after  the  participle  in  the  first  case,  the  accusative 
in  the  second)  may  suggest  slightly  differing  shades  of  meaning :  sharing, 
having  part  in  the  heavenly  gift,  appreciating  the  quality  of  the  Divine  word, 
receiving  the  truth,  feeling  its  value. 


426  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE   EEBBEWS. 

fMeXK,ovTo<i  al(bvo<;,  ver.  5).  The  cardinal  fact  is  the  illumina- 
tion. The  light  of  heaven  breaking  in  on  the  soul  awakens 
strong  emotions,  which  find  vent  in  speaking  with  tongues 
and  prophesying — the  powers  and  signs  of  the  Messianic 
age.  That  illumination  is  the  epoch-making  event  of 
the  Christian  life.  It  takes  place  once  for  all  (aira^)  ; 
there  ought  to  be  no  need  for  its  repetitioii,  nay,  it  can- 
not be  repeated.  It  comes  like  a  revelation,  and  produces 
mighty  effects ;  and  woe  to  the  man  who  lets  the  light  go 
out ! 

"If  they  fall  away"  (koI  trapa'rreaovTe'i),  such  is  the 
supposition  made  with  reference  to  persons  who  have  gone 
through  experiences  so  remarkable.  The  case  put  is  that 
of  persons  who  once  knew,  believed,  and  loved  Christian 
truth,  did  wonderful  works  in  Christ's  name  and  by  the 
power  of  His  Spirit,  lapsing  into  ignorance,  unbelief,  in- 
difference, or  even  dislike  of  what  they  once  found  sweet 
to  their  taste — God's  word  and  the  gift  of  grace  to  which 
it  bears  witness.  The  very  putting  of  such  a  case  seems 
a  rude  contradiction  of  the  dogma  of  perseverance,  and 
hence  this  passage  has  been  a  famous  battlefield  between 
Arminians  and  Calvinists.  The  expositor  who  is  more  con- 
cerned about  the  correct  interpretation  of  Scripture  than 
about  the  defence  of  any  system  of  theology  will  not  find 
himself  able  to  go  altogether  with  either  side  in  the  contro- 
versy. The  Bible  is  an  excellent  book  for  the  purposes 
of  practical  religion,  but  rather  a  tantalising  book  for  the 
scholastic  theologian.  Its  writers  know  nothing  of  the 
caution  and  reserve  of  the  system  maker,  but  express  them- 
selves in  strong,  unqualified  terms  which  are  the  torment 
of  the  dogmatist  and  the  despair  of  the  controversialist. 
The  author  of  this  epistle  in  particular  writes,  not  as  a 
theorist,  but  as  an  observer  of  facts.  Cases  of  the  kind 
described  have  actually  come  under  his  eye.  He  has  seen 
many  bearing  all  the  marks  of  true  believers  fall  away,  and 


THE   TE AGREE 8   COMPLAINT.  427 

he  has  observed  that  such  men  do  not  usually  return  to 
the  faith  from  which  they  have  lapsed.  He  speaks  as  his 
experience  prompts.  He  does  not  call  in  question  the 
reality  of  the  faith  and  gracious  affections  of  quondam 
Christians,  but  describes  these  after  their  fall,  as  he  would 
have  described  them  before  it,  admitting  them  to  have 
been  blossoms,  though  they  were  blighted  by  frost,  or  leaf- 
bearing  branches,  though  they  afterwards  became  dead  and 
rotten. 

As  little,  on  the  other  hand,  does  he  hesitate  to  affirm 
that  recovery  in  such  cases  is  impossible,  reasoning  again 
from  past  observation,  and  also  doubtless  in  part  from  the 
nature  of  the  case,  apostates  appearing  to  him  like  a  fire 
whose  fuel  has  been  completely  consumed  so  that  nothing 
remains  but  ashes.  This  brings  us  to  the  third  point  in  the 
passage  before  us, — the  strong  assertion  made  regarding 
those  who  lapse :  "  It  is  impossible  to  renew  them  again 
unto  repentance."  Two  questions  suggest  themselves.  Is 
the  assertion  to  be  taken  strictly?  and,  so  taken,  is  it  true? 
That  the  writer  uses  the  word  "impossible"  strictly  may 
be  inferred  from  the  reason  he  gives  for  his  assertion. 
When  men  have  got  the  length  of  crucifying  Christ  to 
themselves,  and  putting  Him  to  an  open  shame  before 
others,  their  case  is  hopeless.^  But  possibly  he  puts  too 
severe  a  construction  on  the  facts.  There  may  be  a  lapse 
from  the  bright  life  of  a  former  time,  serious  and  perilous, 

1  Dr.  Edwards  takes  the  ijarticiples  avaaravpovvTas  and  Trapadeiy/j.aTli'oi'Ta^,  not 
as  explanatory  of  irapawecrovTas,  but  as  putting  a  hypothetical  case,  and  renders, 
"they  cannot  be  renewed  after  falling  away  if  they  persist  in  crucifying."  The 
change  from  the  aorist  to  the  present  may  be  in  favour  of  this  view,  yet  one 
cannot  help  feeling  that  the  writer  means  to  say  something  more  serious  than 
that  falling  away  is  fatal  when  it  amounts  to  crucifying  Christ.  Mr.  Eendall 
has  another  way  of  softening  the  severity  of  the  dictum  ;  viz.  to  take  dvaKaivi^eiv 
as  expressing  continuous  action,  and  render  "  it  is  impossible  to  keep  re- 
newing "=the  process  of  falling  and  renewing  cannot  go  on  indefinitely:  the 
power  of  impression  grows  weaker,  and  at  length  becomes  exhausted  by  repeti- 
tion. This  view  is  certainly  in  keeping  with  the  spirit  of  the  whole  passage 
(v.  11-14,  vi.  1-8). 


428  THE  EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

but  not  amounting  to  a  crucifying  of  Christ,  or  so  hardening 
the  heart  as  to  make  repentance  impossible. 

Now  two  things  may  be  admitted  here.  First,  there  are 
phases  of  the  spiritual  life  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  symp- 
toms of  apostasy,  which  are  truly  interpreted  only  when 
looked  at  in  the  light  of  the  great  law  of  gradual  growth  enun- 
ciated by  our  Lord  in  the  parable  of  the  blade,  the  green 
ear,  and  the  full  corn  in  the  ear.^  The  difficult  problem  of 
Christian  experience  cannot  be  mastered  unless  we  grasp  the 
truth  taught  in  that  parable,  and  know  the  characteristics 
of  each  stage,  and  especially  of  the  second,  which  are  most 
liable  to  be  misunderstood.  For  lack  of  such  knowledge 
many  a  Christian,  destined  to  reach  a  splendid  spiritual  man- 
hood, has  seemed  to  himself  and  others  to  have  fallen  away 
utterly  from  grace,  faith,  and  goodness,  while  he  was  simply 
passing  through  the  stage  of  the  green  fruit,  with  all  its 
unwelcome  yet  wholesome  experiences.  In  this  crude  stage 
of  his  religious  history  Bunyan  thought  he  had  committed 
the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  "an  ancient  Christian," 
supposed  to  be  wise  in  counsel,  whom  he  consulted,  told 
him  he  thought  so  too.  Yet  he  was  on  the  way  to  Beulah 
through  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death ;  and  few  reach 
that  blessed  land  without  passing  along  the  same  dark, 
dreary  road.  How  far  the  writer  of  our  epistle,  or  indeed 
any  of  the  New  Testament  writers,  understood  the  law  o± 
growth  by  broadly  discriminated  stages,  enunciated  by 
Christ,  does  not  appear.  It  is  certain  that  nowhere  else 
in  the  New  Testament  can  there  be  found  a  statement 
approaching  in  scientific  clearness  and  distinctness  to  that 
contained   in   the   parable    referred  to."      In  absence  of  a 

1  Mark  iv.  26-29.     On  this  parable  see  The  Parabolic  Teaching  of  Christ. 

2  It  has  been  disputed  whether  there  be  any  distinct  doctrine  of  growth  or 
gradual  sanctification  in  Paul's  epistles.  Pfleiderer  maintains  the  affirmative. 
Eeuss,  a  more  orthodox  theologian,  denies,  maintaining  that  Paul  conceives  the 
new  life  as  perfect  from  the  first.  There  is  a  noticeable  diii'erence  between  Paul 
and  our  Lord  in  their  respective  manner  of  dealing  with  the  defects  of  young 


THE  TEACHER'S   COMPLAINT.  429 

theory  of  sanctification  to  guide  them,  however,  their  spiri- 
tual sagacity  might  be  trusted  to  keep  them  from  con- 
founding a  case  like  Bunyan's  with  that  of  an  apostate. 

Second.  Bible  writers  often  state  in  unqualified  terms 
as  an  absolute  truth  what  is  in  reality  only  an  affair  of 
tendency.  Translated  into  a  statement  of  tendency,  the 
doctrine  taught  is  this.  Every  fall  involves  a  risk  of  apo- 
stasy, and  the  higher  the  experience  fallen  from  the  greater 
the  risk.  The  deeper  religion  has  gone  into  a  man  at  the 
commencement  of  his  Christian  course,  the  less  hopeful  his 
condition  if  he  lapse.  The  nearer  the  initial  stage  to  a 
thorough  conversion  the  less  likely  is  a  second  change,  if 
the  first  turn  out  abortive ;  and  so  on,  in  ever-increasing 
degrees  of  improbability  as  lapses  increase  in  number.  The 
brighter  the  light  in  the  soul,  the  deeper  the  darkness  when 
the  light  is  put  out.  The  sweeter  the  manna  of  God's  word 
to  the  taste,  the  more  loathsome  it  becomes  when  it  has 
lost  its  relish.  The  fiercer  the  fire  in  the  hearth  while  the 
fuel  lasts,  the  more  certain  it  is  that  when  the  fire  goes  out 
there  will  remain  nothing  but  ashes.  The  livelier  the  hope 
of  glory,  the  greater  the  aversion  to  all  thoughts  of  the 
world  to  come  when  once  a  Christian  has,  like  Atheist  in 
the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  turned  his  back  on  the  heavenly 
Jerusalem.  Action  and  reaction  are  equal.  The  more 
forcibly  you  throw  an  elastic  ball  against  a  wall  the  greater 
the  rebound ;  in  like  manner  the  more  powerfully  the  human 
spirit  is  brought  under  celestial  influences,  the  greater  the 
recoil  from  all  good,  if  there  be  a  recoil  at  all.  The  gushing 
enthusiasts  of  to-day  are  the  cynical  sceptics  of  to-morrow. 
Have  promoters  of  "revivals"  laid  these  things  duly  to 
heart  ? 


Christians.  Paul  blames,  as  if  they  were  full  grown  men ;  Christ  corrects,  as 
one  who  knows  that  nothing  else  is  to  be  looked  for  in  children,  and  that  the 
future  will  bring  wisdom :  "  I  have  many  things  to  say  unto  you,  but  ye  cannot 
bear  them  now." 


430  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBREWS. 

But  the  wise  teacher  whose  complaint  of  his  dull  scholars 
we  are  considering  has  something  more  serious  in  view, 
when  he  speaks  of  falling  away,  than  the  coldness  and 
languor,  or  even  the  moral  lapses,  which  are  apt  to  overtake 
converts  after  a  period  of  great  excitement.  It  is  not  a 
question  of  loss  of  feeling,  or  of  unstable,  inconsistent  con- 
duct, or  of  falls  through  infirmity,  but  of  deep  alienation  of 
heart.  He  thinks  of  such  as  are  capable  of  cherishing 
towards  Christ  the  feelings  of  hatred  which  animated  the 
men  who  crucified  Him,  and  of  openly  renouncing  the 
Christian  faith.  This  was  the  crime  the  Hebrew  Christians 
were  tempted  to  commit.  A  fatal  step  it  must  be  when 
taken ;  for  men  who  left  the  Christian  Church  and  went 
back  to  the  synagogue  became  companions  of  persons  who 
thought  they  did  God  service  in  cursing  the  name  of  Jesus. 

The  writer  proceeds  (vers.  7,  8),  by  a  comparison  drawn 
from  agriculture,  to  illustrate  the  danger  to  which  those  are 
exposed  who,  having  had  a  pronounced  spiritual  experience, 
afterwards  fall  away  from  the  faith  and  life  of  the  gospel. 
The  parable  does  not  really  afford  us  much  help  to  the 
understanding  of  the  matter;  as  it  is  rendered  in  the 
Authorized  Version  it  affords  no  help  at  all.  As  the  case 
is  put  there,  a  contrast  seems  to  be  drawn  between  two 
kinds  of  soil,  one  of  which  is  well  watered,  and  therefore 
fertile,  while  the  other  is  unwatered,  and  therefore  sterile 
or  productive  only  of  thorns  and  thistles.  Such  a  contrast 
would  bring  out  the  difference  between  those  who  have  and 
those  who  have  not  enjoyed  gospel  privileges,  not  the  dif- 
ference between  two  classes  of  Christians  who  have  both 
equally  enjoyed  such  privileges,  or  the  two  possible  alter- 
natives in  the  case  of  every  professing  Christian.  It  is 
a  contrast  fitted  to  serve  the  latter  purpose  that  really  is 
made.  Exactly  rendered  it  runs  thus:  "For  land  which, 
after  drinking  in  the  rain  that  cometh  oft  upon  it,  bringeth 
forth  herbage  meet  for  those  for  whose  benefit  it  is  tilled. 


TEE  TEAGHEB'S   COMPLAINT.  431 

receiveth  blessing  from  God ;  but  if  it  (the  same  land  well 
watered)  bear  thorns  and  thistles,  it  is  worthless,  and  nigh 
unto  a  curse,  whose  end  is  unto  burning." 

When  we  compare  this  parable  with  any  of  our  Lord's, 
there  is  a  great  falling  off  in  point  of  felicity  and  instruc- 
tiveness.  One  purpose  it  doubtless  serves,  to  make  clear 
the  matter  of  fact,  that  the  same  Christian  privileges  and 
experiences  may  issue  in  widely  different  ultimate  results. 
The  soil  is  supposed  in  either  case  to  be  well  watered,  not 
only  rained  upon,  but  often  saturated  with  water,  having 
drunk  up  the  blessing  of  the  clouds,  and  moreover  to  be 
carefully  tilled ;  for  though  that  point  is  left  in  the  back- 
ground, it  is  alluded  to  in  the  words  St'  ou?  koI  yeoopyelTai. 
Yet  in  one  case  it  yields  a  useful  crop,  in  the  other  only  a 
useless  crop  of  thorns  and  thistles.  But  why?  On  this 
important  question  the  parable  throws  no  light.  The  land 
which  bears  the  useless  crop  is  not  a  barren  rock;  for  it 
drinks  in  the  rain,  and  it  is  considered  worth  ploughing. 
Nay,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  case  supposed  in  the  second 
alternative  can  occur  in  the  natural  world.  Was  there  ever 
a  land  well  tilled  and  watered  that  produced  nothing  but 
thorns  and  thistles?  It  seems  as  if  the  natural  and  the 
spiritual  were  mixed  up  here,  and  that  were  said  of  the  one 
which  is  strictly  true  only  with  reference  to  the  other. 
The  writer  describes  a  case  in  the  natural  world  which  can 
hardly  happen  to  represent  a  case  which  may  happen  in 
the  spiritual  world,  that,  viz.,  of  men  whose  hearts  have 
been  sown  with  the  seed  of  truth  and  watered  with  the 
rain  of  grace  becoming  so  utterly  degenerate  and  reprobate, 
as  in  the  end  to  produce  nothing  but  the  thorns  and  thistles 
of  unbelief  and  ungodliness.^      Mixture  of  metaphor  and 

1  Natural  improbability  occurs  in  some  of  our  Lord's  parables;  e.g.,  in  the 
parable  of  the  great  supper.  Such  a  thing  as  all  the  guests  invited  to  a  feast 
with  one  consent  refusing  to  come  does  not  happen  in  society.  The  truth  is, 
it  is  impossible  to  describe  the  essentially  unreasonable  behaviour  of  men  in 
regard  to  the  kingdom  of  God  in  parabolic  language,  without  violating  natural 


432  TEE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

literal  sense  is  indeed  manifest  throughout,  the  phrases 
"receiveth  blessing,"  "reprobate"  {aBtKifio-i) ,  "nigh  to  a 
curse,"  "whose  end  is  unto  burning,"  expressing  moral 
ideas  rather  than  physical  facts.  This  is  particularly  evident 
in  the  case  of  the  last  phrase.  It  plainly  points  to  a  judicial 
visitation  of  the  severest  kind,  the  appointed  penalty  of 
spiritual  unfruitfulness.  But  in  the  natural  sphere  burning 
is  remedial  rather  than  punitive,  to  burn  land  which  has 
become  foul  being  a  good  method  of  restoring  it  to  fertility. 

