The externals of the Catholic church : her government, ceremonies, festivals, sacramentals, and devotions

Ctfert

JESUIT
BEL MM.

JANUARY I«T|90|_

THE EXTERNALS

OF
THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Jfttyil JSDfaatat:

ARTHUR J. SCANLAN, S.T.D.

Censor Librorum

Imprimatur:

^ JOHN CARDINAL FARLEY, D.D.

Archbishop of New York

NEW YORK, August 24, 1917

THE EXTERNALS

OF

THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

HER GOVERNMENT, CEREMONIES BX

FESTIVALS JJ51

SACRAMENTALS, AND DEVOTIONS 1917

BY

REV. JOHN F. SULLIVAN

OF THE DIOCESE OF PROVIDENCE

NEW YORK

P. J. KENEDY & SONS
1917

/a

COPYRIGHT, 1917
BY P. J. KENEDY & SONS

PREFACE

OUR CATHOLIC LITURGY is a grand and har
monious manifestation of man's homage to God.
Its words and ceremonies and devotions are the
growth of centuries. The essentials of our Church's
worship have been embellished with a wealth of ritual
observance, of which each detail is symbolic of the pur
pose for which that worship is offered. The explanation
of these manifold practices is the object of this work.

How little is known, even by fairly well-informed
Catholics, concerning the history and meaning of the
practices which have been embodied in our Church's ma
jestic ritual! They kneel before the altar of God; they
listen to the cadence of psalm and hymn and Preface and
prayer; they see the ministers of the Church perform
various sacred actions — and in many cases they know
little of the origin of what they hear and see, or of the
reasons for the ceremonial which adds so much to the
beauty of Catholic worship. They receive the Sacra
ments of the Church, devoutly, indeed, but without ever
trying to learn why these are administered with certain
ceremonies. They use the sacramentals, and profit by so
doing; but how few have had an opportunity of learning
the history of these things which our Church sanctifies for
us ! And when a non-Catholic, interested in these ancient
practices of the " Mother Church," asks why and where
fore — how seldom we, the children of that Church, are
able to give an accurate and satisfactory answer !

This book is an attempt to put into clear, convenient
and readable form an explanation of many practices of

vi PREFACE

our Church. While it covers a wider scope than any one-
volume work hitherto issued on the subject in English (or,
possibly, in any other language), it has no pretensions to
be considered an authoritative or even a complete sum
mary of the matter treated in its pages. The wealth of
subjects which might be included in " The Externals of the
Catholic Church " is so great that no book of this size
could contain even a fragmentary account of each; and so
a selection had to be made — the results of which the
reader will find in the Table of Contents.

It has not been deemed advisable to cumber its pages
with references to authorities, or with footnotes. The
facts stated, however, have been carefully gleaned from
the most approved sources. First of all, the author
wishes to pay a tribute of gratitude to that monumental,
marvelous and long-desired work which is the literary
glory of the Church in America — the " Catholic En
cyclopedia." Extensive use has been made of its many
volumes; in fact, without its aid a book like this would
have been well-nigh impossible.

He is deeply indebted, too, to that valuable little book,
" The Sacramentals," by Father Lambing, and parts of
this work will be found to be reminiscent of much that
was lucidly treated by that learned and painstaking author.
The " Catholic Dictionary " has furnished much from its
concise and accurate pages; and the following works have
been of more than occasional usefulness in gathering the
matter which this book contains: " The Roman Court,"
by Rev. P. A. Baart; " Roman Documents and Decrees ";
" The Law of the Church," by Rev. Ethelred Taunton;
the "Acta Apostolicae Sedis"; the " Bibliotheca " of
Ferraris; " The New Matrimonial Legislation," by Rev.
C. J. Cronin, S. J. ; " The Mass; a Study of the Roman
Rite," by Father Fortescue; the " Ecclesiastical Diction-

PREFACE vii

ary " of Father Thein; "The Holy Sacrifice of the
Mass," by Rev. Dr. Gihr; the " Handbook of the Divine
Liturgy," by Rev. C. C. Clarke; "Ritual in Catholic
Worship," by Father Procter, O.P.; "Christian Sym
bols," by C. E. Clement; "Lent and Holy Week," by
Rev. Herbert Thurston; "The Costumes of Prelates,"
by Father Nainfa, S.S. — and various other standard
works and reference-books on the Church's law and
liturgy.

If this book shall be occasionally a help to some of his
fellow-priests for purposes of instruction, or if through it
some knowledge of the beautiful ceremonial of our
Church is imparted to our Catholic laity, it will fulfill the
intention and the hopes of

THE AUTHOR

CONTENTS

PART I, THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH

CHAPTER PAGE

I. THE POPE 3

II. THE CARDINALS AND THE ROMAN COURT . 10

. III. THE BISHOPS AND THE DIOCESAN CLERGY 13

PART II. THE RELIGIOUS STATE

IV. THE MONASTIC LIFE 20

V. THE GREAT RELIGIOUS ORDERS 26

VI. RELIGIOUS LIFE FOR WOMEN 38

PART III. THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS

VII. THE CEREMONIES OF BAPTISM 43

VIII. THE SPONSORS IN BAPTISM 47

IX. THE CEREMONIES OF CONFIRMATION .... 52

X. THE CONFESSION OF SINS 58

XI. THE CEREMONIES OF EXTREME UNCTION . 65

XII. THE CEREMONIES OF HOLY ORDERS .... 71

XIII. THE CEREMONIES OF MATRIMONY 84

PART IV. THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS

XIV. THE MASS 89

XV. THE GROWTH OF THE MASS — I 94

XVI. THE GROWTH OF THE MASS — II 98

XVII. THE GROWTH OF THE MASS — III 104

XVIII. THE REQUISITES FOR THE MASS 108

XIX. WHY THE MASS is SAID IN LATIN 117

ix

CONTENTS

PART V. THE ECCLESIASTICAL TEAR

CHAPTER PAGE

XX. THE CHURCH'S CALENDAR 122

XXI. FESTIVALS 126

XXII. ADVENT 131

XXIII. CHRISTMAS DAY 135

XXIV. LENT AND HOLY WEEK 140

PART VI. THE SACRAMENTALS

XXV. THE SIGN OF THE CROSS 148

XXVI. THE CROSS AND THE CRUCIFIX 150

XXVII. HOLY WATER 156

XXVIII. VESTMENTS 162

XXIX. THE STATIONS. OF THE CROSS 172

XXX. THE HOLY OILS 176

XXXI. CANDLES 182

XXXII. THE ROSARY 186

XXXIII. SCAPULARS — I 191

XXXIV. SCAPULARS — II 199

XXXV. THE AGNUS DEI 204

XXXVI. PALMS 208

XXXVII. INCENSE 211

XXXVIII. CHURCH BELLS 215

XXXIX. RELIGIOUS MEDALS 223

XL. ASHES 227

PART VII. THE LITURGICAL BOOKS

XLI. THE MISSAL 230

XLII. THE BREVIARY 234

XLIII. THE RITUAL 238

CONTENTS xi

PART Fill. DEMOTIONS

CHAPTER PAGE

XLIV. THE DEVOTION TO THE SACRED HEART . . 243

XLV. THE INVOCATION OF SAINTS 247

XLVI. THE VENERATION OF IMAGES 252

XLVII. THE VENERATION OF RELICS 257

XLVIII. THE FORTY HOURS' ADORATION 261

XLIX. OUR DAILY PRAYERS 265

L. THE LITANIES 273

PART IX. MISCELLANEOUS

LI. SERVICES FOR THE DEAD 280

LII. THE CHURCHING OF WOMEN 286

LIII. FASTING AND ABSTINENCE 290

LIV. INDULGENCES 294

LV. PILGRIMAGES 300

LVI. AN UNMARRIED CLERGY 304

LVII. CHRISTIAN SYMBOLS 309

LVIII. THE CATHOLIC BIBLE 314

LIX. CHURCH Music 319

LX. PSALMS AND HYMNS 331

LXI. THE MARRIAGE LAWS 336

LXII. RELIGIOUS SOCIETIES 345

LXIII. THE CANONIZATION OF A SAINT 353

LXIV. CHURCH BUILDINGS AND THEIR PARTS . . . 359

LXV. THE CONSECRATION OF A CHURCH 364

LXVI. OTHER RITES THAN OURS 370

INDEX 377

THE EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC
CHURCH

THE EXTERNALS OF THE
CATHOLIC CHURCH

PART I
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH

CHAPTER I
THE POPE

THE CATHOLIC CHURCH is a divinely instituted
society, of which all the members profess the doctrine
of Christ and are united under the teaching and rule
of the Roman Pontiff and the Bishops subject to him, that thereby
they may cultivate holiness and obtain salvation.

Like all other societies it has, therefore, a system of authority
by which it is ruled, and by which its members are directed toward
the end for which it was established; and the description of this
system will form the matter of these first chapters.

When we read of the Church's government or of its legis
lative acts we often meet the words " Cardinal," or " Metro
politan," or " Delegate," or " Primate," and we know in a vague
way that these are officials of the Church; but the great majority
of us Catholics have no very clear idea of the duties or the relative
rank of these and other dignitaries. Many of us, doubtless,
are far less familiar with the details of the government of our
Church than we are with the administrative machinery of our
country or city.

The Two Hierarchies. The governing body of the Church's
clergy is usually known as the Hierarchy, a word derived from the
Greek, signifying " priestly rule."

3

4 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

The Divine Founder of our Church did not intend that the
" rank and file " of its membership should have authority in it, or
a power to perform sacred public functions. To selected mem
bers, called the clergy, was given the office of offering public
worship, or administering most of the sacraments, and of ruling
and instructing the faithful; and the clergy (the " chosen ones ")
are therefore known, first of all, as the Hierarchy of Order, be
cause they receive these powers through the Sacrament of Holy
Orders. And in order that there may be system and uniformity,
that the work of the whole body may be done in an orderly and
effective manner, these leaders of the Church possess also certain
legislative powers, on account of which they are known as the
Hierarchy of Jurisdiction.

The essential features of the Church's government are the
Papacy and the Episcopacy — the office of Pope and the office
of Bishop. These were established by our Blessed Lord. The
other grades of the hierarchy and the various details of govern
mental legislation have been determined by the Church herself
in the course of centuries.

The Pope. Every nation has its ruler, be he emperor or
king or president. Every society has its legislative head, its
centre of authority, its lawmaker and lawgiver. And, as the
Church is a society of men, although instituted by God, His wis
dom has ordained that at the head of His earthly kingdom there
shall be one man, a monarch, endowed with supreme power.
This man is the Pope, the successor of St. Peter in the bishopric
of Rome. " Upon this Rock I will build My Church." " I will
give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven. Whatsoever thou
shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatsoever thou
shalt loose upon earth shall be loosed in heaven." Our Lord Jesus
Christ, wishing His Church to be one, instituted the Primacy of
Peter to rule it and to cement it into unity.

The Pope's Power. The sovereignty of the Pope over the
Church differs from that of the rulers of other societies. He has
direct authority over all Catholics, from the most exalted prelate to
the humblest layman ; and he is obliged to render an account of his

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH 5

administration to no human being. None of his power is derived
from or delegated by any one else. According to the Vatican
Council, he has " the whole fulness of supreme power, ordinary
and immediate, over all and each of the pastors and the faithful.'*
He is the supreme judge in matters of faith. To him belongs the
right to regulate all the Church's discipline. He may enact laws
for the whole Church and for any part of it, and dispense from
them. He can inflict censures, such as excommunication. He can
reserve to himself the power of absolving from certain sins. He
and he alone can form, suppress and divide dioceses and approve
new religious orders. He can dispense from any vow, no matter
how solemn or sacred.

The Pope's Infallibility. That the successor of St. Peter may
preserve the faith of Jesus Christ free from any taint of error,
that the shepherd may guide the flock aright, he has been endowed
with a wonderful power and privilege. He is infallible in matters
of faith and morals. That is, when by virtue of his Apostolic
office he defines a doctrine of faith or morals to be held by the
whole Church, he speaks without error or danger of error, being
preserved from it by the Spirit of God, Which " teaches all truth "
and abides with the Church forever.

Non-Catholics often ask: "Does this mean that the Pope
cannot make a mistake ? " Others go further, and inquire :
" Do you Catholics believe that the Pope cannot sin?" The
answer to both questions is, No. The Pope is subject to error,
like other men. He can sin, even as we, for he is human. He
is infallible only when he is speaking as the supreme teacher and
head of the Church, and only when he is defining a doctrine con
cerning faith or morals and imposing it upon the whole Church
to be accepted and held by all the Church's members. He has no
immunity from error in other things. He may advocate historical
or scientific views that are absolutely false. He may write books
which may be full of inaccuracies and misstatements. God pro
tects him from error only when he is exercising his office of
sovereign teacher and lawgiver regarding matters which are the
doctrine of the Church, whether these be of faith or morals. Such

6 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

doctrines thus proposed are the teaching of the Church of Christ
as soon as the Pope defines them; and any one who refuses to
accept them thereby ceases to be a member of the Church.

Here, then, we have the supreme authority, the highest tribunal
of appeal, the very foundation of our Church. The man who sits
to-day in the chair of Peter is, like him, the rock upon which
God's Church is built. He is guided by the Holy Spirit when
he is teaching the truths of God to the world. As the Church
is our infallible guide in the path of salvation and our infallible
teacher concerning God's revealed truth, it is logical and necessary
to hold that he who rules the Church must be likewise infallible,
free from even the possibility of error, when he is solemnly pro
claiming its principles of morals or of faith.

The Pope's Election. The Papacy is a monarchy, differing
from other governments of that kind in one important detail; it is
not hereditary. It may be termed an elective monarchy. In the
first centuries it was the custom to allow the clergy and people of
each diocese to choose their own bishop, and this was done at Rome
as well as elsewhere; the election, however, required the assent
of the neighboring bishops, and the crowning of the new Pontiff
was performed by the Bishop of Ostia. The present system of
election may be traced back to Pope Nicholas II, for his decree,
issued in 1059, restricted the electoral power to the Cardinals.
At first the Cardinal-Bishops were the only ones authorized to
select the new Pope, but after a time all the Cardinals were al
lowed to have a share in that important work.

Who may be chosen to fill the office of Pope? Strictly speak
ing, any male Catholic who has come to the age of reason — even
a layman. Strange to say, it would be legally possible to elect
even a married man ; for the law of the " celibacy of the clergy "
is not of divine institution, but is a rule of the Church which
developed gradually and was finally made a part of her legal code
for the greater part of the world. But there is no danger, in the
present state of the Church's discipline, that we will have a Pope
with a wife, nor even that any layman will be selected in preference

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH 7

to a cleric. For more than five hundred years the choice has fallen
in every instance upon a Cardinal.

Would it be possible for the Pope to nominate his successor?
No; this is expressly forbidden by the Church's law, because it
would mean an act of jurisdiction by one who no longer has
authority — for a dead Pope is no longer Pope, and any selection
made by him has no binding force on the Church after his death.

The Conclave. The election of a Pope takes place at what is
called a Conclave, which word signifies that the voting prelates
(the College of Cardinals) are under lock and key. This is an
ancient practice, dating back to the twelfth century.

"Death lays his icy hand on kings," sang the old poet; and
he who is more exalted than any king must bow to the same in
exorable law. When the Sovereign Pontiff dies, his actual death
is verified by a quaint ceremony. One of the Cardinals approaches
the bedside and strikes the forehead of the dead Pope three times
with a silver mallet, calling him by his baptismal name. The
death of the Pope being thus legally attested, the Cardinals are
summoned to the Conclave to elect his successor.

A part of the Vatican Palace is walled off, and ten days after
the death of the Pope the Cardinals begin their work. The ballot
ing is usually secret, and as a two-thirds vote is required for an
election, it frequently happens that several ballotings are required.

The governments of Austria and Spain, and others as well, have
been allowed at some elections to register their opposition to some
proposed candidate, enforcing the withdrawal of his name. This
was known as the Power of Veto. It has been definitively for
bidden in all elections hereafter.

When a candidate is found to have the necessary number of
votes and has manifested his willingness to accept the office, he is
thereby Pope. He needs no ceremony of consecration to elevate
him to the Papacy.

It would be possible, though far from probable, that a person
might be elected Pope who is not already a Bishop. He would
become Pope as soon as he was lawfully chosen, and could then

8 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

perform all the duties of the Papacy which pertain to jurisdic
tion; but he could not ordain or consecrate until he himself had
been raised to the episcopate by other Bishops.

Within a few days after his election the new Pope is crowned
with solemn ceremonies after a Mass of Coronation, in which
petitions are offered for the spiritual and temporal welfare of
the new Pontiff, and for the prosperity of the Church under his
rule.

The Pope's New Name. For about one thousand years it has
been customary for each new Pope to change his name. This
is said by some to be in imitation of the taking of the name of
Peter by the first Pontiff. Usually the name is taken of some
preceding Pope whose works and sanctity commend themselves to
the new Pontiff, and whose policies, perhaps, he intends to imitate.

Such is the method which our holy Church uses for the per
petuation of her government, continuing through century after
century that glorious line of successors to him who received from
our Saviour the commission to feed His lambs and His sheep.
The powers of evil have conspired against that Church, but they
have not prevailed. Storms have raged around the bark of Peter,
but it has not been overwhelmed. The enemies of God's Church
have tried and are trying to destroy that which is indestructible.

The Pope's Titles. The " Pope " gets that name from the
Latin " Papa," a childish word for " Father." By virtue of his
office he is also the " Patriarch of the West," the " Primate of
Italy," and the " Metropolitan of the Province of Rome," as well
as the Bishop of Rome. He is often spoken of as the " Sovereign
Pontiff." The word Pontiff comes from the priesthood of pagan
Rome, and signifies literally " bridge-builder," because the high-
priests of Rome, among other civic duties, had charge of the bridges
over the Tiber.

The Pope is usually mentioned as " Our Holy Father," and is
addressed as " Your Holiness," or, in Latin, " Beatissime Pater "
— " Most Blessed Father." He speaks of himself in official docu
ments as " Servus Servorum Dei " — " Servant of the Servants
of God."

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH 9

The Pope's Insignia. The ordinary garb of the Sovereign
Pontiff is white. He does not use the crosier or pastoral staff
of Bishops. Among his insignia are the pallium.
which signifies his rank as a Primate, and the tiara,
or triple crown. In early centuries the Pope wore
a simple mitre, like other Bishops; but about the
ninth century a crown was added to it, to denote
the Pontiff's temporal power as ruler of the States
of the Church. Later a second crown was added, Tiara and
and about the year 1365 a third — signifying, according to some,
the supreme authority of the Pope in spiritual things, his jurisdic
tion over the Church considered as a human society, and his
dominion as a temporal monarch. According to others, the triple
crown typifies his threefold office as teacher, lawgiver and judge.

Peterspence. A part of the revenue of the Holy See at the
present day is provided by a yearly contribution from the faithful
of various countries. This bears the name of " Peterspence," be
cause in England, in Saxon times, each householder gave a penny.
It began in the reign of King Offa, in 787, and spread from Eng
land to other nations of northern Europe. At the time of the
Reformation it ceased throughout the world, and was not re
established until the reign of Pius IX.

Benedict XV, the Sovereign Pontiff at the present time (1917)5
is the 26oth Pope. That long line of saints, of martyrs, of learned
teachers and of wise rulers has endured for nearly twenty centuries,
and will endure till the end of time. Other religions have arisen
and flourished and died ; for they were not divine in their origin,
and contained at most only a part of God's truth in their teachings.
But the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus Christ Himself,
and that Church will be man's guide and the chief means of his
salvation until that dread day when " the Son of Man shall sit in
the seat of His majesty and all nations shall be gathered before
Him."

io EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

CHAPTER II
THE CARDINALS AND THE ROMAN COURT

NEXT to the Pope, in the Church's hierarchy, come the Cardi
nals. They are the counsellors of the Pontiff in many important
matters pertaining to the government of the universal Church,
and some of them exercise extensive jurisdiction in the various
" Congregations " and tribunals which have been instituted for the
administration of Church law. They form, so to speak, the
Senate of the Church.

The word Cardinal is derived from the Latin "cardo," a hinge.
They are, as it were, so necessary to the government and discipline
of the Church that it may be said to revolve around them as a
door on its hinges.

Princes of the Church. The office of Cardinal is a dignity
only; the person who holds it has not received any new Order.
It merely makes him higher in rank than other prelates. He is
second to none but the Pope, and takes precedence of all other
dignitaries in the Church. He is considered equal in rank to a
prince of a reigning house, and is often spoken of as a " Prince
of the Church." He is responsible to the Pope only, and may be
deposed by him alone.

The Cardinals are appointed solely by the Sovereign Pontiff.
By a law made in 1586, the membership of the " College of
Cardinals " (or " Sacred College," as it is sometimes called) is not
permitted to exceed seventy, and generally there are several
vacancies. They are taken from many nations, although the num
ber of Italian Cardinals is usually greater than all the others
combined.

The Grades of Cardinals. They are of three grades : Cardi
nal Bishops, who are six in number, being the Bishops of certain
suburban sees around Rome; Cardinal Priests, so called, although
these, nearly always, are Bishops also ; they may number fifty ; and
Cardinal Deacons, of whom there are fourteen ; these are priests,
or may be merely in Minor Orders.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH n

The garb of Cardinals is scarlet, with a «/^ \»

biretta or cap of the same color. Chief among ^y •' g^

their insignia is the " red hat," which also forms ^?^ ^/^

a prominent feature of their armorial bearings, jfc f

A Cardinal is usually addressed as " Your Em- f \ f^X

inence." * * "

The Duties of Cardinals. The principal
duty of the Cardinals is to assist and advise the Pope in the
governing of the Church. This is done in many ways — in
" Papal Consistories" (in which details of Church administration
are discussed and settled, such as the appointing and transferring
of bishops, the division and creation of dioceses, etc.), and in
" Congregations," so called, in which are decided questions of
discipline, subject to the approval of the Pope. The Cardinals
have also a most important function when the Holy See becomes
vacant, for, as explained in the preceding chapter, they elect the
new Pope.

The Roman Congregations. The Congregations by which the
Holy Father is assisted in the governing of the Church are:
The Sacred Consistory, or Consistorial Congregation, composed of
the Pope and the College of Cardinals, assembled to discuss the
most weighty matters; the Congregation of the Sacraments; the
Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, which deals
specially with the relations of the Holy See and other govern
ments; the Congregation of the Inquisition, often called the Holy
Office, which considers cases of heresy and apostasy, supervises
certain classes of indulgences, and examines books; the Congrega
tion of Bishops and Regulars; that of the Affairs of Religious; the
Congregation of Studies; the Congregation of Rites, which regu
lates ceremonial details and also is in charge of the process for the
canonization of saints; the Congregation of Ceremonies; the Con
gregation of the Council, which attends to matters of discipline
and some matrimonial cases; the Congregation of Seminaries and
Universities, recently established; and the Congregation for the
Propagation of the Faith, often called the Propaganda, which
supervises the spreading of the faith in missionary countries.

12 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Besides these Congregations there are various tribunals. Three
of these are known as " Tribunals of Justice " — the Rota, which
means " the wheel," because its twelve officials, called auditors,
are seated in a circle and by turn examine the controversies sub
mitted to it; the Apostolic Camera or Treasury; and the Segnatura
or Signature of Justice, which examines petitions for justice and
reports on them to the Holy See. There are also three " Tri
bunals of Grace," which consider favors asked from the Sovereign
Pontiff. These are the Signature of Favor, the Datary, in charge
of benefices, etc., and the Sacred Penitentiary. Through this latter
Office the Holy See gives absolution from sins and censures spe
cially reserved to it, grants dispensations from vows, etc. The
Sacred Penitentiary, under a recent decree, has all to do with
indulgences (except indulgences which touch dogmatic teaching,
and those attached to new prayers and devotions, which are under
the care of the Congregation of the Holy Office).

There are, moreover, several tribunals or offices " of Expedi
tion," through which apostolic letters are sent and other business
is done. The more important of these are the Apostolic Chancery
and the Secretariate of State. The Cardinal who holds the latter
office attends especially to the relations of the Holy See with other
governments.

Apostolic Legates. A Legate, in the practice of our Church,
is a person sent as a representative of the Pope to a government
or to the bishops and faithful of a country. He may be a
Cardinal, or a prelate of lower rank. There are several grades.
The highest are Legates properly so called, who have jurisdiction
in many things which otherwise would be referred to the Pope,
and who act as resident ambassadors of .the Holy See in capitals
where the Papal Government is recognized. Next comes Nuncios,
sent to certain European States, whose duties are much like those
of the preceding. Some representatives of the Holy See bear the
title of Apostolic Delegate, and of these one of the most important
is the prelate who represents the Holy Father in this country.
He has broad powers, and from his decision there is no appeal to
the Roman See; in other words, an ecclesiastical matter may be

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH 13

appealed from a diocesan or metropolitan tribunal either to Rome
or to the Delegate, but if the appeal is made to him his decision
is final.

Other minor legates of the Holy See, sent for special purposes
to various parts of the world, are entitled Apostolic Vicars and
Ablegates.

CHAPTER III
THE BISHOPS AND THE DIOCESAN CLERGY

The Archbishops. After the Cardinals come the Archbishops,
and of these there are several grades. Certain prelates have the
rank of " Greater Patriarchs " ; they are the Archbishops of Jeru
salem, Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria.
Besides these there are several others to whom the
honorary title of Patriarch is given, such as the
Archbishops of Venice and of Lisbon. A step
lower in dignity than these come the " Primates,"
or Archbishops to whom this honorary rank has
been given; they formerly exercised authority over
the dioceses of a whole country or over several provinces. A
" Metropolitan " is an Archbishop who has certain rights and
jurisdiction over a province, that is, a number of dioceses, and over
the bishops who rule them. A "Titular Archbishop " is one who
rules a single diocese only, or who has merely the title of some
extinct archdiocese.

All these grades of dignity, of course, add
nothing to the sacred Order which the holder
has received. He is a Bishop, whether he
bear the title of Patriarch, Primate, Metro
politan, Archbishop or simple Bishop.

The Archbishop's Insignia. The heraldic
arms of an Archbishop are surmounted by a
double or four-armed cross, and this form of
cross is carried before him in solemn proces- Archiepiscopal Cross

i4 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

sions. After his elevation to the archiepiscopal rank he re
ceives from the Sovereign Pontiff the " pallium," a vestment con
sisting of a band of white wool worn on the shoulders, having two
pendant ribbons hanging therefrom, and ornamented with four
purple crosses.

An Archbishop is spoken of as " Most Reverend," and is ad
dressed as " Your Grace."

The Bishops. Next come the Bishops, who preside over the
individual dioceses, and this they do by divine right, for the
Episcopate of our Church, as well as the Papacy, was instituted
by Jesus Christ. Bishops are divided into two classes — " Dioce
san Bishops," who rule a certain allotted territory called a diocese,
and " Titular Bishops," who bear the title of a diocese but have
no jurisdiction over it. These latter may be commissioned by the
Holy See as " Auxiliary Bishops " or " Coadjutors," to assist the
Bishop of a diocese. The term " Coadjutor Bishop " is usually
employed to designate one who has the right to succeed the Bishop
whom he is appointed to aid. Archbishops and Bishops who are
merely " Titular " receive their titles, in many cases, from ancient
sees in regions that are not now Catholic; therefore they are known
as Archbishops or Bishops " in partibus infidelium " — that is, in
infidel lands.

In missionary countries where dioceses are not established, the
government of the Church is under the direction of a " Vicar
Apostolic," who is usually a titular Bishop.

The Visit "Ad Limina." Every Archbishop and Bishop in
charge of a diocese is obliged at certain intervals to visit Rome
and make a report to the Pope. This rendering an account of
his stewardship is known as the visit " ad limina," or to the
threshold, and is to be made every three years by Bishops who live
near Rome; every four years by other Europeans, and every five
years by those who rule over more distant sees. Our American
Bishops were, until lately, obliged to make their visit only every
tenth year, but they have been notified to do so hereafter at inter
vals of five years.

The Choosing of a Bishop. In the first days of the Church,

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH 15

and for some time afterward, the appointing of a Bishop was a
very simple matter. The Acts of the Apostles tell us of the first
election to the episcopate. When the place of the traitor Judas
was to be filled, the eleven Apostles selected two candidates, and
then left the result to God's providence, drawing lots to see who
was to be the new shepherd of the flock of Christ ; " and the lot
fell upon Matthias, and he was numbered with the eleven
Apostles." But in later ages it was seen that there was great need
of care and deliberation in choosing these rulers in the Church
of God, these guardians and leaders of His flock.

The Election of Bishops. The method of choosing bishops
varies in different countries, and, by a recent decree, has been
changed in regard to the United States of America. Formerly
the nomination of candidates was made by a " terna," or list of
three names, proposed and voted on at a meeting of the diocesan
consultors and permanent rectors, presided over by the adminis
trator of the vacant diocese, and afterward by a meeting of the
bishops of the province. These proceedings necessarily entailed
much delay; and hence the new method has been put into effect,
as follows:

The bishop of each diocese secretly communicates with each of
the consultors and permanent rectors, and (if he wishes) with
other priests, and obtains from each the name of the priest who
is, in the opinion of the proposer, worthy of the episcopal dignity.
Every second year, about the beginning of Lent, the bishop sends
the said name or names to the archbishop of the province, who
adds his own candidates, arranges the list in alphabetical order, and
sends it to each bishop.

After Easter, a private meeting of the bishops is summoned by
the archbishop, and all are put under oath to observe the strictest
secrecy. The names and qualifications of the candidates are con
sidered, and each is voted on — the balloting being made by using
balls of different colors, indicating approbation, disapprobation,
or abstention from voting. In case of a tie vote, a further ballot
is made. The result (usually with all obtainable information as
to the qualifications of the candidate) is sent to the Sacred Con-

16 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

sistorial Congregation through the Apostolic Delegation. And
thus, when a vacancy occurs in any diocese, the
Holy See is well provided with a list of candidates
and with testimony as to their fitness for the place
to be filled. The ultimate choice, of course, rests
with the Holy See.

The garb of a Bishop and his special insignia —
the mitre, the pectoral cross, the ring, the pastoral
staff, etc. — are tolerably familiar to all, and are
described elsewhere in this work, in the chapter on
Pectoral Cross « Vestments." A Bishop is entitled " Right Rev
erend," and in some countries is addressed as " My Lord." In
our Republic, where temporal lords are not, it is customary to
address him simply as " Bishop."

The Monsignors. This title denotes the rank of Protonotary
Apostolic. These are Prelates of a lower order
than Bishops. Prelates properly so called are
the Pope, the Cardinals, the Patriarchs, the
Primates, Archbishops, Bishops and Abbots ; but
the name of " Domestic Prelate " is also given
to certain officials who have received this dignity
from the Pope. These are commonly called
Monsignors, and are of three grades; and the
same name is given also to a fourth grade of
Protonotaries who are not Domestic Prelates.
The grades are as follows: I. Protonotaries Apostolic " de
numero participantium " (of the number of the participating), of
whom there are only seven, forming a College of Notaries to the
Sovereign Pontiff. 2. Protonotaries Apostolic Su
pernumerary — Canons of certain Roman basilicas.
3. Protonotaries Apostolic " ad instar participan
tium " (resembling the participating), who are
either the Canons of certain cathedrals or have been
raised to this dignity by the Pope. The clergy who are known as
Domestic Prelates in this country belong to this third class of
Protonotaries. 4. Titular Protonotaries Apostolic, called also

Mitre

Bishop's Ring

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH 17

Honorary or " Black " Protonotaries. These are not members of
the pontifical household, and enjoy their rank as Prelates only out
side of Rome. Since 1905, Vicars General, by virtue of their
office, belong to this class of Protonotaries, unless they are of a
higher rank.

Members of the first three classes of Protonotaries have the
right to use and wear some of the insignia of Bishops, and are
addressed as " Right Reverend." Those of the fourth class wear
black, without any red or purple, and are addressed as " Very
Reverend." Protonotaries of all grades are addressed " Mon-
signor."

A Bishop, in the administration of his diocese, is assisted by
priests who have various offices and duties. We shall confine our
attention to the list of such officials as are found in the dioceses of
the United States.

The Vicar General. Chief among the officers of any diocese
is the Vicar General, who is, as canonists say, the " other self "
of the Bishop. Consequently, he takes precedence over all the
other clergy of the diocese. The official acts which he performs
have the same force as those of the Bishop — so much so that the
latter cannot receive an appeal from a decision of the Vicar
General; it must be made to the higher tribunal of the Metro
politan, the Archbishop of the province.

Being a Monsignor, the Vicar General is so addressed, and is
designated, according to his rank as Protonotary, by the title
" Right Reverend " or " Very Reverend."

Other Officials. Each diocese has a Chancellor, whose office
is the channel for nearly all diocesan business; and there is also,
usually, a Bishop's Secretary. There are also the " Diocesan
Consultors," six or more in number, who form an advisory board
for the Bishop, and are convened for the discussion of important
matters; the Diocesan Attorney, or "Procurator Fiscalis," whose
duty is to act as advocate for the Bishop and as prosecutor in
ecclesiastical trials; a board for the consideration of reasons for
the administrative removal of pastors, consisting of Examiners
and Consultors, two of each being chosen for action on each par-

1 8 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

ticular case; the Matrimonial Court, consisting usually of a judge,
a notary and the " Defender of the Marriage Tie; " the Board of
Examiners for the clergy, a similar Board for schools, and the
Censor of Books, who examines all works published in the diocese
and dealing with matters of faith or morals. A decree of Pope
Pius X also provides for a Committee of Vigilance, to guard
against the danger of " modernistic " errors.

In some dioceses there is a " Board of Deans," each of whom
has supervision over a certain number of parishes and their clergy.
In many there are directors of the Priests' Eucharistic League
and of other devotional associations, and sometimes there are
other officials, committees and boards for various purposes.

The Clergy of Parishes. Over each parish the Church places
a Pastor or Rector, who is its ruler both in spiritual and tem
poral things, subject, of course, to the authority of his Bishop
and the restrictions of Church law. Each parish has a certain
designated territory, and the Pastor is responsible for the care of
souls within its limits as well as for its financial manage
ment. Each parish, legally considered, is generally a corporation,
of which, in some States, the Bishop is the president and the
Pastor the treasurer, the Vicar General and two lay members
known as trustees forming the rest of the corporation.

In the dioceses of the United States a certain number of the
larger parishes have " irremovable " or " permanent " rectorships.
A vacancy in these is filled by a " concursus," or competitive ex
amination. And after the Pastor, whether " permanent " or not,
come the Curates, the assistant clergy of the parish, who are
(theoretically at least) subject to the Pastor and act under his
direction in the care of souls.

A priest who has the spiritual care of soldiers or sailors, or who
officiates in a hospital or other institution, is called a Chaplain.

Our Church is a spiritual kingdom, indeed, but it is a human
society as well. Even considered as a mere worldly institution, it
is truly a remarkable example of efficiency and orderly develop
ment. No other society on earth is so well and thoroughly or
ganized — so well adapted to its work. Some of the parts of the

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH 19

governmental system of the Catholic Church are of Divine
origin ; many of them are human institutions ; and these are a grand
monument to the wisdom of the saintly men who through twenty
centuries have sat in the chair of Peter as vice-gerents of Jesus
Christ.

PART II
THE RELIGIOUS STATE

CHAPTER IV
THE MONASTIC LIFE

WHY are certain societies, whose members live in com
munities and under a defined code of rules, desig
nated as " religious orders " ? Not because they have
any monopoly of the religious spirit; for the virtues proper to
true religion may be found flourishing abundantly throughout
the length and breadth of the Catholic world — not only in
monastic cloisters but in the busy life of the secular priesthood
and in the lowly career of the millions of the pious laity whose
fervor and sanctity are known to God alone. But it has become
a custom to apply the title of " religious " to those who have
given themselves entirely to God in the monastic state and have
taken the three vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. There
fore the word is used to designate those who have devoted them
selves to the service of God and have forsworn the things of the
world, even though there are many others who are equally, though
perhaps not so evidently, imbued with the spirit of religion.

The Catholic Church, through nearly all of her history, has
encouraged the institution and spread of religious orders. Their
value has been appreciated by Pontiffs and Councils, and their
labors for the glory of God and the extension of His kingdom
have deserved and received commendation in every age since they
came into being.

The Desire of Perfection. The religious life, in the sense of
monasticism, owes its origin to the desire that arises in the heart
of a man who is striving for perfection, to withdraw himself from

20

THE RELIGIOUS STATE 21

the excitement and allurements of worldly things, to seek com
panionship and surroundings that will tend to inspire him with
holy thoughts and will give him an opportunity to sanctify him
self by recollection, prayer and good works. In the beginning, as
we shall see, companionship was not desired ; the seeker after
perfection became a recluse, a hermit, dwelling in solitude. But
gradually it became evident that " in union there is strength," in
spiritual things as in worldly; the era of the solitary hermits
passed away; and as the centuries rolled on, those grand brigades
of the Church's army, the Benedictines, Dominicans, Franciscans,
Jesuits and many others, were the result of uniting into strong and
well-governed bodies the zealous and the devout who separately
might have sanctified themselves but could have been of little
benefit to others.

Older than Christianity. The belief in the efficacy of bodily
mortification and discipline of the senses prevailed in many re
ligions before the advent of Christianity. Among the Jews there
were the Essenes, who withdrew themselves from the luxury and
corruption of the cities and formed small communities with strict
rules of abstinence and mortification. In pagan lands a similar
practice existed, as exemplified by the Stoics, who held that all
material things were evil, and that, consequently, he was highest
in the scale of perfection who held aloof as far as possible from
sensual gratification.

Among the early Christians there was also a strong desire to
master the lower parts of man's nature. Unlike the Stoics, they
did not consider worldly things to be sinful in themselves, if rightly
used; but they strove to bring themselves into more perfect com
munion with God by strict discipline and self-abnegation.
Chastity, fasting, earnest and long-continued prayer, castigation of
the body — these were the principal means which were employed,
even in the first centuries, by those who sought to " mortify the
flesh that the spirit might be strengthened."

The Hermits of the Desert. The ascetics of the early Church
did not, at first, separate themselves from the world. They prac
tised their austerities in the midst of their fellow-men. But after

22 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

a time, about the year 250, the stern persecutions to which the
Christians were subjected caused many to seek refuge in the
deserts, where they would be comparatively safe from the power of
imperial Rome and could serve God without molestation.

The first of these hermits, or anchorites, as they were called,
did not live in communities. Even when several of them dwelt
in the same neighborhood, each lived in his own cell, supporting
himself by his own labor and practising his devotions alone. The
life of these solitaries of the desert is not proposed for the imita
tion of ordinary Christians, even though their sanctity and fervor
have been commended by the Church. She praises them as men
who were filled with the spirit of sacrifice and the desire of per
fection, who devoted themselves to lifelong prayer and penance,
who vanquished the weaknesses and yearnings of nature and gave
up all things for God.

Tradition states that the first who entered upon this solitary
life was St. Paul of the Desert, who was succeeded by the famous
St. Anthony the Hermit, concerning whose long and severe con
flicts with the Spirit of Evil many legends have been handed down.
The fame of his sanctity caused others to gather around him, to
listen to his wisdom and profit by his example ; but even then, each
lived in a separate hermitage and generally practised his devotions
in solitude.

The First Monasteries. About the year 315 another saintly
recluse, St. Pachomius, began what is considered the first monastic
house, in which the religious dwelt together in a community. It
was seen that there were great advantages in living in the company
of others who were striving for the same end, because by mutual
example and contact they could each advance more rapidly in
virtue.

It was not long before the knowledge of monastic life and the
appreciation of its excellence spread throughout the Christian
world. St. Hilarion, a disciple of St. Anthony, introduced it
into Palestine, and St. Basil established communities of monks in
Greece. Others were founded in various parts of Asia Minor ; and
St. Athanasius, the great bishop of Alexandria, on the occasion of a

THE RELIGIOUS STATE 23

journey to Rome, is said to have inspired the centre of Christian
unity with a wonderful spirit of monastic fervor by preaching there
on the life and austerities of St. Anthony.

As missionaries carried the light of the Gospel into the re
moter parts of Europe, religious houses sprang up everywhere.
St. Martin of Tours founded several monasteries in France and
others were established in England, Ireland, Germany, Austria
and elsewhere.

The Monastic Rule. In the earliest period of their history the
communities were usually independent. Each had its own system
of government ; but some uniformity was soon seen to be desirable,
and gradually certain codes of rulers were formulated for the
guidance of these religious bodies. That known as the Augus-
tinian Rule is attributed by some to St. Augustine, although it is
very probable that he had nothing to do with its formation.
However, it is undoubtedly of very ancient date.

One of the oldest and most celebrated of monastic rules is that
established by St. Basil, the great light of the Eastern Church.
His laws were adapted to the religious life of the West, and con
tinued in almost universal use until the advent of the great
" Father of the Religious Life," St. Benedict, who lived in the
sixth century. He instituted the code known as the Benedictine
Rule, and for several hundred years nearly all the monastic houses
of the Christian world obeyed it and flourished under it. In the
course of time several great communities branched off from the
Benedictine order, still keeping much of the spirit of the rule laid
down by its saintly founder.

About the beginning of the thirteenth century St. Francis of
Assisi founded the Franciscans, who have since been subdivided
into many branches. He formulated an excellent rule, which has
served as a model for the governing codes of many religious bodies.
At almost the same time the zealous St. Dominic established the
great order which bears his name, using the ancient rule of the
Augustinians as the basis of its statutes.

When Protestantism was spreading devastation throughout
the Christian world, a new corps of defenders was organized to

24 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

aid the kingdom of God in its struggle against error. St. Ignatius
of Loyola founded the Society of Jesus; and the simple but thor
ough regulations which he laid down for its government may be
looked upon as a new and excellent religious rule, differing much in
detail from those of other orders, but eminently adapted to the
work for which the Society was organized.

A brief history of the above-mentioned orders and of a few
other great religious bodies will form the matter of the next
chapter.

The Work of the Monks. It is difficult to see how the work
of the Church could have been carried on, how her great mission
could have been successful, without the help of these great com
munities. When volunteers have been needed for a particular
work, they have always been found ready to undertake it. The
nature of the work has varied from age to age. In the early
days of monasticism the religious life afforded to the devout an
opportunity to withdraw from the wickedness of the decadent
Roman world, that they might sanctify themselves in solitude.
Later on, there was need of missionary labor for the conversion
of pagan tribes. Then it was necessary to teach them the arts
of civilization ; and so, all over Europe, great monasteries were
established, whose inmates cleared the wilderness and brought
it under cultivation. When all of Christendom was in the turmoil
of constant warfare, the only abodes of learning were the re
ligious houses; and to the studious zeal of the monks of the so-
called Dark Ages we are indebted for the priceless classics of Greek
and Latin literature, which were preserved, copied and handed
down to us by the patient scribes of countless monasteries. The
writings of the early Fathers of the Church have given to later
ages a treasury of doctrinal and ascetical lore; and we owe these
also to the medieval houses of religion. The Sacred Scriptures
themselves would possibly have been lost to the world, or at
least would have reached later generations in an imperfect con
dition, if they had not been laboriously transcribed and multiplied
into thousands of copies by the persevering labor of the monastic
orders.

THE RELIGIOUS STATE 25

Thus we see that the " ignorant and lazy monks," who have
long furnished to the enemies of our faith a subject for misrepre
sentation and deliberate falsehood, have been of considerable use
in the world. They were neither ignorant nor lazy. We of this
twentieth century would indeed be ignorant were it not for their
industry and their love of learning. The Europe of to-day would
perhaps be on a level with the Europe of the fourth century, had
not these zealous pioneers opened the way to civilization and dif
fused not only the light of faith but the knowledge of the arts
and sciences among the wild tribes of Gaul, of Germany and of
Britain.

The great monastic orders have been one of the chief instru
ments in the spread of God's truth, in the progress of His Church ;
and to-day, while the reasons for their continuance and the work
which they are doing are different in some details from those of
former times, they are assuredly not less useful than they were
in earlier centuries. Their zealous missionaries are carrying the
light of the Gospel into the darkness of pagan lands; no danger
daunts them, for they have " given up all things to follow Christ."
The work of reviving and strengthening the religious spirit in our
Catholic faithful is largely entrusted to them; they preach mis
sions to our people and retreats to our clergy with the success
that comes from long training and experience. The education of
Catholic youth is the work of some; in colleges and seminaries
they train the student for the rank in life he is destined to fill, be
it Catholic layman or Catholic priest.

We do not deny, we freely admit, that in some parts of the
world certain communities have at times fallen away from their
first fervor — that abuses have crept in, that unworthy men have
been found in the monastic state. But the watchful eye of
Mother Church did not long tolerate such laxity. Reforms were
instituted, rules were enforced, and the success of her efforts may be
seen from the magnitude of the work which the religious orders
have accomplished since their foundation, and from their present
strength and efficiency after so many centuries.

The monastic orders are assuredly a work of God. He inspired

26 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

the saintly founders whose wisdom framed the laws under which
these societies have achieved such marvelous and long-continued
success. He has sanctified their members, imbuing them with the
right spirit and intention, bestowing upon them and their work
an abundance of grace, and aiding them to secure wonderful results.
Long may these ancient institutions live and flourish! Long may
they labor in the service of God's Holy Church! There is great
work still to be done. " The fields are white with harvest, and
the reapers are few " — and some of the reaping can be done writh
full success only by those who have " left all things " — who have
vowed poverty, for they seek not earthly gain ; chastity, for they
wish to be free from ties of human affection; and obedience, for
they know that unless the will of the commander is the law of the
soldier, no army can win its battles.

CHAPTER V
THE GREAT RELIGIOUS ORDERS

IT is not within the scope of this work to give a history of all
all the religious orders of men. During the centuries since the
monastic life began, many distinct societies have been founded,
varying in their rule and in the work which they were intended to
perform. We shall be able to devote a little space only to those
that are best known and that are active in our own country at
the present day.

The Augustinians. This is one of the oldest of the mon
astic orders. Legend assigns their origin to Apostolic times, and
their rule is declared (though without much probability) to have
been formed by St. Augustine. There is no real evidence, how
ever, that they existed earlier than the year 816, and they were
put into their present form by St. Peter Damian in 1063. They
adopted the name of Augustinians, or Canons of St. Austin, be
cause the details of their monastic rule are in conformity with the
writings of the great Bishop of Hippo. They spread very rapidly

THE RELIGIOUS STATE 27

throughout Europe, and were numerous in England at the time of
the Reformation. An offshoot of the order, known as the Augus-
tinian Hermits, was the monastic body to which Luther belonged
before his rebellion against the Church. The Augustinians have
about twenty-five religious houses in different parts of the United
States.

The Benedictines. This is the oldest order which has a con
secutive history — which has maintained its rule and
government practically without change. It was
founded by St. Benedict, at Subiaco, in Italy, in 529,
and a little later the great monastery of Monte Cassino
was established and has been the centre of government
for the order since that time.

The order has a noble history. It has aided greatly
in the extension of Catholicity throughout the world.
One of its members, St. Augustine of Canterbury, was (Ancient)
the apostle of England ; and others in later centuries went from the
English monasteries to carry the Gospel into other parts of Europe.
The order was for hundreds of years the most flourishing in the
Church. Up to the fourteenth century it had given to the Church
twenty-four Popes and more than twenty thousand archbishops and
bishops.

The order, at several periods of its history, needed reformation
to restore the spirit of its saintly founder. New zeal and vigor
were infused into it by St. Benedict of Anian in the ninth cen
tury, and by Peter the Venerable at Cluny in the twelfth. In
England the order was brought back to its original fruitfulness by
the great St. Dunstan, and at the time of the Reformation it
possessed in that country nearly two hundred houses. Several of
the Benedictine abbots and monks were martyred for their faith in
London under Henry VIII and Elizabeth, and many others died in
prison.

In this country the order has seventeen large abbeys and several
colleges and seminaries, and it is in charge of many parishes and
missions in the West.

The Franciscans. There are several great religious bodies

28 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

which are distinct in government but which follow substantially
the same rule — that laid down by St. Francis of Assisi. He
established a community in 1209, with a most austere rule.
Poverty of the severest kind, bodily discipline, untiring zeal for
souls, strict fasting, unquestioning obedience — above all, gentle
ness toward every one — such were the features of
the rule of St. Francis.

Some time after his death the order was divided
into several branches — the Observants, the Re
formed Franciscans, the Capuchins, etc. Some of
these were reunited into one body by Pope Leo XIII.
The Franciscans have always been an energetic
body of workers. They have devoted themselves
Franciscan to missionary labor in many parts of the world, and
the spread of the Gospel in pagan lands is largely due to their zeal
and fearlessness. Several of the great lights of Catholic theology
were members of this order, and it has given five Popes to the
Church. In the United States the various communities which are
known as Franciscans possess a large number of monasteries, col
leges and other institutions, and have altogether a membership of
about one thousand priests and lay-brothers.

The Dominicans. The great " Order of Preachers " has ex
isted since the thirteenth century, and has done re
markable work for the spread of religion and the sav
ing of souls. It was founded by St. Dominic, a
Spaniard, who was laboring against the Albigensian
heresy, which was widespread and productive of many
evils at that time. The society was rapidly extended
through the countries of Europe, and when new lands
had been discovered beyond the Atlantic the Domin-
Dominican jcang tQQ^ a promment part in preaching the Gospel

in Mexico and Peru.

In the intellectual life of Europe the order held a distinguished
place for centuries. Its learned men became professors in the
great universities. That most profound of theologians, St.
Thomas Aquinas, whose genius has illumined the whole field of

THE RELIGIOUS STATE 29

Catholic dogma, and whose " Summa Theologica " is the founda
tion of all succeeding works on doctrine, was a Dominican —
famous not only for his incomparable intellect but also for his emi
nent sanctity. Others who shed lustre on the order's history were
John Tauler, the Blessed Henry Suso, St. Raymond of Penafort,
Vincent of Beauvais and Dominic Soto. The community has
given to the Church three Popes and more than a thousand bishops.

The order is flourishing in many parts of the world, and con
tinues successfully the great task for which it was instituted — the
preaching of the word of God. Missions are given with a zeal
and effectiveness which come from centuries of experience. The
picturesque garb of the Dominicans is familiar to the people as
the Fathers have been often employed in the giving of missions in
many of our parishes. In the United States the order is divided
into two provinces, comprising altogether about 250 priests.

The Trappists. In every epoch of the Church's history there
have been some zealous and devout persons who have had a desire
and a vocation for a more austere life than that prescribed by the
ordinary monastic rule. They wish to practise sterner and more
rigorous penances — to " mortify the flesh that the spirit may be
strengthened"; and they carry their austerities to a degree which
may seem extreme to many — possibly excessive to
some.

The strictest of our present-day orders is the Re
formed Cistercians, popularly known as the Trappists.
This community is an offshoot from the Benedictine
order. St. Robert, in the eleventh century, was dis
satisfied with certain relaxations of the primitive rule
of St. Benedict, and founded a separate congregation
with a most rigorous rule, at Citeaux (in Latin, Cistercian
Cistercium), in France, in the year 1098. The aim of the order
has always been the sanctification of its members through prayer
and penance, and it was not intended that they should care for the
souls of others. One of the great lights of this congregation was
the illustrious St. Bernard, who founded the famous monastery of
Clairvaux, and who is venerated as a Doctor of the Church.

30 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

In the course of time there was a tendency to relaxation in the
rule, sanctioned in 1475 by Sixtus IV; and this in its turn led to
a reform of the order by the establishing of new communities
which desired to follow the primitive and rigid rule. The branch
now known as the Reformed Cistercians or Trappists was insti
tuted in 1662 at the abbey of La Trappe by Armand de Ranee.

The monks of the Trappist order rise at two o'clock in the
morning, and recite Matins in choir, adding the Office of the
Blessed Virgin (their special patroness) to the regular office.
They then make a meditation for a half hour. They celebrate
or assist at Mass; the other parts of the office are recited
at certain hours, and other spiritual exercises are performed.
There is no leisure time except that spent in sleep. All the
members of the community, priests and brothers, labor with their
hands, in the gardens, barns, workshops or fields. There are
no delicacies in their daily fare — not even much of what we
would call necessaries. No meat is used ; vegetables, bread and
fruits are the principal articles of diet. One full meal of these
is taken at midday, with a frugal collation later in the afternoon.
Bedtime comes at seven o'clock in winter, at eight in summer;
each retires to his straw bed and sleeps in the rough habit of the
order, till the clanging bell at two A. M. summons him to another
day of prayer, labor and penance.

The most trying part of the discipline is the rigorous silence.
No monk is allowed to speak to another, except to the Superior,
and then only about necessary things. The abbot and the guest-
master are the only ones who are permitted to speak to strangers.

Truly a wonderful life, in the eyes of those who live as we do
in the midst of the luxuries of the twentieth century. It shows
that the spirit of zeal for personal sanctification which animated
the anchorites of the desert has been handed down to a chosen few
in later generations.

The Trappists have several houses in England and Ireland, the
famous Mount Melleray being in. the latter country. In Canada
they have an old-established monastery at Oka, and in the United
States their abbeys are four in number.

THE RELIGIOUS STATE 31

The Passionists. This order, the complete title of which is
" the Congregation of the Discalced Clerks of the Most Holy
Cross and Passion of our Lord Jesus Christ," was founded in
1720 by St. Paul of the Cross, a zealous Genoese, whose canoniza
tion took place under Pius IX in 1867.

The rule of this community is one of considerable severity. In
some points it resembles the austere rule of the Trap-
pists, but without the obligation of silence. The Pas
sionists in their monasteries observe the " canonical
hours," rising at night for the reciting of the office;
and they have frequent fasts and days of abstinence.

Their habit is a plain loose black gown, girt with a
leather belt. On the breast they wear an enameled
representation of the Heart of our Lord, surmounted
by a cross and bearing in white letters XPI Passio — Passionist
the Passion of Christ. On their feet they wear open sandals,
which gives them their title of Discalced — that is, unshod.

The Passionists were intended by their founder to exemplify
two kinds of religious spirit — contemplative and active. They
have had great success in the giving of missions and retreats, due to
the excellent training which they receive and to the zeal which
animates them. According to the directions of their sainted
founder, they are to seek nothing in their preaching but the good
of souls, and are to set always before the faithful the sufferings
and death of our Blessed Saviour as the greatest motive of re
pentance.

They have two provinces in the United States, and
number altogether about three hundred, of whom
nearly one-half are priests.

The Redemptorists. Another order which de
votes itself mainly to the preaching of missions is the
Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, generally
known as the Redemptorists. It was founded by St.
Alphonsus Liguori, in 1732. The Saint wished to Redemptorist
form a band of apostolic men who " should preach the Gospel
to the poor," as our Saviour did. The order was approved by

32 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Benedict XIV, and has always been distinctly a missionary society.
Its members take the usual three vows, of poverty, chastity and
obedience, and bind themselves also by a vow of perseverance —
that is, to remain in the order until death.

They are to be found in nearly all the countries of the Catholic
world, and they are engaged in missionary labor in many pagan
lands. They have met with great opposition from the infidel
governments of Europe, and have been repeatedly driven out of
so-called Catholic countries. In the United States they have two
provinces, the total membership being more than seven hundred, of
whom about one-half are priests.

The Jesuits. The promise of our Blessed Lord, " Behold, I am
with you all days," has been amply fulfilled in every age of the
Church's history. In the centuries when she was evan
gelizing Europe the need was for zealous and fearless
apostles to spread the light of the Gospel among pagan
nations — and God provided them. Later, when
heresies were rife, the Church required men who could
declare her teachings accurately and explain them clearly
— and an Augustine, an Athanasius, a Chrysostom were
given to the world. When the tribes of central and
northern Europe were emerging from barbarism and
needed to be instructed in the arts of civilization, the
Church found her most effective instruments in the great monastic
orders.

In the sixteenth century came a new danger and a new need.
Protestantism arose, and spread with alarming rapidity. It
spurned the authority of Christ's Vicar on earth, rejected some of
the most essential of Catholic dogmas, extended its dominion
over the fairest parts of Europe, and led millions into the dark
ness of unbelief. Then God raised up new champions of the
truth, strong defenders of His Church — that admirable body
of religious men known as "the Society of Jesus," or the
Jesuits.

In 1521 a Spanish soldier received a severe wound in battle.
He was Ignatius of Loyola, of a noble Biscayan family, and up to

THE RELIGIOUS STATE 33

that time he had shown no special inclination toward religion.
During his recovery from his injury he happened to read a volume
of " Lives of the Saints " — and a new career was unfolded before
him. He resigned his military commission, retired from the world,
and formed the resolution of establishing a new religious com
munity which should wage unceasing war on error — which should
devote itself to the cause of the Gospel and of Catholic truth,
and carry the light of the true faith to the heretic and the
heathen.

In 1534, having been ordained a priest, he gathered around him,
at Paris, six zealous companions, and bound them and himself by
a solemn vow " to preach the Gospel in Palestine or elsewhere, and
to offer themselves to the Sovereign Pontiff to be employed in the
service of God in what manner he should judge best." In 1536
the new society was received by Pope Paul III, and was solemnly
approved in 1540.

The members of the Society of Jesus take the usual three vows
of the religious state — poverty, chastity and obedience ; and they
add to these a fourth vow which reflects clearly the spirit of the
order and of its intrepid founder. They bind themselves to go
without question or delay wherever the Sovereign Pontiff may
send them for the salvation of souls. Their motto is " For the
greater glory of God" — " Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam"; and the
initial letters of these Latin words (A. M. D. G.) are a favorite
symbol of the Jesuits.

The scope of their labors is indeed a wide one. Preaching,
spiritual exercises, all kinds of charitable endeavor, teaching ele
mentary and advanced science, giving retreats, missionary work
among Christians and heathen — all these are specified in their
constitution. Each member of the order must undergo a long
and rigorous probation, the details of which are embodied in the
" Book of the Exercises," wrhich Saint Ignatius wrote before he
established his Society. Personal sanctification is ensured by
mental prayer, examination of conscience, pious reading and fre
quent retreats. The Jesuit must be a man of learning, and his nat
ural talents are carefully fostered. The long and discriminating

34 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

training which its members receive is responsible for much of the
success which the order has achieved. The novice who manifests
an aptitude for any particular branch of useful learning is sub
jected to a thorough course of instruction in that line. If he has
natural ability as an orator, he receives training which will de
velop that talent; if he gives evidence of a genius for sciences,
or languages, or philosophy, he is urged to perfect himself in all
that pertains to his speciality, without neglecting his education in
other directions. Each becomes an expert in something; and, as a
result, the Society has produced a multitude of preachers, pro
fessors, writers, scientists and defenders of Catholic truth who
have been of incalculable benefit to the Church and have aided
immeasurably in her work of diffusing Christian knowledge among
men.

The saintly Loyola intended that his followers should be sol
diers of Christ, ever in the forefront of the battle; and these
soldiers were to be not only men of action but men of prayer.
They were not to dwell in solitude, like the anchorites of early
days; they were to be "in the world, but not of it"; and they
were to be themselves sanctified that they might sanctify others.
They were not to strive for worldly honors, nor to accept eccle
siastical dignities unless by a special command of the Holy See.

The annals of the Jesuits are a brilliant chapter of history, but
any detailed account of them will not be feasible here. During
the lifetime of their founder they established universities in Rome
and elsewhere, and were also engaged in missionary labor in all
parts of the world. Zealous and learned teachers were sent into
Germany and France, and waged a vigorous and successful war
against the heresies of Luther and Calvin. St. Francis Xavier
journeyed to the far East and brought the faith of Jesus Christ to
India and Japan. Somewhat later came the glorious epoch of
Jesuit missionary enterprise in the New World. The adventu
rous Marquette discovered the Mississippi. French priests, filled
with ardor for souls, went among the savage Indian tribes, and
were put to death with fiendish tortures. Lallemant, Brebeuf,
Daniel, Jogues — these are a few of the brave Jesuits who gave up

THE RELIGIOUS STATE 35

all things, even life itself, that the light of God's truth might
shine in the dark places of the earth. " Greater love than this no
man hath."

The enemies of Christian truth and morality lost no opportunity
to harm the Society of Jesus. It encountered strong opposition
from its very foundation, and was subjected to many unjust accusa
tions. Ambitious politicians in many countries sought its down
fall, and the climax came when the rulers of Europe succeeded in
securing the election of a Pope who was not friendly to the
Jesuits. He was Clement XIV, formerly Cardinal Ganganelli,
and in 1773 he issued a decree by which the Society of Jesus was
suppressed in every part of the world, and its members were di
rected to enter the ranks of the secular clergy.

This action of the Holy See was unprecedented in the history
of religious societies, and it is difficult to ascertain the true reasons
for it. There seems to have been little cause for such drastic
action except the hatred of freethinking despots and the prejudices
of a pliant Pontiff. Lalande, the distinguished astronomer, voiced
the sentiment of the best minds of the time when he said : " They
have destroyed the best work of man, unrivalled by any human
institution — an army of twenty thousand men, unceasingly em
ployed with duties most important and useful to the world."

Among those who were thus compelled to secularize themselves
was the famous John Carroll, afterward the first bishop of Balti
more and the first American member of the hierarchy.

In 1814 the Jesuits were permitted to reorganize, under Pius
VII, and since that time they have had an uninterrupted though
troubled existence — ever in the van of battle, everywhere assailed
by the forces of infidelity and revolution, always the first to feel
the wrath of the enemies of God's Church.

In the United States the Society of Jesus is notably prosperous.
It has five large provinces, with about 1300 priests, 1000 scholastics
and 500 lay-brothers. It conducts no less than thirty-four colleges
of various grades, manages many parishes, does extensive mission
ary work, and is especially successful in the preaching of missions
for the laity and of retreats for the clergy.

36 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

The Society is ruled by a Superior-General, elected for life,
whose authority is practically absolute. The garb of the order is a
loose black cassock, with a white linen collar attached, and a black
sash or girdle.

It is indeed a mark of God's providence that this great religious
society was re-established, for without their ardent zeal and well-
directed energy the condition of the Church throughout the world,
and especially in our own land, would be far less prosperous than
we find it to-day.

The Christian Brothers. A most essential part of the work
of the Church is the education of the young. Upon the intel
lectual and moral training that is given to them depends the
future welfare of God's kingdom on earth.

No religious body has been more successful in its allotted field
of labor than the Christian Brothers, more properly
known as " The Brothers of the Christian Schools."
This congregation of teachers, respected and admired
throughout the world, was founded by a priest, al
though its members are not elevated to the priest
hood. St. John Baptist de la Salle was a man of
grand intellect, steadfast will and ardent piety; and
his life was so holy and the fruits of his zeal so won-
Christian Brother rferful that he was beatified by Pope Leo XIII
in 1888 and canonized by the same Pontiff in 1900.

His efforts were first directed towards the Christian education
of youth by a zealous layman, M. Nyel, of Rouen, who had him
self devoted much time and money to that excellent work. Hav
ing established a corps of teachers, the Abbe de la Salle, in 1684,
drew up a code of rules for them and chose the title they now
bear — the " Brothers of the Christian Schools." The system of
instruction formulated by him has never been equalled for effective
ness; and many of the much-vaunted discoveries of modern peda
gogy are mere revivals of ideas originated by the zealous French
priest. The Brothers have been prominent in educational work
for more than two hundred years, and these have been years of
constant expansion and progress. They have always been in the

THE RELIGIOUS STATE 37

van ; they keep pace with the development of the arts and sciences,
and are always prepared to impart to their pupils the latest and
the best results of the world's advance in civilization.

The new religious society was solemnly approved by Pope Bene
dict XIII in 1725, and was established as a " religious congrega
tion." It has had a checkered career. The storms of persecu
tion which have swept over France have often driven the Brothers
into exile, but sooner or later they have returned and resumed
their work. At the present time the Congregation is not allowed
to teach there as a body; it has been despoiled of its property, and
the results of its earnest labor of many years are being obliterated.
In other countries it has been prosperous. Its membership at the
present time is more than seventeen thousand, and in its schools are
nearly 350,000 pupils, of whom about 40,000 are in the United
States.

The religious rule of the Brothers is fairly strict in its re
quirements. A thorough course of study is necessarily demanded.
A review of primary branches and a comprehensive normal course
are exacted from each candidate. He takes the usual religious
vows, and pledges himself to remain a layman — for the Brothers
are not allowed to aspire to the priesthood.

They wear in their schools and convents a black cassock with a
white collar having two square wings at the front — the clerical
collar of the French Church in the seventeenth century.

Their title expresses well their purpose. They are " Brothers,"
not priests; merely laymen living in community, banded together
for a noble work; "Brothers of the Christion Schools," for the
school is their field of labor, wherein these zealous reapers garner
mighty harvests. They are teachers; and the substance of their
teaching is, first of all, the religion of Jesus Christ — and, sec
ondly, the whole field of useful human knowledge, illumined by
the light of His doctrine.

There are scores of other religious bodies which deserve extended
notice, and would receive it if space permitted. We shall be com
pelled to pass over our zealous American society, the Paulist

38 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Fathers; the Sulpicians, who devote themselves to the training of
candidates for the priesthood; the Carmelites, the Fathers of the
Holy Ghost, the Congregation of the Holy Cross, the Marists, the
Oblates, the Vincentians, and many others. And even with this
multiplicity of religious societies, " the harvest indeed is great and
the laborers are few."

CHAPTER VI
RELIGIOUS LIFE FOR WOMEN

IN the work of the Catholic Church, which is the sanctifying
of souls and the diffusion of the knowledge of God's truth, a very
important part is taken by women. It is true that they are not
eligible to Holy Orders. A woman cannot be a priest. She is
not empowered to preach the Word of God officially, nor to share
in the government of the Church, nor to administer sacraments —
excepting, of course, the giving of Baptism privately in case of
necessity. But she is permitted not only to aspire to perfection,
but to assist largely in the perfecting of others ; and she is provided
by the Church with ample means of self-sanctification and with
a broad field of effort in the domain of charity.

What would our Church be — what would be its condition
throughout the world to-day, were it not for the zealous labors of
those saintly women who have given up all things to follow
Christ?

Called by God. At an age when the world is most attractive,
when its allurements are most potent, when the natural instincts
of humanity crave for affection and worldly ties, some women de
liberately choose to leave the world, to sacrifice their right to its
lawful pleasures, to devote themselves to arduous work, rigorous
self-restraint, severe penance, strict obedience and perpetual
chastity. For what reason? Because in their souls they hear the
call of Jesus Christ, inviting them to become His servants, to
do His work in a state of life higher and more perfect than any
. that the world could offer them. The life of seclusion and prayer

THE RELIGIOUS STATE 39

and charitable endeavor is attractive to these holy souls. They
have the desire of self-sacrifice ; they perceive the vanity of earthly
things; they long for the service of our Blessed Lord, and are
zealous for the promotion of His glory.

Religious Women in Early Times. The religious state for
women in the Catholic Church is probably as ancient as that for
men. Long before the institution of nunneries, the Church recog
nized and recommended several classes of pious women. St. Paul
speaks of the holy state of widowhood, in which devout elderly
women gave themselves to works of chanty; and writers of the
first centuries mention other varieties of work assigned to the
gentler sex. Some were known as deaconesses, who labored among
the poor; hospitallers, who cared for the sick; canonesses, one of
whose duties was to assist at burials ; and consecrated virgins, who
at first lived at home and practised their devotions in private.

When religious communities of men were established in Egypt
and elsewhere, those for women began to be recognized as of
almost equal value; and before the end of the fourth century they
were common in many parts of the world. St. Augustine founded
one in northern Africa, and St. Scholastica, who was St. Bene
dict's sister, governed a religious house for women under a rule
prepared by that great " Father of the Monastic Life." And as
the centuries rolled on, the Church encouraged more and more
the establishing of new societies of women, until they have been
multiplied almost beyond counting.

The Work of the Sisterhoods. They are engaged in manifold
labors. They teach the young the principles of worldly science
as well as of spiritual things. They care for the orphan, the aged,
the infirm, the wayward. They journey fearlessly into distant
lands, to aid in the extension of Christ's Kingdom among pagan
tribes. When war fills the hospitals with wounded men — when
the breath of pestilence sweeps over the land — when the leper
colony needs nurses who are not afraid of disease or death, the
Catholic nun takes her place and does her work, without flourish
of trumpets or desire of earthly commendation. She does not fear
death, for death means the attainment of a long-sought reward;

40 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

and she would only regret its approach because it would end the
labor that she loves.

All this heroic work in the service of her Master is done unas
sumingly, without ostentation or desire of praise. We are so
accustomed to see it that we take it almost as a matter of course,
giving little credit oftentimes to those who are doing it. We
honor the brave — but generally we give the most honor to the
brave who advertise themselves. When a soldier, whose pro
fession is fighting, risks his life in some daring deed of heroism, the
whole land rings with praises of his bravery. The Sister who goes
to a remote Chinese mission or to a small-pox hospital or a leper
settlement, is risking her life just as bravely and much more de
liberately — but we seldom hear of her. The Catholic nun has
been doing such work for several hundred years; but she wears
no medals of honor, and is seldom mentioned in the newspapers.

The Three Vows. The woman who enters a Catholic re
ligious order or sisterhood binds herself by a threefold vow, to
which, in some cases, other solemn promises are annexed, varying
according to the special work to which the order is devoted.

First of all, the Church recognizes the dangers of self-will and
the advantages of perfect and harmonious cooperation; and there
fore the Sister takes a vow of perpetual and complete obedience.
This is the foundation upon which every religious community is
erected and sustained. They pledge themselves to conquer their
own inclinations ; to obey in all things the wise laws laid down for
their guidance and government; to look upon the rule, interpreted
by their lawful superior, as the expression of God's will in their
regard. And it is owing to the completeness with which this
essential vow has been observed that the results of their labors are
so wonderful. Each order, each separate convent, becomes a
smoothly working machine, doing its appointed work with all its
component parts moving in harmony ; and the desire of each mem
ber is not the securing of her own comfort or the satisfying of her
own ambitions, but the doing of her allotted task so that the
whole work may be thereby made more perfect.

The nun also takes a vow of poverty. She says, like St. Paul:

THE RELIGIOUS STATE 41

" I esteem all things as naught that I may gain Christ." She is
willing that the fruits of her labor shall not be her own. She
cares not for worldly luxury. Her habit, her cell, her plain but
sufficient food — these are assured her. She is better fitted for
her chosen work because she has few anxieties.

The Catholic nun makes also another and a greater sacrifice.
She dedicates her virginity to Almighty God, taking a vow of per
petual chastity, that she may " think on the things of the Lord and
be holy in body and spirit." The state of matrimony is holy, and
the virtues of Christian wives and mothers are worthy of all
praise; but holier still, and more perfect, and more deserving of
admiration is the state of those who voluntarily make a sacrifice of
all worldly affections that they may be better able to serve God
without being restrained by earthly ties. They enter into
espousals with Christ, as is so beautifully expressed in the ritual
of their profession. They put the crown on their self-sacrifice and
consecration to God by a virtue which is well called the queen
of all virtues.

A Striking Contrast. In proportion to the strength of the
Church and of Catholic spirit in any country is the progress of the
institutions which the Church fosters. When error and irreligion
seek to undermine and overthrow the influence of Catholicism, they
always begin by destroying these centres of Catholic effort. And
with what result? When the homes of the sisterhoods have been
suppressed and their members dispersed, the growth of the virtues
of charity and mercy has been blighted. In Protestant and infidel
lands we have schools without religion, hospitals and almshouses
without charity. In Catholic countries alone, or in those in which
the progress of the Church is not hampered by hostile legislation,
we find the perfect manifestation of Christian charity in the
grand institutions established by the handmaids of Christ, in
which they give themselves body and soul to the service of their
Divine Spouse.

There is not an infirmity or affliction to which our fallen nature
is heir, that has not found its appropriate remedy in some depart
ment of the work of these societies of women. They instruct the

42 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

ignorant, feed and clothe the poor, visit and care for the sick;
they provide for the helpless infant, the orphan child and the aged ;
they harbor and reform the fallen. They are angels of mercy,
messengers of divine charity, who vary the field of their zeal ac
cording to the needs of mankind. They are the wise virgins of the
parable, bearing lighted lamps and shedding their radiance on the
dark places of the world, that the Bridegroom may come and make
His abode in the souls which He died to save.

PART III

THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE
SACRAMENTS

CHAPTER VII
THE CEREMONIES OF BAPTISM

IN order to symbolize the spiritual benefits derived from the
reception of the Sacraments, the Church uses for each of
them (except the Sacrament of Penance) certain ceremonies
which are, for the most part, of very ancient origin. They are
intended to denote mystically the gifts and graces bestowed on the
soul through the Sacrament which is administered.

Baptism is the first of the Sacraments. In the language of the
Apostle, it " clothes us with Jesus Christ." The sacred rites with
which it is given remind us of the corruption in which we were
born, the trials that await us in this world, and the immortal
heritage for which we are destined.

In the Early Ages. The ceremonies of Baptism, as now prac
tised, are a survival of the solemn rites with which it was ad
ministered in the early Church. We find a complete and curious
account of this in the work of St. Ambrose " On the Mysteries."
In his day Baptism was given publicly to adults on Holy Satur
day only, and this fact is still indicated in the Church's liturgy
by the blessing of the baptismal water on that day. The minister
of the Sacrament at this solemn administration was always a
bishop, assisted by priests and deacons.

On those occasions Baptism was usually given by immersion —
by putting the person entirely under water. This was never
considered essential, but was generally practised until about the
ninth century.

43

44 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

In the ancient ceremonies, after the baptized person had been
anointed with holy oil and clothed in a white garment, he imme
diately received the Sacrament of Confirmation, assisted at Mass
and usually received Holy Communion.

At the Present Day. In our times the Sacrament of Baptism
is given to infants much more frequently than to
adults. The sponsors or god-parents bring the
child to the baptismal font, and the priest, clad in
surplice and purple stole, asks (mentioning the
name which the child is to bear) : " What dost
thou ask of the Church of God ? " The sponsors
answer: "Faith." "What does faith bring
thee to?" "Life everlasting." "If therefore
thou wouldst enter life, keep the commandment:
Baptismal Font Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy
whole heart and soul and mind, and thy neighbor as thyself."
He then breathes on the face of the child, saying: " Depart
from him, thou unclean spirit, and give place to the Holy Ghost,
the Comforter." This ancient ceremony of breathing is always
symbolical of the imparting of the Spirit of God.

The Sign of the Cross. The forehead and breast of the infant
are then marked with the sign of the cross, to signify that he must
be sanctified in mind and heart. An appropriate prayer is then
recited, asking that the child thus marked with the cross of Christ
may keep His commandments and gain everlasting life.

The priest then places his hand upon the head of the child —
which ceremony is always symbolical of the giving of strength and
power. He prays that this servant of God, who has been called
to the light of faith, may be freed from all blindness of heart and
all snares of Satan; that he may be imbued with wisdom, may
joyfully serve God in His Church, and advance daily in holiness.

The Giving of the Salt. Then follows a curious ceremony.
A small quantity of salt, previously blessed, is put into the mouth
of the person to be baptized, with the words: " Receive the salt
of wisdom. May it be unto thee a propitiation unto eternal
life."

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 45

Salt, in the symbolic usage of the Church, has many meanings.
It denotes wisdom, regeneration, purification, preservation from
corruption — as we see in the passage of the Gospel wherein our
Lord calls His Apostles " the salt of the earth." These meanings
are expressed in the next prayer, in which God is besought to
sanctify the person who has tasted this salt; that he may be filled
with heavenly food, that he may be fervent in spirit, joyful in
hope, and faithful in the service of God.

The Exorcisms. According to the teaching of the Fathers
of the Church, the soul of an unbaptized person is particularly
under the dominion of the spirits of darkness. Therefore a solemn
adjuration is pronounced, in the name of the three Persons of the
Trinity, commanding the devil to depart from the servant of
God. Then the sign of the cross is again traced on his forehead,
as a shield and protection against any further attacks of Satan.

With the imposing of the priest's hand on the child, another
solemn prayer is offered, beseeching God the Father, the Author
of light and truth, to illumine this His servant with the light of
understanding — to cleanse and sanctify him — to give him true
knowledge, that by the grace of Baptism he may possess firm hope,
right counsel, and holy doctrine.

The priest then lays the end of his stole on the infant — a
relic of the ceremony of early days, when the catechumens were
conducted into the church in solemn procession. Then the spon
sors, together with the priest, make a profession of faith in the
name of the child, by reciting aloud the Apostles' Creed, which is
followed by the Our Father.

The "Ephpheta" and the Vows. After another exorcism
comes the ceremony of the " Ephpheta." The priest moistens
his finger with saliva from his own mouth, and touches lightly the
ears and nostrils of the child, saying: " Ephpheta, which is: Be
thou opened, in the odor of sweetness; go out from him, O evil
spirit; for the judgment of God will come."

The touching of the ears signifies the opening of the understand
ing to the Word of God ; that of the nostrils denotes the sweet
ness of the spiritual life. The use of saliva reminds us of a cere-

46 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

mony used by our Lord in one of His miracles, as recorded in the
Gospels.

The baptismal vows are next in order. The priest asks the
child, by name: " Dost thou renounce Satan?" And the
sponsors answer: " I do renounce him." " And all his works? "
"I do renounce them." "And all his pomps?" "I do re
nounce them."

The Anointing. The first anointing is then made, with the
Oil of Catechumens. The priest dips his thumb into the blessed
oil and marks the sign of the cross on the breast of the infant and
on the back between the shoulders, saying: " I anoint thee with
the oil of salvation, in Christ Jesus our Lord, that thou mayest
have eternal life."

The cross on the breast means that our holy faith is a shield
against temptation. That on the back signifies that to obtain
salvation through Jesus Christ we must " take up our cross and
follow Him."

The priest then puts on a white stole in place of the purple one,
and solemnly inquires: "Dost thou believe in God, the Father
Almighty, Creator of heaven and earth ? " The sponsors answer :
" I do believe." " Dost thou believe in Jesus Christ, His only
Son, our Lord, Who was born and suffered?" "I do believe."
" Dost thou believe in the Holy Ghost, the Holy Catholic
Church," etc.; and the same answer is given. Then, addressing
the child by name, the priest asks: "Wilt thou be baptized? " —
and the sponsors answer: "I will."

The Baptism. The sponsors hold the child over the font, and
the priest takes a small vessel which he fills
with the baptismal water, pouring it upon the
head of the infant three times in the form of

Baptismal Shell a crosS) saying at the same time the sacramen
tal words : " N , I baptize thee in the name of the Father

and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost."

The top of the child's head is immediately anointed with Holy
Chrism in the form of a cross, to denote that he has been made a
Christian. Then comes a ceremony which is a survival of the

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 47

ancient practice of attiring the newly baptized person in white
robes. The priest takes a white cloth and drapes it over the
child's head, adjuring him to " receive this white robe and carry
it spotless before the judgment-seat of our Lord Jesus Christ."

A lighted candle is then placed in the hands of the sponsors,
typifying the light of faith and the flame of charity; and the
baptized person is urged: "Keep thy Baptism without blame;
observe God's commandments; so that when the Lord cometh to
the wedding-feast thou mayest meet Him with all the saints in the
halls of heaven, and mayest obtain eternal life."

Then with the simple words of farewell and benediction, " Go
in peace, and the Lord be with thee," the ceremonies come to an
end.

Thus we see how the beautiful symbolism of our Church's
rites expresses clearly the wonderful effects of Baptism on the
soul of man. These ancient ceremonies are intended to illustrate
the freeing of the human soul from the domination of Satan, the
cleansing of it from original sin, and the strengthening of it
against the world, the flesh and the devil. They denote the re
ceiving of a new and holy character, and the adding to the flock of
Christ of a new member, destined to everlasting life in God's
heavenly Kingdom.

CHAPTER VIII
THE SPONSORS IN BAPTISM

IN the administration of the Sacrament of Baptism a very
prominent part is taken by the sponsors or god-parents, who pre
sent the child at the baptismal font and make a profession of faith
and certain promises in his name. As this is an office which may
fall to the lot of any of our readers, it may be well to explain
just what the duties of sponsors are, and what are the obligations
which they assume ; for there is danger of undertaking these duties
without due consideration and of estimating these obligations
lightly.

48 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

An Ancient Practice. From the very beginning it has been
the practice of the Church to have certain persons assisting at the
administration of Baptism, whether of an infant or an adult —
to offer the infant at the font, to answer for it, to make profession
of the Christian faith in its name, and to receive it from the hands
of the priest after it is baptized ; to act as witnesses of the Baptism
of adults, and to attest their acceptance of the Church's teaching
and their avowal of allegiance to her authority. These persons,
from these various duties were called, in the Latin of the Ritual,
" Sponsors," or Promisers, " Fidejussores," or Attestors of Faith,
" Offerentes," or Offerers, or " Susceptores," Receivers.

In later times they have usually been called " Patrini," a
medieval Latin word signifying those taking the place of parents,
since they undertake the office of spiritual parents towards those
whom they bring to the sacramental font. In English they are
called " god-fathers " and " god-mothers," which words denote the
spiritual relationship which they acquire.

The Duties of Sponsors. The Catechism of the Council of
Trent directs that " all sponsors should at all times recollect that
they are bound to exercise always great vigilance over their spirit
ual children, and to take particular care that, in those things that
pertain to the Christian life, the baptized persons shall act through
life as the sponsors promised for them at the solemn ceremony of
Baptism." If for any reason the natural guardians of a child
are unable or unwilling to attend to its religious training, this
must be looked after by the god-parent. Of course, in the case
of an adult there is less likelihood that such responsibility would
come upon a sponsor; but for those who assist at the Baptism of
a child there is a serious obligation, and one wrhich every god
parent should understand and appreciate — that if the child's
parents do not provide for its Christian training, the burden comes
upon those who have assumed a spiritual relationship with it.

The sponsor at the administration of Baptism holds the child
or physically touches it while the sacrament is being conferred —
or at least receives it from the priest's hands immediately after it

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 49

has been baptized. The actual holding of it by both sponsors
while the water is being poured is the custom with us.

It is allowed in certain cases for a person to become a sponsor
" by proxy " — that is, to assume the office and obligations without
being actually present, by having an agent take his place. This
is the case sometimes in royal families and elsewhere, when it is
desired to have as god-parent some person who cannot be present.
In this case the proxy or agent contracts no obligations whatever,
these being assumed by the real sponsor whom he represents.

Impediments from Sponsorship. How many sponsors are al
lowable? Only two at the most — a man and a woman; and
only one is strictly necessary. Why is the number so restricted?
Because a spiritual relationship is contracted by the sponsor with
the baptized person and his parents — a relationship which would
be an impediment to marriage unless a dispensation were pre
viously obtained ; that is, no person is permitted, without dispen
sation, to marry his or her god-parent or god-child, or the father
or mother of the god-child. This spiritual relationship is looked
upon by the Church as a real relationship, binding in some respects
as strongly as a tie of blood.

Do sponsors contract any impediment in regard to each other?
Or, in other words, if a man and a woman become god-parents
of a child, is there any obstacle thereby to their subsequent mar
riage? No; the impediment exists only between a god-parent and
a god-child, and between the god-parent and the father or mother
of the god-child.

The Qualifications of Sponsors. On account of the all-im
portant duties which sponsors may be called upon to perform, it
is not surprising that the Church requires her pastors to make
diligent inquiry regarding persons selected for this office, and to
enforce the rule that none but those who would be suitable
guardians of the child's spiritual welfare can become god
parents.

The two sponsors should be of different sexes — not two men
nor two women; for it is deemed proper that there should be an

50 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

analogy between spiritual and natural parentage. When there is
only one sponsor, it is usual (but not necessary) to select one of
the same sex as the child, for thereby it is made certain that there
will never be any question of marriage between the god-parent and
the god-child. Parents are not allowed to be sponsors for their
own children, to mark more strongly the difference between
spiritual and carnal parentage — for it is not deemed proper that
one person should hold both relationships.

In the private administration of Baptism, whether by a priest
or a layman, there are no sponsors. The person who holds the
child contracts no relationship. After private Baptism the Church
requires that the baptized child be presented at the font for the
supplying of the other ceremonies. It is then necessary to have
sponsors, and they bind themselves to look after the Christian
education of the child if their intervention should be needful —
but they contract no impediment as regards marriage.

The Church directs that small children shall not be chosen as
sponsors. They should be fourteen years or more of age, and
should have received the Sacrament of Confirmation. In certain
dioceses it is expressly forbidden to select god-parents who have
not made their " Easter duty."

Members of religious communities, whether men or women, are
not allowed to be sponsors, and in some dioceses the clergy are
also forbidden to assume this obligation.

The choosing of non-Catholics is not permitted. The Church
does not wish that the Christian training of her children should
be entrusted to those who are themselves in error. And, in
general, all those who are unable or unwilling to discharge with
fidelity the duties of a spiritual parent should not be admitted to
this sacred trust.

In the chapter on " The Ceremonies of Baptism " the duties
of the sponsors at the font have been sufficiently mentioned. If
the father of the child is not present, the god-parents should be
prepared to answer the various questions which the priest may
ask — as to the names and residence of the child's parents, the date
of birth, the name to be given, whether the infant has been pri-

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 51

vately baptized or not, and, if so, by whom. When it can be
conveniently done, the person who has baptized privately should
be present, to explain to the priest how the Baptism was adminis
tered, and thereby to enable him to ascertain whether it was valid
or not.

The Name of the Child. As one of the duties of the sponsors
is to tell the priest the name which is to be conferred on the child
at its Baptism, it may be well to say a word about the choice of
the name. The Church, in her rubrics and in the writings of her
teachers, has expressed the wish that it should be really a Christian
name — the name of a Saint. The use of that name will serve
to stimulate the imitation of the virtues of the Saint and the at
tainment of holiness like to his; and the blessed one in heaven
who is thus made the patron of the new member of Christ's flock
on earth will, by his advocacy and intercession, become the guar
dian of the soul and body of the person upon whom his name has
been bestowed.

Is this an obligation? It is not. The priest is merely ad
monished by the Church's rubric to do what he can to have every
child baptized in the name of a Saint. But it may easily happen
that in some special cases there are reasons for giving another name
— as in the contingency that an inheritance might depend upon it,
or that the memory of a loved relative might be thus perpetuated.
In such cases it is recommended that another name, that of some
Saint, be added or prefixed to the name desired. Outside of these
exceptional instances, our Catholic parents should remember that
the name of a Saint is better for their child than the name of the
heroine of a novel; that our ordinary English names are finer and
more appropriate than French ones, wyhich are usually mispro
nounced ; that the use of a " stylish " baptismal name in con
junction with a good old Celtic patronymic is incongruous, to
say the least; and that it is no evidence of refinement (except the
refinement of cruelty) to inflict such combinations upon their
helpless offspring. To quote a caustic bit of Irish wit: "There
are three hundred and sixty-five saints' days in the year, and
they named their child after a nut. They called her Hazel ! "

52 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

CHAPTER IX
THE CEREMONIES OF CONFIRMATION

IN this chapter we shall examine the history and liturgy of a
sacrament which we all have received, and which is of special
interest because, unlike Baptism, we can remember when we re
ceived it. Confirmation was administered to us when we had come
to the age of reason, and after a long and thorough preparation.
The ceremonies and prayers which the Church uses in conferring
it are not long nor numerous; but they express very clearly the
meaning of the sacrament and the nature of the special graces
given through its administration.

The Nature of the Sacrament Confirmation is a sacrament
of the Church through which grace is conferred on baptized
persons, strengthening them for the duty of professing the Chris
tian faith. As the Catechism tells us, by it we are made " strong
and perfect" in our Christianity; we become "soldiers of Jesus
Christ," earnest and loyal in His service, willing to wrage war
against His enemies and ours. It is administered ordinarily by a
bishop, who makes the sign of the cross with chrism on the fore
head of the recipient, while he pronounces a certain formula of
words.

This sacrament not only gives us special graces to help us to
live up to our faith, but also, like Baptism and Holy Orders,
imprints a seal or character upon the soul — an indelible spiritual
mark which remains forever, and which renders the repetition
of the sacrament at any future time impossible.

A Catholic Sacrament. Confirmation is a Catholic sacra
ment. It is true that it exists in the schismatic churches of the
East, which were originally members of the true Church and
have preserved most of her teaching; but the Protestant sects have
always denied the sacramental nature of Confirmation. Some
reject it altogether; others, such as the Episcopalians, retain an
imitation of it — a ceremony which they call Confirmation, but
which they hold to be merely a rite and not a sacrament. With

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 53

them it consists in the public renewing and confirming of the
promises made for them by their sponsors at Baptism. But the
Catholic Church has always held that Confirmation is one of the
seven sacraments, the God-given channels by which His grace is
brought to our souls through the ministry of His Church. In it
we have all the requisites for a true sacrament — the outward
sign, the giving of grace, and the divine institution.

Confirmation in the Scriptures. This sacrament was insti
tuted by our Blessed Lord, for it is a doctrine of our holy faith
that each of the seven sacraments owes its origin not to the Church
nor to the Apostles, but to Christ Himself. There is no mention
in the Gospels of such institution; but according to tradition and
the general opinion of the Doctors of the Church, it took place
during the forty days after the Resurrection of our Saviour.

The first account of it is found in the eighth chapter of the
Acts of the Apostles. St. Philip, a deacon, had converted and
baptized certain Samaritans, and when he announced this fact to
Peter and John, these Apostles went down from Jerusalem and
" laid their hands upon them, and they received the Holy Ghost."
In St. Paul's Epistles allusion is also made to the same sacrament,
by which Christians are made " partakers of the Holy Ghost "
and are " sealed with the Holy Spirit of promise."

In the works of the early writers of the Christian Church we
find Confirmation mentioned repeatedly. In the first centuries
it was generally conferred immediately after Baptism. Tertul-
lian speaks of " the imposition of hands on the baptized, which
calls and invites the Holy Ghost."

The Minister of Confirmation. Who can give this sacra
ment? In our Catechism we are taught that " the bishop is the
ordinary minister of Confirmation." In our part of the world,
and, in fact, in the whole Western Church, this sacrament is
always administered by a bishop, except in very special cases; for
example, if a missionary were going into the middle of Africa
or to the remoter parts of China, he might receive permission
from the Pope to carry holy chrism and to give the sacrament of
Confirmation to his converts, who otherwise would never be able

54 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

to receive it, since they could never have access to a bishop. In
the Eastern Churches Confirmation has been for many centuries
administered by priests, and in the Churches which are united to
the Roman See this custom is tacitly permitted.

The Matter of Confirmation. What is strictly required in the
administration of this sacrament? There has been much dispute
about this. Some ancient writers held that the essence of Con
firmation was the laying on of hands — that the anointing with
oil is not necessary; but the great majority of authorities as well
as the warding of the Church's ritual support the teaching that
the real " matter " of this sacrament is the anointing with the
consecrated oil which we call chrism.

This is olive oil with which balm or balsam of a certain kind
has been mixed. This balm is a species of perfumed resin which
exudes from a tree called the terebinth, which grows abundantly
in Eastern lands, especially in Arabia. Similar substances are
produced in the West Indies and in the tropical parts of America.

Probably in the first ages of the Church pure oil without ad
mixture was used; but we find mention of the use of balm from
about the sixth century. In many Eastern churches the chrism
is highly perfumed, and rare spices of many kinds are dissolved in
it; but the uniform practice of the Roman Church has been to
prepare the chrism simply with olive oil and balm. The oil is
symbolic of strength, for it was used by the athletes and gymnasts
of classic times as an ointment, to promote bodily vigor; of light,
because it can be used in lamps, to dispel darkness; of health,
because it is taken internally as a food and a medicine. The balm
denotes freedom from corruption and the " sweet odor of virtue."

The chrism is blessed on Holy Thursday in every cathedral
church. This is an ancient custom, going back before the year
500. The beautiful ceremonies wrhich accompany this solemn
blessing are described elsewhere in this work.

The Words of Confirmation. To administer Confirmation
validly, what form of words must be used ? Here again there is a
great diversity of opinion and of practice. Among the Greeks
the form is : " The seal of the gift of the Holy Ghost," and

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 55

this has been in use among them from very early times. The
words used in our Latin ceremonial are: " I sign thee with the
sign of the cross and I confirm thee with the chrism of salvation,
in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost."
These date back only to the twelfth century.

Before that time a very common form was : " I confirm thee
in the name of the Father," etc. In some parts of the world
these words were used : " The sign of the cross writh eternal
life"; and elsewhere the following very expressive formula was
commonly employed : " Receive the sign of the holy cross with
the chrism of salvation in Christ Jesus unto eternal life."

We see from this variety of forms that it was evidently the
intention of our Lord and the practice of His Church that the
sacrament of Confirmation could be validly administered with
any words which sufficiently indicate the graces given; but, of
course, for us at the present day the form prescribed by the
Church's ritual is the one to be followed.

The Age for Confirmation. This sacrament is generally
administered among us when the candidate is about twelve or
thirteen years of age; but this is by no means an ancient or uni
versal practice. In the Oriental churches it is usually conferred
immediately after Baptism, and this was the rule in all parts of
the wrorld until about the thirteenth century. In fact, the prompt
confirming of newly baptized children wras strictly enjoined, and
penalties were prescribed for parents who neglected it. But
gradually it was seen to be preferable to defer this sacrament
(which is not necessary for salvation) to an ?ge when it could
be received " with knowledge and free will."

The Sponsors at Confirmation. At the administration of this
sacrament the Church requires sponsors, as at Baptism. These
must be Catholics, and must themselves have received Confirma
tion ; and, just as in Baptism, they contract a spiritual relation
ship with those whose sponsors they become.

This relationship is an impediment to marriage, and it is well
to remember that sponsors in either Baptism or Confirmation are
subject to this impediment not only as regards the person baptized

56 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

or confirmed, but also as to his parents; so that the person who
acts as sponsor in either of these sacraments would be unable,
without a dispensation, to marry validly the parent of the one who
received the sacrament.

On account of the relationship thus contracted, it is usual to
have in Confirmation one sponsor only, of the same sex as the
person confirmed. In many parts of the world each candidate
has his or her own sponsor; this is the custom in our Italian
parishes in this country; but generally in our churches one man
acts as sponsor for all the males confirmed and one woman for
all the females. The sponsor has no duty at the ceremony except
to place his or her hand on the shoulder of the person while the
sacrament is being administered.

A peculiar detail of the ceremony, no longer in vogue, was
that the candidate placed his or her foot upon the right foot of
the sponsor while being confirmed. Another, which has also
fallen into disuse, was the binding of a white cloth around the
head of the person who had received Confirmation ; this was worn
for seven days, to preserve, as it were, the sign of the holy chrism.
In ancient times the sacrament was always received fasting, but
this also is no longer deemed necessary, and is not now observed.

The Ceremonies. The bishop who confirms is vested in amice,
stole and white cope, and wears his mitre. He goes to a seat
before the middle of the altar, facing the people; and, after wash
ing his hands, he begins the ceremonies of the Confirmation. He
first says aloud, in Latin, " May the Holy Spirit come upon you,
and may the virtue of the Most High guard you from sin.
Amen." Then, after making the sign of the cross, he extends
his hands over those who are to be confirmed, and prays as
follows :

" Almighty and eternal God, Who hast deigned to regenerate
these Thy servants with water and the Holy Spirit, and Who
hast given them the remission of all their sins, send upon them
from heaven Thy sevenfold Spirit, the Paraclete. Amen. The
Spirit of wisdom and understanding. Amen. The Spirit oi;

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 57

counsel and fortitude. Amen. The Spirit of knowledge and
piety. Amen. Fill them with the Spirit of Thy fear, and sign
them with the sign of the cross of Christ unto everlasting life.
Through the same Lord Jesus Christ," etc.

The candidates are arranged before the bishop, generally at the
altar-rail; and it is customary with us for each to hold a card
bearing his baptismal name and the new name which he wishes
to take at his Confirmation. This taking of a new name is not
necessary, but is sanctioned by long usage.

The bishop goes to each and administers the sacrament as fol
lows : Dipping his right thumb into the vessel containing the holy
chrism, he makes the sign of the cross with the consecrated oil on
the candidate's forehead, and says at the same time (addressing

him by his Christian name or names), " N , I sign thee with

the sign of the cross and I confirm thee with the chrism of salva
tion, in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy
Ghost."

He then strikes the cheek of the person lightly, saying, " Peace
be with thee." This ceremony is not found in ancient rituals.
It symbolizes the persecutions to which we may possibly be ex
posed on account of our faith, and reminds us that as soldiers of
Jesus Christ we may have to suffer for Him.

The chrism on the forehead of each is wiped off with cotton
by one of the assisting clergy. The bishop then washes his hands,
to remove all traces of the chrism, and the choir or clergy chant
or recite the following words : " Confirm this, O God, which
Thou hast wrought in us, from Thy holy temple which is in
Jerusalem. Glory be to the Father," etc.

The Closing Prayer. The bishop then offers a prayer, pre
ceded by certain versicles — " Show us, O Lord, Thy mercy and
give us Thy salvation. . . . O God, Who hast given Thy Holy
Spirit to Thy Apostles, and hast willed that He should be given
to the other faithful by them and their successors, regard be-
nignantly the service of our lowliness; and grant that the same
Holy Spirit, coming upon those whose foreheads we have anointed

58 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

with holy chrism and marked with the sign of the cross, may
make their hearts a temple of His glory. ... So will every man
be blessed who hears the Lord."

Finally the bishop gives his solemn blessing to those confirmed,
making the sign of the cross over them, with the words: " May
the Lord bless you from Sion, that you may see the good things
of Jerusalem all the days of your life, and may have life ever
lasting. Amen."

It is customary for the bishop to deliver an instruction appro
priate to the occasion, teaching the newly confirmed the greatness
of the sacrament they have received, urging them to be " strong
and perfect Christians and soldiers of Jesus Christ," steadfast in
faith, loyal to their Leader ; and warning them against the dangers
to morals and faith to which they will be exposed through life.

At the bidding of the bishop, those who have been confirmed
recite aloud (as a kind of penance) the Creed, the Our Father
and the Hail Mary; and this concludes the ceremonies of Con
firmation.

CHAPTER X
THE CONFESSION OF SINS

THE telling of sins in Confession, or in other words, the re
ceiving of the Sacrament of Penance, is something distinctively
Catholic. It is true that it is found in schismatic churches but
only because they have preserved it and continued it from the
time when they were Catholic. When the Greek and Oriental
churches separated themselves from communion with the Roman
See, they retained nearly all the dogmas and practices which then
prevailed in the Christian world. The Sacraments, the Mass,
the priestly office and many other essentials of Catholicism are still
to be found in those schismatic bodies, and the necessity of con
fessing sins is recognized in them just as it is in the Church of
Rome.

There is hardly anything in the whole system of our religion
which is so misunderstood and misrepresented as is Confession.

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 59

Even learned non-Catholic writers and preachers show astounding
ignorance of the true facts of the case when they treat of the
11 Romish " practice of confessing sins; and as for the rank and file
of our separated brethren, the extent of their misinformation is
appalling.

Objections Against Confession. Confession is the bugbear
of Protestants. Four centuries of misstatement, of oft-repeated
falsehood, have resulted, among non-Catholics, in almost universal
misunderstanding of the teaching and practice of the Catholic
Church regarding the forgiveness of sins. Of course, any one
who wishes information about Confession may get it from even
the simplest books that explain Catholic doctrine; but the average
non-Catholic does not try to get it. He cheerfully and unques-
tioningly receives what has been handed down to him, and passes
it on to others; he repeats the slanders over which his ancestors
gloated, and looks upon Confession as a slavish superstition — if
not as something worse.

The usual ideas of the average non-Catholic are somewhat like
this: "Catholics believe that, to be forgiven, they need merely
to tell their sins."

" Priests have sometimes given a license or permission to commit
future sins."

" Catholic priests, through the confessional, acquire a complete
and harmful domination over souls."

" Being mostly evil-minded men, they delight in hearing con
fessions, and revel in listening to accusations of sins, especially
those of women."

" Any sin will be forgiven if the sinner pays enough."

It would hardly seem to be necessary to refute these assertions
or even to notice them. Some of them are so preposterous that
it is strange that they can be believed by any sensible person.
However, the gullible always outnumber the sensible; and a word
or two concerning the Church's real teaching may not be out of
place.

The Answers. The Church does not teach, and never has
taught, that " the telling of sins is enough to bring forgiveness."

60 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

The telling of sins, while necessary in most cases, is by no means
essential to the Sacrament of Penance ; there is something far more
important, something without which there can be no sacrament — -
namely, contrition, or sorrow for sin, with its necessary conse
quence, a firm purpose of amendment. Mortal sin may be for
given without confession : it never can be without contrition.

Of course, no confessor ever gave a " license " or " permission "
to commit sin. The idea is blasphemous. The Sacrament of
Penance is intended and used only for the good of souls — to wash
away sin, to give graces for the strengthening of the soul against
future sin ; and the advice, reproof and encouragement given by
the priest are also potent factors in bringing about amendment.
Many well-informed non-Catholics, who know nothing of the
supernatural effects of the Sacrament of Penance, bear willing
testimony to the good effects of Confession in promoting purity,
honesty and respect for divine and civil laws.

But, say our Protestant critics, suppose that a priest is a wicked
man, does not the confessional give him ample opportunity to in
dulge his evil propensities?

Not so much as one might think. Of course, there are un
worthy priests — not many, thank God ; but the Church has safe
guarded the confessional and the penitent against them. No
priest could absolve one who has been his accomplice in sin. No
priest would be likely to try to use the tribunal of penance for
wicked ends; for the person to whom he had spoken evil could
not be absolved by any other priest until the name and guilt of
the unworthy confessor had been revealed to the bishop of the
diocese, and the said person would be excommunicated if the
accusation be not made promptly.

We can assure our readers that the average priest finds his work
in the confessional the most monotonous and at the same time
the most comforting part of his labors. There is no desire to
remember the sins that he hears. He has no time for curiosity.
The hearing of confessions is a task that would be a drudgery
were it not for the consciousness which every confessor has, that he
is doing God's work, and is accomplishing more good than he

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 61

could do anywhere else. In the long hours spent in the confes
sional he can give comfort to the sorrowing, can send the sinner
away purified from all stain, can guide the earnest soul to higher
perfection; and oftentimes, good priest though he be, he has to
confess himself inferior in sanctity to some who kneel at his feet.

What Catholics Believe. We Catholics believe that our
Saviour has given to His Church a sacrament for the remission
of sins committed after Baptism, this remission being affected by
the absolution of the priest, joined to true supernatural sorrow,
earnest purpose of amendment, and sincere confession of all
grievous sin when confession is possible.

This sacrament is necessary for the salvation of those who have
fallen into mortal sin after Baptism; that is, they either must
receive it or must have an actual or implied desire to receive it,
joined to perfect sorrow for sin.

What about baptized Protestants who are in good faith? Do
we claim that these are all lost, because they do not know the
efficacy of the Sacrament of Penance and therefore do not receive
it? No; they may turn to God in ardent and loving contrition,
and, being in good faith, this contrition implies that they earnestly
desire to fulfill Christ's law as far as they know it. If they knew
the Sacrament of Penance as it is, they would receive it. And
so we do not deny that God may be ready to forgive the sins of
those non-Catholic Christians who are in good faith and are sorry
for their sins.

Our Church teaches us that her priests have real power to
forgive sins, and that every person is bound by God's law to
confess to the priest every remembered mortal sin committed after
Baptism. There is no need of entering here into the Scriptural
arguments to prove this doctrine; such is not the scope of this
book; but let us see what is necessary for the practical exercise
of this power of the priest, and why the obligation of confessing
sins necessarily follows from the fact that the priest possesses this
power.

The Priest Needs Jurisdiction. What priests have the power
of forgiving sins? All priests have it, but all priests cannot use

62 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

it. No priest can hear confessions unless he has jurisdiction; just
as no magistrate can try a case unless it is submitted by law to his
tribunal. Every Catholic priest has received this power, indeed,
at his ordination; but its exercise depends altogether on the au
thority of the Church. For instance, if a priest who belongs to
one diocese goes to another, he cannot hear confessions there unless
he first obtains permission from the bishop of that diocese. He
cannot even hear confessions in his own diocese unless he has
received " faculties " to do so from his own bishop. In the words
of the Catechism, he must be a " duly authorized priest."

Why Catholics Confess Their Sins. Why do we have to
confess our sins ? Would it not be a great deal more comfortable
if we were merely required to manifest our sorrow and not our
sins? Undoubtedly; but God has not so arranged it. Our
Blessed Saviour gave His Apostles and the priests of His Church
the power " to bind and to loose " — in other words, a discretionary
power. They are judges, advisers and physicians' — not merely
absolvers.

Now, a priest is not a mind-reader, nor is he endowed with
any miraculous knowledge. He cannot know your sins or mine,
nor judge them, nor advise about them, nor suggest remedies for
them, unless we tell them to him. Therefore we must tell them,
completely and clearly, so that he will know them as we know
them; so that they will be displayed before his mind as they are
before our conscience.

The Form of Absolution. What does the priest say when he
raises his hand over us, after bidding us to say the Act of Con
trition? Or, in other words, what is the form of absolution?
After reciting the last two sentences of the Confiteor, the Con
fessor uses these words:

" May our Lord Jesus Christ absolve thee, and I by His au
thority absolve thee from every bond of excommunication and
interdict in so far as I can and as thou needest it ; and so I absolve
thee from thy sins, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and
of the Holy Ghost. Amen. May the Passion of our Lord Jesus
Christ, the merits of the Blessed Mary ever Virgin, whatever

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 63

good thou hast done and whatever evil thou hast borne, be for
thee unto the remission of sins, the increase of grace, and the
reward of everlasting life. Amen."

Such are the impressive words which God's appointed minister
uses as the sentence of pardon for God's faithful. And when
these words are uttered over one who is rightly disposed, the soul
that has been loathsome with the leprosy of sin becomes pure in
God's sight ; the wickedness that defiled it is cleansed away forever.

The Seal of Confession. Every Catholic knows, and many
non-Catholics know as well, that a priest is not permitted under
any circumstances or for any reason whatever, to reveal what he
has heard in Confession. This obligation of secrecy is what is
known as the " seal of Confession."

The Confessor is not acting as a mere man, but as one who
stands in the place of God; and he is never allowed to disclose
to any one the matters submitted to him in the sacred tribunal.
This law admits of absolutely no exception. Unless the penitent
freely gives the Confessor leave to use his knowledge, the priest
must not by word or look or gesture reveal sins or weaknesses, or
the names or sins of accomplices, or anything that would bring
contempt or trouble on the penitent. If harm would thereby
ensue, he must not even admit that a certain person has confessed
to him. He must not even by change of conduct or manner
remind the penitent of anything that has been told in Confession.
To violate this law in any way would be a detestable sacrilege, and
would entail the severest penalties for the guilty priest. And it is
right that this should be so; for any revelation of matters of
confession would make the Sacrament of Penance an intolerable
evil instead of a ministry of mercy and reconciliation.

An Ancient Practice. The forgiveness of sins, as said above,
entails the confession of them ; and therefore the practice of telling
one's sins to a priest goes back to the beginning of the Church.
In all the ages of her history the power of absolution, of judg
ment of sins, has been recognized and used. St. Cyprian urges
the sinner to repent " while confession may be made." St. John
Chrysostom tells us that the priests of the Gospel excel those of the

64 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Jewish Church, because while these latter could merely declare a
man clean of leprosy, the Christian priests " have received power
to cleanse the impurity of the soul." And this is confirmed by
others of the earlier writers; they do not argue for the priestly
power of absolving, but assume it as unquestionable. Origen,
who lived at the beginning of the third century, exhorts the sinner
" to find a physician, learned and merciful," who will judge if
his sickness be of such a nature that " it ought to be manifested in
the meeting of the whole Church "; and he tells his hearers: " If
we reveal our sins, not only to God but also to those who can heal
our sins, they will be blotted out."

In the early centuries public penance, of the greatest severity
and sometimes lasting for years, was demanded in reparation for
great sins — especially for murder, idolatry and adultery. This
practice, however, was later abolished, because it was not of divine
origin, and was often a deterrent from reconciliation with God
rather than a help towards it; but sacramental confession has
endured, because, as St. Leo has said, " It is enough that guilt
should be manifested to the priest alone by secret confession."

The Confessional. The seat which the priest uses, or the
enclosure within which the confession is ordinarily made, is known
as a " confessional." In our churches it con
sists usually of a central box in which the
confessor is seated, and side alcoves, fitted
with doors or curtains, in which the peni
tents kneel. The partitions have openings
provided with gratings or screens, separating
the penitent from the priest, and these may
be closed by sliding shutters. The Ritual
demands that the confessional be located in
Confessional a conspicuous place in the church, and it is

recommended that in the part where the penitent kneels there
shall be a crucifix or a picture of our Lord, to inspire devotion
and contrition in the sinner.

This present form of confessional is of somewhat recent origin.
In ancient times confessions were heard in the open church, the

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 65

penitent kneeling before the priest or seated by his side. The
division of the confessional into compartments seems to have come
into use about the sixteenth century.

The priest, when hearing confessions, wears a purple stole:
and, according to the requirements of the Ritual, should also wear
a surplice — which latter detail, probably for comfort's sake, is
sometimes omitted by our clergy.

A Secret Sacrament. The Sacrament of Penance is the only
one that is always administered in secret. The other six Sacra
ments are given ordinarily in a solemn manner, in the presence
of witnesses or others, with lights and prayers. The Sacrament
of Penance is a private affair, concerning no one but the penitent
and the priest ; and hence it is generally administered in the narrow
space of the confessional, and always without pomp or ceremony.

Much more might be written about the sacred tribunal of
Penance, but it wrould be rather an exposition of Catholic doctrine
than of practice and would not come within the scope of this
chapter. Every Catholic is familiar from childhood with the re
quirements for a worthy Confession, and every Catholic knows
also, from his own experience, the peace and heavenly comfort
that have filled his soul when he arose from his knees and went
forth " with God's benediction upon him." The confessing of our
sins may seem hard, but God, in reality, has made the work of
reconciliation easy for us. Earnest sorrow, a real purpose of
amendment, a sincere accusation — and the sins, be they few or
many, no longer exist. They must be told, and the telling is
hard — but it is not made to the world at large. They are
wrhispered only to one man, who is bound by a most sacred obli
gation, bound by his own hope of Heaven, to preserve everlasting
silence.

CHAPTER XI
THE CEREMONIES OF EXTREME UNCTION

THE ministry of the Catholic Church is at its best in the care
which it manifests towards the sick. In the sick-room and at the

66 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

death-bed the Catholic priest wins the grateful love of the faithful
and the admiration of those who are not of the One Fold. There
is no part of his work, no service that he renders to his flock, that
is better calculated to make men of all creeds respect the priest.
When they see him wending his way to the homes of the poor,
through darkness or rain or snow, when they know that no danger
of contagion can keep him away, that no peril is worthy of notice
when a soul is at stake, they realize that the priest believes what
he teaches.

" The Last Anointing." In this chapter we shall take up the
ceremonies of the Sacrament by which a soul is prepared for its
passage to eternity. Why is this Sacrament called Extreme
Unction? Because it is the last or extreme anointing which the
Catholic receives. At Baptism his breast and shoulders were
anointed with the Oil of Catechumens and his head with Chrism.
At Confirmation he was marked on the forehead writh Chrism,
to show that his faith must be manifest to the world. If he has
been raised to the priesthood, he has received on his hands another
anointing by which these members were consecrated to God's
service. And, now that he is about to cross the threshold of
eternity, his various senses receive a last anointing in the Sacra
ment of Extreme Unction.

The Oil of the Sacrament. For this Sacrament the oil which
is used is olive oil, consecrated by a bishop on Holy Thursday of
each year. It is known as " Oleum Infirmorum " — the Oil
of the Sick — and it is applied by the priest to the principal
organs of the body through which sin may have come upon the
soul.

A Symbol of Strength. The symbolism of oil can be easily
Understood if we remember the many uses for which it was
employed among the ancients. It was a medicine, a food, a source
of light, and especially a means of producing that strength and
flexibility of muscle which athletes seek to acquire. The gymnast,
runner, boxer or wrestler of the old Olympic games rubbed oil
into the pores of his skin, and thereby nourished and strengthened
his muscular system in preparation for his contests. So it is writh

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 67

the sacramental oil with which the Church anoints her children
to give them spiritual strength in their conflict with Satan.

Scriptural Authority. Like all the other sacraments, Ex
treme Unction was instituted by our Blessed Saviour; but there
is no mention of it in the Gospels. We find the first account of
it in the Epistle of St. James the Apostle, where the manner of
administering it and the nature of its effects are clearly set forth:
"Is any man sick among you? Let him bring in the priests
of the Church; and let them pray over him, anointing him with
oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith shall save
the sick man, and the Lord shall raise him up; and if he be in
sins, they shall be forgiven him."

The Sacrament of Extreme Unction should, if possible, be
given when the patient is in full possession of his mental faculties
and realizes the importance of the Sacrament, and not when he
is deprived of his senses and is in the throes of death.

In the Sick-Room. When it can be done, the Holy Viaticum
is given to the sick person before Extreme Unction. It may be
well to mention the various things which should be prepared.
These should always be kept together and in readiness in every
Catholic household, for in each the day will come (and may come
suddenly) when they will be needed.

A table should be provided. A small firm stand, perhaps two
feet square, is suitable. The articles for the
administration of the sacraments should not
be placed on a bureau which is partly oc
cupied by other things. The table should
be entirely covered with a clean white cloth.
\ Tf'\v V ^n *kis is placed a standing crucifix and two

IL.y blessed candles, which should be lighted when
ty the priest is expected ; a saucer containing
Table for Sick-Room holy water (with a sprinkler, if possible) ; a
glass of fresh water, a spoon, a plate with small crumbs of bread,
a towel, a napkin (to be used as a Communion-cloth) and seven
small balls of clean cotton.

Through mistaken devotion prayer-books, rosaries, statues, pic-

68 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

tures, etc., are sometimes placed on the table. These should be
omitted. The table is, for the time, an altar, which is a resting-
place for the Blessed Sacrament when Holy Communion is to be
given, and for the Holy Oil used in Extreme Unction.

The parts of the sick person which are to be anointed should
be washed before the priest arrives — the face, hands and feet.

When the priest is known to be carrying the Blessed Sacrament,
it is a laudable custom for one of the family to meet him at the
street-door with a lighted candle, and all the others present should
kneel when he enters. It is almost needless to say that at the
administration of sacraments none but blessed candles, of un
bleached yellow wax, should be used.

The Prayers Before the Anointing. As the priest comes into
the sick-room he says, in Latin, " Peace be unto this house and all
who dwell therein." He sprinkles the sick person, the room and
the other persons present with holy water, uttering the words of
the Psalmist : " Thou shalt sprinkle me with hyssop, O Lord,
and I shall be cleansed ; Thou shalt wash me, and I shall be made
whiter than snow. Have mercy on me, O God, according to Thy
great mercy. Glory be to the Father," etc.

He then hears the confession of the sick person, if it has not
been previously heard, and gives the Holy Viaticum, if it is to be
given. He then recites three prayers. The first asks that " into
this house may come eternal happiness, divine prosperity, serene
joy, fruitful charity and lasting health; that the devils may flee;
that the angels of peace may be present; that all evil discord may
disappear." The second asks blessings from our Lord Jesus
Christ on the house and on all who dwell in it, that He may give
them a good angel as their guardian; that He may protect them
" from all the powers of darkness, from all fear and perturba
tion." The third asks again for the angel of God " to guard,
protect, cherish, visit and defend all who dwell in this abode."

The Confiteor is then recited. It may be said in English (or
any other language) by the sick person or by those who are pres
ent. The priest says, in Latin, the concluding sentences, which
are, in English : " May the Almighty God have mercy on thee,"

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 69

etc. As he pronounces the final words he makes the sign of the
cross.

Then, before the anointing, the priest offers a prayer to the
angels and saints, which opens with an invocation of the three
Persons of the Holy Trinity, with a threefold sign of the cross
over the patient : " In the name of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghost, may all the power of the devil be ex
tinguished in thee, by the imposition of our hands and by the in
vocation of all the holy Angels, Archangels, Patriarchs, Prophets,
Apostles, Martyrs, Confessors, Virgins, and all the Saints.
Amen."

The Anointings. At the anointing of the sick person, those
who are in the room should kneel and pray. The
Oil of the Sick is carried in a small gold-plated
box, known as an oil-stock, which is enclosed in
a leather case. The oil is usually soaked into cot
ton, to avoid danger of leakage. The priest dips
his thumb into the oil and makes the sign of the
cross with it on several parts of the sick person's
body; first on the eyes, with the words, in Latin:
" By this holy unction and His most loving mercy
may the Lord pardon thee whatever thou hast sinned by sight."
Then on the ears, with the same formula, except the last word,
which is " hearing." He anoints the nose, mentioning the sense
of smell; the lips, for taste and speech; the palms of the hands,
for the sense of touch ; and the feet, for sins committed by walk
ing. Each unction is wiped away with cotton immediately after
it is made.

When a priest receives Extreme Unction his hands are
anointed not on the palms, but on the back. The reason is that
his palms have been previously consecrated with oil, at his ordi
nation.

The Final Prayers. The priest then prays, " Kyrie eleison,"
etc. — " Lord, have mercy " — after which the Our Father is re
cited secretly down to the last words, " Lead us not into tempta
tion, but deliver us from evil," which are said aloud, in Latin.

70 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Then follow several versicles with their responses : " Make safe
Thy servant, my God, who trusts in Thee. Send him, O Lord,
help from Thy holy place, and defend him from Sion. Be to
him, O Lord, a tower of strength from the face of the enemy.
May the enemy avail naught against him, and the son of iniquity
be powerless to harm him." These and the other prayers are
varied according to the sex of the sick person — " Thy handmaid "
instead of " Thy servant," etc.

Three prayers are then offered. The first asks for forgiveness
of sin and restoration of bodily health. The second, in which the
Christian name of the sick person is used, implores refreshment
of soul and divine healing; and the third begs that he may be
restored to Holy Church " with all desired prosperity." This
concludes the ceremonies of Extreme Unction.

The Apostolic Blessing. Immediately after the administra
tion of this Sacrament it is usual to impart the Last or Apostolic
Blessing, which gives a plenary indulgence to the recipient. This
indulgence is gained, not when the prayers are read, but at the
moment of death — " in articulo mortis."

The priest exhorts the sick person to elicit acts of contrition,
faith, hope and love, and to invoke the Sacred Name of Jesus.
A prayer is offered to " the Father of mercies and the God of all
consolation," to look with favor upon His servant and to grant
him the pardon of all his sins. After the Confiteor has been said,
the Blessing is given, as follows:

" May our Lord Jesus Christ, Son of the Living God, Who
gave to Peter the power to bind and to loose, receive thy con
fession and restore to thee that first robe of innocence which thou
didst receive in Baptism; and I, by the power given to me by the
Apostolic See, grant thee a plenary indulgence and remission of all
thy sins, in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the
Holy Ghost.

" Through the most sacred mysteries of man's redemption may
God remit unto thee the pains of the present and future life, open
to thee the gates of heaven, and bring thee to everlasting life."

And with a solemn benediction, " May Almighty God bless

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 71

thee, Father, Son and Holy Ghost," the ceremonies are concluded
which prepare the Christian soul to meet its God.

CHAPTER XII
THE CEREMONIES OF HOLY ORDERS

THE rites used in the administration of Holy Orders are of
great antiquity and full of meaning. They are beautiful and sym
bolical ceremonies, expressing well the dignity and the duties of
the Orders conferred through them.

In the catechism which we all studied in childhood we find the
following definition of the Sacrament of Holy Orders : " A
sacrament through which bishops, priests and other ministers of
the Church are ordained and receive grace and power to perform
their sacred duties." We are tolerably familiar with priests and
more remotely with bishops ; but who are the " other ministers
of the Church ? " Not the Cardinals ; these are not elevated to
that dignity by any ordination. Not the Pope himself; he is a
bishop — and if he be (as has generally been the case) a bishop
before his election to the Papacy, he needs no ordination or con
secration to make him Pope. The " other ministers of the
Church " are those who have received Orders below that of priest
hood; for a candidate for the sacred ministry passes through sev
eral steps before the priestly character is conferred upon him.

The Steps to the Priesthood. He first receives the clerical
tonsure, which is not an Order — merely a ceremony. Then
four Minor Orders are conferred upon him; these will be de
scribed in detail. Then come the Sacred Orders, namely, sub-
deaconship, deaconship and priesthood. Therefore a candidate for
the priesthood, after receiving the tonsure, is ordained to six dif
ferent grades of the clerical state before he is finally made a
priest.

It is usual to give these various Orders on the same day and at
the same Mass, but not to the same individual at one time. An
ordination will sometimes include a hundred candidates or more,

72 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

some for each of the above Orders. A student will generally
receive the tonsure at the end of his first year in the seminary;
Minor Orders during his second ; subdeaconship at the end of the
third year, and finally deaconship and priesthood in his fourth year
of theological study.

The Clerical Tonsure. When a student has manifested suf
ficient signs of a probable vocation and fitness for the clerical state,,
he receives a summons to the ceremony of tonsure. This is the
rite by which a man is taken from the world, ceases to be a layman,.
and is made a member of the clergy. The tonsure has been for
many centuries the special badge of those who have
been elevated to the clerical state. It consists in
the cutting off of some of the hair from the candi
date's head. In our part of the world it has never
become a custom to wear the tonsure; but in
• Catholic countries it is an obligation upon all

Tonsure clerics. Among the secular clergy (where it is
worn) and in some religious communities the tonsure consists
of a smoothly shaven circular spot, perhaps three inches in
diameter, on the top of the head towards the rear. In certain
orders of monks it is much larger, the whole crown of the head
being denuded of hair, leaving merely a fringe around the head,
like a wreath; this may be seen in pictures of St. Anthony and
some other saints.

What is the meaning of this peculiar practice of the Church?
It signifies the putting away of useless and superfluous orna
ments, the separating of one's self from vanity and worldliness.
It is also considered as a symbol of the crown of thorns of our
Blessed Lord, and therefore typifies the austerities which the
wearer should practise in imitation of Him.

The conferring of the tonsure and of the various Orders
usually takes place on one of the Ember Days; they may, how
ever, be given on other days. So careful is the Church that her
clergy shall be well qualified in every way that when the candi
dates appear for ordination the first ceremony is the pronouncing
of a solemn sentence of excommunication on any one who pre-

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 73

sents himself to receive Orders and who is legally unfit or un
worthy.

The Tonsure Ceremonies. Those who are to be tonsured
stand before the Bishop, and he recites a prayer that " these serv
ants of God who have hastened hither to lay aside the hairs of
their heads for love of Him " may receive the Holy Ghost, Who
will defend them against the world and earthly desires; and that,
being endowed with an increase of virtue, they may receive the
light of eternal grace.

Then the Bishop with a pair of scissors clips five small locks
of hair in the form of a cross from the head of the young man who
kneels before him — taking them from the front, back, both sides
and centre of the head, while the candidate says : " The Lord
is the portion of my inheritance and my chalice ; it is Thou Who
wilt restore my inheritance to me." Then after a prayer asking
God's blessing on the new clerics and the reciting of a psalm, the
Bishop invests each with a surplice, the garb of their new state,
with the words: " May the Lord clothe thee with the new man
who has been created according to God in justice and the holiness
of truth." He then recites a beautiful prayer that these new serv
ants of God may be freed from all slavery to worldly things ; that
as they carry the likeness of Christ's crown on their heads, they
may be worthy of an eternal inheritance with Him. The Bishop
then admonishes them " to remember that this day they are made
members of the Church's court and have received the privileges of
the clergy; to beware lest they lose them; and to endeavor to
please God by honorable living, good morals and works."

The Minor Orders. These Orders are a necessary part of the
preparation for the priesthood, and they are given only to those
who have previously received the tonsure. They are four in
number; The Order of Porter, of Reader, of Exorcist and of
Acolyte.

In the early centuries of the Church's history, for the proper
celebration of the sacred mysteries, it was deemed necessary to ap
point various ministers who would attend to certain duties con
nected with the divine worship. Some of these were afterwards

74 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

raised to the priesthood ; some never advanced further than the
Minor Orders, spending their lives in the exercise of these lower
functions of the ministry, much like the " lay brothers " who serve
in the churches of various religious orders. Gradually, however,
these Minor Orders became merely a step towards the sacred
office of the priesthood, and all those who received them did so
with the intention of ultimately becoming priests. Thus it has
come about that every man who becomes a priest first receives the
four Minor Orders, although as a matter of fact he seldom or
never exercises their functions. The office of Porter is filled in
our churches to-day not by a cleric but by a layman. Those of
Reader and Exorcist are exercised only by priests. The duties of
the office of Acolyte fall to the lot of the altar-boy who serves
Mass.

These Orders are sometimes conferred all at one time; some
times they are given at two or more separate ordinations.

The Order of Porter. The first Minor Order is that of Porter
— the door-keeper of the house of God. The tonsured cleric
comes before the Bishop clad in cassock and surplice and carrying
a candle, and is instructed in the duties of his office. He is to
sound the gong, to ring the bell, to open the church, to prepare the
book for the preacher. He is warned not to be negligent about
the care of the Church's goods; not to be tardy in his duties; and,
just as he opens and closes the visible house of God, so likewise he
must by word and example close the hearts of the faithful to the
devil and open them to God. Such is the substance of the Latin
exhortation which is read by the Bishop to the candidates. They
then receive the keys of the church, and are led to the door, which
is locked and unlocked by each of them ; they then ring the church-
bell, after which the Bishop prays over them and solemnly blesses
them.

The Order of Reader. The Lector or Reader was a very im
portant person in the ages when the Church was engaged in evan
gelizing Europe. He was the instructor, the catechist, the reader
of the Scriptures for the semi-savage tribes which were being
brought into the fold of Christ. A knowledge of reading was un-

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 75

usual among the common people in those days, and a book was an
almost priceless treasure; and therefore, that the people might be
instructed concerning sacred things and that they might know the
written Word of God, a cleric was ordained to read to them in the
church. He also acted as chanter at solemn ceremonies, and was
permitted to bless certain articles for the faithful.

Those who receive this Order come before the Bishop with
candles and receive an admonition from him regarding their new
duties. They are exhorted to proclaim the sacred truths clearly
and openly, and not to falsify them in any way; and as they are
to be placed in an exalted positioa in the church so that they
may be seen and heard by all, so must they hold a high place in
the order of virtue, that they may lead to eternal life those who see
and hear them.

The Bishop then places in the hand of each the Holy Scriptures,
as a symbol of their office. He then asks God's blessing on
them and prays that they may always " preach what should be done
and do what they preach."

The Order of Exorcist. In the first centuries of the Church
the devil undoubtedly had more power than he has now, es
pecially in regard to material things. The greater part of the
world was his dominion, for it was sunk in paganism, which was
to a large extent devil-worship. The enemy of God and of man
kind had extended his sway over the souls of a great portion of the
human race, and God even permitted him in some cases to control
the bodies of men. This is why we read in the Gospels, in the
writings of the Fathers and in the lives of the early saints, of many
instances of demoniac possession — actual control by the Evil One
of the minds and bodies of unfortunate victims, who probably had
merited such severe punishment, which was therefore allowed by
the Almighty.

The Exorcist is one whose office it formerly was to cast out
devils; and he received the right to use the solemn formulas of
the Church for that purpose. He also assisted at the administra
tion of Baptism, imposing hands on the catechumen and thereby
giving him the graces of the Holy Spirit; but in our times these

76 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

duties are exercised only by those who have been elevated to the
priesthood.

At the ordination of an Exorcist the Bishop admonishes him
that, having the power to expel devils from others, he must
keep all uncleanness and evil from his own mind and body, lest he
be conquered by those whom he has driven from others. Then the
Missal or the Pontifical (the Ritual used by the Bishop) is handed
to him ; the blessing of God is invoked upon him, and he is declared
to have power and dominion over unclean spirits, and to be " an
approved physician of the Church, confirmed in the grace of curing
and in heavenly virtue."

The Order of Acolyte. The Order of Acolyte or Mass-Server
is the last and highest of the Minor Orders which are conferred
before promotion to the greater dignities of subdeaconship, deacon-
ship and priesthood. As the candidates kneel before the Bishop
they are instructed in their duties — to carry candles at the serv
ices of the Church, to light the lamps, and to serve the priest at
Mass. They are warned that those whose office it is to care for
lights must have nothing to do with the works of darkness. They
must themselves be lights in the house of God. And as they are to
present wine and water at the altar, so they should offer themselves
as a sacrifice to God by a chaste life and good works.

Afterwards the Bishop presents a candle to each of them,
stating that they thereby receive the right to light the lamps of the
church ; then a cruet, such as is used at Mass, to express their duty
of serving the wine and water. A prayer is then offered to ask a
blessing upon them, and God is besought to enkindle in their minds
and hearts the love of His grace, that they may faithfully serve
Him in His holy Church.

The Order of Subdeacon. The subsequent steps to and includ
ing the priesthood are known as the Sacred or Major Orders.
Some time after the reception of the Minor Orders the candi
date, if he be deemed worthy, is notified that he is to be raised to
the subdeaconship. This decision is only arrived at after the
merits of the cleric have been well examined by his superiors; for
this is the important step which, once and forever, separates him

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 77

from the world and devotes him to the perpetual service o'f God
in His sanctuary.

The ordination of subdeacons is a most impressive ceremony.
The young men have decided that God calls them to give up
earthly things, to make a sacrifice of much that is in itself lawful
and laudable. They have resolved to bind themselves by an obli
gation to absolute and perpetual chastity and to strict obedience —
to offer their lives as an oblation before the throne of God.

In company with those on whom the deaconship and priesthood
are to be conferred, the candidates for subdeaconship are arranged
before the Bishop, who sits at the altar and gives them a solemn
admonition in these words : " Dearly beloved sons, who are to
be promoted to the holy Order of subdeaconship, you ought to con
sider again and again what kind of burden you voluntarily seek
to-day. For thus far you are free, and you are allowed, if you
wish, to pass to earthly vows ; but if you receive this Order it will
not be lawful for you any longer to turn aside from what you have
proposed to do; but you will be obliged perpetually to serve God,
to serve Whom is to reign; but you will be bound to preserve
chastity with His aid, and to be joined forever to the ministry
of His holy Church. Therefore, while there is time, reflect; and
if it please you to persevere in your holy resolution, in the name
of God, come hither! "

The candidates take a step towards the Bishop — and that step
is irrevocable. They are ministers of God's Church forever,
vowed to obedience and chastity.

Together with those wTho are to be elevated to deaconship and
priesthood, they then prostrate themselves on the floor, lying mo
tionless on their faces while the Bishop and clergy recite the Litany
of the Saints. This prostration is a most impressive ceremony.
The young men who have given themselves to God fall to the
earth before His altar and lie there like sacrificed victims. The
world with its pleasures and ambitions is left behind; henceforth
they belong to God, and are bound to His service forever.

The Bishop then instructs them as to their duties. A subdeacon
is to prepare and present the water used at the altar; to sing the

78 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Epistle; to assist the deacon; to wash the sacred linens; to care
for the chalice and the paten. All these external actions symbolize
many spiritual obligations which are incumbent upon him. He
is to assist in the instruction of the faithful, by word and example.
He is to be zealous, vigilant, sober and pure.

The empty chalice and paten are then presented, and are touched
with the hand; the Bishop says: " See whose ministry is entrusted
to you. Henceforth, I admonish you, show yourselves so that you
may please God." Then the cruets of wine and water, with the
basin and towel, are also presented and are touched in like man
ner.

The Bishop then solemnly blesses the candidates and calls down
upon them the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost. The vestments of
the new subdeacons are blessed, and their mystical meaning is ex
plained. The amice, which is worn on the neck and shoulders,
signifies the restraining of speech. The maniple, which is placed
on the left arm, symbolizes good works. The tunic, the large
vestment worn by the subdeacon at Mass, typifies happiness and

joy.

The Mass-Book is then given to each of the newly ordained, to
signify their office of chanting the Epistle in solemn Masses. One
of them sings the Epistle of the day, and this concludes the ordina
tion of the subdeacons.

The Order of Deacon. The Order next below the priesthood
is deaconship. The deacon is the priest's principal assistant not
only at Mass but in other sacred rites. He is permitted to preach
the Word of God from the pulpit of the church, and he has
authority to baptize, although that faculty is seldom exercised by
deacons at the present day.

This Order has a very ancient origin. We read in the Acts of
the Apostles that in the very first years of the Church it was found
necessary to ordain assistants, called deacons (meaning ministers
or servants), to take charge of various duties to which the
Apostles themselves could not attend. Among these first deacons
was St. Stephen, the first Christian martyr.

The conferring of deaconship, like subdeaconship, takes place at

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 79

Mass, and begins after the latter Order has been given — just
after the Epistle. The candidates, clad in albs and carrying their
vestments, are presented to the Bishop by one of the clergy, called
the Archdeacon, who says in Latin: " Most reverend Father, our
holy Mother the Catholic Church asks that you ordain these
subdeacons here present to the burden of the diaconate." The
Bishop inquires: " Do you know that they are worthy? " And
the other answers : "As much as human frailty permits me to
know, I both know and testify that they are worthy of the burden
of this office." To which the Bishop responds: "Thanks be to
God."

Then he calls upon any person to state any reason why these
subdeacons should not receive the higher order. Afterwards fol
lows a long instruction on the duties to which the deacons will be
bound. They are to minister at the altar, to baptize and to
preach. They are like the Levites of old, especially deputed to the
service of the sanctuary. They are urged to be shining examples
to the Church — to be pure and chaste, as befits ministers of
Christ — to preach the Gospel by example as well as by word.

Next comes the prostration before the altar, unless this has been
previously done with the subdeacons ; for when the different Sacred
Orders are conferred at the same Mass, all the candidates prostrate
themselves together.

Afterwards the Bishop asks the prayers of the clergy and
people for those who are to be elevated to deaconship, and then
intones or recites a beautiful Preface (like that which is sung in a
high Mass), in which he invokes the blessing of God upon them.
In the middle of the Preface he places his hand on the head of
each candidate, saying: "Receive the Holy Ghost, for strength
and for resisting the devil and his temptations, in the name of the
Lord."

The deacon's stole is placed on his shoulders. He wears this
in a manner different from that in which a priest's stole is put on.
It is placed on the left shoulder and extends diagonally to the right
side, where the ends are fastened.

The dalmatic, which is the large vestment worn by deacons, is

8o EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

then imposed, with a prayer which expresses its symbolic meaning.
It represents salvation, joy and justice.

Next comes the bestowing of the Book of the Gospels, with
the words: "Receive the power of reading the Gospel in the
church of God, both for the living and the dead, in the name of the
Lord."

Then, after two prayers asking God to bless the newly ordained
and to give them grace to persevere, the Gospel of the day is
chanted by one of the new deacons, and this concludes the cere
monies of their ordination.

The Order of Priesthood. All the Orders described thus far
are a preparation for the priestly dignity, which imprints on the
soul of the recipient a character which endures forever. The
priest possesses all the faculties of the porter, the lector, the ex
orcist, the acolyte, the subdeacon and the deacon, and he receives
also in his ordination powers which they do not enjoy — wonderful
privileges which are of so sublime a nature that human reason can
not grasp their full import or measure their magnificence. The
priest, in the words used by the Bishop in the ceremonies of
ordination, is " to offer, to bless, to rule, to preach, to baptize."
His most august function is the offering of the Holy Sacrifice of
the Mass — to call down the Almighty from heaven — to hold
God in his consecrated hands. He receives power to bless, to
bring God's benediction upon any one or anything. He is placed
in authority, to rule over a part of Christ's flock. He is God's
spokesman, appointed to preach His word, set apart to do the
work of an evangelist. He is the ordinary minister of Baptism,
empowered to bring souls into the fold of Christ. He, a man and
a sinner, has the marvelous power of forgiving the sins of other
men.

These and many other wonderful supernatural faculties are
given to the priest in his ordination, and they are symbolized by
the beautiful ceremonies which our Church uses when she raises
a man to this exalted dignity.

The Ordination of a Priest. As at the ordination of deacons,

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 81

the candidates are presented to the Bishop by the Archdeacon, with
the request that they be ordained to " the burden of the priest
hood." The Bishop inquires about their worthiness, and the
Archdeacon testifies to it. The Bishop then solemnly asks if any
one is able to give reasons why the priestly dignity should not be
conferred upon any of these.

He then admonishes the candidates that they must endeavor
to receive the priesthood worthily and to live holy lives. He in
structs them concerning their future duties; he compares their
office with that of the seventy priests who were selected from all
Israel under the Old Law to minister to God, and with the
seventy-two who were chosen by our Blessed Saviour to go two
and two to preach His Word. He reminds them that they and
the other Orders of the clergy make up the mystical Body of
Christ — the Catholic Church. He exhorts them to be chaste
and holy, to mortify their bodies, to make their teaching the
spiritual medicine of the people of God, to build up the household
of the Lord by preaching and example.

If the candidates have not taken part already in the prostration
with the subdeacons, they then prostrate themselves before the
altar, as previously described.

The Imposition of Hands. They kneel two and two before
the Bishop, who presses both hands upon the head of each. After
wards all the priests who are present do the same to each candi
date. The imposing of hands always symbolizes the imparting of
grace.

The Bishop then prays that all heavenly gifts may be bestowed on
them, and invokes a blessing. He then chants or reads a long
and beautiful Preface, thanking the Almighty for having instituted
the priesthood and asking that all those who enter it may receive all
necessary helps and graces; that those now being ordained may be
filled with the spirit of holiness and may through their priesthood
win an eternal reward.

The Giving of the Vestments. The Bishop moves the stole
from the left shoulder of each candidate (where it is worn by the

82 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

deacons) to his neck, crossing it in front as it is w.orn by priests,
with the words: "Receive the yoke of Christ, for His yoke is
sweet and His burden light."

The chasuble, the large vestment worn by a priest at Mass, is
then put on his shoulders, but the rear part of it is kept folded
until later. The Bishop says: " Receive the priestly vestment,
by which charity is understood; for God is powerful, that He
may increase charity in thee, and perfect work." The symbolic
meanings of this and the other vestments, as wTell as their history,
are set forth in another chapter of this work.

He then again invokes the blessing of God on all the candi
dates, and prays that they may possess and practise all the virtues
necessary to their exalted state.

The Anointing of the Hands. The " Veni, Creator Spiritus,"
or hymn to the Holy Ghost, is then intoned by the Bishop and
is sung by the choir. During this hymn the Bishop anoints the
hands of each of the candidates with the Oil of Catechumens.
This anointing is done in the form of a cross on the palms of the
hands, which are thereby specially consecrated that they may be
worthy to touch and handle the Sacred Body of our Lord. The
hands are then tied together with a strip of white linen and re
main bound until the Offertory of the Mass.

The Giving of the Chalice. The chalice, containing wine and
water, and the paten, holding the unconsecrated Host, are placed
in the hands of each, with the words : " Receive the power to
offer sacrifice to God and to celebrate Masses, both for the living
and the dead, in the name of the Lord. Amen."

During the remainder of the Mass the newly ordained priests
utter the words of the Holy Sacrifice in unison with the Bishop,
so that the Mass is really celebrated by all together.

The Power to Absolve. After all have received Holy Com
munion they receive the power of forgiving sins — that wonderful
faculty which the priest exercises by virtue of the commission given
by our Lord to the Apostles. The Bishop places his hands on the
head of each, uttering the words of Jesus Christ : " Receive ye
the Holy Ghost; whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven;

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 83

whose sins you shall retain, they are retained." He then unfolds
the chasuble (which up to this time has been hanging folded on
the priest's shoulders) with the words: "May the Lord clothe
thee with the mantle of innocence."

The Oath of Obedience. Each of the new priests goes to the
Bishop, kneels before him, and places his hands in those of the
prelate, who says to him: " Do you promise me and my succes
sors reverence and obedience? " And the priest answers: " I do
promise." The Bishop says devoutly: "The peace of the Lord
be always with thee."

If the priest belongs to another diocese the question is asked
in a different form. Then a solemn admonition is addressed to
the new priests, warning them that as the sacred things which
they are to use and handle are worthy of all reverence, they must
be well trained in the ceremonies of the Holy Sacrifice before they
attempt to offer it.

The Bishop pronounces a blessing, calling down upon them
the benediction of the three Persons of the Blessed Trinity; and
near the end of the Mass he gives them another solemn warning,
saying : " Beloved sons, consider diligently the Order received by
you and the burden imposed upon your shoulders. Study to live
holy and religious lives, that you may please the Almighty and
acquire His grace."

A penance is then announced for each of the Orders that have
been conferred at the ordination. Those who have received ton
sure and the Minor Orders are told to recite the seven penitential
psalms; the subdeacons and deacons, a part of the sacred office;
and the priests are directed to celebrate three Masses, one in honor
of the Holy Ghost, one of the Blessed Virgin, and one for the
souls in Purgatory ; and all are requested to pray for the Bishop.

These ancient rites used in the conferring of Holy Orders show
us the wisdom of our Holy Church. She teaches not only by word
but by example. This sacrament imparts wonderful graces and
privileges and powers to those who receive its various grades ; and
that these may be well understood by them and also by the faithful
who witness the ordination, the Church has enriched and adorned

84 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

with beautiful and symbolic ceremonies the administration of the
sacrament of her priesthood and the steps which lead up to it.
Every one of the details of an ordination is of great antiquity ; little
change has been made in them for centuries. Every one is in
tended to instruct us concerning some gift or faculty given by our
holy Church to the Levite who aspires to the service of her sanctu
ary. Every duty and every power belonging to the various Orders
is symbolized by the majestic rites with which they are adminis
tered, or are expressed in the solemn prayers offered to God and
the admonitions addressed to the candidates by the ordaining
Bishop.

CHAPTER XIII
THE CEREMONIES OF MATRIMONY

OUR holy Church uses a very beautiful and appropriate ritual
when she blesses the matrimonial union of two of her children.
The ceremonies with which the Sacrament of Matrimony is ad
ministered express the solemnity of the contract by which the man
and woman bind themselves, and the holiness of the sacrament
which they receive.

The Ceremonies of a Marriage. Although the Church recom
mends most strongly that the Sacrament of Matrimony shall be
received at Mass and shall be accompanied by the giving of the
Nuptial Blessing, a marriage may be performed apart from Mass
and even in some other place than a church. We shall, there
fore, describe briefly the ceremonies employed in the actual ad
ministration of this sacrament, whether at Mass or not, and
afterward we shall explain in detail the beautiful ritual which is
used at the solemn celebration of a marriage at a Nuptial Mass.

A marriage is a very simple ceremony. It consists essentially in
the expression of mutual consent by the parties to take each other
as man and wife. This is followed by the blessing of their union
and the ceremony of the ring.

At a marriage of two Catholics (which is the only one we

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 85

shall consider), the parties, attended by the witnesses, appear be
fore the priest, who wears a surplice and a white stole if no Mass
is to be said. If the Nuptial Mass is to follow the marriage
ceremony, he is vested for it, except that he does not wear the
maniple during the marriage rite.

The Expressing of Consent. The priest first asks the consent
of the parties. Addressing the man by name, he says, in Latin
and in English : " Wilt thou take . . ., here present, for thy
lawful wife, according to the rite of our holy Mother the
Church? " To which the answer is given aloud, " I will." The

same question is put to the bride : " Wilt thou take ,

here present, for thy lawful husband," etc., to which the same an
swer is given by her. Then, at the bidding of the priest, they
join their right hands.

In many places it is the custom for the parties to pledge them
selves to each other formally by repeating certain words after
the priest. This is not essential, as the consent of both has been
sufficiently manifested already; but the solemn repetition of the
mutual obligations which they are assuming adds to the impressive-
ness of the ceremony. The words used for this purpose are not
defined in the Church's ritual, and vary considerably in different
countries and different languages. The following is the form
generally used by us:

" I, N. N., take thee, N. N., for my lawful wife (or husband),
to have and to hold, from this day forward, for better, for worse,
for richer, for poorer, in sickness and in health, till death do us
part." Indeed, these are solemn and impressive words! Very
beautiful also is the formula usually employed by those speaking
French: "I take you, N., for my wife (or husband) and my
lawful spouse; and I swear to you that I will be a faithful hus
band ( or wife ) , and that I will assist you with all my power in all
your necessities, so long as it shall please God to leave us toj
gether."

Then the priest, in Latin, pronounces the words by which the
marriage is blessed: "I join you together in marriage, in the
name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost " —

86 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

and while saying this he makes over the couple the sign of the
cross, and then sprinkles them with holy water.

The Giving of the Ring. The blessing of the wedding-ring
comes next. The priest recites in Latin the following beautiful
prayer: " Bless, O Lord, this ring which we bless in Thy name,
that she who is to wear it, keeping true faith unto her husband,
may abide in Thy peace and in obedience unto Thy will, and ever
live in mutual love. Through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen."
Holy water is sprinkled over the ring, and the bridegroom then
places it on the third finger of the left hand of the bride, saying
in old-fashioned English, which has come down to us from past
centuries: "With this ring I thee wed, and I plight unto thee
my troth." In other lands and tongues the words are different.
The French formula is: " My spouse, I give you this ring in
token of marriage."

The priest then recites certain versicles and the Our Father;
and it is usual for the married couple to recite this latter prayer
also. A final prayer is said, asking God's protection for those
whose union has been sanctified by the Church. " Look down, we
beseech Thee, O Lord, upon these Thy servants, and graciously
protect Thy institutions whereby Thou hast provided for the
propagation of mankind; that those who are joined together by
Thy authority may be preserved by Thy help. Through Christ
our Lord. Amen."

The Nuptial Mass. It is the desire of our Church that the
Sacrament of Matrimony shall be administered, in every possible
case, in connection with the Adorable Sacrifice of the Mass. The
graces needed in the married state are so many that every available
means should be taken to obtain them. The Church bestows
these graces not only through the Sacrament of Matrimony itself,
but also through the Holy Mass which is celebrated for the special
benefit of the married couple, and through the solemn blessing
which is pronounced over them.

As early as the second century we find traces of this practice.
St. Evaristus, Pope and martyr, decreed that " in accordance with
Apostolic tradition marriage should be celebrated publicly and

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS 87

with the blessing of the priest " ; and in the third century mar
riage with a Mass was common.

The Nuptial Mass is filled with special prayers invoking the
blessing of the Almighty on those who are entering the married
state. It may be said during the greater part of the year. On
the most important festivals the Mass of the feast is said instead,
with a commemoration of the Nuptial Mass; and marriage at a
Mass is not allowed at all during what are called the " closed
times" — Advent and the following days until Epiphany in
clusively ; Lent and Easter week.

Why is a marriage at Mass not allowed at these times? A
marriage ceremony is an occasion of joy, and it is the wish of the
Church that her children should not be married with solemnity
or outward pomp in penitential seasons; and on the days of joy
which follow Advent and Lent she desires that there should be
nothing to distract us from the proper observance of them. There
fore, although the Sacrament of Matrimony may be received at any
time, the solemnizing of it with Mass and blessing cannot take
place during the aforesaid seasons. Even the bishop cannot dis
pense from this law.

The Nuptial Mass is filled with beautiful quotations from the
Scriptures, expressing the dignity and holiness of the matrimonial
union. The Introit is taken partly from the Bible narrative of
Tobias and his bride. The Collect or prayer of the Mass asks that
" what is performed by our ministry may be abundantly filled wTith
God's blessings." The Epistle is very appropriately taken from the
teaching of St. Paul to the Ephesians: " Let women be subject
to their husbands as to the Lord ; because the husband is the head
of the wife " — a teaching not precisely in harmony with the
spirit of our twentieth century. The Gospel is that in which our
Lord declared the indissoluble character of matrimony. " What
God hath joined together, let no man put asunder."

And so it is through the whole Mass. All the parts which
admit of change are adapted to the spirit of the ceremony, ex
pressing the sanctity of marriage and invoking God's blessing upon
those who are contracting it.

88 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

The Nuptial Blessing. After the Pater Noster of the Mass,
the priest turns and faces the married couple, and imparts to
them the solemn Nuptial Blessing. This is directed rather to the
woman than to the man, and is given to her only once. Conse
quently, if it has been received by the bride at a previous marriage,
it is omitted at a subsequent one; and if a marriage takes place
without a Mass, it is not given.

It consists in the invoking of God's grace upon the union which
has just been made; and the prayer goes on thus: "May her
wedlock be to her a yoke of love and peace. May she marry in
Christ, faithful and chaste, and be an imitator of holy women.
May she be amiable to her husband, like Rachel; wise, like Re
becca; long-lived and faithful, like Sarah. . . . May she be fruit
ful in offspring, approved and innocent. May she attain to the
repose of the blessed in heaven; and may they both see their
children's children, even to the third and fourth generations, and
arrive at their desired old age. Through Jesus Christ our Lord.
Amen."

Near the end of the Mass, just before the usual blessing, the
priest turns to the married couple and prays that they may enjoy
fruitfulness, peace and everlasting happiness. Holy water is then
sprinkled upon them, and the Mass concludes as usual.

Such is the Nuptial Mass, established as a means of grace for
the Church's children who are entering into the married state. It
is not necessary to have an ostentatious celebration when a mar
riage takes place; but the marriage in the church, with a Mass,
with the Nuptial Blessing and with the reception of Holy Com
munion by the parties, should never be omitted except for the
gravest reasons. The Catholic man and woman who wish their
married life to be happy and blest by God should never be tempted
to deny themselves the graces which will be obtained through the
beautiful ceremonial which the Church has authorized for the
solemnizing of Christian marriage.

PART IV
THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS

CHAPTER XIV
THE MASS

IT will not be necessary, under this heading, to explain the
Catholic doctrine regarding the Mass, for this book is de
voted rather to practice than to doctrine. In this chapter
we will confine ourselves to an explanation of the meaning of the
name of the Mass, the past and present customs and rules as to
the time of saying it, the applying of its fruits to souls, and the
various kinds of Masses, that are celebrated at the present time.

The Name of the Mass. Why is the great Sacrifice of the
Altar called the Mass? The English word is from the Latin
" missa," derived from the verb " mittere," to send, and signifies
" a dismissal." But why is it used as the name of the Sacrifice?
Because in the ancient liturgy of the Church there were two solemn
dismissals; first, that of the catechumens, those partly instructed
and not yet baptized, after the Gospel and the sermon; and sec
ondly, that of the faithful at the end of the Mass — still preserved
in our Masses by the announcement " Ite, missa est," — " Go, it is
the dismissal " — just before the blessing and the last Gospel. The
word for dismissal gradually came to denote the service from which
these persons were dismissed. The French form, " Messe," was
taken into England in Norman times, and was later modified into
" Maesse," " Masse," and finally " Mass."

In the early centuries of the Church it was known by various
names — the Breaking of Bread, the Lord's Supper, the Solemnity
of the Lord, the Sacrifice, the Holy Liturgy, and the Eucharist,
which means Thanksgiving.

89

9o EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

The Frequency of Celebration. To us, who have Mass in
our churches every day, and who know that priests usually offer
the Holy Sacrifice daily, it may seem strange that it was not
always thus. In the first centuries the bishops and priests cele
brated together — one Mass, said by several. The only vestige
of this practice that remains is in the Mass of Ordination, in
which the newly ordained priests say Mass jointly with the
bishop, though they do not partake of the same Host nor of
the Precious Blood. In those early times, then, there was usually
only one Mass each day in a church ; and this is the custom at the
present day among the Greek and Oriental schismatics. In
many parts of the world, in the first centuries, Mass was only
celebrated on Sundays and great feasts; but as far back as the
time of St. Augustine it began to be common to have at least one
daily Mass in each church.

At the present time Mass may be said in our churches every day
except on Good Friday, on which day the priest merely receives
Holy Communion, consuming the Host consecrated on Holy
Thursday and reserved over night in the Repository.

Many centuries ago it was customary for the same celebrant
to say more than one Mass if he wished to do so. Some priests
said several daily. It is related that Pope Leo III, from a spirit
of devotion, sometimes celebrated nine times in one day. But
another Pope, Alexander II, restricted all priests to one Mass a
day, although shortly afterwards it was tolerated to offer two
Masses, one of the feast of the day and the other for the dead.

Others were led to devotion in quite an opposite direction.
They said Mass very seldom, deeming themselves unworthy. St.
Thomas of Canterbury, from a spirit of humility, did not cele
brate daily. Even the seraphic St. Francis of Assisi had such a
reverence for the Mass that he wished to have it celebrated only
once each day in the monasteries of his Order; the other priests
were to content themselves with hearing Mass.

By the present law priests are prohibited from saying Mass more
than once on any day except Christmas and All Souls' Day, on
which three may be said. Bishops, however, may allow their

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 91

priests to " duplicate " or celebrate twice on Sunday and holydays
of obligation if a considerable number of people would otherwise
be unable to hear Mass ; and our priests possess faculties, renewed
yearly to that effect.

When is a priest obliged to say Mass? He is not required
by any law to celebrate daily. The great spiritual writers of
recent centuries, such as St. Ignatius Loyola and St. Francis de
Sales, strongly urge priests to say Mass every day, and this may be
called a common custom among our priests, at least when they are
at home. A parish priest must say Mass or have it said when
ever the people are bound to hear it.

The Hour of Mass. At what time in the day may Mass be
said? This was subject to no special regulation down to the
middle of the fifth century, although it was usually said early in
the morning. After a time, in monasteries, it was celebrated at
nine o'clock. Later it became customary to have Mass at noon,
and even at three o'clock in the afternoon. According to the
present law, Mass must not be said before dawn nor after mid
day. Dawn is generally computed as five o'clock, although during
a part of the year it comes later than that hour. These limits
must not be transgressed unless by permission of the Holy See.
Such permission is sometimes given, usually to monastic churches
only, for a midnight Mass at Christmas, or to churches on the
occasion of a Jmbilee.

The Fruits of the Mass. The Holy Sacrifice of the Altar is a
sacrifice of adoration, praise and thanksgiving. It is also a sacri
fice of propitiation and of petition — a means of obtaining all
graces and blessings from God. It is offered always for certain
persons — for those present in the church or residing in the
parish, for the relatives and friends of the celebrant, for the mem
bers of the Church in general, and for the souls in Purgatory.
According to theologians and spiritual writers, there is a threefold
fruit of the Holy Sacrifice ; namely, the general fruit, in which all
the faithful participate — the more special fruit, which belongs
to those for whom the priest intends to offer the Mass — and the
most special fruit, for the priest himself.

92 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

In " saying Mass " for a person, then, the priest applies to him
the " more special fruit " of the Sacrifice. The " general fruit "
is given always to the whole Church, and the " most special fruit "
is reserved to the priest himself.

Intentions for Masses. All bishops and priests having the
care of souls are obliged to say Mass expressly for the benefit and
intention of their people on Sundays and holydays of obligation,
and on certain other days which are now merely feasts of devotion
but which were once holydays. This obligation exists, however,
only in regions in which " canonical parishes " have been insti
tuted. In the greater part of our country these parishes do not
exist; and therefore those in charge of our " missionary parishes "
have no obligation from justice to do this, although charity makes
it fitting that they do so.

Every priest who receives an alms or stipend for a Mass incurs a
strict obligation to say it or to have it said. This offering is
meant as an aid to the support of the priest. The amount is fixed
by diocesan rule, and the priest may not ask more, though he may
accept more. If he says two Masses in one day, he is allowed to
receive an offering for one only. All priests are urged not to keep
on hand too many stipends for Masses, because thereby the offering
of the Holy Sacrifice for the intention of the giver would be too
long delayed. When they accumulate too rapidly, it is customary
to give them to other priests less fortunately situate'd.

The Kinds of Masses. There are several kinds of Masses.
The " Solemn High Mass " (in Latin " Missa Solemnis ") is cele
brated with incense, music and the assistance of a deacon and sub-
deacon; the celebrant chants several parts of the Mass, and the
deacon and subdeacon intone the Gospel and the Epistle respect
ively. A " Pontifical Mass " is a Solemn Mass celebrated by a
bishop, and a " Papal Mass " is that in which the Pope is the
celebrant.

A "High Mass" (in Latin " Missa Cantata" or Chanted
Mass) is one that is sung by a priest without deacon or subdeacon.

A " Low Mass " is one that is celebrated without music, the
priest reading the words throughout. It was unknown in the

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 93

early centuries of the Church, although now it is said more fre
quently than any other. It is sometimes called a " Private Mass,"
although that name belongs more properly to a Mass said by a
priest mostly for his own devotion and not for the benefit of a
parish or congregation. For a low Mass it is necessary to have
a server or acolyte, but in our country, being a " missionary land,"
permission is given to priests to celebrate without such assistance
when the services of an acolyte cannot be had.

A " Parochial Mass " is the principal Mass offered in a parish
church on Sundays and great festivals. It is the " assembly of the
faithful in which they offer public prayers and sacrifice by the
ministry of their pastor."

A " Capitular Mass " is the High Mass on Sundays and festivals
in Catholic countries in churches that are served by a " chapter "
or body of canons, whose principal duty is the recitation of the
Divine Office. A " Conventual Mass " is not, as the name would
seem to denote, a Mass said in a convent. It is the daily Mass
for the chapter of canons, taking place at a fixed hour after the
chanting of a part of the Office.

A " Votive Mass " is one which does not correspond to the
office of the day, but is said at the choice of the priest, and is
permitted only on certain days. For instance, on many days of
minor importance in the Church's calendar, the priest may omit
the Mass of the day and say instead a Mass of the Holy Ghost, of
the Sacred Heart, of the Blessed Virgin, or some other, according
to his own devotion or the request of the giver of the offering for
the Mass.

And lastly, a " Requiem Mass " is a Mass for the dead, said in
black vestments. It may be a Solemn Mass, a High Mass or a
Low Mass. It is called a Requiem Mass from the opening words
of the Introit: " Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine " — " Eter
nal rest give unto them, O Lord."

94 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

CHAPTER XV
THE GROWTH OF THE MASS — I

IN this and the following chapters we shall see how7 the various
parts of the Mass have been developed and modified during the
nineteen centuries of the Church's history. There is not much in
the New Testament to tell us of the ceremonies of the Mass
among the first Christians. Nearly all of them, at first, were of
the Jewish race, and at their assemblies they undoubtedly did as
they had been accustomed to do in the solemn ritual of Israel.
There were readings from the holy books and from the letters (or
Epistles) of the Apostle Paul; sermons were preached and ex
planations of Christian teaching were given; psalms and hymns
were sung; prayers were said publicly for " the brethren " and for
others; and collections of alms were made for the poor. Thus
we see that church collections are no modern innovation. The
Christians of Apostolic times were required to make their offerings
on Sundays, even as we of this later day. Such were the elements
of what was called in those times the Communion, which we now
call the Mass ; and this service was usually held on Sunday, the
first day of the week, instead of on Saturday, thereby distinguish
ing it from the Jewish worship of the Temple and synagogue.

The people prayed standing, with uplifted hands. The men
had their heads uncovered, the women were veiled. There was a
" kiss of peace " and a public profession of faith — details which
have endured even to our day, for the kiss of peace is given at
solemn Masses, and the Creed, said at many Masses, is the
formula by which our faith is declared.

The First Prayers and the Introit. Let us now take up the
various important parts of the great Sacrifice and indicate briefly
the origin of each. The prayers said by the priest at the foot
of the altar are the latest part of all. They were, in the Middle
Ages, merely a private preparation for Mass, made by the priest
before he approached the altar, and expressive of his trust in
God and his consciousness of his own unworthiness. It became a

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 95

recognized part of the Mass only when the Missal was revised by
St. Pius V in 1570.

The Introit, the first matter read by the priest when he goes
up to the altar, was originally a processional psalm chanted as the
celebrant and his attendants entered the sanctuary. Later on,
when this chanting was no longer used, the first verse only was re
tained and became a part of the Mass. It varies from day to day,
and nearly all the Introits of the older feasts go back to St. Gregory
the Great.

The Incensing and the Kyrie. The offering of incense in
sacrifices was common both in pagan and Jewish worship, and
its use in Christian rites goes back almost to the beginning of the
Church. It was used at the tombs in the catacombs, in processions,
and (somewhat later) at the altar. St. Ambrose, writing in the
year 397, speaks of it as in use at the Mass; and not long after
ward suitable prayers were assigned for the incensings. The
Roman rite permits it only at Solemn Masses and, in some parts
of the world, at ordinary High Masses.

The " Kyrie eleison " (" Lord, have mercy ") is Greek, and is
the only formula in that language that is used in our Latin Mass.
However, it does not go back to the time when Mass was cele
brated only in Greek — namely, the first and second centuries. It
came into use in the East, and is a fragment of a kind of litany
which was recited by all present. The words " Kyrie eleison " are
now^ said alternately by the priest and the server, three times in
honor of God the Father ; the " Christe eleison," likewise three
times in honor of God the Son ; and the " Kyrie eleison " again
three times, to God the Holy Ghost — the whole thus forming a
beautiful prayer to the Blessed Trinity.

The Gloria. This sublime canticle of praise, known also as the
Angelic Hymn and as the Greater Doxology, is a translation of a
very old Greek hymn. It was originally a morning prayer, ad
dressed to the Trinity. It began to be used in church services at
an early date; by some its introduction is attributed to Pope Teles-
phorus, about the year 130. It was at first sung on Christmas Day
only, being an amplified form of the song of the angels at Bethle-

96 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

hem. Later it was extended to other days, to feasts of joy only.
Up to the eleventh century it could be used by bishops only,
except at Easter. It is said in nearly all Masses except those
expressive of sorrow or penance — being omitted in votive Masses,
however, excepting that of the Angels.

The Collects. These are the prayers said or sung immediately
after the Gloria, or after the Kyrie if the Gloria has been omitted.
They are called Collects because the meeting of the clergy and
people was known in ancient times as a " collecta " or " collectio "
— an assembly. Their history goes back many centuries ; the
ancient Ritual known as the Leonine Sacramentary contains many
of those we now use. They express man's dependence on God,
with petitions for help and security. The same prayer is used by
the priest in his Office as in the Mass of the day, and is thus re
peated many times. In the Mass it is said standing, with uplifted
hands, the ancient attitude of prayer.

The Epistle. We use this name for the reading that takes
place in our Mass shortly before the Gospel; but the word is
sometimes inaccurate, for this reading is not always from the
Epistles of the New Testament. Quite frequently it is taken from
other parts of the Bible, such as the books of Exodus or Wisdom,
the Acts of the Apostles, etc. As stated already, Epistles were
read at the Mass in the days of the Apostles.

Between the Epistle and the Gospel come short readings, vary
ing according to the day and the season of the year. These are
the Gradual, Alleluia, Tract and Sequence. They were originally
psalms, sung as part of the sacred service, and after a time were
shortened to a few verses in most cases. The Gradual takes its
name from the word " gradus," meaning an elevated step, because
in the Middle Ages a chanter intoned the first verse of the psalm
from a platform called the " ambo," half-way down the church.

The Sequences. The Sequences, medieval hymns, were once
very numerous, but the reformers of the Missal at the time of the
Council of Trent abolished all but five of them. These five are
among the most perfect specimens of Latin poetry. That of
Easter, " Victimae Paschali," was written by a priest named Wipo,

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 97

about 1048, and was possibly at first a part of a " mystery play "
depicting our Lord's Resurrection.