In  yet  another  respect  the  comparison  fails  us.  Suppos- 
ing there  were  such  a  thing  as  burning  unprofitable  land 
by  way  of  judicial  visitation,  as  the  land  of  Sodom  was 
destroyed  by  fire  and  brimstone — an  event  which  may  have 
been  present  to  the  writer's  thoughts, — the  fact  might  serve 
to  symbolize  the  Divine  judgment  on  apostasy.  But  the 
matter  on  which  we  most  of  all  need  light  is  the  asserted 
impossibility  of  renewal.  That  the  finally  impenitent 
should  be  punished  we  understand,  but  what  we  want  to 
know  is,  how  men  get  into  that  state  :  what  is  the  psycho- 
logical history  of  irreconcilable  apostasy  ?  To  refer  to 
Divine  agency  in  hardening  human  hearts  does  not  help  us, 
for  God  hardens  by  means  naturally  fitted  and  intended  to 
soften  and  win.  Neither  can  we  take  refuge  in  the  suppo- 
sition of  insufficient  initial  grace,  at  least  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  writer  of  our  epistle ;  for  he  assumes  that  the 
fruitful  and  the  unfruitful  have  been  equally  favoured.  The 
rain  falls  not  less  liberally  on  the  land  that  bears  thorns  and 
thistles  than  on  the  land  that  brings  forth  an  abundant 
crop  of  grass  or  grain ;  and  the  rain  represents  the  enlight- 
enment, enjoyment,  and  power  previously  mentioned. 

In  the  parable  of  the  sower  the  diversity  in  the  results  is 
traced  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.      In  each  case  the  issue  is 

probability.  On  the  other  hand,  the  parables  which  describe  Christ's  own  con= 
duct,  much  assailed  by  His  contemporaries,  are  all  thoroughly  true  to  nature  ; 
e.g.,  those  in  the  fifteenth  chapter  of  Luke.  I  have  remarked  on  this  contrast 
in  llie  Parabolic  Teaching  of  Christ, 


THE   TEACHER'S   COMPLAINT.  433 

exactly  such  as  we  should  expect  from  the  character  of  the 
ground.  In  the  parable  before  us  opposite  results  are  sup- 
posed to  be  possible  in  the  same  soil.  That  is  to  say,  the 
effect  is  conceived  to  depend  on  the  will  of  each  individual, 
on  the  use  one  makes  of  his  privileges.  The  Hebrew 
Christians  might  have  been  teachers,  instead  of  childish 
learners,  had  they  chosen  to  take  the  necessary  pains ;  they 
might  have  been  full  grown  men,  had  they  only  properly 
exercised  their  spiritual  senses  in  discerning  between  good 
and  evil. 

A.  B.  Bruce. 


VOL.    IX. 


28 


434 

THE  APOSTLES. 
III.    The  Minor  Figures. 

How  does  Art  contrive  to  define  and  quicken  into  life  those 
minor  characters  upon  whom  she  cannot  bestow  a  large 
space  or  many  touches?  To  one  method,  only  too  simple 
and  obvious,  many  even  among  distinguished  authors  have 
been  driven  :  the  fixing  a  sort  of  label  upon  these  personages, 
by  which  they  may  be  known  again.  The  fat  boy  in 
Dickens  is  always  dropping  asleep,  and  Mr.  Buckett  shaking 
his  finger  :  Eobespierre  in  Carlyle  is  always  sea-green,  and 
Buonaparte  always  bronze. 

In  greater  writers  than  these  we  have  not  this  repetition 
of  one  mannerism,  or  insistence  upon  one  physical  peculiarity, 
but  in  the  place  of  a  human  being  we  too  often  find  the 
incarnation  of  a  quality.  In  Ben  Jonson  the  minor  char- 
acters are  not  boastful  or  boorish,  self-indulgent  or  servile 
men,  they  are  boastfulness  or  stupidity,  luxury  or  adulation, 
dressed  up  as  puppets  and  bidden  to  speak.  Nay,  even  the 
supreme  dramatic  power  of  Shakespeare  may,  with  a  little 
attention,  be  caught  in  the  workshop,  and  its  methods 
detected  by  a  study  of  his  minor  parts. 

Speed  is  not  very  characteristic,  except  when  he  quibbles. 
Marcellus  has  no  individuality,  except  so  far  as  he  forbodes 
public  mischief  (catching  up  this  clue  from  Horatio),  and 
when  first  discussing  the  apparition  wants  to  know,  "  Why 
such  daily  cast  of  brazen  cannon?  "  and  again  thinks,  when 
the  ghost  reappears,  that  "  something  is  rotten  in  the  state 
of  Denmark."  Most  readers  can  see  the  wires  which  move 
the  clowns  and  pedants ;  and  liveliness  is  given  to  the 
maidens  in  several  plays  by  the  device  of  making  them  copy 
closely  the  wiles  and  coquetries  of  their  mistresses,  thus 
reduplicating  the  effect  which  has  already  been  elaborated. 


THE  MINOR  FIGURES.  435 

Such  things  show  that  genius  itself  cannot  easily  vivify  a 
character  in  a  few  strokes.  And  we  must  remember  that 
the  dramatist  and  the  novelist  have  a  great  advantage, 
because  they  mould  their  incidents  with  a  view  to  the 
unfolding  and  artificial  display  of  human  nature,  while  the 
historian  must  follow  the  actual  course  of  events. 

The  gospel  history  has  proved  its  fidelity  in  a  remarkable 
way.  For  it  has  not  condescended  to  gratify  men's  innocent 
curiosity  by  relating  the  slightest  incident  concerning  many 
of  the  apostolic  group. 

It  is  a  familiar  evidence  of  the  faith,  that  the  Scripture  is 
often  most  explicit  where  "  the  mind  of  the  flesh  "  has  no 
desire  to  learn,  and  at  times  most  silent  where  men  are  so 
inquisitive  as  to  imagine  the  answer  which  has  been  with- 
held from  us. 

The  spurious  gospels,  with  their  wild  accounts  of  the 
education  of  the  Virgin,  the  childhood  of  Jesus,  and  the 
descent  into  hell,  are  well  known  specimens  of  the  lines 
along  which  Scripture  would  have  been  impelled,  if  the 
motive  power  had  been  human  curiosity  and  not  Divine 
inspiration,  if  the  gospel  had  been  invented  as  an  anodyne 
for  the  cravings  of  the  intellect,  and  not  given  as  bread  for 
the  hunger  of  the  soul.  And  the  same  superhuman  silence 
rebukes  us,  when  we  ask  what  supreme  greatness  it  was,  of 
service  or  of  wisdom,  which  engraved  on  the  foundation 
stones  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem  some  of  the  names  of  the 
twelve  Apostles  of  the  Lamb. 

Concerning  Simon  the  Cananasan,  we  only  know  what 
that  name,  and  St.  Luke's  translation  of  it,  tell  us.  He 
had  been  a  Zealot,  For  a  moment  at  least  he  Simon 
had  been  drawn  to  that  wild  and  unscrupulous  Zelotes. 
movement  which  at  last  shook  down  his  country.  Was  it 
while  yet  in  the  fever  of  such  excited  energies  that  he  saw 
the  wondrous  works  of  Jesus,  did  homage  to  the  zeal  of 
God's  house  which   ate  Him  up  (John  ii.  17,  R.V.),   and 


436  THE  APOSTLES. 


thenceforce  yielded  his  soul  to  be  gradually  transformed 
by  the  milder  ardours  of  the  Christian  faith  ?  Or  was 
it  in  some  hour  of  sad  reaction  against  the  violence  and 
guilt  of  his  faction  that  he  was  drawn  to  the  gentler 
Physician  of  bleeding  souls,  as  one  looks  up,  with  aching 
eyes,  from  the  glare  of  a  conflagration  to  the  silver  light 
of  heaven  ? 

"We  know  not ;  nor  is  any  effort  whatever  made  to  fix 
our  attention  upon  the  fact,  of  more  profound  significance 
than  perhaps  the  evangelists  themselves  were  conscious, 
that  the  wild  zeal  of  Simon  was  called  into  such  close  com- 
munion with  the  Lamb  of  God.  Jesus  never  indicated 
more  clearly  that  His  Church  was  to  embrace  all  phases 
and  temperaments  of  human  nature,  and  that  He  was  Him- 
self the  Son  of  man,  the  Child  of  universal  humanity,  who 
could  sympathise  with  high  aspiring,  even  when  it  was  ill- 
regulated  and  mistaken,  with  zeal  toward  God  though  not 
according  to  knowledge,  than  when  He,  the  meek  and  lowly 
of  heart,  who  should  not  strive,  nor  cry,  nor  lift  up  His 
voice  in  the  streets,  chose  for  one  of  His  immediate  fol- 
lowers the  Zealot.  Neither  is  any  comment  made  upon 
the  scorn  of  mere  prudence  which  enrolled  a  follower  so 
sure  to  be  suspected.  That  it  was  so  is  recorded  :  the  con- 
clusion we  are  left  to  draw  for  ourselves.  Nor  do  we  read 
anything  of  the  gallant  labours  by  which  Simon  doubtless 
justified  the  choice.  As  he  comes,  so  he  passes  away,  in 
silence.  "We  only  know  of  him,  because  we  know  it  of  all, 
that  he  praised  God  when  his  Lord  ascended,  awaited  the 
Comforter  in  the  upper  room,  rejoiced  when  they  were 
accounted  worthy  to  suffer  dishonour  for  the  Name  (Acts  v. 
41),  and  bore  his  part  in  the  planting  of  the  sacred  seed  in 
the  broad  field  of  the  world.  Yet  there  is  no  more  tempt- 
ing subject  for  legend  or  romance  to  work  upon  than  the 
deeds  of  the  Zealot  in  the  cause  of  Jesus.  But  possibly  his 
methods,  however  effective,  were  not  the  best  to  put  on 


THE  MINOB  FIGURES.  437 

record  for  the  meditations  of  the  Church.  Beyond  doubt 
they  were  outshone  by  the  achievements  of  that  other  who 
was  called,  while  breathing  out  threats  and  slaughters,  to 
bear  the  name  of  Jesus  to  remote  nations  and  to  kings. 

And  thus,  edification  not  requiring  the  record,  not  a 
solitary  act  or  word  of  Simon  Zelotes  is  preserved  to  us. 
It  suffices  him  that  his  name  is  written  in  the  one  lasting 
roll  of  fame,  the  book  of  life. 

We  are  in  almost  equal  ignorance  concerning  James  the 
Little  in  stature,  miscalled  James  the  Less.  We  do  not 
certainly  know  that  he  was  a  different  person  Jaaies  the 
from  the  brother  of  the  Lord,  although  it  will  Little. 
never  be  the  opinion  of  unsophisticated  readers  that  if  one 
brother  (or  two,  for  Jude  must  follow  the  same  ruling) 
were  already  among  the  Twelve,  and  had  shared  in  the 
great  confession  of  St.  Peter,  "  Thou  art  .  .  .  the  Son  of 
the  living  God,"  St.  John  could  have  written  that,  in  the 
last  period  of  Christ's  ministry,  "even  His  brethren  did 
not  believe  on  Him  "  (vii.  5).^ 

No  careful  reader  can  be  misled  by  the  Authorized  Version 
of  Galatians  i.  19,  nor  would  this  rendering  itself  establish 
the  conclusion  which  has  been  drawn  from  it  (c/.  Lightfoot 
in  loc).  And  if  it  be  objected  that  three  persons  of  one 
name  could  scarcely  have  held  prominent  positions  in  the 
Church,  we  may  well  ask  in  reply  whether  it  was  the  son 
of  Zebedee,  or  the  brother  of  Jesus  and  bishop  of  Jeru- 
salem, who  needed  to  be  distinguished  by  the  singular  title 
James  the  Small. 

Thus  we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  we  have  a  second 
Apostle,  concerning  whose  words  or  deeds  not  an  echo  of 
fame  has  reached  us. 


^  The  answer  of  Lauge  is  surely  euough  to  put  his  case  out  of  court.  "  The 
brethren  of  Jesus,  thougli  still,  when  viewed  in  the  light  of  the  subsequent 
Pentecostal  season,  unbelieving,  i.e.  self-willed  and  gloomy,  could  nevertheless 
be  apostles  "  {Life,  i.,  336). 


438  .  TEE  APOSTLES. 


Nor  does  it  appear,  at  first  sight,  that  the  case  of  Bar- 
tholomew is  any  clearer.  His  very  name  is  micertain, 
Bar-tholomew  being  only  the  son  of  Tolmai, 
as  Bartimseus  is  the  son  oi  Timsens,  But  an 
ingenious  conjecture  throws  some  light,  though  flickering 
and  uncertain,  upon  the  subject.  The  group  of  fishers  in 
the  closing  narrative  of  St.  John  consists  entirely  of 
apostles,  unless  Nathanael  be  an  exception  (xxi.  2).  But 
Nathanael  was  previously  mentioned  in  the  story  of  the 
calling  of  the  first  and  greatest  of  the  apostles,  and  there 
we  read  that  he  was  found  by  Philip.  Now  it  is  pointed 
out,  that  the  three  catalogues  in  the  synoptical  gospels  all 
join  the  name  of  Bartholomew  with  this  same  Philip.  It 
is  therefore  a  reasonable  conjecture,  so  long  as  we  re- 
member that  it  is  a  surmise  and  no  more,  which  makes 
Nathanael  the  son  of  Tolmai. 

And  this  brings  within  our  scope  an  incident  delicately 
drawn.  When  a  Nazarene  is  announced  to  Nathanael  as 
the  Messiah,  local  prejudice  and  the  unfitness  of  such  a 
hamlet  for  such  honour  make  him  dubious.  And  when 
Jesus  pronounces  him  an  Israelite  indeed,  because  guile- 
less, and  therefore  worthy  of  the  better  name  of  him  who 
was  at  first  a  supplanter,  he  is  still  cautious,  and  asks, 
"  Whence  knowest  Thou  me?  "  And  yet,  in  this  question, 
the  character  given  to  him  is  justified.  For  he  does  not 
feel  it  to  be  misplaced  :  no  hidden  dishonesty  causes  the 
saying  to  jar  upon  his  consciousness  ;  rather,  he  asks  how  it 
comes  to  pass  that  he  is  known  so  well.  And  when  Jesus 
answers  by  indicating  some  secret  of  his  inner  life,  his 
guileless  nature  no  longer  hesitates  to  confess  Him  largely 
and  amply,  and  the  true  Israelite  does  homage  to  his 
King :  "  Rabbi,  Thou  art  the  Son  of  God  "  (whom  the 
Baptist  thus  describes,  ver.  34),  "  Thou  art  the  King  of 
Israel." 