The great Dominican St. Thomas Aquinas, in 1274, composed
a complete Office for the new feast of Corpus Christi, including
the Sequence " Lauda, Sion, Salvatorem " ("Praise the Saviour,
O Sion "). The " Stabat Mater Dolorosa " was probably written
about 1306, by a certain Jacopone da Todi. It is used as a Se
quence on the two feasts of the Seven Dolors, and has furnished
the text for several great musical compositions, notably that of
Rossini. The " Veni, Sancte Spiritus," used at Pentecost, is at
tributed to Robert, king of France, who died in 1031. And lastly,
the Church has kept in her Requiem Masses the magnificent poem
on the Day of Judgment, the " Dies Irae " (" Day of Wrath "),
written in the thirteenth century by Thomas of Celano — the
finest example of sacred poetry.

The Gospel. The selections from the Gospels, read at Mass,
are very often appropriate to the feast or to the spirit of the
season, although on some Sundays and festivals they would seem to
have been chosen at random. Much of the present arrangement
is attributed to St. Jerome.

At a Solemn Mass the Gospel is chanted by the deacon; at a
low Mass it is read by the priest. Why is it read on what we
call the "Gospel side" of the altar or sanctuary? Because in
ancient times the right-hand side of the church (looking towards
the altar) was occupied by the men of the congregation, and the
Gospel was read by the deacon, facing them, from a platform
called the " ambo," on the opposite side of the church. The " de
vout female sex " seems to have been of lesser importance in those
distant days. And then, as now, all stood as a mark of respect for
the sacred Word of God.

The Sermon and the Creed. The priest who preaches to
his people after the Gospel on Sunday morning is following the
example of his predecessors in all ages back to the Apostles, and
performs what is really an element of the liturgy itself, especially
if his sermon is an explanation of the Gospel. Protestantism lays
great stress on preaching, for it has little else — but the Catholic

98 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Church has combined preaching with her beautiful liturgy from
the earliest ages, fulfilling her divine mission of teaching all na
tions.

All the various liturgies of the Church now contain a Creed,
often said at Mass; but this is a late addition to the ritual of the
Holy Sacrifice. Originally Creeds were used only at Baptism
as a profession of faith, and the one called the Apostles' Creed still
keeps its place in the baptismal rite.

The Creed now used in the Mass is. called the Nicene, because
it was largely drawn up by the Council of Nice or Nicaea, in the
year 325. Its use in the Eucharistic Sacrifice began in Spain in
589, and at first it was said after the Consecration. Its use after
the Gospel was ordered in 1014 by Benedict VIII.

It is not said in all Masses, being omitted on the feasts of
martyrs, confessors and female saints (except the Blessed Virgin)
and on vigils; also in votive Masses and in all Masses of Requiem.

CHAPTER XVI
THE GROWTH OF THE MASS — II

AFTER the Gospel or Creed the priest says : " Dominus vobis-
cum," and then " Oremus " ("Let us pray"), but he says no
prayer. Why is this? Because in the earliest centuries the peo
ple at this part of the Mass offered prayers together, a deacon
chanting a kind of litany to which all responded. This custom
no longer exists.

The Offertory. Then comes the Offertory, the real beginning
of the Eucharistic act. Just as our Blessed Saviour, at the Last
Supper, took bread and wine, so the priest takes them and offers
them to God. In many other rites this is done at the very begin
ning of the Mass; but the Roman liturgy has always placed the
Offertory after the Gospel.

At this part of the Mass, in our parish churches, the collection
is taken up — called the " offertory collection " because in early
times it was customary for the people to present the bread and wine

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 99

for the Sacrifice. Later the practice began of giving money in
stead of these. Thus we see that the Sunday collections in our
churches are nothing new; for many centuries the faithful have
given their offerings, even as we.

The Bread and Wine. For many centuries the Roman Church
has used at Mass bread that is unleavened, or made without yeast.
In the East all Christians except the Armenians and the Maronites
use leavened bread, and it is probable that this was done every
where until about the eighth century. Either kind is valid, and
Rome insists that each Church shall keep to the kind required by
its own liturgy; thus she would not permit the Greeks who are
Catholics to use unleavened bread, and would not allow us to
use leavened. The unleavened kind was probably used by our
Lord at the Last Supper, which was the Passover of the
Jews, at which such bread only was eaten.

The breads for the altar are baked between heated
irons upon which is stamped some pious emblem, such
as the crucifix and the letters I H S. The small altar-
breads, intended for the Communion of the faithful,
may be plain. In the Roman rite both the large and Altar Bread
the small Hosts are of a circular form, which rule goes back at
least to the third century.

The wine must be fermented, or alcoholic — not merely grape-
juice, which is not wine at all. A little water, blessed with a
short prayer, is mingled with it in the chalice. Spiritual writers
look upon the mixture as a symbol of the two natures of Christ.
The chalice is offered with a prayer, the last words of which in
voke the blessing of the Holy Ghost.

At a solemn Mass the deacon holds and offers the chalice with
the celebrant, because in ancient times he had special charge of the
chalice, and gave Holy Communion from it to the faithful in the
days when they received the Holy Eucharist under both forms.
The bread and wine and the whole altar are then incensed by the
priest. This ceremony in its present form goes back to the four
teenth century.

The Washing of the Fingers. In all the various rites which

ioo EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

our Church uses throughout the world the celebrant washes his
hands before handling the offerings. He has already done so at
the vesting before Mass, and formerly he repeated it twice during
the Mass. While the water is being poured on his fingers he
recites part of the twenty-fifth Psalm : " I will wash my hands
among the innocent," etc.

He then, as it were, concludes and sums up the whole offertory
by the prayer " Receive, O Holy Trinity, this oblation," which
is a rather recent addition to the Mass. It was not in general
use until after the revision of the Missal in 1570.

The Secret Prayers. The priest then turns towards the
people and asks for their prayers: "Orate, fratres " — ("Pray,
brethren, that my and your sacrifice may be acceptable to God
the Father Almighty") — and the response is made on their
behalf: "May the Lord receive the sacrifice from thy hands
to the praise and glory of His Name, and also for our benefit and
that of His whole holy Church." This is a medieval addition,
having been finally legalized for all Masses in the fourteenth
century.

Then come the " Secreta," one or more prayers said by the
priest in a low tone, and resembling those said as Collects earlier
in the Mass. Many of those now in use are found in the most
ancient ritual books of the Church. They usually ask God to
accept the gifts offered at the altar, to sanctify them, and to give
us His grace in return. The last of these prayers ends with the
clause " Per omnia saecula saeculorum " (" Through all the ages
of ages," or " forever and ever "), said or sung aloud.

The Preface and Sanctus. Although in our Missals the
words " Canon of the Mass " stand after the Sanctus, it is im
portant to remember that the Preface is really a part of the Canon.
It is so recorded in the old Sacramentaries, being the " thanks
giving prayer " which leads to the words of consecration. The
name " Preface," or Introduction, is found first in the early
Middle Ages.

Originally this part of the Mass was very long, containing a
list of all the blessings for which man gives thanks to God.

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 101

Later, especially in the Roman rite, it was shortened, and was
varied according to the feast or season. In some ancient Missals
there were more than a hundred different Prefaces, but the num
ber was reduced in later centuries. We now have eleven, all
very ancient except that of the Blessed. Virgin, which was added
by Pope Urban II at the end of the eleventh century.

The Preface begins with a dialogue. The priest says to the
people: "The Lord be with you," to which the server answers
for them: "And with thy spirit." "Lift up your hearts" —
one of the oldest of liturgical formulas, to which the response is
made: "We have them lifted up to the Lord." "Let us give
thanks to the Lord our God," with the answer : " It is meet and
just." The celebrant takes up these last words, saying: "Truly
it is meet and just," and so begins the Eucharistic prayer, varying
it, as said above, according to the occasion of the Mass. In it
mention is made of the angels who praise God, and like them we
are urged to say: " Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of Hosts," in
the beautiful prayer of adoration, the Sanctus.

This is merely a continuation of the Preface; but besides being
said by the priest, it is sung in solemn Masses by the choir and
recited by the assisting ministers, representing the people — who
are thus enabled, as it were, to join in the chant of the angels.
It is one of the oldest parts of the Church's service, being alluded
to by St. Clement of Rome before the end of the first century.

The Canon of the Mass. Thus we enter into what is called
the Canon of the Mass. The word " Canon " is Greek, meaning
a rule or method ; and the name is used for the part of the Mass
before and after the Consecration because the Church requires it
to be said usually without variation, according to a fixed standard
to which all must conform.

The real Canon ends at the words " Per omnia saecula
saeculorum," just before the Pater Noster, although the heading
" Canon Missae " in the Mass-Book goes on to the end. In its
first part the priest prays for the Church, the Pope, the Bishop
of the place and the faithful, mentioning the Pope and the Bishop
by their first names. He then makes the Commemoration of the

102 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Living, remaining silent for a few moments while he mentally
prays for those whom he wishes specially to commend to God. In
the next prayer he brings in a list of saints, including the Blessed
Mother of God, the Apostles, St. Cyprian and eleven illustrious
martyrs of the Roman Church, thus emphasizing our communion
with them as members of the Church of Christ. This prayer
varies slightly at certain seasons of the year.

The Words of Consecration. Then follows the prayer,
" Hanc igitur oblationem," beseeching God to accept the offering
— at which the hands are held horizontally over the bread and
wine ; and this brings the celebrant to the beautiful passage which
introduces the words of consecration spoken by our Blessed
Saviour at the Last Supper. It reads as follows: " Who, the
day before He suffered, took bread into His holy and venerable
hands, and, raising His eyes to heaven, giving thanks to Thee,
blessed, broke and gave to His disciples, saying: Take and eat
all of this; for this is My Body." And another introduction,
" Simili modo," leads to the words of consecration said over the
chalice : " For this is the chalice of My Blood of the new and
eternal testament, a mystery of faith, which shall be shed for you
and for many for the remission of sins." Then follows the com
mission to the Apostles : " As often as you shall do these things,
you shall do them in memory of Me."

Let us examine these solemn words. They have not been
always precisely the same, various ancient rituals giving slightly
different forms. Why is the phrase " a mystery of faith " in
serted, since it is not to be found in any of the Gospel accounts
of the Last Supper? It is conjectured that in early times these
words were an exclamation made by the deacon to announce to
the people that the great Mystery of Faith was accomplished —
that God was present on the altar.

The Elevation. After the priest has pronounced the words
of consecration over the bread he genuflects in adoration and
raises the Sacred Host so that it may be seen by all the people,
and then genuflects again. This elevation is a ceremony intro
duced in the late Middle Ages. There was no trace of it until

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 103

about the twelfth century, when it was the custom to hold the
Host as high as the breast while the wrords of consecration were
being pronounced. As done at present, it seems to have been first
ordered by Eudes de Sully, Bishop of Paris, about the year 1200,
and within a hundred years the practice had spread throughout
the Western Church. The genuflections were ordered by the
revised Missal of 1570.

The elevation of the chalice is done in like manner, and came
into use a little later than that of the Host. The incensing of
the Blessed Sacrament at the two elevations is a late addition to
the ceremonial of the Mass. It began with the Dominicans, and
was introduced at Rome about the end of the fourteenth century.

What should we do in church at the Elevation in the Mass?
As the reason for the ceremony is to show the Blessed Sacrament
to the people, it is right for them to look at it — an ancient
practice sanctioned anew by our late Holy Father Pius X, who
granted an indulgence to all who do it. However, the other
practice, of bowing low in adoration, is not by any means wrong.

The Bell at Mass. The ringing of a bell has come to be a
part of the ceremonies of the Mass, although,
strictly speaking, it is not required at a Solemn
Mass, but is merely tolerated. A peculiar and
not very laudable custom existed in many parts
of the world in the Middle Ages — the sum
moning of the people from outside the church
by the sound of a bell as the time of the
Consecration drew near; and after the Eleva
tion they promptly went out again. This _

bell, known in England as the Sanctus or Triple Gong
sance bell, was often hung in a small cupola over the sanctuary,
and was rung by means of a rope that hung down near the
server's place. A small hand-bell was rung then, as now, at the
Elevation; and the great church bell was tolled at the same time,
that those at a distance might know the moment of consecration.
At the present day the ringing at the Sanctus and at the Elevation
is all that the rubrics demand. In France and in some other

io4 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

countries there is a great deal of bell-ringing at different parts
of the Mass — which cannot be said to add anything to the
dignity of the Holy Sacrifice, and is not called for by any Missal
regulations. In our churches the bell is rung usually at the
Sanctus three times; at the " Hanc, igitur," just before the con
secration, once; at the elevation of the Host and of the chalice,
three times for each; at the " Domine, non sum dignus " before the
priest's Communion, three times; and the same words before the
Communion of the people, three times also.

CHAPTER XVII
THE GROWTH OF THE MASS — III

FOLLOWING the recital of the words of our Lord commanding
that this " be done in memory of Him," the next prayer goes on
to assure us that we do remember Him always. Mention is made
of His passion, resurrection and ascension, thus reminding us of
the great events in His life, for which the whole Mass is an
expression of thanksgiving.

Why does the priest make the sign of the cross over the Sacred
Body and Blood of our Lord? Surely he cannot bless Him
who is the source of all blessings. Some writers claim that these
signs are not blessings — that they symbolize the Holy Trinity,
the five wounds of our Saviour, and so on. A more probable
opinion is that the substance of these prayers was originally ex
pressed before the consecration, and that when they were placed
in their present position the ceremonies connected with them were
retained. The whole Canon is one prayer, asking God to accept
the offerings at the altar; and, although the consecration has
changed them into the living Presence of Christ, they are still
referred to as offerings. These crosses, then, are not a blessing
of the Sacred Species, but may be considered as a symbol of the
blessings that flow from the Holy Eucharist.

The Commemoration of the Dead. The priest then prays for
the souls in Purgatory, remaining silent for a few moments to
form his intention as to those souls for which he wishes par-

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 105

ticularly to pray. In ancient times this was probably before the
consecration, after the Commemoration for the Living.

Then the priest prays for those present, raising his voice at the
words " Nobis quoque peccatoribus " ("Also for us sinners"),
that the people may know that he is praying for them. This
prayer brings in a new list of saints, different from those men
tioned earlier in the Mass — John the Baptist, Matthias, Barna
bas and several martyr-saints, men and women. Tradition says
that the female names were inserted by St. Gregory I.

The Canon proper then ends with the sublime doxology
" Through Him and with Him and in Him is to Thee, God the
Father Almighty, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, all honor and
glory " — at which words the priest slightly elevates the Host and
chalice. He then says aloud or chants: " Per omnia saecula
saeculorum," and the answer " Amen " completes the Canon.

The Pater Noster. In ancient times, in some parts of the
world, the Our Father came later in the Mass, after the Com
munion. St. Gregory assigned it to its present place. It occurs
in every liturgy, for it was always deemed proper that this most
sacred of all prayers should be said at the Church's most sacred
service.

It is introduced by a beautiful passage expressing, as it were,
our authority for using it: "Advised by salutary precepts and
instructed by divine institutions we dare to say : ' Our Father,'
etc. At the end we have a prayer which is an " embolism," an
amplified form of the last phrase of the Pater Noster, asking de
liverance from evil, past, present and future, through the inter
cession of the Blessed Virgin, Saints Peter and Paul and St.
Andrew. In former times this list of saints varied considerably
in different countries.

Shortly after the Pater Noster the priest divides the Sacred
Host into three parts, of which the smallest is dropped into the
chalice. This is a very ancient ceremony, and has been done in
every form of Mass ritual. Why is the small part of the Host
put into the chalice? It may be a relic of a common way of
mixing bread and wine at meals, as our Lord did at the Last

io6 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Supper. In its present form the practice dates back to trie four
teenth century.

The priest, while holding the small part of the Host over the
chalice, says aloud : " May the peace of the Lord be always with
you " — which was originally a solemn blessing pronounced by
him over the people before Communion.

The Agnus Dei. This threefold petition to the Lamb of God
is then said by the priest and at high Masses is sung by the choir.
It re-echoes the greeting of St. John the Baptist to our Blessed
Lord: "Behold the Lamb of God; behold Him Who taketh
away the sins of the world." It is found in ritual books of the
Middle Ages, and is said to have been introduced into the Mass
by Pope Sergius I, about the year 700. It was originally sung
once by the priest and once by the people; but in the twelfth
century the other repetition was added, with the words: " Give
us peace."

The Kiss of Peace. Just before the priest's Communion there
are three prayers in the Mass (two in Requiem Masses) ; and
after the first of these, in solemn Masses except those of Requiem,
the " Kiss of Peace " is given. This, in ancient times, took place
earlier in the Mass, before the beginning of the Canon. It is a
sign of fellowship and unity, and is one of the oldest elements of
our liturgy, being mentioned by the earliest writers. It is now
given by the priest placing his hands against the deacon's shoulders
with the words: " Peace be with you," while the deacon holds his
hands under the arms of the celebrant. It is then transmitted
to the subdeacon and to the other clergy present.

The three (or two) prayers are of recent origin. They were
once merely private devotions, not included in the prayers of the
Mass. After saying them the priest takes the Sacred Host into
his hands, saying: "I will receive the Heavenly Bread and
will invoke the name of the Lord." Then he repeats three times
the beautiful words of the humble centurion of the Gospel:
" Lord, I am not worthy that Thou shouldst enter under my
roof; but only say the word and my soul shall be healed." These

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 107

words have not always been used in the Mass, and were only
authorized officially in the revised Missal of 1570.

The Communion. Then, saying reverently, " May the Body
of our Lord Jesus Christ guard my soul into eternal life," the
priest receives the Sacred Host. Uncovering the chalice, he says:
" What shall I render to the Lord for all that He hath rendered
to me? I will receive the chalice of salvation," etc. — words
which were once merely a prayer of private devotion; and he then
receives the Precious Blood.

Then comes the Communion of the people. It seems strange
to us to learn that in early centuries the Sacred Host was put
into the hand of the communicant. The placing of it on the
tongue began in some places about the year 600. In those days,
too, one important detail of Holy Communion was different from
what we now have: the faithful received "under two kinds" —
that is, drinking from the chalice as well as receiving the Sacred
Host. This continued almost universally down to the twelfth
century, although it was always known and taught that the re
ception of the Host alone was sufficient for Holy Communion.

The short prayers at the giving of Holy Communion to the
people did not originally belong to the Mass at all, but were used
for Communion given outside of Mass — to the sick and others.
They consist in the recitation of the Confiteor, the words, " Be
hold the Lamb of God," etc., the " Lord, I am not worthy," and
the prayer "May the Body of our Lord Jesus Christ guard thy
soul into eternal life," said while the Blessed Sacrament is being
placed on the tongue of the communicant.

The chalice is then purified and the priest goes to the Epistle
side of the altar and reads the " Communion," so called because
it was formerly sung by the choir while the people communicated.
This varies from day to day, as is the case with the following
prayer or prayers called the " Postcommunion," which is read or
chanted like the Collects earlier in the Mass.

The Dismissal and Blessing. In nearly all the liturgies of
the Mass there is a formal dismissal of the people. This is done

io8 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

in our rite by the deacon at solemn Masses, by the priest at others.
In the Roman Mass the form has always been as it is now, " Ite,
missa est " ("Go, it is the dismissal") — to which the response
is made: " Deo Gratias " ("Thanks to God"). In Requiem
Masses the words " Requiescat in pace" ("May they rest in
peace ") are used instead — which custom began about the twelfth
century; and in certain other Masses the priest (or deacon) says
" Benedicamus Domino" ("Let us bless the Lord") instead of
the " Ite, missa est."

Why do the people not leave the church immediately after the
"Ite, missa est"? (Some of them do, and they should not.)
Because the Church has added a few other parts to the Mass, in
rather recent times. These are the short prayer " Placeat,"
originally a private devotion said after the Mass; the blessing,
formerly given as the celebrant was passing to the sacristy; and
the Last Gospel, from the first chapter of St. John, which was
once merely a part of the priest's prayers after the Holy Sacrifice.
All these came to be considered a part of the Mass, and this was
finally authorized by St. Pius V in 1570 at the revision of the
Roman Missal. On certain days other Gospels are substituted
for that from St. John. And then the Mass is ended with the
usual pious ejaculation at the end of a reading — " Deo gratias."

CHAPTER XVIII
THE REQUISITES FOR THE MASS

IN order that the Holy Sacrifice may be consummated not only
validly but with the proper decorum, our Church has, in the course
of centuries, made many regulations concerning the ceremonies to
be used at the Mass and the accessories which are to be used to
increase its solemnity.

The Place. Where can a Mass be celebrated? By ordinary
Church law it ought to take place only in a church, or in a
chapel which has been blessed by lawful authority; but many
exceptions to this rule are permitted for good reasons. The

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 109

missionary in pagan lands has often no church or chapel; he must
gather his flock where he can, and offer for them the Adorable
Sacrifice. And even in our own land every diocese has small
settlements of Catholics in which there is no special place of wor
ship, and where the Mass must perforce be offered up in a hall
or private house. Again, in public institutions, army barracks, on
shipboard and elsewhere, it is often necessary to celebrate Mass
in a room which is used for other purposes at other times. There
fore the bishops of this and many other lands have authority to
permit their priests to offer the Holy Sacrifice in places which
are not churches, when there is sufficient reason for so doing.

The Altar. It is absolutely necessary for the celebration of
Mass that it shall take place on an altar; but this need not be
fixed or permanent. When a priest is compelled
to say Mass in a place where there is no church,
he must contrive something for an altar — a
table or similar construction; but in every case
he must place upon it an altar-stone or " portable
altar," consecrated by a bishop. This is an
oblong slab of stone, usually encased in waxed I • •• •
cloth, and mea'suring perhaps twelve by ten Altar Stone
inches — large enough to hold the Sacred Host and the greater
part of the bases of the chalice and ciborium. It bears on its
upper surface five crosses cut into the stone, and near its front
edge a " sepulchre " or cavity containing the relics of some
Saint and sealed with a cemented stone lid. A missionary priest
must carry this altar-stone with him when one is not kept in the
place wherein Mass is to be said.

A " fixed altar," such as we find in consecrated churches, has
its entire top formed of a large altar-stone, resting upon stone
sides or columns, the whole being built up from the ground on
stone or brick foundations.

An altar on which the Blessed Sacrament is kept has a taber
nacle — a strong locked box, usually lined and curtained on the
interior with silk, and situated at the rear of the altar-table, in the
centre. Before the door hangs a silken veil which is changed

i io EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Tabernacle Safe

seen
cathedrals

according to the appropriate color of the festival; at Masses of
Requiem a purple veil is used. Why is the box which contains
the Blessed Sacrament called a "tabernacle"?
Because in early ages the altar was sur
mounted by a canopy with veils, forming a
" tabernaculum," or tent, by which at certain
parts of the service the Sacred Mysteries were
concealed from the people. Traces of this
remain in our present tabernacle veil, and in
the chancel screen which is to be
many old and once-Cathc
England.

Equipment of the Altar. The rules concerning the prepara
tion of the altar on which Mass is to be said are minute and
rigorous. To prevent diversity of practice and any lack of re
spect to our Eucharistic Lord, each detail is carefully specified
in the Church's rubrics, and exact conformity with these require
ments is demanded of all.

The altar must have three cloths of white linen, of which the
two lower ones should be nearly of the same area as the altar-
table; the upper linen is to be long enough to touch the floor at
each end of the altar. The rubrics insist over and over again
that these cloths shall be clean — and, in some places, there is
good reason for such insistence. Sacristans
are not always diligent, and pastors are some
times given to procrastination.

The altar may have, hanging in front, an
" antependium," a drapery varying in color
according to the Mass celebrated. This is
not strictly required, especially when the altar-
front is highly decorated; and with us it is
generally used only in Masses of Requiem, when the beauty and
ornamentation of the altar are to be hidden as a sign of mourn
ing.

The Crucifix and Candles. Over the altar is placed a cross
bearing the figure of our crucified Redeemer. This should be

Half of an
Antependium

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS in

raised above the level of the candlesticks, and should be of such
size and prominence that it can be easily seen not only by the
celebrant but by the people.

When a priest says Mass he must, by strict requirement, have
on the altar two lighted candles, blessed according to the formula
provided for that purpose, and made of wax. Tallow, stearine
and other similar substitutes are not allowed, unless, as the Roman
decrees say, in distant and new missions in Oceanica or in polar
regions where it is impossible to obtain wax, and where, unless
other lights are permitted, the people could not hear Mass.

In Masses of more than ordinary solemnity a larger number
of candles is used. A bishop's Mass, when said privately, calls
for four, and when he celebrates " pontifically," in his own
diocese, seven should be lighted. A high Mass sung by a priest
should have six; and when the Holy Sacrifice is offered before
the Blessed Sacrament exposed, at least twelve candles are used
on the altar.

Speaking of candles, our readers may have noticed lately an
apparent innovation in our churches which is really not an in
novation at all — the lighting of a candle on the side-table or
" credence " where the wine and water are kept during the Mass.
This is a custom of considerable antiquity, and has been practised
in nearly all parts of the world; but for some reason it did not
become common in our country until recently. One candle is
used when the celebrant is a priest, two when he is a bishop.
The lighting is done at the Sanctus, and the extinguishing takes
place after the priest has received Holy Communion; so that the
candle remains lighted during all the Canon, the more solemn
part of the Mass.

For holding the wine and water used in the
Holy Sacrifice the credence table is provided
with cruets or small flasks, which must be of
glass, both for cleanliness and that the wine
may be easily distinguished from the water.
A clean towel is also provided, for the washing of the priest's
fingers.

H2 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

The Altar-Cards and Missal. On the altar are placed three
printed cards, usually framed, containing the words of certain
parts of the Mass. These are intended as an
aid to the priest's memory, to obviate the neces
sity of turning to various parts of the Missal
in case the celebrant should forget the words
The central and largest card contains usually
the Gloria, the Credo, the offertory prayers for
both the bread and the wine, the solemn words
of consecration, and certain other parts of the
Mass as well. The one at the Epistle side has
Altar Cards two prayers which are recited at that part of
the altar — that which is said when water is poured into the
chalice, and the psalm " Lavabo " ("Among the innocent will
I wash my hands," etc.), recited by the priest when he washes
his fingers. The card on the gospel side presents the words of
the first chapter of St. John which form the
last Gospel of most Masses.

The Missal, or Mass-Book, is an indis
pensable requisite for the Mass, for it con
tains not only the fixed parts of the wording,
Missal on Stand which the priest could learn by heart, but also
the constantly changing prayers, epistles, gospels, offertories and
other portions of the Mass which vary from day to day according
to the festival celebrated and the season of the year. Its con
tents and arrangement are described in another chapter of this
book. The Missal is mounted, for convenience, on a book-stand,
which may be covered with a cushion or drapery of the color
of the day's vestments.

Nothing is allowed on the altar except what pertains to the
Holy Sacrifice; but on festival days, especially the more solemn,
(except in the penitential seasons) it may be decorated very
elaborately with flowers, lights and other ornaments.

The Chalice and Paten. "And taking the chalice, He gave
thanks, and gave to them, saying: Drink ye all of this, for this

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 113

is My Blood of the New Testament, which shall be shed for
many unto the remission of sins." (St. Matthew, xxvi.)

These words show us why the priest uses a cup or chalice —
because He who gave us the adorable Sacrifice of
the Mass made use of one when He instituted that
wonderful mystery. When the Apostles followed
His command to " do this for a commemoration
of Me," they also used a cup — probably at first
the ordinary drinking-goblet of those times. In
the course of centuries it became customary to
have the chalice formed of costly metal and often- Cbalice and paten
times adorned with precious stones.

A chalice is generally from eight to eleven inches high, and
consists of a wide-spreading base to insure stability, a stem which
has a knob midway to facilitate handling, and a cup. The whole
may be of gold or silver, or the cup only may be of precious
metal; and it is even permitted, on account of poverty, to make
the cup of inferior metal, such as block tin, but in every case,
when any metal but gold is used for the cup, the interior must
be heavily plated with gold. This is the part which comes
directly in contact with the Precious Blood of our Lord, and it is
proper that gold or gold-plating should be used on account of its
purity and the fact that it will not easily tarnish or corrode. The
best that we can supply is immeasurably unworthy of containing
or coming into actual touch with the Sacred Body and Blood of
Christ; and therefore gold is used in preference to other metals,
in all parts of the sacred vessels which the Holy Eucharist touches
or rests upon.

A circular, slightly concave dish, resembling a saucer, and
made either of gold or of silver, or other metal heavily gold-
plated, is used with the chalice. This is called the paten. It is
held aloft in the hands of the priest when he offers the bread which
is to be consecrated in the Mass. Later on, after the Pater
Noster, the celebrant blesses himself with it and places it under
the Sacred Host.

ii4 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Chalice Veil and
Burse

The chalice and paten must be consecrated by a bishop. The
blessing of the chalice goes back many centuries, at least to the
time of St. Gregory the Great, and that of the paten dates from
about the eighth century. After certain prayers the paten and
the whole interior of the chalice are anointed with holy Chrism,
and a concluding prayer is offered, asking that they may be
sanctified and made a new sepulchre of the Body and Blood of
Christ.

At the beginning and the end of the Mass
the chalice is shrouded in a " chalice-veil " of
the same material and color as the vestments
of the Mass. Upon this rests the " burse," a
flat pouch of the same color, in which the
corporal is kept — the square linen cloth which,
during the Mass, is spread upon the altar to
receive the Host and chalice. Symbolically, the corporal repre
sents the winding-sheet in which the dead Body of Christ was
wrapped for burial.

A " purificator," a folded piece of linen, is
draped across the chalice, and is used for cleansing
its interior, and for purifying the priest's fingers
during the Mass.

The " pall " is used to cover the chalice. It is
Linen Pall a piece of linen usually about six or seven inches
square, often double and stiffened by a piece of cardboard. This
part of the chalice equipment is not of ancient date. At one time
a part of the corporal was brought up from the rear to
cover the chalice, but about the year 1200 a separate
piece began to be used.

The Ciborium. When the priest is about to give
Holy Communion he takes from the tabernacle the
vessel in which the Blessed Eucharist is kept. This is
called a ciborium, which signifies a food-vessel, from
Ciborium the Latin " cibus," food — being, as it is, a receptacle
intended to hold the Heavenly Food which God's goodness has
given to us in the adorable Sacrament of the Altar.

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 115

The ciborium is in shape somewhat like the chalice, but usually
has a larger bowl, provided with a closely fitting cover surmounted
by a cross. They vary greatly in size, according to
the needs of the place where they are to be used —
that is, the number of persons who will receive
Holy Communion from them. The interior of the
ciborium is heavily plated with gold, and when it
contains the Blessed Sacrament the vessel is en
shrouded in a silk cover or drapery, always
white or gold in color and usually highly orna
mented. Ostensorium

The Ostensorium. While treating of sacred vessels, it may
be well to insert here a mention of those that are not " requisites
for the Mass." The word " ostensorium "
signifies an instrument for showing or dis
playing, and its other name, the " mon
strance," has the same meaning. This
sacred utensil is used in giving the Benediction
of the Blessed Sacrament and in processions
in which the Host is carried publicly, and is
generally formed of a cluster of metallic rays
radiating from a central aperture which con
tains a receptacle for a large Host. This
receptacle is called a " luna " or " lunula " (a moon, or a little
moon), and has glass on either side, so that the Host may be
seen when enclosed therein. The whole is mounted on a base
so that it can stand erect.

The Pyx. This vessel, in which the Holy Eu
charist is carried to the sick, is a very small
ciborium, but is of a different shape from that used
in church. It resembles a watch, being formed of
two hollow cups hinged together and fastened by
a spring catch operated through the stem. It also
is gold-plated, unless it is made entirely of gold.
It is kept with a small corporal and purificator, in a silk-lined
leather case, called a burse.

Luna, Closed

n6 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

The ciborium, the pyx and the luna of the
ostensorium are blessed with a simpler formula
than that used for the chalice, and this bless
ing may be imparted, in our country, by any
priest.

A " Communion paten " is often used at the
giving of Holy Communion, being held beneath
the chin of the communicant. It resembles
Communion Paten the Mass-paten, but is usually provided with a

handle, and does not require a blessing.

Touching the Sacred Vessels. Is it lawful for any one not
a priest to touch or handle the chalice and other sacred vessels?
If the vessel contains the Blessed Sacrament, it must not be
touched by any one except a priest or deacon, under pain of mortal
sin, unless in case of grave necessity, or to prevent profanation.
For example, in time of persecution or in case of fire, it would
certainly be allowable for any one to remove the Blessed Sacra
ment and to touch the vessel containing it.

But if the sacred vessel be empty? There is some diversity
of opinion about this matter, some holding that when the vessel
does not actually hold the Blessed Sacrament it may be handled
by any one if there is reason for doing so; but the usual practice
to-day is to restrict the touching of these vessels to clerics, even
though these are not priests, and to such lay persons as have
obtained permission from the bishop — for example, those whose
business it is to repair or clean church goods. Any other person
who may have occasion to handle or move a sacred vessel should
use a cloth to prevent direct contact of the hand with it.

The chalice, the paten, the luna and the pyx are sacred things,
true sacramentals, and are worthy of deepest reverence; for they
are set apart for a purpose than which none can be higher and
holier — to contain the Heavenly Food which the love of our
Redeemer has given us. St. Augustine tells us: "I dare to say
God, though He be omnipotent, is not able to give us more;
though He be all-wise, knows not how to give us more; though
He be all-rich, has not more to give."

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 117

The vestments used by the priest at Mass and other services are
considered in a separate chapter, in the section of this work treat
ing of the Sacramentals.

CHAPTER XIX
WHY THE MASS IS SAID IN LATIN

THE official language of our Church is Latin. It is used in
her services in the greater part of the world. It is employed in
nearly all the business correspondence of the Holy See. Encycli
cals and briefs of Popes, decrees of General Councils, decisions
of the Roman Congregations, acts of national and provincials
councils, synodal regulations of dioceses — all these are expressed
in the ancient tongue of Rome. The works of many of the great
Fathers of the Church after the first three centuries and the count
less tomes that treat of theology, Scripture, Church law and
liturgy, all use the same majestic language.

Why Latin is Used. " Why does the Catholic Church use
Latin? Why does she not conduct her services in a language
which can be understood by all those who are present at them ? "
These are sensible questions, frequently asked ; and every Catholic
should be able to give a satisfactory answer.

The Church makes Latin the language of her liturgy because it
was the official language of the Roman Empire, and was generally
•understood and spoken throughout a considerable part of the
civilized world, at the time when Christianity was established.
St. Peter fixed the centre of the Christian faith in Rome, the
capital city of the Empire, and the Church gradually adopted the
language of the Romans, and finally used it in many parts of the
world over which she extended her dominion.

Latin, however, was far from being the sole language of the
Roman Empire. At the time of Christ and for two or three
centuries afterwards many other tongues were spoken extensively
in various provinces, and Latin, as a vernacular, was confined more
or less to central Italy. In northern Italy, Gaul and Spain there

u8 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

was a kind of Celtic; in Germany, Teutonic; but the most wide
spread language was Greek. It was spoken in Greece, Thessaly,
Macedonia and Asia Minor, in Marseilles and the adjacent terri
tories, in southern Italy and Sicily, and in parts of Africa. More
over, Greek was everywhere the language of culture, and every
educated Roman was supposed to know it. Latin remained the
language of worship, of the law, the army and the government ; but
Greek became the great medium of communication among the
various parts of the mighty Empire. The fact that it had become
common among the Jews, both in Palestine and elsewhere, led to
the making of the Septuagint version of the Old Testament and
the writing of nearly all the New Testament in Greek — for
even the Epistle to the Romans was written in that language, al
though one would think that Romans wTould better understand
Latin. The first Fathers of the Church all wrote in Greek —
even those wrho were addressing Roman readers or the Roman
Emperor; and the Popes of the first two centuries used the same
language when they wrote at all.

The Official Language of Rome. All this goes to show that,
contrary to the opinion usually advanced, Latin was not spoken
generally throughout the Empire at the time of the establishment
of Christianity, and it was not adopted by the Church because
" she wished to worship in the language of the people." But, as
said above, it was the language of worship, of government and of
law; and the Church, w~hich had fixed her seat of government in
the imperial city, took it as her official tongue for the same pur
poses.

How did this come about? Because any other course would
have been impracticable, and perhaps impossible.

The great centre of missionary enterprise in the west of
Europe was Rome, and the priests who w^ent to preach the Gospel
were accustomed to say Mass in Latin. When they began their
work in any country they had to learn the language; and when
they had succeeded in doing so, they often found it too crude, too
wanting in words, for the purpose of religious service. There
fore it was necessary to employ the Latin tongue for the public

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 119

ceremonies of the Church, and the local language or dialect was
used only for the instruction of the people.

The Language of Medieval Literature. In course of time
Latin became the literary language .of western Christendom, be
cause it was familiar to the clergy, who were the educated class
and the writers of books; because it was the only stable language
in a time of chaos; because it was equally useful in any part of
the world, no matter what was the native tongue of the people;
and because it was a convenient means of communication between
the bishops and the See of Rome.

And so everybody was content to use it, and the people of every
nation in western Europe worshipped in Latin, until in the six
teenth century the so-called Reformers began their destructive
work — and the people of Germany, of England and of the north
ern nations were led away from the old faith and were formed
into national churches, each holding its services in the language of
the country.

Why not Have Mass in English ? " But would it not be
better for the Catholic Church to conduct its worship in a lan
guage understood by the worshippers?" Yes, and no. The ad
vantages of so doing are plausible in theory; the disadvantages
render the idea difficult and even totally impracticable.

We do not intend to deny that, in the abstract, a service in the
language of the country would be very useful — possibly prefer
able to a service in an unknown tongue; but the difficulties in the
way of such action are so great that the Catholic Church has
wisely persevered in offering her public worship in one language
over the greater part of the world. Any other tongue than Latin
is used only in certain Eastern rites — in communities which were
never in close contact with Rome, and which have used Greek
or Syriac or Arabic from the beginning of their history. Even
in these the language employed in divine worship is not the spoken
language of to-day, but an older form which is as unintelligible
to the worshippers as Latin is to the average layman of our
parishes.

" But why cannot the Catholic Church use English in England

120 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

and French in France? " etc. Because she is a universal Church.
A small sect or a " national church " can use the language of the
country in its worship. But the Catholic Church is not a national
church. She has been appointed to " teach all nations." She is
not the church of the Italian, or the Englishman, or the Spaniard.
She could, of course, translate her liturgy into any tongue, but a
Mass in the language of any one nationality would be unintelligible
to all the rest.

At present a priest can say Mass, privately or publicly, in
almost any church in the whole world. If Mass was to be said
in the language of the country only, he could celebrate only in
private, and he would be forced to bring his own Mass-Book and
server. Such a system (or lack of system) would be unworkable
in the Catholic Church — because she is Catholic.

Although in the course of centuries the Latin of Gaul was
gradually modified into French, that of Italy into Italian, and that
of Iberia into Spanish and Portuguese, the Church did not at
tempt to follow these changes in her language of worship. Nor
has she tried to translate her liturgy into the myriad tongues of the
nations and tribes that have come into her fold. She has deemed
it wise to retain the use of Latin in her worship and her legisla
tion.

Unity of Speech and of Faith. How well, in the Catholic
Church, her oneness of speech seems to typify her unity of faith.
More than that — it not only typifies but helps to preserve it.
We can readily understand that it is of the utmost importance that
the dogmas of religion should be defined with great exactness, in
a language that always conveys the same ideas. Latin is now
what we call a " dead language " — that is, not being in daily
use as a spoken tongue, it does not vary in meaning.

It is very convenient for the Church to have Latin as her of
ficial language, as a means of communication between her mem
bers and her Head. To legislate for the Church's good it is neces
sary from time to time to hold a General Council, at which the
bishops of all the world assemble. They all understand Latin;
no interpreter is required. Every bishop writes often to, Rome,

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 121

and goes at intervals to visit the Holy Father; and if there were
no common language used in the Church, the Vicar of Christ
would need to be familiar with more than the tongues of Pente
cost if he would understand the German, the Spaniard, the Slav,
the Japanese, or the countless others of many races to whom he
would be obliged to listen.

" But do not the people suffer by this method ? " No ; they are
instructed in religion in their own native tongue, whatever it may
be — and we venture to say that, on the average, taking them
as they are all over the world, our Catholic people know their
religion at least as well as the Anglican or the Baptist. But the
ceremonial of the Church is carried out in the grand old language
of imperial Rome, where the Prince of the Apostles established the
central government of Christ's kingdom upon earth — a govern
ment which has endured wrhile. other kingdoms have risen and de
cayed and died — from which the light of God's truth has shone
farther and farther, century after century, into the dark places
of the earth.

PART V
THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR

CHAPTER XX
THE CHURCH'S CALENDAR

THE first day of the Church's year is the first Sunday of
Advent. This may come as early as November 27,
or as late as December 3 ; for Advent, as at present
observed, includes the four Sundays before Christmas. There
fore the year, in the Church's calendar, varies slightly in length,
according to the date on which the first Sunday of Advent falls.

Fixed and Movable Feasts. The various days which the
Church observes from Advent to Advent are of two kinds. Some
of them are fixed feasts, having a certain day of a certain month
assigned to them. Others are movable, occurring earlier or later
in different years, according to a system which we shall describe.

The variable part of the calendar of the Church depends princi
pally upon the date on which Easter Sunday falls ; it is always the
first Sunday after the first full moon after the vernal equinox,
the opening day of Spring, or March 21. This has been in
herited, as it were, from the Jewish religion. In the earliest days
of Catholicity the vast majority of the members of the infant
Church were Jews, who had been accustomed to keep the Pass
over, and who therefore continued to observe it, making it serve
as a commemoration of the Resurrection, the greatest event in the
history of their new faith.

From this great festival day the whole year of the Church's
calendar is computed, so far as movable feasts are concerned.
Forty days after Easter she celebrates the Ascension of our Lord.

122

THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR 123

Ten days later comes Whitsunday, the birthday of the Church, the
anniversary of the coming of the Holy Ghost upon the Apostles
— taking the place of the Jewish feast of Pentecost.

Before Easter the Church observes the penitential season of
Lent, which has varied in length at different epochs (for at one
time it extended from Quinquagesima Sunday to Easter), but
which is always a time of preparation for the great solemnity of
our Lord's Resurrection and ends on the eve of that festival.

In like manner the Sundays and movable feasts after Easter
vary in date according to the early or late occurrence of that day,
which in some years may be as early as March 22, and in some as
late as April 25. Owing to this fact, it is possible that the pre
ceding and subsequent Sundays and the movable feasts may also
occur earlier or later by more than a month, from year to year.

The Fixed Festivals. Besides these movable days, there are
many festivals which are fixed — that is, which usually occur
year after year on the same date. The observance of some of
these follows naturally from the date of Christmas, which has been
celebrated on the twenty-fifth of December for many centuries.

The Circumcision. The first day of January is the feast of
our Lord's Circumcision, for the Jewish law exacted the ad
ministration of that solemn rite on the eighth day after birth;
and, happening to fall on the first day of the new year, it was
developed into a great Christian festival, partly because it helped
to wean newly converted nations from various idolatrous and
pagan practices which were observed in many countries on that
day.

The Epiphany. The feast of the Epiphany, the beginning
of the manifestation of the newly born Messias to the nations of
the world, has been observed on the sixth of January from a very
early date, being probably the oldest of the distinctively Christian
festivals. The birth of our Lord was commemorated on this
day in some parts of the world in early centuries, as will be ex
plained later; which fact perhaps accounts for its title of " Little
Christmas," which it bears in parts of Ireland and possibly else
where.

124 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

The Purification. The Jewish law demanded the presentation
of a male child in the Temple and the rite of purification for the
mother, forty days after the child's birth. Consequently our
Church observes the feast of the Purification of the Blessed
Virgin on the second day of February. On that day the solemn
blessing of candles takes place in our churches, as is described else
where in this work.

The Annunciation. Also, the fact that Christmas is cele
brated on the twenty-fifth of December has led to the institution
of the feast of the Annunciation on the twenty-fifth of March,
nine months before — to honor the day when Mary consented to
become the Mother of the Redeemer and He became incarnate in
her virgin womb.

Other Fixed Festivals. All through the year, in the Church's
calendar, there are fixed festivals of greater or lesser importance
on almost every day — feasts of our Lord, of His Blessed Mother
and of the saints. Some of these are observed universally; others
have a local or limited celebration only. Many are of very ancient
origin, but some have been established in recent times. And as the
work of canonization goes on, as new names are enrolled in the
catalogue of the Church's saints, the list of these festivals is being
constantly modified, either for the whole world or for certain coun
tries, dioceses or religious bodies. Many of the latter have their
own calendars of saints' days. In like manner many countries
have local festivals, honoring patron saints or others towards whom
the faithful of those places have special devotion.

The Gregorian Calendar. Each fixed festival has its own date
during the year. In some cases the day assigned is that of the
saint's death — the beginning of his heavenly glory ; in others it is
fixed merely according to the will of the Church. Hence the
Church's calendar depends considerably upon the calendar in ordi
nary use at the present time, which is called the Gregorian, from
Pope Gregory XIII, who brought it to its present form. The
arrangement of the year devised by this great Pontiff is so admir
able that it may be well to give a brief explanation of it and of
the reasons why it was made. To do this we shall be obliged to

THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR 125

lead our readers a little way into the paths of astronomical
science.

The sun is the centre of our planetary system, and the earth
travels around it in what we call a year, turning at the same
time on its own axis, each complete turn constituting what we call
a day. But the journey of the earth around the sun does not
happen to be completed in an exact number of days. If it leaves a
certain point in its track or orbit on January first, for instance,
it is not at that precise point at the same hour on the following
January first. Hence arises the necessity of having " leap-years,"
so that our calendar may be brought into close agreement with
the real year of the earth traveling around the sun. Otherwise
the difference between the real year and the year of 365 days
would gradually cause the seasons to shift — until Christmas Day,
for example, would occur in midsummer in our part of the world.

Leap-years were invented by Julius Caesar, who estimated the
length of the solar year as 365 days and six hours; and to pro
vide for these extra six hours he inserted an additional day into
each fourth year. But his estimate of the year's length was not
precise; the year is really less than the above figures' by eleven
minutes and fourteen seconds. The result was that there was an
error of a full day in about 134 years.

Pope Gregory's Reform. In 1582 Gregory XIII brought the
calendar to its present form by the simple plan of dropping ten
days, from October 5 to 14 inclusively, for the error had in
creased to that extent since Caesar's time. The Pontiff provided
for the future by ordering that the leap-year should not be ob
served in 1700, 1800 and 1900, but should be retained in the
year 2000 and in every century thereafter that is divisible by 400.
This ingenious method gives such a close approach to exactness
that only after thirty-five centuries will there be an error of one
day — and that is too remote to be of much concern to you or
me.

But this was a Roman decree — and therefore it was bitterly
opposed by the Protestant countries of Europe. Nearly all of
them, however, adopted it in the year 1700. England, with true

126 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

British obstinacy, held on to the old style until 1752, when she was
eleven days " behind schedule." Russia still adheres to the Julian
calendar, and is now thirteen days behind the rest of the world.

Such is a brief history of the Gregorian calendar. As the years
roll on — those secular years which the wisdom of one of the
Church's rulers has brought into close accord with the unvarying
movements of God's universe — day by day the Church keeps her
own calendar. She celebrates the great events in the history of
the world's redemption. She honors the Mother of God and the
faithful ones who have served their Master well. She has her
seasons of penance and her festivals of joy. And so shall her
years be kept while this earth endures — until the day shall come
when " the heavens shall be folded together like a scroll " and time
shall be no more.

CHAPTER XXI
FESTIVALS

SAINTS' days and other festivals have not been imposed upon
us by any law of God. In the Jewish religion certain days were
set apart for the commemoration of great events, such as the
Passover, or for devotional and penitential observances, such as
the Feast of Expiation. These were directly commanded by God
Himself, in the laws which He gave to His chosen people through
Moses. But in the Christian Church festival days are not of
divine institution. They were all established by the Church her
self, being begun at different times and in different parts of the
world. Some few of them go back to Apostolic times, while
others are of very recent origin.

The Reasons for Feast Days. Why has our Church estab
lished these festivals? Because she desires that the great truths
of religion and the important events in its history shall be im
pressed on the minds of her children. Moreover, for the guiding
of our lives, she wishes us to take as an example the virtues of

THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR 127

those who have been faithful servants of God, that we may ever
remember, in the words of St. Paul, that " we are the children
of the saints." Therefore she has wisely instituted a great number
of festivals, coming at certain determined times during the year,
and varying in importance and solemnity according to what event
they commemorate or what saint they honor.

The Kinds of Feasts. They are divided, first, into holydays
of obligation and ordinary feasts. On the former, the faithful are
obliged to hear Mass and abstain from unnecessary servile work ;
on the latter, the Church observes the feasts in her Office and
Mass without imposing any obligation upon her children.

Also, the festivals and other days of the year are arranged
liturgically in three classes, known as " doubles," " semi-doubles "
and "simples." Of the "double" feasts (a division which dates
back to the thirteenth century), the most solemn are known as
" doubles of the first class " — for example, Christmas and Epiph
any. Next come " doubles of the second class," such as the feasts
of some of the Apostles and the lesser feasts of the Blessed Virgin.
Then " doubles major," then ordinary " doubles." A festival of
lesser importance is known as a " semi-double," and one of still
simpler form is called a " simple " feast. Again, certain great
festivals have octaves, which extend the solemnity of the feast
through eight days, although a recent decree has considerably re
duced the observance of some of these.

Our Holydays of Obligation. In our country the " feasts of
precept," or holydays of obligation, are now six — the number
having been reduced after the third Plenary Council of Baltimore.
The bishops of that Council wished to have four only, but Rome
insisted that six should be retained. Therefore we American
Catholics observe the following days as of obligation: Three
feasts of our Lord — namely, Christmas Day, the Circumcision
and the Ascension; two of the Blessed Virgin — the Assumption
and the Immaculate Conception; and the feast of All Saints.

A History of Some Feasts. For at least two centuries Easter
and Pentecost (with the weekly Lord's Day) were probably the
only festivals celebrated. Then the feast of the Epiphany was in-

128 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

stituted, to honor the first manifestation of our Blessed Saviour to
the Gentile nations of the world.

On the first Sunday in January the Church celebrates the feast
of the Holy Name of Jesus. This is of rather recent origin.
It was approved at first only for Franciscan churches ; but in the
year 1721 it was made universal by Pope Innocent XIII. Until
recently it was celebrated on the second Sunday after Epiphany.

The Purification of the Blessed Virgin, on the second of Febru
ary, was first observed in Eastern countries about the year 520.
It was introduced into the Western Church about the year 700.

In March comes another great festival of our Blessed Mother,,
the Annunciation. There is no certain record of this feast before
692, although in the opinion of some writers it was one of the
festivals of the early Church, and may go back almost to the days
of the Apostles.

On the nineteenth of March occurs the feast of St. Joseph,
which is not ancient. It was first kept on that day by several of
the religious orders in the fourteenth century, and its establish
ment as a universal feast-day is largely due to St. Francis de
Sales. In 1621 it was made a holyday of obligation, and has
been so observed in many countries since that time.

The feast of the Ascension is one of our oldest holydays. St.
Augustine speaks of it as " kept from time immemorial," and at
tributes it to the Apostles ; however, there is no certainty that they
observed it.

Trinity Sunday was observed locally as far back as the tenth
century, but the date varied in different countries. It was intro
duced into England by the martyr-saint Thomas a Becket, Arch
bishop of Canterbury. It wTas made universal for the Church in
*334 by John XXII, who assigned it to the Sunday after Pente
cost. The feast of Corpus Christi was established by the same
Pope, and at about the same time.

In June the Church celebrates two festivals of great impor
tance — that of St. John the Baptist, on the twenty-fourth, and
of Sts. Peter and Paul on the twenty-ninth. The former is prob
ably the oldest feast in honor of a saint. That of the two great

THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR 129

Apostles dates back to the fifth century. In many parts of the
world these two festivals have long been observed as holydays of
obligation.

The Assumption, on August 15, is one of the holydays of obliga
tion for the United States. It is a pious belief in our Church,
though not an article of faith, that Mary's body was preserved
from corruption and was reunited to her soul in heaven; and
while the Church does not assert this as a part of her doctrine, she
approves of it by the lessons of her Office during the octave of this
great feast.

The festival of All Saints, on the first of November, is also one
of obligation. It has been celebrated on that day since the time
of Gregory III, in 731. Previously it had been observed earlier
in the year in various localities. All Souls' Day came somewhat
later, in 998, having been established in France by a certain Abbot
Odilo for monastic churches. To give greater help to the suffer
ing souls, a recent decree permits every priest to celebrate three
Masses on that day.

The great festival of the Immaculate Conception, which is the
patronal feast of the United States and a holyday of obligation,
was observed under the name of " the Blessed Virgin's Con
ception " for several centuries, having become universal about
1350. When the doctrine of Mary's Immaculate Conception was
defined by Pius IX in 1854, the title of the feast was correspond
ingly changed, and it was made one of the greatest festivals of
the Church.

Minor Feasts of Mary. As late as the twelfth century only
four feasts of the Blessed Virgin were universally observed — her
Nativity, her Purification, the Annunciation and the Assumption.
At present, owing to the devotion of various Pontiffs, the number
has increased to about twenty.

A feast is observed in some parts of the world on January 23,
commemorating the Espousal of the Blessed Virgin. It is of com
paratively recent origin, having been established by the Franciscans
with the approval of Pope Paul III, in the sixteenth century.

There are two feasts of the Seven Dolors or Sorrows of Mary.

I3o EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

One comes on the Friday after Passion Sunday, and was insti
tuted by Benedict XIII in 1725. The other is kept at present
on September 15, and was established by Pius VII in I8I4-1

The title of " Help of Christians " was given to the Blessed
Virgin by St. Pius V after the great naval victory of the Cristians
over the Turks at Lepanto. The feast was established by Pius
VII, after he had been released from captivity, and had returned
to Rome, in 1815.

On the second of July the Church celebrates the festival of the
Visitation, commemorating the journey of Mary to her cousin
Elizabeth. The origin of this feast is obscure. It became
universal only in the fourteenth century, under Pope Urban
VI.

The feast of Our Lady of Mount Carmel is celebrated on the
sixteenth of July. It honors the intercessory power of Mary as
manifested in the benefits granted to wearers of her scapular, and
was approved for the Carmelite order by Sixtus V in 1587, being
made a feast for the entire Church at a later date.

The festival of " Our Lady of the Snows " comes on August 5.
It is based on an ancient legend which states that the site of
the great Church of St. Mary Major in Rome was determined
by a miraculous fall of snow in mid-summer ; and therefore it com
memorates the dedication of that church.

The month of September is especially rich in the minor feasts
of Mary. Her Nativity is celebrated on the eighth, although there
is nothing to show that she was born on that day. This festival
was established about the year 870.

The feast of the Holy Name of Mary is now commemorated on
the twelfth of September, and was originally a Spanish holiday.
It was extended to the whole Church by Innocent XI in 1684.
On the twenty-fourth of the same month comes the festival of

1 What are the seven dolors of the Blessed Virgin? According to
many spiritual writers they are: The prophecy of Simeon; the flight
into Egypt; the loss of Jesus for three days in Jerusalem; seeing her Son
carrying His Cross ; the Crucifixion ; the descent from the Cross ; and the
entombment. Thus were fulfilled the prophetic words of holy Simeon:
" Thine own soul a sword shall pierce."

THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR 131

Our Lady of Ransom, the patronal feast of the Order for the Re
demption of Captives.

October is the month of the Holy Rosary, and on the seventh
of that month occurs the feast which honors Mary as the " Queen
of the Most Holy Rosary." The victory of Lepanto, mentioned
above, took place on that day in the year 1571, at the very hour
when all over the Catholic world the Rosary was being recited by
order of St. Pius V for the success of the Christian arms.

A tradition of very doubtful value states that Mary, at the
age of three years, was presented in the Temple, and remained
there until she had attained womanhood. A feast commemorative
of this has been observed in various parts of the world since about
the twelfth century. It was suppressed by Pius V, but was later
permitted by Sixtus V in 1585, and has been generally kept since
the seventeenth century.

One of the lesser feasts of the Mother of God was formerly
celebrated in many parts of the world a week before Christmas —
the " Expectation of the Blessed Virgin," meaning the expect
ing of her delivery, the birth of our Saviour being near at hand.
This was originally a Spanish feast, and was approved for other
countries by Benedict XIII in 1725.

A special chapter will be devoted to the history of Christmas
Day. Besides these greater feasts, our Church celebrates many
others during the year, each of which has its own interesting
history — an annual cycle of glory to God and veneration towards
God's servants who have fought the good fight, have kept the
faith, and have gained their immortal crowns.

CHAPTER XXII
ADVENT

IT has always been the aim of our holy Church to cause her
children to reflect. She sets apart during the year two seasons, in
which she tries to imbue the faithful with a spirit of penitential

132 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

fervor. One of these seasons, which is called Advent, from the
Latin word " adventus," a coming to, embraces four Sundays,
beginning with that which is nearest to the feast of St. Andrew,
the thirtieth of November. The first Sunday of Advent, in our
part of the Church, is always the beginning of the ecclesiastical
year — the Church's New Year's Day.

The spirit of the Church during this time is symbolized by the
purple vestments, emblematic of penance, worn at her services on
each of these Sundays and on some other days, in preparation for
the great festival of our Lord's Nativity.

The History of Advent. The origin of the Observance of
Advent is very obscure. Unlike Lent, which goes back nearly to
Apostolic times, it was not known in the first centuries of the
Church ; in fact, the feast of Christmas was not celebrated in those
earliest days of Christianity.

About the end of the fourth century the practice wTas estab
lished of having a few days of preparation for the proper observ
ance of that great festival, and in some countries a regulation was
put into force requiring the presence of the faithful at Mass each
day from the seventeenth of December to the feast of the Epiphany.
And some of us are tempted to complain because we are com
manded to assist at Mass on six week-days during the whole
year!

These days of devotion before and after Christmas seem to
have been the beginning of the observance of Advent. However,
no general law regarding it existed for some centuries later. But
the practice of the Church, of setting apart several weeks of
penance and prayer before the feast of our Lord's Resurrection, led
in time to the establishing, in many parts of the world, of a
similar but shorter season as a preparation for the other greatest
festival of our faith, the day of the Saviour's birth.

In the year 650 Advent wras observed in Spain, and was longer
than it is at present, for it included five Sundays. A little later
the prohibition of the solemnization of marriages during this
season was put into force, and various local laws were enacted
by diocesan and national synods, regarding fasting and abstinence;

THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR 133

for the season of Advent has always been looked upon as a time not
only for prayer but for penance, though not to the extent that the
Church requires during the season of Lent. By some of these
regulations abstinence and fasting were enjoined from early in
November to Christmas, and even from the date of the September
equinox and the beginning of Autumn. But about the ninth
century the time of Advent was arranged as we have it now —
taking in four Sundays only. Thus the present practice of our
Church in observing this holy season is of a very respectable an
tiquity; it has lasted more than a thousand years.

Advent Penances. The law of the Church requires a certain
amount of fasting and abstinence during the time of Advent, but
in regard to this her practice has varied greatly. In the earlier
ages, after the establishment of this season, the regulations were
very strict, and Advent was observed almost as rigorously as Lent.
Later on, the strictness was considerably relaxed. At the pres
ent day, the Fridays of Advent are kept as fasting-days in this
and other English-speaking countries; but in France and other
parts of continental Europe the practice of observing them has died
out except in religious communities. The special dispensations
recently granted by the Holy See in favor of working people and
their families have made this fasting no longer obligatory for
many of the faithful. The idea of the Church has nearly always
been that Advent, while a penitential season, is not to be observed
as strictly as Lent; and therefore, at the present day, she has re
stricted the physical mortification to Fridays only, and even that
penance binds only a comparatively small portion of the faithful.

The Advent Liturgy. Advent, then, is a time for devout and
penitential preparation of the soul for the proper and worthy cele
bration of the great feast of Christmas; and the Church wishes
us also during that season to prepare for the judgment which we
all must undergo, both at death and at the second coming of our
Blessed Saviour. The whole of the Church's practice and liturgy
during Advent is filled with this spirit — with the praises of the
Redeemer of the world, and with exhortations to the faithful to
receive Him worthily into their souls.

134 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

In the Divine Office recited by the clergy during Advent the
Te Deum, the hymn of joy and thanksgiving, is omitted. In the
Mass, the exultant Gloria in Excelsis, the angels' song at Bethle
hem, is not said or sung. The solemn celebration of marriage
(that is, with Mass and nuptial blessing) is prohibited from the
beginning of Advent to the feast of the Epiphany inclusively. In
the Advent Masses the Church uses purple vestments, the color of
which always symbolizes penance. Flowers are not placed on the
altar, except on the third Sunday, on which, as it were, a slight
gleam of joy is jpermitted to shine through the gloom of this
penitential season. This day is known as " Gaudete Sunday,"
from the opening words of the Introit of the Mass : " Gaudete
in Domino . . ." — "Rejoice in the Lord; again I say, rejoice!
Let your modesty be known unto all men; for the Lord is near."

The whole liturgy, in the Office and in the Mass, is arranged
to manifest the prevailing spirit of penance mingled with hope.
There is a marvelous beauty in the language which the Church
uses in all her services during this season. The Breviary is filled
with expressions of longing and of adoration for " the Lord, the
King that is to come." The lessons read in Matins are taken
from the book of the great prophet of the Incarnation, Isaias, who
tells of the Man of Sorrows, suffering for the sins of His people
— who describes the passion and death of the coming Redeemer
and foretells His final glory. In the hymns of the Office the
Church expresses her praise for the coming Christ, and prays that
He may enlighten the world and prepare it for His second coming.
On the last seven days before the vigil of Christmas a series of
sublime antiphons is used, in which the Church calls upon the
Divine Wisdom to teach us the wray of prudence; on the Key of
David to liberate us from bondage; on the Rising Sun to illumine
those who sit in darkness, etc.

The Advent Masses. The various parts of the Mass are also
appropriately chosen to express the spirit of our holy Church
during the Advent season. The Epistles exhort the faithful
to " put off the works of darkness and put on the armor of light,
because the Redeemer is near." The Gospels speak of the Saviour

THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR 135

coming in glory, and describe the ministry of St. John the Baptist,
who " prepared the way of the Lord and made straight His
paths."

Thus does the Church's liturgy take us back in spirit to the
days when the Messias had not yet come ; and it shows us that the
same spirit of preparation, of hope and prayer and penance, is as
necessary now as it was then, if we are to profit by the Incarnation
of our Blessed Lord. We are exhorted to prepare ourselves for
His coming into our hearts by His grace, and for that other com
ing also, when He shall appear again among men — not obscure,
helpless and lowly, as at His birth in Bethlehem, but " coming in
the clouds of heaven with great power and majesty " — when He
shall come not as a Saviour, but as a Judge.

CHAPTER XXIII
CHRISTMAS DAY

YEAR after year the Christmas season brings to the minds of all
Christians the wondrous story of the Child in the manger, the
shepherds on the Judean hills, the celestial song " Glory to God
in the highest/' and the Angel's message, telling that the Long-
Expected One had come: "Fear not, for behold, I bring you
tidings of great joy; for this day is born to you a Saviour."

On that great day the altars gleam with myriad lights ; the notes
of joyful hymns resound in God's temples. The faithful kneel
in homage before the Christmas crib, wherein is depicted the mys
tery of Bethlehem. Throng after throng, in their thousands, they
adore, at the Masses of that day, Him who is mystically born
again in that Adorable Sacrifice. Reverently they receive Him
in the Sacrament of His love. And it is not only for us Catholics
that this is a day of joy. Others celebrate it as well as we, though
hardly with the same spirit. All of mankind to whom even a
part of the Christian faith has been given look. upon Christmas as
the greatest and most joyful of the festivals of the year.

A Catholic Feast. Christmas has, indeed, come to be a festival

136 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

day for all; and the universal observance of this Catholic feast
is the more remarkable when we remember how this " Papist "
custom was frowned upon only a few years ago in this Christian
land of ours. Perhaps some of us can recall when there was little
respect for Christmas, either in a religious way or otherwise, among
non-Catholics in this country. It was only when the narrow-
minded sects had ceased to be in a majority, and when European
immigration had infused new vigor and new ideals into the life of
America, that the anniversary of the Saviour's birth began to be a
religious and social festival.

Not in the Early Church. How old is Christmas Day?
When we see with what unanimity that great festival is celebrated
at the present time, it is surprising to learn that it was probably
not observed at all in the first three centuries, and came gradually
into existence in the fourth. One would naturally think that the
anniversary of so great an event as the birth of the Son of God
would have been a day of religious joy from the earliest years of
the Church; but it is clear that this was not the case. There is
no mention of it in any of the oldest lists of Church festivals.
Much more attention was given in the first centuries to the Epiph
any, the beginning of the manifestations of our Lord to the
world ; and the commemoration of His birth, if observed at all,
was combined in those times with that feast.

On What Day Was Christ Born? There was a great diver
sity of opinion among anicent authorities as to the birthday of
our Blessed Saviour. Many writers, especially of the Eastern
Church, assigned an entirely different season of the year from
that observed at present. St. Clement of Alexandria quotes some
who placed it on the twentieth of April or the twentieth of May,
and a very common belief in the Orient was that our Lord was
born on the sixth of January.

In the part of the Church which follows the Latin rite the cele
bration of Christmas on the twenty-fifth of December was begun
probably about the middle of the fourth century. An ancient
tradition assigned that day as the probable date of the great
mystery of the Nativity. St. Augustine mentions it as well estab-

THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR 137

lished in his day, and about the year 380 the Oriental Churches
began to celebrate our Saviour's birth on the same date.

The Vigil of Christmas. What is a vigil? The word signi
fies " a watching." In ancient times nearly all the greater feasts
were celebrated with much solemnity, and the ceremonies in
cluded the reciting of the Divine Office at stated hours. Parts
of it were chanted late at night, the evening before the festival,
and were followed by a Mass. The faithful were encouraged
to be present at these services, and as a further preparation for the
worthy observance of the feast they were required to fast on the
day before. The practice of " watching " or attending the night
services in the church is almost entirely abolished, except for re
ligious communities, and the vigil has come to mean to- the laity
a day on which some of them at least are obliged to observe certain
laws of fasting and abstinence. The vigil of Christmas is one of
the few days on which the dispensation granted in favor of work
ing people and their families to use meat is not in force. It is
a day of fasting for some and of abstinence for all, unless excused
for some real and urgent reason — not merely on account of the
ordinary needs of a working life.

The Name of Christmas. Why is this day called Christmas?
This word, which we of English-speaking race use as its name,
shows the Catholic origin of the festival. Christmas is " Christ's
Mass " — the Mass offered in honor of the birth of Christ. Prob
ably few of our non-Catholic friends advert to the fact that the
day which they celebrate so universally is a feast of the Catholic
Church, taking its very name from the supreme act of Catholic
worship.

This name seems to have come into use about the year 1038,
and, in the early English language of that time, was written
" Christes Maesse"; about a century later it had been modified
to " Crist-messe " — and, as the English tongue developed into its
present form, it finally became " Christmas." Nearly all the
other languages of Europe use a word signifying " birthday " —
in Latin, Dies Natalis; in Italian, II Natale; and the French
have softened the Latin form to Noel.

138 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

In English books and accounts of old English customs we often
find the day mentioned under the name of Yuletide, " the time of
the Feast " — the word Yule being a modification of the Anglo-
Saxon " Geol," a feast.

How Our Church Keeps Christmas. Christmas is everywhere
a day of joy and gladness, and all the riches of the Church's liturgy
are employed to express these sentiments. Rich vestments and the
glow of countless candles, costly decorations and the strains of
sweet music — all these are used to signify that she celebrates the
earthly coming of our Redeemer as a festival, a day of happi
ness.

Christmas is in every part of the world a holyday of obligation
— a day on which all the faithful are commanded to be present
at Mass; and on account of the Church's desire to enrich both
priests and people with an abundance of spiritual blessings, every
priest enjoys on that day a special favor and privilege. He is
permitted to celebrate three Masses. Ordinarily, on any other
day, he can say Mass only once. When there is a real necessity,
in order that on Sundays and holydays the people may conveniently
assist at the Holy Sacrifice, the priests of our country (and of many
others as well) are allowed by special permission of their bishops,
renewed each year, to celebrate Mass twice in one day. On
Christmas Day, whether there is need or not, every priest is per
mitted, though not obliged, to offer the Adorable Sacrifice three
times.

This is a custom of considerable antiquity, although it was origi
nally practised by the Pope only. It was later permitted to
bishops, and finally to priests. In very early times the Sovereign
Pontiff was accustomed to say three Masses on Christmas Day —
one at midnight in the Liberian basilica (in which, according to
legend, the manger of Bethlehem is preserved), as a conclusion
to the nocturnal service or vigil; the second at the tomb of St.
Anastasia, wrhose martyrdom is commemorated on December 25 ;
and the last in the Vatican as the principal Mass of the day.
This practice is said to date back to the fourth century.

This Roman custom was introduced into France, for bishops

THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR 139

only, in the time of Charlemagne, and was later permitted to
priests. Thence it gradually spread throughout the world.

Mystical writers give an explanation of the three Masses, stating
that they symbolize the three births of our Blessed Lord —
namely, His birth from the Father before all ages, His birth from
Mary at Bethlehem, and His spiritual birth in the hearts of the
faithful by sanctifying grace; but the real reason for the three
Masses was, as stated above, that the Pope wished to observe the
vigil by the first, to give a commemoration to the Roman virgin-
martyr Anastasia in the second, and to celebrate the third as the
solemn Mass of the festival in his own basilica.

The Christmas Crib. An interesting feature of our church
decorations on Christmas Day is the " crib," or representation of
the stable of Bethlehem. It is oftentimes artistic, sometimes com
monplace, occasionally grotesque; but in every case it gives evi
dence of the commendable practice of our Church, to " teach by
showing " — to set before us some visible sign which will impress
upon us, more forcibly than would mere words, some point of her
doctrine or some event in the history of religion.

It is probable that the real stable of Bethlehem was a cave. At
the present day a small hollow or grotto is shown as the place
where our Divine Lord was born and was " wrapped in swaddling-
clothes and laid in a manger." We are told by tradition or legend
that the cave was dug in the rear of a humble shed which served as
a shelter for beasts of burden; and so the usual representation of
the birthplace of our Redeemer as a thatched stable may not be
very inaccurate.

This custom of erecting a crib in our churches at the Christmas
time, with figures representing the Divine Infant, His Blessed
Mother, St. Joseph, the shepherds, the Magi, etc., goes back to
about the year 1260, and was introduced by the Franciscan
Fathers in some of their Italian churches. It was evidently looked
upon as a happy idea, for within a comparatively short time the
practice had come into vogue in other parts of the world.

In our churches, on Christmas Day, the crib is always an object
of interest and devotion. It brings before us, perhaps more vividly

i4o EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

than would a sermon or a reading, the loving humility of our
Blessed Saviour and the lowly beginning of that life which was
from its very inception a life of suffering. Our holy Church urges
us to kneel and meditate before it in the spirit with which the
shepherds were filled on that first Christmas Day — with simple
minds and firm faith making an offering of our hearts and souls
to our Infant Saviour.

Some Christmas Customs. When we give or receive Christ
mas gifts, and hang green wreaths in our homes and churches,
how many of us know that we are probably observing pagan cus
toms ? We do not wish to assert that they are not good customs ;
but they undoubtedly prevailed long before Christian times. The
Romans gave presents on New Year's Day, and our bestowing of
gifts at Christmas is a survival of that practice, as well as a com
memoration of the offerings of the Magi at Bethlehem. The
Yule-log, a feature of Christmas in old England, goes back to
the days of the pirate Norsemen. Holly and mistletoe and wreaths
of evergreen have been handed down to us by the Druids. And
even our good old friend Santa Claus, that mysterious bene
factor of our childhood days, existed in one form or another long
before Christianity had attributed his virtues to St. Nicholas; for
the god Woden, in Norse mythology, descended upon the earth
yearly between December 25 and January 6 to bless mankind.

But, pagan though they be, they are beautiful customs. They
help to inspire us with the spirit of " good will to men," even as
the sublime services of our Church remind us of the " peace on
earth " which the Babe of Bethlehem came to bestow. May
that spirit fill the heart of each of us on every Christmas Day !

CHAPTER XXIV
LENT AND HOLY WEEK

THE penitential season of Lent consists of forty fasting-days,
being the week-days of the six and one-half weeks preceding the
great feast of Easter. The Sundays during this time are also

THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR 141

a part of Lent, but are not observed as days of fasting. As
explained elsewhere, the date of the beginning of this season varies
from year to year, according to the date of Easter. The Church
has instituted it as a remembrance of the forty days' fast of our
Blessed Lord in the desert, arid as a means of sanctification for her
children — for she has always taught the necessity of penance for
justification.

Lent is called by various names in various languages. In Latin
it is Quadragesima (fortieth), from which are taken the Italian
Quaresima and the French Careme. The English name, Lent, is
from the Anglo-Saxon Lencten, meaning " Spring."

The History of Lent. The duration of this penitential season
has not always been the same in the different ages of the Church's
history. We cannot assert positively that Lent can be traced back
to the Apostles, but we know that some sort of fasting time has
been observed before the Easter festival from very early days. It
is mentioned by Tertullian and St. Irenaeus, and especially by St.
Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, who defined that it was to be a
fast of forty days; and rules concerning it were made by early
Councils, prescribing fasting as a strict obligation. From about
the fourth century it became a fast of forty days in many parts of
the world, although the Greeks began it earlier than we do,
ruling that there should be no fasting on the Saturdays of Lent
(except Holy Saturday) and on the feast of the Annunciation.
For some time the Roman Church observed the fast only for thirty-
six days, beginning after the first Sunday of Lent ; and it was not
until the year 846 that a Council held at Meaux, in France, added
four days before that Sunday. This practice, even then, was not
generally followed, for as late as the eleventh century the Lenten
season included only thirty-six fasting days in some parts of
Europe, and this is still the case in the diocese of Milan, in
Italy.

It is said that in very early times there were so-called Re-
nunciants, who subsisted on only two meals a week for no less
than eight weeks preceding Easter — fasting strictly from the
breakfast of Sunday until after Holy Communion on the follow-

1 42 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

ing Saturday. This, however, was never an obligation, but merely
a voluntary penance.

Nevertheless, the Lenten regulations of our Church were very
severe, especially in the early Middle Ages. All flesh meat was
forbidden, and also, for the most part, what were called " lac-
ticinia " — milk, butter, cheese, eggs, etc. — and this prohibition
extended originally to Sundays. On all the fasting-days only one
meal was allowed, and this was to be taken in the evening.
However, this extreme rigor was, after a time, somewhat relaxed ;
the meal could be taken at three o'clock, the hour of None in
the Divine Office, and this was gradually advanced to midday -
which, indeed, derives its English name of noon from that part of
the Office. More details are given of the Church's ancient law in
the chapter on " Fasting and Abstinence."

The Lenten Masses. At Masses during the Lenten season
(except those celebrated in honor of saints or on festivals) the
whole tone of the Church's ritual is penitential. The Gloria, the
joyful hymn of the angels at Bethlehem, is omitted. The Alleluias
which are said or sung at other times are replaced by the " Tract,"
which is used in nearly all the Masses after Septuagesima Sunday.
Near the end of the Mass is inserted a " Prayer over the People,"
which was originally intended for those who had not received
Holy Communion at the Mass, just as the Postcommunion was
intended for those who had.

Laetare Sunday. On the fourth Sunday of Lent the Church
has a note of joy in her liturgy. That day is called Laetare Sun
day, from the opening words of the Introit of the Mass, " Laetare,
Jerusalem. . . ." — " Rejoice, O Jerusalem, and meet together,
all ye who love her; rejoice exceedingly, ye who have been in
sorrow," etc. It is, as it were, a relaxation in the midst of
penance, a gleam of light in the gloom of the Lenten time. The
rubrics of the Church (not always observed) call for rose-colored
vestments on this day, being probably a sort of compromise be
tween the penitential purple and the lighter colors used on feasts
of joy.

Passion Sunday. This is the fifth Sunday of Lent, and is so

THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR 143

called because on it the more solemn part of the penitential
season begins and the liturgy of the Church deals more and more
with the sufferings of our Blessed Lord. To typify her increasing
sorrow, the images in our churches are veiled in wrappings of
purple, the color of penance, and remain thus covered until the
end of the services on Holy Saturday.

The Tenebrae. In cathedrals and many of our larger churches
the solemn service of Tenebrae takes place on the Wednesday,
Thursday and Friday of Holy Week, being the " anticipated "
Matins of the Divine Office of Holy Thursday, Good Friday and
Holy Saturday. With its chanting of penitential psalms, the
mournful strains of the " Lamentations " and the symbolic cere
mony of the extinguishing of lights, it well expresses the spirit
of our Church on these days of sorrow.

The lessons of the first Nocturne of the Matins are taken from
the Lamentations of the Prophet Jeremias. They are sung to a
tune which has been universally recognized as one of the most
beautiful specimens of the Church's chant. Nothing could convey
more perfectly the spirit of sorrow with which the Prophet de
scribes the desolation of Jerusalem, and nothing can better ex
press the grief of our Church mourning over the sufferings and
death of her Saviour. It is " the saddest melody within the
whole range of music."

The service is called Tenebrae (darkness) from a very remark
able ceremony — the gradual extinguishing of
candles in a triangular candlestick standing in
the sanctuary. This, in the Middle Ages, was
called the Tenebrae " hearse," which means a
harrow — from its shape and the points to which
the candles were affixed. The number of candles
used has varied at different times. Fifteen are
now required, the reason for this being that four
teen are extinguished one by one at the con
clusion of the fourteen psalms of Matins and Tenebrae Candlestick
Lauds. The six candles on the altar and the lights in the church
are likewise put out, during the chanting of the Benedictus. The

144 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

fifteenth candle, the uppermost in the Tenebrae candlestick, is
then removed and hidden behind the altar.

As the sanctuary grows darker and darker, the desolation of the
Church seems to increase. After the Benedictus comes the mourn
ful chanting of the words " Christus factus est . . . " — " Christ
was made obedient for us, even unto death," and then all is hushed
into absolute stillness. The psalm " Miserere " is recited in a
low tone, followed by a prayer; and then comes a noise, made by
the clergy with their books, symbolizing, it may be, the earth
quake at the death of our Blessed Lord. The hidden candle is
brought forth and replaced on the candlestick, as an emblem of the
Risen Saviour.

Holy Thursday. The earlier portion of the Mass of this
day resembles that of a joyful festival. When the Gloria is in
toned, the organ peals forth triumphantly, the bells of the church
are rung, and the whole service seems full of gladness. Suddenly
there comes a change. The bells and the organ are silent, and the
deepest sorrow and desolation are expressed by the remainder
of the liturgy.

At this Mass a second Host is consecrated, to be consumed
at the service on Good Friday. This is carried in a solemn pro
cession to another altar, preferably in a separate chapel, and is
there honored by the use of lights and flowers, and by relays of
adorers.

When the Mass is finished and the Blessed Sacrament has
been removed to the altar of repose, the 'sense of desolation returns
with redoubled force; The altars, symbolic of the body of
Christ, are stripped of their linens, and the clergy, while thus en
gaged, recite the antiphon, " They have parted my garments among
them, and upon my vesturs they have cast lots," with an appro
priate psalm.

This day is sometimes called Maundy Thursday, from the word
" mandatum," a command, or from " mundare," to cleanse —
reminding us of the precept of our Blessed Lord : " You ought to
wash one another's feet " — a ceremony which is seldom or never
observed in our country.

THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR 145

On this day, as described elsewhere, the solemn blessing of the
holy oils takes place in cathedral churches.

Good Friday. The altar is bare, the crucifix is veiled, the
priests wear black vestments. They suddenly prostrate them
selves before the empty tabernacle, in sorrow and self-abasement.
When they rise, the service begins. Two lessons are read,
followed by St. John's narrative of the Passion of our Lord.
Then comes the ceremony of the " Adoration of the Cross " — a
name which is sanctioned by long usage, but which is, of course,
inaccurate; for we Catholics do not adore crosses, but simply
venerate them. The veiled crucifix is taken down from the altar
and is gradually uncovered, with the threefold chanting of the
" Ecce lignum crucis " — " Behold the wood of the cross, on which
hung the salvation of the world." The clergy then remove their
shoes — an ancient sign of reverence — and, kneeling and bowing
profoundly three times, kiss the crucifix, which is placed on the
altar-steps. In our churches the laity then come to the sanctuary
rail and venerate the crucifix by devoutly kissing it.

The so-called Mass of the Pre-Sanctified on Good Friday is
not really a Mass. It is simply the priest's Communion. He
receives the Sacred Host which was consecrated the previous day
and reserved on the " altar of repose." While It is being brought
to the main altar, a beautiful hymn is sung, the " Vexilla Regis," —
("The Banners of the Cross Advance") — dating back to the
beginning of the seventh century, and composed by a certain
Venantius Fortunatus. The Sacred Host is incensed, wine and
water are put into the chalice, the Pater Noster is said, one more
prayer is recited, and then the priest receives Holy Communion.
The chalice is purified, and then, abruptly, the service ceases and
all leave the sanctuary.

Holy Saturday. There are many parts to the service of this
day. Originally these took place in the evening — not in the
morning, as we have them now. They were the ceremonial por
tion of the " vigil " of Easter. At these night-services the Church
wished to anticipate the celebration of the Resurrection of our
Lord, and also to administer Baptism to the catechumens who

i46 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

had been prepared for it. And so we have in our present Holy
Saturday liturgy the blessing of the new fire and of the paschal
candle (both types of the Saviour's Resurrection), the reading
of the prophecies, the blessing of the baptismal font, the chanting
of the litany, and the Mass.

The blessing of the new fire takes place at the door of the
church. Why? Probably because in early times, when flint and
steel were used to ignite charcoal, the door fur
nished a convenient exit for the smoke ; or because,
in some countries, the fire was obtained by means
of a lens or burning-glass. Appropriate prayers
are used, and the grains of incense to be inserted
in the paschal candle are also blessed. A pro
cession brings the new fire into the church, and
a triple candle is lighted, one branch at a time,
Triple Candle ^g Beacon chanting three times in ascending tones
"Lumen Christi "— (" The light of Christ"). This ceremony
goes back to about the twelfth century.

The blessing of the paschal candle opens with the singing of
the magnificent Eucharistic prayer, the " Exsultet " — one of the
most beautiful chants in all the Church's liturgy.
During it, the five grains of incense are fixed
into the candle — symbolical of the five wounds
<jy •••- ofains ifl our Saviour's glorified body.

36 The blessing of the font — that is, of the
baptismal water to be used during the ensuing
year, — begins with a sort of Preface, express
ing the regeneration which the waters of Baptism
bring to mankind. The paschal candle is
Pascal Candle plunged into the water three times, and the
Oil of Catechumens and the Chrism are poured into it, to sanctify
it. Before this is done, the people are sprinkled with the water,
and a portion of it is set aside to be used for the blessing of their
homes.

Why is the Mass of Holy Saturday a joyful Mass? Lent is
not over; and it would seem, at first sight, that all manifestations

THE ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR 147

of joy should be deferred until the morrow. The explanation
is this:

The Mass of Holy Saturday was originally the midnight Mass
of Easter Sunday, the conclusion of the long ceremonies of the
vigil. Hence it is that at the Gloria the bells
are rung, the organ peals, the statues and pic
tures are unveiled, and the glad Alleluias are
heard again — all intended to express the
Church's joy on the happy day of our Lord's
Resurrection. Century after century the time
of the ceremonies, and consequently of the Mass, Ppewe°k
was put earlier, until it came to pass that the nocturnal Mass of
Easter Sunday became the morning Mass of Holy Saturday.

Such are the solemn ceremonies and the beautiful symbolism
of the liturgy of Holy Week. The rites are, for the most part,
ancient — developed during many centuries, when the ritual of
the Church was carried out in its fullness in great cathedrals and
in monastic chapels. Well do they express the feelings with
which she wishes to inspire us, her children — penance and sorrow
during the Lenten time, reaching its climax on Good Friday,
because our Blessed Saviour suffered for our sins — and triumph
and exultation on the glorious feast of our Lord's Resurrection,
because " He hath risen from the dead, to die no more."

PART VI
THE SACRAMENTALS

CHAPTER XXV
THE SIGN OF THE CROSS

THE most important sacramental of our Church, and the
one most frequently used, is the sign of the cross. The
sacramentals are intended, as the Catechism tells us,
" to excite good thoughts and to increase devotion," and these
results are accomplished most effectively by this holy sign, for
whenever we use it we are reminded of the sufferings and death
of our Blessed Saviour, and thereby we are filled^ with more
fervent love, more profound gratitude and more earnest contri
tion. The sign of the cross is the symbol of our deliverance and
the emblem of the mercy of God giving redemption to sinful man.
A Summary of Our Faith. The form of words which we
use in making this sign, together with the action performed,
manifests our belief in the principal truths of our religion. We
say: "In the name" — not "names" — and thereby express our
faith in the unity of God. We mention the three Persons, the
Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost, and thus show our belief
in the Adorable Trinity. The cross itself, made with the hand,
manifests our faith in the incarnation, death and resurrection of
our Blessed Saviour, and shows that we regard Him not only as
God but as man — for that He might be able to die on the cross
it was necessary that He should possess a human nature. Thus
we have in this brief formula a summary of the most important
articles of our faith. And the sign of the cross is more than this.
It is a prayer to God, made in the name of our Mediator Jesus

148

THE SACRAMENTALS 149

Christ, Who has declared : " If you ask the Father anything
in My name, He will give it unto you."

How the Sign is Made. The making of the sign of the cross
is a very ancient practice. It probably goes back to Apostolic
times, and was in common use in the second century. Among
the early Christians it was usually made very small, by a slight
movement of the finger or thumb, on the forehead or breast.
In the days of persecution the faith of the Christian had to be
concealed, and any more conspicuous sign would have put him
in danger of death.

The devotion to the sign of the cross in those distant days is
attested by many writers. They tell us that it was used by the
more devout on every occasion. No work was begun without
invoking God's blessing by this holy sign. The triple sign of
the cross was employed very commonly in the early centuries of
the Church and in the Middle Ages. It is not used at present
except at the beginning of the Gospels at Mass. It is made by
marking the forehead, the lips and the breast with a small cross,
using the thumb, and is intended to remind us that our intellect
must be attentive to the Word of God, our lips ready to announce
His truths, and our hearts filled with love toward Him.

The ordinary method of making the sign of the cross is that
which every Catholic learns in early childhood — the putting of
the right hand to the forehead, to the breast and to the left and
the right shoulder, with the words : " In the name of the Father,
and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost. Amen." In past cen
turies the formula varied greatly. " The sign of Christ." —
" The seal of the living God."— " In the name of Jesus."—" In
the name of the Holy Trinity." — " Our help is in the name of the
Lord," etc., were used. One of these old forms," Oh God, come
to my assistance," is still in use at the beginning of Vespers and
in other parts of the Divine Office.

As we shall see further on, important indulgences are to be
gained by the sign of the cross, but only when it is made cor
rectly and devoutly.

In the Church's Liturgy. This is not only the greatest but

150 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

the most frequently used of all the sacramentals. No ceremony
is performed without it. When a priest is ordained, his hands
are anointed with holy oil to give them the power to confer bless
ings by the sign of the cross. In the administration of all the
sacraments this holy sign is used at least once, and in some of
them it is employed many times. In the ceremonies of Baptism
it is made fourteen times ; in Extreme Unction, seventeen times.

When holy water is blessed, the sign of the cross is made over
it twelve times. In the reciting of the Office by the clergy it is
prescribed a great number of times. And especially in the Holy
Mass we have all noticed that the celebrant makes the sign of
the cross very frequently, but it may not be generally known that
he does so no less than fifty-one times — signing himself, the book,
the altar, the bread and wine, and even the Sacred Host and the
Precious Blood after the consecration.

The Indulgences. Has the Church granted any indulgences
for the sign of the cross? She has. In 1863 Pope Pius IX gave
Ian indulgence of fifty days to all who make that sacred sign and
say: "In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the
Holy Ghost. Amen." An indulgence of one hundred days is
given if holy water is used when the sign of the cross is made.

This holy symbol of our salvation, then, should be frequently
used by us. It teaches us our true dignity. It reminds us that
we are the brethren of Jesus Christ. In making the sign of the
cross we become partakers in the wonderful history of our faith,
and companions of the glorious saints of our Church. We are
soldiers, and this is our weapon. The cross of our Redeemer has
vanquished death, has overthrown the dominion of Satan. Let
us, then, re-echo the words of St. Paul: " God forbid that I
should glory save in the Cross of our Lord Jesus Christ."

CHAPTER XXVI
THE CROSS AND THE CRUCIFIX

THE cross is one of the most important of Christian emblems.
It is the distinguishing mark of every edifice that is set apart for

THE SACRAMENTALS 151

Catholic worship, education and charity. Bearing the image of
our crucified Saviour, it stands upon the altar on which the
Sacrifice of Calvary is continued throughout the ages; because
He ennobled and sanctified it when He died on it for the salva
tion of mankind.

It may be well to state that there is a difference between a
cross and a crucifix. A cross is a crucifix only when it bears the
image of our Lord's sacred Body. A cross without an image is
simply a cross ; a cross with an image is a crucifix.

The Cross Among Pagans. Among many nations the cross
was in use for the execution of criminals. The most ancient
practice was to hang the condemned person on a tree, either by
nails or ropes; and this led to the employing of two pieces of
timber for the same purpose. Our Blessed Redeemer was put to
death in the cruel manner that was customary among the Romans
for the execution of slaves and degraded criminals — namely, by
being fastened to the cross with large nails driven through the
hands and feet, the arms being extended on the transverse beam
of the cross. The barbarity of scourging before the
crucifixion, and the compelling of the condemned suf
ferer to carry his cross were all in keeping with the cruel
Roman character.

It is remarkable that the cross, although an instru
ment of torture, was held in religious honor among
pagan nations and was regarded as possessing ex- swastika
traordinary sanctity. The most ancient form was the
" swastika," emblematic of the revolutions of the sun
and consequently a symbol of life. In Egypt and
Assyria the cross typified creative power, and many of Ansated
the pictures and statues of the gods of those countries Egyptian
represent them carrying in their hands the " crux ansata," or cross
with a handle, which was possibly a symbol of the productive
powers of Nature.

The Buddhist sects of India regarded the cross as an emblem
of immortality, a sign of the life to come. The early explorers
of Mexico and Peru found numerous crosses among the carvings

t

i52 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

in the heathen temples of those newly-discovered lands. The
crosses found in these pagan regions are all modifications of the
symbol referred to above, emblematic of Nature and her forces.
Although there is no real connection between these pagan crosses
and the sacred Christian symbol, it is curious that among these
heathen the same sign should typify earthly life which among
Christians denotes spiritual and eternal life.

When Christianity had spread throughout the Roman world,
the cross became everywhere an emblem of faith, an object of
religious veneration, and one of the most common ornaments.
The Church made both the cross and the crucifix sacramentals,
by establishing formulas for blessing them — thus setting them
apart as objects intended to inspire us with faith and devotion.

The True Cross. What became of the cross on which our
Saviour died? The legend of the Finding of the True Cross is
of great antiquity, and the event is commemorated by the Church
on the third of May. The details may possibly have been added
to in later ages, but the important facts rest on very good au
thority, namely, that of Saints Ambrose, Chrysostom and Cyril
of Jerusalem.

The story is as follows: The pious Empress Helena, the
mother of Constantine the Great, in the year 326 made a pil
grimage to Jerusalem. She was then seventy-nine years of age.
When she reached the Holy City she caused excavations to be
made on Mount Calvary, and at a considerable depth found three
crosses, and, lying apart, the tablet bearing the inscription placed
by Pilate's command on the cross of Christ. There seemed to be
no means of knowing the cross on which our Saviour died ; but
at the suggestion of Macarius, bishop of Jerusalem, the three
crosses were applied in turn to a sick woman, and at the touch
of one of them she was immediately and miraculously cured.

The upright beam of the cross was kept in Jerusalem, and the
other was carried to Constantinople; and a large portion of this
was afterwards sent to Rome, where it was preserved in the
Church of Santa Croce. Tradition states that the portion left at
Constantinople was taken to Paris in the thirteenth century, by

THE SACRAMENTALS 153

St. Louis, king of France. The part left at Jerusalem was carried
away by the Persians under Chosroes II, after they had captured
that city. It was recovered by the Emperor Heraclius in 628,
but only nine years later the Saracens took Jerusalem, and since
that time there is no further mention of that portion of the True
Cross.

The Nails. There is considerable difference of opinion as to
whether three or four nails were used in the crucifixion of our
Blessed Saviour. Various representations show sometimes two
nails in His feet, sometimes only one. In certain pictures the feet
are supported on a block of wood, a " suppedaneum," or foot-rest.
It is chiefly in the later pictures that the feet of our Lord are
shown crossed and fastened with one nail.

These nails have a legendary history of their own. One is said
to have been cast into the Adriatic Sea by the Empress Helena
when she was returning from Palestine, whereby a storm was
quelled that had menaced the ship with destruction. A second
nail was placed among the jewels of the royal crown of Con-
stantine ; another is said to be preserved in the cathedral of Milan,
and a fourth at Treves.

It is hardly necessary to say, that these and many other poetic
legends concerning holy things and persons are not articles of
faith. We may believe them ; we are not obliged to do so. They
may be wholly or partly true, or they may be wholly or partly
the product of the fervid imagination of some medieval romancer.
We recognize their beauty, but we do not thereby oblige ourselves
to believe them.

It is possible, however, that many of the " fragments of the
True Cross " which are preserved and venerated in various places
are genuine, as its discovery is probably a historical event, being
fairly well authenticated, and it is likely that so great a relic
would be kept and guarded with considerable care.

Some Varieties of Crosses. The form of crosses has been
modified in different countries, and there are several distinct
varieties. In some places the cross used for executions was in
the form of the letter T — sometimes called the Tau cross, from

154 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Greek

St. Andrew

Ythe Greek letter. The ordinary cross, such as is gen
erally shown in representations of our Saviour's cruci-
Tau fixion is the " crux capitata," or headed cross, also
known as a Latin cross, and tradition tells us that this

l| was the form used on that momentous occasion.

When the four limbs of the cross are of equal length
we have a Greek cross, so called because it was largely
used in medieval Greek architecture. A cross in the
form of the letter X is known as St. Andrew's, that
Apostle having been crucified on one of that descrip
tion. A cross with four equal limbs of spreading or
triangular form is a Maltese cross, so called because
it was the badge of the military and religious order of
the Knights of Malta. If the arms of a cross are con
nected by a circle it forms the well-known Celtic cross,
of which many ancient specimens may be seen in Ire
land. A cross with two cross-bars is variously known
as an archiepiscopal or patriarchal cross, because it is
used in the heraldic arms of these higher prelates.
There are also other variations, due to the ingenuity
of artists and architects.

The Cross in Christian Art. Throughout the
whole range of religious art, particularly in the

t Middle Ages, the cross has exercised a most powerful
influence. The ground upon which the grandest
churches were erected was made to assume a cross-
Latin shaped form, so that the very walls from their foun
dations upward might show that sacred sign. Crosses, exhibiting
an endless variety of form and ornament, surmounted the lofty
spires and gables of cathedrals and churches, and were used pro
fusely for the interior adornment of these temples of God.

When Protestantism arose, the fury of its leaders was often
times directed against the crosses which they regarded as a symbol
of Popery, and they accordingly tore them down from the
Catholic churches which they seized and devoted to their own
worship — placing over them, instead, a weather-vane, fitting

Celtic

THE SACRAMENTALS

155

emblem of that inconstancy and uncertainty which are " blown
about with every wind of doctrine." In recent years a better
spirit is manifesting itself towards the sacred symbol of our
salvation, and crosses are appearing on and in some Protestant
churches.

But among Catholics the cross has always been held in honor.
It appears on the lofty gable of the church and on the summit
of the tapering spire rising far into the sky, as if to announce to
all that " this is none other than the house of God and the gate
of heaven." Crosses are cut into the masonry and corner-stone
to attest the consecration of the edifice to Christian worship.
They are graven in the altar-stone, five in number, to symbolize
the five wounds of our Blessed Lord, to bear witness to the
sacrificial purpose to which the altar is dedi
cated. They are placed over the tombs of all,
noble and lowly, to proclaim that each of the
dead has died in the faith of Christ.

The Crucifix. The representation of our
Saviour nailed to the cross is one of the impor
tant sacramentals of our holy religion. The
Church requires the crucifix to be placed over
the altar \vhere Mass is to be offered, and during
the Holy Sacrifice the priest bows his head
toward it several times. It is also used in solemn ceremonies in
the form of a processional cross, being carried at the head of the
line of the clergy. As explained elsewhere in the
account of the ceremonies of Holy Week, the cruci
fixes in our churches are veiled from Passion Sunday
to Good Friday as a sign of sorrow; and after the
unveiling the clergy and laity devoutly kiss the feet
of our Blessed Lord, to express their gratitude for
His infinite mercy and love.

The faithful are urged to keep prominently before
them in their homes the figure of their crucified Lord,
and the same blessed symbol is generally attached to the rosary
which every fervent Catholic possesses and uses.

Processional Cross

Crucifix

156 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

A very special indulgence has been granted to all who, after a
worthy Communion, recite on their knees before a crucifix or a
picture of our crucified Lord the prayer beginning " O good and
most sweet Jesus, before Thy face I kneel," which may be found
in prayer-books of recent date. This is a plenary indulgence,
applicable to the souls in Purgatory, and is about the easiest to
obtain of all those granted by the Church.

Above the head of the figure of our Saviour a scroll or board
is attached to every crucifix, bearing the letters I. N. R. I. This
is called the " title," and represents the inscription affixed to the
cross of our Lord by order of Pilate. What is the meaning of
the letters? They are the initials of the words " lesus Naza-
renus, Rex ludaeorum " — " Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews."
Sometimes a skull and bones are shown at the bottom — the
Hebrew name of Calvary (Golgotha) meaning " the place of the
skull," probably because it was a burial-ground for those who were
put to death there.

CHAPTER XXVII
HOLY WATER

IT is interesting to note how often our Church has availed
herself of practices which were in common use among pagans,
and which owed their origin to their appropriateness for express
ing something spiritual by material means. The Church and her
clergy are " all things to all men, that they may gain all for
Christ," and she has often found that it was well to take what
was praiseworthy in other forms of worship and adapt it to her
own purposes, for the sanctification of her children. Thus it is
true, in a certain sense, that some Catholic rites and ceremonies
are a reproduction of those of pagan creeds; but they are the
taking of what was best from paganism, the keeping of sym
bolical practices which express the religious instinct that is com
mon to all races and times.

Holy water, as our catechisms taught us, is " water blessed by

THE SACRAMENTALS 157

the priest with solemn prayer, to beg God's blessing on those who
use it, and protection from the powers of darkness."

A Symbol of Interior Cleansing. Water is the natural ele
ment for cleansing, and hence its use was common in almost every
ancient faith, to denote interior purification. Among the Greeks
and Romans the sprinkling of water, or " lustration," was an
important feature of religious ceremonies. Cities were purified
by its use, in solemn processions. Fields were prepared for
planting by being blessed with water. Armies setting out for
war were put under the protection of the gods by being sprinkled
in a similar manner. Among the Egyptians the use of holy water
was even more common, the priests being required to bathe in it
twice every day and twice every night, that they might thereby
be sanctified for their religious duties. The Brahmins and others
of the far Orient, and even the Indians of our own continent,
have always attached great importance to ceremonial purification
by means of water.

Among the Jews the sprinkling of the people, the sacrifices, the
sacred vessels, etc., was enjoined by the regulations laid down
by Moses in the books of Exodus and Leviticus; and it was un
doubtedly from these practices of the Mosaic law that our Church
took many of the details of her ritual in regard to holy water.

When YTas It Introduced? The use of holy water in
Catholic Churches goes back possibly to Apostolic times. There
is a tradition that St. Matthew recommended it in order thereby
to attract converts from Judaism by using a rite with which they
were familiar in their former faith. However, we have no cer
tainty that he introduced it, but we know that it can be traced
back nearly to the beginning of our religion. It is mentioned
in a letter ascribed by some to Pope Alexander I, and supposed to
have been written in the year 117; but the genuineness of this
letter is very doubtful. We find a detailed account of its use,
however, in the " Pontifical of Serapion," in the fourth century,
and the formula of blessing mentioned therein has considerable
resemblance to that used at the present day.

The Asperges. The blessing of water before the High Mass

158 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Sprinkler.

on Sunday and the sprinkling of the congregation with it, which
ceremony is called the " Asperges," goes back to the time of Pope
Leo IV, in the ninth century, and possibly even
further. The word Asperges is the opening
word of a verse of Psalm 50, which is recited
by the priest as follows : " Thou shalt sprinkle
me with hyssop, O Lord, and I shall be
cleansed; Thou shalt wash me, and I shall be
made whiter than snow."

The custom of placing holy water at the
door of the church for the use of the faithful
Holy Water Vessel [s still more ancient> Among the Jews a cere
mony of purification was required before entering the Temple to
assist at the sacrifices, and this undoubtedly suggested the Catholic
practice of using holy water at the church door.
It is said to have been in vogue in the second
century, and we know that it is at least of very
ancient date.

In the Middle Ages it was customary to use
holy water when entering the church, but not
when leaving it — the idea being that purifica
tion was necessary before entering the house of
God, but that after assisting at the Holy Sacrifice

Holy Water Font . , . , TT , ,

it was no longer needed. However, the general
practice now is to take it both on entering and departing, and this
is to be recommended for the reason that the Church has attached
indulgences to its use, and these may be gained every time it is
taken.

The Kinds of Holy Water. Often a priest is asked : " Is
Easter water the same as the other holy water? " The answer
is that it has the same uses, but is blessed in a different manner
and at a different time. There are four distinct kinds of holy
water. The first kind is baptismal water, which is blessed on
Holy Saturday, and may also be blessed on the eve of Pentecost.
This water receives a special and solemn blessing, and the holy
oils consecrated on Holy Thursday are mingled with it. It is

THE SACRAMENTALS 159

used only for the administration of the sacrament of Baptism.
Water which has been thus blessed is the only licit matter for
solemn Baptism. However, the Sacrament is valid if merely
ordinary water is used, and in " private Baptism " the latter is
lawful as well as valid.

The second kind is " water of consecration," or " Gregorian
water," so called because its use was ordered by Pope Gregory
IX. It is used by bishops in consecrating churches, and in its
blessing it has wine, ashes and salt mingled with it.

The third kind is the so-called Easter water, which is distributed
to the people on Holy Saturday. A part of this water is used
for the filling of the baptismal font, to be blessed as baptismal
water and to receive the holy oils; and the remainder is given to
the faithful to be taken to their homes. In Catholic countries,
and in some parishes in our own, this water is used by the clergy
for the solemn blessing of houses on Holy Saturday.

The fourth and most common kind is the holy water which
is blessed by the priest for the sprinkling of the people before
Mass, and is placed at the doors of the church. This also may
be taken home and used for the blessing of persons and things.

Thus the only varieties of holy water that directly concern
the faithful are the water blessed on Holy Saturday for them,
and that obtainable at any time at the church. They have the
same value and the same uses, although the formula of blessing
is different.

The Blessing of Holy Water. When holy water is blessed,
the priest reads several prayers, which include an exorcism of
the salt and the water. An exorcism is the banishing of evil
spirits. The Fathers of the Church teach us that when Satan
caused the fall of our first parents he also obtained an influence
over inanimate things intended for the use of man; and therefore,
when any material object is to be devoted to the service of God,
the Church often prescribes for it a form of exorcism, to free it
from the power of the Evil One.

The prayers used in this ceremony are very beautiful, and ex
press well the reasons for the use of holy water. Those said

160 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

over the salt invoke the power of " the living God, the true God,
the holy God," that whosoever uses it may have health of soul
and body; that the devil may depart from any place in which
it is sprinkled; that whoever is touched by it shall be sanctified,
and freed from all uncleanness and all attacks of the powers of
darkness. The prayers said over the water are addressed to the
Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost, that through the power of
the Blessed Trinity the spirits of evil may be utterly expelled
from this world and lose all influence over mankind. Then God
is besought to bless the water, that it may be effective in driving
out devils and in curing diseases; that wherever it is sprinkled
there may be freedom from pestilence and from the snares of
Satan.

Then the priest puts the salt into the water in the form of a
threefold cross, saying: "May this mingling of salt and water
be made in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the
Holy Ghost " — after which another prayer is recited, in which
God is asked to sanctify this salt and water, that wherever it
shall be sprinkled all evil spirits shall be driven away and the Holy
Spirit shall be present.

The Meaning of the Salt Why does the Church use salt in
holy water? Because it was a Jewish custom, and because of the
symbolical meaning of salt. Just as water is used for cleansing
and for quenching fire, so salt is used to preserve from decay.
Therefore the Church combines them in this sacramental, to ex
press the various reasons why it is used — to help to wash away
the stains of sin, to quench the fire of our passions, to preserve us
from relapses into sin. Moreover, salt is regarded as a symbol
of wisdom. Our Lord called His Apostles " the salt of the
earth," because by them the knowledge of the Gospel was to be
spread over the world. The custom of using salt is a very
ancient one, and is traced by some to the second or third century.
The Liturgical Uses of Holy Water. Holy Water is used
in the blessing of nearly everything which the Church wishes to
sanctify. The Ritual contains hundreds of distinct benedictions
in which it is used. Besides the pouring of baptismal water

THE SACRAMENTALS 161

which forms the " matter " of the Sacrament of Baptism, the
sprinkling with holy water is a part of the ceremonies of Matri
mony, of Extreme Unction and of the administration of the Holy
Eucharist to the sick; and it is employed also in services for the
dead.

The Asperges, or sprinkling of the congregation on Sunday,
has a mystical meaning of its own. It renews every Sunday the
memory of Baptism, by which we have been sanctified and purified
from sin; and it is intended also to drive away all distractions
which might hinder us from the proper hearing of Mass. It is
well to remember that the holy w^ater need not actually touch
every person in the congregation. The whole assembled body of
the faithful is blessed together, and all receive the benefit of the
blessing, even though the holy water may not reach each indi
vidual.

How We Should Use It. Holy water should be used fre
quently. There is an indulgence of one hundred days every time
it is taken. This indulgence was renewed by Pius IX in 1876,
and in order to gain it there are three requirements: The sign
of the cross must be made with the holy water, the person must
have contrition for his sins, and he must say the words: " In the
name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost."

Stand at the door of any church and watch the people who
enter. Do many of them gain the indulgence? They dip their
fingers into the water, make a mysterious motion in the air, and
pass along. There is no recollection, no audible words, no recog
nizable sign of the cross — merely an action performed through
habit and in a very slovenly manner. None of the above re
quirements are fulfilled. Bear in mind that while the use of
holy water in any way may be beneficial, to gain the indulgence
it is necessary to make the sign of the cross, to say the usual words,
and to have in our hearts a spirit of true contrition.

162 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

CHAPTER XXVIII
VESTMENTS

MAN'S nature is such that he needs external helps to assist him
in fixing his attention on sacred things. We are all impressed
to a remarkable degree by " pomp and circumstance." A king
on his throne, clad in his royal robes, holding his sceptre and
wearing his jeweled crown, is an imposing sight; all these acces
sories indicate his dignity and help us to realize his greatness.
The same king without these trappings of royalty would possibly
be a very insignificant object.

For this reason it has been customary in every age and country
to invest those holding any position of dignity or practising certain
avocations with some uniform or badge, by which their rank and
duties are designated. The soldier wrears his uniform, by which
he is distinguished from the ordinary citizen. The policeman,
the fireman, the railway employee, each has his special garb,
marking him as set apart for some definite work.

This is done for a twofold purpose — that others may respect
and obey him as far as is necessary, and that he may respect
himself and be more conscious of his duties and more attentive to
them, on account of the uniform he wears. This is even more
true of the religious garb. The priest wears it that he may be
thereby distinguished from other men, and that he himself may be
always reminded by it that he is " taken from among men to offer
sacrifices and holocausts for them " — to be a mediator between
the Almighty and His creatures.

In every religion since the world began, the practice has been
in vogue of wearing some form of vestment. The priest has had
a distinctive dress, whether he was an uncouth " medicine-man "
of some barbarous tribe, an augur of pagan Rome, or a priest of
the Hebrew Jehovah. Here, as in many other cases, our Church
has shown her wisdom by making use of a meritorious feature of
other religions.

A Sacramental of the Church. The word " vestment " is

THE SACRAMENTALS 163

from the Latin, and signifies simply clothing, but it is now used
generally to denote the garments worn by the ministers of re
ligion in the performance of their sacred duties.

Vestments are a sacramental — that is, they are set apart and
blessed by the Church to excite good thoughts and to increase
devotion in those who see and those who use them. They are
the uniform of the priest when he is " on duty," while he is
exercising the functions of his ministry and using the sacred
powers which he received at his ordination.

Among the Jews. Under the Jewish law every detail of the
vestments used in the worship of God was provided for by divine
command. The garb of the highpriest and his assistants was
specified most minutely as to material and form, and observance
of these rules was enjoined under the severest penalties. The
veneration of the Jewish people for the vestments of the high-
priest was so great that they kept a lamp constantly burning before
the repository of the sacred robes, just as we do now before the
Blessed Sacrament.

When Christianity arose, no divine command was given con
cerning the dress to be worn by the priests of God. This was
left to the judgment of the heads of the Church, and in the dif
ferent ages of her history many changes have been made in the
number and form and material of the priestly vestments.

There is no record of any special form of them during the first
four centuries. It is probable that the garb of the clergy in those
times was the common dress of laymen. The outer garments
worn by men of those days were long and flowing, a modified form
of the old Roman toga; and consequently the vestments used in
the divine service took the same general form. Gradually the
custom was introduced of making them of rich and costly ma
terials, to add greater beauty thereby to the rites of religion.
When the hardy barbarians of the North had overwhelmed the
luxurious nations of southern Europe and had brought in their
own fashions of dress, the Church did not see fit to change the
garb of her ministers as worn at the services of her ritual, but she
permitted them to change their ordinary dress to some extent, and

1 64 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

forbade them to wear their vestments except while officiating at
sacred rites.

Colors of the Vestments. The Church ordinarily permits the
use of five colors in the sacred vestments — white, red, green,
violet and black. Rose-colored vestments are prescribed (when
obtainable) at the solemn Mass on the third Sunday in Advent
and the fourth in Lent. Gold may be used as a substitute for
white, red or green.

Each of these colors has its own meaning. The Sacrifice of
the Mass is offered for many purposes and in honor of many
classes of saints; and these various purposes are all designated
and symbolized by the color of the vestments which the Church
prescribes for each Mass.

When are these colors used? When the Church wishes to
denote purity, innocence or glory, she uses white; that is, on the
feasts of our Lord and -of the Blessed Virgin, on the festivals of
angels and of all saints who were not martyrs. Red is the color
of fire and of blood; it is used in Masses of the Holy Ghost,
such as on Pentecost, to remind us of the tongues of fire — and
on the feasts of all saints who shed their blood for their faith.
The purple or violet is expressive of penance; it is used during
Lent and Advent (except on saints' days), and also on the sorrow
ful festival of the Holy Innocents. Black is the color of mourn
ing for the dead; it is worn at all Masses of Requiem for the
departed, and also on Good Friday. Green is
the color which denotes the growth and increase
of our holy Church, and is also symbolic of hope;
it is used at various times of the year, on days
that are not saints' days.

A Priest's Vestments. The black gown of
the priest, called a cassock or soutane, is not a
vestment. It is simply the ordinary outer garb
of a cleric, and in Catholic countries it is worn
Cassock on the street as well as indoors.

The biretta, or cap, is also not a part of the vestments, although
it must be worn when the priest is going to and coming from

THE SACRAMENTALS

165

Biretta

the altar, and while he is seated at certain parts of the service.

This peculiarly shaped head-covering has a history of its own. It

was originally a brimless soft cap of medium

height. In putting this on and taking it off it

became indented into folds by the fingers; after

a time these folds were so sewn that they made

a convenient wing or handle. As the right hand

is used mostly for removing one's hat, the biretta often has no fold

on the left side — although in some parts of Europe four-winged

birettas are commonly used. The top is often ornamented with a

" pompon " or a tassel.

The vestments worn by the priest at Mass are as follows:
The amice, the alb, the cincture, the maniple, the stole and the
chasuble; and at certain other services he uses the cope, the
humeral veil and the surplice. Each of these has its own history
and its own symbolical meaning, expressed in
the prayers which the priest recites when he is
putting on the vestments.

The Amice. When a priest begins to
" vest " for Mass, he first puts on an amice.
This is an oblong piece of white linen, with
strings attached by which it is fastened into place around the
shoulders. It has been worn in the Mass since about the year
800, and takes its name from the Latin amictus, a wrapper. It
was formerly worn covering the head, and cer
tain religious orders still use it in this manner
until the beginning of the Mass. It is looked
upon as a symbol of a helmet, by which the priest
is protected against the assaults of Satan.

The Alb. The long linen gown worn by the
priest is called the alb, meaning simply the
white garment. The lower part of it is fre
quently made of lace. It is a survival of the white
Roman toga. As the vesting prayers tell us, its Alb

white color denotes the necessity of purity, both of soul and body, in
him who offers the Immaculate Lamb of God to the Eternal Father.

Amice

1 66 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Cincture

The Cincture. This is the proper name for the girdle worn
around the waist to bind the alb closely to the body. In some
countries it is of the same color as the vestments
used, but among us it is generally white. It is made
of braided linen, or sometimes of wool, and is symbolic
of continence, according to the prayer which the priest
says while putting it on : " Gird me, O Lord, with
t^le &r^G °^ Purity> and extinguish in me all con
cupiscence."

The Maniple. We now come to the vestments
which vary in color from day to day, according to the object for
which the Mass is offered or the saint who is honored in it.
A small vestment of peculiar shape is worn by the priest on his
left arm. This is the maniple, and it was originally
nothing more nor less than a handkerchief; but it has
been so changed in form that it is now merely an or
nament.

The word maniple is from the Latin " manipulum,"
which has various meanings — something carried in
the hand, a small bundle, a handkerchief, a sheaf of grain; and
therefore this vestment is considered as symbolical of good works.
It is the special badge of the order of subdeaconship, and is not
used by those in lower orders.

The Stole. At. Mass, and also in nearly every other religious
function, the priest wears around his neck a long
narrow vestment, the ends hanging down in front.
When used at Mass, these ends are crossed. The
deacon at a solemn Mass wears a similar vestment,
but in a different manner — diagonally from his
left shoulder to his right side. The stole came
into use about the fourth century, and was or
iginally a sort of robe or cloak; but its form was
gradually modified until it became a narrow strip
of cloth. It is said by some to have been the court
uniform of Roman judges, and to have been adopted by the
Church to denote the authority of her ministers. According to

Maniple

Stole

THE SACRAMENTALS

167

Chasuble

the vesting prayer, it symbolizes immortality, and also the yoke of
obedience under which the priest exercises his office.

The Chasuble. The most conspicuous part
of the costume of the priest at Mass is the
chasuble, the large vestment worn on the
shoulders and hanging down in front and
behind. The rear portion is often, though not
always, ornamented with a large cross.

The word chasuble is from the late Latin
" casula," a little house, because it is, as it were,
a shelter for the priest. It is considered as a
symbol of protection, of preservation from evil
— a spiritual suit of armor.

This vestment has been greatly altered during the centuries
of its history. It was originally a large mantle or cloak, with an
opening for the head in the centre, and had to be raised at the sides
to allow the hands to be extended outside the cloak. The assist
ants at the Mass were obliged to help the priest by holding up
the sides of the chasuble, and a trace of this practice may be
noticed still in solemn Masses, where the deacon and subdeacon
ceremoniously hold the edges of the priest's chasuble, although
there is no longer any need of their assistance.

The Cope and Veil. The cope, used at the Asperges before a
high Mass and at many solemn functions of the Church, was
originally worn only in outdoor processions,
and was considered merely as a rain-cloak, as
is shown by its Latin name, pluviale, a pro
tection against rain. The cape attached to it,
which now has no use whatever, is a reminder
of the large hood formerly used to cover the
head in stormy weather. Our English name,
cope, is from the Latin " cappa," a cape.

The humeral veil is worn on the shoulders
of the priest at the Benediction of the Blessed
Sacrament when he holds the Sacred Host for the blessing of the
people, and also when he carries the Blessed Sacrament in pro-

Cope

i68 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Humeral Veil

Surplice

cession. This veil is also used by the sub-
deacon in solemn Masses.

The Surplice. It may be well also to say
a word about this vestment, which is worn over
the cassock at the administration of the Sacra
ments and at various services of the Church. It is the special
garb of clerics not in sacred orders, and its use is tolerated for
lay altar-boys, or acolytes, in our churches.

In its present form it is one of the most
modern of vestments. The word surplice is
from the Latin " superpellicium " — a dress
worn over furs. In the Middle Ages it was
allowed to the monks in cold countries to have
fur garments, and over these a linen gown was
worn in choir. It was later considered prac
tically as an alb, and in the twelfth century it
was usually so long that it reached the feet. Gradually it was
made shorter, and about the seventeenth century the custom began
of ornamenting it with lace.

The Tunic and the Dalmatic. The tunic
is the vestment of subdeacons, the dalmatic of
deacons. They are usually exactly alike, al
though, strictly speaking, the tunic should be
of smaller size than the dalmatic. Each is of
about the same length as the chasuble of the
priest. These vestments hang from the shoul
ders, which are covered by projecting flaps;
these are sometimes connected under the arms, so as to resemble
short sleeves. The color, of course, varies according to the Mass,
and on the back are usually two ornamental vertical stripes, but
no cross.

A tunic signifies simply an outer garment. The dalmatic
gets its name from a Roman garment made of wool from the
province of Dalmatia, worn under the outer clothing in ancient
times.

The tunic, according to the words used in conferring it at an

Dalmatic

THE SACRAMENTALS 169

ordination, signifies joy, while the dalmatic is looked upon as an
emblem of righteousness and charity.

The Broad Stole. During the Lenten season, at High Masses,
the deacon is directed by the rubrics to wear a broad stole, cover
ing his other stole, instead of the usual dalmatic. This broad
stole was not originally a stole at all ; it was a folded chasuble —
for, some centuries ago, the deacon wore a chasuble at Lenten
Masses instead of a dalmatic, and was directed to take it off
and fold it early in the Mass, putting it on again over his shoulder
and wearing it thus during the chanting of the Gospel. For
convenience, this folded chasuble was later replaced by a stole-like
vestment, as we have it now.

The Vestments of a Bishop. These are numerous, and each
has its own interesting history and its own symbolic meaning.
The bishops are the links in the Apostolic chain, the pastors of
Christ's flock, the principal laborers in His vineyard. All the
dignity which a bishop has by virtue of his office, and all the quali
ties which he should have to be worthy of his exalted position, are
symbolized by the chief insignia which he is privileged to use.

The Mitre. This is the distinguishing mark of the episcopal
office — a tall double-pointed cap, probably of Oriental origin,
which can be traced back to pagan times; at least, something very
similar was worn by kings in Persia and Assyria long before the
Christian era. As an ecclesiastical vestment it
came into general use about the year uoo,
although some form of tall and dignified head
dress was worn considerably earlier. The
present double or cleft form was evolved grad
ually; it was at first low and concave, and was
subsequently increased in height and more
richly ornamented. Its two points or horns
symbolize the Old and New Testaments,
which the bishop is supposed to explain to his
people.

The Crosier. This, the bishop's pastoral staff, is, of course, not
a vestment, but may be mentioned here. It typifies his duties as

170 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

shepherd of the flock. It is a copy of the shepherd's crook, used
for the guidance and restraining of the sheep, and has been looked
upon as the special badge of the episcopal office since the fifth cen
tury at least, and is so mentioned in the ritual of a bishop's conse
cration. It signifies his power to sustain the weak, to confirm the
wavering, and to lead back the erring. The upper part is often
very beautifully moulded and enriched with images and symbolic
ornaments.

The Ring. On the third finger of a bishop's right hand he
wears a large ring — a custom traceable to about the year 600.
It was a signet ring originally, but is now considered as a symbol
of faith or fidelity.

The Rochet. A vestment somewhat like a
surplice, but with closely fitting sleeves, is
worn by the bishop at certain functions.
This is called a rochet, from a late Latin
word meaning a coat. It is made of white
linen, and is usually ornamented with lace.
When a bishop is celebrating a pontifical
Mass, he is attired in three vestments —
the chasuble of the priest, the dalmatic of
the deacon and the tunic of the subdeacon,
to signify that in his episcopal office all the various orders find
their culmination and perfection. The last two vestments are
necessarily made of thin material, so as not to
be cumbersome.

The Cappa Magna. A long cope with a
hood, the latter being lined with silk or fur,
may be worn by the bishop at solemn functions.
This is called the cappa magna — a large cope.
The Pectoral Cross. Attached to a chain
which he wears around his neck is a cross of
precious metal, which hangs on his breast, and
Cappa Magna thence derives its name, from the Latin pectus,
the breast. This badge of the episcopacy came into use about the
twelfth century.

Rochet

THE SACRAMENTALS

171

Bishop's
Glove

r

Gloves, Sandals, etc. At a bishop's consecration, gloves are
blessed for him and placed on his hands. The practice of wear
ing them as a part of his vestments began probably
about the eleventh century. They are worn only
at a pontifical Mass, and then only to the washing
of the hands. They are made of knitted silk, and
are ornamented on the backs with crosses. They
vary in color according to the Mass celebrated, but
are not used in Requiem Masses.

At a pontifical Mass the bishop also wears stock
ings which are of woven silk and conform in color to the vest
ments, and low-heeled shoes called sandals, likewise of the litur
gical color.

When he is seated during a Mass, or when ^j) ^

he is conferring sacred orders, a sort of apron,
called a gremiale, is laid upon his lap. Its
original purpose was to keep his garments
from being soiled; but after a time it became
a vestment and is often adorned with gold
lace and other ornaments.

A bishop's cassock varies in color according to the occasion.
On penitential days it is black with purple silk trimmings ; but on
other days he wears a purple cassock, called a choir cassock,
with crimson trimmings, at church functions, and an ordinary
cassock, of black with red trimmings and with
out train, on other occasions.

Over his cassock he wears a short cape, bear
ing the Italian name of mozzetta, buttoned over
the breast and provided with a small hood.

Such, then, is a brief account of many of
the ecclesiastical vestments which our Church
prescribes for her prelates and other clergy in
the functions of her liturgy, and of the garb which, at other
times, points them out as " set apart." We should reverence
these things, for many of them are true sacramentals of our
Church ; and when we see them, we should endeavor to remember

Gremiale

Mozzetta

172 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

the dignity which God has given to their wearers, and the sym
bolism by which these consecrated garments set before us the
virtues which He wishes His bishops and priests to manifest in ful
filling the duties of their holy and exalted state.

CHAPTER XXIX
THE STATIONS OF THE CROSS

IN every Catholic church there are pictured representations of
various events in the Passion of our Blessed Lord. These enable
the faithful to accompany our Redeemer, as it were, on that sor
rowful journey which began at the house of Pilate and ended at
the sepulchre. The whole devotion is replete with sorrow, with
penitential love towards Him who gave His life on the cross of
Calvary for our salvation.

The Origin of the Stations. In the early days of the Church,
when the spirit of faith was strong in the souls of Christians, no
hardship was deemed too great when spiritual advantages were to
be gained. Vast multitudes of pilgrims undertook the arduous
journey to the Holy Land that they might visit the places that had
been sanctified by our Saviour's sufferings. Tradition had pre
served a very accurate knowledge of these localities, and the devout
pilgrims were accustomed to make what we now call the Way of
the Cross, at the places which were the actual scenes of our Lord's
Passion.

But Jerusalem became a Mohammedan city, under the sway of
the Sultans; and even when the perilous journey had been made,
there was always danger from the despotic government and from
the savage fanaticism of the Moslem people. The idea, therefore,
occurred to several devout persons who had accomplished the pil
grimage, that it would be well to have some means of performing
the same devotion in a safer way and of giving its benefits to those
who were unable to make the journey to Palestine. The Blessed
Alvarez, a Dominican of Cordova, in Spain, is said to have con-

THE SACRAMENTALS

173

structed several small chapels, each containing a representation of
some part of our Lord's sufferings. A similar practice was adopted
about 1350 by the Franciscan Minorites, who had been per
mitted by the Sultan to take charge of the Sepulchre of our
Blessed Lord at Jerusalem, and who erected Stations in many of
their European churches, so that all the faithful who could not
become pilgrims might make the journey in spirit. It was imme
diately seen that this was a most excellent devotion, well adapted
to arouse in the hearts of Christians a fervent spirit of contrition
and love of God; and it was, consequently, soon approved and
recommended by the Holy See.

Pope Innocent XII, in 1694, reaffirming the decrees of his
predecessors, declared that the indulgences granted for visiting cer
tain places in Palestine could be gained by all Franciscans and all
affiliated to that Order, by making the Way of the Cross devoutly.
Later, in 1726, Benedict XIII extended these indulgences to all
the faithful. For some time afterwards the Franciscan Fathers
had the sole faculty of erecting Stations in churches, but this
power is now given to all bishops, and they may delegate it to
their priests.

What are the Stations? It is a common but erroneous belief
that the Stations of the Cross are the pictures or reliefs or groups
of statuary representing our Saviour on His journey to Calvary.
These are not the Stations. They are merely aids to devotion.
The Stations, to which the indulgences are at
tached, are the crosses, which must be of wood,
and which are generally placed over the pictures.
The latter are not essential, and are only used
that we may more vividly realize our Saviour's
anguish and the greatness of our debt to Him.

The Stations are fourteen in number. For
some hundreds of years there was a diversity
of practice in this regard, the number varying
from eleven to sixteen in different places; but Static™°s the
the Church finally ruled that they must not be more nor less than
fourteen.

174 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Some of the scenes depicted in the Way of the Cross are de
scribed in the Gospels; others are transmitted to us by tradition.
Thus we have no Scriptural authority for the falls of Jesus under
the cross, nor for the beautiful story of Veronica. These are
based on pious beliefs which have probably been handed down from
the times of the Apostles.

The Stations are generally affixed to the interior walls of the
church, although in Catholic countries it is not unusual to see
beautiful Stations erected in the open air, in the grounds of re
ligious institutions and also in cemeteries, where it is an edifying
sight to witness the public devotion of the Way of the Cross
for the benefit of the departed ones whose bodies are buried there.

The reader may have noticed that the Stations do not every
where begin on the same side of the church. There is no fixed
rule in regard to this; but they are always so arranged that our
Saviour is represented as moving forward ; so that the place of be
ginning and ending depends on the manner in which He has been
depicted by the artist. Therefore in some churches you will find
the first Station on the Gospel side, in others on the Epistle side of
the main altar.

The Indulgences of the Stations. What are the indulgences
granted to those who perform the Way of the Cross? Strange to
say, we do not know. While we are assured that no other de
votion is so highly indulgenced, there is considerable uncertainty as
to just what indulgences we gain when we "go around the Sta
tions." For many other devotions we have an exact list of the in
dulgences ; but we can only say, in regard to the Stations, that the
person who devoutly performs this devotion and is in the state
of grace gains the same indulgences as if he had visited the actual
Way of the Cross in Jerusalem. The precise number or amount
of these indulgences is not specified in any extant decree of the
Church; and all that we know is that no other practice of our
holy religion is so earnestly recommended or so plentifully in
dulgenced for us and for the souls in Purgatory.

How to Gain the Indulgences. We are not bound to read a
meditation at each Station. We are not obliged to recite any

THE SACRAMENTALS 175

prayers. Those that are customarily said, such as the Our Father,
the Hail Mary, etc., are commendable and meritorious, but are
not necessary. We must merely go around from the first Station
to the fourteenth, stopping at each for a short time, and meditating
on the Passion of our Lord in general or on the particular event
which the Station represents. If we cannot go around, on ac
count of the crowded condition of the church, or if the Stations
are being performed publicly, it is sufficient merely to turn towards
each Station. The two essential points of the devotion are the
making of a journey, as it were, in company with our Blessed
Lord from His trial to His tomb, and the meditation on His suf
ferings while the journey is being made.

For those who cannot go to the church, it is sometimes per
mitted to gain the same spiritual benefits by using an indulgenced
crucifix, which is to be held in the hands while the Our Father,
Hail Mary and Glory be to the Father are recited fourteen times,
followed by the same prayers repeated six times — the last being
for the intention of the Holy Father.

The Stations of the Cross must be lawfully erected that in
dulgences may be gained from them. The priest who blesses them
must be specially delegated for that work by the bishop of the
diocese. It may be well to mention, then, that pictures of the
Stations, such as are found in prayer-books, or printed so as to
form a sheet or chart, cannot be used for gaining these indulgences.
Many of the faithful, with sincere but mistaken devotion, pay great
reverence to such representations of our Lord's sufferings, and
imagine that by praying before them they are " making the Sta
tions." There is a specially objectionable device which has been
widely sold and is proudly displayed in many Catholic homes,
consisting of a series of gaudy pictures mounted on rollers so that
they can be successively exposed to view; the purchaser is assured
that this can be used " to make the Stations at home " — which is
absolutely untrue. The Way of the Cross cannot be made except
by visiting the Stations which have been lawfully erected and medi
tating on the Passion of our Lord.

For Ourselves and for the Souls. We see, then, how our holy

176 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Church has made it easy for us to gain great spiritual benefits, for
our own souls and for the souls in Purgatory. She does not exact
from us the rigorous penances of former ages. She does not re
quire that we shall make a long and perilous journey. She tempers
her laws to the weakness of her children, and permits us to gain in
a very easy manner the favors which we would obtain if, like the
pious pilgrims of old, we traversed land and sea to the Holy
Places where our Blessed Saviour wrought the redemption of man
kind.

CHAPTER XXX
THE HOLY OILS

A SERVICE of great solemnity and beauty takes place in every
cathedral church on Holy Thursday of each year. The Bishop
blesses the oils which are to be used during the ensuing year in
the administration of the Sacraments, as well as in various conse
crations and blessings of persons and things.

The ceremony of the Blessing of the Oils is full of significant
symbolism. It requires the presence of a large number of the
clergy, for the sacred oils are considered by the Church to be of
such importance as to call for extraordinary pomp and imposing
ceremonial. Few inanimate things receive more homage and
honor than the oils which are to be used so often during the year
in the imparting of God's grace through Sacraments and blessings.

Each of us Catholics has received already some of the benefits
given through these holy oils, namely, in the ceremonies of Bap
tism and in the conferring of the Sacrament of Confirmation;
and we hope some day to obtain further graces through them in
Extreme Unction; and yet it may be that we know little about
them. Moreover, few of us are able to be present when the
solemn blessing of them takes place in a cathedral church. There
fore this chapter will be devoted to a description of the nature, the
uses, the history and the blessing of the Holy Oils.

The Symbolism of Oil. In the countries of the Orient and in
southern Europe, olive oil has always been a necessity of daily life,

THE SACRAMENTALS 177

much more than with us. It enters into the preparation of food;
it is used as a remedy, internally and externally; in past centuries
it was the chief means of furnishing light, being consumed in
lamps; it was employed in ancient times by the athletes of the
Olympic games, to give suppleness to their muscles. Hence we see
the various symbolic meanings of which the Church takes cog
nizance when she uses it to give us spiritual nourishment, to cure
our spiritual ailments, to diffuse the light of grace in our souls,
and to render us strong and active in the never-ending conflict
with the Spirit of Evil. The use of oil to express the imparting
of spiritual strength is so appropriate that the Church employs it
not only for the anointing of living beings but also for bells and
chalices and other lifeless things which are to be used as aids in
the sanctification of her children.

The oils blessed on Holy Thursday are of three kinds — the Oil
of Catechumens, the Chrism and the Oil of the Sick. Each of
them is oil extracted from olives, but the Chrism is distinguished
from the others by having balm or balsam mixed with it.

Each of these is blessed by the Bishop with a special form of
prayer, expressing the purpose for which it is to be used and its
mystical signification as well.

The Oil of Catechumens. This kind of sacred oil is used in
the ceremonies of Baptism, and derives its name from that fact —
a catechumen being an instructed convert who is about to receive
the Sacrament of Baptism. As described in the chapter on the
administration of that Sacrament, the priest makes with this oil
the sign of the cross on the person who is to be baptized, on the
breast and on the back between the shoulders, with the solemn
words: " I anoint thee with the oil of salvation, in Christ Jesus
our Lord, that thou mayest have everlasting life."

Why are these unctions used? Because the catechumens are
considered to be to some extent under the power of the Evil One
until they have been united to Christ's mystical body, the Church,
by Baptism.

This oil is also employed for other purposes — in the ceremony
of the " blessing of the font " or the baptismal water on Holy

1 78 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Saturday, in the consecration of a church, in the blessing of altars
and altar-stones, in the ordination of priests, and in the coronation
of Catholic kings and queens.

The Holy Chrism. The Chrism is generally held to be the
" matter " or essential substance for the administration of the
Sacrament of Confirmation. It is applied by the Bishop in the
form of a cross on the forehead of the person confirmed. It is used
also in the ceremonies of Baptism, an unction being made with it
on the crown of the head immediately after the pouring of the
water. Its use is required also in the consecration of a Bishop,
and of a church, as well as in the blessing of chalices, patens,
baptismal water and church bells.

The use of balsam in the Chrism dates from about the sixth
century. Balsam is a resinous substance which is procured from
terebinth trees, which grow in Judea and Arabia ; and similar sub
stances of even greater excellence are obtained from various plants
in the West Indies and tropical countries. In some Oriental
rites, a great variety of sweet-smelling spices and perfumes are used
in addition to the balsam.

The mixing of this fragrant material with the sacred oil gives
the latter the name of Chrism, which signifies a scented ointment.
As oil typifies the fullness of grace imparted through the Sacra
ment, so balsam expresses freedom from corruption and the sweet
odor of virtue.

The Oil of the Sick. This sacred oil, called in Latin " Oleum
Infirmorum," is the " matter " or necessary substance for the Sacra
ment of Extreme Unction, and is also used in the blessing of bells.
In the Churches which follow the Latin rite this oil is always pure,
without admixture; but in some Eastern Churches it contains a
little wine or ashes.

As regards the use of this oil in Extreme Unction, we know
that it was employed in Apostolic times practically in the same
manner as now. St. James, in his Epistle, thus instructs the
faithful of the early Church : " Is any man sick among you ?
Let him bring in the priests of the Church ; and let them pray over
him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the

THE SACRAMENTALS 179

prayer of faith shall save the sick man, and the Lord shall raise
him up. And if he be in sins, they shall be forgiven him."

The use of oil as the " matter " of this Sacrament is undoubtedly
of divine institution, entering as it does into the very nature of the
Sacrament, which has been given to us by our Blessed Saviour and
not by the Church.

Ancient Practices. The liturgical use of oil for other pur-
poses> as in the ceremonies of Baptism and Holy Orders and in
other blessings and consecrations mentioned above, is, in nearly
every case, of very ancient origin, being often traceable nearly to
the times of the Apostles. In this, as in many other practices, our
Church has retained and made use of something which had been
employed in the ritual of Judaism; for in the Old Testament we
find mention of the anointing with oil in several religious func
tions, such as the consecration of priests and kings, as well as in
sacrifices, legal purifications and the consecration of altars.

The use of oil in the " blessing of the font " or baptismal water
probably does not go back to very early times. The practice of
giving a special blessing to the water is indeed very ancient, dating
from about the second century, but we have no evidence that at
that period oil was mingled with it. It is therefore probable that
the present mode of imparting the Church's blessing to it is of more
recent origin.

When our Church wishes to use any material object for sacred
functions she usually sets it apart from other things by giving it a
special blessing; thus it is distinguished from substances intended
only for ordinary purposes. As regards oil, such blessings are
recorded in the rituals of very early times, and do not differ greatly
from those given at the present day. Even as far back as the
fourth century two kinds of oil were solemnly blessed on Holy
Thursday for sacramental uses, one being pure and the other
mixed with balsam; the first was what we now call the Oil of
Catechumens, and the other was the Chrism. The third kind, the
Oil of the Sick, was consecrated by a more simple formula either
on that day or at other times, and in some parts of the world
it was customary to have this oil blessed as needed, by priests.

i8o EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

This custom has persevered to the present day in some Eastern
rites, although among us, by Church law, the blessing by a Bishop
is always necessary.

The Blessing of the Oils. The grand ceremony of Holy
Thursday requires the presence of a large number of the clergy.
Besides the Bishop and his immediate attendants, there are twelve
priests wearing priests' vestments, seven who are vested as deacons,
and seven others in the garb of subdeacons. The Bishop is robed
in white vestments, and is the celebrant of the pontifical Mass,
and he proceeds with the Mass in the usual manner until just
before the Pater Noster. At this point the Oil of the Sick is
called for by him and is solemnly brought in, contained in a large
vessel of silver, by a subdeacon accompanied by two acolytes. The
Bishop pronounces over it an exorcism to banish from it all in
fluences of the Evil One. He then prays that the Holy Spirit, the
Paraclete, may come upon it, for the refreshing of mind and body,
that it may be a remedy for all pains, infirmities and weaknesses.

The Mass then continues until after the Communion, when the
solemn consecration of the Chrism and the Oil of Catechumens
takes place. The oils are brought out from the sacristy by a pro
cession made up of a censer-bearer, a subdeacon carrying a cross,
two acolytes with lighted candles, two chanters, and all the priests,
deacons and subdeacons enumerated above; two of the deacons
carry the oils in large silver urns shrouded in veils, and a sub-
deacon bears a vessel containing the balsam; the chanters intone
several beautiful verses, which are repeated by the choir.

The Bishop then blesses, with appropriate prayers, the balsam
which is to be mixed with the oil to form the Chrism — the
" fragrant tear of dry bark," as the ancient and beautiful language
of the Pontifical expresses it. He then mixes it with a little of the
oil, and recites another prayer, that " whosoever is outwardly
anointed with this oil may be so anointed inwardly that he may be
made a partaker of the Heavenly Kingdom." He then breathes
three times on the Chrism, and this is done also by the twelve
priests. An exorcism is then recited over the oil, and a beautiful
Preface is intoned by the Bishop, enumerating the sacred uses of

THE SACRAMENTALS 181

oil in the Old Law, and invoking God's blessing on this holy oil
which is to be used as a chrism of salvation for those who " have
been born again of water and the Holy Spirit."

He then pours the mixed oil and balsam into the Chrism-vessel,
and, bowing to the consecrated oil, he chants three times, in Latin,
" Hail, Holy Chrism," and reverently kisses the vessel — which
salutation and homage are repeated a like number of times by
each of the twelve priests.

Next comes the consecration of the Oil of Catechumens, which
consists of an exorcism and a prayer of benediction. The Bishop
then chants three times " Hail, Holy Oil," and kisses the vessel
containing it, all of which is repeated by each of the twelve
priests. To the accompaniment of verses intoned by the choir
the sacred oils are then solemnly borne back to the sacristy.

The Holy Oils in Our Churches. The priests of the various
parishes, later in the day, obtain a sufficient quantity of the three
Oils for the needs of their churches and people.
In each parish church these consecrated Oils are
kept with great care and reverence, being en
closed in suitable metallic bottles, which are pre
served in an ambry or locked box (old English
" aumery," from the French " armoire," a safe
or arms-chest), affixed to the wall of the
sanctuary. The Oil of Catechumens is usu
ally labeled O. C. or O. S. (" Oleum Cate-
chumenorum " or "Oleum Sanctum"); the
Chrism is distinguished by the letters S. C. (" Sanctum
Chrisma"); and the Oil of the Sick ("Oleum Infirmorum ")
bears the initials O. I.

The unused oils which may be left over from the preceding year
are not to be used for any Sacrament or any liturgical purpose.
They are poured into the sanctuary lamp, and are consumed as
ordinary oil.

This necessarily incomplete account of the beautiful ceremonies
of Holy Thursday will show us the value which the Church
attaches to these Holy Oils. She requires for their consecration a

1 82 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

wealth of ritual which testifies to her appreciation of their impor
tance in her liturgy; and she offers them a degree of homage
which should teach us how holy and how efficacious for our salva
tion is this lifeless substance which she, inspired by her Divine
Founder, consecrates for the benefit of us, her children, that
through its use in Sacrament and in blessing we may receive graces
which we need for the saving of our souls.

CHAPTER XXXI

CANDLES

THE use of lights as an adjunct to worship goes back to the
beginning of the Church, and even farther. Among the Jews and
in many pagan rites the use of lights had long been looked upon
as appropriate in connection with public homage to their God or
gods. It is probable that among Christians they were first em
ployed simply to dispel darkness, when the sacred mysteries were
celebrated before dawn, as was the custom, or in the gloom of the
catacombs; but the beautiful symbolism of their use was soon
recognized by the writers of the early Church.

The Symbolism of Candles. Light is pure ; it penetrates dark
ness; it moves with incredible velocity; it nourishes life; it
illumines all that comes under its influence. Therefore it is a
fitting symbol of God, the All-Pure, the Omnipresent, the Vivifier
of all things, the Source of all grace and enlightenment. It repre
sents also our Blessed Saviour and His mission. He was " the
Light of the world," to enlighten " them that sit in darkness and
in the shadow of death."

Even the use of wax has its symbolic meaning. The earlier
Fathers of the Church endeavored always to seek out the mystical
significance of Christian practices, and one of them thus explains
the reason for the Church's law requiring candles to be of wax:
:< The wax, being spotless, represents Christ's most spotless Body ;
the wick enclosed in it is an image of His Soul, while the glowing

THE SACRAMENTALS 183

flame typifies the Divine Nature united with the human in one
Divine Person."

The Blessing of Candles. On the second of February the
Church celebrates the festival of the Purification of the Blessed
Virgin, which may be considered as the conclusion of the series of
feasts that centre around the stable of Bethlehem. Christmas
Day presents to us the birth of the Redeemer; the Epiphany com
memorates His manifestation to the Gentiles; and the Purification
reminds us of the offering of our Saviour in the Temple by His
Blessed Mother, as the Victim who should reconcile God and
man. This day has been chosen by the Church for a very impor
tant ceremony, the solemn blessing of candles, whence the day is
often called Candlemas — the Mass of the candles.

Why is this ceremony performed on the feast of the Purifica
tion? Probably because on or about that day the Roman people,
when pagan, had been accustomed to carry lights in processions in
honor of one of their deities; and the Church, instead of trying
to blot out entirely the memory of this pagan festival, changed it
into a Christian solemnity — thereby honoring the Blessed Mother
of God by assigning to one of her feast-days the solemn blessing
of candles for Christian services.

The prayers which are used in this blessing are quaint and beau
tiful, and express well the mind of the Church and the symbolic
meaning of the candles. God, the Creator of all things, Who by
the labor of the bees has produced this wax, and Who on this day
fulfilled His promise to blessed Simeon, is besought to bless and
sanctify these candles, that they may be beneficial to His people,
for the health of their bodies and souls; that the faithful may be
inflamed with His sweetest charity and may deserve to be pre
sented in the Temple of His eternal glory as He was in the
temple of Sion; and that the light of His grace may dispel the
darkness of sin in our souls.

The Uses of Blessed Candles. Candles are used at the ad
ministration of all the sacraments except Penance — for all the
others are usually given solemnly, while Penance is administered
privately. They are lighted at Mass and other church services, at

1 84 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

the imparting of certain blessings, in processions and on various
other occasions.

The custom of placing lighted candles on our altars goes back,
probably, only to about the eleventh century — before which time
they were left standing in tall candlesticks on the floor of the
sanctuary, or in brackets affixed to the walls.

At Masses, candles are used as follows: At a solemn Mass
six are lighted on the altar. At a " Missa Cantata," sung by one
priest, four are sufficient. At a Pontifical Mass, sung by a bishop
in his own diocese, seven are lighted. Four
are used at a bishop's private Mass, and two
at all other Masses. These rules, however,
do not prohibit the use of more candles on oc
casions of special solemnity. Bishops and cer-
Bugia tain other prelates have the right to use a read

ing-candle, called a " bugia," at their Masses.
At Vespers, six candles are lighted on the more solemn feasts;
four only will suffice on other days. In the processions to the
sanctuary before solemn services two candles are borne by acolytes,
and these are also carried to do honor to the chanting of the
Gospel and to the singing of certain parts of Vespers, etc.

Votive Candles. The use of votive candles has become very
general in our churches, especially during the
last few years. They are usually not blessed
candles, and are, therefore, not sacramentals.
It is customary to use for this purpose " stearic "
candles, which are made of other material than
wax. They are commonly placed in large num
bers in a candle-holder of special form, before
some statue or shrine, and are lighted by the
people themselves, who give a suitable donation
for the privilege.

A " votive " candle signifies literally that the
lighting is done in fulfillment of a vow (Latin, "votum"), although
in most cases the intention is merely to give honor and to mani
fest devotion to the saint before whose image the candle is lighted.

THE SACRAMENTALS ^85

Such is the spirit of our Church in regard to blessed candles.
The faithful in general have come to look upon them as among
the most efficacious of the sacramentals. Every Catholic home
should have one or more, to be used when the sacraments are to be
administered; and when death approaches, it is a beautiful and
pious custom to place in the hand of the dying Catholic a blessed
candle, the light of which is an image of the faith which he has
professed before the world, the grace which God has given to his
soul, and the eternal glory to which he is destined.

Lamps in Our Churches. It may be well to mention here the
use of lamps as an adjunct to Catholic worship — for, though
they are not sacramentals, they have had from very early times a
sacred character. In the catacombs they were used not only to
give light but to honor the remains of martyrs, being burned con
stantly before their tombs.

It- is an ancient and universal rule that a lamp shall be kept
burning always before the Blessed Sacrament, wherever It is re
served. This is known as the sanctuary lamp. The oil used in
it must be olive oil ; but if this cannot be easily obtained, the bishop
may permit the use of other oils; these, however, must be vege
table oils, except in case of absolute necessity, when, by a very
recent decree, other substitutes may be used. In our country the
use of cotton-seed oil is common, either pure or mixed with olive
and other oils.

Sanctuary lamps are often of very beautiful and costly design,
and are usually suspended before the altar on which
the Blessed Sacrament is kept. They are arranged,
in most cases, with a counterweight device, so that
they may be easily lowered for convenience in fill
ing.

It is a pious custom to keep lamps burning else
where in our churches — before altars and images
Sanctuary °^ samts and before their relics. In many European
Lamp churches such lights are found in great profusion;
and the shrines of favorite saints are often illumined with hun
dreds of them, while in many cases the altar of the Blessed

1 86 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Sacrament has only the one lamp which the Church's law re
quires, although He Who dwells thereon is infinitely greater,
infinitely more worthy of honor and love than even the holiest of
His servants.

CHAPTER XXXII
THE ROSARY

REPETITION in prayer is a very ancient custom. It would seem
to be natural for man to recite his prayers over and over, es
pecially when he is inspired by a spirit of earnest devotion.
Whether he is returning thanks for favors received or offering peti
tions to God, he finds that the repeating of his prayers satisfies his
religious instincts. This usually leads to a resolution to say a
certain number of prayers daily; and then the utility of having
some counting device suggests itself at once. Hence comes the
string of beads which we call a Rosary.

The use of some means of counting prayers is not restricted to
Catholics. The Brahmin of India or Thibet has his long rosary
which he uses to measure his eternal repetitions of the praises of
Buddha. The Mohammedan votary has his chaplet of ninety-nine
beads, to count his fervent invocations to Allah.

Who Gave Us the Rosary ? The devotion takes its name from
the Latin " rosarium," a garden of roses, or a wreath of the same
beautiful and symbolic flowers; or, according to some, more di
rectly from the title " Mystical Rose," given to Mary in her
Litany. It was established by St. Dominic, the famous founder
of the Order of Preachers; and he testifies in his writings that
he acted under the direction of the Blessed Mother of God.
•However, there are traces of somewhat similar methods of pray
ing before his time, although they did not include any part of
the Hail Mary, at least until about the twelfth century, when the
first part of that beautiful prayer came into use. It seems strange
to us Catholics who recite it so frequently, to learn that for more
than eleven centuries our forefathers in the faith knew nothing of
the Hail Mary, and that the latter part of that prayer was not

THE SACRAMENTALS 187

added unal some centuries later. Therefore, when the Rosary
was invented, it was composed of the Our Father and the first part
of the Hail Mary only, repeated probably much as we use them at
the present day.

How Beads Came Into Use. As said above, devices for count
ing prayers were not new, even in St. Dominic's time. Many of
the faithful in earlier ages could not read, and books were scarce
and dear; and so they were accustomed to say repeatedly the few
prayers they knew, especially the Our Father. We are told that
the great Apostle of Ireland recited it a hundred times at intervals
of a few hours during each day and night and he probably used
some device to count these numerous prayers. The early hermits
said it many times daily, and kept an account by passing small
pebbles from one hand to the other. It soon occurred to some one
that it would be well to fasten these pebbles together — and so
came the beads. The soldiers of the Middle Ages, illiterate but
often pious men, wore a heavy belt studded with rivets, and this
formed a convenient means of counting prayers.

St. Dominic's Work. St. Dominic gave us the Rosary, al
though not precisely as we have it now; and his illustrious
Order has always been full of zeal in the spreading of this de
votion. He was a Spaniard, and about the year 1205 entered
on the mission of preaching for the conversion of the Albigenses, a
heretical sect which had arisen in southern France and northern
Italy. Holy and eloquent as he was, he had little success, until
he was instructed by the Blessed Virgin herself to cease his argu
mentative discourses, to teach the people to pray, and especially to
propagate the devotion of the Rosary. Then a wave of faith and
piety swept over these heretical provinces; and, before Dominic's
death, hardly a vestige of the sect remained.

The devotion spread with great rapidity throughout the world,
and has always been highly esteemed by the faithful in every walk
of life. Many of the saints have had a wonderful love for this
beautiful prayer. St. Alphonsus Liguori was most devoted to it.
St. Francis de Sales recited it for an hour each day. All the
spiritual writers have sounded its praises, and many indulgences

i88 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

have been granted to it by successive Pontiffs. St. Dominic called
it " the rampart of the Church of God," " the Book of Life."
In various papal briefs it has been described as " the salvation of
Christians," " the dispeller of heresies," " the scourge of Satan "
and " the promoter of God's glory."

The Rules about Beads. The Rosary is counted on beads,
which are arranged in " decades," each consisting of an Our
Father and ten Hail Marys — indicated by a large
bead and ten smaller ones. These beads may be
of any suitable substance not easily broken. For
merly glass beads were forbidden, but they may
now be used and indulgenced if they are solid ;
hollow ones are not allowed, being too fragile.
They must be provided with a crucifix or with a
medal stamped with a cross, and they must have
the proper number of beads, divided into decades.
It is recommended that they should not be too elaborate in design,
or too expensive in quality; devotion, and not vanity, should be
the reason for using them.

How to Say Them. The manner of reciting the Rosary varies
somewhat in different countries. Among us it is customary to
begin with the Apostles' Creed, an Our Father, three Hail Marys
and a Glory be to the Father, followed by the five decades in
order, with their mysteries (either mentioned or mentally con
sidered) and with the "Hail, Holy Queen" at the end. But
some of these prayers are not essential to the Rosary, nor neces
sary for the gaining of the indulgences. The Rosary, strictly
speaking, consists of fifteen decades, of which five only need be
said on any one day. Each decade is composed of one Our
Father and ten Hail Marys, and should be recited orally while
the corresponding mystery is meditated on, in order to gain the
indulgences. Therefore the Creed, the preliminary Our Father
and Hail Marys, all the repetitions of the " Glory be to the
Father," and the " Hail, Holy Queen " are not necessary parts of
the Rosary.

The Mysteries. The Incarnation of our Blessed Lord is the

THE SACRAMENTALS 189

central point in the world's history. The Son of God became
man that He might redeem us ; and the meditations connected with
the Rosary are made on the principal events in that work of re
demption, in order that honor may be paid to Him as our Saviour,
and to His Blessed Mother as the most important auxiliary in af
fecting our salvation.

The meditations on the fifteen decades are divided into three
classes. The joyful mysteries comprise the events from the
Annunciation to the Finding in the Temple. The sorrowful
mysteries recall the sufferings and death of our Saviour. The
glorious mysteries extend from His Resurrection to the Coronation
of Mary in Heaven.

The mysteries should be taken in turn, according to the days of
the week — the joyful on Monday and Thursday ; the sorrowful on
Tuesday and Friday; the glorious on Wednesday and Saturday.
On Sundays the mysteries assigned will depend upon the season of
the year. During Advent and after Christmas the joyful should
be meditated upon; during Lent, the sorrowful; during the rest
of the year, the glorious.

" I cannot say the Rosary devoutly. It is so long that I be
come distracted." This is a common complaint, and arises from
the fact that many try to recite it without meditation on the mys
teries. The mere repetition of the prayers is likely to become
monotonous — and it does not gain the special indulgences which
are attached to the beads. For these the meditation is strictly re
quired.

The Indulgences of the Rosary. The spiritual benefits of the
Rosary are very numerous, and are different in some respects from
those granted to other devotions. They are attached directly to
the beads themselves, and are gained only by those for whose use
the beads were blessed. The forms of blessing by which they are
imparted are of three kinds — the Dominican, the Brigittine and
the Apostolic, of which the last is the one most generally given.
All the priests in this country have faculties for bestowing the
Apostolic indulgences, which are as follows:

Every time that the Rosary is recited on one's own blessed beads

igo EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

(provided that it be done at least once a week) an indulgence of
one hundred days is gained. A person who is in the habit of re
citing the beads once a week or oftener may, by a good Confession
and worthy Communion and by praying for the intention of the
Holy Father, gain a plenary indulgence on any of the principal
feasts of our Lord, of the Blessed Virgin and of the Apostles ; also
on Trinity Sunday, Pentecost and All Saints' Day. Complying
with the same conditions on any other day, he may gain a partial
indulgence, varying from one hundred days to seven years, accord
ing to the feast celebrated on that day. All these indulgences are
applicable to the souls in Purgatory.

Assuredly it is profitable to say the Rosary. Well may we re
solve to be faithful to this devotion. Well may we do our part
in that chorus of praise — sending up daily that beautiful homage
which consists not only in the repetition of prayers, but in salutary
meditation on great events in the lives of Jesus our Saviour and
of Mary, His Mother and ours.

NOTE. — Many other forms of beads for the counting of
prayers have come into use through the devotion of the faithful,
and have been approved by the Church. Space will not permit
going into details concerning them. Among the better known are
the Brigittine beads, consisting of seven Our Fathers in honor of
the sorrows and joys of the Blessed Virgin, and sixty-three Hail
Marys to commemorate the years of her life; a similar rosary in
use among the Franciscans, with seventy-two Hail Marys, based
on another tradition of Mary's age; the Crown of our Saviour,
with thirty-three Our Fathers in honor of the years of our Lord's
life; and five Hail Marys in honor of His sacred Wounds; the
beads of the Five Wounds, established by the Paosionist Fathers,
approved in 1823 and 1851, consisting of five divisions, each
having five Glories in honor of Christ's Wounds, and one Hail
Mary in commemoration of the Sorrowful Mother; the beads of
the Immaculate Conception and the Crosier beads.

THE SACRAMENTALS 191

CHAPTER XXXIII
SCAPULARS — I

THIS chapter will be devoted to the history and description of a
sacramental which, in its different forms, is in very general use
among Catholics, and which is a channel of great graces and spirit
ual benefits, inasmuch as it gives its users a share in the merits and
prayers of great associations of holy men and women.

The word scapular is from a Latin word which means literally
the shoulder-blade. In many of the religious orders, such as the
Carmelites and Benedictines, a garment is worn
called a scapular, which forms a part of the monastic
habit. It is a long piece of cloth, varying in color
according to the order, with an opening for the head,
and hanging down in front and at the back from the
shoulders almost to the ground. It is worn over the
monk's gown, and is open at the sides. In some re
ligious orders the sides are fastened together under
the arms; in others, formerly, there were hanging
flaps which covered the shoulders, thus making the Scapular
whole somewhat like a cross; and sometimes a cowl was attached,
which could be drawn over the head.

A Symbolic Yoke. It is a curious fact that the original
scapular of the monks undoubtedly was developed from a working
garment or apron, such as was worn in those days by laborers.
The monks found such a covering useful in their toil in the fields,
to protect their monastic habit ; and it was only about the eleventh
century that it was recognized as a part of the religious garb and
was blessed and imposed at the reception of a candidate. Then its
use became a symbol of the burden of the monastic life. It was
called, in the language of the Ritual, " the yoke of Christ," " the
cross " and " the shield " ; and as the obligations of the religious
life were never to be laid aside, so (in many religious communi
ties) the scapular was never to be removed, but was to be worn at
night as well as during the day.

i92 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

The Scapulars of the Third Orders. In the pious times which
we call the Middle Ages, many devout lay persons were permitted
to join the religious orders as " oblates " — that is, they remained in
the world, but assisted regularly or frequently at the monastic
services, united their prayers with those of the monks, and par
took of the spiritual benefits of the devotions and good works of
the order. These often received the religious garb, which some
of them wore constantly; but gradually the custom prevailed of
wearing it only at divine service. It was looked upon as a great
privilege to die in the monastic habit and to be buried in it ; and
frequently it was given to those who were dying or was placed
upon the bodies of the dead.

In later times it was found to be more convenient to dispense
with the rest of the religious garb and to wear the scapular, much
reduced in size, under the clothing. Thus it has come to pass
that the associations of the laity known as " Third Orders," such
as those connected with the Franciscans and Dominicans, wear to
day as their badge a so-called " large scapular," made of woolen
cloth and measuring about 5 by 2^/2 inches. That of the Francis
cans, often called simply the Scapular of St. Francis, is brown,
gray or black in color, and has usually a picture of the Saint and
one of the church of Portiuncula, where he was favored with a
vision. Those who belong to these Third Orders must wear the
scapular constantly in order to partake of the indulgences and
privileges.

The Small Scapulars. Like the " large scapulars " for the
laity, the first small scapulars were derived from the monastic
habit. Many pious laymen associated themselves with various
religious communities, that thereby they might participate in the
good works and consequent merits of those who had consecrated
themselves to God. It was deemed proper to form these devout
persons into societies whose badge was a miniature of the scapular
of the order. These societies or confraternities became sources of
great good, and were rapidly extended throughout the Catholic
world.

There are now eighteen small scapulars in use among Catholics.

THE SACRAMENTALS

193

The early history of some of them is, to a great extent, obscure;
but it is likely that the oldest of them is the Scapular of Mount
Carmel. Each of the small scapulars consists of two pieces of
woolen cloth, about two inches wide and a little longer, con
nected by two strings or bands so that when these rest on the
shoulders one piece hangs at the breast and the other at the back.
The bands need not be of the same color as the two pieces, except
in the case of the Red Scapular. On each half of the scapular
pictures or emblems are usually sewn or painted, and for some
scapulars they are essential. While the two parts of the scapular
must be of woolen cloth, these decorations may be of other ma
terial, such as silk or linen. Some of the faithful may imagine
that the picture is the scapular, or at least adds to its efficacy.
This is a mistaken idea. While a picture or emblem is necessary
in some cases, the scapular is the woolen cloth, and richness of
ornament does not enhance its religious value in any way.

The Scapular of Mount Carmel. In describing the various
kinds of scapulars we shall first consider that which is best known
— the " brown scapular " of our Lady of
Mount Carmel. A beautiful story is told of
its origin. In the thirteenth century there
lived at Cambridge, in England, a holy man
named Simon Stock, the Superior-General of
the Carmelite order. He was a man of such
sanctity, wisdom and prudence that he was
afterwards canonized by the Church. He is
said to have declared that on the sixteenth of
July, 1251, the Blessed Virgin appeared to
him and presented him with a scapular, tell
ing him that it was a special sign of her favor; that he who dies
clothed with it shall be preserved from eternal punishment; that
it is a badge of salvation, a shield against danger and a pledge of
her protection.

Do we Catholics believe that this vision was vouchsafed to the
holy Carmelite? We may — but we are not obliged to do so.
There is little or no historical evidence that the small scapular

Scapular of Mt.
Carmel

i94 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

was known so far back as the thirteenth century; in its present
form, at least, it is probably of much later origin. Nevertheless,
the account of St. Simon's vision remains a pious and praiseworthy
tradition; that is, it is quite credible that the Saint was super-
naturally assured of the protection of the Blessed Virgin for all
who should wear this badge. This vision has been accepted as
genuine by several Pontiffs, and has been cited by them as a reason
for the granting of indulgences to those who wear the scapular.

The Scapular Privileges. The above promise is what is
known as the " first privilege " of the Carmelite order, and it
amounts to this: That all who out of true love and veneration
for the Blessed Virgin constantly wear the scapular in a spirit of
faith after they have been properly invested in it, shall enjoy the
protection of the Mother of God, especially as regards their eternal
welfare. If even a sinner wears this badge through life, not
presumptuously relying on it as a miraculous charm, but trusting in
the power and goodness of Mary, he may hope that through her
intercession he will obtain the graces necessary for true conversion
and for perseverance.

The Sabbatine Indulgence. The second privilege of the
scapular is what is called the Sabbatine (Saturday) Indulgence.
There has been much discussion concerning it, and its existence has
been denied by many. According to those who uphold the genuine
ness of this indulgence, the Blessed Virgin assured Pope John
XXII that any wearer of the scapular who shall have complied
regularly with certain conditions will be released promptly from
Purgatory, especially on the first Saturday after his death. Con
cerning this privilege, as stated, there is considerable doubt. Sev
eral Pontiffs seem to have been in favor of it. Benedict XIV and
Paul V granted permission to the Carmelite Fathers to preach it
to the people, and thereby would seem to have indirectly sanc
tioned it. " The faithful can believe that the Blessed Virgin will
help by her continued assistance and her merits, particularly on
Saturdays, the souls of the members of the Scapular Confraternity
who have died in the grace of God, if in life they wore the scapular,
observed chastity according to their state of life, and recited the

THE SACRAMENTALS 195

Office of the Blessed Virgin or observed the fasts of the Church,
practising abstinence on Wednesdays and Saturdays."

About this supposed privilege, then, we cannot speak decisively.
It may be true, or it may not be. It is one of the pious beliefs
which have not been expressly confirmed by the Church, even
though a qualified or partial approval may have been given by indi
vidual Pontiffs. We may readily believe that our Blessed Mother
consoles with special affection those who have worn the scapular,
her livery, while on earth, and are now in Purgatory — especially
if they have been chaste and devout — and that she will endeavor
to bring them speedily to Heaven. But whether this will take
place on the Saturday after death is another question.

Investing in trie Brown Scapular. Among us, the investing in
this scapular often takes place at the time of First Communion or
Confirmation, but there is no rule to that effect. The investiture
may be performed for infants; and after they have come to the
use of reason they do not need a renewal of it.

Who can perform the investing? This was originally restricted
to the priests of the Carmelite Order; but for many years our
bishops have had the power of giving this faculty to all their priests.
Therefore to-day, in our country, any priest having ordinary facul
ties in a diocese can invest in this scapular.

The form to be used is that prescribed by Pope Leo XIII in
1888, which is shorter than the one formerly in use. After a few
introductory versicles and responses a prayer is offered to our
Blessed Lord, asking Him to bless this habit which is to be worn
for love of Him and of His Mother. The scapular is then placed
on the shoulders of the recipient with an appropriate formula, as
follows : " Receive this blessed habit, imploring the most holy
Virgin, that through her merits thou mayest wear it without
stain, and that she may defend thee from all adversity and lead
thee to everlasting life. Amen."