How  often   has    our   curiosity    asked   what  it   was    that 


TEE  MINOR  FIGURES.  439 

Jesus  saw  beneath  the  fig  tree,  what  temptation  conquered, 
what  good  deed  performed,  what  passionate  prayer  of  the 
genuine  Israehte  for  his  forsaken  land  ?  But  the  tact  of 
Jesus  betrayed  not  what  the  simplicity  of  Nathanael  would 
fain  conceal.  The  Lord  proceeds  to  stimulate  his  hope  by 
a  promise  of  greater  things,  in  which  all  the  group  should 
have  a  part,^  such  a  reunion  of  heaven  and  earth  as  was 
revealed  to  Jacob,  ere  yet  his  guile  was  burned  out  of  him 
in  the  fire  of  affliction,  the  coming  and  going  of  angels 
as  upon  a  ladder  upon  Him  whom  His  disciples  confessed 
to  be  the  Son  of  God,  but  who  loved  to  call  Himself  the 
Son  of  man  (John  i.  45-51). 

The  graceful  reticence  of  Jesus  with  regard  to  Natha- 
nael's  innocent  secret ;  the  coyness  of  the  intellect  and  the 
alacrity  of  the  heart  of  the  new  disciple,  and  the  title  he 
gives  his  King,  which  virtually  says,  "If  I  be  an  Israelite, 
my  fealty  is  Thine";  the  reward  promised  to  his  faith, 
which  is  not  a  personal  gain,  but  an  ampler  revelation  ; 
and  the  repeated  allusion  to  the  history  of  the  patriarch, — 
all  contribute  to  the  effect  of  this  sunny  and  delightful  inci- 
dent. And  yet  ali  we  read  afterwards  of  Nathanael  is  that 
he  went  a-fishing  with  Peter.  And  except  by  this  con- 
jecture we  know  absolutely  nothing  of  the  Apostle  Bartho- 
lomew. So  far  is  Scripture  from  idealizing  even  its  greatest 
names. 

One  certain  incident  only  brings  Jude  into  a  clearer  light, 

since  the  same  arguments  which  apply  to  James  the  Little 

show  that  he  too  was  not  the  brother  of  our 

Jude. 
Lord,    the    author    of    the   Epistle    of    Jude. 

From  his  position  in  the  lists,  we  may  be  sure  that  he  is 
the  LebbfEUs  of  St.  Matthew  and  the  Thaddteus  of  St. 
Mark ;  and  perhaps  these  names  were  used,  like  the  addi- 
tions of  the  epithet,  "  brother  (or  son)  of  James,"  to  sepa- 
rate him  clearly  from  the  infamy  of  his  terrible  namesake. 

^  "  Believest  thou  i     .     .     .     ye  shall  see." 


440  THE  APOSTLES. 


What  we  read  of  him  is  one  thoughtful  question,  met  by 
a  full  and  deeply  spiritual  answer.  "  Lord,  what  is  come  to 
pass  that  Thou  wilt  manifest  Thyself  unto  us,  and  not  unto 
the  world?"  To  Jude  we  owe  the  great  exposition  how 
love  leads  to  obedience,  and  attracts  in  return  the  Divine 
love  which  leads  to  manifestation  ;  while  they  who  love 
not  Christ  cannot  keep  His  words  (John  xiv.  22-24). 

Eeassured  then  by  the  utter  absence  of  all  "tendency" 
from  the  narrative,  which  seeks  not  to  create  a  wonderful 
career,  nor  spiritual  achievement,  nor  intellectual  dis- 
tinction for  the  chosen  ones,  we  return  to  those  minor 
personages  in  the  group  of  whom  some  few  incidents  are 
recorded.  Putting  these  incidents  together,  we  ask  whether 
they  indicate  real  character,  life,  individuality ;  and  if  so, 
whether  there  is  any  trace  of  artifice  or  self-consciousness 
in  the  indications. 

Foremost  in  order  and  perhaps  in  interest  is  Andrew,  the 
brother  of  the  strong  and  impetuous  Peter, 
and  sharer  of  the  family  temperament. 

When  he,  with  another,  hears  the  Baptist's  testimony, 
they  promptly  follow  Jesus,  who  is  hitherto  unattended, 
and  has  apparently  come  back  from  the  temptation  to  make 
a  silent  claim  on  His  forerunner  for  the  first  elements  out 
of  which  He  will  mould  His  Church.  It  was  not  for  mortal 
to  accost  Jesus  before  He  had  begun  His  public  work  of 
grace.  But  when  He  asks,  "What  seek  ye?"  the  answer 
is  direct  and  brief:  "  Eabbi,  where  dwellest  Thou?  "  From 
the  lowly  home  of  Jesus  Andrew  goes  to  Peter  with  the 
short  and  sharp  utterance  of  an  eager  man  who  has  no 
misgivings,  "  We  have  found  the  Messiah,"  so  unlike  the 
weighed  and  slow  declaration  of  the  same  fact  by  Philip, 
who  took  seventeen  words  to  announce  what  Andrew  said 
in  three.  And  here  again  the  reticence  must  be  observed 
which  tells  us  nothing  of  the  surprise  of  the  two  friends, 
confronted  by  a  Messiah  so  unlike  the  national  hope,  in  a 


THE  MINOR  FIGURES.  441 

dwelling  so  unlike  their  dreams,  nor  anything  of  the  earliest, 
wonderful  discourse  which  sent  forth  Andrew,  with  his  soul 
on  fire,  the  first  convert  that  ever  led  another  to  his  Lord, 
and  that  other,  the  Peter  of  the  keys.  Does  any  one  doubt 
that  legend  would  have  reversed  the  positions  of  Simon 
and  Andrew  in  this  narrative  ?  ^ 

When  Jesus  called  the  two  brothers  from  their  nets, 
Andrew  was  no  less  prompt  than  Simon  to  obey  :  "  They 
straightway  left  the  nets,  and  followed  Him  "  (Matt.  iv.  20). 

In  the  miracle  of  the  five  thousand,  when  the  disciples 
were  bidden  to  see  what  provision  was  forthcoming,  Andrew 
discovered  the  lad  with  the  loaves  and  fishes  ;  and  St.  John, 
who  only  has  preserved  this  detail,  so  tells  it  as  to  suggest 
a  suspicion  that  there  was  already  some  lurking  hope  of 
what  should  follow,  the  information  being  apparently  ready, 
and  Andrew's  suggestive  mention  of  this  little  store  being 
contrasted  with  Philip's  unenterprising  calculation  (John 
vi.  7,  8). 

Still  more  characteristic  is  the  story  of  the  application 
of  certain  Greeks  to  the  Apostle  with  a  Greek  name. 
Philip  hesitates,  knows  not  what  to  do  ;  but  the  difficulty 
vanishes  the  moment  that  Andrew,  as  a  helpful  person,  is 
consulted :  Philip  and  Andrew  went  and  told  Jesus  (John 
xii.  22).  This  is  in  exact  harmony  with  all  that  we  know 
of  both  ;  yet  so  undesigned  and  subtle  is  the  coincidence, 
that  even  Dean  Alford  has  overlooked  it,  and  transposed  the 
parts  they  play.  "  When  certain  Greeks  wished  for  an 
interview  with  Jesus,  they  applied  through  Andrew,  who 
consulted  Philip,"  etc.  (Smith's  Bible  Dictionary,  Art. 
Andrew).  It  may  safely  be  asserted  that  Andrew  would 
have  done  nothing  of  the  kind. 

'  Eenan  can  of  course  explain  the  part  they  take  by  the  simple  theory  that 
St.  John  was  jealous  of  Peter,  and  sought  to  put  him  in  a  secondary  place,  even 
in  this  matter  {Vie,  p.  Ixvi.,  note  2  ;  loth  edition).  But  most  sceptics  would 
find  their  positions  gravely  compromised  indeed,  if  they  brought  back  the 
Gospel  of  St.  John  so  far  as  this  unamiable  theory  demands. 


442  THE  APOSTLES. 


Once  more,  when  the  three  who  formed  an  inner  circle 
desired  to  ask  a  question  of  pre-eminent  importance,  when 
should  the  temple  be  destroyed,  and  what  should  be  the 
sign,  they  associated  Andrew  with  them  in  asking  Jesus 
"privately"  (Mark  xiii.  8).  All  this  is  consistent,  lucid, 
and  natural :  let  us  see  how  it  agrees  with  the  conduct  of 
others. 

We  have  already  twice  glanced  at  the  contrast  between 

the   decision   of  Andrew  and   the   greater   deliberation   of 

^  Philip.     A  slow,  and  even  hesitating  circum- 

Philip.  .        .,^..       .  ..„,. 

spection  IS  the  distmctive  peculiarity  of  this 

disciple.  At  the  very  outset  he  needs  a  direct  impulse 
from  the  supreme  Will ;  he  is  the  first  whom  Jesus  claims, 
and  as  it  were  seizes,  saying,  "  Follow  Me."  In  Smith's 
Dictionary  he  is  described  as  repeating  to  Nathanael  "the 
self-same  words  with  which  Andrew  had  brought  to  Peter 
the  good  news  that  the  Christ  had  at  last  appeared."  But 
the  difference  is  far  more  significant  than  the  likeness,  and 
none  would  fail  to  distinguish  the  words  of  the  brother  of 
Peter,  if  shown  for  the  first  time  the  two  sentences,  one 
so  concentrated,  the  other  so  cautious,  so  cumulative  in  its 
slow  disclosure,  so  diplomatic  in  reserving  to  the  very  last 
the  dangerous  word  which  did  actually  startle  his  hearers. 
One  said,  "We  have  found  the  Christ"  :  the  other,  "Him 
whom  Moses  wrote  of  in  the  law,  and  the  prophets,  we  have 
found,  Jesus  the  son  of  Joseph,  Him  of  Nazareth."  And 
when  Nathanael  questions  further,  Philip  returns  the 
unemotional,  discreet  answer,  "  Come  and  see  "  (John  i. 
43-47).  It  was  to  Philip,  and  specially  to  prove  him,  that 
Jesus  put  the  question,  "Whence  shall  we  buy  bread,  that 
these  may  eat  ?  "  And  with  his  natural  grave  circumspec- 
tion Philip  calculates  the  sum  necessary  to  give  each  of 
them  a  little  (John  vi.  5-7). 

We  have  already  seen  him  needing  the  advice  of  Andrew 
before  venturing   to    tell   Jesus   of   the   application  of   the 


THE  MINOR   FIGURES.  443 

Greeks  (John  xii.  20-22).  And  when  Jesus  declares  that 
from  henceforth  His  disciples  know,  and  have  seen  the 
Father,  Philip  suddenly  discloses  a  desire  for  more  tangible 
evidence  than  even  that  of  the  voioe  which  lately  came,  for 
their  sakes,  who  needed  it,  from  heaven.  There  is  care, 
misgiving,  the  accent  of  a  troubled  heart  in  his  answer, 
"  Lord,  show  us  the  Father,  and  it  sufticeth  us  "  ;  if  we  had 
seen  Him  these  brooding  anxieties  would  be  at  rest  (John 
xiv.  8). 

In  him  a  different  type  of  character  finds  a  place  among 
the  Twelve,  and  even  a  place  of  honour ;  for  the  slow  and 
cautious  heart  is  often  most  loyal  at  the  core.  Philip  is 
leader  of  the  second  of  those  three  groups  of  four  Apostles, 
into  which  we  have  seen  that  the  Twelve  are  sub-divided. 

Yet  one  cannot  but  feel  that  Clement  of  Alexandria  has 
either  preserved  a  fact,  or  else  indicated,  perhaps  uncon- 
sciously, a  striking  resemblance  of  character,  when  he 
quotes  the  words  as  addressed  to  Philip,  "Let  the  dead 
bury  their  dead,  but  thou  follow  Me."  AVas  he  not  the 
very  man  to  plead,  "  Suffer  me  first  to  go  and  bury  my 
father"  ? 

From  Philip  to  Thomas  is  but  one  step,  and  that  in  the 
same  direction ;  but  the  advance  is  real,  and  the  charac- 
teristics, though  similar,  are  discriminated  as       _ 

\  .  Thomas. 

accurately  as  the  melancholy  of  Jacques  from ' 

that  of  Hamlet.  Philip  hesitates  and  considers,  Thomas 
despairs.  He  is  in  sore  danger  of  falling,  and  the  hour 
will  come  when  he  must  either  conquer  his  besetment  or 
perish.  Yet  he  is  kept  by  the  fire  of  real  love,  which 
gleams  through  all  the  smoke  of  his  despondency.  For  he 
is  loyal  when  most  hopeless,  and  his  character  is  perfectly 
shown  in  the  first  event  that  is  recorded  of  him.  When 
Jesus  would  return  to  Judgea,  where  the  Jews  had  lately 
sought  to  kill  Him,  and  added  to  some  obscure  sayings 
about  Lazarus  the  plain  words,  "  Lazarus  is  dead,     .     . 


444  THE  APOSTLES. 


let  us  go  unto  him,"  Thomas  readily  inferred  the  worst. 
All  was  over  now ;  nothing  was  left  but  either  to  forsake 
his  Master  or  to  share  His  fate.  And  yet  the  faithful 
heart  conquered  the  gloomy  temperament,  and  he  said, 
with  no  parade  of  loyalty,  not  addressing  Jesus  Himself, 
but  his  comrades.  Let  us  be  true  to  the  end;  "let  us  also 
go,  that  we  may  die  with  Him  "  (John  xi.  16).  It  is  a 
saying  which  deserves  the  notice  of  those  shallow  critics 
who  find  only  boastfulness  in  the  professions  of  the  last 
supper. 

The  same  helplessness  (brooding  no  doubt  upon  the 
solemn  warnings  which  intervened,  but  unable  to  accept 
these  with  their  stated  limitations,  and  with  the  promise 
of  ultimate  triumph  which  accompanied  them  every  one) 
reappears  in  the  second  incident  recorded.  It  was  when 
Jesus  said,  "  Whither  I  go,  ye  know  the  way,"  that  he 
seized  the  opportunity  to  confess  his  perplexities  in  the 
discouraging  and  despairing  comment,  "Lord,  we  know 
not  whither  Thou  goest :  how  know  we  the  way?"  (John 
xiv.  5.)  He  speaks  for  his  brethren  as  well  as  himself; 
but  Thomas  was  their  spokesman  in  despair,  as  naturally 
as  Peter  in  the  confession  of  their  faith. 

Such  joyless  temperaments  are  given  to  solitude.^  We 
know  too  little  to  rely  upon  the  absence  of  any  conjunction 
of  another  name  with  his,  but  there  is  much  significance  in 
the  fact  that  he  was  not  with  the  disciples  when  they 
solemnly  assembled,  with  due  precautions,  in  -the  evening 
of  the  resurrection  day  (John  xx.  24).  In  what  seclusion 
had  he  buried  his  woes,  that  all  day  long  no  rumour  of  the 
return  of  hope  had  reached  him?  Or  in  what  obstinate 
despair  had  he  repelled  the  tidings,  and  held  aloof  from  the 

^  Jacques  and  Hamlet  have  just  been  mentioned.  The  former  in  his 
affectation  of  melancholy,  says,  "I  thank  you  for  your  company;  but,  good 
faith,  I  had  as  lief  have  been  myself  alone."  And  the  latter  says,  "  Man 
delights  not  me,  nor  woman  neither." 