The priest then declares that, by virtue of the power granted
to him, the person invested is received into the Scapular Confra
ternity and is entitled to share in the spiritual benefits of the
Order of Mount Carmel. And after another prayer to God

1 96 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

asking a blessing on the new member and praying that he may
receive the aid of our Mother Mary at the hour of death, he is
sprinkled with holy water — which concludes the ceremony of in
vestiture in this scapular.

Scapular Rules. The scapular may be given in any place —
not necessarily in church ; thus the sick may receive it in their beds.
It must be worn so that one part hangs on the breast, the other on
the back, with a band on each shoulder. If worn or carried other
wise, no indulgences are gained. It may be worn under all the
clothing or over some of it; that is, inside or outside of the under
garments.

After having been once invested, it is never necesssary to have a
scapular blessed. When one is worn out or is lost, the wearer
simply puts on another without ceremony.

On any except the Red Scapular any suitable ornaments or em
blems may be sewn or embroidered in other material than wool;
these neither add to nor take away from the value of the scapular.
In the case of some scapulars, the investment means reception into
a confraternity ; the blessing of the scapular and its imposition must
then take place at the same time as the enrollment.

The scapular is intended to give its wearer a share in certain
spiritual benefits and privileges. It must, therefore, be worn con
stantly. Laying it aside for a short time — an hour or a day —
probably does not deprive one of these advantages ; but if the wear
ing of it has been neglected for a long time, no
indulgences are gained during that time. As
soon, however, as the scapular is resumed, the
spiritual benefits begin again for the wearer.

The " Five Scapulars." It is permitted to
attach several scapulars to the same pair of
White strings or bands, provided that the scapulars be
different from one another and that both parts
of each be used. It has long been customary
The Five Scapulars 'w[th certain devout persons to combine five of
the best-known scapulars. Those generally used are: The
scapular of the Most Blessed Trinity, which is white, blue and

THE SACRAMENTALS 197

red; the brown scapular of the Carmelites; that of the Servites,
called the Seven Dolors, which is black; the blue scapular of
the Immaculate Conception, and the red scapular of the
Passion. Each of these will be described briefly in our next chap
ter.

When these are used together, it is necessary that the bands
should be red — because that color is strictly required for the last-
mentioned, the red scapular of the Passion; and it is customary
to wear this scapular uppermost, so that the images prescribed
for it may be visible, and that of the Blessed Trinity undermost,
so that the red and blue cross may not be hidden by the other
scapulars.

As five scapulars worn together make rather a bulky appendage,
the use of them has become less common of late, especially since the
approval of the scapular medal as a substitute for any one or all of
them, provided that it be lawfully blessed for that purpose —
as will be explained later on.

Benefits of the Brown Scapular. To come back to the Scapu
lar of Mount Carmel — what are the advantages and privileges
which we gain by using it? All those who have been invested in
this scapular become sharers in all the fruits of the good works of
the great religious order of the Carmelites — their prayers, medita
tions, Masses, penances, charitable works, etc. More than this —
by a special decree of the Holy See they partake in a special man
ner in all the good works performed in the whole Catholic Church
by clergy and religious and laity. After death they share in
all prayers of the Carmelites and in the weekly Mass which every
priest of that order offers for the deceased members of the Scapular
Confraternity.

Many indulgences may be gained — a plenary one on the day
of receiving the scapular, under the usual conditions; another at
the hour of death ; and all Masses said for deceased wearers of the
scapular have the advantage of a " privileged altar " — that is, a
plenary indulgence is gained for the person for whom the Mass
is offered. Besides these, there many partial indulgences.

Many of the other scapulars, also, give to their wearers a share

i98 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

in the good works of some religious order, and in the merits gained
by the members of the confraternity of that scapular.

The Scapular Medal. By a regulation made by Pope Pius
X in 1910, it is permitted to wear a medal instead of one or more
of the small scapulars. There is a story —
which may be true or may not be — that the
attention of the kindly Pontiff was first called
to this matter by an African missionary who
told how his naked negro Catholics found the
wearing of the scapular difficult in the thorny
jungles of the Congo. The permission intended
at first for these dusky children of the Church,
to use a medal as a substitute, was finally
Scapular Medal given to all Catholics. The wearing of sev
eral scapulars is inconvenient and possibly unsanitary, and this
medal can replace any or all of them; that is, all persons who
have been validly invested with a blessed woolen scapular may use
the scapular medal instead — and if they have been invested with
several, the medal will take the place of all if properly blessed.
This refers only to the small scapulars, for the medal is not a sub
stitute for the so-called " large scapulars."

As said above, a new scapular may replace an old one without a
blessing — but this is not the case with the medal. It must be
blessed; and this can be done only by a priest, who has faculties
to bless and invest with the corresponding scapular. If the medal
is to be used instead of several scapulars, a blessing must be given
to it for each scapular which it is intended to replace. For each
blessing the Church requires merely the sign of the cross.

The scapular medal must have on one side a representation of
our Lord with His Sacred Heart, and on the other an image of
the Blessed Virgin. It may be made of any kind of hard metal.

How is it to be worn ? There is no rule about this. It may be
hung from the neck, carried in the pocket or purse, or worn in any
desired manner. If worn or carried constantly, it gives a share
in all the spiritual privileges that would come from the wearing of
the scapular or scapulars which it replaces.

THE SACRAMENTALS 199

CHAPTER XXXIV

SCAPULARS — II

HAVING considered the origin and use of the Scapular of Mount
Carmel and the regulations concerning it, we shall now give a
brief history and description of each of the other scapulars which
have received the approval of the Church.

The Scapular of the Most Blessed Trinity. This scapular is
of white wroolen cloth, bearing a blue and red cross, usually only
on the front portion. It is the special badge of the confraternity
of the same name. When Pope Innocent II, in 1198, was con
sidering the matter of approving the Order of the Trinitarians, an
angel is said to have appeared to him, clothed in a white robe and
bearing on his breast a cross of red and blue. This was accord
ingly assigned to the new community as their habit. Later, when
the faithful sought to associate themselves with this order, a confra
ternity was established with this scapular as its badge of member
ship. Many indulgences have been granted to those who wear it,
and these were reaffirmed by Pope Leo XIII in 1899.

The Scapular of Our Lady of Ransom. The " Order of our
Lady of Mercy for the Redemption of Captives " was founded by
St. Peter Nolasco about 1240. The members of a confraternity
which has been affiliated to it are invested with a scapular of white
cloth, bearing on its front half a picture of Our Lady of Ransom.
The General of the order can give to other priests the faculty of
investing with this scapular, and those who wear it receive the
benefit of many indulgences, which were renewed and approved
by the Holy See in 1868.

The Scapular of the Seven Dolors. One of the great re
ligious orders founded in the thirteenth century was that of the
Servites ; and soon after its institution many of the faithful sought
a share in its good works and prayers. A confraternity was es
tablished in honor of the Seven Dolors or Sorrows of Mary.
Their scapular is black, and often bears on the front portion a
picture of the Mother of Sorrows. To those who wrear it con-

200 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

stantly many indulgences have been given, which were reaffirmed
by Pope Leo XIII in 1888.

The Black Scapular of the Passion. This is the emblem
of the confraternity associated with the Passionist Fathers, who
were founded by St. Paul of the Cross nearly two hundred years
ago. It is related that he, in a vision, received the black habit
of the order with its badge, which consists of a heart bearing the
inscription " Jesu XPI Passio," and below, " sit semper in
cordibus nostris " — which is, in English, " May the Passion of
Jesus Christ be always in our hearts." The letters XPI are
Greek, of which the Latin equivalent is CHRI, an abbreviation
of " Christi." This device is used on the black scapular of the
Passion, on the front half only. At various times indulgences
have been granted to the faithful who wear it, and these were
last approved by Pius IX in 1877.

The Scapular of "The Help of the Sick." A community
founded by St. Camillus, the patron of hospitals, has long vene
rated a picture of the Blessed Virgin which is preserved in the
church of St. Mary Magdalen at Rome. This painting is said
to be the work of Fra Angelico, and before it St. Pius V prayed
for the victory of the Christian fleet at Lepanto, when Europe
was threatened with a great Moslem invasion. A confraternity,
founded in 1860, has taken this picture as the distinguishing mark
of its scapular, which is of black woolen cloth, the front part
bearing a copy of the picture and the other half having a small
cross of red cloth sewn on. Indulgences were granted to the
confraternity by Popes Pius IX and Leo XIII.

The Scapular of St. Benedict. This is also black, and one
of the parts has a picture of St. Benedict, although this is not
essential. The confraternity of St. Benedict is of English origin,
and was founded about fifty years ago, with the object of giving
the members a share in the good works of the great Benedictine
order. It received a grant of indulgences from Pope Leo XIII
in 1883.

The Scapular of the Immaculate Conception. The order
of Theatine nuns was founded by a saintly woman, Ursula

THE SACRAMENTALS 201

Benicasa, who has been declared Blessed by the Church. She
affirmed that the habit which she and her community were to
wear was revealed to her in a vision by our Blessed Lord. She
besought Him that the graces promised to the new order might
be extended also to all who would wear a scapular of the Im
maculate Conception. The use of this scapular was approved by
Clement X and by succeeding Popes, and the various indulgences
granted for it were renewed by Gregory XVI in 1845. It is of
blue woolen cloth; on one of the parts is a picture of the Im
maculate Conception, and on the other is the name of Mary.

The Scapular of the Precious Blood. Members of the Con
fraternity of the Precious Blood can wear either a red girdle
which is blessed by the priest who enrolls them, or a special
scapular of red woolen cloth; but there is no indulgence granted
for so doing. For this scapular it is merely defined that it shall
be red; but usually on one part of it there is a representation
of a chalice containing the Precious Blood of our Lord and
adored by angels. The other half is without symbol or picture.

The Red Scapular of the Passion. This owes its origin to
a vision which our Lord vouchsafed to a member of the Sisters
of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, in 1846. To her it was
promised that all who would wear this scapular would receive
every Friday a great increase in the virtues of faith, hope and
charity. The faculty of blessing it belongs to the order of men
founded by St. Vincent, known as the Priests of the Mission, or
the Lazarists. Their Superior-General, however, can give this
faculty to other priests. Several indulgences were granted to
the wearers of this scapular by Pius IX in 1847. Both the
scapular and the bands are of red woolen material. On one half
is a picture of our Lord on the cross, with the implements of the
Passion and the words " Holy Passion of our Lord Jesus Christ,
save us." On the other are shown the Hearts of Jesus and
Mary, a cross and the inscription " Sacred Hearts of Jesus and
Mary, protect us."

The Scapular of the Immaculate Heart of Mary. This
scapular was sanctioned and endowed with indulgences by Pius

202 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

IX in 1877, and further indulgences were granted for its use
under Pius X in 1907. It is the special badge of the religious
congregation known as the Sons of the Immaculate Heart of
Mary. It is of white woolen cloth, one part being ornamented
with a picture of the burning heart of Mary, out of which grows
a lily ; the heart is encircled by a wreath of roses and pierced by a
sword.

The Scapular of St. Michael, Archangel. This is the only
scapular which is not oblong in shape. Each half of it has the
form of a small shield. One of these is of blue cloth, the other
black; and the connecting bands are also one blue, one black.
On each part is a picture of St. Michael slaying the dragon, with
the words " Quis ut Deus?" ("Who is like to God?"), which
is the meaning of the name Michael. It is the special habit of
the Archconfraternity of the Scapular of St. Michael, which was
founded in 1878 and received various indulgences from Leo XIII.

The Scapular of the Mother of Good Counsel. This is one
of the newest scapulars. Its use is promoted chiefly by the
Augustinian Fathers, and the faculty of blessing it belongs to
them, though their Superior can give this privilege to other priests.
It was approved by Leo XIII in 1893, and indulgences were
granted by him to those who wear it. It is a white scapular, of
the usual form, having on one half a picture of the Mother of
Good Counsel (after a well-known painting in an Augustinian
church at Genazzano, Italy), and on the other the papal crown
and keys.

The Scapular of St. Joseph. This is the scapular of the
Capuchin Fathers, who received faculties for blessing it and in
vesting the faithful in it in the year 1898; but previously, since
about 1880, it had been used and approved in certain dioceses.
It is made of two pieces of woolen cloth, violet in color, connected
by white bands; to each of these pieces is sewn a square of gold-
colored cloth, which may be linen, silk or cotton. On the front
half a picture is shown on the gold cloth, representing St. Joseph
with the Child Jesus and the staff of lilies, with the inscription
" St. Joseph, Patron of the Church, pray for us." On the other

THE SACRAMENTALS 203

part is the papal crown, with the dove, symbolic of the Holy
Ghost; under these is a cross and the keys of Peter, with the
words " Spiritus Domini doctor ejus "— ("The Spirit of the
Lord is his guide ").

The Scapular of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Many Catholics
wear the well-known badge of the Sacred Heart on an oval piece
of woolen cloth, and some have a mistaken idea that this is a
scapular. It is merely a pious emblem, the wearing of which was
recommended by the Blessed Margaret Mary Alacoque. There
is, however, a real scapular of the Sacred Heart, which was intro
duced in France about 1870 and was approved in 1900. It is of
the usual form and material, white in color. One part bears a
picture of the Heart of our Blessed Lord, the other that of the
Blessed Virgin under the title of Mother of Mercy. Leo XIII
granted indulgences to those who wear it.

The Scapular of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary. This some
what resembles the red scapular of the Passion, described above,
except in color. It was approved in 1900, and owes its origin
to the Daughters of the Sacred Heart, a religious community
founded at Antwerp in 1873. Indulgences for the wearers were
granted by Popes Leo XIII and Pius X. The scapular is of
white woolen material, having on one half a picture of the Sacred
Hearts of Jesus and Mary with the implements of the Passion.
On the other part is sewn a red cross.

The Scapular of St. Dominic. The use of this scapular is
fostered by the Dominican Order, but the General of that society
can give other priests the faculty of blessing it. It was approved
in 1903 by Pius X, who granted an indulgence of three hundred
days to the wearers every time that they devoutly kiss it. White
wool is the material; no ornaments are required, but it usually
bears on one part an image of St. Dominic kneeling before a
crucifix, and on the other that of Blessed Reginald receiving the
Dominican habit from the hands of the Blessed Virgin.

The Scapular of the Holy Face. This, the last of the
scapulars, is of white cloth, with the well-known picture of the
Face of our Lord which is connected with the tradition of

204 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Veronica. It is worn by the members of the Archconfraternity
of the Holy Face — who, however, can wear instead a medal or
cross with the same emblem. It is simply recommended to the
members of the society, and there is no indulgence for its use.

We see, then, how many means our Church has granted to
her children for partaking of the merits of great religious orders
and confraternities. She has multiplied the scapulars so that each
individual may find one or more that* appeal to his devotional
spirit; and she has enriched nearly all of them with indulgences
for the wearers. They are uniforms of great societies, the mem
bers of which are banded together for the same ends — to glorify
God, to honor His Mother, and to benefit one another mutually
by the gaining of merits which are shared by all.

CHAPTER XXXV
THE AGNUS DEI

IN every form of religion, even in the grossest paganism, it has
been customary to consider certain objects as holy, and to use
them as means of supposed protection from evil. Among the
ancient Romans such objects were employed for children, to guard
them from all malign influences. These charms were of various
kinds — images of the gods, herbs, acrostics formed of letters
arranged in mystic fashion, and many others.

Now, to put one's trust in things of this sort, to imagine that
inanimate objects such as these could protect against disease or
other evil, was undoubtedly nothing but gross superstition. How
is it, then, that we Catholics are permitted by our Church to have
amulets of many kinds, such as crosses, scapulars, medals and the
Agnus Dei? Is this superstition? No; because the Catholic,
unlike the pagan, does not trust in them on account of any in
herent virtue which he imagines them to have, or any supposed
magical power. He puts his trust only in the living God, Who,

THE SACRAMENTALS 205

through the prayers of His Church, blesses these material things
and bids her children to keep and use them as memorials of Him,
as symbols of His merciful providence. Through the Church's
benediction these objects become vehicles of grace; they bring the
divine protection upon such of the faithful as use them with
earnest faith, ardent charity and firm confidence in God.

What is the Agnus Dei? The sacramental of our Church
which is called an Agnus Dei, a " Lamb of God," is a small flat
piece of wax impressed with the figure of a lamb.
These are blessed at stated seasons by the Pope,
and never by any other person. They are
sometimes round, sometimes oval or oblong, and
of varying diameters. The lamb generally bears
a cross or a banner, and often the figure of some
saint or the name and coat-of-arms of the Pope
are stamped on the other side. The Agnus Dei Agnus Dei Wax
is usually enclosed in a small leather cover,
round or heart-shaped, so that it may be preserved, and is intended
to be worn suspended from the neck.

History of the Agnus Dei. The origin of this sacramental
is a matter of great obscurity. When the people of Italy and
other countries had been converted from idolatry, they retained
some of their belief in charms and amulets; and it is probable
that the' Agnus Dei was devised as a substitute for these relics
of paganism. Instead of attempting to repress totally a practice
which was misguided indeed, but which showed an instinctive re
liance on higher powers, the Church in many instances took the
religious customs with which the people were familiar, and made
these customs Christian. She eliminated all that savored of
idolatry, and substituted for the superstitious charms of paganism
the emblem of our Saviour, the Lamb of God.

They were first used in Rome, and it is possible that they go
back as far as the final overthrow of pagan worship in that city,
about the fifth century. Indeed, there is some evidence that they
were in use even a little earlier; for in the tomb of Maria
Augusta, wife of the Emperor Honorius, who died in the fourth

206 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

century, was found an object made of wax and much like our
Agnus Deis of the present time. And we know, moreover, that
it was customary in those days for the people to obtain fragments
of the paschal candle after it had been extinguished on Ascension
Day, and to keep them as a safeguard against tempest and pesti
lence. From this pious custom the use of waxen Agnus Deis
probably arose. They began to come into common use at the
beginning of the ninth century, and from that time we find fre
quent mention of them. They were often sent by Popes as
presents to sovereigns or distinguished personages. The use of
them spread widely, and up to the time of the Reformation they
were everywhere regarded as an important sacramental of the
Church. In the penal laws against Catholics in England, in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, they were specified as a " popish trum
pery," and the possession of them or the importation of them into
the country was a felony.

Blessed by the Pope. Centuries ago, at Rome, the Agnus
Deis were made by the archdeacon of St. Peter's of clean wax
mingled with chrism, on the morning of Holy Saturday; and on
the following Saturday they were distributed to the people.
After a time it became customary for the Pope himself to attend
to this, and at the present day the blessing is always imparted
by him. What is called the " great consecration " of Agnus Deis
takes place only in the first year of each Pontiff's reign arid every
seventh year thereafter. The pieces of wax are now prepared
beforehand by certain monks, without the use of chrism. On the
Wednesday of Easter week these are brought to the Holy Father,
who dips them into water mingled with chrism and balsam, with
certain appropriate prayers. On the following Saturday the dis
tribution takes place with great solemnity, when the Pope, after
the " Agnus Dei " of the Mass, puts a packet of them into the
inverted mitre of each cardinal and bishop present, and the re
maining ones are sent to prelates and religious communities in all
parts of the world.

A Symbol of Our Lord. The meaning of the Agnus Dei is
best understood from the prayers used in the solemn blessing by

THE SACRAMENTALS 207

the Holy Father. The wax, white and pure, typifies the virgin
flesh of Christ. The lamb suggests the idea of a victim offered
in sacrifice. The banner signifies the victory of our Lord over
sin and death. As the blood of the paschal lamb protected the
Israelites from the destroying angel, so shall this emblem of the
Lamb of God protect him who wears it from many kinds of evil.
The mercy of God is implored for the faithful who piously use
and reverence the Agnus Dei; and He is besought to give His
blessing to it, so that the sight or touch of the lamb impressed on
it may guard us against the spirits of evil, against sickness and
pestilence, against tempest, fire and flood; that it may strengthen
us against temptations; that those who use it may be preserved
from a sudden and unprovided death. Also in the prayers it is
especially recommended to women who are expecting motherhood.

The Agnus Dei, then, represents our Blessed Lord; and he
who would derive full benefit from its use must imitate Him in
His lamblike virtues — innocence, meekness, indifference to the
world. The angelic virtue of innocence — spotless purity of soul
and body — is symbolized both by the wax and the lamb. He
who wears it should be sinless. The lamb is meek, and the Lamb
of God has told us to learn of Him, because He is meek and
humble of heart. The lamb is " dumb before the shearer,"
teaching us contempt for the world, silence under its persecutions,
and indifference to its judgments and its vanities.

How it is Worn. There is no obligation to use the Agnus Dei.
There is no special manner in which it must be worn, such as
we have for the scapular. The Agnus Dei may be attached to
the latter, or otherwise suspended from the neck, or it may be
carried in any other way about the person. Though it is an
important sacramental, there are no indulgences attached to its
use. Its efficacy comes from the fact that it is a symbol of our
Lord, blessed by His Vicar upon earth. And we would do well
to remember that it does not derive its value from the beauty of its
outside covering. Whether this be plain or elaborate is of no
importance whatever. Nor should any attempt be made to
"have it blessed." All Agnus Deis are blessed; they would not

2o8 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

be Agnus Deis if they had not received the benediction of the Holy
Father.

The solemnity with which this beautiful sacramental is blessed
and distributed by the Sovereign Pontiff, the graces which are
besought in the prayers by which it is consecrated, the benefits
derived from its pious use, and the symbolical meaning which it
possesses — all these show us that in the Agnus Dei we have a
very efficacious means of grace and a powerful protection against
the evils that threaten our bodies and souls.

CHAPTER XXXVI
PALMS

THE beautiful ceremony of the blessing and distributing of
palms on Palm Sunday is a remembrance of our Saviour's entrance
into Jerusalem a few days before His death. As He approached
the city a great throng came forth to meet Him — some, perhaps,
in a spirit of mere curiosity, to see the far-famed prophet and
wonder-worker; others because they hoped to see some evidence
of His miraculous power; and some because they believed in Him
and recognized Him as the long-expected Redeemer.

The Gospels tell us that the people conducted Jesus in triumph
through the city gate, spreading their garments before Him as a
mark of homage, and that they went before Him in a joyful
procession, carrying palms and chanting hosannas of praise.

The Eastern palm which they used is the date-tree, which
forms a distinctive feature of every Oriental scene; and it must
have been a graceful and inspiring sight to see the vast throng
waving the beautiful palm branches as they marched towards the
Holy City.

A Symbol of Victory. The palm is emblematic of victory,
just as the olive-branch is of peace; and the custom of using it to
denote triumph and joy seems to have been widespread. Among
the pagan nations victorious generals and conquering armies
decked themselves with the spreading branches of the palm-tree

THE SACRAMENTALS 209

in their triumphal processions; and among the Jews the palm
was used to express rejoicing, especially for the celebration of the
harvest festival known as the Feast of Tabernacles. In Christian
art the palm-branch is often introduced in pictures of martyr-
saints, to signify the victory which they have gained and the
triumph they are enjoying. And as the palm-tree is a shade tree
and produces fruit, it symbolizes well the protection of Divine
Providence and the giving of grace.

The genuine Oriental date-palm is, of course, the most suitable
for the ceremony of Palm Sunday, but as this is practically un
obtainable in many parts of the world, the Church allows the
use of other kinds of branches. She states in the rules of the
Missal that they may be of " palm or olive or other trees."
Some of our readers will remember when spruce or hemlock was
used commonly in our churches, and it is only of late years that
the Southern palmetto has come into vogue. It is more suitable,
because it considerably resembles the real palm.

The History of the Blessing. Palms are blessed and distrib
uted to the faithful on only one day of the year — Palm Sunday.
This, of course, changes in date from year to
year, according to the date of Easter.

It is uncertain just when this beautiful custom
began. In old Church calendars and other
books there are various references which would
lead us to suppose that it was practised early
in the fifth century, but there is nothing very
definite about it until the time of the English
saint, the Venerable Bede, about the year 700. " Palm

It is likely that the use of palms began in the " Miracle-Plays,"
or reproductions of the Passion of our Lord, which were common
in the early Middle Ages. Just as at the Passion Play of Oberam-
mergau at the present day, the actors in these earlier religious
dramas endeavored to represent all the details of our Saviour's
life and sufferings, and it is probable that the triumphal entry into
Jerusalem was shown on the stage with the use of palms. Then,
following her usual custom of blessing anything intended for re-

210 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

ligious purposes, the Church began to give a solemn benediction
to the palms and made them a sacramental.

The Prayers of the Blessing. The prayers used by the priest
in the blessing of the palms are full of beautiful sentiment and
expressiveness. The ceremony takes place before the High Maos.
The celebrant wears a cope of purple color, denoting penance,
and reads from the Old Testament the account of the journey of
the Children of Israel through the desert to Mount Sinai, where
they found twelve springs of water and seventy palm-trees, and
where God promised them manna from heaven. Then comes a
Gospel, taken from St. Matthew, describing the entry of our
Blessed Lord into Jerusalem, followed by a prayer that we may
gain the palm of victory. Then a beautiful Preface is said or
sung, asking a blessing on the palms and on those who take and
keep them in a spirit of devotion, and referring to the olive-
branch brought by the dove to Noah in the ark and to the palm
as an emblem of triumph.

In past centuries the procession on Palm Sunday was a real
procession — not merely around the church, but to some distant
church, or " station/' where a Mass was said. The blessing of
the palms, as we have it now, shows the skeleton of this stational
Mass, for it contains many parts of a Mass — an Introit, a
Collect, an Epistle, a Gospel, a Preface, a Sanctus, etc. — and
still it is no longer a Mass.

The proper way for distributing the palms, as prescribed by
the Church, is at the altar-railing; but on account of the large
congregations in many of our churches it is usual to have them
given to the people in the pews. They should be held in the hand
during the reading of the Passion of our Lord in the Mass of
Palm Sunday.

The palms which have not been distributed are preserved until
the following year, and, being then dry, are burned to obtain
the ashes for the ceremony of Ash Wednesday, when they are
placed on our foreheads with the solemn admonition to remember
that we are dust and shall return to dust — impressing upon us
the stern truth that only by keeping ever in mind our last end

THE SACRAMENTALS 211

and preparing for it may we hope to win the palm of final
victory.

CHAPTER XXXVII
INCENSE

OUR Holy Church has always recognized the value of rites
and ceremonial observances, not only for increasing the solemnity
of her services but for arousing a spirit of devotion in those who
minister at them and those who attend them.

And because a religious practice happened to be of Jewish
origin or had been used in the rites of paganism, the Church does
not therefore look upon it as something to be necessarily con
demned or forbidden. She has taken some of the details of her
liturgy not only from the ceremonial law of Moses, but even from
pagan worship. On account of this, some of her more biased
critics have asserted that " Romanism is nothing but Christian
ized paganism " — an accusation which reveals the inbred preju
dices of those who can find no word of praise for aught that is
taught or done by " the benighted Church of Rome."

Expressing Homage to the Deity. The Catholic Church
knows that in every form of worship, in every effort of man to
do homage to his concept of the Deity, there are many practices
that are commendable, inasmuch as they are a good expression of
religious sentiment, and she has adapted the best of these to the
requirements of her ritual. Thus, for instance, we find in Cath
olic worship the use of holy water, which was not only a Jewish
but a pagan practice ; the wearing of medals and amulets, common
to all the religions of antiquity ; and the use of incense at religious
functions. It is concerning the last of these that we shall treat
in this chapter.

The Incense and the Censer. What is incense? It is a
granulated aromatic resin, obtained from certain trees in Eastern
and tropical countries, especially from those of the terebinth family.
When sprinkled upon a glowing coal in the " censer," it burns
freely and emits an abundant white smoke of very fragrant odor.

212 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Various spices are sometimes mixed with the resin to increase its

fragrance.

The censer is a vessel in the form of a bowl, provided with a

cover, the whole being generally adorned with gilding and orna
ments and suspended from chains, so that it
may be swung to and fro for the better dif
fusion of the sweet odor. It is held in both
hands when being used, elevated to the height
of the eyes, while the left hand holds the ends
of the chains against the breast. The censer
is swung forward toward the person or thing
to be incensed, once or oftener, according to
the requirements of the rubrics.

Censer and Boat The incense Js kept jn a vessel known as a

" boat," from its peculiar shape, and is transferred to the censer
by means of a small spoon.

Of Ancient Origin. What "is the history of incense? First
of all, we find in the Scriptures many references to its use in
Jewish worship. In the sanctuary of the Tabernacle of God an
altar was provided for the burning of incense, morning and night.
It is thus described in the ritual which Moses gave to the Israel
ites, in the book of Exodus : " Take unto thee spices ... of
sweet savor and the clearest frankincense . . . and when thou
hast beaten all into very small powder, thou shalt set of it before
the Tabernacle. Most holy shall this incense be unto you." It
is also mentioned in the Psalms and by the prophets Isaias, Jere-
mias and Malachias, as well as in the Gospel account of the vision
of Zacharias, the aged priest, who was " offering incense in the
temple of the Lord " when he received the promise of God that a
son would be given to him.

In the ceremonies of pagan creeds incense had an important
part. Its use is mentioned by Ovid and Virgil as a feature of
the rites of Roman worship, being probably adopted from the
Eastern nations with whom the Romans had come into contact.
Among these, especially the Assyrians and Egyptians, it has been
known almost from the dawn of history. The carvings of the

THE SACRAMENTALS 213

tombs and temples of Egypt represent kings offering homage to
the gods by burning incense in censers much like those used in our
Catholic churches at the present day.

In Catholic Worship. When did the Church begin to use it?
We do not know exactly. There is no evidence that it was em
ployed in Christian worship until about the fifth century, although
when we consider to what an extent it was used in the rites of
Judaism and how many times it is mentioned in the Scriptures,
it seems probable that incensing, as a part of the Catholic cere
monial, goes back to an earlier day. It came into use in the
East before the Western or Latin Church adopted it, for the
Orientals in the early centuries had a much more elaborate ritual
than did the Roman Church. Incense was used at first at the
Gospel of the Mass only, but in succeeding centuries other in-
censations were introduced, not only at the Mass but at other
services of the Church.

At the present day the use of incense forms a rather prominent
feature of the more solemn services of our Church. In our Latin
rite it is not employed in private or " low " Masses, but in the
so-called " solemn " Mass incensings take place at several parts
of the services. A brief description of the prayers used will show
clearly the meaning of the ceremony and the beautiful figurative-
ness of incense as a symbol of the prayers of God's faithful ascend
ing before His throne.

Incense at Mass. Incense is used in solemn Masses at the
Introit, the Gospel, the Offertory and the Elevation; but in
Masses for the dead the first two incensings are omitted. At each
of the times when the censer is to be used, fresh incense is put
into it and is blessed, usually by the celebrant. At the Introit
and the Gospel the blessing is simple: " Mayest thou be blessed
by Him in Whose honor thou shalt be consumed. Amen." At
the Offertory a more elaborate ceremonial is carried out. The
blessing is given thus : " May the Lord, through the intercession
of blessed Michael the Archangel standing at the right hand of
the altar of incense, and of all His elect, deign to bless this incense
and to accept it as an odor of sweetness. Through Christ our

2i4 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Lord. Amen." The celebrant then incenses the bread and wine
which are upon the altar, with the words: "May this incense,
blessed by Thee, ascend to Thee, O Lord; and may Thy mercy
descend upon us." He next incenses the crucifix and the altar,
saying, in the words of the i4Oth Psalm: "Let my prayer, O
Lord, be directed as incense in Thy sight; the raising up of my
hands as an evening sacrifice. Set a watch, O Lord, on my mouth
and a door around my lips. Incline not my heart to evil words
to make excuses in sins." And finally: "May the Lord kindle
in us the fire of His love, and the flame of everlasting charity.
Amen."

The censer is swung as a mark of respect before the celebrant,
ministers and assisting clergy at a solemn Mass, and incense is
used also in many of the public services of the Church — in pro
cessions, blessings and other functions, and in the " absolution "
or obsequies for the dead. Not only persons but inanimate things
are thus honored — things which are in themselves sacred, such
as relics ; things which have been previously blessed, such as cruci
fixes, altars and the book of the Gospels; and things to which a
blessing is being given, such as bodies of the dead and sepulchres.

On Holy Saturday, when the paschal candle is solemnly blessed
in each parish church, five grains of incense are inserted into it,
each being encased usually in a piece of wax resembling a nail.
These are fixed in the wax of the candle in the form of a
cross.

When an altar or altar-stone is consecrated, grains of incense
are burned upon it, and other grains are put into the " sepulchre,"
that is, the cavity containing the relics, thus symbolizing the
prayers and intercession which will be offered in Heaven by the
Saint whose sacred relics are enclosed within the altar on which
the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass will be offered.

The Symbolism of Incense. The mystical meaning of incense
is not difficult to comprehend. By its burning it symbolizes the
zeal with which the faithful should be animated ; by its sweet
fragrance, the odor of Christian virtue; by its rising smoke, the
ascent of prayer before the throne of the Almighty. As St. John

THE SACRAMENTALS 215

tells us in the Apocalypse, or Book of Revelations: " The smoke
of the incense of the prayers of the saints ascended before God
from the hand of the Angel."

The use of incense, then, is a beautiful example of the wisdom
of our Church, which adapts to our own purposes all that is good
in every creed, all that will typify the spirit with which she wished
her children to be animated, all that will aid them to attain to
true fervor, all that will add solemnity to the worship which she
offers to God.

CHAPTER XXXVIII
CHURCH BELLS

THE sweet music of bells has given occasion to two of the most
melodious poems in our English language — the weird and beau
tiful " Bells " of Edgar Allan Poe, and the somewhat less in
spired but very musical " Bells of Shandon," in which the Rev.
Francis Mahoney, who wrote under the name of " Father Prout,"
immortalized the sweet chimes

That sound so grand on

The pleasant waters of the River Lee.

Bells in Ancient Times. The use of bells for general and
even for religious purposes is of very ancient origin, although it
is likely that in early ages they were of very rude form and im
perfect sound, and that they were gradually developed into their
present perfection.

They are said to have been used by the ancient Egyptians in
the worship of their god Osiris; but these bells were small, and
rather in the form of a flat gong. Moses, who had been educated
in the priestly class of Egypt, introduced them into the ceremonial
of the Jewish religion.

Among the Romans there is no trace of their employment for
religious purposes, apart from the processions of rejoicing after
victories. In these triumphal events, which were partly of a re-

216 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

ligious character, expressing gratitude to the gods for success in
battle, bells were sometimes mounted in chariots and joyfully rung
during the progress of the procession.

In Christian Churches. Bells came into use in our churches
as early as the year 400, and their introduction is ascribed to
Paulinus, bishop of Nola, a town of Campania, in Italy. Their
use spread rapidly, as in those unsettled times the church-bell was
useful not only for summoning the faithful to religious services,
but also for giving an alarm when danger threatened. Their use
was sanctioned in 604 by Pope Sabinian, and a ceremony for
blessing them was established a little later. Very large bells, for
church towers, were probably not in common use until the eleventh
century.

In various museums of Europe many curious old bells are pre
served, and particularly in Scotland and Ireland fine specimens
may be seen of the ancient monastic bells of the Celtic abbeys.
These are sometimes square in shape, and are made of bronze or
iron sheets riveted together. Their sound, consequently, must
have been discordant and far less powerful than that of our
modern bells.

Bells were introduced into the Eastern churches about the ninth
century and some of the largest in the world are to be found in
the great cathedrals of Russia. The most enormous of these is
the famous " Bell of Moscow," which, however, is not in con
dition to be rung, as a large piece is broken out of its side. It
is about nineteen feet in height, and of nearly the same diameter.
Moscow also boasts another gigantic bell, which weighs eighty
tons and is nearly fourteen feet in diameter.

The largest bell on this side of the Atlantic is said to be that
in the tower of the Church of Notre Dame in Montreal. It
weighs nearly fifteen tons.

Chimes and Peals. In many European churches and in some
of our own, beautiful chimes of bells have been installed, varying
in number from eight to twelve or fourteen, and so arranged that
the notes of the musical scale may be sounded upon them. In the
old parish churches of England 'it is customary to ring the bells

THE SACRAMENTALS 217

in a harmonious peal, in which all are rung at the same time, the
volume of sound thus produced being enormous and the effect
very beautiful, particularly at a distance.

Many of the bells used in churches are engraved with appro
priate inscriptions, telling the various uses to which they are put.
Some bear the title " Ave Maria," and are used especially for the
Angelus; others have an invocation to St. Gabriel, the archangel
of the Annunciation. On many of the bells in the old churches
in England quaint verses were used, such as :

Men's death I tell by doleful knell;
Lightning and thunder I break asunder;
On Sabbath all to church I call;
The sleepy head I rouse from bed;
The tempest's rage I do assuage;
When cometh harm, 1 sound alarm.

An idea which was common some centuries ago was that the
sound. of church bells was a sure safeguard against lightning and
violent tempests; and therefore the bells were rung vigorously
during storms.

The "Passing Bell." A beautiful and pious custom which
prevailed in many Catholic countries was the " passing bell,"
which was rung slowly when a death was imminent in the parish.
When the sick person was near his end the solemn tones of the
bell reminded the faithful of their Christian duty of praying for
his happy death and for his eternal repose ; and after his spirit had
departed, the bell tolled out his age — one short stroke for each
year.

In rural England this custom of Catholic days has been kept up,
although those who ring the bells and those who hear them have
no faith in the efficacy of prayers for a departed soul.

The Angelus. One of the most important uses to which
church bells are devoted is the ringing of the Angelus. This
practice is distinctively Catholic. There was nothing resembling
it in Jewish and pagan rites. All religions, it is true, have had

2i 8 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

certain times for prayer; but they have had nothing at all like
our Angelus, which consists essentially in the reciting of certain
prayers at the sound of a bell at fixed hours.

The Angelus is a short practice of devotion in honor of the
Incarnation of our Blessed Lord, and it is recited three times a
day — at morning, noon and evening — at the sound of a bell.
It consists in the triple repetition of the Hail Mary with certain
versicles, responses and a prayer. It takes its name from the
opening words of the Latin form, " Angelus Domini nuntiavit
Mariae" (" the Angel of the Lord declared unto Mary.")

The history of this beautiful devotion is extremely vague. The
Angelus possibly owed its origin to a practice which was not at
all religious — namely, the Curfew, or sounding of an evening
bell as a signal that all must extinguish fires and lights and retire
to rest. This was done principally as a precaution against con
spiracy, especially in conquered countries. For example, when
the Normans had invaded England and had overthrown the Saxon
power, they imposed many strict and cruel regulations upon the
people, among which was the curfew law, prescribing that all
must be in their homes and with lights extinguished when the
sound of the warning bell wras heard; for thus did the dominant
race prevent the unlawful assembling of the discontented serfs
whom it desired to keep in bondage.

Morning, Noon and Night. Now, among a people who were
Christian, it was natural that this bell should become a signal for
nightly prayers. But the question may be asked, how did the
custom arise of reciting prayers in the morning and at noon at the
sound of a bell, and why were these prayers in honor of the
Blessed Virgin? A rather vague tradition assigns these practices
to St. Bernard, but there is no certainty regarding them. The
prayers to Mary probably came into use gradually, and in this
manner: In the monasteries it was customary on certain days
to recite the Office of the Blessed Virgin in addition to the regular
Office of the day; and this included the repetition of the saluta
tion of the Archangel to Mary, with the other versicles, much as
we have them now. The people began to use these as ejaculatory

THE SACRAMENTALS 219

prayers, and recited them as a part of their evening devotions at
the sound of the bell.

The earliest custom resembling our morning Angelus is traced
back to Parma, in Italy, in the year 1318, when three Our
Fathers and three Hail Marys were ordered to be recited, to
obtain the blessing of peace; and the bell which gave the signal
for these prayers was known as the " Peace Bell." A similar
practice was prescribed in England by Archbishop Arundel in

I399-

The bell at noon was originally intended to summon the faith
ful to meditate on the Passion of Christ, and was rung only on
Fridays; but after a time it was sounded also on other days, and
the same prayers were recited as at morning and evening. This
was ordered in the year 1456, by Pope Calixtus III.

The Prayers of the Angelus. At first the Angelus consisted
only of the first part of the Hail Mary, repeated three times.
This was prescribed for the success of the Crusades and the re
covery of the Holy Sepulchre.

The Gospel narrative which is summarized so beautifully in
this devotion is found in the first chapter of St. Luke, from which
two of the versicles and responses are taken, the third being from
the Gospel of St. John. Thus, by reciting it, we are reminded
at morning, noon and night of Him Whose Name is "the only
one under heaven given to men whereby they may be saved," and
of her who is well entitled " our life, our sweetness and our
hope."

The Legend of the Regina Coeli. During the season after
Easter the Church substitutes the " Regina Coeli " for the usual
prayers of the Angelus. The following legend, beautiful indeed
but somewhat fanciful, is handed down concerning its origin:

" During the reign of St. Gregory, about the year 596, a severe
pestilence raged in Rome. At the Paschal season the Pontiff was
taking part in a great religious procession, to implore God's mercy
on the stricken city. He was carrying in his hands a picture of
our Blessed Lady, which was said to have been painted by St.
Luke, and was reputed to be miraculous. Suddenly the sound

220 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

of angels' voices was heard in the air, chanting the Regina Coeli.
The Pope and people listened, amazed and filled with awe, until
they had learned the words. The plague ceased from that
moment."

Of course, there is no obligation to believe that such an occur
rence ever happened. The legend is probably only the product
of the fertile imagination of some medieval story-teller. It is far
more likely that the beautiful words of this anthem owe their
origin to the genius and piety of some devout religious of the early
Middle Ages. We know that it is at least of very ancient date.

The Indulgences of the Angelus. Nearly two hundred years
ago, in 1724, Pope Benedict XIII granted an indulgence of one
hundred days for each recitation, with a plenary indulgence once
a month for those who recite it habitually. Leo XIII, in 1884,
modified the requirements for gaining these indulgences. It is no
longer strictly necessary that the Angelus shall be said kneeling,
although that posture is the proper one on every day except Sun
day and Saturday evening, when the rubrics prescribe that it be
said standing. Owing to this change, the Angelus may be said
easily in a public place, where kneeling would attract undue at
tention. Nor is it necessary now that it be recited at the sound
of the bell, provided that it is said approximately at the proper
hours — in the early morning, about the hour of noon, and to
ward evening. This enables one who is not within sound of an
Angelus-bell to gain the partial indulgence daily and the plenary
indulgence monthly, simply by reciting the required prayers at
nearly the proper time, and performing the other things requisite
for obtaining the plenary indulgence.

But what is to be done by one who does not know the prayers
of the Angelus? How can he gain the indulgences? He must
recite five Hail Marys in place of the three which, with the
versicles and prayer, form the regular Angelus devotion. The
same is to be said concerning the Regina Coeli, which is substi
tuted for the Angelus during the Paschal time.

The manner of ringing the Angelus seems to have varied very
little since the beginning of the devotion. Old monastic records,

THE SACRAMENTALS 221

going back to the fifteenth century, show that the bell-ringer was
directed " to toll the Ave-bell nine strokes at three times, keeping
the space of one Pater and Ave between each of the three tellings."
In those days the concluding prayer was not in use; but when
it began to be recited, the further ringing of the bell came into
vogue, as we have it at the present day.

The Tower-Bell at the Elevation. The practice of elevating
the Sacred Host and the Chalice at Mass, immediately after the
consecration of each, was introduced in the Latin churches about
the beginning of the thirteenth century. It was then deemed
fitting that those who were not present at Mass should also be
invited to adore their Eucharistic Lord. And so the practice
was begun of ringing one of the great bells of the church, to
give notice to all the people, that they might kneel for a moment
and make an act of adoration.

No bells, large or small, are rung between the end of the
Gloria of the Mass on Holy Thursday and the beginning of the
Gloria on Holy Saturday, when the Church begins to anticipate
joyfully the Resurrection of our Lord. Then both the sanctuary-
gongs and the tower-bells peal forth triumphantly, to announce
that Christ has risen from the dead, to die no more.

The Blessing of Bells. The ceremony of the blessing of a
church bell is one of the most elaborate and impressive in the whole
liturgy of our Church ; and this is not surprising when we consider
the many and how important uses to which bells are devoted in
Catholic worship.

This blessing is given only by a bishop or by a priest who has
special faculties from the bishop, empowering him to administer
it. The bell is placed at the head of the main aisle of the church
or in some other prominent place, and is so situated that the
clergy may pass around it conveniently and that the interior may
be reached without difficulty.

The bishop and clergy go to the bell in solemn procession, and
recite aloud seven psalms, invoking the mercy of God on the
Church and its members. Then the water which is to be used
in the ceremony is blessed by the bishop in the same manner as

222 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

ordinary holy water, except that an additional prayer is recited,
asking that God's benediction be given to it, so that the bell
which is to be blessed with it may have the power of overcoming
the deceits of the wicked, and of preventing lightning, whirlwind
and tempest; that when the faithful shall hear the bell, their
devotion may increase and the services of the Church be rightly
performed by them.

The bishop then begins to wash the bell with this water, and his
attendants continue the washing over all the surface of the bell,
inside and outside. In the meantime, six other lengthy psalms
are recited by the bishop and clergy. Then a quaint and beautiful
prayer is intoned by the bishop, asking God to give His grace to
His people, that at the sound of this bell their faith and devotion
may be increased, that the snares of the Evil One may be in
effectual, that the elements may be calmed, that the air may be
healthful, that the demons may flee when they hear the sweet
tones of the bell.

After the recitation of another prayer the bell is anointed with
the Oil of the Sick in seven places on the outside, with the words:
" May this bell, O Lord, be sanctified and consecrated, in the
name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost.
Amen."

Another prayer is chanted, and four crosses are made on the
inner surface of the bell with the Holy Chrism. After still other
prayers and a psalm, a Gospel is sung by a deacon just as at a
solemn Mass. The Gospel selected is from St. Luke, describing
the visit of our Blessed Lord to Martha and Mary. " Mary
hath chosen the better part, which shall not be taken from her."

Such, then, is the history of bells and the liturgy, of their
blessing. They are assuredly a great help to us in the worship
of God. They summon us to the services of the Church. They
peal forth joyfully on the wedding day, as if to prophesy happi
ness and prosperity to the young couple who are beginning their
life-long union. They toll mournfully as the corpse is borne to
receive the Church's last blessing, to remind us of the duty of
praying for the departed soul. And as our holy Church knows

THE SACRAMENTALS 223

the value of frequent prayer, she has given us the Angelus, which
raises our hearts to God three times a day — and, by reminding
us of the Incarnation of our Blessed Saviour, thereby enlivens our
faith, strengthens our hope, and increases our love of God.

CHAPTER XXXIX
RELIGIOUS MEDALS

A RELIGIOUS medal is a piece of metal, usually resembling a
coin, struck or cast for a commemorative purpose or to increase
devotion, and adorned with some appropriate device or inscription.
The varieties of these medals are almost beyond counting. They
have been produced in honor of persons, such as our Divine
Saviour, His Blessed Mother and the saints; of places, such as
famous shrines; and of historical events, for example, definitions
of Church doctrines, jubilees, miracles, dedications, etc. They
are made to commemorate events in the life of the wearer, such
as First Communion. They often recall mysteries of our faith ;
and some of them are specially blessed to serve as badges of pious
associations, or to consecrate and protect the wearer. Many
medals thus blessed are enriched with indulgences for the user.

The History of Medals. It is very likely that the use of
medals among Christians came about because similar ornaments
were common among many pagan races. There was in every
form of paganism a constant endeavor to propitiate the deities
who were adored and to secure their protection. Amulets, talis
mans and charms of various kinds were used, being generally wTorn
suspended from the neck, as a supposed means of warding off
danger, disease and other evils. Even after Christianity had be
come the prevailing religion, it seemed to be impossible to root
out the practice of using some of these ancient pagan charms.

The Church, therefore, instead of trying to prevent it, en
deavored to turn it to good ends by suggesting or tolerating the
use of similar devices with Christian symbols. Our holy Church
has shown her wisdom in this manner in regard to many pagan

224 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

customs, purifying them and adapting them to her own purposes.
What more natural than that the early Christian converts should
wear symbols of their religion, just as in paganism they had worn
amulets to secure the protection of their gods?

We find traces of the use of medals at a very early date, when
the Roman Church was hiding in the catacombs. Some of these
ancient medals are preserved in various museums, and are often
marked with the " chrisma," that is, the Greek monogram of the
name of Christ. Others have portraits of the Apostles Peter and
Paul, or representations of the martyrdom of certain saints.

In the Middle Ages. Later on it became customary to coin
money with crosses and other religious emblems stamped on it,
and such coins were often suspended from the neck and used as
medals. About the twelfth century the great era of pilgrimages
began, and at the famous shrines of Europe and Palestine the
custom arose of making metal tokens or medals, to be used by the
pilgrim as souvenirs of his pious journey, and also to attest the
fact that he had really visited the shrine. These badges or " pil
grims' signs," as they were called, were generally worn conspicu
ously on the hat or breast. They were usually of lead, of circular
or cross-shaped form, and were known by various names — the
" tokens " of Assisi, the " crouches " or crosses signifying a pil
grimage to the Holy Land, scallop-shells reproduced in metal,
from the shrine of St. James of Compostella in Spain, crossed
keys denoting a journey to the tomb of St. Peter, etc.

The use of religious medals, however, was not common in the
Middle Ages. Somewhat later, about the fifteenth century,
artistic bronze and silver medals were substituted for the rude
pilgrim-tokens. About 1475, and possibly earlier, the custom
arose of making medals commemorative of the papal jubilees, and
these were carried to all parts of the world by pilgrims who visited
Rome to gain the jubilee indulgence.

In the sixteenth century the practice arose of giving a papal
blessing to medals, and even of enriching them with indulgences
for the wearers. And so the use of devotional medals spread

THE SACRAMENTALS 225

rapidly throughout Europe, and celebrated artists and engravers
occupied themselves with the designing of them.

Varieties of Religious Medals. To enumerate all the medals
that have been issued or that are now in use would be an endless
task. Specimens have been preserved of " plague medals " of the
Middle Ages, used at times when pestilence was rife, as a pro
tection against it. These often bore the picture of St. Roch or
St. Sebastian, and, more often still, that of the Blessed Virgin
or of some one of her shrines. When comets were objects of
dread, medals were made in Germany to shield mankind from the
calamities that were supposed to follow these direful portents.
Others commemorated legendary miracles and important historical
events.

Among the religious medals in most general use in our country
are the scapular medals, which are described elsewhere in this
book; the various sodality badges, differing in design according to
the nature of the societies using them; many varieties of medals
of the Blessed Virgin under her various titles, such as the Mater
Dolorosa, Our Lady of Victory, Queen of Heaven, Our Lady
of Lourdes, of Perpetual Help, of Good Counsel, of Mount
Carmel, etc. There are also the medals given to children at the
time of First Communion and Confirmation, with appropriate
devices; others in honor of our Blessed Lord, such as the " Sal-
vator Mundi " (" Saviour of the world"), the Holy Childhood
and the Infant of Prague. Then come the innumerable medals
of the saints — those of St. Joseph, popular especially among
German Catholics; the St. Rita medals, bearing an image of this
recently canonized saint; and others commemorating St. Dominic,
St. Aloysius, St. Francis of Assisi, St. Anthony, St. Ignatius
Loyola, St. Alphonsus, St. Patrick, St. Ann, St. Agnes, the
Guardian Angels, etc. A medal of St. Christopher is one of the
most recent, and is claimed to secure the protection of that saint
for travelers and especially for automobilists — who assuredly
need some such protection.

The Medal of St. Benedict. This highly indulgenced medal

226 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

bears a likeness of the great " Father of the Monastic Life." In
his right hand is a cross, beside which are the words " Crux Patris
Benedicti" ("The Cross of the Father Benedict"); in his left
hand is the book of the Benedictine rule. At his feet are repre
sented a chalice and a raven, symbols of the
priesthood and of hermit life. Around the
edge are the words " Ejus in Obitu Nostro
Praesentia Muniamur " ("At our death may
we be fortified by his presence"). On the re
verse side is a cross, on the vertical bar of
which are the initial letters of the words " Crux
Sacra Sit Mihi Lux" ("The holy Cross be
my light"); on the horizontal bar are the

Medal of St. Benedict initials of „ Non DracQ ^ mh{ p^ „ (« Let

not the Dragon be my guide"); and around are other letters
signifying other Latin mottoes. At the top is usually the word
"Pax" ("Peace") or the monogram I H S.

This form of the Benedictine medal commemorates the i4OOth
anniversary of the birth of St. Benedict, celebrated in 1880.
The right to make them is reserved exclusively to the
Great Arch-abbey of Monte Cassino, in Italy. There are many
indulgences for the wearers, including a plenary one on All Souls'
Day, obtained by visiting a church on that day or on its eve, and
praying there for the intention of the Holy Father.

The medal of St. Benedict was first approved by Benedict XIV
in 1741, and further indulgences were granted by Pius IX in
1877 and by Pius X in 1907.

The "Miraculous Medal." There is a widely used medal
known by this title because it takes its origin from a vision. It
is a medal of the Blessed Virgin, and is used as a badge by our
sodalities of the Children of Mary and of the Immaculate Concep
tion. It bears on one side an image of our Blessed Mother stand
ing on a globe. Around the picture are words " O Mary
Conceived without Sin, Pray for Us Who Have Recourse to
Thee." On the reverse side is the letter M surmounted by a
cross and surrounded by twelve stars, and beneath are the Hearts

THE SACRAMENTALS 227

of Jesus and Mary, the one with a crown of thorns, the other
pierced by a sword.

This beautiful medal has a remarkable history. It was given
to the world through a vision which was vouchsafed to a holy
servant of God, Sister Catherine, a French Sister of Charity,
known in the world as Zoe Laboure. On November 27, 1830,
and on several other occasions, the Blessed Virgin appeared to her
as depicted on the medal, and commanded the saintly nun to
cause the medal to be made. This was done, with the sanction of
the Archbishop of Paris, within two years; and the use of this
medal of the Immaculate Conception spread rapidly throughout the
world.

Many and great indulgences have been given to its wearers,
and it has been an important factor in increasing devotion to the
Blessed Mother of God, particularly among our young girls,
the members of our parish sodalities.

CHAPTER XL

ASHES

ON Ash Wednesday the Church begins the penitential season
of Lent, the forty days of mortification during which her children
are called upon to remember that they must chastise their bodies
and bring them into subjection; that he who neglects to do penance
is in danger of perishing; and that at all times the Christian must
remember his last end and his return to the dust from which he
was taken.

As we are all conscious that by nature we are " children of
wrath," we are urged to appease the offended majesty of God by
the practice of penance and mortification; and the Church teaches
us this solemn duty by the impressive ceremony of the imposition of
ashes on Ash Wednesday.

An Ancient Practice. Like many of the other symbolic prac
tices of our Church, the use of ashes to express humiliation and
sorrow is something which was common in other religions. Many

228 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

references to ft are found in the Old Testament. When David
repented for his sins he cried out: "I did eat ashes like bread,
and mingled my drink with weeping." When the people of
Nineveh were aroused to penance by the preaching of the prophet
Jonas, they " proclaimed a fast and put on sackcloth and sat in
ashes." It is probable, therefore, that the use of ashes was intro
duced in the early Church by converts from Judaism because it was
an observance with which they had been familiar in their former
faith.

The Lenten fast, according to the ancient practice of our
Church, began on the Monday after the first Sunday of Lent.
Consequently the penitential season was then somewhat shorter than
it is now ; deducting the Sundays, there were originally only thirty-
six fasting days. But about the year 700 it was seen to be fitting
that the fast of the faithful should be of the same duration as that
which our Blessed Lord had undergone; and the beginning of
the season of penance was fixed on what we now call Ash Wednes
day.

Originally a Public Penance. At first the ashes were im
posed only on public penitents. In those austere days of eccles
iastical discipline, public expiation was always exacted as a repara
tion for public scandal. Those who sought reconciliation with
God after grievous sin were required to appear at the door of the
church in penitential garb on Ash Wednesday morning. They
were then clad in sackcloth and sprinkled with ashes, and were
debarred from the church services until Holy Thursday.

But there were always among the faithful certain devout souls
who were not public sinners, but who wished to be sharers in the
humiliation of Ash Wednesday. And so, gradually, it became the
custom for all Catholics, including the clergy, to receive the ashes
on that day. The earliest legislation decreeing this is found about
the year 1090, and within a century from that time it had become
a universal practice.

The Source of Blessed Ashes. The ashes used for this cere
mony are obtained by the burning of the blessed palms of the
previous Palm Sunday. In this the mystical writers of the Church

THE SACRAMENTALS 229

have found a symbolic meaning. The palm typifies victory; and
the ashes show us that we cannot gain the victory over sin and
Satan unless by the practice of humility and mortification.

The Prayers of the Blessing. The language of the blessing is
very beautiful, and it is regrettable that our people are not made
more familiar with these and other petitions which are used in
the liturgy of our Church. In these prayers God is besought to
spare us sinners; to send His holy Angel to bless these ashes, that
they may become a salutary remedy; that all upon whom they are
sprinkled may have health of body and soul. He is implored to
bestow His mercy upon us, who are but dust and ashes; and,
just as He spared the Ninevites, whom He had doomed to destruc
tion, so the Church begs Him to spare us, because, like them, we
wish to do penance and obtain forgiveness.

Such is the substance of the blessing, and then comes the solemn
imposition. Rich and poor, cleric and layman, the tottering old
man and the little child, all throng to the altar of God ; and with
the impressive words: " Remember, man, that thou art dust, and
unto dust thou shalt return," the priest places upon the head of
each those ashes which are such a striking symbol of our frail
mortality. As a spiritual writer has said : " He mingles the
ashes that are dead with with the ashes yet alive," that the lifeless
dust may impress upon us the solemn truth that we too are but
dust, and that unto dust we shall return.

PART VII
THE LITURGICAL BOOKS

CHAPTER XLI
THE MISSAL

WHEN a priest goes to the altar to begin the celebra
tion of Mass he opens a large book, and the people
know that the prayers which he recites vary from day
to day, as they see him arrange the markers or ribbons with which
the volume is provided. This book is called the Missal, that is,
the Mass-Book, and it contains all that is read or recited in the
offering of the Adorable Sacrifice, and very complete " rubrics "
or directions for the proper reading of each Mass.

As the Missal is in the Latin language, and as translations of it
have not been generally accessible to the faithful until rather re
cently, its contents are more or less of a mystery even to well-
instructed Catholics, although some of the more modern prayer-
books contain parts of it rendered into English, and even com
plete Missals in Latin and English are now published for the
use of the faithful.

A lack of knowledge regarding this and other sacred things used
by our Church in divine worship tends to render our people in
capable of appreciating the value and beauty of sacred rites.
Therefore it may be useful to describe briefly the contents of the
book from which the priest reads the solemn and beautiful prayers
which the Church has incorporated into the holy Sacrifice of the
Mass. The Missal is a book which treats of matters in which all
we Catholics should be interested; and some knowledge of which
will be useful to us because we will thereby better appreciate the
grandeur and harmony of the daily Oblation which is offered

230

THE LITURGICAL BOOKS 231

before the throne of God by the appointed ministers of His Church
on earth.

The Liturgy of the Jews. Among the " people of God " in
Old Testament times, in the religion which was a foreshadowing
of the Christian faith, a special ritual was in use, based on direct
revelation from God, in -which the ceremonial rules were pre
scribed in the most minute details, and the observance of them was
enjoined under the severest penalties. This liturgy was put into
form by Moses, the great lawgiver of the Jews, and it continued
in use in the worship of God down to the time when it was abro
gated by the institution of the Christian Church.

The Church's Liturgy. As the essence of the Christian re
ligion is contained in the Mass and the Sacraments, which were
unknown in the Jewish faith, it was necessary to create a new
liturgy. This was done by the Church, and was done very slowly.
Our Blessed Lord Himself instituted the Holy Sacrifice and
the seven Sacraments, but He did not make any rules about their
administration. The authority for arranging all these details
is contained in the power " to bind and to loose," given to the
teaching body of the Church ; and she also has the power to estab
lish from time to time such sacramentals and other aids to devo
tion as may be conducive to the spiritual welfare of the faithful.

The Growth of the Missal. The Missal, in its present form,
is the result of centuries of development. From the earliest times
the essential parts of it were in use in the Church, but they were
not always arranged as at present. The changes that have come
in the arrangement of the parts of the Mass are described else
where in this book, in the chapter on " The Growth of the Mass."
In the early Middle Ages a portion of the prayers was found in
one book, another portion in another; and these different books,
copied by hand before the invention of printing, caused considerable
inconvenience and confusion. A uniform ritual was seen to be
advisable in a Church which has a uniform Creed, and in the
sixteenth century the Missal was reduced to substantially its pres
ent form.

The Reformer of the Missal. This action was recommended

232 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

by the Council of Trent, and was put into effect by Pope St. Pius
V, who thoroughly revised the Missal, making his edition the
standard to which all others must conform.

An exception was made for some churches and religious orders
which had a liturgy of their own going back over two hundred
years, and they were allowed to continue the use of their own
peculiar rite on account of its antiquity. Some of our readers may
have noticed the differences in the Mass as said by members of
the Dominican order from that celebrated by secular priests; and
some, possibly, may have assisted at the Holy Sacrifice when it was
offered by a priest of some Oriental Catholic rite, with strange
ceremonies and weird chanting. The decree of St. Pius V pre
scribing the use of the revisal Missal was issued in 1570; and,
as it was not thoroughly obeyed in some parts of the world, a
stricter law was made by Clement VIII in 1604 and by Urban
VIII in 1634. These three decrees are placed at the beginning of
every Missal.

The Missal in use in all churches having the Latin rite is
printed entirely in the Latin language. The reasons for this have
been very fully set forth in another chapter of this book.

The Arrangement of the Book. It contains, at the beginning,
a list of the feasts of the Church, movable and immovable. Next
come the rubrics, or rules for the guidance of the priest, and these
are continued all through the book. The word " rubric " means
" red," on account of the ancient practice among the Romans, of
writing in that color the important and explanatory parts of their
legal documents. This practice is still continued in all the
liturgical books of the Church, which are always in two colors —
red for the explanations and rules, black for the text itself.

What we may call the Missal proper begins with the Mass of
the first Sunday of Advent, the beginning of the Church's year.
Then, one after another, we find the Masses assigned to all the
Sundays and festivals and saints' days. In these the entire wording
of the Mass is not given — merely the parts that are " proper "
to the day.

In the middle of the book is inserted the " Ordinary of the

THE LITURGICAL BOOKS 233

Mass," that is, the parts in which there is little change from day
to day. In this portion of the Missal are the Prefaces, those
sublime expressions of homage and thanksgiving to God, which are
sung to the music of an ancient and beautiful chant in high Masses
and recited in low Masses. There are eleven in number, vary
ing according to the season and sometimes according to the feast.

The Canon of the Mass. Then comes the Canon of the Mass,
which is practically unchanged from day to day. It includes the
" Te igitur," in which God's blessing is invoked upon the Church,
the Pope, the Bishops and all the faithful ; the " Memento for the
Living " ; the " Communicantes," which brings in the names and
asks the intercession of the Apostles and other Saints; and the
solemn words of consecration, by which the bread and wine are
changed into the living Body and Blood of Christ. Later on there
is the Memento for the Dead, a prayer " also for us sinners,"
the Pater Noster, three prayers before Communion, and many
other beautiful petitions.

The Masses of the Saints. As is well known, nearly every
day of the year is dedicated by our Church to the honoring of
some saint or the celebration of some festival. The saints are ar
ranged in several classes — Apostles, martyrs, Doctors of the
Church, confessor bishops, confessors, virgin-martyrs, virgins and
widows ; and for each class a special Mass is provided, while many
of the individual Saints have Masses of their own — that is, some
of the prayers and other parts are composed or selected especially in
honor of that Saint.

The Requiem Masses. Further on in the Missal are the
Masses for the dead. Special prayers are given for deceased Popes,
Cardinals, Bishops and priests, for the celebrant's father and
mother or both, for relatives, benefactors, etc. It should be under
stood that the saying of Requiem Masses is restricted to certain
days. On festivals, except of the lower classes, low Masses in
black vestments are not allowed, and on some of the most impor
tant feasts even funeral Masses are forbidden.

The Missal has a supplement which contains Masses in honor
of certain saints whose festivals are not celebrated everywhere;

234 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

for it is permitted to some countries or certain religious orders
to honor saints of their own, whose veneration is not prescribed
for the whole world.

The Value of the Missal. Our religion teaches us that in the
Mass we have an inestimable treasure of grace. The great variety
of prayers contained in the Missal enhances the value of this treas
ure, because those that are appropriate can be selected, in some
cases at least, according to the particular needs for which the
Mass is offered. In order to have a better knowledge of the
beauties of our Church's liturgy, every member of our Catholic
faithful should possess and use a prayer-book which contains an
accurate translation of at least a part of the Mass, instead of the
" Devotions for Mass," oftentimes inane and insipid, that are pro
vided in some of our manuals of prayer.

CHAPTER XLII
THE BREVIARY

"WHY do you priests spend so much time in reading from a
little black book?" Every priest has heard this question from
his non-Catholic friends. The Catholic has a general idea that
the priest is under an obligation to recite his Office every day, but
few Catholics have any very clear notion as to what the Office is
or why it is said.

The Church's Public Prayer. The Office is a prayer, and
the most efficacious prayer ever composed. It is the one great
public prayer of the Church, as the Mass is her one great sacrifice.
This does not mean that the Office is said necessarily in public,
but that the priest who offers it is not acting in his own name but
in the name of the Church, even though he may recite it alone
and almost silently. It is a prayer offered by ministers of God,
who have been raised to the most exalted dignity on earth, that they
may praise God in the name of all mankind and ask for grace for
all the Church's children. It is said in the name of the Church

THE LITURGICAL BOOKS 235

and by her authority; hence it is the expression of her homage to
her heavenly King.

When you see a priest reading his Breviary, did it ever occur
to you that you have a share in that prayer, that you derive benefit
from the recitation of that Office by him? He is taking part in
the public prayer of the Church of which you are a member. Re
flect that in this country alone there are nearly twenty thousand
priests, who daily spend more than an hour in offering this public
prayer to God for the Church and for all her members — and the
clergy of the United States form a very small fraction of those of
the universal Church. All over the world, in monasteries and in
cathedrals, the Divine Office is solemnly recited at stated hours,
and every priest in every land lays aside his other duties at some
time each day to raise his heart to God and to join in offering to
Him the public homage of His Church on earth.

The Priest Is a Mediator. In every form of religion the priest
has been considered as a mediator — one who is to stand, as it
were, between God and man, who was not only to offer sacrifices,
which is always the greatest act of divine worship, but also to pray
for the people, to present their petitions to the Deity, and to solicit
His favors for them. This was true not only of the Jewish faith
but of every pagan creed. Everywhere the priest was the ap
pointed man of prayer, selected to propitiate the powers of the un
seen world.

The priests of the Church of Christ are " the dispensers of the
mysteries of God," as St. Paul calls them. " Every high-priest
taken from among men is ordained for men in the things that
pertain to God.'* This is the essence of the priestly character
— that he is appointed to that dignity not for himself but for
mankind.

The Catholic priest who says his Office, then, is not praying for
himself alone. He is acting as a representative of all the members
of the Church. He is your substitute, doing in your name what
you and the generality of mankind have neither the time nor the
inclination to do. He is uniting his prayers with those of the
blessed in heaven in honoring the Creator of all things.

236 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

What is the Breviary? The book which a priest uses for the
reciting of his Office is known as a Breviary. Why is it so called?
The word " Breviary" (from the Latin word " brevis," short or
brief) would seem to indicate that the contents are not lengthy —
and many an overworked priest on a busy Sunday may well wonder
why that word is used. For his consolation it may be well to
state that the whole Office is really much shorter than it was
centuries ago. About the year noo a considerable abbreviation
was made in it throughout the Church, and the new office-book
brought into use at that time was called a " Breviarium," or
abridgment. A further shortening of some Offices and a rearrange
ment of nearly all went into effect by direction of Pope Pius X,
in 1912.

The Breviary contains the Office which all priests and all
clerics in Sacred Orders are obliged to recite daily under pain of
mortal sin unless they are exempted by a grave reason. It is made
up of four volumes, adapted to the four seasons of the year, since
all the Office in one volume would be too unwieldy for use.

These Offices are in Latin, and are made up of psalms, canticles,
hymns, extracts from the Scriptures, brief lives of the saints, parts
of sermons by the great Fathers of the Church (such as Gregory,
Augustine and Chrysostom), many short prayers, versicles, re
sponses, and the frequent repetition of the Lord's Prayer, the Hail
Mary and the Apostles' Creed.

The Parts of the Office. It is divided into seven parts known
as the Canonical Hours, and in the Middle Ages it was the gen
eral practice to recite each part at its own hour; but the secular
clergy of our day and many of the religious communities are not
bound now to observe this practice strictly. Each priest is obliged
to say the whole Office of the day within the twenty-four hours of
the day, but at any hour or hours that may be convenient, saying
as much at a time as he may be able or willing to recite. More
over, he has the privilege of " anticipating," or saying a part of
the Office after two o'clock of the preceding day if he sees fit
to do so. Thus, he may, for example, say a part of Tuesday's
Office on Monday.

THE LITURGICAL BOOKS 237

The first of the Canonical Hours is " Matins," or the morning
office, which was recited originally before dawn; it is followed
by " Lauds," or praises of God. The next division is " Prime,"
or the first, because it was said at the " first hour," or sunrise.
Then " Terce," or third, recited at the third hour, nine o'clock;
" Sext," or sixth, at noon ; and " None," or ninth, at three
o'clock. " Vespers " is next, signifying the evening service, and
then comes " Compline," or the completion, which was said at bed
time.

The Office varies from day to day. It may be a Sunday Office
or a week-day Office or the Office of a saint. In the latter case it
is different according to the saint who is honored, the hymns,
prayers, etc., being modified by the class to which he or she be
longs — an apostle, martyr, confessor or virgin.

Suppose, for instance, that the Church is celebrating to-day the
festival of a saint who was a martyr. Every priest all over the
world recites thirty-three psalms, three canticles, eight hymns, nine
prayers, the Our Father fourteen times, the Hail Mary seven
times, the Creed three times and the Confiteor once. He reads
three extracts from the Scriptures, three short chapters on the life
of the saint, and three from a sermon by a Father of the Church,
besides eight " capitula " ("little chapters") of a few lines each,
the " Te Deum " once, and a great number of short verses and
responses taken mostly from the Bible.

The History of the Office. According to the best authorities,
the Office, in some form at least, goes back to Apostolic times. In
the beginning it was made up almost entirely of the Psalms of
David, and they are the groundwork of the Breviary at the present
day. In later centuries various prayers and " Lessons " were
added, and a great number of new festivals was established ; every
religious order had its own mode of reciting the Office, and there
was little attempt at uniformity. The Council of Trent revised
the whole Office, and the Breviary authorized by that Council
was published in 1602. This became practically universal, al
though some of the older monastic orders have been permitted to
keep their ancient Offices, and a considerable diversity regarding

238 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

the observance of festivals is allowed in different parts of the
world.

Pope Pius X, of blessed memory, authorized a complete revision
of the Breviary, as already mentioned. The new arrangement is
such that all the Psalms of the Bible, 150 in number, are usually
recited within each week, thus going back to the ancient idea of
emphasizing the divine psalmody as the substance of the Office.

We see, then, the excellence of the Divine Office of our Church,
recited daily by her priests. That public prayer has been offered
up for many centuries. The greater part of it is the inspired
Word of God, taken from the Old and New Testaments. It
treats of the lives of the most illustrious saints of God in every
age; it contains eloquent discourses by the great Fathers of the
Church, and hymns as notable for their literary merit as for their
pious sentiments. Except the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and the
Sacraments, the Church possesses no treasure of grace so abundant
as the Divine Office which her priests offer to God every day at
her command.

CHAPTER XLIII
THE RITUAL

OUR Holy Church considers that all earthly things need sancti-
fication, inasmuch as by the fall of our first parents the world be
came subject to the power of the Evil One ; and so, from the earliest
times, she has observed the practice of bestowing blessings on
various objects. She wishes that not only the things employed in
her services but also those that her children use in their daily life
should be " sanctified by the Word of God and by prayer."

History of the Ritual. The Roman Ritual is a book which
every priest has occasion to use frequently. The Ritual means the
" Book of Rites," just as the Missal signifies the " Book of the
Mass," and the Pontifical the " Book of the Pontiff " or Bishop.
It has taken centuries to bring the Ritual to its present form. In
early times all the forms of blessing were not comprised in one
book ; some were contained in the " Sacramentary," some in the

THE LITURGICAL BOOKS 239

Missal, some elsewhere. The first book resembling our Ritual
was entitled a " Sacerdotale," or Priest's Book, and was published at
Rome in 1537. In those days nearly every diocese had its own
Ritual and its own list of authorized blessings ; and, to promote uni
formity, the Council of Trent recommended that a new and com
plete Ritual should be issued and should be used all over the
world, at least where the Latin rite prevailed. In 1614 the learned
Pontiff Paul V authorized a revised Ritual which was put into
form by a commission headed by Cardinal Julius d'Antonio, a man
of remarkable zeal and ability. It has not been altered to any
considerable extent since that time, although it was re-edited by
Benedict XIV in 1753, and many new blessings have been added
to it at various times.

The Parts of the Ritual. The complete Ritual is made up of
several parts. It opens with the rites of the Sacraments that can
be administered by a priest — Baptism, of a child or an adult;
Penance, with the form of absolving from censures ; the giving of
Holy Communion outside of Mass or to the sick; Extreme Unc
tion, with an appendix of psalms and the Litany of the .Saints,
which may be recited when the last Sacraments are administered
to the sick; and Matrimony, after which is placed (very appro
priately) the prayers of " churching," or the blessing of a woman
after childbirth.

A chapter for the visitation of the sick contains some beautiful
prayers and selections from the Gospels, which may be read over
the sick person. These are worthy of special notice, on account
of the consoling nature of the passages chosen from the sacred
text.

The first is the touching account of the faith of the pagan
centurion — " Lord, I am not worthy that Thou shouldst enter
under my roof. Say only the word, and my servant shall be
healed.'* Another gives us the divine commission bestowed on
the Apostles: " Going into the whole world, preach the Gospel to
every creature. , . . They shall place their hands on the sick,
and these shall be made well." A third tells of the curing of the
mother-in-law of St. Peter, who was " seized with great fevers."

240 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Another, the healing of the man at the pool of Bethsaida. Each of
these is followed by an appropriate prayer, asking for restoration of
health for the afflicted one; and at the end is a special blessing im
parted by the placing of the priest's hands on the head of the sick
person and by a prayer asking health for him " through the inter
cession of the Apostles Peter and Paul and all the Saints." And
the series of prayers is concluded with the opening verses of the
sublime Gospel of St. John: " In the beginning was the Word."

The Various Blessings. Further on in the book come the de
tails of the ceremonies of Candlemas Day, Palm Sunday, and other
feasts on which special blessings are imparted. But the part which
is most interesting is that which contains the many blessings which
the Church authorizes and uses for the sanctification of persons,
places and things.

These are altogether about 140 in number. The prayers used
in them generally ask that the thing blessed may tend to the spirit
ual and temporal welfare of the faithful.

First come the blessings of persons. There is the well-known
" Blessing of St. Blaise," which is administered in
some of our churches on his festival, the third of
February, and which is commemorative of the
legend which makes that saint the preserver from
diseases of the throat. There is a blessing for sick

St. Blaise Candle .

persons, distinct from those already mentioned;
and a special form of prayer and benediction for a woman who
expects to become a mother.

There are several blessings for children. One is for infants,
that they may " grow in holiness " ; one for a child, that it may in
crease, as our Saviour did, " in wisdom and age and grace with
God and men " ; another for an assembly or sodality of children,
and a special blessing for sick children.

Blessings for Religious Articles. A blessing is given to
nearly everything which the Church uses in her rites and cere
monies or offers to the veneration of her children. There is a
form for a new cross, for religious statues, for banners, organs,
crucifixes, rosaries of various kinds, medals, and many other

THE LITURGICAL BOOKS 241

articles. Some of these receive what is called the " Papal In
dulgence " through the form of blessing which is recited over
them.

Then there are the blessings for buildings. There is a special
form for schools — for the Church is always the zealous promoter
of Christian education and all varieties of useful knowledge.
Several blessings are provided for dwellings. One of these is
assigned to Holy Saturday, when the priest (in many countries)
goes from house to house, sprinkling holy water and praying that
" as the blood of the paschal lamb protected the Israelites from
the destroying angel, so may the Blood of Jesus Christ protect
the inmates of this house from all evil."

It is a laudable custom, when a new house is completed to
have the priest visit it and invoke the mercy of God upon it and
those who shall dwell in it. A blessing is given in the Ritual
for that purpose — that the edifice itself may be preserved from
danger of destruction, and that spiritual and worldly blessings may
come abundantly upon those who shall call it their home.

Blessings for Living Things. The tiller of the soil, the herds
man and the shepherd are the primary producers of wealth; and
the prosperity — even the existence — of the human race depends
upon the success of their labor. The piety of the faithful in every
age has sought for the blessing of God and His Church upon flocks
and herds and the products of the soil. And so we find many
quaint blessings in the Ritual, for nearly every animal that is use
ful to man — cows, oxen, horses, sheep, fowl, bees ; also a different
form of blessing when any of the larger animals is sick. There
are blessings, too, for the protection of the farmers' crops and gran
aries against harmful animals — mice, locusts, etc. The Church
has always believed and taught that " every best gift, every per
fect gift, is from above, coming down from the Father of Light " ;
that all things, even the lowliest, are directly subject to His
providence.

Blessings for Eatables. This spirit of the Church leads her
to extend her solemn blessings even to the things that are to be used
for food and drink. " The earth is the Lord's, and the fullness

242 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

thereof " — and even the food which God provides for the nour
ishment of our bodies tends to some extent to the promotion of
His glory. And so she gives her blessings for vines, fruits, eggs,
oil, bread, cakes, cheese, butter — and even wine and beer. Our
Church advocates temperance, indeed ; but she knows, as we know,
that the abuse, not the use, of these latter things is to be repre
hended.

Blessings for Other Things. To permit the giving of God's
blessing to the things which we use in our daily occupations, the
Church has provided forms of benediction for many different ob
jects — for the launching of a ship, for bridges, for wells and
springs, for furnaces and limekilns ; for granaries, bakeries, stables ;
for seeds and for a field after sowing; for medicines and surgical
appliances. And that she may demonstrate that she appreciates
modern inventions, she has added formulas for the blessing of steam
engines, railroads, telegraphs, telephones — and, very recently, for
the apparatus for wireless telegraphy.

All these blessings show us that the Church wishes us to recog
nize our dependence upon God, Who bestows His gifts upon
us so abundantly; and, that these may be useful to us spiritually
and otherwise, the Church bestows her solemn blessing upon the
things which we, the children of God, have received from our
Heavenly Father.

PART VIII
DEVOTIONS

CHAPTER XLIV
THE DEVOTION TO THE SACRED HEART

IT is not within the scope of this book to discuss the spiritual
side of the devotion to the Sacred Heart of our Blessed Lord.
There are scores of volumes that treat of the benefits of this
special worship which we pay to our Divine Redeemer, and of the
various ways in which it can be profitable to the souls of the faith
ful. The aim of this work is merely to give the history of Catholic
practices and to explain their nature, their reasonableness and
their use.

Each of the twelve months of the year has its special devotion.
Some of these have been merely advocated by spiritual writers,
with the intention of providing, throughout the year, a series of
religious exercises for the devout. Others are authorized and ap
proved by the Church, and those who practise them receive certain
indulgences.

The month of June, as all Catholics know, is the month of the
Sacred Heart. During it the Church urges the faithful to
special zeal in the worship of the Heart of our Saviour, considered
as a part of His sacred Humanity and as the emblem of His infinite
love.

The devotion to the Sacred Heart is one which has become
widely known only since the seventeenth century; and it was not
sanctioned by the Church for general use until the latter part of
the eighteenth. Though it is now recognized as an important ele
ment in Catholic worship, it met with strenuous opposition when it
was first introduced — not only from the Jansenists (who had

243

244 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

fallen into error regarding many doctrines of the Church) but
from earnest Catholics who object to the new doctrine because
they misunderstood it.

The Blessed Margaret Mary. Homage paid to the Heart of
Jesus is mentioned by spiritual writers as early as the twelfth cen
tury; but it was practised to a very limited extent until a little
more than two hundred years ago. A humble and holy French
nun, the Blessed Margaret Mary Alacoque, within the space of a
religious life of only nineteen years, instituted a devotion which
bids fair to last forever. She became the apostle of the beauti
ful and now universal worship of the loving Heart of our Blessed
Saviour.

She was born in the village of Lauthecourt, in France, in the
year 1647, and lived until 1690. After a childhood remarkable
for sanctity, she entered the community of the Visitation nuns at
Paray-le-Monial in 1671. Here she lived a life of mortification
and prayer, and in return for her fidelity and fervor our Divine
Lord is said to have vouchsafed her a privilege which He has fre
quently given to other holy souls. He appeared to her on several
occasions; and in one of these visions He showed her His Heart,
pierced with a wound, encircled with a crown of thorns, sur
rounded by flames and surmounted by a cross — as we see it
usually represented in pictures and statues at the present day. He
commanded her to practise and to teach others the devotion to
His Sacred Heart, because of His ardent desire to be loved by men
and His wish to give to all mankind the treasures of His love and
mercy.