THE  MINOR  FIGURES.  445 

assembly,  whose  agitation  and  suspense  would  irritate  his 
settled  gloom  ?  Accordingly  no  vision  but  his  own  will 
convince  him ;  and  even  this  he  does  not  think  enough, 
for  it  is  not  the  sincerity  of  his  comrades  that  he  doubts, 
he  would  equally  refuse  the  same  evidence  exhibited  to 
himself.  Such  is  the  utter  despair  of  love  in  its  defeat,  a 
love  which  broods  over  the  list  of  the  cruel  wounds  that 
have  bereaved  it,  and  requires  to  verify  them  all.  And  yet 
some  unconscious  hope  relieved  the  darkness  of  the  long 
week  which  followed,  for  he  was  not  absent  when  Jesus 
reappeared. 

This  was  the  crisis  of  his  life,  when  his  character  will  be 
fixed,  and  he  must  either  "  become  "  faithless  or  believing 
{fir]  yLvov  aTTio-To?,  aWa  ttlcttos:).  And  his  glad  avowal,  for  it 
is  more  than  a  cry,  tells  us  that  the  victory  is  won.  Thou 
art  "my  Lord  and  my  God"  (for  'O  Kvpi6<i  ixov  is  a 
confession  ;  an  exclamation  would  have  been  Kupie). 

We  are  surely  entitled  to  claim  these  three  various  inci- 
dents as  a  revelation  of  consistent  character,  more  perfect 
than  any  which  the  students  of  Shakespeare  have  found 
wrought  upon  as  small  a  canvas. 

Of  the  minor  Apostles,  only  Matthew  is  left.  And  here 
the  study  is  complicated,  because  we  know  more  of  his  true 
nature  from  the  character  of  his  gospel  (the 
authenticity  of  which  is  here  assumed,  as  well 
as  the  obvious  identity  of  Matthew  and  Levi),  than  from 
what  is  told  us  directly  of  him.  Something  however  is 
recorded,  and  we  can  compare  the  two  sources  of  infor- 
mation. 

From  the  fact  that  he  had  been  a  publican,  we  may  infer 
that  his  feelings,  if  strong,  would  be  silent  and  repressed, 
as  are  those  of  all  whose  position  is  equivocal  and  ill 
thought  of.  When  Jesus  called,  "  he  left  all  "  ;  but  it  is 
not  he  himself  who  joins  this  statement  to  the  words  "he 
rose  and  'followed  Him,"   nor  who  records   the  fact  that 


446  THE  APOSTLES. 


he  made  for  Jesus  "  a  great  feast  in  his  own  house "  ^ 
(Luke  V.  28,  29).  St.  Matthew's  expression  was  both 
unostentatious  and  natural  from  the  man  himself,  "  as 
Jesus  sat  at  meat  in  the  house"  (Matt.  ix.  10).  Here, 
because  they  saw  the  acceptance  of  a  publican,  many  pub- 
licans and  sinners  sat  at  meat  with  Him,  and  his  gospel, 
which  is  accused  of  a  specially  Hebrew  tone  and  of  Old 
Testament  sympathies,  records  that  His  discourse  was  of 
the  futility  of  patching  old  garments,  and  putting  new  wine 
into  old  skins. 

And  this  is  all  we  know  of  him,  except  one  striking 
inference.  Although  he  was  apparently  the  only  man  of 
business  among  the  Twelve,  and  should  naturally  have 
been  the  treasurer,  yet  he  was  either  content  to  yield  the 
post  to  Judas,  or  submissive  when  supplanted  by  him. 

Trained  in  the  somewhat  mechanical  duties  of  an  officer 
of  customs,  and  repressed  besides  by  the  evil  reputation  of 
his  calling,  silent  about  his  large  hospitality,  but  careful  to 
record  his  shame,  and  willing  to  stand  aside  when  another 
would  push  before  him,  what  sort  of  gospel  should  we 
expect  from  Matthew  ?  His  writing  should  exhibit  order, 
an  interest  in  numbers,  a  business-like  attention  to  detail, 
accuracy  rather  than  boldness  or  a  fiery  reproduction  of 
passionate  and  striking  scenes ;  and  yet  under  all  this  the 
strong,  deep  feeling  of  the  man  who  never  forgot  that  the 
King  of  the  Jews  had  called  the  toll-gatherer  of  the  Eoman 
to  His  side.  Nor  is  it  wonderful  that  his  gospel  should  be 
the  most  Hebrew  of  the  four,  and  more  than  the  others 
careful  to  trace  in  the  story  of  Christ  all  the  fibres  of  con- 
nexion with  that  ancient  system  which  his  former  calling 
had  somewhat  slighted. 

And  this  is  exactly  what  we  find.  At  the  beginning,  he 
so  arranges  the  genealogy  that  there  shall  be  three  sections, 

^  He  alone,  in  the  list  of  Apostles,  adds  to  his  own  name  the  epithet  of 
shame,  "  the  publican." 


TEE  MINOR   FIGURES.  447 

each  of  fourteen  persons,  so  that  the  Messiah  comes  in  the 
seventh  place  after  six  sevens.  It  is  from  him  alone  that 
we  learn  that  a  second  demoniac  was  healed  at  Gerasa,  and 
a  second  blind  man  in  Jericho  (Matt.  i.  17,  viii.  27,  xx.  30). 
And  these  two  parallel  cases  entirely  turn  the  edge  of  the 
somewhat  clumsy  railleries  of  Strauss,  because  Matthew 
alone  mentions  also  that  in  the  triumphal  entry  the  ass 
accompanied  her  foal.  It  is  in  his  manner  thus  to  parti- 
cularize, as  if  he  were  entering  an  account ;  it  is  not  in 
that  of  either  Mark  or  Luke. 

If  any  one  doubts  the  comparative  absence  of  graphic 
and  vivid  delineation,  he  need  only  compare  the  three 
accounts  of  the  fierceness  and  the  cleansing  of  the  demoniac 
(Matt.  viii.  28,  Mark  v.  1,  Luke  viii.  26),  or  the  two  reports 
of  that  noble  peroration,  the  falling  of  the  house  built  upon 
sand,  and  the  stability  of  the  other  which  was  built  upon 
a  rock  (Matt.  vii.  24,  Luke  vi.  47). 

Yet  when  he  comes  to  relate  the  suffering,  the  death, 
and  the  awful  consequences  of  the  death  of  his  Master,  it 
is  this  evangelist,  elsewhere  so  calm  and  self-restrained, 
who  rises  to  an  epic  grandeur  and  overwhelming  energy, 
nor  is  anything  in  any  other  gospel  even  comparable  to  this 
astonishing  narrative. 

The  four  gospels  have  now  been  subjected  to  an  elaborate 
and  exhaustive  cross-examination.  Not  one  incident  that 
is  related  of  the  more  obscure  Apostles,  by  which  the 
slightest  insight  into  character  could  be  obtained,  has  been 
(consciously,  at  all  events)  passed  over.  And  what  have 
we  found  ?  Not  a  vestige  of  straining  after  effect,  not  the 
least  desire  to  exhibit  one  of  them  as  a  hero  or  even  as  a 
saint,  but  human  nature  in  all  its  varied  phases,  energetic, 
fearful,  despondent,  business-like,  always  vivid,  consistent, 
lifelike. 

Either  the  evangelists   possessed    a   graphic  and  imagi- 


448        THE   IMAGE   AND   TEE   STONE. 

native  power  equal  to  that  of  the  greatest  genius  in  all 
literature,  enabling  them,  not  once  or  twice,  in  three  or 
four  touches  to  create  a  distinct  individual  man,  which 
power  however  they  wielded  quite  unconsciously  in  the 
service  of  religion  and  not  of  art,  or  else  they  drew  from 
life.  One  of  these  alternatives  the  sceptic  is  bound  to 
choose.  And  when  doing  so,  he  must  observe  that  he  is 
dealing  with  one  more  strange  phenomenon,  in  addition  to 
so  many  others,  a  testimony  of  a  different  kind,  reinforcing 
from  an  unexpected  quarter  the  witness  of  history,  of  the 
Church,  of  the  supernatural  morality  and  the  quickening 
spiritual  power  of  Christianity,  and  above  all,  of  the  sub- 
lime and  unearthly  conception  of  Him  who  stands  in  the 
midst  of  this  homely  group,  God  manifested  among  these 
men  of  the  people. 

G.  A.  Chadwick. 


THE  IMAGE  AND   THE   STONE. 

Nebuchadnezzae  !  At  that  dread  name  how  terrible  a 
form  rises  from  its  ancient  grave  !  The  mighty  conqueror 
of  the  antique  eastern  world  stands  before  us  illumined  by 
three  brief  but  vivid  flashes  of  Scripture  history ;  otherwise 
he  would  be  but  a  name.  He  built  Babylon,  adorned  and 
fortified  it  so  as  to  be  the  wonder  of  its  time — of  all  time, 
as  historians  and  travellers  tell  of  its  vastness  and  record 
its  splendour  ;  nevertheless  the  builder  of  Babylon  would  be 
of  small  interest  to  us  had  he  not  destroyed  Jerusalem, 
that  little  hill  city  !  Three  times  he  laid  his  hands  upon  it, 
twice  besieged  it,  again  and  again  carried  into  captivity  its 
kings,  its  princes,  its  priests.  Some  perished  early  on  the 
dismal  journey,  slain  before  the  stern  conqueror  at  Kiblah, 
slain  before  the  eyes  of  the   last   Hebrew  king,  ere  those 


THE  IMAGE  AND  THE  STONE.  449 

eyes  were  quenched  for  ever.  It  is  a  fearful  story.  To  the 
custody  of  such  a  man  the  sacred  people  are  consigned  ; 
but  their  sacredness  immediately  enwraps  him  as  with  a 
sacred  vesture.  He  has  received  from  heaven  that  high 
guardianship  ;  he  becomes  forthwith  God's  minister.  The 
Most  High  casts  over  him  the  shield  of  the  Divine  protec- 
tion ;  nay,  more,  He  visits  him  with  visions  of  the  night. 
To  Nebuchadnezzar  is  revealed  in  a  dream,  and  in  its  inter- 
pretation, the  future  of  the  world — the  coming  of  the  king- 
dom of  Heaven  ! 

Let  us  look  at  the  story  as  it  has  come  to  us.  The  great 
king  dreams,  but  he  wakes  with  the  terror  of  a  vision  that 
he  cannot  recall.  He  rages  at  his  inability.  He  rages  all 
the  more  that  the  accredited  revealers  of  secrets,  with  all 
their  costly  paraphernalia  of  divination,  cannot  help  him. 
They  shall  not  put  him  off  with  any  subterfuge.  They  shall 
die.  If,  as  they  say,  none  can  show  the  thing  except  the 
gods,  whose  dwelling  is  "  not  with  flesh,"  why,  is  it  not 
their  business  to  consult  such  powers?  For  what  other 
purpose  are  they  there  but  to  deal  with  the  occult,  the 
mysterious,  the  awfulness  above  and  around, — with  those, 
whoever  they  are,  whose  dwelhng  indeed  is  "not  with 
flesh,"  but  whom  their  incantations  should  be  able  to  reach 
and  to  compel?  A  suspicion  of  falsity,  of  long-sustained 
imposition,  breaks  upon  his  mind,  and  drives  him  to  fury. 

But  there  has  been  sent  to  dwell  within  his  palace  walls 
one  of  the  greatest  heroes  of  the  Hebrew  faith,  one  destined 
to  be  from  time  to  time  the  organ  of  Divine  communication 
with  this  greatest  of  earthly  potentates.  Now  for  the  first 
time,  the  captive  Daniel,  involved  with  his  companions  in 
the  fate  of  the  soothsayers,  steps  forward  and  asks  for  delay, 
purposing  to  appeal  to  One — the  God  of  heaven,  supreme 
as  heaven  itself — concerning  this  secret.  Again  it  is  night, 
again  appears  the  vision,  not  now  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  but 
to  Daniel ;    and  with  the  vision  the  interpretation  thereof 

VOL,  IX.  -9 


450  THE  IMAGE   AND    THE   STONE. 


is  made  clear  to  his  understanding.  Brought  before  the 
king,  he  excuses  the  magicians  among  whom  he  has  been 
enrolled,  whose  gods  have  failed  them,  but  declares  that 
"there  is  a  God  in  heaven  that  revealeth  secrets,  and  hath 
made  known  to  the  king  Nebuchadnezzar  what  shall  be  in 
the  latter  days."  "  But  as  for  me,"  he  says,  in  effect,  I  am 
no  diviner;  "this  secret  is  not  revealed  to  me  for  any 
wisdom  that  I  have  more  than  any  living."  Let  these 
others  go.  The  interpretation  is  only  given  to  me,  "  that 
thou  mayest  know  the  thoughts  of  thy  heart." 

"Thou,   0  king,   sawest,  and   behold   a   great  Image!" 
But  we  need  not  repeat  the  well-known  description  of  the 
colossal  Image,  strange  and  terrible,  that  stood  in  dazzling 
brightness   before   the   dreaming   king.     The  head   of  fine 
gold,  the  breast  and  arms  of  silver,  the  belly  and  thighs  of 
brass,  the  legs  of  iron,  the  feet  of  iron  and  clay,  are  familiar 
to  us.     Nor  need  we  dwell  upon  the  interpretation  given, 
that  these  separate   parts   represented   kingdoms — empires 
that  were  to  rule  in  succession  upon  the  earth.     Enough  to 
remark  that  we  have  the  authority  of  the  original  interpreter 
for  recognising  in  the  first  of  them  the  sovereignty  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar himself,  "  Thou  art  this  head  of  gold,"  and  that 
the  second  was  that  which  should  follow  after  him,  unnamed, 
as  are  all  the  others.     The  particular  identification  of  these 
is  not  to  our  purpose,  though  we  may  suppose  that  in  the 
qualities  of  the  different  metals — as  indeed  we  are  told  with 
respect  to  one  of  them,  the  iron — and  also  in  the  different 
portions  of  the  body  to  which  they  are  assigned,  are  sug- 
gested  certain   characteristics    of    the   successive    empires, 
affording  a  clue  not  very  difficult  to  follow,  to  their  verifica- 
tion in  history.     Our  present  object  is  to  direct  attention 
to   this  composite   image   as   a   whole,  to   what  may  be  a 
symbolic  rather  than  a  definite  historical  meaning ;  to  take 
it  as  representing   worldly  power  in  its  various  forms,  all 
of  them   expressly  the  result  of  human  wisdom,  skill,  and 


THE  IMAGE  AND   THE   STONE.  451 

energy ;  to  note  too  the  method  of  its  destruction,  and  the 
nature  of  that  which  took  its  place. 

The  great  Image  then,  as  it  dazed  the  vision  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, shone  one  gigantic  figure  of  a  man.  What  was 
the  expression  of  the  countenance  we  are  not  told  ;  most 
likely  it  showed  only  emotionless  repose,  features  without 
expression,  symbohzing  simply  power,  passive,  immovable, 
remorseless — power  that  answers  no  questions,  and  demands 
only  silent,  unquestioning  submission.  Possibly,  after  the 
Assyrian  manner,  the  Image  stood  in  profile,  one  arm 
stretched  forth,  one  leg  advanced;  and  thus,  fixing  no 
gaze  upon  the  beholder,  remained  the  more  inscrutable.  It 
was  entirely  to  outward  view  metallic,  excepting  the  toes  of 
brittle  clay ;  and  the  metals,  whether  gold,  or  silver,  or  brass, 
or  iron,  are  all,  we  may  remember,  products  of  human  labour 
and  skill.  They  none  of  them  exist  otherwise  ;  the  furnace 
and  the  alloy  are  required  to  fit  them  for  human  use.  So 
much  for  the  materials.  But  not  only  are  these  of  human 
discovery  and  manufacture,  but  for  an  Image  like  that  of  the 
vision  would  be  required  the  fashioning  and  fitting  of  each 
metal  to  its  appointed  place  and  function.  The  gold  would 
need  casting,  or  else  beating  into  plates,  or  to  be  prepared 
for  gilding  the  enormous  head.  The  silver  in  like  manner 
plated,  or  was  wrought  into  semblance  of  arms  and  breast. 
Burnished  brass  built  up  the  belly,  and  cuissed  the  thighs. 
Iron  sheathed  the  legs,  and  was  wrought  partly  into  the  feet 
that  sustained  the  whole. 

Thus  it  stood  a  thing  of  human  contrivance  from  head  to 
foot ;  even  where  metal  failed,  and  potter's  clay  supplied  its 
place,  there  was  the  modelling  of  toes.  The  whole  was 
fashioned  to  represent  the  organic  unity  of  a  human  frame, 
all  its  parts  were  there.  Part  by  part,  whatever  was  the 
diversity  of  material,  was  adjusted  to  its  place,  so  that  the 
man-form  should  be  complete — a  figure  that,  were  it  living, 
could  think  and  act,  could  strike,  and  march  to  its  end.     It 


452  TEE  IMAGE   AND   THE    STONE. 

was  a  figure  of  colossal,  unassailable  strength,  but  for  one 
element  of  weakness  scarcely  observable  amidst  its  signs 
of  power — the  one  flaw  attaching  to  those  insignificant 
members  the  toes.  Yet  this  Image  with  its  grandeur, 
splendom',  and  strength  of  material,  has  to  be  destroyed. 
How  shall  destruction  come  ?  Shall  axe  or  hammer  come 
forth  against  it  ?  Shall  heaven's  lightning  blast  it?  Shall 
an  earthquake  shake  it  down  ? 

By  far  other  means.  From  a  mountain  side  a  Stone  is 
loosened ;  stirred  by  no  visible  means,  cut  from  the  soil 
without  hands,  it  begins  to  roll,  and  as  it  descends  the 
steep  it  bounds  and  leaps  towards  the  steadfast  Image. 
Shall  it  strike  the  head  of  gold  ?  Shall  it  assail  the  silver 
breastplate  ?  No  ;  it  simply  drops  upon  the  feet,  incon- 
spicuous compared  with  the  lofty  bulk  above — the  feet 
wherein  is  the  fatal  flaw.  They  crumble  with  the  blow,  and 
then  all  fails.  When  the  feet  of  iron  and  clay  are  crushed, 
the  legs,  despite  their  iron  strength,  bear  up  no  longer. 
The  body  bows,  the  glorious  head  rolls  in  the  dust,  the 
whole  lies  in  hideous  ruin,  and  the  winds  arising  sweep  it 
all  away. 

Between  the  Stone  and  the  Image  there  is  a  notable 
contrast.  We  have  pointed  out  the  artificial  character  of 
the  Image,  an  object  of  human  manufacture  ;  the  Stone 
is  a  natural  product.  No  mason's  tool  has  touched  it.  It 
is  of  no  recognisable  or  definite  shape,  such  as  human 
intelligence  would  have  given.  Age-long  elemental  powers 
have  moulded  and  placed  it  on  the  precipitous  steep  above. 
The  processes  have  been  altogether  secret,  silent,  by  which 
it  has  been  formed,  and  reached  its  destined  size  and  place. 
The  cause  of  its  descent  at  last  is  not  observable.  What  it 
does,  if  it  destroyed  a  human  life,  would,  in  legal  phrase,  be 
called  "  the  act  of  God."  Then  the  Stone,  its  work  accom- 
plished, takes  the  place  of  the  destroyed  statue,  whose  very 
fragments    are    to  disappear,  and,  unlike   the  Image  in  its 


THE  IMAGE   AND   THE   STONE.  453 

lifeless  immobility,  notwithstanding  its  man-like  form,  the 
Stone  seems  to  have  life  in  itself;  it  grows,  it  enlarges  its 
base,  it  towers  in  height,  till  it  fills  the  whole  horizon  of  the 
sleeper's  sight. 

This  Stone  which  becomes  a  mountain  receives,  like  the 
Image,  its  interpretation.  As  the  Image  represented  human 
empire  in  a  succession  of  kingdoms,  so  the  Stone  represents 
a  kingdom,  following  upon,  though  in  a  measure  contem- 
poraneous with,  the  others.  It  is  a  kingdom  which  the 
God  of  heaven  will  set  up,  and  which  destroys  the  others. 
For  it  may  be  noticed  that  the  earlier  kingdoms,  though 
according  to  the  interpretation  of  the  vision  they  had  in 
turn  passed  away,  are  yet  included  in  the  destruction  finally 
dealt  upon  the  Image,  suggesting  to  us  a  larger  understand- 
ing of  the  vision  than  we  might  at  first  suppose.  The 
Image  after  all  is  one,  though  of  diverse  parts,  and  of  inter- 
mediate application,  as  the  Stone  is  one,  though  it  becomes 
a  mountain. 

The  Stone,  small  as  it  is  when  it  first  comes  to  sight, 
is  indeed  that  everlasting  kingdom  of  God  which  in  these 
latter  days  has  been  revealed.  It  is  that  kingdom  which, 
coming  not  with  observation, — as  none  would  have  noticed 
the  Stone  on  the  mountain  side, — issuing  from  the  secret, 
the  eternal  counsels  of  God,  declares  itself  not  in  the  glory 
of  its  power,  but  as  a  simple,  unsuspected  force.  It  is  clad 
in  no  panoply  of  war.  No  catapult  is  required  to  launch 
the  Stone,  its  momentum  arises  from  the  invisible  action 
of  a  natural  law.  So  the  Divine  kingdom  makes  no  obvious 
assault,  it  uses  no  visible  weapon ;  even  the  Stone  does  not 
encounter  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  where  they  affront  the 
sky,  but  with  that  economy  of  means  and  yet  completeness 
of  result  which  marks  the  Divine  administration,  it  strikes 
upon  the  one  weak  spot  in  its  adversary,  that  one  strange 
flaw  in  the  mighty  Image.  That  flaw  may  have  an  historical 
and  temporary  import,  as  the  narrative  appears  to  intimate ; 


454,  THE  IMAGE   AND    THE    STONE. 

but  larger  meanings  are  common  in  Divine  prophecy,  and 
looking  at  the  Image  as  a  whole,  may  we  not  take  this  flaw 
to  indicate  some  inherent,  invariable  defect  in  all  worldly 
power?  If  so,  does  not  the  "iron  mixed  with  miry  clay" 
aptly  represent  that  moral  corruption  through  which  the 
pomp  and  pride  and  military  strength  of  empires  constantly 
come  to  naught  ? 

Some  commentators  suppose  that  the  destroying  blow  is 
not  yet  given,  since  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  have  not  yet 
fallen  before  the  kingdom  of  our  God.  They  view  the  Stone 
as  still  rolling  down  the  mountain.  They  postpone  the 
moment  of  collision  till  the  end  of  this  dispensation,  when 
all  opposing  forces  will  have  been  swept  away.  This  does 
not  agree  with  the  terms  of  the  vision.  The  blow  is  given 
while  as  yet  the  kingdom  of  God  is  but  a  solitary  Stone  ;  it 
is  by  growth  only  that  the  Stone  becomes  a  mountain.  We 
may  well  understand  an  interval  during  which  the  Image, 
smitten  only  on  its  feet,  still  stands  erect,  apparently 
untouched,  and  answering  thus  to  the  apparent  stability 
for  a  time  of  earthly  kingdoms,  though  already  doomed  to 
destruction. 

This  kingdom  of  God,  let  us  mark,  is  set  forth  as  a  king- 
dom against  kingdoms.  Yet  it  is  not  that  of  the  sacred 
land.  It  is  not  the  monarchy  which  had  been  destroyed  in 
Jerusalem  that  will  be  re-established.  It  is  not  the  throne 
of  David  which  overturns  these  other  thrones ;  or  the 
throne  of  Solomon  which  outshines  their  splendour.  It  is 
no  earthly  kingdom,  however  sacred,  no  visible  city  of  God 
which  out-tops  the  Babylons  of  the  world.  It  is  something 
new,  something  wholly  unlike  any  previous  form  of  power. 
Apparently  it  is  among  the  weak  things  of  the  world — 
as  an  untrimmed,  unsquared  stone,  which  a  builder  would 
refuse,  yet,  if  chosen  of  God,  is  living  and  precious,  fit  to 
become  the  corner-stone  of  a  glorious  temple.  Such  a 
use   of  it  here  however  would  not  be  consonant   with  the 


THE  IMAGE   AND   TEE   STONE.  455 

purpose  of  the  vision.  No  great  building  arises  on  the  site 
of  the  destroyed  statue.  Such  an  ending  would  have 
injured  the  force  of  the  contrast  between  God's  work  and 
man's  work.  The  shapeless  Stone  changes,  the  dreamer 
sees  not  how.  He  dreams  through  ages,  though  he  knows 
it  not.  In  that  sleep  a  thousand  years  are  but  as  a  watch 
in  the  night,  and,  behold,  the  Stone  has  become  a  mountain  ! 
— a  mountain  dimly  vast,  whose  base  fills  the  earth,  whose 
top  reaches  unto  heaven  !  How  grandly  does  this  set  forth 
that  kingdom  which  is  altogether  a  Divine  creation  ! 

But  however  unlike  earthly  kingdoms,  it  is  still  a  king- 
dom, which  is  foreshown  to  Nebuchadnezzar.  As  such  it 
agrees  with  his  ideas  of  power,  and  commends  itself  to  his 
understanding.  But  it  is  a  Divine  purpose.  That  which 
appeared  in  the  fulness  of  time  was  invariably  declared 
to  be  a  kingdom,  an  ordered  rule — the  rule  of  a  King  who, 
if  He  came  at  first  without  form  or  comeliness,  despised 
and  rejected,  "is  yet  a  King,  who  shall  reign  until  all 
enemies  are  put  under  His  feet."  So  also  the  conquering 
power  of  this  kingdom  is  specially  set  forth  in  this  vision 
given  to  a  conqueror.  That  is  what  he  would  expect  in  a 
new  kingdom  ;  it  must  overthrow  and  take  the  place  of  its 
predecessors.  But  how  unlike  in  its  warfare  to  the  king- 
doms he  has  known  is  that  which  he  beholds  !  How  like 
to  the  kingdom  which  was  to  come  ! 

That  prefigured  destruction  of  kingdoms  certainly  does  not 
imply  the  dissolution  of  order  and  authority  in  human  affairs. 
These  were  recognised  as  of  Divine  purpose,  even  in  the 
despotic  rule  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  his  successors.  Never- 
theless Babylon  remained  the  centre  and  type  of  influences 
inimical  to  the  people  of  God — the  people  amongst  whom 
that  kingdom  of  heaven  was  to  be  established — and  was 
subjected  to  the  Divine  judgments  accordingly.  In  so  far 
as  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  are  antagonistic  to  the  king- 
dom of  God  in  principles  or  in  practice,  they  are  exposed 


456  THE  IMAGE  AND   THE   STONE. 

to  its  destroying  power,  not  otherwise.  And  in  that  respect 
we  may  beheve  that,  not  kingdoms  only,  but  all  institu- 
tions based  solely  upon  human  conceptions,  formed  only  for 
human  aggrandisement,  associated  in  any  degree  with  false- 
hood, injustice,  lust,  oppression,  cruel  force, — all  systems 
of  thought  alien  to  the  Divine  Mind  share  in  the  irreme- 
diable defeat.  There  needs  but  a  stone  to  roll  down  from 
the  mountain  of  God's  truth,  that  holy  hill  of  Zion,  that 
mountain  of  the  Lord's  house  established  in  the  top  of  the 
mountains,  and,  behold,  the  towering  but  baseless  fabrics 
fall  into  fragments,  and  are  ready  to  vanish  away ! 

May  we  extend  the  parable  still  further  ?  Is  it  fanciful 
to  discover  in  that  ruthless  dominion  of  science  which 
distinguishes  our  era,  that  supremacy  of  intellect,  that 
brilliance  of  achievement  apart  from  moral  progress,  an 
apt  resemblance  to  the  head  of  gold — now  apparently 
serenely  secure,  but  whose  downfall  as  the  supreme  arbiter 
in  human  affairs  may  arise  from  that  "foolishness  of  God 
which  is  wiser  than  man  "  ?  So  may  not  the  silver  of  a 
refined  but  irreligious  civilization,  the  brass  of  social  dis- 
tinction, the  iron  of  despotism,  when  opposed  to  the  Divine 
kingdom,  be  brought  to  naught  before  those  "  weak  things, 
and  things  which  are  despised,  which  God  hath  chosen  to 
confound  the  things  which  are  mighty  "?  In  this  sense  the 
kingdom  of  God  may  still  be  but  as  a  Stone  that  continually 
strikes  and  destroys. 

This  phase  of  the  kingdom  however  is  to  pass  away. 
The  assailing  Stone  becomes  a  mountain,  and  like  unto  a 
mountain  shall  the  kingdom  at  last  be  established  upon 
everlasting  foundations — "  a  kingdom  that  shall  never  be 
moved,"  endowed  with  all  the  strength  of  the  hills,  girded 
with  power,  reposing  in  all  the  majesty  of  endless  duration. 

The  kingdom,  its  days  of  warfare  over,  is  to  be  a  kingdom 
of  peace.  As  the  mountain  clothed  in  beauty  rises  into  the 
serene  heaven,  is  bathed  in  the  light  of  heaven,   a  vision 


TEE  IMAGE  AND   TEE   STONE.  457 

of  rest  and  peace,  so  "  the  kingdom  of  God  is  righteous- 
ness, and  peace,  and  joy  in  the  Holy  Ghost  "  ;  its  King  is 
the  Prince  of  peace. 

The  kingdom  is  to  be  a  universal  kingdom.  All  forms  of 
power  known  to  Nebuchadnezzar  had  their  geographical 
limits.  They  were  bounded  by  mountains  or  rivers.  All 
religions  were  of  local  jurisdiction.  The  God  of  the  Hebrews 
had  been  doubtless  to  Nebuchadnezzar  but  a  tribal  God  ;  Bel 
Merodach  had  his  special  home  in  Babylon.  The  vision 
referred  to  a  God  of  heaven,  high  above  all,  of  whom  the 
Babylonian  king  could  have  had  but  a  dim  conception  ; 
and  to  a  kingdom  which,  like  the  mountain  that  filled  the 
whole  earth,  should  be  wide  as  the  cope  of  heaven  above, 
wide  as  the  world  below. 

To  us  it  "has  been  given  to  know  the  mysteries  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven."  The  Lord  of  that  kingdom  has  likened 
it  to  leaven  that,  hid  in  an  ephah,  presently  leavens  the 
whole.  He  has  likened  it  to  a  mustard  seed  which  springs 
up  into  a  mighty  tree,  upon  whose  branches  the  birds  of  the 
air  make  their  lodging.  He  has  told  us  that  "  the  field  is 
the  world";  of  seed  cast  into  the  earth  that  "  groweth 
while  a  man  sleeps,  he  knoweth  not  how,"  and  of  a  great 
harvest.  He  has  told  us  of  His  return  after  long  absence 
to  receive  a  kingdom.  Of  the  glory  and  universality  of  that 
kingdom,  prophets  and  apostles  combine  to  assure  us  ;  and 
an  angel  announced  that  it  should  have  "no  end."  What 
more  perfect  representation  of  that  kingdom  in  its  secret 
commencement,  its  peculiar  conquering  power,  its  eventual 
world-wide  extension  and  glory,  could  have  been  given  (if 
given  in  such  a  form  at  all)  than  in  this  ancient  vision  ? 
Is  it  not  a  parable  of  which  none  could  have  been  the 
author  save  Him  who,  when  He  appeared  on  earth,  spake 
in  parables  ? 