The pious nun sought the counsel of her superiors, and the
account of her visions was received at first with incredulity. All
her actions and her teachings were subjected to a most severe ex
amination, and it was long before any approval was given to the
devotion which she was endeavoring to establish. But the will
of God cannot be opposed. The devotion spread rapidly through
France, and was gradually established in other parts of the world.
It did not at first receive the approbation of the Holy See, for our
Church is cautious in giving her sanctions to anything that savors

DEVOTIONS 245

of novelty in religion, and makes a long and careful scrutiny be
fore she recommends a new devotion to her children. In 1794,
however, Pius VI issued a decree approving the devotion to the
Sacred Heart and granting indulgences to those who practise it.

The Feast of the Sacred Heart. Attempts had been made, in
1697 and in 1729, to have a day set apart in honor of the
Sacred Heart, but on both occasions the proposal was rejected by
the Roman Congregation of Rites. In 1765, however, a number
of churches were permitted to celebrate this feast, and in 1856
this permission was extended to the whole world, and the feast
was fixed on the day after the festival of Corpus Christi, in the
month of June. In 1889, under Leo XIII, the day was raised to
a higher rank in the Church's calendar, and all mankind was
solemnly consecrated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. On account of
the importance of this great June festival, the whole month of
June is considered as being specially devoted to the worship of the
Sacred Heart.

Margaret Mary Alacoque was pronounced Venerable by Leo
XII in 1824, and was honored with the title of Blessed by Pius
IX in 1864. Through her intercession many miracles have been
performed, especially at the place of her burial, and it is very
probable that in this humble French nun we have one of God's
chosen servants, whose name will some day be placed on the list
of the Church's Saints, and whose virtues will be venerated by
Catholics throughout the world.

Why We Adore the Sacred Heart. Let us examine into the
reasonableness of this devotion. Are we obliged to believe the ac
count of the visions of Margaret Mary? No. We are not
obliged to believe anything supernatural except the truths that God
has revealed to be accepted by all. This is a point that is nearly
always misunderstood by non-Catholics. Because we Catholics
practise a devotion which was established by a woman who claimed
to have had a vision, they regard us as votaries of superstition and
our Church as a promoter of fanciful ideas, not reflecting that,
even though the vision might be false, the devotion might be true.
The Catholic Church does not assert that the French nun really

246 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

saw our Blessed Lord; neither does she oblige us to believe it.
She merely declares that the devotion to the Sacred Heart of
Jesus is not only not opposed in any way to divine revelation, but
that it is an excellent form of worship; and she recommends it
to her children, urges them to make use of it, and grants spiritual
favors to those who do so.

We shall state briefly the Catholic doctrine regarding the wor
ship of the Sacred Heart. It is not a mere relative homage, such
as we give to holy things or to holy persons. It is not the higher
form of religious veneration, such as we pay to the Blessed Mother
of God. It is supreme adoration, because it is paid to the physical
Heart of Christ, considered not as mere flesh, but as united to the
Divinity. We Catholics adore that Heart as the Heart of Christ,
an inseparable part of Him. All the members of Christ are or
may be the object of divine worship, because they are a part of His
human nature and are thereby united to the Divine Nature of
the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity.

But why is the Heart of Jesus selected as the object of this
special adoration? Because His real and physical Heart is a nat
ural symbol of the infinite charity of the Saviour and of His in
terior and spiritual life. The heart is a vital organ which, as it
throbs within us, is part of our existence. It has always been
looked upon as an emblem, sometimes of courage, sometimes of
one's whole interior nature, but oftener of love. How often we
hear such expressions as " Be of good heart," meaning " Have
courage " ; " He opened his heart to me," meaning " He told me
all his secrets"; and our Lord Jesus, in asking our love, made
the request in these words, " Son, give me thy heart." We see,
then the reasonableness of taking the Sacred Heart of our Saviour
as an object of our worship, not only because it is a part of Him,
but because it symbolizes His love for all mankind.

From early times the Five Wounds of our Lord were venerated
as the symbol of His Passion, and this devotion received the appro
bation of the Church. In like manner, in these later days, she
has seen fit to sanction and recommend the worship of the Sacred
Heart of Jesus and to urge her children to offer their homage to

DEVOTIONS 247

that symbol of our Saviour's love, wherewith " He has loved us
even to the end."

A Symbol of Love. We must remember, then, that while this
devotion is directed to the material Heart of our Blessed Lord, it
does not stop there. It includes also a spiritual element — namely,
the infinite love of Jesus for us, which is recalled and symbolized
by His Sacred Heart.

There is no devotion that has been extended throughout the
Catholic world in so short a time. This means of realizing and
honoring the all-embracing love of our Blessed Saviour would seem
to have filled a long-felt want in the hearts of the devout faithful.
Religious communities of men and women have been established
under the title of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, and many societies
have been formed among the laity with the special object of offer
ing united worship to that adorable Heart. Among these the
League of the Sacred Heart is the best known and
the most flourishing in our country as well as
throughout the Christian world.

The First Fridays. One of the greatest fac
tors not only in making the worship of the Sacred
Heart known but in distributing its spiritual bene
fits is the " Devotion of the First Fridays." The League Badge
faithful are exhorted to receive Holy Communion on the first
Friday of each month for nine months in succession, by which they
may gain a plenary indulgence ; and in many churches and chapels
the exposition of the Blessed Sacrament takes place, either during
the whole day or in the evening, and special services are held in
honor of our Eucharistic Lord and especially of His Sacred Heart,
the symbol of His unutterable love for us whom He died to
save.

CHAPTER XLV
THE INVOCATION OF SAINTS

THOSE who are hostile to our religion, whether through preju
dice or ignorance, have several allegations which they bring up
regularly concerning the " superstitions of Romanism " and the

248 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

" idolatrous practices " with which Papists have overlaid the true
doctrines of Christianity.

It avails little to answer these charges — to set forth the Catho
lic teaching and to refute the untruthful exposition of it. Those
who make the statements, either do not see the refutation or do
not care to notice it. Catholic writers will painstakingly explain
the doctrines of the Church and will give a thorough and logical
answer to the unjust charges of those who criticise her — and the
next " learned author " will blandly reiterate the calumny as if it
never had been or could be refuted.

The dogmas and practices of our Church are not hidden things.
They may be found clearly set forth in hundreds of easily accessible
books — in the elementary catechism and in the popular explana
tions of Catholic belief as well as in the works of learned
theologians. Why is it, then, we wonder, that the literary genius
who contributes to our current magazines does not prepare himself
for his task by trying to ascertain precisely what the Catholic
Church teaches before he attempts to criticise her teachings or to
write a description of her rites and ceremonies? Why is it that
the great minds that are called upon, as infallible authorities, to
explain matters Catholic for certain encyclopedias do not first ac
quire a definite and accurate idea of their subject? Why is it,
again, that hardly a minister of religion can be found in the
churches of our separated brethren who can give a clear and
truthful statement of the Catholic beliefs and practices which he
unsparingly condemns in his Sunday sermon? It would seem
reasonable to expect that a man who poses- as an expert in any par
ticular line would not fall into gross errors every time that he
writes or speaks about his specialty.

Do Catholics Adore Saints? In hardly any one point have
Catholics been so persistently misrepresented as in the matter of
the invocation of saints. The " benighted adherents of Rome
adore the Virgin," they " pay divine homage to creatures," they
" pray for mercy to mere men and women, and give them the adora
tion which should be given to God alone." From the time of
Julian the Apostate the same old calumnies have been repeated,

DEVOTIONS 249

and refuted, and repeated again. How strange it is that we, who
are " adherents of Rome," are so utterly " benighted " that we have
never realized that we were taking part in this false worship!
How strange that there is no mention of it in the writings of our
Catholic authors for nineteen centuries!

The Church and the Saints. What does the Catholic Church
believe and teach and practise concerning the Saints?

That Church has been in existence nearly nineteen hundred years.
It has on its list of known saints many thousands of names — men
and women whom it honors, to whom, indeed, it pays real religious
homage. But never in its history has it adored any one but God.
It does not adore, and never can or will adore the Blessed Virgin,
for it recognizes and has always taught that she is a creature of
God, and nothing more than a creature. She is a glorified human
soul, more perfect and more lovable than any other save the
human soul of her Son ; she is worthy of the highest place and the
most exalted honor that a creature can attain to in heaven, for
through God's choosing of her for the destiny of being His Mother,
through the abundance of graces which He bestowed upon her,
and through her fidelity in corresponding with these graces, she
has reached a degree of glory which places her higher than God's
angels or His other saints — but she remains a creature. She is
not divine. She is not in any sense a goddess. She is infinitely
inferior to God. The honor which the Catholic Church pays to
her is altogether of a different nature from that which is rendered
to God. He is adored as the Creator and Supreme Ruler of all
things; she is venerated as a Saint of God and the greatest of
Saints — as our most powerful intercessor before His throne.

And what the Church holds and teaches concerning her is pre
cisely what she holds and teaches concerning the saints of lesser
degree. They are chosen friends of God; they are souls which
have served Him well and have thereby won their heavenly reward.
They are deserving of our homage because of their holiness; and,
as they are still members of God's Church, they are united to us
in what we call the " Communion of Saints." We honor them,
and they pray for us ; but neither they nor the Blessed Virgin Mary

250 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

can give us any grace or show us any mercy. They can simply
present our prayers to the Almighty and unite them to their own ;
and we honor them with religious homage, that thereby we may
obtain the assistance of those friends of God who stand before His
throne.

Adoration to God, Veneration to Saints. The Catholic
Church, then, makes a complete and clear distinction between the
supreme worship which we give to God alone and the relative
and inferior homage which we pay to the Saints. Some of the
confusion in the minds of non-Catholics may arise from the fact
that the Catholic authors who wrote in Latin used the word
" cultus " to denote both kinds of religious homage, and that we
have no one word in English which will express the meaning of this
word except " worship." But these Catholic authors always dis
tinguished emphatically between the " cultus duliae," which we
may translate " the homage of veneration," and the " cultus
latriae," which signifies " the worship of adoration."

Veneration is paid to the Saints; a higher form of it, called " hy-
perdulia," is given to the Queen of Saints; but adoration is given
to no one but God. Any attempt to give it to a creature would
certainly be false worship — but the Catholic Church has never
given it. She adores God and God only. She venerates His
Saints with religious homage.

The Communion of Saints. Is it reasonable to suppose that
the Saints can aid us? Why not? We who are here upon earth
in the membership of Christ's Church are urged to pray for one
another. We are told that we should go to God with the wants
of others as well as with our own. Now, it is hard to see a
reason why souls that are with God, that are enjoying everlasting
happiness, should cease to exercise Christian charity, and should
be unable or unwilling to intercede for their brethren.

What do the Scriptures teach us — the Sacred Word of God to
which our separated brethren appeal so constantly as the one " rule
of faith " ? In St. John's Apocalyptic vision, he saw the elders
" prostrate before the Lamb, having each . . . golden vials, which
are the prayers of the saints." It matters not whether the

DEVOTIONS 251

"saints" were on earth or in heaven; in either case their prayers
are offered to God by those before His throne.

An Ancient Belief. The belief in the intercessory power of
the Saints is as old as the Church. It is alluded to in authentic
writings, such as the " Acts of the Martyrs," in the second and
third centuries. They are represented as interceding after death
for the faithful upon earth. " In heaven," said the martyr Theo-
dotus before his torments began, " I will pray for you to God."

And this Catholic doctrine is clearly set forth in the writings
of the earlier Fathers of the Church. Origen, among others, tells
us that " all the Saints that have departed this life care for the sal
vation of those who are in the world and help them by their prayers
and mediation."

How the Saints Hear Us. If the Saints of God have the
power of interceding for us, it is certain that we must have com
munication with them, that they may be able to know our needs.
We may be sure that God makes the " Communion of Saints "
perfect on both sides — that we, members of His Church on earth,
are able to speak to the members of that Church in Heaven, so
that they may speak for us to Him. How is this effected? We
do not know. Catholic theologians and spiritual writers have
speculated about it, but we have no certainty as to the exact means
which God provides for this communication. Some have supposed
that the Almighty allows those who are in His presence to see in
Him " as in a mirror " all that concerns them about earthly things.
At any rate, the knowledge which they have and the petitions
which they may receive from us depend entirely upon God's good
ness — and beyond that fact our weak human intellect cannot go.

Our Faith Regarding the Saints. We Catholics, then, adore
God alone. He is our Creator, our Redeemer, our hope here and
hereafter. We believe that in heaven we have a host of friends.
We believe that these friends are also friends of our Blessed Lord —
that one of them is His Mother, loved by Him so dearly that He
will grant her every prayer — that one is His foster-father, whom
He reverenced upon earth and loves in heaven — that the others
are His loyal servants who possess Him now and forever. We

252 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

believe that all this " great multitude which no man can number "
is a component part of God's Church, and is united in bonds of
charity with the other parts of that Church on earth and in Purga
tory. We believe, therefore, that we should honor them because
God has honored them ; that we should pay religious veneration
to them collectively and separately. And we believe also that they
can and do intercede for us, that they hear our prayers and present
them to Him Who loves them and us. When we offer homage to
them, when we build churches and institute festival days in their
honor, are we depriving God of adoration? No; we are adoring
Him all the more, because we are honoring the results of His in
finite graces, which have been the sole means of making these men
and women Saints of God.

CHAPTER XLVI
THE VENERATION OF IMAGES

EVEN in this enlightened twentieth century and in this highly
civilized land the average non-Catholic has a very hazy and some
times a very erroneous idea of what Catholics believe. The preju
diced notions of a hundred years ago persist to-day in the minds of
many. For them the Catholic is a " worshiper of idols," a sense
less dolt who bows down before lifeless things ; who offers adora
tion to statues of dead men and women, and has almost lost sight
of his Creator and Saviour. The inbred bigotry of generations of
narrow-minded ancestors has been inherited in its fulness by many
of those " native Americans " whose religion consists, for the most
part, in an unwavering hatred of " Popery," whose minds are filled
with a constant dread lest the machinations of Rome shall over
throw the free institutions of our Protestant land, and who seem
to have derived from their daily intercourse with Catholics no
more knowledge of Catholic truths than their ignorant forefathers
had in the days when Papists were few and far between.

The Catholic Doctrine. What is the teaching and practice of
our Church with regard to images? Let us first set forth again

DEVOTIONS 253

the Catholic doctrine about worship. First of all, Catholics adore
no one but God. Absolute and supreme worship is paid to Him
alone, for He is the source of all good and of all graces, and no
other being has any power whatever to forgive or sanctify or re
ward us.

Our Church honors and venerates the Saints and Angels, with
a relative and inferior homage, as friends of God, as having the
power of interceding for us; but she has never held that even the
most exalted Saint is to be adored. A Saint in heaven is simply a
saved soul made illustrious by exceptional virtue.

Now the Church has maintained for many centuries that the
representations of our Blessed Saviour or of a Saint are worthy of
honor; but she has never taught nor permitted that they shall be
adored. A statue or a picture is, as it were, a portrait of the Re
deemer or of a holy servant of God. It brings before our mind a
vivid idea of the one whom it portrays. If the image be of our
Lord Jesus Christ, He, of course, is entitled to the supreme worship
of adoration, being God; but His image is not God, and is to be
honored merely with reverence, not with adoration. If the statue
or picture represents a Saint, he or she is not to be adored, for a
Saint is not God. A relative homage only is to be rendered, even
though the Saint be the most exalted and holiest of creatures, the
Blessed Virgin herself ; and the image or portrait of the person thus
venerated is to be honored only as a means for directing and in
creasing our homage and veneration toward that person.

Therefore Catholics do not adore images, any more than they
adore Saints. They give adoration to God. They pay religious
veneration or relative worship to God's Saints. They show rever
ential respect to images of God or of His Saints.

The Church's Decrees. This matter was settled, once and for
all, more than eleven hundred years ago in the second Council of
Nice, in 787. " We define with all certainty and care that both
the figure of the Sacred Cross and the venerable and holy images
are to be placed suitably in the churches of God and in houses ; that
is to say, the images of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, of our
Immaculate Lady the Holy Mother of God, and of the Angels

254 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

and Saints. For as often as they are seen in these representa
tions, those who look at them are ardently lifted up to the memory
and love of the originals and are induced to give them respect and
worshipful honor. So that offerings of incense and lights are to
be given to these images, to the figure of the life-giving Cross,
to the holy books of the Gospels and to other sacred objects, in
order to do them honor. For honor paid to an image passes on to
the one represented by it ; he who venerates an image venerates the
reality of him portrayed in it."

The year 787 is a long while ago; but the above is still the
standpoint and teaching of the Catholic Church. The customs by
which we show our " respect and worshipful honor " towards holy
images have varied in different countries and at different times;
but in no country and at no time has the Church permitted adora
tion or idolatrous worship of images. She has been obliged on
many occasions to forbid excesses of reverence or such signs of
veneration as might be misunderstood. In the decrees of the
Council of Trent she states: " Images of Christ, the Virgin
Mother of God and other Saints are to be held and kept espe
cially in churches. Due honor and veneration are to be paid to
them, not that any divinity or power is in them to entitle them to
be worshipped, or that anything can be asked of them, or that any
trust may be put in them, because the honor shown to them is
referred to those whom they represent; so that by kissing, uncover
ing to, or kneeling before images we adore Christ and honor the
Saints."

The History of Images. When the persecuted Christians of
the first centuries were forced to hide themselves and their worship
in the catacombs of Rome, they began to enrich and ornament
these gloomy caverns with representations of our Saviour's life and
miracles. And when they were able to practise their faith openly
they took the abandoned temples of paganism and Christianized
them with statues and crosses. In later ages, when the mighty
cathedrals of Europe were built, the use of images for their adorn
ing and for the inspiring of devotion became the universal rule,

DEVOTIONS 255

and the genius of the world's greatest artists was employed to
carve and to paint these ornaments of the house of God.

All through those centuries Catholics understood, as they under
stand now, that an image or a painting has no share in the adoration
due to God alone. From the earliest days the representation of
Christ or of the Saints was treated with respect, and gradually
a tradition and practice arose of venerating these images with a
ceremonial of religious honor.

In some Eastern Churches this honor was undoubtedly in
creased to an excessive degree. Prostrations, incensings, litanies
and long prayers were offered before images. In Greek and
Russian temples the walls are fairly covered with icons or tablets
depicting a multitude of Saints. After a time a natural revulsion
came from this excess. A reformation was begun by certain
Byzantine emperors and others, but, like many so-called reforma
tions, it was ill-advised and was carried too far in the opposite
direction. It resulted in the heresy of the Iconoclasts, or image-
breakers, who sought to root out all use and veneration of images
in Christian churches. There were several outbreaks of this re
bellion against the Church's discipline, and bitter persecutions were
waged against those who continued to venerate images. Grad
ually the heresy died out, and the Eastern Churches of to-day,
whether united to Rome or separated from it, make far more use
of images than we of the Western rite.

When Protestantism arose, the zealous " reformers " were filled
with a wild hatred toward anything which reminded them of
the faith they had abandoned. Many of the priceless carvings,
statues and painted windows of the ancient churches of
Europe were ruthlessly destroyed, and the followers of the new
religion offered their " pure worship " in bare conventicles or in
once-Catholic temples that had been denuded of everything that
savored of Catholicity. In later times, in some Protestant de
nominations, there is a return to the aesthetic in worship; and
carven altars, glowing windows, crosses and even pictures and
statues, give testimony to the fact that the human mind feels the

256 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

need of such outward helps for the furthering of religious de
votion.

Abuses Are Possible. In some parts of the world — perhaps
even among us — the veneration of images may be said to need
watchfulness to-day. Extravagances are possible; and excessive
devotion to an image, perhaps on account of some miraculous
power which is claimed for it, may lead to a considerable neglect
of more essential things. It is not edifying, nor is it an evidence
of deep religious spirit, at a Forty Hours' Devotion, for instance,
to see some of our people (in all good faith, doubtless, and with
the best intentions) lighting scores of candles before the statue of
good St. Anthony, while upon the main altar is enthroned the God
Who created St. Anthony — Jesus Christ, in the Sacrament of
His love, exposed for adoration.

A Reasonable Practice. Is the veneration of images a reason
able practice? Why not? We render respect to other lifeless
things simply because they symbolize something which we love or
reverence. A loyal Englishman rises when he hears the strains of
" God Save the King," because he respects the constitutional
monarchy which rules his land; and he would rightly resent an
insult offered not only to his king but to a royal statue or portrait.
An American citizen salutes the flag of his country, and bares his
head when the national hymn rings forth in honor of that beau
tiful emblem of liberty. He would shed his blood to avenge an
indignity offered to his country's flag. Now if it be reasonable
to show such respect to a piece of music, or a statue, or a square
of colored bunting, why is it unreasonble to manifest it towards a
portrait of our Saviour or of a holy Saint of God?

Is the use of pictures and images helpful for the attaining of
fervor in prayer and the increasing of devotion towards God?
Undoubtedly. If you or I were in a distant land, separated from
one whom we love, would it not aid us to remember that loved
one, if we had a portrait constantly before us? Images are aids
to devotion, helping us to fix our attention on our prayers, to
avoid distractions, to increase the fervor of our adoration of God
and our veneration of the Saints.

DEVOTIONS 257

CHAPTER XLVII
THE VENERATION OF RELICS

THERE is a point of Catholic doctrine which is generally mis
understood and nearly always misrepresented by those outside the
Church. The veneration which Catholics show to relics is
usually classed as " a superstition," " a form of idolatry," " a
survival of paganism " — simply because our non-Catholic and
anti-Catholic critics have no accurate idea as to what our Church
believes and teaches concerning relics; because they seem to be
incapable of distinguishing between adoration and veneration;
and because they take it for granted that anything that ever
existed in pagan religions must necessarily be false and wrong
and un-Christian.

Not a Superstition. Catholics are not superstitious when they
give to relics the religious veneration which the Church permits.
Catholics are not idolaters at any time, for they give adoration
to none but God. Catholics are not guilty of paganism when
they use a form of devotion which happens to resemble something
that was found useful in pagan worship — for we must remember
that paganism was not all false. It was the result of the instinct
of worship which God has implanted in the nature of man. It was
false inasmuch as it led man to worship false divinities ; it was true
inasmuch as it caused him to wrorship at all.

The veneration of relics is a primitive instinct. Even apart
from religion, how common the practice has always been of pre
serving all that has had any connection with one who has been
loved or reverenced! A lock of hair, a portrait, a little child's
shoe — anything that has belonged to the object of our love — is
treasured as if it were of inestimable worth. And in religion the
same holds true ; for the honoring of relics is found in many other
forms of religion besides Christianity. The Greeks honored the
supposed remains of heroes, sages and demigods; the pious Budd
hists still preserve and venerate the relics of Gautama. And
these pagan examples were commendable in so far as they

258 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

showed religious faith, even though the object of that faith was
false.

What are Relics? What do we Catholics mean when we
speak of relics? They are the bodies of departed saints, frag
ments of their bodies, or articles which they have used, such as
clothing, vestments and the like — or, in the case of relics of our
Lord, they are objects which are reputed to have been connected
with His life or sufferings, such as the manger of Bethlehem, the
crown of thorns, the nails, fragments of the cross, etc.

What does our Church teach concerning them ? That teaching
is clearly set forth in a decree of the Council of Trent : " The
bodies of holy martyrs and of others now living with Christ
(which bodies were the living members of Christ and the temple
of the Holy Ghost, and which are to be raised by Him to eternal
life and to be glorified) are to be venerated by the faithful, for
through these bodies many benefits are bestowed by God on men;
so that they who now affirm that veneration and honor are not
due to the relics of the saints, that these are uselessly honored
by the faithful, and that the places dedicated to the memories of
the saints are visited in vain, are wholly to be condemned."

Why Do We Honor Them? The Catholic devotion to relics
is founded upon two great principles of the Church's teaching
regarding the saints. First, she honors the saints; and when they
were living on earth they, like all men, were composed each of a
body and a soul. The virtues which a saint practised were not
virtues of the soul only ; they were proper to the whole individual,
to his body as well as his soul, for body and soul labored and
suffered together. The soul of a saint is in heaven. Now the
bodies of those who are in heaven are certain to rise again to a
glorious immortality. The Church, then, joyfully anticipates the
glory which God will give to these bodies at the last day. She
pays religious homage to them — even to small fragments of them ;
and she gives similar honor even to things that were closely con
nected with the earthly life of those servants of God.

Secondly, Catholics believe that God is sometimes pleased to
honor the relics of the saints by making them instruments of

DEVOTIONS 259

healing and other miracles, and that He bestows graces and favors
on those who keep and venerate them — for the honor that is
paid to such relics is really veneration of the saint himself, which
gives glory to God and secures for us the intercession of those
who stand before God's throne in heaven.

A Few Objections. " Is it not superstitious to suppose that
there is a physical efficacy in a relic which will cause it to work
a miracle ? " Probably it would be superstitious if we supposed
it; but we do not. We believe that the relics of the saints are
the occasion of the working of a miracle by God, through the
intercession of the saint who is honored when the relic is honored.
Far from believing that a relic can work a miracle by any power
of its owTn, we Catholics do not believe that a saint, or even the
Blessed Virgin, can do so. The power of God is the only power
that can effect a miracle. The Saint can merely, by intercession,
obtain the exercise of that power of God in our behalf.

" But does it not border on idolatry, or at least does it not
detract from the worship of God, when honor is paid to relics? "
St. Jerome was a good Christian. Let us hear what he says.
" We do not worship, we do not adore, for fear that we should
bow down to the creature rather than to the Creator; but we
venerate the relics of the martyrs, in order the better to adore
Him whose martyrs they are." Could the Catholic teaching be
set forth more clearly?

As Old as the Church. The Catholic practice of honoring
relics goes back to the beginning of Christianity. When the brave
martyrs gave their souls to God in the arena or at the fiery stake,
there were always found equally brave Christians who gathered
together the dismembered remains, the blood or the ashes, and
preserved them as a priceless treasure. Burial near the tomb of a
martyr was especially desired by the pious faithful. Objects that
had merely touched the remains of a saint were thereafter treated
as relics. When the wood of the True Cross was discovered by
the Empress Helena, it was soon divided into minute fragments,
so that within a few years, in the words of St. Cyril of Jerusalem,
it " had filled the whole world." And as the number of the

260 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Church's saints increased in the course of centuries, so also the
number of venerated relics was multiplied. The people of every
parish naturally desired to have a relic of the saint to whom their
church was dedicated; and on account of the difficulty or impos
sibility of obtaining bodies or parts thereof, it became customary
to venerate clothing, vestments and other things which were re
puted to have been used by the saint.

The Question of Abuses. " But have there not been many
abuses and deceptions regarding alleged relics? " Undoubtedly —
hundreds of them. They were almost unavoidable in a matter
which lent itself so easily to error and greed of gain. The demand
for relics caused frauds to be perpetrated by unscrupulous men.
Many of the writers of the Middle Ages tell us of grave abuses,
of a regular trade in reputed objects of devotion which were, no
doubt, mostly fraudulent. Popular enthusiasm and the rivalry
among religious houses, each seeking to be known as the pos
sessor of some great relic, caused many deceptions to be practised,
intentionally or otherwise. Copies or models of relics were made,
and in some cases these were afterwards confused with the origi
nals. Objects which at first were venerated because they had
touched a relic, were later considered to be relics themselves.

Against all these abuses the Church has constantly striven, by
requiring the approval of the Holy See for newly found relics,
by forbidding the sale of any such articles, and by restricting in
every feasible way the veneration of those which have not at least
a probable authenticity. It is true that she has allowed the honor
ing of certain doubtful relics to continue. But we must remember
that the passing of a final opinion upon many of these is no easy
task. In some cases, veneration has been paid to them for many
centuries. — and devotions of an ancient date cannot be swept aside
at a moment's notice without disturbance and scandal. Therefore,
unless the evidence of spuriousness is so great as to amount to
practical certainty, the Church usually lets them alone.

Relics in Altar-Stones. The relics of two canonized martyrs
are placed within every altar-stone, and with them are sometimes
included the relics of the saint in whose memory the altar is

DEVOTIONS 261

erected. In a fixed altar these relics are contained

in a metal box or reliquary of oblong shape, which

fits a cavity in the altar-stone and is covered by a

stone lid. When relics are exposed for public

veneration in a church, they are usually contained

in an elaborate reliquary, somewhat resembling

the ostensorium used at the Benediction of the

Blessed Sacrament. Many of the great churches

of Europe have large collections of relics — some

undoubtedly genuine, some very probably spurious.

Among the most famous are those of Rome, Aix-la-Chapelle,

Cologne, Naples and Antwerp ; and in the Church of St. Anthony,

at Padua, are many relics of its titular Saint and of other servants

of God.

CHAPTER XLVIII
THE FORTY HOURS' ADORATION

THE central object of Catholic devotion is the adorable Sacra
ment of the Eucharist. The great principle of the Church's wor
ship here on earth is to copy the homage paid to our Blessed
Redeemer by the Church in heaven. We are the Church Militant,
and we are one with the Church Triumphant; and just as the
Saints and Angels render unceasing adoration to God in heaven,
so the members of the Church on earth must strive to do the
same. The Church, moreover, wishes that all her children shall
have their share in this continuous homage. She has decreed that
in each diocese throughout the world there shall be a cycle of
adoration in which all the faithful may participate, each in his
own parish on some Sunday of the year. Therefore in each of
the parishes of this and of every other diocese, at some designated
time, occurs the impressive ceremony known as the Forty Hours'
Adoration.

Not an Old Devotion. This devotion is comparatively new.
Unlike some of the other ceremonies of the Church, its history
goes back only a few centuries. It seems to have been gradually

262 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

evolved from the solemn ceremonies of the Blessed Sacrament
which were held each year on the feast of Corpus Christi, which
festival was established by Pope Urban IV in the year 1264. In
these public celebrations the Sacred Host was borne through the
streets, but was at first entirely concealed. About a century later
the custom was introduced of exposing It in a suitable vessel, very
similar to the ostensorium used at the present day.

These processions aroused in clergy and people an earnest de
votion to the Blessed Sacrament, and soon gave rise to the practice
of leaving the Sacred Host on the altar for public adoration.
This was found to be particularly useful at the Carnival time,
the two days immediately before Lent, when in many countries
great excesses were committed and the people gave themselves up
to unbridled license and dissipation. The bishops of the Church
sought to awaken the faithful to better and holier things, to
prepare them for the penitential season of Lent, and to make
reparation to God for the insults everywhere offered to His
majesty. For this purpose, on these two days, they adopted the
plan of exposing the Blessed Sacrament solemnly in the churches
for forty hours, in memory of the time during which the Sacred
Body of Jesus was in the sepulchre.

Introduced at Milan. As nearly as can be ascertained, the
modern practice of having the Adoration in various churches on
successive Sundays originated at Milan, in Italy, and was probably
introduced by the Capuchin Order about the year 1537, when
a severe visitation of the plague afflicted that city. Some investi
gators have attributed the devotion to Joseph da Fermo, of the
above Order; others maintain that the honor belongs to a certain
Father Bellotto, while still others urge the claims of a Dominican
named Thomas Nieto, of St. Anthony Zaccaria and of a Barna-
bite, Brother Buono. All that we can be sure of is that the
occasional exposition of the Blessed Sacrament goes back nearly
to the year 1500, and that the making of the adoration practically
continuous by holding it in different churches successively origi
nated in Milan in or about the year 1537.

In 1539 the first indulgences for this devotion were granted

DEVOTIONS 263

by Pope Paul III. The practice spread to other cities, being
especially promoted by Juvenal Ancina, an Oratorian Father who
had been made Bishop of Saluzzo, and who wrote many instruc
tions relative to the Adoration of the Forty Hours. St. Charles
Borromeo, that great saint and reformer, whose name is insep
arably connected with the Milanese Church, also urged the de
votion upon his priests and people. In those days, when Euro
pean civilization was menaced by Moslem invasion, the prayers
enjoined at the Forty Hours were usually for protection from the
enemies and for the peace of Christendom. It was soon adopted
in Rome, through the efforts and zeal of St. Philip Neri, and was
finally established and regulated, substantially as we have it now,
by Pope Clement VIII in 1592, " in order that the public trials
of the Church may be lessened, and that the faithful may con
tinuously appease their Lord by prayer before the Blessed Sacra
ment."

The Clementine Instruction. In 1731 Pope Clement XII
issued a very complete code of regulations for the Forty Hours;
and this, known as the " Clementine Instruction," has been in
force with few alterations since that date, and is still the law of
the Church.

The devotion was not introduced into the United States until
about 1854, probably by Archbishop Kenrick of Baltimore, and
did not become common until much later. Many of our older
readers can remember when the Forty Hours' Adoration was a
novelty, and its regular observance is of comparatively recent date.

The Rubrics and Ceremonies. During the devotion, all the
Church's homage centers around the altar of exposition, which
is always the high altar of the church. At least twenty candles
must be kept burning day and night. There must be continual
relays of watchers before the Blessed Sacrament, but only priests
and clerics (or in our country the altar-boys who act in the place
of clerics) are allowed to kneel in the sanctuary. All who enter
or leave the church should go down on both knees and bow low
in adoration ; and all should remain kneeling while in the church.

No Masses are allowed at the altar on which the Blessed

264 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Sacrament is enthroned, except at the opening and closing of the
Adoration. The opening Mass is called the " Mass of Exposi
tion." On the second day a " Missa pro Pace" (Mass for
Peace) is said on another altar, reminding us of the original
purpose of the Forty Hours' Adoration. The closing of the de
votion takes place at the " Mass of Reposition." At both the
opening and closing the Litany of the Saints is chanted, and a
procession of the Blessed Sacrament is held. No Masses of
Requiem are allowed in the church during the Adoration.

Although originally planned to continue for forty hours, the
devotion does not generally last so long, at least in our part of the
world, for the reason that a sufficient number of worshippers
could hardly be provided during the night. Hence in our dioceses
the exposition usually lasts on the opening day till about nine
o'clock in the evening; on the second day, from the Mass for
Peace till the same hour; and on the closing day from an early
Mass till the end of the Mass of Reposition — altogether a little
more or less than thirty hours.

The Indulgences. Several of the Popes have enriched the
devotion with indulgences. A partial indulgence of seven years
and as many " quarantines " (forty days) is gained each day that a
visit is made to the church where the Blessed Sacrament is ex
posed. A plenary indulgence, applicable to the souls in Purgatory,
is obtained by one visit with Confession and Holy Communion
and the usual prayer for the intention of our Holy Father the
Pope.

One of the great leaders of the Catholic Church in England —
namely, Cardinal Wiseman — wrote these beautiful words con
cerning the Forty Hours' Adoration : " In no other time or
place is the sublimity of our religion so touchingly felt. No
ceremony is going on in the sanctuary, no sound of. song is issuing
from the choir, no voice of exhortation proceeds from the pulpit,
no prayer is uttered aloud at the altar. There are hundreds
there, and yet they are engaged in no congregational act of
worship. Each heart and soul is alone in the midst of a multi
tude — each uttering its own thoughts, each feeling its own grace.

DEVOTIONS 265

Yet are you overpowered, subdued, quelled into a reverential mood,
softened into a devotional spirit, forced to meditate, to feel, to
pray."

CHAPTER XLIX
OUR DAILY PRAYERS

BY including this chapter we do not wish to insinuate that daily
prayers are something distinctively Catholic. In every form of
religious belief frequent prayer is urged and practised ; and in
every Christian denomination there may be found, doubtless, an
abiding faith in the efficacy of prayer and in the promises of our
Blessed Lord.

Every Christian feels the necessity of frequent communion
with his God. He knows that the Almighty wishes each of us
to present our homage and petitions to Him, so that we may
acknowledge His power and mercy, and may recognize our de
pendence upon Him. And as we receive favors from God every
day, so our gratitude and homage should be offered to Him daily.

Thus the practice has arisen of praying to the Almighty each
day — especially in the morning, when the toil and dangers of
the day are before us, and in the evening, when we can appreciate
the providence and watchful care which He has shown towards
us during the day.

The Lord's Prayer. The greatest of all prayers is the Our
Father. It is the one prayer that is entirely of divine origin.
It was taught by our Lord to His disciples, and has been used
by the Church since the very beginning of her history. The fifth,
sixth and seventh chapters of the Gospel of St. Matthew contain
the " Sermon on the Mount," and the sixth is largely an instruc
tion on prayer. Our Blessed Lord gave to His hearers a model
prayer addressed to His Heavenly Father, expressing adoration,
recognition of God's attributes, and petitions for the graces, tem
poral favors, forgiveness and protection needed by mankind —
and expressing all of these in a few sentences and in simple
words.

266 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

The wording of the prayer, as given by St. Matthew, is slightly
different from that now used by us. It reads as follows: " Our
Father, who art in heaven, hallowed be Thy name. Thy kingdom
come. Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven. Give us
this day our supersubstantial bread, and forgive us our debts as
we also forgive our debtors, and lead us not into temptation, but
deliver us from evil. Amen."

In the Gospels of St. Mark and St. John the prayer is not
recorded at all. In that of St. Luke it is found in a shorter form :
" Father, hallowed be Thy name. Thy kingdom come. Give
us this day our daily bread, and forgive us our sins, for we also
forgive everyone that is indebted to us. And lead us not into
temptation."

The prayer, then, as used by the Church from the earliest times
and as found in the most ancient liturgies, is a composite product,
being formed by combining the versions given by these two
Evangelists.

The Meaning of the Lord's Prayer. The Our Father is the
greatest of all prayers, and the most perfect. It is addressed to
God Himself, the Omnipotent, the Creator of all things, the
Being to Whom we must look for all that we need in this world
and in the next. Every word of it is pregnant with meaning,
and, unfortunately, we too often recite it so hurriedly that our
appreciation of that meaning is very vague. Let us analyze it.

We address God by the name of Father, because we know His
infinite love for us, because He has made us His children. We
say " Our " Father, because we know that He loves each of us,
and because we pray not only for ourselves but for all mankind.
We use the wrords " Who art in heaven," to show that it is God
to Whom we pray. We say " Hallowed (that is, Blessed) be
Thy name," to express our desire for the promotion of His glory;
and by the next words we pray that His love and His truth may
be made known to all men, that all may learn to do His holy will.
Then follow the petitions — that through His providence we may
obtain all that we need for soul and body; that our sins may be
forgiven through His infinite charity, if we deserve forgiveness

DEVOTIONS 267

by showing chanty to others; and that we may be preserved
from temptation and from every evil. And, like nearly every
other prayer, the Our Father is concluded with the Hebrew word
" Amen," which signifies " truly," or " so be it."

The Concluding Words. " For thine is the kingdom, the
power and the glory, for ever and ever. Amen." Our Protes
tant friends (at least those of some denominations), use this
sentence at the end of the Our Father. Are they right in doing
so, or is there any authority for this addition to the Lord's Prayer?
It is not found in the most authentic manuscripts of the Gospels,
although it occurs in some of the old liturgical books of Eastern
rites. In these books, however, it was not considered as an essen
tial part of the Our Father, but as an " embolism," or added
prayer, intended to increase the fervor and direct the intention
of the faithful — a practice which was very common in the
Oriental churches. We find an example of another embolism in
the prayer which immediately follows the Our Father in our Mass,
consisting of a repetition in another form of the request, " Deliver
us from evil." It begins as follows: " Deliver us, we beseech,
O Lord, from all evils, past, present and to come," and asks for
peace and forgiveness through the intercession of the Blessed
Virgin, the Apostles and the Saints.

Therefore, when non-Catholics ask us why we make the Our
Father shorter than their form, we should tell them that the
added words which they use are not a part of the prayer as given
by our Blessed Lord, but a pious addition which is ancient in
deed, but which the Roman Church has not seen fit to adopt in
her ritual.

The Hail Mary. There is a prayer which Catholics recite
more often than any other. It is the most familiar of all the
prayers used by the Church to honor the Blessed Virgin. It
forms the greatest part of the Rosary, a devotion that is practised
at least occasionally by all Catholics and very frequently by the
more fervent among them. It is recited at morning, noon and
night, in the Angelus.

It is a prayer which owes its origin to inspiration from God,

268 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

manifested through one of His Angels, one of His Saints, and His
holy Church. It is one of the most complete and perfect of all
prayers, expressing in a few words salutation, praise, congratu
lation, thanksgiving, and petition. This prayer is the Hail Mary.

It consists of three parts. The first is the salutation of the
Archangel Gabriel to Mary, into which the Church has inserted
her name: " Hail (Mary), full of grace, the Lord is with thee;
blessed art thou amongst women." The second part is composed
of the words of Elizabeth to our Lady : " Blessed is the fruit
of thy womb," to which is annexed the sacred name of Jesus.
And the third part is a beautiful petition added by the Church
of God, giving expression to the feeling with which we Catholics
regard the Mother of God, and declaring our confidence in her
intercession: " Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners,
now and at the hour of our death. Amen."

The Origin of the " Hail Mary." What is the history of this
beautiful prayer? For many centuries it was unknown — a cir
cumstance which seems remarkable to us, who use it so frequently.
We may well wonder how Catholics ever prayed without it; but
it is a historical fact that the Hail Mary did not exist at all
until the eleventh century, and even then only a part of it was
used as a prayer.

Its origin was as follows: The monastic orders were accus
tomed to recite lengthy offices each day; and on certain feasts,
especially those of the Blessed Virgin, these services were supple
mented by the " Little Office " of Mary. In this the words of
the Archangel and of St. Elizabeth were used repeatedly in the
form of versicles and responses. Gradually it became a pious
practice, not only for the monks but for the laity, to use these
sentences as a prayer. In the year 1196 the Bishop of Paris or
dered his clergy to teach these words to their flocks, and within a
short time the prayer became well known throughout the Catholic
world.

A little later the holy name of Jesus was added, probably by
Pope Urban IV, and the last part, " Holy Mary, Mother of

DEVOTIONS 269

God," etc., was introduced about the year 1500, as it was felt
that this beautiful expression of devotion to our Mother would
be more complete if it included a petition to obtain her powerful
intercession.

The Apostles' Creed. In our daily devotions, after offering
to our Heavenly Father the prayer taught to us by His Divine
Son, and after having saluted her who is " full of grace," we are
counselled to make a declaration of our faith, to express in words
what we believe to be God's revelation to man. Each of us in
early childhood learned a compendium of our Catholic faith, a
formula which contains the most important truths of our Church's
doctrine. This is known as the Apostles' Creed.

It is called a " Creed " from its first word — in Latin, " Credo,"
I believe. Why do we call it the "Apostles' " Creed? Because
throughout the Middle Ages there was a widespread belief that the
Apostles composed it on the day of Pentecost. An ancient legend,
dating back to the sixth century and perhaps further, tells us that
when the Apostles were assembled at Jerusalem and had just
received the Holy Ghost in the form of tongues of fire, each of
them, inspired by the Spirit of God, contributed one of the articles
of the Creed. According to the story, when the Holy Spirit had
filled the souls of the Apostles with knowledge and zeal, St. Peter
arose and cried out, " I believe in God, the Father Almighty,
Creator of heaven and earth." St. Andrew continued, " And
in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our Lord." St. James added,
" Who was conceived by the Holy Ghost," etc. And so on for
the others.

Bear in mind, however, that all this is a legend, of uncertain
origin and of very slight probability. There is no allusion to it
in the Scriptural account of the events of Pentecost, and the whole
story is probably the product of the vivid imagination of some
Oriental or Latin romancer. Spiritual writers of those early
days, like some of later times, were prone to enrich their pages
with details that would have been wonderful if they had been
true.

270 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

A Profession of Faith. The Apostles' Creed is, very likely,
an amplified form of the " profession of faith " required in the
early centuries from converts. In Apostolic times, as at the
present day, those who desired Baptism were obliged to make a
statement of their belief; and it is probable that the Creed was
brought to its present form gradually, being developed from the
declaration exacted from those converted to the faith.

The Creed is supposed to be a summary of Christian dogmas.
Why is it only a partial summary? Why does it not contain all
the articles of Catholic belief? There is no mention in it of
the Sacraments, except the " forgiveness of sin " ; there is no
allusion to the Holy Eucharist, the central object of our Catholic
worship. The reason is that, in the early centuries of Catholicity,
the faith in its entirety was not taught to converts until after they
had been received into the Church. The knowledge of the
" Divine Mysteries," that is, the nature of the Mass and the ador
ation of the living presence of our Lord in the Eucharist, was not
imparted to them until after Baptism. When they learned the
Creed, they learned only what the Church wished to teach them;
and therefore the things which they were not to know were not
included in it.

The Confiteor. This is a prayer which is used not only in
daily devotions but on many other occasions — in the Sacrament
of Penance, in the Divine Office, and especially by the priest at the
beginning of the Mass.

Like the Creed, it takes its name from its first word. " Con
fiteor," in Latin, means " I confess." The Confiteor is a general
confession of sin, an acknowledgment of guilt, made in the pres
ence of God and His Saints, and a prayer that the Saints may
intercede for the sinner.

The Confiteor was originally a part of the private prayers
offered by the priest in preparation for Mass, expressing his un-
worthiness and asking for grace and forgiveness. After a time,
about the tenth century, it became customary for the priest to say
this prayer at the foot of the altar, and gradually it came to be
regarded as a part of the Mass.

DEVOTIONS 271

The Confiteor is used also at the administration of Holy Com
munion, publicly or privately; at Extreme Unction, and at the
giving of the Apostolic blessing and indulgence to the dying.

Until quite recently it was usual to recite the first part of the
Confiteor in the confessional before making the accusation of sins;
but at the present time, for the sake of expediting the confession,
it is recommended that it be said before entering, and that only
the words " I confess to Almighty God and to you, Father," be
used in the confessional.

Asking the Intercession of Saints. Why do we say the Con
fiteor? Why should one confess his sins to the Blessed Virgin and
to the Saints, none of whom have any power to absolve from sin?
This objection may be found in some Protestant works. We
answer that it is reasonable to make a general acknowledgment
of our weakness and guilt before these as well as before God,
because we wish their prayers in order to secure His pardon.
Therefore we declare that we " have sinned exceedingly, in
thought, word and deed." We state the reasons why we wish
them " to pray to the Lord our God " for us, but we know full
well that forgiveness cannot come from them ; and so we conclude
the prayer with the words : " May the Almighty God forgive
me my sins, and bring me to everlasting life. May the Almighty
and merciful Lord grant me pardon, absolution, and remission
of all my sins. Amen."

The Acts. The purpose of the Acts of Faith, Hope and Love
is to testify that we possess these three great " theological virtues ";
and the Act of Contrition puts into words the sorrow for sin
which is necessary for forgiveness.

For the Acts a different wording is to be found in nearly every
manual of prayers, and the Church has not declared that any
one form must be used. The version which is taught in our
later catechisms is clear and concise.

The Act of Faith declares our firm belief in one God and
three Djvine persons; in the Incarnation of our Lord, and the
redemption accomplished by Him; and in all the other truths
that God's Church teaches.

272 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

The Act of Hope expresses our trust in God's mercy and our
reliance on the merits of our Blessed Redeemer.

The Act of Love manifests our love of God for His own sake,
because he is the Supreme Good, and our love of our neighbor
for the sake of God; for our Lord has declared that the love of
God is " the first and greatest commandment," and that " the
second is like unto this: Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thy
self."

The Act of Contrition is the declaration in words of that
sorrow for sin which is absolutely required for its forgiveness.
This also can be found in various forms, and the one now gen
erally taught is perhaps better than some of the older versions, as
it expresses clearly the motives of contrition and is fairly simple
in wording.

Prayers at Meals. Our catechisms, after the daily prayers,
insert a short form of prayer to be used before and after meals.
The prayer before meals is known as a " blessing," for it consists
in the invoking of God's blessing upon us and upon what we are
about to receive; and that after meals is called a " grace," from
the Latin word " gratiae," meaning " thanks," because it expresses
our gratitude for our food and all other favors which God has
given us.

There is no strict rule about the wording of these prayers. In
convents and religious houses the blessing and grace are somewhat
long, being made up of several verses, responses and prayers. For
the use of the laity the brief form in our catechism is sufficient.

Such, then, is the history and the analysis of the prayers which
our Holy Church recommends to us for daily use. Every Catholic
should recite them at morning and night — the Our Father, to
give homage to the Almighty and to invoke His protection; the
Hail Mary, to honor our Blessed Mother and to obtain her inter
cession; the Creed, to profess our holy faith; the Confiteor, to
acknowledge our unworthiness ; and the Acts, to animate us with
faith, hope, love and contrition.

DEVOTIONS 273

CHAPTER L
THE LITANIES

IN his devotions and prayers it seems to be natural for man to
invent and multiply terms of praise. In many forms of worship
the practice has existed of joining in one prayer the various titles
of the deity adored and the various terms of salutation addressed
to him; and here, as in many other pious practices, the Catholic
Church has adapted to her own purposes something which was
in common use in other religions. She has taken advantage of
many commendable features of the Jewish and even of pagan
rituals ; and she has done this because in her wisdom she wishes to
make use of everything which seems to promise good results in
the exciting of devotion among her children.

A Jewish Litany. To illustrate the manner in which the
Jews used what we now call a litany, we have only to refer to
the 1 3 5th Psalm. This was used in the public worship of the
Temple, being recited alternately by priest and people, and was
also employed in private devotions. It enumerates the attributes
of God, and consists of twenty-seven verses, each ending with the
words " For His mercy endureth forever." This repetition gives
the whole psalm the effect of a litany, such as is recited in our
Church. In like manner we find in the Book of Daniel the
canticle of the three youths in the fiery furnace; each verse ends
with the words " Praise and exalt Him above all for ever."

How Catholic Litanies Began. In the early centuries of our
Church's history it was customary to have prayers with responses,
resembling our present litanies, in the Mass itself. The only
trace of this practice that now remains is the repetition of the
Greek words " Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison, Kyrie eleison "
(Lord, have mercy; Christ, have mercy; Lord, have mercy"),
which originally formed a part of these Mass litanies.

When peace was granted to the Church after three centuries
of persecution, public devotions and processions became common.
These processions were called " litanies," from the Greek word

274 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

"lite," meaning a prayer or supplication; and they were fre
quently held on days which had been religious festivals among the
heathen. From this comes the practice which has endured to the
present time, of reciting the Litany of the Saints in the Divine
Office on the feast of St. Mark, April 25 — a day which was in
pagan times a great festival, celebrated with religious processions,
to bring a blessing upon the newly planted fields.

This Litany is recited also on the Rogation Days — the Mon
day, Tuesday and Wednesday before the feast of the Ascension.
The word Rogation means a petitioning, and the practice of say
ing the Litany on those days goes back to the year 477, when it
was prescribed by St. Mamertus, the bishop of Vienne, in France,
on account of many calamities which had afflicted that country —
earthquakes, tempests and the ravages of wild beasts. This was
repeated year after year; the practice gradually spread throughout
the world, and was finally approved by St. Leo III in the year
816. The object of these days of devotion is to beg of God, the
Giver of all good, that He will preserve the fruits of the earth
and bestow upon His creatures all necessary blessings.

The Approved Litanies. For the public services of the Church
only five litanies are authorized. These are the Litany of the
Saints, of the Blessed Virgin, of the Holy Name of Jesus, of the
Sacred Heart and of St. Joseph. In former centuries many lita
nies were in vogue; at one time they numbered about eighty. In
1601 Clement VIII prohibited the public recitation of any of
these, except the Litany of the Saints and that of the Blessed
Virgin. Somewhat later, despite this ruling, various other litanies
came more or less into use, owing to the zeal and devotion (some
times misguided) of the religiously inclined. Some of these lita
nies may be found in the older prayer-books ; but with the exception
of the five mentioned above, they are not approved by the Church
for her public services, even though some of them may be tolerated
for private devotion. Certain litanies which have been published
are almost heretical, imputing to the saints powers and attributes
which belong to God alone, and changing the veneration proper
to them into something very closely resembling the supreme homage

DEVOTIONS 275

which is due to the Almighty. Therefore in 1821 the Church
issued a decree forbidding the public recitation of any except the
approved litanies, and prohibiting any addition or modification of
these unless by the especial sanction of the Holy See. As we
shall see further on, the Church's approval has been given to
three more litanies than were permitted by the above papal de
crees.

The Litany of the Saints. This is the model of all other
litanies, being much more ancient than the others which the Church
uses. It is called the Litany of the Saints because it is made up
of petitions addressed to various saints of different classes —
apostles, martyrs, confessors and virgins, as well as to Mary, the
Queen of Saints. It was prescribed by Pope Gregory the Great
in 590 for a public procession of thanksgiving which took place
on the cessation of the plague which had devastated Rome. In a
somewhat different form it was in use at a much earlier date,
for it is mentioned by St. Basil in the fourth century and by others
in the third — although it was probably much shorter then than
it is now, for the reason that prior to the fourth century only
martyr-saints were publicly honored by the Church. This can be
seen in the Canon of the Mass, which owes its present form largely
to St. Gregory, and in which no saints are mentioned except
martyrs.

The Church at the present day makes use of three forms of
the Litany of the Saints. One, which is the most common, is
used in many ceremonies — at the laying of the cornerstone of a
church, at the blessing of a church or cemetery, on the Rogation
Days, at the Devotion of the Forty Hours, and on some other
occasions. Another form, somewhat shorter, is employed on Holy
Saturday and the vigil of Pentecost. The third is that which
is called the Litany of the Dying, or the " Commendation of a
Soul Departing," and the invocations and petitions are all offered
to obtain God's mercy on the soul that is about to appear before
Him. The first or usual form is recommended for private de
votion, but there is no indulgence granted for its recital.

The Litany of the Holy Name. This litany is made up of

276 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

invocations expressing the various attributes of our Blessed Lord,
with a petition for His mercy annexed to each of them. Its
authorship is not known, but it has been ascribed to St. Bernadine
of Siena and St. John Capistran, zealous preachers of the devotion
to the Holy Name at the beginning of the fifteenth century. In
the year 1588 Pope Sixtus V granted an indulgence of three
hundred days for its recitation, and for many years it was used in
various countries but not approved by the Church for public serv
ices, applications for such approval being rejected at various times.
In fact, the prohibition by Clement VIII of any other litanies
except those of the Saints and of the Blessed Virgin rendered the
public recitation of this litany unlawful, but it continued to be
used privately in many parts of the world.

In 1862, however, Pius IX gave his approval to one form of
it, and granted an indulgence of three hundred days to the faithful
of any diocese whose bishop had applied for it. Finally, in 1886,
urged by the wonderful spread of the devotion to the Sacred Name
of Jesus and the growth of the great society of men who honor
that Holy Name, Leo XIII extended this indulgence to all the
world and thereby gave the Church's full approbation to this
beautiful prayer.

The Litany of the Blessed Virgin. " Behold, from hence
forth all generations shall call me blessed." This sublime proph
ecy of Mary herself has been verified in all the ages of the Church's
history. Even in early centuries the devout faithful found in
Mary the fulfilment of many of the prophecies of the Old Testa
ment, and discovered in the inspired verses of the Psalmist many
beautiful figures and symbols of the Blessed Mother of God.
These were soon used as pious ejaculations, and new titles were
invented from time to time; and all these were gradually woven
into litanies of various forms. Thus after a time the Litany of
the Blessed Virgin was moulded into shape, very much as we
have it now.

Among the five litanies approved by the Church, this one is
used perhaps more commonly than the others. It is often called
the " Litany of Loreto," because it came into use about four

DEVOTIONS 277

centuries ago at the famous Italian shrine which, according to
tradition or legend, contains the little house of Nazareth in which
our Saviour dwelt in childhood. This litany is a series of beau
tiful invocations of our Blessed Mother, addressing her by various
titles and beseeching her intercession.

Its origin is obscure and its authorship unknown. There is a
legend that it was composed by the Apostles, after the Assumption
of Mary into heaven — but it is only a legend ; it has no historical
foundation whatever. By some writers it is said to have been
composed at Loreto in the thirteenth century; by others it is attri
buted to Pope Sergius I, in 687, or to St. Gregory the Great; but
there is no real evidence that (in anything like its present form)
it goes back beyond the latter years of the fifteenth century.
Before that time, indeed, there were litanies of Mary — one in
Gaelic, probably of the eighth century, and others of later date,
in which the invocations were much longer than those in the
Litany of Loreto. It was seen, after a time, that a litany com
posed of short ejaculations was more effective and devotional and
better adapted to public recitation; and so the Litany of Loreto
was gradually developed until it became substantially as we have
it now. At the shrine it was recited daily by thousands of pil
grims who gathered there, and in the year 1587 it was approved
by Pope Sixtus V, who urged preachers throughout the world
to promote its use among the faithful.

New petitions have been inserted into it from time to time.
For instance, the title " Help of Christians," though used oc
casionally at an earlier date, was approved by the Holy See in
commemoration of a great event in the history of the Church and
of Christian civilization — the great naval battle of Lepanto, on
October 7, 1571, when the Moslem hordes were frustrated in their
attempt to conquer Europe. On the day of the battle prayers
were being offered up, by order of the Sovereign Pontiff St. Pius
V, in the churches of the world. The infidels were utterly de
feated and their great fleet destroyed, and the nations of Europe
were saved from the yoke of Islam through the intercession of the
Blessed Mother of God.

278 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

The invocation " Queen of All Saints " was added by Pope
Pius VII when he returned to Rome after his long imprisonment
by order of Napoleon. The title " Queen Conceived without
Original Sin" dates from 1846, although the solemn definition of
the dogma of the Immaculate Conception was not made until
eight years later. The words " Queen of the Most Holy Rosary,"
used by Rosary societies for more than two hundred years, were
not sanctioned for the whole Church until 1883. The invoca
tion " Mother of Good Counsel " was approved by Leo XIII in
1903; and the latest addition, "Queen of Peace, pray for us,"
was ordered by Benedict XV in 1917.

What indulgences are annexed to the Litany of the Blessed
Virgin? There are two, a partial and a plenary indulgence.
Pius VII granted one of three hundred days every time it is said ;
and anyone who recites it every day may obtain a plenary in
dulgence, under the usual conditions, on the five principal feasts
of the Blessed Virgin — the Immaculate Conception, Nativity,
Annunciation, Purification and Assumption.

The usual mode of reciting this litany is to say before it the
beautiful prayer " We fly to thy patronage," and to conclude it
with the " Hail, holy Queen," followed by the prayer " Pour
forth, we beseech Thee, O Lord " — but while all these are to be,
recommended, they are not necessary for the gaining of the in
dulgences. The litany itself is all that is required.

The Litany of the Sacred Heart. The fourth among the
litanies approved by the Church is that of the Sacred Heart of
Jesus. Its approval is the latest event in the history of a wonder
ful devotion. Homage to the Sacred Heart of our Lord has be
come widely known only since the seventeenth century ; and it was
not until near the end of the eighteenth (in 1794) that the devo
tion was approved and indulgences were granted to those who
practised it. The feast of the Sacred Heart had been previously
observed in certain places, beginning about 1765; and in 1856
this festival was extended to the whole world. In 1889 it was
raised to a higher rank in the Church's calendar by Leo XIII,

DEVOTIONS 279

and finally, in 1899, the same Pontiff authorized the beautiful
Litany of the Sacred Heart.

It begins, as do the other litanies, with petitions to the Persons
of the Trinity, and contains thirty-three invocations to the Heart
of Jesus, which is entitled " sacred temple of God," " burning
furnace of charity," " fountain of life and holiness," and so on.
The litany closes with the usual threefold prayer to the Lamb of
God, with the versicle and response : " Jesus, meek and humble
of heart: Make our hearts like to Thine," followed by a prayer
to God the Father, asking for mercy in the name of God the
Son.

The Litany of St. Joseph. The most recent of the litanies ap
proved by our Church is that of St. Joseph. A spirit of devotion
to the great Saint who was the foster-father of our Divine Lord
and the spouse and protector of the Blessed Virgin, has been
constantly increasing among Catholics. In the earliest days of our
Church it was customary to give religious homage only to saints
who were martyrs; but even then the virtues of the holy St.
Joseph were recognized and lauded. About the fourth century a
festival in his honor was observed in some Eastern churches, but
he was not venerated publicly in the churches of the Roman rite
until the twelfth century, and his feast on March 19 was not es
tablished until the Pontificate of Sixtus IV, about the year 1480.
Another feast, that of the Patronage of St. Joseph, which origi
nated with the Carmelite nuns, was extended to the whole Church
in 1847 by Pius IX, who, in 1870, solemnly proclaimed St. Joseph
the Patron of the Universal Church.

The Litany of St. Joseph was sanctioned by Pius X on March
1 8, 1909, and, being of such recent origin, is not yet to be found
in many prayer books. It is very beautiful in its wording, and is
not unduly long. After the usual petitions to the Holy Trinity
and one addressed to the Blessed Virgin, the litany is composed
of twenty-five invocations expressing the virtues and dignities of
St. Joseph. An indulgence of three hundred days may be gained
once a day by reciting it.

PART IX
MISCELLANEOUS

CHAPTER LI
SERVICES FOR THE DEAD

LOVE of the departed and a desire to perpetuate their
memory is to be found in every race and tribe, whether
barbarous or civilized. The ancient countries of Asia are
noted for their sepulchral monuments. The mighty pyramids of
Egypt have been found to be tombs of dead monarchs. In distant
India may still be seen the fairy-like Taj Mahal, perhaps the most
beautiful edifice in the world, erected by a Hindoo king as a
memorial and sepulchre for his beloved queen. Outside the walls
of Jerusalem are the tombs of the great ones of Israel. Along the
roads that radiate from the gates of Rome are the ruins of the
final resting-places of patricians and of emperors.

All nations honor their dead. Whether enlightened by faith or
groping in error, all strive to keep alive the memory of those whom
death has taken away; all endeavor to manifest their undying
love for those who have gone before. But the Catholic Church
does more than this. She is a true mother to her children, and her
solicitude extends not only to their perishable bodies, not only to
their memory, which will endure but for a time, but to their
immortal souls. Her faith teaches that the soul, when it has been
separated from the body and has received its sentence from its
Maker, may need help from its friends who remain on earth. Its
time for meriting is over, but it may obtain merit through the
prayers and good works of those who are still able to acquire merit,
and particularly through the petitions of the Church in the Holy
Sacrifice of the Mass.

280

MISCELLANEOUS 281

Why the Church Honors Dead Bodies. But why does the
Church pay so much attention to the perishable body, the lifeless
clay, soon to be the food of worms? We can easily understand
that she would be solicitous for the soul of the departed ; but why
should she pay honor to the body after the soul has left it?

Because the Church's faith teaches that that body has been
the temple of the Holy Ghost, and is to be reunited to the soul
on the day of general judgment, to share its eternal destiny.
The body is the instrument which the soul has used for God's
service. Without it the soul could not have attained to its happi
ness; and so the body, in the designs of God, is destined to par
ticipate in the bliss which He will give to the faithful soul. " I
know that my Redeemer liveth, and that in the last day I shall rise
out of the earth, and I shall be clothed again with my skin, and in
my flesh I shall see my God, Whom I myself shall see and my eyes
shall behold, and not another."

A Tabernacle of God. The body has received the waters of
Baptism, the chrism of Confirmation, the holy oil of Extreme Unc
tion — and hundreds of times during its life it has been a living
tabernacle of the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ. And so, when
death has come to the Catholic, the Church not only endeavors to
help his soul, but she gives the last honors to his body. It is
brought into the house of God in solemn procession, the adorable
Sacrifice of the Mass is offered in its presence, the odor of sweet
incense arises around it, holy water is sprinkled on it, and it is then
laid away in ground that has been consecrated by the prayers of the
Church.

Supplications for Mercy. How often we read in our daily
papers the funeral orations delivered over those who are not Cath
olics — always laudatory, sometimes fulsome in their praises of
the departed. There is never a word to indicate that he may have
been a sinner, or that he may be in dire need of prayer by which
the mercy of God may be implored in his behalf. Such is not
the spirit of the Church in her services for, her dead. She looks
upon death as a punishment for sin; she remembers that nothing
defiled can enter heaven; and so she treats the dead as souls in

282 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

which some stain of sin may have been found by the all-seeing eye
of God, or which may not have fully satisfied the debt of temporal
punishment due for sins forgiven. She takes the salvation of no
one as certain, be he Pope or king or peasant. Her funeral serv
ices are always a supplication for God's mercy on the departed
soul.

The Ceremonies before Mass. In our country it is not cus
tomary to carry out all the rules of the ritual concerning obsequies.
We are not living in a Catholic land, and circumstances will not
permit the doing of many things that are beautiful and instructive
indeed, but are not essential to the Church's ceremonial. In some
parts of the world the custom is in vogue of beginning the funeral
rites at the house where the death took place, and of continuing
them in a solemn procession to the church; but among us these
ceremonies are shortened, and generally take place at the church
only.

It is the rule in some churches to have the clergy meet the body
at the door and accompany it to the altar, where it is placed just
outside the sanctuary. If the deceased was a lay person, his feet
are pointed towards the altar, so that he is, as it were, facing it.
If he was a priest, the body is turned the opposite way, the face
towards the congregation, to signify that his work during life was
to instruct the people from the altar.

Masses of Requiem. It is the wish of the Church that, when
ever it is possible, her children should be buried with a Mass.
This is not only the most solemn way in which they may receive
her final blessing, but also the most efficacious for their soul's salva
tion. The Mass which is celebrated on that occasion is full of
touching symbolism and expressive prayer. The priest is garbed
in sombre black, the color of death, and all ornaments are removed
from the altar or shrouded in penitential wrappings. The veil
before the tabernacle door is purple, the color of penance, tor it
would not be fitting to put black on the dwelling-place of our
Saviour living in the Holy Eucharist. Around the coffin are black
candlesticks, usually six in number.

Masses for the dead are much shorter than those said on other

MISCELLANEOUS 283

occasions. All parts expressive of joy are omitted ; the whole in
tention of the Church is to pray for the departed one, that God's
judgment upon him may be merciful. And so there is no opening
psalm of confidence and hope (" I will go unto the altar of God,
of God Who rejoiceth my youth," etc.). There is no Gloria, the
joyful canticle of the angels. There are no Alleluias, such as we
find in other Masses at most seasons of the year. There is no
Credo, such as is said or sung in the Masses of Sundays and many
festivals. When the words of the Agnus Dei are said, the priest
does not ask the Lamb of God to " have mercy on us, but to " give
eternal rest " to the faithful departed. Instead of the parting
" Ite, missa est " ("Go, the Mass is over"), the priest prays
" Requiescat in pace" (" May they rest in peace"). In these
Masses there is no mention of any festival or saint's day — nothing
but the expression of the Church's sorrow and hope, and the
presenting of her fervent petitions for the eternal welfare of the
departed.

The "Dies Irae." The beautiful "Dies Irae " ("Day of
Wrath "), one of the oldest of the rhyming metrical hymns of the
Church, forms a part of the Mass for the dead. It has exercised
the talents of the greatest musical composers and of translators in
almost all languages. It is said to have been composed by Thomas
of Celano, a companion of St. Francis of Assisi, about the year
1 200, and it sets before us a vivid picture of the Last Judgment —
the coming of the Judge, the opening of the books, the anguish and
remorse of the reprobates; and it concludes with a fervent prayer
for the souls of the faithful: "Loving Lord Jesus, grant them
rest. Amen." All Masses for the dead which are said in black
vestments are known as Requiem Masses, from the opening words
of the Introit: "Requiem sternam dona eis, Domine " — "Rest
eternal grant unto them, O Lord."

Kinds of Requiem Masses. Besides the Mass on the day of
burial the Church has authorized Masses for the third and seventh
day after death (although these are not generally celebrated in
this country), and for the thirtieth day — usually called the
" Month's Mind." All of these are very similar to the funeral

284 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Mass, except in the wording of some of the prayers. There is
also an anniversary Mass, differing from the others, chiefly in the
Epistle and Gospel read in it. On other occasions a Mass is used
called the " Missa Quotidiana," the " Daily Mass " of Requiem.

The Catafalque. Why does the Church use " an imitation of a
coffin " at the commemorative Masses which are sung at certain
times after the funeral? It seems peculiar
to witness the incensing and the sprinkling
of a pall-covered frame — to behold the
solemn ritual of the Church carried out over
it as though it contained a human body.

This catafalque, as it is called, has an in
teresting history. It originated at the time
Catafalque of tjie Crusades, or perhaps a little earlier.

In those centuries it happened sometimes that a pious Christian
knight went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, or buckled on his
armour to win back the Sepulchre of our Lord from the hated
Saracen; and it happened also that in many instances the pious
Christian knight did not come back. Pestilence or shipwreck or
the Moslem scimetar put an end to his life, and it was not usually
possible to bring his earthly remains back to his native land.
But the Church wished to pay honor to his memory, and to cele
brate for him the final rites of her liturgy; and so it became cus
tomary to erect in the church a huge funeral pile, decorated with
emblems of mourning and sometimes bearing the armorial shield,
knightly sword, helmet, spurs and other insignia of his rank.

Such was the origin of the catafalque ; and when for any reason,
at the present day, the body cannot be present at a funeral service,
or at the celebration of anniversary or other solemn Masses, the
same practice is adhered to. A representation of a coffin, suitably
enshrouded in a sable pall, is placed before the altar, to typify the
body of the deceased ; and over it the Church performs the various
ceremonies which would ordinarily take place over the remains
of the departed one.

After the Mass. When the Mass is finished the celebrant lays
aside the chasuble and maniple, puts on a black cope, and turns

MISCELLANEOUS 285

to the place where the body lies. The ensuing services are known
as the " Absolution." He reads a prayer: " Enter not into judg
ment with Thy servant, O Lord," asking the divine mercy on him
who during his life was signed with the seal of the Most Holy
Trinity. The choir then chants the " Libera " — " Deliver me, O
Lord, from everlasting death on that dread day " ; a most touch
ing appeal of the soul trembling with fear before the tribunal of
God. " I am made to tremble, and I fear, at the thought of judg
ment and the wrath to come."

Then while the Pater Noster is being recited, the priest sprinkles
the coffin with holy water, typifying the preservation of body and
soul from the dominion of Satan; and he then incenses it on all
sides, to express the honor that is due to the former temple of the
Holy Ghost and tabernacle of Jesus Christ.

A prayer is then chanted, which is the same as that said in the
early part of the Mass: " O God, to Whom it belongeth always
to show mercy and to spare, we humbly beseech Thee for the soul
of Thy departed servant N., whom Thou hast this day called
out of the world, that Thou deliver it not into the hands of the
enemy nor forget it forever, but command that it be received by
Thy holy angels and taken to Paradise, its true country ; that, as it
has believed and hoped in Thee, it may not suffer the pains of hell,
but have joy everlasting. Through Christ our Lord. Amen."

Going to the Grave. When the priest or priests accompany
the body to the cemetery, as is done in some Catholic countries, a
beautiful prayer is read while the procession is wending its way
thither. " May the angels lead thee into Paradise ; at thy com
ing may the martyrs receive thee and bring thee to Jerusalem
the holy city. May the choirs of angels receive thee, and, with
Lazarus once a beggar, mayest thou have eternal rest."

The Benedictus, or Canticle of Zachary (" Blessed be the Lord
God of Israel ") is then said or sung, with an antiphon formed of
the consoling words of our Blessed Saviour to the sorrowing sisters
of Lazarus : " I am the Resurrection and the Life. He that be-
lieveth in Me, although he be dead, shall live; and every one that
liveth and believeth in Me shall not die forever." This is fol-

286 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

lowed by a prayer in which the divine mercy is besought for the
deceased because he has had the desire of doing God's will, al
though he may have deserved punishment for his misdeeds.

Such is the closing ceremony of the earthly career of a Catholic.
We have all been present at it many times, and we all hope that
it will be performed over us. The infidel would have us believe
that he expects total annihilation when this life is over; the non-
Catholic Christian, though he may imitate some of the rites of
our Church, has no belief in any intercessory prayer for the dead,
and generally contents himself with an indiscriminate laudation
of the departed. The Catholic Church acts differently. She
knows that the immortal soul, still a member of the Church of
Christ, may be in suffering which can be relieved and shortened
by the prayers of other members of that Church. And so she
offers her public prayers and urges her children to pray in private
for the souls of the faithful who have passed through the gates of
death, teaching us that, although separation has come, it is but
for a time, and that even while it continues there is a bond of
union, the " Communion of Saints," between us who are still on
earth and our loved ones who " have gone before."

CHAPTER LI I
THE CHURCHING OF WOMEN

THE Church has instituted a ceremony of thanksgiving by
which mothers may express their gratitude to God for the blessing
conferred upon them in their motherhood, and may receive the
solemn benediction of the Church when they enter God's temple
for the first time after that blessing has been given to them.

This ceremony is generally known as " churching," but the
Ritual calls it " the blessing of a woman after childbirth."
" Churching " would seem to imply that permission is given to the
woman to enter the church — whereas no such permission is neces
sary; and the longer title is really the more correct.

MISCELLANEOUS 287

Different from the Jewish Rite. While this blessing was un
doubtedly suggested by the rite of legal purification prescribed by
the Jewish law, it differs essentially from the latter. The Jewish
rite was based on the idea of legal defilement. The sufferings of
motherhood were looked upon as a part of the penalty imposed
on Eve and all her daughters. " I will multiply the sorrows and
thy conceptions ; in sorrow shalt thou bring forth children." And
so, during the centuries from Eve to Mary, the noble function of
motherhood was considered as necessarily associated with guilt.
On this account, when the liturgical law of the Jews was formu
lated by Moses, a solemn ceremony was prescribed for the remov
ing of the " legal defilement " resulting from the bearing of a
child.

It must be understood, however, that the Jews did not consider
that there was any stain of sin on the mother. Legal defilement
was not sin. It was merely a restriction imposed by law, requir
ing the woman to comply with certain conditions before she would
be allowed to take part in the public worship of God, on account
of the fact that she had been subjected to the penalty inflicted on
our mother Eve.

But with the coming of our second mother, Mary, womankind
was elevated and ennobled. Sin had entered into the world
through a woman; redemption from sin came through a woman
also; and motherhood, although still a painful ordeal, was no
longer looked upon as a penalty. It became truly honorable,
calling for thanksgiving instead of purification.

The Origin of the Blessing. Our Blessed Mother Mary, in
her humility and her obedience to the laws of her religion, sub
mitted to the Jewish rite of purification after she had given birth
to the Redeemer of the world. In imitation of her it became
customary in early Christian times for women to abstain from
entering the church for a certain time after God had blessed them
with offspring. They then sought the blessing of the priest at the
door of the church before entering, and made their first visit as an
act of thanksgiving for their safe delivery. The exact time when
this pious custom originated is not known ; but it is of very ancient

288 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

date, and has been traced back to the fourth century, shortly after
the Council of Nice.

Who Should Receive It ? The Church does not wish that this
beautiful blessing should be given to all mothers indiscriminately.
It is for honorable motherhood only. The bearing of an illegiti
mate child is not an occasion for thanksgiving, and therefore only
those mothers whose children are born in lawful wedlock can claim
this benediction of the Church. It may be given to a mother
whose child has died without Baptism, because even then she has
great reason for thanking God for her own preservation.

It must be distinctly understood that there is no obligation to re
ceive this blessing. It would not be even a venial sin to omit
it. On one or two occasions certain bishops and provincial councils
tried to impose an obligation regarding " churching," but the Holy
See refused to sanction the innovation.

How the Blessing is Given. The ceremony must take place at
a church, although it need not be the parish church to which the
woman belongs; but there is a certain propriety in receiving this
blessing in one's own church, with the pastor or his representative
as the officiating priest, in the presence of the congregation of which
she is a member.

This blessing is never given outside the church. Even in the
case of a mother who is in danger of death, it would not be allow
able to infringe on this rule, because since there is no obligation
to receive it there can be no sin in omitting it. But when Mass
is said in a building which is not a church, as may be the case in
country missions, the blessing may be given there.

The Ceremonies and Prayers. The Ritual directs that the
ceremony should begin at the door of the church, where the woman
kneels, holding in her hand a lighted candle; but it has become
customary to perform this part of it at the altar-rail. The priest,
vested in a surplice and white stole and accompanied by an acolyte,
sprinkles the woman with holy water and recites the twenty-third
Psalm: " The Lord's is the earth and the fullness thereof," with
the antiphon: " She shall receive a blessing from the Lord, and

MISCELLANEOUS 289

mercy from God her salvation; because this is the generation of
those who seek the Lord."

The priest then extends the end of his stole, which the woman
takes in her hand, to denote that she is being led into the church
by him to offer thanks to God. The priest says: " Enter into the
temple of God, and adore the Son of the Blessed Virgin Mary,
Who has given thee f ruitf ulness " ; and it is customary for the
woman to kiss the priest's stole. Then, while she prays silently
in thanksgiving for God's blessings, the " Kyrie eleison " and the
" Our Father " are said by the priest, followed by several short
verses. And finally a beautiful prayer is recited as follows : " Al
mighty, eternal God, Who through the delivery of the Blessed
Virgin Mary hast turned the childbirth pains of Thy faithful
into joy, look kindly on this Thy handmaid, who has come to Thy
temple joyfully for thanksgiving; and grant that after this life,
by the merits and intercession of the same Blessed Mary, she and
her offspring may deserve to attain to the joys of eternal blessed
ness. Through Christ our Lord, Amen."

The woman is then sprinkled with holy water and is solemnly
blessed with the words: " May peace and the blessing of God
Almighty, the Father and Son and Holy Ghost, descend upon thee
and remain forever. Amen."

It is customary to make an offering on the occasion of receiving
this blessing. The ceremony is in imitation of the Jewish rite to
which Mary submitted, and at which she made the sacrificial offer
ing of a pair of doves. It is therefore proper that when a Catholic
woman wishes to express her gratitude for the favor which Al
mighty God has bestowed on her, she should make a suitable gift
for religious purposes, according to her means — that thereby
she may manifest her dependence on God's bounty and her thank
fulness for all the favors which have been conferred upon her.

290 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

CHAPTER LIII
FASTING AND ABSTINENCE

THE penitential practices of fasting and abstinence are of very
ancient origin. The Church, in her earliest days, recognized
the necessity for her children to " chastise the body and bring it
under subjection," as St. Paul advises. " I see a law in my mem
bers fighting against the law of my mind and making me captive to
sin. . . . The wisdom of the flesh is death, but the wisdom of the
spirit is life. If I live according to the flesh, I shall die; but if by
the spirit I mortify the works of the flesh, I shall live."

The doctrine of St. Paul has been repeated by every writer in
the whole list of the Church's teachers. Century after century
those who have written of spiritual things have sought to impress
upon us that we human beings are composed of a human body
which is perishable and a soul which is immortal; that the body
is striving ever for mastery over the spirit ; and that, therefore, be
sides the external sources of temptation which we summarize as
" the world " and " the devil," we have always with us another,
even more dangerous, which we cannot shun, for it is a part of our
very nature. This is the reason for mortification. Besides render
ing the assaults of our bodily passions less dangerous for us, the
practice of self-denial in things that are lawful will enable us to
turn with greater earnestness to spiritual things.

Fasting in the Jewish Law. The Catholic Church took the
practice of fasting from the law of the Old Testament, and has
modified and adapted it to the necessities of her children. We
find in the rules imposed by Moses on the Israelites that on the
Day of Atonement a strict fast was to be observed by all ; and the
great lawgiver of the Jews himself fasted for forty days, as did
the prophet Elias at a later date. In the warnings of the other
prophets to the people of Israel there are many urgings to fasting
as a means of reconciliation with God.

In the New Testament. The practice of fasting was sanc
tioned by our Blessed Lord, by example and by word. To pre-

MISCELLANEOUS 291

pare Himself for His public ministry, He retired into the desert
and spent forty days in fasting and prayer. In one of His instruc
tions to the Apostles He said — " When ye fast, be not as the hypo
crites, sad. . . . Appear not to men to fast, but to thy Father,
Who is in secret, and thy Father, who seeth in secret, will re
pay thee." In many passages of the New Testament wre find how
faithful the early Christians were to this practice. " As they were
ministering to the Lord and fasting." (Acts, XIII). — "Let
us exhibit ourselves as ministers of God, in much patience, in fast
ings." (II Cor., VI.)

History of the Church's Law. Fasting, as a precept of the
Church, goes back to very early times. We do not know pre
cisely when it was enjoined upon the faithful as a command instead
of a counsel, but it is mentioned as a long-established practice by
Tertullian and other writers of his time. Among certain heretical
sects of the first centuries the rigors of fasting and bodily mortifica
tion were greater even than among Catholics ; but the austerities of
the latter were far in excess of anything which we, living in these
degenerate times, would deem possible.

Up to the eighth century, during the Lenten season and on cer
tain other occasions, the faithful kept an absolute fast until sunset ;
and the meal taken then consisted of bread and vegetables. In
some parts of the world even water was not used during the day.
Eating at noon was not permitted at all. It was customary to
have Mass celebrated in the evening, and many of the congregation
received Holy Communion at that time, as both clergy and faithful
were still fasting. The people usually assembled in their churches
at three o'clock for the Divine Office of None, which was followed
by Mass and Vespers, after which the single meal of the day was
allowed. How would we Catholics of the twentieth century bear
up under the rigorous regime of those early days?

The Collation. About the tenth century the breaking of the
fast at noonday was generally introduced, and, a little later, the
taking of a " collation " was permitted in addition to the daily
meal.

The word " collation " is one which has changed considerably in

292 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

meaning. The laws of the Benedictine Order required the monks
to assemble in the evening for a spiritual reading, generally taken
from the Lives of the Saints or other edifying books. These read
ings were called " collations," or conferences. On account of the
long offices which they had previously recited, they were allowed
on certain days to partake of some slight repast or luncheon, just
before the reading; and thus the name of the spiritual exercise
was gradually applied, not to the reading, but to the refreshment.

This taking of a collation by the faithful in addition to the
regular meal is traceable back to about the year 1400, but until
comparatively recent times the amount of food allowed was very
small. In the sixteenth century an ounce and a half of bread
and a single glass of wine were the maximum allowance in many
dioceses. The present relaxation (which allows a collation of
eight ounces and the taking in the morning of a small piece of
bread with tea or other warm drink) was introduced early in the
last century.