But  was  there  ever  such  a  vision  ?  Did  the  God  ot 
heaven  of  a  truth  reveal  this  thing  to  Nebuchadnezzar  by 


458  THE   IMAGE  AND   THE   STONE. 

the  month  of  His  servant  Daniel  ?  or,  does  the  whole  story 
belong  to  what  is  termed  " pseudepigraphical  literature"? 
"  It  can  hardly  be  denied  "  (says  a  popular  writer),  "  when 
prejudice  is  quite  laid  aside,  that  the  facts  point  to  a  very 
clear  conclusion,  viz.  that  the  book  of  Daniel  is  one  of  a 
class,  and  differs  in  quality  rather  than  in  kind  from 
other  works  of  the  same  class — a  class  of  writings  which 
sprang  up  in  the  days  of  national  resistance  to  Antioehus 
Epiphanes.  It  was  characteristic  of  this  class  of  writings  to 
appear  under  the  name  of  some  distinguished  personality, 
Enoch,  Moses,  the  patriarchs,  and  so  on.  There  was  no 
intention  to  deceive,  any  more  than  Milton  wished  to 
deceive  when  he  put  some  of  the  noblest  thoughts  that 
have  ever  been  uttered  into  the  mouths  of  the  persons  in 
Paradise  Lost.  The  faithful  servants  of  God,  who  were 
resisting  the  blasphemous  tyranny  of  Antioehus,  were 
strengthened  in  their  noble  struggle  by  the  glowing  stories 
and  marvellously  beautiful  visions  which  had  marked  the 
life  of  the  great  Daniel  in  Babylon." 

We  are  not  here  concerned  with  the  authenticity  of  the 
book  of  Daniel,  but  since  in  the  passage  above  it  is  plainly 
implied  that  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  was  only  one  of  the 
"glowing  stories"  inserted  in  an  altogether  imaginative 
composition,  we  may  be  allowed  a  few  words  of  comment. 
And  for  one  thing,  it  is  hard  to  understand  how  the  ser- 
vants of  God  could  be  strengthened  in  the  struggle  they  were 
maintaining  by  what  was  an  acknowledged  and  accepted 
invention  of  their  own  time  !  If,  on  the  contrary,  they 
believed  the  story  to  be  a  true  record  of  a  supernatural 
event  such  as  had  again  and  again  occurred  of  old  time 
in  their  nation's  history ;  if  they  believed  it  to  contain  a 
genuine  prediction,  through  one  of  the  greatest  of  their  seers, 
of  an  everlasting  kingdom,  superseding  all  other  kingdoms, 
which  the  God  of  their  fathers  would  set  up  ; — they  might 
well  hold  it  as  one  of  their  strongest  supports,  little  as  they 


THE  IMAGE  AND   THE   STONE.  459 

might  have  understood  its  nature.  "Noble  thoughts," 
uttered  only  by  one  of  themselves,  would  be  of  small  avail. 
It  was  by  the  great  facts  of  the  past  that  their  faith  and 
hope  could  alone  be  sustained. 

But  not  to  dwell  on  this.  Is  it  conceivable  that  so 
sublime  a  vision,  with  its  profound  spiritual  significance, 
its  far-reaching  prophecy,  even  unto  "  the  time  of  the  end," 
was  the  invention  of  an  age  in  which  by  common  consent 
the  prophetic  function  had  ceased?  Could  it  be  the  pro- 
duct of  an  age  when  creative  genius  had  been  succeeded 
by  the  imitative  :  of  an  age  that  lived  on  the  past,  and  was 
busied  only  with  compilation,  the  working  up  old  materials, 
the  elaboration  of  legend  and  marvel  ?  Could  it  belong  to 
an  age  that  was  obliged  to  cast  its  lucubrations  in  some  an- 
cient mould  in  order  to  attract  attention  and  win  respect  ? 
Could  it  belong  to  a  set  of  writings  which,  from  certain  char- 
acteristics have  for  ages  been  considered  devoid  of  authority, 
and  among  which  it  has  not  hitherto  been  classed '?  Lastly, 
was  it  appropriate  to  a  time  of  desperate  conflict  with  a 
heathen  prince,  to  compose  a  story  which  makes  a  heathen 
potentate  the  depositary  of  Divine  secrets,  and  omits  all 
reference  to  Jewish  exaltation  and  conquest  in  the  future  ? 
To  put  these  questions  is,  it  seems  to  us,  to  answer  them. 
If  we  are  to  judge  literature  by  the  circumstances  of  its 
time,  this  story  could  not  have  belonged  to  the  time  of 
Antiochus. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  historical  verity  of  the  vision  is 
not  without  confirmation  when  we  remember  the  reported 
crisis  of  its  occurrence.  The  visible  kingdom  of  God  had 
ceased,  but,  according  to  the  story,  it  was  immediately 
followed  by  a  vision  which  points  to  a  future  invisible  but 
most  real  kingdom  of  God — a  restoration  of  the  original 
theocracy,  not  in  a  limited  and  local,  but  in  a  universal 
sense,  a  completion  thus  of  a  great  plan.  This  vision  more- 
over is  given  to  one,  who,  though  the  immediate  destroyer 


460  ANCIENT  CELTIC  EXPOSITORS. 

of  the  visible,  historic  throne,  had  become  the  custodian 
of  the  sacred  people,  one  of  whose  seers  interprets  to  him 
its  meaning.  It  must  needs  therefore  win  for  the  captives 
unusual  respect,  while  they,  through  their  great  represen- 
tative, fulfil  their  ancient  mission  as  depositaries  of  the 
Divine  will,  destined  in  due  time  to  declare  it  to  mankind. 

It  is  a  conclusion  in  harmony  with  the  whole  history  of 
this  people  that  this  dream  really  visited  the  great  Baby- 
lonian ruler,  and  that  it  was,  with  its  interpretation,  a  true 
revelation  of  the  counsels  of  God.  No  ;  we  have  not  been 
sitting  at  the  feet  of  a  pseudepigraphical  scribe,  we  have 
been  listening  to  the  eternal  Word. 

JosiAH  Gilbert. 


ANCIENT     CELTIC     EXPOSITORS. 

ST.  G0LUMBANU8  AND  HIS  LIBBART. 

The  Acta  Sanctorum  form  an  unexplored  mine  of  history, 
poetry,  and  romance.  The  historian  finds  there  authentic 
records  of  life  as  lived  amid  the  beginnings  of  European 
civihzation.  The  poet  can  find  there  sweet  songs — almost 
always  of  a  sad  and  plaintive  character ;  while  as  for 
romance  and  fable,  they  abound  on  every  sid-e.  Among  the 
romantic  lives  of  the  saints,  those  dealing  with  the  Celtic 
missionaries  stand  pre-eminent.  Fable,  as  we  might  expect, 
gathers  thick  round  them.  Adamnan's  Life  of  St.  Columha 
for  instance,  abounds  with  stories,  fabulous  indeed,  but 
beauteous  and  touching  withal.  Bomance  too  lends  its 
charm,  and  among  the  most  romantic  lives,  that  of 
Columbanus,  the  apostle  of  Burgundy,  Switzerland,  and 
Italy,  was  the  most  striking  and  is  the  best  authenticated. 
I  have  in  another  place  sketched  that  career,  beginning  at 


ST.   G0LUMBANTJ8   AND  HIS  LIBRARY.  461 

the  monastery  of  Bangor  in  the  County  Down,  and  ending 
at  Bobbio  in  Northern  Italy. ^  To  that  sketch  I  must  refer 
the  reader  desirous  of  knowing  the  facts  of  his  chequered 
life,  directing  now  my  attention  to  Columbanus  as  he  was 
an  expositor  of  Scripture.  Let  us  first  realize  his  epoch 
and  assign  him  a  local  place,  a  definite  era  in  our  minds. 
Columbanus  belonged  to  the  latter  half  of  the  sixth  and 
earlier  part  of  the  seventh  century,  the  age  of  Mahomet 
and  of  Gregory  the  Great,  and  is  a  connecting  link  between 
expositors  of  the  school  of  St.  Patrick  in  the  fifth  and  Sedu- 
lius  and  writers  of  his  type  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries. 
We  shall  use  our  study  of  Columbanus  to  reflect  light  back 
upon  the  darker  age  to  which  St.  Patrick  belongs. 

Columbanus  was  educated  at  the  monastery  of  Bangor  in 
the  County  Down,  an  institution  which  continued  to  flourish 
till  long  after  English  power  was  estabhshed  in  Ireland, 
though  not  a  vestige  of  the  ancient  abbey  now  remains, 
and  its  very  site  is  a  disputed  question.-  As  soon  as  he 
arrived  at  the  years  of  manhood  he  was  seized  with  a  desire 
to  propagate  the  gospel.  Foreign  missions  were  then  the 
rage  in  the  Celtic  Church.  Columba  was  evangelizing 
Scotland,  and  another  Columba — for  Columba,  not  Colum- 
banus, was  the  real  name  of  our  saint — determined  to  pursue 
the  same  course  in  Central  Europe.^  He  left  Bangor  there- 
fore with  St.  Gall  and  eleven  other  followers,  preached  with 
great  success  in  Central  Europe,  and  founded  the  monastery 
of  Bobbio,  not  far  from  Genoa,  among  the  mountains  of  the 
Apennine  range  in  the  year  612.    From  that  date  the  Abbey 

^  See  Ireland  and  the  Celtic  Church,  chap.  vii. 

"  Bishop  Pococke,  about  the  year  1750,  describes  some  few  fragments  of  the 
abbey  then  in  existence.  See  his  MS.  tour  in  Ireland,  now  in  the  Hbrary  of 
Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

3  What  a  fine  opportunity  would  have  been  here  for  a  German  rationalistic 
critic,  had  these  two  Columbas  been  first-century,  and  not  sixth-century 
missionaries !  How  easily  could  their  personality  have  been  dissolved  in  the 
dove-like  (Columba)  spirit  of  the  new  religion  which  was  spreading  over  the 
world ! 


462  ANCIENT  CELTIC  EXPOSITORS. 

of  Bobbio  became  a  great  literary  centre,  and  a  chief  wit- 
ness to  ancient  Celtic  culture  and  devotion  to  expository 
studies.  As  I  do  not  know  of  any  convenient  account  of 
this  ancient  Celtic  monastery,  I  shall  be  pardoned  if  I 
describe  its  manuscript  resources  and  its  still  existing  remains 
at  some  considerable  length,  for  they  prove  the  learning 
of  the  ancient  Celtic  Church  to  have  surpassed  that  of  any 
other  branch  of  contemporary  western  Christendom. 

Bobbio  was  founded  in  612.  Its  position — twenty-four 
miles  S.W.  from  Piacenza  in  the  valley  of  the  Trebbia — 
is  even  still  a  lone  and  solitary  one.  Two  centuries  ago, 
when  Mabillon  visited  it,  he  describes  his  journey  thither 
as  rough  and  difficult,  over  lofty  mountains  and  through 
lonely  valleys.  And  here,  in  passing,  I  may  remark  that 
with  all  our  modern  advances  and  discoveries,  the  true  stu- 
dent will  have  much  to  learn  from  those  chatty  volumes, 
the  Diarium  Italicum  and  the  Iter  Italicum  of  the  great 
French  Benedictines  Mabillon  and  Montfaucon.  Sir  James 
Stephen,  in  his  Essays  in  Ecclesiastical  Biography,  has  given 
a  very  charming  account  of  Mabillon  and  his  literary  tours ; 
but  it  is  only  when  one  turns  to  the  volumes  themselves 
that  we  can  at  all  realize  the  marvellous  erudition  of  these 
monkish  students,  now  so  seldom  consulted.  The  library 
of  Bobbio  is  in  some  respects  the  most  interesting,  to  us 
at  least,  in  the  world,  for  there  we  can  learn  the  state  of 
education  and  culture  existing  in  our  western  islands  more 
than  one  thousand  years  ago.  Bobbio  was  founded  by 
Celtic  monks  from  Ireland,  and  during  the  first  three  cen- 
turies of  its  existence,  down  to  the  close  of  the  ninth,  it 
was  continually  replenished  by  Irish,  or  as  they  were  then 
called,  Scottish  emigrants.  We  have  too  another  most 
interesting  point  in  connexion  with  Bobbio.  Muratori,  in 
the  third  volume  of  his  great  work  on  Italian  antiquities, 
has  preserved  a  catalogue  of  the  Bobbio  library,  drawn 
up  in  the  tenth  century.     It  is  a  marvellous  proof  of  the 


8T.   COLUMBANUS  AND  HIS  LIBEABY.  463 

erudition  of  the  members  of  that  monastery,  fiHing  several 
of  Muratori's  pages  with  lists  printed  in  the  closest  possible 
order.     The  Irish  monks  were  no  narrow  students  ;  their 
minds  ranged  over  every  branch    of  literature.      In  their 
catalogue  we  find  patristic  literature,  Greek  and  Latin,  the 
works  of  Augustine,  Athanasius,  John  Chrysostom,  Eusebius, 
Hilary,  Origen,  and  Cyprian ;  Latin  and  Greek  historians, 
poets  and  orators,  Homer,  Virgil,  Horace,  Lucan,  Juvenal, 
Cicero,  Fronto  ;    geographers,  mathematicians,    musicians ; 
while  they  were  not  forgetful  withal  of  the  country  whence 
they  had  come  out,  they  were   not  forgetful   or  incurious 
about  their  own,  but  duly  installed  in  the  place  of  highest 
honour  the  works  of  their  founder  Columbanus,  the  Hymn- 
book  of  their  parent  monastery  of  Bangor,  commonly  called 
the  Antiphonarium  Benchorense,  the  writings  of  Adamnan, 
the  Abbot  of  loua,  and  the  encyclopaedic  volumes  of  the 
Venerable  Bede.     I  have  spoken  of  this  library  as  still  exist- 
ing, and  indeed  its  history  is  almost  a  romance.     It  con- 
tinued to  flourish  all  through  the  Middle  Ages,  preserving 
even  in  the  darkest  periods  a  flavour  and  reminiscence  of  its 
ancient  culture.     Its  contents  seem  to  have  been  frequently 
surveyed,  as  Peyron,  in  the  beginning  of  this  century,  dis- 
covered another  catalogue  made  in  the  year  1461,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  tenth-century  one  already  known.     In  the  early 
years  of  the  seventeenth   century  the  library  changed  its 
locality.     Cardinal  Frederic  Borromeo,  a  munificent  patron 
of  learning,  was  then  presiding  over  the  see  of  Milan.     It 
was  an  age  marked  all  over  Europe  by  a  devotion  to  studies 
and  a  prodigal  liberality  in  their  encouragement.      Kings 
like  our  own  James  I.  and  Henry  IV.  of  France  pensioned 
learned  men,  such  as  Casaubon,  that  they  might  have  time 
to    prosecute   their    researches.      Prelates   like    Laud    and 
Ussher  spent  their  revenues  in  scouring  Oriental  monasteries 
for  ancient   manuscripts,  maintaining  agents   in    Smyrna, 
Constantinople,  and  Alexandria  for  that  purpose. 


464  ANCIENT  CELTIC  EXPOSITOBS. 

It  is  to  that  age  we  owe  the  discovery  of  some  of  our 
most  valued  treasures  and  the  foundation  of  some  of  our 
greatest  libraries.  It  was  just  the  same  in  Italy,  where 
Cardinal  Borromeo  spent  vast  sums  in  building  the 
Ambrosian  library,  and  furnishing  it  with  books  and  manu- 
scripts. With  this  end  in  view,  he  cast  his  eye  upon 
Bobbio,  bestowed  rich  gifts  upon  the  monastery,  and  in 
exchange  became  possessor  of  the  greatest  portion  of  its 
famous  library,  leaving  behind  only  about  one  hundred 
volumes,  which  Mabillon  saw  and  inspected  on  the  occasion 
of  his  visit  to  Bobbio.  In  the  Ambrosian  library  the  Bobbio 
collection  was  often  visited  during  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries.  The  Irish  manuscripts  were  a  puzzle 
to  the  antiquarians  of  the  last  century.  The  Celtic  monks 
were  good  Latin  and  Greek  scholars,  but  they,  like  many 
a  modern  student,  often  interspersed  their  books  with  mar- 
ginal notes  couched  in  the  Irish  language,  glosses,  explana- 
tions, prayers  to  favourite  saints — especially  St.  Bridget 
— and  notes  upon  even  the  most  trivial  matters,  the  time 
of  day,  the  hour  of  dinner,  or  the  state  of  the  weather.^ 
These  Irish  glosses  and  notes  greatly  puzzled  French  and 
German  scholars.  They  ascribed  them  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  and  called  them  Anglo-Saxon  characters.  They 
credited  them  to  the  Lombards,  and  never  dreamt  of  trac- 
ing them  to  the  right  source.  We,  however,  cannot  wonder 
at  this.  The  knowledge  of  Celtic  is  even  now  not  widely 
spread.  Fifty  years  ago  its  possessors  could  be  counted  on 
the  fingers.  A  century  and  a  half  ago  it  was  regarded  as  a 
barbarous  jargon  unworthy  the  attention  of  civilized  men, 
devoid  of  a  literature  or  of  a  history.  Still  something  valu- 
able was  brought  to  light.  Muratori  discovered  the  Mura- 
torian  Fragment,  the  oldest  historical  witness  to  the  gospel 
canon,  copied  by  an  Irish  monk  in  the  seventh  century 
from  some  early  Christian  manuscript.     He  found,  too,  the 

1  See  55enss,  Gram,  Celt,,  prtef.,  pp.  xi.,  xii. 


ST.   COLUMBANUS  AND  HIS   LIBRARY.  465 

Bangor  psalter,  composed  in  the  seventh  century,  whence 
the  most  popular  hymn-book  of  the  Church  of  England  has 
derived  the  hymn,  beginning — 

"  Draw  nigh  and  take  the  Body  of  the  Lord, 
And  drink  the  holy  Blood  for  you  outpoured, 
Saved  by  that  Body  and  that  holy  Blood, 
"With  souls  refreshed,  we  render  thanks  to  God." 

The  period  of  almost  romantic  discovery  was,  however, 
yet  to  come  for  the  ancient  Bobbio  library.  Cardinal  Mai 
was  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  the  Church  of  Rome 
has  produced  during  this  century.  The  volumes  he  pub- 
lished are  well-nigh  numberless.  His  various  collections, 
in  their  very  titles — the  Scriptorum  Veterum  Nova  Col- 
lectio,  the  Spicilegium  Bomanum,  and  the  Nova  Patriuii 
Bihliotheca — sufficiently  indicate  the  industry  and  learning 
of  that  eminent  prelate.  In  later  life  he  was  the  librarian 
of  the  Vatican.  In  earlier  life  he  was  the  librarian  of  the 
Ambrosian  library,  where  he  made  discoveries  which  give 
us  a  glimpse  not  only  of  the  learning  but  also  of  the  straits 
and  poverty  of  the  ancient  Celtic  monks,  and  show  us  at  the 
same  time  what  invaluable  manuscript  materials  they  pos- 
sessed. While  all  Europe  was  convulsed  by  the  Napoleonic 
wars,  Mai  was  studying  the  Bobbio  books,  and  in  the  course 
of  his  investigation  ascertained  that  a  good  many  of  them 
were  palimpsests.  The  Celtic  monks  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  centuries  were  sorely  in  want  of  writing  material. 
The  supply  of  papyrus  from  Egypt  had  ceased  since  the  Sa- 
racen conquest,^  but  they  possessed  a  large  supply  of  ancient 
books  written  on  vellum.  These  they  took,  rubbed  off  the 
ancient  writing,  or  washed  it  away,  and  then  wrote  their 
own  Christian  documents  which  they  esteemed  more  impor- 
tant than  the  original  text.  The  disciples  of  Columbanus 
must  have  been  in  sore  dis-tress  when  they  thus  treated  some 
of  their  ancient  books,  for  they  preserved  the  vast  ma^'ority 

'  See  Scrivener's  Introduction,  p.  24. 
VOL.   IX.  30 


466  ANCIENT  GELTIG  EXPOSITORS. 

most  carefully.  And  some  of  them  were  very  ancient  and 
very  precious  too.  Orations  of  Cicero,  lost  for  ages  to  the 
modern  vs^orld,  were  thus  treated  by  the  monks,  and  recovered 
by  Mai.  The  monks  took  a  Cicero  originally  written  in  the 
second  or  third  century,  and  in  the  eighth  century  wrote  over 
Cicero's  brilliant  periods,  which  they  partially  erased,  the 
devouter  sentiments  of  the  Christian  poet  Sedulius,  who 
flourished  in  the  fifth.  The  works  of  Fronto  were  similarly 
treated,  and  similarly  restored  by  the  learned  cardinal. 
Fronto  was  the  friend,  tutor,  and  associate  of  the  imperial 
philosophers  Antoninus  Pius  and  Marcus  Aurelius,  with 
whom  Fronto  maintained  a  very  lively  correspondence.  His 
letters  were  collected  and  published  in  a  volume  some  time 
in  the  third  or  fourth  century,  a  copy  of  which  found  its  way 
to  Bobbio.  The  monks  of  the  eighth  century  had  no  special 
interest,  however,  in  the  correspondence  of  pagans,  so  they 
took  the  fourth-century  volume,  rubbed  out  the  writing, 
and  inserted  instead  a  copy  of  the  Acts  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon,  a.d.  457,  which  were  of  much  more  interest  and 
importance  to  themselves.  Mai's  discoveries  created  a  great 
sensation  at  the  time.  Great  expectations  were  raised,  and 
people  thought  they  would  have  received  most  valuable  light 
upon  the  history  of  the  second  century  from  the  imperial 
and  philosophic  correspondence.  The  pure  classical  scholar, 
forgetting  his  vast  obligations  to  the  monks  and  the  monas- 
teries for  all  they  had  preserved,  saw  in  their  conduct 
a  typical  instance  of  narrowness  and  stupidity.  And  yet 
Wisdom  was  justified,  in  this  instance  at  least,  of  her  child- 
ren, for  when  the  letters  were  published  they  were  found 
to  be  of  almost  trivial  importance,  and  the  judgment  of  the 
sons  of  St.  Columbanus  was  amply  vindicated.  I  cannot 
now  indeed  enlarge  further  on  this  point,  which  relates  to 
the  discovery  of  classical  palimpsests,  and  belongs  rather 
to  the  region  of  the  Classical  Bevietv  than  to  that  of  The 
Expositor.       The    work,    however,    begun    under    Mai's 


ST.    COLUMBANUS  AND  EIS  LIBRARY.  467 

auspices,  has  been  since  continued,  and  of  later  years  under 
the  direction  of  Ceriani,  Ascoli,  and  other  learned  men, 
has  produced  some  remarkable  results  in  various  directions 
of  scholarship.  I  may  just  mention  for  the  advantage  of 
the  diligent  student  whose  curiosity  may  have  been  aroused, 
that  a  very  interesting  account  of  Mai's  discoveries  will 
be  found  in  the  preface  to  that  learned  prelate's  Ciceronis 
Opera  Inedita,  published  some  seventy  or  eighty  years  ago. 
One  point,  indeed,  is  plain  and  manifest,  and  it  is  a  most 
important  one.  The  Bobbio  library  in  the  seventh  century 
possessed  a  number  of  documents  dating  back  to  the  year 
200  A.D.,  some  of  them  classical,  others  of  them  sacred  and 
ecclesiastical  like  the  Muratorian  Fragment,  or  rather  the 
work  of  which  it  originally  formed  a  part.  If  that  could 
only  be  discovered  what  a  treasure  we  should  possess  !  The 
Bobbio  library  preserved  for  us  in  fact  some  remnants  of 
the  ancient  libraries  of  North  Italy.  We  often  wonder 
what  has  become  of  all  the  gold  and  silver  ever  coined  since 
money  became  current  with  the  merchant.  People  often 
wonder  what  has  become  of  all  the  books  ever  printed,  and 
if  they  only  knew  the  true  state  of  the  case,  they  would 
wonder  even  still  more  at  what  has  become  of  all  the  libra- 
ries which  existed  in  ancient  times.  It  is  a  common  notion 
that  books  were  few  and  far  between,  because  in  ancient 
times  there  were  no  printing  presses;  while,  on  the  contrary, 
books  seem  as  a  matter  of  fact  to  have  been  quite  abundant. 
Every  city  and  large  town  had  a  public  library,  some  towns 
quite  a  number  of  such  institutions.  Every  rich  man's 
house  was  furnished  with  a  library  as  a  necessary  part  of  its 
equipment,  often  as  little  used,  and  as  really  unnecessary  as 
in  more  modern  mansions.  Seneca  rebukes  the  rage  of  his 
day  for  heaping  together  a  vast  quantity  of  expensive  books, 
"  the  very  catalogues  of  which  their  owner  has  never  read 
in  his  whole  life"  ;  while  that  bitter  scoffer  Lucian,  a  cen- 
tury later,  laughs  heartily  at  the  uneducated  rich  for  their 


468  ANCIENT  CELTIC   EXPOSITORS. 


useless  extravagance  in  this  direction,  in  a  treatise  ad- 
dressed TIpo^  aTralSevTov  Kol  ttoWci  j3i^\ia  oovovfievov.  Italy 
was  in  the  first  and  second  centuries  filled  with  public 
libraries.  Pliny  in  one  of  his  charming  letters  tells  us  of  a 
man  who  published  his  son's  life,  had  an  edition  of  a  thou- 
sand copies  struck  off,  and  then  distributed  them  gratis  to 
all  the  libraries  of  Italy.  What  became  of  all  these  libraries 
and  their  contents?  Making  every  allowance  for  fire  and 
loss  sustained  through  barbarian  invasions,  there  must  have 
been  vast  remains  of  these  ancient  collections  still  in  exis- 
tence when  Columbanus  founded  the  Bobbio  library.^ 

But  here  some  one  may  naturally  say,  This  is  all  very 
interesting  as  bearing  on  the  classical  learning  of  the  Celtic 
monks,  but  what  has  it  to  do  with  them  as  students  of 
Holy  Writ  and  as  expositors  of  its  teachings?  In  reply 
I  would  say  that  I  have  brought  forward  these  facts  simply 
to  establish  the  general  culture  of  the  ancient  Celtic  wor- 
thies, whose  secular  studies  were  never  allowed  to  interfere 
with  their  devotion  to  sacred  truth,  for  they  were  inde- 
fatigable in  their  multiplication  of  copies  of  Holy  Scripture 
and  of  commentaries  upon  the  same.-  The  followers  and 
disciples  of  Columbanus  were  prominent  in  this  great  work, 
and  modern  learning   owes   much   to   their   diligence.      A 

'  On  tbe  subject  of  ancient  libraries,  the  reader  may  consult  an  article  on 
Pompeii,  in  Journal  des  Savants  for  July,  1881,  p.  406. 

-  The  culture  of  St.  Columbanus  himself  must  have  been  of  a  very  extensive 
kind,  as  far  at  least  as  classical  studies  were  concerned.  His  poems,  for  in- 
stance, as  ccntained  in  all  the  collections  of  his  works,  and  accessible  in  a  handy 
shape  in  Migne's  Patrologia  or  Fleming's  Collectanea,  abound  in  evidences  of 
his  scholarship.  His  first  poem  is  an  Epistle  to  a  certain  Hunaldus,  one  of  his 
disciples.  It  contains  thoughts  and  expressions  drawn  from  Ovid,  Horace,  and 
Prudentius,  though  it  measures  only  seventeen  hexameter  lines.  The  second 
poem  contains  allusions  to  Horace,  Seneca,  Prudentius,  Juvenal,  Ovid,  Virgil. 
A  study  of  the  other  poems,  annotated  as  they  have  been  by  Sirmond  and 
Canisius,  will  yield  similar  results,  proving  Columbanus  to  have  been  an 
accomplished  classical  scholar.  Now  as  he  did  not  leave  Ireland  U23on  Iris 
foreign  mission  till  he  was  long  past  forty,  he  must  have  gained  this  knowledge 
under  St.  Comgall  at  the  Abbey  of  Bangor,  where  the  best  classical  authors 
must  have  been  subjects  of  daily  study  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century. 


ST.   G0LUMBANU8  AND  HIS  LIBRARY.  -iGO 

glance  at  the  Introduction  to  New  Testament  Criticism, 
published  by  Westcott  and  Hort,  or  by  Scrivener,  will  amply 
prove  this  statement.  They  multiplied  copies  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  Latin  and  in  Greek.  The  Monastery  of  St.  Gall 
was  founded  by  a  member  of  the  School  of  St.  Columbanus 
— his  disciple  St.  Gall,  after  whom  it  was  called.  To  it 
we  owe  the  celebrated  Codex  Sangallensis,  still  preserved 
in  that  monastery ;  and  the  Codex  Boernerianus  now  at 
Dresden,  which,  hov/ever,  is  only  a  part  of  the  St.  Gall 
manuscript,  this  latter  containing  the  Four  Gospels,  as  the 
Dresden  document  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  To  the  Irish 
monastery  of  Eeichenau,  on  the  Lake  of  Constance,  is  due 
the  Codex  Augiensis,  which,  like  the  St.  Gall  MS.,  is  a 
Greek  uncial  copy  of  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  with  a  Latin 
version  in  parallel  columns.  The  Bobbio  monks  devoted 
themselves  to  the  multiplication  of  the  Latin  translation, 
such  Celtic  work  being  always  distinguished,  whether  in 
these  islands  or  abroad,  by  the  beautiful  capitals  with  which 
the  writers  interspersed  their  texts. ^  Some  of  these  manu- 
scripts— all  of  which  come  from  about  the  same  period,  the 
seventh  to  the  ninth  centuries — contain  most  interesting 
marginal  notices,  illustrating  the  history  of  doctrines  and 
doctrinal  changes,  or  else  giving  us  glimpses  of  the  social 
life  and  habits  of  that  distant  time.  St.  Gall,  for  instance, 
was  an  intense  Augustinian,  and  taught  predestinarian  views 
in  the  most  extreme  forms.  He  lived  in  the  seventh  century, 
but  in  the  ninth  century  his  followers,  like  certain  moderns, 
had  revolted  from  his  teaching  and  gone  over  to  the  opposite 
party.  This  is  manifest  from  some  notes  which  the  monks 
attached  to  various  texts  which  the  predestinarian  party 
quoted  in  defence  of  their  views  or  felt  as  difficulties,  as 
for  instance  John  xii.  39,  40,  "  Therefore  they  could  not 
believe,  because  that  Esaias  said  again.  He  hath  blinded 

1  See  for  instance  the  Books  of  Durrow  and  Kells  iu  the  Library  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin. 