The Law of Abstinence. As the Church uses the word, " ab
stinence " signifies depriving ourselves of meat, that thus the body
may practise penance and the soul be thereby sanctified. Besides
the days on which the obligation of fasting is imposed, the Church
has always observed days of abstinence. In the rigorous monastic
life of the early Middle Ages it was deemed a relaxation to keep
Sunday as a day of mere abstinence, without fasting; all the other
days of the year were fasting-days for those austere monks, ex
cepting from Easter to Pentecost, when abstinence alone was ob
served and the strict rules of fasting were dispensed with.

From Apostolic times Friday has been a day of abstinence, and
the reason is obvious to every Christian. Our Blessed Redeemer
died on that day for our sins, and we should commemorate His suf
ferings and offer some expiation ourselves by voluntary mortifica
tion.

In some parts of the world, at a very early date, Friday was a
day not only of abstinence but of fasting ; and on Wednesdays and
Saturdays the use of meat was forbidden. But the severity of
these regulations led to their gradual modification; the observing

MISCELLANEOUS 293

of Wednesday as an abstinence day has almost entirely disap
peared; and at the present time the Holy See has granted per
mission in many countries (including our own) to use meat freely
on Saturdays.

Fasting and Abstinence Days. The following are the days
on which fasting and abstinence are prescribed, outside of Lent:

i). The Ember Days, sometimes called the Quarter Tenses
(Latin, " Quatuor Tempora," the four times), come at intervals
of about three months. They are the Wednesday, Friday and
Saturday which follow December 13, the first Sunday in Lent,
Pentecost and September 14.

The observance of these days is an ancient practice. They
are mentioned by Pope St. Leo as being so old in his time that
he believed that they had an Apostolic origin; and he stated
that the object of these days of fasting is to purify our souls by
penance at the beginning of each quarter of the year. They were
introduced into England by St. Augustine of Canterbury, the
Apostle of that country. The ordinations of the clergy commonly
occur on the Saturdays of the Ember Days, while the whole Church
is devoted to prayer and penance, to secure, as it were, the blessing
of God on His new ministers.

Why are they called " Ember Days " ? The word has nothing
to do with embers or ashes. It may be from the Anglo-Saxon
" ymbren," a circle or revolution ; or it may be a corruption of
" quatuor tempora " ; for in Dutch the name is " Quatertemper,"
in German " Quatember," and in Danish " Kvatember " — whence
the translation to Ember Days is easy.

2). In this country the following days are also observed as
days of fasting and abstinence in most of our dioceses, although
the rule is not the same in all: The Fridays in Advent, and the
vigils of Pentecost, the Assumption, All Saints' and Christmas.

Our Church is a merciful mother. Her wisdom recognizes the
needs of our weak human nature in these strenuous twentieth-
century days. She knows that the rigorous practices of the ages
of faith would not be easy for us, and so she accommodates her
laws to our weakness, requiring of us only what is reasonable.

294 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

But while the details of her penitential rules may vary from
age to age, their spirit remains the same. Whatever may be the
conditions of our lives, we must practise penance in some form.
We must devote ourselves to earnest prayer and frequent good
works if our circumstances forbid grave austerities. While we
may avail ourselves of the dispensations granted by the Church,
we must comply with her laws as far as they bind us. She teaches
that for each of us there is a constant warfare against the lower
elements in our nature; and some degree of mortification is neces
sary if we would be victors in that conflict.

CHAPTER LIV
INDULGENCES

THE Catholic doctrine and practice of Indulgences deserve and
need a thorough explanation. Few points in our religion are so
little understood. Many of the devotions performed by the faith
ful have been enriched by the Church with these spiritual favors;
we find that certain prayers or pious works procure an indulgence
of forty days, or seven years, or in some cases a plenary indulgence
— and a large proportion of Catholics will fulfill the prescribed
conditions and gain the indulgence without having a very clear
idea of what they are gaining.

There is no Catholic teaching which has been so persistently
misrepresented by non-Catholic writers. The average essayist who
attempts to treat of the events which led up to the so-called Ref
ormation generally assails this matter of indulgences with much
vehemence. According to such authorities, the strenuous and
whole-souled Luther rose in his might against papal decrees which
gave a full forgiveness of sin to those who paid for it. The in
dulgences granted by Leo X were even, they say, " a license to
commit sin." The Roman power in the sixteenth century is al
leged to have been so degraded that it publicly proclaimed that the
giving of money for the building of St. Peter's Church would
ensure " the pardon of all past sins and the condoning of all future

MISCELLANEOUS 295

offences," no matter how grievous they might be. Such are the
statements gravely set forth by " historians " — and every word of
them is a falsehood.

The Meaning of an Indulgence. What is an indulgence? It
is not a forgiving of sins already committed. It is not a license or
permission to commit sin, nor a pardon for sins that may be com
mitted in the future. It is not a pardon for sin at all.

It is a remission of the punishment which is still due to sin after
its guilt has been taken away by the sacrament of Penance. This
remission is made by applying to the repentant sinner's soul the
" treasure of merit " which the Church possesses.

Now this definition requires some explanation, and of an accurate
kind ; for the matter is somewhat abstruse, and misunderstanding
is easy.

An indulgence never forgives sin. The guilt and the eternal
punishment of sin must be taken away by other means, chiefly
by the sacraments of Baptism and Penance; and, as we know,
these cannot be of any avail to the soul in actual sin unless it is
aroused to sincere and supernatural sorrow and a firm purpose
of amendment. Before an indulgence can be gained, the soul must
be free from mortal sin ; that is, the guilt must be washed away and
the eternal penalty which is deserved must be remitted — and until
this is done there can be no question of an indulgence.

An indulgence cannot give a permission for future sins. The
very thought of any such license is abominable and blasphemous.
The Church strives to overcome evil, to inculcate virtue; and if
she should countenance or connive at vice in any form she would
be an agent of the devil, not the " mystical Body of Christ."

We see, then, that an indulgence cannot be " an encourage
ment to sin," or " a license or permission to sin," as some of our
non-Catholic critics have asserted. It is rather a very salutary and
powerful motive to repentance and to virtue.

Temporal Punishment. An indulgence takes away temporal
punishment. The teaching of our faith is that after God through
His Church's sacraments has forgiven our sins, after the eternal
punishment has been remitted, a temporal punishment often re-

296 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

mains. It does not remain after sins have been remitted through
Baptism ; this first of the sacraments annuls both guilt and penalty
entirely. If a sinner received Baptism validly and worthily, and
died before sinning again, there would be for him no Purgatory, no
delay in entering Heaven.

But the forgiveness imparted in the sacrament of Penance is less
efficacious. After the guilt of mortal sin has been washed away by
it, although there is no longer any fear of eternal punishment for
the sins forgiven, there may remain a temporal penalty which
(unless it be remitted) must be expiated before Heaven can be
attained. It may be " worked out " wholly or partially in this
world — by penances, mortifications, devotions, almsdeeds and
other good works. If it remains on the soul at death it necessitates
a stay in Purgatory — how long, in any particular case, we do not
know; or it may be remitted by the Church through indulgences
— and this remission may be accomplished while we are living in
this world, or (through the charity of others) after we have been
sentenced by Divine Justice to purgatorial pains.

The Treasury of Merit. When the Catholic Church grants
indulgences, she is able to do so because she has access to an infi
nite store of merit, gained by our Blessed Saviour and the saints.
Our Redeemer's merits were sufficient, of course, to satisfy for all
guilt and all penalty due to sin; His Church dispenses them to
us. The Blessed Virgin Mary lived a life of perfect holiness;
she did not need the abundant merits which she acquired, for she
had no sins to atone for — and the Church can use her merits also
for us. Many of the saints (not only the great and famous ones,
but the multitudes concerning whose names or histories we know
nothing) acquired far more merit before God than was needed for
their own salvation. Now these merits have not ceased to exist.
They are not lost. They are stored up, as it were, by Almighty
God, and the Church makes use of them for those who need them,
since those who gained them do not require them — just as if in
some Utopian commonwealth all the surplus wealth of the success
ful citizens should be set apart for the poor and needy, and por
tioned out to them according to their necessities.

MISCELLANEOUS 297

Two Kinds of Indulgences. Indulgences may be either
plenary (Latin " plenus," full, entire), which remit all the
temporal punishment; or partial, which take away only a part of
it. For the gaining of a plenary indulgence especially, it is neces
sary that it should be proclaimed by the Church and that the
required conditions be fulfilled — one of these being the detesta
tion of all sin and the purpose of avoiding even the least venial sin.
Thus we can seldom be certain that we have gained the whole
of a plenary indulgence, as we cannot be usually sure that we have
thoroughly complied with these conditions.

Indulgences may be also considered as temporal and perpetual,
personal, local, etc., but these divisions refer merely to their dura
tion and extent, and need not interest us now. Nor can we ex
plain in detail the almost innumerable particular indulgences which
the Church has granted in the course of centuries.

Who Can Grant Indulgences ? The principal legislative power
in the Church, the centre of her authority, is the 'Roman See; and
to it primarily belongs the power of granting indulgences. This
is shared, however, by other rulers in the Church to a limited ex
tent. Plenary indulgences are usually granted by the Pope alone,
though he may permit others to do so. Cardinals, certain Roman
Congregations, papal delegates, primates, archbishops and bishops
who are in charge of a diocese have a restricted power of granting
partial indulgences.

How Indulgences are Gained. A person desiring to obtain any
indulgence must, of course, be a member of the Church. He must
perform the work enjoined exactly as it is prescribed. He must be
in the state of grace at least before he finishes that work. For the
gaining of plenary indulgences, as stated above, there must be also
an earnest detestation of all sin and a firm purpose of avoiding it ;
and for these indulgences, in most cases, the Church insists on
confession, Holy Communion and prayer for the Pope's intention.
The nature and amount of this prayer is not specified, but usually
five Our Fathers and five Hail Marys are deemed sufficient.

The History of Indulgences. The present practice of the
Church regarding indulgences is the evolution of twenty centuries.

298 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Changes have been introduced, but they are changes of circum
stances, not of principles.

In primitive times the discipline of the Church towards sinners
was very severe. Heavy penalties, known as " canonical pen
ances," were exacted for grave sins; but if the penitent manifested
extraordinary signs of contrition, these penalties were shortened
and lessened, and this was done especially when persecutions were
going on. It frequently happened in those days that thousands of
Christians were in prison, suffering much and awaiting death.
Their martyrdom was sure to effect their eternal salvation. They
often wrote to the Pope or bishops a " letter of peace," offering
their merits and sufferings as a substitute for the canonical penances
demanded of some other Christians who were being disciplined
for sins. The penalties imposed upon these latter were then re
mitted, and they were not only restored to full membership in the
Church, but they received remission of their temporal punishment
in the sight of God. St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, tells us:
" God can set down to the sinner's account whatever the martyrs
have asked and the bishops have done for them."

Later on, as the law of canonical penances was made less
rigorous, the Church often allowed a lesser work in place of a
greater. Alms to the poor, the endowing of churches and monas
teries, pilgrimages to holy places, and even short prayers — all of
these were considered equivalent to many days or even years of
severe penance; and here we find the reason why indulgences are
entitled " of forty days," " of one year," etc. These words do not
imply, as some might think, that by a certain prayer or good work
we take away forty days or a year of Purgatory for ourselves or
another. They mean that we get as much benefit (for ourselves or
for a soul in Purgatory) as we would if we performed the severe
canonical penances of former times for forty days or one year.

Plenary indulgences seem to have been granted only from about
the eleventh century, and they were probably first given to the
Crusaders. Pope Urban II decreed that " their journey would
take the place of all penance," and later Pontiffs gave similar

MISCELLANEOUS 299

spiritual privileges to those who went to fight for the Holy Sepul
chre or gave money for these expeditions.

From that epoch the history of indulgences becomes better
known. They were given very freely by many Popes and for
various reasons — for the dedication of churches, the canonization
of saints, etc. Later on, certain great and popular devotions were
enriched with indulgences, so that now they are attached to almost
every pious practice. Even articles of devotion, such as crucifixes,
medals, etc., may have these spiritual benefits annexed to them, for
the advantage of the faithful who use them devoutly.

Indulgences for the Souls. The application of indulgences to
departed souls which are in a state of penitential suffering is of
rather ancient date. We find a mention of it in the ninth century,
when Popes Pascal I and John VIII bestowed such indulgences on
the souls of those who had died in defence of the Church or
Christian civilization; and in succeeding ages it became customary
to proclaim nearly all indulgences as applicable not only to the
living person who performed the prescribed work, but also to such
departed ones as he wished to aid.

How does the Church possess such power? These souls in
Purgatory are no longer subjects of the Church on earth; how,
then, can she legislate in their favor? The answer is not diffi
cult. She has no actual power over these souls. She cannot help
them directly nor by any law-making authority. She only en
treats God to accept the superabundant merits of Christ and His
saints, and to dispense these merits for the entire or partial relief
of those who are in Purgatory. She leaves the giving of these
merits to God, trusting to His infinite mercy for the relief of His
friends who are suffering in penitential fires.

This beautiful doctrine and practice of our Church shows us
the loving maternal spirit which animates her. Penance is neces
sary for us, her children ; for even when God's mercy has extended
forgiveness to us, we still have reparation to make and a penalty to
pay. But the Church wishes to make our penalty small, and she
can do so because we are members of a great spiritual society which

300 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

not only has been heaping up a vast treasure of merit for nearly
two thousand years, but has access also to the infinite merits of
our Lord Jesus Christ. We are a part of the great corporation
which controls that spiritual treasure; and as we are needy, as we
ourselves deserve little from God's hands except punishment, the
Church gives us a share in this accumulated merit. And even
after our earthly life is over, if we need God's mercy, we receive
it by the prayers of His Church, of which we shall still be mem
bers. He will lessen or totally remit our deserved punishment
because of the indulgences gained for us by those who are still on
earth and still able to merit.

CHAPTER LV
PILGRIMAGES

THE old Tabard Inn and Chaucer's motley band of travelers
— old-world shrines wTith glowing lamps and throngs of pious
worshippers — plodding wayfarers on lonely roads, " with scrip
and staff and sandal shoon " — princes and "knights of high de
gree " journeying in beggar guise to Eastern lands to kneel at the
Saviour's sepulchre — such are the visions that rise before us when
we speak of pilgrims and pilgrimages.

The pious practice of making journeys to distant shrines, of
arousing or increasing devotion by visiting a holy place, is by no
means exclusively Catholic. It has its origin in the fact that re
ligious impressions naturally become stronger in the places that
have been hallowed by religious events. We know that mere
change of scene has a stimulating effect on the mind of man;
and that when the place visited is one of historic interest, it brings
before the mind, more vividly than would a printed page, the
events that have made it famous. What is true of merely nat
ural impressions is even more true of those that are religious and
devotional. To behold with our own eyes the very places that
were once sanctified by the living presence of our Blessed Saviour;
to kneel at the shrines that were the scenes of apparitions of the

MISCELLANEOUS 301

Blessed Mother of God ; to join in the prayers of assembled thou
sands, of every rank and condition, from the remotest parts of the
earth — all this is full of inspiration for the pious mind ; all this
fills the soul with a religious fervor and exaltation that could hardly
be attained elsewhere.

The Shrines of Other Creeds. In nearly every form of re
ligion it has been found that journeys to supposedly holy places are
a very potent help to devotion. The place where the god or the
hero had lived or had wrought some mighty deed, or where won
ders were supposed to be vouchsafed in answer to prayer, became
the goal of pious worshippers.

The Jewish law imposed upon the heads of families as an obliga
tion a pilgrimage to Jerusalem for the celebration of certain great
festivals. The Romans had their shrines of Jupiter Capitolinus
at Rome, of Apollo at Delphi, of Diana at Ephesus. To visit
Mecca at least once in his lifetime is the ambition of the pious
Mussulman. The great temples of India have their countless
throngs of worshippers who have come to offer their homage to the
Hindoo gods and to pray at the shrines of Buddha.

In encouraging the making of pilgrimages, then, our Church has
made use of a practice which has produced good results in other
creeds. In all her history pious pilgrims have journeyed to distant
shrines. The early Christians longed to see the cave of Bethlehem
and the grotto of the Sepulchre ; and almost from the time of our
Lord's ascension they came in endless procession to Palestine, even
from the outposts of Christendom. A pilgrimage to the Holy
Places was often the fulfilment of a vow, and sometimes the per
forming of an imposed penance. And as the centuries rolled on,
places of devotion were multiplied in every Christian country.
Scenes of apparitions, hermitages of saints, churches which pos
sessed the treasured relics of apostles and martyrs — everywhere
these became the centres of pilgrimages. And, in answer to the
fervor and faith of those who prayed at these shrines, God's
mercy and power were undoubtedly manifested in many miracles.

The Results of Pilgrimages. Important natural benefits have
also resulted from the wanderings of the pious pilgrims of the

302 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Middle Ages. A knowledge of geography and languages, an in
crease of commerce, the spreading of religion and science, and the
founding of certain religious orders were the results of this inter
communication of men from all parts of Europe; and the desire
of being able to visit Palestine unmolested by Moslem hordes was
one of the principal motives for the Crusades. The humble
pilgrim who vowed a journey to the Holy Sepulchre was the fore
runner of the lordly knight who set lance in rest that the sacred
places of Christendom might be freed from Paynim rule.

In the Middle Ages the practice of going on pilgrimages became
so common that it grew at times into an abuse. Thousands of
pilgrims hastened from country to country, neglecting their duties
to home and family — duties which, if fulfilled, would be, doubt
less, far more profitable to their souls than prayers offered at this
shrine or that. The author of the " Imitation of Christ " de
clares: "Who wanders much is little hallowed." Long before,
the great St. John Chrysostom had not hesitated to say that " there
is need for none to cross the sea or fare upon a long journey; let
each of us at home invoke God earnestly, and He will hear our
prayers " ; and St. Jerome, speaking of the pilgrimages to the Holy
Places, gave utterance to a phrase that has become a proverb:
" From Jerusalem and from Britain heaven is equally open."

Recommended by the Church. But this does not mean that
pilgrimages are in themselves useless. If abuses be guarded
against, our holy Church favors and recommends them. She looks
upon them as an excellent means of devotion and penance, and of
consequent purification and spiritual benefit; and even in this
material age the pilgrimage, as an expression of faith and religious
zeal, has by no means fallen into disuse.

Does the Church ever require us to make pilgrimages? Not at
the present day ; for she looks upon them as being in no way neces
sary, though sometimes advisable. God is everywhere, and He is
not to be sought exclusively in one place; His mercy and love, in
answer to our prayers, may be manifested in our own homes and
churches as benignly as at Lourdes or St. Anne de Beaupre. But
nevertheless, our Church approves and recommends pilgrimages as

MISCELLANEOUS 303

a useful means of devotion, because she recognizes the fact that
God has often granted and still grants favors in the form of
graces, miracles and v'-orldly blessings at particular places, as a re
ward for the perseverance and fervor of those who have journeyed
thither, and as an aid in increasing the devotion of the faithful to
our Blessed Lord, to His Virgin Mother, and to His servants who
are specially honored at certain shrines.

Some Shrines of Pilgrimage. While it will not be possible
here to make any extended reference to the various pilgrim-shrines
of the world, we can at least mention a few of the most famou's.
The land hallowed by the life and death of our Blessed Lord has
always been pre-eminently the " Holy Land " for all Christians.
And, next to the sacred places of Palestine, the Vatican hill where
" the vast and wondrous dome " marks the spot where rests the
body of the Prince of the Apostles, has long been the goal of pil
grim devotion. In many parts of the earth, in the New World
as well as the Old, are churches erected in honor of the Blessed
Mother of God, which have become centres of devotion; for ex
ample, La Salette in France, Guadalupe in Spain, the Mexican
shrine of the same name, and, greatest of all, Lourdes — where a
million visitors journey every year to pay their homage to Mary
Immaculate and to profit by her intercession. And other saints
have been honored as well by the zeal of devout pilgrims. Eng
land cherishes the memory of the martyred Becket at Canterbury ;
Spain has its shrine of St. James the Apostle at Compostella; Ire
land has its " St. Patrick's Purgatory " in bleak Donegal. In our
own country a pilgrim-shrine has been established at Auriesville,
New York, where three heroic Jesuits were tortured and slain
by the savage Mohawks. Canada has its famous Beaupre, where
the intercession of " la bonne Sainte Anne " is sought by thou
sands; and in several places that are nearer to us the votaries
of the gracious mother of the Virgin seek alleviation of suffering
by offering prayers before her altar.

We see, then, that the old simple Catholic faith is as strong
now as it was in those dim days of long ago when in their thou
sands, along the roads of Europe or over the stormy seas to

304 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Palestine, the pious pilgrims journeyed, filled with an ardent desire
to see the places hallowed by the Saviour, to kneel at sacred shrines,
to offer their fatigue and sufferings as an expiation for their sins,
and to secure the mercy of God and the intercession of the saints
by fervent prayer.

CHAPTER LVI
AN UNMARRIED CLERGY

THERE is such a wide distinction between the mode of life of
the Catholic priest and that of the clergy of other Christian de
nominations that we are apt to look upon his celibate state as some
thing which is essential to his sacred character and profession.
We are familiar with the idea that the priest is one who has
voluntarily sacrificed all that man holds dear in worldly relation
ship in order thereby to be better able to devote himself to God's
service; but it would be erroneous to imagine that the fact of his
priesthood necessitates his living a single life. Our priests in the
Latin Church have vowed themselves to celibacy; by receiving
ordination they have rendered themselves forever incapable of
valid marriage; but this is because the Church has made laws to
that effect, and not through any divine decree or institution.

The practice of clerical celibacy and the law which confirms it
have been the slow growth of centuries — and, as we shall see, they
are not by any means universal. There are many thousands of
Catholic priests (not schismatics, but real Catholics) who are law
fully married and are living in the married state; but this is the
case only in Eastern churches which have a ritual and a system of
legislation different from the Roman. The uniform practice and
rule of the " Latin Church " is that those who serve the altar and
who are promoted to subdeaconship shall be unmarried and shall so
remain.

Why Our Priests Do Not Marry. What are the reasons for
clerical celibacy ? Why is it that the Church insists on this rigor
ous and difficult rule? Rigorous and difficult it undoubtedly is,

MISCELLANEOUS 305

for it requires the constant repression of natural instincts and af
fections. The Church has imposed celibacy on her clergy that they
may serve God with less restraint and with undivided heart. As
St. Paul says, " He that is without a wife is solicitous for the things
that belong to the Lord, how he may please God; but he that is
with a wife is solicitous for the things of the world, how he may
please his wife, and he is divided."

They are expected to practise chastity because the state of
virginity is holier than that of marriage. This does not mean that
the married state is not praiseworthy and honorable; but our
Blessed Lord Himself tells us (and the Apostles reiterate His
teaching) that the life of those who practise virginity is superior
to that of those who are married. The Church has always taught
the same doctrine. Council after Council has extolled the holy
state of celibacy, and the great Council of Trent affirmed as a mat
ter of faith that it is holier than marriage.

But this, while it shows that the unmarried state is preferable
and even specially desirable for the priests of the Church, does not
of itself compel them to observe it. This has been done by direct
legislation, which required several centuries to reach its present
development.

The Church's Law. The Church imposes a law of celibacy
upon her ministers, but she has not always done so. During at
least one-half of her history the legislation was not in its present
form ; and even now it is not extended to all parts of the Church's
domain and is not enforced in regard to all her clergy.

In the first days of the Church there was no law restricting the
marriage of the clergy except that a bishop was required to be " a
man of one wife " ; that is, to have been married only once. It is
quite likely that several of the Apostles were married. We read in
the Gospel of the curing of Peter's mother-in-law by our Blessed
Lord — and if the chief of the Apostles had a mother-in-law he
undoubtedly had at some time a wife. It is supposed, however,
that she was dead before he was called to be an Apostle, as there
is no mention of her in the Scriptural account of Peter's life.

The first trace which we can find of positive legislation is in the

3o6 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

fourth century. At the Council of Nice and other synods of about
the same time a regulation was made prohibiting the marriage of
the clergy after ordination ; but the validity of the marriage was not
denied or assailed by this rule. It merely provided that the priest
who contracted it was to be degraded to the lay state. But gradu
ally the sentiment of the whole Western Church became more
rigorous. It was felt that a married clergy was in no way de
sirable ; and under various Popes laws were made for the clergy of
the Latin rite which rendered invalid any marriage attempted by a
subdeacon or one in higher orders. The marriage of a cleric below
the rank of subdeacon was and is valid, but it renders him in-
cabaple of receiving that or the succeeding orders while his wife
lives — except in the case that, by mutual agreement, she enters a
religious community of wTomen and he a monastic house.

In the eyes of the Church a widower is a single man, and there
fore is eligible to Holy Orders; if he is otherwise capable, his
previous marriage is not an obstacle to his becoming a priest.

Catholic Priests Who are Married. Are there any married
priests in the Catholic Church? Yes, several thousands. They
are really married, and they are not living in opposition to God's
or the Church's law. These are the clergy of several Oriental
churches which are united to ours in faith and government, though
differing from it in ritual and laws.

We shall not go into the details of the legislation of the sepa
rated Eastern churches — the schismatic sects which have a clergy
and Mass and sacraments as we have, but which have cut them
selves off from communion with Rome. In nearly all of these the
pastors of parishes are married men — the members of the re
ligious orders are not; while the bishops are also generally un
married.

In nearly all the Oriental churches which are in communion with
the Holy See, marriage before receiving deaconship is not an ob
stacle to that or the succeeding orders ; but marriage is not allowed
afterwards. If the candidate is not married he is ordained only
on condition of making a promise of perpetual chastity. If the
wife of a priest dies, he is not permitted to remarry in some

MISCELLANEOUS 307

Churches; while in others his second marriage is considered valid,
but necessitates his retirement from priestly duties.

The result of these long-established customs in the Eastern
Catholic Churches is that the candidate for Holy Orders, before
receiving deaconship, usually withdraws from the seminary and is
married — after which he returns, resumes his studies, and is
finally ordained.

The Reasons for Celibacy. Why is it that the Church has
sought to make at least the priests of the Latin rite observe the
rule of celibacy? Because the value of the priest's ministry is
thereby enhanced. He is giving a practical lesson in disinterested
ness and self-sacrifice. He has given up the things of the world
which are most highly valued by men — the love of wife and
children — that he may be the better able to devote himself to
the salvation of souls. He has no earthly ties that might conflict
with his duty to his spiritual flock. The burden which rests on
the sinner's soul may be freely revealed to him without fear that
the secret will be shared with the confessor's wife. Pestilence
has no terrors for the unmarried priest — he has no family to
whom the contagion might be transmitted; and so, wrhen the call
comes summoning him to the small-pox or typhus sufferer, or
when his duty lies in the cholera-camp, he has no fear. He is
risking nothing but his own life, and that he has already conse
crated to God. And when the quest for souls leads him into
distant pagan lands he has an advantage over the married mis
sionary. He is a soldier in " light marching order." He takes
no family with him, to be an encumbrance in his work, to require
support and shelter in his field of labor; he leaves no wife and
children behind him whose welfare would be a source of anxiety
while he is far from them. If death comes in the course of his
work, whether by accident or disease or martyrdom, the un
married priest need not care; he has no worldly ties to lessen his
peace of soul — no dependents whose future well-being would
be affected by his living or dying.

Difficult Not Impossible. Is not this law difficult of observ
ance, since it is opposed to a primary function and instinct of

3o8 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

man's nature? Is it not impossible to bind the clergy by such a
rule without leading to sins and irregularities immeasurably worse
than honorable marriage would be ?

These are questions which non-Catholics of an inquiring mind
will frequently ask. We answer to the first question, that it is
assuredly difficult. To observe the law of priestly celibacy re
quires a strong will, a divine vocation, a spirit of self-sacrifice,
great watchfulness, frequent and fervent prayer, and God's grace.
But only the difficult things obtain much merit or deserve much
reward.

To the second question we answer decidedly, No. It is not
impossible nor even impracticable to bind the clergy to the un
married state and to keep them pure and decent. We do not
attempt to deny that abuses and scandals have arisen — that in
some lands and in some epochs there have even been many lapses
from virtue on the part of priests. Some countries have been
worse than others — discipline has sometimes been relaxed,
ecclesiastical training has sometimes been neglected, luxury and
avarice have occasionally led to the preferment of the unworthy,
and worse vices have naturally followed in their train. But we
affirm most emphatically that the history of our Church shows
that by far the greater part of her clergy have been faithful to
their obligations, models of priestly virtue, ornaments of the
mystical Body of Christ. The priests of Ireland, of Germany, of
France and Belgium and the hard-working ones who have done
God's work in our own land have been worthy of all praise,
faithful to their holy vocation. There have been exceptions, we
know ; but they have been few and far between ; and when scandals
have arisen, the very sensation which they produced demonstrated
their infrequency.

What a grand testimony is given by the apostate Renan to the
virtue of the clergy who were his instructors in his boyhood and
youth. " I spent thirteen years of my life under the care of
priests, and I never saw the shadow of a scandal. I have known
no priests but good priests."

Thank God, most of us can say the same.

MISCELLANEOUS 309

CHAPTER LVII
CHRISTIAN SYMBOLS

WHEN we enter a Catholic church and examine its architecture,
we find that in many parts of it there are ornamental details of
various kinds — representations of animals and plants, crosses,
monograms, and many other things. All of these have a most
instructive symbolism and an interesting history. They are em
blematic of the great truths of Christianity, of our Saviour, of
His Blessed Mother and the Saints, of our holy Church, and of
the virtues which that Church teaches us.

The use of symbols in Christian art and architecture goes back
to the very infancy of the Church. In the chapels of the Roman
catacombs and in the subterranean churches of St. Clement, St.
Praxedes, and other temples of early Christianity, crude mural
paintings are still to be seen, containing ornaments and emblems
typifying the faith of those who worshipped there. And in later
centuries, when great cathedrals raised their domes and spires to
heaven in every country of Europe, these mighty temples were
enriched with a wealth of symbolic ornaments in sculpture, carving
and painting. At the present day, in our own churches, many of
these are still used in the details of architecture, in windows and
interior decoration.

When you visit your own parish church, spare a few minutes
from your prayer-book to look around at the symbolic ornaments
which you will find there. This will not be a distraction ; on the
contrary, it will be a help to greater devotion.

They Teach Religion. This chapter will explain the meaning
of some of these symbols, which St. Augustine has well called
" libri idiotarum " — " the books of the unlearned," because they
are admirably adapted to present the truths of religion to the
faithful, many of whom in past centuries were unable to read a
printed page.

First among them there is the most important of all Christian
symbols — the Cross, the sign of salvation, the sacred emblem of

3io EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Lamb"

our redemption; but this is treated at considerable length else
where in this book. We shall treat briefly of the others that are
most common in our churches.

Animals as Symbols. The Lamb has been an emblem of our
Saviour from the earliest period of Christian art. In the Jewish
sacrifices it prefigured the coming Messias, and
when St. John the Baptist pointed Him out to
the multitude he cried out : " Behold the Lamb
of God." The Lamb is sometimes represented
standing, bearing a cross or banner inscribed with
these words ; or lying, as if slain, on a book closed
with seven seals, as described in the Apocalypse.
It is also a general symbol of modesty and innocence, and it is
therefore used as an emblem of the martyr-virgin St. Agnes, whose
name signifies a lamb.

The Dove is the special symbol of the Holy
Ghost. "And lo! the Holy Spirit descended
from heaven upon Him in the form of a
Dove," at the baptism of Christ; and we see
it also in pictures of the Annunciation, to sig
nify the Incarnation of our Blessed Saviour by
the power of the Holy Ghost.
The Pelican, which, according to legend, feeds its young with
its own blood, is an emblem of our redemption through the suffer
ings of our Lord, and particularly of the Blessed
Eucharist, in which He nourishes our souls with
His Body and Blood.

The Lion typifies our Saviour, the " Lion of
the fold of Judah." As will be told further
on, it is also a symbol of the Evangelist St.
Mark. It is emblematic of solitude, and is
therefore sometimes shown in pictures of hermit-saints.

The Dragon always represents Satan and sin. It is shown as
being conquered by the powers of good, as in the Scriptural ac
count of St. Michael the Archangel and in the medieval legend
of St. George. The Serpent, another emblem of sin, is sometimes

Dove

Pelican

MISCELLANEOUS 311

placed beneath the feet of the Blessed Virgin, to symbolize that
" the seed of the woman shall crush his head." The Serpent,
however, when twined around a cross, is emblematic of the brazen
serpent raised up by Moses in the desert — a prophetic figure of
our crucified Saviour.

Symbolic Plants. There are various plants and flowers that
have a symbolic meaning. The Olive Branch is an emblem of
peace, and is often shown in the hand of the Archangel Gabriel.
The Palm is the special badge of martyrs. " I saw a great multi
tude which no man could number, of all nations and tribes and
tongues, clothed with white robes, and palms in their hands."
Thus did St. John describe the vast army of martyrs before the
throne of God.

The Lily, wherever seen, has but one meaning — chastity.
We find it in pictures of the Annunciation, of St. Joseph (whose
staff, according to an ancient legend, bloomed into lilies), and
sometimes in representations of saints notable for their purity —
for example, St. Anthony of Padua and St. Aloysius.

The Rose is an emblem of love and beauty, and is symbolical
of the Blessed Virgin under her title of " Mystical Rose " ; it is
also used in pictures of St. Elizabeth of Hungary (because of the
well-known legend), and of other saints.

Other Emblems. A Crown, of course, denotes kingly power.
We see it in pictures of Mary as Queen of Heaven, of our Blessed
Lord when His kingship is to be emphasized,
and of saints of royal blood. The crown of
the Blessed Virgin is often shown with twelve
stars, after the description in the Apocalypse;
and from the same vision of St. John we get
the crescent moon shown beneath the feet of
Mary: "A woman clothed with the sun,
having the moon beneath her feet, and upon
her head a crown of twelve stars." Symbols of

A Ship symbolizes the Church, the bark of Faith, Hope, Charity
Peter, buffeted by tempests but guided by God Himself. The
Anchor was an emblem of hope long before the beginning of

3i2 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Grapes and Wheat

Christianity, because it is the chief reliance of mariners in time of
danger. Hence it has been adopted by the Church as a symbol,
and is often combined with two others to
denote the three great theological virtues —
the Cross for faith, the Anchor for hope, the
Heart for chanty.

Ears of wheat and bunches of grapes are
often used as ornaments around the altar and
on the sacred vestments. These are symbols
of the Holy Eucharist, the true Body and
Blood of our Lord under the appearance of
the bread which is made from wheat and the wine which we obtain
from grapes. The Chalice, often surmounted by a Host, has the
same signification.

A Banner is an emblem of victory. It belongs
to the military saints, and is also borne by our
Lord in pictures of His Resurrection. A Candle
stick typifies Christ and His Church, the " light
of the world.'' It is sometimes represented with
seven branches, symbolic of the seven gifts of the
Holy Ghost or of the Sacraments. A Skull or
a Scourge is emblematic of penance, and a Scal-
Chaiice and Host fop-Shell, of pilgrimage.

The Sign of the Fish. A favorite emblem of early Christian
times was a fish, generally resembling a dolphin. The Greek
word for fish is Ichthus, spelt in Greek with five
letters only: I-ch-th-u-s. These form what is
called an acrostic, being the initial letters of the
words: " lesous Christos, Theou Uios, Soter "
— or, in English, "Jesus Christ, Son of God,
Saviour " ; and thus the fish was taken as a symbol
SigFr°ofmhthJish of our Blessed Lord, and is so found in many

Catacombs

ancient inscriptions in the catacombs and else
where. The fish, because it lives in water, is also an emblem of
the Sacrament of Baptism; of the vocation of the Apostles, the
" fishers of men " ; and of Christians in general, typified by the

MISCELLANEOUS

313

Monogram or Symbol
of the Blessed
Virgin Mary

miraculous draught of fishes mentioned in the
Gospel of St. John.

The sign of the crossed keys, with or with
out the papal tiara, is symbolic of the power of
the Pope " to bind and to loose." " I will
give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven."

Emblematic Monograms. Various letters
and monograms, or intertwined characters, are
also used as symbols and ornaments in the decoration of our
churches — such as A. M., signifying Ave Maria (Hail, Mary) ;
A. M. D. G. — Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam (to God's greater glory
— a favorite maxim of the Jesuit Order) ; and
I. H. S., which is generally taken to be the
initial letters of " lesus Hominum Salvator "
(Jesus, Saviour of men), but which is more
probably an abbreviation of the Greek form of
the name of our Redeemer — lesous — the capi
tal long E in Greek being shaped like our
letter H.

We also see frequently the letters Alpha and Omega, the first
and last of the Greek alphabet, signifying God, the Beginning and
End of all things ; and also the " chrisma," or
monogram of the Greek letters Chi and Rho,
shaped like our X and P, but equivalent to CH
and R in Latin or English.

Symbols of the Saints. The pictures and
images of saints in our churches are often ornamented with em
blems illustrative of some virtue of the saint or some event in his
career. Generally they are crowned with a halo or nimbus,
symbolizing the light of grace and sanctity. In
many representations of martyr-saints the in
strument of their martyrdom is shown. Thus
we have the sword or axe for many saints, the
arrows of St. Sebastian, the gridiron of St. Law
rence, and the toothed wheel of St. Catherine.

For saints who were not martyrs, emblems are chrisma

Alpha and Omega

3i4 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

St. Matthew

St. Luke

used which typify the virtues which they practised, the work which

they did, or the rank which they held — a banner and cross for
missionaries, a mitre and pastoral staff for bishops,
a crucifix for preachers, a crown of thorns for
those whose lives were full of mortification.

Symbols of the Evangelists. In some ec
clesiastical decorations we may find four emblems,
generally winged — the head of a man, a lion, an
ox and an eagle. This is symbolism of a very
ancient date, having its origin in St. John's
Apocalypse. It represents the four writers of
the holy Gospels. The human head indicates
St. Matthew — for he begins his Gospel with
the human ancestry of our Blessed Lord. The
lion, the dweller in the desert, is emblematic of
St. Mark, who opens his narrative with the
mission of St. John the Baptist, " the voice of
one crying in the wilderness." The sacrificial
ox is the symbol of St. Luke — for his Gospel
begins with the account of the priest Zachary.
And the eagle, soaring far into the heavens, is
the emblem of the inspiration of St. John, who
carries us, in the opening words of his Gospel,
St. John to Heaven itself: "In the beginning was the

Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was

God."

CHAPTER LVIH
THE CATHOLIC BIBLE

WE Catholics should be well informed as to our Church's
teaching concerning the Holy Scriptures, which are one of the
two great foundations of our faith. This is more necessary at the
present time than ever before. In the early days of Protestantism
the Church had to combat the error of the " reformers " that the
word of God was contained in the Bible alone; but in these irre-

St. Mark

MISCELLANEOUS 315

ligious days, when so many so-called Protestants have come to
treat the Bible as an ordinary book, when some of them even re
gard it as " a series of Oriental myths," we Catholics should know
what our Church holds and teaches concerning it.

The Written Word of God. The Bible consists of a number
of writings, or " books," written in different ages by men who
were inspired by God. The books written before the coming of
our Lord form the Old Testament; those written by His Apostles
and Evangelists, the New. In the Catholic Bible there are forty-
five books in the former and twenty-seven in the latter. The
Protestant versions usually exclude seven books of the Old Testa
ment and part of two others. The Latin Bible was translated
from the Hebrew and Chaldean originals by St. Jerome. It came
gradually into use throughout the Christian world, and hence is
known as the Vulgate or " common " version. It was finally
approved, and all other versions were excluded, by the great
Council of Trent.

Our Church holds, and has always held, that the Sacred Scrip
tures are the written word of God. In the words of the Council,
she believes and teaches concerning the books of the Old and New
Testaments, that " God is the author of each " — and, believing
this, she also believes that the Scriptures can contain nothing but
perfect truth in faith and morals.

But if this be so, does it follow that God's word is contained
only in them? By no means. Our Church affirms that there is
an unwritten word of God also, which we call Apostolic Tradi
tion ; and she maintains that it is the duty of a Christian to receive
the one and the other with equal veneration.

How do we know that this teaching of our Church is true?
From the whole history and the whole structure of the Old and
New Testaments. If our Lord had meant that His Church
should be guided by a book alone, why did He not at once provide
the Church with the book? He did not do so. He commanded
the world to listen to the living voice of His Apostles. " He
that heareth you, heareth Me." For about twenty years after
the Ascension there was not a single book of the New Testament

3i6 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

in existence ; and the various Epistles were written by the Apostles
at infrequent intervals thereafter, to give to widely scattered
churches instruction on points of doctrine and morals, and to
correct prevailing errors and abuses. There is no mention of
even an incomplete collection of the New Testament books until
the year 180. All that these early Christians had was the living
voice of the Church, contained in the preaching and teaching of
the Apostles and their successors. As there was no New Testa
ment during all those years, and as a large part of Christian
doctrine is in no way contained in the Old Testament, it is evi
dent that the Scriptures could not have been in those days the sole
deposit of Christian faith.

Interpreting the Scriptures. The Bible, in the words of St.
Peter, contains " things hard to be understood." Who is to be
its interpreter? Is it the individual, as Protestantism asserts, or
is it the Church of God? A favorite and most impractical theory
of the early " reformers " was that each Christian should inter
pret the Scriptures for himself. The Catholic teaching is that
this is the work of the Church, the divinely appointed teacher of
truth, against which " the gates of hell shall not prevail." What
has been the outcome of the Protestant idea of " private judg
ment"? If God had intended that each man should be his own
interpreter — if the Holy Spirit were to guide each — the result
would be, undoubtedly, that all would agree ; for the Spirit of God
could not teach truth to one and error to another. But what has
been the actual result? Division and confusion, the multiplica
tion of sects and heresies — united in nothing save their antagonism
to the Catholic Church — and finally, the total rejection, by
many, of the inspiration and the authority of the Bible.

" But your Church has condemned the reading of the Bible."
This is true — in a certain sense. Her practice has varied with
varying circumstances. She has forbidden at times the unguided
use of the Scriptures. Parts of the Bible are evidently unsuited
to the very young or the ignorant; and Pope Clement XI con
sequently condemned the proposition that " the reading of the
Scriptures is for all." The watchful discipline of our Church

MISCELLANEOUS 317

has been exercised to keep her children from error or from moral
evil. During the Middle Ages, when heresies were rife and
corrupt translations of the Bible were numerous, the indiscrimi
nate reading of the Scriptures was forbidden by various Councils.
The Church, looking upon herself as the interpreter of God's
word, strove to guard her children from the dangers which would
arise from such reading. But when the Vulgate version was
authorized she insisted upon its use by the faithful in general,
with the recommendation that such explanatory notes should be
appended as should preclude all danger of abuse.

Moreover, we Catholics hold that the reading of the Bible is
not strictly necessary. The Apostles established the Church and
converted a part of the pagan world without a Bible. Many
nations have received the faith without being able to read. If
the study of the Scriptures had been a requisite for conversion or
salvation, a great part of the world would have been left without
this means of grace, at least until the invention of printing. The
Catholic Church, then, regards the Bible as one source of our
holy faith, but holds that its use by all her children is by no
means necessary, and not even advisable, except when its meaning
is expounded and interpreted by her infallible authority.

The "Chained Bible." Rather amusing (and somewhat
exasperating) is the old and oft-repeated assertion that " the
Catholic Church chained the Bible." She did, undoubtedly.
The statement is perfectly true. Each church, in the Middle
Ages, possessed usually a single copy of the Scriptures, a ponderous
folio volume ; and this was often chained to a reading-desk — for
the same reason that money is put into an iron safe; because it
was worth stealing. A Bible copied by hand on parchment re
quired three years' labor, and was valued at about $1500.
Would it not have been unwise, to say the least, to leave it " lying
around loose " ?

The Douay Bible. The translation of the Holy Scriptures
used among English-speaking Catholics is commonly called the
Douay version — though somewhat incorrectly, for the Bible was
not translated into English at Douay, and only a part of it was

318 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

published there. Besides, the text in use at the present day has
been considerably altered from that which originally bore the
name of the Douay Bible.

The college at Douay, in France, was founded by exiled Eng
lish priests in 1568. Within a few years political troubles caused
the removal of its members to Rheims, and it was in the latter
city that several of them undertook the work of preparing an
English version of the Scriptures. The New Testament was
published at Rheims in 1582, and the Old Testament at Douay
in 1609.

The language of this first edition was fairly accurate, but was
in some places uncouth and defective in style, following too closely
the idioms of the language from which the translation was made.
Consequently amended editions and even partially new transla
tions were made, and of these the most widely used is that of
Dr. Challoner, published in 1750, and plentifully provided with
his notes, which have been added to since that time by various
other editors.

The first Bible published in America for English-speaking
Catholics, a reproduction of Challoner's second edition, was is
sued at Philadelphia in 1790; and between 1849 and 1857 Arch
bishop Kenrick published an excellent revision of the Douay
version.

How does our Catholic Bible compare with the so-called
"Authorized Version" (a revision, made in 1711, of the " King
James" Bible), commonly used by the Protestant sects? The
style of our Bible is often inferior; its matter is often superior in
accuracy. The Doctors of Rheims and Douay made a closely
literal and usually correct translation of the Latin text of the
Vulgate, and their crudity of style and occasional slight errors
have been largely eliminated by succeeding editors. The Protes
tant Bible is a masterpiece of English literature, generally beau
tiful in style and diction; but its text is distorted here and there
to support Protestant doctrines — and it is, after all, only a part
of the whole Bible, rejecting several books which our Church has
declared to be a part of the written revelation of the Word of

MISCELLANEOUS 319

God. Being a masterpiece of literature does not make the " Au
thorized Version " a trustworthy guide to faith or to salvation.

CHAPTER LIX
CHURCH MUSIC

IT is eminently proper that man, in his worship of God, should
render to Him all that is most sublime and most beautiful. His
homage can be expressed not only in words but in sweet sounds.
In every form of worship since the world began, his natural de
votional instinct urged him to honor Divinity by means of music
as well as by the other arts, and to heighten his religious exalta
tion by the chanting of hymns and the sound of musical instru
ments.

All true religious music is an exalted prayer — an effective
expression of religious feeling. In nearly all rites, whether Jewish,
pagan or Christian, the elements of public worship have been
sacrifice, prayer, ceremonies, chanting and instrumental music.
In Catholic worship these elements constitute an organic whole,
in which, however, music forms a part only on solemn occasions;
and in order that it may be fittingly used it must be in accord
with the regulations of proper authority.

An Auxiliary to Worship. Church music has, in common
with secular music, the combination of tones in melody and har
mony, the variation as to rhythm, measure and time, the distri
bution of power (known as dynamics), tone-color in voice and in
strumentation, and the simpler and more complex styles of com
position. All these, however, must be well adapted to the service
at which they are used, to the words of the hymn or prayer, and
to the devotion of the heart; otherwise they are unfit for use in
the house of God. They must be calculated to edify the faithful,
and must not be in any way opposed to the spirit of true worship.
Music must be an auxiliary to the other means of giving honor
to God; and if it be so it does not interfere with the Church's
ceremonies or detract from their religious spirit, but, on the con-

320 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

trary, it imparts to them the greatest splendor and effectiveness.
Appropriate music raises man above the sordid world, directs his
mind and heart to the sacred words and ceremonies of his Church's
worship, and fills him with a spirit of exalted devotion. Realizing
this, our Church has indeed made her music appropriate to the
spirit of her services, adapting it to the nature of the religious
functions at which it is used, to the season of the ecclesiastical year
and to the solemnity of the feast — making it grand and exultant
on festivals of joy, and mournful in seasons of penance and in
services for the dead.

In Jewish Worship. Under the Old Law music formed a
prominent feature in the Jewish rites, and this was in compliance
with the commands of God Himself. Religious songs of victory
are mentioned in the books of Exodus and Judges; and later on
the ceremonial was enriched by David with hymns and the use of
instruments, and reached its highest development under his son
Solomon in the sublime ritual practised in the great temple of
Jerusalem.

In the Early Church. We know very little concerning the
music of the primitive Christian Church. On account of many
circumstances that Church was restricted in its religious manifes
tations, for the greater part of the first three centuries was a time
of bitter persecution, when Christians worshipped God in secret
and in peril of their lives. Tertullian tells us, however, that in
his day psalms were sung in the divine service, and the pagan
Pliny knew that Christians honored their God before dawn by
the chanting of hymns. The extensive use of music in church
ceremonies came later, and is to be largely attributed to St. Am
brose, the great Bishop of Milan, who introduced the singing of
psalms " after the manner of the East." Under the fostering
care of our Church sacred music developed most wonderfully
during the succeeding centuries.

St. Jerome, who seldom failed to criticize when criticism was
needed, speaks of singers of his day in words to which some of
our modern choirs and church soloists may well hearken : " Let
the servant of God sing in such manner that the words of the

MISCELLANEOUS

321

text rather than the voice of the singer may cause delight, and
that the evil spirit of Saul may depart from those that are under
its dominion, and may not enter into those who make a theatre
of the house of the Lord." Can it be possible that the prophetic
soul of the Saint foresaw the evils of some of the church music
of to-day, wherein hymns to the Blessed Sacrament are chanted
to the dulcet strains of " Juanita," and the sublime words of the
Credo are sung to the liveliest melodies of Offenbach?

The Organ. The majestic tones of the organ have been con
sidered from very early times to be particularly appropriate for
religious services. The word " organ " is used occasionally in
the Old Testament, but is somewhat of a mistranslation ; in Jewish
worship it signified any kind of wind instrument, as a pipe or
trumpet, for organs resembling those of the present day did not
then exist.

Nothing is known as to the exact date of the introduction of
organ music into Catholic services. St. Augustine speaks of it as
being in use in his time, and gives testimony to the delight he
experienced in listening to it; he even seems to reproach himself
because of the pleasure derived from it, asking himself whether
it would not be perhaps more perfect to deny himself that grati
fication.

There is no authority whatever for the legend that the organ
was invented by St. Cecilia, although modern art often depicts
the Roman virgin-martyr seated at the keyboard of such an in
strument. Probably in her day organs did not exist
in any form, and the present form of keyboard was
not devised until fully a thousand years later.

The organ was, in fact, the invention of many
minds, and centuries were required for its develop
ment. It was evolved from the syrinx, or set of
pipes bound together, such as we see represented in
pictures of the pagan god Pan. A wind-box and
bellows were attached, and the various pipes were

Syrinx

caused to sound by means of a sliding perforated plate. This is
said by some to have been invented by a certain Ctesibius. A

322 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

hydraulic organ, in which the bellows were actuated by water, is
mentioned by Tertullian, who attributed the idea to the famous
Archimedes.

In the year 757 Constantine V, one of the Byzantine Emperors,
sent an organ as a gift to Pepin, King of France, and another
was sent later to his son Charlemagne.

The Development of the Organ. It was undoubtedly the
giving of these instruments to these great monarchs of the West
that led to the general introduction of them into the service of the
Church throughout Europe. A great organ with four hundred
pipes and twenty-six bellows was built at Winchester, in England,
in 951. From the eleventh century organs were used generally
in cathedrals and monastic churches, although the idea was op
posed by some great teachers of the Church, notably St. Thomas
Aquinas. A vigorous effort was made to have legislation passed
against them at the Council of Trent, but a majority of the bishops
voted otherwise, and the Council simply enacted that the music
should be grave and devotional. Similar injunctions were made
by Benedict XIV in 1749, and strict regulations were put into
effect a few years ago by the " Motu Proprio " of Pius X, which
will be discussed further on.

Among the early Protestant denominations there was much dis
cussion and dissension regarding the use of organs. The Luther
ans and Anglicans retained them, but many other sects banished
them from their churches. At the present day, however, many of
even the stricter Methodist and Presbyterian branches have intro
duced them again, in an endeavor to add some attractiveness to
their cold and barren ritual.

To proceed with the account of the organ's development : The
blowing of the bellows, even for the largest instruments, was done
by hand for many centuries. The Winchester organ mentioned
above required seventy men, working in relays. The simple device
of weighting the bellows was discovered only at the beginning of
the sixteenth century. Portable organs were in use in the tenth
century, and a little later the kind known as reed organs, using
vibrating metal tongues instead of pipes, came into use. Organs

MISCELLANEOUS 323

with two or more manuals or keyboards were constructed about
the year 1350, and soon afterwards the device known as the
coupler was introduced, by which when a key is depressed a cor
responding key is pulled down on another keyboard. The pedal
keys, played with the feet, date back to the fourteenth century,
but the invention which gives the organ its greatest effectiveness,
namely the stops, was probably brought into use only about the
year 1500. The enclosing of a part of the organ in a box with
movable shutters, known as the swell, by moving which the volume
of sound is diminished or increased, was the invention of a Lon
doner named Jordan, in 1712.

Orchestras in Churches. Are musical instruments, other than
the organ, allowed in church services? Yes, under certain re
strictions. After the introduction of the organ it alone was used
for some centuries as an accompaniment to the solemn chanting of
the choir. The nature of the organ is to a great extent a pro
tection against its misuse. Its resonance and fullness lend them
selves admirably to the majesty of the divine service. It can be
sweeping and powerful, or delicate and sweet; but its tone is
always more appropriate for sacred music than the combined tones
of the brass and wind instruments of an orchestra. After the
sixteenth century, and possibly earlier in some places, orchestral
instruments found entrance into some churches, but laws were soon
passed against them on account of the frivolous and sensuous char
acter of the music produced by means of them. At the present
day, as a result of the legislation contained in the " Motu
Proprio " of Pius X, they may be used only by permission of the
bishop and within due limits.

The Gregorian Chant. This is the distinctive song of the
Church, the interpreter in melody of her prayerful devotion. It
is so called from its great founder, St. Gregory the Great, and is
also known by the names of Plain, Roman or Choral Chant. It
is a grave melody, usually solemn in nature, sung in unison —
that is, without harmonizing parts — set to the rhythm of the
words, and without strictly measured time. As prayer is an
utterance by the believing heart, expressing its faith, so the chant,

324 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

which is the more solemn mode of liturgical prayer, owes to faith
its power and its beauty.

The leading characteristics of the Gregorian Chant are its
melody, its tone and its rhythm. Concerning the first of these,
the Church, strictly speaking, authorizes in her liturgy no other
music than pure melody; that is, the singers always chant in
unison and at the same pitch. Voices of different pitch singing
in harmonic chords may indeed be tolerated; but, however beau
tiful the effect, the Church does not consider such music appro
priate to the sacred chant, with the exception of the so-called
" Palestrina music," which will be alluded to further on.

The melody of the Gregorian Chant is at the same time recita
tive and meditative; it recites the words of the text and meditates
upon them. Sometimes it proceeds with great despatch, as in the
singing of the psalms, usually assigning one note for each syllable ;
at other times it dwells upon the words, pouring out its meaning
in rich and musical cadences, based rhythmically upon the syllables
of the liturgical words. It is thereby accommodated to the spirit
of the Church's services — now dwelling on the sacred word in
sustained meditation, now sending forth a rapid current of melo
dious praise.

The Beauty of the Chant. As regards the tone used, the
ecclesiastical chant is full of variety, for it was created for the
purpose of beautifying the Church's services, which are of many
kinds. Adoration, thanksgiving, supplication, sorrow, joy and
triumph find in the Gregorian tones their fitting expression. The
melody accommodates itself to the word and phrase, to the spirit
of the Church, and to the nature of the prayer and praise which
are being offered to God. Whether it be the Gloria, the jubilant
song of the Angels — the Credo, which is the Church's public act
of faith — the Sanctus, in which we here on earth join in adora
tion with the celestial spirits — the Agnus Dei, the appeal for
mercy addressed to Him Who has taken away sin — the Libera,
which is the intercessory prayer for the faithful departed — in
.each of these the spirit of the words and the devotion of the

MISCELLANEOUS 325

Church are brought out clearly by the grand and simple melodies
of the Gregorian Chant. How beautiful in its solemn and reve
rential strains is the Preface of the Mass, in which the priest offers
the Church's thanksgiving and homage before the throne of God!
How replete with sadness and sorrow is the chant of the Lamen
tations in the office of Holy Week! How expressive of fear and
desolation are the mournful notes of the " Dies Irae "! All these
varying moods of the Church's praise and prayer are portrayed in
the Gregorian Chant without any of the artifices of vocal or in
strumental harmonizing that are employed in secular music. Its
melodies have sprung from the minds of Saints, singing from the
inspiration of the Spirit of God.

The simple Gregorian Chant was considered by the composer
Halevy " the most beautiful religious melody that exists on earth."
Mozart, who wrote many Masses of great merit and beauty, de
clared that he would gladly exchange all his musical reputation
for the fame of having composed the Preface of the Mass.

As to rhythm, the Gregorian Chant differs from our modern
music in that it follows the natural accenting of the words —
that is, the longer notes are used for the accented syllables of the
text, and there is no strict rule as to the time. Thus the melody
of the Chant accentuates the meaning of the words of the liturgy,
and does not becloud or conceal it, as is too often the case in
secular music.

The Notation of the Chant. The admirable system now in
use for the writing of all music originated in the chant of our
Church. The ladder or scale of sound is represented to the eye
by a pictorial ladder of rounds or steps, called a staff. In the
Gregorian Chant four lines and three intervening spaces are used ;
in modern musical notation this has been increased to five lines and
four spaces.

In the Gregorian staff the seven steps correspond to the seven
different notes of the musical octave, and if any of these is defined
by having assigned to it the pitch and name of one of the sounds
of the octave, all the rest thereby receive their pitch and name.

326 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

This defining is done by means of two signs called " clefs," that
is, keys — representing the notes " do " and " fa," prefixed to any
line of the staff.

The Gregorian Chant uses notes differing in form from those
used in ordinary musical notation — a square note, called
" brevis," or short; a square note with a tail, called " longa," or
long; and a diamond-shaped note called " semi-brevis," having
about half the value of the square note. Unlike the notes in
modern music, these Gregorian notes have no strictly measured
value; the sense of the words and the spirit of the season cause
the text to be sung rapidly or slowly, and the music of the chant
is merely intended to aid in expressing such sense and spirit.

The History of the Gregorian Chant. It is probable that
some of the psalm-tunes of our Church are derived from those
used in the worship of the Old Law. The Apostles, who had been
members of the Jewish Church, were the founders of the Christian
Church; and it is reasonable to suppose that the chant, as well
as the words, was preserved by them and handed on to their suc
cessors.

As soon as the Church was freed from persecution we find her
occupied in establishing due uniformity in her liturgy. Pope
Damasus, about the year 380, decreed that the psalms should be
chanted by alternate choirs (as is done at the present day in
monastic churches), and that the Gloria Patri should be added
to each. St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, was one of the great
founders of the system of church music. St. Augustine gives tes
timony to the beauty of the Ambrosian chant. " The sweet song
of Thy Church stirred and penetrated my being; the voices
streamed into my ears and caused truth to flow into my heart."
But it is to St. Gregory the Great, Pope from 590 to 604, that we
are principally indebted for the beautiful harmonies that have
since borne the name of Gregorian. He is said to have discovered
the octave as the naturally complete succession of sounds, to have
distinguished the various notes by means of letters, and to have
added many new chants to those already in use.

The idea of the staff of four lines and of the movable clefs is

MISCELLANEOUS 327

due to a Benedictine monk, Guido d'Arezzo, in the eleventh
century. He also is said to have given the names to the first six
notes of the octave. The note " do " was originally called " ut,"
and the six names are taken from the Vesper hymn of the feast
of St. John the Baptist:

UT queant laxis REsonare fibris
MIra gestorum FAmuli tuorum,
SOLve polluti LAbii reatum,
Sancte Joannes.

As the centuries went on, the beauty and solemnity of the chant
of the Church were impaired in many ways — by the growing use
of measured rhythm, thereby making the words subordinate to
the music — by the introduction of counterpoint or harmony, with
its seductive beauty — and by the mingling in the liturgy of
popular worldly music, both vocal and instrumental. Therefore
at the Council of Trent, in the sixteenth century, the reform of
church music was considered, and a little later, by authority of
Paul V, the " Graduale Romanum " was printed, the great work
of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina.

The Music of Palestrina. This greatest of all composers of
religious music was born in Italy about 1510. He was for some
years a member of the papal choir, and afterwards of those of the
churches of St. John Lateran and St. Mary Major. He was a
friend of St. Philip Neri, and gained from him that insight into the
spirit of the liturgy that enabled him to send it forth in music
as it had never been done before. He made his compositions the
medium for the expression of the state of his own soul, trained
by his companionship with one of the greatest of modern saints.

After the Council of Trent, St. Pius V entrusted the reform
of church music to a commission of Cardinals, among whom was
St. Charles Borromeo. This holy and learned prelate became
acquainted with Palestrina and with his music, and recognized
that the latter was admirably adapted to the Church's liturgy.
Masses, hymns and psalm-tunes were produced in great numbers

328 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

by the gifted composer. His complete works comprise no less than
thirty-three volumes. The distinguishing features of his music
are the absence of all themes resembling secular melodies or remi
niscent of them, and the rejection of musical forms that would
obscure the liturgical text. His creations will stand forth for all
time as the embodiment of the devotional spirit of the Church.
To him belongs the double glory of having restored the sacred
chant to its former grand and simple beauty, and of introducing
harmonized music of such power and expressiveness that it became
a proper accompaniment to Christian devotion.

Pius X on Church Music. This great Pope, who wrought so
many changes in spiritual matters in the Church, and whose
pontificate will go into history as an era of religious awakening,
issued a decree in 1903, known as the " Motu Proprio " — which
words signify " of his own accord," indicating that the Pontiff
acted without consultation with Cardinals or others. This decree
states clearly what Church music should be. " Sacred music
should possess in the highest degree the qualities proper to the
liturgy. It must be holy, and must therefore exclude all world-
liness." The Holy Father declared that " the Church has always
recognized and honored progress in the arts, admitting to the.
service of religion everything good and beautiful discovered by
genius in the course of ages. Consequently modern music is also
admitted in the Church, since it oftentimes affords compositions
of such excellence, sobriety and gravity that they are in no way
unworthy of liturgical functions. But care must be taken that
musical compositions in this style contain nothing worldly, be free
from reminiscences of theatrical motifs, and be not fashioned
after the manner of secular pieces." Music in church must be
in conformity with the spirit of divine worship. It must be
Church music, not theatrical. Marches, operatic airs, ambitious
solos and the crash of instruments are out of place in the worship
of God, and the melodies that bring memories of the theatre and
the concert-hall are nothing but a distraction to those who wish
to pray.

According to the " Motu Proprio," the liturgical text must be

MISCELLANEOUS 329

sung as it is in the books of the Church, without alteration or
transposing of the words, without undue repetition, and in an in
telligible manner. The day of the two score Amens has gone by,
and the endless and meaningless repeating of disconnected phrases
of the Gloria or Credo is also, happily, a thing of the past.

Singing by the People. Pius X expressed himself as warmly
in favor of congregational singing within proper limits; but it
was his will that this should be largely the singing of the Greg
orian Chant. Hymns in other languages than Latin may not be
substituted at Mass, although they are permitted at some other
services. In the " Motu Proprio " the Pontiff said : " Special
efforts are to be made to restore the use of the Gregorian Chant
by the people, so that the faithful may take a more active part in
the ecclesiastical offices, as was the case in early times."

The History of Congregational Singing. We may consider
this important matter with reference to its history, its revival at
the present time, and the results of that revival.

The first testimony as to this ancient practice is found in the
Epistle of St. Paul to the Ephesians: " Speak to yourselves in
psalms and hymns and spiritual canticles, singing and making
melody in your hearts to the Lord." This is understood by com
mentators as referring to congregational singing in the religious
meetings of the faithful. In these services of the primitive Church
both sexes took part in the singing. Although St. Paul had or
dered that women should keep silence in church, his words applied
only to instructing or exhorting. And in the times of persecution,
as already stated, the Christians were accustomed to use psalms
and hymns in the worship of God.

St. Ambrose introduced the practice of congregational singing
from the East into his diocese of Milan, and it soon spread
throughout the Western Church. For many centuries Latin was
used exclusively, but in later times rhyming hymns in the language
of the country came into vogue in some parts of Europe. The
frequent pilgrimages and the religious plays subsequently fostered
such singing among the people.

After a time, in some parts of the Church, decrees were passed

330 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

against such singing. At the Council of Laodicea, in the fourth
century, it was declared that " besides the appointed singers who
mount the ambo and sing from the book, others shall not sing in
the church." The ambo was the raised platform from which the
lectors read the Scriptures to the people, and on which the chanters
sang. The reason for this decree was that the unskilful singing
of the people interfered with the harmony of the chanters. How
ever, it did not come into force everywhere. Centuries later,
especially after the Reformation, the use of the language of the
country became rather common, particularly in Germany.

The second Plenary Council of Baltimore, in 1866, urged
pastors to have the elements of the Gregorian Chant taught in the
schools, so that " the number of those who can sing the chant well
may be increased, and that the greater part of the people shall
thus learn to sing Vespers and the like with the ministers and the
choir." The same wish was expressed by the third Plenary
Council of Baltimore, in 1884.

These words show us that the people are to be instructed in
the Gregorian Chant — that is, to take part in the liturgical offices
of the Church, such as High Mass, Vespers and Benediction.
Congregational singing at low Masses and at other services has
always been practised more or less in some of our churches. It is
to be hoped, therefore, that means will be found to teach the
people to sing the " Ordinary of the Mass " in plain chant —
namely, the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus and Agnus Dei, besides
the various responses, leaving the changeable parts, such as the
Introit, Offertory and Communion, to the trained choir; and also
to sing the psalms and hymns at Vespers, the. changing antiphons
to be chanted by the choir.

Well-ordered singing by the people is assuredly edifying and
devotional, although it is not the aim of the Church to teach them
to sing rather than to pray. The problem, however, is full of
difficulty, especially as regards our American people, who, as a
class, cannot be considered musical.

Women in Church Choirs. Are women to be allowed to sing
in the choirs of our churches? If the choir were really the

MISCELLANEOUS 331

" official choir," stationed in the sanctuary, they would not be
admissible; but our ordinary choirs may be considered as repre
senting the congregation — and as women may certainly take part
in congregational singing, their presence in our choirs would seem
to be excusable under certain conditions. Of course, in theory,
choirs composed of men and boys are preferable, and this is
recommended by the " Motu Proprio " ; but in many of our
parishes, especially the smaller, it would be difficult to organize
and maintain these. Therefore, for the present at least, the as
sistance of female singers is usually tolerated; and assuredly our
churches are greatly indebted to the zeal and faithfulness of the
gentler sex for the generally creditable manner in which the
musical part of the liturgy is performed.

This, then, is a brief and necessarily imperfect account of the
music of our Church, which adds so much beauty and grandeur
to her solemn services. Daily in monasteries and convent chapels
the Divine Office is sung by those who have given their lives to
God. All over the world, Sunday after Sunday, the praise of
God is sent up before His throne in sacred song. In grand cathe
drals the diapason of great organs fills the house of God with
mighty harmonies. In parish churches and in mission chapels the
homage of the faithful is offered to their Lord in the sweet and
simple melody of the sacred chant.

When we listen to such earthly harmonies, well may we hope
that one day we may hear that perfect sacred music to which
these are only a prelude — the chanting of the Seraphim who
offer their homage of song and praise before the eternal throne
of God.

CHAPTER LX
PSALMS AND HYMNS

A HYMN meant originally a song of praise in honor of gods
or heroes. It had a religious character which distinguished it
from a mere laudatory ode in honor of a living man. Among the
Jews it is not certain that hymns, in the modern sense, were sung,

332 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

for the word as used in the Old Testament includes psalms and
canticles.

From very early times psalms and hymns were sung in Christian
assemblies. We have alluded elsewhere to the testimony of Pliny,
who, in a letter to the Emperor Trajan, in the year 104, mentions
the Christian custom of singing a hymn to Christ as God in their
" meetings before the dawn."

How Psalms are Used. The Psalms of David, during the
centuries of persecution, were the most natural expression of the
Church's sorrow and hope when trials weighed heavily upon her,
of her joy in the midst of tribulation, and of her faith in the Re
deemer Whose coming the Psalmist had prophesied^

These still form the greater part of the Church's liturgy. They
are used in the Divine Office, and portions of them constantly
occur in the words of the Mass. In the recitation of the Office
they are chanted antiphonally ; that is, alternate verses are said
or sung by each half of the choir. This custom is attributed by
some authors to St. Ignatius, a famous martyr of the early Church ;
by others it is said to have been introduced at Antioch during the
reign of Constantine, by two monks named Flavian and Diodorus.
In the Western Church this method of chanting was first prac
tised at Milan, in the time of the great St. Ambrose. It is re
lated that the Roman Empress Justina, an Arian heretic, sought to
imprison Ambrose. His people gathered around him in his church
to protect him, and spent several days in the alternate singing of
the verses of psalms and hymns.

The Sacred Canticles. Besides the 150 psalms, the Breviary
contains thirteen canticles taken from the Old Testament and
three from the New. Some of these have been used in. the Office
since about the year 800, while others were added very recently
in the revision of the Breviary under Pius X.

Our Church also uses other canticles which are not found in
the Scriptures — the <c Te Deum," the " Trisagion " and the
" Gloria in Excelsis." The Te Deum, according to an old
legend, was sung by Saints Ambrose and Augustine after the
baptism of the latter — but there is no foundation whatever for

MISCELLANEOUS 333

the story. The canticle has been attributed to a certain Nicetius,
bishop of Treves in France, and also to St. Hilary of Poictiers.
It is recited at the end of Matins on most of the days of the
year.

The Trisagion ("O Holy God, holy and strong, holy and im
mortal, have mercy on us") is said in Greek and Latin by the
celebrant at the veneration of the cross on Good Friday, and is
used in the prayers at Prime in the office on penitential days. It
has been adopted into the Western Church from the Greek liturgy,
and is traceable back to the fifth century.

The Gloria, or Greater Doxology, is used in the Mass, and is
an amplification of the hymn of the angels at Bethlehem. It is a
translation of an old Greek hymn, and was originally sung only at
Christmas. Later it was extended to other joyful feasts, but up
to the eleventh century it could be used by bishops only, except at
Easter.

Hymns of the Breviary. About the sixth century the use of
metrical hymns, often with rhyming stanzas, became common.
Some of these go back even to an earlier date, being attributed to
St. Ambrose.

The Breviary contains a great number of hymns — 173 in all;
and many of them are of great beauty. Some occur frequently in
the Office, while others are used only once in the year, on par
ticular feasts. We shall confine our attention to those that are
used in the public services of the Church, and that are thereby
more or less familiar to our readers.

The beautiful hymns in honor of the Blessed Eucharist are
mostly the work of the " Angelic Doctor," St. Thomas Aquinas,
in the thirteenth century. Among them are the " Adoro Te
Devote," the " Pange, Lingua," which is sung in processions of the
Blessed Sacrament, and of which the last stanzas form the " Tan-
turn Ergo " at Benediction, and the " Verbum Supernum Pro-
diens," of which the last portion, the " O Salutaris," is usually
sung at Benediction.

The anthems sung in honor of the Blessed Virgin at the end
of Vespers are the " Salve, Regina," used during most of the year,

334 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

and probably written by Hermannus Contractus, a German monk,
about 1050; the " Alma Redemptoris Mater," by the same author,
sung during and after Advent; the " Ave, Regina Coelorum," by
an unknown author, sung from the Purification to Holy Week;
and the " Regina Coeli," used during the Easter time, dating back
probably to the tenth century.

Other well-known hymns to the Blessed Virgin are the " Ave,
Maris Stella" ("Hail, Star of the Sea"), attributed to Fortu-
natus, bishop of Poictiers, in the sixth century — and the mourn
ful " Stabat Mater," used frequently in our churches at the Sta
tions of the Cross. This was composed by Giacopone da Todi, a
disciple of St. Francis, in the thirteenth century, and has furnished
the text for the immortal music of Rossini.

Hymns of the Missal. The "Dies Irae " ("Day of
Wrath "), used at Masses for the dead, goes back to the thirteenth
century, and was composed by a certain Thomas of Celano. It is
written in rhyming three-line stanzas, giving a vivid description
of the General Judgment, the sounding of the Angel's trumpet,
the resurrection of the dead, and the gathering of all mankind be
fore the dread tribunal of the Judge ; and it ends with a prayer for
the eternal rest of the departed.

The " Veni, Creator Spiritus," the hymn to the Holy Ghost, is
usually sung in our churches before the sermon, to invoke the aid
and blessing of the Spirit of Wisdom. It is also used in the Mass
and Office of Pentecost. By some it is attributed to Charlemagne,
but it is more probably the work of St. Gregory the Great.

On Holy Saturday, at the blessing of the paschal candle, the
" Exsultet " is sung — a long unrhymed hymn of praise and
prayer. It is ascribed by some to St. Augustine, but is probably
of somewhat later date.

The " Lauda Sion Salvatorem," used in the Mass of Corpus
Christi, is the work of the great St. Thomas Aquinas. He was a
master of Latinity, as of nearly every other branch of knowledge.
His hymns in honor of the Blessed Sacrament are unsurpassed in
poetic beauty. In stanzas of faultless rhythm and rhyme they give
a clear statement of the Church's teaching regarding the Real

MISCELLANEOUS 335

Presence, combined with a spirit of prayerful devotion worthy of
their saintly author.

St. Thomas and St. Bonaventure. There is a story connected
with the composing of these hymns in honor of the Blessed Sacra
ment. When Urban IV established the office and festival of Cor
pus Christi in 1264, he directed St. Thomas, a Dominican, and
St. Bonaventure, a Franciscan, to prepare appropriate words for
the Church's ritual. When the task had been completed the two
Doctors of the Church appeared before the Pontiff to submit the
result of their labors. St. Thomas was requested to read his
composition; and as the holy Bonaventure listened to the ex
quisite cadences of the " Pange, Lingua " and the " Lauda, Sion,"
he quietly tore his own manuscript into small pieces ; and when the
Dominican had finished and the Franciscan was called upon, he re
plied with saintly humility that his hymns were unworthy to be
compared with those which had just been read.

The beautiful " Adeste, Fideles," so familiar to us at the Christ
mas season, is not of ancient origin. It is probably of French or
German authorship, and was first used in London in the chapel of
the Portuguese Legation in 1797.

Our English Hymns. Of many of the hymns in our own
tongue, the less said the better. Few of them possess any artistic
merit, and many of them are decidedly bad in wording and music.
Those recited as a part of the " Little Office of the Blessed Vir
gin " are excellent examples, both in rhyme and rhythm, of " how
not to do it." In an effort to imitate the short metre of the Latin
originals, the translator (who is deservedly unknown) has pro
duced a series of jerky stanzas distinguished by really atrocious at
tempts at rhyming. For the benefit of our sodalities, a rewriting
of this Office is much to be desired.

However, there are some excellent English hymns. " Lead,
Kindly Light " was written by John Henry Newman, afterwards
Cardinal, before his conversion to Catholicism. In beautiful
and mystical language it expresses his seeking for the light of truth
which shone so radiantly into his soul a few years later.

The hymn " Holy God, We Praise Thy Name " is a free trans-

336 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

lation of the " Te Deum." It was composed by the Rev. Clarence
Walworth before his conversion, and first appeared in a Protestant
hymnal in 1853. Its sonorous chords are well suited to male
voices, and it is commonly sung at the meetings and services of
Holy Name societies and other men's sodalities.

CHAPTER LXI
THE MARRIAGE LAWS

OUR holy Church does not look upon marriage merely as a
Sacrament. She considers it also as a contract, and the most im
portant of all contracts. There is nothing in her code of laws
that has received so much attention from her teachers and law
givers. The nature and beauty of marriage as a Sacrament are
explained and extolled in the homilies of the Fathers ; and the zeal
of the Church for the validity and inviolability of the marriage
contract is manifest in the decrees of Councils and Popes.

The Marriage Contract and the Law. The contract of mar
riage between certain persons is null and void by the law of God,
both natural and revealed. This is the belief of all races and
creeds. For example, the attempted marriage of a father and his
daughter, or of a brother and his sister, would be of itself invalid.
But the Catholic Church goes further. She teaches that the con
tract of marriage may be rendered null by impediments which are
instituted by her laws. According to her doctrine, marriage be
tween baptized persons is a Sacrament, and therefore it falls under
her authority. Just as the civil government may pronounce cer
tain contracts void, for the general good, so the Church may inter
fere with the freedom of the marriage contract for the same
purpose.

The Power of the State. Has the State any right to nullify
marriages ? None whatever. It has the right to regulate them — -
for instance, to require the obtaining of a license and the subse
quent registration of the marriage — and it can lawfully inflict
penalties for the non-observance of these rules ; but it has no right

MISCELLANEOUS 337

and no power to annul a valid marriage. And so the divorce-mill
that grinds so merrily at Reno and that works almost as freely else
where in our land is a feature of our laws that has no justification
whatever,

The Kinds of Impediments. We shall now consider the im
pediments to this sacramental contract. As said above, some of
them exist because of the natural law or the revealed law of God,
some because the Church has so ruled. Impediments are of two
kinds. Some render a marriage merely unlawful, but do not af
fect its validity; these are called hindering impediments. Others
render it absolutely null, and are known as " diriment " or de
stroying impediments.

The Hindering Impediments. The principal impediments of
the first-mentioned class, merely impeding the marriage but not
affecting its validity, are as follows:

1. Time. So far as concerns the solemn celebration of a mar
riage, it is not permitted during the so-called " closed time " — Ad
vent and the following days until after Epiphany, Lent, and the
octave of Easter. This is an ancient practice of the Church, espe
cially as regards Lent ; the rule concerning Advent was not every
where in force in the early centuries. Our law as it stands at pres
ent dates back to the Council of Trent.

2. The Church's prohibition. This includes the marriage of a
Catholic with a baptized non-Catholic — which is valid if per
formed by proper authority, but which requires a dispensation to be
lawful — and also marriage without banns, which is likewise valid
but illegal unless permission is secured to celebrate it without such
publication. According to the present law, three publications oi
the banns, on different days and at the public services of the
Church, are ordinarily required, and a dispensation is necessary if
any of these be omitted.

3. A simple vow of chastity, such as may be made privately or in
religious societies that are not Orders in the strict sense — such as
the Sisters of Mercy.

4. A previous engagement to another person — provided that
it has been entered into in writing before ecclesiastical authority,

338 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

as will be explained further on, when we consider the new mar
riage laws.

The Diriment Impediments. The impediments that render a
marriage altogether invalid are the following:

1. Error. Suppose that a man went through the form of mar
riage with a woman, mistaking her for another; he would not be
married to either.

2. Condition. This refers to the case where a person un
knowingly goes through a form of marriage with a slave, in regions
where slavery is legal. This marriage would be invalid.

3. A solemn vow of chastity, or Sacred Orders ; for the obliga
tion resulting from a solemn vow made to God is an obstacle to
marriage unless a dispensation is given. Such a vow is one that
is made publicly and for life in a regularly constituted religious
order, or at the reception of Holy Orders. The rule of the
Church requiring celibacy for her clergy in Sacred Orders is ex
plained elsewhere in this book, in the chapter on " An Unmarried
Clergy."

4. Consanguinity. This includes both blood relationship and
certain legal and spiritual relationships as well. The rule is that,
by natural law, marriages are forbidden in the direct line of de
scent; that is, a man cannot marry any one from whom he is
descended or who is descended from him; and for such relation
ships no dispensation can be given. And a man cannot marry what
are called near collateral relatives — his sister, cousin, niece, aunt,
etc., as far as the fourth degree inclusively, which means third
cousins. As regards dispensations for such marriages, none can be
given for the first degree of collateral relationship — brother and
sister ; for this is forbidden by the natural law. Cousins are of the
second degree; second cousins are of the third degree, etc.; and for
these relationships dispensations may be granted by the Church.
For very near relationships, such as first cousins, this is rarely
done.

Legal relationship, that is, resulting from adoption, impedes
marriage between the adopter and the adopted; and either party
cannot marry the wife of the other, nor the child of the other while

MISCELLANEOUS 339

he or she is under parental care. Dispensations may be given,
when necessary, from this form of impediment.

Spiritual relationship is caused by sponsorship at the administra
tion of Baptism or Confirmation. This impediment goes back to
the sixth century, though its rules have been changed since that
time. Without dispensation, a person cannot marry his or her
god-parent; the latter cannot marry the father or mother of the
person for whom he or she has been sponsor; and the one who
administers private Baptism cannot marry the person baptized.

5. Affinity. This is an impediment that prevents a valid mar
riage (unless by dispensation) with certain blood-relatives of a
previous wife or husband — or with those of a party with whom
illicit intercourse had previously taken place. The first, or law
ful affinity, renders marriage invalid to the fourth degree of
kindred — that is, a man cannot marry without dispensation even
the third cousin of his deceased wife. Unlawful affinity makes the
marriage null to the second degree only, or as far as first cousin
or aunt.

6. Public decorum — an impediment arising from an engage
ment. It prevents the marriage of a person to the parents, brother,
sister or child of the party to whom he or she had been previously
engaged. This impediment loses much of its force under the new
marriage laws, which consider only solemn and formal engage
ments, as will be explained further on.

7. Crime. This means, for example, a conspiracy between a
wife and a man, resulting in the murder of the woman's hus
band, with the intention that the guilty parties may subsequently
marry ; or adultery with the same expressed intention of marriage
after her husband's death ; or a combination of both crimes for the
same end. These are gruesome details of human wickedness — but
such things have happened. Any of these crimes, committed with
the intention of subsequent marriage, is an impediment to matri
mony.

8. Difference of worship (in Latin " disparitas cultus ") —
which signifies that one party is a Catholic and the other is un-
baptized. Unless by dispensation, such a marriage is null.

340 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

9. Grave fear renders a marriage invalid. A contract forced
by fear of death or of grave injury is not a contract at all.

10. A previous marriage prevents another marriage until the
death of the former wife or husband has become morally certain.