470  ANCIENT  GELTIO  EXPOSITORS. 

their  eyes,  and  hardened  their  heart ;  that  they  should  not 
see  with  their  eyes,  nor  understand  with  their  heart,  and 
be  converted,  and  I  should  heal  them,"  and  on  texts  like 
Eomans  iii.  5,  "But  if  oar  unrighteousness  commend  the 
righteousness  of  God,  what  shall  we  say?     Is  God  unright- 
eous who  taketh  vengeance?"  1  Corinthians  ii.  8,  "Which 
none  of  the  princes  of  this  world  knew  :  for  had  they  known 
it,  they  would  not  have  crucified  the  Lord  of  glory,"  and  1 
Timothy  ii.  4,  "  Who  will  have  all  men  to  be  saved,  and  to 
come  unto  the  knowledge  of  the  truth,"  which  last  of  course 
constituted  a  difhculty  to  an  Augustinian,  because  it  asserts 
God's  desire  that  all  should  be  saved  and  come  to  eternal 
salvation,^     Upon  all  these  and  several  other  verses  the  St. 
Gall  scribes  inserted  marginal  notes  warning  their  readers 
against  the  heretical  teaching  of  Gottschalk,  the  leader  of 
the  extreme  predestinarian  party  in  the  ninth  century.     St. 
Gall's  Monastery  however  has  not  been  the  only  institution 
which  has  thus  performed  a  theological  somersault  in  the 
course  of  two  centuries  and  quite  reversed  the  teaching  of 
its  founders.     All  the  Celtic  monks,  we  must  at  the  same 
time  remember,  did  not  follow  the  example  of  those  of  St. 
Gall ;  for  Sedulius  belonged  to  that  period  and  still  clung  to 
the  ancient  Irish  view,  upholding  an  extreme  Augustinianism 
which  might  have  satisfied  John  Calvin  or  the  fathers  of  the 
Westminster  Assembly. 

But  the  most  interesting  of  the  St.  Gall  notes  is  one  in 
the  document  containing  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  now  at  Dres- 
den. This  manuscript  was,  as  I  have  said,  once  in  St.  Gall's 
Monastery,  where  it  was  written  by  Irish  monks,  as  appears 
from  some  curious  Celtic  lines  contained  therein,  which  Dr. 
Scrivener  gives  on  p.  170  of  his  Introduction  to  the  Criti- 
cism of  the  Neiu  Testament.  They  are  written  in  old  Irish, 
and  long  puzzled  the  learned  men  of  the  Continent  till 
a  great  Celtic  scholar,  the  late   Dr.  John   O'Donovan,  the 

'  See  Scrivener,  I.e.,  p.  151. 


ST.    C0LUMBANU8  AND  HIS  LIBRARY.  471 

translator  of  the  Four  Masters  into  English,  was  consulted, 
when  he  at  once  explained  their  meaning.  Dr.  Scrivener 
gives  O'Donovan's  translation  with  corrections  by  Dr.  Todd 
and  the  Eev.  Kobert  King.  The  verses  run  thus  in  the 
English  version : 

"  To  come  to  Rome,  to  come  to  Rome, 
Much  of  trouble,  little  of  profit ; 
The  thing  thou  seekest  here, 
If  thou  bring  not  with  thee,  thou  findest  not. 

Great  folly,  great  madness, 

Great  ruin  of  sense,  great  insanity, 

Since  thou  hast  set  out  for  death, 

That  thou  shouldest  be  in  disobedience  to  the  Son  of  Mary." 

These  stanzas  were  written  of  course  by  an  Irishman,  for 
they  are  in  the  Irish  language.  Mr.  King  suggested  that 
they  were  composed  by  an  Irish  bishop  named  Marcus,  who 
went  to  Eome  on  a  pilgrimage  in  company  with  his  nephew 
Moengal.  Upon  their  return  from  Eome  they  called  at 
St.  Gall,  where  the  bishop  and  his  nephew  remained  as 
residents,  bestowing  their  books  on  the  monastic  library, 
and  sending  their  servants  and  their  horses  home  to  Ire- 
land. This  however  is  a  mere  conjecture ;  the  lines  them- 
selves give  us  facts. ^  They  show  us  that  pilgrimages  to 
Home  were  made  by  monks  from  Ireland  in  the  eighth  and 
ninth  centuries.  We  know  that  it  was  just  the  same  with 
the  Celts  two  centuries  earlier.  St.  Laserian  of  Old  Leigh- 
lin,  Cummian  a  Columban  monk,  the  author  of  a  learned 
epistle  on  the  Paschal  question,  still  extant,  both  visited 
Eome  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century.  And  the 
fashion  of  pilgrimage  to  the  tombs  of  the  Apostles  Peter 
and  Paul  never  died  out  in  Ireland,  though  like  many  an 
Irishman  since  that  time,  the  Celtic  author  of  the  stanzas 
quoted    above   seems   to   have   returned  very  discontented 

'  The  visit  of  the  Celtic  bishop  and  liis  nephew  to  St.  Gall  is  au  undoubted 
fact.  It  is  mentioned  by  a  contemporary  chronicler,  Ekkehardus.  See  Pertz, 
Monumenta  ii.,  p.  78. 


472  ANCIENT  CELTIC  EXPOSITORS. 

with  his  Roman  visit. ^  He  went  to  Rome  doubtless  as 
Luther  did,  expecting  to  find  it  the  very  centre  and  seat  of 
hohness  incarnate,  and  in  his  own  emphatic  language  he 
found  "to  come  to  Rome  much  of  trouble,  little  of  profit." 
He  went  to  Rome  expecting  to  find  God's  presence  and  His 
peace  there  specially  revealed.  The  ancient  delusion  was 
there  dispelled  for  him  that  God  draws  nearer  one  place 
than  another.  Peace  with  God  was  at  last  realized  by 
this  ancient  Celt  as  found  in  the  islands  of  the  ocean  as 
readily  as  in  the  ecclesiastical  capital  of  the  West.  The 
words,  "The  thing  thou  seekest  here,  if  thou  bring  not  with 
thee  thou  findest  not,"  are  an  echo  of  the  blessed  teaching 
of  the  Master  Himself  to  the  Samaritan  inquirer:  "The 
hour  cometh,  when  ye  shall  neither  in  this  mountain,  nor 
yet  at  Jerusalem,  worship  the  Father.  God  is  a  Spirit  : 
and  they  that  worship  Him  must  worship  Him  in  spirit 
and  in  truth." 

George  T.  Stokes. 

^  The  dedications  of  the  ancient  cathedral  of  Glendalough  and  of  the  mona- 
stery of  Bobbio  were  the  same,  in  honour  of  the  Ajiostles  Peter  and  Paul.  The 
usual  dedications  of  ancient  Celtic  churches  were  in  honour  of  purely  local 
Celtic  saints. 


INDEX. 


Rev.  Professor  Joseph  Agar  Beet. 

Epaphroditus  and  the  Gift  from  Philippi    ....       64 

Rev.  Professor  A.  B.  Bruce,  D.D. 
The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  : 

VI.  The  Way  of  Salvation 81 

YII.  Christ  and  Moses 161 

VIII.  The  Gospel  of  Rest 272 

IX.  Ohrist  not  a   Self-elected,  but  a  God-appointed 

Priest 351 

X.  The  Teacher's  Complaint     .....     415 

Very  Rev.  G.  A.  Chadwick,  D.D. 

The  Group  of  the  Apostles  : 

I .100 

II.  Peter 187 

III.  The  Minor  Figures 434 

Rev.  Fo  H.  Chase,  M.A. 

Christian  Interpolations  in  Jewish  "Writings       .         .  .179 

Rev.  Professor  T.  K.  Cheyne,  D.D. 
Brevia  : 

La  Langue  Parlee  par  N.  S.  Jesus-Christ  sur  la  Terre     238 

Rev.  Professor  S.  Ives  Curtiss,  D.D.,  Ph.D. 

Recent  Old  Testament  Literature  in  the  United  States       .     235 

Rev.  Professor  A.  B.  Davidson,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

"  Crowned  with  Glory  and  Honour  "  ....      115 

Rev.  Professor  Franz  Delitzsch,   D.D. 

The  Deep  Gulf  between  the  Old  Theology  and  the  New     .       42 
In    Self-Defence :    Critical    Observations    on   my   Hebrew 
New  Testament : 

1 1S5 

II.,  Ill 310 

473 


474 


INDEX. 


Rev.  Marcus  Dods,  D.D. 

Recent  Englisli  Literature  on  the  New  Testament 
Farrar's  Lives  of  the  Fathers         .... 

Rev.   Professor  S.  R.  Driver,   D.D. 

liotes  on  Three  Passages  in  St.  Paiil's  Epistles 
The  Double  Text  of  Jeremiah     . 

Ven.  Archdeacon  F.  W.  Farrar,  D.D.,  F.R.S 

The  Last  Nine  Chapters  of  Ezekiel     . 

St.  James  the  Apostle  .... 

Rev.  Professor  G.  G.  Findlay,  B.A. 
Jesus  Crowned  for  Death    .... 

Josiah  Gilbert. 

The  Image  and  the  Stone  .... 

Rev.  Augustus  Jessopp,  D.D. 

Primitive  Litui'gies  and  Confessions  of  Faith 

Rev.  Ed.  G.  King,  D.D. 

The  Hallel 


75,  316 
.     232 

.  15 
.     321 

1 
.     241 

222 

.  449 
.  401 
.     121 


Rev.  Professor  J.  Rawson  Lumby,  D.D. 

Old  Testament  Criticism  in  the  Light  of  New   Testament 

Quotations       .  .  .  .  .  .         .  .  .     337 

Rev.  Professor  W.  Milligan,  D.D. 

The  Priesthood  and  Priestly  Service  of  the  Church    .  .     200 

Joseph  John  Murphy. 

Two  Parables 290 

Rev.  W.  W.  Peyton. 

The   Bread    Problem    of   the   World,    Our    Lord's    First 

Temptation 369 

Professor  W.  M.  Ramsay,  M.A. 

Early  Christian  Monuments  in    Phrygia  :  a  Study  in  the 
Early  History  of  the  Chui'ch  : 

III 141 

IV '     .         .         .253 

V 392 

Rev.  F.  Rendall,  M.A. 

The  Scriptural  Idea  of  Priesthood  embodied  in  Successive 
Types 24 


INDEX. 


475 


Rev.  T.  G.  Selby. 

Professor  Huxley  and  tlie  Swine  o£  Gadara         .  .         .     303 

Brevia:  Second  Twiliglits  and  Old  Testament  Miracles     .     317 

Rev.  Professor  George  T.  Stokes,  D.D. 

Ancient  Celtic  Expositors  .......     461 

The  Editor. 

Professor  Cheyne         ........       55 


INDEX    TO    TEXTS. 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Genesis  vii.  18-20       .         .         .131 

Ezekiel  xliv.  1-4 

.     134 

Exodus  xix.  6     . 

39 

Daniel  ii.  31 

.     448 

xxi.  6     . 

343 

iv.  23, 29 

.     311 

xxviii.  35,  43 

71 

xii.  2 

.     313 

xxix.  21 . 

205 

Hosea  xiii.  14     . 

.     134 

Leviticus  xvii.-xxvi. 

9 

Amos  ix.  11,  12  . 

.    344 

Numbers  xx.  17  . 

16 

Zechariah  xii.  10 

.     345 

Joshua  X.  12 

318 

Matthew  iv.  3     . 

.     369 

2  Chronicles  xxvi.  IG- 

21 

29 

viii.  28 

.     303 

Jobv.  13    . 

345 

ix.9     . 

.     445 

xHi.  6  . 

194 

X.  2      . 

.     103 

Psalm  viii. 

341 

X.  3      . 

438,  439,  443 

viii.  2 

341 

X.  4      . 

.     435 

xl.   . 

25 

X.  5      . 

.     105 

Ixvi.  3      . 

51 

xii. 

.     346 

Ixviii.  18  . 

20 

xiv.  30 

.     188 

cxiii.-cxviii. 

121 

XV.  23  . 

.     107 

cxiv. 

125 

xvi.  13-17 

.     195 

cxv. 

126 

xvi.  16 

.     110 

cxvi. 

129 

xix.  27 

.     290 

cxvii. 

131 

XX.  16 . 

.     290 

cxxxiii.    . 

313 

XX. 22  . 

.     248 

cxxxix.     . 

383 

xxi.  16 

.     340 

Ecelesiastes  iii.  11 

313 

xxvi.  27 

.     121 

Isaiah  v.  1  . 

134 

xxvi.  39-44 

.     131 

vi.  5 

194 

xxvi.  42 

.     130 

xxxviii;  8 

319 

Mark  iii.  16 

.     103 

Jeremiah     . 

321 

vi.  29 

.     106 

Ezekiel  xl.-xlviii. 

1 

vii.  15 

.     109 

476 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Mark  viii.  IG       .         .         .        .111 

1  Cor.  XV.  27        .         .         .         .     342 

X.  32 

.     104 

2  Cor.  iv.  13 

131 

xii.  43 

.     108 

viii.  1,  2    . 

.      68 

xiv.  41 

.     248 

xi.  6 

407 

XV.  47 

.     244 

xi.  9 

68 

Luke  i.  1-4 

.     401 

Galatians  i.  19    . 

437 

V.  5    . 

.     188 

ii.  20  . 

.      46 

vi.  13 

.       70 

iii.  16 

18 

vi.  14 

.     103 

Ephesians  iii.  14 

411 

ix.  55 

.     248 

iv.  8  . 

2 

0,  349 

XV.       . 

.     311 

Philippians  i.  7,  13 

64 

XV.  11-32 

.     290 

i.  29  . 

.     117 

xxiv.  18 

.     244 

ii.  5-11 

.     230 

John  i.  14  . 

.     117 

iii.  6  . 

296 

i.  40  . 

.     440 

iii.  20,  21 

202 

i.  43  . 

.     442 

iv.  10 

66 

i.  50  . 

.     438 

Colossians  i.  24  . 

212 

iv.  6  . 

.     104 

1  Thessalonians  iii.  1 

1,  12 

182 

vi.  51 

.     313 

iv.  2 

406 

vii.  5 

.     244 

V.  8 

184 

xii.  22 

.     441 

2  Thessalonians  ii.  1- 

12 

180 

xiv.  8 

.     443 

ii.  6 

182 

XV.  5  . 

.     200 

1  Timothy  iii.  9  . 

412 

XV.  15 

.     105 

2  Timothy  iii.  8  . 

403 

xvii.  18 

.     201 

Hebrews  ii.  3-9  . 

342 

xix.  25 

.     244 

ii.  5-9  . 

222 

xix.  27 

.     245 

•ii.  9       . 

115 

xix.  37 

.     345 

ii.  11-18 

81 

xxi.  17 

.     189 

iii. 

161 

xxi.  18 

.     188 

iv. 

272 

Acts  i.  13    . 

.     103 

V.  1         . 

24 

iv.  13 

.     188 

V.  1-10  . 

351 

V.  41   . 

.     117 

V.  5       . 

3 

6,121 

vi.  4    . 

.     405 

V.  10     . 

39 

vi.  7    . 

.     401 

V.  7,  8   . 

131 

xiii.  12 

.     401 

V.  11-14 

415 

XV. 

,     343 

vi.  1-8  . 

415 

XV.  6  . 

.     405 

ix.  26    . 

131 

XV.  26 

.     404 

X.14      . 

40 

xviii.  25 

.     401 

X.  19-22 

204 

xix.  19 

.     402 

xi.  40    . 

39 

llomans  ii.  17 

.     410 

James  i.  5   . 

29.5 

viii.  2 

.      46 

2  Peter  i.  16 

117 

1  Cor.  iii.    . 

.     349 

1  John  V.  17 

298 

iii.  19 

.     345 

Revelation  xiv.  13 

281 

X.  4, 

.       15 

xxi.  4' 

281 

xiii.  2 

.     409 

Butlev  &  Tanner.  The  Selwooil  Printing  Works.  Frome,  and  Iximion. 


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