11. Extreme youth is an impediment to matrimony. The gen
eral rule of the Church is, for boys, that they cannot validly marry
until they have completed their fourteenth year, and for girls, their
twelfth year — which rule seems extremely mild to us who dwell
in the Temperate Zone.

12. Physical impotency, incurable and existing before the at
tempted marriage, renders it null.

13. Violence, the forcible carrying off or detention of a woman,
renders a marriage invalid so long as she remains in the power of
the aggressor, because she is considered as being unable to act of
her own free will. .

14. Clandestinity. This means that a marriage ceremony is
void unless it is performed by the parish priest of the parties, or by
their bishop, or by the delegate of either. This rule goes back to
the Council of Trent, and was made even more strict by the
matrimonial legislation of Pius X.

The New Marriage Laws. This new code of rules was put
into force to bring about uniformity. The laws of the Council
of Trent were effective only where they had been promulgated;
and as in a large part of the world this had not been done, there
was a great difference in the marriage regulations and require
ments between countries which were under these laws and those
which were not.

This was especially true in the case of a secret marriage — that
is, one not performed by the parish priest or bishop of the parties,
and therefore coming under the last-mentioned impediment, clan-
destinity. Where the legislation of Trent was in force, such a
marriage was absolutely void. Where this legislation had not
been put into effect, such a marriage was illegal, sometimes sinful,
but nevertheless valid, provided that there was no other impediment.
Thus what might be a real marriage in one country might be no
marriage at all in another. There was also much confusion con-

MISCELLANEOUS 341

cerning the effect of a betrothal or promise of marriage, which be
came an impediment to the marriage of either party to a third
person.

To simplify matters and to promote uniformity in marriage
laws throughout the Catholic world, the decree of Pius X, known
as the " Tametsi," from its opening word, was drawn up with the
greatest care, requiring the continual labor of an expert com
mission for more than two years.

The Law About Betrothals. A valid betrothal has these ef
fects in Church law. It makes the marriage of either party with a
third person unlawful, but not invalid ; but if the third person be
a near blood-relative of the party with whom the betrothal was con
tracted (a mother, sister, daughter, father, brother or son), the
marriage is invalid.

But what is a valid betrothal? Before the issuing of the new
decree, it meant simply a mutual promise of marriage, whether be
fore ecclesiastical authority or not, whether before witnesses or
not, whether written or verbal ; and hence ensued many difficulties.
It was not easy to determine what was a real promise and what
was rather a conditional expression of future intention.

All this haziness has been cleared away by the new law. It
declares that no previous betrothal or promise of any kind what
ever shall have any effect on a marriage unless such betrothal be
contracted in writing, signed by both parties and by the parish
priest or bishop, or at least two witnesses. And as, in our country
at least, few couples will go to their pastor or appear before wit
nesses to advertise the fact that they are " engaged," we may con
sider that the impediment arising from a previous betrothal is prac
tically done away with altogether.

The result is that a private engagement of the two parties has
now no effect whatever upon the marriage of one of them to a
third person.

Difficulties Under the Old Law. In the greater part of the
United States, previous to the decree of Pius X, there had been no
promulgation of the laws of the Council of Trent, and hence mar
riages, even though sinful and unlawful, were valid when they were

342 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

performed before Protestant ministers, justices or other officials,
provided that both of the parties were baptized — that is,
both Catholics, or one a Catholic and the other a baptized
Protestant.

You can imagine the difficulties that pastors and confessors met
with in investigating such cases — in trying to determine whether
a certain party was married or not. Take a case like this: A
Catholic woman went to a Protestant minister to be married to a
Protestant man. Later the man disappeared. The Catholic
woman cannot ascertain definitely whether the said Protestant had
ever been baptized or not. Having made her peace with God
and the Church (for she had incurred excommunication) she
wishes to marry a Catholic.

Under the law as it was before 1908, she could marry thus if the
Protestant party was unbaptized, for there had been no real mar
riage with him ; she could not if he was a baptized Protestant, for
her marriage with him was valid, even though contracted before a
minister. And as she cannot find out whether he was baptized or
not, she can do nothing.

The Substance of the New Law. All the difficulties, in
quiries, delays and disappointments resulting from the old system
of law have been removed (for marriages since Easter, 1908) by
the new decree, which declares that no marriage is a marriage at all
unless it be performed by a parish priest in his own parish, or by a
bishop in his own diocese, or by a delegate of either, in the pres
ence of at least two witnesses. If those subject to the Church's
law go elsewhere to be married, there is no marriage at all.

This rule, concerning those who can assist at marriages, is a
striking feature of the new law. One would think, for instance,
that a Catholic priest would be able to marry a couple validly any
where in his own diocese. He cannot. He may perform the
ceremony only in his own parish; and if he should attempt to do
so outside of its limits without the permission of the parish priest
or bishop of that place, there would be no marriage.

Suppose that a priest in his own parish or a bishop in his own
diocese should join in marriage a couple who do not reside therein.

MISCELLANEOUS 343

It will be a valid marriage, but is illicit if it infringes on the
rights of the pastor of the parties.

What is to be said of the right and power of an assistant priest,
a curate, to officiate at marriages? He acts only as the pastor's
delegate. This delegation, however, is taken for granted from the
fact that he is appointed an assistant in the care of souls.

One's Own Parish. What is required that a person shall be
long to a certain parish? If he or she has a real "domicile," a
residence therein with the intention of remaining, or has dwelt
within its limits for at least a month, the party is considered as be
longing to that parish.

When the parties reside in different parishes, the marriage is
celebrated in the parish of the bride, unless some sufficient reason
excuses from the rule.

If the persons have no fixed abode, the parish priest must refer
the matter to the bishop, except in case of necessity, and re
ceive permission to officiate at the ceremony. Any pastor in his
parish or any bishop in his diocese may give permission to another
to perform a marriage.

Marriage Without a Priest. The Sacrament of Matrimony
differs from all other Sacraments in one important feature. In all
the others, the Sacrament is administered by a person (bishop,
priest or layman, as the case may be) to another, and the person
who performs the sacramental rite is called the " minister " of the
Sacrament. In Matrimony, the parties who marry are themselves
the ministers of the Sacrament. By their expressed mutual consent
they marry themselves. The officiating priest sanctions their union
in the name of the Church and bestows her benediction upon it, but
does not marry the parties.

As this sanction and benediction are not essential to the Sacra
ment, they may be omitted altogether under certain conditions
without affecting the validity or lawfulness of the marriage. This
is indicated in a striking provision of the new law. If a couple
wish to marry in a locality where for a month there has been no
priest qualified to join them in matrimony, they may simply ex
press their mutual consent to be man and wife in the presence of

344 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

two witnesses, and they are thereby validly and lawfully united in
Catholic marriage.

It is required that afterwards, if an opportunity presents itself,
they shall see that the marriage is properly recorded, and shall have
the ritual prayers read over them — without, however, any neces
sity of renewing their consent. They are also advised to receive
the nuptial blessing at a marriage Mass ; but their lawful marriage
dates from the moment when they stood in the presence of wit
nesses and took each other as man and wife.

The Registering of Marriages. It is the strict duty of the
parish priest to inscribe the record of the marriage immediately in
the parish register, giving all essential details. If the parties were
baptized in the parish where the marriage takes place, an entry
must be made also in the Register of Baptisms, testifying to the
marriage ; or if either or both were baptized elsewhere, a notifica
tion of their marriage must be sent to the parish or parishes where
the baptisms occurred, that it may be registered beside the record
of each baptism.

In a country like ours, where persons move about frequently
from parish to parish and from State to State, and where many
are emigrants from other lands, this rule is not easy of fulfillment ;
but the difficulty does not exempt pastors from the obligation of
complying with the law. Hence it is necessary in all cases that
persons who intend to be married shall know positively where they
were baptized, so that the priest who joins them in marriage may be
able to forward the records to the proper places.

The Subjects of the Law. The decree of Pius X binds all
persons who have? been baptized in the Catholic Church, and all
converts from heresy or schism. This includes even those who
have fallen away from the Church and no longer call themselves
Catholics. It binds also all Catholics who wish to marry non-
Catholics, whether these are baptized or unbaptized.

The Church does not exact compliance with these laws from
those who are not and have never been Catholics, in regard to
marriages which they contract among themselves.

Therefore, the points to be remembered are these:

MISCELLANEOUS 345

1. No marriage is valid unless celebrated in the presence of the
parish priest or bishop of the place, or the delegate of either —
except in the case mentioned above, where no priest is available.

2. No previous engagement, unless made legally before Church
authority or solemnly before witnesses, is any barrier to a lawful
marriage with another party.

3. Non-Catholics who have never been Catholics are not affected
by the law.

These are the essential features, and they reveal in a most
eminent degree the wisdom of the Church's legislators and the
zeal and vigilance of the Holy See for the safeguarding of the
contract which joins a Catholic man and woman in sacramental
union " for better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, in sickness
and in health, till death do them part."

CHAPTER LXII

RELIGIOUS SOCIETIES

OUR Church, like every society that has work to be done, knows
full well that " in union there is strength." Results that would
be impossible of accomplishment by individuals become possible
and even easy when united effort is made. Individual energy,
even in spiritual things, is apt to be misdirected ; or, at least, it is
likely to be of benefit only to him who makes it, and to produce
little or no good result in others. But when the religious efforts
of individuals are combined with similar zeal on the part of others
by the forming of religious societies, and when the work of the
whole body is carefully guided and regulated, great good is ac
complished, both in the individual member and in the whole
society. God's glory is promoted, and the members are sanctified
to a degree that would not be possible except as a result of such
united effort.

For All Classes. The religious societies established by our
Church are almost beyond counting. She has organized them for
every class — for men and women, for the married and the single,

346 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

for children, for those living in the world and those consecrated
to God in religion. She sets before these societies a great variety
of objects — works of charity for some, devotional exercises for
others ; zeal for the spiritual improvement of mankind and for the
spread of Christian virtues; aid to missionary enterprises; prayers
and good works f o the souls in Purgatory — such are some of the
secondary objects of Catholic societies, all tending towards their
great primary object — the sanctification of their members and
the glory of God.

The Kinds of Societies. The Catholic societies for the laity
are divided into three classes: First, Confraternities, which are
religious associations of the faithful canonically established by
Church authority to accomplish certain works of piety or charity;
and when a confraternity has received the right to unite to itself
sodalities existing in other localities and to communicate to them
the spiritual advantages it enjoys, it is called an Archconfraternity.
Second, Pious Associations, which have in general the same ob
jects, but which are not " canonically erected "; these are variously
known as pious unions, leagues, sodalities, etc. Third, societies
which are not distinctively religious, even though all their mem
bers are Catholics.

In the second class, the " Pious Associations," are the Society
of St. Vincent de Paul, the Society for the Propagation of the
Faith, and the Apostleship of Prayer, otherwise known as the
League of the Sacred Heart. In the third class are included the
various beneficial organizations that have been established within
recent years — notable among which are the Knights of Columbus,
the Catholic Knights of America, the Catholic Foresters and the
Catholic Benevolent Legion. We shall be obliged to confine our
attention to the best-known societies of the first two classes.

The Federation of Catholic Societies. The Catholic societies
of the United States have formed themselves into a union known
as the American Federation of Catholic Societies, for the promo
tion of their religious, civil and social interests. The Federation
has no political motive, but merely seeks to foster Christian educa
tion and Catholic interests, to overcome bigotry, to spread a knowl-

MISCELLANEOUS 347

edge of Catholic doctrine and principles, and to combat the social
evils of the day. It was first advocated in 1899, and was estab
lished at a convention in Cincinnati in 1901. It is said to repre
sent nearly two millions of Catholics, and has exercised a wide
spread and salutary influence since its inception.

The Holy Name Society. " At the Name of Jesus every knee
shall bend." The greatest organization intended especially for
Catholic laymen is the Society of the Holy Name of Jesus. It
has been a wonderful power for good ever since its establishment
centuries ago. At no time have its beneficial results been more in
evidence than at the present day; in no place has it effected more
good than in our own country.

The Holy Name Society (or, to give it its full title, the Confra
ternity of the Most Holy Name of God and Jesus) was estab
lished by the Dominicans, and has always been under their especial
charge. It owes its origin, indirectly at least, to a decree of the
Council of Lyons, in 1274, which provided for the instruction of
the faithful regarding devotion and reverence towards the Name
of Jesus. Shortly after the issuing of the Council's decree, Pope
Gregory X directed Blessed John Vercelli, Master-General of the
Dominicans, to apply the energies of his order to this work. The
society had a gradual growth in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen
turies. The first public procession in honor of the Holy Name
took place at Lisbon in 1433. In 1564 Pius IV approved the con
fraternity and granted indulgences to it ; and since that time it has
been further enriched with spiritual favors by many Pontiffs.

The members bind themselves to labor for the glory of the
Holy Name; to pronounce it always with reverence; to abstain
from all sinful speech, and to strive that others shall also refrain
from evil speaking. The spiritual advantages are many. Masses
are offered for living and dead members; plenary indulgences are
granted on the day of admission into the society and on certain
festivals during the year; and partial indulgences may be gained
for almost every act of worship or charity performed by the
members.

It is a society for Catholic men living in the world, and its aim

348 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

is to help them so to live that their every-day duties to God and
their neighbor will be well performed — that their lives will be
lives of manly Christian virtue and of good example, resounding to
the greater glory of God.

The League of the Sacred Heart. This is also known as the
Apostleship of Prayer, and is one of the most widely spread of
Catholic societies. It is purely spiritual in its aims, being intended
to promote the practice of prayer for the mutual intentions of its
members, and the increasing of love for our Blessed Saviour in
return for the love which His Sacred Heart has lavished upon
mankind.

It was founded at Vals, in France, in 1844, and was put sub
stantially into its present form by Father Henri Ramiere, a Jesuit,
in 1 86 1. It was approved by Pius IX in 1879, and its statutes
were revised and again approved by Leo XIII in 1896. It is
under the special care of the Society of Jesus, and to the zeal and
wise direction of that great Order it undoubtedly owes much of its
marvelous success.

The supreme officer, known as the Moderator General, is the
Superior General of the Jesuits, who usually deputes his authority
to an assistant. The management of the society is largely carried
on through the " Messenger of the Sacred Heart," a periodical
which is published in different parts of the world and in various
languages. Diocesan directors promote the work in their own
territories, and the separate societies are known as " centres," each
in charge of a local director. Under him are promoters, each
caring for a band of members and distributing the " mystery leaf
lets " which instruct the members concerning the monthly prac
tices of piety expected of them.

The religious duties of the association are a daily offering of
prayers and good works, the daily recitation of a decade of the
beads for the special intention of the Holy Father, as recom
mended in the monthly bulletin of the society, and the making of a
" Communion of Reparation " on an assigned day of the month or
week. The first Friday of each month is observed as a day of
special devotion, the Mass of the Sacred Heart being usually cele-

MISCELLANEOUS 349

brated; and evening services are held at which the members
assist.

The growth of this society has been phenomenal. Over 62,-
500 local centres exist in various parts of the world, of which
about 6700 are in the United States. There are no less than
twenty-five million members in this world-wide organization, and
four millions of these are Americans.

Our Blessed Lord has assured us that " where two or three
are gathered together in His Name, there is He in the midst of
them." How pleasing, then, must be the united service of these
millions of His children! Each month the intentions and good
works of the society are printed in a bulletin, and the number
and variety of these are astounding. Millions of separate peti
tions, millions of prayers of thanksgiving ascend day by day to the
throne of our Saviour from the League of His Sacred Heart.

This society has had a large share in bringing about that great
spiritual renovation which is the most consoling feature of our
Church's life during the last few years. Frequent Communion
is its watchword. Some of our readers can remember when the
person who approached the altar-rail as often as once a month was
looked upon as somewhat of a devotee. All this is changed — and
largely through the League of the Sacred Heart. Frequent Com
munion has become the rule, rather than the exception, for prac
tical Catholics. When, in future ages, the history of our Church
in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries shall be reviewed, the
wonderful spread of the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus
and the resulting increase of devotion to the Blessed Sacrament
will be the salient points of that history.

The Children of Mary. It is rather a curious fact that the
Children of Mary, now distinctively a girls' society, had its origin
in a sodality for young men. In Rome, about the year 1550, a
number of students at the Roman College were formed by their
Jesuit teachers into a religious organization for practices of de
votion and works of charity. This society was approved by
Gregory XIII in 1584, and was enriched with indulgences, espe
cially by Benedict XIV. In 1830, at Paris, a pious nun named

350 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Catherine Laboure was favored with a vision in which the
Miraculous Medal of the Blessed Virgin was given to her as the
badge of an association for young girls. The indulgences which
had been previously given to the men's sodality, known as the
" Prima Primaria," were extended to the girls' sodality, and fur
ther evidences of approval were given by Pope Leo XIII. The so
ciety exists in nearly every country, and its branches flourish in
almost every parish here in the United States. It has been pro
ductive of untold good among our young girls, and membership in
it has become recognized as the badge of devout Catholic maiden
hood.

The Rosary and Scapular Societies. These are commonly
united in our parishes into a single organization, but they are in
reality distinct bodies, established at different times and for some
what different objects.

The Confraternity of the Holy Rosary was instituted in the
fifteenth century, and the first branch of which there is a definite
record was founded in the city of Cologne, in Germany, in 1474,
by a zealous priest named Sprenger. A Dominican, Alan de Rupe,
was largely instrumental in establishing the devotion of the Rosary
as we now have it; and it was through him and other members
of his order that societies of the Rosary were formed throughout
Europe.

The members of this society partake of the merit of all the
good works performed throughout the world by the members
(both male and female) of the Dominican Order. Branches exist
in many of our parishes, and with us it is largely a woman's so
ciety. It has received many indulgences from various Pontiffs;
and Pope Leo XIII, in 1898, renewed and confirmed these in an
important decree.

The only obligation for the members is the reciting of the beads
— the fifteen mysteries within a week ; and even this does not bind
in any way under penalty of sin. In return for this simple serv
ice they share in a vast treasure of merit gained by the great
Order of Preachers, which has ever been unsurpassed in untiring
effort for the spread of the faith of Christ and in zeal for souls.

MISCELLANEOUS 351

Other Rosary Societies. There are other societies which have
the same object and practise the same devotion. The " Perpetual
Rosary " has existed since the seventeenth century. It assigns
to each member a certain time of the day or night for the recita
tion of the beads, so that a continual Rosary will be offered to
our Blessed Mother. Another society, the " Living Rosary,"
dates from 1826, and divides its members into "circles" of
fifteen, each of whom is to recite a single decade each day, thus
ensuring the recitation of the whole Rosary by each circle — a
maximum of prayer, as it were, with a minimum of effort.

The Scapular Society. The " Confraternity of Our Lady of
Mount Carmel," — for such is the real title of the Scapular So
ciety — is much older than the Rosary Confraternity. It is
known to have existed in the thirteenth century, and may be
even older. The origin and rules of the scapular and scapular
medal are fully treated elsewhere in this book, in the chapter on
" Scapulars."

The Purgatorian Societies. Devotion to the suffering mem
bers of the Church in Purgatory is almost as old as the Church
herself, for the doctrine of the Communion of Saints has always
been asserted as a part of Catholic teaching. The Church of the
catacombs had its prayers for the dead. The religious societies
of the Middle Ages practised special works of charity for de
ceased members; and it was customary for churches and monastic
houses, even of different orders, to enter into an agreement to
pray and offer Masses mutually for the souls of all who were
enrolled in a " register of brotherhood." This led to the insti
tution of " Purgatorian societies " exclusively for the laity, and
the first of these of which there is a clear record was estab
lished in Germany in 1355.

There have been, and still are, many distinct associations of this
nature. Prominent among them are the Confraternity of " the
Passion of Christ and of the Sorrowful Mother," instituted at
Rome in 1448; " Our Lady of Suffrage," 1592; the " Archconf ra-
ternity of Death and Prayer," 1538; the Franciscan "Mass As
sociation of Ingoldstadt," founded in 1726, which has many thou-

352 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

sands of members and provides for the saying of more than two
thousand Masses daily; the " Archconf raternity for the Relief
of the Poor Souls in Purgatory," under the direction of the Re-
demptorist Fathers, established in 1841; and a society intended
especially for the relief of the most needy and abandoned souls in
Purgatory, founded at Montligeon, France, in 1884. All of
these associations have been enriched with numerous indulgences by
the Holy See, and priests who belong to them are in some cases
entitled to the " privileged altar," which means that a plenary in
dulgence is granted to the soul for which the Mass is offered.

Thus does our holy Church provide for her children, even when
they have passed from this world. It is a consoling thought, when
we approach the end of our earthly career and dread the purgation
which may be our due, that prayers and Masses are offered daily
all over the Christian world, in the fruits of which we shall have a
share.

The Society of the Holy Family. The " Archconf raternity
of the Holy Family " is more widely established in Europe than it
is in America. Its object is the sanctification of Christian families,
and its membership includes men, women and children. It was
founded at Liege, Belgium, in 1844, by Henri-Hubert Belletable,
an army officer. He was a married man, living in the midst of
the world, obliged to mingle with companions of all kinds — " even
as you and I " ; and he realized that the only hope for society was
the bringing of religion into, the daily and family life of men.

The association grew rapidly, and was placed under the direc
tion of the Redemptorist Fathers. Pius IX, in the year 1847, ap
proved it and granted indulgences to its members. It has about
1400 branches throughout the world, and nearly five million
members.

Another society which has the same object was established in
1 86 1 at Lyons, and was enlarged and approved by Leo XIII in
1892. It is known as " The Pious Association of Christian Fam
ilies."

The Society of St. Vincent De Paul. This is an organization
of Catholic laymen which is almost world-wide in extent, and is

MISCELLANEOUS 353

engaged in ministering to the needs of the poor. It was founded
at Paris in 1833 by Antoine-Frederic Ozanam, a brilliant young
professor, who brought together several of the students of the
Sorbonne for charitable work, under the title of " The Conference
of Charity " — later adopting the name of " The Society of St.
Vincent de Paul " and choosing that grand exemplar of Christian
charity as the patron and model of the society.

Its special field, from the beginning, has been " the service of
God in the persons of the poor," who are visited in their homes and
assisted according to their needs. The membership is of three
classes : Activej subscribing and honorary — the last two being those
who cannot devote themselves personally to the work, but who
assist the active members by their influence, their contributions and
their prayers.

The branches of the society in parishes are known as "Con
ferences "; and when there are several of these in a city they are
usually controlled by a " Particular Council." A further plan of
administration has been undertaken in this country, which calls
for a " Superior Council of the United States " for the whole
country, a " Metropolitan Central Council " in each ecclesiastical
province, and a " Diocesan Council " in each diocese.

The society has now more than two hundred thousand members.
It exists in every European country and in almost every other
part of the world. The American branch was organized in St.
Louis in 1846; and throughout this country at the present time
about $40x3,000 is annually gathered and spent — and, remem
ber, it is all spent for the poor, and not for salaries and
" expenses."

CHAPTER LXIII
THE CANONIZATION OF A SAINT

IN another chapter of this book we discussed the doctrine of the
veneration of saints, and explained what Catholics do and do not
believe concerning these " chosen friends of God." From the

354 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

earliest ages of Christianity the saints have been honored publicly
and privately by the Church. In the first three centuries public
veneration was usually given only to martyrs; but when the days
of persecution were over, the Church's practice regarding the
saints took a wider scope. She began to give public homage to holy
men and women who, in the religious state, had given up all
things to follow their Master — to zealous missionaries who had
carried the Gospel into pagan lands — to learned Fathers and
Doctors who had explained the same Gospel in words of heavenly
wisdom — and even to men and women of the laity who had lived
lives of eminent sanctity.

We must remember that the saints whose names are on the
authoritative list of the Church are not the only saints. They are
only the famous ones. Their virtues were so great that the fame
of them became widespread, and a spirit of devotion sprang up in
the hearts of the faithful which in time led the Holy See to ex
amine into the lives and works of these servants of God, and to
command public veneration of them. But in heaven there are
countless millions of souls — and every one of these souls is a
saint. While we do not honor each of them separately, we honor
them collectively. The special homage that is manifested in public
veneration is only for those upon whose sanctity the Church has set
the seal of her approval, and whose eternal blessedness is vouched
for by her infallible voice.

Beatification and Canonization. In order that the prayers
of the faithful may not be, as it were, misdirected — that is, of
fered to one who is not really a saint — the Church has com
manded that no public homage shall be given to any individual
who has not been " beatified " or " canonized." Beatification con
sists in the issuing of a decree permitting public religious honor to
a certain person in a certain place, gives him the title of " Blessed,"
and generally allows Masses to be celebrated and offices to be re
cited in his honor, but only in that place. Canonization is a pre
cept of the Sovereign Pontiff commanding that public veneration
be paid to a certain person by the whole Church, and gives him
the title of " Saint." In brief, beatification is a permission to

MISCELLANEOUS 355

honor a person locally; canonization is the declaration that a per
son is a saint, to be venerated by the universal Church.

By Decree of the Pope. It is the Pope, and only he, who issues
a decree of beatification or canonization. In early centuries bishops
had the right or exercised the privilege of declaring, in their own
dioceses, that certain persons were deserving of religious honor or
" beatification " ; but the need of uniformity in this important part
of Catholic worship gradually caused the abolition of this practice,
and Pope Urban VIII, in 1634, reserved to the Holy See all legis
lation concerning the veneration of saints.

Is the Pope infallible in issuing a decree of canonization? Or,
in other words, can he make a mistake in declaring a certain
person a saint ? It is the general opinion of theologians that when
the Sovereign Pontiff declares that a certain person is in heaven he
is preserved by the Holy Ghost from the possibility of error.
The veneration paid to the saints is a part of the Church's worship
of God, for when we honor them we honor God Himself ; and it
is eminently proper that this worship should have in it nothing
erroneous. This infallibility in canonizing, however, has not thus
far been defined by the Church as an article of faith ; and it is cer
tain that the Pope is not necessarily infallible when he issues a de
cree of mere beatification.

The Process of Canonization. How is a saint canonized ? It
is a long and laborious process, calling for ample deliberation and
most absolute proofs of sanctity. It may last for years, and even
for centuries. There are two parts to the procedure. The first
is the beatification, during which the servant of God receives first
the title of Venerable, and later that of Blessed. The second is
the canonization proper, when he is finally enrolled in the list of
those honored by the universal Church, and he is thereafter called
a Saint.

The canonization of a martyr differs considerably from that
of a person who was not a martyr. It is usually more quickly
completed. There is less question of miracles as proofs of sanctity;
his martyrdom for the faith is the essential point, and must be
clearly proven.

356 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

A servant of God who is a non-martyr is called a " confessor "
— that is, one who has confessed and manifested his faith by the
eminent holiness of his life ; or, in the case of a woman, a virgin
or non-virgin, according as her life has been spent in a state of
celibacy or not. The beatifying and canonizing of these classes is
a very complicated process, and a brief outline of it will be given, to
show the scrupulous care which our Church exercises, to the end
that her public homage shall be offered only to those who are really
saints of God.

The Investigations. Inquiries are first made by authority of
the bishop of the place wherein the person lived. These are of
three kinds — as to his reputation for sanctity and miracles — to
prove that he has not, thus far, been publicly venerated (this
being prohibited before beatification) — and regarding his writings,
if there are any. The result of these inquiries is sent to Rome, to
the Congregation of Rites, and are there translated into Italian
and copied ; and a Cardinal is deputed by the Pope as " relator "
or manager of the cause. The writings of the person (if any)
are carefully examined by theologians, and an advocate and a
" procurator of the cause " are appointed, who prepare all the
documents that concern the case. These are printed and dis
tributed to the Cardinals who form the Congregation of Rites,
forty days before the date assigned for their discussion. And all
this is merely to ascertain whether the cause is to be introduced or
not.

If the Congregation is of the opinion that the matter should
be carried further, a commission is appointed to introduce it, and
the Holy Father signs the approval of the said commission, using
(according to custom) his baptismal name, not his papal title.
The servant of God is thereafter known by the title of " Vener
able."

Letters are sent to the Church authorities of the place or places
wherein the person spent his life, directing them to make further
inquiries concerning his sanctity and miracles, in general and in
particular. The Congregation also examines the proofs that no
public veneration has been paid him. The results of all these

MISCELLANEOUS 357

inquiries, which must be completed within eighteen months, are
examined, and lengthy documents are prepared by the " advocate
of the cause," demonstrating the validity of all that has been thus
far done. These are discussed at a special meeting of the Con
gregation, and it is the duty of the " promoter of the faith "
(sometimes called jocosely "the advocate of the devil") to pre
sent difficulties and objections against the further consideration of
the case.

The Signature of the Pope. Then comes the important part
of the process, to which all that has preceded has been only a prepa
ration. Three meetings of the Congregation of Rites are held, at
the last of which the Pope himself presides. At these the ques
tion is debated : " Is there evidence that the Venerable Servant
of God practised virtues both theological and cardinal, and in a
heroic degree? " At each meeting a majority of those who take
part must vote in the affirmative in order that the matter may
be carried further. Complete reports of each meeting must be
prepared and printed. And at the last meeting the Pope is asked
to sign the solemn decree that there exists evidence of heroic virtue.
The Holy Father, after fervent prayer, confirms by his signature
the decision of the Congregation.

Two Miracles are Needed. Even then, the case is far from
complete. At least two important miracles wrought through the
intercession of the servant of God must be proved. The evidence
regarding these must be very clear, and is carefully and thoroughly
discussed in three separate meetings. Again three reports are
made, and a decree is issued, confirmed by the Pope, that there is
proof of miracles.

At a final meeting of the Congregation a last debate is held and
a vote is taken; and on an appointed day the solemn ceremony
of beatification takes place in the Vatican Basilica, on which occa
sion the Sovereign Pontiff issues a decree permitting public venera
tion (usually in certain places only) of the servant of God, who
is thenceforth known as Blessed.

The Canonization. After the solemn beatification it is neces
sary that two more well-authenticated miracles shall be proved to

358 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

have taken place through the intercession of the one who has been
declared Blessed. When these have been discussed and con
firmed at three meetings of the Congregation, another special meet
ing is held, at which the members consider the advisability of
giving public universal veneration to the servant of God. And
finally the Pope issues a " Bill of Canonization," by which he nc
longer permits but commands the public veneration of the Saint;
and a great ceremony usually takes place in St. Peter's Church, at
which the first Mass in honor of the new Saint is celebrated and
his image is solemnly venerated.

We see, then, what laborious and lengthy deliberation our
Church uses when it is question of adding a new name to the
long list of her saints. She does not hurry, for she does not need
to do so; she will endure " all days, even to the consummation of
the world." In some cases centuries have elapsed, and the cause
is not yet completed. Sir Thomas More, the brave Englishman
of nearly four hundred years ago, who " served his country well
and his God better," and who went smiling to his death because he
died for the faith of the Catholic Church, was declared Blessed as
late as 1886, and has not yet been proclaimed a Saint. The causes
of many other undoubted martyrs have not yet been presented to
the Holy See. Many saintly confessors and virgins, who would
seem to deserve richly all the honors that the Church could give
them, have not been canonized. The vast number of cases pre
sented to the Roman Congregation and the extreme care which
must be exercised in considering them causes the list to grow but
slowly.

It is comforting thought that we are members of the same great
Church as are the saints who are with God in heaven. We are
still here in the conflict, in the midst of sorrow and sin; they
have won and obtained their eternal reward — and they are our
friends and our intercessors before the throne of God.

" I saw a great multitude, which no man could number, of all
nations and tribes and peoples and tongues, standing before the
Throne and in the sight of the Lamb."

MISCELLANEOUS 359

CHAPTER LXIV
CHURCH BUILDINGS AND THEIR PARTS

A CHURCH is a building set apart for worship, and the name is
used only for such structures as are for the general use of the
faithful, as distinguished from chapels, which are for some com
munity or family, or oratories, which are for private devotion.

The use of churches may be said to be as old as Christianity, for
places of Christian meeting are frequently mentioned in the New
Testament. At first, private houses were used for this purpose;
and this state of things continued probably for three centuries. In
the days of persecution the Christians usually worshipped under
ground, in the recesses of the excavations known as the Cata
combs, which were also used as burial-places, and they registered
their assemblies as " collegia," or burial-societies, so that they
might hold property as legal corporations. About the beginning
of the third century we find mention of churches properly so
called ; for when the final and greatest persecution broke out under
the Emperor Diocletian, an edict of that tyrant ordered the de
struction of Christian churches throughout the Empire.

Early Churches. As soon as peace had come to the Church
under Constantine, the erection of magnificent temples of the true
faith began everywhere. These early churches always had the
sanctuary at the east end, so that the worshippers might pray in
the ancient fashion, facing the east, whence the light of faith had
come to them. At this end was the apse (Greek "apsis," a
wheel), within which the altar was placed. Behind this was the
bishop's throne, and the priests occupied seats in a semicircle.
This part was called the " presbyterium " — the priests' place, the
name of sanctuary being of much later date. Just forward of this
was the choir, wherein the singers were placed. In those early
days the Blessed Sacrament was not kept on the altar, but in a cell
or chapel near the apse. The baptistery was usually a separate
building, often octagonal or round, with a pool in which the Sacra
ment was administered by immersion. Fine examples of such

360 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

detached baptisteries, though of much later date, are to be seen at
Florence, Pisa and elsewhere.

The laity were placed in the nave, the body of the church,
which derived its name from the Latin " navis," a ship, from its
shape and from the symbolism of a ship as emblematic of the
Church. This part of the building was divided into sections by
low partitions — the nearest to the presbyterium being for virgins
and consecrated widows. Next came the parts for men and for
women — carefully separated from each other in those days ; and
in the rear were the catechumens (those preparing to embrace the
faith) and the penitents, who were also arranged in a certain
order according to their guilt.

The Kinds of Churches. The principal churches are called,
in Church law, basilicas (Greek " basilike," a palace or handsome
building), which may be greater or patriarchal, or minor basilicas.
The chief church of a diocese, wherein the bishop customarily of
ficiates, is known as a cathedral (Latin " cathedra," a chair). An
abbatial church is the seat of an abbot; and if a church had a
chapter of canons for the daily solemn chanting of the Divine Of
fice, as is usual in many dioceses of Europe and elsewhere, it is
called a collegiate church. A parish church, of course, is the chief
place of worship in a parish; other churches within its limits,
attended from the parish church, are often known as mission
churches ; and other places in which Mass is said are, in our coun
try, called stations.

Some Styles of Architecture. Let us devote the remainder
of this chapter to an explanation of the principal features of our
present-day churches, so that the various parts of these edifices may
be familiar to us. There are several distinct styles of architecture
in common use in our country — and, unfortunately, some of our
churches are a mixture of details of many styles and of no style
at all.

Grecian Architecture. This ancient form of construction is
not often used in its purest form for Catholic churches at the
present day, though Roman modifications of it are common enough.
Its essential features are the columned portico, the Idw-pitched

MISCELLANEOUS 361

roof overhanging it, and the plain or pilastered side walls of
massive construction, to carry the weight of the broad roof. The
front columns support a triangular " pediment," of which the
sunken panel, called a " tympanum," is often highly ornamented
with sculptures.

There are three distinct types of Grecian architecture, differing
mostly according to the columns used. The Doric has columns
of simple design, fluted, with a capital consisting of a projecting
curved moulding surmounted by a flat square block called an
abacus. The Ionic has also fluted columns with moulded base
and a capital with curled ornaments known as volutes. The
Corinthian is the richest form of Grecian architecture. The capi
tals of the columns are carved exquisitely into leaves, surmounted
by a gracefully moulded abacus. There is a legend that this
beautiful form of capital took its origin from a basket filled with
acanthus leaves.

Roman Architecture. In imperial Roman times all these styles
of columns came into use and are to be found in ancient buildings ;
but the distinctive feature of Roman architecture was the round
arches supported on rows of columns. The Roman style later
developed into the Italian Renaissance, marked also by round
arches and by the attachment of columns and fluted pilasters to
the fronts of buildings. In the early Middle Ages the contact of
Rome with the East resulted in the introduction of the Byzantine
style, of which a fine specimen is the cathedral of St. Mark, in
Venice.

Gothic Architecture. This has as its distinguishing feature the
pointed arch. The nations of Europe, after their conversion to
Christianity, devoted their energies to the construction of great
churches ; and when the light of learning had begun to shine upon
them they developed this new and beautiful style of architecture,
full of grace and captivating harmony. It is distinguished by
comparative lightness of material, as well as by art and boldness
and engineering skill in execution. The heavy piers and massive
walls of earlier days were replaced by graceful clustered columns
carrying on exquisite capitals lofty and beautiful pointed arches;

362 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

by buttresses, both solid and " flying " ; by grouped windows with
slender mullions between, and complicated tracery; by great " rose
windows " of circular shape; and by mighty towers, buttressed and
pinnacled and often surmounted by graceful spires, " like angels'
fingers, pointing ever heavenward " — sometimes at the front of
the church, sometimes at the intersection of the nave and transept.
Wonderful examples of this beautiful style of architecture are to
be found throughout Europe, and nowhere are they more numer
ous than in once-Catholic England, where the services of a muti
lated Christianity have replaced the Holy Sacrifice and the Divine
Office in majestic cathedrals that were built by Catholic hands for
Catholic worship.

The Gothic style has varied in detail in different countries, and
has passed through many modifications in the course of centuries.
Space will not permit even a brief description of each of these.
In England we may distinguish the Norman, the Early Pointed
(also called Lancet or Early English), the Middle Pointed style,
the Flowing or Curvilinear, and the Third Pointed or Perpen
dicular. Similar changes took place in French architecture, re
sulting in the majestic cathedrals of Paris, Amiens, Rheims and
Chartres, varying much in design and detail, but each an exquisite
specimen of the handiwork of the men who built well because
they built for God.

Details of Our Own Churches. Now let us, in imagination,
approach a church — our own parish church. Above us, it may
be, rises the tower. If this has a belfry and spire, the whole is
called a steeple. It may be battlemented — in which case the
openings in the battlement are embrasures, the intervening blocks
are merlons. The pointed caps at the corners of a tower or para
pet are called pinnacles (Latin, little feathers), and the topmost
ornaments of these are finials. Carven ends of water-spouts are
gargoyles — often grotesque figures of animals or diabolic faces.
An outside shelter at the door is a porch or portico. Projecting
stone braces against the walls are called buttresses, and if these
stand apart from the wall which they support and are connected
with it by cross-braces or arches, they are flying buttresses.

MISCELLANEOUS 363

Let us go into the church, and find the proper names of its
interior parts, not already mentioned. The nave stretches before
us, bounded on each side by a row of columns and arches. A
column is to be distinguished from a pillar — the latter being
usually a square or several-sided pier (although a very heavy
round pier may also be called a pillar), while a column is always
a round shaft of more slender form, with a base and capital. A
portion of a pillar or column affixed to a wall is a pilaster.
Arches may vary in shape, according to the style of architecture,
the Roman arch being a semicircle, the Gothic of pointed form.
The central stone of an arch is the keystone; the lowest stones
are the springers; the flat under-surface of an arch is the soffit;
and the wall-space above the sides of the arches is a spandrel.
The columns and arches divide the whole nave into bays. If
there are columns but no arches, the wall-space above is the
entablature, composed ordinarily of an architrave, a frieze and a
cornice. If the church has a ceiling, ornaments hanging there
from are pendents, and deep panels therein are coffers. If the
roof is formed of interlacing arches, the construction is called
groining.

The parts of the church beyond the rows of pillars are the
aisles; and as the roofs over these are usually lower than the nave
roof, the upper part of the nave, if provided with windows, is the
clerestory. The part which crosses the nave and thus makes the
church cross-shaped is the transept. Brackets projecting from
the walls to carry pilasters, etc., are known as corbels. If the
church has a dome, a turret surmounting this to admit light is
called a lantern.

The part of the church containing the main altar is the sanctuary
or chancel (Latin " cancellus," a lattice, because in past ages it
could be screened off from the body of the church by the " rood-
screen," so called because it supported a large " rood " or crucifix).
As already mentioned, the further end of the sanctuary, if of
semicircular or polygonal form, is the apse. Over the altar there
may be a " baldacchino " or " ciborium," a canopy supported on
columns. A reredos is the carved screen or ornamental work

364 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

behind an altar. Around the sanctuary there may be " stalls "
or seats for the clergy; and near by is the sacristy or vestry —
the room for keeping the vestments and sacred vessels. This is
usually provided with a basin for receiving ablutions — the water
in which the sacred linens, etc., are washed ; this is a " sa-
crarium " or "piscina" (Latin, fish-pool). An underground
vaulted room, such as is sometimes used for burial, is a crypt.
An enclosed square outside the church, with a colonnaded shelter-
roof around it, is a cloister.

CHAPTER LXV
THE CONSECRATION OF A CHURCH

THE consecration of a Catholic church is a solemn and impres
sive ceremony, with rites which are symbolical of the sacred uses
to which the edifice will be devoted. The various parts of this
service are of very ancient date, and are substantially the same
to-day as they were centuries ago.

A building which is to be used for the worship of God should
be sanctified by prayer. When Moses constructed the movable
Tabernacle for the people of Israel in the desert, he dedicated it
to the service of the Almighty with much ceremony; and when
the temple of Sion was built by Solomon it was consecrated to
God with pomp and grandeur that lasted for many days, " and
the majesty of the Lord filled the temple."

As these sanctuaries of the Old Law were a type of the Christian
Church, so the rites of their dedication were a foreshadowing of
the solemn service by which our churches are set apart for the
worship of God.

On the day of the consecration of a church, some of the assisting
clergy are deputed as chanters or choir, to intone the many psalms,
responses and antiphons which form a part of the service.

Outside the Church. The Bishop and priests leave the church
in procession, except one priest attired in deacon's vestments, who

MISCELLANEOUS 365

remains within. The door are then closed. The Bishop, assisted
by the clergy, chants an invocation to the Trinity: "Be with
us, one Almighty God, Father, Son and Holy Ghost," after which
he offers a prayer asking God's blessing on the work which he is
beginning.

The intercession of the Saints is invoked by the recital of their
Litany, after which the Bishop blesses some holy water; and with
the words: "Thou shalt sprinkle me with hyssop, O Lord, and
I shall be cleansed; Thou shalt wash me, and I shall be made
whiter than snow," the Bishop and clergy form a procession and
go entirely around the church, the outer walls of which are
sprinkled with the holy water. The choir chants a beautiful
" responsory," as follows: "The house of the Lord is founded
on the summit of mountains, and is exalted above all hills, and all
nations shall come to it, and they shall all say, Glory to Thee,
O Lord. And coming, they shall come with joy, bearing their
sheaves."

The Bishop offers before the church-door a prayer asking God's
protection on the new house which He has founded — that here
true service may always be rendered to Him. He then strikes
the door with his pastoral staff, saying in the words of the psalm,
" Lift up your gates, and the King of Glory shall enter." The
deacon inside the church answers through the closed door, " Who
is this King of Glory?" To which the Bishop responds, "The
strong and powerful Lord, the Lord strong in battle." Another
circuit of the church is made, with sprinkling as before, and the
choir chants, " Bless, O Lord, this house which I have built to
Thy name; hear in the high throne of Thy glory the prayers of
those coming into this place; O Lord, if Thy people shall be con
verted and shall do penance and shall come and pray in this place,
hear them."

After another prayer the Bishop again knocks at the church-door
with his staff, speaking as above, and the deacon answers in the
same manner. The procession goes again around the church in a
direction opposite to that previously taken, and during its progress
the choir sings, " Thou, the Lord of all, Who needest nothing,

366 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

hast wished Thy temple to be made among us ; preserve this house
spotless forever, O Lord. Thou hast chosen this house for the
invoking of Thy name therein, that it may be a house of prayer
and petition for Thy people." A third time the Bishop strikes the
door, and the dialogue with the deacon within the church takes
place; but this time the door is opened. As the Bishop passes
the threshold he makes the sign of the cross with his staff,
saying, "Behold the sign of the cross; may all phantoms flee
away."

The Entrance. During the entrance into the church the choir
intones two beautiful anthems, the first being a solemn invocation
of the Holy Trinity: " Peace eternal from the Eternal upon this
house. May peace perpetual, O Word of the Father, be on this
house. May the loving Consoler bestow peace on this house."
The second is taken, very appropriately, from the Gospel narra
tive of the humble publican who received our Lord : " Zaccheus,
make haste and descend, because I shall remain to-day in thy
house. And he descended in haste and received Him joyfully
into his house. To-day on this house salvation has been bestowed
by God."

Then the grand hymn to the Holy Ghost, the " Veni Creator,"
is chanted, followed by litanies, prayers and an antiphon: "O
how this place is to be dreaded: Truly, this is none other than
the house of God and the gate of heaven." The beautiful Canticle
of Zachary is then recited : " Blessed be the Lord God of Israel,
because He hath visited and hath made the redemption of His
people."

The Ashes on the Floor. A very striking ceremony then takes
place. Ashes have been previously strewn on the floor of the
church in the form of a " St. Andrew's cross," or X, and the
Bishop, with his pastoral staff, marks in them the letters of the
Greek and Roman alphabets, beginning at the corners nearest to
the door — from A to Z of the Roman alphabet and from Alpha
to Omega of the Greek. This is symbolic of the two great
branches of the Catholic Church, the Eastern and the Western,
which differ in language and details of ritual, but are one in

MISCELLANEOUS 367

doctrine and government; and it also typifies the universality of
the Church of God, teaching in all languages the Gospel of the
Cross of Christ.

The Consecration of the Altar. A most important feature
of the ceremonies is the consecration of the altar, the most essen
tial part of a Catholic church — the place where the Holy Sacri
fice of the Mass, the central point of Catholic worship, is offered
up. This is a lengthy ceremony, full of beautiful symbolism, and
containing many rites of great antiquity. In this blessing a special
kind of holy water is used, called Gregorian, or Water of Con
secration, which is not employed in any other service. It contains
not only salt, as does ordinary holy water, but also ashes and
wine ; and the salt, ashes and wine are solemnly blessed with appro
priate prayers before being mingled with the water.

After the reciting of a beautiful prayer asking for the outpour
ing of God's grace upon this house, the Bishop goes in procession
with the clergy to the church-door, and marks on the inside with
the sign of the cross, to indicate that this temple of God is pro
tected by His cross against all dangers and the attacks of the
Evil One.

The actual blessing of the altar then begins with the recital
of the psalm which is said ordinarily at the beginning of the Mass:
" I shall go unto the altar of God, to God Who rejoiceth my
youth." The Bishop makes the sign of the cross five times upon
different parts of the table of the altar, which is bare, dedicating
it to God Almighty, to the glorious Virgin Mary, to all the
Saints, and particularly to the name and memory of the Saint in
whose honor it is erected. A prayer is said in which is men
tioned " the stone on which the patriarch Jacob offered sacrifice,"
and the Bishop then goes around the altar seven times (symbolic
of the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost), sprinkling it with holy
water, while the psalm " Miserere " is recited. He then makes a
circuit of the interior of the church three times, sprinkling the
walls all around, during which ceremony several psalms are recited
and appropriate antiphons are chanted by the choir, such as " My
house shall be called a house of prayer. I will narrate Thy name

368 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

to my brethren, in the midst of Thy church will I praise Thee.'*
Then comes a long and beautiful Preface, invoking the descent
of the Holy Ghost upon this church, and enumerating the spiritual
blessings which will come from its dedication to the worship of
God.

The Relics in the Altar. When the altar is consecrated, a
small sealed metal box containing relics of at least two saints, is en
closed within it. These relics are guaranteed to be genuine by the
Roman authorities who send them to the various dioceses of the
world. A square cavity is made in the front part of the altar
table, and a stone lid is fitted to this, to be cemented into place.

What is the reason of this placing of relics in the altar? It is
said to go back to the days of persecution. In the catacombs, the
underground chambers where the Christians were forced to hide
from their enemies, were many tombs containing the bodies of
martyrs and other saints; and when the priests celebrated the
Divine Mysteries, the flat-topped stone tombs made very convenient
altars. When the persecutions were over, and the Church was
able to build her altars in the light of day, the same form was
retained ; the altar was a tomb, containing the body of some holy
servant of God, but, as churches multiplied, it was impossible to
provide a whole body for each altar; and so the custom began of
placing in each a small portion of the earthly remains of some
canonized saint, whose intercession is thereby sought by those who
will hereafter worship at that altar.

The Bishop uses some of the holy water described above, to
make cement with which the relics are to be sealed within the
altar-stone — in which work he is assisted by a stone-mason who
is present for that purpose. The relics have been previously de
posited in a chapel or other place, and a procession is formed to
transport them to the sanctuary. The choir chants these appro
priate words : " O how glorious is the Kingdom in which all
the Saints rejoice with Christ; clothed in white robes, they follow
the Lamb whithersoever He goeth. Arise, ye Saints of God, from
your abodes; sanctify these places, bless the people, and guard us
sinners in peace. Enter into the City of God, for a new church

MISCELLANEOUS 369

is built for you, where the people ought to adore the majesty of
God."

A discourse or proclamation is then read by the Bishop, explain
ing the holiness of a place consecrated to God. It recounts the
fact that the tabernacle of Moses was dedicated for the offering
of sacrifices — not to be used for worldly things ; and the faithful
are urged to look upon this new temple as worthy of even greater
honor.

Two decrees of the Council of Trent are read aloud by one of
the clergy, declaring that the Church's anathemas shall fall upon
any one converting to his own use any of her property, and that
the faithful are under obligation to provide for the proper support
of the new house of God.

At the entrance of the church the Bishop makes the sign of the
cross with Chrism on the outside of the door, with a solemn bless
ing: " Mayest thou be a gate blessed, sanctified, consecrated,
sealed, dedicated to the Lord God; a gate of entrance to salva
tion and peace."

When the relics have reached the sanctuary, two psalms are
recited, and the Bishop signs with holy Chrism the cavity or
" sepulchre " of the altar-stone, and places the sacred relics within
it. The cover or stone tablet which closes the cavity is anointed
in like manner, and is then cemented into place; during which
ceremony the choir chants appropriate verses, such as: " The
bodies of the Saints are buried in peace, and their names shall live
forever."

The solemn incensing of the altar then takes place; it is begun
by the Bishop, and is performed all through the remainder of the
service by one of the priests, who makes the circuit of the altar
continuously, except when the Bishop resumes the incensing at
intervals.

The altar-stone is then anointed with holy Chrism in the form
of a cross in five places on its upper side.

The Crosses on the Walls. When a church is to be conse
crated, twelve crosses, generally cut into slabs of marble, are
placed on the interior walls, about six or eight feet from the floor,

370 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

and at the top of each is a candlestick holding a candle. The
Bishop anoints each of these with Chrism, and also incenses them,
going in procession from one to another, and
saying at each unction: "May this temple
be sanctified and consecrated, in the name of
the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost."

The blessing of the altar is then resumed.
Five crosses are formed of grains of incense
on the altar-stone, and on each of these a cross

Cross on Wall of

Consecrated Church is made of small wax tapers, which are then
lighted, so that, when these burn down, the crosses of incense will
be ignited and consumed. The ashes are then scraped off the
stone. A beautiful Preface is intoned by the Bishop, asking for
God's blessing on His new temple and for the presence therein of
His Angels and the Holy Spirit; and after two more unctions and
two prayers the Bishop usually celebrates the first Mass on the
newly-consecrated altar. This Mass is a special one, " for the
Dedication of a Church." An announcement is then made of the
indulgences which may be gained — a year for each visit on the
day of the consecration, and forty days on each anniversary of it.

Such are the impressive ceremonies which our Church uses for
the sanctifying of a temple of God. It is sprinkled, within and
without, with holy water; the door and walls are signed with
blessed Chrism ; the altar is anointed with the same holy oil, and is
made a tomb of one of God's illustrious servants. The odor of
incense fills the house of God; and the solemn prayers of the
Church are used to consecrate both temple and altar to His serv
ice forever. " This is none other than the House of God and the
Gate of Heaven."

CHAPTER LXVI
OTHER RITES THAN OURS

WE have hitherto confined our attention to the practices which
are in vogue in our part of the world — the externals of Catho-

MISCELLANEOUS 371

licity as we see and use them in our churches. We have explained
the meaning and reviewed the history of Catholic customs and ob
servances which are familiar to us. But there are millions of
Catholics whose rites and ceremonies differ greatly from ours.
Among them the outward form of the Church's worship varies
considerably from that which we use. Their services are con
ducted in strange tongues; their Mass is celebrated with a cere
monial which would be unrecognizable by us if we were present
at it; their sacraments are administered in a different manner
from that in which we receive these same sacraments according to
the Latin rite.

And yet these people are Catholics — fervent and faithful
members of the flock of Christ. Their services are not heretical
nor schismatic. Their Mass is the real unbloody Sacrifice of the
Body and Blood of our Saviour; their sacraments are the same
as ours, instituted by the same Divine Founder and producing the
same spiritual effects — and the Mass and the sacraments are law
ful, for those who use these various rites are in full communion
with Christ's Vicar on earth.

There are also in many parts of the world, particularly in the
East, schismatic sects which fell away centuries ago from the
Church's unity and denied her authority over them, but which
have preserved much of her doctrine and have clung steadfastly
to the ancient rituals which they possessed before their separation
from Catholicity. In nearly all of these schismatic Churches of
the Orient there is undoubtedly a real priesthood, a true Sacrifice
of the Mass and valid sacraments. But we shall pay special atten
tion only to the religious bodies that are Catholic — that are in
union with the Roman See, and nevertheless use in their liturgy
languages which are strange to us and ceremonies different from
ours.

The Languages Used by Catholics. There are, in all, nine
languages used at the present day in Catholic worship. Latin is
used in our Roman rite, and in those known as the Milanese and
the Mozarabic. Greek is largely, though not exclusively, the
language of the Byzantine rite. Syriac is the liturgical tongue of

372 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

those who follow the Syrian, Maronite, Chaldean and Malabar
rites. Armenian is used in all churches of the Armenian rite.
Coptic is the Church's language in parts of northeastern Africa.
Arabic is used by the Melchites who follow the Byzantine rite.
Slavonic is in use in the Byzantine worship of the Slav races, and
in the Roman rite as practised in Dalmatia. The inhabitants of
the Asiatic province of Georgia, following the Byzantine liturgy,
worship in their ancient Georgian tongue, and the people of
Wallachia, in Roumania, with a similar ritual, use an old form
of Roumanian.

Other Rites in Latin. During the Middle Ages and later,
there was a great diversity of rites in Catholic worship. The
Gallican rite was used at one time over nearly all of northwestern
Europe, and our present Roman rite is largely a modification of
it. The Milanese rite (also known as the Ambrosian, from the
great Bishop of Milan) flourished in northern Italy, and the
Mozarabic rite prevailed in parts of Spain. All of these used the
Latin language. Many provinces, dioceses and religious orders
also had ceremonials of their own.

St. Pius V, in 1570, ordered the publication of the Roman
Missal, and decreed that all these varying Latin rites should be
abolished, excepting those that could show an existence of at least
two centuries. Some dioceses, therefore, have kept a distinct
ritual; the Ambrosian and Mozarabic rites are still in daily
use; and certain religious orders have rites of their own, as
follows :

The Benedictine rite, which is very ancient, but which concerns
only the Breviary. St. Benedict regulated the canonical hours for
his monks, and his rules are still obligatory on all religious houses
of the various Benedictine branches.

The Carmelite rite, also called the Rule of the Holy Sepulchre,
began in the twelfth century. It varies somewhat from the
Roman rite in the giving of Extreme Unction, and considerably in
the Mass, the Office and the calendar of saints.

The Cistercian rite originated at Citeaux, France, in '1134. In
the Breviary it follows the rule of St. Benedict, and in the Mass

MISCELLANEOUS 373

and the administration of Penance and Extreme Unction it varies
somewhat from the Roman rite.

The Dominican rite goes back to the thirteenth century. When
the order was founded, each house at first followed the rites of its
own locality, and these were then very diverse in the different
countries of Europe. The superiors of the order, therefore, sought
to bring about uniformity, and formulated the ritual which the
Dominicans still use. Many of our readers may have assisted at
a low Mass in this rite. The celebrant goes to the altar wearing
the amice on his head, like a hood or cowl; the introductory psalm
" Judica me " is omitted, the Confiteor is shorter than ours, and
some of the prayers and ceremonies are different from those of
the Roman rite. The High Mass and the Office also differ con
siderably from ours.

The Franciscans, Capuchin Friars Minor, Premonstratensians
and Servites also have rites in their Masses and Offices varying
more or less from the Roman usage.

The Mass in Greek. The ancient tongue of Homer is the
liturgical language of a large portion of the Catholic world. The
Uniat Greeks, or those united to the See of Rome, are to be found
in parts of Syria, at Jerusalem, in Russia, Bulgaria and Greece.
There are small colonies of them in various places in southern
Italy — the descendants of Greek fugitives who were driven
thither by the Mohammedans nearly four hundred years ago.

The Greek used in their ceremonial is not the form in common
use in Greece at the present day. It is the ancient classical Greek,
which is not easily understood except by the learned. The ritual
of their Mass differs greatly from ours, and is fully as old and as
venerable as that with which we are familiar. It has many beau
tiful and symbolic ceremonies which would demand much space if
we were to attempt to describe them.

At their Mass the bread is leavened or " raised " .with yeast,
in which it differs from that used in the Roman rite, which is
simply wheaten flour mixed with water and baked in the form
of a thin wafer. The Greeks consecrate a large oblong loaf
which is divided, near the end of the Mass, into many small parts,

374 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

so that the faithful may receive Holy Communion. All this
seems very strange to us, simply because it is unfamiliar ; but what
they receive under this form is precisely what we receive — the
Body and Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ.

The Greeks use three different liturgies, according to the feast
or the season of the year — that known as the Rite of St. John
Chrysostom, throughout most of the year; that of St. Basil on
some days of Lent; and the " Liturgy of the P re-Sanctified " on
certain Lenten days when Mass is not said.

The Mass in Syriac. There are several branches of the
Catholic Church which use the ancient Syriac tongue, though
their ceremonials differ considerably from each other. The
Syrian Uniats worship in the ancient " Liturgy of St. James."
In far-away India there are Christians, of the Malabar rite, who
use Syriac. The Maronites, a people who live on the slopes of
Mount Lebanon and who have been remarkable for their un
swerving devotion to the Holy See, have a ritual of their own.
The language of these tribes to-day is Arabic; but in their liturgies
they preserve the language which our Blessed Saviour spoke —
for Syriac was the vernacular tongue of Palestine in the time of
Christ, Hebrew having ceased to be in common use.

The Maronites use incense at low Masses as well as at the
more solemn functions, and the celebrant and the server chant
certain parts and responses of the Mass in a weird harmony which
is thoroughly Oriental in its spirit.

Other Asiatic Liturgies. Mass is said in ancient Syro-
Chaldaic by certain Catholic communities in the eastern and
northern parts of Asiatic Turkey, as well as by Nestorian heretics
in the same localities, and in ancient Georgian, in the Byzantine
rite, by the inhabitants of Georgia, in Asia. Armenian is the
liturgical language of the Christians of that long-persecuted tribe,
both Catholics and heretics, of whom the latter far outnumber the
former. They inhabit the parts of Asia Minor near the Black
Sea, ancl various parts of Palestine; and they are also found in the
provinces of European Turkey, Austria and Russia. Their ritual

MISCELLANEOUS 375

is beautiful in many respects, and some of its details can be traced
back at least to the fourth century.

Slavonic and Roumanian. The old Slavonic language is the
medium of worship for a small body of Catholics in Russia, and
is also used in the ritual of the Dalmatians, dwelling near the
Adriatic, who, after their conversion in the ninth century, received
the privilege of holding the services of the Church in their own
tongue. It is also the ecclesiastical language of parts of schismatic
Russia and of some separated sects in European Turkey.

The privilege of using their own ancient tongue was also ex
tended to the inhabitants of Wallachia, in the kingdom of Rou-
mania in eastern Europe. With the tacit consent of Rome they
have been saying Mass for many centuries in an old form of their
language.

The African Christians. In " darkest Africa," not only in
the Nile region but in more remote parts, are some Christian com
munities which have held to the faith of Christ more or less per
fectly, despite long isolation from the Catholic world and centuries
of warfare with Mohammedanism. Some of them are Catholic;
others have drifted into schism and heresy, and the Christianity
which they have preserved is mingled with superstition and error.

The Christians who dwell along the Nile, whether Catholics
or schismatics, follow the Coptic rite and use the language which
bears the same name. It is said by some to be the ancient tongu^
of the Pharaohs, and is now a dead language — the vernacular
of those regions being everywhere Arabic. A small proportion of
the Copts are Catholics, but the great majority are out of com
munion with the Church. They have a beautiful and complex
liturgy, which goes back to very early times.

Further south we find the Christians of semi-barbarous
Abyssinia. This strange and little-known people has held fast
to at least a part of Christian truth for many centuries. Some of
them are Catholics, but the greater part of the nation is schismatic,
and among these are found various superstitions and semi-pagan
practices. Their liturgy differs in nearly every detail from all
those previously mentioned.

376 EXTERNALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

The Wisdom of Our Church. These are the principal forms
of liturgy used in the Catholic world, apart from the Roman rite,
which prevails throughout the greater part of Catholic Christen
dom. How well we see in this not only the unity but the wisdom
of our holy Church! She has not interfered with the ancient
rituals which are cherished by these Oriental Catholics, for she
knows that the small details of rite and ceremony are not essential
to faith, and that they may develop differently in different sur
roundings. She realizes that the faith of the Catholic Greek or
Syrian or Copt is precisely the same as ours, though the outward
expression of it may seem strange and unfamiliar to our eyes and
ears. The language or the ceremonies used in religious service
are not of paramount importance. They are only accidentals.

And so, all over the world, the grand ritual of our Faith goes
on — expressed, indeed, in various ancient tongues, performed in
various ways. The bishops and the priests are vested differently
in each of these Oriental Churches; the Mass is celebrated and the
Sacraments are administered with a symbolism unknown to us.
But the bishops are real bishops, the priests are real priests, the
Mass is the same Mass as ours, and the Sacraments are the same
channels of grace as are those which we receive who are of the
Latin rite.

INDEX

ABLEGATES, 13

Absolution, at Funerals, 285

Absolution, form of, 62

Abstinence, 292

Abyssinian Rite, 375

Acolyte, 76

Acts, the, 271

"Adeste, Fideles," 335

" Ad Limina " Visits, 14

Adoration of the Cross, 145

" Adoro Te Devote," 333

Advent, 131

Affairs of Religious, Cong, of, n

African Rites, 375

Agnus Dei, 204

" Agnus Dei," at Mass, 106

Aisle, 363

Alb, 165

Alleluia, at Mass, 96

All Saints' Day, 129

All Souls' Day, 129

"Alma Redemptoris Mater," 334

Alpha and Omega, Symbols, 313

Altar, 109

Altar-Bread, 99

Altar Cards, 112

Altar, Consecration of, 367

Altar Linens, no

Altar, Privileged, 197

Altar Stone, 109, 260

Ambo, 96

Ambrosian Rite, 372

Ambry, 181

A. M. D. G., 313

Amice, 165

A. M. (Monogram), 313

Anchorites, 21

Anchor, Symbol of Hope, 311

Angelus, 217

Anniversary Mass of Requiem, 284

Annunciation, Feast of the, 124,

128

Antependium, no
Apostles' Creed, 269
Apostleship of Prayer, 348
Apostolic Blessing, 70
Apostolic Chancery, 12
Apostolic Delegates, 12
Apostolic Legates, 12
Apostolic Vicars, 13
Apse, 359
Arch, 363
Archbishops, 14
Archconfraternities, 346
Architecture, 360
Armenian Liturgy, 374
Ascension Day, 128
Ashes, 227
Ashes, at Consecration of Church,

366

Asiatic Liturgies, 374
Asperges, 157, 161
Assumption, Feast of the, 129
Augustinians, 26
Auxiliary Bishops, 14
" Ave, Maris Stella," 334
"Ave, Regina Coelorum," 334

BALDACCHINO, 363
Balm, or Balsam, 54
Banner, Symbol, 312
Baptismal Font, 44

377

378

INDEX

Baptismal Water, 158

Baptismal Water, Blessing of, 146

Baptism, Ceremonies of, 43

Baptistery, 359

Basilica, 360

Beads, 188

Beatification, 354

Bell, at Mass, 103

Bells, Blessing of, 221

Bells, Church, 215

"Benedicamus Domino" at Mass,

108

Benedictines, 27
Betrothals, 341
Bible, 314
Biretta, 165
Bishops, 14
Bishops and Regulars, Congreg.

of, ii

Blessed Virgin, Litany of the, 276
Blessed Virgin, Medals of the, 226
Blessing, at Mass, 108
Blessing, Nuptial,. 88
Blessing of New Fire, 146
Blessings, Ritual, 240
Books, Liturgical, 230
Bread for Mass, 99
Breviary, 234
Bugia, 184
Burse, 114
Buttress, 362
Byzantine Rite, 372

CALENDAR, Gregorian, 124
Calendar, the Church's, 122
Camera, Apostolic, 12
Candlemas Day, 183
Candle, at Baptism, 47
Candles, 182

Candles, at Mass, etc., in, 184
Candles, St. Blaise, 240
Candlestick, Symbolism of, 312
Candles, Votive, 184

Colonization, 353

Canon of the Mass, 101

Canticles, 332

Cappa Magna, 170

Cardinals, 10

Cassock, 164

Cassock, Bishop's, 171

Catafalque, 284

Cathedral, 360

Celibacy, 304

Censer, 212

Censor of Books, 18

Ceremonies, Congregation of, 11

Chalice, 113

Chalice, Symbolism of, 312

Chancel, 363

Chancellor, Diocesan, 17

Chancery, Apostolic, 12

Chant, Gregorian, 325

Chaplain, 18

Chasuble, 167

Children of Mary, 349

Chimes, 216

Choir (Part of Church), 359

Choir (Singers), 330

Chrism, Holy, 54, 178

Chrisma, Monogram, 313

Christian Brothers, 36

Christmas Day, 135

Church Bells, 215

Church Buildings, 359

Church, Consecration of a, 364

Churches, Kinds of, 360

Churching of Women, 286

Church Music, 319

Ciborium (Canopy), 363

Ciborium (Vessel), 114

Cincture, 166

Circumcision, Feast of the, 123

Cistercians, 29

Clementine Instruction, 263

Clerestory, 363

Clergy, 4

INDEX

379

Cloister, 364

Closed Times, 87, 337

Coadjutor Bishops, 14

Collation, 291

Collects, 96

Colors, Liturgical, 164

Column, 363

Commemoration of the Dead, at

Mass, 104
Commemoration of the Living, at

Mass, 101

Committee of Vigilance, 18
Communion, in the Mass, 107
Communion of Saints, 250
Communion Paten, 116
Conclave, 7
Concursus, 18
Confession, 58
Confessional, 64
Confirmation, Ceremonies of, 52
Confiteor, 270
Confraternities, 346
Congregational Singing, 329
Congregations, Roman, n
Consecration, in the Mass, 102
Consecration of a Church, 364
Consistory, Sacred, n
Consultors, Diocesan, 17
Cope, 167
Coptic Rite, 375
Corporal, 114
Corporation, Parish, 18
Corpus Christi, Feast of, 128
Council, Congregation of the, n
Credence Table, in
Creed, in the Mass, 97
Creed, the Apostles', 269
Crib, Christmas, 139
Crosier, 169
Cross, 150

Cross, Adoration of the, 145
Cross, Archiepiscopal, 13
Crosses, Varieties of, 153

Cross, Pectoral, 16, 170
Cross, Sign of the, 44
Cross, Symbol of Faith, 312
Cross, the True, 152
Crown, Symbolism of, 311
Crucifix, 155
Crucifix, Altar, no
Cruets, in
Crypt, 364
Curates, 18

DAILY Prayers, 265

Dalmatic, 79, 168

Datary, 12

Deacon, 77

Dead, Services for the, 280

Deans, Board of, 18

Defender of the Marriage Tie, 18

Delegates, Apostolic, 12

"Dies Irae," 97, 283, 334

Diocesan Attorney, 14

Diocesan Bishops, 14

Domestic Prelates, 16

Domicile, 343

Dominicans, 28

Douay Bible, 317

Dove, Symbolism of, 310

Dragon, Symbolism of, 310

EASTER, Date of, 122

Election of a Pope, 6

Election of Bishops, 15

Elevation, at Mass, 102

Ember Days, 293

Embolism, 105, 217

Embrasure, 362

"Ephpheta," 45

Epiphany, Feast of the, 123

Episcopacy, 4

Epistle, in the Mass, 96

Espousal of the Bl. Virgin, Feast

of, 129
Eucharist, Symbols of the, 312

INDEX

Evangelists, Symbols of the, 314
Examiners, Board of, 18
Exorcism at Baptism, 45
Exorcist, 75
Expectation of the Bl. Virgin,

Feast, 131

Expedition, Tribunals of, 12
Exposition, Mass of, 264
"Exsultet," 146, 334
Extraordinary Eccl. Affairs, Cong.

of, ii
Extreme Unction, Ceremonies of,

65

FASTING, 290

Favor, Signature of, 12

Federation of Catholic Societies,

346

Festivals, Kinds of, 127
First Fridays, Devotion of the, 247
Fish, Signs of the, 312
Five Scapulars, the, 196
Forty Hours' Adoration, 261
Franciscans, 27

GARGOYLES, 362
Gaudete Sunday, 134
Gloria, 95, 333
Gloves, Bishop's, 171
Good Friday, 145
Gospel at Mass, 97
Gospel, Last, 108
Gothic Architecture, 361
Grace, Tribunals of, 12
Gradual, in the Mass, 96
Grapes, Symbolism of, 312
Greater Doxology, 95, 333
Greater Patriarchs, 14
Grecian Architecture, 360
Greek Rite, 373
Gregorian Calendar, 124
Gregorian Chant, 325
Gregorian Water, 159, 367

Gremiale, 171

HAIL Mary, 267

Halo, 313

Hearts of Jesus and Mary, Scapu
lar of, 203

Heart, Symbol of Charity, 312

Help of Christians, Our Lady,
Feast of, 130

Help of the Sick, Scapular of, 200

Hermits, 21

Hierarchy, 3

Holydays of Oblation, 127

Holy Face, Scapular of the, 203

Holy Family, Society of the, 352

"Holy God, We Praise Thy
Name," 335

Holy Name of Jesus, Feast of the,
128

Holy Name of Jesus, Litany of the,
275

Holy Name of Jesus, Society of the,

347
Holy Name of Mary, Feast of the,

130
Holy Office, Congregation of the,

ii

Holy Oils, 176

Holy Orders, Ceremonies of, 71
Holy Rosary, Feast of the, 131
Holy Thursday, 144
Holy Saturday, 145
Holy Water, 156
Holy Week, 140
Humeral Veil, 167
Hymns, 331

I. H. S., 313

Images, Veneration of, 252
Immaculate Conception, Feast of

the, 129
Immaculate Conception, Medal of

the, 226

INDEX

381

Immaculate Conception, Scapular
of, 201

Immaculate Heart of Mary, Scap
ular of, 201

Impediments, Matrimonial, 337

Incense, 211

Incensing at Mass, 95, 215

Indulgence " in Articulo Mortis,"
70

Indulgences, 294

Indulgences for Souls in Purga
tory, 299

Infallibility of the Pope, 5

"In Partibus Infidelium," Bishops,

H

Inquisition, Congregation of the, n
I. N. R. I., 156
Insignia of an Archbishop, 14
Insignia of the Pope, 9
Intentions for Masses, 92
Introit of the Mass, 94
Invocation of Saints, 247
Irremovable Rectors, 18
"Ite, Missa Est," 108

JESUITS, 32

Jurisdiction, for Confession, 61
Justice, Signature of, 12
Justice, Tribunals of, 12

KEYS, Symbolism of, 313
Kiss of Peace, 106
Kyrie Eleison, 95

LAETARE Sunday, 142

Lamb, Symbolism of, 310

Lamentations, 143

Lamps, 185

Languages, Liturgical, 371

Last Gospel, 108

Latin, at Mass, 117

" Lauda, Sion, Salvatorem/3 97, 334

Lavabo, in the Mass, 99

"Lead, Kindly Light," 335

League of the Sacred Heart, 348

Lector, 74

Legates, Apostolic, 12

Lent, 140

Libera, 285

Lily, Symbolism of, 311

Lion, ^Symbolism of, 310

Litanies, 273

Liturgical Books, 230

Liturgies, 371

Living Rosary, the, 351

Lord's Prayer, the, 265

Loreto, Litany of, 276

"Lumen Christi," 146

Luna, 115

MAJOR Orders, 76

Malabar Rite, 374

Maniple, 166

Maronite Liturgy, 374

Marriage Laws, 336

Mass, 89

Mass for Peace, 264

Masses, Intentions for, 92

Masses, Kinds of, 92

Mass, Fruits of the, 91

"Mass of the Pre-Sanctified," 145

Mass, Nuptial, 86

Mass, Requiem, 93

Matrimonial Court, 18

Matrimonial Impediments, 337

Matrimony, Ceremonies of, 84

Maundy Thursday, 144

Medals, 223

Melchites, 372

Merlons, 362

Metropolitans, 14

Milanese Rite, 372

Minor Orders, 73

Miraculous Medal, the, 226

Missal, 112, 230

" Missa pro Pace," 264

382

INDEX

Mitre, 16, 169

Monasteries, 22

Monastic Rules, 23

Monks, 24

Monograms, 313

Monsignors, 16

Monstrance, 115

" Month's Mind " Mass, 283

Most Blessed Trinity, Scapular of
the, 199

Mother of Good Counsel, Scapular
of, 202

" Mortu Proprio " on Church Mu
sic, 328

Mount Carmel, Our Lady of, Feast
of, 130

Mount Carmel, Scapular of, 193

Mozarabic Rite, 372

Mozzetta, 171

Music, Church, 319

Mysteries of the Rosary, 188

NAILS of the True Cross, 153

Names, Baptismal, 51

Nativity of the Blessed Virgin,

Feast, 130
Nave, 360

New Fire, Blessing of the, 146
Nicene Creed, 97
Nimbus, 313
Notes, Musical, 325
Nuncio, 12
Nuptial Mass and Blessing, 86

OATH at Ordination, 83

Offertory, 98

Office, Divine, 236

Office, Holy, Congregation of the,

ii

Oil in Lamps, i8<>
Oil of Catechumens, 177
Oil of the Sick, 66, 178
Oils, Holy, 176

Oil-Stock, 69

Olive-Branch, Symbolism of, 311

" Orate, Fratres " in Mass, 100

Orchestras in Churches, 325

Orders, Holy, Ceremonies of, 71

Orders, Minor, 73

Orders, Religious, 26

Orders, Sacred, 76

Organ, 321

"O Salutaris," 333

Ostensorium, 115

Our Father, the, 265

Our Lady of Mount Carmel, Con
fraternity, 351

Our Lady of Mount Carmel, Feast
of, 130

Our Lady of Mount Carmel, Scap
ular of, 193

Our Lady of Ransom, Feast of, 131

Our Lady of Ransom, Scapular of,
199

Our Lady of the Snows, Feast of,
130

PALESTRINA, Music of, 327

Pall, 114

Pallium, 14

Palm-Branch, Symbolism of, 311

Palms, 208

Palm Sunday, 210

"Pange, Lingua," 333

" Papa," 8

Papacy, 4

Papal Consistory, n

Parish, 18

Paschal Candle, 146

Passing Bell, 217

Passion, Black Scapular of the, 200

Passion, Red Scapular of the, 201

Passionists, 31

Passion Sunday, 142

Pastor, 1 8

INDEX

383

Paten, 113

Paten, Communion, 116

Pater Noster, in the Mass, 105

Patriarchs, 14

Pectoral Cross, 16, 170

Pelican, Symbolism of, 310

Penitentiary, Sacred, 12

Permanent Rectors, 18

Perpetual Rosary, 351

Peterspence, 9

Pilaster, 363

"Pilgrimages, 300

Pillar, 363

Pinnacle, 362

Pious Associations, 346

Piscina, 364

Placeat, in Mass, 107

Plain Chant, 325

Pontiff, Sovereign, 8

Pope, 4

Porter, Order of, 74

Portico, 362

Postcommunion, 107

Prayers at Meals, 272

Prayers, Daily, 265

Precious Blood, Scapular of the,

201

Preface, in the Mass, 100
Prelates, Domestic, n
Presbyterium, 359
Presentation of Bl. Virgin, Feast,

131

Priesthood, Ordination to, 80
Primates, 14
Privileged Altar, 197
Privileges, Scapular, 194
Processional Cross, 155
Procurator Fiscalis, 17
Propagation of the Faith, Cong, of,

ii

Protonotary Apostolic, 16
Psalms, 331
Purgatorian Societies, 351

Purification of Bl. Virgin, Feast,

124
Pyx, 115

QUARTER Tenses, 293

READER, Order of, 74

Rector, 18

Redemptorists, 31

"Regina Coeli," 219, 334

Relics in Altars, 368

Relics, Veneration of, 257

Religious Life for Women, 38

Religious Orders, 26

Religious Medals, 223

Religious Societies, 345

Reliquary, 261

Repose, Altar of, 144

Reposition, Mass of, 264

Requiem Mass, 282

Requisites for Mass, 108

Reredos, 363

Ring, Bishop's, 16

Ring, Wedding, 86

Rites, 370

Rites, Congregation of, n

Ritual, 238

Rochet, 170

Rogation Days, 282

Roman Architecture, 361

Roman Congregations, 11

Rood-Screen, 363

Rosary, 186

Rosary, Confraternity of the, 350

Rosary, Holy, Feast of the, 131

Rosary, Living, 351

Rosary, Perpetual, 351

Rose, Symbolism of, 311

Rota, 12

Roumanian Liturgy, 375

Rubrics, 232

Rules, Monastic, 23

384

INDEX

SABBATINE Indulgence, 194

Sacerdotale, 239

Sacramentals, 148

Sacraments, Congregation of the,

ii

Sacrarium, 364
Sacred College, 10
Sacred Heart, Devotion to the, 243
Sacred Heart, Feast of the, 245
Sacred Heart, League of the, 348
Sacred Heart, Litany of the, 278
Sacred Heart, Scapular of the, 203
Sacred Orders, 76
Sacred Penitentiary, 12
Sacristy, 364

Saints, Canonization of, 353
Saints, Communion of, 250
Saints, Invocation of, 247
Saints, Litany of the, 275
Salt, 44, 1 60
Salve Regina, 333
Sance Bell, 103
Sanctuary, 363
Sanctuary Lamp, 185
Sanctus, in the Mass, 100
Sandals, Bishop's, 171
Scapular Confraternity, 351
Scapular Medal, 198
Scapular Privileges, 194
Scapulars, 191
Seal of Confession, 62
Secretariate of State, Papal, 12
Secret Prayers, at Mass, 100
Segnatura, 12
Seminaries and Universities, Cong.

of, ii

Sequences, at Mass, 96
Sermon, 97

Serpent, Symbolism of, 310
Services for the Dead, 280
" Servus Servorum Dei," 8
Seven Dolores, 130
Seven Dolores, Feasts of the, 129

Seven Dolores, Scapular of the, 199

Ship, Symbolism of, 311

Shrines of Pilgrimage, 301

Signature of Favor, 12

Signature of Justice, 12

Sign of the Cross, 148

Sign of the Cross, at Baptism, 44

Sign of the Fish, Symbolism of, 312

Skull, Symbolism of, 312

Slavonic Rite, 375

Societies, Religious, 345

Society of Jesus, 32

Soutane, 164

Sovereign Pontiff, 8

Spire, 362

Sponsors at Baptism, 47

Sponsors at Confirmation, 55

" Stabat Mater," 97, 334

Stations of the Cross, 172

St. Benedict, Medal of, 225

St. Benedict, Scapular of, 100

St. Blaise, Blessing of, 240

St. Dominic, Scapular of, 203

Steeple, 362

St. John the Baptist, Feast of,

128

St. Joseph, Feast of, 128
St. Joseph, Litany of, 279
St. Joseph, Scapular of, 202
St. Michael Archangel, Scapular of,

202

Stole, 166
Stole, Broad, 169
Stole, Deacon's, 79
Sts. Peter and Paul, Feast of, 128
St. Vincent de Paul, Society of, 352
Studies, Congregation of, ii
Subdeacon, 76
Surplice, 168
Swastika, 151
Symbols, 309
Syriac Rite, 374
Syrinx, 321

INDEX

385

TABERNACLE, 109

" Tametsi " Decree, 341

"Tantum Ergo," 333

"Te Deum," 332

Tenebrae, 143

Theological Virtues, Symbols of

the, 312

Third Orders, 192
Tiara, 9

Titular Archbishops, 13
Titular Bishops, 14
Tonsure, 72
Tower, Church, 362
Tract, in the Mass, 96
Transept, 363
Trappists, 29
Treasury of Merit, 296
Tribunals, Roman, 12
Trinity Sunday, 128
Triple Candle, 146
Trisagion, 333

True Cross, History of the, 152
Tunic, 78, 1 68

VEIL, Chalice, 114
Veil, Humeral, 167
Veil, Tabernacle, 109
Veneration of Images, 252

Veneration of Relics, 257

"Veni, Creator Spiritus," 334

"Veni, Sancte Spiritus," 97

"Verbum Supermini Prodiens," 333

Vestments, 162

Vestry, 364

Veto, Power of, 7

"Vexilla Regis," 145

Vicar General, 17

Vicars, Apostolic, 13

" Victimae Paschali," 96

Vigilance, Committee of, 18

Vigil of Christmas, 137

Visitation of Bl. Virgin, Feast of

the, 130

Visits " ad Limina," 14
Votive Candles, 184
Vows, Baptismal, 45
Vows of Sisterhoods, 40
Vulgate, 315

WASHING of Fingers at Mass, 99

Water, Gregorian, 159, 366

Water, Holy, 156

Way of the Cross, 172

Wheat, Symbolism of, 312

Wine, 99

Women in Church Choirs, 330

I